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Cornell University Library 
 DE 5.S51 1891 
 
 Dictionary of classical antiquities, myt 
 
 3 1924 028 214 637 .,«..,.i 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924028214637 
 
A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF 
 
 CLASSICAL ANTIQUITIES 
 
 MYTHOLOGY, RELIGION, -LITERATURE & ART 
 
 FROM THE GERMAN OF 
 
 Dr. OSKAR SEYFFERT 
 
 REVISED AND EDITED, WITH ADDITIONS, liV 
 
 HENRY NETTLESHIP, M.A. 
 
 Fell<nv of Corpus Christi College and Corpus Professor 
 of Latin Literature in the University of Oxford 
 
 J. E. SANDYS, LiTT.D. 
 
 Fellow and Tutor of St. John's College and 
 Public Orator in the University of Cambridge 
 
 WITH MORE THAN 450 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 THE ROMAN FORUM 
 
 3Lon&on: 
 SWAN SONNENSCHEIN AND COMPANY 
 
 New York: MACMILLAN AND COMPANY 
 
 1891 
 
PBEFACE 
 
 r I IHE Bidionanj of Classical Antiquities, which is here offered to the 
 public, is founded on a work by Dr. Oskar Seyffert, of Berlin, which 
 has deservedly attained a wide circulation in Germany.^ Dr. Seyffert 
 is already known in England as one of the editors of a philological 
 periodical, entitled the Berliner Philologische Wochenschrift, and as a 
 distinguished Latin scholar, whose name is specially associated with the 
 criticism of Plautus. The departments of classical learning included in 
 his dictionary are the Mythology and Eeligion, the Literature and Art, 
 and the constitutional and social Antiquities of Greece and Eome. 
 Within the compass of a single volume it comprises all the subjects 
 usually treated in a Dictionary of Greek and Boman Antiquities, while it 
 also supplies information on matters of Mythology and Literature which 
 has generally to be looked for in the pages of a Classical Dictionary. 
 Besides separate articles on Greek and Eoman divinities, and on the lives 
 and works of the philosophers, the historians, the orators, the poets, and 
 the artists of Greece and Rome, it gives a general and comprehensive 
 view of such subjects as Greek and Roman Religion, Philosophy, History, 
 Rhetoric, Literature, Architecture, Painting, Sculpture, Music, and the 
 Drama. Similarly, in the department of Antiquities, besides separate 
 treatment of subordinate details, it deals with important topics, such as 
 the Boule and Ecclesia, the Comitia and the Senate, Commerce and War, 
 the Houses, the Ships, the Temples, and the Theatres of the ancients. 
 
 The original text has been largely supplemented and corrected by 
 Dr. Seyffert himself ; and the whole of the translation has been carefully 
 revised and, in many cases, re- written or re-arranged by the editors. 
 The larger part of the letter A (Abacus to Astrology) was translated by 
 Mr. StaUybrass, owing to whose lamented death the remainder of the 
 work was put into other hands. The succeeding articles, from Astrology 
 
 1 Lexikon der klassischen Alterthumskunde ; KulturgescJiichte der Griechen und 
 Bomer ; Mythologie und Religion, Litteratur, Kunst, und Alterthumer des Staats- und 
 Privatlebens. (Leipzig : Verlag des Bibliographischen Instituts, 1882.) 
 
iv PREFACE. 
 
 to Hercea, have been translated and prepared for the press by Professor 
 Nettleship ; the second part (Hermce to Zosimios) has been translated 
 under the supervision of Dr. Sandys ; while the proof sheets of the 
 whole have been repeatedly read by both editors. The additions in- 
 serted by the editors are generally distinguished by being placed within 
 square brackets, or printed as notes at the foot of the page. Most of the 
 notes and other additions bearing on Latin Literature, and a few bearing 
 on Latin Antiquities, are due to Professor Nettleship ; while Dr. Sandys 
 has supplied references to classical authors and modern authorities wher- 
 ever such references appeared either necessary or desirable. It is hoped 
 that these additions may serve to increase the usefulness of the book. 
 The references to Cicero and Pliny are by the shorter sections now in 
 general use. The ancient authorities quoted include Aristotle's newly 
 discovered Constitution of Athens, which has been cited under the head of 
 the Solonian Constitution and other articles which have passed through 
 the press since the publication of the editio princejps. In this and other 
 respects every endeavour has been made to bring the articles up to date. 
 
 Dr. Sandys has written articles on the following archaeological 
 subjects, which were either omitted in the original work or appeared 
 to deserve a fuller treatment than was there accorded them : Mosaics, 
 Pigments (under Painting), Ccelatura (under Toreutic Art), and Vases 
 (with seventeen illustrations). He has also supplied brief notices of the 
 Edict of Diocletian, the artists Mentor, Mys, Pauson, and the younger 
 Polyclitus ; Philo, the architect, and three others of the same name who 
 were not included in Dr. Seyffert's Lexikon. The short article on Fulcra 
 is abridged from a valuable paper in the Classical Review by Mr. "W. C. 
 F. Anderson, Professor of Classics at Firth College, Sheffield; that on 
 the Law of Gortyn has been kindly contributed by Mr. C. A. M. Pond, 
 Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
 
 The number of the illustrations has been largely increased. These 
 have been selected mainly from the following works : Schreiber's Kultur- 
 historischer Bilder-Atlas, ed. 1888, and Bilder-Atlas zur Ilias und Odyssee, 
 1889, both published by Seemann of Leipzig; Baumeister's Denhmdler 
 des Klassischen Alterthums, 1884-1888, by Oldenbourg of Munich ; Gruhl 
 and Koner's Life of the Greeks and Romans, English edition (Chatto & 
 Windus) ; and Perry's Greek and Roman Sculpture (Longmans, 1882). 
 The publishers are also indebted to Messrs. George Bell & Sons for the 
 additional illustrations in the article on Gems, and for the portraits of 
 
PEErACE. V 
 
 Horace, Lucretius, Plato, and Socrates, selected from King's Antique Oems 
 and Rings (1872) and Westropp's Handbooh of Archceology (ed. 1878) ; 
 to Messrs. Macmillan & Co. for Dr. Dorpfeld's Plan of Olympia and of 
 tlie Propylcea, and for the engraving of a vase by Hieron {Vases, fig. 12). 
 The two latter are from Miss Harrison's Mythology and Monuments of 
 Ancient Athens. The Plan of the Acropolis is copied from the Journal of 
 Hellenic Studies with the kind permission of the Council of the Hellenic 
 Society. That of the Roman Fora is reproduced from Droysen's His- 
 torischer Handatlas, 1886. In the article on the Olympian Games, the 
 metope on page 430 is a reduced copy from Overbeck's Geschichte der 
 Griechischen Plastik. In that on Vases, figs. 3 and 5 are borrowed from 
 the Catalogue of Pottery in the Jermyn Street Museum. The engraving of 
 the Maenads (Vases, fig. 13) is reproduced by permission from Dr. Sandys' 
 edition of the Bacchce of Euripides published by the University Press, 
 Cambridge. All these additional illustrations (which are distinguished 
 by an asterisk) have been selected by Dr. Sandys, who has indicated, so 
 far as practicable, the original authority on which they rest, and, in the 
 case of works of art, the collections in which they are to be found. 
 
 In stating the English equivalents for Greek money, the editors 
 have adopted the estimate of Professor W. W. Groodwin, in his article 
 On the Value of the Attic Talent in Modern Money published in the Trans- 
 actions of the American Philological Association, 1885, xvi, pp. 117-119, 
 according to which the intrinsic value of a drachma is approximately Sd., 
 and that of a talent £200. In the case of Roman money, they have 
 followed Marquardt's Handbuch der romischen Alterthiimer in reckoning 
 1,000 sesterces as equivalent to £10. 
 
 For the convenience of students, as well as of general readers, the 
 quantities of Greek and Latin words have been marked once, but once 
 only, in every article in which they occur. The Latin spelling of Greek 
 words has been generally adopted, but the Greek form has, in all cases 
 where it appeared advisable, been added in brackets. 
 
 H. NETTLE SHIP. 
 J. E. SANDYS. 
 March, 1891. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS, ETC. 
 
 cj}. compare. 
 
 q.v. quod vide. 
 
 I.e. locus (or liber) citatus. 
 
 lb. ibidem. 
 
 ^-- indicates a short syllable. 
 
 — indicates a long syllable. 
 
 COEEIGENDA. 
 
 On page 45, col. 1, line 9, for LdScoon read DircS. 
 
 On page 102, in the titles to the cuts, for Stackelberger read Stackelberg. 
 
 On page 211, col. 2, line 13 from foot, for Pterndchde rea.di plemochdB. 
 
^tligicn, Wii^xutnxt, %xi ^ Antiquities. 
 
 ABACUS ACCENSI. 
 
 Abacus (Gr. abax, abdMdn). (1) A square 
 plate, especially the stone slab that covers 
 the capital of a column (see Architecture, 
 Orders of, figs, land 5). (2) A dice-board. 
 (3) A mathematician's table strewn with 
 fine sand, on which figures were drawn with 
 a stilus. (4) A counting-board, on which 
 sums were worked for private and public 
 accounts. The reckoning was done with 
 counters lying on the board (calculi) or 
 with beads sliding in vertical grooves. (On 
 the sideboard called Abacus, see Tables.) 
 
 Absyrtus. Son of king ^etes, and bro- 
 ther of Medea, who, in her flight with Jason 
 the Argonaut, cut Absyrtus into pieces, 
 and threw them one by one into the sea, so 
 that her father, stopping to pick them up, 
 might be delayed in his pursuit. (See 
 Argonauts.) 
 
 Academy (Gr. Akddemtai). A grove on 
 the Cephissus near Athens, sacred to the 
 hero Acad emus, and containing a gymna- 
 sium. Here Plato, whose country-house 
 was near, delivered his lectures; hence 
 the school of philosophy founded by him 
 received the name of "The Academy." 
 (Comp. Philosophy.) 
 
 Acamas (Gr. Akdmas). Son of Theseus and 
 Phsedra, was brought up with his brother 
 Demophoon by Elephenor, king of Eubcea, 
 and sent with Diomedes as ambassador to 
 Troy, to persuade Priam to send Helen 
 back in peace. After the fall of Troy, in 
 which he took a prominent part as one of 
 the heroes concealed in the wooden horse, 
 he with his brother recovered his father's 
 sovereignty over Attica, and then led a 
 colony from Athens to Cyprus, where he 
 died. (Comp. Demophoon, 2.) 
 
 Acaman and Amphot^rus (Gr. Akaman, 
 Amphoterfis). Sons of Alcmseon and Cal- 
 lirrhoe. Their mother, hearing of her hus- 
 band's murder by Phegeus and his sons, 
 prays Zeus, who loves her, to let her boys 
 grow up into men at once, so that they can 
 avenge their father. This done, they slay 
 the sons of Phegeus at Tegea and himself 
 at Psophis, offer up at Delphi the Jewels of 
 Harmonia, which they have thus acquired, 
 
 D. c. A. 
 
 and then found a kingdom called after the 
 elder of them Acarnania. (See Alphe- 
 
 SIBOEA.) 
 
 Acastus (Gr. Akastos). Son of Pelias, 
 king of lolcos, who joined the Argonautic 
 expedition, though against his father's will, 
 as a friend of Jason. At his father's death 
 he celebrated funeral games which were 
 the theme of ancient poets and artists, and 
 in which Peleus was represented as par- 
 ticipating. He took part in the Calydonian 
 boar-hunt. But his wife Astydameia fell 
 in love with Peleus (q.v.), and this brought 
 ruin on the wedded pair. His daughter was 
 Laodameia, renowned for her tender love 
 to Protesilaiis (q.v.). 
 
 Acca Larentia. According to the com- 
 mon legend, wife of the herdsman Faustiilus, 
 and nurse to Romulus and Remus ; accord- 
 ing to another, a favourite of Hercules, and 
 wife to a rich Etruscan, Tarutius, ■vv^hose 
 possessions she bequeathed to Romulus or 
 (according to another account) the Roman 
 people. She is said to have had twelve sons, 
 with whom she sacrificed once a year for the 
 fertilizing of the Roman fields (arva), and 
 who were thence named Arval Brothers 
 (fratres arvdles). One of them having died, 
 Romulus took his place, and founded the 
 priesthoodso called. (&eARVALBROTHERS.) 
 She at last disappeared on the spot where, 
 afterwards, at the feast of Larentalia (Dec. 
 23), the flamen of Quirinus and the pontiiFs 
 sacrificed to her while invoking Jupiter. 
 All this, together with her name, meaning 
 " mother of the Lares," shows that she was 
 originally a goddess of the earth, to whose 
 care men entrusted their seed-corn and their 
 dead. (See Lakes.) In particular she per- 
 sonified the city lands and their crops. 
 Probably she is the Dea Dia worshipped 
 by the Arval Brothers, 
 
 Accensi. In the older constitution of 
 the Roman army, the accensi were men 
 taken from the lowest assessed class to fill 
 gaps in the ranks of the heavy -armed 
 soldiers. They followed the legion un- 
 armed, simply in their clothes (veldti, or 
 accensi velati). In action they stood in the 
 
ACCIUS ACHILLES. 
 
 rear i-ank of the third line,readj' to pick iip 
 the arms of the fallen and fill their places. 
 They were also used as assistant workmen 
 and as orderlies. This last employment 
 may have caused the term accensus to be 
 applied to the subordinate officer whom 
 consuls and proconsuls, prsetors and pro- 
 praetors, and all officers of consular and 
 praetorian rank had at their service in ad- 
 dition to lictors. In later times officers 
 chose these attendants out of their own 
 freedmen, sometimes to marshal their way 
 when they had no lictors or had them march- 
 ing behind, sometimes for miscellaneous 
 duties. Thus the praetor's accensus had to 
 cry the hours of the daj', 3, 6, 9, and 12. 
 Unlike the subordinate officers named 
 apparitors, their term of office expired with 
 that of their superior. 
 
 Accias, or Attius (Lucius). A Roman 
 poet, who was born 170 B.C. of a freedman 
 and freedwoman, at Pisaurum in Umbria, 
 and died about 90 B.C. He was the most 
 prolific and, under the Republic,, the most 
 highly esteemed of tragic poets, especially 
 for his lofty, impassioned style and power- 
 ful descriptions. His talents seem to have 
 secured him a respectable position in Roman 
 society, which he maintained with full con- 
 sciousness of his merits. His poetical career 
 can be traced through a period of thirty-six 
 years, from B.C. 140, when he exhibited a 
 drama under the same aediles as the octo- 
 genarian Pacuvius, to B.C. 104. Of his 
 tragedies, the titles and fragments of some 
 fifty are preserved. Two of these treat of 
 national subjects (see Prjetexta), viz., the 
 Brutus and the Decius. The former dealt 
 with the expulsion of the Tarquins ; the 
 latter with the heroic death of Decius at 
 Sentinum, B.C. 295. The rest, composed 
 after Greek models, embrace almost all 
 cycles of legend, especially the Trojan, 
 which is treated in a great variety of aspects. 
 Accius likewise handled questions of gram- 
 mar, literary history, and antiquities in the 
 Alexandrine manner and the fashion of his 
 own time, and in many different metres. 
 These works (the Didascdltca in at least 
 nine books ; the Pragmclfica on dramatic 
 poetry and acting, etc.) have also perished. 
 
 AchSBUS. A Greek tragic poet of Eretria, 
 born abottt 482 B.C., a contemporary of So- 
 phocles, and especially famous in the line 
 of satyric drama. He wrote about forty 
 plays, of which only small fragments are 
 preserved. Not being an Athenian, he only 
 gained one victory. 
 
 Acheiotis. The god of the river of that | 
 
 name between jEtoli a and Acarnania; eldest 
 of the 3000 sons of Oceanus and Tethys, and 
 father of the Sirens by Sterope, the daugh- 
 ter of Porthaon. As a water-god he was 
 capable of metamorphosis, appearing now 
 as a bull, then as a snake, and again as a 
 bull-faced man. In fighting with Heracles 
 for the possession of Deianeira, he lost one 
 horn, but got it back in exchange for the 
 horn of Amaltheia (q.v.). As the oldest 
 and most venerable of river-gods, he was 
 worshipped all over Greece and her colonies, 
 especiall}' Rhodes, Italy, and Sicily. The 
 oracle of Dodona, in every answer which 
 it gave, added an injunction to sacrifice to 
 Achelous; and in religious usage his name 
 stood for any stream or running water. 
 
 Achgron. A river in the lower world. 
 (See Hades, Realm of.) 
 
 Achilles (Gv.AcMlleus). (1) Son of Peleus 
 (king of the Myrmidons in Thessalian 
 Phthia) by the Nereid Thetis, grandson of 
 jEacus, great-grandson of Zeus. In Homer 
 he is duly brought up by his mother to 
 man's estate, in close friendship with his 
 older cousin Patroclus, the son of Menoetius, 
 a half-brother of iEacus; is taught the 
 arts of war and eloquence by Phoenix (q.v.) 
 and that of healing by the centaur Chiron, 
 his mother's grandfather. But later le- 
 gends lend additional features to the story 
 of his youth. To make her son immortal, 
 Thetis anoints him with ambrosia by day, 
 and holds him in the fire at night, to destroy 
 whatever mortal element he has derived 
 from his father, until Peleus, coming in one 
 night, sees the boy baking in the fire, and 
 makes an outcry ; the goddess, aggrieved at 
 seeing her plan thwarted, deserts husband 
 and child, and goes home to the Nereids. 
 According to a later story she dipped the 
 child in the river Styx, and thus made him 
 invulnerable, all but the heel by which she 
 held him. Then Peleus takes the mother- 
 less boy to Chiron on Mount Pelion, who 
 feeds him on the entrails of lions and boars, 
 and the marrow of bears, and instructs him 
 in all knightly and elegant arts. At the 
 age of six the boy was so strong and swift 
 that he slew wild boars and lions, and 
 caught stags without net or hound. Again, 
 as to his share in the expedition to Troy, the 
 legends differ widely. In Homer, Achilles 
 and Patroclus are at once ready to obey 
 the call of Nestor and Odysseus, and their 
 fathers willingly let them go, accompanied 
 by the old man Phoenix. In later legend, 
 Thetis, alarmed by the prophecy of Calchas 
 that Troy cannot betaken without Achilles, 
 
ACHILLES. 
 
 3 
 
 and foreseeing his fall in such a war, con- 
 ducts the boy of nine to the island of Scyros, 
 where in female dress he grows up among 
 the daughters of king Lycomedes, and by 
 one of them, Deidameia, begets Neoptole- 
 mus (q.v.). But Calchas betrays his where- 
 about, and Odysseus, in concert with Dio- 
 medes, unmasks the young hero. Dis- 
 guised as a merchant, he spreads out female 
 ornaments before the maidens, as well as 
 a shield and spear; suddenly a trumpet 
 sounds the call to battle, the maidens flee, 
 but Achilles clutches at the arms, and de- 
 clares himself eager to fight. At the first 
 landing of the Greeks, on the Asian coast, 
 he wounds Telephus (q.v.) ; at their second, 
 on the Trojan shore,' Cycnus (q.v.). Before 
 Troy, Homer makes him the chief of Greek 
 heroes, whom the favour of Hera and Athena 
 and his own merit have placed above friend 
 and foe. He is graced with all the attri- 
 butes of a hero : in birth, beauty, swiftness, 
 strength, and valour, he has not his peer ; 
 none can resist him, the very sight of him 
 strikes terror into the foe. His anger may 
 be fxu-ious, his grief immoderate ; but bis 
 nature is at bottom kind, affectionate, and 
 generous, even to his enemies. Touching 
 is his love for his parents, especially his 
 mother, and his devotion to his friends. In 
 the first nine years of the war he leads the 
 Greeks on their many plundering excursions 
 around Troy, and destroys eleven inland and 
 twelve seacoast towns. The events of the 
 tenth year, brought on by the deep grudge 
 ■he bears Agamemnon for taking away 
 Briseis (daughter of Brises), form the 
 subject of Homer's Hiad. When he aud 
 his men withdraw from the fight, the Tro- 
 jans press on irresistibly ; they have taken 
 the camp of the Greeks, and are setting 
 their ships on fire. In this extremity he 
 lends Patroclus the arms his father (see 
 Peleus) had given him, and lets him lead 
 the Myrmidons to battle. Patroclus drives 
 the Trojans back, but falls by Hector's 
 hand, and the arms are lost, though the 
 corpse is recdvered. Grief for his friend 
 and thirst for vengeance at last overcome 
 his grudge against Agamemnon. Furnished 
 by Hephaestus, at the request of Thetis, 
 with splendid new arms, including the 
 shield of wondrous workmanship, he goes 
 ovit against Hector, well knowing that he 
 himself must fall soon after him. He makes 
 frightful havoc among the enemy, till at 
 last Hector is the only one that dares 
 await him without the walls, and even he 
 turns in terror at the sight of him. After 
 
 chasing him three times round the city, 
 Achillas overtakes him, pierces him with 
 his lance, trails his body behind his chariot 
 to the camp, and there casts it for a prey 
 to the birds and dogs. Then with the 
 utmost pomp he lays the loved friend of his 
 youth in the same grave-mound that is to 
 hold his own ashes, and founds funeral games 
 in his honour. The next night Priam comes 
 secretly to his tent, and offers rich gifts to 
 ransom Hector's body ; but Achilles, whom 
 the broken-down old king reminds of his 
 own father, gives it up without ransom, and 
 grants eleven days' truce for the burying. 
 After many valiant deeds (see Trojan Wae), 
 he is overtaken by the fate which he had 
 himself chosen ; for the choice had been" 
 given him between an early death with un- 
 dying fame and a long but inglorious life. 
 Near the Scsean Gate he is struck by the 
 shaft of Paris, guided by Apollo. Accord- 
 ing to a later legend he was wounded in 
 the one vulnerable heel, and in the temple 
 of Thymbrsean Apollo, whither he had gone 
 unarmed to be wedded to Priam's daughter 
 PotyxSna (q.v.). Greeks and Trojans fight 
 furiously all day about his body, till Zeus 
 sends down a storm to end the fight. Seven- 
 teen days and nights the Greeks, with 
 Thetis and the sea-goddesses and Muses, 
 bewail the dead ; then amid numerous sacri- 
 fices the body is burnt. Next morning the 
 ashes, with those of Patroclus and of Nestor's 
 son, Antilochus, whom Achilles had loved 
 in the next degree, are placed in a golden 
 pitcher, the work of Hephaestus, and gift of 
 Dionysus, and deposited in the famed 
 tumulus that crowns the promontory of 
 Sigeum. The soul of Homer's Achilles 
 dwells, like other souls, in the lower world, 
 and is there seen by Odysseus together with 
 the souls of his two friends. According to 
 later poets Thetis snatched her son's body 
 out of the burning pyre and carried it to 
 the island of Leuke at the mouth of the 
 Danube, where the transfigured hero lives 
 on, sovereign of the Pontus and husband of 
 Tphigeneia. Others place him in Elysium, 
 with Medea or Helena to wife. Besides 
 Leuce, where the mariners of Pontus and 
 Greek colonists honoured him with offerings 
 and games, he had many other places of wor- 
 ship ; the most venerable, however, was his 
 tomb on the Hellespont, where he appeared 
 to Homer in the full blaze of his armour, 
 and struck the poet blind. In works of art 
 Achilles was represented as similar to Ares, 
 with magnificent physique, and hair bristling 
 up like a mane. One of his most famous 
 
ACONTIUS- 
 
 -ACROrOLIS. 
 
 statues is that at Paris (from the Villa 
 Borghese), though many take it for ai) Ai-es. 
 
 (2) Tatms, a Greek mathematician of the 
 3rd century a.d. He wrote an introduction 
 to the Phcenomena of Aratus. 
 
 (3) Achilles of Alexandria, about 450 
 A.D., probably a Christian; author of a 
 Greek romance in eight books, the story of 
 Cleitophon of Tyre and Leucippe of By- 
 zantium, two lovers who pass through a 
 long train of adventures before they meet. 
 As the whole story is put in the mouth of 
 the hero, many scenes, being told at second- 
 hand, lose in liveliness ; and the flow of the 
 narrative is checked by too many digres- 
 sions, some interesting enough in them- 
 selves, by descriptions of places, natural 
 
 BASTION or OOVSBEUS 
 
 a son named Perseus. Then mother and child 
 are put in a wooden box and thrown into 
 the sea, but they drift to the island of Seri- 
 phus, and are kindly received. Perseus, 
 having grown into a hero, sets out with his 
 mother to seek Acrisius, who has fled from 
 Argos for fear of the oracle coming true ; 
 he finds him at Larissa, in Thessaly, and 
 kills him unawares with a discus. 
 
 Aero {Helenius). A Eoman grammarian 
 of the end of the 2nd century A.D. He 
 wrote commentaries (now lost) on Terence, 
 Horace, and perhaps Persius. The collec- 
 tion of scholia bearing his name dates 
 from the 7th century. 
 
 Acrolitlis. Statues whose uncovered ex- 
 tremities are made of stone, the covered 
 
 EHTnANCB 
 
 TO 
 ACROPOLIS 
 
 ^^^Ms 
 
 OIONVSIAC TMEATRC 
 
 PLAN OF THE ACEOPOLIS IN 1889, INCLUDING RESULTS OP THE EXCAVATIONS BEGUN IN 1885. 
 
 (Reduced from plan by Messrs. Tcnrose and Schnltz, Journal ofBellenic Studies, 18S9, pi. vlii.) 
 
 phenomena, works of art, feelings and 
 passions, in which the author exhibits his 
 vast reading. The style has considerable 
 elegance, though often marred by an affec- 
 tation of neatness and brevity. The novel 
 continued to be popular until the fall of 
 Byzantiiim. 
 
 Acontins (Gr. AkonttSs). See Cydippe. 
 
 Acratisma (Gr. Akratisma). See Meals. 
 
 Acrisius (Gr. Akrisids). King of Argos, 
 great-grandson of Danaiis, son of Abas, and 
 brother of Proetus. An oracle having de- 
 clared that a son of his daughter Danae 
 would take his life, he shuts her up in a 
 brazen tower ; but Zeus falls into her lap in 
 the shape of a shower of gold, and she bears 
 
 parts of another material, such as wood. 
 
 Acropolis (Gr. A kr Spoils). Properly = Up- 
 per Town. The Greek name for the citadel 
 or stronghold of a town. The Acropolis of 
 Athens was situated on a plateau of rock, 
 about 200 feet in height, 1,000 in breadth 
 from east to west, and 460 in length from 
 north to south. It was originally called 
 Cecropia, after Cecrops, the ancestor of the 
 Athenians, whose grave and shrine were 
 shown on the spot. On the north side 
 of the Acropolis was the Erechtheum, the 
 common seat of worship of the ancient 
 gods of Athens, Athene Polias, Hephaestus, 
 Poseidon, and Erechtheus himself, who 
 was said to have founded the sanctuary. 
 
ACTA ADONIS. 
 
 His house was possibly N.E. of the Erech- 
 theum. Pisistratus, like the ancient kings, 
 had his residence on the Acropolis, and may 
 have added the stylobate to the temple of 
 Athene recently identified, S. of the Erech- 
 theum. The walls of the fortress proper 
 were destroyed in the Persian wars, 480 
 and 479 B.C., and restored by Cimon. But 
 the wall surrounding the foot of the hill, 
 called the Pelasgikon or FClargtkon, and 
 supposed to be a relic of the oldest inhabi- 
 tants, was left in ruins. Cimon also laid 
 the foundation of a new temple of Athene 
 on the south side of the hill. This temple 
 was begun afresh and completed in the 
 most splendid style by Pericles, and called 
 the Parthenon. ((S^ee Parthenon.) Pericles 
 at the same time adorned the approach to 
 the west side of the Acropolis with the 
 glorious Propplcea, and began to rebuild 
 the Erechtheum in magnificent style. (See 
 Erechtheum, Pbopyl^a.) There were 
 several other sanctuaries on the Acropolis, 
 that, for instance, of Artemis Brauronia, on 
 the S.E. side of the Propylaea; the beautiful 
 little temple of Athene Nike to the S.W. ; 
 and the Pandroseum adjoining the temple 
 of Erechtheus. There were many altars, 
 that of Zeus HypS,t6s for example, and 
 countless statues, among them that of Athene 
 Promichos, with votive offerings. Among 
 the numerous grottos in the rock, one on 
 the north side was dedicated to Pan, another 
 to Apollo. 
 
 Acta. The Latin term for official records 
 of transactions, including Acta seiiatas and 
 Acta popull Romdni, both established by 
 Csesar in his first consulship, B.C. 59. (1) 
 Acta senatus. Caesar's law decreed that all 
 transactions of the senate should be regu- 
 larly written down and published, which had 
 only been done hitherto in exceptional cases. 
 The written reports were continued under 
 the Empire, but Augustus put a stop to their 
 publication. These documents were pre- 
 served among the state archives and in the 
 public libraries, where they could only be 
 inspected by permission of the city pre- 
 fect. At first a temporary duty imposed 
 on individual senators, the business of 
 reporting grew into a separate office held 
 in rotation, with the title of Ab actis 
 senatus, and the officer holding it had a 
 considerable staff of writers under him, 
 called Actuarii. (2) The Acta {diurna) 
 popull (Romani), or Acta pvblica, urbana, 
 urbis, diurna popuU, or simply Acta or 
 Diurna, were an official daily chronicle, 
 which, in addition to official reports of 
 
 events in the imperial family, and state 
 and city affairs, contained regulations by 
 the magistrates, transactions and decrees 
 of the senate, accidents, and family news 
 communicated to the editors. They were 
 publicly exhibited on a whitened board 
 {album), which any one might read and 
 copy; and there were men who made a 
 business of multiplying and transmitting 
 such news to the provinces. After a time 
 the originals were placed amolig the state- 
 archives for the benefit of those who wished 
 to consult them. 
 
 Actaedn {Gr.AktaiOn). Sonof Aristseusby 
 AutonSe, the daughter of Cadmus of Thebes, 
 was trained by Chiron into a finished 
 huntsman. Having either seen Artemis 
 (Diana) when bathing, or boasted his su- 
 periority in the chase, he was changed by 
 her into a stag, and torn to pieces by his 
 own hounds on Mount Cithseron. The 
 hounds looked everywhere for their master, 
 and would not be pacified till Chiron 
 showed them an image of him. His statue 
 was often set up on hills and rocks as a 
 protection against the dangerous heat of the 
 dog-days, of which probably the myth itself 
 is but a symbol. 
 
 Actoridse, Actoriones. See Moliones. 
 
 Actuarius. See Acta. 
 
 Acusilatis. See Logogeaphi. 
 
 Admetus. Son of Pheres, king of Pherse 
 in Thessaly, who took part in the Caly- 
 donian boar-hunt and the voyage of the 
 Argo. Apollo served him for a time as a 
 shepherd, either from love and as a reward 
 for his piety, or to expiate a capital crime. 
 When Admetus wooed Alcestis, the daughter 
 of Pelias, and her father would only give her 
 to one who should yoke lions and boars to 
 a chariot, he fulfilled the task with Apollo's 
 help ; indeed, the god even prevailed on the 
 Moirai to release him from death, provided 
 that any one would volunteer to die for him. 
 He is at length seized with a mortal sickness, 
 and his agqd parents refusing to give up the 
 remnant of their days for him, Alcestis dies 
 for her husband, but is sent back to the 
 upper world by Persephone, or, according 
 to another story, is rescued out of the hands 
 of Hades by Heracles. 
 
 Adonis. Sprung, according to the com- 
 mon legend, from the unnatural love of 
 the Cyprian princess Myrrha (or Smyrna) 
 for her father Cinyras, who, on becoming 
 aware of the crime, pursues her with a 
 sword ; but she, praying to the gods, is 
 changed into a myrtle, out of whose bark 
 springs the beautiful Adonis, the beloved 
 
ADOPTION ADRASTUS. 
 
 of Aphrodite. While yet a youth, he dies 
 wounded by a boar in hunting ; the god- 
 dess, inconsolable, makes the anemone 
 grow out of his blood. As she will not 
 give up her darling, and Persephone has 
 fallen in love with him, Zeus decrees 
 that he shall pass half the year with one 
 and half with the other goddess. Adonis 
 ( = lord) was properly a Syrian god of nature, 
 a type of vegetation, which after a brief 
 blossoming always dies again. The myth 
 was embodied in a yearly Feast of Adonis 
 held by women, which, starting from Byblos 
 in Syria, the cradle of this worship, came by 
 way of Cyprus to Asia Minor and Greece, 
 then under the Ptolemies to Egypt, and 
 in the imperial age to Rome. When the river 
 Adonis by Byblos ran red with the soil 
 washed down from Lebanon by the autumn 
 rain, they said Adonis was slain by the boar 
 in the mountains, and the water was dyed 
 with his blood. Then the women set out 
 to seek him, and having found a figure that 
 they took to be his corpse, performed his 
 funeral rites with lamentations as wild as 
 the rejoicings that followed over his re- 
 surrection were licentious. The feast was 
 held, in the East, with great magnificence. 
 In Greece the celebration was much simpler, 
 a leading feature being the little " Adonis- 
 gardens," viz. pots holding all kinds of 
 herbs that come out quickly and as quickly 
 fade, which were finally thrown into the 
 water. At the court of Alexandria a 
 figure in costly apparel was displayed on a 
 silver bier, and the next morning carried 
 in proceesion by the women to the sea, 
 and committed to the waves. In most 
 places the feast was held in the hottest 
 season. 
 
 Adoption. (1) At Athens adoption took 
 place either in the adopter's lifetime or by 
 will ; or again, if a man died childless and 
 intestate, the State interfered to bring into 
 his house the man next entitled by the Attic 
 law of inheritance as heir and adoptive son, 
 so that the race and the religious rites 
 peculiar to it might not die out. None but 
 the independent citizen of respectable char- 
 acter could adopt, and he only while he 
 was as yet without male heirs. If there 
 were daughters, one of them was usually 
 betrothed to the adopted son, and the rest 
 portioned off with dowries. If after that a 
 male heir was bom, he and the adopted had 
 equal rights. 
 
 (2) At Rome there were two kinds of 
 adoption, both requiring the adopter to 
 be a male and childless : Arrogatio and 
 
 Adoption proper. The former could only 
 take place where the person to be adopted 
 was independent {sui juris), and his adopter 
 had no prospect of male offspring; at the 
 instance of the pontifex, and after full proof 
 of admissibility, it had to be sanctioned 
 by the comitia curiata. Adoption proper 
 applied to those still under paternal rule 
 (jjatria potestas), the father selling his son 
 by formal mancipatio (q.v.) to the adopter, 
 who then, the paternal power being thus 
 abolished, claimed the son before the court 
 as his own, and the father allowed him to be 
 adjudged to him. By either transaction the 
 person adopted passed completely over into 
 the family and rank of the adopter, and 
 naturally took his name in full, but with the 
 addition of a second cognomen formed from 
 his own former nomen gentile by the suffix 
 -amis, e.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio iEmili- 
 anus (son of Lucius Jilmilius Paullus). 
 Women too could be adopted, but not 
 arrogated ; neither could they adopt. At the 
 latter end of the Republic we find a testa- 
 mentary Adoption in existence, which at 
 first likewise produced a change of name, 
 but not of status. 
 
 Adrasteia. See Nemesis. 
 
 Adrastns. Grandson of Bias, son of Talaus 
 and Lysimache. In a quarrel between the 
 three houses reigning in Argos, the Biantidse, 
 Melampodidse, and Proetidse, he is driven 
 out by Amphiaraus, who also killed his 
 father, flees to his mother's father, king 
 Polybusof Sicyon,and inherits his kingdom. 
 But, reconciled to Amphiaraus, to whom 
 he gives his sister Eriphyle, he returns 
 and rules over Argos. During one stoimy 
 night a great scuffle is heard outside the 
 palace : two fugitives, Polyneices son of 
 (Edipus of Thebes, and Tydeus son of 
 (Eneus of Calydon (one wrapped in a lion's 
 hide, the other in a boar-skin), have sought 
 refuge in the front-court, and are fighting for 
 a night's lodging. Adrastus, coming forth, 
 recognises the fulfilment of an oracle which 
 had bidden him marry his daughters to a 
 lion and a boar. He gives Argeia to Poly- 
 neices and Deipyle to Tydeus, promising 
 to conduct those princes home and rein- 
 state them in their rights. Thus began 
 under his lead the far-famed and fatal ex- 
 pedition of the Seven against Thebes (q.v.). 
 He alone escapes destruction by the help 
 of his divine winged steed Areion. Ten 
 years after, with the sons of the slain, the 
 Eplgdni (q.v.), and his own son ^gialeus, 
 he again marches upon Thebes, takes and 
 destroys the town, but 'oses his son, and 
 
ADVOCATUS iEDILES. 
 
 dies of grief on his way tome at Megara, 
 where, as well as at Sicyon and Athens, he 
 was worshipped as a hero. 
 
 Advdcatus. At Rome, under the Repub- 
 lic, a conipetent friend who gave his advice 
 in a law-suit and came into court in person, 
 not to speak (the patronus causce did that), 
 but to support the cause by his presence. 
 In the imperial age the term was applied 
 to the counsel who pleaded in court in the 
 presence of the parties, for doing which 
 he was allowed, after the time of Claudius, 
 to take a moderate fee. 
 
 Adyton. In many Greek temples, a space 
 set apart, sometimes underground, and only 
 entered by the priest, a holy of holies. 
 {See Temple.) 
 
 Mi. The realm of the mythic ^etes ; 
 afterwards supposed to be Colchis on the 
 Euxine. 
 
 Ma,cvis{Gr, Aidkos). Ancestor of the heroic 
 ^acidse ; son of Zeus by ^gina, a daughter 
 of the river-god Asopus in Phlius, whom 
 the king of gods, in the form of an eagle, 
 carried off to the island named after her, 
 where her son was bom. As king of ^gina 
 he ruled the Myrmidons, whom Zeus at his 
 request created out of ants (Gr. inyrmekSs) 
 to people his island, which, according to 
 one story, was uninhabited, according to 
 another, stricken with pestilence. Beloved 
 by the gods for his piety, when a drought 
 desolated Greece, his intercession obtained 
 rain from Zeus ; and the grateful Greeks 
 built him in jEgina a temple enclosed by 
 a marble wall. Pindar says he helped 
 Poseidon and Apollo to rear the walls of 
 Troy, erecting that very portion which was 
 afterwards scaled by his son Telamon, and 
 his grandson Neoptolemus. His justice 
 caused him after death to be made a judge 
 in the lower world. At ^gina and Athens 
 he was worshipped as a demigod. His sons 
 by Chiron's daughter Endeis were Telamon 
 and Peleus, the fathers of Ajax and Achilles ; 
 another son Phocus, by the Nereid Psamathe, 
 was slain by his half-brothers, for which 
 their father banished thein. 
 
 .Sliiles. At Rome, two sets of magistrates, 
 the Plebeian (cediles plSbis or plebeii) and 
 the Curule (cediles curUles). (1) The two 
 Plebeian JSdiles were appointed B.C. 494 at 
 the same time with the Tribuneship of the 
 Plebs, as servants of the Tribunes, and at 
 first probably nominated by them till 471, 
 when, like them and under their presi- 
 dency, they began to be elected by the 
 whole body of the Plebs. They took their 
 name from the temple (cedes) of the ple- 
 
 beian goddess Ceres, in which their official 
 archives were kept. Beside the custody 
 of the plebi-scUa, and afterwards of the 
 senatus-consulta, it was their duty to make 
 arrests at the bidding of the tribunes ; to 
 carry out the death-sentences which they 
 passed, by hurling the criminal down from the 
 Tarpeian rock ; to look after the importation 
 of corn ; to watch the traffic in the markets ; 
 and to organize and superintend the Plebeian 
 and Roman Games. Like the tribunes, they 
 could only be chosen from the body of the 
 Plebs, and wore no badge of office, not so 
 much as the toga prcetexta, even after they 
 became an authority independent of the 
 tribunes. (2) The Curule JEdiles, from B.C. 
 366, were taken at first from the Patrician 
 body alone, soon after from Patricians and 
 Plebeians by turns, and lastly from either. 
 Elected yearly in the comitia tribiita under 
 the presidency of a consul, they were, from 
 the first, officers of the whole people, though 
 low in rank ; they sat in the sella curulis, 
 from which they took their name, and wore 
 as insignia the toga prwtexta. As in rank, 
 so in the extent of their powers they stood 
 above the Plebeian ^Sldiles, being entitled 
 to exercise civil jurisdiction in market busi- 
 ness, where the latter could only impose a 
 fine. The functions of the two were very 
 much alike, comprising ; (i) the superin- 
 tendence of trade in the market, where they 
 had to test weights and measures, and the 
 quality of goods ; to keep down the price of 
 provisions, both by prohibitive measures, 
 especially against regraters of corn, and by 
 the purchase and liberal distribution of 
 food (cicra annonoi) ; and, as regards the 
 money-market, to prosecute those who 
 transgressed the laws of usury ; (ii) the 
 care of the streets and buildings within 
 the city and the circuit of a mile outside, by 
 cleansing, paving, and improving the streets, 
 or stirring up those who were bound to do 
 it ; by seeing that the street traffic was 
 unimpeded ; by keeping in repair the 
 temples, public buildings, and works, such 
 as sewers and aqueducts, and seeing that 
 these latter and the fire-apparatus were in 
 working order ; (iii) a superintendence of 
 health and morals, including the inspec- 
 tion of baths, taverns, and low houses, the 
 putting down of all that endangered public 
 order and decency, e.g. games of hazard, 
 breaches of sumptuary laws, introduction 
 of foreign religions, etc. ; (iv) the exhi- 
 bition of Games (of which the Roman and 
 Megalensian devolved on the curule, the 
 Plebeian on the plebeian sediles), the super- 
 
8 
 
 ^DITUUS ^GINETAN SCULPTURES. 
 
 vision of festivities at the fericp, Latincn 
 and at games given by private men. The 
 cost of the games given by themselves 
 they defrayed partly out of a sum set apart 
 by the State, but utterly inadequate to the 
 large demands of later times ; partly out cf 
 the proceeds of fines which were also spent 
 on public buildings, and partly out of their 
 own resources. Thus the sedileship became 
 an expensive luxury, and its enjoyment less 
 and less accessible to men of moderate 
 means. Ambitious men often spent in- 
 credible sums in getting up games, to win 
 the people's favour with a view to higher 
 honours, though the aedileship was not 
 necessary as a stepping-stone to these. In 
 Cicero's time the legal age for the curule 
 sedileship was thirty-seven. From B.C. 366 
 their number was unchanged, till Csesar 
 in B.C. 44 added two more, the Plebeian 
 .^MUes Ceridles, to whom alone the ciira 
 annonce and the management of the liidi 
 Ceridles were entrusted. Under the 
 Empire the office of eedile lost much in 
 importance by some of its functions being 
 handed over to separate officers, especially 
 by the transference of its jurisdiction and 
 its control of games to the prsetors ; and it 
 fell into such contempt, that even Augustus 
 had to make a tenure of it, or the tribune- 
 ship, a condition of eligibility to the 
 praetorship ; and succeeding emperors often 
 had to fill it by compulsion. In the 3rd 
 century a.d. it seems to have died out alto- 
 gether. 
 
 .ffidituus or .ffidltumus. The overseer of 
 a temple that had no priest of its own {see 
 Priests) ; also a major-domo. {See Slaves.) 
 Aedon. Daughter of Pandareos,wife of the 
 Theban king Zethus, and mother of Itylus. 
 Envious at her sister-inJaw, Niobe, having 
 six sons, she tries to kill the eldest, but 
 by mistake kills her own. She is changed 
 by Zeus into a nightingale, and for ever 
 bewails her son. Later legend makes her 
 the wife of an artificer Polyteohnus at 
 Colophon in Lydia ; she stirs the anger of 
 Hera by boasting that she lives more happily 
 with her husband than the goddess with 
 Zeus. Hera sends Eris ( = strife) to set on 
 foot a wager between husband and wife, that 
 whichever finishes first the piece of work 
 they have in hand (he a chair, she a gar- 
 ment) shall make the other a present of a 
 slave-girl. By Hera's help Aedon wins, 
 and Polytechnus in vexation fetches her 
 sister, Chelidonis, on a false pretext, from 
 her father's house, and having reduced her 
 to submission on the way, and bound her 
 
 to secrecy on pain of death, presents her 
 to his wife unrecognised as a slave. One 
 day Aedon overhears her sister lamenting 
 her lot at a foimtain, and concerts with her 
 to slay Itylus, cook him, and set him before 
 his father to eat. On learning the truth, 
 Polytechnus pursues the sister to her home ; 
 but there the gods, to prevent more horrors, 
 turn them all into birds, making Pandareos 
 an osprey, his wife a kingfisher, Poly- 
 technus a pelican, Chelidonis a swallow, 
 and Aedon a nightingale. {Comp. Procne.) 
 .ffietes, Son of Helios and the Ocean 
 nymph Perseis, brother of Circe and 
 Pasiphae, king of ^a, father of Medea and 
 Absyrtus by the ocean nymph Idyia. {See 
 Argonauts and Medea.) 
 
 .ffigeus. Son of Pandion {q.v. 2) and 
 Pelia. Having with the help of his brothers 
 Lyons, Pallas, and Nisus wrested Attica 
 from the sons of his uncle Motion, who had 
 driven out his father, he seized the sole 
 sovereignty. Dethroned by his brother 
 Pallas and his sons, he was rescued and 
 restored by his son Theseus {q.v.). Having 
 slain Androgeos, son of Minos {q.v.), he 
 was conquered by that king, and compelled 
 to send seven youths and seven maidens to 
 Crete every nine years as victims to the 
 Minotaur. When Theseus set out to free 
 his country from this tribute, he agreed in 
 case of success to exchange the black sail 
 of his ship for a white ; but he forgot to 
 do so, and .^Ggeus seeing the old sail on the 
 returning vessel, gave up his son for lost, 
 and threw himself into the sea, which is 
 supposed to have been named after him 
 the ^gean. He had a heroon or shrine at 
 Athens. Childless by his first two mar- 
 riages, and ascribing the fact to the anger 
 of Aphrodite, he is said to have introduced 
 her worship into Athens. (For his son 
 Medus by Medea, see both.) 
 
 iElgiale (Gr. ^gialeia). Daughter of Ad- 
 rastus of Argos, wife of Diomedes {q.v.). 
 
 .aigialeus, Son of Adrastus of Argos, and 
 one of the Epigoni {q.v.), who fell before 
 Thebes. 
 
 .Slglna, a nymph, daughter of the river- 
 god Asopus, and, by Zeus, mother of ^acus 
 {q.v.). 
 
 .ffiginetan Sculptures, The marble pedi- 
 ments of Athena's temple at iEgina, dis- 
 covered in 1811, restored by Thorwaldsen, 
 and preserved in the Glyptothek at Munich. 
 Their great value consists in the full light 
 they throw on the condition of Greek art, 
 especially of the iEginetan school, in B.C. 
 480. {Comp. Sculpture.) Both groups 
 
^GIS iELlUS. 
 
 WEST PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE AT iEGINA. 
 
 present, with, lifelike accuracy and in strictly 
 symmetrical distribution, combats of tbe 
 Greeks before Troy, while Athena in the 
 centre, as protectress of the Greeks, retains 
 the rigid attitude of the ancient religious 
 statues. Of the figures, originally twenty- 
 two in number, ten in the west pediment 
 representing the contest for the body of 
 Patroclus, are complete, while the eleventh 
 is preserved in fragments ; of those in the 
 east pediment representing Heracles and 
 Telamon shielding the fallen O'icles from 
 Laomedon, five remain and many fragments. 
 
 JEgis. The storm-cloud and thunder- 
 cloud of Zeus, imagined in Homer as a 
 shield forged by Hephaestus, blazing bright- 
 ly and fringed with tassels of gold, in its 
 centre the awe-inspiring Gorgon's head. 
 When Zeus shakes the segis, it thunders 
 and lightens, and horror and perdition fall 
 upon those against whom it is lifted. It is 
 borne not only by Zeus " the iEgis-bearer," 
 but by his daughter Athena, and occasionally 
 by Apollo. As the same word means a goat- 
 skin, it was explained in later times as the 
 skin of the goat which had suckled Zeus 
 in his infancy. At the bidding of the 
 oracle, he drew it over his thunder-shield 
 in the contest with the Giants, and fastened 
 on it the Gorgon's head. When the segis 
 became a standing attribute of Athena, it 
 was represented as a skin either shaggy or 
 scaly, with a fringe of snakes and the 
 Gorgon's head in the middle, and either 
 serving the goddess as a breastplate, or 
 hanging behind to screen the back and 
 shoulders, or fastened like a shield on the 
 left arm. 
 
 JEgisthus. Son of Thyestes and his daugh- 
 ter Pelopia. At his birth he was exposed 
 by his mother, and brought up by shepherds. 
 His uncle Atreus, husband to Pelopia, finds 
 him and brings him to Mycense, thinking 
 him to be his own son ; but jEgisthus and 
 his real father contrive to kill him and 
 seize the sovereignty of Mycense, (See 
 
 Atbeus.) This position he loses again by 
 his cousin Agamemnon's return from exile ; 
 but during that hero's absence at Troy he 
 seduces his wife Clytsemnestra, and with 
 her help slays him treacherously on his 
 return. In the eighth year after this deed 
 comes young Orestes, and avenges his 
 father's death by slaying ^gisthus. 
 
 Mgle. One of the Hesperides (q.v.). 
 
 .ffigyptus. Son of Belus and twin-brother 
 of Danatis (q.v.), who subdued the land of 
 the Melampodes (Blackfeet) , and named it 
 after himself. Ignorant of the fat^ of his 
 fifty sons, he comes to Argos and there dies 
 of grief at their death; another account 
 represents his only surviving son as recon- 
 ciling him to his brother. 
 
 iEUanus. (1) The Tactician, a Greek 
 writer on war, about 100 A.D., composed a 
 work dedicated to Trajan on the Greek 
 order of battle, with special reference to 
 Macedonian tactics (Taktlke Thcoria) , which 
 is extant both in its original and in an 
 enlarged form. The original used falsely 
 to be attributed to Arrian. 
 
 (2) Claudius u3Slianus, called the Sophist, 
 a Roman of Prseneste, who wrote in Greek, 
 lived at Rome in the 2nd century A.D. as 
 teacher of rhetoric. His surviving works 
 are : (1) 20 insignificant Peasants' Letters, 
 so called because attributed to Attic pea- 
 sants ; (2) Varice Historice or miscellanies, 
 in 14 books, some preserved only in extracts, 
 and (3) De Natura Animdlium. The two 
 last-mentioned are copious and valuable 
 collections of all kinds of curiosities in 
 human and animal life, mostly taken from 
 earlier writings now lost. 
 
 JElianum Jns. See Jurisprudence. 
 
 iElius. (1) JElius Catus. See Jurispru- 
 dence. 
 
 (2) Lucius JUlius Stllo Prceconinus, a 
 Roman grammarian born at Lanuvium, 
 about 150 B.C., an Eques, and friend of 
 the poet Lucilius, to whom he dedicated 
 his first book, of Satires ; surnamed Stilo 
 
10 
 
 iEMILIUS PROBUS ^NEAS. 
 
 (from stilus, pencil) because he -wrote I 
 speeches for public men, and Prseconinus 
 because his father was a crier (prwco). He 
 was so strongly attached to the party of 
 Optima tes, that in 100 B.C. he voluntarily 
 accompanied Metellus Numidicus into exile. 
 After his return he became the master of 
 Varro and Cicero. Well versed in Greek and 
 Latin literature, he applied himself chiefly 
 to studying the oldest relics of his native 
 tongue, commented on the Liturgies of the 
 Salian priests and the Laws of the Twelve 
 Tables, and earned the honour of having 
 rescued the ancient Latin language from 
 oblivion, and preserved some knowledge of 
 it to posterity. Such scanty remnants of it 
 as have come down to us in glossaries and 
 the like seem to be taken chiefly from his 
 writings, now all lost. 
 
 (3) and (4) JSlius Lainprldius and 
 JUiius Spartianus, B-oman historians of the 
 Empire. (See Scriptores Hist. Aug.) 
 
 JEmilius Probus. See Cornelius Nei'os. 
 
 .ffineas (Greek Aineias). (1) Son of 
 Anchises and Aphrodite. Born on the 
 mountains of Ida, he is brought up till his 
 fifth year by his brother-in-law Alcathoua, 
 or, according to another story, by the 
 nymphs of Ida, and after his father's mis- 
 fortune becomes ruler of Dardanos. Though 
 near of kin to the royal house of Troy, he 
 is in no hurry to help Priam till his own 
 cattle are carried off by Achilles. Yet he 
 is highly esteemed at Troy for his piety, 
 prudence, and valour ; and gods come to his 
 assistance in battle. Thus Aphrodite and 
 Apollo shield him when his life is threatened 
 by Diomed, and Poseidon snatches him out 
 of the combat with Achilles. But Priam 
 does not love him, for he and his are destined 
 hereafter to rule the Trojans. The story of 
 his escape at the fall of Troy is told in 
 several ways : one is, that he bravely cut 
 his way through the enemy to the fastnesses 
 of Ida ; another, that, like Antenor, he was 
 spared by the Greeks because he had always 
 counselled peace and the surrender of 
 Helena ; a third, that he made his escape in 
 the general confusion. The older legend 
 represents him as staying in the country, 
 forming a new kingdom out of the wreck of 
 the Teucrian people, and handing it down to 
 his posterity. Indeed several townships on 
 Ida always claimed him as their founder. 
 The story of his emigrating, freely or under 
 compulsion from the Greeks, and founding 
 a new kingdom beyond seas, is clearly of 
 post-Homeric date. In the earlier legend 
 he is represented as settling not very far 
 
 from home; then they extended his wander- 
 ings to match those of Odysseus, always 
 pushing the limit of his voyagings farther 
 and farther west. The poet Stesichorus 
 (about 600 B.C.) is, so far as we know, the 
 first who brings him to Italy. Later, in 
 face of the fast rising power of Rome, the 
 Greeks conceived the notion that ^neas 
 must have settled in Latium and become 
 the ancestor of these Romans. This had 
 become a settled conviction in their minds 
 by the beginning of the 3rd century B.C., 
 when Timseus, in the Roman interest, com- 
 pleted the Legend of jEneas, making room 
 in it for Latian and Roman traditions ; and 
 at Rome it was soon taken up and developed 
 into a dogma of the state religion, repre- 
 senting the antagonism between Greece 
 and Rome, the new Troy. Prom that time 
 verse and prose endeavoured to bring the 
 various places with which the name of 
 ./Eneas was connected into historic and 
 geographic harmony, now building on a 
 bare resemblance of names, now following 
 kindred fables and the holy places of 
 Aphrodite Aineias, a goddess of sea and 
 seafaring, whose temples were generally 
 found on the coasts. Thus by degrees the 
 story took in the main the shape so 
 familiar to us in Vergil's ^ne'id. ^neas 
 flees from the flames of Troy, bearing on 
 his shoulders the stricken Anchises with 
 the Penates, leading his boy Ascanius and 
 followed by his wife Creusa (who is lost 
 on the way), till he comes to Mount Ida. 
 There he gathers the remnant of the 
 Trojans in twenty ships, and sails by way 
 of 'Thrace and Delos to Crete, imagining 
 that to be the destination assigned him by 
 Apollo. But driven thence by pestilence, 
 and warned in a dream that Italy is his 
 goal, he is first carried out of his course to 
 Epirus, and then makes his way to Sicily, 
 where his father dies. He has just set out 
 to cross to the mainland, when a hurricane 
 raised by his enemy Juno casts him on the 
 coast of Carthage. Here Juno and Venus 
 have agreed that he shall marry Dido ; but 
 at Jupiter's command he secretly quits 
 Africa, and having touched at Sicily, Cumse, 
 and Caieta (Gaeta), arrives, after seven 
 years' wandering, at the Tiber's mouth. 
 Latinus, king of Latium, gives him leave 
 to build a town, and betroths to him his 
 daughter Lavinia. Tumus, king of the 
 Rutiili, to whom she had been promised 
 before, takes up arms in alliance with 
 Mezentius of Caere ; in twenty days the war 
 is ended by ^Eneas defeating both. Accord- 
 
^OLUS ^RARIUM. 
 
 11 
 
 ing to another version (not Vergil's), he dis- 
 appeared after the victory on the Numicius, 
 and was worshipped as the god Jupiter 
 Indiges. The Roman version, in its earliest 
 forms, as we see it in Nsevius and Ennius, 
 brought ^neas almost into contact with 
 the founders of Rome, Romulus and Remus 
 being regarded as children of his daughter 
 Ilia by the god Mars. In later times, to 
 fill up dtily the space between the Fall of 
 Troy and the Founding of Rome, the line 
 of Alban kings, descended from Silvius, his 
 son by Lavinia, was inserted between him 
 and Romulus. 
 
 (2) ^neas, named " the Tactician," a 
 Greek military author, wrote about 350 B.C. 
 a book on the Art of War, of which only 
 a small part on siege-operations, usually 
 entitled Poliorketikon, is preserved ; it is 
 clear in exposition, and contains much 
 valuable historical information. 
 
 .ffiolus. (1) Grandson of Deuc&lion, son 
 of Hellen by the nymph Orseis, brother of 
 Dorus and Xuthus ; king of Magnesia in 
 Thessaly, and mythic ancestor of tlie 
 ^olian race, his sons being founders of the 
 ^olian settlements spread all over Greece. 
 By his wife Endrete he has seven sons : 
 Cretheus, founder of lolcus, and father, by 
 Tyro, of ^son (Jason's father), of Pheres 
 (founder of Pherse in Thessaly, and father 
 of Admetus and Lycurgtis), and of Amy- 
 thaon (father of Bias and Melampus) ; 
 Sisyphus, founder of Ephyra (Corinth), 
 father of Glaucus and grandfather of 
 Bellerophon; Athamas, king of Orchome- 
 nus, father of Phrixus and Helle ; Sal- 
 moneus, builder of Salmone in Elis, father 
 of Tyro ; Deion, king of Phoci=), father of 
 Actor, Phylucus, and Cephalus ; Magnes, 
 father of Dictys and Polydectes, who 
 colonize the island of Seriphus (see Pee- 
 SEUS) ; Perieres, king of Messenia, father 
 of Aphareus and Leucippus. Also five 
 daughters : Candce, mother by Poseidon 
 of Epopeus and Aloeus (see Aloads); 
 Alcyone (see Ceyx) ; Peisidice ; Cdlyce, 
 mother of Endymion ; and Perimede. 
 
 (2) In Homer a son of Hippotes, and a 
 favourite of the gods, whom Zeus has ap- 
 pointed keeper of the winds. On his 
 ^olian island, floating in the far west, its 
 steep cliff encircled by a brazen wall, he 
 lives in unbroken bliss with his wife and 
 his six sons and six daughters, whom he 
 has wedded to one another. He hospi- 
 tably entertains Odysseus, gives him the 
 unfavourable winds shut up in a leathern 
 bag, and a kindly breeze to waft- him on 
 
 his voyage. But when the hero's comrades 
 open the bag, the winds break out and 
 blow him back to the ^olian Isle ; then 
 ^olus drives him from his door as one hate- 
 ful to the gods. In the later legend ho 
 dwells on one of the ^olian isles to the 
 north of Sicily, Lipftra or Strongyle, where, 
 • throned on a mountain, he holds the winds 
 imprisoned in the hollow of the same ; yet 
 he does not seem to have received real 
 worship. He was, moreover, brought into 
 genealogical connection with ^olus of 
 Thessaly, whose son Mimas begets Hippotes, 
 and he (by Melanippe) s. second jTk)lus, king 
 of ^olis in jEtolia ; this iEolus gives his 
 daughter Arne, the beloved of Poseidon, 
 to a guest-friend from Metapontum -in 
 Lucania, where she has two sons by the 
 god, the third JSolus and Boeotus. These, 
 adopted by the Metapontian, kill his wife 
 Autolyte and run away, Boeotus returning 
 with Arne to his grandfather, and ^olus 
 settling in the isles named after him, and 
 founding the city of Lipara. 
 
 MoTCA. Festival of the swing. See 
 
 ICARIUS, 1. 
 
 .ffiquitas. At Rome, the personification of 
 equity or fairness, as opposed to the justice 
 that decides bj' the letter of the law. She 
 was represented as a stately virgin with 
 her left hand open, and often with a pair 
 of scales. 
 
 .Slrarii. By the constitution of Servius 
 Tullius (see Centueia), the JSrarii were 
 citizens not settled on land of their own, 
 and therefore not included in any one of the 
 property-classes founded on landownership. 
 The term was also applied to those standing 
 outside of the tribal union, who were ex- 
 cluded from the right of voting and from 
 military service, and were bound to pay 
 a poll-tax in proportion to their means. 
 Citizens in the classes and tribes could be 
 expelled from their tribe by the censors in 
 punishment for any fault, and placed 
 among the ^rarii. But when the latter 
 were likewise admitted into the tribes (B.C. 
 308), being enrolled in the city tribes (b.c. 
 304), which were on that account less 
 esteemed than the country ones, a penal 
 transfer to the ^Erarii consisted in expulsion 
 from one's proper tribe and removal to one 
 of the city tribes till at least the next 
 census. 
 
 JErarium. The state-treasury of Rome, 
 into which flowed the revenues ordinary 
 and extraordinary, and out of which the 
 needful expenses were defrayed. It was 
 kept in the basement of the temple of Saturn, 
 
\1 
 
 AEEOPE .ESl'illXES. 
 
 iiniler the cliargo ol the qutestoi's. A special 
 reserve fund was the ^Erarium sanctius, 
 ill which the proceeds of receipts from the 
 inanumission-tax (one twentieth of the freed 
 slii\-o's value) Avere deposited in golil ingots. 
 When Augustus divided the pro- 
 vinces into senatorial and impera- 
 torial, there were tiro chief treasuries. 
 Tho senatorial treasury, which was 
 still kept in tlio temple of Saturn, 
 was left under the control of the 
 senate, but onlv as a matter of formal 
 right. Practically it passed into the 
 hands of tho emperors, who also 
 lirought tho management of the 
 treasuries under their own eye L)' 
 a]i]iointing, instead of the qn<estors, 
 \\vo jini'frcti trrrirli taken from those 
 who had served as prfetors. Besides, 
 the}' diverted into their own 7'7.sr(rs- 
 all the larger revenues, even tlinse 
 that legally belonged to the vErarinm. 
 When in course of time the returns 
 from all the provinces flowed into 
 the imperial treasury, the senatorial 
 ^Erarium continued to exist as tliecity 
 treasmw. The ^Vj-arivm militarr 
 was a pension - fund .founded by 
 Augustus in A.D. G, for disabled 
 soldiers. Its management was en- 
 trusted to three pt-rrfcdi irrarii 
 ijiilitrn'it:. It was maintained out of 
 the interest on a considerable fund, 
 and the proceeds of the heritage and 
 sale ditties. 
 
 Aerope. Daughter to Catrous of 
 ('veie (f/.c), who was given up by her 
 father to Nanplius to be sold abroad. 
 ]\[arried to Atreus (q.r.), she bore 
 Agamemnon and Menelaus, but was 
 thrown into the sea by her husband 
 for her adulteiy with his brother 
 Thyestes. 
 
 .ffisacus. Snii of Priam b}' Arisbe, 
 who had learnt tho art of interpreting 
 dreams from his maternal grandfather 
 Merops, and being consulted bj' his 
 father as to Hecuba's bad dreams 
 before the birth of Paris, advised 
 him to expose a child so clearly 
 doomed to be the destruction of 
 Trov. In despair at having caused the 
 death of his wife Asterope (or Hes- 
 peria) he threw himself into the sea, 
 and was changed into abird, the diver. 
 
 iEschines. (1) The Soeyatie, son of a 
 sausage-maker at Athens, lived in the most 
 pinching poverty, but would not let it dis- 
 courage him in his zeal for learninf:. Some 
 
 time after tlie death of Socrates, to whom 
 he had clung with faithful aft'ection, in H.c 
 309, aEschinijs, probably to mend his for- 
 tunes, removed to Syracuse, and there found 
 a patron in the younger Dionysius. On the 
 
 * .r.Sill i.M-..S THE ukajim;. 
 (Naples, Kational MuSL-um.) 
 
 fall of that tyrant, lie returned to Athens, 
 and supported himself by writing speeches 
 for public men. He composed Dialogues, 
 which v.'ere prized for their faithful de- 
 
AESCHYLUS. 
 
 13 
 
 scriptions of Socrates, cincl the elegance of 
 their style. Three pseudo-Platonic dia- 
 logues are conjecturally ascribed to him; 
 That Virtue can be Taught; A.z'iOchus, or 
 on Death, and Ein/xias, or on Riches. Biit 
 it is doubtful whether they are really from 
 his hand. 
 
 (2) ^schines the Orator, born at Athens 
 B.C. 389, in a low station. As a youth, he 
 assisted his father in keeping an elementary 
 school, then acted as clerk to several in- 
 ferior magistrates, was for a time an actor 
 in third-rate parts, till an accident removed 
 him from the stage, when he became secre- 
 tary to the esteemed orators and statesmen 
 Aristophon and Eubulus, at whose recom- 
 mendation he was twice elected to a govern- 
 ment clerkship. Having thus acquired a 
 sound knowledge of the laws and of legal 
 proceedings, and being gifted with consider- 
 able talent, fine elocution and a dignified 
 manner, to which his experience on the 
 stage had contributed, he now came forward 
 as a public speaker, and soon became an 
 important personage. As a member of the 
 embassy sent to Philip of Macedon for the 
 conclusion of peace, B.C. 347, he was won 
 over by the king to second the plans which 
 proved so fatal to Athens, and was therefore 
 accused of high treason by Timarchus and 
 Demosthenes in B.C. 345 ; but he managed 
 to clear himself by a triumphant attack on 
 the private life of Timarchus. In B.C. 342 
 Demosthenes, who hated him, the head of 
 the Macedonian party, as bitterly as he was 
 hated by him, renewed the charge in his 
 oration On the False Embassy, ^schines, 
 however, met it successfully by an equally 
 brilliant speech bearing the same title. His 
 unpatriotic conduct occasioned the war with 
 Philip, which led to the overthrow of the 
 Athenians and Thebans at Chseronea, 332, 
 and set the seal to the Macedonian supre- 
 macy over Greece. His own fall at last was 
 brought onby his hatred of Demosthenes, 
 ^schines had previously brought a charge 
 of illegality against Ctesiphon for proposing 
 the distinction of a golden crown for 
 Demosthenes. The charge was repeated 
 B.C. 330, in a brilliant oration nominally 
 directed Against Ctesiphon, but really aimed 
 at his old rival. He was completely crushed 
 by Demosthenes' great speech On the Grown, 
 and being condemned to pay a fine of 1,000 
 drachmas, went into voluntary exile at 
 Rhodes, where he is said to have opened a 
 school of oratory. Thence he removed to 
 Samos, and died B.C. 314. Beside the three 
 orations named {Against Timarchus, On the 
 
 False Embassy, Against Ctesiphon), we 
 have under his name a collection of twelve 
 letters professing to be written from Rhodes, 
 but really forged by a later hand. Among 
 the orators of his time jEschines ranks next 
 to Demosthenes. His orations are elabor- 
 ated with the utmost care and reflexion, 
 they have fulness, force, smoothness, and 
 grace; but lack the terseness, the rhythm, 
 and the moral inspiration of those of 
 Demosthenes. They were spoken of in 
 antiquity as the Three Graces. 
 
 .ffischyltis. The earliest of the three great 
 tragic poets of Greece, son of Euphorion. 
 He was born at Eleusis, near Athens, B.C. 
 525, of an old and noble stock, fought at 
 Marathon, Sftlamis and Platsese, and in his 
 25th year appeared as a writer of tragedies 
 and rival of Pratinas and Chcerilus, though 
 he did not win his first victory till 488 B.C. 
 About 476 he lived in Sicily, at the court 
 of Hiero of Syracuse, and composed his 
 .Unmans for the consecration of the city 
 of ^tna, founded by that king in the place 
 of the ancient Catftna. On his return to 
 Athens he was beaten by the young Sophocles 
 with his very first play, but vanquished him 
 again the next year with the Tetralogy of 
 which the Seven against Thebes formed a 
 part. After the performance of his Oresteia, 
 B.C. 459, he quitted home once more, per- 
 haps in disgust at the growing power of the 
 democracy; and after three years' residence 
 at Gela in Sicily, was killed, says one story, 
 by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his bare 
 skull. The inhabitants of Gela buried his 
 remains, and honoured them with a splendid 
 monument. At a later time the Athenians, 
 on the motion of the orator Lycurgus, 
 placed a brazen statue of him, as well as of 
 Sophocles and Euripides, in the theatre ; by 
 a decree of the people a chorus was granted 
 for every performance of his plays, and the 
 garland of victory voted him as though he 
 were still living among them. His trage- 
 dies, like those of the other two, were pre- 
 served in a special standard copy, to guard 
 them against arbitrary alterations. His 
 son Euphorion was also an esteemed tragic 
 poet, so was his sister's son Philocles and 
 his descendants for several generations. 
 {See Tragedy.) The number of .^Eschylus's 
 plays is stated as 90, of which 82 are still 
 known by title, but only 7 are preserved : 
 (1) The Persians, performed in 473 B.C., 
 was named from the chorus. Its subject 
 was the same as that of Phrynichus' 
 Phoenissce, the defeat of Xerxes at Salamis, 
 biit was differently treated, (2) The Seven 
 
14 
 
 AESCULAPIUS -^SOPUS. 
 
 against Thchcs, part of a Tetralogy, cm- 
 bracing the cycle of Tlieban legend, of wliicli 
 La'ins and (EcKpus formed the first two 
 pieces, and the satyric drama Sphinx the 
 conclusion. (3) The Suppliants, the re- 
 ception of Danaus and his daughters at 
 Argos, evidently part of another Tetralogy, 
 and, to judge by the simple plot and its 
 old-fashioned treatment, one of his earliest 
 works. (4) Prometheus Bound, part of a 
 Trilogy, the Prometheia, whose first and 
 last pieces were probably Prometheus the 
 Fire-hnnger and Prometheus Unbound. 
 Lastly, the Orcsteia, the one Trilogy which 
 has survived, consisting of the three 
 tragedies, (5) Agamemnon, the murder of 
 
 ' JESCHYLUS. 
 
 (Rome, Capitoline Museum.) 
 
 that hero on his return home ; (6) The 
 Choephdroe, named from the chorus of 
 captive Trojan women offering libations 
 at Agamemnon's tomb, in which Orestes 
 avenges himself on jGgisthus and Clytaem- 
 nestra ; and (7) The EumenMes, in which 
 Orestes, pvirsued by the Furies, is acquitted 
 by the Areopagus at Athens. This Trilogy, 
 composed B.C. 458, and probably the last 
 work exhibited by iEschylus at Athens, 
 gives us an idea of the whole artistic con- 
 ception of the poet, and must be looked upon 
 as one of the greatest works of art ever 
 produced. The style is marked by sub- 
 limity and majesty, qualities partly attri- 
 butable to the courageous and serious temper 
 of the time, but chiefly the offspring of the 
 
 poet's individuality, which took delight in 
 all that is great and grand, and loved to 
 express itself in strong, sonorous words, an 
 accumulation of epithets, and a profusion 
 of bold metaphors and similes. His view 
 of the universe reveals a profoundly philo- 
 sophic mind, so that the ancients call him 
 a Pythagorean ; at the same time he is pene- 
 trated by a heartfelt piety, which conceives 
 of the gods as powers working in the interest 
 of morality. However simple the plot of 
 his plays, they displaj' an art finished to 
 the minutest detail. His Trilogies either 
 embraced one complete cycle of myths, or 
 united separate legends according to their 
 moral or mythical affinity; even the satyric 
 dramas attached to the Tragedies stand 
 in intimate connexion with them. .(Gschylus 
 is the true creator of Tragedy, inasmuch 
 as, by adding a second actor to the first, 
 he originated the genuine dramatic dialogue, 
 which he made the chief part of the play 
 by gradually cutting down the lyrical or 
 choral parts. Scenic apparatus he partly 
 created and partly completed. He intro- 
 duced masks for the players, and by gay 
 and richly embroidered trailing garments, 
 the high buskin, head-dresses, and other 
 means, gave them a grand imposing aspect, 
 above that of common men; and he fitted 
 up the stage with decorative painting and 
 machinery. According to the custom of 
 the time, he acted in his own plays, practised 
 the chorus in their songs and dances, and 
 himself invented new dance figures. 
 .ffisciilapius. See Asclepius. 
 Msbn, son of Cretheus by Tyro (see 
 ^OLUs,l),kingof lolcosinThessaly, was de- 
 posed by his half-brother Pfilias, and killed 
 while his son Jason was away on the Argo- 
 nautic Expedition. {Comp. Argonauts.) 
 
 iEsopus (Gr. Aisopos). The f amo as writer 
 of fables, the first author who created an 
 independent class of stories about animals, 
 so that in a few generations his name and 
 person had become typical of that entire 
 class of literature. In course of time, 
 thanks to his plain, popular manner, the 
 story of his own life was enveloped in an 
 almost inextricable tissue of tales and 
 traditions, which represent him as an ugly- 
 hunchback and buffoon. In the Middle 
 Ages these were woven into a kind of 
 romance. A Phrygian by birth, and living 
 in the time of the Seven Sages, about 600 
 B.C., he is said to have been at first a slave 
 to several masters, till ladmon of Samos set 
 him free. That he next lived at the court 
 of Croesus, and being sent by him on an 
 
^SYMNET^ AGANIPPE. 
 
 15 
 
 embassy to Delpti, was murdered by the 
 priests there, is pure fiction. Under his 
 name were propagated in all parts of Greece, 
 at first only by tradition in the mouth of 
 the people, a multitude of prose tales teach- 
 ing the lessons of life under the guise of 
 fables about animals. We know how 
 Socrates, during his last days in prison, 
 was engaged in turning the fables of jEsop 
 into verse. The first written collection ap- 
 pears to have been set on foot by Demetrius 
 of Phalerum, B.C. 300. The collections of 
 JEySop's Fables that have come down to us 
 are, in part, late prose renderings of the 
 version in choliambics by Babrius (q.v.), 
 which still retain here and there a scrap 
 of verse ; partly products of the rhetorical 
 schools, and therefore of very different 
 periods and degrees of merit. 
 
 .ffisymnetSB (" regulators," "judges"). A 
 name given in some Greek cities to the 
 ordinary magistrates and judicial function- 
 aries. In earlier times the term was also 
 applied to persons appointed for a definite 
 term (or until the completion of their task) 
 for putting an end, by legislation, to in- 
 ternal quarrels. Sometimes an cesymnetes 
 was voluntarily chosen by the community 
 for life, and entrusted with supreme and 
 unlimited power. The office of cesymnetes 
 may te a certain extent be compared with 
 the Roman dictatorship, though the latter 
 was never conferred without a strict limi- 
 tation of time. 
 
 ^thra, daughter of Pittheus, king of 
 Troezen, mother of Theseus by JEgeus or, 
 according to another account, by Poseidon. 
 While Homer merely mentions her as a 
 servant of Helen at Troy, later legend 
 adds that, when the Dioscuri took Aphidnse 
 and set free their sister whom Theseus 
 had carried off, they conveyed ^thra to 
 Sparta as a slave, whence she accompanied 
 Helen to Troy ; and that on the fall of that 
 city, they brought her grandsons Acftmas 
 and Demophoon back to Athens. 
 
 Action, A Greek painter in the latter 
 half of the 4th century B.C., especially 
 famed for his picture of Alexander the 
 Great's wedding with the beautiful Roxana, 
 B.C. 328. 
 
 Aetius (Gr. AStios). Of Amida in Mesopo- 
 tamia, a Greek physician of the 6th century 
 A.D., who lived at Constantinople as im- 
 perial physician in ordinary. He was the 
 author of a great miscellanj' on pathology 
 and diagnosis in sixteen books. 
 
 Afranius {Lucius}. The chief master of 
 the FabUla Togata. {See Comedy.) Flour- 
 
 ished B.C. 100. In his pictures of Roman 
 life he took Menander for his model, and 
 with great success. Cicero calls him witty 
 and a master of language. To judge b}' 
 the number of the titles of his comedies 
 which have survived (more than forty, with 
 scanty fragments), he was a prolific author ; 
 from them we gather that his subjects were 
 mostly taken from family life. His plays 
 kept possession of the stage longer than 
 those of most comic poets, being still acted 
 in Nero's time. 
 
 Agamedes. Son of Erginus of Orcho- 
 menus, and a hero of the building art, like 
 his brother Trophonius {q-v.). 
 
 Agamemnon. The Atreid, i.e. son of 
 Atreus, and brother of Menelaus. Driven 
 from Mycense after the murder of Atreus 
 {q.v.) -by Thyestes, the two young princes 
 fly to Sparta, where king Tyndareos gives 
 them his daughters in marriage, Clytsem- 
 nestra to Agamemnon, and Helena to 
 Menelaus. While the latter inherits his 
 father-in-law's kingdom, Agamemnon not 
 only drives his uncle out of Mycense, but 
 so extends his dominions that in the war 
 against Troy for the recovery of Helena the 
 chief command is entrusted to him as the 
 mightiest prince in Greece. He contributes 
 one hundred ships manned with warriors, 
 beside lending sixty to the Arcadians. (On 
 the immolation of his daughter IphigenSia 
 at Aulis, see Iphigeneia.) In Homer he is 
 one of the bravest fighters before Troy ; yet, 
 by arrogantly refusing to let Chryses, priest 
 of Apollo, ransom his daughter Chryseis, 
 who had fallen to Agamemnon as the prize 
 of war, he brings a plague on the Grecian 
 host, which he afterwards almost ruins by 
 ruthlessly carrying off Briseis the prize of 
 Achilles, who henceforth sits sulking in his 
 tents, and refuses to fight. After the fall 
 of Troj', Agamemnon comes home with his 
 captive, the princess Cassandra ; but at 
 supper he and his comrades are murdered 
 by his wife's lover jEgis thus, while the queen 
 herself kills Cassandra. Such is Homer's 
 account; the tragic poets make Clytsem- 
 nestra, in revenge of her daughter's immo- 
 lation, throw a net over Agamemnon while 
 bathing, and kill him with the help of 
 ^gisthus. In Homer his children are 
 Iphianassa, Chrysothemis, LaSdice, and 
 Orestes ; the later legend puts Iphigeneia 
 and Electra in the place of Iphianassa and 
 Laodice. Agamemnon was worshipped as 
 a hero. 
 
 Ap^anipps, a spring sacred to the Muses 
 on Mount Helicon, near Thespiee in Boeotia, 
 
10 
 
 AGASIAS AGES. 
 
 whose water imparted poetic inspiration. 
 Also the nymph of the same, daughter of 
 the river-god Permessns. 
 
 • THE BORGHESE GLADIATOR BY AGASIAS. 
 
 (Paris, Louvre.) 
 
 Agasias. A Greek artist of Ephesus, 
 probably in the 1st century B.C. The 
 Borghese Gladiator in the Louvre is from 
 his hand. {See Sculpture.) 
 
 Agatharchides, A Greek grammarian of 
 Cnidus, who lived at Alexandria in the 
 2nd century B.C. as tutor, and afterwards 
 guardian, of a prince. He composed several 
 historical works (one on the successors of 
 Alexander), a well written performance, 
 and a description of the Red Sea in five 
 books. Of the former only a few fragments 
 remain, of the last some considerable ex- 
 tracts from the first and fifth books. 
 
 Agatharchus. A Greek painter of 
 Samos, the inventor of scene-painting. {See 
 Painting.) 
 
 AgatMas. Of Myrina in Asia Minor, a 
 Greek poet and historian, born about 530 
 A.D., lived at Constantinople as a jurist, and 
 died about 582. By his Kyklos, a collec- 
 tion of his own and contemporary poems, 
 topically arranged in eight books, he helped 
 to originate the Greek Anthology {q.v.), 
 which stiU contains 101 epigrams by him. 
 In his last years he wrote, in a laboured 
 florid style, a history of Justinian in five 
 books, treating of the years A.D. 552-8 in 
 continuation of Procopius. 
 
 AgathSdaemon ( = good dsemon). In Greek 
 mythology a good spirit of the cornfields 
 and vineyards, to whom libations of un- 
 
 mixed wine were made at meals. In works 
 of art he is represented as a youth, holding 
 in one hand a horn of plenty and a bowl, in 
 the other a poppy and ears of corn. {Comp. 
 
 EVENTUS.) 
 
 Agathor. A tragic poet of Athens, born 
 B.C. 448, a friend of Euripides and Plato, 
 universally celebrated for his beauty and 
 refined culture. The banquet he gave in 
 honour of his dramatic victory of B.C. 417 
 is immortalized in Plato's Sympdsidn. He 
 was, together with Euripides, at the court 
 of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, and pro- 
 bably died there about B.C. 402. He appears 
 to have carried still further the rhetorical 
 manner of Euripides, adopting entirely the 
 views of the sophist Gorgias; and his 
 namby-pambjf style is ridiculed by Aristo- 
 phanes. On the stage he introduced several 
 innovations : he was the first to make the 
 chorus a mere intermezzo, having nothing 
 to do with the action, and in his tragedy 
 of Anthos ( = flower) he invented both 
 characters and plot for himself, instead of 
 resorting to old myths. 
 
 Agave (Gr. Agatie). Daughter of Cadmus 
 and wife of Echion. She, with other women, 
 in a bacchanalian frenzy 
 tore to pieces her own son 
 Pentheus {q.v.). 
 
 Agdistis. See Ehea. 
 
 Ages. Since the time of 
 Hesiod, the Greeks, and the 
 Eomans after them, gene- 
 rally assumed the existence 
 of four ages. 
 
 (1) The age of gold, in 
 which Kronos or Saturnus 
 was king. During this 
 period mankind enjoyed per- 
 petual youth, joy, and peace 
 undisturbed, reaping in their fulness the 
 fruits which the earth spontaneously brought 
 forth. Death came upon them like a soft 
 slumber; and after it they became good 
 dcemones, watching men like guardians in 
 their deeds of justice and injustice, and 
 hovering round them with gifts of wealth. 
 
 (2) The golden age was succeeded by 
 that of silver. This was inferior to the 
 golden both in physical and mental force. 
 The people of the silver age remained for 
 a hundred years in the condition of children, 
 simple and weakly. Even if they attained 
 maturity, their folly and arrogance pre- 
 vented their living long. They continued 
 to exist after death as spirits, living be- 
 neath the earth, but not immortal. 
 
 (3) Zeus then created the brazen age, so 
 
 * AGAVE WITH 
 
 THE HEAD OF 
 
 PENTHEUS. 
 
 (Gem in British 
 Museum.) 
 
AGELA AGER PUBLICUS. 
 
 17 
 
 named because in it all implements were 
 made of brass. The men, furnished with 
 gigantic limbs and irresistible physical 
 strength, destroyed each other by deeds of 
 violence, and perished at their death. 
 
 (4) The iron age succeeded. This was 
 the generation of work and laborious agri- 
 culture. Care and toil fill up the day and 
 night ; truth and modesty are departed ; mis- 
 chief alone survives, and there is nothing 
 to arrest the progress of decay. 
 
 AgSla. In Crete, an association of youths 
 for joint training ; Ageldtes, the captaia of 
 an agela. {See Education, 1.) 
 
 AgSiadas. A Greek artist of the first half 
 of the 5th century B.C., famed for his images 
 of gods and Olympian victors, wrought in 
 metal. His reputation was much enhanced 
 by the fact that Phidias, Myron, and Poly- 
 clltus were his pupils. 
 
 Agema. The guard in the Macedonian 
 army ; ia which the cavalry were a troop 
 {lie) formed of noblemen's sons who had 
 grown up as pages in the royal service, while 
 the infantry consisted of the hypaspistce 
 {q.v.), to whom the argyraspldes {q.v.), were 
 added later as heavy infantry. 
 
 Agenor. (1) Son of Poseidon and Libya, 
 king of Phoenicia, brother to Belus, and 
 father of Cadmus and Europa {q.v.). 
 
 (2) Son of Antenor by Theano, a priestess 
 of Athena, and one of the bravest heroes 
 of Troy. In Homer he leads the Trojans in 
 storming the Greek entrenchments, rescues 
 Hector when thrown down by Ajax, and 
 even enters the lists with Achilles, but is 
 saved from imminent danger by Apollo. In 
 the post-Homeric legend he dies by the 
 hand of Neoptolemus. 
 
 Agar Publicus ( = common land). The 
 Latin name for the State domains, formed 
 of territory taken from conquered states. 
 The Romans made a practice, upon every 
 new acquisition of land, of adding a part 
 of it, usually a third, to the domain. So 
 far as this land was under culture, por- 
 tions of it were sometimes assigned to 
 single citizens or newly-founded colonies in 
 fee simple, sometimes sold by the qusestors 
 on the condition that, though the purchaser 
 might bequeath and alienate it, it still re- 
 mained State property. In token of this 
 it paid a substantial or merely nominal 
 rent {vecttgal), and was called ager priv&tus 
 vectigGlisque or qucestorius. The greater 
 part was left to the old occupiers, yet not 
 as free property, but as rent-paying land, 
 and was called ager publicus stipendiarius 
 datus assignatusj the rest remained under 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 State management, and was let by the 
 censors. Of uncultivated districts, the 
 State, by public proclamation, gave a pro- 
 visional right of seisin, occupdtio, with a 
 view to cultivation, in consideration of a 
 tithe of the corn raised and a fifth of the 
 fruit, and reserving its right of resumption. 
 Such seisin was called possessio. It could 
 be bequeathed or otherwise alienated, yet 
 never became private property, but re- 
 mained a rent-paying and resumable pro- 
 perty of the State. Though the Plebeians 
 had as good a right to occupy lands won 
 by their aid as the Patricians, yet in 
 the early times of the Republic this right 
 was exercised by the latter alone, partly 
 because they had the greater command 
 of means and men, and partly because by 
 the right of the stronger they excluded 
 the Plebeians from benefiting by the Agei 
 Publicus. Against this usurpation the 
 Plebeians waged a bitter and unbroken 
 warfare, claiming not only a share in newly 
 conquered lands, but a wholesale redistri- 
 bution of existing possessiones, while the 
 Patricians strained every nerve to maintain 
 their vested interests, and managed to 
 thwart the execution of all the enactments 
 passed from time to time in favour of the 
 Plebeians. Even the law of the tribune 
 Gains Licinius Stolo (B.C. 377), limiting 
 possessiones to 500 iugSra (acres) per man, 
 and ordering the distribution of the re- 
 mainder, were from the first eluded by the 
 possessores, who now included both Patri- 
 cians and well-to-do Plebeians. All possible 
 means were employed, as pretended deeds 
 of gift and other similar devices. The 
 threatened extinction of the Italian pea- 
 santry by the great wars, and the rapid 
 growth of huge estates {latifundia) worked 
 by slaves, occasioned the law of Tiberius 
 Gracchus (B.C. 133), retaining the Licinian 
 limit of 500 acres, but allowing another 
 250 for each son, and granting compensation 
 for lands resumed by the State. The land 
 thus set free, and all the Ager Publicus that 
 had been leased, except a few domains indis- 
 pensable to the State, were to be divided 
 among poor citizens, but on the condition 
 that each allotment paid a quit-rent, and 
 was not to be alienated. But again, the 
 the resistance of the nobility practically 
 reduced this law to a dead letter ; and the 
 upshot of the whole agrarian movement 
 stirred up by Tiberius and his brother 
 Gains Gracchus was, that the wealthy 
 Romans were not only left undisturbed 
 in their possessiones, but were released 
 
 c 
 
18 
 
 AGESANDER AGRICULTURE. 
 
 from paying rent. In the civil wars of 
 Sulla the Ager Publicus in Italy, which 
 had been nearly all used up in assignations, 
 received so vast an increase by the ex- 
 termination of whole townships, by pro- 
 scriptions and confiscations, that even after 
 all the soldiers had been provided for, there 
 remained a portion undistributed. Under 
 the Empire there was hardly any left in 
 Italy ; what there was, whether in Italy or 
 in the provinces, came gradually under the 
 control of the imperial exchequer. 
 
 Agesander (Gr. Agesandros). A Greek 
 artist of the school of Rhodes. The cele- 
 brated group of the Laocoon is the joint 
 work of Agesander, Athenodorus, and Poly- 
 dorus. {8ee Laocoon.) 
 
 Agger. In Roman siege-works, the mound 
 or embankment raised against an enemy's 
 walls. {See Sieges.) 
 
 Aglaia. One of the Graces. {See 
 Charites.) 
 
 Aguatio. The Latin name for the 
 relationship of real or adoptive descent 
 from one father, which was necessarily 
 expressed by identity of clan-name {see 
 Name, 2.) A brother and sister were 
 agnati, but her children were no longer 
 agnati to his. At first agnati alone were 
 entitled to inherit property or act as 
 guardians; it was but gradually that the 
 cognati {q.v.) came to have a place by their 
 side, till Justinian abolished the right of 
 agnates, and brought that of cognates to 
 complete recognition. 
 
 Agon. The Greek name for a musical 
 ( = artistic) or gymnastic contest. The um- 
 pires who conducted them, and gave away 
 the prizes, were called Agonothetce. (On 
 those who officiated at scenic games in 
 Athens, see Drama.) At Rome such con- 
 tests, modelled on those of the Greeks, 
 became frequent before the fall of the Re- 
 public; under the Empire they came round 
 at periods of several years, like the great 
 Grecian games. The most famous of all, 
 which held its ground to the end of anti- 
 quity, was the Agon Capitollnus, founded 
 by Domitian in 86 A.D., and recurring every 
 four years. He had an Odeum {q.v.) built 
 for the musical performances, and a Stadion 
 for the athletic combats, both in the 
 Campus Martins. Another great Agon was 
 held in 248 A.D. in honour of the city 
 having stood for a thousand years, 
 
 Agonothgtes. See Agon. 
 
 Agora ( = assembly). The Greek name for 
 the market-place, a consecrated open space, 
 which in coast towns usually lay on the 
 
 seaside, in inland towns at the foot of the 
 castle hill. As the centre of the city life, 
 commercial, political, and religious, it was 
 adorned with temples, statues, and public 
 buildings, and planted with trees, especially 
 planes. When newly built or rebuilt in 
 late times, it was generally square, and sur- 
 rounded by colonnades. In most towns it 
 was the place for assemblies of the people. 
 
 Agoracritus. A Greek artist of Pares, 
 who lived in the latter half of the 6th 
 century B.C., and was a favourite pupil of 
 Phidias.- His noblest work was considered 
 to be the statue of Nemesis, 40 feet in 
 height, which some judges, on account of 
 its excellence, took for a production of the 
 elder artist. In any case it was said that 
 Phidias had allowed the name of Agora- 
 critus to be inscribed on several of his 
 works. 
 
 Agorandmus ( = market-master). In many 
 Greek towns a magistrate somewhat re- 
 sembling the Roman sedile. At Athens ten 
 agordndini were chosen by lot every year, 
 five for the city, and five for the port of 
 Pirseus. They looked especially after the 
 retail trade, gave strangers leave to engage 
 in it, tested weights and measures, as well 
 as the quality of goods, confiscating and 
 destroying what was spoilt ; they settled 
 disputes between buyers and sellers on the 
 spot, or, if a suit at law was necessary, 
 presided over it. 
 
 Agraulos. Daughter of Cecrops {q.v.). 
 
 Agriculture. (1) Agriculture was in Greece 
 a leading industry, at least as early as Homer. 
 The soil was stubborn, fertile plains being 
 comparatively few, and mountains and rocky 
 ground preponderating. But, favoured by 
 a genial climate, agriculture was carried on 
 almost everywhere with a zeal to which the 
 wants of a dense population added their 
 stimulus. That it was regarded as the 
 very groundwork of social life is shown by 
 the fact that its guardian goddess Demeter 
 (Lat. Ceres) presided also over wedlock and 
 law. It was looked upon as the most 
 legitimate way of earning a livelihood. It 
 was carried to the highest pitch in the 
 Peloponnesus, where every scrap of culti- 
 vable soil was made to yield its crop, as 
 may be seen to this day by the artificial 
 terraces that scarp every mountain-slope. 
 Much care was bestowed on irrigation. 
 Scarcity of water was supplemented by 
 artificial means; provision was made against 
 irregular bursts of mountain torrents by 
 embanking and regulating the natural out- 
 lets, while moist lands were channelled and 
 
AGETCULTURE. 
 
 19 
 
 stagnant waters drained. Water was dis- 
 tributed everywhere by ditches and canals, 
 under the supervision of State officials ; 
 and laws of ancient date guarded against 
 the unfair use of a water-course to a 
 neighbour's damage. 
 
 The land was mainly cultivated by slaves 
 and serfs, though field-labour was not 
 deemed dishonourable to the freeman, ex- 
 cept where law and custom forbade his 
 engaging in any sort of handicraft, as at 
 Sparta. In some countries, especially Ar- 
 cadia, the old-world plan of every man till- 
 ing his field with his own hand remained in 
 force to the latest times ; and even eminent 
 statesmen like Philopoemen would not give 
 it up. Four kinds of grain were chiefly 
 grown : wheat, barley, and two kinds of 
 spelt, to all of which the climate allowed 
 two sowings in the year, beside millet, 
 sesame, various leguminous plants, and 
 several sorts of herbage for fodder. With 
 no less diligence was &reek husbandry ap- 
 plied to gardening, especially to the cultiva- 
 tion of the vine. This, while steadily pur- 
 sued on the mainland, was developed to an 
 extraordinary extent in the islands, most of 
 which, owing to their mountainous character, 
 did not afford their inhabitants sufficient 
 arable soil. In olive-culture no part of 
 Greece competed with Attica, which also 
 produced the best figs, the fruit most widely 
 cultivated. Kitchen-gardening was prac- 
 tised on the largest scale in Boeotia. Con- 
 sidering the enormous consumption of 
 flowers in wreaths, the rearing of them, es- 
 pecially of the rose, lily, narcissus, and violet, 
 must have been a lucrative business, at 
 least in the neighbourhood of great towns. 
 Meadow-farming was of next to no import- 
 ance, few districts having a soil adapted for 
 it, and such meadows as there were being 
 used for pasture rather than haymaking. 
 
 (2) In Italy. In Italy also the existence 
 of the community was regarded as based 
 upon agriculture. This is proved by the 
 practice of marking the site of the future 
 walls of a new town by a furrow drawn 
 with the plough. At Rome especially, the 
 body of irremovable peasantry long formed 
 the core of the commonwealth. In political 
 life the free peasant was the only factor 
 held in account, and accordingly in war the 
 object was to increase the number of free 
 peasants by planting them out on as much 
 of borderland as could be wrested from the 
 enemy. In early times agriculture was 
 thought the only respectable calling in 
 which a Roman citizen could engage ; and 
 
 manual labour on the land was held in un- 
 qualified esteem and as bringing no disgrace 
 even upon persons in high place. 
 
 Husbandry was mainly directed to the 
 raising of grain, the ordinary cereal being 
 at first spelt, till, in the 5th century B.C., 
 wheat began to take a place beside it. They 
 also cultivated barley, millet, and leguminous 
 plants, as well as turnips, greens, and herbs 
 for fodder. On irrigation and drainage the 
 Italians bestowed much pains. They had no 
 lack of grass-lands, either for pasture or 
 haymaking ; and from an early time these 
 were artificially watered. The cultivation of 
 the vine and olive extended as that of grains 
 declined (see below) ; so did the growth 
 of orchard-fruit, which, under the late 
 Republic and the early Empire, received 
 a vast expansion both from the improve- 
 ment of native kinds and the introduction 
 and naturalization of many foreign fruits. 
 In earlier times the prime favourite among 
 fruit trees had been, as in Greece, the 
 nutritious fig. Agriculture proper was 
 ruined by the acquisition of the first extra- 
 Italian possessions, Sicily and Sardinia ; for 
 the corn supplied by the provincials as tri- 
 bute in kind began to be used, not only in 
 provisioning the armies, but in feeding the 
 urban population. {See Annona.) As the 
 State, to humour the rabble of Rome, sold 
 this corn at the lowest possible prices, 
 sometimes even below its value, the growth 
 of cereals ceased to be profitable ; farmers 
 kept it down to a minimum, and took to 
 cattle-breeding or raising wine and oil. 
 These branches of industry not only flou- 
 rished in the face of competition, but with 
 judicious management were highly remu- 
 nerative. The death-blow was given to the 
 Italian peasantry by the increasing employ- 
 ment of slaves and the absorption of small 
 farms in large estates (see Latifundium). 
 On these, besides the growth of wine, oil, 
 and fruit, the breeding of birds, game, and 
 cattle was carried on, as well as woodcraft, 
 and special industries, pottery, charcoal- 
 burning, and others. 
 
 Farming implements, in addition to the 
 plough {q.v.) usually drawn by oxen, which 
 was much the same among Greeks and 
 Romans, and always very imperfect, in- 
 cluded a great variety of spades, hoes, and 
 mattocks, and among Romans the harrow, 
 the use of which among the Greeks is 
 doubted. The season for sowing all cereals 
 was usually autumn. At harvest the stalks 
 were cut with the sickle about half-way 
 down, and the rest left standing as stubble, 
 
20 
 
 AGRIMENSOEES AIAS. 
 
 to be either burnt or utilized for manure. 
 The process of threshing {q.v.) was very 
 defective. (For ancient works on hus- 
 bandry, see Geoponici.) 
 
 Agrimensores. The Latin name for land- 
 surveyors, otherwise called gromdtlci, from 
 groma, their measuring instrument. This 
 consisted of two dioptric rods crossing each 
 other at right angles and fastened on an 
 iron stand so as to turn horizontally; on 
 the four arms stood four upright dioptrce, 
 with threads stretched across the holes, and 
 in taking observations the threads of two 
 opposite dioptrcB had to cover each other. 
 The measuring was done on the same prin- 
 ciple as the marking-out of a templum by 
 the Augurs (q-v.), viz. by drawing in the 
 centre of the piece of land two lines inter- 
 secting at right angles, one from north to 
 south (cardo maximus), the other from 
 east to west {dScumunus viaximus) ; the 
 further division of the ground was effected 
 by parallels to these lines (limites). It 
 was not until the imperial period that land- 
 surveying became a separate profession. 
 Then surveyors were prepared in special 
 schools and appointed by the State, both 
 for quarter-master's duty in camp and for 
 measurements under Government ; they 
 decided as judges in fixing boundaries, 
 and were consulted as specialists in dis- 
 putes affecting land. Thus a literature 
 arose, half mathematical, half legal, the 
 i-emains of which extend over the first six 
 centiiries a.d. The earliest of these gro- 
 niatici, or writers on land-measurement, is 
 Prontinus (q.v.), from whose work, written 
 from 81-96 A.D., and dealing more with the 
 legal side of the subject, extracts are pre- 
 served in the commentary of Aggenus 
 Urbicus. Hyginus, Balbus, and probably 
 Siculus Flaccus, flourished in the time of 
 Trajan ; later still, Nipsus, Innocentius, and 
 Aggenus. 
 
 Agrippa {Marcus Yipsanius). Born B.C. 
 liiJ, died B.C. 12. He was the friend, son-in- 
 law, general, and minister of Augustus. He 
 was also a speaker and writer of some re- 
 pute. Under his supervision was carried 
 out the great survey of the Roman empire 
 which Csesar had begun in 44 B.C. With 
 the help of the materials thus obtained he 
 constructed a circular Map of the World. 
 About B.C. 7, Augustus had it engraved on a 
 large scale in marble, and set up for public 
 use in the colonnade built by Agrippa's 
 sister Polla (porticus Police). It may be 
 regarded as the source and model of all 
 s'lcceeding aids to geography, especially 
 
 the Itineraries {q.v.) and the Peutinger 
 Table. A book on the results of the sur- 
 vey, which Agrippa had begun writing. 
 
 ■ COIN OF AGHIPPA S THIRD COHSULSHIP, B.C. 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 Obv. Head of Agrippa, wearing the corona classica. 
 Uev. Neptune with Dolphin and Trident. 
 S C=Sonatus consulto. 
 
 was continued and published, by order of 
 Augustus, under the title of Chorogrdphia. 
 
 Agyieus. A title of Apollo (q.v.) as god 
 of streets and highways. 
 
 Aias (Lat. Aiax). (1) Son of the Locrian 
 king Oileus, hence called the Locrian or 
 Lesser Aias in contrast to the Telamonian. 
 In forty ships he led the Locrians to Troy, 
 where, notwithstanding his small stature 
 and light equipment, he distinguished him- 
 self beside his gigantic namesake, especially 
 in the battle by the ships and that over the 
 body of Patroclus. He was renowned for 
 hurling the spear, and as the swiftest 
 runner next to Achilles. On his voyage home, 
 to appease the anger of Athena, he suffered 
 shipwreck on the Gyrsean rocks off the 
 island of Myconos or (according to another 
 story) on the southernmost point of Euboea. 
 Poseidon indeed rescued him on the rocks ; 
 but when he boasted of having escaped 
 against the will of the gods, the sea-king 
 with his trident smote off the rock on which 
 he sat, and he sank in the waves. Later 
 accounts say that the goddess's anger fell 
 upon him because, at the taking of Troy, 
 when Cassandra had taken refuge at her 
 altar and embraced her image, he tore her 
 away by force, so that the statue fell. 
 Though Agamemnon took the maiden from 
 him, the Greeks left the outrage on the 
 goddess unpunished, and on their way home 
 she wreaked her wrath on the whole fleet. 
 He, like other heroes, was said to be still 
 living with Achilles in the island of Leuce. 
 The Locrians worshipped him as a hero, 
 and always left a vacant place for him in 
 the line of battle. 
 
 (2) Son of Telamon of Salamis, and half- 
 brother of Teucer; called the Grreat Aias, 
 because he stood head and shoulders higher 
 
AIDES ALCAMBNES. 
 
 21 
 
 than the other Greek heroes. He brings 
 twelve ships to Troy, where he proves him- 
 self second only to Achilles in strength and 
 bravery; and while that hero holds aloof 
 from the fight, he is the mainstay of the 
 Achsaans, especially when the Trojans have 
 taken their eamp by storm and are pushing 
 the battle to their ships. In the struggle 
 over the corpse of Patroclus, he and his 
 namesake the son of Oileus cover Menelaus 
 and MeriSnes while they carry off their 
 fallen comrade. When Thetis offered the 
 arms and armour of Achilles as a prize for 
 the worthiest, they were adjudged, not to 
 Aias, but to his only competitor Odysseus. 
 Trojan captives bore witness that the 
 cunning of Odysseus had done them more 
 harm than the valour of Achilles. Aias 
 thereupon, according to the post-Homeric 
 legend, killed himself in anger, a feeling he 
 still cherished against Odysseus even in the 
 lower world. The later legend relates that 
 he was driven mad by the slight, mistook 
 the flocks in the camp for his adversaries, 
 and slaughtered them, and on coming to his 
 senses again, felt so mortified that he fell 
 on his sword, the gift of Hector after the 
 duel between them. Out of his blood sprang 
 the purple lily, on whose petals could be 
 traced the first letters of his name, Ai, At. 
 His monument stood on the Rhoetean pro- 
 montory, where he had encamped before 
 Troy, and upon which the waves washed 
 the coveted arms of Achilles after the ship- 
 wreck of Odysseus. As the national hero of 
 Salamis, he had a temple and statue there, 
 and a yearly festival, the Aianteia ; and he 
 was worshipped at Athens, where the tribe 
 Aiantis was named after him. He too was 
 supposed to linger with Achilles in the 
 island of Leuce. By Tecmessa, daughter 
 of the Phrygian king Teuthras, whom he 
 had captured in one of the raids from before 
 Troy, he had a son EurysSces, who is said 
 to have removed from Salamis to Attica 
 with his son or brother Philseus, and founded 
 flourishing families, which produced many 
 famous men, for instance Miltiades, Cimon, 
 Alcibiades, and the historian Thucydides. 
 
 Aides {AUdoneus). See Hades. 
 
 Ajax. See Aias. 
 
 Ala. The Latin name for (1 ) a wing in 
 the line of battle. Till the extension of the 
 citizenship to the Italian allies, the wings 
 consisted of their contingents, viz. 10,000 
 foot and 1,800 horse to every consular 
 army of two legions. Thus ala came to 
 mean the allied contingent that composed 
 a wing {see Cohort and Legion). But it 
 
 meant more especially, in contrast to the 
 cohorts that made up the infantry of the 
 allies, the cavalry of the contingent, viz. 
 on an average 300 men (5 turmce, of 60 
 each). During the imperial period, when 
 all the cavalry was raised in the provinces, 
 the name of ala was given to a cavalry 
 division of 500 or else 1,000 men, the one 
 divided into 16, the other into 24 turmcB. 
 The dice, were commanded by pra^edi 
 equUum. 
 
 (2) A back room in a Roman house, See 
 House, 
 Alabastrdn. See Vessels. 
 Alastor. The Greek term for an aveng- 
 ing daemon, who dogs the footsteps of 
 criminals, visiting the sins of fathers on 
 their offspring. 
 
 Album. The Latin word for a board 
 chalked or painted white, on which matters 
 of public interest were notified in black 
 writing. In this way were published the 
 yearly records of the pontifex(seeANN"ALEs), 
 the edicts of prsetors (q.v.), the roll of 
 senators, the lists of jurors, etc. 
 
 Alcaeus (Gr. Alkaios). A famous lyric 
 poet of Mytilene in Lesbos, an elder con- 
 temporary of Sappho. Towards the end of 
 the 7th century B.C., as the scion of a noble 
 house, he headed the aristocratic iparty in 
 their contests with the tyrants of his native 
 town, Myrsilas, Melanchrus, and others. 
 Banished from home, he went on romantic 
 expeditions as far as Egypt. When the 
 tyrants were put down, and his former 
 comrade, the wise Pittacus, was called by 
 the people to rule the State, he took up 
 arms against him also as a tyrant in dis- 
 guise ; but attempting to force his return 
 home, he fell into the power of his oppo- 
 nent, who generously forgave him. Of .his 
 further life nothing is known. His poems 
 in the iEolic dialect, arranged in ten books 
 by the Alexandrians, consisted of hymns, 
 political songs (which formed .the bulk of 
 the collection), drinking songs, and love 
 songs, of which we have but a few misei*- 
 able fragments. In the opinion of the 
 ancients, his poems were well constructed., 
 while their tone tallied with the lofty pas- 
 sion and manly vigour of his charactei:. 
 The alcaic strophe, so much used by his 
 admirer and not unworthy imitator, Horace, 
 is named after him. [Por a relief repre- 
 senting Alcseus and Sappho, see Sappho.] 
 
 Alca,m6nes (Gr. AlkdmSnes). A Greek 
 artist of Athens or Lemnos, and a pupil 'of 
 Phidias, who flourished towards the end of 
 the 5th century B.C. Pollowing his master's 
 
22 
 
 ALCATHOUS ALCM^ON. 
 
 ideal tendency, he devoted Limself mainly 
 to religious subjects, working like him in 
 various materials, gold and ivory, bronze 
 and marble. His statue of the vs'inner 
 in the Pentatlilon was stamped as classic 
 by the epithet of EnkrtnomSnos, as the 
 Doryphoros of Polyclims was by that of 
 Kdnon. About 436 B.C. he was employed 
 with Phidias in decorating the temple of 
 Zeus at Olympia. The marble groups of 
 the battle of Centaurs and Lapithse in its 
 western pediment are his work. Of these 
 considerable remains have been brought to 
 light by the recent German excavations. 
 {See Olympian Games, fig. 2.) 
 
 Alcathoiis (Gr. Alkdthdos). The son of 
 Pelops and Hippodameia. He slew the 
 lion of Githseron, which had torn to pieces 
 Euippus, the son of Megareus. Thus he 
 won the daughter of Megareus, Eusechma, 
 and the sovereignty of Megara. With 
 Apollo for his friend and helper, he rebuilt 
 the city walls, and reared one of the two 
 castles, Alcathoe, with temples to Artemis 
 and Apollo. A singing stone in the castle 
 was shown as the one on which the god laid 
 down his lyre when at work. Alcathous' 
 eldest son, Ischepolis, fell in the Calydonian 
 hunt ; the second, Oallipolis, running in with 
 the news to his father when sacrificing to 
 Apollo, scattered the altar fire, and Alcathous 
 struck him dead with a firebrand for the 
 supposed sacrilege. By his daughters Auto- 
 medusa and Periboea, the wives of Iphicles 
 and Telamon, he was grandfather to lolaiis 
 and Aias (Ajax). 
 
 Alcestis (Gr. AlkSstis). Daughter of 
 Pelias, renowned for her tender love for 
 her husband Admetus, and her voluntary 
 death on his behalf. {See Admetus.) 
 
 Alcidamas (Gr. AlkMdmas). A Greek 
 rhetorician of Elsea in jEolis, pupil and 
 successor of Gorgias, a contemporary and 
 opponent of Isocrates. Two declamations, 
 bearing his name, have come down to us, 
 one an imaginary indictment of Palamedes 
 by Odysseus, the other a speech on the 
 Sophists ; but the latter only can with any 
 probability be attributed to him. It is a 
 cleverly written argument, intended to 
 show that the culmination of rhetorical 
 training consists in the power of speaking 
 extempore on any subject from mere notes 
 of the arrangement ; not the practice of 
 carefully writing out speeches, and then 
 learning them by heart for public delivery. 
 
 Alcides (Gr. Alkides). A surname of 
 Heracles {q.v.^. 
 
 Alcinolis (Gr. Alkinoos). King of the 
 
 Phseacians {q.v.), with whom Odysseus, and 
 in later legend Jason and Medea, find shelter 
 and aid. {See Odysseus and Argonauts.) 
 
 Alciphron (Gr. Alkiphron). A Greek 
 rhetorician of the 2nd century a.d., author 
 of a collection of 118 fictitious Letters in 
 three books. These, written in tolerably pure 
 style and tasteful form, profess to be from 
 sailors, peasants, parasites, and hetcerce. 
 They are sketches of character, ingeniously 
 conceived and carried out, which give us a 
 vivid picture of the then state of culture, 
 especially at Athens ; the letters from 
 hetcerce are particularly interesting, as their 
 plots are taken from the New Attic Comedy, 
 especially the lost plays of Menander. 
 
 Alcmseon (Gr. Alkmaion) , of Argos. Son 
 of Amphiaraiis {q.v.) and Eriphyle. As his 
 father, in departing on the expedition of 
 the Seven against Thebes, has bound him 
 and his brother Amphllochus, then mere 
 boys, to avenge him on their faithless 
 mother, Alcmseon refuses to take part in 
 the second expedition, that of the Epigoni 
 {q.v.), till he has first fulfilled that filial 
 duty ; nevertheless his mother, bribed by 
 Thersander with the garment of Har^ 
 monia, persuades him to go. The real 
 leader at the siege of Thebes, he slays the 
 Theban king, Laodamas, and is the lirst to 
 enter the conquered city. On returning 
 home, he, at the bidding of the Delphian 
 Apollo, avenges his father by slaying his 
 mother, with, or according to some accounts, 
 without, his brother's help ; but immediately, 
 like Orestes, he is set upon by the Erinyes, 
 and wanders distracted, seeking purification 
 and a new home. Phegeus, of the Arcadian 
 Psophis, half purifies him of his guilt, and 
 gives him his daughter Arsinoe or Alphe- 
 sibosa to wife, to whom he presents the 
 jewels of Harmonia, which he has brought 
 from Argos. But soon the crops fail in the 
 land, and he falls into his distemper again, 
 till, after many wanderings, he arrives at 
 the mouth of the Acheloiis, and there, in an 
 island that has floated up, he finds the 
 country promised by the god, which had 
 not existed at the time of his dying mother's 
 curse, and so he is completely cured. He 
 marries Achelous' daughter, Callirrhoe, by 
 whom he has two sons, Acarnan and Am- 
 photerus. Unable to withstand his wife's 
 entreaties that she may have Harmonia's 
 necklace and robe, he goes to Phegeus 
 in Arcadia, and begs those treasures of 
 him, pretending that he will dedicate them 
 at Delphi for the perfect healing of his 
 madness. He obtains them; but Phegeus, 
 
ALCMAN ALIMENTABII. 
 
 23 
 
 on learning the truth, sets his sons to way- 
 lay him on his road, and rob him of his 
 treasure and his life ; and then Alcmseon's 
 two sons avenge their father's death on 
 these murderers. Alcmseon, like his father, 
 received divine honours after death ; he had 
 a sanctuary at Thebes, and at Psophis a 
 consecrated tomb. 
 
 Alcman (Gr. Alkmdn). The founder of 
 Dorian lyric poetry, a Lydian of Sardes. He 
 came to Sparta in his youth as a slave, was 
 set free, and seems even to have received 
 the citizenship ; he flourished in the latter 
 half of the 7th century B.C. He abandoned 
 the old nomic or dithyrambic poetry, writ- 
 ten in hexameters, and composed in various 
 metres Hymns, Pseans, Prosodia, Parthenia, 
 Scolia, and Erotics, the last of which he 
 was supposed to have invented. His dialect 
 was the Doric, softened by Epic and ^olic 
 forms. Of his six books of poems a few 
 fragments only are preserved ; one, a rather 
 long one, was found in Egypt. 
 
 Alcmene (Gr. Alkmene). Daughter of 
 Electryon, wife of Amphitryon (q.v.), mother 
 of Heracles by Zeus. On her connexion with 
 Rhadamanthys, see Ehadamanthts. After 
 her son's translation to the gods she fled 
 from the face of Eurystheus to Athens, but 
 went back to Thebes, and died there at a 
 great age. She was worshipped at Thebes, 
 and had an altar in the temple of Heracles 
 at Athens. 
 
 AlcJ-one (Gr. Alkyone). (1) Daughter of 
 iEolus, wife of Ceyx {q.v. 2).— (2) One of 
 the Pleiades. 
 
 Alc^Sneus (One. Alky 8neus). Son of UrS- 
 nus and Gaea, the eldest and mightiest of 
 the giants, who could not be overtaken by 
 death in his own birthplace. Hence, in 
 the war with the giants, Heracles had to 
 drag him away from Pallene before he 
 could kill him with his arrows. Legend 
 also tells of a giant Alcyoneus who stole 
 the oxen of HeliSs from the island of 
 Erytheia, and as Heracles was crossing 
 the Thracian isthmus of Pallene, crushed 
 twelve of his wagons and twenty-five men 
 with a huge piece of rock, which was 
 shown on the spot. When he hurled it 
 at Heracles himself, the hero struck it 
 back with his club, and killed Alcyoneus 
 with the same blow. 
 Aldobrandini Marriage. See Painting. 
 Alecto. One of the Greek goddesses of 
 vengeance. {See Eeinyes.) 
 
 Alexander (Gr. Alexandras). (1) See 
 Paris. 
 
 (2) Alexander ^tolus (the iEtolian) of 
 
 Pleuron in ^Etolia, lived about 280 B.C. at 
 Alexandria, being employed by Ptolemy in 
 arranging the tragedies and satyric dramas 
 in the Library. He was afterwards at the 
 court of Antigonus Gonatas in Macedonia. 
 As a writer of tragedies he was reckoned 
 one of the so-called Pleiad. He also tried 
 his hand at short epics, at epigrams, elegies, 
 and the like, of which some graceful frag- 
 ments are preserved. 
 
 (3) A Greek rhetorician of tlie 2n.d cen- 
 tury A.D., son of the rhetorician T^^umenius. 
 He composed a work on figures of speech, 
 of which one extract and a free Latin ver- 
 sion by Aquila Eomanus have survived. 
 
 (4) Alexander of Aphrodlsias in Caria, 
 about 200 A.D., called ExSgetes for his 
 services in expounding the doctrine of 
 Aristotle, wrote valuable commentaries on 
 several Aristotelian treatises (especially 
 the Metaphysics) as well as original works 
 on Eate and Free-will, on the Soul, and 
 others. 
 
 (5) Alexander of Tralles in Lydia, a 
 Greek physician, lived in the 6th century 
 A.D. at Rome, and made a careful collection 
 from older writers on therapeutics, in 
 twelve books. 
 
 Alexandra. See Cassandra. 
 
 Alexandrian Period. See Literature. 
 
 Alexikakos (= warding off evil). An epi- 
 thet of Apollo and Heracles. 
 
 Alexis. Alexis and AntiphSnes were the 
 most prolific and important writers of the 
 Middle Attic Comedy. Alexis was born at 
 Thurii, B.C. 392. He attained the age of 
 106, writing to the last, and is said to have 
 died on the stage with the crown on his 
 head. He was the reputed author of 245 
 plays, of which numerous extracts are 
 still extant, showing considerable wit and 
 elegance of language. He was uncle to 
 the poet Menander. 
 
 Alimentarii. The 'Latin name, during 
 the imperial period, for children of needy 
 but free-born parents, who, out of the in- 
 terest of funds invested for the purpose, 
 received monthly contrfbutions to theirsup- 
 port in goods or money up to a certain age 
 (fixed in the case of boys at eighteen, in that 
 of girls at fourteen). This scheme, the object 
 of which was to encourage people to marry, 
 and so to check the alarming decrease of the 
 free population, was started by the Emperor 
 Nerva (a.d. 96-98), and extended by Trajan 
 to the whole of Italy. Succeeding emperors 
 also, down to Alexander Severus (222-235), 
 founded such bursaries; and privatecitizens 
 in Italy and the provinces, as, for instance 
 
24 
 
 ALOAD^ AMALTHEA , 
 
 tlie younger Pliny, vied with them in their 
 liberality. 
 
 Aloadae or Aloidm. Sons of Poseidon 
 by Iphimedeia, the wife of Aloeus, son of 
 Canace (see ^olos, 1) and Poseidon; their 
 names were Ephialtes and Otus. They 
 grew every year an ell in breadth and a 
 fathom in length, so that in nine years' time 
 they were thirty-six feet broad and fifty- 
 four feet high. Their strength was such 
 that they chained up the god Ares and kept 
 him in a brazen cask for thirteen months, 
 till their stepmother Eriboea betrayed his 
 whereabouts to Hermes, who came by 
 stealth and dragged his disabled brother 
 out of durance. They threatened to storm 
 heaven itself by piling Ossa on Olympus 
 and Pelion on Ossa, and would have done it, 
 says Homer, had not Apollo slain them with 
 his arrows ere their beards were grown. 
 The later legend represents Ephialtes as in 
 love with Hera, and Otus with Artemis. 
 Another myth represents Artemis as slaying 
 them by craft in the island of Naxos. She 
 runs between them in the form of a hind ; 
 they hurl their spears, and wound each other 
 fatally. In the later legend they expiate 
 their sins in the lower world by being bound 
 with snakes to a pillar, back to back, while 
 they are incessantly tormented by the 
 screeching of an owl. On the other hand, 
 they were worshipped as heroes in Naxos, 
 and in the BcBotian Ascra were regarded as 
 founders of the city and of the worship of 
 the Muses on Mount Helicon. 
 
 Alope. Daughter of Cercyon of Eleusis, 
 and, by Poseidon, mother of Hippothoon 
 (g.v.) ; after whose birth her father was 
 going to kill her, but the god changed her 
 into a fountain. 
 
 Alpheus. See Arethdsa. 
 
 Alphesibcea (or ArsinoS). Daughter of 
 Phegeus and first wife of Alcmseon, whom, 
 though unfaithful, she continued to love, 
 and was angry with her brothers for killing 
 him. Her brothers shut her up in a box, 
 and brought her to Agapenor, king of 
 Tegea, pretending that she had killed her 
 husband. Here she came by her end, 
 having compassed her brothers' death by 
 the hand of Alcmseon's sons. 
 
 Altar. Originally a simple elevation 
 above the ground, made of earth, field- 
 stones, or turf; and such altars continued 
 to be used in the country parts of Italy. But 
 altars for constant use, especially in temple 
 service, were, as a rule, of stone, though 
 in exceptional cases they might be made of 
 other materials. Thus, several in Greece 
 
 JiO.MAN DOMESTIC ALTAR . 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 were built out of the ashes of burnt-offer- 
 ings, as that of Zeus at Olympia. One at 
 Delos was made of goats' horns. Their 
 shape was very various, the Ibur-cornered 
 being the commonest, 
 and the round less 
 usual. A temple 
 usually had two 
 altars: the one used 
 for bloodless offer- 
 ings standing before 
 the deity's image in 
 the cella, and the 
 other for burnt-offer- 
 ings, opposite the 
 door in front of the 
 temple. The latter 
 was generally a high 
 altar, standing on a 
 platform which is cut into steps. Being an 
 integral part of the whole set of buildings, 
 its shape and size were regulated by their 
 proportions. Some few of these high altars 
 were of enormous dimensions ; the one at 
 Olympia had a platform measniing more 
 than 125 feet round, while the altar itself, 
 which was ascended by steps, was nearly 
 25 feet high. In Italy as well as Greece, 
 beside the altars attached to temples, there 
 was a vast number in streets and squares, 
 in the courts of houses {see cut), in open 
 fields, in sacred groves, and other precincts 
 consecrated to the gods. Some altars, like 
 some temples, were dedicated to more than one 
 deity; we even hear of altars dedicated to all 
 the gods. On altars to heroes, see Heroes. 
 
 Althaea. Daughter of Thestius, wife of 
 (Eneus, king of Calydon, mother of Tydeus, 
 Meleager {q.v.), and Deianeira. 
 
 Altis. The sacred grove near Olympia 
 (g.v.), in which the Olympic Games were 
 celebrated. {See Olympia.) 
 
 Amalthea (Gr. Amaltheia). A figure in 
 Greek mythology. The name was sometimes 
 applied to a goat^ which suckled the newborn 
 Zeus in Crete, while bees brought him honey, 
 and which was therefore set among the stars 
 by her nursling ; sometimes to a nymph 
 who was supposed to possess a miraculous 
 horn, a symbol of plenty, and whose descent 
 was variously given. According to one 
 version she is the daughter of the Cretan 
 king Melisseus, and brings up the infant 
 god on the milk of a goat, while her sister 
 Melissa (a bee) offers him honey. The horn 
 of the goat is given to her by Zeus, with 
 the promise that she shall always find in 
 it whatever she wishes. From her the 
 cornucopia passed into the possession of 
 
AMAZONS AMBROSIA. 
 
 25 
 
 the river-god Acheloiis, who was glad to 
 exchange it for his own horn, which 
 Heracles had broken off. It is also an 
 attribute of Dionysiis, of Plutus, and other 
 gods of earthly felicity. 
 
 Amazons (Gr. AmazonSs / = " breastless "). 
 A mythical nation of women-warriors, whose 
 headquarters are placed by early Greek 
 legend in Themiscyra, on the Thermodon, 
 on the southern shore of the Euxine. In 
 later accounts they also appear on the 
 Caucasus and on the Don, where the 
 nation called Sauromatse was supposed to 
 have sprung from their union with the 
 Scythians. They suffered no men among 
 them ; the sons born of their intercourse 
 with neighbouring nations they either killed 
 or sent back to their fathers ; the girls they 
 brought up to be 
 warriors, burning 
 the right breast off 
 for the better 
 handling of the 
 bow. Their chief 
 deities were said 
 to be Ares and the 
 Taurian Artemis. 
 Even in Homer 
 they are repre- 
 sented as making 
 long marches into 
 Asiatic territory ; 
 an army of them 
 invading Lycia is 
 cut to pieces by 
 Bellerophon ; 
 Priam, then in his 
 youth, hastens to 
 help the Phrygians 
 against them. 
 They gained a firm 
 footing in Greek 
 song and story 
 through Arctinus 
 of Miletus, in 
 whose poem their 
 queen Penthe- 
 sileia, daughter of 
 Ares, as Priam's 
 ally, presses hard on the Greeks, till she 
 is slain by Achilles. After that they be- 
 came a favourite subject with poets and 
 artists, and a new crop of fable sprang up : 
 Heracles wars against them, to win the 
 girdle of their queen, Hippolyte; Theseus 
 carries off her sister Antiope, they in 
 revenge burst into Attica, encamp on the 
 AreopSgus of Athens, and are pacified by 
 Antiope's mediation, or, according to an- 
 
 AMAZON AFTER POLYCLITUS. 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 other version, beaten in a great battle. 
 Grave-mounds supposed to cover the bones 
 of Amazons were shown near Meg&ra, and 
 in Euboea and Thessaly. In works of art 
 the Amazons were represented as martial 
 maids, though always with two breasts, 
 and usually on horseback; sometimes in 
 Scythian dress (a tight fur tunic, with a 
 cloak of many folds over it, and a kind 
 of Phrygian cap), sometimes in Grecian (a 
 Dorian tunic tucked up and the right shoul- 
 der bare), armed with a half-moon shield, 
 two-edged axe, spear, bow, and quiver, etc. 
 The most famous statues of them in an- 
 tiquity were those by Phidias, Polyclitus, 
 and Cresilas, to one or other of which, as 
 types, existing specimens are traceable. 
 {See cut.) Among the surviving sculptures 
 representing an Amazonian contest should 
 be especially mentioned the reliefs from 
 the frieze of Apollo's temple at Bassse in 
 Arcadia (in the British Museum, London). 
 
 Ambarvalia. The Italian festival of bless- 
 ing the fields, which was kept at Rome on 
 May 29th. The country people walked in 
 solemn procession three times round their 
 fields in the wake of the su-ove-taur-Uia, 
 i.e. a hog, ram, and bull, which were sacri- 
 ficed 'after a prayer originally addressed 
 to Mars, afterwards usually to Ceres and 
 other deities of agriculture, that the fruits 
 of the fields might thrive. Comp. Aeval. 
 Brothers. 
 
 Ambitus (lit., a going round) meant at 
 Rome the candidature for a public office, 
 because going round among the citizens was 
 originally the principal means of winning 
 their favour. When unlawful means began 
 to be used, and bribery in every form was 
 organized into a system, the word came to 
 mean obtaining of office by illegal means. 
 To check the growing evil, laws were 
 passed at an early period, and from time 
 to time made more severe. The penalties, 
 which ranged at different times from fines 
 and inadmissibility to office to banishment 
 for ten years and even for life, produced 
 no lasting effect. At last a special stand- 
 ing criminal court was established for 
 trying such cases, till under the Empire 
 recourse was had to a radical change in 
 the mode of election. 
 
 Ambrdsia. Anything that confers or 
 preserves immortality : (1) the food of the 
 gods (as nectar was their drink), which 
 doves, according to Homer, bring daily to 
 Zeus from the far west : (2) the anointing oil 
 of the gods, which preserves even dead men 
 from decay : (3) the food of the gods' horses. 
 
26 
 
 AMBURBIUM AMPHIAE,A0S. 
 
 Amljurtium. Tho Latin name for a 
 solemn procession of the people, with the 
 various orders of priesthood led by the 
 pontifex three times round the boundaries 
 of Rome. It was only resorted to at a 
 time of great distress, and the animals 
 destined to make atonement, viz. a hog, a 
 ram, and a bull (the so called sudvetaunlia, 
 see Ambaevalia), were sacrificed with 
 special prayers outside the city. 
 
 Ameipsias. A Greek poet of the old 
 comedy, contemporary with AristSphanes, 
 whom he twice overcame. Of his plays 
 only slight fragments remain. 
 
 Ammianua Marcellinus. The last Eoman 
 historian of any importance, born at Antioch, 
 in Syria, about 330 a.d., of noble Grecian 
 descent. After receiving a careful educa- 
 tion, he early entered military service, and 
 fought under Julian against the Alemanni 
 and Persians. In the evening of his days 
 he retired to Rome, and about 390 began 
 his Latin history of the emperors {Eerum 
 Gestarum Libri), from Nerva, A.D. 96, to 
 the death of Valens, in thirty-one books. 
 Of these there only remain books xiv.-xxxi., 
 including the period from 353 to 378 A.D., 
 which he relates for the most part as an 
 eye-witness. As his work may be regarded 
 as a continuation of Tacitus, he seems, on 
 the whole, to have taken that writer for 
 his model. He resembles Tacitus in judg- 
 ment, political acuteness, and love of truth. 
 A heathen himself, he is nevertheless fair 
 to the Christians. But he is far inferior 
 in literary culture, though he loves to dis- 
 play his knowledge, especially in describing 
 nations and countries. Latin was a foreign 
 language to him ; hence a crudeness and 
 clumsiness of expression, which is made 
 even more repellent by affectation, bom- 
 bast, and bewildering ornamental imagery. 
 
 Ammon (or Hammon ; Egyptian Amun, 
 the hidden or veiled one). A god native 
 to Libya and Upper Egypt. He was re- 
 presented sometimes in the shape of a ram 
 with enormous curving horns, sometimes in 
 that of a ram-headed man, sometimes as a 
 perfect man standing up or sitting on a 
 throne. On his head was the royal em- 
 blems, with two high feathers standing up, 
 the symbols of sovereignty over the upper 
 and under worlds ; in his hands were the 
 sceptre and the sign of life. In works of 
 art his figure is coloured blue. Beside him 
 stands the goddess Muth (the "mother," 
 the " queen of darkness," as the inscriptions 
 call her), wearing the crown of Upper Egypt 
 or the vulture-skin {see cut). His chief 
 
 temple, with a far-famed oracle, stood in 
 an oasis of the Libyan desert, twelve days' 
 journey from Memphis. Between this 
 oracle and that of Zeus at Dodona a con- 
 nexion is said to have existed from very 
 ancient times, so that the Greeks early 
 identified the Egyptian god with their own 
 Zeus, as the Romans did afterwards with 
 their Jupiter; and his worship found an 
 entrance at several places in Greece, at 
 Sparta, Thebes, and also Athens, whence 
 festal embassies were regularly sent to the 
 Libyan sanctuary {see Theoria). "When 
 the oracle was consulted by visitors, the 
 god's symbol, made of emerald and other 
 stones, was carried round by women and 
 girls, to the sound of hymns, on a golden 
 ship hung round with votive cups of silver. 
 His replies were given in tremulous shocks 
 communicated to the bearers, which were 
 interpreted by a priest. 
 
 
 5?^ 
 
 fin 
 
 ?^ 
 
 n ^ 
 
 J 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 M\ 
 
 SM 
 
 n 
 
 AMMON AND MUTH. 
 
 Amor. The god of love. See Eros. 
 
 Ampelius {Lucius). A Roman writer not 
 earlier than the 2nd century A.D. He was 
 the author of a notebook, Liber Memori- 
 dlis, which contains a scanty collection of 
 astronomical, geographical, and historical 
 jottings. Paltry as the book is, a state- 
 ment in its chapter on the wonders of the 
 world has mainly led to the discovery (in 
 1878) of the magnificent sculptures of Per- 
 gamum, now at Berlin. 
 
 AmpMaraiis, of Argos, the son of Oicles 
 and Hypermnestra, great-grandson of the 
 seer Melampus. In Homer he is a favourite 
 of Zeus and Apollo, alike distinguished as 
 a seer and a hero, who takes part in the 
 Calydonian boar-hunt, in the voyage of the 
 
AMPHIiDROMIA -AMPHILOCHUS. 
 
 27 
 
 Argonauts, and tlie expedition of the Seven 
 against Thebes. Reconciled to Adrastus 
 after a quarrel, and wedded to his sister 
 Eriphyle, he agrees that any future differ- 
 ences between them shall be settled by her. 
 She, bribed by Polyneices with the fatal 
 necklace of his ancestress HarmSnia, insists 
 on her husband joining the war against 
 Thebes, though he foresees that it will end 
 fatally for him, and in departing charges 
 his youthful sons Alcmseon and Amphi- 
 lochus {q.v.) to avenge his coming death. 
 His wise warnings are unheeded by the 
 other princes ; his justice and prudence 
 even bring him into open strife with the 
 savage Tydeus ; yet in the fatal closing con- 
 test he loyally avenges his death on the 
 Theban Melanippus. In the flight, just as 
 the spear of Periolymenus is descending 
 on him, Zeus interposed to save the pious 
 prophet and make him immortal by cleav- 
 ing the earth open with his thunderbolt, 
 and bidding it swallow up Amphiaraus, 
 together with his trusty charioteer Baton, 
 like himself a descendant of Melampus. 
 From that time forth Amphiaraus was wor- 
 shipped in various places as an oracular 
 god, especially at Oropus on the frontier 
 of Attica and Boeotia, where he had a 
 temple and a famous oracle for the inter- 
 pretation of dreams, and where games were 
 celebrated in honour of him. 
 
 Amphidromia. At Athens, a family fes- 
 tival, at which newborn infants received 
 religious consecration. See Education. 
 
 Amphictyons (Gr. AmphiktyonSs). This 
 Greek word meant literally " dwellers 
 around," but in a special sense was applied 
 to populations which at stated times met at 
 the same sanctuary to keep a festival in 
 common, and to transact common business. 
 The most famous and extensive union of 
 the kind was that called par excellence 
 the AmpMctyonic League, whose common 
 sanctuaries were the temple of Pythian 
 Apollo at Delphi, and the temple of Demeter 
 (Ceres) at Anthela, near Pylse or Thermo- 
 pylae. After Pylae the assembly was named 
 the Pylcean, even when it met at Delphi, 
 and the deputies of the league pylagdrce. 
 The league was supposed to be very ancient, 
 as old even as the name of Hellenes ; for 
 its founder was said to be Amphictyon, the 
 son of Deucalion, and brother of Hellen,the 
 common ancestor of all Hellenes. It included 
 twelve populations : Malians, Phthians, 
 jEnianes or (Etoeans, Dolopes, Magnetians, 
 Perrhcebians, Thessalians, Locrians, Dorians, 
 Phocians, Boeotians, and lonians, together 
 
 with the colonies of each. Though in lat^r 
 times their extent and power were very 
 unequal, yet in point of law they all had 
 equal rights. Beside protecting and pre- 
 serving those two sanctuaries, and cele- 
 brating from the year 686 B.C. onwards, the 
 Pythian Games, the league was bound to 
 maintain certain principles of international 
 right, which forbade them, for instance, 
 ever to destroy utterly any city of the 
 league, or to cut off its water, even in time 
 of war. To the assemblies, which met 
 eyery spring and autumn, each nation sent 
 two Jiieromnenidnen ( = wardens of holy 
 things) and several pylagorce. The latter 
 took part in the debates, but only the 
 former had the right of voting. When a 
 nation included several states, these took 
 by turns the privilege of sending deputies. 
 But the stronger states, such as the Ionian 
 Athens or the Dorian Sparta were probably 
 allowed to take their turn oftener than the 
 rest, or even to send to every assembly. 
 When violations of the sanctuaries or of 
 popular right took place, the assembly 
 could inflict fines or even expulsion; and 
 a state that would not submit to the punish- 
 ment had a " holy war " declared against 
 it. By such a war the Phocians were ex- 
 pelled B.C. 346, and their two votes given 
 to the Macedonians ; but the expulsion of 
 the former was withdrawn because of the 
 glorious part they took in defending the 
 Delphian temple when threatened by the 
 Gauls in 279 B.C., and at the same time 
 the iEtolian community which had already 
 made itself master of the sanctuary, was 
 acknowledged as a new member of the 
 league. In 191 B.C. the number of members 
 amounted to seventeen, who nevertheless 
 had only twenty-four votes, seven having 
 two votes each, the rest only one. Under 
 the Roman rule, the league continued to 
 exist; but its action was now limited to 
 the care of the Delphian temple. It was re- 
 organized by Augustus, who incorporated 
 the Malians, Magnetians, .Enianes, and 
 Pythians with the Thessalians, and sub- 
 stituted for the extinct Dolopes the city 
 of Nicop5lis in Acarnania, which he had 
 founded after the battle of Actium, The 
 last notice we find of the league is in tho 
 2nd century A.D. 
 
 Amphilochus. Son of Amphiaraus and 
 Eriphyle, Alcmseon's brother. He was a 
 seer, and according to some took part in 
 the war of the Epigoni and the murder of 
 his mother. He was said to have founded 
 the Amphilochian Argos (near Nookhori) in 
 
28 
 
 AMPHION AND ZETHUS MIPHITHEATRON. 
 
 Acarnania. Later legend represents Mm 
 as taking part in the Trojan War, and on 
 the fall of Troy going to Cilicia with 
 Mopsus iq.v.), and there founding a famous 
 oracle at Mallus. At last the two killed 
 each other while fighting for the possession 
 of it. 
 
 Amphion and Zethus. The Boeotian Dios- 
 curi, twin sons of Antiope (q.v.) by Zeus, 
 though the later legend makes Zethus a son 
 of Epopeus. Exposed on Mount Cithseron, 
 they are found and brought up by a shep- 
 herd ; when grown up, they recognise their 
 
 * ZETHUS AHD AMPHION. 
 
 (Rome, Spada Palace.) 
 
 mother, who has fled Irom imprisonment at 
 Thebes, where she has been ill-treated by 
 Dirce, the wife of Lycus who governs 
 Thebes as guardian to Laius. They avenge 
 their mother by tying her tormentress to 
 the horns of a bull, which drags her to 
 death. They then cast her corpse into a 
 spring near Thebes, which takes from her 
 the name of Dirce. Seizing the sovereignty 
 by slaying Lycus, or, according to another 
 account, having it given up to them by 
 Lycua at the bidding of Hermes, they 
 
 fortify Thebes with walls and towers, be- 
 cause (says Homer), despite their strength, 
 they could no more inhabit the wide town 
 without a wall to defend it. Zethus brings 
 up the stones with his strong arm, while 
 Amphion, a harper of more than mortal 
 skill, fits them together by the music of his 
 lyre. Zethus marries Thebe, the daughter 
 of Asopus, or, according to another account, 
 Aedon, daughter of Pandareos (q.v.); Am- 
 phion is the luckless husband of Niobe, and 
 after seeing the ruin of his family, is said 
 to have killed himself, and to have been 
 been buried in one grave with his brother 
 at Thebes. The punishment of Dirce is 
 the subject of the marble group by Apollo- 
 nius and Tauriscus, known as the Farnese 
 Bull (now at Naples). (For cut, see Diece, 
 and coinp. Sculpture.) 
 
 [In the Antiope of Euripides, and else- 
 where, the two brothers were sharply con- 
 trasted with one another, Zethus being the 
 rude and strong and active huntsman, 
 Amphion the gentle and contemplative 
 mtisician. This contrast is exemplified in 
 works of art, especially in the fine relief 
 in the Spada Palace. {See cut)]. 
 
 Amphiprostylus. A temple with an open 
 colonnade at each end. See Temples. 
 
 Amphithalamos. A bedroom in a Greek 
 dwelling-house. See House. 
 
 Amphitheatron. A circular theatre, i.e. 
 a building in which the space for spectators 
 entirely surrounds that where the spectacle 
 is exhibited. These buildings, designed for 
 combats of gladiators and wild beasts 
 (venationes), were first erected in Italy, 
 but in Campania sooner than at Rome. 
 The first known at Rome were temporary 
 wooden structures, like that of Scribonius 
 Ourio, who in B.C. 50 made an amphitheatre 
 out of two revolving theatres by joining 
 them back to back, or that of Csesar in 4(5. 
 The first stone amphitheatre, erected by 
 Statilius Taurus in B.C. 29, was burnt down 
 in the fire of Nero, who then built a 
 wooden one again. A second one of stone 
 was begun by Vespasian, consecrated by 
 Titns, A.D. 80, and finished by Domitian 
 (all three of the Flavian gens). The ruins 
 of this Amphitheatrum Flavium, which 
 was 158 feet high, and accommodated 
 87,000 spectators, are the famous Colos- 
 seum. In the provinces too the large 
 towns had their amphitheatres, of which 
 the best preserved are those of Verona 
 and Capua in Italy, Aries and Nimes in 
 France. Of this last our first two illustra- 
 tions give the elevation. and the ground-plau 
 
AMPHITEITE ^AMPHITRYON. 
 
 29 
 
 An. amphitlieatre was usually an oval 
 building, surrounding an arena of like 
 shape, -which sometimes, as at Rome and 
 Capua, was a plank floor resting on deep 
 underground walls, the spaces underneath 
 containing cages and machinery for trans- 
 fefiaations. The exterior was formed of 
 several arcades, one above the other, the 
 lowest one admitting to a corridor, which 
 ran round the building, and out of which 
 staircases led up to the various rows of 
 seats. In the Colosseum this first arcade 
 is adorned with Doric, the second with 
 Ionic, the third with Corinthian " engaged " 
 columns; the fourth is a wall decorated 
 
 (1) THE AMPHITHEATBE AT NIMES. 
 
 (External elevation.) 
 
 (2) THE AMPHITHEATRE AT NIMES. 
 
 Ground plan in four qnarters. 
 
 A. Bird's eye view of seats rising in tiers to highest part 
 of external inclosure. 
 
 B. Plan of highest storey, exposed by removal of highest 
 tiers of seats. 
 
 C. Plan of intermediate storey, exposed by removal of 
 highest and intermediate tiers. 
 
 jD. True ground plan, or plan of lowest storey. 
 
 with Corinthian pilasters, and pierced with 
 windows (see Architecture, figs. 8-10). 
 
 Immediately round the arena ran a high, 
 massive wall, with vaults for the animals 
 and for other purposes. On it rested the 
 podium, protected by its height and by 
 special contrivances from the wild beasts 
 when fighting ; here were the seats of 
 honour, e.g. at Rome, those of the imperial 
 family, the officers of state, and the Vestal 
 Virgins. Above the podium rose the seats 
 
 of other spectators in concentric rows, the 
 lowest ones being for senators and magis- 
 trates, the next for knights, and the rest 
 for citizens. Women sat in the highest 
 part of the building, under a colonnade, 
 parts of which were portioned off for the 
 common people. The whole space for seats 
 could be sheltered from sun and rain by 
 an awning supported on masts, which were 
 let into corbels of stone that jutted out of 
 the upper circumference. The arena could 
 also be laid under water for the exhibition 
 of sea-fights, the so-called nautndchicB 
 iq.v.). 
 
 Amphitrite, daughter of Nereus and 
 Doris, is the wife of Poseidon and queen of 
 the sea. Poseidon saw her dancing with 
 the Nereids on the island of Naxos, and 
 carried her off. According to another ac- 
 count she fled from him to Atlas, when the 
 god's dolphin spied her out and brought 
 her to him. In Homer she is not yet called 
 Poseidon's wife, but a sea-goddess, who 
 beats the billows against the rocks, and 
 has the creatures of the deep in her keep- 
 ing. Her son is the sea-god Triton. She 
 had no separate worship. She is often 
 represented with a net confuiing her hair, 
 with crabs' claws on the crown of her head, 
 being carried by Tritons, or by dolphins 
 and other marine animals, or drawn by 
 them in a chariot of shells. As the Romans 
 identified Poseidon with their Neptune, so 
 they did Amphitrite with Salacia, a god- 
 dess of the salt waves. 
 
 Amphitryon. Son of Alcseus, grandson of 
 Perseus, and king of Tiryns. His father's 
 brother, Elektryon, king of Mycense, had 
 occasion to go out on a war of vengeance 
 against Pterelaiis, king of the Taphians and 
 Teleboans in Acarnania and the neighbour- 
 ing isles, whose sons had carried off his 
 cattle, and have slain his own sons, all but 
 young Licymnius. He left Amphitryon in 
 charge of his kingdom, and betrothed to 
 him his daughter Alcmene. On his return 
 Amphitryon killed him, in quarrel or by 
 accident, and, driven away by- another 
 uncle, Sthenelus, fied with his betrothed 
 and her brother Licymnius to Creon, king 
 of Thebes, a brother of his mother Hippo- 
 nome, who purged him of blood-guilt, and 
 promised, if he would first kill the Tau- 
 messian fox, to help him against Pterelaus ; 
 for Alcmene would not wed him till her 
 brethren were avenged. Having rendered 
 the fox harmless with the help of CephSlus 
 (q.v.) he marched, accompanied by Creon, 
 Cephalus, and other heroes, against the 
 
30 
 
 AMPHORA ANAXAGOEAS. 
 
 Teleboans, and conquered their country. 
 Pterilaus' daughter ComEetho had first 
 killed her father by plucking out the 
 golden hair, to whose continual possession 
 was attached the boon of immortality be- 
 stowed on him by Poseidon. He slew the 
 traitress, and, handing over the Taphian 
 kingdom to Cephalus, he returned to Thebes 
 and married Alcmene. She gave birth to 
 twins ; Iphicles by him, and Heracles by 
 Zeus. At last he falls in the war with 
 Erginus (q.v.), the Minyan king of Oi'cho- 
 menus. 
 
 Amphora, Lat. (Gr. Amphoreus). A two- 
 handled, big-bellied vessel, usually of clay, 
 with a longish or shortish neck, and a mouth 
 proportioned to the size, sometimes resting 
 firmly on a foot, but often ending in a blunt 
 point, so that in the store-room it had to lean 
 against the wall, or be sunk in sand, and 
 when brought out for use, to be put in a 
 basket, wine-cooler, or hollow stand. {See 
 Vessels, fig. 2, a and h). It served to 
 keep oil, honey, and more especially the 
 wine drawn off from the big fermenting 
 vats. It was fastened with a clay stopper, 
 plastered over with pitch, loam, or gypsum, 
 and had a ticket stating the kind, the 
 year, and the quantity of the wine it con- 
 tained. The Greek amphoreus was a 
 large liqviid measure, holding nearly 9 gal- 
 lons (see Metretes), the Roman measure 
 called amphora held 6 gallons and 7 pints. 
 
 AmphdtSrns. See Acaenan. 
 
 Ampliatio. The Latin term for a delay 
 of verdict pending the production of further 
 evidence in a case not clear to the judges. 
 Comp. Compeeendinatio. 
 
 Ampulla, ^ee Vessels. 
 
 Amjfcus. Son of Poseidon; a gigantic 
 king of the Bebrycians on the Bithynian 
 coast, who forced every stranger that landed 
 there to box with him. When the Argo- 
 nauts wished to draw water from a spring 
 in his country, he forbade them, but was 
 conquered and killed in a match with Poly- 
 deuces (Pollux). 
 
 Amymone. A daughter of Danaus (q.v.), 
 and mother of Nauplius by Poseidon. 
 
 Anacrgon. A Greek lyric poet, born about 
 550 B.C. at Tecs, an Ionian town of Asia, 
 whose inhabitants, to escape the threatened 
 yoke of Persia, migrated to Abdera in 
 Thrace B.C. 540. Prom Abdera Anacreon 
 went to the tyrant Polycrates, of Samos, 
 after whose death (B.C. 522) he removed to 
 Athens on the invitation of Hipparchus, 
 and lived there, till the fall of the Peisis- 
 tratidse, on friendly terms with his fellow 
 
 poet Simonides and Xanthippus, the father 
 of Pericles. He is said to have died at 
 Abdera, in his eighty-sixth year, choked by 
 the stone of a dried grape. A statue of 
 him stood in the Acropolis at Athens in 
 the guise of an aged minstrel inspired by 
 the wine-god. Por Anacreon was regarded 
 as the type of a poet who, in spite of age, 
 paid perpetual homage to wine and love. 
 Love and wine and merry company formed 
 the favourite subjects of his light, sweet, 
 and graceful songs, which were cast in the 
 metres of the .^olic poets, but composed 
 in the Ionic dialect. Beside fragments of 
 such songs and of elegies, we have also a 
 number of epigrams that bear his name. 
 His songs were largely imitated, and of 
 such imitations we have under his name 
 a collection of about sixty love-songs and 
 drinking-songs of very various (partly 
 much later) dates, and of different degrees 
 of merit. 
 
 Anadyomene. A title of AphrodttS (q.v.). 
 
 Anaces. A title of the Dioscuri (q.v.). 
 
 Anaxagoras. A Greek philosopher, of 
 Clazomense in Asia Minor, born about 500 
 B.C. Sprung from a noble family, but wish- 
 ing to devote himself entirely to science, he 
 gave up his property to his kinsmen, and 
 removed to Athens,, where he lived in in- 
 timacy with the most distinguished men, 
 above all with Pericles. Shortly before the 
 outbreak of the Peloponnesian War he 
 was charged by the political opponents of 
 Pericles with impiety, i^e. with denying the 
 gods recognised by the State ; and though 
 acquitted through his friend'is influence, he 
 felt compelled to emigrate to Lampsacus, 
 where he died soon after^ aged 72. He not 
 only had the honour of giving philosophy 
 a home at Athens, where it went on flourish- 
 ing for quite a thousand years, but he was 
 the first philosopher who, by the side of 
 the material principle, introduced a spiritual, 
 which gives the other life and form. He 
 laid down his doctrine in a work On Nature 
 in the Ionic dialect, of which only frag- 
 ments are preserved. like Parmenides, 
 he denied the existence of birth or death; 
 the two processes were rather to be de- 
 scribed as a mingling and unmingling. The 
 ultimate elements of combination are in- 
 divisible, imperishable primordia of infinite 
 number, and differing in shape, colour, and 
 taste, called by himself " seeds of things," 
 and by later writers (from an expression 
 of Aristotle) homoeomSre, i.e. particles of 
 like kind with each other and with the 
 whole that is made up of them. At first 
 
ANAXANDEIDES ANOYRANUM MONUMENTUM. 
 
 31 
 
 these lay mingled without order; but the 
 divine spirit — simple, pure, passionless 
 reason — set the unarranged matter into 
 motion, and thereby created out of chaos an 
 orderly world. This movement, proceed- 
 ing from the centre, works on for ever, 
 penetrating farther and farther the infinite 
 mass. But the application of the spiritual 
 principle was rather indicated than fully 
 carried out by Anaxagoras; he himself 
 commonly explains phenomena by physical 
 causes, and only when he cannot find these, 
 falls back on the action of divine reason. 
 
 Anaxandrides. A Greek poet of the 
 Middle Comedy, a Ehodian, flourished in 
 376 B.C. He is stated to have been the 
 first who made love affairs the siibject of 
 copiedy. His plays were characterized by 
 brightness and humour, but only fragments 
 of them are preserved. 
 
 Anaximander (Gr. -mandrds). A Greek 
 philosopher of Miletus; born B.C. 611; a 
 younger contemporary of Thales and Phere- 
 cydes. He lived at the court of Polycrates 
 of Samos, and died B.C. 547. In his philo- 
 sophy the primal essence, which he was the 
 first to call principle, was the immortal- 
 imperishable, all-including infinite, a kind 
 of chaos, out of which all things proceed, 
 and into which they return. He composed, 
 in the Ionic dialect, a brief and somewhat 
 poetical treatise on his doctrine, which may 
 be regarded as the earliest prose work on 
 philosophy ; but only a few sentences out 
 of it are preserved. The advances he had 
 made in physics and astronomy are evi- 
 denced by his invention of the sun-dial, 
 his construction of a celestial globe, and his 
 first attempt at a geographical map. 
 
 Anaximlnes. (1) A Greek philosopher of 
 Miletus, a younger contemporary and pupil 
 of Anaximander, who died about 602 B.C. 
 He supposed air to be the fundamental 
 principle, out of which everything arose by 
 rarefaction and condensation. This doctrine 
 he expounded in a work, now lost, written 
 in the Ionian dialect. 
 
 (2) A Greek sophist of LampsScus, a 
 favourite of Philip of Macedon and Alex- 
 ander the Great. He composed orations and 
 historical works, some treating of the ac- 
 tions of those two princes. Of these but 
 little remains. On the other hand, he is 
 the author of the Rhetoric dedicated to 
 Alexander, the earliest extant work of this 
 kind, which was once included among the 
 works of Aristotle. 
 
 Anchises. Son of Capys, of the royal 
 house of Troy by both parents, ruler of 
 
 Dard&nus on Mount Ida. Aphrodite loved 
 him for his beauty, and bore him a son, 
 iEneas. But having, in spite of her warn- 
 ings, boasted of her favour, he is (according 
 to various versions of the story) paralysed, 
 killed, or struck blind by the lightning of 
 Zeus. Vergil represents the disabled chief 
 as borne out of burning Troy on his son's 
 shoulders, and as sharing his wanderings 
 over the sea, and aiding him with his 
 counsel, till they reach Drep&num in Sicily, 
 where he dies, and is buried on Mount 
 Eryx. 
 
 Ancil§. The small oval sacred shield, 
 curved inwards on either side, which was 
 said to have fallen from heaven in the reign 
 of Numa. There being a prophecy that the 
 stability of Rome was bound up with it, 
 Numa had eleven others made exactly like 
 it by a cunning workman, Mamurius Ve- 
 turius, so that the right one should not be 
 stolen. The care of these arms, which 
 were sacred to Mars was entrusted to the 
 
 ANCILIA BOKNE BY TWO SALII, WITH 
 LEGEND IN ETKUSCAN CHARACTEKS. 
 
 Above = Gte. ArKYAE, nncile; below= AAKE, 
 AlccBua, the owner's name (LJem in Florence.) 
 
 Salii iq-V.), who had to carry them through 
 the city once a year with peculiar cere- 
 monies. At the conclusion of their songs 
 Mamurius himself was invoked, and on 
 March 14th they held a special feast, the 
 Mamurdlia, at which they sacrificed to 
 him, beating on a hide with staves, prob- 
 ably to imitate a smith's hammering. It 
 is likely that the name Mamurius conceals 
 that of the god Mars (or Mamers) himself. 
 
 Ancyranvim Monumentum. The monu- 
 ment of Ancyra (now Angora), a marble 
 slab, of which the greater part is pre- 
 served. It belonged to the temple of 
 Augustus at Ancyra, and contained the 
 Latin text of a Greek translation of the 
 report drawn up by that emperor himself 
 on the actions of his reign (Index Rerum 
 a se Gestarum). By the terms of his will 
 this report, engraved in bronze, was set 
 
32 
 
 ANDABATiE ANDROMEDA. 
 
 up in front of his mausolenm at Rome, and 
 copies were made of it for other temples 
 of Augustus in the provinces. 
 
 Andabatse. See Gladiators. 
 
 Aud5cldes. The second in order of time 
 in the roll of Attic orators. He was born 
 B.C. 439, and belonged by birth to the 
 aristocratic party, but feU out with it in 
 415, when he was involved in the famous 
 trial for mutilating the statues of Hermes, 
 and, to save his own and his kinsmen's 
 lives, betrayed his aristocratic accomplices. 
 Having, in spite of the immunity promised 
 him, fallen into partial atimia (loss of civic 
 rights), he left Athens, and carried on a 
 profitable trade in Cyprus. After two 
 fruitless attempts to recover his status at 
 home, he was allowed at last, upon the 
 fall of the Thirty and the amnesty of B.C. 
 403, to return to Athens, where he suc- 
 ceeded in repelling renewed attacks, and 
 gaining an honourable position. Sent to 
 Sparta in B.C. 390, during the Corinthian 
 War, to negotiate peace, he brought back 
 the draft of a treaty, for the ratification 
 of which he vainly pleaded in a speech 
 that is still extant. He is said to have 
 been banished in consequence, and to 
 have died in exile. Beside the above- 
 mentioned oration, we have two delivered 
 on his own behalf, one pleading for 
 his recall from banishment, B.C. 410 ; 
 another against the charge of unlawful 
 participation in the mysteries, B.C. 399 ; 
 a fourth. Against Alcihiddes, is spurious. 
 His oratory is plain and artless, and its 
 expressions those of the popular lan- 
 guage of the day. 
 
 Androgfios. Son of Minos, king of 
 Crete by Pasiphae. Visiting Athens 
 at the first celebration of the Pana- 
 thensea, he won victories over all the 
 champions, when king jEgeus, out of 
 jealousy, sent him to fight the bull of 
 Marathon, which killed him. Accord- 
 ing to another account he was slain in 
 an ambush. Minos avenges his son by 
 making the Athenians send seven youths 
 and seven maidens every nine years as 
 victims to his Minotaur, from which 
 Theseus at last delivers them. Funeral 
 games were held in the Ceramicus at 
 Athens in honour of Androgens under the 
 name of Eurygyes'. 
 
 Andromache. The daughter of Eetion, 
 king of the Cilician Thebes, is one of the 
 noblest female characters in Homer, dis- 
 tinguished alike by her ill-fortune and her 
 true and tender love for her husband, Hec- 
 
 tor. Achilles, in taking her native town, 
 kills her father and seven brothers; her 
 mother, redeemed from captivity, is carried 
 off by sickness ; her husband falls by the 
 hand of Achilles ; and when Troy is taken 
 she sees her one boy, Astyanax .(or Scaman- 
 der), hurled from the walls. She falls, as 
 the prize of war, to Neoptolemus, the son 
 of her greatest foe, who first carries her 
 to Epirus, then surrenders her to Hector's 
 brother, Helenus. After his death she re- 
 turns to Asia with Pergamus, her son by 
 Neoptolemus, and dies there. 
 
 AudromSda. Daughter of the .^Ethiopian 
 
 * ANDROMEDA AND PERSEUS. 
 
 (Borne, Capitoline Museum.) 
 
 king Cepheus (a son of Belus) by Cassiopeia. 
 Cassiopeia had boasted of being fairer than 
 the Nereids, and Poseidon to punish the 
 profanity, sent a flood and a sea-monster. 
 As the oracle of Ammon promised a rid- 
 dance of the plague should Andromeda be 
 thrown to the monster, Cepheus was com- 
 pelled to chain his daughter to a rock on 
 the shore. At this moment of distress Per- 
 seus appears, and rescues her, her father 
 having promised her to him in marriage. 
 At the wedding a violent quarrel arises 
 between the king's brother, Phineus, to 
 
ANDRONITIS ANNA PERENNA. 
 
 33 
 
 whom she had been betrothed before, and 
 Perseus, who turns his rival into stone 
 with the Gorgon's head. Andromeda fol- 
 lows Perseus to Argos, and becomes an- 
 cestress of the famous line of Perseidse. 
 Athena set her among the stars. 
 
 Andronitis. The men's apartments in a 
 Greek house. See House. 
 
 Androtion. A Greek historian, an Athe- 
 nian, and a pupil of Isocrates, who was 
 accused of making an illegal proposal and 
 went into banishment at Megara. (We 
 have the speech composed by Demosthenes 
 for one of the accusers.) At Megara he 
 wrote a history of Attica (see Atthis) in 
 at least 12 books, one of the best of that 
 class of writings ; but only fragments of it 
 have survived. 
 
 Angdistis. See Rhea. 
 
 Anlus. Son of Apollo by Rhoeo or Creiisa, 
 whose father, Staphylus of Naxos, a son of 
 Dionysus and Ariadne, committed her to 
 the sea in a box. She was carried to Delos, 
 and there gave birth to her son Anius. 
 Apollo taught him divination, and made 
 him his priest and king of Delos. His son 
 ThasQS, like Linus and Actseon, was torn 
 to pieces by dogs, after which no dogs were 
 allowed in the island. His daughters by 
 the nymph Dorippe, being descendants of 
 Dionysus, had the gift of turning anything 
 they pleased into wine, corn, or oil; but 
 when Agamemnon on his way to Troy 
 wished to take them from their father by 
 force, Dionysus changed them into doves. 
 
 Annalists. A series of writers on Roman 
 history, older than those usually called 
 the historians, beginning about 200 B.C., 
 and covering about a century and a half. 
 They related their country's story from its, 
 first beginnings down to their own times, 
 treating the former briefly, the latter in 
 full detail, and at first always in Greek, 
 like Fabius Pictoe and CiNCitrs Alimen- 
 Tus. With PoRCius Cato iq.v.) com- 
 menced composition in Latin" and a livelier 
 interest in native history, which constantly 
 stimulated new efforts to celebrate the 
 deeds of their forefathers. Two main char- 
 acteristics of these annalists are the free 
 ' use they made of their pi-edecessors, and an 
 inclination to suppress unfavourable facts, 
 which gradually grew into a habit of 
 flattering the national vanity by exaggera- 
 tions. 
 
 Works dealing in this manner with the 
 whole of Roman history, or large sections 
 of it, continued to be written in Cicero's 
 time. The leading annalists of this class 
 
 p. C. A. 
 
 are : Cassius Hemina, soon after Cato ; 
 Calpurnius Piso Frugi, consul in B.C. 183 ; 
 Pannius, consul in B.C. 122 ; Gellius, who 
 wrote about the same time (ninety-seven 
 books of Annales) ; Claudius Quadeigaeius, 
 a contemporary of Sulla, author of at least 
 twenty-three books, from the Gallic confla- 
 gration to his own time ; his younger con- 
 temporary Valeeius Antias (who treated 
 all Roman history in seventy-five books) ; 
 LiCiNius Macee, who died B.C. 66, author 
 of the earlier history, in twenty-one books. 
 Some few writers, on the other hand, con- 
 fined themselves to the description of 
 shorter periods: first, CiELius Antipatee, 
 about B.C. 120 (whose history of the Second 
 Punic War in seven books, was noted for its 
 accuracy) ; then Sempeonius Asellio, about 
 B.C. 100, who, in his account of events he 
 had taken part in {Rerum Gestarum Libri, 
 fourteen at least), was the first who, not 
 content with barely relating facts, tried to 
 explain the reasons of them ; and Coenelius 
 SiSENNA, who lived 120-67 B.C. and wrote at 
 least twenty-three books on the brief period 
 between the Social War and Sulla's dicta- 
 torship. To these works, in which history 
 has begun to assume the character of me- 
 moirs, we may add the autobiography of 
 Coenelius Sulla the dictator {Rerum 
 Suarum Commentdrii in twenty-two books), 
 which he wrote in self-justification at the 
 end of his career. He died B.C. 78. All 
 these works are lost, except scanty frag- 
 ments ; but the later Greek and Roman 
 writers had made full use of them. 
 
 Annals {Annales). Year-books. Prom 
 early times a record of-all important events 
 at Rome had been kept in chronological order 
 by the high priest {pontifex maximus) 
 for the time, who every year exhibited in his 
 official residence a whited board {album), 
 on which, after the names of the magistrates 
 for the year, occurrences of all kinds — 
 war, dearth, pestilence, prodigies — were set 
 down briefly according to their dates. These 
 annales pontificum or annales maxinii 
 (supposed to be so called after the pontifex 
 maximus), though destroyed at the burn- 
 ing of Rome by the Gauls, B.C. 389, were 
 restored as far as possible, and continued 
 till B.C. 130. Collected afterwards in eighty 
 books, they were at once utilized and super- 
 seded by the so-called Annalists {q.v.). 
 
 Anna Ferenna. An ancient Italian god- 
 dess, about whose exact attributes the 
 ancients themselves were not clear. She is 
 probably the moon-goddess of the current 
 year, who every month renews her youth, 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 ANNONA ANTEROS. 
 
 and was therefore regarded as a goddess 
 who bestowed long ]ife and all that contri- 
 butes to it. About full moon on the Ides 
 (fifteenth) of March (then the first month of 
 the year), in a grove of fruit trees at the first 
 milestone on the Flaminian Way, the Romans 
 held a merry feast under the open sky, 
 wishing each other as many years of lii'e 
 as they drank cups of wine. The learned 
 men of the Augustan age identified Anna 
 with Dido's sister, who, on the death of that 
 queen, had fled from Carthage to jiEneas 
 in Italy, but, having excited Lavinia's 
 jealousy, threw herself into the Numicius, 
 and became the nymph of that river. 
 
 Annona. A Latin word meaning the 
 year's produce, especially in wheat, the 
 staple food of the city population ; it was 
 afterwards applied to the corn provided by 
 the State to feed that population. As 
 Italian agriculture decayed, and the city 
 population steadily increased, the question 
 of its maintenance became a constant care 
 to the State, which, on the conquest of the 
 first two provinces, Sicily and Sardinia, at 
 once doomed them, especially the former, 
 to the task of victualling the armies and 
 feeding Rome, by imposing a tithe on corn, 
 and forbidding its exportation to any country 
 but Italy. The tenth paid as tribute, and 
 other corn bought up by the State, was sold 
 by the sediles at a moderate price, usually 
 on terms which prevented the treasury 
 being a loser. Thus till the time of the 
 Gracchi the cura annonce was confined to 
 the maintenance of a moderate price ; but 
 the corn law of Gains Gracchus, B.C. 123, 
 laid on the State the obligation to deliver 
 to any Roman householder on demand Gj 
 bushels of wheat a month at a fixed price, 
 which even in cheap times was less than half 
 the cost price ; and Clodius in B.C. 58 went 
 further, and made the delivery entirely 
 gratuitous. By the year B.C. 46, the number 
 of recipients had risen to 320,000, and the 
 yearly outlay to a sum equivalent to £650,000. 
 Caesar then reduced the recipients to 150,000 ; 
 but their number grew again, till Augustus 
 cut it down to 200,000, whose names were 
 inscribed on a bronze table, and who received 
 their monthly portion on presentation of a 
 ticket. This arrangement as a whole re- 
 mained in force till about the end of the 
 Empire, except that in the 3rd century 
 bread was given instead of grain. And, 
 side by side with these gratuitous doles, 
 grain could always be bought for a mode- 
 rate price at magazines filled with the 
 supplies of the provinces, especiallj' Egypt 
 
 and Africa, and with purchases made by 
 the State. The expenses of the annona 
 fell mainly on the imperial treasury, but 
 partly on that of the senate. From Augus- 
 tus' time the cura annonce formed one of 
 the highest imperial offices, its holder, the 
 prcsfectus annonce, having a large staff 
 scattered over Rome and the whole empire. 
 The annona, like so many other things, 
 was personified by the Romans, and became 
 a goddess of the importation of corn, whose 
 attributes were a bushel, ears of wheat, 
 and a horn of plenty. 
 
 Antaeus. Son of Poseidon and Ge (the 
 earth) ; a huge giant in Libya, who grew 
 stronger every time he touched his mother 
 Earth. He forced all strangers to wrestle 
 with him, and killed them when conquered, till 
 Heracles, on his journey to fetch the apples 
 of the Hesperides, lifted him off the ground, 
 and held him aloft till he had killed him. His 
 tomb was shown near Tingis in Mauretania. 
 
 Antse. A templum in antls was a temple 
 in which the hall at either end was formed 
 by prolongations of the side-walls (Lat. 
 antce), and a row of columns between the 
 terminal pilasters of those prolongations. 
 See Temples, fig. 1. 
 
 Anteia (otherwise Stlienoboea). Wife of 
 Proetus of Tiryns ; by slandering Belle- 
 rophon {q.v.), who had rejected her offers 
 of love, she caused her husband to attempt 
 his life. 
 
 Antenor. A Trojan of high rank, husband 
 to Athena's priestess Theano, the sister of 
 Hecuba. When Menelaiis and Odysseus, 
 after the landing of the Greeks, came as 
 envoys to Troy, demanding the surrender 
 of Helen, he received them hospitably, pro- 
 tected them from Paris, and then as always 
 advised peace. Because of this leaning to the 
 Greeks, it was alleged in later times that 
 he betrayed his native city by opening its 
 gates to the enemy ; in return for which his 
 house, known by the panther's hide hung out 
 of it, was spared, and he and his friends 
 allowed to go free. One account was, that 
 he sailed with Menelaus, was driven out of 
 his course to Cyrene, and settled there, 
 where his descendants the Antenoridse were 
 worshipped as heroes. Another, which be- 
 came the accepted tradition, represented 
 him as leading the Heneti, when driven 
 out of Paphlagonia, by way of Thrace and 
 Illyria, to the Adriatic, and thence to the 
 mouth of the Padus (Po), where he founded 
 Patavium (Padua), the city of the Veneti. 
 
 Antgros. The god of requited love, 
 brother of Eros {q.v.). 
 
ANTESIGNANI— ANTIGONE. 
 
 35 
 
 Antesignani. A Latin word denoting 
 originally the soldiers fighting in front of 
 the standards during a battle; afterwards 
 a picked body in every legion, free of bag- 
 gage, and intended to advance in front of 
 the line of battle and seize important points, 
 or to open the battle. 
 
 Antevorta. See Carmenta. 
 
 Anthesteria. A feast at Athens held in 
 honour of Dionysus. Comp. Dionysia (4). 
 
 Anthology ( = gar] and of flowers). The 
 Greek word antholdgia means a collection 
 of short, especially epigrammatic poems, by 
 various authors ; we still possess one such 
 collection dating from antiquity. Collec- 
 tions of inscriptions in verse had more than 
 once been set on foot in early times for anti- 
 quarian purposes. The first regular antho- 
 logy, entitled Stephdnds (= wreath), was 
 attempted by Melectger of Gadira in the 1st 
 century B.C. ; it contained, beside his own 
 compositions, poems arranged according to 
 their initial letters, by forty-six contem- 
 porary and older authors, including Archi- 
 lochus, Alcaeus, Sappho, Anacreon, Simon- 
 ides, etc., together with a prologue still 
 extant. This coUectitfti was enriched, about 
 100 A.D., by Philippus of Thessalonica, with 
 select epigrams by about thirteen later 
 authors. Other collections were under- 
 taken soon after by Diogenianus of Hera- 
 cleia and Straton of Sardis, and in the 
 6th century by Agatkias of Myrina, in 
 whose KyJclos the poems are for the first 
 time arranged according to subjects. Out 
 of these collections, now all lost, Constan- 
 tinus Cephdlds of Constantinople, in the 
 10th century, put together a new and com- 
 prehensive anthology, classified according 
 to contents in fifteen sections. From this 
 collection the monk Maximus Planudes, 
 in the 14th ' century, made an extract 
 of seven books, which was the only one 
 known till the year 1606. In that year the 
 French scholar Saumaise (Salmasius) dis- 
 covered in the Palatine Library at Heidel- 
 berg a complete manuscript of the antho- 
 logy of Constantinus Cephalas with sundry 
 additions. This MS., with all the other 
 treasures of the library, was carried oif to 
 Rome in 1623, whence it was taken to Paris 
 in 1793, and back to Heidelberg in 1816. 
 
 The epigrams of the Greek anthology, 
 dating as they do from widely distant ages 
 down to the -Byzantine, and being the pro- 
 duction of more than three hundred dif- 
 ferent authors, are of very various merit; 
 but many of them are among the pearls of 
 Greek poetry, and could hardly have sur- 
 
 vived unless enshrined in such a collection. 
 Taken together with the rich store of epi- 
 grams foxmd in inscriptions, the Anthology 
 opens to us a view of the development of 
 this branch of Greek litea-ature such as we 
 can scarcely obtain in the case of any other, 
 besides affording valuable information on 
 Hellenic language, history, and manners, at 
 the most different periods. 
 
 Roman literature has no really ancient 
 collection of so comprehensive a character, 
 the so-called Latin Anthology having been 
 gathered by modern scholars out of the 
 material found scattered in various MSS. 
 Among these, it" is true, Saumaise's MS. of 
 the 7th century, now in Paris, has a col- 
 lection of about 380 poems, but these, with 
 a few exceptions, are of very late author- 
 ship. 
 
 Antlddsis ( = exchange of properties). An 
 arrangement peculiar to the Athenians, by 
 which a citizen summoned to perform one 
 of those services to the State named lei- 
 tourgim (q-v.), if he thought a richer than 
 he had been passed over, could challenge 
 him to exchange possessions, binding him- 
 self in that case to discharge the obliga- 
 tion. Each party could then have the 
 other's property put in sequestration and 
 his house sealed up : and within three days 
 they handed in, before the proper authority 
 and under oath, an inventory of their goods, 
 If no amicable agreement was come to, and 
 the judge's decision went against the plain- 
 tiff, he was bound to perform the public 
 service ; otherwise the defendant submitted 
 either to the exchange or to the service. 
 
 Antigone. (1) Daughter of (Edipus and 
 locasta, who accompanied her blind father 
 into exile. After his death in Attica she 
 returns to Thebes, and, in defiance of her 
 uncle Creon's prohibition, performs the last 
 honours to her brother Polyneices, fallen in 
 single fight with Etgocles, by strewing his 
 body with dust. For this she is entombed 
 alive in the family vault, and there hangs 
 herself ; and her betrothed, Hsemon, the son 
 of Creon, stabs himself beside her corpse. 
 Such is the version of SophScles. Another 
 tradition represents Antigone and Argeia, 
 the widow of Polyneices, as secretly burn- 
 ing his body by night on the funeral pile 
 of Eteocles. When seized by the guivrds, 
 Creon hands her over to HsemOn for execu- 
 tion ; but he hides her in a shepherd's hut, 
 and lives with her in secret wedlock. Their 
 son, grown up and engaging in some funeral 
 games at Thebes, is recognised by a birth- 
 mark peculiar to the family. To escape 
 
33 
 
 ANTIGONUS ANTIOPE. 
 
 Creon's vengeance, Hsemon kills both Anti- 
 gone and himself. 
 
 (2) Antigone, daughter of Eurytion and 
 wife of Peleus {q.v.), hanged herself for 
 grief at the supposed infidelity of her 
 husband. 
 
 Antigon'o.s. A Greek writer of Carystus, 
 about 240 B.C., author of a collection of all 
 kinds of curiosities and fictions in natural 
 history. The work is now extant only in 
 a much abbreviated form, and is of no 
 value but for its numerous quotations and 
 fragments from lost writings. 
 
 Antigrapheus. The name of a financial 
 officer at Athens. See Grammateus. 
 
 Anticleia. Daughter of Autolycus, wife 
 of Laertes, and mother of Odysseus (q.v.). 
 
 AntUoch'as. The son of Nestor, who 
 accompanied his father to the Trojan War, 
 and was distinguished among the younger 
 heroes for beauty and bravery. Homer 
 calls him a favourite of Zeus and Poseidon. 
 The dearest friend of Achilles next to 
 Patroclus, he is chosen by the Greeks to 
 break the news to him of his beloved com- 
 panion's fall. When Memnon attacks the 
 aged Nestor, Antilochus throws himself in 
 his way, and buys his father's safety with 
 his life. He, like Patroclus, is avenged by 
 Achilles, in whose grave-mound the ashes 
 of both friends are laid ; even in the lower 
 world Odysseus beholds the three pacing 
 the asphodel meadow, and in after times 
 the inhabitants of Ilium offered to them 
 jointly the sacrifices due to the dead on the 
 foreland of Sigeum. 
 
 Antlmachus. A Greek poet and critic 
 of Colophon, an elder contemporary of 
 Plato, about 400 B.C. By his two princi- 
 pal works — the long mythical epic called 
 ThebS'is and a cycle of elegies named after 
 his loved and lost Lyde, and telling of 
 famous lovers parted by death — he became 
 the founder of learned poetry, precursor and 
 prototype of the Alexandrians, who, on 
 account of his learning, assigned him the 
 next place to Homer amongst epic poets. 
 In striving to impart strength and dignity 
 to language by avoiding all that was com- 
 mon, his style became rigid and artificial, 
 and naturally ran into bombast. But we 
 possess only fragments of his works. As 
 a scholar, he is remarkable for having set 
 on foot a critical revision of the Homeric 
 poems. 
 
 Antlndils. A beautiful youth of Claudio- 
 polis in Bithynia, a favourite and travelling 
 companion of the emperor Hadrian. He 
 drowTied himself in the Nile, probably from 
 
 melancholy. The emperor honoured his 
 memory by placing him among the heroes, 
 erecting statues and temples, and founding 
 yearly games in his honour, while the 
 artists of every province vied in pourtray- 
 ing him under various forms, human, heroic, 
 and divine ; e.g. as Dionysus, Hermes, 
 Apollo. Among the features common to 
 the many surviving portraitures of An- 
 tinous are the full locks falling low down 
 the forehead, the large, melancholy eyes, 
 the full mouth, and the broad, swelling 
 breast. Some of these portraits are among 
 the finest works of ancient art, for instance, 
 the colossal statue in the Vatican, and the 
 half-length relief at the Villa Albani. (See 
 cut.) 
 
 MARBLE RELIEF OP ANTINOUS. 
 
 (Rome, Villa Albani.) 
 
 Antiope. (1) In Homer a daughter of 
 the Boeotian river-god Asopus, mother by 
 Zeus of Amphion and Zethus. In later 
 legend her father is Nycteus of Hyria or 
 Hysise. ■ As he threatens to punish her for 
 yielding to the approaches of Zeus under 
 the form of a satyr, she flees to Epopeus 
 of Sicyon. This king her uncle Lycus 
 kills by order of his brother Nycteus, now 
 dead, and leads her back in chains. Ar- 
 rived on Mount Cithseron, she gives birth to 
 twins, Amphion by Zeus, Zethus by Epopeus, 
 whom Lycus leaves exposed upon the moun- 
 tain. After being long imprisoned and ill- 
 treated by Dirce, the wife of Lycus, she 
 escapes to GithEeron, and makes acquaintance 
 with her sons, whom a shepherd has brought 
 up. She makes them take a frightful ven- 
 geance upon Dirce (see. Amphion), for /doing 
 
ANTIPHANES ANTONINUS. 
 
 37 
 
 which Dionysus drives her mad, and she 
 wanders throught Greece, till Phocus, king 
 of Phocis, heals and marries her. 
 
 (2) A sister of HippSlyte, queen of the 
 Amazons; who, according to one account, 
 fall as a prize of war to Theseus for his 
 share in Heracles' campaign against the 
 Amazons, according to another, was carried 
 oif by him and ' his friend Pirithoiis. 
 When the Amazons attacked Athens in re- 
 turn, she is variously represented as per- 
 suading them to peace, or falling in battle 
 against them by the side of Theseus; or, 
 again, as killed by Heracles, when she inter- 
 rupted the marriage of her beloved Theseus 
 with Phsedra. Her son by Theseus was 
 Hippolytus. 
 
 Antiphanes. The most prolific and im- 
 portant author, with Alexis, of the Attic 
 Middle Comedj' ; he came of a family which 
 had migrated from Larissa in Thessaly ; 
 was born B.C. 408, and died at the age of 
 74. He is said to have written 260 plays, 
 of which over 200 are known to us by 
 their titles and fragments, yet he won the 
 prize only thirteen times. He is praised 
 for dramatic ability, wit, and neatness of 
 form. 
 
 Antiphilus. A Greek painter born in 
 Egypt in the latter half of the 4th cen- 
 tury B.C., a contemporary and rival of 
 Apelles ; he probably spent the last part 
 of his life at the court of the first Ptolemy. 
 The ancients praise the lightness and dex- 
 terity with which he handled subjects of 
 high art, as well as scenes in daily life. 
 Two of his pictures in the latter kind 
 were especially famous, one of a boy blow- 
 ing a fire, and another of women dressing 
 wool. From his having painted a man 
 named GryllSs (=pig) with playfiil allu- 
 sions to the sitter's name, caricatures in 
 general came to be called grylloi. [Pliny, 
 H. N., 35. 114, 138]. 
 
 Antiphon. The earliest of the ten great 
 Attic orators, born B.C. 480 at Ehamnus in 
 Attica, son of the sophist Sophilus, to whom 
 he owed his training. He was the founder 
 of political eloquence as an art, which he 
 taught with great applause in his own 
 school of rhetoric; and he was the first 
 who wrote out speeches for others to deliver 
 in court, though he afterwards published 
 them under his own name. He also played 
 an active part in the politics of his time as 
 a leading member of the oligarchical party, 
 and the real author of the deathblow which 
 was dealt to democracy in 411 B.C. by the 
 establishment of the Council of Four Hun- 
 
 dred. Then he went as ambassador to 
 Sparta, to purchase peace at any price in. 
 the interest of the oligarchy. On the fall 
 of the Four Hundred he was accused of 
 high treason, and in spite of a masterly 
 defence — the first speech he had ever made 
 in public — was condemned to death B.C. 
 411. 'Of the sixty orations attributed to 
 him, only fifteen are preserved, all on trials 
 for murder; but only three of them are 
 about real cases. The rest (named tetra- 
 logies, because every four are the first and 
 second speeches of both plaintiff and de- 
 fendant on the same subject) are mere 
 exercises. Antiphon's speeches exhibit the 
 art of oratory in its rudimentary stage as 
 regards both substance and form. 
 
 Antisthgnes. A Greek philosopher of 
 Athens, born about 440 B.C., but only a half 
 citizen, because his mother was a Thracian. 
 He was in his youth a pupil of Gorgias, 
 and himself taught for a time as a sophist, 
 till, towards middle life, he attached himself 
 to Socrates, and became his bosom friend. 
 After the death of Socrates in B.C. 399 
 he established a school in the gymnasium 
 Eynosarges, the only one open to persons 
 of half-Athenian descent, whence his fol- 
 lowers bore the name of Cynici {Kynlkoi). 
 He lived to the age of seventy. Like 
 Socrates, he regarded virtue as necessary, 
 indeed, alone sufficient for happiness, and 
 to be a branch of knowledge that could jbe 
 taught, and that once acquired could not 
 be lost, its essence consisting in freedom 
 from wants by the avoidance of evil, i.e. 
 of pleasure and desire. Its acquisition 
 needs no dialectic argumentation, only 
 Socratic strength. His pupils, especially 
 the famous DiogenSs of Sinope, degraded 
 his doctrine to cynicisni by depreciating 
 all knowledge and despising the current 
 morality of the time. His philosophical 
 and rhetorical works are lost, all but two 
 slight declamations on the contest for the 
 arms of Achilles, the Aias and Odysseus; 
 and even their genuineness is disputed. 
 
 Antistius Lah66 (Quintus). A renowned 
 jurist of Augustus' time, a man of wide 
 scholarship and strict republican views, 
 which lost him the emperor's favour. His 
 writings on law amounted to 400 books, 
 portions of which are preserved in the 
 Pandects of Justinian's Corpus luris. 
 Aiming at a progressive development of 
 law, he became the founder of a school of 
 lawyers named ProcuUans after his pupil 
 SemprOnius PrdciUus. See Ateius Capito. 
 
 Antoninus. (1) Marcus Aurelius, sur- 
 
S8 
 
 ANUBIS APHRODITE. 
 
 named Phildsophus, born at Rome a.d. 121. 
 His real name was M. Annius Verus ; at 
 the desire of the emperor Hadrian he was 
 adopted by his successor T. Aurelius An- 
 toninus Pius, married his daughter Faus- 
 tina, and became emperor in a.d. 161. 
 During his benevolent reign the empire had 
 to face dire distresses, famine, pestilence, 
 and constant wars with the Parthians in 
 the east, and the Marcomanni and other 
 Germans in the north, during which he 
 proved himself a prudent and active sove- 
 reign. In the midst of a new war with 
 the already vanquished Marcomanni he 
 died in a.d. 180, probably at Sirmium in 
 Pannonia. In his youth he was a pupil of 
 the orator Pronto, and loved iim warmly 
 to the last, even after giving up rhetoric 
 and devoting himself to the Stoic philoso- 
 phy. The gentleness and amiability of 
 his nature comes out both in his letters 
 to Pronto (q.v.) and in his Self-contemn 
 plations, which are the moral reflections 
 of a Stoic in clumsy, oVer-concise, and 
 often obscure Greek. 
 
 (2) Antoninus Llherdlis, a Greek gram- 
 marian of about 150 A.D., perhaps a freed- 
 man of Antoninus Pius ; he wrote a collec- 
 tion, called Metamorphoses, of forty-one 
 myths dealing with transformations, most 
 of which is based on ancient authorities 
 now lost, and is therefore valuable as a 
 source of mythological knowledge. 
 
 Aniihis. An Egyptian 
 god, son of Osiris, con- 
 ductor and watcher of 
 the dead, whose deeds he 
 and HORUS {q.v.) were 
 supposed to weigh in the 
 balance in presence of 
 their father Osiris. He 
 was represented with 
 the head of a jackal or 
 dog-ape. The worship of 
 Anubis was introduced 
 among the Greeks and 
 Romans (who represented 
 him in the form of a dog), 
 together with that 'of 
 Serapis and Isis, espe- anubis. 
 
 cially in the time of the 
 emperors, as he was identified with Hermes. 
 Apagoge. A technical term of Athenian 
 law, meaning the production of a criminal 
 taken in the act before the proper magis- 
 trate, who then took him into custody, or 
 made him find bail. The name was also 
 given to the document in which the accuser 
 stated the charge. But if the oflBcer was con- 
 
 ducted to the spot where tlie accused was 
 staying, the process was called Sphegesis. 
 
 Apatiiria. The general feast of the Phra- 
 TRiES (q.v.) held chiefly by Greeks of the 
 Ionian race. At Athens it lasted three days 
 in the month of Pyanepsion (Oct.-Nov.), and 
 was celebrated with sacrificial banquets. 
 On the third day the fathers brought their 
 children born since the last celebration 
 before the members (phrators) assembled 
 at the headquarters of each phratna, and 
 after declaring on oath their legitimate 
 birth, had their names inscribed on the roll 
 of phrat6rgs. For every child enrolled a 
 sheep or goat was sacrificed, which went 
 to furnish the common feast. On the game 
 day the fathers made their children who 
 were at school give proofs of their progress, 
 especially by reciting passages from poets, 
 and those who distinguished themselves 
 were rewarded with prizes. 
 
 Apelles. The greatest painter of anti- 
 quity, probably born at Colophon or in the 
 Island of Cos, who lived in the latter half 
 of the 4th century B.C. After studying at 
 Ephesus, and receiving theoretical instruc- 
 tion in his art from Pamphilus at Sicyon, 
 he worked in different parts of the Greek 
 world, but especially in Macedonia, at the 
 court of Philip and that of Alexander, who 
 would let no other artist paint him. While 
 doing ready justice to the merits of con^ 
 temporaries, especially Protogenes, he could 
 not but recognise that no one surpassed him- 
 self in grace and balanced harmony. These 
 qualities, together with his wonderful skill 
 in drawing and his perfect and refined 
 mastery of colouring (however simple his 
 means), made his wOrks the most perfect 
 productions of Greek painting. Among the 
 foremost Were the Alexander with lightning 
 in his hand, painted for the temple of 
 Artemis at Ephesus, in which the fingers 
 appeared to stand out of the picture, and 
 the thunderbolt to project from the panel ; 
 and the Aphrodite AnadydTnSne ( = rising), 
 painted for the temple of Asclepius at Cos, 
 which Augustus brought to Rome and set 
 up in the temple of Ceesar, and which, 
 when the lower part was damaged, no 
 painter would attempt to restore. We owe 
 to Lucian a description of an allegorical 
 picture of Slander by this painter. [Pliny, 
 H. N., 35. 79-97.] 
 
 Aphrodite (Lat. VSnus). The Greek god- 
 dess of love. Her attributes combine, with 
 Hellenic conceptions, a great' many features 
 of Eastern, especially Phoenician, origin, 
 which the Greeks must have grafted on to 
 
APHRODITE. 
 
 39 
 
 their native notions in very old times. This 
 double nature appears immediately in the 
 contradictory tales of her origin. To the 
 oldest Greeks she was the daughter of Zeus 
 and Dione (and is sometimes called that 
 name herself) ; yet from a verj' early time 
 she appears as Aphro-geneia, the "foam- 
 born "_ (see Uranus), as Anadydmene, " she 
 ■who rises " out of the sea, and steps ashore 
 on Cyprus, which had been colonized by 
 Phoenicians time out of mind; even as far 
 back as Homer she is Kypris, the Cyprian. 
 The same transmarine and Eastern origin 
 of her worship is evidenced by the legend 
 of the isle of Cythera, on which she was 
 supposed to have first landed out of a sea- 
 shell. 
 
 Again, the common conception of her as 
 goddess of love limits her agency to the 
 sphere of human life. But she is, at the 
 same time, a power of nature, living and 
 working in the three elements of air, earth, 
 and water. As goddess of the shifting 
 gale and changeful sky, she is Aphrodite 
 Urania, the " heavenly," and at many places 
 in Greece and Asia her temples crowned 
 the heights and headlands ; witness the 
 citadels of Thebes and Corinth, and Mount 
 Eryx in Sicily. As goddess of storm and 
 lightning, she was represented armed, as 
 at Sparta and Cythera ; and this perhaps 
 explains why she was associated with Ares 
 (Mars) both in worship and in legend, and 
 worshipped as a goddess of victory. 
 
 The moral conception of Aphrodite Urania 
 as goddess of the higher and purer love, 
 especially wedded love and fruitfulness, 
 as opposed to mere sensual lust, was but 
 slowly developed in the course of ages. 
 
 As goddess of 
 the nea and mari- 
 time traffic, espe- 
 cially of calm 
 seas and prosper- 
 ous voyages, she 
 was widely wor- 
 shipped by sailors 
 and fishermen at 
 ports and on sea- 
 coasts, often as 
 the goddess of 
 calm, while 
 Poseidon was the 
 god of distur- 
 bance. IText, as 
 regards the life of the earth, she is the 
 goddess of gardens and groves, of Spring 
 and its bounties, especially tender plants 
 and flowers, as the rose and myrtle ; hence. 
 
 *(1) CrPEIAN COIN OP 
 CAKACALLA 
 
 With the sacred cone, or sym- 
 bol of Aphrodite, in a conven- 
 tional representation of the tem- 
 ple at Faphos. 
 
 as the fruitful and bountiful, she was wor- 
 shipped most of all at that season of the 
 year in which her birth from the sea was 
 celebrated at Paphos in Cyprus {comp. 
 cut). But to this, her time of joyful action, 
 is opposed a season of sorrow, when her 
 creations wither and die : a sentiment ex- 
 pressed in her inconsolable grief for her 
 beloved Adonis {q.v.), the symbol of vege- 
 tation perishing in its prime. 
 
 In the life of gods and men, she shows 
 her power as the golden, sweetly smiling^ 
 goddess of beauty and love, which she 
 knows how to kindle or to keep away. She 
 outshines all the goddesses in grace and 
 loveliness ; in her girdle she wears united 
 all the magic charms that can bewitch the 
 wisest man and subdue the very gods. Her 
 retinue consists of Eros (Cupid), the Hours, 
 the Graces, Peitho (persuasion), Pothos and 
 HimSros (personifications of longing and 
 yearning). By uniting the generations in 
 the bond of love, she becomes a goddess of 
 marriage and family life, and the conse- 
 quent kinship of the whole community. As 
 such- she had formerly been worshipped at 
 Athens under the name of PandemSs ( = all 
 the people's), as being a goddess of the 
 whole country. By a regulation of Solon, 
 the name acquired a very different sense, 
 branding her as goddess of prostitution; 
 then it was that the new and higher mean- 
 ing was imported into the word Urania. 
 In later times, the worship of Aphrodite 
 as the goddess of mere sensual love made 
 rapid strides, and in particular districts 
 assumed forms more and more immoral, 
 in imitation of the services performed to 
 love-goddesses in the East, especially at 
 Corinth, where large bands of girls were 
 consecrated as slaves to the service of the 
 gods and the practice of prostitution. And 
 later still, the worship of Astarte, the 
 Syrian Aphrodite, performed by eunuchs, 
 spread all over Greece. 
 
 In the Greek myths Aphrodite appears 
 occasionally as the wife of Hephaestus. Her 
 love adventures with Ares are notorious. 
 From these sprang Eros and Anteros, Har- 
 monia, the wife of Cadmus, and Deimos 
 and Phobos (fear and alarm), attendants 
 on their father. By Anchises she was the 
 mother of .iEneas. The head-quarters of 
 her worship were Paphos, AmS,thus, and 
 IdaliSn (all in Cyprus), Cnidus in Dorian 
 Asia Minor, Corinth, the island of Cythera, 
 and Eryx in Sicily. As mother of Harmonia, 
 she was a guardian deity of Thebes. Among 
 plants, the myrtle, the rose, and the apple 
 
40 
 
 APHROGENEIA APICIUS. 
 
 were specially sacred to her as goddess of 
 love ; amongst animals, the ram, he-goat, 
 hare, dove, sparrow, and other creatures of 
 amorous nature (the ram and dove being 
 widely-current symbols of great antiquity) ; 
 as sea-goddess, the swan, mussels, and 
 dolphin ; as Urania, the tortoise. 
 
 In ancient art, in which Aphrodite is one 
 of the favourite subjects, she is represented 
 in a higher or lower aspect, according as 
 the artist's aim was to exhibit Urania or 
 the popular goddess of love. In the earlier 
 works of art she usually appears clothed, 
 but in later ones more or less undraped ; 
 either as rising from the sea or leaving the 
 bath, or (as in later times) merely as an 
 ideal of female beauty. In the course of 
 time the divine element disappeared, and 
 the presentation became more and more 
 ordinary. While the older sculptures show 
 
 (2) KEPLICA OF APHKODITE OF CNIDUS 
 BY PKAXITELES. 
 
 (Mnnicli, Glyptothek.) 
 
 the sturdier forms, the taste of later times 
 leans more and more to softer, weaker out- 
 
 lines. Most renowned in ancient times were 
 the statue at Cnidus by Praxiteles (a copy 
 
 (3) APHRODITE OF MELOS. 
 
 (Paris, liOuvre). 
 
 of which is now at Munich, see fig. 2), and 
 the painting of Aphrodite Anadyomene by 
 Apelles. Of original statues preserved to 
 us, the most famous are the Aphrodite of 
 Melos {Milo, see fig. 3) now at Paris, and that 
 of Capua at Naples, both of which bring ovit 
 the loftier aspect of the goddess, and the 
 Medicean Venus at Florence, the work of 
 a late Attic sculptor, Cleomenes, in the 
 delicate forms of face and body that pleased 
 
 a younger age. On the identification of 
 
 Aphrodite with the Roman goddess of love, 
 see Venus. 
 
 Aphroggneia. A surname of Aphrodite 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Aphthonius. A Greek rhetorician of An- 
 tioch, about 400 A.D., a pupil of Libanius, 
 who wrote a schoolbook on the elements of 
 rhetoric, the Progymnasmdtd, or "First 
 Steps in Style," much used in schools down 
 to the 17th century. This book is really 
 an adaptation of the chapter so named in 
 Hermogenes' Rhetoric. A collection of 
 forty fables by ^sop also bears his name. 
 
 Apicius {Marcus Gavius). A glutton, 
 who lived under Augustus and Tiberius. 
 
APION APOLLO. 
 
 41 
 
 He borrowed the last name from an epicure 
 of the republican age, and wrote a book 
 upon cookery. He poisoned himself for fear 
 of starving, though at the time of his death 
 he was still worth £75,000. His name be- 
 came a proverb, so that we find an Apicius 
 Ccelius, author of a collection of recipes 
 in ten books entitled De Re CulinaHa, 
 dating from about the 3rd century a.d. 
 
 Apion. A Greek grammarian of the 1st 
 century A.D., a pupil of Didymus, and presi- 
 dent of the philological school at Alexandria. 
 He also worked for a time at Rome under 
 Tiberius and Claudius. A vain, boastful 
 man, he travelled about the Greek cities, 
 giving popular lectures on Homer. Of his 
 many writings we have only fragments left. 
 The glosses on Homer that bear his name 
 are of later origin ; on the other hand, the 
 Homeric lexicon of the sophist Apollonius 
 is based on his genuine Homeric glosses. 
 His bitter complaint, Against the Jews, ad- 
 dressed to Caligula at the instance of the 
 Alexandrians, is best known from Josephus' 
 noble reply to it. 
 
 Apodectsg {apodektai = receivers). The 
 Athenian name for a board of ten magis- 
 trates yearly appointed by lot, who kept 
 accounts of the moneys coming in to the 
 State from various sources, took possession 
 in the council's presence of the sums raised 
 by the proper officers, and after cancelling 
 the entries in their register, handed the 
 money over to the several treasuries. 
 
 Apollo (Gr. Apollon). Son of Zetis by 
 Leto (Latona), who, according to the legend 
 most widely current, bore him and his 
 twin-sister Artemis (Diana) at the foot of 
 Mount Cynthus in the island of Delos. 
 Apollo appears originally as a god of light, 
 both in its beneficent and its destructive 
 effects ; and of light in general, not of the 
 sun only, for to the early Greeks the deity 
 that brought daylight was Helios, with 
 whom it was not till afterwards that Apollo 
 was identified. While the meaning of his 
 name Apollo is uncertain, his epithets of 
 Phoebus and Lycius clearly mark him as 
 the bright, the life-giving, the former also 
 meaning the pure, holy ; for, as the god 
 of pure light, he is the enemy of darkness, 
 with all its unclean, uncouth, unhallowed 
 brood. Again, not only the seventh day 
 of the month, his birthday, but the first 
 day of each month, i.e. of each new-born 
 moon, was sacred to him, as it was to Janus, 
 the Roman god of light ; and according to 
 the view that prevailed in many seats of 
 his worship, he withdrew in winter time 
 
 either to sunny Lycia, or to the Hyper- 
 boreans who dwell in perpetual light in the 
 utmost north, and returned in spring to 
 dispel the powers of winter with his beams. 
 When the fable relates that immediately 
 after his birth, with the first shot from his 
 bow he slew the dragon Python (or 
 Delphyne), a hideous offspring of Gsea and 
 guardian of the Delphian oracle, what seems 
 to be denoted must be the spring-god's 
 victory over winter, that filled the land 
 with foul marsh and mist. As the god 
 of light, his festivals are all in spring or 
 summer, and many of them still plainly 
 reveal in certain features his true and 
 original attributes. Thus the Delphinia, 
 held at Athens in April, commemorated 
 the calming of the wintry sea after the 
 equinoctial gales, and the consequent re- 
 opening of navigation. As this feast was 
 in honour of the god of spring, so was the 
 Thargelia, held at Athens the next month, 
 in honour of the god of summer. That the 
 crops might ripen, he received firstfruits 
 of them, and at the same time propitiatory 
 gifts to induce him to avert the parching 
 heat, so hurtful to fruits and men. About 
 the time of the sun's greatest altitude (July 
 and August), when the god displays his 
 power, now for good and now for harm, the 
 Athenians offered him hecatombs, whence 
 the first month of their year was named 
 Hecatombcedn, and the Spartans held their 
 HyacintMa {see Hyacinthus). In autumn, 
 when the god was ripening the fruit of their 
 gardens and plantations, and preparing for 
 departure, they celebrated the Pyanepsia 
 iq.v.), when they presented him with the 
 firstfruits of harvest. Apollo gives the crops 
 prosperity, and protection not only against 
 summer heat, but against blight, mildew, 
 and the vermin that prey upon them, such 
 as field-mice and grasshoppers. Hence he 
 was known by special titles in some parts 
 of Asia. He was also a patron of flocks and 
 pastures, and was worshipped in many dis- 
 tricts under a variety of names referring 
 to the breeding of cattle. In the story of 
 Hermes {q.v.) stealing his oxen, Apollo is 
 himself the owner of a herd, which he gives 
 up to his brother in exchange for the lyre in- 
 vented by him. Other ancient legends speak 
 of him as tending the flocks of LaSmedon 
 and Admetus, an act afterwards repre- 
 sented as a penalty for a fault. As a god 
 of shepherds he makes love to the nymphs, 
 to the fair Daphne {q.v.), to Coronis {see 
 AsCLEPius), and to Cyrene, the mother of 
 Aristseus, likewise a god of herds. Some 
 
42 
 
 APOLLO. 
 
 forms of his worship and some versions of 
 his story imply that Apollo, like his sister 
 Artemis, was regarded as a protector of 
 tender game and a slayer of rapacious 
 beasts, especially of the wolf, the enemy of 
 flocks, and himself a symbol of the god's 
 power, that now sends mischief, and now 
 averts it. Apollo promotes the health and 
 well-being of man himself. As a god of 
 prolific power, he was invoked at weddings ; 
 and as a nurse of tender manhood and 
 trainer of manly youth, to him (as well as 
 the fountain-nymphs) were consecrated the 
 first offerings of the hair of the head. In 
 gymnasia and paloestrce he was worshipped 
 equally with Hermes and Heracles ; for he 
 gave power of endurance in boxing, with 
 adroitness and fleetness of foot. As a war- 
 like god and one helpful in fight, the 
 Spartans paid him peculiar honours in their 
 Carneia {q.v.), and in a measure the Athe- 
 nians in their BocdrOviia. Another Athe- 
 nian festival, the Metageitnia^ glorified him 
 as the author of neighbourly vmion. In 
 many places, but above all at Athens, he was 
 worshipped as Agyieus, the god of streets 
 and highways, whose rude symbol, a conical 
 post with a pointed ending, stood by street- 
 doors and in courtyards, to watch men's exit 
 and entrance, to let in good and keep out 
 evil, and was loaded by the inmates with 
 gifts of honour, such as ribbons, wreaths of 
 myrtle or bay, and the like. At sea, as well 
 as on land, Apollo is a guide and guardian, and 
 there, especially under the name Delphlnius, 
 taken from his friend and ally the dolphin, 
 the symbol of the navigable sea. Under 
 this character he was widely worshipped, 
 for the most part with peculiar propitiatory 
 rites, in seaports and on promontories, as 
 that of Actium, and particularly at Athens, 
 being also regarded as a leader of colonies. 
 "While he is Alexicdcus (averter of ills) in 
 the widest sense, he proves his power most 
 especially in times of sickness ; for, being 
 god of the hot season, and himself the 
 sender of most epidemics and the dreaded 
 plague, sweeping man swiftly away with 
 his unerring shafts, he can also lend the 
 most-eifectual aid; so that he and his son 
 Asclepius were revered as the chief gods 
 of healing. As a saviour from epidemics 
 mainly, but also from other evils, the jpcean 
 {q.v.) was sung in his honour. 
 
 In a higher sense also Apollo is a healer 
 and saviour. Prom an early time a strong 
 ethical tinge was given to his purely phy- 
 sical attributes, and the god of light became 
 a god of mental and moral purity, and there- 
 
 fore of order, justice, and legality in human 
 life. As such, he, on the one hand smites 
 and spares not the insolent offender, TitySs 
 for instance, the Aloidae, the overweening 
 Niobe, and the Greeks before Troy ; but, on 
 the other hand, to the guilt-laden soul, that 
 turns to him in penitence and supplication, 
 he grants purification from the stain of 
 committed crime (which was regarded as 
 a disease clouding the mind and crushing 
 the heart), and so he heals the spirit, and 
 readmits the outcast into civic life and 
 religious fellowship. Of this he had him- 
 self set the pattern, when, after slaying 
 the Delphian dragon, he fled from the 
 land, did seven years' menial service to 
 Admetus in atonement for the murder, and 
 when the time of penance was past had 
 himself purified in the sacred grove of bay- 
 trees by the Thessalian temple, and not till 
 then did he return to Delphi and enter on 
 his office as prophet of Zeus. Therefore 
 he exacts from all a recognition of the 
 atoning power of penance, in the teeth of the 
 old law of vengeance for blood, which only 
 bred new murders and new guilt. The 
 atoning rites propagated by Apollo's wor- 
 ship, particularly from Delphi, contributed 
 largely to the spread of milder maxims of 
 law, affecting not only individuals, but 
 whole towns and countries. Even without 
 special prompting, the people felt from time 
 to time the need of purification and expi- 
 ation ; hence certain expiatory rites had 
 from of old been connected with-his festivals. 
 
 As the god of light who pierces through 
 all darkness, Apollo is the god of divination, 
 which, however, has in his case a purely 
 ethical significance ; for he, as prophet and 
 minister of his father Zeus, makes known his 
 will to men, and helps to further his govern- 
 ment in the world. He always declares the 
 truth ; but the limited mind of man cannot 
 always grasp the meaning of his sayings. 
 He is the patron of every kind of prophecy, 
 biit most especially of that which he imparts 
 through human instruments, chiefly women, 
 while in a state of ecstasy. Great as was 
 the number of his oracles in Greece and 
 Asia, all were eclipsed in fame and import- 
 ance by that of Delphi {q.v.). 
 
 Apollo exercises an elevating and inspiring 
 influence on the mind as god of Music, 
 which, though not belonging to him alone 
 any more than Atonement and Prophecy, 
 was yet pre-eminently his province. In 
 Homer he is represented only as a player 
 on the lyre, while song is the province of 
 the Muses ; but in course of time he grows 
 
APOLLO. 
 
 43 
 
 to be the god, as they are the goddesses, of 
 song and poetry, and is therefore MusagStes 
 (Leader of the Muses) as well as master of 
 the choric dance, which goes with music and 
 song. And, as the friend of all that beau- 
 tifies life, he is intimately associated with 
 the Graces. 
 
 Standing in these manifold relations to 
 nature and man, Apollo at all times held 
 a prominent position in the religion of the 
 Greeks; and as early as Homer his name 
 is coupled with those of Zeus and Athena, 
 as if between them the three possessed the 
 sum total of divine power. His worship 
 was diffused equally over all the regions 
 in which Greeks were settled; but from 
 remote antiquity he had been the chief god 
 of the Dorians, who were also the first to 
 raise him into a type of moral excellence. 
 The two chief centres of his worship were 
 the Island of Delos, his birthplace, where, 
 at his magnificent temple standing by the 
 sea, were held every five years the festive 
 games called Delia, to which the Greek 
 states sent solemn embassies ; and Delphi, 
 with its oracle and numerous festivals (see 
 Pythia, Theoxenia). Foremost among the 
 seats of his worship in Asia was Patara in 
 Lycia with a famous oracle. 
 
 To the Romans Apollo became known 
 in the reign of their last king Tarquinius 
 Superbus, the first Roman who consulted 
 the Delphian oracle, and who also ac- 
 quired the Sibylline Books (q.v.). By the 
 influence of these writings the worship of 
 Apollo soon became so naturalized among 
 them, that in B.C. 431 they built a temple 
 to him as god of healing, from which the 
 expiatory processions (see Supplicationes) 
 prescribed in the Sibylline books used to set 
 out. In the Lectisternia {q.v.), first insti- 
 tuted in B.C. 399, Apollo occupies the fore- 
 most place. In 212 B.C., during the agony 
 of the Second Punic War, the Ludi Apolli- 
 nares were, in obedience to an oracular 
 response, established in honour of him. 
 He was made one of the chief gods of 
 Rome by Augustus, who believed himself 
 to be under his peculiar protection, and 
 ascribed the victory of Actium to his aid; 
 hence he enlarged the old temple of Apollo 
 on that promontory, and decorated it with 
 a portion of the spoils. He also renewed 
 the games held near it, previously every 
 two years, afterwards every four, with 
 gymnastic and artistic contests, and 
 regattas on the sea; at Rome he reared 
 a splendid new temple to him near his 
 own house on the Palatine, and transferred 
 
 the Ludi ScBCulures {q.v.) to him and 
 Diana. 
 
 The manifold symbols of Apollo corre- 
 spond with the multitude of his attributes. 
 The commonest is either the lyre or the 
 bow, according as he was conceived as the 
 god of song or as the far-hitting archer. 
 The Delphian diviner, Pythian Apollo, is 
 indicated by the Tripod, which was also the 
 favourite offering at his altars. Among 
 plants the bay, used for purposes of expia- 
 tion, was early sacred to him (see Daphne). 
 It was planted round his temples, and 
 plaited into garlands of victory at the 
 Pythian games. The palm-tree was also 
 sacred to him, for it was under a palm-tree 
 that he was born in Delos. Among animals, 
 the wolf, the dolphin, the snow-white and 
 musical swan, the hawk, raven, crow, and 
 snake were under his special protection ; 
 the last four in connexion with his pro- 
 phetic functions. 
 
 In ancient art he was represented as a 
 long-haired but beardless youth, of tall yet 
 muscular build, and handsome features. 
 Images of him were as abundant as his 
 worship was extensive : there was scarcely 
 an artist of antiquity who did not try his 
 
 (1) THE BELVEDEKE APOLLO. 
 
 (Eome, Vatican Musevun.) 
 
 hand upon some incident in the story of 
 Apollo. The ideal type of this god seems 
 to have been fixed chiefly by Praxiteles and 
 Scopas. The most famous statue preserved 
 
44 
 
 APOLLONIUS. 
 
 of him is the Apollo Belvedere in the Vati- 
 can (fig. 1), which represents him either as 
 fighting with the Pythian dragon, or with 
 his segis frightening back the foes who 
 threaten to storm his sanctuary. Other 
 great works, as the Apollo Musagetes in the 
 Vatican, probably from the hand of Scopas, 
 show him as a Citliaroedus in the long 
 Ionian robe, or nude as in fig. 2. The 
 Apollo SauroctHnus (lizard-killer), copied 
 from a bronze statue by Praxiteles, is es- 
 pecially celebrated for its beauty. It re- 
 presents a delicate youthful figure leaning 
 against a tree, dart in hand, ready to stab 
 a lizard that is crawling up the tree. It 
 is preserved in bronze at the Villa Albani 
 in Rome, and in marble at Paris. 
 
 (2) APOLLO, WITH LTKE AND GRIFFIN. 
 
 (Rome, Capitoline Museum.) 
 
 ApoUodorus. (1) A Greek poet of the New 
 Comedy, born at Carystus, between 300 and 
 260 B.C. He wrote forty-seven plays, and 
 won five victories. Prom him Terence bor- 
 rowed the plots of his Phormio and Hgcyra. 
 
 (2) A Greek grammarian and historian, 
 of Athens, about 140 B.C., a pupil of Aris- 
 tarchus and the Stoic Pansetius. He was a 
 most prolific writer on grammar, mythology, 
 geography, and history. Some of his works 
 were written in iambic sendrii, e.g. a geo- 
 graphy, and the Chr5ni.cd, a condensed 
 
 enumeration of the most important data in 
 history and literature from the fall of Troy, 
 which he places in B.C. 1183, down to his 
 own time, undoubtedly the most important 
 of ancient works on the subject. Besides 
 fragments, we have under his name a book 
 entitled JBibliotMca, a great storehouse of 
 mythological material from the oldest theo- 
 gonies down to Theseus, and, with all its 
 faults of arrangement and treatment, a 
 valuable aid to our knowledge of Greek 
 mythology. Yet there are grounds for 
 doubting whether it is from his hand at all, 
 whether it is even an extract from his great 
 work, On the Gods, in twenty-four books. 
 
 (3) A Greek painter of Athens, about 420 
 B.C., the first who graduated light and shade 
 in his pictures, whence he received the name 
 of Sciagrdphus (shadow-painter). This in- 
 vention entitled him to be regarded as the 
 founder of a new style, which aimed at 
 producing illusion by pictorial means, and 
 which was carried on further by his younger 
 contemporary Zeuxis. [Pliny, H.N., 35. 60]. 
 
 (4) A Greek architect of Damascus, who 
 lived for a time at Rome, where amongst 
 other things he built Trajan's Porum and 
 Trajan's Column. He was first banished 
 and then put to death under Hadrian, A.D. 
 129, having incurred that emperor's anger 
 by the freedom of his rebukes. We have 
 a work by him on Engines of War, ad- 
 dressed to Hadrian. 
 
 Apollonius, (1) the Ehodian. A Greek 
 scholar and epic poet of the Alexandrian 
 age, born at Alexandria about 260 B.C., a 
 pupil of Callimachus, wrote a long epic. 
 The Argonautica, in four books, in which, 
 departing from his master's taste for the 
 learned and artificial, he aimed at all the 
 simplicity of Homer. The party of Calli- 
 machus rejected the poem, and Apollonius 
 retired in disgust to Rhodes, where his 
 labours as a rhetorician, and his newly re- 
 vised poem, won him hearty recognition and 
 even admission to the citizenship. Hence 
 his surname. Afterwards, returning to 
 Alexandria, he recited his poem once more, 
 and this time with universal applause, so 
 that Ptolemy Epiphanes, in B.C. 196, ap- 
 pointed him to succeed Eratosthenes as 
 librarian. He probably died during the 
 tenure of this office. His epic poem, which 
 has survived, has a certain simplicity, though 
 falling far short of the naturalness and 
 beauty of Homer ; its uniform mediocrity 
 often makes it positively tedious, though it 
 is constructed with great care, especially in 
 its versification. By the Romans it was much 
 
APOREAXIS APOTHEOSIS. 
 
 45 
 
 prized, and more than once imitated, as by 
 Varro of Atax and Valerius Placcus. A 
 valuable collection of scholia upon it testi- 
 fies the esteem in which it was held by the 
 learned of old. 
 
 (2) ApoUonius o/Tralles. A Greek sculp- 
 tor of the school of Rhodes, and joint author 
 with his countryman Tauriscus of the cele- 
 brated group of Laocoon (q.v.). Among 
 other artists of the name, the worthiest of 
 mention is ApoUonius of Athens, of the 1st 
 century B.C. From his hand is the Hercules, 
 now only a torso, preserved in the Belve- 
 dere at Rome. 
 
 (3) ApoUonius of Perga in Pamphylia. A 
 Greek mathematician named " the Geome- 
 ter," who lived at Pergamus and Alexandria 
 in the 1st century B.C., and wrote a work on 
 Conic Sections in eight books, of which we 
 have only the first four in the original, the 
 fifth, sixth, and seventh in an Arabic trans- 
 lation, and the eighth in extracts. The 
 method he followed is that still in use. 
 
 (4) ApoUoniv£ of Tydna in Cappadocia, 
 the most celebrated of the Neo-Pythago- 
 reans, lived about the middle of the 1st cen- 
 tury A.D. ; by a severely ascetic life on the 
 supposed principles of Pythagoras, and by 
 pretended miracles, he obtained such a hold 
 on the multitude that he was worshipped as 
 a god, and set up as a rival to Christ. The 
 account of his life by the elder Philostratus 
 iq.v.) is more romance than history, and 
 offers little to build upon. Having received 
 his philosophical education, and lived in the 
 temple of Asclepius at i&gai, till his twen- 
 tieth year, he divided his patrimony among 
 the poor, and roamed all over the world ; 
 he was even said to have reached India and 
 the sources of the Nile. Twice he lived at 
 Rome ; first under Nero till the expulsion of 
 the philosophers, and again in Domitiari's 
 reign, when he had to answer a charge of 
 conspiring against the emperor. Smuggled 
 out of Rome during his trial, he continued 
 his life as a wandering preacher of morals 
 and worker of marvels for some years longer, 
 and is said to have died at a great age, 
 master of a school at Ephesus. Of his 
 alleged writings, eight-five letters have 
 alone survived. 
 
 (5) ApoUonius, surnamed DyscMus ( = the 
 surly). A Greek scholar, of Alexandria, 
 where he had received his education, and 
 where he ended his days a member of the 
 Museum, after having laboured as a teacher 
 at Rome under Antoninus Pius, about 140 
 A.D. He is the father of Scientific Gram- 
 mar, having been the first to reduce jt to 
 
 systematic form. His extant works are the 
 treatises on Pronouns, Adverbs, Conjunc- 
 tions, and the Syntax of the parts of speech, 
 in four books. He was followed especially 
 by the Latin grammarians, above all by 
 Prisoian. His son Herodianus accomplished 
 even more than he did. 
 
 (6) ApoUonius the Sophist, of Alexandria. 
 His precise date a.d. is unknown. He was 
 author of an extant Lexicon of Homeric 
 Glosses, based on Apion's lost glossarial 
 writings, 
 
 (7) ApoUonius, Jang of Tyre, the hero of 
 a Greek romance (now lost), composed in 
 Asia Minor, in the 3rd century A.D., on the 
 model of the Ephesian History of Xenophon 
 {q.v. 2). We have a free Latin version 
 made by a Christian, about the 6th century, 
 probably in Italy, which was much read in 
 the Middle Ages, and translated into Anglo- 
 Saxon, English, French, Italian, Middle 
 Greek and German, in prose and verse. Its 
 materials are nsed in the pseudo-Shak- 
 spearian drama of Pericles Prince of Tyre. 
 
 Aporraxis. See Ball, Games of. 
 
 Apotheosis (Lat. Consecrdtio). The act 
 of placing a human being among the gods, 
 of which the Greeks have an instance as 
 early as Homer, but only in the single case 
 of LeucSthea. The oldest notion was that 
 of a bodily removal ; then arose the idea of 
 the mortal element being purged away by 
 fire, as in the case of Heracles. There was 
 a kind of deification which consisted in the 
 decreeing of heroic honours to distinguished 
 men after death, which was done from the 
 time of the Peloponnesian War onwards, 
 even in the case of living men (see Heroes). 
 The successors of Alexander the Great, both 
 the SeleucidsB and still more the Ptolemies, 
 caused themselves to be worshipped as gods. 
 Of the Romans, whose legend told of the 
 translation of .^neas and Romiilus into 
 heaven, Csesar was the first who claimed 
 divine honours, if not by building temples 
 to himself, yet by setting his statue among 
 the gods in every sanctuary at Rome and in 
 the empire, and by having a special flamen 
 assigned to him. The belief in his divinity 
 was confirmed by the comet that shone 
 several months after his death, as long as 
 his funeral games lasted; and under the 
 triumvirate he was formally installed among 
 the deities of Rome, as Divus lulius, by a 
 decree of the senate and people. His adop^ 
 ted son and successor Octavian persistently 
 declined any offer of public worship, but he 
 accepted the title of Augustus (the conse- 
 crated), and allowed his person to be adored 
 
46 
 
 APPARITOR APULEIUS. 
 
 in the provinces. On his death the senate 
 decreed divine honours to him tinder the 
 title of Divus Augustus, the erection of a 
 temple, the founding of special games, and 
 the establishment of a peculiar priesthood. 
 After this, admission to the number of the 
 Divi, as the deified emperors were called, 
 becomes a prerogative of the imperial 
 dignity. It is, however, left dependent on 
 a resolution of the senate moved in honour 
 of the deceased emperor by his successor. 
 Hence it is not every emperor who obtains 
 it, nor does consecration itself always lead 
 to a permanent worship. Empresses too 
 were often consecrated, first Augustus' 
 wife Li via as Diva Augusta, and even 
 other members of the imperial house. 
 
 The ceremony of Apotheosis used from the 
 time of Augustus was the following. After 
 the passing of the senate's decree a waxen 
 image of the dead, whose body lay hidden 
 below, was exhibited for seven days on an 
 ivory bed of state in the palace, covered with 
 gold-embroidered coverlets; then the bier 
 was borne by knights and senators amidst a 
 brilliant retinue down the Via Sacra to the 
 ancient Forum, where the funeral oration 
 was delivered, and thence to the Campus 
 Martius, where it was deposited in the 
 second of the four stories of a richly 
 decorated funeral pile of pyramid shape. 
 When the magistrates sacred and secular, 
 the knights, lifeguard, and others concerned, 
 had performed the last honours by proces- 
 sions and libations, the pile was set on fire, 
 and as it burned up, an eagle soared from 
 the topmost storey into the sky, a symbol 
 of the ascending soul. 
 
 Apparitor. The general name in Latin 
 for all public servants of the magistrates. 
 Thej' all had to be Roman citizens, and 
 were paid a fixed salary out of the public 
 treasury. Though nominated by the re- 
 spective officers for a year at a time, they 
 were usually re-appointed, so that practic- 
 ally their situations were secured for life, 
 and they could even sell their places. The 
 most important classes of these attendants 
 were those of scrlbce, lictOres, vidtores and 
 prcBCOnes (q.v.). These were divided into 
 decurice of varying strength, which enjoyed 
 corporate rights, and chose foremen from 
 their own body. {Comp. Accensi.) 
 
 Appellatio. The Latin term for an appeal 
 .to a magistrate to put his veto on the 
 decision of an equal or inferior magistrate. 
 Thus a consul could be appealed to against 
 his colleague and all other magistrates 
 except the tribunes, but a tribune both 
 
 against his colleagues and all magistrates 
 whatsoever. Another thing altogether was 
 the Provocatio (^.w.) under the Republic, an 
 appeal from a magistrate's sentence to the 
 People as supreme judge. During the im- 
 perial period the two processes run into one, 
 for the emperor held united in his person 
 both the supreme judicial function and the 
 plenary power of all magistrates, particu- 
 larly the tribunician veto, so that an appeal 
 to him was at once an appellatio and a 
 provocatio. This appeal, in our sense of 
 the word, was only permitted in important 
 cases ; it had to be made within a short 
 time after sentence was passed, and always 
 addressed to the authority next in order, 
 so that it only reached the emperor if no 
 intermediate authority was competent. If 
 the result was that the disputed verdict was 
 neither quashed nor awarded, but confirmed, 
 the appellant had to pay a fine. As the 
 power of life and death rested with the 
 emperor and senate alone, governors of pro- 
 vinces were bound to send up to Rome any 
 citizen appealing on a capital charge. 
 
 Appianus. A Greek historian, of Alex- 
 andria, who lived about the middle of the 
 2nd century A.D. At first he pursued the 
 calling of an advocate at Rome ; in later 
 life, on the recommendation of his friend 
 the rhetorician Fronto, he obtained from 
 Antoninus Pius the post of an imperial pro- 
 curator in Egypt. He wrote an extensive 
 work on the development of the Roman 
 Empire from the earliest times do\vn to 
 Trajan, consisting of a number of special 
 histories of the several periods and the 
 several lands and peoples till the time when 
 they fell under the Roman dominion. Of 
 the twenty-four books of which it originally 
 consisted, only eleven are preserved complete 
 beside the Preface : Spain (book 6), Hannibal 
 (7), Carthage (8), Syria (11), Mithridates 
 (12), the Roman' Civil Wars (13-17) and 
 Illyria (23), the rest being lost altogether, 
 or only surviving in fragments. Appian's 
 style is plain and bald, even to dryness, and 
 his historical point of view is purely Roman. 
 The book is a mere compilation, and dis- 
 figured by many oversights and blunders, es- 
 pecially in chronologj"- ; nevertheless the use 
 made by the writer of lost authorities lends 
 it considerable worth, and for the history 
 of the Civil Wars it is positively invaluable. 
 
 Apsines. A Greek rhetorician, of Gadara, 
 who taught at Athens in the first half of 
 the 3rd century A.D., and wrote a valuable 
 treatise on Rhetoric. 
 
 Apuleius (Lucius), Born about 130 a.d. 
 
AQUiELICIUM ARATUS. 
 
 47 
 
 at Madaura in Ntimidia, of a wealthy and 
 honourable family; the most original Latin 
 writer of his time. Educated at Carthage, 
 he went to Athens to study philosophy, 
 especially that of Plato ; then he travelled 
 far and wide, everywhere obtaining initiation 
 into the mysteries. For some time he lived 
 in Rome as an advocate. After returning 
 to Africa, he married a lady considerably 
 older than himself, the mother of a friend, 
 jEmilia Pudentilla, whereupon her kinsmen 
 charged him with having won the rich 
 widow's hand by magic, and of having 
 contrived the death of her son; a charge 
 to which he replied with much wit in his 
 oration De Mdgid (earlier than A.D. 161). 
 He afterwards settled down at Carthage, 
 and thence made excursions through Africa, 
 delivering orations or lectures. Of the rest 
 of his life and the year of his death nothing 
 is known. Beside the Apologia above- 
 mentioned, and a few rhetorical and philo- 
 sophic writings, another work, his chief one, 
 also survives, which was composed at a ripe 
 age, with hints borrowed from a book of 
 Lucian's. This is a satirical and fantastic 
 moral romance, Jieto?Horp7iosgon. lihri XI {de 
 Asino Aureo), the adventures of one Lucius, 
 who is transformed into an ass, and under 
 that disguise has the amplest opportunities 
 of observing, undetected, the preposterous 
 doings of mankind. Then, enlightened by 
 this experience, and with the enchantment 
 taken off him by admission into the mys- 
 teries of Osiris, he becomes quite a new man. 
 Of the many episodes interwoven into the 
 story, the most interesting is the beautiful 
 allegorical fairy tale of Cupid and Psyche, 
 so much used by later poets and artists. 
 Throughout the book Apuleius paints the 
 moral and religious conditions of his time 
 with much humour and in lifelike colours, 
 though his language, while clever, is often 
 affected, bombastic, and disfigured by obso- 
 lete and provincial phrases. 
 
 Aqaaellcium. The Roman name for a 
 ceremony for bringing on rain. {See 
 Jupiter.) 
 
 Aqueducts were not unfrequently con- 
 structed by the Greeks, who collected the 
 spring-water of neighbouring hills, by chan- 
 nels cut through the rock, or by under- 
 ground conduits of brick and stone work, 
 into reservoirs, and thence distributed it by 
 a network, of rills. An admirable work of 
 this kind is the tunnel, more than a mile 
 in length, which was bored through the 
 mountain now called Kastri, by the archi- 
 tect Eupalinus of MegSra, probably under 
 
 Polycrates (in the 6th century B.C.).— The 
 Roman aqueducts are among the most 
 magnificent structures of antiquity. Some 
 of these were likewise constructed under- 
 ground ; others, latterly almost all, con- 
 veyed the water, often for long distances, 
 in covered channels of brick or stone, over 
 lofty arcades stretching straight through 
 hill and valley. They started from a well- 
 head {caput dquarum) and ended in a reser- 
 voir {castellum), out of which the water ran 
 in Rome into three chambers, lying one above 
 another, the lowest chamber sending it 
 through leaden or clay pipes into the pub- 
 lic fountains and basins, the middle one 
 into the great bathing establishments, the 
 uppermost into private houses. Private 
 citizens paid a tax for the water they ob- 
 tained from these public sources. Under 
 the Republic the construction and repair of 
 aqueducts devolved upon the censors, their 
 management on the sediles, but from the 
 time of Augustus on a special curator aqua- 
 rum assisted by a large staff of pipe-mas- 
 ters, fountain-masters, inspectors, and others, 
 taken partly from the number of the public 
 slaves. The amount of water brought into 
 Rome by its numerous aqueducts, the first 
 of which, the aqua Appia, was projected B.C. 
 312, may be estimated from the fact that the 
 four still in use — aqua virgo (now Acqua 
 Vergine, built by Agrippa B.C. 20), aqua 
 Marcia (now Acqua Pia, B.C. 144), nqua 
 Claudia (now Acqua Felice, finished by 
 Claudius A.D. 52), aqua Traiana (now Acqua 
 Paola, constructed by Trajan A.D. Ill)— are 
 sufficient to supply all the houses and innu- 
 merable fountains of the present city in 
 superfluity. Among the provincial aque- 
 ducts, one is specially well preserved, that 
 known as Pont du Grard, near Nimes, in the 
 south of France (see cut on p. 48). 
 
 Arachne ( = spider). Daughter of the Ly- 
 dian purple-dyer Idmon, challenged Athena, 
 of whom she had learnt weaving, to a weav- 
 ing match. When the offended goddess 
 tore up Arachne's web, which represented 
 the loves of the gods, Arachne hung herself, 
 but Athena changed her into a spider. 
 
 Aratus. A Greek poet, of Soli in Cilicia, 
 about 270 B.C., contemporary of Callimachus 
 and Theocritus. At the request of the 
 Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatas, at 
 whose court he lived as physician, he wrote, 
 without much knowledge of the subject, 
 but guided by the works of Budoxus and 
 Theophrastus, an astronomical poem, Phce- 
 nomena and Prognostica (aspects of the sky 
 and signs of weather). Without genuine 
 
ARCADIUS ARCHITECTURE 
 
 49 
 
 poetic inspiration, Aratus manages his in- 
 tractable material with considerable tact, 
 and dignified simplicity. The language, 
 while not always free from stiffness, is 
 choice, and the versification correct. The 
 poem enjoyed a high repute with the general 
 public, as well as with poets and specialists : 
 thus the great astronomer Hipparchus wrote 
 a commentary on it in four books. The 
 Romans also took pleasure in reading and 
 translating it, e.g. Cicero, Caesar Germanicus, 
 and Avienus. 
 
 Arcadius (Gr. Arkddws). A Greek gram- 
 marian of Antioch, who probably flourished 
 in the 2nd century a.d. He was the author 
 of a Doctrine of Accents in 20 books, an 
 abstract of a work by the famous Herodian. 
 
 Areas (Gr. Arkds). Son of Zeus by the 
 nymph Callisto, and ancestor of the Ar- 
 cadians, who was translated to the sky by 
 Zeus as J^rc<MrMS = Watcher of the Bear. 
 {See Callisto.) 
 
 Arche. The Greek term for any public office. 
 
 Archeion. The Greek term for the 
 official residence of a state functionary. 
 
 Archemorus (= leader in fate, i.e. the first 
 to die). A surname given to Opheltes, the 
 infant son of Lycurgus king of Nemea, who 
 was killed by a snake during the march of 
 the Seven against Thebes (g'.w.). It was 
 given him by the seer Amphiaraiis, who 
 foresaw the destruction awaiting himself 
 and his confederates ; and by it the child 
 was invoked at the Nemean Games origin- 
 ally founded in memory of him. 
 
 Archestratus, of Gela, in Sicily, flourished 
 about 318 B.C., and composed the humorous 
 didactic poem Hedypdtheia ( = good cheer), 
 supposed to describe a gastronomic tour 
 round the then known world, with playful 
 echoes of Homer and the dogmatic philoso- 
 phers. The numerous fragments display 
 much talent and wit. 
 
 ArcMlochas. A Greek lyric poet, especi- 
 ally eminent as a writer of lampoons. Born 
 at Pares, he was the son of Telesicles by a 
 slave-woman, but was driven by poverty to 
 go with a colony to Thasos B.C. 720 or 708. 
 Erom Thasos he was soon driven by want 
 and by the enmities which his unrestrained 
 passion for invective had drawn upon him. 
 He seems to have roamed restlessly from 
 place to place, until, on his return to Paros, 
 he was slain in fight by the Naxian Calondas. 
 Long afterwards, when this man visited the 
 Delphian temple,the god is said to have driven 
 him from his threshold as the slayer of a ser- 
 vant of the Muses, and refused to admit him 
 till he had propitiated the soul of the poet 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 at his tomb : a story which expresses the 
 high value set on his art by the ancients, 
 who placed him on a level with Homer, 
 Pindar and SophScles. For Archilochus 
 had an extraordinary poetical genius, which 
 enabled him to invent a large number of 
 new metres, and to manipulate them with 
 the ease of a master. He brought Iambic 
 poetry, in particular, to artistic perfection. 
 The many misfortunes of his stormy life 
 had bred in his irritable nature a deeply- 
 settled indignation, which, in poems perfect 
 in form and alive with force and fury, 
 vented itself in bitter mockery even of 
 his friends, and in merciless, unpardonable 
 abuse of his foes. Such was the effect of 
 his lampoons, that Lycambes, who had first 
 promised and then refused him his daughter 
 Neobule, hanged himself and his family in 
 the despair engendered by the poet's furious 
 attacks. Of his poems, which were written 
 in the Old-Ionic dialect, and taken by 
 Horace for his model in his Epodes, only a 
 number of short fragments are preserved. 
 
 Archimedes. One of the greatest mathe- 
 maticians and natural philosophers of anti- 
 quity, born B.C. 287 at SjTacuse. He lived 
 at the court of his kinsman, king Hiero, 
 and was killed (B.C. 212) by a Roman soldier 
 at the taking of the city which he had 
 largely aided in defending with his engines. 
 Of his inventions and discoveries we need 
 only say, that he ascertained the ratio of the 
 radius to the circumference, and that of the 
 cylinder to the sphere, and the hydrostatic 
 law that a body dipped in water loses as 
 much weight as that of the water displaced 
 by it ; that he invented the pulley, the end- 
 less screw, and the kind of pump called the 
 "screw of Archimedes"; and that he con- 
 structed the so-called "sphere," a sort of 
 orrery showing the motions of the heavenly 
 bodies. Of his works, written in the Doric 
 dialect, the following are preserved: On the 
 sphere and cylinder, On the measurement 
 of the circle, On conoids and spheroids. On 
 spiral lines, The psammltes (or sand-reck- 
 oner, for the calculation of the earth's size 
 in grains of sand). On the equilibrium of 
 planes and their centres of gravity, and 
 On floating bodies. 
 
 Architecture : (1) of the Greeks. Of the 
 earliest efforts of the Greeks in architecture, 
 we have evidence in the so-called Cyclopean 
 Walls surrounding the castles of kings in 
 the Heroic Age at Tiryns, Argos, Mycense 
 (fig. 1), and elsewhere. They are of enormous 
 thickness, some being constructed of rude 
 colossal blocks, whose gaps are filled up 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 ARCHITECTURE, 
 
 ■with smaller stonea ; while others are built 
 of stones more or less carefully hewn, their 
 
 (1) WALL OF POLYGONAL STONES, MYCEN^. 
 
 interstices exactly fitting into each other. 
 Gradually they begin to show an approxi- 
 
 su7-e-house of Atreii.i at Mycense. The 
 usual form of these buildings is that of a 
 circular chamber vaulted over by the hori- 
 zontal courses approaching from all sides 
 till they meet. Thus the vault is not a 
 true arch (fig. 3). The interior seems 
 originally to have been covered with metal 
 plates, thus agreeing with Homer's descrip- 
 tions of metal as a favourite ornament of 
 princely houses. An open-air building pre- 
 served from that age is the supposed Temple 
 of Hera on Mount Ocha (now Hagios Elias) 
 in Euboea, a rectangle built of regular square 
 blocks, with walls more than a yard thick, 
 two small windows, and a door with leaning 
 posts and a huge lintel in the southern side- 
 wall. The sloping roof is of hewn flagstones 
 resting on the thickness of the wall and 
 overlapping each other ; but the centre is 
 left open as in the hypsethral temples of a 
 later time. 
 
 From the simple shape of a rectangular 
 house shut in by blank walls we gradu- 
 ally advance to finer and richer forms, 
 formed especially by the introduction of 
 columns detached from the wall and serv- 
 ing to support the roof and ceiling. Even 
 in Homer we find columns in the palaces to 
 support the halls that surround the court- 
 yard, and the ceiling of the banqueting-room. 
 The construction of cohimns (see Aechitec- 
 TUEE, Orders of) received its artistic de- 
 velopment first from the Dorians after their 
 migration into the Peloponnesus about 
 1000 B.C., next from the lonians, and from 
 (2) THE LION-GATE, MYCEN^. Bach iu a form suitable to their several 
 
 characters. If the simple serious character 
 
 mation to buildings with rectangular blocks, of the Dorians speaks in the Doric Order, 
 
 The gates let into these walls are closed at no less does the lighter, nimbler, and more 
 
 the top either by the courses of 
 
 stone jutting over from each side 
 
 till they touch, or by a long straight 
 
 block laid over the two leaning side- 
 posts. Of the latter kind is the 
 
 famous Lion-gate at Mycence, so- 
 called from the group of two lions 
 
 standing with their forefeet on the 
 
 broad pedestal of a pillar that tapers 
 
 rapidly downwards, and remarkable 
 
 as the oldest specimen of Greek 
 
 sculpture. The sculpture is carved 
 
 on a large triangular slab that fills 
 
 an opening left in the wall to lighten 
 
 the weight on the lintel (fig. 2). 
 Among the most striking relics of 
 
 this primitive age are the so-called 
 
 Thesauroi (treasuries, usually sub- (^) * " teeasukb house " of atkeus, mycen^. 
 
 terranean) of ancient dynasties, the ^ wall of entrance-passage (di-SmSs), soft. long. B entrance, lOJ 
 
 most considerable being the Trea- imalf^amberf'^^ ''''*'°*''' '" "' '"^''- ■» entrance.(9 ft. Ugh) to 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 51 
 
 showy genius of the Ionian race come out 
 in the Order named after them. By about 
 650 B.C. the Ionic style was flourishing side 
 by side with the Doric. 
 
 As it was in the construction of Temples 
 {q.v.) that architecture had developed her 
 favourite forms, all other public buildings 
 borrowed their artistic character from the 
 temple. The structure and furniture of 
 private houses {see House), were, during 
 the best days of Greece, kept down to the 
 simplest forms. About 600 B.C., in the 
 Greek islands and on the coast of Asia 
 Minor, we come across the first architects 
 known to us by name. It was then that 
 Rhoecus and Theodorus of Samos, cele- 
 
 period, in addition to many ruined temples 
 in Sicily (especially at Selinus and Agri- 
 gentum), should be mentioned the Temple 
 of Poseidon at Passtum (Poseidonia) in South 
 Italy, one of the best preserved and most 
 beautiful relics of antiquity (figs. 4, 5). 
 The patriotic fervour of the Persian Wars 
 created a general expansion of Greek life, 
 in which Architecture and the sister art of 
 Sculpture were not slow to take a part. In 
 these departments, as in the whole onward 
 movement, a central position was taken by 
 Athens, whose leading statesmen, Cimon and 
 Pericles, lavished the great resources of the 
 State at once in strengthening and beauti- 
 fying the city. During this period arose a 
 
 (4) * EXTEKIOR OF TEMPLE OF POSEIDON AT P^STUM (79 ft. X 195 ft.). 
 
 brated likewise as inventors of casting in 
 bronze, built the great temple of Hera in 
 that island, while Chersiphron of Cnosus 
 in Crete, with his son MetagSnSs, began 
 the temple of Artemis (Diana) at Ephesus, 
 one of the seven wonders of the world, 
 which was not finished till 120 years 
 after. In Greece Proper a vast temple to 
 Zeus was begun at Athens in the 6th cen- 
 tury B.C. (see Oltmpieum), and two more 
 at Delphi and Olympia, one by the Cor- 
 inthian Spinthdrus, the other by the Elean 
 Libon. Here, and in the Western colonies 
 the Doric style still predominated every- 
 where. Among the chief remains of this 
 
 group of masterpieces that still astonish us 
 in their ruins, some in the forms of a softened 
 Doric, others in the Ionic style, which had 
 now found its way into Attica, and was here 
 fostered into nobler shapes. The Doric 
 order is represented by the Temple of 
 Theseus (fig. 6), the Propylsea built by 
 MnSstcles, the Parthenon, a joint produc- 
 tion of Ictinus and CallicrdtSs ; while the 
 Erechtheum is the most brilliant creation of 
 the Ionic order in Attica. Of the influence of 
 Attic Architecture on the rest of Greece we 
 have proof, especially in the Temple of Apollo 
 at Bassse in South- Western Arcadia,built from 
 the design of the above-mentioned Ictinus. 
 
52 
 
 AKCHITECTURE. 
 
 The progress of the Drama to its per- 
 fection in this period led to a correspond- 
 ing improvement in the building of The- 
 atres {q.v.). A stone theatre was begun 
 at Athens even before the Persian Wars ; 
 and the Odeum of Pericles served similar 
 purposes. How soon the highest results 
 were achieved in this department, when 
 once the fundamental forms had thus been 
 laid down in outline at Athens, is shown 
 by the theatre at Epidaurus, a work of 
 PolyclUus, unsurpassed, as the ancients 
 testify, by any later theatres in harmony 
 a,nd beauty. Another was built at Syracuse, 
 before B.C. 420. Nor is it only in the 
 erection of single buildings that the great 
 
 increasingly fashionable. In the first half 
 of the 4tli century arose what the ancients 
 considered the largest and grandest temple 
 in the Peloponnesus, that of Athena at 
 Tegea, a work of the sculptor and archi- 
 tect Scopas. During the middle of the 
 century, another of the "seven wonders," 
 the splendid tomb of Mausolus at Halicar- 
 nassus was constructed (see Mausoleum). 
 Many magnificent temples arose in that 
 time. In Asia Minor, the temple at 
 Ephesus, burnt down by Herostratus, was 
 rebuilt by Alexander's bold architect 
 Deinocrdtes. In the islands the ruins of 
 the temple of Athena at Priene, of Apollo 
 at Miletus, of Dionysus at Teos, and others, 
 
 (5) * INTERIOR OP TEMPLE OF POSEIDON, PiESTUM ; See p. 51. 
 
 advance then made by architecture shows 
 itself. In laying out new towns, or parts 
 of towns, men began to proceed on artistic 
 principles, an innovation due to the sophist 
 Hippoddmus of Miletus. 
 
 In the 4th century B.C., owing to the 
 change wrought in the Greek mind by the 
 Peloponnesian War, in place of the pure and 
 even tone of the preceding period, a desire 
 for effect became more and more general, 
 both in architecture and sculpture. The 
 sober Doric style fell into abeyance and 
 gave way to the Ionic, by the side of which 
 a new Order, the Corinthian, said to have 
 been invented by the sculptor Callimdchus, 
 with its more gorgeous decorations, became 
 
 even to this day offer a brilliant testi- 
 mony to their former magnificence. Among 
 Athenian buildings of that age the Monu- 
 ment of Lysicrates (q.v.) is conspicuous 
 for its graceful elegance and elaborate de- 
 velopment of the Corinthian style. In the 
 succeeding age Greek architecture shows 
 its finest achievements in the building of 
 theatres, especially those of Asiatic towns, 
 in the gorgeous palaces of newly-built royal 
 capitals, and in general in the luxurious 
 completeness of private buildings. As an 
 important specimen of the last age of Attic 
 architecture may also be mentioned the 
 Tower of the Winds (q.v.) at Athens. 
 (2) Architecture of the Etruscans and 
 
ARCHITECTUEJ5. 
 
 53 
 
 Eomans. In architecture, as well as sculp- 
 ture, the Romans were long under the 
 influence of the Etruscans, who, though 
 denied the gift of rising to the ideal, 
 united wonderful activity 
 and inventiveness with a pas- 
 sion for covering their build- 
 ings with rich ornamental 
 carving. ISTone of their tem- 
 ples have survived, for they 
 built all the upper parts of 
 wood ; but many proofs of 
 their activity in building re- 
 main, surviving from various 
 ages, in the shape of Tombs 
 and Walls. The latter clearly 
 show how they progressed 
 from piling up polygonal 
 blocks in Cyclopean style to 
 regular courses of squared 
 stone. Here and there a building still 
 shows that the Etruscans originally made 
 vaultings by letting horizontal courses jut 
 over, as in the ancient Greek thesauroi above 
 mentioned ; on the other hand, some very 
 old gateways, as at Volterra (fig. 7) and 
 Perugia, exhibit the true Arch of wedge- 
 shaped stones, the invention of which is 
 probably due to Etruscan ingenuity, and 
 from the introduction of which a new 
 and magnificent development of archi- 
 tecture takes its rise. The most impos- 
 ing monument of ancient Italian arch- 
 building is to be seen in the sewers of 
 Rome laid down in the 6th century B.C. 
 {See Cloaca Maxima.) 
 
 When all other traces of Etruscan 
 influence were being swept away at 
 Rome by the intrusion of Greek forms 
 of art, especially after the Conquest of 
 Greece in the middle of the 2nd cen- 
 tury B.C., the Roman architects kept 
 alive in full vigour the Etruscan 
 method of building the arch, which 
 they developed and completed by the 
 inventions of the Cross-Arch (or groined 
 vault) and the Dome. With the Arch, 
 which admits of a bolder and more varied 
 management of spaces, the Romans 
 combined, as a decorative element, the 
 columns of the Greek Orders. Among 
 these their growing love of pomp gave '^=' 
 the preference more and more to the 
 Corinthian, adding to it afterwards a still 
 more gorgeous embellishment in what is 
 called the Roman or Composite capital (see 
 Abchitecture, Orders of). Another ser- 
 vice rendered by the Romans was the intro- 
 duction of building in brick {see Pottery). 
 
 A more vigorous advance in Roman archi- 
 tecture dates from the opening of the 3rd 
 century B.C., when they began making great 
 military roads and aqueducts. In the first 
 
 (6) * " THESEUM " (46 ft. X 105 ft.) ; see p. 51. 
 
 half of the 2nd century they built, on Greek 
 models, the first Basilica, which, besides its 
 practical utility served to embellish the 
 Forum. Soon after the middle of the cen- 
 
 
 -■■-- If 
 
 
 
 «' 
 
 (7) * GATE OF VOLTEKRA. 
 
 (After Canina.) 
 
 tury, appeared the first of their more am- 
 bitious temples in the Greek style. There 
 is simple grandeur in the ruins of the 
 T&hularlum, or Record-OfBce, built B.C. 78 
 
5-1 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 on the slope of the Capitol next the Forum. 
 These are among the few remains of Roman 
 republican architecture ; but in the last de- 
 cades of the Republic simplicity gradually 
 disappeared, and men were eager to display 
 
 aided by his son-in-law Agrippa, a man who 
 understood building, not only completed his 
 uncle's plans, but added many magnificent 
 structures— the Forum Augusti with its 
 Temple to Mars Ultor, the Theatre of Mar- 
 
 (8) * EXTERIOR OF COLOSSEUM ; SBB p. 55. 
 
 (Cooke, Tiev:s of the Coliseum, pi. 13.) 
 
 a princely pomp in public and private build- 
 ings ; witness the first stone theatre erected 
 by Pompey as early as 55 B.C. Then all 
 that went before was eclipsed by the vast 
 works undertaken by Ccesar, the Theatre, 
 
 cellus with its Portico of Octavia, the Man- 
 soleum, and others. Augustus could fairly 
 boast that "havingfoundEomeaoity of brick, 
 he left it a city of marble." The grandest 
 monument of that age, and one of the loftiest 
 
 
 (9) * INTERIOK OF COLOSSEUM ; See p. 55. 
 (Cooke, TieKs of the Coliseum., pi. 4.) 
 
 Amphitheatre, Circus, Basilica Iulia,Forum 
 Ccesdris with its Temple to Venus Genetrix. 
 These were finished by Augustus, under 
 whom Roman architecture seems to have 
 reached its culminating point. Augustus 
 
 creations of Roman art in general is the 
 Pantheon (q.v.) built by Agrippa, adjacent to. 
 but not connected with, his Thermce, the first 
 of the many works of that kind in Rome. 
 A still more splendid aspect was imparted 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 55 
 
 to the city by the rebtiilding of the Old 
 Town burnt down in Nero's fire, and by the 
 " Golden House " of Nero, a gorgeous pile, 
 
 The progress made under the Flavian em- 
 perors is evidenced by Vespasian's Amphi- 
 theatre (q.v.) known as the Colosseum (figs. 
 
 mcECGuD D Q Dononnnn □ □ c 
 
 n n n n n 
 
 (10) * CKOSS-SECTION OP COLOSSEUM. 
 
 (After Fontana and Hirt.) 
 
 the like of which was never seen before, but 
 which was destroyed on the violent death of 
 its creator. Of the luxurious grandeur of 
 
 (11) * ABCH OF TITUS. 
 
 private buildings we have ocular proof in 
 the dwelling-houses of Pompeii, a paltry 
 country-town in comparison with Rome. 
 
 8, 9, 10), the mightiest Roman ruin in the 
 world, by the ruined Thermce, or Baths, of 
 Titus, and by his Triumphal Arch {q.v.), the 
 oldest specimen extant in Rome of this class 
 of monument, itself a creation of the Roman 
 mind (fig. 11). But all previous buildings 
 were surpassed in size and splendour when 
 Trajan's architect Apollodorus of Damas- 
 cus raised the Forum Traidnum with its 
 huge Basilica Vlpia (fig. 12) and the still 
 surviving Column of Trajan. No less 
 extensive were the works of Hadrian, who, 
 besides adorning Athens with many mag- 
 nificent buildings, bequeathed to Rome a 
 Temple of Venus and Roma, the most 
 colossal of all Roman temples (fig. 13), 
 and his own Mausoleum (q.v.), the core of 
 which is preserved in the Castle of St, 
 Angelo. While the works of the Antonines 
 already show a gradual decline in archi- 
 tectural feeling, the Triumphal Arch of 
 Severus ushers in the period of decay that 
 set in with the 3rd century. In this clos- 
 ing period of Roman rule the buildings 
 grow more and more gigantic, witness the 
 Baths of Caracalla (fig. 14), those of Dio- 
 cletian, with his palace at Salona (three 
 miles from Spalatro) in Dalmatia, and the 
 Basilica of Constantine breathing the last 
 feeble gasp of ancient life. But outside of 
 Rome and Italy, in every part of the enor- 
 mous empire to its utmost barbarian borders, 
 
ARCHITECTURE, ORDERS OP. 
 
 57 
 
 bridges, numberless remains of roads and 
 aqueducts and viaducts, ramparts and 
 gateways, palaces, villas, market-places 
 and judgment-halls, baths, theatres, amphi- 
 theatres and temples, attest the versatility, 
 majesty, and solidity of Roman architecture, 
 most of whose creations only the rudest 
 shocks have hitherto been able to destroy. 
 Architecture, Orders of. In Greek 
 architecture there were three orders of 
 columns: the Doric, Ionic, and Corin- 
 
 £ Cornice. T 
 
 a. Matales. d. Annalets. 
 
 b. Triglyphs. e. Flatings. 
 
 c. Metopes. 
 
 (1) Prom the Temple of 
 Foaeid5D, Psstum. 
 
 (2) From the Parthenon, 
 Athens. 
 
 Doitic ohdee. 
 
 thian. (I) Doric : Figures 1 and 2 give 
 instances of the Doric style from the temple 
 at Psestum and the Parthenon at Athens. 
 The Doric column consists (a) of the shaft, 
 which increases in diameter almost invisibly 
 up to about one-quarter of its height, and 
 diminishes slightly after that point. It has 
 no base, but rests immediately on the sty- 
 lobate. It is surrounded with semi-circular 
 flutings, meeting each other at a sharp 
 angle. These were chiselled with a cedar- 
 wood tool after the separate drums had been 
 put together. (6) The capital (Lat. capi- 
 tulum). This consists of three parts, (a) the 
 hypGtrdchelidn, or neck of the column, a 
 continuation of the shaft, but separated by 
 an indentation from the other drums. It 
 is wider at the top than at the bottom, 
 and is generally ornamented with several 
 parallel and horizontal rings, (b) The 
 echinus, a circular moulding or cushion, 
 which widens greatly towards the top. (c) 
 The dbax or dbdcus, a square slab sup- 
 porting the architrave or epistylton. The 
 
 height of the shaft is usually 5| times, the 
 distance between the columns 1| times the 
 diameter of the base of the column. The 
 architrave is a quadrangular beam of stone, 
 reaching from pillar to pillar. On this again 
 rests the frieze, zophOros, so called from the 
 metopes which are adorned with sculptures 
 in relief. These metopes are square spaces 
 between the triglyphs: the triglyphs are 
 surfaces cut into three concave grooves, two 
 whole grooves in the centre, and two half 
 grooves at the sides. One is placed over 
 each pillar, and one between each pair of 
 pillars. The entablature is completed by a 
 projecting cornice, a slab crowned with a 
 simple heading-course, the lower surface of 
 
 (3) From the Temple on 
 the Ilissus, Athens. 
 
 IONIC OEDEE. 
 
 (4) From the Monument 
 of Lysicrates, Athens. 
 
 CORINTHIAH ORDER. 
 
 which is ornamented with sloping corbels 
 (Gk. stdgdnes, li^t. mUtull). 
 
 (II) Ionic Columns. An instance is given 
 in fig. 3 from the temple on the Ilissus at 
 Athens. These are loftier than theDoric, their 
 height being 8f-9| times the diameter of the 
 lower part. The enlargement of the lower 
 
58 
 
 ARCHITECTUEE, ORDERS OF. 
 
 part is also less than in the Doric columns, 
 the distance between each column greater 
 (two diameters), the flutings (generally 24 
 in number) deeper, 
 and separated by 
 small flat surfaces. 
 The Ionic column 
 has a base, consist- 
 ing of a square slab 
 (jplinthos), and 
 several cushion- 
 like supports sepa- 
 rated by grooves. 
 The capital, again, 
 is more artistically 
 developed. The 
 neck, instead of 
 flutings, has five 
 leaves worked in 
 relief. The echinus 
 is very small and 
 ornamented with 
 an egg pattern. 
 Over it, instead of 
 the abacus, is a 
 four-cornered 
 cushion ending be- 
 fore and behind in 
 spiral volutes, sup- 
 porting a narrow 
 square slab, which 
 is also adorned with 
 an 
 The 
 
 egg pattern, 
 architrave is 
 
 Sbaft. 
 
 divided into three a. Cyma recta, g. Volutes. 
 
 V,onr1o ■m-nio.^tiTin- * *^°''°™- h. Astragal. 
 
 Danas, projecting c. Modillions. i. Torus. 
 
 one above the *. ovoio. k. TroohUus. 
 
 ,1 -t ., e. Cymation. 1. Quadra, 
 
 other, and upon it f. Abacus. m. PUnth. 
 
 rises, in an unin- (6) From the Pantheon, Rome. 
 
 terrupted surface, corinthian okdek. 
 
 the frieze, adorned 
 
 with reliefs continuously along its whole 
 
 length. Finally, the cornice is composed of 
 
 different parts. 
 
 (Ill) The Corinthian column (fig. 4, from 
 the monument of Lysicrates, at Athens). 
 The base and shaft are identical with the 
 Ionic, but the capital takes the form of 
 an open cdlix formed of acanthus leaves. 
 Above this is another set of leaves, from 
 between which grow stalks with small 
 leaves, rounded into the form of volutes. 
 On this rests a small dbdcus widening to- 
 wards the top, and on this again the entab- 
 lature, which is bori'owed from the Ionic 
 order. On the human figures emplo3'ed 
 instead of columns to support the entabla- 
 ture, see Atlas, Canephoei, Caryatides. 
 
 The Eomans adopted the Greek styles of 
 
 column, but not always in their pure form. 
 They were fondest of the Corinthian, which 
 they laboured to enrich with new and often 
 excessive ornamentation. For instance, they 
 crowned the Corinthian capital with the 
 Ionic, thus forming what is called the Roman 
 or composite capital. 
 
 The style known as Tuscan is a degenerate 
 form of the Doric. The Tuscan column has 
 a smooth shaft, in height = 7 diameters of 
 the lower part, and tapering up to three- 
 quarters of its lower dimensions. Its base 
 consists of two parts, a circular plinth, and 
 a cushion of equal height. The capital is 
 formed of three parts of equal height. 
 
 In other styles, too, the Romans sometimes 
 adopted the smooth instead of the fluted 
 shaft, as for instance in the Pantheon (fig. 5). 
 
 Single columns were sometimes erected 
 by the Greeks, and in imitation of them by 
 the Romans, as memorials to distinguished 
 
 (6) * COLUMN or MARCUS AUEELIUS. 
 (With its surroundings as restored hy Canina, ^rcH. Eom. 
 tar. 204.) 
 
 persons. A good example is the Columna 
 RostrMa, or column with its shaft adorned 
 with the beaks of ships, in the Roman 
 
AECHITHEORIA ARCHON. 
 
 59 
 
 Forum. This was set up in commemora- 
 tion of the naval victory of Duilius over 
 the Carthaginians (261 B.C.). Among the 
 cohimns which survive, the most magnifi- 
 cent is that of Trajan, erected in the Forum 
 of Trajan 113 a.d. It rises on a quadran- 
 gular pediment to the height of 124 feet ; 
 its diameter below is about 10 feet, and a 
 little less in the upper part. An interior 
 spiral staircase of 185 steps leads to the 
 summit. The shaft, formed of twentj'-three 
 drums of marble, is adorned with a series 
 of reliefs, 3 feet 3 inches high and 200 feet 
 long, in a series of twenty-two spirals. 
 They represent scenes in Trajan's Dacian 
 campaigns, and contain 2,500 human figures, 
 with animals, engines, etc. On a cylindrical 
 pedestal at the summit there once stood a 
 gilded statue of the emperor, which, since 
 the year 1587, has made way for a bronze 
 figure of St. Peter. A similar column is 
 that of Marcus Aurelius, 122 feet high, on 
 the Piazza Colonna. 'Since 1589 the statue 
 of St. Paul has been substituted for that of 
 the emperor. The reliefs, in twenty spirals, 
 represent events in the emperor's war with 
 the Marcomanni. 
 
 ArcMtheoria. One of the public services 
 called llturgice at Athens ; it was the obli- 
 gation to furnish forth the sacred embassies 
 (theorice) to the four great national festivals, 
 also to Delphi and other holy places. {See 
 Leitourgia.) 
 
 Archon ( = ruler), the Athenian name for 
 the supreme authority established on the 
 abolition of royalty. On the death of the 
 last king, Codrus, B.C. 1068, the headship of 
 the state for life was bestowed on his son 
 Medon and his descendants under the title 
 of Archon. In 752 B.C. their term of office 
 was cut down to ten years, in 714 their 
 exclusive privilege was abolished, and the 
 right to hold the office thrown open to all 
 the nobility, while its duration was dimin- 
 ished to one year; finally in B.C. 683 the 
 power was divided among nine Archons. 
 By Solon's legislation, his wealthiest class, 
 the pentacdsio-medimni, became eligible to 
 the ofiSce ; and by Aristides' arrangement 
 after the Persian Wars it was thrown open 
 to the whole body of citizens, Cleisthenes 
 having previously, in the interests of the 
 democracy, substituted the drawing of lots 
 for election by vote. The political power of 
 the office, having steadily decreased with 
 time, sank to nothing when democracy was 
 established ; its holders had no longer even 
 the right to deliberate and originate motions, 
 their action being limited to certain priestly 
 
 and judicial functions, relics of their once 
 regal power. 
 
 The titles and duties of the several Ar- 
 chons are as follows: (1) Their president, 
 named emphatically Archon, or Archon 
 Eponymds, because the civil year was 
 named after him. He had charge of (the 
 Great Dionysia, the Thargelia, the embas- 
 sies to festivals (theorice), the nomination of 
 chdregi ; also the position of guardian in 
 chief, and. the power to appoint guardians, 
 the presidency in all suits about family rights 
 (such as questions of divorce or inherit- 
 ance), and in disputes among the choregi. 
 
 (2) The Archon Baslleus (king), called 
 
 so because on him devolved certain sacred 
 rites inseparably connected with the name 
 of king. He had the care of the Eleusinian 
 Mysteries (and was obliged therefore to be 
 an initiated person), of the Lencea and 
 Anthesteria, of gymnastic contests, to which 
 he appointed a superintendent, and of a 
 number of antiquated sacrifices, some of 
 which fell to the share of his wife, the 
 Basilissa (queen); and lastly, the position 
 of president in all suits touching religious 
 law, including those trials for murder that 
 came within the jurisdiction of the Ephetce 
 
 (q.v.). (3) The Archon PSlemarchds 
 
 (leader in war) was originally entrusted 
 with the war-department, and, as late as the 
 battle of Marathon, had the right of voting 
 with the ten generals, and the old royal 
 privilege of commanding the right wing. 
 Afterwards he only had charge of the state 
 sacrifices offered to the gods of war and to 
 the shade of Harmodius, the public funerals 
 of those who fell in war and the annual 
 feasts in honour of them; finally, the juris- 
 diction in all questions concerning the 
 personal and family rights of resident aliens 
 (metoeci) and strangers. All this rested on the 
 old assumption that foreigner meant enemy. 
 Each of these three superior Archons had two 
 assessors chosen by himself, but responsible. 
 (4) The Six T/iesmo^Tiete (literally law- 
 givers) administered justice in all cases not 
 pertaining to the senior Archons or some 
 other authority, revised the laws once a 
 year, and superintended the apportioning 
 of public offices by lot. The several Ar- 
 chons exercised their jurisdiction at different 
 spots in the city; that of the Polemarch 
 alone lay outside the walls. Duties common 
 to all nine were : the yearly appointment 
 by lot of the Heliastce {q.v.), the choice of 
 umpires in the Panathensea, the holding of 
 elections of the generals and other military 
 officers, jurisdiction in the case of officials 
 
GO 
 
 AECHYTAS ARES. 
 
 suspended or deposed by the people, and 
 latterly even in suits whicli had previously 
 been subject to the nautodicce. {See Nau- 
 TODIC^.) If they had discharged their 
 office without blame, they entered the 
 Areopagus as members for life. The office 
 of Archon lasted even under the Roman rule. 
 
 Archytas of Tarentum. Distinguished 
 as a general, statesman and mathematician, 
 a leading representative of the Pythagorean 
 philosophy, who flourished about 400-365 
 B.C. {See Pythagoras.) 
 
 Arctinus (Gr. Arktlnos). A Greek epic 
 poet. See Epos. 
 
 Areitholis. King of Arne in BcBotia, 
 called the " club-swinger " because he 
 fought with an iron mace. Irresistible in 
 the open field, he was waylaid by king 
 Lycurgus of Arcadia in a narrow pass 
 where he could not swing his club, and 
 killed. His son Menesthius fell by the 
 hand of Paris, before Troy. 
 
 Areopagus (Gr . Arei6s pdgos). An ancien t 
 criminal court at Athens, so named because 
 it sat on Ares' Hill beside the Acropolis, where 
 the god of war was said to have been tried 
 for the murder of Halirrothius the son of 
 Poseidon. {See Aees.) Solon's legislation 
 raised the Areopagus into one of the most 
 powerful bodies by transferring to it the 
 greater part of the jurisdiction of the Ephetse 
 {q.v.\ as well as the supervision of the entire 
 public administration, the conduct of ma- 
 gistrates, the transactions of the popular 
 assembly, religion, laws, morals and disci- 
 pline, and giving it power to call even private 
 people to account for offensive behaviour. 
 The "Court of Areopagus," as its full name 
 ran, consisted of life-members (Areopagites), 
 who supplemented their number by the 
 addition of such archons as had discharged 
 their duties without reproach. Not only 
 their age, but their sacred character 
 tended to increase the influence of the 
 Areopagites. They were regarded as in 
 a measure ministers of the Erinyes or 
 EuvienidSs (Furies), who under the name 
 of Semnce (venerable) had their cave im- 
 mediately beneath the Areopagus, and 
 whose worship came under their care. The 
 Areopagus proving too conservative for 
 the headlong pace of Pericles's time, its 
 general right of supervising the adminis- 
 tration was taken from it by the law of 
 Ephialtes, about B.C. 460, and transferred to 
 a new authority, the Nomophyldkes (guard- 
 ians of the laws) ; but it recovered this 
 right on the fall of the Thirty. Its political 
 powers seem never to have been clearly 
 
 defined ; it often acted in the name of, and 
 with full powers from, the people, which 
 also accepted its decisions on all possible 
 subjects. Under the Roman rule it was 
 still regarded as the supreme authority. 
 Then, as formerly, it exercised a most 
 minute vigilance over foreigners. 
 
 Ares (Lat. Mars). The Greek name for 
 the god of war, son of Zeus by Hera, whose 
 quarrelsome temper Homer supposes to have 
 passed over to her son so effectively that 
 he delighted in nothing but battle and blood- 
 shed. His insatiable thirst for blood makes 
 him hateful to his father and all the gods, 
 especially Athena. His favourite haunt is 
 the land of the wild and warlike Thracians. 
 In form and equipment the ideal of warlike 
 heroes, who are therefore called "Ares-like" 
 and " darlings of Ares," he advances, ac- 
 cording to Homer, now on foot, now in a 
 chariot drawn by magnificent steeds, at- 
 tended by his equally bloodthirsty sister 
 Eris (strife), his sons Deimds and Phobds 
 (fear and fright), and E7ii/o, the goddess of 
 battle and waster of cities (he himself being 
 called Eni/dlids\ rushing in blind rage 
 through indiscriminate slaughter. Though 
 fighting on the Trojan side, the bloodshed 
 only is dear to his heart. But his unbridled 
 strength and blind valour turn to his dis- 
 advantage, and always bring about his 
 defeat in the presence of Athena, the god- 
 dess of ordered battalions; he is also beaten 
 by heroes fighting under her leadership, as 
 by Heracles in the contest with Cycnus, and 
 by Diomedes before Troy. And this view 
 of Ares as the bloodthirsty god of battles 
 is in the main that of later times also. As 
 early as Homer he is the friend and lover 
 of Aphrodite, who has borne him Eros 
 and AntSros, Deimos and Phobos, as well 
 as Harmonia, wife of Cadmus the founder 
 of Thebes, where both goddesses were wor- 
 shipped as ancestral deities. He is not 
 named so often as the gods of peace, but, 
 as Ares or Enyalios, he was doubtless 
 worshipped everywhere, notably in Sparta, 
 in Arcadia and (as father of (Enomaus) in 
 Elis. At Sparta young dogs were sacrified 
 to him under the title of Therttds. At 
 Athens the ancient site of a high court of 
 justice, the Areopagus, was consecrated to 
 him. There, in former days, the Olympian 
 gods had sat in judgment on him and 
 absolved him when he had slain Halir- 
 rhothius for offering violence to Alcippe, 
 his daughter by Agraulus. His symbols 
 were the spear and the burning torch. 
 Before the introduction of trumpets, two 
 
ARET^US ARGONAUTS. 
 
 61 
 
 priests of Ares, marching in front of the 
 armies, hurled the torch at the foe as the 
 signal of battle. 
 
 AKES. 
 
 (Rome, TiUa Ludovisi.) 
 
 In works of art he was represented as a 
 young and handsome man of strong sinewy 
 frame, his hair in short curls, and a some- 
 what sombre look in his countenance ; in 
 the early style he is bearded and in ar- 
 mour, in the later beardless and with only 
 the helmet on. He is often represented in 
 company with Aphrodite and their boy 
 Eros, who plays with his father's arms. 
 One of the most famous statues extant is 
 that in the Villa Ludovisi, which displays 
 him in an easy resting attitude, with his 
 arms laid aside, and Eros at his feet. {See 
 cut.) On his identification with the Italian 
 Mars, see Mars. 
 
 Aretseus. A Greek physician, bom in 
 Cappadocia, towards the end of the 2nd cen- 
 tury A.D. He was the author of two valu- 
 able works (each in four books), written in 
 the Ionic dialect, on the causes and symp- 
 toms of acute and chronic pains, and on 
 their cure. 
 
 Arete. Wife of Alcinous king of the 
 Phseacians (see both), and protectress of 
 Odysseus (q.v.). 
 
 ArSthusa. (1) In Greece a frequent napie 
 
 of springs, especially of one in Elis, and 
 one on the Island of Ortygia in the port of 
 Syracuse, which was supposed to have a 
 subterranean communication with the river 
 Alpheus in Elis. The two fountains were 
 associated by the following legend. As the 
 nymph of Elis, tired with the chase, was 
 bathing in the Alpheus, the river-god fell 
 passionately in love with her ; she fled from 
 him to Ortygia, where Artemis hid her in 
 the ground, and let her gush out of it in the 
 form of a fountain ; but Alpheus flowed on 
 under the sea to Ortygia, and so united 
 himself with his beloved one. The story is 
 explained by the likeness of name in the 
 fountains, by the circumstance that Artemis 
 was worshipped both in Elis and Ortygia 
 as Alpliecea, and by the fact that in some 
 places the Alpheus actually does run un- 
 derground. 
 
 (2) One of the Hespertdes {q.v.). 
 
 Argei. The name of certain chapels at 
 Rome, probably twenty-four in number, 
 each of the four tribes of the city having 
 six. To these chapels a procession was 
 made on March 16 and 17, at which the 
 wife of the Elamen Dialis walked with 
 unkempt hair as a sign of mourning. On 
 May 15 the Pontiffs, Vestal Virgins, Prse- 
 tors, and all citizens who had a right to 
 assist at sacrifices, marched to the wooden 
 bridge over the Tiber {Pons Sublicms), 
 and after sacrificing, threw into the river 
 twenty-four men of straw, likewise named 
 Argei, which had probably been hung up 
 in the chapels at the first procession, and 
 were fetched away at the second. The 
 sacrifice was regarded as expiatory, and the 
 puppets as substitutes for former human 
 victims. The meaning of the name was 
 unknown to the ancients, and so was the 
 deity to whom the sacrifice was offered. 
 
 Argentarii. See Monet-Changers. 
 
 Argenteus. A Roman silver coin current 
 from the end of the 3rd century A.D. and 
 onwards. See Coinage. 
 
 Argo. The ship of the Argonauts {q.v.), 
 named after her builder Argos. 
 
 Argonauts. Those who sailed in the 
 Argo with Jason, son of jEson and grandson 
 of Cretheus {see Mohvs, 1), a generation 
 before the Trojan war, to Ma,, which in 
 later times was understood to be Colchis, 
 lying at the farthest end of the Black Sea. 
 The object of the expedition was to fetch 
 back the golden fleece of the ram on which 
 Phrixus the son of Athamas (q.v.) had 
 fled, from his father and his stepmother 
 Ino, to the magician ./Eetes, king of -iEa. 
 
62 
 
 ARGONAUTS 
 
 Hospitably received by him, and married 
 to his daughter ChalciSpe, he had sacrificed 
 the ram, and hung its fleece up in the grove 
 of Ares, where it was guarded by a sleep- 
 less dragon. The task of fetching it back 
 was laid upon Jason by his uncle Pelias, 
 son of Poseidon and Tyro, who had deprived 
 his half-brother ^son of the sovereignty 
 of lolcSs in Thessaly. ^son, to protect 
 his son from the plots of Pelias, had con- 
 veyed him secretly to the centaur Chiron 
 on Mount Pelion, who brought him up till 
 he was twenty years of age. Then Jason 
 came home, and without a shoe on his left 
 foot, having lost it in wading through a 
 mountain torrent, presented himself before 
 Pelias, demanding his father's restoration 
 to his sovereignty. The crafty Pelias, 
 whom an oracle had warned against a one- 
 shoed man, promised on his oath to do 
 what he asked, if Jason would go instead 
 of himself to fetch the golden fleece. This 
 task the oracle had imposed npon himself, 
 but he was too old to perform it. Another 
 version of the story is, that Jason, after 
 completing his education with Chiron, pre- 
 ferred to live in the country ; that he 
 came, with one shoe on, to a sacrifice that 
 Pelias was offering to Poseidon on the sea- 
 shore ; that Pelias asked him what he 
 would do if he were king and had been 
 forewarned of his death at the hand of a 
 subject : and that, upon Jason answering 
 that he would make him fetch the golden 
 fleece, Pelias gave him the commission. 
 Hera had put that answer in Jason's 
 mouth, because she regarded him with 
 favour, and wished to punish Pelias for 
 having slain Sidero in her temple. {See 
 Salmoneus.) 
 
 The vessel for the voyage, the fifty-oared 
 Argo, is said to have been named after its 
 builder Argos, a son of Phrixus, after his 
 return to Orchomenus, the home of his 
 fathers. The ship was built of the pines of 
 Pelion under the direction of Athena, like 
 Hera, a protectress of Jason, who inserted 
 in the prow a piece of the speaking oak of 
 Dodona. The heroes who at Jason's call 
 took part in the expedition, fifty all told 
 according to the number of the oars, were 
 originally, in the version to which the 
 Minyan family gave currency, Minyans of 
 lolcos, Orchomenus, Pylos, and other places. 
 Among them were Acastus the son of Pelias, 
 a close friend of Jason, Admetus, Erginus, 
 Euphemus, Periclymenus, and Tiphys. But, 
 as the story spread, all the Greek heroes that 
 could have been living at the time were in- 
 
 cluded among the number of the Argonauts, 
 e.g. Heracles, Castor and Polydeuces, Idas 
 and Lynceus, Calais and Zetes the sons of 
 Boreas, Peleus, Tydeus, Meleagei-, Amphia- 
 ratis, Orpheus, Mopsus and Idmon the pro- 
 phets of the expedition, and even the hunt- 
 ress Atalante. Jason takes the command, 
 and Tiphys manages the helm. Setting sail 
 from PagassB the port of lolcos, the Argo- 
 nauts make the Island of Lemnos, where 
 only women dwell, and after some con- 
 siderable stay there {see Hypsipyle) go past 
 Samothrace and through the Hellespont to 
 the island of Cyzicus, where they are hos- 
 pitably received by Cyzicus, the king of 
 the Doliones, but attempting to proceed, 
 are beaten back by a storm at night, and 
 being taken by their late friends for pirates, 
 are attacked, and have the ill-fortune to kill 
 their young king. On the coast of Mysia 
 they leave Heracles behind to look for Hylas 
 {q.v.) who has been carried off by nymphs. 
 On the Bithynian shore Polydeuces van- 
 quishes the Bebrycian king Amycus (q.v.) 
 in a boxing match. At Salmydessus in 
 Thrace the blind seer Phineus, whom Calftis 
 and Zetes had rid of the Harpies, his tor- 
 mentors, instructs them with regard to the 
 rest of their journey, and especially how to 
 sail through the Symplegades, two floating 
 rocks that clash together at the entrance to 
 the Black Sea. By his advice Jason sends 
 a dove before him, and as she has only her 
 tail-feathers cut off' by the colliding rocks, 
 they venture on the feat of rowing the Argo 
 through. By Hera's help, or, according to 
 another account, that- of Athena, they do 
 what no man has done before ; they pass 
 through, the ship only losing her rudder. 
 Skirting the southern shore of the Pontus, 
 they meet with a friendly reception from 
 Lycus, king of the Maryandini, though here 
 the seer Idmon is killed by a wild boar in 
 hunting, and the helmsman Tiphys dies of a 
 disease, whereupon Ancseus takes his place. 
 Past the land of Amazons they come to the 
 Island of Aretias, whence they scare away 
 the Stymphalian birds {see Heracles), and 
 take on board the sons of Phrixus, who had 
 been shipwrecked there on their way to 
 Greece. At length they reach the mouth of 
 the Phasis in the land of the Colchians. 
 Upon Jason's demand, iEetes promises to 
 give up the golden fleece, on condition that 
 Jason catches two brazen-hoofed, fire-breath- 
 ing bulls, yokes them to a brazen plough, 
 and ploughs with them the field of Ares, 
 sows the furrows with dragons' teeth, and 
 overcomes the mail-clad men that are to 
 
ARGUS ARGYRASPIDES. 
 
 63 
 
 spring out of them. The hero has given up 
 all hope of success, when Aphrodite kindles 
 in the breast of the king's daughter Medea 
 an irresistible love for the stranger. Medea 
 gives him an ointment to protect him from 
 the fiery breath of the bulls, as well as the 
 strength to harness them, and advises him 
 to throw a stone in among the earth-born 
 giants, who will then kill each other. But 
 when all this done, jEetes does not give up 
 the fleece. Then Jason with the help of 
 Medea, whom he promises to take home 
 with him as his wife, throws the dragon 
 that guards it into a sleep, takes it down, 
 and escapes with Medea and his comrades, 
 ^etes sends his son Absyrtus in pursuit, 
 whom Jason kills by stratagem. Another 
 story is, that Medea takes her little brother 
 Absyrtus with her, cuts him to pieces, and 
 throws the limbs one by one into the sea, 
 that her father, while pursuing her, might 
 be delayed in picking them up and laying 
 them out. 
 
 As to the Return of the Argonauts the 
 legends differ considerably. One of the 
 oldest makes them sail up the Phasis into 
 the river Oceanus, and over that to Libya, 
 where they drag the ship twelve days' 
 journey overland to Lake Tritonis, and get 
 home across the Mediterranean. Other ac- 
 counts agree with this in substance, while 
 others again mix up the older tradition with 
 the adventures of Odysseus : the heroes sail 
 up the Danube into the Adriatic, and are 
 within hail of Corcyra (Corfu), when a storm 
 breaks out, and the piece of oak from Dodona 
 foretells their ruin unless they have the 
 murder of Absyrtus expiated by Circe. 
 Then they sail up the Eridanus into the 
 Rhone, and so into the Tyrrhenian sea to the 
 island of Circe, who purifies them. They go 
 past the island of the Sirens, against whose 
 magic the songs of Orpheus protect them. 
 All but Butes {q.v.) pass in safety between 
 Scylla and Charybdis with the help of the 
 gods, and reach the isle of the Phaeacians, 
 where Jason marries Medea to evade the 
 sentence of their host Alcinoiis, who, in his 
 capacity as umpire, has given judgment 
 that the niaid Medea be delivered up to her 
 Colchian pursuers. Already within sight of 
 the Peloponnesus, a storm drives them into 
 the Libyan Syrtes, whence they carry their 
 ship, saved by divine assistance, to Lake 
 Tritonis. Thence, guided by Triton {see 
 EUPHEMUS) into the Mediterranean, they 
 return by way of Crete to lolcos. 
 
 During their absence Pelias has put to 
 death JEson and his son PromSohus, and 
 
 Jason's mother has taken her own life. 
 Medea sets to work to avenge them. Before 
 the eyes of Pelias' daughters she cuts up 
 an old he-goat, and by boiling it in a magic 
 cauldron, restores it to life and youth. 
 Promising in like manner to renew the 
 youth of the aged Pelias, she induces them 
 to kill their father, and then leaves them in 
 the lurch. Driven away by Acastus, the 
 son of the murdered king, Jason and Medea 
 take refuge with Creon king of Corinth. 
 But, after ten years of happy wedlock, Jason 
 resolves to marry Croon's daughter Creusa 
 or Glauce. On this Medea kills the bride 
 and her father by sending the unsuspecting 
 maiden a poisoned robe and diadem as a 
 bridal gift, murders her own two sons Mer- 
 merus and Pheres in her faithless husband's 
 sight, and escaping in a car drawn by ser- 
 pents, sent by her grandfather Helios, 
 makes her way to ^geus king of Athens. 
 {See Medea.) Jason is said to have come 
 by his death through the Argo, which he 
 had set up and consecrated on the Isth- 
 mus. One day, when he was lying down 
 to rest under the ship, the stern fell off and 
 killed him. 
 
 The legend of the Argonauts is ex- 
 tremely ancient ; even Homer speaks of 
 it as universally known. We first find it 
 treated in detail in Pindar ; then the Alex- 
 andrian poet Apollonius of Rhodes tried to 
 harmonise the various versions, and was fol- 
 lowed by the Latin poet Valerius Placcus 
 and the late Greek Pseudo-Orpheus. 
 
 Argas. (1) Son of Inftchus, Agenor or 
 Arestor ; or, according to another account, 
 an earth born giant, who had eyes all over 
 his body, whence he was called Panoptes, 
 or all-seeing. Hera set him to watch lo 
 {q.v.) when transformed into a cow; but 
 Hermes, at Zeus' bidding, sent all his eyes 
 to sleep by the magic of his wand and flute, 
 and cut his head off with a sickle-shaped 
 sword, whence his title Argeiphontes was 
 explained to mean " slayer of Argus." Hera 
 set the eyes of her dead watchman in the 
 tail of her sacred bird the peacock. 
 
 (2) Son of Phrixus and Chalciope, the 
 daughter of ^Eetes. He is said to have come 
 to Orchomenus, the home of his father, and to 
 have built the Argo, which was named after 
 him. According to another account he was 
 shipwrecked with his brothers at the Island 
 of Aretias on their way to Greece, and 
 thence carried to Colchis by the Argonauts. 
 
 Argy-raspidfis (silver-shielded). In the 
 later army of Alexander the Great, the 
 remnant of the Macedonian heavy-armed 
 
64 
 
 ARIADNE AEISTiENETUS. 
 
 infantry, who had crossed the Hellespont 
 with the king, were formed into a corps of 
 Guards in the heavy infantry of the line, 
 and named from their shields being over- 
 laid with Indian silver. After Alexander's 
 death the corps was disbanded by Antigonus 
 on account of its overweening pretensions. 
 
 Ariadne. The daughter of Minos and 
 Pasiphae, who fell in love with Theseus 
 when he came to Crete to kill the Minotaur, 
 and gave him a clue of yarn, to help him 
 to find his way back to the light of day 
 after slaying the monster in the Labyrinth. 
 She then fled away with him. Homer 
 represents Ariadne as slain by Artemis in 
 the Island of Dia, close to Crete, at the 
 request of Dionysus. But the later legend 
 shifts the scene to the Isle of Naxos, where 
 the slumbering Ariadne is deserted by 
 Theseus. Waking up, she is on the brink 
 of despair, when Dionysus comes and raises 
 her to the dignity of a god's wife. Zeus 
 grants her immortality, and sets her bridal 
 gift, a crown, among the stars. She re- 
 ceived divine honours : at Naxos her festivals 
 were held, now with dismal rites recalling 
 her abandonment, now with bacchanalian 
 revelry becoming the happy bride of Dio- 
 nysus. At Athens in the autumn they 
 held a joj'ous festival to her and Dionysus, 
 which Theseus was supposed to have 
 founded on his return from Crete. In 
 Italy, where they identified Dionysus with 
 their wine-god Liber, they also took Ari- 
 adne for the wine-goddess Libera. 
 
 Aries (Gr. krtos). The Battering-ram, 
 one of the most effective engines used by 
 the ancients to make a breach in the walls 
 of a besieged town. Originally it con- 
 sisted of a strong pole, with iron-mounted 
 head, brought up to the wall in earlier 
 times by hand, in later times on wheels. 
 In its final form it was constructed in the 
 following manner. A stout beam, sometimes 
 composed of several pieces, and measuring 
 from 65 to 100 feet long or more, was hung 
 by ropes on a strongly mounted horizontal 
 beam, and swung backwards and forwards, 
 so as to loosen the stones of the wall, and 
 make it fall. As the engine stood close to 
 
 BATTERING KAM UNDER SEED. 
 TESTUDO ARIETINA. 
 
 the wall, the men working it were sheltered 
 by a roofed shell of boards, called the ram- 
 
 tortoiseshell (testudo arietlna), and resting 
 on a framework that ran upon wheels. To 
 protect the roof and sides of the shell 
 against fire thrown from the walls, they 
 were coated with raw or well soaked hides, 
 or other similar contrivances. The loos- 
 ened stones were picked out of the wall 
 with a strong iron hook at the end of a pole, 
 the wall-sickle {falx muralis) as it was called. 
 Single holes were punched in the wall with 
 the wall-borer {terebra), a ram with a sharp 
 point, which was pushed forward on rollers. 
 
 The besieged tried to knock the ram's 
 head off by dropping heavy stones on it, or 
 to catch it in a noose and turn the blow 
 aside or upwards, or to deaden the force of 
 its blows with sandbags and mats. If the 
 town wished to secure indulgent treatment, 
 it had to surrender before the ram touched 
 the walls. (See Sieges.) 
 
 Arion. A Greek poet and musician, of 
 Methymna in Lesbos, who flourished about 
 625 B.C. In the course of a roving life he 
 spent a considerable time at the court of 
 Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Here he first 
 gave the dithyramb (q.v.) an artistic form, 
 and was therefore regarded as the inventor 
 of that style in general. He is best known 
 by the story of his rescue on the back of a 
 dolphin. Returning from an artistic journey 
 through Lower Italy and Sicily to his patron, 
 he trusted himself to a crew of Corinthian 
 sailors, who resolved to kill him on the open 
 sea for the sake of his treasures. As a last 
 favour he extorted the permission to sing 
 his songs once more to the lyre, and then 
 to throw himself into the sea. His strains 
 drew a number of dolphins around him, one 
 of which took him on its back, and carried 
 him safe to land at the foot of the foreland 
 of Tsenarum. Thence he hastened to Cor- 
 inth, and convicted the sailors, who were 
 telling Periander they had left the minstrel 
 safe at Tarentum. A bronze statue of a 
 man on a dolphin, which stood on the top 
 of Tsenaron, was supposed to be his thank- 
 offering to Poseidon. [Herodotus, i 24.] 
 A Thanksgiving Hymn to the god of the 
 sea, preserved under his name, belongs to a 
 later time. 
 
 Aristsengtus. A Greek grammarian and 
 rhetorician, of Nicsea in Bithynia, friend of 
 Libanius, who praises him in the highest 
 terms ; he was killed in an earthquake at 
 Nicomedia, A.D. 358. His name is erroneously 
 attached to a collection, probably composed 
 in the 5th or 6th century, of Erotic Epistles, 
 feeble imitations of Alciphron, loose in tone 
 and declamatory in style. 
 
ARISTiEUS AEISTIDES. 
 
 65 
 
 AristsBUS. A beneficent deity worshipped 
 in various parts of Greece, especially in 
 Thessaly, Boeotia, the African colony of 
 Gyrene, and the Islands of Ceos, Corcyra, 
 Sicily and Sardinia. He gives his blessing 
 to herds, hunting, bee-keeping, wine, oil 
 and every kind of husbandry. In particular 
 he defends men, animals and plants from 
 the destructive heat of the dog-days. Ac- 
 cording to the story most in vogue, he 
 is the son of Apollo by the Thessalian 
 nymph Gyrene, whom the god carried off 
 to the country named after her. She is 
 the daughter of Hypseus, and granddaugh- 
 ter (another story says daughter) of the 
 river-god Peneus. After his birth Hermes 
 took Aristseus to the Hours and Gsea, the god- 
 dess of the earth, who brought him up and 
 made him an immortal god. Sometimes 
 he is called the son of Uranus (Heaven) 
 and Gaea (Earth). In the Theban legend he 
 and AutoDoe the daughter of Cadmus are 
 represented as the parents of Actseon. He 
 brought destruction upon the nymph Eury- 
 dice, the beloved of Orpheus ; for in fleeing 
 from his persecutions she was killed by a 
 snake. [Vergil, Georg. iv 315-558.] 
 
 Aristarchus. (1) A tragic poet of Tegea, 
 a contemporary of Euripides ; he is said to 
 have lived more than a hundred years. Of 
 his 70 dramas only two titles remain. 
 
 (2) A mathematician and astronomer of 
 Samos, who lived and studied at Alexandria 
 about 270 B.C., and with his pupil Hip- 
 parchus greatly advanced the science of 
 astronomy. He was the first who main- 
 tained the earth's motion round the sun 
 and on its own axis. We still possess a 
 fragment of a treatise by him on the size 
 of the sun and moon, and their distances 
 from the earth. 
 
 (3) A scholar, bom in Samothrace, and a 
 pupil of Aristophanes of Byzantium, He 
 lived at Alexandria in the first half of the 
 2nd century B.C. as tutor to the royal 
 princes, and keeper of the library. In the 
 tyrannical reign of his pupil Ptolemy VII 
 (Physcon) he led to Cyprus, and there died 
 of dropsy about B.C. 153, aged 72. He is 
 the most famous of the Alexandrian Critics, 
 and devoted his attention mainly to the 
 Greek poets, especially Homer, to whom he 
 rendered essential service by his critical 
 edition of the text, which remains in sub- 
 stance the groundwork of our present recen- 
 sion. This edition had notes on the margin, 
 indicating the verses which Aristarchus 
 thought spurious or doubtful, and anything 
 else worthy of remark. The meaning of 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 the notes, and the reasons for appending 
 them, were explained in separate commen- 
 taries and excursuses, founded on a mar- 
 vellously minute acquaintance with the 
 language and contents of the Homeric 
 poems, and the whole of Greek literature. 
 He was the head of the school of Aristar- 
 cheans, who continued working on classical 
 texts in his spirit till after the beginning 
 of the Empire. Of his numerous gram- 
 matical and exegetical works only fragments 
 remain. An idea of his Homeric studies, 
 and of their character, can best be gathered 
 from the Venetian scholia to the Iliad, which 
 are largely founded on extracts from the 
 Aristarcheans Didymus and Aristonicus. 
 
 Aristias. See Peatinas. 
 
 Aristides, (1) of Thebes. A celebrated 
 Greek painter, the pupil of his father or 
 brother Nicomftchus. He flourished about 
 350 B.C., and was distinguished for his 
 mastery in the expression of the feelings. 
 His most celebrated picture was that of a 
 conquered city. Its central group repre- 
 sented a mother dying of a wound, and 
 holding back her infant, who is creeping 
 to her bosom, that it may not drink blood 
 instead of milk. Notwithstanding the 
 hardness of their colouring, his works com- 
 manded very high prices. Thus for one 
 representing a scene in the Persian wars, 
 containing 100 figures, he received 1,000 
 minse (about £3,333). [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 
 98-100.] 
 
 (2) Aristides of Miletus, of the 1st or 
 2nd century B.C., was the author of a series 
 of love-stories, called Milesidca, from Mi- 
 letus, the scene of the events. These, so 
 far as we know, are the first examples of 
 the prose romance. They were widely read 
 in antiquity, especially among the Romans, 
 for whose benefit they were translated into 
 Latin by the historian Sisenna; Only a 
 few fragments of them have survived. 
 
 (3) Pvhlius JUlius Aristides, surnamed 
 Theodorus, was a Greek rhetorician, born at 
 Hadriani in Bithynia A.d. 117 or 129. He 
 was educated by the most celebrated rheto- 
 ricians of the time, P5lemon of Pergamus, 
 and Herodes Atticus of Athens, and made 
 long journeys through Asia, Egypt, Greece 
 and Italy. On his return he was seized 
 with an illness that lasted thirteen years, 
 but which he never allowed to interrupt 
 his studies. His rhetoric, in which he 
 took Demosthenes and Plato for his models, 
 was immensely admired by his contempor- 
 aries ; he also stood in high favour with 
 the emperors, especially Marcus Aurelius, 
 
66 
 
 ARISTIPPUS ^AEISTOPHANES. 
 
 who at his appeal caused Smyrna to be re- 
 built after an earthquake in 178 a.d. The 
 chief scenes of his activity were Athens 
 and Smyrna, where he died about a.d. 190. 
 Beside two treatises of rhetorical and tech- 
 nical import, we still possess fifty-five of 
 his orations, which he took great pains 
 to elaborate. They are characterized by 
 depth and fulness of thought, and are 
 written in powerful, concise, often difficult 
 and obscure language. Some are eulogies 
 on deities and cities (Rome, for instance, 
 and Smyrna), others are declamations after 
 ancient models, as the Panathenaicus after 
 Isocrates, and the speech against Leptines 
 after Demosthenes. Others treat of his- 
 torical subjects taken from the times of 
 Greek independence. A peculiar interest 
 attaches to the six Sacred Orations, so 
 named because they treat of hints given 
 by Asclepius on the cure of his illness, 
 which he received ia a state of somnam- 
 bulism, and imparted aloud to his friends. 
 
 (4) Anstides Quintilianus. A Greek 
 musician, who lived probably in the 2nd 
 century A.D., and composed an encyclopsedia 
 of music {De Muslcd) in three books. The 
 first gave a concise account of harmony, 
 rhythm, and metre, the second dealt with 
 the educating influence of music on the 
 soul, and the third described, on Pythago- 
 rean principles, the doctrine of arithmetic 
 intervals, and the harmony of the universe 
 as resting on the same relations. Notwith- 
 standing many defects, the work has the 
 merit of being the completest of its kind 
 which has come down to us from anti- 
 quity. 
 
 Aristippus. A Greek philosopher, a na- 
 tive of Cyrene, and a pupil of Socrates, 
 after whose death in B.C. 399 he travelled 
 about the Greek cities, imparting instruc- 
 tion for money. He was the founder of the 
 Cyrenaio school, or the system of Hedonism 
 (from A^dowe = pleasure). His doctrine 
 was, that as a basis for human knowledge the 
 only things real and true are our sensations, 
 not the external objects that produce them ; 
 that the aim of life is what all living things 
 strive after, pleasure ; and that virtue is 
 only so far a good thing as it tends to 
 the production of pleasure. The wise man 
 shows his wisdom in governing his de- 
 sires; mental training, indeed, being the 
 only thing which can qualify us for real 
 enjoyment. In pleasure there is no differ- 
 ence of kind, only of degree and duration. 
 Aristippus' writings seem to have disap- 
 peared early; five letters in the Doric 
 
 dialect, which have come down under his 
 name, are undoubtedly spurious. 
 
 Aristobiilus. A Greek historian, who in 
 his youth accompanied Alexander the Great 
 on his campaigns. In his eighty-fifth year, 
 when living at Cassandrea in Thrace, he 
 wrote a work upon Alexander, in which 
 he recorded his careful observations on geo- 
 graphy, ethnography, and natural science. 
 The book is highly praised for its trust- 
 worthiness, but only fragments of it have 
 reached us. He and Ptolemy were the 
 chief authorities for Arrian's Anabasis. 
 
 Aristocles. (1) A Greek artist, and like 
 his brother Canachus, a sculptor in bronze at 
 Sicyon. He flourished about 480 B.C. ; and 
 founded a school at Sicyon that lasted for a 
 long time. (2) There was an Athenian 
 sculptor of the same name and of the same 
 period, author of a relief known as The 
 Athenian Hoplite, one of our oldest monu- 
 ments of Attic art. {See cut under Hoplites). 
 
 Ariston. The second breakfast of the 
 Greeks. {See Meals.) 
 
 Aristophanes. (1) The comedian, who 
 lived at Athens, B.C. 444-388. His father 
 Philippus is said to have been not a native 
 Athenian, but a settler from Rhodes or 
 Egypt, who afterwards acquired the citi- 
 zenship. However this may be, the de- 
 magogue Cleon, whose displeasure Aristo- 
 phanes had incurred, tried to call in ques- 
 tion his right to the citizenship. His first 
 comedy came out in B.C. 427, but was not 
 performed under his own name because of his 
 youth ; and several more of his plays were 
 brought on the stage by Callistratus and 
 Philonides, till in 424 he brought out the 
 Knights in his own person. Forty-four 
 of his plays were known in antiquity, though 
 four of them were considered doubtful. 
 Of these we possess eleven, the only com- 
 plete Greek comedies which have survived, 
 besides the titles, and numerous fragments, 
 of twenty-six others. The eleven are : (1) 
 The Acharnians, which gained him the 
 victory over Cratinus and Eupolis B.C. 425, 
 written during the great Peloponnesian war 
 to induce the Athenians to make peace. (2) 
 The Knights mentioned above, B.C. 424, also 
 crowned with the first prize, and aimed 
 directly against Cleon. (3) The Clouds, 
 B.C. 423, his most famous and, in his own 
 opinion, his most successful piece, though 
 when played it only won the third prize. 
 We have it only in a second, and apparently 
 unfinished, edition. It is directed against 
 the pernicious influence of the Sophists, 
 as the representative of whom Socrates is 
 
ARISTOTLE. 
 
 67 
 
 attacked. (4) The Waspn, brought out in 
 B.C. 422 and, like the two following, re- 
 warded with the second prize ; it is a 
 satire upon the Athenian passion for law- 
 suits. (6) The Peace, of the year B.C. 421, 
 recommending the conclusion of peace. (6) 
 The Birds, acted in B.C. 414, and exposing 
 the romantic hopes built on the expedition 
 to Sicily. This is unquestionably the hap- 
 piest production of the poet's genius, and 
 is marked by a careful reserve in the em- 
 ployment of dramatic resource. (7) The 
 Lysistrdte, B.C. 411, a Women's Conspiracy 
 to bring about peace ; the last of the strictly 
 political plays. (8) Thesmophoriazusoe, 
 probably to be dated 410 B.C. It is written 
 against Euripides' dislike of women, for 
 which the women who are celebrating the 
 Thesmophoria drag him to justice. (9) 
 The Frogs, which was acted in 405, and 
 won the first prize. It is a piece sparkling 
 with genius, on the Decay of Tragic Art, 
 the blame of which is laid on Euripides, 
 then recently deceased. (10) EcclBsidzusce, 
 or The National Assembly of Women, B.C. 
 392. It is levelled against the vain at- 
 tempts to restore the Athenian state by cut- 
 and-dried constitutions. (11) Plutus, or the 
 God of Wealth. The blind god is restored 
 to sight, and better times are brought 
 about. This play was acted first in 408, 
 then in 388 in a revised form suitable to 
 the time, and dispensing with chorus and 
 parabasis. This play marks the transi- 
 tion to the Middle Comedy. 
 
 In the opinion of the ancients Aristophanes 
 holds a middle place between Cratinus and 
 Eupolis, being neither so rough as the 
 former nor so sweet as the latter, but com- 
 bining the severity of the one with the grace 
 of the other. What was thought of him 
 in his own time is evident from Plato's Sym- 
 posium, where he is numbered among the 
 noblest of men; and an epigram attributed 
 to that philosopher says that the Graces, 
 looking for an enduring shrine, found it in 
 the soul of Aristophanes. He unites under- 
 standing, feeling, and fancy in a degree pos- 
 sessed by few poets of antiquity. His 
 keen glance penetrates the many evils of 
 his time and their most hidden catises ; his 
 scorn for all that is base, and his patriotic 
 spirit, burning to bring back the brave 
 days of Marathon, urge him on, without 
 respect of persons or regard for self, to 
 drag the faults he sees into daylight, and 
 lash them with stinging sarcasm ; while his 
 inexhaustible fancy invents ever new and 
 original materials, which he manipulates 
 
 with perfect mastery of language and tech- 
 nical skill. If his jokes are often coarse 
 and actually indecent, the fact must be im- 
 puted to the character of the Old Comedy 
 and the licentiousness of the Dionysiac fes- 
 tival, during which the plays were acted. 
 No literature has anything to compare 
 with these comedies. Ancient scholars, re- 
 cognising their great importance, bestowed 
 infinite pains in commenting on them, and 
 valuable relics of their writings are enshrined 
 in the existing collections of Scholia, 
 
 (2) Aristophanes the Grammarian (or 
 Scholar) of Byzantium, born about 260 B.C., 
 went in his early youth to Alexandria, and 
 was there a pupil of Zenodotus and Calli- 
 machus. On the death of Apollonius of 
 Rhodes, Aristophanes, when past his sixtieth 
 year, was appointed to be chief librarian, 
 and died at the age of 77. His fame was 
 eclipsed by that of his pupil Aristarchus, 
 but he still passed for one of the ablest 
 grammarians and critics of antiquity, dis- 
 tinguished by industry, learning and sound 
 judgment. In addition to the Homeric 
 poems, which formed his favourite study, 
 and of which he was the first to attempt a 
 really critical text, he devoted his labours 
 to Hesiod, the lyric poets, especially Alcseus 
 and Pindar, and the tragic and comic poets, 
 Aristophanes and Menander in particular. 
 The received Introductions to the plays of 
 the Tragedians and Aristophanes are in 
 their best parts derived from him. He was 
 also the author of a large and much quoted 
 work of a lexicographical character, con- 
 siderable fragments of which still survive. 
 
 Aristotle (Greek Arist5tSles). One of the 
 two greatest philosophers of antiquity, born 
 B.C. 384 at Stageira, a Greek colony in 
 Thrace. He was the- son of NicSmfichus, 
 who died while acting as physician in 
 ordinary to Amyntas II at Pella in Mace- 
 donia. In B.C. 367, after the death of his 
 parents and the completion of his seventeenth 
 year, Aristotle betook himself to Athens, 
 became a pupil of Plato, and remained twenty 
 years, latterly working as a teacher of 
 rhetoric. About his relations with Plato 
 unfavourable rumours were current, which 
 may have had their origin in his subsequent 
 opposition to the Platonic doctrine of ideas. 
 That he arrived pretty early at opposite 
 opinions, and gave emphatic expression to 
 them, is quite credible. This may have been 
 the occasion of Plato's comparing him (so it 
 is said) to a colt that kicks his mother; 
 yet Plato is also said to have called him 
 " the intellect " of his school, and " the 
 
68 
 
 ARISTOTLE. 
 
 reader," on account of his habit of incessant 
 study. Comparing him with Xenocrates, 
 he remarked, that the one wanted a spur, 
 the other a bridle. On the other hand, 
 Aristotle, in one of his writings, combating 
 his former master's theory of ideas, lays 
 down the maxim that friendship, especially 
 among philosophers, must not be allowed to 
 violate the sanctity of truth ; and in a frag- 
 ment of an elegy he calls Plato the first man 
 who showed in word and deed how a man 
 is to become good and happy. 
 
 After Plato had handed over his school to 
 his sister's son Speusippus, Aristotle qvtitted 
 
 *AEISTOILE. 
 
 (Rome, Spada Palace.) 
 
 Athens, B.C. 347, and repaired to his friend 
 Hermeias, despot of Atameus in Mysia. 
 When that prince had fallen a prey to Persian 
 intrigues he withdrew, B.C. 345, with his wife 
 Pythias, his friend's sister, to Mitylene in 
 Lesbos ; and two years later accepted an in- 
 vitation to Macedonia to be tutor to Alex- 
 ander, then thirteen years old. He lived at 
 the court eight years, though his tenure of 
 office seems to have lasted barely half that 
 time. Both Philip and his son esteemed 
 him highly, and most liberally seconded his 
 studies in natural science, for which he in- 
 herited his father's predilec.tion. Alexander 
 
 continued till his death to respect and love 
 him, though the affair of Callisthenes (q.v.) 
 occasioned some coolness between them. 
 When the king undertook his expedition 
 in Asia, Aristotle betook himself once 
 more to Athens, and taught for thirteen 
 years in the Gymnasium called the Lyceum. 
 In the mornings he conversed with his 
 maturer pupils on the higher problems of 
 philosophy, walking up and down the 
 shady avenues, from which practice the 
 school received the name of Peripatetics. 
 In the evenings he delivered courses of 
 lectures on philosophy and rhetoric to 
 a larger audience. After Alexander's 
 death, when all adherents of the Mace- 
 donian supremacy were persecuted at 
 Athens, a certain Demophilus brought 
 against him a charge of impiety, where- 
 upon Aristotle, "to save the Athenians 
 from sinning a second time against philo- 
 sophy "■ — so he is reported to have said, 
 alluding to the fate of Socrates — retired 
 to Chalcis in Euboea. There he died 
 late in the summer of the next year, 
 B.C. 322. 
 
 Of the very numerous writings of 
 Aristotle, some were composed in a 
 popular, others in a scientific form. A 
 considerable number of the latter kind 
 have come down to us, but of the former, 
 which were written in the form of 
 dialogues, only a few fragments. The 
 strictly scientific works may be classed 
 according to their contents, as they treat 
 of Logic, Metaphysics, Natural Science 
 or Ethics. (1) Those on Logic were 
 comprehended by the later Aristotelians 
 imder the name of Organon (" instru- 
 ment"), because they treat of Method, 
 the instrument of research. They in- 
 clude the Categories, on the fundamental 
 forms of ideas : the De Interpret&tione, 
 on the doctrine of the judgment and on 
 the proposition, important as an authority 
 on philosophical terminology; the Analytica 
 Priora and Posteriora, each in two books, 
 the former on the syllogism, the latter on 
 demonstration, definition, and distribution ; 
 the Toplca in eight books, on dialectic in- 
 ferences (those of probability); on Sophisms, 
 the fallacies of sophists, and their solu- 
 tion. — (2) The Metaphysics as they were 
 called by late writers, in fourteen books, 
 consist of one connected treatise and several 
 shorter essays on what Aristotle himself 
 calls " first philosophy," the doctrine of 
 Being in itseK and the ultimate grounds of 
 Being ; a work left unfinished by Aristotle 
 
ARISTOTLE. 
 
 69 
 
 and supplemerLted by foreign, ingredients. — 
 (3) The works on Natueal Science are 
 headed by the Physics in eight books, treat- 
 ing of the most general bases and relations 
 of nature as a whole. This is followed up 
 bj' four books on the Heavens or Universe, 
 two on Beginning to he and Perishing^ and 
 the Meteorologica in four books, on the phe- 
 nomena of the air. A short treatise On the 
 Cosmos is spurious : that on the Directions 
 and Names of Winds is a fragment of a 
 larger work on the signs of storms ; and the 
 Problems (physical) is a collection gradually 
 formed out of Aristotelian extracts. Of 
 mathematical import are the Mechanical 
 Problems (on the lever and balance) and the 
 book about Indivisible Lines. Natural his- 
 tory is handled in the ten books of Animal 
 History, and in four books on the Parts, 
 five on the Generation, and one on the mode 
 of Progression of Animals. The work on 
 The Motion of Animals is probably spurious, 
 certainly so the one on Plants in two books. 
 Aristotle's treatise on this subject is lost. 
 Turning to Psychology, we have the three 
 books On the Soul and a number of smaller 
 treatises (on the Senses and the Objects of 
 Perception ; on Memory and Recollection ; 
 on Sleep and Waking / on Dreams ; on 
 Divination by Sleep ; on the Length and 
 Shortness of Life ; on Youth and Age, Life 
 and Death ; on Breathing • on Sound and 
 Voice, etc. ; that on Physiognomy is proba- 
 bly spurious). — (4) Of the three general 
 works on Ethics, the NicomarMan Ethics 
 in ten books, the Eudemian Ethics in seven, 
 and the so-called Magna Moralia in two, 
 the first alone, addressed to his son Nico- 
 machus, and of marked excellence in matter 
 and manner, is by Aristotle himself. The 
 second is by his pupil Eudemus of Rhodes, 
 and the third a mere abstract of the other 
 two, especially of the second. The essay on 
 Virtues and Vices is spurious. Closely con- 
 nected with the Ethics is the Politics in 
 eight books, a masterly work in spite of 
 its incompleteness, treating of the aim and 
 elements of a State, the various forms of 
 Government the ideal of a State and of Edu- 
 cation. A valuable work on the Constitur 
 tions of 158 states is lost, all but a few 
 fragments. The QSconomics (housekeeping), 
 in two books, is spurious. Corresponding 
 partly with the Logic, and partly with the 
 Ethics, is the Rhetoric in three books,i and 
 the Poetics, a work of inestimable worth, 
 
 1 The Rhetoric addressed to Alexander, and 
 handed down among Aristotle's works, is more 
 likely by Anaxim6nes, q.v. 2. 
 
 notwithstanding the ruinous condition in 
 which its text has come down to us. [The 
 Rhetoric is a masterly treatise on oratory, 
 regarded as an instrument for working 
 upon the various passions and feelings of 
 humanity.] Sundry other prose writings 
 are preserved under Aristotle's name, e.g., 
 that on Colours; the so-called MirObiles 
 AuscultdtlonSs, a collection of memoranda 
 on all sorts of strange phenomena and occur- 
 rences, mostly bearing on natural science ; 
 on Melissus, ZSno, and Gorgias; six Letters, 
 which however are not regarded as genuine, 
 any more than the 63 epigrams out of a 
 supposed mythological miscellany entitled 
 Peplos. But we may safely assign to him 
 the beautiful Scdllon, or impromptu song, 
 on his friend Hermeias, which takes the 
 form of a Hymn to Virtue. 
 
 A story dating from antiquity informs us 
 that Aristotle bequeathed his own writings 
 and his very considerable library to his 
 pupil and successor in the office of teacher, 
 Theophrastus, who again made them over 
 to his pupil Neleus, of Scepsis in the Troad. 
 After his death his relations are said to 
 have buried them in a cellar, to guard them 
 against the mania for collecting books which 
 characterized the Pergamene princes. At 
 last they were unearthed by Apellicon of 
 Teos, a rich bibliophile, who brought them to 
 Athens about 100 B.C., and tried to restore 
 them from the wretched state into which 
 they had fallen through the neglect of 130 
 years. Soon after, at the taking of Athens 
 by the Romans, they fell into Sulla's hands, 
 who brought them to Rome. Here the 
 grammarian Tyrannion took copies of them, 
 and on this basis the Peripatetic An- 
 dronicus of Rhodes prepared an edition 
 of Aristotle's works. This would indeed 
 partly account for the wretched condition in 
 which some of them are preserved. At the 
 same time it can be proved that the prin- 
 cipal works were known during the 3rd 
 and 2nd centuries B.C., so that the story 
 affects only the author's original MSS., 
 among which a number of works till then, un- 
 published may have come to light. Though 
 the writings preserved form rather less than 
 half of the number which he actually wrote, 
 there is quite enough to show the univer- 
 sality of Aristotle's intellect, which sought 
 with equal ardour and acumen to explore 
 and subdue the entire domain of research. 
 He was the originator of many lines of study 
 unknown before him,— Logic, Grammar, 
 Rhetoric in its scientific aspect. Literary 
 Criticism, Natural History, Physiology, 
 
70 
 
 ARISTOXENUS. AERIANUS. 
 
 Psychology ; lie was the first to attempt a 
 History of Philosophy and of the forms of 
 government then existing. His method, of 
 which he must be considered the creator, is 
 critical and empirical at once. In all cases 
 he starts from facts, which he collects, sifts 
 and groups as completely as he can, so as 
 to get some general leading points of view, 
 and with the help of these to arrive at a 
 systematic arrangement of the subject, and 
 a knowledge of its inmost being, its cause. 
 For to him the Cause is the essential part of 
 knowledge, and the philosophy that searches 
 into ultimate causes for the mere sake of 
 knowing is the best and freest science. 
 
 The form of Aristotle's works is by no 
 means equal to their contents. Of the 
 beautiful harmony between style and sub- 
 ject, that so charms us in Plato, there is 
 not a trace in Aristotle ; his manner of 
 expression, though scientifically exact, lacks 
 flavour, art, and elegance. But of exact 
 scientific terminology he is the true founder. 
 When the ancients celebrate the "golden 
 stream" of his writing, the opinion can 
 only refer to his lost popular works. 
 
 Aristotle's personality is one of those 
 which have affected the history of the 
 world. His writings, like those of Plato, 
 were to the Christian centuries of antiquity 
 a most stimulating incentive to scientific 
 inquiry; in the Middle Ages they were 
 for the Christian nations of the West and 
 the Arabs the chief guide to philosophical 
 method ; and in the province of logic his 
 authority remains unshaken to this day. 
 
 AristozSnus. A Greek philosopher and 
 musician, a native of Tarentum, and a 
 pupil of Aristotle, lived about 330 B.C., and 
 was a prolific writer on various subjects, 
 but most particularly on Music. In con- 
 trast with the Pythagoreans, who referred 
 everything to the relations of numbers, he 
 regarded music as founded on the differ- 
 ence of tones as perceived by the ear. Of 
 his Elements of Harmony, three books are 
 preserved, but they are neither complete, 
 nor in their original shape. Only a part 
 of his Elements of Rhythm has survived. 
 
 Arms. See Weapons. 
 
 Army. (1) Greek. See Warfare. 
 
 (2) Roman. See Legion, Dilectus, 
 Sacramentum, Stipendium, Castra. 
 
 Arneis. The festival of lambs. See Linos. 
 
 Arnobius. An African, who won a high 
 reputation as a master of rhetoric at Sicca 
 in Numidia, in the reign of Diocletian. He 
 was at first a heathen and an assailant of 
 Christianity; but on becoming a Christian, 
 
 to prove the sincerity of his conversion, 
 he wrote (about 295 a.d.) the extant work 
 Adversus Gentes. This is a superficial and 
 rhetorical defence of Christianity and attack 
 on Polytheism, but it is full of instruction 
 with regard to the contemporary heathenism 
 and its various worships. 
 
 Arrhephoria or Errhephoria. The Athe- 
 nian term for a mystic festival in honour of 
 Athena as goddess of the fertilizing night- 
 dew, held in the month of Scirophorion 
 (June-July), in connection with the Sciro- 
 phoria. It was named after the Hers- 
 p/io?'oi = dew-bearers, four maidens between 
 seven and eleven years of age, who were 
 chosen yearly from the houses of noble 
 citizens, and had to spend several months 
 at the temple of Athena in the Acropolis, 
 and take part in its services. Two of 
 them had the task of commencing the 
 cloak or shawl which the women of Athens 
 wove and presented to the goddess at the 
 Panathenaea. The other two, on the night 
 of the festival, received from the priestess 
 of Athena certain coffers, with unknown 
 contents, which they carried in procession 
 on their heads to a natural grotto beside 
 the temple of " Aphrodite in the gardens," 
 and delivering them there, received some- 
 thing equally mysterious in exchange, which 
 they carried to the temple on the Acropolis. 
 With this ceremony their office expired. 
 
 Arriamis (Flavius). A Greek author, who 
 wrote chiefly on philosophy and history, 
 born at Nicomedia in Bithynia towards the 
 end of the 1st century A.D., and a pupil of 
 the Stoic philosopher Epictetus. He lived 
 under the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus 
 Pius and Marcus Aurelius, enjoying a high 
 reputation for culture and ability, which 
 procured him the citizenship of Rome and 
 Athens, and high offices of state, such as the 
 governorship of Cappadocia under Hadrian, 
 A.D. 136, and the consulship under An- 
 toninus. His last years were spent in his 
 native town, where he filled the office of 
 priest to Demeter, and died at an advanced 
 age. Prom the likeness of his character to 
 that of the famous Athenian, he was nick- 
 named " Xenophon Junior." Of his philo- 
 sophical works we have still the first half 
 (four books) of the Discourses of Epictetus, 
 a leading authority for the tenets of that 
 philosopher and the Stoical ethics ; and the 
 hand-book called the Encheiridion of Epic- 
 tetus, a short manual of morality, which on 
 account of its pithy and practical precepts 
 became a great favourite with Pagans and 
 Christians, had a commentary written on 
 
AEROGATIO ARTEMIS. 
 
 71 
 
 it by Simplicius in the 6tli century, and 
 after the revival of learning was long used 
 as a schoolbook. Of his numerous his- 
 torical writings we possess the chief one, 
 the Andbdsis of Alexander in seven books. 
 This is a complete history of that conqueror 
 from his accession to his death, drawn from 
 the best sources, especially Ptolemy and 
 Aristobulus, and modelled on Xenophon, 
 of whom we are reminded by the very title 
 and the number of books, though it has 
 none of Xenophon's charm. It is the best 
 work on Alexander that has survived from 
 antiquity. To this we should add the 
 Indlca, a short work on India, written in 
 the Ionic dialect, and especially valuable 
 for its abstract of Nearchus' report of his 
 voyage from the mouth of the Indus to the 
 Persian GuH ; also the description of another 
 coasting voyage, the PSnplus Ponti Euxini, 
 and a trifling treatise on hunting, the 
 Cyn?gSticus. A work on tactics wrongly 
 ascribed to him is probably from the hand 
 of Julian the Tactician. Of his other His- 
 tories, e.g. of the Successors of Alexander, 
 of Trajan's battles with the Parthians, of 
 his own native country till its absorption in 
 the Empire, and the campaign against the 
 Alani during his command in Cappadocia, 
 we have only abstracts or fragments. 
 
 Arrogatio, one of the kinds of adoption 
 known to the Eomans. (For further infor- 
 mation see Adoption.) 
 
 Arrows. See Bows. 
 
 Arsinoe. See Alphesibcea. 
 
 Art. &e Architecture, Architecture 
 (Orders of). Painting, and Sculpture ; 
 and comp. Coinage and Gems. 
 
 Artemidorus, (1) The Geographer, of 
 Ephesus, who travelled about 100 B.C. 
 through the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean and part of the Atlantic 
 coast, and wrote a long work on his re- 
 searches, the Geographmnena in eleven 
 books, as well as an abstract of the same. Of 
 both works, which were much consulted by 
 later geographers, we have only fragments. 
 
 (2) Artemidorus the Dream-Interpreter, 
 born at Ephesus at the beginning of the ' 
 2nd century A.D., surnamed " the Daldian " 
 from his mother's birthplace, Daldis in 
 Lydia, wrote a work on the Interpretation 
 of Dreams, the Oneirocritica, in four books. 
 He had gathered his materials from the 
 works of earlier authors, and by oral in- 
 quiries during his travels in Asia, Italy and 
 Greece. The book is an acute exposition of 
 the theory of interpreting dreams, and its 
 practical application to examples systema- 
 
 tically arranged according to the several 
 stages of human life. An appendix, counted 
 as a fifth book, gives a collection of dreams 
 that have come true. For the light thrown 
 on the mental condition of antiquity, espe- 
 cially in the 2nd century after Christ, and 
 for many items of information on religious 
 rites and myths relating to dreams, these 
 writings are of value. 
 
 Artemis (Lat. Diana). The virgin daugh- 
 ter of Zeus and Leto (Latona), by the common 
 account born a twin-sister of Apollo, and 
 just before him, at Delos. The Ortygia (see 
 Asteria) named in another tradition as her 
 birthplace, was interpreted to mean Delos, 
 though several other places where the wor- 
 ship of Artemis had long prevailed put 
 forward pretensions to that name and its 
 mythological renown, especially the well- 
 known island of Ortygia off Syracuse. She, 
 as well as her mother, was worshipped jointly 
 with her brother at Delos, Delphi and all 
 the most venerable spots where Apollo was 
 honoured. She is armed, as he is, with 
 bow and arrow, which, like him, and often 
 together with him, she wields against mon- 
 sters and giants ; hence the pwan was chanted 
 to her as well as to him. Like those of 
 Apollo, the shafts of Artemis were regarded 
 as the cause of sudden death, especially to 
 maidens and wives. But she was also a 
 beneficent and helpful deity. As Apollo is 
 the luminous god of day, she with her torch 
 is a goddess of light by night, and in course 
 of time becomes identified with all possible 
 goddesses of moon and night. {See Selene, 
 Hecate, Bendis, Britomartis.) Her pro- 
 per domain is that of Nature, with its hills 
 and valleys, woods, meadows, rivers and 
 fountains ; there amid her nymphs, her- 
 self the fairest and tallest, she is a mighty 
 huntress, sometimes chasing wild animals, 
 sometimes dancing, playing, or bathing with 
 her companions. Her favourite haunt was 
 thought to be the mountains and forests of 
 Arcadia, where, in many spots, she had 
 sanctuaries, consecrated hunting-grounds, 
 and sacred animals. To her, as goddess of 
 the forest and the chase, all beasts of the 
 woods and fields, in fact all game, were 
 dear and sacred ; but her favourite animal 
 was held all over Greece to be the hind. 
 From this sacred animal and the htmt- 
 ing of it, the month which the other 
 Greeks called Artemiswn or Artemisids 
 (March-April) was named by the Athenians 
 Elaphe-bdlwn (deer-shooting), and her 
 festival as goddess of game and hunting, 
 at which deer or cakes in the shape of 
 
72 
 
 ARTEMIS. 
 
 deer were offered up, Elaphebolia. As 
 goddess of the chase, she had also some 
 influence in war, and the Spartans before 
 battle sought her favour by the gift of a 
 she-goat. Miltiades too, before the battle 
 of Marathon, had vowed to her as many 
 goats as there should be enemies fallen on 
 the field ; but the number proving so great 
 that the vow could not be kept, 500 goats 
 were sacrificed at each anniversary of the 
 victory in the month of Boedromion. Again, 
 she was much worshipped as a goddess of 
 the Moon. At Amarynthus in Eubcea, the 
 whole island kept holiday to her with pro- 
 cessions and prize-fights. At Munychia in 
 Attica, at full moon in the month of Muny- 
 chion (April-May), large round loaves or 
 cakes, decked all round with lights as a 
 symbol of her own luminary, were borne 
 in procession and presented to her ; and at 
 the same time was solemnized the festival 
 of the victory of Salamis in Cyprus, be- 
 cause on that occasion the goddess had 
 shone in her full glory on the Greeks. An 
 ancient shrine of the Moon-goddess at 
 Brauron in Attica was held in such vene- 
 ration, that the Brauronta, originally a 
 merely local festival, was afterwards made 
 a public Ceremony, to which Athens itself 
 sent deputies every five years, and a precinct 
 was dedicated to " Artemis of Brauron" on 
 the Acropolis itself. {See plan of Acro- 
 polis.) At this feast the girls between 
 five and ten years of age, clad in saffron- 
 coloured garments, were conducted by their 
 mothers in procession to the goddess, and 
 commended to her care. Tor Artemis is 
 also a protectress of youth, especially those 
 of her own sex. As such she patronized 
 a Nurses' festival at Sparta in a temple 
 outside the town, to which little boys were 
 brought by their nurses ; while the lonians 
 at their Apaturia presented her with the 
 hair of boys. Almost everywhere young 
 girls revered the virgin goddess as the 
 guardian of their maiden years, and before 
 marriage they offered up to her a lock of 
 their hair, their girdle, and their maiden 
 garment. She was also worshipped in 
 many parts as the goddess of Good Repute, 
 especially in youths and maidens, and was 
 regarded as an enemy of all disorderly 
 doings. With her attributes as the god- 
 dess of the moon, and as the promoter of 
 healthy development, especially in the female 
 frame, is connected the notion of her assist- 
 ing in childbirth (see Eileithtia). In 
 early times human sacrifices had been 
 offered to Artemis. A relic of this was 
 
 the yearly custom observed at Sparta, of 
 flogging the boys till they bled, at the 
 altar of a deity not unknown elsewhere, 
 and named Artemis Orthia (the upright) 
 probably from her stiff posture in the 
 antiquated wooden image. At Sparta, as 
 in other places, the ancient image was 
 looked upon as the same which Iph^enia 
 and Orestes brought away from Tauris 
 (the Crimea), viz., that of the Tauric Ar- 
 temis, a Scythian deity who was identifled 
 with Artemis because of the human sacri- 
 fices common in her worship. The Artemis 
 of Ephesus, too, so greatly honoured by 
 all the lonians of Asia [Acts xix 28] is 
 no Greek divinity, but Asiatic. This is 
 sufficiently shown by the fact that eunuchs 
 were employed in her worship; a practice 
 quite foreign to Greek ideas. The Greek 
 colonists identified her with their own Ar- 
 temis, because she was goddess of the moon 
 and a power of nature, present in moun- 
 tains, woods and marshy places, nourish- 
 ing life in plants, animals and men. But, 
 unlike Artemis, she was not regarded as a 
 
 ABTEMIS : " DIANA OP Vi;RSAILLES.'' 
 
 (Paris, Louvre.) 
 
 virgin, but as a mother and foster-mother, 
 as is clearly shown by the multitude of 
 breasts in the rude effigy. Her worship, 
 frantic and fanatical after the manner of 
 
ARTILLERY. 
 
 73 
 
 Asia, was traced back to the Amazons. 
 A number of otter deities native to Asia 
 was also worshipped by the Greeks under 
 the name of Artemis. 
 
 Artemis appears in works of art as the 
 ideal of austere maiden beauty, tall of sta- 
 ture, with bow and quiver on her shoulder, 
 or torch in her hand, and generally leading 
 or carrying a hind, or riding in a chariot 
 drawn by hinds. Her commonest character 
 is that of a huntress. In earlier times the 
 figure is fuller and stronger, and the cloth- 
 ing more complete ; in later works she is 
 represented as more slender and lighter of 
 foot, the hair loose, the dress girt up high, 
 the feet protected by the Cretan shoe. The 
 most celebrated of her existing statues is 
 the Diana of Versailles {see cut). On the 
 identification of Artemis with the Italian 
 Diana, see Diana. 
 
 Artillery. The machines used for send- 
 ing large missiles to a great distance were 
 
 (1) APPARATUS FOR PROJECTILES. 
 
 supposed to have been invented 
 in the East, and appear in Greece 
 since 400 B.C. or thereabouts. 
 They attained their highest 
 perfection in the age of the 
 Diadochi, and were adopted by 
 the Romans after the Punic 
 wars. There were two chief 
 varieties, both imitations of the 
 crossbow ; but the elasticity of 
 the bow is exchanged for elasti- 
 city in the twist of the cord. 
 Consequently all pieces of heavy 
 artillery were called by the 
 Romans tormenta. The ma- 
 chine consisted of three parts : 
 the stand, the groove for the 
 shot, and the apparatus repre- 
 senting the bow. This con- 
 sisted of a frame in three 
 divisions, through the midmost 
 of which passed the groove for 
 the shot (fig. 1). In each of the lateral 
 . divisions was stretched, in a vertical direc- 
 
 tion, a set of strong elastic cords, made of 
 the sinews of animals, or the long hair 
 of animals or of women. These were 
 stretched tight, and between each of them 
 was fixed a straight unelastic arm of wood. 
 The arms were joined by a cord, which 
 was pulled back by a winch applied at 
 the end of the groove. On letting this 
 go, the arms, and with them the string 
 and the object in front of it, were driven 
 forward by the twisting of the vertical 
 cords. The effectiveness of the engine 
 thtis depended on the power and tioist of 
 the cords, which may be said roughly to 
 express its calibre. The engines were 
 divided into two kinds. (1) Catapultce, or 
 scorpions (fig. 2). In these the groove for 
 the shot was horizontal ; and they projected 
 missiles of length and thickness varying 
 according to the calibre. (2) Ballistce (fig. 3), 
 which shot stones, beams, or balls up to 
 162 lbs. weight, at an angle of 50 degrees. 
 The calibre of the hallista was at least 
 three times as great as that of the catapult. 
 The average range of the catapult was 
 about 883 yards, that of the ballista from 
 about 295 to 603 yards. 
 
 After Cons tan tine we hear no more of 
 catapults, but only of ballistce and the 
 Onager. The ballista now shot arrows, 
 and is described either as a huge cross-bow 
 with an elastic bow of iron, or as virtually 
 identical with the old catapult. The onager, 
 also called scorpio (fig. 4) was a sling for 
 
 (2) CATAPULT. 
 
 stones. It consisted of a frame, in which 
 was fastened a wooden arm with a sling at 
 
ARUSIANUS MESSIUS AS. 
 
 the end, standing upright when at rest, and 
 furnished with two horizontal cords to pull 
 it up and down. This was drawn back by a 
 winch into a nearly horizontal position, and 
 
 (3) BAI.LISTA. 
 
 then released. It started up, and meeting 
 with a check-board fixed behind the engine, 
 hurled the stones out of the sling. As a 
 
 (4) ONAGEK (SCORPIO). 
 
 rule, the heavy artillery was only employed 
 in sieges ; but artillery accompanied armies 
 in the field for purposes of conquest or 
 defence. The legions and the cohorts of 
 the Praetorian Guard had their own artil- 
 lery. And at the end of the 4th century 
 every centuria in the legion had a ballista 
 of the later kind drawn on wheels by mules 
 {carroballista), and served by eleven men. 
 Every cohort had an o'liager, carried on a 
 cart drawn by two oxen. 
 
 Arusianus Messius. A Latin grammarian 
 who lived about 39-5 A.D., and made an 
 
 alphabetical collection, for school use, of 
 words that admit of various constructions, 
 with examples from Vergil, Sallust, Terence 
 and Cicero, under the title Exempla Elo- 
 cUtionuvi. 
 
 Arval 'Svotlaets {Fratres Arvales = oi the 
 fields). The Latin name for a college of 
 priests consisting of twelve life-members, 
 who performed the worship of DSa Dla, a 
 goddess not otherwise mentioned, but prob- 
 ably identical with the old Roman goddess 
 of cornfields, Acca Larentia (q.v.), who also 
 is said to have founded this fraternity. Our 
 more accurate knowledge of it we owe to 
 its annual reports inscribed on the marble 
 tablets, ninety-six in number, which have 
 been dug up (1570-1869) on the site of its 
 meeting-place, a grove at the fifth mile- 
 stone from Rome, and which extend from 
 A.D. 14-241. About its condition under 
 the Republic we have no information ; but 
 under the Empire its members were persons 
 of the highest rank. The emperors them- 
 selves belonged to it, either as ordinary 
 members, or, if the numbers were filled up, 
 as extraordinary. The election was by 
 co-optation on the motion of the president 
 {magister), who himself, together with a 
 jfldmen, was elected for one year ; their 
 badge was a white fillet and a wreath of 
 ears of corn. The Arvales held their chief 
 festival on three days in May, on the 1st 
 and 3rd in Rome, on the 2nd in the grove, 
 with a highly complicated ceremonial, in- 
 cluding a dance in the temple of the god- 
 dess, to which they sang the written text 
 of a hymn so antiquated that its meaning 
 could scarcely be understood. This Arval 
 Hymn, in which the Lares and Mars are 
 invoked, is one of the oldest monuments 
 we possess of the Latin tongue. Amongst 
 other duties of this priesthood should es- 
 pecially be mentioned the expiatory sa,cri- 
 fices in the grove. These had to be offered 
 if any damage had been done to it through 
 the breaking of a bough, the stroke of light- 
 ning, or other such causes ; or again if any 
 labour had been performed in it, though 
 ever so necessary, especially if iron tools 
 had been used. The Arval brothers had 
 also to offer solemn vows on behalf of the 
 Imperial House, both statedly on January 
 3rd, and on extraordinary occasions, and 
 were bound to fulfil them. 
 
 As, In Latin, signifies any unit, which 
 determines the value of fractional quantities 
 in coins, weights and measures, or interest, 
 inheritance and the like. The as was 
 divided duodecimally into uncice. The 
 
ASCANIUS ASOLEPIUS. 
 
 75 
 
 names of its parts are : deunx \l, dex- 
 tans -f, dodrans f, bes I, septunx J^i 
 semis ^, quincunx ^, triens i, quadrans ^, 
 sextans \, sescuncia ^, uncia y^. In ques- 
 tions of inheritance, a sole lieirwas entitled 
 herSs ex asse, an heir to half the estate, 
 heres ex semisse, and so on. As a coin, 
 the copper as weighed a Roman pound 
 (nominally 12, but practically only 10 uncice), 
 and was worth, previously to B.C. 269, nearly 
 6c?. In the year 217 it was reduced to 1 
 imcia, and in later times to | and j uncia. 
 In Cicero's time the as was = rather less 
 than a halfpenny. Comp. Coinage. 
 
 Ascanlus. The son of ^Eneas and Creusa. 
 According to the ordinary account, he ac- 
 companied his father to Italy, and, thirty 
 years after the building of Lavinium, 
 founded Alba Longa, where, after his 
 death, his stepbrother Silvius reigned. To 
 him, by his name of lulus, the gens lulia 
 traced its origin. 
 
 Asclepiades. A Greek poet, a native of 
 Samos, and a younger contemporary of 
 Theocritus. He was the author of thirty- 
 nine Epigrams, mostly erotic, in the Greek 
 Anthology. The well-known Asclepiadean 
 Metre was perhaps named after him. 
 
 Asclepiodotus. A Greek writer, pupil of 
 the Stoic Posidonius of Rhodes (who died 
 B.C. 51). On the basis of his lectures 
 Asclepiodotus seems to have written the 
 military treatise preserved under his name 
 on the Macedonian milijtary system. 
 
 Asclepius (Lat. .^HscUlapius). The Greek 
 god of Medicine, according to the common 
 account a son of the healing god Apollo 
 by Coronis, daughter of a Thessalian prince 
 Phlegyas. Coronis was killed by Artemis 
 for unfaithfulness, and her body was about 
 to be burnt on the pyre, when Apollo 
 snatched the boy out of the flames, and 
 handed him over to the wise centaur 
 Chiron, who instructed him in the cure 
 of all diseases. According to the local 
 legend of Epidaurus, Coronis, having ac- 
 companied her father on a campaign to 
 the Peloponnesus, is secretly delivered of 
 the child, and exposes it on a mountain 
 near that town, where it is nourished by 
 a herd of goats. Such was the skill of 
 Asclepius that he brought even dead men 
 to life; so that Zeus, either for fear of 
 his setting men altogether free from death, 
 or at the complaint of Hades, killed him 
 with his thunderbolt. Apollo in revenge 
 slew all the Cyclopes who forged the 
 thunderbolts, as a punishment for which 
 he had to serve Admetus for a time. In 
 
 Homer and Pindar, Asclepius is atill but 
 a hero, a cunning leech, and father of two 
 heroes fighting before Troy, Machaon and 
 Podaleirius. But he was afterwards uni- 
 versally worshipped as the god of healing, 
 in groves, beside medicinal springs, and on 
 mountains. The seats of his worship served 
 also as places of cure, where patients left 
 thank-offerings and votive tablets describ- 
 ing their complaint and the manner of its 
 cure. Often the cure was effected by the 
 
 ASCLEPIUS. 
 
 (Paris, Louvre.) 
 
 dreams of the patients, who were required 
 to sleep in the sacred building, in which 
 there sometimes stood, as might be ex- 
 pected, a statue of Sleep or Dreaming. 
 His worship extended all over Greece with 
 its islands and colonies; his temples were 
 especially numerous in the Peloponnesus, 
 the most famous being that of Epidaurus, 
 where a great festival with processions and 
 combats was held in his honour every five 
 years. Next in estimation stood the temple 
 
76 
 
 ASCONIUS PEDIANUS ASTERIA. 
 
 at Pergamus, a colony from Epidaurus; 
 that of Tricca in Thessaly enjoyed a re- 
 putation of long standing, and in the 
 islands that of Cos, the birthplace of the 
 physician Hippocrates. 
 
 At Rome, the worship of the deity there 
 called ^sculapius was introduced by order 
 of the Sibylline books, on occasion of the 
 plague of 293 B.C., and the god was brought 
 from Epidaurus in the shape of a snake. 
 For in the form of a snake, the symbol of 
 rejuvenescence and of prophecy, he was 
 wont to reveal himself, and snakes were 
 accordingly kept in his temples. He had 
 a sanctuary and a much frequented sana- 
 torium on the island in the Tiber. With 
 him were worshipped his wife Epione ( = 
 soother), his two sons mentioned above, 
 and several daughters, especially Hygieia, 
 iq.v.): also Tclesphoros ( = fulness-bringer) 
 the deity of Recovery, who was pictured 
 as a boy. In later times Asclepius was 
 often confounded with the Egyptian Serapis. 
 He is among the most favourite subjects 
 of ancient art ; at several places where he 
 was worshipped he had statues of gold 
 and ivory. He is commonly represented 
 with a beard, and resembling Zeus, but 
 with a milder aspect, sometimes with Tcles- 
 phoros, in a thick veil, or little Hygieia, 
 at his side ; his usual attribute is a staff 
 with a serpent coiled round it. The cock 
 was sacrificed to him. 
 
 Asconius P6diaaus (Quintus), a Roman 
 grammarian and historian, probably born at 
 Patavium about the year 3 a.d. He lived 
 latterly at Rome, where he enjoyed the 
 favour of men in high place. During the 
 reigns of Claudius and Nero, having care- 
 fully studied the literature of the Ciceronian 
 age, and availing himself of state-papers then 
 existing, he composed for the use of his own 
 sons his valuable historical Commentaries 
 on Cicero's Orations, of which only those 
 on five orations {In Plsonem, Pro Scauro, 
 Pro Mllone, Pro Cornelia, In toga Candida) 
 are preserved, unfortunately in a very frag- 
 mentary condition. The commentaries on 
 the Verrine Orations, which bear his name, 
 belong probably to the 4th century a.d. 
 They treat chiefly of grammatical points. 
 No other works by Asconius have survived. 
 He died, after twelve years' blindness, about 
 88 A.D. 
 
 AselUo (C. Sempronius). A Roman anna- 
 list. See Anxalists. 
 
 Asinius PoUio (Gains). A celebrated 
 Roman poet, orator, and historian. He was 
 born B.C. 75, and made his first public ap- I 
 
 pearance by bringing an impeachment in 
 B.C. 54; in the Civil Wars he fought on 
 Caesar's side at Pharsalus and in Africa 
 and Spain. After the murder of Csesar he 
 at first inclined to the Republicans, but in 
 B.C. 43 joined Antony, and on the break-up 
 of the Triumvirate obtained Gallia Trans- 
 padana for his province. In the redis- 
 tribution of lands there he saved the 
 poet Vergil's paternal estate for him. 
 After negotiating the Peace of Brundisium 
 between Antony and Octavian, B.C. 41, he 
 became consul in 40, conquered the Parthini 
 in Dalmatia in 39, and celebrated a triumph. 
 He then retired from political life, and 
 devoted himself to the advancement of 
 learning. He served the cause of literature 
 not only by his own writings, but by setting 
 up the first public library at Rome, and by 
 introducing the custom of reading new works 
 aloud to a circle of experts, before publica- 
 tion. {See Recitatio.) He was himself 
 a stem critic of others, as we see by his 
 strictures on Cicero, Sallust and Livy, 
 though it was remarked that he was not 
 always so severe upon himself. He was 
 especially celebrated as an orator ; yet his 
 speeches, in spite of careful preparation, 
 were devoid of elegance, and, as Quintilian 
 remarks, might be supposed to have been 
 written a century earlier than Cicero's. He 
 wrote tragedies also, in which the same 
 stiffness and dryness are complained of. 
 And he composed a history of the Civil 
 Wars in seventeen books, from the first 
 Triumvirate to the battle of Philippi, which 
 seems not to have been published in a 
 complete form till after his death. Not 
 one of his works has survived. [The his- 
 tory of Csesar's African campaign, Bellum 
 Africum, has recently been attributed to 
 him, but on insufficient grounds.] He died 
 80 years old, A.d. 4. 
 
 Ascolia. The second day of the rural 
 Dionysia {q.v.). 
 
 Aspis. The Greek name for a long shield. 
 (For further information, see Shield.) 
 
 Assaracus, son of Tros, and founder of 
 the collateral line to which Anchises and 
 ^neas belong in the royal house of Troy. 
 {Comp. Dahdanus.) 
 
 Assignatio. The Latin term for the 
 assignment of public lands to single citizens 
 or to colonies. See Colonies and Ager 
 
 PUBLICUS. 
 
 Asteria, daughter of the Titan Cceus and 
 the Titanid Phcebe ; sister of Leto, and 
 mother of Hecate by Perses, son of the Titan 
 Crius. She is said to have turned into an 
 
ASTEiEA ASTEOLOGY. 
 
 77 
 
 ortyx ( = qviail) and plunged into the sea to 
 escape the love of Zeus. After her the 
 Island of Delos was named Asteria, and 
 then Ortygia, till it received its ordinary- 
 name. 
 
 Astrsea ( = star-maiden), was daughter of 
 Astrseus and Eos, or, according to another 
 account, of Zeus and Themis, and as such 
 was identified with Dike. (<See Hours.) She 
 lived among men in the golden age, and 
 in the brazen age was the last of the gods 
 to withdraw into the sky, where she shines 
 as the constellation of the Virgin with her 
 scales and starry crown. 
 
 Astraeus ( = star-man), son of the Titan 
 Crius and Eurybia, father by Eos of the 
 winds Argestes, Zephyrus, Borgas and 
 Notus, as well as of Heosphorus and the 
 other stars. In the later legend he is also 
 represented as father of Astrsea. 
 
 Astrology and Astronomy were at first 
 synonymous expressions among the ancients, 
 both signifying " the science of the stars." 
 But afterwards Astrology came to mean that 
 part of the science which deals with the 
 supposed influence of the stars on the 
 destinies of men, Among the Greeks, 
 Astronomy, the origin of which they them- 
 selves ascribed to the Assyrians, Baby- 
 lonians and Egyptians, was for centuries 
 the subject of philosophical speculation 
 without a sufficient groundwork in obser- 
 vation, because mathematics and mechanics 
 had not reached the requisite degree of 
 perfection. The list of observing astro- 
 nomers opens with Eudoxus of Cnidus in 
 the first half of the 4th century, B.C., who 
 assumed that the earth was spherical, and 
 tried to explain the phenomena of the 
 heavens by a complicated theory of con- 
 centric spheres. Aristotle too maintained 
 and proved the spherical form of the earth, 
 which he took to be the immovable centre 
 of the universe. Astronomy was first 
 raised into a real science after B.C. 300 at 
 Rhodes and Alexandria, in the Museum of 
 which town the first observatory was built, 
 and Aristyllus and TimdcJidrSs determined 
 the places of the fixed stars with compara- 
 tive accuracy, though as yet with very rude 
 apparatus. A great step in advance was 
 taken by Aristarchus of Samos, who ob- 
 served the summer solstice at Alexandria 
 in B.O, 279, maintained the earth's rotation 
 on her axis and revolution round the sun, 
 and made an attempt, by no means con- 
 temptible, to ascertain the size and dis- 
 tance of the sun and moon. His succes- 
 sor ErdtosthSnes also rendered essential 
 
 service to the progress of the science ; 
 thus he came very near to determining the 
 exact obliquity of the ecliptic. The true 
 founder of scientific Astronomy, and the 
 greatest independent observer of antiquity, 
 was Hipparclius of Nic8ea(in the 2nd century 
 B.C.), who discovered the precession of the 
 equinoxes, and determined the length of the 
 solar year (at 365 days 5 hours 55' 12") as 
 well as the time of the moon's revolution, and 
 the magnitude and distances of the heavenly 
 bodies. The last important astronomer of 
 antiquity, and the greatest after Hipparchus, 
 is Claudius Ptolemceus (in the 2nd century 
 A.D.). In his chief work, commonly known 
 by its Arabic name of Almagest, he digested 
 the discoveries of his predecessors, especially 
 Hipparchus, and his own, into a formal 
 system, which passed current all through 
 the Middle Ages. According to it the earth 
 is a sphere resting motionless in the middle 
 of the equally spherical universe, while the 
 sun, moon, planets and fixed stars roll at 
 various distances around her. 
 
 The Romans regarded Astronomy as an 
 idle speculation, and gave little attention 
 to it. When Csesar reformed the Roman 
 Calendar, he had to bring an astronomer 
 from Alexandria, Sostgenes, to help him. 
 
 Astrology in the narrower sense of the 
 word, meaning prediction on the faith of 
 signs given by the stars, was an invention 
 of the Chaldseans. All but unknown to 
 the Greeks in their best days, it did not 
 come into vogue until after the time of 
 Alexander the Great. In Rome the pro- 
 fessional astrologers were called Chaldcni or 
 MathSmatid, the latter name referring to 
 the astronomical calculations which they 
 made. In the republican period they were 
 known, but held in utter contempt. In 
 139 B.C. their unpopularity was so great 
 that they were expelled from Rome and 
 Italy. But in the turbulent times of the 
 civil wars their reputation rose considerably, 
 and still more under the Empire, when the 
 most extensive demands were made upon 
 their science. They were, indeed, re- 
 peatedly driven out of Italy and involved 
 in trials for treason (maiestds) ; but this 
 only enhanced the consideration in which 
 they were held, the more so as they were 
 frequently taken into counsel by the emperors 
 and the members of the imperial family. In 
 later times, all that the Chaldseans were for- 
 bidden to do was to consult the stars on 
 questions referring to the emperor's life. 
 This was a criminal offence. The Christian 
 emperors (but none before them) issued 
 
78 
 
 ASTYANAX ATALANTE. 
 
 repeated prohibitions against all consulta- 
 tion of astrologers whatever. 
 
 In the practice of their art they used 
 calendars written on tablets, in which were 
 set down, for every day, the motion and 
 relative distances of the stars, whether 
 lucky or unlucky. With the help of 
 another set of tablets they proceeded to 
 make their calculations for every hour in 
 detail. They would, for instance, note the 
 hour of a person's birth, ascertaining the 
 relative position of the constellation domi- 
 nant at the time. According to this they 
 determined the fortunes of the individual 
 who was born at the hour in question. In 
 the same way they ascertained the time 
 favourable to any given undertaking. 
 Among the lucky stars we may mention 
 Venus, Jupiter, and Luna ; Saturn and Mars 
 were unlucky ; Mercury was lucky or 
 unlucky according to the other, circum- 
 stances of the case. 
 
 Astjranax. Son of Hector and Andro- 
 mache. After the fall of Troy he was 
 thrown down from the wall by the Greeks, 
 because the prophet Calchas had pointed 
 him out as destined to become the avenger 
 of Troy. 
 
 A8t;ydainas. A Greek tragedian, son of 
 Morsimus. {See Philocles.) His first ap- 
 pearance was in 399 B.C., and he won the 
 prize fifteen times. He wrote '240 pieces, 
 but a few titles are all that remains of them. 
 His sons Astydamas and Philocles were 
 also tragic poets. 
 
 Ast^dameia. Wife of Acastus of lolcos. 
 Peleus had rejected her advances, and Asty- 
 dameia accordingly slandered him to Acas- 
 tus, who made an attempt on the life of 
 Peleus, to her own destruction and that of 
 her husband. {See Acastds and Peleus.) 
 
 Ast^omi (Gr. astunomoi). The title 
 of ten functionaries at Athens, drawn an- 
 nually by lot from the ten tribes, five for 
 the city and five for Piraeus. They were 
 a kind of city police, responsible for keeping 
 the streets clean, for decency and quiet 
 among the public, and probably for the pro- 
 tection of buildings. They had such powers 
 of jurisdiction as were necessary to enforce 
 their authority. Street-musicians, conjurors, 
 and other performers of the kind, were sub- 
 ject to their control. 
 
 Asylnm. A Greek word meaning an 
 inviolable refuge for persons fleeing from 
 pursuit. Among the Greeks all holy shrines 
 were Asylums, and any pursuer who should 
 remove a suppliant by force was regarded as 
 a transgressor against the gods. The term 
 
 asylum was especially applied to such 
 shrines as secured to the suppliants abso- 
 lute security within their limits, which were 
 often considerable. The priests and the 
 community in each case watched jealously 
 over this right. The sanctuary of Zeus 
 Lycseus in Arcadia, of Poseidon in the 
 island of Calauria, and of Apollo in Delos, 
 are excellent examples of such asylums. 
 These sanctuaries were exceptionally numer- 
 ous in Asia. In Rome there was an asylum 
 of great antiquity, said to have been founded 
 by Romulus, in a grove of oaks on the 
 Capitoline HiU. {See Veiovis.) The erection 
 of buildings in its neighbourhood gradually 
 rendered it inaccessible. During the Roman 
 period the right of asylum attaching to 
 Greek sanctuaries was, at first, maintained 
 and even confirmed by Roman commanders. 
 But its abuse led to a considerable reduc- 
 tion of the number of asylums under 
 Tiberius. The right of asylum was now 
 confined to such shrines as could found their 
 claims upon ancient tradition. During the 
 imperial period, however, the custom arose 
 of making the statues of the emperors re- 
 fuges against momentary acts of violence. 
 Armies in the field used the eagles of the 
 legions for the same purpose. 
 
 Atilante. A Greek heroine of the type 
 of Artemis. There were two slightly differ- 
 ent versions of her story, one current in 
 Arcadia and the other in Boeotia. 
 
 (1) The Arcadian version. Atalante, 
 daughter of Zeus and Clymene, was ex- 
 posed by her father, who had desired male 
 offspring only. She was suckled by a bear, 
 until she was found and brought up by a 
 party of hunters. Under their care she 
 grew up to be a huntress, keen, swift and 
 beautiful. She took part in the Calydonian 
 boar-hunt, was the first who struck the boar, 
 and received from Meleager the head and 
 skin of the beast as the prize of victory. {See 
 Meleager.) She is also associated with 
 the voyage of the Argonauts. She turned a 
 deaf ear to the entreaties of her numerous 
 suitors ; but at last she propitiated the 
 wrath of Aphrodite by returning the faith- 
 ful love of the beautiful Milanion, who had 
 followed her persistently, and suffered and 
 struggled for her. Their son was Partheno- 
 pseus, one of the Seven against Thebes. {See 
 Seven against Thebes.) 
 
 (2) The Bceotian version. Atalante was 
 the daughter of Sohoeneus, son of AthSmas, 
 and distinguished for beauty and swiftness 
 of foot. An oracle warns her against mar- 
 riage, and she accordingly lives a lonely 
 
ATARGATIS ATHAMAS. 
 
 79 
 
 life in the forest. She meets the addresses 
 of her suitors by challengiag them to race 
 with her, overtaking them in the race and 
 spearing them in the back. She is at length 
 beaten by Hippomenes, who during the 
 race drops on the ground three golden 
 apples given him by Aphrodite. Atalante 
 stoops down to pick up the apples, and thus 
 loses the race. Hippomenes forgets to ren- 
 der thanks to Aphrodite, and the goddess 
 in anger causes the pair to wander into a 
 sanctuary of Cy bele, where they are changed 
 into lions. 
 
 Atargatis. See Dea Syria. 
 
 Ate. According to Homer, the daughter 
 of Zeus ; according to Hesiod, of Eris or 
 Strife. She personifies infatuation ; the 
 infatuation being generally held to imply 
 guilt as its cause and evil as its consequence. 
 At first she dwelt on Olympus ; but after 
 she had entrapped Zeus himself into his 
 rash oath on the occasion of the birth of 
 Heracles (see Heracles), he hurled her 
 down to earth. Here she pursues her mis- 
 sion of evil, walking lightly over men's 
 heads, but never touching the ground. Be- 
 hind her go the Litai ("Prayers"), the 
 lame, wrinkled, squinting daughters of 
 Zeus. The Litai, if called upon, heal the 
 hurts inflicted by Ate ; but they bring fresh 
 evil upon the stubborn. In later times Ate 
 is transformed into an avenger of unright- 
 eousness, like Dike, Erinys and NSmgsis. 
 
 Ateins Capito {Gains). A Roman jurist 
 of the age of Augustus and Tiberius, who 
 was born about 30 B.C., and died about 22 
 A.D. Unlike his contemporary Antistius 
 Labeo {q.v.\ he recommended himself to 
 the ruling powers by his submissive atti- 
 tude. He was rewarded by many tokens 
 of distinction ; among others, by the con- 
 sulship, to which he was elected in 5 a.d., 
 before attaining the legal age. As a jurist 
 (again unlike Antistius) he represented the 
 conservative tendency, and so became the 
 founder of a special school called the 8dbl- 
 nidni, after his pupil Masurius Sabinus. 
 
 Atellaua (i.e. Atellana fahula). [A farce 
 or comedy, which the ancients supposed was 
 originally acted or invented at the Oscan 
 town of Atella in Campania. Modern 
 scholars incline to the opinion that it was a 
 species of Latin drama representing scenes 
 at Atella, or scenes of country-town life. 
 Its characteristics were (1) that it was per- 
 formed by free-born youths, not by pro- 
 fessional actors ; (2) that certain conventional 
 characters, as Bucco (" Tatchaps"), Dossen- 
 nus ("The Glutton"), Pappus ("The old 
 
 father"), Maccus ("The fool") always oc- 
 curred in it ; (3) that it contained puzzles 
 to explain, either in the plot or in single 
 lines.] The Atellance came into fashion at 
 Rome as after-pieces (ex6dia) about the end 
 of the 3rd century B.C., displacing the 
 sdturce. (See Satdra). Till the beginning 
 of the last century of the Republic the 
 Atellana was probably an improvisation ; 
 but, in the hands of Pomponius of Bononia 
 and Novius, it was raised to the position 
 of a regular comedy on the Greek model. 
 Prom about the middle of the 1st century 
 B.C., the Atellana went out of fashion in 
 favour of the mimus, but was revived, pro- 
 bably in the reign of Tiberius, by a certain 
 Mummius. It lived on for some time under 
 the Empire, till at last it became undis- 
 tinguishable from the mimus. 
 
 Athamas. Sou of tESIus, king of Thessaly, 
 and Enarete ; brother of Cretheus, Sisyphus, 
 and Salmoneus ; king of the Minyse in the 
 Boeotian OrchSmenus. He was the husband 
 of the cloud-goddess Nephele, mother of 
 Phrixus and Helle, who left him on his 
 union with a mortal, Ino the daughter ol 
 Cadmus. Nephele in anger visited the 
 land with a drought, upon which Ino en- 
 deavoured, by means of a pretended oracle, 
 to have her stepson Phrixus sacrificed on 
 the altar of Zeus Laphystius. But Nephele 
 conveyed the children away through the 
 air on a golden-fleeced ram. During the 
 passage Helle fell into the sea, which was 
 afterwards, from her name, called the Helles- 
 pontus. But her brother arrived safely at 
 the palace of ^etes, king of Ma,, who gave 
 him his daughter Chalciope in marriage. 
 Afterwards Athamas was himself about to 
 be sacrificed by his people to Zeus Laphy- 
 stius ; but he was saved by the appearance 
 of Phrixus' son Cytissorus, who brought 
 the news that Phrixus was still alive. His 
 escape, however, only brought down the 
 wrath of the god upon his descendants. 
 The first-born of his race was ever afterwards 
 liable to be sacrificed to Zeus Laphystius, 
 if he entered the council-chamber and did 
 not get out of the way in time. Later 
 on Athamas was visited with madness by 
 Hera, because Ino brought up her nephew 
 Dionysus, the son of her sister Semele. In 
 his frenzy he killed his son Learchus, and 
 persecuted Ino, who with her other son 
 Mgliicertes leaped into the sea. Here she 
 became the sea-goddess LeucSthea, and her 
 son the sea-god Palsemon. On recovering 
 from his madness, Athamas was commanded 
 by an oracle to settle in a place where he 
 
80 
 
 ATHEN^US ATHENE. 
 
 should be hospitably treated by wild beasts. 
 In the part of Thessaly which was named, 
 after him, the Athamanian plain, he came 
 upon some wolves, who fled from him, and 
 left him the sheep-bones on which they 
 were feeding. He settled here, and wedded 
 Themisto. {See Themisto.) The story is no 
 doubt founded upon the old custom which 
 the Minyse had of offering the iirst-born of 
 the race of Athamas to Zeus Laphystius, in 
 case he failed to make good his escape as 
 Phrixus did. 
 
 Athenasus. (1) The engineer, a con- 
 temporary of Archimedes, who flourished 
 about 210 B.C. He was the author of a 
 work, still preserved, on engines of war. 
 
 (2) The Greek scholar, a native of Nau- 
 cratis in Egypt. He was educated at Alex- 
 andria, where he lived from 170-230 a.d. 
 After this he lived at Rome, and there 
 wrote his Deipnosophistce (or " Doctors at 
 Dinner "), in fifteen books. Of these the 
 first, second, and part of the third, are 
 only preserved in a selection made in the 
 11th century ; the rest survive in a 
 tolerably complete state. The work shows 
 astonishing learning, and contains a num- 
 ber of notices of ancient life which would 
 otherwise have been lost. The author gives 
 us collections and extracts from more than 
 1,500 works (now mostly lost), by more than 
 700 writers. His book is thrown into the 
 form of a conversation held in the year 228 
 A.D. at a dinner given by Larensius, a rich 
 and accomplished Roman, and a descendant 
 of the great antiquarian Varro. Among 
 the guests are the most learned men of the 
 time, including Galen the physician and 
 Ulpian the jurist. The conversation ranges 
 over numberless subjects connected with 
 domestic and social life, manners and cus- 
 toms, trade, art, and science. Among the 
 most valuable things in the book are the 
 numerous passages from prose-writers and 
 poets, especially from the masters of the 
 Middle Comedy. 
 
 Athenaeum. The name of the first public 
 educational institution at Rome, built by 
 Hadrian about 135 A.D. The building was 
 in the form of a theatre, and brilliantly 
 fitted up. There rhetoricians and poets 
 held their recitations, and salaried pro- 
 fessors gave their lectures in the various 
 branches of general liberal education, philo- 
 sophy and rhetoric, as well as grammar 
 and jurisprudence. This continued until 
 late in the imperial age. 
 
 Athene or Pallas Athene. A Greek god- 
 dess, identified with the Roman Minerva. 
 
 According to the story most generally cur- 
 rent, she was the daughter of Zeus, who 
 had swallowed his first wife Metis (" Coun- 
 sel "), the daughter of Oceanus, in fear that 
 she would bring forth a son stronger than 
 himself. Hephaestus (or, according to an- 
 other version, Prometheus) clave open the 
 head of Zeus with an axe, on which Athene 
 sprang forth in full armour, the goddess 
 of eternal virginity. But her ancient epi- 
 thet Trltogeneia (" born of Triton," or 
 the roaring flood) points to water (that 
 is, to Oceanus), as the source of her being. 
 Oceanus was, according to Homer, the 
 origin of all things and of all deities. The 
 worship of Athene, and the story of her 
 birth, were accordingly connected with 
 many brooks and lakes in various regions, 
 especially in Boeotia, Thessalia, and Libya, 
 to which the name Triton was attached. 
 
 From the first, Athene takes a very pro- 
 minent place in the Greek popular religion. 
 The Homeric hymns represent her as the 
 favourite of her father, who refuses her 
 nothing. When solemn oaths were to be 
 taken, they joined her name with those of 
 Zeus and Apollo, in a way which shows 
 that the three deities represent the em- 
 bodiment of all divine authority. With 
 the exception of the two gods just men- 
 tioned, there is no other deity whose 
 original character as a power of nature 
 underwent so remarkable an ethical de- 
 velopment. Both conceptions of Athene, 
 the natural and the ethical, were intimately 
 connected in the religion of Attica, whose 
 capital, Athens, was named after Athene 
 and was the most important seat of her 
 worship. Athene was originally the maiden 
 daughter of the god of heaven ; the clear, 
 transparent sether, whose purity is always 
 breaking forth in unveiled brilliancy through 
 the clouds that surround it. As a deity 
 of the sky she, with Zeus, is the mistress 
 of thunder and lightning. Like Zeus, she 
 carries the cegis with the Gorgon's head, 
 the symbol of the tempest and its terrors. 
 In many statues, accordingly, she is repre- 
 sented as hurling the thunder-bolt. But 
 she also sends down, from sky to earth, light 
 and warmth and fruitful dew, and with 
 them prosperity to fields and plants. A 
 whole series of fables and usages, belong- 
 ing especially to the Athenian religion, 
 represents her as the helper and protector 
 of agriculture. The two deities Erech- 
 theus and Erichthonius, honoured in Attica 
 as powers of the fruitful soil, are her 
 foster-children. She was worshipped with 
 
ATHENE. 
 
 81 
 
 Ereclitheus in the temple named after him 
 (the ErechthSum), the oldest sanctuary on 
 the Athenian AcropSlis. The names of 
 her earliest priestesses, the daughters of 
 Cecrops, Aglaurus, Pandrosus, and Herse, 
 signify the bright air, the dew, and the 
 rain, and are mere personifications of their 
 qualities, of such value to the Athenian 
 territory. 
 
 The sowing season was opened in Attica 
 by three sacred services of ploughing. Of 
 these, two were in honour of Athene as 
 inventress of the plough, while the third 
 took place in honour of Demeter. It was 
 Athene, also, who had taught men how to 
 attach oxen to the yoke ; above all, she had 
 given them the olive-tree, the treasure of 
 Attica. This tree she had made to grow out 
 of the rock of the citadel, when disputing 
 the possession of the land with Poseidon. 
 Several festivals, having reference to these 
 functions of the goddess, were celebrated 
 in Attica ; the Callynterla and Plynterla, 
 the Sclrdphoria, the Arrhephorla or 
 Hersephona, and the Oschophdna, which 
 were common to Athene with Dionysus. 
 (See DiONTSiA.) Even her chief feast, the 
 Panathencea, was originally a harvest festi- 
 val. It is significant that the presentation 
 of the peplds or mantle, the chief offering 
 at the celebration, took place in the sowing 
 season. But afterwards more was made 
 of the intellectual gifts bestowed by the 
 goddess. 
 
 Athene was very generally regarded as 
 the goddess of war ; an idea which in 
 ancient times was the prevailing one. It 
 was connected with the fact that, like her 
 father Zeus, she was supposed to be able 
 to send storms and bad weather. In this 
 capacity she appears in story as the true 
 friend of all bold warriors, such as Perseus, 
 BellerSphon, Jason, Heracles, Diomedes, 
 and Odysseus. But her courage is a wise 
 courage, not a blind rashness like that 
 of Ar5s ; and she is always represented, 
 accordingly, as getting the better of him. 
 In this connection she was honoured in 
 Athenian worship mainly as a protector 
 and defender ; thus (to take a striking ex- 
 ample) she was worshipped on the citadel 
 of Athens under the name of Promdchos 
 (" champion," " protector.") But she was 
 also a goddess of victory. As the personi- 
 fication of victory {Athene NikS) she had 
 a second and especial temple on the .Athe- 
 nian Acropolis. {See Plan of AcropoLiIS.) 
 And the great statues in the temples repre- 
 sented her, like Zeus, with Nike in her 
 
 D. c. A. 
 
 outstretched hand. The occupations of 
 peace, however, formed the main sphere of 
 her activity. Like all the other deities 
 who were supposed to dispense the bless- 
 ings of nature, she is the protectress of 
 growing children ; and as the goddess of 
 the clear sky and of pure air, she bestows 
 health and keeps off sickness. Further, 
 she is (with Zeus) the patroness of the 
 Athenian Phrdtrice, or unions of kinsfolk. 
 At Athens and Sparta she protects the 
 popular and deliberative assemblies ; in 
 many places, and especially at Athens, the 
 whole state is under her care {Athene 
 PdlMs, PoliUchus). Elsewhere she presides 
 over the larger unions of kindred peoples. 
 The festival of Athene Itonia at Coronea 
 was a confederate festival of all Boeotia. 
 Under the title of Pandchais she was wor- 
 shipped as the goddess of the Achaean 
 League. 
 
 Speaking broadly, Athene represents 
 human wit and cleverness, and presides 
 over the whole moral and intellectual side 
 of human life. Prom her are derived all 
 the productions of wisdom and understand- 
 ing, every art and science, whether of war 
 or of peace. A crowd of discoveries, of the 
 most various kinds, is ascribed to her. It 
 has been already mentioned that she was 
 credited with the invention of the plough 
 and the yoke. She was often associated 
 with Poseidon as the inventress of horse- 
 taming and ship-building. In the Athenian 
 story she teaches Erichthonius to fasten 
 his horses to the chariot. In the Corinthian 
 story she teaches Bellerophon to subdue 
 Pegasus. At Lindus in ^Rhodes she was, 
 worshipped as the goddess who helped 
 Danatis to build the first fiftyoared ship. 
 In the fable of the Argonauts it is she who 
 instructs the builders of the first ship, the 
 Argo. Even in Homer all the productions 
 of women's art, as of spinning and weaving, 
 are characterized as "works of Athene." 
 Many a Pallddion or statue of Pallas bore 
 a spindle and distaff in its left hand. As 
 the mistress and protectress of arts and 
 handiwork, she was worshipped at the 
 Chalkeia (or Peast of Smiths) under the 
 title of ErgdnS. Under this name she is 
 mentioned in several inscriptions found on 
 the Acropolis. Her genius covers the field 
 of music and dancing. She is inventor of 
 the flute and the trumpet, as well as of the 
 Pyrrhic war-dance, in which she was said 
 to have been the earliest performer, at the 
 celebration of the victory of the Gods over 
 the Giants. 
 
 G 
 
82 
 
 ATHENODORUS ATHLETE. 
 
 It was Phidias wlio finally fixed the 
 typical representation of Athene in works 
 of art. Among his numerous statues of her, 
 three, the most celebrated, were set up on 
 the acropolis of Athens. These were (1) 
 The colossal statue of Athene ParthSnos, 
 wrought in ivory and gold, thirty feet 
 in height (with the pedestal), and standing 
 in the Parthenon. {See Parthenon.) The 
 goddess was represented wearing a long 
 robe falling down to the feet, and on her 
 breast was the segis with the Gorgon's 
 head. A helmet was on her head ; in one 
 hand she bore a Victory, six feet in height. 
 
 ATHENE. 
 
 (From Velletri : Paris, Louvre.) 
 
 in the other a lance, which leaned against 
 a shield adorned with scenes from the battles 
 of the Amazons with the Giants. (2) The 
 bronze statue of Athene Promachos, erected 
 from the proceeds of the spoils taken at 
 Marathon, and standing between the Pro- 
 pylsea and the Erechtheum. The propor- 
 tions of this statue were so gigantic, that 
 the gleaming point of the lance and the 
 crest of the helmet were visible to seamen, 
 on approaching the Piraeus from Sunium. 
 
 (3) The Lemnian Pallas, so named because 
 it had been dedicated by the Athenian 
 Cleruchi in Lemnos. The attractions of 
 this statue won for it the name of "the 
 Beautiful." Like the second, it was of 
 bronze ; as a representation of Athene as 
 the goddess of peace, it was without a 
 helmet. 
 
 Throughout the numerous and varying 
 representations of her, Athene has an im- 
 posing stature, suggesting a masculine 
 rather than a feminine form; an oval face, 
 with a brow of great clearness and purity ; 
 thoughtful eyes, compressed lips, firm chin, 
 and hair carelessly thrown back. {See cut.) 
 Her ordinary attributes are the helmet, the 
 segis covering the breast or serving as a 
 shield for the arm, the lance, the round 
 shield with the Gorgon's head, the olive 
 branch, and the owl. (On her identification 
 with Minerva, see Minerva.) 
 
 Athenodorus. A Greek sculptor, of the 
 Ehodian school. He was associated with 
 Agesander and Polydorus in the production 
 of the celebrated group of Laocoon. {See 
 Sculpture.) 
 
 AtMetse. This was the name given by 
 the Greeks to the professional competitors 
 for the prizes in gymnastic contests, such as 
 boxing and the pancrdtidn, a combination 
 of boxing with wrestling. The athletes prac- 
 tised gymnastics as a means of livelihood, 
 whereas in general Greek society it was 
 regarded as a liberal, art, useful for the 
 harmonious development of the body, and 
 as a training for military service. The pro- 
 fessional athletes adopted a special regimen, 
 which produced an exceptional development 
 of bodily strength and muscle, but unfitted 
 them for any other kind of life or pursuit. 
 The profession of athlete was accordingly 
 adopted mainly by men of low birth, and 
 was more popular with the multitude than 
 with persons of intelligence and educa- 
 tion. Greek athletes did not make their 
 appearance in Rome before 186 B.C. In 
 the republican age they were not regarded 
 with great favour ; but under Augustus 
 their contests became quite popular. No 
 social stigma attached to them, as to actors 
 and gladiators, and uijder the Empire they 
 formed themselves into regular societies, 
 each with its own president, travelliag fronj 
 place to place at the festivals, at which they 
 would appear in pairs, arranged by lot, for 
 a high remuneration. In 86 A.D. Domitian 
 established a contest on the Capitol for 
 musicians and athletes, to recur every four 
 years ; and erected a special race-course for 
 
ATHLOTHET^ ATLAS. 
 
 83 
 
 the athletes on the Campus Martins. The 
 Capitoline contest survived during the 
 whole of antiquity. 
 
 Athl6th6t8B. The persons who arranged, 
 and acted as umpires in, the various public 
 games of Greece. They were also called 
 Agonothetce, and at Olympia HelMnddtkce. 
 
 {See also PANATHEN.iEA.) 
 
 Atilius Portunatianus. A Latin gram- 
 marian who flourished in the first half of 
 the 4th century A.D., and was the author 
 of a school manual of prosody. 
 
 Atimia. This Greek word does not im- 
 ply dishonour in the modern sense, but de- 
 privation of civil rights, whether partial, 
 complete, temporary, or perpetual. Partial 
 atimia at Athens might consist, for in- 
 stance, in depriving a citizen of the right to 
 appear again as prosecutor, in case he had, 
 in this capacity, failed to obtain a fifth part 
 of the votes ; or of the right to propose a law 
 again to the assembly, if he had been three 
 times condemned for making illegal proposi- 
 tions. In cases of complete atimia, a per- 
 son was excluded from taking part in any 
 public proceeding whatever. He was for- 
 bidden access to the agora and the public 
 sanctuaries ; he was incapacitated from ap- 
 pearing in court as a prosecutor. In case 
 of very serious offences the atim,ia might 
 be followed by confiscation of property, and 
 might even be extended to a man's chil- 
 dren. Atimia might also be inflicted on 
 debtors to the State, if the debt was not 
 paid within the appointed time. It was 
 then accompanied with a fine equivalent to 
 the amount already owed. The payment of 
 the debt brought the atimia to an end. 
 But where it was inflicted for other offences, 
 it was seldom removed, and then only after 
 a vote of at least six thousand citizens. 
 
 In Sparta complete atimia was mostly 
 inflicted on persons who had been guilty of 
 cowardice in war. The offender was not 
 only cut off from all civil rights, and from 
 the common meals and exercises, but had 
 to submit to every kind of insult. At the 
 public festivals he had to take a low place. 
 He was obliged to wear a patchwork cloak, 
 to have his hair cut on one side ; to give 
 way in the street to every one, even to 
 young men ; no one would give him light 
 for his flre, marry his daughter, or give him 
 his daughter to wife. [Plutarch, AgSsUails 
 30.] Bachelors were also subject to a kind 
 of atimia. They were not allowed to be 
 present at certain festivals, and had no claim 
 to the marks of respect which the young, in 
 other cases, were expected to show. The 
 
 full possession of civic rights and privileges 
 was called epitimla. {See Infamia.) 
 
 Atlas (the " bearer " or " endurer "). The 
 son of the Titan iSpetus and OlymSne (or, 
 according to another account, Asia), brother 
 of Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. 
 In Homer [Od. i. 52] he is called " the 
 thinker of mischief," who knows the depths 
 of the whole sea, and has under his care 
 the pillars which hold heaven and earth 
 asunder. In Hesiod [Theog. 517] he stands 
 at the western end of the earth, near where 
 the Hesperides dwell, holding the broad 
 heaven on his head and unwearied hands. 
 To this condition he is forced by Zeus, 
 according to a later version as a punishment 
 for the part which he took in the battle 
 with the Titans. By the Ocean nymph 
 Pleione he is father of the Pleiades, by 
 
 * ATLAS (kESTOEED^ 
 
 (Prom the temple of Zeus at 
 Agrigentnm.) 
 
 jEthra of the HySdes. In Homer the nymph 
 Calypso is also his daughter, who dwells 
 on the island Ogygia, the navel of the sea. 
 Later authors make him the father of the 
 Hesperides, by Hesperis. It is to him that 
 Amphitrite flies when pursued hy PoseidSn. 
 As their knowledge of the West extended, 
 the Greeks transferred the abode of Atlas 
 to the African mountain of the same name. 
 Local stories of a mountain which supported 
 the heaven would, no doubt, encourage the 
 identification. In later times Atlas was 
 represented as a wealthy king, and owner 
 of the garden of the Hesperides. Perseus, 
 with his head of Medusa, turned him into 
 a rocky mountain for his inhospitality. In 
 works of art he is represented as carrying 
 
84 
 
 ATREUS- 
 
 -ATTHIS. 
 
 the heaven ; or (after the earth was dis- 
 covered to be spherical), the terrestrial globe. 
 Among the statues of Atlas the Farnese, in 
 the Museum at Naples, is the best known. 
 {See also Olympic Games, fig. 3.) 
 
 In Greek architecture, the term Atlantes 
 was employed to denote the colossal male 
 statues sometimes used in great buildings 
 instead of columns to support an entabla- 
 ture or a projecting roof. 
 
 Atreus. Son of Pelops and Hippodamia, 
 grandson of Tantalus. {See Pelops.) "With 
 the help of his brother Thyestes he mur- 
 dered his step-brother Chrysippus. To 
 escape the wrath of their father, the pair 
 of brothers took refuge with their brother- 
 in-law Sthenelus, king of Mycenae, who 
 gave them Media to live in. Eurystheus, 
 the brother of their protector, was killed 
 in battle with the Heracleidse. Atreus 
 kept possession of the kingdom of Mycenae, 
 which had been given him in charge by 
 Euryatheus, and maintained it in virtue of 
 possessing a golden lamb, which had been 
 given him by Hermes for the purpose of 
 exciting discord in the house of Pelops and 
 avenging the death of his son Myrtilus. 
 Thyestes debauched his brother's wife 
 Aerope, daughter of the king of Crete, and 
 with her aid got possession of the golden 
 lamb and the kingdom. But, as a sign 
 that right and wrong had been con- 
 founded, Zeus turned the sun and the 
 moon back in their course. Atreus accord- 
 ingly recovered the kingdom and expelled 
 Thyestes. To revenge himself, Thyestes 
 sent Pleisthenes, a son of Atreus whom he 
 had brought up as his own, to Mycenae to 
 murder Atreus. But Atreus slew Pleis- 
 thenes, not knowing that he was his son. 
 Atreus replied by bringing back Thyestes 
 and his family from exile, and serving up to 
 Thyestes at table the limbs of his own 
 sons. Thyestes fled away ; the land was 
 visited with barrenness and famine. In 
 obedience to an oracle, Atreus goes forth 
 to seek him, but only finds his daughter 
 Pelopia, whom he takes to wife, ^gisthus, 
 her son by her father Thyestes, who is 
 destined to avenge him, Atreus adopts and 
 rears as his o^m child. Thyestes is after- 
 wards found by Agamemnon and Menelaiis, 
 ■\vho bring him to Mycenae. He is impris- 
 oned, and .^^gisthus ordered to murder him. 
 By the sword which iEgisthus carries 
 Thyestes recognises him as his son, and 
 proposes to him to slay Atreus. Meanwhile 
 Pelopia, in horror at the discovery of her 
 son's incestuous origin, drives the sword 
 
 into her own breast, ^gisthus takes the 
 bloody sword to Atreus as a proof that 
 he has executed his commission, and after- 
 wards falls upon him with Thyestes, while 
 he is engaged in making a thank-offering 
 on the sea-shore. Thyestes and jEgisthus 
 thereupon seize the government of Mycenae, 
 and drive Agamemnon and Menelaus out of 
 the country. 
 
 The older story knows nothing of these 
 horrors. In Homer Pelops receives the 
 sceptre from Zeus by the ministration of 
 Hermes ; he leaves it to Atreus, and Atreus 
 to Thyestes, who hands it down to Aga- 
 memnon. Hesiod alludes to the wealth of 
 the Pelopidae, but is silent as to the rest. 
 
 AtridsB (Gr. Atreidce). The sons of 
 Atreus, Agamemnon and Menelaus. 
 
 Atrium. The original name for a Roman 
 house, the interior of which consisted of a 
 single chamber open at the front. After- 
 wards the term was applied to the large 
 hall which extended along the whole 
 breadth of the house, and was lighted by 
 an opening in the roof. The atrium was 
 entered by the floor of the house, and the 
 other chambers were attached to it. {See 
 House.) Other buildings, sacred or pro- 
 fane, possessing halls of this kind with 
 dwelling-rooms attached, were known by 
 the name of atria, from the resemblance 
 of their form to that of an ordinary house. 
 The Atrium Vestoe, or abode of the Vestal 
 Virgins, is an example of a consecrated 
 atrium. The Atrium Ltbertatis was secu- 
 lar. This was the official residence of the 
 censor, and it was here that Asinius Pollio 
 established the first public library known 
 to have existed at Rome. Auction-rooms 
 were also called atria, and halls of this 
 description were often attached to temples, 
 and used for the meetings and festivals of 
 societies. 
 
 Atropus. One of the three Pates. {See 
 McEB-s;.) 
 
 Atta {T. Quinctius [or Q,uinticius\). A 
 Roman dramatic poet, author of togatce 
 {see Comedy), who died B.C. 77, and was a 
 contemporary of Afranias. He was cele- 
 brated for his power of drawing character, 
 especially in conversational scenes in which 
 women were introduced. Of his comedies 
 only twelve titles remain, with a few insig- 
 nificant fragments. 
 
 Atthis. A chronicle of Attic history, in 
 which special attention was paid to occur- 
 rences of political and religious significance. 
 After the last half of the 4th century A.D., 
 chronicles of this kind were composed by 
 
ATTICUS AUGUEES. 
 
 85 
 
 a number of writers {Atthidogrdphi), among 
 ■whom Androtion and PhilSchorus (q.v.) 
 deserve special mention. These writings 
 were much quoted by the grammarians. 
 
 Attlcus. (1) T. Pomponius. A Eoman of 
 an old and wealthy equestrian family, born 
 109 B.C. He received a good education in 
 boyhood and youth, and went in the year 
 88 B.C. to Athens, where he lived until 65, 
 devoting himself entirely to study, and much 
 respected by the citizens for his generosity 
 and cultivated refinement. In 65 he returned 
 to Rome, to take possession of the inherit- 
 ance left him by his uncle and adoptive 
 father, Q. Caecilius. He now became Q. 
 Csecilius Pomponianus. From this time 
 onward he lived on terms of intimacy with 
 men like Cicero, Hortensius, and Cornelius 
 Nepos, who wrote a life of him which we 
 still possess. He avoided public life and 
 the strife of parties. This fact, in addition 
 to his general amiability and good nature, 
 enabled him during the civil wars to keep 
 on the best of terms with the leaders of the 
 conflicting parties, Cicero, Brutus, and 
 Antonius. He died after a painful illness, 
 of voluntary starvation, in the year 32 B.C. 
 
 Atticus was the author of several works, 
 the most considerable of which was a history 
 (Jiiber annalis) dedicated to Cicero. This 
 gave a short epitome of the bare events 
 of Roman history down to B.C. 54, arranged 
 according to the series of consuls and other 
 magistrates, with contemporaneous notices. 
 But his most important contribution to 
 Latin literature was his edition of the 
 letters which he had received from Cicero. 
 He also did great service by setting his 
 numerous slaves to work at copying the 
 writings of his contemporaries. 
 
 (2) HerOdes Atticus. See Herodes. 
 
 Attis (or Atys). A mythical personage 
 in the worship of the Phrygian goddess 
 Cybele-Agdistis. The son of this goddess, 
 so ran the story, had been mutilated by the 
 gods in terror at his gigantic strength, and 
 from his blood sprang the almond-tree. 
 After eating its fruit, Nana, daughter of 
 the river Sangarius, brought forth a boy, 
 whom she exposed. He was brought up 
 first among the wild goats of the forests, 
 and afterwards by some shepherds, and 
 grew up so beautiful that Agdistis fell 
 in love with him. Wishing to wed the 
 daughter of the king of Pessinus in 
 Phrygia, he was driven to madness by the 
 goddess. He then fled to the mountains, 
 and destroyed his manhood at the foot of a 
 pine-tree, which received his spirit, while 
 
 from his blood sprang violets to garland the 
 tree. Agdistis besought Zeus that the 
 body of her beloved one might know no 
 corruption. Her prayer was heard ; a tomb 
 to Attis was raised on Mount Dindymus 
 in the sanctuary of Cybele, the priests of 
 which had to undergo emasculation for 
 Attis' sake. A festival of several days 
 was held in honour of Attis and Cybele 
 in the beginning of spring. A pine-tree, 
 felled in the forest, was covered with 
 violets, and carried to the shrine of Cj'bele, 
 as a symbol of the departed Attis. Then, 
 amid tumultuous music, and rites of wildest 
 sorrow, they sought and mourned for Attis 
 on the mountains. On the third day he 
 was found again^ the image of the goddess 
 was purified from the contagion of death, 
 and a feast of joy was celebrated, as wild 
 as had been the days of sorrow. 
 
 Attius. See Accius. 
 
 Atys. See Attis. 
 
 Auge. Daughter of Aleus of Tggea, and 
 mother of Telephus by Heracles. 
 
 Augeas or Augias. (Gr. Augei&s in verse, 
 Augeas in prose). Son of Helios, or, accord- 
 ing to another account, of Phorbas, and 
 HermiSne. He was king of the Epeians 
 in Elis, and one of the Argonauts. Besides 
 his other possessions, for which Agamemnon 
 and Trophonius built him a treasure-house, 
 he was the owner of an enormous flock of 
 sheep and Oxen, among which were twelve 
 white bulls, consecrated to the Sun. When 
 Heracles, at the command of Eurystheus, 
 came to cleanse his farmyard, Augeas pro- 
 mised him the tenth part of his flock. But, 
 the task completed, he refused the reward, 
 on the ground that the work had been done 
 in the service of Eurystheus. Heracles 
 replied by sending an army against him, 
 which was defeated in the passes of Elis by 
 Eurytus and Cteatus, sons of Molione. But 
 Heracles appeared on the scene, and slew 
 the Molionidse, and with them their uncle 
 Augeas and his sons. {See Molionidse.) 
 
 Augures [not probably, from avis, a bird, 
 but from a lost word, aug-o, to tell; so 
 " declarers " or " tellers "]. A priestly 
 collegium, at Rome, the establishment of 
 which was traditionally ascribed to Ro- 
 mulus. Its members were in possession 
 of the knowledge necessary to make the 
 arrangements for taking the auspices, and 
 for their interpretation when taken. Their 
 assistance was called in on all those oc- 
 casions on which the State had to assure 
 itself, througli auspices, of the approval of 
 the gods. The collegium originally con- 
 
86 
 
 AUGUEES. 
 
 sisted of tliree Patricians, of whom tlie king 
 ■was one. During the regal period the 
 number was doubled; in B.C. 300 it was 
 raised to nine (four Patricians and five 
 Plebeians); and in the last century of the 
 Republic, under Sulla, to fifteen, and finally 
 by Julius Csesar to sixteen, a number which 
 continued unaltered under the Empire. It 
 can be shown that the college of augurs 
 continued to exist until the end of the 4th 
 century a.d. The office was, on account 
 of its political importance, much sought 
 after, and only filled by persons of high 
 birth and distinguished merit. It was 
 held for life, an augur not being precluded 
 from holding other temporal or spiritual 
 dignities. Vacancies in the collegium 
 were originally filledup by cooptation ; but 
 after 104 B.C. the 
 office was elective, 
 the tribes choosing 
 one of the candi- 
 dates previously 
 nominated. An 
 augurium had to 
 be taken before the 
 augur entered upon 
 his daties. In all 
 probability the 
 augurs ranlied ac- 
 cording to senior- 
 ity, and the senior 
 augur presided over 
 the business of the 
 collegiuvi. 
 
 The insignia ai 
 the office were the 
 trdbea,a,sta,te dress 
 with a purple border, and the IttHus, a 
 staff without knots and curved at the top. 
 
 The science of Roman augury was based 
 chiefly on written tradition. This was 
 contained partly in the Libri AuguralSs, 
 the oldest manual of technical practice, 
 partly in the Comnientdrii Augurales, a 
 collection of answers given in certain cases 
 to the enquiries of the senate. In ancient 
 times the chief duty of the augurs was to 
 observe, when commissioned by a magistrate 
 do so, the omens given by birds, and to 
 mark out the templum or consecrated space 
 within which the observation took place. 
 The proceeding was as foUows. Imme- 
 diately after midnight, or at the dawn of 
 the day on which the official act was to take 
 place, the augur, in the presence of the 
 magistrate, selected an elevated spot with 
 as wide a view as was obtainable. Taking 
 his station here, he drew with his staff* 
 
 " AUGUlt WIIH LITUUS. 
 
 (Baa-relief in Museum, 
 
 Florence.) 
 
 two straight lines cutting one another, 
 the one from north to south, the other 
 from east to west. Then to each of 
 these straight lines he drew two parallel 
 lines, thus, forming a rectangular figure, 
 which he consecrated according to a pre- 
 scribed form of words. This space, as well 
 as the space corresponding to it in the sky, 
 was called a templum. At the point of 
 intersection in the centre of the rectangle, 
 was erected the tabemdcUlum. This was 
 a square tent, with its entrance looking 
 south. Here the augur sat down, asked 
 the gods for a sign according to a pre- 
 scribed formula, and waited for the answer. 
 Complete quiet, a clear sky, and an absence 
 of wind were necessary conditions of the 
 observation. The least noise was sufficient 
 to disturb it, unless indeed the noise was 
 occasioned by omens of terror (dirce), sup- 
 posing the augur to have observed them or 
 to intend doing so. As he looked south, 
 the augur had the east on his left, the west 
 on his right. Accordingly, the Romans 
 regarded signs on the left side as of pros- 
 perotis omen, signs on the right side as 
 unlucky ; the east being deemed the region 
 of light, the west that of darkness. The 
 reverse was the case in ancient Greece, 
 where the observer looked northwards. In 
 his observation of birds, the augur did not 
 confine himself to noticing their flight. The 
 birds were distinguished as dlttes and 
 oscines. The alites included birds like 
 eagles and vultures, which gave signs by 
 their manner of flying. The oscines were 
 birds which gave signs by their cry as well 
 as their flight, such as ravens, owls, and 
 crows. There were also birds which were 
 held sacred to particular gods, and the mere 
 appearance of which was an omen of 
 good or evil. The augur's report was 
 expressed in the words aves admittunt, 
 " the birds allow it " ; or dlio dig, " on 
 another day," i.e. " the augury is post- 
 poned." The magistrate was bound by 
 this report. The science of augury in- 
 cluded other kinds of auspices besides the 
 observation of birds, a cumbrous process 
 which had dropped out of use in the 
 Ciceronian age. {See AuspiCiA.) 
 
 The augurs always continued in possession 
 of important functions. In certain places 
 in the city, for instance on the arx, and at 
 the meeting place of the comttia, there were 
 permanent posts of observation for taking 
 the regular auspices. These places were put 
 under the care of the augurs. Their boun- 
 daries might not be altered, nor the view 
 
AUGUSTALES AURELIANUS. 
 
 87 
 
 which they commanded interfered with. 
 The augurs had authority to prevent the 
 erection of buildings which would do this. 
 They had also the power of consecrating 
 priests, as well as of inaugurating a part of 
 the localities intended for religious purposes, 
 and the places where public business was 
 carried on. They were always present at 
 the comitia, and were authorized, if the signs 
 which they saw or which were reported to 
 them justified the proceeding, to announce 
 the fact and postpone the business. If the 
 constitutional character of a public act was 
 called in question, the college of augurs had 
 the exclusive power of deciding whether 
 there was a flaw (vitium) in it, or not. If 
 there were, the act was necessarily annulled. 
 
 By the end of the republican period the 
 augurs, and the whole business of the 
 auspices, had ceased to be regarded as 
 deserving serious attention. 
 
 Augustales. A religious association at 
 Rome, formed for the maintenance of the 
 worship paid to the deified Csesars. {See 
 MuNiciPiUM and Sodalitas.) 
 
 Augnstinus (Aurelius). The greatest of 
 the Latin Christian fathers. He was born 
 354 A.D. at Tagaste in Numidia. His 
 father was a pagan, his mother, Monica, a 
 zealous Christian. After a wild life as a 
 young man, he became professor of rhetoric 
 in Tagaste, Carthage, Rome, and Milan, 
 where he was converted to Christianity 
 through the influence of Ambrose, and 
 baptized in 387. He returned to Africa, 
 and was ordained presbyter in 391, and 
 bishop of Hippo in Numidia in 396. He 
 died there in 430, after doing much good in 
 the city during its siege by the "Vandals. 
 His literary activity was extraordinary. 
 Tour years before his death he reckons up 
 the number of his works, exclusive of letters 
 and sermons, as 93, making up 233 books. 
 Among them are six books De Musicd, and 
 essays on rhetoric, dialectic, and grammar. 
 These productions, which testify to his 
 interest in learning, were instalments of an 
 encyclopaedic work on the seven liberal arts, 
 modelled upon the DiscipUnce of Varro. 
 Among his other writings two attracted 
 especial notice on account of the extra- 
 ordinary effect which they produced in after 
 times. These are The Confessions, a history 
 of his inner life in thirteen books, written 
 in the form of a confession to the Almighty ; 
 and the De Civitdte Dei, a work in twenty- 
 two books, demonstrating the providential 
 action of God in the development of human 
 history. 
 
 Augustus [" consecrated by augury "]. 
 An honorary title given in the year 27 B.C. 
 to Octavianus, the founder of the Roman 
 empire. It was not hereditary, but was 
 taken by the succeeding emperors at the 
 instance of the senate, a formality which 
 was afterwards dispensed with. Thus it 
 gradually became an official title. Properly 
 speaking, it could only be assumed by the 
 actual holder of the imperial dignity, not 
 by his colleague. Marcus Aurelius was the 
 first who broke through this rule. In 
 161 A.D. he conferred the entire imperial 
 authority, with the title of Augustus, upon 
 Lucius Verus, after whose death he elevated 
 his son Commodus to the same position. 
 This arrangement had the advantage of 
 dispensing with the necessity of a further 
 recognition of the colleague by the senate 
 and people after the death of the reigning 
 emperor. It was frequently adopted, until, 
 under Diocletian, it developed into the 
 division of the empire into an eastern 
 and western portion, each under its own 
 Augustus. 
 
 The title of Augustus was reserved 
 exclusively for the emperor ; but the cor- 
 responding feminine style of Augusta was 
 assumed, as the highest of all honours, by 
 the great ladies of the imperial house. The 
 first of those who bore it was Livia, on 
 whom her husband Octavianus conferred 
 it by will. She was followed by Antonia, 
 who received it from her grandson Caligula. 
 The first lady who took it as consort of the 
 reigning Csesar was Agrippina, the third 
 wife of Claudius. After Domitian's time 
 it became the rule to confer the title of 
 Augusta not only on the consort of the 
 reigning emperor, but on others among 
 their near relations, especially their 
 daughters. This was generally done upon 
 some appropriate occasion, and never with- 
 out the special consent of the Csesar. In 
 later times it was generally the senate who 
 took the initiative in the matter. 
 
 Aulseum. See Theatre. 
 
 Aule. See House (Greek). 
 
 Aulfis, Auletike, Aulodike. See Music. 
 
 Aurelianus (Ccelius). A Latin writer on 
 medicine, a native of Sicca in Numidia, who 
 flourished in the 5th century a.d. He was 
 the author of two works on Acute and 
 Chronic Diseases, the first in three, the 
 second in five books. These are translations, 
 fairly literal, but abridged, of works by the 
 Greek physician Soranus, who lived in the 
 last half of the 2nd century A.D. Cselius 
 also wrote a compendium of the whole 
 
88 
 
 AURELIUS, MARCUS AUSPICIA. 
 
 science of medicine, in the form of a c,a,te- 
 chisva {MediclnSles Responsiones) . Of ttis 
 considerable fragments remain. 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus. See Antoninus. 
 
 Anrelius Victor {Sextus). A Roman his- 
 torian, bom in Africa. He was probably 
 governor of Pannonia nnder Julian in 361 
 A.D., and in 389 prefect of Rome. There is 
 a history of the Caesars from Julius to Con- 
 stantine, written about 360 A.D., which bears 
 his name. This appears, however, to be no 
 more than an extract from a more compre- 
 hensive work. The same is the case with 
 an Epitome, continued down to the death 
 of Theodosius. There is also a short but 
 not altogether worthless book, entitled De 
 Virls Illustnhus Urbis Romce, which is at- 
 tributed to Aurelius Victor. It begins with 
 the Alban king Procas, and comes down to 
 Cleopatra. It is not by Aurelias Victor, 
 nor again is a little book which has been 
 attributed to him, called Ongo Gentis 
 Romance. This is full of forged quotations, 
 and belongs to a much later period. 
 
 Aurgus. A Roman coin of the imperial 
 period, originally weighing J^ of a Roman 
 pound^ and worth from the time of Julius 
 Csesar to Nero, 25 denarii, or 100 sestertii ; 
 somewhat over 22 shillings. i^See Coinage.) 
 
 Auriga. See Circensian Games. 
 
 Aurora. See Eos. 
 
 Aurum Coronarium. See Corona. 
 
 Ausonius {Decimus Magnus). The most 
 remarkable Latin poet of the 4th century 
 A.D. ; born about 310 at Burdigala (Bor- 
 deaux). He was son of the private phy- 
 sician of Valentinian I, and afterwards pre- 
 fect of Ill}Tia. Educated thoroughly in 
 grammar, rhetoric, and law, he practised as 
 an advocate in his native city, where he 
 afterwards became professor of grammar 
 and rhetoric. He was then invited by 
 Valentinian to undertake the education 
 of his son Gratian, who, after he had 
 ascended the throne, conferred upon him 
 the consulship and other distinctions. After 
 the assassination of Gratian he retired to 
 his estate near Burdigala, where he con- 
 tinued to reside, in full literary activity, 
 till 390. He became a Christian, probably 
 on accepting the office of tutor to the prince. 
 Besides composing a turgid address of 
 thanks to Gratian, delivered at Treves, 
 Ausonius wrote a series of poems, including 
 verses in memory of deceased relatives 
 (Parentdlia), verses commemorating his 
 colleagues {Coinmemoratio Professorum 
 Burdigalensium) , EpitdpMa, Eclogce, Epi- 
 stUIcB, Epigrammata, and a number of mis- 
 
 cellaneous pieces, one of which (Mosella) 
 is the narrative of a tour from Bingen on 
 the Rhine to Berncastel (Tabernce) on the 
 Moselle and then up the Moselle past Neu- 
 magen {Xoviomagum) to Treves. Its sub- 
 ject has secured the poem some renown. 
 
 Ausonius is not a real poet ; but he tries 
 to make up for lack of genius by dexterity 
 in metre and the manipulation of words, 
 and by ornaments of learning and rhetoric. 
 The consequence is, that his style is gener- 
 ally neither simple nor natural. 
 
 Auspicia (" observations of birds "). In 
 its proper sense the word means the 
 watching of signs given by birds. But it 
 was also applied to other signs, the observa- 
 tion of which was not intended to obtain 
 answers about future events, but only to 
 ascertain whether a particular proceeding 
 was or was not acceptable to the deity 
 concerned. It must be remembered that, 
 according to Roman ideas, Jupiter gave 
 men signs of his approval or disapproval in 
 every undertaking ; signs which qualified 
 persons could read and understand. Any 
 private individual was free to ask for, and 
 to interpret, such signs for his own needs. 
 But to ask for signs on behalf of the State 
 was only allowed to the representatives of 
 the community. The auspicia publlca 
 popUli Rowdni, or system of public aus- 
 picia, were under the superintendence of 
 the college of augurs. {See Atjgue.) This 
 body alone possessed the traditional know- 
 ledge of the ceremonial, and held the key 
 to the correct interpretation of the signs. 
 The signs from heaven might be asked for, 
 or they might present themselves unasked. 
 They fell into five classes : (1) Signs given 
 by birds (signa ex avibus). These, as the 
 name auspicia shows, were originally the 
 commonest sort, but had become obsolete as 
 early as the 1st century B.C. (For the 
 ceremonial connected with them, see AuGUR.) 
 (2) Signs in the sky {ex ccbIo). The most 
 important and decisive were thunder and 
 lightning. Lightning was a favourable 
 omen if it appeared to the left of the augur, 
 and flashed to the right ; unfavourable, if it 
 flashed from right to !left. {See AUGDR.) 
 In certain cases, as, for example, that of 
 the assembling of the comltia, a storm was 
 taken as an absolute prohibition of the 
 meeting. (3) Signs from the behaviour of 
 chickens while eating. It was a good omen 
 if the chicken rushed eagerly out of its cage 
 at its food and dropped a bit out of its beak ; 
 an unfavourable omen if it was unwilling, 
 or refused altogether, to leave its cage, or 
 
ANTOLYCUS .AUXILIA. 
 
 89 
 
 flew away, or declined its food. This clear 
 and simple method of getting omens was 
 generally adopted by armies in the field, the 
 chickens being taken about in charge of a 
 special functionary (pulldrius). (4) Signs 
 given by the cries or motion of animals, as 
 reptiles and quadrupeds, in their course 
 over a given piece of ground {signa pedestna 
 or ex quadrupSdibus). (6) Signs given by 
 phenomena of terror {signa ex dlrls). These 
 might consist in disturbances of the act of 
 
 * AUSPICIA PULLAEIA (bAS-EELIEF, nOME). 
 
 (From Zoega's Bassirilievi, I tav. svi.) 
 
 auspicatio, such as the falling of an object, 
 a noise, a stumble, a slip in the recitation 
 of the formula ; or a disturbance occurring 
 in the course of public business, such as, for 
 instance, an epileptic seizure taking place 
 in the public assembly; an event which 
 broke up the meeting. 
 
 The two last-mentioned classes of signs 
 were generally not asked for, because the 
 former were usually, the latter always, un- 
 lucky. If they made their appearance 
 unasked, they could not be passed over, if 
 the observer saw them or wished to see 
 them. Every official was expected to take 
 auspices on entering upon his office, and on 
 every occasion of performing an official act. 
 Thus the words impSriwrn and auspicium 
 were often virtually synonymous. The 
 auspicia were further divided, according to 
 the dignity of the magistrate, into maxima 
 (" greatest ") and minora (" less "). The 
 greatest auspicia were those which were 
 taken by the king, dictator, consuls, prae- 
 tors, and censors ; the lesser were taken by 
 sediles and quaestors. If two magistrates, 
 though coUegcB (colleagues) were of unequal 
 
 dignity — supposing, for instance, that a con- 
 sul and praetor were in the same camp — the 
 higher officer alone had the right of taking 
 the auspices. If the collegce were equal, 
 the auspices passed from one to the other 
 at stated times. No public act, whether of 
 peace or war (crossing a river, for instance, 
 or fighting a battle), could be undertaken 
 without auspices. They were specially 
 necessary at the election of all officials, the 
 entry upon all offices, at all comitia, and at 
 the departure of a general for war. They 
 had, further, to be taken on the actual day 
 and at the actual place of the given under- 
 taking. 
 
 The whole proceeding was so abused that 
 in time it sank into a mere form. This 
 remark applies even to the auspices taken 
 from lightning, the most important sign of 
 all. For the flash of lightning, which was 
 in later times regularly supposed to appear 
 when a magistrate entered upon office, was 
 always (after the necessary formalities) set 
 down as appearing on the left side. More- 
 over, the mere assertion of a magistrate who 
 had the right of auspicium that he had 
 taken observations on a particular day, and 
 seen a flash of lightning, was constitution- 
 ally unassailable ; and was consequently 
 often used to put off a meeting of the 
 comitia fixed for the day in question. 
 Augustus, it is true, tried to rehabilitate 
 the auspicia, but their supposed religious 
 foundation had been so thoroughly shaken, 
 that they had lost all serious significance. 
 
 Autolycns. Son of Hermes and Chione, 
 or (according to another account) Philonis, 
 father of Anticleia, the mother of Odysseus. 
 In Greek my thology he figured as the prince 
 of thieves. From his father he inherited 
 the gift of making himself and all his stolen 
 goods invisible, or changing them so as to 
 preclude the possibility of recognition. He 
 was an accomplished wrestler, and was said 
 to have given Heracles instruction in the art. 
 
 Automgdon. Son of Diores ; the comrade 
 and charioteer of Achilles. 
 
 Auxilla (auxiliary troops). This name 
 was given in the Roman army to the foreign 
 troops serving with the legions, and to the 
 contingents of Italian allies. In some cases, 
 especially that of the slingers and archers, 
 they were raised by free recruiting, in others 
 by a levy in the provinces ; in others they 
 were sent as contingents by kings or com- 
 munities in alliance with Rome. Under the 
 Empire the term auxilia was extended to 
 all the corps stationed in the provinces and 
 not included in the legions ; as, for example. 
 
90 
 
 AUXO BAKERS AND BAKING. 
 
 the divisions of veterans called vexilldrii, 
 and the cohorts called Italian, formed ori- 
 ginally of free Italian volunteers. It was, 
 however, employed especially of the corps 
 levied in the provinces, which furnished 
 the material not only of the whole cavalry 
 of the Roman army, but of a number of 
 infantry detachments (cohortes auxiliarice). 
 Of these, some were armed and trained in 
 Roman fashion, others retained their na- 
 tional equipment. Consequently, a striking 
 variety of troops might be observed in the 
 provincial armies of Rome. {See Ala and 
 
 COHOES.) 
 
 Auxo. One of the two Chdrites, or 
 Graces, worshipped at Athens. {See 
 Chaeites.) 
 
 Avianus. A Latin writer of fables. We 
 have a collection of forty-two fables in 
 elegiac metre, written by him, it may be 
 conjectured, in the 4th century a.d. The 
 work is dedicated to a certain Theodosius, 
 with compliments on his acquaintance with 
 Latin literature. He is perhaps to be 
 identified with the well-known scholar 
 
 Theodosius Macrobius. The dedication is 
 in prose, and states that the author's models 
 were Phsedrus and Babrius. The book was 
 largely used in schools, and consequently 
 was much enlarged, paraphrased, and imi- 
 tated in the Middle Ages. The result may 
 be seen in the Novus Avianus of Alexander 
 Neckam, written in the 13th century. 
 
 Avienus {Rufius Festus). A Latin poet, 
 native of Volsinii in Etruria, pro-consul of 
 Africa in 366 and of Achaia in 372 A.D. He 
 was the author of a tasteful and scholarly 
 translation, in hexameters, of the PhcenS- 
 mSnd of Aratus, and of the Geography 
 of Dionysius Periegetes {Descriptio Oi'bis 
 Terrdrum) ; as well as of a piece called Ora 
 marUima, or a description of the coasts of 
 the Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas. 
 This was based on very ancient authorities, 
 and written in iambics. Only a fragment 
 of the first book remains, describing the 
 Mediterranean coast from the Atlantic as 
 far as Marseilles. 
 
 Axamenta. The ancient hymns sung by 
 the Salii. {See Salii.) 
 
 B 
 
 Babrius (Greek). The compiler of a 
 comprehensive collection of ^sop's fables 
 in choliambic metre. The book is probably 
 to be assigned to the beginning of the 3rd 
 century a.d. Until 1844 nothing was known 
 of Babrius but fragments and paraphrases, 
 bearing the name of iEsopus {see ^SOPUS). 
 But in that year a Greek, Minoides Minas, 
 discovered 123 of the original fables in a 
 monastery on Mount Athos. In 1857 he 
 brought out 95 more, the genuineness of 
 which is disputed. The style of Babrius 
 Is simple and pleasing, the tone fresh and 
 lively. 
 
 Bacchanalia, Bacchus. See Dionysus. 
 
 Bacch^Udes. A Greek lyric poet who 
 flourished in the middle of the 5th century 
 B.C. He was a native of lulis in the island 
 of Ceos, the nephew and pupil of Simonides, 
 and a contemporary of Pindar. Por a long 
 time he lived with his uncle at the court of 
 Hiero, tyrant of Syracuse. He also resided 
 for a considerable time at Athens, where 
 he won many victories in the dithyrambic 
 contests. Later on his home was in the 
 Peloponnese. It would appear that he at- 
 tempted to rival the many-sided talent of his 
 uncle, but fell behind him in sublimity and 
 force. Only a few fragments of his poems 
 remain. He attempted a great variety of 
 
 styles : hymns, paeans, dithyrambs drinking- 
 songs, love-songs, and epigrams. 
 
 Bakers and Baking. The original custom 
 in Greece and Italy was to grind the corn 
 and bake the necessary supplies at home ; 
 a usage which maintained jtself in large 
 houses even after grinding and baking (for 
 the two went together) had become a sepa- 
 rate trade. Bakers first appear in Greece aa 
 a distinct class in the 5th century B.C. ; in 
 Rome there is no sign of them till about B.C. 
 171. The millers or " pounders " {pistores) 
 at Rome were usually either freedmen or 
 citizens of a low class ; but the position of 
 the trade was improved by the care taken 
 by the State to provide good and cheap 
 bread of full weight. As early as the time 
 of Augustus the State was served by a 
 collegium or guild of bakers, which was 
 subsequently organized by Trajan. In his 
 time it consisted of 100 members nomi- 
 nated by the emperor, with special privi- 
 leges, and subordinate to the prcefectus 
 annoncB {see Annona). In the 3rd cen- 
 tury A.D. the monthly distribution of bread 
 was succeeded by a daily one. This natu- 
 rally led to a considerable increase in the 
 number of public bakeries. At the begin- 
 ning of the 4th century A.D. there were 
 254, distributed through the fourteen rS- 
 
BALL BANKS AND BANKING. 
 
 91 
 
 giOnes of Rome. Side by side with these 
 there existed a number of private bakeries, 
 which made it their business to provide 
 the finer sorts of bread, so numerous in 
 antiquity. 
 
 Baking was carried on sometimes in fur- 
 naces (such as are found in Pompeii), some- 
 times in the kllbdnds or knbdnos (Latin 
 cllbdnus). This was a clay vessel with a 
 lid on the top and small holes in the sides, 
 wider at the bottom than at the top. To 
 heat it they surrounded it with hot ashes. 
 The ancients were unacquainted with rye, 
 and made their bread mostly of wheat, with 
 several varieties depending on the quality 
 of the flour and the mode of preparation. 
 The loaves were generally round, and 
 divided into four parts, to facilitate break- 
 ing them. 
 
 Ball (Games of). Games of ball were 
 among the commonest and most popular 
 forms of exercise in antiquity, among the 
 young and old alike. Playing went on 
 in public places, such as the Campus 
 Martius at Rome; and in gymnasia and 
 thermae a room {sphcBristerium, from the 
 Greek sphaira, a ball) was set apart for the 
 purpose, in which a professional attended to 
 give instruction in the art {sphairistike). 
 During the imperial period country-houses 
 often had a sphceristerium attached to 
 them. The balls (Lat. pzlcB) were made of 
 hair, feathers, or fig-seeds, covered with 
 leather or many-coloured cloth. The largest 
 (as, for instance, the Roman follis) were 
 filled with air. At this time there were 
 five sorts of ball: the small, the middle- 
 sized, the large, the very large, and the 
 inflated ball. In throwing the little ball 
 the rule was that the arm should not rise 
 above the shoulder. There were games for 
 one, two, three, or a larger number of 
 players. In many of these several small 
 balls were used at once. Two of the games 
 with the little ball may be mentioned, called 
 by the Greeks Urdnia and Aporraxis. In 
 the urania (" sky-high ") the player threw 
 the ball as high as possible, to be caught 
 either by himself or his antagonist. In 
 the aporraxis (" bounce-ball ") the ball was 
 thrown obliquely to the ground, and its 
 several rebounds were scored up until 
 another player caught it with the flat of 
 his hand and threw it back. In another 
 form of the game the point was to keep 
 tossing the ball up, as long as possible, with 
 the open hand. A very favourite game at 
 Rome was the trlgOn (" three-corner "), 
 which required special dexterity with the 
 
 left hand. The game of episkyrds, at first 
 peculiar to Sparta, was played by a large 
 number. It took its name from the line 
 (skyron) which separated the two sides. 
 On this line the player took his stand to 
 throw the ball ; another line, behind the 
 players, marked the point beyond which 
 you might not go back in catching it. If 
 you failed to catch the ball when standing 
 within this line, you lost the game. Another 
 game played by a large number was the 
 harpastum (Latin) or phaininda (Greek). 
 In this the player made as though he were 
 going to send the ball to a particular man 
 on the other side, and then suddenly threw 
 it in another direction. The korykos was 
 not so much a game as a trial of strength. 
 The korykds was a large leather bag filled 
 with flour, sand, or fig-seeds. It hung from 
 the ceiling so as to reach to about the middle 
 of the player's body. His business was to 
 keep the bag in increasingly violent motion, 
 beating it back with breast and hands. 
 
 BalUsta, See Artillery. 
 
 Banks and Banking. Bankers were called 
 by the Greeks trdpezitce, because they sat 
 at tables in the market-places, the centre of 
 all business transactions. They acted as 
 money-changers, exchanging for a commis- 
 sion heavy money or gold into smaller coin, 
 and the moneys of di£ferent systems with 
 each other. In commercial cities they would 
 do a considerable trade in this way ; the 
 difference of standards and the uncertainty 
 of the stamping of coins in Greece creating 
 a great demand for their assistance. They 
 also acted as taoney-lenders, both on a small 
 and a large scale. Finallj', they received 
 money on deposit. People placed their 
 money with them partly for safe custody, 
 partly to facilitate the management of it. 
 The depositors, according to their conven- 
 ience, either drew out sums of money them- 
 selves, or commissioned their banker to 
 make payments to a third person. In this 
 line the business of the banks was con- 
 siderable. If a citizen had a large sum of 
 money circulating in business, he probably 
 preferred to put it in a bank, and to hand 
 over to the banker the business of making 
 his payments. Strangers too found that the 
 banks offered them such facilities that they 
 were glad to make considerable use of them. 
 The bankers kept strict accounts of all the 
 monies in their charge. If a person were 
 making a payment to another who was a 
 depositor at the same bank, the banker 
 would simply transfer the requisite sum 
 from one account to the other. The bankers 
 
92 
 
 BARBARIANS BASILICA. 
 
 were generally well known from the public 
 character of their occupation, and they 
 naturally gained great experience in busi- 
 ness. Consequently their advice and as- 
 sistance were often asked for in the ordinary 
 affairs of life. They would be called in 
 to attest the conclusion of contracts, and 
 would take charge of sums of money, the 
 title to which was disputed, and of im- 
 portant documents. Business of this kind 
 was generally in the hands of resident 
 aliens. We hear, in isolated instances, of 
 State-banks. But this business was carried 
 on in the vast majority of cases by the 
 great sanctuaries, such as those of Delphi, 
 Delos, Ephesus, and Samos, which were 
 much used as banks for loans and deposits, 
 both by individuals and governments. 
 
 The Romans had, in some exceptional 
 cases. State-banks under the superintendence 
 of public officials. The nummulanl and 
 argentdrtl occupied the same position among 
 them as the trapezitce among the Greeks. 
 The tahernoe argentarice, or banks, were set 
 up in the forum, especially about or under 
 the three arched buildings called Idni. 
 The nummularii had a two- fold function. 
 
 (1) They were officers of the mint, charged 
 with assaying new coins, holding a bank 
 (niensa) for putting new coins into circula- 
 tion, taking old or foreign coinage into 
 currency, and testing the genuineness of 
 money on occasion of payments being made. 
 
 (2) They carried on the business of exchange 
 on their own account, at the same time 
 acting as argentarii. In other words, they 
 received money on deposit, put out capital 
 at interest for their clients, got in outstand- 
 ing debts, made payments, executed sales, 
 especially auctions of property left to be 
 disposed of by will, lent money or negotiated 
 loans, and executed payments in foreign 
 places by reference to bankers there. The 
 argentarii and nummularii were alike 
 subject to the superintendence of the state 
 authorities. In Rome they were responsible 
 to the Prcefectus Urbi, in the provinces to 
 the governors. They were legally bound 
 to keep their books with strict accuracy. 
 The books were of three kinds: (a) the 
 codex accepti et expensi, or cash book, in 
 which receipts and payments were entered, 
 with the date, the person's name, and the 
 occasion of the transaction ; (6) the liber 
 rdttonum, in which every client had a 
 special page setting out his debit and credit 
 account ; and (c) the adversaria, or diary 
 for the entry of business still in hand. In 
 cases of dispute these books had to be pro- 
 
 duced for purposes of legal proof. The 
 Roman bankers, like the Greek, usually 
 managed payments from one client to 
 another by alteration of the respective 
 accounts. 
 
 Barbarians. Barbaras was originally the 
 Greek epithet for a people speaking any 
 language but Greek. It was not imtil after 
 the Persian wars that the word began to 
 carry with it associations of hatred and 
 contempt, and to imply vulgarity and want 
 of cultivation. The national feeling of the 
 Greeks had then risen to such intensity, 
 that they deemed themselves above all 
 other peoples in gifts and culture, and 
 looked down upon them with a sense of 
 superiority. 
 
 The Romans were originally, like other 
 non-Hellenic peoples, included by the 
 Greeks under the name of barbaroi. But 
 after the conquest of Greece, and the trans- 
 ference of Hellenic art and culture to Rome, 
 the Romans took up the same position as 
 the Greeks before them, and designated as 
 barbarians all the nations who differed in 
 language and manners from the Grseco- 
 Roman world. 
 
 Basil (Gr. Bdsileios, Latin BasiUus), 
 surnamed the Great, of Csesarea in Cappa- 
 docia. He was born of a noble family in 
 329 A.D., was educated in rhetoric at Athens 
 by Libanius and Himerius, and subsequently 
 took up the profession of advocate. But it 
 was not long before he dedicated himself to 
 the service of the Church. He distinguished 
 himself especially by his resistance to Ari- 
 anisra, and the measures he adopted for 
 regulating the monastic system. He died, 
 the bishop of his native city, in A.D. 379. 
 Besides his writings on points of doctrine, 
 we have an address by him to young men 
 on the uses of Greek literature, the study 
 of which he earnestly recommended, in 
 opposition to the prejudices of many Chris- 
 tians. He has also left a collection of four 
 hundred letters, which are models in their 
 way. Among them are those addressed to 
 Libanius, his pagan instructor. 
 
 Basileus. The Greek word for king. On 
 the Archon Basileus see Aechontes. The 
 name was also given to the toast-master in 
 a drinking-bout. (See Meals.) 
 
 Basilica (Gr. basUike or "King's 
 House "). A state-building, used by the 
 Romans as a hall of justice and a public 
 meeting-place. The earliest basilica built 
 at Rome was called the basilica Porcia, 
 after the famous M. Porcius Cato Censorius, 
 who built it in B.C. 184, probably on the 
 
BASTERNA BATHS. 
 
 93 
 
 model of the Stoa Basileios ("royal colon- 
 nade ") at Athens. It stood in the Forum 
 near the Curia. The later basilicas usually 
 bore the name of the persons who built 
 them. Buildings of the same kind were 
 constantly erected in the provinces to serve 
 as halls of exchange or courts of justice. 
 The form of the basilica was oblong; the 
 interior was a hall, either without any divi- 
 sions or divided by rows of pillars, with a 
 main nave, and two or sometimes four side- 
 aisles. Galleries for spectators were often 
 added above. If the basilica was used as a 
 
 PLAN OF THE BASILICA, POMPEII. 
 
 hall of justice, a space, usually in the form 
 of a large semicircular niche, and containing 
 a tribunal, was set up at the end of the 
 nave for the accommodation of the court. 
 After the time of Constantino the Great, of 
 whose great basilica, with its nave and 
 two aisles, magnificent ruins still remain, 
 many basilicas were turned into Christian 
 churches, and many churches were built 
 upon the same plan. (The annexed cut 
 gives the plan of the basilica at Pompeii. 
 See also Architecture, fig. 11.) 
 
 Basterna. See Litters. 
 
 Baths. Warm baths were for a long 
 time only used by the Greeks for exceptional 
 purposes, to take them too often being re- 
 garded as a mark of effeminacy. It was 
 only after the introduction of artificial 
 bathing-places, public and private (bdldneia) 
 that they came into fashion, especially before 
 meals. Such baths were often attached to 
 the gymnasia. The Greeks, however, never 
 attained, in this matter, to the luxury of the 
 Romans under the Empire. To take a hot 
 dry air-bath, in order to promote perspira- 
 tion, followed by a cold bath, was a peculiar 
 fashion of the Lacedaemonians. The ancient 
 custom at Rome was to take a bath every 
 week in the Idvatrina or wash-house near 
 the kitchen. But after the Second Punic War 
 bathing establishments on the Greek model 
 made their appearance, and the afternoon 
 hour between two and three was given up 
 to the bath, which, with gymnastics, came 
 
 to be one of the most important proceed- 
 ings of the day. The public baths were 
 under the superintendence of the sediles. 
 A small fee (halneoMcum) was paid for their 
 use: a quadrans ( = about half a farthing) 
 for men, and rather more for women. 
 Children were admitted free. The baths 
 were open from 2 p.m. till sunset ; but 
 outside the city precincts they were some- 
 times lighted up after nightfall. Under the 
 Empire the baths became very luxurious. 
 The splendour of the arrangements, especi- 
 ally in private houses, steadily increased, 
 as did the number of public baths. 170 
 of these were added by Agrippa alone in 
 his sedileship, and in the 4th century A.D. 
 the number was reckoned at 952 in the city 
 of Rome alone. From the time of Agrippa 
 we find ttiermm or hot baths, fitted up in 
 the style of those attached to the Greek 
 gymnasia, in use in Rome, Italy, and the 
 provinces. No provincial town was with- 
 out its baths; indeed they were found in- 
 many villages, as is proved by the remains 
 scattered over the whoJe extent of the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 The baths of later times consisted of at 
 least three chambers, each with separate 
 compartments for the two sexes. (1) The 
 teplddrium, a room heated with warm air, 
 intended to promote perspiration after un- 
 dressing ; (2) the calddrium,, where the hot 
 bath was taken in a tub (sdlium) or basin 
 (piscina) ; (3) the frigiddrium, where the 
 final cold bath was taken. After this the 
 skin was scraped with a strigilis, rubbed 
 down with a linen cloth, and anointed with 
 oil. This took place either in the tepi- 
 darium or in special apartments, which 
 were often provided in larger establishments, 
 as were rooms for dressing and undressing. 
 Round the basin ran a passage, with seats 
 for the visitors. The Laconian or dry air- 
 bath was a luxury sometimes, but not neces- 
 sarily, provided. The heating was managed 
 by means of a great furnace, placed between 
 the men's and the women's baths. Imme- 
 diately adjoining it were the caldaria, then 
 came the tepidaria and the frigidarium. 
 Over the furnace were fixed a cold-water, 
 warm-water, and hot-water cistern, from 
 which the water was conducted into the 
 bath-rooms. The caldaria and tepidaria 
 were warmed with hot air. The heat was 
 conducted from the furnace into a hollow 
 receptacle under the floor, about two feet 
 in height {suspensura, hypdcaustum), and 
 thence by means of flues between the double 
 walls. 
 
94 
 
 BATRACHOMYOMACHIA BEDS. 
 
 The Romans were so fond 
 of the bath that if the em- 
 peror or a rich citizen pre- 
 sented the people with a free 
 bath for a day, a longer 
 period, or in perpetuity, he 
 won the credit of exceptional 
 liberality. It was not un- 
 common for a person to 
 leave a sum of money in 
 his will for defraying the 
 costs of bathing. Some 
 towns applied their public 
 funds for this purpose. 
 
 The accompanying cuts 
 give the ground-plan of the 
 hot baths at Pompeii, and of 
 a private Roman bath found 
 at Caerwent (Venta Silu- 
 rum) in South Wales. (For 
 a restoration of the Baths 
 of Caracalla, see Architec- 
 ture, fig. 13.) 
 
 a, a, a. Women's Bath. 
 J), b. Men's Bath, 
 c, c, c. Colonnade. 
 ' d, d, d, d, d. Single Baths, 
 e, e. Entrance to Women's Bath. 
 /. Side Entrance. 
 
 Sf g. Waiting Rooms, 
 h, h. h. Shops, 
 i. Chief Entrance. 
 %, Ic. Heating Apparatus. 
 I. Portions. 
 
 PLAN OF THE PUBLIC THEKM.I;, POMPEII. 
 
 a. Entrance. 
 
 b. h. Pipes. 
 
 c. Warm Bath, 
 
 d. Fumace-room. 
 
 e. Stove. 
 
 /. Cold Bath. 
 
 ROMAN PRIVATE BATHS, CAERWENT (VENTA 
 SILORDM, MONMOnTHSHIRE). 
 
 (O. Morgan, Arclusologia, xxvi 2, p. 432, pi. 36.) 
 
 Batr8,ch6mJ^6macliia. The Battle of the 
 Frogs and the Mice. This was the title of 
 an epic poem falsely bearing the name of 
 Homer. It was a parody of the Iliad, and 
 was probably written by Pigres. {See 
 Homer 1, end.) 
 
 Baucis. See Philemon 2. 
 
 Beds (Gk. kllne, Lat. lectus). The 
 Greek and Latin words were applied not 
 only to beds in the proper sense of the 
 
 (1) Millingen, Peintures d. Vases grecs, pi. ix. 
 
 (2) Micali, Monumenti InediU, tav. xxiii. 
 
 I 
 
 (3) Stackelberg, Grdler d. Helleuen, Taf. xxvi. 
 
 (4) Xjenormant et De Witte, Monum. cirajnogr. II 
 pi. xxziii A. 
 
 BEDSTEADS, FROM GREEK VASES. 
 
BELLEROPHON BELLONA. 
 
 95 
 
 term, but to any kind of couch, as, for in- 
 stance, to the sofas used at meals (see 
 TRicuNruM) or for reading and writing. 
 The frame rested on four feet, and some- 
 times had no support at all, sometimes one 
 for the head, sometimes one at each 
 end for head and feet, sometimes one at 
 the side. It was made of wood or bronze, 
 and was usually richly adorned on the 
 parts exposed to view. If of wood, these, 
 ornaments would consist of inlaid work 
 
 of fine metal, ivory, tortoiseshell, amber, 
 and rare coloured woods ; if of bronze, 
 they would be sculptures in relief. The 
 mattress (Gk. knephdlon, tyleidn, Lat. tdrus, 
 culclta) was supported on girths stretched 
 across the frame, and was stuffed with 
 vegetable fibre, woollen flock, or feathers, 
 and covered with linen, wool, or leather. 
 Cushions were added to support the head or 
 elbow (Gk. proskSphdlaion, Lat. pulvlnus 
 or cermcal). Coverings for the sleeper 
 were spread over the mattrass, which in 
 wealthy houses would be dyed purple, or 
 adorned with patterns and embroidery. If 
 the bed was high, it would have a foot- 
 stool attached. At Pompeii couches have 
 often been found built up in the niches 
 of the sleeping apartments. (Jor various 
 forms of Greek bedsteads, 5ge the engrav- 
 ings.) Cp. Fulcra, 
 
 Bell6r6ph6n or BaliarSplioiites. Son of 
 Glaucus of Corinth (or according to another 
 account, of Poseidon), and grandson of 
 Sisyphus. His proper name is said to have 
 been Hipponoes; the name Bellerophontes 
 implies that he was the slayer of some now 
 unknown monster. In later times his name 
 wag wrongly explained as the slayer of a 
 certain Corinthian, Belleros, on account of 
 which he was supposed to have fled to 
 Proetus at Tiryns, or (as Homer has it) q,t 
 Corinth. The wife of PrcBtus, Anteia (or 
 SthenebcBa), falls in love with the beautiful 
 youth : he is deaf to her entreaties : she 
 slanders him to her husband, who resolves 
 on his destruction. He sends Bellerophon 
 to Lycia, to his father-in-law lobates, with 
 a tablet in cypher, begging him to put the 
 bearer to death. lobates first commissions 
 Bellerophon to destroy the fire-breathing 
 monster Chimaera, a task which he executes 
 with the help of his winged horse PegSsus 
 {see Pbgasus). Thereupon, after a fierce 
 battle, he conquers the SSlyrji and the Ama- 
 zons, on his return slays an ambush of the 
 boldest among the Lycians, and lobates now 
 recognises his divine origin, keeps him with 
 him, and gives him the half of his kingdom, 
 
 and his daughter to wife. The children of 
 this marriage are Isander, Hippolochus, the 
 father of Glaucus and Laodamia, and the 
 mother of Sarpedon by Zeus. Afterwards 
 Bellerophon was hated by all the gods, and 
 wandered about alone, devouring his heart 
 in sorrow. His son Isander was killed by 
 Ares in battle against the Solymi, while 
 Laodamia was sacrificed to the wrath of 
 Artemis. This is the Homeric version ; but, 
 according to Pindar, Bellerophon's high for- 
 
 BBLLKROl^aoi 
 
 * THE DBPAET0BE OF BELLEROPHON. 
 
 (From a mural painting, Pompeii.) 
 
 tune made him so overweening that he 
 wished to mount to heaven on Pegasus ; but 
 Zeus drove the horse wild with a gadfly, 
 and Bellerophon fell and came to a miser- 
 able end. He was honoured as a hero in 
 Corinth, an enclosure being consecrated to 
 him in the cypress grove of Craneion. 
 
 Bellona. (1) The Roman goddess of 
 war. An old Italian divinity, probably of 
 Sabine origin. She was supposed to be 
 wife or sister of Mars, and was identified 
 with the Greek Enyo. Her temple, which 
 was situated in the Campus Martins, outside 
 the old pomSrium, was used for meetings of 
 the senate when it was dealing with the 
 ambassadors of foreign nations, or Roman 
 generals who claimed a triumph on their 
 return from war. It must be remembered 
 
96 
 
 BELUS BOETHIUS. 
 
 * PKIEST OF BELLONA. 
 
 From a Roman eepnlchral 
 
 relief (Guigniant, Nouv. Gall, 
 
 Myth., p. 120, 368 i.) 
 
 that under such circumstances a general 
 might not enter the city. The pillar of war 
 {Columna Bellied) stood hard by. It was 
 from this, as representing the boundary of 
 the enemy's territory, that the Fetidlis 
 threw his lance on declaring war. 
 
 (2) Quite a different goddess is the Bellona 
 whom the Roman government brought from 
 Comana in Cappadocia towards the begin- 
 ning of the 1st 
 century B.C., dur- 
 ing the Mithridatic 
 war. This Bellona 
 was worshipped in 
 a different locality, 
 and with a service 
 conducted by Cap- 
 padocian priests 
 and priestesses. 
 These Bellondrii 
 (such was their 
 name) moved 
 through the city 
 in procession at 
 the festivals of the 
 goddess in black 
 raiment, and shed 
 their blood at the 
 sacrifice, wounding 
 themselves for the 
 purpose in the arms and loins with a two- 
 edged axe, and prophesying amid a wild 
 noise of drums and trumpets. 
 
 Belus. Son of Libya, granddaughter of 
 lo and Poseidon. Father of ^gyptus, 
 Danaiis, Cepheus, and Phineus. 
 
 Bendis. A goddess of the moon among 
 the Thracians. She |was invested with 
 power over heaven and earth, and identified 
 by the Greeks with Artemis, Hecate, and 
 Persephone. The worship of this goddess 
 was introduced into Attica by Thracian 
 aliens ; and was so popular that in Plato's 
 time it became a state ceremonial at 
 Athens. A public festival was instituted 
 called the Bendideia, at which there were 
 torch-races and a solemn procession of 
 Athenians and Thracians at the Piraeus. 
 
 Berosus. A Greek writer, bom in 
 Bithynia, and a priest of Belus. He lived 
 as early as the time of Alexander the Great, 
 and about B.C. 280 wrote a work, dedi- 
 cated to king Antiochus Soter, on Babylo- 
 nian history, in three books {Bdbylonlca 
 or ChalddvM). The work must have been 
 of great value, as it was founded on ancient 
 priestly chronicles preserved in the temple 
 of Belus at Babylon. Its importance as an 
 authority for the ancient history of Asia 
 
 is fully attested by the fragme4ts that 
 remain, in spite of their scanty number 
 and disordered arrangement. 
 
 Bestiarii. See Circus. 
 
 Bias. See Adeastus and Melampus. 
 
 Bihliopola. See Book-teade. 
 
 Bidental (Roman). A consecrated spot 
 where lightning had passed into the ground. 
 {See Puteal.) 
 
 Bidyae (Spartan). See Education. 
 
 Bigae. See Cikcus, Games of. 
 
 Bikos (Greek.) See Vessels. 
 
 Bion. A Greek bucolic poet, who flour- 
 ished in the second half of the 2nd cen- 
 tury B.C. He lived mostly in Sicily, where 
 he is said to have died by poison. Besides 
 a number of minor poems from his hand, we 
 have a long descriptive epic called The 
 Dirge of Adonis. His style is more remark- 
 able for grace than for power or simplicity. 
 
 Boedromia. A festival held at Athens 
 in honour of Apollo Boedrdmios, the god 
 who gave aid in battle. It was celebrated 
 on the 6th day of the month Boedromion, 
 so named after the god (September-Octo- 
 ber). The origin of the festival was traced 
 back in antiquity to the victory of Ion over 
 Eumolpus, or to that of Theseus over the 
 Amazons. After 490 B.C. it was converted 
 into a commemoration of the battle of 
 Marathon. 
 
 BceotarcM. The highest officials of the 
 Boeotian confederacy, two of whom were 
 always chosen by Thebes, as the chief town 
 in it, and one by each of the other towns. 
 They held the post only for a year, but were 
 capable of re-election in successive years. 
 Their chief duties were to command the 
 troops of the confederacy in time of war, 
 and execute the decrees of its council. 
 
 Boethius (Anlcius Manlius Torquatus 
 Severinus). Boethius was born in Rome, 
 about 475 A.D., and belonged to the dis- 
 tinguished family of the Anicii, who had 
 for some time been Christians. Having 
 been left an orphan in his childhood, he 
 was taken in his tenth year to Athens, 
 where he remained eighteen years and ac- 
 quired a stock of knowledge far beyond 
 the average. After his return to Rome, 
 he was held in high esteem among his con- 
 temporaries for his learning and eloquence. 
 He attracted the attention of Theodoric, 
 who in BIO A.D. made him consul, and, in 
 spite of his patriotic and independent atti- 
 tude, gave him a prominent share in the 
 government. The trial of the consul Al- 
 binus, however, brought with it the ruin 
 of Boethius. Albinus was accused of main- 
 
BONA DBA BOOKS. 
 
 97 
 
 taining a secret understanding with the 
 Byzantine court, and Boethius stood up 
 boldly in his defence, declaring that if 
 Albinus was guilty, so was he and the 
 whole senate with him. Thus involved in 
 the same charge, he was sentenced to death 
 by the cowardly assembly whose cause he 
 had represented. He was thrown into 
 prison at Pavia, and executed in 525. 
 
 The most famous work of Boethius, his 
 Consolation of Philosophy, was written in 
 prison. It was much read in the Middle 
 Ages, and translated into every possible 
 language. The book is thrown partly into 
 the form of a dialogue, in which the inter- 
 locutors are the author, and Philosophia, 
 who appears to him to console him. As in 
 the Menippean sdtUra {see Satura), the 
 narrative is relieved by the occasional in- 
 sertion of musical verses in various metres. 
 The consolatory arguments are strictly 
 philosophical. 
 
 Boethius was at great pains to make Greek 
 learning accessible to his contemporaries, 
 by means of translations of, and commen- 
 taries upon, Greek books on philosophy, 
 mathematics, rhetoric, and grammar. For 
 this the following ages were much indebted 
 to him. His writings, which were used as 
 manuals throughout the Middle Ages, were 
 the main storehouse of secular knowledge 
 during that period. This is eminently true 
 of his numerous philosophical works, and 
 especially of his translations of Aristotle, 
 which exercised immense influence upon 
 the scholastic philosophy. 
 
 Bona D6a (" the good goddess ")• An 
 Italian deity, supposed to preside over the 
 earth, and all the blessings which spring 
 from it. She was also the patron goddess 
 of chastity and fruitfulness in women. The 
 names Fauna, Maia, and Ops, were origin- 
 ally no more than varying appellations given 
 by the priests to the Bona Dea. She is 
 represented in works of art with a sceptre 
 in her left hand, a wreath of vine leaves on 
 her head, and a jar of wine at her side. 
 Near her image was a consecrated serpent ; 
 indeed a number of tame serpents were kept 
 in her temple, which was situated in Home 
 on the slope of the Aventine. AH kinds of 
 healing plants were preserved in her sanc- 
 tuary. She was regarded in Rome as an 
 austere virgin goddess, whose temple men 
 were forbidden to enter. She belonged, 
 accordingly, to the circle of deities who 
 were worshipped by the Vestal Virgins. 
 The anniversary of the foundation of her 
 temple was held on the 1st of May, when 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 prayers were offered up to her for the 
 averting of earthquakes. Besides this, a 
 secret festival was held to her on behalf of 
 the public welfare, in the house of the 
 ofiSciating consul or praetor of the city, by 
 matrons and the Vestal Virgins, on the 
 night of May 3-4. The mistress of the 
 house presided. No man was allowed to be 
 present at this celebration, or even to hear 
 the name of the goddess. After offering 
 a sacrifice of sucking pigs, the women per- 
 formed a dance, accompanied by stringed 
 and wind instruments. Under the Empire 
 the festival degenerated into a mystic per- 
 formance of extravagant character. 
 
 Bonorum emptio. The technical term in 
 Roman jurisprudence for the seizure of 
 goods. If a man . sentenced to pay a certain 
 sum did not perform his obligation within 
 thirty days, the creditor obtained permis- 
 sion from the preetor to attach his goods. 
 After a renewed respite of thirty days the 
 sale followed by auction to the highest 
 bidder, the intending purchaser bidding for 
 the whole property, with its assets and 
 liabilities. The former proprietor might 
 intervene and promise payment at any 
 time before the faU of the hammer. The 
 property once knocked down to him, the 
 buj'er became the absolute owner. A per- 
 son against whom these proceedings were 
 taken incurred infanda. 
 
 Bonus Eventus. See Eventus. 
 
 Books and Book-trade. The Greeks were 
 early familiar with the practice of multiply- 
 ing copies of books by transcription, either 
 to private order or for public sale. As far 
 back as the 5th century B.C. the Athenians 
 had a special place in their market-place for 
 selling books, and it is clearly established 
 that a regular book-fair existed at Athens 
 by about 300 B.C. In Rome, towards the 
 end of the republican age, the business 
 of copying books and the book-trade in 
 general developed on a large scale, and it 
 became a fashionable thiug to possess a 
 library. The book- trade, in the proper sense 
 of the term, owes its existence to Attious, 
 the well-known friend of Cicero. He kept 
 a number of slaves skilled in shorthand and 
 calligraphy (librarii), whom he set to copy 
 a number of Cicero's writings, which he then 
 disposed of at a considerable profit in Italy 
 and Greece. His example was soon fol- 
 lowed, especially as the interest in new 
 literary productions, and the love of reading, 
 greatly increased after the time of Augustus. 
 
 To facilitate the appearance of a great 
 number of copies at the same time, the 
 
 H 
 
98 
 
 BOREAS BOULE. 
 
 scribes were often set to write from dicta- 
 tion. Much use was made of the abbrevia- 
 tions (ndtce) invented by Tiro, the freedman 
 of Cicero. The binding was done, as well 
 as the writing, by the librarii • and as the 
 brittle papyrus was the usual material, the 
 book was generally made up in the form of 
 a roll {see Writing Materials). The 
 ends of the roll were strengthened with 
 thin strips of bone or wood, which were 
 either provided at top and bottom with a 
 knob {umbilicus), or finished off in the 
 shape of a horn. Previously to this, the 
 upper and lower edges were carefully clip- 
 ped, smoothed with pumice-stone, and tinted 
 with black. To protect it from moths and 
 worms, the roll was dipped in cedar oil, 
 which gave it a yellowish tinge. The title 
 of the work {titiilus or index) was written 
 in red on a strip of parchment attached to 
 the end of the roll. Expensive copies, 
 especially in the case of poems, had a gilt' 
 zimbilicus, as well as a parchment cover of 
 purple colour. The books were then ex- 
 posed for sale in the bookseller's shops, and 
 sold at what appear, considering the cir- 
 cumstances, reasonable prices. The book- 
 sellers were called librarii or bibliopolce ; 
 their shops were situated in the most fre- 
 quented parts of the city, and much used, 
 both as reading-rooms and rendezvous for 
 learned discussion. As a general rule there 
 was a good sale for books, especially such 
 as had won popularity before publication in 
 the public recitations (see Recitations), 
 Books were also much bought in the pro- 
 vinces, whose inhabitants were anxious to 
 keep abreast with the intellectual life of | 
 the capital. Even works which were little i 
 thought of in Rome sometimes found an 
 easy sale in other parts of the empire. It 
 does not appear that the author received 
 any honorarium from the publisher. 
 
 Borfias. In Greek mythology, the North 
 Wind, son of Astraea and Eos, brother of 
 Zephyrus, Eurus, and Notus. His home 
 was in the Thracian Salmydessus, on the 
 Black Sea, whither he carried Orithyia 
 from the games on the Ilissus, when her 
 father, Erechtheus king of Athens, had re- 
 fused her to him in marrage. Their chil- 
 dren were Calais and Zetes, the so-called 
 BoreddcB, Cleopatra, the wife of Phineus, 
 and Chione, the beloved of Poseidon {see 
 Edmolpus). It was this relationship which 
 was referred to in the oracle given to the 
 Athenians, when the fleet of Xerxes was 
 approaching, that " they should call upon 
 their brother-in-law.'' Boreas answered their 
 
 prayer and sacrifice by destroying a part 
 of the enemy's fleet on the promontory of 
 Sepias ; whereupon they built him an altar 
 on the banks of the Ilissus. 
 
 Boule or Bule (" Council"). The Council 
 instituted at Athens by Solon consisted of 
 400 members {bouleutai), 100 being taken 
 from each of the four Ionic tribes {phyla i). 
 By Cleisthenes the number was increased to 
 500, 60 being taken from each of the ten 
 newly constituted tribes, and chosen by lot ; 
 whereas up to his time the councillors had 
 been elected from the number of candidates 
 who offered themselves for the position. In 
 306 B.C. two new tribes were added, and the 
 number of the council was accordingly in- 
 creased to 600, at which figure it remained, 
 with some variations, down to the times of 
 the Roman empire. But in the 2nd century 
 A.D. it again fell to 500. In ancient times 
 no one was eligible as a councillor who did 
 not belong to one of the three wealthiest 
 classes ; but after the time of Aristides the 
 position was open to any free Athenian of 
 thirty years of age, and in possession of full 
 civic rights. In choosing councillors by lot, 
 two candidates were presented for each 
 vacancy. The same person might hold the 
 office several times, though not for two 
 years in succession. Every councillor had 
 to take a special oath, strictly formulated, 
 on entering the Boule. At the meetings of 
 the Council its members wore myrtle crowns 
 as insignia of their office. They had the 
 further privilege of a place of honour at 
 the festivals, and were excused, during their 
 term of office, from military service. They 
 also received a payment of a drachma 
 (about 8d.) for every sitting they attended. 
 Their place of meeting was called the bouleu- 
 terion (" council-chamber "); here they met 
 every day except on public holidays, each 
 member having his numbered seat. When 
 assembled, the Council was divided into ten 
 sections of 50 members each, each represent- 
 ing one of the tribes. These sections were 
 called Prytdneis ("Presidents"), and offici- 
 ated in succession, as arranged at the be- 
 ginning of each year, for 35-36 days, or in 
 leap-years for 38-39. This period was 
 called a Pr-ytarmia, and during its continu- 
 ance the prytaneis for the time being pre- 
 sided over the full sittings of the Council 
 and of the public assembly. At other times 
 they remained the whole day at their office 
 {Tholos or " dome ") near the council-cham- 
 iDer, where they usually dined at the ex- 
 pense of the State. A president {Epistdtes) 
 was chosen every day by lot from among the 
 
BOULEUTERION BOWS. 
 
 99 
 
 prytaneis to act as chairman in the Council 
 and the public assembly, to keep the keys of 
 the fortress and the archives, and the seal 
 of state. In later times the presidency of 
 the public assembly was committed to a 
 special chairman, elected from among the 
 nine ptvedroi (" presidents "), who were 
 chosen by lot by the epistates of the pry- 
 taneis from the remaining nine tribes at 
 each sitting of the Council. 
 
 The first duty of the Council was to pre- 
 pare all the measures which were to come 
 before the public assembly, and to draw up 
 a preliminary decree (probouleuma). Ac- 
 cordingly it was its businesa to receive the 
 reports of the generals and of foreign am- 
 bassadors. Foreign affairs always stood 
 first in the order of daily business. Besides 
 this, the Council exercised a general superin- 
 tendence over all public business, and 
 especially over the financial administration. 
 It gave the authority for the farming of the 
 taxes, contracts for public works, sales of 
 confiscated property, for adopting new 
 lines of expenditure or modes of raising 
 income, for arresting tax-gatherers and tax^ 
 farmers if they fell into arrear. The 
 treasurers of the temples were also re- 
 sponsible to it. The cavalry and the navy 
 were placed under its special supervision, 
 and it had, in particular, to see that a 
 certain number of new ships of war was 
 built every year. It examined the quali- 
 fications of the newly elected archons. In 
 many cases it acted as a court of justice, 
 and had the power of inflicting fines up to 
 the amount of 500 drachma} (£16 13s. 4d.). 
 But more serious cases it had to pass on 
 to the Heliastai, or to the public assembly 
 {see Heliastai). The assembly would 
 sometimes entrust the Council with absolute 
 power to deal with cases which, strictly 
 speaking, lay outside its jurisdiction. The 
 decrees passed by the Council on matters 
 affecting the public administration ceased 
 to be binding on the expiration of its year 
 of office, in case they were not adopted by 
 its successors. 
 
 The voting took place by show of hands 
 (clieirdtdnia) ; voting pebbles and other dcr 
 vices being only used for judicial decisions. 
 Private citizens could transact business with 
 the Council only after previous application 
 for an audience, generally made in writing. 
 The official correspondence was transacted 
 ' by three secretaries (called grammdteis or 
 " writers ") appointed from among the mem- 
 bers, and assisted by a number of subordi- 
 nate functionaries. 
 
 BoiLleuteribn. See Boule. 
 
 Bows. (Gr. toxon, Lat. arcus). Two 
 kinds of bow were known to antiquity. One 
 consisted of the two horns of a kind of ante- 
 lope, or an arm of wood shaped like them, 
 joined together by a bridge which served 
 both as a hold for the hand and as a rest 
 for the arrow. The string, made of plaited 
 horse-hair or twisted ox-gut, was fastened 
 to each end (fig. 1). The other, called the 
 Scythian or Parthian bow, was made of a 
 piece of elastic wood, the ends of which 
 were tipped with metal, and bent slightly 
 upwards to hold the string (fig. 2). The 
 arrow (Grk. o'istds, or toxeuma, Lat. 
 sagitta) was made of a stem of reed or 
 
 (1) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 (2) 
 
 (2) Prom jtf useittn BunUr., pi. 23 L. 
 
 (3) 
 
 (4) Muieo Pw ClementinOf 
 IV tav. xliii. 
 
 BOWS AND QUIVERS. 
 
 light wood, one end furnished with a three- 
 cornered point, sometimes simple and some- 
 times barbed ; the other end with feathers. 
 A notch in the shaft served to place it on 
 the string. The arrows (and soinetimes the 
 bow) were kept in a quiver (phdretra) made 
 of leather, wood, or metal, fitted with a 
 suspender, and soinetimes open, sonq.etimes 
 having a lid. The quiver was worn either 
 on the back, according to the Greek nianner, 
 or in Oriental fashion, on the left hip. The 
 Cretans had the reputation of being the 
 best archers among the Greeks. They 
 generally served among the light-armed 
 auxiliaries as a special corps. Mounted 
 
100 
 
 BRAURONIA BUCOLIC. 
 
 bowmen were employed by tte ancient 
 Athenians (see HiprEis); but it was not 
 until after the Punic wars that archers 
 formed a regular part of the Roman army. 
 They were then furnished by the allies, or 
 raised by recruiting, and were mostly taken 
 from Crete and the Balearic Islands. 
 
 Branronia. See Aetemis. 
 
 Briar eus. See Hecatoncheieoi. 
 
 Briseis. The favourite slave of Achilles. 
 Agamemnon took her from him, and thus 
 kindled the wrath of the hero, to the ruin 
 of the Greeks. {See Teojan Wae.) 
 
 Britomartis (" sweet maid "). A Cretan 
 goddess, supposed to dispense happiness, 
 whose worship extended throughout the 
 islands and along the coasts of the Mediter- 
 ranean. Like Artemis, with whom she 
 was sometimes identiiied, she was the 
 patroness of hunters, fishermen and sailors, 
 and also a goddess of birth and of health. 
 Her sphere was Nature, in its greatness and 
 its freedom. As goddess of the sea she bore 
 the name of Dictynna, the supposed deriva- 
 tion of which from the Greek diktyon (" a 
 net ") was explained by the following 
 legend. She was the daughter of a hun- 
 tress, much beloved by Zeus and Artemis. 
 Minos loved her, and followed her for nine 
 months over valley and mountain, through 
 forest and swamp, till he nearly overtook 
 her, when she leaped from a high rock into 
 the sea. She was saved by falling into 
 some nets, and Artemis made her a goddess. 
 She would seem originally to have been a 
 goddess of the moon, her flight symbolizing 
 the revolution of the moon round the earth, 
 and her leap into the sea its disappearance. 
 
 Brizo. A goddess localized in Delos, to 
 whom women, in particular, paid worship 
 as protectress of mariners. They set before 
 her eatables of various kinds (fish being 
 excluded) in little boats. She also presided 
 over an oracle, the answers of which were 
 given in dreams to people who consulted it 
 on matters relating to fishery and naviga- 
 tion. 
 
 Bromius. See Dionysus. 
 
 Brontes. See Ctclopes. 
 
 Brutus {Ma reus Ju n ius). The well-known 
 friend of Cicero, and murderer of Csesar. 
 He was born in 85 B.C., and died by his own 
 hand after the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42. 
 
 As an orator and a writer on philosophy 
 he held a prominent position among his con- 
 temporaries. Two books of correspondence 
 between Brutus and Cicero have come down 
 to us, the authenticity of which is disputed. 
 There is also a collection of seventy letters 
 
 in Greek, purporting to represent correspon- 
 dence between Brutus and the Greek cities 
 
 =^- BUCINATOK. 
 
 From a mnral 
 painting or'^gladia- 
 
 tora (Gell and 
 
 Gandy, Pompeiano, 
 
 pi. 75). 
 
 Ofew , Head of Brutus : bbdttis ilctf., Cap of Liberty between two 
 iMPURAToa: r„ piL«it>RjDS CES- daggers, EID. MAR. 
 
 TIANUS (one of hia pai-tiBans). 
 
 * COIN OF BHUTU3, ISSUED IH ASIA MINOR, B.C. 44-42. 
 
 (Cohen, K^d. Cons.^ pi. xsiv. Junia 16.) 
 
 of Asia Minor ; but this is no more than the 
 
 patchwork of a rhetorician. 
 
 Bua, Buagor. *S^ee Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Bucina (properly " a 
 
 cow-horn ") was the name 
 
 of a tin trumpet, shaped 
 
 like a serpent, and blown 
 
 by a trumpeter called 
 
 bucindtor. The bucina 
 
 gave the signal called 
 
 classicuni, and also the 
 
 call for relieving guard 
 
 at night. 
 
 Bucolic (or pastoral) 
 
 Poetry. From very an- 
 cient times it was the 
 
 habit of the Dorian shep- 
 herds in Sicily to practise 
 
 a national style of song, the inventor of 
 which was supposed to be Daphnis, the hero 
 of shepherds (see Daphnis). The subject of 
 their song was partly the fate of this hero, 
 partly the simple experiences of shepherds' 
 life, especially their loves. There was a 
 good deal of the mimic element in these 
 poems, the shepherds contending with each 
 other in alternate verses, particularly at the 
 town and country festivals held in honour 
 of Artemis. Pastoral poems, relating the 
 story of Daphnis' love and of his tragic 
 end, had been written by the Sicilian poet 
 Stesichorus (about 600 B.C.). But it was 
 Theocritus of Syracuse (about 270 B.C.) who 
 developed pastoral poetry into something 
 like an epic style, often with a strong 
 dramatic tinge. This was in the Alex- 
 andrian period, when, as in all over- civilized 
 ages, men found pleasure and relief in the 
 contrasts afforded by the simple ways of 
 country life. Theocritus' sketches of rural 
 life, and indeed of the ways of the lower 
 orders in general, are true to nature and ex- 
 quisitely finished. He called them eidijllia 
 or little pictures. Theocritus was uiisur- 
 
BULE BURIAL. 
 
 101 
 
 passed in his own style, which was cultivated 
 after him by Bion and Moschus. 
 
 The pastoral style was introduced into 
 Latin poetry by Vergil, who, while closely 
 imitating Theocritus, had the tact to per- 
 ceive that the simple sketches of ancient 
 rural life in Sicily given by his master 
 would not be sufficient to satisfy the taste 
 of his countrymen. Under the mask of 
 shepherds, therefore, he introduced con- 
 temporary characters, thus winning atten- 
 tion by the expression of his personal feel- 
 ings, and by covert allusions to events of the 
 day. Two poems falsely attributed to him, 
 the MorStum (» Salad ") and Copa (" Hos- 
 tess"), are real idylls; true and natural 
 studies from low life. Vergil's allegorical 
 style was revived in later times by Cal- 
 purnius in the age of Nero, and Nemesianus 
 at the end of the 3rd century a.d. 
 
 Bale. See Boule. 
 
 Bulla. A round or heart-shaped box 
 containing an amulet, worn round the neck 
 by free-bom Roman children. The fashion 
 was borrowed from the Etrurians. To wear 
 a golden bulla was originally a privilege 
 of the patricians, which was in later times 
 extended to the equites, and generally to 
 rich and distinguished families. Leather 
 bullce were worn by the children of poor 
 families and of freedmen. Boys ceased to 
 wear the bulla when they assumed the 
 toga virtlis. It was then dedicated to the 
 Lares, and hnng up over the hearth. Girls 
 most probably left it off on marriage. It 
 was sometimes put on by adults as a pro- 
 tection against the evil eye on special oc- 
 casions, as, for instance, on that of a triumph. 
 {See Fascinctm). 
 
 Buphonia. See Diipolia. 
 
 Burial. (1) Greek. The Greeks regarded 
 the burial of the dead as one of the most 
 sacred duties. Its neglect involved an 
 offence against the dead ; for, according to 
 the popular belief, the soul obtained no 
 rest in the realms of the dead, so long as 
 the body remained unburied. It involved, 
 further, an offence against the gods, both 
 of the upper and the lower world. The 
 unburied corpse was an offence to the 
 eyes of the former, while the latter were 
 deprived of their due. Any one finding 
 an unburied corpse was expected at least 
 to throw a handful of dust over it. If a 
 general neglected to provide for the burial 
 of the slain in war, he was deemed guilty 
 of a capital offence. Burial of the dead 
 was not refused even to the enemy, whether 
 Greek or barbarian. It was a violation of 
 
 the laws of war to refuse to the conquered 
 the truce necessary for this purpose ; and 
 if the conquered were unable to fulfil the 
 duty, the responsibility fell upon the con- 
 querors. There were certain circumstances 
 under which, according to Athenian law, 
 children, during the lifetime of their fathers, 
 were held free from all obligations to them; 
 but the obligation to give them burial after 
 death was never cancelled. 
 
 The usages of the Athenians, and proba- 
 bly of the other Greeks, were as follows. 
 The eyes of the dead having been closed, 
 an 6bol6s was put in the mouth as passage- 
 money for Charon. The body was then 
 washed and anointed by the women of thei 
 family, who proceeded to adorn it with 
 fillets and garlands (commonly of ivy), to. 
 clothe it in white garments, and lay it out 
 on a couch in the hall, with its face turned 
 to the door. The kinsfolk and friends stood 
 by, mourning; but the laws of Solon forbade 
 all exaggerated expressions of grief. Hired 
 women were sometimes introduced, singing 
 dirges to the accompaniment of the flute. 
 Near the couch were placed painted earthen- 
 ware vases containing the libations to be 
 afterwards offered. Before the door was 
 a vessel of water, intended for the purifica- 
 tion of all who went out. This water might 
 not _ be brought from another house in 
 which a "dead body lay. The corpse was 
 laid out on the day following the death ; 
 and on the next day before sunrise (lest the 
 sun should be polluted by the sight) was 
 carried out to the place of burial, attended 
 by kinsmen and friends, who sometimes 
 acted as bearers. This office, however, was 
 usually performed by freedmen or hired 
 assistants ; in the case of men of mark, it 
 would be undertaken by young Athenian 
 citizens. The procession was headed by 
 men singing songs of mourning, or women 
 playing the flute; then came the male 
 mourners in garments of black or grey, 
 and with hair cut short: and these were 
 followed by the bier. Behind the bier fol- 
 lowed a train of women, including all who 
 were related to the dead as far as to the 
 fifth degree. No other women might attend 
 but those who were more than sixty years 
 of age. 
 
 In the heroic age the bodies are always 
 burnt, biirial being unknown ; but in later 
 times burial and burning are found existing 
 side by side, burial being preferred by the 
 poor on the ground of expense. In case of 
 burial, the body was placed in a coffin of 
 wood, clay, or stone, or in a chamber in a 
 
102 
 
 BUEIAL. 
 
 wall, or in a grave hollowed out in a rock. 
 If burning was resorted to, the corpse was 
 laid on a pyre, which, in the case of rich 
 families, was sometimes very large, splendid 
 and costly. It was kindled by the nearest 
 relative ; the mourners threw into the flame 
 locks of hair, and objects of all kinds in 
 which the dead person had taken pleasure 
 during his life. When the fire was extin- 
 guished, the relations collected the ashes and 
 put them in an urn, which was set up in a 
 building constructed on a scale large enough 
 for whole families or clans. So, too, in case 
 of burial, the coffins which belonged to one 
 family or clan were laid together in a 
 common tomb. Near the urns and coffins 
 were placed a variety of vessels and other 
 objects which had been the property of the 
 dead. (Comp. fig. 1.) 
 
 The funeral was succeeded by a meal par- 
 taken of by the mourners in the house of 
 mourning. The virtues of the dead were 
 
 (1) *A child's coffin, ATTICA. 
 
 (Stackelberger, GrSher Her Mdlenera, Taf. vii.) 
 
 spoken of, and his faults passed over, to 
 speak evil of the dead being regarded as an 
 impiety. Then came the purification of the 
 house. On the third, ninth, and thirtieth 
 day after the funeral, libations of honey, 
 wine, oil, and milk or water, with other 
 offerings, were brought to the tomb. On 
 the ninth day, in particular, peculiar prep- 
 arations of food were added. The outward 
 signs of mourning were laid aside at Athens 
 on the thirtieth, at Sparta as early as the 
 twelfth, day after the funeral. The kinsfolk 
 visited the graves at certain seasons of the 
 year, adorned them with garlands and 
 fillets, and brought offerings to them. This 
 was done more especially on the anniver- 
 saries of births and deaths, and at the 
 general festival of the dead {Ngkysia) in 
 September. (Comp. fig. 2.) 
 
 After the time of Solon, a public burial 
 was sometimes given at Athens to men of 
 great mark. In time of war, too, the bones 
 of all the citizens who had fallen in the 
 
 campaigns of the year were sometimes 
 buried together at the public expense in the 
 outer Ceramicus, the most beautiful suburb 
 of the city. On these occasions a funeral 
 
 (2) * DECOKATED GRAVE COLUMN. 
 
 From an Athenian vase (Stackelberger, I.e., Taf. xlv.) 
 
 oration was delivered by a speaker of mark, 
 chosen by the government. In later times 
 a memorial festival wa's observed, even in 
 time of peace, in honour of the dead thus 
 publicly buried. A special service was 
 held annually at Marathon in memory of 
 the heroes who had fallen there, and been 
 buried on the spot in recognition of their 
 valour. (Comp. fig. 3.) 
 
 The ashes of persons who had died in a 
 foreign country were, if possible, brought 
 home and laid in a tomb. There were cases 
 in which this was impossible, or in which 
 the body could not be removed — if, for 
 instance, the deceased had been lost at sea. 
 Then a kenotaphion, or empty tomb, would 
 be erected to his memory. It was only to 
 very heinous offenders that a tomb in their 
 own country was refused. If a man's guilt 
 was proved after his death, his remains 
 were disinterred and sent across the fron- 
 tier. 
 
 (3) *THE MOUND AT MARATHON. 
 (Dodwell's Trmels m Greece, ii 160.) 
 
 As a nile — though there were exceptions, 
 as at Sparta — burial places were situated 
 outside the city, and in the neighbourhood 
 of the great roads. This was also the 
 favourite place for private tombs standing 
 
BURIAL. 
 
 103 
 
 on their own gi-ound, apart from the com- 
 mon cemeteries. The body was generally 
 buried with the feet turned towards the 
 road. Monuments took the form of mounds, 
 pilasters, columns, and flat grave-stones. 
 We often find buildings in the style of 
 temples, with very costly adornments, 
 sculptures, and inscriptions in verse and 
 prose. These inscriptions often give more 
 than the name of the deceased, and con- 
 tain notices of his life, sometimes with 
 proverbs, sometimes with curses directed 
 against any one violating the tomb and 
 disturbing the rest of its occupants. The 
 violation of a tomb, which was regarded 
 with reverence as a consecrated spot, was 
 a serious offence. One of the most aggra- 
 vated forms of it was the intrusion into 
 the family sepulchre oi a body which had 
 no right to be there. 
 
 (2) Roman. The worship of the dead 
 among the Romans had, characteristically 
 enough, a legal tinge, and formed a part 
 of the pontifical law, which regulated the 
 place and manner of the interment. The 
 theory of the Romans, like that of the 
 Greeks, was that there was an obligation 
 to bury every dead body, except those of 
 felons, suicideSj and persons struck by light- 
 ning. Any one finding a corpse was ex- 
 pected at least to throw some earth upon 
 it as a symbol of burial. The first duty of 
 , a man's survivors was to bury his body ; 
 if he died in a foreign country, the act had 
 to be performed symlDolically. If this duty 
 was neglected, the offender incurred a taint 
 of guilt from which he had to purity himself 
 by an annually repeated atonement. After 
 death the eyes and mouth were closed, the 
 body bathed in hot water and then anointed, 
 fully dressed, and adorned with the fitting 
 insignia in case of the deceased having 
 held high office. The corpse was then laid 
 out on a state-bed in the atrium, the feet 
 turned towards the door. Near the bed 
 were pans with burning odours, while in 
 the vesttbiiZum branches of pine and cypress 
 were put up as signs of "mourning. The 
 custom of putting a coin in the mouth is 
 not mentioned in literature before the im- 
 perial period ; but the relics found in tombs 
 show that it is much older. It was, how- 
 ever, only under the Empire that it became 
 general. 
 
 In ancient times funerals took place after 
 nightfall and by torchlight ; and this was 
 always the case with second burials, and 
 if the deceased was a child, or a person of 
 slender means. Hence the use of torches 
 
 was never discontinued, even when the 
 ceremony took place by day. It was held 
 indispensable at every funeral, and became, 
 in fact, the symbol of burial. The usual 
 time at which funerals took place among 
 the upper classes was the forenoon of the 
 eighth day after death. In the laws of the 
 Twelve Tables an attempt was made to 
 check excess in funeral expenses, but with 
 as little success as attended later enactments. 
 If the funeral was one of unusual ceremony, 
 the citizens were publicly invited by a 
 herald to attend it. The arrangements 
 were entrusted to a special functionary, 
 who was assisted by lictors. The proces- 
 sion was headed by a band of wind instru- 
 ments, the number of which was limited 
 by the Twelve Tables to ten. In ancient 
 times, and at least down to the Punic wars, 
 these musicians werefollowed by professional 
 female singers, chanting the praises of the 
 dead (see Nenia). Then came a company 
 of dancers and actors to amuse the specta- 
 tors with their antics. Supposing the 
 family was honordta, in other words, had 
 it had one or more members who had held 
 curule offices, and the consequent right of 
 setting up masked statues of its forefathers 
 in its house, the central point of the cere- 
 mony was the procession of ancestors. This 
 consisted of persons dressed to represent 
 the ancestors in their wax masks, their 
 official robes, and other insignia. The in- 
 direct lines ojf relationship were represented 
 as well as the direct, Each figure was 
 mounted on a high carriage and preceded 
 by lictors. The train included memorials 
 of the deeds done by the deceased, torch- 
 bearers, and lictors with lowered fascSs. 
 
 The body followed, uncovered, on an ele- 
 vated couch ; sometimes in a coffin inside the 
 bier. A wooden figure, clothed, and wear- 
 ing the wax mask representing the dead, 
 sat upright beside it in the attitude of life. 
 The bearers were usually the sons, relations 
 and friends of the deceased ; in the case 
 of emperors, they were senators and high 
 officials. Behind the bier came the other 
 mourners, men and women, the freedmen in 
 mourning and without any ornaments. Ar- 
 rived at the Forum, the bier was set down 
 before the rostrum. The representatives of 
 the ancestors sat down on wooden chairs ; 
 the rest arranged themselves in a circle 
 round, while a son or kinsman ascended the 
 rostrum and delivered a panegyric upon the 
 dead. If the funeral was a public one, the 
 orator was appointed by the senate. In the 
 case of deceased ladies such speeches were 
 
104 
 
 BURIAL. 
 
 not usual, until the last century of the Re- 
 public. After the speech, the procession 
 moved on in the same order to the place of 
 burial, which, according to the law of the 
 Twelve Tables, must be situated outside the 
 city. No one could be buried within the 
 city but men of illustrious merit, as, for 
 instance, generals who had won a triumph, 
 and Vestal Virgins. By a special resolu- 
 tion of the popular assembly, these persons 
 were allowed the honour of burial in the 
 Forum. The tombs were in some cases 
 situated on family estates, but the greater 
 number formed a line extending from the 
 gates of the city to some distance along the 
 great roads, and especially the Via Appia. 
 (Comp. fig. 4.) 
 Burial was, among the Romans, the oldest 
 
 mals. The followers threw in a variety of 
 gifts as a last remembrance. The pyre was 
 then kindled by the nearest kinsman and 
 friends, who performed the office with 
 averted faces. The ashes were extinguished 
 with water or wine, and the procession, after 
 saying a last farewell, returned home, while 
 the nearest of kin collected the ashes in a 
 cloth and buried the severed limb. After 
 some days, the dry ashes were put by the 
 nearest relations into an urn, which was 
 deposited in deep silence in the sepulchral 
 chamber, which they entered ungirt and 
 bare-footed. After the burial or biTrning 
 there was a funeral feast at the tomb. A 
 sacrifice to the Lares purified the family 
 and the house from the taint entailed by 
 death. The mourning was ended on the 
 
 (4) * THE STREET OP TOMBS AT POMPEII. 
 
 (Gell and Gandy, Pompeiana, pi. 3.) 
 
 form of disposing of the corpse. In certain 
 families {e.g. the gens Cornelia), it long con- 
 tinued the exclusive custom. Infant chil- 
 dren, and poor people in general, were always 
 buried. Even when the body was burnt, 
 an old custom prescribed that a limb should 
 be cut off and buried, otherwise the family 
 was not regarded as having discharged its 
 obligations. The body was laid in its tomb 
 in full dress, and placed in a special sarco- 
 phagus. When the body was to be burnt, 
 a pyre was erected on a specified place near 
 the grave. The pyre was sometimes made 
 in the form of an altar, and adorned in the 
 costliest manner. The couch and the body 
 were laid upon it, and with them anything 
 which the deceased person had used or been 
 fond of, sometimes one of his favourite ani- 
 
 ninth day after the burial by a sacrifice 
 offered to the Manes of the dead, and a 
 meal of eggs, lentils and salt, at which the 
 mourning attire was laid aside. It was on 
 this day that the games held in honour of 
 the dead generally took place. {See JIanes.) 
 Everything necessary for the funeral was 
 provided by contract by the Ubitlnarii or 
 officials of the temple of Libitina, at which 
 a notification was made of all cases of death 
 (see Libitina). There were public burial- 
 places, but only for slaves and those who 
 were too poor to buy burial-places for 
 themselves. The bodies were thrown pro- 
 miscuously into large common graves, called 
 puticuli, or wells, on account of their depth. 
 There was a burial place of this sort on the 
 Esquiline, where the bodies of criminals 
 
BUSIRIS CACUS. 
 
 105 
 
 were tlii-own to the dogs and birds, until 
 Maecenas laid out his park there. Cheap 
 and promiscuous burial was also provided 
 by the so-called " dove-cots " or columbaria^ 
 a place in which could be purchased by per- 
 sons of scanty means (see Columbarium). 
 The graves of individuals and families were 
 subterranean chambers, or buildings in the 
 style of houses. Freedmen, and probably 
 also clients and friends, were often buried 
 with the family. The grave was regarded 
 by the Romans and Greeks alike as the 
 dwelling-place of the dead, and was accord- 
 ingly decked out with every imaginable 
 kind of domestic furniture. It is to this 
 custom that we owe the preservation of so 
 many remains of this sort. The monument 
 often had a piece of land, with field and 
 garden attached to it, surrounded by a 
 wall, and intended to supply flowers, herbs, 
 and other things necessary for the decora- 
 tion of the tomb and maintenance of the 
 attendants. Other buildings would often 
 be attached, for burning the corpses, for 
 holding the funeral feast, and for housing 
 the freedmen who had the care of the spot. 
 Inscriptions in verse and prose, giving in- 
 formation about the dead, would also be 
 found there. 
 
 Busiris. The son of Poseidon and a 
 daughter of EpSphus. The Greek mytho- 
 logy made him king of Egypt. The land 
 was afflicted for nine years with a series of 
 bad harvests, and a prophet named PhrSsius, 
 of Cyprus, advised Busiris to sacrifice a 
 stranger every year to Zeus. The king 
 
 made his counsellor his first victim. Whela 
 Heracles came to Egypt during his quest 
 for the apples of the Hesperjdes, he allowed 
 himself to be bound and taken to the altar 
 as a victim. Then he broke his bonds, and 
 slew Busiris, with his sons and his whole 
 following. 
 
 Biites. (1) A Thracian, the son of B6reas. 
 His brother Lycurgus, whose life he had 
 attempted, banished him, and he settled on 
 the island of Strongyle or Naxos. Finding 
 here no wives for himself and his compan- 
 ions, he carried off some women from 
 Thessaly, while they were celebrating a 
 sacrifice to Dionysus. One of these, Goronis, 
 whom he had forced to be his wife, prayed 
 to Dionysus for vengeance. The god drove 
 him mad, and he threw himself into a well. 
 
 (2) An Athenian hero, son of the Athenian 
 Pandion and Zeuxippe. A tiller of the 
 soil, and a neatherd, he was a priest of 
 Athene the goddess of the stronghold, and 
 of Poseidon Erechtheus, and thus ancestor 
 of the priestly caste of the Butadse and 
 EteSbutadse. He shared an altar in the 
 Erechtheum with Poseidon and Hephaestus. 
 The later story represented him as the son of 
 Teleon and Zeuxippe, and as taking part in 
 the expedition of the Argonauts. 
 
 (3) A Sicilian hero, identified in fable 
 with the Athenian Butes. Butes the Argo- 
 naut was enticed by the song of the Sirens, 
 and leaped into the sea, but was rescued 
 and brought to Lilybaeura in Sicily, by 
 Aphrodite, by whom he became the father 
 of Eryx. 
 
 Cabiri (Gr. Kabeiroi). The name of cer- 
 tain deities, supposed to represent the bene- 
 ficent powers of Nature, and worshipped in 
 certain parts of Greece, in Boeotia, for in- 
 stance, and in the islands of Imbros, Lemnos 
 and Samothrace. Nothing certain is known 
 of their real character, or the forms of their 
 worship. The name is perhaps Phcenician, 
 and, if so, means " the great or mighty 
 ones." It would seem that they were 
 originally imagined as possessing similar 
 powers to those of the Telchines, Curetes, 
 Corybantes and Dactyli ; and that they 
 were confused sometimes with the Dioscuri, 
 sometimes with Demeter and Hermes, and 
 sometimes (especially in Lemnos) with 
 Hephaestus. Their worship was secret. 
 The mysteries of the Cabiri of Samothrace 
 stood in high consideration during the Mace- 
 
 donian and Roman periods, being regarded, 
 indeed, as inferior only to the Eleusinian 
 mysteries in sanctity. The initiated were 
 supposed to have secared special protection 
 against mishaps, especially by sea. 
 
 Cacus (a figure in Italian mythology). A 
 fire-spitting giant, the son of Vulcan, who 
 lived near the place where Rome was after- 
 wards built. When Herciiles came into the 
 neighbourhood with the cattle of Geryon, 
 Cacus stole some of them while the hero was 
 sleeping. He dragged them backwards into 
 his cave under a spur of the Aventine, so 
 that their footsteps gave no clue to the direc- 
 tion in which they had gone. He then closed 
 the entrance to the cave with a rock, which 
 ten pairs of oxen were unable to move. 
 But the lowing of the cattle guided the hero, 
 in his search, to the right track. He tore 
 
lOG 
 
 CADMUS- 
 
 -C^LIUS. 
 
 open the cave, and, after a fearful struggle, 
 slew Cacus with his club. Upon this he 
 built an altar on the spot to Jupiter, under 
 the title of Pater Inventor {^' the discoverer"), 
 and sacrificed one of the cattle upon it. The 
 inhabitants paid him every honour for free- 
 ing them of the monster, and Evander, who 
 was instructed by his mother Carmentis in 
 the lore of prophecj', saluted him as a god. 
 Hercules is then said to have established 
 his own religious service, and to have in- 
 structed two noble families, the Potitii and 
 the Pindrii, in the usages to be observed 
 at the sacrifice. This sacrifice was to be 
 offered on the Ara Maxima, which he him- 
 self had built on the cattle market {Forum 
 Bodrium) where the cattle had been pas- 
 tured. 
 
 Cadmus (Gr. Kadvids). (1) Son of Agenor 
 king of Phoenicia, and of Telephassa. His 
 sister Europa being carried off by Zeus, 
 Cadmus, with his brothers Phoenix and 
 Cilix, was sent out with the command to 
 look for her and not to return without 
 her. In the course of his wanderings he 
 came to Thrace. Here his mother, who 
 had accompanied him so far, breathed her 
 last ; and Cadmus applied for counsel to 
 the Delphic oracle. He was advised not 
 to seek his sister any more, but to follow a 
 cow which would meet him, and found a 
 city on the spot where she should lie down. 
 The cow met him in Phocis, and led him 
 into Bceotia. He was intending to sacrifice 
 the cow, and had sent his companions to a 
 neighbouring spring to bring the necessary 
 water, when they were all slain by a ser- 
 pent, the offspring of Ares and the Erinys 
 Tilphosa, which guarded the spring. After 
 a severe struggle, Cadmus destroyed the 
 dragon, and, at the command of Athene, 
 sowed its teeth over the neighbouring 
 ground. A host of armed men sprung up, 
 who immediately fought and slew each 
 other, all except five. The survivors, who 
 were called Spartoi (" sown "), helped Cad- 
 mus to build the Cadmea, or the stronghold 
 of what was afterwards Thebes, which bore 
 his name. They were the ancestors of the 
 Theban aristocracy ; and one of them, 
 Echion, or " the serpent's son," became the 
 husband of Cadmus' daughter Agave. Cad- 
 mus did atonement to Ares for eight years 
 for the slaughter of the dragon. Then 
 Zeus gave him to wife Harmonla, the 
 daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, who bore 
 him a son Polydorus, and four daughters, 
 Autonoe, Ino, Agave, and Semele. {See 
 Harxioxia and Semele.) Crushed by the 
 
 terrible doom which weighed upon his 
 home, he afterwards sought retirement 
 among the Enchelei in Illyria, a country 
 which he named after his son Illyrius, who 
 was born there. He resigned the kingdom 
 to Illyrius ; and then he and his daughter 
 Harmonia were changed into serpents, and 
 carried by Zeus to Elysium. 
 
 Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace 
 as the ancestral god of the inhabitants 
 under the name of Cadmus or Cadmilus 
 {Kadmllos) ; and it is therefore natural to 
 conjecture that the Theban Cadmus was 
 originally an ancestral god of the Thebans, 
 corresponding to the Samothracian deity. 
 He was regarded as the inventor of agri- 
 culture, of working in bronze, and of civili- 
 zation in general ; and it is to be remarked 
 at the same time that the oldest Greek 
 poets know nothing of his migration from 
 the East or from Egypt, or of the Phoenician 
 origin of Thebes. When once the later 
 storj' of his Phoenician descent had taken 
 shape, his name was naturally connected 
 with the introduction of the alphabet, for 
 which the Greeks well knew that they 
 were indebted to the Phoenicians. 
 
 (2) A Greek historian. See Logographi . 
 
 Caduc6us. See Hermes (conclusion). 
 
 Cadus. See Vessels. 
 
 Caecilius Statius or Statins Caecilius. A 
 writer of Latin comedy. He was a Gaul, 
 of the race of the Insubrians, who were 
 settled in Upper Italy. He was brought to 
 Rome, probably about 194 B.C., as a prisoner 
 of war. He was set free by one of the 
 Csecilii, became very intimate with Ennius, 
 and died not long after him, B.C. 166. It 
 was long before he could obtain a footing on 
 the stage ; but, this once achieved, he won 
 a considerable reputation, and was numbered 
 among the masters of his craft. The influ- 
 ence of Ennius seems to have been apparent 
 in the comparative care and regularity with 
 which his pieces were constructed. Cicero, 
 however, finds fault with his defective 
 Latinity ; and we must therefore_ infer that, 
 being of Gaulish extraction, he never suc- 
 ceeded in fully mastering the niceties of 
 colloquial Latin. The titles of some forty 
 of his plays have survived ; the contents he 
 mostly borrowed from Menander. 
 
 Cselius. (1) Cailius Antipdter / see 
 Annalists. 
 
 (2) Marcus Ccelius Rufus, a Roman 
 orator, born 82 B.C. He was a man of 
 great gifts, but dissolute life, as even his 
 advocate Cicero was forced to admit in 
 the speech which he made in his defence. 
 
C^NEUS C^SAR. 
 
 10*; 
 
 He belonged originally to the party of 
 the optimMes • but on the outbreak of 
 the Civil War, attached himself to Csesar; 
 then, thinking himself slighted by the 
 latter, he tried, during his prsetorship, 
 to stir up disorder in Rome. He was de- 
 prived of his office by the senate, fled from 
 Rome, and, in the year 48 B.C., attempted 
 to excite a rising in Lower Italy, in which 
 he met with a violent death. According to 
 Cicero, his strong point as an orator was 
 his power of haranguing the people ; in the 
 courts he shone mostly when on the side 
 of the prosecution. His style was, if 
 Cicero may be believed, brilliant, dignified, 
 and witty. Several of his letters to Cicero 
 are preserved in the eighth book of 
 Cicero's Epistulce ad Familiares. They 
 constitute an important contribution to the 
 history of the time. 
 
 Caeneus (Gr. Kaineus). The son of Elatus 
 and Hippia, one of the LapithsB of Gyrton 
 in Thessaly. The story was that he was 
 originally a girl named Csenis {Kainis\ 
 whom her lover Poseidon changed, at her 
 own request, into a man, and at the same 
 time rendered her invulnerable. Cseneus 
 took part in the Argonautic expedition and 
 the Calydonian boar-hunt. At the marriage 
 of Pirithoiis, the Centaurs, finding him in- 
 vulnerable, crushed him to death with the 
 trunks of trees, and he was afterwards 
 changed into a bird. {See Pirithods.) 
 
 Cassar was for centuries the cognomen of 
 the ancient patrician family of the lulii. 
 From the dictator Grains lulius Csesar it 
 passed to his adopted son Octavianus, the 
 founder of the Roman empire, and was 
 assumed by all the male members of the 
 Julian dynasty, including the emperor. 
 After this dynasty had died out, all the 
 male members of the subsequent dynasties 
 assumed it, to show that they belonged to 
 the imperial house. But after the death of 
 Hadrian in 138 a.d., the title of Csesar was 
 only assumed by the princes whom the 
 emperors had named as their successors, 
 or chosen to be their colleagues in the 
 government. 
 
 CaBsar {Gains lulius). Julius Caesar was 
 born in 102 or 100 B.C., and was assas- 
 sinated on March 15th, B.C. 44. He was 
 famous no less as an orator and writer 
 than as a general and statesman. Endowed 
 with extraordinary natural gifts, he re- 
 ceived a careful education under the super- 
 intendence of his mother Aurelia. In B.C. 
 77 he came forward as the public accuser of 
 Dolabella, and entered the lists against the 
 
 most celebrated advocates of the day, Cotta 
 and Hortensius. Prom that time his fame 
 'was established as that of an advocate of 
 the 'first rank. 
 
 The fticulties ot which he had given 
 evidence he <!ultivated to their highest 
 point under the tuition of the rhetorician 
 M6l6 in Rhodes, and tuttained such success, 
 
 * CiESAE. 
 
 (Naples, Museum.) 
 
 that his contemporaries regarded him as 
 an orator second only to Cicero. Indeed, 
 Cicero himself fully recognizes his genius, 
 awarding especial praise to the elegance 
 and purity of his Latin. Caesar, however, 
 left but few speeches in a finished state, 
 and these have not come down to us. A 
 number of writings give evidence of the 
 
108 
 
 CiESIUS BASSUS CALCEUS. 
 
 many-sidedness of his genius and literaiy 
 activity, but these are also lost. There 
 were poems, which never attained much 
 reputation, including, besides boyish eifu- 
 sions, some verses on his journey to Spain 
 in B.C. 46. A treatise on Latin accidence, 
 dedicated to Cicero, and entitled De 
 AnalQgld, was written during his march 
 across the Alps to his army in Gaul. The 
 Anticatones, composed in his Spanish camp 
 before the battle of Munda in B.C. 45, was 
 a replj' to Cicero's panegyric on Cato of 
 Utlca. A treatise on astronomy, De Astns, 
 had probablj' some connection with the 
 reform of the calendar introduced by him, 
 as Pontifex Maximus, in B.C. 45. His 
 two great works have, however, survived. 
 These are his Commentarii de Bello 
 Galileo^ 58-52 B.C., in seven books, and his 
 Commentarii de Bello C'lvili, 49-48 B.C., 
 in three books. The former was written 
 down rapidly, at the end of 52 and begin- 
 ning of 51, ia his winter quarters before 
 Bibracte. The latter was probably com- 
 posed in Spain after the conquest of the 
 Pompeians in 45. 
 
 The history of the Gallic War was com- 
 pleted after Caesar's death by Aldus Hirtius. 
 This writer added an eighth book, which 
 included the last rising of the Gauls in 51, 
 and the events of the year 50 which pre- 
 ceded the Civil War. The book, as we now 
 have it, is unfinished. There are three 
 other anonymous books which continue the 
 history of the Civil War. The Bellum 
 Alexandrtnum (War in Alexandria) is per- 
 haps from the hand of Hirtius. The Bellum 
 Afrlcum (War in Africa) is written in 
 a pompous and affected style [and has 
 recently been assigned, but without suffi- 
 cient reason, to Asinius PoUio]. The Bellum 
 Hispanum (Spanish War), is to be attri- 
 buted to two different authors. Its style is 
 rough, and shows that the writer was not 
 an educated man. 
 
 CaBsius Sassns. A Latin poet, a friend 
 of Persius the satirist, whose book he 
 edited. He is said to have perished during 
 the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 a.d. He 
 had a high reputation in his day as a 
 lyric poet, and is said to have composed a 
 didactic poem on metre. There is a con- 
 siderable fragment in prose on the same 
 subject which bears the name of Caesius 
 Bassus, but this is perhaps from a prose 
 version of the poetical treatise.. 
 
 Calais (Gr. Kalais) and Zetes. The Bore- 
 adee, or sons of Boreas and Orithyia. They 
 were both winged heroes, and took part in 
 
 the Argonantic expedition. Coming in the 
 course of the enterprise to Salmydessus, 
 they set free Phineus, the husband of their 
 sister Cleopatra, from the Harpies, chasing 
 them through the air on their wings (see 
 Phineus). According to one story, they 
 perished on this occasion ; according to 
 another, they were slain afterwards by 
 Heracles on the island of Tenos, on their 
 return from the funeral games of Pelias 
 (see ACASTUS). This was in retribution for 
 the counsel which they had given to the 
 Argonauts on the coast of Mysia, to leave 
 Heracles behind. Their graves and monu- 
 ments were shown in Tenos. One of the 
 pillare was said to move when the north 
 wind blew. 
 
 Calamis {Kdldmis). A Greek artist, who 
 flourished at Athens about 470 B.C. He 
 worked in marble and metal, as well as 
 gold and ivory, and was master of sculp- 
 ture in all its brapches, from the chisel- 
 ling of small silver vessels to the execu- 
 tion of colossal statues in bronze. His 
 Apollo, at Apollonia in Pontus, was 120 
 feet high. This statue was carried away 
 to Rome by LucuUus, and set up on the 
 Capitol. We hear of statues of the gods 
 and heroic women from his hand, as well 
 as of men on horseback and four-horsed 
 chariots. His horses are said to have been 
 unsurpassed. His female figures, if we 
 may believe the ancient critics, were char- 
 acterized by antique harshness and severity, 
 but were relieved by a touch of grace and 
 delicacy. 
 
 Calamus. See Writing Materials. 
 
 Calantica. See Clothing. 
 
 Calathus (Gr. Kdldthds). See Vessels. 
 
 CalcSns. A shoe, part of the regular 
 Roman dress, and usually worn in public. 
 Each order, and every gens, had its par- 
 ticular kind of calceus. The patricians 
 wore a mulleus or calceus patrlclus. This 
 was a shoe of red leather with a high sole, 
 like that of the cothurnus. The leather 
 passed round the back of the heel, where it 
 was furnished with small hooks, to which 
 the straps were fastened. It was originally 
 a part of the royal dress, and was after- 
 wards worn by generals on the occasion of 
 a triumph. In later times, with the rest of 
 the triumphal costume, it became a part of 
 the dress of the consuls. In the second 
 rank came the calceus senatorius, or shoe 
 worn by senators. This was black, and 
 tied round the leg by four straps. In the 
 case of patricians it was ornamented by a 
 crescent-shaped clasp. The calceus of the 
 
CALCHAS CALENDAR. 
 
 109 
 
 equlten, and of ordinary citizens, was also 
 black. The latter was called perO ; it rose 
 as tigt as the ankle, and was fastened with 
 a simple tie. 
 
 Calchaa (Kalchas). Son of Thestor of 
 Mycense. Calchas was the celebrated seer 
 who accompanied the Greeks on their expe- 
 dition against Troy. Homer calls him the 
 best of soothsayers, who knew the past, the 
 present, and the future. Before the fleet 
 started from Aulis, Calchas predicted that 
 the Trojan war would last ten years. His 
 own death (so ran the prophecy) was to 
 occur whenever he met a wiser seer than 
 himself. After the Trojan war he came to 
 the island of Claros, where, in the sacred 
 precincts of Apollo, he fell in with the 
 soothsayer Mopsos, who beat him in a 
 match of guessing riddles. [See Mopsus (2)]. 
 Calchas died of grief, or, according to an- 
 other story, took away his own life. A 
 temple was erected to him in Apulia, where 
 the votaries lay down to sleep on sheepskins, 
 and received oracles in their sleep. 
 
 Caldarlum. See Baths. 
 
 CalendsB (Kalendce). See Calendar. 
 
 Calendar. (1) Greek. The Greek year 
 consisted of twelve months, some " full " — 
 i.e. of 30 days each — the others " hollow " 
 or incomplete, of 29 days each. This made 
 up a lunar year of 354 days, 11 days short 
 of the solar year. To maintain some corre- 
 spondence between the lunar and solar 
 years, and to provide at least for the festivals 
 of the- seasons always occurring at the right 
 time of year, the Athenians early resorted 
 to the method of intercalation. A space 
 of time was taken which included as many 
 days as would exactly make up eight solar 
 years, and could easily be distributed 
 among the same number of lunar years. 
 This space of time was called a " great 
 year." Then in every 3rd, Gth, and 8th 
 year a month' of 29 or 30 days was in- 
 serted, so that the years in question con- 
 sisted each of 383 or 384 days. This system 
 was introduced at Athens by Solon. The 
 period of eight years was sometimes called 
 enndHeris, or a period of nine years, because 
 it began again with every 9th year ; some 
 times oktdSteris, or space of eight years. 
 For this the astronomers, of whom Meton in 
 the Periclean age may be taken as a represen- 
 tative, substituted a more accurate system, 
 which was afterwards adopted in Athens 
 and other cities as a correction of the old 
 calendar. This was the ennSakaidekdeterts 
 of 19 years. The alternate " full " and 
 "hollow " months were divided into three de- 
 
 cades, consisting of 10 or 9 days each as the 
 case might be. The days of the last decade 
 were' counted from more to less to corre- 
 spond with the waning of the moon. Thus 
 the 21st of the month was called the 10th 
 of the waning moon, the 22nd the 9th, the 
 28rd the 8th,- and so on. The reckoning of 
 the year, with the order and names of the 
 months, differed more or less in different 
 states, the only common point being the 
 names of the months, which were almost 
 without exception taken from the chief 
 festivals celebrated in them. The Athenians 
 and the other lonians began their year with 
 the first new moon after the summer solstice, 
 the Dorians with the autumnal equinox, the 
 Boeotians and other ./Eolians with the winter 
 solstice. The Attic months are as follows : 
 1. Hekdtomhaion (July-August) ; 2. MStd- 
 geitniOn (August-September) ; 3. BoedrO- 
 miOn (September-October) ; 4. Pydnepslon 
 (October - November) ; 5. MaimakteriOn 
 (November - December) ; 6. POseidSOn 
 (December-January) ; 7. GdmeliOn (Janu- 
 ary-February) ; 8. AnthestBno a (¥ehru3xy- 
 March) ; 9. EldphehollOn (March- April) ; 
 10. MunycMOn (April-May); 11. Tharge- 
 lion (May-June) ; 12. Skeirdphonon (June- 
 July). The intercalary month was a second 
 Poseideon inserted in the middle of the 
 year. The official system of numbering the 
 years differed also very much in the various 
 states. The years received their names 
 from the magistrates, sometimes secular, 
 sometimes spiritual. {See Eponymus.) 
 Historical chronology was first computed 
 according to Olympiads, beginning B.C. 776, 
 by the historian Timseus in the 3rd cen- 
 tury B.C. 
 
 (2) The Roman year was supposed to 
 have consisted, under Romulus, of 10 
 months, four full ones of 31 days (March, 
 May, July and October), and six " hollow " 
 of 30 days (April, June, August, September, 
 November, December). But, as a space of 
 304 days makes up neither a solar nor a 
 lunar year, it is difficult to understand the 
 so-called " year of Romulus." King Numa 
 was usually supposed to have introduced 
 the year of 12 months by adding January 
 and February at the end ; for the Roman 
 year, it must be remembered, began origin- 
 ally with March. On this system every 
 month except February had an odd number 
 of days : March 31, April 29, May 81, June 
 29, Quintilis 31, Sextilis 29, September 29, 
 October 31, November 29, December 29, 
 January 29, February 28. Numa is also 
 credited with the attempt to square this 
 
110 
 
 CALIGA. 
 
 luuar year of 355 days with the solar year 
 of 365 ; but how he did it is not certainly 
 known. The Decemviri in 450 B.C. pro- 
 bably introduced the system of adjustment 
 afterwards in use. According to this a 
 cycle of four years was taken, in the second 
 year of which an intercalary month (rnensis 
 mercedomus) of 23 days was inserted be- 
 tween the 24th and 25th of February, and 
 in the fourth year a month of 22 days be- 
 tween the 23rd and 24th February. Thus 
 the period of 4 years amounted to 1465 days. 
 But this gave the year an average of 366j 
 days, or one day too many, so that a special 
 rectification was necessary from time to 
 time. This was probably carried out by 
 the omission of an intercalary month. It 
 was the business of the Pontiftces to keep 
 the calendar in order by regular intercala- 
 tion ; but, partly from carelessness, partly 
 from political motives, they made insertions 
 and omissions so incorrectly as to bring the 
 calendar into complete disorder, and destroy 
 the correspondence between the months and 
 the seasons. The mischief was finally 
 remedied by Caesar, with the assistance of 
 the mathematician Sosigenes. To bring 
 the calendar into correspondence with the 
 seasons, the year 46 B.C. was lengthened so 
 as to consist of 16 months, or 415 days, and 
 the calendar known as the Julian was in- 
 troduced on the 1st January, 45 B.C. This 
 calendar is founded simply on the solar 
 year, which is well known to be a discovery 
 of the Egyptians. Caesar fixed this year to 
 365 f days, which is correct within a few 
 minutes. After this the ordinary year con- 
 sisted of 365 days, divided into 12 months, 
 with the names still in use. Every fourth 
 year had 366 days, a day being inserted at 
 the end of February. The Julian calendar 
 maintained its ground till 1582, when Pope 
 Gregory XIII corrected the trifling error 
 which still attached to it. The old names of 
 the months were retained with two excep- 
 tions, that of Quintilis, which, in honour of 
 Csesar, was called luUus, and that of Sex- 
 tilis, which in 8 B.C. was called Augustus 
 in honour of the emperor. The old divisions 
 of the lunar month were also retained for 
 convenience of dating. These were (a) the 
 Kdlendce, marking the first appearance of 
 the new moon ; (&) the Nonce, marking the 
 first quarter ; (c) the Idus, marking the 
 full moon. Kdlendce means properly the 
 day of summoning, from caldre, to summon. 
 The Pontifex was bound to observe the first 
 phase, and to make his announcement to 
 the Rex Sacrorum, who then summoned 
 
 the people to the Capitol, in front of the 
 Curia CalObra, so called from calare. Here 
 he offered sacrifice, and announced that the 
 first quarter would begin on the 5th or 7th. 
 day (inclusive) as the case might be. This 
 day was called Nonce, as (according to 
 Roman calculation) the 9 th day before the 
 full moon, and fell in March, May, July 
 and October on the 7th, in the other months 
 on the 5th. The appearance of the full 
 moon was called Idus (probably connected 
 with the Etruscan word iduare, to divide), 
 because it divided the month in the middle. 
 The days of the month were counted back- 
 wards, in the first half of the month from 
 the Nones and Ides, in the last half from 
 the Kalends of the following month. The 
 Romans also had a week called internundt- 
 num, or the interval between two nundince. 
 It consisted of eight days, and, like our 
 weeks, could be divided between two months 
 or two years. (For further details see 
 Fasti.) 
 
 After the establishment of the Republic 
 the Romans named their years after the 
 consuls, a custom which was maintained 
 down to the reign of Justinian (541 A.D.). 
 After the time of Augustus it became the 
 practice in literature to date events from 
 the foundation of Rome, which, took place 
 according to Varro in 753, according to 
 Cato in 751 B.C. 
 
 The Day. The Greeks reckoned the civil 
 day from sunset to sunset, the Romans (like 
 ourselves) from midnight to midnight. The 
 natural day was reckoned by both as lasting 
 from sunrise to sunset. The divisions of 
 the day were for a long time made on no 
 common principle. It was for military pur- 
 poses that the Romans first hit on such a 
 principle, dividing the night during service 
 into four equal watches {vigilice). Corre- 
 sponding to this we find another division 
 (probably calculated immediately for the 
 courts of justice) into Tiidne (sunrise to 9 or 
 10), forenoon {ad meridiem), afternoon {de 
 meridie) until 3 or 4, and evening 
 (supremo) from thence till sunset. After 
 the introduction of sun-dials and water- 
 clocks the day and night were divided each 
 into 12 hours ; but the division was founded 
 on the varying length of the day, so that 
 each hour of the day was longer, and con- 
 versely each hour of the night shorter, in 
 summer than in winter. 
 
 Caliga. A boot with large nails in the 
 sole, worn in ancient Italy by huntsmen, 
 waggoners, and peasants, and, during the 
 imperial period, by common soldiers. 
 
CALIX CALLISTHENES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Calix. See Vessels. 
 
 Callicrates (Gr. KalUkrutes). A Greek 
 architect who, together with Ictinus, built 
 the Parthenon {q.v.). 
 
 Callimachus (Gr. KalllmucMs). (1) A 
 Greek artist, who flourished in the second 
 half of the 5th century B.C. He was the in- 
 ventor of the Corinthian order of pillar, and 
 the art of boring marble is also attributed 
 to him, though perhaps he did no more than 
 bring it to perfection. The ancient critics 
 represent him as unwearied in polishing 
 and perfecting his work; indeed, they 
 allege that his productions lost something 
 through their excessive refinement and 
 purity. One of his celebrated works was 
 the golden chandelier in the Erechtheum 
 at Athens. 
 
 (2) A Greek scholar and poet, the chief 
 representative of the Alexandrian school. 
 He was the son of Battus, and thus sprung 
 from the noble family of the Battiadse. He 
 at first gave his lectures in a subarb of 
 Alexandria ; but was afterwards summoned 
 by Ptolemy Philadelphus to the Museum 
 there, and in about 260 B.C. was made 
 president of the library. He held this office 
 till his death, which took place about 240 
 B.C. He did a great service to literature 
 by sifting and cataloguing the numerous 
 books collected at Alexandria. The results 
 of his labours were published in his great 
 work called -Rnafces, or "Tablets." This 
 contained 120 books, and was a catalogue, 
 arranged in chronological order, of the 
 works contained in the library, with obser- 
 vations on their genuineness, an indication 
 of the first and last word in each book, and 
 a note of its bulk. This work laid the 
 foundation of a critical study of Greek 
 literature. 800 works, partly in prose, 
 partly in verse, were attributed altogether 
 to Callimachus ; but it is to be observed 
 that he avoided, on principle, the compo- 
 sition of long poems, so as to be able to 
 give more thought to the artistic elabora- 
 tion of details. The essence of Callimachus' 
 verse is art and learning, not poetic genius 
 in the real sense. Indeed, some of his 
 compositions had a directly learned object ; 
 the Aitia^ or " Causes," for instance. This 
 was a collection of elegiac poems in four 
 books, treating, with great erudition, of the 
 foundation of cities, the origin of religious 
 ceremonies; and the like. 
 
 Through his writings, as well as through 
 his oral instruction, Callimachus exercised 
 an immense influence, not only on the course 
 of learning, but on the poetical tendencies 
 
 of the Alexandrian school. Among his 
 pupils were the most celebrated savants 
 of the time, EratosthSnes, Aristophanes of 
 Byzantium, Apollonius of Phodes, and 
 others. Of his writings only a very few 
 have survived in a complete state : these are, 
 six hymns, five of which are in epic and one 
 in elegiac form, and sixty-four epigrams. 
 The hymns, both in their language and their 
 matter, attest the learned taste of their 
 author. His elegy, entitled the Covia 
 BSrenices, or " Lock of Berenice," is imi- 
 tated by Catullus in one of his remaining 
 pieces. Ovid, in the twentieth of his 
 Ilerotd?s, as well as in his Ibis, took poems 
 of Callimachus for his models. Indeed, the 
 Romans generally set a very high value on 
 his elegies, and liked to imitate them. Of 
 his other works in prose and poetry — among 
 the latter may be mentioned a very popular 
 epic called HScdte — only fragments have 
 survived. 
 
 Callinus (Gr. Kalllnos), the creator of the 
 Greek political elegy, was a native of 
 Ephesus, and flourished, probably, about 
 700 B.C., at the time when the kings of 
 Lydia were harassing the Greek colonies 
 of Asia Minor by constant wars. One elegy 
 from his hand has survived, in which, in a 
 simple and manly tone, he endeavours to 
 kindle the degenerate youth of his father- 
 land to courage and patriotism. 
 
 Calliope (Gr. Kallidpe). See Muses. 
 
 Callirrhoe (Gr. Kallirrh5S). See Acarnan 
 and Alcm.^on. 
 
 Callisthfines (Gr. KallisthSnes). A Greek 
 historian, born at Olynthus about 360 B.C. 
 He was a relation of Aristotle, from whom 
 he received instruction at the same time 
 as Alexander the Great. He accompanied 
 Alexander on his Asiatic campaign, and 
 offended him by refusing to pay him servile 
 homage after the Persian fashion, and by 
 other daring exhibitions of independence. 
 The consequence was that the king threw 
 his friend into prison on the pretext that 
 he was concerned in a conspiracy against 
 his life. Callisthenes died in captivity in 
 328 B.C., in consequence, probably, of mal- 
 treatment. Of his historical writings, par- 
 ticularly those dealing with the exploits of 
 Alexander, only fragments remain ; but he 
 was always ranked among the most famous 
 historians. Indeed, his reputation as the 
 companion of Alexander and the historian 
 of his achievements maintained itself so 
 well, that hs was made responsible in 
 literature for the I'omantic narrative ot 
 Alexander's life which grew up in the fol- 
 
112 
 
 CALLISTO CAMILLI. 
 
 lowing centuries. This was translated into 
 Latin towards the end of the 3rd century 
 A.D. by Julius Valerius, and became the 
 main authority for the medisBval adaptations 
 of the myth of Alexander. 
 
 Callisto (Gr. Kallisto). A nymph, the 
 daughter of the Arcadian Lycaon, and a 
 companion of Artemis. She became, by 
 Zeus, the mother of Areas, the ancestor of 
 the Arcadians. She was turned into a bear, 
 according to one account by the jealous 
 Hera, according to another by Zeus, who 
 was anxious to protect her from Hera's 
 wrath. In this shape she was slain by 
 Artemis, and set among the constellations 
 by Zeus under the title of the She-Bear. 
 There was another story, according to which 
 Callisto's son was intending to slay his 
 transformed mother while hunting ; upon 
 which Zeus set him in the sky under the 
 name of Arcturus {Arktouros), the Watcher 
 of the Bear, and his mother under the name 
 of Arctus {Arktos), the She-Bear. As the 
 stars bearing these names never set. Homer 
 describes them as the only ones which have 
 no share in the bath of the ocean. Later 
 poets, accordingly, invented the further 
 story that Tethys, wishing to gratify Hera, 
 refused to receive her former rival into her 
 waters. 
 
 Callistratus (Gr. Kallistrdtos). A Greek 
 rhetorician, who probably flourished in the 
 3rd century A.D. He was the author of de- 
 scriptions of fourteen statues of celebrated 
 artists, Scopas, for instance, Praxiteles, and 
 Lysippus, written after the manner of Phi- 
 lostratus. His style is dry and affected, 
 and he gives the reader no real insight into 
 the qualities of the masterpieces which he 
 attempts to describe. 
 
 Callynteria (Gr. Eallynteria) and Plyn- 
 teria ("Feasts of Adorning and Cleansing "), 
 were the names given to the two chief days 
 of a service of atonement held at Athens 
 from the 19th to the 25th of Thargelion 
 (or May-June). The Erecththeum, or sanc- 
 tuary of Athene of the. stronghold, was 
 cleansed, the ancient wooden image of the 
 goddess was unclothed, the garments washed 
 and the image itself purified. These duties 
 were performed, with mysterious rites, by 
 the family of the Praxiegidse, with the aid 
 of certain women called Plyntrides. The 
 Plynteria, or day on which the image was 
 washed, was an unlucky day, on which no 
 public lausiness was transacted. The cere- 
 monies would seem originally to have been 
 intended to commemorate the season of the 
 year and the ripening of the corn and fruit. 
 
 for -which the votaries of the powerful god- 
 dess desired to secure her favour. 
 Calpis (Gr. Ealpis). See Vessels. 
 Calpurnius. (1) Calpurnius Plso Pvugl, 
 See Annalists. 
 
 (2) 2'itus Calpurnius Siculus, a Roman 
 poet, who flourished in the middle of 
 ! the 1st century A.D. At the beginning 
 ' of Nero's reign he wrote seven Ecldgce, 
 I or bucolic poems, which are somewhat 
 servile imitations of Theocritus and Vergil. 
 The language is declamatory, but the 
 laws of metre are strictly observed. The 
 poet was poor, and wished his writings to 
 be brought under the notice of the young 
 emperor, through the instrumentality of a 
 personage high in favour at court. This 
 individual appears under the name of Meli- 
 boeus, and has sometimes been supposed to 
 have been the philosopher Seneca, some- 
 times the Piso who was executed in 65 A.D. 
 as the leader of a conspiracy against Nero. 
 Calpurnius lavishes the most fulsome praises 
 upon the emperor. Four of the Eclogce, 
 which were formerly attributed to Calpur- 
 ; nius, are now known to have been written 
 by Nemesianus, who not only imitates Cal- 
 purnius, but plagiarizes from him. 
 I (3) Calpurnius Flaccus, a Latin rhetori- 
 cian of uncertain date, under whose name 
 j fifty-one school-boy harangues, or rather ex- 
 tracts from them, have come down to us. 
 Calumnia (in old Latin Kalumnia). The 
 I Latin word for slander. It was technically 
 I applied to false accusations. The falsely 
 ' accused person, if acquitted, had the right 
 of accusing the prosecutor in his turn on 
 the charge of calumnia before the same 
 jury. In civil cases the penalty was a pecu- 
 niary fine ; in criminal cases the calum- 
 niator lost his right to appear again as a 
 prosecutor, and in early times was branded 
 on the forehead with a K. 
 
 Calydonian (Gr. Kalydonian) Hunt. See 
 Meleager (1) and (Eneds. 
 
 Calypso (Gr. Ealypso). A nymph, the 
 daughter of Atlas, who dwelt on the island of 
 Ogygia, where she gave a friendly welcome 
 to Odysseus, whom she kept with her for 
 seven years. {See Odysseus.) 
 
 Camenae (Latin). The name of certain 
 fountain nymphs, who presided over child- 
 birth. They had also the gift of prophecy, 
 and were identified by the Latin poets with 
 the Greek Muses. {See Muses.) 
 
 Cameos, and The Gonzaga Cameo. See 
 Gems. 
 
 Camilli and Camillse. The Latin name 
 for the boys and girls who attended oi; the 
 
CAMPUS MARTIUS CANDELABRUM". 
 
 113 
 
 =^ CAMtL],US, WITH 
 ACERBA AND HICINIL'M. 
 
 (Bartoli, Admir. 14.) 
 
 priests and priestesses during the perform- 
 ance of their religious functions. It was 
 necessary that they 
 should be born of 
 free parents, and 
 have both parents 
 living. These 
 
 attendants were 
 especially attached 
 to the Flamen 
 Dialis, and his wife 
 the Flntiunica, and 
 also to the Curiones. 
 
 The priests gene- 
 rallj' brought up 
 their own children, 
 by preference, for 
 this service, to teach 
 them their duties, 
 and secure them a 
 succession to the 
 priestly olHoe. 
 
 Campus Martins (" Field of Mars "). A 
 plain lying to the north of Rome, outside 
 the Pomerium, between the Tiber, the Qui- 
 rinal and the Capitoline Hills. {See Pome- 
 rium.) During the regal period it was part 
 of the property of the Crown, and, after the 
 expulsion of the kings, was dedicated to 
 Mars. The northern part, on the banks of 
 the Tiber, served 
 as an exercise- 
 ground for the 
 Roman youth for 
 athletics, riding, or 
 military drill. The 
 smaller part, next 
 to the city, was 
 used for the meet- 
 ings of the Comitia 
 Centuriata, and for 
 holding the lus- 
 trum. In the midst 
 of it stood an altar 
 to Mars, which 
 formed the centre 
 of the ceremony of 
 the lustrum, and 
 of some other fes- 
 tivals held on the 
 spot in honour of 
 that deity. {See 
 Lustrum.) Until 
 tha end of the re- 
 publican age there 
 was only one build- 
 ing on this part of 
 the Campus, the Villa Publico. This was 
 the residence assigned to foreign ambassa- 
 
 D. C. A, 
 
 * APOLLO AFTEK CANACHU; 
 
 (Bi onze staiuetfce in British 
 Museum.) 
 
 dors and Roman generals on their return 
 from war, to whom the senate granted 
 audiences in the neighbouring temple of 
 Bellona. But in B.C. 55 Pompeius erected in 
 the Campus the first stone theatre built in 
 Rome, with a great colonnade adjoining it. 
 Here too Julius Csesar commenced his marble 
 sapta, or inclosures for the Comitia Cen- 
 turiate, with a great colonnade surrounding 
 the ovtle. {See Comitia.) These were com- 
 pleted by Agrippa in 27 B.C. In B.C. 28, 
 Octavianus Csesar added the Mausoleum, 
 or hereditary burial-place of the Csesars, 
 and Agrippa the Pantheon and the first 
 ThermcB or Baths. Under the succeeding 
 emperors a number of buildings rose here ; 
 for instance, Domitian's Race-course {Std- 
 diUm) and Odeum. The rest of the Campus 
 was left free for gymnastic and military exer- 
 cises, the grounds being magnificently deco- 
 rated with statues and colonnades. The altar 
 survived until the last days of ancient Rome. 
 
 Canachus (Gr. Kandclws). A Greek sculp- 
 tor born in Sicy on about 480 B.C. He worked 
 in bronze, in the combination of gold and 
 ivory, and also in wood. His master- 
 piece was the colossal bronze statue of 
 Apollo at Miletus, of which some idea may 
 be still derived from ancient coins of that 
 city. It seems to have been extremely 
 antique in its character {see cut). 
 
 Candelabrum. A lamp furnished with a 
 point, on which a taper {candela) was fixed. 
 {See Lighting.) As the use of lamps 
 became more common, the word candela- 
 brum was transferred to the wooden or 
 metal support, usually made up of a base, 
 a tall thin shaft, and a disc {discus), on 
 which the lamp was set up to illuminate 
 a large room. There were other forms of 
 candelabra, no'. ably the lampdddiium or 
 " lamp- bearer " {see cut, p. 114). This had 
 no disc, but a number of arms, as many as 
 the lamps it was intended to carry. Other 
 candelabra had an apparatus for raising 
 and lowering the lamps. The shaft was 
 hollow, and contained a movable rod, sup- 
 porting the disc or the arms, which could 
 be fixed at any required height by bolts 
 passed through it. Like lamps, candelabra 
 were made in the greatest possible variety 
 of forms, and ornamented in a number of 
 different ways, especially by figures in 
 relief. Besides the portable candelabra in- 
 tended for common use, and set on a table 
 or on the ground, there were large and 
 heavy ones, shaped like pillars, and set up 
 on fixed pedestals as ornaments for temples 
 and palaces {see cut, p. 114). 
 
114 
 
 CANDIDATUS- 
 
 Candidatus. The Latin term for a com- 
 petitor for a public office. He was so called 
 from the peculiar dress in which he usually 
 showed himself to the people in the Forum. 
 This was the toga Candida, a new toga 
 whitened with chalk. No one could appear 
 as a candidatus unless his name had been 
 given in to, and accepted by, the authorities 
 presiding over the election. 
 
 Can66n (Gr. Kaneon). See Vessels. 
 
 CanepMri (Gr. KdnephSroi)," basket-bear- 
 ers." The title of certain maidens belong- 
 ing to the first families at. Athens, whose 
 duty it was to carry baskets containing 
 consecrated furniture, on their heads, at 
 the solemn processions, particularly at the 
 Panathenaea. The graceful attitude made 
 
 — CAPITOLINUS. 
 
 not simply recited, but sung or performed in 
 melodrama with musical accompaniments. 
 
 Capaneus (Gr. Edpaneus). One of the 
 Seven against Thebes who was struck by 
 lightning during the assault upon the city. 
 He was climbing 
 the wall, and was 
 boasting that not 
 even the lightning 
 of Zeus would 
 scare him away. 
 During the burn- 
 ing of his body 
 on the funeral 
 pyre, his wife 
 Evadne threw 
 herself into the 
 
 LAMPADAKIA Oi' BKONZE. (&« p. 113.) 
 
 (Naples Museum. ) 
 
 (1) from Gargiulo'B Raccolta, tav. 63. 
 
 (2) and (3^ Mu&eo Borbonico, VIII sxsi, and II xiii. 
 
 * CANDELABRUM OF MAKBLE. 
 
 (NaplPB Museum.) 
 From Gargiulo's Raccolta, tav. 40. 
 
 the figure of a c.anephoros a favourite one 
 with sculptors. Such figures were often 
 employed by architects as supports for the 
 entablatures of temples. The Erechtheum 
 on the Acropolis at Athens is an example. 
 {See Cakyatides.) 
 
 Cantharus. See Vessels. 
 
 Canticum. A technical term of the 
 Roman stage. In the narrower sense, it 
 denoted a melody or air composed in chang- 
 ing rhythms, the text to which was sung 
 behind the stage to the accompaniment of 
 a flute, while the actor expressed the mean- 
 ing by pantomime. In Cicero's time, how- 
 ever, the cantica were sometimes performed 
 by the actors. In a wider sense, the word 
 might mean any part in a play which was 
 
 flames. His son was Sthenelus, the chario- 
 teer of Diomedes. 
 
 Capelium (Gr. Kdpeleion). See Inns. 
 
 Capella. See Maetianus Capella. 
 
 Caper {Flavius). A Latin scholar of some 
 note, who flourished in the 2nd century 
 A.D., and whose writings were frequently 
 used and quoted by the later grammarians. 
 Only two small treatises bearing his name 
 have come down to us, the De Ortho- 
 grdphid ("On Orthography") and De Ver- 
 bis Duhits ("On Irregular Words"); but 
 these are only meagre extracts from the 
 original works. 
 
 Capite ceusi. See Peoletarii. 
 
 Capitolinus (lulius). See Histoei^ Au- 
 gusts SCRIPTORES. 
 
CAPITOIJUM CARMENTA. 
 
 115 
 
 Capitollum. The southern summit of the 
 Capitoline Hill at Rome, separated from 
 the arx or northern summit by a saddle, 
 on -which were the asylum and the temple 
 of Veiovis. The Capitol was approached 
 by a road mounting in several zig-zags from 
 the Forum. On the highest point of the 
 southern top was the temple of Jupiter 
 Optimus Maximus, begun by the Tarquins, 
 but not finished till the first year of the 
 Republic (509 B.C.). The temple was quad- 
 rangular and nearly square, with three rows 
 of columns in front, six in each row, and 
 four columns on each side. They were in 
 the Doric, or rather the Tuscan, style. The 
 interior was divided by parallel walls in- 
 to three cellce or chambers. The central 
 chamber was dedicated to Jupiter, and con- 
 tained a statue of the god in terra-cotta. 
 The senate sometimes held its sittings here, 
 particularly at the opening of the year, and 
 on occasions when war was declared. The 
 right-hand chamber was sacred to Minerva, 
 the left-hand to Juno. The entablature 
 was entirely constructed of wood ; the 
 pediment was of terra-cotta, as was the quad- 
 riga or four-horsed chariot, with the figure 
 of the god, above. After the Third Punic 
 War the entablature was gilded. In 83 
 B.C. the whole temple was burnt down to 
 the vaults in which the Sibylline books 
 and other consecrated objects were pre- 
 served. Sulla rebuilt the structure strictly 
 on the lines of the old one, though with 
 much greater splendour in detail ; but the 
 new temple was not consecrated till 69 B.C. 
 A statue of Jupiter in gold and ivory, on 
 the model of the Olympian Zeus, by Apol- 
 lonius, was substituted for the old image of 
 terra-cotta. A hundred years later the 
 building was again burnt down, in the civil 
 war of Vitellius and Vespasian. Vespasian 
 restored it, but the new structure was again 
 destroyed by fire in 80 A.D. In 82 Do- 
 mitian erected a new temple, a Corinthian 
 liexastylos, which survived unhurt till the 
 5th century A.D. This was gradually de- 
 stroyed, partly by the invading barbarians 
 who plundered it, and partly in the dis- 
 sensions of the Middle Ages. The Palazzo 
 Caffarelli now stands upon its foundation. 
 
 Caprotina. A Roman epithet of Juno. 
 A special feast, called the ^o«a; Caprotince, 
 was celebrated in her honour on the Nones 
 of Quintilis, or 7th of July. In this 
 celebration female slaves took a consider- 
 able part. The festival was connected 
 with another, called PopUfuglum, or the 
 " flight of the People," held on the 5th of 
 
 July. Thus a historical basis was given to 
 it, though the true origin of both festivals 
 had been probably forgotten. After their 
 defeat by the Greeks, the Romans were con- 
 quered and put to flight by a sudden attack 
 of their neighbours, and the enemies de- 
 manded the surrender of all the girls and 
 married women. Thereupon, at the sug- 
 gestion of a girl called Tutula (or Philotis), 
 the female slaves disguised themselves as 
 Roman ladies, went into the enemy's camp, 
 contrived to make the enemy drunk, and 
 then, climbing into a wild fig-tree, gave the 
 signal for the Romans to attack by holding 
 up a torch. The Poplifugia were celebra- 
 ted by a mimic flight. On the 7th July, 
 the female slaves went in procession to the 
 fig-tree, where they carried on all kinds of 
 sports with the assembled multitude. Be- 
 sides this, there was a sacrifice and a festal 
 meal at the tree, and on the next day a 
 thanksgiving, celebrated by the pontlflces. 
 
 Capys (Gr. Kdpys). See Daedanus and 
 Anchises. 
 
 Carchesium (Gr. KarcJiesiSn). See Vessels. 
 
 Card.6a. The tutelary goddess of hinges, 
 in other words, of family life, among the 
 Romans. She was supposed to ward off 
 alL the noxious influences of evil spirits, 
 especially of the Stngm, who were believed 
 to suck the blood of children by night. It 
 is doubtful whether she is to be identified 
 with the goddess Carna, who is said to have 
 taken the larger organs of the body — heart, 
 lungs and liver — under her especial pro- 
 tection. Carna had a shrine on the Caelian 
 Hill, in Rome, and a festival on the 1st of 
 June, at which they ate beans and bacon, 
 and made offerings of them to the goddess. 
 
 Caristia. See Manes. 
 
 Carmenta or Carmentis. An ancient 
 Italian goddess of prophecy, who protected 
 women in child-birth. In Rome she had 
 a priest attached to her, the flamen Car- 
 tnentdlis, and a shrine near the gate under 
 the Capitol, named after her the porta Car- 
 mentdlis. On this spot the Roman matrons 
 celebrated in her honour the festival of the 
 Carmentalia, the fldmen and pontlfex as- 
 sisting. Two Carmentes, called Porrhna or 
 Antevorta, and Postvorta, were worshipped 
 as her sisters and attendants. These names 
 were sometimes explained with reference 
 to childbirth, sometimes as indicating the 
 power of the goddess of fate to look into the 
 past and future. In the legend of the 
 foundation of Rome Carmenta appears as 
 the prophetic mother, or wife, of the Arca- 
 dian stranger Evander. 
 
116 
 
 CARNA CASSIODORUS SENATOE. 
 
 Cama. See Cahdea. 
 
 Carnea (Gr. Karncia). A festival cele- 
 brated in honour of Apollo Carneus (\"the 
 protector of flocks ") as early as the time of 
 the immigration of the Dorians. In keeping 
 up the celebration, the Dorians characteristic- 
 ally gave it a warlike colour, by transform- 
 ing their original pastoral deity into the 
 god of their fighting army. The Carnea 
 lasted nine days, from fhe 7th to the 15th 
 of the month Carneus (August-September). 
 The proceedings symbolized the life of 
 soldiers in camp. In every three plira- 
 trice or 0603 nine places were set apart, on 
 which tents or booths were put up. In 
 these tents nine men had their meals in 
 common. All ordinary proceedings were 
 carried on at the word of command, given 
 out by a herald. One 
 part of the festival 
 recalled its originally 
 rural character. This 
 was a race, in which 
 one of the runners, 
 supposed to symbo- 
 lize the blessings of 
 harvest, started in 
 advance, uttering 
 prayers for the city. 
 The others, called 
 " vintage runners," 
 pursued him, and if 
 they overtook him , the 
 occurrence was taken 
 as a good omen, if they 
 failed, as a bad one. 
 After the twenty-sixth 
 Olympiad (676 B.C.) a 
 musical contest was 
 added, at which the 
 most celebrated artists 
 in all Greece were 
 accustomed to com- 
 pete. The first artist 
 who sang at this con- 
 test was Terpander. 
 
 Carpentum. See 
 Chariots. 
 
 Carpo. See Hor^. 
 
 Carroballista. See Artillery. 
 
 Carriica. See Chariots. 
 
 Caryatides (Gr. Karyatides). A technical 
 term of Greek architecture. Caryatides 
 were female statues clothed in long drapery, 
 used instead of shafts, or columns, to sup- 
 port the entablature of a temple {see cut). 
 The name properly means " maidens of 
 Caryee {Karyai)" a Spartan town on the 
 Arcadian frontier. Here it was the custom 
 
 CAEYATID. 
 
 From the Erechtheum, 
 
 Athens (Bi-itish Museum). 
 
 for bands of girls to perform their country 
 dances at the yearly festivals of Artemis 
 Karyatis, In doing so they sometimes 
 assumed the attitude which suggested the 
 form adopted by the artists in the statues 
 mentioned above. {See also Canephori.) 
 
 Cassandra (Gr. Kassandra) . In Homer 
 Cassandra is the fairest of the daughters of 
 Priam and Heciiba. For the promise of 
 her love, Apollo conferred upon her the 
 gift of prophecy ; she broke her word, and 
 the god punished her by letting her retain 
 the gift, but depriving her of the power of 
 making her hearers believe her. Her utter- 
 ances were therefore laughed to scorn as 
 the ravings of a mad woman. It was in 
 vain that, at the birth of Paris, she advised 
 that he should be put to death, and that, 
 when Helen came to Troy, she prophesied 
 the destruction of the city. When the city 
 was taken, she was dragged by Ajax the 
 son of Oileus from the altar of Athene, at 
 which she had taken refuge ; but Agamem- 
 non rescued her and took her as his slave 
 to Mycense. Here she was slain by Cly- 
 tsemnestra when Agamemnon was murdered. 
 She was worshipped with Apollo in several 
 places under the name of Alexandra. 
 
 Cassianus Bassus. See Geoponici. 
 
 Casslodorus Senator {Magnus AurBlius) 
 was born in Bruttium, about 480 A.D, He 
 belonged to an old Roman family which had, 
 particularly in the three preceding genera- 
 tions, distinguished itself in the public 
 service. His father stood in high favour 
 with Theodoric, who had an equal regard 
 for his talented and highly educated son, 
 Cassiodorus Senator. On account of his 
 trustworthiness and ability as a statesman, 
 the younger Cassiodorus was appointed to 
 the highest offices by Theodoric and his 
 successors. He was consul a.d. 514, and 
 four times proifectus. For a period of 
 nearly forty years he enjoyed an active and 
 successful career in the public administra- 
 tion, notably as Theodoric's private secre- 
 tary. After the fall of Vitiges in 540, 
 Cassiodorus retired to the monastery of 
 Vivarium (Vivarese), which he had founded 
 on his estates in Bruttium. . Here he passed 
 the rest of his life in religious exercises 
 and literary labour. He died about 575. 
 
 Among the works which he composed 
 during his career as a statesman, we have 
 a universal history called Chronica, from 
 Adam down to the year when it was writ- 
 ten. This consists mainly of a catalogue of 
 the Roman consuls, and is the longest of 
 all the lists which have come down to us. 
 
CASSIOPEA CASTRA. 
 
 117 
 
 
 
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 Another work of his which has survived 
 is the Varice (Epistil'lce) in twelve books. 
 This is a collection of imperial rescripts, 
 and has considerable historical importance. 
 These rescripts he made out, partly in the 
 name of Theodoric and his successors, partly 
 in his own name as prmfectus. The book 
 likewise contains a collection of formularies 
 for decrees of nomination. His Gothic his- 
 tory, in twelve books, is only preserved in 
 extracts, and in the paraphrase of Jordanes. 
 
 The chief aim of his monastic life was a 
 noble one. He hoped to make the monas- 
 teries an asylum of knowledge, in which 
 the literature of classical antiquity and of 
 the Christian age might 
 be collected. The num- 
 ber of books was to be 
 increased by copyists, 
 and the clergy were to 
 gain their necessary 
 education by studying 
 them. The libraries 
 and schools of the mo- 
 nasteries in succeeding 
 centuries were ulti- 
 mately formed upon the 
 model which he set up. 
 Besides a number of 
 theological writings, he 
 composed, in about 544 
 A.D., a sort of Encyclo-' 
 psedia,in four books, for 
 the instruction of his 
 monks. This is the " In- 
 structions in Sacred and 
 Profane Literature " 
 {Institutiones Divind- 
 rum et ScBCulanum 
 Litterarum). The first 
 part is an introd-uction 
 to the study of theology, 
 the second a sketch of 
 the seven liberal arts. 
 ITinally, in his ninety- 
 third year, he compiled a treatise De Ortho- 
 grdphia or on Orthography. 
 
 Cassiopea (Grr. KasstSpeia). See Andro- 
 meda. 
 
 Cassius. (1) Cassius Hemina. ^e Anna- 
 lists. (2) See Dio Cassius. 
 
 Castaiia (Gr. Kastalia). A nymph, the 
 daughter of the river-god Achelous,_ Pur- 
 sued by Apollo, she threw herself into_ a 
 spring on Mount Parnassus, which took its 
 name after her. The spring was conse- 
 crated to Apollo and the Muses, and it was 
 in its water that the pilgrims to the neigh- 
 bouring shrine of Delphi purified themselves. 
 
 The Roman poets indulged in the fiction 
 that it conferred poetic inspiration. 
 
 Ca,stor{Gr.Kastdr)& Pollux. iS'ee Dioscuri. 
 
 Castra. A Roman camp, fortified with 
 a rampart and ditch, outside of which a 
 Roman army never spent a single night. 
 It was marked out on a place selected by 
 officers detached for the purpose, generally 
 on the spur of a hill. The same plan was 
 always observed, and the divisions indicated 
 by coloured flags and lances, so that the 
 divisions of the army, as they came in, 
 could find their places at once. In the 
 middle of the 2nd century B.C., according to 
 the account of Polybius [vi 27], the plan of 
 
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 PLAN OF A KOMAN CAMP. 
 
 a camp for a consular army of two legions, 
 with the proper contingent of Italian allies, 
 and its auxiliary troops, was as follows (see 
 Plan). The camp was square, its front 
 being on the side furthest from the enemy. 
 It had two main roads through it. (1) 
 The via principalis, 100 feet wide, which 
 divided it into a front part amounting to 
 about two-thirds of the whole, aiid a back 
 part, turned toward the enemy. This road 
 ended at two gates, the porta principalis 
 dextra, and the porta principalis sinistra. 
 (2) The via prcetorza, which cut the via 
 principalis at right angles, and divided 
 
118 
 
 C ASTRA. 
 
 tlie whole length of the camp into two 
 parts. This road was 50 feet in width, 
 and ended in two gates, the porta decu- 
 mana in front, and the porta pratoria on 
 the side opening towards the enemy. In the 
 front part were encamped the two legions, 
 with their allied contingents. They lay in 
 three double rows of tents on each side of 
 the via praioria, which made aright angle 
 with the via principalis. Its whole length 
 was divided by roads 50 feet in width, 
 while across it, from one lateral rampart 
 to the other, ran the via quintana. The 
 front side of the rows of tents was turned 
 towards the intervening roads. Starting 
 from the via praitoria, the first two lines 
 of tents on each side contained the cavalry 
 and infantry of one legion each, while the 
 third row, lying nearest to the rampart, 
 contained the cavalry and infantry of the 
 allied contingents. In the hinder part of 
 the camp, directly upon the via principalis, 
 and on both sides of the via prcetoria, 
 were the tents of the twelve military 
 tribunes, opposite the four ranks of the 
 legions. On both sides were the tents of 
 the prafecti of the allied contingents, 
 placed in the same way opposite those of 
 the troops tinder their command. Then 
 followed the headquarters, or prcetorlum, 
 a space 200 feet square, intersected by the 
 via pratoria. In this was the general's 
 tent {tahernacMwrn) ; in front was the altar 
 on which the general sacrificed, on the left 
 the augiinlle for taking the auspices, and 
 on the right the tribunal. This was a bank 
 of earth covered with turf, on which the 
 general took his stand when addressing 
 the troops, or administering justice. Right 
 of the prcetorium was the qucBstortum, con- 
 taining the quarters of the paymasters, and 
 the train of artillery. On the left was the 
 forum, a meeting place for the soldiers. Be- 
 tween these spaces and the lateral ramparts 
 were the tents of the select troops who com- 
 posed the body-guard of the general. Those 
 of the cavalry had their front turned in- 
 wards, while those of the infantry were 
 turned towards the wall. The tents of the 
 picked allied troops occupied the hinder part 
 of the camp, which was bounded by a cross 
 road 100 feet in breadth. The tents of the 
 cavalry looked inwards, those of the in- 
 fantry towards the rampart. The auxiliary 
 troops were posted at the two angles of this 
 space. The rampart was divided from the 
 tents by an open space 200 feet in width. 
 This was specially intended to facilitate the 
 march of the troops at their entrance and exit. 
 
 The construction of the fortifications 
 always began before the general's tent was 
 pitched. The legionaries constructed the 
 rampart and ditch in front and rear, while 
 the allies did the same on either side. The 
 stakes required for the formation of an 
 abattis on the outer side of the wall were 
 carried by the soldiers themselves on the 
 march The whole work was carried on 
 under arms. The wntches {excUbzo} and 
 vigiliai) were kept with great strictness 
 both by day and night. The vigilice, or 
 night-watches, were relieved four times, 
 the trumpet sounding on each occasion. 
 The posts of each night-watch were in- 
 spected by four Roman equites. The pass- 
 word for the night was given by the general. 
 Each gate was guarded by outposts of infan- 
 try and cavalry, the light-armed troops {velt- 
 tes) being also distributed as sentries along 
 the ramparts. When the camp was to break 
 up, three signals were given ; at the first, 
 the tents were taken down and packed up ; 
 at the second, they were put upon beasts 
 of burden and in wagons, and at the third 
 the army began its march. 
 
 After the time of Polybius the Roman 
 military system underwent many changes, 
 which involved alterations in the arrange- 
 ments of the camp, but we have no trust- 
 worthy information on this subject in detail 
 until the beginning of the 2nd century 
 A.D. The treatise of one Hyginus on castrc- 
 metation gives the following statements as 
 to the practice of his time. The ordinary 
 form of a camp was that of a rectangle, 
 the length of which was about a third part 
 greater than the breadth. In former times 
 the legions were posted inside the camp ; 
 but now, being regarded as the most trust- 
 worthy troops, they were encamped along 
 the whole line of ramparts, the width of 
 which was now limited to 60 feet. They 
 were separated from the interior of the 
 camp by a road 30 feet wide (via sdgUldris), 
 running parallel to the line of ramparts. 
 The interior was now divided, not into two, 
 but into three main sections. The midmost 
 of these lay between the via principalis, 
 which was 60, and the via quintana, which 
 was 40 feet wide. It was occupied by the 
 prcetorium and the troops of the guard, 
 and was called the wing of the proitorium 
 {Idterd proetorii). The auxiliary troops were 
 stationed in what was now the front part, 
 or prcetentUra, between the via principalis 
 and the porta prcetoria, and the rear, or 
 retentUra, between the via quintana and 
 the porta decumana. The via prcetoria, 
 
CATALEPTON CATEEUS. 
 
 119 
 
 which was also 60 feet wide, led only from 
 the prcetoriimi and the forum in front of 
 it to the porta proitoria, as at this time the 
 qucBstorium was situated between thepo?'to 
 decumana and the prcv.torium. The general 
 superintendence of the arrangements was, 
 during the imperial period, in the hands of 
 the prcefectus castrorutn. {See Pe^efectus.) 
 
 Catal6pt6n [not Catalecta, but=Gr. Kata- 
 lepton = " on a small scale"]. The title of a 
 collection of short poems attributed in anti- 
 quity to Vergil. {See Vehgil.) 
 
 Catapulta. See Artillery. 
 
 Cathgdra (Gr. Kathedra). See Chairs. 
 
 Cato {Marcus Porcius). The earliest im- 
 portant representative of Latin prose, and 
 an ardent champion of Roman national feel- 
 ing in life as in literature. He was born 
 234 B.C., at Tuscuhim, and passed his youth 
 in a laborious life in the country. At the 
 age of seventeen he entered the army, and 
 fought with distinction in the Hannibalic 
 war in Italy, Sicily and Africa. He was 
 elected quaestor in 204, eedile in 199, and 
 prsetor in 198 B.C., when he administered 
 the province of Sardinia. He attained the 
 consulship in B.C. 195. As proconsul he was 
 so successful in the measures he adopted for 
 the subjugation of the province of Spain, 
 that he was honoured with a triumph on 
 his return. Four years later, in the capa- 
 city of legdtus, he dealt the decisive stroke 
 which gave the Romans the victory over 
 the troops of king Antiochus at Ther- 
 mopylae. In 184 he was elected censor, 
 and administered his ofSce with such strict- 
 ness that he received the cognomen of 
 Censorius. He was the enemy of all inno- 
 vations, especially of the Greek influence 
 which was making itself felt at Rome. 
 Everything which he thought endangered 
 the ancient Roman discipline, he met with 
 unwearied opposition, regardless of any un- 
 popularity he might incur. He is said to 
 have been prosecuted forty-four times, and 
 to have been always acquitted. The occa- 
 sions on which he himself appeared as 
 prosecutor were even more numerous. 
 
 Even in extreme old age he retained the 
 vigour of his intellect, and was as active 
 as before in politics and literature. He 
 is said to have been an old man when he 
 made his first acquaintance with Greek 
 literature. He died 149 B.C., in his eighty- 
 sixth year. [See Livy xxxix 40.] 
 
 Cato was the first writer who composed a 
 history of Rome in Latin, and who pub- 
 lished any considerable number of his own 
 speeches, His chief work was the Orlglnes, 
 
 or seven books of Italian and Roman 
 history. The title Origines, or "Early 
 History," applied properly only to the first 
 three books, which contained the story of 
 the kings, and traced the rise of the various 
 cities of Italy. But it was afterwards ex- 
 tended to the whole work, which included 
 the history of Rome down to B.C. 151. In 
 the narrative of his own achievements he 
 inserted his own speeches. JTrom early 
 manhood he displayed great energy as an 
 orator. More than 150 of his speeches 
 were known to . Cicero, who speaks with 
 respect of his oratorical performances. The 
 titles, ai^d some fragments of eighty of his 
 orations have survived. 
 
 In the form of maxims addressed to his 
 son {Prcecepta ad Filium) he drew a com- 
 prehensive sketch of everything which, 
 in his opinion, was useful for a young man 
 to know if he was to be a vir tonus. He 
 also put together in verse some rules for 
 every-day conduct {Carmen De Morthus). 
 The only work of Cato which has come 
 down to us in anything like completeness is 
 his treatise on agriculture {De Re Rusttcci), 
 though even this we do not possess in its 
 original shape. This was intended as a 
 manual for the private use of one Manlius, 
 and had reference to a particular estate 
 belonging to him. One part is written sys- 
 matically, the other is a miscellaneous col- 
 lection of various rules. There is also a 
 collection of 146 proverbs, each in a couple 
 of hexameters, which bears the name of 
 Cato. But this belongs to the later Empire, 
 though it is probably not later than the end 
 of the 4th century a.d. This little book 
 was a well known manual all through the 
 Middle Ages, and was widely circulated in 
 translations. 
 
 Catreus (Gr. Katreus). In Greek mytho- 
 logy a king of Crete, the son of Minos and of 
 Pasiphae. An oracle had prophesied that he 
 would fall by the hand of one of his own chil- 
 dren. He accordingly put his daughters, 
 Aerope-and ClymSne, into the hands of'Nau- 
 plius, who was to sell them into a foreign 
 country; his son Althsemgnes, meanwhile, mi- 
 grated to Rhodes with his sister ApemSsyne. 
 His sister, who had been led astray by 
 Hermes, he killed with a blow of his foot, and 
 slew his aged father, who had come to put 
 into his hands the government of Crete, mis- 
 taking him for a pirate. Clymene became 
 the wife of Nauplius, and the mother of 
 Palamedes and (Eax. Aerope married 
 Atreus, and bore him two sons, Agamem- 
 non and Mgnelaus ; but was finally thrown 
 
120 
 
 CATULLUS CECROPS. 
 
 into tlie sea by lier husband on account of 
 ]ier adultery with Thyestes. (See Ateeus.) 
 
 Catullus {Gains or Qnintus Valerius). 
 Perhaps the greatest of Roman lyric poets. 
 He was born at Verona B.C. 87, and died 
 about 64. He came to Rome while still 
 young, and found himself in very good 
 society there, being admitted to the circle of 
 such men as Cicero, Hortensius, and Corne- 
 lius Nepos, and the poets Cinna and Calvus. 
 He had an estate on the Lacus Larius (Lake 
 of Como), and another at Tibur (Tivoli) ; but, 
 if we may believe what he says about his 
 debts and poverty, his pecuniary affairs must 
 have been in bad order. In consequence of 
 this he attached himself to the propraetor 
 Gaius Memmius, on his going to Bithynia 
 in the year 57. He gained nothing by 
 doing so, and in the following spring re- 
 turned home alone, visiting on the way the 
 tomb of his brother, who was buried near 
 Troy. Some of his most beautiful poems 
 are inspired by his love for a lady whom 
 he addresses as Lesbia, a passion which 
 seems to have been the ruin of his life. 
 She has been, with great probability, iden- 
 tified with the beautiful and gifted, but 
 unprincipled sister of the notorious Clodius, 
 and wife of Metellus Celer. Catullas was, 
 in his eighteenth year, so overmastered by 
 his passion for her, that he was unable, 
 even after he had broken off all relations 
 with her, and come to despise her, to dis- 
 entangle himself. 
 
 In his intercourse with his numerous 
 friends Catullus was bright and amiable, 
 but unsparing in the ridicule he poured 
 upon his enemies. He held aloof from 
 public life, and from any active participa- 
 tion in politics, but none the less bitterly 
 did he hate those whom he thought respon- 
 eible for the internal decline of the Re- 
 public—themselves and all their creatures. 
 On Csesar, though his own father's guest, 
 and on his dissolute favourite Mamurra, he 
 makes violent attacks. But he is said to 
 have apologized to Csesar, who magnani- 
 mously forgave him. 
 
 Catullus' poems have not all survived. 
 We still possess 116, which, with the ex- 
 ception of three, are included in a collection 
 dedicated to Cornelius Nepos. The first 
 half is taken up with minor pieces of various 
 contents, and written in different lyric 
 metres, especially the iambic. Then follows 
 a series of longer poems, amongst them the 
 wonderful lament of Attis, wonderful in 
 spite of the repulsiveness of its subject; 
 the epic narrative of the marriage of Peleus 
 
 and Thetis, and a paraphrase of Callima- 
 chus' best elegy, " The Lock of Berenice." 
 These are all in the Alexandrian manner. 
 The remaining poems are short, and of dif- 
 ferent contents, bat all written in elegiacs. 
 
 Catullus takes his place in the history 
 of literature as the earliest classical metrist 
 among the Romans. He is a complete 
 master of all varieties of verse. More than 
 this, he has the art of expressing every 
 phase of feeling in the most natural and 
 beautiful style ; love, fortunate and unfor- 
 tunate, sorrow lor a departed brother, 
 wanton sensuality, the tenderest friendship, 
 the bitterest contempt, and the most burning 
 hatred. Even his imitations of the Greek 
 are not without an original stamp of their 
 own. 
 
 Caupona. See Inns. 
 
 Causia (Gr. Kausla). A flat, broad-brim- 
 med felt hat, worn in Macedonia and by the 
 Macedonian soldiers. When worn by per- 
 sons high in society it was coloured purple ; 
 the kings of Macedon surrounded it with 
 the royal diadem, and thus the purple 
 causia with the diadem continued to be the 
 emblem of sovereignty in the kingdoms 
 which arose from the empire of Alexander. 
 The Macedonian hat was in later times 
 adopted by fishermen and sailors at Rome, 
 and in the imperial period was worn by the 
 higher classes in the theatre as a protection 
 against the sun. 
 
 Cav6a. See Theatre. 
 
 Cebes (Gr. KtbSs). A Greek philosopher, 
 the author of a school-book called Pinax or 
 "The Picture," which was very popular, and 
 was translated into Arabic. It is a dialogue 
 upon an allegorical picture, representing the 
 condition of the soul before its union with 
 the body, and the nature of human life in 
 general. The purport of the conversation 
 is to prove that the foundations of happi- 
 ness are development of the mind and the 
 conscious practice of virtue. It is doubtful 
 to which Cebes the book is to be referred, 
 for there were two philosophers of the 
 name. One was Cebes of Thebes, the dis- 
 ciple of Socrates, who wrote three philoso- 
 phical dialogues, one of which bore the 
 title Pinax; the other was a Stoic of Cyzl- 
 cus, who flourished in the 2nd century a.d. 
 
 Cecrops (Gr. KSkrops). One of the abori- 
 gines of Attica, and as such represented with 
 a human body ending in a serpent {see cut). 
 In the later story he was erroneously repre- 
 sented as having come to Attica from Sais 
 in Egypt. He was said to have been the 
 flrst king of Attica, which was called after 
 
CEL^NO — CENSORES. 
 
 121 
 
 him Cecropia. He divided the rude in- 
 habitants into twelve communities, founded 
 the stronghold of Athens, which was called 
 Cecropia after him, and introduced the ele- 
 
 ^CECKOPS, 
 
 '(Vase painting at Palermo.) 
 
 ments of civilization, the laws of marriage 
 and property, the earliest political arrange- 
 ments, and the earliest religious services, 
 notably those of Zeus and Athene. 
 
 When Poseidon and Athene were con- 
 tending for the possession of the land, 
 Poseidon struck the rock of the acropolis 
 with his trident, and water (or, according 
 to another story, the horse) sprang forth ; 
 but Athene planted the first olive tree. 
 Cecrops, on being called in to decide be- 
 tween them, gave judgment in favour of the 
 goddess, as having conferred on the land the 
 more serviceable gift. 
 
 Cecrops had four children by his wife 
 Agraulos; a son Erysichthon, who died 
 childless, and three daughters, Agraulos, 
 Herse, and Pandrosos. The names of the 
 last two show them to be the deities of the 
 fertilizing dew ; and indeed the three were 
 regarded as in the service of Athene, and 
 as giving fruitfulness to the fields. Pan- 
 drosos was Athene's first priestess. She 
 had a shrine of her own (Pandrdseum) in 
 the temple of Erechtheus on the acropolis, 
 and was invoked in times of drought with 
 the two Attic Horm, Thallo and Carpo 
 (see Eeechtheum). In her temple stood 
 the sacred olive which Athene had created, 
 C61aeno (Gr. Kelaino). (1) See Harpies. 
 (2) See Pleiades. 
 
 C61eus (Gr. Keleos). A king of Eleusis, in 
 
 whose home Demeter, while seeking for her 
 daughter, received an affectionate welcome 
 and comfort while tending her newly-born 
 son Demophoon, {See Demeter and De- 
 
 MOPHOON,) 
 
 Cella. See Temple. 
 
 Celsus (A. Cornelius). A Roman savant, 
 eminent in several branches of knowledge, 
 who flourished in the age of Tiberius, A.n. 
 14-37. He was the author of a great ency- 
 clopaedic work called (it would seem) AHes, 
 designed after the manner of Varro's Disci- 
 pllnce.. The work of Celsus included more 
 than 20 books, treating of agriculture, 
 medicine, philosophy, rhetoric, and the art 
 of war. Of these all that remain are books 
 7-13, De MSdlcind. This is the earliest and 
 the most considerable work of the sort in 
 the extant Roman literature. The material 
 which the author has collected, partly from 
 Greek sources, partly from his own expe- 
 rience, is treated in systematic order, and 
 with a purity of style which won for Celsus 
 the name of the Cicero of physicians. 
 
 Cena. See Meals. 
 
 Cenaciilum. See House. 
 
 Cenotaphium (Gr. KenotdpMon). See 
 Burial. 
 
 Censores (Roman). The officials whose 
 duty it was (after 444 B.C.) to take the 
 place of the consuls in superintending the 
 five-yearly census. The office was one of the 
 higher magistracies, and could only be held 
 once by the same person. It was at first 
 confined to the Patricians ; in 351 B.C. it 
 was thrown open to the Plebeians, and after 
 339 one of the censors was obliged by law 
 to be a plebeian. On occasion of a census, 
 the censors were elected soon after the ac- 
 cession to office of the new consuls, who 
 presided over the assembly. They were 
 usually chosen from the number of eonsur- 
 lares, or persons who had been consuls. 
 Accordingly the censorship was regarded, if 
 not as the highest office of state, at least as 
 the highest step in the ladder of promotion. 
 The newly elected censors entered imme- 
 diately, after due summons, upon their office. 
 Its duration was fixed in 433 B.C. to eighteen 
 months, but it could be extended for certain 
 purposes. Eor the object of carrying out 
 their proper duties, the census and the 
 solemn purifications {lustrum) that con- 
 cluded it, they had the power of summon- 
 ing the people to the Campus Martius, 
 where, since 434 B.C., they had an official 
 residence in the Villa Puhllca. The tri- 
 bunes had no right of veto as against their 
 proceedings in taking the census / indeed, 
 
122 
 
 CENSORINUS CENSUS. 
 
 so far as this part of their duties was con- 
 cerned, they were irresponsible, being bound 
 only in conscience by the oath which they 
 took on entering upon and laying down 
 their ofBce. Having no execntive powers, 
 they had no lictors, but only messengers 
 {vidtores) and heralds (jircecones). Their 
 insignia were ihe sella curulis and a purple 
 toga. The collegial character of the office 
 was so pronounced, that if one censor died, 
 the other abdicated. Prom the simple act 
 of taking the census and putting up the 
 new list of citizens, their functions were 
 in course of time extended, so as to include 
 a number of very important duties. Among 
 these must be mentioned in particular a 
 general superintendence of conduct {regimen 
 morum). In virtue of this they had the 
 power of affixing a stigma on any citizen, 
 regardless of his position, for any conceiv- 
 able offence for which there was no legal 
 punishment. Such offences were neglect 
 of one's property, celibacy, dissolution of 
 marriage, bad training or bad treatment 
 of children, undue severity to slaves and 
 clients, irregular life, abuse of power in 
 office, impiety, perjury, and the like. The 
 offender might be punished with degrada- 
 tion ; that is, the censors could expel a man 
 from the senate or ordo equester, or they 
 could transfer him from a country tribe 
 into one of the less respectable city tribes, 
 and thus curtail his right of voting, or 
 again they could expel him from the tribes 
 altogether, and thus completely deprive 
 him of the right of voting. This last pen- 
 alty might be accompanied by a fine in the 
 shape of additional taxation. The censors 
 had also the power of issuing edicts against 
 practices which threatened the simplicity 
 of ancient Roman manners ; for instance, 
 against luxury. These edicts had not the 
 force of law, but their transgression might 
 be punished by the next censors. The 
 effect of the censorial stigma and punish- 
 ment lasted until the next census. The 
 consent of both censors was required to 
 ratify it, and it directly affected men only, 
 not women. The censors exercised a special 
 superintendence over the equites and the 
 senate. They had the lectio sendtus, or 
 power of ejecting unworthy members and 
 of passing over new candidates for the sena- 
 torial rank, as, for instance, those who had 
 held curule offices. The equites had to 
 pass singly, each leading his horse, before 
 the censors in the forum, after the comple- 
 tion of the general census. An honourable 
 dismissal was then given to the superan- 
 
 nuated or the infirm ; if an cqucs was now 
 found, or had previously been found, un- 
 worthy of his order (as for neglecting to care 
 for his horse), he was expelled from it. The 
 vacant places were filled up from the number 
 of such individuals as appeared from the 
 general census to be suitable. There were 
 certain other duties attached to the censor- 
 ship, for the due performance of which they 
 were responsible to the people, and subject to 
 the authority of the senate and the veto of 
 the tribunes. (1) The letting of the public 
 domain lands and taxes to the highest bidder. 
 (2) The acceptance of tenders from the 
 lowest bidder for works to be paid for by 
 the State. In both these cases the period 
 was limited to five years. (3) Superinten- 
 dence of the construction and maintenance 
 of public buildings and grounds, temples, 
 bridges, sewers, aqueducts, streets, monu- 
 ments, and the like. 
 
 After 167 B.C. Roman citizens were freed 
 from all taxation, and since the time of 
 Marius the liability to military service was 
 made general. The censorship was now a 
 superfluous office, for its original object, the 
 census, was hardly necessary. Sulla disliked 
 the censors for their power of meddling in 
 matters of private conduct, and accordingly 
 in his constitution of 81 B.C. the office was, 
 if not formally abolished, practically super- 
 seded. It was restored in 70 B.C. in the 
 consulship of Pompey and Crassus, and con- 
 tinued to exist for a long time, till uTider 
 the Empire it disappeared as a separate 
 office. The emperor kept in his own hands 
 the right of taking the census. He took 
 over also the other functions of the censor, 
 especially the supervision of morals, a pro- 
 ceeding in which he had Caesar's example to 
 support him. The care of public buildings, 
 however, he committed to a special body. 
 
 Censorinus. A Roman scholar of the 
 3rd century A.D. Besides some grammatical 
 treatises now lost, he was the author 
 of a short book, De Die Natdli (" On the 
 Day of Birth"), in which he treats of the 
 influence of the stars on the birth of men, 
 of the various stages of life, and the different 
 modes of reckoning time. In the course of 
 the work he gives a number of valuable 
 historical and chronological notices. 
 
 Census. After the establishment of the 
 constitution of Servius Tullius the number 
 of Roman citizens was ascertained every 
 five years (though not always with per- 
 fect regularity) to determine their legal 
 liability to the payment of taxes and to 
 niijitary service. This process was called 
 
CENTAURI CENTO. 
 
 123 
 
 censiis. The census was originally taken 
 by the kings; after the expulsion of the 
 kings by the consuls; after 444 B.C. by 
 special officers called censors {see Censoees). 
 The censors took the auspices on the night 
 preceding the census ; on the next day their 
 herald summoned the people to the Campus 
 Martius, where they had an official residence 
 in the villa publica. Each tribe appeared 
 successively before them, and its citizens 
 were summoned individually according to 
 the existing register. Each had to state on 
 oath his age, his own name, those of his 
 father, his wife, his children, his abode, and 
 the amount of his property. The facts .were 
 embodied in lists by the censors' assistants. 
 The census of the provinces was sent in by 
 the provincial governors. There was a 
 special commission for numbering the armies 
 outside the Italian frontier. The censors, 
 in putting up the new lists, took into con- 
 sideration not only a man's property but 
 his moral conduct (see Censoees, p. 122a). 
 The census was concluded with the solemn 
 ceremony of reviewing the newly constituted 
 army (lustrum). {See Lustrum.) The re- 
 publican census continued to exist under 
 the early Empire, but the last lustrum was 
 held by Vespasian and Titus in A.D. 74. The 
 provincial census, introduced by Augustus 
 and maintained during the whole imperial 
 period, had nothing to do with the Roman 
 census, being only a means of ascertaining 
 the taxable capacities of the provinces. 
 
 Centauri (Gr. Kentauroi). Homer and the 
 older mythology represent the Centaurs are 
 a rude, wild race, fond of wine and women, 
 dwelling in the mountains of Thessaly, es- 
 pecially on Pelion and (Eta. In Homer they 
 are spoken of as shaggy animals, living in 
 the mountains. It was, perhaps, not until the 
 5th centurj'^ B.C. that they were represented 
 in the double shape now familiar to us. 
 Originally the Centaur was conceived as a 
 being with the body of a man standing on 
 a horse's legs ; but in later times the human 
 body was represented as rising up in the 
 front of a horse's body and four legs {see cut). 
 According to one version of the current 
 legend they were the offspring of Nephgle 
 and Ixion ; according to another, the son 
 of this pair, Kentauros, begat them upon 
 mares {see Ixion). The story of their 
 contest with the Lapithse at the wedding 
 of PirithSiis, bom of their drunkenness and 
 lust, is as early as Homer [Iliad i 268, 
 Odyssey xxi 295 foil.] {See Pieithous.) 
 In Homer Nestor, and in the later story 
 Theseus, are represented as taking part in 
 
 it. It was a favourite subject with poets 
 and artists. The Centaurs were driven 
 from Pelion by Pirithous and the Lapithae, 
 and even the wise Chiron was forced to go 
 
 CENTAUR AND EKOS. 
 (Paris, Louvre.) 
 
 with them {see Chieon). Artists were 
 always fond of treating the fabulous combats 
 of the Centaurs and the heroes of old ; but 
 in later times the Centaurs appear in a 
 different light. They form part of the 
 following of Dionysus, moving peaceably in 
 his festal train among satyrs, nymphs, and 
 Bacchants, drawing the victorious car of the 
 god and his queen Ariadne, playing on the 
 lyre, and guided by gods of love. The 
 forms of women and children were some- 
 times represented in the shape of Centaurs, 
 and used in various ways by artists for their 
 smaller pictures. For the Centauro-Trltones 
 or Ichthyocentauri ("Fish-Centaurs") see 
 Triton. 
 
 Cento. Properly a patchwork garment. 
 In its secondary meaning the word was 
 applied to a poem composed of verses or 
 parts o.f verses by well-known poets put 
 together at pleasure, so as to make a new 
 meaning. Homer and Vergil were chiefly 
 used for the purpose. The Christians were 
 fond of making religious poems in this way, 
 hoping thus to give a nobler colouring to 
 the pagan poetry. For instance, we have a 
 Homeric cento of 2,343 verses on the Life 
 of Christ, ascribed to Athenais, who, under 
 the title of EudScia, was consort of the 
 
124 
 
 CENTUMVIRT CENTURIONES. 
 
 emperor Tlieodosius II. Anotlier instance 
 is a poem known as the Chrii^tus pcitlens, 
 or " the suffering Christ," consisting of 
 2,610 verses from Euripides. Instances of 
 Vergilian centos are the sacred history of 
 Proba Faltonia (towards the end of the 
 4th century A.D.), and a tragedy entitled 
 Mcdca by Hosidius Geta. 
 
 Centumviri (" The hundred men "). This 
 was the title of the single jury for the trial 
 of civil causes at Rome. In the republican 
 age it consisted of 105 members, chosen from 
 the tribes (three from each of the thirty-five). 
 Under the Empire its number was increased 
 to 180. It was divided into four sections 
 {consilia\ and exercised its jurisdiction in 
 the name of the people, partly in sections, 
 partly as a single collegium. It had to deal 
 with questions of property, and particu- 
 larly with those of inheritance. In the 
 later years of the Republic it was presided 
 over by men of quaestorian rank ; but from 
 the time of Augustus by a commission of 
 ten {decern vivi lltibus iudicandis). The 
 pleadings were oral, and the proceedings 
 public. In earlier times they took place 
 in the forum ; under the Empire in a basi- 
 lica. In the imperial age the centumviral 
 courts were the only sphere in which an 
 ambitious orator or lawyer could win dis- 
 tinction. The last mention of them is in 
 395 A.D. The peculiar symbol of the cen- 
 tumviral court was a hasta or spear (see 
 Hasta). 
 
 Centiiria ("a hundred"). In the Roman 
 army of the regal period the centuria was 
 a division of 100 cavalry soldiers. In the 
 half-military constitution of Servius Tullius 
 the word was applied to one of the 193 
 divisions into which the king divided the 
 patrician and plebeian jjSpillus according 
 to their property, with the view of allotting 
 to each citizen his due share of civil rights 
 and duties. Of the 198 cenfuriw 18 con- 
 sisted of cavalry soldiers (100 each) belong- 
 ing to the richest class of citizens. The next 
 170, whose members were to serve as infan- 
 try, fell into five classes. The first 80 in- 
 cluded those citizens whose income amounted 
 to at least 100,000 asses. The second, third, 
 and fourth, containing each 20 centuries, 
 represented a minimum income of 75,000, 
 50,000, and 25,000 asses respectively. The 
 fifth, ■R-ith 80 centuries, represented a mini- 
 mum of 12,500, 11,000, or 10,000 asses. 
 These 170 centurise were again divided into 
 85 centuries of iitniores, or men from 18-45 
 years of age, who served in the field ; and 
 85 of seniores, citizens from 46 to 60 years 
 
 of age, who served on garrison duty in the 
 city. Besides these there were 2 centuries 
 of mechanics (fabruin), and 2 of musicians 
 {coi'ntcinum, and tublcinum). 
 
 The centurice fabrum were enrolled be- 
 tween the first and second class : the centurice 
 cornicinum and. tubicinum between the 
 fourth and fifth. The 198d centuria con- 
 sisted of citizens whose income fell below 
 the minimum standard of the rest, and who 
 were called proletarii or cdpUS censi. 
 These last had originally no function beyond 
 that of voting at the assembly of the 
 citizens in the comltia centuriata, and were 
 not liable to military service. But in later 
 times the richer among them were admitted 
 to serve in the army. A fresh division of 
 centurice was made at every census. The 
 military equipment of each citizen, and his 
 position in battle array, was determined 
 by the class to which his property entitled 
 him to belong. (See Legion.) On the poli- 
 tical position of the different classes see 
 COMITIA (2). 
 
 In military parlance centuria meant one 
 of the 60 divisions of the legion, each of 
 which was commanded by a centurio. 
 
 Centuriata Comitia. See Comitia (2). 
 
 Centuriones. The captains of the 60 cen- 
 turies of the Roman legion. They carried a 
 staff of vinewood as their badge of office. 
 In the republican age they were appointed, 
 on the application of the legion, by the 
 military tribunes on the commission of the 
 consuls. There were various degrees of rank 
 among the centurions according as they be- 
 longed to the three divisions of the tridrii, 
 principes, and hastati, and led the first or 
 second centuria of one of the 30 manlpuli. 
 
 The centurion of the first centuria of a 
 manipidus led his manipulus himself, and 
 as centurio prior ranked above the leader of 
 the second centuria, or centurio posterior. 
 The highest rank belonged to the first cen- 
 turio of the first manipndus of the triarii, 
 the primipilus or primus ptlus, who was 
 admitted to the council of war. The method 
 of promotion was as follows : The cen- 
 turiones had to work first through the 30 
 lower centurice of the 30 manipuli of the 
 hastati, principes, and triarii, and then 
 through the 30 upper centurice up to the 
 primipilus. 
 
 After the end of the Republic and under 
 the Empire the legion was usually divided 
 into 10 cohorts ranked one above the other, 
 each cohort consisting of three manipuli or 
 six centurice. The division into priores 
 and posteriores^ and into triarii, principes 
 
CEPHALUS CERCIS. 
 
 125 
 
 and hastati still remained, but onlj' for the 
 centurions and within the cohort, which 
 accordingly always included a jjrior and 
 posterior of the three ranks in question. 
 The method of proraotion, which was per- 
 haps not regularly fixed until the time of 
 the standing armies of the Empire, seems to 
 have been the old one, the centurions passing 
 lip by a lower stage through all 10 cohorts, 
 and the higher stage always beginning in 
 the tenth. The first centurion of each 
 cohort probably led it, and was admitted to 
 the council of war. The promotion usually 
 ceased with the advancement to the rank of 
 primipilus. If a centurion who had reached 
 this point did not choose to retire, he was 
 employed on special services, as commandant 
 of a fortress for instance. Under the 
 Empire, however, exceptional cases occurred 
 of promotion to higher posts. 
 
 Cephalus (Gr. Kephalds). In Greek mytho- 
 logy the son of Hermes and Herse, the daugh- 
 ter of Cecrops king of Athens. According to 
 another story he was son of De'ion of Phoois 
 and Diomede, and migrated from Phocis to 
 Thoricus in Attica. He was married to 
 Procris,' the daughter of Erechtheus, and 
 lived with her in the closest affection. But 
 while hunting one day in the mountains, he 
 was carried away for his beauty by Eos, the 
 goddess of the dawn. To estrange his wife's 
 heart from him, Eos sent him to her in the 
 form of a stranger, who, by the offer of 
 splendid presents, succeeded in making her 
 waver in her fidelity. Cephalus revealed 
 himself, and Procris, in shame, fled to Crete, 
 where she lived with Artemis as a huntress. 
 Artemis (or, according to another story, 
 Minos), gave her a dog as swift as the wind, 
 and a spear that never missed its aim. On 
 returning to Attica she met Cephalus hunt- 
 ing. He failed to recognise her, and offered 
 bis love if she would give him her dog and 
 her spear. She then revealed herself, and, 
 the balance of offence being thus redressed, 
 the lovers were reconciled and returned to 
 their old happy life together. But Procris 
 at last fell a victim to her jealousy. When 
 Cephalus went out hunting, he used often 
 to call on Aura, or the breeze, to cool his 
 heat. 'Procris was told of this, and, sup- 
 posing Aura to be some nymph, hid herself 
 in a thicket to watch him. Hearing a 
 rustling near him, and thinking a wild 
 beast was in the thicket, Cephalus took aim 
 with the unerring spear which Procris had 
 given him, and slew his wife. For this 
 murder he was banished, and fled to Boeotia. 
 Here he assisted Amphitryon in the chase 
 
 of the Taumessian fox; and both his dog 
 aad the hunted animal were turned to stone 
 by Zeus. Subsequently he joined Amphi- 
 tryon in his expedition against the Teleb5a3, 
 and, according to one account, became 
 sovereign of the Cephallenians. According 
 to another he put an end to his life by leap- 
 ing from the promontory of Leucate, on 
 which he had founded a temple to Apollo. 
 
 Cepheus (Gr. Kephcus). (1) The son of 
 Belus, king of ^Ethiopia, husband of Cassio- 
 pea and father of Andromeda. {See Andro- 
 meda.) 
 
 (2) Son of Ateus, king of Tegea and bro- 
 ther of Auge (sfe Telephus). He fell with 
 his twenty sons when fighting on the side 
 of Heracles against Hippocoon of Sparta. 
 
 Cephisodotus (Gr. Kephlsodutos). A 
 Greek artist, born at Athens, and connected 
 with the family of Praxiteles. He flourished 
 towards the end of the 4th century B.C. 
 The celebrated statue now in the Glyptothek 
 at Munich, representing Eirene with the 
 infant Plutus in her arms, is probably a 
 copy of a work by Cephisodotus (see cut, 
 under Eieexe). There was another Cephi- 
 sodotus, a contemporary of his, and the son 
 of Praxiteles, who was likewise in high 
 repute as a sculptor. 
 
 Cer (Gr. iter). In Greek mytholo^iy, a 
 goddess of death, especially of violent death 
 in battle. In Hesiod she is the daughter of 
 Nyx (night), and sister of Moros (the 
 doom of death), Hypnos (sleep), and Dreams. 
 The poets commonly speak of several Keres, 
 goddesses of different kinds of death . Homer 
 and Hesiod represent them as clothed iu 
 garments stained by human blood, and drag- 
 ging the dead and wounded about on the 
 field of battle. Every man has his allotted 
 Doom, which overtakes him at the appointed 
 time. Achilles alone has two, with the 
 power to choose freely between them. In 
 later times the Keres are represented 
 generally as powers of destruction, and as 
 associated with the Eiinyes, goddesses of 
 revenge and retribution. 
 
 Cerberus (Gr. KevbSros). In Greek mytho- 
 logy, the three-headed dog, with hair of 
 snakes, sou of Typhaon and Echidna, who 
 watches the entrance of the lower world. 
 He gives a friendly greeting to all who enter, 
 but if any one attempts to go out, he seizes 
 him and holds him fast. When Heracles, at 
 the command of Eurystheus, brought him 
 from below to the upper world, the poison- 
 ous aconite sprang up from the foam of his 
 mouth. {See the cuts to the article Hades.) 
 
 Cercis (Gr. Kcrkls). See Theatre. 
 
12G 
 
 CERCYON- 
 
 -CERYX. 
 
 Cercyon (Gr. Kcrkyon). In Greek mytho- 
 logy the son of Poseidon, and father of 
 Alope, who lived at Eleuais, and compelled 
 all passers-by to wrestle with him. He was 
 conquered and slahi by the young Theseus, 
 who gave the kingdom of Eleusis to his 
 grandson, Hippothoon. {See Alope, and 
 Theseus.) 
 
 Cerfialia. See Ceres. 
 
 CSres. An old Italian goddess of agri- 
 culture. The Ceres who was worshipped at 
 Rome is, however, the same as the Greek 
 Demeter. Her cult us was introduced under 
 the Italian name at the same time as that 
 of Dionysus and Persephone, who in the 
 same way received the Italian names of 
 Liber and Libera. It was in 496 B.C., on the 
 occasion of a drought, that the Sibylhne 
 books ordered the introduction of the wor- 
 ship of the three deities. This worship was 
 so decidedly Greek that the temple dedi- 
 cated on a spur of the Aventine in 490 B.C., 
 over the entrance to the Circus, was built 
 in Greek style and by Greek artists ; and 
 the service of the goddess, founded on the 
 Greek fable of Demeter and Persephone, 
 was performed in the Greek tongue by 
 Italian women of Greek extraction. The 
 worshippers of the goddess were almost 
 exclusively plebeian. Her temple was placed 
 under the care of the plebeian sediles, who 
 (as overseers of the corn market) had their 
 official residence in or near it. The fines 
 which they imposed went to the shrine of 
 Ceres, so did the property of persons who 
 had offended against them, or against the 
 tribunes of the plebs. Just as the Patricians 
 entertained each other with mutual hospi- 
 talities at the Megalesian games(April 4-10), 
 so did the Plebeians at the Ceredlia, or games 
 introduced at the founding of the temple of 
 Ceres. Those held in later times were given 
 by the sediles from the 12th-19th April, and 
 another festival t3 Ceres, held in August, 
 was established before the Second Punic 
 War. This was celebrated by women in 
 honour of the reunion of Ceres and Proser- 
 pina. After fasting for nine days, the women, 
 clothed in white, and adorned with crowns of 
 ripe ears of corn, offered to the goddess the 
 firstfruits of the harvest. After 191 B.C. a 
 fast (ieiunium Cereris) was introduced by 
 command of the Sibylline books. This was 
 originally observed every four years, but in 
 later times was kept annually on the 4th of 
 October. The native Italian worship of 
 Ceres was probably maintained in its purest 
 form in the country. Here the country 
 offered Ceres a sow {porca prceciddnea) 
 
 before the beginning of the harvest, and 
 dedicated to her the first cuttings of the 
 corn {prwmettum). {See Demeter.) 
 
 Ceryx (Gr. Keryx). The son of Pandrosos 
 and Hermes, and the ancestor of the Keryces 
 of Eleusis {see Ceeyx, 2). Herse (or Erse) 
 was mother, by Hermes, of the beautiful 
 Cephalus {see Cephalus). She had a special 
 festival in her honour, the Arrhephona {see 
 Arrephoeia). Agraulos, mother of Al- 
 cippe, by Ares, was said in one story to 
 have thrown herself down from the citadel 
 during a war to save her country. It was, 
 accordingly, in her precincts on the Acro- 
 polis that the young men of Athens, when 
 tliej' received their spears and shields, took 
 their oath to defend their country to the 
 death, invoking her name with those of the 
 Charites Aiixo and Hegemone. According 
 to another story, Athene entrusted Erich- 
 thonius to the keeping of the three sisters 
 in a closed chest, with the command that 
 they were not to open it. Agraulos and 
 Herse disobeyed, went mad, and threw 
 themselves down from the rocks of the 
 citadel. 
 
 Ceryx (Gr. Keryx). (1) The Greek name 
 for a herald. In the Homeric age the kcryx 
 is the official servant of the king, who 
 manages his household, attends at his meals, 
 assists at sacrifices, summons the assem- 
 blies and maintains order and tranquillity 
 in them. He also acts as ambassador to the 
 enemy, and, as such, his person is, both in 
 ancient times and ever afterwards, inviol- 
 able. In historical times the herald, be- 
 sides the part which he plays in the politi- 
 cal transactions between different cities, 
 appears in the service of the gods. He an- 
 nounces the sacred truce observed at the 
 public festivals, commands silence at reli- 
 gious services, dictates the forms of prayer 
 to the assembled community, and performs 
 many services in temples where there is 
 only a small staff of attendants, especially 
 by assisting in the sacrifices. He has also 
 a great deal to do in the service of the 
 State. At Athens, in particular, one or 
 more heralds were attached to the various 
 officials and to the government boards. It 
 was also the herald's business to summon 
 the council and the public assembly, to re- 
 cite the prayer before the commencement of 
 business, to command silence, to call upon 
 the speaker, to summon the parties in a 
 lawsuit to attend the court, and to act in 
 genera] as a public crier. As a rule, the 
 heralds were taken from the poor, and the 
 lower orders. At Athens they had a salary, 
 
CETRA CHAIRS. 
 
 127 
 
 and took their meals at the public expense, 
 with the officials to whom they were at- 
 tached. On the herald's staff (Grr. kery- 
 keidn, Lat. cdducSus), see Hermes. 
 
 (2) In Greek mythology, the son of 
 Hermes, the herald of the gods, by Agraulos 
 the daughter of Cecrops, or (according to 
 another story) of Eumolpus, and ancestor of 
 the Eleusinian family of the Kerykes, one 
 of whose members always performed the 
 functions of a herald at the Eleusinian 
 mysteries. 
 
 Cetra. The light shield of the Roman 
 auxiliaries. (See Shield.) 
 
 Ceyx (Gr. Keyx). In Greek mythology, (1) 
 A king of Trachis, the friend and nephew 
 of Heracles. {See Heracles.) 
 
 (2) The son of Hgosphoros or the Morn- 
 ing-Star, and the nymph Philonis ; the 
 husband of Alky one or Halkyone, daughter 
 of the Thessalian jiEolus. The pair were 
 arrogant enough to style themselves Zeus 
 and Hera, and were accordingly changed 
 respectively by Zeus into the birds of the 
 same name, a diver and a kingfisher. 
 Another story confused Ceyx with the king 
 of Trachis, and dwelt on the tender love of 
 the pair for each other. Ceyx is drowned 
 at sea, and Alcyone finds his body cast up 
 upon his native shore. The gods take pity 
 on her grief, and change the husband and 
 wife into kingfishers (alcyones), whose affec- 
 tion for each other in the pairing season was 
 proverbial. Zeus, or, according to another 
 story, the wind-god jEolua (sometimes repre- 
 sented as the father of Alcyone), bids the 
 winds rest for seven days before and after 
 the shortest day, to allow the kingfishers to 
 sit on their eggs by the sea. Hence the 
 expression " halcyon days," applied to this 
 season. Daedalion, the brother of Ceyx, 
 was turned into a hawk, when he threw 
 himself from a rock on Parnassus in grief 
 at the death of his daughter Chione. 
 
 Chalcus (Gr. Chalkous). See Coinage. 
 
 Chaldsei. See Astrology. 
 
 Chads. According to Hesiod, the yawn- 
 ing, unfathomable abyss which was the first 
 of all existing things. From Chaos arose 
 Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (Hell), and Eros 
 (Love). Chaos bore Erebus and Night; 
 from their union sprang ^ther and Hemera 
 (Sky and Day). The conception of Chaos 
 as the confused mass out of which, in the 
 beginning, the separate forms of things 
 arose, is erroneous, and belongs to a later 
 period. 
 
 Chaeremon. A Greek tragedian, who 
 flourished at Athens about 380 B.C. His 
 
 style was smooth and picturesque, but his 
 plays were artificial, and better adapted for 
 reading than for performance. A few frag- 
 ments of them remain, which show some 
 imaginative power. 
 
 Chairs and Seats. Of these there was 
 a great variety in the ancient world, some 
 with, and some without, supports for the 
 head and back. The latter sort (Gr. 
 diphrds, Lat. seLla) were mostly low, and 
 
 DIPHROS OR SKLLA. 
 
 (From Greek Vaaes.) 
 
 CHAIRS. 
 
 (From Greek Vases.) 
 
 THUOKE. 
 
 (Zeus, Coiu of Elis.) 
 
 were supported sometimes on four upright 
 legs, sometimes on feet arranged and shaped 
 like a sawing stool (see cuts). The seat 
 being made of leather straps, the chair could, 
 in the latter case, be folded up and carried 
 by a servant. A chair of this kind, made of 
 ivory, was one of the insignia of the curule 
 magistrates at Rome (see Sella Curulis). 
 The official chair of the Roman magis- 
 trates was always without a back. Stools 
 
128 
 
 CHARES CHARIOTS. 
 
 without backs were also used by mechanics, 
 scldiers, and boys at school. The backed 
 chairs ordinarily in use much resembled our 
 modern chairs. They generally had a slop- 
 ing back, sometimes arched out in the centre 
 {see cuts). Chairs of this form were made 
 for women and invalids ; and the cathedra 
 or professor's chair was of the same descrip- 
 tion. The Greek thrunvs and the Latin 
 solium were seats of honour. They were 
 lofty, and had footstools accordingly ; the 
 back was high and straight, the legs were 
 upright, and there were arms at the sides. 
 The Roman pater familias, when giving 
 his clients their morning audience, sat in 
 a solium. Seats were not always stuffed, 
 but cushions were put on them, and cover- 
 ings on the backs. Chairs were made of 
 metal and ivory, as well as of wood. 
 
 Chares. (1) Chares of Mttjjlene. 
 A Greek historian, court-marshal of 
 Alexander the Great, He was the 
 author of a comprehensive work, con- 
 taining at least ten books, upon the 
 life, chiefly the domestic life, of this 
 monarch. This history had the repu- 
 tation of being trustworthy and in- 
 teresting. Only a few fragments of 
 it remain. 
 
 (2) Chares of Lindos in Rhodes. 
 A Greek artist, a pupil of Lysippus. 
 In 278 B.C. he produced the largest 
 statue loiown in antiquity, the colos- 
 sal image of the sun, 280 feet high, 
 placed at the entrance of the harbour 
 of Rhodes, and generally known as 
 the Colossus of Rhodes. This was 
 destroyed by an earthquake as early 
 as 222 B.C. The thumbs were thicker than 
 the average span of a man's hand, the 
 fingers larger than many ordinary statues. 
 
 Chariots. (1) Greek. The racing chariots 
 in use at the public games require especial 
 mention. These preserved the form of the 
 war-chariots of the heroic age, made to 
 carry the warrior and his charioteer (sec 
 cut). They were also used at Rome in 
 the games of the circus and in festal 
 processions. The chariot had two low 
 wheels, usually with four spokes each. On 
 these rested the car (see cirt), elliptically 
 shaped in front, protected by a board 
 rising to the knees of the driver in front, 
 and sloping off to the rear, where the 
 chariot was open. In the triumphal chariot 
 of the Romans this board was breast high. 
 At the end of the pole was fastened the yoke. 
 This consisted either of a simple arched 
 piece of wood, or of two rings connected 
 
 by a cross-beam, and was fixed on the necks 
 of the two horses or mules which were next 
 to the pole. Sometimes a third and fourth 
 horse were attached by means of a rope 
 passing from the neckband to a rail form- 
 ing the top of the front board. It was 
 indeed the universal custom in antiquity to 
 make the two principal horses draw by the 
 yoke. It was only the extra horses that drew 
 by traces, and this always at the side of the 
 others, never in front of them. Carriages 
 in ordinary use sometimes had two, some- 
 times four wheels. They were used mostly 
 for carrying burdens. Only women, as a 
 rule, travelled in carriages ; men usually 
 either walked or rode, thinking it affecta- 
 tion to drive except in case of old age or 
 illness. It was, however, customary at 
 Athens and elsewhere for a bride to be 
 
 WAK-CHARIOT. 
 
 (Vase painting.) 
 
 drawn to the house of the bridegroom in a 
 carriage drawn by mules or oxen, sitting 
 between the bridegroom and his friend. 
 
 (2) Rome. Among the Romans we find a 
 great variety of carriages in nse, for trans- 
 port, travelling and state occasions. This 
 variety is apparent in the number oi differ- 
 ent names, which cannot however always 
 be referred with certainty to the forms of 
 carriage presented in works of art. The 
 various kinds of travelling-carriages must 
 have been borrowed from abroad, as is 
 proved by their names. The reda, for 
 instance, came from Gaul. This was a four- 
 wheeled travelling carriage for family and 
 baggage, or for company. The cisiuin and 
 essedum were light two-wheeled convey- 
 ances. The essedum was probably a Gaulish 
 war-chariot, as the covinnus was a British 
 war-chariot. The four-wheeled pilentum 
 came also from Gaul. It was drawn by 
 
CHARISIUS — CHARON. 
 
 129 
 
 miiles and generally used by the servants 
 and suite. The pilentum and covinnus 
 were used on. state occasions. These were 
 both covered carriages, the pilenta having 
 four wheels, the covinnus two. The covin- 
 nus often mentioned in the literature of the 
 empire had four wheels, and resembled a 
 reda. We must also mention the thensa, a 
 chariot adorned with gold and ivory, in 
 which the images of the gods and deihed 
 emperors, lying upon a cushion on a frame 
 or a litter, were borne to the circus through 
 the streets and the Forum at the Circensian 
 games. The use of carriages for travelling 
 purposes was allowed in Roman society, 
 but there was very little driving in Rome 
 itself. Married ladies were from very old 
 times permitted the use of carpenta in the 
 city, and to drive in pilenta to sacrifices 
 and games. The privilege was said to 
 have been granted them in acknowledgment 
 of their contributions to the ransom of the 
 city after it was burnt by the Grauls, B.C. 390. 
 In 45 B.C. Caesar finally restricted their pri- 
 vilege to the public sacrifices to which the 
 Vestal Virgins, the married ladies, and the 
 flamens also drove in pilenta. 
 
 Men were strictly forbidden to drive in 
 the city, except in two cases. A general 
 at his triumph was borne to the circus in a 
 gilded chariot drawn by four horses and in 
 the procession which preceded the games of 
 the circus, the magistrates rode in chariots 
 drawn by two horses. Six horses were 
 sometimes allowed to the emperor. Through- 
 out the cities of the empire driving in the 
 streets was generally forbidden in the first 
 two centuries after Christ. At length, in 
 the 3rd century, the use of a carriage was 
 allowed as a privilege to the senators and 
 high imperial officials, who rode in carrucce 
 plated with silver. In later times private 
 citizens were permitted to drive in these 
 coaches. Wagons (the general name of 
 which was plaustra) were, with certain ex- 
 ceptions, forbidden by a law of Csesar to 
 ply between sunrise and the tenth hour (4 
 in the afternoon), in view of the immense 
 traffic in the streets. Some wagons had 
 two, some four wheels. They were gener- 
 ally drawn by oxen, asses, or mules. If 
 they were meant to carry very heavy loads, 
 the wheels would be made of one piece and 
 without spokes. 
 
 Charisius {Fldvius Sosipdter). A writer 
 on Latin grammar, who flourished towards 
 the end of the 4th century a.d. His Ars 
 Grammdtica, a work in five books, imper- 
 fectly preserved, is a compilation, made with- 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 out much intelligence, from the works of 
 older scholars. Its value is derived from 
 the numerous quotations it preserves from 
 the older Latin literature. 
 
 Cha,rlt6s or Graces. Goddesses of grace, 
 and of everything which lends charm and 
 beauty to nature and human life. Accord- 
 ing to Hesiod they are the offspring of 
 Zeus and the daughter of Ocganus and 
 Eurynome. Their names are EuphrSsyne 
 (joy), Thalia (bloom), and Aglaia (brilliance). 
 Aglaia is the youngest, and the wife of 
 Hephaestus. For the inspiration of the 
 Graces was deemed as necessary to the 
 plastic arts, as to music, poetry, science, 
 eloquence, beauty, and enjoyment of life. 
 Accordingly the Graces are intimate with 
 the Muses, with whom they live together on 
 Olympia. They are associated, too, with 
 Apollo, Athene, Hermes, and Peitho, but 
 especially with Eros, Aphrodite, and Diony- 
 sus. Bright and blithe-hearted, they were 
 also called the daughters of the Sun and 
 of ^gle (" Sheen "). They were worshipped 
 in conjunction with Aphrodite and Dionysus 
 at OrchSmenus in Boeotia, where their shrine 
 was accounted the oldest in the place, and 
 where their most ancient images were found 
 in the shape of stones said to have fallen 
 from heaven. It was here that the feast of 
 the Charitesia was held in their honour, 
 with musical contests. At Sparta, as at 
 Athens, two Charites only were worshipped, 
 Cleta (Eleta) or Sound, and Phaenna or 
 Light ; at Athens their names were Auxo 
 (Increase), and Hegemone (Queen). It 
 was by these goddesses, and by Agraulos, 
 daughter of Cecrops, that the Athenian 
 youths, on receiving their spear and shield, 
 swore faith to their country. The Charites 
 were represented in the form of beautiful 
 maidens, the three being generally linked 
 hand in hand. In the older representations 
 they are clothed ; in the later they are 
 loosely clad or entirely undraped. 
 
 Chariton, of Aphrodisias in Phrygia. 
 The assumed name of the author of a Greek 
 romance in eight books, on the fortunes of 
 Chaereas and Callirrhoe. He was a Chris- 
 tian, probably of the 4th century A.d. 
 His treatment of the story is simple, but 
 full of life and movement ; the narrative is 
 easy and flowing, the language on the whole 
 natural and unadorned. 
 
 Charon. (1) In Greek my thology, the son 
 of Erebus and the Styx ; the dark and grisly 
 old man in a black sailor's cloak, who ferries 
 the souls of the dead across the river of 
 the lower world for the fare of an dbolds. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 CHARYBDIS- 
 
 - CHITON. 
 
 The coin was put into the mouth of the 
 dead for this purpose, (^ee Future Life.) ', 
 
 (2) A Greek historian. {See Logogeaphi.) 
 
 Charybdis. See Scylla. 
 
 Cheiromantia. See Mantike. 
 
 Cheirotonia. A show of hands. The 
 usual method of voting in Greek popular 
 assemblies, whether at political meetings 
 or elections. In elections, the die i rot on la | 
 was contrasted with the drawing of lots, 
 which was usual since the time of Cleis- 
 thenes in the case of many offices. 
 
 Chelidonis. See Aedon. 
 
 Chiliarchus. The leader of a division of 
 1,000 men. (See Phalanx.) 
 
 ChimsBra. A fire-breathing monster of 
 Lycia, destroyed by Bellerophon. Accord- \ 
 ing to Homer the Chimsera was of divine ' 
 origin. In front it was a lion, behind it 
 was a serpent, and in the middle a goat, 
 and was brought up by Amisodarus as a 
 plague for many men. Hesiod calls her the 
 daughter of Typhaon and Echidna, and by 
 Orthos the mother of the Sphinx and the 
 Nemean lion. He describes her as large, 
 swift-footed, strong, with the heads of a 
 lion, and goat, and a serpent. In numerous 
 works of art, as in statues, and the coins of 
 Corinth, Sicyon, and other cities, the Chi- 
 maera is generally represented as a lion, 
 with a goat's head in the middle of its back, 
 and tail ending in a snake's head. The 
 bronze Chimaera of Arretium, now in Flor- 
 ence, is a very celebrated work of art. 
 Even in antiquity the Chimaera was re- 
 garded as a symbol of the volcanic character 
 of the Lycian scril. 
 
 Chione. (1) Daughter of Boreas and 
 Oreithyia, mother of Eumolpus by Posei- 
 don. {See Eumolpus.) 
 
 (2) Daughter of Dsedalion, mother of 
 Philammon by Apollo, and of Autolycus by 
 Hermes. She was slain by Artemis for 
 venturing to compare her own beauty with 
 that of the goddess. {See Djedalion.) 
 
 Chiron. A Centaur, son of Cronus and the 
 Ocean nymph Philyra. By the Naiad nymph 
 Chariclo he was father of Endeis, wife of 
 iEacus, the mother of Peleus and Telamon, 
 and grandmother of Achilles and Ajax. He 
 is represented in the fable as wise and just, 
 while the other Centaurs are wild and un- 
 civilized. He is the master and instructor 
 of the most celebrated heroes of Greek 
 story, as Actseon, Jason, Castor, Polydeuces, 
 Achilles, and Asclepius, to whom he teaches 
 the art of healing. Driven by the Lapithse 
 from his former dwelling-place, a cave at 
 the top of Pelion, he took up his abode on 
 
 the promontory of Malea in Laconia. Here 
 he was wounded accidentally with a poisoned 
 arrow by his friend Heracles, who was 
 pursuing the flying Centaurs {see Pholus). 
 To escape from the dreadful pain of the 
 wound, he renounced his immortality in 
 favour of Prometheus, and was set by Zeus 
 among the stars as the constellation Archer. 
 Chiton. The undershirt worn by the 
 Greeks, corresponding to the Roman tunica. 
 Two kinds were commonly distinguished, 
 the short Doric chiton of wool (fig. 1) and 
 
 (1) SOLDIER IN A 
 DORIC CHITON. 
 
 (2) DOUBLE CHITON. 
 
 (Bas-relieffromMiiller's (Bronze statuette from Hercu- 
 Denfcm. 1. taf. xxix.) laneum, in Naples Museum.) 
 
 the long Ionic tunic of linen, which was 
 worn at Athens down to the time of 
 Pericles. The chiton consisted of an ob- 
 long piece of cloth, wrapped round the 
 body. One arm was passed through a hole 
 in the closed side, while the two corners 
 were joined together by a clasp on the 
 shoulder. The garment, which thus hung 
 down open on one side, was fastened to- 
 gether at both corners, or sometimes sewn 
 together below the hips. At the waist it 
 was confined by a belt. In course of time 
 short sleeves were added to the arm-holes. 
 Sleeves reaching to the wrist were by the 
 Greeks regarded as effeminate ; but they 
 were worn by the Phrygians and Medians, 
 and often appear on monuments as part of 
 the dress of Orientals. The chiton worn 
 on both shoulders was distinctive of free 
 
CHLAMYS CHORUS. 
 
 131 
 
 men. Workmen, sailors and slaves wore 
 a chiton with one armliole only for the left 
 arm, while the right arm and right breast 
 were left uncovered. This was called the 
 exomts. Country folk wore a chiton of 
 skins. The chiton worn by Doric ladies 
 was a long garment like a chemise, slit up- 
 wards on both sides from the hips and held 
 together by clasps at the shoulders. In the 
 case of young girls it was fastened up so 
 high that it hardly reached the knees. For 
 the rest of Greece the usual dress of a lady 
 was the Ionian chiton, long, broad, reaching 
 to the feet in many folds, and only drawn 
 up a short distance by the girdle. From 
 this long ladies' chiton was developed the 
 double chiton, a very long and broad piece 
 of cloth, folded together round the body, 
 and fastened with clasps at the shoulders. 
 It was folded double round the breast and 
 back, and was open or fastened with clasps 
 on the right side, and fell simply down to 
 the feet. Sometimes the open side was 
 sewn together from the girdle to the lower 
 edge. For the garments worn over the 
 chiton see Himation, Chlamys, and Tri- 
 
 BON. 
 
 Chlamys, An outer 
 garment introduced at 
 Athens from Thessaly 
 and Macedonia. It con- 
 sisted of an oblong piece 
 of woollen cloth thrown 
 over the left shoulder, 
 the open ends being 
 fastened with clasps 
 on the right shoulder. 
 The chlamys was worn 
 by ephebl / it was also 
 the uniform of general 
 oiEcers, like the palu- 
 damentum, as it was 
 called in later times 
 among the Romans. It 
 commonly served as an 
 overcoat for travelling, 
 hunting, and military 
 service. {See cut.) 
 
 Chloris. (1) The 
 personification of the 
 spring season, and god- 
 dess of flowers, the wife of Zephyrus, mother 
 of Carpos (" Fruit "). She was identified by 
 the Romans with Flora. {See Flora.) 
 
 (2) Daughter of Amphion of Orchomenus, 
 wife of Neleus, mother of Nestor and 
 Periclymenus. {See Pebiclymenus.) 
 
 Choerilus. (1) An Athenian dramatist, 
 one of the oldest Attic tragedians, who 
 
 (Statue of PhociOTi, 
 Vatican, Rome.) 
 
 appeared as a writer as early as 520 B.C. 
 He was a rival of Pratinas, Phrynlchus and 
 jEschylus. His favourite line seems to have 
 been the satyric drama, in which he was 
 long a popular writer. 
 
 (2) A Greek epic poet, born in Samos 
 about 470 B.C., a friend of Herodotus, and 
 afterwards of the Spartan Lysander. He 
 lived first at Athens and afterwards at the 
 court of King Archelaiis of Macedonia, 
 where he was treated with great consider- 
 ation, and died about 400 B.C. He was the 
 first epic poet who, feeling that the old 
 mythology was exhausted, ventured to 
 treat a historical subject of immediate in- 
 terest, the Persian wars, in an epic entitled 
 Perseis. According to one account the poem 
 was read in the schools with Homer. The 
 
 j few fragments that remain show that it did 
 I not lack talent and merit ; but little regard 
 was paid to it by posterity. 
 
 (3) Choerilus of Idsos in Caria. This 
 Choerilus was also an epic poet, who accom- 
 panied Alexander the Great. Alexander 
 promised him a gold piece for every good 
 verse he wrote in celebration of his achieve- 
 ments, but declared that he would rather 
 be the Thersites of Homer than the Achilles 
 of Choerilus. 
 
 Choes. See Dionysia. 
 
 Chorus. The word chords in Greek meant 
 a number of persons who performed songs 
 and dances at religious festivals. When 
 the drama at Athens was developed from 
 the dithyrambic choruses, the chorus was 
 retained as the chief element in the Dion}'- 
 siac festival. {See Tragedy.) With the 
 old dramatists the choral songs ■ and dances 
 much preponderated over the action proper. 
 As the form of the drama developed, the 
 sphere of the chorus was gradually limited, 
 so that it took the comparatively subordi- 
 nate position which it occupies in the ex- 
 tant tragedies and comedies. The function 
 of the chorus represented by its leader was 
 to act as an ideal public, more or less con- 
 nected with the drdmdtis pcrsonce. It 
 might consist of old men and women or of 
 maidens. It took an interest in the occur- 
 rences of the drama, watched the action 
 with quiet sympathy, and sometimes in- 
 terfered, if not to act, at least to advise, 
 comfort, exhort, or give warning. At the 
 critical points of the action, as we should 
 say in the entr'actes, it performed long 
 lyrical pieces with suitable action of dance 
 and gesture. In the better times of the 
 drama these Eongs stood in close connexion 
 with the action; but even in Euripides this 
 
132 
 
 CHOHEaUS CHTHONIA. 
 
 connexion is sometimes loose, and with the 
 Inter tragedians, after the time of Agathon, 
 the choral performance sank to a mere in- 
 termezzo. The style of the chorus was 
 distinguished from that of the dialogue 
 partly by its complex lyrical form, partly 
 by its language, in which it adopted a mix- 
 ture of Attic and Doric forms. The proper 
 place of the chorus was on the orchestra, 
 on different parts of which, after a solemn 
 march, it remained until the end of the 
 piece drawn up, while standing, in a square. 
 During the action it seldom left the orchestra 
 to re-appear, and it was quite exceptional 
 for it to appear on the stage. As the per- 
 formance went on the chorus would change 
 its place on the orchestra ; as the piece re- 
 quired it would divide into semi-choruses 
 and perform a variety of artistic movements 
 and dances. The name of Emmeleia was 
 given to the tragic dance, which, though 
 not lacking animation, had a solemn and 
 measured character. The comedy had its 
 burlesque and often indecent performance 
 called Cordax ; the satyric drama its Sicin- 
 nis, representing the wanton movements of 
 satyrs. The songs of the choruses, too, had 
 their special names. The first ode per- 
 formed by the entire body was called pdro- 
 clos ; the pieces intervening between the 
 parts of the play, stdsima ; the songs of 
 mourning, in which the chorus took part 
 with the actors, convmoi. The number of 
 the members (choreutai) was, in tragedies, 
 originally twelve, and after Sophocles fifteen. 
 This was probably the number allowed in 
 the satyric drama : the chorus in the Old 
 Comedy numbered twenty-four. 
 
 The business of getting the members of 
 the chorus together, paying them, maintain- 
 ing them during the time of practice, and 
 generally equipping them for perfoi-mance, 
 was regarded as a Lititrgia, or public ser- 
 vice, and devolved on a wealthy private 
 citizen called a ChBregus, to whom it was a 
 matter of considerable trouble and expense. 
 We know from individual instances that 
 the cost of tragic chorus might run up to 
 30 minse (about f ICX)), of a comic chorus 
 to 16 minse (about £53). If victorious, the 
 Chdregus received a crown and a finely 
 wrought tripod. This he either dedicated, 
 with an inscription, to some deity as a 
 memorial of his triumph, or set up on a 
 marble structure built for the purpose in 
 the form of a temple, in a street named 
 the Street of Tripods, from the number of 
 these monuments which were erected there. 
 One of these memorials, put up by a certaiij. 
 
 Lysicrates in 335 B.C., still remains. {See 
 Lysiceates.) After the Peloponnesian war 
 the prosperity of Athens declined so much 
 that it was often difficult to find a sufficient 
 number of choregi to supply the festivals. 
 The State therefore had to take the business 
 upon itself. But many choruses came to an 
 end altogether. This was the case with the 
 comic chorus in the later years of Aristo- 
 phanes ; and the poets of the Middle and 
 New Comedy accordingly dropped the chorus. 
 This explains the fact that there is no 
 chorus in the Roman comedy, which is an 
 imitation of the New Comedy of the Greeks. 
 In their tragedies, however, imitated from 
 Greek originals, the Romans retained the 
 chorus, which, as the Roman theatre had no 
 orchestra, was placed on the stage, and as a 
 rule performed between the acts, but some- 
 times during the performance as well. 
 
 Choregus, Choreutae. See Chorus. 
 
 ChorizontSs. See Homer. 
 
 Chresmologi. See Mantike. 
 
 Chrysaor. Son of Poseidon and Medusa, 
 brother of Pegasus, and father of the three- 
 headed giant Geryon and Echidna by the 
 Ocean-Nymph Callirrhoe. 
 
 Chrysels. The daughter of Chryses, 
 priest of Apollo at Chryse. She was 
 carried away by the Greeks at the con- 
 quest of her native city, and allotted to 
 Agamemnon. Agamemnon having refused 
 the father's proffered ransom, Apollo visited 
 the Greek camp with pestilence until Aga- 
 memnon gave her back without payment. 
 (See Trojan War.) 
 
 Chrysippus. (1) Son of Pelops and the 
 Nymph Arioche, murdered by his step- 
 brothers Atreus and Thyestes, who were 
 consequently banished by Pelops. 
 
 (2) A Greek philosopher of Tarsus or Soli 
 in Cilicia (about 282-206 B.C.). At Athens 
 he was a pupil of the Stoic Cleanthes, and 
 his successor in the chair of the Stoa. 
 Owing to the thorough way in which he 
 developed the system, he is almost entitled 
 to be called the second founder of the Stoic 
 school ; and, indeed, there was a saying 
 " Had there been no Chrysippus, there had 
 been no Stoa." The author of more than 
 705 books, he was one of the most prolific 
 writers of antiquity, but his style was 
 rjiarred by great prolixity and carelessness, 
 Only a few fragments of his writings survive. 
 
 Chthonia. (1) Daughter of Erechtheus 
 of Athens, who was sacrificed by her father 
 to gain the victory over the men of Eleusis. 
 {See Erechtheus.) 
 
 (2) ji^n epithet of Dimeter {q. v.). 
 
CHTHONIAN GODS CICERO. 
 
 133 
 
 ClithSniaii G-ods (from Chthon, the earth). 
 The deities who rule under the earth or 
 who are connected with the lower world, as 
 Hades, Pluto, Persephone, Demeter, Diony- 
 sus, Hecate, and Hermes. 
 
 Chytroi (Peast of Pots) the third day of 
 the Anthesteria. {See Dionysia.) 
 
 Cic6ro. (1) Marcus Tullius Cicero. The 
 celebrated Roman orator, born at Arpinum, 
 January 3rd, 106 B.C. He was son of Mar- 
 cus Tullius Cicero and Helvia, his family 
 being of equestrian rank, but not yet 
 ennobled by office. With his brother 
 Quintus he received his education in Rome, 
 where he soon had an opportunity of hear- 
 ing and admiring the two most celebrated 
 orators of the day, Crassus and Antonius. 
 He took the toga vlrllis in 90 B.C., and, 
 while practising rhetorical exercises, de- 
 voted himself with ardour to the study of 
 law. In 89 he served on his first campaign 
 in the Marsian War. After this he began 
 his studies in philosophy, mainly under the 
 guidance of the Academic philosopher, 
 Philo of Larissa. The presence of the 
 Rhodian rhetorician Molo in Rome, and 
 afterwards the instruction in dialectic given 
 him by the Stoic DiSdotus, gave him the 
 opportunity he desired for furthering his 
 training as an orator. Having thus care- 
 fully prepared himself for his future voca- 
 tion during the period of the civil distur- 
 bances, he started on his career as an orator 
 under Sulla's dictatorship. He began with 
 civil or private cases. One of his earliest 
 speeches, the Pro Quinctio, still survives. 
 This oration [in which he defends his client 
 on the question of his conduct in a partner- 
 ship] he delivered in 81 B.C., in his 26th 
 year. In the following year he first appeared 
 in a causa publlca, and not on the side of 
 the prosecution, the usual course for begin- 
 ners, but on that of the defence. His client 
 was Sextus Roscius of Ameria, accused of 
 murdering his own father. This speech laid 
 the foundation of Cicero's fame, and not 
 only because it was successful. People ad- 
 mired the intrepidity with which Cicero 
 stood up against ChrysSgonus, the favourite 
 of the omnipotent dictator. 
 
 In the following year, for the sake of his 
 delicate health, Cicero started on a two years' 
 tour in Greece and Asia, taking every oppor- 
 tunity of finishing his education as a philo- 
 sopher and orator. For philosophy he had 
 recourse to the most celebrated professors at 
 Athens : for rhetoric he went to Rhodes, to 
 his former instructor, Molo. In B.C. 77 he 
 returned to Rome, his health restored, and 
 
 his intellect matured. In this year he mar- 
 ried Terentia. His career as an advocate 
 he pursued with such success that he was 
 unanimously elected qnsestor in 7G B.C. 
 He was stationed at Lilybseum, in Sicily, 
 and administered his office unimpeachably. 
 After his return he entered the senate, and 
 developed an extraordinary activity as a 
 speaker. In consequence he was elected to 
 the curule sedileship in 70 B.C. It was iu 
 
 * OICEEO (Madrid). 
 M CICERO- AN -LXIIII. 
 
 this year that the Sicilians, remembering 
 the conscientiousness and vmselfishness he 
 had displayed in his qusestorship, begged 
 him to lead the prosecution against Verres. 
 Por three years this man had, in the most 
 infamous manner, ill-treated and plundered 
 the province. Cicero had to contend with 
 all kinds of hindrances thrown in his way 
 
134 
 
 CICEEO. 
 
 by the aristocratic friends of Verres. Bj' 
 the DtvlmUio in Ccecilium he had to make 
 good his claims to prosecute against those 
 of Csecilius Niger. The defence was led by 
 the most famous orator of the day, Horten- 
 sius. But Cicero managed to collect such a 
 mass of evidence, and to marshal it witli 
 such ability, that after the actio prima, or 
 first hearing, Yerres found it advisable to 
 retire into voluntary exile. The unused 
 material Cicero worked up into an actio se- 
 cunda in five speeches. The whole proceed- 
 ing made him so popular that, spoiled as the 
 multitude was, no one complained of liis 
 economical expenditure on the games during 
 his sedileship. He was unanimously elected 
 prsetor in 67 B.C. In this office he made 
 his first political speech in 6S, successfully 
 defending the proposal of the tribune 
 Manilius to give Pompeius the command 
 in the Mithridatic war, with unprecedented 
 and almost absolute- power. 
 
 In G4 B.C. he came forward as candidate 
 for the consulship, and was successful, in 
 spite of the efforts of his enemies. He owed 
 his success to the support of the nobility, 
 who had hitherto regarded him, as a homo 
 novus, with disfavour, but had come to re- 
 cognise him as a champion of the party of 
 order. He obtained the office, as he had the 
 rest, suo anno, that is in the first year in 
 which his candidature was legally possible. 
 The danger with which Catiline's agitation 
 was threatening the State, determined Cicero 
 to offer a vigorous opposition to everything 
 likely to disturb public order. With this 
 view he delivered three speeches, in which 
 he frustrated the agrarian proposals of the 
 tribune Servilius Eullus. He also led 
 the defence of the aged Rabirius, whom 
 the leaders of the democratic party, to 
 excite the people against the senate, had 
 prosecuted for the murder of Satuminus 
 thirty-six years before. To avoid the 
 danger and excitement of a fresh consular 
 election for 62, he undertook the defence of 
 the consul designatus L. Murena, on the 
 charge of bribery ; and this, although the 
 accusers of Murena numbered among them 
 Cicero's best friends, and, indeed, rested 
 their case upon the very law by which 
 Cicero had himself proposed to increase 
 the penalties for bribery. The conspiracy 
 of Catiline gave Cicero an opportunity of 
 displaying in the most brilliant light his 
 acuteness, his energy, his patriotism, and 
 even his power as an orator. He discovered 
 the conspiracy, and helped largely to 
 suppress it by the execution of the chief 
 
 conspirators, who had remained behind in 
 Rome. 
 
 Cicero's consulship marks the climax of 
 his career. He received, it is true, the 
 honourable title of pater patrire ; but, a 
 few weeks later, he had a clear warning of 
 what he had to expect from the opposite 
 party in the way of reward for his services. 
 When laying down his office he was about 
 to make a speech, giving an account of 
 his administration. The tribune Metellus 
 Nepos interrupted him, and insisted on his 
 confining himself to the oath usual on the 
 occasion. In the following year he had 
 opportunities for displaying his eloqvaence 
 in the defence of P. Cornelius Sulla and the 
 poet Archias. But he was often attacked, 
 and had, in particular, to meet a new danger 
 in the hostility of Clodius Pulcher, whose 
 mortal hatred only too soon hit upon a 
 chance of sating itself. Cicero would not 
 accede to the plans of Csesar, Pompey and 
 Crassus, but offered them a strenuous re- 
 sistance. He deceived himself as to his 
 own political importance, and refused to 
 quit the city except under compulsion. The 
 triumvirs accordingly abandoned him to the 
 vengeance of Clodius. Clodius was elected 
 tribune of the p?e&s in 58 B.C., and at once 
 proposed that any person should be made 
 an outlaw, who should have put Roman 
 citizens to death without trial. Cicero met 
 the charge by retiring into voluntary exile 
 early in April, 58. He went to Thessa- 
 lonlca and Macedonia, where he found a 
 safe retreat at the house of the qusestor 
 Plancius. The sentence was, however, pro- 
 nounced against him ; his house on the 
 Palatine was burnt down, his country 
 houses plundered and destroyed, and . even 
 his family maltreated. It is true that, as 
 early as the next year, he was recalled with 
 every mark of distinction, and welcomed in 
 triumph by the people on his entrance into 
 Rome at the beginning of September. But 
 his political activity was crippled by the 
 power of the triumvirs. His fear of Clodius 
 forced him to comply with their commands 
 as a means of keeping in their good graces. 
 But all this only stimulated him to show 
 greater energy as an orator. His chief 
 efforts were put forth in defending his 
 friends, when prosecuted by political an- 
 tagonists, as, for instance, Publius Sestius 
 in 56 B.C., Grnseus Plancius in 54, Titus 
 Annius Milo in 52. His defence of the 
 latter, accused of the murder of Clodius, 
 was unsuccessful. It was at this period 
 that he began to apply himself to literature. 
 
CICERO. 
 
 135 
 
 In 53 B.C. he was elected augur ; from July, 
 51, to July, 60, he administered the province 
 of Cilicxa as proconsul. In this capacity, 
 his clemency, uprightness and unselfishness 
 won for him the greatest respect. For his 
 conduct in a campaign against the robber 
 tribes of Mount Amanus he was honoured 
 by the title of Lnperator, a public thanks- 
 giving, and the prospect of a triumph. 
 
 He landed in Italy towards the end of 
 November, B.C. 50, and found that a breach 
 between Pompey and Csesar was inevitable. 
 The civil war broke out in the next year, 
 and, after long hesitation, Cicero finally 
 decided for Pompey, and followed him to 
 Greece. But after the battle of Pharsillas, 
 in which ill-health prevented him from 
 taking a part, he deserted his friends, and 
 crossed to Brundisium. Here he had to 
 wait a whole year before Caesar pardoned 
 him, and gave him leave to return to Rome. 
 Caesar treated him with distinction and 
 kindness, but Cicero kept aloof from public 
 life. Nothing short of the calls of friend- 
 ship could induce him to appear in the 
 courts, as he did for Marcellus, Ligarius, 
 and IDeiotarus. The calamities of his 
 country ; his separation from his wife 
 Terentia, in 46 B.C., after a married life 
 of thirty-three years ; his hasty union with 
 the young and wealthy Publilia, so soon to 
 be dissolved ; the unhappy marriage and 
 death of his favourite daughter Tullia ; all 
 this was a heavy affliction for him. He 
 found some consolation in studying philo- 
 sophy, and applying himself with energy to 
 literary work. 
 
 The murder of Caesar on March 15th, 44 
 B.C., roused him from his retirement, though 
 he had taken no actual part in the deed. 
 His patriotism excited him once more to take 
 an active part in public life, and his first aim 
 was to effect a reconciliation of parties. He 
 succeeded so far as to secure the passing of 
 a general amnesty. But it was not long 
 before the intrigues and the hostility of the 
 Caesarian party forced him again to leave 
 Rome. He was on his way to Greece, 
 when, at the end of August, he was re- 
 called, by false rumours, to the Capitol. 
 In a moment of deep irritation against 
 Antonius, he delivered, on the 2nd of Sep- 
 tember, the first of his fourteen Philippic 
 orations, so called after those of Demos- 
 thenes. The second Philippic was never 
 spoken, but published as a pamphlet; the 
 last was delivered on the 21st April, B.C. 43. 
 On the retirement of Antonius from Rome, 
 Cicero found himself again playing a promi- 
 
 nent part in politics. All the efforts of his 
 party to bring about a restoration of the 
 ancient republican freedom centred in him. 
 But,when Octavianus disappointed the hopes 
 which he had excited, and attached him- 
 self to Antonius and Lepidus in the second 
 triumvirate, Cicero, now the chief man in 
 the senate, was declared an outlaw. In- 
 tending to fly to Macedonia, as he had done 
 fifteen years before, he was overtaken by 
 his pursuers near Caieta, and put to death 
 on September 7th, 43 B.C., shortly before he 
 had completed his sixty-fourth year. His 
 head and right hand were exposed on the 
 rostra by Antonius. 
 
 The literary labours of Cicero signalize 
 an important advance in the development 
 of Latin literature. It is not only that he 
 is to be regarded as the creator of classical 
 Latin prose. He was also the first writer 
 who broke ground, to any great extent, in 
 fields of literature which, before him, had 
 remained almost untouched. He had in- 
 sight enough to perceive that his vocation 
 lay in the career of an orator. His industry, 
 throughout his whole life, was untiring ; he 
 was never blinded by success ; to educate 
 himself, and perfect himself in his art, was 
 the object which he never lost sight of. 
 His speeches, accordingly, give brilliant 
 testimony to his combination of genius with 
 industry. Besides the fifty-seven speeches 
 which survive in a more or less complete 
 shape, and the most important of which 
 have been mentioned above, we have about 
 twenty fragments of others, and the titles 
 of thirty-five more. Cicero was justified in 
 boasting that no orator had written so many 
 speeches, and in such different styles, as 
 himself [Orator, c. 29, 30]. These orations 
 were partly political, partly forensic ; the 
 latter being mostly on the side of the de- 
 fence. Cicero was also the author of pane- 
 gyrics, as that, for instance, upon Cato. 
 With few exceptions, as the second actio 
 against Verres, the Pi-o Mtlone, and the 
 panegyrics, they were actually delivered, 
 and published afterwards. Extending over 
 thirty-eight years, they give an excellent 
 idea of Cicero's steady progress in the 
 mastery of his art. They are of unequal 
 merit, but everywhere one feels the touch of 
 the born and cultivated orator. A wealth 
 of ideas and of wit, ready acuteness, the 
 power of making an obscure subject clear 
 and a dry subject interesting, mastery of 
 pathos, a tendency to luxuriance of lan- 
 guage, generally tempered by good taste to 
 the right measure, an unsurpassed tact in 
 
136 
 
 CICERO. 
 
 the use of Latin idiom and expression, a 
 wonderful feeling for the rhythm and struc- 
 ture of prose writing : these are Cicero's 
 characteristics. With all the faults which 
 his contemporaries and later critics had to 
 find with his speeches, Cicero never lost 
 his position as the most classical represen- 
 tative of Latin oratory, and he was judged 
 the equal, or nearly the equal, of Demos- 
 thenes. 
 
 The knowledge which he had acquired in 
 his practice as a speaker he turned to 
 account in his writings on Rhetoric. In 
 these he set forth the technical rules of the 
 Greek writers, applying to them the results 
 of his own experience, and his sense of the 
 requirements of Latin oratory. Besides the 
 two books entitled Ehetorica or De Inven- 
 tione, a boyish essay devoid of all origina- 
 lity, the most important of his works on 
 this subject are: (1) The De Oratore, a 
 treatise in three books, written 55 B.C. This 
 work, the form and contents of which are 
 alike striking, is written in the style of a 
 dialogue. Its subject is the training neces- 
 sary for an orator, the proper handling of 
 his theme, the right style, and manner of 
 delivery. (2) The Brutus, or Be Clans 
 Ordtortbus, written in B.C. 46 ; a history of 
 Latin oratory from the earliest period down 
 to Cicero's own time. (3) The Orator, a 
 sketch of the ideal orator, written in the 
 same year as the Brutus. 
 
 Cicero also devoted a large number of 
 books to Greek philosophy, a subject which 
 he was concerned to render accessible to 
 his countrymen. His writings in this'line 
 lack depth and thoroughness ; but it must 
 be said at the same time that he has the 
 great merit of being the first Latin writer 
 who treated these questions with taste and 
 in an intelligible form, and who created a 
 philosophical language in Latin . The frame- 
 work which he adopts is usually that of the 
 Aristotelian dialogue, though he does not 
 always consistently adhere to it. It was 
 not until after his fiftieth year that he 
 began to write on philosophy, and in the 
 years B.C. 45 and 44, when almost entirely 
 excluded from politics, he developed an 
 extraordinary activity in this direction. 
 The following philosophical works survive, 
 either in whole or in part : (1) Fragments, 
 amounting to about one-third of the work, 
 of the six books, De Re Publica, written 
 B.C. 54r-51. (2) Three books of an unfinished 
 treatise, De Legibus, written about 52. 
 (3) Pdrddoxa Stozc.Orum, a short treatment 
 of six Stoical texts, B.C. 46. (4) Five 
 
 books on the greatest good and the greatest 
 evil {De Flntbus Bonoinivi et Mulorum), 
 B.C. 45. This is the best of his philoso- 
 phical works. (5) The second book of the 
 first edition, and the first book of the second 
 edition, of the Acddemica, B.C. 45. (6) 
 The five books of the Tusculan Disputations, 
 B.C. 44. In the same year appeared (7) 
 the De Ndtura Deorum, in three, and (8) 
 the De Dtvmdtwnc, in two books. (9) A 
 fragment on the Stoical doctrine of Fate. 
 
 (10) The Cnto Maior, or De SSnectute. 
 
 (11) Lcelms, or De Amlcitid. (12) De 
 Officils, or On Ethics, [in three books. 
 Besides these, a whole series of philoso- 
 phical and other prose writings by Cicero 
 are known to us only in fragments, or by 
 their titles. 
 
 The multifarious nature of Cicero's occu- 
 pation as a statesman and an orator did 
 not hinder him from keeping up a volu- 
 minous correspondence, from which 864 
 letters (including 90 addressed to Cicero) 
 are preserved in four collections. These 
 letters form an inexhaustible store of infor- 
 mation, bearing upon Cicero's own life as 
 well as upon contemporary history in all 
 its aspects. We have (1) The Epistulce ad 
 Famtlmres, in sixteen books, B.C. 63-43 ; 
 (2) The Epistulce ad Atticum, in sixteen 
 books, B.C. 68-43 ; (3) Three books of letters 
 to his brother Quintus; (4) Two books of 
 correspondence between Cicero and Brutus 
 after the death of Csesar, the genuineness 
 of which is [rightly] disputed. 
 
 Cicero also made some attempts to write 
 poetry, in his youth for practice, in his 
 later life mainly from vanity. His youth- 
 ful effort was a translation of Aratus, of 
 which some fragments remain. After 63 
 B.C. he celebrated his own consulship in 
 three books of verses. [He is a consider- 
 able metrist, but not a real poet.] 
 
 (2j Quintus Tullius Cicero, the younger 
 brother of Marcus, was born in B.C. 102. 
 He was prsetor in 62, and legdtus to Csesar 
 in Gaul and Britain from 54-52 B.C. In 
 the civil war he took the side of Pompey, 
 but was pardoned by Csesar. In 43 he was 
 made an outlaw, at the same time as his 
 brother, and in 42 was murdered in Rome. 
 Like Marcus, he was a gifted man, and 
 not unknown in literature, especially as a 
 writer of history and poetry. In 54 B.C , 
 for example, when engaged in the Gallic 
 campaign, he wrote four tragedies in six- 
 teen days, probably after Greek models. 
 We have four letters of his, besides a short 
 paper addressed to his brother in 64 B.C., 
 
CINCIUS ALIMENTUS CIRCUS. 
 
 137 
 
 on the line to be taken in canvassing for 
 tlie consnlship. 
 
 Cincius Alimentus. See Annalists. 
 
 Cinctus Gabinus. See Toga. 
 
 Cln^ras (Kinyras). Supposed, in the 
 Greek mythology, to have been king of 
 Cyprus, the oldest priest of Aphrodite in 
 Paphos, the founder of that city, and the 
 ancestor of the priestly family of the Ciny- 
 radce. His wealth and long life, bestowed 
 upon him by Aphrodite, were proverbial ; 
 and from Apollo, who was said to be his 
 father, he received the gift of song. He 
 was accounted the founder of the ancient 
 hymns sung at the services of the Paphian 
 Aphrodite and of Adonis. Consequently 
 he was reckoned among the oldest singers 
 and musicians, his name, indeed, being 
 Phoenician, derived from kinnor, a harp. 
 The story added that he was the father of 
 Adonis by his own daughter Myrrha, and 
 that, when made aware of the sin, he took 
 away his own life. 
 
 Cippus. The Latin name for a sepulchral 
 monument. The form of the cippus was 
 sometimes that of a pedestal with several 
 divisions, supporting an upright cone, either 
 
 * CIPPUS WITH PHALEK^. 
 
 (Olten : Ann. d'lnst. 1860 tav. B, 4.) 
 
 pointed at the end, or entirely cylindrical ; 
 sometimes that of a cube with several pro- 
 jections on its surface. {See cut here, and 
 also under Signum.) 
 
 Circe {Kirke) (a figure in Greek mytho- 
 logy). A celebrated magician, daughter 
 of the Sun {Helios) and the Ocean nymph 
 Perseis, sister of jEetes and Pasiphae. She 
 dwelt on the island of iEsea. For her meet- 
 ing with Odysseus and the son she bore 
 him, TelggSnus, see Odysseus. 
 
 Circus, Games of {Ludt Circenses). The 
 name of Circus was given at Eome par 
 excellence to the Circus Maximus. This 
 
 was a recreation ground laid out by king 
 Tarquinius Prisons in the valley between 
 the Palatine and Aventine hills, south of 
 the Capitol. Its centre was marked by the 
 altar of Census. A second circus, called 
 the Circus Flamtnius, was built by the 
 censor C. Plaminius on the Campus Martius 
 in 220 B.C. Several more were built during 
 the imperial period, some of which can still 
 be recognised in their ruined state. Such 
 
 A, Carceres ; B B, Metce. 
 (1) PLAN OF CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS. 
 
 (On the Via Appia, near Rome.) 
 
 is the Circus of Maxentius, erroneously 
 called Circo di Caracalla (fig. 1). Similar 
 racecourses existed in many other cities of 
 the empire, e.g., that still remaining amid the 
 ruins of the town of Bovillse. The length of 
 the Circus Maximus, as enlarged by Csesar, 
 was some 1,800 feet, its breadth some 350. The 
 seats, which rose in a series of terraces, rested 
 on a substructure consisting of three stories 
 of arched vaults. The lower seats were of 
 stone, the upper of wood. Round the_ out- 
 side of the circus ran a building, containing 
 booths and seats, as well as the entrances 
 
13S 
 
 emeus. 
 
 to the seats, the number of which amounted, 
 in Caesar's time, to 150,000, and in the 
 4th century, after the building had been 
 repeatedly' enlarged, to 385,000. The 
 podium, or lowest row of seats running 
 immediately above the race-course, was pro- 
 tected from the wild animals by a railing 
 and a trench {eurlpus) ten feet in width 
 and depth. This trench was, however, 
 filled up at the command of Nero. The 
 end of the circus, at which were the gate 
 of entrance and the partitions in which the 
 chariots stood, was flanked by two towers 
 {opplda) occupied by bands of music. 
 Between these was the loggia of the pre- 
 siding magistrate. The opposite end of 
 the building was semicircular, and had a 
 gate called the porta triumphalis, which 
 seems to have been used only on extra- 
 ordinary occasions. The senators and 
 tquUcs had separate places allotted them, 
 as in the theatre. The seats assigned to 
 the common people were divided according 
 to tribes, and the sexes were not separated. 
 The eight or twelve openings (carcSres) 
 from which the chariots issued lay, as we 
 have already mentioned, at both sides of the 
 entrance, and were closed with bars. They 
 were arranged in slanting lines, so that the 
 distance from the carceres to the starting- 
 point was equalized for all. The starting- 
 point was marked by three conical pillars 
 (metce), standing on a substructure. Three 
 other similar metCB, corresponding to them, 
 stood at the other or semicircular end of 
 the circus. Between the two points where 
 the metce stood was built a low wall (spina), 
 extending through the whole length of the 
 course. On this there used to stand the 
 mast of a ship, which, after Augustus' 
 time, gave place to an obelisk. The spina 
 was adorned with pillars, little shrines, and 
 statues of the gods, especially of Victory. 
 A second and loftier obelisk was added by 
 Constantino. The obelisk of Augustus now 
 stands in the Piazza del Popolo, that of 
 Constantine on the square in front of the 
 Lateran. There was also an elevated 
 substructure, supporting seven sculptured 
 dolphins spouting water, and a pedestal 
 with seven egg-shaped objects upon it, the 
 use of which will be explained below. 
 
 The games were generally opened by a 
 solemn procession from the Capitol through 
 the forum to the circus, and through the 
 whole length of the circus round the spina. 
 At the head of the procession came the 
 giver of the games, sitting on a car of 
 triumph in triumphal costume. He was 
 
 followed by the images of the gods borne 
 on litters or carriages, and escorted by 
 the collegia and priestly corporations. In 
 the imperial age the procession included 
 the images of the deceased emperors and 
 empresses, to whom divine honours were 
 paid. The procession moved through the 
 entrance, while the crowd rose 'up, cheered, 
 and clapped their hands. The president 
 dropped a white handkerchief into the 
 arena, and the race began. Four, some- 
 times as many as six, chariots drove out 
 from behind the barriers at the right hand 
 of the spina. Then they rushed along the 
 spina as far as the further posts, rounded 
 these, and drove back down the left side to 
 the starting-posts. They made the circuit 
 seven times, and finally drove off the course 
 through the barriers on the left of the 
 spina. Seven circuits constituted one heat, 
 or missus. A chalk line was drawn across 
 the ground near the entrance, and the 
 victory was adjudged to the driver who 
 first crossed it. During the republican 
 period the number of missus or heats 
 amounted to ten or twelve, and after the 
 time of Caligiila to twenty-four, taking up 
 the whole day. 
 
 To keep the spectators constantly in- 
 formed how many of the seven heats had 
 been run, one of the egg-shaped signals, 
 mentioned above, was taken down after each 
 heat, and probably also one of the dolphins 
 was turned round. The chariots had two 
 wheels, were very small and light, and 
 were open behind. The team usually con- 
 sisted either of two (hlgai) or of four horses 
 (quadriga}). In the latter case the two 
 middle horses only were yoked together. 
 The driver (auriga or agitator, fig. 2) stood 
 in his chariot, dressed in a sleeveless tunic 
 strapped round the upper part of his body, 
 a helmet-shaped cap on his head, a whip in 
 his hand, and a knife with a semi-circular 
 blade in his girdle, to cut the reins with 
 in case of need, for the reins were usually 
 attached to his girdle. The main danger 
 lay in turning round the pillars. To come 
 into collision with them was fatal, not only 
 to the driver himself, but to the driver 
 immediately behind him. The chariots, and 
 probably also the tunics and equipments of 
 the drivers, were decked with the colours 
 of the different factions, as they were 
 called. Of these there were originally 
 only two, the White and the Red. At the 
 beginning of the imperial period we hear 
 of two more, the Green and the Blue. Two 
 more, Gold and Purple, were introduced by 
 
CmiS CITHARA. 
 
 139 
 
 Domitian, but probably dropped out of use 
 after his death. Towards the end of the 
 3rd century a.d. the White faction joined 
 with the Green, and the Red with the Blue. 
 Accordingly in the late Roman and Byzan- 
 tine period we generally hear only of Blue 
 and Green. It was the party feeling thus 
 engendered which was the mainspring of 
 the passionate interest, often amounting 
 almost to madness, which the people took 
 in the games of the circus. 
 
 (2) ■' VICTORIOUS AURIGA. 
 (Sola della higa, Vatican.) 
 
 The necessary attendants, the horses, and 
 the general equipment of the games were 
 provided, at the cost of the giver, by special 
 companies, with one or more directors at 
 their head. These companies were dis- 
 tinguished by adopting the different colours 
 of the factions. The drivers were mostly 
 slaves, or persons of low position. The 
 calling was looked down upon ; but at the 
 same time a driver of exceptional skill 
 would be extraordinarily popular. The vic- 
 tors, besides their palms and crowns, often 
 received considerable sums of money ; and 
 
 thus it would often happen that a driver 
 would rise to the position of a contractor, 
 or become director of a company of con- 
 tractors. Numerous monuments survive to 
 commemorate their victories. Sometimes, 
 indeed, a celebrated horse would have a 
 monument put up to him. 
 
 A contest of riders, each with two horses, 
 was often added to the chariot - races. 
 These riders were called desultorSs, because 
 they jumped from one horse to another 
 while going at full gallop. The circus was 
 also used for boxing-matches, wrestling- 
 matches, and foot-racing; but during the 
 imperial period separate buildings were 
 usually appropriated to these amusements. 
 Gladiatorial contests, and wild-beast hunts, 
 were originally held in the circus, even after 
 the building of the amphitheatre. 
 
 Besides these games, the circus was 
 sometimes used for military reviews. The 
 cavalry manoeuvres, for instance, of the six 
 divisions of the knights (ludi seviralSs), 
 with their six leaders (sevzri), and an ' 
 imperial prince as princeps iuventutis at 
 their head, would occasionally be held 
 there. Under the emperors of the Julian 
 dynasty a favourite pastime was the Troia 
 or ludus Troice. This consisted in a 
 number of manoeuvres performed by boys 
 belonging to senatorial and other respect- 
 able families. They rode on horseback in 
 light armour in separate divisions, and 
 were practised for the purpose by special 
 trainers. 
 
 Ciris. See Nisus. 
 
 Cisinm. See Chariots. 
 
 Clthara (Kithdra). A stringed instru- 
 ment, invented (so the fable ran) by Apollo. 
 The cithara was played on occasions of 
 ceremony, such as public games and pro- 
 cessions : the lyra, a smaller instrument 
 
 (1), (2) and (4) Museo Borionico, XIII xl, X vi, XII xxiv. 
 (3) Weloker, Denlim. Ill 31., 
 
 and easier to hold, was more commonly used 
 in ordinary life. The cithara consisted of 
 a sounding board, which extended into two 
 arms or side-pieces. The sounding-board, 
 
140 
 
 CI VITAS CLAUDIANUS. 
 
 made of thin pieces of wood, plates of metal, 
 or ivory, was generally of a quadrangular, 
 but sometimes of an oval shape; and was 
 deeply vaulted at the back. The arms, 
 which were broad were hollow, like the 
 sounding-board. As the instrument was 
 rather heavy, and the player had to stand 
 while performing on it, it was generally 
 provided with straps for supporting it, so 
 as to leave [the player's hands free. The 
 pliorminx, generally regarded as an at- 
 tribute of Apollo, seems to have been a 
 special variety of the cithara. It is gener- 
 ally spoken of as " shrill-toned." Different 
 forms of the cithara are given in the en- 
 graving. (For further details, and for the 
 manner of playing on the cithara, see Lyra,) 
 
 Civitas. The technical Latin word for 
 the right of citizenship. This was origin- 
 ally possessed, at Rome, by the patricians 
 only. The plebeians were not admitted to 
 share it at all until the time of Servius 
 TuUius, and not to full civic rights until 
 B.C. 337. In its fullest comprehension the 
 civitas included : (1) the ius suffrdglt, or 
 right of voting for magistrates ; (2) the ius 
 honortmi, or right of being elected to a 
 magistracy; (3) the ius provocCdionis or 
 right of appeal to the people, and in later 
 times to the emperor, against the sentences 
 passed by magistrates affecting life or 
 property ; (4) the ius cOnubu, or right to 
 contract a legal marriage ; (5) the ius 
 commerc/il, or right to hold property in the 
 Roman community. The civitas was ob- 
 tained either by birth from Roman parents, 
 or by manumission {see Manumissio), or by 
 presentation. The right of presentation 
 belonged originally to the kings, afterwards 
 to the popular assemblies, and particularly 
 to the comitia tributa, and last of all to 
 the emperors. The civitas could be lost 
 by dSnanutlo capitis {see Deminutio 
 Capitis). The aeraru, so called, had an 
 imperfect civitas, without the ius suffragii 
 and ius honorum. Outside the circle of the 
 civitas stood the slaves and the foreigners 
 or peregrTiii {see Peregrini). The latter 
 included: (1) strangers who stood in no 
 international relations with Rome ; (2) the 
 allies, or socu, among whom the LcUlnl 
 held a privileged place {see Latini) ; (3) the 
 dedltlcii, or those who belonged to nations 
 conquered in war. 
 
 Though the Roman citizenship was con- 
 ferred upon all the free inhabitants of the 
 empire in 212 A.D. by the emperor Caracalla, 
 the grades of it were not all equalized, nor 
 was it until the time of Justinian that 
 
 civitas and libertas became convertible 
 terms. 
 
 Classiarii or classici (from classis, a fleet). 
 The crews of the Roman fleet. In the 
 republican age the rowers {remigcs) were 
 slaves, and the sailors {nauta) were partly 
 contributed by the allies {socll navales), 
 partly levied from among the Roman citizens 
 of the lowest orders, the citizens of the 
 maritime colonies, and the freedmeo. Under 
 the Empire the fleets were manned by 
 freedmen and foreigners, who could not 
 obtain the citizenship until after twenty-six 
 years' service. In the general military 
 system, the navy stood lowest in respect of 
 pay and position. No promotion to higher 
 posts was open to its officers, as those were 
 monopolized by the army. In later times, 
 a division of the marines stationed at 
 Misenum and Ravenna was appointed to 
 garrison duty in Rome. This division was 
 also used in time of war in repairing the 
 roads for the armies. In Rome the marines 
 were employed, among other things, in 
 stretching the awnings over the theatre. 
 
 Classicum. The signal given by the 
 bucina or horn for the meeting of the 
 comitia centUridta at Rome, and for the 
 meeting of the soldiers in camp, especially 
 before they marched out to battle. 
 
 Claudianus {Claudius). A Latin poet, 
 born at Alexandria in the second half of v 
 the 4th centur}' A.D. In 895 A.D. he came 
 to Rome. Here he won the favour of the 
 powerful Vandal Stilicho, and on the 
 proposal of the senate was honoured with 
 a statue by the emperors Arcadius and 
 Honorius. The inscription on this statue 
 is still in existence (Mommsen, Inscrip- 
 tiones Regni Neapolitani, No. 6794). His 
 patron Stilicho fell in 408, and Claudian, 
 apparently, did not survive him. We have 
 express evidence that the poet was not a 
 Christian. He was familiar with Greek 
 and Latin literature, and had considerable 
 poetical gifts, including a mastery both of 
 language and metre. These gifts raise him 
 far above the crowd of the later Latin 
 poets, although the effect of his writing is 
 marred by tasteless rhetorical ornament 
 and exaggerated flattery of great men. 
 His political poems, in spite of their lau- 
 datory colouring, have considerable his- 
 torical value. Most of them are written 
 in praise of Honorius and of Stilicho, for 
 whom he had a veneration as sincere as 
 was his hatred of Rufinus and Eutropius. 
 Against the latter he launched a number of 
 invectives. Besides the Raptus Proserptnce, 
 
CLAUDIUS QUADRIGARIUS CLIBANUS. 
 
 141 
 
 or Rape of Proserpine, an unfinished epic 
 in which his descriptive power is most 
 brilliantly displayed, his most important 
 poems are (1) De III, IV, VI, Consuldtu 
 Honorii ; (2) De Nuptlis Honorii Fes- 
 cennlna ■ (3) EpUhdldvvtum de Nuptiis 
 Honorii et Marice ; (4) De Bello Gildonico ; 
 (5) De Consvlatu Stilichonis ; (6) De Bello 
 Pollentino ; (7) Laus Serence, Serena being 
 Stilicho's wife. He also wrote epistles in 
 verse, a series of minor pieces, narrative 
 and descriptive, and a Gigantomdchia, of 
 which a fragment has been preserved. 
 Claudius Cluadrigarlus. See Annalists. 
 Cieanthes (Gr. Eleanthes). A Greek philo- 
 sopher, native of Assos in Asia Minor. He 
 was originally a boxer, and while attending 
 at Athens the lectures of Zeno, the founder 
 of the Stoic philosophy, he got a livelihood 
 at night by carrying water. He was Zeno's 
 disciple for nineteen years, and in 260 B.C. 
 succeeded him as head of the Stoic school. 
 He died ifi his eighty-first year by voluntary 
 starvation. A beautiful hymn to Zeus is 
 the only one of his writings that has come 
 down to us. 
 
 Clemens {Titus Fldvius) A Greek ec- 
 clesiastical writer, bom at Alexandria about 
 150 A.D. Originally a heathen, he gained, in 
 the course of long travels, a wide knowledge 
 of philosophy. Finding no satisfaction in 
 it, he became a Christian, and about 190 
 A.D. was ordained priest in Alexandria, and 
 chosen to preside over a school of cate- 
 chumens there. The persecution under 
 Septimius Severus having compelled him 
 to take flight, he founded a school in 
 Jerusalem, and came afterwards to Antioch. 
 He died in 218 a.d. His writings contri- 
 buting as they do to our knowledge of 
 ancient philosophy, have an important place, 
 not only in Christian, but also in profane 
 literature. This is especially true of the 
 eight books called Stromdtd ; a title which 
 properly means " many coloured carpets," or 
 writings of miscellaneous contents. 
 
 Cleomenes (Kledmenes). An Athenian 
 sculptor, who probably flourished in the 
 Augustan age. The celebrated Venus di 
 Medici, now at Florence, is his work. [He 
 is described on the pedestal as son of 
 ApoUodorus. The Germdmcus of the 
 Louvre was the work of his son, who bore 
 the same name.] 
 
 ClSopatra {Kleopdtra) (in Greek mytho- 
 logy). (1) Daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, 
 and wife of Phineus. {Sec Phineus.) 
 
 (2) Daughter of Idas, and wife of Meleager. 
 {See Meleager.) 
 
 Clepsydra {Elepsydra). A water-clock, 
 or earthenware vessel filled with a certain 
 measure of water, and having a hole in the 
 bottom of a size to ensure the water running 
 away within a definite space of time. Such 
 water-clocks were used in the Athenian 
 law courts, to mark the time allotted to the 
 speakers. They were first introduced in 
 Rome in 159 B.C., and used in the courts 
 there in the same way. In the field they 
 were used to mark the night-watches. The 
 invention of the best kind of water-clock 
 was attributed to Plato. In this the hours 
 were marked by the height of the water 
 flowing regularly into a vessel. This was 
 done in one of two ways. (1) A dial was 
 placed above the vessel, the hand of which 
 was connected by a wire with a cork floating 
 on the top of the water. (2) The vessel 
 was transparent, and had vertical lines 
 drawn upon it, indicating certain typical 
 days in the four seasons or in the twelve 
 months. These lines were divided into 
 twelve sections, corresponding to the posi- 
 tion which the water was experimentally 
 found to take at each of the twelve hours 
 of night or day on each of these typical 
 days. It must be remembered that the 
 ancients always divided the night and day 
 into twelve equal hours each, which in- 
 volved a variation in the length of the hours 
 corresponding to the varying length of the 
 day and night. 
 
 Cleruchia (Gr. KleroucMa). A kind of 
 Greek colony, which differed from the ordi- 
 nary colonial settlement in the fact that 
 the settlers remained in close connection with 
 their mother-city. The Athenian cleruchice 
 are the only ones of which we have any 
 detailed knowledge. A conquered territory 
 was divided into lots of land, which were 
 assigned to the poorer citizens as cleruchi, 
 or " holders of lots." The original inhabi- 
 tants would be differently treated according 
 to circumstances. In many cases they were 
 compelled to emigrate ; sometimes the men 
 were killed, and the women and children 
 enslaved ; but ordinarily the old inhabitants 
 would become the tenants of the settlers, 
 and take, generally, a less privileged posi- 
 tion. The settlers formed a separate com- 
 munity, elected their own officials, and 
 managed their local affairs ; but they con- 
 tinued to be Athenian citizens, with all the 
 rights and duties of their position. They 
 remained under the authority of Athens, 
 and had to repair to the Athenian courts 
 for justice in all important matters. 
 Glibanlis (Gr. Kllbdnos). See Bakers. 
 
U-: 
 
 CLIEXTES- 
 
 - CLOACA. 
 
 Cllentes. This was the name for such 
 inhabitants of Eome as had lost, or given 
 up, the citizenship o£ their own cities, and 
 had settled in Eoman territory. Here, 
 haviug no legal rights, theywere compelled, 
 in order to secure their personal freedom, to 
 seek the protection of some Roman citizen, 
 a term which, in ancient times, could only 
 mean a patrician. The relation thus set on 
 foot was called dientela, and was inherited 
 by the descendants of both parties. Accord- 
 ingly the client entered into the family of 
 his patron (patronios), took his gentile 
 name, and was admitted to take part in the 
 family sacrifices. The patron made over to 
 him a piece of land as a means of support, 
 protected him from violence, represented 
 him at law, and buried him after his death. 
 The client, on his part, accompanied his 
 patron abroad and on military service, gave 
 his advice in legal and domestic matters, 
 and made a contribution from his property 
 if his patron were endowing a daughter, or 
 had to be ransomed in war, or to pay a fine. 
 The relation between patron and client is 
 also illustrated by the fact that neither 
 party could bring an action against the 
 other in a court of law, or bear witness 
 against him, or vote against him, or appear 
 against him as advocate. A man's duty to 
 his client was more binding than his duty 
 to his blood relations ; and any violation of 
 it was regarded as a capital offence. 
 
 When Servius TuUius extended the rights 
 of citizenship to the clients as well as to the 
 plebeians, the bond between patron and 
 client still continued in force, although it 
 gradually relaxed with the course of time. 
 At the end of the republic age, the status 
 of client, in the proper sense of the word, 
 had ceased to exist. Under the Empire 
 the dientela was a mere external relation 
 between the rich and the poor, the great 
 and the obscure. It involved no moral 
 obligation on either side, but was based 
 merely on the vanity of the one party, 
 and the necessity of the other. It was 
 no miusual thing to find people who had 
 no settled means of subsistence trying, 
 by flattery and servile behaviour, to win 
 the favour of the great. Even philosophers 
 and poets, like Statins and Martial, are 
 found in this position. The client performs 
 certain services, calls on his patron in the 
 morning, accompanies him on public occa- 
 sions, and is in turn invited to his table, 
 receives presents from him, and (if he can 
 get it) a settled provision. Instead of 
 inviting their numerous clients, the rich 
 
 would often present them with a small sum 
 of money called sportiila. The relation was 
 entirely a free one, and could be dissolved 
 at pleasure by either party. 
 
 In the republican age whole communities, 
 and even provinces, when they had sub- 
 mitted to the Roman yoke, would sometimes 
 become clients of a single patronus. In 
 this case the patronus would usually be 
 the conquering general. Marcellus, for 
 instance, the conqueror of Syracuse, and his 
 descendants, weie patrons of Sicily. The 
 practical advantages which were secured 
 to a foreign community by this permanent 
 representatioiT at Rome are obvious. Ac- 
 cordingly we find that, under the Empire, 
 even cities which stood to Rome in no 
 relation of dependence, such as colonies and 
 muntcipm, sometimes selected a patronus. 
 The patronus was, in such cases, always 
 chosen from among the senators or Sq%ites. 
 
 Cline (Gr. Mine). See Meals. 
 
 Clio (Gr. Kleio). See Muses. 
 
 Clipgus. See Shield. 
 
 Clitarclins (Gr. Elcitarclms). A Greek 
 historian, son of the historian Dinon. He 
 flourished about 300 B.C., and was the author 
 of a great work, in at least twelve books, 
 upon Alexander the Great. He was no- 
 toriously untrustworthy, and inclined to 
 believe in the marvellous ; his style was 
 turgid and highly rhetorical; but his 
 narrative was so interesting that he was 
 the most popular of all the writers on 
 Alexander. The Romans were very fond 
 of his book, which was indeed the main 
 authority for the narratives of Diodorus, 
 Trogus Pompeius, and Curtius. A number 
 of fragments of it still survive. 
 
 Clitus {Kleltos) (in Greek mythology). 
 Son of Mantius, and grandson of Melamptis : 
 loved and carried off by Eos, See Eos. 
 
 Cloaca. A vaulted subterranean channel 
 for carrying off drainage of every kind. As 
 early as the 6th century B.C. Rome had 
 an extensive system of sewers for draining 
 the marshy ground lying between the hills 
 of the city. By this the sewage was carried 
 into a main drain {Cloaca Maxima) which 
 emptied itself into the Tiber. Part of this 
 sewer, in length quite 1,020 feet, is still in 
 existence, and after a lapse of 2,500 years, 
 goes on fulfilling its original purpose. The 
 sewer, which is nearly twenty feet wide, 
 is covered by a vaulted roof of massive 
 squares of tufa, in which an arch of tra- 
 vertine is inserted at intervals of 12 feet 
 2 inches. The original height was 10 feet 
 8 inches, but has been reduced to - 6 feet 
 
CLOCKS- 
 
 -CLOTHING. 
 
 143 
 
 6 inches by the accumulation of filth and 
 rubbish. The drainage system of Rome 
 was considerably extended, especially by 
 Agrippa in the Augustan age. 
 
 The duty of keeping the sewers of Rome 
 in repair fell originally to the censors. Dur- 
 ing the imperial age it was transferred to 
 a special board, the curcUores cloacdrum. 
 Citizens who wished to establish a con- 
 nexion between their property and the city 
 drains had to pay a special tax to the State, 
 called cloacdrium. 
 
 Clocks were known to the ancients only 
 under the form of sun-dials (see Gnomon) 
 and water-clocks (see Clepsydra). 
 
 Clothing. The dresses of the Greeks and 
 Romans consisted of under garments or 
 shirts, and upper garments or mantles. The 
 Greek chiton and the Latin tunica, common 
 to both men and women, belong to the first 
 class ; so does the stola of the Roman 
 matron, worn over the tunica. The lilmd- 
 tton was an upper garment, worn in Greece 
 both by men and women. The Greek 
 chMmys and tribOn and peplos were upper 
 garments, the chlainys and tribon confined 
 to men, and the peplos to women. The 
 upper dress worn in public life by a Roman 
 citizen was the toga ; the pialla was peculiar 
 to married ladies. There were other dresses 
 of the same kind commonly in use among 
 the Romans, for instance the Idcerna, Icena, 
 poenula, and synthesis : the sdgum and 
 pdluddmentuni were confined to military 
 service. (See, for further details, the 
 articles on the words in question.) Trousers 
 (Latin brdcce, Greek anaxyndSs) were 
 only known as worn by the Orientals and 
 by the barbarians of the North. Among the 
 Romans no one wore them but the soldiers 
 stationed in the northern districts. In 
 works of art, accordingly, trousers and the 
 long-sleeved chiton are an indication of 
 barbarian costume. The custom of wrapping 
 up the calf and thigh as a protection against 
 the cold was deemed excusable in sickly 
 and elderly people, but was thought effemi- 
 nate in others. The wool of the sheep was 
 at all times the staple material for cloth 
 stuffs. Linen, though known to the Greeks 
 of the Homeric age, was worn chiefly by 
 the lonians, and less so by the inhabitants 
 of Greece Proper. Among the Romans, the 
 use of linen was mostly confined to the 
 girdle, though common among the Italian 
 tribes. Both sexes wore a linen girdle 
 (subligdculum) and women a linen breast- 
 band. Women were the first to exchange 
 wool for linen, and this during the re- 
 
 publican age. Linen garments for men 
 do not appear until later, when the fine 
 Egyptian and Spanish linen-stuffs became 
 a special article of luxury. The toga was 
 always made of wool. Cotton-stuffs, too, 
 were known to the ancients, as well as the 
 serlca, a material made wholly or partly of 
 silk; but these were not commonly used 
 until the imperial times (see Weaving). 
 Country folk in Greece, and especially 
 shepherds, clothe themselves in the skins of 
 animals. Pelisses, apparently, did not come 
 into fashion until the Empire. 
 
 The colour of dresses among the Greeks 
 and Romans was mostly, but by no means 
 exclusively, white. For practical reasons 
 the working classes used to wear stuffs of 
 dark colour, either natural or artificial. 
 Dark clothes were worn among the upper 
 classes in Rome only in time of mourning, 
 or by a person accused before the courts of 
 law. Coloured dresses were put on by men 
 in Greece mainly on festal occasions, and 
 by the Romans not at all. Gay-coloured 
 materials were at all times worn by Greek 
 ladies, and often, too, by Roman ladies as 
 early as the 1st century B.C. Strong 
 colours do not appear to have been liked by 
 the ancients. They were familiar with 
 stripes, plaids, and other patterns, as well 
 as with ornaments of needlework and all 
 kinds of embroidery. With regard to the 
 fitting of dresses, it should be observed that 
 it was mostly the custom to weave them 
 according to measure, and there was there- 
 fore no necessity, as in modern times, for 
 artistic cutting. The art of sewing was 
 quite subordinate, and confined mostly to 
 stitching leaves together for garlands ; 
 though sleeved garments, no doubt, required 
 rather more care. Hence the fact that there 
 was no such thing in antiquity as a separate 
 tailoring trade. The necessary sewing was 
 done by the ladies of the house, or by their 
 slaves, and sometimes by the fullers, whose 
 business it was to measure the pieces of 
 cloth, to sell ready-made garments, and to 
 clean clothes. {Sec Fullers.) 
 
 Shoes. The Greeks usually went bare- 
 foot, except when out of the house ; but 
 they did not think it necessary to wear 
 shoes, even in the street. On entering a 
 house, whether one's own or not, it was 
 customary to uncover the feet. The 
 simplest form of covering for the feet was 
 a sole fastened by straps (hypodema.) This 
 is to be distinguished from the sandal 
 {sanddlSn, sandaliOn), which was worn 
 originally by men and afterwards by women. 
 
Ui 
 
 CLOTHO COEMPTIO. 
 
 This was a more complicated set of straps, 
 reaching as far as over the ankle, where 
 they were fastened. They sometimes had 
 leather added at the sides and heel, so as to 
 rejsemble a shoe. Close shoes of various 
 kinds, fastened over the foot, were also 
 worn by men and women. There were, 
 besides, several kinds of boots, among which 
 may be mentioned the endromis and 
 cothurnus {see Endromis, Cothurnus). 
 
 Among the Romans, men and women 
 when at home, and generally in private 
 life, wore a sandal (solea), which was only 
 taken off at meals ; but a respectable 
 Roman would hardly show himself bare- 
 footed out of doors. With the toga went 
 the shoe called calceus, of which there 
 were differents kinds, varying according 
 to rank {see Calceus). Ladies usually, 
 when out of doors, wore shoes of white or 
 coloured leather, which formed an impor- 
 tant part of their toilette, especially under 
 the Empire, when the sexes rivalled each 
 other in the splendour of their shoes, the 
 men appearing in white and red leather, 
 the emperor and great personages wearing 
 shoes adorned with gold and even with 
 jewels. Among the Romans generally, a 
 great variety of shoes was in use, many of 
 them borrowed from other countries (see 
 Crepida, Soccus). Wooden shoes (sculpo- 
 nece) ware worn by slaves and peasants. 
 !For the military boot in use under the 
 Empire, see Caliga. 
 
 Coverings for the head. The upper 
 classes in Greece and Italy generally went 
 bareheaded. It was only when long in 
 the open air, as on journeys, or while hunt- 
 ing, or in the theatre, that they used the 
 caps and hats worn by artisans, country 
 folk, and fishermen {see Petasus, Pilleus, 
 Causia). In Rome, for protection against 
 sun and storm, they adopted from the nor- 
 thern countries the cucullus or cuculUo, a 
 hood fastened to the pcenula or lacerna. 
 The head was often protected, in the case 
 both of men and women, by drawing the 
 top of the garment over the head. Besides 
 kerchiefs and caps, women also wore veils, 
 which in some cases, as at Thebes (and as 
 now in the East), covered the face as far 
 as the eyes. Roman ladies would seldom 
 appear in the street uncovered. A common 
 covering was the ricinmm, which also 
 served as a wrapper. This was, in later 
 times, only worn at religious ceremonials. 
 It was a square cloth fastened to the head, 
 which ladies folded round them, throwing 
 it over the left arm and left shoulder. For 
 
 protection against the sun ladies carried 
 umbrellas (Gr. skiadeiun, Lat. umbrdcu- 
 lum, umbella), or made their servants carry 
 them. j Eans (Gi. rhipos, Lat. fldbellum) 
 were likewise in common use. These 
 were made of gaily-painted bits of wood, 
 and the feathers of peacocks or other birds, 
 and were generally in the shape of leaves. 
 
 Ornaments. Rings were in fashion both 
 among men and women. The only other 
 metal ornaments which men would have 
 any opportunity for wearing in ordinary 
 life were the clasps or brooches {fibulce) 
 used for fastening dresses or girdles. These 
 were of bronze, silver, or gold, and often 
 adorned with costly jewels. Besides rings 
 and clasps, women wore needles in their 
 hair, and ear-rings, necklaces, and bracelets 
 on their wrists and arms, sometimes even 
 on their ankles. The trinkets that have 
 been preserved from antiquity exhibit the 
 greatest conceivable variety of form. One 
 of the commonest forms for a bracelet is 
 that of a snake, surrounding the arm once, 
 or in several spirals. An equal variety is 
 observable in the ornamentations of pearls, 
 precious stones, and the like. 
 
 Clotho (Gr. Klotho). See McEEiE. 
 Cl^mgne (Gr. Klymene) (in Greek myth- 
 ology). (1) Daughter of Catreus, wife of 
 Nauplius, and mother of Palamedes. {See 
 Naupi.ius.) 
 
 (2) Daughter of Oceanus, and mother of 
 Phaethon by Helios. {See Phaethon.) 
 
 Cl^teemuestra (Gr. Klytaimnestra ; more 
 correctly ElytaimesU-a). Daughter of Tyn- 
 dareus, and wife of Agamemnon. With 
 the aid of her lover, .(Egisthus, she mur- 
 dered her husband, and was, in turn, put 
 to death by her son, Orestes. {See Aga- 
 memnon, ^GisTHUs, and Orestes.) 
 
 Clytla {Klytia). In Greek mythology 
 an ocean nymph, beloved by the Sun-god, 
 who deserted her. She was changed into 
 the heliotrope, a flower which is supposed 
 always to turn its head in the direction of 
 the sun's movement. 
 
 Cocalus {KoJcdlos). In Greek mytho- 
 logy, the king of Camicus in Sicily, who 
 gave D«dalus a friendly welcome when 
 flying from the pursuit of Minos. Cocalus 
 (or his daughters, according to another 
 account) suffocated Minos in a hot bath. 
 Cock-fighting. See Venationes. at end. 
 Cocytus (Gr. Kokytos). See Hades, 
 Realm of. 
 
 Coemptio. Properly " a joint taking," so 
 " a joint purchase." One of the three forms 
 of marriage among the Romans. It was so 
 
COGNATIO COINAGE. 
 
 145 
 
 called from the fiction of a purchase sup- 
 posed to take place on the occasion. In the 
 presence of five witnesses and a libripens, 
 or holder of the balance, the bridegroom 
 struck the balance with a bronze coin, which 
 he handed to the father or guardian of the 
 bride. At the same time he asked her 
 whether she would be his wife, and she, in 
 turn, asked him whether he would be her 
 husband. 
 
 Cognatio. TheLatin word for relation- 
 ship. Cognatio included relationship on 
 both the father's and mother's side, while 
 dgnattd implied relationship on the father's 
 side only {see Agnatic). Agnatio in- 
 volved legal duties and rights, while cog- 
 natio, originally at least, brought with it 
 only moral obligations. Cognatl to the 
 sixth degree had the right of kissing each 
 other [ius osculi), and also the right of 
 refusing to appear as witnesses against each 
 other in a court of law. On the other hand, 
 cognatl were forbidden by custom, at least 
 in the earlier times, to intermarry, or to 
 appear in court against each other as ac- 
 cusers. When a man died, his cognati were 
 expected to put on mourning for him. In 
 course of ' time the cognati gradually ac- 
 quired the rights proper to agnati. But 
 natural relationship did not win full recog- 
 nition until the time of Justinian, by whose 
 legislation the rights of agnati were abol^ 
 ished. 
 
 Cognomen. See Names. 
 Cohors. A division of the Roman army. 
 In ths republican age the word was 
 specially applied to the divisions con- 
 tributed by the Italian allies. Down to 
 89 B.C., when the Italians obtained the 
 Roman citizenship, they were bound to 
 supply an infantry contingent to each of 
 the two consular armies, which consisted of 
 two legions apiece. This contingent num- 
 bered in all 10,000 infantry, divided into : 
 (a) 20 cohortes of 420 men each, called 
 cohortes dldres, because, in time of battle, 
 they formed the wings (dice) of the two 
 combined legions : (6) four cohortes extra- 
 ordindrice, or select cohorts of 400 men 
 each. 
 
 Prom about the beginning of the 1st 
 century B.C., the Roman legion, averaging 
 4,000 men, was also divided into ten 
 cohortes, each containing three indnipull or 
 six centiirzce. In the imperial times, the 
 auxiliary troops assigned to the legions 
 stationed in the provinces were also divided 
 into cohorts {cohortes auxtlmrice). These 
 cohorts contained either 500 men ( = 5 ccn- 
 D. C. A. 
 
 turicv),'or 1,000 men ( = 10 centarice). They 
 consisted either entirely of infantry, or 
 partly of cavalry (380 infantry + 120 cavalry, 
 760 infantry + 240 cavalry). For the com- 
 manders of these cohorts, see PRiEFECTUS. 
 The troops stationed in Rome were also 
 numbered according to cohortes. (1) The 
 cohortes prmtorice, originally nine, but 
 afterwards ten in number, which formed 
 the imperial body-guard. Each cohort con- 
 sisted of 1,000 men, including infantry and 
 cavalry {see Pk^etoriani). The institu- 
 tion of a body-guard was due to Augustus, 
 and was a development of the cohors prce- 
 toria, or body-guard of the republican 
 generals. Its title shows that it was as 
 old as the time when the consuls bore the 
 name of prcetorSs. This cohors prcBtoria 
 was originall}- formed exclusively of cavalry, 
 mainly of equestrian rank. But towards 
 the end of the republican age, when every 
 independent commander had his own cohors 
 prcetoria, it was made up partly of infantry, 
 who were mainly veterans, partly of picked 
 cavalry of the allies, and partly of Roman 
 equites, who usually served their tiro- 
 cinium, or first year, in this way. (2) Three 
 and in later times four, cohortes urbdnce, 
 consisting each of 1,000 men, were placed 
 under the command of the prcefectus urhi. 
 They had separate barracks, but ranked 
 below the body-guard, and above the 
 legionaries. (3) Seven cohortes vlgilum, 
 of 1,000 men each, were under the command 
 of the prcefectus vigilum. These formed 
 the night police and fire-brigade, and were 
 distributed throughout the city, one to every 
 two of the fourteen regiones. 
 
 Coiiig,o;e. (1) Greek. As late as the 
 Homeric age, cattle, especially oxen, served 
 as a medium of exchange, as well as a 
 standard of price {II. xi 211, xxi 385]. We 
 find, however, that the metals were put to the 
 sanie use, their value being decided by their 
 weight as determined by a balance. The 
 weight, as well as the balance, was called 
 tdlanton. [It is probable that the gold 
 talanton of Homer weighed two drachma;, 
 and was equivalent in value to an ox; see 
 Ridgeway, in Journal Hell. Studies viii 
 133.] The idea of giving the metal used 
 in exchange a form corresponding to its re- 
 quirements is no doubt an early one. The 
 date of the introduction of a coinage in the 
 proper sense, with an official stamp to 
 denote its value and obviate the necessity 
 of weighing the metal, cannot now be deter- 
 mined. But as early as the 6th century 
 B.C. we find a highly developed and artistic 
 
 L 
 
146 
 
 COINAGE. 
 
 system of CDining money in existence. The 
 various Greek standards of value were all 
 developed — in several gradations, it is true 
 — from the gold and silver standard of Asia 
 Minor. It was not untU a later time that 
 the standard of the Persian gold money 
 was in some cities transferred to the silver 
 coinage. The proportion of gold to silver 
 was commonly reckoned among the Greeks 
 as 10:1, so that a gold piece weighing 2 
 drachmce was =20 silver draclimce.. But 
 in commerce the proportion assumed was 
 12 : 1, and this was the average generally 
 observed in the Roman empire. The 
 measure of weight most commonly current 
 was the talent, which contained 60 mince. 
 Like the talent, the mina was not a real 
 coin, but a standard of measurement. The 
 unit of coinage was the drachma^ 100 
 drachmas being reckoned to the mina. The 
 drachma, again, contained 6 obols. In an- 
 cient times the commonly accepted standard 
 was that of yEgina. The coins of the island 
 of jEgina were stamped on one side with 
 the figure of a tortoise, on the other side 
 
 (1) DIDKACHMON OF ^GIKA. 
 (B.C. 700-660.) 
 
 with a roughly executed incuse square. 
 The largest silver coin was the stater or 
 didrachmon (iig. 1), ( = about 2s. 2d., the 
 ^ginetan drachma being =ls. Id.). Solon 
 abolished this standard in Attica, and in- 
 troduced a lighter drachma equal to about 
 8rf. The Attic talent ( = 6,000 drachmce) 
 was thus worth about £200, the mina about 
 £3 Qs. Sd. The silver coins of Attica bore 
 on the front the head of Pallas, and on the 
 
 Archaic bead of Athene. Owl. 
 
 (2) TETEADKACHMON OP ATHENS. 
 
 (Time of Persian wars.) 
 
 reverse the figure of an owl. The principal 
 coin was the t'tradrachmon or 4 drachmce 
 
 (fig. 2), the largest (which was only issued 
 occasionally) the dvkadrachmon or 10 
 drachmce. The didrachmon (2 drachma>) 
 was in like manner issued rarely. The tri- 
 obolon (3 obols), the obolds, and the Jiemi- 
 obolion (I obol) were small silver coins ; 
 the tetariemorwn (j obol) the smallest of 
 all. The Greek states always adopted a 
 silver cuirency, gold being rarely issued. 
 The largest gold piece was the didrach- 
 mon or golden stater ( = 20 silver drachvice). 
 Besides this we find drachmas, triobols, 
 obols, half-obols, quarter-obols, and even 
 eighth obols in gold. The gold money most 
 commonly ciirrent in Greece was, down to 
 the Macedonian age, the royal Persian coin 
 
 (3) DARIC. 
 
 called Ddreikos, or Daric (fig. 3). It was 
 stamped on one side with a crowned archer, 
 on the other with an oblong incuse. This 
 corresponded with the gold stater of Attica 
 and of the cities of Asia Minor. Among 
 these should be especially mentioned the sta- 
 ter of Cyzicus or the Cyzicenus = 28 silver 
 drachmae. The earliest copper coin issued 
 at Athens was the Challcus = |- of a silver 
 obol (440 B.C.). In the time of Alexander 
 the Great the silver coinage stopped at the 
 
 Head of Apollo. Victorious higa. 
 
 (4) GOLD STATER OF PHILIP II OF MACEDOK. 
 
 triobolos, and it therefore became necessary 
 to represent the smaller fractions in copper. 
 The silver money of Attica was in very 
 general use, but the Attic standard was 
 not adopted in Greece Proper. It spread 
 westward, however, in quite early times. 
 In the greater part of Sicily, and in Taren- 
 tum and Etruria, the coinage was from the 
 first regulated in accordance with the Attic 
 standard. But the wide diffusion of this 
 standard was mainly due to the action of 
 Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the 
 Great. The former adopted it when intro- 
 ducing his gold coinage {Philijipus, fig. 4), 
 
COINAGE. 
 
 147 
 
 the latter for his silver money (fig. 5). For 
 >even after Alexander's death this standard 
 held its ground in the kingdoms of the 
 
 Head of Hei-a'-les. Zeus. 
 
 (5) TETRADEACHMON 01? ALEXANDEli THE GREAT. 
 
 Macedoniaa empire, except in Egypt, where 
 the Ptolemies maintained the old coinage 
 of the country. Macedonian influence ex- 
 tended the Attic currency into 
 m.any other states, e.g. Epirus, the 
 coasts of the Black Sea, and even 
 Parthia. The largest Greek gold 
 coin is the 2Q-stater piece of the 
 Grseco-Bactrian king Eucratides, 
 now preserved in Paris: the largest 
 silver coins are the 10-drachma 
 pieces of Athens, Syracuse (fig. 6) 
 and Alexander the Great. 
 
 Hellenic coins are important as 
 giving a grand and complete idea 
 of the development of plastic art 
 among the Greeks. In the Greek 
 cities of Italy and Sicily, in par- 
 ticular, the art of stamping coins 
 had attained considerable importance as 
 early as the 5th century B.C., and in the 
 4th century with its life-like characterisa- 
 
 (2) Roman. As in Greece, so in Rome, 
 oxen and sheep were originally the medium 
 of exchange. The oldest pecuniary fines 
 were exacted in cattle, and the Latin word 
 for money, pecUnia, is derived from, pSciis. 
 In later times unwrought copper {ces rude) 
 given in pieces according to -vyeight, took 
 the place of oxen. Bars of cast copper 
 marked on both sides with some figure (as 
 of an ox, pig, or fowl) are said to have 
 been introduced by king Servius Tullius, 
 when he took in hand the regulation of 
 weights and measures. The first demon- 
 strable example of a coin is from the age 
 of the decemvirs (about 450 B.C.). The unit 
 of coinage was the as of cast copper, carry- 
 ing the nominal weight of the Roman pound 
 (libra = 12 uncice, see fig. 7). The as {'ois 
 
 Female Head (Persephone or 
 Aretbusa). 
 
 (6) DECADRACHMON OF STKACDSE, 
 {about 400 B.C.) 
 
 Quadriga and armour (prizes of 
 victory). 
 
 grave) bore the image of Janus ; the coins 
 representing its fractions were all stamped 
 on the reverse side with the figure of a 
 
 Head of Janus. Prow of Ship. 
 
 (7) ROMAN AS OF CAST COPPER. 
 
 tions, and with the rich variety and noble 
 perfection of its forms, it reached the 
 highest degree of finish. 
 
 ship's prow. These were, setnis, with the 
 head of Jupiter = | as or 6 unciae ; triens 
 with the head of Minerva, I of an as = 
 
148 
 
 COINAGE 
 
 unci(B ; quadrans, with the head of Her- 
 cules, i as = 3 uncice ; sextans, with the head 
 of Mercury, i 05 = 2 unciiv ; uncia, with the 
 head of Roma, -^ as. As in the course of 
 time the copper money became lighter, the 
 smaller fractional coins were first struck, 
 and afterwards all the fractions. This 
 copper currency was calculated exclusively 
 for the home trade, so that it was easily 
 allowed to suffer a continuous depreciation, 
 at first to 4, then to 2, after 217 B.C. to 1 
 ounce, after B.C. 89 to ^ an ounce, and under 
 the Empire even to \ an ounce. In 269 
 B.C. a silver currency was introduced, and 
 a mint for it set up on the Capitoline Hill 
 in the temple of Juno Moneta. The silver 
 fractional coins struck according to the 
 Athenian and Sicilian standard were the 
 denarius, corresponding roughly to the 
 
 Eoma. 
 
 Castor and Pollux. 
 
 (8) DENARIUS. 
 
 (9) DENARIUS OF JULIUS C^SAR. 
 
 Attic drachma (about 9|rf., figs. 8 and 9) = 
 10 asses of 4 ounces; the quiiianus = 5 
 asses ; and the sestertius = 2| asses. These 
 coins were denoted by the marks X. V. and 
 II. S. (or 2|) respectively (fig. 10). They all 
 
 Eoma. Castor and Pollnx. 
 
 (10) SESTERTIUS. 
 
 bore, on the upper side, the head of the god- 
 dess Roma with her winged helmet, and on 
 the reverse the two Dioscuri on horseback. 
 In later times Diana Victoria in her two- 
 horse chariot, and Jupiter in his four-horse 
 chariot, successively took the place of the 
 Dioscuri. From the middle of the 1st 
 century there was no fixed device for the 
 reverse side. The sestertius was the equiva- 
 lent of the old heavy as, which although 
 
 long disused, survived as the standard of 
 reckoning. Payments were generally made 
 in denarii, but the account made up in 
 sestertii, whence the word nunimus (coin) 
 was applied par excellence to the sestertius. 
 The reduction of the copper as to 1 uncia 
 in 217 B.C. degraded the copper money to 
 the position of small coin, and a silver 
 currency drove out the copper. The 
 denarius sank at the same time to the value 
 of about l\d., which it maintained till the 
 time of Nero. The denarius was reckoned 
 as =16 asses, the quinarius as 8, and the 
 sestertius (nearly l|d.)=4. At about the 
 same period a temporary effort was made 
 to introduce gold coinage. This movement 
 was not taken up again till towards the 
 end of the Republic, when Caesar struck a 
 large number of gold coins (aureus) equal 
 in weight to Jj of the Roman pound, and 
 in value 25 denarii or 100 sestertii (nearly 
 23 shillings). No regular coinage was 
 carried on in the time of the Republic, but 
 the necessary money was minted as occasion 
 required. This was done in Rome at the 
 commission of the senate under the super- 
 intendence of certain officials entrusted with 
 the duty. A permanent board of three 
 persons (tres vlri monetdles) was at last 
 appointed for the purpose. In the provinces 
 money was coined by the Roman generals 
 and governors. Prom the time of Augustus 
 the emperor retained the exclusive privilege 
 of coining gold and silver money, ^he 
 copper coinage being left to the senate. 
 The standard of the imperial coinage was 
 the aureus of Caesar, the weight of which 
 sank (with many variations) lower and 
 lower as time went on, till in 312 a.d. Con- 
 stantine fixed it at J^- of a lb. ( = between 
 
 (11) AUREUS OF MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
 12 and 13 shillings, fig. 11). The aureus 
 was now called solidus, and was stamped 
 at first with the Latin mark LXXII, after- 
 wards with the Greek OB ( = 72). It con- 
 tinued in use until the fall of the Byzantine 
 empire. Of the silver coins of the Republic 
 the denarius and quinarius alone held 
 their ground under the Empire, the rest 
 being stamped in copper. The denarius 
 retained the value fixed 217 B.C. (about 7k?.) 
 
COLACRETiE COLONIES. 
 
 149 
 
 nntil the time of Nero, under whom it fell 
 in weight and purity till its value was 
 only sixpence. During the 2nd century it 
 sank to 3d., below the half of its former 
 value, and the silver coinage was conse- 
 quently changed into small money. Diocle- 
 tian was the first to restore some order to 
 the currency. After 292 a.d. he issued a 
 coin {argenteus) of pure silver, and equal 
 in weight to the Neronian denarius. The 
 argenteus maintained its ground till 360 
 A.D., when it made way for a new system of 
 silver coinage on the standard of the gold 
 sol id us. The copper coins bore the mark 
 S.O. {Senatus Consulto), because issued by 
 the senate. Under the Empire the following 
 small coins were minted ; the sestertius 
 =4 asses,- dupondiUs =2 asses, both of 
 brass ; the semis ( = | an as), and the quad- 
 rans =j as, both of copper. These last 
 were the smallest change. The quadrans 
 went out of use as early as Trajan, at the 
 beginning of the 2nd century A.D., the 
 dupondius, as, and semis, in the middle, 
 and the sestertius in the last half of the 
 3rd century, when Diocletian issued two 
 new copper coins, one of which was called 
 denarius. 
 
 Colacretse (Gr. Kolakretai). A financial 
 board at Athens, whose duty it was to 
 administer the fund accruing from the fines 
 taken in the courts of justice. It was this 
 fund from which the cost of the public 
 meals in the Prytaneum, and the salary of 
 the Heliastae, was defrayed. The name 
 properly means " collectors of hams," and 
 probably points to the fact that the hams 
 of the victims sacrificed on certain occasions 
 were given to the Colacretce as contribu.- 
 tions to the meals in question. 
 
 Collegium. The general term in Latin for 
 an association. The word was applied in a 
 different sense to express the mutual rela- 
 tion of such magistrates as were collegm. 
 Besides the collegia of the great priest- 
 hoods, and of the magistrates' attendants 
 {see Appakitobes), there were numerous 
 associations, which, although not united bj' 
 any specifically religious objects, had a 
 religious centre in the worship of some deity 
 or other. Such were the numerous collegia 
 of artisans (fiplficu'm, or artiflcum), and 
 the societies existing among the poor for 
 providing funerals, which first appear under 
 the Empire. The political clubs {collegia 
 soddlicta) were associated in the worship 
 of the Lares CompUdles, and were, indeed, 
 properly speaking, collegia compltdllcta, or 
 "societies of the cross-ways." The religious 
 
 societies were, in some instances, established 
 by the State for the performance of certain 
 public religious services {see Sodalitas), in 
 other cases they were formed by private 
 individuals, who made it their business to 
 keep up the shrines of particular deities 
 (often foreign deities) at their own expense. 
 CoUiithus (Gr. Kollutlios). A Greek poet, 
 native of Lycopolis, in Upper Egypt, who 
 flourished at the beginning of the 6th 
 century a.d. He wrote an unimportant 
 epic poem in 385 verses, on the rape of 
 Helen, in which he followed the cyclic 
 poets. 
 
 Cdloni (" cultivators "), During the later 
 imperial age the coloni were serfs, who, 
 on payment of a certain rent, cultivated a 
 piece of land, belonging to their masters, for 
 their own profit. They were so far free 
 that they could not be sold, could contract 
 legal marriages, and could own property. 
 But they were absolutely bound to the 
 estate, and if this was sold, passed with the 
 rest of what was upon it to the new owner. 
 The coloni were probably the descendants 
 of barbarians, who were settled in the pro- 
 vinces for agricultural purposes. 
 
 Colonies. (1) Greek. In Greece, colo- 
 nies were sometimes founded by vanquished 
 peoples, who left their homes to escape sub- 
 jection at the hand of a detested enemy ; 
 sometimes as a sequel to civil disorders ; 
 sometimes to get rid of surplus population, 
 and thereby to avoid internal convulsions. 
 But in most cases the object was to estab- 
 lish and facilitate relations of trade with 
 foreign countries. If a Greek city was send- 
 ing out a colony, an oracle (before all others 
 that of Delphi) was almost invariably con- 
 sulted. Sometimes certain classes of citi- 
 zens were called upon to take part in the 
 enterprises ; sometimes one son was chosen 
 by lot from every house where there were 
 several sons ; and strangers expressing a 
 desire to join were admitted. A person of 
 distinction was selected to guide the emi- 
 grants and make the necessary arrange- 
 ments. It was usual to honour these 
 founders of colonies, after their death, as 
 heroes. Some of the sacred fire was taken 
 from the public hearth in the Prytdneion, 
 and the fire on the public hearth of the new 
 city was kindled thereat. And, just as each 
 individual had his private shrines, so the 
 new community maintained the worship of 
 its chief domestic deities, the colony send- 
 ing embassies and votive gifts to their prin- 
 cipal festivals. 
 
 The relation between colony and mother- 
 
150 
 
 COLOSSEUM COLUMBARIUM. 
 
 city was viewed as one of mutual affection. 
 Any differences that arose were made up, 
 if possible, by peaceful means, war being 
 deemed excusable only in cases of extreme 
 necessity. The charter of foundation con- 
 tained general provisions for the arrange- 
 ment of the affairs of the colony, and also 
 some special enactments. The constitution 
 of the mother-city was usually adopted by 
 the colony, but the new city remained poli- 
 tically independent. If the colony sent out 
 a fresh colony on its own account, the 
 mother-city was generally consulted, or was 
 at least requested to furnish a leader. The 
 ClerucJit formed a special class of Greek 
 colonists {see Cleruchi). The trade fac- 
 tories set up in foreign countries (in Egypt, 
 for instance) were somewhat different from 
 the ordinary colonies, the members retain- 
 ing the right of domicile in their own 
 fatherland. 
 
 (2) Roman. It was an old custom in 
 Italy to send out colonies for the purpose of 
 securing new conquests. The Romans, ac- 
 cordingly, having no standing army, used 
 to plant bodies of their own citizens in 
 conquered towns as a kind of garrison. 
 These bodies would consist partly of Roman 
 citizens, usually to the number of three 
 hundred, partly of members of the Latin 
 confederacy, in larger numbers. The third 
 part of the conquered territory was handed 
 over to the settlers. The colonia 
 cltaiin Romanorum (colonies of 
 Roman citizens! were specially in- 
 tended to secure the two sea-coasts 
 of Italy, and were hence called 
 rolonue maritiwrr. The colonics 
 Latina', of which there was a far 
 greater number, served the same 
 purpose for the mainland. 
 
 The duty of leading the colonists 
 and founding the settlement was 
 entrusted to a commission usually 
 consisting of three members, and 
 elected by the people. These men 
 continued to stand in the relation 
 of patrons {patrOnl) to the colony 
 after its foundation. The colonists 
 entered the conquered city in mili- 
 tary array, preceded by banners, and 
 the foundation was celebrated with 
 special solemnities. The colonice 
 were free from taxes, and had their 
 own constitution, a copy of the Ro- 
 man, electing from their own body 
 their senate and other officers of state. To 
 this constitution thg^origicial inhabitants 
 had to submit. The colonice, civium Ro- 
 
 manorum retained the Roman citizenship, 
 and were free from military service, their 
 position as out-posts being regarded as an 
 equivalent. The members of the colonicB 
 Latince served among the socii, and pos- 
 sessed the so-called ius Latinum (see 
 Latini). This secured to them the right of 
 acquiring property (commercium.) and settle- 
 ment in Rome, and, under certain conditions, 
 the power of becoming Roman citizens ; 
 though in course of time these rights under- 
 went many limitations. 
 
 From the time of the Gracchi the colonies 
 lost their military character. Colonization 
 came to be regarded as a means of providing 
 for the poorest class of the Roman populace. 
 After the time of Sulla it was adopted as a 
 way of granting land to veteran soldiers. 
 The right of founding colonies was taken 
 away from the people by Caesar, and passed 
 into the hands of the emperors, who used it 
 (mainly in the provinces) for the exclusive 
 purpose of establishing military settlements, 
 partly with the old idea of securing con- 
 quered territory. It was only in excep- 
 tional cases that the provincial colonies 
 enjoyed the immunity from taxation which 
 was granted to those in Italy. 
 
 Colosseum. See Amphitheatre. 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes. See Chares. 
 
 Columbarium. Properly a dove-cote. The 
 word was metaphorically applied to a sub- 
 
 COLUMBAEIUM OF THE lliEEDME.N UF OCTAViA. 
 
 (Nenr the FoHa Latina^ Rome.) 
 
 terranean vault jorovided with rows of rmall 
 niches, Ij'ing one above the other, and in- 
 tended for the reception of the urns contain- 
 
COLUMELLA COMEDY. 
 
 151 
 
 ing the ashes of the dead. These large 
 burial places were built by rich people 
 whose freedmen were too numerous to be 
 interred in the family burial-place. They 
 were also erected by the Ca3sars for their 
 slaves and freedmen. Several of these still 
 exist, for instance, that of Livia, the consort 
 of Augustus, who built one for her freed- 
 men on the Appian road. Common burial- 
 places, in which a niche could be bespoken 
 beforehand, were sometimes constructed by 
 private individuals on speculation for people 
 who were too poor to have a grave of their 
 own. Columbaria were usually built by re- 
 ligious or mercantile societies, or by burial 
 clubs for their own members. In such 
 cases the members contributed a single 
 capital payment and yearly subscriptions, 
 which gave them the right to a decent 
 burial and a niche in the vault. The names 
 of the dead were inscribed on marble tablets 
 over each niche. {See cut.) 
 
 Columella {Lucius Junius Moderdtus). 
 A Latin writer on agriculture. He was a 
 native of Gades, in Spain, and a contem- 
 poraiy of his countryman, the philosopher 
 Seneca. He was the author of a thorough 
 and exhaustive work on agriculture {De lie 
 Eustu-u), which he founded partly upon a 
 study of all previous works on the subject, 
 partly on his own experience, gathered in 
 Spain, Italy, and Asia. The work was 
 written about GO A.D,, and consists of twelve 
 books, arranged as follows : I-II, on crops 
 and pastures ; III-V, on trees and vine- 
 yards ; VI-IX, on cattle, birds, fishes, and 
 bees ; X, on horticulture ; XI-XII, on the 
 duties and occupations of the farmer. The 
 tenth book is written in polished hexameters, 
 as a supplement -to Vergil's fourth Georgic. 
 This Columella did at the request of Publius 
 Silvintis, to whom the whole work is dedi- 
 cated. Besides this, his great work. 
 Columella had previously written a shorter 
 treatise, of which the -second book, on trees 
 (De Arborihus), still survives. Columella's 
 exposition is clear and easy, and his language 
 (if we pass over the rhetorical ornaments 
 added after the fashion of his time) correct. 
 The tenth book, though written in verse, 
 has, it must be said, little poetical merit. 
 
 Columna Rostrata. See Architecture, 
 Orders of. 
 
 Comae tho (Gr. Komaitho). In Greek 
 mythology, the daughter of Pterelaiis, king 
 of the Teleboi. Her father had a golden 
 lock in his hair, given him by Poseidon, 
 and conferring immortality. Of this he 
 was deprived by his daughter, who was 
 
 slain for her treachery by Amphitryon, the 
 enemy of her race. {See Amphitryon.) 
 
 Comedy. {\) GreeTf. The Greek comedy, 
 like the Greek tragedy and satyric drama, 
 had its origin in the festivals of DiSnysus. 
 As its name, komoedia, or the song of the 
 komSs, implies, it arose from the unre- 
 strained singing and jesting common in the 
 komos, or merry procession of Dionysus. 
 According to the tradition, it was the Doric 
 inhabitants of Megara, well known for their 
 love of fun, who first worked up these jokes 
 into a kind of farce. The inhabitants of 
 Megara accordingly boasted that they were 
 the founders of Greek comedy. From 
 Megara, it was supposed, the popular farce 
 found its way to the other Dorian com- 
 munities, and one Susarion was said to 
 have transplanted it to the Attic deme of 
 Icaria about 580 B.C. No further informa- 
 tion is in existence as to the nature of the 
 Megarian or Dorian popular comedy. The 
 local Doric farce was developed into literary 
 form in Sicily by Epicharmus of Cos (about 
 540-450 B.C.). This writer gave a comic 
 treatment not only to mythology, but to 
 subjects taken from real life. The con- 
 temporary of Epicharmus, Phormus or 
 Phormis, and his pupil Dinolochus, may 
 also be named as representatives of the 
 Dorian comedy. 
 
 The beginnings of the Attic comedy, like 
 those of the Attic tragedy, are associated 
 with the deme of Icaria, known to have been 
 the chief seat of the worship of Dionysus 
 in Attica. Not only Thespis, the father of 
 tragedy, but also Chionides and Magnes 
 (about 550 B.C.), who, if the story may be 
 trusted, first gave a more artistic form 
 to the Megarian comedy introduced by 
 Susarion, were natives of Icaria. Comedy 
 did not become, in the proper sense, a part 
 of literature until it had found welcome 
 and consideration at Athens in the time of 
 the Persian wars ; until its form had been 
 moulded on the finished outlines of tragedy ; 
 and until, finally, it had received from the 
 State the same recognition as tragedy. The 
 Old Comedy, as it was called, had its origin 
 in personal abuse. It was Crates who first 
 gave it its peculiar political character, and 
 his younger contemporary Cratinus who 
 turned it mainly or exclusively in this 
 direction. The masters of the Old Comedy 
 are usually held to be Cratinus and his 
 younger contemporaries, Eupolis and Aris- 
 tophanes. It attained its youth in the 
 time of Pericles and the Peloponnesian war ; 
 the period when the Athenian democracy 
 
152 
 
 COMEDY. 
 
 had reached its highest development. These 
 three masters had many rivals, who fell, 
 however, on the whole beneath their level, 
 among others Pherecrates, Hermippus, 
 Teleclides, Phrynichus, Ameipsias, Plato 
 and Theopompus. 
 
 A good idea of the characteristics of the 
 Old Comedy may be formed from the eleven 
 surviving plays of Aristophanes.* The 
 Greek tragedy has a meaning for all time ; 
 but the Old Comedy, the most brilhant 
 and striking production of all Athenian 
 literature, has its roots in Athenian life, 
 and addressed the Athenian public only. 
 
 Dealing from the very first with the 
 grotesque and absurd side of things, it 
 was the scourge of all vice, folly, and 
 weakness. The social life of Athens, so 
 restless, and yet so open, offered an in- 
 exhaustible store of material ; and the 
 comedian was always sure of a witty, 
 laughter-loving public, on whom no allusion 
 was lost. The first aim of the Athenian 
 comedy was, no doubt, to make men laugh, 
 but this was not all. Beneath it there lay a 
 serious and patriotic motive. The poet, who 
 was secured by the license of the stage, 
 wished to bring to light and turn to ridicule 
 the abuses and degeneracy of his time. 
 The Attic comedians are all admirers of 
 the good old times, and, accordingly, the 
 declared enemies of the social innovations 
 which were beginning to make their way, 
 the signs in many cases, no doubt, of ap- 
 proaching decline. It was not, however, 
 the actual phenomena of life which were 
 sketched in the Old Comedy. The latter 
 is really a grotesque and fantastic carica- 
 ture ; the colours are laid on thick, and 
 propriety, as we moderns understand it, is 
 thrown to the winds. These plays abound 
 in coarseness and obscenity of the broadest 
 kind, the natural survival of the rude 
 license allowed at the Dionysiac festival. 
 The choice and treatment of the subjects 
 show the same tendency to the grotesque 
 and fantastic. Fancy and caprice revel at 
 their will, unchecked by any regard either 
 for the laws of poetical probability or for 
 adequacy of occasion. The action is gene- 
 rally quite simple, sketched out in a few 
 broad strokes, and carried out in a motley 
 series of loosely connected scenes. The 
 language is always choice and fine, never 
 leaving the forms of the purest Atticism. 
 The metres admit a greater freedom and 
 movement than those of the tragedy. 
 
 * Only eleven have come doTvn to us complete : 
 the rest are in fragments. 
 
 A comed}', like a traged}', consisted of 
 the dramatic dialogue, written mostly in 
 iambic senurii, and the lyrical chorus. The 
 division of the dialogue into prdlogos, 
 cpeisodion^ and exodos, and of the chorus 
 into pdrodos and stdsima, are the same as 
 in tragedy (see Tragedy). But, while the 
 tragic chorus consisted of fifteen singers, 
 there were twenty-four in the comic. A 
 peculiarity of the comic chorus is the pdrd- 
 bdsis, a series of lines entirely unconnected 
 with the plot, in which the poet, through 
 the mouth of the chorus, addresses the 
 public directly about his own concerns, or 
 upon burning questions of the day (see 
 Parabasis). Like the tragedies, the come- 
 dies were performed at the great festivals 
 of Dionysus, the Dionysia[and Lensea. On 
 each occasion five poets competed for the 
 prize, each with one play. 
 
 ITor a short time, but a short time only, 
 a limitation had been put upon the absolute 
 freedom with which the poets of the Old 
 Comedy lashed the shortcomings of the 
 government and its chief men. The down- 
 fall of the democracy, however, deprived 
 them of this liberty. The disastrous issue 
 of the Peloponnesian war had, moreover, 
 ruined the Athenian finances, and made it 
 necessary to give up the. expensive chorus, 
 and with it the parabasis. Thus deprived 
 of the means of existence, the Old Comedy 
 was doomed to extinction. In its place came 
 what was called the Middle Comedy, from 
 about 400-338 B.C. This was a modification 
 of the Old Comedy, with a character corre- 
 sponding to the altered circumstance of the 
 time. The Middle Comedy was in no sense 
 political ; it avoided all open attackon in- 
 dividuals, and confined itself to treating the 
 typical faults and weaknesses of mankind. 
 Its main line was burlesque and parody, of 
 which the objects were the tragedies and 
 the mythology in general. It was also 
 severe upon the lives of the philosophers. 
 It dealt in typical characters, such as 
 bullies, parasites, and courtesans. The 
 writers of the Middle Comedy were very 
 prolific, more than eight hundred of their 
 plays having survived as late as the 2nd 
 century a.d. The most celebrated of them 
 were Antiphanes of Athens and Alexis of 
 Thurii ; next to these came Eubulus, and 
 Anaxandridas of Rhodes. 
 
 A new departure is signalized by the 
 dramas of what is called the New Comedy. 
 In these, as in the modern society drama, 
 life was represented in its minutest details. 
 The New Comedy offered a play regularly 
 
COMISSATIO - COMITIA, 
 
 153 
 
 constructed like that of tragedy, cliarac- 
 terized by fine humour, and but seldom 
 touching on public life. The language was 
 that of ordinary society, and the plot was 
 worked out in a connected form from the 
 beginning to the dtinouement. The chief 
 art of the poets of the New Comedy lay in 
 the development of the plot and the faith- 
 ful portraiture of character. The stock 
 subjects are illicit love affairs ; for honest 
 women lived in retirement, and stories of 
 honourable love, therefore, were practically 
 excluded from the stage. The ordinary 
 characters are young men in love, fathers 
 of the good-natured or the scolding type, 
 cunning slaves, panders, parasites, and brag- 
 ging officers. Besides the dialogue proper, 
 we find traces of parts written in lyric 
 metres for the higher style of singing. 
 These were, in all probability, like the dia- 
 logue, performed by the actors. 
 
 The fate of the New resembles that of 
 the Middle Comedy, only a few fragments 
 of its numerous pieces having survived. 
 Of some of them, however, we have Latin 
 adaptations by Plautus and Terence. Its 
 greatest master was Menander, besides 
 whom should be mentioned Diphilus, Phile- 
 mon, Philippides, Posidippus, and Apollo- 
 dorus of Carystus. The New Comedy 
 flourished from 330 B.C. till far into the 
 3rd century a.d. 
 
 In about 300 B.C. the old Dorian farce 
 was revived in a literary form in Southern 
 Italy by Ehinthon, the creator of the 
 Hildrotrdgoedia. The Hilarotragcedia was 
 for the most part a parody of the tragic 
 stories. 
 
 (2) Roman. Like the Greeks, the Italian 
 people had their popular dramatic pieces; 
 the versus Fescennlni, for instance, which 
 were at first associated with the mimic 
 drama, first introduced in 390 B.C. from 
 Etruria in consequence of a plague, to 
 appease the wrath of heaven (see Tescen- 
 NiNi Versus). From this combination 
 sprang the sdtura, a performance consisting 
 of flute-playing, mimic dance, songs, and 
 dialogue. The Atellana (q.v.) was a second 
 species of popular Italian comedy, dis- 
 tinguished from others by having certain 
 flxed or stock characters. The creator 
 of the regular Italian comedy and tragedy 
 was a Greek named Livius Andronicus, 
 about 240 B.C. Like the Italian tragedy, 
 the Italian comedy was, in form and con- 
 tents, an imitation, executed with more or 
 less freedom, of the Greek. It was the New 
 Greek Comedy which the Eomans took as 
 
 their model. This comedy, which rejDre- 
 sents scenes from Greek life, was called 
 pallidfa, after the Greek pallium, or cloak. 
 The dramatic satura, and the Atellana, 
 which afterwards supplanted the satura as 
 a concluding farce, continued to exist side 
 by side. The Latin comedy was brought to 
 perfection by Plautus and Terence, the only 
 Roman dramatists from whose hands we 
 still possess complete plays. We should also 
 mention Nsevius and Ennius (both of whom 
 wrote tragedies as well as comedies), 
 Csecilius, and Turpilius, with whom, to- 
 wards the end of the 3nd century B.C., 
 this style of composition died out. 
 
 About the middle of the 2nd century 
 B.C. a new kind of comedy, the togata, 
 (from toga) made its appearance. The form 
 of it was still Greek, but the life and the 
 characters Italian. The togata was re- 
 presented by Titinius, Atta, and Afranius, 
 who was accounted the master in this kind 
 of writing. At the beginning of the 1st 
 century B.C. the Atellana assumed an 
 artistic form in the hands of Pomponius 
 and Novius ; and some fifty years later the 
 mimus, also an old form of popular farce, 
 was similarly handled by Laberius and 
 Publilius Syrus. The mimus drove all the 
 other varieties of comedy from the field, 
 and held its ground until late in the im- 
 perial period. 
 
 The Roman comedy, like its model, the 
 New Comedy of the Greeks, had no chorus, 
 the intervals being filled up by perfor- 
 mances on the flute. The play consisted, 
 like the Roman tragedy, partly of passages 
 of spoken dialogue in iambic trimeters, 
 partly of musical scenes called cantic.a. 
 {See Canticum.) 
 
 Comissatio. See Meals. 
 
 Comitia. The popular assemblies of the 
 Romans, summoned and presided over by a 
 mdgistrdtus. In the com,itia the Roman 
 people appeared as distributed into its 
 political sections, for the purpose of de- 
 ciding, in the exercise of its sovereign rights, 
 upon the business brought before it by the 
 presiding magistrate. The comitia must be 
 distinguished from the contiones. The 
 contiones were also summoned and presided 
 over by a magistrate, but they did not 
 assemble in their divisions, and they had 
 nothing to do but to receive the commu- 
 nications of the magistrate. In all its 
 assemblies at Rome, the people remained 
 standing. The original place of meeting 
 was the comlttum, a part of the forum. 
 There were three kinds of comitia, viz. : 
 
154 
 
 COMITIA. 
 
 (1) The Comitia Cfirhlta. This was the 
 assembly of the patricians in their thirty 
 cut'iw, who, until the change of the con- 
 stitution under Servius Tullius, constituted 
 the whole poj^ulus Eomdnus. During the 
 regal period they were summoned by the 
 rex or interrex, who brought before them 
 questions to be decided Aye or No. The 
 voting was taken first in each curia by 
 heads, and then according to curia, in an 
 order determined by lot. The business 
 within the competence of this assembly 
 was : (a) to elect a king proposed by the 
 intcrrex ; (b) to confer upon the king the 
 imperium, by virtue of the lex curidta de 
 imperio / (c) to decide on declarations of war, 
 appeals, arrogationes {see Adoption), and 
 the reception of foreign families into the 
 body of the patricians. The Servian con- 
 stitution transferred the right of declaring 
 aggressive war, and the right of deciding 
 appeals, to the Comitia CentUrultd, which, 
 from this time onward, represented the 
 people, now composed of both patricians 
 and plebeians. After the establishment of 
 the Republic, the Comitia Curiata retained 
 the right (a) of conferring, on the proposal 
 of the senate, the imperium on the magis- 
 trates elected by the Comitia Centuriata, 
 and on the dictator elected by the consuls ; 
 (b) of confirming, likewise on the proposal 
 of the senate, the alterations in the consti- 
 tution decided upon by the Comitia Cen- 
 turiata, and Trlbuta. 
 
 The extinction of the political difference 
 between Patricians and Plebeians destroyed 
 the political position of the Coviitia 
 Curiata, and the mere shadow of their 
 rights survived. The assembly itself be- 
 came an unreality, so much so that, in the 
 end, the presence of the thirty Victor es 
 curiatl, and three augurs, was sufiicient to 
 enable legal resolutions to be passed (see 
 LiCTOEs). But the Comitia Curiata re- 
 tained the powers affecting the reception of 
 a non-patrician into the patrician order, 
 and the powers affecting the proceeding of 
 arrOgatlo, especially in cases where the 
 transition of a patrician into a plebeian 
 family was concerned. Evidence of the 
 exercise of these functions on their part 
 may be traced down the imperial period. 
 
 The Comitia Calatu were also an 
 assembly of the patrician curice. They 
 were so called because publicly summoned 
 (calare). The pontifices presided, and the 
 functions of the assembly were : (n) to in- 
 augurate the flamines, the rex sacrorum, 
 and indeed the king himself during the 
 
 regal period. (&) The detestatw sacrorum, 
 previous to an act of arrogatio. This was 
 the formal release of a person passing by 
 adoption into another family from the sacra 
 of his former family (see Adoption), (c) 
 The ratification of wills twice a year ; but 
 this applies only to an earl)' period, 
 (rf) The announcement of the calendar of 
 festivals on the first day of every month. 
 
 (2) Comitia Centuriata. The assembly 
 of the whole people, patrician as well as 
 plebeian, arranged according to the centurice 
 established by Servius Tullius. The 
 original founder of the comitia centuriata 
 transferred to them certain political rights 
 which had previously been exercised by 
 the comitia curiata. It was not, however, 
 until the foundation of the Republic, when 
 the sovereign power in the state was trans- 
 ferred to the body of citizens, that they 
 attained their real political importance. 
 They then became the assembly in which 
 the people, collectively, expressed its will. 
 The right of summoning the comitia cen- 
 turiata originally belonged to the king. 
 During the republican period it belonged, 
 in its hxW extent, to the consuls and the 
 dictator alone. The other magistrates 
 possessed it only within certain limits. 
 The intcrrex, for instance, could, in case of 
 there being no consuls, summon the comitia 
 centm'iata to hold an election, but he could 
 summon them for this purpose only. The 
 censors could call them together only for 
 the holding of the census and the lustnim / 
 the praetors, it may be conjectured, only 
 in the case of capital trials. In all other 
 instances the consent of the consuls, or 
 their authorisation, was indispensable. 
 
 The duties of the comitia centuriata 
 during the republican period were as 
 follows : (a) To elect the higher magis- 
 trates, consuls, censors, and praetors, (b) To 
 give judgment in all the capital trials in 
 which appeal to the people was permitted 
 from the sentence of the magistrate sitting 
 in judgment. This popular jurisdiction 
 was gradually limited to political trials, 
 common offences being dealt with by the 
 ordinary commissions. And in the later 
 republican age the judicial assemblies of 
 the comitia centuriata became, in general, 
 rarer, especially after the formation of special 
 standing commissions {qucestlones perpS- 
 tiLCB) for the trial of a number of offences 
 regarded as political. (c) To decide on 
 declaring a war of aggression ; this on the 
 proposal of the consuls, with the approval 
 of the senate. (fZ) To pass laws proposed 
 
COMITIA. 
 
 155 
 
 by theliiglier magistrates, with the approval 
 of the senate. This right lost much of its 
 value after 287 B.C., when the legislative 
 powers of the comitia tributa were made 
 equail to those of the comitia centuriata. 
 After this time the legislative activity of 
 the latter assembly gradually diminished. 
 
 The comitia centuriata were originally a 
 military assembly, and the citizens accord- 
 ingly, in ancient times, attended them, in 
 arms. On the night before the meeting, the 
 magistrate summoning the assembly took 
 the auspices on the place of meeting, the 
 Campus Martius. If the auspices were 
 favourable, signals were given, before day- 
 break, from the walls and the citadel by the 
 blowing of horns, summoning the citizens to 
 a conMo. The presiding magistrate offered 
 a sacrifice, and repeated a solemn prayer, 
 and the assembly proceeded to consider the 
 business which required its decision. Private 
 individuals were not allowed to speak, except 
 with the consent of the presiding magistrate. 
 At his command the armed people divided 
 themselves into their centuriw, and marched 
 in this order to the Carnpus Martius, pre- 
 ceded by banners, and headed by the 
 cavalry. Arrived at the Campus, they pro- 
 ceeded to the voting, the president having 
 again put the proposal to the people in the 
 form of a question ("Do you wish?" "Do 
 you command ? ") While the voting was 
 going on, a red flag stood on the Jamctilum. 
 The equltes, who in ancient times used to 
 begin the battles in war, opened the voting, 
 and their eighteen centuries were therefore 
 called prcerogatZvcE. The result of their 
 vote was immediately published, and, being 
 taken as an omen for the voters who were 
 to follow, was usually decisive. Then came 
 the 175 centuries of the five classes of in- 
 fantry in their order. Each centuria 
 counted as casting one vote ; this vote was 
 decided by a previous voting within the 
 centuria, which was at first open, but in 
 later times was taken by ballot. If the 18 
 centuries of eqvites, and the 80 centuries of 
 the first class, with whom went the two cen- 
 turies of mechanics {centurioe fabrum), were 
 unanimous, the question was decided, as there 
 would be a majority of 100 centuries to 93. 
 If not, the voting went on until one side 
 secured the votes of at least 97 centuries. 
 The lower classes only voted in the rare 
 cases where the votes of the higher classes 
 were not united. The proceedings con- 
 cluded with a formal announcement of. the 
 result on the part of the presiding magis- 
 trate, and the dismissal of the host. If no 
 
 result was arrived at by sunset, or if un- 
 favourable omens appeared during the pro- 
 ceedings, or while the voting was going on, 
 the assembly was adjourned until the next 
 convenient occasion. 
 
 This form of voting gave the wealthier 
 citizens a, decided advantage over the poorer, 
 and lent an aristocratic character to the 
 comitia centuriata. In the 3rd century 
 B.C. a change was introduced in the interest 
 of the lower classes. Each of the thirty- 
 five tnbus, or districts, into which the Ro- 
 man territory was divided, included two 
 centuria} of iumores and seniores respec- 
 tively. (For the five classes, see Centueia.) 
 Thus each of the five classes included 70 
 centuriai, making 350 centurioi in all. To 
 this number add the eighteen centurice 
 equitum, and the five centurice not in- 
 cluded in the propertied classes ; namely, 
 two of fabri (mechanics), two of tUbicines 
 (musicians), and one of proletarii and 
 liberti (the very poor and the freedmen), 
 and the whole number of centuries amounts 
 to 373. The centurice, it must be remem- 
 bered, had by this time quite lost their 
 military character. Under this arrange- 
 ment the 88 votes of the equites and the 
 first classis were confronted with the 285 
 votes of the rest. Besides this, the right 
 of voting first was taken from the equites 
 and given to the centuria prcerogativa 
 chosen by lot from the first classis. The 
 voting, it is true, was still taken in the 
 order of the classes, but the classes were 
 seldom unanimous as in former times ; for 
 the interests of the trlbus, which were re- 
 presented in each classis by two centurice 
 respectively, were generally divergent, and 
 the centuries voted in the sense of their 
 tribe. The consequence was that it was 
 often necessary — indeed, perhaps that it 
 became the rule, at least at elections — to 
 take the votes of all the classes. 
 
 In old times the military arrangement 
 was sufficient to secure the maintenance of 
 order. But, after its disappearance, the 
 classes were separated, and the centurice 
 kept apart by wooden barriers (soepta), 
 from which the centurice passed over 
 bridges into an open inner space called 
 dvtle (sheep-fold). On the position of the 
 comitia centuriata during the imperial 
 age, see below. 
 
 (3) Comitia Tributa. This was the 
 collective assembly of the people arranged 
 according to the local distribution of tribes 
 {see Teibus). When the tribuneship of the 
 plebs was established (B.C. 494) the tribunes 
 
15G 
 
 COMITIA. 
 
 were allowed the right of summoning as- 
 semblies of the jjZefts in its tribes to consider 
 questions affecting its interests. Out of 
 these councils of the plehs (concilia pleMs) 
 were afterwards (B.C. 449) formed the co- 
 initla trihuta, in which the patricians were 
 represented as well as the plebeians; but 
 the plebeians had the preponderance, as 
 they were the more numerous, and as the 
 voting qualification was exactly equal. By 
 a law passed in 449 B.C., and finally ratified 
 in 286, the plebi scZta, or resolutions of the 
 comitia tribufa, were declared binding upon 
 the whole populus. The consequence was 
 that this assembly, side by side with the 
 comitia centui'iafa, became the representa- 
 tive of the popular siipremacy, and indeed 
 its proper and constitutional organ. This 
 was specially the case in regard to legis- 
 lation, the more so as it was far simpler 
 to summon the people by tribes than by 
 centuries. 
 
 The right of summoning the comitia tri- 
 huta lay chiefly, though not exclusively, 
 with the tnbuni. Their consent was re- 
 garded as an indispensable condition, if 
 another magistrate wished to summon or 
 preside over the comitia trihuta. Until 
 the latter years of the Republic, the assem- 
 bly usually met upon the Capitol, and after- 
 wards on the Campus Martins. The 
 functions of the cornitia trihuta, gradually 
 acquired, were as follows : (n) The election 
 of all the lower magistrates, ordinary (as 
 the tribuni pJehis, tribuni mlUtum, cediles 
 plcbis, cediles cUrules) and extraordinary, 
 under the presidency partly of the tribunes, 
 partly of the consuls or praetors. (&) The 
 nomination of the pontifex maximus, and 
 of the co-opted members of the religious 
 collegia of the piontiflces, augUres, and 
 dcccmiiri sacroruin. This nomination was 
 carried out by a committee of seventeen 
 tribes chosen by lot. (e) To give judicial 
 decisions in all suits instituted by the tri- 
 bunes and sediles of the plebs, for offences 
 against the plebs or its representatives. In 
 later times these suits were mostly insti- 
 tuted on the ground of bad or illegal ad- 
 ministration. The tribunes and sediles 
 had, in these cases, the power of inflicting 
 pecuniary fines ranging up to a large 
 amount, (d) To pass resolutions on pro- 
 posals made by the tribunes of the plebs 
 and the higher magistrates on foreign and 
 domestic affairs, on the conclusion of peace, 
 for instance, or the making of treaties. 
 Their power was almost unlimited, and the 
 more important because, strictly speaking, 
 
 it was only the higher magistrates who re- 
 quired the authorization of the senate. Nor 
 had the senate more than the right of 
 quashing a measure passed without due 
 formalities. 
 
 The comitia trihuta were summoned at 
 least seventeen days before the meeting, by 
 the simple proclamation of a herald. As in 
 the case of the comitia centuriata, business 
 could neither be begun nor continued in 
 the face of adverse auspices. Like the 
 comitia centuriata too, the tribal assembly 
 met at daybreak, and conld not sit beyond 
 sunset. If summoned by the tribunes, the 
 comitia trihuta could only meet in the city, 
 or within the radius of a mile from it. The 
 usual place of assembly was the Forum or 
 the comitium {q.v.). If summoned by other 
 authorities, the assembly met outside the 
 city, most commonly in the Campus Martius. 
 The proceedings opened with a prayer, un- 
 accompanied by sacrifice. The business in 
 hand was then discussed in a contio {see 
 above, p. 155 a) ; and the proposal having 
 been read out, the meeting was requested 
 to arrange itself according to its thirty-five 
 tribes in the sapta or wooden fences. Lots 
 were drawn to decide which tribe should 
 vote first. The tribe on which this duty fell 
 was called principium. The result of this 
 first vote was proclaimed, and the other 
 tribes then proceeded to vote simultane- 
 ously, not successively. The votes given 
 by each tribe were then announced in an 
 order determined by lot. Finally, the 
 general result of the voting was made 
 known. 
 
 The proposer of a measure was bound to 
 put his proposal into due form, and publish 
 it beforehand. When a measure came to 
 the vote, it was accepted or rejected as a 
 whole. It became law when the presiding 
 magistrate announced that it had been 
 accepted. 
 
 The character of the comitia had begun 
 to decline even in the later period of the 
 Republic. Even the citizens of Rome took 
 but little part in them, and this is still more 
 true of the population of Italy, who had 
 received the Roman citizenship in 89 B.C. 
 The comitia trihuta, in particular, sank 
 gradually into a mere gathering of the city 
 mob, strengthened on all sides by the influx 
 of corrupt elements. The results of the 
 voting came more and more to represent 
 not the public interest, but the effects of 
 direct or indirect corruption. Under the 
 Empire the comitia centuriata and trihuta 
 continued to exist, in a shadowy form, it is 
 
COMITIUM COMMEECE, 
 
 157 
 
 true, down to the 3rd century a.d. Julius 
 Csesar had deprived them of the right of 
 deciding on war and peace. Under Au- 
 gustus they lost the power of jurisdiction, 
 and, practically, the power of legislation. 
 The imperial measures were indeed laid 
 before the comitia tributa for ratification, 
 but this was all ; and under the successors 
 of Augustus even this proceeding became 
 rarer. Since the time of Vespasian the 
 emperors, at their accession, received their 
 legislative and other powers from the 
 comitia tributa; but this, like the rest, 
 was a mere formality. The power of elec- 
 tion was that which, in appearance at least, 
 survived longest. Augustus, like Julius 
 Caesar, allowed the comitia centuriata to 
 confirm the nomination of two candidates 
 for the consulship. He also left to the 
 comitia centuriata and tributa the power 
 of free election to half the other magis- 
 tracies ; the other half being filled by 
 nominees of his own. Tiberius transferred 
 the last remnant of free elective power to 
 the senate, whose proposals, originating 
 under imperial influence, were laid before 
 the comitia for ratification. The formali- 
 ties, the auspices, prayer, sacrifice, and 
 proclamation, were now the important thing, 
 and the measures proposed were carried, 
 not by regular voting, but by acclama- 
 tion. 
 
 Comitium. The name of a small space in 
 Rome, bounded on the north by the senate- 
 house (see Curia), and on the south by 
 the rostra {see Rostra). Down to the 2nd 
 century B.C. it was used for the meetings 
 the assemblies and of the courts of law. 
 After the removal of the rostra it became 
 part of the Forum. See Plan under Eorum, 
 No. 18. 
 
 Commerce. Greece, In the Homeric poems 
 the Greeks are not represented as a people 
 with a spontaneous inclination to com- 
 merce. Indeed, the position of the oldest 
 G-reek cities, far away from the sea, suffici- 
 ently shows that their founders can have 
 had no idea of trade as a means of getting 
 wealth. Greek navigation in ancient times 
 was almost exclusively subservient to war 
 and piracy, to which, for a long time, no 
 stigma was attached in public opinion. And 
 the trade carried on with Greece by the 
 Asiatics, especially the Phoenicians, who 
 then ruled the Greek seas, can hardly have 
 been very active. The Greeks, having no 
 agricultural or industrial produce to offer, 
 could not have tempted many foreigners to 
 deal with them, But in the centuries suc- 
 
 ceeding the Homeric age, the commerce of 
 Greece was revolutionized. 
 
 The islands, especially Mglna. and Euboea, 
 were foremost in commercial undertak- 
 ings; the only continental town which 
 was at all successful in this way being 
 Corinth, which was favoured by its incom- 
 parable position. It was the foundation of 
 the Hellenic colonies in Asia Minor that 
 first occasioned the free development of 
 Greek trade. The exertions of the lonians 
 were mainly instrumental in creating two 
 things indispensable to its success, namely, 
 commercial activity, excited by contact with 
 the ancient industries of the East, and a 
 maritime power in the proper sense, which 
 made it possible to oust the Phoenicians 
 from the naval supremacy which thej'' had 
 so long maintained. This new commercial 
 activity necessitated a larger use of the 
 precious metals, and the establishment of a 
 gold and silver coinage, which the lonians 
 were the first among the Greeks to adopt. 
 This proved a powerful stimulus to the 
 development of commerce, or rather it was 
 the very condition of its existence. Miletus 
 took the first place among the trading 
 colonies. The influence of these cities upon 
 their mother country was so strong that 
 even the Dorians gradually lost their 
 national and characteristic dislike of trade 
 and commerce, and threw themselves ac- 
 tively into their pursuit. Down to the 6th 
 century B.C., Greek commerce had extended 
 itself to the coasts of the Mediterranean 
 and the inland seas connected with it, 
 especially towards the East. It was not 
 until a later time that Athens joined the 
 circle of commercial cities. Even in Solon's 
 time the Athenians had lived mainly 
 by agriculture and cattle-breeding, and it 
 was only with the growth of the democratic 
 constitution that their commercial inter- 
 course with the other cities became at all 
 considerable. The Persian wars, and her 
 position as head of the naval confederacy, 
 raised Athens to the position of the first 
 maritime power in Greece. Under the ad- 
 ministration of Pericles she became the 
 centre of all Hellenic activity, not only in 
 art and science, but in trade. It was only 
 Corinth and Corcyra whose western trade 
 enabled them to maintain a prominent 
 position by the side of Athens. The Greeks 
 of Asia Minor completely lost their com- 
 mercial position after their conquest by the 
 Persians. The naval supremacy of Athens, 
 and with it its commerce, was completely 
 annihilated by the Peloponnesian war. It 
 
158 
 
 COMMERCE. 
 
 was a long time before the Athenians suc- 
 ceeded in breaking down the maritime 
 power of Sparta which that war had estab- 
 lished. Having done so, they recovered, but 
 only for a short time, a position of promin- 
 ence not at all equal to their former 
 supremacy by sea. The victory of the 
 Macedonian power entirely destroyed the 
 political and commercial importance of 
 Athens, whose trade now fell behind that 
 of other cities. The place of Athens, as 
 the first maritime and commercial power, 
 was taken by the city of Rhodes, founded 
 in 408 B.C. By the second half of the 4th 
 century B.C. the trade of Rhodes had ex- 
 tended itself over the whole known world, 
 and its maritime law was universally ob- 
 served until a much later period. After 
 the destruction of Corinth in the middle of 
 the 2nd centary B.C. the island of Delos 
 enjoyed a brief but brilliant period of pros- 
 perity. Among the commercial cities of the 
 Grseco-Macedonian empire, Alexandria in 
 Egypt took the first place, and rose indeed 
 to be the centre of European and Eastern 
 trade. It was mainly through Alexandria 
 that intercourse was kept up between 
 Greece and the Eastern countries opened up 
 by the campaigns of Alexander the Great. 
 
 One of the most important routes followed 
 by Grecian traffic was that leading to the 
 Black Sea, the coasts of which were fringed 
 with Greek colonies. Besides Byzantium 
 and Sinope, the chief commercial centres 
 in this region were Olbia, PanticS-pseum, 
 Phanagoria, and Phasis, from which trade- 
 routes penetrated far into the barbarian 
 countries of the interior. Other main 
 routes led by Chios and Lesbos to the 
 coasts of Asia Minor and by the Cyclades 
 to that part of the Asiatic coast where lay 
 the great cities of Samos, Ephesus, and 
 Miletus. Hence they continued to Egypt 
 and Cyrene, by Rhodes and Cyprus and the 
 coast of Phoenicia. But in travelling to 
 these parts from the Peloponnesus, they 
 genei-ally sailed by way of Crete, which had 
 been long celebrated for its maritime enter- 
 prise. Round the promontory of Malea, the 
 southernmost point of the Peloponnese, and 
 by Corcyra, they sailed northwards to the 
 coasts of the Adriatic, or westward to Italy 
 and Sicily. Regular traffic beyond Sicily 
 was rendered impossible by the jealousy of 
 the Carthaginians and Etruscans, who were 
 masters of the commerce in this region, and 
 whose place was afterwards taken there by 
 the Romans. A considerable land-traffic 
 was carried on by the colonies with bar- 
 
 barians of the interior. But in Greece 
 Proper the mountainous nature of the 
 country and the absence of navigable rivers 
 were unfavourable to communication by 
 land, and the land-traffic accordingly was 
 entirely thrown into the shade by the mari- 
 time trade. The only opportunity for com- 
 merce by land on a large scale was afforded 
 hj the great national festivals, which 
 brought together great crowds of people 
 from every part of Greece, and secured 
 them a safe conduct {see Ekecheiria). 
 In this way these festivals exactly corre- 
 sponded to our trade fairs. 
 
 The exports of Greece consisted mainly 
 in wine, oil, and manufactured goods, espe- 
 cially pottery and metal wares. The im- 
 ports included the necessaries of life, of 
 which Greece itself, with its dense popula- 
 tion, artificially increased by slavery, did 
 not produce a sufficient quantity. The 
 staple was wheat, which was imported in 
 large quantities from the coasts of the 
 Black Sea, Egypt, and Sicily. Next came 
 wood for houses and for ships, and raw 
 materials of all kind for manufacture. The 
 foreign manufactures imported were mostly 
 objects of luxury. Finally we should men- 
 tion the large number of imported slaves. 
 
 Comparing the circumstances of the an- 
 cient Greek maritime commerce with those 
 of modern trade, we may observe that the 
 ancients were much hampered by having 
 no commission agencies and no system of 
 exchange. The proprietor of the cargo 
 sailed with it, or sent a representative with 
 full powers. No transaction was carried 
 on without payment in ready money, which 
 was often rendered difficult by the exist- 
 ence of different systems of coinage. With 
 uncivilized tribes, notably those on the 
 Black Sea, a system of barter long main- 
 tained itself. As no goods could be bought 
 without cash payments, and men of pro- 
 perty generally preferred to lend out their 
 capital to borrowers at high interest, a sys- 
 tem of bottomry was extensively developed 
 in Greek maritime trade. The creditor 
 usually took care in lending the capital 
 necessary for loading the ship, to secure 
 a lien on the ship, or the cargo, or both. 
 With this he undertook the risks of the 
 business, charging interest at a very high 
 rate, generally 20 to 30 per cent. The writ- 
 ten contract contained other specifications 
 as to the ship and the rate of interest, for 
 the breach of which certain customary 
 penalties were fixed. These had reference 
 to the destination of the ship, and, gener- 
 
COMMERCE. 
 
 150 
 
 allj' speaking, to the route and the time to 
 be occupied, to the character and value of 
 the wares, and to the repayment of the 
 loan ; the latter to determine whether it 
 should he made on the ship's arriving at 
 its destination, or on its return home. In 
 the first case the creditor would often sail 
 with the ship, if he had no representative 
 on the spot or at the port for which she 
 was bound. 
 
 At Athens, and no doubt in other cities, 
 the interests of the creditor were protected 
 by a strict code of laws. Fraudulent appro- 
 priation of a deposit was punishable with 
 death ; dilatoriness in payment with im- 
 prisonment. The creditor was allowed to 
 seize not only the security, but the whole 
 property of the debtor. In other respects 
 Athenian legislation secured several ad- 
 vantages to traders. Commercial cases only 
 came before the law courts in winter, when 
 navigation was impossible, and they had to be 
 decided within a month. In ordinary cases 
 of debt the creditor could only seize on the 
 debtor's property ; but in commercial cases 
 he was liable to be imprisoned if condemned 
 to payment. In other matters aliens had 
 to be represented in court by a citizen ; in 
 commercial cases they could appear in per- 
 son. It was the duty of the Thesmothetse 
 to see to the preparation of these cases. The 
 trial was carried on and the verdict given 
 by a special tribunal, the Nautddicce {see 
 Nautodic^). Merchants could easily ob- 
 tain the considerable privilege of exemption 
 from military service, though they were not 
 legally entitled to it. 
 
 In general it may be said that the Greek 
 states, in consideration of the importance 
 of trade, went very far in providing for its 
 interests. They did their best to secure 
 its safety and independence by force of 
 arms, and concluded treaties with the same 
 end in view. This is especially true of those 
 agreements which regulated the legal rela- 
 tions of the citizens of the two states in 
 their intercourse with each other, and pre- 
 scribed the forms to be observed by the 
 citizens of one state when bringing suits 
 against those of another. The institution 
 of proxeni, corresponding to that of the 
 modern consuls, was of immense benefit to 
 the trading community. The Greek gov- 
 ernments did a great deal in the way of 
 constructing harbours, warehouses, and 
 buildings for exchange in the neighbour- 
 hood of the harbours. The superintendence 
 of the harbour traffic, like that of the mar- 
 ket traffic, was entrusted to special govern- 
 
 ment officials; in Athens, for instance, to 
 the ten overseers of the Emporium {see 
 Agoranomi). The Athenians had also a 
 special board, called mStrdndmi, to see that 
 the weights and measures were correct. It 
 was only in exceptional cases that the free- 
 dom of trade was interfered with by mono- 
 polies, nor was it usual to lay prohibitions 
 upon imports. Prohibitions of exportation 
 were, however, much commoner. In many 
 states, as e.g. in Macedonia, it was forbidden 
 to export building materials, especially wood 
 for ship-building; and no grain might be 
 exported from Attica. Again, no Athenian 
 merchant was permitted to carry corn to 
 any harbour but that of Athens ; no citizen 
 or resident alien could lend money on the 
 security of ships carrying corn to any place 
 but Athens. Even foreigners who came 
 with corn into the harbour of Athens were 
 compelled to deposit two-thirds of it for 
 sale there. To prevent excessive profits 
 being realized iu the corn trade, it was made 
 a capital offence for any private citizen to 
 buy up more than 50 bushels at a time, or 
 sell it at a profit of more than an obSlos a 
 bushel. The corn trade was under the 
 superintendence of a board called sltophy- 
 IdJces. In the prevailing activity of com- 
 merce, the tolls on exports and imports were 
 a plentiful source of revenue to the Greek 
 government. 
 
 In Greek society petty trading was 
 thought a vulgar and sordid pursuit, and 
 was left to the poorer citizens and resident 
 aliens. In Athens the class of resident 
 aliens included a great number of the larger 
 dealers ; for the wealthier and more respect- 
 able citizens liked lending their capital to 
 others engaged in trade better than engag- 
 ing in trade themselves. 
 
 Italy. In Italy an active commerce was 
 early carried on at sea by the Etruscans, 
 the other Italian peoples taking only a 
 passive part in it. But Rome, from a very 
 early time, became the commercial centre of 
 Middle Italy. It was situated on a river 
 deep enough to admit large vessels, the 
 upper course and tributaries of which were 
 also navigable. Its position was much im- 
 proved by the harbour at the colony of 
 Ostia, said to have been constructed under 
 king Ancus Martins. So long as the 
 Etruscans and Carthaginians and (as in 
 later times) the Greek cities of Southern 
 Italy and Sicily, like Tarentum and Syra- 
 cuse, ruled the sea, the maritime power and 
 commerce of Rome were restricted within 
 very narrow limits. Even as late as the 
 
IGO 
 
 COMMERCIUM CONSECRATIO. 
 
 middle of the 4tli century B.C. tlie traiSc 
 of Rome was confined to Sardinia, Sicily 
 and Africa. But, witli the extension of the 
 Roman power, Roman commerce assumed 
 wider dimensions. At the end of the re- 
 publican period Roman ships were on every 
 sea, and there was a flourishing interior 
 trade in Italy and all the provinces. Wher- 
 ever there was a navigable river it was 
 used for communication with the happiest 
 results. After the second Punic War, Rome 
 gradually acquired the character of a great 
 commercial city, where the products of the 
 whole world, natural and industrial, found 
 a market. The most considerable import 
 was corn, and this at all periods of Roman 
 history {sec AnnOjSTA). The chief exports 
 of Italy were wine and oil, to which we 
 must add, after the development of Italian 
 industry, manufactured goods. The trading 
 harbour of Rome was Puteoli (Pozzuoli), 
 on the Bay of Naples, while Ostia was used 
 mainly by corn-ships. Petty dealing was 
 regarded unfavourablj' bj;- the Romans as 
 by the Greeks ; but trade on a large scale 
 was thought quite respectable, though in 
 older times members of the senate were not 
 allowed to engage in it. Most of the larger 
 undertakings at Rome were in the hands of 
 joint-stock companies (see Publicani), the 
 existence of which made it possible for 
 small capitalists to share in the profits and 
 risks of commerce. It was indeed an old 
 maxim of business men at Rome that it was 
 better to have smaU shares in a number of 
 speculations than to speculate indepen- 
 dently. The corn trade, in particular, was 
 in the hands of these companies. The gov- 
 ernment allowed them to transport corn 
 from Sardinia, Sicily, Spain, Africa, and 
 Egypt to Rome ; whole fleets of vessels, con- 
 structed for the purpose, being appointed to 
 this service. Foreign trade was subjected 
 to a number of restrictions. The exporta- 
 tion of certain products was absolutely 
 prohibited ; for instance, iron, whether un- 
 wrought or manufactured, arms, coin, salt, 
 and gold ; and duties were levied on all im- 
 ports. There were also numerous restric- 
 tions on trade in the interior, as each 
 province formed a unit of taxation, in 
 which toll had to be paid on entering or 
 leaving it. Among the state monopolies, 
 the most important was that of salt. 
 
 Commerclum. A legal relation existing 
 between two Italian states, according to 
 which the citizens of each had the same 
 right of acquiring property, especially landed 
 property, in the territory of the other. 
 
 Commercium also included the powers of 
 inheriting legacies and contracting obliga- 
 tions. 
 
 Compgrendinatio. [The Latin name for 
 the postponement of a trial for a definite 
 time by consent of both parties, each being 
 bound to appear. To be distinguished from 
 ampUatlo, which seems to have meant an 
 indefinite postponement, in consequence of 
 uncertainty on the part of the jury.] 
 
 Compitalia. See Lakes. 
 
 Compluvium. ;S^ee House. 
 
 Concordia. The Latin personification of 
 concord or harmony, especially among 
 Roman citizens. Shrines were repeatedly 
 erected to Concordia during the republican 
 period after the cessation of civil dissensions. 
 The earliest was dedicated by Camillus in 
 367 B.C. The goddess Concordia was also 
 invoked, together with Janus, Salus, and 
 Pax, at the family festival of the Caristia, 
 on the 30th March, and, with Venus and 
 Portuna, by married women on the 1st of 
 April (see Manes). During the imperial 
 period Concordia Augusta was worshipped 
 as the protectress of harmony, especially of 
 matrimonial agreement, in the emperor's 
 household. 
 
 Confarrgatio. See Maeriage, 2. 
 
 Congiarium. The Latin word for a pre- 
 sent of oil and wine, given to the people in 
 addition to the regnilar distribution of corn 
 by magistrates and candidates for office 
 (see Annona). The custom began in repub- 
 lican times. Under the Empire the word 
 was further applied to the presents of oil, 
 wine, and salt, and later of ready money, 
 which the emperor made regularly to the 
 people on certain festive occasions, as on 
 his accession and on his birthday. {See 
 
 DONATIVUM.) 
 
 Consficratio. The act of the Roman 
 povMfices, in virtue of which a thing was 
 proclaimed as sdcer, i.e. belonging to, or 
 forfeited to, the gods. (On the rite of 
 consecratio associated with the solemn dedi- 
 cation of a sanctuary, see Dedicatio ; on 
 consecratio as the apotheosis of the emperor, 
 see Apotheosis.) In case of certain offences, 
 sentjnce of consecratio capitis et hSnorum 
 was pronounced upon the offender, whose 
 person and property were then made over 
 as a sacrifice to some deitj'. A married 
 man who sold his wife was devoted to the 
 gods below ; a son who beat his lather, to 
 the household gods ; one who removed his 
 neighbour's landmark to Terminus ; a 
 imfronus who betrayed his client, or a client 
 who betrayed his patronus, to Jupiter • 
 
CONSILIUM CONSULES. 
 
 161 
 
 one who stole corn in the ear, to Ceres. To 
 kill a homo sclcer was not accounted as 
 murder, but as the fulfilment of the divine 
 vengeance. 
 
 Consilium. The Latin word for a council, 
 or body of advisers. Such councils were 
 called in, according to ancient custom, 
 by the presiding magistrate in civil and 
 criminal cases. Even in the family tribunals, 
 which decided cases affecting the members 
 of the gens, a consiliiim of kinsfolk was 
 thought necessary. The custom was that 
 the presiding judge bound himself by tiie 
 decision of his freely chosen consilium, but 
 took the responsibility himself. The expres- 
 sion consilium was afterwards transferred 
 to the regular juries of the courts which 
 decided civil and criminal cases {see 
 Centumviei, Judices). The emperors, too, 
 made a practice of inviting a consilium of 
 friends to assist them in their judicial 
 decisions. After the time of Hadrian, the 
 members of the imperial consilium appear 
 as regularly appointed and salaried officers, 
 the Consiliarli Augustl. These were gene- 
 rally, though not exclusively, selected from 
 the body of professional jurists. After the 
 4th century a.d. the word consistorium 
 was substituted for consilium; meaning, 
 originally, the council-chamber in the im- 
 perial palace. 
 
 Consualia. See Consus. 
 
 Consules (originally called Prcetores). 
 The Roman consuls were the magistrates 
 to whom the supreme authority was trans- 
 ferred from the kings, after the expulsion 
 of the latter in 510 B.C. The consuls gave 
 their name to the year. They were elected 
 by the comttia centuriata, and, down to 
 B.C. 366, from the Patricians only. The 
 legal age at which a man might be elected 
 was. in the time of Cicero, forty-three. 
 The time of entering on the office varied 
 in the early periods : in 222 B.C. it was fixed 
 to March 15th, in 153 to the 1st of January. 
 The accession of the new consuls was at- 
 tended with the performance of certain cere- 
 monies, among which may be mentioned a 
 procession of the consuls to the Capitol, with 
 the senate, equites, and other citizens of 
 position, as escort; an offering of white 
 bulls to Jupiter, and the utterance of solemn 
 vows. 
 
 The consuls were the representatives of 
 the royal authority, and consequently all 
 other magistrates were bound to obey them, 
 with the exception of the tribunes of the 
 plebs and the dictator. During a dictator- 
 ship their powers feU into abeyance. In 
 
 D, C. A. 
 
 the city their authority was limited by the 
 right of appeal to the people, and the veto 
 of the tribunes. But in the army, and over 
 their subordinates, they had full power of 
 life and death. Some of their original 
 functions passed from them in course of 
 time. Thus in 444 B.C. the business of the 
 census was made over to the Censors ; in 
 366 the civil jurisdiction within the city, 
 so far as it included the right of performing 
 the acts of adoption, emancipation, and 
 liberation of slaves, was transferred to the 
 prgetors. In the field, however, having the 
 criminal jurisdiction in their hands, they 
 had also the right of deciding in civil cases 
 affecting the soldiers. In the general 
 administration of public business the con- 
 suls, although formally recognised as the 
 supreme authority, gradually became, in 
 practice, dependent upon the senate and 
 the cojnitia, as they had only the power 
 of preparing the resolutions proposed, and 
 carrying them out if accepted. Within the 
 city, their powers were virttially confined 
 to summoning the senate and com,itia, and 
 presiding over their meetings. They also 
 nominated the dictators, and conducted the 
 elections and legislation in the comttia, and 
 the levies of soldiers. After the office of 
 dictator fell into abeyance, the power of 
 the consuls was, in cases of great danger, 
 increased to dictatorial authority by a 
 special decree of the senate. 
 
 An essential characteristic of the consular 
 office was that it was collegial ; and there- 
 fore, if one consul died, another (called 
 consul suffectus) was immediately elected. 
 This consul suffectus had absolutely the 
 same authority as his colleague^ but he had 
 to lay down his office with him at the end 
 of the year for which the two had been 
 originally elected. 
 
 The power of the two consuls being equal, 
 the business was divided between them. 
 In the administration of the city they 
 changed duties every month, the senior 
 taking the initiative. With regard to their 
 insignia, namely, the toga prcetexta, sella 
 cUrulis, and twelve lictors, the original ar- 
 rangement was that the lictors walked in 
 front of the officiating consul, while the 
 other was only attended by an accensus. 
 In later times the custom was for the lictors 
 to walk before the officiating consul, and 
 behind the other. 
 
 In the field, each consul commanded two 
 legions with their allied troops ; if they 
 were in the same locality, the command 
 changed from day to day. The question of 
 
 M 
 
162 
 
 CONSUS CONTUBERNIUM. 
 
 the administration of the provinces they 
 either settled by consent, or left it to be 
 decided by lot. With the extension of the 
 empire the consuls became unable to under- 
 take the whole burden of warfare, and the 
 praetors were called in to assist. The pro- 
 vinces were then divided into consalar and 
 praetorian; the business of assignment 
 being left to the senate, which, alter the 
 year 122, was bound to make it before the 
 elections. In the last century B.C. a law of 
 Sulla deprived the consuls of an essential 
 element of their authority, the military 
 imperium ; for it enacted that the consuls 
 should spend their year of office in Rome, 
 and only repair to the provinces and assume 
 the imperium after its conclusion. 
 
 In the civil wars the consular office 
 completely lost its old position, and though 
 it continued to exist under the Empire, it 
 became, practically, no more than an empty 
 title. The emperors, who often held the 
 office themselves, and sometimes, like Caesar, 
 for several years in succession, had the 
 right of nominating the candidates, and 
 therefore, in practice, had the election in 
 their own hands. It became usual to 
 nominate several pairs of consuls for one 
 year, so as to confer the distinction on as 
 many persons as possible. In such cases, 
 the consuls who came in on January 1st, 
 after whom the year was named, were called 
 consules ordmdrii, the consules suffecti 
 counting as m%nores. Until thS'middle of the 
 1st century A.D., it was a special distinction 
 to hold the consulship for a whole year ; but 
 after that no cases of this tenure occur. In 
 time the insignia, or orndmenta consuldria, 
 or honorary distinctions of the office, were 
 given, in certain degrees, even to men who 
 had not been consuls at all. The chief 
 duties of the consuls now were to preside 
 in the senate, and conduct the criminal 
 trials in which it had to give judgment. 
 But, besides this, certain functions of civil 
 jurisdiction were in their hands ; notably 
 the liberation of slaves, the provision for the 
 costly games which occurred during their 
 term of ofSce, the festal celebrations in 
 honour of the emperor, and the like. After 
 the seat of empire was transferred to Con- 
 stantinople, the consulate was, towards the 
 end of the 4th century, divided between 
 the two capital cities. The consulate of the 
 western capital came to an end in 534 A.D., 
 that of the eastern in 541. Prom that time 
 the Emperor of the East bore the title of 
 consul perpetuus. 
 
 Consus. An ancient Italian god, probably 
 
 a god of the earth or of crops. His altar 
 on the Circus Maximus at Rome was covered 
 with earth, apparently as a sign of the 
 deity's activity in the bosom of the earth. 
 Three times in the year only was it un- 
 covered, on the occasion of sacrifices or 
 festivities. The festival of Consus, the Con- 
 sMUa, was held twice a year ; on the 21st 
 August, after the harvest, and the 15th 
 December, after the sowing was ended. 
 Its establishment was attributed to Romii- 
 lus, and it was at the first celebration that 
 the rape of the Sabine women was sup- 
 posed to have taken place. At this fes- 
 tival the sacrifice was superintended by 
 the Elamines of Quirinus with the Vestal 
 Virgins, and was followed by a chariot race 
 in the circus, under the direction of the 
 pontificgs. The horses and mules, their 
 heads crowned with flowers, had their share 
 in the holiday. In consequence of these 
 games the god Consus was afterwards iden- 
 tified with Poseidon Hippios, or Neptunus 
 Equester. 
 
 Contio. The Latin name for any as- 
 sembly summoned and presided over by 
 a magistrate. A contio differed from the 
 comltla in the following points : (1) The 
 people were not divided into centuries or 
 tribes. (2) The people did not vote, but 
 were only there to receive communications 
 made by the presiding magistrate or some 
 other official or private individual, whom 
 he allowed to address the meeting. All 
 magistrates had the right of summoning 
 contiones, but the tribunes took precedence 
 of all others, and a higher magistrate took 
 precedence of a lower. Contiones were 
 usually summoned by public heralds (prce-^ 
 cones) and generally met in the Porum. 
 The comitia were immediately preceded 
 by a contio, that the people might be pre-; 
 pared for the questions to come before 
 them. If the comitia were to exercise 
 judicial functions, it was a fixed rule that 
 the contiones must be held previously for 
 the purpose of investigation. 
 
 Contubemium. A Latin word properly 
 meaning tent companionship, or companion-; 
 ship in nailitary service. The word signi- 
 fied (1) the relation of young Roman 
 nobles to the general officer to whom they 
 had voluntarily attached themselves for the 
 sake of military training, and in whose 
 company they took their meals in the tent. 
 It meant (2) the marriage of slaves, which 
 was not legally accounted marriage, though 
 under the Empire it was considered, as a 
 rule, indissoluble if contracted by memberss 
 
CONTUMACIA —CORNELIUS. 
 
 163 
 
 of the same household. (3) The marriage 
 between free persons and slaves, Avhich was 
 not considered legal. 
 
 Contumacia. The Latin term for dis- 
 obedience to the commands of a magistrate 
 or judge, especially absence from a trial 
 without sufficient excuse. If the accuser 
 were absent, he was considered as dropping 
 his charge {see Teegiversatio), which he 
 was not allowed to renew. The absence 
 of the accused was taken as an admission 
 of guilt. In a civil trial the consequence 
 was immediate condemnation ; and the 
 like was the case in criminal trials if the 
 accused failed to appear at the appointed 
 time, or on the last day of the trial. If the 
 accused saw that his condemnation was cer- 
 tain, it was quite common for him to retire, 
 and in capital cases to go into voluntary 
 exile ; a proceeding which in no way influ- 
 enced the further course of the proceedings. 
 
 Conubium (Latin). The contracting of a 
 matnmoniuin iustum, or valid marriage, 
 with all its legal consequencss. As such 
 a marriage could only take place between 
 persons of equal status, the Patricians and 
 Plebeians had each for a long time a separate 
 conubium, until 445 B.C., when the two 
 orders were equalised in this respect. 
 
 Convivium. See Meals. 
 
 Cobptatio (Latin). The election of a new 
 member by the members of a corporation 
 to supply a vacant place. Among corpora- 
 tions which filled their vacancies in this 
 way may be mentioned the college of 
 Pontifices and Augurs. The election was 
 preceded by the nomination of a proper 
 candidate by one of the members, and fol- 
 lowed by his inauguration. 
 
 Cordaz (Kordax). The licentious dance 
 of the ancient Greek comedy. To perform 
 it off the stage was regarded as a sign of 
 intoxication or profligacy. 
 
 Core (Eore). See Persephone. 
 
 Corinna (Korinna). A Greek lyric 
 poetess, born at Tanagra in Boeotia, and 
 surnamed Myia, or "the Fly." She flour- 
 ished about 510 B.C. She was the instructress 
 of Pindar, and is said to have beaten him 
 five times in musical contests. Only a few 
 fragments of her poems, of which there 
 were five books, remain. They were written 
 in the Bceotian dialect, and treated subjects 
 of local mythology, as, for instance, the tale 
 of the " Seven against Thebes." 
 
 Corippus (Fldmus Crcsconius). An 
 African scholar, who in the second half 
 of the 6th century A.D. composed two 
 historical epics, one in seven books, in 
 
 celebration of the Libyan war of Johannes 
 Patricius {lohannis, slve de bellls Libycls), 
 and the other on the exploits of Justinus 
 (565-578), in four books {De Laudibus 
 lustlni). The last is in the worst manner 
 of Byzantine flattery, but is written in 
 a flowing style and in imitation of good 
 models, such as Vergil and Glaudian. 
 
 Cornelius. (1) Cornelius Nepos. A 
 Roman historian, a native of Upper Italy, 
 who lived between 94 and 24 B.C. He was a 
 contemporary of Cicero, Atticus, and Catul- 
 lus, with whom he lived in friendly inter- 
 course at Rome. The most comprehensive 
 of his many writings was a collection of 
 biographies of celebrated men {De Viris 
 niustribus) in at least sixteen books. This 
 was dedicated to Atticus, and must there- 
 fore have been published before B.C. 32, the 
 year of his death. The biographies were 
 arranged in departments, and in each depart- 
 ment the Greek and Roman celebrities were 
 treated separately. Thus the still surviving 
 book upon distinguished foreign generals 
 {De Excellentibus Ducibus ExtSrdrum Gen- 
 tium) is followed by one on Roman generals, 
 while a book devoted to the Greek histo- 
 rians had one on the Roman historians cor- 
 responding to it, from which the lives of 
 the elder Cato and of Atticus are preserved. 
 The lives of celebrated generals were in 
 former times (in consequence of an ancient 
 error in the MSS.) erroneously ascribed to a 
 certain jEmilius Probus of the 4th century 
 A.D. Nepos' manner is easy and pleasant, 
 but suffers from many weaknesses of matter 
 and form. A superficial use of his authori- 
 ties has led him into many errors, and the 
 style is not seldom careless and incorrect. 
 
 (2) Oaius Cornelius Gallus. A Latin 
 poet, born 69 B.C. in the Gaulish town of 
 Forum lulii. Though of low birth, he was 
 promoted by Octavian to the ordo equester in 
 the year 30 B.C., and made governor {prcefec- 
 tus) of the new province of Egypt, in con- 
 sideration of his great services in the war 
 against Antonius. Through his cruelty and 
 presumption he drew upon himself the dis- 
 pleastire of his former patron ; in conse- 
 quence of which he committed suicide in 
 26 B.C. He was one of the oldest friends 
 of Vergil, who dedicated to him his tenth 
 Eclogue, as well as an episode at the end of 
 the fourth Georgic, which he, after Gallus' 
 fall, suppressed at the wish of Augustus. 
 The Romans regarded him as the founder 
 of the Latin elegy. He wrote four books of 
 elegies to his mistress, the actress Cytheris 
 (or Lycoris, as he called her). They are in 
 
164 
 
 COENICEN CORONA. 
 
 the obscure and learned stj'le of the Alex- 
 andrian poet Euphorion. His poems are 
 lost, but a collection of erotic myths made 
 for his use by the Greek Parthenios has 
 survived. [A few lines in Vergil's tenth 
 Eclogue were borrowed from Gallus.] 
 
 Cornicfin. A horn-blower in the Roman 
 army, who gave the signal for attack, on an 
 ox or bison-horn (cornu) set in silver. 
 
 Cornificins. The supposed author of an 
 anonymous treatise on rhetoric in four books, 
 dedicated to a certain Herennius {Rhetonca 
 ad Herennlum.) This is the oldest Latin 
 treatise of the sort that we possess. It was 
 written in the time of Sulla, about 85 B.C., 
 by a partisan of the Marian faction, who, 
 though not a professed rhetorician, was an 
 educated man, as is shown by his accom- 
 plishments and his correct style. Though 
 
 philosophical works one remains, an essay 
 on the Nature of the Gods, written in Greek. 
 This is perhaps only an extract from a 
 larger work. Cassiodorus {q. v.) ha,s pre- 
 served part of a grammatical treatise by 
 Cornutus, entitled De Orthogrdphia ("On 
 Orthography "). 
 
 Corollarium (Latin). A present consist- 
 ing of a garland of gold or silver leaves, 
 given to successful actors and performers 
 in addition to other honoraria. It thiis 
 became a term for any free gift whatever. 
 
 Corona (Latin). A crown ; among the 
 Romans the highest distinction awarded for 
 service in war. The most coveted were 
 the corona trtumphdlts (fig. 1) or laurel 
 crown of a general in triumph ; and the 
 corona ohsidioncdls (iig. 2), presented to a 
 general by the army which he had saved 
 
 (1) Corona triumphalis. 
 
 (2) Corona obsidionalis. 
 
 (4) Corona mm-alis. 
 
 (5) Corona vallaris. 
 
 (6) Corona navalis. 
 
 he followed Greek models, he endeavours to 
 treat his subject from a Roman or national 
 point of view, and therefore gives Latin 
 equivalents for the Greek technical terms. 
 His examples, too, he takes from older 
 Roman writings, or makes them himself. 
 Cicero, who passed for the author in late 
 antiquity, used the same Greek original in 
 his De Inventions. 
 
 Corntitus {Lucius Annceus). A native of 
 Leptis, in Africa. A professor of the Stoic 
 philosophy, who lived in Rome in the middle 
 of the 1st century a.d. He was a friend of 
 the poets Lucan and Porsius, especially of 
 the latter, whose posthumous satires he pre- 
 pared for publication. He was banished 
 by Nero, in a.d. 68, for his uprightness and 
 courage. He was the author of works on 
 rhetoric, grammar and philosophy. Of his 
 
 from a siege, or from a shameful capitula- 
 tion. This was woven of grass growing on 
 the spot, and called corona graminea. The 
 corona myrtea, or ovalis, was the crown 
 of bay worn_ by the general who celebrated 
 the lesser triumph (dvdtid). 
 
 The corona civicd (fig. 3) was of oak leaves, 
 and was awarded for saving a citizen's life 
 in battle. This secured for its possessor 
 certain privileges, as freedora from taxes 
 for himself, his father and paternal grand- 
 father. The golden corona murcdis (fig. 
 4), with embattled ornaments, was given 
 for the storming of a wall ; the corona cas- 
 trensis or vallaris (fig. 5), also of gold, and 
 ornamented in imitation of palisades, to 
 the soldier who first climbed the wall of an 
 enemy's camp ; the corona navdlis (fig. 6), 
 with ornaments representing the beak of a 
 
CORONIS COTTABUS. 
 
 165 
 
 ship, to the man who first boarded a ship. 
 Under the Empire the garland of bay was 
 reserved exclusively for the emperor, and 
 thus came to be regarded as a crown. 
 
 Th3 rayed crown, the insignS of the 
 deified emperors, was not worn by the em- 
 perors of the 1st and 2nd century a.d. 
 Golden crowns were originally the free 
 offerings of provincials and allies to vic- 
 torious generals for the celebration of their 
 triumphs. But from this custom there 
 arose, even in republican times, the habit of 
 compelling a contribution of monej' (aurum 
 corOnanum) to the governor of the pro- 
 vince. During the imperial age this 
 contribution was on exceptional occasions 
 offered as a present to the emperors, but it 
 was often also made compulsory. 
 
 Among the Greeks a crown (stSphdnos) 
 was often an emblem of office. At Athens, 
 for instance, a crown of bay was worn by 
 the archons in of&ce, the senators (bouleu- 
 tai), and the orators while speaking. It 
 was also the emblem of victory at the 
 games, and a token of distinction for citi- 
 zens of merit (see Theatre). Such crowns 
 of honour were made originally of olive 
 branches, but later of gold. The honour of 
 a crown could be conferred by the people or 
 the senate, or by corporations and foreign 
 states. The latter would often present a 
 crown to the whole commonwealth. If the 
 people or senate presented the crown, the 
 presentation took place in the great assem- 
 bly, or in the senate house, but not in the 
 theatre, except by special decree. 
 
 Since crowns played a considerable part 
 as ornaments at religious rites and as well 
 at festivals and banquets, the trade of 
 crown-making (mostly in women's hands) 
 was naturally extensive. The art of mak- 
 ing what were called winter crowns of 
 dry flowers was also understood. Artificial 
 flowers, made of thin strips of painted wood, 
 were also used. 
 
 CSronis (Kdroms). See Asclepius. 
 
 Corptls liiris Civilis. The name of the 
 great collection of authorities on Roman 
 law, made by the lawyer Tribonianus, of 
 Side in Pamphylia, at the instance of the 
 Eastern Emperor Justinian (527-665 ad.). 
 To this collection we owe the preservation 
 of the treasures of the ancient jurispru- 
 dence, which must certainly otherwise have 
 been lost. The Corpus liiris consists of 
 four parts: 
 
 (1) Codex lusttnldnSus, called repetUce 
 prcelectiOms, as being the revised edition of 
 a code now lost, but which had appeared in 
 
 529. This was published in 534, and con- 
 tains in twelve books the imperial law (ius 
 principals), or the constitutiones of the 
 emperors since Hadrian. 
 
 (2) Pandectce, or Dtgesta. The law of 
 the jurists (ius vetus). These, published 
 A.D. 533, are extracts from the works of 
 thirty-nine ancient jurists, arranged in fifty 
 books, according to subjects. 
 
 (3) Institutions s. A handbook of juris- 
 prudence, founded mostly upon Gaius, and 
 published in the same year. 
 
 (4) NovellcB {constitutiones), or supple- 
 mentarj'- ordinances of Justinian, mostly in 
 Greek. These are preserved only in private 
 collections of various compass, one of which, 
 the Authenticum or Liber Authenticoriim, 
 was recognised as the authorized text, and 
 gives the Greek rescripts in a Latin version. 
 
 Corybantgs {KorybantSs). The mythical 
 attendants of the Phrygian goddess Rhea 
 Cybele, who were supposed to accompany 
 the goddess with wild dances and intoxi- 
 cating music, while she wandered by torch- 
 light over the forest-clad mountains. The 
 name was further given in Phrygia to the 
 eunuch priests of the goddess. {See Rhea.) 
 
 Cor^cus (Gr. Konjkos). See Ball, Games 
 
 OF. 
 
 Cosmi {Kosmoi). See Geeusia. 
 
 Cothurnus, or more correctly Coturnus 
 (Gr. Kothornos). A Greek name for a high 
 shoe or buskin with several soles. It 
 covered the whole foot, and rose as high 
 as the middle of the leg. It was made 
 so as to fit either foot, and was generally 
 fastened in front with red straps. The 
 cothurnus was properly a hunting boot, but 
 ^schylus made it part of the costumei of 
 his tragic actors to give them a stature 
 above the average. At the same time the 
 hair was dressed high in order to maintain 
 the proportion of the figure. The cothur- 
 nus was also used in the Roman tragedy. 
 {See SoccDS.) 
 
 Cottabus {Kottdhos). A Greek game very 
 popular at drinking bouts. The player lay 
 on the couch, and in that position tried to 
 throw a few drops of wine in as high a 
 curve as possible, at a mark, without spill- 
 ing any of the wine. The mark was called 
 kottdbei5n, and was a bronze goblet or saucer, 
 and it was a point to make a noise when 
 hitting it. On the kottdbeion was fastened 
 a little image or a bust of Hermes, which 
 was called Manes, and which the player had 
 to hit first with the wine. The wine was 
 supposed to make a sound both in hitting 
 the figure and in falling afterwards into the 
 
IGG 
 
 COTYS CRATES. 
 
 saucer. This of course greatly increased 
 the difiSculty of the game. 
 
 There was another form of the game in 
 which the point was to make the wine hit 
 the saucer while swimming in a large 
 vessel of water, and sink it. The game 
 was played in a round chamber made for 
 the purpose. The form of the room was 
 circular, to give every player an equal 
 chance of hitting the mark, which was 
 placed in the centre. The victor generally 
 received a prize agreed upon beforehand. 
 The players also used the game to discover 
 
 Cotys (Gr. KOtijtto). A Thracian goddess, 
 originally, it would seem, connected with 
 Rhea Cybele. Her worship was diffused 
 over Greece and Italy, and was especially 
 popular in Athens and Corinth. The licen- 
 tious orgies associated with it, called 
 Cotyttui, gave it a bad name. 
 
 Crater. See Vessels. 
 
 Crates {Krates). (1) A Greek comedian, 
 who lived at Athens about 470 B.C. He 
 was regarded as the founder of the Attic 
 Comedy in the proper sense of the term, as 
 his pieces were not, like those of his pre- 
 
 ''■ COTTABUS. 
 
 CVase from Cor'.ieto; Annall d Inst. 1876 tnr. II.) 
 
 their chances of success in love. They 
 uttered the name of their beloved while 
 throwing the wine. A successful throw 
 gave a good omen, an unsuccessful one a bad 
 omen. A good player leaned upon his left 
 elbow, remained quite quiet, and only used 
 his right hand to throw with. The game 
 came originally from Sicily, but became 
 popular through the whole of Greece, and 
 specially at Athens, where to play well was 
 a mark of good breeding. It did not go out 
 of fashion till the 4th century after Christ. 
 [The cut represents one of the several 
 methods of playing the game.] 
 
 decessors, mere lampoons on individuals, 
 but presented subjects of a more general 
 character. Only a few fragments of his 
 plays have come down to us. 
 
 (2) Crates of Mallos in Cilicia. A Greek 
 scholar, and adherent of the Stoic philo- 
 sophy. He founded a school of interpreta- 
 tion at Pergamon. His principles were in 
 direct opposition to those of Aristarchus ; 
 not only did he take an essentially different 
 view of the Homeric text, but he favoured 
 the allegorical method of exposition, to 
 which the Stoics were so partial, and which 
 was so disliked by the school of Aristarchus. 
 
CRATINUS CRONUS. 
 
 167 
 
 His chief work was a comprehensive com- 
 mentary, critical and exegetical, on Homer. 
 In 167 B.C. he was sent by king Attains on 
 an embassy to-Rome. Here he broke his leg, 
 and was thus forced to make a long stay. 
 He used his enforced leisure in giving lec- 
 tures, which gave the first impulse to the 
 study of philology and literary criticism 
 among the Romans. Only a few fragments 
 of his works have survived. 
 
 Cratiniis {Krdtlnos) was, with Eupolis 
 and Aristophanes, a chief representative of 
 the Old Comedy at Athens. He was born 
 in 520 B.C., and died in 423, thus flourishing 
 in the age of Pericles, who was the special 
 object of his attacks. He wrote twenty-one 
 pieces, and gained the prize nine times. The 
 last occasion on which he was victor was 
 shortly before his death, and the defeated 
 comedy was The Clouds of Aristophanes. 
 Ccatinus' play was the Pytlne or "Wine- 
 flask," in which the poet courted the ridi- 
 cule of the public by confessing himself a 
 hard drinker. His wit was brilliant, but 
 more caustic than humorous. He may be 
 regarded as the founder of political comedy. 
 Only the titles and a few fragments of his 
 plays have survived. 
 
 Creon {Kreon). (1) King of Corinth, and 
 father of Glauce : see Argonauts (conclusion). 
 
 (2) Son of Menoeceus, great-grandson of 
 Pentheus, brother of locasta, and father 
 of Hsemon and Menoeceus (see articles under 
 these names). He governed Thebes after 
 Laius' death until the coming of (Edipus ; 
 and again after the fall of Eteocles until the 
 latter's son, Lao- 
 damas, came of 
 age. {See Anti- 
 gone.) 
 
 (3) ;S^ee Amphi- 
 tryon and Hera- 
 cles. 
 
 Cr6pida (Greek 
 lirepls). A kind 
 of sandal, bor- 
 rowed by the 
 Romans from the 
 Greeks, and used 
 originally by the 
 Roman soldiers. 
 It had a thick 
 sole, was of the 
 same shape for 
 each foot, and 
 had low leather 
 sides with straps 
 for fastening. 
 
 Cresilas {Kresilds), a Greek artist, born 
 
 *PEKICLES (aFTKE CKESTLAS). 
 
 (British Museom). 
 
 at Cydonia in Crete, who flourished at 
 Athens in the second half of the 5th cen- 
 tury B.C. Among his chief works may be 
 mentioned : (1) a statue of Pericles, pro- 
 bably the original of the extant portrait- 
 statues of the great statesman ; (2) a statue 
 of a man mortally wounded, in which the 
 struggle between death and life was vividly 
 portrayed; (3) the Wounded Amazon of 
 Ephesus, a work in which he had to com- 
 pete with Phidias and Polyclitus. This is 
 generally supposed to be the original of one 
 of the several types of Wounded Amazons 
 which have survived. Cresilas seems to 
 have followed the tradition of Myron. 
 
 Cretheus (Kretheus). In Greek mythology, 
 the son of ^olus and Enarete, the founder of 
 lolcos, and by Tyro father of Jilson, Pheres, 
 and Amythaon. (^S^ee ^OLus 1, and Neleus.) 
 
 Creiisa (Kreousa). (1) See JEneas. (2) 
 See Glauce. (3) See Ion 1. 
 
 Critias (Kritias). An Athenian, a dis- 
 ciple of Socrates and Gorgias of Leontini. 
 He was one of the most accomplished men 
 of his time, and was distinguished as a poet 
 and an orator. But he is best known as 
 the chief of the Thirty Tyrants, in defence 
 of whose cause . £(gainst the Liberators he 
 fell in 403 B.C. He was the author of 
 several tragedies. Some fragments of his 
 poems have survived, the largest being from 
 his political elegies. He seems to have had 
 the gift of expression, but to have written 
 in a harsh style of composition. 
 
 Cronus (Kronds). In Greek mythology, 
 the youngest son of Uranus and Gsea, who 
 mutilated and overthrew his father, and, 
 with the assistance of his kinsfolk the 
 Titans, made himself sovereign of the 
 world. He took his sister Rhea to wife, 
 and became by her father of Hestia, Deme- 
 ter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus. But 
 his mother prophesied that one of his chil- 
 dren would overthrow him. He accordingly 
 swallowed them all except Zeus, whom 
 Rhea saved by a stratagem. Zeus, when 
 grown up, obtained the assistance of the 
 Ocean-nymph Thetis in making Cronus dis- 
 gorge his children, and then, with the help 
 of his kinsfolk, overpowered Cronus and the 
 Titans. According to one version of the 
 fable, Cronus was imprisoned in Tartarus 
 with the Titans; according to another, he 
 was reconciled with Zeus, and reigned with 
 Rhadamanthys on the Islands of the Blessed. 
 Cronus seems originally to have been a god 
 of the harvest ; whence it happens that in 
 many parts of Greece the harvest month 
 was called Cronion. His name being easily 
 
168 
 
 CRYPTEIA CURIA. 
 
 confused with that of Chronos ("Time"), 
 he was afterwards erroneously regarded as 
 the god of time. In works of art he was 
 represented as an old man with a mantle 
 drawn over the back of his head, and hold- 
 ing a sickle in his hand. The Romans 
 identified him with Saturnus, their god of 
 sowing (see Saturnus). 
 
 Crypteia [Knjpteia). A kind of police 
 maintained at Sparta, with the principal 
 object of watching the Helots. The service 
 was manned by young Spartans appointed 
 annually for the purpose by the Ephors, 
 and their duty was to put dangerous or 
 apparently dangerous Helots out of the way 
 without more ado. A later and erroneous 
 idea represented the Crypteia as a mur- 
 derous chase of the Helots, annually con- 
 ducted by the Spartan youth. 
 Cteatus {Etedtos). See Molionid.e. 
 Ctesias {Ktesias). A Greek historian, 
 born in Cnidus in Caria, and a contemporary 
 of Xenophon. He belonged to the family of 
 the Asclepiadse at Cnidus. In 416 B.C. he 
 came to the Persian court, and became pri- 
 vate physician to King Artaxerxes Mnemon. 
 In this capacity he accompanied the king 
 on his expedition against his brother Cyrus, 
 and cured him of the wound which he re- 
 ceived in the battle of Cunaxa, B.C. 401. 
 In 399 he returned to his native city, and 
 worked up the valuable material which he 
 had collected during his residence in Persia, 
 partly from his own observation, and partly 
 from his study of the royal archives, into a 
 History of Persia (Persica) in twenty-three 
 books. The work was written in the Ionic 
 dialect. The first six books treated the 
 history of Assyria, the remaining ones that 
 of Persia, from the earliest times to events 
 within his own experience. Ctesias' work 
 was much used by the ancient historians, 
 though he was censured as untrustworthy 
 and indifferent to truth ; a charge which 
 may be due to the fact that he followed 
 Persian authorities, and thus often differed, 
 to the disadvantage of the Greeks, from the 
 version of facts current among his country- 
 men. Only fragments and extracts of the 
 book survive. The same is true of his 
 Indica, or notices of the observations which 
 he had made in Persia on the geography 
 and productions of India. 
 
 Cubiciilarius (Latin). A chamberlain. 
 See Slaves. 
 
 Cuhiculum (Latin). A bed-chamber. 
 >S'ee House. 
 
 Cucnllus (Latin). A hood. See Cloth- 
 
 I\G. 
 
 Cuneiis. See Theatre. 
 Cupido (" Desire ")• The Latin personi- 
 fication of Eros, or the god of Love. 
 
 Ciira. The Latin term for the superin- 
 tendence of a special department of business, 
 such as the distribution of corn (annona), 
 making of roads, regulation of watercourses, 
 aqueducts and the like. The officers en- 
 trusted with these special duties were 
 termed curatores. In the republican age 
 they were extra ordinem. In the civil law 
 cura denotes the guardianship of amadman 
 (funosiis) or a spendthrift (prodigus). The 
 curator who managed his property and re- 
 presented him at law was originally the 
 next agnatus, but afterwards he was always 
 appointed by the authorities. Since 200 
 B.C. it was also customary to appoint cura- 
 tores for young persons under twenty-five, 
 under certain conditions, to protect them 
 against being overreached in legal proceed- 
 ings. Prom the time of Marcus Aurelius, 
 who made the legality of certain trans- 
 actions dependent on the co-operation of a 
 curator, the cura mlnorum became a stand- 
 ing institution. 
 
 Curetes (KouretSs). In Cretan mythology 
 the Curetes were demi-gods armed with 
 weapons of brass, to whom the new-born 
 child Zeus was committed by his mother 
 Rhea for protection against the wiles of 
 Cronus. They drowned the cries of the 
 child by striking their spears against their 
 shields. They gave their name to the priests 
 of the Cretan goddess Rhea and of the 
 Idsean Zeus, who performed noisy war- 
 dances at the festivals of those deities. 
 
 Ctiria (Latin). The name of the thirty 
 divisions into which the three trlhus of the 
 Roman patricians were divided for political 
 and religious objects. Every curia contained 
 a number of gentes, supposed to be exactly 
 ten, and a president, cicrio, whose duty it 
 was to look after its secular and religious 
 business. At the head of all the curice 
 stood the Cuno Maximus, who was charged 
 with the notification of the common festivals 
 Fordicldla and Forndcalid{see these words). 
 The separate curiones were chosen by their 
 respective curiae, and the Curio Maximus 
 was elected by the people in special comitla 
 out of the number of curiones. For its 
 special sacrifices every curia had its place 
 of meeting, bearing the same name, with a 
 hearth and dining-hall where the members 
 met to feast and sacrifice. The plebeians 
 seem to have been admitted to the sacrifices, 
 which were offered on behalf of the whole 
 people, and were paid for at the expense 
 
CURIO- CYCNUS. 
 
 169 
 
 of the state (see further, Comitia Curiata). 
 The term curia was also applied to certain 
 houses intended for holding meetings, as, 
 for instance, the official residence of the 
 Salii on the Palatine, and especially the 
 senate-house. Curia Ilostzlm, built by king 
 Hostilius on the comitium, and burnt down 
 62 B.C. In its place Faustus Sulla, the son 
 of the Dictator, erected the Curia Cornelia. 
 Caesar interrupted the progress of this work 
 to set up the Curia lulia in its place. 
 Then the senate met in the Curia Ponvpet, 
 in the entrance-hall of Pompey's theatre, 
 where Csesar was murdered. The Curia 
 lulia was not begun till 44 B.C., shortly 
 before Csesar's death, and was consecrated 
 in 29 by Augustus. {See plan of Roman 
 Fora, under FoRUM.) 
 
 Curio. Sec Curia. 
 
 Cur5trdph5s (Gr. EourStrdphos) ; '' nurse 
 of children." The title of several Greek 
 goddesses, for instance Gsea, who were re- 
 garded as protectresses of youth. 
 
 Curtius Bufus (Quintus). A Roman 
 historian, who probably lived and practised 
 as a rhetorician about the middle of the 
 1st century A.D., and wrote a history of 
 Alexander the Great, in ten books, in the 
 reign of Claudius (a.d. 44^54). The first 
 two books are lost, and the fifth muti- 
 lated at the end, the sixth at the begin- 
 ning. He seems to aim more at rhetorical 
 effect than at historical accuracy. In 
 the use of his authorities he is uncriti- 
 cal, as he follows untrustworthy writers 
 like Clitarchus, knowing them to be im- 
 trustworthy. His work contains many 
 errors in geography and chronology, and his 
 accounts of the battles show that he had no 
 military knowledge. But he understands 
 the art of interesting his readers by a 
 pleasant narrative and lifelike drawing, and 
 there is a certain charm in the numerous 
 speeches which he has inserted in his text, 
 in spite of their strong rhetorical colour- 
 ing. His language reminds us of Livy. 
 It is curious that he is never mentioned 
 in antiquity. 
 
 C^athus {Kyathos). See Vessels. 
 
 Cj-bebe, C;^bele. See Rhea. 
 
 Cyclic Poets. See Epos. 
 
 C^cl6p6s {Kyklopes). In Greek my- 
 thology, the round-eyed ones. According 
 to Hesiod the Cyclopes are the gigantic 
 sons of Uranus and Gsea, named Argos, 
 Steropes, and Brontes. For the rest, they 
 resemble the gods, except that they have 
 only a single eye in their forehead. Their 
 father threw them into Tartarus, and they 
 
 assisted Cronus to the sovereignty. Cronus, 
 however, put them again in prison, where 
 they remained until Zeus set them free. 
 For this they gave him the thunder, and 
 forged him the lightning. Apollo slew 
 them when Zeus struck his son Asclepius 
 by lightning. 
 
 In Homer the Cyclopes, like the giants 
 and the Phseacians, are the kinsfolk of the 
 gods ; but in other respects they have no- 
 thing in common with the Cyclopes of 
 Hesiod but their gigantic size and strength. 
 They live a pastoral life in the far West, 
 without knowledge of agriculture, law, 
 morals, or social order. Each dwells 
 separately with his family in caverns at 
 the mountain tops, without troubling him- 
 self about the gods, to whom, indeed, the 
 Cyclopes deem themselves easily superior 
 in strength. The Phseacians used to live 
 in their neighbourhood, but were driven 
 by their violent dealing to emigrate. The 
 figure of Polyphemus, well known from his 
 encounter with Odysseus, gives a typical 
 notion of their rudeness and savagery. 
 {See also Galatea). The Homeric Cyclo- 
 pes were in a later age localized in Sicily, 
 and came to be identified with the Cyclopes 
 of Hesiod. They were imagined as assist- 
 ants of Hephsestus, and as helping him to 
 forge lightnings for Zeus and arms for 
 heroes in the bowels of ^Etna or on the 
 ^olian islands. A third variety of Cyclo- 
 pes were the giants with arms to their 
 belly as well as to their shoulders, whom 
 Proetus was supposed to have brought 
 from Lycia to Argos. It was they who 
 were supposed to have built the so-called 
 Cyclopean walls at Mycense and Tiryns 
 (see Architecture). In works of art the 
 Cyclopes are represented as giants with one 
 eye in their forehead, though there is 
 generally an indication of a pair of eyes 
 in the usual place. 
 
 Cycnus {Eyknos) or " Swan." (1) The 
 son of Ares and Pelopia, who threw him- 
 self in the way of Heracles in Trachis, 
 when the hero was on his way to Ceyx. 
 According to another story Heracles was 
 sent against Cycnus by Apollo, because he 
 lay in wait for the processions on their road 
 to Delphi. In the contest between them, 
 as described by Hesiod in his Shield of 
 Heracles, Ares stood at the side of his son, 
 while Heracles was supported by Athene 
 and his faithful lolaus. Heracles slew 
 Cycnus, and even wotinded Ares, when the 
 latter attempted to avenge the fall of his 
 son. Cycnus was buried with all due 
 
170 
 
 CYDIPPE D^DALA. 
 
 honours by his father-in-law Ceyx, but 
 Apollo destroyed the tomb by an inunda- 
 tion of the river Anaurus. There was a 
 son of Ares and Pyrene who bore the same 
 name, and he too was said to have fallen in 
 combat against Heracles. Ares attempted 
 to avenge his son, when Zeus, by a flash of 
 lightning, separated his angrj' children. 
 After his death, said the story, Cycnus was 
 changed by his father into a swan. 
 
 (2) The son of Poseidon and Calyce. He 
 was exposed by his mother on the sea-shore 
 and found by some fishermen, who named 
 him Cycnus because they saw a swan flying 
 round him. He was invulnerable, and of 
 gigantic strength and stature ; his head 
 (or, according to another account, his whole 
 body) was as white as snow. He became 
 king of Colonse in the Troad, and was twice 
 married. A slanderous utterance of his 
 second wife stung him to fury against the 
 children of his first wife, whom he threw 
 into the sea in a chest. They were cast 
 up alive on the island of Tenedos, where 
 Tenes was king. At a later time Cycnus 
 repented of his deed, sought for his son, 
 and marched with him to the aid of the 
 Trojans against the Greeks. They pre- 
 vented the Greeks from landing ; but both 
 were at last slain by Achilles, who stran- 
 gled the invulnerable Cycnus with his own 
 helmet strap. He was changed by Poseidon 
 into a swan. 
 
 Cydippe (Kydippc). The heroine of a 
 very popular Greek love-story, which was 
 treated by Callimachus in a poem now un- 
 fortunately lost. The later Greek prose 
 romances were founded upon this version. 
 Cydippe was the daughter of a well-bom 
 Athenian. It happened that she and 
 Acontius, a youth from the island of Ceos, 
 who was in love with her, had come at the 
 same time to a festival of Artemis at Delos. 
 
 Cydippe was sitting in the temple of Arte- 
 mis, when Acontius threw at her feet an 
 apple, on which was written, " I swear by 
 the sanctuary of Artemis that I will wed 
 Acontius." Cydippe took up the apple and 
 read the words aloud, then threw it from 
 her, and took no notice of Acontius and his 
 addresses. After this her father wished 
 on several occasions to give her in marriage, 
 but she always fell ill before the wedding. 
 The father consulted the Delphic oracle, 
 which revealed to him that the illness of 
 his daughter was due to the wratt of Arte- 
 mis, by .whose shrine she had sworn and 
 broken her oath. He accordingly gave 
 her to Acontius to wife. 
 
 Cymbium (Kymbion). See Vessels. 
 
 C3niics. See Antisthenes. 
 
 Cj^nophontis (Kyndphontis). See Linus. 
 
 Cyprianns. (1) Thascus CcecUius. A 
 Latin ecclesiastical writer, born in Africa 
 at the beginning of the 3rd century, of a 
 respectable pagan family. Originally a 
 teacher of rhetoric, he was converted and 
 made Bishop of Carthage in 248 A.D. He 
 was beheaded during the persecution under 
 Valerian, in 257. In his numerous writ- 
 ings and exhortations he not only imitates 
 Tertullian (whom he acknowledges as his 
 master), but makes great use of his works. 
 Besides these we have a large collection of 
 his letters addressed to individuals and to 
 churches. 
 
 [(2) Cyprian of Toulon. A bishop of 
 Toulon, who lived during the last quarter 
 of the 5th and first half of the 6th cen- 
 turies A.D. He was in all probability the 
 author of a metrical Latin Heptateuch, 
 edited piecemeal by Morel, Martene, and 
 Pitra ; critically reviewed by J. E. B. 
 Mayor, Cambridge, 1889.] 
 
 Cyrene {Kyrene). See ARiSTiEUS. 
 
 Cyzicns (KysikOs). See Aegonauts. 
 
 D 
 
 Daedala (" wooden images "). A peculiar 
 festival held by the Boeotians in honour of 
 Hera. The goddess had, according to the 
 story, once quarrelled with Zeus, and hidden 
 herself on Mount Cithaeron. Her husband 
 then spread the report that he was going 
 to marry another wife, and had an image 
 of oak-wood decked out in bridal attire and 
 carried over Cithaeron on a chariot with a 
 numerous train amid the singing of mar- 
 riage hymns. Hera, in her jealousy, threw 
 herself upon her supposed rival, but, on dis- 
 
 covering the trick, reconciled herself with 
 laughter to Zeus, took her seat on the 
 chariot, and founded the festival in memory 
 of the incident. The feast was celebrated 
 every seven years by the Plateaus alone, 
 and called the little Dsedala. But every 
 sixtieth year all the cities of the Boeotian 
 federation kept it as the great Dsedala. At 
 the little Dsedala, guided by the note of a 
 bird, they fixed on a tree in a grove of oaks, 
 and cut a figure out of it, which they 
 dressed in bridal attire and took, as in 
 
DtED ALIGN DtEMON. 
 
 171 
 
 marriage procession, to tie top of Cithseron. 
 Here they offered a goat to Zeiis and a cow 
 to Hera, and burnt the image with the 
 offering. At the great Daedala the images 
 made at the little Deedala were distribvited 
 by lot among the cities of the Boeotian 
 confederacy, and the same proceedings were 
 then repeated. 
 
 Dsedalion. Brother of Ceyx (see Cetx), 
 threw himself down from a rock on Par- 
 nassus for grief at the death of his daugh- 
 ter Chione, and was turned by the gods 
 into a hawk. 
 
 Daedalus {i.e. " cunning artificer ")• The 
 mythical Greek representative of all handi- 
 work, especially of Attic and Cretan 
 art. As such he was worshipped 
 by the artists' guilds, especially in 
 Attica. He was said to be the son 
 of the Athenian Metion, son of 
 Eupalamus (the ready-handed) and 
 grandson of Erechtheus. He was 
 supposed to have been the first 
 artist who represented the human 
 figure with open eyes, and feet and 
 arms in motion. Besides being 
 an excellent architect, he was said 
 to have invented many imple- 
 ments, the axe for instance, the 
 awl, and the bevel. His nephew 
 and pupil (son of his sister Perdix) 
 appeared likely to surpass him in 
 readiness and originality. The in- 
 vention of the saw, which he copied 
 from the chinbone of a snake, of 
 the potter's wheel, of the turning 
 lathe, and of other things of the 
 , kind, was attributed to him. Daeda- 
 lus was so jealous of him that 
 he threw him from the Acropolis ; 
 and being detected in the act of 
 burying the body, was condemned 
 by the Areopagus, and fled to Crete 
 to king Minos. Here, among other 
 things, he made the labyrinth at 
 Gnosus for the Minotaur. He and 
 his son Icarus were themselves 
 confined in it, because he had 
 given Ariadne the clue with which she 
 guided Theseus through the maze. But 
 the father and son succeeded in escaping, 
 and fled over the sea upon wings of wax 
 feathers made by Dsedalus. Icarus, however, 
 approached too near to the sun, so that the 
 wax melted, and he fell into the sea and was 
 drowned. The sea was called after him the 
 Icarian, and the island on which his body 
 was thrown up and buried by Heracles, was 
 called Icaria. Dsedalus came to Camicus 
 
 in Sicily, to king Cocalus, whose daughter 
 loved him for his art, and slew Minos who 
 came in pursuit of hira. He was supposed 
 to have died in Sicily, where buildings 
 attributed to him were shown in many 
 places, as also in Sardinia, Egypt and Italy, 
 particularly at Cumse. In Greece a number 
 of ancient wooden images were supposed 
 to be his work, in particular a statue of 
 Heracles at Thebes, which Dsedalus was 
 said to have made in gratitude for the 
 burial of Icarus. 
 
 Dact^li (DaMyloi). See Ibman Dacttli. 
 
 Daduchus (Gr. Daidouchos). See Eleu- 
 
 SINIA. 
 
 tC it . iiU-i^t^*- 
 
 * D^DALUS AND ICAKUE. 
 
 (Rome, Villa Albani.) 
 
 Damastes. A monster living at Eleusis, 
 in Attica, also called Procrustes, or the 
 Stretcher. His custom was to lay his guests 
 upon his bed, and if they were too short 
 for it, to rack them to death, if too long, to 
 cut off as much of their limbs as would 
 make them short enough. He was slain by 
 Theseus. 
 
 Daemon (Gr. Daimon). Originally a term 
 applied to deity in general, manifested in 
 its active relation to human life, with- 
 
172 
 
 DANAE DANCING 
 
 out special reference to any single divine 
 personality. But as early as Hesiod the 
 (la-mones appear as subordinates or servants 
 of the higher gods. He gives the name 
 specially to the spirits of the past age 
 of gold, who are appointed to watch over 
 men and guard them. In later times, 
 too, the daniones were regarded as beings 
 intermediate between the gods and man- 
 kind, forming as it were the retinue of 
 the gods, representing their powers in 
 activity, and entrusted with the fulfilment 
 of their various functions. This was the 
 relation, to take an instance, which the 
 Satyrs and Sileni bore to Dionysus. But 
 the popular belief varied with regard to 
 many of these deities. Eros, e.g., was by 
 many expressly designated a daemon, while 
 by others he was worshipped as a powerful 
 and independent deity. Another kind of 
 dcemones are those who were attached to 
 individual men, attending them, like the 
 Roman genius, from their birth onwards 
 through their whole life. In later times 
 two dcmnones, a good and bad, were some- 
 times assumed for every one. This belief 
 was, however, not universal, the prevalent 
 idea being that good and bad alike pro- 
 ceeded at different times from the doimon 
 of each individual ; and that one person had 
 a powerful and benevolent, another a weak 
 and malevolent daemon. Agdtho-dcemon 
 (good daanon) was the name of the good 
 spirit of rural prosperity and of vineyards. 
 
 Danae. The daughter of Acrisius of 
 Argos, who was shut up in a brazen tower 
 by her father in consequence of an oracle 
 which predicted that death would come 
 to him from his daughter's son. Never- 
 theless, she bore to Zeus a son, Perseus, 
 the god having visited her in the form of 
 a shower of gold. She was then shut up 
 with her son in a chest and thrown into 
 the sea. Driven by the waves on to the 
 island of Seriphos, she was kindly received 
 by a fisherman named Dictys. His brother, 
 Polydectes, the king of the island, wished 
 to force her to marry him, but her son 
 Perseus delivered her from him, and took 
 her back to Greece. {See Perseus.) 
 
 Danai. Properly the name of the inhabit- 
 ants of Argos, from their old king Danaos, 
 afterwards applied to the Greeks in general, 
 especially the besiegers of Troy. 
 
 Sanaides. The fifty daughters of Danaus. 
 See Daxaus. 
 
 Danaus. The son of Belus, king of Egypt, 
 and Anchirrhoe, and twin brother of .zEgyp- 
 tus. iEgyptus and his fifty sons drove 
 
 Danaus and his fifty daughters from their 
 home in the Egyptian Chemnis through 
 Rhodes to Argos, the home of his ancestress 
 lo (see lo). Here he took over the kingdom 
 from Pelasgus or Gelanor, and after him the 
 Achseans of Argos bore the name of Danai. 
 Danaus built the acropolis of Larissa and 
 the temple of the Lycian Apollo, and taught 
 the inhabitants of the waterless territory 
 how to dig wells. His daughters also con- 
 ferred benefits on the land by finding 
 springs, especially Amymone, the beloved 
 of Poseidon, who, for love of her, created 
 the inexhaustible fountain of Lerna. Eor 
 this they were worshipped in Argos. The 
 sons of ^gyptus at length appeared and 
 forced Danaus to give them his daughters 
 in marriage. At their father's command 
 they stabbed their husbands at night, and 
 buried their heads in the valley of Lerna. 
 One only, Hypermnestra, disregarding her 
 father's threats, spared her beloved Lynceus, 
 and helped him to escape. Danaus accord- 
 ingly set on foot a fighting match, and bes- 
 towed his remaining daughter on the victor. 
 Afterwards, though against his will, he 
 gave Lynceus his daughter and his king- 
 dom. According to another story, Lynceus 
 conquered his wife and throne for himself, 
 and took vengeance for his brothers by 
 killing Danaus and his daughters. The 
 Danaides (or daughters of Danaus) atoned 
 for their bloody deed in the regions below 
 by being condemned to pour water for ever 
 into a vessel with holes in its bottom. This 
 fable is generally explained by the hypo- 
 thesis that the Danaides were nymphs of 
 the springs and rivers of the land of Argos, 
 which are filled to overflowing in the wet 
 season, but dry up in summer. The tomb- 
 stone of Danaus stood in the market at 
 Argos. He was also worshipped in Rhodes 
 as the founder of the temple of Athene in 
 Lindos, and as the builder of the first fifty- 
 oared ship, in which he fled from Egypt. 
 The story of Danaus and his daughters is 
 treated by JEschylus in his Suppllces. 
 Lynceus and Hypermnestra had also a 
 common shrine in Argos ; their son was 
 Abas, father of Acrisius and Proetus. The 
 son of Amymone and Poseidon was Nauplius, 
 founder of Nauplia, and father of Palamedes, 
 CEax, and Nausimedon. 
 
 Dancing (Gr. orchesis, Lat. saltatio). 
 As early as the Homeric age we find danc- 
 ing an object of artistic cultivation among 
 the Greeks. The sons and daughters of 
 princes and nobles do not disdain to join in 
 it, whether in religious festivals or at social 
 
DAPHNE DAPHNIS. 
 
 173 
 
 gatherings. The Greek orchestlke, or art 
 of dancing, differed much from the modern. 
 Its aim was to ennoble bodily strength and 
 activity with grace and beaiity. Joined 
 with music and poetry, dancing among the 
 Greeks embodied the very spirit of the art 
 of music, mainly because the imitative ele- 
 ment predominated in it. For its main aim 
 was to make gesture represent feeling, 
 passion and action; and consequently the 
 Greek dance was an exercise not only for 
 the feet, but for the arms, hands and the 
 whole body. The art at first observed the 
 limits of a noble simplicity, but was per- 
 fected, as time went on, in many directions. 
 At the same time it inevitably tended to 
 become more artificial. As in athletics, so 
 in imitative dancing, mechanical execution 
 was largely developed. This was to a 
 great extent displayed in exhibitions of 
 scenes from the mythology, which formed 
 a favourite entertainment at banquets. On 
 the other hand, a prejudice arose against 
 dancing on the part of any one but pro- 
 fessionals. For a grown-up person to per- 
 form a dance, even at social entertainments, 
 was regarded as an impropriety. The reli- 
 gious performances, especially, as bound up 
 with the worship of Apollo and Dionysus, 
 consisted mainly in choral dances, whose 
 movement varied according to the character 
 of the god and of the festival. Sometimes it 
 was a solemn march round the altar, some- 
 times a livelier measure, in which there was 
 a strong dash of imitation. This was espe- 
 cially the case at the festivals of Dionysus. 
 It was from these, as is well known, that 
 the Greek drama was developed, and accord- 
 ingly the dances formed a part of all dramas, 
 varying according to the character of the 
 piece {see Chorus). Indeed, there was an 
 infinite variety in the forms of the Greek 
 dance. Not only had almost every country 
 district its own, but foreign ones were in 
 course of time adopted. 
 
 It must be noticed that in Greek society 
 growji-up men and women were not allowed 
 to dance together, but there were some 
 dances which were performed together by 
 the youth of both sexes. Among these 
 was the Hormos, or chaiiiTdance, performed 
 by youths and jnaidens, holding their hands 
 in a changing line, the youths moving in 
 warlike measure, the girls with grace and 
 softness. Another was the GSrdnos, or 
 Crane. THs dance was peculiar to Delos, 
 and was said to have been first performed 
 by Theseus after his deliverance from the 
 Labyrinth, with the boys and girlg whom 
 
 he had rescued. Its elaborate complica- 
 tions were supposed to represent the mazes 
 of the Labyrinth. At Sparta dances were 
 practised, as a means of bodily training, 
 by boys and girls. Among them two may 
 be particularly mentioned : the Cdryatis, 
 performed in honour of Artemis of Caryse, 
 by the richest and noblest Spartan maidens ; 
 and the dances of boys, youths and men, 
 at the festival of the Gymnopcedia, con- 
 sisting in an imitation of various gymnastic 
 exercises (see Caryatides). 
 
 Among the Greek country dances was 
 the Epilenids, or dance of the wine-press, 
 which imitated the actions of gathering 
 and pressing the grape. There were also 
 warlike dances, which were specially popu- 
 lar with the Dorians, and, like others, were 
 partly connected with religious worship. 
 One of the most celebrated of these was the 
 PyrrMche {see Pyrrhic Dance). 
 
 Roman. Dancing never played such a 
 part in the national life of the Romans as 
 it did in that of the Greeks. It is true that 
 the ancient Roman worship included dances 
 of the priests {see Salii), and that the lower 
 orders in the country were fond of dancing 
 on festive occasions. But respectable 
 Romans regarded it as inconsistent with 
 their dignity. After the second Punic War, 
 as Greek habits made their way into Italy, 
 it became the fashion for young men and 
 girls of the upper class to take lessons in 
 dancing and singing. But dancing was 
 never adopted in Rome as a necessary and 
 effective instrument of education, nor was 
 there any time when public dancing was 
 allowed in society. Performances by pro- 
 fessional artists, however (the longer the 
 better), were a favourite entertainment, 
 especially during the imperial period, when 
 the art of mimic dancing attained an aston- 
 ishing degree of perfection. 
 
 Daphne. A nymph, daughter of the 
 Thessalian river-god Peneius, or according 
 to another story, the Arcadian Ladon, was 
 beloved both by Apollo and by Leucippus, 
 the son of (Enomaus. The latter followed 
 her in a woman's dress, but was discovered 
 and killed by the nymphs at the instance of 
 his rival. Pursued again by Apollo, the 
 chaste maiden was, at her own entreaty, 
 changed into a bay tree, the tree consecrated 
 to Apollo. 
 
 Daphnis. A hero of the Sicilian shep- 
 herds, son of Hermes and of a nymph. A 
 beautiful child, he was exposed by his mother 
 in a grove of bay trees, brought up by 
 nymphs and Pan, apd tapght by Pan to play 
 
174 
 
 DAKDANUS DECUMA. 
 
 the shepherd's flute. He had plighted his 
 troth to a nymph, but breaking his word, 
 he was punished by her with blindness, or 
 (according to another story) turned into a 
 stone. According to another fable, Aphro- 
 dite inflicted upon him a hopeless and fatal 
 passion for a woman, because he had des- 
 pised the love of a girl whom she had wished 
 him to wed. Hermes took him up to heaven 
 and created a fountain at the spot where he 
 was taken. At this fountain the Sicilians 
 offered yearly sacrifices. Daphnis was re- 
 garded as the inventor of bucolic poetry, 
 and his fate was a favourite subject with 
 bucolic poets. [See Theocritus, Idyll i.] 
 
 Dardamis. Son of Zeus and the Pleiad 
 Electra, the father of the regal house of 
 Troy. He left Arcadia, his mother's home, 
 and went to the island of Samothrace. 
 Here he set up the worship of the great 
 gods, whose shrines, with the PaUddium, 
 his first wife Chryse had received as a gift 
 from Athene at her marriage. Samothrace 
 having been visited by a great flood, Dar- 
 danus sailed away with his shrines to 
 Phrygia, where King Teucer gave him his 
 daughter Bateia to wife, and land enough 
 on Mount Ida to found the town of Dardania. 
 His son by Bateia was Erichthonius, -n-hom 
 Homer describes as the wealthiest of mor- 
 tals, and the possessor of horses of the 
 noblest breed and most splendid training. 
 The son of Erichthonius was Tros, father of 
 II OS, Assaracus and Ganymedes. From Ilos, 
 the founder of Ilion or Troy, was des- 
 cended Laomedon, father of Priam. Prom 
 Assaracus sprang Capys, father of Anchises, 
 and grandfather of ^neas. Another story 
 made Dardanus the native prince who wel- 
 comed Teucer on his arrival from Crete 
 {see Teucee). 
 
 Daricus (Gr. Dareikos). A gold Persian 
 coin, bearing the stamp of a crowned archer, 
 current in Greece down to the Macedonian 
 period. It was equal in value to the Attic 
 gold stater, i.e. according to the present 
 value of gold, 24 shillings. [See Coinage, 
 fig. 3.] 
 
 Dares of Phrygia. In Homer the priest 
 of Hephsestus in Troy, supposed to have 
 been the author of a pre-Homeric Iliad. 
 It is doubtful whether there ever was any 
 Greek work bearing this title, but a Latin 
 piece of the 5th century a.d. {Daretis 
 Phvygii De Excidio TroicB Historla), 
 bearing a supposed dedication by Cornelius 
 Nepos to Sallust, professes to be a transla- 
 tion of one. This absurd production, and 
 the work of Dictys, was the chief source 
 
 followed by the mediseval poets in their 
 stories of the Trojan war (see DiCTYS). 
 
 D6a Pia. A Roman goddess, probably 
 identical with Acca Larentia, the ancient 
 Roman goddess of the country. Her wor- 
 ship was provided for by the priestly colle- 
 gium of the Fratres Arvales. 
 
 Death (Gr. Tlidndtos). In the Homeric 
 poems Death is called the twin brother of 
 Sleep. In Hesiod he is born of Night with- 
 out a father, with Ker (the goddess of 
 mortal destiny). Moras (the fatal stroke of 
 death), Hypnos, (sleep) and the Dreams. 
 Hesiod represents Death, the hard-hearted 
 one, hated by the immortal gods, as dwell- 
 ing with his brother Sleep in the darkness 
 of the West, whither the sun never pene- 
 trates either at his rising or his setting. 
 On the chest of Cypselus at Olympia is a 
 representation of Night, holding in each 
 hand a sleeping boy ; the one in the right 
 hand being white, and symbolizing Sleep; 
 the other iu the left hand, black, and 
 symbolizing Death. Euripides introduces 
 Death on the stage in his Alcestis. He 
 has a black garment and black wings, and 
 a knife to cut off a lock of hair as an offer- 
 ing to the gods below. In works of art he 
 appears as a beautiful boy or youth, some- 
 times with, sometimes without, wings, and 
 often with his brother Sleep. He is usually 
 in slumber, and holds a torch, either lowered, 
 or reversed and extinguished. 
 
 Decemviri (Latin). A collegium of ten 
 officers or commissioners. Such were the 
 commissioners named for making a com- 
 prehensive code of laws in 451 B.C., Decem- 
 viri Legibus Scribundls. The Decemviri 
 Sacrls Fdciundis were a standing colle- 
 gium of priests appointed to read and 
 expound the Sibylline books. The De- 
 cemviri LUibUs ludicandis were also a 
 standing collegium of indices appointed 
 for certain trials. Commissions of ten 
 {decemviri agris divMundls and colonus 
 deducendls) were frequently', though not 
 always, appointed for assignations of public 
 land and the foundation of colonies. 
 
 Decuma. A tithe. This name was ap- 
 plied by the Romans to the tribute in kind, 
 which Sicily, and at one time Asia Minor 
 had to pay out of the yearly produce of 
 wheat, wine, oil and legumes, instead of the 
 stipendium usual in other provinces. It 
 was a burden on the land, called after it 
 dger denimanus, and was exacted from 
 the persons occupying at the time. Every 
 year the number of cultivators, of acres 
 under cultivation, and the produce of the 
 
DECURIA DELPHIC OUACLE. 
 
 175 
 
 harvest, was ascertained, and the right of 
 exacting the decuma of the whole terri- 
 tory of a city sold to the highest bidder. 
 In the case of Sicily this took place at 
 Syracuse ; in the case of Asia, in Rome. 
 The purchaser of the decuma bound him- 
 self to deliver a certain quantity of corn in 
 Rome ; if the harvest were good, he found 
 his advantage in the surplus. Such farmers 
 of the decumce were called decumanl {see 
 PuBLiCANUs). If the amount delivered were 
 insufficient for the needs of the city, a 
 second amount could be exacted by decree 
 of the senate or people, which was paid for 
 by the State (see Annona). 
 
 D6curia (Latin). Originally a division 
 consisting of ten persons, as, for example, 
 the three subdivisions of the turma of 
 cavalry. Afterwards the word was applied 
 to any division of a large whole, whether 
 the number ten was implied or not. The 
 indices for instance, and most collegia wei'e 
 divided into decurice {see Apparitor). 
 
 Decurlo. (1) The president of a deouria, 
 or the cavalry officers bearing the name 
 {see Tursia). (2) The members of the 
 senate in municipal towns were also called 
 decuriones {see Municipium). 
 
 Dedicatlo (Latin). The consecration of 
 a public sanctury. The pontifices had to 
 draw up the deed of foundation. When 
 they had signified that they deemed the 
 act permissible, and the consent of the 
 people (in later times of the emperor) had 
 been obtained, the rite was performed in 
 the presence of the whole collegium ponti- 
 ftcum. The Pontifex Maximus, whose head 
 was veiled, and with him the representa- 
 tive of the people, took hold of the door- 
 post with one hand, the former dictating, 
 and the latter repeating after him, the 
 formula of dedication, The people was 
 represented usually by one of the two 
 consuls, or a person, or a commission (gene- 
 rally of two persons) elected by the people 
 on the recommendation of the senate. One 
 of the persons forming the coramission was 
 generally the njan who had vowed the 
 dedication. The day on which the shrine 
 was dedicated was regarded as the day of 
 its foundation, and was inscribed in the 
 calendar as a festival. 
 
 Deianira. Daughter of (Eneus king of 
 Calydon, and Althsea. She was the wife 
 of Her&cles, whose death was brought about 
 by her jealousy {see Heracles). 
 
 Deidamia. Daughter of Lycomedes, king 
 of Scyros, and mother of Neoptqlemus by 
 Achilles, 
 
 Deimos and Phobos. See Ares, and 
 comp. Pallor and Payor. 
 
 Delphdbus. Son of Priam and Hecuba, 
 and one of the chief Trojan heroes, next to 
 Hector, after whose death he was the leader 
 of the Trojan army. It was he and Paris 
 who were said to have slain Achilles. In 
 the later story he is the husband of Helen, 
 after Paris' death, and is betrayed by her 
 to Menelaus on the taking of Troy. Ac- 
 cording to Homer's account he was sur- 
 prised by Odysseus and Menelaus in his 
 own house, and overcome only after a hard 
 struggle. 
 
 Delia. The festival of Apollo held every 
 five years at the island of Delos, and visited 
 by ceremonial embassies from all the Greek 
 cities. 
 
 Delphica Mensa. See Tables. 
 
 Delphinia. A festival held at Athens 
 in honour of Apollo as the god of spring. 
 The Delphinion was a sanctuary of the 
 Delphian Apollo at Athens. {See Ephetje.) 
 
 Delphic Oracle. A very ancient seat 
 of prophecy at Delphi, originally called 
 Pytho, and situated on the south-western 
 spur of Parnassus in a valley of Phocis. 
 In historical times the oracle appears in 
 possession of Apollo ; but the original pos- 
 sessor, according to the story, was Gaia 
 (the Earth). Then it was shared by her 
 with Poseidon, who gave up his part in 
 it to Apollo in exchange for the island of 
 Galauria, Themis, the daughter and suc- 
 cessor of Gaia, having already given Apollo 
 her share. According to the Homeric 
 hymn to the Pythian Apollo, the god took 
 forcible possession of the oracle soon after 
 his birth, slaying with his earliest bow-shot 
 the serpent Pytho, the son of Gaia, who 
 guarded the spot. To atone for his murder, 
 Apollo was forced to fly and spend eight 
 years in menial service before he could 
 return forgiven. A festival, the Septer-m, 
 was held every year, at which the whole 
 story was represented : the slaying of the 
 serpent, and the flight, atonement, and re- 
 turn of the god. Apollo was represented 
 by a boy, both of whose parents were 
 living. The dragon was symbolically slain, 
 and his house, decked out in costly fashion, 
 was burnt. Then the boy's followers 
 hastily dispersed, and the boy was taken 
 in procession to Tempe, along the road 
 formerly followed by the god. Here he 
 was purified and brought back by the same 
 road, accompanied by a chorus of maidens 
 singing songs of joy. The oracle proper 
 was a cleft in the ground in the innermost 
 
176 
 
 DELPHIC OEACLE. 
 
 sanctuary, from which arose cold vapours, 
 which had the power of inducing ecstasy. 
 Over the cleft stood a lofty gilded tripod 
 of wood. On this was a circular slab, 
 upon which the seat of the prophetess was 
 placed. The prophetess, called Pythia, 
 was a maiden of honourable birth ; in 
 earlier times a young girl, but in a later 
 age a woman of over fifty, still wearing a 
 girl's dress, in memory of the earlier cus- 
 tom. In the prosperous times of the oracle 
 two Pythias acted alternately, with a third 
 to assist them. In the earliest times the 
 Pythia ascended the tripod only once a 
 year, on the birthday of Apollo, the seventh 
 of the Delphian spring month Bysios. But 
 in later years she prophesied every day, if 
 the day itself and the sacrifices were not 
 unfavourable. These sacrifices were offered 
 bj' the supplicants, adorned with laurel 
 crowns and fillets of wool. Having pre- 
 pared herself by washing and purification, 
 the Pythia entered the sanctuary, with 
 gold ornaments in her hair, and flowing 
 robes upon her ; she drank of the water of 
 the fountain Cassotis, which flowed into the 
 shrine, tasted the fruit of the old bay tree 
 standing in the chamber, and took her seat. 
 No one was present but a priest, called the 
 Prophetes, who explained the words she 
 uttered in her ecstasy, and put them into 
 metrical form, generally hexameters. In 
 later times the votaries were contented 
 with answers in prose. The responses 
 were often obscure and enigmatical, and 
 couched in ambiguous and metaphorical 
 expressions, which themselves needed ex- 
 planation. The order in which the appli- 
 cants approached the oracle was determined 
 by lot, but certain cities, as Sparta, had 
 the right of priority. 
 
 The reputation of the oracle stood very 
 high throughout Greece until the time of the 
 Persian wars, especially among the Dorian 
 tribes, and among them pre-eminently 
 the Spartans, who had stood from of old in 
 intimate relation with it. On all important 
 occasions, as the sending out of colonies, 
 the framing of internal legislation or reli- 
 gious ordinances, the god of Delphi was 
 consulted, and that not only by Greeks 
 but by foreigners, especially the people of 
 Asia and Italy. After the Persian wars 
 the influence of the oracle declined, partly 
 in consequence of the growth of unbelief, 
 partly from the mistrust excited by the 
 partiality and venality of the priesthood. 
 But it never fell completely into discredit, 
 and from tinje to time its position rose 
 
 again. In the first half of the 2nd century 
 A.D. it had a revival, the result of the 
 newly awakened interest in the old reli- 
 gion. It was abolished at the end of 
 the 4th century A.D. by Theodosius the 
 Great. The oldest stone temple of Apollo 
 was attributed to the mythical architects, 
 Trophonius and Agamedes. It was burnt 
 down in 548 B.C., when the Alcmseonidee, at 
 that time in exile from Athens, undertook 
 to rebuild it for the sum of 300 talents, 
 partly taken from the treasure of the 
 temple, and partly contributed by all 
 countries inhabited by Greeks and stand- 
 ing in connexion with the oracle. They 
 put the restoration into the hands of the 
 Corinthian architect Spintharus, and carried 
 it out in a more splendid style than was 
 originally agreed upon, building the front 
 of Parian marble instead of limestone. 
 The groups of sculpture in the pediments 
 represented, on the eastern side, Apollo 
 with Artemis, Leto, and the Muses ; on the 
 western side, Dionysus with the Thyiades 
 and the setting sun ; for Dionysus was 
 worshipped here in winter during the 
 imagined absence of Apollo. These were 
 all the work of Praxias and Androsthenes, 
 and were finished about 430 B.C. The 
 temple was, on account of its vast extent, a 
 hypsethral building; that is, there was no 
 roof over the space occupied by the temple 
 proper. The architecture of the exterior 
 was Doric, of the interior Ionic, as may 
 still be observed in the surviving ruins. 
 On the walls of the entrance-hall were short 
 texts written in gold, attributed to the 
 Seven Wise Men. One of these was the 
 celebrated " Know Thyself." In the temple 
 proper stood the golden statue of Apollo, 
 and in front of it the sacrificial hearth with 
 the eternal fire. Near this was a globe of 
 marble covered with fillets, the Omphalos, 
 or centre of the earth. In earlier times 
 two eagles stood at its side, representing 
 the two eagles which fable said had been 
 sent out by Zeus at the same moment from 
 the eastern and western ends of the world. 
 These eagles were carried off in the Phocian 
 war, and their place filled by two eagles in 
 mosaic on the floor. Behind this space 
 was the inner shrine, lying lower, in the 
 form of a cavern over the cleft in the earth. 
 Within the spacious precincts (pSribolos) 
 stood a great number of chapels, statues, 
 votive offerings and treasure-houses of the 
 various Greek states, in which they de- 
 posited their gifts to the sanctuary, es- 
 pecially the tithes of the booty taken in 
 
DEMARCHOS DEMETEE. 
 
 177 
 
 war. Here, too, was the council chamber 
 of the Delphians. Before the entrance to 
 the temple was the great altar for burnt- 
 offerings, and the golden tripod, dedicated 
 by the Greeks after the battle of Platsea, on 
 a pedestal of brass, representing a snake 
 in three coils. [The greater part of this 
 pedestal now stands in the Hippodrome, or 
 Atmeidan, at Constantinople.] Besides the 
 treasures accumulated in the course of time, 
 the temple had considerable property in 
 land, with a popula'tion consisting mainly 
 of slaves (hierddouloi), bound to pay con- 
 tributions and to render service to the 
 sanctuary. The management of the pro- 
 perty was in the hands of priests chosen 
 from the noble Delphian families, at their 
 head the five Hosloi or consecrated ones. 
 Since the first spoliation of the temple by 
 the Phocians in 355 B.C., it was several 
 times plundered on a grand scale. Nero, 
 for instance, is said to have carried off 500 
 bronze statues. Yet some 3,000 statues 
 were to be seen there in the time of the 
 elder Pliny. [See an article on the Delphic 
 temple by Professor Middleton, Journal of 
 Hellenic Studies, ix 282-322.] 
 
 Demarchos. See Demos. 
 
 Demeter (in Greek mythology). Daughter 
 of Cronus and Rhea. Her name signifies 
 
 DEMETEE AND PERSEPHONE OONSECKATING 
 TBIPTOLEMDS (?) 
 
 (Relief found at EleusiB, 18S9.) 
 
 Mother Earth, the meaning being that she 
 was goddess of agriculture and the civili- 
 zation based upon it. Her children are, by 
 D. C. A. 
 
 lasion, a son Pltitus, the god of riches, and 
 by her brother Zeus, a daughter Perse- 
 phone. Round Demeter and this daughter 
 centre her worship and the fables respect- 
 ing her. Hades carries off Persephone, 
 and Demeter wanders nine days over the 
 
 DEMETER OP CNIDUS. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 earth seeking her, till on the tenth day she 
 learns the truth from the all-seeing sun. 
 She is wrath with Zeus for permitting the 
 act of violence, and she visits Olympus and 
 wanders about among men in the form of 
 an old woman under the name of Deo or 
 the Seeker, till at length, at Eleusis, in 
 Attica, she is kindly received at the house 
 of king Celeus, and finds comfort in tend- 
 ing his newly born son Demophoon. Sur- 
 prised by his mother in the act of trying 
 to make the child immortal by putting it 
 in the fire, she reveals her deity, and causes 
 a temple to be built to her, in which she 
 gives herself up to her grief. In her wrath 
 she makes the earth barren, so that man- 
 kind are threatened with destruction by 
 famine, as she does not allow the fruit of 
 the earth to spring up again until her 
 daughter is allov/ed to spend two-thirds of 
 the year with her. On her return to 
 Olympus she leaves the gift of corn, of 
 
178 
 
 DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS DEMINUTIO CAPITIS. 
 
 a,Li;riculture, and of her lioly mysteries with 
 her host, as a token of grateful recollection. 
 She sends Triptolemiis the Elensinian round 
 the world on her chariot, drawn by ser- 
 pents, to diffuse the knowledge of agricul- 
 ture and other blessings accompanying it, 
 the settlement of fixed places of abode, 
 civil order, and wedlock. Thus Demeter 
 was worshipped as the goddess of agricul- 
 ture and foundress of law, order, and es- 
 ]3ecially of marriage, in all places where 
 Greeks dwelt, her daughter being usually 
 associated with her. {See Thesmophoeia.) 
 The most ancient seat of her worship was 
 Athens and Eleusis, where the Rharian 
 
 DEMETER. 
 
 (Mural painting from Pciapeii.) 
 
 plain was solemnly ploughed every year in 
 memory of the first sowing of wheat. She 
 was also much worshipped in Sicily, which 
 from its fertility was accounted one of her 
 favourite places of abode (see Eledsinia). 
 As the goddess of fertility, Demeter was 
 in many regions associated with Poseidon, 
 the god of fertilizing water. This was 
 particularly the case in Arcadia, where 
 Poseidon was regarded as the father of 
 Persephone. She was also joined with 
 Dionysus, the god of wine, and, as mother 
 of Persephone and goddess of the earth, to 
 which not only the seed, but the dead are 
 committed, she is connected with the lower 
 world under the name of Chthonia. In 
 
 later times she was often confiised with 
 Gaia and Rhea, or Cybele. ■ Besides fruit 
 and honeycombs, the cow and the sow were 
 offered to her, both as emblems of pro- 
 ductivity. Her attributes are poppies and 
 ears of corn (also a symbol of fruitfulness), 
 a basket of fruit and a little pig. Other 
 emblems had a mystic significance, as the 
 torch and the serpent, as living in the 
 earth, and as symbolizing a renewal of life 
 by shedding its skin. The Romans identi- 
 fied her with their own Ceres. 
 
 Demetrius Phaler6us (of Phalerum, the 
 harbour-town of Athens). He was born 
 about 345 B.C., was a pupil of Theophrastus, 
 and an adherent of the Peripatetic school. 
 He was distinguished as a statesman, orator 
 and scholar. His reputation induced Cas- 
 sander to put him at the head of the 
 Athenian state in 317 B.C. For ten years he 
 administered its affairs, and so thoroughly 
 won the affection of his fellow-citizens that 
 they erected numerous statues to him, as 
 many as 360, according to the accounts. 
 On the approach of Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 in 307 B.C., he was deposed, and through the 
 efforts of his opponents condemned to death 
 by the fickle populace. On this he fled to 
 Egypt, to the court of Ptolemy the First, 
 who received him kindly and availed him- 
 self of his counsel. Thus Demetrius is 
 credited with having suggested the founda- 
 tion of the celebrated Alexandrian library. 
 But Ptolemy withdrew his favour from 
 him and banished him to Upper Egypt, 
 where he died in 283 B.C. from the bite of 
 a venomous snake. He was very active as 
 a writer, and his stay in Egypt gave him 
 plenty of leisure to indulge his taste ; but 
 only a few fragments of his works have 
 survived. An essay On Rhetorical Ex- 
 pression, formerly attributed to him, was 
 in reality from the hand of a Demetrius 
 who lived in the 1st century a.d. As 
 an orator Demetrius is said to have been 
 attractive rather than powerful. He was 
 supposed to have been the first speaker 
 who gave rhetorical expression an artificial 
 character, and also the first who introduced 
 into the rhetorical schools the habit of 
 practising speaking upon fictitious themes, 
 juristic or political. 
 
 DemiaxLtio capitis (diminution of civil 
 rights and legal capacity). This was the 
 term by which the Romans denoted de- 
 gradation into an inferior civil condition, 
 through the loss of the rights of freedom, 
 citizenship or family. The extreme form of 
 it, deminutio capitis maxima, was entailed 
 
DEMIUEUI DEMOPHOON. 
 
 179 
 
 by the loss of freedom, which involved the 
 loss of all other rights. This would occur 
 if a Roman citizen were taken prisoner in 
 war, or given up to the enemy for having 
 violated the sanctity of an ambassador, or 
 concluding a treaty not approved of by 
 the people. Or again if he was sold into 
 slavery, whether by the State for refusing 
 military service, or declining to state the 
 amount of his property at the census, or 
 by his creditors for debt. If a prisoner of 
 war returned home, or if the enemy refused 
 to accept him when given up to them, his 
 former civil rights were restored. The inter- 
 mediate stage, deviinutio capitis mSdia or 
 minor, consisted in loss of civil rights con- 
 sequent on becoming citizen of another 
 state, or on a decree of exile confirmed by 
 the people, or (in imperial times) on depor- 
 tation. Restoration of the civil status was 
 possible if the foreign citizenship were 
 given up, or if the decree of exile were 
 cancelled. The lowest grade (deminutio 
 capitis minima) was the loss of hitherto 
 existing family rights by emancipation 
 (which involved leaving the family), adop- 
 tion, or (in the case of a girl) by marriage. 
 
 Demiurgi {Demiourgoi, workers for the 
 people). A general term among the Greeks 
 for tradesmen, among whom they included 
 artists and physicians. In old times they 
 formed, at Athens, the third order, the other 
 two being the Eupatrldcp, and Geomon 
 {see these names). In some states demiurgi 
 was the name of the public officials; in 
 the Achsean League, for instance, the ten 
 demiurgi were among the highest officers 
 of the confederacy. 
 
 Democratia (Demokrdtia, sovereignty of 
 the people). The Greek term for the form 
 of C3nstitution in which a}l citizens had 
 the right of taking part in the government. 
 This right was not always absolutely equal. 
 Sometimes classes were formed on a pro- 
 perty qualification, and civil rights con- 
 ferred accordingly (see Timoceatia) ; but no 
 class in this case was a,bsolutely excluded 
 from a share in ti^e government, ajid it was 
 possible to rise from one class to another. 
 Sometimes provision was njade by law to 
 prevent any pefsofl. taking part in the ad- 
 ministration but such as h^d proved their 
 worth and capacity, In the absence of 
 such limitations the democracy, as Plato 
 in his Republic and Aristotle in his Politics 
 observed, soon degenerated into a mob- 
 government (ochlocrdtia), or developed into 
 a despotism. 
 
 Democritus {Demokritos). A Greek 
 
 philosopher born at Abdera in Thrace about 
 460 B.C. His father, who had entertained 
 king Xerxes for some time during his 
 expedition against Greece, left him a very 
 considerable property, which he spent in 
 making long journeys into Egypt and Asia. 
 On his return he held aloof from all public 
 b'isiness, and devoted himself entirely to 
 his studies. He was more than a hundred 
 years old at his death, and left behind him 
 a number of works on ethics, physics, 
 astronomy, mathematics, art, and literature, 
 written in an attractive and animated 
 manner. We have the titles of some of 
 his writings ; but only scanty fragments 
 remain. Democritus was the most learned 
 Greek before Aristotle. In the history of 
 philosophy he has a special importance, as 
 the real founder of what is called the Atomic 
 Theory, or the doctrine that the universe 
 was formed out of atoms. It is true that 
 his master Leucippus had already started 
 the same idea. According to this theory 
 there are in the universe two fundamental 
 principles, the Pull and the Void. The Full 
 is formed by the atoms, which are primitive 
 bodies of like quality but different form, 
 innumerable, indivisible, indestructible. 
 Falling for ever through the infinite void, the 
 large and heavier atoms overtake and strike 
 upon the smaller ones, and the oblique and 
 circular motions thence arising are the 
 beginning of the formation of the world. 
 The difference of things arises from the fact 
 that atoms differ in number, size, form and 
 arrangement. The soul consists of smooth 
 round atoms resembling those of fire ; these 
 are the nimblest, and in their motion, 
 penetrating the whole bod}'', produce the 
 phenomena of life. The impressions on the 
 senses arise from the effect produced in 
 our senses by the fine atoms which detach 
 themselves from the surface of things. 
 Change is in all cases nothing but the 
 union or separation of atoms. 
 
 The ethics of Democritus are based on 
 the theory of happiness, and by happiness 
 he means the serenity of the mind, undis- 
 turbed by fear or by anything else. The 
 control of the appetites, attainable by tem- 
 perance and self-culture, is the necessary 
 condition of this. To do good for its own 
 sake, without the influence of fear or hope, 
 is the only thing which secures inward 
 contentment. The system of Epicurus is, 
 of all other ancient systems, the most closely 
 connected with that of Democritus. 
 
 Demophoon. (1) Son of Celeus of Eleusis 
 and Metfinira. He was tended in infancy 
 
18U 
 
 DEMOS DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 by Demeter, when, in her search for Perse- 
 phone, she came to Eleusis in the form of 
 an old woman. Demeter found comfort in 
 the care of the child, and wished to confer 
 immortality on him by anointing him with 
 ambrosia and holding him at night over the 
 fire. The interference of the mother, how- 
 ever, prevented the fulfilment of her design 
 (xre Demeter). Triptolemus in some ver- 
 sions takes the place of Demophoon {see 
 Tkii'tolemus). 
 
 (2) Son of Theseus and Phsedra. With 
 his brother AcS.mas he was committed by 
 Theseus to Elepheuor, prince of the Abantes 
 in Euboea. This was at the time when 
 Theseus, on his return from the lower 
 regions, found Menestheus in possession of 
 the sovereignty of Attica, and was anxious 
 to emigrate to Scyros. In the post-Homeric 
 story Demophoon and Acamas march to 
 Troy with their protector Elephenor. After 
 the conquest of the city they liberate their 
 grandmother ^thra, and take possession 
 again of their father's kingdom, as Menes- 
 theus, who in Homer is the chief of the 
 Athenians before Troy, had fallen there 
 {!<ce Mthra). When Diomedes was thrown 
 upon the coast of Attica on his return from 
 Troy, and began to plunder it in ignorance 
 of where he was, Damophoon took the 
 Palladium from him. Subsequently he 
 protected the children of Heracles against 
 the persecutions of Eurystheus, and killed 
 the latter in battle. On his return from 
 Troy he had betrothed himself to Phyllis, 
 daughter of the king of Thrace. On the 
 day appointed for the marriage he did not 
 appear, and Phyllis hanged herself and 
 was changed into a tree. 
 
 Semds. A Greek word meaning : (1) the 
 people, either in contrast with a despot 
 or the nobility, or as the depository of 
 supreme power. (2) a district or region. 
 Thus in the Athenian state the deines 
 were the hundred administrative districts 
 formed by Clisthenes, of whi-^h ten were 
 contained in each of the ten tribes or 
 phylce. The dcmes were named after the 
 small towns and hamlets, and sometimes 
 from distinguished families living there 
 and owning property at the time of the 
 division. In course of time the number of 
 the denies increased through extension and | 
 division, so that in the age of Augustus it j 
 amounted to 174. According to the original 
 arrangement all persons who belonged to a 
 deme lived in its precincts. The descend- 
 ants belonged to the same denies as their ' 
 ancestors, even though they neither lived t 
 
 nor owned property there. To pass from 
 one dcme to another was only possible by 
 adoption. To own property in a strange 
 deme it was necessary to pay a special tax 
 to it. As every citizen was obliged to 
 belong to a deme, the complete ofHcial de- 
 scription of him included the name of his 
 deme as well as of his father. Every dcme 
 had certain common religious rites, presided 
 over by special priests. The demittrr, or 
 members of a deme, had also a common 
 property, a common chest for receiving the 
 rents and taxes, common officers with a 
 demai-chus at their head, and common 
 meetings for the discussion of common 
 interests, elections, and so forth. At these 
 meetings the names of the young citizens 
 of eighteen years old were written in the 
 registers of the devie, and after two years 
 were enrolled in the lists of persons quali- 
 fied to take part in the meetings. It was 
 also at these assemblies that the regular 
 revision of the lists of Athenian citizens 
 took place. 
 
 Demosthenes. The greatest orator of 
 antiquity, born in 384 B.C., in the Attic 
 deme Pseania. His father, who bore the 
 same name, was the wealthy owner of a 
 manufactory of arms. He died before his son 
 was seven years old, and the young Demos- 
 thenes grew up under the tender care of 
 his mother. The boy's ambition was excited 
 by the brilliant successes of the orator 
 Callistratus, and he was eager at the same 
 time to bring to justice his dishonest 
 guardians for the wrong done to him and 
 his sisters. He therefore devoted himself 
 to the study of oratory under the special 
 instruction of Isbbus. The influence of this 
 master is very evident in his speeches 
 delivered in 364 against one of his guar- 
 dians, Aphobus, with his brother-in-law 
 Onetor. Demosthenes won his case, but did 
 not succeed in getting either from Aphobus 
 or from his other guardians any adequate 
 compensation for the loss of nearly thirteen 
 talents (some £2,600) which he had sus- 
 tained. To support himself and his rela- 
 tions, he took up the lucrative business 
 of writing speeches for others, as well as 
 appearing in person as an advocate in the 
 courts. His two first attempts at address- 
 ing the assembled people were, partly owing 
 to the unwieldiness of his style, partly 
 from a faulty delivery, complete failures. 
 But Demosthenes, so far from being daunted, 
 made superhuman efforts to overcome the 
 defects entailed by a weak chest and a 
 stammering tongue, and to perfect himself 
 
DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 181 
 
 in tlie art of delivery. In tliis he was aided 
 by the sympathy and experience of several 
 friends, especially the actor Satyrus. Thus 
 prepared, he appeared again in public in 
 355 B.C. with his celebrated speech against 
 the law of Leptings, and then made good 
 his position on the rostrum. Two years 
 afterwards he started on his political 
 career. His object from the first was to re- 
 store the supremacy of Athens through her 
 own resources, and to rally the Greek states 
 round her against the common enemy, 
 whom he had long recognized in Philip of 
 Macedon. It was in 351 B.C. that he first 
 raised his voice against the Macedonian 
 king. Philip, invoked by the Thessalians 
 to help them against the Phocians, had con- 
 quered the latter, and was threatening to 
 occupy the pass of Thermopylse, the key 
 of Greece Proper. In his first Philippic, 
 Demosthenes opened the conflict between 
 Greek freedom and the Macedonian military 
 despotism. This contest he carried on with 
 no other weapon than his eloquence ; but 
 with such power and persistence that 
 Philip himself is reported to have said that 
 it was Demosthenes and not the Athenians 
 with whom he was fighting. On this 
 occasion he succeeded in inspiring the 
 Athenians to vigorous action. Biit his 
 three Olynthiac orations failed to conquer 
 the indolence and short-sightedness of his 
 fellow-citizens, and their ally the city of 
 Olynthus was taken by Philip in 348. In 
 346 he was one of the ambassadors sent 
 to conclude a peace with Philip. His col- 
 leagues Philocrates and jEschines were 
 bribed with Macedonian gold, and Demos- 
 thenes did not succeed in thwarting their 
 intrigues, which made it possible for the 
 king to occupy Thermopylse, and secure 
 therewith the approach to Greece. In his 
 speech on the Peace he advises his country- 
 men to abide by the settlement. But the 
 ceaseless aggression of the Macedonian 
 soon provoked him again to action, and in 
 the second and third Philippic (344 and 341) 
 he put forth all the power of his eloquence. 
 At the same time he left no stone unturned 
 to strengthen the fighting power of Athens. 
 His exertions were, on this occasion, success- 
 ful : for in spite of the counter efforts of the 
 Macedonian party, he managed to prevail on 
 the Athenians to undertake a war against 
 Philip, in the victorious course of which 
 Perinthus and Byzantium were saved from 
 the Macedonian despotism (340). But it was 
 not long before the intrigues of JEschines, 
 who was in Philip's pay, brought about a 
 
 new interference on the king's part in 
 the affairs of Greece. As a counter-move 
 Demosthenes used his eloquence to persuade 
 the Thebans to ally themselves with Athens : 
 but all hope was ■ shattered by the unhappy 
 battle of Chseronea (B.C. 338), in which 
 Demosthenes himself took part as a heavy- 
 armed soldier. Greece was now completely 
 
 * DEMOSTHENES. 
 
 (Vatican Museum, Rome.) 
 
 in the hands of Philip. The Macedonian 
 party tried to make Demosthenes responsible 
 for the disaster; but the people acquitted 
 him, and conferred upon him, as their most 
 patriotic citizen, the honour of delivering 
 the funeral oration over the dead. In 336, 
 after Philip's death, Demosthenes summoned 
 
182 
 
 DEMOTE- DEPORTATIO. 
 
 the Athenians to rise against the Mace- 
 donian dominion. But the destruction of 
 Thebes by Alexander crippled every at- 
 tempt at resistance. It was only through 
 the venal intervention of Demades that 
 Demosthenes, with his true-hearted allies 
 and supporters Hyperides and Lycurgus, 
 escaped being given up to the enemy, as 
 had been demanded . Demosthenes had been 
 repeatedly crowned in public for his public 
 services, and in 337 B.C. Ctesiphon had pro- 
 posed not only to give him a golden crown 
 for his tried devotion to his country, but to 
 proclaim the fact at the Dionysia by the 
 mouth of the herald. iEschines had already 
 appeared to prosecute Ctesiphon for bring- 
 ing forward an illegal proposal. In 330 he 
 brought up the charge again, meaning it 
 no doubt as a blow against his bitterest 
 enemy Demosthenes. Demosthenes replied 
 in his famous speech upon the Crown, and 
 won a brilliant victory over his adversary, 
 who was thereupon obliged to go into exile 
 at Rhodes. But in 324 his enemies, joined 
 on this occasion by his old friend Hyperides, 
 succeeded in humiliating him. Harpalus, 
 the finance minister of Alexander, had fled 
 to Athens with an immense treasure, and 
 Demosthenes was accused of having taken 
 bribes from him, condemned, and sentenced 
 to pay a fine of 50 talents. Unable to pay 
 this enormous sum, he was thrown into 
 prison, whence he escaped to .iEgina, to be 
 recalled and welcomed with trumpets in 
 the following year after the death of Alex- 
 ander. But the unfortunate issue of the 
 Lamian war, which resulted in a Mace- 
 donian occupation of Athens and the dis- 
 solution of the democratic constitution, 
 involved him in ruin. Condemned to death 
 with his friends by the Macedonian party, 
 he fled to the island of Calauria, near 
 Trcezen, and took sanctuary in the temple 
 of Poseidon. Here, as Antipater's officers 
 were upon him, he took poison and died, 
 Oct. 16, 322. 
 
 Sixty-five genuine speeches of Demos- 
 thenes were known in antiquity, and 
 many others were falsely attributed to him. 
 The collection which we possess contains 
 sixty speeches, besides a letter of Philip 
 to the Athenians, but some twenty-seven 
 of these are suspected. The seventh, for 
 instance, On the Island of Hdlonnesus, was 
 written by a contemporary, Hegesippus. 
 The genuineness of the six letters, and of 
 Mtj-six proosmHi, or introductions to public 
 speeches, which bear his name, is also doubt- 
 ful. Among the genuine speeches the most 
 
 remarkable, both for the beauty of their 
 form and the importance of their subjects, 
 are the Olynthiacs, the Philippics, the 
 orations on the Peace, on the Crown, on 
 the Embassy (against iEschines), with 
 those against the Law of Leptines, against 
 Androtion, and against Meidias. The 
 greatness of Demosthenes consists in his 
 unique combination of honest intention 
 with natural genius and thoroughly finished 
 workmanship. He has all the qualities 
 by which the other Greek orators are dis- 
 tinguished singly, and at the same time 
 the power of appljang them in the most 
 effective way on each occasion as it arises. 
 It is true that he had not the gift of free 
 extempore speaking, or if he had, he did 
 not cultivate it ; he gave the most elaborate 
 preparation to all his speeches, so that a 
 witty contemporary said they smelt of the 
 lamp. The consequence however is, that 
 all he says shows the deepest thought and 
 ripest consideration. There is the same 
 finish everywhere, whether in the sobriety 
 and acuteness of his argumentation, in the 
 genial and attractive tone of his narrative, 
 or in the mighty and irresistible stream of 
 his eloquence, which no violence of passion 
 ever renders turbid. With all his art, his 
 language is always simple and natural, 
 never far-fetched or artificial. The greatest 
 of the Greek orators, Demosthenes was the 
 centre of all rhetorical study among the 
 Greeks and Romans, and was much com- 
 mented upon by scholars and rhetoricians. 
 Little, however, of these commentaries 
 remains, except a collection of mediocre 
 scholia, bearing the name of Ulpianus. 
 
 Demotse. See Demos. 
 
 Denarius (Latin). A Roman silver coin 
 so called because it originally contained 10 
 asses. In later times it = 16 asses = 4 
 sestertii = ^ of an aureus. Its original 
 weight was 4-55 gr. ( = between 9^. and 
 lOd.), from 217 B.C. to Nero, 3-90 (about 
 Id.), after Nero's time 3'41 gr., the amount 
 of pure silver being so reduced that it 
 was worth only about 6d. Its value sub- 
 sequently sank more and more, until at 
 the beginning of the 3rd century a.d. it 
 it was worth only 3d. When at the end 
 of the 3rd century Diocletian introduced a 
 new silver coin of full value according to 
 the Neronian standard (the so-called argen- 
 tSus), the name denarius was transferred to 
 a small copper coin (see Coinage, Roman). 
 
 Deo. See Demeter. 
 
 Deportatio. Banishment to a specified 
 locality, generally an island. This form of 
 
DESULTORES DI^TA. 
 
 183 
 
 exile was devised under the early Roman 
 emperors. It involved loss of civil rights, 
 and generally also of property. 
 
 Desultores. See Cikcus. 
 
 Deucalion. In Greek mythology, the 
 son of Prometheus and Clymene, husband 
 of Pyrrha, the daughter of Epimetheus, 
 monarch of Phthia in Thessaly. Zeus 
 having resolved to destroy the degenerate 
 race of mankind by a great flood, Deucalion, 
 by the advice of his father, built a wooden 
 chest, in which he rescued only himself 
 and his wife from the general destruction. 
 After nine days he landed on Mount Par- 
 nassus and sacrificed to Zeus Phyxios (who 
 sends help by flight). Inquiring of the 
 oracle of Themis at Delphi how the human 
 race could be renewed, he received answer 
 that Pyrrha and he should veil their heads, 
 and throw behind them the bones of their 
 mother. They understood the priestess to 
 refer to stones, which they accordingly 
 threw behind them ; and the stones of 
 DeiTcalion turned into men, those of Pyrrha 
 into women. With this new race Deucalion 
 founded a kingdom in Locris, where the 
 grave of Pyrrha was shown. That of 
 Deucalion was said to be visible at Athens 
 in the ancient temple of the Olympian Zeus, 
 which he was supposed to have built. 
 
 Deverra. One of the three goddesses 
 worshipped among the Italian tribes. She 
 was supposed to protect new-born children 
 and their mothers against disturbance from 
 the god Silvanus (see Picumncts). 
 
 Deversorimn. See Inns. 
 
 Devotio (Latin). A religious ceremony, 
 by virtue of which a general, whose army 
 was in distress, offered up as an atonement 
 to the gods below, and a means of averting 
 their wrath, the army, city, and land of the 
 enemy ; or some soldier in the Roman 
 army ; or even himself, as was the case with 
 the Decii. The general, standing on a spear 
 and with veiled head, repeated a solemn 
 formula dictated to him by the Pontifex. 
 If the city and land of the enemy were 
 offered, the gods were solemnly invited to 
 bum the land or city {See EvoCATio). The 
 fate of the devoted person was left in the 
 hands of the gods. If he survived, an 
 image at least seven feet high was buried 
 in the ground and a bloody sacrifice offered 
 over it ; he was meanwhile held incapable 
 in future of performing any other religious 
 rite, either on his own behalf or on that of 
 
 the state. 
 
 Dia. See Hebe. 
 Diadem {diddemd). 
 
 The white fillet 
 
 round the brow which was the emblem of 
 sovereignty from the time of Alexander 
 the Great. Csesar refused it when offered 
 him by Antonius, and it was not, in con- 
 sequence, worn by the Roman emperors, 
 except in a lew cases. But when the seat 
 of government was removed to Byzantium, 
 Constantino adopted the Greek emblem of 
 royalty. 
 Diacrii. See Solonian Constitution. 
 Diana. An ancient Italian deity, whose 
 name is the feminine counterpart of lanus. 
 She was the goddess of the moon, of the open 
 air, and open country, with its mountains, 
 forests, springs and brooks, of the chase, and 
 of childbirth. In the latter capacity she, 
 like Juno, bore the second title of Lucina. 
 Thus her attributes were akin to those of 
 the Greek Artemis, and in the course of 
 time she was completely identified with her 
 and with Hecate, who resembled her. The 
 most celebrated shrine of Diana was at 
 Aricia in a grove {nemus), from which 
 she was sometimes simply called Nemoren- 
 sis. This was on the banks of the modern 
 lake of Nemi, which was called the mirror 
 of Diana. Here a male deity named Virbius 
 was worshipped with her, a god of the forest 
 and the chase. He was in later times 
 identified with Hippolytus, the risen 
 favourite of Artemis, and the oldest priest 
 of the sanctuary {Eex Ne'rnorensis). He 
 was said to have originated the custom of 
 giving the priest's office to a runaway slave, 
 who broke off a branch from a particular 
 tree in the precincts, and slew his pre- 
 decessor in office in single combat. In 
 consequence of this murderous custom the 
 Greeks compared Diana of Aricia with the 
 Tauric Artemis, and a fable arose that 
 Orestes had brought the image of that god 
 into the grove. Diana was chiefly wor- 
 shipped by women, who prayed to her for 
 happiness in marriage or childbirth. The 
 most considerable temple of Diana at Rome 
 was in the Aventine, founded by Servius 
 Tullius as the sanctuary of the Latin con- 
 federacy. On the day of its foundation 
 (August 13) the slaves had a holiday. This 
 Diana was completely identified with the 
 sister of Apollo, and worshipped simply as 
 Artemis at the Secular Games. A sign of 
 the original difference however remained. 
 Cows were offered to the Diana of the 
 Aventine, and her temple adorned with 
 cows, not with stags' horns, but it was the 
 doe which was sacred to Artemis (see 
 Artemis). 
 Diaeta. See House. 
 
18i 
 
 DliETETiE DICTATOR. 
 
 Diaetetae (Athenian). Public arbitrators, 
 to -wliom the parties in a private suit might 
 apply if they wished to avoid a trial before 
 the Heliastas. 'For this object a consider- 
 able number of citizens of advanced age 
 were nominated. They received no salary, 
 but a fee of a drachma (about 8d.) from each 
 party, and as much from the complainant 
 for every adjournment. In case of miscon- 
 duct they could be called to account. The 
 Diatdce were assigned to the parties by 
 lot by the magistrate who (according to the 
 character of the case) would have presided 
 in the court of the Helisea. To this magis- 
 trate (in case the parties did not appeal to 
 the Helisea against it), the Dicetetes handed 
 in the sentence he had delivered as the 
 result of his investigation, to have it signed 
 and published, and thus made legal. The 
 name of Dicetetce was also given to private 
 arbitrators named by agreement between 
 the parties on the understanding that their 
 decision was to be accepted without appeal. 
 
 Biasia. A festival of atonement held by 
 the whole population of Attica, on the 23rd 
 of Anthesterion (February to March), to 
 Zeus Meilichios (the Zeus of propitiatory 
 offerings). The offerings were bloodless, 
 and consisted chiefly of cakes. 
 
 Diaulos. See Gymnastics. 
 
 Diazomata (Latin prcecinctiones). The 
 broad passages in the Greek theatre, which 
 horizontally divided the successive row of 
 seats into two or three flights {see Theatre.) 
 
 Dicaearchus ( Dikaiarchos). A Greek phi- 
 losopher and author, a disciple of Aristotle. 
 He was born at Messaua in Sicily, but 
 lived mostly in Greece, and especially in 
 the Peloponnese. He was the author of 
 many works on geography, history, poli- 
 tics, and philosophy. One of his most 
 important works was The Life of Hellas, 
 in three books, which contained an account 
 of the geography of Greece, its political 
 development and the condition of its vari- 
 ous states, its public and private life, its 
 theatre, games, religions, etc. Only frag- 
 ments of it remain. [The De Re Pubttca 
 of Cicero is supposed, with good reason, to 
 be founded upon a work by Dicaearchus.] 
 A badly written description of Greece, in 
 150 iambic senarii, bears the name of 
 Dicsearchus, but (as the acrostic at the 
 beginning shows) is really from the hand 
 of a certain Dionysius, son of Calliphon. 
 Three interesting and not unimportant 
 fragments of a work on The Cities of 
 Greece have also been wrongly attributed 
 to him. Their real author appears to have 
 
 been an unknown writer named Heraclides, 
 who flourished 280 B.C. 
 
 Dicasterion. See Law Courts. 
 
 Dice (Games with). Games with dice 
 were of high antiquity and very popular 
 among the Greeks. They were usiially 
 played on a board with a vessel called a 
 tower (pyrcjos, turvlciUa, fritillus, etc.), 
 narrower at the top than at the bottom, 
 and fitted inside with gradually diminish- 
 ing shelves. There were two kinds of games. 
 In the first, three dice {kybos, tessSra), and 
 in later times two were used. These were 
 •ihaped like our dice and were marked on 
 the opposite sides with the dots 1-6, 2-5, 
 3-4. The game was decided by the highest 
 throw, and each throw had a special name. 
 The best (3 or 4 x 6) was called Aphrodite or 
 Venus, the worst (3x1) the dog {kyon or 
 cants). In the second, four dice {astrdgdlos 
 or talus) were used, made of the bones of 
 oxen, sheep or goats, or imitations of them 
 in metal or ivory. They had four long 
 sides, two of which, one concave and the 
 other convex, were broad, and the other two 
 narrow, one being more contracted than 
 the other, and two pointed ends, on which 
 they could net stand, and which therefore 
 were notcounted. The two broad sides were 
 marked 3 and 4; of the narrow sides the 
 contracted one was marked 6, and the wider 
 one 1, so that 2 and 5 were wanting. 
 As in the other game, so here, every 
 possible throw had its name. The luckiest 
 throw {Venus) was four different numbers, 1, 
 3, 4, 6; the unluckiest {cdnis) four aces. 
 Dicing as a game of hazard was early for- 
 bidden in Rome, and only allowed at the 
 Saturnalia. The penalty was a fine and 
 infanna. The sediles were responsible for 
 preventing dicing in taverns. If a private 
 individual allowed it in his house, he had 
 no legal remedy for any irregularities that 
 might occur. In spite of this, dicing was 
 iiuite common at drinking bouts, especially 
 under the empire. Indeed some emperors, 
 e.g. Claudius, were passionate players. 
 Others however did their best to check the 
 evil. Justinian went so far as to allow a 
 claim for the recovery of money lost at play. 
 Dictator. _ The Latin term for a magis- 
 trate appointed for special emergencies, 
 after auspices duly taken by the consuls 
 on the commission of the senate. The 
 dictator was never appointed for more than 
 six months. The first instance of the 
 appointment occurred in 501 B.C. The 
 dictator was usually, though not always, 
 chosen from the number of consular is or 
 
DICTYMNA DIDYMUS. 
 
 185 
 
 men who had held the office of consul, No 
 plebeian was elected before 35G B.C. He 
 was always nominated for a particular or 
 specified purpose, on the fulfilment of which 
 he laid down his office. He combined the 
 supreme judicial with the supreme mili- 
 tary power, and there was, originally, no 
 appeal against his proceedings, even the 
 veto of the tribunes being powerless against 
 him. He was entirely irresponsible for his 
 acts, and could therefore not be called to 
 account on the expiration of his term of 
 office. His insignia were the sella cundis, 
 toga prcetexta, and 24 lictors, who repre- 
 sented the lictors of two consuls, and who 
 even in the city bore axes in their bundle 
 of rods, as a sign of the unlimited power of 
 life and death. His assistant was the 
 magister equitum (master of the horse), 
 who was bound absolutely to obey his com- 
 mands, and whom he had to nominate 
 immediately after his own election. The 
 original function of the dictator was mili- 
 tary ; but after 363 B.C. a dictator was occa- 
 sionally chosen, in the absence of the consuls, 
 for other purposes than dealing with external 
 danger or internal troubles ; especially to 
 hold the games or religious festivities. The 
 office gradually passed out of use, though not 
 legally abolished. The last military dictator 
 was appointed in 206 B.C., the last absolutely 
 in 202 B.C. The dictatorships of Sulla and 
 Csesar, who was named perpetual dictator 
 not long before his death, were anti-republi- 
 can and unconstitutional. After Csesar was 
 murdered in 44 B.C., the office was abolished 
 for ever by a law of Marcus Antonius. 
 
 Dictymna. A goddess of the sea, wor- 
 shipped in Crete. (See Beitomaetis.) 
 
 Dict^s. (1) A poor fisherman on the 
 island of Seriphus, who gave welcome to 
 Danae and her son Perseus. 
 
 (2) Dictys of Gnossos in Crete. Alleged 
 to have been the companion of Idomeneus 
 in the Trojan war, and author of a diary 
 recording his experiences therein. The 
 diary, written in Phoenician on palm leaves, 
 was said to have been found in a leaden box 
 in his grave in the time of Nero, and to have 
 been translated into Greek at that emperor's 
 command. The existence of this Greek ver- 
 sion was doubted, but a certain Lucius Sep- 
 timius, of the 4th century A.D., gave out 
 his Dictys Cretensis Ephevierls De Bella 
 Troidno as a translation of it. This book, 
 and the equally absurd one of Dares (see 
 Daees), were the chief authorities followed 
 by the mediaeval poets who handled the 
 story of Troy. 
 
 Didascaiia {DMaslmlia). A Greek word 
 meaning (1) The performance of a drama. 
 (2) The pieces brought forward for per- 
 formance at a dramatic entertainment. (3) 
 A board hung up in the theatre, with short 
 notices as to the time and place of the con- 
 test, the competing poets, their plays and 
 other successes, perhaps also the Ckoregt, 
 and the most celebrated actors. These 
 documents, so important for the history of 
 the drama, were first collected and arranged 
 by Aristotle, whose example was followed 
 by the Alexandrian scholars Callimachus, 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, and others. 
 Prom these writings, also called didas- 
 calice, but now unfortunately lost, come 
 the scanty notices preserved by gram- 
 marians and scholiasts upon the particular 
 tragedies and comedies. Polio wing the 
 example of the Greeks the Romans pro- 
 vided the dramas of their own poets with 
 didascalice, as for instance those attached 
 to the comedies of Terence and the Stichus 
 of Plautus. 
 
 Dido. Properly a surname of the 
 Phoenician goddess of the moon, the wan- 
 dering Astarte, who was also the goddess 
 of the citadel of Carthage. The name of 
 this goddess and some traits of her story 
 were transferred to Elissa, daughter of the 
 Tyrian king Mutton (the Belus or Agenor 
 of the Greeks). Elissa came from Tyre to 
 Africa, where she founded Carthage. ■ She 
 was flying from her brother Pygmalion, 
 the murderer of her husband and paternal 
 uncle Sicharbaal or Sicharbas (called in 
 Greek Acerbas and in Latin Sychseus). To 
 escape wedding the barbarian king larbas 
 she erected a funeral pyre and stabbed her- 
 self upon it. According to the later story, 
 followed or invented by Vergil, the tragedy 
 was due to her despair at her desertion by 
 iEneas. 
 
 Didrachma. See Coinage. 
 
 Didyinus. One of the most celebrated 
 Greek scholars of antiquity. He was born 
 at Alexandria in 63 B.C., but lived and 
 taught in Rome. He was one of the chief 
 representatives of the school of Aristarchus. 
 He is said to have been the author of more 
 than 3,500 works, and from his own in- 
 dustry and gigantic power of work was 
 called ChalkentSros (the man with bowels 
 of brass). Homer was the chief subject of 
 his researches. His greatest work was_ a 
 treatise of extraordinary care upon Aris- 
 tarchus' edition of Homer, extracts from 
 which are preserved in the Venetian Scholia 
 to Homer. He wrote commentaries, not 
 
186 
 
 DIIPOLIA DINARCHUS. 
 
 only on Homer, but on Hesiod, the lyric and 
 dramatic poets, and the Attic orators, be- 
 sides monographs and works of reference 
 on literary history. The most valuable part 
 of the information handed down in the 
 grammatical lexicons and commentaries of 
 the Byzantines is to be referred to him. 
 
 Diipolia. A festival celebrated in Athens 
 on the 14th Scirophorion (June to July), 
 to Zeus as the protector of the city. It 
 was also called BupJwnla, from the sacri- 
 fice of an ox connected with it. A labour- 
 ing ox was led to the altar of Zeus in the 
 Acropolis, which was strewn with wheat 
 and barley. As soon as the ox touched the 
 consecrated grain, he was punished by a blow 
 on the neck from an axe, delivered by a 
 priest of a particular family, who instantly 
 threw away the axe and took to flight. In 
 his absence the axe was brought to judg- 
 ment in the Prytaneum, and condemned, as 
 a thing polluted by murder, to be thrown 
 into the sea. To kill a labouring ox, the 
 trusty helper of man, was rigidly forbidden 
 by custom. In the exceptional sacrifice of 
 one at this festival, the ancient custom may 
 be regarded as on the one hand excusing 
 the slaughter, and on the other insisting 
 that it was, nevertheless, equivalent to a 
 murder. 
 
 Dilectus. The levj'ing of soldiers for 
 military service among the Romans. In the 
 republican age all the citizens who were 
 liable to service assembled in the Capitol 
 on the day previously notified by the 
 Consuls in their edictitm, or proclamation. 
 The twenty-four trihuni mlVUum were 
 first divided among the four legions to be 
 levied. Then one of the tribes was chosen 
 by lot, and the presence of the citizens 
 ascertained by calling the names accord- 
 ing to the lists of the several tribes. The 
 calling was always opened with names of 
 good omen {see Omen). If a man did not 
 appear, he would be punished according 
 to circumstances, by a fine, confiscation of 
 property, corporal punishment, even by 
 being sold into slavery. Pour men of equal 
 age and bodily capacity were ordered to 
 come forward, and distributed among the 
 four legions, then another four, and so on, so 
 that each legion got men of equal quality. As 
 the proceeding was the same with the other 
 tribes, each legion had a quarter of the levy 
 for each tribe. No one man was excused 
 {vdcatio) from service unless he was over 46 
 years of age, or had served the number of 
 campaigns prescribed by law, twenty in the 
 infantry, ten in the cavalry, or held a city 
 
 office or priesthood, or had a temporary or 
 perpetual dispensation granted on account 
 of special business of state. In ancient 
 times the levy of the cavalry followed that 
 of the infantry, in later times it preceded 
 it. On the oath taken after the levy see 
 Sacramentum. 
 
 About the year 100 B.C. Marius procured 
 the admission of the capite censi, or classes 
 without property, to military service {see 
 Peoletaeii). After this the legions were 
 chiefly made up out of this class by enlist- 
 ment; and though the liability to common 
 military service still existed for all citizens, 
 the wealthy citizens strove to relieve them- 
 selves of it, the more so, as after Marius 
 the time of service was extended from 
 twenty campaigns to twenty years. In 89 
 B.C. the Roman citizenship was extended 
 to all the inhabitants of Italy, and all, 
 therefore, became liable to service. The 
 levies were in consequence not held ex- 
 clusively in Rome, but in all Italy, by con- 
 quisltores. These functionaries, though 
 they continued to use the official lists of 
 qualified persons, assumed more and more 
 the character of recruiting officers. They 
 were ready to grant the vacatio, or exemp- 
 tion, for money or favour, and anxious 
 to get hold of volunteers by holding out 
 promises. The legal liability to military 
 service continued to exist in imperial times, 
 but after the time of Augustus it was only 
 enforced in regard to the garrison at Rome, 
 and on occasions of special necessity. The 
 army had become a standing one, and even 
 outside of Italy, except when a special 
 levy of new legions was made, the vacancies 
 caused by the departure of the soldiers who 
 had served their time were filled up by 
 volunteers. .The levy was carried out by 
 imperial commissioners {dilectatores), whose 
 business it was to test the qualifications of 
 the recruits. These were, Roman citizen- 
 ship — for only citizens were allowed to 
 serve, whether in the legions, or in the 
 guard and other garrison cohorts of Rome 
 {Oohortes Urbance) — physical capacity, and 
 a certain height, the average of which was 
 5 feet 10 inches under the empire. For the 
 republican age we have no information on 
 this point. 
 
 Dinarchus {Deinarchos). The last of 
 the ten great Attic orators. He was born 
 at Corinth about 361 B.C., and came early 
 to Athens, where he became the pupil and 
 friend of Theophrastus and Demetrius of 
 Phalerum. After B.C. 336, and especially 
 after the death of the great orators, he 
 
DINOCRATES DIOGENES LAERTIUS. 
 
 187 
 
 acquired wealth and reputation by writing 
 speeches for others. He was involved in 
 the ruin of liis patron, Demetrius, and in 
 307 went into voluntary exile at Chalcis 
 in Euboea. It was fifteen years before he 
 obtained permission to return, through the 
 good offices of Theophrastus. Robbed of 
 his property by the treachery of a friend, 
 and nearly blind, he died at Athens, more 
 than 70 years old. His speeches, which 
 were very numerous (there were at least 
 fifty-eight), are all lost, except three on 
 the trial of Harpalus, one of which is di- 
 rected against Demosthenes. They do not 
 give a favourable idea of his powers. In 
 the opinion of the ancients his style had 
 no individuality, but was an unsuccessful 
 imitation, at one time of Lysias, at another 
 of Hyperides, at another of Demosthenes. 
 
 JUnocrktea {Deinokrdtes). A Greek archi- 
 tect, a native of Macedonia, who flourished 
 in the second half of the 4th century B.C., and 
 was thus a contemporary of Alexander the 
 Great. On the commission of Alexander 
 he superintended the foundation of Alex- 
 andria, and erected the funeral pyre of 
 Hephsestion, celebrated for its boldness and 
 splendour. He is also said to have restored 
 the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, burnt 
 down by Herostratus. An idea of the bold- 
 ness of his conceptions may be gathered 
 from the fact that he proposed to represent 
 Mount Athos in human form, with a city in 
 one hand, and in the other a vessel from 
 which the waters of the mountain flowed 
 into the sea. 
 
 Dinolochus {Deinoloclws). See Comedy 
 and Epicharmus. 
 
 Diocletian, Edict of. [An edict published 
 by the emperor Diocletian about 303 A.D., 
 directing those engaged in the sale of pro- 
 visions not to exceed certain fixed prices 
 in times of scarcity. It is preserved in an 
 inscription in Greek and Latin on the outer 
 wall of the cella of a temple at Stratonicea 
 {Eski-Mssar) in Caria. It states the price 
 of many varieties of provisions, and these 
 inform us of their relative value at the 
 time. The provisions specified include not 
 only the ordinary food of the people, but 
 also a number of articles of luxury. Thus 
 mention is made of several kinds of honey, 
 of hams, sausages, salt and fresh-water fish, 
 asparagus and beans, and even pernm 
 Menaplcoa (Westphalian hams). At the 
 time when the edict was published the 
 denarius was obviously much reduced in 
 value, that coin appearing as the equivalent 
 of a single oyster. The inscription was 
 
 first copied by Sherard in 1709 ; it has been 
 elaborately edited by M. Waddington, with 
 new fragments and a commentary, 1864; 
 and b}'- Mommsen in the third volume 
 of the Corpus Inscriptlonum Latlnaruin. 
 Portions of the Greek copy and the Latin 
 preamble were found at Platsea in 1888-9 
 during the explorations of the American 
 School of Classical Archseology. In 1890, 
 during the excavations of the British School 
 of Archseology, several hundred lines of the 
 Greek version of the decree were discovered 
 at Megalopolis, including a list of pigments 
 with their prices. — J. E. S.] 
 
 Dlddorus, surnamed Siculus, or the Sici- 
 lian. A Greek historian, native of Agyrion, 
 in Sicily, who lived in the times of Julius 
 Caesar and Augustus. After thirty years' 
 preparation, based upon the results yielded 
 by long travels in Asia and Europe, and the 
 use of the plentiful materials supplied by 
 residence in Rome, he wrote his Bibltotheca, 
 an Universal History in 40 books, extending 
 over a period of some 1,100 years, from the 
 oldest time to 60 B.C. In the first six books 
 he treated the primitive history and mytho- 
 logy of the Egyptians, the natives of Asia, 
 and Africa, and the Hellenes. The next 
 eleven embraced the period from the Trojan 
 war to the death of Alexander the Great. 
 The remaining 23 brought the history down 
 to the beginning of Caesar's struggle with 
 Gaul. We still possess books 1-5 and 11- 
 20 (from the Persian War under Xerxes to 
 302 B.C.), besides fragments, partly con- 
 siderable, of the other books. In the early 
 books his treatment is ethnographical ; 
 but from the seventh book onwards, in the 
 strictly historical part of his work, he writes 
 like an annalist narrating all the events of 
 one year at a time, with emphasis on the more 
 important ones. It is obvious that this 
 proceeding must rob the history of all its 
 inner connection. He has other weaknesses. 
 He is incapable of seizing the individual 
 characteristics either of nations or of indi- 
 viduals, and contents himself with giving 
 anecdotes and unconnected details. He 
 follows his authorities blindly, without any 
 attempt to criticize their statements. Then 
 his work falls far short of the ideal which 
 he himself sets up in his introduction. But 
 it is none the less of great value as being 
 one of the main authorities for many parts 
 of ancient history, especially that affecting 
 Sicily. In his style Diodorus aims at clear- 
 ness and simplicit}'. 
 
 Di6g6nes Laertius {of Laerte in Cilicia). 
 A Greek author, who flourished about 150 
 
188 
 
 DIOGENIANUS- 
 
 -DION. 
 
 A.D., the author of a work, in ten books, on 
 the lives and doctrines of celebrated Greek 
 philosophers. It is an uncritical compilation 
 from books of earlier and later date, but the 
 richness of the material gathered from lost 
 writings gives it inestimable value for the 
 history of philosophy. Books 1-7 embrace 
 the Ionic philosophers from Thales onwards, 
 Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics 
 down to Chrysippus. Books 8, 9 treat of 
 the philosophers whom he includes under 
 the name of Italian, Pythagoras, Empedocles, 
 Heraclitus, the Eleatics and Atomists, 
 Protagoras, Pyrrho and Epicurus, to the 
 last of whom the whole tenth booli is de- 
 voted. 
 
 DiSgfiniaims. A Greek grammarian of 
 Heraclea. In the middle of the 2nd cen- 
 tury A.D. he made extracts in five books from 
 the great collection of stories compiled 
 about a century before by Pamphilus. 
 These extracts form the foundation of the 
 lexicon of Hesychius. A collection of 
 proverbs made by him is preserved in an 
 abridged form. 
 
 Diomedes. (1) Son of Ares and Cyrene, 
 king of the Bistones. {See Heracles.) 
 
 (2) Son of Tydeus and Deipyle, and one 
 of the Epigoni. After the death of his 
 maternal grandfather Adrastus, king of 
 Argos, he led 80 ships against Troy, accom- 
 panied by his trusty companions Sthenelus 
 and Euryalus. He appears in Homer, like 
 his father, as a bold, enterprising hero, and 
 a favourite of Athene. In the battle which 
 took place during the absence of Achilles 
 she enables him not only to vanquish all 
 mortals who came in his way, ^neas 
 among them, but to attack and wound 
 Ares and Aphrodite. On his meeting with 
 Glaucus in the thick of battle, see Glaucus 
 4. When the Achseans fly from the field, he 
 throws himself boldly in the path of Hector, 
 and is only checked by the lightning of 
 Zeus, which falls in front of his chariot. 
 In the night after the unsuccessful battle 
 he goes out with Odysseus to explore, kills 
 DSlon, the Trojan spy, and murders the 
 sleeping Rhesus, king of Thrace, who had just 
 come to Troy, with twelve of his warriors. 
 In the post-Homeric story, he makes his 
 way again, in company with Odysseus, by 
 an underground passage into the acropolis 
 of Troy, and thence steals the Palladium. 
 This, according to one version, he carried 
 to Argos ; according to another, it was 
 stolen from him by the Athenian king, 
 Demophoon, on his landing in Attica. After 
 the destruction of Troy, according to Homer, 
 
 he came safe home on the fourth day of his 
 journey. His wife, jEgiale or .iEgiftleia 
 (daughter or granddaughter of Adrastus), 
 was, according to the later legend, tempted 
 to unfaithfulness by Aphrodite in revenge 
 for the wounds inflicted on her by Diomedes. 
 To escape the fate of Agamemnon, Diomedes 
 fled from Argos to iEtolia, his father's home, 
 and there avenged his old grandfather 
 (Eneus on his oppressors. Hence he was 
 driven by a storm to Italy, to king Daunus 
 of Apulia, who helps him in war against the 
 Messapians, marries his daughter Euippe, 
 and extends his dominion over the plain of 
 Apulia (called after him Campl Diomedet). 
 According to one story, he died in Daunia, in 
 another he returned to Argos, and died there; 
 in a third, he disappeared in the islands 
 in the Adriatic, named, after him, InstulcB 
 Dwmedece, his companions being changed 
 into the herons that live there, the birds of 
 Diomedes. Diomedes was worshipped as a 
 hero not only in Greece, but on the Italian 
 coast of the Adriatic, where his name had 
 in all probability become confused in wor- 
 ship with those of the native deities of 
 horse-taming and navigation. The founda- 
 tion of the Apulian city of Argyrippa (later 
 called Arpi) was specially attributed to him. 
 In his native city, Argos, his shield was 
 carried through the streets with the Palla- 
 dium at the festival of Athene, and his 
 statue washed in the river Inachus. 
 
 (3) A Roman writer on grammar of the 
 last part of the 4th century a.d. He was the 
 author of an Ars Grammcitiea, in three books, 
 founded on the same ancient authorities as 
 the work of his contemporary Charisius, 
 with whom he often agrees verbatim. His 
 third book derives special value from the 
 notices on literary history taken from 
 Suetonius. 
 
 Diomeia. An Athenian festival in honour 
 of Heracles. {See Heracles.) 
 
 Dion (Lat. Dio). (1) Dio Chrysostomus 
 Cocceius. A Greek rhetorician and philo- 
 sopher, born of a respectable family at Prusa 
 in Bithynia, about the middle of the 1st cen- 
 tury A.D. He began his career by devoting 
 himself to rhetoric. Driven from his native 
 ocuntry by domestic intrigues, he lived for a 
 long time in Egypt, where he obtained the 
 favour of the future emperor Vespasian. 
 Afterwards he lived in Rome under Domi- 
 tian, until he was banished from Italy and 
 Bithynia for his friendship with a person 
 in high place who had incurred the sus- 
 picion of the emperor. The period of his 
 banishment he spent, according to the com- 
 
DIONE DIONYSIA. 
 
 189 
 
 mand of the Delphic oracle, in distant travels 
 through the northern regions of the Eoman 
 empire, as far as the Borysthenes, or Dnieper, 
 and the Getse. All this time he was study- 
 ing philosophy, to which he had previously 
 been averse, in spite of his friendship with 
 ApoUonius of T3'ana. His leaning was in 
 the direction of Stoicism. On the accession 
 of his friend Cocceius Nerva (from whom 
 he took the name Cocceius), he returned to 
 Rome, where he spent the remainder of his 
 days, with the exception of a short stay 
 in Prusa". He was greatly honoured both 
 by Nerva and his successor Trajan. His 
 contemporaries called him Chrysost,omos 
 (" Golden mouth "), from his powers as a 
 speaker, which he often displayed in pub- 
 lic in Rome and elsewhere. Eighty of his 
 speeches survive. They should rather be 
 called essays on topics of philosophy, morals, 
 and politics. He has talent, and refinement, 
 and healthy moral tone. In his style he 
 imitates the best models, especially Plato 
 and Demosthenes, and his writings are on 
 the whole, in spite of many defects, amonjj; 
 the best literary productions of that age. 
 
 (2) Dio Cassius (or Cassius Dio) Coc- 
 ceidnus. A Greek historian, grandson of 
 Dio Ghrysostomos, born at Nicsea, in 
 Bithj'nia, 155 a.d. He came early to Rome 
 with his father, Cassius Apronianus, a 
 senator and high official. Here he received 
 a careful education. In about 180 a.d. he 
 became a member of the senate, and he was 
 a long time in practice as an advocate. In 
 194 he was praetor, and afterwards consul. 
 As proconsul he administered in succession 
 the provinces of Africa, Dalmatia, and Pan- 
 nonia. The strict order which he had 
 maintained in Pannonia had drawn upon 
 him the hatred of the undisciplined prae- 
 torians, who demanded his life. Alexander 
 Severus, however, not only shielded him, 
 but nominated him his colleague in the 
 consulship of 229. At the same time he 
 allowed him, for the sake of his own per- 
 sonal safety, to live outside Rome during 
 his term of office. When this had expired 
 the emperor, in consequence of his age and 
 weak health, gave him leave to quit the 
 public service and retire to his native city, 
 where he ended his days. Here he com- 
 pleted his great work on Roman history, 
 from the arrival of ^neas in Italy, to his 
 own consulship in 229 a.d. This he had 
 undertaken at the divine command, commu- 
 nicated to him in a dream. He spent twenty- 
 two years upon it, ten on the preparation, 
 and twelve on thp execution. It contained 80 
 
 books, divided into decades. It gives only a 
 sketch of the history down to Caesar, but 
 treats the empire in detail, special care being 
 bestowed upon the events contemporary with 
 the writer. Of the first thirty-five books we 
 have only fragments ; book 36 (the wars with 
 the pirates and with Mithridates) is muti- 
 lated at the beginning ; books 37-54 (down to 
 the death of Agrippa) are tolerably complete ; 
 books 55-60, which come down to Claudius, 
 are imperfect. The rest are preserved only 
 in fragments, and in the extracts made by 
 loannes Xiphilinos, a Byzantine monk of 
 the 12th century. These begin with book 
 35. The model taken by Dio for imitation 
 was Polybius, whom he only distantly re- 
 sembles. He often repels the reader by his 
 crawling flatter}', his affected dislike of the 
 republican champions, such as Cicero, Bru- 
 tus, and Cassius, and his gross superstition. 
 But his book is a work of enormous indus- 
 try, and of great importance, especially for 
 the history of his own time. His narrative 
 is, generally speaking, clear and vivid, and 
 his style is careful. 
 
 Dione. In Greek mythology, the daughter 
 of Oceanus and Tethys, or, according to 
 another account, of Uranus and Gaia. By 
 Zeus she was mother of Aphrodite, who 
 was herself called Dione. At Dodona she 
 was worshipped in Hera's place as the wife 
 of Zeus. Her name, indeed, expresses in a 
 feminine form the attributes of Zeus, just 
 as the Latin Juno does those of Jupiter, 
 When the oracle of Dodona lost its former 
 importance, Dione was eclipsed by Hera as 
 the wife of Zeus, and came to be regarded 
 as a nymph of Dodona. 
 
 Dlonysia. A celebration in honour of 
 Dionysus, which was held in Athens in a 
 special series of festivals, namely : 
 
 (1) The Oschophoria, supposed to have 
 been instituted by Theseus on his return 
 from Crete. This was celebrated in the 
 month of Pyanepsion (October to Novem- 
 ber), when the grapes were ripe. It was 
 so called from the shoots of vine with grapes 
 on them, which were borne in a race from 
 the temple of Dionysus in Limnae, a 
 southern suburb of Athens, to the sanctu- 
 ary of Athena Sciras, in the harbour town 
 of Phalerum. The bearers and runners were 
 twenty youths (epliebl) of noble descent, 
 whose parents were still living, two being 
 chosen from each of the ten tribes. The 
 victor received a goblet containing a drink 
 made of wine, cheese, meal and honey, and 
 an honorary place in the procession which 
 followed the race, This procession, in 
 
190 
 
 DIONYSIUS. 
 
 ■\vhicli a chorus of singers was preceded by 
 two youths in women's clothing, marched 
 from the temple of Athene to that of 
 Dionysus. The festival was concluded by 
 a sacrifice and a banquet. 
 
 (2) The smaller, or rustic Dionysia. This 
 feast was held in the month Poseideon 
 (December to January) at the first tasting 
 of the new wine. It was celebrated, with 
 much rude merriment, throughout the vari- 
 ous country districts. The members of the 
 different tribes first went in solemn proces- 
 sions to the altar of the god, on which a 
 goat was offered in sacrifice. The sacrifice 
 was followed by feasting and revelry, with 
 abundance of jesting and mockery, and dra- 
 matic improvisations. Out of these were 
 developed the elements of the regular drama. 
 And in the more prosperous villages, pieces 
 — in most cases the same as had been played 
 at the urban Dionysia — were performed by 
 itinerant troupes of actors. The festival 
 lasted some days, one of its chief features 
 being the Askolia, or bag-dance. The point 
 of this was to dance on one leg, without 
 falling, upon oiled bags of inflated leather. 
 The Haloa, Harvest-home (or feast of 
 threshing-floors) was celebrated at Athens 
 and in the country in the same month to 
 Demeter and Persephone in common. 
 
 (3) The Lenoia, or feast of vats. This 
 was held at Athens in the month of 
 Gamelion (January to February), at the 
 Lenaeon, the oldest and most venerable 
 sanctuary of Dionysus in the city. After 
 a great banquet, for which the meat was 
 provided at the public expense, the citizens 
 went in procession through the city, with 
 the usual jesting and mockery, to attend 
 the representation of the tragedies and 
 comedies. 
 
 (4) The Anthcsteria. Celebrated for three 
 days in Anthesterion (February to March). 
 On the first day {Plthcegia, or opening of 
 casks) the casks were first opened, and 
 masters and servants alike tasted the 
 new wine. On the second, or Feast of 
 Beakers, a public banquet was held, at 
 which a beaker of new wine was set by 
 each guest. This was drunk with enthusi- 
 asm, to the sound of trumpets. The most 
 important ceremony, however, was the 
 marriage of the BdsUissa, or wife of the 
 Arc'hon Be'isUeus, with Dionysus, the Basi- 
 llssa being regarded as representing the 
 cmintry. The ceremony took place in the 
 older of the two temples in the Lenseon, 
 which was never opened except on this occa- 
 sion. The last day was called Chytroi, or the 
 
 Feast of Pots, because on this day they made 
 offeriags of cooked pulse in pots to Hermes, 
 as guide of the dead, and to the souls of the 
 departed, especially those who had perished 
 in the flood of Deucalion. 
 
 (5) The great urban Dionysia. This 
 festival was held at Athens for six days in 
 the month of Elaphebolion (March to April) 
 with great splendour, and attended by multi- 
 tudes from the surrounding country and 
 other parts of Greece. A solemn proces- 
 sion was formed, representing a train of 
 Dionysiac revellers. Choruses of boys sang 
 dithyrambs, and an old wooden statue of 
 Dionysus, worshipped as the liberator of 
 the land from the bondage of winter, was 
 borne from the Lenseon to a small temple 
 in the neighbourhood of the Acropolis and 
 back again. The glory of this festival was 
 the performance of the new tragedies, 
 comedies, and satyric dramas, which took 
 place, with lavish expenditure, on three 
 consecutive days. In consequence of the 
 immense number of citizens and strangers 
 assembled, it was found convenient to take 
 one of these six days for conferring public 
 distinctions on meritorious persons, as in 
 the case of the presentation of the golden 
 crown to Demosthenes. 
 
 Dionysius. (1) A Greek logogrdphos. 
 {See LoGOGRAPHi.j 
 
 (2) Dionysius Tlirax, or the Thracian. 
 A Greek scholar, so called because his 
 father was a Thracian. He lived at Alex- 
 andria, and was a disciple of Aristarchus. 
 About 100 B.C. he wrote the first scientific 
 Greek grammar in existence, on which a 
 high value was set in antiquity. The work 
 has come down to us, though not in its 
 original form. 
 
 (3) Dionysius of Hdlicarnassus. A Grgek 
 scholar and historian, He came to Rome 
 about 30 B.C., and lived there for twenty-two 
 years, probably as a professor of rhetoric, 
 enjoying the society of many men of note. 
 In these circumstances he devoted him- 
 self to studying the Roman language and 
 literature, the historical literature in par^ 
 ticular. The result of his studies was his 
 Roman Antiquities, finished about 8 B.C., 
 in all probability not long before his death. 
 This was a history of Rome from the mythi- 
 cal age to the Punic Wars, with which the 
 work of Polybiusbegins. There were twenty 
 books, of which we have 1-9 in a complete 
 state, 10 and 11 in great part, but the rest 
 only in fragments. The intention of its 
 author was to give the Greeks a fliore cor- 
 rect and n;ore favourable idea of the Roman 
 
DIONYSUS, 
 
 191 
 
 people, and the growth of its power, and 
 thus to reconcile them to the Roman yoke. 
 With this view he sets forth the wisdom and 
 the good qualities of the founders of Rome. 
 The book is founded on a thorough study of 
 the authorities, and, in spite of its rhetori- 
 cal tone and of many other defects, forms 
 oneof our chief sources of information upon 
 ancient Roman history in its internal and 
 external development. The other remaining 
 works of Dionysius are partly on rhetoric, 
 partly on literary criticism. The rhetorical 
 works are: (a) On the Arrangement of 
 Words, or on the different styles of Greek 
 prose structure ; (b) a treatise on rhetoric, 
 which has certainly not come down to us in 
 its original form. The critical writings are 
 essays on the ancient Greek classics, par- 
 ticularly the orators, and among them 
 Demosthenes ; but also on Aristotle, Plato, 
 and Thucydides. They are in part thrown 
 into the form of letters to contemporary 
 Romans of repute. 
 
 (4) Dionysius of Alexandria. A Greek 
 poet of the 2nd century A.D. Two hymns of 
 his have survived, one to the Muse Calliope, 
 the other to Apollo.. A special interest 
 attaches to them from the fact that the 
 principle of their composition has been pre- 
 served in ancient musical notation. 
 
 (5) Dionysius PSriegetes, or the descri- 
 ber of the earth. A Greek poet whose 
 precise country and date have not been 
 ascertained ; i't is certain only that he did 
 not live earlier than the imperial age of 
 Rome. His surviving work is a Descriptio 
 Orbis Terrdrum, or description of the 
 earth, written in well-tnrned hexameters, 
 and founded mainly on Eratosthenes. This 
 was much read, and translated into Latin 
 by Avienus and Priscian (see these names). 
 To the later Greeks he was the geographer 
 par excellence. The ancient scholia to his 
 book, a paraphrase, and the commentary by 
 Eustathius, testify to the interest which it ex- 
 cited. (On another author of a geographical 
 poem of the same name, see DiC/EARchus.) 
 
 Dionysus, sometimes Dionysus (Greek). 
 The god of luxuriant fertility, especially as 
 displayed by the vine ; and therefore the 
 god of wine. His native place, according 
 to the usual tradition, was Thebes, where he 
 was born to Zeus by Semele, the daughter 
 of Cadmus. Semele was destroyed by the 
 lightning of her lover, and the child was 
 born after six months. Zeus accordingly 
 sewed it up in his thigh till ripe for birth 
 and then gave it over to I40, the daughter 
 of Semele. (^cAthamas.) After her death 
 
 Hermes took the boy to the nymphs of Mount 
 Nysa, or according to another version, to the 
 Hyddes of Dodona, who brought him up, 
 and hid him in a cave away from the anger 
 of Hera. It cannot be ascertained where 
 Mount Nysa was originally supposed to be. 
 In later times the name was transferred to 
 many places where the vine was cultivated, 
 not only in Greece, but in Asia, India, 
 and Africa. When grown up, Dionysus 
 is represented as planting the vine, and 
 wandering through the wide world to 
 spread his worship among men, with his 
 wine-flushed train (thtdsos), his nurses and 
 other nymphs, Satyrs, Sileni, and similar 
 woodland deities. Whoever welcomes him 
 kindly, like Icarius in Attica, and (Eneus 
 in ^tolia, receives the gift of wine ; but 
 those who resist him are terribly punished. 
 For with all his appearance of youth and 
 softness, he is a mighty and irresistible god, 
 strong to work wonders. A whole series of 
 fables is apparently based upon the tradi- 
 tion that in many places, where a serious 
 religious ritual existed, the dissolute wor- 
 ship of Dionysus met with a vigorous 
 resistance. (See Lycurgus, Minyad^e, 
 Pentheus, Proetus.) 
 
 This worship soon passed from the con- 
 tinent of Greece to the wine-growing islands, 
 and flourished pre-eminently at Naxos. 
 Here it was, according to the story, that 
 the god wedded Ariadne. In the islands 
 a fable was current that he fell in with 
 some Tyrrhenian pirates who took him to 
 their ship and put him in chains. But his 
 fetters fell off, the sails and the mast were 
 wreathed in vine and ivy, the god was 
 changed into a lion, while the seamen throw 
 themselves madly into the sea and were 
 turned into dolphins. In forms akin to 
 this the worship of Dionysus passed into 
 Egypt and far into Asia. Hence arose a 
 fable founded on the story of Alexander's 
 campaigns, that the god passed victoriously 
 through Egypt, Syria, and India as far as 
 the Ganges, with his army of Sileni, Satyrs, 
 and inspired women, the Mcenddes or Bac- 
 chantes, carrying their wands {thyrsi) 
 crowned with vines and ivy. Having thus 
 constrained all the world to the recognition 
 of his deity, and having, with Heracles, 
 assisted the gods, in the form of a lion, to 
 victory in their war with the Giants, he 
 was taken to Olympus, where, in Homer, 
 he does not appear. Prom Olympus he 
 descends to the lower world, whence he 
 brings his mother, who is worshipped with 
 him under the name of Thyone (the wild 
 
192 
 
 DIONYSUS. 
 
 one), as Leto was witli Apollo and Artemis. 
 From his mother he is called Tlujoneus, a 
 name which, with others of similar mean- 
 ing, such as Bacchus, Br-omws, Einos, and 
 laccJios, points to a worship founded upon 
 a different conception of his nature, 
 
 In the myth with -which we have been 
 hitherto concerned, the god appears mainly 
 in the character and surroundings of joy 
 and triumph. But, as the god of the earth, 
 Dionysus belongs, like Persephone, to the 
 world below as Avell as to the world above. 
 The death of vegetation in winter was 
 represented as the flight of the god into 
 hiding from the sentence of his enemies, or 
 even as his extinction, but he returned 
 again from obscurity, or rose from the 
 dead, to new life and activity. In this 
 connexion he was called Zagrctis (" Torn 
 in pieces ") and represented as a son of 
 Zeus and his daughter Persephone, or some- 
 times of Zeus and Demeter. In' his child- 
 hood he was torn to pieces by the Titans, at 
 the command of the jealous Hera. But 
 every third year, after spending the inter- 
 val in the lower world, he is born anew. 
 According to the Orphic story, Athene 
 brought her son's heart to Zeus, who gave 
 it to Semele, or swallowed it himself, 
 whereuBon the Theban or yo^mger Diony- 
 sus was born. The grave of Dionysus was 
 shown at Delphi in the inmost shrine of the 
 temple of Apollo. Secret offerings were 
 brought thither, while the women who were 
 celebrating the feast woke up Licmtes ; 
 in other words, invoked the new-born god 
 cradled in a winnowing fan, on the neigh- 
 bouring mountain of Parnassus. Festivals 
 of this kind, in celebration of the extinction 
 and resurrection of the deity, were held by 
 women and girls onty, amid the mountains 
 at night, everyrthird year, about the time 
 of the shortest day. The rites, intended 
 to express the excess of grief and joy at 
 the death and reappearance of the god, 
 were wild even to savagery, and the women 
 who performed them were hence known by 
 the expressive names of Bacchae, Msenads, 
 and Thyiades. They wandered through 
 woods and mountains, their flying locks 
 crowned with ivy or snakes, brandishing 
 wands and torches, to the hollow sounds of 
 the drum, and the shrill notes of the flute, 
 with wild dances, and insane cries and jubi- 
 lation. The victims of the sacrifice, oxen, 
 goats, even fawns and roes from the forest, 
 were killed, torn in pieces and eaten raw, 
 in imitation of the treatment of Zagreus 
 by the Titans. Thrace, and Macedonia, 
 
 and Asiatic Greece were the scene of the 
 wildest orgies; indeed Thrace seems to be 
 the country of their birth. In Asiatic 
 Greece, it should be added, the worship of 
 Dionysus-Zagreus came to be associated 
 with the equally wild rites of Rhea (Cybele), 
 and Atys, and Sabus or Sabazius. {See 
 Sabazius.) In Greece Proper the chief 
 seats of these were Parnassus, with Delphi 
 and its neighbourhood, Bceotia, Argos, and 
 Laconia, and in Bceotia and Laconia especi- 
 ally the mountains Cithseron and Taygetus. 
 They were also known in Naxos, Crete, and 
 other islands. They seem to have been 
 unknown in Attica, though Dionysus was 
 
 ci^^a fi- 
 
 (1) BEAHDED DIONYSUS AND SATYK. 
 
 (From the relief of the Eeception of Dionysus by Icarius ; 
 Vatican, Louvre, arid British Museum.) 
 
 worshipped at the Eleusinian mysteries with 
 Persephone and Demeter, under the name 
 of lacchos, as brother or bridegroom of 
 Persephone. But the Attic cycle of 
 national festivals in honour of Dionysus 
 represents the idea of the ancient and 
 simple Hellenic worship, with its merry 
 usages. Here Dionysus is the god who 
 gives increase and luxuriance to vineyard 
 and tree. For he is a kindly and gentle 
 power, terrible only to his enemies, and 
 born for joy and blessing to mankind. His 
 gifts bring strength and healing to the 
 body, gladness and forge tfulness of care /to 
 the mind, whence he was called Lyceos, or 
 the loosener of care, They are ennobling 
 
DIONYSUS. 
 
 193 
 
 in their efFects, for they require tending, 
 and thus keep men employed in diligent 
 labour ; they bring them together in merry 
 meetings, and inspire them to music and 
 poetry. Thus it is to the worship of 
 Dionysus that the dithyramb and the 
 
 (2) YOUTHFUL DIONYSUS AND SATYK. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 drama owe their origin and development. 
 In this way Dionysus is closely- related, 
 not only to Demeter, Aphrodite, Eros, the 
 Graces and the Muses, but to Apollo, 
 because he inspires men to prophesy. 
 
 The most ancient representation of 
 Dionysus consists of wooden images with 
 the phallus^ as the symbol of generative 
 power. In works of art he is sometimes 
 represented as the ancient Indian Diony- 
 sus, the conqueror of the East. In this 
 character he appears, as in the Vatican 
 statue called Sardanapalus, of high stature, 
 with a luxuriant wealth of hair on head 
 and chin (comp. fig. 1). Sometimes again, 
 as in numerous statues which have sur- 
 vived, he is a youth of soft and feminine 
 shape, with a dreamy expression, his long, 
 clustering hair confined by a fillet or crown 
 of vine or ivy, generally naked, or with a 
 fawn or panther skin thrown lightly over 
 him. He is either reposing or leaning idly 
 back with the Thyrsos, grapes, or a cup 
 in his hand (fig. 2). Often, too, he is 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 surrounded by the fauns of his retinue 
 Msenads, Satyrs, Sileni, Centaurs, etc., or 
 by Nymphs, Muses, Cupids, indeed in the 
 greatest possible number and variety of 
 situations. (See the engravings.) Besides 
 the vine, ivy, and rose, the panther, lion, 
 lynx, ox, goat, and dolphin were sacred 
 to him. His usual sacrifices were the ox 
 and the goat. 
 
 In Italy the indigenous god Liber, with 
 a feminine Libera at his side, corresponded 
 to the Greek god of wine. Just as the 
 Italian Ceres was identified with Demeter, 
 so^ these two deities were identified with 
 Dionysus, or lakchos, and Persephone, with 
 whom they were worshipped under their 
 native name, but with Greek rites, in a 
 temple on the Aventine. {See Ceres.) 
 Liber or Bacchus, like Dionysus, had a 
 country and an urban festival. The coun- 
 try festivities were held, with unrestrained 
 merriment, at the time of grape-gathering 
 and straining off the wine. The urban 
 festival held in Rome on the 17th March, 
 was called Liberal ia. Old women, crowned 
 with ivy, sold cheap cakes (Uba) of meal, 
 honey, and oil, and burnt them on little pans 
 
 (3) *M^NAD. 
 
 (Vase from Nocera, IV, No. 21.19, Naples Museum.) 
 
 for the purchasers. The boys took their 
 toga virllis or toga libera on this day, and 
 offered sacrifice on the Capitol. Side by 
 side with this public celebration, a secret 
 worship, the Bacchanalia, found its way 
 to Rome and into the whole of Italy. The 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 DIOPHANTUS DIPHILUS. 
 
 Bacchanalia were celebrated by men and 
 women, in Italy outside the cities, in Rome 
 in the sacred enclosure of Stimula or 
 Semele. They were accompanied with such 
 shameless excesses that in 186 B.C. they 
 were put down, with unsparing severity, 
 by a decree of the senate. 
 
 Diophantus. A Greek mathematician of 
 Alexandria, who flourished probably about 
 360 B.C. He was the author of an Arith- 
 onctica in thirteen books, of which littlemore 
 than the first six still remain. The book 
 is the only Greek work upon algebra. Dio- 
 phantus was the most considerable arith- 
 metician in Greek antiquity. 
 
 Bioscdrides (Pedanids). A Greek physi- 
 cian and man of science. He flourished 
 about the middle of the 1st century A.D., 
 and was the author of a work De Materia 
 Medica in five books. Tor nearly 1700 years 
 this book was the chief authority for stu- 
 dents of botany and the science of healing. 
 Two short essays on specifics against 
 vegetable and animal poisons {Alemphar- 
 maca and Thendca) are appended to it as 
 the sixth and seventh books : but these are 
 probably from the hand of a later Dioscorides 
 of Alexandria. A work on family medicine 
 is also attributed to him, but is not genuine. 
 
 Dioscuri, i.e. sons of Zeus, the horse- 
 tamer Castor, and Polydeuces (Lat. Pollux) 
 the master of the art of boxing. In Homer 
 they are represented as the sons of Leda 
 and Tyndareoa, and called in consequence 
 Tyndaridse, as dying in the time between 
 the rape of Helen and the Trojan War, and 
 as buried in their father-city Lacedsemon. 
 But even under thp earth they were alive. 
 Honoured of Zeus, they live and die on 
 alternate days and enjoy the prerogatives 
 of godhead. In the later story sometimes 
 both, sometimes only Polydeuces is the 
 descendant of Zeus. (See Leda.) They 
 undertake an expedition to Attica, where 
 they set free their sister Helena, whom 
 Theseus has carried off. They take part 
 in the expedition of the Argonauts. (See 
 Amycus.) Castor, who had been born 
 mortal, falls in a contest with Idas and 
 Lynceus, the sous of their paternal uncle 
 Aphareus. The fight arose, according to 
 one version, in a quarrel over some cattle 
 which they had carried off; according to an- 
 other, it was aboitt the rape of two daughters 
 of another uncle Leucippus, Phoebe and 
 HLliiira, who were betrothed to the sons of 
 Aphareus. On his brother's death Poly- 
 deuces, the immortal son of Zeus, prays his 
 father to let him die too. Zeus permits 
 
 him to spend alternately one day among 
 the gods his peers, the other in the lower 
 world with his beloved brother. According 
 to another story Zeus, in reward for their 
 brotherly love, sets them in the sky as the 
 constellation of the Twins, or the morning 
 and evening star. They are the ideal types 
 of bravery and dexterity in fight. Thus 
 they are the tutelary gods of warlike youth, 
 often sharing in their contests, and honoured 
 as the inventors of military dances and 
 melodies. The ancient symbol of the twin 
 gods at Lacedsemon was two parallel beams, 
 joined by cross-pieces, which the Spartans 
 took with them into war. They were 
 worshipped at Sparta and Olympia with 
 Heracles and other heroes. At Athens 
 too they were honoured as gods under the 
 name of Anakes (Lords Protectors). At 
 sea, as in war, they lend their aid to men. 
 The storm-tossed mariner sees the sign of 
 their beneficent presence in the flame at 
 the mast-head. He prays, and vows to 
 them the sacrifice of a white lamb, and 
 the storm soon ceases. (See Helena.) The 
 rites of hospitality are also under their 
 protection. They are generally represented 
 with their horses Xanthus and Cyllarus, 
 as in the celebrated colossal group of Monte 
 Cavallo in Rome. Their characteristic 
 emblem is an oval helmet crowned with a 
 star. 
 
 The worship of Castor and Pollux was 
 from early times current among the tribes 
 of Italy. They enjoyed especial honours 
 in Tusculum and Rome. In the latter city 
 a considerable temple was built to them 
 near the Porum (414 B.C.) in gratitude 
 for their appearance and assistance at the 
 battle of the Lake Regillus twelve years 
 before. In this building, generally called 
 simply the temple of Castor, the senate 
 often held its sittings. It was in their 
 honour, too, that the solemn review of the 
 Roman equitss was held on the 15th July. 
 The names of Castor and Pollux, like that 
 of Hercules, were often in use as familiar 
 expletives, but the name of Castor was 
 invoked by women only. They were wor- 
 shipped as gods of the sea, particularly in 
 Ostia, the harbour town of Rome. Their 
 image is to be seen stamped on the reverse 
 of the oldest Roman silver coins. (See 
 Coinage.) 
 
 DipMlus. A poet of the new Attic 
 comedy, a native of Sinope, and contem- 
 porary of Menander. He is supposed to 
 have written some 100 pieces, of which we 
 have the titles and fragments of about 50. 
 
DIPHEOS DIS PATER. 
 
 195 
 
 The Cdsma and Rudens of Plaiitus are 
 modelled on two of Dipliilns' plays ; and 
 Terence has adopted some scenes from one 
 of them in his Adelphi. Diphilus took his 
 subjects both from common life and from 
 mythology. Both the judgments passed on 
 him in antiquity, and his remaining frag- 
 ments, justify us in recognising him as one 
 of the most gifted poets of his age. 
 Diphros. See Chairs. 
 DipcBmis. A Greek sculptor, born in 
 Crete, who flourished in Argos and Sicyon 
 about 550 B.C. In conjunction with his 
 countryman Scyllis he founded an influen- 
 tial school of sculpture in the Peloponnesus. 
 {See Sculpture.) 
 
 Dipteros. An architectural epithet de- 
 scriptive of a temple surrounded by a 
 double line of columns. {See Tkmple ) 
 
 Dipt;y-chdn. This Greek word was 
 applied in antiquity to a pair of 
 writing tablets fastened together by 
 rings, so that the inner sides, covered 
 with wax, lay one upon the other. 
 They were fastened sometimes by a 
 strap, on the side opposite to the rings : 
 sometimes by a string passed through 
 two holes in the middle, and secured, 
 if necessary, by seals at the back. 
 {See the engravings iTnder Writing 
 Materials.) Two or more of the 
 tablets {Triptycha, Polyptycha) were 
 sometimes joined in the same way. 
 They were used for notes, letters, and 
 documents. Under the Empire much 
 fancy and expense were lavished on 
 them, the outer side being sometimes 
 made of gold, silver, or magnificently 
 carved ivory. This was especially 
 the case after it became the fashion 
 for consuls, and other high officials, 
 to give presents of diptycha when 
 entering upon ofSce. For the diplo- 
 mas made out on bronze diptycha for 
 soldiers who had served their time, 
 see Misaio. 
 Dirs^ See Erinyes. 
 Dirce {Dirks'). Wife of Lyons, who 
 governed Thebes as guardian of Laius. In 
 revenge for her ill-treatment of their mother 
 Antiope, her brothers Amphion and Zethus 
 bound her to the horns of a bull and left 
 her to be dragged to death {see cut). They 
 threw her body into a spring near Thebes, 
 which bore her name ever after. 
 
 Discus (Gr. diskos). (1) A flat piece of 
 stone, or metal, shaped like a bean to fit the 
 palm of the hand. As far back es the age 
 of Homer it was a common thing for men 
 
 to contend in throwing the discus, and the 
 exercise was a favourite one in ihQ palmstrm 
 or gymnasia of Greece in historical times. 
 It was represented at the great festivals, 
 but as part of the pentathlon, not as an 
 independent exhibition (see Gymnastics). 
 The thrower grasped the discus — the size 
 and weight of which would vary according 
 to circumstances— with the fingers of his 
 right hand, with which he held the edge, 
 letting the whole rest on the inner surface 
 of the hand and lower arm. He then raised 
 his arm backwards as far as the shoulder, 
 and threw the disk forward in an arch. 
 The longest throw won the prize. The 
 exercise was taken up by the Romans under 
 the Empire. It was a favourite subject 
 with artists, the most celebrated statue of 
 a Discobolos being that of Myron {see cut, 
 
 DIRCE. ANTIOPE. AMPHION. MOUNTAIN GOD, 
 
 Hound of ZetliuB and lyre of Ampliio.i. 
 THE FAKNESE BULL, BY APOLLONIUS AND TADRISCUS OP 
 TKALLES. 
 
 (As restored by Guglielmo della Porta, Naples Museum.) 
 
 under Myron). (2) The name was also 
 applied to the oil-disk of a lamp. {See 
 Illumination.) 
 
 Dis Pater (=i)z?;es Pater, Father Dives 
 or the rich). The ruler of the world below, 
 worshipped by the Romans as the god who 
 corresponded to the Greek Pluto. His 
 worship, like that of Proserpina, was first 
 introduced in the early days of the Republic, 
 at the command of the Sibylline books. 
 Dis Pater had a chapel near the altar of 
 
196 
 
 DITHYEAMBOS DIVINATIO. 
 
 Saturnus,anda subterranean altar on the Cam- 
 pus Martius in common with Proserpina. 
 This was only opened when, as at the secu- 
 lar games, sacrifices were offered to both. 
 The victims offered thus were black animals. 
 Dithjrambos. A hymn sung at the 
 festivals o£ Dionysus to the accompaniment 
 of a flute and a dance round the altar. 
 The hymn celebrated the sufferings and 
 actions of the god in a style corresponding 
 to the passionate character of his worship. 
 In the course of time it developed into a 
 special class of Greek lyric poetry. It was 
 in Corinth that it first received anything 
 like a definite artistic form, and this at the 
 hands of Arion, who was therefore credited 
 by the ancients with its actual invention. 
 The truth probably is that he was the first 
 who divided the festal song of the chorus 
 into strophe and antistrophe, an arrange- 
 ment from which tragedy took its rise. 
 {See Tragedy.) Dithyrambs were sung 
 at Athens twice in the year^at the great 
 Dlonysia in the spring, and at the Lenaea 
 in the beginning of winter. The chorus 
 consisted of fifty persons, who stood in a 
 circle round the altar. The dithyramb was 
 further developed by Lasos of Hermione, 
 the lyric poet and musician who lived about 
 507 B.C. at the court of the Pisistratidse. 
 By several innovations in music and rhythm, 
 especially by a stronger and more complete 
 instrumentation, this artist gave it greater 
 variety and a more secular character. He 
 also introduced the prize contests for the 
 best dithyramb, and apparently abolished 
 the antistrophioal division ; at least this is 
 not found in the dithyrambs of his pupil 
 Pindar. With Lasos and Pindar, Simonides 
 and Bacchylides may be named as among 
 the foremost dithyrambic poets of the time. 
 At the dithyrambic contests the poets and 
 the different tribes contended for the 
 prize. Each had their chorus, brilliantly 
 fitted out at great expense by the richer 
 citizens. Besides the honour of the victory, 
 the poet received a tripod ; the chorus, and 
 the people which he represented, an ox for 
 the sacrificial feast. These performances 
 were very popular for a long time ; but as 
 the new tendencj' developed itself, voices 
 of authority made themselves heard, con- 
 demning them as involving a serious de- 
 generacy in art. And there is no doubt 
 that in the form which it assumed fvfter the 
 time of the Peloponnesian War, the dithy- 
 ramb did violence to the older taste. More 
 and more it lost the inner unity and beau- 
 tiful proportion which that feeling respired. 
 
 A continuous and rapid change of rhythm 
 and mode was accompanied by an extra- 
 ordinary boldness of diction, in keeping 
 with the wild character of the composition. 
 In the hands of inferior poets this often 
 passed into turgidity and bombast, if not 
 into mere nonsense. Solo pieces were in- 
 serted to relieve the choruses, the text was 
 gradually subordinated to the music, and 
 the dithyramb was thus gradually trans- 
 formed into a kind of opera. Though the 
 subjects of the poems had long ceased to be 
 taken exclusively from the cycle of Diony- 
 siac myths, they were never, of course, 
 entirely out of harmony with the lyrical 
 spirit of the dithyramb. 
 
 There was a very considerable number of 
 dithyrambic poets. The best known are 
 Melanippides of Melos (about 415 B.C.), 
 who is generally held responsible for the 
 degeneracy of the dithyramb, and the excess 
 of instrumental music ; his disciple Phi- 
 loxenus of Cy thera, who died in 380 ; Timo- 
 theus of Miletus, who died in 357, and his 
 contemporaries Polyeidus and Telestes. 
 Of the whole literature we possess nothing 
 but fragments. 
 
 Dius Fidius (Italian). The god of oaths 
 and protector of the laws of hospitality and 
 international dealing. {See Sancus.) 
 
 Divinatio (prevision of the future). 
 
 (1) In general the word is applied to 
 all prophecy or foretelling in the simplest 
 sense of the word. Among the Romans 
 prophecy was based, not on inspiration, as 
 with the Greeks, but on the observation of 
 definite signs, such as the Ovien (or voice), 
 the prodigies and the auspices taken note of 
 by the augurs {see AuGURES). The science 
 of the hdruspices (or the foretelling of 
 events from the inspection of the carcases 
 of sacrificial victims) was a later importa^ 
 tion from Etruria. The ancient Romans 
 were not familiar with the divinatio front 
 sortes or lots, which was common in many 
 parts of Italy. The Sibylline books threw 
 no light on future events. {See Sibyls.) 
 Towards the end of the republican period 
 the sciences of the augurs and haruspices lost 
 their significance, and the Greek oracles, 
 in the various forms of their craft, with the 
 Chaldssan astrology, came into vogue, and 
 carried the fashion in the society of the 
 Empire. (C|/j. Mantic Art.) 
 
 (2) In the language of Roman law, 
 divinatio meant the legal inquiry for 
 deciding who, among many advocates pro- 
 posing themselves, was the fittest to under^ 
 take a prosecution, and the speeches by 
 
DODONA DOSITHEUS. 
 
 197 
 
 wticli tlie various advocates tried to make 
 good their competency for the task. 
 
 Dodona. In Epirus. The ancient seat 
 of the oracle of Zeus and Dione, who was 
 worshipped here as his wife instead of 
 Hera. The oldest sanctuary of the god was 
 an oak tree, with a spring at its foot, 
 sacred to Zeus, and probably mephitic. 
 The will of Zeus was ascertained from the 
 rustling of the oak leaves by the priests, 
 whom Homer calls Selloi, and their grey- 
 headed priestesses called PeleiddSs. In 
 later times oracles were taken at Dodona 
 from lots, and from the ringing of an iron 
 basin. In front of this basin there stood 
 an iron statue of a boy, with a whip formed 
 of three chains, from which hung some 
 buttons which touched the basin. If the 
 whip moved in the breeze, the buttons 
 sounded against the basin. The oracle of 
 Dodona had in early times the greatest 
 name of all ; but in later times, though it 
 never lost its reputation, it was eclipsed by 
 that of Delphi. It was still consulted, 
 mainly indeed by the neighbouring popu- 
 lations, but sometimes also by the states of 
 Athens and Sparta. It was in existence 
 in the 2nd century A.D., and does not seem 
 to have disappeared before the 4th. 
 
 Dokimasia. The name used at Athens 
 to denote the process of ascertaining the 
 capacity of the citizens for the exercise of 
 public rights and duties. If, for instance, a 
 young citizen was to be admitted among the 
 Ephebi(se'fi Ephebi), he was examined in an 
 assembly of his district, to find out whether 
 he was descended on both sides from 
 Athenian citizens, and whether he possessed 
 the physical capacity for military service. 
 All officials too, even the members of the 
 senate, had to submit to an examination 
 before entering upon their office. The 
 purpose of this was to ascertain, not their 
 actual capacity for the post, which was pre- 
 supposed in all candidates, but their descent 
 from Athenian citizens, their life and char- 
 acter, and (in the case of some offices which 
 involved the administration of large sums) 
 even the amount of their property. The 
 examination was carried on in public by 
 the archons in the presence of the senate, 
 and any one present had the right to raise 
 objections. If such objections were held 
 to be valid, the candidate was rejected; 
 but he had the right of appeal to the deci- 
 sion of a court, which would take cogni- 
 zance of the matter in judicial form. On 
 the other hand, if he were accepted, any 
 one who thought his claims insufficient had 
 
 the right of instituting judicial proceedings 
 against him. If the decision was adverse, 
 he would lose his office, and was further 
 liable to punishment varying according to 
 the offence charged against him, which 
 might be, for instance, that of unlawfully 
 assuming the rights of a citizen. A speaker 
 in a piiblic assembly might thus be brought 
 before a court by any citizen, for no one not 
 possessed of the full right of citizenship 
 could legally address the people. The 
 question might thus be raised whether the 
 orator were not actually dtiTnos, or guilty 
 of an offence which involved atimia. 
 
 DolichSs. See Gymnastics. 
 
 Dolium. See Vessels. 
 
 Donativum (Roman). A present of money 
 made to the army. In the republican age 
 donatives were distributed on the occasion 
 of a triumph, the expense being defrayed 
 out of the money raised by selling the spoil. 
 Under the Empire it was usual for the 
 emperor to grant a donativuvi on his ac- 
 cession. Tiberius on this occasion made a 
 present of some £750,000 to the army ; and 
 the sum increased in later reigns. After 
 the time of Claudius it became the fashion 
 for the emperor to purchase the favour of 
 the praetorians by a special largess. 
 
 Oonatas {JElvus). A Roman scholar and 
 rhetorician of about the middle of the 4th 
 century A.D., and tutor of Jerome. He 
 was the author of a Latin grammar {Ars 
 Grammatica) in three books. This was 
 much commented on by Servius, Pompeius, 
 and others. His Ars Minor., or short cate- 
 chism on the eight parts of speech, survived 
 long after the Middle Ages as the chief 
 manual for elementary instruction. These 
 works survive in their original form. He 
 also wrote a valuable commentary on 
 Terence, which we possess in an imperfect 
 shape, the notes on the Heauton Timovu- 
 TnSnos being lost, and not in its original 
 form. [He was also the author of a lost 
 commentary on Vergil, which is often 
 alluded to contemptuously by Servius.] 
 
 [Donatus {Tiberius Claudius). A com- 
 mentator on the iEneid of Vergil, who 
 probably lived in the 4th or early 5th 
 century a.d. His work, which is mostly a 
 prose paraphrase, survives in great part, 
 but is of little valtie.^H. N.] 
 
 Doris. Daughter of Oceanus, wife of the 
 sea-god Nereus, and mother of the Nereides. 
 {See Oceanus, Nereus.) 
 
 Dosithfius. A grammarian who flourished 
 towards the end of the 4th century A.D. 
 He wrote a Latin grammar for Greek boys. 
 
198 
 
 DRACHMA DRAMA, 
 
 with a literal Greek translation, which was 
 not fully completed. With this was bound 
 up (whether by Dositheus himself is un- 
 certain) a miscellany of very various con- 
 tents by another author. This comprises 
 (1) anecdotes of the Emperor Hadrian, (2) 
 fables of ^sop, (3) an important chapter 
 on jurisprudence, (4) mythological stories 
 from Hyginus, (5) an abridgment of the 
 Iliad, (6) an interesting collection of words 
 and phrases from ordinary conversation. 
 
 Drachma (Greek). A weight and coin = 
 6 obols,=Yio of a mina or -goVo o^ ^ talent. 
 Before the time of Solon it = 6-03 grs., or 
 rather more than a shilling. After Solon 
 it maintained the same value as a weight, 
 but as a coin (the Attic dr.) it sank to 4'366 
 grs., about 8d. {See Coinage.) 
 
 Draco. The standard of the Roman 
 cohort. (See Signum.) 
 
 Dracontius {Blossms jEmllius). A 
 Latin poet who lived and practised as 
 an advocate at Carthage towards the 
 end of the 5th century a.d. He was 
 a man of real poetic gifts and con- 
 siderable reading, but his style is 
 spoiled by rhetorical exaggeration and 
 false taste. His surviving works are : 
 (1) a number of short epics upon sub- 
 jects taken from the old mythology 
 aiid school-room rhetoric. (2) An apo- 
 logetic poem {Sdtisfactio) addressed in 
 the form of an elegy to Guthamund, 
 king of the Vandals, whose wrath he 
 had excited by writing a panegyric 
 on a foreign prince. (3) A Christian 
 didactic poem in three books. This is 
 a really poetical treatment of the story 
 of the creation. 
 
 Drama. (1) Greece. In Athens the produc- 
 tion of plays was a state affair, not a private 
 undertaking. It formed a great part of the 
 religious festival of the Dionysia, in which 
 the drama took its rise (see Dionysia) ; 
 and it was only at the greater Dionysia 
 that pieces could be performed during the 
 author's lifetime. The performances lasted 
 three days, and took the form of musical 
 contests, the competitors being three tragic 
 poets with their tetralogies, and five comic 
 poets with one piece each, The authority 
 who superintended the whole was the 
 archon, to whom the poets had to bring 
 their plays for reading, and apply for a 
 chorus. If the pieces were accepted and 
 the chorus granted, the citizens who were 
 liable for the Choregia undertook at their 
 own cost to practise and furnish for them one 
 chorus each. {See Leitourgia.) The poets 
 
 whose plays ■ were accepted received an 
 honorarium from the state. The state also 
 supplied the regular number of actors, and 
 made provision for the maintenance of order 
 during the performances. At the end of the 
 performance a certain number of persons 
 (usually five), was chosen by lot from a com- 
 mittee nominated by the senate, to award 
 the prizes {Agondthetce), and bound them by 
 oath to give their judgment on the plays, 
 the choregt, and the actors. The poet who 
 won the first prize was presented with a 
 crown in the presence of the assembled 
 multitude — the highest distinction that 
 used to be conferred on .a dramatic author 
 at Athens. The victorious chorSgus also 
 received a crown, with the permission to 
 
 (1) *NIKE POUEINa A LIBATION BEFORE A CHOEAGIC TllIPOD. 
 
 Inscribed 'AKa^ai/rl? ecixa ^v\rf : VKavKtiiv KaAd?. 
 
 (Pauofka, Mus^e Blacas, pi. 1 ; now in British Museum.) 
 
 dedicate a votive offering to Dionysus. 
 This was generally a tripod, which was 
 set up either in the theatre, or in the temple 
 of the deity, or in the " Street of Tripods," 
 so named from this custom, an inscription 
 being put on it recording the event (fig. 1). 
 The actors in the successful play received 
 prizes of money, besides the usual hono- 
 raria. 
 
 From the time of Sophocles the actors 
 in a play were three in number. They had 
 to represent all the parts, those of women 
 included, which involved their changing 
 their costume several times during the 
 performance. The three actors were 
 distinguished as Protdgonistes, Deuterd- 
 gonistes, and Tritdgonistes, according to 
 the importance of their parts. If the 
 piece required a fourth actor, which was 
 seldom the case, the chorcgus had to pro- 
 
DRAMA. 
 
 W9 
 
 vide one. Tte choregus Lad also to see to 
 the position and equipment of the persOnce 
 mutce. 
 
 In earlier times it is possible that the 
 persons engaged in the representation did 
 not make a business of their art, but 
 performed gratuitously, as the poets down 
 to the time of Sophocles appeared on the 
 stage. But the dramatic art gradually be- 
 came a profession, requiring careful pre- 
 paration, and winning general respect for 
 its members as artists. The chief require- 
 ments for the profession were distinctness 
 and correctness of pronunciation, especially 
 in declamatory passages, and an unusual 
 power of memory, as there was no 
 prompter in a Greek theatre. An actor 
 had also to be thoroughly trained in sing- 
 ing, melodramatic action, dancing, and 
 play of gesture. The latter was especially 
 necessary, as the use of masks precluded 
 all play of feature. The actors were, ac- 
 cording to strict rule, assigned to the poets 
 by lot ; yet a poet generally had his special 
 protagonistes, on whose peculiar gifts he had 
 his eye in writing the dramatic pieces. 
 
 The Athenian tragedies began to be 
 known aU over the Hellenic world as 
 early as the time of iEschylus. The first 
 city, outside of Attica, that had a theatre 
 was Syracuse, where jEschylus brought 
 out some of his own plays. Scenic con- 
 tests soon began to form part of the 
 religious festivals in various Greek cities, 
 and were celebrated in honour of other 
 deities besides Dionysus. It was a habit 
 of Alexander the Great to celebrate almost 
 every considerable event with dramatic 
 exhibitions, and after him this became 
 the regular custom. A considerable in- 
 crease in the number of actors was one 
 consequence of the new demand. The 
 actors called themselves artists of Diony- 
 sus, and in the larger cities they formed 
 permanent societies (sgnddoi) with special 
 privileges, including exemption from mili- 
 tary service, and security in person and 
 property. These companies had a regular 
 organization, presided over by a priest of 
 their patron-god Dionysus, annually elected 
 from among their members. A treasurer 
 and officers completed the staff. At the 
 time of the festivals the societies sent out 
 their members in groups of three actors, 
 with a manager, and a flute-player, to the 
 different cities. This business was espe- 
 cially lively in Ionia and on the Euxine, 
 the societies of Teos being the most dis- 
 tinguished. The same arrangement was 
 
 adopted in Italy, and continued to exist 
 under the Roman Empire. 
 
 The universal employment of masks was 
 a remarkable peculiarity of costume {see 
 Masks). It naturally excluded all play 
 of feature, but the masks corresponded to 
 the general types of character, as well as 
 to the special types indicated by the re- 
 quirements of the play. Certain conven- 
 tionalities were observed in the colour of 
 the hair. Goddesses and young persons 
 had light hair, gods and persons of riper 
 age, dark brown ; aged persons, white ; 
 and the deities of the lower world, black. 
 The height of the masks and top-knots 
 varied with the age of the actors, and 
 the parts they took. Their stature was 
 considerably heightened in tragedies by 
 the high boot (see Cothurnus), and the 
 defects in proportion corrected bj' pad- 
 ding, and the use of a kind of gloves. 
 The conventionalities of costume, probably 
 as fixed by vEsohylus, maintained them- 
 selves as long as Greek tragedies were 
 performed at all. Men and women of high 
 rank wore on the stage a variegated or 
 richly embroidered long-sleeved chiton, 
 reaching to the feet, and fastened with a 
 girdle as high as the breast. The upper 
 garment, whether lilrndtion or chldmys, 
 was long and splendid, and often embroi- 
 dered with gold. Kings and queens had a 
 purple train, and a white Mmation with a 
 purple border ; soothsayers, a netted upper 
 garment reaching to the feet. Persons in 
 misfortune, especially fugitives, appeared 
 in soiled garments of grey, green, or blue ; 
 black was the symbol of mourning, and so on. 
 
 In the Satyric Drama the costumes of 
 the heroic characters resembled in all es- 
 sentials what they wore in the tragedies, 
 although, to suit the greater liveliness of 
 the action, the chiton was shorter and the 
 boot lower. In the Old Comedy the cos- 
 tumes were taken as nearly as possible 
 from actual life, but in the Middle and New 
 Comedy they were conventional. The men 
 wore a white coat ; youths, a purple one ; 
 slaves, a motley, with mantle to match ; 
 cooks, an unbleached double mantle ; 
 peasants, a fur or shaggy coat, with wallet 
 and staff; panders, a coloured coat and 
 motley over-garment. Old women appeared 
 in sky-blue or dark yellow, priestesses and 
 maidens in white ; cotirtesans, in motley 
 colours, and so on. The members of the 
 chorus were masked and dressed in a cos- 
 tume corresponding to the part assigned 
 them by the poet. (On their dress in the 
 
200 
 
 DRAMA. 
 
 Satyric Drama, see Satteic Dkama.) The 
 chorus of the comedy caricatured the ordi- 
 nary dress of the tragic chorus. Sometimes 
 they represented animals, as in the Frogs 
 and Birds of Aristophanes. In the Frogs 
 they wore tight dresses of frog-colonr, and 
 masks with a mouth wide open ; in the 
 Birds, large beaks, bunches of feathers, 
 combs, and so on, to imitate particular birds. 
 {See plate in Journal of Hellenic Studies, 
 vol. ii, plate xiv B, copied in Haigh's Attic 
 Theatre, p. 267.) 
 
 the manager received no compensation. 
 But after performance the piece became his 
 property, to be used at future representa- 
 tions for his own profit. In the time of 
 Cicero, when it was fashionable to revive 
 the works of older masters, the selection 
 of suitable pieces was generally left to the 
 director. The Romans did not, like the 
 Greeks, limit the number of actors to 
 three, but varied it according to the re- 
 quirements of the play. Women's parts 
 were originally played by men, as in Greece. 
 
 (2) * REHEARSAL OF A SATTEIC DRAMA. 
 
 (Mosaic from Pompeii, Naples Museum.) 
 
 (2) Roman. Dramatic performances in 
 Rome, as in G-reece, formed a part of the 
 usual public festivals, whether exceptional 
 or ordiuary, and were set on foot by the 
 sediles and prsetors. (<S'ee Games.) A private 
 individual, however, if he were giving a 
 festival or celebrating a funeral, would have 
 theatrical representations on his own account. 
 The giver of the festival hired a troupe 
 of players (grex), the director of which, 
 {dominus gregis), bought a play from a poet 
 at his own risk. If the piece was a failure, 
 
 Women appeared first in mimes, and not 
 till very late times in comedies. The 
 actors were usually freedmen or slaves, 
 whom their masters sent to be educated, 
 and then hired them out to the directors 
 of the theatres. The profession was 
 technically branded with infamia, nor was 
 its legal position ever essentially altered. 
 The social standing of actors was however 
 improved, through the influence of Greek 
 education; and gifted artists like the 
 comedian Roscius, and jEsopus the tra- 
 
DREAMS DUOVmi. 
 
 201 
 
 gedian in Cicero's time, enjoyed the friend- 
 ship of the best men in Rome. The in- 
 stance of these two men may show what 
 profits could be made by a good actor. 
 Roscius received, for every day that he 
 played, £35, and made an annual income of 
 some £4,350. ^sopus, in spite of his great 
 extravagance, left £170,500 at his death. 
 Besides the regular honoraria, actors, if 
 thought to deserve it, received other and 
 voluntary gifts from the giver of the per- 
 formance. These often took the form of 
 finely wrought crowns of silver or gold 
 work. Masks were not worn until Roscius 
 made their use general. Before his time 
 actors had recourse to false hair of different 
 colours, and paint for the face. The cos- 
 
 Deceptive dreams issue from a gate of 
 ivory, true dreams through a gate of horn. 
 The gods above, especially Hermes, have 
 authority over these dream-gods, and send 
 sometimes one, sometimes another, to man- 
 kind. On some occasions they create 
 dream-figures themselves, or appear in per- 
 son under different shapes, in the chamber 
 of the sleeper. The spirits of the departed, 
 too, so long as they are not in the kingdom 
 of Hades, have the power of appearing to 
 the sleeper in dreams. These, the ideas 
 of the Homeric age, survived in the later 
 popular belief. Later poets call dreams the 
 sons of Sleep, and give them separate names. 
 Morpheus, for instance, only appears in 
 various human forms. Ikelos, called also 
 
 (3) * SCENE FROM A ROMAN COMEDY {Fdbula Pai 
 
 {Mural painting from Pompeii, Naples Museum.) 
 
 tume in general was modelled on that of 
 actual life, Greek or Roman. As early as 
 the later years of the Republic, a great 
 increase took place in the splendour of the 
 costumes and the general magnificence of 
 the performance. In tragedy, particularly, 
 a new effect was attained by massing the 
 actors in great numbers on the stage. {See 
 further Theatre, Tragedy, Comedy, and 
 Satyric Drama.) 
 
 Dreams (Greek Oneiroi). According to 
 Hesiod, Dreams are the children of Night, 
 and brothers and sisters of Death and 
 Sleep. Like these they are represented in 
 the Odyssey as dwelling in the far West, 
 near Oceanus, in the neighbourhood of the 
 sunset and the kingdom of the dead. 
 
 Phobetor, or Terrifyer, assumes the shapes of 
 all kinds of animals as well as that of man : 
 Phantasos only those of inanimate objects. 
 A god of dreams was subsequently wor- 
 shipped, and represented in works of art, 
 sometimes with Sleep, sometimes alone. 
 He was honoured especially at the seats 
 of dream-oracles and the health-resorts of 
 Asclepius. {See Artemidorus, 2 ; Incu- 
 BATio ; and Mantic Art.) 
 
 Dress. See Clothing. 
 
 Dromos. See Gymnastics. 
 
 Dryadfis. See Nymphs. 
 
 Duodgcim Tabulae. See Twelve Tables. 
 
 Diioviri or Diiiimviri (Italian). A board 
 or commission of 2 men, as e.g. the duoviri 
 capitSles perduellwnis, or duoviri sac- 
 
202 
 
 DUPONDIUS ECCLESIA, 
 
 rorum {see Sibyls), duoviri vas purgan- 
 dis {see Viginti sex viei, 6). In colonies 
 and munlcipia, the title was borne by the 
 two highest officials, who represented the 
 the authority of the Roman consuls. {See 
 Mdkicipium.) 
 
 Dupondius. See Coinage. 
 
 Daris. (1) A Greek historian, a native of 
 Samos, and a disciple of Theophrastus. 
 For some time he was despot of Samos. 
 In the first half of the 3rd century B.C. he 
 
 wrote, besides other historical works, a com- 
 prehensive history, in twenty-three books, of 
 Greece and Macedonia, from 370 to at least 
 281 B.C. He was also the author of Annals 
 of Samos, in at least twelve books. No- 
 thing but fragments of his writings remain, 
 which show that they were no more than 
 uncritical collections of material carelessly 
 treated. 
 
 (2) A vase-painter ; see Vases. 
 
 Duumviri. See Duovmi. 
 
 Eagle {dquild). The standard of a Roman 
 legion, introduced by Marius : a silver (or, 
 under the Empire, golden) eagle carried on 
 a pole by the dqulllfer, or eagle-bearer, its 
 wings spread out, and often a thunderbolt 
 in its talons. Beneath it were frequently 
 fixed in later times a flag (see Vexillum), 
 and other ornaments, e.g. medallions with 
 portraits of emperors and generals. Under 
 the Republic, during peace, it was preserved 
 in the (Brdrnnn ; in camp it stood in a 
 small chapel beside the prcttonum, was 
 held in religious veneration by the soldiers, 
 and regarded as affording sanctuary ; in 
 battle it was borne on the right wing of the 
 legion, in the first century of the first cohort. 
 From Augustus' time it bore the name 
 and number of the legion {see the figs, 
 under Signum). 
 
 Ecclesla (Greek). The assembly of the 
 people, which in Greek cities had the power 
 of final decision in public affairs. 
 
 (1) At Athens every citizen in posses- 
 sion of full civic rights was entitled to 
 take part in it from his twentieth year 
 upwards. In early times one ecclesia 
 met regularly once a year in each of 
 the ten prytanies of the senate {see 
 BouLE), in later times four, making forty 
 annually. Special assemblies might also 
 be caUed on occasion. The place of meet- 
 ing was in early times the market-place, 
 in later times a special locality, called the 
 Pnyx ; but generally the theatre, after a 
 permanent theatre had been erected. To 
 summon the assembly was the duty of the 
 Prytanes, who did so by publishing the 
 notice of proceedings. There was a special 
 authority, a board of six LexuircM (so called) 
 with thirty assistants, whose business it 
 was to keep unauthorized persons out of the 
 assembly. The members on their appear- 
 ance were each presented with a ticket, on 
 exhibiting which, after the conclusion of 
 the meeting, they received a payment of an 
 
 oholus (about l'3cZ.), in later times of three 
 obols. After a solemn prayer and sacrifice, 
 the president {Epistdtes) communicated to 
 the meeting the subjects of discussion. If 
 there were a previous resolution of the 
 senate for discussion, he put the question 
 whether the people would adopt it, or pro- 
 ceed to discuss it. In the debates every 
 citizen had the right of addressing the 
 meeting, but no one could speak more than 
 once. Before doing so he put a crown of 
 myrtle on his head. The president (but no 
 one else) had the right of interrupting a 
 speaker. If his behaviour were unseemly, 
 the president could cut short his harangue, 
 expel him from the rostrum and from 
 the meeting, and inflict upon him a fine not 
 exceeding 500 drachmse (£16 13s. ^d.). Cases 
 of graver misconduct had to be referred 
 to the senate or assembly for punishment. 
 Any citizen could move an amendment or 
 counter-proposal, which he handed in in 
 writing to the presiding Prytany. The 
 president had to decide whether it should 
 be put to the vote. This could be prevented, 
 not only by the mere declaration of the 
 president that it was illegal, but by any 
 one present who bound himself on oath to 
 prosecute the proposer for illegality. The 
 speaker might also retract his proposal. 
 The votes were taken by show of hands 
 {cheirotonia). The voting was never secret, 
 unless the question affected some one's 
 personal interest, as in the case of ostra- 
 cism. In such cases a majority of at least 
 6,000 votes was necessary. The resolution 
 {psephismd) was announced by the presi- 
 dent, and a record of it taken, which was 
 deposited in the archives, and often publicly 
 exhibited on tables of stone or bronze. 
 After the conclusion of business, the presi- 
 dent, through his herald, dismissed the 
 people. If no final result was arrived at, 
 or if the business was interrupted by a 
 sign from heaven, such as a storm or a 
 
ECHIDNA. ECLECTICS. 
 
 203 
 
 shower of rain, the meeting was adjourned. 
 Certain classes of business were assigned to 
 the ordinary assemblies. 
 
 The functions of the ecclesia were : 
 
 (a) To take part in legislation. At the 
 first regular assembly iu the year the presi- 
 dent asked the question whether the people 
 thought any alteration necessary in the 
 existing laws. If the answer were in the 
 affirmative, the proposals for alteration were 
 brought forward, and in the third regular 
 assembly a legislative commission was ap- 
 pointed from among the members of the 
 HeUcea or jury for the current year (see 
 Heli^a). The members of this commission 
 were called Komothctcc. The question be- 
 tween the old laws and the new proposals 
 was then decided by a quasi-judicial process 
 under the presidency of the ThesmotJietce, 
 the proposers of the new law appearing as 
 prosecutors, and advocates, appointed by the 
 people, coming forward to defend the old 
 one. If the verdict were in favour of the 
 new law, the latter had the same authority 
 as a resolution of the eccleSsia. The whole 
 proceeding was called " Voting {epicheiro- 
 tSnia) upon the Laws." In the decadence 
 of the democracjr the custom grew up of 
 bringing legislative proposals before the 
 people, and having them decided at any 
 time that pleased the proposer. 
 
 (&) Election of officials. {See Peobole.) 
 This only affected, of course, the officials 
 who were elected by show of hands, as the 
 Strdtegl and ministers of finance, not those 
 chosen by lot. In the first ecclesia of 
 eyerj prytdnla the archon asked the ques- 
 tion whether the existing ministers were 
 to be allowed to remain in office or not, 
 and those who failed to commend them- 
 selves were deposed. 
 
 (c) The banishment of citizens by ostra- 
 cism. {See Ostracism.) 
 
 {d) Judicial functions in certain excep- 
 tional cases only. {See Eisangelia.) Some- 
 times, if offences came to its knowledge, 
 the people would appoint a special commis- 
 sion of inquiry, or put the inquiry into 
 the hands of the Areopagus or the senate. 
 Offences committed against officials, or 
 against private individu.als, were also at 
 times brought before the assembly, to obtain 
 from it a declaration that it did, or did not, 
 think the case one which called for a 
 judicial process. Such a declaration, 
 though not binding on the judge, always 
 carried with it a certain influence. 
 
 (e) In legal co-operation with the senate 
 the Ecclesia had the final decision in all 
 
 matters affecting the supreme interests of 
 the state, as war, peace, alliances, treaties, 
 the regulation of army and navy, finance, 
 loans, tributes, duties, prohibition of exports 
 or imports, the introduction of new religious 
 rites and festivals, the awarding of honours 
 and rewards, and the conferring of the 
 citizenship. 
 
 (2) At Sparta all the Spavtmtce, or citizens 
 in possession of full civic rights, were en- 
 titled to take part in the deliberations of the 
 assembly from their thirtieth year onwards. 
 The assembly was convoked once a month 
 at the full moon by the kings, and later by 
 the ephors as well. After 600 B.C. it met 
 in a special building in the market-place at 
 Sparta, the Scias, the members standing, 
 not sitting, as in the Athenian ecclesia. Its 
 business was to accept or reject proposals 
 made by the Gerusia or senate. (jS'ee 
 Geeusia.) It made its will known by 
 acclamation, or, in doubtful cases, by 
 separation of the parties into different 
 places. The right of bringing forward 
 proposals and speaking in the debates be- 
 longed only to the kings, the members of 
 the Gei-usia, and the ephors ; in all other 
 cases special consent was required. The 
 functions of the assembly were the election 
 of the officials and senators to decide (in 
 doubtful cases) on the regal succession, on 
 war and peace, treaties, legislation, and 
 other matters affecting the state. 
 
 Echidna. A monster and robber in Greek 
 fable, half maiden, half snake, the daughter 
 of Ohrysaor and Callirrhoe, or, according to 
 another story, of Tartarus and Gasea. Her 
 home was the country of the Arimi in 
 Cilicia, where she brought forth to Typhoeus 
 a number of monsters, Cerberus, Chimsera, 
 Sphinx, Scylla, the serpent of Lerna, the 
 Nemean lion, etc. {See Typhceus.) She 
 was surprised in her sleep and slain by 
 Argos. {See Aegos, 1.) 
 
 Echion. One of the five Sparti who helped 
 Cadmus to build Thebes ; husband of Agave, 
 the daughter of Cadmus, and father of 
 Pentheus. {See Spaeti.) 
 
 Echo. A Nymph, who by her chattering 
 prevented Hera from surprising her hus- 
 band Zeus in the company of the Nymphs. 
 Hera punished her by making it impossible 
 for her either to speak first, or to be silent 
 when any one else was speaking. She loved 
 the beautiful Narcissus, but in vain, and 
 pined away in grief till nothing remained 
 of her but her voice. 
 
 Eclectics or " Selecters." The technical 
 name in philosophy for philosophers who 
 
204 
 
 ECLOGUE EDUCATION. 
 
 were attached to no particular school, but 
 made a selection of favourite dogmas from 
 the tenets of the different sects. 
 
 Eclogue (Gr. Ecloge). A selected piece 
 of writing. Properly a poem taken out of 
 a larger collection, and so applied, under 
 the Roman Empire, to a short poem, as an 
 idyll or satire. The term was specially 
 applied to the pastoral poems of Vergil and 
 Calpurnius Sioulus. 
 
 Edictum. The Roman term for any 
 written announcement made by a magis- 
 trate to the people. An edictum was some- 
 times temporary only, as, e.(/., the announce- 
 ments of the public assemblies or games ; 
 sometimes it contained permanent enact- 
 ments, as, for instance, the edicta of the 
 censors against luxury. The name was 
 especially applied to the proclamations 
 issued by judical functionaries on assuming 
 office, and stating the principles or rules 
 which they intended to follow in the 
 exercise of their authority. The edicta 
 of the Eediles relative to the markets 
 belong to this class. One kind of edictum 
 was specially important in its bearing 
 upon Roman law, the edictum of the 
 praetor. In his edictum the prsetor laid 
 down the rules which he would observe in 
 arranging the proceedings of the regular 
 courts and of his voluntary jurisdiction, 
 and in deciding cases which did not 
 appear to be covered by the written enact- 
 ments of the Twelve Tables, or later 
 legislation. These edicta, written on wood, 
 stone, or bronze, were in early times pub- 
 lished only as occasion required, but in 
 later times the prsetors regularly promul- 
 gated them on entering upon their office. 
 They prevented the fossilization of the law, 
 and allowed the enactments of the Twelve 
 Tables to adapt themselves in natural 
 development to the changing circumstances 
 of civic life and intercourse. It is true 
 that the edicta had no force beyond the 
 praetor's year of office, but, as every new 
 praetor observed what was found in the 
 edicta of his predecessors, a permanent 
 nucleus of constantly repeated rules, called 
 edictum perpetuum (or continuous edict), 
 was formed in course of time. This be- 
 came, for the later period, a recognised 
 source of customary law, side by side 
 with the leges proper. At length, under 
 Hadrian, the mass of edicta was reduced to 
 system by Salvius Julianus, and received 
 the force of law at the imperial command. 
 This body of law included the accepted 
 edicta of the prcetor ui-banus and the other 
 
 praetors administering law in the provinces, 
 of the proconsuls, propraetors, and sediles. 
 It was called edictum perpetiium, ius 
 pratorlum, or ius honordrluin, the latter 
 because its authors had held public offices 
 (Jionores). On this collection the Corpus 
 lUris of Justinian is in great part founded. 
 The emperor and imperial officials, as 
 prafectus urbi and prcefectus prwtdrlo, 
 had also the right of issuing edicta. 
 
 Education. (1) Greek. The Dorians of 
 Crete and Sparta followed a peculiar line 
 in the matter of education. Throughout 
 Greece generally the state left it to private 
 effort ; but in Sparta and Crete it came 
 under the direct supervision of the com- 
 munity. At Sparta, as soon as a child was 
 bom, a commission of the elders of its tribe 
 had to decide whether it should be reared 
 or exposed. If it was weakly or deformed, 
 it was exposed in a defile of Mount Tay- 
 getus. Till his seventh year, a boy was 
 left to the care of his parents. After this 
 the Paidonomos, or officer presiding over the 
 whole department of education, assigned 
 him to a division of children of the same 
 age called a bua. Several of such buas 
 together formed a troop or ila. Each bua 
 was superintended by a Budgoros, each ila 
 by an Ilarchos. Both these officers were 
 elected from among the most promising of 
 the grown up youths, and were bound to 
 instruct the children in their exercises. 
 The exercises were calculated to suit the 
 various ages of the children, and consisted 
 in running, leaping, wrestling, throwing 
 the spear and discus, as well as in a num- 
 ber of dances, particularly the war dance 
 or Pyrrhiche {see Pyrrhic Dance). The 
 dancing was under the constant superin- 
 tendence of the Paidonomos, and five 
 Bidyce under him. The discipline was 
 generally directed to strengthening or 
 hardening the body. The boys went bare- 
 foot and bareheaded, with hair cut short, 
 and in light clothing. Prom their twelfth 
 year they wore nothing but an upper 
 garment, which had to last the whole 
 year. They slept in a common room with- 
 out a roof, on a litter of hay or straw, 
 and from their fifteenth year on rushes or 
 reeds. Their food was extremely simple, 
 and not sufficient to satisfy hunger. A boy 
 who did not want to be hungry had to 
 steal ; if he did this cleverly, he was praised, 
 and punished if detected. Every year the 
 boys had to undergo a flogging at the altar 
 of Artemis Orthia, as a test of their power 
 to endure bodily pain. They were whipped 
 
EDUCATION. 
 
 205 
 
 till the blood flowed, and deemed it a dis- 
 grace to shew any sign of suffering. Read- 
 ing and writing were left to private in- 
 structors ; but music, and choral singing 
 in particular, formed a part of the regular 
 discipline. The understanding was as- 
 sumed to be formed by daily life in public, 
 and the conversation of the men, to which 
 the boys were admitted. Every Spartan 
 boy looked up to his seniors as his instruc- 
 tors and superiors ; the consequence being 
 that in Sparta the young behaved to their 
 elders with more modesty and respect than 
 in any other Greek city. Besides this, 
 every man chose a boy or youth as his 
 favourite. He was bound to set the boy 
 an example of all manly excellence, and 
 was regarded as responsible and punishable 
 for his delinquencies. This public education 
 and the performance of the regular exer- 
 cises, under the superintendence of the 
 BidycB, lasted till the thirtieth year. In 
 the eighteenth year the boy passed into the 
 class of youths. From the twentieth year, 
 when military service proper began, to the 
 thirtieth, the youth was called an eiren. 
 He was not regarded as a man, or allowed 
 to attend the public assembly till his 
 thirtieth year. 
 
 The girls had an education in music and 
 gymnastic education similar to that of the 
 boys, and at the public games and contests 
 each sex was witness of the performances of 
 the other. The girls' dress was extremely 
 simple, consisting of a sleeveless tunic 
 reaching not quite down to the knees, and 
 open at the sides. In this, however, there 
 was nothrag which interfered with modesty 
 and propriety of behaviour. 
 
 In Crete the system of education was 
 generally similar to that of Sparta. But the 
 public training did not begin till the seven- 
 teenth year, when the boys of the same age 
 joined themselves freely into divisions called 
 dgelai, each led by some noble youth, whose 
 father was called dgeldtds, and undertook 
 the supervision of the games and exercises. 
 It is probable that the young men remained 
 in this organization till their twenty-seventh 
 year, when the law compelled them to marry. 
 
 At Athens, as in Greece generally, the 
 father decided whether the child should be 
 reared or exposed. The latter alternative 
 seems to have been not seldom adopted, 
 especially when the child was a girl. If 
 the education of a child was once fairly 
 commenced, the parents had no power to 
 put it out of the way. At the birth of a 
 |)oy, the door of the Jouse was adorned with 
 
 a branch of olive ; at the birth of a girl, with 
 wool. On the fifth or seventh day after birth 
 the child underwent a religious dedication 
 at the festival of the Amphldromia (" run- 
 ning round "). It was touched with instru- 
 ments of purification, and carried several 
 times round the burning hearth. On the 
 tenth day came the festival of naming the 
 child, with sacrifice and entertainment, 
 when the father acknowledged it as legi- 
 timate. To the end of the sixth year the 
 boys and girls were brought up together 
 under female supervision ; but after this 
 the sexes were educated apart. The girls' 
 life was almost entirely confined to her 
 home : she was brought up under the 
 superintendence of women, and with hardly 
 anything which can be called profi-table in- 
 struction. The boy was handed over to a 
 slave older than himself called Pceddgogos. 
 It was the slave's duty to watch the boy's 
 outward behaviour, and to attend him, un- 
 til his boyhood was over, whenever he went 
 out, especially to the school and the gymna- 
 sium. The laws made some provision for 
 the proper education of boys. They obliged 
 every citizen to have his son instructed in 
 music, gymnastics, and the elements of 
 letters {grammdta), i.e. writing, reading, 
 and arithmetic. They further obliged the 
 parents to teach their boys some profitable 
 trade, in case they were unable to leave 
 them a property sufficient to maintain them 
 independent. If they failed in this, they 
 forfeited all claim to support from the 
 children in old age. But with schools and 
 their arrangements the state did not con- 
 cern itself. The schools Ivere entirely in 
 private hands, though they were under the 
 eye of the police. The elementary instruc- 
 tion was given by the granimdtistce, or 
 teachers of letters, the teacher writing and 
 the scholars copying. The text-books for 
 reading were mostly poems, especially such 
 as were calculated to have an influence on 
 the formation of character. The Homeric 
 poems were the favourite reading book, but 
 Hesiod, Theognis, and others were also 
 admitted. Collections of suitable passages 
 from the poets were early made for the 
 boys to copy, learn by heart, and repeat 
 aloud. The higher instruction given by 
 the grammdtlkos was also of this literary 
 character. 
 
 Mathematics were introduced into the 
 school curriculum as early as the 5th cen- 
 tury, drawing not till the middle of the 
 4th century B.C. Instruction in music 
 proper began about the thirteenth year. 
 
20G 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 The profound moral influence attributed to 
 music in Greek antiquity made this art an 
 essential part of education. It brought 
 with it, naturally, an acquaintance with the 
 masterpieces of Greek poetry. The in- 
 strument most practised was the lyre, from 
 its suitableness as an accompaniment to 
 song. The flute was held in less esteem. 
 
 The aim of education was supposed to be 
 the harmonious development of mind and 
 body alike. Instruction in gymnastics was 
 consequently regarded as no less essential 
 than in music, and began at about the same 
 age. It was carried on in the pdlcestrcB 
 (see Pal.'ESTra) under the paidotribai, who 
 were, like the grammdtikoi, private, not 
 public instructors. The boys began their 
 gymnastics in the palcestra, and completed 
 them in the gymnasia under the superinten- 
 dence of the gymnastm. The epliebl, in 
 particular, or boys between sixteen and 
 nineteen, practised their exercises in the 
 gymnasia, till, in their twentieth year, 
 they were considered capable of bearing 
 arms, and employed on frontier service. At 
 this point they became liable to enlistment 
 for foreign service, and obtained the right 
 of attending the meeting of the public as- 
 sembly. Towards the end of the 5th 
 century B.C. the class of sophistce, or pro- 
 fessors of practical education, arose. This 
 gave the young men an opportunity of 
 extending their education by attending 
 lectures in rhetoric and philosophy; but 
 the high fees charged by the sophistce had 
 the effect of restricting this instruction to 
 the sons of the wealthy. 
 
 (2) Soman. Among the Romans the 
 father was free, when the new-born child 
 was laid before him, either to expose it, or 
 to take it up, as a sign that he meant to 
 rear it. He had also the right of selling 
 his children, or putting them to death. It 
 was not till thebeginning of the 3rd century 
 A.D. that the exposure of children was 
 legally accounted as murder, nor did the 
 evil practice cease even then. If the child 
 was to be reared, it was named, if a boy on 
 the ninth day after birth, if a girl, on the 
 eighth. The day was called dies lustnczis, 
 or day of purification. A sacrifice in the 
 house, accompanied with a feast, gave to 
 the child's life a religious dedication. A 
 box with an amulet was hung round the 
 child's neck as a protection against magic 
 {sec BuLL^). Official lists of births were 
 not published until the 2nd century after 
 Christ. In earlier times, in the case of 
 boys, the name was not formally confirmed 
 
 until the assumption of the toga virllis. 
 The child's physical and moral education 
 was, in old times, I'egularly given at home 
 under the superintendence of the parents, 
 chiefly of the mother. The training was 
 strict, and aimed at making the children 
 strong and healthy, religious, obedient to 
 the laws, temperate, modest in speech 
 and actions, strictly submissive to their 
 superiors, well behaved, virtuous, intelli- 
 gent, and seK-reliant. The girls were 
 taught by their mothers to spin and weave, 
 the boys were instructed by their fathers 
 in ploughing, sowing, reaping, riding, swim- 
 ming, boxing and fencing ; in the knowledge 
 necessary for household management ; in 
 reading, writing, and counting ; and in the 
 laws of their country. The Romans did 
 not, like the Greeks, lay stress on gym- 
 nastics, but only carried physical exercises 
 to the point necessary for military service. 
 The contests and exercises took place in 
 the Campus Marttus, which, down to the 
 time of the Empire, was the favourite arena 
 of the youths. The state took as little care 
 of mental as of physical education. If a 
 man could not educate his children himself, 
 he sent them to a master. Prom an early 
 time there were elementary teachers (littera- 
 torSs) at Rome, corresponding to the Greek 
 grammdtistcB. These were sometimes 
 slaves, who taught in their masters' house 
 for his benefit. Sometimes they were freed- 
 men, who gave instruction either in families, 
 or in schools, {schold or ludus) of their own. 
 They received their salary monthly, but 
 only for eight months in the year; no in- 
 struction being given between June and 
 November. Boys and girls were taught 
 together. The elementary instructioii in- 
 cluded reading, writing, and arithmetic ; 
 arithmetic being, as among the Greeks, 
 practised by counting on the fingers. In 
 later times grown up boys learned arith- 
 metic with a special master {calculator), 
 who was paid at a higher rate than the 
 litterator. With the duodecimal system in 
 use, arithmetic was regarded as very diffi- 
 cult. The reading lessons included learning 
 the Twelve Tables by heart. 
 
 After the Second Punic War it became 
 usual, at first in single families, and after- 
 wards more and more generally, to employ a 
 litterator, or gravimdticus, to teach Greek. 
 The chief element in this instruction was 
 the explanation of Greek poets, above all of 
 Homer, whose writings became a school book 
 among the Romans, as among the Greeks. 
 At the same time higher instruction was 
 
EGERIA EIRENE. 
 
 207 
 
 given in Latin as well, the text-book being 
 the Latin Odyssey of Livius AndrSnIcus, 
 Terence, and in later times Vergil, Horace, 
 and others. The exposition of these authors 
 gave an opportunity of communicating a 
 variety of information. Girls were edu- 
 cated on the same lines. The highest 
 point in Roman education was attained by 
 the schools of the rhetoricians, which came 
 into existence before the end of the re- 
 publican age. In these schools, as in those 
 of the grammdticl, Greek was at first the 
 only language taught. Since the time when 
 Greek literature became the highest educa- 
 tional standard, boys, and sometimes girls, 
 were taught Greek from their earliest years. 
 They were put into the hands of a Greek 
 pcedagogus, or a Greek female slave, and 
 learned the first rudiments from Greek 
 schoolmasters. As the range of subjects 
 widened, so as to include, among other 
 things, music and geometry, more impor- 
 tance came to be attached to scholastic edu- 
 cation. This tendency was strengthened 
 by the increased demand for Greek cultare 
 which manifested itself under the Empire 
 throughout the length and breadth of the 
 Western provinces. Education was carried 
 on on stricter lines as the old system of 
 home training disappeared, mainly owing 
 to the diffusion of an effeminate refinement, 
 and the parents' habit of putting their 
 children into the hands of Greek slaves. 
 
 After the time of Vespasian the higher 
 public instruction began to be a matter of 
 imperial concern. Vespasian paid away 
 as much as £850 annually to the Latin and 
 Greek rhetoricians in Rome. Hadrian 
 founded the Athenseum, the first known 
 public institution for the higher education, 
 with salaried teachers {see Athen^UM). 
 After his time philosophers, rhetoricians, 
 and grammarians were publicly appointed to 
 lecture in all the larger cities of the empire. 
 They were maintained partly at the expense 
 of the respective communities, partly by the 
 emperors, and enjoyed in all cases certain 
 immunities conferred by the State. 
 
 The ordinary educational course generally 
 concluded with a boy's sixteenth or seven- 
 teenth year, though rhetorical instruction 
 was sometimes continued far beyond this 
 limit. And towards the end of the re- 
 publican age, young men of intellectual 
 ambition would often go to Greece to 
 enlarge their sphere of culture. 
 
 On the 17th March, the festival of the 
 Lzberdlia, boys who had reached the age of 
 puberty, or their fifteenth year, took off, in 
 
 the presence of the Lares, their bulla and 
 togapi-cetexta, or purple-edged toga, and put 
 on the unadorned toga virilis. They were 
 then, after a sacrifice at home, taken by 
 their fathers or guardians, accompanied by 
 friends and relations, to the forum, and en- 
 rolled in the lists of citizens. The boys 
 were from this time, in the eyes of the law, 
 capable of marriage, and bound to military 
 service. They now entered upon their 
 tlrocirvium, which was regarded as the last 
 stage of education. {See TIROCINIUM.) 
 
 Eg6ria (Latin). A goddess of fountains, 
 who was also a goddess of birth, and 
 possessed the gift of prophecy. It was 
 from her fountain in the sacred enclosure 
 of the Camense, before the Porta Capena 
 in Rome, that the Vestal Virgins brought 
 the water necessary for the baths and 
 purifications of their office. There was 
 another fountain of Egeria in the precincts 
 of Diana at Aricia. In Roman story Egeria 
 was the consort and counsellor of king 
 Numa, who used to meet her in a grotto in 
 the precincts of the Camenae. After the 
 death of her beloved, she fled to the shrine 
 of the Arician Diana, by whom, as her 
 wailings disturbed the worship, she was 
 changed into the fountain which bore her 
 name. Married women worshipped her at 
 Rome, as a goddess of childbirth. 
 
 Eidothea. A sea-goddess, daughter of 
 Proteus, the old man of the sea. 
 
 Eidyllion. See Bucolic Poetry. 
 
 Eilithyia (Latin, IlUhyia). The Greek 
 goddess of childbirth, daughter of Zeus 
 and Hera, according to whose will she 
 makes childbirth easy or difficult. In 
 Homer there is more than one goddess of 
 the name. Just as Hera was herself often 
 worshipped as a goddess of childbirth, so 
 Artemis, goddess of the moon, was invoked 
 under the title of Eilithyia; the moon, 
 according to ancient belief, having had 
 great influence upon the event. The oldest 
 seat of the worship of Eilithyia was the 
 island of Crete, where a grotto at Cnossus, 
 consecrated to her, is mentioned in Homer. 
 Next to this came the island of Delos, where 
 she was also worshipped as a goddess of 
 Destiny. She had sanctuaries and statues 
 in many places, being represented as veiled 
 from head to foot, stretching out one hand 
 to helj), and in the other holding a torch, as 
 the symbol of birth into the light of the 
 world. 
 
 Eirene (Latin, Irene). The Greek god- 
 of peace, one of the Horse. She was 
 worshipped as goddess of wealth, and repre- 
 
208 
 
 EIRESIONE EI.ECTRUM. 
 
 sented accordingly as a young woman with 
 Plutus in her arms. {See Plutus.) Among 
 her other attri- 
 butes are the 
 cornucopia, the 
 olive branch, 
 Hermes' staff, 
 and ears of corn 
 in her hand and 
 on her head. 
 The correspond- 
 ing deity among 
 the Romans was 
 Pax, to whom an 
 altar was set up 
 on July 4th, 13 
 B.C., on the re- 
 turn of Augustus 
 from Gaul. 
 
 Eir6si6iie. See 
 Pyanepsia. 
 
 EisangSliai eirene with infant plutus. 
 (Greek). Pro- <Munich, Giyptothek.) 
 
 perly, an an- 
 nouncement made in presence of a legal 
 authority. In Attic jurisprudence eis- 
 angelia was a special form of public prose- 
 cution, instituted especially for offences 
 which appeared to inflict injury, directly 
 or indirectly, upon the state, but which it 
 was impracticable to prosecute under the 
 regular and customary procedure. The 
 accusation was put into writing and handed 
 in to the senate ; if the senate received it, 
 the accused was arrested, or had to get 
 three persons to stand surety for him. But 
 if the charge were one of treason, or an 
 attack upon the constitution, this was not 
 allowed. If the voting on the guilt or 
 innocence of the accused were unfavourable, 
 the senate itself fixed the penalty, suppos- 
 ing it fell short of the amount which lay 
 within its competence (500 drachmae or 
 £16 13s. 4d.). If not, the senate referred 
 the case at once to one of the courts of the 
 Helieea, or even to the ecclesia, to which 
 the prosecutor might, indeed, have applied 
 from the first. If the ecclesia decided to 
 take up the case, the first thing it did was 
 to fix the penalty, in case there were no 
 legal provisions on this point. It then 
 either entered on the investigation and 
 decided the case, or handed it over to a 
 court of law. The name eisangelia was 
 also given to the prosecution of judges in 
 office for neglect of their duties ; and to 
 certain charges lodged before the archons : 
 namely, charges against children for ill- 
 treatment of parents, against husbands for 
 
 ill-treatment of heiresses, and against guar- 
 dians for ill-treatment of their wards. {See 
 Archons.) 
 
 Eisphora (Athenian). An income-tax, 
 levied only in extraordinary cases. It was 
 based on the Solonian division of classes 
 into Pentdcoswmedimnl, Hippeis, Zeugltw, 
 and Thetes, the last of whom were not 
 taxed at all. The taxable capital was esti- 
 mated at twelve times a man's net income 
 as estimated by himself. In the case of the 
 Pcntacosiomedimni, with a minimum in- 
 come of 500 drachmae and minimum capital 
 of 6,000 drachmae ( = 1 talent or £200), 
 the whole property was treated as taxable 
 capital {timemd). In the case of the 
 Hippeis (800-3,600 drachmae) five-sixths, in 
 that of the Zeugitce (150-1,800 drachmae) 
 five-ninths or 1,000 drachmae. The first 
 instance of the levy of an eisphora oc- 
 curred in 428 B.C. In 378 B.C. another 
 method of levying it was introduced under 
 the archon Nausmicus. According to this, 
 the taxable capital of the highest class 
 was fixed at one-fifth of the whole property. 
 The resident aliens {metceci), as well as the 
 citizens, were liable to pay the eisphora. 
 On the method of collecting it, see Sym- 
 
 MORI^. 
 
 Ekecheiria. The "truce of God" (lite- 
 rally, "holding of hands"), observed in 
 Greece at the great festivals which were 
 visited by strangers ; e.g. the national 
 games, and the Eleuslnia in Attica. This 
 peace was proclaimed by heralds through- 
 out Greece, to secure the visitors to the 
 games freedom in passing backwards and 
 forwards and security during the festival. 
 In the case of the Eleusinia the truce 
 lasted 1\ months and ten days. 
 
 Elaphebolia. A festival held at Athens 
 in the month Elaphebolion (March-April) 
 in honour of Artemis as goddess of the 
 chase and of game. {See Artemis.) 
 
 Electra (Gr. Elektra). (1) Daughter of 
 Agamemnon and Glytaemnestra, sister of 
 Iphigenia and Orestes. She saved Orestes 
 from the murderer of his father, and 
 assisted him afterwards in avenging his 
 death. She married Pylades, her brother's 
 friend, and became the mother of Medon 
 and Struphius. 
 
 (2) One of the Pleiades, the mother (by 
 Zeus) of Dardanus, ancestor of the royal 
 house of Troy. 
 
 Electrum (Gr. Elektron). This word had 
 two meanings in antiquity. (1) A mixture 
 of gold and silver in the proportion of about 
 4 : 1. (2) Amber, the use of which in orna- 
 
ELECTRYON EDEGY. 
 
 209 
 
 mentation was known to tte Greeks as 
 early as the Homeric age through their 
 trade with PhcBnicia. In later times, mainly 
 through the overland trade, amber was 
 brought down from the Baltic to the 
 mouths of the Po, and from thence farther 
 south. In the classical times it seems to 
 have been only in exceptional cases that 
 amber was applied to the uses of art ; and 
 as Greek influence increased, the taste for 
 it disappeared in Italy. It was only to- 
 wards the end of the republican age that 
 it gradually came into favour again, and 
 then as a material for ladies' ornaments, 
 such as bracelets, pins and rings, and for 
 adorning bedsteads and similar furniture. 
 Under the Empire it was more fashionable 
 than it had ever been. The white, wax- 
 coloured sort was accounted the worst, and 
 was only used for fumigation. The ruddy 
 amber, especially if transparent, found more 
 favour ; the bright yellow, of the colour of 
 Falernian wine, was liked best of all. The 
 natural colour was sometimes intensified or 
 altered by artificial means. 
 
 Electr;y-6ii (Gr. Elektryon). Son of Perseus 
 and Andromeda, king of Mycenae, father of 
 Alcmene, the mother of HerS,cles. {See 
 Amphiteton.) 
 
 Elephants. Indian elephants were first 
 used in European warfare by the successors 
 of Alexander for the purpose of breaking 
 through the enemy's ranks. An elephant, 
 if completely equipped, carried on its back, 
 besides its driver, a tower or howdah, 
 generally containing four archers. The 
 Romans first learned their use in the war 
 with Pyrrhus. In the Second Punic War 
 they got possession of African elephants, the 
 first which they turned to their own account, 
 and used them against Philip of Macedon^ 
 But elephants never played so important a 
 part in the Roman armies as they had in 
 those of Alexander's successors. They 
 were liable to panic if the enemy frightened 
 them with firebrands or in any other way, 
 and in this state became dangerous to 
 friends as well as enemies. Combats of 
 elephants, however, were always the central 
 attraction in the fights of wild animals in 
 the games of the circus, and, from the time 
 of Augustus, the chariots which bore the 
 images of the deified emperors were drawn 
 by elephants in the solemn procession. 
 
 Elegy. The general term in Greek for 
 any poem written in the elegiac metre, a 
 combination of the dactylic hexameter and 
 pentameter in a couplet. The word Slegds 
 is probably not Greek, but borrowed from 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 the Lydians, and means a plaintive melody 
 accompanied by the flute. How it happened 
 that the word was applied to elegiac poetry, 
 the earliest representatives of which by no 
 means confined it to mournful subjects, is 
 doubtful. It may be that the term was 
 only chosen in reference to the musical set- 
 ting, the elegy having originally been ac- 
 companied by the flute. Like the 8j)os, the 
 elegy was a production of the lonians of 
 Asia Minor. Its dialect was the same as 
 that of the epos, and its metre only a varia- 
 tion of the epic metre, the pentameter being 
 no more than an abbreviation of the 
 hexameter. The elegy marks the first 
 transition from the epic to lyric proper. 
 The earliest representatives of the elegy, 
 Callinus of Ephesus (about 700 B.C.), and 
 Tyrtseus of Aphidnne in Attica (about 600), 
 gave it a decidedly warlike and political 
 direction, and so did Solon (640-559) in his 
 earlier poems, though his later elegies have 
 mostly a contemplative character. The 
 elegies of Theognis of Megara (about 540), 
 though gnomic and erotic, are essentially 
 political. The first typical representative 
 of the erotic elegy was Mimnermus of 
 Colophon, an elder contemporary of Solon. 
 The elegy of mourning or sorrow was 
 brought to perfection by Simonides of Ceos 
 (died B.C. 469). After him the emotional 
 element predominated. Antimachus of Colo- 
 phon (about 400) gave the elegy a learned 
 tinge, and was thus the prototype of the 
 elegiac poets of Alexandria, Phanocles, 
 Philetas of Cos, Hermesianax of Colophon, 
 and Callimachus of Cyrene, the master of 
 them all The subject of the Alexandrian 
 elegy is sometimes the passion of love, with 
 its pains and pleasures, treated through the 
 medium of images and similes taken from 
 mythology, sometimes learned narrative of 
 fable and history, from which personal emo- 
 tion is absent. 
 
 This type of elegy, with its learned and 
 obscure manner, was taken up and imitated 
 at Rome towards the end of the Republic. 
 The Romans soon easily surpassed their 
 Greek masters both in warmth and sin- 
 cerity of feeling and in finish of style. 
 The elegies of Catullus are among their 
 earliest attempts ; but in the Augustan 
 age, in the hands of Cornelius Gallus, 
 PrOpertius, Tlbullus, and Ovid, the elegiac 
 style was entirely appropriated by Latin 
 literature. Ovid in his Fasti showed how 
 a learned subject could be treated in 
 this metre. From his time onward the 
 elegiac metre was constantly employed. In 
 
 p 
 
210 
 
 ELEUSINIA. 
 
 the later literature it was used, like the 
 epic metre, for every possible subject, as, 
 for instance, by Rutilius Namatianus in 
 the description of liis return from Rome to 
 France (a.d. 416). In the 6th century a.d. 
 the poet Maximianus, born in Etruria at 
 the beginning of the 6th century, is a late 
 instance of a genuine elegiac poet. 
 
 Eleusinia. The two mystic festivals of 
 Demeter and her daughter Persephone 
 {Core) celebrated in Attica. They took their 
 name from the city of Eleusis, twelve miles 
 distant from Athens. This was, from time 
 immemorial, a seat of the worship of 
 Demeter, instituted, it was said, by the 
 goddess herself after the disappearance of 
 her daughter. {See Dejieter.) The wor- 
 ship of Dionysus was early associated with 
 that of the two goddesses of the earth, for 
 Dionysus was himself a god of fertility, 
 worshipped here under the name of lakchSs, 
 as son of Zeus and Demeter or Persephone. 
 The ritual of the Eleusinian service was 
 supposed" to have been ordained by Eumol- 
 pus {see EuMOLPUS). The conquest of 
 Eleusis, which took place, according to the 
 story, under king Erechtheus, gave Athens 
 a right to take part in the solemnity, and 
 the lesser of the two festivals was actually 
 celebrated in Athens, Eleusis, however, 
 coiitinued to be the chief seat of the wor- 
 ship, and the highest priesthoods were 
 hereditary in the Eleusinian families of the 
 Eumolpldae and Kerykes. The sanctity 
 which shrouded the Eleusinian mysteries 
 occasioned the foundation of Eleusinia on 
 their model in other Greek cities. But the 
 initiations at Eleusis were always accounted 
 the most sacred and the most efScacious, 
 The events, celebrated in the mysteries were 
 the descent of Persephone into the world 
 below, and her return to light and to her 
 mother. The former was celebrated at the 
 greater Eleusinia between autumn and 
 seed-time ; the latter in spring at the lesser 
 Eleusinia. The symbolical representation 
 of both events had the same object. This 
 was to excite and strengthen in the minds | 
 of the initiated, hy means of the story of \ 
 Persephone, the faith in the continuance of 
 life, and a system of rewards and punish- 
 ments after death The right of initiation 
 into the Eleusinian mysteries was in all 
 probability restricted originally to inhabi- 
 tants of Attica, but it was not long before 
 it was extended to all Gfreeks. In later 
 times, after their closer connexion with the 
 Greeks, the Romans were also admitted. 
 Barbarians were excluded, and so were all 
 
 who had been guilty of murder, or any other 
 serious offence. The neophyte was proposed 
 for initiation by an Athenian citizen who 
 hadhimself been initiated. He was admitted 
 first to the lesser mysteries at the lesser 
 Eleusinia. At this stage the candidates 
 were termed Mystce, and were allowed to 
 take a limited part in the greater Eleu- 
 sinia the next autumn. They were not 
 initiated, however, into the greater mys- 
 teries until the greater Eleusinia succeed- 
 ing these ; and after their initiation were 
 called epoptoi, or seers. The external 
 arrangement of the festival was in the 
 hands of the second archon, or Archon 
 Basileus, who exercised a general superin- 
 tendence over the whole of the public wor- 
 ship. He was assisted by four overseers 
 {epimelet(e), two of whom were elected from 
 the whole body of citizens, and two from the 
 Eleusinian families of the Eumolpidse and 
 Kerykes.^ The high-priestly officials, who 
 carried out the liturgical functions at the 
 celebration, were also chosen from these 
 two families. The Hierophantes, or chief 
 priest, belonged to the house of Eumolpus. 
 It was his duty to exhibit to the initiated 
 the mysterious shrines, and probably to 
 lead the performance of the hymns handed 
 down from his ancestors. The Keryx, or 
 herald, was of 
 the house of the 
 Kerykes. He 
 summoned the 
 initiated, in the 
 traditional form 
 of words, to wor- 
 ship, pronouncing 
 for them the form 
 of prayer. The 
 Daduchos or 
 torch-bearer, and 
 the superinten- 
 dent of the sacri- 
 fice, were also im- 
 portant officials. 
 
 The lesser 
 Eleusinia were 
 celebrated in the 
 month Anthes- 
 terion, which 
 corresponded roughly to February. 
 
 The service was performed at Agree, a 
 suburb of Athens on the Ilissus, in the 
 temple of Demeter and Core, and accom- 
 
 ' Keryx was, according to one account, repre- 
 sented as the son of Hermes and Aglauros^ 
 daughter of Ceorops, according to another, one of 
 the sons of Eumolpus. 
 
 (1) * ELEUSINIAN PKIEST. 
 
 (Vase from Kertch ; Gerhard, 
 Ges. Abh., taf. 77.) 
 
ELEUSINIA. 
 
 211 
 
 panied by mystical rites, tlie nature of 
 which is unknown. It was said to have 
 been founded at the wish of Heracles, who, 
 being a stranger, was excluded by usage 
 from the greater Eleusinia. The great 
 Eleusinia were celebrated in the middle of 
 Boedromion (roughly = September), for a 
 space probably of nine days. The first days 
 were devoted to the preparation for the 
 main festival, bathing in the sea, sacrifices 
 of purification, and the like. On the sixth 
 day, the 20th Boedromion, the immense 
 multitude of inystcp,, in festal attire and 
 crowned with myrtle, marched in proces- 
 sion along the sacred way to Eleusis, pre- 
 ceded by the image of lakchos, who gave 
 his name to the celebration Much time 
 
 by the potion mixed of water, meal, and 
 penny-royal, supposed to have been the 
 first food tasted by Demeter after her re- 
 ception in Eleusis. It was probably while 
 these celebrations were going on that the 
 EpopUe, and the Mystm who were called to 
 their final initiation, took part in the mys- 
 teries proper. Mysterious rites were first, 
 it would seem, performed in darkness, 
 which threw the celebrants into a state of 
 painful suspense and expectation. Then, 
 in a dazzling light, and amid great 
 splendour, the Hierophantes showed them 
 certain shrines of the goddess and lakchos, 
 explaining their meaning ; holy songs being 
 meantime performed, partly by himself, 
 partly by choirs with instrumental accom- 
 
 PLAN OF THE TEMPLE ENCLOSDKE AT ELEUSIS. 
 
 A, outer jicrihSlQs; aa, inner jreriboZos; B, greater 'propylcea ; G, lesser propylffia; 
 D, Great Temple of the Mysteries, with portico of Philon (183 ft. x37ift.), and Teles- 
 terion, or interior of the temple (] 78 ft. x 170 ft.), with eight rows of seats, partly hewn 
 out of the rock. — Unedited Antiquities of Attica^ chap. i. 6. 
 
 was spent, partly in the performance of 
 acts of devotion at the numerous holy 
 places on the road, partly in merriment 
 and banter ; so that it was late in the 
 evening before they arrived at the Teles- 
 tericn, or house of initiation, at Eleusis. 
 This was a magnificent temple erected by 
 Pericles in place of the ancient temple of 
 Demeter, which had been burnt down in the 
 Persian War. During the following nights 
 various celebrations took place at those 
 spots in Eleusis and its neighbourhood 
 which were hallowed in the story of the 
 goddess. In these were represented the 
 sorrowful searching of the goddess for her 
 lost daughter, and the mother's joy at find- 
 ing her. The transition from sorrow and 
 fasting to joy and festivity was symbolized 
 
 paniment. The climax of the whole was 
 the sacred drama, a representation of the 
 story of the three goddesses in the worlds 
 above and below. The festival was brought 
 to a close by a libation of water from two 
 vessels in the shape of a top (Pterndchoe). 
 The water was poured in the direction of 
 east and west with mystical formulse. 
 
 The ancients speak of the revelations 
 made in the mysteries as having a bene- 
 ficial influence on morality, pointing as 
 they did to reward and punishment after 
 death. They represent them further as 
 giving comfort in the trials and sufferings 
 of life, and as opening brighter hopes after 
 death. It is certain that there were few 
 citizens of Athens who were not initiated ; 
 ;nany who neglected the rite early in life 
 
212 
 
 ELEUTHERIA EMPEDOULES. 
 
 were initiated in old age. Eor in tiie 
 popular belief the initiation conferred a 
 claim to the joys promised in the mysteries 
 to the good after death. 
 
 The Eleusinian mysteries maintained 
 their position for a long time. Among 
 the Romans, men of the highest rank, as, 
 for instance, Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius, 
 deigned to receive the initiation. When 
 the Christian emperor Valentinian put an 
 end to all religious celebrations by night, 
 he excepted the Eleusinia, which continued 
 in existence tiU they were abolished by 
 Theodosius towards the end of the 4th 
 century a.d. 
 
 Eleuth§ria. A festival in honour of 
 Eros, celebrated at Samos. {See Eeos.) 
 
 Eleven. See Hendeka. 
 
 Elissa. See Dido. 
 
 Elysium. In Homer Elysium is a 
 beautiful meadow at the western extremity 
 of the earth, on the banks of the river 
 Oceanus. Thither the favoured of Zeus, 
 such as Rhadamanthys his son, and his 
 son-in-law Jlenelaus, are carried without 
 having seen death. They live a life of 
 perfect happiness, there is no snow, nor 
 storm, nor rain, but the cool west wind 
 breathes there for ever. Hesiod speaks of 
 the islands of the bleat by the Ocean, where 
 some of the heroes of the fourth generation 
 of men live a life without pain, and where 
 the earth produces her fruits three times in 
 the year. According to Pindar, all who 
 have three times passed blamelessly through 
 life live there in perfect bliss under the 
 sway of Cronus and his assessor Rhada- 
 manthys. Such are Cadmus and Peleus, 
 and Achilles through the intercession of his 
 mother Thetis with Zeus. Like Cronus, the 
 Titans, after thejr recoiiciliation with Zeus, 
 dwell on these islands. In later times Ely- 
 sium with its bliss was localized in the 
 world below, and regarded as the abode of 
 those whom the judges of the dead had 
 pronounced worthy of it. {Cj?. Hades, 
 Realji of.) 
 
 Emancipatio (Roman). The formal libe- 
 ration of a son from the control (nidnus) of 
 his father. If the son were sold three times 
 over, all the rights of his father came to an 
 end. If then a father wished to make a 
 son his own master (sill iuris), he made 
 him over three times by mancipatio or a 
 fictitious sale to a third person. The third 
 person emancipated him the first and second 
 time, so that he came again into the con- 
 trol of his father. After purchasing him a 
 third time he either emancipated him him^ 
 
 self, and thus became his patronus, or he 
 sold him back to his father, to whom he 
 now stood, not in the relation of a son, but 
 in 7nancipio, so that the father could 
 liberate him without more ado. In this 
 case the father remained patronus of the 
 son. The emancipated son did not, as in 
 the case of adoption (see Adoption), pass 
 into the patria potesfds of another, and 
 therefore retained his father's family name. 
 But he lost his right to inherit in default 
 of a will. 
 
 Emathion. Son of Eos and Tithonus, 
 brother of Memnon, from whom he seized 
 the government of the Ethiopians, He was 
 slain by Heracles when travelling in search 
 of the apples of the Hesperides. 
 
 Emmeleia. The serious and majestic 
 dance of the chorus in the Greek Tragedy. 
 
 Empedocles. A Greek philosopher and 
 poet, born of a rich and noble family at 
 Agrigentum in Sicily, about 490 B.C. Like 
 his father. Me ton, who had taken part in 
 the expulsion of the tyrant Thrasydseus, 
 he was an ardent supporter of the demo- 
 cracy. He lent his aid in destroying the 
 aristocracy and setting up a democratic 
 constitution, although his fellow-citizens 
 offered him the kingly dignity. He was 
 content with the powerful influence which 
 he derived from his wealth, his eloquence, 
 and extraordinary knowledge. His ac- 
 quaintance with medicine and natural 
 science was so great as to win him the 
 reputation of a wonder-worker in his life- 
 time, and the position of a hero after his 
 death. It was probably a political revolu- 
 tion which caused him, in advanced age, to 
 leave his country and settle in the Pelo- 
 ponnese. He died about 430 B.C., away 
 from Sicily. A later story represented him 
 as having thrown himself into the crater of 
 ^tna, that his sudden disappearance might 
 make the people believe him a god. The 
 truth, however, was said to have been 
 revealed by the appearance of his shoes, 
 thrown up by the volcano. 
 
 He was the author of propitiatory hymns, 
 probably of a mystical and religious charac- 
 ter ; of a didactic poem on medicine ; and 
 of an epic poepa in three books upon Nature. 
 This last was his chef d'oauvre, and had a 
 high reputation in antiquity, both for its con- 
 tents, and for its form, in which the writer 
 took Homer for his master. Considerable 
 fragments of it remain, written in a sublime 
 and pregnant style. His system is grounded 
 upon the assumption of four unchangeable 
 elements, fire (the noblest of all), air, earth, 
 
EMPTIO ENNIUS. 
 
 213 
 
 and water, and two opposing forces, Love 
 which binds and attracts, and Hate which 
 separates and repels. The formation of the 
 world began when the elements, held to- 
 gether by Love, and separated by Hate, 
 again tended to union under the influence 
 of Love. The manifold minglings and 
 separations of the elements originated the 
 different species, that of man included. 
 Our perceptions arise from the particles 
 which are thrown off by things, and stream 
 in upon us through special pores or passages. 
 As in ■ our persons %ll the fundamental 
 elements are united, we are enabled by 
 their means to recognise what is homo- 
 geneous outside us. Our ideas are not pure, 
 but compounded of the particles which pour 
 in upon us and go out from us. The system 
 of Empedocles often agreed with that of 
 Pythagoras. Both adopted the theory of 
 transmigration, and the moral and ascetic 
 doctrines connected with it. The propitia- 
 tory h5-mns above mentioned may well 
 have been in harmony with these ideas. 
 
 Emptio. See Bonorum Emptio. 
 
 Encaustlke. The art of painting by 
 burning in the colours. {See Painting.) 
 
 Enceladus. One of the giants. {See 
 
 GrIANTS.) 
 
 Encomion (Greek). Originally the song 
 sung by the chorus at the komos or festal 
 procession held at the great national games 
 in honour of the victor, either on the day 
 of his victory, or on its anniversary. The 
 word came afterwards to denote any song 
 written in celebration of distinguished 
 persons, and in later times any spoken or 
 written panegyric whatever. 
 
 Endeis. Daughter of Chiron and the 
 Naiad Chariclo, wife of .^acus, mother of 
 Peleus and TelJmon. 
 
 Endeizis. A term in Athenian juris- 
 prudence, denoting a prosecution in no- 
 torious cases, as for instance, against the 
 Prytanes, if they refused to put a question 
 to the vote in the great assembly. It was 
 especially employed against persons who, 
 although lying under dtrmia, presumed to 
 claim a share in civic rights, as (particu- 
 larly) by instituting prosecutions, or ap- 
 pearing, speaking and voting in the as- 
 sembly. 
 
 Endromis (Greek). A boot of leather or 
 felt, rising as far as the calf or above it, 
 and fitting close to the foot. In front it 
 was open and fastened with straps. It 
 was specially adapted for journeys or hunt- 
 ing, and consequently appears often in 
 representations of Artemis and of the 
 
 Erinyes. Runners in races too, often wore 
 it. {See Eleusinia, fig. 1, and Erinys.) 
 
 Endjrmion. In Greek mythology, the 
 beautiful son of AethliSs (or, according to 
 another story, Zeus and Calyce), daughter 
 of iEelus, king of Elis, father of Epeus, 
 .iEtolus, and Paeon, the first of whom won 
 the government of the country by conquer- 
 ing in a race which his father had set on 
 foot. He was loved by Selene, the goddess 
 of the moon, by whom he had fifty daughters. 
 They were supposed to symbolize the fifty 
 lunar months which intervened between 
 the Olympic games. His grave was at 
 Olympia. Another story made him a shep- 
 herd or hunter on Mount Latmos in Caria. 
 Zeus bestowed on him eternal youth and 
 eternal life in the form of unbroken slumber, 
 Selene descended every night from heaven 
 to visit and embrace the beautiful sleeper 
 in his grotto. 
 
 Ennagteris. See Calendar (Greek). 
 
 Ennius {Quintus). The fou.nder of the 
 Hellenized type of Latin poetry. He was 
 born 239 B.C. at Rudise in Calabria, and 
 was by descent a Grsecised Messapian. He 
 was probably educated at Tarentum, and 
 served with the Romans in the Second 
 Punic War in Sardinia, whence Cato took 
 him to Rome in 204 B.C. His poetical 
 talent here came to his aid, not in a 
 pecuniary way (for he was in slender cir- 
 cumstances to the end of his life), but as 
 an introduction to the favour of the great 
 men. Among these must be mentioned the 
 Scipios, and Eulvius Nobilior, who took him 
 in his retinue to the jEtolian war in B.C. 189, 
 and whose son procured him the citizen- 
 ship five years later (184). A gouty affec- 
 tion did not prevent him from continuing 
 his literary work to an advanced age. 
 He was in his sixt5'-seventh year when he 
 finished his Anndles, and he put a tragedy 
 on the stage shortly before his death. He 
 died in 170 B.C., in his seventieth year. It 
 was said that the Scipios placed his image 
 in their family vault. 
 
 Ennius wrote poetry with success in a 
 great number of styles. But in his own 
 opinion, as well as in that of his fellow- 
 citizens, his greatest work was his Annates 
 in eighteen books. This was a chrono- 
 logical narrative of Roman history in verse. 
 Like Neevius' Bellum Paenicum, it began 
 with the destruction of Troy, and came 
 down to the poet's own times. In this 
 poem Ennius created for the Romans their 
 first national epic, the fame of which 
 was only eclipsed by Vergil. But he did 
 
214 
 
 EKNODIUS EPHEBI. 
 
 more. By the introduction of the Greek 
 hexameter Ennius did much to further the 
 future development of Latin poetry. His 
 predecessor, Nsevius, had continued to 
 write in the native Saturnian metre, which 
 was hardly capable of artistic development. 
 But the practice of writing in the strict 
 dactj'lic measure enabled the Latin poets 
 to assimilate the other metrical forms pre- 
 sented by Greek literature. 
 
 Of the Annals we possess, relatively speak- 
 ing, only a small number of fragments. 
 Some of these can only be distinguished 
 from prose by their metrical form ; others are 
 very fine, both in form and ideas. Ennius 
 showed considerable capacity, too, as a 
 writer of tragedies. His dramas, which were 
 very numerous, were composed after Grreek 
 models, especially the tragedies of Euripides. 
 More than twenty of these Euripidean plaj's 
 are known to us by their titles and sur- 
 viving fragments. He also wrote prce- 
 textce, or tragedies on Roman subjects, as, 
 for instance, the Ambrdcia, representing 
 "the siege and conquest of this city by his 
 patron Eulvius Nobilior. His comedies 
 were neither so numerous nor so important 
 as his tragedies. Besides these he wrote 
 several books of sdturoe, or collections of 
 poems of various contents and in various 
 metres. Several of his adaptations or trans- 
 lations of Greek originals were probably in- 
 cluded in these : as, for instance, the Hsdy- 
 pliugStlca, a gastronomic work after Arches- 
 tratus of Gela ; Epicharm us, a didactic 
 poem on the "Nature of Things"; Euhe- 
 rtiSrtis, a rationalistic interpretation of the 
 popular fables, about the gods ; Prcecepta 
 or Protn'ptlcus, containing moral doctrines ; 
 and others of the same kind. There was a 
 poem entitled Scipio, written in honour of 
 the elder Africanus. Whether this was a 
 sat lira or a drama is uncertain. 
 
 The memory of Ennius long survived the 
 fall of the Republic. Even after literary 
 taste had taken -quite a different direction, 
 he was revered as the father of Latin 
 poetry, and especially as having done much 
 to enrich the Latin language. 
 
 Ennodius (Magnus Felix). A Latin 
 rhetorician and poet. He was born about 
 473 A.D. in the south of France, and died 
 in 521 as bishop of Pavia. Among the 
 other works, he wrote between 504 and 
 508 an extremely fulsome panegyric on 
 Theodosius the Great, and a biography of 
 Epiphanius, his predecessor in the see. 
 Both these writings have a value for the 
 historian. Besides these we have a collec- 
 
 tion of twenty-eight model speeches, some 
 of which were really delivered : nine books 
 of letters, and two of poems, sacred and 
 secular. The fii-st book of poems contains 
 longer, the second shorter and occasional 
 pieces. Both show a certain command of 
 form. 
 
 Enomotia. A subordinate division of the 
 Loch OS in the Spartan army. {See LoCHOS 
 and Mora.) 
 
 Enyalios. Epithet of Ares. {See Ares.) 
 
 Enyo. (1) A Greek goddess of battle, 
 companion of Ares {sec Ares), identified by 
 the Romans with Bellona. {See Abes, 
 Bellona.) (2) One of the Graicc. {See 
 Grai^.) 
 
 Eos (Latin Aurora). The Greek goddess 
 of the dawn, daughter of the Titan Hyperion 
 and Theia, sister of Helios and Selene, by 
 Astrpeus, mother of the winds, Argestes, 
 Zephyros, Boreas and Notos, the morning 
 star HSosplwros, and of the stars in general. 
 Her hair is beautiful, her arms and fingers 
 ruddy, her wings are white. She r.!ses 
 early from her couch on the Eastern Ocean, 
 and in a saffron-coloured mantle, on a golden 
 chariot drawn by white horses, she comes 
 forth as her brother's herald to proclaim 
 the rising of day to mortals and immortals, 
 Loving all fresh and youthful beauty, she 
 carries away Clitus, Cephahis, Orion and 
 Tithonus, to whom she bears Memnon and 
 Emathion. She is represented in works of 
 art as hovering in the sky, or riding on her 
 chariot, moving with a torch before Ares, 
 or sprinkling dew from a vase over the 
 earth. See Memnon. 
 
 Epaphos. See lo and Belos. 
 
 Epeus {Epeios). {See Trojan War.) 
 
 Ephebi. The Athenian name for youths 
 over the age of sixteen. The completion 
 of a boy's sixteenth year was the occasion 
 of a festival, at which the ephehus made a 
 drink offering to Heracles, and entertained 
 his friends with wine. His hair, hitherto 
 worn long, was cut, and the locks dedicated 
 to Apollo. For the two following years the 
 epliebi were mainly employed in gymnastic 
 exercises, and after that time the proper 
 civic ephehia commenced. After an exa- 
 mination intended to test the genuineness 
 of their civic descent and their physical 
 capacity, the ephebi were entered on the 
 list of their tribe, presented to the people 
 assembled in the theatre, armed with spear 
 and shield, and taken to the sanctuary of 
 Agraulos at the foot of the citadel, where 
 they bound themselves by a solemn oath 
 to the service and defence of their country, 
 
EPHEGESIS EPHOHS. 
 
 215 
 
 For the two following years they served as 
 guards on the frontier. After the comple- 
 tion of their twentieth year they were ad- 
 mitted to the meetings of the assembly and 
 employed in foreign service. Their dress 
 was the chldmys and the pStdsus. 
 
 Ephegesis. See Apagoge. 
 
 EphgtSB. A judicial court of high anti- 
 quity at Athens, consisting of fifty-one 
 judges elected from the noblest Athenian 
 families. It gave decisions in cases of 
 murder at five different places, differing 
 according to the character of the case. If 
 the crime had a religious character, the 
 Archon Basileus presided. {See Aechons.) 
 Solon did not abolish this court, but handed 
 over to the newly organized Areopagus its 
 most important functions, — the power of 
 deciding cases of intentional murder, poison- 
 ing, malicious wounding, arson, and the like. 
 The nearest relations of the murdered person 
 were bound by religious sanction to avenge 
 his blood. At the funeral, and after that 
 in the market place, they uttered a solemn 
 denunciation, which bade the murderer keep 
 away from all public places, assemblies, 
 and sanctuaries, and to appear before the 
 court. The Archon Basileus, after the 
 charge had been announced and received, 
 repeated this denunciation. The preliminary 
 investigation, and determination of the place 
 where the court was to be held, followed 
 at three appointed times in three succes- 
 sive months. The case was not finally 
 dealt with till the fourth month. On the 
 first two days of the final trial the two 
 parties, after solemnly taking an oath, con- 
 ducted their case in person. On the third 
 day judgment was given, in case the accused 
 had not gone into voluntary exile. If he 
 had, his property was confiscated, but he 
 was pursued no further. Intentional mur- 
 der was punished with death, malicious 
 woiinding with exile ; the man's property 
 was confiscated in both cases. In the 
 court of Areopagus, if the votes of the 
 judges were equal, the accused was acquit- 
 ted. If the homicide were legally allowed 
 (as, for instance, that of an adulterer) 
 or legally innocent (as in self-defence), the 
 case wras investigated in the Delphinion, a 
 sanctuary of the Delphic Apollo ; and only 
 a religious purification was exacted. Cases 
 of unintentional homicide, murder of an 
 alien, and instigation to murder, were taken 
 at the Palladion, a sanctuary of Pallas. 
 Instigation to murder was punished with 
 banishment and confiscation of property, 
 the murder of an alien with banishment, 
 
 unintentional murder with banishment, 
 until the kinsmen of the murdered person 
 gave permission to the slayer to return. In 
 the time of Demosthenes it would seem 
 that the cases which used to be heard at 
 the Delphinion and Palladion were handed 
 over to the Heliasfce. Thus the Epheta 
 had only two courts left them, that in 
 Phreatto, a place in the Pirseus, near the 
 sea, and the Prytaneum. The former had 
 only to judge in the rare event of a person 
 banished for unintentional homicide being 
 charged with intentional murder. As he 
 might not set foot on land, he was heard 
 standing in a ship, and if found guilty was 
 punished with banishment for life. At the 
 Prytaneum a regular court was held on 
 inaniriiate objects and animals which had 
 been the cause of death to a human being. 
 The president of the four old Ionic tribes 
 removed the object or the animal over the 
 border. Again, if a murder had been com- 
 mitted and the offender was undiscovered, 
 this court had to pronounce lawful sentence 
 against him. 
 
 Ephialtes. See Aload^. 
 
 Ephors {Eph6j-oi = overseers.) A board 
 of five members at Sparta, elected annually 
 from all the citizens. It is said to have 
 been established by Lycurgus or king Theo- 
 pompus (770 B.C.). The original intention 
 was that it should give decisions in private 
 matters, and represent the absent kings in 
 certain of their duties, especially the super- 
 intendence of the officials and of public 
 discipline. But their circle of authority 
 gradually widened, till it came to mean a 
 superintendence over the whole common- 
 wealth, including the kings. The ephors 
 had the right of raising objections against 
 their actions, calling them, like other 
 officials, to account for their conduct, pun- 
 ishing' them with fines and reprimands, and 
 even prosecuting them before the senate, 
 and threatening them with deposition and 
 death. They were the only citizens who 
 were not obliged to rise in the kings' 
 presence, a fact which gives a good idea of 
 the relative position of the two parties. 
 Besides the duty of opposing everything 
 which they thought adverse to the laws 
 and interests of Sparta, they had from early 
 times the right of summoning the delibera- 
 tive and legislative assemblies, the Gerusia 
 and Ecclesta, to make proposals to them, 
 and take the lead in proceedings left to 
 their management. Two of them regularly 
 accompanied the kings on their campaigns. 
 It is probable also that they had the super- 
 
21G 
 
 EPHOEUS EPICUR US. 
 
 intendence of the public treasure. In their 
 capacity of protectors of the public dis- 
 cipline their authority extended itself to 
 the minutest details of private life. In 
 regard to the Helots and Perioeci it was 
 still more alsolute. Even on a pericecus 
 they could pass sentence of death without 
 trial. {Sec Periceci.) On important occa- 
 sions a majority of their votes was required. 
 At the end of their annual office, on which 
 they entered at the beginning of the 
 Spartan year or at the time of the autumnal 
 equinox, they were liable to be called to 
 account by their successors. The year was 
 dated by the name of the first Ephor on 
 the board. 
 
 Ephdnis. A Greek historian, born about 
 400 B.C. at Cyme, in Asia Minor. He lived 
 to see the invasion of Asia by Alexander 
 the Great in 334. Like Theopompus, he 
 was a pupil of Isocrates, who, seeing that 
 he was not likely to succeed as a public 
 speaker, persuaded him to write history. 
 He was the author of a Universal History, 
 which omitted the mythical age, and began 
 with the return of the Heraclidse into the 
 Peloponnese. It treated in thirty books the 
 history of the Greek and barbarian world, 
 during a space of 750 years, ending in 340 
 B.C. The last book is said to have been 
 completed by his son Demophilus. The 
 work was continued in the Alexandrian 
 period by Diyllus of Athens, Psaon of 
 Platsea, and Menodotus of Perinthus. It 
 was much read and used for the wealth and 
 excellent arrangement of its material, which 
 embraced geography, ethnography, myth- 
 ologjf, and the history of civilization and 
 literature. It met with much hostile criti- 
 cism, but had its. admirers, among whom 
 was Polybius. 
 
 Epicaste. See Jocasta. 
 
 Eplcharmus. A Greek comedian, born 
 in the island of Cos, about 540 B.C. When 
 only a child of three months old he came 
 with his father Helothales, a physician, to 
 Megara in Sicily, where ho died about 450 
 at the age of 90. Like his father, he is 
 said to have been personally acquainted 
 with Pythagoras, and whether this is so or 
 no, his philosophical attainments were not 
 inconsiderable. It was Epicharmus who 
 gave to the Doric comedy of Sicily its liter- 
 ary form. Thirty-five of his plays, written 
 in the Doric dialect, are known to us by 
 .their titles, and a few meagre fragments 
 have survived. They differed from the 
 Attic comedy in having no chorus. Their 
 subjects were taken partly from the stories 
 
 of gods and heroes, which they burlesqued 
 and caricatured, and partly from life. The 
 plots seem to have been simple and the 
 action rapid. The philosophical leanings 
 of Epicharmus are shown in numerous say- 
 ings of deep practical wisdom. Plato said 
 that Epicharmus was the prince of comedy, 
 as Homer was of tragedy, a striking testi- 
 mony to the perfection of his compositions 
 in their own line. In his mythical comedy 
 he was imitated byDinolochus of Syracuse, 
 
 Epicheirotonia. See Ecclesia. 
 
 Epictetns (Gr. Epiktetos). A Greek phi- 
 losopher, born at Hierapolis in Phrygia. 
 He lived a long time in Rome as a slave, 
 in the house of Epaphroditus, a favourite 
 of Nero. Emancipated by his master, he 
 became a professor of the Stoical system, 
 which he had learned from the lectures of 
 Musonius Rufus. When the philosophers 
 were expelled from Rome by Domitian in 
 94 A.D., Epictetns went to Nicopolis in 
 Epirus, where he lived as the master of a 
 school tintil the reign of Hadrian (117 A.d.) 
 He formed numerous disciples by free con- 
 versations after the manner of Socrates. 
 Among these was Arrianus, to whom we 
 owe an account of Epictetns' doctrine, for 
 the master himself left nothing in writing. 
 The main point on which he laid stress 
 was the independence of the human mind 
 of all external circumstances, such being 
 not in our power. This freedom is to be 
 attained by patience and renunciation. 
 The duty of man is to find all his happiness 
 within himself, and the power of which he 
 should be most in awe is the deity in his 
 own breast. 
 
 Epiciirus (Gr. Epllcouros.) A Greek phi- 
 losopher, founder of the Epicurean school, 
 which was so named after him. He was 
 born 342 B.C. in the Attic deme of Gargettus, 
 and spent his early years in Samos, where 
 his father had settled as a cleruchus. {See 
 Colonies, Greek.) While still young he 
 returned to Athens, and there acquired bj' 
 independent reading a comprehensive know- 
 ledge of previous philosophies. In 310 
 {cetat. 82) he began to teach philosophy, 
 first in Mytilene, and afterwards in Lamp- 
 sacus. After 304 he carried on his pro- 
 fession at Athens. Here he bought a 
 garden, in which he lived in retirement in 
 a very modest and simple style, surrounded 
 by his brother and his friends. He died 
 (B.C. 268, cetat. 74) of calculus, after terrible 
 sufferings. But to the last moment he 
 never lost the tranquil serenity which had 
 characterized his whole life. Such was his 
 
EPIGAMI A EPIGRAM. 
 
 217 
 
 authority with his disciples that none of 
 tiiem ventured to make any innovation in his 
 doctrines. His school continued to flourish 
 in Athens, under fourteen masters, for 
 227 years ; and much longer in other cities. 
 His writings were remarkably numerous, 
 and in parts very comprehensive. They 
 were admired for their clearness, but their 
 form was found fault with as too careless. 
 Epicurus used to say himself that writing 
 gave him no trouble. All that remains of 
 them [exclusive of what may be gleaned from 
 quotations in later writers], is : (1) a com- 
 pendium of his doctrine in forty-four short 
 propositions, written for his scholars to 
 learn by heart. This we must, however, re- 
 member is not preserved in its original form. 
 (2) Some fragments, not inconsiderable, but 
 much mutilated and very incomplete, of his 
 great work On Nature, in thirty books. 
 These are preserved ia the Herculanean 
 papyri. (3) Three letters have survived from 
 the body of his correspondence, besides his 
 will. Por his system, see Philosophy. 
 
 Epigamia (Greek). The right of con- 
 tracting a valid marriage, with all its legal 
 consequences. It was possessed only by 
 citizens of the same state ; aliens could only 
 acquire it by special legal authorization, 
 i.e., a decree of the popular assemblj''. At 
 Athens even the Metceci, or resident aliens, 
 were excluded from it. (Cowip. Conubium.) 
 
 Epigoul. The descendants of the seven 
 princes who marched against Thebes : 
 .Slgialeus, son of Adrastus ; Alcmseon, son 
 of Amphiaraus : Diomedes, son of Tydeus ; 
 Promachus, son of Parthenopseus ; Sthene- 
 lus, son of Capanens ; Thersander, son of 
 Polynices ; Euryalus, son of Mecisteus. 
 To avenge the slain, they marched against 
 Thebes, under the leadership of Adrastus, 
 ten years after the first Theban war (see 
 Adrastus). Unlike their ancestors, they 
 started with the happiest auspices. The 
 oracle of Amphiaraus at Thebes promises 
 them victory, and a happy return to all, 
 that is, except .SIgialeus the son of Adras- 
 tus, the only warrior who escaped in the 
 previous war. In the decisive battle at 
 Glisas, ^gialeus falls by the hand of Lao- 
 damas, son of Eteocles, and leader of the 
 Thebans. Laodamas is himself slain by 
 Alcmseon. Part of the defeated Thebans, 
 by the advice of Teiresias, fly before the 
 city is taken, and settle in the territory of 
 Hestiseotis in Thessaly, or among the Illy- 
 rian Encheli, where the government is in 
 the hands of descendants of Cadmus (see 
 Cadmus). The victors having conquered 
 
 and destroyed the city, send the best part 
 of the booty, according to their vow, to 
 the Dalphic oracle. Thersander and his 
 family are henceforth the rulers of Thebes. 
 
 Epigram. Properly = an inscription, such 
 as was often written upon a tomb, a votive 
 offering, a present, a work of art, and the 
 like, to describe its character. Inscrip- 
 tions of this sort were from early times put 
 into metrical form, and the writer gene- 
 rally tried to put good sense and spirit into 
 them. They were generally, though not 
 always, written in the elegiac metre. 
 
 The greatest master of epigram was 
 Simonides of Ceos, the author of almost 
 all the sepulchral inscriptions on the 
 warriors who fell in the Persian wars. 
 His lines are remarkable for repose, clear- 
 ness, and force, both of thought and ex- 
 pression. Fictitious inscriptions were 
 often written, containing brief criticisms 
 on celebrated men, as poets, philosophers, 
 artists and their productions. The form of 
 the epigram was also used to embody in 
 concise and pointed language the clever 
 ideas, or the passing moods of the writer, 
 often with a tinge of wit or satire. The 
 occasional epigram was a very favourite 
 form of composition with the Alexandrian 
 poets, and remained so down to the latest 
 times. Some writers, indeed, devoted 
 themselves entirely to it. Many of the 
 choicest gems of Greek literature are to 
 be found in the epigrams. The epigram- 
 matists used other metres besides the 
 elegiac, especially the iambic. In later 
 times more complex and almost lyrical mea- 
 sures were employed. The Greek Anth- 
 ology has preserved 4,500 epigrams, of the 
 greatest variety in contents, and from the 
 hand of more than 300 poets. (;^ee Antho- 
 logy.) Among these are found some of 
 the most celebrated names of ancient and 
 of later times. A' great number, too, are 
 found in inscriptions. 
 
 Of all the Greek varieties of lyric poetry, 
 the epigram was earliest welcomed at Rome. 
 It lived on in an uninterrupted existence 
 from Ennius till the latest times, being 
 employed sometimes for inscriptions, some- 
 times for other and miscellaneous purposes. 
 In the second half of the 1st century a.d. 
 Martial handled it in various forms and 
 with the power of a master. We also have a 
 collection of epigrams by Luxor lus (6th cen- 
 tury A.D.). Many of such poems are pre- 
 served on inscriptions, besides a great quan- 
 tity in manuscript, which in modern times 
 have been collected into a Latin Anthology, 
 
218 
 
 EPIKI.EROS EPOS. 
 
 Epikleros. See Inheritance (Atlienian). 
 
 Epilenlos. See Dancing. 
 
 Epim61et8e (overseers.) The name given 
 at Athens to commissioners nominated as 
 occasion might require for the superin- 
 tendence of departments. Some of these 
 commissioners were regularly elected every 
 year, as, e.g., the ten epimeletm of the 
 wharves, 'who were responsible for the 
 care of tlie ships of war and equipments 
 stored in the docks ; and the ten commis- 
 sioners of the EmpOrldn, whose duty it was 
 to enforce the laws relative to duties and 
 commerce. For the commissioners of the 
 revenue, see Tamias. 
 
 Epimetheus. Brother of Prometheus and 
 husband of Pandora. {See Peometheus.) 
 
 Epinikion (Greek). A prize hymn sung 
 by the chorus in honour of the victors at 
 the great national games. 
 
 Epione. See Asclepius. 
 
 Episkyros. See Ball. 
 
 Epistates. See Boule. 
 
 Epithalamion (Greek). The wedding- 
 hymn sung before the bridal chamber by a 
 chorus of youths and maidens. 
 
 Epitimia (Greek). The full possession 
 of civic privileges, the opposite of dtimla. 
 
 Eponymos (Greek). Properly the person 
 after whom anything is named. This was 
 in various Greek states the unofficial title 
 of the magistrates after whom (in default 
 of a generally received standard of chrono- 
 logy) the year was designated. In Athens 
 this would be the first Archon, in Sparta 
 the first Ephor, in Argos the priestess of 
 Hera. When the ephebl, at Athens, were 
 enrolled in the list of the citizens who 
 could be called out for military service, the 
 name of the first archon of the year was 
 attached. And when the citizens of various 
 ages were summoned to military service, 
 a reference was made to the archon 
 eponymos, under whom they had been 
 originally enrolled. The ancient heroes, 
 who gave their name to the ten tribes of 
 Clisthenes, and the heroes worshipped by 
 the domes, were also called eponymoi. The 
 statues of the former were in the market 
 place, and it was near them that ofiioial 
 notices were put up. 
 
 Epopeus. Son of Poseidon and CanS,ce, 
 the daughter of JilSlus, brother of Aloeus. 
 He migrated from Thessaly to Sicyon, 
 where he became king. He was killed by 
 Lycus for the sake of Antiope, who, it was 
 alleged, was mother of Zethus by him. 
 Epoptae. See Eletjsinia. 
 Epos. (1) Greek. Many indications point 
 
 to the fact that the oldest poetry of the 
 Greeks was connected with the worship of 
 the gods, and that religious poetry of a 
 mystical kind was composed by the priests 
 of the Thracians, a musical and poetical 
 people, and diffused in old times through 
 Northern Greece. The worship of the 
 Muses was thus derived from the Thracians, 
 who in later times had disappeared from 
 Greece Proper ; and accordingly the oldest 
 bards whose names are known to the 
 Greeks, — Orpheus, MuEseus, Eumolpus, 
 Thamyris, — are supposed to have been 
 Thracians also. The current ideas on the 
 nature and action of the gods tended more 
 and more to take the form of poetical 
 myths respecting their birth, actions and 
 sufferings. And thus those compositions, 
 of which an idea may be derived from 
 some of the so-called Homeric hymns, 
 gradually assumed an epic character. In 
 course of time the epic writers threw off 
 their connexion with religion, and struck out 
 independent lines. Confining themselves no 
 longer to the myths about the gods, they 
 celebrated the heroic deeds both of mythical 
 antiquity and of the immediate past. Thus, 
 in the Homeric description of the epic age, 
 while the bards Phemius and Demodocus 
 appear as favourites of the gods, to whom 
 they are indebted for the gift of song, they 
 are not attached to any particular worship. 
 The subjects of their song are not only 
 stories about the gods, such as the loves 
 of Ares and Aphrodite, but the events of 
 recent times, the conquest of Troy by 
 means of the wooden horse, and the tragical 
 return of the Achseans from Troy. Singers 
 like these, appearing at public festivals, 
 and at the tables of princes, to entertain 
 the guests with their lays, must have 
 existed early in Greece Proper. But it 
 was the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor who 
 first fully developed the capacities of epic 
 poetry. By long practice, extending prob- 
 ably through centuries, a gradual progress 
 was probably effected from short lays to 
 long epic narratives ; and at the same time 
 a tradition delivered from master to scholar 
 handed on and perfected the outer form of 
 style and metre. Thus, about 900 B.C. 
 epic poetry was brought to its highest per- 
 fection by the genius of Homer, the reputed 
 author of the Iliad and Odyssey. After 
 Homer it sank, never to rise again, from 
 the height to which he had raised it. 
 
 It is true that in the following centuries a 
 series of epics, more or less comprehensive, 
 were composed by poets of the Ionic school 
 
EPOS. 
 
 219 
 
 in close imitation of the style and metre of 
 Homer. But not one of them succeeded in 
 coming even within measurable distance of 
 their great master. The favourite topics of 
 these writers were such fables as served 
 either to introduce, or to extend and con- 
 tinue, the Iliad and Odyssey. They were 
 called cyclic poets, because the most impor- 
 tant of their works were afterwards put 
 together with the Iliad and Odyssey in an 
 epic cycle, or circle of lays.^ The Cyprian 
 poems (Cypna), of Stasinus, of Salamis in 
 Cyprus (776 B.C.), formed the introduction 
 to the Iliad. These embraced the history 
 of the period between the marriage of 
 Peleus and the opening of the Iliad. At 
 about the same time Arctinus of Miletus 
 composed his JEthiojjis in five books. This 
 poem started from the conclusion of the 
 Iliad, and described the death of Achilles, 
 and of the Ethiopian prince Memnon, the 
 contest for the arms of Achilles, and the 
 suicide of Ajax. The Desti-uction of Ilium, 
 by the same author, was iu two books. By 
 way of supplement to the Homeric Iliad, 
 Lesches of Mytilene, either about 708 or 
 664 B.C., wrote a Little Iliad, in four books. 
 This embraced the contest for the arms of 
 Achilles, the appearance of Neoptolemus 
 and Philoctetes, and the capture of the 
 city. The transition from the Iliad to the 
 Odyssey was formed by the five books of 
 Nostoi {The Return of the Heroes), written 
 by Agias of Troezen. The Telegdma, by 
 Eugammon of Cyrene (about 570), continued 
 the Odyssey. This was in two books, em- 
 bracing the history of Odysseus from the 
 burial of the suitors until his death at the 
 hands of his son Telegonus. These poems 
 and those of the other cyclics were, after 
 Homer, the sources from which the later 
 lyric and dramatic poets drew most of their 
 information. But only fragments of them 
 remain. 
 
 A new direction was given to epic poetry 
 in Greece Proper by the didactic and 
 genealogical epics of Hesiod of Ascra, about 
 a hundred years after Homer. Hesiod was 
 the founder of a school, the productions of 
 which were often attributed to him as those 
 of the Ionic school were to Homer. One 
 of these disciples of Hesiod was Eumelus 
 of Corinth (about 750 B.C.), of the noble 
 family of the Bacchiadae. But his poems, 
 like those of the rest, are lost. 
 
 The most notable representatives of mythi- 
 
 ' [Or perhaps because their style and treat- 
 ment was conventional and without originality, 
 another meaning of the word cyclicus.] 
 
 cal epic poetry in the following centuries 
 are Pisander of Camirus (about 640 B.C.), 
 and Panyasis of Halicarnassus (during the 
 first half of the 5th century). In the second 
 half of the 5th century C'hoerilus of Samos 
 wrote a Perseis on the Persian wars ; the 
 first attempt in Greece at a historical epic. 
 His younger contemporary, Antimachus of 
 Colophon, also struck out a new line in his 
 learned Thebais, the precursor and model 
 of the later epic of Alexandria. The Alex- 
 andrians laid great stress on learning and 
 artistic execution in detail, but usually con- 
 fined themselves to poems of less magni- 
 tude. The chief representatives of the 
 Alexandrian school are Callhnachus (about 
 250 B.C.), Rhianus, Euphorion, and Apol- 
 lonius of Rhodes. The latter made the 
 futile attempt to return to the simplicity 
 of Homer. His Argonautica is, with the 
 exception of the Homeric poems, the only 
 Greek epic which has survived from the 
 ante-Christian era. In the 200 years be- 
 tween the 4th and 6th centuries A.D., the 
 mythical epic is represented by Quintus 
 Smyrnseus, Nonnus, Colluthus, Tryphio- 
 dorus, Musseus, and the apocryphal 
 Orpheus. Nonnus, Colluthus, and Tryphio- 
 dorus were Egyptians. Nonnus and 
 Musseus, alone among these writers, have 
 any claim to distinction. The talent of 
 Nonnus is genuine, but undisciplined ; 
 Musseus knows how to throw charm into 
 his treatment of a narrow subject. The 
 whole series is closed by the Iliaca of 
 Joannes Tzetzes, a learned but tasteless 
 scholar of the 12th century a.d. 
 
 As Homer was the master of the 
 mythical, so Hesiod was the master of the 
 didactic epic. After him this department 
 of poetry was best represented by Xeno- 
 phanes of Colophon, ParmeniJes of Elea, 
 and Empedocles of Agrigentum, in the 6th 
 and 5th centuries B.C. In the Alexandrian 
 period didactic poetry was much taken up, 
 and employed upon the greatest possible 
 variety of subjects. But none of its repre- 
 sentatives succeeded in writing more than 
 poetic prose, or in handling their intract- 
 able material with the mastery which 
 Vergil shows in his Georgics. The period 
 produced the astronomical epic of Aratiis 
 of Sicyon (about 275 B.C.), and two medical 
 poems by Nicander of Colophon (about 150). 
 Under the Roman Empire more didactic 
 poetry was produced by the Greek writers. 
 Maximus and the so-called Mauetho wrote 
 on astrology. Dionysius Periegetes on geo- 
 graphy, Oppian on angling, and an imi- 
 
220 
 
 EPOS. 
 
 tator of Oppian on hunting. The Alex- 
 andrian period also produced didactic 
 poems in iamKc scndril, as e.g. several on 
 geograpli}'^ bearing the names of Dicsearchus 
 and Scymnus, which still survive. 
 
 (2) Roman. The Romans probably had 
 songs of an epic character from the earliest 
 times ; but these were soon forgotten. They 
 had, however, a certain influence on the 
 later and comparatively artificial literature, 
 for both Livlus Andronicus in his transla- 
 tion of the Odyssey, and Nsevius in his 
 Punic War, wrote in the traditional 
 Italian metre, the versus Sdturnius. 
 Nsevius was, it is true, a national poet, and 
 so was his successor Ennius, but the latter 
 employed the Greek hexameter metre, in- 
 stead of the rude Saturnian. To follow 
 the example of Ennius, and celebrate the 
 achievements of their countrymen in the 
 form of the Greek epic, was the ambition 
 of several poets before the fall of the 
 Republic. A succession of poets, as Hostius, 
 the tragedian Accius, and Eurius were the 
 authors of poetical annals. In this con- 
 nexion we should also mention Cicero's 
 epics on Marius and on his own consulship, 
 besides the poem of Terentius Varro of Atax 
 {AMclnus) on Caesar's war with the Sequani 
 (Bellum SSqudnicum). Latin epics on 
 Greek mythical subjects seem to have been 
 rare in the republican age. At least we 
 know of only a few translations, as that of 
 the Iliad by Mattius and Ninnius Crassus, 
 and of the Cypria by Lsevinus. Towards 
 the end of the republican age it was a 
 favourite form of literary activity to write 
 in free imitation of the learned Alex- 
 andrians. Varro of Atax, for example, 
 followed Apollonius of Rhodes in his 
 Argonautica ; others, like Helvius Cinna 
 and the orator Lioinius Calvus, preferred 
 the shorter epics so much in favour with 
 the Alexandrians. Only one example in 
 this style is completely preserved. The 
 Marriage of Peleus and Thetis, by Cat- 
 ullus. This is the only example we possess 
 of the narrative epic of the republic. 
 
 But in the Augustan age both kinds of 
 epic, the mythic and the historical, are repre- 
 sented by a number of poets. Varius Rufus, 
 Rabirius, Cornelius Severus, and Albino- 
 vanus Pedo, treated contemporary history 
 in the epic style : Domitius Marsus and 
 Macer turned their attention to the mytho- 
 logy. The ^neid of Vergil, the noblest 
 monument of Roman epic poetry, combines 
 both characters, Of all the epic produc- 
 tions of this age, the only ones which are 
 
 preserved intact are the iEneid, a pane- 
 gyric on Messala, which found its way 
 into the poems of TibuUus, and perhaps two 
 poems, the Culex and Ciris, falsely attri- 
 buted to A^'ergil. 
 
 In the 1st century a.d. we have several 
 examples of the historical epic : the Phar- 
 saUa of Lucan, the PUnica of Silius 
 Italicus, a Bellum Civile in the satirical 
 romance of Petronins, and an anonymous 
 panegyric on Calpurnius Piso, who was 
 executed for conspiracy under Nero, a.d. 
 65. The heroic style is represented bj' 
 the Argonautica of Valerius Elaccus, and 
 the Thebaid and Achilleid of Statius, to 
 which we may add the metrical epitome 
 of the Iliad by the so-called Pindarus 
 Thebanus. The politico-historical poems 
 of the succeeding centuries, by Publius 
 Porfirius Optatianus in the 4th century, 
 Claudian, Merobaudes, Sidonius Apollinaris 
 in the 6th, Priscian, Corippus, and Venantius 
 Eortunatus in the 6th, are entirely panegyric 
 in character, and intended to do homage to 
 the emperor or men of influence. Of all 
 these poets, Claudian is the most consider- 
 able. He and Dracontius (towards the end 
 of the 5th century) are among the last who 
 take their subjects from mythology. 
 
 Didactic poetry, which suited the sober 
 character of the Romans, was early repre- 
 sented at Rome. Here the Romans were 
 in many ways superior to the Greeks. 
 Appius Claudius Csecus and the elder 
 Cato were the authors of gnomic poetrj'. 
 Ennius, the tragedian Accius, and several 
 of his contemporaries, wrote didactic pieces; 
 the satires of Lucilius and Varro were also 
 in part didactic. It was however not till 
 the end of the republican period that the 
 influence of Greek literature gave predomi- 
 nance to the Greek epic form. It was then 
 adopted b}'' Varro of Atax, the orator 
 Cicero, and above all by Lucretius, whose 
 poem De Reruin Ndturd is the only did- 
 actic poem of this period that has been pre- 
 served intact. In the Augustan age many 
 writers were active in this field. Valgius 
 Rufus and ^milius Macer followed closely 
 in the steps of the Alexandrians. Grattius 
 wrote a poem on hunting, a part of which 
 still survives ; Manilius an astronomical 
 poem which survives entire. But the 
 Georgics of Vergil throws all similar works, 
 Greek or Latin, into the shade. Ovid 
 employs the epic metre in his Metamor- 
 phoses and Hdlieutica, the elegiac in his 
 Fasti. 
 
 In the 1st century a.d. Germanicus 
 
EPULONES EQUITES. 
 
 221 
 
 translated Aratus. Columella wrote a poem 
 on gardening; an unknown author (said 
 to be Lucilius), the JEtna. The 3rd 
 century produced the medical poem of 
 Sammonicus Serenus, and that of Nemesi- 
 anus on hunting. In the 4th we have 
 Ausonins, much of whose work is didactic ; 
 Palladius on agriculture ; an adaptation of 
 Aratus and of Dionysius Periegetes by 
 Avienus, with a description of the sea- 
 coasts of the known world in iambics ; in 
 the 5th, besides some of Claudian's pieces, 
 a description by Ru till us Namatianus in 
 elegiacs of his return home. The book of 
 Dionysius Periegetes was adapted by Pris- 
 cian in the 6th century. A collection of 
 proverbs, bearing the name of Cato, belongs 
 to the 4th century. In most of these com- 
 positions the metrical form is a mere set 
 off ; and in the school verses of the gram- 
 marians, as in those by Terentianus Maurus 
 on metres, by an anonymous author on 
 rhetorical figures, and on weights and 
 measures, there is no pretence of poetry 
 at all. 
 
 Epulones (Masters of the Feast). The 
 office of epulo was created 196 B.C. to re- 
 lieve the Pontifices. It was, from the 
 first, open to plebeians, and could be held 
 with the great offices of state. The first 
 duty of the epulones was to provide the 
 banquets (epulum) of the Capitoline deities 
 {see Lectistebnidm). In later times they 
 had also to provide for and superintend the 
 public entertainments (epwZce) of the people, 
 when the senate dined on the Capitol. 
 Such entertainments were always provided 
 at the games given by private individuals, 
 or by the state, on occasions of religious 
 festivals, dedications of temples, assump- 
 tions of office, triumphs, funerals, birthdays 
 in the imperial household, and the like. 
 The Collegium epulonum consisted origin- 
 ally of three members {tres vlrt epulones) 
 and afterwards of seven (septem viri 
 epulones), a name which it retained even 
 after Caesar had raised the number to ten. 
 Its existence can be traced down to the end 
 of the 4th century. 
 
 Equirria. See Mars and Salii. 
 
 Equites (horsemen or knights). The 
 equites were originally a real division of 
 the Roman army. At the beginning of 
 the kingly period they were called celeres, 
 and their number is said to have been 300, 
 chosen in equal parts from the three tribes of 
 the Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. A hun- 
 dred formed a centuria, each centuria being 
 named after the tribe from which it was 
 
 taken. Thirty made a turma, and ten were 
 under the command of a decumO, while the 
 whole corps was commanded bj' the 
 trtbunus celerum. During the course of 
 the kingly period the body of equites was 
 increased to sixteen centuria', and the con- 
 stitution of Servius Tullius finally raised it to 
 eighteen. When the twelve new centuries 
 were formed, consisting of the richest persons 
 in the state, whose income exceeded that of 
 the first class in the census, the corps of 
 equites lost the exclusively patrician char- 
 acter which had hitherto distinguished it. 
 At the same time its military importance 
 was diminished, as it no longer formed the 
 first rank, but took up a position on the 
 wings of the phalanx {see Legio). The 
 equites, however, retained both in the state 
 and in the army their personal prestige. 
 In the comitla they voted first, and in 
 centurice of their own. They were the 
 most distinguished troops in the army. No 
 other soldiers were in a position to keep 
 two horses and a groom apiece, a costly 
 luxury, although they received an allowance 
 for the purchase and keep of their horse. 
 After the introduction of the pay system 
 they received three times as much as the 
 ordinary troops ; on occasion of a triumph 
 three times the ordinary share of booty ; 
 and at the foundation of a colony a much 
 larger allotment than the ordinary colonist. 
 The 1,800 equites equo publico, or equites 
 whose horse was purchased and kept by the 
 state, were chosen every five years, at the 
 census. The election was carried out in 
 the republican period originally by the 
 consuls, but in later times by the censors. 
 After the general census was completed, 
 the censors proceed to review the equites 
 {recognitio) . They were arranged accord- 
 ing to their tribes, and each of them, lead- 
 ing his horse by the hand, passed before 
 the tribunal of the censors in the forum. 
 All who had served their time, and who 
 were physically incapacitated, received 
 their discharge. If an eques were judged 
 unworthy of his position, he was dismissed 
 with the words : " Sell your horse " {Vendg 
 equum). If there were nothing against him, 
 he was passed on with the words Trdduc 
 equum (" lead your horse past "). The 
 vacancies were then filled up with suitable 
 candidates, and the new list {album equitum) 
 read aloud. In later times, the eques whose 
 name was first read out was called princeps 
 iUventUtis (see Princeps). 
 
 During their time of service (setat 17-46) 
 the equites were bound to serve in a number 
 
222 
 
 ERANOS ERATOSTHENES. 
 
 of campaigns not exceeding ten. Their 
 service expired, they passed into the first 
 censorial class. The senators alone among 
 the Cfjuitcs were, in earlier times, allowed to 
 keep their rqtiiis j^ublictis, their name on the 
 roll, and their rights as equites unimpaired. 
 But of this privilege the senators were 
 deprived in the time of the Gracchi. The 
 number of the equites equo i^'iMico re- 
 mained the same, as no addition was made 
 to the sum expended by the state on the 
 horses. Young men of property sometimes 
 served on their own horses (equo prlvatn) 
 without any share in the political privileges 
 of the equites. After the Second Punic war 
 the body of equites gradually lost its mili- 
 tary position, and finally ceased to exist as 
 a special troop. In the 1st century B.C. the 
 members of the equestrian centurice only 
 served in the cohors prcetoria of the general, 
 or ill the capacity of military tribunes and 
 prcefccti of cohorts. 
 
 The wealthy class, who were in posses- 
 sion of the large capital which enabled them 
 to undertake the farming of the public 
 revenues, and who consequently had the 
 opportunity of enriching themselves still 
 further, had long enjoyed a very influential 
 position. In 123 B.C. the lex iudictdria of 
 Gains Gracchus transferred to the possessors 
 of the equestrian census (400,000 sestertii, or 
 about £4000) to right to sit on juries, which 
 had previously belonged exclusively to mem- 
 bers of the senate. Thus an ordo equester 
 or third order, standing between the senate 
 and the people, was formed, which began 
 to play an important part in politics. Its 
 members were called equites even if they 
 were not enrolled in the centurice equituin. 
 The contests between the senate and the 
 equites for the exclusive right to sit on the 
 juries, continued with varying fortunes 
 until the end of the Republic. Augustus 
 allowed the ordo equester to continue in 
 existence as a class in possession of a cer- 
 tain income ; but the old fiscal and judicial 
 system came to an end, and the ordo accord- 
 ingly lost all its former importance. On 
 the other hand, the equites proper rose into 
 a position of great consideration. They 
 were divided into six titrinw, headed by an 
 imperial prince as princeps iuventutis. 
 True, they had no further standing as a 
 corporation : but the emperor employed 
 them in a variety of confidential posts. 
 The title equcs equo ^ puMico was necessary 
 for the attainment of the office of military 
 
 ' The state did not actually provide the horse. 
 
 tribune, and for a number of the most 
 important military posts. The power of 
 conferring or withdrawing the title came at 
 length to rest with the emperor alone. 
 
 The review of the equites, which used to 
 take place every five years, now became a 
 mere ceremony, and was united by Augustus 
 with the ancient annual parade (transvectio) 
 of the 15th July. The equites, in full 
 uniform, rode through the Forum to the 
 Capitol, past the temple of Mars or Bonos. 
 
 After the transference of the seat of 
 government to Constantinople, the tunnce 
 equitum sank into the position of a city 
 corporation, standing between the senate 
 and the guilds, and in possession of special 
 privileges. The insignia of the equites 
 were a gold ring and a narrow purple border 
 on the tunic (see Tunica). At the trans- 
 vectio they wore the trdbea, a mantle 
 adorned with purple stripes, and crowns of 
 olive. Since 67 B.C. the fourteen first rows 
 were assigned to them honoris causa. 
 
 Eranos. The Greek term for an organized 
 club or sooietj', for the purposes of feast- 
 ing and amusement, whose members were 
 called Srdnistce. Sometimes it would be 
 formed in connexion with the worship of 
 particular deities. Sometimes, again, the 
 object of an eranos would be mutual assist- 
 ance by advances of money. The govern- 
 ment encouraged these clubs, because their 
 corporate character made it easier to settle 
 with expedition any legal proceedings 
 arising out of their affairs. Trials of this 
 kind, for refusal to pay subscriptions, or 
 to repay loans, had to be settled within a 
 month. 
 
 Erato. See Muses. 
 
 Eratosthenes. A Greek savant, born at 
 Cyrene in 275 B.C. He completed his philo- 
 sophical education at Athens, where he 
 made his first public appearance as a 
 lecturer on philosophy. His learning won 
 him such a reputation that Ptolemy III 
 (Euergetes) invited him in 247 B.C. to 
 Alexandria, and made him librarian there 
 in the place of Callimachus. He is said to 
 have died, after nearly losing his eye-sight, 
 by voluntary starvation in 195 B.C. He 
 was a master of science in all its branches — 
 history, geography, geometry, astronomy, 
 philosophy, grammar and poetry. As a 
 writer he treated an astonishing variety 
 of subjects, and won thereby the name of 
 Pentathlos (or master in the five great 
 exercises of the arena). It is said that he 
 was the first person who assumed the name 
 of Philologos, or friend of science. His 
 
EREBUS EEECHTHEUS. 
 
 223 
 
 greatest service consists in the fact that he 
 was the founder of scientific geographj'. 
 His greatest work was his Geogrdphlca, in 
 three books. The first was upon physical 
 geography, the second treated mathematical 
 geography on the basis of the measurement 
 of degrees, discovered by himself. The 
 subject of the third was chorography, based 
 upon a map of his own drawing. The work 
 is unfortunately lost, and known only by 
 what later writers, especially Strabo, have 
 preserved. Historical investigation owes 
 a great deal to the Chr5ndgrdphia, in which 
 he undertook to found chronology on as- 
 tronomy and mathematics. His compre- 
 hensive book on Ancient Comedy was a con- 
 tribution to the history of literature. The 
 Gdtalogoi was a work on astronomy and 
 mythology, in which were collected the 
 fables of the ancient writers on the con- 
 stellations, with an enumerationof the single 
 stars in each group. A dry compendium, 
 called the CafastSrismoi, containing a mere 
 enumeration of 44 constellations, with 475 
 stars, and the fables attached, is based on 
 the great work of Eratosthenes. His poetical 
 efforts were a short epic called Hermes, and 
 a celebrated elegy, the Erigone. Besides 
 the compendium above mentioned, and some 
 fragments, we have a letter of Eratosthenes 
 to Ptolemy Euergetes on the doubling of 
 the cube, and an epigram on the same 
 subject. 
 
 Ergbiis. In Greek mj'thology, the pri- 
 meval darkness, springing, according to 
 Hesiod, from Chaos, brother of Night, and 
 father by her of ^ther and Hemera (day). 
 The word is commonly used of the lower 
 world, filled with impenetrable darkness. 
 
 Erechtheum {Erechtheion). The original 
 sanctuary of the tutelary deities of Athens, 
 Athene Polias, (the goddess of the city), 
 Poseidon, and Erechtheus. It was situated 
 on the Acropolis. The old temple, said to 
 have been built by Erechtheus, was burnt 
 by the Persians in 480 B.C. The restoration 
 was perhaps begun as far back as the time 
 of Pericles, but, according to the testimony 
 of an inscription in the British Museum 
 (no. xxxv), was not quite finished in 409. 
 The new temple was, even in antiquity, 
 admired as one of the most beautiful and 
 perfect works of the Attic-Ionic style. It 
 was 65 feet long and nearly 36 broad ; and 
 was divided into two main parts. Entering 
 •through the eastern portico of six Ionic 
 pillars, one came into the cella of Athene 
 Polias, with an injage of the goddess, and 
 a lamp that was always kept burning. To 
 
 the solid wall at the back was attached the 
 Erechtheum proper. Here were three altars, 
 one common to Poseidon and Erechtheus, 
 the other to Hephsestus and the hero Butes. 
 Connected with this, by three doors, was 
 a small front-chamber, with seven half 
 columns adorning the western wall, and 
 three windows between them. This chamber 
 was approached through a hall attached to 
 the north side of the temple, adorned with 
 seven Ionic columns in front, and one on 
 each side. Under this was a cleft in the 
 rock, said to have been made by the stroke 
 of Poseidon's trident during his contest with 
 Athene for the possession of the Acropolis. 
 Corresponding to this on the south side 
 was a small hall, supported not by pillars, 
 but by caryatides. This was called the 
 Hall of Core, and it probably contained the 
 tomb of Cecrops. From it a step led down 
 to a court, once walled round, in which 
 were the Pandroseum (see PandrSsos), the 
 sacred olive tree of Athene, and the altar 
 of Zeus Herkeios. On the east side, in 
 front of the temple of Athene Polias, stood 
 the altar on which the great hecatomb was 
 offered at the Panathensea. {See plan of 
 
 ACEOPOLIS.) 
 
 Erechtheus. A mythical king of Athens. 
 According to Homer he was the son of 
 Earth by Hephsestus, and brought up by 
 Athene. Like that of Cecrops, half of his 
 form was that of a snake — a sign that he 
 was one of the aborigines. Athene put the 
 child in a chest which she gave to the 
 daughters of Cecrops, Agraulos, Herse, and 
 Pandrosos, to take care of ; forbidding them 
 at the same time to open it. The two 
 eldest disobeyed, and in terror at the 
 serpent-shaped child (or according to 
 another version, the snake that surrounded 
 the child), they went mad, and threw 
 themselves from the rocks of the Acropolis. 
 Another account made the serpent kill them. 
 Erechtheus drove out Amphictjon, and got 
 possession of the kingdom. He then es- 
 tablished the worship of Athene, and built 
 to her, as goddess of the city [Polias), a 
 temple, named after him the Erechtheum. 
 Here he was afterwards worshipped himself 
 with Athene and Poseidon. He was also 
 the founder of the Panathenaic festival . He 
 was said to have invented the four-wheeled 
 chariot, and to have been taken up to 
 heaven for this by Zeus, and set in the sky 
 as the constellation of the charioteer. His 
 daughters were Orithyia and Procris (see 
 Boreas and Cephalus). Originally identi- 
 fied with Erichthonius, he was in later times 
 
224 
 
 ERGANE ERINYES. 
 
 distinguislied from him, and was regarded 
 as his grandson, and as son of Pandion and 
 Zeuxippe. His twin brother was Butes, 
 his sisters Procne and Philomela. The 
 priestly oifice fell to Butes, while Erech- 
 theus assumed the functions of royalty. By 
 Praxithea, the daughter of Cephissus, he 
 was father of the second Cecrops {see Pan- 
 dion, 2), of Metion (see D^dalus) ; of 
 Cretisa [see Ion), as well as of Protogeneia, 
 Pandora, and Chthonia. "When Athens 
 was pressed hard by the Eleusinians 
 under Eumolpus, the oracle promised him 
 the victory if he would sacrifice one of 
 his daughters. He chose the youngest, 
 Chthonia; but Protogeneia and Pandora, 
 who had made a vow with their sister to 
 die with her, voluntarily shared her fate. 
 Erechtheus conquered his enemies and slew 
 Eumolpus, but was afterwards destroyed 
 by the trident of his enemy's father, 
 Poseidon. 
 
 Ergane. ^e Athene. 
 
 Erginus. King of the Minyse of Orcho- 
 menus, son of Poseidon (or Clymenus, 
 according to another account), and one of 
 the Argonauts. At the games of Poseidon 
 at Onchestos, Clymenus was killed by a 
 Etone thrown by a noble Theban. Erginus 
 in consequence compelled the Thebans to 
 pay him an annual tribute of 100 oxen for 
 twenty years. Heracles, on returning from 
 his slaughter of the lions of Cithseron, came 
 upon the heralds who were collecting the 
 tribute. He cut off their noses and ears, 
 tied their hands round their necks, and told 
 them that this was the tribute they might 
 take back to their master. War broke out. 
 Heracles armed the Thebans with the arms 
 hanging in the temples, the Minyae having 
 carried off all the others ; slew Erginus, 
 destroyed Orchomenus, and forced the Minyas 
 to pay double the tribute to Thebes. The 
 sons of Erginus were the mythical architects 
 Agamedes and Trophonius. 
 
 Erichthonlus. (1) Son of Dardanus (see 
 Dardanus) and Bateia, father of Tros. (2) 
 See Erechtheus. 
 
 Erigone. Daughter of Icariiig, who 
 hanged herself for grief at the murder of 
 her father, and was taken up to heaven as 
 the constellation of the Virgin. {See 
 
 ICARIUS.) 
 
 Erinna. A famous Greek poetess, a native 
 of the island of Telos. She was a friend 
 and contemporary of Sappho, with whom 
 she lived in MitS'Iene. She flourished about 
 600 B.C. and died at the age of nineteen. 
 The poem by which she is best known is 
 
 the Spindle {Eldkate) consisting of 300 
 hexameters. A few verses of this, and a 
 few epigrams, are all of her writing which 
 survives. A poem in five Sapphic strophes, 
 addressed to Rome as the mistress of the 
 world, is from the hand of a much later 
 poetess, Melinno, who probably lived in 
 Lower Italy at the time of the war with 
 Pyrrhus, or the First Punic War. 
 
 Erinyes (Greek). The goddesses of venge- 
 ance. Homer speaks sometimes of one, 
 sometimes of several, but without any 
 definite statement about either number, 
 name, or descent. Hesiod makes them the 
 daughters of Gaia (Earth), sprung from the 
 blood of the mutilated Uranus. According 
 to others they were the datighters of Night 
 
 "* EltlNYS BINDINS PIKITHOUS IN HADES. 
 (Vase-Painting.) 
 
 {Nyx) or of the Earth, and Darkness 
 {SkOtos). Euripides is the earliest writer 
 who fixes their number at three, and con- 
 siderably later we find them with the 
 names Allecto ("She who rests not"), 
 Tisiphone (" Avenger of murder "), and 
 Mggsera (" The jealous one.") They are the 
 avengers of every transgression of natural 
 order, and especially of offences which 
 touch the foundation of human society. 
 They punish, without mercy, all violations 
 of filial duty, or the claims of kinship, or 
 the rites of hospitality ; murder, perjury, 
 and like offences ; in Homer even beggars 
 have their Erinys. The punishment begins 
 on earth and is continued after death. 
 Thus they pursue Orestes and Alcmseon, 
 who slew their mothers, and CEdipus for 
 
ERIPHYLE EROS. 
 
 225 
 
 tlie murder of his father and marriage 
 with his mother, without regard to the 
 circumstances by which their offences were 
 excused. Their principle is a simple one, 
 " an ej'e for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth." 
 In spite of their terrible attributes as god- 
 desses of vengeance they were called Semnai 
 (thehonourable) and £!Mme?i?cZes(the kindly), 
 For the punishment of the evil secures the 
 well-being of the good, and by pursuing 
 and destroying transgressors the Erinyes 
 prove themselves benevolent and bene- 
 ficent. They were worshipped in Athens 
 under the name of Semnai, and had a shrine 
 on the Areopagus, and the hill of Colonus. 
 Fresh water and black sheep were offered 
 to them in sacrifice. The terrible picture 
 drawn of them by ^schylus in his Eu- 
 menides, as women like Gorgons, with 
 snakes for hair, bloodshot eyes, grinding 
 teeth, and long black robes with blood-red 
 giirdles, was softened down in later times. 
 They appear as maidens of stern aspect, 
 with snakes in their hair or round their 
 girdles and arms, torches, scourges, or 
 sickles in their hands, generally in the 
 costume of huntresses, and sometimes with 
 wings as a sign of the swiftness of their 
 vengeance (see cut). 
 
 The Euries {Furim or Dirm) of the 
 Roman poets are a mere adaptation of 
 the Greek Erinyes. They are generally 
 represented as torturing the guilty in the 
 world below, but as sometimes appearing 
 on earth, to excite to crime and throw men 
 into madness. 
 
 IKriphyle. In Greek mythology, sister of 
 Adrastus and wife of Amphiaraus. {See 
 Adbastus.) Bribed with a necklace by 
 Polynices, she prevailed on her husband to 
 take part in the war of the Seven Chiefs 
 against Thebes, in which he met his death, 
 (^ee Amphiaraus.) In revenge for this 
 she was slain by her son Alcmgeon. (;S^ee 
 Alcm^on.) 
 
 Erls. The goddess of discord, fighting, 
 and quarrelling in the Greek mythology. 
 In Homer she is sister and companion of 
 Ares, and like him insatiate of blood ; in 
 Hesiod she is daughter of Night, and mother 
 of trouble, oblivion, hunger, pain, murder 
 and carnage, brawls, deceit, and lawless- 
 ness.- She was the only one among the 
 gods who was not bidden to the marriage of 
 Peleus and Th6tis. In revenge she threw 
 a golden apple among the guests, and thus 
 gave occasion for the Trojan War. {See 
 Trojan War.) Side by side with this 
 destructive Eris was a beneficent Eris, the 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 sister, according to Hesiod, of the other. 
 She was the personification of noblo rivalry, 
 and is represented as stimulating even 
 dullards to exertion. 
 
 Eros. The god of love among the 
 Greeks. His name does not occur in 
 Homer ; but in Hesiod he is the fairest of 
 the deities, who subdues the hearts of all 
 gods and men. He is born from Chaos at the 
 same time as the Earth and Tartarus, and is 
 the comrade of Aphrodite from the moment 
 of her birth. Hesiod conceives Eros not 
 merely as the god of sensual love, but as 
 a power which forms the world by inner 
 union of the separated elements ; an idea 
 very prevalent in antiquity, especially 
 among the philosophers. But according 
 to the later and commoner notion, Eros was 
 the youngest of the gods, generally the son 
 of Aphrodite by Ares or Hermes, always 
 
 (1) EEOS. 
 
 Prohably as the Genvis of Death. ARcribed to the time 
 of Hadrian. Found at Centocelle (Rome, Vatican). 
 
 a child, thoughtless and capricious. He is 
 as irresistible as fair, and has no pity even 
 for his own mother. Zeus, the father of 
 gods and men, arms him with golden wings, 
 and with bow and unerring arrows, or 
 burning torches. Anteros, the god of 
 mutual love, is his brother, and his com- 
 panions are Pothos and Himeros, the per- 
 sonifications of longing and desire, with 
 
 Q 
 
226 
 
 ERSE EUANDROS. 
 
 Peitho (Persuasion), the Muses, and the 
 Graces. In later times he is surrounded 
 by a crowd of similar beings, Erotes or 
 loves. (Per the later legend of Eros and 
 Psyche, see Psyche.) 
 
 One of the chief and oldest seats of his 
 worship was Thespise in Boeotia. Here 
 \\'as his most ancient image, a rough, un- 
 hewn stone. His festival, the Erotia or 
 liirotidia, continued till the time of the 
 Roman Empire to be celebrated every fifth 
 year with much ceremony, accompanied 
 by gymnastic and musical contests. Be- 
 sides this he was paid special honour 
 and worship in the gymnasia, where his 
 statue generally stood near those of Her- 
 mes and Heracles. In the gymnasia Eros 
 
 (2) EROS. 
 
 (Rome, Capitoline Mufenm.) 
 
 was the personification of devoted friend- 
 ship and love between youths and men ; 
 the friendship which proved itself active 
 and helpful in battle and bold adventure. 
 This was the reason why the Spartans and 
 Cretans sacrificed to Eros before a battle, 
 and the sacred band of youths at Thebes 
 was dedicated to him; why a festival of 
 freedom {Eleuthcvia) was held at Samos in 
 his honour, as the god who bound men and 
 youths together in the struggle for honour 
 and freedom ; and why at Athens he was 
 worshipped as the liberator^ of the city, in 
 memory of Harmodius and Aristogiton. 
 
 In works of art Eros was usually repre- 
 sented as a beautiful boy, close upon the 
 age of youth. In later times he also appears 
 as a child with the attributes of a bow and 
 
 arrows, or burning torches, and in a great 
 variety of situations. The most celebrated 
 statues of this god were by Lysippus, 
 Scopas, and Praxiteles, whose Eros at 
 Thespise was regarded as a master-piece, 
 and unsurpassable. The famous torso in 
 the Vatican, in which the god wears a 
 dreamy, lovelorn air, is popularly, but 
 probably erroneously, traced to an original 
 by Praxiteles (fig. 1). The Eros trying his 
 bow, in the Capitoline Museum at Rome, 
 is supposed to be the copy of a work by 
 Lysippus (fig. 2). 
 
 The Roman god Amor or Cupido was a 
 mere adaptation of the Greek Eros, and was 
 never held in great honour. 
 
 Erse or Herse. See Cecrops. 
 
 Erymanthian Boar. See Heracles. 
 
 Erysichthon. (1) Son of the Athenian 
 Cecrops. 
 
 (2) Son of Triopas in Thessaly. For dese- 
 crating the sacred enclosure of Demeter, and 
 felling an oak consecrated to the goddess, 
 he was punished with insatiable hunger. 
 Having consumed all that he had, he was 
 supported by his daughter Mestra, to whom 
 her lover Poseidon had given the power of 
 transferring herself into any shape that she 
 liked. In various forms she continually got 
 herself sold, and then returned to her father 
 with the proceeds. At last Erysichthon was 
 reduced to devouring his own limbs. 
 
 Erytheia. One of the HespSrides. 
 
 Eryx. Son of Poseidon (or, according to 
 another account, of Btites) and Aphrodite, 
 who was worshipped on Eryx, a mountain 
 in Sicily. He was king of the Elymi in the 
 neighbourhood of the mountain. Eryx was 
 a powerful boxer, but was slain in a fight 
 with Heracles about a bull, which had run 
 away from the latter, and which Eryx had 
 appropriated. 
 
 Essedarii. See Gladiatorbs, 
 
 Ess6dum. See Chariots. 
 
 Eteocles. Son of (Edipus king of Thebes 
 and locaste, brother of Polynices and 
 Antigone. He broke the agreement he 
 had made with his brother to give him the 
 kingdom of Thebes for one year. Polynices 
 accordingly organized the campaign of the 
 Seven Chiefs against Thebes, and fell in 
 single combat with Eteocles. {See (Edipus 
 and Seven against Thebes.) 
 
 Euadne. Daughter of Iphis, wife of 
 Capaneus. Her husband fell before Thebes, 
 and at his funeral she threw herself into the 
 flames of the pyre and was consumed with 
 the corpse. 
 
 Euandros. See Evander. 
 
EUBULUS EUMOLPUS. 
 
 227 
 
 Eubulus. A Greek poet of the Middle 
 Comedy, who flourished about 370 B.C. His 
 plays were mainly on mythical subjects, 
 and parodied the earlier tragedians, espe- 
 cially Euripides. One hundred and four 
 pieces were attributed to him, of which only 
 a few fragments have been preserved written 
 in pure and well chosen language. 
 
 Euclides {Euklcides). (1) A philosopher 
 of Megara, a disciple of Socrates, and the 
 founder of the Megarian school. 
 
 (2) A Greek mathematician who taught at 
 Alexandria about 300 B.C. All that is known 
 of his life is that he was held in much es- 
 teem, and won the high regard of king 
 Ptolemy I. His labours in putting the dis- 
 coveries of former mathematicians into 
 order, completing them, and expounding 
 them with matchless clearness and concise^ 
 ness, won him the position of the founder 
 of mathematical literature. We still possess 
 his Elements of Mathematics {Stoicheia) 
 which have been used until quite lately as 
 the foundation of all geometrical text books. 
 These are in 15 books ; the 13th and 14th, 
 however, are said to have been added by 
 Hypsicles of Alexandria about 160 B.C. 
 Besides this, we have what are called his 
 Data, or 95 geometrical propositions as 
 an introduction to geometrical analysis, an 
 astronomical work entitled Phcenomena, 
 and a musical work on the division of the 
 canon. Some other treatises, probably 
 from the hands of other authors, have been 
 attributed to Euclid. Such are the Ele- 
 ments of Optics and Catoptrics, and the 
 Introduction to Music. 
 
 Eudemus. A Greek philosopher, native 
 of Rhodes. After Theophrastus he was the 
 chief of Aristotle's disciples, and was the 
 tathor of the seven books of Eudernian 
 Ethics, which have come down to us among 
 his writings. 
 
 Euhem6rus. A Greek writer, who flour 
 rished about 300 B.C. Under the title of 
 HiSrd Anagraphs, or Sacred History, he 
 wrote a work which purported to explain 
 the whole mythology, on the theory of the 
 apotheosis of men who by their bravery and 
 cleverness had deserved well of mankind. 
 Zeus, for instance, his kinsfolk and children, 
 he represented as in reality an ancient family 
 of Cretan kings. To prove his assertion he 
 appealed to a representation of the whole 
 primitive history of the world, from the 
 time of UrS.nus onwards, given on a golden 
 pillar in the temple of Zeus on the island 
 of Panchsea. This, he said, he had dis- 
 covered in the neighbourhood of India, when 
 
 sailing round the coast of Arabia on the 
 commission of king Cassander. The work 
 of Euhemerus, of which only fragments now 
 remain, was well known in Rome, where it 
 was translated and adapted by Ennius. The 
 method of rationalizing or analysing mytho- 
 logy into the history of human kings, heroes 
 and adventurers, is called Euhemerism, after 
 its founder. 
 
 Eulos. -See Dionysus. 
 
 Eumaeus. The faithful swineherd of 
 Odyssers, who gave his master a friendly 
 welcome on his return home in the guise of 
 a beggar, and aided him in the slaughter of 
 the suitors. {See Odysseus.) 
 
 Eumelus. See Epos (1). 
 
 Eum6nid6s. See Erinyes. 
 
 Eumenins. One of the Roman writers of 
 panegyrics on the emperors. He was born 
 about 250 A.D. at AugustSdunum (Autun) in 
 Gaul ; was tutor to Constantius Chlorus, 
 and for a long time accompanied him on his 
 campaigns. Later on, he settled in his 
 native city, where he gave instruction in 
 rhetoric. In 296 he delivered an oration 
 on behalf of the restoration of schools (Pro 
 Restaurandis Scholls). Besides this, three 
 other speeches are attributed to him. These 
 are panegyrics on Constantius Chlorus and 
 Constantino, spoken at Treves in 296, 310, 
 and 311 A.D. His tact and cleverness dis- 
 tinguish him from the other panegyrical 
 writers of that age. 
 
 Eumolpus. In Greek mythology, the son 
 of Poseidon and Chione, the daughter of 
 Boreas and Orithyia. After his birth he 
 was thrown by his mother into the sea, btit 
 his father rescued him and brought him to 
 Ethiopia, to his daughter Benthesikyme. 
 When he was grown up, Endius, the hus- 
 band of Benthesikyme, gave him one of his 
 daughters in marriage, but he desired the 
 other as well, and was accordingly banished, 
 and came with his son Ismarus or Imma- 
 radus to the Thracian king Tegyrius in 
 Boeotia. As successor to this king he 
 marched to the assistance of his friends the 
 Eleusinians against the Athenian Erech- 
 theus, but was slain with his son. {See 
 Eeechtheus.) According to another story, 
 Immaradus and Erechtheus both fell, and 
 the contending parties agreed that the 
 Eleusinians should submit to the Athenians, 
 but should retain the exclusive superinten- 
 dence of the mysteries of Eleusis, of which 
 Eumolpus was accounted the founder. He 
 was also spoken of as a writer of conse- 
 crational hymns, and as having discovered 
 the art of cultivatii^g the vines and trees in 
 
228 
 
 EUNAPIUS EURIPIDES. 
 
 general. The Eumolpidse, his descendants, 
 were the hereditary priests of the Eleu- 
 sinian ritual. 
 
 Eunapius. A Greek rhetorician, born at 
 Sardis in 347 a.d. In 405 he wrote bio- 
 graphies of twenty-three older and con- 
 temporary philosophers and sophists. In 
 spite of its bad style and its superficiality, 
 this book is our chief authority for the his- 
 tory of the Neo-Platonism of that age. We 
 have also several fragments of his continua- 
 tion of the chronicle of Herennius Dexippus. 
 This continuation, in fourteen books, covered 
 the period from 268 to 404 a.d., and was 
 much used by Zosimus. 
 Euneus. See Jason and Hypsipyle. 
 Eunomia. See Korm. 
 Eupatridse. The members of the ancient 
 noble families of Attica. After the 
 abolition of royal power they found them- 
 selves in exclusive possession of political 
 rights, and distinguished from the Gemnorl 
 or agriculturists, and the Demiurgi or me- 
 chanics. The ceastitution of Solon deprived 
 them of this privilege. But their landed 
 property, and the priestly dignities which 
 they had possessed of old, assured them a 
 certain influence for a considerable time, 
 
 Euphemus. Son of Poseidon and Europa, 
 daughter of Tityus, husband of Laonome, 
 the sister of Heracles. His father conferred 
 on him the gift of moving so swiftly over 
 the sea that his feet remained dry. He was 
 originally one of the Minyse of Panopeus 
 in Phocis, but afterwards settled on the 
 promontory of Tsenarum in Laconia, and 
 took part in the Calydonian hunt and the 
 expedition of the Argonauts. When the 
 Argonauts came to the lake of Triton, Triton 
 gave Eumolpus a clod of earth, and Medea 
 prophesied that if he threw this into the 
 entrance of the lower world at Taenarum, 
 his descendants of the tenth generation 
 would be masters of Libya. The clod, how^ 
 ever, was lost in the island of Thera, and 
 his descendants were compelled to hold 
 possession of this island, from which at 
 length, in the seventeenth generation, Battus 
 came forth and founded Cyrene in Libya. 
 
 Euphdrion. (1) Son of iEschylus, the 
 great tragedian. He flourished about 450 
 B.C., and after his father's death put on the 
 stage four of his pieces, which had not yet 
 been performed, and gained the prize. He 
 also exhibited tragedies of his own, not 
 without success. 
 
 (2) A Greek poet and writer of the 
 Alexandrian age and in the Alexandrian 
 style. He was born, about 276 B.C., at 
 
 Chalcis in Euboea, and died holding the 
 post of librarian at the court of Antio- 
 chus the Great, king of Syria. Besides 
 works [on mythology and history] in prose, 
 he wrote epics, elegies, and epigrams in 
 obscure and unfamiliar language. His 
 poems were much valued by the Homans. 
 Cornelius Gallus, in particular, thought very 
 highly of them, and took him as his model 
 in his own elegies. 
 
 Eaphranor. A Greek artist, born at 
 Corinth about 360 B.C. He was equally 
 distinguished as a painter, and as a sculptor 
 in bronze and marble. He also wrote a 
 treatise on symmetry and form. Among 
 his statues one of the most celebrated was 
 the Paris, in which it was easy to recognise 
 the threefold character : the judge of divine 
 beauty, the lover of Helen, and the slayer 
 of Achilles. In his paintings, if we may 
 believe the ancients, he was the first who 
 gave true expression to the grandeur and 
 dignity of divine and heroic form. [Pliny, 
 N. H. xxxiv 27, xxxv 128.] 
 
 Euphrosyne. {See Charites.) 
 
 Eupolis. Enpolis is coupled with Aris- 
 tophanes as a chief representative of the 
 Old Attic Comedy. He was born about 
 446 B.C., and died before the end of the 
 Pelponnesian War. He made his first ap- 
 pearance as a dramatist in his seventeenth 
 year, and carried off the prize seven times. 
 According to a badly attested story, he was 
 drowned in the sea by Alcibiades in revenge 
 for his treatment of him in one of his plays. 
 We still have the titles, and some frag- 
 ments, of fifteen of his pieces. He was at 
 first on terms of intimate friendship with his 
 pontpmporary Aristophanes, but an estrange- 
 ment afterwE|,rds set iii, and the two poets 
 attacked each other with great bitterness. 
 Eupolis is praised by the ancients for the 
 splendour of his imagination, the coherence 
 with which his plots are developed, the high 
 quality of his patriotism, the grace and 
 majesty of his language, and the telling 
 character of his wit. The fragments that 
 remain show great mastery of form. Like 
 Aristophanes, he made an attempt to stem 
 the current of moral degeneracy setting in 
 at his time. 
 
 Eupompus. A Greek painter, native of 
 Sicyon, who flourished about 400 B.C. He 
 was the founder of the Sicyonian school of 
 painting, which laid great emphasis on pro- 
 fessional knowledge. [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 75.] 
 
 Euripides. The third of the three great 
 Attic tragedians. He was born in the 
 island of Salamis, in 480 B.C., on the very 
 
EURIPIDES. 
 
 229 
 
 day of the great battle. His father Mnesar- 
 chus is said to have been a tradesman or 
 tavern-keeper, his mother Clito a seller of 
 herbs. His parents, however, must have 
 had some means, judging by the fact that 
 they gave him a careful gymnastic education 
 to fit him for the athletic contests. This 
 was because they had misinterpreted an 
 oracle given them before his birth which 
 promised the child crowns" of victory. 
 Euripides is said in his boyhood really to have 
 gained the prize in a public contest of this 
 kind, but in fact he was destined to win 
 victories in a very different arena. He 
 associated much with the philosophers 
 Anaxagoras and Socrates, with the latter of 
 
 •unST OF EURIPIDES. 
 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
 whom he enjoyed an intimate friendship 
 during the whole of his life. He also had 
 instruction from the sophists Protagoras and 
 Prodicus. Thus he received the best of 
 education in philosophy and rhetoric. It 
 was in his twenty-fifth year (b.c. 455) that 
 he first put a tetralogy on the stage. He 
 did not win a prize till his forty-third year, 
 and seems indeed to have been victorious 
 only four times in all ; but he was none 
 the less indefatigable in writing tragedies. 
 He took a lively interest in the important 
 events and the public questions of the 
 time; but personally he kept aloof from 
 
 public life, avoided society, and lived 
 mostly in the enjoyment of an excellent 
 library, amid his studies and poetical 
 creations. 
 
 He was twice unfortunate in his mar- 
 riage, a fact which may have encouraged 
 him in his surly, unsociable ways. His 
 first wife, Chosrile, he had to divorce for 
 infidelity. She bore him three daughters, 
 the youngest of whom, who was named 
 after her mother, put several of her 
 father's tragedies on the stage after his 
 death. His second wife, Melito, parted 
 from him at her own desire. In 409, at the 
 age of 71, he left Athens ; it was said to 
 get away from the ceaseless attacks of the 
 comedians, and from his domestic troubles. 
 He went to Magnesia in Thessaly, where 
 he was received as a guest of the city. 
 Thence he went on to Pella to the court 
 of Archelaus, king of Macedonia, who had 
 gathered round him a number of poets and 
 artists, and who treated him with great 
 respect. Here he spent the last two years 
 of his life and died B.C. 405. According to 
 a story for which there is little authority, 
 he was torn to pieces by a pack of hounds 
 when returning from a nocturnal festivity. 
 
 The number of his tragedies is variously 
 given as seventy-five, seventy-eight, and 
 ninety-two. Eighteen have come down 
 to us : the Alcestis, Andromache, BaccJiCB 
 (or the arrival of Dionysus at Thebes and 
 the murder of Pentheus), Hecuba, Helena, 
 Electra, the HerdclidcB (or DemSphoon of 
 Athens protecting the descendants of Hera- 
 cles against the persecution of Eurystheiis) ; 
 Heracles in Madness, the Suppliants (or the 
 mothers of the Seven Chiefs who had fallen 
 before Thebes, at whose prayers Theseus 
 compelled the Thebans to bury the dead 
 heroes) ; Hippolytus, IpMgenla at Aulis, 
 IphlgSnla among the Tauri, Ion, Medea, 
 Orestes, Rhesus, the Troddes (or the royal 
 house of Troy after] the conquest of the city) ; 
 the Fhoenissce (so called after the chorus of 
 Phoenician maidens, an incident in the story 
 of Eteocles and PSlynices) ; and a satyric 
 drama, the Cyclops, the only example of this 
 style of composition which has siirvived. 
 The earliest of these pieces in point of time 
 is the Alcestis, performed in B.C. 438. It 
 is also noticeable because, although not a 
 satyric drama in the proper sense, it has 
 comic features towards the end, and was 
 actuallj' performed at the end of a tetralogy 
 in place of a satyric drama. The Bacchce, 
 on the other hand, was written in Macedonia 
 in the poet's last years, and performed after 
 
230 
 
 EUROPE EURYPYLUS. 
 
 his death at the same time as the Iphigcnia 
 at Aulis. The genuineness of the Rhesus 
 was doubted even in antiquity. A great 
 number of fragments have survived from 
 about sixty pieces, and in particular from 
 the PhdethOn. 
 
 The tragedies of Euripides are of very 
 unequal merit. Some of them, for instance 
 the Hippolytus and the Bacchce, attain the 
 lofty style of Sophocles, others approach 
 it, as the Medea and Iphigenia in Tauris. 
 But others, as for instance the And/romache 
 and Electro, are very carelessly put to- 
 gether. His strong point is not artistic 
 composition,' well contrived disposition, or 
 the coherent design which gives the inner 
 motive of the action. It is sufficient, in 
 support of this statement, to call attention 
 to his habit of prefixing to every piece a 
 prologue, explaining the story to the spec- 
 tators, and connected loosely (if at all) with 
 the play ; to the very slight connexion be- 
 tween the chorus and the action, and to his 
 liking'for bringing in a deus ex mdcMnd to 
 cut a difficult knot. On the other hand, it 
 must be allowed that Euripides is a master 
 in the art of devising pathetic situations, and 
 shows extraordinary power in representing 
 human passion, especially the resistless 
 might of love in the case of women. 
 
 In his religious views he differs essen- 
 tially from iEschylus and Sophocles. With 
 Euripides the gods are not moral powers, and 
 fate is not so much the result of a higher 
 dispensation as a perverseness of accident. 
 The lack of grandeur is also a point which 
 distinguishes him from his great prede- 
 cessors. Instead of their sublime ideas he 
 gives us maxims of worldly vsdsdom, often to 
 all appearance dragged in without occasion. 
 The motives of action are not so pure as in 
 ^schylus and Sophocles, and the characters 
 of the heroes are not raised above the level 
 of ordinary life, but brought down to it. So 
 fond is he of giving prominence to the faults 
 of women, that he has been called a woman- 
 hater. He pays more attention to the 
 course of politics than his predecessors, and 
 is indeed influenced by political considera- 
 tions in his sketches of character. In 
 deference to the democratic leanings of his 
 public, he makes his kings cruel tyrants, 
 without dignity or majesty, and the heroes 
 of the Peloponnese, in particular, he treats 
 with unconcealed dislike. His dialogues 
 are often overloaded with rhetoric and 
 sophistical dialectic. But, in spite of all 
 these faults, for which the spirit of the age 
 is mainly responsible, he is a great poetical 
 
 genius. He was very popular with his con- 
 temporaries, and has been still more so 
 with succeeding generations. The trage- 
 dians of the next age made him their model 
 and pattern without qualification, and the 
 Roman poets preferred paraphrasing his 
 dramas to those of the other tragedians. 
 
 Europe (Lat. Europa). A figure in Greek 
 mythology. In Homer she is the daughter of 
 Phffinix, in the later story of the Phoenician 
 Agenor, and sister of Cadmus. Zeus, in the 
 shape of a bull, carried her over the sea 
 to Crete, where she bore him Minos, Rhada- 
 manthys, and according to the later legend, 
 Sarpedon also. Zeus left her with Asterion, 
 king of Crete, who brought up her sons 
 and left them his kingdom. She was 
 worshipped in Crete under the name of 
 Hellotis, especially at Gortyn, where she 
 was supposed to have been wedded with 
 Zeus, and to have borne him her sons. A 
 festival called Hellotia was held in her 
 honour, at which her bones were carried 
 in a wreath of myrtle. 
 
 Etir;^ale. See Gorgon. 
 
 EurJ-alus. Son of Mecisteus, one of the 
 Epigoni, and with Sthenelus, the companion 
 of Diomedes before Troy. 
 
 Euryclea {Ewyldeia). The nurse of 
 Odysseus, who brought up his son Tele- 
 machus. When her master had returned 
 home in the disguise of a beggar, she 
 recognised him by a scar while bathing his 
 feet. On a hint from him she kept silence, 
 and afterwards was the first who brought to 
 Penelope the news of her husband's return 
 and of the slaughter of the suitors. 
 
 Eur^dice. See Orpheus. 
 
 Eurynome. See Chaeites. 
 
 Eur;^p^lus. (1) Son of Poseidon and Asty- 
 palsea, king of the Meropes of Cos. He 
 was slain by Heracles, who had been driven 
 on to the coast on his return from Troy. 
 The struggle was a hard one, but Heracles 
 was assisted by Zeus. The daughter of 
 Eurypylns, Chalciope, became mother of 
 Thessalus by Heracles. 
 
 (2) Son of Telephus and Astyoche. As- 
 tyociie, bribed by her brother Priam with 
 the present of a golden vine, persuaded 
 Eurypylns to bring the last succour to the 
 Trojans shortly before the fall of the city. 
 After performing deeds of bravery, he fell 
 at the hand of Neoptolemus. 
 
 (3) Son of Eusemon, king of Ormenion 
 in Thessaly, one of the suitors of Helen. 
 He was among the bravest of the Greek 
 heroes who fought before Troy, and of his 
 own accord offered to engage Hector in single 
 
EURYSAOES EUTHYNA. 
 
 231 
 
 combat. In the later story he appears in 
 connexion with the worship of Dionysus. 
 At the division of the Trojan spoil he re- 
 ceived an image of Dionysus, made by 
 Hephsestus, and presented to Dardanus. This 
 had been kept in a chest as a Palladium. 
 When Eurypylus opened the chest and be- 
 held the image he fell into a madness. The 
 Delphic oracle promised that he should be 
 healed if he dedicated the image in a spot 
 where men offered barbaric sacrifices. Ac- 
 cordingly he dedicated it at Aroe in Achaia, 
 where an offering of the fairest youth and 
 fairest virgin was made annually to Arte- 
 mis. The bloody act was abolished, and 
 the gentle service of Dionysus introduced 
 in its place. 
 
 Eurj^saces {Eurysdkes). Son of Ajax 
 and Tecmessa. See Ajax (2). 
 
 Eurysthens. Son of Sthenelus and 
 Nicippe. {See Perseus.) He was king of 
 Mycense, and through the cunning of Hera 
 got powei- over Heracles, and imposed upon 
 him the celebrated twelve labours. In pur- 
 suing the children of Heracles, and attempt- 
 ing to bring about by force their expulsion 
 from Attica, he was defeated and slain in his 
 flight by Hyllus. (jS^ee Hyllus.) 
 
 Eurytus. (1) Son of Melaneus, father 
 of Iphitus and of lole, king of (Echalia 
 in Thessaly or Messenia. According to a 
 later story he dwelt in Euboea. He was 
 one of the most famous archers in anti- 
 quity. According to Homer he ventured 
 to challenge Apollo to a contest of skill, 
 and was slain in his youth for his pre- 
 sumption. In the later story he and his 
 son Iphitus are slain by Heracles, his 
 former disciple in archery, for having in- 
 solently refused him his daughter lole in 
 marriage. {See Heeacles.) Iphitus gave 
 his bow to Odysseus, who slew the suitors 
 with it. 
 
 (2) One of the MoliunidcB {see MoLiONiDiE). 
 
 Eusebius. The father of ecclesiastical 
 history. He was born at Csesarea in Phoe- 
 nicia in 264 A.D. In 315 he became bishop 
 of that city, and died in 340. He was one 
 of the most learned men of his time, and 
 holds a high position both among the his- 
 torians and the apologists of Christianity. 
 His greatest work is his Church History. 
 This work is in ten books, beginning with 
 the rise of Christianity, and coming down to 
 314 A.D. It was much used by later writers, 
 and was, about 403 A.D., translated into Latin 
 by Tyrannius Ruf inus of Aquileia, who con- 
 tinued it down to the death of Theodosius 
 (A.D. 395). The apologetic writings of 
 
 Eusebius are the Prcsparatto Evangeltca 
 in fifteen books, and the DemonstnUtO 
 EvangSUca in twenty. They are both, 
 but especially the former, a rich storehouse 
 of information on antiquity, particularly on 
 the philosophy and religion of the Greeks. 
 Of still greater importance is his Chronicle 
 {ChrSnicdn), a work founded upon extracts 
 from the now lost writings of previous 
 historians. Its first book, the Chrono- 
 grdphia, contains a general ethnographical 
 history of the world, arranged from the 
 creation to 325 A.D. The second, called 
 the Chronological Canon, consisted of 
 parallel chronological tables of the names 
 of rulers and the most important events 
 since 2017 B.C. Only fragments of the 
 original work remain ; but we have both 
 books in an Armenian translation, and the 
 second in the Latin version of Hieronymus. 
 Among the other works of Eusebius wo 
 may mention : (1) A sketch of the topo- 
 graphy of Palestine, in two books. The 
 second alone survives, both in the original 
 and in the translation of Hieronymus. (2) 
 A biography, in four books, of the emperor 
 Constantino, who had shown favour to 
 Eusebius and had been baptized by him. 
 This work is strongly coloured by personal 
 feeling. (3) A panegyric on Constantine. 
 
 EustatMus. (1) Eustathius Mdcrem- 
 holita, a Greek writer of romance. He 
 was a native of Constantinople, and be- 
 longed to the upper class. His floruit is 
 perhaps to be assigned to the 9th century 
 A.D. He was the author of a rather 
 tasteless love story, in eleven books, about 
 Hysminias and Hysmine. 
 
 (2) Eustathius of Constantinople, ap- 
 pointed archbishop of Thessalonica in 1160 
 A.D. Previously to this he had been a 
 deacon, and professor of rhetoric in his 
 native city, and had written a compre- 
 hensive commentary on the Homeric poems. 
 The commentary, which is characterized by 
 learning remarkable for that age, is made 
 up of extracts from older writers, and is 
 therefore of great value. A commentary by 
 the same author on Dionysius Periegetes, 
 and a preface to a commentary on Pindar, 
 have also survived. 
 Euterpe. See Muses. 
 Euthyna (a giving of account). All 
 officials at Athens without exception were 
 bound, at the expiration of their term of 
 ofBce, to give an account of their adminis- 
 tration. The authorities to whom it was 
 given were the Logistce, supported by ten 
 Euthynl. (See Logistce.) Within thirty 
 
232 
 
 EUTEOPIUS EXILIUM, 
 
 days after tlie term of office had come to an 
 end, these functionaries issued, to all whom 
 it might concern, a public notice to lay 
 before them any complaints they might have 
 to make against the retiring officials. In 
 case such complaints were made, the matter 
 was brought to an issue bj' legal procedure. 
 No official was allowed to leave the country, 
 or take any measure affecting his property, 
 or take another office, before his account 
 was given. 
 
 EutrSpius. A Roman historian who took 
 part in the expedition of Julian against 
 the Parthians in 363 A.D. In 378, under 
 Valentinian, he wrote and dedicated to 
 this emperor a sketch of Roman history 
 {Brevidrium ah Urhe Condltd) in ten books, 
 from the earliest times to the death of 
 Jovian in 864. The language is simple, 
 and the narrative intelligent and impartial. 
 The work was useful and concise, and 
 became very popular. Succeeding writers 
 down to the Middle Ages, and especially 
 Hieronymus and Orosius, used it a great 
 deal. It was several times turned into 
 Greek, indeed as early as 380 by Pseanios, 
 whose translation has been preserved almost 
 entire. The work of . Eutropius was en- 
 larged and continued by Paulus Diaconus, 
 who, in the last part of the 8th century A.D., 
 added six books to it. It was also used 
 in the Histona Miscella, or Collective His- 
 tory, and has continued to be a favourite 
 school book down to our own day. 
 
 Evander (Grr. Euandros, the good man), a 
 figure in Latin mythology. He was said 
 to be the son of Hermes and an Arcadian 
 nymph. Sixty years before the Trojan War 
 he led a Pelasgian colony to Latium from 
 Pallantion in Arcadia, and founded a city 
 Pallanteum near the Tiber, on the hill 
 which was afterwards named after it the 
 Palatine. Further it was said that he 
 taught the rude inhabitants of the country 
 writing, music, and other arts ; and intro- 
 duced from Arcadia the worship of certain 
 gods, in particular of Pan, whom the 
 Italians called Paunus, with the festival 
 of the Lupercalia which was held in his 
 honour. Evander was worshipped at Rome 
 among the heroes of the country (see 
 Indigites), and had an altar on the Aven- 
 tine hill. But the whole story is evidently 
 an invention of Greek scholars, who derived 
 the Lupercalia from the Arcadian Lycce.a. 
 The name Euandros is a mere translation 
 of the Italian Faunus, while Carmenta is 
 an ancient Italian goddess. 
 
 Pallas, the son of Evander, is in like 
 
 manner a creation of the poets. In Vergil 
 he marches, at the command of his father, 
 to assist ^neas, and falls in single combat 
 with Turnus. 
 
 Eventus, or properly Bonus Eventus 
 (lucky or happy event). In Roman religion, 
 a god of rural prosperity, like the Greek 
 Agdthodcemon, whose image was in later 
 times transferred to the Italian deity. In 
 the course of time Bonus Eventus gained 
 the more general meaning of the friendly 
 fortune which secures a lucky issue to 
 undertakings. The god had a temple of 
 his own on the Campus Martins, in the 
 neighbourhood of the Pantheon. 
 
 Evccitl (those who are summoned or 
 called out). The term applied in the 
 Roman army to soldiers who had served 
 their time and obtained their dismissal, but 
 who, on the general summoning them by 
 name, returned to the service on condition 
 of receiving certain privileges. These 
 were, exemption from all service except in 
 battle, a rank and pay equal to those of 
 the centurions, and prospect of advance- 
 ment. The enlistment of evocati was 
 especially common in the civil wars. Some- 
 times they were distributed in the legion, 
 sometimes they formed a special and select 
 troop, divided into centurice. We some- 
 times find them, in isolated instances, 
 under the early Empire. On the difference 
 between them and the vetSrdm, see 
 Veterani. 
 
 Evocatio (calling out). The term for 
 the solemn summons given to the tutelary 
 gods of a besieged city to leave it, and to 
 migrate to Rome. The Romans always 
 vowed, at the same time, to build them a 
 temple at Rome. An example of a deity 
 " evoked " in this way was Juno Regina, 
 who was originally worshipped at Veii, 
 but afterwards had a temple in Rome on 
 the Aventine. 
 
 Execiitio. See Bonoeum Emptio. 
 
 Ex6dra. An alcove, or semi-circular ex- 
 tension of the colonnade in a Greek gym- 
 nasium. It was furnished with seats on 
 which the philosophers usually sat to talk 
 with their disciples. In private houses the 
 exedra was a room intended for conversa- 
 tion, fitted with a bench running round the 
 wall. 
 
 Ezercitus. See Stipendium, Castra, 
 Legion, Dilectus, Sacramentum. 
 
 Exilium ( = banishment). (1) Greek. 
 Among the Greeks exile was the legal 
 punishment for homicide (see Ephet.e). 
 It was also, at times, a political measure, 
 
EXODIUM FASCES. 
 
 233 
 
 adopted especially in times of civil dis- 
 turbance, and might carry with it dtlmia 
 and loss of property, except in the case of 
 ostracism (see Ostracism). 
 
 (2) Roman. Among the Romans there 
 was, originally, no such thing as .a direct 
 expulsion from the city. But a man might 
 be cut off from fire and water, the symbol 
 of civic communion, which of course prac- 
 tically forced him to leave the country. 
 This interdicfio aqua et ignis was ori- 
 ginally inflicted by the comitia centUrmta, 
 and later by the permanent judicial com- 
 missions appointed to try certain serious 
 offences, as, for instance, treason, arson, 
 and poisoning. In case of the capital 
 charge the accused was always free to 
 anticipate an unfavourable verdict, or the 
 interdictio aquce et ignis, by withdrawing 
 
 into voluntary exile. The exllium involved 
 the lesser dSmlnUtw capitis, or loss of 
 citizenship, if the banished person became 
 citizen of another state ; or if the people 
 declared the banishment to be deserved ; 
 or if the interdictio aquce et ignis was pro- 
 nounced after he had gone into exile. It 
 was only in very serious cases that a 
 man's property was also confiscated. Ileal 
 banishment was first inflicted under the 
 Empire. (See Deportatio and Relegatio.) 
 
 Exodium. A play of a lively character 
 acted on the Roman stage at the end of a 
 serious piece. It corresponded in character 
 to the satyric drama of the Greeks. The 
 place of the exodium was originally taken 
 by the dramatic satiira, and later by the 
 Atelldna and Mimus. 
 
 Exorais. See Chiton. 
 
 Pabius Pictor. See Annalists. 
 
 Fabri. The mechanics, carpenters, smiths, 
 etc., in the Roman army. After the end 
 of the republican age they formed an 
 independent corps in every army, and were 
 employed especially in the restoration of 
 bridges, siege and defence works, artillery, 
 etc. They were under the command of the 
 prcefectus fabrum, or chief engineer, who 
 was chosen by the general in chief, and 
 was immediately responsible to him. 
 
 Fabtlla Palliata and Togata. See Comedy. 
 
 Familia. The Latin name for a house- 
 hold community, consisting of the master 
 of the house (pater fdmillas), his wife 
 {mater familias), his sons and unmarried 
 daughters (flMl and fllice familias), the 
 wives, sons, and unmarried daughters of 
 the sons, and the slaves. All the other 
 members of the family were subject to the 
 authority of the pnter familias. (For the 
 power of the husband over his wife, see 
 Manus.) In virtue of his paternal authority 
 (patria potestds), the pater familias had 
 absolute authority over his children. He 
 might, if he liked, expose them, sell them, 
 or kill them. These rights, as manners 
 were gradually softened, were more and 
 more rarely enforced ; but they legally 
 came to an end only when the father died, 
 lost his citizenship, or of his own will freed 
 his son from his authority. (See Emanci- 
 patio.) They could, however, be trans- 
 ferred to another person if the son were 
 adopted, or the daughter married. A son, 
 if of full age, was not in any way interfered 
 with by the patria potestas in the exercise 
 
 of his civil rights. But in the exercise of 
 his legal rights as an individual, he was 
 dependent always on his father. He could, 
 for instance, own no property, but all that 
 he acquired was, in the eye of the law, at 
 the exclusive disposal of his father. The 
 pater familias alone had the right of 
 making dispositions of the family property 
 by mortgage, sale, or testament. 
 
 Family Names. See Names. 
 
 Fannius. ;S'ee Annalists. 
 
 Farmers of Public Taxes. See Publicani 
 and Telon^. 
 
 Farnese Bull. See Dirce. 
 
 Fasces. The Latin name for a bundle of 
 rods of elm or birch, tied together by a red 
 strap, and enclosing an axe, with its head 
 outside. The fasces were originally the 
 emblem of the king's absolute authority 
 over life and limb, and as such passed over 
 to the high magistrates of the Republic. 
 In the city, however, the latter had to re- 
 move the axe and to lower the rods in the 
 presence of the popular assembly as the 
 sovereign power. The lowering of the 
 fasces was also the form in which the 
 lower officials saluted the higher. The king 
 was preceded by lictors bearing twelve 
 fasces, and so were the consuls and pro- 
 consuls. The proconsuls, however, were, 
 since the time of Augustus, only allowed 
 this number if they had actually been con- 
 suls previously. The dictator had twenty- 
 four j^asces, as representing the two consuls, 
 and his mdgister equitum had six. Six was 
 also the number allotted to the proconsuls 
 and proprsetors outside the city, and in the 
 
234 
 
 FASCINUM FASTI. 
 
 imperial age to those proconsuls who had 
 provinces in virtue of their having held the 
 prEEtorship. The prsetors of the city had 
 two, the imperial legates administering par- 
 ticular provinces had five fasces. One was 
 allotted to the flamSn Dialis, and (from or 
 after B.C. 42) to the Vestal Virgins. Fasces 
 crowned with bay were, in the republican 
 age, the insignia of an officer who was 
 saluted as Imperator. During the imperial 
 age, this title was conferred on the emperor 
 at his accession, and soon confined ex- 
 clusively to him. The emperor was accord- 
 ingly preceded by twelve fasces laurScUl. 
 The lictors held their fasces over the left 
 shoulder. But at funerals, the fasces of a 
 deceased magistrate, and his arms, were 
 carried reversed behind the bier. 
 
 Fascinum (Latin). Enchantment by the 
 evil eye, words, or cries, exercised on per- 
 sons (especially children), animals, and 
 things, as, for instance, on a piece of 
 ground. The word was also applied to the 
 counter-charm, by which it was supposed 
 that the enchantment could be averted, 
 or even turned against the enchanter. 
 Amulets of various kinds were employed 
 as counter-charms. They were supposed 
 either to procure the protection of a par- 
 ticular deity, or to send the enchanter mad 
 by means of terrible, ridiculous, or obscene 
 objects. The name fascinum was thus 
 specially applied to the phallus, which was 
 the favourite counter-charm of the Romans. 
 An image of this fascinum was contained 
 in the bulla worn as an amulet by children, 
 and was also put under the chariot of a 
 general at his triumph, as a protection 
 against envy. 
 
 Fasti (dies). (Roman.) Properly speak- 
 ing, the court-days, on which the praetor 
 was allowed to give his judgments in the 
 solemn formula Do Dlco Addico, and gene- 
 rally to act in his judicial capacity. The 
 name was further applied to the days on 
 which it was lawful to summon the 
 assembly and the senate {dies comittdles). 
 For these days might be used as court 
 days in case the assembly did not meet : 
 while on dies fasti proper no meeting of 
 the comitia could take place. The opposite 
 of dies fasti were the dies nefasti, or days 
 on which on account of purifications, holi- 
 days, feriCE, and on other religious grounds, 
 the courts could not sit, nor the comitia 
 assemble. {See Febi.*;.) The dies reUgwsl 
 were also counted as nefasti. {See Religiosi 
 Dies.) Besides the 38-45 dies fasti proper, 
 the 188-194 dies comitiales, the 48-50 dies 
 
 nefasti, and 53-59 dies religiosi, there were 
 8 dies intiTClsi, which were nefasti in the 
 morning and evening because of certain 
 sacrifices which took place then, but fasti 
 for the remaining hours. There were also 
 3 dies fissi (split days), which were nefasti 
 until the conclusion of a particular proceed- 
 ing ; e.g. the removal of the sweepings from 
 the temple of Vesta on June 15th, but 
 fasti afterwards. 
 
 The division of days into fasti and 
 prufesti, or holidays and workdaj'S, only 
 affected private life, though many dies 
 nefasti, as ferice, would be identical with 
 dies fasti. 
 
 The list of the dies fasti was of immense 
 importance as affecting legal proceedings, 
 and indeed all public life. For a long time 
 it was in the hands of the pontiflces, and 
 was thus only accessible to the patricians ; 
 but at last, 304 B.C., Gnseus Flavius pub- 
 lished it and made it generally accessible. 
 This list, called simply Fasti, was the 
 origin of the Roman calendar, which bore 
 the same name. In this calendar the days 
 of the year are divided into weeks of eight 
 days each, indicated by the letters A — H. 
 Each day has marks indicating its number 
 in the month, its legal significance (F = 
 fastus, N = nefastus, G = comitialis, EN = 
 intercisus). The festivals, sacrifices, and 
 games occurring on it are also added, as well 
 as notices of historical occurrences, the 
 rising and setting of the stars, and other 
 matters. No trace remains of any calendar 
 previous to Csesar ; but several calendars 
 composed after Caesar's reform have been 
 preserved. Ovid's Fasti is a poetical ex- 
 planation of the Roman festivals of the 
 first six months. We have also many frag- 
 ments of calendars, painted or engraved on 
 stone, belonging to Rome and other Italian 
 cities ; for it was common to put up 
 calendars of this kind in public places 
 temples, and private houses. There are two 
 complete calendars in existence, one an 
 official list written by Furius Dionysius 
 Philocalus in 354 A.D., the other a Chris- 
 tian version of the official calendar, made 
 by Polemius Silvius in 448 a.d. 
 
 The word Fasti was further applied to 
 the annual lists of the triumphs, high 
 officials, consuls, dictators, censors, and 
 priests. These lists were originally, like 
 the other fasti, made out by the pontiflces. 
 Some fragments of them have survived, 
 among which may be mentioned the Fasti 
 Capttollnl, so called from the Roman 
 Capitol, where they are now preserved. 
 
FATA ^FERONIA. 
 
 235 
 
 They were originally, in 3G-30 B.C., en- 
 graved on the marble wall of the Regia, or 
 official residence of the Pontifex Maximus, 
 and afterwards continued first to 12 B.C., 
 and afterwards to 13 A.D. 
 
 Fata. See Mceeje (Paec^), Nemesis, 
 Tyche, Foetuna. 
 
 Fatuus. See Faunus. 
 
 Fauces. See House. 
 
 Faunalia. See Faunus. 
 
 Faunus. "The well-wisher" (iromfavere) 
 [or perhaps " the speaker " (from fari)]. 
 One of the oldest and most popular deities, 
 who was identified with the Greek Pan on 
 account of the similarity of their attributes. 
 {See Pan.) As a good spirit of the forest, 
 plains, and fields, he gave fruitfulness to the 
 cattle, and was hence called Inuus. With 
 all this he was also a god of prophecy, called 
 by the name of Fatuus. He revealed the 
 future in dreams and strange voices, com- 
 municated to his votaries while sleeping in 
 his precincts upon the fleeces of sacrificed 
 lambs. A goddess of like attributes, called 
 Fauna and Fatua, was associated in his 
 worship. She was regarded sometimes as 
 Lis wife, sometimes as his daughter (see 
 Bona Dea). Just as Pan was accompanied 
 by the Paniskoi, or little Pans, so the 
 existence of many Fauni was assumed 
 besides the chief Faunus. They were 
 imagined as merry, capricious beings, and 
 in particular as mischievous goblins who 
 caused night-mares. In fable Faunus 
 appears as an old king of Latiiim, son of 
 Picus, and grandson of Saturnus, father 
 of Latinus by the nymph Marica. After 
 his death he is raised to the position 
 of a tutelary deity of the land, for his 
 many services to agriculture and cattle- 
 breeding. Two festivals, called Faunalia, 
 were celebrated in his honour, one on 
 the 13th of February, in the temple on the 
 island in the Tiber, the other on the 5th 
 of December. The peasants brought him 
 rustic offerings and amused themselves with 
 dancing. 
 
 Favonius. See Zephyrus. 
 
 Felicitas. The personification of good 
 fortune among the Romans. She was wor- 
 shipped in various sanctuaries in Rome, her 
 attributes being the cornucopia and the 
 herald's staff. 
 
 Feralia. The last day of the Roman fes- 
 tival called the Parentalia. {See Manes.) 
 
 FerisB (Latin). Holidays, dedicated to 
 the worship of some deity. A distinction 
 was drawn between ferice privatce, or holi- 
 days observed by gentes, families, and .in- 
 
 dividuals, and fcrioR puhlica', or public 
 holidays. Public holidays were either fixed 
 or movable, or occasional. The fixed holi- 
 days {ferioi stdtivoi), were forty-five in 
 number, and were celebrated every year on 
 a definite day and registered accordingly in 
 the calendar. The movable holidays {ferim 
 conccptivce) were also annual, but were 
 held On changing days, and had therefore 
 to be announced beforehand by the consuls, 
 or in their absence by the prsetor. The 
 occasional holidays {imperdtlvm) wore 
 commanded on special occasions by the 
 authorities with the consent of the ponti- 
 flees. Such were, for instance, the suppli- 
 cdtlones, a solemn service to the gods to 
 celebrate a victory or the like. One of the 
 principal movable festivals was the Ferioi 
 Ldtince. This was originally a celebration 
 by the Latin race held on the Alban moun- 
 tain in honour of Jupiter Latiaris. It was 
 subsequently transformed by Tarquinius 
 Superbus into a festival of the Latin League. 
 Its most notable ceremony consisted in the 
 sacrifice of white bulls, a portion of whose 
 flesh was distributed to each of the cities 
 of the league represented at the sacrifice. If 
 any city did not receive its portion, or if any 
 other point in the ceremonial was omitted, 
 the whole sacrifice had to be repeated. 
 Originally it lasted one day, but after- 
 wards was extended to four. It was then 
 celebrated in part on the Alban hill by 
 the Roman consuls, in presence of all the 
 magistrates : in part on the Roman Capitol, a 
 race being included in the performance. It 
 was announced by the consuls immediately 
 after their assumption of office, nor did 
 they leave Rome for their provinces until 
 they had celebrated it. The date therefore 
 depended on that of the assumption of 
 office by the higher magistrates. 
 
 Feronia. An old Italian goddess, of 
 Sabine origin, but also much worshipped in 
 Etruria. She seems originally to have been 
 regarded in the same light as Flora, Libera, 
 and Venus. The Greeks called her a god- 
 dess of flowers ; on coins she is represented 
 as a girl in the bloom of youth, with flowers 
 in her hair. She was also worshipped as 
 the goddess of emancipation from slavery. 
 She had a very celebrated shrine at the 
 foot of Mount Soracte in Etruria, where 
 the whole neighbourhood used to bring her 
 rich votive offerings and the firstfruits of 
 the field. The annual festivals served as 
 fairs, such was the crowd of people who 
 flocked to them. The mythical king Eriilus 
 of Prseneste was regarded as her son. He 
 
236 
 
 FESCENNINI FETIALES. 
 
 had three lives, and had to be slain three 
 times by Evander in consequence. 
 
 Pescennini {ludt). Rural festivals, of 
 great antiquity, held by the population of 
 Etruria and Latium, and named, from some 
 cause which cannot now be ascertained, 
 from Fescennium in South Etruria. At 
 harvest festivals, at the feast of Silvanus, 
 and others of the kind, and at weddings, 
 the young men would appear in rough 
 masks or with faces painted with vermilion, 
 bantering each other for the amusement of 
 the spectators in rude and indecent jests. 
 These were thrown into a rough kind of 
 metre, originally no doubt the Saturnian. 
 The Italians had at all times a keen 
 sense of the ridiculous, and a love for 
 personal attack ; tendencies which were 
 much encouraged by their gift for improvi- 
 zation, and pointed repartee. In Rome 
 these ga.mes were taken up by the young 
 men at public festivals, and combined with 
 a comic imitation of the religious dances 
 introduced from Etruria in .590 B.C. to 
 avert a pestilence. In this form they are 
 supposed to have given birth to the dramatic 
 sdtura. {See Satura.) The license of 
 personal abuse ended by going so far that 
 it had to be restrained by a law of the 
 Twelve Tables. The Fescennlm versus 
 were gradually restricted to weddings, and 
 the word came to mean the merry songs 
 sung when the bride was brought-home. 
 
 Pestus. (1) Sextus Pompeius Festus ; a 
 Roman scholar, who probably flourished in 
 the 2nd century a.d. He made an abridg- 
 ment of the great lexical work of Verrius 
 Elaccus, De Verborum Significatu, using 
 at the same time other works of the same 
 author. The abridgment, arranged in alpha- 
 betical order, and containing twenty books, 
 superseded its original. Of Festus' own 
 work we have only the second half (the 
 letters M-V) in a very imperfect state. 
 The rest is preserved in a meagre epitome 
 made by the priest Paulus, in the age of 
 Charles the Great. Slight as are these 
 remains of the original work of Verrius, 
 they are very valuable for "the fulness of 
 select grammatical and antiquarian notices 
 which they contain. 
 
 (2) A Roman historian, who about 369 
 A.D. wrote an abridgment of Roman history 
 (BrSvmrium Rerum Gestarum PdpvM 
 Romam) founded partly on Eutroptus, 
 partly on Fldrus, and dedicated to the 
 emperor Valens. 
 
 Petiales (Latin). A body of men whose 
 business it was to maintain the forms 
 
 of international relationship. The institu- 
 tion was universal in Italy. In Rome its 
 introduction was ascribed to Numa or Ancus 
 Martins. Here the feficdes formed a 
 collegium of twenty members elected for 
 life, and filled up vacancies in their body 
 by co-optation. They were in early times 
 exclusively patricians, but at all times it 
 was necessary that they should belong to 
 the highest classes. Their duties were, in 
 case of conflicts arising with other nations, 
 to give an opinion, based on the merits of 
 the case, upon the question of war or 
 peace; to give, or to demand in person, 
 satisfaction by delivering up the guilty 
 individual, to declare war or conclude 
 peace, and to give the sanction of religion 
 to both acts. On all these occasions they 
 went out wearing their sacerdotal dress, 
 and the insignia of their office. Before 
 them one of the members of the collegium 
 carried the sacred plants which they had 
 gathered on the Capitol after asking per- 
 mission of the magistrate on whose com- 
 mission they were acting, king, consul, or 
 pra3tor. If satisfaction was to be demanded 
 from another nation, a number of fetiales 
 was sent under the leadership of a speaker, 
 the pater pafratus, with the forms of a 
 special ceremonial. Supposing satisfaction 
 given, they took the offender with them, and 
 parted in peace ; if the other party asked 
 for time to consider the matter, this was 
 granted to ten days and extended to thirty. 
 If, after this, satisfaction were not given, 
 the speaker made a solemn protest, adding 
 that the Roman people would now take 
 the matter into its own hands. Supposing 
 now that war were decided on, the speaker, 
 in presence of at least three witnesses, 
 uttered the solemn declaration, and threw 
 a bloody lance into the enemy's territory. 
 After the war with Pyrrhus this ceremony 
 was performed at the Column of War near 
 the temple of Bellona, and the declaration 
 of war was carried to the general in com- 
 mand according to the form prescribed by 
 the law of the fetiales. If it was in con- 
 templation to bring the war to a close, and 
 the enemy had not made an unconditional 
 surrender, the fetiales, with the authority 
 of a senatus consultum, and in the name 
 of the State, either concluded a truce for a 
 definite number of years, or a formal 
 alliance. The general, if he made peace 
 without the consent of . the Roman people, 
 did so on his owfa responsibility and with- 
 out binding the State. If the people were 
 dissatisfied with the terms, the fetiales 
 
FIRE PLAMEN. 
 
 237 
 
 delivered the general up, naked and hand- 
 bound, to the enemy. In case of the 
 alliance being concluded, the pater pabutus 
 took a flint stone, which was preserved in 
 the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, and slew a 
 swine therewith, first reading out the terms 
 of the alliance, and then appealing to Jupiter, 
 in case the Roman people maliciously broke 
 the treaty, to smite them as he would 
 smite the animal. He then signed the 
 document, which bound the collegium of 
 fctiales to see that the treaty was observed. 
 It was also usual for the civil magistrate 
 to make oath by Jupiter, Mars, and 
 Quirinus, on a sceptre which was likewise 
 taken from the temple of Jupiter Feretrius. 
 Since the Second Punic War there is but 
 little mention of the action of the fetialcs, 
 but its existence can be traced as late as the 
 middle of the 4th century a.d. 
 
 Fibula (Greek pgrone). A clasp for 
 fastening garments, resembling our brooches 
 
 FIBULA. 
 
 (Grivaud de la Vincer.e, Arts el M4tiers, pi. xli, xliii.) 
 
 or safety-pins. It consisted of a hoop and 
 a needle, sometimes elastic, sometimes fixed 
 by a joint. Some ^&mZcb were in the shape 
 of buckles. (jS'ee illustrations.) 
 
 Fides. The Roman personification of 
 honour in keeping word or oath. As Fides 
 Puhlica, or Honour of the People, this 
 goddess had a temple on the Capitol, 
 founded by king Numa, to which the 
 Hamines of Jupiter, Mars, and Quirinus rode 
 in a covered chariot on the 1st of October. 
 At the sacrifice they had their right hands 
 wrapped up to the fingers with white 
 bands. The meaning of the covered chariot 
 was that honour could not be too carefully 
 protected : of the covered right hand, that 
 the right hand, the seat of honour, should 
 be kept pure and holy. The goddess was 
 represented with outstretched right hand 
 and a white veil. Her attributes were ears 
 of corn and fruits, joined hands, and a 
 turtle-dove. 
 
 Fire, God of. See Hephaestus and 
 
 VULCANUS. 
 
 Firmicus Maternus {lulius). (1) A 
 heathen writer, a native of Sicily. About 
 354 A.D. he published, in eight books, a 
 work on astrology {MdthSseos Librl VIII) 
 which he had begun under Constantino. 
 It gives a vivid picture of the gross super- 
 stition of that age with regard to the sup- 
 posed influence of the stars in human 
 fortunes. 
 
 (2) Another writer of the same time, and 
 of the same age, was a convert to Christia- 
 nity, who, about 347 a.d., published a work 
 on the error of the heathen religions (I)e 
 Errors Profanarum Religionum) in wliich 
 he called on the emperors Constantius and 
 Constans to extirpate the last remains of 
 heathenism. 
 
 Fiscus. The emperor's private purse, as 
 distinguished from the public treasury 
 (cerdrlum). It was instituted by Augustus, 
 and was under the exclusive control of the 
 emperor. The chief sources from which it 
 was replenished were the entire revenues 
 of the imperial provinces, the produce of 
 unclaimed estates, and of confiscations. 
 The main items of fiscal expenditure were 
 the army, the fleet, and war material, the 
 salaries of officials, the provision of corn 
 for Rome, postal communication, and the 
 public buildings. For the officials who 
 administered the fscus, see Procurator. 
 
 Flabellum. A fan. See Clothing. 
 
 Flamgn {ivom. flare ; one who blows or 
 kindles the sacrificial fire). The special 
 priest of a special deity among the Romans. 
 There were 15 Flamincs ; three higher 
 ones {Flamines mdiores) of patrician rank : 
 these were the flamen Didlis (of Jupiter), 
 Martialis (of Mars), and Qulnndlis (of 
 Quirinus). The remaining 12 ■weieflamines 
 minores, plebeians, and attached to less 
 important deities, as Vulcanus, Flora, 
 Pomona, and Carmenta. Their office was 
 for life, and they could only be deprived of 
 it in certain events. The emblem of their 
 dignity was a white conical hat (dpex), 
 made out of the hide of a sacrificed animal, 
 and having an olive branch and woollen 
 thread at the top. This the flaviines were 
 obliged to wear always out of doors, indeed 
 the Flamen Didlis had originally to wear 
 it indoors as well. They were exempted 
 from all the duties of civic life, and ex- 
 cluded at the same time from all partici- 
 pation in politics. In course of time, it is 
 true, they were allowed to hold urban 
 offices, but even then they were forbidden 
 to go out of Italy. 
 
 The Flamen Dialis was originally not 
 
238 
 
 FLAMINICA FLORUS. 
 
 allowed to spend a night awaj' from home : 
 in later times, under the Empire, the 
 Pontifex could allow him to sleep out 
 for two nights in the year. Indeed, the 
 Flamcn Dialis, whose superior position 
 among the flamens conferred upon him 
 certain privileges, as the toga proetexta, the 
 sella currdls, a seat in the senate, and 
 the services of a lictor, was in proportion 
 obliged to submit to more restrictions than 
 the rest. He, his wife, their children, and 
 his house on the Palatine were dedicated 
 to this god. He must be born of a marriage 
 celebrated by confarrcatio, and live himself 
 in indissoluble marriage. {See Marriage.) 
 If his wife died, he resigned his office. 
 In the performance of his sacred functions 
 he was assisted by his children as cdmilll. 
 {See Camillus.) Every day was for him 
 a holy day, so that he never appeared 
 without the insignia of his office, the 
 conical hat, the thick woollen toga prcetexta 
 woven by his wife, the sacrificial knife, 
 and a rod to keep the people away from 
 him. He was preceded by his lictor, and 
 by heralds, who called on the people to stop 
 their work, as the flamen was not permitted 
 to look upon any labour. He was not al- 
 lowed to cast eyes on an armed host, to mount, 
 or even to touch, a horse, to touch a corpse, 
 or grave, or a goat, or a dog, or raw meat, 
 or anything unclean. He must not have 
 near him, or behold, anything in the shape 
 of a chain. Consequently there must be no 
 knots, but only clasps, on his raiment ; the 
 ring on his finger was broken, and any one 
 who came into his house with chains mast 
 instantly be loosened. If he were guilty of 
 any carelessness in the sacrifices, or if his 
 hat fell off his head, he had to resign. His 
 wifo; the Jldmimca, was priestess of Juno. 
 She had, in like manner, to appear always 
 in her insignia of office, a long woollen 
 robe, with her hair woven with a purple 
 fillet, and arranged in pyramidal form, her 
 head covered with a veil and a kerchief, 
 and carrying a sacrificial knife. On certain 
 days she was forbidden to comb her hair. 
 The chief business of the flamens consisted 
 in daily sacrifices : on certain special occa- 
 sions they acted with the Pontifices and 
 the Vestal Virgins. The three superior 
 flamens oiFered a sacrifice to Fides Publica 
 on the Capitol on the 1st October, driving 
 there in a two-horse chariot. During the 
 imperial period Jlamines of the deified 
 emperors were added to the others. 
 
 Flaminica. See Flamen. 
 
 Flavlamim Jus. Sec Jurisprudexce. 
 
 Fleet. Sec Ships, Warfare, and Clas- 
 siarii. 
 
 Flora. A goddess, originally Sabine, of 
 the spring and of flowers and blossoms in 
 general, to whom prayers were offered for 
 the prospering of the ripe fruits of field and 
 tree. She was also regarded as a goddess 
 of the flower of youth and its pleasures. 
 Her worship was said to have been intro- 
 duced into Rome by the Sabine king Titus 
 Tatius, and her special priest, the Flamen 
 Flordlts, to have been appointed by Numa. 
 A temple was erected to her in the Circus 
 JSFaximus in 238 B.C. At the same time a 
 theatrical festival, the Floralia, was in- 
 stituted at the behest of the Sibylline books. 
 At this feast the men decked themselves 
 and their animals with flowers, especially 
 roses ; the women put aside their usual 
 costume, and wore the gay dresses usually 
 forbidden. The scene was one of unre- 
 strained merriment. From 173 B.C. the 
 festival was a standing one, and lasted six 
 days, from April 28, the anniversary of the 
 foundation of the temple, to May 3. For the 
 first five days of the games, for the super- 
 intendence of which the curule sediles were 
 responsible, there were theatrical perfor- 
 mances, largely consisting of the very inde- 
 cent farces called mimes. On the last day 
 goats, hares, and other animals were hunted 
 in the circus. The people were regaled 
 during the games with porridge, peas, and 
 lentils. 
 
 Flora was in later times identified with 
 the Greek Chloris {see Hor^e). In works 
 of art she was represented as a blooming 
 maiden, decked with flowers. 
 
 Florus {IfUtus). (1) A Roman historian of 
 the time of Hadrian, 117-138 A.n. He 
 wrote, in two books, a history of the wars of 
 Rome, from the time of the kings to the clos- 
 ing of the temple of Janus under Augustus 
 (25 B.C.). In the title, as we have it, the 
 book is called an excerpt from Livy {Epitome 
 de Titl Llvil bellorum omnium annorum 
 DCC). But this is not an adequate descrip- 
 tion of it. Florus, it is true, has used Livy 
 a great deal, though not exclusively, and 
 the work is really a panegyric on the great- 
 ness of Rome. It is the production of a 
 rhetorician, as is shown by the tasteless and 
 inflated language, with its poetical echoes 
 of Vergil and Horace, and its tendency to 
 exaggeration. Numerous gross errors tes- 
 tify to the insufficiency of the writer's 
 knowledge. Worthless as it is, the book 
 was much read and quoted in the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
FLUTE FOETUNA. 
 
 239 
 
 (2) A Roman poet, who was on familiar 
 terms with Hadrian, and who has left a 
 few pieces. He is probably to be identified 
 with the African rhetorician and poet 
 Publius Annius Floras, the author of a 
 dialogue, which still survives, on the ques- 
 tion whether Vergil is an orator or a poet. 
 
 Flute (Gk. aulos = pipe, Lat. tibia = 
 shin-bone). This was, in antiquity, an in- 
 
 (see 
 
 (1) PHRYGIAN DOUBLE FLUTE. 
 
 {Museo Pio Clement. t Y, tailpiece.) 
 
 strument resembling the modern clarionet 
 made of reed, box, bay, ivory, or bone. Its 
 invention was ascribed to Athene 
 Maestas). The wind was introduced 
 by a mouthpiece, with one or two 
 tongues, put on at every performance. 
 In addition to the holes at the mouth 
 it often had holes at the sides provided 
 with stops. Besides the single flute, 
 a double flute was sometimes used, 
 especially at theatrical performances, 
 funerals, sacrifices, and festal proces- 
 sions. This consisted of two flutes 
 played at the same time by means of 
 either one or of two separate mouth- 
 pieces. The two flutes together had as 
 many notes as the Syrinx {see Syeinx). 
 The right hand played the bass flute 
 (tibia dextra), the left hand the treble 
 (tibia sinistra). The two flutes were 
 either of equal length and similar form, 
 or unequal length and similar form, or 
 unequal length and dissimilar form. In 
 the Phrygian double flute, one pipe was 
 straight, the other larger and bent at 
 the end like a horn (see flg. 1). It is a 
 peculiarity of Greek and Roman flutes 
 that they were sometimes provided with 
 'a check-band covering the mouth, its 
 opening fitted with metal. Through 
 this opening were fixed the mouthpieces 
 of the double flute (fig. 2). The long pipe 
 is also an invention of the ancients. 
 
 Fons or Fontus. The Roman god of 
 springs, son of Janus and Juturna, who 
 had an altar in Rome on the Janiciilum. A 
 special festival, the Fontindlia, was held 
 
 in his honour on the 13th October, at which 
 garlands were thrown into the springs, and 
 laid round the wells. 
 
 Fools, Feast of. 8ee Fornacalia. 
 
 Fordicidia or Hordicidia. A festival cele- 
 brated in Rome in honour of Tellus, goddess 
 of the earth, on 15th April. (See Tellus.) 
 
 Fornacalia. A Roman festival held in 
 February in honour of Fornax, the goddess 
 of ovens. It was said to have been founded 
 by Numa, and may be described as a thanks- 
 giving for the earliest enjoyment of the 
 newlj' gathered corn. It was held in the 
 Forum by the Ciirise, or ancient unions of 
 kinsmen, under the superintendence of the 
 Curio Maximus, or president of the masters 
 of the curice. Corn was baked in ovens in 
 the ancient fashion. All who missed the 
 festival were called fools (stulti), as being 
 supposed not to know which was their 
 curia, and had to make an offering at the 
 so-called Feast of Fools (stultorum fer-ice) 
 on the 17th February, the day of the 
 Quirlndlia. 
 
 Fortuna. The goddess of good luck, wor- 
 
 (2) 'flute-player with mouthpiece, 
 Bronze, from Dodona (Oarapanos, pi. 10.) 
 
 shipped from remote antiquity in Italy. 
 Her worship was supposed to have been 
 introduced into Rome by king Servius 
 Tullius, popularly believed to be her favourite 
 and confidant. He was said to have founded 
 her oldest sanctuaries, as, for instance, that 
 of Fors Fortuna, or lucky chance, on the 
 
240 
 
 FORUM FREEDMEN. 
 
 light bank of the Tiber below Rome. To 
 this a pilgrimage was made down the stream 
 by land and water on the anniversary of its 
 foundation (June 26). As time went on, 
 the worship of Fortuna became one of the 
 most popular in Italy. She was worishipped 
 at a great number of shrines under various 
 titles, given according to various circum- 
 stances of life in which her influence was 
 supposed to have effect. These titles were 
 Forfuna Prtmtgenia, who determines the 
 destiny of the child at its birth ; Fortuna 
 Publica or Popull Eovidni, the tutelary 
 goddess of the state ; Fortuna Casdris or 
 Augusta^ the protectress of the emperor ; 
 Fortuna privctta, or of family life ; Fortuna 
 patricla, plebeia, equestris, of the different 
 orders, classes, and families of the popula- 
 tion ; Fortuna llberum, of children ; vir- 
 ginalis, of maidens, milliebrls, of women ; 
 Fortuna vlrtlls was the goddess of woman's 
 happiness in married life, of boys and of 
 youths, who dedicated to her the first cut- 
 tings of their beards, calling her from this 
 Fortuna harbata. Other epithets of Fortuna 
 were victrix, or giver of victory ; dux or 
 comes, the leader or attendant ; rcdux, who 
 brings safe home ; tranquilla, the giver of 
 prosperous voyages. This Fortuna was 
 worshipped with Portunus in the harbour 
 of Rome. There were also Fortuna bona 
 and mala, good and evil Fortune; blanda 
 or flattering, obsSquens or yielding, dubia 
 or doubtful, viscdta or enticing, brevis or 
 fickle, and mdnens or constant. Trajan at 
 last founded a special temple in her honour 
 as the all-pervading power of the world. 
 Here an annual sacrifice was offered to her 
 on New Year's 
 Day. In works 
 of art she was 
 represented with 
 the same attri- 
 butes as the 
 Greek Tyche {see 
 Ttche). For- 
 
 tuna, in her 
 general character 
 as a goddess of 
 Nature and Fate, 
 had an ancient 
 
 and celebrated (Fortvnw Antiates, coin of gens 
 
 1 . 1 ■ T Rustia, frcin Gerhard, Ant. Bildw. 
 
 temple, m wnicn taf. w, 3, 4.) 
 oracles were de- 
 livered, at Prseneste and Antium {see cut). 
 
 Fomm (Latin). An open space used for 
 political meetings, judicial proceedings, and 
 traffic. In Rome the oldest forum was the 
 Foi-um Romanum, afterwards the Campo 
 
 'goddesses of fortune. 
 
 Vaccine, a long and irregular four-sided 
 space, lying between the Capitol and the 
 Palatine, in the direction of WNW. and 
 ESE (see title-page). In the course of time 
 it was surrounded with temples, public 
 buildings, and basilicas. It was originally 
 used as a market place, but was early 
 monopolised for public' purposes. There 
 were, however, shops and stalls along the 
 northern and southern sides, where an 
 active trade was carried on. Here, in 
 particular, the money-changers carried on 
 their business. The Forum was divided 
 into the Comitzuni with the Rostra or 
 speaking platform, and the Forum proper, 
 where the Romans habitually spent much 
 of their morning transacting private or 
 public business. {See Comitium and Ros- 
 trum.) Under the Empire a number of 
 other /o7-a sprang up in its neighbourhood, 
 which were used for legal and other busi- 
 ness. They were adorned with great magni- 
 ficence, having a temple in their midst, and 
 colonnades round them, which were open 
 for ordinary traffic. There were thus Fora 
 of Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva, and 
 Trajan, the last the largest and most splen- 
 did of all {see plan, p. 241). There were, 
 besides, several fora for market business, 
 as the Forum boarium or cattle-market, j7«s- 
 cdrlum or fish-market, holltorium, or vege- 
 table-market, and so on. The word forum 
 was also applied to any place which formed 
 the local centre of commerce and jurisdic- 
 tion : so that such local names as Forum 
 lulll (now Frejus) were very common. 
 
 Preedmen. The emancipation of slaves 
 was tolerably common, both among Greeks 
 and Romans. The Greeks had no special 
 legal form for the process, and consequently 
 no legal differences in the status of freed- 
 men. At Athens they took the position 
 of resident aliens, and lay under certain 
 obligations to their liberators as patrons. 
 They could be called to legal account for 
 any injury done to their patrons, and if 
 condemned could be given back to them as 
 slaves, or sold by the state. In the latter 
 case the price was paid to their liberators. 
 
 Among the Romans emancipation (mdnu- 
 missio) was a lucrative proceeding for the 
 State, as a tax of 5 per cent, on the value 
 of the slave was paid on his being set free. 
 Emancipation was either formal or infor- 
 mal. (1) Of formal emancipation there 
 were three kinds : (a) the manumissio vin- 
 dictd, in which the owner appeared with 
 the slave before an ofiicial with judicial 
 authority, who in later times would gener- 
 
EREEDMEN. 
 
 241 
 
 rally be tlie prsetor or governor of the pro- 
 vince. A Roman citizen, usually one of 
 the magistrates' lictors, laid a staff {vin- 
 dicta) on the slave's head and declared him 
 free. The master, who was holding the 
 slave with his hand, thereupon signified his 
 consent, and let him go, as a symbol of 
 
 will. Here the master declared his slave 
 free in his will, or bound his heir to eman- 
 cipate him. The heir might adopt the 
 formal or informal process. Constantine 
 added a new form, the manumissio in 
 ecclesm, or emancipation in the church in 
 presence of the congregation. (2) Informal 
 
 THE "ROMAN TOTIA 
 
 5cale i • B.OOO 
 
 Sit o loo 2C 
 
 Metres C"" " 5,? ' f} 
 
 1. IiiJiufa.rLUTn. i6 Cu-TtoL luila- 
 
 3.Ti,rt.^eumQMoiH>. Ccmttium. 
 -' CsX 
 
 ^.AtcCl* Tjitterit iQ Lacuf Oirtiui 
 
 J.Umtiitlcui !i,1.7laitn.iSJis3>/ut' 
 
 'S An.^timaSemSii Tutt^ltiljcnii 
 Q.lkmtiJjiuK^ftn^i i| T.fintonimithiust 
 VO.TemA CofKor^iae ZS, Arcui Ausus^-' 
 ll.Scalce (semgnidi -Z-^ Temp J>i.i7Po/7ii 
 la.TemA. 7am 27 Pratfedrara. 
 IS.AitlEcaX^nlin, 29 Arcw'nti 
 i4.Jir'^u9 CgfJaTis ZP' Porta Ho ma no. 
 ^neryas 30. ScataM CaCL 
 
 * PLAN OF THE ROMAN FORA. 
 (From Droysen's Kistorischer Handatlas, 1886, p. 11, with slight alterations.) 
 
 liberation {mdnu misit). This formality 
 was in later times restricted to the simple 
 declaration of the master in the presence 
 of the magistrate. (&) The manumissio 
 censu, in which the master enrolled the 
 slave's name in the list of citizens. _ (c) The 
 manumissio testamento, or manumission by 
 D. c. A. 
 
 emancipation took place in virtue of an oral 
 declaration on the part of the master, in 
 presence of friends {inter dmlcos), or by 
 letter (per epistulam), or by inviting the 
 slaves to the master's table. 
 
 The freedmen were called libertt in rela- 
 tion to the liberator (e.g. libertus Ccesdris) 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 FRIGIDARIUM FEONTO. 
 
 and llhertinl in tlieir legal relation to the 
 State. After formal emancipation they at 
 once became Roman citizens, and members 
 of the urban tribes and of the lowest classes 
 in the centurice, with full right of voting. 
 But, not being free born, they were not 
 eligible to office, and were excluded from 
 military service. The latter was, however, 
 the case only till the 1st century B.C. They 
 obtained the right to be enrolled in the 
 country tribes several times in the repub- 
 lican period, but not permanently till the 
 imperial age. Their descendants, however, 
 were, as being free-bom (ingemll), admit- 
 ted into all the tribes, and in the second, 
 or at least in the third generation, eligible 
 to office. Informal emancipation conferred 
 only practical freedom without civic rights. 
 It was not until 17 A.D., under Tiberius, 
 that freedmen of this kind won the com- 
 merchini, or the right of acquiring and 
 transferring property. Even then they had 
 no power of testamentary bequest, and their 
 property, at their death, went to their 
 liberators. It was permissible, however, 
 to pronounce a formal emancipation after 
 their death. 
 
 To obviate abuses, and to check the 
 excessive increase in the number of freed- 
 men, the right of manumission was limited 
 in several directions iinder Augustus. 
 Among other things, if a slave under thirty 
 years of age was to be manumitted vin- 
 dicta, a proof of sufficient reason was 
 required ; and, in case of testamentary 
 manumission, the number was limited to a 
 certain proportion of the whole number of 
 slaves, and never allowed to exceed 100. 
 
 A mutual obligation continued to exist 
 between the freedman and his liberator, 
 based on the fact that the freedman be- 
 longed to the family of his patron. This 
 is seen in the circumstance that the freed- 
 man assumed thenomcn and the j^rcenOmen 
 of his patron. In and after the 1st century 
 B.C. we generally find a Greek cognomen 
 added. A well-known freedman of Lucius 
 Cornelius Sulla, for instance, was called 
 Lucius Cornelius Epicadus. The pdtronus 
 was bound on his side to care for his Uher- 
 fus, and in consequence either retained him 
 altogether in his home and service, or sup- 
 plied him with a farm and capital to start 
 it ; buried him in the family tomb after his 
 death, and took charge of his children if 
 not grown up. On the other side the freed- 
 man was bound to support his 2)(iti'onus, 
 in case of need, out of his own resources, 
 and if he was reduced to poverty, to main- 
 
 tain him. If he died childless, his patron 
 inherited his property. But the rights of 
 the patron in respect of his freedman did 
 not pass to the patron's heirs. If the freed- 
 man neglected his duties, he was liable to 
 severe punishment. In special cases, at least 
 under the Empire, he might be sold for his 
 patron's profit, or given back to him as aslave. 
 
 Frigidarlum. See Baths. 
 
 Proutinus {Sextus luUus). A Roman 
 writer, born about 40 A.D. He was one 
 of the urban praetors under Vespasian, and 
 consul for the first time in 74. After this 
 he fought with distinction in Britain until 
 78, first under Petilius Cerealis, and then 
 as his successor. Under Domitian he kept 
 aloof from public life. He was recalled by 
 Nerva, who in 97 appointed him to the 
 important office of superintendent of the 
 aqueducts {curator aquarum). He was 
 also made a second time consul, and a third 
 time under Trajan, two years later (100). 
 Under Trajan he was also made augur, and 
 was succeeded in the office by the younger 
 Pliny. He died in 103 or 104, much es- 
 teemed by his contemporaries. His sur- 
 viving works are (1) a collection, in three 
 books, of typical instances of military stra- 
 tagems taken from Greek and Roman history. 
 This was intended as an additional chapter 
 to a lost work on military science, which 
 he had written under Domitian. A fourth 
 book has been rightly judged spurious, and 
 the work of a later age. (2) Selections 
 from a treatise on land-surveying in two 
 books {De dgrorum qudlUdte and De con- 
 troversils agrorum), likewise written under 
 Domitian. (3) The interesting treatise on 
 the aqueducts of Rome {De aquls urhis 
 Eoma>), in two books. The occasion of his 
 writing this work was his tenure of the office 
 of curator aquarum ; but it was not pub- 
 lished till the time of Trajan. It is a his- 
 tory and description of the water supply 
 of Rome, containing also the laws affecting 
 its use and maintenance. 
 
 Fronto {Marcus Cornelius). The most 
 celebrated orator in the age of the An- 
 tonines, born at Cirta in Numidia, about 
 100 A.D. As an advocate and speaker at 
 Rome, he earned not only considerable 
 wealth and reputation, but the favour of 
 Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, who entrusted 
 him with the education of the imperial 
 princes Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus. 
 
 In 143 he was consul for two months, 
 but his health was too weak to allow of 
 his administering a province as proconsul. 
 This ill-health, and many family misfor- 
 
FRUIT, GODS OF- 
 
 -FULLERS. 
 
 243 
 
 tunes, embittered the last years of his life. 
 He died about 170. He was much admired 
 by his contemporaries, some of whom formed 
 a school of their own bearing the name of 
 Frontomdnl, and this reputation survived 
 after his death. Accordingly he used to be 
 regarded as one of the chief representatives 
 of Roman eloquence. But the discovery of 
 part of his writings in 1815 dispelled the 
 illusion. The recovered writings consist 
 mainly of the correspondence, the greater 
 part of which they preserve, between Fronto 
 and the members of the imperial family, 
 especially with Marcus Aurelius as prince 
 and emperor. A number of the letters are 
 written in Greek. Besides these we have a 
 few fragments of historical works, and some 
 rhetorical declamations. Of the speeches 
 only a few meagre fragments remain. The 
 character of Fronto, as revealed in these 
 writings, is that of a man of some knowledge, 
 honourable and independent, but vain and 
 bornd. His main ambition is to pave the 
 way for the regeneration of the Latin 
 language ; and this, not by a study of the 
 classical models, but by quarrying in the 
 w^orks of the ante-classical writers. Their 
 antiquated expressions he revives, and uses 
 in the most tasteless manner to clothe 
 the poverty of his own thoughts. But 
 his letters are of some value as con- 
 tributing to our knowledge of the 
 age and the persons then living. 
 
 Fruit, Gods of. See Vertomnus, 
 HoR^:, and Pomona. 
 
 Fulcra. [The ends of the frame- 
 work on which the pillows of a couch 
 or the cushions of a chair were placed, 
 resembling the head of a modern sofa. 
 They are invariably ornamented with 
 inlaid bronze, sometimes of the rich- 
 est kind, and are always surmounted 
 by bronze ornaments representing the 
 head and shoulders of a mule or ass, 
 turning sideways and backwards, 
 with ears put down and a vicious 
 expression. The head is in almost 
 every case decorated with a garland 
 of vine-leaves entwined with tendrils 
 and bunches of grapes, while the 
 shoulders are covered with a curious leather 
 collar, the top of which is turned down just 
 where it joins the shaggy skin of some wild 
 animal which,, is thrown over it. For the 
 head of the -ass is sometimes substituted 
 that of a boy, or the head and neck of 
 a goose. The lower part is decorated 
 with a round boss from which springs a 
 bust of a genius in full relief, or of some 
 
 youthful divinity, such as Bacchus or 
 Hercules. The framework to which these 
 ornaments are attached is described in 
 Juvenal xi 93-98. The genius fulcri is 
 mentioned ib. vi 22. Op. Vergil, JEn. vi 
 604; Ovid, Ep. Pont, iii 3, 14; Propert. 
 iv 7, 3: 8, 68; Suetonius, Claud. 32; 
 Pliny, N. H,, xxxiv 9 ; Ammianus xxviii 1, 
 47, plumeum fulcrum ; Hyginus, fab. 274, 
 '■'■Antiqui autem in lectis tricliniaribus 
 in fulcris capita asellorum vite alligata 
 habuerunt"]. W. 0. F. Anderson in 
 Classical Review, 1889, 322. 
 
 Pulgentius {Fdbius Planciddes). A Latin 
 grammarian, a native of Carthage, who 
 wrote towards the end of the 5th century 
 A.D. His works include, among other things, 
 an allegorical interpretation of the ancient 
 mythology in three books {Mythologloi), the 
 form of which reminds us of Martianus 
 Capella (see Martianus Capella), an 
 exposition of the ^Eneid {Vergilldna Con- 
 tinentia\ and an explanation of strange 
 and antiquated words illustrated by forged 
 citations {Expositm Bermonls Antlqui). 
 
 Pullers (Gk. gndpheus, Lat. fullo). The 
 fuller's trade was one of the most import- 
 ant and most widely extended in Greek and 
 
 MURAL PAINTING FEOM THE FULLER S SHOP, POMPEII. 
 
 (Oyerbeok, fig. 193. 
 
 Roman antiquity. It embraced all the 
 processes, now distributed among different 
 trades, necessary for converting the web 
 into cloth, the chief material used by the 
 ancients for clothing. Again, it was usual 
 to send clothes to the fuller for cleaning 
 and working up. Clothes when sent to be 
 cleaned were stamped with the feet in pits 
 or troughs filled with warm water and 
 
244 
 
 FUXDITORES GALEXUS. 
 
 substances whicli separated the fat from 
 them, as urine, nitre, and fuller's earth. If 
 the object was to felt the web, and make it 
 thicker and stronger, the same process was 
 gone through, and the cloth was then beaten 
 with rods, washed out in clean water, dried, 
 carded with a kind of thistle or with the 
 skin of a hedgehog, fumigated with sulphur, 
 rubbed in with fuller's earth to make it 
 whiter and stronger, and finally dressed 
 by brushing, shearing, and pressing. The 
 fuller's earth, when well rubbed in, pre- 
 vented the clothes from getting dirty too 
 soon, and freshened up the colours which 
 
 the sulphur had destroyed. Some frescoes 
 preserved on the walls of an ancient fuller's 
 shop at Pompeii give a clear notion of the 
 different processes. The fullones at Rome 
 formed one of the oldest guilds. Like all 
 mechanics, they worshipped Minerva as 
 their tutelary goddess, and took a prominent 
 part in her chief festival, the Quinquatrus. 
 
 Funditores (funda, a sling). The light- 
 armed slingers in the Roman army. They 
 wei-e usually raised by recruiting, or con- 
 tributed by the allies. 
 
 F arise. See Erinyes, 
 
 Fastibalus. See Slings. 
 
 Gaea (Gr. Gaia or Gc). The Greek god- 
 dess of the Earth. According to Hesiod she 
 came into being after Chaos, and brought 
 forth of herself the sky (Ouranos), the moun- 
 tains, and the sea {Ponton). By Uranus 
 she was mother of the Titans, Cyclopes and 
 niccitonchcircs. From the blood of her 
 mutilated husband sprang the Erinyes, 
 Giants and Melian nymphs : to Pontus she 
 bore Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto and 
 Eurybia. Other terrible beings, such as 
 the giants Typhon, Antajus and Tityus, were 
 her offspring, as also the autochthones (ab- 
 origines) such as Erechtheus and Cecrops. 
 In Homer she is invoked with Zeus, the 
 Sun, Heaven and Hell as a witness to oaths, 
 and worshipped with the sacrifice of a black 
 lamb. But she was especially honoured as 
 the mother of all, who nourishes her crea- 
 tures and pours rich blessings upon them. 
 In Athens, in particular, she was worshipped 
 as KourdtrophO.'ij or the nourisher of chil- 
 dren, and at the same time as the goddess of 
 death, who summons all her creatures back 
 to her and hides them in her bosom. She 
 was honoured also as the primeval pro- 
 phetess, especially in Delphi, the oracle of 
 which was at first in her possession as the 
 power who sent forth the vapours which in- 
 spired the seer. The corresponding Roman 
 goddess was Tellus. {See Tellus.) 
 
 Craius. One of the most accomplished 
 professors of Roman law and writers on the 
 subject. He was a native of the Asiatic 
 provinces, and spent his days in Rome 
 under Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Mar- 
 cus Aurelius (about 110-180 a.d.). His 
 writings were numerous : but we possess in 
 a tolerably complete form nothing but his 
 Iiisriliitione:^, or introduction to the private 
 law of the Romans. This was discovered in 
 1816, having before been known in quota- 
 
 tions only. The work is in four books, the 
 first of which treats of the family, the se- 
 cond and third of property, and the fourth 
 of legal procedure. Popular and intelligible 
 without being superficial, it was a favourite 
 handbook of law, and served as a foundation 
 for the Institutiones of Justinian. 
 
 Galatea (the milk-white). A sea-nymph, 
 daughter of Nereus and Doris. According to 
 a Sicilian story, which the poets Philoxenus 
 and Theocritus have made famous, she was 
 pursued by the uncouth monster Polyphe- 
 mus, being herself in love with the beauti- 
 ful Acis. The jealous giant crushes Acis with 
 a rock, and the nymph changes her beloved 
 into the Sicilian river which bears his name. 
 
 Galenus (Gr. Galenas ; Claudius) was the 
 most celebrated physician in antiquity 
 after Hippocrates, and at the same time 
 one of the most prolific among ancient 
 writers. He was born at Pergamon in 
 131 A.D., received a careful education in 
 philosophy, and afterwards devoted him- 
 self to medical studies in his native city, 
 at Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria. He 
 returned to Pergamon in 158, and under- 
 took the medical treatment of gladiators, 
 as giving him the best opportunity for 
 increasing his stock of surgical know- 
 ledge. In 164 he moved to Rome, and here 
 won a considerable reputation by his suc- 
 cess in practice and his public lectures on 
 anatomy. After three years he was driven 
 by the attacks of jealous rivals to leave 
 Rome. He undertook scientific journeys 
 through Greece and Asia, and then settled 
 again in his native city. But he was soon 
 recalled by the emperors Marcus Aurelius 
 and Lucius Verus, and in 170 appointed 
 private physician to the yoimg Commodus. 
 He died in his seventieth year, after winning 
 the high esteem of his contemporaries. 
 
GALLIC GAMES. 
 
 245 
 
 Part of his writings were deatroyecl in a 
 fire ; in all 125 of his books are lost. About 
 100 of his genuine treatises have been pre- 
 served : of 19 we have fragments, more or 
 less considerable ; the genuineness of 18 is 
 doubted, 24 are spurious. Manj' have not 
 yet been printed, while others exist only in 
 Latin, Syriac, Hebrew and Arabic transla- 
 tions. For during the Middle Ages, down 
 to the 16th century, the authority of Galen 
 was, throughout the East and West, held, 
 especially by the Arabians, to be unassail- 
 able. A prolific writer like Galen was 
 naturally careless of his style. 
 
 His writings leave no branch of medicine 
 untouched. They comprise anatomy, physio- 
 logy, pathology, pharmacology, and treat- 
 ment. Among them should be mentioned the 
 following : On Anatomical Procedure, in 9 
 books ; On the Use of Parts of the Human 
 Body (17 books) ; On the Parts Affected 
 (6 books) ; On the Composiiion of Medicines 
 (three works, including 26 books); On Me- 
 thod in Therapeutics (14 books) . His book 
 on medicine, a complete sketch of therapeu- 
 tics, was immensely popular. He was also 
 the author of 18 books of commentaries on 
 Hippocrates, whom he claimed as his mas- 
 ter. These still survive. His books contain 
 important notices on the history of philo- 
 sophy, of which he professes his knowledge 
 and enthusiastic admiration. Some of his 
 writings deal specially with this subject. 
 
 Galli. Sec Rhea. 
 
 Gallus. See Cornelius, 2. 
 
 Gaines. (1) Public. Among the Romans 
 public games were intimately connected 
 with religious worship. (For the public 
 games of the Greeks, see Isthmian, Nemean, 
 Olympian, Pythian Games.) The Roman 
 lUdt, originally races, appear first in the wor- 
 ship of Mars and Consus, the tutelary deities 
 of horses and mules. But it was also a very 
 ancient custom to celebrate ludi votzvi, or 
 games vowed on special occasions, particu- 
 larly in time of war. Such games were 
 usually vowed to Jupiter, the greatest deity 
 of the Romans. These exceptional celebra- 
 tions were so often repeated that they at 
 length passed into regular annual festivals 
 (hidi stdti). The number of these games gra- 
 dually increased, and so did their duration. 
 At the end of the republican period there 
 were seven sets of games, which occupied 
 65 days ; in the middle of the 2nd century 
 A.D. 135 days were given up to them, and 
 in 354 A.D. as many as 175. In old times 
 the games only lasted part of the day ; but 
 they gradually began to take up the whole 
 
 day from early morning onwards. At a 
 later period they went on in many cases 
 into the night, requiring artificial illumina- 
 tion. The Roman ritual was very strict, 
 and it happened pretty often that in con- 
 sequence of some accidental interruption or 
 trivial oversight, an instaurutlo or repeti- 
 tion of the spoiled day, if not of the whole 
 festival, would be ordered, lest the gods 
 should have any cause for anger. 
 
 The different collegia of the priests were 
 responsible for superintending the games, 
 prescribed in honour of their respective 
 divinities. But in the case of festivities 
 vowed by the State, this duty fell to the 
 high magistrates ; at first to the consuls, 
 afterwards (and almost exclusively) to the 
 sediles, and after Augustus to the praetors. 
 The expenses were provided for by a cer- 
 tain sum of money paid over from the public 
 treasury to the giver of the games. For 
 the Ludi PomCinl, the greatest of all the 
 festivals, this sum amounted, during the 
 period preceding the Punic wars, to about 
 £1,800. After this period it reached some 
 £3,000, and by 51 A.D. had risen to £8,750. 
 At the same time the givers of the games 
 had to make larger supplementary contri- 
 butions. The demands of the public were 
 so extravagant that in course of time the 
 amount of this private expenditure increased 
 enormously, especially in the last century 
 B.C. Augustus, indeed, tried to check it ; 
 but he was obliged to allow his praetors to 
 spend three times as much on the games as 
 was paid for the public treasury. Under the 
 Empire many enactments were issued to 
 restrict the expenditure on the games by 
 law, but no permanent effect was produced. 
 Even after the 4th century A.D. the praetors 
 paid out as much as from £50,000 to 
 £100,000. The oldest games were those of 
 the circus, consisting mainly of horse-races 
 and chariot-races, with gymnastic contests, 
 to which others were added in course of 
 time. (See Circus.) After 364 B.C. dram- 
 atic representations were introduced from 
 Etruria. These were in 240 B.C., and on- 
 wards, exchanged for regular theatrical 
 performances (see Livius Andronicus). 
 Contests of gladiators, also from Etruria, 
 were fashionable after 264 B.C. But these 
 were only exhibited, during the republican 
 period, at funeral games, private and other 
 entertainments (see Gladiatores). 
 
 The following regular festivities were 
 introduced in the republican period, and 
 continued in existence until the latest 
 times: (1) The Ludi Roman i. These were 
 
246 
 
 GAMES. 
 
 the oldest games of all, and were, in strict- 
 ness, celebrated in honour of Jupiter by- 
 victorious generals at their triumphs ; hence 
 it was that they included, as a special 
 feature, a procession (pompa) from the 
 Capitol to the Circus ; a part of the perfor- 
 mance which seems afterwards to have been 
 embodied in the other games of the circus. 
 Originally they lasted only one day ; but 
 in course of time they absorbed more and 
 more time, till in the Ciceronian age they 
 went on for fifteen (September 4-19). After 
 the death of Caesar another day was added 
 in his honour. After the introduction of 
 theatrical performances, several days were 
 taken up with them. The curule sediles 
 were, in the republican period, responsible 
 for the management. (2) Ludi plebet. 
 These originally lasted one day, but after- 
 wards fourteen, November 4-17. They 
 were given in the Circus Fldininius under 
 the direction of the plebeian sediles, and 
 early included dramatic entertainments. 
 (3) Ludi Cermles, given under the direc- 
 tion of the plebeian sediles in honour of 
 Ceres, the tutelary goddess of the plebs. 
 The date was originally April 19, 
 afterwards April 12-19. (4) Ludi 
 ApolKnCircs, or in honour of Apollo. 
 These were introduced during the 
 Second Punic War, and celebrated 
 originally on July 13, continuing 
 afterwards from July 6-13. On 
 the last day only were there any 
 performances in the circus ; the 
 rest of the festival was given up 
 to the drama. These were the only 
 games for which, in the republican 
 period, the prsetor was responsible. 
 (5) Ludi MSgdlenses, in honour of 
 the Magna Mater, introduced 204 
 B.C. and held at first on April 4, 
 afterwards from April 4-10. (See 
 E.HEA.) They included perfor- 
 mances both in the theatre and in 
 the circus. They were under the 
 management of the curule sediles, 
 and the same remark applies to (6) 
 the Ludi Floi-ales, from April 28 
 to May 3. (See Flora.) During 
 the imperial period the number of 
 permanent festivals was largely 
 increased. The birthday of Augustus, for 
 instance (September 23), was regularly 
 celebrated with ludi circenses, and the 
 ludi Augustales (October 8-12) were in- 
 stituted in honour of his memory. 
 
 Side by side with the public games, 
 private performances were often given by 
 
 societies, families, and individuals on special 
 occasions, such as those of births, marriages, 
 or funerals. Sometimes the object would 
 be merely to please the public : sometimes 
 to raise money. The giver of the enter- 
 tainment had, like the superintendent of 
 the public games, the privilege of lictors 
 and the toga prcetexta. Charges for ad- 
 mission were made or not according to the 
 occasion. But the admission to the public 
 games was free, it being always understood 
 that special seats were reserved for the 
 magistrates, priests, senators, equites, and 
 particular families and individuals. (See 
 Amphitheatre, Circus, Gladiatores, 
 Sea-fights, Theatre, Wild Beasts.) 
 
 Of social games the ancients, and espe- 
 cially the Greeks, had plenty. The cottdbus, 
 so popular at Greek banquets, the games of 
 ball, of which both Greeks and Romans 
 were fond, and the games with dice, are 
 described in separate articles. A game of 
 draughts (petteia) appears as early as 
 Homer, and was said to have been the in- 
 vention of Palamedes. But we have no 
 knowledge of its nature and rules, and have 
 
 • GAME OP " ODD AND EVEN." 
 
 (Vase painting, Paris; Arch. Zeit 1871, taf. 56, 3). 
 
 very scanty information about the similar 
 games played in later times. The " game 
 of cities " seems to have resembled our 
 chess or draughts. The board was divided 
 into spaces, and movements made upon it 
 with stones ; the object being to get your 
 opponent into check. The Romans had 
 
GANYMEDA GEMS. 
 
 247 
 
 several games of the sort, among which the 
 ludus lati-unculorum, or game at soldiers, 
 is to a certain extent known. This was a 
 game of siege. The men {calculi) were 
 divided into privates (mandrce) and officers 
 {latrones), and the object was to take or to 
 get your adversary's stones in check. In 
 the ludus diiodScim scriptoncm, or game of 
 12 lines, dice were used. The dice-board 
 was divided into 24 spaces by 12 parallel 
 lines intersected by a line at right angles. 
 Each side had 15 men, one set being black 
 and the other white. Before each move 
 the dice were thrown, and the move deter- 
 mined by the number which turned up. 
 A very favourite game was Odd and Even 
 (Gk. aHvxsmos, Lat. liiderS par iinpdr). 
 You held out so many fingers, and put 
 so many coins, pebbles, or nuts in your 
 hand, and made your adversary guess 
 whether the number was odd or even. 
 The Roman children, and indeed their 
 elders, were very fond of various games 
 with nuts. 
 
 Ganymeda. See Hebe. 
 
 Gan;yinedes. The son of Tros, king of 
 Dardania, brother of Ilus and Assar- 
 acus. According to Homer he was carried 
 away by the gods for his beauty, to be the 
 cup-bearer of Zeus, and one of the immor- 
 tals. In the later legend he is carried 
 away by Zeus himself in the shape of an 
 eagle, or by the eagle of Zeus. To make 
 amends to his father, Zeus presented him 
 with four immortal horses for his chariot. 
 Ganymedes was afterwards regarded as the 
 genius of the sources of the Nile, and the 
 astronomers made him into the constellation 
 Aquarius. The rape of Ganymede was 
 represented in a group by the sculptor 
 Leochares (see Leochakes). 
 
 Gargllius Martialis flourished in the 
 3rd century A.D. and was the author of a 
 great work, based upon Greek and Latin 
 sources, on agriculture and veterinary 
 science. Considerable fragments remain, 
 dealing with the treatment of cattle {De 
 Curu Bdum) and the medical uses of herbs 
 and imit (Medtcina ex Holeribus etPomls). 
 
 GSlanor. A descendant of Inachus king 
 of Argos. When Danaus, likewise a de- 
 scendant of Inachus, came to Argos, and 
 laid claim to the sovereign power, the 
 citizens were doubtful in whose favour 
 they should decide. While they were 
 hesitating, a wolf fell upon the cattle which 
 were feeding before the city, and killed 
 the bull who was defending them. The 
 citizens regarded this as a sign from heaver, 
 
 and, interpreting the wolf as meaning 
 Danaus, they compelled Gelanor to retire in 
 his favour. {See Danaus.) In the Supplies s 
 of iEschylus, Pelasgus is king of Argos. 
 He gives Danaus a friendly welcome, and 
 defends him against the sons of ^gyptus. 
 But he is vanquished by them, retires from 
 the sovereignty spontaneously in favour of 
 the stranger, and leaves the country. 
 
 Gellius. (1) Gnceus. See Annalists. 
 
 (2) Aulus. A Roman writer of the age 
 of the Antonines, about 130-170 a.d. After 
 receiving his education in rhetoric at Rome, 
 he went to Athens, in his thirtieth year or 
 thereabouts, to study philosophy. Here he 
 saw much of Herodes Atticus. Besides 
 studying philosophy, he spent the long, 
 winter nights in wide and various reading, 
 which he took up again with ardour after 
 his return to Italy. Prom the material thus 
 collected he composed the twenty books 
 of his Nodes Atticce, written in remem- 
 brance of his days at Athens. One book, the 
 eighth, is lost, and only the headings of the 
 chapters remain. The remaining nineteen 
 are ' a series of excerpts, loosely strung 
 together, from all kinds of Greek and Latin 
 authors, especially the ante-classical writers. 
 They also contain a mass of information, 
 and a number of opinions orally delivered 
 by contemporary scholars. The whole 
 forms a valuable storehouse of notes on 
 questions of historical, antiquarian, and 
 literary interest. Gellius' style is sober, 
 and, like that of an admirer of Eronto {see 
 Ehonto), full of archaic expressions. 
 
 Gems {Gemvice). The art of cutting 
 precious stones was early learned by the 
 
 ATHENE, BY ASPASIOS. 
 
 (Red jasper, in Vienna 
 Cabinet.) 
 
 (2) 
 
 * THE "STKOZZI" MEDUSA, 
 
 BY SOLON. 
 
 (Chalcedony, in British 
 Museum Cabinet, no. 1356.) 
 
 Greeks from the Egyptians and Orientals, 
 who had practised it from remote antiquity. 
 The cuttings were originally only concave, 
 and the gems set in rings and used as seals. 
 Cameos, or stones carved in relief, first came 
 
248 
 
 GEMS. 
 
 into use, it would seem, in the time of 
 Alexander the Great, and were used for or- 
 nament. For cameos precious stones of 
 various colours were used, especially the 
 onyx. The layers of the stone were so 
 
 I AUTELUS, (4) PEE£EBS. 
 
 GEMS FKOM POMPEII. 
 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
 treated, that the iigures stood out bright on 
 a dark ground. Mnesarohus of Samos, the 
 father of the philosopher Pythagoras (about 
 600 B.C.) is the oldest Greek jeweller whose 
 name has come down to us. In the 4th 
 century B.C. the most celebrated master was 
 Pyrgoteles, the only artist whom Alexander 
 the Great would allow to cut his likeness. 
 In the age of Augustus we hear of Dlos- 
 corides, who cut the emperor's likeness on 
 a stone which was used as a seal by the suc- 
 ceeding Csesars. The Etruscans and Romans 
 took Tip the art very early, but never attained 
 the same perfection as the Greeks. 
 
 ter being mainly taken from mythology. 
 Among the remaining Greek cameos an 
 important place, both for size and beauty, 
 must be given to the Gonzaga Cameo in St. 
 Petersburg. This, it has been conjectured, 
 represents the bust of Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 and Arsinoe, his sister and wife; [but it 
 more probably commemorates Nero and 
 Agrippina, fig. 7.] The largest and most 
 
 (7) * THE " GOHZAGA " CAMEO, NEKO AND AGBIPPINA. 
 
 (Sardonjx of 3 strata, 6x.5 inches, Russian Imperial 
 Cabinet.) 
 
 splendid of the cameos which have come 
 down from the Roman period are those at 
 Vienna (fig. 8) and Paris, representing, in 
 groups and figures, the family of Augustus., 
 
 (S) DAlfCl^G SATTB. (6) &ATTS M'lTH INFANT DIONTTBUS. 
 
 CAMEOS. 
 
 (Naples Museum 
 
 The fancy for making collections of beauti- 
 ful gems arose as early as the 1st century 
 B.C. The intaglios, or cut stones, have come 
 down to us in greater numbers than anj"- of 
 the monuments of ancient art. Those which 
 belonged to the advanced periods of style 
 present examples of the most beautiful 
 workmanship, the most original composition, 
 and the most interesting subjects, the lat- 
 
 Augustus and Livia receiving Drusus and Tiberius on 
 their return from their Vindelic and Rh^tian campaigns. 
 (Sardonyx of 2 strata, 9x8 inches, Vienna cabinet.) 
 
 Whole vessels were sometimes made of 
 single stones, and adorned with reliefs 
 An instance is the Mantuan vase now at 
 
GENIUS GENNETJ3. 
 
 249 
 
 Brunswick, 6| inches high, 2^ inches thick, 
 consisting of a single onyx. The lid, handle 
 and base are of gold. Two parallel lines of 
 gold divide the surface into three parts, the 
 midmost of which has twelve figures, repre- 
 senting the festival of the ThesmSphoria, in 
 three groups ; while the highest and lowest 
 are adorned with leaves, flowers, ears of 
 corn, fruits, bulls' heads, and other objects 
 connected with the worship of Demeter. 
 Works of this kind are sometimes made 
 of coloured glasses. The most celebrated 
 instance of this sort is the Portland Vase 
 now in the British Museum. Its height is 
 about 10 inches. The material is a dark 
 blue transparent glass, with beautiful re- 
 liefs in white opaque enamel (fig. 9). [See 
 
 (9) * THE PORTLAND VASE. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 Catalogue of Engraved Gems in the 
 British Museum, 1888, pp. 225-8 ; and (on 
 the subject in general) Introduction, pp. 
 1-38.] 
 
 Genius ( = creator, begetter). The Italian 
 peoples regarded the Genius as a higher 
 power which creates and maintains life, 
 assists at the begetting and birth of every 
 individual man, determines his character, 
 tries to influence his destiny for good, ac- 
 companies him through life as his tutelary 
 spirit, and lives on in the Lares after his 
 death. {See Laees.) As a creative prin- 
 ciple, the Genius is attached strictly speak- 
 ing, to the male sex only. In the case of 
 women his place is taken by Juno, the 
 personification of woman's life. Thus, in 
 a house inhabited by a man and his wife, 
 a Genius and a Juno are worshipped 
 together. But in common parlance it was 
 usual to speak of the Genius of a house, 
 
 and to this Genius the marriage bed was 
 sacred. A man's birthday was naturally 
 the holiday of his attendant Genius, to 
 whom he offered incense, wine, garlands, 
 cakes, everything in short but bloody sacri- 
 fices, and in whose honour he gave himself 
 up to pleasure and enjoyment. For the 
 Genius wishes a man to have pleasure in 
 the life he has given him. And so the 
 Romans spoke of enjoying oneself as in- 
 dulging one's Genius, and of renunciation 
 as spiting him. Men swore by their Genius 
 as by their higher self, and by the Genius 
 of persons whom they loved and honoured. 
 The philosophers originated the idea of a 
 man having two Genii, a good and a bad 
 one ; but in the popular belief the notion of 
 the Genius was that of a good and beneficent 
 being. Families, societies, cities and peo- 
 ples had their Genius as well as individuals. 
 The Genius of the Roman people {Genius 
 Publicus, or PopUll Romuni) stood in the 
 forum, represented in the form of a bearded 
 man crowned with a diadem, a cornucopia 
 in his right hand, and a sceptre in his left. 
 An annual sacrifice was offered to him on 
 the 9th October. Under the Empire the 
 Genius of Augustus, the founder of the 
 Empire, and of the reigning emperor, were 
 publicly worshipped at the same time. 
 Localities also, such as open spaces, streets, 
 baths, and theatres, had their own Genii. 
 
 HAKPOCBATES, AND SNAKE AS GENIUS LOCI. 
 (PiUitl'c d,'Ercolano, i 207.) 
 
 These were usually represented under the 
 form of snakes {see cut); and hence the 
 common habit of keeping tame snakes. 
 
 Gennetse. This was the Athenian term 
 for the members of the 360 ancient families 
 {gennce), thirty of which made up one of 
 the twelve jp/M'dirtce of the four old Ionic 
 
250 
 
 GENS GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 tribes. These families consisted of some 
 thirty houses, TV'ho referred their origin and 
 name to a common ancestor, and observed 
 a common worship, with special priests to 
 superintend it. The objects of this worship 
 were Zeus Herkeios (the god of house and 
 home), Apollo Patroos (the god of the family), 
 the lieros of the family, and other tutelary 
 deities. Supposing that a family worship 
 rose to the dignity of a state ceremony, the 
 priestly office remained hereditary in the 
 family (genna). If there were no nearer 
 relations, the members of the genna had a 
 law of inheritance which they observed 
 among themselves. Maintained by these 
 religious and legal ties, the genncB and the 
 fhratrice survived the old Ionic tribes, 
 after the abolition of the latter by Cleis- 
 thenes. The president of the genna super- 
 intended the enrolment of new members into 
 it at the feast of the Aputurid^ the occasion 
 on which the new members of the 
 jjJiratvice were also enrolled. {See Apa- 
 TDRIA.) A citizen who did not belong to a 
 genna could only become member of one by 
 adoption, and under certain conditions. 
 
 Gens (Latin). A family (in the widest 
 sense of the word) descended on the male 
 line from a common ancestor, and therefore 
 bearing a common name. So long as the 
 patricians were the only citizens with full 
 rights, there could of course be no gentes 
 not patrician. The oldest gentes belonged 
 to the tribes of the Latin Ramnes and the 
 Sabine Tities. Besides these there were 
 the gentes belonging to the Alban families, 
 brought to Rome by King Tullus Hostilius; 
 and embodied by the other gentes in the 
 community as a third tribe, the Lticeres. 
 These, the most ancient, were called gentes 
 maiores as distinguished from the gentes 
 minores, which included the plebeians whom 
 Tarquinius Prisons raised to the rank of 
 patricians. There were in later times in- 
 stances of plebeian gentes being raised to 
 patrician rank : but these became rarer and 
 rarer, so that the number of patrician gentes 
 was very much reduced. During the last 
 years of the Republic we hear of only 
 fourteen still in existence, including thirty 
 fumilice (or families in the narrower sense). 
 Many large gentes were divided into houses 
 (stirpes) who had a common cognomen in 
 addition to the name of their gens ; thus 
 the gens Cornelia included the Cornelii 
 Ifalugtnenses, Cornelii Cossi, Cornelii 
 ScJpiOues, Cornelii Ruflnl, Cornelii Len- 
 tiili, Cornelii Dolabellce, Cornelii Cethegi, 
 Coi-nclii Cinnw, Cornelii Sullce. Among 
 
 the plebeians, as among the patricians, the 
 familia naturally developed into a larger 
 circle of relationship ; but gentes in the old 
 sense were not formed by the process. 
 Though the plebeian had his gentile name, 
 and afterwards his cognomen, he had not 
 the real ius gentllicium. 
 
 All gentiles or members of a gens had 
 a right to its common property, which in- 
 cluded a common burial-place. They also 
 had a testamentary law of their own which 
 lasted on into the imperial period. When 
 the member of a gens died without heirs of 
 his body, the next to inherit (as in the case 
 of the plebeians) were the agndtl, or gentiles 
 on the male side, who could prove their 
 relationship : failing these, the gentiles 
 divided the inheritance. The existence of 
 this law rendered it, in old times, necessary 
 to obtain the consensus of the whole gens 
 in cases of adoption and testamentary be- 
 quest. Another consequence of it was, that 
 it was the duty of the gentiles to provide a 
 curator for insane persons and spendthrifts, 
 and a guardian for minors. 
 
 Every gens had its meetings, at which 
 resolutions were passed binding its indi- 
 vidual members in matters affecting the 
 gens. It was a decree of the gens Manila, 
 for instance, which forbade any one of its 
 members to bear the prcenomen Marcus. 
 As every familia, whether patrician or 
 plebeian, had certain sacrifices which it was 
 bound to perform, so had every gens, as a 
 larger or extended familia. All members 
 of the gens were entitled, and indeed bound, 
 to take part in the sacra gentilicia, or com- 
 mon worship of the gens. These sacra 
 ceased to exist with the extinction of a 
 gens : and if a member of a gens left it, this 
 right and duty also came to an end. It 
 should be added that certain public religious 
 services were assigned to particular gentes, 
 that of Herciiles, for instance, to the gens 
 Plnaria. 
 
 Geography. Geographical research and 
 literature took their rise, like historical 
 literature, among the lonians of Asia Minor. 
 Their extended commerce and their activity 
 in founding colonies enlarged their geo- 
 graphical horizon. The necessity was thus 
 felt of utilizing and registering the know- 
 ledge already acquired for the purpose of 
 discovering the form and constitution of 
 the earth. The first attempt at sketching 
 a map of the world was made by Aristagoras 
 of Miletus about 550 B.C. His kinsman 
 Hecataeus, one of the writers called 
 LogogrdpM, who flourished about fifty 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 251 
 
 j-ears later, corrected and enlarged this 
 map, and added a commentary. {Sec 
 LOGOGEAPHI.) This commentary, of which 
 only fragments are preserved in quotations, 
 is the oldest piece of purely geographical 
 writing in Greek. The geographical chap- 
 ters in the history of Herodotus (about 
 450 B.C.) compensate us to a certain extent 
 for the loss of this work, and of the other 
 works of the Logographi on history and 
 geography. But they only treat the eastern 
 half of the known world. It became 
 indeed, in the absence of a regular tradition 
 of geographical science, a usual thing for 
 historians to insert geographical disquisi- 
 tions into their works. The writings of 
 Thucydides, Xenophon, Ctesias, Ephorus, 
 Theopompus, Timseus, and others down to 
 Polybius, afford examples of this. 
 
 The first purely geographical work which 
 has come down to us in a complete state is 
 the Penplus bearing the name of Soylax, 
 written in the first part of the 4th century 
 B.C. This is a description of the coast of 
 the Mediterranean. About the same time 
 the astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus made a 
 great advance in the theory of physical 
 geography. He was the first who adduced 
 mathematical proof of the spherical shape 
 of the earth, which had been asserted before 
 his time by Pythagoras. The division of 
 the globe into five zones (two frigid, two 
 temperate, and one torrid) is also due to him. 
 About 330 B.C. Pytheas of Massilia explored 
 towards the N.W. as far as the northern end 
 of the British Islands and the coasts of the 
 German Ocean. About the same time the 
 campaigns of Alexander the Great opened 
 up Asia as far as India to Greek research. 
 Nearchus made a report of exceptional 
 value on his coast voyage from the Indus 
 to the Euphrates. All these discoveries 
 were embodied, about 320 B.C. in a new 
 map by Dicaearchus of Messana, a disciple 
 of Aristotle. He was the first savant who 
 treated physical geography in a scientific 
 manner. He assumed the existence of a 
 southern hemisphere, and made an estimate 
 of the earth's circumference, to which 
 he gave the exaggerated measurement of 
 40,000 miles. His map remained for a long 
 time the standard work of the kind. The 
 southern and eastern parts of India were still 
 further opened out under Alexander's suc- 
 cessors, in consequence of the campaigns of 
 the Seleucidae, and several journeys under- 
 taken by ambassadors, among which that of 
 Megasthenes should be mentioned. The 
 commercial expeditions of the Ptolemies 
 
 brought in fresh knowledge of the coasts 
 of Arabia and E. Africa. 
 
 The first man who arranged the mass of 
 geographical materials hitherto collected, 
 into a really scientific system, was Eratos- 
 thenes of Gyrene (about 276-175 B.C.). His 
 materials he found in the rich collections of 
 the Alexandrian library, Alexandria being 
 then the central point of the commerce of the 
 world. He was fully equipped for his task 
 by his acquirements both in physical science 
 and mathematics, and in history and philo- 
 logy. He endeavoured for the first time 
 to estimate the earth's circumference by a 
 measurement of degrees carried out over a 
 space of 15 degrees of latitude. The im- 
 perfection of his method brought out too 
 large a quantity, 6,250 geographical miles. 
 The name of flipparchus of Nicsea (about 
 140 B.C.) marks a considerable advance. 
 He may be called the founder of mathe- 
 matical geography, as he applied geogra- 
 phical length and breadth to determine the 
 position of places on the earth's surface. 
 He also superseded the rectangular and 
 equidistant projection of parallels and 
 meridians, hitherto used in maps, by a 
 projection which, with few modifications, 
 is identical with the one now in use. The 
 parallels were represented by segments of 
 a circle, the meridians by straight lines or 
 curves, corresponding with the portion of 
 surface to be represented, drawn at dis- 
 tances corresponding to the actual distances 
 on the surface of the globe. The estimate 
 of the earth's circumference which was 
 accepted as correct down to the 10th century 
 A.D., was that of PSsidonius of Apftmea 
 (about 90 B.C.). Taking as his basis the 
 measurement of the shortest distance from 
 Alexandria to Rhodes, he brought out the 
 result as 4,500 geographical miles, or too 
 little by nearly one-sixth. 
 
 Only fragments remain of the writings 
 of these geographers, and others contem- 
 porary with them. But we possess the 
 great work of Strabo of Amaseia, finished 
 about 20 A.D., the most important monu- 
 ment of descriptive geography and eth- 
 nology which has come down from Greek 
 antiquity. Thanks to the Roman conquest, 
 he was in a position to give a more accu- 
 rate description of the West than his 
 predecessors. Up to this time all that the 
 Romans had done for geographical re- 
 search was to open up Western Europe 
 and Northern Africa to the Greek savants. 
 An immense service was rendered to science 
 by Agrippa, tender the direction of Augustus. 
 
OnO 
 
 GEOMORI GERUSIA. 
 
 He measured and indicated on a map the 
 distance between the stations on the great 
 military roads and along the coasts of the 
 Roman empire, thns contributing enor- 
 mously to our knowledge of ancient to- 
 pography, and laying a foundation for our 
 maps. These data formed the basis of a 
 new map of the world, which was first set 
 up in Rome. Numerous copies were prob- 
 ably taken for the larger cities of the 
 empire, and smaller portable ones dis- 
 tributed among the military and the ad- 
 ministrating officials. It is probably upon 
 copies of this kind that the Tabula Peutin- 
 gerulna and the Itlnerdvia are based. {See 
 Peutinger ; Itineraeia.) 
 
 In the 1st century a.d. much was added 
 to geographical knowledge by the expedi- 
 tions of the Romans into the interior of 
 North Africa and the North of Europe. 
 The most important literary works of the 
 Romans on geography belong to this period. 
 These are (1) the compendium of Pomponius 
 Mela ; (2) the geographical books of Pliny 
 the Elder's great encyclopsedia, a dreary 
 uncritical compilation, but the only represen- 
 tative we have of a number of lost works ; 
 (3) the Germclma of Tacitus, an essay 
 mainly of an ethnographical character. .The 
 last great contribution made to geographical 
 science in antiquity is the work of the Alex- 
 andrian astronomer Ptolemy (about 140 
 A.D.). This consists mainly of lists of the 
 places marked in the current maps which he 
 makes his authorities, with their latitude 
 and longitude. After Ptolemy, the geo- 
 graphical literature of the Greeks and 
 Romans alike has nothing to show but 
 compilations and extracts. Towards the 
 end of the 6th century, Stephanus of 
 Byzantium compiled a dictionary of geo- 
 graphy, which is valuable for the quantity 
 of information taken from the older and 
 lost writings which it embodies. The book 
 of Pausanias (about 175 a.d.) is valuable 
 as bearing on the special topography of 
 Greece. 
 
 G6om6ri. In many Doric states, particu- 
 larly in Sj-racuse, this term denoted the 
 territorial aristocracy. But in Athens it 
 was applied to the landed commonalty, dis- 
 tinguished from the Eupdtndce, or nobles, 
 on the one side, and the DemiurgT, or 
 mechanics, on the other. 
 
 Gfioponlci. The ancient writers on agri- 
 culture : for instance (among the Greeks), 
 the philosopher Democritus, and in later 
 times, Xenophon, in his (Economicus. No 
 other Greek works of the kind have come 
 
 down to us, except the collection called 
 Geoponica. This consists of twenty books, 
 and contains extracts from writers of the 
 most widely distant periods. The compiler 
 wasaBithynian,CassianusBassus,who lived 
 about the middle of the 10th century A.D., 
 and undertook the work at the suggestion 
 of the Emperor Constantine YII. He based 
 it upon a collection of extracts made by a cer- 
 tain VindaniosAnatolios. Agriculture was 
 held in high esteem by the Romans, and the 
 subject was in consequence a favourite one 
 with their men of letters. A number of 
 their works on it have come down to us : 
 the Res Rustlca of the elder Cato, a similar 
 work by the encyclopsedic scholar, Marcus 
 Terentius Varro, the Georgics of Vergil, 
 and after Christ the writings of Columella, 
 Gargilius Martialis, . and Palladius. The 
 Georgics of Vergil are a poem : and one 
 book of Columella is in verse. 
 
 Germanicus Csesar. The son of Nero 
 Claudius Drusus, adopted son of his uncle 
 Tiberius, and grandson of Livia, the wife of 
 Augustus. He was celebrated for his cam- 
 paigns against the Germans. He was born 
 15 B.C., and died 19 a.d. Distinguished as 
 much for culture as for military accomplish- 
 ments, he was an orator and author as well 
 as a general. Ovid, who dedicated to him 
 the 2nd edition of his Fasti, praises his 
 poetry. His paraphrase of the PhanOmPna 
 of Aratus in 725 lines, and three fragments 
 (246 lines) of a paraphrase of the same 
 writer's Frognostica, still survive. They 
 are remarkable for knowledge, command of 
 metre, and a pleasant style. The Phceno- 
 mena are dedicated to Tiberius, and de- 
 scribed by the author himself as the work 
 of a beginner. These poems used erro- 
 neously to be attributed to Domitian, who 
 did not take the title of Germanicus until 
 he was emperor. Three collections of 
 scholia upon them, by no means without 
 value, have also survived. 
 
 Ggrusla (coiincil of old men, GSrontSs). 
 The supreme deliberative authority among 
 the Spartans, according to the constitution 
 of Lycurgus. It consisted of twenty-eight 
 men of at least sixty years of age, called 
 Gerontes, elected by the public assembly for 
 life. The meetings of the Gerusia were 
 presided over by the two kings, who had 
 the right of voting. The number of the 
 council therefore amounted to thirty. It was 
 their duty to deliberate beforehand on all 
 important affairs of state, and prepare pre- 
 liminary resolutions upon them, to be voted 
 upon by the public assembly. They had 
 
GERYON GLADIATORES. 
 
 253 
 
 also jurisdiction in the case of all offences 
 which were punishable by death or loss of 
 civil rights. They sat in judgment, if neces- 
 sary, even on the kings, in later times asso- 
 ciating the ephors with them in this func- 
 tion. Their authority, like that of the 
 kings, suffered considerable restriction at the 
 hands of the ephors. They had a similar 
 position in the Cretan constitution, accord- 
 ing to which only the members of the 
 highest magistracy, called the Cosmoi, or 
 regulators, could enter the council, and that 
 after a blameless term of administration. 
 
 Geryon or Geryones. A giant with three 
 bodies and powerful wings, the son of 
 Chrysaor and Callirrhoe. He dwelt in the 
 island of Erytheia, lying in the ocean, in 
 the extreme west ; and was the possessor of 
 a herd of red cattle, watched by the shep- 
 herd Eurytion, and a two-headed dog called 
 Orthros. It was one of the twelve labours 
 of Heracles to carry off these cattle, and 
 after a violent contest to slay the pursuing 
 Geryon with his arrows. 
 
 Gigantes (Giants). In Homer the Gi- 
 gantes are a wild and gigantic race of 
 aborigines, kinsmen of the gods, as are the 
 Cyclopes and Ph^acians. With their king 
 Eurymedon, they are destroyed for their 
 wickedness. Hesiod makes them the sons 
 of Gsea, sprung from the blood of the muti- 
 lated Uranus. Neither Hesiod nor Homer 
 know anything of their struggle with the 
 gods (Gic/antomdcMa), the story of which 
 seems to be a reflexion of the myth of the 
 Titans, and their contest with the gods, 
 and to be associated with local legends. 
 The two are often confused by later poets. 
 The place of the contest was Phlegra, or 
 the place of burning. Phlegra was always 
 localized in volcanic regions. In the earlier 
 stories it is on the Macedonian peninsula of 
 Pallene ; and in later times on the Phle- 
 grsean plains in Campania between Cumse 
 and C&pua, or again at Tartessus in Spain. 
 Led on by Alcyoneus and Porphyrion, they 
 hurled rocks and burning trunks of trees 
 against heaven. But the gods called Heracles 
 to their assistance ; a prophecy having warned 
 them that they would be unable to destroy 
 the giants without the aid of a mortal. 
 Heracles slew not only Alcyoneus, but gave 
 the others, whom the gods had struck down, 
 their quietus with his arrows. As Ence- 
 ladus was flying, Athene threw the island 
 of Sicily upon him. Polybotes was buried 
 by Poseidon under the island of Nisyros, a 
 piece of the island of Cos, which Poseidon 
 had broken off with his trident, with all 
 
 the giants who had fled there. Besides 
 these, the following names are given among 
 others : Agrios, Ephialtes, Pallas, ClytiSs, 
 EurytSs, HippSlytos, Thoon. 
 
 In the oldest works of art the Giants 
 are represented in human form and armed 
 with harness and spears. But in course of 
 time their attributes became terrific, awful 
 faces, long hanging hair and beard, the 
 skins of wild animals for garments, trunks 
 of trees and clubs for weapons. In the 
 latest representations, but not before, their 
 bodies end in two scaly snakes instead of 
 feet (see cut). In the GigantOmdcMa of 
 
 **. ^. ^. nf. 
 GIANT IN CONFLICT WITH AETEMIS. 
 
 Cp. Giant to right of Pebgamene Sculptures, fig. 1. 
 (Roman relief in Vatican Museum.) 
 
 Pergamos, the grandest representation of 
 the subject in antiquity, we find a great ■ 
 variety of forms ; some quite human, others 
 with snakes' feet and powerful wings, others 
 with still bolder combinations of shape ; 
 some are naked, some clothed with skins, 
 some fully armed, and others slinging stones. 
 {See Pekgamene Sculptures.) 
 
 Gladiatores. The Latin name for the 
 combatants who fought each other for life 
 or death at the public shows. They first 
 appear in Rome in 264 B.C., and only at the 
 celebrations of private funerals, or in games 
 given in memory of a private individual. 
 Entertainments of this kind were often pro- 
 vided for in wills. The custom, like others 
 of the same kind, seems to have come from 
 Etruria, where it was a survival of the 
 human sacrifices formerly usual at funerals. 
 These gladiatorial contests soon became a 
 very favourite form of popular entertain- 
 ment, and in the last century of the repi.").blio 
 were held to be an excellent means of win- 
 
254 
 
 GLADIATORES. 
 
 ning the favour of the populace at eleotions. 
 Indeed, custom at length imposed an obli- 
 gation on some magistrates, for instance on 
 the sediles, to give gladiatorial games on 
 their assumption of office ; and they would 
 try to outbid each other in the number of 
 contending couples and in general expendi- 
 ture. Prom Rome the fashion soon spread 
 into the provinces. Campania was the part 
 of Italy where it most prevailed. It was 
 not, however, till the time of Domitian that 
 quaestors designate were regularly com- 
 pelled to give the great gladiatorial ex- 
 hibitions, which occupied ten days in the 
 month of December. In the Western Em- 
 pire they survived at least down to the be- 
 ginning of the 5th century A.D. 
 
 They were at first given in the forum, 
 but afterwards generally in the amphi- 
 theatres (see Amphitheatre), and in the 
 circus, if the exhibition was to be T)n a very 
 large scale. The gladiators were sometimes 
 condemned criminals ; but it must be re- 
 membered that originally Roman citizens 
 could not be sentenced to the arena, and it 
 was not till later times that this punishment 
 was extended to criminals of low condition. 
 Sometimes they were prisoners of war, 
 slaves, or volunteers. Under the Empire it 
 was not so uncommon, even in the upper 
 classes, to volunteer as a gladiator. Some- 
 times the step was the last refuge of a 
 ruined man ; sometimes the emperor would 
 force a man to it. These volunteers were 
 called auctoratl ( = bound over), to distin- 
 guish them from the rest ; their pay was 
 termed auctoramentuin. Troops of gladia- 
 tors were sometimes owned by Romans in 
 good society, who often, towards the end of 
 the republican age, employed them in street- 
 fights against their political opponents. 
 Sometimes they were the property of 
 speculators, who often carried on at the 
 same time the disreputable trade of a fenc- 
 ing master (Idnista). These men would 
 hire out or sell their gladiators to persons 
 who were giving their shows, or would 
 exhibit them for money to the public on 
 their own account. 
 
 The gladiators were trained in special 
 schools {ludi). Under the Empire things 
 went so far that the emperors kept schools 
 of their own under the supervision of pro- 
 curatores of equestrian rank. After Domi- 
 tian's time there were four of these in 
 Rome. A building for this purpose, large 
 enough for a hundred gladiators, is preserved 
 in Pompeii. To strengthen their muscles 
 they were put on a very nourishing diet. 
 
 Every style of fighting had its special pro- 
 fessor (doctor or mdgister), and the gladiator 
 was usually instructed only in one style. 
 The novice (tiro) began with fence-practice 
 against a wooden stake, at first with light 
 wooden arms, but afterwards with weapons 
 of full weight. 
 
 If a man were intending to give a show 
 of gladiators {vmnus glddldtoi'luni) he 
 advertised it by notices {programmdta) 
 put up on the walls of houses, numerous 
 copies of these being at the same time 
 widely distributed. These notices stated 
 the date and occasion of the show, the 
 name of the giver (editor), the number 
 of pairs of gladiators, and the different 
 kinds of combats. The performance began 
 with a gala procession (jpompa) of the 
 gladiators to the arena and through it. 
 Then came the testing of the weapons by 
 the editor, who, though he might be a 
 private individual, had the right of wearing 
 the insignia of a magistrate during the 
 show. A preliminary skirmish or proluslo, 
 with wooden swords and darts, next took 
 place, till the trumpets sounded, and the 
 serious fighting began. This took place 
 to the accompaniment of music in a space 
 measured out by the fencing master. The 
 gladiators sometimes fought, not in pairs, but 
 in troops. The timid were driven on with 
 whips and red-hot irons. If a gladiator 
 was wounded in single combat, he raised 
 his fore-finger to implore the mercy of the 
 people, with whom, after the last years of 
 the republic, the giver of the games usually 
 left the decision. The sign of mercy 
 (rnissw) was the waving of handkerchiefs : 
 the clenched fist and downward thumb 
 indicated that the combat was to be fought 
 out till death. Condemned criminals had 
 no chance of mercy. The slain, or nearly 
 slain, were carried on the biers which stood 
 ready for them, to a particular door {jjorta 
 Llbitlnensxs), into a place where they were 
 stripped (spolidrtum). There, if they had 
 not actually expired, they were put to death. 
 The victors received palms, with branches 
 adorned with fillets. Under the Empire 
 they sometimes got presents of money as 
 well. If a gladiator, by repeated proofs 
 of cleverness and bravery, succeeded in 
 gaining the favour of the people, he was, 
 at the public request, presented with a kind 
 of wooden rapier (rudis),^ as a token that 
 he was now free from all further service. 
 In this case he was called rUdiarhcs. This 
 
 ' The swords used by gladiators often resembled 
 rapiers : see fig. 1. 
 
GLADIATORES. 
 
 255 
 
 did not make him an absolutely free man ; 
 but if he chose to fight again, he did so as 
 a free man, and could accordingly claim a 
 high remuneration. 
 
 Gladiators were armed in various styles, 
 as the pairs of combatants were usually 
 armed, not with the same, but with different 
 
 against the retiarius, was armed in Gallic 
 fashion with helmet, sword and shield, and 
 named after the figure of a fish (morini/lds), 
 which adorned his helmet. The Samnls, 
 or Samnite, was so called after his Samnite 
 equipment. This consisted of a large shield 
 {scutum), a sleeve of leather or metal on 
 
 (1) GLADIATORIAL HELMETS AND SWORDS. 
 (From Pompeii.) 
 
 weapons. The weapons of gladiators, and 
 notably their helmets, were quite different 
 in form from the arms of soldiers (see 
 fig. 1). Gladiators were classed according 
 to their equipment. Thus the retiarius 
 
 MIIIKNAX 
 
 jrAFNDIO 
 
 (2) SECUTOB, RETIARIUS, AND LANISTA. 
 
 (M^osaic in Madrid Library.) 
 
 was armed with a net, was bareheaded, and 
 had nothing on but a short tunic and a 
 girdle ; his left arm was in a sleeve ; 
 his arms were a net (idculum), a trident 
 (fuscina), and a dagger. The net he tried 
 to throw over his pursuing adversary, and 
 to despatch him with dagger or trident, if 
 successful. The secutor, or pursuer, was 
 so called, because he was generally set 
 to fight with the retiarius, who retired 
 before him (fig. 2). He was as lightly 
 equipped as his adversary, but armed with 
 helmet, sword, and shield. The myr- 
 millo (fig. 3), who was also often matched 
 
 the right arm, with a shoulder piece 
 {gdlerus) rising above the shoulder, a 
 girdle, a greave on the left foot, a visored 
 helmet with crest and plume, and a short 
 sword. The Thrax, or Thracian, wore, like 
 his countrymen, a small round shield 
 (parma) and a dagger (sica) curved in the 
 form of a sickle, or bent at right angles. 
 In other respects his equipment was more 
 complete than the 
 Samnite's, for he 
 had greaves on both 
 legs. The hoplo- 
 mdchus, or heavily 
 armed gladiator, 
 wore a breastplate, 
 as well as visored 
 helmet, and greaves. 
 In later times the 
 place of the retiarius 
 was sometimes taken 
 by the Idquearlus, 
 who wore the same 
 light armour, but 
 carried a short 
 sword and a noose 
 (IdquSus), which he threw over his adver- 
 sary and pulled him to the ground. The 
 dimdchceri, or men who fought with two 
 swords, are also apparently the produc- 
 tion of a later time. The esseddril (from 
 essedum, a British war-car with two horses) 
 fought in chariots. The anddhdtce (fig. 4) 
 fought on horseback, armed with small 
 
 (3) MYRMILLO. 
 
 (Rome, Palazzo Doria.) 
 
25G 
 
 GLADIUS- 
 
 -GLAUCUS. 
 
 round shield and spear [spiculum), and a 
 visored helmet without eyeholes, and 
 charged each other in the dark. 
 
 (4) ANDABAT.E. 
 
 (From ttie Amphitheatre, Pompeii.) 
 
 There are many representations of gladia- 
 torial combats in works of art, the most 
 comprehensive of which is a large bas-relief 
 in Pompeii. [Overbeck's Pompeii, figs. 
 106-112; or Schreiber's Bilderatlas, 1 xxx 
 figs. 2-8.] 
 
 Gladius. The Roman military sword, 
 which was attached to a shoulder-strap 
 round the neck, or to the girdle round the 
 waist. The common soldiers wore it on 
 the right side; the ofScers, having no shield 
 like the common soldiers, on the left. It 
 was a short, sharp, two-edged weapon, used 
 more for thrusting than cutting. In the 
 republican period it was only worn by 
 magistrates when acting as military officers ; 
 but under the Empire it was the emblem of 
 imperial power, and in consequence one of 
 the insignia of the emperor and the com- 
 manders nominated by him. After the 
 introduction of the sword instead of the 
 axe in executions, the iUs gladii was the 
 term expressing the full criminal jurisdic- 
 tion conferred by the emperor on the pro- 
 vincial governors. 
 
 Glass (Gr. hydlos, Lat. vitrum). Glass 
 was for a long time procured by the 
 Greeks and Romans from Phoenicia and 
 Egypt, where its manufacture had been 
 carried on since very ancient times, and 
 the art had reached an uncommon degree 
 of perfection. The ancients produced glass- 
 work of great beauty, both in form and 
 colours. In later times it was the manu- 
 facturers of Alexandria whose reputation 
 stood the highest. The manufacturers 
 carried on, down to the times of the later 
 Empire, a considerable export trade in 
 coloured blown-glass and mosaics. It is 
 uncertain whether the Greeks manufactured 
 their own glass in more ancient times. It 
 was certainly a very costly article down 
 to the time of the Peloponnesian War, and 
 only came into general use at a late period. 
 
 In Italy the manufacture of glass began 
 at the commencement of the imperial period, 
 first in Campania and afterwards in Rome, 
 where they were ambitious of surpassing 
 the art of Alexandria. From Italy it spread 
 to Gaul and Spain and the more distant 
 provinces, and before long, glass cups, 
 saucers, and bottles became an ordinary 
 part of household furniture, The remains 
 discovered at Herciilaneum and Pompeii 
 show that glass windows were not unknown 
 in the imperial age. The ancients were 
 familiar with the manufacture of pure, 
 white, transparent, crystal glass, which 
 was much in request, as well as with the 
 art of colouring glass in every tint. They 
 could imitate every kind of stone, produce 
 varying prismatic tints, and spread layers 
 of different colours upon each other. The 
 art of cutting and polishing glass was very 
 advanced. From bits of glass, cut and 
 polished, were made great numbers of mock 
 pearls, or mock precious stones, and pastes, 
 which were worn, instead of real stones, in 
 rings, cut in intaglio or relief. The most 
 important productions of art were: (1) the 
 vasa didtreta. In these cups the outer 
 side was made of filigree work, cut out of 
 the hard mass. The outer network was of 
 a different colour from the ground, with 
 which it was connected by nothing but slen- 
 der glass stalks. (2) The vessels which exhi- 
 bit reliefs of white opaque glass on a dark 
 and. transparent ground, like the celebrated 
 Portland Vase (see Gems). Glass tablets, in- 
 tended for mural decoration, were sometimes 
 ornamented with reliefs of this kind. 
 
 Glauce (Glauke), also called Cretisa. The 
 daughter of Greon king of Corinth, who 
 was betrothed to Jason, and slain out of 
 jealousy by Medea by means of a poisoned 
 robe. {See Argonauts, conclusion.) 
 
 Glaucus (Glaukds). (1) A god of the 
 sea, therefore commonly called Pontios, who 
 possessed the gift of prophecy. Origi- 
 nally a fisherman and diver of Anthedon in 
 Boeotia, he once chanced to eat of a herb 
 which he had seen fish feed on to refresh* 
 themselves when tired. It drove him mad, 
 and he threw himself into the sea, on which 
 he was changed into a sea-god by Oceanus 
 and Tethys. According to another story 
 he threw himself into the sea for love of 
 the young sea-god Melicertes, with whom 
 he was sometimes identified. He was also 
 said to have been the builder and the pilot 
 of the Argo, and to have been changed into 
 a god in a wonderful way after the battle 
 of the Argonauts with the Tyrrhenians. 
 
GLYCON- 
 
 -GOLD AND IVORY. 
 
 257 
 
 According to common belief he visited all 
 the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean 
 every year, prophesying, and lamenting 
 that he could not die. He, and the Nereides 
 with him, were said to have uttered oracles 
 in Delos. The stories had much to tell of 
 his loves, notably of those of Scylla and 
 Circe. He was represented in works of art 
 as an old man with a fish's tail, with sea- 
 blue scales, long hair and beard, and breast 
 covered with sea-weed and shells. 
 
 (2) Son of the Cretan Minos and Pasi- 
 phae. When playing in his infancy he fell 
 into a jar of honey, and was stifled. His 
 father, after a vain search for him, was 
 told by the Curetes that only one person 
 could find the child and bring him to life 
 again. That was the man who should 
 devise a suitable comparison for a cow in 
 his herd, which became white, red, and 
 black, alternately at intervals of four hourg. 
 The seers of the country being unable to 
 solve the difBculty, Minos called in the 
 seer Polyidus of Argos, the great-grandson 
 of Melampiis. He read the riddle by coni- 
 paring the cow to a blackberry or piulberry, 
 which is white, red, and black at various 
 stages of its growth. The corpse of the 
 child he found by aid of the flight of a bird. 
 Professing himself unable to revive the 
 corpse, Minos, in anger, ordered him to be 
 shut up with it in a vault. A snake crept 
 up to the corpse, and Polyidus killed it : he 
 then saw another snake revive its dead 
 fellow by laying a herb upon it. With 
 this herb he brought the dead child to life 
 again. Finally Minos compelled him to 
 teach the boy the art of prophecy. But 
 on his return to Argos, Polyidus made the 
 child spit into hi^ mouth, which caused him 
 to forget all that he bad learned. 
 
 (3) King of Corinth, son of Sisyphus and 
 father of Bellerophontes. At the funeral 
 games of JRelias in lolcus, he was thrown 
 and tornsto pieces by his own horses, which 
 Aphr^*ute in her wrath had driven mad. 
 Hi«?^host was said to appear to the horses 
 ra^cing at the Isthmian games and terrify 
 them. He was accordingly worshipped on 
 the Isthmus, under the name of Taraxippos, 
 or Terrifier of Horses. 
 
 (4) Great-grandson of (3) : grandson of 
 Bellerophontes, and son of HippSlQchus, 
 prince of the Lycians. With his kinsman 
 Sarpedon, he was leader of the Lycian 
 auxiliaries of Priam, and met Diomedes in 
 the melie. ..The two chieftains recognised 
 each other as friends and guests of their 
 grandfather Bellerophontes, and (Eneus, 
 
 C. D. A. 
 
 and exchanged armour, Glaucus parting 
 with his golden suit for the brazen arms 
 of Diomedes. When the Greek entrench- 
 ments were stormed, Glaucus had reached 
 the top of the wall when he was put to flight 
 by an arrow shot by Teucer. He protected 
 Hector when wounded by Achilles ; with 
 Apollo's aid he avenged Sarpedon, and took 
 a prominent part in the struggle for the 
 body of Patroclus. He finally met hia 
 death at the hand of Ajax. 
 
 Gljrcon. An Athenian artist, who pro- 
 bably flourished in the 1st century B.C. 
 He executed the famous colossal statue of 
 the Farnese Hercules, now at Naples (see 
 Heracles). 
 
 Gnomon. The Greek term for the sun- 
 dial, the use of which in Greece is said 
 to date from Anaximenes or Anaximander 
 (500 B.C.) The first sundial used in Rome 
 (solarium) was brought there in 263 B.C. 
 from Catana in Sicily, and set up in public. 
 It was not, however, till 164 B.C. that one 
 adapted to the latitude of Rome was con- 
 structed. Prom that time the use of sun- 
 dials became so common throughout the 
 empire, that it was assumed in legislation 
 during the in^perial period, and all private 
 business was regulated by the hours marked 
 on the dial. 
 
 Gold and Ivory, Art of Working in. The 
 Greeks had a peculiar process of making 
 statues of their gods, in which the unclothed 
 parts were of ivory, the hair and raiment 
 of gold. It was applied exclusively to 
 colossal statues, and wag in special vogue 
 in the 5th century B.C., when Phidliis 
 showed himself an unrivalled master in 
 the art. A clay model was sawn into 
 pieces, in correspondence with which the 
 parts of the statue were composed of ivory 
 plates, made by a process (now lost) of 
 softening and extending the material. This 
 was done by sawing, scraping, and filing. 
 The separate pieces were then fastened with 
 isinglass on a solid nucleus of clay, gypsum, 
 or dried up wood. The next step was to 
 work over the surface of the ivory plates, 
 to smooth over inequalities, and so on. 
 Finally the gold portions, which had been 
 finished separately, were laid on. Special 
 care was required to keep the pieces of 
 ivory together. Oil was much used to keep 
 them in a state of preservation. The statue 
 of Zeus by Phidias at Olympia was found, 
 fifty or sixty years after it was finished, 
 to be in so dislocated a state that a com- 
 plete restoration was necessary [Pausanias 
 vll§10; iv.Sl§6]. 
 
 s 
 
258 
 
 GORGIAS GORGO. 
 
 Gorgias. (1) A Greek sophist and 
 rhetorician, a native of Leontini in Sicily. 
 In 427 B.C., when already advanced in 
 years, he came to Athens on an embassy 
 from his native city, to implore aid against 
 the Syracusans. The finished style of his 
 speaking excited general admiration. He 
 was successful in the object of his mission, 
 and immediately returned home. But he 
 soon came back to Athens, which he made 
 his headquarters, travelling through Greece, 
 like the other Sophists, and winning much 
 popularity and emolument from a large 
 number of disciples. He survived Socrates, 
 who died in 399, and ended his days at 
 Larissa in Thessaly in his hundredth year. 
 
 His philosophy was a nihilistic system, 
 which he summed up in three propositions : 
 (a) nothing exists ; (6) if anything existed, 
 it could not be known ; (c) did anything 
 exist, and could it be known, it could not 
 be communicated. He declined to assume 
 the name of Sophist, preferring that of 
 rhetorician. He professed to teach not 
 virtue, but the art of persuasion ; in other 
 words, to give his disciples such absolute 
 readiness in speaking, that they should be 
 able to convince their hearers independently 
 of any knowledge of the subject. He did 
 not found his instruction on any definite 
 rhetorical system, but gave his pupils 
 standard passages of literature to learn by 
 art and imitate, practising them in the 
 application of rhetorical figures. He ap- 
 peared in person, on various occasions, at 
 Delphi, Olympia, and Athens, with model 
 speeches which he afterwards published. It 
 must not be forgotten that it was Gorgias 
 who transplanted rhetoric to Greece, its 
 proper soil, and who helped to diffuse the 
 Attic dialect as the literary language of 
 prose. Two highly rhetorical exercises, 
 the genuineness of which is doubtful, have 
 come down to us under his name, — the 
 Encomium of Helen, and the Defence of 
 Pdldmedes against the charge of high 
 treason brought against him by Odysseus. 
 
 (2) A Greek rhetorician of the second 
 half of the 1st century B.C. He was tutor 
 to the younger Cicero, and was the author 
 of a treatise on the figures of speech, which 
 is in part preserved in a Latin paraphrase 
 by Rutillus Lupus. dS'eeRnTiLius Lupus.) 
 
 Gorgo (Gorgons). Homer makes mention 
 of the terrible head of the Gorgon, a for- 
 midable monster. This head is a terror in 
 Hades, and in the Eegis or breastplate of 
 Zeus. Hesiod speaks of three Gorgons; 
 Stheno (the mighty), Euryale (the wide- 
 
 wandering), and Mgdusa (the queen). They 
 are the daughters of the aged sea-god 
 Phorcys and Keto, and sisters of the Graise 
 (see Grai^). They dwell on the farthest 
 shore of Ocean, in the neighbourhood of 
 Night and of the Hesperides. They are 
 awful beings, with hair and girdles of 
 snakes, whose look turns the beholder to 
 stone. They are also often represented 
 with golden wings, brazen claws, and 
 enormous teeth. Medusa is mortal, but 
 the other two immortal. When Perseus 
 cuts off Medusa's head, Chrysaor and the 
 winged horse Pegasus, with whom she was 
 with child by Poseidon, spring forth from 
 the streaming blood. The head was given 
 by Perseus to Athene, who set it in her 
 shield. Heracles received a lock of the 
 hair from Athene as a present. When en- 
 deavouring to persuade Cephalus of Tegea 
 to take part in his expedition against 
 Hippocoon of Sparta, the king represented 
 that he feared an attack from his enemies 
 the Argives in Heracles' absence. Heracles 
 accordingly gave to Sterope, the daughter 
 of Cephalus, the lock of Medusa's hair in 
 a brazen urn, bidding her, in case the enemy 
 approached, to avert her head and hold it 
 three times over the walls, for the mere 
 aspect of it would turn the enemy to flight, 
 In consequence of the belief in this power 
 of the Gorgon's head, or Gorgoneion, to 
 paralyse and terrify an enemy, the Greeks 
 carved images of it in its most terrifying 
 forms, not only on armour of all sorts. 
 
 (1) AKCHAIC HEAp OF IIEDDSA. (Cp. ScULPTUEE, fig. 1). 
 
 {AntpjUcu-m of terra-cotta, foniid S.15. of Parthenon, 1836, 
 pulilished in colours by Roes, Arch, Aufs. I vii.) 
 
 especially shields and breastplates, but also 
 on walls and gates (see fig. 1). Thus, on 
 the south wall of the Athenian Acropolis, a 
 large gilded Gorgoneion was set on an aegis 
 [Pausanias, i 21 § 4]. In the popular belief 
 the Gorgon's head was also a means of pro: 
 tection against all enchantment, whether 
 of word or act, and we thus find it through- 
 
GOETYN, LAW OF GRAMMATEUS. 
 
 259 
 
 out Greek history emploj'ed as a powerful 
 amulet, and often carved with graceful 
 settings on decorative furniture and costly 
 ornaments. But the Greek artists, with 
 their native sense of beauty, knew, even in 
 the case of the Gorgon, how to give adequate 
 expression to the idea which lay at the root 
 of the story. The story said that Medusa 
 had been a fair maiden, whose luxuriant 
 hair had been turned by Athene into snakes 
 in revenge for the desecration of her sanc- 
 tuary. Accordingly the head of Medusa is 
 represented in works of art with a counte- 
 nance of touching beauty, and a wealth of 
 hair wreathed with snakes. The face was 
 imagined as itself in the stillness of death, 
 and thus bearing the power to turn the 
 
 (2) RONDANINI MEDUSA. 
 
 (Munich, Glyptothek.) 
 
 living to stone. The most beautiful sur- 
 viving instance of this conception is the 
 Rondanini Medusa now at Munich (fig. 2). 
 
 Gortyn, Law of. [An archajc Greek in- 
 scription discovered in 1884 by Halhherr, in 
 the bed of a mill-stream at Hagios Deka in 
 Crete, the site of the Greek city of Gortyn, 
 After many difficulties, the whole of it was 
 copied and published at the end of the year. 
 It was found to be inscribed iq 12 columns 
 on the inside wall of a circular building 
 about 100 feet in diameter, which was 
 probably a theatre, and covers a space of 
 about 30 feet in length, to a height of 
 between 5 and 6 feet from the ground. 
 The lines are written alternately from left 
 to right and from right to left. Two frag- 
 ments of it had been discovered before, one 
 of them being in the Louvre at Paris, and 
 with the addition of these fragments the 
 inscription was found to be practically 
 complete. It contains a collection of laws 
 regulating the private relations of the in- 
 habitants of Gortyn. These laws deal 
 chiefly with such subjects as Inheritance, 
 
 Adoption, Heiresses, Marriage and Divorce, 
 and incidentally afford much information 
 on the slave system, the tenure of land and 
 property, the organization of the courts, 
 and other matters of interest. Its chief 
 value is perhaps as throwing light upon 
 the laws of the earlier Athenian legislators. 
 The inscription is probably to be dated a 
 few years before 400 e.g.]— C. A. M. Pond. 
 
 CrVsAss, i.e. the gray-haired women, were, 
 in Greek mythology, the protectresses of the 
 Gorgons, and, like them, the daughters of 
 Keto and Phorcys, the aged god of the seas. 
 Hesiod knows of only two, Pephredo and 
 Enyo ; the later story adds a third, Deino. 
 Their very names suggest panic and terror. 
 Born with gray hair, and having only one 
 eye and tooth between them, which they 
 pass from one to the other, they are the very 
 personifications of old age. Perseus found 
 it easy to rob them of their tooth. Their 
 dwelling-place was in the boundary of the 
 Gorgonian plain at the farthest end of Libya, 
 where no sun or moon ever shone. 
 
 Grrammateus. The Greek word for a writer, 
 secretary, or clerk. At Athens the officials 
 had numerous clerks attached to them, who 
 were paid by the state and belonged to the 
 poorer class of citizens. But there were 
 several higher officials who bore the title 
 of Orammateus. The Boule or senate, for 
 instance, chose one of its members by show 
 of hands to be its clerk or secretary for one 
 year. His duty was to keep the archives 
 of the senate. So, too, a secretary was 
 chosen by lot from the whole number of 
 senators for each prytany, to draft all reso- 
 lutions of the senate. {See Pbttant.) 
 His name is therefore generally given in 
 the decrees next to that of the president 
 and the proposer of the decree. The name 
 of the grammateus of the first prytany 
 was also given with that of the arr.hon, 
 as a means of marking the year with more 
 accuracy. At the meetings of the Ecclesia 
 a clerk, elected by the people, had to read 
 out the necessary documents. The office 
 of the anttgrdpheis, or checking clerks, was 
 of still greater importance. The anti- 
 grapJieus of the senate, elected at first by 
 show of hands, but afterwards by lot, had 
 to take account of all business affecting the 
 financial administration. The antigrapheus 
 of the administration had to make out, and 
 lay before the public, a general statement 
 of income and expenditure, and exercised 
 a certain amount of control over all finan- 
 cial officials. In the iEtolian and Achsean 
 federations the grammateus was the high- 
 
260 
 
 GB.AMMATICA. 
 
 est officer of the League after the strdtegl 
 and hipparcln. 
 
 Grammitica [sometimes rendered in Latin 
 by litteratura]. 
 
 1. Greece. The term grammaticn, in 
 the scientific sense, included, in antiquity, 
 all the philological disciplines, grammar 
 proper, lexicography, prosody, the lower and 
 higher criticism, antiquities, everything, in 
 short, necessary to the understanding and 
 explanation of grammdta, or the treasures 
 of literature, whether their form or their 
 matter be in question. It was first de- 
 veloped into a special science during the 
 Alexandrian age, in Alexandria and Per- 
 gamon, where the great libraries gave 
 ample opportunity for philological studies 
 on the scale above indicated. It was the 
 restoration of the text of the Homeric 
 poems, and the explanation of their words 
 and contents, that primarily exercised 
 the wits of the scholars. Hesiod, the lyric 
 poets, the dramatists, and certain prose 
 writers next engaged their attention. The 
 progress and development of philology is 
 marked by the names of Zenodotus (about 
 280 B.C.), Aristophanes of Byzantium 
 (260-188), a,nd Aristarchus (about 170), 
 the three chief representatives of the Alex- 
 andrian school. To thpse must be added 
 Crates (about 160), the head of the school 
 of Pergamon, and the opponent of the 
 Alexandrians. The name of Aristarchus 
 represents the highest point of philological 
 learning and criticism in antiquity. He 
 was the founder of the celebrated school of 
 the Aristarcheans, which continued to exist 
 and to maintain an uninterrupted tradition, 
 down to the first century of the imperial 
 age. His disciple Dionysius Thrax wrote 
 the oldest manual of grammar that we pos- 
 sess. By far the most celebrated of the later 
 Aristarcheans was Didymus, born about 
 63 B.C. His writings are the chief founda- 
 tion of the Byzantine collections of scliotta. 
 
 The science of grammatica gradually 
 narrowed its scope till it confined itself 
 to grammar in the restricted sense of the 
 word, namel}', accidence and syntax, com- 
 bined with lexical researches into the 
 dialects, and into the usages of special 
 periods of literature, and special groups of 
 authors. The most eminent scholars of the 
 Empire are Apollonius Dj'sc6lus (about 
 150 A.D.), who endeavoured to reduce the 
 whole of empirical grammar to a system, 
 and his son, j^lius Herodlanus, a still more 
 important personage. The writings of the 
 latter form one of the chief authorities of 
 
 the later grammarians, such as Arcadius. 
 The lexical writings of the earlier scholars 
 were often very comprehensive, and have 
 only survived in fragments, or in later 
 extracts, such "as that of Hesychius. They 
 had consisted mainly in collections of 
 glosses, or strange and antiquated expres- 
 sions. But in the 2nd century A.D. the 
 influence of the reviving sophistic litera- 
 ture and education turned the attention of 
 lexicographers to the usage of the Attic 
 writers. This tendency is represented in 
 the surviving works of Pollux, Harpocration, 
 and others. To the same period belongs 
 Hephaestion's manual of prosody, which is 
 the only 'complete treatise on this subject. 
 Athenseus, at the beginning of the 3rd 
 century, wrote a work (the DeipnosopJiistcR) 
 of inestimable value to the student of anti- 
 quities. Longinus, who died 273 A.D., may 
 be regarded as the last considerable scholar 
 of the ancient world. The later gram- 
 marians restricted themselves to compiling 
 extracts from the works of earlier ages. 
 
 (2) Rome. After the middle of the 2nd 
 eenttiry B.C., a lively interest in the history 
 of literature and the study of language 
 arose in Rome. It had been excited by the 
 lectures on Greek authors given by Crates 
 during his sojourn in Rome as ambassador 
 (B.C. 159). Not only writers of repute, such 
 as Accius and Lucilius, but men like ^Elius 
 Stilo, a member of the equestrian order, 
 who was actively engaged in public life, took 
 up these studies with eagerness. What was 
 afterwards known of the primitive Latin 
 language we owe mainly to jElius Stilo. He 
 was the master of the great encyclopaedist 
 Marcus Terentius Varr5, Cicero's contem- 
 porary. This great scholar left his mark on 
 every department of philological research, 
 and his writings were the storehouse from 
 which the following generations mainly drew 
 their information. Besides Varro, other men 
 of mark occiipied themselves with gram- 
 matical study in the Ciceronian age, notably 
 Nigidius Figulus. Julius Oassar was the 
 author of a treatise on accidence. Thei-e 
 were numerous scholars in the Augustan 
 age, among whom Verrius Flaccus and 
 Hyginus deserve especial notice. In the 1st 
 century a.d. we have Eemmius Palsemon, 
 Asconius Pgdianus, Valerius Probus, and 
 the elder Pliny. It was Remmius Palsemon 
 who is mainly responsible for having made 
 Vergil the centre of scholastic instruction 
 for the Latin world, as Homer was for the 
 Greek. During the 2nd century, under 
 Hadrian and the Antonines, we notice a 
 
GR AMM ATICUS GYMNASIUM. 
 
 261 
 
 revived interest in the older literature. 
 This period is distinguished by the names 
 of Suetonius, Terentius Scanrus, and Aulus 
 Gellius. Suetonius aspired to the many- 
 
 sided 
 
 learning 
 
 of Varro, and, like Varro, 
 
 was much quoted by later writers, 
 
 After this time the grammarians tend 
 more and more to coniine their studies to 
 points of language, to abandon independent 
 research, and to depend on the labours 
 of their predecessors. The chief value of 
 their writings consists in the fact that they 
 have preserved some fragments of ancient 
 learning, Their extracts are usually made 
 for school purposes, and put together in 
 artes, or manuals of accidence, orthography, 
 prosody, and metre. Such are the books of 
 Marius Victorinus, Donatus, Servius, Chari- 
 sius, Diomedes, who are all assigned to the 
 4th century a.d. Nonius Marcellus belongs 
 to the same period. He is the author of a 
 work {De Compendiosa Doctrlna) which, 
 though dreary and uncritical, is invaluable 
 for the stores of old Latin which it has 
 preserved. The 6th century is marked by 
 the name of Priscian. We may further 
 notice Terentianus Maurus, the author of 
 a versified treatise on metre in the 3rd 
 century; Macrobius, who in the 5th cen- 
 tury composed a miscellany of antiquities 
 called Saturnalia • and Isidore, Bishop of 
 Seville, in the 7 th century, whose 
 OnglnBs is the last work founded 
 on a real study of ancient autho- 
 rities. 
 
 GrammaticTis (Gr. Grammdti- 
 kds). See Education. 
 
 Grammatistes. See Education. 
 
 Granius Licinlanus. A Roman 
 historian, who probably flourished 
 in the 2nd century a.d. He was 
 the author of a work compiled in 
 the style of anndles, ending with 
 the death of Csesar. Some con- 
 siderable fragments have been 
 found in modem times of books 
 28-36, covering the history of the 
 years 163-78 B.C. 
 
 Graphe. See Judicial Pboce- 
 
 DUKE. 
 
 GratiaBjOr Graces. ASi?e Charites. 
 
 Gratius [better Grattius] Falis- 
 CTis. A Roman poet, contemporary 
 with Ovid. He was the author of 
 a poem on the chase {CynegSticOn), 
 of which only the first book has been 
 preserved, and that mutilated towards the 
 close. The fragment consists of some 535 
 hexameters, in which the subject is treated 
 
 with much talent in an even and classical 
 style, but with considerable dryness in 
 many parts. Grattius has been styled 
 Faliscus because, in one passage, he ap- 
 parently indicates that the Palisci were his 
 countrymen. 
 
 Groma. The measuring instrument used 
 by land surveyors, who were called Gromd- 
 ticl from it. See Ageimensoees. 
 
 Gustatio. See Meals. 
 
 G^naikonitis. See House. 
 
 Gymnasiarchia. See Leitourgia (2). 
 
 Gymnasium (Gr. GymndsiSn). The Greek 
 name for the place where the youths who 
 had already passed through the pdlcestra 
 performed their gymnastic exercises. (See 
 PaLjEStea.) Such was the importance 
 which the Greeks attached to physical 
 training, that no city in Greece proper, 
 and no Greek colony, was without its 
 gymnasium. There were several in the 
 larger cities. Athens, for instance, in the 
 time of its greatness, possessed three, all 
 situated outside the city, the Acddemia, 
 the Lycamm, and the Cynosarges. In later 
 times there were even more. It was in the 
 gymnasia that the SpheM went through the 
 two years' course of exercises which were 
 to fit them for military service. 
 
 The simplest form of a gymnasium was 
 that of a court surrounded by columns 
 
 A. Portico. B. Passage. 
 
 B. PalcBStra. F, G. Cold baths. 
 0. Ei>}ieheion. H, H. Hot baths. 
 D. Dressing-rooms. 
 
 * GYMNASIUM AT EPHKSUS 
 {Ionian Antiquities, ii, pi. 40.) 
 
 L, M. Warm baths. 
 
 Near I. Staircase to laconicum. 
 
 K. Ball-alley. 
 
 (pSristyUSn). This served for the exercises 
 in leaping and running. Covered spaces 
 were attached for wrestling. Owing to the 
 great variety of gymnastic exercises, and 
 
262 
 
 GYMNASTICS. 
 
 the increasing inclination of gvown men to 
 look on at them and take part in them, the 
 gymnasia, often adorned with beautiful 
 sculptures, grew in extent and splendou.r of 
 equipment. {See cut.) 
 
 The great court comprised a number of 
 spaces serving a variety of purposes : for 
 instance, the ephebeion, or hall where the 
 ephehi practised, rooms for dressing and 
 anointing, sanding or dusting the body, 
 cold-water baths and dry sudcdorla, spaces 
 for playing at ball, open and covered pas- 
 sages for running, wrestling, or walking. 
 Attached to the colonnades on the outside 
 were semicircular niches, furnished with 
 stone seats, called exedra. In these philo- 
 sophers and rhetoi-icians would sit and talk 
 with their disciples. A sfddion, with a 
 space for spectators to look on, and walks 
 planted with trees, were often attached to 
 the gymnasium. The whole was under the 
 superintendence of a gymnasiarcJios. The 
 conduct of the youths was under the super- 
 vision of sophronistcE. At Athens these 
 officers were ten in number, and elected 
 annually. The exercises were directed by 
 the gymnasta. For similar arrangements 
 under the Roman empire see Theem^. 
 
 Gymnastics. I Grecian. The art of 
 physical exercises, so called because the 
 Greeks practised them unclothed (gymnos). 
 Various exercises of the kind, carried on in 
 view of contests on festive occasions, are men- 
 tioned as early as Homer. After the Homeric 
 time they were, at all periods, widely prac- 
 tised among the Greeks, and more so after 
 they were legally prescribed as part of 
 the regular educational course, especially at 
 Athens and Sparta. They were, moreover, 
 actively encouraged by the great national 
 games, particularly the Olympian games, of 
 which they formed the chief part. Heracles 
 and Hermes were the tutelary gods of 
 gymnastics, which attained in Athens their 
 highest and most varied development. The 
 object of the art was to develop the body 
 harmoniously in health, activity, and beauty. 
 Boys went through certain preliminary 
 stages of gymnastics in the palmstrce, and 
 carried on their further training to perfec- 
 tion in the gymnasia. {See Gymnasium.) 
 
 The different kinds of exercises were as 
 follows : (1) Running {drdmos or stddwn). 
 This was the oldest of all, and for a long 
 time the only one practised in the public 
 games. In later times, indeed, it stood at 
 the head of the list. The course was either 
 single {stadion, nearly the eighth of a mile), 
 or double {diaulos). The runner was some- 
 
 times equipped with helmet and greaves, 
 but in later times only with the latter. The 
 hardest of all was the long course or 
 dSliclios. This was a distance of 24 stadia, 
 between two and three English miles, which 
 had to be run without stopping. 
 
 (2) Leaping [halmd). This included 
 the high and wide jump, and jumping down- 
 wards. To strengthen the power of spring 
 and secure the equilibrium of the body, 
 especially in leaping downwards, it was 
 common to use pieces of iron called haltSres, 
 not unlike our dumb-bells. 
 
 (3) Wrestling {pale). This was the 
 pUce de resistance of the Greek gymnastic. 
 The combatants were allowed certain tricks 
 which are now forbidden, as throttling, 
 pushing, and twisting the fingers. Standing 
 upright, each wrestler tried to throw the 
 other down, and if one of them was thrown 
 thrice, he was regarded as beaten, unless 
 the contest was continued on the ground. 
 In this case the one who was thrown tried 
 to get up, while the other tried to hinder 
 him, until he owned himself vanquished. 
 
 Before all g3'mnastic exercises the body 
 was well rubbed with oil to make the 
 limbs supple. But before wrestling it was 
 also sprinkled with dust, partly to afford 
 a firm hold, partly to prevent excessive 
 perspiration. 
 
 (4) DiscSbdlia, or throwing the discus. 
 {See Discus.) 
 
 (5) Throwing the javelin {dkontismSs). 
 
 (1) * METHOD OF DISCHARGING THE JAVELIN WITH 
 
 THE AID OF AN aTnmentuTn, or thong. 
 (Vase in British Maseam : Rev. Arch., 1800, ii 211.) 
 
 These five exercises together formed the 
 pentathlon, or set of five, in which no one 
 was accounted victorious who had not con- 
 quered in all. Besides these there was 
 
 (6) The dangerous game of boxing {pyx, 
 pygme). In this the combatants struck out 
 with each hand alternately, their hands 
 being bound round with thongs so as to leave 
 fingers and thumb free to form a clenched 
 fist {see engraving). Athletes often fitted 
 the thongs with strips of sharp and hardened 
 
GYMNETjE HADES. 
 
 263 
 
 leather, or witli nails and leaden knobs. 
 The blow was directed against the upper 
 part of the body, head, and face. 
 
 (2) BOXER. 
 
 (Dresden.) 
 
 (7) The Pancratidn was a combination 
 of boxing and wrestling, but nothing was 
 worn on the hands, and the blow was 
 delivered, not with the clenched fist, but 
 with the fingers bent. This exercise was 
 not introduced into the public games until 
 650 B.C. Indeed, the two latter exercises 
 were generally confined to the professional 
 athletes. {Se.e Athletes.) In Sparta they 
 were not practised at all. 
 
 n Roman. Among the Romans from 
 the oldest times until the imperial period, 
 the youths used to assemble for exercises in 
 the Campus Martius, the object of the exer- 
 cises being exclusively to prepare them for 
 military service. {See Education.) The 
 Greek gymnastic was not introduced at 
 Rome until the decline of Roman tradition 
 had set in, and professional athleticism had 
 
 become fashionable. The Roman sense of 
 propriety was offended by the Greek practice 
 of exercising unclothed, and the only game 
 which they really adopted was that of 
 throwing the discus. 
 
 Gymnetae (unarmed troops). This was 
 the name for the different sorts of sharp- 
 shooters employed in the Greek armies 
 since the Persian Wars, in place of the light- 
 armed slaves. It was only after the expe- 
 dition of the Ten Thousand that they came 
 to form an essential part of a Greek army. 
 They were generally recruited from the 
 barbarous nations who were specially dis- 
 tinguished in the use of particular missiles. 
 The archers {toxdtos), for instance, were 
 generally Cretans, the slingers (sphenddnetw) 
 Rhodians and Thessalians, while the javelin 
 men {akontistce) were taken from the semi- 
 Hellenic populations in the west of Greece, 
 notably the .iEtolians and Acarnanians, 
 The common characteristic of all these 
 troops was the absence of all defensive 
 weapons. It was among the Lacedemonians 
 that they were introduced latest. Alexan- 
 der the Great had a corps of 2,000 of them, 
 with which he opened his campaign against 
 the Persians. Half of these were spear- 
 men, taken from the Agriani, in the moun- 
 tains of northern Macedonia ; the other half 
 archers, from the lowest class of the Mace- 
 donian population. 
 
 Gymnopaidia. A great festival held at 
 Sparta from the 6th to the 10th of July. 
 It was an exhibition of all kinds of ac- 
 complishments in gymnastics, music, and 
 dancing, given by boys, youths, and men 
 for the benefit of the citizens and of the 
 numerous strangers who flocked to Sparta 
 for the occasion, and were hospitably enter- 
 tained there. Festal hymns were written 
 for the occasion, in honour not only of the 
 
 gods but of brave citizens, 
 who had fallen at Thyrea, 
 Thermopylsa. 
 
 notably those 
 and later at 
 
 H 
 
 Hades (originally Aides or Aidoneus, i.e. 
 " the Invisible "). In Greek mythology, 
 the son of Cronus and Rhea, who received 
 the dominion of the lower world at the 
 division of the universe after the fall of 
 Cronus, his brothers, Zeus and Poseidon, 
 being made lords respectively of the sky and 
 sea. With his queen PersephSne he held 
 sway over the other powers of the infernal 
 regions, and over the ghosts of the dead. 
 
 The symbol of his invisible empire was the 
 helmet that made men invisible. This was 
 given to him by the Cyclopes to aid him 
 in the battle of the gods with the Giants. 
 Originally he was, to all appearance, con- 
 ceived as bringing down the dead himself 
 to the lower world in his chariot, or as 
 driving them down with his staff; but in 
 
 the later belief, the office 
 souls belonged to Hermes. 
 
 of conductor of 
 Hades is the 
 
2G4 
 
 HADES, REALM OP. 
 
 enemy of all life, heartless and inexorable, 
 find hated, accordingly, by gods and men. 
 Sacrifice and prayer are of no avail with 
 him, and he is therefore only worshipped 
 on exceptional occasions. But, like Perse- 
 phone, he was sometimes represented in a 
 milder light, being called Pluto, or the 
 giver of wealth. This because it is from 
 the depths of the earth that corn and its 
 attendant blessings are produced. As old 
 as Hesiod is the advice to the plougher to 
 call upon the Zeus of the lower world, as 
 well as upon Demeter. 
 
 HADES ENTHRONED, WITH CEHBERUS. 
 
 (Rome, Villa Borghese.) 
 
 The most celebrated of the myths re- 
 ferring to Hades is that of the rape of 
 Persephone. In works of art he is repre- 
 sented as resembling his brothers Zeus and 
 Poseidon, but with gloomy features and hair 
 falling over his brow, the key of the infernal 
 world in his hand, and the dog Cerberus at 
 his side. Sometimes he appears as a god of 
 agriculture, with a cornucopia, or a two- 
 pronged pickaxe. The plants sacred to him 
 were the cypress and the narcissus ; black 
 sheep were offered to him in sacrifice. 
 
 The word Hades is also a general term 
 for the lower regions. By the Romans 
 Hades was identified partly with Orcus, 
 partly with Dls pater. 
 
 Hades, Eealm of. According to the belief 
 current among the Greeks, the world of the 
 dead, or the spacious abode of Hades, with 
 
 its wide doors, was in the dark depths of 
 the earth. In the Odyssey, its entrance and 
 outer court are on the western side of the 
 river Oceanus, in the ground sacred to 
 Persephone, with its grove of barren wil- 
 lows and poplars. Here is the abode of the 
 Cimmerians, veiled in darkness and cloud, 
 where the sun never shines. The soil of 
 this court, and indeed of the lower world in 
 general, is a meadow of asphodel, an unattrac- 
 tive weed of dreary aspect usually planted 
 on graves. The actual abode of the subter- 
 ranean powers is Erebos, or the impenetrable 
 darkness. In later times entrances to the 
 lower world were imagined in other places 
 where there were cavernous hollows which 
 looked as if they led into the bowels of the 
 earth. Such places were Hermione and the 
 promontory of Tfenarura in the Peloponnese, 
 Heraclea on the Euxine, and Cumse in Italy, 
 where the mythical Cimmerii were also 
 localized. The lower world of Homer is 
 intersected by great rivers, the Styx, the 
 Acheron (river of woe), Cocytus (river of 
 cries), a branch of the Styx, Phlegethon and 
 Pyriphlegethon (rivers of fire). The last 
 two unite and join the waters of the 
 Acheron. In the post-Homeric legend, 
 these rivers are represented as surround- 
 ing the infernal regions, and another river 
 appears with them, that of Lethe, or ob- 
 livion. In the waters of Lethe the souls 
 of the dead drink forgetfulness of their 
 earthly existence. The lower world once 
 conceived as separated from the upper by 
 these rivers, the idea of a ferryman arose. 
 This was Charon, the son of Erebos and of 
 Nyx, a gloomy, sullen old man, who takes 
 the souls in his boat across Acheron into 
 the realm of shadows. The souls are brought 
 down from the upper world by Hermes, and 
 pay the ferryman an dbdlSs, which was put 
 for this purpose into the mouths of the dead. 
 Charon has the right to refuse a passage 
 to souls whose bodies have not been duly 
 buried. In Homer it is the spirits them- 
 selves who refuse to receive any one to whom 
 funeral honours have not been paid. At 
 the gate lies the dog Cerberus, son of 
 Typhaon and Echidna. He is a terrible 
 monster with three heads, and mane and 
 tail of snakes. He is friendly to the spirits 
 who enter, but if anyone tries to get out he 
 seizes him and holds him fast. 
 
 The ghosts of the dead were in ancient 
 times conceived as incor])oreal images of 
 their former selves, without mind or con- 
 sciousness. In the Odyssey the seer Tire- 
 sias is the only one who 'has retained his 
 
HADES, REALM OF. 
 
 265 
 
 consciousness and judgment, and this as an 
 exceptional gift of Persephone. But they 
 have the power of drinliing the blood of 
 animals, and having done so they recover 
 their consciousness and power of speech. 
 The soul therefore is not conceived as en- 
 tirely annihilated. The ghosts retain the 
 outer form of their body, and follow, but 
 instinctively only, what was their favourite 
 pursuit in life. Orion in Homer is still a 
 hunter, Minos sits in judgment, as when 
 
 that Homer several times mentions that the 
 Erinyes punish perjurers after death. We 
 are forced then to conclude that the ancient 
 belief is, in this instance, found side by side 
 with the later and generally received idea, 
 that the dead, even without drinking blood, 
 preserved their consciousness and power 
 of speech. Connected with it is the notion 
 that they have the power of influencing 
 men's life on earth in various ways. The 
 most ancient belief knows nothing of future 
 
 MEGARA AWD HUB SOS8. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MEDEA (riR DKE). PEIRITROUS, AND TnF.aKU9. 
 
 Hn3BAMD, WIFK, AND CHrLD. 
 
 OUFHEDS. 
 
 
 PEBSEP 
 
 ONE AND HADBS. 
 
 
 TKUTOLIfMLIS, JSACUS, AND RHADAMANTBYS 
 
 SISYPHUS. 
 
 EBIHYS. 
 
 BEAME3. 
 
 
 HERACLES. 
 
 CBRBERUB. 
 
 ERINY8. TANTALUS. 
 
 * THE RKALM OF HADES. 
 
 (Vase from Canosa : Muiiicb, Pinakothek, No. 849.) 
 
 alive. Perhaps the punishments inflicted 
 in Homer on Tityus, Tantalus, and Sisyphus 
 (for Ixion, the Danaides, Peirithoiis, and 
 others belong to a later story) should be 
 regarded in this light. The penalties in- 
 flicted on them in the upper world may 
 be merely transferred by Homer to their 
 ghostly existence. For the idea of a sen- 
 sible punishment is not consistent with that 
 of an unconscious continuance in being. It 
 must be remembered, at the same time. 
 
 rewards of the righteous, or indeed of any 
 complete separation between the just and 
 the unjust, or of a judgment to make the 
 necessary awards. The judges of the dead 
 are in the later legend Minos, Rhadaman- 
 thys, jEacus, and TriptSlemus. It was a 
 later age, too, which transferred Elj/sium 
 and Tartarus to the lower world, Elysium 
 as the abode of the blessed, and Tartarus 
 as that of the damned. In the earlier be- 
 lief these regions had nothing to do with 
 
266 
 
 H^MON HAIR. 
 
 the realm of Hades {see Hades). The name 
 Taiidrus was in later times often applied 
 to the " whole of the lower world. The 
 ghosts of those who had lived a life of ave- 
 rage merit were imagined as wandering on 
 the asphodel meadow. 
 
 In general it must be said that the ancient 
 ideas of a future life were always subject to 
 considerable changes, owing to the influence 
 of the doctrines taught in the mysteries, 
 and the representations of poets, philoso- 
 phers, sculptors, and painters (see Polt- 
 GNOTUS). The general tendency was to 
 multiply the terrors of Hades, especially at 
 the gates, and in Tartarus. (For the deities 
 of the lower world see Hades, Persephone, 
 and Erinyes.) The Greek beliefs on the 
 subject found their way to 'Rome through 
 the instrumentality of the poets, especially 
 Vergil. But they did not entirely sup- 
 plant the national traditions. (See Orcus, 
 Mania, Manes, Lares, and Larv^.) 
 
 and dedicated it to some deity, generally 
 to Apollo, or the gods of their rivers, or the 
 Nymphs, who were regarded as the pro- 
 tectresses of youth. But a free Athenian 
 citizen did not wear his hair very short, or 
 he would have been mistaken for a slave, 
 who would be obliged to do so. Down to 
 the time of Alexander the Great, a full 
 beard was regarded as a mark of manly 
 dignity. After this it became fashionable 
 to shave the face quite smooth, and only 
 philosophers wore beards, to mark their 
 antagonism to the general custom. The 
 Romans too, in ancient times, wore long 
 hair and beards. It was not till 300 B.C., 
 when the first hair-cutter (tonsor) came to 
 Rome from Sicily, that they began to cut both. 
 The younger Scipio is said to have been the 
 first Roman who shaved every day. In 
 course of time it became the fashion to 
 make a festival of the day when the beard 
 was first shaved. Young men, however. 
 
 (1) COIFFURES OP GEEEK LADIES. 
 
 (Prom terracottas, Staokelberg's Graber der Eellenen, taf. Ixxv, etc.) 
 
 Haemon. See Antigone. 
 
 Hair, mode of wearing. Thfl Greeks of 
 the oldest times regarded long hair in a 
 man as an ornament, and only cut it as a 
 sign of mourning. Among the Spartans it 
 was usual for boys to wear their hair short, 
 and to let it grow when they attained the 
 age of ephebi. At Athens, down to the 
 Persian Wars, the hair was worn long, and 
 fastened up into a knot (krobylos) by a 
 needle in the form of a grasshopper. In 
 later times, however, the Athenian boys 
 had their hair cut when they became ephebi, 
 
 would sometimes wear a neatly cut beard, 
 and only men over forty would shave. To 
 let the beard grow was a sign of mourning. 
 In the first half of the 2nd century a.d. the 
 emperor Hadrian brought full beard's into 
 fashion again; and if we may trust the 
 coins, it continued among his successors, 
 with few exceptions, until Constantine. 
 Prom his time, however, the emperors 
 appear almost without exception without a 
 beard. 
 
 The beard was removed not only with 
 razors and scissors, but with tweezers and 
 
HAIR. 
 
 2G7 
 
 hair-destroying compositions. The hair 
 of the head was artificially treated with 
 oils and hot irons. From the middle of the 
 2nd century a.d. to the time of Constantino 
 it was the established custom to cut the 
 hair quite short, after the fashion of athletes 
 and Stoic philosophers. As Greeks and 
 Romans usually went bareheaded, good 
 manners required particular attention to be 
 paid to the hair and beard. Hence a great 
 demand arose for barbers, part of whose 
 business it was to trim the nails, remove 
 warts, and so on. The barbers' shops were 
 much frequented, and became the favourite 
 resort for people in quest of news and gossip. 
 The Greek women, to judge by existing 
 monuments, followed an extraordinury 
 variety of fashions (fig. 1, a-h). The point 
 seems generally to have been to cover the 
 forehead as much as possible. One of the 
 commonest modes of wearing the hair was 
 to draw it back over the head and ears, and 
 let it simply hang down, or fasten it in a 
 knot with a band and a needle. The bands 
 of cloth or leather, wound round the front 
 of the head to fasten the front and back 
 hair, were often made to support a 
 pointed metal plate called stSphdne. This 
 was a broad strip of metal resembling a 
 diadem, and richly ornamented. It some- 
 times appears as an independent ornament, 
 especially on the images of- goddesses (fig. 1, 
 c, d, f, g). There were several kinds of 
 fastenings, by which the hair was artisti- 
 cally arranged ; for instance, the sphendone, 
 so called from its likeness to a sling, being 
 broad in the middle and narrow at the end. 
 The hair was often worn in nets (kekry- 
 phdlos), bags (sakkos), and handkerchiefs 
 wrapped round it in the shape of a cap. 
 Grreek ladies were early acquainted with the 
 use of artificial appliances, such as fragrant 
 oils, curling irons, and the like. 
 
 (2) COIFFtJKKS OP IMPEMAL ROMAN LADIES. 
 
 The Roman matrons, in ancient timfls, 
 tied up their hair with a fillet (vitta) in a 
 tower-shaped top-knot (tUtulus) ; but un- 
 
 married women wore their hair in as simple 
 a style as possible. It was, in general, 
 merely parted, or fastened up in a knot on 
 the neck, or woven in tresses arranged 
 round the front of the head. Brides wore 
 their hair in a peculiar fashion, arranged in 
 six braids, and wrapped in a red handker- 
 chief. To attract attention by an unusual 
 coiffure was thought to be in bad taste. 
 But, towards the end of the repixblican 
 age, the old-fashioned simplicity in dress- 
 ing the hair disappeared, as it did in other 
 
 BABIHA. FAUSTINA, FBOM PuMPEII. IDLIA DOMNA. 
 
 (3) *coiffdkes of imperial roman ladies 
 (from coins). 
 
 matters of dress. Foreign arts, especially 
 those of Greece and Asia, found more and 
 more acceptance. During the imperial 
 period, when the arrangement of the hair 
 
 0, h, r, h, T, h. Ivory hair-pins. /. Brnnze cntnb. 
 
 e. Pomutum-box, with resting CupirJ. d, g. Hand mirrors. 
 
 (4) HAIR-PINS, ETC. 
 
 (From Pompeii.' 
 
 formed a most important part of a lady's 
 toilet, no rule was observed but what indi- 
 vidual caprice and varying fashion dictated, 
 and the wildest and most tasteless fashions 
 were introduced. False hair came into use, 
 as well as ointment and curling irons. 
 False hair was used sometimes in making 
 up the high coiffures at one time in fashion, 
 and sometimes ior perruques. Light colours 
 were the favourite ones for perruques, and 
 hence a regular trade was set up in the hair 
 of German women. Scmetimes, following 
 a Greek fashion, Roman ladies tried, by 
 artificial means, to give their own dark hair 
 a fair or a ruddy complexion. A corrosive 
 soap, imported from Gaul, was specially 
 used for this purpose. Besides ribbons and 
 
2G8 
 
 HALCYONE HANDICRArT. 
 
 fillets, needles, often richly ornamented, of 
 ivory, bone, bronze, silver, and gold, were 
 used to fasten the hair. To protect the hair, 
 Roman ladies wore nets {reticulum), often 
 of gold thread, kerchiefs {mitra), and caps 
 {cdlantica), made of various materials, 
 sometimes of bladders. In wealthy houses 
 male and female slaves, trained by special 
 masters, were kept for dressing the hair. 
 {See the engravings.) 
 
 Halcyone. See Alcyone. 
 
 Ha'ia. See Helios. 
 
 Handicraft. Examples of handicraft ap- 
 plied to the ordinary needs of life occur in 
 the mythical ages of Greece. Among the 
 gods of Olympus, Hephsestus represents this 
 kind of industry, and the oldest craftsmen 
 are represented as divine beings appearing 
 on earth, as in the instance of the Idaean 
 Dactyli and the Telchines in Crete. In the 
 Homeric poems, which are the production 
 of an age fairly advanced in culture, the 
 number of craftsmen properly so called is 
 very small. {See Demiurgi.) The only 
 ones mentioned are builders, carpenters, 
 potters, and workers in leather and metal. 
 The development of the mechanical arts in 
 Greece was immensely indebted, in ancient 
 times, to foreign influence, especially that 
 of the East ; for Eastei-n civilization was 
 far older than Hellenic. The greater part 
 of the trade carried on in Greek waters was 
 in the hands of the Phoenicians, and it 
 was, consequently, Phoenician manufacture 
 which the Hellenes took as a model for 
 imitation, so soon as they thought of 
 widening the sphere of their own indus- 
 tries, and bringing them to perfection. 
 Since the 6th century B.C., or thereabouts, 
 the definite impress of Asiatic manufacture 
 disappears, and Greek trade, supported by 
 a rapidly developing art, takes its own 
 time. Not that it lost all contact with 
 foreign work, for not only did the colonies 
 keep up an active communication with the 
 non-Hellenic world, but foreign craftsmen 
 took up their permanent residence in Greek 
 towns, such as Athens and Corinth. 
 
 Manual labour, like every lucrative occu- 
 pation, was generally held in low esteem 
 among the Greeks, and especially among 
 the Dorian tribes. But this state of opinion 
 must have grown up comparatively late, as 
 there is no trace of it in Homer or Hesiod. 
 On the contrary, the Homeric princes do 
 not think it beneath them to undertake the 
 work of craftsmen. In later times we find 
 the free citizens of many states entirely 
 declining all manual labour. In Sparta, 
 
 for instance, the handicrafts were only~ 
 practised by the pSrio'cl and helots, and 
 mechanics were excluded from civic rights. 
 At Athens all citizens were equal in the 
 eyes of the law, and it was expressly for- 
 bidden to reproach a man for the character 
 of his vocation, whatever it might be. The 
 poorer citizens were compelled by law to 
 practise some trade or other, and it was 
 quite usual to engage in commerce. But 
 still, in the opinion even of the wisest 
 statesmen, mechanical labour was physi- 
 cally, intellectually, and morally prejudi- 
 cial. The petty anxieties which it involved 
 were held to be incompatible with the tone 
 and culture demanded by the active life of 
 the citizen, with the qualities which would 
 enable him to join in deliberation on great 
 affairs of state, and conduct public business 
 with honesty and intelligence. It was 
 thought, in fact, that all manual labour 
 should be left to slaves and freedmen. 
 Much of the mechanical industry of Athens 
 was, accordingly, in the hands of slaves, 
 freedmen, and resident aliens. 
 
 The slaves worked sometimes on their 
 own account, paying a certain amount of 
 their earnings to their master ; sometimes 
 entirely for the profit of their masters, the 
 latter taking no active part in the busi- 
 ness ; sometimes they acted as assistants 
 to the citizens and resident aliens who 
 carried on a business of their own. But 
 in industrial cities the great mass of slaves 
 was employed in factories, the owners of 
 which left the superintendence of the work 
 to a head man, usually himself a slave or 
 freedman, reserving for themselves only 
 the general management and the financial 
 control of the business. The immense 
 masses of slaves kept at Athens and 
 Corinth, and in jEgina and Chios, show 
 how numerous the factories were in indus- 
 trial cities. The manufacture of metal 
 wares, pottery, and other objects which 
 could not be made at home, was the most 
 extended of all. The division of labour 
 kept pace with the development of trade 
 and manufacture. This fact may partly 
 explain how it is that, in spite of the 
 comparative simplicity of their tools, the 
 Greek craftsmen attained, especially in 
 works of art, such admirable perfection of 
 technical detail. 
 
 In ancient Greece it would appear that 
 there were no trade-guilds and corporations 
 in the proper sense. But among the 
 Romans these societies were an institution 
 of old standing, the foundation of which 
 
HANNO HARPOCRATION. 
 
 269 
 
 was attributed to king Numa, like that of 
 many others which had existed from, time 
 immemorial. The guilds of craftsmen {col- 
 legia 6pificum), included flute-players, gold- 
 smiths, coppersmiths, carpenters, fullers, 
 dyers, potters, and shoemakers. There was 
 originally a ninth collegium, which em- 
 braced all not included in the other eight ; 
 but in later times these, with the new 
 industries that gradually arose, combined 
 into special guilds. The object of the 
 guilds undoubtedly was to maintain an 
 unbroken tradition, and to watch over the 
 common interest. But there seems to have 
 been no compulsion exercised to make men 
 join a guild. 
 
 The Romans, like the Greeks, seem to 
 have thought that there was something 
 objectionable in mechanical labour ; but it 
 is uncertain whether the prejudice was of 
 really old standing. It must be remem- 
 bered that the Servian constitution threw 
 the burden of military service entirely 
 upon the landowners. Thus the craftsmen, 
 who as a rule had no landed property, were 
 practically, though not legally, excluded 
 from the army. From this circumstance 
 may have arisen the low estimation in 
 which manual industry was consequently 
 held. It was partly owing to this state of 
 opinion that peasants, when they lost their 
 land, were unwilling to win their bread 
 as mechanics, and preferred to adopt the 
 dependent position of clients, living on 
 public alms and the bribes of candidates 
 at elections. In Rome, as in Greece, the 
 handicrafts tended more and more to pass 
 into the hands of strangers, freedmen, and 
 slaves. In wealthy houses most of the 
 necessary manual work was done by slaves, 
 whose talents were often, as In Greece, 
 turned to account by their niasters. They 
 were often employed in manufactures, and 
 especially in such branches of industry as 
 could be combined with agriculture, tile- 
 making for instance, pottery, dying, tauT 
 ning, felt-making, etc. No social stigma 
 attached to manufacture in Rome any more 
 than in Greece ; indeed in the irnperial age 
 even the emperors and the members of the 
 imperial household would, without scruple, 
 invest their private capital in industrial 
 undertakings of this sort. After the fall of 
 the republic, and throughout the imperial 
 age, Rome was the centre of the whole 
 commercial activity of the ancient world, 
 though the Romans made no special con- 
 tribution to industrial progress. Having 
 in former ages been dorainated by Etruscan 
 
 influence, Roman industry was in later 
 times dependent on the art of the Eastern 
 world, and especially of Greece. 
 
 Hanno. A Carthaginian, who, about 500 
 B.C., undertook a voyage of discovery along 
 the west coast of Africa, and penetrated 
 beyond the Senegal. He put up a tablet in 
 the temple of Bel at Carthage, describing 
 his journey in the Phoenician language. 
 A Greek translation of this document 
 {Hannonis PSriplus), of uncertain date, 
 still survives, and is one of the oldest 
 memorials of ancient geographical science. 
 
 Har. See HoROS. 
 
 Harmdnia. The daughter of Ares and 
 Aphrodite, and wife of Cadmus. (See 
 Cadmus.) At her marriage all the gods 
 were present on the Acropolis of Thebes, 
 and offered her their wedding gifts. Cad- 
 mus gave her a costly garment and a neck- 
 lace, the workmanship of Hephaestus, which 
 he had received from Aphrodite, or (accord- 
 ing to another account), from Buropa: 
 These gifts, so the story runs, had every- 
 where the fatal property of stirring up 
 strife and bloodshed. It was with them 
 that Polyneices corrupted Eriphyle, who 
 drove her husband to his destruction in 
 the Theban War, and was murdered in 
 revenge by her son Alcmgeon. It was for 
 their sake that Alcmseon and Phegeus and 
 his sons were slain. {See Alcmgeon and 
 Phegeus.) The jewels were at length 
 deposited by the sons of Alcmseon in the 
 sanctuary of Delphi. According to a later 
 story Phayllus, a leader of the Phocians in 
 the war against Philip of Macedon, carried 
 off, among other treasures, the necklace of 
 Harmonia, and gave it to his mistress, the 
 wife of Ariston of CEta, But her youngest 
 son set fire to the house in a fit of madness, 
 and the mother, with the necklace, was 
 consurned. 
 
 Harmostae ("regulators"). A board 
 consisting of twenty members, at Sparta; 
 probably a kind of higher police, whose' 
 duty it was to maintain a supervision over 
 the districts inhabited by the penosci. 
 After the Peloponnesian War the name 
 was given to the officials who were sent 
 into the conquered cities to command the 
 garrisons, and to see that the oligarchical 
 constitution was maintained. 
 
 Harpastum. See Ball, games with. 
 
 Harp5cr§,tes. See Horos. 
 
 Harpdcration ( Valerius). A Greek scholar 
 of Alexandria, who lived probably in the 
 2nd century A.D. He was the author of a 
 lexicon to the ten great Attic orators, which 
 
270 
 
 HAEPYI^ HEBE. 
 
 has survived, tkougli in a very fragmentary 
 form. It contains, in alphabetical order, 
 notes on the matters and persons men- 
 tioned by the orators, with explanations 
 of the technical expressions; thus form- 
 ing a rich store of valuable information on 
 matters of history, literature, and the con- 
 stitution and judicial system of Athens. 
 
 Harpyise. The Harpies were originally 
 the goddesses of the sweeping storm, sym- 
 bolic of the sudden and total disappearance 
 of men. Homer only names one of them, 
 Podarge, or the swift-footed, who, in the 
 shape of a mare, bore to Zephyrus the 
 horses of Achilles. In Hesiod the Harpies 
 appear as winged goddesses with beautiful 
 hair, daughters of Thaumas and Electra, 
 sisters of Iris, with the names of Aello and 
 Okypete. In the later story their number 
 increased, their names being Aellopus, 
 Okythoe, Nikothoe, and Celseno. They 
 are now represented as half-birds, half- 
 maidens, and as spirits of mischief. In 
 the story of the Argonauts, for instance, 
 they torment Phineus by carrying off and 
 polluting his food till they are driven off 
 by Calais and Zetes, and either killed or 
 banished to the island of the Strophades, 
 where they are bound on oath to remain. 
 {Cp. SCULPTUEE, fig. 4.) 
 
 Haruspex. An Etruscan soothsayer, 
 whose function it was to interpret the 
 divine wiU from the entrails of sacrificial 
 victims, to propitiate the anger of the gods 
 as indicated by lightning or other marvels, 
 and to interpret their significance according 
 to Etruscan formulae. This art had long 
 been practised in Etruria, and was referred 
 to a divine origin. In the course of the 
 republican era it found a home in the 
 private and ptiblic life of the Romans, win- 
 ning its way as the native priesthoods, 
 entrusted with similar functions, lost in 
 repute. Erom the time of the kings to the 
 end of the republic, haruspzces were ex- 
 pressly summoned from Etruria by decrees 
 of the senate on the occurrence of prodigies 
 which were not provided for in the Ponti- 
 fical and Sibylline books. Their business 
 was to interpret the signs, to ascertain what 
 deity demanded an expiation, and to indi- 
 cate the nature of the necessary offering. 
 
 It then lay with the priests of the Roman 
 people to carry out their instructions. Their 
 knowledge of the signs given by lightning 
 was only applied in republican Rome for 
 the purpose of averting the omen portended 
 by the flash. {See Puteal.) But under the 
 Empire it was also used for consulting the 
 
 lightning, either keeping it off, or drawing 
 it down. From about the time of the Punic 
 Wars, haruspices began to settle in Rome, 
 and were employed both by private indi- 
 viduals and state officials to ascertain the 
 divine will by examination of the liver, 
 gall, heart, lungs, and caul of sacrificial 
 victims. They were especially consulted 
 by generals when going to war. Their 
 science was generally held in high esteem, 
 but the class of haruspices who took pay 
 for their services did not enjoy so good 
 a reputation. Claudius seems to have been 
 the first emperor who instituted a regular 
 collegium of Roman haruspices, consisting 
 of sixty members of equestrian rank, and 
 presided over by a haruspex maxwius, for 
 the regular service of the State. This col- 
 legium continued to exist till the beginning 
 of the 5th century A.D. 
 
 Hasta. The Roman lance. In the earlier 
 times of the army the four first classes in 
 the Servian constitution, and in later times, 
 the triarit, or hindmost rank, were armed 
 with this weapon. {See Legion.) At length, 
 however, the pllum was Introduced for the 
 whole infantry of the legion. {See Pilum.) 
 To deprive a soldier of his hasta was 
 equivalent to degrading him to the rank of 
 the velUes, who were armed with javelins. 
 A blunt hasta with a button at the end 
 {hasta purd) continued to be used in later 
 times as a military decoration. The hasta 
 indeed was employed in many symbolical 
 connexions. The fetldlts, for instance, 
 hurled a blood-stained hasta into the 
 enemy's territory as a token of declaration 
 of war, and if a general devoted his life for 
 his army he stood on a hasta while repeat- 
 ing the necessary formula. The hasta was 
 also set up as a symbol of legal ownership 
 when the censor farmed out the taxes, 
 when state property, booty for instance, 
 was sold ; at private auctions (hence called 
 sUbhastdtiones), and at the sittings of the 
 court of the centuniviri, which had to de- 
 cide on questions of property. 
 
 Hebe. Daughter of Zeus and Hera, 
 goddess of eternal youth. She was repre- 
 sented as the handmaiden of the gods, for 
 whom she pours out their nectar, and the 
 consort of Heracles after his apotheosis. 
 She was worshipped with Heracles in 
 Sicyon and Phlius, especially under the 
 name Ganymede or Dia. She was repre- 
 sented as freeing men from chains and 
 bonds, and her rites were celebrated with 
 unrestrained merriment. The Romans 
 identified Hebe with luventas, the personi- 
 
HECATiEUS HECATONCHEIEES. 
 
 271 
 
 fication of youthful manhood. As repre- 
 senting the eternal youth of the Roman 
 State, luventas had a chapel on the Capitol 
 in the front court of the temple of Minerva, 
 and in later times a temple of her own in 
 the city. It was to Jupiter and Juventas 
 that boys offered prayer on the Capitol 
 when they put on the Wga virtlis, putting 
 a piece of money into their treasury. 
 
 Hgcataeus. A Greek logogrdphds or 
 chronicler, born of a noble family at 
 Miletus, about 550 B.C. In his youth he 
 travelled widely in Europe and Asia, as 
 well as in Egypt. At the time of the 
 Ionian revolt he was in his native city, and 
 gave his countrymen the wisest counsels, 
 but in vain. After the suppression of the 
 rising, he succeeded by his tact and 
 management in obtaining some alleviation 
 of the hard measures adopted by the 
 Persians. He died about 476. The 
 ancient critics assigned him a high place 
 among the Greek historians who preceded 
 Herodotus, though pronouncing him inferior 
 to the latter. His two works, of which 
 only fragments remain, were : (1) A descrip- 
 tion of the earth, which was much consulted 
 by Herodotus, and was apparently used to 
 correct the chart of Anaximander ; and 
 (2) a treatise on Greek tables, entitled 
 Genealogies. 
 
 Hecate. A Greek goddess, perhaps of 
 non-Hellenic origin. She is unknown to 
 Homer, but in Hesiod she is the only 
 daughter of the Titan Perses and of 
 Asteria, the sister of Leto. She stands 
 high in the regard of Zeus, from whom she 
 has received a share in the heaven, earth, 
 and ocean. She is invoked at all sacrifices, 
 for she can give or withhold her blessing 
 in daily life, in war, in contests on the sea, 
 in the hunting field, in the education of 
 children, and in the tending of cattle. Thus 
 she appears as a personification of the 
 divine power, and is the instrument through 
 which the gods effect their will, though 
 themselves far away. In later times she 
 was confused with Persephone, the queen 
 of the lower world, or associated with her. 
 Sometimes she was regarded as the goddess 
 of the moon or as Artemis, sometimes she 
 was identified with foreign deities of the 
 same kind. Being conceived as a goddess 
 of night and of the lower world, .she was, 
 as time went on, transformed into a deity 
 of ghosts and magic. She was represented 
 as haunting crossways and graves, accom- 
 panied by the dogs of the Styx, with the 
 spirits of the dead and troops of spectral 
 
 forms in her train. She lends powerful aid 
 to all magical incantations and witches' 
 work. All enchanters and enchantresses 
 are her disciples and proUgis ; Medea in 
 particular is regarded as her servant. She 
 was worshipped in private and in public 
 in many places, for instance Samothrace, 
 Thessaly, LemnSs, Athens, and iEgina. Her 
 
 HECATE. 
 
 (Eome, Capitoline Museum.) 
 
 images were set up in the front of houses 
 and by the road-side, with altars in front of 
 them, and a roof above them. On the last 
 day of the month, which was sacred to her, 
 offerings were made to her in the crossways 
 of eggs, fish, and onions. The victims 
 sacrificed to her were young dogs and 
 black she-]ambs and honey. 
 
 In works of art she is usually portrayed 
 in three forms, represented by three statues 
 standing back to back. Each form has its 
 special attributes, torches, keys, daggers, 
 snakes, and dogs. In the Gigantomdchia 
 of Pergiimon she appears with a different 
 weapon in her three right hands, a torch, 
 a sword, and a lance. {See Peegamene 
 
 SCDLPTnEES.) 
 
 HScatombe (Greek). The original mean- 
 ing of the word was a sacrifice of a hundred 
 oxen ; but in early times it was applied 
 generally to any great sacrifice, without 
 any idea either of oxen or a definite number. 
 Such great sacrifices were especially common 
 in the worship of Zeus and Hera. 
 
 HScatoncheires (" the hundred-handed 
 ones "). In Hesiod they are three giants, 
 each with a hundred arms and fifty hands, 
 
272 
 
 HECTOR - 
 
 -HELENA. 
 
 sons of Uranus and Gaea. Their names 
 are Briareus, Cottus, and Gj'es. Owing to 
 their hostile attitude to him, their father 
 kept them imprisoned in the bowels of the 
 earth. But on the advice of Gsea, the gods 
 of Olympus summoned them from their 
 prison to lend assistance against the Titans, 
 and, after their victory, set them to watch 
 the Titans, who had been thrown into Tar- 
 tarus. Homer mentions Briaretis, called 
 by men jEgseon, as the son of PSseidon, 
 and mightier than his father. Briareiis 
 was summoned to the aid of Zeus by Thetis, 
 when Hera, Poseidon, and Athene were 
 wishing to bind him. 
 
 Hector. The eldest son of Priamiis and 
 Hecabe, husband of Andromache and father 
 of Asty&nax. In Homer he is the most 
 prominent figure among the Trojans, as 
 Achilles is among the Greeks, and is 
 evidently a favourite character with the 
 poet. He has all the highest qualities of 
 a hero, unshaken spirit, personal courage, 
 and wise judgment ; but he is also a most 
 affectionate son, and the tenderest of 
 fathers and husbands. This trait is most 
 touchingly exhibited in the celebrated scene 
 in the sixth Iliad, where he takes leave of 
 Andromache. Moreover, he is a favourite 
 of the gods, especially of Apollo. He 
 clearly foresees his own death, and the 
 destruction of his native city ; but he does 
 not allow the thought to unnerve his 
 courage and force for a moment. The 
 Trojans love and revere him as the shep- 
 herd of his people; his enemies fear and 
 respect him, and even Achilles cannot 
 meet him without some apprehension. He 
 is always to be found where the battle 
 rages most furiously, and he does not 
 hesitate to meet the chiefest heroes of the 
 Greeks in single combat. Ajax the son of 
 Telamon is his especial foe. In the absence 
 of Achilles he reduces the Greeks to the 
 direst straits, storms their defences, and 
 sets their ships on fire. Patroclus, who 
 opposes him, he slays with the aid of 
 Apollo. But his destiny at length over- 
 takes him. In spite of the entreaties of 
 his parents and his wife, he goes out to 
 meet Achilles in his wrath. He is 
 suddenly seized with the agony of terror; 
 his terrible foe chases him three times 
 round the walls of the city ; Zeus mourns 
 for him ; but when his life and that of his 
 enemy are weighed in the balance, Hector's 
 scale sinks, Apollo leaves him, and he falls 
 by the spear of Achilles before the eyes of 
 his people. Achilles flings his corpse into 
 
 the dust in front of Patroclus' bier, to be 
 devoured by dogs and birds. But Aphro- 
 dite anoints the body with ambrosia, and 
 thus saves it from corruption. Achilles 
 drags it three times behind his chariot 
 round the grave of Patroclus, but Apollo 
 preserves it from mutilation. At length, 
 at the command of Zeus, Achilles delivers 
 up the body to Hector's aged father, to be 
 laid out in the court of the palace, and 
 afterwards burnt on a funeral pyre. In 
 later times Hector was worshipped as a 
 hero by the inhabitants of Ilium, who 
 offered sacrifices at his grave. 
 
 Hecuba (Gr. Hekdbe). The daughter 
 of the Phrygian Dymas, or, according to 
 another story, of Cisseus, and wife of Priam. 
 {See Peiamus.) After the fall of Troy she 
 was made a slave, and fell to the lot of 
 Odysseus. Her son Polydorus had been 
 slain by Polymestor, king of Thrace, on 
 whom she took vengeance by putting out 
 his eyes on the Thracian coast. On this 
 she was changed into a dog, and threw 
 herself into the sea, Her tomb served as 
 a landmark for sailors. 
 
 Hegemone. See Charites. 
 
 Hegemony (Gr. hegSindnla, or "leader- 
 ship "). This was the Greek name for the 
 supremacy assumed by a single state in a 
 confederacy of states, a,nd with it the direc- 
 tion, more or less absolute, of the business 
 of the confederacy. In the language of 
 Athenian law Jiegemonia meant the presi- 
 dency in the courts, which belonged in 
 different cases to different officials. Their 
 business was to receive the charge, make 
 the arrangements for the trial, and preside 
 while it was going on. 
 
 Hegesias. A Greek orator, born in 
 Magnesia on Mount Sipylus in the first 
 half of the 3rd century B.C. He was the 
 founder of what was termed the Asiatic 
 style of oratory. (See Rhetoric.) 
 
 Hegesippus. (1) An Athenian statesman 
 and orator, a contemporary of Demosthenes, 
 whose political opinions he shared. He is 
 the author of the speech On the Island of 
 Halonnesos, which was falsely attributed 
 to Demosthenes. 
 
 (2) See JosEPHUs. 
 
 Helena. The divinely beautiful daughter 
 of Zeus and Leda, the wife of Tyudareos 
 of Sparta; sister of the Dioscuri and of 
 Clytsemnestra. The post-Homeric story 
 represented hor as carried off, while still a 
 maiden, by Theseus, to the Attic fortress 
 of Aphidnse, where she bore him a daughter 
 Iphigeneia. She was afterwards set free 
 
HELENUS HELIODORUS, 
 
 273 
 
 by her brotliers, who took her back to 
 Sparta. She was wooed by numbers of 
 suitors, and at length gave her hand to 
 Menelaus, by whom she became the mother 
 of one child, HermiSne. In the absence of 
 her husband she was carried away to Troy 
 by Paris the son of Priamus, taking with 
 her much treasure. This was the origin of 
 the Trojan War. The Trojans, in spite of 
 the calamity she had brought upon them, 
 loved her for her beauty, and refused to 
 restore her to her husband. She, however, 
 lamented the fickleness of her youth, and 
 yearned for her .home, her husband, and her 
 daughter. After the death of Paris she 
 was wedded to Deiphobus, assisted the 
 Greeks at the taking of Troy, and betrayed 
 Deiphobus into Menelaus' hands. With 
 Menelaus finally she returned to Sparta after 
 eight years' wandering, and lived thence- 
 forth with him in happiness and concord. 
 
 According to another story, mainly 
 current after the time of Stesichorus, 
 Paris carried off to Troy not the real 
 Helena, but a phantom of her created by 
 Hera. The real Helena was wafted through 
 the air by Hermes, and brought to Proteus 
 in Egypt, whence, after the destruction of 
 Troy, she was taken home by Menelaus. 
 {See Proteus.) After the death of Menelaus 
 she was, according to one story, di'iven 
 from Sparta by her stepsons, and fled there- 
 upon to Rhodes to her friend Polyxo, who 
 hanged her on a tree. Another tradition 
 represented her as living after death in 
 wedlock with Achilles on the island of 
 Leuce. She was worshipped as the god- 
 dess of beauty in a special sanctuary at 
 Therapne in Laconia, where a festival was 
 held in her honour. She was also invoked 
 like her brothers the Dioscuri, as a tutelary 
 deity of mariners. {See Dioscuri.) 
 
 HelSnus {Ilelenos). The son of Priam 
 and Hecuba, who, like his sister Cassandra, 
 was endowed with the gift of prophecy. 
 When Deiphobus, after the death of Paris, 
 took Helena to wife, Helenus went over to 
 the Greeks; or (as another story has it) 
 was caught by Odysseus in an ambush. 
 He revealed to the enemy the fact that 
 Troy could not be taken without the aid of 
 Neoptolemus and Philoctetes ; and he is 
 also said to have suggested the plan of out- 
 witting the Trojans by means of the wooden 
 horse. After the fall of Troy he was carried 
 away by Neoptolemus, and advised him to 
 settle in Epirus. After his death Helenus 
 took Andromache to wife, and became king 
 of the Chaonians. 
 D. C. A. 
 
 Heliaea. The name of the great popular 
 Athenian law-court, instituted by Solon. 
 The word was also applied to the locality 
 in which the greatest number of its mem- 
 bers, and sometimes all of them, assembled. 
 The number of the Helmstci', or members of 
 the court, or jurors, was, in the flourishing 
 period of the democracy, 6,000, 600 being 
 taken from each tribe {phyle). The choice 
 of the HeliastcB was determined by lot, 
 under the presidency of the archons. No 
 one was eligible who was not a fully quali- 
 fied citizen, and over thirty years of age. 
 On their election, the Heliasts took the 
 oath of office, and were distributed into ten 
 divisions of 500 each, corresponding respec- 
 tivelj' to the ton tribes. The remaining 
 1,000 served to fill up vacancies as they 
 occurred. 
 
 Every Heliast received, as the emblem of 
 his office, a bronze tablet, stamped with the 
 Gorgon's head [or with an owl surrounded by 
 an olive-wreath : Hicks, Hist. Insr.r. No. 119], 
 his name, and the number of his division. 
 The different courts were mostly situated 
 near the agora, and distinguished by their 
 colour and their number. On court-days 
 the Tliestnothetce assigned them by lot to 
 the different divisions of the Heliasts. 
 Every Heliast was then presented with a 
 staff bearing the number of his court, and 
 painted with its colour. On entering the 
 room he received a ticket, which he ex- 
 hibited after the sitting and thereupon 
 received his fee. This system of paying 
 the jurors was introduced by Pericles, and 
 the fee, originally an obdlos (about l^d.), 
 was afterwards increased to three obols. 
 
 In some instances only a part of one 
 division of the jurors would sit to try a 
 case; but in important cases several divisions 
 would sit together. Care was always taken 
 that the number should be unequal. The 
 jurisdiction of the Helicea extended to all 
 kinds of suits. In public causes it acted as 
 a court both of first instance and of final 
 appeal. Por private causes it was originally 
 only a court of appeal ; but in later times 
 these suits also came to be brought before 
 it in the first instance. 
 
 Heliastse. See Heli^a. 
 
 Heliodorus {Helwdoros). A Greek writer 
 of romance, born at Emesa in Phoenicia. 
 He was a pagan Sophist, who probably flou- 
 rished in the second half of the 3rd century 
 A.D. At one time he was erroneously ider- 
 tified with another Heliodorus, bishop of 
 Tricca in Thessaly, who flourished about 390 
 A.D. A romance of his called ^fMdpica, 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 HELIOS. 
 
 ia ten books, has come down to us. Its 
 subject is the strange story of Theagenes 
 the Thessalian and Chariclea, the daughter 
 of the king of ^Ethiopia. This book served 
 as a model for most of the later Greek 
 writers of romance, and may be classed with 
 the novel of Longus as one of the best speci- 
 mens of this kind of literature which Greek 
 antiquity has to show. It is remarkable 
 for origiijal power, clear sketches of char- 
 acter, beauty of drawing, and moral inten- 
 tion; the style is pure, simple, and elegant. 
 
 Helios. In Greek mythology, the Sun- 
 god, son of the Titan Hyperion (whose name 
 he bears himself in Homer) and the Titaness 
 Theia ; brother of Selene (the Moon) and 
 Eos (Dawn). The poets apply the name 
 Titan to him in particular, as the off- 
 spring of Titans. He is represented 
 as a strong and beautiful god, in the 
 bloom of youth, with gleaming eyes 
 and waving locks, a crown of rays 
 upon his head. In the morning he 
 rises from a lovely bay of the Ocean 
 in the farthest East, where the 
 Ethiopi£(,ns dwell. To give light to 
 gods and men he climbs the vault of 
 heaven in a chariot drawn by four 
 snow-white horses, breathing light 
 and fire ; their names are Eoos, 
 ^tMops, Bronte, and Stcropc. In 
 the evening he sinks with his chariot 
 into the Ocean, and while he sleeps 
 is carried round along the northern 
 border of the earth to the East again 
 in a golden boat, shaped like a bowl, 
 the work of Hephaestus. He is called 
 Phaethon, from the brilliant li^ht that 
 he diffuses ; he is the All-seer {Pdn- 
 optes) because his rays penetrate 
 everywhere. He is revealer of all 
 that is done on earth • it is he who 
 tells Hephffistus of the love of Ares 
 and Aphrodite, and shows Demeter wto 
 has carried off her daughter. He is- accord- 
 ingly invoked as a witness to oaths and 
 solemn protestations. 
 
 On the island of Trinacria (Sicily) he has 
 seven flocks of sheep and seven herds of 
 cattle, fifty in each. It is his pleasure, 
 on his daily journey, to look down upon 
 them. Their numbers must not .be in- 
 creased or diminished ; if this is done, his 
 wrath is terrible. {See Odysseus.) In the 
 700 sheep find oxen the ancients recog- 
 •nised the 700 days and nights of the Innar 
 j-ear. The flocks are tended by Phaethusa 
 (the goddess of light) and Lampetie (the 
 goddess (jf shining), his daughter by Neaera. 
 
 By the ocean Nymph Perse or Perseis he is 
 father of ^etes, Circe, and Pasiphae, by 
 Clymene the father of Phaethon, and 
 Augeas was also accounted his son. His 
 children have the gleaming ej-es of their 
 father. 
 
 After the time of Euripides, or there- 
 abouts, the all-seeing Sun-god was identified 
 with Apollo, the god of prophecy. Helios 
 was worshipped in many places, among 
 which may be mentioned Corinth and Elis. 
 The island of Rhodes was entirely conse- 
 crated to him. Here an annual festival 
 (Halia) was held during the summer in his 
 honour, with chariot-racing and contests of 
 music and gymnastics ; and four consecrated 
 horses were thrown into the sea as a sacri- 
 
 (Metope from temple of Athena, probably of 2na century e.g., 
 at the Greek city of Ilium, Hissarlik.) 
 
 fice to him. In 278 B.C. a colossal bronze 
 statue, by Chares of Lindus, was erected 
 to him at the entrance of the harbour of 
 Rhodes. Herds of red and white cattle 
 were, in many places, kept in his honour. 
 White animals, and especially white horses, 
 were sacred to him ; among birds the cock, 
 and among trees the white poplar. 
 
 The Latin poets identified Helios with 
 the Sabine deity Sol, who h.ad an ancient 
 place of worship on the Quirinal at Rome, 
 and a public sacrifice on the 8th of August, 
 But it was the introduction of the ritual of 
 Mithras which first brought the worship of 
 the sun into prominence in Rome. {See 
 
 MiTHHAS.) 
 
HELLANICUS HELMETS. 
 
 275 
 
 Hellanicus (Hellamkds). One of the 
 Greek IdgogrdpM or chroniclers, born at 
 Mytilene in Lesbos about 480 B.C. He is 
 said to have lived till the age of 85, and to 
 have gone on writing until after B.C. 406. 
 In the course of his long life he composed a 
 series of works on genealogy, chorography, 
 and chronology. He was the first writer 
 who attempted to introduce a systematic 
 chronological arrangement into the tradi- 
 tional periods of Greek, and especially 
 Athenian, history and mythology. His 
 theories of the ancient Attic chronology 
 were accepted down to the time of Eratos- 
 thenes. 
 
 Hellanodicse (Hellanddikai). See Olym- 
 pic Games. 
 
 Helle. In Greek mythology, daughter 
 of Athamas and Nephele. (See Athamas.) 
 
 Helleaotamiae. The name of a board 
 of ten members, elected annually by lot 
 as controllers of the fund contributed by 
 the members of the Athenian confederacy. 
 The treasure was originally deposited at 
 Delos, but after B.C. 461 was transferred 
 to Athens. The yearly contributions of the 
 cities owning the Athenian supremacy 
 amounted at first to 460 talents (some 
 £92,000) ; during the Peloponnesian War 
 they increased to nearly 1,500 talents 
 (£260,500). 
 
 Hellotis. See Europe. 
 
 Helmets. Helmets were, in antiquity, 
 made sometimes of metal, sometimes of 
 leather. A metal helmet was in Greek 
 called krdnos, in Latin cassis ; a leather 
 one in Greek kyne, in Latin galea. Leather 
 helmets were sometimes finished with metal 
 work. 
 
 (1) Three forms of the Greek helmet 
 may be distinguished, (a) The Corinthian 
 visored helmet, which Athene is repre- 
 sented as wearing on the coins of Corinth. 
 This had a projecting nose-guard, a long 
 or short neck-piece, and two side-pieces to 
 protect the cheeks. An opening, connecting 
 with the two eye-holes, was left for the 
 nose and mouth. The helmet was, except 
 in battle, thrown backwards over the head. 
 (6) the Attic helmet, represented on Attic 
 coins as the only one worn by Athene. The 
 neck-piece fits close to the head ; the cheek- 
 pieces are either fixed immovably to the 
 head-piece, or can be moved up and down 
 by means of joints ; in front of the head- 
 piece, extending from ear to ear, was a 
 guard, sometimes arranged for putting up 
 or down, and thus acting as a screen for the 
 face.' {c) The simple cap, worn chiefly by 
 
 the Arcadians and Lacedsemonians. This 
 sometimes had a projecting brim, sometimes 
 not. The skull was protected either by a 
 cone of varying form, or by a guard running 
 
 GREEK HELMETS. 
 
 over the top of the helmet. This was often 
 adorned with a plume of horsehair or 
 feathers. 
 
 (2) Roman. The engravings will give a 
 sufficient idea of the different varieties of 
 Roman helmets. For the visored helmets of 
 the gladiators see Gladiatoees. The stan- 
 
276 
 
 HELOTS HEPH.ESTION. 
 
 dard-bearers, during the imperial period, 
 wore, not a helmet, but a leather cap. 
 
 KOMAN HELMETS. 
 
 Helots (Gr. Hcilotai or Helotai). This 
 name was given at Sparta to those among 
 the original inhabitants of Laconia who lost 
 their land and freedom at the Dorian con- 
 quest. (For the others, see Pebiceci.) It 
 is not certain what the word originally- 
 meant. Some scholars have explained it as 
 " prisoners of war " ; others have derived it 
 from IMijs, the name of a city supposed to 
 have been conquered in consequence of an 
 insurrection. This view was held in anti- 
 quity. The Helots were slaves of the state, 
 which ass>gned them to individual citizens 
 to cultivate their lands. Their employers 
 had no power to kill them, to sell them, or 
 to set them free. The law fixed a certain 
 proportion of the produce in barley, oil, and 
 wine, which the Helots were bound to pay 
 over to the landowner. The rest was 
 their own property, and a certain degree of 
 prosperity was therefore within their reach. 
 A Helot was liable to be called upon for 
 personal service by any Spartan, even if 
 not attached to his estate ; but no authority 
 save that of the state could either set him 
 free or remove him from the soil to which 
 he was bound. 
 _ In war, the Helots were employed some- 
 times as shield-bearers to the heavy-armed 
 troops, sometimes as archers and slingers, 
 sometimes in other subordinate capacities. 
 After Sparta had become a naval power, 
 they were used as pilots and marines ; but 
 they were seldom admitted to the ranks 
 of the heavy-armed infantry. For distin- 
 gaished merit in the field they might be 
 set free, and a special class called Neodd- 
 morlcis was formed of these liberated Helots. 
 
 The Ncodamodeis, however, had no civil 
 rights ; and indeed it was but seldom that a 
 Helot ever became a Spartan citizen. The 
 children of Spartan fathers and Helot 
 mothers, called Mdthdkes, were free, and 
 brought up with the young free Spartans. 
 In many cases, through a species of adop- 
 tion on the father's part, they obtained the 
 citizenship. 
 
 The Helots formed a very numerous body, 
 amounting to more than half of the whole 
 Lacedaemonian population (400,000). As 
 they were in a state of chronic discontent, 
 they were, in times of danger, a source of 
 anxiety to the Spartans, and the object of 
 constant vigilance. Hence the institution 
 of the Crypteia, which used to be erroneously 
 represented as a chase of the Helots. The 
 fact is that, before being admitted to mili- 
 tary service proper, the young Spartans were 
 annually commanded by the ephors to scour 
 the country, seize on any objects of sus- 
 picion, and, in particular, to keep an eye on 
 the Helots, and put any Helot, whom they 
 had reason to distrust, out of the way with- 
 out more ado. 
 
 Hendeka ("The Eleven"). The term 
 applied at Athens to a band consisting of ten 
 members, chosen by lot, and their secretary. 
 Their duty was to superintend the prisons, 
 receive arrested prisoners, and carry out the 
 sentences of the law. The capital sentence 
 was executed by their subordinates. They 
 also had penal jurisdiction in the case of de- 
 linquents discovered in the act of committing 
 offences punishable with death or imprison- 
 ment. If they pleaded guilty, the Eleven 
 inflicted the punishment at once ; if not, 
 they instituted a judicial inquiry and pre- 
 sided at the decision of the case. They had 
 the same power in the cases of embezzle- 
 ment of confiscated property, of which they 
 had lists in their possession. 
 
 Hephsestion. A Greek soldier, a native 
 of Alexandria, who flourished about the 
 middle of the 2nd century A.D., and was 
 tutor to the emperor Verus before his acces- 
 sion. He wrote a work on prosody, in forty- 
 eight books, which he first abridged into 
 eleven books, then into three, and finally 
 into one. The final abridgment, called a 
 manual {EnclieivMlon) has come down to us. 
 It gives no more than a bare sketch of 
 prosody, without any attempt at theoretical 
 explanation of the facts ; but it is, never- 
 theless, of immense value. It is the only 
 complete treatise on Greek prosody which 
 has survived from antiquity, and it quotes 
 verses from the lost poets. Attached to it 
 
HEPHAESTUS. 
 
 277 
 
 is a treatise on the different forms of 
 poetry and composition, in two incomplete 
 versions. The manual has a preface 
 (Proiegdmena) by Longimis, and two col- 
 lections of scholia. 
 
 Hephaestus {Hephaisios). In Greek 
 mythology, the god of fire, and of the 
 arts which need fire in the execution. He 
 was said, to be the son of Zeus and Hera, 
 or (according to Hesiod) of the latter only. 
 The boy was ngly, and lame in both feet, 
 and his mother was ashamed of him. She 
 threw him from Olympus into the ocean, 
 
 HEPH^STUS. 
 
 (Bronze slatae in British Maseiim.) 
 
 where he was taken up by Eurynome and 
 Thetis, and concealed in a subterranean 
 cavern. Here he remained for nine years, and 
 fashioned a number of exquisite works of art, 
 among them a golden throne with invisible 
 chains, which he sent to his mother by way 
 of revenge. She sat down in it, and was 
 chained to the seat, so fast that no one 
 could release her. On this it was resolved 
 to call Hephaestus back to Olympus. Ares 
 wished to force him back, but was scared 
 off by his brother with fire-brands. 
 Dionysus at length succeeded in making 
 
 who then 
 care of him 
 Prom this time 
 
 inhabited the 
 and brought him 
 
 Lemnos was 
 
 him drunk, and bringing him back, in this 
 condition, to Olympus. But he was destined 
 to meet with his old mishap a second time. 
 There was a quarrel between Zeus and 
 Hera, and Hephjestus took his mother's 
 part; whereupon Zeus seized him by the 
 leg and hurled him down from Olj'mpus. 
 He fell upon the island of Lemnos, where 
 the Sintians 
 island, took 
 to himself, 
 his favourite abode. His lameness was, in 
 the later story, attributed to this fall. 
 
 The whole story, the sojourn of Hephaestus 
 in the cavern under the sea, and his fond- 
 ness for Lemnos, is, in all probability, 
 based upon volcanic phenomena ; the sub- 
 marine activity of volcanic fires, and the 
 natural features of the island of Lemnos. 
 Here there was a volcano called Mosyohlos, 
 which was in activity down to the time of 
 Alexander the Great. The friendship exist- 
 ing between Dionysus and Hephaestus may 
 be explained by the fact that the best and 
 finest wines are grown in the volcanic 
 regions of the South. 
 
 As a master in the production of beatitif iil 
 and fascinating works of art, Hephaastus is 
 in Homer the husband of Charis, and in 
 Hesiod of Aglaia, the youngest of the 
 Graces. {See Chaeites.) The story of his 
 marriage with Aphrodite was not, appa- 
 rently, widely known in early antiquity. 
 Through his artistic genius he appears, and 
 most especially in the Athenian story, as 
 the intimate friend of Athene. In Homer 
 he lives and works on Olympus, where he 
 makes palaces of brass for himself and the 
 other deities. But he has a forge also 
 on Mount Mosychlos in Lemnos ; the later 
 story gives him one under jEtna in Sicily, 
 and on the sacred island, . or island of 
 Hephaestus, in the Lipari Islands, where he 
 is heard at work with his companions the 
 Cyclopes. All the masterpieces of metal 
 which appear in the stories of gods and 
 heroes, the aegis of Zeus, the arms of 
 Achilles, the sceptre of Agamemnon, the 
 necklace of Harmonia, and others, were 
 attributed to the art of Hephaestus. To 
 help his lameness he made, according to 
 Homer, two golden maidens, with the power 
 of motion, to lean upon when he walked. 
 
 He was much worshipped in Lemnos, 
 where there was an annual festival in his 
 honour. All fires were put out for nine 
 days, during which rites of atonement and 
 purification were performed. Then fresh 
 fire was brought on a sacred ship from 
 
278 
 
 HERA. 
 
 Delos, tlie'fii-es were kindled again, and a 
 new life, as the saying went, began. At 
 Athens he was worslupped in the Academy, 
 in connexion with Athene and Prometheus 
 {see Prometheus). In October the smiths 
 and smelters celebrated the Chalkeia, a feast 
 of metal-workers, in his honour and that 
 of Athene ; at the Apdturia sacrifices were 
 offered to him, among other gods, as the 
 giver of fire, and torches were kindled, 
 and hymns were sung ; at the Hephcestla, 
 finally, there was a torch-race in his 
 honour. In works of art he is represented 
 as a vigorous man with a beard, equipped, 
 like a smith, with hammer and tongS ; his 
 left leg is shortened, to show his lameness 
 {see engraving). The Romans identified 
 him with their Vulcanus {sec Vulcanus). 
 
 Hera. In Greek mythology, the queen 
 of heaven, eldest daughter of Croniis and 
 Rhea, sister and lawful consort of Zeus. 
 According to Homer, she was brought up in 
 her youth by Oceanus and Tethys. But 
 every place in which her worship was 
 localized asserted that she was born there, 
 and brought up by the Nymphs of the 
 district. She is said to have long lived 
 in secret . intimacy with Zeus, before he 
 publicly acknowledged her as his lawful 
 consort. Her worshippers celebrated her 
 marriage in the spring time. In the oldest 
 version of the story it took place in the 
 Islands of the Blessed, on the shore of the 
 Ocean stream, where the golden apple tree 
 of the Hesperides sprang up to celebrate it. 
 But this honour, too, was claimed by every 
 place where Hera was worshipped. Accord- 
 ing to one local story, Zeus obtained the 
 love of Hera by stealth, in the form of a 
 cuckoo. 
 
 Hera seems origin all j' to have symbolised 
 the feminine aspects of the natural forces 
 of which Zeus is the masculine represen- 
 tative. Hence she is at once his wife and 
 his sister, shares his power and his 
 honours, and, like him, has authority over 
 the phenomena of the atmosphere. It is 
 she who sends clouds and storms, and is 
 mistress of the thunder and the lightning. 
 Her handmaids are the Horse or goddesses 
 of the season, and Iris, the goddess of the 
 rainbow. Like Zeus, men worship her on 
 mountains, and pray to her for rain. The 
 union of sun and rain, which wakes the 
 earth to renewed fertility, is symbolised as 
 the loving union of Zeus and Hera. In 
 the same way a conflict of the winds is 
 represented as the consequence of a matri- 
 monial quarrel, usually attributed to the 
 
 jealousy of Hera, who was regarded as th6 
 stern protectress of honourable marriage. 
 Hence arose stories of Zeus ill-treating his*" 
 wife. It was said that he scourged her, 
 and hurled Hephsestus from heaven to earth 
 when hurrying to his mother's assistance ; 
 that in anger for her persecution of his son 
 Heracles, he htmg her out in the air with 
 golden chains to her arms and an anvil on 
 each foot. There were also old stories 
 which spoke of Hera allying herself with 
 Athene and Poseidon to bind Zeus in 
 chains. Zeus was only rescued by the 
 Giant jEgseon, whom Thetis called to his 
 assistance. The birth of Athene was said 
 to have enraged Hera to such a pitch that 
 she became the mother of Typhon by the 
 dark powers of the infernal regions. In 
 fact, this constant resistance to the will of 
 Zeus, and her jealousy and hatred of her 
 consort's paramours and their children, 
 especially Heracles, becomes in the poets a 
 standing trait in her character. 
 
 In spite of all this. Homer represents her 
 as the most majestic of all the goddesses. 
 The other Olympians pay her royal honours, 
 and Zeus treats her with all respect and 
 confides all his designs to her, though not 
 always yielding to her demands. She is 
 the spotless and uncorruptible wife of the 
 King of Heaven ; the mother of Hephs^tus, 
 Ares, Hebe, and Ilithyia, and indeed may be 
 called the only lawful wife in the Olj'm- 
 pian court. She is, accordingly, before 
 all other deities the goddess of marriage 
 and the protectress of purity in married 
 life. She is represented as of exalted but 
 severe beauty, and appears before Paris as 
 competing with Aphrodite and Athene for 
 the prize of loveliness. In Homer she is 
 described as of lofty stature, large eyes, 
 white arms, and beautiful hair. On women 
 she confers bloom and strength ; she helps 
 them, too, in the dangerous hour of child- 
 birth. Her daughters Hebe and Ilithyia 
 personify both these attributes. 
 
 In earlier times Hera was not everywhere 
 recognised as the consort of Zeus ; at the 
 primitive oracle of Dodona, for instance, 
 Dione occupies this position. The Pelo- 
 ponnesus may be regarded as the earliest 
 seat of her worship, and in the Pelopon- 
 nesus, during the Homeric period, Argos, 
 Mycense, and Sparta are her favourite seats. 
 Of these, according to the poet, she is the 
 passionate champion in the Trojan War. 
 In later times the worship of Hera was 
 strongly localized in Argos and Mycenae. 
 At Argos she took the same commanding 
 
HERA. 
 
 279 
 
 position as Athene at Athens, and the year 
 was dated by the names of her priestesses. 
 Between these cities was situated the 
 
 (1) FAHNESE HERA. 
 
 (Naples Museum,) 
 
 (2) LUDOVISI HERA. 
 
 (Rome, Villa Ludovisi.) 
 
 Herseum {Heraion), a temple held in great 
 honour (see Hee^a). At Corinth she was 
 the goddess of the stronghold. At Elis a 
 
 garment was offered her every five years by 
 sixteen ladies chosen for the purpose, and 
 the maidens held a race in her honour on 
 the race-course at Olympia. ■ Boeotia had 
 its feast of the Dceddla (see D^dala) ; 
 Samos its large and splendid temple, built 
 by the famous Polycrates. The cuckoo 
 was sacred to her as the messenger of 
 spring, the season in which she was wedded 
 to, Zeus; so were the peacock and the crow, 
 and among fruits the pomegranate, the 
 symbol of wedded love and fruitfulness. 
 Hecatombs were offered to her in sacrifice, 
 as to Zeus. 
 
 (3) " BARBEKINI HEKA. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 In works of art she is represented, as 
 seated on a throne in a full robe, covering 
 the whole figure. On her head is a sort of 
 diadem, often with a veil ; the expression 
 of the face is severe and majestic, the eyes 
 large and wide open, as in the Homeric 
 description. The ideal type of Hera was 
 found in the statue by Polyclitus in the 
 temple at Argos. This was a colossal 
 image, in gold and ivory, representing the 
 goddess on her throne, her crown adorned 
 with figures of the Graces and the Seasons, 
 a pomegranate in one hand, and in the other 
 a sceptre with the cuckoo on the top. The 
 
280 
 
 HERACLES. 
 
 Farnene Juno at Najales, and the Ludovisi 
 Juno in Rome, are copies of this work (see 
 figs. 1 and 2). The Romans identified Hera 
 with their own Juno. (iS^ee Juno.) 
 
 Heracles (Ilerdkles) = renowned through 
 Hera ; Latin Iltrcules. Heracles is not 
 only one of the oldest heroes in the Greek 
 mythology, but the most illustrious of all. 
 Indeed, the traditions of similar heroes in 
 other Greek tribes, and in other nations, 
 especially in the East, were transferred to 
 Heracles ; so that the scene of his achieve- 
 ments, which is, in the Homeric poems, 
 confined on the whole to Greece, became 
 almost extensive with the known world ; 
 and the story of Heracles was the richest 
 and most comprehensive of all the heroic 
 fables. 
 
 Heracles was born in Thebes, and was 
 the son of Zeus by Alcmene, the wife of 
 Amphiti-j'on, whose form the god assumed 
 while he was absent in the war against the 
 Teleboi. On the day which he should have 
 been born, Zeus announced to the gods that 
 a descendant of Perseus was about to see 
 the light, who would hold sway over all the 
 Perseidse. Hera cunningly induced her 
 consort to confirm his words with an oath. 
 She hated the unborn son as the son of her 
 rival, and (in her capacity as the goddess 
 of childbirth) caused the queen of Stheiie- 
 lus of Mycenae, a descendant of Perseus, 
 to give birth prematurely to Eurystheus, 
 while she postponed the birth of Heracles 
 for seven days. Hence it was that Heracles, 
 with his gigantic strength, came into the 
 service of the weaker Eurystheus. Hera 
 pursued him with her hati-ed during the 
 whole of his natural life. Heracles and his 
 twin brother Iphicles, the son of Amphi- 
 tryon, wei-e hardly born, when the goddess 
 sent two serpents to their cradle to destroy 
 them. Heracles seized them and strangled 
 them. The child grew up to be a strong 
 youth, and was taught by Amphitryon to 
 drive a chariot, by Autolycus to wrestle, 
 by Eurytus to shoot with the bow, and by 
 Castor to use the weapons of war. Chiron in- 
 structed him in the sciences, Rhadamanthys 
 in virtue and wisdom, Eumolpus (or accord- 
 ing to another account Linus), in music. 
 When Linus attempted to chastise him, 
 Heracles struck him dead with his lute. 
 Amphitryon accordingly, alarmed at his 
 untamable temper, sent him to tend his 
 flocks on Mount Cithseron. 
 
 It was at this time, according to the 
 Sophist Prodicus, that the event occurred 
 which occasioned the fable of the " Choice 
 
 of Heracles." Heracles was meditating in 
 solitude as to the path of life which he 
 should choose, when two tall women 
 appeared before him, the one called Plea- 
 sure, the other called Virtue. Pleasure 
 promised him a life of enjoyment. Virtue a 
 life of toil crowned by glory. He decided 
 for Virtue. After destroying the mighty 
 Kon of Cithseron, he retu.rned, in his 
 eighteenth j'car, to Thebes, and freed the 
 city from the tribute which it had been 
 forced to pay to Erginus of Orchomenus. 
 Creon, king of Thebes, gave him, in grati- 
 tude, his daughter Megara to wife. But it 
 was not long before the Delphic oracle 
 commanded him to enter the service of 
 Eurjrstheus king of Mycense and Tiryns, 
 and perform twelve tasks which he should 
 impose upon him. This was the humilia- 
 tion which Hera had in store for him. 
 The oracle promised him, at the same time, 
 that he should win eternal glory, and in- 
 deed immortality, and change his present 
 name Alcseus or Alcides* for Heracles 
 (renowned through Hera). Nevertheless, 
 he fell into a fit of madness, in which he 
 shot down the three children whom Megara 
 had born him. When healed of his madness, 
 he entered into the service of Eurystheus. 
 
 The older story says nothing of the 
 exact number (twelve) of the labours of 
 Heracles. The number was apparently 
 invented by the poet Pisander of Rhodes, 
 who may have had in his eye the contests 
 of the Phoenician god Melkart with the 
 twelve hostile beasts of the Zodiac. It 
 was also Pisander who first armed the hero 
 with the club, and the skin taken from the 
 lion of Cithseron or Nemea. Heracles was 
 previously represented as cariying bow and 
 arrows, and the weapons of a Homeric hero. 
 
 The twelve labours of Heracles are as 
 follows: (1) The contest with the invulner- 
 able lion of Nemea, the offspring of Typhon 
 and Echidna. Heracles drove it into its 
 cavern and strangled it in his arms. With 
 the impenetrable hide, on which nothing 
 can make any impression but the beast's 
 own claws, he clothes himself, the jaws 
 covering his head. (2) The hydra or water- 
 snake of Lerna, also a child of Typhon 
 and Echidna. This monster lived in the 
 marsh of Lerna, near Argos, and was so 
 poisonous that its very breath was fatal. 
 It had nine heads, one of which was immor- 
 tal. Heracles scares it out of its lair with 
 
 • He ■was called Alcceus (Alkaids) from his 
 paternal grandfather; Alcldes (Alkldes) from 
 cdke, strength. 
 
HERACLES. 
 
 281 
 
 burning arrows, and cuts off its heads; but 
 for every head cut off two new ones arise. 
 At length lolaus, the charioteer of Heracles 
 and son of his brother Iphicles, sears the 
 wounds with burning brands. Upon the 
 immortal head he lays a heavy mass of rock. 
 He anoints his arrows with the monster's 
 gall, so that henceforth the wounds they 
 inflict are incurable. Eurystheus refuses 
 to accept this as a genuine victory, alleging 
 the assistance offered by lolaus. (3) The 
 boar of Brymanthus, which infested 
 Arcadia. Heracles had been commanded to 
 bring it alive to Mycenae, so he chased it 
 into an expanse of snow, tired it out, and 
 caught it in a noose. The mere sight of 
 the beast threw Eurystheus into such a 
 panic, that he slunk away into a tub 
 underground, and bid the hero, in future, 
 to show the proof of his achievements out- 
 side the city gates. (On the contest with 
 the Centaurs which Heracles had to undergo 
 on his way to the chase, see Pholus and 
 Chiron.) (4) The hind of Mount Ceryneia, 
 between Arcadia and Achaia. Another 
 account localizes the event on Mount 
 Msenalus, and speaks of the Msenalian 
 hind. Its horns were of gold and its hoofs 
 of brass, and it had been dedicated to 
 Artemis by the Pleiad Taygete. Heracles 
 was to take the hind alive. He followed 
 her for a whole year up to the source of the 
 Ister in the country of the Hyperboreans. 
 At length she returned to Arcadia, where 
 ho wounded her with an arrow on the 
 banks of the Ladon, and so caught her. (5) 
 The birds that infested the lake of 
 Stymphalus, in Arcadia. These were man- 
 eating monsters, with claws, wings, and 
 beaks of brass, and feathers that they shot 
 out like arrows. Heracles scared them 
 with a brazen rattle, and succeeded in kill- 
 ing part, and driving away the rest, which 
 settled on the island of Aretias in the 
 Black Sea, to be frightened away, after a 
 hard fight, by the Argonauts. (6) Heracles 
 was commanded to bring home for Admete, 
 the daughter of Eurystheus, the girdle of 
 Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons. After 
 many adventures he landed at Themiscyra, 
 and found the queen ready to give up the 
 girdle of her own accord. But Hera spread 
 a rumour among the Amazons that their 
 queen was in danger, and a fierce battle 
 took place, in which Heracles slew 
 Hippolyte and many of her followers. On 
 his return he slew, in the neighourhood of 
 Troy, a sea-monster, to whose fury king 
 Laomedon had offered up his daughter 
 
 Hesione. Laomedon refused to give Heracles 
 the reward he had promised, whereupon the 
 latter, who was hastening to return to 
 Mycense, threatened him with future 
 vengeance (see Laomedon). (7) The farm- 
 yard of Augeas, king of Elis, in which lay 
 the dung of 3,000 cattle, was to be cleared 
 in a day. Heracles completed the task by 
 turning the river Alpheus into the yard. 
 Augeas now contended that Heracles was 
 only acting on the commission of Eurys- 
 theus, and on this pretext refused him his 
 promised reward. Heracles slew him after- 
 wards with all his sons, and thereupon 
 founded the Olympian games (see Augeas). 
 
 (8) A mad bull had been sent up from the 
 sea by PSseidon to ravage the island of 
 Crete, in revenge for the disobedience of 
 Minos (see Minos). Heracles was to bring 
 him to Mycense alive. He caught the bull, 
 crossed the sea on his back, threw him over 
 his neck and carried him to Mycense, 
 where he let him go. The animal wandered 
 all through the Peloponnese, and ended by 
 infesting the neighbourhood of Marathon, 
 where he was at length slain by Theseus. 
 
 (9) Diomedes, a son of Ares, and king of 
 the Bistones in Thrace, had some mares 
 which he used to feed on the flesh of the 
 strangers landing in the country. After 
 a severe struggle, Heracles overcame the 
 king, threw his body to the mares, and 
 took them off to Mycense, where Eurystheus 
 let them go. (10) The oxen of Geryones, 
 the son of Chrysaor and the ocean Nymph 
 Callirrhoe, was a Giant with three bodies 
 and mighty wings, who dwelt on the 
 island of Erythea, in the farthest "West, 
 on the borders of the Ocean stream. He 
 had a herd of red cattle, which were 
 watched by the shepherd Eurytion and his 
 two-headed dog Orthros, a son of Typhon 
 and Echidna. In quest of these cattle, 
 Heracles, with many adventures, passes 
 through Europe and Libya. On the 
 boundary of both continents he sets up, in 
 memory of his arrival, the two pillars 
 which bear his name, and at length reaches 
 the Ocean stream. Oppressed by the rays 
 of the neighbouring sun, he aims his bow 
 at the Sun-god, who marvels at his courage, 
 and gives him his golden bowl to cross the 
 Ocean in. Arrived at Erythea, Heracles 
 slays the shepherd and his dog, and drives 
 off the cattle. Menoetius, who tends the 
 herds of Hades in the neighbourhood, brings 
 news to Geryones of what has happened. 
 Geryones hurries in pursuit, but after a 
 fierce contest falls before the arrows of 
 
282 
 
 HERACLES. 
 
 Heracles. The hero returns with the cattle 
 through Iberia, Gaul, Liguria, Italy, and 
 Sicily, meeting everywhere with new ad- 
 ventures, and leaving behind him tokens of 
 his presence. At the mouth of the Rhone 
 he had a dreadful struggle with the 
 Ligyes ; his arrows were exhausted, and 
 he had sunk in weariness upon his knee, 
 when Zeus rained a shower of innumerable 
 stones from heaven, with which he pre- 
 vailed over his enemies. The place was 
 ever after a stony desert plain (see further 
 Cacus and Ertx). Heracles had made 
 the circuit of the Adriatic and was just 
 nearing Greece, when Hera sent a gadfly 
 and scattered the herd. With much toil he 
 wandered through the mountains of Thrace 
 as far as the Hellespont, but then only 
 succeeded in getting together a part of the 
 cattle. After a dangerous adventure with 
 the Giant Alcyoneus, he succeeded at length 
 in returning to Mycense, where Eurystheus 
 offered up the cattle to Hera (see 
 Alcyoneus). (11) The golden apples of 
 the Hesperides (see Hesperides). Heracles 
 is ignorant where the gardens of the Hes- 
 perides are to be found in which the apples 
 grow. He accordingly repairs to the 
 Nymphs who dwell by the Eridanus, on 
 whose counsel he surprises Nereus, the 
 omniscient god of the sea, and compels him 
 to give an answer. On this he journeys 
 through Libya, Egypt, and Ethiopia, where 
 he slays Antaeus, Busiris, and Emathion 
 (see under these names), He then crosses 
 to Asia, passes through the Caucasus, 
 where he sets Prometheus free, and on 
 through the land of the Hyperboreans till 
 he finds Atlas. Following the counsel of 
 Prometheus, he sends Atlas to bring the 
 apples, and in his absence bears the heavens 
 for him on his shoulders. Atlas returns 
 with them, but declines to take his burden 
 upon his shoulders again, promising to 
 carry the apples to Eurystheus himself. 
 Heracles consents, and asks Atlas to take 
 the burden only a moment, while he adjusts 
 a cushion for his head ; he then hurries off 
 with his prize. Another account represents 
 Heracles as slaying the serpent Ladon, who 
 guards the tree, and plucking the apples 
 himself. Eurystheus presents him with the 
 apples; he dedicates them to Athene, who 
 restores them to their place. (12) He 
 brings the dog Cerberus up from the lower 
 world. This is the heaviest task of all. 
 Conducted by Hermes and Athene, he de- 
 scends into Hades at the promontory of 
 Tsenarum. In Hades he sets Theseus free, 
 
 and induces the prince of the infei-nal 
 regions to let him take the dog to the 
 realms of day, if only he can do so without 
 using his weapons. Heracles binds the 
 beast by the mere strength of arm, and 
 carries him to Eurystheus, and takes him 
 back again into Hades. 
 
 His task is now ended, and he returns to 
 Thebes. His first wife, Megara, he weds to 
 his faithful friend lolaus, and then journeys 
 into (Echalia i to king Eurytus, whose 
 daughter lole he means to woo. The 
 king's son Iphitus favours his suit, but 
 Eurytus rejects it with contempt. Soon 
 after this Autolycus steals some of Eury- 
 tus' cattle, and he accuses Heracles of the 
 robbery. Meanwhile, Heracles has rescued 
 Alcestis, the wife of Admetus, from death. 
 Iphitus meets Heracles, begs him to help 
 him in looking for the stolen cattle, and ac- 
 companies him to Tiryns. Here, after hos- 
 pitably entertaining him, Heracles throws 
 him, in a fit of madness, from the battle- 
 ments of his stronghold. A heavy sickness 
 is sent on him for this murder, and Heracles 
 prays to the god of Delphi to heal him. 
 Apollo rejects him, whereupon Heracles 
 attempts to carry away the tripod. A con- 
 flict ensues, when Zeus parts the com- 
 batants with his lightning. The oracle bids 
 Heracles to hire himself out for three years 
 for three talents, and pay the money to 
 Eurytus. Hermes puts him into the service 
 of Omphale, queen of Lydia, daughter of 
 lardanus, and widow of Tmolus. Heracles 
 is degraded to female drudgery, is clothed 
 in soft raiment and set to spin wool, while 
 the queen assumes the lion skin and the 
 club. The time of service over, he under- 
 takes an expedition of vengeance against 
 Laomedon of Troy. He lands on the coast 
 of the Troad with eighteen ships, manned 
 by the boldest of heroes, such as Telamon, 
 Peleus, and Oiicles. Laomedon succeeds in 
 surprising the guard by the ships, and in 
 slaying Oicles. But the city is stormed, 
 Telamon being the first to climb the wall, 
 and Laomedon, with all his sons except 
 Podarces, is slain by the arrows of Heracles. 
 {See Priamxts.) On his return Hera sends 
 a tempest upon him. On the island of C5s 
 he has a hard conflict to undergo with 
 Eurytion, the son of Poseidon, and his sons. 
 Heracles is at first wounded and forced to 
 fly, but prevails at length with the help of 
 Zeus. 
 
 After this Athene summons the hero to 
 
 ^ In Thessaly or Messenia ; ascording to a 
 later story, in EubcBa. 
 
HERACLES. 
 
 283 
 
 the battle of the gods with the Giants, who 
 are not to be vanquished without his aid. 
 {See GiGANTES.) Then Heracles returns to 
 the Peloponnese, and takes vengeance on 
 Augeas and on Neleus of Pylos, who had 
 refused to purify him for the murder of 
 Iphitus. {See Augeas, Molionid^, Neleus, 
 and Peeidtmenus.) In the battle with the 
 Pylians he goes so far as to wound Hades, 
 who had come up to their assistance. Hip- 
 pocoon of Sparta and his numerous sons he 
 slays in revenge for their murder of (Eonus, 
 a son of his maternal uncle Licymnius. 
 In this contest his ally is king Cepheus of 
 Tegea, by whose sister Auge he is father of 
 Telephus. Cepheus with his twenty sons are 
 left dead on the field. 
 
 Heracles now wins to wife Deianira, 
 the daughter of (Eneus of Calydon. {See 
 ACHELOUS.) He remains a long time with 
 his father-in-law, and at length, with his 
 wife and his son Hyllus, he passes on 
 into Trachis, to the hospitality of his 
 friend Ceyx. At the ford of the river 
 Evenus he encounters the Centaur Nessus, 
 who has the right of carrying travellers 
 across. Nessus remains behind and at- 
 tempts to do violence to Deianira, and 
 Heracles shoots him through with his 
 poisoned arrows. The dying Centaur gives 
 some of his infected blood to Deianira, tell- 
 ing her that, should her husband be un- 
 faithful, it will be a means of restoring him. 
 Heracles has a stubborn contest with 
 Theiodamas, the king of the Dry opes, kills 
 him, and takes his son Hylas away. {See 
 Htlas). He then reaches Trachis, and is 
 received with the friendliest welcome by 
 king Ceyx. Prom hence he starts to fight 
 with Cycnus {see Ctcnus) ; and afterwards, 
 at the request of ^Egimius, prince of the 
 Dorians, undertakes a war against the 
 Lapithse, and an expedition of revenge 
 against Eurytus of CEchalia. {See above.) 
 He storms the fortress, slays Eurytus with 
 his sons, and carries off lole, who had 
 formerly been denied him, as his prisoner. 
 He is about to offer a sacrifice to his father 
 Zeus on Mount Censeum, when Deianira, 
 jealous of lole, sends him a robe stained 
 with the blood of Nessus. It has hardly 
 grown warm upon his body, when the 
 dreadful poison begins to devour his flesh. 
 Wild with anguish, he hurls Lichas, who 
 brought him the robe, into the sea, where 
 he is changed into a tall cliff. In the at- 
 tempt to tear off the robe, he only tears off 
 pieces of his flesh. Apollo bids them take 
 him to the top of CEta, where he has a 
 
 great funeral pyre built up for him. This 
 he ascends ; then he gives lole to his son 
 Hyllus to be his wife, and bids Posas, the 
 father of Philoctetes, to kindle the pyre. 
 According to another story, it is Philoctetes 
 himself, whom Heracles presents with his 
 bow and poisoned arrows, who performs 
 this office. The flames have hardly started 
 up, when a cloud descends from the sky 
 with thunder and lightning, and carries 
 the son of Zeus up to heaven. Here he is 
 welcomed as one of the immortals. Hera 
 is reconciled to him, and he is wedded to 
 her daughter Hebe, the goddess of eternal 
 youth. Their children are Alexiares 
 (Averter of the Curse) and Aniketos (the 
 Invincible). The names merely personify 
 two of the main qualities for which the 
 hero was worshipped. 
 
 About the end of Heracles nothing is 
 said in the Iliad but that he, the best-loved 
 of Zeus' sons, did not escape death, but 
 was overcome by fate, and by the heavy 
 wrath of Hera. In the Odyssey his ghost, 
 in form like black night, walks in the lower 
 world with his bow bent and his arrows 
 ready, while the hero himself dwells among 
 the immortals, the husband of Hebe. Eor 
 the lives of his children, and the end of 
 Eurystheus, see Hyllus. 
 
 Heracles was worshipped partly as a 
 hero, to whom men brought the ordinary 
 libations and offerings, and partly as an 
 Olympian deity, an immortal among the 
 immortals. Immediately after his apotheo- 
 sis his friends offered sacrifice to him at 
 the place of burning, and his worship 
 spread from thence through all the tribes 
 of Hellas. Diomus the son of Colyttus, an 
 Athenian, is said to have been the first who 
 paid him the honours of an immortal. It 
 was he who founded the gymnasium called 
 Cynosarges, near the city. This gymnasium, 
 the sanctuary at Marathon, and the temple 
 at Athens, were the three most venerable 
 shrines of Heracles in Attica. Diomus gave 
 his name to the Diomeia, a merry festival 
 held in Athens in honour of Heracles. 
 Feasts to Heracles {Heracleia), with athletic 
 contests, were celebrated in many places. 
 He was the hero of labour and struggle, and 
 the patron deity of the gymnasium and 
 the palcestra. Prom early times he was 
 regarded as having instituted the Olympic 
 games ; as the founder of the Olympic sanc- 
 tuaries and the Olympic truce, the planter 
 of the shady groves, and the first competitor 
 andvictorin thecontests. During his earthly 
 life he had been a helper of gods and men , 
 
234 
 
 HERACLES. 
 
 and had set the earth free from monsters 
 and rascals. According!}' he was invoked 
 in all the perils of life as the saviour (Soter) 
 and the averter of evil (Alexlkdkos). Men 
 prayed for his protection against locusts, 
 Hies, and noxious serpents. He was a 
 wanderer, and had travelled over the whole 
 world ; therefore he was called on as the 
 guide on marches and journeys {Hegemo- 
 nios). In another character he was the 
 glorious conqueror {KalKnlkos) who, after 
 his toils are over, enjoys his rest with wine, 
 feasting, and music. Indeed, the fable 
 represents him as having, in his hours of 
 repose, given as striking proofs of inex- 
 haustible bodily power as in his struggles 
 and contests. Men liked to think of him 
 as an enormous eater, capable of devouring 
 a whole ox ; as a lusty boon companion, 
 fond of delighting himself and others by 
 j-jlaying the lyre. In Rome he was coupled 
 with the Muses, and, like Apollo elsewhere, 
 was worshipped as MusagStes, or master of 
 the Muses. After his labours he was sup- 
 posed to have been fond of hot baths, which 
 were accordingly deemed sacred to him. 
 Among trees, the wild olive and white 
 poplar were consecrated to him ; the poplar 
 he was believed to have brought from far 
 countries to Olympia. 
 
 Owing to the influence of the Greek 
 colonies in Italy, the worship of Hercules 
 was widely diffused among the Italian 
 tribes. It attached itself to local legends 
 and religion ; the conqueror of Cacus, for 
 instance, was originally not Hercules, but a 
 powerful shepherd called Garanos. Again, 
 Hercules' came to be identified with the 
 ancient Italian deity Sancus or Dius Fidius, 
 and was regarded as the god of happiness 
 in home and field, industry and war, as 
 well as of truth and honour. His altar 
 was the Ara Maxima in the cattle-market 
 (forum hddrium), which he was believed to 
 have erected himself. (See Cacus.) Here 
 they dedicated to him a tithe of their gains 
 in war and peace, ratified solemn treaties, 
 and invoked his name to witness their 
 oaths. He had many shrines and sacrifices 
 in Rome, corresponding to his various titles 
 Victor (Conqueror), Invictus (Unconquered), 
 Custos (Guardian), Defensor (Defender), and 
 others. His rites were always performed 
 in Greek fashion, with the head covered. 
 It was in his temple that soldiers and 
 gladiators were accustomed to hang up 
 their arms when their service was over. 
 In the stone-quarries the labourers had 
 their Hercules Saxdrius (or Hercules of the 
 
 stone). He was called the father of Lati- 
 nus, the ancestor of the Latines, and to 
 him the Roman gens of the Fabii traced 
 their origin. The ancient gens of the 
 Potltu were said to have been commis- 
 sioned by the god in person to provide, 
 with the assistance of the Plndrii, for his 
 sacrifices at the Ara Maxima. In 310 B.C. 
 the Potitii gave the service into the hands 
 of state slaves. Before a year had passed 
 the flourishing family had become com- 
 pletely extinct. 
 
 In works of art Heracles is represented 
 as the ideal of manly strength, with full, 
 
 FAENESE HEKCDLES. 
 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
 well knit, and muscular limbs, serious ex- 
 pression, a curling beard, short neck, and 
 a head small in proportion to the limbs. 
 His equipment is generally the club and 
 the lion's skin. The type appears to have 
 been mainly fixed by Lysippus. The 
 Farnese Hercules, by the Athenian Glycon, 
 is probably a copy of one by Lysippus. 
 Hercules is portrayed in repose, leaning on 
 his club, which is covered with the lion's 
 
HERACLIDES JLEKKM. 
 
 285 
 
 skiu (see engraving, and article Glycon). 
 The Hercules of the Athenian Apollonius, 
 now only a torso, is equally celebrated. {See 
 Apollonius.) Compare also the copy of a 
 head of Heracles on a tStrcldrachrndn, of 
 which there is an engraving under the 
 article Coinage. 
 
 Heraclid.es {Herdkleldes). Surnamed 
 Ponticus. A Greek philosopher, born at 
 Heraclea in Pontus about 380 B.C. He 
 came early to Athens, where he became a 
 disciple of Plato and Aristotle, and had 
 made a reputation by about 340 B.C. He 
 was the author of some sixty works on 
 a great variety of subjects ; philosophy, 
 mathematics, music, grammar, poetry, poli- 
 tical and literary history, and geographj'. 
 He was a learned and interesting writer, 
 but somewhat deficient in critical power. 
 We have a few fragments of his works 
 remaining, besides an extract from a book 
 on Constitutions which bears his name. 
 But as no such treatise is elsewhere attri- 
 buted to him, this must probably be re- 
 garded as a selection from some of his other 
 writings. 
 
 Heraclitus {Herdkleitos) of Ephesus. A 
 Greek philosopher, who lived from about 
 535-475 B.C., during the time of the first 
 Persian domination over his native city. As 
 one of the last of the family of Androclus 
 the descendant of Codrus, who had founded 
 the colony of Ephesus, Heraclitus had cer- 
 tain honorary regal privileges, which he re- 
 nounced in favour of his brother. He like- 
 wise declined an invitation of king Darius 
 to visit his court. He was an adherent of 
 the aristocracy, and when, after the defeat 
 of the Persians, the democratic party came 
 into power, he withdrew in ill-humour to 
 a secluded estate in the country, and gave 
 himself up entirely to his studies. In his 
 later years ho wrote a philosophical treatise, 
 which he deposited in the temple of Arte- 
 mis, making it a condition that it should 
 not be published till after his death. He 
 was buried in the market-place of Ephesus, 
 and for several centuries later the Ephesians 
 continued to engrave his image on their 
 coins. 
 
 His groat work On Nature, in three 
 books, was written in the Ionian dialect, 
 and is the oldest monument of Greek prose. 
 Considerable fragments of it have como 
 down to us. The language is bold, harsh, 
 and figurative ; the style is so careless that 
 the syntactical relations of the words are 
 often hard to perceive; and the thoughts 
 are profound. All this made- Heraclitus so 
 
 difficult a writer, that he went in antiquity 
 by the name " the obscure." 
 
 Knowledge, according to Heraclitus, is 
 based upon perception by the senses. Per- 
 fect knowledge is only given to the gods, 
 but a progress in knowledge is possible 
 to men. Wisdom consists in the recogni- 
 tion of the intelligence which, by means of 
 the universe, guides the universe. Every- 
 thing is in an eternal flux; nothing, there- 
 fore, not even the world in- its momentary 
 form, nor the gods themselves, can escape 
 final destruction. The ultimate principle 
 into which all existence is resolvable is fire. 
 As fire changes continually into water and 
 then into earth, so earth changes back to 
 water and water again to fire. The world, 
 therefore, arose from fire, and in alternating 
 periods is resolved again into fire, to form 
 itself anew out of this element. The 
 division of unity, or of the divine original 
 fire, into the multiplicity of opposing phe- 
 nomena, is " the way downwards," and the 
 consequence of a war and a strife. Harmony 
 and peace lead back to unity by " the way 
 upwards." Nature is constantly dividing 
 and uniting herself, so that the multiplicity 
 of opposites does not destroy the unity of 
 the whole. The existence of these opposites 
 depends only on the difference of the motion 
 on " the way upwards " from that on " the 
 way downwards " ; all things, therefore, 
 are at once identical and not identical. 
 
 Hersea. A festival held at Argos every 
 five years in honour of Hera, the goddess 
 of the country. The priestess of Hera 
 drove, in a car drawn by white oxen, to 
 the Herseum, or temple of the goddess, 
 situated between Argos and Mycense. 
 Meantime the people marched out in pro- 
 cession, the fighting men in their arms. 
 There was a great sacrifice of oxen {liekd- 
 tombe), followed by a general sacrificial 
 banquet and games of all sorts. A special 
 feature of these was a contest in throwing 
 the javelin, while running at full speed, at 
 a shield set up at the end of the course. 
 The victor received a crown and a shield, 
 which he carried in the final procession. 
 
 Heralds. See Ceryx and PEiECO. 
 
 HermsB. Pillars, smaller at the base than 
 at the summit, which terminated generally 
 with a head of Hermes. In the earliest 
 times, Hermes (in whose worship the num- 
 ber 4 played a great part) was worshipped 
 [especially in Arcadia, see Pausanias, viii 4 
 § 4 ; cp. i V 33 § 4] under the form of a simple 
 quadrangular pillar of marble or wood, with 
 the significant mark of the male sex. As 
 
286 
 
 HEEMAGORAS HERMES. 
 
 art advanced, tlie pillar was surmounted, 
 first with a bearded head, and afterwards 
 with a youthful head of the god. Hermes 
 being the god of traffic, such pillars were 
 erected to him in the streets and squares of 
 towns ; in Attica, after the time of Hip- 
 parchus, the son of Pisistratus, they were 
 also erected along the country roads as 
 mile-stones. Sometimes they were inscribed 
 with apophthegms and riddles, in addition 
 to directions as to the way ; 
 [sometimes also with inscrip- 
 tions in honour of those who 
 had fought bravely for their 
 countrv. Dem., Lcpt., 112 ; 
 iEschines, Or. 3 § 183]. In 
 Athens there was an espe- 
 cially large number of them ; 
 in the market-place to the 
 N.W. of the Acropolis, the 
 Hermre, erected partly by 
 private individuals and partly 
 by corporations, formed a 
 long colonnade extending be- 
 tween the hall of paintings 
 (stou poikilt) and the King's 
 Hall {stoa haslleioR). Accor- 
 dingly, the latter was some- 
 times called the Hall of 
 Hcrmae. When the heads 
 of other divinities (such as 
 Athene, Heracles, Eros) were 
 placed on such pillars, these were then 
 called Herinathene, Hei-memcles, Hermcvos. 
 
 Hermagoras. Sec Rhetoric, Greek, near 
 end. 
 
 Hermaphroditus. In Greek mythology, 
 the son of Hermes and Aphrodite, born on 
 Mount Ida, and endowed with the beauty 
 of both deities. When a grown youth, 
 he was bathing in the Carian fountain of 
 Salmacis ; and the Nymph of the fountain, 
 whose love he rejected, praj'ed the gods 
 that she might be indissolubly united with 
 him. The prayer was answered, and a 
 being sprang into existence which united 
 the qualities of male and female. The fable 
 probably arose from the inclination, preva- 
 lent in the Eastern religions, towards con- 
 fusing the attributes of both sexes. In 
 Cyprus, for instance, a masculine Aphro- 
 dites, clad in female attire, was worshipped 
 by the side of the goddess Aphrodite. 
 Figures of hermaphrodites are common in 
 art. 
 
 Hermes. Son of Zeus and of the Naiad 
 Maia, daughter of Atlas. Immediately after 
 his birth upon the Arcadian mountain of 
 Cyllene, he gave proof of his chief character- 
 
 istics, inventiveness and versatilitj', united 
 with fascination, trickery, and cunning. 
 Born in the morning, by mid-day he had 
 invented the lyre ; in the evening he stole 
 fifty head of cattle from his brother Apollo, 
 which he hid so skilfully in a cave that they 
 could not be found ; after these exploits he 
 lay down quietly in his cradle. Apollo, by 
 means of his prophetic power, discovered 
 the thief and took the miscreant to Zeus, 
 
 * CULT OF TERMINAL FIGURE OF HERMES. 
 
 (Attic relief found near Naples ; Municla, Glyptotbek.) 
 
 who ordered the cattle to be given up. 
 However, Hermes so delighted his brother 
 by his playing on the lyre that, in exchange 
 for it, he allowed him to keep the cattle, 
 resigned to him the golden staff of fortune 
 and of riches, with the gift of prophecy in 
 its humbler forms, and from that time forth 
 became his best friend. Zeus made his 
 son herald to the gods and the guide of the 
 dead in Hades. In this myth we have 
 allusions to several attributes of the 
 god. 
 
 In many districts of Greece, and espe- 
 cially in Arcadia, the old seat of his wor- 
 ship, Hermes was regarded as a god who 
 bestowed the blessing of fertility on the 
 pastures and herds, and who was happiest 
 spending his time among shepherds and 
 dallying with Nymphs, by whom he had 
 numberless children, including Pan and 
 Daphnis. In many places he was considered 
 the god of crops; and also as the god of 
 mining and of digging for buried treasure. 
 His kindliness to man is also shown in his 
 being the god of roads. At cross-roads in 
 particular, there were raised in his honour, 
 and called by his name, not only heaps of 
 
HERMES. 
 
 287 
 
 stones, to which every passer by added a 
 stone, but also the quadrangular pillars 
 known as Hermai (q.v.) At Athens these 
 last were set up in the streets and open 
 spaces, and also before the doors. Every 
 unexpected find on the road was called 
 a gift of Hermes (hcrmaidn). Together 
 with Athene, he escorts and protects heroes 
 in perilous enterprises, and gives them 
 prudent counsels. He takes special delight 
 in men's dealings with one another, in 
 exchange and barter, in buying and selling ; 
 also in all that is won by craft or by theft. 
 Thus he is the patron of tradespeople and 
 thieves, and is himself the father of Auto- 
 lycus {q.v.), the greatest of all thieves. He 
 too it is who endowed Pandora, the first 
 woman, with the faculty of lying, and with 
 flattering discourse and a crafty spirit. 
 On account of his nimbleness and activity 
 he is the messenger of Zeus, and knows how 
 to carry out his father's commands with 
 adroitness and cunning, as in the slaying 
 of Argos (the guard of lo), from which 
 he derives his epithet of Argos-Slayer, or 
 Argeiplwntes. Again, as Hermes was the 
 sacrificial herald of the gods, it was an 
 important part of the duty of heralds to 
 assist at sacrifices. It was on this account 
 that the- priestly race of the Kerykes claimed 
 him as the head of their family {see Eleu- 
 sinia). Strength of voice and excellence 
 of memory were supposed to be derived 
 from him in his capacity of herald. Owing 
 to his vigour, dexterity, and personal charm, 
 he was deemed the god of gymnastic skill, 
 which makes men strong and handsome, 
 and the especial patron of boxing, running, 
 and throwing the discus ; in this capacity 
 the pdlcEstrce and gymnasia were sacred to 
 him, and particular feasts called Ilermaia 
 were dedicated to him. He was the dis- 
 coverer of music (for besides the lyre he 
 invented the shepherd's pipe), and he was 
 also the god of wise and clever discourse. 
 A later age made him even the inventor of 
 letters, figures, mathematics, and astronomy. 
 He is, besides, the god of sleep and of dreams ; 
 with one touch of his staff he can close or 
 open the eyes of mortals; hence the custom, 
 before going to sleep, of offering him the 
 last libation. As he is the guide of the 
 living on their way, so is he also the con- 
 ductor of the souls of the dead in the 
 nether-world {Psychopompos), and he is as 
 much loved by the gods of those regions 
 as he is by those above. For this reason 
 sacrifices were offered to him in the event 
 of deaths, Hermce were placed on the graves. 
 
 and, at oracles and incantations of the dead, 
 he was honoured as belonging to the lower 
 world ; in general, he was accounted the 
 intermediary between the upper and lower 
 worlds. His worship early spread through- 
 out the whole of Greece. As he was born 
 in the fourth month, the number four was 
 sacred to him. In Argos the fourth month 
 was named after him, and in Athens he was 
 honoured with sacrifices on the fourth of 
 every month. His altars and images (mostly 
 simple Hermce) were in all the streets, 
 thoroiighfares, and open spaces, and also 
 at the entrance of the palcestra. 
 
 In art he is represented in the widely 
 varying characters which he assumed, as a 
 shepherd with a single animal from his 
 flock, as a mischievous little thief, as the 
 
 (1) HERMES LOGIOS. 
 
 HeriDes as patron of the Art of Rhetoric. 
 (Rome, Villa Ludovisi.) 
 
 god of gain with a purse in his hand 
 {cp. fig. 1), with a strigil as patron of the 
 gymnasia, at other times with a lyre, but 
 oftenest of all as the messenger of the gods. 
 He was portrayed by the greatest sculptors, 
 such as Phidias, Polyclitus, Scopas, and 
 
283 
 
 HEKMESIANAX HEUODES ATTICUS. 
 
 (2) CADUCEUS. 
 
 Praxiteles, whose Hermes with the infant 
 Dionysus was discovered in 1877, in the 
 temple of Hera, at Olympia. (See Praxi- 
 teles, and Sculpture, fig. 10.) In the older 
 works of art he appears as a bearded and 
 strong man ; in the later ones he is to be seen 
 in a graceful and charming attitude, as a 
 slim youth with tranquil features, indicative 
 of intellect and good will. His usual attri- 
 butes are wings on his feet, a flat, broad- 
 brimmed hat [sec Petasus), which in later 
 times was ornamented with wings, as was 
 also his staff. This last (Gr. kerykeion; 
 Lat. cudi'iceus, fig. 2) was ori- 
 ginally an enchanter's wand, a 
 symbol of the power that pro- 
 duces wealth and prosperity, 
 and also an emblem of influence 
 over the living and the dead. 
 But even in early times it was 
 regarded as a herald's staff and 
 an emblem of peaceful inter- 
 course ; it consisted of three 
 shoots, one of which formed 
 the handle, the other two being 
 intertwined at the top in a knot. The place 
 of the latter was afterwards taken by ser- 
 pents ; and thus arose our ordinary type of 
 herald's staff. By the Romans Hermes was 
 identified with Mercurius (q.v.). 
 
 Hermesianax, of Colophon in Ionia, a 
 Greek elegiac poet, who lived in the time of 
 Alexander the Great, about 330 B.C., and 
 was a scholar and friend of Philetas. He 
 composed erotic elegies in the style of those 
 by his compatriot, Antimachus. The three 
 books containing his compositions he en- 
 titled Leontion, after his mistress. A frag- 
 ment of ninety-eight lines of the third book 
 has been preserved, in which love-stories of 
 poets and wise men from Orpheus down to 
 Philetas are treated in a rather unconnected 
 manner, but not without spirit. 
 
 Hermione, the only child of Menelaus 
 and Helen. She was married to NeoptSle- 
 mus the son of Achilles, immediately on 
 her father's return from Troy, in fulfilment 
 of a promise he had made there. According 
 to a post-Homeric tradition, she had been 
 previously promised to Orestes ; he claimed 
 Iier on the ground of his prior right, and on 
 his claim being refused by Neoptolemus, 
 killed his rival with his own hands, or at 
 any rate compassed his death, at Delphi. 
 Orestes took Hermione to his home, and had 
 by her a son, Tisamenus. 
 
 Hermippus. A Greek poet of the Old 
 Comedy, an elder contemporary of Aristo- 
 phanes and a bitter opponent of Pericles, 
 
 whose mistress, Aspasia, he prosecuted on a 
 charge of atheism. Only a few fragments 
 of his dramas, as also of his libellous iambic 
 poems, after Archilochus' manner, have 
 been preserved ; they are remarkable for 
 the cleverness of their style. 
 
 Hermogenes. A Greek rhetorician of 
 Tarsus in Cilicia, who flourished in the 
 middle of the 2nd century A.D. He came 
 to Rome as a rhetorician as early as his 
 fifteenth year, and excited universal admi- 
 ration, especially on the part of the emperor 
 Marcus Aurelius. In his twenty-fourth 
 year he lost his memory, and never recovered 
 it, though he lived to a great age. His 
 work on Rhetoric, which still exists, enjoyed 
 a remarkable popularity, and was for a long 
 time the principal text-book of rhetoric; it 
 was also epitomised, and was the subject of 
 numerous commentaries. The work itself 
 consists of five sections : (1) On points at 
 issue in legal causes ; (2) On the art of dis- 
 covering arguments; (3) On the various 
 forms of oratorical style; (4) On political 
 orations in particular, and on the art of 
 eloquent and effective speaking ; (5) tho 
 last section consists of rhetorical exercises 
 {Pvocjymnasmdtd), which were cast into a 
 fresh form by Aphthonius {q.v.\ and trans- 
 lated into Latin by Priscian. 
 Hero. See Leander. 
 Herodes Atticus (the name in full is 
 Tiberius Claudius Atticus Herodes). A 
 celebrated Greek rhetorician, born about 
 A.D. 101, at Marathon. He belonged to a very 
 ancient family, and received a careful edu- 
 cation in rhetoric and philosophy from the 
 leading teachers of his day. His talents 
 and his eloquence won him the favour of 
 the emperor Hadrian, who, in A.D. 125, ap- 
 pointed him prefect over the free towns of 
 the Province of Asia. On his return to 
 Athens, about 129, he attained a most exalted 
 position, not only as a teacher of oratory, 
 but also as the owner of immense wealth, 
 which he had inherited from his father. 
 This he most liberally devoted to the sup- 
 port of his fellow citizens, and to the erec- 
 tion of splendid public buildings in various 
 parts of Greece. He had just been archon, 
 when in 140 he was sumrtjonpd to Rome by 
 Antoninus Pius, to instruct the imperial 
 princes, Marcus Aurelius and Liicius Verus, 
 in Greek oratory. Amongst other marks 
 of distinction given him for this was the 
 consulship in 143. His old age was sad- 
 dened by misunderstandings with his fellow 
 citizens and heavy family calamities. He 
 died at Marathon in 177. His pre-eminence 
 
HERODIANUS HERODOTUS. 
 
 289 
 
 as an orator was universally acknowledged 
 by his contemporaries; he was called the 
 king of orators, and was placed on a level 
 with the great masters of antiquity. His 
 reputation is hardly borne out by an unim- 
 portant rhetorical exercise {On the Consti- 
 tution) calling on the Thebans to join the 
 Peloponnesians against Archelaus, king of 
 Macedonia. This has come down to us under 
 his name, but its genuineness is not free 
 from^ doubt. Numerous inscriptions still 
 remain to attest his ancient renown ; and 
 out of the number of his public buildings, 
 there is still standing at Athens the 
 Odeum, a theatre erected in memory of his 
 wife Regilla. 
 
 Herodlanus. (1) A Greek historian, 
 about 170-240 a.d., who lived (for a time at 
 any rate) in Rome, and filled offices both at 
 court and in the state. We still possess 
 his history of the Roman emperors, from 
 the death of Marcus Aurelius to the acces- 
 sion of Gordianus III (180-238) ; it is dis- 
 tinguished by its impartiality, and its clear 
 and pleasing style. 
 
 (2) ^lius Herodlanus. A Greek scholar, 
 son of Apollonius Dyscolus (g.v.), born at 
 Alexandria ; he flourished in the second 
 half of the 2nd century A.D., and after 
 the completion of his education, went to 
 Rome, where he long lived in confidential 
 intercourse with Marcus Aurelius, and re- 
 ceived the Roman citizenship. He died in 
 his native town. In a large number of 
 treatises he extended in every direction the 
 work begun by his father in the investiga- 
 tion of grammar, and in red ucing it to a sys- 
 tematic form. Of his activity as an author 
 numerous evidences have come down to us 
 in the shape of extensive fragments of his 
 works. 
 
 Herddotus. The famous Greek historian, 
 called the Father of History, bom about 
 490-480 B.C., at Halicarnassus in Asia 
 Minor. He was of noble family, being the 
 son of Lyxea and Dryo (or Rhoio). Like 
 his uncle, the poet Panyasis {q.v.), he fled 
 in 460 to the island of Samos, having been 
 expelled from his native town by the tyrant 
 Lygdamis. From this spot he seems to 
 have completed his great travels, which he 
 had already begun when at Halicarnassus. 
 These travels were most extensive : he tra- 
 versed Asia Minor, the interior of Asia 
 nearly as far as Susa, the Grseco-Asiatic 
 islands, Egypt as far as Elephantine, 
 Gyrene, the shores of the Euxine as far as 
 the Caucasus and the mouth of the Danube, 
 as well as Greece and the neighbouring 
 D. C. A. 
 
 countries. Having returned with his uncle 
 to Halicarnassus, he took part in the expul- 
 sion of Lygdamis (about 450), but, probably 
 in consequence of political intrigues, he fell 
 into disgrace with his fellow townsmen, 
 and was again compelled to quit his native 
 country. 
 
 In 445 he betook himself to Athens 
 in order to take part in the projected 
 colonization of Thurii in Southern Italy. 
 Here he gave public readings from the 
 works which he had begun to compose in 
 Samos (probably the portions relating to 
 the Persian War). They met with such 
 applause that he was rewarded with a pre- 
 sent of ten talents (£2,000) from the public 
 treasury. He is also said to have given 
 similar recitations elsewhere — at the festal 
 assembly of the Greeks at Olympia, and 
 also at Corinth and Thebes. We are told 
 that at one of these recitals Thucydides 
 was present as a boy, and was so affected 
 that he shed tears and resolved to devote 
 himself to the writing of history. [See, 
 however, Dahlmann's Life of Herodotus, 
 chap, ii, sect, ii.] Herodotus was in close 
 intercourse with the leading men of the day. 
 In Athens, which he seems to have often 
 visited, after having settled at Thurii (443), 
 he knew Pericles and the poet Sophocles, 
 who composed a special poem in his honour 
 in 442. It was doubtless there that he 
 was prompted to mould the materials of 
 his history into a complete and artistic 
 whole. He carried forward this plan at 
 Thurii ; but it is probable that his death, 
 which occurred about 424, prevented his 
 finishing his grand design. 
 
 ,This work (which the Alexandrine critics 
 divided into nine books, named after the 
 nine Muses), marks the beginning of real 
 historical writing among the Greeks. The 
 industry of the earlier historical writers 
 (known as LOgdgrdphi, q.v.) had contented 
 itself with collecting material for a limited 
 purpose, such as histories of towns and 
 families, arranged in an uncritical and inar- 
 tistic manner. It is the merit of Herodotus, 
 that, by his study of the existing literature 
 and by his travels, he collected historical, 
 geographical, and ethnographical materials 
 relating to the greater part of the then 
 known world, that he sifted them wibh 
 some critical discernment, that he arranged 
 them under leading topics, and set them 
 forth in an original and attractive form. 
 The true scope of the work, which em- 
 braces a period of 320 years down to the 
 battle of Mycale (479), is the struggle be- 
 
 U 
 
290 
 
 HERALD'S STAFF HEROS. 
 
 tween tlie Greeks and the barbarians ; with 
 this leading thread of his narrative are 
 inwoven, iu a countless number of episodes, 
 descriptions of the countries and races, 
 more or less closely connected with the 
 principal events of the storj% so that the 
 result is a complete picture of the known 
 world as it then existed. In subordination 
 to this general object, the whole narrative 
 is inspired with the one guiding thought, 
 that all history is determined by a moral 
 government of the world, ordained by a 
 Providence which rules the destinies of 
 man ; and that every exaltation of man 
 above the limits fixed by the eternal law 
 of heaven excites the jealousy of the gods, 
 and draws down an avenging Nemesis on 
 the head of the guilty one himself, or his 
 descendants. 
 
 His veracity shows itself in the sharp 
 distinction he draws between personal ob- 
 servation, oral information, and mere con- 
 jecture ; his impartiality, his just recogni- 
 tion of praiseworthy qualities (even on the 
 side of the enemy), is displayed in his 
 frank censure of political or moral failings 
 which he thinks he perceives in his friends ; 
 while his nobility of character is evinced 
 by his hearty delight in all that is good 
 and beautiful. 
 
 Although by race Herodotus belonged 
 to the Dorians, he nevertheless made use 
 of the Ionic dialect which had been em- 
 ployed by his predecessors, the lOgdgrdpM, 
 though at times he mingles it with Epic, 
 Doric, and Attic forms. His simplicity of 
 style recalls that of the logoyraphi, but 
 he far excels them in clearness and general 
 intelligibility of composition, in a pleasing 
 flow of language, in an epic, and often 
 even redundant, fulness of expression, and 
 above all in a genius for narrative, which 
 he shows in the vivid description of 
 the most diverse events. — A biography of 
 Homer, written iu the Ionic dialect, bears 
 the name of Herodotus; it is really the 
 work of a rhetorician at the beginning of 
 the 1st century of our era. 
 
 Herald's Staff (Gr. kerykeidn ; Lat. caclu- 
 ceus). An attribute of Hermes {q.v.). 
 
 Heron. A Greek mathematician of Alex- 
 andria, about the middle of the 3rd century 
 B.C., the well-known inventor of Hcron^s 
 hall and Heron's fountain. Of his Intro- 
 duction to Mechanics, the most comprehen- 
 sive work of antiquity on the theory of 
 that science, only extracts are preserved in 
 Pappus. We also possess his disquisitions 
 on presses, on the contrivance of automa- 
 
 tons, and on the construction of catapults 
 and other engines for projectiles. 
 
 Heroon. The shrine of a hero. {See 
 Heros.) 
 
 HeropMle. The Erythrsean Sibyl. {See 
 
 SiBYLLiE.) 
 
 Heros {Gr.). A hero. This is in Homer 
 a descriptive title given specially to princes 
 and nobles, but also applied to men of mark 
 sprung from the people. Hesiod reserves the 
 name for mortals of divine origin, who are 
 therefore also known as demigods. Many of 
 these he places on the Islands of the Blessed, 
 where under the sovereignty of CrSnus 
 (Kronos), they lead a life of happiness. 
 Hesiod makes no allusion to the influence 
 of heroes upon the life of man, or to the 
 worship due to them in consequence. But 
 in later times this belief spread throughout 
 the whole of Greece. The heroes are in 
 most respects like men and suffer death; 
 but death puts them in a more exalted 
 rank, and they then have power to do men 
 good as well as harm. The most distin- 
 guished warriors of prehistoric times were 
 accounted heroes, being generally regarded 
 as the offspring of gods by mortal women ; 
 to their souls another destiny was accord- 
 ingly assigned than that allotted to the 
 souls of mortals. But even amongst the 
 heroes of old time there were some who, 
 without being children of the gods, never- 
 theless so distinguished themselves by their 
 virtue, that they appeared to participate in 
 the divine nature, and therefore to deserve 
 a higher distinction after death. Even in 
 later times such men were not unknown, 
 when personages recently deceased were 
 actually exalted to the ranks of heroes, as 
 in the case of Leonidas at Sparta, and Har- 
 modius and Aristogeiton at Athens. The 
 founders of colonies were especially con- 
 sidered worthy of worship as heroes ; when 
 the true founder was unknown, then some 
 appropriate hero was selected instead. 
 Formerly there were many such fictitious 
 heroes ; to this class properly belong all 
 the titular ancestors of the noble and 
 priestly families of Attica, and the founders 
 of particular arts and trades, as Dsedalus. 
 Many heroes of historical times were ori- 
 ginally gods, who, in course of time, were 
 divested of their primitive dignity. There 
 was no town or district of Greece in which 
 a host of heroes was not worshipped by 
 the side of the higher divinities ; many as 
 special tutelary spirits of the country, others 
 as the heroes of the country, as the Dioscuri 
 at Sparta, the ^ftcidse at ^gina, and 
 
HERSE HESIONE. 
 
 291 
 
 Theseus in Attica. There were festivals 
 in their honour everywhere, many of them 
 small and unimportant, and only celebrated 
 in a restricted circle, others observed by 
 the state as festivals of the people in 
 general, and not a whit inferior, in wealth 
 of equipment, to the most important festivals 
 in honour of the gods. This was especially 
 the case with the heroes of the country. 
 Many heroes had shrines, known as Herod, 
 which were generally erected over their 
 graves. The altars of heroes were lower 
 than those of gods, and were commonly 
 designated sacrificial hearths ; they were 
 generally on a level with the ground, and 
 on the west side, the region of the nether 
 world, were provided with a hollow into 
 which the libations were poured. Like 
 offerings to the dead, these consisted of 
 honey, wine, water, milk, oil, and blood 
 which had been shed by sacrificial victims ; 
 the flesh of the animals sacrificed was 
 burnt. In the period of decadence it became 
 customary to treat the living with heroic 
 honours. Such honours were paid to the 
 Spartan Lysander by the towns in Asia 
 Minor, and were afterwards accorded to 
 kings, e.g. to Antigonus and his son Deme- 
 trius at Athens. 
 
 Herse. 8ee Erse. 
 
 Hesiod (Heswdds). The earliest epic poet 
 of Greece (next to Homer), whose writings 
 have actually come down to us. Even the 
 ancients themselves had no clear views of 
 his date, some making him the contemporary 
 of Homer and others even still older. He 
 certainly lived after Homer, probably about 
 the beginning of the Olympiads in 77G 
 B.C. His poems contain incidentally a few 
 allusions to the circumstances of his life. 
 According to them he was bom at Ascra 
 in Boeotia, near Helicon, where his father 
 Dius had settled as an emigrant from the 
 iEolic Cyme (Kume) in Asia. At his 
 father's death he was involved in a dispute 
 with his younger brother Perses about his 
 patrimony. This was decided against him 
 by the verdict of the judges, who had been 
 bribed by the younger brother. Disgust 
 at the injustice he had suffered, and a re- 
 newal of the dispute with his brother, 
 appear to have determined him to forsake 
 his native land and to settle at Naupactus. 
 According to a tradition he was murdered 
 at the Locrian town of (Eneon by the sons 
 of his host, on a false suspicion ; but, by 
 command of the Delphic oracle, his bones 
 were brought to Orch6m6nus, where a 
 monument, with an inscription, was erected 
 
 to him in the market-place. In ancient times 
 a series of epic poems bore his name, and 
 were attributed to him as the representa- 
 tive of the Boeotian and Locrian school of 
 poetry, in contrast to the Ionian and Homeric 
 school. Three poems of his have been pre- 
 served : (1) The Works and Days, which 
 consists of myths, fables, and proverbs, 
 interwoven with exhortations to his brother, 
 who, having lost by extravagance his share 
 of the patrimony, was now threatening 
 him with a new law-suit. The poet here 
 recommends him to abstain from his un- 
 righteous proceedings, and by honourable 
 toil to gain fresh wealth for himself. He 
 therefore lays down for tis guidance all 
 manner of precepts, on agriculture, do- 
 mestic economy, navigation, etc., and speci- 
 fies the days appropriate for every under- 
 taking. Although this poem is deficient in 
 true artistic finish, it was highly valued 
 by the ancients on account of its moral 
 teaching. (2) The Theogony. An account 
 of the origin of the world and of the birth 
 of the gods, which, in its present shape, is 
 composed of different recensions, together 
 with many later additions. Next to the 
 Homeric poems, it is the most important 
 source of our knowledge of the views of the 
 Greeks of the earliest times as to the world 
 and the gods. (3) The Shield of Heracles. 
 A description of the shield of Heracles, 
 wrought by Hephaestus, to arm the hero in 
 his conflict with Cycnus {q.v.), son of Ares. 
 It is a weak imitation of the Homeric 
 account of the shield of Achilles, and is 
 certainly not the work of Hesiod. As an 
 introduction, a number of verses are bor- 
 rowed from a lost poem by Hesiod, of 
 genealogical import, — a list of the women 
 whom the gods had made the mothers of 
 the heroic families of Greece. 
 
 The poetry of Hesiod, although composed 
 in the same form as that of Homer, never 
 approaches it in grace and beauty. On the 
 contrary, it is wanting in artistic form and 
 finish, and rarely affords any real enjoyment. 
 Nevertheless it betokens an important 
 advance in the development of the Greek 
 intellect, from the naive simplicity of its 
 attitude in Homeric times, to the specula- 
 tive observation of the world and of human 
 life. It contains the germs of lyric, as 
 also of elegiac, iambic, and aphoristic poetry. 
 
 Hesidne. iDaughter of LaSmedon, king 
 of Troy, and of Leucippe. By her death 
 she was to appease the wrath of PSseidon, 
 who, on account of her father's breaking 
 his word, was devastating the land with 
 
292 
 
 HESPEEIDES— HESTIA. 
 
 a marine monster. Heracles destroyed tlie 
 monster and set the maiden free ; but 
 Laomedon wanted to break his promise to 
 the hero, and to deprive him of his stipulated 
 payment. So Heracles took Troy, slew Lao- 
 medon and his sons, and gave Hesione to 
 his companion Telamon, to whom she bore a 
 son, Teucer. 
 
 HespgridSs. According to Hesiod, the 
 daughters of Night ; according to later 
 accounts, daughters of Atlas and of Hes- 
 peris. Their names were ^gle, Arethusa, 
 Erytheia, Hespevia. They dwell on the 
 river Oceanus, near Atlas, close to the 
 Gorgons, on the borders of eternal dark- 
 ness, in the garden of the gods, where Zeus 
 espoused Hera. Together with the hundred- 
 headed dragon Ladon, the son of Phorcys 
 or Typhon, they guard the golden apples 
 which GcBa (or Earth) caused to grow as a 
 marriage gift for Hera. {See Heracles.) 
 
 Hestia. The goddess of the hearth, which 
 is the emblem of the settled home. She is 
 deemed the founder and maintainer of the 
 family and the state, of civic concord and 
 of public reverence for the gods. She is 
 the daughter of Cronus (Kronos) and of 
 Rhea ; sister of Zeus, PSseidon, Hades, Hera, 
 and Demeter ; one of the twelve Olympian 
 deities, from whom she is distinguished by 
 the fact that, as the abiding goddess of 
 the household, she never leaves Olympus. 
 In Homer the sanctity of the hearth is 
 indeed recognised, but as yet we find no 
 mention of the goddess. It is a matter of 
 discussion whether this was by accident, or 
 because in that period the personification 
 of the worship of the hearth had not at- 
 tained its full perfection. Having been 
 wooed by Apollo and Poseidon, she took an 
 oath of perpetual virginity ; so Zeus granted 
 her the honour of being worshipped, as a 
 tutelary goddess, at every hearth, in human 
 habitations as well as in the temples of the 
 gods, and of being called to mind amid 
 libations at the beginning and end of every 
 sacrifice and every festal entertainment. 
 Hence it was that every sacrifice began 
 and ended with a libation to Hestia, so that 
 she had a share in all festivities ; and in 
 every prayer, as well as in all the public 
 forms of solemn oaths, her name was recited 
 before the name of any other god. Just as 
 in the home her consecrated hearth formed 
 the central point of family life, at which 
 family festivals were celebrated and where 
 both strangers and fugitives found a hospi- 
 table asylum, so also in the Prytaneion, or 
 townhall, where the sacred lire was ever 
 
 burning, her hearth was the centre of the 
 life of the city, indeed of the whole state, and 
 of the colonies which had gone forth from 
 it. Here, as representative of the state, the 
 highest o£Scials sacrificed to her, just as in 
 every private house the father or mother of 
 the family provided for her worship. Here 
 also were held the public deliberations, and 
 the public banquetgiven to deserving citizens 
 and to foreign ambassadors. Hither repaired 
 all who besought the protection of the state. 
 Hence also did the colonists, bound for dis- 
 tant shores, take the fire for the public hearth 
 of their new community. In some respects, 
 
 THE SIUSTINIANI HESTIA. 
 
 (Home, now in the Torlonia Museum,) 
 
 [lu the origiual tlie left baud is nearer the shoulder ; the forefinger 
 modern.] 
 
 the centre of the religious life of Greece was 
 the fire on the hearth of Hestia in the Del- 
 phic temple, where was the sacred omphdlds 
 (or navel), which the Greeks considered to 
 be the central point of the inhabited earth. 
 Hestia stands in close connexion with Zeus 
 as the guardian of the law of hospitality 
 and of the oath. She was also much asso- 
 ciated with Hermes and often invoked in 
 conjunction with him ; Hestia, as the goddess 
 of gentle domesticity, and Hermes, as the 
 
HESYCHIUS HIERODULI, 
 
 293 
 
 restless god of trade on the public streets 
 and roads, representing between them the 
 two principal varieties of human life. Ac- 
 cording to a view that afterwards became 
 current, under the influence of philosophers 
 and mystics, she was regarded as personi- 
 fying the earth, as the fixed centre of the 
 world, and was identified with Demeter and 
 Cybele. The corresponding deity among 
 the Romans was Vesta (q.v.). The statues 
 placed in the Prytdneia represented her, in 
 accordance with her nature, as a being with 
 grave and yet gentle expression, sitting or 
 standing in an attitude of rest, with a sceptre 
 as her attribute. The most celebrated of 
 her existing statues is known as the Giusti- 
 niani Vesta {see cut) ; a form robed in simple 
 drapery, with hair unadorned and wearing 
 a veil ; her right hand rests on her hip, and 
 her left hand, which is pointing upwards, 
 once held a long staff as her sceptre. 
 
 Hes^chius. A Greek grammarian of Alex- 
 andria, who lived probably towards the 
 end of the 4th century A.D. He composed, 
 with the assistance of the works of earlier 
 lexicographers (especially that of Diogenia- 
 nus), a lexicon, which has come down to us 
 in a very confused form, but is neverthe- 
 less among the most important sources of 
 our knowledge of the Greek language, and 
 throws much light on the interpretation and 
 criticism of Greek poets, orators, historians, 
 and physicians. 
 
 Hetsers (Gr. hetairai). A euphemism for 
 courtesans carrying on their profession 
 chiefly at Corinth and Athens. In the former 
 place they were connected with the worship 
 of Aphrodite ; in the latter they were intro- 
 duced by an ordinance of Solon, who intended 
 thereby to obviate worse evils that imperilled 
 the sanctity of the marriage-bond and the 
 chastity of domestic life. The intercourse 
 of unmarried men with hetairce was by no 
 means considered immoral ; in the case of 
 married men it was disapproved by custom, 
 which, after the Peloponesian War, became 
 more and more lax in this as in other 
 respects. The hetairce who were kept in 
 special establishments and on whom the 
 state levied a tax, were all female slaves ; 
 on the other hand, the women called hetairce 
 in a narrower sense, who carried on their 
 trade independently, were drawn chiefly 
 from the ranks of foreigners and freed- 
 women. It was quite unexampled for 
 any Athenian citizen's daughter to become 
 a hetaira. The important position they 
 assumed in the social life of Athens after 
 the Peloponnesian War is easily gathered 
 
 from the later Attic Comedy, as the plot of 
 the pieces generally turns upon the adven- 
 tures of a hetaira. As custom debarred all 
 respectable women and girls from the 
 society of men, the female element in the 
 latter was represented exclusively by 
 hetairce, many of whom became famous by 
 possessing the mental culture from which 
 the female citizens were debarred by their 
 education and by their secluded life. Thus 
 they were able to attract even men of 
 eminence. Aspdsia of Miletus was able to 
 make her house at Athens the meeting- 
 point of the most remarkable men of her 
 day ; among them even a Socrates and a 
 Pericles, and the latter deserted his wife 
 to marry her. 
 
 Courtesans (called in Latin meretrices) 
 were tolerated in Rome as in Greece ; 
 and no objection was raised to the inter- 
 course of unmarried men with these per- 
 sons. They were under the charge of the 
 sediles, and from the time of Caligula they 
 had to pay a tax to the imperial exchequer. 
 Steeped as they were in infamy, the law 
 even refused to accept their testimony as 
 valid. They were distinguishable from 
 respectable women by their costume ; they 
 wore neither stola nor palla, but a shorter 
 tunic without fringe, over which was a 
 toga of darker colour ; they were not per- 
 mitted to adopt the characteristic head-gear 
 of matrons. In the best times the trade 
 was only carried on by slaves and freed- 
 women, but afterwards by free-born women 
 also. 
 
 Hetseri (Gr. hetairoi) (" companions "). 
 The designation of all free Macedonians 
 who were ready to join in the defence of 
 their country ; especially the noblemen who 
 composed the heavj' cavalry, as contrasted 
 with the infantry (Gr. pSzStairoi) of the 
 royal guard [see Thirlwall, H. G., v, p. 179]. 
 
 Hetaeriae (Gr. hetairiai). The common 
 name in Greece for all associations having 
 any particular object, but chiefly for poli- 
 tical clubs, often of a secret character, for 
 the advancement of certain interests in the 
 state. In many cases their members only 
 aimed at assisting one another as candi- 
 dates for public office or in lawsuits ; but 
 occasionally they also worked for the vic- 
 tory of their party and for a change in the 
 constitution. 
 
 HI§r6duli (Gr. -oi), (temple servants). 
 The name for all who were closely con- 
 nected with the service of a sanctuary, and 
 especially such as were bound to perform 
 certain services, obligations, and duties to 
 
294 
 
 HIEROMENIA HIEROSCOPY. 
 
 the same, and in part lived as a kind of 
 bondmen upon its land. We find them 
 forming a considerable population in Asia; 
 e.g. at Comana in Cappadocia, there were 
 more than 6,000 of them, who with their 
 descendants belonged as slaves to the god- 
 dess called Enyo " by the Greeks. They 
 served as labourers on the estates of the 
 temple, and performed the humblest ofBces 
 as hewers of wood and drawers of water. 
 The Delphic sanctuary of Apollo had similar 
 ministrants from a very early date, as had 
 also the temple of Aphrodite on Mount Eryx 
 in Sicily. In the same manner Aphrodite 
 of Corinth, in the flourishing times of that 
 that city, had over 1,000 girls dedicated to 
 her service ; they added brilliancy and 
 lustre to her worship, and living as hetairai 
 they paid a portion of their earnings to the 
 goddess as tribute. 
 
 Hi6r6menia. The Greek term for the holy 
 time of the month, i.e. that portion of each 
 month which was kept as a festival. It 
 differed in the several months according to 
 the number and duration of the festivals. 
 During this time there was a suspension 
 of all business and even of lawsuits, and 
 executions and warrants were in abeyance ; 
 in short, everything that was likely to 
 interrupt the universal peace and the 
 celebration of the festival was set on one 
 side. For the greater feasts a " truce of 
 God" was proclaimed, (^ee Ekecheieia.) 
 
 HiSrdmnemdu. The recorder or officer 
 in charge of sacred business at the meet- 
 ings of the Amphictyonic Council. {See 
 Amphictyons.) 
 
 Higron^mus. (1) A Greek historian born 
 at Cardia in Thrace; he fought under Alex- 
 ander the Great, and after his death 
 attached himself to his compatriot Eumenes. 
 They were both captured in B.C. 316, but 
 Hieronymus found favour with Antigonus 
 and was appointed governor of Syria. 
 Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, entrusted 
 him with the governorship of Boeotia. He 
 survived Pyrrhus (ob. 272), and died, at 
 the age of 104, at the court of Antigonus 
 Gonatas. At an advanced age he composed 
 a history of the Diadochi and their suc- 
 cessors down to and beyond the death of 
 Pyrrhus ; which, although of small value 
 in point of style, was an original work 
 of great value, and the foundation of 
 all the accounts of the successors of 
 Alexander that have come down to us. The 
 work exists in fragments only. 
 
 (2) Best known as Saint Jerome. One 
 of the most famous of the Latin Fathers 
 
 of the Church. He was born at Stridon on 
 the borders of Dalmatia and Pannonia, 
 about A.D. 340. He was the son of 
 respectable and wealthy Christian parents, 
 and received in Rome and Treves a secular 
 education in rhetoric and philosophy. In 
 374, during a journey in the East, he was 
 alarmed by a dream, which led to his with- 
 drawing from the world and living as a 
 hermit in the Syrian desert. After five 
 years he left his retirement and lived in 
 Antioch, Constantinople, and Rome, till he 
 settled at Bethlehem in 386. He there 
 founded a monastery and a school of learn- 
 ing, and he ended an active life in 420. 
 Among his numerous works mention must 
 be made of his translation and continuation 
 (in 380 B.C.) of the Greek Chronological 
 Tables of Eusebius (q.v.); this is of great 
 value for the history of Roman literature, 
 owing to its quotations from the work of 
 Suetonius De Virts lllustrtbus, which was 
 then extant in its complete form. In imita- 
 tion of the latter and under a similar title 
 he wrote a work on Christian Literature. 
 He also wrote the well-known Latin version 
 of the Bible known as the Vulgate, which 
 is, strictly speaking, a revision, and in part 
 a new version, of an older translation. 
 
 Hierophant (Gr. hierophantSs, " discloser 
 of sacred things "). The chief priest in 
 the Eleusinian mj^steries (see Eleusinia). 
 He was always a member of the family of 
 the Eumolpidje. It was his duty to exhibit 
 to the initiated the sacred symbols of the 
 mysteries, and at the same time probably 
 to chant the liturgic hymns originally de- 
 rived-from his ancestor, the Thracian bard 
 Eumolpus. 
 
 Hieropoei (Gr. MSropoioi, "managers of 
 the sacrifices"). The Greek term forcer- 
 tain officials, who, besides having the care of 
 the sacrifices, had also the superintendence 
 of the economic details of the sanctuary, and 
 the charge of the money and treasures of the 
 temple. In Athens, besides such officials 
 attached to the several temples, there was 
 a board of ten men, yearly appointed by 
 lot, who had to attend to the celebration of 
 the extraordinary and quinquennial sacri- 
 fices, the cost of which was defrayed by 
 the public treasury. Another college of 
 three or ten hieropoei, appointed by the 
 Areopagus, superintended the sacrifices 
 offered to the Eumenides by the state. 
 
 Hieroscopy (Gr. hleroskopia, "viewing 
 the sacrifice "). A form of divination by 
 means of the entrails of sacrificed beastSs. 
 (See Mantike.) 
 
HILAROTRAGCEDIA HIMERIUS. 
 
 295 
 
 Silarotragcedia (lit. " gay and lively 
 tragedy"). A species of comedy invented 
 by Rhinthon of Tarentum, and consist- 
 ing of a travesty of tragic themes. {See 
 Rhinthon.) 
 
 Hildesheim, the Treasure of. A number 
 of drinking vessels, plates, and cooking 
 utensils of silver, most of them embossed 
 in high relief, found at Hildesheim in 1868. 
 These important products of Roman art, of 
 the time of Augustus, are now among the 
 chief attractions of the Berlin Museum. 
 They probably belonged to the table service 
 of some wealthy Roman, and had been hid- 
 den in the ground by Germans who had 
 taken them as the spoils of victory. Artis- 
 tically the most important pieces are a bowl 
 shaped like a bell, and gracefully decorated 
 externally with arabesques and figures of 
 children (see cut), and four magnificent 
 saucers decorated with a gilt Minerva 
 seated on a rock, and half-length figures 
 of the young Hercules slaying the serpents, 
 and of Cybele and of Attis ; also two cups 
 
 right arm, and left the right shoulder ex- 
 posed. Women wore the himation in the 
 same manner, but some drew it over their 
 
 KOMAN MIXING-BOWL. 
 
 \FouTid at Hildesheim, now in Berlin Museum.) 
 
 adorned with masks and all kinds of em- 
 blems of the worship of Bacchus. 
 
 Himation. Part of the outdoor dress of 
 Greeks of free birth, worn over the chiton, 
 and reaching at least as far as the knees. 
 It was an oblong piece of drapery, one end 
 of which was first thrown over the left 
 shoulder, then brought forward and held 
 fast by the left arm ; the garment was then 
 drawn over the shoulder to the right side 
 in such a manner that the right side was 
 completely covered up to the shoulder, 
 according to the more elegant fashion 
 (fig. 1). Otherwise it went on under the 
 
 0) From a vase-paint- 
 ing (Gerhard, Arch 
 Zeitang, 1848, taf. xiii.) 
 
 (2) Terra-cotta in Stacltelberg's 
 Gruber d, HeXlenen, taf. Ixvii. 
 
 head, so as to leave only the face visible 
 (fig. 2). See Chlamys and Tribon. 
 
 Himgrius. A Greek Sophist, born at 
 Prusa in Bithynia, about 315 A.D., and edu- 
 cated at Athens, where, after extending 
 his knowledge bj' travelling, he became a 
 teacher of rhetoric. As such, he was so 
 successful that he received the rights of 
 citizenship, and became a member of the 
 Areopagus. Among his pupils were Basil 
 the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus ; 
 for, although himself a pagan, never- 
 theless, like Libanius, he exhibited no 
 animosity against Christians. He was 
 summoned to Antioch by Julian, and 
 appointed his private secretary. On the 
 emperor's death (363), he returned to his 
 earlier occupation at Athens, and there 
 died, after becoming blindj^in his old age, 
 about 386. Of his speeches and declama- 
 tions twenty-four exist in a complete form, 
 ten in fragments, and thirty-six in the 
 summaries and excerpts preserved by 
 Photius. His style is ornate, turgid, and 
 overladen with erudition. He owes his 
 special importance solely to the fact that his 
 
296 
 
 HIMEROS HIPPEIS. 
 
 speeclies contain materials for the history 
 of the events and of the manners of his 
 time. 
 
 Himgros. The personification of longing 
 and desire, and companion of Eros (q-v.). 
 
 HippagretEB. The three ofBcers chosen 
 at Lacedsemon by the ephors to command 
 the horsemen who formed the bodyguard of 
 the kings. 
 
 Hipparch (Gr. hipparchos). The Grreek 
 name for a commander of cavalry {see 
 HiPPEis). In the ^tolian and Achaean 
 leagues, this name was borne by an officer 
 charged with other functions besides, who 
 was in rank second only to the strdtegos. 
 
 Hipparchus. A Greek mathematician, 
 the founder of scientific astronomy, born at 
 Nicsea in Bithynia, lived chiefly at Rhodes 
 and Alexandria, and died about B.C. 125. 
 He discovered the precession of the equi- 
 noxes, settled more accurately the length 
 of the solar year, as also of the revolution 
 of the moon, and the magnitude and dis- 
 tances of the heavenly bodies. He placed 
 mathematical geography on a firmer basis, 
 by teaching the application of the latitude 
 and longitude of the stars to marking the 
 position of places on the surface of the 
 earth. Of his numerous writings we only 
 possess his commentary on the Phcenomena 
 of' Eudoxus and Aratus, and a catalogue of 
 1,026 fixed stars. 
 
 Hipparmostes. A leader of the Spartan 
 cavalry, {See Hippeis.) 
 
 Hippeis. The Greek term for riders and 
 knights. (1) Among the Athenians, the 
 citizens whose property qualified them for 
 the aecand class. {See Solonian Constitu- 
 tion.) (2) Among the Spartans, the royal 
 guard of honour, consisting of 300 chosen 
 Spartan youths under the age of thirty, 
 who, although originally mounted, after- 
 wards served as heavy-armed foot-soldiers. 
 
 The cavalry of Athens, which was first 
 formed after the Persian War, and then con- 
 sisted of 300 men, from the Periclean period 
 onwards consisted of 1,200 men, viz. 200 
 mounted bowmen {hippotoxotce), who were 
 slaves belonging to the state, and the 1,000 
 citizens of the two highest classes. They 
 were kept together in time of peace, and 
 carefully drilled ; at the great public fes- 
 tivals they took part in the processions. 
 They were commanded by two hipparchi, 
 each of whom had five phylai under him 
 and superintended the levy. Subordinate 
 to these were the ten phylarcM in com- 
 mand of the ten phylai. Both sets of 
 officers were drawn from the two highest 
 
 classes. It was the duty of the council 
 to see that the cavalry was in good con- 
 dition, and also to examine new members 
 in respect of their equipment and their 
 eligibility. {See BouLE.) 
 
 The number of horsemen to be despatched 
 to the field was determined by the decree 
 of the popular assembly. Every citizen- 
 soldier received equipment-monej' on join- 
 ing, and during his time of service a sub- 
 sidy towards keeping a groom and two 
 horses ; this grew to be an annual grant 
 from the state, amounting to forty talents 
 ( = £8,000 in intrinsic value), but regular 
 pay was only given in the field. 
 
 At Sparta it was not until B.C. 404 that 
 a regular body of horse was formed, the 
 cavalry being much neglected as compared 
 with the infantry. The rich had only to 
 provide horses, equipment, and armour ; 
 for the actual cavalry service in time of 
 vi^ar, only those unfitted for the heavy- 
 armed infantry were drafted off and sent 
 to the field without any preliminary drill. 
 In later times every viora of heavy-armed 
 infantry seems to have had allotted to it 
 a mora of cavalry, of uncertain number. 
 By enlisting mercenaries, and introducing 
 allies into their forces, the Spartans at 
 length obtained better cavalry. 
 
 The utility of the Greek citizen-cavalry 
 was small on account of their heavy armour, 
 their metal helmet, and their coat of mail, 
 their kilt fringed with metal flaps, their 
 cuisses reaching to the knee, and their 
 leather leggings. They did not take shields 
 into action. As weapons of offence they 
 had the straight two-edged sword and a 
 spear, used either as a lance or a javelin. 
 Shoeing of horses was unknown to the 
 Greeks, as was also the use of stirrups. If 
 anything at all was used as a saddle, it 
 was either a saddle-cloth or a piece of felt, 
 which was firmly fastened with girths 
 under the horse's belly. The Thessalians 
 were considered the best riders. Cavalry 
 became really important for the first time 
 in the Macedonian army under Philip and 
 his son Alexander the Great. Although in 
 earlier times the number of horsemen in 
 the Greek forces was only very small, in 
 the army which Alexander marched into 
 Asia they formed nearly a sixth part of the 
 infantry. The Macedonian cavalry was 
 divided into heavy and light, both consist- 
 ing of squadrons {llai) of an average 
 strength of 200 men. Of the heavy cavalry 
 the choicest troops were the Macedonian 
 and Thessalian horsemen, armed in the 
 
HIPPIAS HIPPODAMEIA. 
 
 297 
 
 Greek fashion, who were as formidable in 
 onslaught as in single combat ; in order and 
 discipline they far surpassed the dense 
 squad rons of the Asiatic cavalry, and even 
 in attacking the infantry of the enemy 
 they had generally a decisive effect. The 
 light cavalry, which was constituted under 
 the name of prodrdmoi (skirmishers), con- 
 sisted of Macedonian sarissopJidroi, so called 
 from the sarissa, a lance from 14 to 16 feet 
 long [Polybius, xviii 12], and of Thracian 
 horsemen. The heavy-cavalry men had 
 each a mounted servant and probably a led 
 horse for the transport of baggage and 
 forage. In the time after Alexander there 
 came into existence what were called the 
 Tarentim SquUSs, or light-armed spear- 
 men, with two horses each [b.c. 192, Livy, 
 XXXV 28, 29]. 
 
 Hippias. A Grreek Sophist of Elis and a 
 contemporary of Socrates. He taught in the 
 towns of Greece, especially at Athens. He 
 had the advantage of a prodigious memory, 
 and was deeply versed in all the learning 
 of his day. He attempted literature in every 
 form which was then extant. He also 
 made the first attempt in the composition 
 of dialogues. In the two Platonic dia- 
 logues named after him, he is represented 
 as excessively vain and arrogant. 
 
 Hippocampus. A fabulous marine animal, 
 shaped like a horse, but having a curved 
 and fish-like tail. The gods of the sea are 
 often represented as riding or sitting on 
 such animals. 
 
 Hippocdon. Son of (Ebalus of Sparta and 
 of the Nymph Bateia, drove his brothers 
 Tyndareos and Icarius from home. After- 
 wards, in consequence of his slaying the 
 young CEonus, a kinsman of Heracles, he 
 himself, with his twenty sons, was slain 
 by Heracles in alliance with king Cepheus 
 of Tegea. Tyndareos was thereby restored 
 to the inheritance of his father's kingdom. 
 
 Hippocrates, the famous Greek physician, 
 was born in the island of Cos (an ancient 
 seat of the worship of Asclepius), about 460 
 B.C. He was the son of Heracleides and 
 of PhsenarSte, and sprang from the race of 
 the Asclepiadse, a priestly family, who in 
 the course of time had gathered and pre- 
 served medical traditions, which were 
 secretly handed down from father to son. 
 Like many of the Asclepiadse, he exercised 
 his art whilst travelling in different parts 
 of Greece. He is said to have been at Athens 
 at the time of the Peloponnesian War, and 
 to have taken advantage of the instructions 
 of the Sophists Gorgias and Prodious ; 
 
 Democritus of Abdera is also named as 
 one of his teachers. The value he him- 
 self set upon philosophic education is 
 proved by his remark that " a philosophic 
 physician resembles a god." Towards the 
 end of his life he lived chiefly in Thessaly 
 and on the island of Thasos. He died about 
 377 B.C. (or later) in the Thessalian Larissa, 
 where his tomb was to be seen as late as 
 the 2nd century a.d. All through his long 
 life his activity was unceasing in its efforts 
 to increase the amount of his knowledge on 
 all subjects, by both practical and theore- 
 tical investigations. He was the founder 
 of the school of a scientific art of healing, 
 and, as in the case of Homer, numerous 
 writings of unknown authorship, proceed- 
 ing from the school which followed his 
 system, were attributed to him. Seventy- 
 two works, great and small, in the Ionic 
 and old Attic dialects, bear his name, 
 and, apparently, formed a single collec- 
 tion, even before they came under the con- 
 sideration of the critics of Alexandria. But 
 it is clear that, as the ancients themselves 
 were aware, only a small portion, which 
 can no longer be precisely defined, really 
 belongs to him. It is highly probable that 
 his nearest relations, who were also distin- 
 guished physicians, contributed their share 
 to the collection, and that it contains works 
 by his sons Thessalus and Dracon, his son- 
 in-law Polybus, and his two grandsons, the 
 sons of Thessalus and Dracon, who bore his 
 own name. The best known of these 
 works are the Aphorisms, which, in anti- 
 quity and in mediaeval times, were held in 
 high esteem, and have been freely com- 
 mented on by Greeks, Romans, and 
 Arabians ; they consist of short sentences 
 upon the nature of illnesses, their symptoms 
 and crises, and their final issue. One of 
 his writings which is of general interest, 
 and is in all respects among the best, is 
 that on the influence of the climate, the 
 water, and the configuration of a country 
 upon the physical and intellectual life of its 
 inhabitants. In the second portion of this 
 work we find the first beginnings of a com- 
 parative ethnography, which at once sur- 
 prises us by the acuteness and intelligence 
 of its observation, and attracts us by the 
 simplicity and clearness of its style. 
 
 Hippocrene ( = "the fountain of the 
 steed"). The fount of the Muses, which 
 was struck out of Mount Helicon, in Boeotia, 
 by the hoof of the winged steed PegSsus. 
 {8ee Muses and PEdiAsus.) 
 
 Hippodameia (Lat. Hippdddvita). (1) 
 
298 
 
 HIPPODAMUS HIRTIUS. 
 
 The daughter of CEnomaus and the wife of 
 Pelops {q.v.). 
 
 (2) A daughter of Atrax, one of the 
 Lapithse. It was at her marriage with 
 Pirithous (g'.w.)) that the combat between 
 the Centaurs and Lapithse took place. 
 
 Hippodamus. A Greek Sophist, born at 
 Miletus in the second half of the 5th cen- 
 tury B.C. He was the first inventor of a 
 system of laying out towns on geometrical 
 principles. This was carried out, under his 
 direction, in the laying out of the Piraeus, 
 the harbour-town of Athens, and also at 
 the building of Thurii (B.C. 444) and of 
 Rhodes (408) ; it was also used in subse- 
 quent times in the foundation of new towns. 
 
 Hippodrome {Hippodromos). The Greek 
 name for the racecourse for horses and 
 chariots. It was about 400 yards long and 
 125 broad. The two long sides were meant 
 for spectators. At one of the narrow ends 
 was the starting-point ; the other end was 
 of semi-circular form. In front of the middle 
 of the latter was the goal ; at Olympia a 
 round altar of Taraxippos (possibly a 
 demon who terrified horses). The drivers 
 had to pass round this after they had 
 driven down one of the long sides ; then 
 they turned back and went up the other 
 long side to a second goal, situated near the 
 starting-point. At Olympia this goal bore 
 a statue of Hippodameia. Here they 
 turned round and drove back again. Racing 
 chariots with full-grown horses had to 
 cover this circuit twelve times ; and with 
 young horses (according to a later custom) 
 eight times. The name of Hippodrome was 
 also given to the race-courses laid out in 
 Grecian countries in the time of the Romans, 
 after the pattern of the Roman circus [q.v.). 
 The most famous of these was that at 
 Byzantium, which was begun by Septimius 
 Severus, and finished by Constantino. 
 
 Hippol^te. Queen of the Amazons, 
 daughter of Ares and of Otrera ; slain in 
 battle by Heracles, when he went at the 
 bidding of Eurystheus to fetch the girdle 
 given her by Ares. {See Heracles.) 
 
 HippolJ-tus. Son of Theseus and of the 
 Amazon Antiope. When he spumed the 
 love of his step-mother Phsedra, she slan- 
 dered him to her husband Theseus, who 
 begged his father Poseidon to avenge him. 
 While Hippolytus was driving along the 
 seashore, his horses were frightened by a 
 bull sent forth from the water by Poseidon, 
 and he was thrown from his chariot and 
 killed. Phaedra, conscious of the wrong 
 that she had done, killed herself. A later 
 
 legend describes Hippolytus as a chaste 
 huntsman and a favourite of Artemis, who 
 was raised from the dead by ^sculapius, 
 and taken by the goddess to the sacred 
 grove of Diana at Aricia in Latium, where 
 he was worshipped with the goddess under 
 the name of Virbius. {See Diana.) 
 
 Hippomenes. The lover of the Boeotian 
 Atalante {q.v.). 
 
 Hipponax. A Greek iambic poet of 
 Ephesus, who about 540 B.C. was banished 
 to Clazomenae by Athenagoras and Comas, 
 tyrants of his native city. At Clazomense, 
 two sculptors, Btipalus and Athenis, made 
 the little, thin, ugly poet ridiculous in 
 caricature, who avenged himself in such 
 bitter iamlDic verses that, like Lycambes and 
 his daughter, who were persecuted by Arohi- 
 lochus, they hanged themselves. 
 
 The burlesque character of the poems 
 which he composed in the Ionic dialect 
 found an appropriate form in his favourite 
 metre, which was probably invented by 
 himself. This metre is known as the Cho- 
 luimbus (" the halting iambus "), or the 
 1 Season (lit. " limping "), from its having a 
 spondee or trochee in the last place, instead 
 of the usual iambic foot. He is also sup- 
 posed to have been the first to produce 
 parodies of epic poetry. Of his poems we 
 have only a few fragments. 
 
 Hippothoon. Son of Poseidon and AlSpe, 
 the daughter of Cercyon of Eleusis. After 
 his birth he was exposed by his mother and 
 suckled by a mare, until some shepherds 
 found him and reared him. Alope (who 
 had been imprisoned for life by her father), 
 was transformed into a spring bearing her 
 own name at Eleusis. When Theseus {q.v.) 
 overcame Cercyon in wrestling, and killed 
 him, he restored to Hippothoon the inheri- 
 tance of his grandfather. He was afterwards 
 honoured as the hero of the Attic tribe that 
 bore his name. 
 
 HippotoxotaB. A name given at Athens 
 to a corps of mounted archers, composed 
 of slaves belonging to the state. {See 
 
 HiPPEIS.) 
 
 Hippys (of Rhegium). One of the Greek 
 LogograpM {q.v.). 
 
 Hirtius {Aulus). A friend of Csesar, and 
 one of his companions in arms. He com- 
 pleted CaBsar's Commentarll on the Gallic 
 War by adding an eighth book. Accord- 
 ing to the dedication to Cornelius Balbus 
 prefixed to that book, he contemplated the 
 continuation of Caesar's account of the Civil 
 War to Caesar's death. This intention he 
 ne'ver carried out, as he fell jn battle at 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 299 
 
 Matnia, 14tli April, 43 B.C., when he was 
 consul. Of the three works, the Bellum 
 Alexandrinum, Bellum Africmn, and Bel- 
 lum Hispamense, which have come down 
 to ns with Caesar's Commentaries, the first 
 may have been written by him. Of the 
 other two, it has been conjectured that 
 they were composed at his request, in pre- 
 paration for his intended work on mili- 
 tary commanders, and that having been 
 found at his death among his papers, they 
 were added, with his own writings, to the 
 works of Csesar himself. {See C^sar.) 
 
 History. (I) The composition of history, 
 and indeed of all prose among the Greeks, 
 originated with the lonians of Asia Minor, 
 who also created the epos, the elegy, and 
 iambic poetry. It was among them th4t, in 
 the 6th century B.C., the Logogrdphl (q.v.), 
 made their appearance. These writers 
 treated the materials supplied by family 
 and local stories in a style which graduallj' 
 approached more and more to prose, but 
 without any attempt at critical investigation 
 or scientific arrangement. The most con- 
 siderable writers in this style are also its 
 latest representatives, Hecat^us of Miletus, 
 HellaxIcus of Lesbos. The latter was 
 a contemporary of Hjer6d6tus of Halicar- 
 nassus (about 485-424 B.C.), the Father of 
 History. His work, written like the others 
 in the Ionic dialect, was founded upon a 
 vast collection of historical and geogra- 
 phical material gathered in distant travels, 
 and through the researches of many years. 
 This mass of information he has, with great 
 art, moulded into a homogeneous work, the 
 main theme of which is the struggle of the 
 Greeks against the barbarians. The narra- 
 tive is simple, but always attractive. The 
 line of historians who wrote in the Attic 
 dialect is headed by the Athenian Thucy- 
 DlDES, whose history of the Peloponnesian 
 War is a masterpiece of the first order, 
 grand alike in style and in matter. A con- 
 tinuation of Thucydides was written by his 
 countryman Xen5phon (about 431-355 B.C.) 
 in his Hellemca; in his Anabasis, Xenophon 
 described the famous retreat of the Ten 
 Thousand in a style as masterly as his 
 generalship. In the Cyropcedla he gives a 
 picture, idealized indeed, but not without 
 foundation in fact, of the history of Cyrus. 
 His contemporary Ctesias of Cnidus, writ- 
 ing in Ionic Greek, introduced his country- 
 men to the history of the Persian empire. 
 At the same time Philistus of Syracuse, 
 an imitator of Thucydides, compiled the 
 history of Sicily from the earliest times 
 
 down to his own. In the second half of 
 the 4th century B.C. appeared two cele- 
 brated historians, Theopompus of Chios 
 and EphSrus of Cyme, both disciples of the 
 rhetorician Isocrates. The chief work of 
 Theopompus was a history of Philip of 
 Macedon, from his accession to his death. 
 Ephorus, in a great work embracing the 
 whole course of events from the invasion of 
 the Peloponnesus by the Heraclidse, to 346 
 B.C., was the first writer who attempted a 
 universal history. To this period belong the 
 numerous chronicles of Attic history, called 
 AtthidSs {see Atthis). In these compara- 
 tively little regard is paid to style, less 
 certainly than is paid by the historians just 
 mentioned as succeeding Xenophon. The 
 period of Alexander the Great and his suc- 
 cessors was very fertile in historical writing. 
 We may mention Callisthenes, Arist6- 
 BULUS, Chares, Onesicritus, Clitarchus, 
 and HiERONYMUS {q.v.\ who narrated contem- 
 porary events in a style sometimes plain and 
 simple, sometimes exaggerated. This was 
 the age of tlie Sicilian TImjeus, whose great 
 work on the history of his native island won 
 him little recognition, but who simplified 
 chronology by introducing the method of 
 reckoning by Olympiads, and thus estab- 
 lished a lasting claim on the gratitude of 
 historians. Among the better histories 
 should be named the great work of Phylar- 
 CHUS (about 210 B.C.), which began at the 
 invasion of the Peloponnesus by Pyrrhus, 
 and ended at the death of Cleomenes. 
 
 The Alexandrian scholar Eratosthenes 
 conferred an immense boon on historical 
 investigation by his attempt to place chro- 
 nology on the firm scientific foundation of 
 mathematics and astronomy. His labours 
 were continued by ApollQdobus, whose 
 Chronica was the most important work on 
 chronology produced in antiquity. This was 
 a brief enumeration of the most important 
 events, from the taking of Troj^, which he 
 dated B.C. 1183, till his own time (B.C. 144). 
 Only isolated fragments of the histories 
 written after Xenophon have, in the great 
 number of instances, come down to us. But 
 we have a considerable part of the work of 
 PoLYBius of Megalopolis (died about 122). 
 This was a general history of the known 
 world from the beginning of the second 
 Punic War to the destruction of Carthage. 
 Its style has no just claim to artistic merit, 
 but its contents make it one of the most 
 remarkable of ancient Greek histories. In 
 about 40 B.C. the Sicilian writer DiodOrus 
 compiled a valuable general history from 
 
300 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 the works of Greek and Roman writers now 
 lost. A considerable part of this still re- 
 mains. Nic6lads of Damascus, who lived 
 a little later, was the author of a great 
 general history, of which we have consider- 
 able fragments. DiOxYSlUS of Halicarnassus 
 composed, a few years before Christ, his 
 Roman Archceology, about half of which 
 has survived. This was the ancient history 
 of Rome down to the first Punic War, writ- 
 ten with taste and care. In the second half of 
 the 1st century A.D. the Hebrew Josephus 
 wrote his Jeivish Archceology and his Ris- 
 tory of the Jcicish War. At the beginning 
 of the 2nd century Plutarch of Chse- 
 ronea produced his excellent biographies of 
 famous Greeks and Romans. In the course 
 of the same century appeared the Anabasis 
 of Alexander the Great, written after the 
 best authorities by Arrian of Nicomedia, 
 the Strdtegemdta of the Macedonian PoLYiE- 
 NUS, a number of examples of military 
 stratagems collected from older writers ; and 
 a part of the Roman History of the Alexan- 
 drian Appian, ethnographically arranged. 
 At the beginning of the 3rd century Dio 
 Cassius of Niceea conceived and executed 
 his great work on Roman history, which 
 has unfortunately come down to us in a very 
 mutilated form. His younger contemporary, 
 Herodianus, wrote an interesting History 
 of the Cfrsars, which still survives, from 
 the death of Marcus Aurelius to Gordian. 
 Ancient chronology is much indebted to the 
 Chronicle of Eusebius, bishop of Csesarea. 
 This was -ftTritten in the 4th century A.D., and 
 only survives in translations. Among later 
 writers we may mention ZosiMUS (in the 
 second half of the 6th century), the author 
 of a history of the emperors, from Augustus 
 to 410 A.D. 
 
 (II) Ancient Roman History. The be- 
 ginnings of Roman history go back to 
 about 200 B.C, The form of composition 
 was, until the first half of the 1st century 
 B.C., almost exclusively that of annals, and 
 the historians previous to that date are, in 
 consequence, usually comprised under the 
 term annalists. (For the special repre- 
 sentatives of this style, see Annalists.) 
 They confined themselves exclusively to the 
 history of their country in its widest extent, 
 from the earliest times to their own. In 
 later times, but not till then, Roman histo- 
 rians undertook to write on the events of 
 special periods, generally on those of their 
 own time. The early annalistic writers 
 had no style. It is not until the know- 
 ledge of Greek literature and the develop- 
 
 ment of rhetorical style has reached a 
 higher stage, in the second half of the 2nd 
 century B.C., that any attempt at good 
 writing is discernible. The first indication 
 of such an attempt is the tendency to rhe- 
 torical ornamentation. In the Ciceronian 
 age, the art of prose writing had greatly 
 advanced, and many men of mark devoted 
 themselves to history. Some endeavoured 
 to include foreign history within the lines 
 of their narrative. This was the case, for 
 instance, with Cornelius Nepos, in his 
 great biographical work, De Vlris Hlustri- 
 bus. The biographies which remain are 
 mostly those of non - Roman generals. 
 C^SAR and Sallust surpass all the other 
 historical writers of this period both in 
 form and matter. Sallust is an imitator 
 of Thucydides, and the first Roman histo- 
 rian who can lay any claim to finished exe- 
 cution. The other historians of this period 
 whose works have come down to us are 
 HiRTius, who continued Caesar's Commen- 
 tclrii, and the authors of the Alexandrian, 
 African, and Spanish Wars. 
 
 The Augustan age produced the Roman 
 history of Livt, a work as remarkable for 
 its comprehensiveness as for its literary 
 finish. The greater part of it is unhappily 
 lost. The first general history written in 
 Latin, by Trogus Pompeius, belongs to the 
 same period. This is only preserved in an 
 epitome by JustInus. The 1st century 
 A.D. was fruitful of historical literature, but 
 only a certain number of writings have sur- 
 vived : a short sketch of Roman history by 
 Velleius PatercCtlus, which is unduly 
 influenced by the spirit of court adulation ; 
 a collection of historical anecdotes by Vale- 
 rius Maximus ; a very rhetorical history of 
 Alexander the Great, by CuRTius RuFUS ; 
 and a number of instances of military stra- 
 tagems by Julius Frontinus. The great 
 history of the empire comprised in the 
 Anncdes and Historian of Tacitus, one of the 
 most important monuments of Roman lite- 
 rature, was written partly in the 1st and 
 partly in the 2nd century A.D. In the 
 beginning of the 2nd century a.d. we have 
 Suetonius' Lives of the Ocesars, and the 
 panegyrical account of Roman history by 
 Florus. 
 
 After this period, Suetonius becomes the 
 model of historians, and their favourite sub^ 
 ject the doings of the emperors and the 
 imperial court, These lost writings were 
 the main sources of the Historia Augusta, a 
 collection of biographies of the emperors 
 from Hadrian to Numerian (117-284 a.d.). 
 
HOMEE. 
 
 301 
 
 The compilation is rude and uncritical, but 
 historically important. It is the work of six 
 different authors belonging to the end of the 
 3rd and the beginning of the 4th centuries 
 A.D. Soon after the middle of this century, 
 AuRELius Victor wrote a short history of 
 the CsBsars, and EutrOpius and Festds 
 epitomes {brSvWria) of all Roman history. 
 The clearness and simplicity of Eutropius' 
 book has maintained its popularity down to 
 modern times. AmmIanus Marcellinus 
 rises far above the heads of his contem- 
 poraries. He was a Greek by birth, and 
 wrote a continuation of Tacitus from 96-378 
 A.D., only the second half of which has 
 come down to us. After him begins the 
 epoch of Christian historians, e.g. Sulpicius 
 Severus and Orosius. Special mention 
 should be made of Hieronymus, who trans- 
 lated and made additions to the Chronicon 
 of Eusebius. 
 
 Homer (Gr. H6mer6s). (1) The poet, 
 whose name is borne by the two oldest and 
 
 (1) * BUST OF HOMER. 
 
 (Sanssoaci PaTace, Fotsdam.) 
 
 at the same time grandest nionuments of 
 the Greek genius, the epic poems called 
 the Iliad and the Odyssey. Concerning the 
 personality of the poet, his country, and 
 his time, we have no trustworthy infor- 
 mation. Even the personal existence of 
 the poet has been disputed, and it has 
 often been attempted to prove, from the 
 meaning of the name, that he was not an 
 individual, but an ideal type. It has been 
 
 held that Homer means either orderer or 
 comrade, and it has been supposed that 
 in the former case the name indicates the 
 ideal representative of the epic poem in its 
 unified and artistically completed form, 
 whilst the other explanation is suggestive 
 of an ideal ancestor and patron of an ex- 
 clusive order of minstrels. But as Homer 
 is a proper name, simply meaning hostage, 
 without any connexion with poetry, there 
 is nothing in the name itself to give 
 occasion to any doubt as to the existence 
 of Homer as an historical personage. In 
 antiquity seven places contended for the 
 honour of being his birthplace : Smyrna, 
 Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis (in Cyprus), 
 Chios, Argos, and Athens ; yet there is no 
 doabt that the Homeric poems originated 
 on the west coast of Asia Minor, and the 
 older tradition is fairly correct in fixing on 
 the JEolian Smyrna as his home, and on 
 the Ionian island of Chios as the place where 
 his poetry was composed. The ^olic colour- 
 ing of the Ionic dialect, which forms the 
 foundation of Homeric diction, agrees with 
 this ; as also the fact that at Chios for cen- 
 turies afterwards there was a family called 
 the HomendcB, who, called after his name, 
 claimed descent from him and occupied 
 themselves with the recitation of his poetry. 
 As to the time when the poet lived, all 
 the views of early investigators, founded on 
 chronological considerations, differ widely 
 from one another. However, this much 
 seems certain, that the period in which 
 epic poetry attained the degree of perfec- 
 tion to which Homer brought it does not 
 fall either before B.C. 950 or after 900. Of 
 the various traditions respecting Homer, we 
 need only state that his father's name was 
 Meles, that in his old age he was blind, 
 and that he died on the small island of los, 
 where his grave was shown, and on it yearly, 
 in the month called after him Homereon, a 
 goat was sacrificed to the poet, who was 
 worshipped as a hero. Perhaps the story 
 of his blindness arose from fancying that 
 DemSdocus, the blind singer in the Odyssey, 
 was a prototype of Homer. A trustworthy 
 corroboration of this was supposed to be 
 found in the fact that the author of the 
 hymn to the Delian Apollo, which the voice 
 of antiquity unhesitatingly described to 
 Homer, represented him as blind and living 
 on the island of Chios. The importance of 
 Homer rests in the fact that, while using 
 the fixed forms of poetic diction and metre 
 which had been fashioned by his prede- 
 cessors, he was able to raise epic song to 
 
302 
 
 HOMEE. 
 
 the definite level of epic poetry with its 
 systematic arrangement and its artistic 
 elaboration. 
 
 The two epics which bear his name, the 
 Iliad and the Odyssey, both of which at a 
 late period were divided into twenty-four 
 books, deal with the legends of Troy. The 
 Iliad traverses an interval of fifty-one days 
 out of the tenth year of the Trojan War, 
 according to a simple plan with a con- 
 secutive account of the events of the time. 
 Beginning with the wrath of Achilles at 
 being deprived of his captive, the maiden 
 Briseis, at the command of Agamemnon, it 
 narrates the ever-increasing distress which 
 the indignant hero's withdrawal from the 
 battle brings upon the Greeks in their 
 fights on the Trojan plain, around the 
 walls, and near the naval camp. This gives 
 a suitable opportunity for describing the 
 other heroes down to the fall of Patroclus, 
 which is the turning-point of the poem. 
 Then follows the reconciliation of Achilles, 
 his avenging his slain friend by killing 
 Hector, and the funeral games in honour of 
 Patroclus. The poem comes to a tragical 
 conclusion with the surrender and burial of 
 the body of Hector. The Odyssey similarly 
 deals with a multitude of incidents con- 
 nected with the return of Odysseus to his 
 home, all of which take place in the narrow 
 interval of forty days, but according to 
 a highly artistic and complex plan. In 
 contrast to the two main portions of the 
 Iliad, the Odyssey consists of four 
 parts. The first describes the adventures 
 of TelemSchus, who is oppressed by the 
 suitors of his mother Penglope, and sets off 
 on a journey to Nestor at Pylos and Mene- 
 laus at Sparta, in quest of his father. 
 Thus the poet finds occasion to give an 
 account of the different fates of the Greek 
 heroes on their return home. The second 
 part describes the adventures of Odysseus 
 in his voyage from Ogygia, the island of 
 Calypso, his stay among the Phseacians (con- 
 nected with which is the hero's own 
 accoimt of his wanderings on his voyage 
 from Troy, down to his landing at 
 Ogygia), and lastly, his arrival at Ithaca. 
 The third part contains his visit to the hut 
 of the swineherd Eumseus, his recognition 
 by Telemachus (who has returned home) and 
 by his faithful servant, and the planning of 
 vengeance on the suitors. The fourth part 
 contains the carrying out of the vengeance, 
 and the whole is brought to a peaceful con- 
 clusion by the re-union of the hero with his 
 wife Penelope and his aged father Laertes. 
 
 By means of professional reciters, who 
 went from city to city and were called 
 rhapsodoi {q.v.), the Homeric poems found 
 a rapid circulation, not only in their Asiatic 
 home, but also in Greece and its western 
 colonies. They were introduced into Sparta 
 by Lycurgus [Plut., Lye. 4], who learned 
 their existence in his travels, at Samos, 
 from the descendants of Cr66phylus, a poet 
 reputed to have been a friend and relation 
 of Homer. In 753 B.C., twenty-three years 
 after the commencement of the Olympiads, 
 they were in fact the common property of 
 all Greeks. 
 
 At the recitations given by the rhapsodoi 
 at many places daring festivals, the great 
 bulk of the poems from the very first 
 necessitated a regular division of the subject 
 into suitable portions, in order to give 
 intervals of rest not only to the reciters, 
 but also to the audience. Hence arose the 
 division into separate lays called rhapsodies, 
 with distinctive titles, which were still in 
 use at a later date, when both poems were 
 divided into twenty-four books. It soon 
 became customary to recite single rhap- 
 sodies, some being especial favourites and 
 considered more suitable than others for 
 showing the special talents of individual 
 rhapsodists to advantage. Thus it hap- 
 pened that some portions easily fell into 
 oblivion and gaps arose in the oral tradition 
 of the poems. On the other hand, the 
 rhapsodists could not avoid giving a cer- 
 tain finish and completeness to their 
 favourite pieces, and even permitted them- 
 selves to make alterations and additions 
 where they saw fit. To Athens belongs 
 the honour of having arrested the ever- 
 increasing confusion caused by these prac- 
 tices. Solon was the first to order that 
 the rhapsodists at their public recitals 
 should keep closely to the traditional text 
 of the poems. Pisistratus (about B.C. 535) 
 made, by means of a committee of several 
 poets, headed by Onomacritus {q.v.), a 
 collection of the scattered lays and a re- 
 vision of the text, founded on extant copies 
 and on the oral traditions of the rhapsodists. 
 [Oic, De Orat. iii 137 and Pausanias, vii 26, 
 are the earliest authorities for this vague 
 and doubtful story.] 
 
 Either Pisistratus or his son Hipparchus 
 made the regulation that the rhapsodists, 
 in their competitions at the Panathenaic 
 festival, should recite in consecutive order 
 and completeness the Homeric poems, 
 which had been thus restored to their 
 proper form. To this revision, which could 
 
HOMER. 
 
 303 
 
 only partially counteract the gradually 
 increasing corruption of the text, we may 
 probably trace the copies of the Homeric 
 poems which were afterwards in existence 
 in various parts of Greece. In course of 
 time these also in their turn underwent 
 many arbitrary alterations, chiefly at the 
 
 joyed both the means and the opportunity 
 in the collection of ancient manuscripts of 
 the poet in the Library of Alexandria. 
 The beginning was made by Zen6d5tus of 
 Ephesus, who was succeeded by Aristo- 
 phanes of Byzantium, whose pupil Aeis- 
 TAKCHUS (q-v.), by his edition of Homer, 
 
 OiKOrMEIIHXPOUOZ lAl/iIQCriZllAOMHPOX MTTiOX 
 
 I2T0PIA D01HZI2TPArfiAMKflMnfllA^VZI2APETH 
 MNHHH 
 T11271I 
 
 (1) ZEUS. HBLF031ENB. THALIA. 
 
 (2) I CLIO. CALLIOPE. ERATO. EUTERPE. 
 
 (3) TERPSICHORE. URANIA. POLYHYMNIA. APOLLO UUBAOETES. DELPHIC PRIESTESS. POET. 
 
 (4) The liabi- hohbr supported The genius history, poetry, tragedy, comedy. 
 
 table EARTH by the ILIAD and of myth. nature, virtue. 
 
 audTUlE. ODVsaEY. M£.MORr. 
 
 faith. 
 
 WISDOM. 
 
 (2) '^ APOTHEOSIS OF HOMER. 
 
 (Relief found at Bovillse. Now in British Museum.) 
 
 hands of the learned who sought to im- 
 prove the text. The first to do this were 
 the Alexandrine scholars, who found in 
 Homer a central point for their philo- 
 logical studies, and practised a methodical 
 criticism of the text, for which they en- 
 
 reached the highest point that the ancients 
 ever attained in philological criticism. The 
 editions of these Alexandrine critics were 
 founded on the redaction by Pisistratus, 
 and are themselves the origin of our pre- 
 sent text of the Homeric poems. 
 
304 
 
 HOMER. 
 
 From that time forward down to the 
 latest times of Greek antiquity, Homer 
 never ceased to be a theme for learned 
 disquisition, which is attested for us by 
 numerous remains still in existence. Even 
 in ancient times scholars occupied them- 
 selves with the question whether the Hiad 
 and the Odyssey were composed by the 
 same poet. This question was fiilly justi- 
 fied by the fact that the name of Homer 
 had long been recognised as a collective 
 term, and had included a long series of 
 epics formed on his model, the true author- 
 ship of which was only gradually dis- 
 covered ; and it did not escape observation 
 that the Odyssey, in its more artistic de- 
 sign, as well as in relation to social, moral, 
 and religious life, belonged to a more 
 advanced stage of development than the 
 Iliad. Thus, in ancient times, those who 
 are known as Chorizontes (or " Separa- 
 ters "), headed by the grammarians Xenon 
 and Hellanicus, probably belonging to the 
 beginning of the Alexandrine period, held 
 that the Odyssey was composed by a later 
 poet. Even modem scholars have shared 
 this view, while others, relying on the 
 essential correspondence of tone, language, 
 and metre, attribute less importance to the 
 points of divergence, and explain them as 
 due to the difference in the aim of the two 
 poems as well as in the poet's time of life. 
 With all our admiration of the art and 
 beauty of the Homeric poems, it is not to 
 be denied that they do not stand through- 
 out on the same level of perfection, but 
 that, by the side of the most magnificent 
 passages, there are others which are dull 
 and less attractive, and interruptions of 
 the narrative and even contradictions are 
 not wanting. Such blemishes did not 
 escape the observation of the Alexandrine 
 scholars, who met objections of this kind 
 by assuming frequent interpolations, not 
 only of single lines, but of whole passages ; 
 e.g. they held that the second half of 
 the last book but one, and the whole of the 
 last book of the Odyssey, were spurious. 
 
 In modern times many explanations of 
 these defects have been put forward. In 
 the first place F. A. Wolf [179.5] observed 
 that in the time of Homer the art of writ- 
 ing was not yet practised to such an extent 
 as to be employed for literary purposes ; 
 and held that it was impossible even for 
 the highest genius, with the aid of memory 
 alone, either to produce such comprehensive 
 works, and to transmit them to others. 
 On these grounds he held that the Iliad 
 
 and Odyssey received their existing form, 
 for the first time, in the time of Pisistratus, 
 when the old lays on the Trojan War, which 
 had hitherto been preserved by oral tradi- 
 tion alone, were fixed by means of writing, 
 and collected and united into two great 
 wholes. He has been followed by others who 
 have endeavoured to dissect the Iliad in 
 particular into its separate and originally 
 independent lays. Others hold that Homer's 
 two poems consisted of compositions of 
 moderate length ; the Wrath of Achilles 
 and the Return of Odysseus, which, by 
 amplifications, improvements, and altera- 
 tions, have resulted in the existing Odyssey 
 and Iliad. Others again, instead of assum- 
 ing a larger number of single lays, assume 
 a combination of small epic poems, an 
 Achilleis and an Iliad, thus resulting in the 
 present Iliad, and a TelSmdchia and a 
 Return of Odysseus in the present Odyssey. 
 On the other hand, many important authori- 
 ties maintain that, granting the possibility 
 of a utilization of previously existing lays, 
 the Odyssey and Iliad, from the very 
 beginning, respectively constituted a unitec* 
 whole ; but that, soon after their first com- 
 position, they underwent manifold revision 
 and amplification, until they received, before 
 the beginning of the Olympiads, the essen- 
 tial form which they still retain. Certain 
 it is that, after the first Olympiad, longer 
 epic poems were composed on the model 
 of the Iliad and Odyssey, and in continua- 
 tion of them ; and it cannot be denied that, 
 long before this period, the art of writing 
 had been extensively employed in Greece. 
 It is also beyond contradiction that, apart 
 from corruptions which arose from later 
 alterations, dissimilarities in the treatment 
 of the several parts, as well as many in- 
 consistencies, may have existed in the poems 
 even in their primitive form. In spite 
 of such blemishes of detail, the Homeric 
 poems remain unsurpassed as works of art, 
 which have had an incalculable influence 
 not only upon the development of literature 
 and art, but also upon the whole life of 
 the Greeks, who from the earliest times 
 regarded them as the common property of 
 the nation, and employed them as the foun- 
 dation of all teaching and culture. Even 
 now, after nearly 3,000 years, their in- 
 fluence remains unimpaired. 
 
 Besides the Riad and Odyssey, we still 
 possess under the name of Homer : (a) A 
 collection oi Hymns : five of greater length 
 on the Pythian and Delian Apollo, Hermes, 
 Aphrodite, and Demeter ; and twenty-nine 
 
HOMOIOI HOPLITES. 
 
 305 
 
 shorter poems on various gods. These 
 are_ really prdcemia, or introductions, with 
 which the rhapsodists prefaced their reci- 
 tations. Their object is to praise the god 
 at whose festival the recitation took place, 
 or who was specially honoured in the town 
 where the rhapsodist presented himself. 
 Perhaps even the choice of the introduc- 
 tion may have been influenced by the con- 
 tents of the subsequent poem. If these 
 poems did not originate with Homer, at any 
 rate they are the compositions of rhapso- 
 dists of the Homeric school, called Ilomc- 
 ridce. Thus the rhapsodist Cynsethus of 
 Chios (about B.C. 604) is named as the 
 author of the hymn to the Delian Apollo. 
 The collection appears to have been pre- 
 pared for the use of the rhapsodists in 
 Attica, with a view to selections being 
 made from it at pleasure. (&) Sixteen small 
 poems called Epigrammdta, remains of an 
 older poetry, two of which are lays in a 
 popular style : the Edminos, or " potter's 
 oven " (in which the blessing of Athene is 
 invoked on a batch of earthenware, when 
 placed in the furnace), and a kind of 
 begging song, called the Eiresione (lit. a 
 harvest-wreath wound round with wool), 
 (c) The Batrdchomyomaclila, the Battle of 
 the Frogs and Mice, a parody of the Iliad, 
 is generally attributed to Pigres, the 
 brother of the Carian queen Artemisia, so 
 well known in connexion with the Persian 
 Wars. The ancient satirical epic poem 
 called the Margltes (" the dolt ") has been 
 lost. Its great antiquity may be inferred 
 from its having been assigned to Homer as 
 early as the time of Archilochus {pb. 676 
 
 B.C.). 
 
 (2) A poet of Hierapolis in Caria, son 
 of the poetess Moero, born in the first half 
 of the 3rd century B.C. He was one of 
 the seven tragic poets of the Alexandrine 
 Pleiad (q.v.). 
 
 Homoioi ( = " Peers"). A name given 
 to the Spartiatse (q.v.) in allusion to their 
 having equal political rights with one 
 another. 
 
 Honos and Virtus. The Latin personi- 
 fications of honour and warlike courage. 
 [Cic, Verr. ii 4, 121.] Marcus Marcellus, 
 the famous conqueror of Syracuse (B.C. 
 212), added to an already existing shrine 
 dedicated to Honos another to Virtus, and 
 united them both in one building, which 
 he adorned with the masterpieces of Greek 
 art which he had carried off from Syracuse. 
 Marius built a second temple from the 
 booty gained in the Cimbrian War (B.C. 
 
 D. 0. A. 
 
 101). Upon coins they are both represented 
 as youthful figures, with tresses ; Honos 
 with a chaplet of bay-leaves and cornu- 
 copia, and ViHus with a richly ornamented 
 helmet. 
 
 Hoplites. The heavily armed foot- soldiers 
 of the Greeks, who fought in serried 
 masses (see Phalanx). Their weapons 
 
 * MONUMENT 01" AN ATHENIAN HOPLITE. 
 (AtheBB.) 
 
 consisted of an oval shield suspended from 
 the shoulder-belt, and wielded by means 
 of a handle, a coat of mail (see Thorax), a 
 helmet and greaves of bronze, and sometimes 
 a lance about six feet long, and a short 
 sword. The Spartans, who fought with 
 
306 
 
 HOPLOMACHI- — HORACE. 
 
 shields large enough to cover the ^\'hole 
 man, appear to have worn neither cuirass 
 nor greaves. The whole equipment, weigh- 
 ing close on 77 lbs., was worn only iu battle ; 
 on the march the greater part of it was 
 carried by a slave. An idea of the equip- 
 ment of an Athenian hoplite [about 500 
 B.C.] maj' be derived from the accompanj'ing 
 illustration of the monument to the Athe- 
 nian Aristlon [found near Marathon, but 
 probably of earlier date than 490]. The 
 weapons of the Macedonian hoplites, or 
 plidlangltoi, were a circular shield Avith a 
 bronze plate, about two feet in diameter, 
 and about twelve pounds in weight, a 
 leather jerkin with brass mountings and 
 ornaments, light greaves, a round felt hat 
 {sec Causia), a short sword, and the Mace- 
 donian sarissa {q.v.). 
 
 Hoplomachi. See Gladiatokes. 
 
 Horace {Qitintus Iluidtiiis Flaccus). 
 The well-known Roman poet, born 8th Dec, 
 B.C. G5, at Venusia, on the borders of Apulia 
 and Lucania, where his father, who was a 
 freedman, possessed a small property, and 
 filled the office of a collector {coactor). To 
 give his son a better education, he betook 
 himself to Rome, and 
 here Horace received a 
 training similar to that 
 of the sons of wealthy 
 knights and senators, 
 under his father's eye, 
 who watched over him 
 with a touching solici- 
 tude. At first he studied 
 under the grammarian 
 Orbilius Pupillus of 
 Beneventum, whose 
 flogging propensities 
 Horace rendered proverbial. To complete 
 his education, and especially to study 
 philosophy, Horace resorted to Athens in 
 B.C. 45 ; but towards the end of the summer 
 of B.C. 44, when Brutus, after the murder 
 of Csesar, appeared at Athens, Horace, like 
 most of the young Romans studying there, 
 joined him in his enthusiasm for the cause 
 of liberty. At the defeat at Philippi in 
 42, where he fought as a military tribune, 
 he saved himself by flight, and fortunately 
 reached Italy in safety. It is true that 
 he met with favour, but he found himself 
 absolutely without means, as the property 
 of his father, who had probably died in 
 the interval, had been confiscated. To gain 
 a livelihood, he managed to get a clerk- 
 ship in the qusestor's office {see Sceib^e). 
 It was at this period that, emboldened (as 
 
 (From a frem in the 
 British Museum.) 
 
 [ he himself says) by his poverty, he first 
 appeared as a poet. His own bent and pre- 
 ■ disposition led him at that time to satire, in 
 ! which he took Lucilius for his model, and 
 to iambic poetry after the manner of Archi- 
 lochus. His first attempts gained him the 
 I acquaintance of Vergil and Varius, who 
 i commended him to their influential patron 
 Msecenas. The latter allowed the poet to 
 be introduced to him (about 38 B.C.), but 
 for fully nine months paid no attention to 
 him, until he once more invited him to his 
 ' house, and admitted him to the circle of 
 1 his friends. In course of time there grew 
 i up a very intimate friendship between 
 Maecenas and Horace. About 35 B.C. the 
 I poet dedicated to him, under the title of 
 ; SermOnes, the first collection of his Satires, 
 \ which up to then had been published 
 separately; and about 33 he received from 
 Mfficenas the gift of a small estate in the 
 Sabine district, which from that time 
 forward was his favourite abode. In the 
 year B.C. 30, or perhaps in the beginning of 
 j B.C. 29, Horace published his second book 
 of Satires ; and (nearly simultaneously) his 
 collection of iambic verses, or Epodes, ap- 
 peared. In the following years he specially 
 devoted himself to lyric poetry, taking the 
 MoMc. poets for his model, and having the 
 merit of being the fii'st who found for their 
 forms of verse a home on Roman ground. 
 About 23, he published his first collection of 
 Odes {Carmlna) in three books, which were 
 I all dedicated to Msecenas. [But some of 
 the Odes were written before B.C. 29, so that 
 in respect to the date of composition, as 
 i distinguished from that of publication, the 
 ' collections of Odes and Epodes overlap. 
 ' See Prof. Nettleship's Ledures and Essays, 
 \ pp. 156-163.] The Odes were followed by 
 a continuation of the conversational Satires 
 or Sermones in a new form, that of letters, 
 each addressed to one person, and called 
 the Epistulce,. 
 
 Through Maecenas Horace made the ac- 
 I quaintance of Augustus. The ex-republican 
 and soldier of freedom had shown at first 
 but little sympathy for him ; but after- 
 wards, having learned to recognise that 
 the only chance of the salvation of the 
 state lay in the rule of a monarch, and hav- 
 ing seen Augustus successfully engaged in 
 restoring the country to tranquillitj' and 
 ! prosperity at home, and to its ancient pres- 
 tige abroad, he was completely reconciled 
 to the emperor, and in several of his Odes 
 paid a high tribute to his merits. Never- 
 theless, he was always anxious to maintain 
 
HOR^. 
 
 307 
 
 an attitude of independence towards the 
 emperor, and excused himself from accept- 
 ing tlie tempting offer of Augustus to enter 
 his service as private secretary and to form 
 one of his suite. But he did not entirely 
 decline to carry out his wishes. It was by 
 his desire that (about B.C. 17) he composed, 
 for the festival of the Secular Games, the 
 hymn to Apollo and Diana, known as the 
 Carmen Scecilldri'. He also celebrated 
 the victories of the emperor's step-sons, 
 Tiberius and Drusus, in several Odes (b.c. 
 15), which he published with some others 
 as a, fourth book of Odes (about 13 B.C.) As 
 Augustus had complained that Horace had 
 made no mention of him in his earlier 
 Epistles, the poet addressed to him a com- 
 position which stands first in the second 
 hook of Epistles, probably published shortly 
 before his death. The famous Epistula ad 
 Pisoncs, commonly called the Ars Poetica, 
 is often reckoned as the third epistle of the 
 second book [but probably belongs to an 
 earlier date]. The poet died 27th November, 
 B.C. 8, and was buried on the Esquiline, near 
 to his recently deceased friend, Maecenas. 
 
 Horace, as he was himself aware, is not 
 a poet who soars to lofty heights ; on the 
 contrary his nature is essentially reflec- 
 tive, and with him taste and fancy are 
 always under the control of reason. In his 
 lyrical poems he began with more or less 
 free imitations of Greek models, and gra- 
 dually advanced to independent compositions 
 in the Greek form. Their merits do not 
 
 art with which both diction and metre 
 are handled. In the poems of a higher 
 style which he composed by desire of 
 Augustus, or under the influence of the 
 times in which he lived, the expression 
 rises to actual loftiness, but the spirit of 
 deliberate purpose is generally prominent. 
 He succeeds best in those of his Odes in 
 which, following his own bent, without any 
 external prompting, he treats of some bright 
 and simple theme, such as love or friend- 
 ship. His personality reflects itself most 
 vividly in his Satires and in his Epistles, 
 which often have a similar aim. Follow- 
 ing the method of Lucilius, he here gives 
 his personal impressions of social and 
 literary matters in a form that is more 
 natural, and at the same time more artistic, 
 than his predecessor's, and in a style that 
 approaches the language of everyday life. 
 At first his Satires, like his Epodes, were 
 not without a pungency corresponding to a 
 bitterness of feeling due to the circumstances 
 of his life ; but as his temper became 
 calmer, they assume a more genial and less 
 personal complexion. In the Epistles, ihe 
 poet shows himself the exponent of a mild, 
 if not very deep, philosophy of life. Erom 
 an early date Horace's poems were used in 
 Roman schools as a text-book, and were 
 expounded by Roman scholars, especially 
 by Acron and Porphyrio {g.v., 6). 
 
 Horse. The goddesses of order in nature, 
 who cause the seasons to change in their 
 regular course, and all things to come into 
 
 * THE hOKjE niuNaiNG wedding (iifts to telei-s. 
 (Paris, Loavre.) 
 
 consist in warmth of feeling or depth of 
 thought, but in the perspicuity of their plan, 
 the evenness of their execution, and the 
 
 being, blossom and ripen at the appointed 
 time. In Homer, who gives them neither 
 genealogy nor names, they are mentioned 
 
308 
 
 HORDICIDIA— HOEUS. 
 
 as handmaidens of Zeus, entrusted with 
 the guarding of the gates of heaven and 
 Olympus; in other words, with watching 
 the clouds. Hesiod calls them the daughters 
 of Zeus and Themis, who watch over the 
 field operations of mankind ; their names 
 are Eunomlu (Good Order), JDike (Justice), 
 and Eircnc (Peace), names which show that 
 the divinities of the three ordinary seasons 
 of the world of nature. Spring, Summer, and 
 Winter, are also, as daughters of Themis, 
 appointed to superintend the moral world of 
 human life. This is especially the case with 
 Dike^ who is the goddess who presides over 
 legal order, and, like Themis, is enthroned 
 by the side of Zeus. According to Hesiod, 
 she immediately acquaints him with all un- 
 just judicial decisions, so that he may punish 
 them. In the tragic poets she is mentioned 
 with the Erinyes, and as a divinity who 
 is relentless and stern in exacting punish- 
 ment. {See AsTR^A.) At Athens, 
 two Horce were honoured: Thallo, 
 the goddess of the flowers of spring ; 
 and Carpo, the goddess of the fruits 
 of summer. Nevertheless the Horse 
 were also recognised as four in num- 
 ber, distinguished by the attributes of 
 the seasons. They were represented as 
 delicate, joyous, lightly moving crea- 
 tures, adorned with flowers and fruits, 
 and, like the Graces, often associated 
 with other divinities, such as Aphro- 
 dite, Apollo, and Helios. As the Hora 
 specially representing spring, we have 
 Chloris, the wife of Zephyrus, and 
 goddess of flowers, identified by the 
 Romans with Flora (q.v.). 
 
 Hordicidia. See Poedicidia and 
 Tellus. 
 
 Hormos. A chain-dance {see 
 Dance). 
 
 Horteusius {Quintus ; surnamed 
 Hortdlus). A distinguished Roman 
 orator, B.C. 114-50. For a consider- 
 able time he had no rival in the 
 Forum, owing to his brilliant genius 
 and his remarkably retentive memorj'. 
 Possessing vast means, he gave him- 
 self up to the enjoyments of life, and 
 allowed his somewhat younger contem- 
 porary, Cicero, completely to outstrip 
 him. [Down to about 63 B.C. Horteu- 
 sius represented the noMles, as against 
 Cicero ; but afterwards the two orators were 
 generally on the same side.] He also tried 
 his hand as a writer of history and as a 
 poet. Of his writings we have only meagre 
 notices. [Cic, Brutus, §§ 301-308.] 
 
 Horus (Egyptian Bar). An Egyptian 
 god, the son of Osiris and Isis. At the 
 death of his father he was still a child, 
 but when he had grown to be a stalwart 
 youth {Harver, i.e. a " stronger Horus "), 
 he overcame and captured Typhon, the 
 murderer of his father, after a combat 
 lasting over many days, and handed him 
 over to Isis, who, however, let him go 
 free. By the Egyptians he was deemed 
 the victorious god of light (who overcame 
 darkness, winter, and drought), and was 
 identified with Apollo by the Greeks. He 
 is often represented with the head of a 
 hawk, which was sacred to him. He must 
 be distinguished from a younger Horus, 
 the Harpocrdtes of the Greeks (in Egyptian 
 Harpechruti, i.e. " Har the child "), who 
 was received by Isis from Osiris in the 
 under- world, and is the representative of 
 the winter-sun, and also the image of early 
 
 U^/iNV": TOPn iy}4 
 
 * HOETENSIUS. 
 (Rome, Villa Albani.) 
 
 vegetation, and therefore identified with 
 Priapus. Statues represent him as a naked 
 boy with his finger on his mouth (see fig. 2, 
 under Isis). Misunderstanding this symbol 
 of childhood, the Greeks made tiiTn the god 
 
■HOUSE. 
 
 30D 
 
 of Silence and Secrecy. Afterwards, in tlie 
 time when mysteries were in vogue, his 
 worship was widely extended among the 
 Greeks, and also among the Romans. 
 
 House. The Greek house (see plan, fig. 
 1) was divided into two chief parts, one of 
 which was assigned to the men (andronitls) 
 and the other to the women (gynaikonltis 
 or gynaikeidn). The women's division was 
 situated at the back of the house, and some- 
 times in the upper story if there was one. 
 
 
 ■ .A. -' ■!>.. " ~^~ — ' 
 
 ■ & C> <:> <-'i 
 
 Ga rd en 
 
 ■O i^' O Qp 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 irusaiUos 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 (GuMlantjos) 
 
 C 
 (prostas) 
 
 n 
 
 eunp?dc7talajrws 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 Altop 
 
 □ 
 
 
 d 
 
 d 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 ■>'t ■■■■;■ 
 
 5 
 
 
 / 
 
 i ' 
 
 9 
 
 (1) PLAN OF OLDEST TYPE OF GREEK 
 HOUSE WITH ONE COURT. 
 
 (Designed by Guhl.) 
 
 a, o, a, WorkroomB for tte maid-servants. 
 
 b, Bedroom of the master of the house. 
 
 c, Hall. 
 
 d, d, d, d, d, df d, d. Store-rooms, bedrooms, 
 etc. 
 
 e, Courtyard. 
 /, Passage. 
 
 9, 9. 9. 9i Shops. 
 
 The door of the house opened inwards. It 
 was placed sometimes in a line with the 
 fagade, sometimes in a small recess called 
 the prothyron or propylaion. In front of 
 this there often stood an altar belonging 
 to the house and consecrated to Apollo 
 Agyieus, or the god of streets. In the 
 interior, on both sides of the vestibule, were 
 the doorkeeper's room and other chambers 
 for work and business. The vestibule led 
 into an open court {aule) surrounded on 
 three sides with columns. In the middle 
 of this was the altar of Zeus Ilerkeios, the 
 
 patron deity of domestic life. At the sides 
 were chambers for eating and sleeping, 
 storerooms, and cells for slaves, which, like 
 the front rooms, opened into the court. 
 Biit the slaves sometimes lived in an upper 
 story, co-extensive with the whole house. 
 On the side of the court opposite the ves- 
 tibule there were no columns, but two 
 pilasters at some distance from each other 
 marked the entrance of a hall called prostds 
 or parastds, which measured in breadth 
 two-thirds of the distance between the 
 pilasters. Here the family met at their 
 common meals and common sacrifices ; here, 
 too, in all probability stood the hearth or 
 sanctuary of Hestia. On one side of the 
 parastas was the fhdldmos or sleeping room 
 for the master and mistress of the house. 
 On the other side was the ampMthdldnios, 
 where the daughters probably slept. In 
 the under wall of the parastas was a door 
 called mStaulds or mesaulos, which led into 
 the workroom of the female servants. Large 
 houses had a second court, pSristylon, 
 entirely surrounded by columns. The roof 
 of the Greek house was generally, though 
 not always, flat ; the rooms were mostly 
 lighted through the doors which opened 
 into the court. 
 
 The ancient Roman dwelling house (fig. 
 2) consisted of a quadrangular court called 
 dtrtum (from ater, black), because the walls 
 were blackened by the smoke from the 
 hearth. The atrium was entered by the 
 door of the house, and was the common 
 meeting place for the whole family. It 
 was lighted by an opening in the tiled roof, 
 which was four-sided and sloped inwards. 
 This opening was called the compluvmm, 
 and served both as a chimney for the hearth 
 and as an inlet for the rain, which fell 
 down into the impluvium, a tank sunk in 
 the floor beneath. There was also, in more 
 ancient times, a subterranean cistern 
 (piitSus) into which the rain out of the 
 impluvium was collected. But in later 
 times the water was carried off by pipes 
 underground. At the back of the impluvium, 
 was the hearth with the Penates. At the 
 side of the atrium was the room used for 
 cooking, for meals, and for sacrifices. In 
 the wall fronting the entrance was the 
 marriage-bed and the master's money-chest. 
 The mistress of the house sat in the atrium 
 with her maids, spinning, weaving, and 
 generally superintending the household. It 
 was in the atrium that the family received 
 their clients and friends, that the dead were 
 laid out in state, and memorials of the de- 
 
310 
 
 HOUSE. 
 
 parted were hung on the wall. Gradually j 
 it became the fashion to attach small rooms ' 
 
 1'2) FLAX OF THE CASA DE' CAI'ITELLI 
 PIGURATI, POMPEII. 
 
 a, n. Store-room and servants' room. 
 h, b. Flight of steps, 
 c. c. Reception rooms, 
 w, Porter' ei lodpe. 
 e, c, r, e, Day rooms. 
 
 to the two sides as far as the 
 hearth. These rooms had no 
 light except that obtained from 
 the atrium. But the space at 
 the back was left quite free, and 
 extended in its full width in 
 two wings (dice) behind these 
 side chambers on right and left. 
 In aristocratic houses the busts 
 of the ancestors were set up 
 in these wings. The marriage- 
 bed was also removed from the 
 wall against which it stood ; the 
 wall was broken through, and 
 the tabllnum erected against it. 
 originally a wooden shed, which was open 
 
 at the back in summer, but closed in winter 
 by a partition. The tablimim was used as 
 the master's office. In later times a garden, 
 surrounded by side buildings and covered 
 colonnades, was added at the back of the 
 house. This was called pcristylium. and 
 was, as the name and the whole plan of it 
 shows, an imitation of the Greek arrange- 
 ment. The dining rooms, sleeping apart- 
 ments, and living rooms {tncliniuvi, cuMcu- 
 htm, diceta) were transferred into the side 
 buildings, as were also the entertaining 
 room (cxedra) and the hall (cectts), and above 
 all the storerooms,, hearth, and kitchen. 
 The private chsipel {sacra niim or Idrdrium, 
 see Lares) was also generally situated in the 
 perisfylium. The entrance into this from 
 the atrium was through corridors (fauces) 
 situated near the tablimim. The atrium 
 now served merely as a state reception- 
 room. It was splendidly decorated with 
 pillars and other ornaments, and had a 
 table (curtlhidum) in the middle to repre- 
 sent the hearth. If the roof was simply 
 supported on beams, the atrium was called 
 tuscdnicum (fig. 3); if the comphiviiim 
 was supported on four columns, tetrasti/him; 
 if the roof-beams were let into the wall on 
 one side, and supported on a column apiece 
 on the other, it was styled corinthmm. 
 
 Great houses, like temples and large 
 tombs, generally had a kind of entrance- 
 hall or vcstVmlum [ve, stdbiilum, or an out- 
 side standing-place], raised above the street 
 and approached by steps. This space was 
 often adorned with arms taken in war, 
 statues, colonnades, and flower-beds. It 
 was here that visitors assembled for morn- 
 ing calls. In ordinary houses there was 
 either no vestibulum or only an indication 
 of one, effected by throwing the door a 
 few steps back into the house. The door 
 opened outwards, and generally consisted 
 
 (3) ATJt/[ 
 THROUGH 
 
 This was 
 
 If IN THE HOUSE OF PAXSA, POMPEII (lOOKISG 
 INTO THE TABLlxar AND PF.UISTrLlUir) \ IIE.STOKED. 
 
 of two wings ; but sometimes, if the 
 entrance was a wide one, of several folds. 
 
HOUSEHOLD GODS HYGIEIA. 
 
 311 
 
 It did not move on kinges, but on pegs let 
 into tlie threshold above and below. The 
 door led immediately into the ostium, a 
 space opening directly into the atrium. At 
 the side of the osth^m was the room of the 
 doorkeeper (tan ttor), with other rooms, which 
 were sometimes let out as shops. 
 
 The Roman house was originally calculated 
 only for one story, but in course of time 
 a second story became iisual. As the 
 dining-room was generally in this part of 
 the house, all the rooms in the upper story 
 were called cem'tcfila. The upper story 
 was approached by steps in the form of a 
 ladder, and was lighted by openings which 
 could be closed by shutters. Some of these 
 windows were pierced in the outer wall,. and 
 some in the inner wall, carried round the 
 roofs of the atrium a,nd per istylium. There 
 were three-storied houses in Rome as early 
 as the end of the Republic. The upper 
 stories were let to tenants, 
 and as early as the time of 
 Augustus it was found neces- 
 sary to limit the height of 
 the street frontage to 70 Ro- 
 man feet, a maximum which 
 was afterwards lowered to 
 GO feet. The roof was of tiles, 
 and sometimes pointed and 
 sloping on the four sides, sometimes flat, 
 in which case it was often ornamented with 
 flowering plants and shrubs. A flat roof of 
 this sort was called solarium. The ancients 
 heated their houses by means of portable 
 fireplaces, braziers, and sometimes stoves. 
 The Romans in the north of Italy, Gaul, 
 and Germany used hot air for the purpose. 
 {See Baths.) Large lodging-houses were 
 found both in Greek and Roman cities, "the 
 Greek name for such a house being synoiMa 
 and the Latin name insida. 
 
 Household Gods. See Lares and Pe- 
 nates. 
 
 Hjracinthus. Son of king Amyclas, of 
 Amyclae in Laconia, and of Diomede. He 
 was beloved for his beauty by Apollo and 
 Zephyrus. As Apollo was one day teach- 
 ing the boy how to play at quoits, on the 
 banks of the river Eurotas, the wind-god 
 in his jealousy drove the quoit with such 
 violence against the head of Hyacinthns, 
 that the blow killed him. From his blood 
 Apollo caused a flower of the same name to 
 spring up, with the exclamation of woe, 
 AI, AI, marked upon its petals. Hyacinthus, 
 like Adonis, is a personification of vegeta- 
 tion, which flourishes in the spring-time, but 
 is scorched and killed by the glowing heat 
 
 of the summer sun, which is symbolized by 
 the quoit or discus. Like other festivals 
 ill honour of nature, the festival of the 
 Hyacinthia, celebrated by the Spartans at 
 AmyclsB for three days in July, down to the 
 time of the Roman emperors, was connected 
 with the expression of grief atthe death of 
 vegetation, of joy over the harvest, and of 
 cheerful trust in the re-awakening of nature. 
 On the first day, which was dedicated to 
 silent mourning, sacrifice to the dead was 
 offered at the grave of Hyacinthus, which 
 was under the statue of Apollo in the 
 temple at Amyclse. The following day was 
 spent in public rejoicing in honour of Apollo, 
 in which all the populace, including the 
 slaves, took part. They went in festal pro- 
 cession with choruses of singing boys and 
 girls, accompanied by harps apd flutes, to the 
 temple of Apollo, where games and compe- 
 titions, sacrifices and entertainments to one 
 
 (4) LONGITUDINAL SEOTKiN OF THE HOUSE OF PANSA,, TOMrEII. 
 
 another took place, and a robe, woven by 
 the Spartan women, was offered to the 
 god. 
 
 Hyadfis ("the raining ones"). Daugh- 
 ters of Atlas and of ^thra, and sisters of 
 the Pleiades : their number varies between 
 two and seven. Being Nymphs who sup- 
 plied nourishment by means of moisture, 
 they were worshipped at Dodona as nurses 
 of Zeus or of the infant Dionysus. As a 
 reward for this they were placed in the sky 
 as stars. At their rising about the same time 
 as the sun, between May 7 and 21, rainy 
 weather usually began. Hyades is natu- 
 rally derived from the verb " to rain " ; but 
 the Romans, wrongly supposing it came 
 from the Greek for "a pig," called the con- 
 stellation "the little pigs" {siiciilce). 
 
 Hydria (Greek). A liind of vessel for 
 holding water. {See Vessels.) 
 
 [Hydriaphoria {Greek). "The carrying 
 of a waterpot," a service performed by the 
 wives of resident aliens at the PancWienoia.] 
 
 H^gieia. In Greek mythology, the 
 goddess of Health, daughter of jEsculapius 
 (Gr. Askleplos), with whom she is often 
 worshipped. In works of art she is repre- 
 sented by his side, as a maiden of kindly 
 aspect, with a serpent, to whom she is 
 
312 
 
 HYGINUS HYLLUS. 
 
 giving drink from a saucer {see cut). By 
 the Romans she was identified witli Solus. 
 
 (Foand at Ostia, 1797 ; in the Hope CoUectiOB, 
 Deepdene, Surrey.) 
 
 Hygmus. (1) Gains lulius. A Roman 
 scholar, a native of Spain, and a freed- 
 man of Augustus, who appointed him 
 librarian of the Palatine Library. His ver- 
 satility as an author reminds us of Varro, 
 for works of his are mentioned bearing on 
 historical, antiquarian, geographical, theo- 
 logical, and agricultural subjects. Under 
 the name of Hyginus we, possess two school- 
 books of mythology; both are the production 
 of the same author, bvit it is somewhat 
 doubtful whether they are really written 
 bj' the Roman scholar, or are only ex- 
 tracts from the genuine works or fresh 
 versions of them. They are; (a) the Fdbu- 
 larum Liber, a collection of 277 legends, 
 which are not without value for the mytho- 
 logy and history of the Greek drama, as 
 the author has made use of the tragedians 
 in his compilation ; (h) an incomplete work, 
 De Astrdnomia, in four books, commonly 
 called Poetica Astronomlca, consisting of the 
 elements of astronomy with an account of 
 the constellations and the myths relating 
 to them, mainly after Eratosthenes. 
 
 (2) H. GrGmciticus (the land-surveyor. 
 
 from gruma, a surveyor's measuring rod). 
 He composed under Trajan, aboiit a.d. 103, 
 several books on the surveying of land. It 
 is doubtful whether the work on Roman 
 castrametation, entitled De Mumtionibus 
 CastT'orum, should be really attribiited to 
 him. The beginning and the end are alike 
 lost. It is. the chief source of our know- 
 ledge of the subject. It was probably com- 
 posed early in the 3rd century a.d. 
 
 Hylas. Son of Theiodamas, king of the 
 Dryopes, and of the Nymph Menodice. He 
 was a favourite of Heracles, whom he 
 accompanied on the Argonautic expedition. 
 When Heracles disembarked upon the coast 
 of Mysia to cut himself a fresh oar, Hylas 
 followed him to draw water from a fountain, 
 the Nymphs of which drew the beautiful 
 youth down into the water. The Argonauts 
 having gone on their way, Heracles, with 
 his sister's son Polyphemus, remained 
 behind to search for him. On failing to 
 find him, he did not leave until he had taken 
 hostages from the Mysians, and made them 
 promise that they would produce the boy 
 either dead or alive. After that the inhabi- 
 tants of Cios (founded by Polyphemus and 
 afterwards called Prusias) continually 
 sought for Hylas, and sacrificed to him 
 every year at the fountain, and thrice called 
 him by name. 
 
 Hyllus. The son of Heracles and Deia- 
 nira, husband of lole. When he, and the 
 rest of the children of Heracles, at their 
 father's death, were pursued everywhere by 
 the enmity of Eurystheus, they at last found 
 succour from Theseus, or his son Demophon. 
 A\'hen Eurystheus drew near with his 
 army to compel the Athenians to give them 
 up, Macaria, daughter of Heracles, freely 
 offered herself up as a sacrifice for her 
 brethren, who, aided by the Athenians, 
 defeated the enemy, Eurystheus being 
 slain as a fugitive by Hyllus himself. 
 Having withdrawn from Attica to Thessaly, 
 Hyllus was adopted by the Dorian prince 
 ^gimius, whom Heracles had once assisted 
 in the war between the Lapithae and the 
 Dryopes, under promise of his abdication 
 of the royal power, together with a third 
 part of the kingdom. Thus the rule over 
 the Dorians passed to him and his descen- 
 dants. When commanded by the Delphic 
 oracle to attempt to conquer the king- 
 dom of Eurystheus immediately after " the 
 third fruit," he endeavoured after the lapse 
 of three years to invade the Peloponnesus 
 by way of the Isthmus. He was, however, 
 repulsed by Atreus, the successor of Eurys- 
 
HYMEN HYPERIDES. 
 
 313 
 
 tlieus, and fell in single combat with 
 Echemiis, king of Tegea. It was in the 
 ■' third generation " after him that the sons 
 of his grandson Aristomachus, viz. Temenus, 
 Cresphontes, and Aristodemus, at last con- 
 quered the Peloponnesus, which was then 
 under the rule of Tisamenus, son of 
 Orestes. 
 
 H^men (Gr. HymSnaios; Lat. HymSnceus). 
 The Greek god of marriage and of the mar- 
 riage-song (named after him). He is some- 
 times described as the son of Apollo and a 
 Muse (either Terpsichore, Urania, or Cal- 
 liope), who had vanished on his own wedding- 
 day, and was consequently always sought 
 for at every wedding. He is also described 
 as a son of the Thessalian Magnes and of the 
 Muse Clio, and as beloved by Apollo and 
 Thamyris ; or as the son of Dionysus and 
 Aphrodite, who lost his voice and life while 
 singing the nuptial song at the marriage 
 of Dionysus and Ariadne. According to 
 Attic tradition, he was an Argive youth 
 who, in the disguise of a girl, followed to 
 the feast of Demeter at Eleusis a young 
 Athenian maiden whom he loved with- 
 out winning the consent of her parents. 
 HymensBus and some of the maidens who 
 were celebrating the festival, were carried 
 off by pirates, whom he afterwards killed 
 in their sleep, and henceforth became the 
 champion of all women and damsels. In 
 art he is represented like Eros, as a beau- 
 tiful, winged youth, only with a more 
 serious expression, and carrying in his 
 hand the marriage torch and nuptial veil. 
 The marriage-song called Jffymenceus, which 
 is mentioned as early as Homer, was sung 
 by young men and maidens, to the sound of 
 flutes, daring the festal procession of the 
 bride from the house of her parents to that 
 of the bridegroom. In character it was 
 partly serious and partly humorous. The 
 several parts always ended with an invoca- 
 tion of Hymenseus. (See Epithalamium.) 
 On the Roman god of weddings, see 
 Talassio. 
 
 Hymrnis generally meant among the 
 Greeks an invocation of the gods, especially 
 in the form of an ode sung by a choir, to the 
 accompaniment of the cithdra, while they 
 stood round the altar. 
 
 Hypsethral Temple A temple not covered 
 by a roof. (See further under Temple.) 
 
 Hjrpaspistse. The shield-bearers in the 
 Greek army, who followed the heavy- 
 armed warriors and carried a portion of 
 their burdensome equipment, principally 
 the shield, the necessary baggage, and the 
 
 usual provision for three days. Among the 
 Macedonians the light infantry were so 
 called to distinguish them from the heavy 
 Phalangltce (see Hoplites), and the 
 archers. They wore a round felt hat (see 
 Causia), a linen jerkin, and had a long 
 dagger and a short hand-pike. They were 
 a standing body of 6,000 men, and in 
 war formed the king's bodyguard. (See 
 Agema.) 
 
 H^perhorfii, lit. "dwellers beyond the 
 north wind " (Boreas). A people of Greek 
 legend, whose existence was denied by 
 some of the ancients, while others en- 
 deavoured to define their position more 
 precisely. They were said to dwell far 
 away in the north, where 'the sun only rose 
 and set once a year, a fancy due, perhaps, 
 to some dim report of the long arctic sum- 
 mer day. The fruits of the earth ripened 
 quickly with them ; they lived in unbroken 
 happiness, knowing no violence or strife, 
 and reached the age of 1,000 years ; any 
 who were weary of life casting them- 
 selves from a sacred rock into the sea. 
 The myth is connected with the worship of 
 the god of light, Apollo, who during the 
 dark winter was supposed to visit them, as 
 his priestly people, in a chariot drawn by 
 swans ; returning to Delphi for the sum- 
 mer. There was a tradition in Delos, that 
 in earlier times they used to send to that 
 island the firstfruits of their harvests by 
 way of Dodond, Thessaly, and Euboea. 
 
 Hyperides (Gr. Hypereides). One of the 
 Ten Attic Orators, born about B.C. 390, son 
 of the Athenian Glaucippus. He was a 
 pupil of Plato and Isocrates, and won for 
 himself an important position as a forensic 
 and political orator, although his private life 
 was not unblemished. As a statesman, he 
 decidedly shared the views of Demosthenes, 
 and was his steadfast ally in the struggle 
 against the Macedonian party. It is true 
 that he afterwards [B.C. 324] took part in 
 the prosecution of Demosthenes, when 
 accused of having taken bribes from 
 Alexander's treasurer, Harpalus, and that 
 he contributed to his condemnation on that 
 charge. After the destruction of Thebes 
 by Alexander [335] it was only with difficulty 
 that he and Demosthenes escaped being 
 given up to the Macedonians. After the 
 death of Alexander [323] he was the chief 
 instigator of the Lamian War, at the unfor- 
 tunate conclusion of which he and Demos- 
 thenes (who had been reconciled to one 
 another in the meantime) and other patriots 
 were condemned to death by the Macedonian 
 
314 
 
 HYPERION IAMBIC POETRY. 
 
 party. He fled for sanctuary to a temple 
 iu ^giua, but was dragged away from it 
 by force, and by order of Antipater put to 
 death at Corinth in 3'22. Of the seventy- 
 seven speeches which were known to 
 antiquity as the work of Hyperides, only 
 a few fragments were known until recent 
 times ; but in 1847, in a tomb at Thebes, 
 in Egypt, extensive fragments were found 
 of his speech Against Demosthenes, together 
 with a speech Foi' Lycophvun and the 
 whole of his speech Against EuxSnipims. 
 In 185G there was a further discovery in 
 Egypt of an important part of the Funeral 
 Ovation delivered in 322 over those who 
 had fallen in the siege of Lfimia. [All 
 these speeches were edited by the late Dr. 
 Churchill Babington. The original pupT/ri 
 are preserved iu the British Museum.] 
 
 Though the speeches of Hyperides never 
 attain to the force and deiDth of those of 
 Demosthenes, nevertheless they were valued 
 highly on account of the skill of their con- 
 struction and the grace and charm of their 
 expression. 
 
 H;yperi6n. One of the Titans {q.v.), father 
 of the Sun-god Helios, who himself is also 
 called Hyperion in Homer. 
 
 H^permnestra. The only one of the 
 daughters of Dsinaus who spared her hus- 
 band, Lynceus. {Sec Daxads.) 
 
 Hypfiroon. The upper story of a Greek 
 house. {Sec House.) 
 
 Hypnos. The god of sleep. {See Sleep.) 
 
 Hyporchema. A species of lyric, choral 
 song in lively rhythms; its subject was 
 generally gay, and contained imitative dance 
 movements. Like the pseans, these choral 
 odes were mostly sung in honour of Apollo. 
 
 HJ^poscenium. See Theatre. 
 
 Hypsipjrle. Daughter of Thoas of Lem- 
 nos. The Lemnian women had, from jealousy, 
 killed all the men of the island ; Hypsipyle 
 alone spared her father Thoas, having been 
 the means of aiding his flight. When the 
 Argonauts landed at Lemnos and married 
 the women, Hypsipyle bore twin sons to 
 Jason : Eimeits, who in Homer figures as 
 king of Lemnos and carries on trade with 
 the Greeks before Troy ; and Thoas, who is 
 sometimes described as a son of Dionysus. 
 When the news of her father's escape 
 was rumoured among the Lemnian women, 
 Hypsipyle was forced to flee for her life, 
 and was captured by pirates, who sold her 
 to Lycurgus of Nemea. There, as the nurse 
 of Opheltes, the infant son of the king, she 
 accidentally caused his death {see Seven 
 AGAINST Thebes), and was exposed to the 
 greatest danger, from which she was only 
 rescued by the intervention of her sons, 
 who were sent to her aid by Dionysus. 
 
 I 
 
 iacchtis. A name under which Dionysus 
 was honoured, together with Demeter and 
 Persephone, at the Elensinian Mysteries. 
 {See Dionysus, Persephone, and Eleu- 
 
 SINIA.) 
 
 Iambic Postry. Iambic poetry, like the 
 elegiac poetry which was also nearly con- 
 temporaneous with it and was similarly 
 cultivated by the lonians of Asia Minor, 
 forms a connecting link between epic and 
 lyric poetr}'. While elegy however is 
 directly connected, both in metrical form 
 and expression, with epic poetry, iambic 
 poetry is in direct contrast to it, both as 
 regards subject-matter, diction and metre. 
 The difference between the subject-matter 
 of the two is as marked as the distinction 
 was between tragedy and comedy in later 
 times. While the aim of epic poetry is to 
 awake admiration for its heroes, iambic 
 poetry strains all the resources of art and 
 iron}-, sarcasm and satire, to hold up the 
 faults and weaknesses of human nature to 
 mockery and contempt. This form of 
 
 poetry, in keeping with its subject, con- 
 fined itself to the simple, unadorned language 
 of everyda}' life, and made use of the pliant 
 iambic metre, which lent itself readily to 
 such language, and had long been popularly 
 employed to clothe in a poetic garb the rail- 
 lery which formed part of the rustic feasts 
 of Demeter. This custom, as well as the 
 application of the word iambus to verses 
 of this kind, was traced to the Thracian 
 maiden lambe (also called the daughter 
 of Pan and Echo). When the goddess 
 Demeter was plunged in grief for the loss 
 of her daughter Persephone, on entering the 
 house of Celeiis at Eleusis, it was the jests 
 of lambe that forced her to smile and 
 restored her appetite. 
 
 Iambic poetry was brought to artistic 
 perfection by ArchllochiLS of Paros (about 
 700 B.C.). He did not remain satisfied with 
 the simple repetition of the same iambic 
 verse, but invented the most varied forms, 
 linking the longer iambic measures with 
 the shorter, as well as with dactylic metres, 
 
lAMBLICHUS ICARIUS. 
 
 315 
 
 and thus forming epodes. Instead of the 
 iambus (w -), he also made use of its in- 
 verted form, the trochee (- w). Further re- 
 presentatives of this class were his younger 
 contemporary Stmonldes of Amorgus, and 
 Jlqj^Ouaon of Ephesus (about 540 B.C.), the 
 inventor of the metre called the clioliambus 
 or scazon iambus, the " lame" or "limping 
 iambus," in which the last iambic foot is re- 
 placed by a trochee, which as it were limps 
 at the end of the verse and gives it a comic 
 effect. Solon employed the iambic form in 
 justifying his political aims in the face of 
 his opponents. Of the later iambic writers 
 may be mentioned Herodes or Hcrondas, 
 but it is uncertain whether he belonged to 
 the Attic or Alexandrine periods. He was 
 the composer of mimes in iambic metre, a 
 kind of imitative pourtraj'al of manners in 
 choliambic verses, similar to those of the 
 Roman Gnaus Mdfius in the 1st century 
 B.C. From the middle of this century on- 
 wards lampoons in iambic verse became 
 common among the Romans. Its earliest 
 representatives included FtTnus Bthuciilus, 
 Catullus, and also Hovace, who in his epodes 
 imitated the metres of Archilochus. Under 
 the Empire, a few poems by Martial and 
 Ausonius belong to this class. 
 
 lamhlichus. (1) A Greek writer of ro- 
 mances, born in Syria, who composed in 
 the second half of the 2nd century a.d. a 
 romance in sixteen books, called, from the 
 scene of the greater part of the story, 
 Buhijlonica. It relates the love-adventures 
 of Rhodanes and Sinonis. We only possess 
 an epitome of it by Photius. 
 
 (2) A Greek philosopher from Chalcis 
 in Syria, a pupil of Porphyrins, and the 
 founder of the Sja-ian school of Neo-Platonic 
 philosophy. He died about 330 A.D. He 
 employed the Neo-Platonic philosophy en- 
 tirely in the service of polytheistic religion, 
 and mingled it with Oriental superstition, 
 which he endeavoured to justify on specu- 
 lative grounds. He even taught that divi- 
 nation and magic were necessary to bring 
 about a re-absorption into the Deity. He 
 himself had the reputation of working 
 miracles, and was highly venerated by 
 his disciples. Of his work in ten books 
 on the Pythagorean philosophy, we still 
 possess four parts, including a life of 
 Pythagoras, an uncritical and careless com- 
 pilation from the works of earlier writers. 
 A work, formerly attributed to him, on the 
 theology of arithmetic, setting forth the 
 mystic lore of numbers according to the 
 later Pythagoreans and Platonists, is not 
 
 [ written by him, any more than the work 
 on the Mysteries of Egypt. Both however 
 j belong to his school. 
 
 lapgtus. Son of Uranus and Gaea, a 
 I Titan, who, either by Glymeiie or Asia, the 
 daughter of Oceanus, became the father of 
 Atlas, Menostius, Pr5metheus, and Epime- 
 theus. He was thrown into Tartarus, with 
 1 his son Mencetius, on account of his rebellion 
 against Zeus. 
 
 iaslon (or Msais). A favourite of 
 Demeter, who in Crete became by him the 
 mother of Plutus. Zeus accordingly killed 
 lasion with a flash of lightning. 
 
 ibj^cus. A Greek lyric poet of Rhegium 
 in Lower Italy, about 530 B.C. Like Ana- 
 creon, he led a wandering life, and spent 
 much of his time at the court of Polycrates 
 of Samos. According to his epitaph, he died 
 in his native town ; according to the legend 
 made familiar by Schiller's poem, he was 
 slain on a journey to Corinth, and his mur- 
 derers were discovered by a flock of cranes. 
 His poems, which were collected into seven 
 books, survive in scanty fragments only. 
 They dealt partly with mythological themes 
 in the metres of Stesichorus and partly with 
 love-songs in the spirit of jEolic lyric poetry, 
 full of glowing passion and sensibility. It 
 was mainly to the latter that he owed his 
 fame. 
 
 icarius. (1) The hero of the Attic deme 
 of Icaria. Under the reign of Pandion he 
 received the vine from Dionysus in return 
 for his hospitable reception of the god. As 
 he went about the land with skins full of 
 wine, in order to spread the cultivation of 
 the vine, and some shepherds became intoxi- 
 cated on the new drink, their companions, 
 thinking they had been poisoned, slew him 
 and either cast his body into a dry brook or 
 buried him under a tree on Mount Hymet- 
 tus. His daughter Erigone found it after 
 a long search, being led to the spot by her 
 faithful dog Mtera ; and hung herself on 
 the tree. Dionysus punished the land with 
 a plague, and the maidens with madness, 
 so that they hanged themselves after the 
 manner of Erigone. To expiate the guilt 
 of slaying Icarius and to avert the curse, 
 the festival of the Aiora{t]ie " swiog ") was 
 founded in her honour. During tliis all 
 sorts of small images were hung on the 
 trees and swung, and fruits were brought 
 as an offering to the father as well as to 
 the daughter. Icarius was placed among 
 the constellations as Bootes or Arcturus, 
 Erigone as Virgo, and Msera as Prorj/on. 
 (2) Son of (Ebalus of Sparta. By the 
 
316 
 
 ICARUS IDOMENEUS. 
 
 Nymph PeribcEa lie was the father of 
 Penelope, wife of Odysseus. 
 
 Icarus. Son of Djedalus. While he and 
 his father were flying away from Crete by 
 means of waxen wings, in spite of his 
 father's warnings, he flew too near the 
 sun, so that the wax melted and he sank 
 into the sea and was drowned. After him 
 the island where his body was washed 
 ashore and buried by Heracles was called 
 Icaria, and the surrounding sea, the 
 " Icarian Sea." 
 
 Icelus. A dream-god. {See Dreams.) 
 
 Ichthyocentaurs. See Teiton. 
 
 Ictiiius. One of the most famous archi- 
 tects of Greece ; he flourished in the second 
 half of the 5th century B.C. and was a con- 
 temporary of Pericles and Phidias. His 
 most famous works were the Parthenon on 
 the Acropolis at Athens, and the temple of 
 Apollo at Bassse, near Phigalia in Arcadia. 
 Of both these edifices important remains 
 are in existence. Most of the columns of 
 the temple at Bassse are still standing. In 
 the judgment of the ancients, it was the 
 most beautiful temple in the Peloponnesus, 
 after the temple of Athene at Tegea, which 
 was the work of Scopas. [Pausanias, viii 
 41 § 8.] 
 
 Idaean Dactyli (Gr. Dalduloi). Fabulous 
 beings in Greek mythology who had their ori- 
 ginal home in Phrygian Ida, but were after- 
 wards transferred by legend to the moiin- 
 tain of the same name in Crete, and were 
 confounded with similar beings called the 
 Telchines, Cilretes, CaMri, and Corybantcs, 
 who were all fabulous beings in the service 
 of Ehea Cybele (the "Idsean Mother"). 
 They were accredited with having disco- 
 vered, and having been the first to work, 
 iron and copper ; with having introduced 
 mu'sio and rhythm into Greece ; and with 
 being possessed of magic power. Three of 
 the Phrygian Dactyli had names : Celmis 
 (the smelter), DamndmSneus (the hammer), 
 and Acmon (the anvil). Among the Cretan 
 Dactyli, who were five, ten, and even more 
 in number, was the "Idsean Heracles," a 
 personification of the procreative powers 
 of nature, who also afforded magical pro- 
 tecjtion against perils. 
 
 Idas and Lynceus. Sons of Aphareus of 
 Messenia and of Arene ; a pair of brothers 
 as heroic and as inseparable as their 
 cousins Castor and Pollux (Polydeuces). 
 The Nj'mph Marpessa, daughter of the 
 Acarnanian river-god Euenus, was wooed 
 bjf Apollo, when Idas carried her off in a 
 winged chariot given him by Poseidon. 
 
 When Apollo overtook the fugitives in 
 Messenia, Idas, who was then " the 
 strongest of living men " [Homer, II. ix 
 556], stretched his bow against Apollo. 
 Zeus interposed and gave the damsel her 
 choice of suitors ; she decided in favour of 
 the mortal, as she feared Apollo would 
 desert her. After that the god hated her ; 
 she herself and her beautiful daughter 
 Cleopatra or Alcyone, wife of Meleager, 
 and their daughter, all died young, and 
 brought misfortune on those that loved 
 them. Idas and the keen-sighted Lynceus, 
 who could even see into the heart of the 
 earth, joined in the Calydonian Hunt and 
 the Argonautic expedition. They met their 
 end fighting Castor and Pollux, with whom 
 they had been brought up. As they were 
 all returning from a raid into Arcadia, 
 Idas was appointed to divide the cattle 
 they had captured ; he divided an ox into 
 four portions and decided that whosoever 
 devoured his portion first was to have the 
 first half of the spoil, and he who finished 
 his next, the second half. He finished 
 his own and his brother's share first, 
 and drove the cattle away. The Diosoiiri 
 were enraged and hid themselves from the 
 brothers in a hollow oak-tree ; but the keen 
 sight of Lynceus detected their lurking- 
 place and Idas stabbed Castor in the tree. 
 Thereupon Pollux pierced Lynceus through, 
 while Idas was slain by the lightning of 
 Zeus. For another account of the origin 
 of the quarrel, see DioscuEi. 
 
 Idmon. Son of Apollo and of Asterle, 
 daughter of Coronus ; a seer who took part 
 in the Argonautic expedition, although he 
 foresaw that it would lead to his own 
 death. He was killed by a wild boar in 
 the land of the Mariandyni, in Bithynia. 
 He was worshipped as a hero by the in- 
 habitants of the town of Heracleia in 
 Pontus, which was built around his grave 
 by command of Apollo. 
 
 idomenetis. The son of Deucalion of 
 Crete, and grandson of Minos. Being one 
 of Helen's suitors, he and Meriones, the 
 son of his half brother, went with eighty 
 ships to Troy, where he appears in Homer 
 as among the bravest of heroes. He is de- 
 scribed [in Ocl. iii 191] as one of those who 
 safely returned to his native land. Accord- 
 ing to a later story, he was caught in a 
 storm on his way home, and vowed to 
 Poseidon that, if he returned in safety, he 
 would sacrifice to the god whatever he 
 should first meet on his landing. His son 
 came out to meet him, and was accordingly 
 
IDUS IMPERATOR. 
 
 317 
 
 sacrificed ; a plague thereupon broke out, 
 he was banished by the Cretans, and betook 
 himself to Calabria. He afterwards with- 
 drew to Colophon in Asia, where he is said 
 to have been buried. His tomb, however, 
 was shown by the Cretans at Cnosus, where 
 he_was worshipped as a hero. 
 
 lixLS. The thirteenth or fifteenth day of 
 the Roman month {see Calendar). It was 
 sacred to Jupiter. 
 
 Idyll (in Greek eidylUon, diminutive of 
 eidos, "form," "a small picture"). A 
 poetic sketch of character, specially in 
 connexion with pastoral life. {See further 
 under Bucolic Poetry.) 
 
 He ("a troop"). (1) The Spartan term 
 for a company of boys of the same age, who 
 were brought up together. {See Education.) 
 (2) In the organization of the Macedonian 
 army, a squadron of cavalry, generally 200 
 strong, under the command of an ilarcJms. 
 {See HippEis.) 
 
 Ilia. Daughter of ^neas and Lavinia. 
 According to the legend, Romulus and 
 Remus were her sons by Mars. {See 
 jEneas and Rhea Silvia.) 
 Iliad. See Homer and Trojan War. 
 Ilione, Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, 
 and wife of the Thracian prince Poly- 
 mestor. Her youngest brother Polydorus 
 was entrusted to her care by her parents, 
 and she brought him up as her own son, 
 while she gave out that her own son Dei- 
 philus or Deipylus was Polydorus. When 
 Polymestor (who was bribed by the Greeks) 
 murdered the supposed Polydorus, Ilione 
 blinded and killed him. 
 ilithyia. See Eileithyia, 
 Ilns. The son of Tros, and great-grand- 
 son of Dardanus, brother of Assaracus and 
 Ganymede, and father of Laomedon. He 
 once went from his native town of Dar- 
 dania upon Mount Ida to Phrygia, where 
 he was victorious in an athletic contest 
 held by the king of the country. Beside 
 fifty youths and fifty maidens, the prize 
 of the contest, the king gave him, at the 
 command of an oracle, a spotted cow, and 
 told him there to found a city on the spot 
 where she lay. He accordingly founded 
 on the hill of the Phrygian Ate, the town 
 which after him was called Hion, and also 
 Troy (Gr. Troia) after his father. When 
 he demanded a sign of Zeus, on the follow- 
 ing morning he found the Palladium before 
 his^ tent. 
 
 Imagines. The Roman portrait masks 
 of deceased members of a family ; they 
 were made of wax and painted, and pro- 
 
 bably fastened on to busts. They were 
 kept in small wooden shrines let into the 
 inner walls of the atnum. [The design of 
 the funeral monument represented in the 
 accompanying cut has been obviously 
 suggested by this method of enshrining 
 the bust.] Inscriptions under the shrines 
 recorded the names, merits, and exploits of 
 the persons they referred to. The images 
 were arranged and connected with one 
 another by means of coloured lines, in such 
 a way as to exhibit the pedigree {stemma) 
 of the family. On festal days the shrines 
 were opened, and the busts crowned with 
 bay-leaves. At family funerals, there were 
 
 ^ MEMORIAL BUST OP A ROMAN LADY. 
 
 (Rome, Lateran Museum.) 
 
 people specially appointed to walk in pro- 
 cession before the body, wearing the masks 
 of the deceased members of the family, 
 and clothed in the insignia of the rank 
 which they had held when alive. The 
 right of having these ancestral images 
 carried in procession was one of the privi- 
 leges of the nobility. [Polybius, vi 53 ; 
 Pliny, N. II., xxxv 2 §§6, 7; Mommsen, 
 Rom. Hist., book iii, chap, xiii.] 
 
 Impgrator (commander - in - chief). A 
 Roman title, originally the designation of 
 each separate possessor of an independent 
 command {imperium). In the course of 
 time it became customary to assume the 
 title after a man had gained his first great 
 
318 
 
 IMPERIUM INDIGITAMENTA. 
 
 victory, usually after haviug been greeted ' 
 as imperator either bj' the soldiers on the 
 battlefield, or by the decree of the senate. 
 Under the Empire the title, which was 
 seldom conferred by Augustus, 'was granted 
 for the last time by Tiberius 22 a.d. It 
 was usually followed bj' a triumph, and 
 ceased when the triumph was over. As a 
 permanent title, it was first assumed by 
 Csesar, whose adopted son and heir Octa- 
 vian bore it as an inherited cognomen, 
 and from the year B.C. 40 onwards, ac- ' 
 cording to a custom that arose at that 
 time, substituted it for his previous prce- 
 nomen Gaius, thus becoming Imperator 
 Csesar, instead of Caesar Imperator. His , 
 immediate successors, Tiberius, Caligula, 
 and Claudius abstained from using this 
 pramomcn ; Nero used it freqtiently, but : 
 it first became permanent with Vespasian. 
 The emperors also took the title Imperator, 
 in its earlier signification, after a victory 
 won by themselves or on their behalf. i 
 
 Impgrium. The full kingly power among 
 the Romans, the royal authority over all ■ 
 members of the state. It was conferred \ 
 on the newly elected king by the cOmWa 
 eilrldta, a formal assembly of the patri- [ 
 cians comprising the curffr, and it con- : 
 sisted of the rights of levying the citizens ' 
 for military service, of leading the army, of 
 celebrating a triumph, of exercising civil 
 and criminal jurisdiction, and of inflicting ! 
 punishment on the citizens, whether cor- - 
 poral or capital, or such as affected either 
 their property or their liberty. A symbol of 
 this authority was the axe and the bundle 
 of rods borne by the lictors. {Sec Easces.) 
 
 At the establishment of the Republic 
 the impeviiun was transferred to the two 
 consuls, as the successors of the kings ; but 
 the full power of the imperium ^\as then 
 limited by the fact that both possessed the 
 same power, and that, in the penalties they 
 inflicted in times of peace, they were sub- 
 ject to the right of appeal [see Provocatio), 
 and to the intervention of the tribunes of 
 the people, after the institution of that 
 office. When the consulship was deprived 
 of its civil jurisdiction and the prsetorship 
 instituted for this purpose, the prsetors 
 also received the imperium ; nevertheless 
 it was more limited (minus) than that of 
 the consuls, who, in contrast with the 
 praetors and all other magistrates except 
 the tribunes, had the right of ordering 
 and forbidding. The imperium in its un- 
 divided and unlimited form was con- 
 ferred on those who in exceptional cases 
 
 were appointed dictators. It was also 
 possessed by the interrcx, but for five daj-s 
 only. Tor consuls and praetors the impe- 
 rium could be "prorogued," i.e. prolonged 
 beyond their time of office; but the impe- 
 rium thus prolonged was flnitum, i.e. 
 bounded within the limits of their province. 
 In the Republic it could also be conferred 
 by means of the comitia curiata, but this 
 act fell into a mere formality. Under the 
 Empii'e the term imperium included the 
 highest military authority', which resided in 
 the emperor and was the foundation of all 
 his power. It was taken up either at the 
 instance of the senate or the troops. Its 
 full validity depended on its recognition 
 by both. 
 
 Impluvium. A depression in the floor of 
 the Roman atrium made for the purpose of 
 receiving the rain which came in through 
 the open roof. (iS^ee House.) 
 
 Inachus. The most ancient king of 
 Argos, properly the god of the river of the 
 same name, son of Oceanus and Tethys, 
 and father of Phoroneus and lo. After 
 the flood of Deucalion, he is said to have 
 led the inhabitants down from the mountains 
 to the plains, and when Poseidon and Hera 
 contended for the possession of the land, 
 he decided in favour of the latter. In 
 punishment for this Poseidon made the 
 rivers of Argos suffer from a scarcity of 
 water. 
 
 InCTibare (Crr. enkoimasthai). Specially 
 used of sleeping in a sanctuary where ora- 
 cular responses were sought through dreams 
 or necromancy. (tSce Oeacles.) It was 
 with a view to obtaining in a dream a reve- 
 lation either from the god of the sanctuary, 
 or by conjuring up the spirit of some dead 
 person. Certain preliminaries had generally 
 to be performed, in particular the sacrifice 
 of some animal, on whose skin it was often 
 customary to sleep. These incubations, 
 which were in vogue among the Greeks from 
 the earliest times, but were not extensively 
 practised among the Romans until under 
 the Empire, generally took place in the 
 temple of jEsculapius, the god of healing. 
 
 Indigetes. Roman deities of uncertain 
 import. They appear to have been local 
 heroes, who ranked beneath the gods, such 
 as Evander, iEneas, and Romulus. 
 
 Indigitamenta. The Latin term for an 
 official collection of forms of prayer be- 
 longing to the libri jmntificU {see Ponti- 
 FEX). In them were set forth the various 
 powers of each god who was to be sum- 
 moned to aid in particular cases ; and none 
 
INFAMIA INHERITANCE. 
 
 319 
 
 of these divinities could be passed over, if 
 the prayer was to receive a favourable 
 answer. Only those portions of the collec- 
 tion were made public which bore direct 
 reference to private life ; prayers at mar- 
 riages, at births, for a blessing on the 
 children at different times of life, and for 
 the beginning of all kinds of work, espe- 
 cially agriculture. (The names of the gods 
 of earliest childhood were as follows : 
 Potlna and Educa, who taught the child 
 when weaned to eat and drink; Ciiba, 
 who protected the child when taken out 
 of the cradle and put to bed; Ossipuga, 
 who strengthened the bones; Carna, who 
 strengthened the flesh ; Levuna, who 
 helped it to rise from the ground ; Stdtumis, 
 Stat'dinns, or dca Stdtlna, who taught it 
 to stand ; Aheona and Adcona, who sup- 
 ported its first walking; Fubulinus, Farl- 
 nus, who assisted it to talk.) All collec- 
 tive occupations, all parts of the house, 
 all different spots had their particular 
 gods, who were invoked in these forms 
 of prayer. Often the various names only 
 indicate the different characteristics of a 
 single divinity ; eg. Maia was invoked 
 under the names of Bona, Fauna, Ops, and 
 Fdtua. In course of time the different 
 attributes came to be regarded as separate 
 divinities. [The names of the above divini- 
 ties are quoted from Varro, Antiquitates 
 Revum Divinarttm, by TertuUian, Ad Nat. 
 ii 11, 15 (and De Anima 37, 39); and by 
 Augustine, De Civitate Dei, iv 11, 21 (and 
 iv 8, 10 ; vi 9, vii 23).] 
 
 Infamia. The Latin term for the loss 
 of certain political rights ; resembling, but 
 not identical with, demlnutio capitis (q.t^)- 
 It was the direct consequence of dishonour- 
 able conduct, or of some shameless act 
 (such as a widow not observing the usual 
 year of mourning, bigamy, bankruptcy, 
 going on the stage, or becoming a gladiator, 
 pandering, or becoming a prostitute, etc.). 
 It also resulted from a condemnation for 
 felony, robbery, fraud, embezzlement of a 
 deposit, whether belonging to a society or 
 a ward, or in fact for any criminal offence. 
 The infamis was expelled from his tribe, 
 lost his vote and his capacitj' for filling pub- 
 lic offices {ius svffrdgu and his Ivmorum), 
 and could not appear in a court of law 
 either on his own account or on behalf of 
 another. {Cp. AtimiA.) 
 
 Inheritance. (1) Greek (Athens). If a 
 person died intestate, leaving sons, all of 
 equal birthright, and none of them dis- 
 inherited, the sons inherited the property 
 
 in equal parts, the eldest probably receiv- 
 ing the same share as the rest. If there 
 were daughters, they were provided for by 
 dowries, which, in case they were divorced 
 or childless after marriage, went back to 
 the remaining heirs. If a man had no 
 sons of his own, he usually adopted a son 
 to continue the family and the religious 
 worship connected with it. If he had 
 daughters he would marry one of them to 
 the ac^opted son ; in this case the chief 
 share of the inheritance would fall to this 
 married daughter and her husband, the 
 rest receiving dowries. If there were only 
 daughters surviving, the succession passed 
 to them. In such a case the next of kin 
 had a legal right to one of the heiresses, 
 (cjildcros) and could claim to marry her, 
 even if she had married some one else 
 before receiving the inheritance. And poor 
 heiresses, on the other hand, had a legal 
 claim on their nearest of kin either for 
 marriage, or for a provision sxiitable to 
 their circumstances. If a man had married 
 an heiress, he was bound by custom and 
 tradition, if he had sons, to name one as 
 heir to the property which had come with 
 his wife, and thus to restore the house of 
 the maternal grandfather. Children born 
 out of wedlock were illegitimate, and had no 
 claim on the father's estate. If a man died 
 intestate, leaving no heirs either of his 
 body or adopted, his nearest relations in the 
 male line inherited, and in default of these, 
 those in the female line as far as the chil- 
 dren of first cousins. Any one thinking he 
 had a legal claim to the inheritance made 
 an application to the archon to hand it 
 over to him. The application was posted 
 up in public, and read out in the following 
 ecclesia. The question was then asked 
 whether any one disputed the claim, or 
 raised a counter-claim. If not, the archon 
 assigned the inheritance to the claimant ; 
 otherwise the matter was decided by a law- 
 suit. Even after the assignment of an 
 inheritance, it might be disputed in the 
 lifetime of the holder, and for five years 
 after his death. The claim of the nearest 
 relation to an heiress was in the same way 
 lodged with the archon and ratified before 
 the assembly. 
 
 (2) Roman. If a man died intestate leav- 
 ing a wife and children of his body or 
 adopted, they were his heirs {sut heredcs). 
 But this did not apply to married daughters 
 who had passed into the mdnus of their hus- 
 bands, or the children who had been freed 
 by emancipation from the pdtcstdii of their 
 
820 
 
 INNS INTERCESSIO. 
 
 father. If the man left no wife or children, 
 the agnati, or relation^ in the male line, 
 inherited, according to the degree of their 
 kinship. If there were no agnati, and the 
 man was a patrician, the property went to 
 his gens. The cognCdi, or relations in the 
 female line, were originally not entitled to 
 inherit by the civil law. But, as time went 
 on, their claim was gradually recognised 
 more and more to the exclusion of the 
 agnati, until at last Justinian entirely 
 abolished the privilege of the latter, and 
 substituted the principle of blood-relation- 
 ships for that of the civil law. Vestal 
 Virgins were regarded as entirely cut off 
 from the family union, and therefore could 
 not inherit from an intestate, nor, in case 
 of their dying intestate, did the property 
 go to their family, but to the state. But, 
 unlike other women, they had unlimited 
 right of testamentary disposition. If a 
 freedman died intestate and childless, the 
 patronus and his wife had the first claim 
 to inherit, then their children, then their 
 agnati, and (if the patronus was a patrician) 
 then his gens. In later times, even if a 
 freedman, dying childless, left a wiU, the 
 patronus and his sons had claim to half the 
 property. Augustus made a number of pro- 
 visions in the matter of freedmen's inheri- 
 tance. The civil law made it compulsory 
 on a man's sui heredes to accept an inheri- 
 tance whether left by will or not. But as 
 the debts were taken over with the pro- 
 perty, the edictum of the praetor allowed 
 the heirs to decline it. A fortiori, no other 
 persons named in the will could be com- 
 pelled to accept the legacy. {See Will.) 
 
 Inns did not come into existence in 
 Greece until the times when, in conse- 
 quence of the increase of traffic, the custom 
 of hospitality, which was formerly prac- 
 tised on an extensive scale, became more 
 and more confined to cases where it was 
 either inherited or was the subject of 
 special agreement on both sides. Besides 
 private inns (pandokeia), which offered food 
 as well as shelter to strangers, public inns, 
 which at least gave shelter and night- 
 quarters, were to be found in some places, 
 especially where great crowds of men were 
 accustomed to assemble for the celebration 
 of festivals, and also near temples which 
 were much visited. The profession of an 
 inn-keeper was little esteemed, still less 
 that of a tavern-keeper, whose bar {kCipe- 
 leion) it was not considered proper for 
 respectable people to frequent [Lsoc,v.,Areop. 
 49] ; in Athens a visit to a tavern was even 
 
 sufficient to lead to expulsion from the 
 Areopagus. 
 
 In Rome, as in most parts of Italy, there 
 were inns for travellers {deversorla) at 
 least as early as the 2nd century B.C. On 
 the great high-roads taverns were built on 
 speculation by landowners resident in the 
 neighbourhood, and were either let out, or 
 kept for them by slaves. With the increase 
 of traffic, stations for changing horses 
 {midcdlo) and for night-quarters (mansio) 
 began to be placed on the high-roads of all 
 the provinces. Cook-shops (popince) and 
 taverns (cauponce) were seldom frequented 
 by any but the commonest people. Those 
 who kept them were just as much de- 
 spised as in Greece, and were actually con- 
 sidered by the law as under a ban. Even 
 in antiquity it was the custom to make 
 inns known by a sign-board (insigne). Thus 
 in Pompeii an inn has been discovered with 
 the sign of an elephant. 
 
 Inc. Daughter of Cadmus, and wife of 
 Athamas (q.v.). Being followed by the 
 latter when he had been seized with mad- 
 ness, she fled to the cliff Moluris, between 
 Megara and Corinth, and there threw her- 
 self into the sea with her infant son Meli- 
 certes. At the isthmus, however, mother 
 and child were carried ashore by a dolphin, 
 and, from that time forward, honoured as 
 marine divinities along the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, especially on the coast of 
 Megara and at the Isthmus of Corinth. Ino 
 was worshipped as Leucothea, and Meli- 
 certes as Pdlcemon. They were regarded as 
 divinities who aided men in peril on the 
 sea. As early as Homer, we have Ino men- 
 tioned as rescuing Odysseus from danger 
 by throwing him her veil [Od. v 333-353]. 
 Among the Romans Ino was identified with 
 Mdtuta (q.v.). 
 
 Insula. See House, near the end. 
 
 Intercessio. (1) The Latin term for the 
 interference of a higher officer with some 
 public act on the part of one lower in rank, 
 e.g. calling a meeting of the commons. The 
 tribune of the people could thus inter- 
 fere with the praetor, qusestor, and sedile. 
 Thus it was even open to the tribunes of the 
 people to refuse a triumph to a consul or 
 a praetor. (2) The quashing of an official 
 act. As in (1), this might be issued by a 
 higher official against a lower one ; and 
 also by one colleague against another, e.g. 
 by tribune against tribune. It was neces- 
 sary that the intercessio should be made 
 in person, and in general immediately after 
 the act in question. It was employed 
 
INTERCIDONA 10. 
 
 321 
 
 against judicial decisions, administrative 
 ordinances (solely on the appeal of the per- 
 son concerned) ; also against decrees of the 
 senate and motions in the popular assembly. 
 The later species of intercessio early became 
 a special right of the tribunes (q.v.). 
 
 Intercidona. The name given by the 
 Italian tribes to one of the three divinities 
 who, during child-bed, protected mother 
 and child from being tormented by the 
 wood-god Silvanus. {See Picdmnus.) 
 
 Interdictio Aquae et Ignis. The Roman 
 term for exclusion from the common use of 
 fire and water, which were the symbols of 
 the community. {See Exilium.) 
 
 Interest (Gr. tokoi ; Lat./ejiws or usura). 
 In Greece the rate of interest on invested 
 capital was not restricted by law, but 
 was left entirely to arrangement between 
 the parties concerned. The average rate, 
 compared with that usually given at the 
 present day, was very high, far higher than 
 the rent either of houses or land. This 
 is partly explained by the proportionately 
 greater scarcity of ready money, and by 
 the fact that it was difficult to accumulate 
 a large amount of capital. 
 
 In the time of Demosthenes 12 per cent, 
 was regarded as a rather low rate of 
 interest, and higher rates, up to 18 per 
 cent., were quite common. In bottomry 
 the ordinary rate of interest at Athens was 
 20 per cent. In the event of failure in the 
 payment of interest due, compound interest 
 was charged. In the computation of interest 
 two different methods were employed. It 
 was usual to specify either the sum to be 
 paid by the month on every mina (equal in 
 intrinsic value of silver to £3 6s. 8d.), or 
 the fraction of the principal which was 
 annually paid as interest. Capital there- 
 fore was said to be invested at a drachma, 
 if for every mina (100 drachince) there was 
 paid interest at the rate of one drachma, 
 i.e. one per cent, monthly, and consequently 
 12 per cent, per annum. Or again, if 12| 
 per cent, yearly interest was to be paid, the 
 capital was said to be invested at " one- 
 eighth." In most cases the interest appears 
 to have been paid monthly, and on the last 
 day of the month ; biit payment by the 
 year was not unknown. In bottomry the 
 interest was according to the terms of the 
 contract. 
 
 In Rome, as at Athens, the rate of interest 
 was originally unrestricted, and it was not 
 until after hard struggles that, by the laws 
 of the Twelve Tables, a regular yearly rate 
 of interest at one-twelfth of the capital, or 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 8j per cent., was established. But this and 
 subsequent legal limitations were all the 
 less effectual for putting down usury, be- 
 cause they were valid in the case of Eoman 
 citizens only, and not in that of foreigners. 
 Usury was accordingly practised under the 
 name of foreigners up to the end of the 
 2nd century B.C., when the laws against 
 it were extended so as to include aliens. 
 Through intercourse with Asia and Greece, 
 a change in the payment of interest was 
 gradually introduced, which in the first 
 half of the 1st century B.C. was generally 
 adopted. Capital was no longer lent by the 
 year, but by the month, and monthly interest 
 was paid, on the first day of each month ; 
 notice of intention to call in the loan was 
 given on the Ides (the 13th or 15th 
 day of the month), and reimbursement 
 took place on the first day of the following 
 month. The regular rate of interest with 
 this reckoning was 1 per cent, monthly, or 
 12 per cent, per annum. The accumulation 
 of large fortunes in Rome at the end of 
 the Republic considerably lessened the rate 
 of interest on safe investments. The chief 
 field for usury was then the provinces, 
 whose inhabitants were compelled by the 
 exorbitant imposts to be continually raising 
 loans at any price. The ctistom, long per- 
 mitted, of adding the j^ear's unpaid interest 
 to the principal, was first forbidden by the 
 later Roman law. Justinian permanently 
 fixed the rate of interest in ordinary in- 
 vestments at 6 per cent., in commercial 
 enterprises at 8 per cent., and in bottomry, 
 in which it had previously been unlimited 
 on account of the risk incurred by the 
 stock on long voyages, at 12 per cent. 
 
 Internundinum. The Roman week. {See 
 NundinjE and Calendar.) 
 
 Interreges. The name given by the 
 Romans to the senators who, between the 
 death of one king and the election of an- 
 other, held regal authority, during the inter- 
 regnum, for successive periods of five days 
 each. One of these interreges had to con- 
 duct the election itself. Even under the 
 Republic an interrex was nominated by the 
 senate to hold the cornitla for the election 
 of consuls, whenever the consuls had 
 died, or resigned, or if the election had not 
 been completed by the end of the year. If 
 five days did not suffice, the retiring inter- 
 rex named another to succeed him. 
 
 inMs. See Taunus. 
 
 id. The beautiful daughter of Inachus, 
 and the first priestess of Hera at Argos. 
 As Zeus loved hSr, she was changed by the 
 
322 
 
 lOBATES IPHICLUS. 
 
 jealousy of Hera into a white heifer, and 
 Argus of the hundred eyes was appointed 
 to watch her. When Hermes, at the com- 
 mand of Zeus, had killed Argus, Hera 
 maddened the heifer by sending a gad-fly 
 which perpetually pursued her. lo thus 
 wandered through the continents of Europe 
 and Asia, by land and by sea. Each of the 
 different straits she swam across was named 
 after her Bosporus, or Ox-ford. At last in 
 Egypt she recovered her original shape, and 
 bore Epaphus to Zeus. Libya, the daughter 
 of Epaphus, became by Poseidon the mother 
 of Belus, who in turn was father of iEgyp- 
 tus, Danaus, Cepheus, and Phineus. The 
 Greek legend of lo's going to Egypt is pro- 
 bably to be explained by her having been 
 identified with the Egyptian goddess Isis, 
 who is always represented with cow's horns, 
 lo (" the wanderer "J is generally explained 
 as a moon-goddess wandering in the starry 
 heavens, symbolized by Argus of the hun- 
 dred eyes ; her transformation into a horned 
 heifer represents the crescent moon. 
 
 iobates. A king of Lycia, father of 
 Anteia, and son-in-law of Prostus, king of 
 Tiryns, by whom he was commissioned to 
 kill Bellerophon (g.v.). 
 
 locaste. The mother and also the wife of 
 (Edipus {q.v.). 
 
 lolaus. Son of Iphicles, the half-brother 
 of Heracles, and the faithful companion and 
 charioteer of *that hero. Por his help in 
 destroying the Lernsean hydra and in the 
 fight with Cycnus, Heracles transferred to 
 him his first wife Megara. The friendship 
 he had devoted to the father he continued 
 to the children of Heracles in defending 
 them against Eurystheus. As the comrade 
 of Heracles he was worshipped beside him 
 in Thebes, where the gymnasium was named 
 after him, and where the inhabitants used to 
 swear by his name. 
 
 lole. Daughter of Eurytus of (Echalia. 
 She came into the power of Heracles as a 
 captive of war, and was on his death (of 
 which she was the innocent cause) married 
 to his son Hyllus. {See Heracles.) 
 
 Ion. (1) According to the Attic story, 
 the son of Apollo and Creusa, daughter of 
 the Athenian king Erechtheus. He was 
 exposed at his birth by his mother in a 
 grotto on the cliff of the Acropolis, whence 
 he was taken by Hermes to Delphi and 
 brought up by the Pythian priestess to be 
 an attendant in his father's temple. Creusa 
 afterwards married Xuthus, who had 
 migrated from Thessaly, and was son of 
 Hellen and brother of .Siolus and Dorus. 
 
 As this marriage was childless, the pair 
 went to Delphi to consult the god as to the 
 cause. Xuthus received the command to 
 consider as his son the first person he should 
 meet in front of the temple. This happened 
 to be Ion, who had meanwhile grown up, 
 and was at once accepted by Xuthus as his 
 son. But Creusa, fancying he was her 
 husband's son by a former union, resolved 
 to poison him. Ion detects her design in 
 time and would have killed Creusa, who 
 however takes refuge at the altar of the 
 god. Then the Pythian priestess produces 
 the cradle in which he had been exposed 
 as an infant, and thus brings about recogni- 
 tion and reconciliation between mother and 
 son. Ion married Helice, the daughter of 
 Selinus, king of the .lEgialeans on the north 
 coast of the Peloponnesus. At the death 
 of this king he became monarch of the land, 
 and the inhabitants assumed the name of 
 lonians after him. Afterwards being called 
 upon by the Athenians to help them against 
 Eumolpus and the Eleusinians, he conquered 
 the enemy and was made king of Athens. 
 Prom the four sons who are attributed to 
 him, Hoples, Geleon, jEgicores, and Argades 
 were descended the four Ionic tribes. 
 
 (2) Of Chios. A Greek author of rare 
 versatility for his time. He composed 
 historical writings, among them a kind of 
 memoirs of men of mark he had met, such 
 as Sophocles ; also lyric poems of the most 
 varied types, and thirty or forty tragedies 
 which were more remarkable for elegance 
 and erudition than for elevation of style. 
 When in B.C. 452 he won a dramatic vic- 
 tory at Athens, he is said to have presented 
 every Athenian with a flask of Chian wine. 
 He died at Athens in 422 B.C. We only 
 possess scanty fragments of his works. 
 
 iophon. The son of Sophocles, and, like 
 his_ father, a tragic poet. {See Sophocles.) 
 
 iphianassa. See Iphigenia. 
 
 iphicles. Son of Amphitryon and 
 Alcmene, half-brother of Heracles and 
 father of lolaus. He took part in the 
 Calydonian Hunt and also in many of his 
 brother's expeditions, especially against 
 Erginus, Augeas, Laomedon, and Hippocoon. 
 He either fell in the fight against the sons of 
 Hippocoon or was wounded in battle against 
 the Molionidse atPheneiis in Arcadia, where 
 he_was afterwards worshipped as a hero. 
 
 iphiclus. Son of Phylacus of Phjlace in 
 Thessaly, father of Podarces and Protesilaus. 
 He took part in the Argonautic expedition 
 and in the funeral games in honour of 
 Pelias. Here he outstripped all his com- 
 
IPHIGENIA. 
 
 323 
 
 petitors, being so swift of foot that he could 
 pass over a cornfield without bending the 
 ears, and could run over the sea without 
 wetting his feet. On his herds of cattle 
 and his powers of healing, see Melampus. 
 
 Iphlgfinia (Gr. IphigSneia, in Homer 
 IpMdnassa). Daughter of Agamemnon and 
 of Clytsemnestra, or (according to another 
 account) of Theseus and Helen (q-v.), and 
 brought up Clytsemnestra as her child. 
 When the Greek ships were detained at 
 
 keep his vow. After a long struggle 
 Agamemnon finally gave way to the pres- 
 sure put upon him by Menfilaiis, and sent 
 for his daughter to come to Aulis under 
 the pretext of betrothing her to Achilles. 
 During the sacrifice Artemis substituted 
 a hind for her, and carried her off in a cloud 
 to the land of the Tauri [the modern 
 Crimea], where, as priestess of the goddess, 
 it fell to her lot to offer up as victims all 
 strangers who were shipwrecked on the 
 
 * SACRIl'ICK OF IPHIGENIA. 
 
 (Mural painting from Pompeii. Naples MuBenm.) 
 
 Aulis by the calm caused by the wrath of 
 Artemis against Agamemnon for killing a 
 hind sacred to that goddess, and boasting 
 that he was superior to her in the chase, 
 the seer Calchas announced that the goddess 
 could only be appeased by the sacrifice of 
 Iphigenia. According to another story, 
 Agamemnon had vowed, before the birth 
 of Iphigenia, that he would sacrifice to the 
 goddess whatever the year brought forth 
 that was loveliest, but had neglected to 
 
 coast. Orestes, who, commanded by the 
 oracle, had gone there to bring to Attica 
 the image of the goddess, was on the point 
 of being sacrificed by her, when she recog- 
 nised him as her brother and allowed 
 herself to be carried off by him together 
 with the image. At Delphi her sister 
 Electra wanted to put her eyes out, on 
 hearing that the Tauric priestess had slain 
 Orestes ; but was prevented from doing 
 so by her brother's arrival. She is said 
 
y2i 
 
 IPHITUS ISIS. 
 
 to have brought the image of the Tauric 
 Artemis to the Attic deme of Brauron, and 
 to have died and been buried there as its 
 priestess. She was even introduced into 
 Attic legend as daughter of Theseus and 
 Helen. In other places also, such as 
 Sparta, the image was sho\\'n, and she was 
 regarded as a priestess who had brought it 
 to Greece from among the Scythians. In 
 all probability Iphigenia was originally a 
 designation of Artemis herself, and out of 
 this epithet of the goddess the personality 
 of the priestess was in time evolved. Her 
 grave was also shown at Megara. According 
 to another legend, she is said to have been 
 made immortal by Artemis, and to have 
 lived on in the island of Leuce as the wife 
 of Achilles under the name of Orsllocliia. 
 
 iphitus. Son of Eurytus of (Echalia, 
 and a friend of Heracles, who, in a fit of 
 madness, hurled him down headlong from 
 the battlement of his castle at Tiryns. 
 {See Heracles.) 
 Irene. See Eieene. 
 
 Iris. The daughter of Thaumas and of 
 Electra, and a sister of the Harpies. She 
 is the personification of the rainbow which 
 unites heaven and earth. As a virgin god- 
 dess, swift as the breeze and with wings 
 of gold, she is the messenger of the gods, 
 especially of Zeus and Hera, and, according 
 to later writers, exclusively of the latter. 
 She bears their behests from the ends of 
 the earth even to the river Styx, and into 
 the depths of the sea. As a messenger 
 of the gods she resembles Hermes, and 
 therefore carries the herald's staff of that 
 divinity. 
 
 isaeus. The fifth of the Ten Attic Orators, 
 a pupil of Isocrates ; born before B.C. 400 
 at Chalcis in Euboea. He lived to the 
 middle of the 4th century at Athens, prob- 
 ably as a resident alien (metoikos), writing 
 forensic speeches for other people and giving 
 instruction in rhetoric. Demosthenes was 
 for several years his pupil. Of the sixty- 
 four speeches attributed to him by anti- 
 quity, we have (besides some not unimpor- 
 tant fragments) eleven speeches dealing 
 with matters relating to inheritance, and 
 therefore of great importance as throwing 
 light upon Attic private law. In his style 
 he most closely resembles Lysias, to whom 
 he is inferior in natural elegance, while he 
 surpasses him in oratorical skill. 
 
 isidorus. A Spaniard ^^•ho, from the 
 beginning of the 7th century, ■\\'as bishop 
 of Seville (in Latin Hispdlis, whence he is 
 called Hiii2'alcnsis). He died about 63G 
 
 A.D. He possessed a width oi reading 
 which was remarkable for his time, and an 
 extraordinary faculty for collecting infor- 
 mation. Next to Boethius and Cassiodorus, 
 he exercised the most important influence 
 upon the general culture and literature of 
 the Middle Ages. Besides works on 
 grammar, theology, and history (including 
 a Chronicle of the World to his own day, 
 and histories of the Goths, Vandals, and 
 Suevi), he composed in the last years of 
 his life his greatest and most important 
 work, an immense but imperfect encyclo- 
 psedic survey of all knowledge, in twenty 
 volumes, entitled the Etymologlce or 
 drigmes, from its often very capricious 
 and marvellous explanations of the various 
 subjects of which it treats. Though it is 
 only a vast congeries of collected excerpts, 
 devoid of a single original idea, it is never- 
 theless important owing to the variety of its 
 contents and its citations from writings now 
 lost, such as those of Suetonius. Another 
 work, which is similarly a compilation, but 
 was greatly used in the Middle Ages, is his 
 De Ndtftra Rei-um, a handbook of natural 
 hisjtory. 
 
 isis. The divinity most extensively 
 worshipped, with her brother and husband 
 Osiris, by the Egyptians, among whom she 
 represented the feminine, receptive, and 
 producing principle in nature. As the 
 goddess of procreation and birth her symbol 
 was the cow. On monuments she is mostly 
 represented as of youthful appearance with 
 a cow's horns on her head, between the 
 horns the orb of the moon, and with a 
 sceptre of flowers and the emblem of life 
 in her hands (fig. 1). Her greatest temple 
 stood at Biisiris (i.e. Pe-Osiri, or Abode of 
 Osiris) in the midst of the Delta of the 
 Nile, where, amidst the fruitful fields, the 
 inhabitants worshipped the mightiest god 
 and goddess with ceremonies which typified 
 the search and discovery of Osiris by his 
 mourning wife after his murder by Typhon. 
 Like Osiris she was a divinity who ruled 
 over the world below. In the course of the 
 fusion of religions which took place under 
 the Ptolemies, Isis and Osiris were con- 
 founded with all manner of Asiatic and 
 Greek gods. In process of time she became 
 in her power the most universal of all 
 goddesses, ruling in heaven, on earth, 
 and on the sea, and in the world below, 
 decreeing life and death, deciding the 
 fate of men, and dispensing rewards and 
 punishments. Her worship spread over 
 Greece, and after the second Punic War 
 
ISMENE ISOCRATES, 
 
 325 
 
 obtained a firm footing in Rome in spite 
 of repeated interference by the State. In 
 
 (1) EGYPTIAN ISIS AND HORUS (hARPOCRATES). 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 the days of the Empire it obtained recog- 
 nition by the State and established itself 
 in all parts of the Eoman dominions. The 
 attractiveness of the service of Isis lay in 
 the religious satisfaction which it was cal- 
 culated to insure. Through abstinence from 
 food and from sensual pleasures, and through 
 expiations and purifications, it promised to 
 lead its votaries to sanctification of life and 
 to a true perception of the life divine. 
 The ritual consisted in part of a morn- 
 ing and evening service to the god, partly 
 in annual festivals celebrated in spring 
 at the return of the season for navigation, 
 and also in the late autumn before the 
 advent of winter. At the former festival, 
 held on the 5th of March, and called the 
 ship of Isis {Isidis ndvlgium), in recog- 
 nition of her being the patroness of navi- 
 gation, and inventress of the sail, the people 
 in general, witb the devotees and priests 
 of Isis, went in solemn procession down 
 to the seashore, where a sailing vessel 
 painted in the Egyptian manner and laden 
 with spices, was committed to the sea. 
 [Apuleius, Met. xi 8-17, esp. 11 ; Firmious 
 Maternus, De Err. Prof. Relig. 2.] The other 
 feast was emblematic of the grief of Isis 
 at her loss and her joy at finding again 
 her husband Osiris and her son Horus. 
 Besides these popular feasts there were also 
 
 certain special mysteries of Isis, which in 
 all their essentials were borrowed from the 
 Eleusinian mysteries of Demeter. In these, 
 all who were called thereto by the goddess 
 in a dream were admitted to the select 
 circle of the worshippers of Isis. These 
 devotees, like the priests, were recognised 
 by their linen robes and their shaven heads, 
 and had to devote themselves to an ascetic 
 life. Oracular responses received in dreams 
 were as much associated with the temples 
 of Isis as with those of Serapis {q.v.). In 
 Greek art the goddess is represented as 
 similar to Hera. Her attributes are a 
 serpent, a cornucopia, ears of corn, lotus, 
 moon and horns, as well as the sistrum, a 
 metal rattle, specially employed in her 
 service (fig. 2). 
 
 (2) ROMAN ISIS AND HORUS (hARPOCRATEs). 
 
 (Munich, Glyptothek.) 
 
 Ismene. A daughter of (Edipus (g.v.). 
 
 isocrates. The fourth among the Ten 
 Attic Orators, was born at Athens B.C. 436. 
 He was the son of Theodoras, the wealthy 
 proprietor of a flute manufactory, who pro- 
 vided for his son's receiving a careful educa- 
 tion. Accordingly he had the advantage of 
 
326 
 
 ISOTELIA ISTHMIAN GAMES. 
 
 being instructed by Prodicus, Protagoras, 
 Theramenes, and (above all) Gorgias; Ms 
 character was also moulded by tbe influence 
 of Socrates, although he never belonged to 
 the more restricted circle of his pupils. 
 
 Bashfulness and a weak voice prevented 
 him from taking part in public life. After 
 the fall of the Thirty, as his father had lost 
 his means in the calamitous years that 
 closed the Peloponnesian War, he turned 
 his attention to composing forensic speeches 
 for others. After having taught rhetoric 
 at Chios [possibly about 404 B.C.], he re- 
 turned to Athens in 403, and there opened 
 a regular school of rhetoric about 392. It 
 was largely attended by both Athenians 
 and non-Athenians, and brought him in 
 considerable wealth. The total number of 
 his pupils has been given at one hundred, 
 including Timotheus, the son of Conon, the 
 orators Iseeus, HyperideF, and Lycurgus, 
 and the historians Ephorus and Theopompus. 
 Isocrates also had friendly relations with 
 foreign princes, especially with Evagoras 
 of Cyprus and his son Nicocles, who loaded 
 him with favours. He kept himself com- 
 pletely aloof from any personal share in the 
 public life of his day ; yet he attempted to 
 influence the political world, not only with- 
 in the narrow bounds of his native land, 
 but also throughout the whole of Greece, by 
 a series of rhetorical declamations, not in- 
 tended to be delivered, but only to be read. 
 This he did in the first place in his Pane- 
 gyrlcus, which he published in 380 B.C., 
 after spending ten or (according to another 
 account) as many as fifteen years over its 
 preparation. This is a kind of festal oration 
 eulogising the services of Athens to Greece, 
 exhorting the Spartans peacefully to share 
 the supremacy with Athens, and calling on 
 the Greeks to lay aside all internal dissen- 
 sions and attack the barbarians with their 
 united strength. In the ninetieth year of his 
 age, in a discourse addressed to Philip, in 
 346 B.C., he endeavours to induce that mon- 
 arch to carry out his policy by reconciling all 
 the Greeks to one another, and leading their 
 united forces against the Persians. Other 
 discourses relate to the internal poKtics of 
 Athens. Thus, in the Areopdgltlcus, he 
 recommends his fellow citizens to get rid of 
 the existing weaknesses in their political 
 constitution by returning to the democracy 
 as founded by Solon and reconstituted by 
 Clisthenes, and by reinstating the Areo- 
 pagus as the supreme tribunal of censor- 
 ship over public decorum and morality. He 
 retained his mental and bodily powers un- 
 
 impaired to an advanced age, and in his 
 ninety-eighth year completed the PdndtM- 
 ndicus, a discourse in praise of Athens. He 
 lived to see the total wreck of all his hopes 
 for a regeneration of Greece, and died B.C. 
 338, a few days after the battle of Chseronea, 
 He is said to have died of voluntary star- 
 vation, owing to his despair at the down- 
 fall of Greek liberty; [but this account of 
 his death, familiarised by Milton in his 
 fifth English sonnet, must be considered as 
 doubtful.] 
 
 There were sixty compositions bearing 
 his name known to antiquity, but less than 
 half that number were considered genuine. 
 Of the twenty-one which have come down 
 to us, the first, the Letter to Dcmonicvs, is 
 often regarded as spurious, [but there is no 
 reason to doubt the genuineness of nine of 
 the ten other Letters. It is only the letter 
 prefixed to the nine in the older editions 
 that is not genuine, having been really 
 written by Theophylact Simocatta early in 
 the 7th century A.D.] Of the speeches, six 
 are forensic orations, written to be delivered 
 by others; the rest are declamations, chiefly 
 on political subjects. By his mastery of 
 style, Isocrates had a far-reaching influence 
 on all subsequent Greek prose, which is 
 not confined to oratorical composition alone. 
 His chief strength lies in a careful choice 
 of expression, not only in his vocabulary, 
 but also in the rhythmical formation of 
 his flowing periods, in a skilful use of the 
 figures of speech, and in all that lends 
 euphony to language. [Even in Latin, the 
 oratorical prose of Cicero is, on its formal 
 side, founded chiefly on that of Isocrates. 
 Modern literary prose has, in its turn, been 
 mainly modelled on that of Cicero, and 
 thus the influence of Isocrates has endured 
 to the present day.] 
 
 Isotella (" equality in tax and tribute "). 
 At Athens, the position of partial equality 
 with the citizens which was granted to the 
 more deserving of the metceci (q.v.). 
 
 Isthmian Games. One of the four great 
 national festivals of the Greeks, held on the 
 Isthmus of Corinth , in a grove of pine trees 
 sacred to Poseidon, near the shrines of the 
 Isthmian Poseidon and of Melicertes. Erom 
 B.C. 589, they were held in the first month 
 of spring, in the second and fourth years of 
 each Olympiad. According to legend, the 
 Isthmian Games were originally funeral 
 games in memory of Melicertes (q.v.) ; 
 another tradition relates that they were 
 established by Theseus either in honour of 
 Poseidon, or in commemoration of his vie- 
 
ITINERARIA. 
 
 327 
 
 *ory over Sciron and Sinis. In any case, 
 the Athenians were specially interested in 
 the festival from the earliest times. It was 
 alleged that, from the days of Theseus 
 downwards, they had what was called the 
 pivedHa, the right of occupying the most 
 prominent seats at the games, and, in ac- 
 cordance with a law attributed to Solon, 
 they presented to those of their citizens 
 who were victors in the contests a reward 
 
 Corinth (B.C. 46) it was restored to that 
 city. The contests included gymnastic 
 exercises, horse-races, and competitions 
 in music. The two former differed in no 
 essential way from the Olympian Games 
 (q.v.); in the third, besides musicians, poets 
 of either sex contended for the prize. Be- 
 sides the customary palm, the prize in 
 Pindar's time consisted of a wreath of dry 
 sSlinSn [often translated " parsley," but 
 
 SITE OF THE ISTHMIAN OAMES. 
 
 The Istlimian stadium, and sacred inclosure containing the temples of Poseidon 
 
 (Neptune) and Melicertes (Palsemon). 
 
 After Leake's Travels in the Morea, vol. iii, pi. 3. 
 
 amounting to 100 drachmce. [The only 
 occasion when Socrates was absent from 
 Athens, except with the army, was to at- 
 tend this festival.] The inhabitants of Elis 
 were completely excluded from the games, 
 being debarred from either sending com- 
 petitors or festal envoys. The Corinthians 
 had the presidency, which was transferred 
 to the Sicyonians after the destruction of 
 Corinth (B.C. 146), but at the rebuilding of 
 
 more probably identical with the " wild 
 celery," dpium grdveSlens, The selinon 
 was a symbol of funeral games]. After the 
 destruction of Corinth, a crown of pine 
 leaves was substituted for it. The games 
 long continued to be held, even under the 
 Roman Empire. [Cp. Plutarch, Timolcon, 
 26,_^and Sympos. v 3, 1-3.] 
 
 itingraria. The Roman term for (1) com- 
 pendious lists of the names and distances 
 
328 
 
 ITYLUS JANUS. 
 
 of the different stations on the public roads, 
 after the manner of our road-books {iti- 
 neraria adndtdta or scrijjta) ; or (2) char- 
 tographic representations similar to our 
 travelling maps {iiineraria picta). Of the 
 former kind we have 
 
 (1) the two Antonine Itineraries, the 
 basis of which belongs to the time of the 
 emperor Antoninus Caracalla ; but the 
 edition which has come down to us dates 
 from the beginning of the 4th century. They 
 contain lists of routes by land and sea in the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 (2) The Itinerarium Burdigalense or 
 HiSrSsolymitdnum, 333 a.d., the route of 
 a pilgrimage from Burdigala (Bordeaux) to 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 (3) The Itinerarium Alexandri, an ab- 
 stract of the Persian expedition of Alex- 
 ander the Great, drawn up mainly from 
 Arrian for the expedition of the emperor 
 Constantius against the Persians (a.d. 
 340-345). 
 
 Of the other kind of itineraries, in the 
 form of maps, we have a specimen in the 
 Peutinger Map, tdbilla Peutingeriana, now 
 in Vienna. It received its name from its 
 former possessor, Konrad Peutinger, a coun- 
 cillor of Augsburg. It was painted at 
 Kolmar in 1265 on the model of an original 
 map which dates back to the middle of 
 the 3rd century A.D. It consists of twelve 
 broad strips of parchment, on which are 
 delineated all those parts of the world 
 which were known to the Romans : only 
 
 the pieces which should contain Spain and 
 Britain are lost [with the exception of part 
 of Kent.] It is disproportionately elongated 
 in the direction of east to west, the ratio of 
 its height to its breadth being 1 : 21. The 
 distances from town to town are marked on 
 lines running from east to west, and the 
 relative sizes of the towns indicated by 
 distinctive marks. [A cheap and excellent 
 facsimile was published by 0. Maier of 
 Rayensburg in 1888.] 
 
 it^lus {Itys). See Aedon, Peocne. 
 
 iiUus. See Ascanius. 
 
 Ixion. Son of Phlegyas (or of Ares), and 
 king of the Lapithse. By Dia he was the 
 father of Pirithoiis (who, according to 
 Homer, however, was a son of Zeus). He 
 attempted to withhold from his father-in- 
 law, Deioneus, the bridal gifts he had pro- 
 mised. Deioneus accordingly detained the 
 horses of Ixion. The latter invited him to 
 his house and threw him into a pit filled 
 with fire. When Zeus not only purified him 
 from this murder, but even invited him to 
 the table of the gods, he became arrogant 
 and insolent, and even sought to win the 
 love of Hera. Zeus thereupon formed of 
 the clouds a phantom resembling Hera, and 
 by it Ixion became the father of the Cen- 
 taurs. On his boasting of the favours he 
 imagined the goddess to have granted him, 
 Zeus caused him to be punished for this 
 crime by being fastened to a wheel, on 
 which he was to turn in terror for ever- 
 more in the world below. 
 
 Janus. A god peculiar to the Italians, 
 with no corresponding divinity among the 
 Greeks. Even the ancients were by no 
 means clear as to his special significance ; 
 he was, however, regarded as one of the 
 oldest, holiest, and most exalted of gods. 
 In Rome the king, and in later times the 
 rex sacrorum (q.v.), sacrificed to him. At 
 every sacrifice, he was remembered first ; 
 in every prayer he was the first invoked, 
 being mentioned even before Jupiter. In 
 the songs of the Salii he was called the 
 good creator, and the god of gods ; he is 
 elsewhere named the oldest of the gods and 
 the beginning of all things. It would ap- 
 pear that originally he was a god of the 
 light and of the sun, who opened the gates 
 of heaven on going forth in the morning and 
 closed them on returning at evening. In 
 course of time he became the god of all 
 
 going out and coming in, to whom all places 
 of entrance and passage, all doors and 
 gates, were holy. In Rome all doors and 
 covered passages were suggestive of his 
 name. The former were called idnUce ; over 
 the latter, the arches which spanned the 
 streets were called idni, a term perhaps 
 symbolical of the vault of heaven. Many 
 of these were expressly dedicated to him, 
 especially those which were situated in 
 markets and frequented streets, or at cross- 
 roads. In this case they were adorned with 
 his image, and the double arch became a 
 temple with two doors, or the two double 
 arches a temple with four. He was gene- 
 rally represented as a porter with a staff 
 and a key in his hands, and with two 
 bearded faces placed back to back and look- 
 ing in opposite directions {see cut). He is 
 also the god of entrance into a new division 
 
JASON JOSEPHUS. 
 
 329 
 
 of time, and was therefore sainted every 
 morning as the god of the breaking day 
 {pdtSr matutinus); the beginnings of all 
 the months (the calends) were sacred to 
 him, as well as to Juno ; and, among the 
 months, the first of the natural year, which 
 derived from him its name lanudvius. For 
 sacrifices on the calends twelve altars were 
 dedicated to him ; his chief festival, however, 
 was the 1st of January, especially as in B.C. 
 153 this was made the official beginning of 
 the new year. On this day he was invoked 
 as the god of good beginnings, and was 
 honoured with cakes of meal called ianuce ; 
 every disturbance, every quarrel, was care- 
 fully avoided, and no more work was done 
 than was necessary to make a lucky begin- 
 ning of the daily business of the year; mutual 
 good wishes were exchanged, and people 
 made presents of sweets to one another as a 
 
 HEAD OF JANUS. 
 
 (On a Homan as.) 
 
 good omen that the new year might bring 
 nothing but that which was sweet and 
 pleasant in its train (see Steen^). The 
 newly chosen consuls and the other officials 
 together with the senate and the knights 
 went up to the Capitol to offer to Jupiter a 
 festal sacrifice of white cattle and to pray for 
 the safety of the State. Under the Empire 
 the 3rd of January was substituted as the 
 day for offering vows for the prosperity of 
 the imperial house. The origin of all or- 
 ganic life, and especially all human life, was 
 referred to him ; he was therefore called 
 consivius (sower). Prom him sprang all 
 wells, rivers, and streams ; in this relation 
 he was called the spouse of Juturna, the 
 goddess of springs, and father of Pontus, the 
 god of fountains. As the god of coming and 
 going and of traffic, he had power not only 
 on land, but also on sea ; he was therefore 
 
 described as the husband of the sea-goddess 
 VSnilia and as the discoverer of the art of 
 shipbuilding. For this reason the Eoman 
 as bore the impression of a ship on the 
 obverse of the head of Janus (see Coinage, 
 fig. 7). His authority extended as much 
 over war as over peace. In connexion with 
 war he was known in the fane founded by 
 Numa near the ancient Forum, as lanus 
 Quirinus. When war was declared, the 
 consul opened the double doors of this 
 sanctuary and summoned the Roman youths 
 capable of bearing arms to march through 
 it with him. As long as war continued, the 
 doors stood open, but on the declaration of 
 peace they were closed. From the time of 
 Numa to the year of the birth of Christ, 
 this happened on four occasions only, and 
 twice in the reign of Augustus. While 
 Janus appears as the most ancient of the 
 Roman gods, he is at the same time named 
 as the most' ancient king of the land, who 
 dwelt upon the Janiculum on the right 
 bank of the Tiber, and erected a temple to 
 the gods and gave a friendly reception to 
 Saturn. In very late times, he is repre- 
 sented with a bearded and an unbearded 
 face ; and, instead of his having the usual 
 attributes of the key and staff, the fingers 
 of his right hand exhibit the number 300 
 (ccc), and those of his left hand the number 
 of the remaining days of the year (Lxv). 
 
 Jason. The son of JEson, and leader of 
 the Argonauts (q.v.), husband of Medea. 
 
 Jeiiiniiim. The first breakfast among the 
 Romans (see Meals). On leiunium Cereris, 
 the fast of Ceres, see Ceres. 
 
 Jewellery. See Toreutic Art. 
 
 Jocasta. See Iocaste. 
 
 Jordanes. An Alanian by birth, and 
 probably bishop of Crotona. He wrote two 
 historical works : (1) a compendium of 
 Universal History down to 552 a.d. ; (2) 
 an abstract of Cassiodorus' History of the 
 Goths {De Rebus Geticls), which, though 
 done in a cursory and unskilful manner, 
 is nevertheless of great value, owing to the 
 loss of the original work. 
 
 Josephus {Flavius). Born at Jerusalem, 
 A.D. 37, of a respectable priestly family. 
 He received a scholarly education, and in 
 63 went to Rome, where he gained the 
 favour of Poppsea, the wife of Nero. 
 After having returned to his native land, 
 he endeavoured in vain to check the revolt 
 of his own people against the Romans ; there- 
 upon he himself joined the rebellion, but 
 while in command of Galilee, was taken 
 prisoner by the Romans. He was freed 
 
330 
 
 JUDEX JUDICIAL PROCEDUEE. 
 
 from this after two years' captivity, owing 
 to his having prophesied the coming reign 
 of Vespasian, from whom he took the family 
 name of Flavius. After having been 
 present at the siege of Jerusalem, in the 
 suite of Titus, he lived in Rome until his 
 death about 93, devoting himself to learned 
 studies and literary activity. His works, 
 which are written in Greek, are : (1) The 
 History of the Jeuish War, in seven books, 
 originally composed in Syro-Chaldee, biit 
 translated into Greek at the request of 
 Titus. It is remarkable for its masterly 
 delineation of events in which he himself 
 took part or of which he was an eye- 
 witness. (2) The Jeicish Antiquities, in 
 twenty books ; a history of the Jews from 
 the creation down to the twelfth year of 
 Nero (a.d. 66), written with the object of 
 making a favourable impression on the 
 Greeks and Romans. (3) An Aittobio- 
 graphy, to complete the Jewish History. 
 (4) A treatise in defence of his Jewish 
 Antiquities against the attacks of a scho- 
 lar named Apion. The Eulogy of the 
 Maccabees is probably spurious. There is 
 a Latin version of the Histoi~y of the Jeics, 
 dating from the end of the 4th century 
 A.D., under the name of liegesippus, a 
 corruption oi Josephus. 
 
 Judex. In the Roman constitution a 
 general designation of all judges, whether 
 officials exercising judicial functions or in- 
 dividuals in a private position, entrusted on 
 oath with the duty of deciding in either civil 
 or criminal trials. For standing and for 
 extraordinary criminal courts (seeQu^STio) 
 the iucUces were at first chosen from the 
 number of the senators by agreement of 
 the parties concerned. Gains Gracchus 
 first introduced a list of indices (album) 
 for the permanent tribunals (qucestiones 
 perpetuce). At first this list was perma- 
 nent, but afterwards it was published 
 annually by the prcetor urhanus, who had 
 to swear that he would be impartial in his 
 selection of names. Under the Empire, as 
 long as the qucestiones perpetuce existed, 
 it was published by the emperor, who 
 nominated the indices to hold office for 
 life, and from time to time revised and 
 completed the list. By the lex Sempronia 
 of Gains Gracchus, B.C. 123, the office of 
 judge was taken away from the senators, 
 who had held it previously, and transferred 
 to the possessors of the knight's census 
 (the eqmtes). In B.C. 80 a lex Cornelia of 
 L. Cornelius Sulla restored it to the Senate. 
 In B.C. 70 the oflBce was equally divided 
 
 between the senators, the knights, and the 
 tribUni cerdrii. These last were once more 
 excluded by Caesar. Augustus formed four 
 dcciirice, or divisions, of indices. Of these 
 the first three were obliged to possess the 
 knight's census, and the last the half of it. 
 Caligula added a fifth decuria. 
 
 Under the Empire the judicial functions, 
 hitherto confined to certain definite classes, 
 had become so general in their obligations, 
 that it was considered a privilege to be 
 freed from them. This exemption was 
 granted to a man with many children, and, 
 afterwards, to those following the professions 
 of grammarians and teachers. The requisite 
 qualifications, apart from that of property, 
 were that a person should be by birth a 
 citizen, and not less than thirty years of 
 age (after Augustus, not less than twenty- 
 five). The other requirements were bodily 
 and mental capacity, an unblemished repu- 
 tation, and a long residence in Italy. 
 Under the Republic, the nu.mber of those 
 who were sworn in varied at different 
 times ; under the Empire it was fixed at 
 4,000, and later at 5,000. For every court 
 of justice the judges were taken from the 
 general list by lot, and out of this special 
 list the presiding magistrate appointed a 
 definite number for each trial. Out of 
 these a certain number might be challenged 
 and rejected by either side ; perhaps the 
 president filled up the vacancies by again 
 drawing lots. The swearing in took place 
 before the trial. When the number of the 
 praetors appointed for the qucestiones was 
 not sufficiently large, a index qucestionis 
 was appointed, generally one who had 
 served as sedile. 
 
 In civil cases it was customary from 
 early times for the judicial magistrates, i.e. 
 the praetors, to depute the investigation 
 and decision to a person instructed by them 
 and appointed by consent of both sides. 
 Erom the time of Augustus a single judge 
 (index unns) was appointed in each case 
 from the general album of sworn indices, but 
 for certain cases several judges were intro- 
 duced. (See Recupeeatores, and Judicial 
 Peoceddhe, II, below.) The indices cen- 
 tumviri formed the single great judicial 
 body for trying civil cases. (See Centum- 
 viEi.) Concerning the indices litlbus indi- 
 candis, who were also appointed in civil 
 cases, see Viginti-sex Viei. 
 
 Judicial Procedure. (I) Athenian. A 
 clear distinction was drawn at Athens be- 
 tween public and private actions. But it 
 must be remarked that the public actions 
 
JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 
 
 331 
 
 included more oifences than those which 
 directly affected the State. Injuries to 
 individuals might form matter for a public 
 prosecution, if (as, e.g., in a case of theft or 
 damage to property) the wrong to a citizen 
 in his honour or property admitted of being 
 viewed as an attack upon the honour of 
 the citizens or the security of property in 
 general. The difference, both in public and 
 private actions, was essential; whether we 
 consider (a) the right of prosecution, or {h) 
 the consequences of condemnation. 
 
 (a) Any one might institute a public pro- 
 secution, even if he had himself suffered 
 no wrong. The only condition was that 
 he must be of full age and in possession of 
 all civic rights. It was only in cases of 
 murder that the right of prosecution was 
 limited to the relations of the murdered 
 person. Private prosecutions, on the other 
 hand, could only be undertaken by the 
 injured person or his legal representative, 
 in the case of a ward by his guardian, in 
 that of a married woman by her husband, 
 in that of strangers by their proxSnos, in 
 that of resident aliens by their patrons. 
 
 (&) In the case of public prosecutions, if a 
 fine was inflicted the amount went into the 
 public treasury ; in the case of a private 
 prosecution, to the prosecutor. At public 
 trials other penalties than fines could be 
 inflicted : death, imprisonment, deprivation 
 of civic rights, banishment with confiscation 
 of property. This was not the case in 
 private causes, though in them the State 
 had the right of increasing the penalty. 
 For instance, a prosecution for false witness 
 was not public, but private ; yet if a person 
 was convicted three times, the State could 
 inflict deprivation of civil rights. In public 
 causes the prosecutor ran the risk of being 
 himself fined 1,000 drachmce (£83 6s. 8d.) 
 if he failed to carry at least one-third of 
 the votes of the jurymen : besides which he 
 lost his right of instituting a similar action 
 again. In private causes the prosecutor, if 
 he failed to establish his case, was fined 
 in an amount generally equal to one-sixth 
 of the sum in dispute. A distinction was 
 drawn between assessed and non-assessed 
 cavises. The non-assessed were those in 
 which the amount of the fine was already 
 fixed by law, and any further estimate was 
 therefore unnecessary : the assessed causes 
 were all those in which the amount of fine 
 had to be settled according to the character 
 of the oifence, or the magnitude of the 
 damage : in other words, those which re- 
 quired that the punishment should be fixed 
 
 for the occasion. Besides those prosecu- 
 tions, the object of which was to get a 
 person punished for an actual breach of 
 law, there were others which merely aimed 
 at settling a disputed right. These were 
 naturally, for the most part, private causes : 
 but there were public prosecutions of this 
 kind as well. For instance, any one who 
 proposed and carried a new law was liable 
 for a whole year after it had passed to 
 prosecution and punishment for making an 
 illegal proposal. But after the year had 
 elapsed his personal responsibility came to 
 an end, and only the new law could be 
 attacked. Private causes could be settled 
 by arrangement, but the law forbade the 
 accuser in a public cause to drop the case. 
 If he did, he was liable to the same punish- 
 ment as if he had failed to carry one-third 
 of the votes. This was the principle, but it 
 was not always carried out in practice. In 
 certain public causes in which a reward 
 was offered by the State, the prosecutor, if 
 successful, received a share of the fine. 
 The costs of private causes (prytdncia) 
 were paid by both parties in advance, and 
 returned to the successful suitor by his 
 adversary. These fees amounted, if the sum 
 in dispute were less than 1,000 drachmce 
 (£33 6s. 8d.), to three drachmce (about 2s.) ; 
 if greater, to thirty drachmce, or about 
 £1. The costs of public prosecutions were 
 not paid by the accused. They were paid 
 by the accuser in one case only ; namely, 
 if, in the event of the accused being con- 
 demned, the accuser received part of the 
 fine imposed. In testamentary suits, sup- 
 posing a person to claim an inheritance 
 already assigned to another, or to lay ex- 
 clusive claim to one which was claimed by 
 several others, the tenth part of the amount 
 was deposited before the trial. If the suit 
 was instituted against the State, supposing 
 the question affected confiscated property, 
 a fifth part of the amount was deposited. 
 The successful litigant in either case re- 
 ceived the amount deposited. 
 
 As above mentioned, the Athenian law 
 allowed the prosecutor, in many cases, to 
 institute the same suit in various forms. 
 A case of personal injury might be treated 
 either as a private action for assault or 
 as a public action for outrage. In the 
 latter case the prosecutor could make no 
 claim for personal compensation. If the 
 injury was accompanied by aggravating 
 circumstances, supposing, for instance, that 
 the person injured were performing a public 
 function, either form of action was open. 
 
332 
 
 JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 
 
 Private actions were often decided by 
 Diaitetai, or arbitrators {see Di^tetje); 
 an important body. Eor tlie convenience 
 of persons living outside Athens, thirty (in 
 later times forty) local magistrates were 
 appointed by lot, whose business it was to 
 go from place to place and decide petty 
 cases of debt or damage or assault. In 
 cases of__ murder the jurisdiction belonged 
 to the EphStce, in certain other cases to 
 the Senate, the Ecclesm, the Strdtegz, the 
 Archons, and the Eleven (see Hendeka). 
 The greater number of cases came before 
 the court of the HeVicea {see Heli^a). 
 
 The most general name for a public 
 charge was graphs, or a statement in 
 writing. The graphe was only resorted to 
 in cases of ofi'ences already recognised by 
 law, and was always brought before a 
 court of law, never before a political body 
 such as the senate or public assembly. On 
 the special forms of public prosecution, see 
 ApagoCtE, Eisangelia, Endeixis, Phasis, 
 Probole. Dike (suit) was the term for a 
 civil process. Under both forms of action 
 the proceedings were very much the same. 
 Except in certain cases affecting the 
 religious mysteries, they were public, and 
 involved a great many formalities. By 
 way of introducing his case the prosecutor 
 applied to the preeident of the court, who 
 iixed the date for the preliminary investi- 
 gation. The summons was made by the 
 prosecutor in a public place and in the 
 presence of witnesses. Aliens were obliged 
 to give security for their appearance ; 
 citizens were not, except in case of dpagoge, 
 endeixis, or eisangSlia. And in these cases 
 a special summons was sometimes dispensed 
 with, and the accused might be imme- 
 diately arrested. The charge having been 
 handed in, the presiding judge decided, 
 when the day mentioned in the summons 
 came round, whether he should admit it 
 or not. Various reasons might lead him 
 to dismiss it : the non-appearance of the 
 accused, there being no sufficient evidence 
 to show that he had been summoned ; or 
 if the accuser appeared on the whole not 
 justified in bringing the charge ; or if the 
 forms were not duly observed. If the 
 charge were admitted, it was publicly 
 posted up on a tablet in the neighbourhood 
 of the court, with a notification of the day 
 when the trial would come on. If the 
 accuser failed to appear on the appointed 
 day, the charge fell through ipso facto ; if 
 the accused failed without putting in a 
 valid plea for postponement, he was pro- 
 
 ceeded against in contiimdciain. If the 
 parties came into court, they were both put 
 on their oath, the accviser with respect to 
 his charge, the accused with regard to his 
 answer. They then paid the court fees. 
 
 The accused generally tried, if possible, 
 to prevent the trial coming on. There were 
 many ways of doing this. He might, or 
 another might for him, dispute the admis- 
 sibility of the charge on various grounds ; 
 e.g. the legal inability of the prosecutor to 
 prosecute, limitation, want of jurisdiction on 
 the part of the authorities, absence of any 
 law to serve as a basis for the charge, and 
 so on. A witness was usually put forward 
 in cases of disputed inheritance, to prove 
 that the prosecutor had no claim. In either 
 case the trial was postponed until a decision 
 had been come to upon the objection raised 
 by the accused or upon the charge of false 
 testimony brought by him against the 
 witness. If the decision went against the 
 accuser he was obliged to retire from the 
 case. After a decision was given on the 
 objection raised by the accused, the party 
 to whom it was unfavourable had to pay 
 his adversary a fine amounting to a sixth 
 part of the value of the object in dispute. 
 
 All the material necessary for the trial, 
 the passages to be quoted from laws, docu- 
 ments, and testimony, had to be prepared 
 by the parties. The evidence consisted of 
 written statements which were given in 
 among the records. The witnesses who 
 were responsible for these might either 
 have made them in person before the 
 magistrates, or in their absence before 
 other witnesses. The witnesses were either 
 willing or unwilling. If a person had at 
 first offered to give evidence and after- 
 wards refused to do so, he might be prose- 
 cuted by the person affected by his conduct. 
 If any person, even without having bound 
 himself to appear, refused to give evidence 
 after being formally summoned by the 
 herald, he had to pay into the public trea- 
 sury a fine of 1,000 draclimce. 
 
 The statements of slaves were only ac- 
 cepted as evidence when given under torture 
 in the presence of witnesses, who had to take 
 them down. The owners of slaves offered 
 to submit them to the torture, either of 
 their own will or on the demand of the 
 opposite party, with which, however, they 
 were not bound to comply. The oath was 
 regarded as the ultimate test of truth. It 
 might either be taken by both parties on 
 their own proposal, or be exacted by one 
 party from the other. The taking of the 
 
JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 
 
 333 
 
 oath or the refusal to take it was put into 
 writing as evidence and enrolled among 
 the archives. These documents were kept 
 by the magistrate in a sealed box, and 
 brought by him into court on the day of 
 trial. In certain cases, such as those rela- 
 ting to commerce, mining, and dowries, the 
 duration of the proceedings was legally 
 limited to thirty days ; but in other causes 
 trials would sometimes drag themselves out 
 through a whole year. If one of the parties 
 failed to appear in court on the day ap- 
 pointed, his reason had to be stated on oath 
 by a representative. The other party was 
 free to declare on oath that the reasons 
 alleged were insufficient : if the judge 
 took this view, the proceedings went on 
 in contumaciam, and the absent party 
 lost in the suit. In the opposite case the 
 accuser had to propose another date for 
 the trial. In private cases an arrangement 
 might be come to, even in court. The 
 charge and the answer having been read 
 by the clerk, both parties delivered their 
 speeches. These had often been composed 
 for them, for according to strict law the 
 parties could not be represented by advo- 
 cates. In practice, however, they often con- 
 tented themselves with a short introduc- 
 tory address of their own, and then asked 
 for permission to employ an advocate. 
 
 The first speech and reply were often fol- 
 lowed by a second, but the whole number 
 of speeches on each side was not allowed 
 to exceed a certain time measured by the 
 water-clock. The pieces of written evi- 
 dence were read out by the clerk, during 
 the speaking, in their proper places, but 
 the time which they took was not counted 
 against the speaker. The judge alone had 
 the right of interrupting the speaker. It 
 was ustial to introduce the witnesses of 
 parents, wives, children, and influential 
 persons. The voting was secret. Every 
 judge received a black and white pebble 
 (the black for condemnation and the white 
 for acquittal), and put the pebble which 
 indicated his vote into a metal urn, the 
 other into a wooden one. Stones bored 
 through or left entire, mussel shells, beans, 
 or metal balls were also used for voting. 
 
 The verdict was decided by the majority 
 of votes : if they were equal, the accused 
 was acquitted. If the cause was assessed 
 {agon timetoH), a second voting followed, to 
 decide between the punishment proposed 
 by the accuser and the counter-proposal of 
 the accused. There was no appeal, at least 
 against the decision of the public court 
 
 of the Heliastce. The utmost that was 
 possible was to get the verdict set aside 
 by proving, that the proceedings in contu- 
 maciam had been illegal, or that the winner 
 had gained the case by suborning false 
 witnesses. The magistrates were, in the 
 case of public actions, responsible for carry- 
 ing out the punishment. Capital sentences 
 were usually carried out (by poison or 
 strangulation) in prison by the executioner 
 commissioned by the Eleven. {See Hen- 
 DEKA.) The corpses of great criminals were 
 thrown down a precipice or removed over 
 the border. If the sentence were banish- 
 ment, the condemned person had to leave 
 the country within a certain time at the 
 peril of his life ; his property was confis- 
 cated. If cititma were infiicted, and the 
 condemned person attempted to usurp the 
 rights of which he had been deprived, he 
 was liable to severe, even to capital punish- 
 ment. In case of a fine being inflicted, a 
 man was cltlmos till it was paid : if he 
 failed to pay by the time appointed, he was 
 liable to a double punishment, and ulti- 
 mately to the confiscation of his property. 
 If the amount of his property exceeded the 
 fine, the surplus was returned to him ; if 
 it fell short of it, he and his descendants 
 were debtors to the State and atimoi. Im- 
 prisonment seems to have served only as 
 an increase of sentence or as a means of 
 enforcing sentence. Loss of freedom and 
 sale were only inflicted on non-citizens for 
 usurping civic rights. In private actions 
 the ultimate means of compelling the con- 
 demned person to the fulfilment of his 
 obligation was an executory mandate, by 
 which he was declared a debtor to the 
 State in the same sum that he owed the 
 prosecutor, and made atimos till it was paid. 
 (II) Roman. Criminal jurisdiction, until 
 the establishment of the Republic, belonged 
 to the kings, and on their commission to 
 the qua2Stores parrtcldn and the duo viri 
 perduellionis. {See Parricidium ; Per- 
 DUELLio.) After the expulsion of the kings 
 it passed over immediately to the consuls, 
 until the public courts {iudicXa pdpidl) 
 were gradually developed. In capital cases, 
 even in the time of the kings, an appeal 
 was allowed, as an act of grace, from their 
 verdict to the representative assembly, at 
 first to the coniltia curulta, and after 
 Servius Tullius to the comitia centiiriata. 
 {See Provocatio.) After the establishment 
 of the Republic, it was, in 509 B.C., legally 
 provided that an appeal might be made, 
 in capital cases, from the sentence of the 
 
334 
 
 JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 
 
 magistrate to the decision of the comitia 
 centuriata as a court of appeal. Con- 
 demned persons, as a rule, naturally made 
 ase of this right, and the magistrates con- 
 sequently brought their verdict before the 
 comitia centuriata, in the form of a charge 
 with reasons to support it. Thus these 
 comitia acquired a jurisdiction, dependent, 
 it is true, on a previous judgment of the 
 magistrates, and limited to capital cases 
 which admitted of appeal. The jurisdiction 
 of the comitia trlbuta was developed in 
 the same way. At first these comitia had 
 merely served as a court of appeal against 
 the fines imposed by the tribunes for viola- 
 tion of their authority. {See Multa.) But 
 they soon acquired jurisdiction in all cases 
 involving fines, and quite overshadowed the 
 comitia centuriata in importance. The 
 judicial power of the latter was gradually 
 more and more restricted by the increasing 
 habit of referring cases of common offences 
 to the exceptional commissions. At last 
 actions brought under the name of per- 
 duellio were the only ones in which they 
 retained their judicial competence. But 
 the greatest possible number of cases were 
 brought before the comitia tributa, notably 
 those of a political character in which 
 illegal or mischievous administration was 
 in question. Only the name of j^ercludlio 
 was avoided. The distinction between the 
 judicial competence of the two assemblies 
 was founded, not so much on differences in 
 the offences, as in those of the penalties. 
 Whether the comitia centuriata or comitia 
 tributa were to take cognisance of an 
 offence depended on the light in which the 
 magistrates regarded it. If they thought 
 less seriously of it, it would go before the 
 CMmitia tributa, which had only the power 
 of inflicting fines to the amount of half 
 the property : if more seriously, before the 
 comitia centuriata, which could only pass 
 capital sentences : in early times death, in 
 later times the interdictio dquce et ignis, 
 and the confiscation of property which ac- 
 companied them. {See Exilium.) 
 
 The proceedings in the assembly were 
 opened by the accusing magistrate. In the 
 comitia centunata this would be a consul 
 or prsetor, in the comitia tributa a tribune, 
 sedile, or quaestor. The trial began with 
 the diet dictio, or fixing of a day for the 
 proceedings. The accused was then either 
 put into prison, or left free on giving bail 
 for Lis appearance. To give the people 
 some means of arriving at a conclusion on 
 the guilt or innocence of the accused, a 
 
 preliminary investigation was held in three 
 contiones at intervals of some days. Before 
 these the accused was allowed to defend 
 himself against the charge of the magistrate. 
 At the last contio the magistrate pronounced 
 a provisional verdict, which (if adverse) was 
 taken as a definite charge. At the same 
 time he fixed the day for the meeting of 
 the comitia, always allowing an interval of 
 thirty days. At the meeting of the comitia, 
 supposing nothing had occurred to stop the 
 proceedings — i.e. supposing the accused 
 had gone into voluntary exile, or a tribune 
 had interposed his veto, or the accuser had 
 withdrawn the charge — the accuser made 
 his proposal {rdgdtio) to punish the accused. 
 Thereupon the accused (or his advocate) 
 spoke in his defence, the evidence of the 
 witnesses who had been previously called 
 was shortly gone through, and the proofs 
 laid before the assembly. Finally the 
 votes were taken in the usual manner, 
 and the result at once made known. An 
 action which remained unfinished at the 
 expiration of the appointed time was not 
 continued, but the accused was regarded 
 as acquitted. The condemnation of the 
 accused was followed by the immediate 
 infiiction of the penalty. The sentence 
 could only be reversed by a subsequent 
 resolution of the people. (jS^ee Restitutio.) 
 The popular tribunals fell gradually into 
 disuse : the standing judicial courts or 
 qumstiones arose, the first of which was 
 instituted in B.C. 149. In Cicero's time 
 there were eight of these commissions, each 
 presided over by a prsetor or his represen- 
 tative. These courts were respectively 
 appoLuted to try the following offences: 
 (1) Repetundce, or of&cial extortion ; (2) 
 Mdiestds, or offences against the majesty 
 of the State ; (3) Peculcltus, or embezzle- 
 ment; (4) Ambitus, or attempt to gain office 
 by unlawful means ; (5) Vis, or violence ; 
 (6) De Slcariis, or murder ; (7) Adul- 
 terium, or adultery ; (8) Falsum, or forgery. 
 {See Ambitus, Maiestas, Peculatus, Repe- 
 TUND^, Vis.) Any citizen, not an official, 
 might bring the charge. On the proceed- 
 ings, see Qu^STio. 
 
 The comitia tributa were, after this, only 
 set in motion in cases for which there was 
 no qurrstio perpetua, or for which it was 
 thought improper to institute a qucestio 
 extraordlndria. The popular tribunals of 
 the comitia came to an end with the Re- 
 public, but the qucestiones continued until 
 the 2nd century a.d, to act as the regular 
 criminal courts. Under the Empire the 
 
JUDICIAL PROCEDURE. 
 
 335 
 
 senate and the emperor had an extra- 
 ordinary jlwisdiction in criminal cases. 
 The senatorial court, which met under the 
 presidency of the consuls, followed the pro- 
 cedure of the qu(Estioiics, but its proceed- 
 ings were not public. The cases which 
 it tried were usually those which affected 
 persons of high standing charged with 
 political or official offences. The decision 
 of the court took the form of a sendtus 
 cojisultmn, but had all the force of a legal 
 sentence. The emperor, in virtue of his 
 tribunician authority, had the power of 
 neutralizing it by his veto. An interval 
 of ten days occurred between sentence and 
 execution, in pursuance of an order of 
 Tiberius made in 22 a.d. But up to that 
 time the sentence was carried out imme- 
 diately after being passed, even in capital 
 cases. Capital punishment had in the re- 
 publican times been practically abolished, 
 but was at once reinstated under the 
 imperial rdgime. The emperor himself 
 usually exercised his jurisdiction only over 
 his own procurators and the higher officers 
 of the army, notably in the case of strictly 
 military offences. He acted as sole judge 
 even when he invited the assistance of a 
 jury (consilium). No formal act of accusa- 
 tion was required. Actions which he was 
 unwilling to settle himself he would gene- 
 rally hand over to the qucestiones or the 
 senatorial tribunals. The power of inflict- 
 ing sentence of death on Roman citizens 
 was confined originally to the emperor and 
 senate ; but in later times the emperor, by 
 a special mandate, transferred it for pur- 
 poses of provincial administration, to the 
 governors of the provinces, whose juris- 
 diction extended to all citizens, with the 
 exception of the high military officers, 
 senators, and the decuriones of a niuni- 
 cipium. (See Decurio, 2.) The .criminal 
 jurisdiction in Rome and its neighbourhood 
 for a radius of 100 miles was given to the 
 prwfectus urbi, whose court ended by 
 becoming the chief criminal court in the 
 capital. The rest of Italy was placed under 
 the jurisdiction of the prsefect of the Prse- 
 torian Guard. From the decision of these 
 representatives of the imperial authority an 
 appeal was allowed to the emperor. But, 
 after the 3rd century a.d., the appeal 
 mostly came before the prsefect of the body- 
 guard, whose judgment was generally final. 
 The senatorial court came finally to acting 
 only on the motion of the emperor. 
 
 The Roman civil jurisdiction, like the 
 criminal, belonged originally to the king. 
 
 from whom it passed to the consuls. With 
 them it remained until a special magis- 
 tracy, the prsetorship, was instituted for it. 
 {Sec Prjetor.) According to ancient usage, 
 the highest judicial authorities did not 
 superintend the case from beginning to end. 
 Their action was usually confined to the 
 preparation of the case and such measures 
 as its course made absolutely necessary, as 
 (supposing their interference was required) 
 in ordering execution of sentence. The 
 investigation proper, and the passing of 
 judgment, they as a rule handed over 
 (with the consent of the parties) either to 
 a single judge (see Judex) or recuperator es 
 {see Recuperatores) appointed for the 
 occasion, or to the judicial collegia of the 
 iudices decemviri and centumviri, ap- 
 pointed, independently of special cases, for 
 the whole year. As an introduction of the 
 case, the suitor {pctltor) was required to 
 bring the defendant (reus) before the tribu- 
 nal of the magistrate {in iUs). In the case 
 of the praetor, this would be his tribunal 
 in the Forum. If the accused failed either 
 to obey the personal summons of the pro- 
 secutor (in ius vdcaiio) or to appear by 
 his representative (vindcx), the prosecutor 
 could, after calling a witness to attest that 
 his summons was in order, take him before 
 the prsetor by force. In later time, to meet 
 the cases in which the accused was unable 
 to answer the summons immediately, the 
 vadimonium was introduced. This was 
 a promise, given by the accused on the 
 security of sureties, that he would appear 
 in court on a certain day, or if he failed 
 would pay a sum of money, the amount 
 of which depended on the nature of the 
 question in dispute. The proceedings in 
 iure, or before the magistrate, took place 
 according to certain definite formal rules, 
 the so-called legis actiones, the commonest 
 of which was the actio sacramenti. This 
 was accompanied by the utterance of a 
 solemn formula partly by the magistrate, 
 partly by the parties, and by certain sym- 
 bolical acts. The smallest departure from 
 the traditional formula involved the loss of 
 the suit. The trial thus commenced, the 
 next step was the iudicis ddtio, or appoint- 
 ment of a judge to try it. The case came 
 on before the appointed index (in iudicio) 
 on a day appointed. It was first shortly 
 stated ; the parties or their advocates made 
 their speeches, the evidence was tested and 
 judgment pronounced. 
 
 The cumbrous machinery of the legis 
 actiones gave way afterwards, in all cases 
 
336 
 
 JUDICIUM JUNIQS CORDUS. 
 
 but a few, to the procedure by formida. 
 The formula was a document written out 
 by the prsetor, in which he, after hearing 
 the parties, summed up the points of the 
 accusation and the replies of the accused, 
 appointed the judge, and gave him the 
 materials for investigation and judgment. 
 The proceedings in iudicio were then 
 opened with the production of the formvla. 
 The question of the debt being settled, the 
 judge proceeded to make a valuation of the 
 object in dispute, in case a definite amount 
 had not been mentioned in the formula. 
 On the procedure in case of default, see 
 CONTUMACIA. The judgment was irrever- 
 sible. It was only in certain exceptional 
 cases, notably if it appeared that any decep- 
 tion or force had been employed, that the 
 magistrate who had appointed the judge, 
 or his successor in office, could set it aside 
 by restitutio in integrum. If the com- 
 demned party refused to make the payment, 
 the magistrate who had prepared the case 
 could order personal arrest or seizure of 
 goods. (See Manus Iniectio and Bonoeum 
 Emptio.) 
 
 The only weapon against abuse of judicial 
 authority in the republican age was the 
 right of appeal to a magistrate with the 
 power of veto. (See Appellatio.) 
 
 The system of civil jurisdiction continued 
 to exist in the imperial period, though with 
 many modifications in detail, until the 
 3rd century a.d. After that, the excep- 
 tional procedure (extra ordinem) in which 
 the magistrate superintended the case till 
 its conclusion and pronounced judgment at 
 the end of it, became the usual one. The 
 emperor, as supreme judge, had the power 
 of deciding every case, criminal or other- 
 wise, if his decision was appealed to. 
 Further, he could interfere by his decree 
 during the course of the trial, and either 
 quash the verdict himself, or lay the appeal 
 for decision before an authority constituted 
 by himself for the purpose. In later times 
 this authority was the prcefectus urbi. 
 A further appeal from this authority back 
 to the emperor was allowed. 
 
 Judicium. The Latin name for a 
 court : iudicium popUIi, a court in which 
 the populus acted as indices. Indicium 
 privatum, a civil, itidicium pnihlicum, a 
 criminal court; iudicium domesticiim, a 
 family court. (Sec Judicial Phoceduke.) 
 
 Jugerum. The unit of superficial mea- 
 sure among the Romans. A rectangle 240 
 Roman feet in length and 120 feet broad 
 = 28,800 Roman square feet = rather more 
 
 than half an English acre of 43,560 square 
 feet. Two hundred iugerd form one cen- 
 tiirta [about 132 acres]. 
 
 Julian Calendar. See Calendar. 
 
 Julianus. (1) Salvius. An eminent 
 Roman jurist, born in Africa, who lived in 
 the days of Hadrian. Besides many original 
 works which were long held in high esteem, 
 he compiled at the command of the emperor 
 i in 131 A.D., a systematic collection of Edicts 
 of the Praetors, beginning with the repub- 
 lican time (edictum perpetiiinn). This 
 was the first scientific collection of Roman 
 legal documents. Numerous fragments of 
 his works are quoted in the Digest. Cp. 
 Corpus Juris Civilis (2). 
 
 (2) Flavins Claudius, " the Apostate." 
 Born at Constantiuople A.D. 331 ; he was 
 the son of Julius Constantius, a brother 
 of Constantino the Great. In spite of his 
 early monastic education, he was so strongly 
 prepossessed against the Christian religion 
 owing to the murderous deeds of his own 
 family, the persecutions he suffered at the 
 hands of his cousin Constantius, and his 
 own intercourse with the most renowned 
 Sophists both in Nicomedia and at Athens, 
 that, on his elevation to the imperial 
 throne in 361, he attempted to drive 
 out Christianity, and to restore Paganism 
 on the foundation of Neo-Platonic philo- 
 sophy. His attempts were however cut 
 short by his death in the war against the 
 Persians. We still possess eight essays 
 vsnritten by him in Greek, in the form of 
 speeches ; seventy-eight letters of the most 
 varied contents, valuable as throwing light 
 on his character and his aims ; and two 
 satirical writings : (i) The Ccesars, or the 
 Banquet, a brilliant criticism on the Roman 
 emperors, from Csesar downwards, in the 
 form of Varro's Menippean satires ; (ii) the 
 Mlsopogdn (Beard-Hater), a satire directed 
 against the inhabitants of Antioch, who had 
 cast ridicule on his beard and his philosophic 
 garb. Of his work directed against the 
 Christians and their religion, which he com- 
 posed in Antioch before the expedition 
 against the Persians, only extracts and 
 fragments survive. Julian is one of the 
 cleverest, most cultivated and elegant writers 
 of the period after the birth of Christ. 
 
 Julius Capitolinus. A Roman historian. 
 (See Scriptoees Historic AuGUSTiE.) 
 
 Julius Valfirius. The Latin translator of 
 the romance of pseudo-Callisthenes on Alex- 
 ander the Great. (See Callisthenes.) 
 
 Junius Cordus. A Roman historian. (See 
 ScRiPTORES Historic August^e.) 
 
JUNO JtJPlTEfi. 
 
 337 
 
 Juno (i.e. locino, a feminine form cor- 
 responding to Idvis contained in lupiter). 
 In the Italian mythology, the queen of 
 heaven and of heavenly light, especially 
 that of the new moon ; the wife of Jupiter. 
 After she had been identified with the 
 Greek Hera {q.v.), she was regarded as the 
 daughter of Saturnus (who was identified 
 with Cronus), and as sister of her husband. 
 In Italy, as the queen of womankind, she 
 was the representative of woman in general, 
 to such a degree that, as every man had his 
 Genius, so every woman had her luno, to 
 whom she offered sacrifice and by whom she 
 swore. It was as luno Luc.ina (the bringer 
 of light) that she was worshipped from the 
 most ancient times and in many parts of 
 Italy. As such, she was the goddess of the 
 beginnings of all the months, and on the 
 calends, at Rome, the rex sacrorum and his 
 wife made regular sacrifices to her. As all 
 goddesses of light are also goddesses of birth 
 (the appearance of the light from out of the 
 darkness being looked on as a birth), under 
 the same name of Lucina she was honoured 
 as the mightiest of the goddesses of birth. 
 Her temple at Rome, in a sacred grove, was 
 one of the most ancient and venerated. By 
 a custom dating back to Numa, a piece of 
 gold was placed in her treasury there at the 
 birth of every male child. The Matronalia 
 (q.v.) was the most famous feast of the 
 goddess. It was celebrated by the Roman 
 matrons and virgins on the 1st March. At 
 this festival the goddess was represented 
 veiled, with a flower in her right hand, and 
 an infant in swaddling clothes in her left. 
 Another ancient worship highly honoured 
 throughout Italy was that of luno Sospita 
 (the' Saviour), whose ancient grove and 
 temple at Lanuvium was deemed sacred at 
 Rome, which itself had two temples to this 
 divinity. At an appointed time in every 
 year the Roman consuls offered a sacrifice 
 to the Juno at Lanuvium. The image of the 
 goddess at that place wore, over the robes 
 of a matron, a goatskin which served as hel- 
 met and cuirass, with a shield held in one 
 hand and a spear brandished in the other. 
 This worship assigned to the goddess who 
 presided over the life of woman the char- 
 acter of a divinity of protecting power. 
 
 luno Cilritis, or Qmritis {i.e. armed with 
 a spear), who was specially worshipped by 
 the Sabines, was also a warlike goddess. 
 As goddess of marriage Juno was invoked 
 at weddings under many names. As Domi- 
 duca she conducts the bride into the bride- 
 groom's house ; as Unxia she anoints the 
 
 D. c A. 
 
 doorposts as a sign of good omen at her 
 reception ; as Cinxia she ties and unlooses 
 the marriage girdle ; and as PronUha and 
 luga she is the foundress of marriage. On 
 the citadels of towns, which were deemed 
 to be under her particular protection, she 
 was specially worshipped by matrons, either 
 with Jupiter, or alone, as luno Reglna, be- 
 ing the wife of lupiter Rex and the highest 
 celestial goddess. In this capacity she had 
 her chief temple at Rome, on the Capitol, 
 close to Jupiter. It was there that the 
 well-known geese were kept, which were 
 sacred to her as being prolific and domesti- 
 cated creatures. Another highly honoured 
 fane of luno Regina was on the Aventine, 
 to which her worship had been transplanted 
 from Veii after the destruction of that city. 
 There was also a temple on the Capitol dedi- 
 cated to luno Moneta (" the admonisher "), 
 in gratitude (it was said) for her salutary 
 admonitions [Cic, De Divinatione, i 45 
 § 101]. Money derived from the goddess 
 its designation Moneta, as it was coined 
 in the temple of luno Moneta. Another 
 most ancient Roman worship was that of 
 luno Caprotlna (Juno of the goat). This 
 was celebrated by the festival held by 
 female slaves on the 7th Julj', called Nonas 
 Caprotinm. {See Caprotina.) In the third 
 Punic War the worship of luno Ccelestis 
 was brought into Rome from Carthage. 
 This was the ancient tutelary goddess of 
 Carthage, strictly speaking the Astarte of 
 the Phoenicians. When Carthage was 
 restored under the Empire, her worship 
 flourished anew. Not only the goose, but 
 also the raven that loves the heights, was 
 sacred to her as the protectress of citadels. 
 Jupit6r {luppitSr). In the Italian mj'- 
 thology, the highest god in heaven, cor- 
 responding to the Greek Zeus {q.v.), with 
 whom he was identical, not only in his 
 nature, but also in his name. For Jupiter 
 is compounded of lovls (an older form is 
 Diovis) and pater ; Zeus stands for Dicus 
 (Indian Diaii,s = " the bright heaven "). As 
 in course of time the Italian god became 
 identified with the Greek, he was regarded 
 as a son of Saturn and of Ops, the 
 deities deemed to correspond to the Greek 
 Uranus and Rhea respectively. From 
 Jupiter comes all that appears in the 
 heavens. As Lucethis (from lux, " light ") 
 he is the bringer of light, the cause of the 
 dawn of day, as well as of the full moon at 
 night. Just as the calends (1st) of each 
 month are sacred to Juno, so the ides (13th or 
 15th), which are full-moon days, are sacred 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 JUPITER. 
 
 to Jupiter. On these his special priest, the 
 fldmen dlalis, offers him the Idulia, a 
 sacrifice of a white lamb. While he 
 watches over fair weather, he also controls 
 all other weather ; as Fulgurator and 
 Fulmmdtor (" flasher of lightning '') and as 
 Tunans or Tonitrualis (" thunderer ") he 
 brings down those fearful storms which 
 were familiar to Rome : aa Pluvius he sends 
 a fertilizing rain. Any place, or thing, 
 struck by lightning was supposed to be 
 sacred to Jupiter as having been taken 
 possession of by him, and thus it needed a 
 particular dedication. (/See PuTEAL.) As the 
 god of rain, there was instituted in his 
 honour at Rome a festival of supplication, 
 called dquaeUclum. In this the pontificts 
 brought into Rome from the temple of Mars 
 outside the Porta Cdpena a cylindrical stone 
 called the lapis manalls (rain-stone), while 
 the matrons followed the procession with 
 bare feet, as did also the magistrates, unac- 
 companied by their insignia. In the same 
 character he was appealed to by the country- 
 folk, before sowing time and in the spring 
 and autumn, when a sacrificial feast was 
 offered to him. He and Juno were wor- 
 shipped before the commencement of the 
 harvest, even before any sacrifice to Ceres. 
 Throughout all Latium, the feast of the 
 Vinalla {q.v.) was celebrated in his honour 
 as the giver of wine ; and at the commence- 
 ment of the vintage season he was offered 
 a lamb by the flamen Dialis. He was 
 honoured in all Italy, after Mars, as the 
 decider of battles and giver of victory ; 
 this was specially the case at Rome, where, 
 as early as the daj'S of Romulus, shrines 
 were founded to him as Stdtor ("he who 
 stays flight ") and Feretrius (to whom the 
 spoils taken by a Roman general in the 
 field from a hostile general were offered, 
 ^ee Spolia). He watches over justice and 
 truth, and is therefore the most ancient 
 and most important god of oaths ; he was 
 specially called on by the fetlales (q.v.) 
 as a witness at the ceremonies connected 
 with treaties of peace. Not only the law 
 of nations, but also the law of hospitality, 
 is under his special protection, and while 
 he causes his blessing to fall on the whole 
 country, he is also the god of good fortune 
 and blessing to the family. His gracious 
 power does not confine itself to the present 
 alone ; by means of signs comprehensible to 
 experts, he reveals the future (see Auspicia) 
 and shows his approval or disapproval of 
 a contemplated undertaking. 
 
 He was worshipped of old on the Alban 
 
 Hill, by the Latin people, as their ancestral 
 god, under the name of luppiter Lcttiavis 
 (or LcUiCdis) ; at the formation of the Latin 
 league he was honoured as the god of the 
 league by a sacrificial feast, which they all 
 held in common ; even after its dissolution 
 the sacrifice was continued under the super- 
 intendence of the consuls. {See Peei^.) 
 The chief seat of his worship in Rome was 
 the Capitol, where he was honoured as the 
 ideal head of the State, as the Increaser and 
 Preserver of Roman might and power, under 
 the name of luppUer Optimus Maximus 
 (" Best and Greatest "). It was there that 
 his esirthenware image was enthroned, with 
 the thunderbolt in its right hand. It stood 
 in the centre of the temple begun by Tar- 
 quifnius Superbus, the last of the kings, and 
 finished and dedicated in the first year of 
 the Republic. In the pediment of the temple 
 was the quadriga, the attribute of the god 
 of thunder, while the chambers to the left 
 and right were dedicated to Juno and to 
 Minerva respectively. Here the consuls, 
 at their entry into office and their departure 
 to war, made their solemn vows ; hither 
 came the triumphal procession of the victor, 
 who was clad in the festal garb of the god, 
 and who, before offering to Jupiter the 
 customary thank-offering of white oxen, 
 prayed to his image and placed in his lap 
 the laurel-wreath of victory bound about 
 the fasces. Hither poured in, to adorn the 
 temple and to fill its treasures, countless 
 multitudes of costly votive offerings from 
 the State, from generals and private citi- 
 zens, and from foreign kings and nations. 
 When, after its existence for 400 years, 
 the ancient temple was destroyed by fire 
 in B.C. 83, it was rebuilt on its original plan 
 but with increased magnificence (b.c. 78). 
 The image of the god was a copy in gold 
 and ivory of the Olympian Zeus {q.v.). The 
 temple was burnt down again a.d. 70, and 
 Vespasian had scarcely restored it when a 
 fresh fire burnt it down a.d. 80, whereupon 
 Domitian in A.D. 82 erected the temple 
 which continued to stand as late as the 9th 
 century. 
 
 As was natursvl for the most exalted 
 god of the Roman State, he had the most 
 splendid festivals in his honour. Amongst 
 the greatest of these were the lUdi Edmam, 
 the ludi tnagni, and the ludi plebeii. 
 {See Games.) Under the Empire the 
 Capitoline Jupiter was recognised as the 
 loftiest representative of the Roman name 
 and State, whose vicegerent on earth was 
 the emperor. As his worship gradually 
 
JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
 339 
 
 spread over the whole empire, lie finally 
 became tlie representative of the pagan 
 world in general. He was often identified 
 with the native gods of the provinces, 
 including the sun-god of HeliSpolis and 
 Doliche in Syria, who, from the 2nd and 
 3rd centuries a.d., was worshipped far 
 and wide under the name of luppiter 
 Heliopolitanus and Dolichenus. Antoninus 
 built for the former the magnificent temple 
 of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. He was simi- 
 larly identified with various Celtic and 
 German gods, especially those who were 
 worshipped on Alpine mountain-tops as 
 protectors of travellers. As an example of 
 the latter we have luppiter Optimus Maxi- 
 mus Poeninus, whose seat was on the Great 
 St. Bernard. 
 
 Jurisprudence. The science of law is the 
 one branch of Roman literature which had 
 a purely national development. From an 
 early date there were definite legal ordi- 
 nances in Rome, and shortly after the 
 expulsion of the kings a collection of legts 
 regiCB was made by a certain Gains 
 Papirius. These consisted of archaic cus- 
 tomary laws of a strongly sacerdotal char- 
 acter, and arbitrarily attributed to individual 
 kings (known as the lus Pdplnanum). 
 However, the foundation of the collective 
 legal life of the Romans was primarily the 
 well known law of the Twelve Tables, 
 B.C. 451-450. {See Twelve Tables.) This 
 put an end to the want of a generally 
 known law ; for the knowledge of previous 
 legal decisions, like the whole of the 
 judicial procedure, had been hitherto 
 kept in the exclusive possession of the 
 patricians. The administration of the law 
 remained as formerly in the hands of the 
 patricians alone,, for they kept from the 
 plebeians all knowledge of the dies fasti 
 and nefasti, i.e. the days on which legal 
 proceedings might or might not be taken, 
 as also the forms of pleading which were 
 regularly employed (legts actions s). The 
 latter were so highly important that the 
 least infraction of them would involve the 
 loss of the cause. This condition of things 
 existed for a long time, until Appius 
 Claudius Cceeus drew up a calendar of the 
 days on which causes could be pleaded, and 
 a list of the forms of pleading. These were 
 made public about 304 B.C. by his secretaiy, 
 Gnseus Elavius, after whom they were then 
 called lus Flavianum. By these means 
 a knowledge of the law became generally 
 attainable. It soon had eminent repre- 
 sentatives among the plebeians in the 
 
 persons of Publius Sempronius Sdphus and 
 Tiberius Coruncanlus. In ancient days, 
 however, the work of the jurists was purely 
 practical. It was considered an honourable 
 thing for men learned in the law to allow 
 people to consult them {consUlere, hence 
 iuris, or iure consulti) either in the Forum 
 or at appointed hours in their own houses, 
 and to give them legal advice (responsa). 
 It was mainly by a kind of oral tradition that 
 the knowledge of law was handed down, as 
 the most eminent jurists allowed j'ounger 
 men to be present at these consultations 
 as listeners {audttores or disclpuli). The 
 beginning of literary activity in this depart- 
 ment, as in others, dates from the second 
 Punic War. It begins with the earliest 
 exposition of existing law. Sextus jElius 
 Ccitus published in 204 B.C. a work named 
 Tripeiilta (from its being divided into three 
 parts) or lus jSHlianum, which consisted of 
 the text of the laws of the Twelve Tables 
 together with interpretations, and the legal 
 formiilce for carrying on sviits. Prom the 
 middle of the 2nd century it became 
 common to make collections of the responsa 
 of eminent jurists, and to use them as a 
 source of legal information. Among others, 
 Marcus Porcius Cdto, the son of Cato the 
 Elder, made a collection of this kind. In 
 some families knowledge of the law was in 
 a measure hereditary, as in those of the 
 MVii, Poroii, Sulpicii, and Mucii. A 
 member of the last family, the pontifex 
 Quintus Mucins Scwvola (died B.C. 82), was 
 the first whoj with the aid of the formal 
 precision of the Stoic philosophy, gave a 
 scientific and systematic account of all 
 existing law, in his work, -De lure Clvlli. 
 Servius Sulplcius Rufus, the contemporary 
 and friend of Cicero, further advanced this 
 new and more methodical treatment of law 
 by his numerous writings and by training up 
 pupils, such as Aulus Ofilius and Puhlius 
 Alfenus Varus. The former rendered great 
 assistance to Csesar in his scheme for 
 forming the whole of the lus Civile into 
 a single code. Besides these there were 
 several eminent jurists at the close of the 
 Republic: Gaius Trebatius Testa, Quintus 
 tEIIus Tubero, Gaius .Sllius Gallus, and 
 Aulus Cascellius. 
 
 While under the Republic the learned 
 jurist had held an inferior position to the 
 orator in influence and importance, there 
 is no doubt that under the Empire public 
 eloquence became subordinate, and the 
 position of the jurists was the most coveted 
 and influential in the State, especially when 
 
340 
 
 JUSTINIAN US JUVENALIS. 
 
 Augustus decreed that the opinions of" 
 jurists authorized by the head of the State 
 were to have the validity of law. It was 
 from the jurists as advisers of the emperor 
 that all legislation now proceeded. They 
 had access to all the highest oflices of the 
 court and of the State. Accordingly the 
 men of the highest gifts and character 
 betook themselves naturally to this pro- 
 fession, and even introduced into the laws 
 an increased unity, consistency, and syste- 
 matic order. Under Augustus two jurists 
 were pre-eminent, Quintus Antistius LdbSo 
 and Gains Atems Cdpito, the founders of 
 the two later schools, named, after their 
 pupils Sempronius Proculiis and Masurius 
 Sablnus, the Proculiani and Sahlni respec- 
 tively. Labeo sought to extend his pro- 
 fessional knowledge, whilst Capito held fast 
 to the traditions of former jurists. 
 
 The first scientific collection of laws was 
 made under Hadrian by the Sabinian 
 lawyer Saluhis lulianus, with his Edictum 
 Perpetuum, a classified collection of the 
 prsetorian edicts from the times of the Re- 
 public. {See Edictdm.) Sextus Pomponius, 
 his somewhat younger contemporary, com- 
 posed amongst other things a history of the 
 law till the time of Hadrian. 
 
 Under the Antonines jurisprudence was 
 able to claim a remarkable representative 
 in the Asiatic Gaius, but it received its 
 completion and conclusion in the first half 
 of the 3rd century A.D., through ^milius 
 Papinianus, Domitius Vlpiunus,3.nd lulius 
 Paulus. After their time there were no 
 jurists of great and original capacity. In 
 the 4 th century literary activity revived 
 again, biat confined itself to the collection 
 of legal authorities, especially that of im- 
 perial ordinances. Thus the Codex Theo- 
 ddsidnus, finished in a.d. 438, contains an 
 official record of all the enactments decreed 
 by the emperors from the time of Con- 
 stantine. Under Justinian I (527-565 a.d.) 
 the last and most complete Roman collection 
 of laws was made, under the name of the 
 Corpus lufis Civilis (q.r.). 
 
 Justinianus. See Corpus Juris Civilis. 
 
 Justiuus. A Latin author, who com- 
 posed, probably in the 2nd century A.D., 
 an abstract, still extant, of the Universal 
 History of Pompeius Trogus {Trogi Pompei 
 HistonurumPhilippicu.ru in Epitoma). It 
 enjoyed a great reputation in the Middle 
 Ages. Of the circumstances of his life 
 nothing is known. 
 
 Justitlam. The term by which the 
 Romans designated a legal vacation, or 
 
 I cessation from business in the courts of 
 justice, in the sittings of the senate, and 
 even in private life, when all the shops 
 were closed. This took place on extraor- 
 dinary occasions, such as famine, or during 
 the perils of war, and, under the Empire, 
 on the death of a member of the imperial 
 family. It was decreed by the highest 
 magistrate present in Rome, subject to the 
 approval of the senate. When the occasion 
 had passed by, it was removed by a special 
 edict on the part of the magistrate. 
 
 Juturna. An old Latin goddess of foun- 
 tains, sometimes said to have been beloved 
 by Jupiter, from whom she received the 
 dominion over all the rivers and waters of 
 Latium. She is also called the wife of 
 Janus, and by him the mother of Eontus, 
 the god of springs. Vergil makes her the 
 sister of Turnus of Ardea, king of the 
 Rutuli, probably in allusion to a spring 
 named after her in the country between 
 Ardea and Lavinium. Besides the pond 
 of Juturna in the Forum at Rome, there 
 was also a spring bearing her name in the 
 Campus Martins, the water of which was 
 considered sacred and salutary, and was 
 therefore employed in all sacrificial rites 
 and services, and also used by sick people. 
 On January 11th, the anniversary of the 
 day on which her temple was erected in the 
 Campus Martins by Lutatius Catulus, all 
 workmen engaged on aqueducts and the like 
 celebrated the Juturnaliu. As a goddess 
 who dispenses water, she was, together 
 with Vulcan, specially invoked at the break- 
 ing out of fires. {Iuturna = Diuturna.] 
 
 Juv6iialis {Decimus lunius). The great 
 Roman satirist, born at Aquinum, a town 
 of the Volscians, about 47 a.d. Ac- 
 cording to the accounts of his life which 
 have come down to us, he was the son, 
 either real or adopted, of a wealthy f reed- 
 man, and spent the first half of his life in 
 Rome engaged in declamatory exercises, 
 more for pleasure than as a preparation 
 for the Eorum or the schools. He continued 
 there until he became a knight. In an in- 
 scription of the time of Domitian he is named 
 as duumvir and as a flamen of Vespasian 
 in his native town, and also as tribune of 
 the first Dalmatian cohort. The command 
 of a cohort is also specified in the accounts 
 already mentioned. According to these he 
 was sent into banishment under the pre- 
 tence of military distinction, because in a 
 satirical composition he had taken the 
 liberty of denouncing the political influence 
 of a favourite comedian of the emperor. 
 
JU VENOUS LACONICUM. 
 
 341 
 
 As to the place and date of his banishment, 
 the accounts vary between Britain and 
 Egypt, and also between the last years of 
 Domitian (against which theory there are 
 weighty objections) and the reigns of either 
 Trajan or Hadrian. In any case he died 
 after 127 A.D., according to one account, in 
 the eighty-second year of his life, or about 
 130, the cause being grief at his exile. By 
 others ho is made to return to Rome before 
 his death. We possess sixteen satires by 
 him, which the grammarians have divided 
 into five books. In these he delineates with 
 moral indignation and with pitiless scorn the 
 universal corruption of society, particularly 
 in the times of Domitian, painting its vices 
 in all their nakedness and ugliness with 
 the most glaring colours. His. composition 
 is often concise to the verge of obscurity, 
 and by its strong rhetorical colouring be- 
 trays his earlier studies. In his own day, 
 and afterwards, his satires enjoyed great 
 popularity, and were held in high repute 
 even in the Middle Ages. Owing to his 
 obscurity he early attracted the attention 
 of learned men of old, and we still posse.ss 
 the remains of their industry in a collection 
 of Scholia. [About the life of the poet 
 
 nothing certain can be really ascertained 
 except from the hints given in his own 
 writings. The biographies which have 
 come down to us must be used with ex- 
 treme caution : and it is not at all certain 
 that the inscription mentioned above refers 
 to him at all.] 
 
 Juvencus {Gains Vettius AqulUus). A 
 Christian Latin poet and a presbyter in 
 Spain. About 330 he composed a poetic 
 version of the gospel narrative {Uistoria 
 EvangSlica) in four books ; he also cast the 
 books of Moses and Joshua [and Judges] into 
 the form and phraseology of the Roman epic 
 poets. This seems to have been the earliest 
 attempt to make the Christian literature 
 rival the pagan in beauty of form, and to 
 supplant and supersede heathen poetry as 
 a means of education. [The epic paraphrase 
 of the Heptateuch is now no longer ascribed 
 to Juvencus, but to Cyprian, not the bishop 
 of Carthage, but a Gaul of the 6th century, 
 in all probability the third bishop of Toulon. 
 (The Latin Heptateuch, critically reviewed 
 by Prof. Mayor, pp. xxxiv-xlii). See 
 Cyprian, 2.] 
 
 Juventas. The Roman goddess of youth. 
 (See Hebe.) 
 
 K 
 
 sec 
 
 Knights. See Equites and Hippeis. 
 
 LabdS.cus. Son of Polydorus, grandson of 
 Cadmus, and father of Laius (q.v.). 
 
 Labdrlus (Decimus). The originator and 
 leading representative of the mime (q.v.) as 
 a form of literature; born about 105 B.C. 
 Being a Roman knight with a strong love 
 of freedom, he roused the wrath of the 
 dictator Caesar; accordingly in B.C. 45 
 the latter compelled him to appear on the 
 stage at the age of sixty, and to compete 
 with his rival Publilius Syrus. In the pro- 
 logue to the piece, one of the most beautiful 
 monuments of Roman literature which have 
 come down to us, Laberius complains bit- 
 terly of the indignity put upon him. His 
 appearing as an actor involved the loss of 
 knightly rank, which in this case, however, 
 was restored to him by Csesar. He died 
 at Ptiteoli in 43; Apart from the prologue 
 already mentioned, we have only unimpor- 
 tant fragments of more than forty of his 
 mimes. These bear witness to the origina- 
 lity of his wit and the vigour of his style. 
 
 Lacerna. The Latin term for a coarse, 
 dark-coloured cloak, fastened on the shoulder 
 by a brooch, which was in use as a protec- 
 tion against rain. It was provided with a 
 hood. In later times the name was given 
 to a light and elegant mantle, either white or 
 dyed in Tyrian purple, which was worn over 
 the toga to complete the costume at games 
 or other outdoor occasions. In the time of 
 Augustus, who forbade its use in the Eorum 
 or Circus, it formed part of the military 
 uniform. It was afterwards commonly 
 worn even in Rome itself. 
 
 Lachfisis (Greek). One of the three 
 goddesses of fate. (See Mcer^.) 
 
 L^conicum. A species of dry sweating- 
 bath, introduced from Greece by the Romans 
 towards the end of the Republic. It was 
 specially iised to correct the effects of 
 excessive indulgence at the table, by in- 
 ducing severe perspiration; at the conclusion 
 of the process it was usual to take either a 
 cold plunge or a shower-bath. The dry 
 
342 
 
 LACTANTIUS LAOCOON. 
 
 sweating-bath was taken in a small, circular 
 room, covered with a cupola, and capable of 
 being raised to a high degree of temperature. 
 Its sole light was admitted through a hole in 
 its vaulted roof. Under this opening there 
 hung on chains a bronze shield {clipeus), 
 by elevating and depressing which it was 
 possible to regulate the temperature. 
 
 Lactantlus {Firmianus). A pupil of 
 Arnobius, summoned by Diocletian to teach 
 rhetoric in the school of Nicomedia in 
 Bithynia. Here he embraced Christianity 
 (before a.d. 303), and in his old age (about 
 317) he became the teacher, in Gaul, of 
 Crispus, the son of Constantine the Great. 
 He is remarkable above all Christian 
 authors for the purity and smoothness of 
 his style, for which he was indebted to the 
 careful study of Cicero, so much so indeed, \ 
 as to have earned the title of the Christian 
 Cicero. His great work is the "Intro- 
 duction to Divine Knowledge" {Divince 
 Imtitutiones), in seven books. A poem on 
 the phcenix, in eightj'-five couplets, is also 
 ascribed to him ; but this ascription is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Lacunaria {Ldcudrla, LaquSuvta). The 
 Latin name for the panelled ceilings of rooms 
 which were formed by placing planks across 
 the beams of the roof, whereby hollow 
 spaces were produced. These spaces were 
 covered with wood or ivory, or ornamented 
 with sculptured reliefs or pictures ; occa- 
 sionally they were even gilded or inlaid 
 with plates of gold. [Horace, Odes, ii 18, 
 1.] In banqueting-rooms they were some- 
 times so formed that the panels could be 
 slipped aside to let flowers, wreaths, and 
 other complimentary presents fall in showers 
 on the guests below. [Suetonius, Nero, 81.] 
 
 Ladou. The hundred-headed dragon, who 
 watched over the garden of the Hesperides 
 {q.vi) ; the son of Phorcys (or of Typhon) 
 and of Ceto. He was slain by Heracles 
 when he went to fetch the golden apples. 
 
 Laena. An ancient Roman garment. It 
 was a woollen mantle, fastened by a brooch, 
 of a coarse, shaggy material, twice as thick 
 as an ordinary toga. Under the Empire it 
 was very generally worn as an outer cloak 
 by all classes of society, especially on going 
 out to supper. 
 
 Laertes. King of Ithaca, and son of Arci- 
 sius, a son of Zeus. He was the husband 
 of Anticleia and father of Odysseus (q.v.). 
 
 LaestrJ-gonfis. In Homer, a race of giants 
 and cannibals dwelling in the distant north, 
 where the nights are so short that the 
 shepherd driving his flock out meets the 
 
 shepherd who is driving his flock in. Their 
 city was Telepylus, founded by LSmus. 
 When Odysseus (q.v.) came there on his 
 wanderings, their king was Antiphates. 
 The later Greeks placed the home of the 
 Laestrygonians in Sicily, to the south of 
 Etna, near the town of Leontini ; the 
 Romans, on the southern coast of Latium, 
 near FormisB. [Homer, Od. x 82, 106 ; 
 Thuc, vi 2 ; Cic, Ad Atticum ii 13 ; Horace, 
 Odes iii 16, 34.] [See Painting, fig. 5.) 
 
 LaBvius. A Roman epic and lyric poet. 
 (See Epos and Lyeic Poetry.) 
 
 Lagoena, Lagona ; Lagynos. See Vessels. 
 
 Lalus. The son of Labdacus, grandson of 
 Polydorus, and great-grandson of Cadmus. 
 When his guardian Lycus was banished or 
 slain by Amphion (q.v.) and Zethus, he fled 
 to Pelops. At the death of the usurpers, 
 he ascended the throne of his fathers and 
 married Jocasta. {See (Edipus.) 
 
 Lampadedromia. See Torch-race. 
 
 Lamprldius. One of the Scriptores His- 
 toric Augustce (q.v.). 
 
 Lamps. See Lighting. 
 
 Lancea. See Legion, near end. 
 
 Lanista. The Roman name for a fen- 
 cing-master or trainer of gladiators. (See 
 Gladiatores.) 
 
 Lantern of DemostheneF. A mediaeval 
 name for the monument of Lysicrates (q.v.). 
 
 Lanterns. See Lighting. 
 
 LAOCOON AND HIS SONS. 
 {Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 Laocdon. According to the post-Homeric 
 story, a priest of Apollo. He had displeased 
 that god by marrying against his wishes ; 
 
LAODAMEIA .LARES. 
 
 343 
 
 and, when the Greeks had departed for a 
 time from Troy, leaving the wooden horse 
 behind them, he again offended, by serving 
 as a priest on the occasion of the sacrifice 
 offered to PSseidon. Accordingly, in the 
 midst of the sacrificial feast, the god sent two 
 serpents who strangled Laocoon and one of 
 his sons. In Vergil's account [JSn. ii 230] 
 Laocoon draws down upon himself the wrath 
 of Athena, not only for warning the Trojans 
 against the guile of the Greeks, but for 
 piercing with a spear the flank of the horse 
 dedicated to the goddess. Whilst he was 
 sacrificing to Poseidon on the beach, Athena 
 caused two snakes to emerge from the sea 
 and strangle the father and both of his 
 sons. This incident has been represented 
 in the famous group of sculpture (see cut), 
 the work of the Ehodian artists Agesander, 
 Polydorus, and Athenodorus, 
 which was found in 1506 amid 
 the ruins of the house of the 
 emperor Titus at Rome. It is 
 now in the Belvedere court of 
 the Vatican Museum. {Comp. 
 
 SCULPTUEE.) 
 
 Laddameia. (Lat. -la). The 
 daughter of Acastus, and wife 
 of Protesilaus (q-v.). She was 
 celebrated for her attachment to 
 her husband, whom she followed 
 to death of her own free will. 
 
 Laomedon. Son of Ilus and 
 Eurydice, father of Priam, 
 Tithonus, and Hesione, and 
 king of Ilium. Apollo and 
 Poseidon served him for wages, 
 the former pasturing his flock 
 on Mount Ida, while the latter, 
 either alone or with the help 
 of Apollo and vEacus (^.i?.), built 
 the walls of the town. But 
 Laomedon defrauded the gods 
 of the payment that had been 
 agreed upon. Apollo therefore 
 visited the land with a plague, 
 and Poseidon sent a sea-monster, 
 to whom the king was forced 
 to offer his daughter Hesione. 
 Heracles, on his way back from 
 the Amazons, found the maiden 
 chained to a rock in the sea, and 
 he offered to kill the monster if 
 he were given the magic horses 
 which Zeus had bestowed on 
 Tros in exchange for Ganymede, 
 whom he had carried off. Laomedon agreed 
 to this, but again broke his promise. Accor- 
 dingly Heracles (q.v.) subsequently waged 
 
 war against him, and after capturing the 
 city, slew him and all his sons, except Priam. 
 
 Laquearia. See Lacunaeia. 
 
 Laquearius. See Gladiatoees. 
 
 Lara. See Mania. 
 
 Lararium. The shrine of the Lares. 
 (See Laees.) 
 
 Lares (i.e. lords). The Latin name for 
 the good spirits of the departed, who even 
 after death continue to be active in bring- 
 ing blessing on their posterity. The origin 
 of the worship of the Lares is traced to the 
 fact that the Romans buried their dead in 
 their own houses, until it was forbidden by 
 the laws of the Twelve Tables. Every 
 house had individually a lar fdmUidris, 
 who was the " lord " or tutelary spirit of 
 the family ; his chief care was to prevent 
 its dying out. His image, habited in a t6ga, 
 
 *Ai:TAn OF LABES COMPITALES. 
 
 (Pompeii.) 
 
 stood between the two Penates, in the 
 Idrdrium or shrine of the Lares, beside the 
 household hearth, which in early days was 
 
344 
 
 LARUNDA- 
 
 -LEANDER. 
 
 in the dtrium ; the group as a whole was 
 also commonly called either the Lares or 
 the PSnMcs. The ancient Roman and his 
 children saluted it daily with a morning 
 prayer and an offering from the table ; for, 
 after the chief meal was over, a portion of 
 it was laid on the fire on the hearth. When 
 the hearth and the Lares were not in the 
 eating-room, the offering was placed on a 
 special table before the shrine. Regular 
 sacrifices were offered on the calends, 
 nones, and ides of every month and at all 
 important family festivities, such as the 
 birthday of the father of the family, the 
 assumption by a son of the toga vlrllis, the 
 marriage of a child, or at the reception of 
 a bride, or the return of any member of 
 the family after a long absence. On such 
 occasions the Lares were covered with gar- 
 lands and cakes and honey ; wine and in- 
 cense, and animals, especially swine, were 
 offered up. Out of doors the Lares were 
 also honoured as tutelary divinities, and in 
 the chapels at the cross-ways {compUa) 
 there were always two lares compitales or 
 vicOnim (one for each of the intersecting 
 roads) which were honoured by a popular 
 festival iCompitCdia) held four times a year 
 {cp. cut). Augustus added to the Lares the 
 Genius Augusti, and commanded two 
 regular feasts to be held in honour of these 
 divinities, in the months of May and 
 August. Further, there were Lares belong- 
 ing to the whole city (lares prcestUes). 
 They were invoked with the mother of the 
 Lares, also called Lara, Larunda, or Mania 
 (q.v.), and had an ancient altar and temple 
 to themselves in Rome. The Lares were 
 invoked as protectors on a journey, in the 
 country, in'] war, and, on the sea. In con- 
 trast to these good spirits we have the 
 LarvcB (q.v.). 
 
 Larunda. Sec Mania. 
 
 Larvae. In Roman belief the Larva?, in 
 contrast to the Lares (the good spirits of 
 the departed), were the souls of dead people 
 who could find no rest, either owing to 
 their own guilt, or from having met with 
 some indignity, such as a violent death. 
 They were supposed to wander abroad in 
 the form of dreadful spectres, skeletons, 
 etc., and especially to strike the living with 
 madness. Similar spectres of the night are 
 the LemUres. To expel them from the 
 house, peculiar expiatory rites were held 
 on three days of the year, the 9th, 11th, 
 and 13th of May, the Lemuria, when all 
 the temples were cjosed, and marriages 
 ■avoided. 
 
 Lasus (Gr. Lasos). A Greek dithyrambic 
 poet. {See Dithyrambos.) 
 
 Latifundium. The Latin term for an 
 extensive landed estate which was worked 
 by means of slaves. Lands of the State 
 {see Agee Publicus) taken into permanent 
 use by occupdtiO formed the foundation 
 of these properties, and their possessor 
 enlarged them by obtaining contiguous pro- 
 perty either by purchase or by forcible 
 appropriation. This system of latifundia 
 gradually caused the utter ruin of the 
 Italian peasantry, and involved in it the 
 general destruction of the community \Lafi' 
 fundia perdidere Itdliam, Pliny, N. II., 
 xviii 35]. 
 
 Latini. The name originally given by 
 the Romans, in the language of constitu- 
 tional law, to those who belonged to the 
 Latin league. At its dissolution, in B.C. 
 338, they did not receive the right of Roman 
 citizenship, but entered into the condition 
 of dependent sOcii {q.v.) ; they had a defi- 
 nite precedence over the other socii, pos- 
 sessed the coimnercimn {q.v.), and the right 
 of settlement in Rome, and their attain- 
 ment of the right of citizenship was mate- 
 rially facilitated. They received this when 
 they had once filled any annual public 
 office in their community, or when, on 
 settling in Rome, they left a son behind 
 them in the colony to which they belonged. 
 After the right of citizenship had been 
 given to all the inhabitants of Italy (B.C. 
 89), this ills Lata, or Latin Right, became 
 useless for Italy ; it was even given by 
 many of the emperors to communities in 
 the provinces, and A.D. 212 all free inhabi- 
 tants of the empire received the right of 
 citizenship. After this time the only 
 Latini remaining were those called the 
 Latini luniani, slaves who had been in- 
 formally set at liberty, and who Avere 
 allowed this privilege from the time of 
 Tiberius. 
 
 Latinus. Son of Paunus and of the Nymph 
 Marica (according to another story, of Her- 
 cules and Pauna, or of Odysseus and Circe). 
 He was king of Latium, and father of 
 Lavinia, the wife of -(Eneas {q.v,). 
 
 Latona. See Leto. 
 
 Lavatrina. See Baths. 
 
 Lavema. The Roman patroness of thieves. 
 There was an altar dedicated to her at the 
 gate named after her the Porta Lavernalis. 
 
 Lavinia. Daughter of Latinus, and wife 
 of ^neas {q.v.). 
 
 LSander (Gr. Leandros). A youth of 
 AbydQs, on the Hellespont, whose story was 
 
LEARCHUS LEGION. 
 
 345 
 
 very celebrated in ancient times, and was 
 the theme of a minor epic poem by Musaeus 
 (q.v.). He was in love with Hero (q.v.), and 
 every night swam across the Hellespont to 
 visit her in her solitary tower at Lesbos. 
 He was guided by a light in the tower, 
 and on its being extinguished in a night 
 of tempest, he lost his life in the waves. 
 When Hero saw his corpse washed up 
 the next morning on the shore, she threw 
 herself down from the tower, and was thus 
 killed. 
 
 Learchus. The son of Athamas (q.v.) and 
 Ino. He was killed by his father in a fit 
 of madness. 
 
 Lectica. See Litters. 
 
 Lectisternium. A festival of Greek 
 origin, first ordered by the Sibylline books 
 in 399 B.C. It was held on exceptional occa- 
 sions, particularly in times of great distress. 
 Images of the gods (probably portable 
 figures of wood draped with robes, and 
 with their heads made of marble, clay, or 
 wax) were laid on a couch (called the lectus 
 or p!(?iTna7')- A table was placed before 
 them, on which was laid out a meal, always 
 a free-will offering. At the first Lecti- 
 sternia, there were three lectl arranged for 
 three pairs of non-Roman divinities ; Apollo 
 and Latona, Heracles and Artemis (Diana), 
 Hermes (Mercurius) and Poseidon (Nep- 
 tune). Afterwards, this sacrifice was offered 
 to the six pairs of Roman gods, who cor- 
 responded to the twelve great gods of the 
 Greeks : Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, 
 Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta, 
 Mercury, and Ceres. These banquets to 
 the gods generally took place at festivals 
 of prayer and thanksgiving, which were 
 called Suppllcdtwnts (q.v.), and were per- 
 formed in the market-places or at appointed 
 temples, in which the arrangements for the 
 purpose were on a permanent footing. It 
 was customary to have connected with this 
 a domestic feast, to which both strangers 
 and friends were invited, and in which 
 even those imprisoned for debt were al- 
 lowed to participate. From the commence- 
 ment of the 3rd century B.C. a banquet 
 was regularly given to the three Capitoline 
 divinities, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, on 
 every 13th of November, in conjunction 
 with the plebeian games. Under the Em- 
 pire the celebration was on the 13th of 
 Septembei", and was associated with the 
 Roman games. From B.C. 19G it was pro- 
 vided by the College of EpulonCs (q.v.). 
 The images of the three gods were decked 
 with curls, anointed, and tricked out with 
 
 colours. Jupiter was placed reclining on a 
 cushion, with a goddess on each side of him 
 seated on a chair ; and the divinities were 
 invited to a banquet, in which the whole 
 senate participated. 
 
 LecJ-thus (Gr. lekuthdn). An oil-flask. 
 (See Vases cmd Vessels.) 
 
 Leda. Daughter of Thestius, and sister 
 of Althsea, and wife of Tyndareos. Ac- 
 cording to Homer it was by Tyndareos 
 that she became the mother of Castor and 
 Pollux (Polydeuces), and also of Clytas- 
 mnestra, while Helen was her daughter by 
 Zeus. Generally, however, Helen and 
 Pollux are described as children of Zeus, 
 Clytsemnestra and Castor as those of Tyn- 
 dareos. According to the later story, Zeus 
 approached Leda in the shape of a swan, 
 and she brought forth two eggs, out of one 
 of which sprang Helen, and out of the other 
 Castor and Pollux. 
 
 Legatl. The Roman term for (1) ambas- 
 sadors who, under the Republic, were chosen 
 by the senate from among the most dis- 
 tinguished senators and provided with in- 
 structions and proper remuneration. On 
 their return they had to hand in a report 
 to the senate. 
 
 (2) Persons appointed, as above, by the 
 senate, to accompany the generals and the 
 governors of provinces. Three or more 
 could be appointed, according to the neces- 
 sity of the case. They were of senatorial 
 rank, and were bound to carry out the com- 
 mands of their superior officer, who was 
 responsible for them. In his absence they 
 took his place as Icgati pro prcBtore. Under 
 the Empire this title was ahso given to 
 those who assisted in the duties of juris- 
 diction and government in the senatorial 
 provinces. On the other hand, the legati 
 Augusti pro prcetore were nominated by the 
 emperor himself, without any specified limit 
 of time, to act as governors over imperial 
 provinces in which there was an army. 
 They were divided into consular and pra>- 
 torian legati, according as the authority 
 delegated to them extended over several 
 legions or only one. Besides these there 
 were legati legtoniim, appointed according 
 to the number of the legions. They were 
 men of senatorial rank, and had the com- 
 mand of the several legions, and of the 
 auxiliary troops belonging to them. 
 
 Legion (LSgio). In the time of Romiilus 
 the united armed forces of Rome went by 
 this name. The legion consisted of 300 
 knights (celSre.i) tinder the command of a 
 tvihunus celeriim, appointed by the king. 
 
346 
 
 LEGION. 
 
 and 3,000 foot soldiers, under the command 
 of three tribuni inllitum. Each of the 
 three ancient tribes provided a third of this 
 force and one tribune. With the increase 
 of the military forces of Rome the name of 
 legio was given to each of the sub-divisions 
 equivalent in numbers to the original army. 
 
 The military system of king Servius Tul- 
 lius made the infantry the most important 
 part of the military forces, instead of the 
 cavalry as heretofore. The five classes in- 
 cluded in the census (q.v.) were obliged to 
 serve in the army at their own expense ; 
 those who were not comprised in these 
 classes, viz. the prdlttavii, were freed from 
 service, and, when they were enlisted, re- 
 ceived their equipment from the State. The 
 iuniores, those who were from 17 to 46 
 years old, were appointed for field service, 
 and the seniores, those from 47 to 60, for 
 the defence of the city. 
 
 The first and second lines of the legion, 
 drawn up in unbroken order like the 
 Greek phalanx, consisted of citizens of the 
 first class, equipped with helmet, cuirass, 
 round shield (cZtpews), and greaves, all of 
 bronze. The third and fourth lines were 
 from the second class, and had no cuirass, 
 but had the helmet and greaves and large 
 oblong shields (scutum). The fifth and 
 sixth were armed similarly, but withovTt 
 greaves, and were drawn from the third 
 class. The fourth class was armed with the 
 scutum as its only weapon of defence, but, 
 like the others, provided with spear {hasta) 
 and sword. It either iilled the seventh and 
 eighth lines, or, with the fifth class, formed 
 the roixJni, who opened the battle with 
 slings and other light missiles. 
 
 An important alteration, ascribed to 
 Camillus (about B.C. 390), was the abolition 
 of the phalanx and introduction of the 
 manipular formation, which prevailed till 
 the time of Marius (end of the 2nd cen- 
 tury B.C.). In the flourishing days of the 
 Republic, the normal strength of a legion, 
 which could be increased iu time of need, 
 consisted of 800 knights (Squites), and 4,200 
 foot soldiers (pSditSs). In respect to the 
 weapons used, the latter were divided into 
 four kinds, according to their length of 
 service and familiarity with warfare. (1) 
 1,200 hasted t, all in early manhood ; (2) 
 1,200 principes, in the full vigour of life ; 
 (3) 60() triurn., who were proved veterans; 
 and (4) 1,200 velltes, who were lightly 
 armed, and were drawn from the lowest 
 classes of the census. The three first 
 classes had a bronze helmet (cassis} with a 
 
 lofty plume of feathers, a scutum, a leathern 
 cuirass (lOrlca, q.v.), greaves and a sword 
 (glddius), which, after the second Punic War 
 was of the Spanish kind, being short, strong, 
 and two-edged, fitted for thrusting rather 
 than cutting, and worn on the right side. 
 There was also a spear, which in the two 
 first divisions was apllum (q.v.), and among 
 the triarii a lance [Polyb. vi 23]. The velites 
 were armed with a leather helmet {galea), 
 a light shield (parma), and a sword and 
 several light javelins. The 3,000 heavily 
 armed men were divided into 30 mctnipuli, 
 nu inhering 120 men each among the hastati 
 and principes, and 60 each among the 
 triarii, and were again subdivided into two 
 bodies called centUria?, and led by centu- 
 rions (q.v.). Of the 1,200 vclites, 20 were 
 allotted to each century, and they formed 
 the final complement of each maniple. On 
 the field of battle the maniples were drawn 
 up in open order, separated laterally from 
 one another by intervals corresponding to 
 the breadth of each maniple in front. The 
 arrangement of the maniples would thus 
 resemble that of the black squares on a 
 chessboard. They fell into three divisions ; 
 the hastati in the front rank, with the 
 principes behind them, and the triarii in 
 the rear. If the first division, the hastati, 
 were compelled to give way, then the second 
 division, the principes, advanced through 
 the intervals left by the maniples of the 
 first division ; if the principes in their turn 
 had to retreat, then the third division, the 
 triarii, who had been previously kneeling, 
 protected by their shields, allowed the 
 hastati and principes to fall back into the 
 intervals separating the maniples of the 
 triarii, and themselves closing their ranks 
 pressed forward to meet the enemy. The 
 300 knights of the legion were divided into 
 10 turmoe of 30 men each, and were equipped 
 with a bronze cuirass, leathern greaves, 
 helmet, shield, a long sword for attack- 
 ing, and a long lance provided at both 
 ends with an iron point. Each turma was 
 under three decurions and three under- 
 officers (optiones). The legion as a whole 
 was under the command of six tribuni 
 mllituvi (q.v.) 
 
 The consular army consisted of two 
 legions. Pour legions were regularly levied 
 in each year ; in other words, 16,800 foot 
 soldiers and 1,200 cavalry. This le\-y or 
 citizens was further swelled by the Italian 
 allies (socil), a body of 20,000 foot soldiers 
 and 3,600 cavalry, thus adding to each of 
 the two consular armies 10,000 foot soldiers 
 
LEGION. 
 
 347 
 
 and 1,800 cavalry. The former were in 
 twenty cohorts (see CoHORS), each consist- 
 ing of 420 men. Ten of these cohorts fought 
 on the right wing, and ten on the left wing 
 of the legions. Besides these, four cohorts 
 of 400 men each were formed into a picked 
 body. The cavalry were in six squadrons 
 (see Ala, 1) of 300 men each. Four of these 
 belonged to the main army, and two to the 
 picked body. In wars beyond the limits 
 of Italy there were also auxiliary forces 
 (auxUia), consisting either of soldiers 
 raised in the country where the war was 
 being carried on, or of light-armed troops 
 furnished by allied kings and nations. 
 Besides the ordinary component parts of the 
 legion there was also the bodyguard 6i the 
 commander-in-chief, the cdhors prmtoria. 
 {See CoHORS.) 
 
 In the course of the 1st century B.C. the 
 organization of the legion was essentially 
 altered. In the first place, in the time of 
 Marius, the census ceased to be the basis 
 of the levy, and all the citizens collectively 
 were placed on the same footing in respect 
 to their military service and the uniform 
 which they wore. All the soldiers of the 
 legion alike received the heavy equipment 
 and the piluvi, while the light-armed velites 
 were done away with. After the right of 
 citizenship had been conferred on the 
 Italian allies, these no longer formed a 
 separate part of the legions, but were in- 
 corporated with them. Thus the Roman 
 army now consisted only of heavy-armed 
 legions and of light-armed auxiliary troops. 
 The latter were partly raised in the pro- 
 vinces and divided into cohorts, and partly 
 enlisted as slingers and archers. The 
 cavalry of the legions ceased to exist. Like 
 the light-armed soldiers, the whole of the 
 cavalry consisted of auxiliary troops, who 
 were partly enlisted and partly levied from 
 the provinces, while some were supplied 
 according to agreement by allied nations 
 and princes. A further important novelty 
 introduced by Marius was the use of the 
 cohort-formation, instead of the maniple- 
 formation, which broke up the front too 
 much. The legion was now divided into ten 
 cohorts, in each of which there were three 
 maniples of hastati, principes, and triarii, 
 designations which now only concern the 
 relative rank of the six centurions of the 
 cohort. The customary battle array was in : 
 three divisions, the first being formed of 
 four cohorts, and the second and third of 
 three each. Again, while in earlier times 
 the obligation of service extended at the 
 
 most in the infantry to twenty campaigns 
 and in the cavalry to ten, from the days 
 of Marius the soldier remained uninter- 
 ruptedly for twenty years with the army ; 
 an earlier dismissal being only exceptional. 
 For this reason the well-to-do classes sought 
 to withdraw themselves from the general 
 military service, and it thus came to pass 
 that the legions were for the greater part 
 manned by means of conscriptions from the 
 lowest strata of the burgher population of 
 Italy, in which the service was regarded 
 simply as a means of livelihood. Thus from 
 the original army of citizens there was 
 gradually developed a standing army of 
 mercenaries. Under the Empire we find 
 what is really a standing army, bound to 
 the emperor by oath (see Sackamentum) ; 
 apart from the legions this army consisted 
 of the auxilia (q.v.), the guards stationed 
 in Rome and the neighbourhood (see Pe^- 
 TORiANi), and the city-cohorts (see Cohors), 
 the artillery and the corps of workmen (see 
 Fabri), the marines (see Classiarii), and 
 the municipal and provincial militia. The 
 legions are now once more provided with 
 a corps of cavalry 120 strong, and are 
 designated not only by numbers, but also 
 by distinctive names. Together with the 
 auxiliary troops they form the garrison of 
 the imperatorial provinces under the com- 
 mand of the imperatorial legati legidnurn 
 {sec Legati), whose place was taken in the 
 middle of the 3rd century by the prcefecti 
 legionuin {see Pejefecti). The strength 
 of the legion now amounted to 5-6,000 
 men, raised partly by a regular levy, partly 
 by drawing recruits from the Roman 
 citizens of all the provinces beyond the 
 bounds of Italy. As under the Republic, 
 it was divided into 10 cohorts of 6 centuries 
 each ; the first cohort was, however, twice 
 the strength of the remainder. It was not 
 until the second half of the 3rd century 
 a.d. that a new division of the 10 cohorts 
 into 55 centuries came into use, with 10 
 centuries in the first cohort, and 5 in each 
 of the rest. At the death of Augustus, the 
 number of the legions was 25 ; it was then 
 increased to 30, and this number was main- 
 tained until the end of the 2nd century, 
 when three new legions were added by 
 Septimius Severus. From the beginning of 
 the 4th century it gradually rose to about 
 175, each of them, however, mustering ' a 
 considerably smaller contingent. In course 
 of time, and especially after the 2nd century, 
 owing to the conflicts with the barbarians, 
 the legion was drawn up more and more 
 
348 
 
 LEITOURGIA. 
 
 after the manner of the Greek phalanx, 
 without intervals in its line and with a 
 division of troops in its rear. In its equip- 
 ment there was an important alteration 
 beginning with the second half of the 3rd 
 century, when all the soldiers of the legion 
 carried long swords [spdthcr), and the first 
 five cohorts two ptla, one larger and another 
 smaller, while the last five had lancca, or 
 javelins serving as missiles, and fitted with 
 a leather loop to help in hurling them with 
 precision. 
 
 The military music of the Romans was 
 provided by tubiclncs (see Tuba), cormcmes 
 (see Cornicen), buclnfttOres (see Bucina), 
 and lUlclnes (see LiTUUS, 2). On standards 
 or ensigns, see Signum and Vexillum. On 
 levy, oath of allegiance, pay, and discharge 
 from service, see Dilectus, Sacramentum, 
 Stipendium, and Missio. The accompany- 
 ing cut (from the Column of Trajan) repre- 
 sents the soldiers of a legion on the march. 
 
 RIPMAS LEGIONARIES ON TBE aiARCH. 
 
 (Relief from the Column of Trajan, Rome.) 
 
 carrying their helmets close to the right 
 shoulder, and their kit at the top of a pole 
 resting on the left. 
 
 Leitourgia (i.e. " service performed for 
 the public "). A term applied at Athens to 
 either an ordinary or extraordinary service, 
 which the State imposed on its wealthier 
 citizens in accordance with a regular rota- 
 tion. The ordinary services, which citizens 
 whose property amounted to more than 
 three talents [£600] were required to per- 
 form, are : (1) the Clwregla, the most ex- 
 
 pensive service of this kind, involving the 
 equipment of a chorus (q.v.) for its musical 
 competitions at public festivals, which were 
 accompanied by theatrical and musical per- 
 formances. (2) The Gymndstarclila, which 
 imposed the obligation of training in the 
 Gymnasia the competitors for the gymnastic 
 contests, supplying them with proper diet 
 while they were in training, and providing 
 at the games themselves for the requisite 
 arrangement and decoration of the scene of 
 the contest. The most expensive type of 
 this form of service was the lampddarchia, 
 the equipment of the torch race (q.v.), which 
 in one instance [recorded in Lysias Or. 
 21 § 3] cost twelve miner [£4D]. (3) The 
 Archttheoria, or superintendence of the 
 sacred embassies (theorice) sent to the four 
 great national festivals, or to Delos and 
 other holy places. In this case the State 
 contributed part of the expense. There 
 were other leitourgiai confined to the 
 separate tribes and demes, such as the 
 entertainment of members of the clan on 
 festal occasions. 
 
 The most expensive of all was the 
 extraordinary leitourgia called the trier- 
 arcliia, which was necessary only [or rather 
 mainlj'] in times of war. This involved 
 the equipment of a ship of war, and was 
 required of the wealthiest citizens only. 
 Before the Persian Wars the equipment of 
 the forty-eight to fifty ships of the Athenian 
 navy of that time devolved on the naucrdrim 
 (q.v.). When the number of the fleet was 
 increased, the necessary number of trierarchs 
 was nominated in each year by the strdtegi. 
 The State provided the vessel, i.e. the hull 
 i and mast ; and every trierarch had to fit 
 out this vessel with the necessary equip- 
 ment, to keep it in readiness for the year, 
 ! and to man it with a complete crew of 
 1 oarsmen and others. The State supplied 
 pay and provision for the crew, though the 
 sum paid did not always suffice for the 
 ' purpose ; it afterwards supplied the furni- 
 ; ture of the vessel also. To lighten the 
 : expense, which amounted to between forty 
 mince and a talent (£133-£200), it became 
 allowable, about 411 B.C., for two persons 
 to share it. Afterwards, in 358, twenty 
 symmSricB (q.v.) were instituted, i.e. com- 
 panies consisting of sixty citizens each, 
 with a committee of the 300 wealthiest 
 j citizens at their head ; the 300 distributed 
 ' the expense over the individual symmuriw 
 in such sort that the cost of a single trireme 
 i was shared by a greater or less number of 
 citizens. Lastly, about B,C. 340, the inci- 
 
LEMURES- 
 
 - LETTERS. 
 
 UO 
 
 dence of the burden was regulated by a law 
 introduced by Demosthenes, whereby all 
 citizens, Avith the exception of the poorer 
 classes, bore the expense in proportion to 
 their property. Thus property [or rather, 
 taxable capital] amounting to ten talents 
 imposed the obligation of equipping one 
 vessel, twenty talents two vessels, and so on. 
 Those who had less than ten talents were to 
 club together and to make up that amount 
 among them. 
 
 The time of service lasted, as has been 
 already stated, for one j'ear. On its 
 expiration, the trierarcli, who had looked 
 after the vessel, was responsible to the 
 Ldgistcc {q.t\) for the condition of the vessel, 
 and had to hand in his account of the 
 expenditure of the sums paid by the State. 
 
 '■'■ GANYMEDE AND THE EAGLE. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican Musaam.) 
 
 Another board, the epimeletai of the nSorid 
 (the inspectors of the dockyards), super- 
 intended the regular fulfilment of the duties 
 of the trierarchs, and were armed for this 
 purpose with compulsory powers. 
 
 No one was compelled to undertake more 
 than one leitourgia at the same time, or 
 two in two immediately successive years. 
 The only persons exempt from the trierarchy 
 were the archons, unmarried " heiresses," 
 and orphans up to the end of the first year 
 after they had come of age. The obligation 
 to see that the leitourgia was discharged 
 in each particular case fell on the tribe 
 
 coucerned. If any one considered that he 
 had been unfairly chosen for this duty, and 
 a wealthier pei'son passed over, he could 
 resort to the form of challenge to exchange 
 properties known as the antiddsis {q.r.). 
 [Cp. Introduction to Demosthenes, Adc. 
 Leptinem, ed. Sandys, pp. ii-xviii.] 
 
 LSmures. Ghosts. {See Lakv^.) 
 
 Lensea. A festival in honour of Dionysus. 
 {See DioNYSiA, 3). 
 
 L^och&res. A Greek sculptor, of Athens, 
 who (about 350 B.C.) was engaged with 
 Scopas in the adornment of the Mausoleum 
 {q.v.) of Halicarnassus. One of his most 
 famous works was the bronze group of 
 Ganijmcde and the Eagle, a work remark- 
 able for its ingenious composition, which 
 boldly ventures to the verge of what is 
 allowed by the laws of sculpture, and also 
 for its charming treatment of the youthful 
 form as it soars into the air. It is ap- 
 parently imitated in the well-known marble 
 group in the Vatican {see cut). 
 
 Lernsean Hydra. See Heracles. 
 
 Lesbonax. A Greek rhetorician who 
 lived early in the 1st century of our era. 
 He composed political declamations on 
 imaginary topics. Two of these have come 
 down to us, exhorting the Athenians in the 
 Peloponnesian War to be bold in battle 
 against the Thebans and the Spartans. 
 
 Lethe (" the river of oblivion "), A river 
 of Hades {q.v.), out of which the souls of 
 the departed drink oblivion of all their 
 early existence. 
 
 Leto (Lat. Ldfnna). Daughter of the Titan 
 Coeus and Phoebe. According to Hesiod 
 [Tlieog. 406], she was the "dark-robed and 
 ever mild and gentle " wife of Zeus, before 
 he was wedded to Hera, and the mother of 
 Apollo and Artemis. According to a later 
 legend she is onljr the mistress of Zeus 
 after he is wedded to Hera ; when about to 
 give birth to her children, she is pursued 
 from land to land till at last she finds rest 
 on the desolate island of Ortygia (Delos), 
 Avhich, up to that time, had floated on the 
 sea, but was thereafter fixed firmly on 
 four pillars of adamant. As mother of 
 Apollo and Artemis, she dwells in Olympus. 
 Her devoted children exact vengeance for 
 her on Niobe {q.v.}. The giant Tityus, for 
 attempting to offer violence to her, is 
 punished for evermore in the world below. 
 She is for the most part worshipped in 
 conjunction with Apollo and Artemis. 
 
 Letters. Letters were written on tablets 
 (see Diptychon) or small rolls of papyrus, 
 the address being put on the outside. They 
 
350 
 
 LEUCOTHEA LIBRARIES. 
 
 were tied up with a thread, and the knot 
 was sealed with wax. In wealthy Roman 
 famihes special slaves or freedmen {ab 
 ejnstulis) were kept for writing the corre- 
 spondence, and carrying the letters : the 
 latter were called tdbelldrll. 
 
 Leucothfia. The name of the deified Ino. 
 
 Lexiarchs (Gr. Uxiarchoi). At Athens, 
 a board of six members, who, with thirty 
 assistants, saw that only properly qualified 
 persons attended meetings of the ecclesia. 
 They also entered young citizens on the 
 list of their deme when they came of age. 
 
 Libanius. A Greek rhetorician of Antioch 
 in Syria, born 314 a.d. His education was 
 begun in his native city and completed at 
 Athens, where he became a public teacher 
 at the early age of 25. Called from Athens 
 to Constantinople in 340, he met with 
 extraordinary success; at the same time 
 he excited the envy of his rivals, whose 
 slanders led to his expulsion in 342. After 
 being actively engaged for five years as a 
 public teacher in Nicomedia in Bithynia, 
 he was recalled to Constantinople, where he 
 was again remarkably popular, but found 
 himself compelled by the continued per- 
 secutions of his detractors to leave the 
 capital once more in 353. He withdrew to 
 his native city of Antioch, where he was 
 for manj"- years actively employed in the 
 exercise of his profession and in promoting 
 the interests of his fellow citizens ; but 
 even here he was much persecuted by his 
 opponents. Apart from bodily sufferings 
 caused by his being struck by a flash of 
 lightning, his old age was saddened by the 
 decline of learning and the. fall of paganism, 
 which he had foreseen would follow the 
 lamented death of his admirer and patron, 
 Julian. He died about 393, honoured and 
 admired by his pupils, among whom were 
 included Christians such as Basil the Great 
 and John Chrysostom ; for, although he 
 was enthusiastically devoted to the old 
 religion, he was so tolerant in his relations 
 to the adherents of Christianity, that he 
 imparted his instructions to Christians and 
 pagans alike. He himself gives us infor- 
 mation about his life and work in a series 
 of letters and in a speech " on his own for- 
 tune," written in his sixtieth year, but com- 
 pleted at a later date. He was conspicuous 
 among his contemporaries, not only for his 
 comprehensive culture and intellectual 
 ability, but also for his productivity. We 
 still possess sixty-seven of his speeches, the 
 majority of which refer to the events of his 
 time, and materially add to our knowledge 
 
 of them ; also fifty declamations ; a consider- 
 able series of rhetorical exercises of various 
 kinds, among them narratives, sketches of 
 character and descriptions of works of art 
 (some of them important in connexion with 
 the history of ancient art), and also argu- 
 ments to the speeches of Demosthenes. We 
 have further about 2,000 letters addressed 
 to friends, pupils, rhetoricians, scholars, 
 statesmen, etc., which give us a vivid 
 picture of his times. A fourth part of them, 
 however, only exist in a Latin translation, 
 and some of them are of doubtful genuine- 
 ness. Indeed many of the writings that 
 bear his name do not really belong to him. 
 His style, which is formed on the best Attic 
 models, is pure and has a certain elegance, 
 although it is not always free from the 
 affected and unnatural mannerism of his age. 
 
 Lib6r. The Italian god of wine, identified 
 with the Greek Dionysus (q.v.). 
 
 Libera. The wife of the Italian wine-god 
 Liber ; identified with the Greek Persephone. 
 {See Dionysus, last par.) 
 
 LlbSralia. The Roman festival of the 
 wine-god Liber. {See Dionysus.) 
 
 Libertas. Among the Romans, the per- 
 sonification of Liberty ; she had a temple on 
 the Aventine. Her name was also given 
 to the Atrium Libertcitis, a place of public 
 business which served, amongst other pur- 
 poses, as an office of the censors. After it 
 had been burnt down under Augustus, it 
 was rebuilt by Asinius Pollio, and the first 
 public library in Rome was established 
 within its walls. On coins Libertas is re- 
 presented as a beautiful and richly adorned 
 matron. At the end of the Republic, ^af ter 
 the assassination of Csesar, she appears with 
 a dagger and a cap of Liberty {see Pilleus 
 and coin under Brutus). 
 
 Liberti, Libertini. See Feeedmen. 
 
 Libitina. An ancient Italian goddess of 
 voluptuous delight and of gardens, vine- 
 yards, and vintages, originally connected 
 with Venus, and therefore often called Venus 
 Libitina. She was also regarded as the 
 goddess of death and of the departed, and 
 was therefore afterwards identified with 
 Proserpina. By an ancient ordinance, 
 ascribed originally to Servius Tullus, for 
 every person who died in Rome a piece of 
 money was deposited in her temple. Every- 
 thing requisite for burials was kept there, 
 and had to be bought or borrowed from it. 
 
 Libraries. In the earlier times libraries, 
 among the Greeks, were only possessed 
 by private individuals, such as Euripides, 
 Aristotle, and Theophrastus. Tradition 
 
LIBRARIUS LIGHTING. 
 
 351 
 
 attributed the establistment of a public 
 library at Athens to Pisistratus in the 6th 
 century B.C. This -was said to have been 
 carried off by Xerxes, and afterwards 
 restored by the Syrian Seleucus Meaner. 
 The greatest library known in antiquity 
 was that founded by the first Ptolemy at 
 Alexandria, which is said to have contained 
 400,000 volumes. Next to this, the most 
 important was that of the kings of Per- 
 gamon, said to have contained 200,000 
 volumes. This library was presented by 
 Marcus Antonius to ClSQpatra, when the 
 best part of the library at the Museum of 
 Alexandria was burnt down at the taking 
 of the town by Caesar. There was a second 
 library at Alexandria in the Serapeum. 
 
 The first libraries which were formed at 
 Rome were Greek, as, for instance, those 
 of JDmilius PauUus, Sulla, and LucuUus, 
 who had brought them to Rome as booty 
 after their wars in Macedonia, Athens, and 
 Asia Minor. Prom the middle of the last 
 century of the Republic it became the 
 fashion in wealthj' families to form libraries ; 
 in country houses, especially, they were 
 regarded as indispensable. 
 
 Caesar had formed the plan of founding 
 a public library in Rome, and of setting 
 Yarro to make a collection of Greek and 
 Latin books. The first public library of 
 Greek and Latin books was actually set up 
 in the time of Augustus by Asinius Pollio 
 in the atrium of Libertas. Augustus him- 
 self founded two more, the Octavian library 
 in the portico of Octavia, and the Palatine 
 in the temple of the Palatine Apollo. The 
 most celebrated of those founded by the 
 later emperors was the bybliotheca Ulpia of 
 Trajan. In the later imperial period there 
 were twenty-eight public libraries in Rome. 
 There were some very considerable private 
 collections, for instance, that of Serenus 
 Sammonicus, the tutor of Gordian, which 
 consisted of 62,000 volumes. 1,700 rolls 
 have been found in a library discovered 
 during the excavations at Herculaneum. 
 
 Librarius. The Latin name for a book- 
 seller. {See Books and Book-teade.) 
 
 Llbuma. A kind of light war- vessel, 
 with two banks of oars and of little draught. 
 Its shape was long and narrow, pointed at 
 both ends. The pattern was taken by the 
 Romans from the Liburnians, a piratical 
 tribe on the Dalmatic coast. {See Shi?s.) 
 
 Lichas. The attendant of Heracles 
 (5.V.), who brought him from Deianira the 
 poisoned garment, and was hurled by him 
 into the sea, where his body became a rock. 
 
 Licinius Macer. See Annalists. 
 
 Lictors (Lictdres). Attendants who bore 
 the fasces (q.v.) before Roman magistrates 
 who had a right to these insignia. They 
 were generally freedmen, and formed in 
 Rome a corps consisting of three dccUHce 
 under ten presidents. Prom these decurice, 
 the first of which was exclusively reserved 
 for the consuls', the magistrates in office 
 drew their lictors, while the provincial 
 office-bearers nominated their own for their 
 term of power. There was besides another 
 decuria of thirty lictores curiatl to attend 
 on the public sacrifices, to summon the 
 cumitia curulta, and, when these meetings 
 became little more than formal, to repre- 
 sent in them the thirty curies / from this 
 decuria probably were also chosen the 
 lictors of the flcimen dialis and of the 
 Vestals. It was the duty of the lictors 
 to accompany the magistrate continually, 
 whenever he appeared in public. On these 
 occasions they marched before him in 
 single file, last in order and immediately 
 preceding him being the lictor proxlmus, 
 who was superior in rank. All passers by, 
 with the exception of matrons and Vestals, 
 were warned by the lictors to stand aside 
 and make due obeisance. The space required 
 for official purposes was kept clear by them. 
 Sentences of punishment were also executed 
 by them. Their dress corresponded to that 
 of the magistrate ; inside the city the toga^i 
 outside, and in a triumph, the red military 
 cloak. 
 
 Lighthouse. See Pharos. 
 
 Lighting'. In the earliest times the rooms 
 of the Greeks were lighted by means of 
 pans filled with dried chips of logs, and 
 strips of resinous wood, or long deal staves 
 tied together with bands of bast, and the 
 like. In later times torches were made of 
 metal or clay cases filled with resinous sub- 
 stances. Or again, wooden staves dipped 
 in pitch, resin, or wax were tied close 
 together and inclosed in a metal casing, 
 inserted in a saucer to catch the ashes and 
 drops of resin. These torches were either 
 carried by a handle under the saucer, or 
 had a long shaft and a stand to set them up 
 on. Resinous torches were in use among 
 the Romans also, in early and later times. 
 They used besides a dry wick of linen or 
 oakum dipped in wax or tallow. Oil lamps, 
 however, were no sooner invented than 
 they became the most general medium of 
 illumination among both Greeks and 
 Romans. The lamp consisted of two parts : 
 (1) A saucer for the oil, sometimes round, 
 
?,:v2 
 
 LINUS. 
 
 sometimes oval, sometimes angular, with a 
 hole in the top for pouring in the oil, often 
 shut with a lid. (2) The wick-holder, a 
 projecting socket (Gr. myxa; Lat. rostrum). 
 
 (1 and 2) grekk terracotta lamps. 
 (Stackelberg's Griiher Act- HeHtjHeii, taf. lii.) 
 
 Sometimes there was a second hole on the 
 surface of the oil-YOssel, through which the 
 wick could be pushed up by means of a 
 needle. If the lamp was to be carried, it 
 
 images of gods, stories from mythology, 
 scenes of warlike and domestic life, of the 
 circus and the amphitheatre, animals, 
 arabesques, etc. (fig. 3). Some lamps are 
 themselves formed in the shape of gods, 
 men, or objects of different kinds {e.g. fig. 
 3, ?), ( ). The bronze lamps are speciallj' dis- 
 tinguished by elegance and variet}^. The 
 opening through which the oil was poured 
 in being small, they had vials specially 
 made foi- the purpose, with thin necks and 
 a narrow mouth. Special instruments were 
 made for trimming and pulling up the 
 wick : little tongs, or hooked pins, which 
 were sometimes fastened by a chain to 
 the handle. No method of preventing the 
 smoking of the lamps was known to the 
 ancients. Lanterns were made of trans- 
 
 ROMAS LAMPS. 
 
 Gnh1 and Koner, flg. 460. 
 
 a Mni-eo Bnrbonico. IV Iviii ; f, g, Ii, i, ib VI xl\-ii, .'Lsx ; }), t', d, c, 7, m, Fasserius, Lucer,.(e ficliles, I 30, 27, II G, I 6, 
 1129,96; k, Belloii, Aiiticl.e Liuvni.'. 
 
 had a handle ; if to be hung up, it was 
 furnished with one or more ears, to which 
 chains were attached. There were lamps 
 with two, three, four, and sometimes as 
 many as twenty wicks : these were hung 
 up on the roof or set up on a high stand. 
 The material of ancient lamps was cla}', 
 mostl}' of the red sort, and the manufacture 
 of claj"^ lamps formed a principal branch 
 of Italian pottery. (Greek lamps of this 
 material are represented in figs. 1, 2.) The 
 next in frequency is bronze ; it is not so 
 common to find lamps of other metals, 
 alabaster or glass. The numerous Roman 
 lamps still preserved generally exhibit 
 ornaments in relief of the most varinns 
 kinds on the surlace and on the handle : 
 
 parent materials, such as horn, oiled linen, 
 and bladders : the use of glass carne in 
 later. (See also Candelabrum.) 
 
 Linus (Gr. Linos). A hero representing 
 probably a god of the old Greek nature- 
 worship ; his death, symbolic of the flag- 
 ging vegetation during the heat of the 
 dog-days, was hymned in widely known 
 laments. The lament for Linus is men- 
 tioned as early as Homer [IL xviii 570]. In 
 Argos an ancient festival of Linus was long 
 continued. Here he was said to be the 
 son of Apollo and the princess PsamS,the. 
 Born in secret and exposed by his mother 
 the child grew up at a shepherd's among 
 the lambs, until torn in pieces by dogs. 
 Psamathe, however, on the news of what 
 
LINUS LITERATURE (GREEK). 
 
 853 
 
 had happened, was put to death by her 
 father. Apollo in wrath sent against the 
 land a monster in female form, named Peine. 
 By this monster mothers were robbed of 
 their children, nor were the Argives freed 
 from the curse until, by the bidding of the 
 oracle, they appeased Apollo by building a 
 temple, and establishing an expiatory fes- 
 tival in honour of the boy and his mother. 
 This was celebrated in the dog-days, in what 
 was hence called the " Month of Lambs," 
 as the " Feast of Lambs " (Arnels) or the 
 " Slaying of Dogs " {Cyndphontls) , whereat 
 lambs were sacrificed, and the dogs which 
 ran about free were slain, while women 
 and children lamented Linus and Psamathe 
 in mournful songs. In other places, e.g. 
 in Thebes, on Helicon, and on Olympus, 
 Linus, as son of Amphimarus and the 
 Muse Urania, was known as a minstrel, 
 the inventor of the Linus-song, who met 
 with an early death, and whose grave was 
 pointed out in different places. He was 
 said to have challenged Apollo to a contest, 
 and for that reason to have been slain by 
 the god. On Helicon, the mountain of the 
 Muses, his statue was placed in a grotto, 
 where year by year, before the sacrifice to 
 the Muses, a sacrifice for the dead was 
 offered up to him. In later times he was 
 described as the teacher of Heracles, who, 
 when reprimanded, slew him with the lyre. 
 
 Lions, Gate of, at Mycenae. See Akchi- 
 TECTURE, fig. 2. 
 
 Litai. See Ate. 
 
 Literature (general view). 
 
 Greek Literature. 
 
 Period I. From Homer to the time of the 
 Persian Wars. 
 (900-500 B.C.) 
 
 The first efforts of Greek poetry, which 
 were made in the mother-country in Europe, 
 and of which we have only legendary tra- 
 dition, received their earliest artistic form 
 in the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor. Here 
 was developed first of all the Heroic Epos. 
 In the great poems which bear the name of 
 Homer, and are the oldest monuments of 
 Greek literature (about 900 B.C.), we find epic 
 poetry already in a stage of perfection never 
 subsequently attained. As an Ionic school 
 of poets (the Cyclic poets) attached itself 
 to Homer, so in Greece itself, the Boeotian 
 Hesiod (about 800 B.C.), with his didactic 
 and genealogical epics, became the founder 
 of the Boeotian School. The last epic writer 
 of note in this period is PISander of 
 Camirus (about 640 B.C.).' Elegiac and 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 iambic poetry, like epic, owe their origin 
 to the lonians, the former represented by 
 CallInus (about 700 B.C.), Tyrt^eus (about 
 680), Mimneemus (about 600), S6lon (died 
 559), Theognis (died about 500), and SlMO- 
 nIdes of Ceos (died 468); the latter by 
 ArchIlCchus (about 700), Simonides op 
 Amorgus (about 650), and Hippon ax (about 
 540 B.C.). The true lyric or melic poetry 
 was developed after the .^olian Terpander 
 (about 675 B.C.) had originated the classical 
 Greek music. Among the ^olians in Lesbos 
 it assumed the form of a strophic poem, 
 and among the Peloponnesian Dorians of a 
 choric song, composed of strdphe, antistrophe, 
 and epodos. The great masters of the jEolian 
 school of lyric poetry are the Lesbians 
 ALCiEUS and Sappho (about 600 B.C.), and 
 the Ionian Anacreon (about 530 B.C.) ; an 
 echo of the iEolian lyric poetry remained, 
 when it was already silent in its native 
 home, in what were called Scolid. The de- 
 velopment of the choral form of lyric poetry, 
 which soon spread over the whole of Greece, 
 is marked by Alcman (about 660), Stesi- 
 chSrus (about 600), and Ibycus (about 
 540). Its perfection was reached in the time 
 of the Persian War by Simonides of Ceos, 
 mentioned above, and Pindar (died 442). 
 Prom the dithyramb (a perversion of the 
 choral lyric, which was given artistic form 
 by ArIon, alDout 600 B.C.) was developed in 
 Attica, from the second half of the 6th cen- 
 tury onwards, the drama with its three divi- 
 sions, tragedy, comedy, and satyric play. 
 
 As poetry developed itself first among 
 the lonians, so also did prose, which had its 
 beginning about the middle of the 6th cen- 
 tury, in the era of the Seven Sages. At this 
 time .(Esop created in prose the fables about 
 animals known by his name, and Pheee- 
 CYDES OF Stros composed the earliest prose 
 work. The subject of this was philosophical. 
 Philosophy was actually founded, on the one 
 hand, by Thales of Miletus (died about 
 650), AnaxImander (died 547), and AnaxI- 
 mSnes (died 502), the founders of the Ionic 
 school ; on the other hand, by PythagSras 
 of Samos (died 504 B.C.), who established 
 his philosophy in Magna Grsecia. At the 
 same time the first attempts at historical 
 composition were made in Ionia by writers 
 whom we know as the Ldgogrdpht. 
 
 Period II. The Attic Era. 
 (500-300 B.C.) 
 
 The wonderful impulse which the whole 
 life of the Greek nation received from the 
 Persian Wars showed itself in no place with 
 
 A A 
 
354 
 
 LITERATURE (GREEK). 
 
 greater force ttan at Athens, which, under 
 the guidance of Pericles in particular, 
 became the centre of all intellectual effort. 
 In poetic literature the first place was now 
 taken by the Attic drama, which reached 
 its highest level and maintained it until 
 the close of the 5th century. Tragedy 
 was represented by ^schylus (died 456), 
 SOPHOCLES (died 405), and EurIpides (died 
 405) ; what is known as old or political 
 comedy by Cratinus, E0p5lis, and Aris- 
 tOphanes (died about 388 B.C.). While 
 in the 4th century tragedy followed prac- 
 tically the traditional path, the poets of the 
 Middle Comedy, at the head of which stand 
 Antiphanes and Alexis, found themselves 
 compelled to turn their attention more and 
 more away from public life, which had 
 formed the subject of the older comic writers. 
 Finally the New Comedy (probably from 
 830 on) under Diphilus, Philemon, and 
 Menander (died 290) took completely the 
 form of a comedy of manners. The other 
 branches of poetry were almost entirely 
 thrown into the shade. 
 
 Didactic poetry received important con- 
 tributions about the beginning of this period 
 from the Eleatic philosophers Xen5phanes 
 (died about 470) and Parmenides (died 
 about 450) ; also from Emped5cles (died 
 about 430 B.C.). The attempts of Panyasis 
 (died about 450) and of Antimachds (about 
 400) to revive the heroic Epos, and that of 
 Chcerilus to found the historic, were fruit- 
 less. The elegy attained still less of inde- 
 pendent importance than epic poetry. 
 
 Lyric poetry had, besides Simonides and 
 Pindar, whose career extends into this period, 
 an eminent exponent in Bacchylides (about 
 450 B.C.) ; in later times, the only class 
 of melic composition which showed any 
 vitality was the dithyramb, under the new 
 form of melodrama, in which Philoxenus 
 (died 380) and Timotheus (died 357 B.C.) 
 especially distinguished themselves. 
 
 In the domain of prose the Ionic dialect 
 held undisputed mastery at the beginning 
 of this period : in it were composed the works 
 of the philosophers HeraclItus (died about 
 475), Anaxag5ras (died about 428), and 
 DemScritus (died about 370), besides those 
 of Herodotus (died about 424) the " Father 
 of History," the first to give an artistic form 
 to prose-narrative, and Hippocrates (died 
 about 377 B.C.) the founder of medical 
 science. In Attic, the dialect of Athens, 
 which was to become the general language 
 of prose, the greatest influence on the 
 artistic development of prose style was 
 
 exerted by the Sophists, especially Pro- 
 tagOras and Gorgias. The stimulus which 
 they gave was turned to the account of 
 practical oratory first by AntIphon (died 
 41 1), the pioneer of the " Ten Attic Orators." 
 He was followed by ANDdCiDES (died 344) ; 
 Lysias (died 360), the first really classical 
 orator ; Is6crates (died 338), the father of 
 rhetoric as an art; IsjEUS (died 350) ; 
 Demosthenes (died 332 B.C.), who repre- 
 sents the most perfect form of Attic oratory, 
 with jEschines, Hyperides, Lycurgus, and 
 DiNARCHUS, his contemporaries, While, on 
 the one hand, it was only in the time of the 
 decline of Greek freedom that Attic oratory 
 reached its highest point (from which, after 
 Demosthenes, it soon declined), in Attic his- 
 torical composition, on the contrary, there 
 stands at the very beginning an achieve- 
 ment never paralleled by Greek literature 
 in this line— the History of ThucydIdes 
 (died not later than 396). After him the 
 most noteworthy representatives of this 
 department are, for this period, his fellow 
 countryman Xenophon (died about 350), and 
 his younger contemporaries The5pompus 
 and EphSrus, neither of whom was of Attic 
 origin, though both of them were pupils of 
 Isocrates. 
 
 In philosophy Athens won a leading 
 position through Socrates (died 399). Of 
 his numerous pupils (Euclides, Aristippus, 
 Antisthenes, Xenophon), Plato (died 348 
 B.C.) was the founder of the Academic 
 school, and both as philosopher and as 
 prose-writer did ever-memorable service. 
 The same is true of Plato's pupil Aristotle 
 (died 322), the founder of the Peripatetic 
 school, whose literary activity extended 
 over the most widely different branches of 
 knowledge. Outside the domain of philo- 
 sophy he made a marked advance in his con- 
 tributions to the natural sciences. He was 
 followed by a succession of pupils, who made 
 further progress in the separate departments 
 of science. Theophhastus (died 287), for 
 example, did much for the natural sciences, 
 especially botany, AristOxenus (about 330) 
 for music, DIc.s;archus (about 320 B.C.) for 
 geography. To the close of this period 
 belong the philosophers Pyrrho (died about 
 275), Zeno (about 300), and EpIcurus (died 
 268 B.C.), the founders of the Sceptic, Stoic, 
 and Epicurean schools respectively. 
 
 Period III. The Alexandrian Era. 
 (300-30 B.C.) 
 
 After the downfall of Greek liberty, 
 Athens remained the city of philosophers, 
 
LITERATURE (GREEK). 
 
 355 
 
 but Alexandria became the true intellectual 
 capital of the Hellenic world and the head- 
 quarters of its erudition. This it owed to 
 its position as metropolis of the Ptolemaic 
 dynasty in Egypt, and to the encourage- 
 ment given by the Ptolemies to scientific 
 studies, especially by the establishment of 
 the great Library and of the Museum. The 
 great achievements of the earlier periods 
 were the genuine outcome of the national 
 spirit; but, when the nation no longer 
 existed, literature became more and more 
 the business of the learned, so that even 
 poetry assumed a pedantic dress. As re- 
 gards poetry, at the beginning of this period 
 the New Comedy still existed and endured 
 for a time, but then expired. Tragedy also 
 enjoyed a brief after-glow, in the poets of 
 what is known as the Alexandrine Pleiad. 
 Scarcely anything is known of lyric poets 
 from this period, whereas epic poetry was 
 again taken up and both its branches found 
 numerous followers. The first, or narrative, 
 branch took the form of short epic tales by 
 Callimachus (died about 240), Apollonius 
 RhSdius (died about 190), Rhianus (about 
 230 B.C.). jrhe poets of the other, or didactic, 
 branch, Aeatus (about 270), NICAnder 
 (about 150 B.C.), and others, eagerly devoted 
 themselves to popularising less known 
 branches of knowledge (astronomy, medi- 
 cine, etc.). 
 
 A new field for epic poetry was even dis- 
 covered during this period, in the bucolic 
 or pastoral poems, which were native to 
 Sicily, and were given artistic form by 
 Theocbitus (about 270 B.C.). In elegiac 
 poetry good service was done, especially by 
 Callimachus, mentioned above, the true 
 founder of the erotic elegy. The same may 
 be said of Epigrams. 
 
 In the department of j?rose the Alexan- 
 drine epoch evinced astounding fertility, 
 but form was for the most part neglected. 
 Of the numerous historians of this time, the 
 earlier of whom mostly described the deeds 
 of Alexander the Great, e.g. Clitaeghus 
 (about 300), the most noteworthy are 
 TlM^US (died 256) and PSlybius (died 
 122). Besides history itself, its various 
 subsidiary sciences were eagerly cultivated ; 
 for example, geography and chronology, 
 which received from Eratosthenes (died 
 about 195) their scientific form, and the 
 latter of whjch especially was further de- 
 veloped by ApollSdorus (about 140 B.C.). 
 Literary criticism grew into an independent 
 science and flourished under the scholars of 
 Alexandria and PergSmas, as Zen5d5tus 
 
 (about 275), AristSpi-ianes of Byzantium 
 (died about 185), Crates (about 170), but 
 above all Aristarchus (died about 153 
 B.C.). Considerable progress was also made 
 in the exact sciences, in mathematics by 
 EucLlDES (Euclid, about 300) and Archi- 
 medes (died 212), in astronomy by Eratos- 
 thenes, just mentioned, and especially by 
 HippAECHUs (died about 125 B.C.) who 
 established astronomy as a science. Simi- 
 larly the science of medicine attained great 
 perfection in Alexandria, in particular 
 under HerSphilds and Erasistratus. In 
 philosophy also great literary activity was 
 shown by the various schools, without, how- 
 ever, much speculative progress. Practical 
 oratory existed only in certain free com- 
 munities of Asia and in Rhodes, nor had 
 it any literary importance. On the other 
 hand the science of rhetoric received a 
 great impet\is about the end of the 2nd 
 century, chiefly by the services of Her- 
 MAGORAS (about 120 B.C.). 
 
 Period IV. The Roman Era. 
 (30 B.C. to 529 A.D.) 
 
 (30 B.C.) All the Greek provinces of Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa became incorporated in the 
 Roman Empire. Thus to the centres of learn- 
 ing which had hitherto existed in Athens 
 and Alexandria, was added a new centre 
 in Rome, the capital of the world. Greek 
 scholars of every kind flocked from every 
 quarter to Rome. Nor did they only 
 stimulate the rising intellect of Rome, but 
 themselves received much intellectual ad- 
 vantage. Whereas Roman literature after 
 the end of the 1st century a.d. was sinking 
 rapidly and inevitably to its decline, Greek 
 literature received a fresh start from the 
 favour shown to it by the emperors of the 
 2nd century. It received a further impetus 
 by the contest — the unavailing contest — 
 against Christianity, the victory of which 
 confined Hellenism within ever narrower 
 limits, until its destruction was sealed by 
 the emperor Justinian, when, in 529, he 
 closed the pagan schools in Athens, their 
 la,st refuge. Poetry takes a subordinate 
 position in this epoch. The Epigram alone 
 remained in constant use, and during this 
 period much good work was done in this 
 line. 
 
 Didactic poetry is represented chiefly 
 by Oppian (2nd century) , and the fabulist 
 Babrius (beginning of 3rd century ?) nar- 
 rative epic by Quintus Smyrn^us (4th 
 century ?), and the Egyptian Nonnus (5th 
 century) the founder of a school of his 
 
356 
 
 LITERATURE (GREEK). 
 
 own, to which, besides TeyphiSdoeus and 
 CoLLYTHDS, belongs the charming MusJEUS. 
 In prose, history had numerous repre- 
 sentatives ; e.g. DiOdokus and DiSntsius of 
 Halicamassus, who both belong to the be- 
 ginning of this period, Plutarch, Aerian, 
 and Appian in the 2nd century, Dio Cas- 
 sius and Herodian in the 3rd, ZosiMUS in 
 the 5th, and others. In geography impor- 
 tant work was done by Strabo (about 20 
 a.d.) and Ptolejiy (about 150 a.d.). The 
 latter's contemporarj', Pausaxias, did meri- 
 torious work in a narrower sphere. Pto- 
 lemy's services to geography were equalled 
 by his services to astronomy, of which, as 
 of the other exact sciences, Alexandria was 
 the headquarters. Among mathematical 
 writers, Theon, Nicomachl's, Diophantus, 
 and Pappus must be mentioned ; of physi- 
 cians Diosc5eides, Soeanus, and above all 
 Galen (second half of 2nd century) . In 
 "grammar," which was now more and more 
 confining itself to the subject of language, 
 the Alexandrines Apollonius DtscSlus 
 and his son Heeodian (2nd century) are 
 conspicuous. Among the numerous authors 
 of compilations, AtheNjEUS (about 200), 
 and StOb^us (about 500) are the most 
 ■ meritorious. To rhetoric valuable service 
 was rendered in this period. The revival 
 of rhetoric after the standard of the Attic 
 orators was the aim of Dionysius of Hali- 
 camassus (already mentioned). The most 
 important work in this department was 
 done by HeemSgenes (2nd century). Gram- 
 matical and rhetorical studies were favoured 
 by the direction taken from the beginning 
 of the 2nd century by the later sophistical 
 school. This school aimed at attaining 
 the masterly command of prose expression 
 as shown in its fairest form by the Attic 
 orators, and that in very different spheres, 
 but mainly in oratory. The chief repre- 
 sentatives of this tendency in its period of 
 greatest vigour, the 2nd century, are DiO 
 Chetsostom, ^lius AristIdes, Luciax, 
 and ^LiA>f ; in the 3rd, Philosteatus ; in 
 the 4th, HlMERius, Libanius, the emperor 
 Julian, Themistius, Synesius. Among the 
 peculiar products of this time may be men- 
 tioned the fictitious letters, written especially 
 by Alcipheon (2nd century) and Arist^- 
 NETUS (.5th century), and the love romances 
 of Xenophon of Ephesus, HeliSdorus, 
 LoNGus, Achilles Tatius, and Chariton. 
 Philosophy in the first two centuries of 
 the imperial times moves on the whole in 
 its old channels and has a generally popular 
 character, as in the writings of Plutarch, 
 
 Arrian, and Galen, who have already been 
 mentioned under other branches, of Sextus 
 Empiricus, the emperor Marcus Autjelius, 
 and others. A new and final departure 
 was taken by philosophy from the 3rd 
 century onwards in Neo-platonism, founded 
 by PlotInus, and carried on chiefly by 
 PoRPHYRius, Iamblichus, and Peoclus. 
 
 Roman Liteeatuee. 
 Period I. Archaic Literature. 
 From Livius Andronicus to Cicero. 
 (240-80 B.C.) 
 Poetry. Although many beginnings 
 had been made by the Romans from which 
 a national poetry might have been developed 
 for instance, ritual hymns, songs in praise 
 of ancestors, dramatic dialogues of rude 
 fun and rough wit (see Pescennini), yet 
 the national mind had shown little aptitude 
 for intellectual interests, and so was unable 
 to complete this development and create an 
 independent poetic literature. Instead of 
 this, Roman poetry formed itself entirely 
 upon Greek poetry, which had already been 
 perfected in all its main branches. And 
 although the first kind of literature to be 
 introduced into Rome was the drama — pre- 
 cisely that kind which marked the culmi- 
 nating point of poetical composition — this 
 was not due to any intellectual cravings on 
 the part of the Romans, but to the fact 
 that in this particular branch there existed 
 a point of contact. For a considerable 
 time past the diversions offered to the 
 populace at the public games had included 
 a dramatic representation, in place of which 
 dramas modelled after Greek tji'pes were 
 successfully substituted. This attempt was 
 first made by Llvius AndeOnicus, a Greek 
 from Southern Italy, who, from 240 B.C. 
 onwards, brought on the stage tragedies and 
 comedies formed on Greek originals. He 
 also kindled an interest in epic poetry by 
 translating the Odyssey of Homer into the 
 national metre, the Satumian verse. Livius 
 was soon succeeded, both in dramatic and 
 epic poetry by others, who carried on what 
 he had begun. It shows, however, how 
 little root poetry really had in the life of 
 the people, that for a long time the poets, 
 like Livius himself, were foreigners and 
 received little consideration for their per- 
 formances. In tragedy the poets who 
 succeeded him confined themselves to the 
 adaptation of Greek dramas ; in the prce- 
 texta, which treated Roman materials in the 
 Greek dramatic form, only solitary attempts 
 
LITERATUEE (ROMAN). 
 
 357 
 
 were made by the chief Roman tragedians 
 of the Republic, Ennius (died 170), PActJ- 
 vius (died 130), AcciDS (died about 100). 
 They had been introduced by NiEvius, who 
 was a prolific writer of tragedies, and still 
 more of comedies, from 235 B.C. onwards. 
 The reproduction of Greek originals in the 
 form of comedies, which were known as 
 palUatce, is best represented by Plautus 
 (died 184), C^clLius (died 166), and Ter- 
 ence (died 158 B.C.). This also soon passed 
 over into the representation of Roman life 
 under Greek forms, comaedice togatce ; and, 
 after palllafce had ceased to be written, 
 these attained greater perfection under 
 AfrAnius (second half of 2nd century B.C.). 
 Towards the end of this period a popular 
 farce, the Atelldna, received artistic form 
 from PoMPONius and NOvius. It was fol- 
 lowed, probably about 50 B.C., by the mtmus, 
 also originating in popular buffoonery, as 
 treated by Laberius and Publilius Syrus. 
 
 N^vius endeavoured to give a national- 
 direction to epic as well as to tragic poetry, 
 by his poem on the first Punic War, 
 written in Saturnian verse. This attempt 
 was crowned with success ; for, with un- 
 important exceptions, the epic poems of 
 the whole period were directed to the cele- 
 bration of the achievements of Rome. His 
 immediate successor Ennius took Homer as 
 his model ; he introduced the Greek hexa- 
 meter, and became in consequence the 
 founder of the classic Roman epic. In 
 this period also the only peculiar creation 
 of Roman poetry, the satire, was initiated 
 by Ennius ; but its form and spirit were 
 materially changed by LtJciLlus (died about 
 108 B.C.). The only complete monuments 
 of the archaic poetry of Rome that are still 
 extant are the comedies of Plautus and 
 Terence. 
 
 While the literary poetry of Rome was 
 thus founded and developed by writers of 
 foreign extraction, prose owes its literary 
 origin to a native Roman ; although con- 
 siderably influenced by Greek models, it 
 was mainly developed by the Romans them- 
 selves. The most important monument of 
 prose composition which the Romans in- 
 herited from ancient times was the Laics of 
 the Twelve Tables (451 B.C.), the foundation 
 of the Roman legal system. When the 
 Romans, about 200 B.C., first attempted to 
 write history, their own tongue appeared 
 to them so ill-adapted for the purpose that 
 they used Greek.i The creator of literary 
 
 1 Dionysius, Ant. Bom. i 6, mentions Pabius as 
 one of the historians who had written in Greek 
 
 prose-Latin was the well-known CAto (died 
 149). He employed his mother-tongue for 
 the most diverse varieties of prose writing, 
 — history, speeches, and learned treatises of 
 every kind. From his time onwards there 
 was much activity in the provinces both of 
 history and oratory. The most numerous 
 class of historical writers, called, from their 
 mode of treating the subject, the Annalists, 
 did not succeed, however, in making any 
 substantial progress in the art of history. 
 Oratory, on the other hand, thanks to the 
 constant practice provided by public life, 
 and the influence of Greek rhetoric, which 
 was becoming daily of greater importance, 
 made important progress, especially as re- 
 presented by Gaius Gracchus (died 121), 
 Crassus (died 91), and Antonius (died 81 
 B.C.). Jurisprudence was the only science 
 which was independently developed by the 
 Romans ; but literary criticism, as well as 
 rhetoric, both introduced by Greeks about 
 the latter half of the 2nd century B.C., 
 were cultivated, — the former even by men 
 of note, as for example .^Lius Stilo. 
 Cato's book on husbandry, and (at the end 
 of this period) the treatise on rhetoric often 
 ascribed to Cornificius, are the only monu- 
 ments of the prose literature of this time 
 which have come down to us entire. 
 
 Period II. Classical Literature. 
 
 From Cicero to the death of Augustus. 
 (80 B.C. to 14 A.D.) 
 
 This is known as the golden age of 
 Roman literature. The first place in the 
 earlier half of the period, i.e. down to the 
 fall of the Republic, is taken by oratory. 
 This attained its highest perfection in the 
 hands of Cicero and his rival orators, Hor- 
 TENSius, C^SAR, and others. Cicero is the 
 creator of classical prose : his supremacy 
 was not confined to oratorical compositions, 
 but was maintained in his dissertations on 
 rhetoric and philosophy. By the latter he 
 laid the foundations of Roman philosophical 
 literature, which however remained entirely 
 dependent on Greek models. History was 
 conspicuously represented by CiESAR (died 
 44) and Sallust (died 36 B.C.), the first 
 great Roman historians, beside whom Cor- 
 nelius Nepos only deserves mention for his 
 
 on the early legends of Rome ; but Cicero always 
 speaks of him with Cato as exemplifying the bald- 
 ness of early Latin prose. In the De Divinatione 
 i 43, he refers to the Grceci Annates of Fabius 
 Piotor, which does not necessarily or naturally 
 mean " annals written in Greek." — Prof. Nettle- 
 ship's Essays, p. 3-10. 
 
358 
 
 LITERATURE (ROMAN). 
 
 attempt to bring foreign history also into 
 the field. Vareo (died 27 B.C.), the most 
 productive of Roman authors, laboured in 
 the most diverse paths: his writings on 
 grammar, on literary subjects, and on anti- 
 quities were admired for centuries. 
 
 Poetry was entirely thrown in the shade 
 by prose. Dramatic poetry is only repre- 
 sented by the mlmus, which imitated the 
 license of the capital and was now, as has 
 been stated, elaborated into literature. The 
 Sdturce Menippece of the above-mentioned 
 Varro and the didactic philosophical poem 
 of Lucretius (died 55) are of conspicuous 
 merit. The latter still maintained the style 
 modelled on Homer by Ennius ; but, beside 
 this, a new departure in epic poetry now 
 appeared. The learned and polished Alex- 
 andrine Grreek poets were the models for 
 this, of which a solitary specimen is extant 
 in an epijlllum of Catullus (died about 54 
 B.C.), the epithdldmmm of Peleus and Thetis. 
 He is perhaps the most richly endowed of 
 Roman poets, and is the first conspicuous 
 writer of Latin lyrics. Lyric poetry was 
 the most alien to the Roman character, and 
 was only beginning to make its way about 
 this time in the forms of iambic poetrj^, 
 epigrams, and elegiacs. For these too the 
 Alexandrine poets are the type. After the 
 downfall of the Republic, in proportion as 
 public life sank into the background, the 
 interest of the educated classes was in- 
 creasingly absorbed in literary efforts which 
 were favoured in every way by the emperor 
 Augustus himself, and by men of eminence 
 like Maecenas, Messalla, and Asinius Pollio, 
 {See Recitations.) 
 
 As political events caused oratory and his- 
 tory to recede into the background, the first 
 place in literature was again taken by poetry, 
 which in the time of Augustus attained its 
 highest point in the emulous attempts of 
 the poets to reach Greek perfection in form. 
 The most prominent poetic writers of this 
 age are : Vergil (died 19 B.C.), who, begin- 
 ing with imitations of the bucolic poetry of 
 Theocritus, surpassed the Greeks in didactic 
 poetry, and in his ^neid fashioned for the 
 Romans a national epic ; HORACE (died 8 
 B.C.), who gave new life to the satiric 
 poetry of Lucilius, and naturalized in Rome 
 the metrical forms of the JEolic odes ; and 
 the elegiac writers, Tibullus (died 19 B.C.), 
 Propertius (died 15 B.C.), and Ovm (died 
 17 A.D.). The last-named also applied his 
 perfection of form to didactic poetry with 
 brilliant results. Dramatic poetry alone 
 failed to prosper, as the popular intereRt 
 
 was entirely absorbed by the PantSmlmus, 
 which, with its gorgeous displays, was just 
 coming into being. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the realm of prose com- 
 position, the most brilliant contribution of 
 this time is the work of LivT (died 17 
 A.D.) which comprised the complete history 
 of Rome. Beside him may be mentioned 
 Pompeius Trogus, the compiler of the 
 first Latin universal history. Under the 
 Empire, oratory lost day by day its political 
 importance, and in practice was confined to 
 the senatorial debates, which were entirely 
 under imperial guidance, and to civil law- 
 suits. Its natural field now became the 
 schools of the rhetoricians, in which it sank 
 to mere fiowery declamation. A living 
 picture of the proceedings in them at this 
 time is given by the descriptions of the 
 elder Seneca, which were not reduced to 
 writing till the following period (he died 
 about 37 A.D.). After poetry most interest 
 was taken in criticism, in which Verrius 
 Placcus and HygInus achieved the most 
 important results. Of the practical sciences, 
 geography was advanced by the mensura- 
 tion of the Roman empire accomplished by 
 Agrippa, and the edifices erected by Augus- 
 tus gave rise to the instructive work of 
 ViTRUVius on architecture (about45 B.C.). 
 
 Period III. The Silver Age. 
 
 From Tiberius to the death of Trajan. 
 
 (14-117 A.D.) 
 
 Under the influence of the schools of 
 rhetoric (which had become one of the 
 most important means of education), both 
 the poetic and the prose literature of this 
 epoch show a tendency to the rhetorical 
 and declamatory style. Both alike en- 
 deavour to produce effect by what is 
 interesting and novel, rather than to give 
 pleasure by elegance and taste. Poetry 
 became rhetorical and prose poetic. A 
 goodly array of poetic works has come 
 down to us from this period. Epic is re- 
 presented in its didactic branch by Ger- 
 MANicus (died 19 a.d.) and the poets whom 
 we know as ManIlius and liUClLlus {Scrip- 
 tor ^tnce about 75 a.d.) ; in its historic, by 
 LuCAN (died 65) and Silius Italicus (died 
 101) ; in its heroic, by ValerIus Flaccus 
 (died about 90) and Statius (died 96 A.D.), 
 who is also the most eminent lyric writer. 
 Bucolic poetry is represented by Calpur- 
 Nius Siculus (about 55 a.d.). The satiric 
 poetry of Horace was continued by PeesIus 
 (died 62) and Juvenal (died about 1-30). 
 
LITTERATOR LITTERS. 
 
 359 
 
 A new kind of literature, iu the form of 
 • poetic fables, was introduced into literature 
 by PHiEDRUs (died about 40), and Martial 
 (died 102 a.d.) elaborated the epigram as 
 an independent branch of poetry. The 
 tragedies of Seneca (died 65 a.d.) are not 
 intended for the stage, on which mimes and 
 pantomimes alone bore sway, but are simply 
 declamatory exercises. The most important 
 prose writers of the time are the same 
 Seneca, who composed numerous philoso- 
 phical treatises ; PetronIus (died i67) with 
 his satirical novel ; the elder Pliny (died 
 79) with his gigantic Natural History; 
 Quintilian (died about 118), who, in his 
 InstUutlo Ordtorm, sought to cause a re- 
 action to the old models in oratory ; the 
 great historian Tacitus (died about 120) ; 
 and the younger Pliny (died about 114 
 a.d.) with his Letters and the Panegyric 
 on Trajan, the pattern of the later Pane- 
 gyrics. Beside these must be mentioned 
 the writers of research, Velleius Pater- 
 CULUS and Valerius MaxImus (both about 
 30), CuRTius RuFUS (about 40), ProntInus 
 (died about 104), who was also an active 
 contributor to technical literature, the geo- 
 grapher PoMPONius Mela (about 40), the 
 physicians Celsus (about 30) and SCRI- 
 BONius L ARGUS (about 45), the writer on 
 husbandry Columella (about 65), the 
 grammarian Remmius Pal^emon (about 50), 
 the textual critic Probus (about 65), and 
 the commentator Asconius Ped!anus (died 
 88 A.D.). 
 
 Period IV. The Literature in its Decline. 
 From Hadrian (117 A.D.) to the 6th 
 century. 
 Of the numerous poets of this period only 
 a few, and those belonging to the later time, 
 are of special interest ; e.g. Ausonius (4th 
 century), Claudian, Namatianus, Dracon- 
 tIus (5th century). In prose literature, 
 from the time of Hadrian, jurisprudence 
 takes a prominent position. It was mainly 
 represented by Gaius, Papinian, Ulpian, 
 and Paulus (2nd to 3rd century), and a 
 magnificent completion was given to their 
 labours by the Corpus Juris Clvllis com- 
 piled under Justinian I (6th century). 
 Among the historians the most noteworthy 
 are SuetonJus (2nd century), who was 
 also the compiler of numerous writings on 
 archseology, literary criticism, and gram- 
 mar, which were no less eagerly read by 
 subsequent generations than Varro's; and 
 AmmIanus MabcellInus (4th century). The 
 rest, such as Plorus (2nd century), the 
 
 ScriptOres Histdrice Augustce (3rd and 4th 
 centuries). Justin, Aueelius Victor, 
 EutrSpius, etc., are only epitomizers. 
 From the 4th century onwards the influence 
 of Christianity made itself felt in this sub- 
 ject, as with SulpIcius and Orosius. In 
 the 2nd century Pronto gave a new direc- 
 tion to oratory by reverting to the writers 
 of the archaic era. In this he was followed 
 by the rhetorician ApuleIus, the writer of 
 a humorous and fanciful novel of character, 
 one of the most interesting products of the 
 period. Gaul was from the end of the 3rd 
 century the headquarters of oratory, in 
 which the panegyric style predominates, 
 as in the collection called the Panegyricl 
 Ldtlm, and in Symmachus (end of 4th 
 century), who, as well as SidSnius ApollI- 
 naris (5th century), is also known by his 
 letters. Besides Suetonius already named, 
 grammar found numerous votaries, who 
 were, however, more remarkable as zealous 
 compilers than as original investigators. 
 Gellius (2nd century). Nonius (3rd cen- 
 tury), DoNATUs, CharIsius, DISmedes, 
 Servius (4th century), MacrSbius (5th cen- 
 tury), and Priscian (about 500 a.d.) may 
 be cited. Works on the educational curri- 
 culum were written by Martianus Capella 
 (5th century) and OassISdorus (6th cen- 
 tury). The above-mentioned Apuleius and 
 also BOethIus (6th century) are worthy of 
 mention as philosophic writers. As repre- 
 sentatives of other subjects may be adduced 
 CensorInus (3rd century) and PirmIcus 
 Maternus (4th century) for astrology ; 
 Vegetius Renatus (4th century) for tac- 
 tics ; Palladius (4th century) for husban- 
 dry ; C^Lius AuRELiANUS and Marcellus 
 EmpirIcus (5th century), for medicine. 
 
 Littfirator. The Roman designation of an 
 elementary instructor (see Education, 2). 
 
 LittSratus. The Roman term for the 
 teacher who imparted the higher branches 
 of knowledge (Suetonius, De Gramviaticis, 
 §§ 4, 12). 
 
 Litters, in ancient Greece, were for the 
 most part used only for the conveyance of 
 sick people and women ; in other cases their 
 use was regarded as a luxury. Among the 
 Romans they appear to have first come 
 into vogue along with the other luxuries of 
 Asia after the victory over the Syrian king, 
 Antiochus the Great (B.C. 190) . They were 
 used principally in the country and upon 
 journeys. As in Greece, so in Rome, where 
 driving was only exceptionally allowed (see 
 Chariots, 2), their use was at first confined 
 to invalids and women ; but when men 
 
360 
 
 LITURGY LIVIUS. 
 
 also began to use them in the town, they 
 formed in the first instance a privilege of 
 certain classes, until in the course of the 
 imperial time they came into general use. 
 Two kinds were distinguished: (1) the 
 lectlca, resembling a palanquin, adapted 
 for lying down : this was a framework 
 spanned by girths and with a bolster and 
 pillow ; and (2) the sella, a sedan chair, for 
 one or two persons, which was used par- 
 ticularly by the emperors and consuldres. 
 Both kinds were provided with an arched 
 covering, which could be closed up, even at 
 the sides, by means of curtains or windows 
 made of thin plates of talc [lapis specu- 
 Idris, Juv. iv 21, iii 242]. The litter was 
 carried upon poles, which were either low 
 and therefore hung in straps, or else rested 
 upon the shoulders of the bearers, who were 
 two, four, six, and even eight, according to 
 its size. In distinguished houses special 
 slaves ilectlcaril) of particularly powerful 
 bodily frame, in later times especially Cappa- 
 docians, were kept for this purpose ; these 
 used to wear a red livery. For those who 
 could not afford the expense of a private 
 litter, there were also hack-litters. In the 
 later imperial time a litter called a basterna 
 came into fashion, which was carried by 
 two mules in shafts before and behind. 
 
 Liturgia. See Leitourgia. 
 
 Lltiius. (1) The Eoman term for the 
 augur's wand. It was a staff 
 hooked at the upper end ; with 
 it the augur marked out the 
 sacred region itempluni) for 
 the observation of birds {see 
 cut and cp. Auguhes). (2) The 
 signal-trumpet of the cavalry, 
 bent at the lower end ; it was 
 blown by the litlcen, and emitted a clear, 
 shrill note (cp. Tuba). 
 
 Livins. (1) Ltvlus Andronlcus, the foun- 
 der of Roman epic and dramatic poetry. 
 He was by birth a Greek of Southern Italy, 
 and was brought as a slave to Rome, after 
 the conquest of Tarentum in 272 B.C., while 
 still of tender age. His master, a Livius, 
 whose name he bears, gave him his liberty, 
 and he imparted instruction in the Greek 
 and Latin languages. This employment 
 probably gave occasion for his translation 
 of the Homeric Odyssey into Saturnian 
 metre ; in spite of its imperfections, this 
 remained a school-book in Rome for cen- 
 turies. In 240 B.C. he brought on the 
 Roman stage the first drama composed 
 after a Greek model, and with such success 
 that thenceforward dramatic poetry was 
 
 AN AUGUK S 
 WAND, 
 
 well established in Rome. According to 
 ancient custom he appeared as an actor in 
 his own pieces. His dramatic compositions, 
 tragedies, and comedies were faithful but 
 undoubtedly imperfect translations of Greek 
 originals. He attempted lyric poetry also, 
 for he was commissioned by the State to 
 write a march in honour of luno Regina. 
 Scanty remains of his works are all that 
 have come down to us. 
 
 (2) Titus Livius, the celebrated Roman 
 historian, was born at Patavium (59 B.C.), 
 apparently of good family. He was care- 
 fully educated, and betook himself early 
 (certainly before 31 B.C.) to Rome, where he 
 soon became acquainted with the most dis- 
 tinguished men of the time. Even Augustus 
 entertained friendly relations towards him 
 in spite of his openly expressed republican 
 convictions, for which he called him a 
 partisan of Pompey. He does not seem to 
 have taken public office, but to have lived 
 exclusively for literature. Esteemed by 
 his contemporaries, he died in his native 
 town in 17 a.d. He must have begun his 
 great historical work between 27 and 25 
 B.C.; it can only' have been completed 
 shortly before his death, as he did not 
 publish the first twenty-one books until 
 after the death of Augustus (14 a.d.). He 
 recounts the history of Rome in 142 books, 
 extending from the foundation of the city 
 (whence the title Ab Urbe Condita libri) to 
 the death of Drusus (9 a.d.). His own 
 death must have prevented its continuation 
 to the death of Augustus, as he doubtless 
 proposed. He published his work from time 
 to time, in separate parts. He arranged 
 his material — at least for the first ninety 
 books — as far as possible in decads (portions 
 consisting of ten books), and half-decads ; 
 the division into decads was however first 
 carried through in the 5th century, prob- 
 ably for convenience of handling so vast 
 a series of books. There still remain only 
 the first decad (to 293 B.C.), the third, 
 fourth, and half of the fifth decad (218- 
 167) ; of the remainder, with the exception 
 of a fairly large portion of book 91, only 
 inconsiderable fragments. We also possess 
 from an unknown pen, summaries (pSridchce) 
 of all the books except 136 and 137, and 
 a scanty extract from the account of the 
 portents (prodigia), which appeared in 
 249 B.C. and following year; this is by a 
 certain lulius Obsequens, and perhaps dates 
 from the 4th century. 
 
 Livy's importance rests more on the 
 magnitude of his patriotic undertaking and 
 
LOCHAGOS LOGOGEAPHI. 
 
 361 
 
 the style of his narrative than upon his 
 thoroughness as a historic inquirer. His 
 preliminary studies were inadequate, and 
 his knowledge of Eoman law, and still more 
 of the military system of Rome, was in- 
 sufficient. He was content to select what 
 seemed to him the most probable and 
 reasonable statement from the authorities 
 which happened to be familiar and acces- 
 sible to him, without regard to completeness, 
 and without severely scrutinising their 
 value, — a method which necessarily led to 
 numerous inaccuracies and serious errors. 
 Primarily, his great aim was not critical 
 research into the history of his country. 
 He desired rather by a lively and brilliant 
 narrative, which should satisfy the more 
 exacting taste of the time, to rekindle the 
 flagging patriotism of his countrymen, and 
 to raise his politically and socially degraded 
 contemporaries to the level of their ances- 
 tors' exploits. And his narrative in fact 
 deserves the fullest admiration, especially 
 lor its descriptions of events and the actors 
 in them, and for the speeches which are 
 inserted in the work. The latter show his 
 rhetorical training in all its brilliance. 
 His language is choice and tasteful, 
 although in details it marks a decline from 
 the strictly classical standard. Asinius 
 PoUio, in allusion to the author's birth- 
 place, charged it with a certain pdtdvl- 
 nitas. This can only mean a provincial 
 departure from the peculiar language of 
 the metropolis, which is to us no longer 
 perceptible. Livy's work enjoyed the 
 greatest renown down to the latest days of 
 Roman literature, and has been the great 
 mine of information for knowledge of the 
 past to all succeeding generations. 
 
 Lochagos {Greek). The commander of a 
 lochos (q.v.). 
 
 Lochos. The Greek designation of a body 
 of foot soldiers. Among the Spartans, it 
 denoted in early times the largest divisions 
 into which the whole population capable of 
 bearing arms was grouped. Each of these 
 [according to Thucydidea v 68, cp. 66] com- 
 prised four pentBrostyes of four enovidtice 
 each [an enomdtla containing on an average 
 thirty-two men]. The name also denoted 
 the individuals comprised therein ; later, 
 [Xenophon, Bep. Lac. ii 4], it was the name 
 of the four sub-divisions of a mora (q.v.). 
 In Greek mercenary troops, a lochos was 
 a company of 100 men under a separate 
 commander. Several of these companies 
 were united under the superior command of 
 a stratSgos (q-v.). 
 
 Logeidn (" speaking-place "), see Theatre. 
 
 LdgistSB ("auditors of accounts"). The 
 name given at Athens to a board consisting 
 originally of thirty, subsequently of ten 
 members, who, in conjunction with another 
 board, the ten euthjjnl, and their twenty 
 assessors, received from magistrates, at 
 the expiry of their term of office, the 
 accounts of their administration. (See 
 EuTHYNA.) This was especially important 
 with those magistrates through whose 
 hands public money passed. Both boards 
 were originally chosen by show of hands ; 
 later by lot. One member was elected from 
 each phj/le, the assessors of the eutliyni 
 were appointed by free choice. The logistce 
 were the supreme authority to whom out- 
 going magistrates submitted their accounts. 
 The eutliyni examined the several details, 
 notified, when necessary, those who were 
 liable, and returned the accounts to the 
 logistce with a report on their merits. 
 Magistrates who had nothing to do with 
 public money only gave an assurance to 
 the logistce that they had received and paid 
 nothing. If the accounts were approved, 
 and no charge was brought after the public 
 proclamation by the logistce, they gave the 
 magistrate his discharge. In the other 
 alternative they referred the case to a court 
 of justice in which they were themselves 
 presidents. The prosecution was entrusted 
 to ten synegori or counsel for the State, 
 who were chosen by lot and sat with the 
 logistce. The final decision rested with 
 the Heliastic court. (See Heli^a.) 
 
 Logographi (Gr. Idgogmphoi, i.e. writers 
 in prose). The name given to the oldest 
 Greek historians, who by their first at- 
 tempts at disquisitions in prose marked the 
 transition from narrative poetry to prose 
 history. As in the case of epic poetry, so 
 these earliest historical writings emanated 
 from Ionia, where the first attempts at an 
 exposition of philosophic reflexions in prose 
 were made at about the same time by 
 Pherecydes, Anaximander, and Anaximenes ; 
 and, in both cases alike, it was the Ionic 
 dialect that was used. This class of writ- 
 ing long preserved in its language the 
 poetic character which it inherited from 
 its origin in the epic narrative. It was 
 only by degrees that it approached the tone 
 of true prose. It confined itself absolutely 
 to the simple telling of its story, which 
 was largely made up of family and local 
 traditions. It never classified its materials 
 from a more elevated point of view, or 
 scrutinised them with critical acumen. The 
 
362 
 
 LONGINUS LOVE. 
 
 logographers flourished from about 550 B.C. 
 down to the Persian Wars. Their latest 
 representatives extend, however, down to 
 the time of the Peloponnesian War. When 
 true history arose with Herodotus, they 
 soon lapsed into oblivion, whence they were 
 rescued in Alexandrian days. Many of 
 the works ascribed to them were however 
 believed to be spurious, or at least inter- 
 polated. We possess fragments only of a 
 few. The larger number of the historic 
 writers who are described as logographers 
 were Asiatic Greeks, e.g. Cadmus of Mile- 
 tus, author of a history of the founding of 
 Miletus and the colonization of Ionia (he 
 lived about 540 B.C., and was considered 
 the first writer of historic prose) ; further, 
 DI6NYSIUS of Miletus, a writer of Persian 
 history, Hecat^us {q.v.) of Miletus (550- 
 476), Xanthus of Sardis (about 496), a writer 
 of Lydian history, Hellanicus (g.-y.) of 
 Lesbos (about 480-400), Charon of Lam- 
 psacus (about 456), a compiler of Persian 
 history and annals of his native town, Phebe- 
 CYDES of the Carian island Leros (died 
 about 400 B.C.), who lived at Athens, and in 
 his great collection of mj-ths in ten books 
 treated chiefly of the early days of Attica. 
 Some belonged to the colonies in the West, 
 e.g. HiPPYS of Rhegium, at the time of the 
 Persian War the oldest writer on Sicily 
 and Italy. The only representative from 
 Greece itself is Acusilaus of Argos in 
 Boeotia, the author of a genealogical work. 
 
 LoTLglnus (Cassius). A Greek rhetorician, 
 bom at Athens about 213 a.d., who studied 
 Neoplatonism at Alexandria, and practised 
 as teacher of philosophy, grammar [i.e. 
 literary criticism], and rhetoric, in his 
 native city, from about 260, until the 
 accomplished queen Zenobia of Palmj'ra 
 summoned him as minister to her court. 
 As he persuaded her to resist the Roman 
 yoke, the emperor Aurelian caused him to 
 be executed after Zenobia's overthrow in 
 273. He possessed such an extent of learn- 
 ing, that Eunapius called him a living 
 library and a walking museum. His ver- 
 satility is proved by compositions on philo- 
 sophy, grammar, rhetoric, chronology, and 
 literature. Of these, only fragments are 
 extant, for example, the introduction to a 
 commentaiy on Hephsestion's handbook of 
 metres, and a short Rhetoric incomplete at 
 the beginning. A brief treatise On the 
 Sitblime, commonly ascribed to him, is more 
 probably to be assigned to an unknown 
 writer about the Christian era. It treats 
 and illustrates by classic examples the 
 
 characteristics of the lofty style from a 
 philosophical and aesthetic point of view. 
 It is written in a vigorous manner. 
 
 Longus, who probably lived in the 3rd 
 century a.d., was the author of a Greek 
 pastoral romance, Daphnis and Chide, in 
 four books. It is considered the best of all 
 ancient romances which have come down 
 to us, on account of its deep and natural 
 feeling, its grace of narrative, and the com- 
 parative purity and ease of the language. 
 It has often been imitated by Italian, 
 French, German, and English writers. [The 
 rare translation by John Day of the French 
 version of Amyot was reprinted in 1890.] 
 
 Lorlca. (1) The leathern corselet of the 
 Roman legionary. It consisted of thongs 
 (lora) of shoe-leather faced with metal. 
 These were fastened one upon another in 
 such a way that they formed a covering for 
 the body with two shoulder-pieces. Below 
 the latter a plate of iron 9| inches square, 
 was placed over the region of the heart 
 
 ROMAN LEOIONAKY WEAKING THE LOEICA. 
 
 (Arch of SoveruR.) 
 
 (see cut). Of the early citizen-soldiers, the 
 more wealthy wore also coats of chain- 
 armour {lorica hamata), and corselets of 
 mail (lorica squdmdta), in which the joints 
 were further covered with metal plates ; 
 the latter were also worn by the prsetorians 
 in imperial times. 
 
 (2) The breastworks on walls and on 
 redoubts. 
 
 Lot, Election by. See Officials. 
 
 Lotophagi (i.e. Lotus-eaters). A people 
 on the north coast of Africa, mentioned as 
 early as Homer [Od. ix 84]. They lived on 
 the fruit of the lotus. (Cp. Odysseus.) 
 
 Love, God of, see Eros ; Goddess of, see 
 Aphrodite and Venus. 
 
LUCAN LUCIAN. 
 
 363 
 
 Lucan (Marcus Annceus LucCmus). A 
 Roman poet, born 39 a.d. at Cordova in 
 Spain. He was grandson of SSneca the rhe- 
 torician, and nephew of Seneca the philo- 
 sopher. He was brought up in Rome from 
 the first year of his age, and excited atten- 
 tion at an early date by his rhetorical and 
 poetic powers. On the recommendation of 
 his uncle, Nero conferred on him the quses- 
 torship while yet under the legal age, and 
 admitted him to favour. The applause 
 however which his poems received soon 
 aroused the jealousy of the emperor, who 
 was particularly conceited about his own 
 poetic abilities. Accordingly he was for- 
 bidden for the future to recite his poems 
 in public, or to appear on the platform. 
 This inspired the poet with such animosity 
 that he took part in Piso's conspiracy. 
 When it was detected, he sought at first 
 to save himself by the most abject en- 
 treaties, by denouncing his fellow con- 
 spirators, and even by falsely accusing his 
 mother Acilia. Being nevertheless con- 
 demned to die, he himself caused his veins 
 to be opened, and thus perished (65 a.d.). 
 Of his numerous compositions, the Phar- 
 sdlia, an unfinished epic in ten books, is 
 extant. It is an account of the civil war 
 between Csesar and Pompey, extending 
 beyond the battle of Pharsalus and down 
 to the capture of Alexandria. It main- 
 tains such strict chronological order and 
 exactitude of detail, that it was a ques- 
 tion after his death whether he deserved 
 to be reckoned a poet at all. [Petronius 
 118 and, at a later date, Servius, Ad .^^jn. 
 i 382. Cp. Dryden's preface to Annus 
 Mirdbilis, quoted in Heitland's Introd. to 
 Lucan, ed. Haskins, p. xix.] 
 
 Lucan represents himself in his poem as 
 an enthusiastic lover of the lost days of 
 liberty, and in that capacity extols Pompey, 
 to the unjust disparagement of Csesar. His 
 narrative displays some talent, but also an 
 inability to give his materials a more than 
 merely outward poetical form. It is more- 
 over turgid, rhetorical to a degree, and its 
 pathos smacks of declamation. Remains of 
 the literary activity which made him its 
 object in olden times are extant in two col- 
 lections of scholia. 
 
 Luc€res. One of the three old patrician 
 tribes in Rome. {See Patricians.) 
 
 Lucerna (a lamp). See Lighting. 
 
 Lucian (Gr. LoukianSs). One of the most 
 interesting of Greek writers, born about 
 120 A.D. at SamSsStS, on the Euphrates in 
 Syria. Owing to the poverty of his parents, 
 
 he was apprenticed to a stonemason ; but, 
 thanks to his irresistible eagerness for 
 higher culture, contrived to devote himself 
 to the art of rhetoric. After practising 
 for some time as an advocate, he traversed 
 Greece, Italy, and Southern Gaul in the 
 guise of a sophist, and gained wealth and 
 renown by his public declamations. In 
 his fortieth year he removed to Athens, 
 to devote himself to the study of philo- 
 sophy, and attached himself closely to the 
 Stoic Demonax. In his old age the state 
 of his finances compelled him once more to 
 travel as a professional orator. At last, 
 when far advanced in years, he was given 
 an important and influential post in the 
 administration of justice in Egypt ; this he 
 seems to have retained till death. 
 
 Under his name we still possess more 
 than eighty works (including three col- 
 lections of seventy-one shorter dialogues). 
 Twenty of these are, however, either cer- 
 tainly spurious or of doubtful authenticity. 
 They date from every period of his life, 
 the best and cleverest from the time of his 
 sojourn in Athens. They fall into two 
 classes, rhetorical and satirical. Of the 
 latter the majority are in dramatic form, 
 recalling in dialogue and outward dress 
 the Old Comedy, of which Lucian had a 
 thorough knowledge, and to which his 
 genius was closely akin. These writings 
 present an admirable picture of the ten- 
 dencies and the absurdities of the time. 
 In the field of religion, he directed his 
 mockery (especially in the Dialogues of 
 the Gods) against the tenets of the popu- 
 lar religion, the artificial revival of which 
 was attempted in the time of Hadrian and 
 the Antonines. He further attacked the 
 popular conceptions of life after death in 
 the Dialogues of the Dead. He assails 
 with special bitterness the superstitions 
 which had penetrated from the East, 
 among which he reckons, it is true, Chris- 
 tianity, but without any real knowledge 
 of its nature. In PSregrlnus Proteus, he 
 attacks mystical enthusiasm ; in Alexander, 
 or the Prophet of Lies, the impostors and 
 oracle-mongers who preyed upon the super- 
 stition of the time, which he portrays in 
 a masterly style in his Lover of Lies and 
 his True Stories (Verw Historlce). Another 
 object of his satiric lance was the current 
 philosophy, in which he had sought relief 
 when sated with rhetoric. , He had only 
 found in it, however, a petrified dogmatism, 
 a passion for strife and disputation, with 
 the most absolute contradiction between 
 
364 
 
 LUCILIUS LUCRETIUS. 
 
 theoretical teaching and the practice of 
 life. This was true even of the Stoics, and 
 still more of the Cynics, whose meanness 
 and love of pleasure, which they concealed 
 under a pretended absence of personal 
 wants, he is never weary of deriding. 
 
 Especially instructive for his attitude 
 towards philosophy and his general view 
 of life are the Atiction of Philosophers, the 
 Fisherman (with his defence of the latter), 
 and Charon, or the Spectator of the World. 
 All these are works of marked ability. The 
 last named is a brilliant exposition, from 
 his negative point of view, of the vanity of 
 all human existence. He even exposes his 
 own class, the Sophists, for attempting to 
 conceal their miserable poverty of intellect 
 by their bold readiness of tongue, and by 
 their patchwork of fragmentary quotations 
 borrowed from the writers of antiquity. 
 In fact, there is scarcely a side of the 
 literary and social life of the time that he 
 does not attack in its weak points, confin- 
 ing himself, however, for the most part to 
 demonstrating what ought not to be, with- 
 out showing how the existing evils were to 
 be cured. To sit in judgment on the false 
 culture and want of taste in his contem- 
 poraries, he was certainly fitted above all 
 others ; for, apart from a wide range of 
 knowledge, he possessed keen observation, 
 and an unusual measure of wit and humour. 
 He had moreover an extraordinary gift of 
 invention, remarkable aptitude for vivid 
 delineation of character, and a singiilar 
 grace and elegance. In spite of his Syrian 
 origin, his zealous study of the best models 
 gave him a purity of language which for 
 his time is remarkable. 
 
 Lucillus. (1) Gains LucAlius, founder of 
 Roman satire, was probably born 180 B.C. 
 at Suessa Aurunca in Campania, of a dis- 
 tinguished and wealthy Latin equestrian 
 family. He afterwards settled in Rome, 
 where his Latin origin excluded him from 
 a political career. Owing partly however 
 to his excellent education, partly to his 
 family connexions (being Pompey's grand- 
 uncle on the mother's side), he was on 
 friendly terms with the most distinguished 
 men. In particular, he lived with the 
 younger Scipio and his friend Laelius in the 
 closest intimacy. He accompanied the for- 
 mer during the Numantine War, and died 
 in Naples, 103 B.C. — His satires, in thirty 
 books, were much esteemed in the time of the 
 Republic and later. We possess numerous 
 but inconsiderable fragments, from which, 
 however, can be gathered their original 
 
 position in the general scheme of his work. 
 Each book certainly contained a number of 
 separate poems which, at least in books 
 xxvi-xxx (the first written and published), 
 were composed, like the satires of Ennius, 
 in various metres. In most of the books, 
 however, only a single metre was used, by 
 far the most common being the dactylic 
 hexameter (bks. i-xx and xxx), which from 
 Horace's time became the ordinary metre 
 for satire. The contents of the satires 
 were exceedingly varied : all occurrences 
 of political, social, and learned life were 
 brought by him within the range of his 
 discussion. He even touched upon his own 
 experiences and his studies on literary, anti- 
 quarian, grammatical, and orthographical 
 questions. His severest censure and most 
 pitiless mockery were directed, not only 
 against the vices and absurdities of the 
 time in general, but also against particular 
 individuals without any respect of persons. 
 On the other hand, true merit received his 
 warmest praise. His satires must have 
 given, on the whole, a true and lively pic- 
 ture of the time. On metrical form and on 
 style he does not seem to have set much 
 store ; it is apparently only in its metrical 
 setting that his language differs from the 
 daily tone of educated circles. To the latter 
 we may also probably ascribe the incorpora- 
 tion of so many fragments of Greek. His 
 writings early became an object of study 
 to the learned of Rome, and they also 
 remained models to subsequent satirists, 
 especially Horace. 
 
 (2) Lucillus Junior, friend of the philo- 
 sopher Seneca, is supposed by a common but 
 not improbable assumption to be the author of 
 jEtna, a didactic poem in 645 hexameters. 
 Suetonius, in his life of Vergil, says of 
 that poet, Scripsit etiam de qua ambtgitur 
 AS,nam. It treats of Etna and its wonders, 
 and was composed before the eruption of 
 Vesuvius in 79 A.d. 
 
 Lnclna. The Roman title of Juno {q.v.) 
 as the goddess of light and of child-birth ; 
 later also of Diana in similar acceptation. 
 
 Lucretius Carus {Titus). A Roman poet, 
 born at Rome about 98 B.C. and died by his 
 own hand, in 55. He composed for his 
 friend Memmius, the orator and poet, a 
 didactic poem in hexameter verse concern- 
 ing the nature of things {De RSrum Ndtura) 
 in six books. The teaching of Epicurus 
 forms the main subject, the example of 
 EmpedScles prescribed the poetic form, and 
 the mode of treatment was modelled on 
 Ennius. The ostensible object of the work 
 
LUDI LUSTRUM. 
 
 365 
 
 is to prove Ly a profound investigation of 
 the world of nature that all comes to be, 
 exists, and perishes by eternal law, without 
 any interference of supernatural powers, 
 and hence to set men free from their fearful 
 torture, terror, and superstition. The first 
 elements of all existence are the imperish- 
 able atoms which move in infinite space 
 (book i). By union of these come into ex- 
 istence not only the material world (ii), 
 but also soul and spirit, which consequently 
 perish as soon as a dissolution of the atoms 
 takes place (iii) ; perception, sensation, and 
 thought are mental processes, occasioned 
 by images which are ceaselessly being 
 emitted by the surfaces of things (iv). 
 Book v treats of the formation of the world, 
 vi of single natural phenomena. This 
 work is the only considerable composition 
 in epic verse which has come down to us 
 from the time of the Republic. It is also 
 the first attempt at a systematic treatment 
 of Greek philosophy in the Latin tongue. 
 The greatest ad- 
 miration is due to 
 the art with which 
 Lucretius gives 
 poetic form to his 
 unpoetical subject, 
 and adapts to his 
 purpose a language 
 which had hitherto 
 been little exercised 
 on such topics. The 
 matter causes the 
 exposition to be 
 often dry, but fre- 
 quently it rises to a magnificent beauty, as 
 in the famous description of the Athenian 
 plague at the end of the poem. The 
 scientific zeal with which the whole is 
 imbued, and which stands aloof from all 
 frivolity, must inspire respect. He ex- 
 presses himself with simplicity and power, 
 and his language has an antique colouring. 
 He was prevented by death from putting 
 the finishing touches to his work [or even 
 from completing it. Thus there is nothing 
 on the subject of ethics, which could not 
 properly be omitted in an exposition of 
 the teaching of Epicurus]. It is true that 
 Cicero revised it before publication, yet 
 the condition in which we have it is in 
 great measure defective. 
 
 Ludi. See Games. 
 
 Luna. The Italian goddess of the moon. 
 She had in Rome an ancient sanctuary on 
 the Aventine, in which as goddess of the 
 month she received worship on the last day 
 
 * LDCKETIUS. 
 
 (From a blnck ajiatfi, formerly 
 in Dr. Nott's collection.) 
 
 of March, which was the first month of the 
 old Roman year. As noctiluca, " lamp of 
 the night," she had a temple on the Palatine, 
 which was illuminated at night. 
 
 Lupercalia. A festival held in Rome 
 from time immemorial on February 15. It 
 was in honour of Faunus, who was wor- 
 shipped under the name Lupercus in the 
 Lujjercal, a grotto in the Palatine Mount. 
 The object of the festival was, by expiation 
 and purification, to give new life and fruit- 
 fulness to fields, flocks, and people. The 
 cult was originally administered by two 
 confraternities, which were chosen from the 
 members of the Fabian and Quintilian 
 families, and were named in consequence 
 Luperci Fdbidni and Luperci Qiiintilianl. 
 To these was added in 44 B.C. that of the 
 Luperci ICilii in honour of Csesar. In con- 
 sequence of the civil wars the cult fell into 
 desuetude, but was renewed by Augustus. 
 In imperial times the members of these 
 collegia were commonly of equestrian stand- 
 ing, and retained the name of Luperci even 
 after leaving the body. The festival was 
 observed imtil 494 A.D., in which year 
 Bishop Gelasius I changed it into the Feast 
 of the Purification. The procedure at the 
 Lupercalia was as follows. After the 
 flmncn Dldlis had sacrificed some he-goats 
 and a dog, two youths were touched on the 
 forehead with a knife, smeared with the 
 blood of the goats. It was then immediately 
 wiped off with wool dipped in milk, where- 
 upon they were bound to laugh. After the 
 sacrificial feast the Luperci, crowned and 
 anointed, and naked, except for an apron 
 of goatskin, ran round the ancient city on 
 the Palatine with thongs cut from the skin 
 of the sacrificed goats in their hands. On 
 their course women used to place them- 
 selves in their way to receive blows from 
 the thongs, which was believed to be a 
 charm against barrenness. The thongs 
 were called febriia, from the old word 
 febrHdre, " to purify " ; the day, dies 
 febritatus, " the day of purification " ; and 
 the whole month, febriiarius, " the month 
 of purification." 
 
 Lustrum, among the Romans, was the 
 purification, or absolution from sin, of the 
 entire people. It took place at the close of 
 each census (q-v.), commonly in May of the 
 year following the censors' accession to 
 office. The host of the people, horse and 
 foot, in their newly constituted classes, was 
 drawn up in full armour on the Campus 
 Martins under the leadership of the censor 
 to whom this duty fell by lot. The Siiove- 
 
366 
 
 LUXORIUS L y CURGUS. 
 
 tauriUa, a pig, ram, and bull, was carried 
 three times round the whole army, and there- 
 upon sacrificed to Mars, accompanied by a 
 prayer of the censor in which he besought 
 that the power of the Roman people might 
 be increased and magnified, or as it ran 
 later, might be maintained entirely undi- 
 minished. The censor then led the army 
 under his banner to the city gate, where 
 he dismissed them, while he himself, as 
 a token of the completed lustru7n, drove a 
 nail into the wall of a temple and deposited 
 the new roll of citizens in the jErarium 
 (or Treasury) of the people. 
 
 Luxorius. A Roman epigrammatic poet, 
 who lived in Africa about the beginning of 
 the 6th century a.d., during the Vandal 
 domination. He sought to imitate Martial. 
 We still possess eighty-eight of his epi- 
 grams, which are often coarse and always 
 dull. 
 
 L;yseus (" Oare-dispeller "). A name of 
 Dionysus. 
 
 L^caea (Gr. Lukaia). A festival cele- 
 brated in honour of Zeus on the Lycsean 
 Mount (Gr. Lftkaidn) in Arcadia. In 
 the sacred inclosure on its highest peak, 
 where, according to popular belief, no 
 object cast a shadow, there was an altar of 
 heaped up earth, and before it two columns 
 with gilt eagles on top of them, looking to 
 the east. At the festivals, probably cele- 
 brated every ninth year, the priests, who 
 alone were allowed to enter the precincts, 
 offered mysterious sacrifices to the god, 
 including a human sacrifice. These were 
 said to have been instituted by Lycaon 
 (q.v.), and were kept up till the 2nd 
 century a.d. The man who had been 
 chosen by lot to perform the sacrifice was 
 afterwards compelled to flee, and wandered 
 about for nine years ; like Lycaon, in the 
 shape of a wolf, so the people believed. In 
 the tenth he was allowed to return and 
 regained his human form, i.e. the taint was 
 removed. Besides the festival there were 
 also athletic contests. 
 
 Lycaon. Mythical king of Arcadia, son 
 of Pelasgus and Meliboea (daughter of 
 Oceanus) or Cyllene, and father of Gallisto. 
 He is said to have founded on Mount 
 Lycseum the town Lycosura, the oldest that 
 HeliSs looked upon, and to have sacrificed 
 a child to Zeus on the altar he had raised 
 on the highest peak of the mountain, on 
 account of which he was changed into a 
 wolf {see Ltc^a). Another legend relates 
 that he had fifty impious sons. When 
 Zeus came to them in the guise of a beggar 
 
 in order to put their contempt of the gods 
 to the test, they followed the advice of 
 Msenalus, the eldest, and set before him 
 the entrails of a boy which had been mixed 
 with the sacrifice. The god however 
 threw the table over and killed Lycaon 
 and his sons with lightning, with the ex- 
 ception of Nyctimus, the youngest, whom 
 Gaea saved by firmly holding the right 
 hand of Zeus. During the reign of Nycti- 
 mus the deluge connected with the name 
 of Deucalion covered the land as a punish- 
 ment for the impiety of Lycaon and his sons. 
 Lj^cius. Epithet of Apollo (q.v.). 
 Lycomedes. King of Scyros, the murderer 
 of Theseus (q.v.). Achilles grew up among 
 his daughters ; the son of Achilles and of 
 one of these, DeidSmeia, was Neoptolemus. 
 L^cophron. A Greek grammarian and 
 poet, a native of Chalcis in Euboea, who lived 
 in the first half of the 3rd century B.C. at 
 Alexandi'ia, where Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 entrusted him with arranging for the 
 library the works of the Greek comic 
 poets. As a result of this occupation, he 
 produced a voluminous and learned work 
 on Greek Comedy. He himself wrote 
 tragedies, and was counted one of the 
 Pleiad, the seven Alexandrine tragedians. 
 Of his works there remains a poem in 1 ,474 
 iambic verses, entitled Alexandra or Cas- 
 sandra, which is rendered almost unread- 
 able by the obscurity of its language and by 
 its pedantic display of learning. It consists 
 of a long monologue, in which Cassandra 
 prophesies the fall of Troy and the fates of 
 the heroes of the Trojan War, with allu- 
 sions to the universal empire of Alexander 
 the Great. 
 
 Lj^curgus. (1) Son of Dryas, king of 
 the Thracian Edoni, threatened Dionysus 
 with a scourge when he was wandering 
 about on the Mount Nysa with his nurses, 
 which made them let the holy implements 
 fall to the ground, while the god sought 
 shelter with Thetis in the sea. The gods 
 punished him with blindness and an early 
 death [II. vi 130-140]. According to an- 
 other legend, he was made mad by Dionysus 
 and cut off his son's limbs, imagining that 
 he was pruning the shoots of a vine. In 
 accordance with the god's prophecy that 
 his death alone could deliver the land from 
 its temporary barrenness, he was led by. the 
 Edoni to Mount Pangseus, where Dionysus 
 caused him to be torn to pieces by horses. 
 
 (2) One of the Ten Attic Orators, born 
 about B.C. 390 at Athens, of a noble family, 
 pupil of Plato and Socrates, With Demos- 
 
LYCUS LYRIC POETRY. 
 
 367 
 
 thenes and Hyperides he was a principal 
 representative of the patriotic party, and 
 directed his exertions especially to the 
 improvement of the internal affairs of 
 Athens. During his administration of the 
 finances, a period of twelve years (338-326), 
 he won great credit by increasing the 
 revenues of the state and the military 
 strength of Athens, by beautifying the city 
 with magnificent buildings, snch as the 
 completion of the theatre of Dionysus, and 
 the building of the Panathenaic Stadium, 
 and by causing copies of the plays of 
 ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides to be 
 preserved in the public archives. He died 
 in 329, and was interred at the public 
 expense. The Athenians did honour to his 
 memory by raising a statue of bronze in his 
 honour on the market-place and by a decree 
 which is still extant [Hicks, Greek Histo- 
 rical Inscriptions, No. 145]. His speeches, 
 of which the ancients possessed fifteen, 
 elaborated with the greatest care, were 
 remarkable for their serious moral tone 
 and noble manner, though they were want- 
 ing in grace of form, and apt to become 
 tedious owing to frequent digressions. 
 These merits and defects are exemplified 
 in the only speech of his now extant, that 
 against LSocrdtes. 
 
 Lycus. (1) Sou of Poseidon and the 
 Pleiad Celseno, married to Dirce. He took 
 over the government of Thebes after his 
 brother Nycteus, for Labdacus, who was a 
 minor ; and, after the death of Labdacus, 
 for his son Laius. He was either killed by 
 Amphion (q.v.) and Zethus, or (according 
 to another account) handed the govern- 
 ment of Thebes over to them at the behest 
 of Hermes. 
 
 (2) Son of Poseidon, tyrant of Thebes, 
 killed by Heracles for murdering his 
 father-in-law Creon during his absence, and 
 for plotting against his wife Megara and 
 his children. 
 
 Lydus (Joannes Laurentius). A Greek 
 writer, born at Philadelphia in Lydia 490 
 A.D. At the age of twenty-one he went to 
 Constantinople in order to study philosophy, 
 entered the service of the State, and rose 
 to high office. About 552 he was dismissed 
 by Justinian and took a post as teacher in 
 the imperial school. Here he devoted him- 
 self to literature, and died at a great age in 
 565. We still possess some of his writings, 
 which are derived from ancient sources 
 lost to us : (1) on the State offices of Rome 
 {De MdgistraVfbus) ; (2) on portents in the 
 sky, etc., and the doctrine of auguries (De 
 
 Ostentls) ; (3) extracts from a work on the 
 Roman months and the festivals held in 
 them {De Menslbus). 
 
 Lygdamus. A Roman poet, ^ee Tibullus. 
 
 Lynceus. (1) Son of -(Egyptus, husband of 
 Hypermnestra, the daughter of Danaus(g'.'y.). 
 
 (2) Brother of Idas. {See Idas and 
 Lynceus.) 
 
 Lyra. A stringed musical instrument, 
 said to have been invented by Hermes, 
 who stretched four strings across the shell 
 of a tortoise. In historical times a whole 
 tortoLse-shell was used for the sounding- 
 bottom, the curved horns of a goat or pieces 
 of wood of a similar shape were inserted in 
 the openings for the front legs, and joined 
 near the upper ends by a transversa, piece of 
 wood called the yoke. On the breast-plate 
 of the shell was a low bridge, across which 
 
 FORMS OF THE LVEE. 
 
 1. Tischbein, Peintitres des Fascs antiiues. 
 
 2. De Laborde, Collect, d. Vases gj-., I, pi. 11. 
 
 3. Museo Borhonico, X, tav. liv, 
 
 4. Ibid, XI, tav. xxxi, 
 
 the strings (usually seven) ran all at the 
 same height to the yoke, and were either 
 simply wound round it or fastened to pegs ; 
 at the other end they were tied in knots 
 and fastened to the sounding board. It 
 was ordinarily played with the left hand, 
 while to produce louder and longer notes 
 the strings were struck by the right hand 
 with the plectrum, the point of which was 
 usually like the leaf of a tree, and some- 
 times in the shape of a heart or like a little 
 hammer {see fig. 3 of the cuts, which re- 
 present various forms of the lyre). Cp. 
 CiTHAEA and Sambuca. 
 
 Lyric Poatry. While among the Greeks 
 elegiac and iambic poetry {q.v.), which 
 forms the transition from epic to lyric 
 composition, was practised by the lonians, 
 lyric poetry proper, or, as it was more 
 commonly called, melic poetry {mSlds, a 
 song), viz. the song accompanied by music, 
 was cultivated by the iEolians and Dorians. 
 This is due to the talent for music peculiar 
 to these races. That playing on stringed 
 instruments and singing were cultivated 
 
368 
 
 LYSIAS. 
 
 even in mytkical times in jEolia, in the 
 island of Lesbos, is shown by the legend 
 that the head and lyre of Orpheus, -who 
 had been torn to pieces by Thracian women, 
 were washed ashore on that island, and 
 that the head was buried in the Lesbian 
 town of Antissa. Antissa was the native 
 place of Teepaxder, who gave artistic form 
 to the nSmos {q.v.), or hymn to Apollo, 
 by elaborating the laws of its composi- 
 tion. Settling at Sparta in B.C. 676, 
 he laid down the foundation of Dorian 
 music. While he had closely followed 
 Homeric poetry in the texts which he 
 wrote for his mxisical compositions, there 
 afterwards arose a greater variety in the 
 kinds of songs, corresponding to the greater 
 variety of musical forms, springing from 
 the foundation laid by him. In the ^^wlian 
 lyric the pathetic prevails, as might be 
 expected from the passionate nature of the 
 people ; the feelings of love and hatred, 
 joy and sorrow are their principal themes. 
 As to the metrical form we find short 
 lines with a soft, melodious rhythm, which 
 make up a small number of short strophes. 
 They are written in the yEolic dialect ; we 
 may suppose that they were solos sung to 
 the accompaniment of stringed instruments. 
 In Lesbos the jEolian lyric was brought 
 to its highest perfection by Algous of 
 Mytilene (about 600), and by his contem- 
 porary Sappho, also a Lesbian, and teacher 
 of the poetess Eeinna. The joyous poems 
 of Anacreon of Teos (born about 550), 
 whose subjects are love and wine, were 
 also in the iEolian style, but in the Ionic 
 dialect. An echo of the jEolian lyric are 
 the scolia (q.v.). 
 
 It was among the Dorians, however, that 
 the lyric poetry of the Greeks reached the 
 highest degree of its development. It is 
 also called choral lyric, because the Dorian 
 songs were intended to be sung at the 
 public festivals, especially those of the 
 gods, by a dancing choir to the accompani- 
 ment of stringed instruments and flutes. 
 Intended therefore to be public, it naturally 
 had on the whole an earnest, objective 
 character, and is thus distinguished from 
 theiEolian lyrics that expressed the personal 
 feelings of the poet. Their form shows 
 further points of difference. Instead of the 
 diminutive .Slolian strophes of short lines, 
 unsuitable for dancing, the Dorian lyrics 
 have ampler strophes, usually with longer 
 lines, and the combination of strophes is 
 again subdivided into strophe, antistrophe, 
 and epode, of which the first two are exactly 
 
 parallel, while the last differs from both 
 in its structure. While the number of the 
 jEolian metres is fixed, every Dorian song 
 has its own metre, the rhythm of which 
 depends on the tune suitable to the subject. 
 As to the kinds of songs we also find great 
 variety in the Dorian lyric : there are 
 pceans, hyporchemata, hymns, prdsodla, 
 parthema, dithyrambs, encomia, Spinlcia, 
 hymencea, Spithdldmia, threnoi {q-v.) ; 
 drinking songs and love songs are also not 
 wanting. They are written in the old epic 
 dialect, influenced by Doric. 
 
 With regard to their historical develop- 
 ment : Alcman (about 660), a Lydian who 
 had become a citizen of Sparta, was the first 
 to compose longer and more varied poems 
 on the lines laid down by Terpander and his 
 school. The Dorian lyric received its later 
 artistic form from the Sicilian StesichSeus 
 of Himera (about 600), whose contemporary 
 AeIon first gave a place in literature to the 
 dithyramb. (j^eeDiTHYRAMBOS.) In the 6th 
 century choral poetry became the common 
 property of all Greeks, and so flourished 
 more and more. Of its older representa- 
 tives we have still to mention Ibycus of 
 Ehegium (about 540), in whose choral 
 songs the erotic element prevails. This 
 class of poetry was brought to its greatest 
 perfection at the time of the Persian Wars 
 by SiMONiDES of Ceos, by his nephew, 
 Bacchylides, and above all by Pindar of 
 Thebes. Besides these TImOceeon of laly- 
 sus, and the poetesses Myrtis, COrinna, _ 
 Praxilla, and Telesilla deserve mention. 
 Of the productions of jEolian and Dorian 
 lyric poetry only fragments have been pre- 
 served, except the epinician odes of Pindar. 
 
 With the Romans, the first attempts to 
 imitate the forms of the Greek " melic " 
 date from the last years of the Republic. 
 LiEvius wrote mythological poems in a 
 great variety of metres, the ErdtopcBgnia 
 ("Diversions of Love "), which however seem 
 to have attracted little attention. Catul- 
 lus also wrote some poems in "melic" 
 measures. This kind of poetry was per- 
 fected in the age of Augustus by Horace, 
 who introduced the forms of jEolian lyric. 
 None of the succeeding poets were of even 
 secondary importance, in spite of the great 
 skill with which they handled the various 
 melic metres ; one of them, the Christian 
 poet Peudentius, wrote as late as the 4th 
 century. The Dorian lyric never obtained 
 a footing among the Romans. 
 
 Lyslas, in point of time the third of the 
 Ten Attic Orators, was bom at Athens about 
 
LYSICRATES, MONUMENT OP LYSIPPUS. 
 
 369 
 
 B.C. 445. He was a son of the rich Syracusan 
 Cephaius, who had been invited by Pericles 
 to settle at Athens. At the age of fifteen 
 he went with his two brothers to Thurii, 
 in South Italy, and there studied under the 
 Syracusan rhetorician Tisias. He returned 
 to Athens in 412, and lived in the Piraeus 
 in comfortable circumstances, being joint 
 possessor, with his eldest brother Polemar- 
 chus, of several houses and a manufactory 
 of shields, where 120 slaves were employed. 
 Under the rule of the Thirty Tyrants, how- 
 ever, the brothers were accused in 404 of be- 
 ing enemies to the existinggovernment ; their 
 property was confiscated and Polemarchus 
 executed, while Lysias with the greatestdiffi- 
 culty managed to escape to Megara. After 
 the fall of the Thirty, in which he had 
 eagerly co-operated, he returned to Athens, 
 and gave his time to the lucrative occupation 
 of writing legal speeches for others, after 
 obtaining high repute as an orator, in 403, 
 by his accusation of Eratosthenes, the 
 murderer of his brother. He died in his 
 eighty-third year, esteemed by all. 
 
 Of the 425 speeches to which the ancients 
 assigned his name, but of which the greater 
 number (233) were regarded as not genuine, 
 there remain — besides numerous and some- 
 times considerable fragments — thirty-one, 
 though they are not all quite complete ; 
 and of these five must be looked upon as 
 certainly not genuine, and four others are 
 open to grave suspicion. Only one of these 
 speeches, that against Eratosthenes, men- 
 tioned above, was delivered by Lysias in 
 person. He is the first really classical 
 orator of the Greeks, and a model of the 
 plain style, which avoids grandiloquence 
 and seeks to obtain its effect by a sober 
 and clear representation of the case. The 
 ancient critics justly praised the purity and 
 simplicity of his language, the skill shown 
 in always adapting style to subject, the 
 combination of terseness with graphic 
 lucidity of description, particularly notice- 
 able in narrative, and, lastly, his power of 
 painting character. 
 
 Lysicrates, Monument of, at Athens. One 
 of the most graceful relics of Greek an- 
 tiquity, raised in memory of a victory in 
 the dramatic contests won by Lysicrates 
 when he was choregus {see Choeus) in B.C. 
 334. From a slender square basement, 
 [12 feet high by 9 feet wide] rises a small 
 but elegant round temple ; six engaged 
 Corinthian columns surround its circular 
 wall and support the entablature, on the 
 frieze of which there is a delicate and 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 life-like representation of a scene in the 
 legend of Dionysus '(the changing of the 
 Tyrrhenian pirates into dolphins, for having 
 by mistake laid hands on the god). Over 
 the entablature is 
 a flat dome made 
 of a single block 
 of marble, and 
 from the centre 
 of the roof rises a 
 finial of acanthus 
 leaves, formerly 
 crowned by the 
 tripod which was 
 the prize of vic- 
 tory. The monu- 
 ment is thirty-five 
 feet high, and the 
 diameter of the 
 inside is about six 
 feet. The reliefs 
 of the frieze are 
 of great value, as 
 they belong to 
 the new Attic 
 school of Scopas 
 and Praxiteles. 
 According to a 
 tradition (which 
 is without founda- 
 tion) that Demos- 
 thenes used to study here, the monument 
 used to be called the Lantern of Demos- 
 thenes. [This name was familiar to Michael 
 Akominatos, in the second half of the 12th 
 century ; Gregorovius, Mirdbilien der Stadt 
 Athen, p. 357. The true name was first 
 restored by Transfeldt about 1674, id. 
 Athen im Mittelalter, ii 357.] 
 
 Lysippus, of Sicyon. One of the most 
 famous Greek artists, a contemporary of 
 Alexander the Great; was originally a 
 worker in metal, and taught himself the 
 art of the sculptor by studying nature and 
 the canon of POlyclitus (q.v.). His works, 
 which were said to amount to 1,500, were all 
 statues in bronze, and were remarkable for 
 their lifelike characterization and their 
 careful and accurate execution, shown par- 
 ticularly in the treatment of the hair. He 
 aimed at representing the beauty and har- 
 mony more especially of the male human 
 body; and substituted for the proportions 
 of Polyclitus a new ideal, which kept in 
 view the effect produced, by giving the 
 body a more slender and elegant shape, and 
 by making the head smaller in comparison 
 with the trunk, than is the case with the 
 actual average man. The most famous 
 
 B B 
 
 THE CHOHAGIC MONUMENT OF 
 LYSICRATES, ATHENS. 
 
370 
 
 MACHAIRA MAGISTER EQUITUM. 
 
 among his statues of gods were the colossal 
 forms of Zeus and Heracles, at Tarentum 
 (of wliich the former was second in size 
 only to that at Rhodes, while the latter 
 was afterwards brought to the Capitol at 
 Rome, and then to the Hippodrome at 
 Constantinople, where it was melted down 
 in A.D. 1022), and, lastly, the sungod on the 
 four-horse chariot at Rhodes [Pliny, N. H., 
 xxxiv §§ 40, 63]. 
 
 The first example of pure allegory in 
 Greek art was his Cairos, the Favourable 
 Moment ; a delicate youth with modest look 
 standing on a ball, with his feet winged, 
 and holding shears and a balance in his 
 hands. The hair hiing down in front, while 
 it was so short behind that it could not be 
 grasped [Antliol. Gr. ii 49, 13 ; Callistratus, 
 StatucB, 6]. 
 
 By far the greater number of his statues 
 were portraits ; of these the various repre- 
 sentations of Alexander the Great from 
 boyhood onwards were of marked excellence 
 [Pliny, I.e. 64]. Indeed, the king would 
 have no sculptor but Lysippus to represent 
 him, even as he would have no other painter 
 than Apelles [Pliny, N. H., vii 125 ; Horace, 
 Epist. ii 1, 240; Cicero, Ad Fam. v 12, 13]. 
 
 Among his large groups were Craterus 
 saving the life of Alexander chasing the 
 lion [Pliny, xxxiv 64], and the portraits of 
 twenty-five horsemen and nine foot soldiers 
 who fell at the first assault in the battle 
 
 of the Granicus [Arrian, Anab. i 16 § 7 ; 
 Plutarch, Alex. 16]. The excellent copy in 
 marble, at the Vatican, of the Apoxyomends, 
 
 * MAKBLE COPY OF THE APOXYOMENDS OF LYSIPPUS. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican Museum.) 
 
 a youth removing the dust of the palaestra 
 with a strigil, affords an idea of his skill in 
 representing beautiful and perfectly deve- 
 loped bodies of delicate elasticity and grace- 
 ful suppleness [Pliny, xxxiv 62]. 
 
 M 
 
 A one-edged sword, slightly 
 among the Greeks. Por 
 
 Machaira. 
 
 curved, in use 
 
 further information, see Sword. 
 
 Machaon and_ Podalirius. The sons of 
 Asclepius and Epione, skilled in the art of 
 healing, took part in the expedition to Troy 
 with thirty Thessalian ships, and were there 
 the physicians of the Greeks, besides fight- 
 ing valiantly. According to post-Homeric 
 legends Machaon was slain by Eurypylus, 
 the son of Telephus, and his corpse was 
 brought by Nestor to Messenia, where, at 
 Gerenia, he had a sepulchre and a temple 
 in which cures were effected. Podalirius, 
 who recognised the madness of Ajax by 
 his burning eyes, stayed with Calchas from 
 the fall of Troy to his death, and then 
 settled at Symos in Caria; he had a hcroon 
 in Apulia, close to that of Calchas. 
 
 Macrobius (Ambrosius Theodosius). A 
 man of high rank, and, according to his own 
 account, not a born Roman, and probably a 
 
 pagan, who wrote, in the beginning of the 
 5th century after Christ, two extant works: 
 (1) a commentary on Cicero's Dream ol 
 Scipio {Somnium Scipionis, from the sixth 
 book of the De Republica) ; and (2) an anti- 
 quarian compilation in seven books, treat- 
 ing of a number of historical, mythological, 
 grammatical, and antiquarian subjects, in 
 the form of table talk, at a celebration of 
 the Saturnalia; hence the title, Convwia 
 Saturnalia. Macrobius has gathered his 
 information from various authors, especially 
 Gellius, whom, however, he does not men- 
 tion any more than his other authorities. 
 
 Maenads (Gr. mainddSs) " the frenzied 
 ones." Women in Bacchic ecstasy, who 
 formed part of the train of Dionysus 
 {q.v. fig. 3 ; cp. Vases, fig. 13). 
 
 Magister Equitum. The assistant of the 
 dictator, nominated by him immediately 
 after his own appointment, and bound to 
 obey him unconditionally, representing him 
 
MAGISTRATUS. 
 
 371 
 
 in his absence, or when otherwise prevented. 
 He owed his name (" Master of the Horse ") 
 to the fact that it was part of his office to 
 command the cavalry in battle, while the 
 dictator was at the head of the infantrJ^ 
 As the insignia of his magistracy he had 
 the sella citnilis, the prcetexta, and six 
 lictors. 
 
 Magistratus. A term used by the Romans 
 both to designate the magistracy and the 
 person who held it. The magistrates of 
 the Republic were partly ordinary, chosen 
 at regular intervals : consHles, censdres, 
 prcetores, cediles cUrules, quaistores, tribunl 
 plebls, and wdlles plebis ; partly extraordi- 
 nary, chosen only under special circum- 
 stances, the principal being dictator, 
 mdgister equitum, and interrex. Among 
 these the consuls, prsetors, and dictator 
 are distinguished from the others by 
 the possession of the impSrium (q.v.) 
 derived from the regal power (the interrex 
 had it for five days only) ; they and the 
 censors, who, without possessing the impe- 
 rium, derived their duties fi'om the regal 
 power, constitute the higher magistrates, 
 magistratus mciiores, while the rest are the 
 lower, minores, with the exception of the 
 tribunes, who have a position of their own. 
 For those offices, which could originally 
 be held by patricians alone, the term patri- 
 cian was preserved, even after they had 
 become accessible to the plebeians. The 
 plebeian offices also, the tribunate and 
 plebeian sedileship, do not designate any 
 political contrast after plebeians and patri- 
 cians had been made legally equal, although 
 only plebeians could hold them. Another 
 distinction is that into magistratus curules 
 and non curules, which refers to the right 
 of having a sella curulis (q.v.). This and 
 the toga pra>texta, a white toga edged with 
 purple, were accorded to the higher magis- 
 trates, the cediles curules and the magister 
 equitum. Only the magistratus cum imperio 
 and the magister equitum were permitted 
 to have lictors with the fasces (q.v.). All 
 the magistrates were elected, except the dic- 
 tator and the magister equitum ; the magis- 
 tratus maiores at the comltla centUridta, 
 the rest at the comitia trlbuta. Every 
 magistrate had the right to call the people 
 to a contio (q.v.), to issue edicts, which had 
 the force of laws as long as his authority 
 (potestas) lasted, to take auspices which 
 were binding for the district within his 
 jurisdiction, and to exercise a limited right 
 of punishment ; the higher magistrates and 
 the tribunes had' the power, generally 
 
 speaking, of convoking the comitia and the 
 senate (cp. Imperium). The power of the 
 magistrates was limited by the senate, the 
 intercession of the tribunes and of magis- 
 trates of equal or higher rank, the right 
 of appeal of the citizens, and the liability 
 to give account after retirement from office ; 
 for no charge could be brought, at any rate 
 against the higher magistrates, as long as 
 they held it. 
 
 The following were the conditions for 
 obtaining an office : (1) Personal applica- 
 tion before the election, the right of re- 
 jection being in the hands of the magistrate 
 who directed them (a consul in the case of 
 the higher magistrates, a tribune for the 
 plebeian, a consul — afterwards also the 
 praetor of the city — for the rest). (2) Eligi- 
 bility, dependent on membership of a citizen 
 family, full possession of personal liberty 
 and honorary rights (see Infamia), and the 
 absence of bodily blemish (note also that 
 patricians could not hold plebeian offices). 
 (3) A minimum age for each office, at first 
 according to a certain tradition, then 
 regulated by law, so that in Cicero's time 
 a candidate for the qfusestorship had to be 
 in his 30th year at least ; in his 37th for 
 the curule asdileship ; in his 40th for the 
 praBtorship ; and in his 4:3rd for the consul- 
 ship. (4) At this time also the traditional 
 order of the above-mentioned offices was 
 considered law, and a man was compelled 
 to hold the lower office before he could 
 proceed to the higher, except that the 
 sedileship could be neglected. (5) An in- 
 terval of two years had to elapse between 
 the sedileship, prsetorship, and consulate, 
 and of one year between the tribunate and 
 any other office. , (6) Ten years had to 
 elapse before the same office could be held 
 again ; in this, and with regard to age, 
 order of offices, and intervals between them, 
 exceptions were permitted under special 
 circumstances. 
 
 The date of the elections was fixed by the 
 senate ; in Cicero's time they usually took 
 place in July [Ad Att. ilG; Ad Fam. viii 4]. 
 From B.C. 153 the magistrates, whose names 
 were solemnly announced (rcnuntidtio) at 
 the end of the elections, mostly entered 
 upon their office on January 1st. (See 
 articles on the individual magistrates.) 
 Just as on this occasion they swore to keep 
 the laws, so at the end of their term of 
 office, which was a year, except in the case 
 of the censors, the dictator, and the magister 
 equitum (q.v.), they affirmed on oath before 
 a contio, that they had done nothing con- 
 
372 
 
 MAGNA MATER MANCIPATIO. 
 
 trary to the laws. The officials elected to 
 an office vacated before the end of the year 
 {suffecti) simply held it for the remainder 
 of that year. The only thing that could 
 legally compel a magistrate to resign 
 before the end of his time was a formal 
 error in the taking of the auspices at the 
 elections. 
 
 The magistrates received no salaries 
 whatsoever, but they were indemnified for 
 official expenses within the town {e.g. for 
 the games) or without it ; those officials 
 more especially who were going to the 
 provinces as procurators received a suffi- 
 cient sum from the treasury for their 
 equipment and the support of themselves 
 and their suite. Under the Empire the old 
 magistracies continued to exist, though 
 their authority was considerably limited; 
 cp. the several articles, and for their 
 election, see Comitia {end). Besides these, 
 numerous new offices came into existence, 
 especially the various prcefecti {q.v.), gome 
 of whom received an actual salary. 
 
 The magistracies were completely re- 
 modelled by Diocletian and Constantine, 
 especially with regard to their pay ; all 
 imperial officials received salaries, while 
 the municipaf did not. C/>. the several 
 articles mentioned in the beginning. 
 
 Magna Mater. A Roman name of the 
 goddess Rhea {q.v.). 
 
 Magnes. One of the first founders of 
 Attic Comedy. {See Comedy.) 
 
 Mala. Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one 
 of the Pleiads {q.v.), mother of Hermes by 
 Zeus. The Romans identified her with an 
 old Italian goddess of spring, Maia Maiestds 
 (also called Fauna, Bona JDea, Ops), who 
 was held to be the wife of Vulcan, and to 
 whom the flamen of that god sacrificed a 
 pregnant sow on the 1 st of May. 
 
 Maiestas. Denoted among the Romans 
 the sovereign power of the people and the 
 State, or that of the emperor. To detract 
 from this sovereign power was a crime 
 {crimen miniitce mdiestdtis). Originally 
 the term perduellio {q.v.) included all 
 offences of this kind ; distinctions were first 
 made in B.C. 100 by the Lex Apuleia, which 
 declared some offences to be treason that 
 had previously been regarded &s perduellio, 
 such as hindering the tribunes and exciting 
 to sedition. The idea of treason was con- 
 siderably extended by the Lex Cornrlia of 
 the dictator Sulla in B.C. 80, which made 
 it include inciting to sedition, hindering a 
 magistrate in the exercise of his functions, 
 and acting in a manner prejudicial to the 
 
 Roman prestige or beyond the limits of 
 one's authority. It also instituted a per- 
 manent lawcourt (see Qu^STio Pehpetua) 
 to take cognisance of such cases ; and 
 made exile (interdictio aqua; et ignis) the 
 penalty. {Sec ExiLiUM.) Caesar's Lex 
 Julia, B.C. 46, made perduellio pass over 
 into crimen maiestatis, which was held to 
 cover all actions prejudicial to the State 
 and the existing constitution (such as 
 treason, plots, conspiracies, sedition, illegal 
 assumption of authority). The Julian Law 
 also formed the basis for punishing offences 
 of this kind under the Empire ; to these 
 were now added all those against the person 
 and the authority of the emperor. The term 
 was very elastic, and received whatever in- 
 terpretation the emperor preferred, so that 
 when a charge, e.g. that of embezzlement 
 {sec Repetundarum Crimen), was brought 
 against a man, he could often be also 
 charged with the crimen maiestatis, espe- 
 cially as the accusers were rewarded if the 
 offence was proved. After the closing of 
 the qucestiones these cases were decided by 
 the senate ; later still, the emperor was 
 judge, or entrusted them to the prcefectus 
 urhi. The regular penalty was confisca- 
 tion, and sometimes banishment or death. 
 Charges of treason could be brought or 
 the trial could be continued, even after the 
 death of the accused; and in the most 
 serious cases the penalty had to be borne 
 by the children, in accordance with a decree 
 of the emperor, and even with the law at a 
 later period. 
 
 Mamers. See Mars. 
 
 Mamertinus {Claudius). A Latin pane- 
 gyrist, the author of a speech addressed to 
 the emperor Julian on January 1st, A.D. 
 362, at Constantinople, thanking him for 
 conferring the consulate on him . It gives 
 a pretty accurate picture of the personality 
 of the emperor and of his administration. 
 An older Mamertinus is assumed to be the 
 author of two panegyrics in praise of Maxi- 
 minianus, co-regent with Diocletian, which 
 were delivered in 289 and 291 at Treves. 
 
 Mamurius. The mythical maker of the 
 ancilia. {See Ancile.) 
 
 Mana Genita. See Mania. 
 
 Maucipatio {lit. a taking with the hand). 
 A formal mode of purchase among the 
 Romans, which seems to go back to 
 a time when the price of purchase was 
 weighed out in bars of copper. In the pre- 
 sence of six Roman citizens of the age of 
 puberty, one of whom, called the libripens 
 (weigher), held a copper balance, the pur- 
 
MAISTCIPIUM MANIA. 
 
 373 
 
 chaser took hold of the thing and uttered 
 certain prescribed words. He then struck 
 the balance (litn-a) with a small piece of 
 copper (cBS or raudusculum), which he 
 gave to the seller as sj'mbol of the price. 
 This mode of purchase /it'c ces ct libvam was 
 employed in the case of res manctpi, i.e. 
 estates in Italy or provinces with Italian 
 law, in the country or in towns, slaves, and 
 domestic animals and beasts of burdeij 
 needed for agricultural purposes ; also in 
 a certain kind of testaments, in the form 
 of marriage called coemptio, and in trans- 
 ferring one's power over a person (manus) 
 to another. {See Adoption, Emancipatio, 
 and Mancipium.) 
 
 Mancipium. The right of possession ob- 
 tained through mancipatio (q.v.), and the 
 possession itself, which none but the head 
 of the family has a right to dispose of. 
 Homines llberi in mancipio are free men, 
 whom their father has given into the power 
 of another man by mancipatio, e.g. in com- 
 pensation for some damage they have done 
 to the latter. Their position differed from 
 that of slaves in this, that they retained 
 the right of personality, could complain if 
 their masters treated them badly, and re- 
 gained all the rights of a freeborn man on 
 leaving their position of dependence. This 
 was effected in the same way as the libera- 
 tion of slaves vindicta, censu, and testa- 
 mento. {See Feeedmen.) After the repeal 
 of the severe laws making imprisonment 
 the penalty of convicted debtors, the same 
 relation as that mentioned above existed 
 between debtor and creditor, until the 
 money was paid. 
 
 Manes {i.e. the good). A name given by 
 the Romans to the spirits of the dead, which 
 were held to be immortal like the gods, and 
 hence designated as such {dii manes). They 
 dwell below the earth, and only come forth 
 at certain seasons of the year. On the Mens 
 Pdlcitlnus at Rome, there was, as in other 
 Italian towns, a deep pit with the shape of 
 an inverted sky, known as mundus, the 
 lowest part of which was consecrated to 
 the infernal gods and also to the Manes, 
 and was closed with a stone, lapis mdnalis, 
 thought to be the gate of the nether world. 
 This stone was lifted up three times a year 
 (August 24th, October 5th, November 8th), 
 and the Manes were then believed to rise 
 to the upper world ; on this account those 
 days were reliffiosi, i.e. no serious matter 
 might be undertaken on them. Sacrifices 
 were offered to them as to the dead ; water, 
 wine, warm milk, honey, oil, and the blood 
 
 of black sheep, pigs, and oxen, were poured 
 on the grave ; ointments and incense were 
 offered; and the grave was decked with 
 flowers, roses and violets by preference. 
 Oblations, which chiefly consisted of beans, 
 eggs, lentils, bread and wine, were placed 
 on the grave, and the mourners partook of 
 a meal in its neighbourhood. Besides the 
 private celebrations there was also a public 
 and universal festival, the Pdrentdlia, which 
 lasted from the 13th to the 21st of FeWiary, 
 the last month of the older Roman year ; the 
 last day had the special name FBrdlia. 
 During these days all the temples were 
 closed, marriages were prohibited, and the 
 magistrates had to appear in public without 
 the tokens of their office. The festival of 
 the dead was followed by that of the rela- 
 tions on Februarj' 22nd, called Caristia. 
 This was celebrated throughout the town 
 bj'' each individual family, the members of 
 which exchanged presents and met at festal 
 banquets. 
 
 Manethon (or Mancfhos). An Egyptian 
 of Sebennytus, who lived in the second half 
 of the 3rd century B.C. He was high priest 
 at Heliopolis in Egypt, and wrote in Greek 
 a history of his native country from the 
 oldest times to its conqtiest by Alexander 
 the Great, founded on the sacred records of 
 the Egyptians. Recent hieroglyphic dis- 
 coveries have confirmed the authority of 
 this work against the doubts and suspicions 
 previously entertained, and show it to have 
 been compiled from good sources : only a 
 third of the kings' names and some frag- 
 ments have been preserved by later writers. 
 He has been wrongly considered the author 
 of a Greek poem in six books, treating of 
 the influence of the constellations on the 
 fates of men, entitled ApotSlesmdtica ; 
 various parts of it seem to have been writ- 
 ten by different authors between the 3rd 
 and 5th century after Christ. 
 
 Mania. An old Italian goddess of the 
 Manes, i.e. the dead, also called Lara, Lar- 
 imda, Muta (the dumb), Mdna GSmta, who 
 was held by some to be the mother or grand- 
 mother of the good Lares, by others of the 
 evil Larvae. Originally daughter of the 
 river-god Almo, and called Lara, she was 
 deprived of her tongue by Jupiter, because 
 she had betrayed his love for the Nymph 
 Juturna, and was condemned to be the 
 Nymph of the marshy waters in the realm 
 of the speechless. On the way to the 
 nether world Mercury fell in love with her, 
 and the Lares were her offspring. In 
 early times boys are said to have been 
 
374 
 
 MANILIUS MANTIKE. 
 
 sacrificed to her, to insure the prosperity 
 of a family. At a later period heads of 
 poppies and garlic were offered to her, and 
 woollen dolls, maniw, called after her, were 
 suspended on the doors as a protection. As 
 Mana Gcnita she received the sacrifice of a 
 dog and was implored not to let any of the 
 family become a " good one," i.e. die. In 
 the course of time Mania became a bogy 
 with which children were threatened. 
 
 Manllius. The reputed author of a Latin 
 didactic poem about astronomy and astrology 
 (AstfOnovnca), in five books, the first of 
 which was written under Augustus, after 
 the battle in the Saltus Teutoburgiensis, 9 
 A.D., and the fifth under Tiberius. The 
 first two books treat of astronomy as the 
 foundation of astrology ; the rest, of the 
 influence of constellations on human destiny. 
 The author certainly intended to write a 
 sixth book, but it has either been lost or 
 was never written. The poet, who shows 
 extensive knowledge, frequently boasts of 
 having been the first among Roman poets 
 to treat the subject, and handles his diffi- 
 cult theme with a dexterity and a moral 
 earnestness that recall Lucretius, whose 
 language he has frequently imitated. In 
 metrical skill he is on a par with the best 
 poets of the Augustan age. 
 
 Manipulus. A subdivision of the Roman 
 legion (q.v.), which had thirty of them 
 (three in each of the ten cohorts). The 
 manipiihis consisted of two centuries. 
 
 Mantike (sc. technS) is the name given 
 by the Greeks to the gift or art of divina- 
 tion. The belief of the ancients, that it 
 was possible to find out what was hidden or 
 what was going to happen, sprang from the 
 idea that the gods, when implored by prayer, 
 or even when unimplored, graciously com- 
 municated revelations to men, by means of 
 direct inspiration or through signs requiring 
 interpretation. Hence the ancients dis- 
 tinguished between natural and artificial 
 divination. 
 
 Divination is natural, when a man 
 receives the inspiration of the divinity in 
 a dream or in an ecstatic state. The beKef 
 in divine inspiration in dreams is of the 
 greatest antiquity (see Dreams), and con- 
 tinued to be held when the natural causes 
 of dreams had been ascertained. The 
 meaning of prophetic dreams cannot, how- 
 ever, always be immediately comprehended ; 
 they are mostly symbolical and therefore 
 reqiiire an interpretation. As a guide to 
 this, there arose in the course of time cer- 
 tain rules resulting from experience, which 
 
 produced a special art, that of interpreting 
 dreams, of which some idea is given by the 
 Oneirocrltlca, on the interpretation of 
 dreams, by Artemidorus {q.v). Similarly, 
 the dreams obtained by sleeping at holy 
 places {incuhatio, see Incubaee), which 
 were always considered prophetic, usually 
 needed a priest to interpret them. 
 
 The power of more or less clearly seeing 
 in waking hours things concealed from 
 ordinary vision was believed by the Greeks 
 to be a special gift of Apollo. It is from 
 him that Homer makes Calchas receive his 
 revelations, although no mention is made 
 of his being in the ecstatic state usually 
 connected with this kind of soothsaying. 
 At the oracles this state was usually pro- 
 duced by external influences (see Oeacles) ; 
 women were held to be particularly suscep- 
 tible to them. Besides oracles and persons 
 reputed to be inspired, use was made of 
 various collections of older oracular sayings 
 and pretended predictions of prophets and 
 prophetesses of former times. Such col- 
 lections were not only in the possession of 
 states and priesthoods, but also in that of 
 private individuals, called chresmologi, who 
 drew on their store when paid to do so 
 by those who believed in them, and often 
 also explained the dark sayings. Like the 
 prophets by immediate inspiration, those 
 also were called seers who interpreted 
 according to certain rules the divine signs, 
 which formed the subject of the artificial 
 variety of the art of divination. 
 
 From the very oldest times special im- 
 portance was attached to omens of birds 
 (whether in answer to prayer or not), which 
 were discriminated from one another by 
 various rales, with regard partly to the 
 kind of birds, partly to the manner of their 
 appearing ; e.g. direction (favourable from 
 the right, unfavourable from the left), flight, 
 alighting, singing, and anything else they 
 did. The principal birds consulted were 
 the birds of prey that fly highest and alone, 
 the eagle (the messenger of Zeus), the heron, 
 the hawk, the falcon, and the vulture ; in 
 the case of ravens and crows the cawing 
 was an omen. 
 
 Second in importance were the various 
 phenomena of the sky considered as divine 
 signs. "Whether thunder and lightning 
 were favourable or not was also decided by 
 the direction, right or left, from which they 
 came. At Sparta shooting stars were 
 thought to show that the gods were dis- 
 pleased with the kings. Eclipses of the 
 sun and moon, comets, and meteors were 
 
MANTO MARIUS MAXIMUS. 
 
 375 
 
 signs that inspired terror. Prophesying 
 from the stars however did not become 
 known in Greece till the time of Alexander 
 the Great. 
 
 In important enterprises, especially in 
 war, recourse was had to an examination 
 of the condition of sacrificed animals or Mcro- 
 scopla ; oxen, sheep, and also pigs being 
 most frequently the victims. The points 
 observed were : normal or abnormal nature 
 of the entrails, especially the liver, with 
 the gall-bladder, and also the heart, spleen, 
 and lungs. The various kinds of entrails 
 and their abnormal conditions were made 
 the subject of a highly elaborate system, so 
 that no Greek army could dispense with 
 a skilled interpreter of signs. When the 
 omens were unfavourable, the sacrifice was 
 repeated till they were favourable, or the 
 enterprise was postponed. The manner too 
 in which animals went to be sacrificed, 
 whether willingly or with reluctance, etc., 
 was looked upon as an omen, as also the 
 way in which the sacrifice burnt on the 
 altar, the burning of the flame itself, the 
 rising or sinking of the smoke, etc. These 
 signs drawn from fire were the subject of 
 pyronianteia. 
 
 There was indeed a general inclination 
 to regard all striking and unusual events 
 as hints from the gods, and to interpret 
 them oneself, or to have them interpreted 
 by skilled seers. From ancient times the 
 chance utterances of others were thought 
 to be prophetic in so far as they applied to 
 the circumstances of the moment. For 
 such omens also the gods were asked. 
 Besides these, lots and dice were used for 
 predictions. There were many other arti- 
 ficial varieties of the art of divination, 
 some of them very strange, which were in 
 special favour in the lower classes of the 
 people and in later times ; as, for instance, 
 soothsaying with a sieve suspended by 
 threads, for the purpose of finding out 
 thieves or remedies for illness, etc., that 
 name being thought the one required at 
 mention of which the sieve ceased to turn 
 round. As early as Aristotle allusion is 
 made to chiromancy, or palmistry. For the 
 Roman methods of prophecy, see Divi- 
 
 NATIO. 
 
 Manto. Daughter of the seer Tiresias, 
 was herself a prophetess, at first of the 
 Ismenian Apollo at Thebes. After the 
 capture of the town by the Epigoni she 
 was presented to the oracle at Delphi as 
 part of the booty, and sent by the god to 
 Asia, in order to found the oracle of the 
 
 Clarian Apollo in the neighbourhood of what 
 was afterwards CSlophon. Here she bore 
 Mopsus {q.v., 2) to the Cretan seer Rhacius. 
 
 Mantuan Vase. See Gems. 
 
 Maniimissio. Freeing of slaves. See 
 Freedmen, 
 
 Mantis, in its wider sense, is the name 
 given by the Romans to the power of the 
 chief of a family over the whole of that 
 family, especially the power of the husband 
 over his wife, whose person and property 
 were so completely his own, that he was 
 legally responsible for her actions, but at 
 the same time had the right to kill, punish, 
 or sell her. As in this respect, so also 
 with respect to the right of inheritance, 
 the wife was placed on a level with the 
 children, as she obtained the same share as 
 they. For marriages without manus, see 
 Marriage. 
 
 Maniis Iniectio (laying the hand on). In 
 the oldest Roman legal procedure a kind of 
 execution levied on the person of one who 
 ha4 been condemned to pay a certain sum. 
 If this was not done within thirty days of 
 the condemnation, the plaintiff could seize 
 the debtor and bring him before the prsetor, 
 who handed him over to the creditor with 
 the word addlco (I hand over), unless he 
 paid there and then, or a vindex came 
 forward to pay for him or to show there 
 was no ground for complaint. The creditor 
 kept the debtor in chains at his house for 
 sixty days ; if his claims had not been 
 satisfied during this period, he might kill 
 him or sell him as a slave in foreign parts. 
 From the 4;th century onwards a less 
 severe arrangement was usual ; the relation 
 of the addictus to his creditor was that of 
 a homo liber in mancipio. {See Mancipium.) 
 
 Marcellus Empiricus (so called from 
 his empirical work on medical remedies), 
 of Burdigaia (Bordeaux). Marshal of the 
 household {magister ojflctorum) to Theo- 
 dosius I, compiled about A.D. 410 a dispen- 
 satory for the poor, which was chiefly 
 founded on Scribonius Largus {q.v.), with 
 many superstitious additions. 
 
 MaTcianus. A Greek geographer, who 
 lived at Heraclea in Bithynia. With the 
 aid of the best sources of information from 
 Hanno and Soylax down to Ptolemseus, he 
 compiled, about 400 a.d., a description of 
 the Western and Eastern ocean in two books, 
 not completely preserved. It is of particular 
 importance for ancient geography, as the 
 distances in stadia are given. 
 
 Marcus Aurelius. See Antoninus (1). 
 
 Marius Maximus. Latin historian. {See 
 
376 
 
 MARKET MAREIAGE. 
 
 ScRiPTORES Historic Augusts and 
 Suetonius). 
 
 Market. See Agora and Forum. 
 
 Market, Clerks of the {see Agoeanomus). 
 
 Marpessa. Daughter of the river god 
 Euenus, and wife of Idas. {See Idas and 
 Lynceus.) 
 
 Marriage. (I) Greek. The principle of 
 monogamj' was predominant as early as the 
 Homeric age. The Homeric poems repre- 
 sent the son as leaving the choice of a wife 
 to his father, and the father as disposing 
 at will of his daughter's hand. The suitor 
 usually offered to pay the girl's father a 
 certain number of oxen or other objects of 
 value. The daughter on her side received 
 a suitable provision from her father. This 
 property had to be restored to the wife on 
 the death of her husband, unless his heirs 
 wished otherwise. Marriages were valid 
 between persons of different station as well 
 as between persons of the same station. 
 The marriage festivities included a banquet 
 given by the father of the bride. The 
 bride was conducted in festal procession 
 with torches to the house of her husband, 
 a bridal song, the Hymcnceus, being mean- 
 while sung with dances by the youths who 
 accompanied her. The mistress of the 
 house held a position equal to that of the 
 man with whom she was associated for 
 life, and was treated with the same con- 
 sideration in her sphere as her husband in 
 his. The husband was allowed by custom 
 to have concubines, whose children were 
 brought up in the house of their father 
 with those of the lawful wife. But they 
 received only a small share of the property, 
 which the legitimate children divided 
 among themselves by lot after their father's 
 death. Illegitimate children incurred no 
 disgrace, and the sons borne by a slave to 
 a free man were accounted free.| 
 
 Later times. Athens. In Athens a girl's 
 life was so completely confined to her home 
 that love was very seldom the prelude to 
 marriage. The parents made the choice 
 for their children, equality of birth and 
 propertj' being the chief considerations. 
 No marriage was valid unless both parties 
 were children of Athenian citizens, and no 
 children were legitimate imless born of 
 such a marriage. If either wife or hus- 
 band were of non-Athenian extraction, the 
 marriage was accounted as no better than 
 concubinage, and the children were illegiti- 
 mate. Every legal marriage was preceded 
 by a formal betrothal, at which the agree- 
 ments were settled and the amount of the 
 
 dowry determined. If an heiress were 
 left fatherless, the man next in order of 
 inheritance was entitled to claim her in 
 marriage ; if she were poor, and so unable 
 to obtain a husband, he was bound to make 
 her a provision within an amount fixed 
 by law. Weddings were held by prefer- 
 ence in the seventh month of the Athenian 
 year, which was thence called Gamelion 
 (January-Eebruary). A wedding was pre- 
 ceded by certain preliminary rites called 
 prdteleia, consisting of prayers and sacri- 
 fices offered to the deities of marriage, 
 especially to Hera. The bride was con- 
 ducted to the Acropolis by her parents into 
 the temple of Athene, goddess of the city, 
 whose blessing they prayed for with offer- 
 ing of sacrifice. On the wedding-day the 
 bride and bridegroom bathed in water 
 brought at Athens from the spring Callir- 
 rhoe, and in all other cities from some 
 special river or spring. The water was 
 fetched by a male or female relation of 
 youthful age. The bride's father provided 
 a wedding banqiiet, to which the women, 
 usually excluded from the gatherings of 
 men, were invited. The men and women 
 sat at separate tables, the bride being 
 veiled. In the evening the bride was for- 
 mally conducted to her new home on a 
 carriage drawn by mules or oxen. She 
 took her place, surrounded by various kinds 
 of household furniture, between the bride- 
 groom and the conductor of the bride, a 
 confidential friend of the bridegroom. If 
 the bridegroom had been previously married, 
 he did not bring his bride home himself, 
 but was represented by his friends. The 
 carriage was followed by the friends and 
 relatives, singing the marriage hymn to 
 the accompaniment of flutes. Among them 
 was the bride's mother, bearing the wed- 
 ding torch, kindled at her own hearth ; 
 other torches preceded and followed. At 
 the door of the bridegroom's house, which 
 was adorned with green branches, the 
 bridegroom's mother met the pair with 
 torches in her hand. The bride and bride- 
 groom now entered the house amid the 
 cheers of its inmates, who, by way of a 
 lucky omen, rained upon them a shower of 
 all kinds of fruits and sweetmeats. The 
 bride ate a quince, the symbol of fertility. 
 At this point there was often a supper. The 
 bride was then conducted by an elderly 
 female relation, called the Nympheutria, to 
 the bridal chamber, which the latter had 
 adorned, and here given to the bridegroom. 
 Songs, called eplthdldmla, were sung by the 
 
MAREIAGE. 
 
 311 
 
 guests before the doors of the chamber. The 
 next two days -were taken up with the send- 
 ing of wedding presents, and it was only 
 after these days had passed that the young 
 bride appeared unveiled. It was now the 
 duty of the husband to enroll his wife in 
 his phratrla, and have his marriage regis- 
 tered : a sacrifice and a banquet forming 
 part of the ceremonies. If these formalities 
 were neglected, doubts might be subse- 
 quently raised as to the validity of the 
 marriage. A representation of the cere- 
 monies preliminary to a Greek marriage 
 may be seen in the painting called the 
 Aldobrandini Wedding. {See cut under 
 Painting, fig. 4.) The usages were similar 
 in the other Greek cities. The Spartans 
 had some peculiarities, one of which was 
 that the bridegroom had to get possession 
 of his bride by an act of violence, carrying 
 her off from among her companions, who 
 had to offer a more or less serious resis- 
 tance. He then brought her to the house 
 of a female relation, who took her to the 
 bridal chamber, cut off her hair and clothed 
 her in male attire, and then introduced 
 the bridegroom. Greek custom allowed of 
 marriage between half brothers and half 
 sisters, when not descended from the same 
 mother. Girls generally married early, 
 sometimes when not older than fourteen. 
 
 The women lived in a separate part of 
 the house, situated in the upper story or at 
 the back. To this the unmarried daughters 
 were confined, and no men, except the 
 nearest relatives, were allowed to enter it. 
 The life of a Greek woman was entirely 
 taken up with household management, for 
 which she was responsible to the fullest 
 extent. Her appearance in public was 
 regulated by certain limitations of general 
 custom and of law, which in many places 
 were strictly enforced by a special author- 
 ity. It was only at family festivals and 
 the great religious celebrations that they 
 mixed freely in men's society; at the 
 ordinary meals of the men they were never 
 allowed to be present. Their position was 
 in most states a subordinate one. The 
 general opinion was that women were, 
 not only physically, but intellectually and 
 morally, inferior to men, that they required 
 guidance and superintendence, and were 
 only to a slight extent in sympathy with 
 higher interests. They were all their life 
 precluded from the legal acquisition of 
 property. Sparta was an exception. Here 
 the training of the women was assimilated 
 to that of the men. The Spartan woman 
 
 was accustomed from her youth up to 
 account herself a citizen, to take a lively 
 interest in all public affairs, and even in 
 matters which elsewhere were deemed to 
 be quite outside the sphere of women's 
 judgment. Thus women in Sparta acquired 
 a considerable influence, and much impor- 
 tance was attached to their approval or 
 disapproval. But even in Sparta the life 
 of married women was mostly confined to 
 their own houses, nor were they so free 
 as the unmarried girls to mingle in men's 
 society. The married women, unlike the 
 unmarried girls, could not appear in public 
 unveiled. — In Sparta dowries were for- 
 bidden by law, but in Athens they were 
 an important element in society, The hus- 
 band had only the usufruct of the dowry, 
 it did not become his property. Every- 
 thing else that the wife brought into the 
 house was regarded as her personal pro- 
 perty, though she had by no means the 
 free disposal of it. If the husband died 
 first, the wife, if she had no children, 
 would return with her dowry to her rela- 
 tions on the father's side : if there were 
 children, she was free to remain with them 
 in her husband's house. The property of 
 father and mother came to the sons as soon 
 as they were of age, up to which time it 
 was administered for them by guardians. 
 Divorce might take place at the mere 
 pleasure of the husband, but he had to 
 repay the dowry, unless the wife had given 
 any legal ground for his action, as, e.g., 
 by the commission of adultery. The wife 
 could not separate from her husband 
 against his wish without a judicial decision. 
 To obtain this she had to hand in to the 
 archon a written statement of the grounds 
 on which she sought a divorce. If the 
 wife was guilty of adultery, the husband 
 was bound to divorce her ; if he failed, his 
 reputation suffered as much as that of the 
 adulteress herself. The injured husband 
 was legally allowed to kill the adulteress 
 on the spot. Not to marry was in Sparta 
 accounted a violation of civil duty, and 
 punished by a sort of dtlnila. An old 
 bachelor was not admitted to the public 
 festivals, such as the Gymnopccdia. He 
 had, at the command of the ephors, to walk 
 round the market in a single shirt, singing 
 against himself the while a mocking ditty 
 in which he owned the justice of his 
 punishment for disobedience to the laws. 
 Nor had he any claim to being greeted with 
 the marks of deference with which the old 
 were generally received by the young. 
 
378 
 
 MARRIAGE. 
 
 (II) Roman . Among the Romans a law- 
 ful marriage could only be contracted by 
 persons wbo were politically entitled to 
 do so. The right of contracting a lawful 
 marriage was at first confined to the patri- 
 cians, until in 445 B.C. the law of the 
 tribune Canuleius opened it to all Roman 
 citizens. The Latins received it on being 
 admitted to the Roman citizenship ; in later 
 times it was extended in like manner to all 
 the Italians, and finallj' Caracalla conferred 
 it on all the inhabitants of the Roman 
 empire. If only one party to the marriage 
 were a Roman citizen, the marriage was 
 invalid : the children took the position of 
 the mother, unless she were a citizen. 
 Marriages within the sixth degree of re- 
 lationship were originally forbidden. In 
 later times they were allowed as far as 
 the fourth degree, and after 49 a.d. within 
 certain limitations as far as the third. It 
 was originally the parent's business to 
 arrange the marriage of the children, but 
 the consent both of son and daughter was 
 absolutely necessary. There were two 
 methods of concluding a marriage. The 
 woman might come into the power {mdnus) 
 of her husband : in this case she passed 
 into his family, the property she brought 
 with her became his, and she acqviired the 
 right of inheritance in his family. Or she 
 might remain in the manus of her own 
 father and in possession of her o^\ti rights 
 of property. A marriage of the first kind 
 might be contracted in three ways : 
 
 (1) By confarrnitio. This ceremony was 
 so called from the offering of a cake of 
 spelt, made to Jupiter in the presence of 
 the ponfifex and Jlamen Didlis, with ten 
 witnesses. This was the ancient patrician 
 form of marriage. Towards the end of the 
 republican age it became obsolete except 
 in case of the most sacred priesthoods of 
 the State. (2) By ilsus. If the woman 
 lived for a year in her husband's house 
 without absenting herself from him for 
 three nights. (3) By coemptio, or a sym- 
 bolic sale. (See Coemptio.) In this case 
 the father delivered his daughter to her 
 husband as a piece of property, she at the 
 same time declaring her consent. The con- 
 clusion of the marriage was preceded by 
 the betrothal. In this ceremony the bride- 
 groom gave the bride earnest-money, as in 
 other cases of contract, or a ring in its 
 stead. 
 
 The wedding-day was always carefully 
 chosen, certain seasons of the year being 
 deemed inappropriate on religious grounds. 
 
 These unlucky periods were the whole of 
 May, the first half of March and of June, 
 all the dies niigwsi and the calends, nones, 
 and ides. The bridal garment consisted in 
 a white tunica, a robe woven in ancient 
 fashion from top to bottom, and fastened 
 by a woollen girdle with a peculiar knot. 
 The bride's hair was arranged in six locks 
 {cnnes), and in it she wore a garland of 
 flowers of her own gathering : her head 
 was covered with a red veil. A victim 
 was sacrificed, the auspices taken, and the 
 marriage contract completed. A married 
 lady then led the bride and bridegroom 
 together : they took each other's hands, 
 a prayer was addressed to the gods of 
 marriage, and a sacrifice offered by the 
 newly married pair, generally on one of 
 the public altars. A feast was held in the 
 bride's house, and at nightfall the bride 
 was carried off with a show of violence 
 from the arms of her mother and conducted 
 to her new house in festal procession, pre- 
 ceded by a fiute-player and torch-bearer, 
 to the singing of Fescennine verses and 
 the wedding ci-y talasse. (See Fescennini, 
 and cp. Talassio.) Two boys, whose 
 fathers and mothers were still living, 
 walked at her side ; a third lighted her 
 way with a torch of white-thorn, which 
 was accounted a charm against magic ; a 
 spindle and thread were carried after her. 
 The bridegroom threw walnuts to the boys 
 in the street as a token that he was bid- 
 ding adieu to the amusements of childhood. 
 Arrived at the house, the bride anointed 
 the doorposts with oil and fat, and decked 
 them with woollen fillets. She was then 
 lifted over the threshold into the atrium, 
 her future abode, where stood the marriage 
 bed. Here her husband welcomed her into 
 the partnership of fire and water, that is 
 to say, of domestic life and worship. Here 
 also she offered a prayer to the gods for a 
 happy marriage. A feast was given on the 
 next day by her husband, called repotla. At 
 this, in her new position as a married lady, 
 she welcomed her relations, who brought 
 her their presents, and offered her first 
 sacrifice to the PSmltes. 
 
 The position of a married woman among 
 the Romans was much better than it usually 
 was among the Greeks, She was indeed 
 subordinate to her husband, but shared 
 the management of the house with him. 
 She was free in her house, not confined to 
 a special part of it. She had no menial 
 offices to perform, not even cooking, and 
 her time was devoted to the management 
 
MARS. 
 
 379 
 
 of tie house, to weaving and spinning with 
 her maid-servants in the atrium, and to 
 the training of her children. She was 
 addressed as dommd (mistress) by all the 
 members of her household, even her hus- 
 band, and their conduct towards her was 
 regulated by certain rules of etiquette. On 
 the 1st of March, the mdtrondlta, she re- 
 ceived congratulations and presents from 
 the whole household. Her birthday, too, 
 was observed with due festivities. She 
 took a personal interest in her husband's 
 pursuits, and was consulted by him on all 
 occasions that concerned the family. In 
 public she was treated with great respect, 
 place was made for her, and no hand might 
 be laid upon her, not even by the officers 
 of the law. She might appear at religious 
 services, at meals (where she remained 
 sitting and took no wine), in the theatre, 
 and even in the courts, whether to give 
 evidence, or to offer intercession for a rela- 
 tive charged with an offence. After her 
 death she was honoured by a public pane- 
 gyric. The strictness of the social code 
 which regulated the behaviour of women at 
 home and abroad, and the respect in which 
 they were held, maintained the sanctity of 
 marriage for a long time inviolate. 
 
 The second Punic War was followed by 
 a state of social corruption, which extended 
 to the female sex, the degradation of which 
 was completed by the dissolution of moral 
 ties brought about by the civil wars. One 
 symptom of the loosening of family life was 
 the increasing number of marriages which 
 did not bring the wives into the power of 
 their husbands, and left them the control 
 of their property. Under the Empire no 
 other kind of marriage survived. Another 
 symptom which appeared, even in the later 
 days of the Republic, was the increasing 
 number of divorces, and the growing un- 
 willingness to marry. In the first five 
 centuries of the city divorces must have 
 been rare. Marriages contracted by con- 
 farreatio seem originally to have been 
 dissoluble only in case of certain definite 
 offences on the part of the wife. Such were 
 adultery, child-murder, making of false keys, 
 and drinking of wine. In these cases the 
 family council pronounced sentence of death, 
 the execution of which was preceded by a 
 solemn act of diffarreatio. The marriages 
 of priests, contracted by confarreatio, re- 
 mained always indissoluble. In early times 
 the dissolution of a marriage for a trivial 
 reason drew down upon it the reproof of 
 the censor. But as time went on divorces 
 
 became not only more frequent, but more 
 capricious, until at length the mere expres- 
 sion of a desire for separation on the part 
 of husband or wife was sufficient. If the 
 fault was on the husband's side, the wife's 
 dowry was returned to her : if not, certain 
 deductions were made. In case of adultery 
 on the wife's part, the husband had, in 
 ancient times, the right of keeping back 
 the whole dowry, but this law was after- 
 wards relaxed. The censors had, originally, 
 the power of punishing with a pecuniary 
 fine a citizen who refused to marry, but 
 the disinclination to marry grew to such 
 a pitch that neither punishment of the 
 offence, nor rewards offered to the parents 
 of numerous families, could check it. As 
 far back as 131 B.C. the censor Metellus 
 had spoken of marriage as a necessary 
 burden to be borne for patriotic motives. 
 Augustus endeavoured to check the course 
 of opinion by legislation affecting property : 
 unmarried persons were not permitted to 
 inherit at all, and childless couples were 
 allowed to receive only half of their legacies, 
 while parents, especially parents of three 
 or more children, were favoured by various 
 privileges and advantages. Divorces were 
 not to take place, unless accompanied with 
 certain forms and prescriptions. But these 
 laws produced only a superficial effect. 
 The moral standard was not raised, but 
 society sank, under the Empire, to the 
 lowest depth of corruption. 
 
 Mars (also Mdvors, Mdmers). With 
 Jupiter the principal deity of the inhabi- 
 tants of Italy, and therefore honoured with 
 particular reverence by the Latins and 
 Romans from the very earliest times, espe- 
 cially as the latter regarded him as the 
 father of Romulus, the founder of Rome, 
 He was held to be the son of Juno, who 
 bore him in consequence of touching a 
 wonderful spring-flower, and the husband 
 of Nerio or Neriene, a goddess of strength. 
 Through the emphasising of one of his 
 attributes he gradually came to be con- 
 sidered as, above all, the god of war ; for 
 originally he is at the same time one of the 
 mightiest gods of nature, who accords fer- 
 tility and protection to fields and herds. 
 
 The first month of the old Roman year 
 was dedicated to him as the fertilizing god 
 of spring ; in the very ancient chant of the 
 Arval brothers (q.v.), at the May-day fes- 
 tival of the Dea Dia, the help and protection 
 of Mars were demanded. In earlier times 
 he was also invoked at the hallowing of 
 the fields (see Ambarvalia), that he might 
 
380 
 
 MARS, FIELD OF MARTIALIS. 
 
 liless the family, the field and the cattle, 
 and keep off sickness, bad weather, and all 
 else that did harm. {Cp. Robigus.) In 
 later times the names of Ceres and Bacchus 
 were substituted for his on this particular 
 occasion. At the festival on 15th October 
 (see heloic) a horse was sacrificed to him 
 to insure the fair growth of the seed that 
 had been sown. As god of war he had the 
 special name GradtvKS, the strider, from 
 the rapid march in battle ^ (cp. QuiRiNtrs), 
 and his symbols were the ravenous wolf, 
 the prophetic and warlike woodpecker, and 
 the lance. When war broke out, the 
 general solemnly invoked his aid, by smiting 
 his holy lance and the holy shields {ancllla 
 — see Axcile) with the cry. Mars, awake! 
 (Mars v'ig'tta !) Many sacrifices were also 
 offered to him during the campaign and 
 before battle ; and in his name military 
 honours were conferred. The Field of 
 Mars (Campus Marfius) was dedicated to 
 him as the patron god of warlike exercises ; 
 contests with battle-steeds, called Equim'a, 
 were there held in his honour on the 27th 
 February, 14th March, and 15th October. 
 On the last-mentioned day the horse on 
 the right of the victorious team was sacri- 
 ficed on his altar in the Field of Mars ; 
 it was known as the horse of October 
 (October equus), and its blood was collected 
 and preserved in the temple of Vesta, and 
 used at the Palilia for purposes of purifi- 
 cation. The cult of Mars was entrusted to 
 a special priest, the flame)! Maiiialis 
 (see Flamen), and the college of the Sdlli 
 (q.v.), which worshipped him more par- 
 ticularly as god of war. His principal fes- 
 tival was in March, the month sacred to 
 him. As early as the time of king Tullus 
 Hostilius, Pdvor and Pallor, Fear and 
 Pallor, are said to have been worshipped 
 as his companions in the fight, in sanctua- 
 ries of their own. Augustus caused him 
 to be honovired in a new form, as Mavs TJltor 
 (avenger of Csesar), in the magnificent 
 temple in the Forum Augusti, consecrated 
 B.C. 2, where statues of him and of Venus, 
 as the two divine ancestors of the Julian 
 family, were set up. In later times he 
 was identified completely with the Greek 
 Area (q.v.). 
 
 Mars, Field of. See Campus Martius. 
 
 Mars' Hill. See Areopagus. 
 
 ' It has recently been proposed to connect it 
 with grand-i9, grand-ire, and to explain it as an 
 epithet of growth (Mr. Minton Warren, in Ameri- 
 can Journal of Phildogy, iv 71). 
 
 I/Tars^as. A Silenus of Phrygian legend 
 (really god of the river of the same name 
 near the old Phrygian town Celsense), son 
 of Hyagnis. He was the typical player on 
 the flute. Among the Phrygians the flute 
 entered into the worship of Cybele and 
 Dionysus, and Marsyas is said to have 
 instructed Olympus in playing upon that 
 instrument. According to a Greek legend, 
 Athene had invented the flute, and then cast 
 it aside because it distorted the features of 
 the player. Marsysas took it up, and became 
 so skilful as to challenge Apollo, the patron 
 god of the lyre. The Muses having declared 
 him vanquished, the god flayed him ; his skin 
 was hung up in the cave from which the 
 river Marsyas issued, and was said to move 
 about joyfully when a flute was played. 
 King Midas, who had decided in his favour, 
 received as punishment from Apollo a pair 
 of donkey's ears. The contest was a 
 favourite subject in art. 
 
 Martialis (Marcus Valerius). The Roman 
 epigrammatist, born at Bilbilis in Spain 
 between a.d. 40 and 43. He was originally 
 intended for the law, and was sent to Rome 
 in Nero's reign to complete his studies, but 
 devoted himself to poetry, which obtained 
 for him the favour of Titus, Domitian, and 
 the great men of Rome, and thus insured 
 him a livelihood. On returning in 98 under 
 Trajan to Bilbilis, after a stay of thirty- 
 four years in the capital, he was so poor 
 that the younger Pliny [Ep. iii 21] had 
 to give him pecuniary assistance for the 
 journey. Though his skill as a poet won 
 him patrons in his native country, and even 
 an estate from the wealthy Marcella, yet he 
 yearned for the bustle of the capital. He 
 died about 102. — Martial is the creator of 
 the modern epigram, and the first ancient 
 poet who exclusively cultivated the epigram 
 as a separate branch of literature. Besides 
 a small collection of epigrams about public 
 shows under Titus and his successor (Liber 
 Spectaculorum), we possess a much larger 
 collection in fourteen books, of which only 
 two (xi and xii) were not published under 
 Domitian. He depicts, usually in elegiac 
 or iambic verse, the corrupt morals of his 
 degenerate times with brilliant and biting 
 wit and with the metrical skill of Ovid, but 
 without any moral seriousness, and with 
 evident pleasure in what is coarse. A par- 
 ticularly distasteful effect is produced by 
 his fulsome flattery of patrons in high 
 positions, especially Domitian, in whom he 
 manages to discover and to admire every 
 virtue that a man and a prince could possibly 
 
MARTIANDS CAPELLA MATRONALIA. 
 
 381 
 
 possess. His epigrams were much read by 
 the ancients. 
 
 Martianus C§,pella, of Madaura in Africa, 
 apparently a pagan ; a lawyer at [Carthage. 
 He compiled before 439 a.d. (when Genseric 
 took Carthage) an encyclopsedia of the 
 liberal arts, entitled, " The Marriage of 
 Philology and Mercury" {Nuptice Plulv- 
 logloi ct llci'ciirii), in nine books, a medley 
 of prose and verse on the pattern of the 
 Menippean Satires of Varro, to whom he is 
 also otherwise indebted. The first two 
 books contain the allegory : Mercury marries 
 the maiden Philologia, and among the pre- 
 sents he gives her are seven maidens, the 
 liberal arts : Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric, 
 Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Har- 
 mony (Music) ; each of these delivers her 
 teaching in the following books. The style 
 is partly dry and partly bombastic. In the 
 earlier Middle Ages the book was for a long 
 time the principal basis of school education 
 in general, and exerted great influence on 
 the liberal culture of the time. 
 
 Masks {Gt. jprosopd, Lat. persontr). An 
 indispensable part of the equipment of a 
 
 only a little larger than sufficed to let the 
 sound pass through ; while the masks of 
 comedy (figs. 6-10) had lips that were 
 distorted, far apart, and in the form of a 
 round hole, so as to make the voice louder. 
 By moulding and painting them in different 
 ways, and variously arranging the hair of 
 the head and the beard, the masks were 
 made to represent many different types of 
 character, men and women of various ages, 
 slaves, etc. ; the expression also was made 
 to agree with the dominant natui-e of the 
 parts [Pollux, iv 133-154]. 
 
 Among the Romans, masks were at first 
 only used at the Atelldnai (q.v.), popular 
 farces acted by amateurs ; they were not 
 introduced on the real stage till the 2nd cen- 
 tury B.C., and were not generally employed 
 before the time of the celebrated actor 
 Roscius, an older contemporary of Cicero. 
 After that time, the Mimes seem to have 
 been the only actors without masks. 
 
 Matralia. Festival of Mothers. {See 
 Matuta.) 
 
 Matrona. A name applied by the 
 Romans to every honourable married 
 
 1-4 Masks used in Tragedy. 5 Mask used in Satyrio Dramas. 
 
 6-10 Masks used in Comedy. 
 
 (Wieseler, Theater-gebdudey etc., taf. v.) 
 
 Greek actor. Their use, like the drama 
 itself, goes back to the mummery at the 
 festivals of Dionysus, in which the face 
 was painted with lees of wine or with ver- 
 milion, or covered with masks made of 
 leaves or the bark of trees. The develop- 
 ment of the drama led to the invention of 
 artistic masks of painted linen which con- 
 cealed not only the face, but the whole 
 head, a device ascribed to ^schylus. The 
 opening for the eyes was not larger than 
 the pupil of the actor concealed under the 
 mask; similarly, in the masks of tragedy 
 (figs. 1-4), the hole for the mouth was 
 
 woman. She enjoyed the highest esteem; 
 the way was cleared for her in the street, 
 in which she might not appear unaccom- 
 panied, and she was not allowed to be 
 touched even when cited before a law 
 court. She was distinguished by the long 
 white stola, the cloak called palla, and her 
 hair divided into six plain plaits, with 
 woollen ribbons (vittce) wound round it. 
 
 Matronalia. A festival celebrated by 
 Roman matrons on the 1st of March, the 
 anniversary of the foundation of the temple 
 of Juno Lucina on the Esquiline. In the 
 houses sacrifices and prayers were offered 
 
382 
 
 MATUTA MAUSOLEUM. 
 
 for a" prosperous wedlock, the women re- 
 ceived presents from the men and waited 
 on the slaves, just as the men did at the 
 Saturnalia. In the temple of the goddess, 
 women and girls prayed to her and to her 
 son Mars, and brought pious offerings. 
 
 Matiita (usually Mater Mdtuta) . An old 
 Italian goddess of dawn and of birth, also 
 goddess of harbours and of the sea, and 
 hence identified with the Greek Leucothea. 
 In her temple at Rome in the For inn 
 Boarimn, on the 11th of June, the 
 Mdtrdlia, or festival of mothers, was cele- 
 
 honour of king Mausolus of Caria (died 
 B.C. 352) by his wife Artemisia, and counted 
 by the ancients one of the seven wonders of 
 the world. [According to Pliny, N. H, xxxvi 
 §§ 30, 31], it consisted of an oblong sub- 
 structure surrounded by thirty-six columns, 
 with a circuit of 440 feet, crowned by a 
 pyramid diminishing by twenty-four steps 
 to its summit, on which stood a marble 
 qtuidriga, the work of Pythis [or Pythius, 
 Brunn, Gr. Kiinstler, ii 377, ed. 1 ]. The height 
 of the whole building, gorgeous with the 
 most varied colours, was 140 feet. Satyrus 
 
 [(1) * MAUSOLECM OF HALICAKNASSUS (rESTOKED). 
 
 brated in her honour by the women of 
 Rome ; no slaves were admitted to it, and 
 only a matron who had not been married 
 before was allowed to place a wreath on 
 the statue of the goddess. The women 
 first prayed for the well-being of their 
 nephews and nieces, and then for that of 
 their own children. This custom was re- 
 ferred to the myth of Ino-Leucothea, who 
 tended Dionysus, the son of her sister 
 Semele. 
 
 Mausoleum (Gr. Mausolcion). A splen- 
 did sepulchre at Halicarnassus, built in 
 
 and Pythius were the architects, and the 
 sculptures on the four sides were executed 
 by Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leo- 
 chares. In the 12th century after Christ 
 the work was still in a good state of preser- 
 vation ; in succeeding centuries it fell to 
 pieces more and more, until the Knights of 
 St. John used it as a quarry [from the time 
 when they built their castle on the site 
 of the old Greek acropolis in 1402, down 
 to the repair of their fortifications in 1522, 
 when they made lime of its marble sculp- 
 tures. In 1845, a number of reliefs were 
 
MAYORS MAXIMUS. 
 
 383 
 
 extracted from the walls of tlie castle and 
 placed in the British Museum.] In 1857 
 the site was discovered by Newton, acting 
 under a commission from the English 
 
 at Halicarnassus, etc., 1862 ; Travels and 
 Discoveries, ii 84-137]. 
 
 The Romans gave the name of Maiiso- 
 leum to all sepulchres which approached 
 
 (2) MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN AT ROME (RESTORED). 
 
 government, and the sculptures thus un- 
 earthed [including the statue of Mausolus 
 
 (3) SECTION OF Hadrian's mausoleum. 
 
 a. Entrance, with Statue of Hadrian. 
 
 b. Ventilating Passage. d. Ventilating OhaEnel. 
 
 c. Central Tomb-chamber. f . Drainage Outlet. 
 
 (4) ground-plan of 
 Hadrian's mausoleum. 
 
 and important fragments of the marble 
 quadriga] were removed to the British 
 Museum [Newton's History of Discoveries 
 
 that of Mausolus in size and grandeur of 
 execution, as, for instance, (1) that erected 
 by Augustus for himself and his family, 
 the magnificence of which is attested by 
 the still extant walls inclosing it; and (2) 
 the sepulchre of Hadrian, which is in part 
 preserved in the castle of ;S'. Angela, a 
 circular building of 220 feet in diameter 
 and 72 feet high, resting on a square base, 
 the sides of which are almost 100 yards 
 long. It was originally covered with Parian 
 marble, and profusely ornamented with 
 colonnades and statues ; and probably had 
 a pyramid on the top (cp. figs. 2-4). 
 
 Mayors. See Mars. 
 
 Maximianus of Etruria, a Latin poet in 
 the beginning of the 6th century after 
 Christ. He is the author of six amatory 
 elegies, modelled on classical poets, from 
 whom he borrowed largely. 
 
 Maximus. (1) of Tyre. A Greek rheto- 
 rician and adherent of the Platonic philo- 
 sophy, in the second half of the 2nd cen- 
 tury after Christ. Forty-one rhetorical 
 lectures of his on philosophical subjects of 
 general interest are extant; the style is 
 neat and scholarly. 
 
 (2) The author, otherwise unknown, of an 
 astrological poem about the positions o£ the 
 
384 
 
 MEALS. 
 
 stars which are favourable for various under- 
 takings ; only fragments of this are pre- 
 served. It is probable that he lived under 
 the early Empire. 
 
 Meals. The Greeks had three during 
 the day ; (1) the first breakfast, acratisma, 
 consisting of bread which was dipped into 
 unmixed wine ; (2) the second breakfast, or 
 luncheon, driston, eaten about noon and 
 consisting of warm dishes ; and (3) the 
 principal meal, deipnon, which took place 
 before sunset. In the Homeric times, men 
 sat down when eating, a custom preserved 
 by the Cretans. In later times men reclined 
 at the table, usually only two together on 
 a couch (Gr. Mine), in such a way that the 
 left arm was supported on a cushion while 
 the right arm remained free. The women 
 and children, who were, however, excluded 
 from real banquets, sat on stools ; the former 
 might also sit on the couch at their hus- 
 bands' feet. Before the mealj slaves took 
 off the sandals of the guests and washed 
 their feet; water and a towel was then 
 handed to them for washing their hands, 
 and this was repeated after the meal, as no 
 knives and forks were used ; there were 
 only spoons, usually of metal. While eating 
 they cleaned their hands with the crumb of 
 bread or with a kind of dough. The common 
 food of the lower classes was the maza, a 
 paste of barlejoneal dried in a dish, and 
 moistened before it was eaten ; properly 
 baked bread of wheatmeal was considered 
 a comparative delicacy. As relish {opson) 
 they had salad, leeks, onions, beans, lentils, 
 and meat variously prepared ; and espe- 
 cially fish, mostly from the sea, which in 
 later times formed the chief object of the 
 gourmand's attention. After the meals 
 the tables were cleared away (every pair 
 of guests usually having a table to itself), 
 the remnants that had fallen to the ground 
 were swept up, and the hands were washed 
 with scented soap ; then a libation of un- 
 mixed wine was drunk in honour of the 
 good genius {see Agathod^mon) — none was 
 served during the meal — and the hymn of 
 praise (see P^an) was sung. After the 
 tables had been changed and the dessert, 
 consisting of fruit, cheese, cakes sprinkled 
 with salt, etc., had been served, the synipo- 
 *•?(()«, or the drinking-bout, began. 
 
 The wine was diluted with warm of- cold 
 water ; in the latter case snow was frequently 
 used to cool it. It was deemed barbarous 
 to drink unmixed wine, and a mixture of 
 equal parts of wine and water even was 
 uncommon, the usual proportion of water to 
 
 wine was 3:1. They were mixed in a large 
 bowl (krdter), from which it was poured 
 into the goblets by means of a ladle. First 
 three mixing-bowls were filled, and from 
 each of them a libation was offered, the first 
 to the gods of Olympus, the second to the 
 heroes, the third to Zeus the Saviour. How 
 the drinking was to be carried on {e.g. how 
 many goblets each guest should have) was 
 settled by a president, who was chosen by 
 the others or by casting the dice, and called 
 the king {bdslleus) or master of the feast 
 {symposiarcJius) ; he also enforced penalties, 
 such as emptying a goblet at a single 
 draught. The guests amused themselves 
 with merry talk and riddles, impromptu 
 songs (see ScOlia), games, more especially 
 the cottdlms {q.v.), mimetic dances, the 
 playing of women on flutes and lyres, etc. 
 The bout was terminated by a libation to 
 Hermes. For the meals of the Spartans, 
 cp. Syssitia 
 
 The Romans also had three meals during 
 the day. Breakfast, iciumum or iantdcu- 
 lum, at about 9 ; followed in early times by 
 the principal meal {cena) at 12, and by the 
 vesperna in the evening ; but afterwards 
 the multiplied occupations of city life, that 
 extended over the early hours of the after- 
 noon, necessitated a different arrangement ; 
 lunch, prandium, was accordingly taken at 
 noon, and the cena after bathing, at about 
 3. The ieiunium consisted of bread 
 dipped in wine or eaten with honey, salt, or 
 olives, the prandium of a plentiful supply 
 of warm and cold viands, with wine. At 
 the cena originally nothing was eaten but 
 the peculiarly Roman puis, a kind of por- 
 ridge, and other simple food, especially 
 common vegetables ; meat was not usually 
 eaten, and prolonged dinners were only 
 permissible on grand occasions. From the 
 2nd century B.C. onwards the importation 
 of dainties from every country to Rome 
 made extravagance in eating so universal 
 that it was vainly attempted to check it by 
 law, and at the same time the cena was 
 prolonged over the whole of the latter end 
 of the day; it was looked upon as a re- 
 markable instance of economising time, 
 when it was told of a man like the older 
 Pliny that he only spent three hours re- 
 clining at table [Letters of the Younger 
 Pliny, iii 5 § 13]. In the course of time 
 reclining had been substituted for sitting in 
 the case of men, as in Greece ; women and 
 children sat at meals, but (unlike the Greek 
 custom) they shared them, even when 
 invited guests were present, the women sit- 
 
MEDEA. 
 
 385 
 
 ting on the couch (Icctiis) of the master 
 of the house, the children by their side or 
 at a separate table and on stools. Masters 
 and servants originally had their meals in 
 common in the atrium ; as time went on 
 special dining-rooms, triclinia (see Teicli- 
 nium) were built. At a banquet (con- 
 vlviuTn) the very lightest dress was worn, 
 in which it was not considered correct to 
 appear in the street, and sandals (s5l£ce), 
 which were taken off by a slave, brought 
 for this purpose, before one reclined, and 
 what was called the synthesis (q.v.). Before 
 the meal, and between courses, water was 
 handed round for the hands. Napkins 
 {mappoe) came to be used in the reign of 
 Augustus, but only at fashionable parties. 
 As among the Greeks, no knives and forks, 
 but only spoons, were used ; the viands 
 were cut up by a special slave, the scissor. 
 
 The dishes of which the various courses 
 consisted were served on a tray (rSpdsito- 
 rium} and handed round by slaves. The 
 meal, preceded by an invocation of the gods, 
 was regularly divided into three parts : (1) 
 the gustus or gustdtio, also called promulsls, 
 because a drink (mulsum) made of must 
 and honey was handed round with the food 
 (boiled eggs, salads, vegetables prepared 
 in a way to stimulate the appetite, fresh or 
 cooked crabs, etc., and salt fish). (2) The 
 cena proper. Originally (and later also 
 among people of small means) it only con- 
 sisted of a single course, afterwards of three 
 and more, which were distinguished by the 
 names of prima, altera, tertia cena. During 
 this — contrary to the Greek custom — wine 
 was drunk, though in moderate quantities, 
 and mixed with warm or cold water to 
 suit the taste of each guest. Then came a 
 pause, in which all were asked to be silent 
 while the offering was made to the Lares, 
 and (3) the third part of the meal, the 
 dessert, was served. It consisted of pastry, 
 cakes, fresh and preserved fruits. 
 
 Roman luxury prescribed the greatest 
 variety in the dishes of the cena, both with 
 regard to their nature and to their mode 
 of preparation. In early times only oil, 
 honey, salt, and vinegar, but afterwards the 
 most varied and piquant spices of other 
 countries, and particularly foreign fish- 
 sauces, were employed. Pork had always 
 been a favourite meat ; fifty ways of dress- 
 ing it were known. Under the Empire, 
 when a dish was so prepared that even a 
 gourmand was puzzled to tell what he was 
 eating, it was held to be a chef d'oeuvre of 
 the culinary art. The art was practised by 
 D. C. A. 
 
 slaves, for whom considerable prices were 
 paid. 
 
 The later Romans were on the whole 
 much more immoderate in eating and drink- 
 ing than the Greeks ; a not unusual way of 
 making further eating possible was to take 
 an emetic in the morning, or else after 
 bathing, or after the meals. After the cena, 
 either at the dessert or not till later in the 
 evening, the drinking proper, or comissatlo 
 began. It was done m.ore Grceco, that is, 
 according to the Greek manner : the guests 
 were anointed and crowned with wreaths, 
 and one was chosen by casting dice to be 
 the master of the drinking {mdgister or 
 arbiter hlbendi), also called rex (or king), 
 who regulated the proportion of water to 
 wine, and the number of goblets each 
 person was to drink. As a rule the wine 
 was mixed with warm water, as this was 
 considered more wholesome. Many, how- 
 ever, preferred the cold mixture, and drank 
 it with ice, or else cooled it in cold water. 
 Conversation, varied with the music of the 
 flute and the lyre, was held by the earlier 
 Romans to constitute the charm of dining ; 
 at a later time, intellectual pleasures gra- 
 dually declined in favour more and more, 
 and there was an ever-increasing craving 
 for the exciting entertainments of mimes, 
 jesters, jugglers, and female singers, dancers 
 and flute-players, who were mostly slaves 
 of the family. Even the Campanian custom 
 of witnessing gladiatorial combats during 
 meals was adopted in a few Roman houses. 
 The development of these baneful habits 
 was all the more deplorable in its effects, 
 as the women and children were present at 
 the debauches of the table. 
 
 Medea (Gr. Medeia). The daughter of 
 iEetes of Colchis and of Idyia ; skilled in 
 witchcraft. For the legend of her being 
 carried off by Jason, and how she revenged 
 his perfidy at Corinth, see Argonauts. 
 Prom Corinth she fled to Athens, married 
 king -iEgeus, the father of Theseus, and had 
 a son Medus by him. But she was again 
 compelled to fly with her son, as she had 
 plotted against the life of Theseus. She 
 came to Colchis without being recognised, 
 and there found her father deprived of the 
 kingship by his brother Perses. She killed 
 the latter, and restored iEetes to the throne. 
 According to a later legend, Medus comes 
 to Colchis to seek his mother, and is im- 
 prisoned by Perses, before whom he alleges 
 that he is Hipp6tes, son of Creon of Corinth. 
 Then Medea appears on a chariot drawn by 
 serpents, and under pretence of being a 
 
 ■C C 
 
386 
 
 MEDTMNUS MELAMPUS. 
 
 priestess of Artemis, promises to deliver the ! 
 country from the barrenness that is oppress- ! 
 ing it, on condition the supposed son of her | 
 mortal enemy is given into her power. 
 When this is done, she recognises her son, | 
 who with her aid kills Perses and takes 
 possession of his grandfather's realm. The 
 Greeks looked on Medus as the progenitor 
 of the Medes. According to one legend, 
 Medea became the wife of Achilles in 
 Elysium, as did Helen according to another. 
 At Corinth she was deemed immortal, and 
 regarded as a benefactress of the city, which 
 she was alleged to have delivered from a 
 famine. Elsewhere, she was merely re- 
 garded as an ancient queen. Her seven 
 sons and seven daughters were killed by 
 Corinthian women at the altar of Hera, on 
 account of which a p&stilence ravaged the 
 town, and an oracular decree ordained that 
 an annual expiatory offering should be 
 made. This was observed until the destruc- 
 tion of the town. 
 
 Medimnus. A Greek measure of capacity, 
 six times as large as the Roman tnodlus, 
 and in English about If bushel Its prin- 
 cipal subdivisions were the chcenix (-jV)) 
 xestes (jV), c<jtijlP. (t^), cyctthus (yrV?)- 
 
 Medus. Son of ^Egeus and Medea {q.v.). 
 
 M6dusa. One of the Gorgons, whose head 
 was cut off" by Perseus {q-v.). {See also 
 
 GORGO.) 
 
 Megsera. One of the Greek goddesses 
 of vengeance. {See Erinyes.) 
 
 Meg^lesia. A Roman festival in honour 
 of Rhea {q.v.). 
 
 Mfigara. Daughter of the Theban king 
 Creon, wife of Heracles {q.v.)^ afterwards 
 married by him to lolaus. 
 
 MSgaron. In many Greek temples a 
 space divided off and sometimes subter- 
 ranean, which only the priest was allowed 
 to enter. {See Temple.) 
 
 llegasthgaes. A Greek historian, who 
 stayed for a considerable time, as ambas- 
 sador of king Seleucus Nicator, at the court 
 of the Indian king Sandracus (B.C. 315-291), 
 at Palibothra on the Ganges. Prom infor- 
 mation about the country and the people, 
 obtained while he occupied that position, 
 he compiled a historical and geographical 
 work about India, the chief treatise on that 
 country left us by the ancients. On it 
 are founded the accounts of Diodorus and 
 Arrian ; beyond this only fragments are 
 preserved. His record of the state of India 
 at the time has been discredited ; but recent 
 investigations have to a great extent shown 
 its trustworthiness. 
 
 Mela. See Pomponius. 
 
 Melampus. Son of Amythaon {see iEoLUS, 
 1) and of Eidomene ; brother of Bias, the 
 oldest Greek seer, and ancestor of the 
 famil}' of seers called MelampSdidse. The 
 brothers went with their uncle Neleus from 
 Thessaly to Pylus in Messenia, where they 
 dwelt in the country. Melampus owed his 
 gift of soothsaying to some serpents, which 
 he had saved from death and reared, and 
 who in return cleansed his ears with their 
 tongues when he slept ; on awaking he 
 understood the voices of birds, and thus 
 learnt what was secret. When Neleus 
 would only give Bias his beautiful daughter 
 Pero on condition that he first brought 
 him the oxen of Iphiclus of Phylace in 
 Thessaly, which were guarded by a watch- 
 ful dog, Melampus offered to fetch the oxen 
 for his brother, though he knew beforehand 
 that he would be impiisoned for a year. 
 He is caught in the act of stealing them, 
 and kept in strict confinement. Prom the 
 talk of the worms in the woodwork of the 
 roof he gathers that the house will soon 
 fall to pieces. He thereupon demands to 
 be taken to another prison ; this is scarcely 
 done, when the house breaks down. When, 
 on account of this, Phjlaous, father of 
 Iphiclus, perceives his prophetic gifts, he 
 promises him the oxen, if by his art he 
 will find out some way of curing his son's 
 childlessness. Melampus offers a bull to 
 Zeus, cuts it in pieces, and invites the birds 
 to the meal. From these he hears that a 
 certain vulture, that had not come, knew 
 how it could be effected. This vulture is 
 made to appear, and relates, that the defect 
 in Iphiclus was the result of a sudden 
 fright at seeing a bloody knife, with which 
 his father had been castrating some goats ; 
 he had dug the knife into a tree, which had 
 grown round about it ; if he took some of 
 the rust scraped off it, for ten days, he 
 would be cured. Melampus finds the knife, 
 cures Iphiclus, obtains the oxen, and Bias 
 receives Pero for his wife. Afterwards 
 he went to Argos, because, according to 
 Homer [Od. xv 225-240] Neleus had com- 
 mitted a serious offence against him in 
 his absence, for which he had taken re- 
 venge; while., according to the usual ac- 
 count, he had been asked by king Proetus 
 to heal his daughter, stricken with madness 
 for acting impiously towards Dionysus or 
 Hera. He had stipulated that his reward 
 should be a third of the kingdom for him- 
 self, another for Bias; besides which 
 Iphianassa became his wife, and Lysippe 
 
MELANIPPIDES MELEAGEE. 
 
 38'; 
 
 that of Bias, both being daughters of 
 Prostus. A descendant of his son Anti- 
 phates was Oicles, -who was a companion 
 of Heracles in the expedition against Troy, 
 and was slain in battle by LaSmedon ; he 
 again was ancestor of the seer and hero 
 Amphiaraus. Descendants of his other 
 son Mantius were Cleitus, whom Eos, the 
 goddess of dawn, carried off on account of 
 his beauty, and Polypheides, whom, after 
 the death of Amphiaraus, Apollo made 
 the best of seers. The son of Polypheides 
 was the seer Theoclymenus, who, flying 
 from Argos on account of committing a 
 murder, met Telemftchus at Pylus, was led 
 by him to Ithaca, and announced to Pene- 
 lope the presence in Ithaca of Odysseus, 
 and to the suitors their approaching death. 
 The seer Polyidus (q.v.) was also said to 
 be a great-grandson of Melampus. At 
 Argos Melampus was held to be the first 
 priest of Dionysus, and originator of mys- 
 terious customs at festivals and at cere- 
 monies of expiation. 
 
 Mfilanippides. Greek dithyrambic poet. 
 
 {See DiTHYEAMBOS.) 
 
 MSlauippus. A Theban, who mortally 
 wounded Tydeus in the fight uf the Seven 
 against Thebes, and was himself slain by 
 Ampiiaraus. {Cp. Tydeus.) 
 
 MfilantMus, See Philocles. 
 
 M616ager (Gr. MeleagrSs). (1) Son of 
 (Eneus of Calydon and of Altheea, husband 
 of Cleopatra (see Idas), one of the most 
 celebrated heroes of Greek legend. He 
 took part in the enterprise of the Argonauts 
 and brought about the celebrated chase of 
 the Calydonian boar (see (Eneus), to which 
 he invited the most renowned heroes of the 
 time, Admetus, Amphiaraus, Jason, Idas, 
 Lynceus, Castor and Pollux, Nestor, Theseus 
 and Pirithous, Peleus, TelSmon, and others. 
 Many lost their lives, till at last Meleager 
 slew the monster. However, ArtSmis 
 thereupon stirred up furious strife between 
 the Calydonians and the Curetes(who dwelt 
 at Pleuron) about the head and skin of 
 the boar, the prize of victory. The Caly- 
 donians were victorious, as long as Melea- 
 ger fought at their head ; but when he 
 slew the brother of his mother, she uttered 
 a terrible curse on him, and he retired 
 sullenly from the fray. The Curetes im- 
 mediately forced the Calydonians to retreat, 
 and were already beginning to climb the 
 walls of Calydon, when, at the height of 
 their distress, he yielded to the prayers of 
 his wife, and again joined in the fight to 
 ward off destruction from the city ; but he 
 
 did not return alive, for the Erinys had 
 accomplished the curse of his mother. Ac- 
 cording to a later legend, the Mosrse 
 appeared to his mother on the seventh day 
 after his birth, and announced to her that 
 her son would have to die when a log of 
 wood on the hearth was consumed by the 
 flame ; whereupon Althsea immediately 
 snatched the log from the fire and con- 
 cealed it in a chest. At the Calydonian 
 Hunt Meleager fell in love with Atalante 
 (5.V.), and gave her (who had inflicted the 
 first wound) the prize, the skin of the 
 
 " MELEAGER (BERLIN), 
 
 animal which he had killed. He slew the 
 brothers of his mother, the sons of Thestius, 
 when they were lying in wa.it for the virgin 
 to rob her of the boar's hide. Overcome 
 by pain at the death of her brothers, 
 Althsea sets fire to the log, and Meleager 
 dies a sudden death. His mother and wife 
 hang themselves ; his sisters weep so bit- 
 terly for Meleager, that Artemis for pity 
 changes them into giainea-hens (Gr. melP.S- 
 gvldSs). Legends relate that even in the 
 nether world Meleager retained his daunt- 
 less courage ; for when Heracles descended 
 
388 
 
 MELETE MENANDER. 
 
 to Hades, all the shades fled before him 
 except Meleager and Medusa. 
 
 (2) Greek ejjigrammatist. Of Gftdara in 
 Palestine, floiarished about B.C. 60. His 
 collection of epigrams, by himself and 
 others, entitled Stephanos (wreath), formed 
 the nucleus of the Greek anthology (q.v.). 
 Of his own poems there remain 128, in 
 which amatory themes are cleverly and 
 wittily treated. 
 
 Mfiiete. See Muses. 
 
 Melicertes. In Greek legend the son of 
 Athamas and Ino, and changed, after his 
 death by drowning, into the marine deity 
 Palsemon, while his mother became Leu- 
 cothea. (/See Ino). B.isBa.me( = Melkart), 
 however, shows him to have been originally 
 a Phoenician god. Like Ino-Leuoothea, he 
 was worshipped on all the coast of the 
 Mediterranean, especially on that of Megara 
 and at the Isthmus of Corinth, where he 
 was so closelj' connected with the cult of 
 Poseidon, that the Isthmian games, origi- 
 nally instituted in honour of this god, came 
 to be looked upon as the funeral games of 
 Melicertes. The Romans regarded him as 
 a beneficent god of the sea, and identified 
 him with Portunus, the god of harbours. 
 
 Mglinno. Greek poetess. {See Erinna.) 
 
 ]ffielp6m6ne. The Muse of tragedy. For 
 further details see Muses. 
 
 Memnon. The beautiful son of Tithonus 
 and of Eos ; king of the ^Ethiopians. His 
 brother Emathion had ousted him from the 
 throne, but Heracles, on his expedition for 
 obtaining the apples of the Hesperides, 
 murdered the usurper, and reinstated Mem- 
 non. After Hector's death he went to help 
 his uncle Priam, and killed Antilochus, 
 the son of Nestor and friend of Achilles. 
 When the latter had slain him, Eos en- 
 treated Zeus to grant her son the boon of 
 immortality. The Greeks originally thought 
 that one of the two ^thiopias mentioned 
 in Homer was the realm of Memnon, which 
 is situated near sunrise and the dwelling- 
 place of Eos, and hence regarded him as 
 the builder of the royal castle at Susa. It 
 was not till later that his kingdom was 
 identified with the Egyptian Ethiopia, and 
 that he was connected with the colossal 
 statue of Amenophis near Thebes. This 
 " column of Memnon " is still standing. 
 After its partial destruction by an earth- 
 quake in B.C. 27, the musical sound, which 
 it gave forth when touched by the first 
 rays of the sun, was explained as Memnon's 
 greeting to his mother, the Goddess of 
 Dawn. The tomb of Memnon was shown 
 
 at various places. It was told of the one 
 at Abydus on the Hellespont, that the com- 
 panions of Memnon, who had been changed 
 into birds (the Memnumdes) on account of 
 their excessive grief for their king, came 
 there every year to fight and to lament at 
 his grave. The dew-drops of the early 
 morning were called the tears of Eos, which 
 she shed anew every morning in sorrow 
 for her beloved son. 
 
 Menander (Gr. Menandros). (1) The 
 chief representative of the Later Attic 
 Comedy, born in B.C. 342, at Athens, of a 
 distinguished and wealthy family. He 
 received a careful education, and led a com- 
 fortable and luxurious life, partly at Athens, 
 and partly at his estate in the Piraeus, the 
 harbour of Athens, enjoying the intimate 
 friendship of his contemporary and the 
 friend of his youth, Epicurus, of Theo- 
 phrastus, and of Demetrius Phalereus. He 
 declined an invitation of king Ptolemy T 
 of Egypt, so as not to have his comfort 
 disturbed. At the height of his poetic 
 productiveness he was drowned while bath- 
 ing in the Piraeus, at the age of 52. His 
 uncle Alexis had given him some prepara- 
 tory training in dramatic composition. As 
 early as 322 he made his first appearance 
 as an author. He wrote above a hundred 
 pieces, and worked with the greatest facility ; 
 but he only obtained the first prize for 
 eight comedies, in the competition with his 
 popular rival Philemon. The admiration 
 accorded him by posterity was all the 
 greater : there was only one opinion about 
 the excellence of his work. His principal 
 merits were remarkable inventiveness, skil- 
 ful arrangement of plots, life-like painting 
 of character, a clever and refined wit, 
 elegant and graceful language, and a 
 copious supply of maxims based on a pro- 
 found knowledge of the world. These last 
 were collected in regular anthologies and 
 form the bulk of the extant fragments. 
 Unfortunately not one of his plays has 
 survived, although they were much read 
 down to a late date. However, apart from 
 about seventy-three titles, and numerous 
 fragments (some of considerable length), 
 we have transcripts of his comedies (in 
 which, of course, the delicate beauties of 
 the original are lost), in a number of Latin 
 plays by Plautus {BaccMdes, Stichus, 
 Poenulus), and Terence {Andria, Eunuchus, 
 llautonUmorumSnds, Adelphi). Lucian 
 also, in his Conversations of HStcerce, and 
 Alciphron in his Letters, have made frequent 
 use of Menander. 
 
MENELAUS MENTOE. 
 
 389 
 
 (2) A Greek rhetorician, of Laodicea, 
 who probably lived at the end of the 3rd 
 century after Christ. He is the author of 
 two treatises About Speeches for Display, 
 ■which add to our knowledge of the theory 
 of the sophistic type of oratory [in Spengel's 
 Ehetores Grceci, iii 331-446]. 
 
 Mfinfilaiis. Son of Atreus, and younger 
 brother of Agamemnon, with whom he was 
 exiled by Thyestes, the murderer of Atreus, 
 and fled to king Tyndareos, at Sparta, 
 whose daughter Helen he married, and 
 whose throne he inherited after the death 
 of Helen's brothers, Castor and Polydeuces 
 (Pollux). When Paris had robbed him of 
 his wife and of great treasures, he went 
 with Odysseus to Troy to demand restitu- 
 tion, and they were hospitably received 
 there by Antenor. His >just claims were 
 refused, and his life was even in danger ; 
 he and Agamemnon accordingly called on 
 the Greek chieftains to join in an expedition 
 against Troy, and himself furnished sixty 
 ships. At Troy he distinguished himself 
 in counsel and in action, and was specially 
 protected by Athene and Hera. In the 
 single combat with Paris he is victorious, 
 but his opponent is rescued and carried off 
 by Aphrodite. On demanding that Helen 
 and the treasures should be restored, he is 
 wounded by an arrow shot by the Trojan 
 Pandarus. He is also ready to fight 
 Hector, and is only prevented by the 
 entreaties of his friends. When Patroclus 
 has fallen, he shields the dead body, at 
 first alone, and then with the aid of Ajax, 
 and bears it from the field of battle with 
 Meriones. He is also one of the heroes of 
 the wooden horse. Having recovered Helen 
 he hastens home, but on rounding the pro- 
 montory of Malea he is driven to Egypt 
 with five ships, and wanders about for 
 eight years among the peoples of the East, 
 where he is kindly received everywhere, 
 and receives rich gifts. He is finally 
 detained at the isle of Pharos by contrary 
 winds, and with the help of the marine 
 goddess Eidothea he artfully compels her 
 father Proteus to prophecy to him. He 
 thus learns the reason of his being unwil- 
 lingly detained at the island, and is also 
 told that, as husband of the daughter of 
 Zeus, he will not die, but enter the Elysian 
 plains alive. After appeasing the gods in 
 Egypt with hecatombs, he returns swiftly 
 and prosperously to his home, where he 
 arrives on the very day on which Orestes 
 is burying jEgisthus and Clytaemnestra. 
 He spent the rest of his life quietly with 
 
 Helen, in Lacedsemon. Their only daugh- 
 ter Hermione was married to NeoptSlemus, 
 son of Achilles. 
 
 Mfinestheus. The son of Peteus, who 
 seized the government of Attica, while 
 Theseus pined away in the nether world, 
 and commanded the Athenians before Troy, 
 where he fell. (Cp. Demophoon, Theseus.) 
 
 Mfinippe. Daughter of Orion, who offered 
 to die with her sister Metioche, when a pes- 
 tilence was raging in Boeotia, and the oracle 
 demanded the sacrifice of two virgins. {See 
 also Oeion.) 
 
 Mgnippus. A Greek philosopher of 
 Gadara in Syria, flourished about B.C. 250. 
 He was originally a slave, and afterwards 
 an adherent of the Cynic school of philo- 
 sophy. His writings (now completely lost) 
 treated of the follies of mankind, especially 
 of philosophers, in a sarcastic tone. They 
 were a medley of prose and verse, and 
 became models for the satirical works of 
 Varro, and afterwards for those of Lucian. 
 
 ICSnoeceus. (1) Grandson of Pentheus of 
 Thebes, father of Creon and Jocasta. 
 
 (2) Grandson of the above, son of Creon. 
 At the siege of Thebes by the Seven, Tiresias 
 prophesied that the Thebans would conquer 
 if the wrath of Ares at the slaying of the 
 dragon by Cadmus were appeased by the 
 voluntary death of a descendant of the 
 warriors that had sprung from the dragon's 
 teeth. Menoeceus, one of the last of this 
 race, slew himself > in spite of his father's 
 prohibition, on the castle wall, and fell down 
 into the chasm which had once been the 
 haunt of the dragon as guardian of the 
 spring Dirce. 
 
 Mens. Under this name the. Romans 
 personified intelligence and prudence. 
 After the battle at Lake Trasimene, which 
 was lost through the carelessness of the 
 Romans, a temple was erected to her on 
 the Capitol. The anniversary of its founda- 
 tion was celebrated on the 8th of June. 
 
 Mentor. (1) Son of Alcimus of IthSca, 
 friend of Odysseus^ who, on departing for 
 Troy, confided to him the care of his house 
 and the education of Telemachus [Od.ii225]. 
 His name has henoe become a proverbial 
 one for a wise and faithful adviser or 
 monitor. Athene assumed his shape when 
 she brought Telemachus to Pylus [Od. ii 
 268], and when she aided Odysseus in fight- 
 ing the suitors and made peace between him 
 and their relatives [xxii 206, xxiv 446]. 
 
 (2) [The most celebrated master of the 
 toreutic art (q.v.) among the ancients (Pliny, 
 N. II. xxxiii 154). As some of his works 
 
390 
 
 MERCENARIES MERIONES. 
 
 were destroyed at the burning of the temple 
 of Artemis at Ephesus, in B.C. 356, obviously 
 he lived before that event, and probably 
 flourished in the best period of Greek art, 
 though he is never mentioned by any earlier 
 Greek writer than Lucian {Lexiphanes, 7). 
 He worked mainly in silver. The orator 
 Crassus paid 100,000 sesterces (£1,000) for 
 two cups chased by his hand ; but, from 
 regard to their value, refrained from using 
 them. Varro possessed a statue wrought by 
 him in bronze; and one Diodorus at Lily- 
 bseum, two fine cups in the style of those 
 adorned with figures of animals by Thericles, 
 the Corinthian potter (Cic, Verr. iv 38). 
 Martial (iii 41) mentions a cup with a life- 
 like representation of a lizard, and often 
 refers to him (iv 39, viii 51, ix 59, xiv 93 ; 
 cp. Juvenal viii 104). Propertius alludes 
 to him (i 14, 2), and supplies us with the 
 only extant criticism of his style, implying 
 that, while the work of Mys (q.v.) was re- 
 markable for its minute execution, that of 
 Mentor was famous for its composition and 
 its general design (iii 7, 11). 
 
 Argumenta magis sunt Mentoris addita formruz ; 
 At Myos exiguum flectit acanthus iter.] 
 
 [J. E. S.] 
 Mercenaries. Apart from a few earlier 
 examples of the employment of mercenaries, 
 a regular organization of such troops was 
 formed amongst the Greeks in the course 
 of the Peloponnesian War, especially by the 
 Arcadians, who were compelled by the 
 poverty of their own country to utilize 
 their strength and courage by seeking em- 
 ployment outside it. It was most easily 
 found by servisgas soldiers in the continual 
 wars between the Grecian states. When 
 the mercenary system was at its height, 
 Arcadians formed by far the larger portion 
 of the mercenary forces, even as earty as 
 in the first great army of mercenaries of 
 13,000 men, which the younger Cyrus led 
 against his brother Artaxerxes, king of 
 Persia, in 400 B.C. In Greece in the 
 4th century the ground became more and 
 more favourable to the growth of the 
 mercenary body, and the citizens of the 
 Greek states, instead of bearing arms them- 
 selves, became more and more inclined 
 to leave their wars to be fought out by 
 mercenaries, especially since it had become 
 a trade to form troops of mercenaries, and 
 to let them out wholesale for service, no 
 matter whether to Greeks or barbarians. 
 Even prominent men, such as Agesilaus 
 and Philopoemen, did not consider it beneath 
 
 their dignity to fight for strangers at the 
 head of mercenaries. One of the chief 
 recruiting places in the 4th century was 
 Corinth, and afterwards for a time the 
 district near the promontory of Tsenarum 
 in Lacedsemon. The generals of mercenaries 
 were called strdtegoi ; their captains, 
 through whom they raised companies of 
 different kinds of troops, known as Idchoi, 
 one hundred men in number, lochagoi. The 
 usual monthly pay of a common soldier 
 was on the average a gold daric (dareikos) 
 [ = 20 silver drachmae or 13s. 4d. in in- 
 trinsic value of silver ; but in intrinsic 
 value of the gold contained in it=a little 
 more than a guinea. ((7p. Coinage, 
 fig. 3.)] Out of this he had to maintain 
 himself entirely, to buy his armour, and 
 keep it in good condition. The pay of the 
 lochagoi was double, and of the strategoi 
 four times that amount. In later times 
 the strategoi, when they entered with com- 
 plete armies into the service of some power 
 at war, seem to have generally received 
 considerable sums at the conclusion of the 
 contract. — The Romans also employed 
 foreign mercenaries after the second Punic 
 War, especially as archers and slingers, 
 and after the time of Marius a recruited 
 army of mercenaries {see Legion) had 
 sprung out of the earlier levied army of 
 citizens ; but the mercenary organization 
 never took among the Romans a form 
 similar to that among the Greeks. 
 
 Mercury CLat. Mercurius). The Italian 
 god of commerce, and as such identified 
 with the Greek Hermes (q.v.), whose 
 descent and other qualities were accord- 
 ingly transferred to him. As protector of 
 the corn trade, especially with Sicily, which 
 was of such great importance to Rome, he 
 was first publicly honoured in that city by 
 the erection of a temple near the Circus 
 Maxltnus. At the same time a guild of 
 merchants was established, the members 
 of which were known as mercuridles. At 
 the yearly festival of the temple and the 
 guild. May 15th, the merchants sacrificed 
 to the god and to his mother, and at the 
 Porta Cdpena sprinkled themselves and 
 their merchandise with hallowed water. 
 With the spread of Roman commerce the 
 worship of Mercury extended far into the 
 West and North. 
 
 Meretrices. See Het^r.e, at end. 
 
 Meriones. Son of Molus, a half-brother of 
 Idomeneus of Crete, whom he accompanied 
 to Troy. In Homer wo read that he was 
 there one of the bravest in the fight, and 
 
MEROBAUDES METOPES. 
 
 391 
 
 with Teucer specially distinguislied in 
 archery, an art in which the Cretans had 
 always excelled. According to a later 
 legend, on his return from Troy his vessel 
 was driven to Engyion in the north of 
 Sicily, which was supposed to be a Cretan 
 settlement. At Gnossus in Crete his grave 
 was shown, and both he and Idomeueus, 
 his friend and companion in battle, were 
 honoured as heroes. 
 
 MSrobaudes. A rhetorician born in Spain 
 and distinguished as a general, and also as 
 a Latin poet, in the first half of the 5th 
 century after Christ. Besides a short hymn, 
 De C/iristo, there are preserved fragments 
 of five secular poems, the longest being 
 part of a panegyric on the third consulate 
 of Aetius (446), with a preface in prose. 
 They prove him to be no unskilful imitator 
 of Claudian ; in language and metre he 
 possesses an elegance rare in his time. 
 
 Merdpe. (1) One of the Pleiads (q-v.), 
 mother of Glancus by Sisyphus. 
 
 (2) Wife of Poly bus of Corinth (also called 
 Peribcea), foster-mother of (Ediptis (q.v.). 
 
 IIes5med.es. A Greek lyric poet of Crete, 
 who lived about A.d. 130, and was a f reed- 
 man of Hadrian. Three small poems of his 
 have come down to us [Anthologia GrcBca, 
 xiv 63, xvi 323]. They are not unattrac- 
 tive, and the one on Nemesis is of peculiar 
 interest, as its musical composition is 
 indicated according to the ancient notation 
 [Brunck's Aiialecta, iii 292 ; Bellermann, 
 Bymnen des Dionysius und Mesomcdes, 
 pp. 13, 26]. 
 
 Mestra. Daughter of Erysichthon {q.v , 2). 
 She supported her famished father by em- 
 ploying the power to change herself into 
 any form she pleased, the gift of her lover 
 Poseidon. She let herself be sold in various 
 forms, and then always returned to her 
 father [Ovid, Met. viii 738-884]. 
 
 ISeta. The upper column at the upper 
 and lower end of the Roman circus, 
 round which the competitors usually had to 
 drive seven times. (Cp. CiRCUS, Games of.) 
 
 M^tageitnia. An Athenian festival in 
 honour of Apollo {q.v.). 
 
 Metal, Artistic Work in. See Tokeutio 
 Art. 
 
 M6taul6s (Mesaulos) . See House ( Greek). 
 
 Metioche. See Menippe and Orion. 
 
 Metis {i.e. "Counsel"). Daughter of 
 Oceanus, first wife of Zeus, by whom she 
 was devoured, as he feared she would bear 
 a son mightier than himself; whereupon 
 Athene {q.v.) sprang from the head of the 
 god. 
 
 MStoBsi. The name given at Athens to 
 aliens (other than slaves) resident in Attica. 
 When the State was most flourishing, 
 they numbered as many as 10,000 adult 
 men. The favourable position of Athens 
 for commerce and the rich opportunities 
 for carrying on trade and for selling 
 merchandise induced both Greeks and bar- 
 barians to settle there. The Athenians be- 
 sides had the reputation among the Greeks 
 of being friendly towards foreigners. For 
 the legal protection granted them by the 
 State, they paid a sura of twelve drachma'. 
 [8s.] annually for each man, and half as 
 much for each independent woman ; and 
 they had to choose a patron {prostates) 
 to conduct their dealings with the State 
 in all public and private affairs, e.g. the 
 bringing of an action. Whoever failed to 
 do the one or the other was summoned 
 before a lawcourt, and, if guiltj', sold as a 
 slave. They were prohibited from marry- 
 ing citizens and from obtaining landed 
 property ; but they could follow any trade 
 they pleased, on payment of a certain tax. 
 They also had to pay the extraordinary 
 taxes for war, and were obliged to go on 
 military service either in the fleet or in the 
 land-army ; they might be hoplites, but not 
 knights. At festivals it was their duty to 
 follow the processions, carrying sunshades, 
 pitchers, and bowls or trays (filled with 
 honey or cakes). A decree of the people 
 could, in return for special services, confer 
 on them the isoteleid, which placed them 
 on a level with the citizens with regard to 
 "liturgies," or public burdens, freed them 
 from the necessity of having a patron or 
 paying a tax for protection, and gave them 
 the right of holding property in land and 
 of transacting business with the people or 
 the authorities without an intermediary ; 
 hut even this privileged class did not possess 
 the active rights of a citizen. 
 
 M@toii. A Greek astronomer, of Athens, 
 instituted in B.C. 432 the cycle of nineteen 
 years called after him ; it was intended to 
 reconcile the lunar and the solar year : 235 
 lunar months of 29 or 30 days (on an 
 average 29}|-) = 19 solar years of 365/g 
 days. This cycle was not adopted at 
 Athens till much later, probably in B.C. 330. 
 {Cp. Calendar.) 
 
 Metopes [Metopce, Vitruvius, iv 2 § 4 ; lit. 
 '■'interstices between two beam-ends (Gr. 
 dpai) *'], A name given in Doric architec- 
 ture to the spaces between the triglyphs 
 {q.v.) in the frieze. They were originally 
 left open. [Thus, Orestes manages to make 
 
392 
 
 METRAG-YRTI MILLS. 
 
 his way into the Tauric temple of Artemis 
 through one of these openings (Eur., Iph. T. 
 113). They were afterwards filled with 
 panels of wood, which were in course of 
 time superseded by plain slabs of marble, as 
 in the temples at Psestum, etc. These slabs 
 were sometimes sKghtly ornamented with a 
 round shield in low relief, as in the frieze 
 of the temple of Zeus at Olympia. More 
 frequently they were filled with figures in 
 relief, as in those of Selinus (see Sculp- 
 ture, fig. 1), and of the Theseum and the 
 Parthenon {q.v.). The term is also applied 
 to similarly sculptured slabs not placed 
 between the triglyphs, but on the wall of 
 the ceZZa, as in the temple of Zeus at 
 Olympia. See Olympian Games, fig. 3.] 
 
 MetrS-gyrti. The vagrant begging priests 
 of Rhea {q.v.). 
 
 Metretes. The largest liquid measure of 
 the Greeks, a little less than nine gallons. 
 Its chief subdivisions were the Gr. chous, 
 (tV), «:estes (^2-), cotyle (t^), cyuthus {^^). 
 
 Mezentius [or Medientius]. King of Caere 
 in Etruria ; he aided Turnus of Ardea against 
 jEneas, but was killed in battle by the latter 
 or by his son Ascanius. 
 
 Midas. An old Phrygian king, son of 
 Gordias and Cybele, in whose honour he is 
 said to have founded a temple and instituted 
 priests at Pessinus. When the drunken 
 Silenus had lost his way and strayed into 
 Midas' rose-gardens, the king brought him 
 back to Dionysus. (According to another 
 legend the king made him drunk by 
 mingling wine with the spring Midas, and 
 so caught him, that he might prophesy 
 to him.) Dionysus granted Midas the ful- 
 filment of his wish, that all he touched 
 might turn to gold. But his very food and 
 drink were changed at his touch, so that 
 he prayed the god to take away the fatal 
 gift. At the god's command he bathed in 
 the Pactolus, which ever after became rich 
 in gold. In the musical contest between 
 Marsyas (or Pan) and Apollo, he decided for 
 the former ; on which account the god gave 
 him the ears of an ass. He concealed them 
 beneath a high cap, so that only his barber 
 knew about it. However, he could not 
 keep the secret for any length of time, and 
 at last shouted it into a hole that he had 
 dug into the ground ; reeds grew from this 
 hole, and whispered the secret to all the 
 world. While this legend makes Midas him- 
 self appear as one of the Sileni belonging to 
 the train of Dionysus (the ass being one of 
 their attributes), the other points to him 
 as the favourite of the divinity, whose first 
 
 priest he was deemed to be, and who 
 showered riches upon him. 
 
 Milanion (Gr. Meildnwn). The faithful 
 lover of Atalante {q.v.). 
 
 Mlllarium. The Roman milestone, a stone 
 column, such as were set up at intervals of 
 1,000 {mille) passus = 5,000 Roman feet on 
 the military roads, partly during the last 
 years of the Republic, and regularly since 
 Augustus. They gave in numbers, usually 
 preceded by M.P. (milia passuum), the 
 distance from the place from which the 
 measurement was made, besides its name 
 and that of the person who had constructed 
 the road or erected the milestone, and of 
 the emperor in whose reign the road had 
 been made. A great number of these mile- 
 stones, in every part of the Roman empire, 
 has been preserved, and also the base of the 
 central column of gilt bronze (milidnum 
 aureuni) erected by Augustus in the Eorum 
 near the temple of Saturn ; it was regarded 
 as the centre of the empire. {See Plan of 
 Fora, under FoRUM.) 
 
 Mills (Gr. mylal, Lat. molce) are men- 
 tioned [twice] in Homer [Od. vii 104, xx 
 106]. The ordinary Greek tradition as- 
 cribed their invention to Demeter. They 
 consisted, as may be readily inferred from 
 the specimens found in the bakers' shops at 
 Pompeii, of two principal parts : (1) a fixed 
 and massive conical stone (Gr. myle, Lat. 
 metci), resting on a base, and furnished at the 
 top with a strong iron pivot (fig. 2) : and (2) 
 a hollow double cone (Gr. onos, Lat. catillus) 
 in the shape of an hourglass, which, at its 
 narrowest part, was furnished with a thick 
 plate of iron, with holes in the centre and 
 
 (1) MILL, POJirKIJ. 
 
 (2) SKCTION OF (1). 
 
 at four other places (fig. 1). The pivot 
 of the lower stone passed through the cen- 
 tral hole of this plate, and the upper stone 
 turned round it. Into the upper cone or 
 funnel the corn was poured and gradually 
 fell through the holes of the plate into the 
 space between the outer surface of the cone 
 and the inner surface of its cap, where it 
 
MIME MINA, 
 
 393 
 
 was ground and fell into a channel out 
 round the base of the cone. Two bars of 
 wood fastened to the middle of the upper 
 part were used for setting it in motion; 
 this was done either with the hands, or by 
 means of animals. 
 
 Watermills were known in the 1st cen- 
 tury B.C., but they were not commonly used 
 till the 4th and 5th centuries after Christ. 
 The public aqueducts supplied the required 
 water. Ship-mills were invented by Beli- 
 sarius when the Goths were besieging Rome 
 in A.D. 536. The ancients had no wind- 
 mills ; they are an invention of the Middle 
 Ages. There seem to have been no regular 
 millers up to the latest classical times ; the 
 necessary amount of flour was either pre- 
 pared in one's own house by slaves, or ob- 
 tained from the bakers, when there was 
 such a trade ; the bakers usually were at the 
 same time millers. Armies on the march 
 carried small handmills with them. 
 
 Mime (Mimus) really denotes a farcical 
 mimic, a buffoon, such as used to show 
 themselves from the earliest times in Italy 
 and Sicily on the public places at popular 
 entertainments, etc., and also served to 
 while away the time during meals. It 
 afterwards came to be applied to the far- 
 cical imitation of persons and scenes in 
 ordinary life. The mimes of the Syra- 
 cusan Sophron were character-sketches in 
 dialogue taken from the life of the people ; 
 but these were at most meant to be re- 
 cited, certainly not to be acted. 
 
 In Italy, especially among the Latians 
 and at Rome, the representation of such 
 farcical scenes from low life on the stage 
 was no doubt as old as the stage itself ; and 
 as great a scope was at all times given to 
 improvisation in these as in the Atellance, 
 from which the mimes mainly differed in 
 not being confined to stock-characters {see 
 Atellana). At Rome the mime was for 
 a long time confined to fifth-rate theatres, 
 but in B.C. 46 it appears to have ousted the 
 Atellance as an interlude and afterpiece on 
 the more important stages, and received at 
 the hands of Dectmus Ldberius and Publl- 
 lius Syrus a technical development on the 
 lines of the existing kinds of drama. The 
 native name for these national farces was 
 planlpes, probably because the performers 
 appeared plants pedtbus, i.e. without the 
 theatrical shoes used in tragedy and 
 comedy. There were also no masks, the 
 use of which would have of course ren- 
 dered impossible the play of the features, 
 which is such an important means of imi- 
 
 tation. The costume worn was the centun- 
 culus, a kind of harlequin's dress, and the 
 Hcinium, a peculiar little cloak. Contrary 
 to the custom in all other dramatic per- 
 formances, the female parts were really 
 taken by women, who, like all the actors 
 in mimes, were in very bad repute. Be- 
 sides the chief actor, archinilmus or archi- 
 mlina, who had to carry through the plot, 
 there was always a second performer with 
 a clean-shaven head, whose part is charac- 
 terized by the names given him, pdrdsltus 
 or stupidus (fool). The mimes were acted 
 on the front part of the stage, which was 
 divided from the back part by a curtain 
 (stpdriuni). As they depicted the life of 
 the lower classes, and as it was their chief 
 aim to rouse the laughter of the spectators 
 in every possible way, they were full of 
 plebeian expressions and turns, and a- 
 bounded in the most outrageous buffoonery 
 and obscenity ; cheating and adultery were 
 the favourite subjects. In particular the 
 dances that occurred in the mimes were 
 remarkable for the extravagance of the 
 grimaces and the disgusting nature of the 
 gestures. Owing to the continually de- 
 generating tastes of the Roman public, thej'' 
 and the pantomimes enjoyed the greatest 
 popularity during the Empire, especially 
 as here, no less than in the Atellance, a 
 certain freedom of speech was sometimes 
 permitted ; and among dramatic representa- 
 tions proper they occupied the first place. 
 
 Mimiambi. See Iambic Poetry. 
 
 Mimnermus. Of Colophon; the creator 
 of the erotic type of Greek elegy, an older 
 contemporary of Solon ; he flourished about 
 B.C. 630-600. He gave his collection of love 
 elegies the name of the beautiful flute- 
 player Nanno, who on account of his ad- 
 vanced age would not return his love. 
 There are only a few fragments of his 
 poems left; their chief themes are the 
 melancholy complaint of old age abandoned 
 by love, the transitoriness of the life of 
 man, and the exhortation to enjoy youth, 
 the age of love. His language is simple 
 and tender, and the ancients therefore 
 called him the sweet singer [Ligyastddes, 
 in Solon's lines to Mimnermus, Bergk's 
 Poetce Lyrici, Solon, fragm. 20]. 
 
 Miua (Gr. innd; Lat. mind). An old 
 Greek weight, and a sum of coined money 
 equal to it, the sixtieth part of a talent, 
 like which it varied in value. The weight 
 of the mina (.=100 drachmce) was 1^ lb., 
 and the intrinsic value of the Attic mina of 
 silver was £3 6s. 8d. [Cp, Coinage.) 
 
394 
 
 MINERVA MINUCIUS FELIX. 
 
 Minerva. The Italian goddess of intelli- 
 gence, meditation, and inventiveness, queen 
 of all accomplishments and arts, especially 
 of spinning and weaving, as practised by 
 women. She was also the patron-goddess 
 of fullers, dyers, cobblers, carpenters, musi- 
 cians, sculptors, painters, physicians, actors, 
 poets, schoolmasters, and especially of 
 schoolchildren. Her oldest and most im- 
 portant sanctuaries were at Rome on the 
 hills of the town ; on the Capitol, where 
 she occupied the chamber on the right in 
 the great temple common to her with 
 Jupiter and Juno ; on the Aventine, where 
 the official meeting place of poets and 
 actors was situated, and on the Caelian. 
 Her chief festival was the Quinquatrus 
 (q.v.). In the course of time the Greek 
 conception gained more ground ; Minerva 
 was identified with Pallas Athene. This 
 certainly happened with regard to Athene 
 considered as the bestower of victory and 
 booty, when Pompey erected a temple to her 
 from the booty won in his Eastern cam- 
 paigns. And Augustus must have regarded 
 her as Athene the Counsellor when he added 
 to his Curia lulia a vestibule dedicated to 
 Minerva. The Roman Minerva was repre- 
 sented in art in the same manner as the 
 Greek goddess. {See Athene.) 
 
 Minerval. The school fee among the 
 Romans. {See Quinquatrus.) 
 
 Minos. A mythical king of Crete, the 
 centre of the oldest legends of that island. 
 He is the son of Zeus and of Europa ; in 
 Homer, brother of Rhadamanthys, father of 
 Deucalion and Ariadne, and grandfather of 
 Idomeneus. Residing at Gnossus as the 
 " familiar friend of Zeus," he had a " nine- 
 yearly " rule over the flourishing island 
 [Od. xix 179], an expression which later 
 generations explained as signifying periods 
 of nine years ; at the end of which he went 
 into a cave sacred to Zeus, in order to hold 
 converse with his father, and to receive 
 the laws for his island. Just as he was 
 thought to be the framer of the famous 
 older Cretan constitution, so he was also 
 considered a founder of the naval supre- 
 macy of Crete before the times of Troy ; 
 Hesiod calls him the " mightiest king of 
 all mortals," who rules with the sceptre of 
 Zeus over most of the neighbouring peoples. 
 Later legend gives him another brother, 
 Sarpedon, and a number of children (among 
 others Androgeos, Glaucus, Catreus, and 
 Phsedra) by his wife Pasiphae, a daughter 
 of Helios and Perseis. When after the 
 death of Asterion, the husband of Europa, 
 
 he has driven away his brothers in conse- 
 quence of a quarrel, he seizes the kingship 
 of Crete, in which he is supported by 
 Poseidon, who, on his prayer that he should 
 send him a bull for sacrifice, causes a won- 
 derfully beautiful snow-white bull to rise 
 from the sea. But as he, desiring to keep it 
 for his own herd, sacrifices another, the god 
 to punish him inspires his wife Pasiphae 
 {q.v.) with love for the bull. Homer [Od. 
 xi 322] calls Minos the " meditator of 
 evil " ; in later times he was represented 
 as a hard-hearted and cruel tyrant, especi- 
 ally on the Attic stage, because of the part 
 he played in Attic legends. On account 
 of the murder of his son Androgeos {q.v.) 
 at Athens, he undertook an expedition of 
 revenge against Attica, captured Megara 
 {see Nisus), and compelled the Athenians 
 to send him once in every nine years seven 
 boys and seven girls to Crete, to be devoured 
 by the Minotaur {q.v. : see also Theseus). 
 Tradition made him die in Sicily, whither 
 he had pursued Daedalus {q.v.) on his flight, 
 and where king Cocalus or his daughters 
 stifled him in a hot bath. His Cretan 
 followers interred him near Agrigentum, 
 where his grave was shown. In Homer 
 [Od. xi 568] Odysseus sees him in Hades 
 with a golden sceptre in his hand, judging 
 the shades ; he does not appear in the 
 legends as judge of the dead by the side 
 of ^acus and Rhadamanthys till later 
 [Plato, Apol. 41 a, Gorg. 523 c]. 
 
 Minotaums (i.e. Bull of Minos). Son of 
 Pasiphae {q.v.) and a bull ; a monster with 
 the head of a bull and the body of a man. 
 Minos concealed it in the labyrinth, built 
 near Gnossus by Daedalus, and gave him 
 as food the criminals, and the youths and 
 maidens sent from Athens as a tribute, till 
 Theseus by the help of Ariadne penetrated 
 into the labyrinth and killed the Minotaur. 
 It has been pointed out that he is the same 
 as the Phoenician Baal Moloch, also repre- 
 sented with a bull's head and supplied with 
 human sacrifices. This worship was put a 
 stop to by Greek civilization, which may 
 be considered with all the more reason to 
 be represented by Theseus, as in olden 
 days the Attic coast was perhaps actually 
 occupied from time to time by Cretan or 
 Phoenician settlers, who sent human sacri- 
 fices to Crete as their religious centre. 
 
 Minucius Felix {Quintus). The first Latin 
 Christian author, a man of excellent educa- 
 tion, and a distinguished lawyer at Rome. 
 After becoming a Christian at an advanced 
 age, he wrote in the second half of the 
 
MINYADES MIEE-OilS 
 
 395 
 
 2nd century a dialogue entitled Octavius, 
 in which lie aims at refuting the objections 
 raised against Christianity. The work is 
 marked by purity of diction and by acute- 
 ness and precision of argument. 
 
 Minjradgs. The daughters of Minyas, 
 the rich king of OrchSmenus and mythical 
 ancestral hero of the race of the Minyse; 
 their names were Alcdthde CAlcithoe), 
 Leucippe, and Arsippe. When the worship 
 of Dionysus was introduced into Bceotia, 
 and all the other women wandered in frenzy 
 over the mountains in honour of the god, 
 they alone remained at home, and profaned 
 the festival by working at their looms, in 
 spite of the warning of the god, who had 
 appeared to them in the shape of a maiden. 
 It was not till he had assumed the shapes 
 of a bull, a lion, and a panther, had made 
 milk and wine flow from the yarnbeams, 
 and had changed their weft into grapes 
 and vine-leaves, that they were terrified 
 and drew lots who should offer a sacrifice 
 to the god ; and Leucippe, on whom the lot 
 fell, tore her own son Hippasus to pieces in 
 her Bacchic fury. They then raged about 
 on the mountains till they were transformed 
 into bats. With this legend was connected 
 the custom, that at the annual festival 
 of Dionysus the priest of the god was 
 allowed to pursue the women of the Minyan 
 race with a drawn sword and kill them. 
 [iElian, V. H. iii 42 ; Plutarch, Qucest. 
 Gr. 38 ; Ovid, Met. iv 1-40, 390-415.] 
 
 Mirrors. For mirrors the ancients used 
 round or oval, also square, plates of melted 
 and polished metal, generally of copper, 
 mixed with tin, zinc, and other materials, 
 often silvered and gilded. In later times 
 
 (1, 2, S) POMPEIAN MinROES. 
 
 (Overbeck's PomiJeii, p. 404, 1875.) 
 
 they were also made of massive silver. 
 They were often provided with a decorated 
 handle and ornamented on the back with 
 engravings, mostly of mythological objects 
 
 (see cuts). The Efcrascan mirrors are in 
 this respect remarkably fine [the finest of 
 all is represented in fig. 4]. Besides these 
 
 (4) BACK OF ETRUSCAN MIRROR. 
 
 (Berlin Maseum.) 
 
 Apollo with bay tree and Satyr on left; Semele and Dionysus 
 on right ; with border of ivy-leaves. 
 
 hand-mirrors, there were also in the time 
 of the emperors mirrors as high as a man 
 [Seneca, N. Q. i 17 ; cp. Quintilian xi 3, 
 § 68], which were either permanently fixed 
 in the wall or [as in Vitruv. ix 8 § 2] let 
 up and down like a sash. 
 
 [Greek mirrors were unknown to archseo- 
 logists until 1867, when the first specimen 
 was discovered at Corinth. In design 
 they are even more beautiful than those 
 of Etruria. They are of two kinds : (a) 
 Like the Etruscan mirrors, they are gene- 
 rally round, consisting of a single disc with 
 a polished convex front, to reflect the face, 
 and a concave back, ornamented with figures 
 traced with the engraver's burin. This 
 variety had a handle in the form of a 
 statuette resting on a pedestal. (6) Another 
 variety, especially frequent in Greece, con- 
 sists of two metallic discs, one inclosed 
 within the other, and sometimes held 
 together by a hinge. The cover was 
 externally ornamented with figures in low 
 relief, and was internally polished and 
 silvered to reflect the face. The second 
 disc, forming the body of the case, was 
 decorated internally with figures engraved 
 with a sharp point. See Collignon's Greek 
 ArchcBology, fig. 136, Leukds and Corin- 
 tJids personified, on an engraved mirror; 
 and fig. 137, a fine relief of Ganymede and 
 the eagle. In the British Museum we 
 have a mirror from Corinth, representing 
 Pan playing at the game of " Five Stones " 
 
3'J6 
 
 mSSIO MITHEAS. 
 
 with a Nymph attended by Eros (Bronze 
 Room, table-case D).] 
 
 Missio. The Roman term for the dis- 
 missal of soldiers from service, whether on 
 account of illness {missio causdria) or of 
 some dishonourable offence {missio ignomi- 
 niosa), or at the expiration of their period 
 of service. The last-mentioned, missio 
 
 legal marriage. The imperial decree which 
 contained a list of those dismissed, arranged 
 according to the subdivisions of the army 
 and with the privileges granted, was posted 
 on a public building on the Capitol or in 
 the Forum, and each one of those specified ' 
 received an extract from this document, 
 made out in the presence of seven wit- 
 
 TIIE SACRIFICE OF MITHKAS. 
 
 (Paris, Luuvre.) 
 
 hniirsta or honourable dismissal, carried 
 with it, under the Empire, the maintenance 
 of the dismissed soldier. At first a fixed 
 sum of money was given him, afterwards 
 a parcel of land in Italy or the provinces 
 was assigned ; he also received the rights 
 of citizenship, if he did not already possess 
 them, and the privilege of contracting a 
 
 nesses and inscribed on a bronze diptychon 
 {q.v.). Sixty-two such military diplomas 
 have been preserved completely or in part. 
 Mithras. The Persian god of created 
 light and of all earthly wisdom. In the 
 course of time he became identified with 
 the sun-god, who conquers all demons of 
 darkness. In the time after Alexander 
 
MITEA MGERJi;. 
 
 397 
 
 the Great, his worship, mixed with various 
 customs peculiar to Western Asia, was 
 extended over all the Oriental kingdoms. 
 In the first half of the 1st century B.C. 
 it is said to have been introduced into 
 the Roman provinces in the West by the 
 Cilician pirates who were at that time 
 masters of the Mediterranean. There are 
 traces of his worship at Rome under 
 Tiberius ; and in the beginning of the 2nd 
 century after Christ, under the Antonines, 
 it became common throughout the whole 
 Roman empire, and was kept up till the 
 end of the 4th century. Mithras was a 
 special favourite of the Roman armies. 
 Being born from the rocks, he was wor- 
 shipped in natural or artificial caves, such 
 as have been found in 
 every part of the Roman 
 empire. He is represented 
 as a young man in oriental 
 dress and as an invincible 
 hero, stabbing a bull with 
 his dagger or standing on 
 a bull he has thrown down. 
 [Fine specimens of this 
 group may be seen in the 
 Louvre and in the British 
 Museum and elsewhere (see 
 cut).] The cave itself was 
 explained by the ancients 
 to signify the world, into 
 which the human soul 
 must descend, that it may 
 be purified by many trials 
 before leaving it. Before 
 any one was initiated in 
 the mysteries of Mithras, 
 it was necessary for the 
 person to undergo a series 
 of (it is said eighty) trials 
 of increasing difficulty ; and an undaunted, 
 unsubdued spirit had to be maintained in 
 fire and water, hunger and thirst, scourging, 
 and solitude, and the aspirant was thus 
 prepared for the initiation. It consisted 
 of seven degrees, that of the ravens, the 
 secret, the fighters, the lions or she-lions 
 (for women were also received), the Per- 
 sians, the sun-runners, and the fathers. 
 Various Christian rites seem also to have 
 been introduced into the mysteries of 
 Mithras. Epithets like " Lord and Creator 
 of all things," "Father and source of all 
 life," enable us to recognise Mithras as one 
 of the pantheistic divinities of declining 
 heathendom. 
 
 Mitra. A kerchief which women wore 
 round the head. See Hair. 
 
 Mneme. See Muses. 
 
 Mnemosyne. Daughter of Uranus and 
 Gsea, and one of the Titanides, the goddess 
 of memory, by Zeus, mother of the Muses 
 (q.v.), in company with whom she was 
 usually worshipped. 
 
 Mneslcles. A Greek architect, the builder 
 of the Propylcea (q.v.). 
 
 ]y[ddiiis. The principal dry measure of 
 the Romans, equal to nearly two gallons, 
 a sixth part of the Greek medimnus. It 
 was divided into 16 sextdrii, 32 hemince, 
 64 quartarii, 128 dcgtabUla, 192 cydthi. 
 
 MoersB (Gr. Moirai). The Greek god- 
 desses of Fate : Homer in one passage [II. 
 xxiv 209] speaks generally of the Moira, 
 that spins the thread of life for men at their 
 
 * CLOTHO, ATKOPOS, AND LACHESIS. 
 
 (Roman relief, in Schloss Tegel, the residence of the Humboldts, near Berlin.) 
 
 birth ; in another \ih. 49] of several Moirai, 
 and elsewhere [Od. vii 197] of the Clothes, 
 or Spinners. Their relation to Zeus and 
 other gods is no more clearly defined by 
 Homer than by the other Greeks. At one 
 time Fate is a power with unlimited sway 
 over men and gods, and the will of Fate is 
 searched out and executed by Zeus with 
 the other gods [II. xix 87 ; Od. xxii 413] ; 
 at another Zeus is called the highest ruler 
 of destinies, or again he and the other gods 
 can change the course of fate [II. xvi S4], 
 and even men can exceed the limits it im- 
 poses [II. XX 336]. In Hesiod they are 
 called in one passage [TTieog. 211-7] daugh- 
 ters of Night and sisters of the goddesses 
 of death (KSres), while in another (Theog. 
 904] they are the daughters of Zeus and 
 
398 
 
 MCERIS MOSAICS. 
 
 Themis and sisters of the Horse, who give 
 good and bad fortunes to mortals at their 
 birth ; their names are ClOtliO (the Spinner), 
 who spins the thread of life, LdchSsis 
 (Disposer of Lots), who determines its 
 length, and Atrdjpds (Inevitable), who cuts 
 it off. As exerting power at the time of 
 birth they are connected with Ilithyia, 
 the goddess of birth, who was supposed to 
 stand beside them, and was invoked to- 
 gether with them, these and the Keres 
 being the powers that decided when life 
 should end. As at birth they determine 
 men's destinies in life, they are also able to 
 predict them. While on the one hand they 
 are regarded as the impartial representa- 
 tives of the government of the world, they 
 are on the other hand sometimes conceived 
 as cruel and jealous, because they remorse- 
 lessly thwart the plans and desires of men. 
 In art they appear as maidens of grave 
 aspect. Clofho is usually represented with a 
 spindle ; Lachesis with a scroll, or a globe ; 
 and Atropos with a pair of scales or shears, 
 or else drawing a lot (as in the cut). The 
 Romans identified the Moirai with their 
 native goddesses of fate, the Parcce. These 
 were also called Fata, and were invoked, at 
 the end of the first week of an infant's life, 
 as Fata Scribunda, the goddesses that wrote 
 down men's destiny in life. 
 
 Moeris {JElius). Known as the Atticist. 
 A Greek grammarian of the 2nd century 
 after Christ. He was the author of an Attic 
 Lexicon, a list, in alphabetical order, of a 
 number of expressions and forms used by 
 Attic writers, with the parallel expressions 
 used in his own time. 
 
 Molionidse. Eurytus and Cteatus, the 
 sons of Actor (whence they were also 
 called ActSridce) or else of Poseidon and 
 MoliSne. [Homer, H. xi 750, calls them 
 by the dual and double name Actorlone 
 MOllone.] As boys they fought against 
 Nestor and the men of Pylus. When they 
 had grown up, they beat the army of 
 Heracles that threatened their uncle 
 Augeas, but were killed by the former near 
 Cleonae in Argolis. In Homer their sons 
 Thalpius and Antimachus are the chieftains 
 of the Epeians before Troy. A later 
 legend describes them as having only one 
 body [Athenseus, ii p. 58]. 
 
 Momus. In Greek mythology the evil 
 spirit of blame and mockery, according to 
 Hesiod [Theog. 214] the son of Night. [Ac- 
 cording to Lucian, Hermotivius 20, he found 
 fault with the man formed by Hephsestus 
 for not having little doors in his breast, so 
 
 as to allow of his secret thoughts being seen. 
 In Philostratus {Ep. 21=37) the only faults 
 he finds in Aphrodite are that she is too 
 talkative and that her sandal makes too 
 much noise.] 
 
 Moneta. See Juno (end of article). 
 
 Money-chaiigers. See Banks and Bank- 
 ing. 
 
 Moncpt^rds. An epithet descriptive of 
 a round temple with its columns arranged 
 in a circle and supporting a cupola. See 
 Temple (end of article). 
 
 Months. See Calendar. 
 
 Moon, Goddess of. Among the Greeks, 
 see Selene ; among the Romans, see Luna. 
 
 Mopsus. The name of two Greek seers. 
 (1) One of the Lapithse of (Echalia in Thes- 
 saly, son of Ampyx and the Nymph Chloris. 
 He took part in the Calydonian Hunt and 
 in the fight of the Lapithse and the Centaurs 
 (see PiRiTHOUS), and afterwards accom- 
 panied the Argonauts as seer, and died of 
 the bite of a snake in Libya, where he was 
 worshipped as a hero, and had an oracle. 
 
 (2) Son of the Cretan seer Rhacius and of 
 Man to {q.v), and founder, with AmphilSchus, 
 son of Amphia,raus, of the celebrated oracle 
 {q.v.) at Mallus in Cilicia. Mopsus and 
 Amphilochus killed each other in a combat 
 for the possession of the sanctuary. 
 
 Mora. One of the six principal divisions 
 of the army at Sparta, which included all 
 Spartans and Perioeci that were obliged to 
 serve. It was under the command of a 
 polemarch, and consisted of four locM, eight 
 pentecostySs, and sixteen endrndtice, which 
 were under as many Idchdgi, pentecostSres, 
 and Sndmotarchi. These divisions were 
 never sent on a campaign in their full 
 .strength, but only the men of particular 
 years, specified in each case. The pole- 
 march always took the command of the 
 first levy. 
 
 Morpheus. The Greek god of dreams. 
 {See Dreams.) 
 
 Morsimus. A tragic poet {see Philocles). 
 
 [Mosaics. The term mosaic is usually 
 derived from a post-classical word muslvum 
 (Gr. mouseion ?), occurring in Spartianus, 
 Life of Pescenninus 6, pictuin de musivo, 
 and Augustine, De Civitate Dei xvi 8, 
 hominum genera mvsivo picta. It is the 
 art of arranging small cubes or tessSrcB of 
 marble, coloured stone, terra cotta, glass, or 
 some other artificial substance, so as to pro- 
 duce an ornamental pattern or picture, and 
 to provide a durable form of decoration for 
 walls and pavements. The only mosaic 
 hitherto found in Greece Prorer is that dis- 
 
MOSAICS. 
 
 399 
 
 covered in 1829, in the floor of the east 
 portico of the temple of Zeus, at Olympia, 
 possibly little later than the first half of 
 the 4th century B.C. It is formed of rough 
 round pebbles of various colours from the 
 bed of the Alpheus, and it represents Tritons 
 of graceful design surrounded by a tasteful 
 border of palmettes and meandering lines 
 (see Baumeister's DenkmOler, fig. 998). 
 
 The earliest mosaics mentioned in litera- 
 ture are those made for the ship of Hieron 
 II, about the middle of the 3rd century, 
 with scenes from the Iliad, which took 300 
 skilled workmen a whole year to execute 
 (Athenseus, 206 d). To the same age 
 
 themselves on the rim of the bowl. The 
 best known copy of this is that called The 
 Capitoline Doves (fig. 1), found at Hadrian's 
 Villa near Tivoli. It is entirely composed 
 of cubes of marble, without any admixture 
 of coloured glass. 
 
 The art of reproducing paintings in 
 mosaic probably originated in Egypt, and 
 thence found its way to Italy. The largest 
 mosaic picture of Roman workmanship is 
 that executed for the Temple of Fortune at 
 Prssneste, restored by Sulla (Pliny, xxxvi 
 189). This was discovered in 1640, and is 
 generally supposed to represent a popular 
 fSte on the occasion of an inundation of 
 
 (1) * THE CAPITOhlNE DOVES. 
 
 (Rome, Capitolino Museum.) 
 
 belongs the only artist in mosaic whose 
 name is recorded in literature, Sosus of 
 Pergamon, famous as the inventor of a kind 
 of mosaic called the dsdrOton (the " un- 
 swept" floor), in which the floor of a room 
 is inlaid Avith representations of fruits, 
 fishes, and fragments of food that have 
 fallen from the table (Pliny, xxxvi 184; 
 cp. Statius, Silvce i 3, 36). Mosaics of 
 this type have been found not only at 
 Pompeii, but also at Aquileia and in Algiers. 
 Acccording to Pliny, the original design by 
 Sosus included a remarkable representation 
 of a dove drinking and casting the shadow 
 of its head on the 'water beneath, while 
 several other doves were to be seen sunning 
 
 the Nile. It probably belongs to the time 
 of Hadrian. 
 
 Among the mosaics of Pompeii the most 
 famous is that identified as the Battle of 
 Issus, possibly a copy of the painting of the 
 same subject by a female artist, Helena, 
 " daughter of Timon the Egyptian," which 
 was placed in the temple of Peace in the 
 time of Vespasian (Photius, Bibl., p. 482). 
 It represents the critical moment when 
 Alexander is charging, bare-headed, in the 
 thick of the fray, and has just transfixed 
 with his lance one of the leaders of the 
 Persians ; while Darius, with his lofty tiara 
 and red chlamys, is extending his right hand 
 in an attitude of alarm and despair (figs. 2 
 
D. C. A. 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 MOSAICS. 
 
 and 3). In the mosaic itself the lower 
 border represents a river, apparently the 
 Nile, with a crocodile, hippopotamus, ich- 
 neumon, ibis, etc., thus confirming the con- 
 jecture as to the Egyptian origin of the 
 design. 
 
 Mosaics bearing the artist's name are 
 seldom found. The two iinest of this class 
 are those from Pompeii inscribed with the 
 name of Dioscorides of Samos. One of 
 these represents four masked figures play- 
 ing on various instruments. The work is 
 composed of very small pieces of glass, of 
 the most beautiful colours and in various 
 shades (cut in Dyer's Pompeii, p. 276). 
 Another of similar construction portrays a 
 rehearsal for a satyric drama. The ground 
 is black, the drapery mainly white, but the 
 robe of the flute-player is bordered with 
 purple, the lips are a bright red, and the 
 flutes and ornaments coloured like gold. 
 {See Drama, fig. 2.) The finest mosaic of 
 the early part of the 2nd century a.d. is 
 the highly pictorial centaur-mosaic now at 
 Berlin, foand at the Villa of Hadrian {see 
 Baumeister's Denkmaler, fig. 941). The 
 most celebrated works of a later date in- 
 clude that in the Thermae of Caracalla, with 
 numerous gladiatorial figures of colossal 
 size and ungraceful drawing {ih. fig. 174) ; 
 and that of the Roman villa at Nennig, 
 near Treves. The dimensions of the latter 
 are 50 feet by 33, and the design includes 
 several groups of figures inclosed in a 
 square or hexagonal framework of tesse- 
 lated marble {ib. figs. 1001-2343). Among 
 the mosaics in the British Museum are an 
 Amphitrite and Tritons, with Dionysus, 
 Meleager, and Atalanta, all from Halicar- 
 nassus, and of Roman times, since figures of 
 Dido and .iEneas were found in the same 
 villa (Newton's Travels and Discoveries, 
 ii 76). As mosaics still in situ in England 
 may be mentioned those at Woodchester, 
 Bignor, and Brading.i In the " Gallery of 
 the Architectural Court " of the South Ken- 
 sington Museum are exhibited 100 coloured 
 plates, with copies of mosaics, collected by 
 Dr. R. Wollaston, including a Greek mosaic 
 of IphlgSnla at Aulis, found in the Crimea, 
 and the above-mentioned mosaic of Prseneste 
 (no. 167). 
 
 Mosaic pavements are known by different 
 names descriptive of certain varieties of 
 structure. (1) A pdvlmentum sectlle is 
 composed of thin plates of coloured marble 
 of various sizes, cut {secta) into slices of 
 
 ' Cp. Morgan's Eomano-British Mosaic Pave- 
 ments, 1886. 
 
 regular form and arranged in an ornamental 
 geometrical pattern including triangles, 
 hexagons, etc. (Vitruvius, vii ], 3, 4; Sue- 
 tonius, Caesar, 46 at end). (2) The epithet 
 tesselldtum describes a pavement of the 
 same general kind, but made up of regular 
 square dies {tesserce, tessellce, tesscruloe), 
 forming rectangular designs {ib.). (3) Ver- 
 micUlatum is applied to a design formed of 
 small pieces of marble in various colours, 
 arranged so as to imitate the object repre- 
 sented with a high degree of pictorial 
 effect. The dies are of different shapes, 
 so as to allow of their following the wavy 
 contours of the outline of the object. The 
 name is derived from the fact that the gene- 
 ral effect of such an arrangement resembles 
 the contortions of a cluster of worms 
 {vermes). {Cp. Pliny, xxxv 2 : Interraso 
 7narmore vermiculatisque ad effigies rerum 
 crustis ; and Lucilius, quoted in Cicero's 
 Orator, 149 : Quam lepide lexeis compostce 
 ut tesserulce omnes — arte pavimento atque 
 emblemate vermiculato.) (4) The term lithd- 
 strotum (Varro, i2. J?., iii 2 § 4; 1 § 10; 
 Pliny, xxxvi 189) was probably applied to 
 a pavement made of small pieces of- stone 
 or marble of natural colours, and distin- 
 guished from those of coloured glass or 
 some other artificial composition. Mosaics 
 of glass were used to decorate ceilings 
 (Pliny, I.e.). 
 
 The gilt tesserce used in Christian 
 mosaics for the background of the pictures 
 were formed by applying to a cube of 
 earthenware two thin plates of glass with a 
 film of gold-leaf between them, and vitri- 
 fying the whole in a furnace. It was this 
 discovery that led to the extensive applica- 
 tion of mosaic for the decoration of the walls, 
 and more particularly the apses, of Christian 
 churches. At Rome, we have mosaics of the 
 4th century in the churches of S. Constantia 
 and S. Maria Maggiore. At Ravenna, those 
 of the lower part of the Orthodox Baptistery 
 belong to 430 a.d. ; those in the Mausoleum 
 of Galla Placidia to 440 ; those in the domes 
 of the Orthodox and Arian Baptisteries to 
 about 553 ; those of San Vitale to 547 ; of 
 S. Apollinare Nuovo to 549, and of the 
 archiepiscopal palace to about the same 
 date ; and, lastly, those of S. Apollinare in 
 Classe to about 671-677. At Milan, the 
 mosaics of S. Lorenzo and S. Ambrogio be- 
 long to the 5th century ; those of S. Parenzo 
 in Istria to the 6 th; those of S. Sophia at 
 Constantinople were executed in the time 
 of Justinian (527-565). At Rome, those of 
 SS. Cosmas and Damian are ascribed to 
 
MOSCHUS MUNICIPIUM. 
 
 403 
 
 526-530 ; of S. Lorenzo Outside the Walls 
 to 577-590; of S. Agnese to 625-638; of 
 the oratory of S. Venantius, the churches of 
 S. Praxedes, S. Cecilia in Trastevere, and S. 
 Maria Navicella, to the 7th century. After 
 the 9th century the art of working in mosaic 
 ceased for awhile in Rome and in Italy in 
 general, to be revived at a later date in 
 the church of S. Cyprian at Murano (1109) 
 and the basilica of St. Mark's at Venice 
 (in and after the 1 1th century), and after- 
 wards at Rome itself. In Sicily, the mosaics 
 of the Cappella Palatlna in the royal palace 
 at Palermo were finished in 1143, while 
 those of the cathedral at Monreale were 
 begun in 1172. 
 
 Authorities. Marquardt, Das Privatleben 
 der Eomer, 625-632 ; Bliimner's Techno- 
 logic, iii 323-343 ; Von Rohden on Mosaik 
 in Baumeister's Denkmaler ; Gerspach, La 
 Mosaique.] [J. E. S.] 
 
 Moschus. A Greek bucolic poet, who 
 lived in Syracuse about B.C. 150. Four 
 longer and four shorter poems have been 
 handed down as his ; they show the greatest 
 elegance of expression without the truth 
 to nature and the dramatic power of his 
 model Theocritus. 
 
 M6thac§3. See Helots. 
 
 Mucins Scsevola (Quintus) was born of a 
 family in which the pontificate and great 
 legal learning had been handed down from 
 father to son. He was a friend of the 
 orator Crassus and his colleague in almost 
 all offices, was made consul in B.C. 95, and 
 murdered by the Marians in 85. A man 
 of great integrity and wide culture, he 
 combined a profound knowledge of the 
 law with remarkable eloquence. He ren- 
 dered great service by being the first to re- 
 duce the legal materials accumulated in the 
 course of time to a consistent and classi- 
 fied system. This he did in his lost work, 
 De lure Clvill, in eighteen volumes ; it 
 formed the basis for a methodical treat- 
 ment of law. Among his pupils were Cicero 
 and the lawyer Sulpicius Rufus (q.v.): 
 
 Mulciber. Epithet of Vulcan (q.v.). 
 MuUeus. See Calceus. 
 
 Multa [wrongly spelt imtlcta]. The 
 Roman term for a fine, inflicted either by a 
 magistrate for disobedience or insubordina- 
 tion, or at the motion of an official by the de- 
 cision of the people at the comttm tributa, 
 or prescribed in laws, wills, etc., in case 
 any one contravened them. It originally 
 consisted in cattle, sheep, or oxen; then, 
 after B.C. 430, the Lex lulia Papina per- 
 mitted the payment in money according to 
 
 a fixed scale (a sheep = 10 asses, an ox = 100 
 asses). The lowest amount of the multa in- 
 flicted by a magistrate in virtue of his office 
 was a sheep; when acts of disobedience were 
 repeated, the fine could be raised to 30 oxen 
 {suprema multa). Against heavier penal ties, 
 such, in particular, as were imposed by the 
 tribunes of the people on account of political 
 crimes, e.g. when a general had waged war 
 unskilfully or had exceeded the limits of 
 his power, an appeal to the eSmitm tributd 
 was granted, and they were decided by that 
 body in the regular legal manner. The 
 fines imposed by the people were always, 
 and those imposed by the magistrates usu- 
 ally, set apart for sacred purposes ; other- 
 wise they fell to the cerdrium, as was the 
 rule under the Empire. This also received 
 a part of the penalties fixed by laws, the 
 other was given to the plaintiff. Fines for 
 contravention of the clauses of a will were 
 either paid to the funds of a temple or 
 to the community to which the testator 
 belonged, and at Rome to the mrarium. 
 
 Mummius. A Latin writer of Atelldnw 
 {see Atellana), after 90 B.C. 
 
 Munlcipium. Originally the Roman term 
 for a town the inhabitants of which, called 
 munlclpes, onlj' possessed part of the rights 
 of Roman citizenship, viz. the private rights 
 of commercium and conubium, while they 
 were excluded from the political rights, 
 the ius suffragii and the ius honorum, the 
 right to elect and to be elected to office. 
 As Roman citizens, they did not serve 
 (like the allies) in cohorts under a prefect, 
 but in the legions under tribunes ; they were, 
 however, assigned to legions distinct from 
 the others, since they were not inscribed on 
 the lists of the Roman tribes, and therefore 
 could not be levied in accordance with 
 those lists. After the dissolution of the 
 Latin League in B.C. 338, the allied towns 
 were put into the position of municipia. 
 
 At first there were two classes of muni- 
 cipia, according as they retained an inde- 
 pendent communal constitution or not. The 
 second class, which had no senate, magis- 
 trates, or popular assembly of its own, and 
 was governed directly by Rome, consisted 
 of i]ii& prcefecturce {q.v.). As the municipia 
 gradually obtained the full rights of citizen- 
 ship, their nature changed ; all persons 
 were now called municipes, who did not 
 belong to the town of Rome by birth, but 
 were full Roman citizens, and hence be- 
 longed to a Roman tribe, were registered at 
 Rome, could elect and be elected to office, 
 and served in the Roman legions. 
 
404 
 
 MURAL CEOWN MUSEION. 
 
 The Lex lalia of B.C. 90 made all the 
 towns of Italy municipia with full civic 
 rights, and every Italian country-town was 
 now called a Homan municipium. Gradu- 
 ally the towns in the provinces received 
 municipal rights, till finally Caracalla made 
 all towns of the empire municipia. Ori- 
 ginally one class of municipia had retained 
 their own laws and their own constitution ; 
 this arrangement underwent a change when 
 they were received into the Roman citizen- 
 ship, inasmuch as the Roman law then 
 became binding upon them, and a regularly 
 organized administration on the Roman 
 model was introduced. The citizens were 
 divided into cunce, and at their comitia 
 curiata passed all kinds of decrees, and 
 chose officers ; most of these rights, how- 
 ever, passed into the hands of the local 
 senate towards the end of the 1st century. 
 This senate usually consisted of 100 life- 
 members, called decUridnes, and in every 
 fifth year the vacancies were filled up from 
 those who had held office or were qualified 
 by their property. The highest officials 
 were the dUo viri, who were judges and 
 presided at the assemblies of the people, 
 especially at elections, and in the senate ; 
 the two quinquenndles, chosen for a year, 
 once in five years, and corresponding to 
 the Roman censors ; and qucestores and 
 cedtles, officials with similar duties to the 
 Roman officials of the same name. {See 
 Magistratus.) Besides the decuriones, 
 whose position became hereditary at the 
 end of the Empire, there were, under the 
 heathen emperors, a second privileged cl ass, 
 known as Augustdles, chosen by decree of 
 the local senate and next to that body in 
 rank. They made up a collegium, which 
 was originally dedicated to the worship of 
 the Julian family, and in later times seems 
 to have also extended its functions to the 
 worship of the other emperors. The de- 
 cline of the municipal system, the pros- 
 perity of which had depended on the liberty 
 and independence of the administration, 
 set in at the end of the 2nd century after 
 Christ, when the emperors began to transfer 
 to the municipia the burdens of the State, 
 and the decuriones gradually became mere 
 imperial officials, who were more especially 
 responsible for the collection of the tribute 
 imposed. 
 
 Mural Crown. See Coeona. 
 
 Miircia. See Venus. 
 
 Murrina (vasa). A name given by the 
 Romans to vessels made of an oriental 
 mineral called m.iirra, which only occurred 
 
 in small plates, opaque, of dull lustre and 
 changing colours, and very brittle. The 
 first vessels of this kind were brought to 
 Rome by Pompey in B.C. 61, among the 
 spoils of king Mithridates [Pliny, N. H., 
 xxxvii 18]. In Rome enormous prices were 
 paid for them on account of their material, 
 which is unknown to us, but is held by 
 many to have been a rare kind oifluor spar 
 [while others identify it with porcelain]. 
 Thus Nero paid for his cup with a handle, 
 made of murra, the sum of a million sesterces, 
 about £10,000 [ib. § 20]. Murra, as well 
 as every variety of precious stone, was imi- 
 tated in glass. 
 
 Musseus. (1) A mythical singer, seer, 
 and priest, who occurs especially in Attic 
 legends. He is said to have lived in pre- 
 Homeric times, and to have been the son 
 of Selene and Orpheus or Linus or Eumol- 
 pus. Numerous oracular sayings, hj'mns, 
 and chants of dedication and purification 
 were ascribed to him, which had been 
 collected, and also interpolated, by OnS- 
 macritus, in the time of the Pisistratidse. 
 His tomb was shown at Athens on the 
 Museum Hill, south-west of the Acropolis 
 [Pausanias i 25 § 8]. 
 
 (2) A grammarian and Greek poet, who 
 in the beginning of the 6 th century after 
 Christ wrote a short epic of love, entitled 
 Hero and Leander, which shows intense 
 warmth of feeling, and has touches that are 
 almost modem. 
 
 Musaggtes, i.e. leader of the Muses. 
 A title of (Apollo) the god of poets. {See 
 Apollo and Muses.) 
 
 Museidn (Lat. Museum). Originally a 
 temple of the Muses, then a place dedicated 
 to the works of the Muses. In this sense 
 the most remarkable and most important 
 museum of antiquity was that established 
 at Alexandria by Ptolemy Philadelphus in 
 the first half of the 3rd century B.C. This 
 institution contributed very largely towards 
 the preservation and extension of Greek 
 literature and learning. It was a spacious 
 and magnificent edifice, supplied with every- 
 thing requisite for its purpose, such as an 
 observatory, a library, etc. ; it lay near the 
 royal palace and communicated immediately 
 with the temple of the Muses. Noted men 
 of erudition were there supported at the 
 cost of the State, to enable them to devote 
 themselves to their learned studies without 
 interruption. They were under the super- 
 vision of principals chosen from their own 
 body, while the priest of the Muses was 
 at their head. Under the Roman emperors, 
 
MUSES. 
 
 405 
 
 when Egypt had become a province of the 
 empire, it still continued, as an imperial 
 institute and the centre of all learning, 
 especially in mathematics and astronomy 
 [Strabo, p. 794]. Caracalla confiscated the 
 pensions of the learned men attached to it, 
 and the institution itself was completely 
 destroyed during the civil wars under 
 Aurelian in the 3rd century. 
 
 Muses. In Greek mythology originally the 
 Nymphs of inspiring springs, then goddesses 
 of song in general, afterwards the repre- 
 sentatives of the various kinds of poetry, 
 arts, and sciences. In Homer, who now 
 speaks of one, and now of many Muses, but 
 
 (she that extols), the Muse of history • with 
 a scroll. (3) Euterpe (she that gladdens), 
 the Muse of lyric song ; with the double 
 flute. (4) Thalia (she that flourishes), the 
 Muse of comedy and bucolic poetry ; with 
 the comic mask, the ivy wreath, and the 
 shepherd's staff. (5) MelpOmene (she 
 that sings), the Muse of tragedy ; with 
 tragic mask, ivy wreath, and occasionally 
 with attributes of individual heroes, e.g. 
 the club, the sword. (6) TeepsichSke (she 
 that rejoices in the dance), the Muse of 
 dancing ; with the lyre. (7) Eeato (the 
 lovely one), the Muse of erotic poetry; 
 with a smaller lyre. (8) POLyitNiA oj 
 
 0. EUTERPE. POLYMNIA. CALLIOPE. TEKF8ICHOR&. UBANIA. MELCOUEKE. 
 
 THE MUSES. 
 
 (Sarcophagus in the Louvre, Paris.) 
 
 without specifying their number or their 
 names, they are considered as goddesses 
 dwelling in Olympus, who at the meals of 
 the gods sing sweetly to the lyre of Apollo, 
 inspire the poet and prompt his song. 
 Hesiod [Theog. 52-, 76-,] calls them the nine 
 daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, born in 
 Pieria, and mentions their names, to which 
 we shall at the same time add the province 
 and the attributes afterwards assigned to 
 each (see cuts). (1) CalliOpe (she of the 
 fair voice), in Hesiod the noblest of all, the 
 Muse of epic song ; among her attributes 
 are a wax tablet and a pencil. (2) Clio 
 
 Polyhymnia (she that is rich in hymns), 
 the Muse of serious sacred songs ; usually 
 represented as veiled and pensive. (9) 
 Ueania (the heavenly), the Muse of astro- 
 nomy; with the celestial globe. 
 
 Three older Muses were sottietimes dis- 
 tinguished from these. Melete (Medita- 
 tion), Mneme (Remembrance), Aoide (Song), 
 whose worship was said to have been intro- 
 duced by the Aloidae, Otus and Ephialtes, 
 near Mount Helicon. Thracian settlers in 
 the Pierian district at the foot of Olympus 
 and of Helicon in Boeotia are usually 
 mentioned as the original founders of this 
 
406 
 
 MUSEUM MUSIC. 
 
 worship. At botli these places were their 
 oldest sanctuaries. According to the general 
 belief, the favourite haunts of the Muses 
 were certain springs, near which temples 
 and statues had been erected in their 
 honour ; Castalia, at the foot of Mount 
 Parnassus, and Aganippe and Hippocrene, 
 on Helicon, near the towns of Ascra and 
 Thespise. After the decline of Ascra, the 
 inhabitants of Thespise attended to the 
 worship ■ of the Muses and to the arrange- 
 ments for the musical contests in their 
 honour that took place once in five years. 
 They were also adored in many other places 
 in Greece. Thus the Athenians offered 
 them sacrifices in the schools, while the 
 Spartans did so before battle. As the in- 
 spiring Nymphs of springs they were early 
 connected with Dionysus; the god of poets, 
 Apollo, is looked on as their leader (Mutsa- 
 gStes), with whom they share the knowledge 
 of past, present, and future. As beings 
 that gladden men and gods with their song, 
 Hesiod describes them as dwelling on Olym- 
 pus along with the Charites and Himeros. 
 They were represented in art as virgin god- 
 desses with long garments of many folds, 
 and frequently with a cloak besides; they 
 were not distinguished by special attributes 
 till comparatively later times. The Roman 
 poets identified them with the Italian 
 Cdmence, prophetic Nymphs of springs and 
 goddesses of birth, who had a grove at Rome 
 outside the Porta Capena. {See Egeeia.) 
 The Greeks gave the title of Muses to 
 their nine most distinguished poetesses : 
 Praxilla, Moero, Anyte, Erinna, Telesilla, 
 Corinna, Nossis, Myrtis, and Sappho. 
 
 Museum. See Museion. 
 
 Music (Gr. muslce, " art of the Muses ") 
 included among the Greeks everything that 
 belonged to a higher intellectual and artistic 
 education. [Plato in his Eejmblic, p. 136, 
 while discussing education, says : " Can we 
 find any better than the old-fashioned sort, 
 gymnastic for the body and music for the 
 soul ? " and adds : "When you speak of music, 
 do you rank literature under music or not ? " 
 " I do."] Music in the narrower sense was 
 regarded by the Greeks not only as an 
 agreeable amusement, but also as one of the 
 most effective means of cultivating the 
 feelings and the character. The great im- 
 portance they attached to music is also shown 
 by their idea that it was of divine origin ; 
 Hermes or Apollo were said to have in- 
 vented the lyre, Athene the simple flute, 
 Pan the shepherd's pipe. Besides these 
 gods and the Muses, Dionysus also was con- 
 
 nected with music. Numerous myths, as 
 for instance those concerning Amphion 
 and Orpheus, tell of its mighty power, and 
 testify to the Greeks having cultivated 
 music at a very early epoch. It was always 
 intimately allied to poetry. Originally, epic 
 poems were also sung to the accompaniment 
 of the czthdrd, and the old heroes of poetry, 
 such as Orpheus and Musseus, are at the same 
 time heroes of music, just as in historical 
 times the lyric and dramatic poets were at 
 the same time the composers of their works. 
 It was not until the Alexandrian times that 
 the poet ceased to be also a musician. 
 Owing to its connexion with poetry, music 
 developed in the same proportion, and 
 flourished at the same period, as lyric and 
 dramatic poetry. Of the Greek races, the 
 Dorians and jEolians had a special genius 
 and capacity for music, and among both we 
 find the first traces of its .development as 
 an art. 
 
 The actual foundation of the classical 
 music of the Greeks is ascribed to Ter- 
 PANDEE {q.v.),o{ the jEolian island of Lesbos, 
 who, in Dorian Sparta (about B.C. 675) first 
 gave a truly artistic form to song accom- 
 panied by the cithdra or cithdrodice, and 
 especially to the citharodic nomas (q.v.). 
 In the Peloponnesian school of the Ter- 
 pandndcE, who followed his teaching and 
 formed a closely united guild, citharodice 
 received its further artistic development. 
 What Terpander had done for citharodice 
 was done not long afterwards by ClOnas 
 of Thebes or Tegea for aulodtce, or song 
 accompanied by the flute. The artistic 
 flute-playing which had been elaborated by 
 the Phrygian Olympus in Asia, was intro- 
 duced by Clonas into the Peloponnesus, 
 which long remained the principal seat of 
 all musical art. Of the two kinds of inde- 
 pendent instrumental music, which through- 
 out presupposes the development of vocal 
 music and always adapts itself to this as its 
 model, the earlier is the music on the flute, 
 auletlce, which was especially brought into 
 favourable notice by Sacadas of Argos 
 (about B.C. 580), while the music on stringed 
 instruments, cUhdristtce, is later. Music 
 was much promoted by the contests at the 
 public festivals, above all, by those at the 
 Pythian games. Its highest point of deve- 
 lopment was attained in the time of the 
 Persian Wars, which seems to have seen 
 the completion of the ancient system as it 
 had been elaborated by the tradition of the 
 schools. The lyric poets of this time, as 
 Pindar and Simonides, the dramatists, as 
 
MUSIC. 
 
 407 
 
 Phrynlchus andiEsctylus, were held by the 
 critics to be unsurpassable models. What 
 was added in subsequent times can hardly 
 be called a new development of the art. 
 Athens in her golden age was the central 
 city where professional musicians met one 
 another, — Athens the home of Greek dra- 
 matic poetry. At this time vocal, combined 
 with instrumental, music largely prevailed 
 over instrumental music alone. The latter 
 was chiefly limited to solo performances. 
 
 Ancient vocal music is distinguished in 
 one important point from ours : throughout 
 classical times part-singing was unknown, 
 and there was at most a difference of 
 octaves, and that only when men and boys 
 sang in the same choir. Again, in classical 
 times, the music was subordinate to the 
 words, and was therefore necessarily much 
 simpler than it is now. It is only in this 
 way that we can explain the fact that an 
 ancient audience could follow the musical 
 representation of the often intricate lan- 
 guage of the odes, even when the odes were 
 sung by the whole choir. Critics regarded 
 it as a decline of art, when, at the end of 
 the Peloponnesian "War, the music began 
 to be the important element instead of the 
 poetry. This change took place at first in 
 single branches of the art, as in the solos 
 {monOMce) in tragedy, and in the dithy- 
 rambic choruses. Thenceforward ancient 
 music, like modern music, raised itself 
 more and more to a free and independent 
 position beside that of poetry. 
 
 The first place among the various kinds 
 of music was assigned to the indigenous 
 ctthdrodtcS, which was connected with the 
 first development of the musical art ; and 
 indeed stringed instruments were always 
 more esteemed than wind instruments, in 
 part on account of the greater technical 
 difficulties which had to be overcome, and 
 which led to musicians giving particular at- 
 tention to them. Moreover, playing on the 
 
 other hand, the public must have possessed 
 a severely critical judgment in matters of 
 music. The characteristic feature of ancient 
 music is the great clearness of its form, 
 resulting, above all, from the extreme pre- 
 cision of the rhythmic treatment. 
 
 This was not the only point in which 
 ancient music differed from modern music ; 
 it also differed from it in the number of its 
 modes. [The modes were distinguished from 
 one another by the place of the semi-tones 
 in the octave.] While modern music has 
 only two modes, the major and the minor, 
 the Greek had seven. These seven modes, 
 the names of which are taken from the three 
 great Greek races and the neighbouring 
 Asiatic nations (Dorian, JEolian or Hypo- 
 dorian, Ionian or Hypophrygian, Phrygian, 
 Lydian, Mixolydian, and Hypolydian), were 
 all employed at some time in the classical 
 period, though they did not all of them come 
 into use at the same date. It is significant 
 of the distinction between ancient and 
 modern music, that of these modes the 
 Dorian, which was the oldest and the low- 
 est in pitch, and is described as dignified, 
 severe, and grave, was most extensively 
 used in all kinds of music. 
 
 As the basis of every melodic series of 
 sounds the ancients had the tetrachord, a 
 scale of four notes, to which according to 
 tradition the earliest music was limited. 
 The heptachord was certainly in use before 
 Terpander, who is said to have given the 
 lyre seven strings instead of four [Strabo, 
 p. 618 ; but Pausanias, iii 12 § 10, states 
 with greater accuracy that he added four 
 strings to the previously existing seven]. 
 The heptachord consisted of two tetrachords, 
 as the central note was at once the highest 
 of the first and the lowest of the second 
 tetrachord. 
 
 Then came the octachord or octave, and 
 at last, after various additions, the follow- 
 ing scale of notes was formed : 
 
 .>-^g^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 "-3-"^ 
 
 flute was limited to certain occasions, as 
 its sound seemed to the ancients to arouse 
 enthusiasm and passion [Aristotle, Politics, 
 viii 3]. There is evidence that, on the one 
 hand, the ancient theory of singing and of 
 instrumentation (in spite of the primitive 
 nature of the instruments) was brought to a 
 high degree of perfection ; and that, on the 
 
 From the lowest b onwards, this scale was 
 divided into tetrachords in such a way that 
 the fourth note was always also regarded as 
 the first of the following tetrachord; [the 
 intervals between the sounds of the tetra- 
 chord were, in ascending order, semi-tone, 
 tone, tone]. This sequence was called the 
 diatonic genua. Besides this there was also 
 
408 
 
 MUSIC. 
 
 the chromcttic, the tetrachords of which 
 were as follows, b c \^d e, e fQg a [the 
 intervals in this case were semi-tone, semi- 
 tone, tone and a half]. Thirdly there was 
 the enharmonic^ the tetrachord of which 
 [had for its intervals j tone, J tone, 2 tones, 
 and accordingly] cannot be expressed in 
 modern notation. 
 
 The ancient Greeks employed a notation 
 of their own. They possessed altogether 67 
 symbols, and each of these appears in two 
 forms, one for singing and the other for the 
 instruments. The instrumental notes were 
 usually placed below the corresponding notes 
 for singing, or just after them. For the 
 vocal notes the twenty-four letters of the 
 common later Ionic alphabet were used, and 
 for instrumental notation the letters of an 
 old Greek alphabet, without change in the 
 middle part of the scale, which for this 
 purpose was held to be the normal part ; 
 but these letters were modified by accent 
 or other alteration to represent the higher 
 or lower sounds. These notes only indicate 
 height and depth of sound ; the duration of 
 each note is shown in singing by the length 
 of each syllable, above which the note was 
 placed like an accent ; but for independent 
 instrumental music five different degrees of 
 length were distinguished, and they were 
 designated above the notes themselves. We 
 now have only four ancient pieces of music ; 
 the beginning of the First Pythian Ode 
 of Pindar [see Boeckh's Pindar, De Metris 
 Pindari, iii 12], two hymns to Calliope 
 and Apollo, composed by one Dionysius 
 (q.v., 4), and a hymn of Mesomedes (q.v.) of 
 the 2nd century after Christ [published, with 
 facsimiles, in Bellermann's Hymnen des 
 Dionysius und Mesomedes, Berlin, 1840]. 
 
 With regard to the musical instilments 
 it may be mentioned that only stringed 
 instruments {cp. especially Cithara and 
 Lyra) and the flute (g.u.), which closely 
 resembled our clarionet, were employed in 
 music proper ; and that the other instru- 
 ments, such as trumpets {see Salpinx), Pan's 
 pipes (see Syrinx), cymbals (cymbdla), and 
 kettledrums (see Tympanum), were not in- 
 cluded within its province. 
 
 In proportion to the amount of attention 
 paid to music by the Greeks, it early 
 became the subject of learned research 
 and literary treatment. The philosopher 
 PtthagSras occupied himself with musical 
 acoustics; he succeeded in representing 
 numerically the relations of the octave, the 
 fifth, and the fourth. For representing 
 the symphonic relations the Pythagorean 
 
 s3hool inventel the monochord or canon, a 
 string stretched over a sounding board and 
 with a movable bridge, by means of which 
 the string could ba divided into different 
 lengths ; it was on this account known as 
 the school of the Cdnomci as opposed to 
 the Harmonici, who opposed this innovation 
 and continued to be satisfied with a system 
 of scales (" harmonies ") sung by the sole 
 guidance of the ear. Amongst the Canonici 
 were philosophers such as Philolaus, 
 Archytas, DemScrctus, Plato, and Aris- 
 totle. Lasus of Hermione, the master of 
 Pindar, is mentioned as the first author of 
 a theoretical work on music. The "har- 
 monic " Aristoxenus {q.v.) of Tarentum, a 
 pupil of Aristotle, was held by the ancients 
 to be the greatest authority on music ; from 
 his numerous works was drawn the greatest 
 part of subsequent musical literature. Of 
 other writers on music we may mention the 
 well-known mathematician Euclid, and the 
 great astronomer Claudius PtSlem^us, 
 who perfected musical acoustics. 
 
 Among the Romans, a native development 
 of music was completely wanting. They had, 
 indeed, an ancient indigenous musical in- 
 strument, the short and slender Latian flute 
 with four holes ; but their national art of 
 flute-playing was, at an early period, thrown 
 into the background by the Etruscan, which 
 was practised as a profession by foreigners, 
 freedmen, and people of the lowest classes 
 of the Roman population. Among the nine 
 old guilds, said to have been instituted by 
 king Numa, there was one of flute-players 
 {tib%r/ines), who assisted at public sacrifices. 
 With the Greek drama, Greek dramatic 
 music was also introduced ; it was, how- 
 ever, limited to flute-playing {cp. Flute). 
 Stringed instruments were not originally 
 known at Rome, and were not frequently 
 employed till after the second Punic War. 
 Indeed, as Greek usages and manners in 
 general gained ground with the beginning of 
 the 2nd centuiy, so also did Greek music. 
 Greek dances and musical entertainments 
 became common at the meals of aristocratic 
 families, and the younger members of re- 
 spectable households received instruction 
 in music as in dancing. Though it was 
 afterwards one of the subjects of higher 
 education, it was never considered a real 
 and effective means of training. Enter- 
 tainments like our concerts became frequent 
 towards the end of the Republic, and 
 formed part of the musical contests insti- 
 tuted by Nero, a great lover of music, in 
 A.D. 60, on the model of the Greek contests. 
 
MUTA MYSTERIES. 
 
 40& 
 
 Domitiaa had au Oieum built on the 
 Campus Martius (Field of Mars) for the 
 musical entertainments of the Agon Gdpl- 
 tollnus, instituted by him in a.d. 86, and 
 celebrated at intervals of four years to the 
 end of the classical period. — Passages bear- 
 ing on music in B.oman literature have no 
 independent value, as they are entirely 
 drawn from Grreek sources. — For Roman 
 military music, see LiT0ns (2) and Tuba. 
 
 Miita. See Mania. 
 
 Myrmldongs. A race in Southern Thes- 
 saly, said to have originally dwelt in the 
 island of ^gina and to have emigrated 
 from it with Peleus. They fought before 
 Troy under their chieftain Achilles. For 
 legends about their origin, see ^acus. 
 
 Myrmillo. See Gladiatores. 
 
 Hyron. One of the most celebrated Greek 
 artists, of Eleutherse in Attica, an older 
 contemporary of Phidias and Polyclitus, and 
 like them a pupil of Ageladas. His works, 
 chiefly in bronze, were numerous and very 
 varied in subject, 
 gods, heroes, and 
 especially athletes 
 and representations 
 of animals, which 
 were admired by the 
 ancients for their 
 lifelike truth to 
 nature. Most famous 
 among these were 
 his statue of the 
 Argive runner La- 
 das ; his Discobolus 
 (or Quoit - thrower, 
 see cut), which we 
 are enabled to ap- 
 preciate in several 
 copies in marble, the 
 best being that in 
 the Palazzo Messimi 
 in Rome; and his 
 Cow on the Market-place at Athens, which 
 received the very highest praise among the 
 ancients, was celebrated [in 36 extant epi- 
 grams, in the Greek Anthology, all quoted 
 in Overbeok's Schriftquellen, §§,550-588], 
 and may be regarded as his masterpiece. 
 He was also the first to represent what is 
 really a genre portrait, in his Drunken 
 Old Woman [Pliny, N. H. xxxvi 32; but 
 this is now attributed to another artist, one 
 Socrates. Overbeck, § 2092]. 
 
 Myrrha. Mother of Adonis by her own 
 father Cinyras. (Gp. Adonis.) 
 
 Myrtea. See Venus. 
 
 JHyrtilus. Son of Hermes, charioteer of 
 
 MAItBLE COPY OF JIVKON S 
 DISCOBOLUS. 
 
 (Eomei Palazzo Messlmi.) 
 
 (Eiiomaiis, whose defeat by Pelops was due 
 to his treachery. When he demanded the 
 reward that had been settled, the half of the 
 realm of (Enomaiis, Pelops threw him into 
 the sea near Gersestus in Eubraa, and that 
 part of the ^gean was thence called the 
 Myrtoan Sea. \Cf. (Enomaus and Pelops.) 
 
 [Mys. A famous toreutic artist who en- 
 graved the Battle of the Centaurs on the 
 inside of the shield of the Athene PromS- 
 chos of Phidias. The work was executed 
 after a design by Parrhasius (Pausanias, i 
 28 § 2), a generation after Phidias. It was 
 Parrhasius also who designed the Capture 
 of Troy for a cup embossed by Mys (Athe- 
 nsBus, p. 782 b). He is also mentioned in 
 Propertius, iii 7, 12 ; and Martial, viii 34, 
 51, xiv25.] [J.E. S.] 
 
 Mystae. The Greek term for those who 
 had been initiated into the mysteries of the 
 lesser Eleusinia. {See Eleusinia.) 
 
 Mysteries. The name given by the Greeks, 
 and later also by the Romans, to various 
 kinds of secret worships, which rested on 
 the belief that, besides the general modes of 
 honouring the gods, there was another, re- 
 vealed only to the select few. Such religious 
 services formed in almost all the Greek 
 states an important part of the established 
 worship, and were in the hands of an impor- 
 tant body of priests appointed by the State. 
 If any one divulged to the uninitiated the 
 holy ceremonies and prayers, or sometimes 
 even the names only, by which the gods 
 were invoked, he was publicly punished for 
 impiety. Some mysteries were exclusively 
 managed by special priests and assistants 
 to the exclusion of all laymen. To others 
 a certain class of citizens was admitted ; 
 thus the Attic Thesmophortd could only be 
 celebrated by women living in lawful wed- 
 lock with a citizen, and themselves of pure 
 Athenian descent and of unblemished reputa- 
 tion. At other mysteries people of every 
 kind and either sex were allowed to be pre- 
 sent, if they had carried out certain preli- 
 minary conditions (especially purification), 
 and had then been admitted and initiated. 
 
 The usages connected with the native 
 mysteries were similar to the ceremonies 
 of Greek divine service ; in the coui'se o 
 time, however, many other elements were 
 borrowed from foreign modes of worship. 
 They consisted usually in the recital of cer- 
 tain legends about the fortunes of the deity 
 celebrated, which differed from the ordinary 
 myths in many respects {e.g. the names and 
 genealogies), and were often accompanied by 
 a dramatic representation, with which was 
 
410 
 
 N^NIA N^VIUS. 
 
 connected the exhibition of certain holy 
 things, including symbols and relics. In 
 many cases the symbols were not hidden 
 I'rom the public eye, but their meaning was 
 revealed to the initiated alone. Of native 
 mysteries those considered most holy were 
 the Eleusinian mysteries of Demeter ; we 
 know more about the ceremonies in this 
 case than in any other. (;S^ee Eleusinia.) 
 Next to these came the Samothracian mys- 
 teries of the Ccihiri (q.v.}, which in course 
 of time appear to have become very similar 
 to the Eleusinian. In these two mysteries, 
 as indeed in all, no deeper meaning was 
 originally attached to the legends, usages, 
 and symbols. But, as time went on, these 
 initiations were supposed to have a peculiar 
 power of preserving men amid the dangers 
 of this life by purification and expiation, 
 of giving him a temporary blessedness, and 
 above all of conferring a sure prospect of 
 a state of bliss after death. [Isocrates, 
 Paneg. § 28.] This change is in great 
 part due to the influence of a sect, the 
 Orphlci {see Orpheus). Following Oriental, 
 Egyptian, and also Pythagorean doctrines, 
 they taught that expiation and sanctification 
 were necessary for this and for a future life, 
 and that these must be effected by means 
 of the initiations and purifications which 
 they pretended Orpheus had revealed to 
 them. Those who enjoyed these revelations 
 
 of Orpheus constituted a religious society 
 which gradually extended to every Greek 
 country. Their religious services were also 
 called mysteries, not only because the ini- 
 tiated alone could take part in them, but 
 because the representations and usages 
 connected with them had a hidden mystic 
 meaning. It was chiefly owing to their 
 influence that foreign mysteries were intro- 
 duced into Greece, and that thus the various 
 systems were blended together. Among 
 foreign mysteries must be mentioned the 
 wild and fanatic orgies of Dionysus (or 
 Bacchus), Sdbdzius, and Cybele. 
 
 The first of these gained a footing in Rome 
 and Italy under the name of Bacchanalia, 
 and in 186 B.C. had to be firmly suppressed 
 by the government on account of the ex- 
 cesses connected with them [Livy xxxix 
 8-19] ; while the last-mentioned Avere most 
 widely spread even in early imperial times. 
 (iS^ee Ehea.) The mysteries connected with 
 the worship of Isis and of Mithras (q.v.) 
 were also held in high esteem by Greeks 
 and Romans down to a late period. The 
 whole system of mysteries endured to the 
 very end of the pagan times, for the deeper 
 meaning of its symbolism offered a certain 
 satisfaction even to the religious require- 
 ments of the educated, which they failed to 
 find in the empty forms of the ordinary 
 worship. ((7p. Orgies.) 
 
 N 
 
 Nsenia, properly spelt Nenia (q.v.). 
 
 NsBvius (GncEMs). A Roman epic and dra- 
 matic poet. Bom apparently in Campania, 
 about 270 B.C., he served in the Roman 
 army during the first Punic War ; and, set- 
 tling after this at Rome, he brought his first 
 play upon the stage in 235, i.e. soon after 
 the first appearance of Livius Andronicus. 
 Owing to the license and recklessness with 
 which he incessantly attacked the Roman 
 nobles, especially the Metelli, he was thrown 
 into prison, and though liberated thence by 
 the tribunes of the people, was afterwards 
 banished from Rome. He died in exile at 
 Utica about 200. 
 
 His poetical account of the first Punic 
 War {Bellum Pcenicuni), written in old 
 age in the Saturnian metre, made him the 
 creator of the Roman national epic. The 
 work originally formed one continuous 
 whole, but at a later time was divided into 
 seven books by the scholar Octavius Lam- 
 padio. The fragments preserved give the 
 
 impression of its having been little more 
 than a chronicle in verse. Indeed, even in 
 its plan, it bears a close resemblance to the 
 prose chronicles of the Roman annalists ; for 
 here, as there, the real subject of the poem 
 was preceded by an account of the early 
 history of Rome, dating from the flight of 
 ^neas from Troy. Nsevius also made an 
 important departure in the province of 
 dramatic poetry by creating a national 
 drama. Besides imitations of Greek tra- 
 gedies, of which seven alone are known by 
 name and by extant fragments, it was he 
 who first attempted to adapt the materials 
 of his country's history to the dramatic 
 form handed down by the Greeks. Thus, 
 in the Romulus or LUpus, he treats of the 
 youth of Romulus and Remus ; and, in the 
 play Clastldium, of a contemporary his- 
 torical event. From the number of titles 
 of his comedies still preserved (over thirty), 
 and from the verdict of antiquity, we may 
 infer that his forte lay in comedy: he 
 
NAIADS NAMES. 
 
 411 
 
 appears to have been no mere translator of 
 his Greek originals, but to have handled 
 them with considerable freedom. It was in 
 his comedies especially that he introduced 
 his attacks on men and events of the day. 
 
 Naiads (Gr. Naiades). The Nymphs of 
 rivers and springs. (See Nymphs.) 
 
 Namatianus {Claudius Euttlius). A 
 Roman poet, by birth a Gaul and a pagan, 
 who was prcefectiis urbi under Honorius in 
 A.D. 416. After the sack of Rome by Alaric, 
 he returned to his native country, ravaged 
 at that time by the Visigoths, and described 
 his journey home in two books, De Reditu 
 sun, of which the beginning of the first and 
 the end of the second have perished. The 
 poem is pure and correct in language and 
 metrical form, and is interesting on account 
 of its pathetic description of the misfortunes 
 of the time. 
 
 Names. (1) The Greeks had no names 
 denoting family, nothing corresponding 
 to our surnames. Hence the name of the 
 new-born child was left to the free choice of 
 the parents, like the Christian name with 
 us ; the child usually received it on the 
 seventh or tenth day after birth, the occa- 
 sion being a family festival. According to 
 the most ancient custom, the son, especially 
 the first-born, received the name of his 
 grandfather, sometimes that of his father, 
 or a name derived from it(Ph6cos — Phocion) 
 or similarly compounded (Theophrastos — 
 Theodores). As a rule a Greek only had 
 one name, to which was added that of his 
 father, to prevent confusion, e.g. Thucy- 
 dides (soil, the son) of Olorus. A great 
 many names were compounded with the 
 names of gods {Herakleitds, Herddotos, 
 Artemidoros, Diogenes), or derived from 
 them {DemStrids, Apollonids). Frequently 
 names of good omen for the future of the 
 child were chosen. Sometimes a new name 
 was afterwards substituted for the original 
 one ; so Plato was originally called Aris- 
 tocles, and Theophrastus Tyrtamus. Slaves 
 were usually called after their native coun- 
 try, or their physical or moral peculiarities. 
 
 (2) The Romans, in the republican 
 times, had their names in the following 
 order : prcenomen (=our "Christian name"), 
 nomen (name of race, gentile name), cogno- 
 men (surname, denoting the family). The 
 gentile narne, which originally (always in 
 patrician names) had for derivative sufSx 
 -ius (e.g. lunius, Cornelius, Tullius), was 
 common to all those connected with the 
 gens, men, women, clients, and freedmen. 
 The prcenomen was given to sons on the 
 
 third day after birth, the dies lustricus, 
 and was officially confirmed when the toga 
 vlrllis was assumed and the name was in- 
 scribed on the roll of citizens. The original 
 meaning of the prasnomen, in which there 
 was sometimes a reference to peculiar 
 circumstances at birth (e.g. Lucius = hora 
 by day, Manius = loorn in the morning; 
 Quintus, the fifth, Decimus, the tenth), came 
 to be disregarded in the course of time, when 
 the name was given. As a rule, the eldest 
 son received the prcenomen of his father. 
 Of these there was a comparatively limited 
 number in the noble families ; some were 
 employed only by certain gentes, even by 
 certain families, as for instance Appius 
 exclusively by the Claudii, and Tiberius 
 by the line of the Nerones who belonged to 
 this race ; while others were actually pro- 
 hibited in certain families, e.g. Marcus in 
 that of the Manllli. The prcenomen was 
 usually written in an abbreviated form ; 
 thus, A. stands for Aulus, C. for Gaius, Gn. 
 for Gnceus, D. for Decimus, L. for Lucius, 
 M'. for Manius, M. for Marcus, P. for 
 Publius, Q. for Quintus, Ser. for Servius, 
 S. or Sex. for Sextus, Ti. for Tiberius, T. 
 for Titus. 
 
 The surname{cognomcn), the use of which 
 was, in early times, not customary among 
 the plebeians, served to denote and distin- 
 guish the different families of the same race, 
 which often included several, patrician and 
 plebeian. Thus the gens Cornelia comprised 
 the patrician families of the Sciplones, 
 Sulla;, etc., and the plebeian families of the 
 Dnldbellce, Lentuli, etc. [It is true that some 
 patrician families had fixed cognomlna (e.g. 
 Nero), but it was quite common for plebeians 
 to take cognomina or to have them given ; 
 e.g. Cn. Pompeius Magnus, C. Asinius Pollio, 
 and his son Asinius Gallus. Some plebeians 
 never took a cognomen, e.g. the Antonii, 
 But the Tullii are Clcerones in the last cen- 
 tury of the Republic. Cognomina, whether 
 fixed or otherwise, are generally of the 
 nature of nicknames, or, at any rate, add a 
 description of some personal characteristic ; 
 e.g. Naso, Strdbo, Gallus, Scrofa, Aslnd, 
 Rufus.] 
 
 To the surname there was sometimes 
 added a second and even a third, in later 
 times called the agnomen, to indicate a 
 lateral branch of the family, for instance the 
 Scipiones Ndsicm; or, in memory of some 
 remarkable exploit in war (e.g. Sclplo Afrl- 
 canus, Asidtlcus, etc.), or in consequence of 
 a popular designation (e.g. Sciplo Ndslca 
 SSrapio) or of an adoption. It was the ori- 
 
412 
 
 NANA NAUMACHIiE. 
 
 ginal custom for the adopted son, on passing 
 from one gens to another, to add to the 
 prcenovicn, nomen, and cognomen of his 
 adoptive father the name of his own former 
 gens with the termination -anus. Thus 
 the full name of the destroyer of Carthage, 
 the son of L. ^milius Paulus adopted by 
 one of the Scipios, was P(ublius) Corne- 
 lius Scipio Africanus ^milianus. After 
 about 70 A.D. there were many irregulari- 
 ties in the way these names were given, 
 the tendency being to give very many. 
 
 Women originally had only one name, 
 the feminine form of the gentile name of 
 their father, e.g. Cornelia. In later times 
 they sometimes had a,prcenomen also, which 
 they received on marriage. It was the 
 feminine form of the husband's prcenomen, 
 e.g. Gaia. Sometimes they had both names, 
 e.g. Aula Cornelia. The prcenomen went 
 out of use for a time during the later Re- 
 public, and it was afterwards placed after 
 the nomen like a cognomen (e.g. lunia 
 Tertia). Under the Empire, they regularly 
 had two names, either the nomen and cog- 
 nomen of the father {e.g. Csecilia Metella) 
 or the nomina of father and mother {e.g. 
 Valeria Attia, daughter of Attius and 
 Valeria). 
 
 Slaves were originally designated by the 
 prsenomen of their master, e.g. Marcipor — 
 Marci puer (slave of Marcus). Later, when 
 the number of slaves had been greatly mul- 
 tiplied, it became necessarj' to give them 
 names chosen at random. Freedmen regu- 
 larly took the nomen., afterwards the prce- 
 nomen also, of the man who freed them 
 (or of the father of the woman who freed 
 them), while they retained their previous 
 name as a cognomen ; thus the name of 
 the well-known freedman of Cicero was M. 
 TuUius Tiro, and of a freedman of Livia 
 (the wife of Augustus), M. Livius Ismarus. 
 
 Nana. See Attis. 
 
 Naos. The Greek term for the inner 
 portion of a temple. {See Temple.) 
 
 Karcissns. The beautiful son of the river- 
 god Cephisus. He rejected the love of the 
 Nymph Echo {q.v.), and Aphrodite punished 
 him for this by inspiring him with a passion 
 for the reflexion of himself which he saw in 
 the water of a fountain. He pined away in 
 the desire for it : to see one's reflexion in 
 the water was hence considered as a pre- 
 sage of death. The flower of the same 
 name, into which he was changed, was held 
 to be a symbol of perishableness and death, 
 and was sacred to Hades, the divinity of the 
 world below. Persephone had just gathered 
 
 a narcissus, when she was carried off by 
 Hades. 
 
 * KAKCISSUS. 
 
 (Mural painting from Pompeii. Naples Museum.) 
 
 Nanarchns (Gr. nattcw-c/ios = commander 
 of a ship). The Spartan term for the com- 
 mander of the fleet, chosen for one year ; 
 also a general term for the captain of a 
 ship, regularly so used in the fleets of the 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Naucrariae. Administrative districts at 
 Athens dating from prehistoric times ; they 
 were 48 in number, 12 from each of the old 
 phylce. Each of them was obliged to fur- 
 nish two horsemen and a ship towards the 
 army and navy. The naucrari, who were 
 at their head, seem to have formed a college 
 or corporate body, who occupied themselves 
 especially with all military and financial 
 affairs, while current business was managed 
 by the prytdneis, whose office was the 
 Prytctneion. Clisthenes raised their num- 
 ber to 50, 5 from each of the 10 new phylce, 
 and probably restricted in functions to the 
 services to the State, and especially the 
 fleet. It is likely that they were given up 
 after the fleet had been increased by The- 
 mistocles ; their place was probably taken 
 by the trierarcMes. {See Leitouegia.) 
 
 Naumachise. A name given by the 
 Romans to contests between ships, repre- 
 sented for the amusement of the people, and 
 commemorating naval engagements famous 
 in history. The first representation of this 
 kind was given by Caesar in B.C. 46 in a 
 basin dug out for this purpose on the Cam- 
 pus Martius, on which occasion a Tyrian 
 
NAUPLIUS— NEMEA. 
 
 413 
 
 and an Egyptian fleet fought against each 
 other, each with 2,000 rowers and 1,000 
 marines on board. In B.C. 2, Augustus, at 
 the dedication of the temple of Mars Ultor, 
 had a seafight between Athenians and Per- 
 sians, represented with thirty ships. The 
 greatest of all naumachice was that of 
 Claudius in A.D. 52 ; it took place on the 
 Fucine Lake, and 19,000 men in the dress 
 of Rhodians and Sicilians fought in two 
 fully armed men-of-war. For similar con- 
 tests the arena of the amphitheatre was 
 sometimes filled with water. The crews of 
 the ships consisted of gladiators, prisoners, 
 and criminals who had been condemned to 
 death. 
 
 Nauplius. (1) Son of Poseidon and Amy- 
 mone {see Danaus), founder of Nauplia, and 
 a famous navigator. 
 
 (2) A king of Eubcea, husband of Cly- 
 mene. {See Catreus.) After the unjust 
 execution of his son Palamedes {q.v.) at the 
 siege of Troy, the Greeks refused to give 
 him the satisfaction he demanded. There- 
 upon he avenged his son's death by raising 
 deceptive fire-signals, and stranding the 
 returning Greeks among the breakers near 
 the cliffs of Caphareus in Euboea. He thus 
 caused the shipwreck and destruction of a 
 large number. He is said to have finally 
 thrown himself into the sea. 
 
 Nausicaa. The discreet and beautiful 
 daughter of the Phseacian king Alcinous 
 and Arete. She met Odysseus when he 
 was cast ashore on the island of Scheria, 
 and conducted him to her father's palace 
 (Homer, Od. vi). 
 
 Nautodici. Commercial judges : at Athens, 
 a judicial board, having* cognisance in 
 disputes between traders and suits against 
 foreigners who pretended to be citizens. 
 The former class of cases they settled them- 
 selves ; the latter they prepared and brought 
 before the Heliastic court. In Demosthenes' 
 time they had ceased to exist, and both 
 kinds of suits came under the jurisdiction 
 of the Thesmothetce. 
 
 Nazarius. A Latin panegyric writer; 
 the author of an eulogy on the emperor 
 Constantine, delivered 321 a.d. 
 
 Nearchus. A Greek writer of Crete, resi- 
 dent afterwards at AmphipSlis. He was a 
 friend of Alexander the Great in his youth, 
 and administered the satrapy of Lycia for 
 five years after the battle of Granicus (334 
 B.C.). He then took part in the Indian expe- 
 dition (327 B.C.) and returned, as commander 
 of the fleet, down the Indus and along the 
 coast of Asia to the mouth of the Tigris. 
 
 After Alexander's death he attached himself 
 to Antigonns. He wrote an account of his 
 voyage, which was rich in geographical dis- 
 coveries. Of this we possess, besides frag- 
 ments, an abstract in Arrian's Indica. The 
 investigations of later times have in many 
 respects confirmed the trustworthiness of 
 his statements concerning ancient India. 
 
 Nectar. The drink of the Greek gods 
 {see Ambrosia), which Homer describes as 
 a red wine [II. xix 38] which Hebe pours 
 out for the immortals [ib. iv 3]. 
 
 Nfic^sla. Feast in honour of the dead, 
 {See Burial.) 
 
 Ngfasti Dies. See Fasti. 
 
 Neleus. Son of Poseidon and Tyro the 
 daughter of Salmoneus, brother of Pelias. 
 The brothers are exposed after birth by their 
 mother, who afterwards married Cretheus 
 of lolcus : they are found by a herdsman 
 and brought up by him until they grow up 
 and are acknowledged hy their mother. 
 After Cretheus' death they quarrel about 
 the possession of lolcus, and Neleus, to- 
 gether with Melampus and Bias, the sons 
 of his half-brother Amythaon, retires into 
 exile in Messenia, where Aphareus, Tyro's 
 cousin, allows them to occupy Pylus. By 
 Chloris, daughter of Amphion, the king of 
 the Minyan Orchomenus (it is only a later 
 myth that identifies him with Amphion of 
 Thebes) he is father of twelve sons, of 
 whom Periclymenus and Nestor {q.v.) are 
 the most celebrated, and one daughter, the 
 beautiful Pero, bride of Bias (see Melampds). 
 On his refusing to purify Heracles from 
 the murder of Iphitus, Heracles invades his 
 country and slays all his sons except Nestor, 
 who chances to be absent from home at the 
 time. Nestor becomes the champion and 
 avenger of the aged Neleus when the Epeans 
 and their king Augeas, emboldened by his 
 misfortune, venture on acts of injustice 
 towards him. According to one account it 
 was Neleus who renewed the Olympian 
 games and died at Corinth, where, it was 
 said, he was buried at the isthmus ; accord- 
 ing to others, he was slain along with his 
 sons by Heracles. 
 
 N6m6a (the Nemean Games). One of the 
 four Greek national festivals, which was 
 celebrated in the valley of Nemea in the 
 territory of the Argive town Cleonse. In 
 historic times the festival was held in 
 honour of Zeus, who had here a temple with 
 a sacred grove. Originally it is said to have 
 consisted of funeral games, instituted by 
 the Seven during their expedition against 
 Thebes, in memory of the boy ArchemSrus 
 
414 
 
 NEMEAN LION NEOPTOLEMUS. 
 
 {see Seven against Thebes). Heracles 
 afterwards changed it into a festival in 
 honour of Zeus. Trom about 676 onwards, 
 athletic competitions were added to the 
 festival, after the model of those at Olj'mpia ; 
 and, like the latter, it was only gradually 
 that it developed into a general Hellenic 
 celebration. It was held twice in a period 
 of four years, once in August, every fourth 
 year, once in winter, every second or first 
 Olympic year. [It is more probable, how- 
 ever, that the so called " Winter Nemea " 
 were only local games held in Argos, and 
 that the panhellenic Nemea were celebrated 
 in alternate years at the end of every first 
 and third Olympic year, at a time corre- 
 sponding to our July. The question is 
 discussed byUnger in the Philologus xxxiv 
 60, but Droysen, in Hermes xiv 1, considers 
 it still unsettled.] The management of the 
 festival was originally possessed by the 
 Cleonseans, but soon passed, together with 
 the possession of the sanctuary, into the 
 hands of the Argives. The games consisted 
 of gymnastic, equestrian, and musical con- 
 tests (for the two former, cp. Olympian 
 Games) ; the prize was a palm-branch and 
 a garland of fresh sellnon [often rendered 
 "parsley," but more probably identical 
 with the " wild celery "]. 
 
 Nemean Lion, The. See Heracles. 
 
 Nemgsianus {Marcus Aurelius Olympius), 
 of Carthage. A Roman poet famous in 
 his own times, belonging to the end of the 
 3rd century A.D. He fiourished under the 
 emperor Cams and his sons (212-284). 
 We possess from him the first 425 lines 
 of a fairly elegant poem on the Chase 
 {Cynegeticd), and four eclogues, in which he 
 has closely followed Calpumius (g'.v., 2). 
 
 N6in6sis. A post-Homeric personification 
 of the moral indignation felt at all derange- 
 ments of the natural equilibrium of things, 
 whether by extraordinarily good fortune or 
 by the arrogance usually attendant thereon. 
 According to Hesiod she is daughter of 
 Night, and with Aidos, the divinity of 
 Modesty, left the earth on the advent of 
 the iron age. As goddess of due proportion 
 she hates every trangression of the bounds 
 of moderation, and restores the proper and 
 normal order of things. As, in doing this, 
 she punishes wanton boastfulness, she is 
 a divinity of chastisement and vengeance. 
 She enjoyed special honour in the Attic 
 district of Rhamnus (where she was deemed 
 to be the daughter of Oceanus), and is often 
 called the Rhanmusian goddess ; her statue 
 there was said to have been executed by 
 
 PhidJas out of a bloct of P^ian marble 
 which the Persians had brought with them 
 in presumptuous confidence to Marathon, to 
 erect a trophy of victory there. She was 
 also called Adrasteia, that nnme, appro- 
 priate only to the Phrygian Ehea-Cybele, 
 being interpreted as a Greek word with the 
 meaning, " She whom none can escape." 
 She was also worshipped at Rome, especially 
 by victorious generals, and was represented 
 as a meditative, thoughtful maiden with 
 the attributes of proportion and control (a 
 measuring-rod, bridle and yoke), of punish- 
 ment (a sword and scourge) and of swift- 
 ness (wings, wheel, and chariot drawn by 
 grifSns). 
 
 Nemorensis. Epithet of Diana {q.v.). 
 
 Nenia {not naenia). A name given by the 
 Romans to the funeral dirge in honour of 
 the dead, sung to the accompaniment of 
 flutes, at first by the relatives, in later times 
 by hired mourners {prcRficm). There was 
 also a goddess so called, the dirge per- 
 sonified, who had a chapel outside the Pm-ta 
 Viinindlis. 
 
 Neocori ("wardens," properly sweepers 
 of the temple). The Greek term for certain 
 officials subordinate to the priests; on whom 
 devolved the cleaning and keeping in repair 
 of the temple to which they were attached. 
 In important temples, especially in Asia, the 
 office of a ncocorus was considered a dis- 
 tinction by which even the greatest person- 
 ages felt honoured. In the imperial period 
 of Rome, whole cities, in which temples of 
 the emperors existed, styled themselves their 
 neocori. [Ephesus is described in Acts 
 xix 35 as the neoeorus, or '' temple-keeper," 
 of Artemis.] 
 
 N66dam6deis. See Helots. 
 
 Neoplatonism. A form of later Greek 
 philosophy, founded upon Plato. {See 
 Philosophy.) 
 
 N6opt616inus (also called Pyrrhus; i.e. the 
 fair). Son of Achilles and Deidamia. He 
 was brought up by his grandfather Lyco- 
 medes in Scyros. After Achilles' death, 
 however, he was taken by Odysseus to Troy, 
 since, according to the prophecy of Hel§nus, 
 that town could be taken only by a descen- 
 dant of ^acus. Here, like his father, he 
 distinguished himself alDove all by a courage 
 which none could withstand. He slew 
 Eurypj'lus, son of Telephus, and was one of 
 the heroes in the Wooden Horse, where he 
 alone remained undaunted. Later legend 
 depicted him as fierce and cruel : at the 
 taking of Troy he killed the aged Priam at 
 the altar of Zeus, hurled Hector's son, 
 
NEPIIELE NEREUS. 
 
 415 
 
 Astjanax, down from the walls, and offered 
 np Polyxena upon ln8 father's tomb. In 
 Homer he arrives safely with much booty 
 at Phthia, his father's home, and weds 
 Menelaus' daughter Hermione, who was 
 promised him during the siege of Troy 
 [Od. iv 5]. Later legend represents him as 
 accompanied by Andromache, Hector's wife, 
 who is allotted him as part of his booty, 
 and Helenus, and then, on the strength of 
 a prophecy of Helenus, as going to Epirus 
 and settling there. It was to a son of his 
 by Lanassa, granddaughter of Heracles, that 
 the later kings of Epirus traced back their 
 descent, and accordingly styled themselves 
 MdcMcn ; while from his son by Andro- 
 mache, Molossus, the district of Molossia 
 ■was said to derive its name. He afterwards 
 went to Phthia, to reinstate his grandfather 
 Peleus in his kingdom (whence he had been 
 expelled by Acastns), and wedded 
 Hermione. He soon, however, met 
 his death at Delphi, whither, ac- 
 cording to one story, he had gone 
 with dedicatory offerings, or, ac- 
 cording to another, to plunder the 
 temple of Apollo in revenge for 
 his father's death. The accounts 
 of his death vary, some attributing 
 it to Orestes, the earlier lover of 
 Hermione ; others to the Delphians, 
 at the instance of the Pythian 
 priestess ; others again to a quarrel 
 about the meat-offerings. 
 
 The scene of his death was the 
 altar, a coincidence which was re- 
 garded as a judgment for his 
 murder of Priam. His tomb was 
 within the precincts of the Delphic 
 temple, and in later times he was 
 worshipped as a hero with annual sacrifices 
 by the Delphians, as he was said to have 
 vouchsafed valuable assistance against the 
 Gauls when they threatened the sacred 
 spot [B.C. 279 ; Pausanias, x 23]. 
 
 Nfiphele. Wife of Athamas, mother of 
 Phrixus and Helle. {See Athamas.) 
 
 N6p6s. See Cornelius (1). 
 
 Neptunus. The Italian god of the sea, hus- 
 band of Salacia (the goddess of salt water), 
 identified by the Romans with the Greek 
 Poseidon. This identification dated from 
 399 B.C., when a Lectisternium was or- 
 dained in his honour by the Sibylline 
 books. Like Poseidon, he was worshipped 
 as god of the sea and of equestrian accom- 
 plishments. As such he had a temple in 
 the Circus Flaminius, whilst in the Circus 
 Maximus the old Italian god Census had 
 
 an altar in a similar capacity. In after 
 times Agrippa built a temple and portico 
 to Neptune on the Pield of Mars in honour 
 of his naval victory over Sextus Pompeius 
 and Antonius. A festival of Neptune 
 {Neptundlia), accompanied by games, was 
 celebrated on July 23rd. The old harbour 
 god of the Romans was Portunus (q.v.). 
 See Poseidon. 
 
 Nereids (Gr. NerPAdSs). The Nymphs of 
 the sea, daughters of Nereus {q.v.) and 
 Doris. 
 
 Nereus. The eldest son of Pontus and 
 Gsea, husband of Doris, daughter of Oceanus, 
 father of 60 (according to a later account, 
 200) beautiful Sea-nymphs, the Nereids. 
 He is described as a venerable old man, of 
 a kindly disposition towards mortals, and as 
 dwelling in a resplendent cave in the depths 
 of the jEgean. 
 
 NEREID, BOKNE ALONG BY A TKITON. 
 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
 Like all gods of water, he has the gift of 
 prophecy and of transforming himself into 
 any shape he chooses to assume. He is 
 represented as an old man with the leaves 
 of seaweed for hair and a sceptre or trident. 
 His daughters are likewise benevolent 
 beings, well disposed to mortals. They live 
 with their father in the depths, but rise to 
 the surface in order to amuse themselves 
 with every kind of pastime and to assist 
 sailors in distress. They were especially 
 worshipped on the islands, on the coasts, 
 and at the mouths of rivers, and were 
 depicted in works of art as charming 
 maidens, sometimes lightly clothed, some- 
 • times naked, often riding on dolphins and 
 Tritons {see cut). The Nereids most often 
 mentioned in mythology are Amphitrite and 
 Thetis, with Galatea. 
 
416 
 
 NESSUS NEXUM. 
 
 Nessus. A Centaur, ■nho used to ferry 
 travellers over the river Evenus. On 
 attempting to outrage Deianira, the wife of 
 Heracles, he was shot by the latter with 
 one of his poisoned arrows. Upon this he 
 presented Deianira with a portion of his 
 poisoned blood, professedly to enable her 
 to regain her husband's affections, should 
 he prove false to her. The robe smeared 
 with the blood proved fata] to Heracles 
 iq.v.). [Cp. Soph., Trachinicp., 558, 1141.] 
 
 Nestor. Son of Neleus and Chloris, ruler 
 of the Messenian and Triphylian Pylus, 
 and later also, after the extinction of the 
 royal family there, of Messenia ; wedded to 
 Eurydice, by whom he had seven sons and 
 two daughters. He was the only one 
 of twelve sons of Neleus who escaped 
 being slain by Heracles, since he was, it is 
 said, living at the time among the Gerenians 
 in Messenia, from whom he derives the 
 name Gercnids, given him in Homer. After 
 this disaster, the king of the Epeans, Augeas, 
 illegally keeps back a four-horsed chariot, 
 which Neleus has sent to Elis to compete 
 in a contest. Neleus, as yet hardly a yotith, 
 retaliates by driving off the herds of the 
 Epeans ; upon which the latter with a 
 large army besiege, the Pylian fortress of 
 Thyroessa on the Eurotas. Neleus forms 
 one of the relieving army, serving as a foot- 
 soldier, owing to his father's having, from 
 regard to his youth, had the war-horses 
 concealed from him. He slays in battle 
 Augeas' son-in-law, and, fighting from the 
 dead man's chariot, wins a most brilliant 
 victory, so that the Pylians offer thanks to 
 him among men even as they offer them to 
 Zeus among the gods. In like manner in 
 the war against the Arcadians, when he 
 was the youngest of all the combatants, he 
 killed the gigantic and much dreaded hero 
 Ereuthalion. He also took an important 
 part in the battle between the Centaurs 
 and the Lapithse. In old age, when he was 
 ruling over the third generation of his 
 people, he was involved in the expedition 
 against Troy, owing, as the story went, to 
 the obligation incurred by his son Antilo- 
 chus as a suitor of Helen ; with Odysseus 
 he gains the help of Achilles and Patroclus 
 for the undertaking, and himself sails, in 
 the company of his sons Antilochus and 
 Thrasymedes, with 90 ships to the seat of 
 war at Ilium. Here, according to Homer, 
 "Neleus the horseman," in spite of his 
 great age, takes a prominent part among 
 the heroes in council and battle alike : the 
 qualities which adorn him are wisdom, 
 
 justice, eloquence (" from his lips flows 
 language sweeter than honey " [11. i 248]), 
 experience in war, unwearied activity, and 
 courage. All value and love him, none 
 more than Agamemnon, who wishes that he 
 had ten such counsellors : in that case, he 
 says, Troy would soon fall [II. ii 372]. He 
 is so great a favourite with Homer that in 
 ancient times it was conjectured that the 
 poet was himself a native of Pylos. After 
 the destruction of Troy he returns in 
 safety with his son Thrasymedes to Pylos, 
 Antilochus (q.v.) having for the sake of his 
 father, who was in sore peril, sacrificed his 
 own life in battle against Memnon. Ten 
 years afterwards, Telemachus still finds 
 him at Pylos, amidst his children, in the 
 enjoyment of a cheerful and prosperous 
 old age. [On the " cup of Nestor," see 
 Toreutic Art.] 
 
 Newspapers. See Acta. 
 
 Nexiim. In the old Roman legal system 
 the solemn process on entering upon a 
 relationship of debtor and creditor under 
 the form of mancipdtio (q.v.). In the for- 
 mula used therein the borrower gave the 
 lender, in case of non-fulfilment of the 
 obligation incurred, the right to seize him 
 without more ado as his bondsman. There 
 was no limit in respect of time to the right 
 of the creditor over a debtor whose person 
 thus became forfeit to him : it consisted in 
 the fact that the creditor could keep the 
 nexus in prison and make him work as a 
 slave for him. The latter, however, con- 
 tinued to be a citizen ; but, as long as the 
 debt existed, was considered dishonoured, 
 and was accordingly excluded from service 
 in the legion and voting in the assemblies 
 of the people. After the Lex Pcetelia 
 Papiria of 326 B.C. had, in the interest of 
 the plebeians, for the most part abolished 
 personal security, the nexum gradually 
 passed into a mere contract of loan. 
 
 [In Prof.Nettleship'sLerfwres and Essays, 
 pp. 363-6, there is a note showing that the 
 proper meaning of nexum is " a thing 
 pledged (bound)," and of nexus -i, " a pri- 
 soner " ; that the evidence for making nexum 
 mean "a solemn process " is very weak ; and 
 that nexus -us is the proper word for the con- 
 tract or bond between debtor and creditor. 
 In almost all the passages where nexum -i 
 is supposed to mean " a process," it might 
 as well come from nexus -us. Cicero, how- 
 ever, in Pro Ccecina 102, has nexa atque 
 hereditates ; and in De Rep. ii 59, propter 
 unius libidinem omnia nexa civium lihs- 
 rata nectierque postea desitum.] 
 
NICANDER NICOMACHUS, 
 
 417 
 
 Nicander (Gr. Mcandros). A Greek poet 
 born at Coloplion in Asia, about 150 B.C. 
 He was an hereditary priest of Apollo, as 
 well as a physician, and lived a great deal 
 in ^tolia as well as later in Pergamon. He 
 wrote numerous works, such as those on 
 agriculture, of which considerable fragments 
 are still preserved, and on mythological 
 mStdmor phases (used by Ovid), etc. Two of 
 his poems, written in a dull and bombastic 
 manner, are still extant : the TMriaca, on 
 remedies against the wounds inflicted by 
 venomous animals; and the AlexipharTndca, 
 on poisons taken in food and drink, with 
 their antidotes. 
 
 Nice (Gr. Nike). The Greek goddess of 
 victory, according to Hesiod, daughter of 
 Pallas and Styx, by whom she was brought 
 to Zeus to assist him in his struggle with 
 the Titans : thenceforward she remains 
 always with Zeus 
 on Olympus. 
 Sculptors often 
 represent her in 
 connexion with 
 divinities who 
 grant victory: 
 thus the Olym- 
 pian Zeus and the 
 Athene on the Ac- 
 ropolis at Athens 
 held in one hand 
 a statue of Nice. 
 (See Zeus, fig. 2 ; 
 and, for another 
 Nice, cp. Vmo- 
 Nius.) She was 
 generally repre- 
 sented as winged 
 and with a wreath 
 and a palm- 
 branch. As herald 
 of victory she also 
 has the wand of 
 Hermes. This 
 mode of repre- 
 senting her was 
 adopted for the 
 statues of the 
 goddess specially 
 revered by the 
 Romans under the name Victoria. Vica 
 POta ("Victorious Issue") was an earlier 
 designation of the same goddess. Such 
 statues were erected chiefly on the Capitol 
 by triumphant generals. The most famous 
 was the statue [brought from Tar en tum and 
 therefore probably the work of a Greek 
 artist] which Augustus dedicated to her in 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 * WINGED TICTOBY IN 
 
 BBONZE. 
 
 (Cassel MuBeum.) 
 
 the Curia lulia, in memory of his victory 
 at Actium. When the Curia lulia had 
 been destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus 
 and rebuilt by Domitian, the statue was 
 placed in the new building, and was adored 
 as the guardian goddess of the senate until 
 Christianity became the religion of the 
 empire. 
 
 Nicias. An Athenian painter [a son of 
 Nicomedes, and a pupil of Euphranor's 
 pupil AntidStus]. He lived during the lat- 
 ter half of the 4th century B.C. as a younger 
 contemporary of Praxiteles. [The latter, 
 when asked which of his works in marble 
 he specially approved, was in the habit of 
 answering, those that had been touched by 
 the hand of Nicias ; such importance did 
 he attribute to that artist's method of 
 tinting, or " touching up with colour," 
 circumlttio (Pliny, N. H. xxxv 133). He 
 painted mainly in encaustic; and] was 
 especially distinguished by his skill in 
 making the figures on his pictures appear to 
 stand out of the work, by means of a proper 
 treatment of light and shade. He was 
 celebrated for his painting of female figures 
 and other subjects which were favourable 
 to the full expression of dramatic emotions, 
 such as the Rescue of Andromgda and the 
 Interrogation of the Dead by Odyssteus in 
 the lower world. This latter picture he 
 presented to the city of his birth, after 
 Ptolemy the First had offered sixty talents 
 (about £12,000) for it, [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 
 §§ 130-133. He insisted on the importance 
 of an artist's choosing noble themes, such 
 as cavalry engagements and battles at sea, 
 instead of frittering away his skill on birds 
 and flowers (Demetrius, De Elocutione, 76.)] 
 
 Nlcolaus. A Greek historian of Damas- 
 cus. At the suggestion of the Jewish king 
 Herod the Great, whose devoted -friend he 
 was, and who had recommended him to 
 Augustus, he wrote a comprehensive history 
 of the world down to his own times in 144 
 books, which is partly preserved in import- 
 ant fragments exhibiting an agreeable style. 
 His panegyrical biography of Augustus has 
 come down to us almost entire, 
 
 Nicomachus. (1) A Greek painter, pro- 
 bably of Thebes, about 360 B.C. He was 
 celebrated as an artist who could paint with 
 equal rapidity and excellence, and was re- 
 garded as rivalling the best painters of his 
 day. A famous painting of his was the Rape 
 of Proserpine. [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 108.] 
 
 (2) Of Gerasa in Arabia, a follower of 
 the Pythagorean philosophy, about 150 A.D. 
 He composed an introduction to Mathematics 
 
 E E 
 
418 
 
 NTGIDIUS FIGULUS NOBILITY. 
 
 in two books and a handbook on Harmonj', 
 ofwhicb only the first book is preserved en- 
 tire, the second consisting of two fragments 
 which cannot be said with certainty to come 
 from Nicomachus. The first-mentioned work 
 gives valuable information as regards the 
 arithmetic of the Greeks in earlier times. 
 It was translated into Latin by Boethius. 
 
 Nigidius Flgulns {Puhliua). A friend and 
 contemporary of Cicero, next to Varro the 
 most learned Roman of his day, born about 
 98 B.C. He was an adherent of Pompey, 
 and after his defeat went into exile, where 
 he died in 45. He had a propensity to 
 mysticism, which led him to the Pytha- 
 gorean philosophy, astrology and magic, 
 which he actually practised. His writings 
 On theology, natural history, and grammar 
 were in some cases very voluminous, but 
 owing to their obscurity and subtlety, in 
 spite of their erudition, they met with far 
 less notice than those of Varro. 
 
 Niobe. Daiighter of Tantalus and Dione, 
 sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion of 
 Thebes. Like her father, she stood in 
 close connexion with the gods, especially 
 with Leto, the wife of Zeus, and fell into 
 misfortune by her own arrogance. In 
 maternal pride for her numerous progeny of 
 six sons and six daughters, the ill-fated 
 woman ventured to compare herself to Leto, 
 who had only two children. To punish 
 this presumption Apollo and Artemis slew 
 with their arrows all NiSbe's children, in 
 their parents' palace. For nine days they 
 lay in their blood without any to bury them, 
 for Zeus had changed all the people into 
 stone. On the tenth day the gods buried 
 them. Niobe, who was changed to stone 
 on the lonely hills of Sipylus, cannot even 
 in this form forget her sorrow. Thus runs 
 Homer's account [11. xxiv 614], in which 
 we have the earliest reference to " a colossal 
 relief roughly carved on the rocks" of 
 Mount Sipylus in Lydia, the face of which 
 is washed by a stream in such a manner 
 that it appears to be weeping [ep. Jebb 
 on Soph., Ant. 831]. The accounts of later 
 writers vary greatly in respect of the 
 number of the daughters of Niobe and of 
 the scene of her death. Sometimes the 
 spot where the disaster occurs is Lydia, 
 sometimes Thebes, where moreover the 
 grave of Niobe's children was pointed out : 
 the sons perish in the chase or on the race- 
 course, while the daughters die in the royal 
 palace at Thebes or at the burial of their 
 brethren. This story describes Niobe as re- 
 turning from Thebes to her home on Sipylus, 
 
 (Florence, Ufflzi.) 
 
 and as there changed into a stone by Zeus, 
 at her own entreaty. The fate of Niobe was 
 often in ancient times the theme both of 
 poetry and of art. 
 The group of the 
 children of Niobe 
 discovered at 
 Rome in 1583 
 and now at Flo- 
 rence (part of 
 which is shown 
 in the cut) is 
 well - known : it 
 is probably the 
 Roman copy of a 
 Greek work 
 which stood in 
 Pliny's time in a 
 temple of Apollo 
 at Rome, and with 
 regard to which 
 it was a moot 
 point with the 
 ancients whether 
 
 it was from the hand of Scopas or of Praxi- 
 teles [Pliny, N. H. xxxvi 28. Cp. Stark, 
 Niobe und die Niobiden, 1863]. 
 
 Nisus, son of Pandion, brother of 
 .SIgeus of Athens, king of Megara and 
 reputed builder of the seaport Nissea. 
 When Minos, in the course of his expedition 
 of reprisal against Mgeua, besieged Megara, 
 Scylla, Nlsus' daughter, from love for the 
 Cretan king, brought about her father's 
 death by pulling out a golden or (according 
 to another account) a purple hair on the top 
 of his head, on which his life and the fate 
 of the realm depended. 
 
 Minos, however, did not reward her 
 treachery ; he fastened her to the stern of 
 his ship, and thus drowned her in the Saronic 
 Gulf, or, according to others, left her 
 behind him; whereupon she cast herself 
 into the sea, and was changed either into a 
 fish or into a bird called Ciris. 
 
 Nobility (NobiMds). The aristocracy of 
 office, which at Rome took the place of the 
 patrician aristocracy of birth, after the 
 admission of the plebeians to all the offices 
 of state and the levelling of the distinction 
 between patricians and plebeians consequent 
 thereon. It comprised those patrician and 
 plebeian families whose members had held 
 one of the curule magistracies. These fami- 
 lies, for the most part the most illustrious 
 and wealthy, had the influence and money, 
 which afforded them the necessary means 
 to canvass for and hold an office. Thus, in 
 spite of the theoretical equality of rights 
 
NOMEN NOVIUS. 
 
 419 
 
 now existing, they almost completely ex- 
 cluded from the higher magistracies all 
 citizens who had neither wealth nor noble 
 relatives to support them. It was quite 
 exceptional for a man who did not belong 
 to the nobility to be fortunate enough to 
 attain to them. If he did so, he was styled 
 a lidmo novus (a new man, an upstart). It 
 was one of the privileges of the nobility that 
 they enjoyed the right to possess images of 
 their ancestors. (See Imagines.) 
 
 Nomen. See Name. 
 
 Nomenclator. The Roman term for a 
 slave who had the duty of reporting to his 
 master the names of his slaves (often very 
 numerous), of those who waited on him in 
 the morning, of other visitors, and of those 
 who met him when he was walking abroad. 
 The latter duty was especially important 
 if his master was a candidate for oflSce, 
 and, in order to gain votes, was anxious to 
 canvass many of the electors in the public 
 streets. [The word is properly written 
 nomenculstoi; as is proved by the evidence 
 of glosses and MSS. Cp. Martial, x 30, 30 ; 
 Suetonius, Aug. 19, Calig. 41, Claud. 34.] 
 
 N6m6pli;ylac6s (Guardians of the Laws). 
 A board found in different states of Greece, 
 which had to see to the observance of the 
 requirements of the law, especially in the 
 deliberative assemblies. At Athens, after 
 the abolition of the AreopSgus as a board 
 of supervision (about 461 B.C.) a college of 
 seven nomophylaces was introduced as a 
 check upon the senate, the public assembly, 
 aaid the magistrates. 
 
 Nomos (Greek). (1) Originally, an ancient 
 kind of solo in epic form in praise of some 
 divinity. It was either " aulSdic " or 
 " citharodic " ; that is, it was sung to the ac- 
 companiment of the flute or the cithara. The 
 citharodic nomos was from ancient times 
 used at the festivals of Apollo, whom the 
 Dorians especially worshipped. It received 
 its artistic form from Terpander (about 675 
 B.C.) principally by a systematic distribution 
 into five or seven parts, of which three were 
 the essential portions, the middle one forming 
 the cardinal point of the whole. It formed 
 an important element in the Delphian 
 festival of the Pythian Apollo. On the 
 other hand, the aulodic nomos, which Clonas 
 of Tegea had introduced in imitation of the 
 nomos of Terpander, was early excluded 
 from this festival. By the side of the 
 ancient nomoi, in which the words were 
 sung to an instrumental accompaniment, 
 there arose another variety formed on 
 the same model. In this the song was 
 
 dramatically recited to the tune of the flute 
 or cithara, according as the nomos was 
 "aulodic" or "citharodic." Of the former 
 kind was the nomos introduced by the flute- 
 player Sacadas of Argos (about 580) at the 
 Pythian games, and hence called the Pythian 
 nomos, a musical representation of the de- 
 struction of the dragon Pytho by Apollo. 
 At a later period the province of the nomos 
 was more and more extended and secularized, 
 until it became the most important part of 
 the musician's profession. [Plutarch. De 
 Musica, cap. iii-x, pp. 1132-4.] 
 
 (2) " Law." See Ecclesia. 
 
 NomothgtsB. At Athens a commission 
 for the examination of proposed laws. (See 
 Ecclesia, 1.) 
 
 Nonse. The Roman name for the 5th or 
 7th day of the month (see Calendar, 2). 
 
 Nonius Marcellus. A Latin scholar, born 
 at Thubursicum in Africa, who composed 
 in the beginning of the 4th century B.C. 
 a manual of miscellaneous information on 
 points of lexicography, grammar, and anti- 
 quities, bearing the title of De Compen- 
 dlosa Doctnna. It consisted originally of 
 twenty books, one of which is lost. It is 
 evidently founded on the works of earlier 
 scholars, and in some parts exhibits verbal 
 coincidences with Aulus Gellius. Though 
 not showing the least genius or critical acu- 
 men, the work is of great importance owing 
 to its numerous quotations from lost authors, 
 especially of the archaic period, [See Prof. 
 Nettleship's Lectures and Essays, pp. 
 277-331.] 
 
 Nonnus. A Greek poet of Panopolis in 
 Egypt, belonging to the 5th century A.D. 
 As a pagan, he wrote with poetic talent, 
 and in a spirited though highly rhetorical 
 style, a vast epic, called the Dionysmca, in 
 forty-eight books, one of the chief sources 
 for our knowledge of the Dionysiac cycle 
 of legends. As a Christian, he composed 
 a paraphrase of the Gospel of St. John in 
 Greek hexameters. 
 
 NStitla Dignitatum. A list of the officers 
 of the court, and the civil and military 
 magistrates. This official manual belongs 
 to the end of the 4th century B.C., which 
 is of great value for the statistics of the 
 Roman empire at that time. It contains 
 also the insignia of each magistrate repre- 
 sented in drawings. 
 
 Novius. A writer of Atelldnce (q.v.) 
 flourishing about 90 B.C. Ijike his con- 
 temporary and rival Pomponius, he was a 
 master of ready speech of a coarse and 
 droll description. Some of his witty verses 
 
420 
 
 NUMMULARII — OBOLUS. 
 
 are quoted ty Cicero [de Or. ii 255, 279, 
 285]. Over forty titles of his works are 
 meEtioned, among them, as in the case of 
 Pomponius, some which suggest travesties 
 of mythological subjects ; e.g., Hercules as 
 Auctioneef. 
 
 Nmnmularii. See Moneychangers. 
 
 Nummus {coin). A special name for the 
 commonest c6in at Rome, which generally 
 served as the unit of reckoning, the sestertius 
 {q.v., under Coinage). 
 
 Nundinse. The Roman term for the mar^ 
 ket day held on the last day of the 'Week of 
 eight days, on \vhich countrymen rested 
 from labour and came to Rome to buy and 
 sell) as Well as to do other business. Accord'- 
 ingly the Nundinse were used for public 
 ainnouncelnents, especially concerning public 
 assemblies and the business to be conducted 
 in them. The actual holding of the assem- 
 blies on these days was avoided, so as not 
 to prevent the people from attending to the 
 business of the market. Originally too no 
 legal business Was conducted on them, and 
 it Was not till the beginning of the 3rd 
 century B.C. that it was introduced. The 
 Nundinae, though not a regular feast-day, 
 were nevertheless celebrated in private life 
 by inviting strangers to one's table and 
 exempting children from going to school. 
 
 Nyctens. Son of Poseidon and the Pleiad 
 Celseno, brother of Lycus {q.v., 1) and father 
 of Antiope {q.v.). After the early death of 
 Cadmus' son Polydorus he administered the 
 government of "Thebes for Labdacus, who 
 was a minor, until he met his death in 
 battle with Epopeua, his daughter's husband. 
 
 Nymphs (properly "the young maidens"). 
 Inferior divinities of Nature who dwell in 
 groves, forests and caves, beside springs, 
 streams and rivers ; in some cases too on 
 lonely islands, like Calypso and Circe. 
 The nymphs of the hills, the forests, the 
 meadows and the springs (called in Homer 
 daughters of Zeus, while Hesiod makes 
 the nymphs of the hills and the forests 
 together with the hills and the forests 
 children of earth) appear as the benevo- 
 lent spirits of these spots, and lead a life 
 of liberty, sometimes weaving in grottoes, 
 sometimes dancing and singing, sometimes 
 hunting with Artemis Or revelling with 
 
 Dionysus. Besides these divinities it is 
 especially Apollo, Hermes and Pan who are 
 devoted to them and seek after their love ; 
 while the wanton satyrs are also continu- 
 ally lying in wait for them. They are well 
 disposed towards mortals and ready to help 
 them : they even wed with them. Accord- 
 ing to the various provinces of nature were 
 distinguished various kinds of nymphs : 
 nymphs of rivers and springs, the Naiads, 
 to whom the Oceanids and Nereids are 
 closely related ; nymphs of the hills, Oreads ; 
 nymphs of the forests and trees, Dryads or 
 Hamadryads; besides this they often re- 
 ceived special names after certain places, 
 hills, springs and grottoes. The Naiads, as 
 the goddesses of the nourishing and fructi- 
 fying water, were especially rich in favours, 
 giving increase and fruitfulness to plants, 
 herds and mortals. Hence they were also 
 considered as the guardian goddesses of 
 marriage, and the besprinkling of the bride 
 with spring'water was one of the indispen^ 
 sable rites of the marriage ceremony. On 
 the same principle, legendary lore represents 
 theto as nursing and bringing up the chil- 
 dren of the gods, as for instance Zeus and 
 Dionysus. Further, owing to the healing 
 and inspiring power of many springs, they 
 belong to the divinities of healing and pro- 
 phesying, and can even drive men into a 
 transport of prophetic and poetic inspiration. 
 The Muses themselves are in their origin 
 fountain-nymphs. Popular belief assigned 
 to the nymphs in general an exceedingly 
 long life, without actual immortality. The 
 existence of Dryads, it was supposed, was 
 closely bound up with the origin and decay 
 of the tree in which they dwelt. They 
 enjoyed divine honours from the earliest 
 times, originally in the spots where they 
 had power, at fountains, and in groves and 
 grottoes. In later times shrines of their 
 Own, hence called Nymphcea, were built 
 to them, even in cities. These eventually 
 became very magnificent buildings, in which 
 it was customary to celebrate marriages. 
 Goats, lambs, milk, and oil were offered to 
 them. Works of art represented them in the 
 form of charming maidens, lightly clothed or 
 naked, with flowers and garlands; the Naiads 
 drawing water or carrying it in an urn. 
 
 o 
 
 Obe. The Spartan term for each of the 
 SO^sub-divisions of the phylcB {q.v.). 
 Obolus. A weight as well as a silver coin 
 
 among the Greeks = |^ drachma; the Attic 
 obolus amounted in intrinsic value to 8d, 
 {C'p. Coinage.) The ancients used to put 
 
OBSEQUENS ODYSSEUS. 
 
 421 
 
 this coin in the mouths of the dead, as 
 passa^-money for Charon the ferryman in 
 the IpiWer world. 
 
 ^sgquens. A Latin author. {See'LiVY,2.) 
 Occupatio. The Roman term for the 
 appropriation of nntilled portions of the 
 State lands, consequent upon the invitation 
 of the State, and having for its object the 
 cultivation of the soil. {See further Ager 
 
 PUBLICUS.) 
 
 Oceanus. In Greek mythology, originally 
 the ancient river of the world which flows 
 around and bounds the earth and sea, it- 
 self unbounded and flowing back into itself. 
 From Oceanus arise all seas, rivers, streams, 
 and fountains. Jlerodotus is the first to 
 oppose this view [ii 23, iv 8, 36]. To 
 Homer, Oceanus is the beginning of all 
 things, even of the gods : he, the original 
 father, and his wife, Tethys, the original 
 mother. With her he lives, a gentle and 
 hospitable old man, in the farthest west 
 away from the world and its doings. He 
 keeps aloof even from the assemblies of the 
 gods, although river gods and nymphs 
 appear there. It is with the aged pair that 
 Hera grows np, and it is to them that she 
 flees on the outbreak of the war with the 
 Titans. According to Hesiod [Theog. 133, 
 337-370], Oceanus and Tethys are children 
 of Uranus and Grjea ; the former the oldest 
 of the Titans, who after the fall of Cronus 
 submitted to Zeus. Erom him are sprung 
 3000 sons and as many daughters, the 
 Ocedntdes. The oldest of the family, which 
 is spread over the whole earth, are Aoheloiis 
 and Styx. Oceanus was represented as a 
 venerable old man with a long beard : on 
 his head are bull's herns, after the usual 
 manner of river gods ; or crab's claws, as 
 customary with gods of the sea ; and he 
 is surrounded by sea monsters. 
 
 Ooellus. A Greek philosopher, a follower 
 of the Pythagorean school (cp. Pythagoras). 
 
 Ochlocracy (jnob-rule). The name among 
 the Greeks for that form of democracy in 
 which the citizens were admitted to the 
 government of the State without any grada- 
 tion of classes, or any legal provision for 
 checking the caprice of the populace. Under 
 such a constitution public matters fell into 
 the hands of the lowest class of the people. 
 
 Octafiterfis (Gr. Okt-). A period of eight 
 yeajs. {See Calendae.) 
 
 ddeion (Lat. Odeum). The Greek term 
 for a building constructed for musical per^ 
 formances on the plan of a theatre, but 
 with far slighter proportions and provided 
 with a roof for acoustical purposes. Henpe 
 
 also the stage was not so deep, and ended in 
 three walls which abutted with one another 
 at obtuse angles, [The oldest Odeion in 
 Athens was that in the neighbourhood of 
 the fountain of Enneacrtinus (Pausan., i 4, 
 1), on the Ilissus, south of the Olympieum. 
 This Odeion was probably built in the time 
 of the Pisistratidge,] 
 
 The building which served as a pattern 
 for all later ones of this kind was the 
 Odeion built by Pericles about 445 B,C,, 
 intended at first for the musical contests 
 at the Panathenaic games, but afterwards 
 used by poets and musicians for rehearsals, 
 by philosophers for discussions, and some^ 
 times even for judicial business. This 
 building was restored after its destruction 
 by fire (87 B.C.) by king Ariobarzanes II, 
 PhilSpator. The first at Rome was built 
 by Domitian (about 86 a.d.) ; a second by 
 Trajan. That of Herodes Atticus {q.v.) 
 was considered the largest and most mag- 
 nificent in ancient times : it was built soon 
 after 160 A.D. at Athens, below the souths 
 western cliff of the Acropolis, in honour 
 of his deceased wife Annia Regilla, and a 
 considerable part of it is still standing. It 
 held about 8000 persons and had a roof 
 composed of beams of cedar wood. 
 
 Odysseus (the Latin equivalent is Ulixes / 
 erroneously written Ulysses). King of 
 Ithaca, son of Laertes and Anticlea, daughter 
 of Autolycus, In post-Homeric legend he is 
 called a son of Sisyphus, borne by Anticlea 
 before her marriage with Laertes. According 
 to Homer, his name, " the hater" was given 
 him by his grandfather Autolycus, because 
 he himself had so often cherished feelings 
 of hatred during his life [Od, xix 402]. His 
 wife Penelope (or Penelopeia), daughter of 
 Icarius {see OEbalus), is said by later 
 legends to have been obtained for him by 
 her uncle Tyndareos in gratitude for counsel 
 given by him. {See Ttndaeeqs.) When 
 his son Telemachus was still an infant, 
 Agamemnon and Menelaus, as Homer tells 
 us, prevailed on him to take part in the exr 
 pedition against Troy. Their task was hard, 
 as it had been predicted to him that it would 
 be twenty years before he saw his wife and 
 child again. Later writers relate that he 
 was bound as one of Helen's suitors to take 
 part in the scheme, but tried to escape his 
 obligation by feigning madness, and among 
 other acts yoked a horse and an ox to his 
 plough and so ploughed a field. When 
 however Palamedes, who with Nestor and 
 Menelaus was desirous of taking him to 
 Troy, proceeded to place Telemachus in the 
 
422 
 
 ODYSSEUS. 
 
 furrow, he betrayed himself and had to 
 acoompany them to war. He led the men 
 of Ithaca and the surrounding isles to Troy 
 in twelve vessels. In contrast to the later 
 legend, which represents him as a cowardly, 
 deceitful and intriguing personage, he 
 always appears in Homer among the noblest 
 and most respected of the heroes, and, on 
 account of his good qualities, he is the de- 
 clared favourite of Athene. He combines in 
 his person courage and determined persever- 
 ancewith prudence, ingenuity, cunning and 
 eloquence. Accordingly he is employed by 
 preference as a negotiator and a spy. Thus, 
 after the disembarkation, he goes with 
 Menelaus into the enemy's city to demand 
 the surrender of Helen. Again, he is among 
 those who are despatched by the Greeks 
 to reconcile with Agamemnon the enraged 
 Achilles. With Diomedes, who delights 
 in his company, he captures the spy 
 Dolon and surprises Rhesus; with the same 
 hero he is said by later legend to have 
 stolen the Palladium from Troy. When 
 Agamemnon faint-heartedly thinks of flight, 
 he opposes this idea with the utmost decision. 
 Everywhere he avails himself of the right 
 time and the right place, and, where courage 
 and cunning are needed, is ever the foremost. 
 After Achilles' death, in the contest with 
 Ajax, the sou of Telamon, he receives the 
 hero's arms as a recognition of his services, 
 and by his ingenuity brings about the fall 
 of Troy. Shortly before it, he steals into 
 the city in the garb of a beggar, in order to 
 reconnoitre every thing there; he then climbs 
 with the others into the wooden horse, and 
 contrives to control the impatient and the 
 timid alike until the decisive moment. 
 
 His adventures during the return from 
 Troy and on his arrival in his native 
 country form the contents of the Odyssey 
 of Homer. Immediately after the departure 
 Odysseus is driven to the Thracian Ismarus, 
 the city of the Cicones, and, though he 
 plunders them, loses in a surprise seventy- 
 two of his companions. When he is now 
 desirous of rounding the south-east point of 
 the Peloponnesus, the promontory of Malea, 
 he is caught by the storm and carried in nine 
 days to the coast of North Africa, on to the 
 land of the ioiopftag't (Lotus-eaters) whence 
 he has to drag his companions by force to 
 prevent their forgetting their homes for 
 love of the sweet lotus food. Thence the 
 voyage passes into the legendary world of 
 the Western sea, then little known to the 
 Greeks. Odysseus comes first to the 
 country of the Cyclopes (q.v.), where, with 
 
 twelve of his comrades, ho is shut up in 
 a cavern by Polyphemus. The monster 
 has already devoured half of Odysseus' 
 companions before the latter intoxicates him 
 (fig. 1), deprives him of his one eye, and by his 
 cunning escapes with his comrades. From 
 this time the anger of Poseidon, on whom 
 Polyphemus calls for revenge, pursues him 
 and keeps him far from his country. On the 
 island of u^lus, the Eleeper of the Winds 
 {q-v.y, he finds hospitable entertainment, 
 and receives on his departure a leathern 
 bag in which are inclosed all the winds 
 except the western. The latter would carry 
 him in nine days to the coast of Ithaca, but, 
 whilst Odysseus is taking rest, his comrades 
 open the bag, which they imagine to contain 
 
 (1) * ODYSSKUS OFFEIllNU WINE 10 THE C'VCXOFS. 
 
 (statuette in Vatican Museum, Eome.) 
 
 treasure, and the winds thus released carry 
 them back to ^olus. He orders them off 
 from his island, regarding them as enemies 
 of the gods. On coming to Telepylus, the 
 city of Lamus, king Antiphates and his 
 LcEstrygdnSs, cannibals of immense stature, 
 shatter eleven of their vessels, and the 
 twelfth is saved only by Odysseus' wari- 
 ness. [See Painting, fig. 5.) On the island 
 of .zEsea the sorceress Circe turns part of 
 his crew into swine, but, with the help of 
 Hermes, he compels her to restore them to 
 their human shape and spends a whole 
 year with her in pleasure and enjoyment. 
 When his companions urge him to return 
 home, Circe bids him first sail toward the 
 farthest west, to the entrance into the 
 
ODYSSEUS. 
 
 423 
 
 lower world on the farther tank of Oc6anus, 
 and there question the shade of the seer 
 Tiresias concerning his return. {See Hades, 
 Realm of.) Trom the latter he learns that 
 it is the malice of Poseidon that prevents 
 his return, but that nevertheless he will 
 now attain his object if his comrades spare 
 the cattle of Helios on the island of Thrina- 
 cla ; otherwise it will only be after a long 
 time, deprived of all his comrades and on a 
 foreign ship, that he will reach his home. 
 Odysseus then returns to the isle of Circe 
 and sets out on his homeward voyage, sup- 
 plied by her with valuable directions and a 
 favouring wind. Passing the isles of the 
 Sirens (q.v.) and sailing through Scylla 
 and- Chdrybdis (q.v.), he reaches the island 
 of Thrinacia, where he is compelled to land 
 by his comrades. They are there detained 
 for a month by contrary winds ; at length 
 his comrades, overcome by hunger, in spite 
 of the oath they have sworn to him, 
 slaughter, dui-ing his absence, the finest of 
 the cattle of Helios. Scarcely are they once 
 more at sea, when a terrible storm breaks 
 forth, and Zeus splits the ship in twain with 
 a flash of lightning, as a penalty for the 
 offence. All perish except Odysseus, who 
 clings to the mast and keel, and is carried 
 back by the waves to Scylla and Charybdis, 
 and after nine days reaches the island of 
 Ogygia, the abode of the nymph Calypso, 
 daughter of Atlas. For seven years he 
 dwells here with the nymph, who promises 
 him immortality and eternal youth, if he 
 will consent to remain with her and be her 
 husband. But the yearning for his wife 
 and home make him proof against her 
 snares. All the day long he sits on the 
 shore gazing through his tears across the 
 broad sea ; fain would he catch a glimpse, 
 were it only of the rising smoke of his home, 
 and thereafter die. So his protectress, 
 Athene, during Poseidon's absence, pre- 
 vails on Zeus in an assembly of the gods 
 to decree his return, and to send Hermes 
 to order Calypso to release him. Borne 
 on a raft of his own building, he comes in 
 eighteen days near to Scheria, the island 
 of the Phseacians, when Poseidon catches 
 sight of him and shatters his raft in pieces. 
 However, with the aid of the veil of Ino 
 Leucothea (q.v.), he reaches land in safety 
 and meets with Nausicaa, the king's 
 daughter, who conducts him into the 
 Phseacian city before her parents Alctnous 
 (q.v.) and Arete. He receives the most 
 hospitable treatment, and is then brought 
 loaded with presents by the Pheeacians on 
 
 board one of their marvellous vessels to his 
 country, which he reaches after twenty 
 years' absence, while asleep. He arrives 
 just in time to ward off the disaster that is 
 threatening his house. After his mother 
 Anticlea had died of grief for her son, and 
 the old Laertes had retired to his country 
 estate in mourning, more than a hundred 
 noble youths of Ithaca and the surrounding 
 isles had appeared as suitors for the hand of 
 the fair and chaste Penelope, had persecuted 
 Telemachus, who was now growing up to 
 manhood, and were wasting the substance 
 of the absent Odysseus. Penelope had de- 
 manded a respite from making her decision 
 until she had finished weaving a shroud inr 
 tended for her father-in-law, and every night 
 
 ^^ 
 
 iA_ 
 
 (2) * PEHELOPI, 
 
 (Ant. Denkm. 1 3, p. 17.) 
 
 unravelled the work of the day. In the 
 fourth year one of her attendants betrayed 
 the secret ; she had to complete the garment, 
 and when urged to make her decision pro- 
 mised to choose the man who should win in a 
 shooting match with Odysseus' bow, hoping 
 that none of the wooers would be able even 
 so much as to bend it. Just before the day 
 of trial, Odysseus lands on the island dis- 
 guised by Athene as a beggar. He betakes 
 himself to the honest swineherd Eumceun, 
 one of the few retainers who have remained 
 true to him, who receives his master, whom 
 he fails to recognise, in a hospitable manner. 
 To the same spot Athene brings Telemachus, 
 who has returned in safety, in spite of the 
 plots of the suitors, from a journey to 
 
424 
 
 (EBALUS (EDIPUS. 
 
 Nestor at Pylus and Menelaus and Helen in 
 Sparta. Hereupon Odysseus makes himself 
 known and, together with his son and re- 
 tainer, concerts his plan of revenge. In the 
 shape of a beggar he betakes himself to the 
 house, where he manfully controls his anger 
 at the arrogance of the suitors which is dis- 
 played towards himself, and his emotion on 
 meeting Penelope. Next day the shooting 
 match takes place. This involves shooting 
 through the handles of twelve axes with the 
 bow of Eurytus {q.v.)^ which the latter's son 
 Iphitus had once presented to the young 
 Odysseus. None of the suitors can bend the 
 bow, and so Odysseus takes hold of it, 
 and bends it in an instant, thus achieving 
 the master-shot. Supported by Telemachus, 
 Eumgeus, and the herdsman Philoetius, and 
 with the aiding presence of Athene, he shoots 
 first the insolent Antinous, and then the 
 other suitors. He next makes himself known 
 to Penelope, who has meanwhile fallen into 
 a deejD sleep, and visits his old father. In 
 the meantime the relatives of the murdered 
 suitors have taken up arms, but Athene, in 
 the form of Mentor {q.v.) brings about a 
 reconciliation. The only hint of Odysseus' 
 end in Homer is in the prophecy of Tiresias, 
 that in a calm old age a peaceful death will 
 come upon him from the sea. 
 
 In later poetry Telegonus, the son of 
 Odysseus by Circe, is sent forth by his 
 mother to seek out his father. He lands 
 at Ithaca, and plunders the island: Odysseus 
 proceeds to meet him, is wounded by him 
 with a poisonous sting-ray, given by Circe 
 to her son as a spear-point, and dies a 
 painful death, which thus comes " from the 
 sea." On Telegonus discovering that he 
 has killed his father, he carries the dead 
 body home with him, together with Pene- 
 lope and Telemachus, and there the latter 
 live a life of immortality, Telemachus be- 
 coming husband of Circe, and Telegonus of 
 Penelope. Besides Telegonus, the legend 
 told of two sons of Odysseus by Circe, 
 named Agrius and Latinus, who were said 
 to have reigned over the Etruscans. Tele- 
 gonus in particular was regarded by the 
 Romans as the founder of Tusciilum [Ovid, 
 Fasti, iii 92], and Prseneste [Horace, Odes 
 iii 29, 8]. In later times the adventures of. 
 Odysseus were transferred as a whole to the 
 coast of Italy : the promontory of Circeli was 
 regarded as the abode of Circe, Eormiee as 
 the city of the Lsestrygones. Near Surren- 
 tum was found the island of the Sirens ; 
 near Cape Lacinium that of Calypso, while 
 near to Sicily were the isle of jEoIus, Scylla, 
 
 and Charybdis, and, on the Sicilian shore, 
 the Cyclopes. Odysseus is generally repre- 
 sented as a bearded man , wearing a semi-oval 
 cap like that of a Greek sailor, (^ee fig. 1.) 
 
 (Ebalns. King of Sparta, father of Hip- 
 pocoon, Tyndareos, and Icarius by the 
 Nymph Bateia. The first of these expels 
 his brethren from their home, but falls 
 with all his sons in battle against Heracles 
 and Cepheus of Tegea ; upon this TyudSreos 
 {q.v.) returns and takes possession of his 
 father's realm. Icarius, who remains in 
 Acarnania, becomes by Polycaste, or (ac- 
 cording to another account) by the Naiad 
 Periboea, father of Penelope, the wife of 
 Odysseus. 
 
 (Ecus (Greek). The dining-room of a 
 Roman dwelling-house. {See House.) 
 
 (Edipus. Son of Laius, descendant of 
 Cadmus through his paternal grandfather 
 Labdacus and his great-grandfather Poly- 
 dorus. According to Homer \0d. xi 271- 
 280], he^ kills his father and marries his 
 mother Epicaste (in later accounts locaste) : 
 the gods, however, immediately cause the 
 misdeed to be known, and Epicaste hangs 
 herself; (Edipus however rules on in 
 Thebes, haunted with many sufferings by 
 the vengeful spirit of his mother. Homer 
 also mentions the funeral games celebrated 
 in his honour [11. xxiii 679], but does not 
 tell of the birth of his sons and the grounds 
 of their feud. According to the ancient 
 (Edipodeict of Cinsethon, (Edipus after 
 locaste's death marries Euryganeia, whence 
 sprang his sons Eteocles andPoIynices, and 
 his daughters Antigone and Ismene [Paus., 
 ix 5, 11]. According to the ancient legend, 
 (Edipus curses his sons either because Poly- 
 nices had set before him at the banquet the 
 table and goblet which Cadmus and Laius 
 had used (which he regarded as an attempt 
 to remind him of his transgression), or be- 
 cause they had inadvertently sent him the 
 haunch-bone of a victim instead of the 
 shoulder-bone. 
 
 In the hands of the tragedians, especially 
 of .^schylus and Sophocles (in the (JEdipus 
 Tyrannus), the legend has been changed 
 into the following form. Laius, husband of 
 locaste, daughter of Menceceus, and sister 
 of Creon, has a curse resting on him in 
 consequence of some misdeed. He is told 
 by the oracle of Apollo that he will die by 
 the hand of his son. When a son is bom to 
 him, he accordingly orders a slave to expose 
 him, with his feet pierced, upon Cithseron. 
 The slave consigns the child to the care 
 of a shepherd belonging to the king of 
 
(ENEUS (ENOMAUS. 
 
 425 
 
 Corinth, Polybus, and he takes it to his 
 master. The boy, who derives the name 
 (Edipus (Swellfoot), from his swollen feet, 
 is adopted by the childless Polybus and 
 his wife Periboea in place of offspring of 
 their own. On reaching manhood, he is 
 reproached during a carousal with not 
 being the son of his presumptive parents, 
 and betakes himself without their know- 
 ledge to Delphi, in order to find out the 
 truth. The terrible response of the oracle, 
 to the effect that he will slay his own 
 father and then beget children in wedlock 
 with his mother, causes him to avoid 
 Corinth. At the place in Phocis where 
 the road from Delphi to Daulis leaA^es the 
 road to Thebes, he is met by his real father, 
 who is on a journey to Delphi to question 
 the god concerning the devastation of his 
 land by the Sphinx. As (Edipus will not 
 move aside, a quarrel arises, and he kills 
 his father together with his attendants, 
 one of whom alone escapes. He proceeds 
 to Thebes, and there frees the city from 
 its plague by solving the Sphinx's riddle ; 
 as a reward he receives from Creon the 
 dominion of Thebes and the late king's 
 widow, locaste, for a wife ; and the latter 
 bears him four children (given by the 
 older inyth to Euryganeia). Years after- 
 wards failure of crops and pestilence come 
 upon Thebes, and the oracle promises libe- 
 ration from the disaster only if the murder 
 of Laius be requited by the banishment 
 of the murderer. The result of (Edipus' 
 eager endeavours to identify this person is 
 the discovery of the horrors which he has 
 unconsciously perpetrated. locaste hangs 
 herself i» despair, and (Edipus puts out 
 his own eyes. Deposed from his throne, 
 and imprisoned at Thebes by hjs sons to 
 conceal his shame from men's eyes, or (ac- 
 cording to another account) driven by them 
 into banishment, whither his daughters 
 accompany him, he pronounces against his 
 sons a curse, to the effect that they shall 
 divide their inheritance with each other by 
 means of the sword, a curse which is ful- 
 filled with awful exactness. {See Sevex 
 AGAINST Thebes.) 
 
 His grave was afterwards shown at the 
 village of Eteonus, on the borders of Attica 
 and Boeotia, in the sanctuary of Demgter, 
 and worship done to him as to a hero. At 
 Athens too, in a sacred demesne of the 
 Eriny§s, between the Areopagus and the 
 Acropolis, was a monument to (Edipus, 
 whose bones were supposed to have been 
 brought hither from Thebes. — Sophocles, 
 
 in his Q<^dipiis at Colonus, follows another 
 legend. He represents him as coming to 
 the Attic deme of Colonus at the bidding 
 of Apollo, and as finding there, in the sanc- 
 tuary of the now propitiated Eumenides,the 
 longed-for peace of the grave. His bones, 
 the place of burial of which was known to 
 none, are a precious treasure for the country, 
 to guard it from hostile invasions. 
 
 (Eneus {i.e. vintner). King of Calydon, 
 in JEtolia, the hills of which he was the 
 first to plant with the vine received from 
 Dionysus. He was son of Portheus or 
 Porthaon, and brother of Agrius and 
 Melas ; by Althaea, daughter of Thestius, he 
 became the father of Tydeus, Meleager, 
 and Delanira. {See Heracles.) As he once 
 forgot Artemis in a sacrifice, she sent the 
 Calydonian boar, which ravaged the country, 
 and, even after its slaughter in the famous 
 Cialydonian Hunt, occasioned the death of 
 Meleager (q.v.). From the plots of his 
 brother Melas he had been delivered by 
 Tydeus through the murder of Melas and 
 his sons, but after the deaths of Tydeus 
 and Meleager, his other brother Agrius, 
 and the sons of that brother, deprived him 
 of his throne and cast him into prison. 
 His grandson Diomedes however revenged 
 him with the aid of Alcmseon, to whom 
 he had once given hospitable entertainment, 
 and who was desirous of taking (Eneus with 
 him to Argos, after he had given over the 
 throne of Calydon to his son-in-law Andrae- 
 mon, whose son Thoas, in Homer [II. ii 638], 
 leads the ^tolians to Troy. But the two 
 sons of Agrius, who have escaped death, 
 lie in wait for him in Arcadia, and there 
 slay the old man. Diomedes carries his 
 body to Argos, and deposits it in the city 
 which after him was called QEnoe. While 
 in Homer (Eneus is dead before the expe- 
 dition to Troy, later mythology represents 
 him as surviving the Trojan War, and as 
 restored to his kingdom by Diomedes on 
 the latter's flight from Argos. 
 
 (Enomaiis. Son of Ares and the Pleiad 
 Sterope, king of Pisa in Elis, father of 
 Hippodamia. He endeavoured to prevent 
 his daughter's marriage, either because he 
 loved her himself, or because an oracle had 
 predicted his death in the event of her 
 marriage. In consequence of this he im- 
 posed upon her suitors the condition that 
 they must contend with him in a race from 
 Pisa to the altar of Poseidon, on the 
 Corinthian isthmus : if he overtook them 
 with his horses, which were as swift as the 
 winds, he transfixed them with his spear. 
 
426 
 
 (ENONE OIL. 
 
 He had already slain thirteen (or, according 
 to another account, eighteen) suitors in this 
 way, when Pelops arrived. Pelops bribed 
 Myrtilus, the charioteer of CEnomaus. 
 Myrtilus accordingly either neglected to 
 insert the linch-pins in the chariot-wheels 
 or substituted waxen ones for them, and 
 Pelops, by the help of the horses which 
 Poseidon presented to him, succeeded in 
 defeating ffinomaus. CEnomaus died of the 
 fall from his chariot; according to another 
 story, he committed suicide (cp. Pelops). 
 
 (Enone. A nymph of mount Ida, bride of 
 Paris before he carried off Helen. In resent- 
 ment at her lover's faithlessness, she refused 
 to help him when he was mortally wounded ; 
 and, in her remorse at her refusal, ended by 
 hanging herself. 
 
 Officials, Official System, Magistrates. 
 Of all the official systems established among 
 the Greeks, that in vogue among the 
 Athenians is the best known to us. The 
 qualifications for public office at Athens 
 were genuine Athenian descent, blameless 
 life, and the full possession of civic rights. 
 If religious duties were attached to the 
 office, physical weakness was a disquali- 
 fication. No one was allowed to hold two 
 offices at a time, or the same office twice, 
 or for a longer period than a year. The 
 nomination was made in some cases by 
 election, in others by the drawing of lots. 
 Election took place by show of hands in 
 the ccdesta, or, on the mandate of the 
 ecclesia, in the assemblies of the several 
 tribes. (/See Cheirotonia, Ecclesia.) Elec- 
 tion by lot was introduced by Clisthenes 
 in B.C. 509, and the proceeding was as 
 follows. The Tliesmothetce presided in the 
 temple of Theseus. {See ThesmothetjE.) 
 Two boxes or vessels were placed there, 
 one containing white and coloured beans, 
 and the other the names of the candidates, 
 written on tablets. A tablet and a bean 
 were taken out at the same time, and the 
 candidate whose name came out with a 
 white bean was elected. Before entering 
 on his office (whether he had been chosen 
 by lot or election), every official had to 
 undergo an examination of his qualifica- 
 tions {ddktmdsm). If the result was 
 unfavourable, a substitute was appointed, 
 either by a simultaneous casting of lots in 
 the manner described, or (if the office was 
 elective) by a new election. During their 
 term of office the officials were subject to 
 constant supervision, and were liable to 
 suspension or deposition by the Ecclesia, 
 through the proceeding called epicheiro- 
 
 tonia (a new show of hands). On the expi- 
 ration of his term, every official was bound 
 to give an account of himself {euthijna). 
 The regular officials ' had each a place of 
 office {archeion). If the officials formed 
 a society, as in the majority of cases, the 
 business was (so far as joint administration 
 was possible) distributed among the mem- 
 bers. If the society appeared in public as 
 a whole, one of the members presided as 
 prytanis. (See Pkytanis.) In the cases 
 at law which came under their jurisdiction, 
 it was incumbent on the officials to make 
 the necessary arrangements for the trial, 
 and to preside in court. They received no 
 salary, but their meals were provided at 
 the public expense, either at their resi- 
 dences or in the Prytdnvum. The emblem 
 of office was a garland of myrtle. The 
 offence of insulting an official in the per- 
 formance of his duty was punishable with 
 dtJmia. (See, for details, ApoDECTiE, 
 Aechontes, Astynomi, Epimelet^, Cola- 
 
 CEET^, POLET^, StEATEGI, TaMIAS.) 
 
 There were numerous attendants on the 
 officials (hyper Stai), who received a salary, 
 and their meals at the public expense. 
 Such were the clerks (grammdteis) and 
 heralds (kerykes). For Sparta, see Ephoes ; 
 for Eome, Magisteatus, Accensi, Lictoes, 
 Appaeitoe. 
 
 Og^ges (Ogygus). One of the Boeotian 
 autochthones, or aborigines, son of BcEOtus 
 or (according to another account) of Posei- 
 don. He was king of the Hectenes, the 
 oldest inhabitants of Boeotia, which was 
 visited during his reign by an inundation of 
 Lake Copais, named after him the Ogygian 
 flood. 
 
 Oicles. Son of Antiphates, grandson of 
 Melampus, father of Amphiaraus. He fell 
 as a companion of Heracles in the battle 
 against Laomedon of Troy. 
 
 Oil was very extensively used in ancient 
 times. Apart from its use as an article of 
 food and for burning in lamps, it served 
 to anoint the body after the bath and in 
 the pdlcestra. The oil most used was that 
 obtained by means of olive presses from the 
 olive tree, which seems to have been trans- 
 planted from Syria to Greece and thence to 
 Italy. The best olive oil produced among 
 the Greek states was that of Attica ; here 
 the olive tree was considered a gift of the 
 national goddess Athene, who by means of 
 it had obtained the victory in her contest 
 
 ' Some were only appointed to carry oat special 
 duties on special occasions ; these were called 
 Epimeletai. 
 
OILEUS OLYMPIAN GAMES. 
 
 427 
 
 with Poseidon for the possession of the 
 country. Here also the olive tree was under 
 the special protection of the State ; no one 
 was allowed to cut down olive trees on his 
 own plot of land, except for specified pur- 
 poses, and then only a specified number. 
 Moreover many olive trees standing on pri- 
 vate ground were regarded as the property 
 of the goddess of the State, and it was 
 therefore forbidden on pain of death to cut 
 them down. They were under the special 
 control of the Areopagus, which had them 
 inspected from time to time by certain 
 officials, and they were farmed out by the 
 State [Lysias, Or. ix]. Part of the oil thus 
 obtained had to be sold by the farmer to the 
 State at a fixed price ; this was only used 
 for festive purposes, especially to be dis- 
 tributed in prizes to the victors in the Pan- 
 athenaic contests [Pindar, Nem. x 35]. 
 
 Inltaly the olive tree, which spread thence 
 to France and Spain, grew so well that the 
 Italian oil, especially from the neighbour- 
 hood of the South Italian cities Venafrum 
 and Tarentum, and that from the Sabine 
 coiintry, was considered the finest in the 
 world and so met with a ready sale abroad. 
 The best kind was considered to be oil from 
 unripe olives, especially the first from the 
 press [Pliny, N. H. xv 1-34]. The manu- 
 facture of fragrant oils and ointments, of 
 which the ancients made a far more exten- 
 sive use than ourselves, was very important. 
 There was a very large number of prepara- 
 tions of this kind which were used for 
 embrocations of the person, pomades for 
 the hair of the head and beard, for per- 
 fuming the dress, bath-water and the like. 
 They were prepared, some by a cold method, 
 some by a hot, by mixing oils pressed for 
 the most part from fruits, such as the oil of 
 olives, nuts, and almonds, with the volatile 
 oils derived froih native or oriental vege- 
 table substances. The most expensive kinds 
 were brought from the East, the birthplace 
 of this manufacture, as, for example, the 
 much-prized nardinum, pressed from the 
 flowers of the Indian and Arabian grass 
 nardus [Pliny, N. H. xiii 1-25]. For pre- 
 serving them vessels of stone were preferred, 
 especially those of alabaster [ib. § 19]. To 
 meet the demand, vast perfume manufac- 
 tories existed everywhere in abundance. 
 
 Oileiis. King of the Locrians, father of 
 the lesser Ajax (g-.f ., 1). 
 
 Olen. A mythical poet of Lycia belonging 
 to early Greek times, standing in connexion 
 with the worship of Apollo in Delos and 
 represented as having composed the first 
 
 hymns for the Delians. The legend which 
 was especially attributed to him was that 
 of Apollo's sojourn among the Hyperboreans. 
 
 OligarcMa ("Rule of the Few"). The 
 name given in Greek writers to that form 
 of constitution where a portion of the 
 community, privileged either by reason of 
 nobility of birth or of wealth, are exclu- 
 sively, or at least in preference to others, in 
 possession of power. The former case is an 
 example of an absolute despotism ; the latter 
 resulted where the magistracies, though 
 filled exclusively from the privileged classes, 
 nevertheless depended on popular election ; 
 or where the mass of the people possessed a 
 share in deliberation or in the drawing itp 
 of decrees, while to the privileged body 
 was reserved the right of making proposals, 
 convoking and presiding over the assem- 
 blies, and ratifying the decrees. 
 
 Olympiad (Gr. OlympMs). A period of four 
 years from one celebration of the Olympian 
 games {see Olympian Games) to another. 
 The Olympiads were counted from the vic- 
 tory of Corcebus (776 B.C.) ; the last, the 
 283rd, ended 394 A.D., with the abolition 
 of the Olympian games. This method of 
 reckoning never passed into everyday life, 
 but is of importance, inasmuch as, through 
 the historian Timseus, about 240 B.C., it 
 became the one generally used by the Greek 
 historians. 
 
 Olympian Games (Gr. Olympid). The 
 chief national festival of the Greeks, which 
 was celebrated in honour of Zeus at Olympia, 
 in the Peloponnesian district Pisatis, be- 
 longing to the Eleans, at the point where 
 the Gladeus runs into the Alpheus. The 
 institution of this ancient festival is some- 
 times referred to Pisus, the mythical founder 
 of the city Pisa, which was afterwards de- 
 stroyed by the Eleans, and before whose 
 gates lay the sanctuary of Zeus ; sometimes 
 to Pelops, in whose honour funeral games 
 were held at this point on the banks of the 
 Alp'heus. 
 
 These were restored, it is said, by Hera- 
 cles, who instituted the regular order of the 
 festival. This opinion did not become cur- 
 rent until the Dorian States, established 
 after the immigration of the Heraclidse into 
 the Peloponnesus, had been admitted to a 
 share in the festival, which was originally 
 frequented only by the Pisatans and their 
 immediate neighbours. This admission 
 dates from Lycurgus of Sparta and Iphitus 
 of Elis, who, at the direction of the Delphic 
 oracle, restored the festival of Zeus, now 
 fallen into oblivion, and established the 
 
OLYMPIAN GAMES. 
 
 429 
 
 sacred Truce of God {see Ekecheiria), 
 which insured a safe conduct at the time 
 of _ the festival for all strangers resorting 
 thither, even through hostile territory. In 
 course of time the membership extended 
 itself further, over all the Hellenic states in 
 and out of Greece ; and the festival was not 
 only visited by private individuals, but also 
 received sacred envoys from the several 
 states. Through all the assaults of time it 
 lasted on, even during the Roman rule, and 
 was not abolished imtil 394 A.D., under the 
 reign of TheodSsius. 
 
 From the time of the above-mentioned 
 restoration by Iphitus and Lycurgus it was 
 a quinquennial celebration ; that is, it was 
 held once in every four years, in midsum- 
 mer (July to August), about the beginning 
 or end of the Greek year. A regular and 
 continuous list of the victors was kept from 
 776, when Coroebus won the race in the 
 
 the temples of Zeus, Hera (Heraion), the 
 Mother of the Gods (MetrOdn), and the holy 
 inclosure of Pelops (FSlOpidn), besides a 
 multitude of altars consecrated some to 
 gods and some to heroes, and a countless 
 host of dedicatory offerings and statues of 
 every kind, among them, south-east of the 
 temple of Zeus, the NicS of Pseonius {q.v.). 
 
 The temple of Zeus, which was begun 
 about 572 B.C. by the Elean Libo, was not 
 completed in its main outline until about 
 450. It was a Doric hypsethral building 
 {i.e. it had no roof over the cella, or temple 
 proper) ; it was also peripteral {i.e. it was 
 surrounded by a single row of columns). It 
 was built of the local conchyliferous lime- 
 stone [called poros by Pausanias, v 10 § 2]. 
 In its more finished parts it was overlaid 
 with fine stucco, giving the appearance of 
 marble, and was also richly decorated with 
 colour. It was 210 feet in length, 91 in 
 
 (1) EASTERN PEDIMENT OP THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS AT OLTMPIA J DESIGNED BY P^ONIUS. 
 
 (Contest between Pelops and CBaomaiis.) 
 
 (2) WESTERN PEDIMENT OF THE TEMPLE OP ZEUS AT OLYMPIA J DESIGNED BY ALCAMENES. 
 
 (Battle between the Centaurs and Lapithse.) 
 
 stdditlm, and with this year begins the 
 Olympiad reckoning prevalent among the 
 historians from the time of Timseus. The 
 duration of the festival was in course of 
 time extended to at least five days. 
 
 The place where the festival was cele- 
 brated was the AUis {see Plan), a sacred 
 precinct at the foot of the hill of Cronus 
 {Krdnds), 403 feet high. The precinct, which 
 Was about 750 feet long by 570 feet broad, 
 was surrounded by a wall ascribed to HerS^ 
 cles, having entrances at the N.W. and S.W. 
 The centre, both by position and by reli- 
 gious association, was formed by the great 
 sacrificial altar of Zeus, which rose on an 
 elliptical base 128 feet in circumference 
 t6 a height of 32 feet, and was composed 
 of the ashes of the victims mingled with 
 the water of the Alphetts. Bound it Were 
 grouped the four most important sanctuaries. 
 
 bi'eadth, and 65 in height. The outer hall 
 had 6 columns along its breadth and 13 
 along its length (each 34 feet high), while 
 the inner hall had a double row of 9 columns. 
 The eastern pediment was occupied by a re- 
 presentation of the contest between Pelops 
 and (Enoinaus, with Zeus as the centre (fig. 
 1) ; the Western, by one of the battle between 
 the Centaurs and Lapithse, with Apollo as 
 centre (fig. 2). The former was designed by 
 the already-mentioned PaBonius ; the latter, 
 by AlcSmenes of Athens. 
 
 The accompanying cuts indicate the 
 figures belonging to the two pediments, 
 so far as their fragmentary portions were 
 recovered in the excavations begun by 
 the Germans in 1875. [While the outer 
 metopes beneath these pediments had no 
 ornament except a large plain boss on 
 each, twelve other metopes sculptured 
 
430 
 
 OLYMPIAN GAMES. 
 
 with reliefs used to adorn tlie outer 
 walls at eacli end of the cella or temple 
 proper, six over the door of the prondos, 
 and six over that of the dpisthodomds. 
 All of these have been discovered : four 
 by the French in 1829, and eight by the 
 Germans in 1875-9. Their subjects 
 are the labours of Heracles. The best 
 preserved of the series, and one of 
 them which, as compared with the 
 rest, is apparently the work of a 
 mature and well- trained school of 
 sculpture, is that representing He- 
 racles bearing the heavens. Atlas 
 stands by, offering to Heracles the 
 apples of the Hesperides, and on the 
 other side one of the daughters of 
 Atlas is touching the hero's burden 
 with her arm, as though endeavouring 
 to aid him in sustaining it (fig. 3).] 
 In the chamber at the western end of 
 the cella stood the greatest work of 
 Greek art, wrought in gold and ivory 
 by Phidias {q.v.). Outside the sacred 
 inclosure, though still in direct con- 
 nexion with it, were, to the west, the 
 Gymnasium^ and to the east the 
 Hippodrovie and the Stddtum. [The 
 Hippodrovie has been washed away 
 by the encroachments of the Alpheus. 
 The Stadium^ which was 600 Olympic 
 feet in length, has been excavated to 
 an extent sufficient to determine the 
 length of the single course, between 
 the starting-place and the goal, to be 192'27 
 metres =630-81845073 English feet. The 
 Olympic foot therefore measured '3204 of 
 a metre = 1-05120036 feet. The parallel 
 grooves in the slabs of stone at each end of 
 the Stcfdium still show the spot where the 
 feet of the competitors in 
 the footrace were planted 
 at the moment immediately 
 preceding the start. There 
 is room for 20 at either end, 
 separated from one another 
 by posts at intervals of four 
 Olympic feet from one another (fig. 4).] 
 
 The festival consisted of two parts: (1) 
 the presentation of offerings, chiefly of 
 course to Zeus, but also to the other gods 
 and heroes, on the part of the Eleans, the 
 sacred embassies and other visitors to the 
 feast ; and (2) the contests. In the first 
 Olympiad the contest consisted of a gimple 
 match in the Stadium (race-course) which 
 had a length of a trifle more than 210 
 yards. The runners ran in heats of four, 
 and then the winners in each heat com- 
 
 peted together, the first in the final heat 
 being proclaimed vietor. About 724 B.C. 
 the double course (diaulds) was introduced, 
 in which the runners had to make a circuit 
 of the goal and return to the startiag-point ; 
 about 720 came the ddltchds or long itace, 
 
 HERACLES. 
 
 (3) 
 
 ONE OF THE METOPES OF THE TEMPLE OF ZEUS 
 AT OLTMPIA. 
 
 (Reduced from Overbeck's Gr. Plasfifc, fig. 93.) 
 
 where the distance of the stadium had to 
 be covered either 6, 7, 8, 12, 20, or 29 times 
 [Scholiast on Soph., Electra 691]; in 708, 
 the pentathlon, or five-fold contest, con- 
 sisting of leaping, running, quoit {diskos) 
 and spear-throwing, and wrestling (the last 
 
 •^ V - ^ 
 
 5 P 
 
 L 
 
 .'W': 
 
 :r:r 
 
 (4) 
 
 THE STAKTING-PLACE IK THE STADIUM AT OLYMPIA. 
 
 being also practised by itself) ; in 688, box- 
 ing. In 680 chariot-racing on the Hippo- 
 drome was introduced, and, though this 
 was twice as long as the Stadium, it had 
 to be traversed from eight to twelve times 
 in both directions (at first with four horses, 
 after 500 with mules, and after 408 with 
 two horses). Prom 648 there were races, 
 in which the horsemen, towards the end of 
 the race, had to leap from their horses and 
 run beside them with the bridle in their 
 hands. With the same year began the 
 
OLYMPIAN GAMES. 
 
 431 
 
 practice of tlie pancvdtton (a combination 
 of wrestling and boxing); with 520, the 
 race in armour, with helmet, greaves and 
 shield, though afterwards the shield alone 
 was carried. Competitions between heralds 
 and trumpeters also found a place here. 
 Originally it was only men who took part 
 in the contests ; but after 632, boys also 
 shared in them. 
 
 The contests were open only to freemen 
 of pure Hellenic descent, provided that no 
 personal disgrace had in any way attached 
 to them; but, after the Romans came into 
 closer relationship with Greece, they were 
 opened to them also, and indeed (as is well 
 known) the Romans were not officially con- 
 sidered barbarians. Even to barbarians 
 however, and to slaves, permission was 
 given to view them, while it was refused 
 to all married women [Pausanias, vi 20, 
 § 9], or more probably all women what- 
 soever, except the priestess of Demeter, 
 who even i-eoeived a place of honour among 
 the spectators. Those who took part in 
 the competitions had to take a solemn oath 
 at the altar of Zeus to the effect that they 
 had spent at least ten months in prepara- 
 tion for the games, and that they would 
 not resort to any unfair trick in the course 
 of their contest: this oath was taken for 
 boy competitors by an older relative. 
 Special practice for thirty days at Elis was 
 also usual, but probably only for those who 
 were coming forward for the first time. 
 The duties of heralds and judges were dis- 
 charged by the Helldnodici, appointed by 
 popular election from among the Eleans 
 themselves. Their number rose in course 
 of time from 1 to 2, 9, 10, and 12, but after 
 348 it was always 10. Distinguished by 
 purple robes, wreaths of bay-leaves, and a 
 seat of honour opposite the Stadium, they 
 kept guard over the strict observance of 
 all the minute regulations for the contests, 
 and in general maintained order. In these 
 duties they were supported by a number of 
 attendants provided with staves. Trans- 
 gressions of the laws of the games, and 
 unfairness on the part of competitors, were 
 punished by forfeiture of the prize or by 
 fines of money, which went to the revenue 
 of the temple. Out of the money from 
 penalties of this kind, a whole row of 
 bronze images of Zeus (called zdnSs) was 
 erected in front of the eleven treasure- 
 houses along the eastern end of the northern 
 wall of the Altis. 
 
 The games were opened with the sound 
 of trumpets and the proclamation of 
 
 heralds, the marshalling of the various 
 competitors in the Stadium, accompanied 
 by the announcement of their name and 
 countrj' by the herald, and the appointment 
 by lot of the pairs of combatants. The 
 victors in the several pairs of competitors 
 had then apparently to contend in couples 
 with each other until one couple alone 
 remained, and the winner in this was 
 declared victor. If the number of com- 
 batants had been uneven, so that one of 
 them had remained without an opponent, 
 he had finally to meet this rival. The con- 
 tests were accompanied by the music of 
 flutes. The name of the victor (and one, 
 whom no adversary had come forward to 
 meet, counted for victor), as well as his 
 home, were proclaimed aloud by the herald, 
 and a palm-branch presented to him by the 
 Helldnddici. The actual prize he only 
 received at the general and solemn distri- 
 bution on the last day of the festival. This 
 was originally some article of value, but, 
 at the command of the Delphic oracle, this 
 custom was dropped, and the victors were 
 graced by a wreath of the leaves of the 
 sacred wild olive, said to have been origi- 
 nally planted bj' Heracles, which had been 
 cut with a golden knife by a boy of noble 
 family with both parents living. After 
 about 540 the victors also possessed the 
 right to put up statues of themselves in 
 the Altis. 
 
 The festival ended with a sacrifice made 
 by the victors wearing their crowns at the 
 six double altars of the hill of Cronus, and 
 with a banquet in the Prytdneum of the 
 Altis. Brilliant distinctions awaited the 
 victor on his return home, for his victory 
 was deemed to have reflected honour on 
 his native land at large. He made his 
 entry, clad in purple, upon a chariot drawn 
 by four white horses, amidst the joyous 
 shouts of all the people, and then rode amid 
 an exultant escort to the temple of the 
 highest god, and there deposited his wreath 
 as a votive offering. During the ride, as 
 also at the banquet which followed there- 
 upon, the song of victory, often composed 
 by the most celebrated poets, was chanted 
 by choral bands. There was no lack of 
 other rewards : at Athens the Olympian 
 victor received 500 drachmce, the right to 
 a place of honour at all public games, and 
 board in the Prytaneum for the rest of 
 his life. The opportunity afforded by the 
 assembling of so vast a crowd from all 
 parts of Greece at Olympia was utilized, 
 from about the middle of the 5th century 
 
432 
 
 OLYMPIEUM. 
 
 before Ckrist, by auttors, orators, poets, and 
 artists, to make themselves known in tke 
 widest circles by the recital or exhibition 
 of their works. When the compliment of a 
 crown was offered by one state to another, 
 the distinction was made generally known 
 by being proclaimed by the heralds at the 
 Olympian Games. ^ « 
 
 [Olympieum (Gr. Olympleion). The temple 
 of Zeus Olympius in the southern quarter 
 of Athens, between the AcrSpolis and the 
 Ilissus. It was built on the site of an 
 ancient temple of Zeus ascribed to Deu" 
 calion. The building was begun after 535 
 B.C., under the tyrant Pisistratus, but was 
 suspended on the expulsion of his son 
 Hippias, B.C. 510. Its original architecture 
 was probably Doric. The names of the 
 architects were Antistates, Callseschrus, 
 Antimachides, and Porinus. It was con'- 
 tinued in the Corinthian style under the 
 Syrian king Antiochus Epiphanes (B.C. 
 175-164), who employed for the purpose a 
 Roman architect, Cossutius. It was com- 
 pleted by the Roman emperor Hadrian, 
 probably between a.d. 125 and 130, the 
 year of its dedication. On this occasion 
 an oration was delivered by the famoiis 
 rhetorician Polemon, and Olympic games 
 instituted on the model of those at Olympia, 
 The emperor identified himself with Zeus 
 and assumed the title of Olympius, causing 
 a statue of himself to be placed in the 
 temple and claiming divine honours from 
 the priests. The first of these priests was 
 the celebrated Herodes Atticus {q-v.). 
 When Pausanias visited Athens about 170 
 A.D., the temple had been recently finished. 
 He gives no description of the fabric, but 
 states that the image of the god was of 
 enormous size, only excelled by the colossi 
 of Rhodes and Rome (i 18 § 6-8). It was 
 of gold and ivory, and on its base were 
 reliefs representing the battle of the 
 Athenians with the Amazons (i 17 § 2). 
 In the precinct a great number of statues 
 of Hadrian were erected by the cities of the 
 Greek world ; the largest of these, that 
 erected by Athens, stood at the west end of 
 the temple. Among the statues of earlier 
 date was one of Isocrates. There was also 
 a fine group consisting of some Persians 
 upholding a bronze tripod, and also an 
 archaic bronze statue of Zeus. Lastly, in 
 the precinct there was a temple of Cronus 
 and Rhea, the sacred inclosure of which 
 extended down to the Ilissus. 
 
 Some of the Doric columns of the original 
 building were carried oif to Rome by Sulla 
 
 in 86 B.C. to adorn the temple of Jupiter 
 CdpUoltnus. In respect to its architecture 
 the temple must be regarded as mainly the 
 work of the 2nd century B.C. rather than 
 the 2nd century a.d. The building was 
 octostyle, dipteral, and probably hypeethral. 
 As designed by Cossutius in the former 
 century, it must have possessed more than 
 100 Corinthian columns, arranged in double 
 rows of 20 each on the north and south 
 sides, and in triple rows of 8 each at the 
 ends. The columns were of Pentelic 
 marble, 56 s^ feet high, and 5-6 j feet in 
 diameter. The ruins in their present con- 
 dition consist of 16 columns in two groups. 
 To the east stand 13, which are compara- 
 tively intact, and for the most part bear 
 their architraves. About 100 feet to the 
 west are three others, two still erect ; the 
 third was overthrown by a storm in 1852, 
 The excavations of 1861 showed that the 
 temple did not lie in the centre of the pre' 
 cinct) but considerably nearer its northern 
 wall. 
 
 The temple of the era of Pisistratus is 
 mentioned by Thucydides (ii 5) as one of 
 the old temples in the southern part of the 
 city. In respect to its origin, as well as 
 its vast dimensions, Aristotle {Pol. v 11) 
 compares it to the works of the dynasty 
 of Cypselus at Corinth, the Pyramids of 
 Egypt, and the public buildings erected 
 by Polycr&tes of Samos. As a monument 
 of tyranny it was naturally left unfinished 
 by democratical Athens. Livy (xli 20 
 § 8) describes it as unum in terris in- 
 cohatum pro inagnitUdine dei. In allu- 
 sion to the long time during which it 
 remained uncompleted, Lucian {Icaromen. 
 24) represents Zeus as getting impatient to 
 know when the Athenians intended to finish 
 his temple. Lastly, Vitruvius (vii prcef. 
 15-17) mentions it as one of the four most 
 famous examples of marble architecture. 
 
 The ruins were first identified by a Prus- 
 sian archaeologist, Transfeldt, in 1673-4, 
 and independently by Stuart and Revett, 
 whose great work on the Antiquities of 
 Athens was published in 1762-1816. The 
 first description pretending to any accuracy 
 of detail was in the letter sent from 
 Smyrna by Francis Vernon in 1676 and 
 published in Spon's Voyage. The site has 
 been explored in recent times by Rhuso-- 
 pulos in 1861 {Ephemeris Arch., 1862, pp. 
 31 _^.), and Penrose {Journal of Hellenic 
 Studies, viii 272, and Principles of 
 Athenian Architecture, new ed.). A com- 
 prehensive monograph on the subject by 
 
OLYMPUS— ONESICRITUS. 
 
 433 
 
 L. Bevier is included in the Papers of the 
 American Classical School at Athens, 1885, 
 vol. i 183-222.] [J. E. S.] 
 
 Olympus. (1) A mountain situated in 
 Tkessaly, the summit of which [nearly 
 10,000 feet above the sea] rises from the 
 region of the earth's atmosphere into the skj', 
 and was, according to the earliest popular 
 belief of the Greeks, the abode of the higher 
 (hence named Olympian) gods. Below the 
 summit, which, according to Homer's 
 description, is never ruffled by winds or 
 drenched with rain, but is always radiant 
 in cloudless splendour [Od. vi 42-45], comes 
 the region of clouds, which Zeus at one time 
 gathers together and at another dispels ; it 
 forms the boundary between the celestial 
 region and that of the earth, and accordingly 
 Homer elsewhere implies that the clouds 
 are the gates of heaven, which are guarded 
 by the Hours [II. v 749]. On the highest 
 peak Zeus has his throne, and it is there 
 that he summons the assemblies of the gods. 
 The abodes of the other gods were imagined 
 to be placed on the precipices and in the 
 ravines of the mountain. When the height 
 of the vault of heaven came to be regarded 
 as the abode of the gods, the name Olympus 
 was transferred to the sky. 
 
 (2) One of the mythic poets and musicians 
 belonging to Phrygian mythology, pupil of 
 Marsyas. The art of flute-playing, invented 
 by Marsyas, was supposed to have been per- 
 fected by Olympus. A Phrygian family, 
 in which the art of flute-playing was here- 
 ditary, traced their descent from him. The 
 Phrygian Olympus, who lived about the 7th 
 century before Christ, invented the auletic 
 n6m6s (q.v.), and brought it into esteem 
 among the Asiatic Greeks, was said to have 
 been descended from the mythical Olympus. 
 
 Omen. The Roman term for a favour- 
 able or unfavourable sign, especially a word 
 spoken by chance, so far as it drew the at- 
 tention of the hearers to itself and appeared 
 to be a prognostic. An omen could be ac- 
 cepted or repudiated, and even taken in an 
 arbitrary sense, except in the case of words 
 which already had in themselves a favour- 
 able or unfavourable signification. For 
 example, when Crassus was embarking on 
 his unfortunate expedition against the Par- 
 thians, and a man in the harbour was selling 
 dry figs from Gaunus with the cry CaunSas, 
 which sounded like cave ne eas, " beware of 
 going," this was an evil omen [Cic, De Div. 
 ii 84]. On festal occasions care was taken 
 to pro'tect oneself from such omens ; for 
 example, when sacrifice was being made, by 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 veiling the head, by commanding silence, 
 and by music that drowned any word 
 spoken. People were particularly careful 
 at solemn addresses, new year greetings, 
 and the like. On the other hand, for the 
 sake of the good omen, it was usual to open 
 levies and censuses by calling out those 
 names that were of good import, such as 
 Valerius (from vdlerS, to be strong), Salvlus 
 (from solvere, to be well), etc. [Cic, Pro 
 Scauro, 30. The word omen probably 
 means a voice or utterance]. 
 
 Omphale. Daughter of lardanus, widow 
 of Tmolus, and queen of Lydia, with whom 
 Heracles spent three years in bondage. {See 
 Heracles.) 
 
 Omphalds. A marble boss in the temple 
 of Apollo at Delphi, which was regarded 
 as the centre of the earth. {See Delphic 
 Ohacle.) 
 
 Onager. A catapult for hurling stones. 
 {See further, Aetilleey.) 
 
 Onatas. A Greek artist, the chief repre- 
 sentative of theiE^inetan school of sculpture 
 in bronze, about 460 B.C. Besides statues of 
 the gods, such as an Apollo at PergamSn, 
 admired for its size and execution [Pau- 
 sanias, viii 42 § 7], we hear of groups of 
 his, rich in figures, drawn either from the 
 heroic epoch, as for example the ten Oreek 
 heroes casting lots as to who should under- 
 take the battle with Hector [ib. v 25 § 8] ; 
 or from contemporary history, such as the 
 votive offering of the Tarentines, containing 
 equestrian and pedestrian combatants, and 
 consecrated at Delphi for their victory over 
 the barbarian Peucetians [ib. x 13 § 10]. 
 He also executed a group representing HlSro 
 of Syracuse with the chariot in which he 
 had been victorious at Olympia [ib. viii 42 
 § 8]. [His most remarkable work was the 
 bronze figure of the black Demeter, in a 
 cavern thirty stadia from Phigaieia in the 
 south-east corner of Elis {ib. viii 42).] 
 
 Onesandms (wrongly Onosandrus). A 
 Greek philosopher, the composer of a work 
 dedicated to Q. Veranius, consul in 49 a.d., 
 and dealing with the Duty of a General, in 
 which he treats the subject in philosophical 
 commonplaces, without any practical ac- 
 quaintance with it, and simply from an 
 ethical point of view. 
 
 Onesicritus. A Greek historian, of the 
 island of Astypalsea or ^Egina. In ad- 
 vanced years he was a pupil of the Cynic 
 DiSgenes, and then accompanied Alexander 
 the Great upon his expedition. By order of 
 Alexander he investigated, with Nearchus, 
 the route by sea from India to the mouths 
 
 FF 
 
434 
 
 ONIE.OCRITICE — -ORACLES, 
 
 of the Euphrates and Tigris. He after- 
 wards lived at the court of Lysimachus, 
 king of Thrace. During Alexander's life 
 he began a comprehensive history of that 
 personage, which fell into disrepute owing 
 to its exaggerations and its false accounts 
 of distant lands [Strabo, p. 628]. Only 
 scanty fragments of^it are preserved. 
 
 Onirocritice (Gr. Oneirokrltike). The art 
 of interpreting dreams. ((See Mantike and 
 Dreams.) 
 
 Oniros (Greek Oneiros). The god of 
 dreams {q.v.). 
 
 Onomacritus. An Athenian, who lived 
 at the court of Pisistratus and his sons. 
 At the request of Pisistratus, he prepared 
 an edition of the Homeric poems. He was 
 an industrious collector, and also a forger 
 of old oracles and poems. Those which go 
 under the name of Orpheus are regarded as, 
 for the most part, concocted by himself. He 
 was detected in forging an oracle of Mus9eus, 
 and banished from Athens by the Pisistra- 
 tidse ; but he was afterwards reconciled to 
 them, and in their interest induced Xerxes, 
 by alleged oracular responses, to decide 
 upon his war with Greece [Herodotus, viii 6]. 
 
 Onosandrus. ^S^ee Onesandeus. 
 
 Opalia and OpSconsiva. Feasts of the 
 Roman goddess Ops (q.v.). 
 
 Opheltes. Son of king Lycurgus of Nemea. 
 He was killed by a serpent at the time of 
 the expedition of the Seven against Thebes 
 (q.v.), owing to the negligence of his nurse 
 Hypsipyle (q.v.), who laid the boy on the 
 g.ra,ss while she showed the thirsty heroes 
 the way to a spring of water. It was in his 
 memory that the Nemean games were ori- 
 ginally celebrated, and he was worshipped 
 there under the name Archemorus (q.v.), 
 given him by the seer Amphiaraus. 
 
 Opisthodomus (lit. a back chamber). The 
 room which in many Greek temples adjoined 
 the temple chamber itself at the rear, and 
 which often served for the preserving of the 
 temple treasure, and indeed even of the 
 State moneys. Per the latter purpose the 
 Athenians used the opisthodomus [of the 
 old temple of Athene, and afterwards (ac- 
 cording to the ordinary view) the western 
 chamber] of the Parthenon at Athens [Aris- 
 toph, Phitns, 1192 ; Dem. Syntax. 14 ; 
 Timocr. 136]. (See Temple, and plan of 
 
 ACEOPOLIS.) 
 
 Oppiau. A Greek didactic poet, of Ana- 
 zarbus in Cilicia. In the second half of 
 the 2nd century A.D., under the emperor 
 Marcus Aurelius, he composed a didactic 
 poem Hdlieutlca in five books, on the 
 
 habits of fishes and the method of cap- 
 turing them. It is written in an ornate, 
 though often bombastic, style. He was 
 formerly confounded with Oppian, the 
 author of a didactic poem on the Chase, 
 consisting of four books, and entitled Cync- 
 gStica, written in a harsh, dry style, and 
 in halting verse. The author of the Cyne- 
 getiea lived under Caracalla about the end 
 of the 2nd century, and came from Apamea 
 in Syria. A poem on bird-catching, Ixeu- 
 tica, preserved to us only in a paraphrase 
 by Eutecnius, was also wrongly ascribed 
 to the author of the Hdlieutlca. 
 
 Ops (abundance, plenty). The old Italian 
 goddess of fertility, wife of Saturn, with 
 whom she shared the temple on the Capitol 
 and _^the festival of the Saturnalia, while 
 the Opalia were held in her honour on the 
 19th December. As goddess of sowing and 
 reaping she had, under the name Conslvia, 
 on August 25th a special festival, the Ope- 
 consiva, at which however only the Vestals 
 and one of the pontifices could be present. 
 As her abode was in the earth, her wor- 
 shippers invoked her while seated and 
 touching the ground [Macrobius, Satur- 
 nalia, i 10], Just as Saturn was identified 
 with Cronus, so Ops was afterwards iden- 
 tified with Rhea, and then, as mother of 
 Jupiter, honoured along with Jupiter him- 
 self on the Capitol. 
 
 Optatianus. See Porfirius. 
 
 Optimates (J-it. " those belonging to the 
 best or noblest"). At Rome, in the last 
 century of the Republic, this title was 
 borne by the adherents of the " best " men 
 in a political sense (i.e. the conservatives), 
 working in the interests of the Senate 
 and the aristocracy ^ of office (noMles, see 
 Nobility), and in opposition to the demo- 
 crats (populdres). 
 
 Oracles (Gr. manteid, "oracular responses,'' 
 or the " seats of oracles " ; chresterid is used 
 in the same senses, and also of victims 
 offered by those consulting an oracle). The 
 seats of the worship of some special divi- 
 nity, where prophecies were imparted with 
 the sanction of the divinity, either by the 
 priests themselves or with their co-opera- 
 tion. There were a great many such places 
 in all Greek countries, and these may be 
 divided, according to the method in which 
 the prophecy was made known, into four 
 main divisions : (1) oral oracles, (2) oracles 
 by signs, (3) oracles by dreams, and (4) 
 oracles of the dead. 
 
 The most revered oracles were those of 
 the first class, where the divinity, almost in- 
 
OEACLES. 
 
 435 
 
 variably tlie seer-god Apollo, orally revealed 
 his will through the lips of inspired prophets 
 or prophetesses. The condition of frenzy 
 was produced for the most part by physical 
 influence : the breathing of earthly vapours 
 or drinking of the water of oracular foun- 
 tains. The words spoken whilst in this state 
 were generally fashioned by the priests into 
 a reply to the questions proposed to them. 
 The most famous oracle of this kind was 
 that of Delphi (see Delphic Oracle). Be- 
 side this there existed in Greece Proper a 
 large number of oracles of Apollo, as at Abse 
 in Phocis, in different places of Boeotia, in 
 EubcBa, and at Argos, where the priestess 
 derived her inspiration from drinking the 
 blood of a lamb, one being killed every 
 month. Not less numerous were the oracles 
 of Apollo in Asia Minor. Among these 
 that of the Didymsean Apollo at Miletus 
 traced its origin to the old family of the 
 Branchidse, the descendants of Apollo's son 
 Branchus. Before its destruction by Xerxes, 
 it came nearest to the reputation of the Del- 
 phian. Here it was a priestess who pro- 
 phesied, seated on a wheel-shaped disc, after 
 she had bathed the hem of her robe and her 
 feet in a spring, and had breathed the steam 
 arising from it. The oracle at Clarus near 
 Colophon (see Manto) was also very ancient. 
 Here a priest, after simply hearing the 
 names and the number of those consulting 
 the oracle, drank of the water of a spring, 
 and then gave answer in verse. 
 
 The most respected among the oracles 
 where prophecy was given by signs was 
 that of Zeus of Dodona (q.v.), mentioned 
 as early as Homer [Od. xiv 327 = xix 
 296], where predictions were made from 
 the rustling of the sacred oak, and at a 
 later time from the sound of a brazen 
 cymbal. Another mode of interpreting by 
 signs, as practised especially at the temple 
 of Zeus at Olympia by the lamidse, or 
 descendants of lamus, a son of Apollo, was 
 that derived from the entrails of victims 
 and the burning of the sacrifices on the 
 altar. There were also oracles connected 
 with the lot or dice, one especially at the 
 temple of HerScles at Bura in Aohsea ; and 
 prophecies were also delivered at Delphi by 
 means of lots, probably only at times when 
 the Pythia was not giving responses. The 
 temple of the Egyptian Ammon, who was 
 identified with Zeus, also gave oracles by 
 means of signs. 
 
 Oracles given in dreams were generally 
 connected with the temples of Asclepius. 
 After certain preliminary rites, sick per- 
 
 sons had to sleep in these temples ; the 
 priests interpreted their dreams, and dic- 
 tated accordingly the means to be taken to 
 insure recovery. The most famous of these 
 oracular shrines of the healing god was the 
 temple at Epidaurus, and next to this the 
 temple founded thence at PergSmum in 
 Asia Minor. Equally famous were the 
 similar oracles of the seer AmphiSraus at 
 Oropus, of Trophonius at Lebadea in Boeotia, 
 and of the seers Mopsus and Amphilochus 
 at Mallus in Cilicia (q.v.). In later times 
 such oracles were connected with all sanc- 
 tuaries of Isis and Serapis. 
 
 At oracles of the dead {psych5manteia) 
 the souls of deceased persons were evoked in 
 order to give the information desired. Thus 
 in Homer [Od. xi] Odysseus betakes himself 
 to the entrance of the lower world to ques- 
 tion the spirit of the seer Tirgsias. Oracles 
 of this kind were especially common in 
 places where it was supposed there was an 
 entrance to the lo_wer world ; as at the city 
 of Cichyrus in Epirus (where there was 
 an Acherusian lake as well as the rivers 
 of Acheron and Cocytus, bearing the same 
 names as those of the world below), at the 
 promontory of Tsenarum in Laconia, at Hera- 
 clea in Pontus, and at Lake Avernus near 
 Cumae in Italy. At most of them oracles 
 were also given in dreams ; but there were 
 some in which the inquirer was in a waking 
 condition when he conjured up the spirits 
 whom he wished to question. 
 
 While oracles derived either from dreams 
 or from the dead were chosen in preference 
 by superstitious people, the most important 
 among oral oracles and those given by means 
 of signs had a political significance. On all 
 serious occasions they were questioned on 
 behalf of the State in order to ascertain the 
 divine will : this was especially the case with 
 the oracle of Delphi (see Delphic Oracle). 
 In consequence of the avarice and partisan- 
 ship of the priests, as well as the increasing 
 decline of belief in the gods, the oracles 
 gradually fell into abeyance, to revive again 
 everywhere under the Roman emperors, 
 though they never regained the political 
 importance they had once had in ancient 
 Greece. 
 
 Such investigation of the divine will was 
 originally quite foreign to the Romans. 
 Even the mode of prophecying by means 
 of lots (see Sortes), practised in isolated 
 regions of Italy, and even in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of Rome, as at CBsre, and 
 especially at Prseneste, did not come into 
 use, at all events for State purposes, and was 
 
436 
 
 ORCHESTIC^ORESTES. 
 
 generally regarded -with contempt. The 
 iiomans did not consult even the Sibylline 
 verses in order to forecast the future. On 
 the other hand, the growth of superstition 
 in the imperial period not only brought the 
 native oracles into repute, but caused a 
 general resort to foreign oracles besides. 
 The inclination to this kind of prophecy 
 seems never to have been more generally 
 spread among the masses of the people than 
 at this time. Apart from the Greek oracular 
 deities, there were the oriental deities 
 whose worship was nearly everywhere com^ 
 bined with predictions. In most of the 
 famous sanctuaries the most various forms 
 of prophecy were represented, and the 
 stranger they were, the better they were 
 liked. In the case of the oral oracles the 
 responses in earlier times were for the most 
 part composed in verse : On the decay of 
 poetic productiveness, they began to take 
 the form of prose, or of passages from the 
 poets, the Greeks generally adopting lines 
 of Homer or Euripides, the Italians, lines 
 of Vergil. The public declaration of oracles 
 ended with the official extermination -of 
 paganism under Theodosius at the end of 
 the 4th century. 
 Orchestic. See Dancing. 
 Orchestra. The space of the Greek 
 theatre situated in front of the stage, in 
 which the chorus went through its evolu- 
 tions. In the Roman theatre it was ab-- 
 sorbed in the area occupied by the audience. 
 {See Theatre.) 
 
 Orcus. In Roman mythology, a peculiar 
 divinity of, the dead, a creation of the 
 popular beliefs. He carried men off to the 
 lower world, and kept the dead imprisoned 
 there. TTis name, like that of the Greek 
 Hades, served to denote the lower world. 
 {Cj}. Dis Pater. )^ 
 
 Oreads (Gr. Oreiddes). The mountain 
 Nymphs. {See Nymphs.) 
 
 Oreibasios (Lat. Onbatdus) of Pergamum, 
 physician and adviser of the emperor Julian 
 the Apostate, after whose death (363 a.d.) 
 he was banished by his successors Valens 
 and Valentinianus, and lived among the bar- 
 barians. He was afterwards recalled. He 
 seems not to have died before the beginning 
 of the 5 th century. At the suggestion of 
 Julian he composed, on the plan of abstracts 
 from earlier w^orks, a medical treatise 
 {Syndgoge Idtvlke) in 72 books, of which 
 some 22 are preserved, partly in the Greek 
 original and partly in a Latin rendering. 
 He himself prepared for his son Eustathius 
 a conspectus {Synopsis) of the larger work 
 
 I in 9 books, only part of which has been 
 published. 
 
 Orestes. The youngest child and only 
 son of Agamemnon and Clytsemnestra. In 
 Homer [Od. iii 306] it is only stated that 
 in the eighth year after the murder of his 
 father, who was never able to see him again 
 after his return home, he came back from 
 Athens and took a bloody vengeance on 
 iEgisthus and his mother. In later legend 
 he is described as doomed to death, but saved 
 from his father's murderers by his nurse 
 Arsinoe Or his sister Electra, and brought 
 by a trusty slave to Phanote on Parnassus 
 to king Strophius, husband of Anaxibia, the 
 sister of Agamemnon. Here he lives in the 
 most intimate friendship with Pylades, his 
 protector's son, until his twentieth year, 
 and then comes with his friend, by Apollo's 
 direction, to Mycense, and in concert with 
 Electra effects the deed of vengeance. This 
 deed is represented in Homer as one in- 
 disputably glorious and everywhere com- 
 mended ; but in later legend Orestes is, after 
 his mother's murder, attacked by delusions 
 and harassed by the Erinyes. According 
 to jEschylus, in his Eumenides, the Furies 
 do not suffer him to escape even after he is 
 purified in the Delphian temple. Acting 
 on the advice of Apollo, he presents himself 
 at Athens before the court of the Areopagus, 
 which on this occasion is instituted by 
 Athene for the trial of homicide. The 
 goddesses of vengeance appear as prose- 
 cutors, Apollo as his witness and advocate, 
 and on the trial resulting in an equality of 
 votes, Athene with her voting pebble decides 
 in his favour. According to Euripides, in 
 his Iphigenia among the Tauri, Orestes 
 goes with Pylades (as in ^schylus) by 
 Apollo's advice, to the Tauric Chersonese, 
 in order to fetch thence the image of 
 Artemis which had fallen from heaven in 
 former times. The friends are captured 
 upon landing, and according to the custom 
 of the country, are to be sacrificed to 
 Artemis, when the priestess, Iphigenia (g.v.), 
 and Orestes recognise one another as sister 
 and brother, and escape to Greece with the 
 image of the goddess. According to the 
 Peloponnesian myth, Orestes spent the time 
 of his delusion in Arcadia [Pausanias, viii 5 
 § 4], and after he had on one occasion in a 
 fit of frenzy bitten off a finger, the Eume- 
 nides appeared to him in a dream, in white 
 robes, as a token of reconciliation. After 
 he is cured, he places himself, by the mur- 
 der of Aletes, ^Sgisthus' son, in possession 
 of his father's dominion, Mycenae, and 
 
ORGEONES ORITHYIA. 
 
 437 
 
 marries his sister Electra to Pylades. 
 HermiSne, daughter of Menelaus, had been 
 betrothed to himself, but during his wan- 
 derings she was carried off by Achilles' son 
 NeoptSlemus. After Orestes had slain the 
 latter at Delphi, he married Hermione, and 
 through her came into possession of Sparta. 
 His son by this marriage was Tisamenus. 
 He died of a serpent's bite in Arcadia, and 
 was buried at Tegea : his reputed remains 
 were afterwards, by the direction of the 
 oracle, brought to Sparta [Herod, i 67]. 
 
 OrggonSs. The Athenian term for the 
 niembers of a society for the observance of a 
 divine cult not belonging to the State reli- 
 gion, especially those who, without belonging 
 to the old families (see Gennktm), neverthe- 
 less like them formed a family union origi- 
 nating in descent from the same ancestors, 
 and possessed a special family worship. The 
 adoption of the children of families belong- 
 ing to such a religious society occurred, as 
 with the GennetsB, at the same time as 
 their enrolment into the phra tries at the 
 feast of the Apattiria (q.v.). 
 
 Orgies (Gr. orgla). The ordinary Greek 
 term for ceremonies, generally connected 
 with the worship of a divinity, btit especially 
 secret religious customs to which only the 
 initiated were admitted, and equivalent in 
 meaning to " mysteries." It was customary 
 to designate as Orgies the mysteries of the 
 worship of Dionysus in particular. These 
 were sometimes celebrated with wild and 
 extravagant rites. 
 
 flribasius. See Oeeibasios. 
 
 Orion. (1) A mythical hunter of gigantic 
 size and strength and of great beauty. 
 He was the son of Hyrieus of Hyria in 
 Bceotia ; or (according to another account) 
 of Poseidon, who gave him the power to 
 walk over the sea as well as over dry land. 
 He is sometimes represented as an earth- 
 bom being. 
 
 Many marvellous exploits were ascribed 
 to him : for instance, the building of the 
 huge harbour-dam of Zancle (Messana) and 
 the upheaving of the promontory of PSlorum 
 in Sicily [Diodorus, iv 85]. After his wife 
 Side had been cast into Hades by Hera for 
 having dared to compare herself to that 
 goddess in beauty, he crossed the sea to 
 Chios in order to woo Merope, the daughter 
 of (Enopion, son of Dionysus and Ariadne. 
 As he violated her in a fit of intoxication, 
 (Enopion blinded him in his sleep and cast 
 him out upon the seashore. He groped 
 his way, however, to Lemnos and the smithy 
 of Hephaestus, set one of the latter's work- 
 
 men, Cedalion, upon his shoulders, and bade 
 him guide him to the plade where the 
 sun rose ; and in the radiance thereof his 
 ej-esight returned. (Enopion hid himself 
 beneath the earth to escape his vengeance. 
 Eos, smitten with love for Orion, carried 
 him off to Delos (Ortygia), and there lived 
 with him, until the gods in their anger 
 caused him to be killed by Artemis with 
 her arrows. According to another story, 
 Artemis shot him in Chios or Crete, either for 
 having challenged her to a contest with the 
 quoit, or for having endeavoured to outrage 
 her whilst engaged in the chase. Another 
 legend relates that the earth, terrified by 
 his threat that he could root out every wild 
 creature from Crete, sent forth a scorpion, 
 which killed him with its sting. His tomb 
 was shown in Tanagra. In Homer [Od. xi 
 572] Odysseus sees him in the lower world 
 as a shade still pursuing with his club of 
 bronze the creatures whom he slew in 
 former times. As regards the legend of his 
 being placed among the stars, see Pleiades. 
 The morning rising of his constellation, 
 which was already known as early as Homer 
 {II. xviii 488] denoted the beginning of 
 summer, his midnight rising denoted the 
 season of the vintage, and his late rising 
 the beginning of winter and its storms. 
 Whilst he sinks, the Scorpion, which was 
 likewise placed among the stars, rises above 
 the horizon. Sirius (Gr. SeirlSs), the star 
 of the dog-days, is described, as early as 
 Homer [II. xxii 29], as the dog of Orion. 
 Of his daughters MSnippS and Metioche, 
 it was related that they were endowed 
 by Aphrodite with beauty and by AthenS 
 with skill in the art of weaving ; and when, 
 on the occasion of a pestilence ravaging 
 BoBotia, the sacrifice of two virgins was 
 required by the oracle, they voluntarily, to 
 save their country, pierced their throats 
 with their shuttles. As a reward for their 
 voluntary sacrifice, PersephSne and Pluto 
 changed them into comets; while a sanc- 
 tuary was built in their honour at OrchQ- 
 m6nus, and expiatory offerings were yearly 
 paid to them. 
 
 (2) A Greek scholar born at Thebes in 
 Egypt, who taught about the middle of 
 the 5th century A.D. at Alexandria and Con- 
 stantinople. He is the author of a some- 
 what important etymological lexicon, and 
 an anthology of maxims collected from the 
 old Greek poets. 
 
 Orithyia. Daughter of Erechtheus, king 
 of Athens, wife of BorSas, mother of Calais 
 and Zetes. {Cp. Boreas.) 
 
438 
 
 OEOSius — osmis. 
 
 Orosius of Spain, a presbyter in Lusitania. 
 About 417 A.D., and at the wish of Augustine, 
 whom he had sought out in Africa, he 
 composed his history against the heathen 
 {Histonce contra Pdgdnos) in seven books, 
 the first attempt at a Christian universal 
 history, from Adam to 410 A.D. The theory 
 of his work is, that the whole history of 
 mankind is directed by the one God who 
 created them, and it aims at refuting the 
 charges brought against Christianity by 
 showing, that it was not to Christianity 
 and the abolition of the heathen religion 
 that the calamities of the time were due, 
 but that such calamities had always existed, 
 and to a still greater degree before Christian 
 times. His chief authority is Justin, be- 
 sides whom he mainly used Livy, Tacitus, 
 Suetonius, and Eutropius. His view of 
 the four kingdoms of the world, Babylon, 
 Macedon, Carthage, and Rome, prevailed 
 throughout the whole of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Orpheus, the famous mythical poet, son of 
 (Eagrus and the Muse Calliope, who gave 
 birth to him on the banks of the Hebrus in 
 Thrace. Such was his power in song, that 
 he could move trees and rocks and tame 
 wild beasts thereby. When his wife, the 
 Nymph Eurydlce, died of a serpent's bite 
 (see ArisTjEUS), he descended into the lower 
 world, and so moved Persephone by the 
 music of his song, that she permitted him to 
 take Eurydice back with him to the upper 
 world, on condition of his not looking round 
 during his passage through the realm of 
 the dead. In spite of this, his impatience 
 led him to gaze back, and Eurydice had to 
 return for ever to Hades [Vergil, Geoi-g. 
 iv 453-527]. 
 
 Mythology describes him as taking part 
 in the Argonautic expedition, and repre- 
 sents him as encouraging and assisting his 
 comrades by his song on many occasions, 
 especially while they were passing the 
 Sirens. He was torn in pieces upon Hsemus 
 by the Thracian Maenads, either for having 
 opposed the celebration of their orgies, or 
 because, after losing Eurydice, he conceived 
 a hatred of all other women. His scattered 
 limbs were buried by the Muses in the dis- 
 trict of Pieria on Olympus ; but his head and 
 lyre, which the Msenads had cast into the 
 Hebrus, floated down into the sea, and across 
 it to Lesbos, the isle of poets in later days ; 
 and here they were buried at Methymna 
 [Lucian, Adv. Indoctum, 11]. The name of 
 Orpheus (apparently not known to Homer 
 and Hesiod) was assumed by the mystic and 
 religious sect of the Orphici, who claimed 
 
 him as their founder. They arose at some 
 time after the 6th century B.C. In opposi- 
 tion to the received views concerning the 
 gods, and especially concerning the state of 
 the soul after death, and in close connexion 
 with Oriental and Egyptian ideas, they 
 taught the necessity of a purification of a soul 
 by religious consecration and the use of the 
 methods of expiation alleged to have been 
 made known by Orpheus. They declared 
 that Orpheus was the most ancient of the 
 poets, living long before Homer, and attri- 
 buted to him a number of poems of mythical 
 
 "f HKRMES, KUKYDICE, AHD OIIPHEUS. 
 
 (Borne, Villa Albani ; Naples ; Paris.) 
 
 purport. Out of this apocryphal Orphic 
 literature there have been preserved from 
 the time of the decay of paganism : (1) an 
 epic poem on the exploits of Orpheus during 
 the Argonautic expedition {Argonatitlca) ; 
 (2) eighty-eight songs of consecration or 
 hymns, prayers to various gods and daemons, 
 written in hexameter verse and in a bom- 
 bastic style, intended to be recited at blood- 
 less offerings of incense ; (3) an epic poem 
 upon the magical powers of precious stones 
 {LUMca). 
 
 OrsilocMa. See Iphigenia. 
 
 Oscan Plays. See Atellana. 
 
 Oschophoria. At Athens a festival in 
 honour of Dionysus. {See fuHlier Dio- 
 NYSIA, 1.) 
 
 Osiris. An Egyptian god, who, with his 
 sister and wife Isis {q.v.), enjoyed in Egypt 
 the most general worship of all the gods. 
 He is the male god of the fructification of 
 the land. From him comes every blessing 
 
OSTIUM OVID. 
 
 430 
 
 and all life ; he gives light and health ; he 
 causes the Nile to overflow with its ferti- 
 lizing waters, and all things to continue in 
 their established order. He is always re- 
 presented in human shape and with a human 
 head (see cut). His hue, as that of a god 
 who bestows life, 
 is green ; his 
 sacred tree is the 
 ever-green tama- 
 risk. The Greeks 
 identified him 
 with Dionysus. 
 Originally he 
 ruled as king over 
 Egypt, where he 
 introduced agri- 
 culture, morality, 
 and the worship 
 of the gods, until 
 his brother Ty- 
 phon (Set) con- 
 trived by deceit 
 to shut him up 
 in a chest and 
 put him to death 
 by pouring in 
 molten lead. The 
 murderer cast 
 the chest into the osikis. 
 
 Nile, which car- 
 ried it into the sea. After long search the 
 mourning Isis found the chest on the coast 
 of Phoenicia at Byblus, and carefully con- 
 cealed it. Nevertheless Typhon discovered 
 it in the night, and cut the corpse up into 
 fourteen pieces, which he scattered in all 
 directions. Isis, however, collected them 
 again, and buried them in Philae or Abydus, 
 in Upper Egypt. When Horus, the son 
 of Osiris and Isis, grew up, he took ven- 
 geance upon Typhon when, after a most 
 obstinate struggle, he had defeated him in 
 battle. Although Osiris lived no longer 
 upon the earth, he was ever regarded as 
 the source of life. In the upper world he 
 continues to live and work by the fresh 
 power of his youthful son Horus, and in the 
 lower world, of which he is king, the spirits 
 of those who are found to be just are 
 awakened by him to new life. His hue as 
 raler of the lower world is black, his robes 
 white, his symbol an eye opened wide as a 
 sign of his restoration to the light of day. 
 
 Osiris, by his ever-renewed incarnation 
 in the form of the black bull Apis, the 
 symbol of generative power, assures for 
 the Egyptians the endurance of his favour, 
 and the consequent continuance of their 
 
 life in this world and the next. In this 
 incarnation he is called Osarhapi (Osiris- 
 Apis), the origin of the Greek Serapis (q.v.) 
 or Sarapis. The fortunes of Osiris were 
 celebrated in magnificent annual festivals 
 connected with mourning ceremonies, in- 
 which the Egyptians, as is observed by the 
 ancients [e.g. Plutarch, De Iside et Osiride, 
 32, and JElian, De Nat. Animalium 10, 46], 
 lamented in Osiris the subsidence of the 
 Nile, the cessation of the cool north wind 
 (whose place was taken for a time by the 
 hot wind Typhon), the decay of vegetation, 
 and the shortening of the length of the day. 
 Ostium. The entrance hall in the Roman 
 dwelling-house. (See House.) 
 
 Ostracism (Gr. ostrdkismos ; i.e. vote by 
 potsherd). A mode of judgment by the 
 people practised in various Greek states 
 [Argos, Megara, Miletus], and especially at 
 Athens, by which persons whose presence 
 appeared dangerous to liberty were banished 
 for a certain period, without, however, 
 thereby suffering any loss in reputation 
 or property. Ostracism was introduced at 
 Athens in 509 B.C. [it was applied (amongst 
 others) to Themistocles, Aristides, Cim<5n, 
 and Alcibiades], and was last exercised in 
 417 against a demagogue, one Hyperbolus, 
 whose insignificance made the measure 
 ridiculous, and so produced its abolition 
 [Thuc. viii 73; Plutarch, Nicias 11, Aici- 
 biades 13]. Every year the question was 
 put to the people, whether the measure 
 appeared necessary : if they so decided (and 
 it was only exceptionally that there was 
 occasion for it), the citizens who possessed 
 the franchise assembled in the market- 
 place, and each wrote upon a sherd (ostrdkon) 
 the name of the person whose banishment 
 he deemed desirable. The man whose 
 name was found upon not less than 6,000 
 sherds had to leave the country in ten days 
 at latest, for ten or (later) five years. He 
 could, however, at any time be recalled by 
 a decree of the people ; and the question, as 
 before, was decided by not less than 6,000 
 votes [Aristotle, Pol. iii 13 § 15, 17 § 7, 
 V 3 § 3 ; Plutarch, Aristid. 7. Cp. Grote's 
 History of Greece, chap. xxxi.]. 
 
 Otus. One of the two Aloadse {q.v.). 
 
 Ovatio. The Roman term for a minor 
 form of triumph. {See further Triumph.) 
 
 Ovidius Naso {Publius). A Roman poet, 
 born March 21st, 43 B.C., at Sulmo (now Sol- 
 mona) in the country of the Pseligni, son 
 of a wealthy Roman of an old equestrian 
 family. He came at an early age to Rome, 
 to be educated as a pleader, and enjoyed 
 
440 
 
 OVID 
 
 the tnition of tlie most famous rhetoricians 
 of the time, Porcius Latro and Arellius 
 Puscus. It was not long before the instinct 
 for poetry awoke in him with such power 
 that it needed all his father's resolution to 
 keep him to his legal sttidies ; his oratorical 
 exercises were simply poems in prose, as is 
 testified by one of his fellow students, the 
 elder SenecS, [Controv. ii 10, 8]. After he 
 had visited Greece and Asia to complete 
 his education, he entered into political life 
 at his father's desire, and filled several 
 subordinate offices. But he soon withdrew 
 again from public business, partly on the 
 ground of his health and partly from an 
 inclination to idleness, and lived only for 
 poetry, in the society of the poets of his 
 day, among whom he was especially intimate 
 with Properti-us. He came into note as a 
 poet by a tragedy called the Medea, which 
 is now lost, but is much praised by ancient 
 literary critics, and about the same time he 
 produced a series of amatory, and in parts 
 extremely licentious, poems. 
 
 When little more than a mere boy, as 
 he says himself [Ti-istia, iv 10, 69], he 
 was given a wife bj' his father ; but this 
 marriage, like a second one, ended in a 
 divorce. He derived more satisfaction, as 
 well as the advantage of contact with the 
 court and with men of the highest distinc- 
 tion, from a third marriage, with a widow 
 of noble family and high connexions. To 
 her influence, perhaps, should be referred 
 the fact that he turned his attention to 
 more important and more serious works. 
 He had almost completed his best known 
 work, the Metamorphoses, when suddenly, 
 in 9 A.D., he was banished for life by 
 Augustus to Tomi on the Black Sea, near 
 the mouths of the Danube. The cause for 
 this severity on the part of the emperor 
 is unknown ; Ovid himself admits that 
 there was a fault on his side, but only an 
 error, not a crime [Tristia i 3, 37]. At all 
 events, the matter directly affected Augus- 
 tus ; and as Ovid describes his eyes as the 
 cause of his misfortune, it is conjectured 
 that he had been an unintentional eye- 
 witness of some offence on the part of the 
 frivolous granddaughter of the prince, the 
 younger Julia, and had neglected to inform 
 the emperor of the matter. His indecent 
 amatory poems, to which he also points as 
 the source of the emperor's displeasure, can 
 at most only have been used as a plausible 
 excuse in the eyes of the public, as they 
 had been published more than ten years 
 before. 
 
 After a perilous voyage Ovid reached the 
 place of his exile in the winter of 10-11 
 A.D. ; and there, far from his beloved wife 
 and his daughter Perilla, who had inherited 
 the poetic talent of her father, far from 
 his friends and all intercourse with men of 
 genius, he had to pass the last years of 
 his life in desolation among the barbarous 
 Get8B. Even in his exile his poetic talent 
 did not fail him. It was then that he 
 composed his poems of lamentation, entitled 
 the Tristia, and his letters from Pontus, 
 touching proofs of his grief, though also of 
 his failing powers. His ceaseless prayers 
 and complaints had succeeded in softening 
 Augustus, when the latter died. All his 
 efforts to gain forgiveness or alleviation 
 of his condition met with no response from 
 Tiberius, and he was compelled to close his 
 life, broken-hearted and in exile, 17 A.D. 
 
 His extant works are (1) Love poems 
 (Amores), published about 14 B.C., in five 
 books, and again about 2 B.C. in three books. 
 The latter edition is the one we possess ; 
 some of its forty-nine elegies depict in a 
 very sensual way the poet's life, the centre 
 of which is the unknown Corinna. (2) 
 Letters (EpistUlce), also called Heroides, 
 rhetorical declamations in the form of love- 
 letters sent by heroines to their husbands 
 or lovers, twenty-one in number ; the last 
 six of these, however, and the fourteenth, 
 are considered spurious. (3) Methods for 
 beautifying the face (MSdicdmina Faciei), 
 advice to women respecting the art of the 
 toilette ; this piece has come down to us in 
 an incomplete form. (4) The Art of Love 
 {Ars Amandi or Amdtoria), in three books, 
 published about 2 B.C., advice to men (books 
 1 and 2) and women (book 3) as to the 
 methods of contracting a love-affair and 
 insuring its continuance, a work as frivolous 
 as it is original and elaborate. (5) Cures 
 for Love {Bemedia Amoris), the pendant to 
 the previous work, and no less offensive in 
 substance and tone. (6) The fifteen books 
 of the Transformations {Metamorphoses), 
 his only considerable work. It is composed 
 in hexameter verse ; the material is bor- 
 rowed from Greek and (to a less extent) 
 from Roman sources, being a collection of 
 legends of transformations, very skilfully 
 combining jest and earnest in motley alter- 
 nations, and extending from chaos to the 
 apotheosis of Caesar. When it was com- 
 pleted and had received the last touches, the 
 work was cast into the flames by Ovid in 
 his first despair at banishment, but was 
 afterwards rewritten from other copies. 
 
PACATUS P^ANs 
 
 441 
 
 (7) A Calendar of Eoman Festivals (Fasti), 
 begun in the last years before his banish- 
 ment, and originally in twelve books, cor- 
 responding to the number of the months. 
 Of these only six are preserved, probably 
 because Ovid had not quite completed them 
 at Rome, and had not the means to do 
 so at Tomi. It was originally intended 
 for dedication to Augustus. After Augustus' 
 death the poet began to revise it, with 
 a view to its dedication to Grermanicus; he 
 did not, however, proceed with his revision 
 beyond the first book. It contains in elegiac 
 metre the most important celestial pheno- 
 mena and the festivals of each month, with 
 a description of their celebration and an ac- 
 count of their origin according to the Italian 
 legends. (8) Poems of Lamentation {Tris- 
 tia), to his family, to his friends, and to 
 Augustus, belonging to the years 9-13 A.D., 
 in five books ; the first of these was written 
 while he was still on his journey to Tomi. 
 (9) Letters from Pontus {Epistulce ex 
 Ponto), in four books, only distinguished 
 from the previous poems by their epistolary 
 form. (10) Ibis, an imitation of the poem 
 of the same name by Callimachus, who 
 had attacked under this name ApoUonius 
 of Rhodes, consisting of imprecations on a 
 faithless friend at Rome, written in the 
 learned and obscure style of the Alexandrian 
 
 poets. (11) A short fragment of a didactic 
 poem on the fish in the Black Sea {HdVl- 
 eutlca), written in hexameters. Besides 
 these Ovid wrote during his exile nume- 
 rous poems which have been lost, among 
 them a eulogy of the deceased Augustus in 
 the Getic tongue, a sufficient proof of the 
 strength of his bent and talent for poetry. 
 In both of these respects he is distinguished 
 ■above all other Roman poets. Perhaps no 
 one ever composed with less exertion ; at 
 the same time no one ever used so impor- 
 tant a faculty for so trivial a purpose. His 
 poetry is for the most part simply enter- 
 taining ; in this kind of writing he proves 
 his mastery by his readiness in language 
 and metre, by his unwearied powers of 
 invention, by his ever-ready wit, elegance, 
 and charm, though, on the other hand,' he 
 is completely wanting in deep feeling and 
 moral earnestness. By his talent Ovid (as 
 well as Vergil) has had great influence on 
 the further development of Roman poetry, 
 especially with regard to metre. Many 
 imitated his style so closely, that their 
 poems were actually attributed to himself. 
 Among these, besides a number of Heroides 
 (see above), we have the Nux, the nut tree's 
 complaint of the ill-treatment it met with, 
 a poem in elegiac verse, which was at all 
 events written in the time of Ovid. 
 
 Pacatas (Ldtlnus Drepdnius). A Roman 
 rhetorician of Burdigala {Bordeaux), a 
 younger contemporary and friend of the 
 poet Ausonius. We possess from his pen 
 a panegyric on the emperor Theodosius the 
 Great, delivered before the Senate at Rome 
 in 389 B.C. It is distinguished beyond the 
 other speeches of this class by a certain 
 vigotir of thought, and is also of value as 
 an historical authority. 
 
 Pacuvius {Marcus). The Roman trage- 
 dian, born about 220 B.C. at Brundisium, son 
 of Ennius' sister, and pupil of the poet. He 
 spent most of his life at Rome, where he 
 gained his livelihood as a dramatic poet and 
 as a painter. In his old age he returned 
 to Brundisium, and died there, at the age 
 of ninety, about 130 B.C. He is the first 
 Roman dramatist who confined himself to 
 the composing of tragedies. Titles and 
 fragments of some thirteen of his imitations 
 of Greek plays are preserved, as well as 
 fragments of a prcetexta {q.v.) entitled 
 Pauhis, whose hero was probably the victor 
 
 of Pydna, .(Emilius Paulus. If this small 
 number justifies any opinion on his poetical 
 activity, he was far less productive thaii 
 his predecessor Ennius and his successor 
 Accius. Nevertheless, he and Accius were 
 considered the most important tragedians 
 of Rome. In the judgment of literary 
 critics, who followed the traditions of the 
 Ciceronian age, he was preferred to Accius 
 for finish and learning, but Accius excelled 
 him in fire and natural power [Horace, 
 Ep. ii 1, 55, 56 ; Quintilian, x 1, 97 ; see 
 Prof. Nettleship, " On Literary Criticism in 
 Latin Antiquity," in Journal of Philology, 
 xviii 263]. His style was praised for its 
 copiousness, dignity, and stateliness, but 
 Cicero [Brutus, 258] declines to give him 
 credit for pure and genuine Latinity. Even 
 in Cicero's time, however, the revival of 
 his plays was often welcomed by Roman 
 audiences. 
 
 Fsean (Gr. Paian, properly Paieon, the 
 '* healer," " helper "). In Homer [II. v 401, 
 899], the physician of the Olympian gods.; 
 
442 
 
 PiEDAGOGUS PAGUS. 
 
 then an epithet of gods who grant recovery 
 and deliverance, especially of Apollo. The 
 paean, which appears in Homer [U. i 473, 
 xxii 391], was connected originally with 
 Apollo and his sister Artemis. It was a 
 solemn song for several voices, either pray- 
 ing for the averting of evil and for rescue, 
 or giving thanks for help vouchsafed. The 
 name was, however, also used in an extended 
 sense for invocations to other gods. The 
 psean was struck up by generals before the 
 battle and by armies on the march against 
 the enemy, as well as after the victory. 
 Similarly it was sounded when the fleet 
 sailed out of harbour. Paeans were sung 
 at entertainments between the meal and 
 the carousal, and eventually also at public 
 funerals. 
 
 Paedagogns (Gr. Paiddgogos, lit. "boy- 
 leader "). The name among the Greeks for 
 the slave who had the duty of looking after 
 the son of his master whilst in boyhood, 
 instructing him in certain rules of good 
 manners, and attending him whenever he 
 went out, especially to school and to the 
 pdlcestra and gymndsium. With the 
 Romans in earlier times it was an old slave 
 or freedman who had a similar duty as 
 custos ; but after it became the custom to 
 have even children taught to speak Greek, 
 his place was filled by a Greek slave, who 
 bore the Greek name and had the special 
 duty of instructing his pupils in Greek. 
 
 Paedonomus (Gr. Paidonomos). At Sparta, 
 the overseer of the education of the young. 
 {See Education, 1.) 
 
 PaedStribes. In Greece, the master who 
 imparted gymnastic instruction in the 
 pdlcestra. (See Education, 1.) 
 
 Psenula (Latin). A mantle of shaggy 
 frieze or leather, thick and dark-coloured, 
 without sleeves, buttoned or stitched up in 
 front, in the direction of its length. A 
 hood (cucuUus) was generally fastened on 
 to it, and drawn over the head. It was 
 chiefly worn by people of low rank and 
 slaves, but also by the higher classes, and 
 even by ladies, in bad weather, on a journey, 
 and in the country. 
 
 PseoniTis. (1) A Greek sculptor of Mende 
 in Thrace. About 436 B.C. he was employed 
 in the decoration of the temple of Zeus in 
 Olympia. [According to Pausanias, v 10 
 § 6], he was the sculptor of the marble 
 groups in the front, or eastern, pediment of 
 the temple, representing the preparations 
 for the chariot-race between Pelops and 
 (Enomaus. (See Olympian Games, fig. 1.) 
 Important portions of these have been 
 
 brought to light by the German excavations. 
 He was also the sculptor of the figure of 
 Nike, more than life-size, dedicated by the 
 Messenians [ib. v 26 § 1], which has been 
 restored to us by the same means. With 
 the exception of the head, it is in fairly 
 good preservation (see cut). 
 (2) See EuTEOPius. 
 
 * NIKE OF P^EOiVIUS. 
 
 (Oljmpia.) 
 
 Faganalia. In Italy, a movable festival 
 of the old village communities (see Pagus), 
 celebrated after the winter-sowing in 
 January, on two days separated by an 
 interval of a week. On this occasion a 
 pregnant sow was sacrificed to Tellus or 
 to Ceres, who at a later period was wor- 
 shipped together with Tellus. 
 
 Pagns. In Italy, in ancient times, the 
 pagus was a country district with scattered 
 hamlets (mci). The same name was given 
 to its fortified centre, which protected the 
 sanctuaries of the district and served as a 
 refuge in time of war. The separate dis- 
 tricts were members of a larger community. 
 After cities had developed out of the places 
 where the people of these districts assembled, 
 the pdgi were either completely merged 
 in their terrltoriuvi, or continued to exist 
 merely as geographical districts, without 
 importance for administration, or as sub- 
 ordinate village communities. In Rome the 
 earliest population consisted of the montani, 
 the inhabitants of the seven hills of the 
 city, and the pagdni, the inhabitants of 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 443 
 
 the level ground of the city. Out of the 
 two Serviu3 Tullius made the four city 
 tribes. The country tribes doubtless arose 
 similarly out of pagi, the names of which 
 were in some cases transferred to them. 
 Like the old division into pagani and mon- 
 tani, the old districts under the authority of 
 magistri long continued to exist for sacred 
 purposes. They had their special guardian 
 deities, temples, and rites, which survived 
 even the introduction of Christianity. To 
 the district festivals belonged especially the 
 Pagandlia (q.v.), the Ambarvdlia (q.v.), at 
 which the festal procession carefully tra- 
 versed the old boundaries of the district; 
 and, lastly, the Terminalia {see Terminus). 
 
 Painting. Among the Greeks painting 
 developed into an independent art much 
 later than sculpture, though it was used 
 very early for decorative purposes. This 
 is proved by the evidence of painted vases 
 belonging to the ages of the most primi- 
 tive civilization, and by the mural paintings 
 discovered by Schliemann at Tiryns. The 
 scanty notices in ancient authors respect- 
 ing the first discoveries in this art connect 
 it with historical persons, and not with 
 mythical names, as in the case of sculpture. 
 Thus it is said [by Pliny, N. H. xxxv 16] 
 that [either Philocles, the Egyptian, or] 
 Cleanthes of Corinth was the first to draw 
 outline sketches ; that Telephanes of Sicyon 
 developed them further ; thatEcphantus of 
 Corinth introduced painting in single tints 
 (monochrome) ; and that Eumarus of Athens 
 (in the second half of the 6th century) 
 distinguished man and woman by giving 
 the one a darker, the other a lighter colour. 
 Cimon of Cleonse is mentioned as the ori- 
 ginator of artistic drawing in profile [cdtd- 
 grdpha, hoc est ohliquds imagines, Pliny 
 XXXV 56, cp. 90]. It is further said of him 
 that he gave variety to the face by making 
 it look backwards or upwards or down- 
 wards, and freedom to the limbs by duly 
 rendering the joints ; also that he was the 
 first to represent the veins of the human 
 body, and to make the folds of the drapery 
 fall more naturally [ih. 56]. 
 
 Painting did not, however, make any 
 decided advance until the middle of the 
 5th century B.C. This advance was chiefly 
 due to P6LYGN0TUS of Thasos, who painted 
 at Athens. Among other claims to distinc- 
 tion, it is attributed to him that he gave 
 greater variety of expression to the face, 
 which hitherto had been rigidly severe. 
 His works, most of them large compositions 
 rich in figures, give evidence of a lofty and 
 
 poetic conception; they appear to have 
 been, in great part, mural paintings for 
 decorating the interior of public build- 
 ings [Pausanias, x 25-31 ; i 15, 22 § 6]. 
 The colours were first applied in uniform 
 tints so as to fill in the outlines, and fresh 
 lines and touches were then added to indi- 
 cate where the limbs and muscles began, 
 and the folds of the garments. The drawing 
 and the combination of colours were the 
 chief considerations ; light and shade were 
 wanting, and no attention was paid to per- 
 spective. It is doubtful whether at this 
 early time, besides mural paintings (exe- 
 cuted al fresco on carefully smoothed 
 stucco-priming with plain water-colours), 
 there were any pictures on panels, such as 
 afterwards became common ; but we may 
 fairly assume it. These were painted on 
 wooden panels in tempera; i.e. with colours 
 mixed with various kinds of distemper, 
 such as gum or size, to make them more 
 adhesive. 
 
 In the same century the encaustic method 
 of painting was discovered, though not 
 elaborated till the following century. [The 
 process, as described in Roman times by 
 Vitruvius (vii 9), was as follows : " The 
 medium used was melted white wax {cerd 
 punicd), mixed with oil to make it more 
 fluid. The pot containing the wax was 
 kept over a brazier, while the painter was 
 at work, in order to keep the melted wax 
 from solidifying. The stucco itself was 
 prepared by a coating of hot wax applied 
 with a brush, and it was polished by being 
 rubbed with a wax candle, and finally with 
 a clean linen cloth. After the picture was 
 painted, the wax colours were fixed, partly 
 melted into the stucco, and blended with 
 the wax of the ground by the help of a 
 charcoal brazier, which was held close to 
 the surface of the painting, and gradually 
 moved over its whole extent " (Middle ton's 
 Ancient Rome in 1888, p. 417).] The en- 
 caustic method had several advantages over 
 painting in tempera : it lasted longer and 
 was more proof against damp, while the 
 colouring was much brighter ; on the other 
 hand, it was much more laborious and slow, 
 which explains the fact that the majority 
 of encaustic paintings were of small size. 
 
 While the pictures of Polygnotus cer- 
 tainly did not deceive by too much truth to 
 nature, it was [his younger contemporary] 
 the Samian Agatharchus who practised 
 scene-painting (Gr. skSndgrdpMa) at Athens, 
 and thus gave an impulse to the attempt 
 at illusory effect and the use of perspec- 
 
444 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 tive. [He painted the scenery for a play 
 of -^schylus (Vitruv. vii prcef. 10), and 
 decorated the interior of the house of 
 Alcibiades (Andocides, Alcih. 17).] The 
 Athenian ApollSdorus (about B.C. 420) 
 was the actual founder of an entirely new 
 ' artistic style, which strove to effect illusion 
 by means of the resources of painting. [He 
 was the first, says Pliny, to give his pic- 
 tures the appearance of reality ; the first to 
 bring the brush into just repute {I.e. 60).] 
 He also led the way in the proper manage- 
 
 torial representation, rendering on a flat 
 surface the relief and variety of nature, and 
 the consequent attainment of the greatest 
 possible illusion. Its principal represen- 
 tatives were Zeuxis of Heraclea and 
 Parrhasius of Ephesus; Timanthbs also 
 produced remarkable works, though not 
 an adherent of the same school. It was 
 opposed by the Sicyonian school, founded 
 by Eupompus of Sicyon, and developed by 
 Pamphilus of Amphipolis, which aimed at 
 greater precision of technical training, very 
 
 (1) * ACHILLES DELIVERING BRISEIS TO THE HERALDS. 
 
 (House of the Tragic Poet, Pompeii.) 
 
 ment of the fusion of colours and their due 
 gradation in different degrees of light and 
 shade [Pliny, I.e. 60]. [It was to this that 
 he owed his title of shadow-painter (sVla- 
 grdphos : Hesychius on skia).] 
 
 The Attic school floiirished till about the 
 end of the 6th century, when this art was 
 for some time neglected at Athens, but 
 made another important advance in the 
 towns of Asia Minor, especially at Ephesus. 
 The principal merits of this, the Ionic 
 school, consist in richer and more delicate 
 colouring, a more perfect system of-pio- 
 
 careful and characteristic drawing, and a 
 sober and effective colouring [Pliny, I.e. 
 75, 76]. Pausias, a member of this school, 
 invented the art of foreshortening and of 
 painting on vaulted ceilings, besides per- 
 fecting the encaustic art, which was much 
 more favourable for purposes of illusion and 
 picturesque effectiveness than painting in 
 tempera [ib. 123-127]. Greek painting 
 reached its summit in the works of Apellbs 
 of Cos, in the second half of the 4th cen- 
 tury ; he knew how to combine the merits 
 of the Ionian and the Sicyonian schools, the 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 445 
 
 perfect grace of tlie former with the severe 
 accuracy of the latter. 
 
 After him the most famous artist was 
 PeotSgenes of Caunos. The following con- 
 temporaries, some older and some younger 
 than himself, deserve also to be mentioned : 
 Nicomachus and Ar is tides of Thebes, 
 Euphranor of Corinth, Nicias of 
 Athens, the Egyptian Antiphilus, 
 Theon of Sam5s, and Action. After 
 the age of Alexander, the art of paint- 
 ing was characterized by a striving 
 after naturalism, combined with a 
 predilection for the representation of 
 common, everyday scenes, and of 
 still-life. This branch of painting 
 was also carried to great perfection, 
 and Pirajicus was the most celebrated 
 for it. Among painters of the loftier 
 style the last noteworthy artist was 
 TimOmachus of Byzantium. [For the 
 ancient authorities on the history of 
 Painting, see Overbeck's Schrift- 
 quellen ; comp. Brunn's Kilnstler- 
 geschichte, and Woermann's History 
 of Painting, bk. ii.] 
 
 Among the Eomans a few solitary names 
 of early painters are mentioned, for in- 
 stance, Pabius Pictor and the poet Pacuvius 
 [Pliny, XXXV 19] ; but nothing is known 
 as to the value of their paintings, which 
 
 decoration [Vitruv. vii 5]. Indeed the love 
 of display peculiar to the Romans, which 
 had led them gradually to accumulate the 
 principal works of the old Greek masters 
 at Rome as ornaments for their public and 
 private edifices, brought about an extra- 
 
 (2) * STILL-LIFE. 
 
 (Pompeii.) 
 
 ordinary development of decorative art, 
 attested by the numerous mural paintings 
 that have been found in Italy, chiefly at 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
 
 These paintings were mostly executed 
 
 (3) " OKPHEHS. 
 
 (Casa di Orfeo, Pompeii.) 
 
 sei-ved to decorate buildings. The way in 
 which landscapes were represented by a 
 certain S. Tadius [or Ludius (?), ib. 116 ; 
 the best MS has studio] in the reign of 
 Augustus is mentioned as a novelty. These 
 landscapes were mainly for purposes of 
 
 al fresco on damp stucco, seldom with 
 colours in tempera on the dry surface. The 
 principal subjects represented are figures 
 from the world of myth, such as Msenads, 
 Centaurs, male and female. Satyrs, etc. ; 
 scenes from mythology and heroic legends, 
 
446 
 
 PAINTING-. 
 
 frequently copies of famous Greek originals 
 [one of the best examples of which is 
 Achilles delivering Brisels to the Heralds 
 {see fig. 1)]; landscapes (fig. 5); still-life 
 (fig. 2) ; animals (fig. 3) ; and also scenes from 
 real life. {See also cuts under Iphigenia 
 and Villa.) From a technical point of view 
 
 these works do not go beyond the limits of 
 light decorative painting, and are especially 
 wanting in correct perspective; but they 
 show fine harmony, varied gradation, and 
 delicate blending of colour, and frequently 
 a sxirprising depth and sincerity of expres- 
 sion : qualities which must have charac- 
 
 terized the lost masterpieces of the ancient 
 artists to a much more remarkable degree, 
 and cannot but give us a very high idea of 
 them. One of the finest mural paintings 
 is that known as the Alddbrandini Mar- 
 riage [discovered in 1606 near the Arch of 
 Gallienus, and] named after its first owner, 
 Cardinal Aldobrandini, now in the Library 
 of the Vatican at Rome. It is copied from 
 an excellent Greek original, and represents, 
 in the style of a relief, the preparations for 
 a marriage {see fig. 4). ["It is composed," 
 says Woermann in his History of Painting, 
 i 115, " not pictorially, but yet with taste. 
 It exhibits several individual motives of 
 much beauty ; its colouring is soft and har- 
 monious ; and it is instinct with that placid 
 and serious charm which belongs only to the 
 antique. In technical execution, however, 
 the work is insignificant, and in no way rises 
 above the ordinary handling of the Roman 
 house-decorator in similar subjects." The 
 Vatican Library also possesses an important 
 series of landscapes from the Odyssey, found 
 during the excavations on the Esquiline in 
 1848-1850. Landscapes of this kind are 
 mentioned by Vitruvius, vii 5, among the 
 subjects with which corridors used to be 
 decorated in the good old times. They repre- 
 sent the adventure with the Lsestrygones 
 (fig. 5), the story of Circe, and the visit of 
 Odysseus to the realm of Hades, thus illus- 
 trating a continuous portion of the poem, 
 Od. X 80-xi 600. The predominant colours 
 are a yellowish brown and a greenish blue, 
 and the pictures are divided from one 
 another by pilasters of a brilliant red. 
 They furnish interesting examples of the 
 landscape-painting of the last days of the 
 Republic or the first of the Empire, and, in 
 point of importance, stand alone among all 
 the remains of ancient painting (Woer- 
 mann, I.e., and Die Odyssee-landschaften vom 
 Esquilin, with chromolithographs of all the 
 six landscapes). On mosaic-painting and 
 vase-painting, see Mosaics and Vases.] 
 
 [The processes of painting are represented 
 in several works of ancient art, e.g. in three 
 mural paintings from Pompeii (Schreiber's 
 Bilderatlas, viii 2, 4, and ix 3 ; see Sculp- 
 ture, fig. 18). Even some of the imple- 
 ments and materials used by artists have 
 been discovered. Thus, in 1849, at St. 
 Medard-des-Pres in the Vendee, a grave 
 was opened, containing a female skeleton, 
 surrounded by eighty small vessels of glass, 
 in most of which remains of ancient pigments 
 were still preserved. Besides these, there 
 was a small cup of brown glass (fig. 6, a) ; 
 
PAINTING. 
 
 447 
 
 a knife of cedar-wood, with its blade re- 
 duced to rust (6); a small bronze box (c) 
 with a movable lid and four partitions, 
 holding materials for pigments; a mortar 
 of alabaster, and a smaller one of bronze (c?); 
 
 also two small cylinders of amber and two 
 brush-handles of bone. One of the glass 
 vessels contained bits of resin ; another, 
 wax ; a third, a mixture of both ; a fourth, 
 a mixture of lamp-black and wax, with 
 
 one or two elegant bronze spoons (e), either 
 for removing colours from the palette, or 
 for adding some liquid to mix them toge- 
 ther; a small shovel, made of rock crystal, 
 containing gold embedded in gum (/) ; and 
 an oblong palette of basalt {£). There were 
 
 traces of sebacic acid, possibly due to the 
 presence of oil. 
 
 Our principal information about ancient 
 pigments (Or. pharmdka ; Lat. mSdlca- 
 menta, pigmenta) comes from Theophrastus 
 {De Lapldlbus), Dioscorides (v), Vitruvius 
 
448 
 
 PAINTING. 
 
 (vii), and the elder Pliny (xxxiii and xxxv). 
 It is observed by Cicero in the Brutus § 70, 
 that only four colours were used by Poly- 
 gnotus, Zeuxis, Timanthes, and their con- 
 temporaries, as contrasted with their suc- 
 cessors, Aetion, NicSmachus, Protogenes, 
 
 (6) * PAINT-BOX, ETC. 
 
 (First pnhlisbed by B. Fillun, DescHpfton de la Villa et du 
 Tombeau d*une Ftfiime Artiste Galto-rovwine, Fontenay, 1819.) 
 
 and Apelles. Pliny (xxxv 50), who identi- 
 fied the colours as white (mellnum), yellow 
 {HI Atttcum), red {Slnojjis Ponttca), and 
 black {atr amentum), even places Aetion, 
 Nicomachus, Apelles, and. Melanthius under 
 the same limitation. But it is hardly 
 probable that such important colours as 
 blue and green were dispensed with, even 
 in the primitive art of Polyguotus; much 
 less in the more advanced art of Zeuxis 
 and his contemporaries; and least of all 
 in that of Apelles and Protogenes. The 
 earliest artists, however, may well have 
 used comparatively few colours, and those of 
 the simplest kind, the c6loi-esausterioi Pliny 
 xxxv 30, as contrasted with the colores flO- 
 ildi, such as vermilion, " Armenian blue," 
 "dragon's blood," malachite green, indigo, 
 and purple. These were characteristic of 
 later developments of art, and were so 
 costly that they were not paid for by the 
 artists, but by those who gave them their 
 commissions («&. 44 ; Vitruv., vii 5, 8). 
 
 The pigments known to the ancients were 
 as follows : 
 
 White. The pigment used in Greece was 
 a '' pipe-clay " called melinum (Gr. melidn), 
 found in veins in the island of Melos. It 
 was not available for fresco-painting (Pliny, 
 xxxv 49). A white earth of Eretria was 
 employed by Nicomachus and Parrhasius 
 {ib. 38). A commoner pigment was the 
 cretd SSllnusia of Selirrtis in Sicily, used 
 for mural paiutings {ib. 49, 194), and the 
 creta dniildria, made by mixing chalk with 
 the glass composition worn in the rings of 
 
 the poor {ib. 48). For fresco-painting they" 
 used pdrcetonium, a hydrated silicate of 
 magnesia, so called from a cliff on the 
 African coast near Egypt {ib. 30), which in 
 Rome was adulterated with crcta Cwiolia 
 {ib. 36). Por other purposes they employed 
 whitelead (Gr. psimijtMdn ; Lat. cerussa), 
 an artificial product, the finest sorts of 
 which came from Rhodes, Corinth, and 
 Sparta. It is carbonate of lead, and is still 
 used under various names {e.g. ceruse). It 
 is sold in its crude form as " Chemnitz or 
 Vienna white," and mixed with sulphate of 
 barium in "Dutch, Hamburg, and Venetian 
 white." 
 
 Yellow. The pigments in use were yellow 
 ochre and orpiment. The best kind of 
 yellow ochre (Gr. ochrd ; Lat. sil) was found 
 in the mines of Laurium. It was also 
 found in Scyros, Achaia, Gaul, Cappadocia, 
 Cyprus, and Lydia. The Attic variety was 
 first used by Polygnotus and Micon ; it was 
 afterwards preferred for the high lights, 
 while the kinds from Scyros and Lydia 
 were reserved for the shadows {ib. xxxiii 
 158-160, xxxvii 179). It is a diluted brown 
 ochre or hydrated peroxide of iron, being 
 composed of oxygen, water, and iron, mixed 
 with more or less clay. Orpiment, or tri- 
 sulphide of arsenic (Gr. arsenlcGn / Lat. 
 auripigm,entum), was of two kinds : (1) of 
 a golden yellow, from Mysia on the coast 
 of the Hellespont; and (2) a duller kind, 
 from Pontus and Cappadocia (Dioscorides 
 V 120). It could not be used for frescoes 
 (Pliny xxxv 49). Yellow ochre and orpi- 
 ment (under the name of " king's or Chinese 
 yellow ") are still in use. 
 
 Red. One of the oldest pigments was 
 ruddle (Gr. Tniltos ; Lat. rubrfcd). This is 
 a red earth coloured by sesquioxide of iron. 
 In the Homeric age it was used to orna- 
 ment the bows of ships. In later times the 
 clay from which Greek vases were made 
 owed its brilliant hue to the ruddle of Cape 
 Colias on the Attic coast (Suidas, s.v. 
 KoltddSs kerdmScs, and Pliny, xxxv 152). 
 The best kind came from Cappadocia, by 
 way of Sinope (hence called Slnopis Ponttcd, 
 ib. 31, 36, xxxiii 117), or through Ephesus 
 (Strabo, p. 540). It was also found in North 
 Africa (cAcercUlum, Pliny, xxxv 32), especi- 
 ally in Egypt and at Carthage ; also in Spain 
 and the Balearic Islands, and Lemnos and 
 Ceos. There was a treaty forbidding the 
 export of ruddle from Ceos except only to 
 Athens (Hicks, Gr. Historical Inscriptions, 
 p. 186). It could be artificially produced 
 by calcining yellow ochre, a discovery due 
 
PAINTING 
 
 449 
 
 to Cydias, a contemporary of Euphranor 
 (Theophr., I.e. 53). Another mineral sup- 
 plying a red, sometimes a yellow, pigment, 
 was sandarach (Gr. sanddrdcJiS ; Lat. 
 sanddrdca), found in PaphlagSnia, probably 
 disulpbide of arsenic ("realgar"). As 
 this mineral is poisonous, the mortality in 
 the mines was very high. An artificial 
 substitute, called cerussa usta, or usta alone, 
 was therefore generally preferred. This 
 was obtained by burning white lead, a 
 discovery attributed to the painter Nicias 
 (Pliny, XXXV 38). The result is " red lead," 
 i.e. red oxide of lead. There was besides a 
 colour compounded of equal parts of ruddle 
 and sandarach, called sandyx (Pliny, xxxv 
 40), which is also the designation of a natural 
 pigment of which little is known (Vergil, 
 Eel. iv 45). Of greater importance than 
 these is cinnabar (Gr. originally kinndbdrl, 
 afterwards ammion ; Lat. minium\ found 
 in Spain, especially at Sisapo (Pliny, xxxiii 
 121). An artificial kind was made at 
 Ephesus from the red sand of the agri 
 Cilbidnl. This discovery is assigned to 
 Callias {ib. 113). The name cinnabari was 
 often erroaeously given to a red resin, now 
 called dragon's blood, and produced from 
 the cdldmus drdco, a kind of palm growing 
 in the Sunda Islands and elsewhere. The 
 ancients probably imported it from the 
 island of Socotra, as it is a product of the 
 Somali coast on the adjacent mainland of 
 Africa. — A purple pigment (Gr. ostreion ; 
 Lat. ostruni, purpurissum) was prepared 
 by mixing cretd argentdnd with the purple 
 secretion of the murex {see Pueple) ; the 
 bes t kind was made atPuteoli (Pliny xxxv 45). 
 
 Blue. The pigment used from the 
 earliest times was called in Greek kydnos, 
 in Latin coeruleum, a blue silicate of 
 copper, generally mixed with carbonate of 
 lime (chalk). It is not to be confounded 
 with the modern cceruleum, which is stan- 
 nate of cobalt. Kydnos was found in small , 
 quantities in copper mines, and artificial 
 kinds were made in Scythia, Cyprus, and 
 Egypt (Theophr., I.e. 51, 55). Vitruvius 
 mentions only the artificial cceruleum of 
 Alexandria and Puteoli. The method of 
 manufacturing it was brought from Egypt 
 by Vestorius. It was prepared by heating 
 strongly together sand, _^6s nitri (carbonate 
 of soda), and filings of copper. This 
 " Egyptian azure " was reproduced by Sir 
 Humphry Davy, by taking fifteen parts by 
 weight of carbonate of soda, twenty of 
 powdered opaque flints, and three of copper 
 filings, and heating them strongly for two 
 
 p. C. A. 
 
 hours. The product, when pulverized, sup- 
 plied a fine deep sky blue. The " Alex- 
 andrian frit " is in part a species of artificial 
 lapis lazuli, the colouring matter of which 
 is naturally inherent in a hard siliceous 
 stone (Phil. Trans. Royal Society, 1815, 
 p. 121). It was not available for frescc- 
 painting, but could be used for painting in 
 tempera (Pliny, xxxiii 162). The name 
 kydnds was given to a blue mineral, which 
 is to be identified as lapis lazuli, a silicate 
 of sodium, calcium, and aluminium, with a 
 sulphur compound of sodium. This was 
 pounded into a pigment, now known as 
 ultramarine. Kyanos was also the name 
 of the blue carbonate of copper from the 
 copper mines of Cyprus, where lapis lazuli 
 is not to be found. Artificial blue pigments 
 were produced by colouring pulverized 
 glass with carbonate of copper. "Armenian 
 blue " (Gr. Ar^nSnion) is described by Pliny 
 (xxxv 47) as made from a mineral like 
 clirysdcolla (malachite ?) in colour, the best 
 kinds being almost as good as cceruleum. It 
 is probably a kind of ultramarine. — Indigo 
 (indicum) was also used. The way in 
 which it is mentioned in Vitruvius (vii 9, 
 6, and 10, 4) implies that it had been 
 recently introduced. It could not be used 
 for frescoes. Modern experiment has 
 proved that the colouring basis of the blue 
 found in ancient mural paintings is oxide of 
 copper. Cobalt has also been discovered in 
 ancient specimens of transparent blue glass. 
 Green. Several pigments were in use : 
 (1) chvysocolla (or malachite ?, hydrated 
 dicarbonate of copper), pounded and sifted, 
 and mixed with alum and woad {lutwn, 
 Pliny, xxxiii 87). Malachite green, some- 
 times called mountain, or Hungary, green, is 
 also a modern pigment. (2) Cretd viridls, 
 the best kind of which came from Smyrna 
 (Vitruv., vii 7, 4). It is a species of ochre 
 containing silica, oxide of iron, magnesia, 
 potash, and water ; and is still used under 
 the names of terra verte, verdetta, green 
 earth, Verona green, green bice, or holly 
 green. (3) Verdigris (Gr. %os ; Lat. cerugo, 
 cerUca, Vitruv., vii 12, 1). Tliis is an ace- 
 tate of copper (sometimes crystallized), i.e. a 
 compound of acetic acid and oxide of copper. 
 Malachite green and Verona green have both 
 been traced in ancient paintings. Verdi- 
 gris has not been found ; hence it has been 
 conjectured by Sir H. Davy, that what was 
 originally a diacetate of copper has in the 
 course of centuries changed into carbonate 
 of copper {I.e., p. 112). It is described as 
 " the least durable of copper greens ; light 
 
 G G 
 
450 
 
 PALiEMON PALAMEDES. 
 
 fades it in water ; damp and foul air first 
 bleach it, and then turn it black " (Standage, 
 Manual of Pigments, p. 21). 
 
 Black. The pigment (Gr. inelcln ; Lat. 
 dtmmentuvi) was almost always produced 
 by combustion, Polygnotus and Micon 
 produced it by drying and burning the lees 
 of wine (Gr. trygmhn). Apelles was the 
 discoverer of " ixor j black" {Slephantinum, 
 Pliny, XXXV 42). A common material was 
 the smoke of burnt resin (our lamp-black), 
 or burnt pine-twigs (Vitruv., vii 10, l), 
 Pliny (xxxv 41) also mentions a natural 
 black pigment which is difficult to identify ; 
 it may be peat, or else oxide of iron, or 
 oxide of manganese. The best black pig- 
 ment was called atramentum Indic.um (Gr. 
 meldn Indikon), doubtless the same as 
 " Chinese black," which originally found its 
 way to the West through India, and thus 
 obtained its alternative name of " Indian 
 ink." But it cannot be used for frescoes, 
 and no traces of it have been found in the 
 mural paintings of antiquity. The black 
 in these paintings is always carbonaceous. 
 
 Some of the remains of ancient colours 
 and paintings at Pompeii, and in the "Baths 
 of Titus " and of Li%'ia, and elsewhere, were 
 analysed by Sir Humphry Davy (I.e., pp. 
 97-124 : Sovie Experiments and Observa- 
 tions on the Colours used in Painting by 
 the Ancients). In an earthen vase from the 
 "Baths of Titus" containing a variety of 
 colours, the reds proved to be red oxide 
 of lead, with two iron ochres of different 
 tints, a dull red and a purplish red " nearly 
 of the same tint as prussiate of copper " ; 
 all three were mixed with chalk or car- 
 bonate of lime (p. 101). The yellows were 
 pure ochres mixed with carbonate of lime, 
 and ochre mixed with red oxide of lead 
 and carbonate of lime (p. 104). The bhi,es 
 were a kind of smalt, with carbonate of 
 lime (p. 106). Of greens there were three 
 varieties ; " one, which approached to olive, 
 was the common green earth of Verona ; 
 another, which was pale grass-green, had 
 the character of carbonate of copper mixed 
 ■^dth chalk ; and a third, which was sea- 
 green, was a green combination of copper 
 mixed with blue copper frit " (p. 110). A 
 pale, rose-coloured substance, found in the 
 " Baths of Titus," which in its interior 
 " had a lustre approaching to that of car- 
 mine," was found to be either of vegetable 
 or animal origin ; if the latter, it was most 
 probably a specimen of Tyrian purple (pp. 
 113-15). In the Aldobrandini Marriage 
 (fig. 4) the reds and yellows were all 
 
 ochres ; the greens, preparations of copper ; 
 the blues, "Alexandrian frit"; the purple, 
 a mixture of red ochre and carbonate of 
 copper ; the browns, mixtures of ochres 
 and black ; the whites were' all carbonates 
 of lime {lb. passim). 
 
 Por further details see Blumner's Tech- 
 nologie, iv 457-518.] [J. E. S.] 
 
 Palaemon. (1) A Greek sea-god. See 
 Meliceetes. 
 
 (2) Quintus Remmius. A Latin gram- 
 marian of Vicetia (Vicenza), the son of a 
 female slave. He acquired a learned educa- 
 tion whilst accompanying his master's son 
 to school, and, after he had been set free, 
 taught at Rome in the first half of the first 
 century after Christ, under Tiberius and 
 Claudius, with extraordinary success [in 
 spite of his thoroughly disreputable char- 
 acter]. The earlier scholars, and especially 
 Varro, had made the older literature the 
 centre of their linguistic studies. Palsemon, 
 as head of a new school, devoted himself 
 especially to Vergil, just as Greek literary 
 criticism had concentrated itself on Homer. 
 [He seems to have treated grammar in the 
 practical spirit of a clever schoolmaster, 
 and to have done his best to deride the 
 scientific labours of Varro. His grammar 
 {ars, Juvenal, vii 251) was doubtless much 
 consulted by later grammarians. It is now 
 lost.] The grammar that bears his name 
 is wrongly attributed to him. [^e Prof. 
 Nettleship in Journal of Philology, xv 192.] 
 
 FalsphatuB. A Greek author who fol- 
 lowed the Peripatetic philosophy. He com- 
 posed in the 4th century B.C. a historical 
 and allegorical explanation of Greek myths 
 in several books. Of this. work we possess 
 only a short abstract, probably composed 
 in the Byzantine age under the title, On 
 Incredible Tales. In former times it was 
 a favourite school book. 
 
 Palaestra (i.e. wrestling school). The name 
 given by the Greeks to the place in which 
 the young were instructed in wrestling and 
 boxing under the guidance of a master 
 called a pcedotribes. There were a con- 
 siderable number of such schools at Athens, 
 which had been built, some at public ex- 
 pense, some by private undertaking. In 
 later times they were also connected with 
 the Gymn&sia. {See Gtmnasium and 
 Gtjixastics.) 
 
 Falamedes. The son of Nauplius and 
 brother of (Eax, a hero of the posVHomeric 
 cycle of Trojan legend. Odysseus envied 
 his wisdom and ingenuity, and was bent on 
 avenging himself on Palamedes for detect- 
 
PALES PALLA. 
 
 451 
 
 ing his feigned madness. Accord inglj', he 
 is said to have conspired with DiSmedes 
 and drowned him whilst engaged in fishing ; 
 or (according to another account) they per- 
 suaded him to enter a well, in which 
 treasure was said to be concealed, and then 
 overwhelmed him with stones. According 
 to others, Agamemnon also hated him as 
 head of the peace party among the Greeks. 
 He accordingly got Odysseus and Diomedes 
 to conceal in his tent a letter purporting 
 to he written by Priam, as well as some 
 money, and then accuse him as a traitor; 
 whereupon he was stoned to death by the 
 people. His brother (Eax informed his 
 father of the sad event by writing the 
 news on an oar and throwing it into the sea, 
 upon which he took a terrible vengeance on 
 the returning Greeks {see Nauplius, 2). 
 Palamedes was considered by th,e Greeks as 
 the inventor of the alphabet and of light- 
 houses ; also of measures and weights, and 
 of dice and draughts and the discus. 
 
 Pales. The Italian goddess of shepherds. 
 Her festival, the Pdlllia or PdriUa, held 
 on April 21st, was properly a herdsmen's 
 festival to promote the fruitfulness of 
 the flocks and to purify the sacred groves 
 and fountains from all unintentional injury 
 or pollution caused by the herds. It was 
 deemed the anniversary of the founding 
 of Rome, the former abode of shepherds. 
 Accordingly it was celebrated at Rome, as 
 in the villages, by the whole of the inhabi- 
 tants, with the ancient rites of a shepherds' 
 festival. It was customary to purify house, 
 steading, and sheep with sulphur, and, as a 
 special means of expiation, to offer incense, 
 together with a mixture of the blood of 
 the October horse {see Mars), the ashes of 
 the unborn calf which was burned at the 
 feast of Tellus, and bean-straw which was 
 obtained from the "Vestals. When these 
 solemn purifications were over, the cheer- 
 ful part of the festival began. Bonfires 
 were made of straw and hay ; the shepherds 
 leaped across them thrice ; cakes of millet 
 were also offered to the goddess; and the 
 festival was concluded by a feast in the 
 open air. After the 2nd century of our era 
 the festival was combined with that of Dea 
 Eoma, and was celebrated as her birthday 
 with festal processions and Circensian 
 games, which continued till the 5th century. 
 Paiici. Two spirits worshipped in the 
 the neighbourhood of Mount Etna in Sicily, 
 as benevolent deities and protectors of 
 agriculture. They are sometimes described 
 as sons of Adranus, a native hero honoured 
 
 through the whole of Sicily ; sometimes, of 
 Hephaestus and the Nymph ^Etna; some- 
 times, of Zeus and Thalia, a daughter of 
 Hephaestus, who concealed herself in the 
 earth from fear of Hera's jealousy, where- 
 upon two hot sulphur springs burst out of 
 the ground. Beside these springs solemn 
 oaths were taken, especially in legal proceed- 
 ings, the swearer, who must have previously 
 kept himself from all defilement, touching 
 the brink ; if the oath were false, blinding 
 or irustantaneous death followed. According 
 to another account, a tablet inscribed with 
 the oath was thrown into the water, and 
 swam on the surface if the oath were true, 
 btit sank in the contrary case, while flames 
 devoured the perjurer. The neighbouring 
 sanctuary of the Paliei served as an oracte 
 and also as a shelter for fugitive slaves. 
 [Diodorus Siculus, xi 89. j 
 
 Palilia. A feast among the Romans held 
 in honour of the goddess Pales {q.v.). 
 
 A KOMAN I.ADT WEAEINO THE PALLA. 
 
 Statue of the younger Agrippina, wife of Claudius and 
 motlier of Nero (Naples Museum). 
 
 Palla. A Roman mantle worn by women, 
 consisting of a square piece of cloth, which 
 
452 
 
 PALLADIUM PAMPHILUS. 
 
 matrons wore over the stOla, in the same 
 way as the men wore the t6ga. They ]et 
 one third fall down in front over the left 
 shoulder, but drew the rest away over the 
 back, and then either brought it forward 
 over the right shoulder, or drew it nnder 
 the right arm, but in either case threw the 
 end back over the left arm or shoulder {see 
 cut). The palla could also be drawn over 
 the head, just like the toga. Other women, 
 who were not privileged to wear the stola^ 
 wore the palla over the tunic, folded to- 
 gether about the body, fastened together on 
 the shoulders with buckles, and open on 
 the right side, or held together in the same 
 way with buckles. It then lay double 
 over the breast and back, but fell down in 
 one thickness to the feet. 
 
 Palladium (Gr. palladton). An old car- 
 ven image in the citadel at Troy, on which 
 the prosperity of the city depended. It is 
 said to have been three cubits high, with feet 
 shut close together, an upraised spear in its 
 right hand, and in its left either a distaff 
 and spindle, or a shield. Athene was said to 
 have made it as an image of Pallas, daugh- 
 ter of Triton, whom she had slain unawares 
 while playing at wrestling. Legends differ 
 in their account of the manner of its com- 
 ing to Troy. According to one of them, 
 Pallas gave it as a dowry to Chryse, the 
 bride of Darda,nus,_and he brought it to 
 Dardania, whence Ilus carried it to Troy ; 
 according to another, Zeus caused it to fall 
 down to Ilus {q.r.) from heaven. Since 
 Troy could not be conquered so long as it 
 possessed this image, Diomedes stole it 
 with the help of Odysseus and brought it 
 to Argos. But, according to the Attic 
 story, it was Demophoon {q.v., 2) of Athens 
 who deprived him of it. The palladium 
 preserved in Rome in the temple of Vesta 
 was traced back to iEneas, the assumption 
 being that there had been a second image 
 in Troy besides that stolen by Diomedes. 
 Other Italian towns also boasted of the 
 possession of a palladium. 
 
 Palladius (Rutilius Taurus -^hitlmnus). 
 A Latin author, in the 4th century A.D., 
 who, by borrowing from the teaching of 
 his predecessors and by his own experience, 
 composed a work upon husbandry in four- 
 teen books. Of these the first contains 
 general precepts ; books ii-xiii give the 
 operations of agriculture in each of the 
 successive months, while the fourteenth 
 treats of the grafting of trees, in eighty- 
 five elegiac couplets. His book, though 
 written in dry and feeble language, was 
 
 much used in the Middle Ages on account 
 of its practical arrangement. 
 Pallas. (1) Pallas Athene (see Athene). 
 
 (2) Son of the Titan Cr-ius, husband of 
 Styx, father of Nike. 
 
 (3) Son of Pandion, who robbed his bro- 
 ther of the dominion of Athens, but was, 
 together with his fifty gigantic sons, slain 
 by the youthful Theseus. 
 
 Palliata. A branch of Roman comedy. 
 {See Comedy, 2.) 
 
 Pallium. The Roman name for a large 
 Grecian cloak, which was also worn by 
 Romans among the Greeks. It was espe- 
 cially the garb of the philosophers. In 
 Rome it was also worn by courtesans. 
 
 Pallor and Pavor {lit. " Paleness and 
 Fright "). The Roman personifications of 
 terror, and companions of the war-god 
 Mars. As early as the time of king Tullus 
 Hostilius sanctuaries are said to have been 
 erected in their honour. On coins Pallor 
 was represented as a boy with dishevelled 
 hair and perturbed bearing, and Pavor as 
 a man with an expression of horror and 
 with bristling hair. 
 
 Palton. The lance of the Greek cavalry. 
 {See Weapons.) [Also a light spear used by 
 the Persian cavalry (Xen., Cyrop. iv 3, 9; 
 vi 2, 16).] 
 
 Paludamentum. The short, red mantle 
 of Roman generals, fastened on the left 
 shoulder and worn over the armour. They 
 assumed it on the Capitol on their depar- 
 ture to the war, but on their return they 
 exchanged it for the tOga^ the garb of peace, 
 before their entry into the city. Under 
 the Empire, when the emperor was the 
 commander-in-chief, the purple paluda- 
 mentum became exclusively a token of 
 imperial power. It only became the usual 
 attire of the emperors in the 3rd century 
 after Christ. Accordingly, after that time 
 entrance on imperial power was termed 
 " assuming the purple." 
 
 Pamphilus. A Greek painter of Am- 
 phipolis in Macedonia, who lived in the 
 first half of the 4th century B.C., chiefly at 
 Sicj'on, as head of the school there founded 
 bj' his master Eupompus. He is the ori- 
 ginator of the scientific teaching of art : he 
 traced back all practice of art to scientific 
 principles. He maintained that painting 
 could not be brought to perfection without 
 arithmetic and geometry. In spite of the 
 fact that his fee for instruction was one 
 talent (£200), the number of his pupils was 
 considerable; the greatest among them being 
 Apelles. Through his influence instruction 
 
PAN- 
 
 -PANATHEN^A. 
 
 453 
 
 in drawing was introduced among the sub- 
 jects of Greek education [Pliny, N. H. 
 XXXV 76. The only work of this artist now 
 known to us by name is his picture of the 
 Suppliant Heraclidce, to which Aristophanes 
 alludes in the Plutus, 385]. 
 
 Pan {lit. " the pasturer ") [from the same 
 root as the Lat. pastor and panis]. Ori- 
 ginally an Arcadian god of hills and woods, 
 the protecting deity of flocks, herdsmen, 
 and hunters ; the son either of Hermes and 
 a daughter of Dryops, or of Zeus and the 
 Arcadian Nymph Callisto. The ancients 
 represented him with a puck-nose and 
 bearded, with shaggy hair, two horns, and 
 goat's feet. They imagined him as wan- 
 dering by day through hill and dale with 
 the Nymphs, guarding the flocks, especi- 
 ally the goats, and chasing wild animals 
 [Homeric Hymn, 
 xix]. In the heat 
 of noonday he 
 sleeps, and is then 
 very sensitive to 
 any disturbance ; 
 therefore at this 
 time no shepherd 
 blows his pipe 
 [Theocr. i 16]. In 
 the evening, sitr 
 ting in front of 
 his grotto,he plays 
 on the syrinx, or 
 Pan's pipe, which 
 he himself in- 
 vented. He is 
 even said to have 
 formed it from 
 the reed into 
 which a Nymph 
 named Syrinx 
 was changed 
 while fleeing from 
 his love [Ovid, 
 Met.ilOb]. There 
 are many other 
 tales of his love 
 adventures with the Nymphs. As he ex- 
 cites the sudden ("panic") terror which 
 attacks the wanderer in forest solitudes, 
 so he was also said to have caused the 
 panic which put to flight the Persians at 
 Marathon ; and on this account a grotto in 
 the Acr6p6lis of Athens was dedicated to 
 him, and he was honoured with an annual 
 sacrifice and torch procession [Herod., vi 
 105]. As a spirit of the woodland, he is also 
 a god of prophecy, and hence there were 
 oracles of Pan. Like the similar figures of 
 
 PAN, 
 
 (Florence.) 
 
 Silenus and the Satyrs, he was brought into 
 connexion with Dionysus, in whose train he 
 proved himself useful on his Indian expedi- 
 tion by means of the terror he inspired. As 
 one of the gods of na.ture, he was one of 
 the companions of Cybele ; and by reason 
 of his amorousness, he is associated with 
 Aphrodite. In later times, owing to a 
 misinterpretation of his name (as though 
 it stood for pan, "the u.niverse"), he was 
 made a symbol of the universe. His cult 
 was chiefly confined to the country. He 
 was either worshipped with the Nymphs 
 in grottoes, or his image was set up under 
 the trees, where his worshippers brought it 
 simple offerings such as milk, honey, must, 
 rams, or lambs. Mountains, caves, old oaks, 
 and pine trees, and the tortoise, were sacred 
 to him ; his attributes are the syrinx, a 
 shepherd's crook, a garland of pine leaves or 
 a twig of the pine tree. The fancy of later 
 times invented as his coropanions young 
 Pans, or Pcinisci, a specif.s of imps of the 
 forest, who were fabled to (x)rment mankind 
 by all sorts of apparitions, nightmares, and 
 evil dreams. The Eom?ns identified Par, 
 with the Italian Faunu/ (q.v,). 
 
 Pansetius. A Greek philosopher of 
 Rhodes, born about 180 B.C. ; the most impor- 
 tant representative of Stoicism in his time. 
 Prom Athens, where he had received his 
 education, he went in Rome, about 156 E..C. 
 Being there received into the circle of the 
 younger Scipio and of Lselius, he was able 
 to gain numerou? adherents among the 
 Roman nobles by his skill in softening 
 the harshness and sabtlety of the Stoic 
 teaching, and in representing it in a refined 
 and polished forra. After Scipio's death 
 (129) he returned to Athena, where he died, 
 as the head of the Stoic ?chool, about 111. 
 Only unimportant fragments of his writings 
 remain. The most important of them, the 
 Treatise on Duti', supplied the groundwork 
 of the De Offictls of Cj cero. 
 
 Panathenaea (Gr. Pdnclthenaid). The most 
 ancient and most important of Athenian 
 festivals. It was celebrated in honour of 
 Athene, the patron deity of Athens. Claim- 
 ing to have been founded as early as by 
 Erichthonius, it is said to have been origi- 
 nally named only AthSncea, and to have 
 first received the name of Panathencea 
 at the time w>"9n Theseus united all the 
 inhabitants of Attica into one body. In 
 memory of the union itself was kept the 
 festival of the synaicM, or sfpioecSsia, on 
 the 16th of Hecatombseon (July-August), 
 which may be regarded as a kind of prepa- 
 
454 
 
 PANATHEN^A. 
 
 tory solemnity to the Panathcnaa, There 
 was a festival of the ordinary or lesser 
 Panathencea celebrated every year, and 
 from the time of Pisistratus, the great Pan- 
 athencea held every fifth year, and in the 
 third year of every Olympiad, from the 24th 
 to the 29th of Hecatombaeon. Pisistratus, 
 in the year 566 B.C., added to the original 
 chariot and horse races athletic contests 
 ia etkch of the traditional forms of competi- 
 tion. He, or his son Hipparchus, institated 
 the regulation, that the collected Homeric 
 poems should be recited at the feast of 
 Rhapmdi. In 446 Pericles introduced 
 musical contests, which took place on the 
 first day of the festival, in the Odeum, 
 which he had built. Competitions of cyclic 
 choruses and other kinds of dances, torch 
 races and trireme races, added to the splen- 
 dour of the festival. The care and direction 
 of all these contests were committed to ten 
 stewards (athlothetce), who were elected by 
 the people for four years, from one great 
 Panathenaic festival to the next. In the 
 musical contests, the first prize was a 
 golden crown ; in the athletic, the prize was 
 a garland of leaves from the sacred olive 
 trees of Athene, together with large and 
 beautiful vases filled with oil from the same 
 trees. Many specimens of these Panathenaic 
 vases have been found [in Italy, Sicily, 
 Greece, and at Cyrene. They have the 
 figure of Athene on one side, and a design 
 indicating the contest for which they are 
 awarded on the other. Most of them be- 
 long to the 4th century B.C., 367-318 ; the 
 "Burgon Vase," in the British Museum, to 
 the 6th century. Cp. Pindar, Nem. x 35]. 
 The tribe whose ships had been victorious 
 received a sum of money, part of which 
 was destined for a sacrifice to Poseidon. 
 
 The culminating point of the festival was 
 the 28th day of the month, the birthday 
 of the goddess, when the grand procession 
 carried through the city the costly, em- 
 broidered, saffron - coloured garment, the 
 peplus iq.v.). This had been woven in the 
 preceding nine months by Attic maidens 
 and matrons, and embroidered with repre- 
 sentations from the battle of the gods and 
 Giants. It was carried through the city, first 
 of all as a sail for a ship moving on wheels, 
 and was then taken to the Acrop5lis, where 
 it adorned one of the statues of Athene 
 Polias. The procession is represented in a 
 vivid manner in the well-known frieze of 
 the Parthenon. It included the priests and 
 their attendants, leading a long train of ani- 
 mals festally adorned for sacrifice ; matrons 
 
 and maidens bearing in baskets the various 
 sacrificial implements (see Canephoei) ; 
 the most picturesque old men in festal 
 attire, with olive branches in their hands, 
 whence came their name, thallopMrce ; 
 warriors, with spear and shield, in splendid 
 array ; young men in armour ; the cavalry 
 under the command of both the liipparchi; 
 the victors in the immediately preceding 
 contests; the festal embassies of other 
 
 ■^ PANATHEMAIC AMPUOKA. 
 
 Inscribed TON A0HNH9EN AeAfiN, "a prize from 
 
 Athens." 
 
 (MiDiDgen, Djied. Mon., pi, 1.) 
 
 states, especially of the colonies ; and, lastly, 
 the aliens resident in Athens. Of these last, 
 the men bore behind the citizens trays with 
 sacrificial cakes, the women waterpots, and 
 the maidens sunshades and stools for the 
 citizens' wives ; while on the freedmen was 
 laid the duty of adorning with oak-leaves 
 the market-places and streets through which 
 the procession moved. The feast ended 
 with the great festal sacrifice of a hecatomb 
 of oxen, and with the general banqueting 
 which accompanied it. At the yearly 
 minor Panatheneea, on the 28th and 29tii 
 of Hecatombaeon, contests, sacrifices, and a 
 procession took place, but all in a more 
 simple style. In later times the festival was 
 removed to spring, perhaps in consequence 
 of Roman influence, in order to make it cor- 
 respond to the Quinqi'dtrus of Minerva. 
 
PANCRATIUM PANTHEON. 
 
 455 
 
 [All the ancient authorities are collected by 
 Michaelis, Dcr Parthenon, pp. 318-333.] 
 
 Pancratium, The combination of boxing 
 and wrestling in Greek gymnastics {q.v.). 
 
 PaiidS,r66s, of Miletus, the son of Meropus, 
 stole from Minos of Crete a living dog made 
 of gold, the work of Hephaestus, which was 
 the guardian of the temple of Zeus, and 
 gave it to Tantalus to keep it safely. When 
 Zeus demanded the dog back, Pandareos 
 fled with his wife Harmothea to Sicily, 
 where both were turned into stones. For 
 his daughter Aedon, see Aedon. Of his 
 two other daughters (Merope and Cleodora 
 or Cameira and Clytea), Homer [Od. xx 
 66-78] relates that they were brought up 
 by Aphrodite, after their early bereavement, 
 and were endowed by Hera with beauty and 
 wisdom, by Artemis with lofty stature, and 
 by Athene with skill in handiwork ; but 
 while their foster-mother went to Olympus 
 to implore Zeus to grant the maidens happy 
 marriages, they were carried off by the 
 Harpies, and delivered to the Erinyes as 
 servants, and thus expiated their father's 
 guilt. 
 
 Fandion. (1) Son of Erichthonius, father 
 of Procne and Erechtheus (q.v.). 
 
 (2) Son of Cecrops and Metiadtisa, grand- 
 son of Erechtheus, king of Athens. Driven 
 into exile by the sons of his brother Metion, 
 he went to Megara, where he married Pylia, 
 the daughter of king Pylas, and inherited the 
 kingdom. His sons, ^geus, Dycus, Pallas, 
 and Nisus, regained Attica from the 
 Metionidse, and the first three shared it 
 among themselves, while Nisus (q.v.) re- 
 ceived Megara. 
 
 Pandokeion (Greek). The Greek name 
 for a kind of private inn which harboured 
 and entertained travellers. {Op. Inns.) 
 
 Pandora ("the all-gifted"). The woman 
 made out of earth by Hephaestus, and en- 
 dowed by the gods with perfect charm 
 and beauty, but also with deceit, flattering 
 speech, and cunning thought. (Sec further 
 under Prometheus.) 
 
 Pandrosos (Greek). Daughter of Cecrops 
 of Athens, first priestess of Athene, honoured 
 together with her in a sanctuary of her 
 own, the Pandroseion, on the Acropolis of 
 Athens. (Cp. Cecrops.) 
 
 Panegjrricas. The name given among the 
 Greeks to a speech delivered before a pdne- 
 gyris ; that is, an assembly of the whole 
 nation on the occasion of the celebration of 
 a festival, such as Pccndthencea and the 
 four great national games. This oration 
 had reference to the feast itself, or was 
 
 intended to inspire the assembled multitude 
 with emulation, by praising the great deeds 
 of their ancestors, and also to urge them to 
 unanimous co-operation against their com- 
 mon foes. The most famous compositions 
 of this kind which have been preserved 
 are the Panegyricus and Pdndthenalcus of 
 IsocrS,tes, [neither of which, however, was 
 actually delivered in public] In later times 
 eulogies upon individuals were so named. 
 This kind of composition was especially 
 cultivated under the Roman Empire by 
 Greeks and Romans. In Roman literature 
 the most ancient example of this kind which 
 remains is the eulogy of the emperor 
 Trajan, delivered by the younger Pliny in 
 the Senate, 100 A.D., thanking the emperor 
 for conferring on him the consulate, a 
 model which subsequent ages vainly endea- 
 voured to imitate. It forms, together with 
 eleven orations of Mamertinus, Eumenius, 
 Nazarius, Pacatus Drepanius, and other 
 unknown representatives of the Gallic 
 school of rhetoric, from the end of the 3rd 
 and the whole of the '4th centuries A.D., the 
 extant collection of the Panegyrici Ldtini. 
 Besides these, we possess similar orations by 
 Symmachus,Ausonius, andEnnodius. There 
 are also a considerable number of poetical 
 panegyrics; e.g. one upon Messala, composed 
 in the year 31 B.C., and wrongly attributed 
 to Tibullus ; one by an unknown author of 
 the Neronian time upon Calpiirnius Piso ; 
 and others by Claudian, Sidonius Apolli- 
 naris, Merobaudes, Corippus, Priscian, and 
 Venantius Portunatus (q.v.). 
 
 Panisci. See Pan. 
 
 Pan's Pipe. See Syrinx and Pan. 
 
 Pantheon (properly Gr. Pantheion, " the 
 all- divine place"; Lat. Pantheum). The 
 only ancient building in Rome whose walls 
 and arches have been completely preserved. 
 It is one of the greatest architectural 
 monuments of antiquity, and is fitted, as 
 no other building is, to sho;)5^us the solidity, 
 boldness, and splendour of Roman architec- 
 ture. The original object of the temple, 
 which, according to the inscription on the 
 architrave of its porch, was built by 
 Agrippa in 27 B.C., is unknown. We only 
 know that the seven principal niches of the 
 interior were once occupied by images of 
 the gods. We have evidence that among 
 them were Mars and VSnus, the patron 
 deities of the Julian house, and the deified 
 Csesar, the principal representative of that 
 house. In later times the term Pantheon 
 was wrongly supposed to mean a temple of 
 all the gods. This view prom^jted Pope 
 
456 
 
 PANTHEON. 
 
 Boniface IV to dedicate the building, in 
 609 A.D., as a Christian church to the 
 memory of all the martyrs, under the name 
 of ,S'. Maria ad Marlyres (now S. Maria 
 
 of these in front support a massive pedi- 
 ment, behind which rises another pediment 
 of still higher elevation, resting against 
 the square projection which connects the 
 
 (1) THE PANTHEON, KOME. 
 
 (Front elevation.) 
 
 Rotonda, or simply La Rotonda). The 
 building had already been repeatedly 
 restored in ancient times by Domitian, 
 Hadrian, and last ol all, in 202 A.D., by 
 
 portico with the dome. The other columns 
 divide the portico into three parallel por- 
 tions, originally vaul'ted over. In the in- 
 terior of the portico on each side of the 
 
 (2) THE PANTHEON, KOME. 
 
 (Longitudinal section.) 
 
 Septimius Severus and Caracalla, It 
 consists of a circular structure, 142 feet 6 
 inches in height and inner diameter, with 
 a portico 103 feet long formed by sixteen 
 Corinthian columns 47 feet high. Eight 
 
 entrance are two niches, which formerly 
 contained colossal statues of Augustus and 
 Agrippa. The massive walls of the great 
 rotunda, which is completely circular in 
 form, are divided by ring-cornices into two 
 
PANTOMIBIUS PARABASIS. 
 
 457 
 
 stories, an upper and a lower. Above these 
 springs a cupola of concrete, of vaster dimen- 
 sions than anj' that had been attempted 
 in previous times. The diameter of this 
 lofty cupola corresponds to that of the vast 
 cylindrical building on which it rests. The 
 walls of the latter are 19 feet thick. The 
 interior of the cupola is divided into five 
 rows of deeply sunk panels {Idcunana) 28 
 in each row. At its vertex an opening 
 about 27 feet in diameter lights the whole 
 of the interior {see cuts). The gilt-bronze 
 tiles of the roof were taken by the emperor 
 Constans II to Constantinople in 655 a.d. 
 The remains of the costly marble wall- 
 linings of the interior, which dated from 
 the last restoration, and consisted of 56 
 compartments, divided by 112 Corinthian 
 columns, and covered with white marble, 
 porphyry, serpentine, and pavonazetto, 
 were not carried off until 1747. In 1632 
 the girders of gilded bronze which sup- 
 ported the roof of the portico were melted 
 down by Urban VIII, to be cast into pillars 
 for the baldacchino in St. Peter's [and into 
 cannon for the castle of S. Angelo]. 
 
 Pantomimns. The representation of a 
 dramatic subject by dancing and rhythmic 
 gesticulation alone, as practised by the 
 Romans. It originated in the custom of 
 the ancient Roman drama, of only allowing 
 an actor on the stage to make the necessary 
 movements of dancing and gesticulation, 
 while another actor sang the recitative to 
 the accompaniment of the flute. This re- 
 citative was called canticum, and was a 
 monologue composed in rhythmical form. 
 The illustrative dance was raised to a 
 separate, independent branch of art by 
 Pylddes and Bdthyllus under Augustus, 
 22 B.C. There were comic and tragic pan- 
 tomimes, but the latter variety prevailed 
 on the stage of the Empire. The subjects 
 were chiefly taken from tragedies founded 
 on mythological love stories, and treated so 
 that the chief situations were included in 
 a series of cantica. All of these were 
 represented by a single pantomimus, the 
 dancer, as well as the performer, being 
 designated by that name. He thus had 
 to represent several characters, male and 
 female, in succession, while a chorus, ac- 
 companied by flutes and other instruments, 
 sang the corresponding song. The pauses 
 necessary for the change of mask and 
 costume for each successive part were ap- 
 parently filled up with the recital of music 
 by the chorus, which served to connect the 
 chisf scenes with each other. It was only 
 
 in the latest times of the Empire that 
 women were employed in pantomime. 
 Pantomime, aiming at sensual charm alone, 
 went beyond all bounds of decorum in the 
 representation of delicate subjects. As an 
 understanding of the subtleties of the art 
 required a cultivated taste, pantomime was 
 specially favoured by the higher classes, 
 while the mime, with his buffoonery, was 
 more pleasing to the multitude. On the 
 true dramatic ballet of imperial times, see 
 Pyerhic Dance. 
 
 Fanyasis [quantity doubtful ; Avienus, 
 Avat. Phoen. 175, makes it Pclnydsis. There 
 was another form Panyassis]. A Greek 
 poet of Halicarnassus, uncle of Herodotus. 
 He was put to death by the tyrant Lyg- 
 damis about 454 B.C. for being the leader 
 of the aristocratic party. He composed a 
 poem in fourteen books entitled HerdclCa 
 (exploits of Heracles), which was reckoned 
 by later writers among the best epics. The 
 few fragments preserved are in an elegant 
 and graceful style. 
 
 Paper. See Writing Materials. 
 
 Papinianus {Jimilius). The most im- 
 portant among the Roman jurists; born 
 about 140 A.D., a contemporary and friend 
 of the emperor Septimius Severus, whom 
 he accompanied on his expedition to Bri- 
 tain in the capacity of prcefectus prcetorio. 
 Severus, on his deathbed at York, left to 
 him the guardianship of his sons Geta and 
 Caracalla ; yet the latter caused Papinianus 
 to be put to death in the next year, 212, 
 on the day after the murder of his brother 
 Geta. Of all his works, the thirty-seven 
 books of Qucestiones (legal questions), and 
 the nineteen books of Responsa (legal deci- 
 sions) were considered the most important. 
 Till the time of Justinian these formed the 
 nucleus of that part of jurisprudence which 
 was connected with the explanation of the 
 original authorities on Roman law. "We 
 only possess fragments of them, in the form 
 of numerous excerpts in the " Digest." 
 {See Corpus Juris Civilis.) 
 
 Papirius {Pdpirlanum lus). See Juris- 
 prudence. 
 
 Papposilenus. See Silenus. 
 
 Pappus. A Greek mathematician of 
 Alexandria, who lived about the end of 
 the 4th century a.d. We still possess his 
 Matlieviatical Collections in eight books, 
 consisting of extracts from numerous mathe- 
 matical writings, of great importance for 
 the history of mathematics. 
 
 Papyrus. See Writing Materials. 
 
 Para,basis. A characteristic, but not 
 
458 
 
 PARALI PARIS. 
 
 indispensable, part of tiie chorus in the Old 
 Attic comedy. About the middle of the 
 piece, when the action of the play had been 
 developed up to a certain point, the chorus, 
 which had up to this time turned towards 
 the actors on the stage, now turned to the 
 audience. This stepping forward towards 
 the audience is itself also termed parabasis. 
 In this position they made an appeal to the 
 public on behalf of the poet, who could 
 thus give expression to his personal views 
 and wishes, and offer advice, as well as 
 explain the purport of his play, etc. This 
 address stood wholly outside the action of 
 the play. When the parabasis was com- 
 plete, which was seldom the case, it con- 
 sisted of seven parts, partly spoken by the 
 leader of the chorus, partly sung by the 
 chorus. One of these parts was called the 
 parabasis in a narrower sense, and consisted 
 chiefly of anapaestic tetrameters. 
 
 Par&li. Lit. " the people of the coast- 
 land." {See SoLONiAN Constitution.) 
 
 ParasceniTim. See Theatre. 
 
 Parasite (Gr. pdrasftds, lit. " table com- 
 panion "). Denoted originally among the 
 Grreeks the priest's assistant, who (like the 
 priest) received his support from the offer- 
 ings made to the temple, in return for 
 certain services. These services included 
 collecting and keeping the supplies of com 
 due to the temple, helping at certain sacri- 
 fices, and preparing the banquets connected 
 with certain festivals [AthencBUS, p. 234]. 
 The assistants of civil oflScials, who (like 
 the latter) were maintained at the expense 
 of the State, were also called parasites in 
 many places [ib. 235]. The word received 
 quite another meaning in the middle and 
 later Greek Comedy, where it means the 
 hanger on, who lays himself out for play- 
 ing the flatterer and buffoon, with a view 
 to getting invited to dinner. The parasite 
 was transferred as a standing character to 
 the Roman imitations of Greek comedy. 
 
 Parastas. See House (Greek). 
 
 ParcsB. The Italian goddesses of Tate. 
 
 (Cp. M(ERJE.) 
 
 Parentalla. The general festival in honour 
 of deceased relatives, celebrated by the 
 Romans from February 13th to 21st. (See 
 Manes.) 
 
 Parian Chronicle (Chrontcon or Marmor 
 Pdviuni). A marble tablet found at Pares 
 in 1627, now [among the Arundel Marbles 
 in the University Galleries] at Oxford. It 
 is written chiefly in the Attic, but partly in 
 the Idbian dialect, and consists of ninety- 
 three lines, some of which are no longer ! 
 
 complete. It originally contained a number 
 of dates of the political, but chiefly of the 
 religious and literary, history of the Greeks, 
 from the Athenian king Cecrops to the 
 Athenian archon Diognetus, 264 B.C.; in its 
 present condition, however, it only goes 
 down to 354 B.C. All the dates are given 
 according to Attic kings and archons, and 
 the historical authorities on which it de- 
 pends must have been Attic authors. The 
 (?rigin and aim of the tablet are unknown. 
 [It was first published by Selden in 1628 ; 
 it has since been printed by Boeckh (Corpus 
 Inscr. GrcBC. ii, no. 2374), who considers that 
 the^ leading authority followed is Phanias 
 of Eresos.] 
 
 Parilia = Pdlilia (q.v.). 
 
 Paris (or AlexandrOs, Gr.). The second 
 son of Priam and Heciiba. His mother 
 having dreamt before this birth that she 
 had brought forth a firebrand, which set all 
 Troy in flames, Priam had the new-born 
 babe exposed on Mount Ida by the advice 
 of his son ^sacus. Here a she-bear 
 suckled the babe for five days ; then a shep- 
 herd found him, and reared him with his 
 own children. Paris won the name of 
 Alexandras (" protector of men ") by his 
 bravery as a shepherd, defending herdsmen 
 and cattle. On Mount Ida he married 
 CEnone, daughter of the river-god Cebren. 
 He decided the strife of the goddesses 
 Hera, Aphrodite, and Athene for the golden 
 apple of Eris (see Peleus), having been 
 appointed arbiter by Hermes at the com- 
 mand of Zeus. Paris preferred the posses- 
 sion of the fairest woman, promised him by 
 Aphrodite, to power and riches, or wisdom 
 and fame, promised by Hera and Athene 
 respectively. He therefore awarded to 
 Aphrodite the prize of beauty, but drew 
 upon himself and his fatherland the irre- 
 concilable hatred of the goddesses whom he 
 had passed over. When Priam was once 
 celebrating funeral games in memory of his 
 lost son, and commanded the finest bull in 
 all the herds grazing on the mountain to be 
 brought as a prize, Paris came to Troy as 
 its driver. He took part in the contests, 
 and vanquished his brothers, even Hector. 
 Seized with envy, they wished to kill him ; 
 but Cassandra recognised him, and he was 
 joyfully received by his parents. In spite 
 of the warning of the forsaken (Enone, who 
 still loved him tenderly, Paris set out on 
 a voyage to Sparta, at the instigation of 
 Aphrodite. Here he carried off Helen, the 
 wife of Menelaus, whom the goddess her- 
 self had quickly inspired with love for the 
 
PARMA PARRICIDE. 
 
 459 
 
 handsome stranger. With her he carried 
 away the treasures of his host, and brought 
 her through Egypt and Phoenicia to Troy. 
 In the war that arose from his deed, Paris 
 showed himself, according to Homer, some- 
 times valiant and courageous, especially as 
 an archer, but chiefly only at the persuasion 
 of others ; at other times cowardly and 
 effeminate. The Trojans detested him as 
 the cause of the disastrous war. After he 
 had treacherously slain Achilles {q.v.), he 
 himself was fatally wounded by an arrow 
 of Heracles, while in single combat with 
 Philoctetes. His corpse was dishonoured by 
 Menelaus, but yet was afterwards given to 
 the Trojans for burial. According to an- 
 other account, when he knew his death was 
 near, he asked to be carried to GEnone. 
 When they had parted, she had bidden 
 him come to her, if he should ever be mor- 
 tally wounded ; but now, mindful of the 
 sorrow she had endured, (Enone rejected 
 him, and he died soon after his return to 
 Troy. When (Enone, repenting of her 
 cruelty, hastened with the remedy, and 
 found him already dead, she hanged her- 
 self. In sculpture Paris is represented as 
 a beautiful beardless youth with a Phry- 
 gian cap. 
 
 Parma. The circular leathern shield of 
 the Roman light infantry. {See Shield.) 
 
 Farmeuides. A Greek philosopher and 
 poet, bom of an illustrious family about 
 510 B.C., at Elea in Lower Italy. He was 
 held in high esteem by his fellow citizens 
 on account of his excellent legislation, to 
 which they ascribed the prosperity and 
 wealth of the town ; and also on account of 
 his exemplary life. A " Parmenidean life " 
 was proverbial among the Greeks [Cebes, 
 tabula, 2]. Little more is known of his 
 biography than that he stopped at Athens 
 on a journey in his sixty-fifth year, and 
 there became acquainted with the youthful 
 Socrates. He is the chief representative 
 of the Eleatic philosophy. Like his great 
 teacher, Xenophanes, he also formulated 
 his philosophical views in a didactic poem. 
 On Nature, the form of which was con- 
 sidered inartistic [Cicero, Acad, ii 74]. 
 According to the proem, which has been 
 preserved (while we only possess frag- 
 ments of the rest), the work consisted of 
 two divisions. The first treated of the 
 truth, the second of the world of illusion ; 
 that is, the world of the senses and the 
 erroneous opinions of mankind founded 
 upon them. In his opinion truth lies in the 
 perception that existence is, and error in 
 
 the idea that non-existence also can be. 
 Nothing can Lave real existence but what is 
 conceivable, therefore to be imagined and 
 to be able to exist are the same thing, and 
 there is no development ; the essence of 
 what is conceivable is incapable of develop- 
 ment, imperishable, immutable, unbounded, 
 and indivisible ; what is various and mut- 
 able, all development, is a delusive phantom; 
 perception is thought directed to the pure 
 essence of being ; the phenomenal world is 
 a delusion, and the opinions formed con- 
 cerning it can only be improbable. 
 
 Farodos {Greek). A technical term of 
 the Greek drama, used to denote, (1) the 
 entrance of the chorus upon the orchestra ; 
 (2) the song which they sang while enter- 
 ing ; (3) the passage by which they entered. 
 {See Theatre.) 
 
 Farrhd,sius. A famous Greek painter of 
 Ephesus, who with Zeuxis was the chief 
 representative of the Ionic school. He 
 lived about 400 B.C. at Athens, where he 
 seems to have received the citizenship. Ac- 
 cording to the accounts of ancient writers, 
 he first introduced into painting the theory 
 of human proportions, gave to the face deli- 
 cate shades of expression, and was a master 
 in the careful drawing of contours [Plinj'^, 
 N. H. XXXV 67, 68]. His skill in indicating 
 varieties of psychological expression could 
 be appreciated in the picture representing 
 the Athenian State or Demos, in which, 
 according to ancient authors, he distinctly 
 pourtrayed all the conflicting qualities of 
 the Athenian national character [ib. 69]. 
 Another of his pictures represented two 
 boys, one of whom seemed to personify 
 the pertness, and the other the simplicity, 
 of boyhood [ib. 70]. His inclination to 
 represent excited states of mind is attested 
 by the choice of subjects like the feigned 
 madness of Odysseus [Plutarch, X>e Audiend. 
 Poet. 3], and the anguish of Philoctetes in 
 Lemnos [Anthol. Gr. ii 348, 6]. His sup- 
 posed contest with Zeuxis is well known. 
 The grapes painted by Zeuxis deceived the 
 birds, which flew to peck at them ; while 
 the curtain painted by Parrhasius deceived 
 Zeuxis himself [Pliny, ib. 65]. 
 
 Parricide (Lat. parriciduim, according 
 to the usual, but very doubtful explanation 
 derived from patricidiiovi, " murder of a 
 father "). A term used among the Romans 
 for the murder of any relative with whom 
 one is united by bonds of blood or duty, 
 but sometimes also for treason and rebellion 
 against one's country. In earlier times the 
 examination in trials for homicide was con- 
 
460 
 
 TARTHENIA PARTHENON. 
 
 ducted by two qucestores parricidii^ on 
 whom it was also incumbent to bring the 
 accusation before the cdimtia for trial. 
 Sulla transferred the decision in all cases 
 of parricide to a standing tribunal {see 
 Qu^STio Perpetua), which had also to 
 try cases of assassination and poisoning. 
 The punishment for parricide was drowning 
 in a leathern sack (culleits), into which 
 were sewn, besides the criminal, a dog, a 
 cock, a viper, and an ape [Cicero, Rose. Am. 
 70 ; Juvenal viii 214]. The murder of 
 relations in other degrees. of relationship 
 was punished by exile {interdictw dquce' 
 et ignis). See Exiliuji. 
 
 he composed the only ^\'ork of his which 
 has survived, under the title. Of the Sorrows 
 of Love. This is a collection of thirty-six 
 prose stories of unhappy lovers, compiled 
 from ancient poets, especially from those 
 of the Alexandrine school. Apart from 
 the light it throws on the Alexandrine 
 poets, of whose works it contains frag- 
 ments, it has a special interest as a pre- 
 cursor of the Greek novel. 
 
 Parthenon {Greek). " The maiden's 
 chamber," particularly a temple of Athene 
 PaHhenos (the virgin goddess), especially 
 that on the Acropolis of Athens, distin- 
 guished by the grandeur of its dimensions, 
 
 (1) THE PARTHENON. 
 
 (From the aonth-west, restored.) 
 
 FartMnia. A species of religious songs, 
 sung to the accompaniment of the flute 
 with cheerful, lively movements by choirs 
 of maidens. 
 
 ParthSnlus. A Greek grammarian and 
 poet, of Nicsea in Bithynia, who was 
 brought captive to Rome during the war 
 with Mithridates. After his release, he 
 lived there till the time of Tiberius, es- 
 teemed as a scholar and poet, especially as 
 a writer of elegiac poems. He was ac- 
 quainted with Vergil, whom he taught 
 Greek, and one of his poems is said to 
 have been the model for the Moretum ; but 
 he was more closely connected with the 
 elegiac poet, Cornelius Gallus. For Gallus 
 
 the beauty of its execution, and the splen- 
 dour of its artistic adornment. [There was 
 an earlier temple of Athene immediately to 
 the south of the Erechtheum {see plan of 
 Acropolis), and the foundations of a new 
 temple were laid after the Persian War, 
 probably in the time of Cimon. This 
 temple was never completed ; on the same 
 site there was built a temple of less length, 
 but greater breadth, which is usually called 
 the Parthenon.] It was built at the com- 
 mand of Pericles by the architects Ictinus 
 and Callicrates. It took about five years 
 in building, and was finished in 438 B.C. 
 (fig. 1). Its further adornment with sculp- 
 tures in the pediments, and with metopes 
 
PARTHENON. 
 
 461 
 
 and frieze was completed under the direc- 
 tion of Phidias, who himself took part in 
 the work. The temple, built wholly of 
 Pentelic marble, is 65 feet high. The sty- 
 lobate, or platform, on which the columns 
 stand (fig. 2, C), is 228 feet in length, and 
 101 feet in breadth [ = 225x100 in Attic 
 feet, giving 9 : 4 as the ratio of length 
 to breadth]. Under the stylobate is the 
 
 feet high, eight at each end, and fifteen on 
 each side. The architrave from the first 
 was adorned with 92 metopes sculptured 
 in high relief (see, for the position of the 
 metopesj fig. 2, G). Shields and votive in- 
 scriptions were subsequently placed there 
 by Alexander the Great, in 338 B.C. [Plut., 
 Alex. 16]. The subjects were : on the E. 
 the battle of the gods and giants ; on the 
 
 (2) * SECTION OF NOKTH-EAST PORTION OF THE PARTHENON, 
 
 shewinff A, pubstructure ; B B B, pteps of crepidoma; C, stylobate; D, tympanum of eastern 
 pediment ; E, coffered ceiling ; i*', f T-ieze of the cella ; (r, metopes and triglj'phs ; U is part 
 of the range of Fames (Wiener Vorlegehl&tter). 
 
 crSptdoma, or basis proper, formed of three 
 steps (fig. 2, B B B) resting on a massive 
 substructure, 250 feet long and 105 feet 
 broad, and founded on the rock at the 
 highest part of the plateau of the Acropolis 
 (fig. 2, C). The temple is peripteral, its 
 walls being entirely surrounded by a colon- 
 nade of forty-six Doric columns, about 35 
 
 S., that of the Centaurs and LSpithse (fig. 3) ; 
 on the W., the victory of the Athenians 
 over the Amazons ; and on the N., the 
 destniction of Troy. The sculptures of the 
 eastern pediment (D) represented the birth 
 of the goddess, those of the western the 
 strife of Athene with PSseidon for the pos- 
 session of Attica. These pediments are 93 
 
462 
 
 PARTHENOPtEUS PASIPHAE. 
 
 feet long, and 11 feet 4 inches high. The 
 cella, or temple proper, is 194 feet long, and 
 69i feet wide, with six columns at each 
 
 (3) ' A METOPE FROM SOUTH OF THE PARTHENON. 
 
 (British Museum ) 
 
 end, 33 feet in height. Opposite the outer- 
 most columns at each end are antce, formed 
 by the prolongation of the side walls of the 
 cella {see plan of Acropolis). Along the 
 top of the outer wall of the cella ran a con- 
 tinuous frieze, 524 feet in length, with re- 
 presentations of the Panathenaic procession 
 
 goddess, wrought in gold and ivory, the 
 masterpiece of Phidias (cp. Athene, near 
 the end). The western chamber of the 
 cella was fronted by a portico, and was 
 called by the special name of the Parthe- 
 non. [Within this smaller chamber were 
 kept vessels for use in the sacred proces- 
 sions, with various small articles of gold 
 or silver. Modem writers have hitherto 
 generally identified this small chamber 
 with the opisthodomos (lit. back-chamber), 
 which was used as the treasury, or State" 
 bank, of Athens ; but it is held by Dorpfeld 
 that this term should be confined to the 
 corresponding chamber of the early temple 
 south of the Erechtheum.] 
 
 In the Middle Ages the temple was con- 
 verted into a church, dedicated to the Virgin 
 Mary, and then into a mosque, and remained 
 in good preservation till 1687. In that 
 year, during the siege of Athens by the 
 Venetians, the building was blown up by 
 the explosion of a powder magazine that 
 the Turks had stored in it, and, with the 
 exception of the two pediments, was al- 
 most completely destroyed. Most of the 
 sculptures preserved from the pediments 
 and metopes, and from the frieze of the 
 temple chamber, are now among the Elgin 
 Marbles in the British Museum. 
 
 (4) FKOM THE NOETH FKIEZE OP THE PARTHENON. 
 (British Museum; slabs xxxv, xxxvi.) 
 
 carved in very low relief (fig. 2, F, and figs. 
 4 and 5). At the east end of the cella^ the 
 pronaos, or portico, leads into the eastern 
 chamber, which was 100 Greek feet in 
 length, and was therefore called the hecd- 
 tompSdos. It was divided longitudinally 
 into three parts by two rows of nine columns 
 each, and above these was a second row of 
 columns forming an upper story. The 
 central space was open to the sky (hy- 
 psethral). At its western end, under a 
 protecting canopy, stood the statue of the 
 
 Parthgnopaeus. According to the older tra- 
 dition, the beautiful son of Talaus of Argos, 
 and the brother of Adrastus ; according to 
 others, the son of Atalanta and Melanion. 
 He was one of the Seven against Thebes, 
 and was killed on the Theban wall during 
 the storming of the city ; the piece of rock 
 that laid him low was hurled by Pericly- 
 menus. His son by the Nymph Clymene 
 is Promachus, one of the Epigoni. 
 
 Pasiphae. Daughter of Helios and 
 Perseis, sister of Aetes and Circe, wife of 
 
PASITELES PATRICIANS. 
 
 463 
 
 Minos. She was enamoured of the white 
 bull presented by Poseidon to Minos (q.v.), 
 and thereby became the mother of the 
 monstrous Minotaur. {See Minotauhus.) 
 
 Paslt61es. A Greek artist of the 1st cen- 
 tury B.C., a native of S. Italy. He was ac- 
 tively engaged at Rome on important works 
 in marble, ivorj', silver, and bronze, and was 
 also an author. He originated a new school, 
 which was not immediately connected with 
 any of the existing tendencies of art, but 
 was founded on a careful study of nature 
 and the masterpieces of earlier sculptors. 
 It aimed above all things at correctness of 
 form, combined with elegance of represen- 
 tation and a mastery of technique. [Pasiteles 
 chased in silver a representation of the 
 infant Roscius (Cic, De Div. i 79), and 
 
 among the Romans {see Pamilia). Pater 
 patr&tus, the spokesman of the fEtidles 
 (q.v.). Pater matutlnus, a special name of 
 Janus {q.v.). 
 
 FS.tSr§,. The broad, flat dish or saucer 
 used by the Romans for drinking and for 
 offering libations. {See Vessels.) 
 
 Patria Potestas. See Pamilia. 
 
 Patricians {patricit, lit. the relatives 
 of the patres, or heads of families of the 
 old tribes. {See Gens.) In the oldest 
 times of Rome, the actual citizens who 
 constituted the pdpulus Eomdnus. They 
 were divided into three tribes, — RamnSs, 
 Titles, and Luceres, each consisting of ten 
 curice. {See Curia.) The union of these 
 latter formed the national assembly, the 
 comltid curtdtd. {See Comitia, 3.) Besides 
 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 f\ 
 
 
 BA. ^ 
 
 M 
 
 ^^M, 
 
 m 
 
 ^5 
 
 1 
 
 ^^Km 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^^m 
 
 ^M 
 
 ^^ 
 
 B 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 '.k 
 
 \ w 
 i 
 
 ^lit^ 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 . 1 
 
 ^^W 
 
 FOUEIDON. 
 
 APOLLO {or DIONYMU8). PEITUO {OT DEMETBBJ. APHKUDITK. 
 
 (5) * FBOM THE EAST FKIKZE OF THE PARTHENON. 
 
 (Acropolis Maseum, Athens ; slab vi.) 
 
 executed an ivory statue of Jupiter for 
 the temple dedicated by Metellus (Pliny, 
 N. H. xxxvi 40). According to his contem- 
 porary Varro, he never executed any work 
 without modelling it first {ib. xxxv 156). 
 Among his pupils was Stephanus, who in 
 his turn was the master of Menelaus.] {See 
 Sculpture.) 
 
 Passiis. The pace, or double step, a 
 Roman measure of length = 5 Roman feet 
 {pes) or 1-479 metres [ = 4 English feet lOr 
 inches]. 1,000 passus formed a Roman 
 mile, 1,478-70 metres [or 1,616 yards, 2 feet, 
 2 inches, or about 143 yards less than an 
 English mile. The passus is sometimes 
 estimated as 1-48 metre; 1,000 ^assMS being 
 then 1,480 metres or" 1,618 yards, i.e. 14^ 
 yards less than an English mile]. 
 
 Patfir Pamillas. The master of a house 
 
 these there were originally only cltentes, 
 settlers enjoying no legal rights, with the 
 citizens for their protectors (or patronl}. 
 Afterwards, when a new element of the 
 population, endowed with partial citizen- 
 ship, called the plebs {q.v.), sprang up from 
 the settlement of subjugated Latin tribes, 
 the patricii stood in contrast to them as 
 old citizens possessing full rights. Later, 
 the plebeians received a fuller citizenship 
 through the centurial constitution framed by 
 Servius Tullius {see Centuria), while they 
 gained at the same time the right of voting 
 in the comitia centuridtd, composed of 
 patricians and plebeians, together with the 
 obligation of serving in the field and paying 
 taxes, hitherto obligatory on the patricians 
 alone. In contrast to the plebeians, the 
 patricians' thus formed a hereditary aris- 
 
464 
 
 PATEOCLUS PAUSIAS. 
 
 tocracy, with the exclusive right to hold 
 public offices, whether "civil or religious. 
 Nothing short of a decision by the comitia 
 curiata coiild either remove any one from 
 the patrician body or (on rare occasions) 
 enrol a plebeian among the patricians. 
 The contraction of marriages between patri- 
 cians and plebeians was not allowed till 
 445 B.C. A violent struggle arose between 
 the two parties, after the establishment of 
 the Republic in 510 B.C., on the subject of 
 the admission of the plebeians to State 
 offices. This struggle lasted till 300 B.C., 
 and the patricians were, step by step, forced 
 to give up their exclusive right to one office 
 after another. First of all, they had to 
 give up the qusestorship (409), then the 
 consulate (367), the dictatorship (356), the 
 censorship (351), the prsetorship (338), and 
 finally the most important priestly offices, 
 the pontificate and the augurship (300). 
 Only politically unimportant offices were 
 left reserved for them, the temporal office 
 of interrcr, and the priestly offices of rex 
 sacrorum and the three fldmlnes mdiOres. 
 The political importance which the patri- 
 cian comitia curiata possessed, through its 
 right to confirm the decisions of the comitia 
 centuriafa, was lost in 286. The comitia 
 trlbutd, in which the p?eZ)s had the pre- 
 ponderance, thus became the most important 
 organ of the democracy. 
 
 An aristocracy of holders of public 
 offices was thus formed, consisting of 
 the patricians together with the more 
 important plebeian families. The mem- 
 bers of such families, whether patrician 
 or plebeian, were called nobUes. The num- 
 ber of patrician families dwindled greatly 
 owing to the civil wars (on their number 
 towards the end of the Republic, see 
 Gexs). Csesar and Augustus increased 
 them by introducing plebeian families, and 
 subsequent emperors gave the patriciate 
 as a distinction. Under Constantine the 
 Great, patvicius became a personal title, 
 which conferred a rank immediately below 
 the consuls. The external distinctive 
 marks of a patrician were the tunica 
 laticlavid (see Tunica) and a peculiar sort 
 of shoe {see Calcecs) adorned with an ivory 
 crescent (Jilnida). 
 
 Patroclus [PatrOclUs, almost always in 
 Iliad, Patroclus once only in vocative {II. 
 xix 287)]. Son of Mencetius and Sthenele, 
 the bosom friend of Achilles. He fell before 
 Troy by the hand of Hector (see Achilles). 
 
 Patromis. The Roman term for the pro- 
 tector of a single client, or of a whole 
 
 community (see Clientes); the emancipator 
 in relation to his freedman ; and the judicial 
 representative of accuser or accused. For 
 the distinction between patronus and adv6- 
 cdtus, see the latter. 
 
 Faulus. (1) lulius. A Roman jurist of 
 high repute in the beginning of the 3rd 
 century A.D., contemporary with Papinian 
 and Ulpian. With the former, he was 
 legal assessor to the emperor Septimius 
 Severus. With the latter, he was prce- 
 fectus prcetorio under Alexander Severus, 
 after he had been sent into exile by HeliS- 
 gabalus. He was most productive as a legal 
 author, but in literary skill and finish stood 
 far below his two contemporaries. The 
 extracts from his numerous monographs or 
 inore comprehensive works form a sixth 
 part of the " Digest." Besides these ex- 
 tracts his Sententice, a very popular com- 
 pendium of undisputed principles on the 
 most frequent points of law, has been pre- 
 served in a shortened form. 
 
 (2) See Festus (1). 
 
 Pansanias. The Greek traveller and 
 geographer, a native of Lydia. He explored 
 Greece, Macedonia, Asia, and Africa ; and 
 then, in the second half of the 2nd century 
 A.D., settled m Rome, where he composed 
 a PSriSgcsis or Itinerary of Greece in ten 
 books. Book i includes Attica and 
 Megaris ; ii, Corinth with Sicyon, Phlius, 
 Argolis, Mglns,, and the other neighbour- 
 ing islands ; iii, Laconia ; iv, Messenia ; 
 V, vi, Elis and Olympia; vii, Achsea; viii, 
 Arcadia ; ix, Bceotia ; x, Phocis and Locris. 
 The work is founded on notes, taken on 
 the spot, from his own observation and in- 
 quiry from the natives of the country, on 
 the subject of the religious cults and the 
 monuments of art and architecture. To- 
 gether with these there are topographical 
 and historical notices, in working up which 
 Pansanias took into consideration the ac- 
 counts of other authors,/ poets as well as 
 prose writers. Although his account is not 
 without numerous inaccuracies, omissions, 
 and mistakes, it is yet of inestimable value 
 for our knowledge of ancient Greece, espe- 
 cially with regard to its mythology and its 
 religious cults, but above all for the history 
 of Greek art. The composition of his work 
 (especially in the earlier books) shows little 
 skill in plan, execution, or style. 
 
 Pausias. A Greek painter, a pupil of 
 Pamphilus and a follower of the Sicyonian 
 school. He lived about 360 B.C. at Sicyon, 
 and invented the art of painting vaulted 
 ceilings, and also of foreshortening ; he 
 
PAUSON PEGASUS, 
 
 4G5 
 
 brought encaustic painting to perfection. 
 He painted chiefly children and flowers. 
 One of his most famous pictures was the 
 Mower Girl (Stgphdnopldcus), representing 
 the fiower-girl Glycera, of whom he was 
 enamoured in his youth [Pliny, N. H., 
 XXXV 123-127]. 
 
 [Pauson. A Greek painter whom Aristotle 
 contrasts with Polygnotus in terms implying 
 that the former was a caricaturist {Poetics 
 2 § 2). Elsewhere Aristotle says that 
 young people should not look at the 
 pictures of Pauson, but rather at those of 
 Polygnotus or of any other " ethical " 
 artist {Politics viii 5 § 7). He is some- 
 times identified with the Pauson who is 
 mentioned with contempt by Aristophanes 
 {Ach. 854, Themi. 948, and Plutus, 602).] 
 
 [J. E. S.] 
 
 Pavor. See Pallor. 
 
 Pax. The Roman goddess of peace 
 
 (<7p. ElEENE.) 
 
 P6culatus. The Roman term for mis- 
 appropriation of public property, whether 
 by officials {e.g. in the delivery of booty) 
 or by private persons. Such offences, 
 which seldom occurred in the more 
 ancient times of the Republic, were then 
 judged by the national tribunal. In 
 later times they must have become more 
 frequent, since various laws were issued 
 against them, and a special court of 
 justice {see Qct^estio) was appointed to 
 try them. Besides the payment of 
 compensation, the condemned person 
 suffered disgrace and banishment {inter- 
 dictio aquce et ignis^ see Exilium), and, in 
 the time of the Empire, transportation. 
 
 Pgculium. The Romans considered 
 the master of the house {pater fwmxVias') 
 the lawful owner of all the earnings of 
 the members of the family under his con- 
 trol, whether bond or free {see Eamilia). 
 Whatever sum of money he gave to a 
 grown up son or to a slave for his own 
 use, was called ^hapeculiwrn of the latter. 
 This gift could be revoked at pleasure, and 
 could not be disposed of by will. Augustus 
 first granted this right to soldiers, in the 
 case of property won in war {peculium 
 castrense), and Constantine extended it to 
 that gained in a civil office {peculium 
 quasi castrense). 
 
 Pfidaril. Those members of the Roman 
 Senate {q.v.) who had occupied no office of 
 State, and hence took a lower rank. They 
 might only share in the voting, but did not 
 enjoy the right of expressing individual 
 opinions. 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 Pedieis. See Solonian Constitution. 
 
 Pegasus. The winged Steed of the 
 Fountain, named Pegasus, according to 
 Hesiod [Theog. 281], because he was born 
 at the springs {pegce) of Ocean. Begotten 
 by Poseidon, he sprang forth with Chrysaor 
 from the bleeding body of his mother 
 Medusa, when her head was cut off by 
 Perseus. [See Sculptuee, fig. 1.] On his 
 birth he soared into the air, and the spot 
 
 * PEGASUS AND BELLEROPHON. 
 
 (Borne, Spada Palace.) 
 
 where he first rested was the acropolis of 
 Corinth. While Pegasus paused there to 
 drink at the fountain of Peirene,Bell5r6phon 
 {q.v.) caught and tamed him, by the favour 
 of Athene and Poseidon. It was on Pegasus 
 that Bellerophon was mounted when per- 
 forming his heroic exploits, including his 
 conquest of the Chimsera. Afterwards, 
 when Pegasus had thrown his rider, the 
 steed flew upward to the immortals, to 
 dwell in the palace of Zeus, and to bring 
 him his thunder and lightning. By later 
 writers, Pegasus is described as the steed 
 
 H H 
 
466 
 
 PEIRiEICUS PELEUS. 
 
 of Eos or of tlie Muses. On the spot where 
 he struck Helicon with his hoof, there 
 gushed forth the inspiring fountain of the 
 Muses known &a HippocrBnc (" the fountain 
 of the steed "). The spring of Hippocrene 
 near Troezen and that of Peirene on the 
 Acrocorinthus were said to have had a 
 similar origin. On the coins of Corinth the 
 most common type from the earliest times 
 is the winged Pegasus. The current repre- 
 sentation of Pegasus as the poets' steed is 
 a modem invention. 
 
 Peiraeicus. ^ee PiR^icus. 
 
 Peirene (Greek). The spring struck out 
 by the winged steed Pegasus on the citadel 
 of Corinth, Eor another tradition of its 
 origin, see Sisyphus. 
 
 Peirithous (Lat. Plnthoiis). Son of Dia 
 by her husband Ixion, or (according to 
 another account) by Zeus ; prince of the 
 Lapithge, and friend of Theseus. When 
 he was celebrating, on Mount Pelion, his 
 marriage with HippSdamia, daughter of 
 Atrax, one of the Lapithse, there arose 
 the celebrated battle between the Lapithse 
 and the Centaurs, which ended in the de- 
 feat of the latter. The Centaurs and the 
 most distinguished Greek heroes had been 
 invited to the wedding ; but one of the 
 former, Eurytion, in drunken boldness, at- 
 tempted to carry off the bride, and, follow- 
 ing his example, the other Centaurs fell 
 upon the women of the Lapithse. Since 
 Theseus and one of the Lapithse, Cseneus 
 {q.v.), rescued the bride, Peirithous assisted 
 the former in the abduction of Helen. Ac- 
 companied by Theseus, Peirithous descended 
 into the world below, in order to carry o£f 
 Persephone, and was compelled to pine 
 there in everlasting chains as a punish- 
 ment, while Theseus {q.v.) was released 
 by Heracles. Peirithous' son Polypcstes 
 marched to Troy with Leonteus, the grand- 
 son of Cseneus, and after the fall of Troy 
 is said to have founded with him the city 
 of Aspendus in Pamphylia. 
 
 Peisandros (Lat. Pisander). A Greek 
 epic poet of Camirus, in Rhodes, about 
 640 B.C. He wrote a Herdclea in two 
 books, which is numbered among the better 
 class of epic poems. He was the first to 
 equip Hercules with the club and the lion's 
 hide, and he probably also fixed the number 
 of his labours at twelve. Only uninterest- 
 ing fragments remain. 
 
 Peitho. In Greek mythology the personi- 
 fication of persuasion. Like Eros and the 
 Graces, with whom Hesiod mentions her 
 [ Works and Days., 73], she usually appears 
 
 in the train of Aphrodite. She was, indeed, 
 considered the daughter of the goddess, and 
 was honoured together with her, as in 
 Athens. She was also connected with 
 Hermes as the god of eloquence. 
 
 PeleiadSs. Priestesses at Dodona {q.v.). 
 
 Peleus. Son of iEacus and of Endeis, 
 and brother of Telamon. He was banished 
 with his brother, on account of the murder 
 of his step-brother Phocus, whom he had 
 slain with the discus out of envy at his 
 strength and skill. His father banished 
 him from ^gina, but he was purified from 
 his murder, and hospitably received by his 
 uncle Eurytion, king of Thessalian Phthia. 
 Eurytion gave to Peleus his daughter Anti- 
 gone, mother of the beautiful Polydora, and 
 one-third of his land as a dowry. Peleus 
 accompanied Eurytion in the Calydonian 
 Hunt, and killed him unawares with a 
 javelin. Thereupon he fled from Phthia to 
 lolcus, where, once again, king Acastus 
 cleansed him from the guilt of bloodshed. 
 Because he rejected the proposals of Asty- 
 dameia, the wife of Acastus, she slandered 
 him to his wife and to her husband, telling 
 the former that Peleus was wooing her 
 daughter Sterope, and the latter that he 
 wished to persuade her to infidelity. Anti- 
 gone killed herself for sorrow, but Acastus 
 planned revenge. When Peleus, wearied 
 by the chase, had fallen asleep on Pelion, 
 Acastus left him alone, after hiding in a 
 dunghill his irresistible sword, the work of 
 Hephsestus and the gift of the gods. When 
 Peleus awoke and sought his sword, he was 
 attacked by the Centaurs, and only delivered 
 by the presence among them of Chiron, his 
 maternal grandfather. With Chiron's help 
 he recovered his sword, slew Acastus and 
 his wife, and took possession of the throne 
 of lolcus. The gods decreed him the sea- 
 goddess Thetis (q.v.) as his wife. With 
 Chiron's help he overcame her resistance 
 in a grotto by the sea, although she endea- 
 voured to escape by changing into fire, 
 water, beast, or fish. The marriage was 
 celebrated in Chiron's cave on the summit 
 of Pelion, and the immortals appeared and 
 gave Peleus presents : Poseidon, the undying 
 steeds Balius and Xanthus, and all the gods 
 the weapons with which Achilles after- 
 wards fought before Troy ; Chiron pre- 
 sented him with a lance made of an ash 
 tree on Mount Pelion. Apollo and the 
 Muses sang of the deeds of Peleus and of 
 his unborn son. But Eris, or Strife, also 
 appeared, uninvited, and threw among the 
 goddesses a golden apple with the inscrip- 
 
PELl AS PENATEf 5. 
 
 4G7 
 
 tion, For the Fairest, thus giving the first 
 cause for the Trojan War {q.v.). In this 
 war the only offspring of this marriage, the 
 hero Achilles, is said to have found an 
 untimely end during his father's lifetime. 
 According to a later tradition, unknown to 
 Homer, Thetis forsook her husband, because 
 his presence hindered her from making her 
 son immortal. 
 
 Pfilias. Son of Poseidon and of Tyro, 
 who was afterwards the wife of Cretheus. 
 He was the brother of Neleus, half-brother 
 of ^son, Pheres, and Amythaon, father of 
 Acastus and Alcestis. He deprived ^Eson 
 of the dominion of lolcus, and sent Jllson's 
 son Jason to Colchis to fetch the golden 
 fleece. He did so because the youth, now 
 fully grown, was claiming his father's 
 throne. In Jason's absence Pelias killed 
 .Slson, and drove his wife to suicide. In 
 revenge, when Jason returned, his wife 
 Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias 
 to cut him to pieces and seethe him in a 
 caldron, under the pretext of restoring 
 him to youth. His son Acastus instituted 
 in his honour funeral games which were 
 greatly celebrated by poets and artists. 
 
 Pfilopia. Daughter of Thyestes, mother 
 of ^gisthus by her own father. {See 
 ^GiSTHtrs and Ateeus.) 
 
 Pelops. Son of the Lydian or Phrygian 
 king Tantalus and Dione, daughter of Atlas. 
 When he was a child, his father slew him, 
 cut him to pieces and seethed him, and set 
 him as food before the gods. The gods 
 did not touch the horrible meal ; only 
 Demeter, absorbed in grief for her stolen 
 daughter, ate one shoulder. By the com- 
 mand of Zeus, Hermes replaced the pieces 
 in the caldron, and Clotho drew the boy 
 from it in renewed beauty, while Deme- 
 ter replaced the missing shoulder by one 
 made of ivory. Hence it was that his 
 descendants, the Pelopidse, bore on one 
 shoulder a mark of dazzling whiteness. 
 Pelops, when grown to manhood, went to 
 Pisa in Elis as a wooer of Hippodamia, 
 daughter of king (EnSmaus. He won the 
 victory, the bride, and the kingdom, by the 
 help of the winged steeds given him by 
 Poseidon, and by the treachery of Myrtilus, 
 the chariot driver of (Enomaus. When 
 Myrtilus (or Myrsilus), a son of Hermes, 
 claimed the promised reward, half the 
 kingdom, Pelops hurled him from his 
 chariot into the sea. Through his curse 
 and the anger of Hermes, the baneful spell 
 was once more cast upon the house of 
 Pelops. He returned to Pisa, and, after he 
 
 had made himself master of Olympia, he 
 is said to have restored the games with 
 great splendour, a service for which his 
 memory was afterwards honoured above 
 that of all other heroes. By another act of 
 violence he obtained possession of Arcadia, 
 and extended his power so widely over 
 the peninsula that it was called after his 
 name the Peloponnesus, or " island of 
 Pelops." By Hippodamia - he had six 
 sons (cp. Alcathous, Atreus, Pittheus, 
 Thyestes), and two daughters ; and by the 
 Nymph Axioche, a son Chrysippus. The 
 latter, his father's favourite, was killed by 
 Atreus and Thyestes, at the instigation of 
 Hippodamia, and his dead body was cast 
 into a well. Peleus discovered the crime, 
 and banished the murderers from the 
 country. Hippodamia thereupon took refuge 
 with her sons at Midea in Argolis. On her 
 death, Peleus buried her bones in the soil 
 of Olympia. 
 
 Peltastae. The Greek light-armed foot- 
 soldiers, forming an arm intermediate be- 
 tween the heavily equipped hoplites {q.v.) 
 and the sharpshooters, gymnetce {q.v.). The 
 name is taken from the pelte, a light shield 
 of Thracian origin {see Shield). For attack 
 they had a javelin, or dcontidn, and a long 
 
 PELTAST. 
 
 From a vase-paiutmg. 
 <Stackell)erg, 6r<ibeT ier Eellenm, Taf. xxxviii.) 
 
 sword. These troops originated in Thrace 
 and North Greece, and the peltastce serving 
 in the Peloponnesian War and in the armies 
 of the younger Cyrus and Agesilaus belonged 
 to those countries. Iphicr&tes equipped 
 his mercenaries with this kind of arma- 
 ment, introducing at the same time linen 
 doublets and, instead of greaves, what were 
 called after him ipMcrdtides, something 
 between boots and leggings [Diodorus xv 
 44]. In the Macedonian army their place 
 was taken by the hypaspistm. 
 
 Pfinates, with Vesta and Lar, the house- 
 hold gods of the Eomans ; strictly the 
 guardians of the storeroom {penus), which 
 in old Roman houses stood next the atrium; 
 in later times, near the back of the building 
 {pSn etralia). They were two in number, and 
 presided over the well-being of the house', 
 
468 
 
 PENELOPE PERDUELLIO. 
 
 their blessing being shown in the fulness 
 of the store-room. This chamber therefore, 
 as being sacred to them, was holy, and not 
 to be entered except by chaste and undefiled 
 persons. The hearth of the house was their 
 altar, and on it were sculptured the figures 
 of the two Penates beside that of the Lar. 
 Often they were represented dancing and 
 raising a drinking-horn, to symbolise a joy- 
 ful and prosperous life. The offerings to 
 them were made jointly with those to the 
 Lar [see Laees). There were also Penates 
 belonging to the State. These at first had 
 their temple in the quarter Velm, where 
 their statues stood below those of the 
 Dioscuri. Afterwards it was supposed that 
 the original Penates, brought from Samo- 
 thrace to Troy, and thence conveyed by 
 ^neas to Lavinium, were identical with 
 certain symbols kept, with the Palladium, 
 in a secret part of the temple of Vesta. The 
 Penates of the Latin League, which were 
 at first regarded as the Trojan Penates, were 
 enshrined in the sanctuary at Lavinium. 
 Annual offerings were brought to them by 
 the Roman priests, and also by consuls, 
 praetors, and dictators on assuming or laying 
 down office, and by generals on their depar- 
 ture for their provinces. 
 
 Penelope. Daughter of IcS,rius and the 
 Nymph PeribcEa, the faithful wife of Odys- 
 seus {q.v.) and mother of TelemS,chus. 
 
 PgnestsB. In Thessaly the descendants 
 of the older population subdued by the 
 Thessalians. They managed the property 
 of the owners as serfs bound to the soil, 
 paying a moderate tax, and being also 
 liable to be called out for military service. 
 But their lords could not remove them from 
 the land nor put them to death. 
 
 Pentac6si6m6diinni. The first of the 
 four classes of citizens instituted at Athens 
 by Solan. {See SoLONiAN Constitution 
 and EisPHOEA.) 
 
 Pentathlon. In Greek gymnastics a 
 contest compounded of the Jive events (run- 
 ning, jumping, wrestling, throwing the dis- 
 cus and the javelin). After each separate 
 event the defeated stood out, till finally 
 two contested the victory in the wrestling. 
 {See Gymnastics.) 
 
 Pentecontorus. A kind of Greek ship in 
 which there were fifty oarsmen arranged 
 in a single row. {See Ships.) 
 
 Pentecost^s. In the Spartan army, a 
 division of the lochos {q.v.). 
 
 Penteres. A quinquereme ; i.e. the form of 
 Greek ship in which there were five rows of 
 oarsmen one above the other. {See Ships.) 
 
 Fenth&sllea. Daughter of Ares and 
 5trera, and queen of the Amazons {q.v.'j, 
 with whom she came to Priam's aid after 
 Hector's death. Her courage reduced the 
 Greeks to sore straits, till she was mortally 
 wounded by Achilles ; and, even as she 
 died, her youth and beauty filled the heart 
 of her conqueror with love. [Quintus 
 Smymseus, i.] 
 
 Pentheus. Son of Echion and Agave, the 
 daughter of Cadmus, whom he succeeded 
 in the sovereignty of Thebes. When Dio- 
 nysus came to Thebes, and the women 
 celebrated a Bacchic festival for him on 
 Cithseron, he hastened thither to prevent it, 
 but was taken by his own mother for a wild 
 beast, and torn to pieces by her and the 
 other women [Eur., Bacchce]. His grandson 
 was Menoeceus, the father of Creqn and 
 locaste. See cut under Agave. 
 
 Pgphredo. One of the Graise {q.v.). 
 
 Peplus. (1) A Greek woman's garment, 
 large, broad, hanging in folds, and usually 
 richly embroidered. It was thrown over the 
 rest of the clothing, and wrapped round the 
 whole of the body. (2) In particular, the 
 State robe of Athene, which was a work of 
 art, embroidered with groups from the battle 
 of the Giants, representations of the exploits 
 of heroes under Athene's guidance, scenes 
 of Attic history, and portraits of celebrated 
 men. It was woven by the wives and 
 maidens of Attica for the statue of Athene 
 as goddess of the State, and presented at 
 the Panathenaic festival. 
 
 Perduellio. The Roman term for all acts 
 whereby an individual within the State 
 showed himself an enemy, perduellis, of 
 the established constitution. It included 
 attempts at despotic power, usurpation or 
 abuse of magisterial powers {e.g. the execu- 
 tion of a citizen), violation of the sanctity 
 of the tribuni plebis, etc. In the time of 
 the kings, the king himself tried crimes of 
 the kind, or handed over the decision to two 
 deputies appointed in each instance by him- 
 self, duo viri cdpUales or perduellionis, 
 from whom an appeal lay to the people ; 
 after Servius Tullius, to the comitia cen- 
 tUrtdta. Under the Republic duo viri were 
 still appointed as presiding judges, tiU this 
 gradually fell into disuse, and trials of the 
 kind came in general to be dealt with by 
 the popular court. In earlier times the 
 penalty was death by hanging on a tree, by 
 throwing from the Tarpeian Rock, or by 
 beheading ; later, banishment, and after the 
 tribunes brought cases of perduellio before 
 the comitia tributa, fines as well. From 
 
IPEREGRINUS PERGAMENE SCULPTURES. 
 
 469 
 
 the latter half of the 2nd century B.C. the 
 less important cases began to be treated as 
 oifences of maiestas ; and by Caesar's Julian 
 law, 46 B.C., all cases of perduellio were 
 included under this name. {See also 
 Maikstas.) 
 
 P6r6grinus. The description in Roman 
 law of all foreigners or persons other than 
 citizens sojourning or domiciled within 
 Roman territory. Originally peregrini 
 were entirely without rights, unless they 
 obtained a pdtrSnus, except in cases where 
 there was a treaty (fcedus) with the State 
 
 they were always excluded. (See also 
 
 CiVITAS.) 
 
 Pergamene Sculptures. These sculptures 
 belong to the acropolis of Pergamon in Asia 
 Minor, discovered by the accomplished archi- 
 tect Humann in 1871, and excavated in and 
 after 1878 under the superintendence of 
 Humann and the distinguished archaeologist 
 Conze, with the assistance of R. Bohn and 
 others. The work was done at the expense 
 of the Prussian government, and the sculp- 
 tures then brought to light are now in the 
 Museum at Berlin. The first rank among 
 
 (1) BATTLE OF ZEUS AND THE GIANTS. 
 
 (Relief from Pergamon ; Berlin Museum.) 
 
 to which they belonged, regulating the 
 legal position of the subjects of the two 
 States respectively. But the increasing 
 intercourse between Rome and other States, 
 and the consequent growth in the number 
 of peregrini in Rome, made it necessary to 
 grant to all foreigners a definite conipe- 
 tency to acquire property, enter into obliga- 
 tions, and the like ; and for the decision of 
 civil suits between foreigners and citizens, 
 or of foreigners among themselves, a special 
 praetor (q.v.) was appointed. Prom the 
 public, private, and sacrificial law of Rome 
 
 them is occupied by the remains of the 
 sculpture representing the fight between the 
 gods and the snake-legged Giants, a colossal 
 composition in high relief, which occupied 
 a space 7 ft. 6| ins. high, and extended 
 over the outer surface (about 118 sq. ft. 
 in area) of the upper part of the platform 
 of an altar about 39 ft. high, which was 
 probably built by king Eumenes II (197- 
 159 B.C.). Of this about half remains, 
 whereof a third consists of more or less 
 well-preserved slabs, and the rest of frag- 
 ments large and small. They exhibit an 
 
470 
 
 PERGAMENE SCULPTURES. 
 
 astonishing mastery of form and technique, 
 and a vivid realism tiiat is often terrible, 
 combined with a truly grand style, and are 
 among the most important productions of 
 ancient art. Only fragmentary portions 
 of the names of the sculptors in marble 
 belonging to the Pergamene school (see 
 Sculpture) have been found. [Sogonus, 
 Phyromachus, Stratonicus, and Antigonns, 
 mentioned in Pliny, N. H. xxxiv 34, were 
 sculptors in bronze. The name of Mene- 
 crates in the genitive case has been traced 
 in one of the inscriptions, and has led to 
 
 has sunk to the earth. In his left hand 
 he shakes his segis over a second opponent, 
 who writhes on the ground in pain. A 
 snake-legged Giant holds out his left arm, 
 wrapped round with the skin of a wild 
 beast, to protect him from the onslaught 
 of the god. By the side of Zeus, and taking 
 part in the conflict, hovers his eagle. 
 
 The counterpart to this was presumably 
 the group with Athene in the centre (fig. 2). 
 The goddess appears in full armour, with 
 the heavy round shield on her left arm ; on 
 her head, the front portion of which is un- 
 
 (2) ATHENE IH THE BATTLE OF THE GIAHTS. 
 
 (Belief from Pergamon; Berlin Maseam.) 
 
 the conjecture that his sons Apollonius and 
 Tauriscus, the sculptors of the Parnese 
 Bull, were among the artists who worked 
 at Pergamon. The " great marble altar, 
 40 ft. high, with colossal figures, compris- 
 ing a battle of the Giants," is mentioned in 
 the Liber Memorialis of Ampelius {q.v.).] 
 
 The most important parts of the work are 
 shown in the cuts. The powerful figure of 
 Zeus (fig. 1), wrapped in flowing drapery, 
 is most impressive. With his thunderbolt 
 of triple fork and flaming crest, he has 
 already transfixed the thigh of a Giant, who 
 
 fortunately destroyed, is the tall Corinthian 
 helmet; and on her breast, the segis, carved 
 with the greatest care. She is advancing 
 with fierce strides towards the right, drag- 
 ging along with her by the hair a young 
 Giant with a vast pair of wings. Her sacred 
 serpent is also fighting for her. The motive 
 of the piece vividly reminds one of the 
 Laocoon group, which is closely allied in 
 form and expression. The group of Athene 
 and the Giants is most effectively completed 
 by the figure of Nike with outspread wings 
 flying up to the victorious goddess, and by 
 
PERGAMENUM PEEIEGETiE. 
 
 471 
 
 the mighty form of Mother Earth, with the 
 upper portion of her body rising up from 
 the deep. Her name {Ge) is written over 
 her right shoulder. With imploring ges- 
 tures she is raising to heaven her face, sur- 
 rounded by her unbound locks; for they 
 are her own children who are thus being 
 laid low by the might of the celestial gods. 
 One of the most remarkable groups is that 
 in which the triple Hgc3,te appears among 
 the fighting Olympians. The sculptor has 
 given her three heads (one wanting); and 
 three pairs of arms, all of them bearing 
 weapons (fig. 3). In other groups of com- 
 batants we find Helios on his four-horse 
 chariot, with Eos riding in front ; Dionysus ; 
 the sea-gods with their stately following 
 of sea-centaurs and other divinities of the 
 
 Pelybus of Corinth, and foster-mother of 
 (Edipus (g.w.). 
 
 Pgribolus. The court of a Greek temple. 
 {See Temples.) 
 
 Pfiricljf-mgnus. (1) Son of Neleus and 
 Chloris, brother of Nestor. He is the chief 
 hero of the defence of Pylos against Hera- 
 cles, to whom he gave much trouble by his 
 prowess, as well as by his power of trans- 
 forming himself, like the sea-gods, into 
 every possible shape. This power had been 
 given him by Poseidon, who was reputed 
 to be his father. Finally he succumbed to 
 the arrows of Heracles, and by his death 
 sealed the doom of Pylos. 
 
 (2) A Theban, son of Poseidon and 
 Chloris, daughter of the seer Tiresias. In 
 the war of the Seven against Thebes he 
 
 (3) HECATE, ARES, AKD GIANTS. 
 
 (Relief from Pergamon ; Berlin Museum.) 
 
 ocean; the goddess Cybele, seated on a 
 lion, etc. Beside these there have been 
 found about thirty other slabs carved in 
 relief, of smaller dimensions (5 ft. 2-8 ins. 
 high), including some on the story of Tele- 
 phus, the patron hero of the State of Per- 
 gamon. These formed part of a smaller 
 frieze, running round the inner side of an 
 Ionic colonnade, rising above the larger 
 frieze, on the platform, and inclosing the 
 altar proper. The torsoes of a large number 
 of colossal statues, mostly female, which 
 likewise originally stood on the platform, 
 have also been discovered. On the Per- 
 gamene School, see Scijlptdee. 
 
 Pergamenum. See Writing Materials. 
 
 Periact6s {Greek). See Theatre. 
 
 Pfiriboea (also called MerSpe). Wife of 
 
 slew ParthenSpseus, and was in pursuit ot 
 Amphiaraiis at the moment when the latter 
 sank into the earth. 
 
 Pfiriegetse (lit. " those who guide strangers 
 about," and show them what is worth 
 notice). A term applied by the Greeks to 
 the authors of travellers' guide-books enu- 
 merating and describing what was worthy 
 of note, especially buildings or monuments, 
 in the several cities or countries. This 
 kind of literature was especially in vogue 
 from the 3rd century B.C. onwards. Its chief 
 representatives are PolSmon of Troas (about 
 200), whose numerous works are now un- 
 fortunately preserved in fragments only ; 
 and after him the Athenian HeliSdOrus, 
 author of a great work on the Acropolis, 
 likewise lost. Larger fragments survive 
 
472 
 
 PERIGECI PERSEPHONE. 
 
 of a handbook to Greece by a certain 
 Herdclldes, and of the interesting work 
 on Alexandria by Callixenus of Rhodes. 
 The only complete work of this kind re- 
 maining is the valuable description of 
 Greece by Pausdnlas (2nd century A.D.). 
 
 Periceci. The name of those inhabitants 
 of the Spartan State who, unlike the serfs 
 or helots {q.v.), had kept the possession of 
 their lands and personal liberty after the 
 Dorian occupation, but without having the 
 citizenship. They too, like the helots, 
 were at least twice as numerous as the rul- 
 ing Spartiatse. Their name (lit. dwelling 
 around) indicates that they lived on the 
 plain in the neighbourhood of the chief 
 city which was occupied by the Spartiatse. 
 Probably they were more or less doricised 
 by Dorian colonists sent into their towns, 
 whereof as many as a hundred are men- 
 tioned. They were occupied partly in cul- 
 tivating their farms (which, we learn, were 
 smaller than those of the Spartiatse) ; partly 
 in manufactures and industry, in which the 
 ruling caste were forbidden to engage ; 
 partly in trade. Besides certain taxes, they 
 were bound to military service, either as 
 hoplites or as light-armed troops (as in the 
 case of the Sclritce or inhabitants of Sct- 
 ritis, who formed a special body of light 
 infantry, and were reserved for outpost 
 duty when in camp, for advance and rear- 
 guard, and in battle for service on the left 
 "wing). After the Peloponnesian War they 
 formed the chief strength of the army. 
 (See Warfare.) In the army they were 
 also eligible as oiBcers of the lower ranks ; 
 but from all civil offices they were ex- 
 cluded, as also from the popular assembly. 
 They were completely subject to the orders 
 of the Spartiatse ; and when they made 
 themselves troublesome, they could be put 
 to death by the ephors without trial or 
 conviction. 
 
 Peripatetics (Gr. penjmtetikoi, lit. " per- 
 sons given to walking about"). The fol- 
 lowers of Aristotle's philosophy. They 
 derived their name from Aristotle's habit 
 of walking with his disciples in the shady 
 avenues of the Athenian Gymnasium called 
 the Lyceum, while he discussed the prob- 
 lems of philosophy. {See also Aristotle 
 and Philosophy.) 
 
 Pfiriphetes. Son of Hephaestus ; a monster 
 at Epidaurus, who slew the passers by with 
 an iron club (whence he was called cory- 
 nefes or club-bearer), till he was himself 
 slain by the young Theseus. 
 
 Pfiripterfts, An epithet describing a temple 
 
 completely surrounded by a colonnade sup- 
 porting the entablature. (See Temples.) 
 
 Peristyle (Gr. p&ristylon). A court 
 surrounded by columns. (See House.) 
 
 Pero. The shoe of the ordinary Roman 
 citizen. (See Calceus.) 
 
 Pers6ph6ne (also Persephassa / Lat. Pro- 
 serpina). Daughter of Zeus and Demeter. 
 As the wife of Hades, she is the dread queen 
 of the world below. Her special name in 
 Attic cult is Core (lit. " the Maiden "). As 
 a maiden, while plucking flowers (near Enna 
 in Sicily, according to the story common 
 in later times), she was carried off into the 
 lower world by Hades on his car, with the 
 consent of her father. To appease her 
 mother's wrath, Zeus sent Hermes to bring 
 her back ; but, since she had eaten part 
 of a pomegranate given her by Hades (i.e. 
 had already become his wife), she could 
 only spend two-thirds of the year in the 
 upper world with her mother. At the end 
 of that time she had always to return to 
 her husband, and rule as the dark goddess 
 of death ; whereas, while with her mother, 
 she was regarded as the virgin daughter, 
 and the helper of the goddess who pre- 
 sides over the fertility of the earth. Hence 
 Persephone is emblematic of vegetable life, 
 that comes and goes with the changing 
 seasons. In spring, when the seeds sprout 
 up from the ground, she rises to her 
 mother ; when the harvest is over, and the 
 vegetation dies, and the seed is laid again 
 in the dark grave of earth, she returns to 
 her subterraneous kingdom. .From this 
 notion of the seed buried in the dark earth 
 and again rising to light was developed 
 that conception of the myth as an image of 
 immortality which lies at the base of the 
 Eleusinian mysteries. To express her rising 
 and descending, her festivals were cele- 
 brated in spring and after the harvest. 
 In spring she was worshipped at the lesser 
 Eleusinm in Attica, and at her flower- 
 festival of the anthesphorid, in the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, but more especially in Sicily. In 
 autumn, there was held in Attica the great 
 Meusinia ; i.e. the wedding-feast on her 
 marriage with the god of the lower world. 
 She was generally worshipped together 
 with her mother ; hence they were spoken 
 of as " the two goddesses." In the Eleu- 
 sinian mysteries she was also connected 
 with Dionysus, who, under the mystic name 
 lacchus, was regarded as her son, brother, 
 or bridegroom. In later times she was 
 confused with other divinities, especially 
 Hecate, as the goddess of night and of the 
 
PERSES PERSIUS. 
 
 473 
 
 world of spirits. She was represented 
 either as the young and beautiful daughter 
 of Demeter, with cornucopia, ears of corn, 
 and a cook, the emblem of her rising in 
 spring, or as the grim spouse of Hades, 
 with rich adornments and the sjrmbolic 
 pomegranate. {See cut, and cu. Demeter, 
 
 %■ 1.) 
 
 The Roman name Proserpina is 
 regarded by some as an altered 
 form of the Greek Persephone ; by 
 others as a native name only 
 accidentally similar to the Greek, 
 denoting a goddess who assisted 
 in the germination (proserpSre) 
 of the seed, and, owing to the 
 similarity of the two goddesses, 
 transferred to Persephone after 
 the introduction of her cult as the 
 divinity of the lower world. {See 
 Hades ; see also Libitina.) 
 
 Parses. (1) Son of the Titan 
 Crius, father of Hecate. 
 
 (2) Brother of .3]etes of Colchis. 
 {See Medea.) 
 
 Perseus. Son of Zeus and Danae, grand- 
 son of Acrlsius {q.v.). An oracle had de- 
 clared that Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, 
 would give birth to a son who would kill his 
 grandfather. Acrisius committed Perseus 
 with his mother to the sea in a wooden 
 box, which was carried by the waves to the 
 isle of Seriphus. Here the honest fisher- 
 man Dictys son of Magnes {see MoiMS, 1) 
 brought it to land with his net, and took 
 care of mother and child. Dictys' brother 
 Polydectes, however, the king of the island, 
 conceived a passion for the fair Danae, and 
 finding the son in the way, betrayed the 
 young Perseus, who was now grown out 
 of boyhood, into promising, on the occasion 
 of a banquet, to do anything for him, even 
 should he order the head of Medusa, and 
 held him to his word. Encouraged and 
 assisted by Athene and Hermes, Perseus 
 reached the Graise {q-v.), in the farthest 
 part of Libya ; and by capturing the single 
 eye and tooth which they possessed in 
 common, compelled them to show him the 
 way to their sisters the Gorgons {q.v.). He 
 also made thenj equip him for the under- 
 taking with the winged sandals, the magic 
 bag, and the helmet of Hades, which made 
 the wearer invisible. Hermes added to 
 these a ^harp sword shaped like a sickle. 
 
 Thus provided, he flew to the Gorgons on 
 the shores of Oceanus, found them asleep, 
 and, since their glance turned the beholder 
 to stone, with face averted snjote and cut 
 
 off Medusa's head, which Athene showed 
 him in the mirror of her shield, while she 
 guided his hand for the blow. He thrust 
 it quickly into his bag, and flew off through 
 the air, pursued by the other two Gorgons ; 
 but, by virtue of his helmet, he escaped 
 them, and came in his flight to iEthiopia. 
 
 * PERSEPHONE, HADES, AND CERBERUS. 
 
 (Rome. Vatican.) 
 
 Here he rescued Andromeda {q-v.), and 
 won her as his bride. Returning with her 
 to Seriphus, he avenged his mother for the 
 ■ importunities of Polydectes by turning the 
 king and his friends into stone by the sight 
 of Medusa's head ; set Dictys on the throne 
 of the island ; gave iip the presents of the 
 Graise to Hermes, who restored them ; and 
 presented the Gorgon's head to Athene, who 
 set it in the middle of her shield or breast- 
 plate. Then he returned with his mother 
 and wife to Argos. But before his arrival 
 Acrisius had gone away to Larissa in 
 Thessaly, and here Perseus unwittingly 
 killed him with a discus at the funeral 
 games held in honour of the king of that 
 country. He duly buried the body of his 
 grandfather, but, being unwilling to succeed 
 to his inheritance, effected an exchange 
 with Megapenthes, his uncle Proetus' son, 
 took Tiryns in exchange for Argos and 
 built Midea and Mycenae. By Andronieda 
 he had one daughter, Gorgophone, and six 
 sons. The eldest, Perses, was regarded as 
 the ancestor of the Persians ; Alcseus, 
 Sthenelus, and Electryon were the fathers 
 respectively of Amphitryon, Eurystheus, and 
 Alcmene, the mother of Heracles. Perseus 
 had a shrine {heroon) on the road between 
 Argos and Mycenae, and was worshipped 
 with divine honours in Seriphus and 
 Athens, 
 
 Persius Flaccus {Aulus). A Roman 
 satirist; born 34 A.n. atVolaterrae, inEtruria, 
 
474 
 
 PEE VIGILroM PEZET^EI. 
 
 of a good equestrian family. Losing his 
 father when six years old, at the age of 
 twelve he went to Rome, and enjoyed the 
 instructions of the most eminent teachers, 
 more especially of one for whom he had the 
 greatest reverence, Annseus Cornutus, who 
 initiated him in the Stoic philosophy, and 
 introduced him to the acquaintance of 
 Lucan. After the first poetic attempts of 
 his youth, which he himself burnt, his 
 energies were directed to satiric verse, 
 under the influence of Lticilius and Horace. 
 On his early death, in 62, the six satires 
 which he left, after some slight revision by 
 Cornutus, were published by his friend, 
 ihe poet Csesius Bassus. In these Persius 
 deals with the moral corruption of his age, 
 from the standpoint of a Stoic preacher of 
 ethics. Both in thought and expression a 
 tendency to echo Horace is constantly 
 apparent. He composed slowly, and was 
 himself conscious that he had no true poetic 
 faculty.! jjjg jjio(Je of expression is fre- 
 quently difficult and involved to the verge 
 of obscurity. The need of explanations 
 was accordingly felt in comparatively early 
 times ; but the collection of scholia bearing 
 the name of Cornutus shows hardly any 
 traces of ancient learning. 
 
 Pervigilium (lit. " a night-watch "). A 
 nocturnal festival in honour of a divinity, 
 especially that of the Bona DM, at 
 which originally only married women were 
 allowed to be present. In imperial times, 
 when the presence of men was permitted, 
 a nocturnal festival to Veniis was also 
 instituted. Such a festival, extending over 
 three nights in the spring, is referred to in 
 an anonymous poem called the Pervigilium 
 Veneris, of the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. It 
 consists of ninety-three trochaic septendrii, 
 separated into unequal strophce by the 
 recurring refrain, Crds dmet qui nun- 
 qiiam dmdvit, quique amavit eras amet. 
 It celebrates in a lively strain the power of 
 Venus, particularly as displayed in spring- 
 time, lauding her as the giver of life to 
 all, and as the ancestress and patroness of 
 Rome. 
 
 Pfitasus. A flat felt hat, with a broad 
 and round brim, usually worn among the 
 Thessalians. The brim is often parted into 
 four bow-shaped indentations (fig. 2). It 
 is said to have been introduced into Greece 
 along with the chldmys as a distinguishing 
 mark of the ephebi. Hermes is usually 
 represented with the winged petasus. The 
 
 ' The prologue, in which this self-criticism is 
 expressed, is omitted hy Jahn in his latest edition. 
 
 Romans wore a similar hat in the country, 
 and when travelling; in the city it was 
 
 (1) Gerhard, Arc\. Zeitunft, 1814, tav. xiv. 
 
 (2) MuUer, Benkm. i, no. 327. 
 
 generally used only in the theatre, as a pro- 
 tection from the sun. 
 
 P6tr6nius Arbiter. Author of a satiric 
 romance, certainly of the time of Nero, 
 and probably the Gains Petronius whose 
 licentiousness and congenial tastes obtained 
 for him the high favour of Nero, at whose 
 court he played the part of arbiter elegan- 
 tlce (maitre de pHaisir), until, in 66 A.D., 
 in consequence of the intrigues of his 
 rivals, he committed suicide by opening 
 his veins [Tacitus, Ann. xvi 18, 19]. Of his 
 social romance, entitled Sdturae, which must 
 originally have consisted of about twenty 
 books, only fragments are left to us, being 
 part of books xv and xvi. The most 
 complete and famous is the " Banquet of 
 Trimalchio " {Cena TrimalcMonis). Judg- 
 ing from the fragments, the scene was laid 
 under Tiberius, or possibly Augustus, in 
 S. Italy, chiefly in an unnamed colony in 
 Campania, partly in Croton. The work is 
 astonishing for the truth with which both 
 manners and men are painted. A masterly 
 hand appears in the treatment of the dia- 
 logue, adapted as it is in every instance to 
 the character of the speaker, now plebeian, 
 in the mouth of Trimalchio, the freedman 
 who has become a millionaire ; now re- 
 fined, in the cultivated Greek Encolpius ; 
 or again bombastic, in the case of the poet 
 Eumolpus. All situations in life (with a 
 preference for the filthiest), and even litera- 
 ture and art, come under discussion. In 
 the prose are introduced numerous and 
 sometimes extensive pieces of poetry, 
 mostly intended to parody some particular 
 style. 
 
 Peutinger Tablet (TdbUla PeutingSrmna, 
 named after its former owner, Konrad 
 Peutinger, one of the councillors of Augs- 
 burg). A chartographic representation of 
 the Roman world ; now at Vienna. It is a 
 copy of a map of the 3rd century A.D. 
 (See also Itinerabia.) 
 
 Pez6taeri. In the Macedonian army, the 
 free but not noble class of the population. 
 
PH^ACES PHAETHON. 
 
 475 
 
 who formed the heavy infantry {hoplitce). 
 {See Warfare.) 
 
 PhseacSs. A fabulous people in Homer, 
 to whom Odysseus comes in his wanderings 
 [Od. vi-viii]. They stand as near to the 
 gods as the Giants and Cyclopes, seeing them 
 face to face. Originally settled in Hypereia, 
 they were compelled by the violence of 
 their neighbours the Cyclopes to migrate, 
 under their king NausithSiis, son of Posei- 
 don and PeribcBa, daughter of Eurymedon, 
 the last king of the Giants, to the happy 
 island of Scheria, where they built a city. 
 On the arrival of Odysseus their ruler was 
 Alcinoiis, the wise son of Nausithoiis ; his 
 wife was Arete, his brother's daughter, and 
 besides many sons he was the father of the 
 fair Nausicaa, Odysseus' preserver. Ear 
 from the turmoil of the world, the Phaeaces 
 are described as leading a life of undisturbed 
 happiness in the enjoyment of the goods 
 wherewith they are richly blessed ; above 
 all Alcinoiis, who had the fairest of orchards 
 and a most beautiful palace. Their business 
 is solely with the sea, with shipping and the 
 pi'ovision of all that belongs to it. Their 
 ships are of wondrous sort. Without 
 steersman or rudder, divining of themselves 
 the wishes and thoughts of all men, and 
 knowing all lands, they traverse the sea 
 swift as a bird or a thought, wrapped in 
 mist and darkness, yet have never suffered 
 wreck or foundering. But when the ship, 
 that brought the sleeping Odysseus in one 
 night to Thrace, came back, Poseidon, of 
 whose envious malice a prophecy had long 
 ago bidden them beware, changed it to a 
 rock in sight of harbour, and the Phssaces 
 were in fear that the rest of the saying 
 would come true, and mountains rise tip all 
 round their city. Though it is obvioiis that 
 the Phaeaces and their abodes, Hypereia and 
 Scheria, are purely mythical, the kingdom 
 of Alcinoiis was early identified as Corcyra 
 {Corfu). He had a shrine there, and the 
 harbour was named after him. Near the 
 island was also shown the petrified ship. 
 Hence the later Argonautic legends made 
 even Jason and Medea touch at Corcyra 
 on their flight from jGetes, and, like Odys- 
 seus, find protection and help from Alcinoiis. 
 {See Argonauts.) 
 
 Phaedra. Daughter of Minos and Pasiphae, 
 wife of Theseus, and mother of Acamas and 
 Dem6ph66n. When her stepson Hippolytus 
 rejected her love, she compassed his death 
 by slandering him to Theseus. Afterwards, 
 in remorse for her guilt, she put an end to 
 her life. {See Hippolytus.) 
 
 Phsedrus. A Roman poetical fabulist; 
 by birth a Macedonian of the district of 
 Pieria, he came early to Rome as a slave, and 
 acquired a knowledge of Roman literature 
 while still a boy. If the traditional title of 
 his five books of fables after ^sop is to be 
 trusted {Phcedri, Augusti liberti, fabulai 
 JSsoplcB), he was set free by Augustus. To 
 Phsedrus belongs the credit of introducing 
 fable- writing into Latin poetical literature ; 
 a fact of which he was fully conscious, but 
 which secured him neither relief from his 
 miserable position, nor recognition on the 
 part of the educated public ; his patrons 
 seem to have been only freedmen like 
 himself. In fact, he even drew upon him- 
 self, by his two first published books, the 
 illwill and persecution of the all-powerful 
 favourite of Tiberius, Sejanus, who suspected 
 in them malicious references to contemporary 
 events. In consequence he did not publish 
 the remaining books till after the fall of 
 Sejanus in 31 A.D., and the death of Tiberius 
 in 37. 
 
 The five books are preserved, though not 
 in a complete form. Whether the further 
 collection of thirty-two fables transcribed 
 from a MS in the 15th century by Archbishop 
 Nicolo Perotti {FabUlcB Perottiance) [and 
 published at Naples in 1809] are a genuine 
 work of Phsedrus, is doubtful. The matter 
 of the fables is only to a small extent 
 borrowed from ^sop. Some include stories 
 from history, partly referring to the pre- 
 sent or immediate past. In relation to 
 the Greek originals, the material is not 
 always skilfully used, especially in the 
 " morals." The drawing of the characters 
 is at first very cramped, but is afterwards 
 more broadly treated ; the language fluent, 
 and in general correct ; the metre too 
 (iambic sendrius), used with strictness, 
 though wanting the purity which, in this 
 kind of verse, became general from the time 
 of Catullus. About the 10th century an 
 author calling himself Romiilus, drew up 
 a prose version of Phsedrus, which served 
 as a model for the mediaeval collections of 
 fables. 
 
 PhS,6th6n. Son of Helios (who is him- 
 self sometimes called Phaethon) and the 
 Sea-nymph Olymene, wife of Merops, king 
 of .(Ethiopia. When he grew up, he de- 
 manded of his father, as a proof of his 
 birth, the privilege of driving the chariot 
 of the sun for a single day. He proved, 
 however, too weak to restrain the horses, 
 who soon ran away with him, and plunged, 
 now close up to heaven, now right do-?pn to 
 
476 
 
 PHAININDA PHAROS. 
 
 earth, so that both began to take fire. At 
 lEist, to save the whole world from destruc- 
 tion, Zeus shattered the young man with 
 his lightning, his corpse falling into the 
 river Eridauus. His sisters, the Hellddes, 
 iEgle, Phasthusa, and Lampetie, wept for 
 him unceasingly, and were changed into 
 poplars; whence it is that their tears still 
 ooze from those trees, and are hardened by 
 Helios into amber. 
 
 Phaiuinda {Greek). A kind of Greek 
 game of hall {q.v.) 
 
 Fhilangitse. The soldiers of the Mace- 
 donian phalanx (q.v.). 
 
 Phalanx. The Greek term for the order 
 of battle in which heavy infantry were 
 drawn up, in an unbroken line, several ranks 
 deep. {See Hoplit^.) The most famous 
 phalanx was that formed by king Philip, 
 constituting the chief strength of the 
 Macedonian army. It was first 8, after- 
 wards 12-16 deep. In the eight-rank for- 
 mation, the lances {sarissen) being eighteen 
 feet long, those of all ranks could be pre- 
 sented to the enemy. They were grasped 
 with the right hand at the butt, and, with 
 the left, four feet from the butt end ; hence 
 the lances of the first rank projected four- 
 teen feet, while the spear-heads of the last 
 rank were level with, or just in front 
 of, the men in the front rank. In the 
 deeper formation, and after the reduction 
 of the length of the sarissa to fourteen feet, 
 only the first five ranks presented their 
 weapons to the front ; the rest held them 
 slanting over the shoulders of their com- 
 rades in front. The name phalanx, or 
 taxis^ was also applied to the separate 
 regiments of the plidlangitce. The line of 
 each such phalanx was divided, from front to 
 rear, into four chiliarchies, each chiliarchy 
 into four syntagmata, each syntagma into 
 four tetrarchies. The importance of this 
 formation lay in its power of resistance to 
 hostile onset, and in the weight with which 
 it fell, when impelled against the enemy's 
 lines. Its weaknesses were want of mobility, 
 the impossibility of changing front in face 
 of the enemy, and unsuitability for close, 
 hand to hand engagement. The Roman 
 legions also fought in phalanx in the older 
 times before Camillus. Under the emperors 
 the phalanx was used after about the 2nd 
 century A.D., in fighting against barbaric 
 nations. 
 
 Phalaris. The infamous tyrant of Agri- 
 gentum, notorious for his cruelty ; he died 
 549 B.C. His name is afiixed to 148 Greek 
 letters, in which he appears as a gentle 
 
 ruler, and a patron of art and poetry-.* but 
 [as proved in Bentley's Dissertation in 1699] 
 they are really a worthless forgery, probably 
 by a Sophist of the 2nd century A.D. 
 
 PhaI6rse. The Roman term for bosses of 
 thin bronze or silver, or of gold-leaf im- 
 pressed in relief. They were loaded at the 
 back with pitch, and fitted to a plate of 
 copper, being fastened to it with leather 
 straps. They served sometimes as decora- 
 tions for the harness on the head or breast 
 of horses, sometimes as signs of military 
 rank, worn across the whole coat of mail. 
 [See cut, under Cippus.] 
 
 Phanias or Phsenias. [Of Eresos in 
 Lesbos, a pupil of Aristotle, and a country- 
 man and friend of Theophrastus. He 
 flourished about 336 B.C. He was a very 
 prolific writer on philosophy, physics, and 
 history. Only fragments of these works 
 remain. He was also the author of a 
 chronicle of his native city, entitled The 
 Prytdneis of Eresos. This is supposed to 
 have been one of the principal authorities 
 followed in the Parian Chronicle {q.v.).] 
 
 [J. E. S.] 
 
 Phanocles. A Greek elegiac poet of the 
 Alexandrine period. He celebrated in erotic 
 elegies the loves of beautiful boys. A con- 
 siderable fragment remaining describes the 
 love of Orpheus for CalS-is, the beautiful 
 son of Boreas, and his death ensuing there- 
 from. The language is simple and spirited, 
 and the versification melodious. 
 
 Phantasus. See Dkeams. 
 
 PhargtrS,. The quiver. {See Bows.) 
 
 Pharos. The lighthouse on the eastern 
 summit of the small -island of the same 
 name in front of the harbour of Alexandria. 
 It was a tower of white marble, built 
 for Ptolemy Philadelphus by SostrStus of 
 Cnidus, in 270 B.C., at a cost of 800 silver 
 talents (£160,000), and accounted by the 
 ancients one of the wonders of the world. 
 It rose pyramidally in a number of de- 
 creasing stories of different forms (the 
 lowest square, the next octagonal, the third 
 circular). It was adorned with galleries 
 and pillars to a considerable height.^ It 
 
 ' Jospphus, De Sello Judaico v 4, says that the 
 tower of Phasael in Jerusalem, which was 90 
 cubits (or about 135 feet) in height, was about 
 the same height as the Pharos. This is much 
 more likely to be a correct estimate than that of 
 Edrisi, who makes it 300 cubits, each cubit being 
 equivalent to three palms {Climates of the World, 
 written in Arabic 1153, Lat. trans. 1796, p. 349), 
 or that of Stgphanus of Byzantium {a.v. *(£pos), 
 who makes it 306 orgyiai, or about 1,836 feet! 
 (These references are due to Prof. Middleton.) 
 
PHASIS PHILEMON. 
 
 477 
 
 was still standing, in great part, about 
 1300 A.D. In later times all lighthouses 
 were called after it, and large numbers of 
 these were built by the Eomans round 
 Italy, and on all the coasts of the empire. 
 The tower at Ravenna approached the Alex- 
 andrian in magnificence. Light-ships were 
 also used by the ancients. 
 
 Phasis. The term in Attic law for an 
 information against secret crimes, such as 
 contravention of regulations relating to 
 customs, trade, or mining, illegal occupa- 
 tion of common rights, felling of the olive 
 trees sacred to Athene, dishonest adminis- 
 tration of wards' estates and sycophantta. 
 The informer received a portion of the fine 
 as reward. 
 
 Phegeus. King of Psophis in Arcadia, 
 son of Alpheus, and brother of Phoroneus. 
 After inducing his sons, Agenor and 
 PronSus (or Arion and Temenus) to kill 
 Alcmseon, the first husband of his daughter 
 Arsinoe or Alphesiboea {q.v.), he and they 
 were all murdered by the sons of Alcmseon. 
 {See AcAENAN.) 
 
 Pli6r6crates. After Cratinus, Eupolis, 
 and AristSphanes, of whom he was an older 
 contemporary, the most eminent writer 
 of the Old Attic comedy. He was famed 
 among the ancients for his wealth of inven- 
 tion and for the purity of his Attic Greek. 
 We have the titles of fifteen of his comedies, 
 and a few fragments of his plays. 
 
 Ph6r6cydes. (1) Greek philosopher, of 
 the isle of Syros, about QQO-hbO B.C. ; said 
 to have been the first writer of prose. He 
 wrote in the Ionic dialect of the origin of 
 the world and the gods {cosmogdnia and 
 thedgdnta). The poetic element seems to 
 have held a predominant place in his prose. 
 He is also said to have been the first to main- 
 tain the doctrine of the transmigration of 
 souls, which his pupil Pythagoras borrowed 
 from him. 
 (2) See LoGOGEAPHi. 
 Phiaie. The flat drinking-cup of the 
 Greeks. (See Vessels.) 
 
 Phidias (Gt. Pheidias). The famous 
 Greek artist, bom about 500 B.C. at Athens, 
 pupil of AgSladas, and eminent as architect, 
 bronze founder, sculptor, and painter. His 
 great powers were displayed in the build- 
 ings erected under the administration of his 
 intimate friend Pericles on the AcropSlis 
 at Athens, and at Olympia, where he was 
 commissioned to execute the statue of Zeus 
 for the temple there. 
 
 Returning to Athens in 432, he was 
 accused, by intriguers against Pericles, of 
 
 misappropriating the gold supplied him for 
 the drapery of Athene's statue in the Par- 
 thSnon. Prom this he could readily clear 
 himself, having so contrived the drapery 
 that it could easily be taken off and weighed 
 [Plut., Pericles 31]. But being afterwards 
 accused of impiety, on the ground that he 
 
 * Figure traditionally identified as phidias. 
 (Strangford Shield, British Museum.) 
 " Phidias was oppressed with envy - by reason of the 
 renown of his works, and chiefly because, in the battle 
 of the Amazons, which was represented on the shield of 
 the goddess, he had introduced a likeness of himself as a 
 bald old man holding up a great stone with both hands." — 
 Plut., Ferides 31. 
 
 had introduced portraits of himself and 
 Pericles on the goddess' shield, he was 
 thrown into prison, where he died of an ill- 
 ness in the same year {ib.). Among all his 
 works, the foremost rank was taken, accord- 
 ing to the testimony of antiquity, by the 
 statue of Zeus at Olympia, and three statues 
 of Athene on the Acropolis at Athens ; viz. 
 the statue in the Parthenon constructed, 
 like the Zeus, of ivory and gold, and two 
 others, Athene PrSmachus and the " Lem- 
 nian Athene," of bronze. 
 
 These works (for which see Athene and 
 Zeus) have perished ; but of the marble 
 sculptures of the Parthenon {q.v.), which 
 were probably constructed from his designs, 
 and certainly under his direction, the greater 
 part still remains. Most of them are in 
 the British Museum. They fully substan- 
 tiate the judgment of antiquity, which 
 looked on him as the representative of 
 artistic perfection, as the one man who in 
 his art combined perfect sublimity with 
 perfect beauty. It was said of him that 
 he alone had seen the exact image of the 
 gods and revealed it to men. He fixed for 
 ever the ideal types of Zeus and of Athene, 
 the gods who, in the spiritual dignity of 
 their attributes, are foremost of all the 
 divinities of Greece. 
 
 Phiditifi. (Gr. Pheiditid). See Syssitia. 
 
 Philemon. A Greek poet of the New Attic 
 comedy, of Soli in Cilicia, or of Syracuse, 
 born about 362 B.C. He came early to 
 Athens, and first appeared as an author in 
 330. He must have enjoyed remarkable 
 
478 
 
 PHILEMOX AND BAUCIS PHILO. 
 
 popularity, for lie repeatedly won victories 
 over his younger contemporary and rival 
 M§nander,wliose delicate wit was apparently 
 less to the taste of the Athenians of the time 
 than Philemon's smart comedy. To later 
 times his successes over Menander were so 
 unintelligible, that they were ascribed to the 
 influence of malice and intrigue. Except a 
 short sojourn in Egypt with king Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, he passed his life at Athens. 
 He there died, nearly a hundred years old, 
 but with mental vigour unimpaired, in 262, 
 according to the story, at the moment of 
 his being crowned on the stage. Of his 
 ninety-seven works, fifty-seven are known 
 to us by titles and fragments, and two are 
 preserved in the Latin version of Plautus 
 {Mercator and Trinummus). 
 
 Philemon and Baucis. An old married 
 couple in Phrygia, famed in antiqiiity for 
 their true love. When Zeus and Hermes 
 were wandering through the country in 
 human form, and found no shelter with the 
 richer inhabitants, the aged pair received 
 them hospitably. The gods therefore, while 
 destroying all the rest of the neighbourhood 
 by floods in punishment for the inhospitable 
 treatment they had met with, changed their 
 miserable cottage into a magnificent temple. 
 Here the two held the priestly office for the 
 rest of their life, and finally, on their prayer 
 that they might not be separated by death, 
 were both at the same moment changed into 
 trees [Ovid, Met. viii 611-724]. 
 
 Philetas. A Greek grammarian and poet, 
 of the island of Cos. He lived in the second 
 half of the 4th century, latterly as tutor 
 to Ptolemy II (Philadelphus) in Alexandria. 
 Besides epics he composed elegies on his 
 beloved Battis, which were highly prized at 
 Alexandria and Rome, and were imitated 
 by Propertius [iv 1, 1]. We possess only 
 scanty fragments of these elegies. 
 
 PhiUppldes. A Greek writer of the New 
 Comedy, about 300 B.C. ; a friend of king 
 Lysimachus of Thrace. He is said to have 
 died of joy at winning a dramatic prize. Of 
 the forty-four plays attributed to him only 
 fragments survive. 
 
 FMliscas. A Greek tragedian of Corcyra, 
 in the first half of the 3rd century B.C. ; he 
 was priest of Dionysus in Alexandria, and, 
 as such, stood at the head of the Dionysiac 
 guild of actors in that city. He was one of 
 the " Pleiad " (5. v.) of Alexandrian tragic 
 poets. [His portrait is preserved in a relief 
 in the Lateran Museum. See cut under 
 Tragedy {Greek).] 
 
 Philistus. A Greek historian, of Syracuse, 
 
 born about 435 B.C. He encouraged the elder 
 Dionysius, by advice and assistance, in secur- 
 ing and maintaining the position of despot in 
 his native state ; but was himself banished 
 by Dionysius in 386, and lived a long while 
 at Adria in Epirus, busied* with historical 
 studies. Recalled by Dionysius the younger, 
 he counteracted the salutary influence of 
 Dion and Plato at that tyrant's court, and 
 brought about the banishment of both. As 
 commander of the fleet against Dion and the 
 revolted Syracusans, he lost a naval battle, 
 and in consequence either committed suicide 
 or was cruelly murdered by the angry 
 populace (356). He left an historical work, 
 begun in his exile, called Sicelica, a history 
 of Sicily in thirteen books. Books i-vii 
 dealt with the events of the earliest times 
 to the capture of Agrigentum by the Car- 
 thaginians in 406 ; wiii-xi, with the rule of 
 the elder Dionysius ; xii and xiii, with that 
 of the younger. The last portion, which 
 remained incomplete owing to his death, 
 was finished by his countryman Athanas. 
 Onlj'' unimportant fragments of this have 
 survived. According to the judgment of the 
 ancients, he imitated Thucydides somewhat 
 unsuccessfully, and betrayed in his work 
 the one-sided attitude natural to his poli- 
 tical views [Plutarch, Dion 36 ; Dionysius 
 Halic, Ad Cn. Pompeium, 5]. 
 
 PMlo (Gr. PhUon). (1) [The sculptor; 
 the son of Antipater. He flourished in the 
 time of Alexander the Great. Among his 
 works was the statue of Hephsestion, and 
 that of Zeus Ourios, at the entrance of 
 the Bosporus (Cic, Verr. 11 iv 129). The 
 dedicatory verses inscribed on the pedestal 
 of the latter are now in the British Museum 
 (quoted on p. 40 of Dem., Adv. Leptinem, 
 ed. Sandys). Pliny (xxxiv 91) mentions 
 him as one of the sculptors who made 
 athletas et armdtos et venatores sacrlfi- 
 cantesquS.] 
 
 (2) [The Athenian architect who built 
 for Demetrius Phalereus, about 318 B.C., 
 the portico to the great temple at Eleusis. 
 It had 12 Doric columns in front, and its 
 dimensions were 183 feet by 37| feet (see 
 plan on p. 211). Under the administration 
 of Lycurgus, he constructed an armamen- 
 tarium or arsenal at Zea in the Peirseus, 
 containing tackle, etc., for 400 ships (Pliny, 
 N. H. vii 125). It was destroyed by Sulla 
 (Plutarch, Sulla 14), but apparently rebuilt, 
 since it is described by Valerius Maximus 
 (viii 12, 2) as still existing (cp. Cic, De Or. 
 i 62, and Strabo, p. 395 d). An inscription 
 published in Hermes, 1882, p. 351, and in 
 
PHILOCHORUS PHILODEMUS. 
 
 479 
 
 the Corpus Inscriptionum Atticafuin, ii, 
 no. 1054, contains the contract for the work, 
 with full details of its stmcture and fittings.] 
 
 (3) Of Byzantium • a celebrated mecha- 
 nician. He wrote, in the 2nd century B.C., 
 a work on mechanics, of which only one 
 book, on the construction of engines of war, 
 and portions of two others, on siege-warfare, 
 are extant. 
 
 (4) [Philo ofLarissa, an Academic philo- 
 sopher, a pupil of Clitomadius. He came 
 to Rome in 88 B.C., being one of a number 
 of eminent Greeks who fled from Athens 
 on the approach of its siege during the 
 Mithridatic war. He was a man of versatile 
 genius and a perfect master of the theory 
 and practice of oratory. Cicero had scarcely 
 heard him before all his inclination for 
 Epicureanism was swept from his mind, and 
 he surrendered himself . wholly to the bril- 
 liant Academic (Brutus § 306 ; cp. De Nat. 
 Deor. i §§ 17, 113 ; Tusc. Disp. ii §§ 9, 26). 
 One of his works, twice mentioned, though 
 not by any definite title {Acad, i 13, ii 11), 
 supplied Cicero with his historic account 
 of the New Academy (Cicero's Academica, 
 ed. Reid, pp. 2, 52).] 
 
 (5) The Jew. Born of a priestly family 
 at Alexandria, about 25 B.C., he carefully 
 studied the different branches of Greek cul- 
 ture, and, in particular, acquired a knowledge 
 of the Platonic philosophy, while in no way 
 abandoning the study of the Scriptures or 
 the creed of his nation. In 39 a.d. he went 
 to Rome as an emissary to the emperor 
 Caligula in the interest of his fellow country- 
 men, whose religious feelings were offended 
 by a decree ordering them to place the 
 statue of the deified emperor in their 
 synagogues. This embassy, which led to 
 no result, is described by him in a work 
 which is still extant, though in an incom- 
 plete form. 
 
 Philo is the chief representative of 
 the GrsBco-Judaic philosophy. He wrote 
 numerous Greek works in a style modelled 
 on that of Plato. These are remarkable for 
 moral earnestness, passionate enthusiasm, 
 and vigour of thought. They include alle- 
 gorical expositions of portions of the Scrip- 
 tures, as well as works of ethical, historical, 
 or political purport. Several of his works 
 only survive in Armenian versions. His 
 philosophy, especially his theology, is an 
 endeavour to reconcile Platonism with 
 Judaism. 
 
 (6) [Philo Byblius, or Herennius Byblius. 
 A Roman grammarian, born at Byblus in 
 Phoenicia. His life extended from about 
 
 the time of Nero to that of Hadrian. A 
 considerable fragment of his " translation " 
 of the ancient Phoenician writer Sanchu- 
 niathon is preserved in the first book of 
 the PrceparatiO EvangSUca of Eusebius.] 
 
 PMlochorus. A Greek historian, living at 
 Athens between 306 and 260. As an up- 
 holder of national liberty he was among the 
 bitterest opponents of Demetrius Poliorcetes 
 and of his son Antigonus Gonatas, who put 
 him to death after the conquest of Athens. 
 Of his works, the Atthis was a history of 
 Athens from the earliest times to 262 B.C., 
 in seventeen books. It was highly esteemed 
 and often quoted for its wealth of facts and 
 thoroughness of investigation, especially as 
 regards chronology. We still possess a 
 considerable number of fragments. 
 
 PhilScles. A Greek tragedian, son of 
 ^schylus' sister. He wrote a hundred plays 
 in the manner of jEsohylus, and won the 
 prize against Sophocles' (Edlpus Tyrannus. 
 Only scanty fragments of his plays remain. 
 The drama was also cultivated by his sons 
 Morsimus and Melanthius, by Morsimus' 
 son Astydamas (about 399 B.C.), and again 
 by the sons of the latter, Astydamas and 
 Philocles. 
 
 PMloctetes. The son of Pceas, king of the 
 Malians in (Eta. He inherited the bow and 
 arrows of Heracles (q.v.). He was leader 
 of seven ships in the expedition against 
 Troy ; but, on the way out, was bitten by 
 a snake at Lemnos, or the small island of 
 Chryse near Lemnos, and, on account of the 
 intolerable stench caused by the wound, 
 was abandoned at Lemnos on the advice of 
 Odysseus. Here in his sickness he dragged 
 out a miserable life till the tenth year of the 
 war. Then, however, on account of Helenus' 
 prophecy that Troy could only be conquered 
 by the arrows of Heracles, Odysseus and 
 Diomedes went to fetch him, and he was 
 healed by Machaon. After he had slain 
 Paris, Troy was conquered. He was one 
 of the heroes who came safe home again. 
 [The story of Philoctetes was dramatized 
 by jEschylus and Euripides (B.C. 431), as 
 well as by Sophocles (409). It is also the 
 theme of numerous monuments of ancient 
 art. See Jebb's introduction to Soph. 
 Phil., p. XXX vii.] 
 
 Phllodemus. A Greek philosopher of the 
 Epicurean school, of Gadftra in Palestine. 
 He was a contemporary of Cicero, who 
 praises his learning, and also his taste as a 
 poet [De Finihus ii 119 ; in Pisonem, 68, 
 70]. We have thirty-four epigrams by him, 
 chiefly on amatory and indelicate subjects ; 
 
480 
 
 PHILOLAUS PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 and considerable fragments of a number of 
 prose writings (on music, rhetoric, syllo- 
 gisms, vices and virtues, piety, anger, etc.), 
 which have come to light among the Hercu- 
 lanean ■papyri. 
 
 PMlolaus. A Greek philosopher, a pupil 
 of Pythagoras {q.v.). He was the first to 
 commit to writing the doctrines of the 
 Pythagorean school. He wrote in Doric 
 Greek. Only a few fragments of his writ- 
 ings remain. 
 
 PMlSmela. See Peocne. 
 
 Philosophy. (I) Greek Philosophy. 
 The first beginnings of philosophy in Greece 
 came from the lonians of Asia ; and it is in 
 agreement with the character of that people, 
 naturally inclined to the phenomenal or 
 sensualist view, that what the Ionian 
 philosophers sought was the material prin- 
 ciple of things, and the mode of their origin 
 and disappearance. Thales of Miletus 
 (about 640 B.C.) is reputed the father of 
 Greek philosophy. He declared Water to 
 be the basis of all things. Next came 
 AnaxImander of Miletus (about 611-547), 
 the first ivriter on philosophy ; he assumed 
 as first principle an undefined substance 
 without qualities, out of which the primary 
 antitheses, hot and cold, moist and dry, be- 
 came differentiated. His countryman and 
 younger contemporary, AnaxImenes, took 
 for his principle Air ; conceiving it as modi- 
 fied, by thickening and thinning, into fire, 
 wind, clouds, water, and earth. Heraclitus 
 of Ephesus (about 535-475) assumed as the 
 principle of substance setherial Fire. From 
 fire aU things originate, and return to it again 
 by a never-resting process of development. 
 All things therefore are in a perpetual fiux. 
 Philosophy was first brought into con- 
 nexion with practical life by PythagQras 
 of S&mos (about 682-504), from whom it 
 received its name (" the love of wisdom "). 
 Regarding the world as a perfect harmony, 
 dependent on number, he aimed at inducing 
 mankind likewise to lead a harmonious life. 
 His doctrine was adopted and extended by 
 a large following, especially in lower Italy. 
 That country was also the home of the 
 Eleatic djjctrine of The One, called after the 
 town of Elea, the headquarters of the school. 
 It was founded by XenSphanes of Colo- 
 phon (born about 570), the father of pan- 
 theism, who declared God to be the eternal 
 unity, permeating the universe, and govern- 
 ing it by his thought. His great disciple 
 PaemenIdes of Elea (born about 511) 
 affirmed the one unchanging existence to be 
 alone true and capable of being conceived ; 
 
 and multitude and change to be an appear- 
 ance without reality. This doctrine was 
 maintained dialectically by his younger 
 countryman Zeno in a polemic against the 
 vulgar opinion, which sees in things multi- 
 tude, becoming, and change. EmpedScles 
 of Agrifgentum (born 492) appears to have 
 been partly in agreement with the Eleatic 
 school, partly in opposition to it : on the one 
 hand, maintaining the unchangeable nature 
 of substance ; while, on the other, he supposes 
 a plurality of such substances — to wit, the 
 four elements, earth, water, air, and fire. 
 Of these the world is built up, by the agency 
 of two ideal principles as motive forces ; viz. 
 love as the cause of union, hate as the cause 
 of separation. 
 
 AnaxagOeas of Clazomense (born about 
 500) also maintained the existence of an 
 ordering principle as well as a material 
 substance, and while regarding the latter as 
 an infinite multitude of imperishable primary 
 elements, qualitatively distinguished, con- 
 ceived divine reason as ordering them. He 
 referred all generation and disappearance 
 to mixture and resolution respectively. To 
 him belongs the credit of first establishing 
 philosophy at Athens, in which city it 
 reached its highest development, and con- 
 tinued to have its home for 1,000 years 
 without intermission. The first explicitly 
 materialistic system was formed by Demo- 
 crItus of Abdera (born about 460). This 
 was the doctrine of Atoms, — small primary 
 bodies infinite in number, indivisible and 
 imperishable, qualitatively similar, but dis- 
 tinguished by their shapes. Falling eter- 
 nally through the infinite void, they collide 
 and unite, thus generating existence, and 
 forming objects which differ in accordance 
 with the varieties, in number, size, shape, 
 and arrangement, of the atoms which com- 
 pose them. 
 
 The efforts of all these earlier philosophers 
 had been directed somewhat exclusively to 
 the investigation of the ultimate basis and 
 essential nature of the external world. 
 Hence their conceptions of human know- 
 ledge, arising out of their theories as to 
 the constitution of things, had been no less 
 various. The Eleatics, for example, had 
 been compelled to deny the existence of any 
 objective truth, since to the world of sense, 
 with its multitude and change, they allowed 
 only a phenomenal existence. This incon- 
 sistency led to the position taken up by the 
 class of persons known as Sophists {q.v.), 
 that all thought rests solely on the appre- 
 hensions of the senses and on subjective 
 
PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 481 
 
 impression, and that therefore we have no 
 other standard of action than utility for the 
 individual. 
 
 A new period of philosophy opens with 
 the Athenian Socrates (469-399). Like the 
 Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical 
 speculations in which his predecessors had 
 indulged, and made the subjective thoughts 
 and opinions of men his starting point ; but 
 whereas it was the thoughts and opinions 
 of the individual that the Sophists took 
 for the standard, Socrates endeavoured to 
 extract from the common intelligence of 
 mankind an objective rule of practical life. 
 For this purpose he employed the two 
 forms of philosophical inquiry of which he 
 is the inventor, induction and definition. 
 Such a standard he saw in knowledge, by 
 which term he understood the cognition in 
 thought of the true cooacept -of an object, 
 and identified it with Virtue; that is to say, 
 such action as proceeds from clear cognition 
 of the concept appropriate to the circum- 
 stances. Thus, although Socra.tes did not 
 himself succeed in establishing a genuine 
 ethical principle, he is nevertheless the 
 founder of ethics, as he is also of dialectic, 
 the method of the highest speculative 
 thought. Of Socrates' numerous disciples 
 many either added nothing to his doctrine, 
 or developed it in a one-sided manner, by 
 confining themselves exclusively either to 
 dialectic or to ethics. Thus while the 
 Athenian XenOphon contented himself, in 
 a series of writings, with exhibiting the 
 portrait of his master to the best of his 
 comprehension, and added nothing original, 
 the Megarian school, founded by EuclIdes 
 of Megarft, devoted themselves almost 
 entirely to dialectic investigation ; whereas 
 ethics preponderated both with the Cynics 
 and Cyrenaics, although the position taken 
 up by these two schools was in direct 
 antithesis. For Antisth6nbs of Athens, 
 the founder of the Cynics, conceived the 
 highest good to be the virtue which spurns 
 every enjoyment ; while Aristippus of 
 Gyrene, the founder of the Cyrenaics, con- 
 sidered pleasure to be the sole end in life, 
 and regarded virtue as a good only in so 
 far as it contributed to pleasure. 
 
 Both aspects of the genius of Socrates 
 were first united in Plato of Athens (428- 
 848), who also combined with them all the 
 principles established by earlier philoso- 
 phers, in so faar as they had rbeen legitimate, 
 and developed the whole of this material 
 into the unity of a comprehensive system. 
 The groundwork of Plato's scheme, though 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 nowhere expressly stated by him, is the 
 threefold division of philosophy into dia- 
 lectic, ethics, and physics ; its central 
 point is the theory of ideas. This theory 
 is a combination of the Eleatic doctrine 
 of the One with Heraclitus' theory of 
 a perpetual flux and with the Socratic 
 method of concepts. The multitude of 
 objects of sense, being involved in per- 
 petual change, are thereby deprived of all 
 genuine existence. The only true being 
 in them is founded upon the ideas, the 
 eternal, unchangeable (independent of all 
 that is accidental, and therefore) perfect 
 types, of which the particular objects of 
 sense are imperfect copies. The number 
 of the ideas is defined by the number of 
 universal concepts which can be derived 
 from the particular objects of sense. The 
 highest idea is that of the Good, -which is 
 the ultimate basis of the rest, and the first 
 cause of being and knowledge. Appre- 
 hensions derived from the impressions of 
 sense can never give us the knowledge of 
 true bedng ; i.e. of the ideas. It can only 
 be obtained by the soul's activity within 
 itself, apart from the troubles and distur- 
 bances of sense ; that is to say, by the 
 exercise of reason. Dialectic, as the instru- 
 ment in this process, leading us to know- 
 ledge of the ideas, and finally of the highest 
 idea of the Good, is the first of sciences, 
 sclenVla scientlarum. In physics, Plato 
 adhered (though not without original modifi- 
 cations) to the views of the Pythagoreans, 
 making Nature a harmonic unity in multi- 
 plicity. His ethics are founded throughout 
 on the Socratic ; with him too virtue is 
 knowledge, the cognition of the supreme 
 idea of the Good. And since in this cogni- 
 tion the three parts of the soul, cognitive, 
 spirited, and appetitive, all have their 
 share, we get the three virtues, Wisdom, 
 Courage, and Temperance or Continence, 
 The bond which -unites the other virtues is 
 the virtue of Justice, by which each several 
 part of the soul is confined to the perfor- 
 mance of its proper function. The school 
 founded by Plato, called the Academy, from 
 the name of the grove of the Attic hero 
 Academus, where he used to deliver his 
 lectures, continued for long after. In 
 regard to the main tendencies of its mem- 
 bers, it was divided 'into the three periods 
 of the Old, Middle, and New Academy. The 
 chief personages in the first of these were 
 Speusippus (son of Plato's sister), who suc- 
 ceeded him as the head of the school (till 
 339), and Xenocrates of Chalcedon (till 
 
 I I 
 
482 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 314). Both of them sought to fuse Pytha- 
 gorean speculations on number with Plato's 
 theory of' ideas. The two other Academies 
 were still further removed from the specific 
 doctrines of Plato (see beloio). 
 
 The most important among Plato's dis- 
 ciples is Aristotle of Stagira (384-322), 
 who shares with his master the title of 
 the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But 
 whereas Plato had sought to elucidate and 
 explain things from the suprasensual stand- 
 point of the ideas, his pupil preferred to 
 start from the facts given us by experience. 
 Philosophy to him meant science, and its 
 aim was the recognition of the "wherefore" 
 in all things. Hence he endeavours to attain 
 to the ultimate grounds of things by induc- 
 tion ; that is to say, by a posteriori conclu- 
 sions from a number of facts to a universal. 
 In the series of works collected under 
 the name of Orgdndn, Aristotle sets forth, 
 ■almost in a final form, the laws by which 
 the human understanding effects conclusions 
 -from the particular to the knowledge of 
 the universal. Like Plato, he recognises 
 the true being of things in their concepts, 
 -but denies any separate existence of the 
 ■concept apart from the particular objects of 
 sense. They are as inseparable as matter 
 and form. In this antithesis, matter and 
 form, Aristotle sees the fundamental prin- 
 ciples of being. Matter is the basis of all 
 that exists ; it comprises the potentiality 
 of everything, but of itself is not actually 
 anything. A determinate thing only comes 
 into being when the potentiality in matter 
 is converted into actuality. This is effected 
 by form, the idea existent not as one out- 
 side the many, but as one in the many, 
 the completion of the potentiality latent in 
 the matter. Although it has no existence 
 apart from the particulars, yet, in rank and 
 estimation, form stands first; it is of its 
 own nature the most knowable, the only 
 ■true object of knowledge. For matter 
 without any form cannot exist, but the 
 'essential definitions of a common form, in 
 which are included the particular objects, 
 may be separated from matter. Form and 
 matter are relative terms, and the lower 
 ■form constitutes the matter of a higher (e.gr. 
 body, soul, reason). This series culminates 
 'in pure, immaterial form, the Deity, the 
 'origin of all motion, and therefore of the 
 generation of actual form out of potential 
 ■matter. All motion takes place in space 
 ■and time; for space is the potentiality, time 
 the measure of the motion. Living beings 
 ■are those which have in them a moving 
 
 principle, or soul. In plants, the function 
 of soul is nutrition (including reproduction) ; 
 in animals, nutrition and sensation ; in men, 
 nutrition, sensation, and intellectual acti- 
 vity. The perfect form of the human soul 
 is reason separated from all connexion with 
 the body, hence fulfilling its activity with- 
 out the help of any corporeal organ, and 
 so imperishable. By reason the apprehen- 
 sions, which are formed in the soul by 
 external sense-impressions, and may be true 
 or false, are converted into knowledge. 
 For reason alone can attain to truth either 
 in cognition or action. Impulse towards 
 the good is a part of human nature, and on 
 this is founded virtue ; for Aristotle does 
 not, with Plato, regard virtue as knowledge 
 pure and simple, but as founded on nature, 
 habit, and reason. Of the particular virtues 
 (of which there are as many as there are 
 contingencies in life), each is the appre- 
 hension, by means of reason, of the proper 
 mean between two extremes which are not 
 virtues ; e.g. courage is the mean between 
 cowardice and foolhardiness. The end of 
 human activity, or the highest good, is 
 happiness, or perfect and reasonable activity 
 in a perfect life. To this, however, external 
 goods are more or less necessary conditions. 
 The followers of Aristotle, known as 
 Peripatetics (The5pheastus of Lesbos, 
 EuDEMUS of Rhodes, Steato of Lampsacus, 
 etc.), to a great extent abandoned meta- 
 physical speculation, some in favour of 
 natural science, others of a more popular 
 treatment of ethics, introducing many 
 changes into the Aristotelian doctrine in 
 a naturalistic direction. A return to the 
 views of the founder first appears among 
 the later Peripatetics, who did good service 
 as expositors of Aristotle's works. The 
 tendency of the Peripatetic school to make 
 philosophy the exclusive property of the 
 karned class, thereby depriving it of its 
 power to benefit a wider circle, soon pro- 
 duced a reaction ; and philosophers returned 
 to the practical standpoint of Socratic ethics. 
 The speculations of the learned were only 
 admitted in philosophy where immediately 
 serviceable for ethics. The chief con- 
 sideration was how to popularise doctrines, 
 ■and to provide the individual, in a time 
 of general confusion and dissolution, with 
 a fixed moral basis for practical life. Such 
 were the aims of Stoicism, founded at 
 Athens about 310 by Zeno of Cittium, and 
 brought to fuller systematic form by his suc- 
 cessors as heads of the school, Cleanthes 
 of Assos and especially Chbysipbus of Soli 
 
PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 483 
 
 (died abont 206). Their doctrines contained 
 little that was new, seeking rather to give 
 a practical application to the dogmas which 
 they took ready-made from previous sys- 
 tems. With them philosophy is the science 
 of the principles on which the moral life 
 ought to be founded. The only allowable 
 endeavour is towards the attainment of 
 knowledge of things human and divine, in 
 order to regulate life thereby. The method 
 to lead men to true knowledge is provided 
 by logic ; physics embraces the doctrines 
 as to the nature and organization of the 
 universe ; while ethics draws from them its 
 conclusions for practical life. All know- 
 ledge originates in the real impressions of 
 things on the senses, which the soul, being 
 at birth a tdbuld rasa, receives in the 
 form of presentations. These presentations, 
 when confirmed by repeated experience, are 
 syllogistically developed by the understand- 
 ing into concepts. The test of their truth 
 is the convincing or persuasive force with 
 which they impress themselves upon the 
 soul. In physics the foundation of the Stoic 
 doctrine was the dogma that all true being 
 is corporeal. Within the corporeal they 
 recognised two principles, matter and force, 
 i.e. the material, and the deity permeating 
 and informing it. Ultimately, however, the 
 two are identical. There is nothing in the 
 world with any independent existence : all 
 is bound together by an unalterable chain 
 of causation. The concord of human action 
 with the law of nature, of the human will 
 with the divine will, or life according to 
 nature, is Virtue, the chief good and highest 
 end in life. It is essentially one, the 
 particular or cardinal virtues of Plato being 
 only different aspects of it ; it is completely 
 sufficient for happiness, and incapable of 
 any differences of degree. All good actions 
 are absolutely equal in merit, and so are 
 all bad actions. All that lies between 
 virtue and vice is neither good nor bad ; 
 at most, it is distinguished as preferable, 
 undesirable, or absolutely indifferent. Virtue 
 is fully possessed only by the wise man, 
 who is no way inferior in worth to Zeus ; 
 he is lord over his own life, and may end it 
 by his own free choice. In general, the pro- 
 minent characteristic of Stoic philosophy is 
 moral heroism, often verging on asceticism. 
 The same goal which was aimed at in 
 Stoicism was also approached, from a dia- 
 metrically opposite position, in the system 
 founded about the same time by EpIcurus, 
 of the deme Gargettus in Attica (342-268), 
 who brought it to completion himself, 
 
 Epicureanism, like Stoicism, is connected 
 with previous systems. Like Stoicism, it is 
 also practical in its ends, proposing to find 
 in reason and knowledge the secret of a 
 happy life, and admitting abstruse learning 
 only where it serves the ends of practical 
 wisdom. Hence logic (called by Epicurus 
 cdnomcdn, or the doctrine of canon* 
 of truth) is made entirely subservient to 
 physics, physics to ethics. The standard* 
 of knowledge and canons of truth in theo- 
 retical matters are the impressions of the 
 senses, which are true and indisputable, 
 together with the presentations formed 
 from such impressions, and opinions ex- 
 tending beyond those impressions, in so far 
 as they are supported or not contradicted 
 by the evidence of the senses. In practical 
 questions the feelings of pleasure and pain 
 are the tests. Epicurus' physics, in which 
 he follows in essentials the materialistic 
 system of Democritus, are intended to refer 
 all phenomena to a natural cause, in order 
 that a knowledge of nature may set men free 
 from the bondage of disquieting supersti- 
 tions. In ethics he followed within certain 
 limits the Cyrenaic doctrine, conceiving the 
 highest good to be happiness, and happiness 
 to be found in pleasure, to which the natural 
 impulses of every being are directed. But 
 the aim is not with him, as it is with the 
 Cyrenaics, the pleasure of the moment, but 
 the enduring condition of pleasure, which, 
 in its essence, is freedom from the greatest 
 of evils, pain. Pleasures and pains are, 
 however, distinguished not merely in degree, 
 but in kind. The renunciation of a pleasure 
 or endurance of a pain is often a means to 
 a greater pleasure ; and since pleasures of 
 sense are subordinate to the pleasures of 
 the soul, the undisturbed peace of the soul 
 is a higher good than the freedom of the 
 body from pain. Virtue is desirable not 
 for itself, but for the sake of pleasure of 
 soul, which it secures by freeing men from 
 trouble and fear and moderating their 
 passions and appetites. The cardinal virtue 
 is wisdom, which is shown by true insight 
 in calculating the consequences of our 
 actions as regards pleasure or pain. 
 
 The practical tendency of Stoicism and 
 Epicureanism, seen in the search for happi- 
 ness, is also apparent in the Scepticism 
 founded by Pterho of Elis (about 365-275). 
 Pyrrho disputes the possibility of attaining 
 truth by sensuous apprehension, reason, or 
 the two combined, and thence infers the 
 necessity of total suspension of judgment on 
 things. Thus can we attain release from 
 
484 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 all bondage to theories, a condition which 
 is followed, like a shadow, by that imper- 
 turbable state of mind which is the founda- 
 tion of true happiness. Pyrrho's doctrine 
 was followed by the Middle and Netb 
 Academies (see above), tepresented by 
 ARCESiLAirs of Pitaiie (316-241) and Gae- 
 NEADES of Gyrene (214-129) respectively, 
 in their attacks on the Stoics, for asserting 
 a criterion of truth in our knowledge ; 
 although they considered that what they 
 were maintaining was a genuine tenet of 
 Socrates and Plato. The latest Academics, 
 such as Antiochus of Ascalon (about 80 
 B.C.), fused with Platonism certain Peri- 
 patetic and many Stoic dogmas, thus making 
 way fdi- Eclecticism, to which all later 
 antiquity 'tended a^fter Greek philosophy 
 had sprfead itself over the Roman world. 
 After the Ghristi^n era Pythagoreanism, in 
 a resuscitated fbrm, again takes its place 
 among the more important systems ; but the 
 pre-eniinence belongs to Platonism, which 
 is notably represented in the works of 
 Plutarch of Chseronea and the physician 
 Galen, while Scepticism is maintained by 
 another physician, Sextus EmpIbIcus. 
 
 The closing period of Greek philosophy 
 is marked in thB 3rd century a.d. by the 
 establishment in Rome, under PlotInus of 
 Lyc5p6lis in Egypt (205-270), of Neopla- 
 tonism, a scientific philosophy of religion, 
 in which the doctrine of Plato is fused with 
 the most important elements in the Aristo- 
 telian and Stoic systems and with Oriental 
 speculations. At the summit of exis.tences 
 stands the One or the Good, as the source of 
 all things. It generates from itself, as if 
 from the reflexion of its own being, reason, 
 wherein is contained the infinite store of 
 ideas. Soul, the copy of the reason, is 
 generated by and contained in it, as reason 
 is in the One, and, by informing matter in 
 itself nonexistent, constitutes bodies whose 
 existence is contained in soul. Nature 
 therefore is a whole, endowed with life and 
 sOul. Soul, being chained to matter, longs 
 to escape from the bondage of tlie body and 
 returii to its "original source. In virtue and 
 philosophic thought it has the power to 
 elevate itself above the reason into a state 
 of ecstasy, where it can behold, or ascend 
 up to, that one good primary Being whom 
 reason cannot know. To attain tliis union 
 with the Good, or God, is the true function 
 of man, to whom the external world should 
 'be alDsolutely indifferent. Plotinus' most 
 important disciple, the Syrian PorphcyrIus, 
 contented himself with popularising his 
 
 master's doctrine. But the school of Iam- 
 BLiCHtrs, a disciple of Porphyrins, effected 
 a change in the position of Neoplatonism, 
 which now took up the cause of polytheism 
 against Christianity, and adopted for this 
 purpose every conceivable form of supersti- 
 tion, especially those of the East. Foiled 
 ■in the attempt te resuscitate the old beliefs, 
 its supporters then turned with fresh 
 ardour to scientific work, and especially to 
 the study of Plato and Aristotle, in the 
 interpretation of whose works they rendered 
 great services. The last home of philosophy 
 was at Athens, where PrOclds (411-485), 
 sought to reduce to a kind of system the 
 whole mass of philosophic tradition, till 
 in 529 A.D. the teaching of philosophy at 
 Athens was forbidden by Justinian. 
 
 (II) Roman philosophy is throughout 
 founded on the Greek, Interest in the sub- 
 ject was first excited at Rome in 155 B.C. 
 by an Athenian embassy, consisting of the 
 Academic Carneades, the Stoic Diogenes, 
 and the Peripatetic Critolaus. Of more 
 permanent influence was the work of the 
 Stoic Pansetius, the friend of the younger 
 Scipio and of Lselias ; but a thorough study 
 of Greek philosophy was first introduced in 
 the time of Cicero and Varro. In a num- 
 ber of works they endeavoured to make it 
 accessible even to these of their countrymen 
 who were outside the learned circles. Cicero 
 chiefly took it up in a spirit of Eclecticism ; 
 but among his contemporaries Epicureanism 
 is represented in the poetical treatise of 
 Lucretius on the nature ■ of things, and 
 Pythagoreanism by NiGiDius Eigulus. In 
 imperial times Epicureanism and Stoicism 
 were most popular, especially the latter, 
 as represented by the writings of Seneca, 
 CoRNtJTUS, and the emperor Marcus 
 AuRELius ; while Eclectic Platonism was 
 taken up by Apuleius of Madaura. One of 
 the latest philosophical writers of antiquity 
 is B5ETHIUS, whose writings were the chief 
 sourceof information as to Greek philosophy 
 during the first centuries of the Middle 
 Ages. [The original authorities on ancient 
 philosopTiy are collected in Ritter and 
 Preller's Ristoria PMlosopMce Grcecce et 
 Romance ex Fontium Locis contexta.] 
 
 Philostratus. (1) Flavins Philostratusthe 
 elder, a Greek Sophist, of Lemnos, son of a 
 celebrated Sophist of the same name. He 
 taught first in Athens, then at Rome till the 
 middle of the 3rd century a.d. By order of 
 his great patroness Julia Domna, the learned 
 wife of the emperor Septimius SSverus, he 
 wrote (a) the romantic I/iye of Apollonlus of 
 
PHILOXENUS PHLEGYAS. 
 
 485 
 
 Tydna. Besides this we have by him (&) a 
 work entitled HerO'icus, consisting of mythi- 
 cal histories of the heroes of the Trojan War 
 in the form of a dialogue, designed to call 
 back to life the expiring popular religion. 
 (c) Lives of the Sophists, in two books, the 
 lirst dealing with twenty-six philosophers, 
 the second with thirty-three rhetoricians of 
 earlier as well as later times, a work impor- 
 tant for the history of Greek culture, especi- 
 ally during the imperial age, (d) Seventy-, 
 three letters, partly amatory in subject, (e). 
 A fragment of a work intended to revive in- 
 terest in the old Gymnastic. Lastly (/), the 
 Iviagines in two books, being descriptions 
 of sixty-six paintings on all possible subjects. 
 Of these it is doubtful wJiether, as he pre- 
 tends, they really belonged to a gallery at 
 Naples [a statement accepted by Brunn, 
 KiinstlergeschirJite, ii 178 ; Jahrb. f. Philol. 
 Supplementband 4, 179 pp., and 1871] ; or 
 whether their subjects were invented by 
 himself [as maintained by Triederichs, Die 
 Philostratischen Bilder, 1860; and Matz, De 
 Philostratorum in Descrihendis Imagini- 
 bus Fide, 1867]. Like all his writings, this 
 work is skilful and pleasing in its manner, 
 and the interest of its. topic makes it par- 
 ticularly attractive. It is not so much 
 designed to incite to the.stydy of works of 
 art, as to exhibit the art oi painting in a 
 totally new field ; and herein he is followed 
 both by his grandson apd namesake, and by 
 Callistratus (q.v.). 
 
 (2) Philostratus the younge,r, son of the 
 daughter of (1), of Lemnos. He lived chiefly 
 at Athens, ajad died at Lemnos, 264 a.d. 
 Following his grandfather's lead, he de^ 
 voted himself to the rhetorical description 
 of paintings ; but fell considerably behind 
 his model both in invention and descrip- 
 tive power, as is. proved by. the sixteen 
 extant Imagines, the first hook, of a largep 
 collection. 
 
 Philoxenus. A famous Greek dithyrambic 
 poet, of Cythera. He came as a prisoner 
 of war into the possessiox. of the Athenian 
 musician Melanippides, by whom he was 
 educated and S€t free. He lived long at Syra- 
 cuse, at the court of the tyrant DiSnysius I, 
 who threw him into the stone-quarries for 
 outspoken criticism on his bad poems. On 
 his escape from Sicily he revenged himself 
 on the tyrant, who was short-sighted or perr 
 haps blind of one eye, by witty raillery in 
 the most famous of his twenty-four dithy- 
 rambs, the Cyclops, which describes the love 
 of the one-eyed Polyphemus for the beau- 
 tiful Nymph Galatea. He died 380 B.C. at 
 
 Ephesus, after visiting various places in 
 Greece, Italy, and Asia Minor for the public 
 performance of his compositions. These 
 were celebrated among the ancients for 
 originality of expression and rich variety of 
 melody. We have only some considerable 
 fragments of a lyric poem entitled The 
 Banquet, in which the burlesqvie subject 
 affords a cornic contrast to, the dignified 
 Doric rhythm. 
 
 Phineus. (1) Son of Belus, and brother of 
 Cepheus. He contested against Perseus 
 the possession of Andromeda (q.v.), who 
 had previously been his betrothed. He was 
 turned into stone by Perseus by means of 
 the head of Medusa. 
 
 (2) Son of Agenor, reigning at Salmy- 
 dessus in Thrace ; he possessed the gilt of 
 prophecy. He put away his first wife Cleo- 
 patra, daughter of Boreas and Orithyia, 
 who had borne him two sons, and married 
 Idsea, daughter of Dardanus. She induced 
 him by slanders to destroy the sight of the 
 sons whom he had by his first wife. For 
 this Zeus punished him, giving him the 
 choice of death or blindness. He chose 
 never more to see the sun, whereat 
 Helios, enraged by the slight, sent the 
 Harpies, -v^ho stole or defiled his food, so 
 that he suffered perpetual hunger. Prom 
 this plague he was not delivered till the 
 landing of the Argonauts, when Calais and 
 Zete^, the brothers, of his first wife, drove 
 ©if the Harpies from him for ever. In 
 gratitude, Phineus, by virtue of his prophetic 
 powers, instructed the Argonauts as to the 
 rest of their route. His brothers-in-law 
 seflt the wicked step-mother back to her 
 home, freed their sister and her sons from 
 the dungeon in which they Y^re pining, 
 and set the sons, who recovered their sight, 
 on their father's throne. 
 
 Phlggethor. See Pyeiphlegeitijon. 
 
 Phlegon. A Greek writer, of Tralles in 
 Caria, freedman of the emperor Hadrian. 
 He wrote in the first half of the 2nd century 
 A.D. a work entitled Pe?'l Thaumdsion ('-'Oii 
 "Wonderful Events "). It is g. tasteless 
 Compositioji, but instructive as to the, super- 
 stitions of antiquity. Also a dry catalogue 
 of persons who attained a great age {De 
 Mqcrobus). Of his great chronological 
 work, a catalogue of victors at the Olyisipian 
 games, in 229 Olympiads (B.C. T^Q to A-P. 
 Ij37) only fragments remain. 
 
 Phlfigra (Phlegraean fields). The, scene of 
 the fight between the gods and th? giants. 
 [See Gig ANTES.) 
 
 Phlggyas. Son of Ares and Chryse, father 
 
486 
 
 PHOBETOR PHRATRIA. 
 
 of Ixlon and Coronis ; king of the powerful 
 robber-tribe Phlegyse in the neighbourhood 
 of the Boeotian Orchomenus. To revenge 
 his daughter {see AscLEPros), he set fire to 
 the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and was 
 killed with all his people either by the arrows 
 of the god or by the bolt of Zeus. He had 
 also to atone for his sin in the underworld. 
 Phobetor. A dream-god> {8ee Dreams.) 
 Phocus. Son of iEacus and the Nymph 
 Psamathe ; slain by his half-brothers Tela- 
 mon and Peleus, who were therefore sent 
 into banishment by ^acus. 
 
 Phoc^lides. A gnomic poet of Miletus, 
 born about 540 B.C. He wrote in hexa- 
 meters and in elegiac metre. Of his terse 
 and pointed maxims, we have a few remain- 
 ing. An admonitory poem in 230 hexameters, 
 bearing his name, is the work of an Alex- 
 andrine Jewish Christian, who took most of 
 his material from the Old Testament. 
 
 Phcebe., A special name of Artemis as 
 moon-goddess. {See Selene.) 
 
 Phoebus. A special name for Apollo (q.v.). 
 Hicenix. Son of Amyntor and Hippo- 
 damSi. Being banished by his father out 
 of envy, he fled to Peleus, and was en- 
 trusted by him with the education of his 
 son Achilles {q-i'.), whom he accompanied 
 to Troy. 
 
 Pholus. A Centaur, inhabiting Mount 
 Pholoe in Arcadia. When Heracles visited 
 him on his expedition against the Eryman- 
 thian boar, he opened in his guest's honour 
 a cask of wine belonging to the Centaurs in 
 common, presented by Dionysus. Allured 
 fey the strong scent of the wine, the Centaurs 
 rushed up to the- cave armed with trunks 
 of trees and masses of rock, and fell upon 
 Heracles. He drove them from the cave 
 with firebrands, and slew some with his 
 poisoned arrows. The rest took to flight 
 {see Chieon). The hospitable Pholus also 
 met his death, having let fall on his foot an 
 arrow, which he took from the body of one 
 of the fallen, the wound proving rapidly 
 fatal. 
 
 Phorbas. Son of Lapithes, honoured as 
 a hero by the Phodians, for having come 
 at the bidding of the oracle to free their 
 island from a plague of serpents. He was 
 placed ^ among the stars as the constel- 
 lation OpMuchus (snake-holder). Another 
 legend made him come from Thessaly to 
 Elis, where he assisted king Alector against 
 Pelops, and as a reward received in mar- 
 riage the king's sister Hyrmine, the mother 
 of Augeas and Actor {see MoLiONiDiE). 
 !]^ping a mighty boxer, he challenged in his 
 
 pride the gods themselves, but Ajpollo over- 
 came and slew him. 
 
 Phorcys. A Greek sea-god, son of Pontus 
 and Geea, brother of Nereus and Thaumas 
 and of Eurybia and Ceto, by whom he begat 
 the Graise, the Gorgons, and the dragon 
 Ladon, who guarded the apples of Hes- 
 perides. He is also called the father of the 
 Nymph Thoosa, mother of the Hesperides, 
 Sirens, and Scylla. 
 
 Phorminx. A Greek stringed instrument. 
 
 {See CiTHAEA.) 
 
 Phormis, or Phormos. A Greek poet, 
 writer of Dorian comedy. {See Comedy.) 
 
 Phoroneus. Son of Inachus and the Ocean- 
 nymph Melia, founder of the state of Argos. 
 The origin of all culture, civil order, and 
 religious rites in the Peloponnesus was 
 ascribed to him. In particular, he was re- 
 puted as the originator of the worship of 
 Hera at Argos, and, like Prometheus else- 
 where, as the man who first brought fire 
 from heaven down to earth. Hence he was 
 regarded as a national hero, and offerings 
 were laid on his tomb. His daughter Niobe 
 was said to be the first mortal whom Zeus 
 honoured with his love. 
 
 Photius. A Greek scholar of the Byzan- 
 tine period. Patriarch of Constantinople A.D. 
 857-867 and 871-886 ; died 891. Besides 
 playing a prominent part in the ecclesias- 
 tical controversies of his time, he was 
 conspicuous for his wide reading of ancient 
 literature. Apart from theological writings, 
 he left two works which are of great 
 service to the student of antiquity. The 
 one, the BibltOthecet, is an account of 280 
 works, some of which are now lost, some 
 only imperfectly preserved, which he read 
 on his embassy to Assyria, with short 
 notices and criticisms of matter and style, 
 and in some cases more or less complete ab- 
 stracts ; the other a Lexicon or alphabeti- 
 cal glossary, of special value in connexion 
 with the Greek orators and historians. 
 
 Phratria (lit. brotherhood). Denoted 
 among the Greeks the subdivision of a 
 phjjle {q.v.) embracing a number of familiesi. 
 In Attica the four old Ionic p^i/Zce contained' 
 three phratricB in each, twelve in all ; and 
 each phratria comprehended thirty families 
 {see Gennet^). When the old phylce were 
 suppressed by Clisthenes, the phratrire 
 remained in existence as religious associa-. 
 tions for the observance of the ancient 
 forms of worship, which did not admit of' 
 being suppressed. They had, however, no 
 political importance, except that the sons 
 (by birth or adoption) of a citizen had to be. 
 
PHRIXUS PHYLE. 
 
 487 
 
 enrolled in the register of phratdrSs, or 
 members of the phratria of their natural 
 or adoptive father. This was done by the 
 phratriarch i (presidents) at the chief festival 
 of the phratrioi, the Apaturia {q.v.). Newly 
 married husbands also introduced their 
 wives into the phratria. Each phratria 
 had a separate place of worship (p7(?-ai)'W)i), 
 with the altars of its deities. Zeus and 
 Athene were common to all, but each 
 phratria worshipped other special deities 
 of its own. 
 
 Phrixus. Son of Athamas and Nephele, 
 threatened with death as a sacrifice 
 through the malice of his stepmother Ino, 
 escaped with his sister Helle on a ram with 
 golden fleece, sent him by Zeus, Hermes, or 
 Nephele. Helle was drowned on the way in 
 the sea which bears her name, the Helles- 
 pont; but Phrixus arrived safely in Col- 
 chis, where he sacrificed the ram to Zeus as 
 the " aider of flight " {Zeus Phyxws), and 
 presented the golden fleece to king Acetes. 
 Acetes hung it on an oak in the grove of 
 Ares, and gave Phrixus his daughter Chal- 
 ciope to wife. Phrixus sent his sons 
 C\tiss6rus and Argus home. The former 
 saved his grandfather Athamas from being 
 sacrificed; the latter built the ship ^4 r^ro, 
 which was named after him. {See Athamas 
 and Argonauts.) 
 
 Phrynichus. (1) A Greek tragic poet, of 
 Athens, an older contemporary of ^schylus. 
 He won his first victory as early as 511 B.C. 
 He rendered a great service to the develop- 
 ment of the drama by introducing an actor 
 distinct from the leader of the chorus, and so 
 laying the foundation for the dialogue. But 
 the dialogue was still quite subordinate to 
 the lyrics of the chorus. In this depart- 
 ment he won extraordinary celebrity by 
 the grace and melody of his verses, which 
 continued to be sung at Athens long after. 
 Besides mythical subjects, he dealt with 
 events of contemporary history, e.g. the con- 
 quest of Miletus by the Persians. At the 
 representation of that event the audience 
 burst into tears, and the poet was fined 
 1,000 drachmae for recalling the disasters 
 of his country, all further performance of 
 the piece being prohibited [Herod., vi 21]. 
 Again, in his Phcenissa (so named after the 
 chorus of Sidonian women) he dealt with 
 the battle of Salamis. This play, which 
 was put on the stage by Themistocles in 
 478, was the model of iEschylus' Persoi. 
 Phrynichus, like .(Eschylus, is said to have 
 died in Sicily. We only possess the titles 
 of nine of his plays and a few fragments. 
 
 (2) A Greek poet of Athens ; one of the 
 less important writers of the Old Attic 
 Comedy, and a frequent butt of the other 
 comic poets. In B.C. 405, however, his Muses 
 took the second prize after Aristophanes' 
 Frogs. We have only short fragments of 
 about ten of his plays. 
 
 (3) A Greek Sophist, who lived in, the 
 second half of the 3rd century A.d. in 
 Bithynia ; author of a Selection of Attic 
 Verbs and Nouns, compiled with great 
 strictness in the exclusion of ail but the 
 best Attic forms. We have also notable 
 excerpts from a work of his in thirty-.seven 
 books, dedicated to the emperor Commodus,^ 
 and entitled the Sophistic Armoury {Para-, 
 sceue). It was founded on the most compre- 
 hensive learning, and designed to supply 
 the orator with everything necessary for 
 good and pure expression. The arrangement 
 is alphabetical, and it includes examples 
 from the best authors, the different styles 
 being carefully distinguished., 
 
 Piiylarchus. (1) A Greek historian, born 
 probably at Naucratis in Egypt about 
 210 B.C., lived long at Sicyon, afterwards in 
 Athens ; author of a great historical work 
 in 28 books, dealing with the fifty years from 
 the invasion of the Peloponnesus bj'' Pyrrhus 
 to the death of Cleomenes, king of Sparta 
 (272-221). His enthusiastic admiration of 
 that monarch appears to be the cause of 
 the severe judgment passed on Phylarohus 
 by Polybius [ii 56], who represents the pre- 
 judiced Achaean view. His style was lively 
 and attractive, but unduly sensational. His 
 work was much used by Trogus Pompeins 
 and by Plutarch [in his lives of Cleomenes 
 and Aratus]. Only a few fragments remain. 
 
 (2) The Athenian term for (a) the presi- 
 dent of a phf/le {q.v.) ; {b) one of the ten 
 subordinate officers commanding the citizen 
 cavalry. {See Hippeis.) 
 
 Phyle. The Greek term for a division of 
 a nation, connected together by (supposed), 
 descent from a common ancestor of the. 
 stock. Thus the population of Attica, even 
 before Solon, was divided into four phylce, 
 tracing their origin from four legendary 
 sons of Ion, and called GSleontes, HopletSs, 
 jEgicores, and Argddes. Probably the 
 division was local, the names referring to, 
 the peculiarity or main occupation of the 
 members of each division;, for Hopletes 
 appears to mean warriors, JSgicores, goat- 
 herds, and Argades, agriculturalists. The 
 meaning of Geleonies (or Teleontes), how- 
 ever, is quite uncertain. Each phyle was 
 presided oyer Ijiy a phylobdsilqu^ (king of 
 
488 
 
 PHYLLIS PHYSICIANS. 
 
 the phyle) and divided into tliree phratr'ta: 
 (brotherhoods, see Pheateia), each phratria 
 being subdivided into thirty families. Each 
 family contained about thirty households, 
 and was named after a supposed common 
 progenitor, in whose honour the households 
 celebrated a common cult. Similarly the 
 phratricp, and phylce were united by the 
 worship of special protecting deities. These 
 old Ionic phylce were suppressed by Clis- 
 thenes, who divided the people into ten 
 entirely different p/zyte, named after ancient 
 heroes {Erechthels, JSgeis, Pandloms^ 
 Leontis, Acamanfis, OEneis, Cecropu, 
 Hippothontis, Aiantis, AntiocMs). They 
 were subdivided into fifty naitcmrice and 
 one hundred dcmi (q.v.). 
 
 In 307 B.C., in honour of Demetrius Polior-* 
 cetes and his father Antigonus, the phylce 
 were increased by twa,.called Demetvms and 
 Antlgoms, which names were afterwards 
 changed, in honour of Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 of Egypt and Attains I of Pergamon, into 
 Ptolemdis and Attdlis. In later times, 
 another, Adridnis, was added in honour of 
 the emperor Hadrian. Besides priests for 
 the cult of their eponymous hero, the phyla; 
 had presidents, called phf/larcJu, and trea- 
 surers {tdmice). The assemblies were always 
 held in Athens, and were concerned, not only 
 with the special affairs of thejyhyle, but also 
 with State business,, especially the notifi- 
 cation of the persons liable to State burdens 
 (See Leitouegia.) The ten phylce of 
 Clisthenes served also as a foundation for the 
 organization of the army. The forces were 
 raised when required from the muster-roll 
 of the phylce, and divided accordingly into 
 ten battalions, which were themselves also 
 called phylce. 
 
 The Dorian stock was generally divided 
 into three phylce : Hylleis, Dymdnes, and 
 PamphylT, purporting to be named after 
 H^'llus, son of Heracles, and Dyman and 
 Pamphylus, sons of king Jilgimius. When 
 families not of Dorian origin formed part 
 of the forces of the State, they constituted 
 an additional' phyle. In the purely Dorian 
 state of Sparta the three phylce were divided 
 into thirty obce-, answering to the families 
 at Athens. 
 
 HxyUis. Daughter of the Thracian king 
 SithSn. Prom despair at the delay of her 
 betrothed Demophdon (q.v., 2) in coming to 
 wed her, she put an end to her life, and 
 was changed into an almond tree. [Ovid, 
 Heroides, 2.] 
 
 Physicians. The Geeeks traced the 
 origin of the healing art to a deified son of 
 
 the healing god Apollo and a pupil of the 
 sage centaur Chiron ; viz. Asclepius, whose' 
 sons Podalirius and Machaon, in Homeric 
 poetry, act before Troy both as warriors 
 and as surgeons. The temples of Asclepius, 
 distinguished for their healthy situation on 
 headlands and lofty hills, in the midst of 
 groves and near medicinal springs, were 
 much resorted to as sanatoria, especially 
 those at Epidauros, Cnidus, and Cos, and 
 were for centuries the chief seats of the 
 gradual development of leechcraft. The 
 priests, who styled themselves Asclejnddce, 
 i.e. descendants of Asclepius, made use of 
 memoranda on the treatment of patients, 
 contained partly in the votive tablets which 
 these hung up in the temple, and partly in 
 the temple chronicles. Thus in course of 
 time they colfeeted a varied stock of experi- 
 mental maxims, which were handed down 
 from father to son. Some of the Asclepiad* 
 practised their art singly, as travelling 
 physicians, but were bound byoath to teach 
 it to Asclepiadse alone. At the same time 
 there were not wanting physicians- who, 
 standing outside of that close corporation, 
 practised medicine independently as a 
 means of li-ving ; but they were less highly 
 regarded than- the Asclepiadse, and never 
 achieved a higher standing till the healing 
 art had burst its narrow limits and had 
 expanded into a free science. This was 
 brought about mainly by the influence of 
 philosophy, which, beginning with Pytha- 
 goras, himself a proficient in the art, and 
 continuing chiefly under Empedocles and. 
 Democritus, drew medicine within the 
 range of her researches.' Into literature 
 the healing art was introduced by HippO' 
 CRATES, an Asclepiad of Cos, born about 
 460 B.C., who combined the hereditary 
 wisdom of his race with the spirit of 
 speculative philosophy. 
 
 Besides physicians who were paid for 
 their trouble by their respective patients, we 
 find as early as the 6th century, at A,thens 
 chiefly, but in other places too, public phy- 
 sicians appointed and remunerated by the 
 State. Some went to their patients' houses, 
 others had rooms where they were consulted 
 by their patients. They often kept assistants, 
 both free and slaves ; and they manufactured 
 their own medicines. The style of living 
 adopted by many physicians points to respect- 
 able incomes : Democedes, a public physician 
 at Athens in the 6th century, had a salary 
 of 100 minse (about £333). At Alexandria, 
 thanks to the munificence of the Ptolemies, 
 medicine made considerable progcess,. chiefly 
 
PHYSICIANS. 
 
 489 
 
 through Ebasisteatus and HerSphIlus, the 
 two men who knew most about human 
 anatomy. A pupil of the latter, PhilInus 
 of Cos (about 250), in opposition to the Dog- 
 matic school set up by the sons of Hip- 
 pocrates and dominated by philosophic 
 theories, founded an Empirical school, 
 which relied solely on tradition and on 
 individual experience. 
 
 In 219 B.C., when a member of that school, 
 the Peloponnesian Archagathus, set up a 
 surgery in a booth (tdberna) assigned him 
 by the Senate, and was admitted to the 
 citizenship, the Greek art of healing gained 
 a footing among the Eomans. Yet the 
 physician practising for pay did not enjoy 
 the same consideration as in Greece ; Roman 
 citizens fought shy of a profession which, 
 respectable as it might be, was left almost 
 entirely in the hands of foreigners, freed- 
 men, and slaves. Romans of rank usually 
 kept a freedman or slave as family doctor, 
 liberttis (or servus) medicus. A consider- 
 able part was played at Rome by Cicero's 
 friend Asclepiades of Prusa, whose system, 
 mainly directed to practical skill, received 
 its theoretic justification from the school of 
 MSthodici founded by Themison of Laodicea 
 (about 63 B.C.). When Csesar had granted 
 the citizenship to foreign physicians as well 
 as teachers, not only did the former flock in 
 large numbers to Rome from Greece, Egypt, 
 and the East, but many natives adopted the 
 medical profession, as Census in thd reign 
 of Tiberius, whose treatise, De Medicind, 
 must be regarded as the chief contribution 
 made to the science by the Romans. To 
 the physicians at Rome, of whose receipts 
 a notion may be formed from the statement 
 that a certain Stertinius had an income of 
 £6,500 from his town practice, Augustus 
 granted immunity- from all public duties, 
 a privilege afterwards extended to the 
 provinces-. 
 
 As soon as- the Empire was fully estab- 
 lished, physicians with a fixed salary began 
 to be appointed at the court, in the army, 
 for the gladiators, and in the service of 
 various communities. Antoninus Pius, in 
 the 2nd century A.D., arranged, for the 
 province of Asia in the first instance, that 
 physicians should be appointed by the town 
 authorities, five in small towns, seven in 
 those of moderate size, and ten in capitals ; 
 they were to be remunerated by the town, 
 exempt from all burdens, and free to carry 
 on a private practice besides. There was 
 no real supervision of physicians on the 
 part of the State, and the variou.s schools 
 
 and nationalities were at perfect liberty to 
 practise. 
 
 Under the Empire the art began to divide 
 into separate branches, and in large towns, 
 especially Rome, the several specialties had 
 their representatives. Thus, in addition to 
 doctors for internal cures, the medici pro- 
 per, there were surgeons {chlrurgi or vid- 
 nerdrii), oculists, dentists, aurists ; phy- 
 sicians male or female, for diseases of 
 women ; also for ruptures, fistula, etc. ; 
 further tatroliptce, probably at first mere 
 assistants who rubbed in the embrocations,, 
 etc., afterwards a species of doctors. The 
 physicians at Rome, as in Greece, supplied 
 their own medicines, and turned them to 
 profit by crying up the dearest drugs, of 
 which they kept the secret, as the best. 
 The medicines were provided with a label 
 setting forth the name of the remedy and 
 that of its inventor, the complaints it was 
 good for and directions for use. We get a 
 fair notion of these labels from the dies 
 used by Roman oculists to mark the names 
 of their eye-salve on the boxes in which 
 they were sold ; a good many of these have 
 been preserved. [C. I. Grotefend, Die 
 Stamps der rom. Augendrzte ; there are 
 several in the British Museum, together 
 with two very small inscribed vases such 
 as were used to contain the eye-salves.] The 
 chief authority for the materia Tnedica of 
 those times is the work of DIoscSrides of 
 the 1st century a.d. About the same time 
 the school of Methodici, whose principal 
 representative was Soranus (about 110), 
 was confronted by a Kew Dogmatic school, 
 otherwise called the Pneumatic school, 
 founded by the Cilician AtheNjEUS. To 
 the Eclectic aciioo\, founded towards the end 
 of the 1st century by AgathInus of Sparta, 
 belongs more especially the Cappadocian 
 writer AreTjEUS. The most renowned of 
 the later physicians is Galen {Gdlenos) 
 in the 2nd century, who in his numerous 
 writings embraced the whole range of the 
 medical knowledge of antiquity. Medicine 
 made no further progress in ancient times. 
 Of the encyclopaedic works of Oeeibasius 
 and Aetius (at the end of the 4th century 
 and beginning of the 6 th), the value lies in 
 their extracts from older writings. Among 
 the Romans SCRiBONius Largus (in the 
 middle of the 1st century) and Serenus 
 SammoniCUS (at the beginning of the 3rd) 
 wrote on Remedies, the latter in verse. 
 We have, lastly, to mention C^lIus Aure- 
 lIanus, the translator of works by Soranus 
 (in the 5th century), and Vegettus,^ the 
 
490 
 
 PHYTALUS PILUM. 
 
 author of a detailed book on veterinary 
 science (in the 4th century). 
 
 PhJ-talus. A hero of Eleusis; he received 
 from Demeter the fig tree, as a reward for 
 hospitable entertainment [Pausanias, i 37, 
 § 2]. His descendants, the Phytalidce, by 
 ancient custom, performed the purification 
 for blood-shedding in Attica, according to 
 the legend, because they had absolved 
 Theseus under similar circumstances [Plu- 
 tarch, Thes. 12, 22]. {See Theseus.) 
 
 Picumnus. An old Italian god of agri- 
 culture, credited with the invention of the 
 use of manure. He was said to be the hus- 
 band of Pomona. His brother Pllumnus 
 was honoured by bakers as the inyentor of 
 the pestle (pllum) for crushing corn ; and 
 the two together were protecting deities to 
 women in child-bed and to new-born infants. 
 Hence, in the country, festal couches were 
 set for them in the Cdnum when children 
 were safely brought to birth. According 
 to another ancient view, there were three 
 divinities protecting mother and child, who 
 prevented the mischievous intrusion of 
 Silvanus into the house. These powers 
 (representing the triumph of civilization 
 over the wild forest life) were impersonated 
 by three men, who went round the house in 
 the night, and knocked on the threshold of 
 the front and back doors, first with a hatchet 
 and then with a pestle, and lastly swept 
 them with a broom. 
 
 The names of these deities were Intcrcl- 
 dOna, god of the hewing of timbers, Pilum- 
 mts, of the crushing of corn into meal by the 
 pestle, and D(a-e)Ta,of the sweeping together 
 of grain [Varro, quoted by Augustine, De 
 Chitate Dei, vi 9]. Picumnus, as appears 
 in the name, is identical with PJcus (g.i'.). 
 
 Picus. An Italian god of agriculture, and 
 especially of manure, hence called son of 
 Stercutus (" the dunger," i.e. Saturn). He 
 also appears as a forest-god with prophetic 
 powers, and as father of Faunus [Vergil, 
 ^En. vii 48]. In Latin legend he plays a 
 prominent part as a warlike hero, the earliest 
 king of Latium, of gi-eat wealth, who was 
 finally changed into a woodpecker, pints 
 {lb. 187-190). [According to Ovid, 3fet. xiv 
 320-396] this was because he spurned the 
 love of Circe and was faithful to the beau- 
 tiful Nymph Canens. Probably Picus was 
 originally the woodpecker, the symbol of 
 Mars as giver of fertility and warlike 
 prowess, and from this symbol there was 
 developed a separate deity. 
 
 Pietas. The Roman goddess of domestic 
 affection. In Rome she had a special temple. 
 
 vowed at the battle of Thermopylae in 191 
 B.C. by Acilius Glabrlo, and consecrated by 
 his son in 181. The popular legend was, 
 that it was erected as a memorial to a 
 daughter, who • had supported with the 
 milk from her breast the life of her mother 
 (or father) when condemned to death by 
 starvation [Valerius Max., v 4 § 7]. On 
 coins the goddess appears as a matron 
 strewing incense on an altar ; her symbol 
 is the stork. 
 
 Pigments. See Painting (p. 447). 
 
 Pigres. A Greek poet, author of the 
 BatruchomyomdcMa. {See Homer, ad fin.) 
 
 Pilentum {Latin). A sort of spring-cart, 
 used chiefly by women. {See Chaeiots.) 
 
 Pilleiis (Gr. pilos) ; [less correctly spelt 
 piteus.] A round felt cap with little or 
 no brim, lying close to the temples. It was 
 the mark of fishermen, sailors, and artisans; 
 hence Castor and Pollux, Odysseus, Charon, 
 Hephaestus, and Daedalus are represented 
 with it. The upper classes wore it only 
 
 A 
 
 (1) 
 
 (1) Panofka, Bilder antikcn Xebeiis, viii 5, 
 .-(2) Do., xiv 3. 
 (3) MiiUer's BenkitLdlev, I xlvii 215a. 
 
 in the countrj' or when travelling ; but it 
 was worn in Rome by the whole people at 
 the Saburndlia, and by freedmen as a sign 
 of their new position. It was placed on 
 the head of slaves when sold, as a sign that 
 the vender undertook no responsibility. 
 {See cuts, and cp. Odysseus, fig. 1, and coin 
 under Brutus,) 
 
 Pilum. The javelin of the Roman 
 legionaries (about six feet long), which was 
 hurled at the enemy's ranks at the begin- 
 ning of the engagement, before proceeding 
 to the use of the sword. It consisted of a 
 wooden shaft three feet long, easily grasped 
 in the hand, and an iron head of the same 
 length, culminating in a barbed point, and 
 provided with a socket to which the shaft 
 was attached by iron rivets. M^rius. had 
 the heads constructed of soft weak iron, 
 the point only being steeled. In this way, 
 if the point stuck in the shield of an 
 enemy, the iron was bent by the weight of 
 the shaft, rendering the weapon useless and 
 difficult to draw out, while it made the 
 
PILUMNUS PIR^ICUS. 
 
 491 
 
 rt 
 
 shield uumanageable so long as it remained 
 in it [Plutarch, Mariiis, 25]. When well 
 thrown, the pilum would 
 penetrate both shield and 
 armour. {See out.) 
 
 Pilumnus. One of the 
 three deities conceived by 
 the Italian tribes to protect 
 women in childbed, and 
 their offspring, from the 
 mischief of' the forest god 
 Silvanus. (^e Picdmnus. ) 
 
 Pindar (Gr. PinddrSs). 
 The greatest of the Greek 
 lyric poets, born about 522 
 B.C. at CynoscephalsB, near j\ 
 
 Thebes ; son of the flute- 
 player Daiphantus, of the 
 ancient and noble family of 
 the .SIgidse. His instruc- 
 tion in music, begun by his 
 father, was continued by the 
 musician and dithyrambic 
 poet Lasus of Hermione and 
 the two Boeotian poetesses 
 Myrtis and Corinna. He 
 subsequently enjoyed the 
 instructions of the eminent 
 musicians Agathocles and 
 ApoUodorus at Athens. He 
 lived chiefly at Thebes, but 
 was renowned and honoured 
 far and wide, among free \/ 
 
 communities as well as by " 
 
 tyrants and monarchs, not pilcm. 
 
 only for his skill in his art, ^^^ the Museum at 
 
 but also for his profound Mainz, restored.) 
 
 piety. As a special favourite 
 of Apollo, he was given a seat in the temple 
 at Delphi, and was regularly invited to the 
 divine banquet called the Theoxenia. When 
 he was condemned to a fine by his fellow 
 citizens for glorifying the hostile city of 
 Athens, the Athenians recouped him and 
 accorded him the honour of proxenia, 
 and afterwards erected a bronze statue in 
 his honour. He was on the most intimate 
 terms with Amyntas of Macedon, the 
 Aleuadse in Thessaly and Arcesllaus of 
 Cyrene, but more especially with Theron of 
 Agrigentum and with Hieron of Syracuse, 
 at whose court he lived 476-^72. He 
 died a peaceful death 422, aged eighty, in 
 the theatre at Argos. It is well known that, 
 in the destruction of Thebes, Alexander the 
 Great spared Pindar's house and descen- 
 dants alone [Dion Chrysostom, Or. ii, p. 25 
 M ; cp. Milton's third English sonnet]. 
 As a poet, Pindar was remarkably prolific. 
 
 His works, divided by the Alexandrian 
 scholars into seventeen books, included 
 hymns, pceans, dithyrambs, prdsodia, par- 
 thCnta, encomia, scdlia, thrSni, and eplnicla 
 [cp. Horace, Odes iv 2]. Of most of his poeti-y 
 we have only fragments, but the four books 
 of Spinicld are nearly complete. These 
 were songs celebrating the victors in the 
 great national games, and sung by a chorus, 
 sometimes at the scene of the victory, some- 
 times at the feast on the victor's return home. 
 They contain fourteen Olympian, twelve 
 Pythian, eleven Nemean, and eight Isthmian 
 odes. Pindar's poetry is characterized by 
 magnificence and sublimity of thought, 
 expression, and metrical form. It is per- 
 meated by deep and warm religious senti- 
 ments resting on the popular creed, still 
 unimpugned by sophistic teaching, and only 
 ennobled by the impress of the poet's per- 
 sonality. He does not celebrate the victors 
 by particular description ; he takes his 
 main ideas from the circumstances of the 
 victor's home or personal position, or from 
 the nature of the contest, and works them 
 into a plot always artistic, though often ob- 
 scured by the interlacing of the strands of 
 thought and by the myths which are inter- 
 woven in appropriate detail. Harmony in 
 thought, expression, and metre make the 
 shortest and longest of his poems equally 
 complete in themselves as works of art. 
 Pindar's poetic language is the Ionic 
 Homeric dialect, intermingled witli iEolic 
 and especially with Doric forms. 
 
 By some mistake his name (Pinddrus 
 Thehdnus) became attached to an abstract 
 of Homer's Iliad written in Latin hexa- 
 meters for the use of schools in the 1st 
 century A.D., and much used in the Middle 
 Ages. 
 
 Piraeicus. A Greek painter, probably of 
 the time after Alexander the Great. He 
 was the chief representative of what is 
 called rhopogrdphia ("painting of petty 
 subjects, such as still-life "). He painted 
 genre pictures in the Dutch style (barbers' 
 and cobblers' shops), and subjects in still-life, 
 of small size, but of proportionately care- 
 ful execution. [Propertius, iii 9, 12 : PirSt- 
 cus parvd vhullcat arte locum. In Pliny, 
 N. H: XXXV 112, the manuscript reading is 
 rhypdrogrdphos (" rag and tatter painter "), 
 defended in Brunn's Kunstlergeschichte, 
 ii 260, against Welcker's usually accepted 
 emendation rJidpogrdphos, " toy-painter," 
 " painter of small and trivial subjects," 
 from rhclpos, "petty wares,"' "odds and 
 ends." The word rhopagrqph'ki is actu- 
 
402 
 
 PISCINA PLATO. 
 
 ally found in Cicero, Ad Atticum xv 166, 
 and its opposite, megdlogru pMa^ in Vitru- 
 vius, vii 4 S 4.] 
 
 Piscina (fish-pond). A pool or basin of 
 water in Roman bath-rooms. {See Baths.) 
 
 Pistor. The Roman baker. {See Bakers 
 
 AND BakIXG.) 
 
 Pithoegia. The first day of the festival 
 of the Anthesteria. {See Diontsia.) 
 
 Pithos {Greek). A Greek wine-jar of 
 earthenware, with a wide mouth and a 
 close-fitting lid. {See Vessels.) 
 
 Pitthens. King of Trcezen, father of 
 iEthra, the mother of Theseus {q.v.). 
 
 Pityocamptes {Grccl:, " pine-bender "), a 
 name applied to the robber Sinis {q.v.). 
 
 Planipes. See Mijie. 
 
 Plato (Gr. Pldton), who shares with 
 Aristotle the first place among the philo- 
 sophers of antiquity, was born at Athens 
 428 B.C. (according to the story, on the 21st 
 of May, the birthday of Apollo), His father,, 
 Ariston , traced his descent from king Codrus ; 
 his mother, Perictione, belonged to the same 
 family as Solon. Originally called after 
 his grandfather Aristocles, he afterwards 
 
 ■" SOCRATES- AND PLATO.. 
 
 (Gem, Paris.) 
 
 obtained the name of Plato (said to have been 
 given by Socrates) either from the breadth 
 of his shoulders or from the ample flow of 
 his speech. His youth falls in the time 
 of the Peloponnesian War, when Athens, 
 though already entering on the decline of 
 its political greatness, was still distinguished 
 by the greatest activity in all intellectual 
 paths. He had an education befitting his 
 rank and including, according to Athenian 
 custom, both gymnastic and musical cul- 
 ture ; but from the first he consistently held 
 aloof from public life, in spite of the nume- 
 rous advantages which his birth and con- 
 nexions would have insured him in such 
 a career. Critias, for instance, who was 
 afterwards the- leader of the Thirty, was 
 his mother's cousin. After !j,t first devoting 
 
 himself to poetical studies, and himself com- 
 posing poetry, he soon took up philosophj'. 
 In this subject he is said to have received 
 the instructions of Cratylus, a follower of 
 Heraclitus. At the age of twenty he entered 
 the circle of Socrates' disciples, and soon 
 took a prominent position among them. In 
 399, after Socrates' death (at which he was 
 prevented by illness from being present), 
 he went to Megara, to his old fellow disciple 
 Euclides, and thence is said to have travelled 
 to Cyrene and Egypt. He certainly spent 
 some time in Magna Graecia with the 
 Pythagoreans, Archytas of Tarentum and 
 Timseus of Locri, and thence visited Syra- 
 cuse on the invitation of the elder Diony- 
 sius. His strong independence, however, 
 and his intimate friendship with Dionysius' 
 brother-in-law, the noble Dion, soon drew 
 upon him the mistrust of the tyrant. The 
 story relates that he was sold as a slave 
 into ^gina by order of Dionysius, and 
 ransomed by a friend. Returning to Athens 
 about 888, he established in a garden near 
 the Academy (a gymnasium so named after 
 the hero Academus), in the north-west part 
 of the city, a philosophical school, over 
 which he presided for forty years. Here 
 he lived unmarried, taking no part in the 
 affairs of State,, but devoting his energies 
 exclusively to the pursuit of knowledge, 
 interrupted only by two journeys to Sicily. 
 The first of these he undertook in 367, on 
 the accession of the yovmger Dionysius, in 
 order,, in conjunction with Dion, to win the 
 young ruler to the cause of philosophy and 
 induce him to convert the tyranny into a 
 constitutionally organized monarchy. This 
 attempt completely failed; and the only 
 result was the banishment of Dion. His 
 second journey was in 362. His object was 
 to reconcile Dionysius with Dion, but in this 
 he was equally unsuccessful ; in fact, his own 
 life was in danger, and he was only saved 
 by the intercession of Archytas of Tarentum. 
 However, the accounts of these last two 
 journeys are little to be depended upon. 
 
 Besides the narrower circle of his iijime- 
 diate pupils — among whom the most cele- 
 brated are Aristotle, Speusippus, his sister's 
 son, and Xenocrates, — the Academy was also 
 frequented by a large number of educated 
 men,, and even women. It is said that 
 Plato's advice in political matters was asked, 
 not only by statesmen at home, but even 
 by foreign States. His teaching was given 
 partly in the shape of informal conversation, 
 partly in consecutive and systematic lec- 
 tures on philosophical subjects. Even to 
 
PLAUSTRUM PLAUTUS. 
 
 493 
 
 his old age his activity was unwearied ; and 
 he was carried off by an easy death (it is 
 said, while actually engaged in composition), 
 ill the eighty-first year of his Hfe (348). 
 He was buried in the neighbourhood of the 
 Academy, where his tomb still existed in 
 the 2nd century a.d. His plot of land re- 
 mained nearly a thousand years in the 
 possession of the Platonic school. 
 
 As works of Plato, thirty-six writings in 
 fifty-six books (the thirteen letters being 
 reckoned as one), have been handed down 
 to us. These were divided by Thrasyllus, 
 a Neo-Pythagorean of the time of Tiberius, 
 into nine tetralogies, as follows : (1) Euthy- 
 phro, Apology of Socrates, Onto, Phcedo. 
 (2) Crdtylus, Thewtetus, SopJii^es, Poll- 
 t'tcus. (3) Parmenides, PMlebus, 8ym- 
 pdsmm, Phcedrus. (4) AlctMddes I and 
 II, Hipparchus, Anterastce. (5) Thedges, 
 Cliarmides, Laches, Lysis. (6) EutJiy- 
 demus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Mend. (7) 
 Hippias I and II, Ion, MenexSnus. (8) 
 Clltopho, Republic (ten books), Tlmceus, 
 Cr'ttias. (9) Minds, Laws (twelve books), 
 Epinomis, Letters. Besides these, eight 
 other writings bear his name ; but these 
 were marked as spurious even in ancient 
 times. Of the genuine writings of Plato 
 none have been lost, owing to the fact that 
 the study of them was kept up without a 
 break through all the intervening centuries ; 
 but a number of the above-mentioned are 
 of more or less doubtful authenticity, though 
 there is not in all cases sufficient evidence 
 to prove their spuriousness. Besides the 
 Letters and the Epinomis (an appendix to 
 the Z,ait;s composed by Plato's pupil, Phi- 
 lippus of Opus), the writings of the fourth 
 tetralogy as well as the Theages, the Minos, 
 and the Clitopho, are reckoned as undoubt- 
 edly spurious. Of questionable genuineness 
 also is a series of epigrams which has been 
 handed down under Plato's name. 
 
 Manyattempts have been made to arrange 
 the Platonic writings in the order of time, 
 but unanimity -on the subject has never been 
 attained. An old, though disputed, tradi- 
 tion reckons the Phcedrus as the first, while 
 the Laws, which is said to have been pub- 
 lished by the aforesaid Philippus after the 
 author's death, are generally acknowledged 
 to be the last ; the Republic also belongs, 
 at any rate, to the later writings. 
 
 The writings of Plato are among the 
 greatest productions, not only of Greek 
 literature, but of the literature of the world . 
 They are equally admirable in matter and 
 in form, combining, as they do, fulness "and 
 
 depth of thought with the highest mastery 
 of style, while at the same time they are 
 penetrated by the noblest spirit. The form 
 is throughout that of dialogue ; and in the 
 dialogues Plato himself never appears as a 
 speaker, but he makes his master, Socrates, 
 the interpreter of his views. The dramatic 
 setting and execution, the delineation of the 
 characters, the language, perfectly adjusted 
 to the personality of the speakers and to the 
 circumstances supposed, — now faithfully 
 reproducing the simple manner of expression 
 usual in conversation, now giving clear 
 expression to the thought with all the 
 incision of dialectics, now risiag to poetic 
 elevation, — all show the most consummate 
 art and make it doubtful, whetheT in Plato 
 we should rather admire the artist and the 
 poet, or the philosopher. On his teaching 
 and his school, see Philosophy. 
 Plaustrum. A wagon. {See Chariots.) 
 Plautus {Titus Macclus). The greatest 
 of the Roman comic poets, born 254 B.C. at 
 Sarsina in Umbria, of humble extraction. 
 Having earned some mOney by finding em- 
 ployment at Rome among workmen engaged 
 by persons who gave theatrical representa- 
 tions, he set up a business outside the city ; 
 but in this undeTtaJiing he lost his property. 
 Returning to Rome, he fell into such poverty 
 that he was obliged to take service with a 
 miller, and earn wages by turning a hand- 
 mill. It was here that he began to write 
 comedies in verse, and in later times three 
 pieces were still known, which he was said 
 to have composed while thtis employed. He 
 continued actively writing to an extreme 
 old age, and died in 184 B.C. 
 
 His productivity must have been alto- 
 gether extraordinary, even if a considerable 
 portion 'of the 130 pieces which were known 
 by the ancients under his name, were not 
 really his work ; for not only were the pieces 
 of a certain Plautius reckoned as his, on ac- 
 count of the similarity of name, but numerous 
 comedies by forgotten poets, who worked 
 in his style, were generally ascribed to him 
 us the most popular of poets. Not only was 
 he a favourite with the public and long 
 remained so'(even in "Cicero's time pieces by 
 him were put upon the stage), but he also 
 early attracted the interest of scholars, to 
 whom he offered a rich material for study 
 in the departments of philology, criticism, 
 and the history of literature. Special and 
 peculiar attention was paid to him by 
 Varro, who composed several works about 
 him and established the claims of 21 come- 
 dies as undisputedly genuine. Of these 
 
494 
 
 PLEBISGITUM PLEIADES. 
 
 "Varronian plays" we still possess 20 more 
 or less complete, and of the last, the Vldu- 
 Idrld, considerable fragments. These extant 
 plays (in addition to which there are a 
 number of fragments of lost plays), are the 
 oldest complete monuments of Roman lite- 
 rature. They have not come down to us 
 quite in their original form, but bear mani- 
 fold traces of having undergone revision 
 on the occasion of representations after the 
 poet's death, especially in the latter half 
 of the 2nd century B.C. This is particularly 
 the case with the prologues, which are pre- 
 fixed to most of the pieces. 
 
 The plays have been handed down in 
 the following order : AmphUruo^ Asinaria 
 (comedy of asses), Aululavia (comedy of a 
 pot), Captivi (the prisoners), Curculio, 
 Ccisina. Cistelldria (comedy of a chest), 
 Epidicus, Bacchides, Mostellaria (comedy 
 of ghosts), MencEchmi, Miles gloriosus (the 
 braggart), Mercator (trader), Pseudolus, Poe- 
 nulus (the Carthaginian), Pei'sa (the Persian), 
 Riidens (the cable), Stichus, Trtnummus (the 
 three coins), Truculentus (the grumbler), 
 Vldulana (Comedy of a trunk). The titles 
 refer sometimes to characters, sometimes to 
 the action of the piece. If several of them are 
 comparatively weak in plot and character- 
 drawing, still not a few belong to the first 
 rank. Such are the Aululavia, Meneechmi 
 (the former the model of Moliere's Avarc, 
 the latter of Shakespeare's Comedy of 
 Errors), Captivi, Bacchides, Mostellaria, 
 Miles gloriosus, Pseudolus, Rudens, and 
 Trinummus. The AmpMtruo is remark- 
 able as an instance of comic treatment of 
 a mythical subject. The Miles is one of 
 the oldest pieces ; the Stichus was brought 
 out in 200, the Pseudolus in 192, the Tri- 
 mimmus about 190; the Truculentus also 
 dates from the extreme old age of the poet. 
 Though Plautus followed Greek models, 
 such as Philemon, Diphilus, and Menander, 
 he did not simply translate his originals, 
 but worked them up with great freedom 
 and nationalised them by additions of his 
 own. He is a master in the use of lan- 
 guage, metre, and material, and possesses 
 an inexliaustible and pungent, if often 
 coarse, wit. That he understood how to 
 handle serious and moral subjects is proved 
 by the Captivi and Trinummus. He must 
 be reckoned among the greatest geniuses 
 of his nation. — The name of the Aulularia 
 of Plautus was once erroneously given to 
 a play with the alternative title of the 
 Querolus, a wretched production of the 
 4th centurj' A.D. 
 
 Plebiscitum. The Roman name for a 
 decree of the comltla tributa. "Sov more 
 see CoMiTiA (3). 
 
 Plebs. A part of the population of Rome, 
 which derived its origin mainly from the 
 conquered Latins settled on Roman terri- 
 tory by the kings Tullus Hostilius and 
 Ancus Martius. At first these possessed 
 only the passive rights of citizenship, being 
 excluded from all its privileges as well as 
 from service in war, and forming a com- 
 munity sharply separated from the' old 
 citizens, the patricians. In particular, they 
 did not possess the right of concluding 
 valid marriages with patricians, although 
 they were otherwise equal in matters of 
 private law. When, by the constitution of 
 Servius Tullius, they were compelled to 
 serve in war and to pay war-taxes, they 
 obtained the right of voting with the 
 patricians in the comitiacentUrulta. After 
 the establishment of the Republic in 510 
 B.C., the plebeians began the struggle with 
 the patricians, who were then in sole pos- 
 session of the secular and priestly offices. 
 The aim of the plebeians was to secure 
 complete equality of rights, answering to 
 their equality of duties. An important 
 engine in this struggle was the tribunate 
 of the people (see Tribuni Plebis) estab- 
 lished in 491, as well as the comitia tributa. 
 {See Comitia, 3.) The plebeians had the 
 chief weight in that assembly, and after 
 448 it was invested with the right of pass- 
 ing decrees binding on the whole people. 
 Among their first acquisitions was the 
 right of entering into valid marriages with 
 the patricians (445 B.C.). One after another, 
 the plebeians gained admittance to the most 
 important offices of State and the priest- 
 hoods, down to the year 300, so that only 
 insignificant oflices remained reserved for 
 the patricians {q.v.). When the struggle of 
 the orders was thus settled, the opposition 
 between patricians and plebeians lost its 
 practical importance. The two orders were 
 completely blended together, and the place 
 of the aristocracy of birth was taken by 
 the aristocracy of office, the members of 
 which were called nobiles. From this 
 time the name plehs passed to the lower 
 ranks of the people, as contrasted with this 
 "nobility." 
 
 Plectrum. See Ltee. 
 
 Pleiadgs or Pleiades {Greek). The seven 
 daughters of Atlas and the Ocean-nymph 
 Pleione, bom on the Arcadian mountain 
 Cyllene, sisters of the Hyades. The eldest 
 and most beautiful, Maia, became the mother 
 
PLEIAS PLINY. 
 
 495 
 
 of Hermes by Zeus ; Electra and Taygete, 
 of Dardanus and Lacedsemon by the same ; 
 Alcydne, of Hyrieus by PSseidon ; CSlceno, 
 of Lycus and Nycteus by the same ; Sterdpe 
 or AstSrdj)e, of (Enomaus by Ares; Me rope 
 {i.e. the mortal), of Glaucus by Sisyphus. 
 Out of grief, either for the fate of Atlas or 
 for the death of their sisters, they killed 
 themselves and were placed among the con- 
 stellations. According to another legend, 
 they were pursued for five years by the 
 Giant hunter Orion {q.v.}, until Zeus turned 
 the distressed Nymphs and their pursuer 
 into neighbouring stars. As the constella- 
 tion of the seven stars, they made known by 
 their rising (in the middle of May) the 
 approach of harvest, and by their setting (at 
 the end of October) the time for the new 
 sowing. Their rising and setting were also 
 looked upon as the sign of the opening and 
 closing of the sailing season. One of the 
 seven stars is invisible; this was explained 
 to be Merope, who hid herself out of shame 
 at her marriage with a mortal. The con- 
 stellation of the Pleiades seems also to have 
 been compared to a flight of doves (Gr. 
 pBleiddfs). Hence the Pleiades were sup- 
 posed to be meant in the story told by 
 Homer of the ambrosia brought to Zeus bj' 
 the doves, one of which is always lost at 
 the PlanctcB rocks, but is regularly replaced 
 by a new one [Od. xii 62]. Among the 
 Romans, the constellation was called Fer- 
 giliCB, the stars of spring. 
 
 Pleias (" a group of seven stars "). The 
 name given by the Alexandrine critics to a 
 group of seven tragic poets, who wrote at 
 Alexandria under Ptolemy Philadelphus in 
 the first half of the 3rd century B.C. Their 
 names were : Alexander .iEtolus, Philiscus, 
 Sositheus, Homerus, iEantides, Sosiphanes, 
 and Lycophron. 
 
 Plemochoe. Literally, " an earthen vessel 
 for water " ; hence the n ame plCmochoce given 
 to the last day of the Eleusinian festival, 
 when this kind of vessel was used for pour- 
 ing out water. {See Eleusinia.) 
 
 Plfithron. (1) A measure of length among 
 the Greeks = i of a stadium = 100 Greek 
 feet = little more than 101 English feet, or 
 33 yds. 2 ft. (2) A unit of square measure, 
 the square of 100 Greek feet, or 10,000 
 Greek square feet ; i.e. an area of the extent 
 of 10,226-2656 square feet, or about 1136-24 
 square yards, i.e. about two perches less 
 than a rood (or quarter of an acre). 
 
 Pliny. (1) The elder, Gains Plinius 
 Secundus. A Roman representative of en- 
 cyclopaedic learning, born 23 A.D., at Novum 
 
 Comum {Como), in Upper Italy, Although 
 throughout his life he was almost uninter- 
 ruptedly occupied in the service of the 
 State, yet at the same time he carried on 
 the most widely extended scientific studies. 
 To these he most laboriously devoted all 
 his leisure hours, and thus gained for him- 
 self the reputation of the most learned man 
 of his age. Under Claudius he served as 
 commander of a troop of cavalry {prcefectus 
 dlcB) in Germany ; under Vespasian, with 
 whom he was in the highest favour, he held 
 several times the ofBce of imperial gover- 
 nor in the provinces, and superintended the 
 imperial finances in Italy. Einally, under 
 Titus, he was in command of the fleet 
 stationed at Misenum, when in 79, at the 
 celebrated eruption of Vesuvius, his zeal 
 for research led him to his death. For a 
 detailed account of this event, as well as 
 of his literary labours, we have to thank 
 his nephew, the younger Pliny [Ep. iii 5 ; 
 vi 16]. Besides writings upon military, 
 grammatical, rhetorical, and biographical 
 subjects, he composed two greater historical 
 works : a history of the Germanic wars in 
 twenty books, and a history of his own time 
 in thirty-one books. His last work was the 
 Natural History {Naturalis HistSria), in 
 thirty-seven books, which has been pre- 
 served to us. This was dedicated to Titus, 
 and was published in 77 ; but he was inde- 
 fatigably engaged in amplifying it up to the 
 time of his death. This Encyclopaedia is 
 compiled from 20,000 notices, which he had 
 extracted from about 2,000 writings by 474 
 authors. Book i gives a list of contents 
 and the names of the authors used, ii is 
 on astronomy and physics, iii-vi, a 
 general sketch of geography and ethno- 
 graphy, mainly a list of names, vii-xix, 
 natural history proper (vii, anthropology ; 
 viii-xi, zoology of land and water animals, 
 birds, and insects ; xii-xix, botany), xx- 
 xxxii, the pharmacology of the vegetable 
 kingdom (xx-xxvii) and of the animal king- 
 dom (xxviii-xxxii). xxxiii-xxxvii, minera- 
 logy and the use of minerals in medicine 
 and in painting, sculpture, and the engraving 
 of gems, besides valuable notices upon the 
 history of art. A kind of comparative 
 geography forms the conclusion. 
 
 Considering the extent and varied char- 
 acter of the undertaking, the haste with 
 which the work was done, the defective 
 technical knowledge and small critical 
 ability of the author, it cannot be surpris- 
 ing that it includes a large number of mis- 
 takes and misunderstandings, and that its 
 
496 
 
 PLOSTELLUM PCENICDM PLOTINUS. 
 
 contents are of very unequal value, details 
 that are strange and wonderful, rather than 
 really important, having often unduly at- 
 tracted the writer's attention. Neverthe- 
 less, the work is a mine of inestimable value 
 in the information it gives us respecting the 
 science and art of the ancient world ; and 
 it is also a splendid monument of human 
 industry. Even the unevenness of the style 
 is explained by the mosaic-like character of 
 the work. At one time it is dry and bald 
 in expression ; at another, rhetorically 
 coloured and impassioned, especially in the 
 carefully elaborated introductions to the 
 several books. On account of its bulk, 
 the work was in early times epitomized for 
 more convenient use. An epitome of the 
 geographical part of Pliny's Encyclopsedia, 
 belonging to the time of Hadrian, and en- 
 larged by additions from Pomponius Mela, 
 and other authors, forms the foundation of 
 the works of Solinus and Martianiis Capella. 
 Similarly the MSdiclna Plinii is an epitome 
 prepared in the 4th century for the use of 
 travellers. 
 
 (2) The younger, Gains Pltn ius Ccecilius 
 Secundus, nephew and adopted son of the 
 elder Pliny, born 62 a.d. at Novum Comum. 
 After the early death of his father 
 Csecilius, he was carefully brought up by 
 his mother Plinia, and by his adoptive 
 father. He was trained in rhetoric under 
 Quintilian, and began his public career as 
 an advocate in the nineteenth year of his 
 age. After serving in Syria as military 
 tribune, he devoted himself under Domitian 
 to the service of the State, and became the 
 emperor's qucestor, and also a tribune of 
 the people and prcetor (93). Under Trajan, 
 he held the consulship in ICK), and about 
 112 governed the province of Bithynia as 
 imperial legate. He died about 114, very 
 widely respected on account of his mild 
 and benevolent character, his exemplary 
 private life, his ability as an orator, his re- 
 fined taste, and his services to letters. He 
 was distinguished by the favour of the em- 
 peror, and was in friendly intercourse with 
 the most celebrated men of his time, and 
 the representatives of literature. Among 
 his friends appear Quintilian [JEj). ii 14 § 9], 
 Silius Italicus [iii 7], Martial [iii 21], Sue- 
 tonius [i 8 ; iii 8 ; v 10 ; ix 34], and above 
 all Tacitus [i 6, 20; iv 13; vi 6, 16, 20; 
 vii 20, 33 ; viii 7 ; ix 10, 14], to whom he 
 was bound by the most genuine mutual ' 
 attraction. 
 
 Of his poems and forensic speeches, 
 which he published himself, nothing has 
 
 been preserved, with the exception of a 
 panegyric addressed to Trajan, which he 
 pronounced in the Senate in 100 a.d. in 
 order to thank the emperor for the consul- 
 ship conferred upon him. This he after- 
 wards published in a revised form. It is 
 composed in an affected and artificial style, 
 and is fall of the most exaggerated pieces 
 of flattery -addressed to the emperor; it 
 served as a pattern for the later panegyrists. 
 Besides this, we possess a collection of 
 letters in nine books, dating from the years 
 97-108, edited by himself. To this collec- 
 tion there is added a tenth book, con- 
 sisting of the official correspondence be- 
 tween him and Trajan, belonging chiefly to 
 the time of his Bithynian governorship, 
 published, we may presume, after his death. 
 [The best known letters in this book are 
 that on the punishment of the Christians, 
 No. 97, and the emperor's reply. No. 98.] 
 His letters, in which he happily iTnitates 
 Cicero, give a clear picture of his own per- 
 sonality, his studies, and his intercourse 
 with his friends, as well as of the public, 
 social, and literary life of his time, and are 
 therefore valuable as authorities for the 
 history of the same, 
 
 Plostellum Poenicum. A threshing- 
 machine used by the Romans. {See 
 Threshing.) 
 
 Plotinus. A Greek philosopher, born 205 
 A.D., at Lycopolis in Egypt. In the 28th 
 year of his life he applied himself to philo- 
 sophy, and attended the lectures of the 
 most celebrated men of that time in Alex- 
 andria. But none of these was able to 
 satisfy him, until in Ammonius Saccas, the 
 founder of Neo-Platonism, he discovered the 
 teacher whom he had sought. With him 
 he stayed for eleven years ; then, in 243, he 
 joined the expedition of the emperor Gor- 
 ■dian against the Persians, in order to learn 
 the Persian philosophy. In this object he 
 failed, owing to the unsuccessful issue of 
 the undertaking ; he was even obliged to 
 flee for his life to Antioch. In 244 he went 
 to Rome, where he worked till 269 with 
 great success, and gained the -emperor Gal- 
 lienus himself and his wife Salonina as con- 
 verts to his teaching, so that he even dared 
 to conceive the idea of founding an ideal 
 city in Campania, with the approval and 
 support of the emperor : this city was to 
 be called Platonopolls, and its inhabitants 
 were to live according to the laws of Plato. 
 Gallienus was not disinclined to enter into 
 the plan ; however, it was wrecked loj 
 the opposition of the imperial counsellors. 
 
PLOUGH PLUTARCH. 
 
 497 
 
 Plotinus died in 270, on the estate of a 
 friend in Campania. With the 50th year of 
 his age he had begun to reduce his teach- 
 ing to a written form ; the fifty-four trea- 
 tises, which have been preserved to us, were 
 published after his death by his pupil and 
 biographer Porphyry, who revised their 
 style and arranged them in order; they 
 were published in six Enneads (sets of nine 
 books). Plotinus was the first to give a 
 systematic development to the Neo-Piatonic 
 doctrine, or, at least, the first to put it 
 forth in writing, not indeed with the charm 
 of the Platonic dialogues, still less with 
 their dialectic force, but nevertheless with 
 depth of thought and in pithy, though at 
 times careless and incorrect, language. It 
 is true that there appears even in him a 
 mystical tendency, especially in his doc- 
 trine of the ecstatic elevation of the soul 
 to the divine being, to which h« himself 
 (according to the testimony of Porphyry) 
 attained en four occasions ; but he is still 
 completely free from the phantastic and 
 superstitious character of the later Neo- 
 Platonism. 
 
 Plough (Gr. drotrdn; Lat. dratrum). 
 This well-known agricultural implemait, 
 according to the story generally current ia 
 
 plough, we have, as early as Hesiod (8th 
 century B.C.), a notice of the artificially 
 constrticted instrument, in which the main 
 parts, the pole, the share-beam, and the 
 plough-stock igySs) connecting them, were 
 of different sorts of wood [Works and 
 Days, 425-434]. Roman ploughs had also 
 two earth-boards (aurSs), which served to 
 smooth the farrow [Vergil, Georgia i 172]. 
 
 GHEEK PLO0GH, 
 
 (Relief on the pedestal of a statue of Demeter, found in Magnesia; Ginzrot, 
 Wagen und Fahrwer'ke der AUeriy p. 34.) 
 
 Greece, was an invention of Demeter, the 
 goddess of agriculture, who taught its use 
 to Triptolemus (q.v.). Originally it was 
 constructed of a strong, hook-shaped piece 
 of timber, whereof the longer end (Gr. 
 histobotus ; Lat. hurts) served at once as 
 plough-tail and pole, while the other acted 
 as sharebeam (Gr. elyma; Lat. dentale). 
 This was fitted in front with the share (Gr. 
 hynis ; Lat. vomer), and behind with the 
 upright plough-tail (Gr. echetle ; Lat. stlvd). 
 At the end of the pole was affixed the 
 yoke, in which the oxen or mules by 
 which it was to be drawn were harnessed 
 (see cuts). Besides the natural hook-shaped 
 D. c. A. 
 
 (2) ITALIAM PLOUGH AND PLOUGHMAH. 
 
 (From an nncient bronze, found at Arezzo ; Micali, Monu- 
 me%ii per serutre aZla Storia d. ant, Popoii Ital., pi. 114.) 
 
 The plaustraratrum (wagon-plough) used 
 in Upper Italy was a different kind. In 
 this the plough-stock rested on two low 
 wheels, the pole being let into the axle. 
 [In Pliny, N. H. xviii 172, the MSS have 
 plauTnorati, altered by Hardouin into 
 plaustraratri. Neither word is found 
 elsewhere.] 
 
 Plutarch. A Greek writer 
 of biographies and mis- 
 cellaneous works, who 
 was born at Chseronea in 
 Boeotia, about 50 a.d. He 
 came of a distinguished and 
 wealthy family, and enjoyed 
 a careful education. His 
 philosophical training he 
 received at Athens, espe- 
 cially in the school of the 
 Peripatetic Ammonius [of 
 Lamptrse in Attica, who is 
 identified with Ammonius] 
 the Egyptian. After this he made several 
 journeys and stayed a considerable time in 
 Rome, where he gave public lectures on 
 philosophy, was in friendly intercourse with 
 persons of distinction, and conducted the 
 education of the future emperor Hadrian. 
 Prom Trajan he received consular rank, 
 and by Hadrian he was in his old age 
 named procurator of Greece. He died 
 about 120 in his native town, in which 
 he held the office of archon and of priest 
 of the Pythian Apollo. 
 
 His fame as an author is founded princi- 
 pally upon his Parallel Lives. These he 
 probably prepared in Rome under the reigu 
 
 K K 
 
498 
 
 PLUTEUS PNYX. 
 
 of Trajan, but completed and published late 
 in life at Chseronea. The biographies are 
 divided into connected pairs, each pair 
 placing a Greek and a Roman in juxtaposi- 
 tion, and generally ending with a compara- 
 tive view of the two ; of these we still 
 possess forty-six : Theseus and Romulus, 
 LycAirgus and Numa, Solon and Valerius 
 Publlcola, ThSmistocles and Cdmillus, Peri- 
 cles and Fabius Maximus, Aleiblddes and 
 Corioldnus, TimdlSon and j^milius Paulus, 
 PSlopMds and Marcellus, Aristides and the 
 elder Cdto, Philopoemen and Fldmlnlnus, 
 Pyrrhus and Mdrius, Lf/sander and Sulla, 
 Cimon and Lucullus, Nictds and Crassus, 
 EumSnes and Sertorius, AgesUdus and 
 Pcmipetus, Alexander and Caesar, PhorAon 
 and the younger Cdto, Agis and Cleomenes 
 and the two Gracchi, Demosthenes and 
 Cicero, Demetrius Polxorcetes and Anto- 
 nius, Dion and Brutus. To these are added 
 the four specially elaborated lives of Arta- 
 xerxes AInemon, Ardtus, Galba, and Otho ; 
 a number of other biographies are lost. 
 
 Plutarch's object was, not to write history, 
 but out of more or less important single 
 traits to form distinct sketches of character. 
 The sketches show indeed a certain uni- 
 formity, inasmuch as Plutarch has a pro- 
 pensity to pourtray the persons represented 
 either as models of virtue in general, or as 
 slaves of some passion in particular; but 
 the lives are throughout attractive, owing to 
 the liveliness and warmth of the portraiture, 
 the moral earnestness with which they 
 are penetrated, and the enthusiasm which 
 they display for everjrthing noble and 
 great. Por these reasons they have always 
 had a wide circle of readers. More than 
 this, their historical value is not to be 
 meanly estimated, in spite of the lack of 
 criticism in the use of the authorities and 
 the manifold inaccuracies and mistakes, 
 which, in the Roman lives, were in part the 
 result of a defective knowledge of the Latin 
 language. There are a large number of 
 valuable pieces of information in which 
 they fill up numerous gaps in the histori- 
 cal narratives that have been handed down 
 to us. Besides this work, eighty-three 
 writings of various kinds (some of them 
 only fragments and epitomes of larger 
 treatises) are preserved under the name 
 of Plutarch. These are improperly classed 
 together under the title Mordlia (ethical 
 writings) ; for this designation is only 
 applicable to a part of them. The form of 
 these works is as diverse as their tenour 
 and scope : some are treatises and reports 
 
 of discourses ; a large number is com- 
 posed in the form of Platonic or Aristotelian 
 dialogues ; others again are learned collec- 
 tions and notices put together without any 
 special plan of arrangement. A consider- 
 able portion of them are of disputable 
 authenticity or have been proved to be 
 spurious. About half are of philosophical 
 and ethical tenour, and have for the most 
 part a popular and practical tendency, some 
 of them being of great value for the history 
 of philosophy, such as the work on the 
 opinions of the philosophers {De Pldcztts 
 PhilSsophorum) in five books. Others be- 
 long to the domain of religion and worship, 
 such as the works on Isis and Osiris, on 
 the Oracles of the Pythian Priestess, and on 
 the Decay of the Oracles ; others to that of 
 the natural sciences, while others again are 
 treatises on history and antiquities, or on 
 the history of literature, such as the Greek 
 and Roman Questions, and the Lives of the 
 Ten Orators. [This last is tmdoubtedly 
 spurious.] One of most instructive and 
 entertaining of all his works is the Table- 
 talk (Qucesttones Convivtdles)in nine books, 
 which deal inter alia with a series of ques- 
 tions of history, archseology, mythology, and 
 physics. But even with these works his 
 literary productiveness was not exhausted ; 
 for, besides these, twenty-four lost writings 
 are known to us by their titles and by frag- 
 ments. In his language he aims at attain- 
 ing the pure Attic style, without, however, 
 being able altogether to avoid the deviations 
 from that standard which were generally 
 prevalent in his time. 
 
 Plut6us. (1) A pent-house or mantlet 
 used by the Romans in sieges. (Por more 
 see Siege.) [(2) The backboard of a bed, 
 or the raised end of a couch. (3) A dwarf 
 wall or parapet. (4) A bookshelf, bookcase, 
 or desk.] 
 
 Pliito (Gr. Pluton). In Greek mytho- 
 logy, the prince of the underworld = 
 Hades (q.v.). 
 
 Plutus. The Greek personification of 
 riches ; born in Crete as the son of Demeter 
 and her beloved lasion or ISsius, whom 
 Zeus out of jealousy killed with lightning. 
 He was supposed to have been blinded by 
 Zeus, because he distributes his gifts with- 
 out choice. In Thebes and Athens he was 
 represented as a child on the arm of Tyche 
 and of Eirene (q.v., with cut). 
 
 Plynterla. A festival at Athens in honour 
 of Athene, goddess of the city. (Por more 
 see Callynteria.) 
 
 Pnyx. A place at Athens (no longer to 
 
PODALIRIUS— POLYBIUS. 
 
 499 
 
 be identified with certainty), in whicli the 
 assemblies of the people were held. 
 
 Podaiirius. Son of Asclepius and EpiSne. 
 Like his brother Machaon (q.v.), leech to 
 the Greeks before Troy, and a brave warrior 
 besides. 
 
 Podarces. (1) The name of Priam (q.v.) 
 in his youth. 
 
 (2) Brother of Protesilaus (g.t'.), and after 
 his death commander of his troops. 
 
 Podarge ("the swift-footed"). One of 
 the Harpies (q.v.). 
 
 Poeas. King of the Malians at the foot of 
 (Eta. He set light to the pyre of Heracles, 
 in return for which the hero gave him his 
 bow and his poisoned arrows. His son was 
 Philoctetes (q.v.). 
 
 Polgmarch. (1) The third among the 
 Athenian archons (q.v.). (2) Among the 
 Spartans this was originally the designation 
 of a high officer, who, without any specific 
 command, was employed by the king for 
 special duties. In later times it denoted 
 the commander of a mdra (q.v,). 
 
 Polemon. The name of several Greek 
 authors : 
 
 (1) The Periegetes, the most celebrated 
 of that class of writers (see Periegetes). 
 Born in the district of Troas, he afterwards 
 settled at Athens, where he was presented 
 with the citizenship, about 200 B.C. He 
 there worked up the material which he 
 had collected from inscriptions, dedications, 
 and public monuments of all kinds, into a 
 number of works (inter alia, on Athens, and 
 on the holy road from Athens to Eleusis), 
 which in succeeding times were much 
 quoted and highly valued as a mine of 
 archaeological facts, and of important points 
 connected with the history of art. The 
 fragments which are preserved enable us 
 to recognise him as a well-read author. 
 
 (2) Antonius Polemon, the Sophist, or 
 rhetorician ; r, native of Laodicea, who lived 
 in the first half of the 2nd century a.d. and 
 presided over a flourishing school of rhetoric 
 in Smyrna. He was much esteemed by his 
 contemporaries and in high favour with the 
 emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus 
 Pius. Towards the end of his life he was 
 a martyr to the gout, and accordingly put 
 an end to his life in his 56th year, by 
 causing himself to be buried alive in the 
 tomb of his ancestors at Laodicea. His 
 fame was founded principally on the pithi- 
 ness and adroitness of his improvisations. 
 There are preserved two declamations by 
 him, artificial variations upon the same 
 theme [funeral orations in honour of Cynse- 
 
 girus and CallimSchus, the generals who 
 fell at Marathon], 
 
 Poletae. A financial board at Athens, 
 composed of ten members chosen yearly 
 from the tribes by lot. Their chief duties 
 were the leasing of the public taxes and the 
 selling of confiscated goods. [Aristotle, On 
 the Constitution of Athens, 47.] 
 
 Fdli&s (or Poliuchus, "protectress of the 
 city "). A special name of Athene (q.v.) in 
 many Greek cities, but particularly at 
 Athens. 
 
 Pollux. (1) See Dioscuri. 
 
 (2) Jzilius Pollux. A Greek rhetorician, 
 a native of Naucratis in Egypt, in the latter 
 half of the 2nd century a.d., tutor of the 
 emperor Commodus, from whom he received 
 an appointment as a public teacher in Athens. 
 His contemporaries, such as Lucian, ridi- 
 culed him for his small capacity. [Lucian 
 is supposed to have attacked him in his 
 Rhetorum Prceceptor, his Lexiphanes, and 
 his De Saltatione, chap. 33.] We possess 
 from his hand a dictionary in ten books 
 dedicated to his pupil. This is arranged, 
 not in the order of the alphabet, but ac- 
 cording to subjects. In spite of all its 
 confusion, and its want of critical acumen, 
 it throws much light on the language, 
 literature, and antiquities of Greece. 
 
 Pol^aenus. A Greek writer, born in 
 Macedonia, lived in the middle of the 2nd 
 century a,d., as a rhetorician and advocate 
 at Rome, under Marcus Aurelius and Lucius 
 Verus. When the latter was setting out 
 for the war against the Parthians in 162, 
 Polyaenus, being prevented by his age from 
 taking part in the campaign, addressed to 
 him a collection of military stratagems 
 compiled from old writers, vmder the title 
 Strdteyica, or StrdtSgematd, in eight books. 
 In spite of many serious errors, this labo- 
 rious and copious collection is not without 
 value for purposes of historical research. 
 
 Polybius. One of the most important 
 Greek historians, born about 204 B.C. at 
 Megalopolis; the son of Lycortas, general of 
 the Achaean League in 185-4 and after 183. 
 Through his father, and his father's friend 
 Philopoemen, he early acquired a deep in- 
 sight into military and political affairs, and 
 was afterwards entrusted with high federal 
 offices, such as the commandership of the 
 cavalry, the highest position next to the 
 federal generalship. In this capacity he 
 directed his efforts towards maintaining 
 the independence of the Achaean League. 
 As chief representative of the policy of 
 neutrality during the war of the Romans 
 
500 
 
 POLYBUS POLYCLITUS. 
 
 against Perseus of Macedonia, he attracted 
 the suspicion of the Romans, and was one 
 of the 1,000 noble Achseans who in 166 
 were transported to Rome as hostages, and 
 detained there for seventeen years. In 
 Rome, by virtue of his high culture, he was 
 admitted to the most distinguished houses, 
 in particular to that of ^milius Paulus, the 
 conqueror in the Macedonian War, who 
 entrusted him with the education of his 
 sons, Fabius and the younger Scipio. He 
 was on terms of the most cordial friendship 
 with the latter, whose counsellor he became. 
 Through Scipio's intercession in 150, Poly- 
 bius obtained leave to return to his home 
 with those of the Achseans who still sur- 
 vived. But, in the very next year, he went 
 with his friend to Africa, and was present 
 at the capture of Carthage, 14:6 B.C. After 
 the destruction of Corinth in the same year, 
 he returned to his native land, and made 
 use of his credit with the Romans to 
 lighten, as far as he could, the lot of his 
 unfortunate countrymen. When Greece 
 was converted into a Roman province, he 
 was entrusted with the difficult task of 
 organizing the new form of government in 
 the Greek towns, and in this office gained 
 for himself the highest recognition both 
 from the conquerors and from the con- 
 quered, the latter rewarding his services 
 by setting up statues to him, and by other 
 marks of honour. [Polybius, Epitome, xl 
 10 ; Pausanias, viii 9, 30, 37, 44, 48. The 
 pedestal of such a statue has been disco- 
 vered at Olympia.] The succeeding years 
 he seems to have spent in Rome, engaged 
 on the completion of his historical work, 
 and occasionally undertaking long journeys 
 through the Mediterranean countries in the 
 interests of his history, more particularly 
 with a view to obtaining actual ocular 
 knowledge of historical sites. After the 
 death of his patron, he returned to Greece, 
 and died in 122, at the age of eighty-two, 
 in consequence of a fall from his horse. 
 
 During his long sojourn inRome, his study 
 of the history and constitution of Rome, as 
 well as his personal experiences, inspired 
 him with the conviction, that the Roman 
 people owed the magnificent development 
 of their power, not to fortune, but to their 
 own fitness, and to the excellence of their 
 political and military institutions, as com- 
 pared with those of other States, and that 
 therefore their rapid rise to world-wide 
 dominion had been in some measure an 
 historical necessity. In order to enlighten 
 his countrymen on this point, and thereby 
 
 to supply them with a certain consolation 
 for their fate, he composed his Universal 
 History of the period between 220 and 146 
 B.C., in forty books. Of these the first two 
 are in the form of an Introduction, and give 
 a compendium of events in Italy, Africa, 
 and Greece, from the destruction of Rome 
 by the Gauls to the first Punic War, thus 
 recording the rise of the Roman supremacy. 
 The first main division (books iii-xxx) con- 
 tained in synchronistic arrangement the 
 occurrences from 220 to 168; that is, of 
 the time in which Rome was founding its 
 world-wide dominion through the Hanni- 
 balic, Macedonian, Syrian, and Spanish 
 wars. The second (books xxxi-xl) de- 
 scribed the maintenance and consolidation 
 of this dominion against the attempts to 
 overthrow it in the years 168-146. Of this 
 work only books i-v have been preserved 
 in a complete form ; of the rest we possess 
 merely fragments and epitomes. This is 
 especially to be regretted in those parts in 
 which Polybius narrates events which came 
 within his own experience. He is the first 
 representative of that particular type of his- 
 torical composition, which does not merely 
 recount the several facts and phenomena 
 in chronological order, but goes back to 
 the causes of events, and sets forth their 
 results. His work rests upon a knowledge 
 of the art of war and of politics, such as 
 few ancient historians possessed ; upon a 
 careful examination of tradition, conducted 
 with keen criticism ; partly also upon what 
 he had himself seen, and upon the commu- 
 nications of eye-witnesses and actors in the 
 events. It sets forth the course of occur- 
 rences with clearness, penetration, sound 
 judgment, and love of truth, and, among 
 the circumstances affecting the result, lays 
 especial stress on the geographical condi- 
 tions. It belongs therefore to the greatest 
 productions of ancient historical writing, 
 though, in respect to language and style, it 
 does not attain the standard of Attic prose. 
 The language is often wanting in purity, 
 and the style stiff and inharmonious. 
 
 Polybus. King of Corinth, foster-father 
 of (Edipus {q.v.). 
 
 Polychromy. The ancient practice of 
 colouring pieces of sculpture, as well as 
 certain portions of the exterior and interior 
 of buildings. {See Sculpture, at end.) 
 
 PolJ-clitus (Lat.; Gr. Polydeitos). Next 
 to his somewhat older contemporary Phidias, 
 the most admired sculptor of antiquity. He 
 was a native of Argos, and, like Phidias, a 
 pupil of Ageladas. His name marks an epoch 
 
POLYDECTES— POLYDOEUS. 
 
 501 
 
 in the development of Greek art, owing to 
 his having laid down rules of universal 
 application with regard to the proportions 
 of the human body in its mean standard of 
 height, age, etc. In close accordance with 
 these rules he fashioned a typical figure, 
 the Doryphorus, a powerful youth with a 
 spear in his hand : this figure was called 
 the Canon, and for a long time served as a 
 " standard " for succeeding artists [Pliny, 
 N. H. xxxiv 55]. The rules which he 
 practically applied in the Canon he also 
 set forth theoretically in a written work 
 [Galen, in Overbeek's ScJiriftquellen, §§ 958, 
 959]. It is also said of him that, when he 
 made statues in an attitude of rest, instead 
 of dividing the weight of the body equally 
 between the two feet, according to the cus- 
 tom which had hitherto prevailed, he intro- 
 duced the practice of causing them to rest 
 upon one foot, with the other foot lightly 
 raised, whereby the impression of graceful 
 ease and calm repose was for the first time 
 fully produced [Pliny, I.e. 56]. Except the 
 celebrated chryselephantine colossal statue of 
 Hera (q^.v.), which he made for the temple of 
 
 "= THE PARNESE DIADUMEHUS, 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 the goddess at Argos [Pausanias, ii 17 § 4], 
 when it was rebuilt after a fire in 423 B.C., 
 he produced statues in bronze alone, and 
 almost exclusively of men in the prime of 
 youth, such as the Doryphorus already men- 
 tioned ; the DMdumSnus, a youth of softer 
 lineaments, wko is tying a band round his 
 
 head [Pliny, I.e. 55 ; Lucian, Philopseudes, 
 18] ; and an Amazon, which was preferred 
 even to that of Phidias [Pliny, Lc. 63]. These 
 statues may still be identified in copies of 
 a later time {see cut, and compare cut under 
 Amazons). He also worked as an architect. 
 The theatre at Epidaurus (of which con- 
 siderable remains still exist), and the cir- 
 cular structure called the TholOs, and the 
 temple of Asclepius [Pausanias, ii 27 : cp. 
 plan in Baedeker's Greece, p. 241], are now 
 generally assigned to the younger Polyclitus. 
 
 [PolyclUus the Younger was a pupil of 
 the Argive sculptor Naucydes. Among his 
 works was a statue of the athlete AgSnor 
 (Pausanias, vi 6 § 2), and of Zeus PhUios at 
 Megal<5p5lis, in which the god was repre- 
 sented with some of the attributes of 
 Dionysus {ib. viii 31 § 4). The statues of 
 Zeus MeilicMos at Argos {ib. ii 20 § 1), and 
 those of Apollo, Leto and ArtSmis on Mount 
 Lycone neat Argos {ib. 24 § 5), may possibly 
 be assigned to the elder Polyclitus (Over- 
 beck, Schriftquellen, §§ 941-3).] [J. E. S.] 
 
 Poljrdectes. Son of Magnes, king of the 
 island of Seriphus ; attempted to compel 
 Danae to marry him, but was turned into 
 a stone by her son Perseus {q.v.) by the 
 sight of the head of Medusa. 
 
 Polf deuces (Lat. Pollux). See Dioscuri. 
 
 P61;^d6ras. (1) Son of Cadmus and 
 Harmonia, father of Labdaeus, and great- 
 grandfather of (Edipus- 
 
 (2) Youngest son of Priam and of Lao- 
 thoe, his father's favourite son. He was 
 killed while yet a boy by Achilles. The 
 tragedians make him the son of Priam and 
 Hecuba, who, before the fall of Troy, com- 
 mitted him with many treasures to the care 
 of their guest-friend, the Thracian king 
 Polymestor (or Polymnestor). After the 
 capture of Troy Polymestor puts the boy 
 to death, in order to get possession of the 
 gold, and throws the body into the sea. 
 The waves east it up on the Trojan shore, 
 and here Hecuba finds it, just as Polyxena 
 is on the point of being sacrificed. Out of 
 revenge she, with the help of the captive 
 Trojan women, kills the two children of 
 the murderer, and blinds Polymestor him- 
 self. According to another version, Ilione, 
 Priam's daughter and Polymestor's wife, 
 brings up the brother, who has been com- 
 mitted to her charge, as her own son, while 
 she gives up her child Deiphiilus (or Deipy- 
 lus) instead of Polydorus. The Greeks, who 
 wish to exterminate the race of Priam, win 
 over Polymestor by promising him the hand 
 of Electra and a large present of money in 
 
502 
 
 POLYGNOTUS- — POMPEIDS TROGUS. 
 
 return for the murder of Polydorus. Poly- 
 mestor then murders his own son, and is 
 blinded and killed by Ilione. 
 
 (3) A Greek sculptor, of the school of 
 Rhodes, author (in conjunction with Age- 
 sander and Athenodorus) of the celebrated 
 group of Laocoon {q.v.). 
 
 Polygnotus. The celebrated Greek 
 painter of the island of Thasos. He worked 
 chiefly in Athens, whither he had been 
 invited by Cimon about 460 B.C., and where 
 he received the citizenship. His most cele- 
 brated paintings were the Capture of Troy 
 and the Descent of Odysseus into Hades, in 
 the hall erected by the Cnidians at Delphi. 
 We possess a description of them in consider- 
 able detail by Pausanias [x 25-31]. Other 
 celebrated paintings by him (though several 
 of his contemporaries were associated with 
 him in their execution) were to be seen in 
 the Stoa Poecile, the Capture of Troy and 
 the Battle of Marathon [ib. 15], and in the 
 temples of the Dioscuri [ib. 18 § 1], and of 
 Theseus at Athens. Though his works 
 were only tinted outlines traced upon a 
 coloured background, without shading and 
 without any perspective, and sketched, as 
 it were, in simple relief, all on the same 
 plane, still his clear, rhythmical composi- 
 tion, the delicacy of his drawing, the im- 
 pressivenessof his contours, and the nobility 
 of his figures were highly celebrated [Over- 
 beck's Schriftquellen, 1067-1079]. 
 
 Poljf-hymnia (or Polymnia). The Muse of 
 serious songs of adoration. {See Muses.) 
 
 PolJ'idus. Son of Coeranus, grandson 
 of Abas, great-grandson of Melampus, 
 father of Euchenor, Astycratia, and Manto ; 
 like his ancestor, a celebrated seer, who 
 flourished, according to different accounts, 
 either at Corinth or Argos or Megara. To 
 his son he prophesied his death before 
 Troy; and the son of Minos, Glaucus 
 {q.v., 2), he raised from the dead. At 
 Megara he cleansed Alcathous from the 
 murder of his son Callipolis, and erected 
 the temple of Dionysus. 
 
 Polymestor. A Thracian king. He idur- 
 dered Polydorus, the son of Priam, who had 
 been entrusted to his protection, and was 
 blinded by Heciiba and the captive Trojan 
 women. {Cp. Poltdohus.) 
 
 Polymnia. See Polyhymnia. 
 
 P61;ynices (Gr. Pol iineikes). Son of (Edipus 
 and locaste, was driven out of Thebes by 
 his brother Eteocles {see (Edipus), and fled 
 to Adrastus {q.v.) of Argos, who gave him 
 his daughter Argia in marriage, and brought 
 about the expedition of the Seven against 
 
 Thebes in order to restore him. He fell 
 in single combat with Eteocles. His body, 
 which had been thrown to the birds, was 
 buried by his sister Antigone {q.v.). His 
 son was Thersander {q.v.). 
 
 Polyphemus. Son of Poseidon and the 
 Nymph Thoosa ; the one-eyed Cyclops, who 
 held Odysseus prisoner in his cave and ate 
 several of the companions, until the hero 
 made him drunk and blinded him. Later 
 legends made him the lover of the beautiful 
 Nymph Galatea. 
 
 Polypt^chon. See Diptychon. 
 
 P61J-t6chnus. See Aedon. 
 
 P61yx6na. Daughter of Priam and 
 JEeciiba, the betrothed of Achilles, who, at 
 his wedding with her in the temple of the 
 Thymbrsean Apollo, was killed by Paris. 
 After the fall of Troy the shade of Achilles 
 demanded the expiation of his death with 
 her blood, and she was sacrificed on his 
 funeral pyre. 
 
 Pomerium. A name given by the Romans 
 to the space, originally along the city-wall 
 within and without, which was left vacant 
 and reckoned holy. This space was marked 
 off by stones, and in respect to the auspices 
 formed the limit between city and country. 
 [See Livy, i 44, and Cicero, De Natura 
 Deorum ii 11, ed. J. B. Mayor.] 
 
 The old Pomerium remained unchanged 
 until the time of Sulla ; after him it was 
 again extended by Csesar , Augustus, Claudius, 
 Nero, Vespasian and Titus, Hadrian, and 
 probably also Trajan and Aurelian. An 
 extension of the Pomerium was only ad- 
 missible on the ground of an extension 
 of the legal boundaries of the Empire. 
 [Tacitus, Ann. xii 23.] 
 
 Pomona. The Latin goddess of fruit 
 trees, who in Rome had a fiamen of her own 
 {Pomonalis). Like Vertumnus, who was 
 regarded as her husband, she was particu- 
 larly honoured in the country. Art repre- 
 sents her as a fair damsel, with fruits in 
 her bosom, and the pruning-knife in her 
 hand. 
 
 Pompeius Trogus. A contemporary of 
 Livy, author of the first Roman general 
 history. He was of Gaulish origin ; his 
 grandfather received the Roman citizenship 
 from Pompeius in the Sertorian War, and his 
 father served under Csesar, and discharged 
 at the same time the offices of a secretary, 
 an ambassador, and a keeper of the seals. 
 His extensive work in 44 books was drawn 
 from Greek sources, and was entitled His- 
 torice Philippicce, because the history of 
 the various peoples was grouped round the 
 
POMPONIUS PONTIPEX. 
 
 503 
 
 Macedonian empire founded by Philip ; it 
 began with Ninus, and reached down to his 
 own time. With the historical narrative 
 there were interwoven interesting descrip- 
 tions relating to geography, ethnography, 
 and natural science ; and indeed he is said 
 to have also composed zoological and botani- 
 cal works. Of the histories we now possess 
 only lists of the contents of the several 
 books (called the prologi) and the epitome 
 of Justin. {See Justinus.) 
 
 Pomponius. (1) Lucius Pomponius 
 BSnoniensis, i.e. of Bononia {Bologna), 
 flourished about 90 B.C. He was the first 
 to raise the hitherto improvised popular 
 plays called AtellancE {q.v.) to a species of art 
 by the introduction of written composition 
 in the metrical forms and technical rules of 
 the Greeks. He is particularly praised for 
 richness of fancy, liveliness in plays upon 
 words, and readiness in the use of rustic 
 and farcical language. [Velleius Pat., ii 
 9 § 6 ; Macrobius, Saturnalia vi 9 § 4 ; 
 Seneca, Controv. vii 18 § 9.] About 70 
 titles of plays by him are mentioned, a pro- 
 ductiveness"explained by the small compass 
 of the Atellance as being after-pieces. Some 
 titles point to travesties of mythological 
 subjects, such as the Supposititious Aga- 
 memnon and the Aivard of the Armour 
 (of Achilles). 
 
 (2) Titus Pomponius Atticus. See 
 Atticus. 
 
 (3) Lucius Pomponius SScundus. The 
 most important tragedian of the time of the 
 Empire, probably the last who wrote for 
 the stage. He lived under Tiberius and 
 was a partisan of Sejanus, after whose fall 
 (31 A.D.) he had to submit to be kept in 
 custody by his brother for six years, until 
 Caligula gave him his freedom. In 44 he 
 was consul ; in 50 he fought with success 
 against the Chatti, and received triumphal 
 honours from Claudius. His poetical pro- 
 ductions are highly spoken of by Tacitus 
 [Ann. xii 28] and Quintilian [x 1 § 98]. 
 We possess only very scanty remains of 
 his tragedies. 
 
 (4) Pomponius Mela. A native of 
 Tingentera. in Spain. He composed a 
 description of the world in three books 
 {De dwrdgrdphia), the earliest work of 
 this kind which we possess, and the only 
 special work on the subject, which Roman 
 literature has to show. According to a 
 notice in the book [iii 49], it was written 
 either in 40 A.D., when Caligiila triumphed 
 over the Britons, or in 44, when Claudius 
 did the same. The author's information 
 
 does not rest upon personal inspection, 
 but it is drawn from good, though mostly 
 antiquated, Greek sources. Writing in a 
 brief and concise style, he describes in the 
 form of a coasting-voyage, with North Africa 
 for its starting-point, the various countries of 
 the then known world in geographical order, 
 until he comes back by way of Western 
 Africa to the point from which he set out. 
 His language bears the rhetorical character 
 of his time. 
 
 (5) Sextus Pomponius. A distinguished 
 jurist of the first half of the 2nd century 
 A.D. He composed, among other works, a 
 history of law and jurisprudence down to 
 the time of Hadrian, which is frequently 
 quoted in the Digest. 
 
 (6) Pomponius Porphyrio. Eoman gram- 
 marian, who lived in the first half of the 
 2nd century A.D., and composed a commen- 
 tary on Horace, a fragmentary abridgment 
 of which is still preserved. 
 
 Pontlfex. A member of the highest 
 priestly college in Rome, to which belonged 
 the superintendence over all sacred obser- 
 vances, whether performed by the State or 
 by private persons. The meaning of the 
 name is uncertain ; the interpretation which 
 follows most obviouslj'' from the form of the 
 word, that of "bridge-builder," referred in 
 particular to the sacred bridge on piles 
 {pons suhllcius) over the Tiber, is open to 
 many objections. ^ The foundation of the 
 college is ascribed to Numa ; at first it pro- 
 bably consisted of six patrician members, 
 with the addition of the king, whose place, 
 after the abolition of the Monarchy, was 
 transferred to the pontifex maximus (high- 
 pontiff) ; from 800 B.C. it was composed of 
 nine members (4 patrician and 5 plebeian), 
 from the time of Sulla of fifteen (7 patrician 
 and 8 plebeian); Csesar added another mem- 
 ber ; and the emperors also raised the number 
 at their pleasure. The office was for life, 
 as was also that of the president. While, 
 in the time of the Monarchy, the pontiffs 
 were probably named by the king, under 
 the Republic the college for a long time 
 filled up its own numbers by co-optation, 
 and also appointed the high-pontiff from 
 among its members. Prom somewhere about 
 250 B.C. the election of the latter took place 
 in the c6mWla of the tribes under the pre- 
 sidency of a pontiff, and, from 103 B.C., the 
 
 ' Professor Nettleship argues in support of it 
 in his Lectures and Essays, p. 27. If the Italian 
 immigration came overland, the of&ce of bridge- 
 builder would be of great importance. It is 
 apparently connected with river- worship. 
 
504 
 
 PONTIFEX, 
 
 other members were also elected in the 
 comitia out of a fixed number of candidates 
 presented by the college. Under the Em- 
 pire a preliminary election was held by the 
 Senate, and merely confirmed by the comitia. 
 Besides the pontifis proper, there were 
 also included in the college the rex sacro- 
 rum, the three higher flamens and the three 
 pontificSs mtnores, who assisted the pontiffs 
 in transactions relating to sacrifices and in 
 their official business, besides sharing in 
 the deliberations and the banquets of the 
 whole college: these ranked according to 
 length of service. In the earlier time an 
 advanced age, with freedom from secular 
 offices, was necessary for eligibility to the 
 pontificate; the high-pontiff, among other 
 restrictions, was not allowed to leave Italy, 
 was obliged to have a wife without reproach, 
 and might not enter upon a second marriage 
 or see a dead body, much less touch one. 
 As regards his position, he was, as spiritual 
 successor of the king, the sole holder and 
 exerciser of the pontifical power; and his 
 official dwelling was in the king's house, 
 the regia of Numa adjoining the Forum, 
 the seat of the oldest State worship. The 
 college existed by his side only as a deli- 
 berative and executive body of personal 
 assistants. He appointed to the most im- 
 portant priestly offices of the State, those 
 of flclnien, of vestal, and of )'€x sacrorum ; 
 he made public the authoritative decisions 
 of the college. In matters which came 
 within the limits of his official action, he 
 had the right of taking auspices, of holding 
 assemblies of the people, and of publishing 
 edicts, ife also exercised a certain juris- 
 diction over the persons subject to his high- 
 priestly power, especially the flamens and 
 Vestals, over whom his atithority was that 
 of an actual father. Owing to the great 
 importance of the office, the emperors from 
 the time of Augustus undertook it them- 
 selves, and retained it, even in Christian 
 times, until the year 382. As regards the 
 functions of the college, besides performing 
 a number of special sacrifices in the service 
 of the household gods, they exercised (as 
 already mentioned) a superintendence over 
 the whole domain of the religious services 
 recognised by the State, public and private. 
 In all doubts which arose concerning the 
 religious obligations of the State towards 
 the gods, or concerning the form of any 
 religious offices which were to be under- 
 taken, their opinion was asked by the 
 Senate and by the other secular bodies, who 
 were obliged unhesitatingly to follow it. 
 
 In the various religious transactions, ex- 
 piatory offerings, vows, dedications, conse- 
 crations, solemn appropriations, undertaken 
 on behalf of the State, their assistance was 
 invited by the official bodies, in order that 
 they might provide for the correct perform- 
 ance, especially by dictating the prayers. 
 
 The knowledge of the various rites was 
 handed down by the libri ponUficli, which 
 were preserved in the official dwelling of 
 the high-pontiff and kept secret. These 
 included the forms of prayer, the rules of 
 ritual for the performance of ceremonial 
 observances, the acta pontificum, i.e. the 
 records relating to the official actions of 
 the college, and the commentani pontificum, 
 i.e. the collection of opinions delivered, to 
 which they were as a rule obliged to have 
 recourse when giving new ones. 
 
 An important and indeed universal influ- 
 ence was exercised by the pontiffs, not only 
 on religious, but also on civic life, by means 
 of the regulation of the calendar, which was 
 assigned to them as possessing technical 
 knowledge of the subject ; and by means of 
 their superintendence over the observance 
 of the holidays. Owing to the character of 
 the Roman reckoning of the year, it was 
 necessary from time to time to intercalate 
 certain days, with a view to bringing the 
 calendar into agreement with the actual 
 seasons to which the festivals were ori- 
 ginally attached ; and special technical know- 
 ledge was needed, in order to be sure on 
 what day the festivals fell. This technical 
 knowledge was kept secret by the pontiffs 
 as being a means of power. It was for the 
 month actually current that they gave in- 
 formation to the people as to the distribution 
 of the days, the festivals falling within the 
 month, and the lawful and unlawful days 
 {fasti and nefasti, q.v.) for civil and legal 
 transactions. In 304 B.C. the calendar of 
 the months was made public by Gneeus 
 Flavins ; but the pontiffs still retained the 
 right of regulating the year by intercala- 
 tions, and thereby the power of furthering 
 or hindering the aims of parties and indi- 
 viduals by arbitrary insertion of intercalary 
 months. This they kept until the final 
 regulation of the year introduced by Csesar 
 as high-pontiff in 46 B.C. Closely connected 
 with the superintendence of the calendar 
 was the keeping of the lists of the yearly 
 magistrates, especially of the consuls, since 
 it was by their names that the years were 
 dated, as well as the keeping of the yearly 
 chronicle. {See Annals.) 
 
 As experts in the law of ritual, the pontiffs 
 
PONTIUS PORTORIUM. 
 
 505 
 
 had the superintendence over many transac- 
 tions of private life, so far as ceremonial ques- 
 tions were connected with them, such as the 
 conclusion of marriages, adoption by means 
 of arrogation, and burial. Even upon the 
 civil law they had originally great influence, 
 inasmuch as they alone were in traditional 
 possession of the solemn legal formulcp., 
 known as the legis actiones, which were 
 necessary for every legal transaction, in- 
 cluding the settlement of legal business and 
 the forms for bringing lawsuits. They even 
 gave legal opinions, which obtained recog- 
 nition in the courts as customary law, by 
 the side of the written law, and grew into 
 a second authoritative source of Roman law. 
 Until the establishment of the prgetorship 
 (366 B.C.), a member of the college was 
 appointed every year to impart information 
 to private persons concerning the legal 
 forms connected with the formulating of 
 plaints and other legal business. The legis 
 actiones were made public for the first 
 time by the above-mentioned Flavins at 
 the same time as the calendar. {See 
 
 JUKISPHUDENCE.) 
 
 Pontius. A special name of the sea-god 
 Glaticus iq.v.). 
 
 Pontus. The sea, son of Gsea, and, by her 
 again, father of Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, 
 Ceto, and Eurybia. 
 
 Popinae. Roman cook-shops. (See Inns.) 
 
 PopUfugia. The festival of the flight of 
 the people. (See Caprotina.) 
 
 Porf irius Optatianus (PuhUlius). A Latin 
 poet, who composed, about 330 a.d,, a series 
 of short poems in praise of Constantino, con- 
 structed in a highly artificial manner. [All 
 the lines in each poem contain exactly the 
 same number of letters.] By this composi- 
 tion he obtained his recall from banishment 
 and won the favouF of the emperor. The 
 commendatory letter of Constantino, as well 
 as the thanks of the poet, have conje down 
 to us with the poem. 
 
 Porphyrion. (1) One of the Giants. (See 
 
 GiGANTES.) 
 
 (2) See PoMPONius (6). 
 
 Porphyry (Greek, Porphyrias). A Greek 
 scholar and philosopher; in'*^eJatter 
 capacity a votary of NeoplatajAnjiJIe 
 was born 233 a.d. at Batanaea ^VlVH^A'I 
 received hig education at Tyre, and^ter- 
 wards studied grammar, rhetoric, and philo- 
 sophy at Athens with Longinus, who instead 
 of his Syrian name Malchus (''king "), gave 
 him the Greek name Porphyrias (" clad in 
 royal purple ")• The fame of the Neoplatonist 
 Plotinus drew him in 263 to Ronie, \Yhere, 
 
 after some initial opposition, he for six years 
 enthusiastically devoted himself to the study 
 of the Neoplatonic philosophy. Being at- 
 tacked by a dangerous melancholy, the 
 result of overwork, he went, on the advice 
 of Plotinus, to Sicily, whence after five years 
 he returned to Rome, strengthened in mind 
 and body. Here, until his death (304), he 
 taught philosophy in the spirit of Plotinus, 
 especially by bringing the teaching of his 
 master within the reach of general know- 
 ledge by his clear and attractive exposition. 
 His most important scholar was lamblichus. 
 A man of varied culture, Porphyry was par- 
 ticularly prolific as an author in the domain 
 of philosophy, grammar, rhetoric, arith- 
 metic, geometry, and music ; however, most 
 of his works, including the most important, 
 are lost, among them a treatise against the 
 Christians in fifteen books, which was pub- 
 licly burned under Theodosius II (485). 
 We have to lament the loss of his history 
 of Greek philosophy before Plato in four 
 books, of which we now possess only the 
 (certainly uncritical) Life of -Pi/thdgdras, 
 and that not complete. Besides this there 
 are preserved a Life of Plotinus ; a Com- 
 pendium of the System of Plotinus, in the 
 form of aphorisms ; a work on abstaining 
 from animal food (De Ahstlnentld) in four 
 books, from the Pythagorean point of view, 
 valuable for its fulness of information on 
 philosophy, and on the religions, forms of 
 ritual, and customs of various peoples ; an 
 Introduction to the Categories of Aristotle, 
 and a commentary on the same, in the form 
 of questions and answers ; a compendium 
 of his own practical philosophy in the form 
 of a Letter to Marcella, a widow without 
 property, and with seven children, whom 
 Plotinus married in his old age on account 
 of her enthusiasm for philosophy ; Scholia 
 on Homer, discussions on a number of 
 Homeric questions, an allegorical interpre- 
 tation of the Homeric story of the grotto of 
 the Nymphs in the Odyssey ; and a Com- 
 mentary on the Harmonics of Ptolemy. 
 
 Porrima. See Caementa. 
 
 Porticus. The Roman name for a colon- 
 nade. (See Stoa.) 
 
 Portland Vase. See Gems, at end. 
 
 Portorium. The custom levied by the 
 Romans upon iniports and exports ; it was 
 introduced as early as the time of the kings, 
 and was generally leased to publicani (q.v.). 
 In 60 B.C. it was abolished for Italy, but 
 was re-introduced by Csssar for foreign 
 goods, and after that time always continued 
 to exist. Free and allied cities were, in 
 
506 
 
 PORTUNUS POSEIDON. 
 
 earlier times, allowed to levy the customs for 
 their own territory, but from these Romans 
 were to be exempt. Under the emperors 
 customs were levied not only at the frontier 
 of the Empire, but also at the frontiers of 
 the several provinces or of combinations 
 of provinces united in one excise-district. 
 Besides this the percentage levied on the 
 purchasing price of articles was different 
 in different districts. The export of many 
 articles was forbidden, especially of corn, 
 oil, wine, salt, iron, and gold. 
 
 Portunus. The Roman god of harbours.^ 
 Like Janus, the god of coming in and going 
 out, he was represented with a key, and was 
 perhaps only a personification of one attri- 
 bute of Janus. He had a special flamen in 
 Rome (Portundlis), and at the harbour on 
 the Tiber he had a temple, where a festival, 
 the PortunaUa, was held in his honour 
 everj' year on August 17th. In later times 
 he was identified with the Greek Palaemon. 
 
 P5seidippus. One of the most eminent 
 poets of the New Comedy, a native of Gas- 
 sandrea in Macedonia. He began to exhibit 
 for the first time in the third year after 
 the death of Menander, or in B.C. 289. Of 
 his pieces, as many as forty are mentioned 
 by name, but only fragments of them are 
 preserved. It was jorobably in imitation ol 
 one of these that the MencEcluni of Plautus 
 was written. 
 
 Poseidon. The Greek god of the sea and 
 of everything liquid, son of Cronus and 
 Rhea ; a younger brother of Zeus, accord- 
 ing to Homer ; an elder brother, according 
 to Hesiod. At the distribution of the world 
 the rule over the sea and all its gods and 
 creatures fell to him, as the rule over the 
 sky fell to Zeus, and that over the under- 
 world to Pluto. His wife is Amphitrite, his 
 son Triton, his daughter Benthesicyme. As 
 described by Homer [11. xiii 21], he has his 
 dwelling in the depth of the sea in a golden 
 palace near -Slgse, according to the usual 
 acceptation on the north coast of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, where lay also his other place of 
 worship mentioned by Homer, Helice {11. 
 viii 203], afterwards overthrown by an 
 earthquake. On leaving his palace, he is 
 clad in a golden robe and wields in his hand 
 a golden whip, while he stands in a chariot 
 drawn by swift-footed steeds with hoofs of 
 bronze and manes of gold, with the monsters 
 of the deep bounding and frisking around 
 liim, as he drives over the sea, which joy- 
 
 ' Perhaps originally the god of house and 
 home, partus in its old sense of the entrance to a 
 house {cp. Prof. Nettleship's Essays, p. 26). 
 
 fully opens before his advance. As Zeus 
 bears the lightning, so Poseidon bears the 
 mighty trident, with which he stirs up the 
 sea, cleaves rocks, and makes fountains and 
 horses spring forth from them. Another 
 sj'mbol of the stormy flood is the bull, for 
 which reason men offered sacrifice to Posei- 
 don with dark-coloured bulls, while on the 
 other hand, the dolphin is a symbol of the 
 peaceful and calm sea. For, while he sends 
 storm and shipwreck, he is also a beneficent 
 god, who sends favourable winds. Every 
 occupation on or by the sea, navigation, 
 trade, fishing, is subject to his power ; he 
 also it is who grants victory by sea. Seafar- 
 ing peoples traced their origin to him. But, 
 as the sea was thought of as supporting the 
 earth and as pressing into its hidden clefts 
 and hollows, so Poseidon was worshipped 
 from one point of view as " the supporter of 
 the earth " (gaieochos), from the other as " the 
 shaker of the earth " (cnnosiffaios, Sndsi- 
 chthon), who makes the earth quake beneath 
 the blows of his trident. As such he was wor- 
 shipped in districts which were a prey to 
 earthquakes, as in Sparta, or in those which 
 could show traces of great convulsions, as 
 in Thessaly, where he was said to have 
 opened up the Vale of Tempe, and formed 
 the outlet of the Peneus into the sea by 
 shattering the wall of rock which inclosed 
 the valley. In the interior Poseidon was 
 often worshipped as the creator of waters, 
 especially of springs and the blessing brought 
 by them ; so particularly in Argolis and 
 Arcadia, where, as being the fertilizing 
 god, he was even regarded as the lover of 
 Demeter and father of Persephone. In the 
 course of time, under the predominance of the 
 conception of Poseidon as god of the sea, 
 his worship in such inland places fell into 
 the background, and was displaced by that 
 of other deities. Hence arose the legends of 
 his contests with other gods for particular 
 countries, as with Athene for Athens and 
 Trcezen, and with Hera for ArgSlis, and of 
 exchanges, as that of Delphi for the island 
 of Calauria, which belonged to Apollo. He 
 was also regarded as the creator and tamer 
 of the horse : sometimes he was said to have 
 brought it out of a rock by a blow, some- 
 times the earth was said to have been im- 
 pregnated by him, and so given it birth ; 
 accordingly he was frequently worshipped 
 as an equestrian god (hipplds). Thus in the 
 Attic deme of Colonus he was worshipped 
 together with Athene, who was said to have 
 invented the bridle. He was also specially 
 worshipped at the equestrian games at the 
 
POSEIDONIUS. 
 
 507 
 
 Isthmus. Owing to the great diffusion of 
 his worship through all the Greek races of 
 the mother-country, as well as of the colo- 
 nies, he plays a chief part in Greek legend, 
 appearing as early as the Trojan story, in 
 which he stands on the side of the Greeks 
 in irreconcilable wrath against Troy, on 
 account of the deception practised on him 
 by Laomedon. Similarly Odysseus cannot 
 be protected from his rage on account of the 
 blinding of his son Polyphemus, except by 
 the unanimous will of the other gods. The 
 unruly wildness of the sea, which is reflected 
 in his character, appears also frequently in 
 his sons, such as Orion, Polyphemus, Cycnus, 
 Antseus, Btisiris, Amyous, Cercyon, and 
 others. But he was also deemed to be the 
 
 COLOSSAL STATUE OF POSEIDON. 
 
 (Rome, Lateraa Musetun ) 
 
 ancestor of numerous noble families, especi- 
 ally of the Ionian race, which from old times 
 worshipped him as a national god^ and from 
 their home on the north coast of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus carried his worship over with them 
 to Asia. Here, in his chief sanctuary, on 
 the promontory of Mycale, the lonians cele- 
 brated their national festival, the Panionia. 
 From the Ionian race and its representative, 
 Theseus, arose also the national festival of 
 Poseidon observed by all Greece at the 
 Corinthian Isthmus, where the Isthmian 
 
 games were celebrated in alternate years. 
 The Greeks, after their victory over the 
 Persians, set up a bronze colossus more than 
 10^ feet high in honour of the Isthmian 
 god [Herod., ix 81]. 
 
 The horse, the dolphin, and the pine tree 
 were deemed sacred to Poseidon ; it was 
 with wreaths of pine that the victors in the 
 Isthmian games were crowned. He was 
 worshipped with human sacrifices, but more 
 generall}'' with sacrifices of horses and 
 bulls, especially black ones ; these were 
 not unfrequently hurled alive into rivers. 
 Besides horse-races, bull-fights were held 
 in his honour. His temples were usually to 
 be found on promontories, isthmuses, and 
 tongues of land. His usual attributes were 
 the trident and the dolphin, and also the 
 tunny-fish. He was represented as a power- 
 ful, kingly man, like Zeus, but without his 
 exalted calm, more compact in figure, and 
 with thicker and curlier hair on his head. 
 He is draped sometimes in a long robe, 
 sometimes with a light scarf, which allows 
 his powerful frame to be more fully dis- 
 played {see cut). Colossal statues of him 
 often stood by harbours and on promontories. 
 With Poseidon the Romans identified their 
 sea-god Neptunus (q.v.). 
 
 Poseidonius. A Greek philosopher ; a 
 native of Apamea, in Syria, born about 135 
 B.C., from his later place of residence gene- 
 rally called the Ehodian. He was the most 
 distinguished pupil of the Stoic Pansetius, 
 whose instruction he enjoyed at Athens, 
 and the most scientific and most learned 
 among the later Stoics. After an extended 
 scientific journey in western Europe, he 
 accepted the direction of the Stoic school 
 at Rhodes, where he took part in public 
 affairs with such success that his fellow 
 citizens made him prytdnis, and in 86 sent 
 him as envoy to Rome. Prom this time he 
 remained in continual friendly intercourse 
 with Romans of distinction, especially 
 Cicero and Pompeius [Cic, Ad Att. ii 1 
 § 2, Tusc. Disp. ii 61]. He died at the 
 age of 84. His literary labours were very 
 extensive. Besides numerous philosophical 
 treatises, he composed mathematical and 
 astronomical writings, and a great his- 
 torical and geographical work in 52 books 
 as a continuation of Polybius. Only frag- 
 ments, however, of his writings have been 
 preserved. The substance of the Tactics 
 of his pupil Asclepiodotus seems to have 
 been derived from his discourses. [See 
 Cicero, De Natura Deorum, ed. J. B. 
 Mayor, II, p. xvi ff.] 
 
508 
 
 POSSESSIO POTTERY. 
 
 PosseBsio. The Roman term for the dc 
 facto possession of an article without actual 
 proprietary right (ddimmum). The name 
 was given in particular to those lands, 
 properly belonging to the State, which were 
 taken into cultivation by what was called 
 occupatio. For more see Ageb PtTBLiCUS. 
 
 Postal Service. Under the Roman Em- 
 pire a postal service proper was first formed 
 in the time of Augustus. This, however, 
 was not intended for the use of the public, 
 but served only for the conveyance of 
 magistrates and of government despatches ; 
 just as the great network of roads, with 
 which the Romans covered the whole em- 
 pire, was laid down, not for the purposes 
 of traffic, but in the first instance for 
 the transport of the armies and of the 
 materials of war. Under the Republic the 
 correspondence of o£Bcials was carried as 
 a rule by special messengers ; the convey- 
 ance of the officials themselves was laid 
 upon the provincials, who were bound to 
 provide relays of horses and supplies. 
 Augustus instituted a State post (cursus 
 puhlicus) with a military organization, 
 which conveyed the official despatches 
 from station to station by means of couriers. 
 Eor the conveyance of the magistrates sta- 
 tions were instituted, with changes of 
 horses {mutcdiones) and with night-quarters 
 (mansiones). Private persons were allowed 
 to use the State posts only by special per- 
 mission on the part of the governors, after^ 
 wards of the emperor, and upon definite 
 orders given [diplo^ndta : Pliny, Ep. x, the 
 last two letters]. The cost of the posting- 
 houses was made a charge iipon the several 
 localities, though occasionally the emperors 
 undertook the provision of draughf>animals 
 and carriages. Besides the horse they 
 rode, the couriers had a spare horse to 
 carry the letter bags. Passengers were 
 conveyed in carriages called redce, drawn 
 by horses and mules ; while goods were 
 forwarded on vans, which were drawn by 
 oxen. Besides this, vessels were stationed 
 at various points on the rivers to carry 
 letters, passengers, and goods, just as there 
 was postal communication over sea, espe- 
 cially from Ostia, the port of Rome, out- 
 wards, to the islands and chief ports of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Postvorta. See Caemen'ta. 
 
 Pothos. The Greek personification of amo- 
 rous longing, an attendant of Eros (q.v.). 
 
 Pottery. The simplest, and at the same 
 time one of the oldest, branches of the pri- 
 meval art of working in clay is the manu- 
 
 facture of bricks and tiles, the invention 
 of which (at Athens) was ascribed by the 
 Greeks to the mythical personages EurySlus 
 and Hyperbius [Pliny, H. N. vii 194]. So 
 far as bricks were used at all, their use was 
 generally confined to private buildings ; and 
 Greeks and Romans for ages employed only 
 unbaked or sun-dried bricks. Bricks baked 
 in the kiln came into use at a later date. 
 The first to employ them extensively were 
 the Romans, probably at the period when 
 the population of the city rendered it ne- 
 cessary to build houses of several stories, 
 which demanded a more solid material. In 
 imperial times such bricks were the common 
 material for private and public buildings. 
 The walls were built of them, and then 
 overlaid with stucco or marble. Building 
 with baked bricks extended from Rome 
 into Greece, and, generally speaking, wher- 
 ever the Romans carried their arms, they 
 introduced their exceptional aptitude for 
 making excellent bricks. Bricks which 
 presented flat surfaces, to be used for walls 
 or pavements, were made of the most 
 various dimensions, but were for the most 
 part thinner than ours. Besides these, there 
 were also rounded bricks for building dwarf 
 columns, and for the construction of circu- 
 lar walls. Por roofs flat tiles were chiefly 
 used (Lat. teguld), which were provided 
 with a raised rim on both of their longer 
 sides, and were so formed that the upper 
 fitted into the lower. Concave tiles also 
 were used (Lat. imbrex) of the form of a 
 half cylinder, which covered the adjoining 
 edges of the flat tiles. The lowest row 
 was commonly finished off with ornamental 
 moulding. Prom the same material as 
 bricks were also made pipes for conveying 
 water, for sewers, and for warm air ; the 
 section in the first two cases was round, in 
 the last, square. 
 
 Pottery in its proper sense, the manufac- 
 ture of utensils, is very old. The potter's 
 wheel was known even before Homer's 
 time [II. xviii 600]. Its invention was 
 variously ascribed to the Corinthian Hy^ 
 perbius [Pliny vii 198] and to the Athenian 
 Talus, nephew of Dsedalus. Corinth and 
 Athens, where the neighbouring promon- 
 tory of Colias furnished an inexhaustible 
 supply of fine potter's clay, were, in fact, 
 the headquarters of the manufacture of 
 Greek pottery. Next came iEgina, S&mos, 
 Lacedsemon, and other places in Greece 
 itself, which always remained the principal 
 seat of this manufacture, especially in the 
 form of vases of painted clay. These wore 
 
POTTERY, 
 
 509 
 
 exported in large numbers to the countries 
 on the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The 
 high estimation in which Greek, and espe- 
 cially Attic, pottery was held is proved by 
 the numerous vases which have been dis- 
 covered in tombs, chiefly in Italy. More- 
 over they represent almost every period. 
 The excellence of the workmanship lies in 
 the material, which is very fine, and pre- 
 pared with the utmost care ; also in the 
 execution and in the baking. Its thinness, 
 as well as the hardness of its sides, even 
 in vessels of large dimensions, astonishes 
 experts in such matters. The shapes are 
 mostly produced by the potter's wheel, but 
 also by hand in the case of vessels too large 
 to be conveniently placed on the wheel; 
 for example, the largest wine-jars. [The 
 prehistoric pottery from My cense, the Troad, 
 and other Hellenic sites, was also made by 
 hand.] Whereas small vessels were made 
 of a single piece, in the case of large ones, 
 the body, handles, feet, and neck, were 
 fashioned separately, and then united. 
 They were first dried in the sun, then 
 twice baked, before and after the painting. 
 The colours are no less admirable than the 
 workmanship. The clay shows a beautiful 
 bright reddish yellow, which is produced 
 by the addition of colouring matter, and 
 is also further intensified by a thin coating 
 of glaze. The black colour, which often 
 verges upon green, and is of a brilliant 
 lustre, is then applied. Either (1) the 
 design stands out black against the bright 
 background, or (2) the figures appear in 
 red on a black ground, the former being 
 the earlier method. Other colours, espe- 
 cially white or dark-red, were applied after 
 the black glaze had been burnt into the 
 clay by the second baking, and served as 
 a less lasting adornment. In later times 
 yellow, green, blue, brown, and gold were 
 also used. 
 
 [In the case of vases with hlack figures, 
 the vase was first turned on the wheel, and, 
 in order to give it a surface of deeper red, 
 clay finely ground and mixed with water to 
 the consistency of cream, technically known 
 as " slip," was applied by a brush or other- 
 wise while it was still revolving. The out- 
 line of the design was next roughly sketched, 
 either with a point or in light-red ochre 
 with a brush. The vase was then dried in 
 the sun, and again put on the wheel, and 
 the glaze, finely powdered and mixed with 
 water, was applied to it with a brush as it 
 revolved. The vase was then in some cases 
 fired for the first time in the kiln in order 
 
 to provide a smooth, almost non-absorbent 
 surface for the use of the painter. The 
 painter then put on the black enamel figures 
 and ornaments with a brush. After the 
 firing of the enamel, the details were drawn 
 in by incised lines, catting through the 
 enamel down to the clay body of the vase. 
 In vases with 7-ed figures instead of the 
 figures being painted in black, the ground 
 is covered with black enamel and the figures 
 left, showing the glazed red " slip " which 
 covers the whole vase. This method pro- 
 duced a great artistic advance in the beauty 
 of the figures, the details and inner lines of 
 which could be executed with freedom and 
 ease by brush-marked lines, instead of by 
 the laborious process of cutting incised 
 lines through the very hard black enamel 
 (Prof. Middleton on " Pottery " in Encyc. 
 Brit. xix608, 609).] 
 
 Lastly, the form deserves all praise. The 
 vases of the best period present the most 
 tasteful elegance of form, that is at once 
 fine and strong, and the most delicate pro- 
 portion of the various parts to each other 
 and to the whole, without interfering with 
 their practical utility (see cuts under Vases 
 and Vessels). It was not until the times 
 when taste had begun to degenerate that 
 the fashion was introduced of giving to 
 clay ware, by means of moulds, all kinds 
 of grotesque forms of men and beasts, and 
 of furnishing them with plastic (as well as 
 painted) ornamentation. 
 
 [The technique of ancient pottery is illus- 
 trated by figs. 1 and 2. The first repre- 
 
 (1) * A GREEK POTTER. 
 
 (Gem from Millin, Peint. ii 
 vignette.) 
 
 A GREEK POTTER, 
 (Gem from Millin, Peint, i, 
 vignette.) 
 
 sents a youth seated in front of an oven, 
 from the top of which he takes with two 
 sticks a small, two-handled vase which has 
 been newly glazed. The second shows the 
 potter giving the last polish to a finished 
 vase, while two other vessels are standing 
 to dry on an oven, the door of which is 
 closed (Guhl and Koner's Life of the Greeks 
 and Romans, p. 141, Eng. ed.). Among 
 the votive tablets in the Louvre there are 
 two from Corinth. The first of these re- 
 
510 
 
 POTTEEY. 
 
 presents an early Greek type of kiln, which, 
 is domed over, and has a space for the fuel 
 on one side, and a door in the side of the 
 upper chamber, through which the pottery 
 could be put in and withdrawn. The 
 second shows a potter applying painted 
 bands while the vessel revolves on the 
 wheel (Prof. Middleton, I.e., figs. 3 and 20). 
 See also Vases.] 
 
 The Romans, with whom, as early as the 
 time of the second king, Numa, a guild 
 {collegium) of potters existed, neither had 
 vessels of painted clay amongst their house- 
 hold goods, nor did they employ it for the 
 ornamentation of their graves. In earlier 
 times at least, they used only coarsa and en- 
 tirely unornamented ware. They imported 
 artistically executed vases from their neigh- 
 bours, the Etruscans. In the last hundred 
 years of the Republic, as well as in the first 
 hundred years after Christ, the chief place 
 for the manufacture of the red crockery 
 generally used in households was Arretium 
 {Arezzo) [Pliny, xxxv 160 ; Martial, i 54, 6, 
 xiv 98 ; Dennis, Etruria, ii 335]. The 
 ware of this place was distinguished by a 
 coral-red colour, and was generally fur- 
 nished with glaze and delicate reliefs ; in 
 fact, ornamentation in relief was widely 
 employed in later Roman pottery. Very 
 much valued was the domestic ware, called 
 vasa Sdmia, which was an imitation of the 
 earlier pottery brought from the island of 
 Samos. It was formed of fine, red-coloured 
 clay, baked very hard, of thin make, and 
 very delicate workmanship. It was glazed 
 and generally adorned with reliefs, and 
 served especially for the table use of re- 
 spectable people who could not afford silver. 
 
 While this fine ware was made by hand, 
 the manufacture of ordinary pottery as well 
 as of bricks and pipes, especially under the 
 Empire, formed an important industry 
 among capitalists, who, on finding good clay 
 on their estates, built potteries and tile- 
 works, and either worked them on their own 
 account through slaves or had them carried 
 on by lessees. The emperor himself, after 
 the time of Tiberius, and the members of 
 the imperial family, especially the females, 
 pursued a similar trade, as is shown by the 
 trade-mark which, according to Roman cus- 
 tom, was borne by clay manufactures. 
 
 The production of large statues of cla}'', 
 apart from the purpose of modelling, be- 
 longs amongst the Greeks to the early 
 times. It continued much longer amongst 
 the Italians, especially amongst the Etrus- 
 cans, who furnished the temple at Rome 
 
 with clay images of the gods before the 
 victorious campaigns in the East brought 
 marble and bronze productions of Greek art 
 to Rome. On the other hand, throughout 
 the whole of antiquity, the manufacture of 
 small clay figures of very various kinds, for 
 the decoration of dwellings and graves, and 
 for playthings for children, etc., was most 
 extensively practised. They were gene- 
 rally made in moulds, and after baking were 
 decorated with a coating of colour. The 
 
 (3) TANA6KA FIGDKINE. 
 
 excellence which Greek art attained in this 
 department, as in others, is shown by the 
 " figurines " discovered at Tanagra in and 
 after 1874, specimens of which are given 
 in figs. 3, 4. Very important too was the 
 manufacture of clay reliefs, partly with 
 figured representation and partly with ara- 
 besque patterns, for the embellishment of 
 columns, windows, cornices, and also of 
 tombstones and sarcophagi. [See Dumont 
 and Chaplain, Ciramiques, 1888; Kekule, 
 Thovfiguren aus Tanagra, 1878, Die 
 antiken Terracotten, 1880, and Die Terror 
 cotten von Sicilien, 1884; Heuzey, Cata- 
 logue des figurines antiques de terre cuite 
 
PR^CINCTIONES PRiEFECTUS. 
 
 511 
 
 du Musie du Louvre, 1882, id. 60 plates, 
 1883; and the popular work by Pottier, 
 Les Statuettes de Terre Cuite dans V Anti- 
 quity, 1890.] 
 
 (4) BAREEK IN TEEEA-COTTA. 
 
 From Tanagra (Arc}i,. Zeit. 1874, taf. 14). 
 
 PrsBcinctiones. See Theatee. 
 
 Frseco. The Latin term for a public 
 crier, such as those who were employed in 
 private life, especially at auctions. Their 
 profession was eminently lucrative, but was 
 not considered at all respectable. Similarly 
 those employed by the State ranked as the 
 most insignificant of its paid servants [see 
 Apparitor). Their duties were to summon 
 the meetings of the people and the Senate, 
 to command silence, to proclaim aloud the 
 proposals under consideration, to announce 
 the result of the individual votes, and also 
 the final result ; in legal proceedings, to 
 cite the parties to the case, their counsel, 
 and witnesses, to announce the close of 
 the proceedings, and the jury's dismissal ; 
 to invite the people to funeral feasts and to 
 games, and to assist at public auctions and 
 other sales, etc., etc. Consuls, praetors, and 
 censors had three decuries of such atten- 
 dants ; qusestors, and probably also tribunes 
 and sediles, one. They also attended on 
 extraordinary magistrates and on governors 
 of provinces. 
 
 Prsefectiira. An Italian township pos- 
 sessing no jurisdiction of its own, but 
 having a prefect to administer justice {pr(e- 
 fectus iilre dicundo) sent to it every year, 
 generally on the nomination of the praetor 
 
 urhdnus. When all Italian towns received 
 full citizen rights, 90 B.C., these towns 
 among the rest became municipia {see 
 Monicipium), and retained the old name 
 merely as a tradition. 
 
 Prsefectus (one set over others, a superior). 
 The title given by the Romans to officials 
 of many kinds, who were all however 
 appointed, not elected. Thus, under the 
 Republic, prcefecti iure dicundo was the 
 name of those who were appointed by the 
 preetor to administer justice in those Italian 
 communities which were called prcefecturoi 
 (q.v.) ; even later these townships retained 
 the name for the judges elected by them- 
 selves. In the republican armies the six 
 Roman officers appointed by the consuls 
 to command the contingents sent by the 
 Italian allies to the consular armies were 
 called prcefecti soc?Mm (officers in command 
 of the allies), while their cohorts were led 
 by native propfecti cdhorttum. In the 
 times of the Empire these titles were borne 
 by the commanders of the auxiliary cohorts, 
 while the officers of the cavalry divisions 
 were prcefecti equitum. Military engineer- 
 ing was under the direction of a prcefectus 
 fahrum (pioneers) ; the several fleets of 
 the Empire under a prcefectus classis (see 
 Ships). Prcefectus castrorum (camp-com- 
 mander) was the name, under the Empire, 
 of the commander in the permanent camps 
 of the legions, usually a centurion who had 
 completed his term of service. His chief 
 functions were, in time of peace, to super- 
 intend garrison-service (i.e. to distribute 
 the watches and other duties) ; in war, the 
 arrangement and supervision of the camp, 
 the transportation of the baggage, and the 
 construction of roads, bridges, and entrench- 
 ments. This title of prcefectus was also 
 given to the knight who commanded the 
 legions stationed in Egypt ; while an im- 
 perial governor, called prcefectus JSgypti, 
 administered that country, which was 
 treated as an imperial domain, and outside 
 the general provincial administration. At 
 a later time each legion had upon its staff 
 of officers its own commander of the camp, 
 styled prcefectus iSgiOnis, to whom in 3 
 A.D. even the command of the legion was 
 transferred. Prcefectus vigllum was the 
 commander of the cohorts organized by 
 Augustus to make Rome secure by night. 
 
 A very high and influential office under 
 the Empire was that of the prcefectus prce- 
 tOrio, the commander of the imperial guard 
 (see Pr^toriani). Originally a purely 
 military office, it acquired in process of 
 
512 
 
 PR^TEXTA PR^TOJR. 
 
 time an ever-increasing importance. It had 
 attached to it the control of affairs in the 
 emperor's absence, criminal jurisdiction 
 over Italians outside Rome, and the like. 
 Sometimes ambitious men contrived to 
 employ this position to obtain for them- 
 selves the real power in the State, and 
 raised whom they pleased to the imperial 
 throne, sometimes ascending it themselves. 
 After the praetorians were disbanded by 
 Constantine in 324, the four who were then 
 prcefecti prcetorio vfere made governors of 
 the four prcefecturce iato which that em- 
 peror divided his dominions. Another 
 important office under the Empire was that 
 of the prcefectus urbi (city prefect). Such 
 an office had existed in the time of the 
 kings and in the early years of the Re- 
 public, to supply the place of the king or 
 the consuls when absent. When the latter 
 came to be represented by the prsetors, it 
 was only during the fence LdtlncB (at which 
 festival all magistrates were present) that a 
 prmfectus urbi Ldttndruvi was appointed. 
 Augustus revived it in its old form. On 
 several occasions he appointed a prafectus 
 urbi during his absence from the city. The 
 city prefecture first became a standing 
 office for the maintenance of public order 
 in Rome after Tiberius. Subsequently the 
 prcefcctus urbi (whose authority extended 
 a hundred miles from Rome, and who had 
 three city cohorts to assist him) exercised, 
 together with the police authority enforced 
 at an earlier period by the sediles, a corre- 
 lated criminal jurisdiction, which in course 
 of time expanded so much that the city pre- 
 fecture became the highest criminal autho- 
 rity at Rome. After the transfer of the 
 seat of empire to Byzantium, the prcefectus 
 urbi united in himself the military, adminis- 
 trative, and judicial powers in what was 
 once the capital, and was now formed into 
 a separate district for purposes of adminis- 
 tration. One of the most important offices 
 under the Empire was that of the prcefectus 
 annonce (corn-supply, see Annona), whose 
 duty it was to provide Rome with the neces- 
 sary corn, and whose countless subalterns 
 were distributed over the whole Empire. 
 For the prcefectus cerarii (State chest) see 
 tEkaeium. 
 
 Praetexta or prsetextata (sc. fabuld). A 
 class of Roman tragedies, which found its 
 materials, not in the Greek myths, but, in 
 the absence of native legendary heroes, in 
 ancient and contemporary Roman history. 
 The name was derived from the fact that 
 the heroes wore the national dress, the 
 
 t6gd prcetexta, the official garb, edged with 
 purple, of the Roman magistrates. NcBvius 
 introduced them, and, following his example, 
 the chief representatives of tragic art under 
 the Republic, Ennius, Pdcuvius, and Accius, 
 composed, in addition to tragedies imitated 
 from Greek originals, independent plays of 
 this kind, which were however cast in the 
 form they had borrowed from the Greeks. 
 We also hear of some plays of this class 
 written by poets of imperial times. The 
 solitary example preserved to us is the 
 tragedy of Octdvia, wronglj'- ascribed to 
 Seneca (q-v.), which perhaps may date from 
 
 1 A.D. \Cp. TOGATA.) 
 
 Praetor. Originally a title of the Roman 
 consuls, but afterwards used to denote that 
 magistrate to whom the administration 
 of justice in Rome was transferred when 
 the consulship, to which this power had 
 hitherto been attached, was thrown open 
 to the commons in 366 B.C. At first re- 
 served for the patricians, it became a ple- 
 beian office as early as 337. The prsetor 
 was elected in the coniitta centilridta, with 
 one of the consuls presiding, on the same 
 day and with the same auspices as the 
 consuls, who entered on their office simul- 
 taneously with him. On account of the 
 increase in legal business, a second prsetor 
 was appointed in 242, to whom was trans- 
 ferred the hearing of cases between citizens 
 and foreigners {inter elves et peregrinos), 
 and between foreigners {inter peregrinos), 
 while the other decided between citizens. 
 The latter, who ranked first, was called 
 prcBtor urbdnus (city prsetor) ; the former, 
 prcetor inter peregrinos, and (after the time 
 of Vespasian) prcetor peregrlnus. 
 
 The prsetors had their respective de- 
 partments determined by lot after their 
 election. While the prcetor peregrinus 
 might have a military command also en- 
 trusted to him, the city prsetor, on account 
 of the importance of his office, might not 
 be absent from Rome, strictly speaking, 
 for longer than ten days. He represented 
 his absent colleague, and also the consuls 
 in their absence, presiding, as the highest 
 magistrate present, at the public games, 
 watching over the safety of Rome, sum- 
 moning the comitia centuriata, holding the 
 military levies, and the like. As early as 
 227 the number was further increased by 
 two. To these was entrusted the adminis- 
 tration of Sicily and Sardinia. Two others 
 were added in 197 to administer the two 
 provinces of Spain. In 149, on the estab- 
 lishment of the qucBstiones perpetuce {q-v.), 
 
PR^TORIANI PRATINAS. 
 
 513 
 
 a' standing criminal court for certain stated 
 offenders, the rule was introduced that the 
 entire body of praetors should stay in Rome 
 during their year of office ; the praetors 
 urhanus and inter peregrinos having juris- 
 diction in civil cases, as hitherto, while the 
 others presided in the qucestiones, and had 
 to instruct the jurors as to the case before 
 the court, and to carry out the sentence 
 passed. After the completion of their year 
 of office, they all proceeded as proprators 
 or proconsuls to the praetorian provinces 
 assigned them by lot. In consequence of 
 the multiplication of the qucestiones and of 
 the provinces, the number of praetors was 
 raised by Sulla to eight, by Caesar to ten, 
 fourteen, and sixteen. Under the Empire 
 the praetorship lost its former importance, 
 the civil jurisdiction of the proetor urbanus 
 and peregrinus being in part transferred 
 to the prcefectus urbi and prcefectus prce- 
 torto, while the criminal jurisdiction of the 
 others ceased with the gradual decay of the 
 qucestiones, and the praetors only retained 
 particular departments of their judicial 
 power and general administration. Their 
 most important function was the manage- 
 ment of the games, some of which had 
 already, in republican times, been assigned 
 to the praetor urbanus. When their year's 
 office had expired, they went as proconsuls 
 to the senatorial provinces. Their election 
 was transferred to the Senate by Tiberius. 
 Under the Republic, the statutory age for 
 the office was forty ; under the Empire, 
 thirty. The praetor's insignia were the 
 toga prcetexta, the sella cUrfdis, and, in 
 the provinces, six lictors ; in Rome, pro- 
 bably two. Like the consul, he had the 
 honour of a triumph open to him. 
 
 Fraetoriaui. The bodyguard of the 
 Roman emperor. Even in the armies of 
 the Republic there was a separate corps, the 
 cdhors prcetoria, to guard the general, and 
 protect the headquarters. The organization 
 of a bodyguard for the emperor, one of 
 whose permanent powers was' the chief 
 military command, was among the first ad- 
 ministrative measures of Augustus. The 
 supreme command was generally held by 
 two prcefecti prcetorlo in the emperor's 
 name. The guard consisted of nine, and at 
 a later time, of ten cohortes prcetorice, each 
 composed of ten centuries of infantry, and 
 ten squadrons of cavalry (turmoe), and com- 
 manded by a fr-JfiiZnMS (seeTRiBUNi Militum). 
 They had higher rank and pay than the 
 legions, and a shorter time of service (six- 
 teen years instead of twenty). While the 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 other cohorts were stationed at various 
 places in Italy, where the emperors were 
 in the habit of staying, there were quar- 
 tered in Rome, to keep watch in the em- 
 peror's palace, three cohorts, which at first 
 were billeted on separate parts of the city, 
 until under Tiberius they were placed in 
 a fortified camp (castra pratoria) to the 
 north-east of the city, outside the walls. 
 By being thus united, they gained such 
 importance, that they were able to raise 
 an emperor to the throne, and to overthrow 
 him. To break down their influence, and 
 to make them simply a picked corps, 
 Septimius Severus, towards the end of the 
 second century, brought legions to Italy, 
 and made a regulation that the guard, which 
 had hitherto been recruited exclusively 
 from Italy and a few Romanised provinces, 
 should have its ranks filled up from de- 
 serving legionary soldiers, and should serve 
 for a longer time. To be thus transferred 
 to the guard was considered a promotion. 
 The guard was broken up by Constantine 
 the Great. 
 
 Prsetorium. The headquarters in the 
 Roman camp ; a wide space, on which stood 
 the general's tent, the altar of the camp, 
 the augUrdle, and the tribunal {see Castra). 
 In the provinces this name was given to 
 the official residence of the governor. 
 
 Praevaricatio {lit. " deviation from the 
 straight path"). The Latin term for the 
 improper conduct of a case on the part of a 
 prosecutor in favour of the defendant, or 
 on the part of a patrdnus to the detriment 
 of his client. The penalty was forfeiture 
 of the right to prosecute, and to act as an 
 advocate. If the acquittal of the defendant 
 was demonstrably due to prcBvaricatio, the 
 case might be undertaken anew by a second 
 prosecutor. 
 
 Prandium. The second morning meal 
 of the Romans. {See Meals.) 
 
 Pratinas. [The quantity of the second 
 syllable is uncertain, probably long. Fick, 
 Gr. Personen-namen, p. xxxv, deriving it 
 from pratOs, Doric for prot5s, makes it a 
 collateral form for prottnos =protXdnos.] A 
 Greek dramatist, of Phlius, who lived about 
 496 B.C. at Athens. He was a contemporary 
 and rivalof jEschylus, and is believed to have 
 invented the satyric drama. At any rate, 
 he was a very prolific writer in this depart- 
 ment of literature. He also wrote tragedies, 
 dithyrambs, and hyporchemdta, of which 
 we possess a fairly long and highly original 
 fragment [preserved by Athenaeus, xiv 617]. 
 His son Aristias was also a dramatic poet. 
 
514 
 
 PRAXILLA- PRIAPEiA. 
 
 Praxilla. Of Slcjon; a Greek poetess, 
 about 450 B.C., composed hymns and dithy- 
 rambs, but was especially famous for her 
 sculld. We only possess insignificant frag- 
 ments of her poems. 
 
 Praxiteles. One of the most famous Greek 
 sculptors, born at Athens about 390 [prob- 
 ably the son of Cephisodotiis, the sculptor 
 of the statue of EirPne {q.v.) u-ifh the In- 
 fant Plat lis]. He and his somewhat older 
 contemporary, Scopas, were at the head of 
 the later Attic school. He chiefly worked 
 in marble, but at the same time occasionally 
 used bronze. His recorded works exhibit 
 every age and sex in the greatest variety 
 of the divine and human form. Still he 
 paid most attention to youthful figures, 
 which gave him the opportunity of dis- 
 playing all the charm of sensuous grace in 
 soft and delicate contours. 
 
 THE HERMES OF PRAXITELES. 
 
 (Olympia.) 
 
 Among his most celebrated works the 
 naked Aphrodite, of Cnidus, stands first, 
 according to the enthusiastic descriptions 
 of the ancients, a masterpiece of the 
 most entrancing beauty [e.g. Pliny, N. IT. 
 xxxvii §§ 20, 21 ; cp. Apheodite, fig. 2]. 
 Not __ less famous were his representations 
 of Eros, among which the marble statue 
 at Thespiae was esteemed most highly [ib., 
 § 22 ; cp. Eros] ; his AjmUo SauroctSnos 
 
 (lizard-slayer) in bronze [ib., xxxiv § 70j ; 
 and a youthful Satyr in Athens [Pausanias, 
 i 20 § 1]. As to the group of Niobe's chil- 
 dren, preserved at Rome in Pliny's time, 
 it was disputed even among the ancients 
 whether it was the work of Praxiteles or, 
 as is more probable, of Scopas [N. H. xxxvi 
 § 28; cp. Niobe]. Of all these, only 
 later copies have been preserved. An im- 
 portant original work by him [mentioned 
 by Pausanias, v 17 § 3] was unearthed 
 in 1877 by the German excavators at 
 Olympia, Hermes with the Child Dionysus 
 in his Arms, which was set up in the cella 
 of the temple of Hera. The arms and legs 
 are partly mutilated, but otherwise it is 
 in an excellent state of preservation. {See 
 cut.) 
 
 His sons, Cephlsodotus the younger, 
 and Timarchides, were masters of some 
 importance. 
 
 Priam (Gr. Pridmos; Lat. Priamus). Son 
 of Laomedon and Strymo, brother of 
 Tithonus and Hesione, the last king of 
 Troy. Originally his name was Podarces 
 (the swift-footed) ; the name Priamus, which 
 is interpreted to mean " ransomed," is 
 supposed to have been given to him after the 
 first sacking of Troy by Heracles. Heracles 
 allowed Hesione to select one of the 
 prisoners, and when she decided in favour 
 of her sole surviving brother, she was 
 permitted to ransom him with her veil. 
 Legends represented him as rich alike 
 in treasures and in children. He had fifty 
 sons and fifty daughters by different wives ; 
 by his second wife, Hecuba (Gr. Hekdhe) 
 alone, nineteen sons; among them Hector, 
 Paris, Deiphebus, Helenus, Polydorus, 
 Troilus ; by his first, Arisbe, ^sacus. 
 Among his daughters were Creilsa, the 
 wife of ^neas, Cassandra, and Polyxena. 
 In his young days he was a mighty warrior, 
 as in the conflict with the Amazons ; but 
 at the outbreak of the Trojan War, he was 
 so old and feeble that he took no part in 
 the combat, and only twice left the city to 
 conclude the compact for the duel between 
 Paris and Menelaus, and to beg the dead 
 body of Hector from Achilles. He met his 
 death in the sack of the city by the hand 
 of Neoptolemus, at his family altar, whither 
 he had fled with Hecuba and his daughter. 
 Priapeia. A collection of some eighty 
 elegant but indecent Latin poems in 
 various metres on the subject of Priapus. 
 Judging from their execution, they may 
 be referred to the time of Augustus, and 
 may probably be traced to the circle of 
 
PRIAPUS PRIESTS. 
 
 515 
 
 Messala, who, like other distinguished men 
 of that age, occupied himself with trivial 
 amusements of this kind. 
 
 Priapus. According to the usual ac- 
 count, son of Dionysus and AphrSdite, a 
 god of the fruitfulness of the field and of 
 the herds. Horticulture, vine-growing, goat 
 and sheep-breeding, bee-keeping, and even 
 fishing, were supposed to be under his 
 protection. The original seat of his worship 
 lay in the towns of Asia Minor, situated on 
 the Hellespont, especially Lampsacus. From 
 here it afterwards spread over Greece and 
 Italy. His statues were usually placed in 
 gardens, generally in the form of rude 
 hei-moR cut out of wood, stained with ver- 
 milion, with a club and sickle and a phallic 
 symbol of the creative and fructifying 
 powers of nature. The sacrifices offered 
 to him inchided asses, as well as the first- 
 fruits of the garden and the field. 
 
 Priests. (1) Greek. The ministers of a 
 particular sanctuary, charged with the duty 
 of attending to the service of the god of the 
 place. Their duty was to offer appropriate 
 sacrifices and perform other holy offices at 
 the appointed time and manner, and also to 
 assist and instruct worshippers, as to the 
 rites they were to observe. They had to 
 slay the victim, to select the parts for offer- 
 ing, and to lay them on the altar, to utter 
 the accompanying prayers, and the like. In 
 sacred functions which were performed 
 elsewhere (as by the father at the family 
 altar, and by certain State officers, e.g. 
 by the first three archons at Athens, by the 
 kings at Sparta), their assistance was not 
 required, although it was often invited. 
 
 The general name MSrSUs represents the 
 priest in his character of an offerer of sacri- 
 fice and a minister of sacred rites. In the 
 different cults, however, the priests often 
 took the most various names, and with 
 reference to individual cults had peculiar 
 functions. The priesthoods were filled 
 partly by right of inheritance from within 
 certain families (as some of them were in 
 almost all Greek states ; but especially at 
 Athens) ; partly by election or by a kind of 
 appointment combining election and lot. A 
 general qualification was legitimate descent 
 from citizens, an irreproachable character, 
 and freedom from bodily defects. (The wor- 
 ship of Artgmis at Ephesus required the 
 priests to be eunuchs, but it is to be observed 
 that this was not a Greek worship.) Many 
 priesthoods were only filled by men, others 
 by women only ; in many temples there were 
 priests and priestesses together ; but upon | 
 
 the whole it was a rule, though not without 
 exceptions, that the priests of gods were 
 men, of goddesses, women. In regard to 
 the necessary age, again, the regulations 
 were very various ; many priesthoods could 
 only be filled by quite young persons. 
 Virginity and celibacy were required for 
 certain priesthoods, e.g. for those of the 
 virgin goddesses Athene and Artemis. "A 
 rule existed in many places, that a woman 
 more than once married was disqualified 
 for the priesthood. At any rate, ritual 
 prescribed chastity for a certain time before 
 undertaking any priestly duty. Here and 
 there, too, the priests were forbidden to 
 taste certain kinds of food. The office 
 was held for very various periods, one year, 
 several years., a life-time. The priests 
 generally wore long hair and white vest- 
 ments ; many of them were clothed in 
 saft'ron-coloured robes, as (among others) 
 ithe priests of Dionyaus. The priestly 
 ornaments included garlands from the 
 leaves of various trees, alwaj'S according 
 to the character of the god, and wreaths 
 or fillets of many kinds. The priestly staff 
 is often mentioned. The priests often had 
 an official residence within the temple 
 inclosure. 
 
 They derived their maintenance partly 
 from the revenue of the temple property, 
 partly from their share of (the sacrifices, 
 the skins of the animals sacrificed, and 
 other dues of the same kind, and sometimes 
 from actual offertories. Among their privi- 
 leges, besides their inviola'bility, were free- 
 dom from military service, and a seat of 
 honour at assemblies of the people and at 
 the theatre. In many places dates were 
 reckoned from the time when the priest of 
 the chief divinity entered on office, e.g., in 
 Arg03 from the priestess of Hera's first 
 year of ministry [Thucydides, ii 2 § 1]. 
 Besides the priests there were many kinds 
 of temple-servants, for the preservation of 
 the sacred buildings, the administration of 
 their revenues, and the performance of the 
 various rites. (Cp. Ceryx, Hieroduli, 
 HiEROPo:;!, Neocori, Parasite.) 
 
 (2) Roman. At Rome, the State religion 
 was under the management of a number 
 of priesthoods, which, by the order of the 
 State, performed the regularly prescribed 
 sacred rites or those specially decreed by 
 the State on their recommendation. In the 
 time of the kings the superintendence of 
 the entire ritual belonged to the kings, 
 among whom Numa, as the founder of an 
 organized worship of the gods, holds a 
 
51G 
 
 PRIMIPILUS PRIXCEPS. 
 
 prominent pkce. The most important 
 ])riesthoods which originated in the time 
 of the kings were the FUlmines, the 
 Aiigurcs, the Vestales, the Sdlii, the 
 Fetiales, the Pontlficcs, the LiiperrA, the 
 Fratres Arvales, and the Curiones. Be- 
 sides these, in course of time there arose 
 the Rex SacrOrum to offer certain sacri- 
 fices originally offered by the king, the 
 custodians of the Sibylline oracles, the 
 Epidones to discharge a part of the pon- 
 tifical duties, the priests of the new cults 
 gradually introduced, and lastly the priests 
 of the deified emperors, e.g. the Saddles 
 AiigustCdes. A number of State cults were 
 handed over to individual clans (gentes) 
 and associations. {See Sodalitas.) 
 
 After the establishment of the Republic, 
 a distinguished position was attained by 
 the college of the pontlfices, wko, like the 
 king in earlier times, superintended the 
 entire ritual. They were the technical 
 advisers of the Senate on any new questions 
 that arose in regard to it. Next to them 
 in importance were the augurs and the 
 custodians of the Sibylline oracles. These 
 priesthoods, together with that of the 
 epidones, were styled the four great 
 colleges {quattuor summa collegia), and an 
 equal honour was afterwards given to that 
 of the sodales Augustales. 
 
 The appointment of the priests, for whom 
 the same qualifications were required as 
 among the Greeks, proceeded in various 
 ways, by nomination, co-optation, and 
 election. They entered on office by in- 
 auguration, an act in which the chief 
 pontiff, acting through the augurs, in- 
 quired of the god concerned whether the 
 new priest was acceptable to him. His 
 reception into the college was accompanied 
 by a banquet given by the new priest, 
 which became proverbial for its luxury. 
 
 When officially engaged all State priests 
 (apart from their peculiar insignia) wore 
 Xheprwiexta, the purple-edged robe of Roman 
 magistrates. They also enjoyed the distinc- 
 tion of a seat of honour at festivals and 
 games, and exemption from military service, 
 from the duties of citizens, and from taxa- 
 tion. The great priesthoods were posts of 
 honour, and, like the political offices, were 
 w^ithout remuneration. On the other hand, 
 some priests and priestesses {e.g. the 
 Vestal Virgins and the augurs), besides the 
 use of the sacred or public lands belonging 
 to their temples, received a regular annual 
 salarj-. The cost of the establishment was 
 defrayed from several sources. The priests 
 
 had under their management a fund which 
 was maintained from landed property and 
 current receipts (including fees for admis- 
 sion to the temple and for the offering of 
 the sacrifice). They also had a claim to cer- 
 tain parts of the victim, and other perqui- 
 sites; besides this, they all, especially the 
 c.unones {see Curia), and those associa- 
 tions to which State cults were entrusted, 
 received the necessarymoneyfrom thepublic 
 chest. The cost of repairing the temples 
 and of all sacrifices and festivals especially 
 ordered by the State was defrayed from the 
 same source. Similarly the State pro- 
 vided the priests either with public slaves 
 or with free and salaried servants, to wait 
 upon them. (For a particular kind of 
 priests' assistants, see Camilli.) All State 
 temples did not have particular priests 
 assigned them ; temples without priests of 
 their own were imder the superintendence 
 of a sacristan {ceditHus) ; and it was usually 
 only once in the year that sacrifice was 
 offered at the great festival of such temples 
 by a State priest specially appointed for 
 the purpose. No priest could be called to 
 account by any civil magistrate except the 
 censor. The ponti/ex maxtmus had the 
 power of punishing the other priests. The 
 position of a priest of a cult not recog- 
 nised by the State, but merely tolerated, 
 was naturally different. With regard to 
 their maintenance, they were themselves, 
 like the sanctuaries they superintended, sup- 
 ported by the contributions of the votaries 
 of their own cult. 
 
 Primipaus. See Centueionf.s. 
 
 Princeps. The Latin word for "a chief," 
 " a leader," " the foremost person." Thus, 
 in the Roman constiiutiorx, princeps Senutus 
 is the senator who was placed first on the 
 roll of the Senate drawn up by the censors. 
 When the Senate was voting, if no consuls- 
 designate were present, he was asked for 
 his opinion by the presiding magistrate 
 before any one else. Just as under the 
 Republic the leading men in the State were 
 called principes, Augustus, the founder of 
 the Monarchy, took with general consent 
 the title of princeps. This was quite in 
 harmony with, the old constitution, and at 
 the same time recognised his equality with 
 the other citizens. For the same reason his 
 successor, Tiberius, set special store on the 
 title oi princeps. As the monarchical power 
 became consolidated, and the old republican 
 ideas disappeared, the consciousness of the 
 original meaning of the title disappeared 
 with them. Princeps came to be equiva- 
 
PEISOIAN PROCLUS. 
 
 517 
 
 lent to impHrCdpr ; but it never became 
 an official title like Imperator, Ccesar, 
 Augustus. Like the Senate, the knights 
 had a princeps, the prlnceps iHvent litis 
 (the youth). This title was borne by the 
 knight whose name appeared first in the 
 censor's list of that body. By way of 
 compliment to the knights, Augustus 
 caused his grandsons, Gaius and Lucius 
 Caesar, to be styled principes iuvcntutis. 
 Ever after, the emperor's youthful sons 
 were regularly entitled principes iuvcn- 
 tutis until their entrance on a magistracy. 
 At the time of Rome's complete decay this 
 title was not unfrequently borne by those 
 associated with the emperors in the govern- 
 ment. On the meaning of principes in 
 military language, see Legion. 
 
 Priscian {Prisclamts). (1) A Latin 
 grammarian of Caesarea in Mauritania; who 
 lived, at the beginning of the 6th century 
 A.D., as a teacher of the Latin language in 
 Constantinople. He there compiled, in 
 addition to a number of smaller gramma- 
 tical works, his Institutwnes Grammdticce 
 in 18 books, the fullest and completest 
 systematic Latin grammar which has come 
 down to us. This work, which is of great 
 importance owing to its ample quotations 
 from ancient literature, was for a long 
 time, in the Middle Ages, the school book 
 in ordinary use, and formed the foundation 
 for the earlier treatises on Latin Grammar 
 in modern times. We also possess an in- 
 sipid panegyrical poem written by Priscian 
 on the emperor Anastasius, and a transla- 
 tion of the Cosmography of the geographer 
 Dionysius, in hexameter verse. 
 
 (2) A physician, who lived in the 5th 
 century, named Theodorus Priscianus, has 
 left us a Mediclna Prcesentdnea (a book 
 of rapid curatives) in five books. 
 
 Prdbole {Greek). A motion for a judicial 
 prosecution. In Attic legal procedure it was 
 a particular kind of public indictment. In 
 the first assembly of every prytany, on the 
 archon's inquiring whether the people were 
 satisfied with the conduct of the magis- 
 trates, any citizen might accuse a 
 magistrate of official misconduct. If the 
 assembly considered there was foundation 
 for the charge, the magistrate was tem- 
 porarily suspended or even absolutely 
 deposed from his office, and a judicial 
 prosecution was instituted. Even against 
 a private citizen, especially for doing an 
 injury to magistrates, or to sacred persons 
 or things, for interrupting a festival, em- 
 bezzling public money, or instituting a 
 
 vexatious prosecution, a complaint cou.ld 
 be brought before the people in order to 
 see whether they considered the case suit- 
 able for a judicial trial. [The most cele- 
 brated example of this procedure is the 
 case of Demosthenes against Meidlas for 
 assaulting him in the discharge of public 
 functions at the Dlonysla.'] However, this 
 neither bound the man who laid the plaint 
 to bring forward an actual indictment, nor 
 the jury to follow in the formal trial the 
 preliminary verdict of the people, although 
 it would always influence them. 
 
 Probus {Marcus Valerius). A famous 
 Roman scholar and critic, born at Berytus 
 in Syria. He flourished in the second half 
 of the 1st century a.d. He devoted almost 
 all attention to the archaic and classical 
 literature of Rome, which had been pre- 
 viously neglected, and to the critical re- 
 vision of the most important Roman poets, 
 as Lucretius, Vergil, and Horace, after the 
 manner of the Alexandrine scholars. Some 
 of his criticisms on Vergil may possibly be 
 preserved to us in a commentary to the 
 Eclogues and Georgics, which bears his 
 name. Prom a commentary, or criticism, 
 on Persius we have his biography of that 
 poet ; and from his work De Ndtls we have 
 an extract containing the abbreviations used 
 for legal terms. Other grammatical writ- 
 ings bearing his name are the work of a 
 grammarian of the 4th century. 
 
 Proclus. The most important represen- 
 tative of the later Neo-Platonic school, born 
 412 A.D. at Byzantium. He received his 
 first instruction at Xanthus in Lycia, and 
 betook himself to Alexandria to complete 
 his education. There he attached himself 
 chiefly to Heron the mathematician, and to 
 the Aristotelian Olympiodorus. Before the 
 age of twenty, he removed to Athens to 
 attend the lectures of the most celebrated 
 Platonists of the time, Syrlanus and Plu- 
 tarchus. On the death of the latter he 
 became head of the Platonic school until 
 his own death in 485. His disciples were 
 very numerous ; and his learning and Keal 
 for the education of the young, combined 
 with his beneficence, his virttaous and 
 strictly ascetic life, and his steadfastness in 
 the faith of his fathers, gained him the 
 enthusiastic devotion of his followers. We 
 possess an account of his life, full of admira- 
 tion for his character, by his pupil and 
 successor, Marlnus. The efforts of Proclus 
 were directed to the support of paganism 
 in its struggle with the now victorious 
 Christianity, by '-reducing to a system all 
 
518 
 
 PROCNE PROCONSUL. 
 
 the philosophic and religious traditions of 
 antiquity. His literary activity wrs very 
 great, and extended over almost every de- 
 partment of knowledge ; but Platonic philo- 
 sophy was the centre of the whole. His 
 philosophical works, now extant, are a 
 commentary on a few dialogues of Plato 
 (mainly on the TlmcPMs), also his chief 
 work on the theology of Plato, as well as a 
 summary of the theology of Plotinus, with 
 writings treating several branches of philo- 
 sophy from his own point of view. Some 
 of his minor works have only reached us in 
 a Latin translation. As specimens of his 
 mathematical and astronomical works, we 
 have a commentary on the first book of 
 Euclid, a sketch of the astronomical teach- 
 ing of Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and others, a 
 slight treatise on the heavens, etc. One 
 of his grammatical writings survives in his 
 commentary on Hesiod's Works and Days. 
 Lastly, we have two epigrams by him, and 
 six hymns. It is doubtful whether the 
 Grammatical Chrestomathy, extracts from 
 which, preserved by Photius, are the only 
 source of our knowledge of the Greek cyclic 
 poets, was really written by him, and not 
 rather by a grammarian of the same name 
 in the 2nd century a.d. 
 
 Procne. A daughter of the Athenian 
 king Pandion and Zeuxippe, sister of 
 Philomela. She was given in marriage by 
 her father to the Thracian prince Tereus, in 
 Daulis near Parnassus, in return for assis- 
 tance given him in Avar. Tereus became by 
 her the father of Itys. Pretending that his 
 wife Procne was dead, Tereus fetched her 
 sister Philomela from Athens, and ravished 
 her on the way. He then cut out her 
 tongue that she might be unable to inform 
 against him, and concealed her in a grove 
 on Parnassus ; but the unfortunate girl con- 
 trived to inform her sister of what had 
 happened by a robe into which she in- 
 geniously wovo, the story of her fate. 
 Taking the opportunity of a feast of 
 Dionysus in Parnassus, Procne went in 
 quest of her sister, and agreed with her 
 on a bloody revenge. They slew the boy 
 Itys, and served him up to his father to 
 eat. When Tereus learnt the outrage, and 
 was on the point of slaying the sisters, the 
 gods changed him into a hoopoe or hawk, 
 Procne into a nightingale, and Philomela 
 into a swallow, or (according to another 
 version) Procne into a swallow, and Philo- 
 mela into a nightingale. (See Aedon.) 
 
 Proconsul ( =prd consule, " deputy- 
 consul "). The name at Rome for the 
 
 officer to whom the consular power was 
 entrusted for a specified district outside the 
 city. The regular method of appointing 
 the proconsul was to prolong the official 
 power of the retiring consul (prordgdtio 
 imperii) on the conclusion of his year of 
 office. In exceptional cases, however, others 
 were appointed proconsuls, generally those 
 who had already held the office of consul. 
 This was especially done to increase the 
 number of generals in command. The pro- 
 consuls were appointed for a definite or 
 indefinite pei iod ; as a rule for a year, 
 reckoned from the day On which they en- 
 tered their province. This period might 
 be prolonged by a new prorogation. In 
 any case the proconsul continued in office 
 till the appearance of his successor. With 
 the growth of the provinces, the consuls as 
 well as the praetors were employed to ad- 
 minister them, as proconsuls, on the expiry 
 of their office. After Sulla this became 
 the rule ; indeed, the Senate decided which 
 provinces were to be consular and which 
 praetorian. The regulation, in 53 B.C., that 
 past consuls should not govern a province 
 till five years after their consulship broke 
 down the immediate connexion between 
 the consulship and succession to a pro- 
 vince, and the proconsuls thereby became 
 in a more distinctive sense governors of 
 provinces. After Augustus the title was 
 given to governors of senatorial provinces, 
 whether they had held the consulship before 
 or not. As soon as the proconsul had been 
 invested with his official power {imperium), 
 he had to leave Rome forthwith, for there 
 his imperium became extinct. Like the 
 consuls, he had twelve lictors with bundles 
 of rods and axes, whom he was bound to 
 dismiss on re-entering Rome. In the pro- 
 vince he combined military and judicial 
 power over the subject peoples and the 
 Roman citizens alike — only that in the 
 case of the latter, on a capital charge, he 
 had to allow them an appeal to Rome. To 
 administer justice, he travelled in the win- 
 ter from town to town. In the case of war 
 he might order out- the Roman citizens as 
 well as the provincials. His power was 
 absolutely unlimited, so that he might be 
 guilty of the greatest oppression and ex- 
 tortion, and was only liable to prosecution 
 for these offences on the expiry of his 
 office. He might advance a claim for a 
 triumph, or an ovdtio (q.v.), for military 
 services. When the senatorial provinces 
 came generally to have no army, under 
 the Empire, the duties of the proconsuls 
 
PROCOPIUS PEOEDEIA. 
 
 519 
 
 became limited to administration, political 
 and judicial. 
 
 Procoplus. A Greek historian of Ceesarea 
 in Palestine, a rhetorician and advocate by 
 profession. In and after 626 A.D. he at- 
 tended the general Belisarius as private 
 secretary and adviser in nearly all his cam- 
 paigns. He was afterwards made a senator, 
 and in 662, when prefect of Constantinople, 
 was deposed from his office by a conspiracy, 
 and shortly afterwards died suddenly, more 
 than seventy years old. He has left us a 
 history of his own times down to 554 in 
 eight books, dealing especially with the 
 wars of Justinian against the Persians, 
 Vandals, and East Goths ; a panegyric on 
 the buildings of Justinian ; and the AnecdSta, 
 or secret histoi-y, supplementing the first- 
 mentioned work. It discloses the scandals 
 of the court of the day, and, on account of 
 its contents, was not published until after 
 the death of the .author. His information 
 is partly derived'^rom the oral testimony 
 of others, but he prefers to record his own 
 experiences. This, and his fresh treatment 
 of his subject, together with his pure and, 
 on the whole, simple style, make him one 
 of the most eminent authors of his age. 
 
 Procris. Daughter of Erechtheus, and 
 wife of Cephalus (q.v.). 
 
 Procrustes. See Damastes. 
 
 Prociiliis (Sempronias). A Roman jurist, 
 founder of the school called after him the 
 Proculiani. {See Antistius Labeo and 
 Jurisprudence . ) 
 
 Procurator, under the Roman Republic, 
 meant the fully accredited agent of a 
 private citizen. Under the Empire, the 
 title was given to those who, as household 
 officers of the emperor, were considered 
 administrators of the imperial purse. The 
 fiscal administration of the imperial pro- 
 vinces was in the hands of a procurator of 
 equestrian rank, under whom were freed- 
 men of the emperor's, bearing the same 
 title, and attending to particular depart- 
 ments of the administration. In the sena- 
 torial provinces, also, there was an imperial 
 procurator, independent of the governor, to 
 manage the domains and to collect the 
 revenues belonging to the fiscus. Further, 
 there were particular provinces which, 
 before they were administered as actual 
 provinces, were governed as domains by 
 an administrator appointed by the emperor 
 and personally responsible to him. He 
 likewise was styled procurator, and in 
 general had a position similar to that of 
 the other governors. Such a procurator 
 
 was Pontius Pilate in Judsea, which for a 
 long time was under a procurator. The 
 imperial chief treasury was administered 
 by a procurator a ratWntbus, also called 
 procurator fisci, at first an imperial freed- 
 man, but after the 2nd century a knight. 
 To administer the imperial privy purse, 
 into which flowed the revenues from the 
 crown lands and the private fortune of the 
 emperor, there were special procurators. 
 
 Frddicus. A Greek Sophist of Ceos, con- 
 temporary with Socrates. He repeatedly 
 visited Athens as an ambassador from his 
 native country. The applause' which his 
 speeches gained there induced him to come 
 forward as a rhetorician. In his lectures 
 on literary style he laid chief stress on the 
 right use of words and the accurate dis- 
 crimination between synonyms, and thereby 
 paved the way for the dialectic discussions 
 of Socrates. None of his lectures have 
 come down to us in their original form. 
 We have the substance only of his cele- 
 brated fable of the Choice of Heracles 
 [preserved by Xenophon, Memorabilia, ii 
 §§ 21-34]. 
 
 Prodiglum. The Latin term for an un- 
 natural or, at any rate, unusual and inex- 
 plicable phenomenon, which was always 
 treated as requiring expiation (procurdtio). 
 This was only done on behalf of the State, 
 if the phenomenon had been observed on 
 ground belonging to the State. The Senate, 
 acting on the advice of the pontiffs, or- 
 dained either particular sacrifices, to speci- 
 fied deities, or a nine days' sacrifice, or a 
 public intercession, and left the execution 
 of the ordinance to the consuls. If a pro- 
 digium caused so much alarm that the 
 usual means of expiation seemed insufficient, 
 the Senate had recourse to the Sibylline 
 books, or the Etruscan hdruspices. (See 
 Haruspex.) For the prodigium of a 
 thunderbolt, see Puteal. 
 
 Prodromi. Greek skirmishers. {See 
 
 HiPPEIS.) 
 
 PrSedria. The right of occupying the 
 front row of seats next the orchestra, at the 
 dramatic performances in the Greek theatre. 
 This distinction was enjoyed by the priests, 
 the chief magistrates, distinguished citizens, 
 the descendants of those who had fallen 
 in battle for their country, and members 
 of foreign states whom it was desired to 
 honour, especially ambassadors. The term 
 also denotes the presidency at the Council 
 {see Boule), and in the assemblies of the 
 people. [In the 6th century B.C. the 
 prytdnSs, under their Spistdtes, presided 
 
520 
 
 PRCETUS— PROMETHEUS. 
 
 over the Council and the assemblies of the 
 people ; in the 4th, the proedrl were 
 instituted. The latter were appointed on 
 each occasion from nine of the tribes, and 
 the presidential duties were transferred to 
 them and their epistates (a member of the 
 tenth tribe). See Aristotle, Constitution of 
 Athens, 4i, p. 115, with Mr. Kenyon's note.] 
 
 Prcetus. Son of Abas of Argos, and twin 
 brother of Acrislus. Expelled from his home 
 by his brother, he fled to the king of the 
 Lycians, iSbates, who gave him in marriage 
 his daughter Anteia (in the tragedians, 
 Stenobcea), and compelled Acrisius to resign 
 in his favour the sovereignty of Tiryns. 
 Here the Cyclopes built him a town of 
 impregnable strength. His daughters were 
 punished with madness either for their 
 opposition to the worship of Dionysus or 
 (according to another account) for their dis- 
 respect for Hera. This madness spread to 
 the other women of the land, and was only 
 cured by the interposition of Melampus 
 (q.r.). His son MegSpenthes exchanged 
 with Perseus the rule of Tiryns for that of 
 Argos. {Cp. Bellerophon.) 
 
 Proletarii. The name in the Roman 
 centuriate system (see Centuria) of those 
 citizens who were placed in the lowest of 
 the live property classes, and who were 
 exempt from military service and tribute. 
 They took their name from the fact that 
 they only benefited the State by their 
 children {proles). Another name for them 
 is capUe censi, i.e. those who were classed 
 in the list of citizens at the census solely in 
 regard to their status as citizens (cdpuf). 
 Afterwards, the richer among them were 
 taken to serve in the wars : these were then 
 called proletani ; and those without any 
 property at all, capite censi. In and after 
 the time of Marius, when the levy of troops 
 was no longer founded on the census, the 
 Roman armies were recruited by preference 
 from the last class. 
 
 Promachus (fighter in the front rank, 
 protector). (1) An epithet of Athene (q.v.). 
 
 (2) Son of Parthenopseus and the Nymph 
 Clymene, one of the Epigoni (q.v.). 
 
 Prometheia. See Prometheus. 
 
 Prometheus (the man of forethought). Son 
 of the Titan lapetus and the Ocean-nymph 
 Clymene, brother of Atlas, Mencetius, and 
 Epimetheus, father of Deucalion (q.v.). 
 The most ancient account of him, as given 
 by Hesiod [TJieoff. 521-616] is as follows. 
 When the gods, after their conquest of the 
 Titans, were negotiating with mankind 
 about the honour to be paid them, Prome- 
 
 theus was charged with the duty of divid- 
 ing a victim offered in sacrifice to the gods. 
 He endeavoured to impose upon Zeus by 
 dividing it in such a way as cleverly to 
 conceal the half which consisted of flesh 
 and the edible vitals under the skin of the 
 animal, and to lay thereon the worst part, 
 the stomach, while he heaped the bones 
 together and covered them with fat. 
 
 Zeus divined the stratagem, but, out of 
 enmity towards man, purposely chose the 
 worse portion and avenged himself by re- 
 fusing mortals the use of fire. Thereupon 
 Prometheus stole it from Olympus and 
 brought it to men in a hollow reed. As a 
 set off to this great blessing, Zeus resolved 
 to send them an equally great evil. He 
 caused Hephaestus to make of clay a beau- 
 tiful woman named Pandora, that is, the 
 all-gifted ; for the gods presented her with 
 all manner of charms and adornments, 
 coupled however with lies, flattering words, 
 and a crafty mind. Hermes brought her, 
 with a jar as her dowry, in which every 
 evil was shut up, to the brother of Prome- 
 theus, named Epimetheus {i.e. the man of 
 afterthought, for he never thought of what 
 he did until it had brought him into trouble). 
 In spite of his brother's warning not to 
 receive any present from Zeus, he was en- 
 snared by her charms and took her to wife. 
 Pandora opened the jar, and out flew all 
 manner of evils, troubles, and diseases, before 
 unknown to man, and spread over all the 
 earth. Only delusive Hope remained in the 
 jar, since, before she could escape. Pandora 
 put the lid on the jar again [Works and 
 Days, 54-106]. But Prometheus met with 
 his punishment. Zeus bound him in ada- 
 mantine fetters to a pillar with an eagle to 
 consume in the day-time his liver, which 
 grew again in the night. At last Heracles, 
 with the consent of Zeus, who desired to 
 increase his son's renown, killed the eagle, 
 and set the son of lapetus free. According 
 to this account, the guile of Prometheus, 
 and his opposition to the will of Zeus, 
 brought on man far more evil than good. 
 
 Jilschylus, on the other hand, taking the 
 view suggested by the Attic cult of Prome- 
 theus, in which the fire-bringing god was 
 honoured as the founder of human civiliza- 
 tion, gave the myth an entirely different 
 form in his trilogy of Prometheus the Fire- 
 bearer, Prometheus Bound, and Prometheus 
 Released. In these Prometheus is still of 
 course the opponent of Zeus, but, at the 
 same time, he is represented as full of the 
 most devoted love for the human race. 
 
PRONAOS PROPERTIUS. 
 
 521 
 
 -iEschylus makes liim son of Themis, by 
 whom he is put in possession of all the 
 secrets of the future. In the war with the 
 Titans, his advice assisted Zeus to victory. 
 But when the god, after the partition of 
 the world, resolved on destroying the rude 
 human race, and to create other beings in 
 their stead, Prometheus alone concerned 
 himself with the fate of wretched mortals, 
 and saved them from destruction. He 
 brought them the fire he had stolen from 
 Hephaestus at Lemnos, the fire that was to 
 become the source of all discoveries and of 
 mastery over nature ; and raised them to a 
 higher civilization by his inventive skill 
 and by the arts which he taught mankind. 
 For this he was punished by being chained 
 on a rock beside the sea in the wilds of 
 Scythia. Oceanus advised him to bend 
 beneath the might of Zeus ; but he consoled 
 himself with the knowledge that, if the god 
 begat a son by a certain goddess known to 
 himself alone {Thetis), that son would de- 
 throne his father. When no menaces could 
 tear from him the secret, Zeus hurled him 
 with a thunderbolt into Tartarus together 
 with the rock to which he was chained. 
 Erom this abode he first emerged into the 
 light of day a long time after, to be fastened 
 on Mount Caucasus and torn by the eagle 
 until another immortal voluntarily entered 
 Hades for him. At last Heracles, on his 
 journey to the Hesperides, shot the eagle ; 
 the centaur Chiron (q.v.), suffering from 
 his incurable wound, gladly renounced his 
 immortality ; and, after Prometheus had 
 revealed the name of the goddess, he was set 
 free. But, as a sign of his punishment, he 
 ever after bore on his finger an iron ring 
 and on his head a willow crown. He re- 
 turned to Olympus, and once more became 
 adviser and prophet of the gods. Legends 
 related that he moulded men and animals 
 of clay, and either animated these himself 
 with the heavenly fire or induced Zeus or 
 Athene to do so [Ovid, Met., i 81 ; Horace, 
 Odes, i 16, 13]. In Athens Prometheus 
 shared with Hephaestus a common altar 
 in the Academy, in the sacred precinct 
 of Athene, and was honoured with a 
 torch race in a yearly festival called the 
 Frometheld. 
 
 Pronaos (Greek). In a Greek temple, the 
 entrance hall to the temple proper, ornaos.' 
 {See Temple.) 
 
 Propertius {Sextus). A Eemah ='elegiac 
 poet born at Asisium {Assisi), in Umbria, 
 [Prop. V 1, 121-6 and 65-6 ; i 22, 9. The 
 date of his birth is uncertain. He was 
 
 somewhat older than Ovid, and was pro- 
 bably born about 60 B.C.] He lost his 
 parents at an early age ; and, through the 
 general confiscation of land in 42, was 
 deprived of the greater part of his paternal 
 estate. Still, he possessed enough to live 
 a careless poet's life at Rome, whither he 
 had proceeded soon after coming of age 
 [about 34 B.C.]. He there associated with 
 his patron Maecenas and with brother poets 
 such as Vergil and Ovid. To complete his 
 studies he afterwards went to Athens. 
 When he was still quite young, the poet's 
 spirit woke within him, and expanded 
 through his attachment to the beautiful 
 and witty Hostia. Under the name Cynthia, 
 she henceforth was the subject of his love- 
 poems. Por five years [B.C. 28-23] this 
 attachment lasted, though often disturbed 
 by the jealousy of the sensitive poet and the 
 capriciousness of his mistress. When it 
 had come to an end, and even after Cynthia's 
 death (probably before B.C. 18), the poet 
 could not forget his old passion. He him- 
 self died young. He often expresses fore- 
 bodings of an early death ; there is no 
 indication in his poems that any of them 
 were written later than 16 B.C. They have 
 come down to us in four books, but some 
 scholars are of opinion that the poet himself 
 had divided them into five, and that the 
 original second and third books have been 
 united, perhaps through the oversight of 
 friends at the publication of the last. Pro- 
 pertius himself seems to have onlj' published 
 the first. In the first four books amatory 
 poems preponderate. The fifth book, the 
 confused order of which may well be re- 
 ferred to the poet's untimely death, deals 
 mainly with subjects taken from Roman 
 legends and history, in the same way as 
 Ovid subsequently treated them in the 
 Fasti. -■* 
 
 Propertius possesses a poetical genius 
 with which his talent is unable to keep 
 pace. Endowed with a nature suscep- 
 tible of passion as deep as it was strong, 
 as ardent as it was easily evoked, and 
 possessed of a rich fancy, he strives to 
 express the fulness of his thoughts and 
 feelings in a manner modelled closely on 
 that of his Greek masters ; and yet in his 
 struggle with linguistic and metrical form, 
 he fails to attain the agreeable in every 
 instance. His expression is often peculiarly 
 harsh and difScult, and his meaning is fre- 
 quently obscured by far-fetched allusions to 
 unfamiliar legends, or actual transcripts of 
 them. Herein he follows the example of 
 
522 
 
 PROPR^TOR PROPYLS A. 
 
 his models, the Alexandrine poets, Calll- 
 machus and Philetas. Nevertheless he is 
 a great poet, and none of his countrymen 
 have depicted the fire of passion so truly 
 and so vividly as he. 
 
 Propraetor {pro pratdre). The name 
 among the Romans of a past prsetor who, 
 on the expiration of his office, proceeded 
 to administer (generally for a year) the 
 preetorian province assigned him by lot at 
 the beginning of his office. Occasionally 
 this title was also borne by those who, 
 without having been prsetors immediately 
 before, were invested with praetorian 
 
 celebrated was that built at the west end of 
 the AcropSlis {see plan of Acropolis). This 
 was built of Pentelic marble between 437 
 and 432 B.C., under the auspices of Pericles, 
 at a cost of 2,012 talents (about £402,400). 
 The architect was Mnesicles. The main 
 building, a quadrangle of large dimensions, 
 inclosed by walls to the right and left, and 
 open in the direction of the city and the 
 Acropolis, was transversely divided by a 
 wall into two porticoes, that in front being 
 about twice the depth of that behind. The 
 dividing wall had five openings, the widest 
 in the middle, and two smaller on each 
 
 * FLAM OF PROPYL SA. 
 
 The dotted portions were projected only, 
 ('MibS Harrison's Mythology, etc., of Athens, p. 352, after Dorpfeld, Mittheilungen 1885 
 
 powers ; in particular, by the quaestors left 
 behind by the governors in the provinces. 
 Apart from the fact that the propraetor 
 had only six lictors, he had essentially the 
 same position in the province as the pro- 
 consul iq.v.). Under the Empire this title 
 was also given to the governors of the im- 
 perial provinces, as distinguished from the 
 proconsuls, the governors of the senatorial 
 provinces. 
 
 Pr6p;ylaBa (Greek). A temple-like porch 
 leading into a temple inclosure. [Thus 
 there were propylcea to the temple of 
 Athene at Sunium, and of Demeter at 
 Eleusis {see plan of Eledsis)]. The most 
 
 side. The deeper portico in front of this 
 dividing wall was faced by six Doric columns 
 with the spaces between them correspond- 
 ing in breadth to the five openings in the 
 dividing wall, the space in the centre being 
 nearly 18 feet, the two on each side about 
 12 and 11 feet. The portico beyond the 
 division was similarly faced by six Doric 
 columns. The columns of the outer portico 
 were 29 feet high, those of the inner some- 
 what less, but the ground on which they 
 stand is 6j feet higher, so that the pedi- 
 ment of the inner portico was nearly 5 feet 
 higher than that of the outer portico. Two 
 rows of three slender Ionic columns, about 
 
PROROGATIO PROTEUS. 
 
 523 
 
 33 feet high, stood on either side of the 
 road that rises towards the middle entrance. 
 These divided the deep outer portico into 
 three colonnades spanned by slender beams 
 of marble with a coffered ceiling decorated 
 with gilt palmetto ornaments on a blue 
 ground. Four steps led from outside to the 
 two side colonnades of the outer portico ; and 
 from the farther end of the latter five marble 
 steps rose to the side doors of the division 
 between the porticoes. A considerable part 
 of the columns is still standing. To the 
 main building were attached two side-wings, 
 still in fairly good preservation, not so high, 
 but, like the main building, furnished with 
 columned chambers. The larger of these, 
 the north-west wing (now generally called 
 the PmdcdtJieca) , contained a collection of 
 pictures. [The south-west wing is much 
 smaller, and does not correspond to that on 
 the north-west. The architect, as suggested 
 by Dr. Dorpfeld, was probably compelled 
 to modify his original plan because it would 
 have intruded on the sacred precincts of 
 Athene Nike. A projected south-east hall 
 was similarly given up because of the pre- 
 cincts of Artemis Brauronia ; and a corre- 
 sponding north-east hall was not carried 
 out, owing to the outbreak of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War {cj>. plan).] For the room 
 in the Greek house called propylaion, see 
 House. 
 
 Prorogatio. The Roman term for the 
 extension either of a man's year of ofSce 
 {prorogatio mdgistrdtus), or of a supreme 
 command (prorogatio imperii), or of a 
 provincial administration {prorogatio pro- 
 vincicB). 
 
 Proscenium. See Theatre. 
 
 Proserpina. See Persephone. 
 
 Prosodium. A kind of song generally 
 sung to the accompaniment of the flute at 
 festal processions to the temple or the altar, 
 chiefly in the worship of Apollo. It had a 
 rhythm corresponding to the measure of the 
 march. 
 
 Prostas. See House {Greek). 
 
 Prostyles {Greek). Literally, " with 
 columns in front," an epithet of a temple 
 {nods) with the columns in front of its 
 portico standing completely free from the 
 front wall of the temple itself. {See Tem-ple, 
 fig. 2.) 
 
 Protagonistes. In the Greek drama, the 
 actor who played the leading part. 
 
 Protagoras. A Greek Sophist of Abdera, 
 born about 480 B.C. He passed some forty 
 years in travelling through the different 
 towns of Greece as a teacher, but stayed 
 
 chiefly at Athens. There he was highly 
 honoured on account of his learning, espe- 
 cially by Pericles, until he was expelled for 
 atheistical statements in a treatise On the 
 Gods, and his works were publicly burnt. 
 He died at the age of 70. His teaching was 
 chiefly directed to the exposition of grammar 
 and rhetoric. In his philosophical views 
 he followed Heraclitus, transferring the 
 teaching of the latter, on the eternal flux 
 of matter to human knowledge, which, as 
 he thought. Was merely a subjective and 
 relative, not an objective and absolute truth. 
 This is the point of his celebrated proposi- 
 tion, " Man is the measure of all things : of 
 those which are, that they are ; of those 
 which are not, that they are not" [Plato, 
 Theatetus, 152 ; Diogenes Laertius, ix 51.1 
 
 Protgsilaus. Son of Iphiclus, king of 
 Phylace, in Thessaly. He was the first to 
 leap on to the soil of Troy at the landing of 
 the Greeks, although he knew that the first 
 who set foot on Trojan ground must die. 
 He was forthwith killed by Hector. His 
 men were then led by his younger brother, 
 Podarces. His wife, Laodameia, daughter 
 of Acastus, obtained from the gods the boon 
 that Protesilaus, to whom she had only been 
 married for one day, might return to earth 
 for three hours. When he died again, she 
 joined him in death. According to another 
 legend, she had a wax image of him made, 
 to which she paid divine honours ; and, 
 when her father burnt it on a funeral pile, 
 she threw herself on the flames in despair, 
 and died. 
 
 Proteus. According to Homer [Od. iv 
 354^569] an old man of the sea, a subject 
 of Poseidon, who tended the seals which 
 are the flocks of Amphitrite. Like all 
 marine deities, he possessed the gift of pro- 
 phecy and the power of assuming any 
 shape he pleased. He used to sleep at 
 mid-day on the island of Phftros, near 
 Egypt. When Menelaus, on his return 
 from Troy, was detained by contrary winds 
 on the island, he surprised Proteus, by the 
 advice of his daughter Idothea, and, in spite 
 of all his transformations, held him fast 
 until he told him the means for returning 
 home. According to later legends [Hero- 
 dotus, ii 112, 118; Euripides, Helen], 
 Proteus was a son of Poseidon, and was 
 an Egyptian king living on the island of 
 Pharos, to whom Hermes conducted Helen 
 when she was carried off by Paris, while 
 only a phantom followed Paris to Troy. 
 Menelaus, as he returned from Troy, received 
 his wife again from him. 
 
524 
 
 PROTHYRON PROVINCIA. 
 
 Prdthjrrdn. See House {Greek). 
 
 Protdgfines. A celebrated Greek painter 
 of Caunus in Caria, who lived for the most 
 part at Rhodes, in the time of Alexander the 
 Great and his first successors. He died 300 
 B.C. His poverty seems to have prevented 
 him from attending the school of any of the 
 celebrated masters of his age, for no one is 
 named as his instructor. He long remained 
 poor until the unselfish admiration which 
 his contemporary and brother painter 
 Apelles showed for his works raised him 
 in riper years to great celebrity. His works, 
 owing to the excessive care he bestowed on 
 them, were few in number ; but their per- 
 fect execution led to their being ranked by 
 the unanimous voice of antiquity among the 
 highest productions of art. His most cele- 
 brated works were a Resting Satyr, and also 
 a painting representing the Rhodian hero 
 laXijsus. On the latter he spent seven or, 
 according to others, as many as eleven years. 
 To insure its permanence he covered it 
 with four distinct coats of paint, so that 
 when the upper coating perished the lower 
 might takes its place [Pliny, N. H., xxxv 
 101-105]. 
 
 Provincia. A Roman term implying, (1) 
 a sphere of duty, especially that assigned to 
 a consul or praetor, within which he exer- 
 cised his impSrium. 
 
 (2) A territory acquired by the Romans 
 outside the limits of Italy, subject to the 
 payment of taxes and administered by a 
 governor. Under the Republic, the organiza- 
 tion of a conquei'ed land as a province was 
 managed by the conquering general, with 
 the advice of a commission of ten senators, 
 who were nominated by the Senate and 
 received their instructions from that body. 
 The previous administration was altered 
 as little as possible, so far as it was not 
 in conflict with the interests of Rome. The 
 lex provincice thus established fixed for 
 the future the form of government. The 
 first provinces were Sicily (irnm 241 B.C ) 
 and Sardinia with Corsica (from 231). Their 
 number rose under the Republic to fifteen, 
 i.e. (besides the two already mentioned), 
 the two provinces of Spain {Ultenor and 
 Clterior), Illyria, Macedonia, Achaia, Asia 
 Minor, the two Gauls {Transcdplna and 
 Cisalplna), Bithynia, Cyrene and Crete, 
 Cilicia, Syria. Their governors were either 
 propraetors (at first praetors) or proconsuls. 
 The Senate decided which provinces were 
 to be consular, which praetorian ; and the 
 consuls and praetors had their respective 
 provinces assigned to them by lot. In the 
 
 case of the consuls this was done imme- 
 diately after their election ; in the case of 
 the praetors, after their actual accession to 
 office. When their, year's office was com- 
 pleted, they proceeded as proconsuls and 
 propraetors to their provinces, and stayed 
 there a year until they were relieved by 
 their successors, unless, as frequently hap- 
 pened, it proved necessary to prolong their 
 imperiUJii. 
 
 It was towards the end of the Republic 
 (52 B.C.), that it became a rule that no 
 consul or praetor should be allowed to be 
 governor of a province until five years 
 after he had ceased to hold his office. The 
 Senate also settled for every governor his 
 supply of money, troops, ships, and sub- 
 ordinates. These last included one or more 
 legdti, a qucBStor, and a numerous stafT. 
 In the governor's hands was concentrated 
 the entire administrative power over the 
 province. He commanded the garrison 
 troops, he had the right of raising a levy 
 of Roman citizens and provincials alike, 
 and of making requisitions to obtain the 
 means for war. He also possessed jurisdic- 
 tion in criminal and civil cases, in th6 
 former, with power of life and death, except 
 that Roman citizens had the right of appeal 
 (provdcdfw). While it was carefully pre- 
 scribed how much the governors could 
 require from the provincials for the support 
 of their person and attendants, their powers 
 made it possible for them to enrich them- 
 selves by all manner of extortion, and this 
 became the rule to a most extraordinary 
 extent. Against such oppression the pro- 
 vincials had no protection, so long as the 
 governor's office lasted. It was only on its 
 termination that they could in earlier times 
 lay a complaint before the Senate, which 
 seldom led to anything; while, after 149 
 B.C., they had open to them the procedure 
 of bringing a charge of extortion, which 
 was attended with great difficulty and 
 expense. (Se^ Repetundaeuji Crimen.) 
 These extortions were repeated anew j'ear 
 after year, together with the exorbitant 
 demands of the tax-collectors {see Publi- 
 CANi) ; and the governors, when invoked 
 against them, in spite of their authority, 
 rarely ventured to interpose, from fear of 
 the equestriaa plutocracy. The result was, 
 that, at the end of the Republic, the pro- 
 vinces were in absolute poverty. A real 
 improvement in their condition was brought 
 about by the regulations enforced under 
 the Empire, when some provinces attained 
 a high pitch of prosperity. - 
 
PROVOCATIO PROXENUS. 
 
 525 
 
 In 27 B.C. Augustus divided the then 
 existing provinces into imperial and sena- 
 torial. He entrusted ten, in a state of com- 
 plete tranquillity, to the Senate; viz. Africa, 
 Asia Minor, Achaia, Illyria or Dalmatia, 
 Macedonia, Sicily, Crete with Gyrene, 
 Bithynia, Sardinia, and South Spain. He 
 took into his own hands the twelve which 
 still required military occupation. These 
 were : North Spain, Lusitania, the four 
 provinces of Gaul {Narhonensis, Lugdu- 
 nensis or Celtica, Aqulfania, and Belgica), 
 Upper and Lower Germany, Syria, Cilicia, 
 Cyprus, and Egypt. Changes were made 
 in this partition later on ; but the provinces 
 acquired after 27 B.C. fell to the emperor. 
 For the senatorial provinces the governors 
 were appointed on the whole in the ancient 
 manner, i.e. by the lot, and for one year ; 
 but with this difference, that five, and after- 
 wards ten to thirteen, years had to elapse 
 after the consulship or praetorship before 
 past consuls or past praetors proceeded to 
 their provinces. The former received the 
 provinces which were from the very first 
 called consular, viz. Asia and Africa, the 
 latter the others, which were praetorian ; 
 but both sets of governors alike were 
 styled proconsuls, and were attended by 
 the same retinue as heretofore. The im- 
 perial provinces, which became three times 
 as numerous by the time of Trajan, were 
 governed by the emperor himself through 
 deputies whose continuance in office de- 
 pended on the will of the emperor who 
 appointed them. These deputies, according 
 to the importance of the province, were 
 either of consular or praetorian rank, legdti 
 Augusti pro prcetore {see Legati), or pr6- 
 cUratores (q.v.). Egypt alone, which was 
 governed as an imperial domain, was under 
 a prcefectus {q.v.). The financial adminis- 
 tration of the senatorial provinces was 
 managed by quaestors ; that of the imperial, 
 by procurators, who also collected in the 
 senatorial provinces the revenues directly 
 due to the emperor. Augustus established a 
 fixed stipend for all officers outside Rome, . 
 and thus afforded a real relief to the 
 oppressed provincials. Considerable alle- 
 viation was also secured for them by the 
 limitation to the employment of State tax- 
 collectors. The same result was promoted 
 by the longer continuance of the adminis- 
 tration in the imperial provinces, and the 
 greater facilities granted for bringing an in- 
 dictment, by means of a regular procedure 
 before the Senate. Moreover the emperor, 
 after the proconsular power over all pro- 
 
 vinces had been conferred on Augustus, 23 
 B.C., ranked as the highest authority over 
 all the governors, and heard complaints as 
 well as appeals. 
 
 Provocatio. The Roman term for the 
 appeal from the verdict of the magistrate 
 to the decision of the people. 
 
 Under the kings the court of appeal was 
 the comitla curlata ; after Servius Tullius, 
 the comitia centHriata. While, under the 
 arbitrary rule of the kings, the right of 
 appeal was allowed , on the establishment of 
 the Republic, in 509 B.C., this was imposed 
 on the consuls as a duty, and was repeatedly 
 enjoined by special enactments in all cases 
 where it was a question of life and death, 
 or of corporal punishment. The appeal 
 was only valid within the city, and the 
 p<j7nerlum, but not in the camp. More- 
 over, no one could appeal against the 
 dictator. When afterwards (454 B.C.), 
 besides the consuls, the tribunes and sediles 
 acquired the right of imposing a fine {multa, 
 q.v.), a maximum limit was fixed for it, and 
 if that was exceeded, there was an appeal 
 to the comitia trihuta. 
 
 As this appeal was expected in all legiti- 
 mate cases, trials of this kind were held 
 immediately before the comitia concerned 
 with such appeals ; and after the verdict 
 had been pronounced by the magistrate 
 presiding, it was either confirmed or re- 
 versed by the votes of the people. About 
 195 B.C. the right of appeal was extended 
 over the whole of Italy and the provinces. 
 After permanent courts for certain offences 
 had been established, the qucestlones per- 
 pStuce {see Qu.<estio), the jurisdiction of the 
 people, and with it the appeal thereto, be- 
 came more and more limited. Eor the pro- 
 vocatio under the Empire, see Appellatio. 
 
 ProxSnus (State-friend). The Greek term 
 for the representative of a State who was 
 appointed, from the citizens of another 
 State, to attend to the interests of its 
 citizens there resident, as often as they 
 needed legal protection and assistance. In 
 the interests of foreigners, many States 
 appointed such representatives from among 
 their own citizens. Their position may be 
 compared with that of our consuls. The 
 proxenus received many distinctions and 
 honours from the State which he represented. 
 To be nominated pro^enMS was in some cases 
 only an honorary distinction, which the 
 State conferred on such foreigners as re- 
 sided in it as aliens {see Metceci), and were 
 therefore unable to do any service abroad 
 for the citizens of the State in which they 
 
520 
 
 PRUDEXTIUS CLEMENS PSYCHE. 
 
 resided. This distinction insured many 
 privileges, such as freedom from taxation 
 and from public burdens which otherwise 
 fell on the resident aliens, and, in general, 
 exemption from tolls and taxes ; also the 
 right to acquire property in land, free 
 admission to the Senate and to the assem- 
 blies of the people, etc. [See Monceaux, 
 Les Pfoxenies Grecqucs, 1886.] 
 
 Prudentius Clemens (Aurelius). The most 
 important among the Christian Latin jioets, 
 born 348 A.D., of a respectable family in 
 Spain. After a rhetorical and legal edu- 
 cation, he first practised as an advocate, 
 discharged the duties of a civil and 
 criminal judge in Spain, held a high military 
 appointment at court, and in later years 
 retired to a monastery, where he devoted 
 himself to writing sacred poems, and died 
 about 410 A.D. He published a collection 
 of his sacred poems in 405 A.D. They are 
 composed with rhetorical skill, in epic and 
 lyric metres (in the latter of which Horace 
 in his model) ; and they include subjects 
 of the most varied kind : Hymns for daily 
 prayer {Cutliemerlnon liber); a martyro- 
 logy {Pert StSplidnon) ; a conflict between 
 the virtues and the vices for the soul of 
 man, etc. 
 
 Erjtaneia. The term in Athenian law 
 for a sum of money paid by both parties 
 at the commencem.ent of a private suit, 
 to defray the expense of the action. In 
 actions for sums between 100 and 1,000 
 drachmce it was three drachmce ; for larger 
 sums, thirty. The defeated party had to 
 refund this sum to the successful litigant. 
 {See Judicial Procedure, I.) 
 
 Pr^taneia {Greek). [(1) Any public 
 office held by rotation for given periods ; 
 e.g. in Herodotus, vi 110, the chief com- 
 mand for the day, held by each of the ten 
 generals in turn. (2) The period of thirty- 
 five or thirty-six days, i.e. about one-tenth 
 of the year, during which each of the ten 
 phfjlce presided in turn over the Council 
 and ecclesm. The order was determined 
 by lot. The presiding tribe was represented 
 by its epistdtes, who was appointed by lot 
 to preside for the day, and could not hold 
 this office more than once in each year 
 (Aristotle, On Constitution of Athens, 44).] 
 
 Pr^taneis (sing, prtjtantg, "a presi- 
 dent "). The name in various Greek free 
 States for the highest officials. In many 
 States, especially in early times, one, two, 
 or five pi^taneis ruled with almost kingly 
 power. Ax AXh&as prytanis \\a.s the name 
 for the member of a body of officials who 
 
 presided over that body when it had any 
 public business to transact. This title 
 was also given to the presidents of the 
 naucrdricB {q.v.\ and Council [who, with 
 their epistdtes at their head, presided over 
 the Council and ecclesia during the 5th 
 century B.C. In the 4th century the 
 presidential duties were transferred to the 
 proMrl and their cpistates. {See Aristotle, 
 On the Constitution of Athens, 44, p. 115, 
 ed. Kenyon.)] 
 
 Prytaneum (Gr., priitaneion). In many 
 Greek towns, a public building consecrated 
 to Hestia {q.v.), and containing the State 
 hearth. At Athens, it was here that the 
 State offered hospitable entertainment as a 
 public compliment to foreign ambassadors, 
 to Athenian envoys on their return from 
 the successful discharge of their mission, 
 also to citizens who had done good service 
 to the State, especially to distinguished 
 generals, and victors in the great Pan- 
 hellenic games, and sometimes even to 
 their descendants. In the case of those 
 who were Athenian citizens, this privilege 
 was usually granted for life. 
 
 Psamatlie. A daughter of a king of 
 Argos, mother of Linus {q.v.) by Apollo. 
 
 Psephisma. The Greek, and especially the 
 Athenian, term for a resolution of the people 
 arrived at by voting. {See ECCLESIA, 1.) 
 
 Pseud6dipt6ros (" falsely dipteral "). An 
 epithet describing a temple which is sur- 
 rounded on all four sides by only a single 
 row of columns, placed at intervals which 
 correspond to the position of the outer row 
 of columns in a dipteral temple. {See 
 Temples, fig. 6.) 
 
 Pseud6peript6r6s ("falsely peripteral"). 
 An epithet of a temple in which the side 
 columns were " engaged " in the wall of the 
 cella, instead of standing out at a distance 
 from it. {See Temples.) 
 
 Psyche. In Greek mythology, the per- 
 sonification of^ the human soul as the being 
 beloved by Eros {Amor). She is repre- 
 sented as a butterfly, or as a young maiden 
 with butterfly's wings, sometimes as pur- 
 sued by Eros in various waj's, or revenging 
 herself on him, or united with him in the 
 tenderest love. Apuleius {q.v.), in his tale 
 of the Golden Ass [Met. iv 28-vi 24], has 
 availed himself of this representation. He 
 makes them the hero and heroine of an old 
 popular tradition, in which a loving couple, 
 after a sorrovsrful separation, are restored to 
 one another for ever. The love-god causes 
 the charming Psyche, the youngest of the 
 three daughters of a king, to be carried off 
 
PSYCHOMANTEION PUBLICANI. 
 
 527 
 
 by Zepliynis to a secluded spot, where he 
 visits her at night alone, without being seen 
 or recognised by her. Persuaded by her 
 sisters, she transgresses his command, and 
 wishes to see him, when the god immediately 
 vanishes. Amid innumerable troubles and 
 appalling trials she seeks her lover, till at 
 length, puriiied by the sufferings she has 
 endured, she finds him again, and is imited 
 to him for ever. In the myth, as told by 
 Apuleius, her daughter is called Voluptas. 
 
 Psychomanteion. A Greek term for an 
 oracle of the dead. (See Oracles.) 
 
 Psychopompos. The guider of souls, 
 another name for Hermes. 
 
 Pterfilaus. King of the Taphii and Tele- 
 boee in Acarnania. He was killed by his 
 daughter Comsetho, who pulled out the 
 golden hair, on the possession of which 
 depended the immortality accorded him by 
 Poseidon. (See Amphitryon.) 
 
 Ptolemaeus. (1) Ptolemy I, called Soter 
 (" saviour " or " preserver "), son of Lagus, 
 born 366 B.C. ; general of Alexander the 
 Great, after whose death (323) he received 
 Egypt as his province. He took the royal 
 title in 306. In the last years of his rule 
 he founded the famous Museum and the 
 great Library of Alexandria, and attracted 
 thither all the foremost poets and scholars 
 of the time. He died in 283. While he was 
 on the throne, he wrote a historj' of Alex- 
 ander the Great, which was noteworthy for 
 its accuracy, more especially in military 
 detail, and for its avoidance of exaggera- 
 tion. Among the works on Alexander it 
 took the first place. Only comparatively 
 short fragments of it have been preserved. 
 Next to Aristobulus, he is the principal 
 authority for Arrian's Aiidbdsis. 
 
 (2) Claudius Ptolemceus. A famous 
 Greek mathematician, astronomer, and geo- 
 grapher. He came from PtSlemais Her- 
 meiou [ruins at modern Menschic] in Upper 
 Egypt, and lived and worked in the 2nd 
 century a.d. The most important of his 
 writings which have been preserved are : 
 
 (a) Geogrdphice Hyphegesis (" instruc- 
 tions for the drawing of maps "), a geo- 
 graphical work in eight books, the first of 
 which contains the principles of mathe- 
 matical geography and the drawing of maps, 
 and the calculation of the longitudes and 
 latitudes of places in the then known 
 world; ii-vii contain tables of names of 
 places in the maps described, arranged 
 according to degrees and their subdivi- 
 sions ; viii contains an astronomical table 
 of climates. This work is one of the 
 
 chief sources of our knowledge of ancient 
 geography. 
 
 (b) His principal astronomical and mathe- 
 matical work; in thirteen books, is called the 
 Great Syntaxis of Astronomy, also known 
 as the Almagest (from the Arabian transla- 
 tion, Tdbrir al Afagesthi, through which it 
 first became known to the Western world). 
 This gives (with corrections) a summary of 
 the researches of the earlier astronomers, 
 and describes the Ptolemaic system of the 
 universe, with the earth as a fixed centre, 
 the system which was not superseded till 
 the time of Copernicus (1473-1543). 
 
 (c) The Harmonics, in three books ; next 
 to that of Aristoxenus the most important 
 work on ancient music. Of his remaining 
 works we may mention the Canon of Kings, 
 a fragment of his chronological tables, cal- 
 culating in Egyptian years the duration of 
 the reign of fifty-five kings: twenty Baby- 
 lonians after Nabonassar (747 B.C.), ten 
 Persians, thirteen Ptolemies, and the Roman 
 emperors down to Antoninus Pius. 
 
 Publicani. The Romans gave this name 
 to those who did business with the State 
 by becoming contractors for public build- 
 ings and for supplies, and to farmers of pub- 
 lic lands, especially those who farmed the 
 public taxes {vectigalta) for a certain time, 
 on payment of a fixed sum. In Rome, as 
 indeed throughout the ancient world [cp, 
 Telon^), the collection of taxes was made, 
 not by paid ofiicials, but by farmers of taxes, 
 who belonged to the eqtiestrian order, as 
 the senators were excluded from such busi- 
 ness. The farmers of taxes, by the im- 
 mense profits which they made, became a 
 politically powerful class of capitalists. 
 As the various taxes in the different pro- 
 vinces were let out as a whole by the 
 censors, joint-stock companies were formed, 
 sdcietdtSs puhlicdnorum, whose members 
 received a proportionate return for their in- 
 vested capital. One member, the manceps, 
 made a tender at the public auction, con- 
 cluded the contract with the censors, and 
 gave the necessary security. The duration 
 of the contract was a lustrum, i.e. the 
 period between one censorship and another, 
 in imperial times always five years; it 
 began on the 15th of March. 
 
 The general superintendence was given 
 to a magister societatis in Rome, who 
 vacated office every year ; the management 
 of details was in the hands of numerous 
 officials. 
 
 According to the amount of the taxes 
 farmed, the publicani received special 
 
528 
 
 PUBLILIUS SYRUS PURPURA. 
 
 names. The highest class, deciimanl, were 
 the farmers of the decumd, the tenth part 
 of the produce of the agricultural lands 
 which had been taken from the old posses- 
 sors. The pfcudrii or scvipturdrii, were 
 the farmers of the scriptura, the tax levied 
 for the use of the State pastures. The 
 condiictoves portorwrum were the farmers 
 of the portoria, the import and export dues, 
 etc. In order to make the greatest possible 
 gain, the publicci ai were guilty of the most 
 grievous ojjpression of the provincials, whose 
 only hope of relief lay in the governor, who 
 was rarely able to help them for fear of 
 these influential societies. Under the Em- 
 pire the position of the provincials was 
 improved ; for the emperor, as the governor- 
 in-chief of all the provinces, heard the final 
 appeal in the case of any grievances. In 
 imperial times, the decumani ceased to 
 exist, and the letting out of taxes was en- 
 trusted to the official boards specially con- 
 cerned with them. 
 
 Publilius Syrus (i.e. "the Syrian"). A 
 Roman writer of mimes (see Mime), a youn- 
 ger contemporary and rival of Laberius ; he 
 flourished about 43 B.C. Probably born at 
 Antioch in Syria, he came to Rome in early 
 youth as a slave. On account of his wit he 
 was liberated by his master, and received 
 a careful education. As a writer of mimes 
 and as an improviser, he was exceedingly 
 popular, and, after the death of Laberius, 
 held sole sway on the stage. His mimes 
 contained, in addition to the farcical humour 
 of this sort of writing, a great number of 
 short, witty sayings. These were so much 
 admired that theji- were excerpted at an early 
 date, and used in schools, while the pieces 
 themselves were soon forgotten. 
 
 In the Middle Ages these sayings were 
 popular under the name of Seneca. We 
 have an alphabetical collection of nearly two 
 hundred of these apophthegms, bearing the 
 title, Publilii Syri Mbni Sententice [e.g. 
 " Necesse est multos timeat, quem multi 
 timent " ; " Beneficium accipere, libertatem 
 est vendere " ; and (the motto of the 
 Edinburgh Revieic) " ludex damnatur cum 
 nocens absolvitur "]. 
 
 Pudicitia. The Roman goddess of 
 modesty and chastity. She was at first wor- 
 shipped in a chapel in Rome exclusively by 
 the patrician matrons. When, in 296 B.C., 
 the patrician Verginia was excluded from this 
 worship by her marriage with the plebeian 
 consul Volumnius, she erected in her own 
 house a chapel to the goddess, so that the 
 plebeian matrons might worship there. 
 
 Afterwards this cult died out with the 
 decay of morals. In imperial times altars 
 were erected to Pudicitia in honour of the 
 empresses. The goddess was represented 
 as a draped matron, concealing her right 
 hand in her garment. 
 
 Pulpitum. The stage of the Roman 
 theatre. {See Theatre.) 
 
 Purpura. The finest and most costly 
 dye of the ancients, a discovery of the 
 Phcenicians ; already known to the Greeks 
 in the Homeric age. [This may be inferred 
 from the frequent epithet porphyrSGs ap- 
 plied to robes, rugs, etc.] It was also 
 known to the R,omans in the time of their 
 kings. It was obtained from two kinds 
 of shells in the Mediterranean Sea : (1) 
 from the trumpet-shell (Gr. kerT/x / Lat. 
 bucinum, murex) [=bueclmum Idpillus]; 
 (2) from ths true purple-shell (Gr. por- 
 phyra ; Lat. purpura., pSldgui) [ = nmrex 
 brandaris or trWiilus]. These shells 
 respectively contained in a diminutive 
 bladder a small quantity of (1) scarlet 
 coloured, (2) black and red coloured juice. 
 The juice collected from a number of these 
 shells was placed in salt [in the proportion 
 of about one pint of salt to every seventy- 
 five pounds avoirdupois of juice], and heated 
 in metal vessels by the introduction of warm 
 vapours ; then the raw material, wool and 
 silk, was dyed in it. The best and dearest 
 purple was always the Phoenician, especially 
 that of Tyre, although it was prepared by 
 other inhabitants of the Mediterranean. 
 As the colour of the bucinum was not last- 
 ing, it was not used by itself, but only in 
 combination with the true yurpura for 
 producing certain varieties of purple dye. 
 By mixing bucinum with black pSldgiuvi, 
 the juice of the true purple-shell, the 
 fashionable violet, called the " amethyst " 
 purple was produced ; and, by a double pro- 
 cess of dyeing, first in half-boiled pelagium, 
 and then in bucinum, Tyrian purple was 
 produced. This had the colour of clotted 
 blood, and when looked at straight ap- 
 peared black, when held to the light it 
 glowed with colour. A pound of violet 
 wool cost in Csesar's time 100 devdrii 
 (£4 7s.), Tyrian purple wool above 1,000 
 denarii (£43 10s.). By mixing pelagmm 
 with other matter, water, urine, and orchilla, 
 the bright purple dyes, heliotrope-blue, 
 mauve-blue, and violet-yellow, were ob- 
 tained. Other colours were produced by 
 the combination of the different methods of 
 dyeing ; first dyeing the material with 
 violet colour, purple dj^e^ and scarlet (pro- 
 
PUTEAL PYANEPSIA. 
 
 529 
 
 duced by Jcermes [from tlie coccus Uicis] ; 
 then by using the Tyrian method, they 
 obtained the tyrianthmum, the Tyrian 
 shell-purple, and the variety called the 
 hysginum [from Gr. hysge = z, variety of 
 prliids, or quercios coccifgra. (Pliny, i^. If. 
 ix 124-141.) For further details, see 
 Bliimner's Technologic, i 224-240]. 
 
 Purple robes were used at an early date 
 by the Greeks as a mark of dignity. Even 
 the Athenian archons wore purple mantles 
 officially. In Rome at one time broad, at 
 another narrow, stripes of purple on the 
 t5ga and tunic served as marks of distinc- 
 tion for senators, magistrates, and members 
 of the equestrian order. The robes of the 
 general were dyed in purple (see Paluda- 
 mentum) : so also was the gold-embroidered 
 mantle worn by one who celebrated a 
 triumph. For a long time home-purple was 
 used ; Tyrian purple was not introduced till 
 the middle of the 1st century B.C., and 
 from tliat time it became a luxury. In 
 spite of repeated attempts to check by 
 imperial decrees the use of real purple 
 among private individuals, robes trimmed 
 with purple, or altogether dyed with it, 
 became more and more used. Only a 
 complete robe of blatta, the finest kind of 
 purple, of which there were five varieties, 
 was reserved as an imperial privilege, and 
 any private persons who wore it were 
 punished as being guilty of high treason. 
 [Codex Theodosianus iv 40, I: purpura 
 quae blatta vel oxjjblatta vel hydcinthind 
 dicitur.] From the 2nd century A.D. the 
 emperors took part in this lucrative in- 
 dustry, and from the end of the 4th 
 century a.d. the manufacture of the blatta 
 became an imperial monopoly. 
 
 Put6al. The Latin term for a circular 
 stone inclosure, consisting of a dwarf wall, 
 surrounding either (1) the mouth of a well, 
 or (2) a spot struck by lightning. Italian 
 superstition demanded that every flash of 
 lightning which struck and was buried in 
 the earth should have, as it were, a grave 
 and a propitiatory offering, as in the case 
 of a human being. According to the place 
 where the flash fell, this offering was 
 made, either by the State or by private 
 individuals, in the earlier times according 
 to the directions of the pontifices, at 
 a later date after consultation with the 
 Etruscan hdruspices. The earth which 
 was touched by the divine fire was care- 
 fully collected [Lucan i 606], and inclosed 
 '.n a cofSn constructed out of four side- 
 pieces and without any bottom (this was 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 (On a denarius of L. 
 Scribonius Libo.) 
 
 the burying of the lightning). Then round 
 the coffin a shaft, consisting of four walls 
 and open at the top, was built up to 
 the surface of the ground. A place which 
 had thus been consecrated by the offering 
 which the haruspices mad 3 of a sheep two 
 years old (ptdens) was specially called a 
 bidental, and was not allowed to be dese- 
 crated. According to the pontifical rite 
 introduced by Numa, the propitiatory offer- 
 ing consisted of onions, hair, and sardels. 
 If a human being had been struck by 
 lightning, his body was not burnt, but 
 buried on the spot [Pliny, N. H. ii 145]. 
 Such a spot was called a bidental, and a 
 propitiatory offering was 
 made on his behalf [Festus, 
 p. 27 ; Nonius, pp. 53, 26]. 
 
 [The puteal, with bay 
 wreaths, lyres, and a pair 
 of pincers, may be seen 
 on coins of the gens 
 Scribonia {see cut). The 
 ancient puteal in the 
 Forum, near the Arcus 
 Fabmnus, was repaired by Scribonius Libo, 
 whence it was called the Puteal Libonis or 
 Puteal Scribonianum. In its neighbour- 
 hood he erected a tribunal for the praetor, 
 which led to its becoming the resort of 
 litigants, money-lenders, etc. (Hor., Sat. ii 
 6, 35, Ep. i 19, 8 ; Cic, Pro Sestio 18).] 
 
 Patfius. The fountain in a Roman house. 
 {See House.) 
 
 Fyanepsia. A festival celebrated at 
 Athens on the seventh day of Pydnepsion, 
 the end of October, in honour of the departing 
 god of summer, Apollo. The festival received 
 its name from the cooked beans which were 
 offered to the god as firstfruits of autumn. 
 Another firstfruit offering of this festival 
 was the EirSsionB, a branch of olive or bay, 
 bound with purple and white wool, and 
 hung about with all sorts of autumn fruits, 
 pastry, and small vessels full of honey, 
 wine, and oil. This branch was borne by 
 a boy whose parents were both alive ; a 
 song, which bore the same name Eiresione, 
 was sung, while he was escorted by a pro- 
 cession to the temple of the god, where the 
 wreath was deposited as a votive offering. 
 Other branches were hung at the doors of 
 the houses. In later times this festival 
 was also kept as a mark of gratitude for 
 the safe return of Theseus from Crete, 
 which was supposed to have taken place on 
 this day ; and the cooking of the beans was 
 regarded as commemorating the cooking 
 of the scanty remains of ,the provisions of 
 
 M M 
 
530 
 
 PYGMALION PYTHAGOEAS. 
 
 his ships. [In the ancient calendar of the 
 Attic festivals built into the wall of the 
 metropolitan church at Athens, the festival 
 of the Pyanepsia is represented by a youth 
 carrying the Eiresione. See cut in Miss 
 Harrison's Mythology, etc., of Athens, p. 
 168 ; ib. cxxxv.] Besides Apollo, the Horce 
 were worshipped at the Pyanepsia with 
 offerings and invocations, as the goddesses 
 of the blessings of the year. 
 
 Pygmalion. (1) In Greek mythology a 
 king of Cyprus, who became so enamoured 
 of the statue of a maiden which he himself 
 was carving in ivory that he implored 
 Aphrodite to endue it with life. When the 
 goddess granted his prayer, he married the 
 maiden, and she bore to him a son named 
 Paphos [Ovid, Met. x 243]. 
 (2) See Dido. 
 
 Pygme. Boxing. {See Gymnastics.) 
 Pylades. Son of Strophius, king of 
 Phanote, near Parnassus, and of Anaxibia, 
 a sister of Agamemnon ; famous on account 
 of his faithful friendship with Orestes 
 (g.w.). He was the husband of Electra. 
 Pylagorse. See Amphictyons. 
 Pyramus and Thishe. Two Babylonian 
 lovers, the children of hostile neighbours. 
 As their parents declined to sanction their 
 marriage, they Could only converse with 
 one another through a crevice in a wall 
 common to both houses. On one occasion 
 they had agreed to meet at night at a mul- 
 berrjr tree near the city. Thisbe arrived 
 there first, but, while fleeing from a lion, 
 Stained with the blood of his prey, she 
 dropped her veil ; this the beast tore and 
 befouled with blood. Pyramus, finding the 
 veil, killed himself in despair at the sup- 
 posed death of his beloved. When Thisbe, 
 returning from her flight, found his corpse, 
 she also killed herself with his sword. The 
 fruit of the mulberry tree was coloured by 
 their blood, and has ever since borne the 
 same hue [Ovid, Met. iv 55]. 
 
 Pyrlphlfigethon. A river of the nether 
 world. {See Hades, Realm of.) 
 
 Pyrrha. Daughter of Epimetheus, wife 
 of Deucalion, with whom she alone escaped 
 the flood which bears his name. {See 
 Deucalion.) 
 
 Pyrrhic Dance (Gr. Pyrrlche). A mimic 
 war-dance among the Greeks, representing 
 attack and defence in battle. It originated 
 with the Dorians in Crete, who traced it 
 back to the CtiretSs, and in Sparta, where 
 it was traced to the Diosciiri. In Sparta, 
 where boys of five years old were trained 
 for it, it formed a chief part of the festival 
 
 of the Gymnopcedia. The war-dance per- 
 formed at Athens at the Panathenaic fes- 
 tival celebrated Athene as the victor over 
 the Giants. 
 
 In the Roman imperial times the Pyrrhic 
 dance was a kind of dramatic ballet, which 
 was performed by dancers, male and 
 female, and represented (like the Roman 
 pantomime) mythological subjects, taken 
 frequently from the legend of Dionysus, 
 such as the march of the god against the 
 Indians, the doom of Pentheus, but also 
 from other sources, such_ as the judgment 
 of Paris and the fate of Icarus. For these 
 performances the emperors frequently 
 brought to Rome from Asia, the home of 
 this dance, boys and girls of noble birth ; 
 but there wore also dancers, male and 
 female, who were brought up to it as a 
 regular trade. At times the Pyrrhic dance 
 was performed in the amphitheatre by cri- 
 minals especially trained for this purpose. 
 
 Pyrrhon. A Greek philosopher of Elis, 
 who flourished about 365-275 B.C. ; the 
 founder of Scepticism. {See Philosophy.) 
 
 Pythagoras. (1) TJie Greek philosopher ,- 
 bom on the island of Samos about 580 B.C., 
 son of Mnesarchus. He is said to have been 
 the first man who called himself a " philo- 
 sopher," or lover of wisdom. The certain 
 facts about his life are extraordinarily few, 
 since in the course of time his life became 
 obscured by a web of legend and tradition, 
 as is shown by the biographies of the 
 Neoplatonists lamblichus and Porphyrins. 
 
 As the story goes, he was a disciple of 
 Pherecydes of Syros, and spent a large 
 part of his earlier life on journeys, during 
 which he studied the civilization and the 
 mystic lore of the East, and especiallj' the 
 wisdom of the Egyptians. When, on his 
 return to Samos, he found his country 
 under the yoke of the tyrant Polycrates, 
 he migrated to Lower Italy, and settled in 
 529 at Croton, Here, in order to bring 
 about a political and social regeneration of 
 the Lower Italian towns, which had been 
 ruined by the strife of parties, he founded 
 a society, whose members were pledged to a 
 pure and devout life, to the closest friend- 
 ship with each other, to united action in 
 upholding morals and chastity, as well as 
 order and harmony in the common weal. 
 The aristocratic tendency of this society 
 caused a rising of the popular party in 
 Croton, in which Pythagoras, with 300 of 
 his adherents is supposed to have perished ; 
 according to other accounts, he marched 
 with a few followers to Metapontum, where 
 
PYTHIA QUADEIGA. 
 
 531 
 
 he died soon afterwards (504). Pythagoras 
 has left nothing of his teaching in a writ- 
 ten form. The Golden Sayings which bear 
 his name are certainly not genuine, though 
 they may have originated at an early date. 
 They consist of seventy-one maxims written 
 in hexameters, with little to commend them 
 as poetry. 
 
 It follows then that there is as much un- 
 certainty about the system of Pythagoras as 
 about his life, for it is impossible to ascertain 
 which of the precepts of the Pythagorean 
 school are due to himself, and which are 
 later additions by his disciples. We can 
 only ascribe to him with certainty the 
 doctrine (1) of the transmigration of souls, 
 and (2) of number as the principle of the 
 harmony of the universe and of moral life ; 
 and, further, certain religious and moral 
 precepts. The first disciple of Pythagoras 
 who described his philosophical system in 
 writing was P/nldldus^ either of Oroton 
 or Tarentum, a contemporary of Socrates 
 (about 430 B.C.). Of this document, which 
 was written in the Doric dialect, we possess 
 only a few fragments. Archi/tas of Taren- 
 tum was another important follower of this 
 school. He was a friend of Plato, and was 
 distinguished as a general, statesman, and 
 mathematician. He flourished about 400- 
 365, but the fragments which bear his name 
 are not genuine. The same_^may be said of 
 the writings attributed to Ocellus Lucanus 
 and to Tlmceus of Locri, Concerning the 
 Nature of the Universe and Concerning the 
 Soul, and of the seven letters of Thedno, the 
 supposed wife of Pythagoras, Concerning 
 the Education of Children, jealousy, The 
 Management of the Household, etc. 
 
 (2) A Greek sculptor of Ehegium in 
 Lower Italy, who flourished in the second 
 half of the 5th century B.C. He devoted 
 himself exclusively to working in bronze. 
 His favourite subjects were statues of 
 heroes and of the victors in athletic games. 
 Striving after an exact imitation of nature, 
 he is said to have been the first to express 
 the sin«ws and veins. He also rendered 
 the hair of the head more carefully than 
 his predecessors, and, in the pose of his 
 statues, paid special attention to symmetry 
 and rhythm. [Pliny, N. H. xxxiv 59, vii 
 
 162 ; Pausanias, vi 4 § 8, 6 § 1, 6 § 4, 7 § 10, 
 18 § 1.] 
 
 Pythia. (1) The prophetess of Apollo at 
 Delphi. {See Delphic Oracle.) 
 
 (2) The Pythian games. Next to the 
 Olympic games, the most important of the 
 four Greek national festivals. Prom 586 
 B.C. they were held on the Crissaean plain 
 below Delphi, They took place once in four 
 years, in the third year of each Olympiad, 
 in the Delphic month Bucatius (the middle 
 of August). Before this time (586 B.C.) 
 there used to take place at Delphi itself, 
 once in eight years, a great festival in 
 honour of Apollo, in which the minstrels 
 vied with one another in singing,, to the 
 accompaniment of the cithdra, a paean in 
 praise of the god, under the direction 
 of the Delphic priests. After the first 
 Sacred War, when the Crisseean plain be- 
 came the property of the priesthood, the 
 Amphictyons introduced festivals once in 
 four years, at which gymnastic contests 
 and foot-races took place, as well as the 
 customary musical contest. This contest 
 also was further developed. Besides 
 minstrels who sang with the cUfhara, 
 players on the flute, and singers to ac- 
 companiment of the flute, took part in it 
 (the last-named, however, for a short time 
 only). The gymnastic and athletic con- 
 tests, which were nearly the sam« as those 
 held at Olympia, yielded in significance 
 to the musical ceremonies, and of these the 
 Pythian nomds was the most important. 
 It was a composition for the flute, worked 
 out on a prescribed scheme, and celebrating 
 the battle of Apollo with the dragon 
 Python, and his triumph. At first the 
 prize for the victor was of some substan- 
 tial value, but at the second festival it took 
 the form of a wreath from the sacred bay 
 tree in the Vale of Tempe.. The victor 
 also received, as in the other contests, a 
 palm-branch. The judges were chosen by 
 the Amphictyons. The Pythian, like the 
 Olympic games, were probably not discon- 
 tinued till about 394 a.d. 
 
 Python. A monstrous serpent produced 
 by Gsea, which haunted the caves of Par- 
 nassus. It was slain by Apollo with his first 
 arrows. {See Apollo and Delphic Oracle.) 
 
 Q 
 
 Quadrans ( = tSruncius). A Roman copper 
 coin, a quarter of an as =3 uncice. {See 
 Coinage, 2.) The quadrans was the usual 
 
 price paid for a bath. . [It was equivalent 
 to about half a farthing.] 
 ftuadriga {Latin). A chariot drawn by 
 
632 
 
 QUADRIGAHIUS QUiESTIO. 
 
 four liorses, used in battle and in athletic 
 games. (See Circus, Games of.) The cut 
 
 QUADRIGA. 
 
 (Sjracasan decadrachma.) 
 
 represents a quadriga with weapons as the 
 prize of victory, 
 
 duadrlgarius. A Roman annalist. (See 
 Annali^js.) 
 
 dusesltor. The Roman title of the pre- 
 sident of an extraordinary or ordinary 
 criminal court (qucestio extraordinaHa or 
 perpetua). According to Sulla's rules of 
 procedure, six prsetors chosen for criminal 
 cases presided, and, when this number was 
 not sufficient, additional judges, indices 
 qucBStionis, were provided. 
 
 QusBstio. The Roman term for a court 
 of inquiry, either extraordinaria, an ex- 
 traordinary commission appointed by the 
 senate or people for special criminal cases, 
 or perpetua, an ordinary criminal court for 
 certain defined offences. The first court of 
 this kind was held B.C. 149 to try a case of 
 extortion. 
 
 In course of time, by the laws of Gains 
 Gracchus and of Sulla, the number of these 
 tribunals was increased. In Cicero's time 
 there were eight ordinary courts to try 
 cases of extortion, high treason (mdiestds), 
 embezzlement (peculdtus), unlawful canvass- 
 ing for an office {ambitus), violence {vis), 
 assassination, poisoning, and forgery. Every 
 qucestio had a president {see QuiESiTOE), 
 either one of the praetors chosen by lot, or 
 when the number of these was not sufficient, 
 a index qucestidnis, in addition to a cer- 
 tain number of sworn judges. {See Jddex.) 
 
 It was open to any one except to women, 
 infants, and those who were infdmes, to 
 bsgin a criminal prosecution, even if he 
 himself had not been the party injured. 
 There was no public prosecutor ; but the 
 State, by means of pecuniary rewards and 
 conferring of dignities, encouraged the 
 prosecution of criminals. If, however, the 
 accused party was found innocent, it was 
 open to him to prosecute his accuser for 
 
 chicanery. {See Calumnia.) The case was 
 begun by the postUldtio, a request, with a 
 statement of the crime and name of the 
 accused, for permission to prosecute, made 
 to the prsetor at an open sitting in the 
 market-place. If several persons offered 
 themselves as accusers, the choice was made 
 by divindtio {q.v., 2). But, besides the 
 principal accuser, others were allowed, who 
 signed the indictment, and were therefore 
 called subscriptores. When permission had 
 been obtained, there followed the nomlnis 
 deldtlo, the handing in of the indictment ; 
 the receptio and inscriptw, the reception 
 and entry of the same in the o£Bcial list by 
 the prsetor ; the interrogdtio, the examina- 
 tion (also by the prsetor) of the accused, who 
 was now reus {q.v.). Unless he pleaded 
 guilty, or clearly proved his innocence, the 
 diet dictio, or date of hearing the case, was 
 fixed, at the earliest in ten days, in special 
 cases not till 100 days later. It was the duty 
 of the complainant to collect in the mean- 
 time the necessary evidence and witnesses, 
 and for this purpose he received an official 
 authorization. At the sitting of the court, 
 which was held publicly, by the sworn 
 judges {cogmtio), after the judges and 
 parties had been cited, the accuser de- 
 livered his accusation in a continuous 
 speech, the subscriptores followed him, then 
 the accused and his pdtroni. The duration 
 of these speeches {actiones) was at first 
 unlimited, but afterwards, to correct the 
 abuse of this privilege, a water-clock was 
 introduced, which limited the time of each 
 speaker ; the time allowed for the defence 
 was about a third greater than that for the 
 accusation. Then followed the proof (pr6- 
 bdtio) of the case. For this documents, 
 circumstantial evidence, and declarations of 
 witnesses were used. Next, unless the case 
 was adjourned for the production of further 
 proof {amplidtio), or for a new trial on the 
 third day {comperendmdtio), the votes of 
 the judges on the question of guilt or inno- 
 cence were taken. The voting was usually 
 in secret. The judges received from the 
 president wooden tablets covered with 
 wax, on the one side inscribed with a C 
 {condernno, I condemn), on the other with 
 an A {absolve, I acquit). They erased one 
 of these letters and threw the tablets into 
 an urn. [In cases where they were unable 
 to decide respecting the guilt or innocence 
 of the accused, they could signify the same 
 by writing on the tablet the letters N. L., 
 non liquet.] 
 
 The result of the voting was then formally 
 
QU^STORS. 
 
 533 
 
 proclaimed by tte president ; and if a fine 
 was inflicted, the amount {Mis cestimatio) 
 was then decided by the president and the 
 sworn judges. A man once acquitted could 
 not be re-tried for the same offence unless 
 his acquittal had been procured by collusion 
 (see Pk^varicatio) of the accuser. There 
 was no way of altering the verdict of the 
 sworn judges ; and the punishment was ex- 
 acted immediately after the sentence had 
 been given. If it was one of degradation 
 (infamia), or exile {interdictio dquce et ignis, 
 see ExiLiUM, 2), the man so punished could 
 be reinstated in the rights he had forfeited 
 (restitutio in intSgrum). This was done by 
 a decree of the people ; in later times, by 
 the emperor's pardon. These courts of 
 sworn judges lasted till the beginning of 
 the 3rd century a.d. 
 
 dnsstors {qucestor from qucesltor, the 
 investigator, searcher). The Latin term 
 originally given to two officials chosen by 
 the king ; they had to track any one suspected 
 of a capital offence. In the time of the 
 Republic they performed the same office 
 for the consuls, by whom they were chosen 
 every year. When the administration of 
 justice in criminal cases came into the hands 
 of the comltla centHrlata, the quaestors 
 received, in addition to their old privilege 
 of pleading by the mandate of the consuls, 
 which they lost later, the management of 
 the State treasury {cerdrium) in the temple 
 of Saturn. They became recognised offi- 
 cials when they were elected at the comitia 
 trlbuta under the presidency of the consuls 
 (probably about 447 B.C.). The qusestors 
 had no regular badges of office. In 421 their 
 number was doubled, and the plebeians were 
 granted the right of appointing to the office 
 of quaestor, though they did not exercise it 
 till twelve years later. The four quaestors 
 shared their duties, so that two of them acted 
 as masters of the treasury {quosstorSs cerarii) 
 and remained in the city (hence their nam^d 
 quoestores urbdni), while the other two 
 accompanied the consuls on Cahipaigns, in 
 order to administer the military 6hest. 
 
 It was part of the duty of the two fornier 
 to collect the regular revenutes of State 
 (taxes and custom-dues) and the extraordin- 
 ary revenues (fines, levies for war, and money 
 produced by the Sale of booty) ; further, to 
 make payments, which might not be made 
 to the consuls except by special permission 
 of the Senate ; to control the accounts of in- 
 come and expenditure, which were managed 
 under their responsibility by a special class 
 of officials (scriboB) ; to make arrangements 
 
 for public burials, for the erecting of monu- 
 ments, for the entertainment of foreign 
 ambassadors, etc., at the expense of the 
 treasury. Further, they preserved at their 
 place of business — the temple of Saturn — 
 the military standards, also the laws, the 
 decrees of the Senate, and the plebisclta, 
 and kept a register of the swearing in of 
 the officials, which took place there. 
 
 After the subjection of Italy, four more 
 qusestors were appointed, in 267 B.C. They 
 were stationed in different parts of Italy, 
 at first at Ostia and Ariminum, probably 
 to supervise the building of fleets. Sulla 
 increased their number to twenty, ten of 
 whom were appointed, in the place of the 
 previous two, to accompany the proconsuls 
 and propraetors to the provinces, two to 
 help the consul who remained in the city, 
 and two to help the other two original 
 qusestors at their work in the city. The 
 qusestors employed in the provinces (Sicily 
 alone had two of these, stationed at Syra- 
 cuse and Lilybseum respectively) were 
 principally occupied with finance ; they 
 managed the provincial treasury, and de- 
 frayed out of it the expenses of the army, 
 the governor, and his retinue ; any surplus 
 they had to pay in to the State treasury at 
 Rome, and to furnish an exact statement 
 of accounts. The governor might appoint 
 them his deputies, and if he died they as- 
 sumed the command ; in both of these cases 
 they acted pro prcetore, i.e. as proprsetors 
 (q.v.). Caesar raised their number to forty, 
 in order to be able to reward a greater 
 number of his adherents ; for the office gave 
 admittance to the Senate, and the position 
 of quaestor was looked upon as the first 
 step in the official career. The age defined 
 by law was from twenty-seven to thirty 
 years. When the beginning of the magis- 
 terial yeat \Vas fixed for January 1st, the 
 qusestors assumed office on December 5th, 
 on which day the qilaestors in the cera- 
 rium decided by lot what the work of each 
 should be. 
 
 Ev6n under the Empire, when the nor- 
 mal number of qusestors was increased to 
 twenty and the age reduced to twenty-five, 
 the office of quaestor remained the first 
 step to higher positions in the State. But 
 the power of the quaestors grew more limi- 
 ted as the management of the treasury was 
 entrusted to special prcefecti cerarii, so 
 that the city qusestors had only charge of 
 the archives, to which the supervision of 
 the paving of streets was added. After 
 the division of the provinces between the 
 
534 
 
 QUATTUORVIRI QUINTILIAN. 
 
 emperor and the Senate, qnsestors were only 
 employed in the senatorial provinces, and 
 were not abolished till the constitution of 
 the provinces in general was altered by 
 Diocletian. Four quaestors were told off 
 for service to the consuls. The two quces- 
 tores principis, or Augusti, were a new 
 creation : they were ofBcers assigned to the 
 emperors, if the latter were not consuls, in 
 which case they ^\ ould already be entitled 
 to two quaestors. As secretaries to the 
 emperor, they had to read his decrees to 
 the Senate at its sittings. From these 
 quaestors was developed, in the time of 
 Constantine, the qucestor sacri pdldtii, the 
 chancellor of the Empire. 
 
 Guattuorriri. The Roman term for an 
 official body consisting of four men. .{See 
 
 ViGINTISEXVIRI.) 
 
 Q,uind6cimviri. The Roman teria for an 
 official body consisting of fifteen men, espe- 
 cially that appointed for the inspaetion of 
 the Sibylline books. {See Sibtlljs.) 
 
 Guinquatrus. A festival celebrated at 
 Rome on the 19th of March, in honour of 
 Mars and (in a greater degree) of Minerva, 
 whose temple had been founded on this 
 day on the Aventine. An incorrect ex- 
 planation of the name quinquatnts, which 
 means the fifth day after the ides, led to 
 the festival in honour of Minerva being 
 afterwards prolonged to five days. It was 
 celebrated by all whose employment was 
 under the protection of the goddess, such 
 as teachers and their pupils. The latter 
 obtained a holiday during the festival, and 
 began a new course of study when it was 
 over. The former received, at this time 
 their yearly stipend- — the minervidl. The 
 festival of Minerva was also celebrated by 
 Avomen and children (in their capacity of 
 spinn ers and weavers), 'by artisans and artists 
 of every kind, and by poets and painters. 
 The first day of the festival was celebrated 
 with sacrifices by the State in honour of the 
 founding of the temple. On the following 
 days the gladiators -performed, and there 
 were social gatherings in the housc-s. On 
 June 13 the minor quinqiiatrus took place. 
 This festival lasted three days. It was 
 celebrated by the guild of the flute-players, 
 an important and numerous body at Rome. 
 They honoured the goddess as their special 
 patroness by meeting at her temple, by 
 masked processions through the city, and 
 by a banquet in the temple of Jupiter of the 
 Capitol. 
 
 Guinquennales. The officials chosen every 
 five years in the Italian municipalities {see 
 
 Municipium), corresponding to the Roman 
 censors. 
 
 Quinqugremes. Roman ships {q-v.) with 
 five banks of oars. 
 
 Guintiliaii (JiarcHS Fdhius Cluintilidnus). 
 The celebrated Roman rhetorician, born 
 about 35 A.D. at Calagurris in Spain. After 
 he had received his training as an orator 
 at Rome, he went home about 69 A.D., but 
 returned agaia to Rome in 68 A.D. in the 
 train of Galba. He there began to practise 
 as an advocate, and also gave instruction in 
 rhetoric. In this latter capacity he achieved 
 such fame that he was able to open a school 
 of rhetoric in the reign of Vespasian, and 
 received payment from the State. After - 
 twenty years' work he retired from his 
 public duties in A.D. 90, and after some time 
 devoted himself to the education of the 
 grandchildren of Domltilla, Domitian's 
 sister, for which he was rewarded by the 
 emperor with the rank of consul. Though 
 materially, prosperous, his happiness was 
 disturbed by the loss of his j'oung wife and 
 his two sons. [He died between 97 and 
 100 A.D.] 
 
 Of his works on rhetoric, composed in his 
 later years, we possess the one that is most 
 important, that on the training of an orator 
 {De Institutions OrdtoruJ) in twelve books. 
 This he wrote in two years ; but it was not 
 until after repeated revision that he pub- 
 lished it, just before the death of Domitian 
 in 96. He dedicated it to his friend, the 
 orator Victorius Marcellus, that he might 
 use it for the education of his son Geta. 
 This work gives a complete course of in- 
 struction in rhetoric, including all that 
 is necessary for training in practical elocu- 
 tion, from the preliminary education of 
 boyhood and earliest youth to the time of 
 appearance in public. It describes a per- 
 fect orator, who, according to Quintilian, 
 should be not only skilful in rhetoric, but 
 also of good moral character, and concludes 
 with praictical adviee. Especially interesting 
 is the first book, which gives the principles 
 of training and instruction, and the tenth 
 book, for its criticisms on the Greek and 
 Latin prose authors and poets recommended 
 to the orator for -special study. [Many 
 of these criticisms, however, are not 
 original.] Quintilian's special model, and 
 his main authority, is Cicero, whose clas- 
 sical style, as opposed to the debased style 
 of his ow'n time, he imitates successfully in 
 his work. A collection of school exercises 
 {decldmdtiones) which bears his name is 
 probably not by him, but by one of his 
 
QUINTUS SMYRN^US RELEGATIO. 
 
 o3B 
 
 pupils. [Tte most recent editor, however 
 (Constantine Hitter, 1884), regards the great 
 bulk of them as genuine.] 
 
 ftuintus Smymaeus. A Greek epic poet 
 of Smyrna. Towards the end of the 
 4th century A.D., he composed a bald imita- 
 tion of Homer, entitled the PosthomSHcd, 
 in fourteen books, a continuation of the 
 Iliad aftei;- the manner of the cyclic epic 
 writers from the death of Hector to the 
 shipwreck of the Achseans on their journey 
 home. 
 
 Quirinus. The Sabine name of Mars, as 
 the god who brandished the lance (from 
 Sabine c«.)-2s = Latin quiris, the lance). 
 The Sabines worshipped him under this 
 name as the father of the founder of their 
 old capital, Cures, just as the Romans 
 honoured Mars as the father of Romulus. 
 When the Sabines migrated to Rome, they 
 took the cult and the name of the god of 
 their race to their new abode on the 
 
 Quirinal hill. In this way Quirinu.s, 
 though identical with Mars, had a distinct 
 and separate worship on the slope of the 
 Quirinal. He possessed a temple with 
 priests {see Flamen and Salii) and a special 
 festival. When, in the course of time, 
 their connexion was forgotten, Quirinus 
 was identified with the deified Romulus, 
 the son of Mars. For Janus Quirinus see 
 Janus. 
 
 Guirites (derivation uncertain). The 
 name of the oldest inhabitants of Rome, the 
 Latin Eamnes and the Sabine Titles taken 
 together. Afterwards it became the name 
 of the Roman people {populus Romdnus 
 Quiritium or populus Eomamis Quirites) 
 in home affairs, while Roniani was used in 
 connexion with foreign affairs. Quirites 
 was also used to indicate peaceable citizens, 
 or civilians, as opposed to soldiers (imlltes) 
 [Tao. Ann. i 42 ; Suet. Jul. 70 ; Lucan v 
 358]. 
 
 R 
 
 Eaces. See Chariots; CiRCtrs, Games 
 OF ; Hippodrome. For footraces, see Gym- 
 nastics. 
 
 Raeda (or reda, wrongly spelt rheda). 
 The Roman travelling>-oarriage with four 
 wheels. {Cp. Chariots, 2.) 
 
 Eamnes. One of the three old patrician 
 tribes at Rome. {See Patricians.) 
 
 Rgcitationes. At Rome "books were some- 
 times read aloud before their publication. 
 This custom was introduced in the time of 
 Augustus by Asmius Pollio. At first these 
 readings took place only before friends 
 specially invited ; afterwards they were 
 publicly announced, and were held 'before 
 great assemblies, either in the theatre "or 
 at the public baths or in the JForum, admis- 
 sion being open to all. Introduced, in the 
 first instance, with a view to obtaining 
 the criticisms of the audience, to help the 
 author in his final revision of his work, 
 they soon became of such importance that 
 they determined the success of the work 
 so recited. At the same time second-rate 
 talent was often blinded to its imperfections 
 by the exaggerated applause of a clique. 
 In the time of the younger Pliny these 
 recitations were so much in fashion that 
 [in the April of a particular year] hardly 
 a day passed without one, [Ep. i 13 § 
 1. (7p. iii7 § 5; 18§ 4; vl7 §4; vii7; 
 Juvenal, i 3; iii 9; vii 70, with Mayor's 
 
 note.] They seem to have continued till 
 the 6th century a.d. 
 
 Eficognitio of the Roman knights, see 
 Equites. 
 
 Eeoupgratores. The Roman term for a 
 sworn committee, or board, of three to five 
 members, convened by the praetor. Such a 
 board had to adjudicate at Rome and in the 
 provinces in money cases (more especially 
 on claims for compensation and damages). 
 At first only cases between Romans and 
 ioreigners were heard in this way, and 
 were settled within ten days. Afterwards 
 a board "of this kind decided on all legal 
 points which had to be settled promptly. 
 
 Eegifugium. A Roman festival cele- 
 brated on Feb. 24th, to commemorate the 
 expulsion of the kings. At this festival 
 the rex sacrorum offered sacrifice on the 
 comUium, and then hastily fled. {See Rex 
 Sacrorum.) [Probably in this case, as in 
 many others, the sacrifice was originally 
 regarded as a crime. The fact that the 
 Salii were present is recorded by Festus 
 {s.v. Regifugium). Possibly their presence 
 had the same significance as the ceremony 
 of leaping, etc., performed by them in 
 March, presumably with a view to driving 
 evil demons away from the city {Classical 
 Revieiv, v 51 &).] 
 
 ESlegatlo. Banishment from Rome, in 
 imperial times a milder form of exile {see 
 
536 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 Depoetatio), whict did not affect the 
 rights as a citizen of a man sentenced to it. 
 
 Religion. (I) The gods of the Greeks were 
 originally personifications of the powers of 
 nature, limited in their activity to that 
 province of nature from the phenomena of 
 which they are derived. As these phe- 
 nomena were regarded as acts or sufferings 
 of the gods in question, a cycle of myths 
 was thus developed. In the minds of the 
 people, the special significance of these 
 myths necessarily vanished in proportion as 
 the original connexion of the gods with the 
 phenomena of nature receded to the back- 
 ground, while greater prominence was given 
 to the conception of the gods as personal 
 beings holding sway, primarily in their own 
 province of nature, and then beyond those 
 limits, and no longer exclusively in con- 
 nexion with the powers of nature. In the 
 oldest records of the intellectual life of 
 Greece — the Homeric poems— this transition 
 has already been carried out. The Homeric 
 deities are exclusively occupied with the 
 governing of mortals, whose whole life is 
 represented as being under their influence; 
 while traces of the old connexion with the 
 phenomena of nature are rarely found, and the 
 old myths had long since become unintelli- 
 gible tales, in which the actions of the gods 
 appeared unreasonable and immoral, since 
 their meaning was no longer clear. In 
 regard to religion, as in other matters, the 
 Homeric poems are of the utmost impor- 
 tance; for if in historical times a certain uni- 
 formity prevails in the representation of the 
 deities, this rriay be traced in no small de- 
 gree to the influence of Homer and of other 
 poets (especially Hesiod) who were under 
 his influence, and who gave distinct form 
 to the vague representations of an earlier 
 time. Nevertheless this uniformity only 
 existed in a general way; in detail there was 
 the greatest confusion, for the Greeks never 
 attained to a uniform religious sj'stem and 
 to fixed religious dogma. They possessed 
 only a contradictory and ambiguous mytho- 
 logy. The only thing which was com- 
 paratively established, was the traditional 
 worship ; but in this there was great diver- 
 sity of place and time. 
 
 The common belief was, that the gods 
 were superhuman, though they were like 
 mortals in form and in the ordinary neces- 
 sities of life (food, drink, sleep) ; that they 
 had power over nature and human beings ; 
 that alL good and evil came from them ; that 
 their favour could be obtained by behaviour 
 which Avas pleasing to them, and lost by 
 
 that which displeased them. Among the 
 Greek gods there was no representative of 
 evil, neither in popular belief was there one 
 of absolute perfection and holiness ; and the 
 deities were represented as ceing subject to 
 moral weakness and deviation from right 
 — a belief which was fostered by the tra- 
 ditional mythology. The gods possessed 
 immortality, but did not exist from the 
 beginning of all things. 
 
 In the opinion of the Greeks, the ruling 
 race of gods, the Olympians —so called from 
 their abode, Olympus — were the third race 
 of gods. The first ruler was Uranus 
 (Heaven), who, by his mother Goea (Earth), 
 who bore him spontaneously, himself be- 
 came the father of the Titans. He was ex- 
 pelled by his son Cronus, whose daughters, 
 by his sister Rhea, were Ilestia, Dcmeter, 
 and Hera, and his sons. Hades (Pluto), 
 Poseidon, and Zeus. He was himself 
 expelled by his last-named son. When 
 Zeus, by the aid of his brothers and sisters, 
 had overcome the Titans, who rebelled 
 against the new order of things, he divided 
 the world with his brothers. The earth 
 ai:d Olympus remained common property ; 
 Hades obtained the nether world ; Poseidon, 
 the sea ; Zeus, the heavens ; and, as being 
 the strongest and wisest, he also had autho- 
 rity over all the other gods, who worked 
 his will, received from him their offices 
 and spheres of action, and served him as 
 helpsrs in the government of the universe. 
 According to this division of province, the 
 gods are divided into the divinities of 
 heaven and earth and sea. 
 
 As in all religions founded on nature, so 
 with the Greeks, the gods of heaven take 
 the first place. They are specially called 
 Olympians ; and, in contrast to the gods 
 of the earth and sea, are called the gods 
 above, or the upper gods. The principal 
 deities after Zeus are Herd, Athene, Apollo, 
 Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Ares, 
 Hermes, and Hestia. Round them are 
 grouped a number of minor deities, who 
 either escort and serve the upper gods (as, 
 for instance, Themis, and the _Hor(je, the 
 Graces, the Muses, Eros, Nike, iris, HebB, 
 Ganymede), or else represent distinct phe- 
 nomena of the heavens, as HSlios (the sun), 
 Selene (the moon), Eos (the dawn) ; or exe- 
 cute special services in the heaven-ordained 
 government of the universe, as the goddess 
 of birth, Eileithyia, the healing god, Ascle- 
 pius, and the goddesses of destiny (Maerce, 
 Nemesis, Tyche). The gods of the sea, 
 besides Poseidon and his spouse Amphi- 
 
RELIGION. 
 
 537 
 
 trltS and his son Trltdn, are Ocednus and 
 his offspring, Nereus and the Nereids, Pro- 
 teus, Ino {LeucdthSa), Meiicertes {PdlcemOn), 
 Glaucus (Pontius). The gods of the earth 
 are Gcea herself, RhSa (Cybele), Dionysus, 
 Priapus, Pan, the Nymphs and Satyrs, 
 Demeter and her daughter PersSphone, 
 with her spouse Hades {Pluto). The last 
 two are the rulers of ^the nether world, to 
 which If Scats and the Erinyes also belong. 
 
 The number of beings regarded as deities 
 was never clearly defined. Prom the ear- 
 liest times in Greece we find deities wor- 
 shipped in one place, who were not known 
 in another. But some of these, as Dionysus 
 and Pan, became common property in course 
 of time ; and, the more lasting and more 
 extensive the intercourse became with other 
 peoples, more especially in the colonies, the 
 introduction of foreign deities became 
 greater. Some of these were identified with 
 the gods already worshipped, while others 
 preserved their original attributes, subject, 
 of course, to modifications, to suit the spirit 
 of the Greeks. This aptitude for natura- 
 lising foreign religions declined more and 
 more as Greece ceased to flourish. On the 
 other hand, some original deities lost their 
 independence, and were merged into others, 
 such as Helios and Apollo, Selene and 
 Artemis. In the popular belief of the post- 
 Homeric time, another numerous class of 
 superhuman beings sprang up, which were 
 regarded as being between gods and men, 
 the demons (Gr. Daimones) and Heroes {q v.). 
 As to their nature and their number, there 
 was less uniformity than in the case of the 
 real gods. The Heroes had only local im- 
 portance. Even in the case of the gods uni- 
 versally worshipped, it was by no means 
 all (not even the most important) that had 
 a place everywhere in the public worship. 
 In the case of certain gods, their worship 
 was only exceptional ; and those gods who 
 by order of the State were worshipped in 
 any particular place did not necessarily enjoy 
 for ever the position to which they were 
 entitled. Even Zeus, who was universally 
 regarded as the highest of the gods, and 
 figured in the cult of most of the different 
 States was not himself worshipped as su- 
 preme ; but those gods who had always had 
 the first place in the cult of the respective 
 States, took precedence over him, and these 
 were not always divinities of pre-eminent 
 importance. In Athens, Pallas Athene was 
 worshipped as the principal deity, Hera in 
 Argos ; among the Dorians, especially at 
 Delphi, Apollo; among the lonians, Posei- 
 
 don ; at Rhodes, Helios ; at Naxos, Diony- 
 sus ; at Thespise, Eros, at OrchSmgnus, the 
 Oharites (or Graces). Even in the case of 
 the same deities, the local customs often 
 differed considerably, in respect of the 
 names that were given to them, their attri- 
 butes, and the form of worship. These 
 differences were due, partly to local causes 
 and local opinions, partly to foreign in- 
 fluence ; and were occasionally so consider- 
 able, that doubts arose whether different 
 deities were not really represented under 
 the same name, as, for instance, Aphrodite. 
 The deities were supposed to be specially 
 gratified by the careful observance of the 
 traditional ritual. This continued to be 
 carried on according to ancient custom, so 
 that the details of these ancient cults were 
 often curious, and their connexion with the 
 religious ideas on which they rested was 
 often unintelligible. However, with the 
 development of morality the view began 
 to prevail, that the obseivance of duties 
 towards the State and fellow men was also 
 favoured by the gods as guardians of the 
 providential order of the world ; but, in the 
 eyes of the multitude, the principal mean- 
 ing of eusebeid (pietj') was the performance 
 of the ordained worship of the gods. Again, 
 the care of the State was confined to the 
 outward forms of religion, and to the main- 
 tenance of the traditional legal ritual. 
 Alterations in this ritual, and the intro- 
 duction of new cults, were only made by 
 authority of the legislative power, usually 
 after an oracle had been consulted to deter- 
 mine the divine will. Besides the worship 
 of the deities recognised by the State, 
 private objects of devotion were found 
 everywhere. For instance, in the case of 
 foreign deities, at Athens, where there were 
 many strangers, either passing through or 
 permanently resident, foreign religions 
 were tolerated, so long as they did not 
 endanger the traditional worship or excite 
 public disturbance by their outward ritual. 
 Many such cults were naturalised in this 
 way, and became, in course of time, part 
 of the State religion. Conquest, again, con- 
 tributed largely towards the introduction of 
 novelties ; for the acquisition of new terri- 
 tory involved that of the religious rites held 
 therein. And, lastly, old religions, which 
 had been, looked upon as supremely holy, 
 even if they were not absolutely superseded 
 in the course of time, became less important 
 in comparison with others of later origin. 
 
 Shrines, and the statues of the gods pre- 
 served in them, were the central points of 
 
538 
 
 RELIGION. 
 
 the worship of the different deities. As long 
 as the gods were not represented as having 
 human form, stones, especially those fallen 
 from heaven, or blocks of wood, were the 
 objects of worship. By various stages of 
 progress the gods were at length represented 
 by actual images. At first they were made 
 of wood, then of stone and metal. Clay, and 
 even wax, were generally used for private 
 objects of devotion. Though the real par- 
 pose of these symbols and images was to 
 represent the divinity to the worshippers 
 by means of a visible sign, nevertheless, 
 in the popular belief, it was generally pre- 
 sumed that the divinity was actively present 
 in them. Accordingly, the welfare of the 
 State was often supposed to be bound up 
 with the possession of certain symbols and 
 images of the gods. 
 
 The decline of the Greek religion began 
 with the decline of the State after the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War. Although the philosophers 
 had already directed their assault against 
 the belief of the people, which, with its 
 anthropomorphism and its inconsistency, 
 exposed itself in many ways to the attacks 
 of the critical spirit, yet the faith of the 
 multitude in the old gods remained un- 
 shaken, for it had long attributed the 
 deliverance from the perils of the Persian 
 Wars to their mighty and merciful influence. 
 But after the Peloponnesian War the notions 
 of the philosophers gained ground among 
 the people, and undermined the old belief, 
 without, however, supplying any alterna- 
 tive to the religious feeling, which could no 
 longer be satisfied with the outward forms 
 of worship which still survived. With 
 unbelief superstition came in, which was 
 fostered (especially after the Macedonian 
 epoch) b}' the foreign and barbarous cults, 
 and the degenerate forms of mysticism 
 which were imported from Asia and Egypt. 
 
 (II) The Italian tribes, from which the 
 Homan people sprang, had a common origin 
 with the Greeks, and a common foundation 
 of religious ideas ; but on Italian soil these 
 religious ideas received an essentially 
 different direction. Like the Greeks, the 
 Italians regarded the deities as persons, 
 separated as to sex, and united in couples ; 
 but, while the imaginative Greeks saw in 
 their gods ideal forms full of individual life, 
 the more sober mind of the Italian tribes, 
 especially of the Romans, got no further 
 than the abstract. Holding to the funda- 
 mental idea, they worshipped in the gods 
 the abstract powers of nature, under whose 
 influence man, believed himself to be at 
 
 every moment. The original Italian gods 
 were grave and venerable, and, in a certain 
 sense, more moral than those of the Greeks ; 
 but they lacked plastic form and poetic 
 beauty. Accordinglj', it is only with cer- 
 tain reservations that we can speak of a 
 Roman mythology, in a sense correspond- 
 ing to that of the Greeks. The Romans 
 lacked an Olympus and a Hades, and knew 
 nothing of stories about the race and rela- 
 tionship and the love-affairs of their deities. 
 In this abstract nature of the Roman gods, 
 it is intelligible that the Romans, during 
 the first 200 years from the foundation of 
 Rome, possessed no images of their gods, 
 but represented them by symbols ; e.g. 
 Jupiter by a flint-stone. Mars by a spear, 
 Vesta by fire, which, even in later times, 
 remained the symbol of the goddess. In the 
 earliest Roman religion the deities of two 
 Italian races, the Latins and the Sabines, 
 were united, Rome having been originally 
 peopled by the union of these tribes. The 
 most important gods were the god of light 
 and the god of all beginning, Idnus ; the 
 god of heaven, Jupiter, the greatest pro- 
 tector of the nation, with whom was joined 
 the feminine element in luno, just as Idna 
 (Diana) was connected with Janus ; Mars, 
 originally the protector of agriculture, the 
 ancestral god of the Latin race ; Quirinus, 
 originally the corresponding god of the 
 Sabines; and Vesta, the goddess of the 
 hearth of the State. Besides these prin- 
 cipal deities, others were worshipped as 
 patrons of the farmers and shepherds. 
 Their activity extended over the earth, the 
 fields, and the woods ; they blessed the 
 fruits of the field and garden, and gave 
 prosperity to the cattle. Such were Tellus, 
 Ceres, Saturnus and Oj)S, Liber and 
 Libera, Faunus, Silvanus, Flora, Vertum- 
 nus, Pomona. The gods of the sea, how- 
 ever, who had such an important position 
 in the Grecian mythology, had not nearly 
 the same importance in Roman ideas as the 
 gods of heaven and earth ; for in the ear- 
 liest times the sea was little regarded by 
 the Romans. Another object of religious 
 worship was the gods of the house and 
 family, the Lares and Penates. But, be- 
 sides these, there was an unlimited number 
 of divine beings ; for the Romans assumed 
 that there were divine representatives of 
 every inanimate or animate object, of every 
 action and every event. Not only did every 
 human being possess a special protector 
 (Genius, q.v.), but a number of deities 
 watched over his development from concep- 
 
RELIGION. 
 
 539 
 
 tion to birth, and his further growth, men- 
 tally and bodily. (See Indigitamenta.) 
 
 Again, there were manifold protecting 
 gods for the different events of life, as 
 'Tutanics and Tidillna, who were invoked in 
 times of trouble ; OrbOna, invoked by child- 
 less couples; and Febris, the goddess of 
 fever. There were also separate gods for 
 separate employments, and for the places 
 where they were carried on. In this way 
 the different institutions and phases of 
 agriculture possessed special deities (as 
 Robtgus and Boblgo, protectors of the crops 
 against blight). Bo also with the different 
 branches of cattle-breeding {Bubona, god- 
 dess of the breeding of horned cattle ; 
 Epona, goddess of the breeding of horses ; 
 Pcilea, of the breeding of sheep). Similarly 
 with the separate parts of a house : Forcu- 
 lus, god of the door ; Cardea, goddess of the 
 hinge ; Llmentinus and Limentina, deities 
 of the threshold. To these divine beings 
 fresh ones were continually added, as the 
 inclination of the Romans to recognise and 
 trace divine influence in every single event 
 led to the establishment of new cults after 
 every new revelation of divine power. In 
 this way the introduction of bronze coinage 
 led to a deus ^sculdnus, and later, that 
 of silver coinage to a deus Argentinus. 
 Historical events gave an impulse to the 
 personification of intellectual and moral 
 qualities, such as Concordia, Honos, Virtus, 
 Mens, etc. The same principle which recog- 
 nised that there were some gods unknown, 
 or, at any rate, not worshipped at Rome, 
 led to the tolerance of private performance 
 of foreign cults. Hence also it came about 
 that the gods of conquered countries found 
 a place in the Roman State religion, and 
 occasionally were even introduced into the 
 actual worship of Rome. In the latter case, 
 liowever, the home deities preserved their 
 rights in so far as the shrines of the newly 
 imported deities were outside the limits of 
 what was called the Pomerium {q.v.). 
 
 The religion of the Romans was gradually 
 but completely altered by the influence of 
 that of the Greeks. This influence made 
 itself felt as early as the time of the latest 
 kings. Shrines of the gods were first intro- 
 duced under the elder Tarquin, and under 
 the last Tarquin three supreme gods of the 
 State were established : Jupiter, the re- 
 presentative of supreme power ; Juno, of 
 supreme womanhood ; Minerva, of supreme 
 wisdom. These three deities received, as 
 a token of their inseparability, a common 
 temple on the Capitol, and were therefore 
 
 called the CapitoHne gods. This Greek 
 influence was iirmly established at the end 
 of the time of the kings by the Sibylline 
 books, which originated among the Greeks 
 of Asia Minor. (8ee Sibylline Books.) By 
 means of these a number of Greek and 
 Asiatic gods were in course of time intro- 
 duced into the Roman cult, partly as new 
 deities, such as Apollo, Uybele {Magna 
 Mater), ^sculapius ; partly under the names 
 of native gods, with whom they were often 
 identified in a very superficial way, as 
 Demeter with Ceres, Dionysus with Liber, 
 Persephone with Libera, Aphrodite with 
 Venus; and with them were introduced 
 many innovations in the old established 
 worship of the gods, especially the Lecti- 
 sternium (q.v.). When, after the second 
 Punic War, Greek ideas irresistibly made 
 their way in Rome, it became more and 
 more common to identify the gods of Rome 
 with those of Greece ; and thus the original 
 significance of many Roman deities was 
 either obscured or even entirely lost. Divi- 
 nities highly venerated of old were put into 
 the background, and those of less impor- 
 tance came to be regarded as supreme, owing 
 to their supposed analogy to Greek gods. In 
 this way the following twelve were estab- 
 lished by analogy to the Greek form of reli- 
 gion : lupiter (Zeus), luno (Hera), Neptunus 
 (Poseidon), Minerva (Athene), Mars (Ares), 
 Venus (Aphrodite), Apollo, Diana (Arte- 
 mis), Vulcdnus (Hephaestus), Vesta (Hestiia), 
 MercUrius (Hermes), and Ceres (Demeter). 
 The Roman religion was from the be- 
 ginning an affair of State. Religious, as 
 well as political, institutions emanated from 
 the kings, who, as high priests, organized 
 the worship by law and laid the foundation 
 of a law of ritual. The second king, Numa, 
 was regarded as the real founder of the 
 Roman cult, and of the priesthood charged 
 with the carrying out of the same. After 
 the kings had been abolished, religion was 
 still controlled by the State, and the priests 
 {q.v.) continued to be State officials, who 
 were empowered by the State, on the one 
 hand, to superintend the performance of the 
 different cults, and, on the other (and this 
 was the more important office), to give judg- 
 ment in all matters of religion. They thus 
 exercised considerable influence. Under 
 the Republic, the royal prerogative of for- 
 mulating decrees in all matters of religion 
 was transferred to the Senate. As the 
 Roman State in early times was exclusively 
 composed of patricians, the public religion 
 was originally their exclusive property ; the 
 
540 
 
 RELIGIOSI DIES REPETUNDAEUM CEIMEN. 
 
 plebs were not allowed to participate in 
 that religion, and were only allowed to wor- 
 ship the Roman gods in private. Therefore, 
 in the long struggle, in which the plebs, 
 with their ever-increasing power, endea- 
 voured to secure their rights (a struggle 
 that ended in 300 B.C.), it was a question of 
 religion as well as of politics. As regards 
 the worship of the gods, according to 
 Roman ideas, a pure and moral life was 
 pleasing to them and gained their favour. 
 This was, however, conditional on the exact 
 performance of the outward ritual which 
 the system of religion ordained for their 
 cult. It 'consisted in a very prolonged 
 ceremonial, performed according to the 
 strictest injunctions and with painful 
 minuteness of detail. This ceremonial was 
 performed in public and private life, so that 
 no community lacked its special shrines 
 and sacrifices (.see Sacra), and nothing of 
 any importance was undertaken without 
 religious sanction, which involved in parti- 
 cular the discovery of the divine will bj' 
 means of certain signs (see Auspicia). The 
 forms of outward worship were retained 
 long after the decay of belief in the gods 
 had set in. This decay was caused by the 
 preponderance of the Greek element, and 
 the contemporary introduction of Greek 
 enlightenment ; and it soon spread to the 
 forms of worship. During the greater part 
 of the republican period, the priests allowed 
 religion to take a secondary place to politics, 
 and, either from indifference or ignorance, 
 neglected their official duties. 
 
 Under the Empire, when even the deifi- 
 cation of deceased emperors was introduced 
 (see Apotheosis), an attempt was made to 
 give an artificial life to the ancient forms 
 of worship ; but religious feeling could not 
 be rekindled by forms which had long lost 
 their meaning. AMien this feeling revived, 
 it preferred, as in Greece, to find refuge in 
 strange Oriental_ rites, especially those of 
 Mithras and of Isis and Serapis, which, by 
 means of their mysteries and their expia- 
 tory ceremonies, offered a certain degree of 
 satisfaction, though, at the same time, 
 they led the way to every conceivable kind 
 of superstition. 
 
 The suppression of paganism began in 
 the 4th century, from the time when Con- 
 stantine decided in favour of Christianity, 
 in 324 A.D. It commenced in the eastern 
 half of the Roman empire, while in the 
 western half, and at Rome in particular, the 
 Roman form of worship remained essen- 
 tially undisturbed until the reign of Theo- 
 
 dosius the Great (379-395), the resolute 
 exterminator of paganism. In 394 the 
 Olympic games were held for the last time ; 
 in Rome the endowment of all public forms 
 of worship out of the funds of the State 
 was withdrawn, the priests were driven 
 from the temples, and the temples closed. 
 Nevertheless certain heathen customs long 
 survived, such as the auguries of the con- 
 suls and some few festivals that admitted of 
 being celebrated without offering sacrifice 
 or entering a temple. Thus the Lupercdlia 
 were not abolished until 494, when they 
 were transformed into a Christian festival. 
 
 Eeligiosi Dies (" critical days ", " days 
 of scruple or restraint"). Certain special 
 days were so called among the Romans 
 which, owing to religious scruples, were 
 deemed unsuitable for particular under- 
 takings, especially for beginning them. 
 On such days only what was absolutely 
 necessary was done. So far as they are 
 unsuited for sacred, political, legal, or mili- 
 tary undertakings, they belong to the dies 
 nefasti. {See Fasti.) As regards private 
 affairs, these days were of different kinds. 
 Some were of ill omen for journeys, others 
 for weddings. In the latter case the day 
 previous was also avoided, so that the first 
 day of married life should not be a day of 
 unhappy omen. Among such days were 
 those consecrated to the dead and to the 
 gods of the nether world, as the Pdrentdlia 
 and thei^eraZia,and daj''s when the mundus, 
 i.e. the world below, stood open (see Manes) ; 
 the Lemuria {see Larv^;) ; also days sacred 
 to Vesta, days on which the Salii passed 
 through the city, or those which were 
 deemed unlucky owing to their historical 
 associations {cdri dies, " black days "), such 
 as the anniversary of the battle on the Allia 
 (July 18th) ; also all days immediateh' after 
 the calends, nones, and ides, on account of 
 the repeated defeats and disasters expe- 
 rienced by the Romans on those days. 
 
 Renuntiatio. The Roman term for the 
 solemn and formal announcement of the 
 names of the magistrates elected at the 
 comitia by the votes of the people. The 
 announcement was made by the returning 
 ofBcer who presided at the election, and was 
 necessary to give validity to the election. 
 
 Repetundaram Crimen (from repetundce 
 pecunice, " money which is ordered to be 
 restored "). The name given by the Romans 
 to the charge brought against officials for 
 extorting money from Roman subjects or 
 allies. Such charges were at first brought 
 before the Senate, which heard the case 
 
RESTITUTIO EHADAMANTHYS. 
 
 541 
 
 itself, or else passed it on to a commission, 
 or, again, caused it to be brought before 
 the cdmitla by the tribunes. At last, in 
 149 B.C., a standing court of justice (see 
 Qu^STio perpetaa), in fact, the first in 
 Rome, was instituted by the Lex Calpurnia, 
 containing more precise definitions of acts 
 liable to punishment, with forms of legal 
 procedure, and determining the amount of 
 the penalty. The increasing inclination of 
 the officials to use the administration of the 
 provinces as means of enriching themselves 
 at the expense of the provincials led to re- 
 peated legislation with a view to increasing 
 the penalty. The last law on the subject 
 was Ceesar's Lex lUlia, which was the basis 
 of the procedure in such cases under 
 the Empire. During that period, in conse- 
 quence of the improved condition of pro- 
 vincial government, extortion on the part 
 of officials became much rarer. Such extor- 
 tion was generally punished by having to 
 pay four times the amount extorted. It 
 was also attended with a certain degree of 
 disgrace {infamia), even if a still more 
 severe punishment were not added for 
 other offences committed at the same time 
 and (as usual) included in the indictment 
 {e.g. the offence of Icesa mdiestds). 
 
 Restitutio (reinstating). A term applied 
 by the Romans to cancelling a legal deci- 
 sion, especially to the restoration of rights 
 of citizenship forfeited by condemnation in 
 a criminal court. Under the Republic this 
 restoration could be legally obtained only 
 by a vote of the people. Under the Empire, 
 the emperor alone possessed the privilege of 
 granting it. 
 
 Retiarins. Sec Gladiatores. 
 ESus. The term used by the Romans for 
 the person accused, especially in a criminal 
 trial. In such a case custom required the 
 accused to appear in public in the garb of 
 mourning, with beard and hair in an un- 
 kempt condition, in neglected attire, and 
 stripped of every sign of rank. The mere 
 accusation involved some suspense of legal 
 rights, preventing the reus from standing 
 for any office and from exercising the func- 
 tions of a judge. The higher officials were 
 exempt from criminal accusation while in 
 office and when engaged in the discharge 
 of public business. Lastly, lawsuits be- 
 tween two persons connected by ties of 
 family or office, such as parents and chil- 
 dren, patrons and clients, were regarded 
 as inadmissible. 
 
 Hex Sacrorum (or Eex Sacnftculus), the 
 " king of sacrifice," The name given by 
 
 the Romans to a priest who, after the 
 abolition of the royal power, had to per- 
 form certain religious rites connected with 
 the name of king. He resembles the arclion 
 bdsUeus of the Athenian constitution. He 
 was always a patrician, was elected for life 
 by the pontlfex maximus with the assis- 
 tance of the whole pontifical college (of 
 which he became a member), and was in- 
 augurated by the augurs. Although he 
 was externally of high rank and, like the 
 pontifex maximus, had an official residence 
 in the Regia, the royal castle of Numa, and 
 took the chair at the feasts and other festi- 
 vities of the ponttf ices, yet in his religious 
 authority he ranked below the pontifex 
 maximus, and was not allowed to hold any 
 public office, or even to address the people 
 in public. His wife (like the wives of the 
 flamens) participated in the priesthood. Our 
 information as to the details of the office 
 is imperfect. Before the knowledge of the 
 calendar became public property, it was 
 the duty of the rex sacrorum to summon 
 the people to the Capitol on the calends 
 and nones of each month, and to announce 
 the festivals for the month. On the calends 
 he and the reglna sacrificed, and at the 
 same time invoked Janus. Of the other 
 sacrifices known to us we may mention the 
 regifugium on Eeb. 24th, when the rex 
 sacrorum sacrificed at the comittum, and 
 then fled in haste. This has been errone- 
 ously explained as a commemoration of the 
 flight of Tarquinius Superbus,the last of the 
 Roman kings ; but it is much more probably 
 one of the customs handed down from the 
 time of the kings themselves, and perhaps 
 connected with the purificatory sacrifice 
 from which the month of IPebruary derived 
 its name. At the end of the Republic the 
 office, owing to the political disability 
 attaching to the holder, proved unattractive, 
 and was sometimes left unfilled : but under 
 Augustus it appears to have been restored to 
 fresh dignit}', and in imperial times it con- 
 tinued to exist, at any rate, as late as the 
 3rd century. 
 
 Ehadamanthjrs (Lat. EMddmanthus). 
 Son of Zeus and Europa, brother of Minos. 
 He was praised by all men for his wisdom, 
 piety, and justice. Being driven out of Crete 
 by his brother, he is described as having 
 fled to the Asiatic islands, where he made 
 his memory immortal bj- the wisdom of his 
 laws^ Thence he is said to have removed 
 to Ocalea in Boeotia, to have wedded 
 Alcmene, after the death of Amphitryon, 
 and to have instructed her son Heracles in 
 
542 
 
 EHAPSODIST EHEA. 
 
 virtue and wisdom. In Homer [Od. iv 564] 
 he is described as dwelling in the Elysian 
 fields. Here Alcmene, after her decease, 
 is said to have been wedded to him anew. 
 Later legend made him the judge of the 
 dead in the under-world, together with 
 ./Eacus and Minos. 
 
 Ehapsodist (Gr. rhapsodos). The Greek 
 term originally designated the man who 
 adapted the words to the epic song, i.e. the 
 epic poet himself, who in the earlier time 
 recited his own poetry. Afterwards the 
 term specially denoted one who made the 
 poems of others a subject of recitation. 
 
 At first such rhapsodists were generally 
 poets themselves; but, with the gradual 
 dying out of epic poetry, they came to hold 
 the same position as was afterwards held 
 by the actors, professionally declaiming the 
 lays of the epic poets. Epic verses were 
 originally sung to musical accompaniment, 
 but after the time of Terpander, as lyric 
 poetry became more independently culti- 
 vated, the accompaniment of stringed instru- 
 ments fell into disuse ; and then gradually, 
 instead of a song-like recitation, a simple 
 declamation, in which the rhapsodist held a 
 branch of bay in his hand, came to be genei- 
 ally adopted. This had happened even before 
 the time of Plato and Aristotle [see espe- 
 cially Plato's Ion]. As in earlier times the 
 singers moved from place to place, in order 
 to get a hearing at the courts of princes or 
 before festive gatherings, so the rhapsodists 
 also led an unsettled and wandering life. In 
 Athens [Lycurgus, Leocr. § 102] and many 
 other towns [as at Sicyon, before the time 
 of the tyrant Clisthenes (Herod., v 67j], 
 public recitations of the Homeric poems were 
 appointed, at which the rhapsodists competed 
 with one another for definite prizes, and thus 
 found opportunity to display their art. It 
 is true that other epic poems, and even the 
 iambic poetry of Archilochus and Simonides 
 of Amorgus, were also recited by rhapsodists; 
 still at all times the labours of such reciters 
 continued to be devoted in the first place to 
 Homeric poetry [Pindar, Nem. ii 2; Plato, 
 Ion 530 D, Rep. 599 E, Phwdr. 252 B]. 
 Hence they were also called Homendce 
 and IldmeristcB [Aristotle in Athenceus, 620 
 B]. It was to the older rhapsodists that 
 the Homeric poems primarily owed their 
 wide diffusion among the Greeks. In the 
 course of time the high esteem in which the 
 rhapsodists originally stood began to decline, 
 because many practised their art as a matter 
 of business, and in a purely mechanical 
 fashion. Still their employment survived 
 
 long beyond the classical time, and not only 
 did the public competitions continue to 
 exist, but it was also the custom to intro- 
 duce rhapsodists at banquets and on other 
 occasions. 
 
 Rh.§a. Daughter of Uranns and Gsea, 
 wife of her brother, the Titan Cronus, 
 by whom she gave birth to the Olympian 
 gods, Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Hestia, 
 Demeter. For this reason she was generally 
 called the Mother of the gods. One of her 
 oldest places of worship was Crete, where 
 in a cave, near the town of Lyctus or else 
 on mounts Dirce or Ida, she was said to 
 have given birth to Zeus, and to have hidden 
 him from the wiles of Cronus. The task of 
 watching and nursing the newborn child 
 she had entrusted to her devoted servants 
 the CuretSs, earth-born demons, armed with 
 weapons of bronze, who drowned the cry of 
 the child by the noise which they made by 
 beating their spears against their shields. 
 The name of Curetes was accordingly given 
 to the priests of the Cretan Rhea and of the 
 Idsean Zeus, who executed noisy war-dances 
 at the festivals of those gods. In early 
 times the Cretan Rhea was identified with 
 the Asiatic Cjjbele or Cybebe, " the Great 
 Mother," a goddess of the powers of nature 
 and the arts of cultivation, who was wor- 
 shipped upon mountains in Mysia, Lydia, 
 and Phrygia. 
 
 In the former character she was a symbol 
 of the procreative power of nature ; in 
 the latter, she originated the cultivation 
 of the vine and agriculture, together with 
 al] other forms of social progress and civi- 
 lization, which depend upon these. Thus 
 she was regarded as the founder of towns 
 and cities, and therefore it is that art re- 
 presents her as crowned with a diadem of 
 towers. 
 
 The true home of this religion was the 
 Phrygian Pessintis, on the river Sangarius, 
 in the district afterwards known as Galatia, 
 where the goddess was called Agdistis 
 [Strabo, p. 567] or Angdistis, from a holy 
 rock named Agdus upon Mount Dindymus 
 above the town. Upon this moimtain, after 
 which the goddess derived her name of 
 Dindymene, stood her earliest sanctuary, 
 as well as her oldest efiSgy (a stone that had 
 fallen from heaven), and the grave of her 
 beloved Attis (q.v.). Her priests, the emas- 
 culated Gain, here enjoyed almost royal 
 honour. In Lydia she was worshipped, 
 principally on Mount Tmolus, as the mother 
 of Zeus and the foster-mother of Dionysus, 
 There was also a temple of Cybele at Sardis. 
 
EHEA SILVIA. 
 
 543 
 
 Her mythical train was formed by the 
 
 CorybantSs, answering to the Curetes of the 
 
 Cretan Rhea ; these were said to accompany 
 
 her over the wooded hills, with lighted 
 
 torches and with wild dances, amid the 
 
 resounding music of flutes and horns and 
 
 drums and cymbals. After these the priests 
 
 of Cybele were also called Gorybantes, and 
 
 the festivals of the goddess were celebrated 
 
 with similar orgies, in the frenzy of which 
 
 the participators wounded each other or, 
 
 like Attis, mutilated themselves. Besides 
 
 these there were begging priests, called 
 
 Metrdgyrtce and CybSbi, who roamed from 
 
 place to place, as inspired servants and 
 
 prophets of the Great Mother. On the 
 
 Hellespont and on the Propontis, Rhea- 
 
 Cybele was likewise the chief goddess ; in 
 
 particular in the Troad, where she was 
 
 worshipped upon Mount Ida as the Idcean 
 
 Mother, and where the Idcean Dactijli (q.v.) 
 
 formed her train. From Asia this religion 
 
 advanced into Greece. After the Persian 
 
 Wars it reached Athens, where in the 
 
 Metroum, the temple of the Great Mother, 
 
 which was used as a State record-office, 
 
 there stood the ideal image of the goddess 
 
 fashioned by Phidias [Pausanias, i 3 § 5]. 
 
 The worship of Gybele did not, however, 
 
 obtain public recognition here, any more 
 
 than in the rest of Greece, on account of 
 
 its orgiastic excesses and the offensive habits 
 
 of its begging priests. It was cultivated 
 
 only by particular associations and by the 
 
 lower ranks of the people. 
 
 In Rome the worship of the Great Mother 
 {Magna Mater) was introduced for political 
 reasons in 204 B.C., at the command of a 
 Sibylline oracle, and for the purpose of 
 driving Hannibal out of Italy. An embassy 
 was sent to fetch the holy stone from 
 Pessinus ; a festival was founded in honour 
 of the goddess, to be held on April 2-4 (the 
 Megdlesia, from the Greek megdlc meter = 
 Tnagna mater) ; and in 217 a temple on the 
 Palatine was dedicated to her. The ser- 
 vice was performed by a Phrygian priest, a 
 Phrygian priestess, and a number of Galli 
 (emasculated priests of Cybele), who were 
 allowed to pass in procession through the 
 city in accordance with their native rites. 
 Roman citizens were forbidden to participate 
 in this service, though the praetor on the 
 Palatine, and private persons among the 
 patricians, celebrated the feast by entertain- 
 ing one another, the new cult being attached 
 to that of Maia or Ops. The worship of 
 Cybele gained by degrees an ever-wider 
 extension, so that under the early Empire 
 
 a fresh festival was instituted, from March 
 15-27, with the observance of mourning, 
 followed by the most extravagant joy. In 
 this festival associations of women and men 
 and the religious board of the Quindecim- 
 viri (q.v.) took part. In the first half of 
 the 2nd century A.D. the TaurobSUa and 
 Oridbolia were added. In these ceremonies 
 the person concerned went through a form 
 of baptism with the blood of bulls and rams 
 
 ss ar. g; /J, 
 
 * CYBELE. 
 
 From an Athenian ex-voto relief (Berlin). 
 
 killed in sacrifice, with the object of cleans- 
 ing him from pollutions and bringing about 
 a new birth. The oak and pine were sacred 
 to Rhea-Cybele (see Attis), as also the lion. 
 She was supposed to traverse the mountains 
 riding on a lion, or in a chariot drawn by 
 lions. In art she was usually represented 
 enthroned between lions, with the mural 
 crown on her head and a small drum in 
 her hand. 
 
 Rhea Silvia. Daughter of the Alban 
 king Numa. Her uncle Amulius, who had 
 driven his brother from the throne, made 
 her a Vestal Virgin, so that none of her 
 descendants might take vengeance for this 
 violent deed. When, however, she bore to 
 Mars the twins Romulus and Remus, and 
 was thrown for this into the Tiber, Tiberi- 
 
544 
 
 RHEDA RHETOHIC. 
 
 nus (q.v.), the god of the river, made her 
 his wife. According to au older tradition, 
 the mother of the founders of Rome was 
 Ilia, daughter of ^neas {q.v.) and Lavinia. 
 
 Rheda. 8ec R^da. 
 
 Khesus. Son of Eioneus, or Strymon, and 
 one of the Muses, king of the Thracians. 
 He came to help Priam, but, in the very 
 night after his arrival before Troy, was 
 surprised by Diomedes and Odysseus, and 
 slain by the former, together with twelve 
 of his companions, while Odysseus took 
 away his swift horses of glistening white- 
 ness. It had been prophesied that, if these 
 fed on Trojan fodder, or drank of the 
 Xanthus before Troy, the town could not 
 be taken. 
 
 Rhetoric. Among the Greeks, rhetovike 
 comprised the practical as well as the theo- 
 retical art of speaking, and rhetor denoted 
 an orator no less than a teacher of oratory. 
 Among the Romans, it denoted only the 
 latter, the actual speaker being called orator. 
 The first men, who reduced oratory to a sys- 
 tem capable of being taught, appeared among 
 the Sicilian Greeks, who, according to the 
 testimony of the ancients, were distinguished 
 for the keenness of their understanding and 
 their love of disputation [Cicero, Binitus 
 46]. The Syracusan CtoAX (circ. 500 B.C.) 
 is said to have been the first who elaborated 
 systematic rules for forensic speeches, and 
 laid them down in writing in a manual on 
 the art of rhetoric (technc). His pupil 
 TisIas (born circ. 480), and after him the 
 Leontine Gorgias, further cultivated the 
 art, and from alsout 427 carried it to 
 Greece itself, and in particular to Athens. 
 In the judicial proceedings and the assem- 
 blies of the people, the practice of oratory 
 had long been familiar at Athens, though 
 it had not been reduced to technical rules, 
 and oratory had had a conspicuous repre- 
 sentative in Pericles. At Athens the 
 theory of oratory was further cultivated 
 by the Sophists (Gr. Sophistai, '' men who 
 professed knowledge or wisdom "). Their 
 instruction in style and rhetoric was en- 
 joyed by numerous Athenians, who desired 
 Ijy the aid of study and practice to attain 
 to expertness in speaking. 
 
 The first Athenian, who, besides im- 
 parting instruction in the new art, applied 
 it practically to speaking in the assemblies 
 of the people and before courts, and who 
 published speeches as patterns for study, 
 was AxtIphon (died B.C. 411), the earliest 
 of the " Ten Attic Orators." In his extant 
 speeches the oratorical art is shown 
 
 still in its beginnings. These, with the 
 speeches interwoven in the historical work 
 of his great pupil Thvicydides, give an 
 idea of the crude and harsh style of the 
 technical oratory of the time ; while the 
 speeches of AndScides (died about 3'- 9), 
 the second of the Ten Orators, display 
 a style that is still uninfluenced by the 
 rhetorical teaching of the age. The first 
 really classical orator is Lysias (died about 
 360), who, while in possession of all the 
 technical rules of the time, handles with 
 perfect mastery the common language of 
 every-day life. IsScrates (436-338) is 
 reckoned as the father of artistic oratory 
 properly so called ; he is a master in the 
 careful choice of words, in the rounding off 
 and rhythmical formation of periods, in the 
 apt employment of figures of speech, and 
 in everything which lends charm to lan- 
 guage. By his mastery of style he has 
 exercised the most far-reaching influence 
 upon the oratorical diction of all succeeding 
 time. Of the three kinds of speeches which 
 were distinguished by the ancients, poli- 
 tical (or deliberative), forensic, and show- 
 speeches (or declamations), he specially 
 cultivated the last. Among his numerous 
 pupils is IsiEUS (about 400-350), who in 
 his general method of oratory closely follows 
 Lysias, though he shows a more matured 
 skill in the controversial use of oratorical 
 resources. The highest point was attained 
 by his pupil Demosthenes, the greatest 
 orator of antiquity (384^322) ; next to him 
 comes his political opponent ^schines 
 (389-314). The number of the Ten Orators 
 is completed by their contemporaries Hype- 
 RlDES, Lycdrgtjs, and Dinarchus. In the 
 last of these the beginning of the decline of 
 oratorical art is already clearly apparent. 
 
 To the time of Demosthenes belongs the 
 oldest manual of rhetoric which has been 
 preserved to us, that of Anaximenes of 
 LampsScus. This is founded on the practice 
 of oratory, and, being intended for imme- 
 diate practical use, shows no trace of any 
 philosophical groundwork or philosophical 
 research. Greek rhetoric owes to Aris- 
 totle its proper reduction into a scientific 
 system. In contrast to Isocrates, who aims 
 at perfection of form and style, Aristotle, 
 in his Rhetoric, lays special stress on 
 subject-matter, and mainly devotes himself 
 to setting forth the means of producing 
 conviction. When Athens had lost her 
 liberty, practical oratory was more and 
 more reduced to silence ; the productions 
 of the last orators, such as Demetrius of 
 
EHETORIC. 
 
 545 
 
 Phalerum, were only a feeble echo of the 
 past. Demetrius is said to have been the 
 first to give to oratorical expression a ten- 
 dency towards an elegant luxuriance. He 
 was also the first to introduce the custom 
 of making speeches upon imaginary sub- 
 jects by way of practice for deliberative 
 and forensic speaking. 
 
 In later times the home of oratory was 
 transferred to the free Hellenic or hellenized 
 communities of the coasts and islands of Asia 
 Minor, especially Rhodes. On the soil of 
 Asia a new style was developed, called the 
 Asiatic. Its originator is said to have been 
 HegesIas of Magnesia near Mount Sipylus. 
 He flourished in the latter half of the 
 3rd century. In avowed opposition to the 
 method of Demosthenes, who spoke in 
 artistically formed periods, Hegesias not 
 only went back to the simpler constrnc- 
 tioiis of Lysias, but even endeavoured to 
 outvie the latter in simplicity, breaking 
 up all that he had to say into short 
 sentences, and carefully avoiding periods 
 of any length [Cic, Orator 226]. On 
 the other hand, he sought to give a 
 certain vividness to his speeches by an 
 elaborately arranged order of words, and 
 by a far-fetched and often turgid phraseo- 
 logy. This was the prevailing fashion 
 until the middle of the 1st century B.C. 
 Even in Rome it had numerous followers, 
 especially Hortensius, until by the influence 
 of Cicero it was so utterly crushed out, that 
 Hegesias was soon forgotten, even among 
 the Greeks. A peculiar kind of oratory 
 prevailed in Rhodes, where a closer ap- 
 proach was again made to the Attic models, 
 and particularly to the representatives of 
 the simple style, such as Hyperides. Con- 
 spicuous orators of this school were Apol- 
 LONius and M6L0N, both of Alabanda in 
 Caria, in the first half of the 1st century B.C. 
 [These two orators are expressly distin- 
 guished from one another by Strabo, p. 655 ; 
 they are confounded even by Quintilian, 
 who erroneously speaks of Apollonius 
 Molon, iii 1, 16 ; xii 6, 7.] 
 
 The theory of oratory remained until about 
 the end of the 2nd century B.C. exclusively 
 in the hands of the philosophers, and was 
 little regarded by the Asiatic orators. After 
 that time the orators and practical teachers 
 of the art again applied themselves with 
 eagerness to theoretical studies ; the theo- 
 rists adopted an eclectical method, seeking 
 to combine the philosophical and more 
 scientific proceeding of Aristotle with that 
 of Isocrates, which addressed itself rather to 
 D. C. A, 
 
 the turns of phrase and the outward forms 
 of oratory. The most noteworthy system 
 was introduced by HermagObas of TemnSs 
 (about 120 B.C.), whose writings, which are 
 no longer extant, supplied the chief foun- 
 dation for the theoretical studies of the 
 Romans at the beginning of the 1st century 
 B.C. The system of rhetoric elaborated by 
 him was afterwards further worked out and 
 improved in detail. In the time of the 
 Empire the rhetorical schools in general 
 flourished, and we possess an extensive 
 rhetorical literature of that age reaching as 
 far as the 5th century a.d. It includes the 
 works of authors who mainly treated of the 
 literary and aesthetic side of rhetoric, espe- 
 cially those of DiOnysius of Halicarnassus, 
 the champion of Atticism and of refined 
 taste, and the unknown author of the able 
 treatise On the Sublime (see Longinus) ; 
 also those of technical writers, such as 
 HeemOgenes, the most noteworthy represen- 
 tative of the scholastic rhetoric of the age, 
 Apsines, Menandee, Theon, AphthSnius, 
 and others. On the revival of Greek oratory, 
 after the end of the 1st century, and parti- 
 cularly in the 2nd century, see Sophists. 
 
 (II) Roman. As among the Athenians, 
 so also among the Romans, the institutions 
 of the State early gave occasion for the 
 practice of political and forensic oratory. 
 Until the end of the 3rd century B.C., this 
 oratory was wholly spontaneous. The 
 speech of the aged Appids Claudius C^cus, 
 delivered in 280 against the peace with 
 Pyrrhus, and afterwards published, was 
 long preserved as the earliest written monu- 
 ment of Roman oratory. Numerous political 
 speeches were published by the welliknown 
 Marcus Poecius Cato, the most note- 
 worthy orator during the first half of the 
 2nd century. After the second Punic War, 
 in spite of all the opposition of a Cato and of 
 those who thought with him, Greek culture 
 forced its way irresistibly into Rome, and 
 the Romans became eager to conform to 
 the Greek theory of oratory also. SeevIus 
 SuLPicIus Galea (circ. 144 b.o.) is spoken 
 of as the first man who composed his 
 speeches in accordance with the rules of 
 Greek art, and not long afterwards the 
 younger Geacchus (died 121) proved him- 
 self a consummate orator through the com- 
 bination of natural gifts and art. Even at 
 this time the publication of orations after 
 delivery was a general custom, and men 
 were already to be met with who actually 
 wrote speeches for others. At the beginning 
 of the 1st century B.C., the most noteworthy 
 
 N N 
 
546 
 
 RHIANUS RHCECUS. 
 
 orators were Marcus A^JTONIUS and Lucius 
 Licinins Crassds. 
 
 Rhetorical instruction, was originally 
 imparted by Greeks. In the first decade of 
 the 1st century the freedman Plotius Gallus 
 came forward as a teacher of rhetoric, 
 and other Latin teachers followed him. 
 These found a large number of hearers, but 
 the censors interfered to stop the practice, 
 as an innovation on the custom of their 
 forefathers. It is true that this attempt to 
 oppose the current, which had already set 
 ill, was in vain. Still it was only by freed- 
 men that rhetorical instruction in Latin was 
 given until the time of Augustus, when 
 the Roman knight Blandus was the first 
 free-born man who came forward as a public 
 teacher of rhetoric. Even the Latin rhetori- 
 cians derived their theory exclusively from 
 Greek sources, especially from Hermagoras, 
 to whose influence the two earliest extant 
 rhetorical writings of the Roman school 
 are to be referred ; these are the work of 
 CoRNiFlcitJS, and the youthful production 
 of Cicero, the De Inventtone. Cicero, the 
 greatest orator of Rome, and the only orator 
 of the Republic of whom any complete 
 speeches are extant, composed in his later 
 years several other valuable writings upon 
 rhetorical subjects, founded on his px'actice 
 as an orator ; viz. the De Oratore, the 
 Brutus, and the Orator. Besides Cicero, 
 the last age of the Republic possessed a 
 series of other conspicuous orators, such as i 
 HoRTEXSius, C.F.Lius, Beutus, and, above '' 
 all, CiESAK. A few more representatives 
 of the oratory of the Republic survived to 
 the time of Augustus. The most important 
 of these is Asinius Pollio. But, with the 
 old constitution, the occasions and materials 
 for oratory also disappeared under the 
 Monarchy, and the hindrances and limi- 
 tations to its public exercise increased in 
 the same proportion. Practice was gradually 
 superseded by theory, orators by rhetori- 
 cians, speeches by declamations. The ex- 
 ercises of the rhetorical schools, which now 
 became one of the chief centres of intel- 
 lectual life, paid almost exclusive attention 
 to the form, and dealt with imaginary 
 subjects of political and forensic oratory, 
 called tuasuruc and controversial, which 
 were as far as possible removed from the 
 practice of life. A vivid picture of these 
 exercises is preserved by the reminiscences 
 of the rhetorician Sexeca, the father of 
 the well-known philosopher. The manner 
 of speaking contracted in the schools was 
 adopted on the few occasions on which 
 
 practical oratory could still be exercised, 
 and these occasions were accordingly turned 
 into exhibitions of theatrical declamation. 
 It was in vain that men like QuiNTiLiAN, 
 in his work on the training of an orator 
 {InstitiMo Oratorio), and TacItus, in his 
 Dialogue on Orators, pointed to the true 
 classical patterns, and combated the fashion 
 of their time, fronl which even they were 
 not entirely free. Like these, the younger 
 Plint belongs to the end of the 1st century 
 A.D. ; his Panegyric, addressed to Trajan, 
 the only monument of Roman oratory after 
 Cicero preserved in a complete form, became 
 the model for the later panegyrists. In the 
 2nd century A.D., Pronto, and the school 
 named after him, sought to revive the old 
 Roman spirit by a tasteless imitation of 
 archaic expressions and forms of speech. 
 The same style is practised, though with 
 more ability, by the African Apuleius. 
 After the end of the 3rd century, the ora- 
 torical art had its chief seat in the towns 
 of Gaul, especially in Treves (Treviri) and 
 Bordeaux (Burdigald). Here a style of 
 oratory was matured which possessed a 
 certain smoothness and copiousness in words, 
 but showed great lack of ideas. Upon the 
 representatives of this style, the " Panegy- 
 rists," see Panegyhicus. 
 
 Ehianus. A Greek poet and grammarian, 
 a native of Bene in Crete, in the latter half 
 of the 3rd century B.C. In his youth he 
 was a slave and the overseer of a pdlcestra; 
 in his later life he wrote, in the learned 
 manner of the Alexandrines, besides epi- 
 grams, a number of epics. Of these the 
 most famous was the Jfessenwica, celebrating 
 in six books the second Messenian War and 
 its mythical hero Aristomenes. Besides 
 an epic fragment, we still possess eleven 
 of his epigrams. 
 
 Ehinthon. A Greek comic poet, son of a 
 potter of Tarentum, who lived about 300 
 B.C., and invented a style of composition of 
 his own, which was much diffused in Magna 
 Greecia, and is said to have been imitated 
 even by the Romans. It was called the 
 Hlldrotrdgoedia, i.e. cheerful tragedy. It 
 was a travesty of tragic myths by the inter- 
 mixture of comic scenes. The scanty frag- 
 ments of the thirty-eight plays of Rhianus 
 do not give us any adequate idea of this 
 kind of composition. 
 
 Ehoecus. A Greek artist of Samos, about 
 500 B.C., inventor of brass-founding, and 
 architect of the celebrated temple of Hera 
 in his native island [Herod., iii 60]. (See 
 Architecture and Sculpture.) 
 
RHYTON ROADS. 
 
 547 
 
 Rh^tdn. A kind of driiiking-liorn. {See 
 Vessels.) 
 
 Biclniam. A covering for the head worn 
 by the Roman women. {See Clothing.) 
 
 Rings. Among the Greeks and Romans 
 these were worn originally only as signet- 
 rings on the fourth finger of the left hand. 
 Among the Romans of the olden time, as 
 among the Spartans, they were exclusively 
 of iron. Then golden rings came in as dis- 
 tinguishing marks of senators and magis- 
 trates, and afterwards also of knights. It 
 was only in the course of the imperial age 
 that the golden signet-ring lost its original 
 meaning, and became finally a sign of free 
 birth, or of the privileges thereto attached. 
 Extravagant sums were paid for ornamental 
 rings, the value of which consisted partly 
 in the stone itself, partly in the art dis- 
 played in the stone-cutting. Among the 
 Greeks this kind of luxury arose at an early 
 time ; among the Romans it began only in 
 the last years of the Republic, while it 
 considerably increased under the Empire. 
 Men, as well as women, used sometimes to 
 wear rings on all their fingers. 
 
 Roads. The earliest levelled roads in 
 Greece were the " sacred ways." These 
 led to the most important religious centres, 
 where national festivals were celebrated, 
 such festivals also serving the purpose of 
 public markets or fairs. In general, the 
 Greeks set a high value on excellent and 
 well-levelled roads, which made travelling 
 easy. But, in the best days of Greece, only 
 unpaved roads were known, paved roads 
 being of comparatively late origin. 
 
 The grandest work in ancient road- 
 making was that done by the Romans, who, 
 mainly for military purposes, connected 
 
 Rome with her newly acquired provinces by 
 means of high-roads. They laid out their 
 roads as far as possible in straight lines. 
 The nature of the ground is almost entirely 
 disregarded ; where mountains intervened 
 they were broken through, and interposing 
 streams and valleys were spanned with 
 bridges and viaducts. 
 
 The first Roman high-road, which, even in 
 its present condition, is worthy of admira- 
 tion, was the Via Apptd, so called after the 
 censor Applus Claudius, who constructed it. 
 It was made in B.C. 312 to join Rome to 
 Capua, and was afterwards continued as far 
 as Brundisium. This " queen of roads," as 
 it is called [by Statins, Silvce ii 2, 12, Appia 
 longarum teritur regina viarum], was a 
 stone causeway, constructed, according to 
 the nature of the country, with an embank- 
 ment either beneath or beside it, and was 
 of such a width that two broad wagons 
 
 (1) * VIA APPIA, NEAK AEICCIA. 
 (Canina, Arch. Rom,, tav. 183.) 
 
 could easily pass each other. [Eig. 1 shows 
 part of this road below the village of Ariccia, 
 where it runs for a considerable distance 
 on an embankment faced with freestone, 
 and with massive balustrades and seats on 
 both sides, as well as vaulted openings in 
 the basement to serve as outlets for the 
 mountain streams.] The surface was paved 
 with polygonal blocks of hard stone, gene- 
 rally basalt, fitted closely together, and so 
 laid down that the centre of the road was 
 at a higher level than the sides, to allow 
 
 (2) * PAVEMENT OF VIA APPIA. 
 
 (Piranesi, Antichita di Boma, iii 7.) 
 
 the rain-water to run off. [Eig. 2 shows 
 the construction of the pavement.] Ac- 
 cording to a subsequent method, the 
 
548 
 
 EOBIGUS ROMANCE. 
 
 Roman roads first received a foundation 
 of rubble or breccia, on which rested a 
 layer of flat stones 8 inches thick ; above 
 this was an equally thick layer of stones 
 set in lime, which was covered by another 
 layer of rubble about 3 inches deep ; above 
 the rubble was laid down the pavement 
 proper, consisting of either hard stone 
 (silex) or else irregular blocks of basaltic 
 lava. 
 
 In the time of the emperor Hadrian, the 
 cost of constructing such a road amounted 
 to £900 per Roman mile (about 1'5 kilom. 
 = about A English mile). Erom the end of 
 the 2nd century B.C. posts set up at distances 
 of 1,000 paces from each other served to 
 measure distances. {See Miliaeium.) 
 
 The making and maintenance of the roads 
 in Italy were provided for at the expense 
 of the cerdnum, or State-treasury. During 
 the republican age the roads were under 
 the supervision of the censors. From the 
 time of Augustus they were under imperial 
 officials entitled curatores vulrum. In the 
 provinces, in general, the cost of the mili- 
 tary roads, and indeed of all public works, 
 was defrayed out of the provincial taxes. 
 In the imperial provinces soldiers were 
 also frequently employed in constructing 
 roads. In a few cases toll was levied by 
 special imperial permission. 
 
 Eobig;as, the male, Koblgo, the female 
 deity among the Romans who protected 
 the corn from blight (robigo). On April 
 25th a festival called the RobigaMa, sup- 
 posed to have been instituted by Numa, was 
 held in their honour in their grove, distant 
 nearly five miles from Rome. The citizens 
 marched to the spot in white festal attire, 
 under the conduct of the fldinen Quinndlts, 
 Robigus having at first apparently repre- 
 sented only a particular function of Mars 
 (or Quirinus), as protector of the arable 
 land. After a prayer, accompanied by 
 offerings of incense and wine, for the pre- 
 servation of the ripening seed, the flamen 
 offered sacrifice with the entrails of a 
 yovmg sorrel dog and a sheep. Certain 
 races were also held. 
 
 Soma {Dea Roma). The personification 
 of the world-ruling city, first worshipped 
 as a goddess by some cities of Asia Minor in 
 the 2nd century B.C. She was represented 
 under the image of aTyche (q.v.), with the 
 mural crown on her head and with all the 
 attributes of prosperity and power. Under 
 Augustus her cult in the Hellenic cities 
 was united partly with that of Augustus, 
 partly with that of the deified Caesar, Dlvus 
 
 Julius. In Rome she was always repre* 
 sented in military shape, sometimes like a 
 Minerva, sometimes like an Amazon. On 
 the obverse of silver coins she appears with 
 a winged helmet {see cuts). 
 
 HEAD OF KOMA. 
 
 Between the oldEorum and the Colosseum 
 Hadrian erected a handsome double temple 
 in honour of Roma and of Venus, as ances- 
 tress of the Roman people. This was 
 consecrated on April 21st, the day of the 
 foundation of Rome and the festival of the 
 Pcirtlia. {See Pales.) It was afterwards 
 called the templum urbis. The ruins still 
 remain.- For the site, see plan of the Roman 
 Fora under Forum ; for a restoration of the 
 interior, see Architectoke, fig. 13. 
 
 Eomance. Romantic narratives, espe- 
 cially of imaginary adventures of travel, 
 appear among the Greeks with particular 
 frequency after the time of Alexander the 
 Great, owing to Greece having then been 
 brought into contact with the East {see 
 EuHEMERUS) ; but these are known to us 
 only by their titles and by fragments. 
 Such ethnographical fables form, more- 
 over, the oldest element in the romance 
 respecting Alexander which is preserved 
 under the name of Callisthenes. By 
 earlier writers love-stories are only inci- 
 dentally introduced, although in the form 
 of popular local legends they were dis- 
 seminated in all the districts of Greece. 
 From the time of Antimachus they were 
 adopted with particular predilection as 
 themes for poetic treatment by the elegiac 
 poets, especially in the Alexandrine age. 
 There is extant a prose compilation of such 
 legends collected from historians and poets 
 by the poet Parthenius in the time of 
 Augustus. 
 
 The earliest example of prose narratives 
 of the amatory type is the " Milesian Tales " 
 {Mllesidca) of Aristides of Miletus (about 
 100 B.C.), which are regarded as forerunners 
 of the later love^romances. Even in the 
 earliest example of such a romance which 
 is known to us (at least as to its general 
 contents), the Wonders beyond Thule of 
 Antonius DiOgenes (probably in the 1st 
 century A.D.), there appears that copabina- 
 
ROE ARII ^RUMINA. 
 
 549 
 
 tioa of fantastic adventures of travel 
 with a tale of love whicli is common to 
 all the later romances, almost without ex- 
 ception. This branch of literature came to 
 maturity in the age of the later Sophists, 
 who, among their other literary exercises, 
 wrote amatory compositions in the form of 
 narratives and letters. We possess works 
 of this kind by PhIlostratus, Alciphron, 
 and his imitator AKiSTiENETUS. One of 
 the oldest of the romances which spring 
 from this time is that of the Syrian Iam- 
 blIchus (in the 2nd century), entitled 
 Babylontdcd. This is extant only in an 
 epitome. The romances of XenOphon of 
 Ephesus, HelIOdokus of Emesa, Longus, 
 Achilles Tatius of Alexandria, and 
 CharIton of Ephesus are extant in a com- 
 plete form. Among these that of Helio- 
 dorus is distinguished for its artistic and 
 skilful plot, and the pastoral romance of 
 Longus for its poetical merit. The treat- 
 ment of these romances is to a considerable 
 extent sketched out in accordance with a 
 fixed pattern, and consists of a simple mul- 
 tiplication of successive adventures. Two 
 lovers are separated by untoward chances, 
 generally robbers by land and sea ; and it 
 is only after manifold trials and wonderful 
 experiences in slavery and in strange lands 
 that they are finally once more united. In 
 the pourtrayal of love they deliberately 
 endeavour to catch the spirit of the Alex- 
 andrine elegy; the language is the artificial 
 and affected language of the sophistic age. 
 Such " dramas," as the later writers call 
 them, were also fi'equently composed in the 
 Byzantine period ; e.g. by Eustathius. 
 
 Among the Romans the earliest work of 
 the kind was the translation of the Mile- 
 siaca of Aristides by Sisenna (about 70 B.C.) ; 
 for this reason the Roman epithet for a 
 romance is Milesia. The most important 
 and the only original production is the sati- 
 rical romance of manners of Petronius 
 (middle of the 1st century A.D.). This work, 
 which is unfortunately preserved only in 
 fragments, is of a kind which has no 
 parallel in Greek literature. The Meta- 
 morphoses of ApijleIus, which are likewise 
 of the highest value for the history of 
 manners at the time (2nd century), and are 
 interesting on account of the novel-like 
 narratives inserted in them, are derived 
 from a Greek model. Besides these works, 
 this form of composition is still represented 
 in extant Latin literature by the translation 
 of the Alexander-romance of the pseudo- 
 Callisthenes by lulius Valerius (about 200). 
 
 Similarly, the writings of the pretended 
 DiCTYS and Dares (4th and 5th centuries), 
 which are examples of the literature of 
 forgery relating to the destruction of Troy, 
 are probably to be referredto Greek sources. 
 Lastly, there is the wonderful history of 
 Apollonius of Tyre, a revised version of 
 a Greek romance (6th century), which was 
 much read in the Middle Ages. 
 
 Rorarii. The name given in the old 
 Roman legion to the citizens of the lowest 
 property-class, who were armed only with 
 a dart and a sling. These had to open the 
 fighting in the capacity of skirmishers, and, 
 when the close combat began, to withdraw 
 behind the line. In later times their place 
 was taken by the vetttes {q.v.). 
 
 Rostra (properly the ships' prows, from 
 rostrum, the iron-bound prow, lit. " beak," 
 of a ship). The orators' platform in the 
 Eorum at Rome, so called because it was 
 embellished with the bronze prows of the 
 ships of the Latin fleet captured at Antium 
 in 338 B.C. [Livy, viii 14]. Besides these it 
 was also decorated with other monuments 
 of the greatness of Rome, such as the Laws 
 of the Twelve Tables, the columna rostrata 
 of Duilius, and numerous statues of men of 
 mark. Originally it stood between the part 
 of the Porum called the Cdmitium and the 
 Forum proper, opposite the Curia [no. 18a 
 in Plan s.v. Forum] ; but in 44 b,c. Caesar 
 moved it to the north end of the Porum 
 under the Capitol [no. G in same Plan ; cp. 
 Cic, Phil, ix 2], and here built up part of 
 it by the employment of the old materials. 
 It was not completed until after his death, 
 by Antonius. This new platform, which 
 was afterwards repeatedly restored, appears 
 by the existing remains to have consisted 
 of an erection 11 feet higher than the pave- 
 ment of the Forum, about 78 feet in length, 
 and 33 feet in depth. [Cp. Middleton's 
 Ancient Rome in 1888, pp. 158-164.] The 
 front was decorated with two rows of 
 ships' prows. The way up to the platform 
 was at the back. This platform also- was 
 used down to the latest times of the Empire 
 as a place for setting up honorary statues. 
 [The Rostra lulia, so called to distinguish 
 it from the other rostra, was the projecting 
 pQdium of the heroon of Julius Ccesar, 
 built by Augustus (no. 21 in plan). Affixed 
 to this were the prows of the vessels 
 captured at Actium: Dion Cassius, li 19 
 (Middleton, I.e., p. 179),] 
 
 Rudis. The wooden foil of the gladia- 
 tors. {See Gladiatores.) 
 
 Rumina and Ruminus [der. rumis or 
 
550 
 
 RUTILIUS LUPUS SACRAMENTUM. 
 
 ruma, '' a teat"]. Ancient Italian pastoral 
 deities, who protected the suckling cattle 
 and received offerings of milk. In Rome 
 their sanctuary stood at the foot of the 
 Palatine Hill, in the neighbourhood of the 
 Lupercal ; in the same place was the 
 Ruminal fig tree (probably a primitive 
 emblem of the nurturing goddess) [the 
 Ruminu ficus of Ovid, Fasti ii 412], under 
 which Romulus and Remus were said to 
 have been suckled by the wolf. 
 
 Rutilius Lupus {Lucius). A Roman rhe- 
 
 torician who composed in the time of Tiberius 
 (14-37 A.D.) a work upon the figures of 
 speech, abridged from a Greek treatise by the 
 younger Gorgias. Of this work two books 
 {Schemata LexeOs) have been preserved. 
 The value of the work consists in its 
 translations of striking passages quoted as 
 examples, mainly from the lost speeches of 
 the Greek orators. It was used by the 
 anonymous author of a later Carmen de 
 Figuris et Scliemdtibus in 186 hexameters. 
 Rutilius Kamatianus. See Nam ati anus. 
 
 Sabazius. A Thracian and Phrygian 
 deity, whom the Greeks usuallj^ identified 
 with Dionysus [Diodorus, iv 4], and some- 
 times also with Zeus. His orgiastic worship 
 was very closely connected with that of the 
 Phrygian Mother of the Gods, Rhea-Cybele, 
 and of Attis. Along with this it was intro- 
 duced into Athens in the 5th century B.C. 
 [Aristophanes, VespcB 9, Lysistr. 388 ; De- 
 mosthenes, De Cor. § 260]. In later times 
 it was widely spread in Rome and Italy, 
 especially in the latter days of paganism. 
 Like many of the oriental deities, he repre- 
 sented the flourishing life of nature, which 
 sinks in death, always to rise again. As 
 an emblem of the yearly renovation of 
 nature, the symbol specially appropriated 
 to him was the snake. Accordingly, at the 
 celebration of his mysteries, a golden snake 
 was passed under the clothes and drawn 
 over the bosom of the initiated. [Clement 
 of Alexandria, Protrept, p. 6. In the 
 Characters of Theophrastus, when the 
 superstitious man " sees a serpent in his 
 house, if it be the red snake, he will invoke 
 Sabazius " (xxviii, ed. Jebb).] 
 
 Sabinus iMusiirius). One of the most 
 celebrated Roman jurists, a pupil of Ateius 
 Capito in the time of Tiberius, and founder 
 of the school of jurists called after him that 
 of the Sciblmani. {See Ateius Capito and 
 
 JURISPEUDENX'E. ) 
 
 Sacellum. The Latin name for a small 
 sanctuary, which was a mere altar, or an 
 inclosed uncovered place with an altar, or 
 a little temple with either an altar or an 
 image for purposes of worship. In Rome the 
 greater part of these sanctuaries were among 
 the oldest and holiest places of worship. 
 
 Sacerdos {Mcinius Plotlus). A Latin gram- 
 marian, perhaps of the end of the 3rd cen- 
 tury A.D. ; wrote in Rome an ars grammatica 
 in three books. The third treats of metre. 
 
 Sacra. The Latin term for all trans- 
 actions relating to the worship of the gods, 
 especially sacrifice and prayer. They are 
 either sacra prlcdta or pubUca. The former 
 were undertaken on behalf of the individual 
 by himself, on behalf of the family by the 
 pater fumilids, or on behalf of the gens by 
 the whole body of the gentiles. The centre 
 of the domestic service of the gods is formed 
 by the worship of the Penates and Lares. 
 In particular cases recourse was also had 
 to certain specified deities. Besides this, 
 private sacra were attached to particular 
 families ; these passed to the heir with 
 the succession and became a burden on 
 him. Hence an inheritance without sacra 
 {hereclitds sinS sacris) proverbially signi- 
 fied an unimpaired piece of good fortune 
 [Plautus, Capt. lib, Trin. 483]. As the 
 family had sacra, so also had the gens 
 {q.v.), which had arisen out of the family 
 hj expansion. These were performed by a 
 sacrificial priest {flamen) appointed from 
 among the gentiles, the celebration taking 
 place in his own house or in a special 
 sacellum in the presence of the assembled 
 gentiles. The sacra publica were under- 
 taken pro populo collectively, (1) by the 
 curicr., pdgi, or vici, into which the com- 
 munity was divided, whence such sacrifices 
 were called sacra populdria • or (2) by the 
 individual gentes and societies {see Soda- 
 LiTAS), to which the superintendence of a 
 particular cult had been committed by the 
 State ; or (3) by the magistrates and priests 
 of the Roman State. The sacra of the 
 gentes were with few exceptions performed 
 in public, though the multitude present 
 remained silent spectators ; only in a few 
 cases they took part in the procession to 
 the place of worship or in the sacrificial 
 feast. 
 
 Sacramentum. The Roman term for the 
 
SACRARIUM SACRIFICES. 
 
 551 
 
 military oatli of allegiance, originally the 
 prelimiuary engagement entered upon witli 
 the general by newly enlisted troops [Cic, 
 0/. i 11 § 36 ; Livy, xxii 38 § 2]. The oath 
 was taken first by the legates and tribune?. 
 These officers then administered it to the 
 soldiers in the following manner : one soldier 
 in each legion recited the formula of the 
 oath, and the rest were called up by name, 
 and, coming forward one by one, swore to the 
 same oath with the words idem in me, i.e. 
 "The same (holds good) for me." The oath 
 remained in force only till the next campaign, 
 and whenever there was a new general a 
 new oath was taken. After the introduc- 
 tion of the twenty years' service by Marius 
 (about 100 B.C.) the men raised for service 
 took the oath, not oue by one, but all 
 together and for the whole time of service, 
 in the name of the State, afterwards in that 
 of the emperor. 
 
 Sacramentum in the oldest and most 
 general form of civil lawsuit, named after 
 it legis actio per sacramentum, is a deposit 
 made beforehand by the parties in the 
 suit. It was originally five sheep or five 
 oxen, according to the value of the object 
 in dispute, afterwards a sum of money at 
 the rate of ten anses for each Sheep and 
 one hundred for each ox. The deposit was 
 given back to the successful party, while 
 that of the loser was originally applied to 
 religious purposes ; afterwards it went to 
 the oerarium, or public treasury. 
 
 Sacrarium. The domestic chapel. {See 
 House, Roman.) 
 
 Sacrifices, among the ancients, formed the 
 chief part of every religious act. According 
 to the kind of sacrifice offered, they were 
 divided into (a) bloodless offerings and (&) 
 blood offerings, (a) The former consisted 
 in firstfruits, viands, and cakes of various 
 shape and make, which were some of them 
 burned and some of them laid on the altars 
 and sacrificial tables (see figs. 1 and 2) and 
 removed after a time, libations of wine, 
 milk, water with honey or milk, and frank- 
 incense, for which in early times native 
 products (wood and the berries of cedars, 
 junipers, and bay trees, etc.) were used. 
 Asiatic spices, such as incense and myrrh, 
 scarcely came into use before the seventh 
 century in Greece or until towards the end 
 of the Republic at Rome. 
 
 (b) For blood-offerings cattle, goats, sheep, 
 and swine were used by preference. Other 
 animals were only employed in special cults. 
 Thus horses were offered in certain Greek 
 regions to Poseidon and Helios, and at 
 
 Rome on the occasion of the October feast 
 to Mars ; dogs to Hecate and Robigus, asses 
 
 (1) * SACRIFICIAL TABLE 
 
 (with terminal bust of Priapus, and implements of 
 sacrifice) 
 
 AND SACKED TREE OF DIONYSUS 
 
 (with thyrsus and tym'panurn). 
 
 "Mural painting from Pompeii (Boetticher's Baumcultus, 
 
 fig. 12). 
 
 tfi.Je£di^,cUy 
 
 (2) * SACRI-TICIAL TABLE WITH OFFERINGS. 
 
 (Terra-cotta relief from Pompeii.) 
 
 to Priapus, cocks to Asclepius, and geese 
 to Isis. Sheep and cattle, it appears, could 
 
B52 
 
 SACRIFICES. 
 
 be offered to any gods among the Greeks. 
 As regards swine and goats, the regulations 
 varied according to the different regions. 
 Swine were sacrificed especially to Demeter 
 and Dionysus, goats to the last named 
 divinity and to Apollo and Artemis as well 
 as Aphrodite, while they were excluded 
 from the service of Athene, and it was 
 only at Sparta that they were pre- 
 sented to Hera. At Epidaurus they 
 might not be sacrificed to Asclepius, 
 though elsewhere this was done with- 
 out scruple. [Part of the spoils of 
 the chase — such as the antlers or fell 
 of the stag, or the head and feet of 
 the boar or the bear— was offered 'to 
 Artemis Agrotera (see fig. 3).] 
 
 As regards the sex and colour of 
 the victims, the Romans agreed in 
 general with the Greeks in following 
 the rule of sacrificing male creatures 
 to gods, female to goddesses, and those 
 of dark hue to the infernal powers. 
 At Rome, however, there were special 
 regulations respecting the victims 
 appropriate to the different divinities. 
 Thus the appropriate offering for 
 Jupiter was a young steer of a white colour, 
 or at least with a white spot on its fore- 
 head ; for Mars, in the case of expiatory 
 sacrifices, two bucks or a steer ; the latter 
 also for Neptune and Apollo ; for Vulcan, a 
 red calf and a boar ; for Liber and Mercury, 
 a he-goat ; for Juno, Minerva, and Diana, a 
 heifer; for Juno, as Lucina, an ewe lamb 
 or (as also for Ceres and the Bona Dea) 
 a sow ; for Telliis, a pregnant, and for 
 Proserpine a barren, heifer; and so on. 
 
 The regulations as regards the condition 
 of the victims were not the same everywhere 
 in Greece. Still in general with them, as 
 invariably with the Romans, the rule held 
 good, that only beasts which were without 
 blemish, and had not yet been used for 
 labour, should be employed . Similarly, there 
 were definite rules, which were, however, 
 not the same everywhere, concerning the age 
 of the victims. Thus, by Athenian law, 
 lambs could not be offered at all before their 
 first shearing, and sheep only when they had 
 borne lambs. The Romans distinguished 
 victims by their ages as lactantes, sucklings, 
 and mdidres, full grown. The sacrifice of 
 sucklings was subject to certain limitations : 
 young pigs had to be five days old, lambs 
 seven, and calves thirty. Animals were 
 reckoned maiores if they were bidenfes ; 
 i.e. if their upper and lower rows of teeth 
 were complete. There were exact require- 
 
 ments for all cases as regards their sex 
 and condition, and to transgress these was 
 an offence that demanded expiation. If 
 the victims could not be obtained as 
 the regulations required, the pontifical law 
 allowed their place to be taken by a repre- 
 sentation in wax or dough, or by a dif- 
 ferent animal in substitution for the sort 
 
 (3) * OFFERING TO AKTEMIS AGROTERA. 
 
 (From a sarcophagus in the Louvre.) 
 
 required. In many cults different creatures 
 were combined for sacrifice : e.g. a bull, a 
 sheep, and a pig (cp. Suovetaueilia), or a 
 pig, a buck, and a ram, and the like. In 
 State sacrifices, victims were sometimes 
 sacrificed in great numbers ; e.g. at the 
 Athenian festival in commemoration of the 
 victory at Marathon, 500 goats were slain. 
 {Cp. Hecatombe.) Human sacrifices as a 
 means of expiation were not unknown to 
 the earliest Greek and Roman worship, 
 and continued in certain cases {e.g. at the 
 feast of the Lycsean Zeus and of Jupiter 
 Latiaris) until the imperial period; how- 
 ever, where they continued to exist, crimi- 
 nals who were in any case doomed to death 
 were selected, and in many places oppor- 
 tunity was further given them f9r escape. 
 
 In general, it was considered that purity 
 in soul and body was an indispensable 
 requirement for a sacrifice that was to be 
 acceptable to a divinity. Accordingly the 
 offerer washed at least his hands and feet, 
 and appeared in clean (for the most part, 
 white) robes. One who had incurred blood- 
 guiltiness could not offer sacrifice at all ; 
 he who had polluted himself by touching 
 anything unclean, particularly a corpse, 
 needed special purification by fumigation. 
 Precautions were also taken to insure the 
 withdrawal of all persons who might be 
 otherwise unpleasing to the divinity ; from 
 
SACRIFICES. 
 
 553 
 
 many sacrifices women were excluded, from 
 others men, from many slaves and freedmen. 
 At Rome, in early times, all plebeians were 
 excluded by the patricians. 
 
 The victims were generally decked out 
 with ribbons and wreaths, and sometimes 
 the cattle had their horns gilded. If the 
 creature voluntarily followed to the altar 
 or even bowed its head, this was considered 
 as a favourable sign ; it was an unfavour- 
 able sign if it offered resistance or tried to 
 escape. In that case, with the Romans, 
 the object of the sacrifice was deemed to be 
 frustrated. Among the Greeks those who 
 took part in the sacrilice wore wreaths ; a 
 firebrand from the altar was dipped in water, 
 and with the water thus consecrated they 
 sprinkled themselves and the altar. They 
 then strewed the head of the victim with 
 baked barley-grains, and cast some hairs cut 
 from its head into the sacrificial fire. After 
 those present had been called upon to ob- 
 serve a devout silence, and avoid everything 
 that might mar the solemnity of the occasion, 
 the gods were invited, amidst the sound 
 of flutes or hymns sung to the lyre and 
 dancing, to accept the sacrifice propitiously. 
 The hands of the worshippers were raised, 
 or extended, or pointed downwards, ac- 
 cording as the prayer was made to a god 
 of heaven, of the sea, or of the lower world 
 respectively. The victim was then felled 
 to the ground with a mace or a hatchet, and 
 its throat cut with the sacrificial knife. 
 During this operation the animal's head 
 was held up, if the sacrifice belonged to the 
 upper gods, and bowed down if it belonged 
 to those of the lower world or the dead. The 
 blood caught from it was, in the former 
 case, poured round the altar, in the latter, 
 into a ditch. In the case just mentioned 
 the sacrifice was entirely burned (and this 
 was also the rule with animals which were 
 not edible), and the ashes were poured into 
 the ditch. In sacrifices to the gods of the 
 upper world, only certain portions were 
 burned to the gods, such as thigh-bones or 
 chine-bones cut off the victim, some of the 
 entrails, or some pieces of flesh with a layer 
 of fat, rolled round the whole, together with 
 libations of wine and oil, frankincense, and 
 sacrificial cakes. The remainder, after re- 
 moving the god's portion, as it was called, 
 for the priests engaged in the sacrifice, was 
 either roasted at once for the sacrificial 
 banquet and so consumed, or taken home. 
 Festal sacrifices at the public expense were 
 often combined with a public meal. Sacri- 
 fice was made to the gods of the upper air | 
 
 in the morning ; to those of the lower world 
 in the evening. 
 
 Among the Bomans, as among the Greeks, 
 reverent silence prevailed during the sacri- 
 ficial operations ; in case a careless word 
 should become an evil omen, and to prevent 
 any disturbance by external surroundings, 
 a flute-player played and the offerer of the 
 sacrifice himself veiled his head during 
 the rite. The prayer, formulated bj' the 
 pontifices, and unintelligible to the priests 
 themselves from its archaic language, was 
 repeated by the votary after the priest, 
 who read it from a written form, as any 
 deviation from the exact words made the 
 whole sacrifice of no avail. As a rule, the 
 worshipper turned his face to the east, 
 or, if the ceremony took place before 
 the temple, to the image of the divinity, 
 grasping the altar with his hands; and, 
 when the prayer was ended, laid his 
 hands on his lips, and turned himself from 
 left to right (in many cults from right to 
 left), or, again, walked round the altar and 
 then seated himself. Then the victim, se- 
 lected as being without blemish, was conse- 
 crated, the priest sprinkling salted grains of 
 dried and pounded spelt {mold salsa) and 
 pouring wine from a cup upon its head, and 
 also in certain sacrifices cutting some of the 
 hairs off its head, and finally making a stroke 
 with his knife along the back of the crea- 
 ture, from its head to its tail. Cattle were 
 killed with the mace, calves with the ham- 
 mer, small animals with the knife, by the 
 priest's attendants appointed for the pur- 
 pose, to whom also the dissection of the 
 victims was assigned. If the inspectors of 
 sacrifice (see Haeuspex) declared that the 
 entrails (exta), cut out with the knife, were 
 not normal, this was a sign that the offering 
 was not pleasing to the divinity ; and if it 
 was a male animal which had been previously 
 slaughtered, a female was now killed. If 
 the entrails again proved unfavourable, the 
 sacrifice was regarded as of no avail. On 
 the other hand, in the case of prodigies, 
 sacrifices were offered until favourable signs 
 appeared. In other sin-offerings there was 
 no inspection of entrails. Sin-offerings were 
 either entirely burned or given to the priests. 
 Otherwise the flesh was eaten by the offerers, 
 and only the entrails, which were roasted 
 on spits, or boiled, were offered up, together 
 with particular portions of the meat, in the 
 proper way, and placed in a dish upon the 
 altar, after being sprinkled with mola salsa 
 and wine. The slaughter of the victim took 
 place in the morning, whilst the cxta were 
 
554 
 
 S.ECULAEES LUDI SALII. 
 
 offered at evening, the intervening time be- 
 ing taken up by the process of preparation. 
 Sseciilares Liidi (pi'operly Ludl TSrentlnl 
 or Tui-entlnl). The " Secular Games " arose 
 from some gentile sacrifices of the Valerian 
 family, which were offered to the gods be- 
 neath the earth at the Terentum (or Taren- 
 tum), a spot in the Campus Martius where 
 a volcanic fire smouldered. The first cele- 
 bration of the Lvdi Tcrcntini of which 
 there is actiaal evidence took place 249 B.C., 
 by the direction of the Sibylline books, in 
 honour of Dis and Proserpine. Owing to 
 the vow then made, to repeat them at the 
 beginning of every sceciilum, or period of 
 one hundred years, they were called the 
 " Secular Games." Like all cults prescribed 
 by the Sibylline books, they are of non- 
 Roman origin, being, in fact, borrowed from 
 the Etruscans, who at the conclusion of a 
 mean period of 100 years, reckoned accord- 
 ing to the longest human life in a genera- 
 tion, used to present an expiatory offering 
 on behalf of the new generation to the gods 
 beneath the earth. The games seem to 
 have been next held, not in 149, but in 146 ; 
 the one following was omitted on account 
 of the Civil Wars, and the games were not 
 held again until the time of Augustus, in 
 17 B.C. [It was for this occasion that 
 Horace wrote his Carmen ScFCuldre.] The 
 date was fixed by a reckoning different from 
 that hitherto followed, by taking 110 years 
 as the normal standard of the sceculuin. 
 In later times sometimes the new reckoning 
 was adopted, sometimes the old ; as early 
 as Claudius we have a retui'n to the old, 
 and in 47 A.D. that emperor celebrated with 
 secular games the 800th year of Rome. 
 Similarly the years 900 and 1000 of the 
 city were celebrated. The ritual order of 
 the games, which Augustus only altered by 
 the introduction of Apollo, Diana, and 
 Latona among the deities worshipped, was 
 as follows : At the beginning of the season 
 of harvest, heralds invited the people to the 
 festival, which none had ever seen, nor 
 would see again ; and the commission of 
 fifteen, which was charged with the due 
 celebration of all festivals enjoined by the 
 Sibylline books, distributed the means of 
 expiation, consisting of torches, sulphur, 
 and pitch, to all free persons on the Capitol 
 and in the Palatine temple of Apollo. At 
 the same time in the temple of the Capitoline 
 Jupiter, in that of the Palatine Apollo, and 
 in that of Diana on the Aventine, wheat, 
 barley, and beans were handed to the people 
 for an offering of firstfruits. At the feast 
 
 proper, which lasted three days and three 
 nights, the emperor upon the first night 
 sacrificed to the Parcse three rams, which 
 were completely burnt up, upon three altars 
 at the Terentum. This was accompanied 
 by the burning of torches and the chanting 
 of a hymn. At the same place, and on the 
 same or the following day, a black hog and 
 a young pig were offered to Tellus, and 
 dark-coloured victims to Dis and Proserpine. 
 On the first day white bulls were sacrificed 
 to Jupiter, and a white cow to Juno on the 
 Capitol, after which scenic games were held 
 in honour of Apollo. On the second day 
 the matrons prayed to Juno on the Capitol; 
 on the third, a sacrifice of white oxen took 
 place in the Palatine temple of Apollo, while 
 twenty-seven boys and the same number 
 of maidens sang the carmen sceculare in 
 Greek and in Latin. 
 
 Sagitta. Arrow. (See Bows.) 
 
 Sagittarii. The bowmen in the Roman 
 armies. These were generally raised by 
 levj' or furnished by the allies. The Cre- 
 tan, Balearic, and Asiatic bowmen were 
 specially celebrated. 
 
 Sagnm. The military cloak of the Roman 
 soldiers, which consisted of a four-cornered 
 piece of cloth worn over the armour and 
 fastened upon the shoulder by a clasp. It 
 was a symbol of war, as the tSga was the 
 symbol of peace. 
 
 Salacia. A Roman goddess of the salt 
 water. She was identified with the Greek 
 Amphitrite, and regarded as the wife of 
 Neptune. 
 
 Salarinm. A Roman term signifying 
 properly the allowance of salt which the 
 governor furnished for the magistrates and 
 officers who formed his retinue ; then the 
 gratification in money which took the 
 place of the salt. Under the Empire it 
 was the pay of the imperial magistrates, as 
 well as of the physicians and professors in 
 the service of the State. 
 
 Salii (" dancers "). An old Italian college 
 of priests of Mars ; said to have been intro- 
 duced at Rome by Numa and doubled by 
 Tullus Hostilius. The earlier college was 
 called the Salii Palatini, and the later the 
 Salii AgOnales or Colllni. The former 
 derived their name from their curia on the 
 Palatine Hill ; the latter, from the Collin e 
 Gate, near which stood their sanctuary on 
 the Quirinal. Both colleges consisted of 
 twelve life-members of patrician family, and 
 recruited their numbers from young men, 
 whose parents were required to be still 
 living ; at their head was a magister, a 
 
SALLUSTIUS CRISPUS. 
 
 555 
 
 prmsul (leader in the dance), and a vates 
 (leader in the song). The cult of the Pala- 
 tine Salii had to do with Mars, that of the 
 Colline with Quirinus ; but the chief con- 
 nexion of both was with the holy shields, 
 anclUa. {See Ancile with cut.) The chief 
 business of the Salii fell in March, the 
 beginning of the campaigning season. On 
 March 1st they began a procession through 
 the city, each of them dressed in an em- 
 broidered tunic, a bronze breastplate, and 
 a peaked helmet, girt about with a sword, 
 with one of the holy shields on the left 
 arm, and in the right hand a staff, while 
 trumpeters walked in front of them. At 
 all the altars and temples they made a 
 halt, and, under the conduct of the two 
 leaders, danced the war-dance in three 
 measures, from which they take their name 
 of Salii or " dancers," accompanying it by 
 singing certain lays, beating their shields 
 meanwhile with the staves. Every day 
 the procession came to an end at certain 
 appointed stations, where the shields were 
 kept over the night in special houses, and 
 the Salii themselves partook of a meal pro- 
 verbial for its magnificence [Horace, Odes 
 i 37, 2]. Until March 24th the ancilia 
 were in motion ; within this time some 
 special festivities, were also held, in which 
 the Salii took part. On March 11th there 
 was a chariot-race in honour of Mars 
 (Equina) and a sacrificial feast in honour 
 of the supposed fabricator of the shields, 
 Mamurius Veturius ; on the 19th was the 
 ceremony of the cleansing of the shields, 
 and on the 23rd the cleansing of the holy 
 trumpets (tilbm) of the priests, called 
 the tutnlustriuin. The days on which the 
 ancilia were in motion were accounted 
 solemn (rellgiosi), and on these days men 
 avoided marching out to war, offering 
 battle, and concluding a marriage. In 
 October, the close of the campaigning 
 season, the ancilia were once more brought 
 out, in order to be cleansed in the Campus 
 Martins. The lays of the Salii, called 
 axdmenta, were referred to Numa, and 
 were written in the archaic Saturnian 
 verse, and in such primitive language, that 
 they were scarcely intelligible even to the 
 priests themselves, and as early as the 
 beginning of the 1st century B.C. were the 
 object of learned interpretation. [Quinti- 
 lian i 6 § 40. Two or three connected 
 bits of these lays have come down to us 
 (Allen's Remnants of Early Latin, y- ''i^)- 
 The most intelligible is the following, in 
 a rude Saturnian measure : 
 
 II Cumd tonds, Leiichie, \ prce let tremdnti, || 
 Quom tibei cunei \ dixtumiim tondront; || 
 
 i.e. Cicm tdnas, Lucetie (thou god of light), 
 prcB te tremunt, cum tlbi cUnel (bolts of 
 lightning) a dcxtm tonUerunt.] Besides 
 Mars, other deities, such as Janus, Jupiter, 
 and Minerva, were invoked in them ; the 
 invocation of Mamurius Veturius formed 
 the close [Ovid, Fasti, iii 260 ff.]. After 
 the time of Augustus the names of indivi- 
 dual emperors were also inserted in the lays 
 
 Sallustius Crispus {Gaius). The cele- 
 brated Roman historian, born 86 B.C., of a 
 plebeian family, at Amitemum, in the land 
 of the Sabines. After a youth spent in 
 excesses, in 52, he made, as tribune of the 
 people, a most violent attack on Cicero, 
 the defender of Milo and the senatorial 
 party. By the censors of the year 50 he 
 was turned out of the Senate, ostensibly 
 for immorality, but really on political 
 grounds, because he was a partisan of 
 Csesar. By the latter he was made qusestor 
 in 49, and thereby reinstated in his sena- 
 torial rank. An expedition to Illyria, 
 the conduct of which had been committed 
 to him by Csesar, after the battle of Phar- 
 salus, miscarried. He was more successful 
 in 47 as proprsetor in Africa, where Caesar 
 committed to him the province of Numidia, 
 with the title of proconsul. Here he was 
 guilty of such extortions, that it was only by 
 the favour of Caesar that he escaped a con- 
 demnation. The treasures thus acquired 
 enabled him to lay out the magnificent 
 gardens known by his name on the Quirinal, 
 and to devote his life entirely to learned 
 pursuits, as, iu consequence of the murder 
 of Caesar, he had withdrawn from all poli- 
 tical activity. His two earliest produc- 
 tions, on the Catilinarian Conspiracy (the 
 Bellum CdtUlnai) and on the Jugurthine 
 War {Bellum lUgurthlnwm) are preserved 
 complete. Of his most important work, the 
 five books of Historice, only four speeches, 
 two letters, and a series of fragments have 
 come down to us. His work, after a survey 
 of the earlier times, contained a short de- 
 scription of the civil war between Marius 
 and Sulla, and then a detailed history from 
 78 to 67. The other writings ascribed to 
 him — two letters to Caesar about the reor- 
 ganization of the State {Epistixlce ad 
 CcES&rem de Repuhllca) and a Declamdtlo 
 in Ciceronem — are rhetorical fabrications 
 of a later time. 
 
 Sallust is undoubtedly the first artistic 
 historian among the Romans. He deals 
 not with the mere narration of events, but 
 
556 
 
 SALMONEUS SANDALIUM. 
 
 also with the explanation of their inner 
 meaning. His model is Thucydides, whom 
 he strives to imitate, not only in his love of 
 truth and his impartiality, laut also in the 
 general plan of his works, especially in the 
 interweaving of speeches in order to char- 
 acterize situations and persons, as well as 
 in his phraseology, which is often brief and 
 compressed even to obscurity. To literary 
 form he paid more attention than was given 
 by any Roman historian before him. In 
 his language he purposely diverged from 
 the ordinary language of the time, espe- 
 cially by closely imitating the style of the 
 elder Cato. This mannerism of style, as 
 well as the inconsistency between his 
 earlier life and the censorious moral rigour 
 displayed in his writings, drew upon him 
 severe criticism, even among his contem- 
 poraries. Nevertheless hJs works have 
 alwaj-s had a high reputation. 
 
 Salmoneus. Son of iEolus, husband of 
 Alcidice, and father of Tyro {see Neleus). 
 He founded Salmone in Elis, whither he had 
 migrated from Thessaly. He usurped the 
 name and the sacrifices of Zeus. He even 
 imitated thunder and lightning by trailing 
 dried skins and caldrons behind his 
 chariot and flinging torches into the air. 
 Tor this reason Zeus slew him with the 
 lightning, and destroyed his town together 
 with its inhabitants. His second wife, 
 Sidero, had ill-treated her step-daughter 
 Tyro, and was therefore slain by Tyro's 
 sons, Pelias and Neleus, at the altar of 
 Hera, where she had taken refuge. 
 
 Salpinx. The Greek name for the long 
 trumpet, like the Roman tuba, with which 
 the signals were given in the army. It 
 was also employed in religious ceremonies. 
 (See cut.) 
 
 Saliis. The personification of health and 
 prosperity among the Romans. As god- 
 dess of health, she was identified with the 
 Greek Hf/yieia {qx.), the daughter of Ascle- 
 pius, and represented in the same way. 
 As the deity representing the welfare of 
 the Roman people {Sdlus Publica Populi 
 
 Eomani) she had from the year 302 B.C. a 
 temple on the Quirinal. Under the Em- 
 pire, she was also worshipped as guardian 
 goddess of the emperors {Salus Augusta). 
 Prayers were frequently made to her by the 
 priestly colleges and the political bodies, 
 especially at the beginning of the year, in 
 times of sickness, and on the birthdays of 
 the emperors. As her counterpart among 
 the Sabines, we have the goddess Strenia. 
 {See Stren^.) 
 
 Salutatlo. The morning greeting which 
 Romans of rank were in the habit of re- 
 ceiving from clients, friends, and admirers 
 in the atrium during the first two hours 
 of the day ; for this purpose the callers 
 gathered in the vestibule even before sun- 
 rise. [Martial, iv 8: prima sdlutan.tes 
 atque altera contmet hora / Pliny, Ej). iii 
 12, officia antelucuna.] 
 
 Sambuca (Gr. samhyke). A triangular, 
 stringed instrument resembling a harp, 
 having a piercing tone. When played, its 
 pointed end stood downwards. 
 
 Samnis. See Gladiatoees. 
 
 Sanctis. Usually called Semo Sancus {see 
 Semones). a genius worshipped by the 
 Sabines, Umbrians, and Romans, represent- 
 ing holiness and good faith in human life. 
 In Rome, he was principally worshipped 
 under the name Deus Fidius (from fides, 
 " faith ") as god of oaths, god of the 
 public laws of hospitalitj'- and of nations, 
 also of international intercourse and of the 
 safety of the roads, which were placed 
 under his protection. An oath in his 
 name could be taken only under the open 
 sky ; therefore even his temple had a hole 
 in the roof, and, when an oath by him was 
 taken at home, the man swearing went into 
 the uncovered court. On account of many 
 points of resemblance he was identified 
 with Hercules. He had a temple on the 
 Quirinal (the foundation of which was cele- 
 brated June 5), and another on the island 
 in the Tiber [Ovid, Fasti, vi 213-218]. 
 
 Sandalium. A Greek covering for the foot, 
 principally worn by women, consisting of 
 a thick sole of wood, cork, or leather, with 
 a strap carried over the foot in front of 
 the socket of the great toe, passed between 
 this and the second toe, and tied to the 
 other bands fastened to the edge of the 
 sole before and behind. The back was 
 supported by strap-work, which was often 
 very neatly intertwined above the ankles. 
 (See cuts.) 
 
 Soles of the more simple kind were 
 bound underneath the foot by a strap 
 
SAPPHO SARCOPHAGUS, 
 
 557 
 
 running crosswise over the instep, or by 
 two straps fastened to the side-edges and 
 tied together in a knot or by a clasp. 
 Soles were also worn, which 
 were provided with a close- 
 fittiQg piece of leather at 
 the heel and with a piece 
 of leather, sometimes nar- 
 row, sometimes broad, at 
 the sides. These last were 
 so laced together by straps 
 round the ankles, that the 
 toes and the flat of the foot 
 remained uncovered. {Op. Solea.) 
 
 Sappho. The greatest poetess of antiquity, 
 born at Mytilene or Eresus in Lesbos, lived 
 between 630 and 570 B.C., being a younger 
 contemporary of Alcseus (see cut). She was 
 married to a rich man of Andros, and had 
 a daughter named Clais. About 596 she 
 was obliged to flee from Lesbos, probably 
 in consequence of political disturbances, 
 and to remain some time in Sicily. In 
 
 Her poems were divided by the Alexan- 
 drine scholars into nine books according to 
 their metres ; and besides the purely lyric 
 
 (1) & (6) Mvjseo Pin- 
 
 (2) Wmckelmann, Opere, tav, lii. 
 
 SANDALS OF VARIOUS KINDS. 
 '-Clement, iv tav, viii, xiv. (3) Musco BorhonicOf x, liii. 
 
 (4) Clai-ac, Musie, v 818, no. 213 
 
 •^ SAPPHO ASD ALCJiUS. 
 
 ** Dark-haired, pure, and sweetly smiling Sappho, 
 Fain trould I say 80r)iething, save that shame prevents me," 
 — Alc^us, fragm. 55, Bergk. 
 (Terra-cotta relief from Melos, British Maseum.) 
 
 her later years she was again living in 
 Lesbos, in the society of young girls with 
 an inspiration for poetry. {See Erinna.) 
 Although, according to the principles 
 expressed in her own poems, and according 
 to trustworthy testimonies of antiquity, 
 she was a woman of pure and strict life, 
 yet later scandal unwarrantably put an 
 immoral interpretation on this society. 
 Equally unfounded is the legend emanating 
 from the Attic comedians, that she threw 
 herself from the Leucadian rock into the 
 sea out ef despair at the rejection of her 
 love by a handsome seaman named Phadn 
 [fragm. of Menander's Leucadia]. 
 
 songs, among which the EpUhaMmm, or 
 wedding-lays, were particularly celebrated, 
 they included elegies and epigrams. Two 
 of her odes, with a number of short frag- 
 ments, are still extant. Her odes were for 
 the most part composed in the metre named 
 after her the sapphic strSphe (or stanza), 
 which was so much used by Horace. They 
 are among the tenderest and most charming 
 productions in the whole range of extant 
 Greek literature, and afford some percep- 
 tion of the points of excellence ascribed 
 to Sappho by antiquity : sincerity and depth 
 of feeling, delicacy of rhythm, and grace 
 and melodiousness of language. 
 
 Sarapls. See Serapis. 
 
 Sarcoph3,gas, Properly lithos sarco- 
 phdgos, a kind of stone (alum-slate) found 
 near Assos, in the district of Troas in Asia 
 Minor ; so called because it had the peculiar 
 property, that all corpses laid in it were 
 completely consumed in forty days, with the 
 exception of the teeth. [Cp. Pliny, N. H. 
 ii 211.] Usually coffins were only inlaid 
 with it in order to hasten decomposition. 
 Then the name is given generally to any 
 stone-coffin, such as those which were 
 customary among Greeks and Romans, 
 among the latter particularly after the 
 2nd century A.D. {Cp. Sculpture, and for a 
 
 CfiRNELIVS-LVCIVSSCIPIOflARBATVS-CrJAlVnD TATRE , 
 PR0tKATV5-FQraiS-vfR SAPlENS-avE-OVOIVS f Oft«A'/lRTVTEI-PARrcv«fl| 
 rviT-cWSOL CENSOR-AIOILIS-QVFffVlTAPVD-VOS-TAVRASlACWVNA ' 
 SAhMlOCEPIT-SVBICIT-liWNE-LOVCAHA-OPSIOESIVE-ABDOVCIT 
 
 SARCOPHAGUS OF L. CORNELIUS SCIPIO BARBATUS. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican Museum.) 
 
 specimen see Muses.) The cut represents 
 the sarcophagus of L, Cornelius Scipio 
 Barbatus, consul 298 B.C., great-grandfather 
 
558 
 
 SARISSA SATURA. 
 
 of tlie elder Scipio Africanus, of the 3rd 
 centurj' B.C. It is made of common stone, 
 and is the only example remaining from 
 the old Roman time. 
 
 Sarissa. The thrusting-lance of the 
 Macedonian hoplites {see Phalanx) and 
 light cavalry, which in the time of Philip 
 and Alexander was 18 feet long, afterwards 
 14 ; from this lance the light cavalry were 
 called sdrissophori (sarissa-bearers). 
 
 Satpedon. According to Homer, son of 
 Zeus and Laodamia and grandson of Bel- 
 lerophon ; like his cousin Glaucus {q.v., 4), 
 a prince of the Lycians and ally of Priam. 
 At the storming of the Greek camp he, in 
 company with Glaucus, was the first upon the 
 enemy's wall ; on his falling by the hand 
 of Patroclus, a fearful battle arose over his 
 body, until Apollo, by the command of Zeus, 
 rescued the disfigured corpse from the 
 Greeks, and, after washing it and anoint- 
 ing it with ambrosia, had it carried through 
 the air to Lj'cia by the twin brothers 
 Sleep and Death [Homer, xvi 419-683]. 
 Later writers describe him as a son of 
 Zeus and Europa, and brother of Minos ; 
 driven out by the latter, he won for him- 
 self a lordship in Lycia, and lived there by 
 the favour of Zeus for three generations. 
 
 Satire (Lat. sdtira, older form satura). 
 The word properly denotes a medley of 
 heterogeneous things, and in particular a 
 kind of dramatical farce, which consisted 
 of a mixture of speech, song, music, and 
 dancing. {See Fescexn'ixi.) 
 
 Before the rise of an artistic type of 
 Roman drama, these farces were performed 
 on festive occasions by itinerant minstrels, 
 the representation taking place upon the 
 public stage erected at Rome in 390 B.C. 
 
 After the introduction of the Greek 
 drama by Livlus Andronicus, 240 B.C., the 
 sdtiirce sank to the position of after-pieces 
 {exodia} which were improvised by masked 
 Roman j-ouths after the conclusion of the 
 performance proper ; in this shape they 
 lasted until they were entirely supplanted 
 by the Atelldnce. As an artistic composi- 
 tion the satura is wholly undramatical, 
 and designates in the first instance a col- 
 lection of miscellaneous pieces of poetry 
 of heterogeneous contents and metres ; in 
 this form it seems to have been first 
 introduced into literature by Exxius. A 
 definite impress, fixing its character for 
 all future time, was given to the satura 
 in the 2nd century B.C. by LucIlius, who 
 made it essentially what we now under- 
 stand by satire, and is therefore designated 
 
 by Horace [Sat. ii 1, 62] as the inventor of 
 this branch of literature. Even his satires, 
 as may be gathered from the fragments that 
 survive, were of a very miscellaneous char- 
 acter, as regards matter and as regards 
 form. All possible aspects of the life of 
 the time were made the objects of a discus- 
 sion, which might be serious, jocular, or 
 censorious, as occasion required. It was 
 composed in the form sometimes of an essay, 
 sometimes of a letter, sometimes of a dia- 
 logue, and in the conversational style in 
 vogue at the time. In his earlier poems 
 he made use of various metres, afterwards 
 almost exclusively of the hexameter. The 
 significant example of Lucilius invited emu- 
 lation all the more, because the prosaic and 
 didactic element in satire was in the most 
 thorough accordance with the Roman char- 
 acter and poetical capacities. Accordingly a 
 number of imitators are mentioned reaching 
 down to the end of the Republic, though, in 
 the judgment of Horace, their endeavour to 
 attain the level of their model was a vain 
 one [Sat. i 10, 47]. A revival and develop- 
 ment answering to the more refined taste of 
 the time was given to the Lucilian satura 
 by Horace, who, however, confined himself 
 to social and literary life, and used the 
 hexameter alone. In the latter respect 
 his example was followed by Persius and 
 Juvenal ; but these treated the contrast 
 between the ideal and the actual, which 
 provokes the satire, not with the humour of 
 Horace, but with bitterness and severity. 
 
 An ancient (or pre-Lucilian) style of 
 satura was revived towards the end of 
 the Republic by the " most learned of 
 the Romans," Terentius Vahro, with hig 
 Memppean Satire.'!, in which, following the 
 example of the Cynic Menippus of Gadara, 
 he treated serious subjec.s in humorous 
 fashion and in a mixed form of prose 
 and poetry. This mixed form was also 
 adopted in the time of Nero by Peteoxius 
 in his satirical romance of manners, and by 
 Seneca in his satire on Claudius, as well 
 as in later times by the emperor Jdlian 
 in his Ccescires, written in Greek. 
 
 The satire is a thoroughly Roman species 
 of poetry [Quintilian, x 1 § 93: Satura 
 quidem tota nostra est] ; for though there 
 is much in the poetry of the Greeks which, 
 in regard to subject-matter, corresponds in 
 some degree to the satire, still they were 
 never able to produce a literature of this 
 kind stamped with a definite character of its 
 own, and described by a distinctive name. 
 
 Satura. See Satire. 
 
SATURNALIA SATYRS . 
 
 559 
 
 Saturnalia. A Roman festival in honour 
 of Saturnus {q.v.). 
 
 Satumua ("the sower"). An ancient 
 Italian god of seedtime and harvest, with 
 a sickle as symbol ; husband of Ops, father 
 of Pious. In later times he was identified 
 with the Greek KrSnos, who, thrust out 
 by Zeus, came across the sea to Latium, 
 was received by Janus, settled as king on 
 the Capitoline Hill (as it was called in after 
 times), brought agriculture and its blessings 
 to the people, and subsequently disappeared. 
 His reign was regarded as the golden age 
 of Italy. At the foot of the Capitoline Hill 
 a temple, built by the last Tarquin on the 
 site of a very ancient altar, was dedicated 
 to him and to his wife Ops. Under this 
 temple was the Roman treasury (airdrium 
 Satuvni ; No. 4 in plan, s.v. Toeum). Ex- 
 cept during his festival, his statue was, 
 throughout the year, wound round the feet 
 with woollen fillets. People offered sacri- 
 fices to him with uncovered head, according 
 to the Greek rites. His own festival, the 
 SdturnaVia, took place on December 17, and 
 consisted of sacrifices in the open air in 
 front of the temple and also of an outdoor 
 banquet, at which the senators and knights 
 appeared, after laying aside the toga for a 
 loosely fitting gown called synthSsis. After 
 the feasting, they separated with the cry, 
 " lo Saturnalia !" The festival was also 
 celebrated in private society ; schools had 
 holidays, law-courts were closed, all work 
 was stopped, war was deferred, and no 
 punishment of criminals took place for seven 
 days from December 17 to 23. During that 
 time there were all kinds of fantastic amuse- 
 ments. The festival was symbolical of a 
 return to the golden age. People gave 
 presents to one another, in particular wax 
 tapers (cerei) and dolls (sigilldna). They 
 also entertained one another, and amused 
 themselves with social games ; in particular, 
 they gambled for nuts — the symbol of fruit- 
 fulness. Every freedom was given to slaves, 
 and they were first entertained at the 
 banquet and served by their masters, in re- 
 membrance that under the rule of Saturnus 
 there had been no differences in social 
 rank. 
 
 Satyric Drama. One of the three varieties 
 of the Attic drama. Its origin may be 
 traced back to Pratinas of Phlius (about 
 500 B.C.). It is probable that, after settling 
 in Athens, he adapted the old dithyramb 
 with its chorus of Satyrs, which was cus- 
 tomary in his native place, to the form of 
 tragedy which had been recently invented 
 
 in Athens. This new kind of drama met 
 with so much approval, and was so much 
 developed by Pratinas himself, as well 
 as by his son Aristeas, by Choerilus, by 
 iEschylus, and the dramatists who suc- 
 ceeded him, that it became the custom to 
 act a satyric drama after a set of three 
 tragedies. The seriousness of the preceding 
 plays was thus relieved, while the chorus 
 of Satyrs and Sileni, the companions of 
 Dionysus, served to indicate the original 
 connexion between that divinity and the 
 drama. The material for a satyric drama, 
 like that for a tragedy, was taken from 
 an epic or legendary story, and the action, 
 which took place under an open sky, in a 
 lonely wood, the haunt of the Satyrs, had 
 generally an element of tragedy ; but the 
 characteristic solemnity and stateliness of 
 tragedy was somewhat diminished, without 
 in any way impairing the splendour of the 
 tragic costume and the dignity of the heroes 
 introduced. The amusing effect of the play 
 did not depend so much on the action 
 itself, as was the case in comedy, but 
 rather on the relation of the chorus to that 
 action. That relation was in keeping with 
 the wanton, sauc}', and insolent, and at the 
 same time cowardly, nature of the Satyrs. 
 The number of persons in the chorus is not 
 known, probably there were either twelve or 
 fifteen, as in tragedy. In accordance with 
 the popular notions about the Satyrs, their 
 costume consisted of the skin of a goat, deer, 
 or panther, thrown over the naked body, 
 and besides this a hideous mask and bris- 
 tling hair. The dance of the chorus in the 
 satyric drama was called sicinnis, and con- 
 sisted of a fantastic kind of skipping and 
 jumping. The only satyric play now ex- 
 tant is the Cyclops of Euripides. The 
 Romans did not imitate this kind of drama 
 in their literature, although, like the Greeks, 
 they used to have merry after-pieces follow- 
 ing their serious plays. {See Exodium.) 
 
 Satyrs. In Greek mythology, spirits of 
 the woodland, in the train of Dionysus, with 
 puck noses, bristling hair, goat-like ears, 
 and short tails. They are depicted as 
 wanton, cunning, and cowardly creatures, 
 and always fond of wine and women. They 
 dwell in woods and on mountains, where 
 they hunt, and tend cattle, dance and 
 frolic with the Nymphs (for whom they 
 lie in ambush), make music with pipe and 
 flute, and revel with Dronysus. Their own 
 special dance is called sicinnis. They were 
 considered as foes to mankind, because they 
 played people all kinds of roguish pranks, 
 
560 
 
 SAUEOCTONOS SCHOOLS. 
 
 and Triglitened them by impish tricks. The 
 hare, as a •wanton, cowardly, and amorous 
 
 (1) * COPY OF THE SATYR (OR FAUN) OF PRAXITELES, 
 
 (Rome, Capitoline Maseoin.) 
 
 (2) SATTE. 
 i^avino coXia wiaccTiia, Municli, Glyptothek, No. 99.) 
 
 creature of the woodland, was their appro- 
 priate symbol, 
 
 In art and poetry they gained a higher 
 significance, owing to the festivals of 
 Dionj'sus. {See Satyric Drama.) In early 
 art they are lepresented for the most part as 
 bearded and old, and often very indecoi-ous. 
 As time went on, they were represented as 
 ever younger and more graceful, and with 
 an expression of amiable roguishness (see 
 cuts). [The artist who led the way in this 
 transformation was Praxiteles. The statue 
 of the Satyr which Pausanias (i 20 § 1) 
 saw at Athens, in the Street of Tripods, is 
 generally supposed to be the original from 
 which the statue in the Capitoline Museum 
 and many others of the same type are de- 
 rived. " In the 
 Satyr of Praxi- 
 teles all that is 
 coarso and ugly 
 in form, all that 
 is mean or revolt- 
 ing in expression, 
 is purged away 
 by the fire of 
 genius. Of ex- 
 ternal marks of 
 his lower nature 
 nothing is left but 
 the pointed ears 
 and the arrange- 
 ment of tlie hair 
 over the forehead, 
 which is a remi- 
 niscence of the 
 budding horns of 
 the goat " (Perry's 
 Greek and Ro- 
 man Sculpture, 
 p. 437). {See fig. 
 
 1.) The Satyr represented in fig, 2 was 
 regarded by Winckelmann as, in point of 
 execution, one ef the most beautiful works 
 of ancient art.] {Cp. Silends.) 
 
 Sauroctdnos (" lizard slayer "). A special 
 name of Apollo {q.v.). 
 
 Scene (Lat. sccena). The stage. (See 
 Theatre.) 
 
 Scepticism. A philosophical school 
 founded by Pyrrho of Elis (about B.C. 865- 
 275), which refused to acknowledge that 
 truth was obtainable by the perception of 
 the senses and the cognisance of the mind. 
 In literature it is chiefly represented by 
 the physician Sextus Empiricus. {Cp. 
 Philosophy.) 
 
 SchSria. The mythical island of the 
 Phaeacians {see Ph^eaces), identified with 
 the historic Corcyra. 
 
 Schools. See EpuCATiox, 
 
 (3) YOUTHFUL SATYR WITH 
 THE IHFANT DIONYSUS. 
 
 (Naples, Mnseum.) 
 
SCIRIT^ SCOP AS. 
 
 6G1 
 
 Sciritae. A body of light infantry in the 
 Spartan army, consisting of the pSriaeci 
 {q.v.) of the district Sciritis. 
 
 Sciron. A robber who lived on the 
 boundary between MggarS and Attica, and 
 compelled the travellers, whose goods he 
 had seized, to wash his feet, only in order to 
 kick them into the sea, where an immense 
 tortoise devoured their dead bodies. He 
 was slain by the youthful Theseus {q.v.). 
 
 ScirSphdrla. An Athenian festival cele- 
 brated on the 12th of the month Sciroplw- 
 non (June-July), called after it. It was 
 in honour of Athene, who was worshipped 
 under the name of Scirfts near Sciron, a 
 spot on the "holy way" leading from 
 Athens to Elensis. It had its name from 
 the large white sunshade (sciron) beneath 
 which the priestess of Athene (the patron 
 goddess of the city), the priest of Erech- 
 theus, and the priest of Helios went to 
 Sciron to sacrifice. The sunshade was a 
 symbol of heavenly protection against the 
 rays of the sun, which began to burn more 
 intensely during the month of the festival. 
 This protection was invoked with special 
 reason, for the dry limestone rock was thinly 
 covered by a meagre surface of soil in the 
 neighbourhood of Athens, and particularly 
 near Sciron itself. In this, as in other 
 festivals of invocation, there were also 
 expiatory offerings ; and hence they carried 
 in the procession the hide of a ram that 
 had been sacrificed to Zeus as the mild and 
 gracious deity {meilicliios). 
 
 Scdlia. Short lyrical poems, usually con- 
 sisting of a single strophs, which were in- 
 tended to be sung after dinner over the 
 wine. The ancients ascribed their invention 
 to Terpander, and they received their first 
 development among the Lesbians, and were 
 written by such masters of song as Alcseus, 
 Sappho, Praxilla, Timocreon, Simonides, 
 and Pindar. The last mentioned, however, 
 gave them a more artistic form, with 
 several strophes, in accordance with the 
 rules of Dorian lyric verse. This class of 
 poetry found a congenial home in the 
 brilliant and lively city of Athens, where, 
 to the very end of the Peloponnesian War, 
 it was the regular custom at banquets, after 
 all had joined in the pcean, to pass round a 
 lyre with a twig of myrtle, and to request 
 all guests who had the requisite skill to 
 sing such a song on the spur of the moment. 
 To judge from the specimens that have 
 been preserved, their contents were ex- 
 tremely varied : invocations of the gods, 
 gnomic sayings, frequently with allusions 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 to common proverbs and fables, and the 
 praises of the blessings and pleasures of 
 life. The most famous scdlidn was that 
 of a certain Callistr3-tus on HarmSdius and 
 Aristogiton, who had killed the tyrant 
 Hipparchus, son of Pisistratus. It consists 
 of four strophes, but the last three are only 
 variations of the first. 
 
 Scopas (of Par6s). One of the most cele- 
 brated Greek sculptors. With Praxiteles, 
 he stood at the head of the later Attic 
 school, in the first half and towards the 
 middle of the 4th century. He was also an 
 architect, and in his younger days super- 
 intended the reconstruction of the temple 
 of Athene at Tegea, which had been burnt 
 down in 394 B.C. The groups in the two 
 pediments, representing the chase of the 
 Calydonian boar and the combat of Achilles 
 and Telephus, were executed by his hand, 
 or at any rate under his direction. [Pau- 
 sanias viii 45 §§ 4r-l. The exact site of 
 this temple was ascertained in 1879, and 
 fragments of the sculptures in the pediments 
 were discovered during the excavations. 
 They include the heads of two youthful 
 heroes, and the mutilated head of the Caly- 
 donian boar.] In conjunction with other 
 artists he executed in 350 the designs on 
 the sepulchre of Mausolus. {See Mauso- 
 leum.) His most important work, a group 
 with numerous figures, representing Achilles 
 being conducted to the island of Leuce. and 
 including Poseidon, Thetis, Achilles, and 
 Tritons and Nereids riding on sea monsters, 
 afterwards ornamented the temple of Nep- 
 tune near the Circus riamlnius in Eome 
 [Pliny, N. H. xxxvi 26]. In Pliny's time 
 [xxxvi 28] there was doubt as to whether 
 the group of Niobids (see Niobe) in the 
 Roman temple of Apollo Sosianus was the 
 work of Scopas or of Praxiteles. The 
 number of single statues, especially of gods 
 and demigods, by his hand, -which were 
 known to the ancients, was very great. 
 Among these was the Apollo placed by 
 Augustus in the temple on the Palatine, 
 clothed in a long robe, with a crown of bay- 
 leaves on his head, sweeping the chords of 
 his lyre [Pliny, xxxvi 25 ; Propertius, ii 31, 
 11. 5, 16] ; the colossal seated figure of Ares 
 in the temple built by Brutus Gallsecus rear 
 the Circus Flaminius [Pliny, § 26] ; the nude 
 statue of AphrCdite in the same temple [ib.] ; 
 and the frenzied Msenad [Anthologia Grceca 
 i 74, 75 ; iii 57, 3]. The influence of some of 
 these works has been traced in copies and 
 imitations that are still extant. [Thus, the 
 Mcenad is supposed to have supplied the 
 
 o o 
 
562 
 
 SCORPIO SCULPTURE. 
 
 type for sxxdh representations as that exem- 
 plified in the gem of Agave (q.v.) with the 
 head of Pentheus.] 
 
 Scorpio. A kind of engine for projec- 
 tiles, in earlier times identical with the cata- 
 pult, and in later times with the onager. 
 (See Artillery.) 
 
 Scri bae (writer s). The highest class among 
 the inferior paid officials at Rome (see 
 Apparitor). They did not perform ordi- 
 nary writers' services, which were usually 
 assigned to slaves, but occupying the position 
 of clerks, registrars, accountants, and secre- 
 taries. Of special importance were the 
 scribce quosstorti attached to the tribuni 
 ceravn. They formed three commissions of 
 ten members each, and kept the accounts 
 of the treasury. Two of their number 
 were also attached to each provincial 
 quaestor as accountants. The sc/ribce also 
 of the different sediles and tribunes ap- 
 pear to have formed a commission of ten 
 members, while those taken from among 
 them by the consuls, prsetors, and censors 
 seem to have been employed only during 
 their term of office. The pontifices also 
 had their scribce. 
 
 ScriboiiiTis Largus. A Roman physician 
 who accompanied the emperor Claudius to 
 Britain in 43 A.D. Between that year and 
 48 he compiled a treatise on medicine 
 (CompQsttlonSs Medicdmentorum), which 
 we possess in a somewhat imperfect form. 
 It contains 271 prescriptions, arranged 
 according to the parts of the body, from 
 the head downwards. 
 
 Scriptores HistorisB Angustae. The name 
 given to the six authors of biographies of 
 the Roman emperors, united at an un- 
 certain date into a single collection. The 
 biographies extend from Hadrian to Nume- 
 rian, 117-284 a.d. (with the exception of 
 the years 244r-253) . Of the six biographers, 
 ./Planus Spartianus, Volcatius GalMcanus, 
 and TrSbellius PolVio wrote under Diocle- 
 tian; Flavhis Vopiseus Syracusius, ^Hus 
 LatnprvJLius, and Julius Cdpltollnus under 
 Constantius Chlorus and Constantine the 
 Great. The biographies are merely dry 
 compilations from the lost writings (1) of 
 Marius Maximus (who at the beginning 
 of the 3rd century, under Alexander 
 Severus, continued the work of Suetonius 
 by writing the lives of the emperors from 
 Nerva to Elagabalus) ; and (2) of his con- 
 temporary Junius Cordus, who wrote bio- 
 graphies of the less famous emperors. In 
 spite of their deficiencies in style and spirit, 
 they are of value as authorities for history. 
 
 Scnlponga. The wooden shoe of the 
 Roman peasants and slaves. 
 
 Sculpture. The origin of painting as an 
 art in Greece is connected with definite 
 historical personages. That of sculpture 
 is lost in the mists of legend. It was 
 regarded as an art imparted to men by the 
 gods ; for such is the thought expressed in 
 the assertion that the earliest statues fell 
 from heaven. The first artist spoken of 
 by name, D.s:dalus, who is mentioned as 
 early as Homer, is merely a personifica- 
 tion of the most ancient variety of art, 
 that which was employed solely in the 
 constrnction of wooden images of the gods. 
 This is clearly proved by his name ( = " the 
 cunning artificer "). To him were attributed 
 a series of inventions certainly separated 
 far from each other in respect of time and 
 place, and embracing important steps in the 
 development of wood-carving and in the 
 representation of the human form. Thus he 
 is said to have invented the saw, the axe, the 
 plummet, the gimlet, and glue [Pliny, N. H. 
 vii 198], to have been the first to open the 
 eyes in the statues of the gods, to separate 
 the legs, and to give freer motion to the 
 arms, which had before hung close to the 
 body [Diodorus iv 76]. After him the early 
 school of sculptors at Athens, his reputed 
 native city, is sometimes called the school 
 of Daedalus [Pausanias v 25 § 13]. During 
 a long residence in Crete he is said to have 
 instructed the Cretans in making wooden 
 images {xodnd) of the gods [ib. viii 53 § 8]. 
 
 The invention of modelling figures in clay, 
 from which sculpture in bronze originated, 
 is assigned to the Sicyonian potter Butades 
 at Corinth [Pliny, xxxv 151]. The art of 
 working in metals must have been known 
 early in Greece, as appears from the 
 Homeric poems [esp. 11. xviii 468-608, 
 "the shield of Achilles"]. An important 
 step in this direction was due to Glaucus 
 of Chios, who in the 7th century B.C. in- 
 vented the soldering of iron [Herodotus, i 
 25 ; Pausanias, x 16 § 1], and the softening 
 and hardening of metal by fire and water 
 [Plutarch, De Defectu Orac. 47]. The dis- 
 covery of bronze-founding is attributed to 
 Rhcecus and TheSdorus of SamSs about 
 580 [Pausanias, viii 14 § 8]. The high 
 antiquity of Greek sculpture in stone may 
 be inferred from a work of the very earliest 
 period of Greek civilization, the powerful 
 relief of two upright lions over the gate of 
 the castle at Mycense. (See Architecture, 
 fig. 2.) 
 
 Sculpture in marble, as well as in gold 
 
SCULPTUEE. 
 
 563 
 
 and ivory, was much advanced by two 
 famous "pupils of Dsedalus," DIpcenus 
 and SCTLLis of Crete, who were working 
 
 ATHEKE. PEBfiEUS. PBGAEnS. HEDDSA. 
 
 (1) * PEESKUS CUTTING OFF THE HEAD OP MEDUSA. 
 
 Ketope from Seliaus (Museum, Palermo). 
 
 in Argos and Sicyon about 550 B.C. [Pliny, 
 
 (3) * THE HAJtPY MOSUMENT AT XANTHLS. 
 
 xxxvi g§ 9, 14 ; Pausanias, ii 15 § 1, 22 § 5], 
 and founded an influential school of art in 
 the Peloponnesus. [This school included 
 Hegylus and Th6o- 
 cles (Pausanias, vi 
 19 §8, 17 §2); Don- 
 tas and DSrycleidas 
 (*., vi 19 § 12, v 17 
 § 1); Clearchus of 
 Rhegium (iii 17 § 
 6) ; Tectseus and 
 Angelion (ii 32 § 5, 
 ix 35 § 3).] Among 
 their works are re- 
 corded not only 
 statues of gods, but 
 also of heroes, often 
 united in large 
 groups. Some con- 
 ception of the ar- 
 tistic productions of 
 this period may be 
 formed from scat- 
 tered monuments 
 still extant, origi- 
 nating in different 
 parts of the Greek 
 world; e.g. the rude 
 and more primitive 
 
 (2) * APOLLO OF TEKEA. 
 
 (Munich, Glyptothek.) 
 
 metopes of Selinus in Sicily (fig. 1); the 
 statues of Apollo from the island of 
 Thera and from Tenea, near Corinth (fig. 2) ; 
 the reliefs on the Harpy Monument from 
 the acropolis of Xanthus in Lycia (figs. 
 3 and 4), etc. These works, in spite of 
 their archaic stiffness, show an efibrt after 
 individual and natural expression, though 
 the position of the foot in striding, with 
 the sole completely touching the ground, 
 and the unemotional and stony smile on 
 the mask-like face, are common to all. 
 Even after Greek sculpture had mastered 
 the representation of the human body, not 
 
 C^^ffl^^S7 py'y'iK'WJ^iM!^irJ--,Ldai}iMiJMkllA U 
 
 (4) * BELIEF FROM THE HARPY MONUMENT. 
 
 (Britieh Museum.) 
 
 •jh uiO? iji^ 
 
564 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 only at rest, but also in the most violent 
 movement, it still continned unable to 
 overcome the lifeless rigidity of facial 
 expression. This is seen in the Trojan 
 battle-scenes (date about 480) on the 
 iEginetan pediments. Here the figures are 
 represented in every variety of position in 
 the fight, and depicted, not indeed 
 with any ideality, but with perfect 
 mastery even to the smallest detail; 
 whereas the faces are entirely des- 
 titute of any expression appropriate 
 to their situation. {See fig. 5, and 
 the West Pediment under Mgi- 
 NETAN Sculptures.) The athletic 
 forms in which the ^ginetan heroes 
 are represented indicate another 
 important extension of the sphere 
 of artistic representation. From 
 about 544 B.C. it had become usual 
 to erect statues of the victors in 
 the athletic contests, Olympia 
 especially abounding in these. fOl. 59 ; 
 Pausanias, vi 18 § 7 ; the statues there men- 
 tioned are of wood.] By this innovation 
 the art was freed from the narrow limits 
 to which it had been confined by the tra- 
 ditions of religion, and led on to a truer 
 imitation of nature. In this department 
 the school of JEgina was specially active, 
 attaining its highest perfection in the 
 bronze statuary of Glaucias, Gallon, and 
 above all Onatas (500-460). 
 
 teacher of Phidias, Myron, and PSlyclItus. 
 The transition to the period of the finest 
 art is represented by Calamis of Athens, 
 PythagOeas of Rhegium, and especially 
 Myeon, another Athenian, in whom the 
 art attained the highest truth to nature, 
 with perfect freedom in the representation 
 
 (6) MARBLE COPY OF MYEON's DISCODOLVS. 
 
 (Rome, Palazzo Maasimi.) 
 
 Sculpture in bronze flourished simulta- 
 neously in the Peloponnesus at Sicyon under 
 Canachus [for a supposed copy of his Apollo 
 see Canachus] and his brother AristOcles, 
 the fojmder of a school which lasted long 
 after, and at Argos under Ageladas, the 
 
 {b) * THE DYING HERO OF THE EASTERN PEDIMENT OF THE 
 TEMPLE OF ATHENE, iEGINA. 
 
 (Munich, Glyptothek.) 
 
 of the human body, and was thus prepared 
 for the development of ideal forms. 
 
 This last step was taken at Athens, in 
 the time of Pericles, by PhidIas. In his 
 creations, particularlj' in his statues of the 
 gods, whether in bronze or in ivory and 
 gold, he succeeded in combining perfect 
 beauty of form with the most profound 
 ideality, fixing for ever the ideal type for 
 Zeus and Athene, the two deities who were 
 pre-eminently characterized by intellectual 
 dignity. {See Athene, Zeus, and Par- 
 thenon, figs. 4 and 5.) For one of his 
 heroic subjects see fig. 7. 
 
 Of the pupils of Phidias the two who 
 worked most nearly in the same spirit were 
 AgSraceItus and Alcamenes, the author 
 of the sculpture of the western pediment 
 of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, part of 
 which still remains. The perfection of 
 Attic art at this time can be realized when 
 we consider that, with all their beauty of 
 execution, the extant marble sculptures of 
 the Parthenon, Theseum, Erechtheum, and 
 the temple of " Wingless Victory " must 
 be regarded as mere productions of the 
 ordinary workshop [as compared with the 
 lost masterpieces of Phidias]. The school 
 of Phidias had rivals in the naturalistic 
 school which followed Myron, including 
 his son Lycius and CresIlas of Cydonia. 
 [For a supposed copy of his Pericles, see 
 Cresilas.] Independent of both schools 
 stood PjeSnius of Mende, whose Victory, as 
 well as part of his sculptures on the east 
 pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, 
 are still extant [see P.^iONius and Olympian 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 -'565 
 
 Games (fig. 1)]; and CallKmachus, the 
 " inventor " of the Corinthian order of archi- 
 tecture [Vitruvius, iv 1 § 10] and of the ap- 
 
 contemporary P6lyclItds, -whose colossal 
 gold and ivory statue of the Argive Hera 
 directly challenged comparison with the 
 
 (7) * THESEUS. 
 
 From the west pediment of the Parthenon ; also identified as either an Athenian 
 
 river-god (IIissus or Cephisus) or Olympus. 
 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 plication of the auger to working in marble 
 [Pausanias, i 26 § 6]. Another school of 
 
 (8) * FAENESE DIADUMENUS OP POLYCLITUS. 
 (British Mnseum.) 
 
 sculpture in opposition to that of Athens 
 was founded at Argos by Phidias' younger 
 
 works of Phidias in its materials, its 
 ideality, and its artistic form, and estab- 
 lished the ideal type of that goddess. He 
 mainly devoted himself, however, to work 
 in bronze, the department in which Argos 
 had long been pre-eminent ; and made it 
 his aim to exhibit the perfection of beauty 
 in the youthful form (fig. 8). lie also 
 established a canon or scheme of the 
 normal proportions of the body. Of his 
 pupils the chief was Naucydes of Argos. 
 
 As in the first period of Greek sculp- 
 ture, represented by Myron, Phidias, and 
 Polyclitus, the schools of Athens and 
 Argos held the first rank beyond dispute, 
 so it was also in the second period, which 
 embraces the 4th century down to the- 
 death of Alexander the Great. Athens, 
 moreover, during this period remained true 
 to the traditions of Phidias, and still 
 occupied itself mainly with the ideal forms 
 of gods and heroes, though in a spirit 
 essentially altered. The more powerful 
 emotions, the more deeply stirred passions, 
 of the period after the Peloponnesian War 
 were not without their influence on art. 
 The sculptors of the time abandoned the 
 representation of the dignified divinities of 
 the earlier school, and turned to the forms 
 of those deities whose nature gave room 
 
566 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 lor softer or more emotional expression, 
 especially Aphrodite and Dionysus and the 
 circle of gods and daemons who surrounded 
 them. The highest aim of their art was 
 to pourtray the profound pathos of the soul, 
 to give expression to the play of the 
 emotions. With this is connected the 
 preference of this school for marble over 
 bronze, as more suited for rendering the 
 softer and finer shades of form or expres- 
 sion. The art of executing work in gold 
 and ivory was almost lost, the resources of 
 the States no longer sufficing, as a rule, for 
 this purpose. The most eminent of the 
 New Attic school were ScSpas of Pares 
 and PraxIteles of Athens. Scopas, also 
 famous as an architect, was a master of 
 the most elevated pathos. Praxiteles was 
 no less masterly in regard to the softer 
 graces in female or youthful forms, and in 
 the representation of sweet moods of dreamy 
 reverie. In his statues of Aphrodite at 
 Cnidus and Eros at Thespise he established 
 ideal types for those divinities. The 
 Hermes with the infant Dionysus, found at 
 Olympia, remains as a memorial of his art 
 
 (9) THE BEItilJBS WITH THE IXFAXT D/OSYSUS 
 
 or PRAXITELES. 
 
 (Olympia.) 
 
 (fig. 9). Of the productions of this school 
 (in which the names of Bet^us, Leochares, 
 and TimOtheus, who was joined with 
 Scopas in his work on the Mausoleum at 
 
 Halicarnassus, ought also to be mentioned) 
 an opinion may be formed from the spirited 
 reliefs on the choragic monument of Lysl- 
 crates iq.v.) at Athens. We have also 
 extant, in a copy, the Niobid group (see 
 
 (10) NIOBE. 
 
 {Florence, tTfflzi.) 
 
 Niobe), concerning the original of which 
 it was much disputed, even in ancient 
 times, whether the author were Scopas or 
 Praxiteles [Pliny, xxxvi 28]. In contrast 
 to the ideal aims of Attic art, the Sicyo- 
 nian school still remained true to its early 
 naturalistic tendencies and to the art of 
 sculpture in bronze, of which Argos had 
 so long been the home. At the head of 
 the school stood one of the most influential 
 and prolific artists of antiquity, Ltsippus 
 of Sicyon. His efforts were directed to 
 represent beauty and powerful develop- 
 ment in the human body (fig. 11). Hence 
 Heracles, as the impersonation of human 
 physical strength, was pourtrayed by him 
 oftener, and with more success, than any 
 other deity, and his type fully established. 
 Lysippus was most prolific as a portrait 
 sculptor, a branch of art which had been 
 much advanced in the invention by his 
 brother Lysistratus of the method of taking 
 plaster casts of the features [Pliny, xxxv 
 153]. 
 
 After Alexander the Great the practice 
 of the art, which had thus developed to per- 
 fect mastery of technique, began to deterio- 
 rate with the general decay of the countries 
 of Greece proper, and to give place to the 
 flourishing artistic schools of Asia Minor 
 and the neighbouring islands. The char- 
 acteristic of this period is the rise of a 
 method of treatment which strives after 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 567 
 
 effect. Instead of the na'ivet4 of earlier 
 times we get a certain deliberate oalcular- 
 tion of a theatrical type, a tendency to 
 make the exhibition of technical skill an 
 
 (11) THE APOXYOUEXOS OP LYSIPPtJS. 
 
 (Marble Copy, Vatican.) 
 
 end ih itself. The most productive school 
 was that of Rhodes, at the head of which 
 stood a pupil of Lysippus, Chares of 
 Lindus, who designed the famous Colossus 
 of Rhodes, the largest statue of ancient 
 times. Two well known ext«nt works in 
 marble proceeded from, this school, the 
 group of Ladcoon. (q.v.) and his sons, by 
 Agesander, AthenOdoros, and POlydords, 
 found at Rome in 1606, now one of the 
 chief treasures of the Vatican Museum, and 
 the Farnese Bull at Naples. This last 
 group, by Apollonics and Tauriscus of 
 Tralles, represents the revenge of Zethus 
 and AmphTon on Dirce {see cut under Dirce), 
 and is the largest extant antique work which 
 consists of a single block of marble. Both 
 these are admirable in skill and technique^ 
 embodying with the greatest vividness the 
 wild passions of a moment of horror ; but 
 the theatrical effect and the exhibition of 
 technical skill are unduly exaggerated. [To 
 the Rhodian school is conjecturally assigned 
 the fine group representing Menelaus bear- 
 ing the body of Patroclus, several imperfect 
 copies of which are still extant (fig. 12). 
 It is sometimes, however, regarded as one 
 of the later products of the same school 
 as the group of Niobe, and assigned to 
 
 the early part of the 3rd century B.C. 
 (Friederichs - Wolters, Gipsabgiisse, no. 
 1397.) The Pasquino at Rome is probably 
 the original of the copy in the Vatican and 
 of both of those in Florence.] 
 
 The second in rank of the schools of this 
 period was that at Pergdmdn, where the 
 sculptors Isogonus, PhyromSchus, Strato- 
 nicus, and AntigSnus celebrated in a series 
 of bronze statues the victories of the kings 
 Eumenes I (263-241) and Attalus I (241- 
 197) over the Gauls. There are still extant, 
 at Venice, Rome, and Naples, single figures 
 from a magnificent offering of Attalus, 
 which stood on the Acropolis at Athens, 
 and consisted of groups of figures illus- 
 trating the conflict between the gods and 
 the Giants, the battle of the Athenians 
 and Amazons, the fight at Marathon, and 
 the destruction of the Gauls by Attalus. 
 Other masterpieoyes of the school are the 
 work popularly called the Dying Gladia- 
 tor, now identified as a Gallic warrior, who 
 has ju.st stabbed himself after a defeat (fig. 
 
 MENELABS BEARINO THE BODY OP PATROCLUS, 
 
 13), and the group in the Villa Ludovisi, 
 called Foetus and Arria, which really 
 represents a Gaul killing his wife and 
 himself. But the most brilliant proof of 
 
5G8 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 their powers is furnished by the reliefs of 
 the battle of the Giants from the acropolis 
 at Pergamon. This work — brought to light 
 by Humann in 1878, and now at Berlin 
 
 To Greek art in Egypt belong the types 
 of Isis and Harpocrates, and the fine re- 
 clining figure of the river-god Nilus, with 
 sixteen charming boys playing round him. 
 
 
 (13) * THE DYING GAUL. 
 
 (Rome, Capitoline Museum.) 
 
 — is among the most important artistic 
 products of antiquity. {See Peegamene 
 Sculptures.) To this period may also 
 be referred with certainty the original of 
 the celebrated Belvedere Apollo, which 
 
 (14) APOI.LO BELVEDERE. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 probably had reference to the rescue of 
 the temple of Delphi from the Gallic army 
 in B.C. 280, which was supposed to be the 
 work of the god (fig. 14). 
 
 The artistic activity of the kingdom of 
 the Seleucidse in Syria is represented by 
 Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus, and his 
 famous Tyche, a work in bronze repre- 
 senting the presiding destiny of the city 
 
 (15) * TYCHE OF ANTIOCH. 
 
 Marble statuette (Home, Vatican). 
 
 of Antioch on the Orontes [Pausanias, vi 2 
 § 6 ; see fig. 15]. 
 After the subjugation of Greece by the 
 
SCULPTURE. 
 
 560 
 
 Romans in the middle of the 2nd century, 
 Rome became the headquarters of Greek 
 artists, whose work, though without 
 novelty in invention, had many excellences, 
 especially in perfect mastery of technique. 
 Of the artists of the 1st century B.C. and 
 the early imperial times the following are 
 worthy of mention : Apollonius of Athens 
 {Belvedere torso of Hercules at Rome), 
 GlycOn {Farnese Hercules at Naples, see 
 cut, art. Heracles), and ClSOmenes {Veims 
 de' Medici at Florence), though the works 
 of all these are more or less free repro- 
 ductions of the creations of earlier masters ; 
 also AgasIas of Ephesus, sculptor of the 
 Borghese Gladiator in the Louvre at Paris, 
 a very fine work in the spirit of the Per- 
 gamene school {see cut under Agasias). 
 
 In the same period PasItSles, an Italian 
 Greek of great versatility, attempted a 
 regeneration of art on the basis of careful 
 study of nature and of earlier productions. 
 This movement in favour of an academic 
 eclecticism was continued by Pasiteles' 
 pupil, Stephanus, who has left us a youth- 
 ful figure {Villa Albani), and Stephanus' 
 pupil Menelaus, the artist of the fine 
 
 OBESTBS AND ELECTRA. 
 
 (Rome, Villa Ludovisi.) 
 
 group called Orestes and Electra (fig. 16). 
 There was a revival of Greek art in the 
 first half of the 2nd century a,d. under 
 Hadrian, when a new ideal type of youth- 
 ful beauty was created in the numerous 
 
 representations of the imperial favourite 
 AntinSus (see cut under Antinous). 
 
 The artistic work of the Romans before 
 the "introduction of Greek culture was 
 under Etruscan influence. The art of that 
 people was chiefly displayed in pottery 
 and the closely connected craft of bronze- 
 founding, which they developed with great 
 technical skill and for which they had a 
 special predilection. They not only filled 
 their towns with quantities of bronze 
 statues, Volsinii alone containing about 
 2,000 at the time of its conquest by the 
 Romans in 265 B.C. [Pliny, xxxiv 34], but 
 provided Rome also for a long time with 
 works of the kind. Judging from the 
 extant monuments, such as the Mars of 
 Todi at the Vatican, the Boy with a Goose 
 under his Arm at Leyden, and the Robed 
 Statue of Aulus MStellus at Florence, the 
 character of their art seems wanting in 
 freedom of treatment and in genuine in- 
 spiration. After the conquest of Greece, 
 Greek art took the place of Etruscan at 
 Rome ; and, thanks to the continually in- 
 creasing love of magnificence among the 
 Romans, which was not content with the 
 adornment of public buildings and squares, 
 but sought artistic decoration for private 
 dwellings, a brisk activity in art was de- 
 veloped, whereof numberless extant works 
 give evidence. Beside the Greek influence, 
 to which we owe many copies of the 
 masterpieces of Greek art gradually accu- 
 mulated in Rome, a peculiarly Roman 
 art arose. This was especially active in 
 portrait sculpture. 
 
 Portrait statues were divided, according 
 as they were in civil or military costume, 
 into togdtce and loricatoa or thordcdtce 
 {lorlca=thorax, a coat of mail). To these 
 were added in later times the so-called 
 Achillece, idealized in costume and pose 
 [Pliny, xxxiv §§ 8, 118]. It was customary 
 to depict emperors in the form of Jupiter 
 or other gods, and their wives with the 
 attributes of Juno or Venus. Of the 
 innumerable monuments of this description 
 special mention is due to the statue of 
 Augustus in the Vatican (fig. 17); the 
 marble equestrian statues of Balbus and 
 his son at Naples (found at Herculaneum) ; 
 the bronze equestrian statue of M. Aurelius 
 on the square of the Capitol at Rome ; the 
 seated statues of Agrippina the elder in 
 the Capitoline Museum, and th* younger 
 at Naples. 
 
 Hand in hand with portrait sculpture 
 went the art of historical reliefs. In ac- 
 
570 
 
 SCULPTURE. 
 
 cordance with tte realistic spirit of Rome, 
 as opposed to the Greek custom of idea- 
 lizing persons and events, tliis department 
 strove to secure the greatest possible 
 
 (17) * PORTRAIT STATUE OF AUGUSTUS. 
 
 Found in 1863. 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 accuracy and truth. The most important 
 works of the kind are the reliefs on the 
 Arch of Titus {see cut under Triumph); 
 those on the Arch of Constantine, taken 
 from tlie Arch of Trajan (see cut under 
 Triumphal Arches); and those on the 
 columns of Trajan and M. Aurelius (see 
 cut under Architecture, Orders of, p. 
 58 b). Roman historical sculpture is seen 
 already on its decline in the reliefs of the 
 Arch of Septimlus Severus (203 a.d.), and 
 the decline is complete in those of the 
 Arch of Constantine. A subordinate branch 
 of relief sculpture was employed on the 
 sarcophagi common from the 2nd century 
 A.D. The subjects of these reliefs are rarely 
 taken from events in the man's actual life, 
 they are most usually scenes from legends 
 of Greek gods or heroes, often after com- 
 positions of an earlier period, and accord- 
 ingly showing a Greek character in their 
 treatment. (Sec cut under Muses.) 
 
 Materials. "White marble was the 
 material chiefly employed : in the earlier 
 times of Greek art, the local kinds, in 
 Attica particularly the Pentelic, which is 
 " fine in grain and of a pure white " 
 (Middleton's Rome in 1888, pp. 11, 12). 
 
 From the 4th century on that of Paros 
 was preferred. [This is a very beautiful 
 marble, though of a strongly crystalline 
 grain ; it is slightly translucent.] It was 
 used in Roman times in preference to the 
 similar marble of Luna (Carrara), a " marble 
 of many qualities, from the purest white 
 and a fine sparkling grain like loaf sugar, 
 to the coarser sorts disfigured with bluish- 
 gray streaks" (ib). It was sometimes 
 used for columns in Rome. The marble 
 of Hymettus " appears to have been the 
 first foreign marble introduced into Rome. 
 It resembles the inferior kind of Luna 
 marble, being rather coarse in grain and 
 frequently stained with gray striations " 
 (ib.). Coloured marble first became popu- 
 lar under the emperors ; e.g. black for 
 Egyptian subjects (statues of Isis), red for 
 Dionysus, Satyrs, and others in his train. 
 To the same period belongs the use of 
 striped and spotted kinds of marble, 
 coloured alabaster, porphyry, and granite. 
 Different colours of stone were also com- 
 bined (e.g. drapery of black marble or 
 porphyry). 
 
 A noteworthy peculiarity of ancient 
 sculpture, as also of architecture, is the 
 habit of embellishing all kinds of marble 
 work by the application of colours (Poly- 
 chromy), which is known from references 
 in ancient writers. [Plato, Rep. 420 C, 
 speaks of " painting statues." Plutarch, 
 De Gloria Athen. 348 E, mentions " dyers " 
 of statues side by side with gilders and 
 encaustic painters. Lastly, Pliny, xxxv 
 133, states that Praxiteles owned he was 
 much indebted to the circumlitw, or touch- 
 ing up, of his works by the painter Nicias.] 
 It is also attested by traces still present 
 on many works. [Thus the straps of the 
 sandal of the Hermes of Praxiteles still 
 show traces of red and gold ; and the 
 statues at Pompeii, especially those of late 
 date, are in many cases coloured, especially 
 certain parts of the drapery. The accom- 
 panying cut (fig. 18) introduces us into the 
 studio of an artist engaged in embellish- 
 ing with paint a terminal statue of Hermes. 
 The original sketch in colours lies on the 
 ground, and she is pausing to examine her 
 work, which is also watched with interest 
 by two bystanders. (Cp. Treu, SoUen 
 ■wir unsre Statuen bemalen ? Berlin, 1884.) 
 Wood and pottery were always painted. [It 
 is sometimes supposed that] even sculp- 
 tures intended for the adornment of build- 
 ings, e.g. metopes and friezes, not only 
 had painted backgrounds (generally blue or 
 
SCUTUM — ^SCYLLA. 
 
 571 
 
 red), but were themselves richly adorned 
 with colouring. [It is also held that] 
 originally, even the bare parts of stone 
 figures were painted ; afterwards a coating 
 of wax was thought enough [Vitruvius,vii 9]. 
 In particular statues, many artists coloured 
 only the characteristic parts, fringes of gar- 
 ments, sandals, armour, weapons, snoods 
 or head wrappings, and of the parts of the 
 body the lips, eyes, hair, beard, and 
 nipples. Probably the cheeks, tco, 
 received a light reddish tinge ; but 
 all was done with discretion. The 
 colours chiefly used were red, blue, 
 and yellow, or gilding. The employ- 
 ment of different materials for the 
 extremities, and for the drapery, also 
 produced the effect of colouring. Simi- 
 larly metal-sculpture secured variety 
 of colour by the application of gold, 
 silver, and copper to the bronze. The 
 sparkle of the eyes was often repre- 
 sented by inlaid precious stones or 
 enamel. Particular parts in marble 
 statues, such as attributes, weapons, 
 implements, were also made of metal. 
 [There are examples of this in the 
 pediments of Mgma, and in the frieze 
 of the Parthenon. Under the Empire 
 metal was sometimes used for the 
 drapery. Thus the Braschi Antinous 
 in the Vatican was formerly draped 
 in bronze.]— On ancient stone-cutting, 
 see GrEMS ; on terracottas, see Potteey ; 
 on working in metal, see Toreutic Art. 
 
 Scutum. The large wooden shield of the 
 Roman legionaries. (See Shield.) 
 
 Sc^laz. Of Caryanda in Caria. He 
 undertook, at the command of the Persian 
 king Darius Hystaspis, about 510 B.C., a 
 voyage to explore the coast of Asia from 
 the Indus to the Red Sea, and composed a 
 report of his voyage, which is now lost. His 
 name is erroneously attached to a descrip- 
 tion, composed before the middle of the 4th 
 century B.C., and preserved only in a cor- 
 rupt and incomplete form, of a voyage from 
 the northern Pillar of Hercules along the 
 European coast of the Mediterranean, 
 through the Hellespont and BospSrus, 
 round the shores of the Euxine, then along 
 the Asiatic and African coast of the Medi- 
 terranean to the southern Pillar of Hercules, 
 and out beyond it to the island of Ceme. 
 
 Scylla. (1) In ' Homer, daughter of Cra- 
 taeis ; a terrible monster of the sea, with a 
 loud bark like that of a young dog, twelve 
 shapeless feet, and six long necks, each of 
 them bearing a horrid head with three rows 
 
 of teeth closely set. Her lower half lies in 
 a dark cavern, which is in the middle of a 
 rock, smooth of surface, not to be climbed, 
 and rising up into the clouds ; while with 
 her heads she fishes for dolphins, sea-dogs, 
 and the larger animals of the sea. If a 
 ship come too near to her, with each of her 
 six heads she snatches up a man of the 
 crew, as from the ship of Odyssetis. Oppo- 
 
 ^J.O; * AKTIST PAIMTIAG A STATUE Of UKKJUtb. 
 
 (Mural paintinj from Pompea ; Naples Museum.) 
 
 site her, a bow-shot off, is a lower rock 
 with a wild fig tree on it, and under it the 
 whirlpool of Charybdis, which three times 
 in the day sucks in the sea and discharges 
 it again in a terrible whirlpool, against 
 which even the help of Poseidon is unavail- 
 ing. Whoever tries to avoid one of the two 
 evils falls a prey to the other [Homer, Od. 
 xi 85-110]. In later times Scylla and 
 Charybdis, the position of which is left 
 uncertain by Homer, were supposed to be 
 placed in the Strait of Messina, Scylla 
 being identified with a projecting rock on 
 the Italian side. She was also made a 
 daughter of Phorcys and of Hecate Cratseis. 
 When Heracles, as he is passing by, is 
 robbed by her of one of Geryon's oxen, he 
 slays her in her cavern ; but her father 
 burns her corpse, and thus recalls her to 
 life. According to another myth, she was 
 originally a beautiful princess or sea Nymph , 
 loved now by Zeus, now by Poseidon or 
 Glaucus or Triton, until she was changed 
 by the jealousy of her rivals, Hera, Amphi- 
 trite, or Circe, into a monster, imagined as 
 
572 
 
 SCYLLIS SELENE. 
 
 a maiden above, but as ending below in the 
 body of a fish, begirt with hideous dogs. 
 
 (2) Daughter of Nisus (q.v.). 
 
 Scyllis. A Greek sculptor, from Crete, 
 who worked about the middle of the 6th 
 century B.C. in Argos and Sicyon, and who, 
 with his countryman Dipcenus, founded an 
 influential school of art in the Pelopon- 
 nesus [Pltny, JV. //. xxxvi 9, 14; Pausa- 
 nias, ii 15 § 1, 22 § 5]. {See Sculpture.) 
 
 Scymnus. A Greek geographer, from 
 Chios, author of a lost description of the 
 earth. There has been wrongly attributed 
 to him a fragment of a description of the 
 earth composed in iambic senaru, describ- 
 ing the coast of Europe from the Pillars 
 of Hercules to Apollonia in Pontus. The 
 unknown author lived in Bithynia, and 
 dedicated his work, which is composed 
 from good sources, but in a somewhat 
 pedantic tone, to king Nicomedes, probably 
 Nicomedes III (91-76 B.C.). 
 
 Scjphns (Gr. skyphos). A bowl-shaped 
 cup. (See Vessels.) 
 
 Scytaie. A staff, used especially in 
 Sparta by the ephors for their secret de- 
 spatches to officials, particularly to com- 
 manders, in foreign countries. A narrow 
 strip of white leather was wound about a 
 round staff so that the edges came exactly 
 together; it was then written on cross- 
 wise, and sent to its destination after being 
 unrolled again. What had been written 
 could only be read when 
 the strip was again wound 
 round an exactly similar 
 staff, such as was given to 
 everj' official when going 
 abroad on public service. 
 
 Scythians (Gr. SkUthai). 
 A corps of archers amongst 
 the Athenians, formed of 
 State slaves, who performed 
 the duties of police and 
 were also employed in war. 
 (See further Slaves, I, at 
 end.) 
 
 Seats. See Chairs. 
 
 Secretary. See Gram- 
 mateus and Scrib.*;. 
 
 Secular Games. See 
 
 SiECULARES LUDI. 
 
 Sficutor. See Gladia- 
 
 TORES. 
 
 Sediilius (Ccelius). A -h<=,phok.s. 
 
 Christian poet of the second 
 half of the 5th century ; he 
 died young. At first he wrote secular poetry, 
 but afterwards composed a poem in five 
 
 books on the miracles of Christ (Carmen 
 PasdialS), a simple narrative following the 
 gospels, in many points imitating Vergil. 
 This was followed by a prose version (Opus 
 Paschale), laboured and bombastic in style ; 
 also by an elaborate comparison of the Old 
 and New Testaments in fifty-five couplets, 
 and a hymn to Christ in twenty-three 
 quatrains of iambic dimeters, remarkable 
 for the partial employment of rhyme as a 
 musical element. The verses commence 
 with the successive letters of the alphabet. 
 [Portions of this hymn have always been in 
 use in the Church of Rome. We quote the 
 first two stanzas : 
 
 A soils ortus cardine 
 ad usque terrcR liTniteirij 
 Christum canamus Principem, 
 
 ortum Maria Virgine. 
 
 Beatus Auctor sceculi 
 servile corpus induit; 
 
 ut carne carnem Uberans 
 ne perderet quos condidit.] 
 
 Seer. See Mantike. 
 
 Seisactheia (lit. " shaking off of burden s "), 
 The term used for the removal of the 
 burden of debt effected by Solon. All 
 debts were cancelled, and the securing of 
 debts upon the person of the debtor was 
 made illegal. [Aristotle's Constitution of 
 Athens, 6.] (See Solonian Constitution.) 
 
 SSlene. The Greek goddess of the moon, 
 daughter of the Titan Hyperion and 
 Theia, sister of Helios and Eos. She was 
 
 OCEA2TIJS. 
 
 SELENE. 
 
 (Boman altar in the Louvre, Paris.) 
 
 HESPEEUB. 
 
 described as a beautiful woman with long 
 wings and golden diadem, from which she 
 
SELLA— 
 
 shed a mild light [Homeric Hymn xxxii 7], 
 riding in a car drawn by two white horses 
 or mules or cows. The horns of the latter 
 symbolised the orescent moon. In later 
 times she was identified with ArtSrais (or 
 else with HecSte and PersephSne), as was 
 HeliSs with Phoebus Apollo, and therefore 
 was herself called Phoebe. After this she 
 was also regarded as a huntress and archer, 
 recognisable by her crescent as the goddess 
 of the moon. She was worshipped on the 
 days of the new and full moon. She bore 
 to Zeus a daughter Pandia, worshipped at 
 Athens with her father at the festival of 
 Pandia [Dem., Or. 21 § 9]. On her love for 
 Endymion, see Endymion. 
 
 Sella. A seat. On its use as a chair 
 and a litter, see those articles. 
 
 Sella Curulis. The Latin term for the 
 chair of ofi&ce belonging to the curule 
 magistrates (consuls, prsetors, curule sediles, 
 dictator, mdgister gquitum, and flamen 
 Didlis), and also to the emperors. It was 
 of ivory, without a back, and with curved 
 legs, like those of a camp-stool, so arranged 
 that it could be folded up. The seat 
 was of plaited leather straps. The curule 
 magistrates sat on this seat while engaged 
 in all official business, and also took it with 
 them in war. 
 
 Belli. See Dodona. 
 
 SSmSle. Daughter of Cadmus and Har- 
 monia, beloved of Zeus. Hera, jealous of 
 her, took the form of her nurse Beroe, and 
 induced her to obtain of Zeus a solemn 
 promise to fulfil her wish, and then to 
 request him to show himself to her in all 
 his divine splendour. When Zeus appeared 
 amid thunder and lightning, Semele was 
 consumed by the flames, and, dying, gave 
 birth to a six months' child, Dionysus, 
 whom Zeus saved from the fire and hid in 
 his thigh till the due time of birth. Her 
 son, on being made a god, raised her up 
 from the world below, and set her in the 
 heavens under the name of ThyonS. See 
 Dionysus ; and for Dionysus and Semele 
 see Mirrors. 
 
 Sementivae Perlae. A festival of seed- 
 time, celebrated in honour of Tellus (q.v.). 
 
 Semnae. A name of the Erinyes (q.v.). 
 
 Semoues. The Latin name for certain 
 supernatural beings. They appear to have 
 been, like the Lares, a kind of Genu, or 
 demigods, and guardian deities of the State. 
 [The word has often been connected with 
 se-, to sow (cp. sS-men) ; and would thus 
 mean " sowers."] On Semones and Scmo 
 Sancus, see Sancus. 
 
 -SENATE. 
 
 573 
 
 Sempronius Aselllo. A Eoman anna- 
 list. {See Annalists.) 
 
 Senate {sSnStHs, from sSnex, an old man), 
 The Roman State council, consisting in the 
 earliest times of one hundred members, but 
 before the expulsion of the Tarquins in- 
 creased to three hundred, which for a long 
 time remained its normal number. Origi- 
 nally none but patricians {patrSs) were 
 eligible for membership; but (if tradition 
 may be trusted) in the time of the last 
 kings, plebeians, especially those of eques- 
 trian rank, were admitted, and on this 
 account the senators were called by the 
 collective title of patres (et) conscripti. 
 
 Under the Republic the plebeians were 
 eligible for membership from the outset, 
 though they only acquired by degrees the 
 right to wear the distinguishing dress. 
 The election of senators {lectio senatus) 
 rested during the regal period as a rule 
 with the king and the curim ; during the 
 Republic, at first with the consuls, after- 
 wards with the censors, who also had power 
 to expel unworthy members ; otherwise, the 
 office was held for life. Admission to the 
 Senate could be claimed by the curule 
 magistrates, who, after laying down their 
 office, possessed the right of expressing 
 their opinion in the Senate {ius sententtce 
 dlcendm) until the next census, at which 
 the censors could only pass them over on 
 stating special grounds for so doing. Next 
 to these were considered the claims of the 
 plebeian ssdiles, the tribunes, and the 
 quaestors, who lost this right with the 
 expiration of their office, and the most 
 wealthy class of citizens, the knights, who, 
 however, if they had not yet been elected 
 to any office, took a lower rank under the 
 name of pSddrii, and were only entitled 
 to express their assent to the opinion of 
 others. When the quaestors also were 
 regularly added to the Senate, the minimum 
 age legally qualifying for membership was 
 fixed at twenty-eight years. In course of 
 time a legal claim to admission was gained 
 by the tribunes and plebeian aediles, and 
 finally also by the qusestors, through the 
 enactment of Sulla, who increased the 
 Senate by the number of three hundred 
 knights elected by the people, and con- 
 ferred on -the quaestors, now increased to 
 twenty, the right of admission to the Senate 
 immediately after the expiration of their 
 office. CsBsar raised the number of sena- 
 tors to 900, and under the triumvirs it even 
 rose beyond 1,000. Augustus, however, 
 -limited it to 600, fixed the senatorial age 
 
574 
 
 SENATE. 
 
 at twenty-five, and enacted as a necessary 
 qualification the possession of property 
 worth at least one million sesterces (£10,000). 
 Under the Empire a yearly list of the 
 senators was published by the emperor. 
 Prominent Italians and provincials gra- 
 dually obtained admission, though at a later 
 time only on condition of investing a certain 
 part of their property in land in Italy. 
 The first rank among the senators was 
 taken by those who had held a curule 
 magistracy, the last by those who had 
 never filled any office at all. The title of 
 princeps senatus was bestowed on the 
 member set by the censors at the head of 
 the list, usually an ex-censor, and always, 
 it would appear, a patrician. His only 
 privilege was that he was the first to be 
 asked by the presiding officer to declare his 
 opinion. From Augustus onwards the 
 emperor for the time being was princeps 
 senatus [though the title of princeps was 
 independent of this position]. 
 
 The distinguishing dress of members of 
 the Senate was the tiintca Idttcldvia, an 
 under-garment with a broad purple stripe, 
 and a peculiar kind of shoe {see Calceus). 
 Among various other privileges enjoyed by 
 senators was the right to a front seat in 
 the theatre and at the games. Besides the 
 senators themselves, their wives and chil- 
 dren had several special privileges and dis- 
 tinctions, particularly under the Empire. 
 
 The right of summoning the Senate 
 {vocatiO) was in early times held by the 
 king; at the beginning of the Republic, only 
 by the consuls and the extraordinary magis- 
 trates, such as interrex, dictator, and 
 mdgister Squitum ; later, by the tribunes 
 of the people and the prsetors also ; later 
 still, only with the consent or at the com- 
 mand of the consuls ; but, under the Empire, 
 this restriction was removed. The emperor 
 also had power to summon the Senate. It 
 was convened by the voice of a herald or 
 by the issue of a public placard ; but, under 
 the Empire, when (after the time of Augus- 
 tus) meetings were regularly held on the 
 Kalends and Ides, such notice was only 
 given in the case of extraordinary meetings. 
 Every senator was bound to attend, or to 
 give reason for his absence, under penalty 
 of a fine. Under the Empire, senators of 
 more than sixty years of age were excused 
 from compulsory attendance. When im- 
 portant business was before the Senate, no 
 senator was allowed to go to a distance 
 from Rome; special leave had to be ob- 
 tained for a sojourn out of Italy. There 
 
 was no number fixed as the quorum neces- 
 sary for passing a resolution. Augustus 
 attempted to enforce the presence of two- 
 thirds of the members, but without success. 
 Under the later Empire seventy, and finally 
 only fifty, formed a quorum. Meetings of 
 the Senate were not subject to the distinc- 
 tion between dies fasti and nefasti. {See 
 Fasti.) As a rale, they could be held on 
 any day on which the presiding magistrates 
 were not otherwise engaged. No valid 
 resolution could be passed before sun-rise 
 or after sun-set. The meetings always had 
 to be held in some place consecrated by the 
 augurs, called a templum. Originally the 
 meeting-place was the VulcdnaZ, a place 
 consecrated to Vulcan, above the comitlum 
 in the Forum; later, after the time of 
 Tullus Hostllius, it was the Curia {q.v.). 
 Meetings were also held, at the choice of 
 the magistrates that summoned them, in 
 other consecrated places as well, in parti- 
 cular, the temples of the gods ; they were 
 held outside the city, in the temple of 
 Apollo andBellonaon the Campus Martins, 
 when business was to be conducted with 
 magistrates who were still in possession of 
 the military command, and consequently 
 were not allowed to enter the city, or with 
 foreign ambassadors whom it was not 
 wished to admit within the walls. 
 
 Meetings were usually held with open 
 doors. Admission without special leave 
 was allowed to magistrates' servants, and, 
 until the second Punic War, and later also 
 after Augustus, to senators' sons over 
 twelve years of age. The senators sat on 
 benches, the officials summoning the meet- 
 ing on a raised platform, the consuls and 
 praetors on their sella cUrulis, and the 
 tribunes on their special benches. Before 
 opening the assembly the official summoning 
 it had to sacrifice a victim and take the 
 auspices in his own house. Augustus in- 
 troduced the custom of the senators offer- 
 ing prayer one by one at the altar of the 
 god in whose temple the meeting took 
 place. In the Curia lulia [16 in plan 
 under FoEtTM] there were an altar and 
 statue of Victory set up for this purpose. 
 Business was opened by the summoning 
 official, who brought before the meeting 
 the matter to be discussed. This was 
 called rSlatio. When the business of the 
 meeting had been duly settled, it was open 
 to the other magistrates present to bring 
 forward fresh matters for discussion. At 
 regular meetings under the Empire, the 
 consuls had precedence in bringing forward 
 
SENATE. 
 
 675 
 
 biisiness, unless it was claimed by the 
 emperor, who could also, at an extraor- 
 dinary meeting, take precedence of the 
 magistrate who convoked it. The emperor 
 usually caused his address to be read for 
 him in the form of a speech by the qumstor 
 princlpis. At an audience of ambassadors, 
 their speeches were heard before the busi- 
 ness was laid before the meeting. After 
 this followed the " questioning " {rogatio) 
 of the senators, called on one after another 
 by name in order of their rank and seniority. 
 Towards the end of the Republic and under 
 the Empire, after the consular elections 
 the consuls-designate came first. If the 
 emperor himself was presiding, he called 
 first on the consuls then in office. The 
 senators so called upon either stood up in 
 their place and delivered their opinions in 
 a speech, in which they were able (as some- 
 times happened) to touch on other matters 
 than the one in hand ; or, without rising, 
 declared their assent to some opinion al- 
 ready delivered. After the different opinions 
 had been delivered, they were collected 
 together by the president and arranged for 
 voting on. The voting took place by dis- 
 cessio, or separation into groups, the sup- 
 porters of the various views taking up their 
 position together. A bare majority decided 
 the question. If there was any doubt, the 
 numbers were counted. 
 
 After the division the president dismissed 
 the Senate, in order, with the aid of a com- 
 mittee of senators, to draw up the resolu- 
 tion of the Senate {senatus consuUum) on 
 the lines of the minutes of the meeting, 
 unless an objection to it was raised by any 
 of the officials present. The resolution was 
 headed with the names of the consuls, 
 followed by the date and place of meeting, 
 the names of the proposers and of the 
 members of the committee for drawing up 
 the resolution ; last of all • followed the 
 resolution itself, drawn up in certain fixed 
 forms. The resolutions of the Senate were 
 communicated to those concerned by word 
 of mouth or by writing. Those that related 
 to the nation were published by the magis- 
 trates at the popular assembly, or by means 
 of wooden (or in special cases bronze) tablets 
 publicly displayed. Of resolutions affecting 
 international relations two copies on bronze 
 were prepared, one of which was hung up in 
 the temple of Fides at Rome, the other in a 
 temple of the other nation concerned. Reso- 
 lutions of the Senate were preserved in early 
 times in the office of the plebeian aediles, later 
 in the yErdrium^ the office of the qusestors. 
 
 Under the Monarchy the power of the 
 Senate was very limited. Its most impor- 
 tant privilege was the power of appointing 
 an interrex after the death of a king for 
 the purpose of carrying on business and 
 nominating a new king. During the Re- 
 public it soon extended its influence, as it 
 had to be consulted, and its advice fol- 
 lowed, by the magistrates on all important 
 measures of administration. At length 
 the whole government of the State came 
 practically into its hands, and the magis- 
 trates were only the instruments for carry- 
 ing out its will. Its predominance found 
 expression in its taking the first place in 
 the well-known formula, senatus pdpulusque 
 Rdmdmis, especially as this was employed 
 even in cases where the Senate acted with- 
 out the co-operation of the people. In the 
 time of the Gracchi the power of the Senate 
 suffered a deadly blow, which it had to a 
 great extent brought upon itself. In par- 
 ticular, it became customary to affix to re- 
 solutions of the people a stipulation that 
 within a few days the Senate should swear 
 allegiance to them. The last century B.C. 
 saw the complete downfall of the Senate's 
 authority. Augustus attempted to raise it 
 by every means at his disposal. But in 
 spite of important privileges conferred upon 
 it, the Senate only possessed the semblance 
 of power in opposition to the military force 
 of the emperor. Afterwards it sank to 
 a mere shadow, when, from the time of 
 Hadrian onwards, a special imperial council, 
 the consilium principis, was instituted to 
 deal with matters of paramount importance. 
 
 The principal duties of the Senate con- 
 sisted in (1) the supervision of religion, 
 which it retained even under the Empire. 
 This included the maintenance of the State 
 religion, the introduction of foreign wor- 
 ships, arranging for the consultation of the 
 Sibylline books, the establishment of new 
 festivals, games, festivals for prayer and 
 thanksgiving, etc. (2) The supervision of 
 the whole of the State property and finances, 
 and control of expenditure (e.g. the colo- 
 nization and allotment of State lands, the 
 revenues for building and the maintenance 
 of public gardens, for the army, for games, 
 etc.). Under the Empire the Senate had also 
 the nominal control of the State treasury, 
 until this was amalgamated with the im- 
 perial fiscus. (3) In reference to foreign 
 affairs, the Senate had considerable in- 
 fluence over the declaration of war, the 
 nomination of commanders, the decisions 
 for the levy of troops and war taxes, the 
 
576 
 
 SENATUS CONSULTUM SENECA. 
 
 provinces, rewards (sucli as triumphs and 
 others), and the conclusion of peace and the 
 ratification of treaties. Furthermore, the 
 Senate had supreme power in all matters 
 of diplomacy, as it appointed ambassadors, 
 received and gave audience to foreign 
 ambassadors, and conferred such tokens 
 of honour as the titles of confederates and 
 friends of the Roman people. Over the 
 subjects of the Roman people it exercised 
 an almost sovereign authority, particularly 
 in reference to the assigning of provinces. 
 Under the Empire, it retained control of 
 the senatorial provinces alone. It was 
 still sometimes consulted about concluding 
 peace and ratifying treatises, and about 
 business with foreign allies, and also had 
 the right of conferring such honours as those 
 of apotheosis, or of statues and triumphs. 
 On the other hand, its influence over mili- 
 tary matters could no longer continue side 
 by side with the military power of the 
 emperor, (4) In legislation it exercised 
 considerable influence during the Republic, 
 as it prepared legislative proposals to be 
 brought before the people by the magis- 
 trates, and had the right of annulling laws 
 passed by the people in the event of their 
 being defective in point of form. Its reso- 
 lutions also, by virtue of a kind of prescrip- 
 tion, had considerable statutory authority. 
 Under the Empire, when the legislative 
 power of the people was entirely abolished, 
 they had authority completely equal to that 
 of the laws themselves. They were, how- 
 ever, merely forma] ratifications of the will 
 of the emperor, who in every year exacted 
 from the Senate on January 1st an oath of 
 allegiance to his independent enactments. 
 On the accession of a new 'emperor the 
 Senate conferred on him the imperial power 
 by an enactment termed lex regia ; this, 
 however, was a mere formality. (5) During 
 the republican age, the Senate possessed no 
 judicial power of its own (apart from the 
 fact that, until the time of the Gracchi, the 
 judges all belonged to the senatorial order) ; 
 but the magistrate only acted as adviser 
 to the judges in criminal jurisdiction, i.e. 
 in cases of treason and perjury on the part 
 of allies and subjects, and in serious cases 
 of poisoning and murder such as endan- 
 gered the public peace. Under the Empire, 
 the Senate possessed formal jurisdiction in 
 cases of breach of contract, disturbance in 
 Italy, malpractices in office and extortion 
 of provincial governors, and especially all 
 cases of high treason and offencesof senators. 
 From the 2nd century onward all this juris- 
 
 diction passed over to the imperial courts. 
 (6) During the Republic, the elections 
 were only indirectly under the influence 
 of the Senate, by means of the presiding 
 officials, and also owing to their right of 
 annulling elections on the score of mistakes 
 in form, and, lastly, by having the appoint- 
 ment of the days for the elections. Under 
 the Empire, it gained from Tiberius the 
 right of proposing all the magistrates with 
 the exception of the consuls ; this right, 
 however, was rendered insignificant by the 
 fact that the candidates were recommended 
 by the emperor. The right also of nomi- 
 nating the emperor, which it claimed when 
 the occupant of the throne was removed by 
 violence, was, owing to the practical power 
 of the army, as illusory as its pretended 
 right of deposition. 
 
 Sfinatus Consulttiin. See Senate. 
 
 S6n€c§.. (1) Annceus, the rhetorician / 
 born of an equestrian family, at Cordiiba 
 (Cordova) in Spain, towards the end of 
 the Republic. In the time of Augustus he 
 studied at Rome, where he lived in inti- 
 macy with the most famous rhetoricians 
 and orators, and died at a very great age, 
 probably not till after the death of Tiberius 
 (37 A.D.). [He was the father of Seneca 
 the philosopher, and (by his son Mela) 
 grandfather of Lucan the poet.] According 
 to the testimony of Seneca the philosopher, 
 he was a man of pristine virtue and 
 severity, much devoted to the mainten- 
 ance of ancestral customs [Seneca, Ad 
 Helviam Matrem 17, 3 : patris mei anti- 
 quus rigor • maioruni consuetudim dS- 
 ditus]. As a stylist he was a great 
 admirer of Cicero. In his old age, relying 
 simply on his marvellous memory, he com- 
 posed at his son's desire a collection of 
 declamations for the use of schools of 
 rhetoric, modelled on the treatment of the 
 subjects by the most famous rhetoricians 
 of his youth. It bears the title, Oratorum 
 et Rhetorum Sententice Dlvlslones Cdlores, 
 one book containing seven themes called 
 stiMSorice, and ten books, thirty-five contro- 
 versice. Of these we now possess only 
 books i, ii, vii, ix, x, and the greater part 
 of the introductions to books iii and iv, 
 besides an abstract of the whole, belonging 
 to the 4th or 5 th century. The contents 
 give a vivid picture of the work of the 
 schools of rhetoric in the time of Augustus 
 and Tiberius, and are an important autho- 
 rity for the history of Roman rhetoric. 
 
 (2) Lucius AnncBUS, the philosopher, 
 son of (1), born at Corduba, about 5 B.C. 
 
SENECA 
 
 577 
 
 111 early youth he came to Eome, where, 
 besides studying rhetoric, he devoted him- 
 self particularly to philosophy. While 
 still young he entered active life as an 
 orator, and in the service of the government. 
 In 1 A.D. he was banished to Corsica by 
 Claudius, at the instigation of Messalina, 
 on the ostensible charge of being a partici- 
 pator and an accomplice in the debaucheries 
 of Julia, the daughter of Germanifcus. 
 Not till eight years later did* Claudius 
 recall him at the request of Agrippiiia the 
 younger, the emperor's niece and wife, 
 and appoint him tutor to the youthful 
 Nero, Agrippiua's son by a former husband. 
 After the young prince had ascended the 
 throne in 54 A.D., Seneca Still remained in 
 the circle of those most closely attached 
 to him, especially during the first five 
 years of the reign, and exercised a bene- 
 ficial influence over his former pupil, who 
 manifested his thanks by making him 
 valuable presents, and conferring upon him 
 the consulship for 57. In 62 the intrigues 
 of his opponents caused him to withdraw 
 completely from the court and from public 
 life. The conspiracy of Piso in 66 finally 
 afforded Nero the early desired pretext for 
 removing him. As the mode of his death 
 was left to himself, he had his veins 
 opened, and as death did not ensue with 
 sufficient rapidity, he finally had himself 
 put in a vapour-bath. During his lifetime 
 he had often been reproached for finding 
 more pleasure than a philosopher should 
 in the good things of life. How little 
 value he really set upon them was shown 
 by the readiness with which he parted 
 from them and the composure with which 
 he met his end. 
 
 Next to Cicero, he is the most famous 
 philosophical writer of Rome, and one of 
 the most gifted and original of Roman 
 authors in general. As a philosopher, he 
 was essentially a follower of the Stoics ; but 
 he directed his attention less to abstract 
 speculation than to practical wisdom, which 
 undoubtedly, as in his own instance, verges 
 closely on mere prudence in the conduct of 
 life. His writings are in a popular style, 
 but they are characterized by copious know- 
 ledge and wide acquaintance with the 
 human heart, and are remarkable for their 
 richness in aphorisms that are at once 
 profound in thought and terse in expres- 
 sion. The moral tone of his writings 
 caused Christian tradition to represent him 
 as a friend of the Apostle Paul, and even 
 to invent a correspondence between them. 
 
 D. c. A. 
 
 [Cp.Lightfoot's Pliilipjpians, 1868, pp. 260- 
 331.] In versatility of genius, ease of 
 production, and elegance of form, Seneca 
 may be compared with Ovid. In style he 
 accommodated himself completely to the 
 taste of the times, which strained after rhe- 
 torical effect, though he fully recognised 
 its degeneracy. 
 
 Among his numerous prose writings are 
 the following: (1) three letters of condo- 
 lence {De ConsOlcitione) — to his mother 
 Helvia, to Polybius (the favourite of 
 Claudius), and to Maroia (the daughter of 
 Cremutius Cordus. The two first were 
 composed in Corsica. (2) A series of 
 discourses on philosophy and morals, the 
 most important being those on Mercy {De 
 Clementla), in two books, addressed to 
 Nero ; on Anger (De Ira), in three books ; 
 on Giving and Receiving Favours {De Bene- 
 ficus), in seven books. (3) A collection in 
 twenty books of 124 letters to his young 
 friend Lucilius, mostly on questions of 
 philosophy. (4) Investigations in Natural 
 Science {QuoestionSs Ndtumles) in seven 
 books, dedicated to the same Lucilius, th^ 
 the first and only text-book on physics in 
 Roman literature. In addition to these 
 he wrote a biting satire on the death of 
 the emperor Claudius (Ludus de Morte 
 Claudii) entitled the Pumpkinification 
 {Apocolocyntosis), instead of deification 
 (dpdtMdsis), in which prose and verse are 
 mingled after the manner of Varro's 
 Menippean Satires. 
 
 We have express testimony that Seneca 
 was also a poet [Tacitus, Ann., xix 52]. 
 Besides certain epigrams, the lollowipg 
 tragedies are ascribed to him : Hercules 
 Furens, Thyestes, Phcedra, CEdipus, 
 Troddes, Medea, Agamemnon, Hercules 
 QStceus, three fragments upon the Theban 
 myth united vmder the title of Thebdis or 
 •Phcenissce, and the fabula prastextata {q.v.) 
 entitled Octdvia. These are the only 
 tragedies in all Rojnan literature that 
 have come down to us. It may be t.aken 
 as proved, that the last of these dramas, 
 which treats of the tragic end of Octavia, 
 the daughter of Claudius and wife of 
 Nero, and in which Seneca himself appears, 
 cannot be attributed to him, but belongs 
 to a later date, though there are no deci- 
 sive reasons for doubting the genuineness 
 of the remainder. Their matter and form 
 are borrowed from the Greek ; [but their 
 general character probably resembles that 
 of the tragedies written in the Augustan 
 age by Pollio and by Varius, rather than 
 
 P P 
 
B78 
 
 SEPTERION SESTERTIUS. 
 
 that of the ancient dramatists, such as 
 Ennius and Pacuvius]. In their pointed 
 expression they exhibit the same talent 
 for style as his prose works, the same 
 copiousness, philosophical bent, and rhe- 
 torical manner (the last frequently carried 
 beyond the limits of taste). They seem to 
 have been designed more as declamatory 
 exercises than for actual performance on 
 the stage. 
 
 Septerion. A festival celebrated every 
 nine years at Delphi, in memory of the 
 slaying of the serpent Python by Apollo. 
 [Plutarch, Qucestiones Gr. 12 (where some 
 texts have Steptcrion), and Def. Orac. 15.] 
 
 Septimius (Lucius). The translator into 
 Latin of the spurious work of Dictys (q.v., 
 2) on the Trojan War. 
 
 Sfirapis (or Sarapis, Egyptian Asarhapi 
 = Osiris-Apis). The Egyptian god Osiris 
 (5. v.), in the character of god of the lower 
 world ; his corresponding incarnation as 
 god of the upper world was the bull Apis. 
 His worship was first independently de- 
 veloped in the time of the Ptoleuiies in 
 
 lirST OF SERAPIS. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 Ci-sc. 
 
 Alexandria, the most beautiful ornament 
 of which city was the magnificent temple 
 of Serapis, the ScrapeiOn. By the elimi:- 
 nation of foreign elements, the conception 
 of the god was so widely extended as to 
 include the Egj^ptian Osiris, the Greek 
 Plutn, the Greek god of healing, Asclepius, 
 and Zeus-Iupiter {see belowX This new 
 
 worship (together with the cult of Isis) 
 rapidly spread from Egypt over the Asiatic 
 coast, the Greek islands, and Greece itself, 
 and found a firm footing even in Rome and 
 Italy, in spite of repeated interference on 
 the part of the State. Under the Empire 
 [particularly in the time of Hadrian] it 
 extended throughout the Roman world. 
 
 Serapis was especially worshipped as a 
 god of healing, and with his temples were 
 connected dream-oracles that were much 
 resorted to. He was represented, like Pluto, 
 with an animal by his side, having the 
 head of a deg, lion, or wolf, and a serpent 
 coiled round its body. As Zeus-Serapis he 
 is to be seen in the colossal bust in the 
 Vatican {see cut), with a modtus, or corn- 
 measure, the symbol ef the lower world, 
 upon his head. 
 
 Serenus Sammonicus. A Roman physi- 
 cian and author who lived in the time of 
 Severus and Caracalla. The latter caused 
 him to be put to death in 212 a.d. To him, 
 or more probably to his son Quintus Serenus, 
 the instructor of the second Gordianus, must 
 be attributed a didactic poem on medicine 
 {De Medictna Prceceptd), in 1,115 well- 
 written hexameters, a collection of domestic 
 prescriptions much used in the Middle 
 Ages. It mostly follows Pliny. 
 
 Seria. A cask used by the Romans. 
 {See Vessels.) 
 
 Servius Honoratus {Mdnus). A Roman 
 grammarian, who lived towards the end 
 of the 4th century a.d. He taught gram- 
 mar and rhetoric at Rome, and composed 
 (besides a commentary on the grammar of 
 Donatus, and some short treatises on gram- 
 mar) a commentary on Vergil remarkable 
 for its copious historical, mj'thologioal, and 
 antiquarian notes [most of which are pro- 
 bably derived from the writings of much 
 earlier scholars]. It has not, however, 
 reached us in its original form. 
 
 Sestertius (contracted from semis tertius, 
 i.e. 2\, expressed by the Roman symbol 
 usually printed HS., i.e. II + S(e?7iis), two 
 units and a half). A coin, during the 
 Republic of silver, under the Empire of 
 copper, or more usually brass = 5 denarius, 
 originally 2| asses (whence the name), 
 later [i.e. after 217 B.C.] six asses. It 
 was then worth 2--l(^. Under the early 
 Empire it was worth about 2'4cZ. After 
 209 B.C., when the Romans instituted a 
 silver coinage, the copper as was suddenly 
 reduced to 4 oz., and the sestertius (2| x 
 4 oz.) became equivalent to one old as of 
 10 oz., instead of the original pound of 12 
 
SET SEVEN AGAINST THEBES. 
 
 579 
 
 oz. It long continued to be used as the 
 ordinary monetary unit. During the Re- 
 public and the first 300 years of the Em- 
 pire, amounts were reckoned in sesterces. 
 Owing to the common use of milia sesie?'- 
 iium (for milia sestertiorum), it became 
 customary to treat sestertium as a neuter 
 singular, and to omit milia. Sestertium 
 thus denotes a sum of 1,000 sesterces = 
 (at 2\d. per sesterce) £10. A million 
 sesterces (£10,000) was called originally 
 decies centena (lit. ten times one hundred 
 thousand) sestertium, which was shortened 
 to decies sestertium. 100,000 sesterces 
 had thus became a customary unit for 
 reckoning large sums of money. {Cp. 
 Coinage.) 
 
 Set. An Egyptian god. {See Osiris and 
 Typhon.) 
 
 Seven against Thebes, The. (Edipus, king 
 of Thebes, had pronounced a curse upon 
 his sons Eteocles and Polynices, that they 
 should die at one another's hand. In order 
 to make the fulfilment of the curse impos- 
 sible, by separating himself from his brother, 
 Polynices left Thebes while his father was 
 still alive, and at Argos married Argeia, the 
 daughter of Adrastus {q.v.). On the death 
 of his father he was recalled, and offered 
 by Eteocles, who was the elder of the two,i 
 the choice between the kingdom and the 
 treasures of (Edipus ; but, on account of a 
 quarrel that arose over the division, he 
 departed a second time, and induced his 
 father-in-law to undertake a war against 
 his native city. According to another 
 legend, the brothers deprived th^ir father 
 of the kingdom, and agreed to rule alterr 
 nately, and to quit the city for & year at a 
 time. Polynices, as the younger, first went 
 into voluntary banishnaent ; but when, after 
 the expiration of a year, Eteocles denied 
 him his right, and drove him out by 
 violence, he fled to Argos, where Adrasr 
 tus made him his son-in-law, and under-r 
 took to restore him with an armed force. 
 Adrastus was the leader of the army; 
 besides Polynices and Tydeus of Calydon, 
 the other son-in-law of the king, the^^ also 
 took part in the expedition the king's 
 brothers Hipp6medon and ParthenSpceus 
 (q.v.), Capdneus, a descendant of Proetus, 
 and AmpMdrdus (q.v.), thp latter against 
 his will, and foreseeing his own d).eath.. 
 The AtridsB were invited to join iij the 
 
 ' This is the common tradition, followed by- 
 Euripides {Phasn. 71). Sophocles, however, ex- 
 ceptionally maies Polynices the elder brother 
 ((Ed. Col. 375, 1294, 1-122). 
 
 expedition, but were withheld by evil 
 omens from Zeus. When the Seven reached 
 Nemea on their march, a fresh warning 
 befell them. Hypsipyle, the nurse of 
 Opheltes, the son of king Lycurgus, laid 
 her charge down on the grass in order to 
 lead the thirsty warriors to , a spring, 
 during her absence the child was killed by 
 a snake. They gave him solemn burial, 
 and instituted the Nemean games in his 
 honour ; but Araphiaraiis interpreted thg 
 Gccurrep.ce as an omen of his own f^|;e, and 
 accordingly gave the boy the name of 
 A-rchempros {i.e. leader to death). When 
 they arrived at the river Asopus in Boeotia, 
 they sent Tydeus {q.v.) to Thebes, in the 
 hope of coming to terms. He was refused 
 a hearing, and the Thebans laid an ambush 
 for him on his return. The Seven now 
 advanced to the walls of the city, and 
 posted themselves with their troops one at 
 each of its seven gates. Against them, 
 were posted seven chosen Thebans (among 
 them Melanippus and Periclymenus). 
 Menceceus (q.v.) devoted himself to deatlji 
 to insure the victory for the Thebans. In 
 the battle at the sanctuary of the Ismenian 
 Apollo they were driven right back to 
 their gates ; the giant Capaneus had already 
 climbed the wall by a scaling ladder, and 
 was presumptuously boasting that even 
 the lightning of Zpus should noj; drive him 
 back, vhen the flaming bolt of the god 
 smote him 4own, and dashed him to atonis. 
 The beg-utiful Parthenopseus also fell, with 
 his skull shattered by a rock that was 
 hurled at him. Adrastus desjsted from thp 
 assault, and the armies, which had sviffered 
 severely, agreed that the originators of the 
 quarrel, Eteocles and Polynipes, should 
 fight out their "difference in single combat. 
 Both brothers fell, and a fresh battle arose 
 over their bodies. In this, all of the as- 
 sailants met their death, except Adrastus, 
 who was saved by the speed of his black- 
 maned charger. According to the older 
 legends, his eloquence persuaded the The- 
 bans to give the fallen due burial, When 
 the bodies of the hostile brothers were 
 placed on the pyre, the flames, which were 
 meant to destroy them together, parted into 
 two portions. According to the version of 
 the story invented by the 4-ttic tragedians, 
 the Thebans refused to bury their foes, but 
 at the prayer of Adrastus were compelled 
 to do so by Theseus ; according to another 
 version, he conquered the Thebans and 
 buried the dead bodies at Eleusis in Attica 
 (jEschylus, Septan contra Thehas). For 
 
580 
 
 SEVEN WISE MEN SHIELD. 
 
 the burial of Polynices, see Antigone ; 
 further see Epigoni. 
 
 Seven Wise Men, The. Under this name 
 were included in antiquity seven men of 
 the period from 620-55U B.C., distinguished 
 for practical wisdom, who conducted the 
 affairs of their country as rulers, lawgivers, 
 and councillors. They were reputed to be 
 the authors of certain brief maxims in 
 common use, which were variously assigned 
 among them ; the names also of the seven 
 were differently given. Those usually 
 mentioned are : Cleobulus, tyrant of Lin- 
 dus in Rhodes (" Moderation is the chief 
 good ") ; Periandeb, tyrant of Corinth, 
 668-584 ("Forethought in all things"); 
 PiTTACUS of Mitylene, born about 650, 
 deliverer and cesymnetes of his native city 
 (" Know thiae opportunity ") ; Bias of 
 Priene in Caria, about 570 B.C. (" Too many 
 workers spoil the work ") ; Thales of 
 Miletus, 639-536 ("Suretyship brings 
 ruin ") ; ChIlon of Sparta (" Know thy- 
 self"); SOLON of Athens ("Nothing too 
 much," i.e. observe moderation). 
 
 Severus, Arch of. See Triumphal 
 Arches. 
 
 Sextius Niger {Quintus). Lived during 
 the last years of the Republic and under 
 Augustus. He was the founder of a philo- 
 sophical system, which aimed at the 
 improvement of morals on the principles 
 of the Stoics and Pythagoreans. Like his 
 son, who bore the same name, he wrote in 
 Greek. He is the author of a collection of 
 Greek maxims of a monotheistic and ascetic 
 character, a Christianized Latin transla- 
 tion of which, written in the second half of 
 the 4th century by the presbyter Rufinus, 
 is still extant. 
 
 Sextus Empiricns (so called because he 
 belonged to the empirical school of medi- 
 cine). A Grecian philosopher, a follower 
 of the Sceptical school, who lived at the 
 beginning of the 3rd century a.d. He is 
 the author of three works on philosophy, 
 (1) the Pyrrhonistic Sketches in three books, 
 an abridgment of the Sceptical philosophy 
 of Pyrrho ; (2) an attack on the dogmatists 
 (the followers of the other schools of philo- 
 sophy) in iive books ; (3) an attack on the 
 mathematicians (the followers of positive 
 sciences — grammar, with all the historical 
 sciences, rhetoric, arithmetic, geometry, 
 astrology, and music) in six books. These 
 works are remarkable for their learning and 
 acuteness, as well as for simplicity and 
 clearness of style. They form a valuable 
 contribution to our knowledge of the general 
 
 philosophical literature of Greece, and the 
 Sceptical philosophy in particular. 
 
 Shield. The most important weapon of 
 defence among the peoples of ■ antiquity. 
 The Greeks had two principal forms of 
 shield in use, with broad flat rims, and the 
 
 (4) (5) (6) 
 
 GBEEK SHIELDS. 
 
 (Guhl and Koner, flgs, 269, 270.) 
 
 curved surface of the shield rising above 
 them : (1) the long shield of oval shape 
 that covered the wearer from mouth to 
 ankles, suspended by a belt passing [round 
 the neck and] the left shoulder, with a 
 handle for the left hand. A variation of 
 this form is the Boeotian shield (figs. 3, 4), 
 the two sides of which have in the middle 
 a semicircular or oval indentation. (2) The 
 round shield, covering the wearer from the 
 chin to the knee, also called the Doric 
 shield ; this had one loop, through which 
 the left arm was inserted, and one which 
 was held by the left hand (figs. 5 and 6). 
 The shield of the Macedonian phalanx was 
 round, but small enough to be easily 
 handled, and with only one loop for the 
 arm. Both forms were in use from ancient 
 times ; at a later date the Argolic shield 
 seems to have predominated, though the 
 long shield that was planted on the ground 
 in a pitched battle remained a peculiarity 
 of Spartan warfare until the 3rd century 
 B.C. In Homer \Il. vii 245, xviii 481, xx 
 274-281] shields are made of skins placed 
 one over another, with one plate of metal 
 above ; in later times the material appears 
 to have been generally bronze, but also 
 wood, leather, and wickerwork. The pelta 
 is of Thracian origin ; it was the defensive 
 weapon of the light-armed peltasts, made 
 of leather without a rim, and with a level 
 surface, of small size and weight, and of 
 various forms (square, round, and crescent- 
 shajjed, as in fig. 8). 
 
SHIP. 
 
 581 
 
 Shields sometimes bore devices in paint- 
 ing or metal-work (figs. 1, 2); besides those 
 chosen by the fancy of the individual, 
 devices indicating different nations came 
 
 £^ 
 
 (S) SOLDIEK WITH PELTA. 
 
 (Vase-paiutjng ; Stackelbprg's Griber der Uellenm, 
 Taf. xxxviii.) 
 
 into general use after the Persian War. 
 Many Grrecian races, e.g. the Lacedemonians, 
 displayed the first letters of their name. 
 The Athenian token was an owl, the Theban 
 a club or a sphinx. 
 
 The shields most in use among the Romans 
 were (1) the large oblong scutum, bent in 
 the form of a segment of a cylinder, cover- 
 ing the whole of the wearer ; this was con- 
 structed of boards, covered with leather, 
 and bound at the top and bottom with iron ; 
 it was always carried by the legionaries. 
 (2) The circular leathern parma, carried by 
 the light infantry. (3) The cetra, borrowed 
 from the Spaniards ; it resembled the 
 parma, and was carried by the light auxi- 
 liary cohorts. The different divisions of 
 the force were distinguished by devices 
 painted on their shields. 
 
 Ship. The difference between the long, 
 narrow ship of war and the short, broad 
 merchant- vessel was much more pronounced 
 in antiquity than in modern times, and 
 existed as early as the time of Homer [Od. 
 V 250, ix 323]. The former type, however, 
 was not yet devoted to fighting by sea, but 
 to the transport of troops, who also served 
 as rowers. The merchant ships were 
 generally worked as sailing vessels, and 
 were only propelled by oars in case of need, 
 so that they required a very small crew. 
 On the other hand, the ships of war 
 depended for propulsion on a strong 
 crew of rowers, who sat in a line on 
 both sides of the vessel. A vessel with 
 one bank of oars (moneres) was spe- 
 cially described according to the total 
 number of the rowers ; e.g. a penUcon- 
 tdros was a vessel with fifty rowers 
 (see fig. 1). For a long time the 
 main strength of Greek fleets consisted in 
 such vessels. Afterwards dlSreis (Lat. 
 Mremis), with two and (during the last 
 ten years before the Persian Wars) triereis 
 
 (triremes), with three banks of oars on either 
 side, came into use. The latter were most 
 generally employed until the end of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War. Next came the tStrSreis 
 {quadriremes), introduced from Carthage. 
 In 399 B.C. the elder Dionysius of Syracuse 
 built pentereis (quinqueremSs) and hexS- 
 reis ; Alexander the Great heptereis, 
 octe.reis, ennereis, and decereis. In the wars 
 of the successors of Alexander, a further 
 advance was made to ships with fifteen 
 and sixteen banks of oars, and (later still) 
 thirty and forty banks. The most prac- 
 tically useful form of war-vessel was the 
 penteres, which was especially used in the 
 Punic wars. 
 
 The rowers sat close together, with their 
 faces toward the stern of the vessel ; those 
 in the highest row were called thranitce, 
 those in the middle zeugttce, and the lowest 
 thdldmitw ; but the question of the exact 
 arrangement of their seats, and of the oars, 
 is not yet made out with sufiicient clear- 
 ness. [I'ig. 2, from an ancient monument, 
 shows the thranitce and their oars; the rest 
 of the rowers have their oars alone visible.] 
 Figs. 3 and 4 are conjectural sketches, indi- 
 cating the way in which the crew of a 
 trireme was probably arranged. The num- 
 ber of rowers in an ancient trireme was 
 170, that of a Roman qtiinquereme in the 
 Punic wars, 300; it is recorded that an 
 octoreme of Lysimachus carried a crew of 
 1,600. The oars were very long, and the 
 time was kept by means of the music of the 
 flute, or solely by a stroke set by a boat- 
 swain (Gr. Mleustes ; Lat. hortator, pau- 
 sdrius) with a hammer or staff, or by his 
 voice. The vessels were steered in ancient 
 times by means of one or two large paddles at 
 the side of the stern. The rigging of a ship 
 of war was extremely peculiar. The mast, 
 which was not very high, and carried a 
 square sail attached to a yard, was lowered 
 during an engagement, when a small fore- 
 mast with a similar sail was used in its 
 
 (1) PENTEOOMTOROS. 
 (Millingen, Fases Grecs de Sir John Coghill, pi. lii.) 
 
 stead. Only merchantmen appear to have 
 carried three sails. The war vessels of 
 antiquity were in length seven or eight 
 times their breadth, and drew almost 3 ft. 
 
582 
 
 SHIP. 
 
 of water. In order to attain the highest 
 possible speed with manual propulsion, and 
 to be easily drawn overland (a process 
 frequently resorted to), they were lightly 
 built, with rather flat bottoms, and very 
 shallow. They wei-e on this account not 
 
 water, was a horizontal beak (Gr. embdlds ; 
 Lat. rostrum), usually with three spikes 
 one over another, capped with iron; this 
 formed the chief weapon of ancient naval 
 warfare. We learn that it first came into 
 use in 556 B.C. The captain of a larger 
 
 (2) * -MARBLE BAS-RBLIBF OP AN ATHENIAN TKIREME. 
 
 (F'ound on Uie Acropolis about 1353, probably from a mo'iumenL of victory in a trireme race ; 
 AnnaXi d. Institato, 1861, tav. d' adg. M 2.) 
 
 (3) PLAN OP A TKIREME. 
 (Designed by Graser, De Veterum re Navali.) 
 
 particularly sea'^'orthy irl stormy weather ; 
 whereas merchant vessels, owing to their 
 heavier build and greater depth, were 
 much more sea- 
 worthy. A stay 
 made of two 
 strong beams or 
 a cable stretched 
 between the two 
 ends of the vessel 
 (JiypSzomd) was 
 usually employed 
 to strengthen the 
 hull lengthways. The bows and stern 
 which were built alike, were alone covered 
 with half-decks, while the middle of the 
 vessel was at first open, and even in later 
 times completely decked vessels were not 
 so general as with us. Merchant-vessels, 
 however, had a regular full-deck. The 
 deck sometimes carried wooden turrets, 
 usually two, fore and aft. Most ships of 
 war had an eye painted or carved on the 
 bows. At the bows, on a level with the 
 
 (4) ROWEES IN PROPILE (ih.). 
 
 ship of war was called a tnSrarchos (com- 
 mander of a trireme) ; the chief officer was 
 the helmsman (Gr. kyhernetes ; Lat. guher- 
 ndtor) ; the second officer (Gr. proreus, 
 prorates; Lat. prorata) was stationed on 
 the bows. The total crew of an Athenian 
 trireme, including the rowers, numbered 
 about 200 men, of whom about twenty were 
 sailors, and only ten to eighteen marines. 
 This small number is explained by the fact 
 that among the Greeks a sea-fight consisted 
 chiefly in clever manoeuvring, with the ob- 
 ject of disabling the enemy's vessels by 
 breaking their oars or of forcing them to 
 run aground. 
 
 When the Romans had established a 
 fleet, during the first Punic War, they 
 introduced the tactics of land-battles into 
 their naval warfare, by carrying on their 
 ships an increased number of land-soldiers 
 (on their quinqueremes 120), who were 
 posted on the bows, and attempted to lay 
 hold of the enemy's vessels with grap- 
 pling-irons and boarding-bridges, and to 
 
SHOE SIBYLLA. 
 
 583 
 
 overpower their crews in hand to hand 
 encounter. In the battle of Actium (31 B.C.) 
 the lightly built triremes of Octavian, which 
 were named llburnce, after the Liburnians 
 of Dalmatia, from whom this shape was 
 borrowed, were matched with distinguished 
 success against the eight, nine, and ten- 
 banked vessels of Antonius. Under the 
 Empire the fleets were, as a general rule, 
 no longer intended for great naval battles, 
 but for 'the safeguard of the seas and 
 coasts, for the convoy of transports and for 
 purposes of administration. The consequence 
 was that vessels of excessive height were 
 continually becoming rarer, and triremes, 
 and especially liburnce, were almost exclu- 
 sively employed. In later times the name 
 liburna came to denote simply a ship of 
 war. Augustus organized a Mediterranean 
 fleet with two headquarters, Misenum in 
 the Tyrrhenian Sea and Ravenna in the 
 Adriatic. These two fleets were called 
 classes praetor tee, because, like the cohortes 
 prcetoHce, they were under the immediate 
 command of the emperor. Other stations 
 for the fleets were afterwards established 
 in all parts of the sea, and the great rivers 
 and inland seas of the empire. Their com- 
 manders were called prcefecti, and were 
 nominated by the emperor, as a rule, from 
 among the military officers of equestrian 
 rank. On the crews of the navy, see 
 Classiaeii. 
 
 Besides regular men of war, the navies 
 also contained various ships of the line to 
 act as spies and carry despatches (Gr. 
 kSles and lembds ; Lat. celox and lemhus), 
 or to convoy transport vessels, light cutters 
 {dcdtds, dcdtidn), privateers {myopdro), etc. 
 Fire-ships were used as early as 414 B.C. 
 by the Syracusans against the Athenians. 
 
 Of merchantmen there existed in anti- 
 quity various kinds and sizes. In the time 
 of the Empire the art of shipbuilding was 
 developed with extraordinary success at 
 the great trading city of Alexandria, where 
 ships were built of great seaworthiness, 
 remarkable sailing powers, and immense 
 tonnage. 
 Shoe. See Calceus. 
 
 Sibyllae [in the singular, Lat. slhylla; Gr. 
 sibulla, from Doric sid-boUa = theou-boule, 
 "the will of God"]. The name given in 
 antiquity to inspired prophetesses of some 
 deity, in particular Apollo. They were 
 usually regarded as young maidens dwelling 
 in lonely caves or by inspiring springs, who 
 were possessed with a spirit of divination, 
 and gave forth prophetic utterances while 
 
 under the influence of enthusiastic fi'enzy. 
 They were described sometimes as priest- 
 esses of Apollo, sometimes as his favourite 
 wives or daughters. We have no certain 
 information as to their number, names, 
 country, or date. Though Plato [Phcedrus, 
 294 B] knew of only one, others mention 
 two, three, four [the Ei^ythrcean, the Samian, 
 the Egyptian, and the Sardian], and even 
 ten or twelve : [the Babylonian, the Lib- 
 yan, the (elder and younger) Delphian, the 
 Cimmerian, the (elder and younger) Ery- 
 thrcean, the Samian, the Cumcean, the 
 Hellespontine, the Phrygian, and the Ti- 
 burtine]. In the earliest times they are 
 mentioned as dwelling in the neighbour^ 
 hood of the Trojan Ida in Asia Minor, 
 later at Erythrse in Ionia, in Samos, at 
 Delphi, and at Cumse in Italy. The most 
 famous was the Erythrcean Sibyl, Btero^ 
 phile, who is usually considered identical 
 with the Cumcean, as she is represented 
 as journeying by manifold wanderings 
 from her home to Cumae. Here she is 
 said to have lived for many generations in 
 the crypts beneath the temple of Apollo, 
 where she had even prophesied to jEneas. 
 In later times the designation of Sibyl was 
 also given to the prophetic Nymph AlbUnea 
 near Tibur [Lactantius, i 6 § 12]. 
 
 The Sibylline books, so often met with 
 in Roman history, had their origin in a 
 collection of oracular utterances in Greek 
 hexameters, composed in the time of S61on 
 and Gyrus at Gergis on Mount Ida, and 
 ascribed to the Hellespontic Sibyl, buried 
 in the temple of Apollo at Gergis. This 
 collection was brought by way of Erythrse 
 to Cumse, and finally, in the time of the last 
 king, to Rome. According to the legend, 
 the Cumsean Sibyl offered to Tarquinius 
 Superbus nine books of prophecy ; and as 
 the king declined to purchase them, owing 
 to the exorbitant price she demanded, burnt 
 all but three of them, which the king pur- 
 chased for the original price, and had them 
 preserved in a vault beneath the Capitoline 
 temple of Jupiter. When they were de- 
 stroyed in the burning of the Capitol in 83 
 B.C., the Senate sent envoys to make a collec- 
 tion of similar oracular sayings distriJDuted 
 over various places, in particular Ilium, 
 Erythrse, and Samos. This new collec- 
 tion was deposited in the restored temple, 
 together with similar sayings of native 
 origin; e.g. those of the Sibyl at Tibur, of 
 the brothers Marcius, and others. Prom the 
 Capitol they were transferred by Augustus 
 as pontlfex, in 12 b.C:, to the temple of 
 
584 
 
 KIOINNIS SIEGES. 
 
 Apollo on the Palatine, after they had been 
 examined and copied ; here they remained 
 until about 405 a.d. They are said to have 
 been burnt by Stilicho. The use df these 
 oracles was from the outset reserved for the 
 State, and they were not consulted for the 
 foretelling of future events, but on the 
 occasion of remarkable calamities, such as 
 pestilence, earthquake, and as a means of ex- 
 piating portents. It was only the rites of 
 expiation prescribed by the Sibylline books 
 that were communicated to the public, and 
 not the oracles themselves. As these books 
 recognised the gods worshipped, and the 
 rites observed, in the neighbourhood of 
 Troy, they were the principal cause of the 
 introduction of a series of foreign deities 
 and religious rites into the Roman State 
 worship, of the amalgamation of national 
 deities with the corresponding deities of 
 Greece, and a general modification of the 
 Roman religion after the Greek type. 
 
 Tarquinius is said to have entrusted the 
 care of the books to a special college of two 
 men of patrician rank. After 367 B.C. their 
 number was increased to ten, half patrician 
 and half plebeians ; and in the 1st century 
 B.C., probably in the time of Sulla, five 
 more were added. These officials were 
 entitled respectively diiumviri, decemviri, 
 and quindecimviri sacris fdciundis. They 
 were usually ex-consuls or ex-praetors. 
 They held office for life, and were exempt 
 from all other public duties. They had 
 the responsibility of keeping the books in 
 safety and secrec}^, of consulting them at 
 the order of the Senate, of interpreting 
 the utterances they found therein, and of 
 causing the measures thus enjoined to be 
 carried out ; in particular, they had the 
 superintendence of the worship of Apollo, 
 the Magna Mater, and Ceres, which had 
 been introduced by the Sibylline books. 
 
 These Sibylline books have no connexion 
 with a collection of Sibylline Oracles in 
 twelve books, written in Greek hexameters, 
 which have come down to us. The latter 
 contain a medley of pretended prophecies 
 by various authors and of very various 
 dates, from the middle of the 2nd century 
 B.C. to the 5th century a.d. They were 
 composed partly by Alexandrine Jews, 
 partly by Christians, in the interests of 
 their respective religions; and in part they 
 refer to events of the later Empire. 
 
 Sicinnis. The wild choral dance of the 
 Greek satyric drama (q-v.). See also Chorus. 
 
 Side. The wife of Orion (q.v.); she was 
 thrown into Hades by Hera for venturing 
 
 to compare herself with her in point of 
 beauty. 
 
 Sidonius ApoUinaris {Gains Sollitis). A 
 Roman author, born about 430 A.D. at Lug- 
 dtinum (Lyons). He belonged to one of the 
 most prominent Christian families in Gaul. 
 He married the daughter of the future 
 emperor Avitus. Under Anthemius, in 
 467 he was proifectus urbi at Rome, and 
 in 472 he became bishop of Clermont, in 
 Auvergne, and in that capacity headed the 
 resistance against the Western Goths. He 
 died in 483. He was distinguished among 
 his contemporaries for learning and culture, 
 and for a knowledge of ancient literature 
 which was rare in that age. Of his works 
 we possess twenty-four poems, among which 
 are three panegyrics on the emperors Avitus, 
 Majorian, and Anthemius, and two Splthd- 
 Idmia, which are somewhat clever in form ; 
 they are, however, as bombastic and • as 
 destitute of thought and taste as his nine 
 books of Letters, modelled on those of Pliny 
 and Symmachus. His writings are never- 
 theless not without value, owing to the 
 light they throw on the history and the 
 general circumstances of his time. 
 
 Sieges. If an immediate attack by filling 
 up the trenches, beating in the gates, and 
 scaling the walls failed or promised to be 
 useless, the siege was carried on partly 
 by blockade, partly by attack in form. In 
 the first case the besiegers were content 
 with sui-rounding the town with an inner 
 and outer wall. The latter was intended 
 as a protection against attack on the part 
 
 (1) BATTERING RAM (aiueb). 
 
 of a relieving force. The besiegers then 
 waited till the besieged were forced to 
 capitulate. In other cases they attempted 
 to make a breach in the wall with a batter- 
 ing ram (fig. 1); to undermine the wall, and 
 so overthrow it ; to make a way under by 
 mines into the city ; or to raise a mound 
 level with the wall, and so get to the top. 
 The process of undermining the walls was 
 carried on by soldiers, who tore up the 
 foundations with the aid of various mining 
 tools. This was done under the protection 
 of the testudo, a wooden erection in the form 
 of a slanting desk. This was carried by 
 hand or wheeled close up to the wall with its 
 open front towards it. Like all machines 
 
SIGNUM. 
 
 B85 
 
 of the kind, it was provided on the top and 
 sides with wet skins or cushions as a pro- 
 tection against fire thrown down upon it. 
 ChelOnS (Gr.) or testudo (Lat.) was the 
 general name for all kinds of sheds of the 
 sort. The name was, e.g., given to the 
 penthouse of shields formed by the soldiers 
 during the storming of a hostile fortification 
 (fig. 2). The second and following ranks 
 held their shields in a slanting position 
 over their heads ; the first rank and the men 
 in the wings held them straight up in front 
 of them. In case of mining, properly so 
 called, the mining-hut {muscidus) was em- 
 ployed : a long and narrow structure, pushed 
 up in the same way on wheels close under 
 the walls. A shed or penthouse, 22-26 feet 
 in length and breadth, with a slanting roof 
 extending to the ground, served to give 
 protection to the workmen employed in 
 levelling the ground, and filling up the 
 trenches for the approach of the engines. 
 The mound (Lat. agger ; Gr. chomd) was 
 
 (2) TESTUDO. 
 
 From the Coliima of Antoninus (Bellori, Col. Antonin., tav.3G). 
 
 directed straight from the surrounding wall 
 to the most suitable part of the besieged 
 fortifications. It rose by a gradual ascent 
 to the top of the latter. It was made of 
 earth and fascines, held together at the 
 side by wooden scaffolding or stone walls. 
 The soldiers who worked at it were pro- 
 tected by plutSi, semicircular coverings of 
 wickerwork, moving forward on three 
 wheels, or hy vlnece. These were light 
 scaffolding, 10 ft. broad and double as long, 
 with a flat or double roof of boards or 
 wickerwork, and covered with the same on 
 three sides. Partly upon the mound, partly 
 on one side of it, were erected these wooden 
 
 movable towers (Lat. turves ambuldtOricB ; 
 Gr. hjjpdtrdchoi), which were brought up 
 on wheels or rollers to the walls. Their 
 height depended on that of the wall and on 
 their position on the level or on the mound ; 
 the average was 88-196 ft., containing from 
 ten to twenty stories. These towers generally 
 served as batteries, the upper stages being 
 armed with artillery. Besides this, archers 
 and slingers would be poste-d on the outer 
 galleries of the different stories, which were 
 protected by breastworks. Sappers would 
 be lodged in the lower stories. On the 
 level of the wall bridges {sambucm) were 
 provided. A crane (tottenO) was used to 
 lioisf single soldiers to the top of the wall. 
 This was a machine like the bucket of a 
 well, fitted at the end with a basket or box. 
 
 The besieged, in their turn, had various 
 contrivances against these weapons of 
 attack. Two-pronged forks to turn over 
 the scaling ladders, cranes with large tongs 
 to seize the soldiers in their ascent and 
 drop them into the town. The various 
 kinds of testudo were met by throwing 
 down great masses of stone, pouring down 
 molten lead, pitch, or other combustibles, 
 or by the use of burning arrows or other 
 missiles of the same kind. The mound 
 they endeavoured to neutralise by set- 
 ting it on fire or undermining it ; in 
 the latter case the tower would sink as 
 soon as it came upon the proper place. 
 Against the towers they tried fire, artillery 
 discharged from the walls, or the erection 
 of counter-towers. If a breach was 
 threatened, a second or minor wall was 
 erected to meet it out of the material of 
 the neighbouring houses. The most im- 
 portant siege engines were invented by the 
 Greeks, from whom they came to the 
 Romans. {See Artillery.) 
 
 Signum. The Roman name for a mili- 
 tary standard, usually consisting of a 
 badge [insigne) on a staff, carried by 
 legions, maniples, and cohorts, as distinct 
 from the vexillum (q.v.). The latter was 
 a square flag fastened on a cross-bar {see 
 fig. 2, a), carried by the cavalry and allied 
 infantry detachments. In the time of the 
 manipular arrangement (see Legion), each 
 maniple had its peculiar insigne, the eagle 
 (the sign of the first mdntpulus), the wolf, 
 the Minotaur, the horse, or the boar. After 
 Marius had made the eagle {q.v.) the stan- 
 dard representing the signitm of the whole 
 legion, the forms of other animals were 
 no longer employed. Instead of them the 
 maniples had a spear with an outstretched 
 
586 
 
 SILENUS. 
 
 hand upon the point (fig. 2, c, d, h, i). After- 
 wards the signa were also furnished with 
 
 (1) * funekAl monument {cippcrs) of the 
 
 STANDAKD-BEAEEK (siOXIFEJi) PINTAIUS; 
 
 (Bonn Museum). 
 
 a vexillum (fig. 2, h) and with various orna- 
 ments on the pole, in particular round 
 
 cohorts, probably as early as the time of 
 Csesar, had particular signa / after Trajan 
 they borrowed from the Parthians the draco. 
 This was the image of a large dragon fixed 
 upon a lance, with gaping jaws of silver, 
 and with the rest of its body formed of 
 coloured silk. When the wind blew down 
 the open jaws, the body was inflated, 
 [Vegetius, De Re Militari ii 13; Ammianus 
 Maroellinus, xvi 10 § 7. This last is to be 
 seen on monuments among the standards 
 of foreign nations (A:, m), who also had a 
 standard resembling a mediaeval banner (l).\ 
 On the march and in an attack with close 
 columns, the signa were carried in the first 
 line ; in a pitched battle, behind the front 
 rank. 
 
 Silenus (Gr. SeilenSs). A primitive deity 
 in the legends of Asia Minor. He is a 
 divinity of the woodland and the fountains, 
 whom people tried to catch in order to 
 make him prophesy and sing to them. Thus 
 king Midas of Phrygia got him into his 
 power by mixing wine with a spring from 
 which he used to drink, and made him 
 instruct him in all kinds of wisdom. After- 
 wards, as a son of Hermes and a Nymph, or 
 of Pan, and as the oldest of all the Satyrs, 
 he was added to the train of Dionysus, and 
 was regarded as his teacher and trainer 
 and his constant companion. He is said to 
 have prompted the god to invent the culti- 
 vation of the vine and the keeping of bees. 
 He is described as a little old man, pot- 
 bellied, with bald head and snub nose, his 
 whole body very hairy ; never without his 
 
 a, c, d, g, h, i, Bellorias, Col. Antonin. ; h, e,f, De Rubeip, Arcus Constant.; fc, I, De Rubei-", Arcus 
 
 Scvuri; m, Museo Borhonwo, iii tav. Iviii. 
 
 (2) STANDARDS FROM VARIOUS MONUMENTS. 
 
 (Gulil and Koner, fig. 524.) 
 
 plates, often with representations of gods, 
 emperors, and generals {e, f, g). The 
 
 skin of wine, always drunk, and hence 
 usually riding on an ass, and led and sup- 
 
SILIUS ITALICUS SIMONIDES. 
 
 587 
 
 ported by the other Satyrs ; or, again, as 
 tending and educating the child Bacchus, as 
 he is represented in the celebrated group 
 in the Louvre at Paris. A similar group in 
 the Vatican at Rome is reproduced in the 
 accompanying cut. Figures of him standing 
 
 SILENUS AND THE INFANT DIONYSUS. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 or reclining were used, especially at Athens, 
 as caskets for keeping within them precious 
 pieces of carved work [Plato, Symp. 216, 
 A, B]. There were also Sileni which were 
 regarded in Asia as the inventors of the 
 native music on the flute and the sf/rinx 
 (see Marsyas); their father was Pappo- 
 silenus, who was represented as completely 
 covered -with hair and bestial in form. 
 
 Silius italicus {Gains). ARoman poet, 
 born A.D. 25, probably at Italica [near 
 Seville], in Spain. After having been 
 consul in 68, and proconsul in Asia, he 
 retired from public life, and went to his 
 estates in the south of Italy, to spend the 
 rest of his life in learned studies and 'in 
 the composition of poetry. He paid almost 
 divine honours to the memory of his 
 
 favourite poet Vergil, whom he selected 
 as his model [Martial, xi 48, 49 ; vii 63], 
 but whom he rarely equalled. He died in 
 102 by starving himself to death [Pliny, 
 Ep. iii 7 ; vii 63]. We possess a poem of 
 his on the second Punic War in seventeen 
 books {Punica)\ it is founded on careful 
 historical studies, but is far from brilliant, 
 and, in spite of all its ornamental details, 
 contains little that is truly poetic. He 
 appears to have been soon forgotten. 
 [Quintilian's silence in his enumeration of 
 the epic poets of Rome has been rightly 
 ascribed to the fact that the poet was still 
 alive, and had not yet published his poem. 
 The poet's younger and abler contemporary 
 Statius, in Silvce iv 7, 14, alludes to Silius' 
 Punica i 233.] 
 
 Silli. A peculiar kind of Greek lampoons 
 in an epic form, such as Xenoph§,nes of 
 Colophon was the first to level against poets 
 and philosophers. The principal represen- 
 tative of this class was Timon of Phlius. 
 (See Timon.) 
 
 Silvanus. An old Italian divinity, related 
 to Taunus. Originally he was a god of 
 woods and of plantations of trees in fields 
 and gardens; subsequently he was regarded 
 as protector of the fields and gardens 
 themselves, as well as of the cattle that 
 grazed in the meadows, and especially 
 those in or near the woods. He was at 
 the same time guardian of the boundaries 
 between meadows. The Italian country 
 people therefore honoured him with worship 
 under three different aspects : (1) as domes- 
 ticus, protector of the house and all that 
 belongs to it ; (2) as agrestis, to whose care 
 the shepherd and his flock were recom- 
 mended ; (3) as onentalis, he that watches 
 over the boundaries. In this last capacity 
 he used to have a grove dedicated to him 
 on the boundary of different estates. At 
 the harvest festivals, farmers, vinedressers, 
 and those who had plantations of trees, 
 offered him, on rustic altars, corn, grapes, 
 and fruits, and also pigs and rams. Like 
 Faunus, he was afterwards identified with 
 Payi ; and to him, as to Pan, the sudden 
 terror caused by the solitude of a wood was 
 ascribed. It was also believed that there 
 were numerous Silvdni. 
 
 Silver Shields, Bearers of. A corps of 
 guards in the army of Alexander the Great. 
 {See Argyraspides.) 
 
 Simouides. (1) Of Amorgos. A Greek 
 iambic poet. He was born in the island of 
 Sa,m6s, from which he led a colony to the 
 island of Amorgos ; he lived about the 
 
588 
 
 SIMPLICIUS SIRENS. 
 
 middle of the 7tli century B.C., as a younger 
 contemporary of Archilochus, from whom 
 he is distinguished by the fact that his 
 writing is less personal, and contains more 
 general reflexions on the constant charac- 
 teristics of human nature. He did not 
 direct his attacks against single persons, 
 but against whole classes. Thus, in an 
 extant fragment of 118 lines, a derisive 
 poem on women, he gives a general de- 
 scription of female characters, deriving the 
 various bad qualities in women from the 
 characteristic qualities of the animals from 
 which he makes them out to be descended. 
 (2) Of CeOs. One of the most celebrated 
 and many-sided of the lyric poets of Greece. 
 Born about B.C. 556 at lulis in Ceos, he 
 went at an early age to Greece proper, 
 where he occupied a high position at Athens 
 under the Pisistratid Hipparchus, and 
 after his death in 514 in Thessaly, at the 
 courts of the Scopadse and Aleuadse. His 
 fame was highest at the time of the Persian 
 Wars, the heroes and battles of which he 
 celebrated in epigrams, elegies, and melic 
 poems. He was a friend of the most re- 
 markable men of his time; for instance, with 
 Themistocles and Pausanias. He is said to 
 have won fifty-six victories in poetic con- 
 tests ; thus after the battle of Marathon 
 (490) he defeated the most famous poets, in- 
 cluding ^schylus, in an elegy on the men 
 who had fallen in the conflict. He passed 
 the last ten years of his life with the tyrant 
 Hiero of Syracuse, and died in Sicily, at an 
 advanced age, in 468 B.C. He was a polished 
 and excellently educated man of the world, 
 with great knowledge of it, and on this 
 he drew cleverly for his poems. He was 
 blamed for courting the favour of the 
 wealthy and the powerful, and he was re- 
 puted to have been the first who accepted 
 payment for his poems ; but even if he really 
 did frequently write poetry to order, and 
 for considerable sums of money, yet, with 
 admirable tact, he knew how to keep every 
 appearance of mercenary work far from his 
 creations. To rare fertility of production 
 he added extraordinary poetic gifts, that 
 enabled him to produce remarkable, and 
 indeed perfect, work in the most varied 
 branches of lyric poetry, from the terse 
 simplicity of the epigram to the elaborate 
 structure of an antistrophic composition. 
 His most celebrated works were his epi- 
 grams, of which many have been preserved, 
 his elegies, and his dirges, which were 
 preferred even to those of Pindar. As may 
 be seen from the fragments of his elegies 
 
 and choice poems, he sought less to enchant 
 by the grandeur of his ideas, like Pindar, 
 than to touch by the sincerity of his senti- 
 ment ; and accordingly his carefully chosen 
 language shows great smoothness, softness, 
 and grace, and correspondingly melodious 
 rhythms. Besides his other remarkable 
 talents, he possessed a very powerful 
 memory ; he was on this account held to be 
 the inventor of a method of improving the 
 memory known as the mnemonic art. [This 
 is recorded in the Parian Chronicle • cp. 
 Quintilian xi 2 § 11.] 
 
 Simplicius. A Peripatetic philosopher of 
 the 6th century after Christ, and a native 
 of Cilicia. When Justinian in 529 closed 
 the school of philosophy in which he taught 
 at Athens, he and six other philosophers 
 emigrated to the court of the Persian king 
 Chosroes. When he made peace with 
 Justinian in 533, and obtained from him 
 leave for the philosophers to return un- 
 molested, Simplicius went to Alexandria, 
 where he died in 549. We still possess 
 some excellent commentaries of his on 
 several writings of Aristotle {Categories, 
 Physics, De Ccelq, De Anima), and on the 
 Encheirtdtdn of Epictetus. 
 
 Sinis, or Sinnis. Son of Poseidon or 
 (according to another account) son of Poly- 
 pemon ; a robber who haunted the Isthmus 
 of Corinth, and was called the pine-bender 
 {Pityocamptes), because he tore travellers 
 to pieces by bending down pines and then 
 suddenly letting them go. He was killed 
 by the youthful Theseus. 
 
 Siuon. A kinsman of Odysseus, who, on 
 the apparent departure of the Greeks from 
 Troy, volunteered to stay behind, and per- 
 suaded the Trojans to place the wooden 
 horse within their citadel. {Cp. Trojan 
 War.) 
 
 SIparinm. The smaller curtain on the 
 Roman stage, about half way between the 
 front and the back. [It was drawn up 
 between the scenes.] (^S^ee Theatre.) 
 
 Sirens (Gr. Seirenes). The virgin 
 daughters of Phorcys, according to later 
 legend of Achelous and one of the Muses. 
 In Homer there are two, in later writers 
 three, called Ligna, Leukdsta, and Par- 
 thenope, or Agldopheme, MolpS, and 
 Thelxlepeia. Homer describes them as 
 dwelling between Circe's isle and Scylla, 
 on an island, where they sit in a flowery 
 meadow, surrounded by the mouldering 
 bones of men, and with their sweet song 
 allure and infatuate those that sail by. 
 Whoever listens to their song and draws 
 
SlillUS- 
 
 -SISYPHUS. 
 
 589 
 
 near them never again beholds wife and 
 child. They know everything that happens 
 on earth. When Odysseus sailed past, he 
 had stopped up the ears of his companions 
 with wax, while he had made them bind 
 him to the mast, that he might hear their 
 song without danger [OtZ.xii 4 1-54, 153-200]. 
 Orpheus protected the Argonauts from 
 their spell by his own singing [ApoUonius 
 Rhodius, iv 903]. As they were only to live 
 till some one had sailed past unmoved by ' 
 their song, they cast themselves into the 
 sea, on account either of Odysseus or of 
 Orpheus, and were changed to sunken rocks. 
 When the adventures of Odysseus came to 
 be localised on the Italian and Sicilian 
 
 A SIEEH, 
 
 Paris, LoavTD.) 
 
 shore, the seat of the Sirens was transferred 
 to the neighbourhood of Naples and Sorrento, 
 to the three rocky and uninhabited islets 
 called the Sirenusce [the Slrenum scopuli 
 of Vergil, j3Sn. v 864 ; cp. Statins, SilvcB ii 
 2, 1], or to Capri, or to the Sicilian pro- 
 montory of Pelorum. There they were said 
 to have settled, after vainly searching the 
 whole earth for the lost PersephSne, their 
 former playmate in the meadows by the 
 Acheloiis ; and later legend also assigned 
 this as the time when they in part assumed 
 a winged shape. They were represented 
 as great birds with the heads of women, or 
 with the upper part of the body like that 
 of a woman, with the legs of birds, and with 
 
 or without wings (see cut). At a later 
 period they were sometimes regarded as 
 retaining their original character of fair 
 and cruel tempters and deceivers. But 
 they are more generally represented as 
 singers of the dirge for the dead, and they 
 were hence frequently plajed as an orna- 
 ment on tombs ; or as symbols of the magic 
 of beauty, eloquence, and song, on which 
 account their sculptured forms were seen 
 on the funeral monuments of fair women 
 and girls, and of orators and poets : for 
 instance, on those of IsScrStes and Sophocles. 
 [Such a Siren may be seen, beating her 
 breast and tearing her hair, above the stelS 
 of Aristion in the Street of Tombs at Athens. 
 The National Museum at Athens contains 
 several examples of stone Sirens, not as 
 reliefs, but as separate figures " in the 
 round " ; and a funeral monument of this 
 type maybe noticed on a vase in the British 
 Museum {Cat. 0. 29), where the Siren is 
 standing on a pillar and playing the lyre. 
 Cp. Euripides, Hd. 169 ; Anthologia Pala- 
 tina vii 710 and 481 ; with Miss Harrison's 
 Myths of the Odyssey, pp. 146-182, and 
 Mythology and Mommients of Athens, pp. 
 582-5.1 
 
 SMixs (Gr. /S^eiVws / lit. " the scorcher "). 
 The dog-star, representing among the con- 
 stellations the dog of Orion {q.v.) ■ 
 
 Sisenua. A Roman historian. {See 
 Annalists.) 
 
 SIstrum. _ A kind of rattle, used in the 
 worship of Isis, and borrowed, at the same 
 time with it, from the Egyptians. It con- 
 sisted of a thin oval band of metal, fastened 
 to a handle, and crossed by a number of little 
 metal rods, bent at either end, and loosely 
 inserted in the band. {See cut under Isis.) 
 
 Sisyphus {i.e. " the^ crafty "). The son 
 of jEolus, brother of AthS,mas, husband of 
 the Pleiad Merope. His son is Glaucus, the 
 father of Bellerophon. He is regarded as 
 the builder of Ephyra (afterwards Corinth) 
 and as originator of the Isthmian Games. 
 In legends he appears as extremely cunning 
 and crafty ; in Homer he is called the 
 " slyest of all men " [II. vi 163]. The rea- 
 son why he is punished in the other world, 
 where he is forced for ever to keep on 
 rolling a block of stone to the top of a steep 
 hill, only to see it roll again to the valley, 
 and to start the toilsome task again [Od. 
 xi 593], is not mentioned by Homer; and 
 later legends vary on this point. According 
 to the account which gives the best idea of 
 his cunning, Sisyphus discloses to the river- 
 god Asopus, in search of his daughter ^Egina 
 
590 
 
 SITOPHYLACES SLAVES. 
 
 (see ^ACDs), how she had been carried off 
 by Zeus ; but this information was not given 
 until Asopus has satisfied the condition laid 
 down by Sisyphus, by creating the spring 
 Peirene, which ever alE'ter supplied the cita- 
 del and town of Corinth [Pausanias ii 5 § 1]. 
 Zeus desires to kill Sisyphus as a punish- 
 ment for revealing the facts, and sends 
 Death to him ; but Sisyphus fetters Death 
 in strong chains, and no one dies, till at last 
 Ares sets him free and hands Sisyphus over 
 to him. But he commands his wife not to 
 inter him, and succeeds in persuading Pluto 
 and Persephone to let him return for awhile 
 to the upper world in order to punish her 
 want of love. Having no desire to return 
 to Hades, he forgets his promise, and even- 
 tualljr Hermes has to come and fetch him. 
 In the postrHomeric legends Odysseus, on 
 account of his cunning, is made the son of 
 Sisyphus and Anticleia [Sophocles, Ajflx 
 190, Phil. 417 ; Eur., fyh. at AuUs, 524]. 
 
 Sit6phjlac6s. At Athens, a board, ori- 
 ginally consisting of ten members, five in 
 the city itself and five in the Peirseus, which 
 superintended the corn trade, and prevented 
 prices becoming exorbitant. [In the time 
 of Aristotle {Constitution of Athens, 51) 
 there were twenty in the city, and fifteen 
 in the Peirseus.] {See Commerce.) 
 
 Slaves. {I) Among the Greeks, besides 
 a class of serfs like the Penestce of Thessaly 
 and the Helots of Sparta, who had come to 
 this condition through being conquered in 
 war, we find, even in Homeric timas, actual 
 slaves, not differing to a very great extent 
 from the free. They seem to have been 
 possessed in large numbers only by princes 
 and chieftains, who either obtained them 
 as booty on expeditions, or bought , them 
 from such robbers of men as the Phoeni- 
 cians. In historic times we find the insti- 
 tution of slavery very much developed, so 
 that there is scarcely a State in which even 
 poorer citizens do not own a male or female 
 slave to do the rough work unworthy of a 
 freQ man. In Attica, when the State was 
 in its most flourishing condition, there were 
 360,000 slaves, about four times the num- 
 ber of free men. The Greeks justified 
 slavery by alleging that there were certain 
 barbarians who had been intended by nature 
 to serve. As a matter of fact, the slaves 
 were for the most part barbarians. In ex- 
 ceptional cases Greeks also were captured 
 in war ; and were thus reduced to permanent 
 slavery; but as a rule they were exchanged 
 or freed on paying a ransom. The countries 
 of Asia Minor, Thrace, and the northern 
 
 regions comprehended under the name of 
 Scythia sent the greatest numbers to the 
 slave-markets, of which the most important 
 were at Delos, Chios, and Byzantium. Athens 
 also had a slave-market, especially used by 
 citizens who wished to expose slaves for 
 sale that they wanted to get rid of. Most 
 of the slaves in Attica were such as had 
 been born from female slaves. The wealthy 
 sometimes possessed several hundreds of 
 them, of whom naturally only a part would 
 be kept in the house. Some of the remain- 
 der worked on the farms in the country, 
 while others served on the merchantmen as 
 rowers or sailors ; [others in the mines at 
 Laurjum] ; others again, either singly, or 
 in numbers in a manufactory and under 
 a superintendent, were engaged in some 
 trade on their master's account. The 
 owners also sometimes let out slaves to 
 others. The domestic slaves were employed 
 in every conceivable kind of occupation in 
 the house, and were also entrusted with 
 the education of the boys, whom they had 
 to accompany everywhere, especially to the 
 school and to the pdloistra ; such slaves 
 were called posdagogi. Indeed, as a rule, 
 even the commonest Greek, if he could 
 possibly manage it, never went out unes- 
 corted by a slave ; while, if he was rich, a 
 number of slaves followed him. 
 
 Their treatment differed according to the 
 character and the pecuniary position of 
 the owner, and also depended on their own 
 good qualities and usefulness. In general, 
 the Athenians were noted for being more 
 humane towards their slaves than the rest 
 of the Greeks. There were laws also that 
 referred to them, and protected them against 
 excessive caprice and harshness. But they 
 had no legal rights ; they could neither 
 bring a charge, nor appear as witnesses. It 
 was only when they were put on the rack 
 that their evidence had any weight attached 
 to it. But the master could not kill a slave 
 unless the latter had been condemned in a 
 law-court; otherwise, he had to pay a 
 penalty to some divinity. If cruelly treated , 
 a slave could seek protection, usually in the 
 temple of Theseus, and claim to be sold to 
 another master. In case of maltreatment 
 by a stranger, the master could bring a legal 
 action, and obtain heavy damages. Slaves 
 had no particular dress prescribed for them 
 by law ; but they were not allowed to let 
 their hair grow long. They were not pro- 
 hibited from entering temples and sanctua- 
 ries or from taking part in public religious 
 festivals ; but thev were excluded from the 
 
SLAVES. 
 
 591 
 
 use of the gj-mnasia and from the assem- 
 blies of the people. Manumissions were 
 not rare, especially those made by a clause 
 in the owner's will, or if a slave bought 
 his freedom with the savings made by 
 permission of his master ; sometimes manu- 
 mission was a reward for giving information 
 about grave crimes, or for distinguished 
 service in war ; for slaves were not un- 
 frequently employed in military service, 
 especially in the fleet as rowers and sailors, 
 or as marines. For the position of the 
 liberated slaves, see Pkeedmen. At Athens 
 there was also a special class of public 
 slaves. Chief among them were those called 
 Scythce or archers, at first 300, then 600, 
 and finally even 1,200; the name Speuslnii 
 was also given them from a certain Speusinus, 
 who is said to have established this institu- 
 tion [Pollux, viii 132, and Etyrnolngicum 
 Magnum]. They served as police, and their 
 office was at first on the market-place, and 
 afterwards on the Areopagus. They were 
 further employed for military purposes, like 
 the similar corps, also consisting of public 
 slaves, of 200 mounted archers (hippotoxdtcB). 
 The lower servants of the State officials, 
 such as criers, scribes, beadles, gaol-keepers, 
 hangmen, were mostly (the last mentioned 
 always) public slaves, and so were the 
 workmen at the mint. Their position was 
 one of much greater freedom than that of 
 the private slaves, and did not differ greatly 
 from that of the vietoeci. 
 
 (II) The Romans, like the Greeks, pos- 
 sessed slaves from the earliest times ; but 
 their number was at first trifling, on account 
 of the small households of the old Romans, 
 and their simple manner of life. But great 
 estates gradually became frequent, and 
 slaves were used by preference for agricul- 
 tural work, because they were not subject to 
 levy for military service. Luxury became 
 more general, and a number of wants, pre- 
 viously unknown, were created by it; and 
 in process of time the custom of employing 
 slaves for industrial purposes was bor- 
 rowed from the Greeks. All this caused a 
 continual increase in the number of slaves, 
 until in some cases they were collected in 
 several thousands. Some of these were 
 born in the house, and were called vernce ; 
 they were regarded as particularly faithful 
 and trustworthy, and enjoyed certain liber- 
 ties accordingly. The remainder were for 
 the most part acquired among the spoils of 
 war, or were introduced from other coun- 
 tries where slaves were kept. Those taken 
 in war were sold by the quifestor either on 
 
 the spot immediately or at the nearest 
 market-place, or, according to the technical 
 terms, either sub Jiastd (under the lance) or 
 sub coi'ona (under the wreath, which was 
 placed on the head of captives in war to 
 show that they were for sale). For this pur- 
 pose slave-dealers, whose profitable trade 
 was regarded with contempt, were always 
 represented in the train of Roman armies. 
 They also bought slaves in great numbers 
 at the principal slave-marts, as at Rome 
 and Del6s. At Rome the eediles superin- 
 tended this kind of business, on which the 
 government levied a tax for import and a 
 further tax on the sale. The slave was 
 placed on a platform, with his feet 
 whitened with chalk or gypsvim, if he had 
 just come across the sea, and with a label 
 round his neck, showing his home, age, 
 abilities, and bodily defects, if any, the 
 vendor being responsible for the correctness 
 of these statements ; if he would not bind 
 himself in any such way, this was shown 
 by placing a cap (pilleiis) on the slave's 
 head. Slaves distinguished for their beauty, 
 their skill, or their literary or musical ac- 
 complishments, were not exhibited publicly, 
 but in special places, and to such as were 
 able to pay the prices for them, which fre- 
 quently ran very high. Those born in the 
 house were also sold by private agreement, 
 without being exposed. There were slaves 
 of every nationality, and on this depended 
 in general the names by which they were 
 called and the work which was assigned 
 them. The fdmilia (a designation including 
 all the slaves, or famuli, belonging to the 
 same master) was generally divided into 
 that of the country {familia rustlca) and 
 that of the town {familia urbdna). 
 
 The xcork done by the slaves was of the 
 most varied character, and the great diver- 
 sity of their occupations is partly explained 
 by the fact that almost every kind of work 
 required a special slave, and it was con- 
 sidered not consistent with good breeding, 
 and a sign of poverty, if the same slave 
 was entrusted with several different duties. 
 Thus there were in the country special 
 slaves for the various branches of agricul- 
 ture, horticulture, and the tending of 
 cattle, the cultivation of olives and vines, 
 the keeping of bees and of poultry, and for 
 the preserves and fishponds. These slaves 
 were under the supervision of the viUcus 
 (farm-bailiff) or actor (steward), who had 
 to render the accounts to the master or his 
 representative. 
 The number of totcn-slaves was not due to 
 
692 
 
 SLAVES. 
 
 actual requirements, Tout depended on the 
 luxurious fashions which became more and 
 more prevalent in the last two centuries of 
 the Republic. In older times the house 
 and everything belonging to it was in charge 
 of the cedituus (majordomo, steward), who 
 managed all household affairs, received and 
 spent money, negotiated sales and pur- 
 chases, and disposed of the stores. When 
 the extension of the household made it 
 necessary to keep a special person to control 
 the expenditure, the steward's functions 
 were limited to seeing that the house and 
 furniture were properly cleaned and in a 
 good state. Besides him there were sub- 
 ordinate servants for the various dwellings, 
 the spare rooms for visitors, the shrine of 
 the household gods, the images of the 
 ancestors, the various kinds of furniture, 
 the art collections, and the wardrobe; and 
 there was also a porter {ianitor or ostianus) 
 who, according to an old custom, was 
 chained like a dog. [Suetonius, De Bhet. 3 ; 
 Columella, 1 pr. §10; Ovid, Amoves i 6, 1.] 
 
 The kitchen was in charge of a special 
 c/ie/", an even more expensive slave than the 
 vilicus ; and under him were a host of assis- 
 tants, wood-carriers, market-men, pastry- 
 cooks, etc. The service at table also neces- 
 sitated a numerous attendance of dressers, 
 servers, carvers, fore-tasters, cup-bearers, 
 table-clearers, and others, who similarlvwere 
 under a special foreman, the trlcllniarclm, 
 who saw to the general arrangements and 
 to the lighting. The master and mistress 
 of the house were served by special valets 
 (cuMcuIarii), who also had to announce 
 visitors, and pages and chambermaids and 
 special servants for the bath and the toilette. 
 It was considered of especial importance 
 that, when the master or mistress of the 
 house left it on foot or in a litter, the slaves 
 following them should be numerous and 
 richly attired. Some slaves went before 
 their master {anteatiibulones), especially the 
 nomenclator, who informed his master of 
 the names of the persons they met ; others 
 followed {pedlsSqui) ; others again were told 
 off for attending their master with torches 
 and lanterns on leaving parties in the 
 evening. The litter of each member of the 
 family was carried by from six to eight 
 lectlcdrii, particularly strong men, and by 
 preference Cappadocians. For travelling 
 across country there was always a large 
 escort, consisting of crowds of equerries, 
 outriders, grooms, etc. The most important 
 position among the servants was occupied 
 by those whom the master himself chose to 
 
 assist him in his business or his recreations; 
 as for instance those who attended to money 
 matters and to the supervision of the slaves, 
 secretaries, physicians, readers at meals or 
 during the bath or before going to sleep, 
 literary men, librarians, and transcribers of 
 books. For other kinds of recreation there 
 were also slaves who had received a musical 
 training, pantomlmi, fools, and jesters. 
 
 The various classes of slaves had each 
 its special foreman, with a substitute whom 
 he either received from his master, or 
 bought with his savings. These formed 
 the class of the ordlnuni, who enjoyed 
 the special confidence of their master ; this 
 class included such servants as looked after 
 the food, clothing, and medical atten- 
 dance of the slaves, the maintenance and 
 watching of the various buildings, the 
 accounts of the household {cclldrius), and 
 the expenses of the master [dispensatoi-). 
 Young slaves were trained for the various 
 requirements of the household ; according to 
 their abilities, they were taught some trade 
 or art, or had practice given them either 
 in keeping accounts or in learned studies. 
 Under the Empire, those who were destined 
 to be pages received their education in 
 special paddgogia or establishments, kept 
 not only by the emperor, but also by private 
 citizens. As in Greece, trained slaves were 
 established in some trade by themselves, or 
 let out on hire ; such was the case even 
 with slaves who were artists or men of 
 learning. Even posts of independence, such 
 as the administration of an estate in the 
 country, or of a bank, or the command of a 
 ship, were entrusted to slaves, who received 
 a share in the profits, or paid interest on the 
 capital invested, or a fixed sum of money 
 when the capital was their own. For the 
 slaves were allowed to acquire a private 
 fortune {peculium) from what they saved 
 on their allowances and from the regular 
 profits of their service. The masters re- 
 garded this arrangement with favour, espe- 
 cially as it represented a kind of caution 
 money in case any damage was done. 
 
 The Roman slave was, in the eyes of the 
 law, a mere chattel, and hence absolutely 
 without any rights and completely exposed 
 to the caprice of his master. The latter could 
 compel him to do the meanest and most 
 shameful things, could torture or kill him, 
 or cast him out when he was old or weakly ; 
 and as this treatment was legally permitted, 
 it was carried out in practice when occasion 
 offered. Special cruelty was experienced by 
 the country-slaves, who worked in chains in 
 
SLEEP SLING. 
 
 593 
 
 the greater part of Italy, and were kept 
 in a guarded work-house (ergastulum) at 
 night ; some of them were branded, or had 
 one half of their heads shaven. It was 
 therefore a severe punishment for a town- 
 slave to be sent into the country. 
 
 The usual mode of killing slaves was 
 crucifixion, which was put down by the 
 Christian emperors. If a slave dared to 
 wreak vengeance on his master, every slave 
 who was under the same roof at the time 
 was put to death with him. This cruelty of 
 treatment, which grew continually in the 
 last centuries of the Republic, brought on 
 repeated and terrible insurrections of the 
 slaves. Under the Empire they received 
 some legal protection ; in its very beginning, 
 the masters right to condemn his slaves 
 to fight with wild beasts was taken away 
 from him and transferred to a regular judge: 
 the prefect of the city at Rome, and the 
 procurator in the provinces. These officials 
 were also empowered, by Antoninus Pius, 
 to receive the complaints of slaves about 
 cruel treatment, and to sell the slaves to 
 another master, in case their complaints 
 were found to rest on truth. Hadrian 
 deprived the owners of the right of killing 
 and torturing slaves at their pleasure, or 
 of selling them to keepers of gladiatorial 
 schools or to procurers ; and, finally, Con- 
 stantino placed the intentional killing of a 
 slave on a level with murder. A kind of 
 married relation between slaves, called 
 contHbernium, was permitted at an early 
 time. Under the Empire, it became a rifle 
 to regard it as lasting and indissoluble, and 
 even to celebrate the marriage of slaves 
 by wedding festivities. Having no legal 
 rights, the slave could not give evidence in 
 a law court, and, as in Greece, only what 
 he said when under torture was deemed 
 worthy of credit. The Roman, like the 
 Athenian, government had public slaves 
 {servi publici), who, on the whole, had the 
 same legal position as the private slaves. 
 They lived in public buildings assigned to 
 them by the censors, and received from the 
 public chest a yearly sum to pay for their 
 board (c^drta). They were partly ern- 
 ployed as custodians of temples and public 
 buildings (cedltUi), partly as servants to 
 the various priesthoods and to those magis- 
 trates who had duties relating to the police, 
 namely, the censors and sediles (who under 
 Augustus had under their control a familia 
 of 6(K) servi pziblici for the prevention- of 
 fires), the overseers of the water supply, 
 and of the prisons, and those who had to 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 see capital sentences carried out. The 
 slaves of the latter included the hangman 
 {carnifex) who was entrusted with the 
 special duty of executing slaves, and who 
 had to live outside the Esquiline Gate. 
 {See also Freedmen.) 
 
 Sleep (Gr. Hypnos ; Lat. Somnus). The 
 son of Night and twin-brother of Death {q.v.) 
 [II. xiv 231 ; xvi 672]. With his brother 
 Death, according to Hesiod, he dwells in 
 the eternal darkness of the farthest West 
 [TTieog. 759]. Thence he sweeps over land 
 and sea, bringing sleep to men and gods, 
 since he has power over all alike, and could 
 lull to sleep even Zeus himself. On the 
 chest of Cypselus at Olympia, both brothers 
 were depicted as boys sleeping in the arms 
 of their mother. Death being painted in 
 black and Sleep in white [Pausanias, v 18 
 § 1]. Sleep was represented in art in very 
 various forms and situations, and frequently 
 with the wings of an eagle or a butterfly 
 on his forehead, and a poppy-stalk and a 
 horn, froni which he dropped slumber upon 
 those whom he lull§ to rest. The earlier con- 
 ception made Dreams the sisters of Sleep, 
 but in later times the dream-god figures as 
 his son. Hermes was also a god of sleep. 
 
 Sling (Gr. sphend^jie ; Lat. funda). A 
 weapon for hurling misgiles, consisting of 
 a thong, broad in the middle and growing 
 narrower towards fhe ends. The missile 
 was either a round stone of the size of a 
 hen's egg, a ball of baked clay, or a leaden 
 bolt cast in the shapp of an acorn. It was 
 placed in the broad part of the thong, and 
 the slinger (Gr. sphendonetes ; Lat. fun- 
 ditor), holding the thong by both ends in 
 in one hand, swung it several times round 
 his l(eE|,d, and discljarged the ball at the 
 mark by means 
 of letting go one 
 end of the thong. 
 The niost famous 
 slingers of anti-: 
 qaity were the 
 inhabitants of the 
 Balearic Igles ; 
 they carried 
 three slings, made 
 of plaited rushes, 
 hair, and the 
 sinews of wild 
 beasts, for long, 
 short, and intermediate shots respectiveh^. 
 Various leaden slingbolts, bearing marks or 
 characteristic inscriptions, have been pre- 
 served. Under the Empire there came into 
 use the sling-staff (Lat. fHstibdlus), a staff 
 
 (Trajan's Column, Rome.) 
 
594 
 
 SOCCUS SODALITAS. 
 
 four feet in length, to the end of which a 
 leathern sling was fastened. One thong of 
 this reached to the other end of the staff, 
 and was together with this held fast by the 
 fustibdlator, who swung the staff several 
 times round his head, and suddenly let go 
 the longer thong, thus throwing a larger 
 missile with much greater force than was 
 possible with a simple sling. 
 
 Soccus. A loose slipper, or light, low 
 shoe, fitting either foot, which the Romans 
 adopted from the Greeks. It was the 
 characteristic of comedy, as the cothurnus 
 was of tragedy [Horace, A. P. 80 (of the 
 iambic metre): "Hunc socci cepere pedem, 
 grandesque cothwni"]. 
 
 Socii. Among the Romans, the socii, as 
 distinguished in constitutional law from 
 Roman subjects, were the allies who, while 
 their independence was recognised, stood 
 in a more or less dependent relation to the 
 Roman State. Under the Republic, up to 
 the time when the right of citizenship was 
 conferred on all the free inhabitants of 
 Italy (89 B.C.), the Latins, and the Italian 
 communities on the same footing with them, 
 enjoyed a privileged position amongst the 
 other allies. In the military organization 
 of the Roman Republic the contingents 
 which they furnished were called socii, in 
 contradistinction to the legions- and the 
 non-Italian auxiliaries. (See AuxiLiA, and 
 cp. Legion.) Socii nffvales are the crews, 
 furnished by the allied towns, of the ships 
 of war. 
 
 Socrates. Of Athens ; bom 469 B.C., son 
 of the sculptor Sophroniecus and the mid- 
 wife Phsenarete. H© pursued for a time 
 his father's art, but soon gave it up, 
 holding it to be his proper task in life to 
 labour at the moral and intellectual im- 
 provement of himself and his friends. His 
 indifference to external necessities enabled 
 him to bear his poverty with the same 
 equanimity which he preserved in dealing 
 with the quarrelsome temper of his wife 
 Xanthippe. He took no part in affairs of 
 State, yet did not withdraw from the per- 
 formance of his duties as a citizen in war 
 and peace. He did not give formal instr,uc- 
 tion, but sought by means of dialectical dis- 
 course, in which any one might join without 
 payment, to lead on the young people who 
 used to collect around him to think and act 
 in accordance with reason. Different as 
 are the representations of him given by his 
 pupils Xenophon and Plato, yet they agree 
 in this, that he was a character of absolute 
 moral purity, whose clear peace of mind 
 
 was troubled by no passion, in whom 
 reason at all times asserted its supremacy 
 over sensuality, and whom no considera- 
 tions could move from the declaration of 
 his convictions. He preserved this un- 
 shaken fidelity to his convictions, not only 
 in earlier passages of his life, but also 
 at the time when a capital charge was 
 brought against hirh, of being out of accord 
 with the religion of the State, of intro- 
 ducing new gods (an accusation founded 
 upon his belief in the dcemOn, an inward 
 voice, which used to warn him from evil 
 and urge him towards good), and of cor- 
 rupting youth. Although it would have 
 been an easy thing for him to have escaped 
 the sentence of death, he did not hesitate 
 for a moment in giving expression to his 
 conviction in the most open manner, and 
 for that conviction was put to death by 
 being compelled to drink a draught of 
 hemlock. {See also Philosophy and Plato, 
 with cut.) 
 
 Sodalitas. [The word properly means 
 an association or club, and was especially 
 applied to the] religious brotherhoods among 
 the Romans. By order of the State, they 
 attended to the cult of some particular 
 object of worship by jointly celebrating 
 certain sacrifices and feasts, especially on 
 the anniversary of the foundation of that 
 cult. 
 
 The members, called saddles, stood in a 
 legally recognised position of mutual obliga- 
 tion, which did not allow any one of them 
 to appear against another as a prosecutor 
 in a criminal case, or to become patronus 
 of the proseciitor of a sodalis, or to offi- 
 ciate as judge upon a sodalis. Such a 
 brotherhood were the Sodales Augustdles, 
 appointed a.d. 14 by the Senate for the cult 
 of the deified Augustus, a college of 21, 
 and afterwards of 28, members of senatorial 
 rank, which also took upon itself the cult 
 of Claudius after his deification, and bore, 
 after that, the ofl&cial title Sodales Augus- 
 tales Claudidles. Besides these there were 
 the Sodales Fldviales TUiales for the cult 
 of Vespasian and Titus, the Hadridnales 
 for that of Hadrian, Antonlnidni for that 
 of Antoninus Pius and of the successively 
 deified emperors. {Cp. Collegium.) 
 
 [The secular clubs, sdddlitdtes, or collegia 
 soddUcia, were, in the later Republican 
 age, much turned to account for political 
 objects, and their organization used for 
 purposes" of bribery. See Cicero's speech 
 Pro Plancio. It was very common for 
 young Romans to belong to an ordinary 
 
SOL SOLONIAN CONSTITUTION. 
 
 595 
 
 sodalitas. Both Horace and Ovid were 
 members of one.] 
 
 Sol. The Italian sun-god, identified with 
 the Greek Helios (q.v.). 
 
 Solarium. A sundial (see Gnomon) ; also 
 the flat roof of the Roman dwelling-house 
 (see House, 2). 
 
 Soldiers. Greek, see Warfare. Roman, 
 see Legion. Tor the game of "soldiers" 
 {ludus latnmculdrum), see Games. 
 
 S616a. The shoe usually worn by Romans 
 when at home. Outside the house thej' 
 wore it only when going out to dinner. 
 During the meal itself it was taken off. It 
 was a strong sole of wood, cork, or leather, 
 which was fastened on the foot by two 
 straps. One of these passed between the 
 great toe and the second toe, and was con- 
 nected by a buckle or otherwise with a 
 strap running lengthwise over the instep. 
 The second strap went round the ankle, 
 (^ee cuts to Sandalium.) 
 
 Solldus. A Roman gold coin, introduced 
 by the emperor Constantine about 312 A.D., 
 which remained in use until the downfall 
 of the Byzantine empire ; its weight was 
 ySj lb., its value 12s. 8|cZ. {See further 
 under Coinage.) 
 
 Solinus {Gains lulius). A Roman writer 
 who composed, probably in the second half 
 of the 3rd century A.D., a collection of 
 MemSrabilia {CollectanSa Rerum Memora- 
 bilium, better known by its later title 
 Polyhistor). The most important portion 
 (the geographical) is an abstract of a treatise 
 on geography compiled from Pliny's Natural 
 History. 
 
 Solium. See Baths and Chairs. 
 
 Solon. Of Athens, son of Execestides, 
 born about 640 B.C., died 559, the famous 
 Athenian lawgiver. {See below on the 
 SoLONiAN Constitution.) He is one of the 
 " Seven Wise Men." He also holds a high 
 position amongst the lyric, and especially 
 amongst the elegiac, poets of Greece. The 
 noble patriotism and kindly wisdom which 
 marked the whole of his life found expres- 
 sion in his poems, which were in part con- 
 nected with the political condition of his 
 own city, and were also intended to teach 
 universal principles of humanity in an 
 appropriate poetical form. His elegies are 
 said to have amounted to 5,000 lines in all. 
 
 Among his political elegies may be men- 
 tioned that on Salamis, by which, in his 
 earlier years, he roused his fellow citizens 
 to reconquer that island when it had been 
 taken from them by the Megarians; also 
 his Exhortations to the Athenians. To his 
 
 ethical elegies belong the Exhortations to 
 Himself. Of the last two poems in par- 
 ticular we possess extensive fragments [in 
 which the elegiac measure is raised to a 
 new dignity by being made the vehicle of 
 ethical teaching. One of the finest frag- 
 ments owes its preservation to its being 
 quoted by Demosthenes, De Falsa LecjCi- 
 tione, § 255]. There are also some frag- 
 ments of minor poems in iambics and 
 trochaics as well as a skdlion. [In Aris- 
 totle's Constitution of Athens, 5, 12, we 
 have several quotations from Solon's poems, 
 including about twenty lines which are 
 otherwise unknown.] 
 
 Solonian Constitution. At the time of 
 Solon the Athenian State was almost falling 
 to pieces in consequence of dissensions be- 
 tween the parties into which the population 
 was divided. Of these the Diacrii, the 
 inhabitants of the northern mountainous 
 region of Attica, the poorest and most 
 oppressed section of the population, de- 
 manded that the privileges of the nobility, 
 wjiich had till then obtained, should be 
 utterly set aside. Another party, prepared 
 to be contented by moderate concessions, 
 was composed of the Pdra,li, the inhabitants 
 of the stretch of coast called Paralia. The 
 third was formed by the nobles, called 
 Pedlels or PSdmci, because their property 
 lay for the most part in the pMion, the 
 level and most fruitful part of the country. 
 Solon, who enjoyed the confidence of all 
 parties on account of his tried insight and 
 sound judgment, was chosen archon by a 
 compromise, with full power to put an end 
 to the difficulties, aiid to restore peace by 
 means of legislatioii. One of the primary 
 measures of Solon was the Seisachtheia 
 (disburdening ordinance). This gave an 
 immediate relief by cancelling all debts, 
 public and private. At the same time he 
 made it illegal for the futnre to secure 
 debts upon the person of the debtor [Aris- 
 totle, Constitution of Athens, 6]. 
 
 He also altered the standard of coinage 
 [and of weights and measures, by intro- 
 ducing the Euboic standard in place of the 
 Pheidonian or -(Eginetan, ib. 10]. 100 new 
 drachmse were thus made to contain the 
 same amount of silver as 73 old drachmae. 
 
 He further instituted a timocracy {q.v.), by 
 which the exclusive rights which the nobles 
 had till then possessed were set aside, and 
 those who did not belong to the nobility 
 received a share in the rights of citizens, 
 according to a scale determined by their 
 property and their corresponding services 
 
596 
 
 SOMNUS SOPHISTS. 
 
 to the State. For this purpose he divided 
 the population into four classes, founded 
 on the possession of land. (1) Pentdcosio- 
 mSdimni, who had at least 500 meditnni 
 (750 bushels) of corn or metretce of wine 
 or oil as yearly income. (2) Hippeis, or 
 knights, with at least 300 medimni. (3) 
 Zeugltce (possessors of a yoke of oxen), with 
 at least 150 medimni. (4) Thetes (workers 
 for wages), with less than 150 medimni of 
 yearly income. Solon's legislation only 
 granted to the first three of these four 
 classes a vote in the election of responsible 
 officers, and only to the first class the power 
 of election to the highest offices ; as, for 
 instance, that of archon. The fourth class 
 was excluded from all official positions, but 
 possessed the right of voting in the general 
 public assemblies which chose officials 
 and passed laws. They had also the right 
 of taking part in the trials by jury which 
 Solon had instituted. The first three 
 classes were bound to serve as hoplites ; 
 the cavalry was raised out of the first two, 
 while the fourth class was only employed as 
 light-armed troops or on the fieet, and ap;pa- 
 rently for pay. The others served without 
 pay. The holders of office in the State were 
 also unpaid. Solon established as the chief 
 consultative body the Council of the Four 
 Hundred (see Boule), in which only the 
 first three classes took part, and as chief 
 administrative body the Areopagus {q.v.) 
 which was to be iilled up by those who 
 had been archons. Besides this, he 
 promulgated a code of laws embracing the 
 whole of public and private life, the salu- 
 tary effects of which lasted long after the 
 end of his constitution, 
 
 [According to Aristotle's Constitution of 
 Athens, 4, a Council of 401 members was 
 part of Dracon's constitution (about 621 
 B.C.). The members were selected by lot 
 from the whole body of citizens. Solon 
 (who was archon in 694) reduced the 
 Council to 400, one hundred from each of 
 the four tribes ; and extended in some 
 particulars the powers already possessed by 
 the Areopagus {ib. 8).] 
 
 Somnus. The Roman god of sleep {q.v.). 
 
 Sophists (Gr. sopliistai). Properly a 
 name given by the Greeks to all those 
 who professed knowledge, or a particular 
 knowledge or a particular art. Hence the 
 Seven Wise Men are often thus called ; but 
 the name was especially applied to the 
 educated men of ready speech, who, from 
 about the year 450 B.C., used to travel 
 through Greece from place to place, and 
 
 imparted what they knew for money. They 
 have the merit of having popularized the 
 interest in knowledge which had up to that 
 time been confined within narrow circles, 
 and especially of having contributed to the 
 formation of eloquence. For they were the 
 first to make style an object of study, and 
 to institute serious investigations into the 
 art of rhetorical expression. Their teach- 
 ing was chiefly intended to give their 
 pupils versatility in the use of speech, 
 and thus to fit them for taking part in 
 public life. As the subject of their dis- 
 courses, they chose by preference questions 
 of public interest to persons of general 
 education. The expression, however, al- 
 ways remained the important thing, while 
 positive knowledge fell more and more 
 into the background. Some of them even 
 started from the position, that virtue and 
 knowledge were only subjective notions. 
 Protagoras of Abdera, who appeared about 
 445 B.C., is named as the first Sophist; 
 after him the most important is Gorgids 
 of Leontini ; Prodicus of Ceos and Hippids 
 of Elis are contemporaries of the other 
 two. "Wherever they appeared, especially 
 in Athens, they were received with the 
 greatest enthusiasm, and many flocked to 
 hear them. Even such men as Pericles, 
 Euripides, and Socrates sought their societj' ; 
 and Socrates owed to them much that was 
 suggestive in his own pursuit of practical 
 philosophy, though, on the other hand, he 
 persistently attacked the principles under- 
 lying their public teaching. These prin- 
 ciples became further exaggerated under 
 their successors, who did not think they 
 needed even knowledge of fact to talk as 
 they pleased about everything. Accord- 
 ingly the skill of the Sophist degenerated 
 into mere technicalities and complete absence 
 of reason, and became absolutely contemp- 
 tible. [See Grote's History of Greece, chap. 
 Ixvii, and Dr. H. Sidgwick's essay in the 
 Journal of Philology, iv 288.] 
 
 With the revival of Greek eloquence, 
 from about the begiuning of the 2nd cen- 
 tury A.D., the name of Sophist attained a 
 new distinction. At that time the name 
 was given to the professional orators, who 
 appeared in public with great pomp and 
 delivered declamations either prepared be- 
 forehand or improvised on the spot. Like 
 the earlier Sophists, they went generally 
 from place to place, and were overwhelmed 
 with applause and with marks of distinc- 
 tion by their contemporaries, including 
 even the Roman emperors. Dion Chrysos- 
 
SOPHOCLES. 
 
 597 
 
 torn, Herodes Attteus, Aristidts, Lucian, 
 and PhUostrdtus the elder, belong to the 
 flourishing period of this second school of 
 Sophists, a period which extends over the 
 whole of the 2nd century. They appear 
 afresh about the middle of the 4th century, 
 devoting their philosophic culture to the 
 zealous but unavailing defence of paganism. 
 Among them was the emperor Julian and 
 his contemporaries Ltbdntus, HlmSrius, 
 and ThSmistius. SynSaius may be con- 
 sidered as the last Sophist of importance. 
 
 SSphocles. One of the three great Greek 
 tragedians, son of SSphillus, the wealthy 
 owner of a manufactory of armour, was 
 born probably in 495 B.C. in the deme 
 Colonus near Athens. He received a care- 
 ful education in music, gymnastics, and 
 dancing, and as a boy of fifteen was chosen 
 to lead the paean sung by the chorus of 
 boys after the victory of SalS,mis. He 
 afterwards showed his musical skill in 
 public, when he represented the blind 
 singer ThSmyris in his drama of the same 
 name, and played the cithara with such suc- 
 cess that he was painted as Thamyris with 
 the cithara in the St6a Poicile. Again, 
 in the play called the Nausicdd, he won for 
 himself general admiration in acting the 
 part of the princess of that name, by the 
 dexterity and grace with which he struck 
 the ball [Athenseus, p. 20 E]. In all things 
 his external appearance and demeanour was 
 the reflex of his lofty mind. At his very 
 first appearance as a tragic poet in 468, 
 when 27 years old, he gained a victory over 
 iEschylus, who was thirty years older, and 
 from that time to extreme old age he kept 
 the first place in tragedy. Unlike Ms- 
 chylus and Euripides, he never accepted 
 the invitations of foreign princes. Though 
 possessing no special inclination or fitness 
 ' for political affairs, as his friend, the poet 
 Ion of ChiSs, declares, he yet took his part 
 in public life. Thus, in 440 B.C. he was 
 one of the ten generals who, with Pericles, 
 were in command of the fleet sent against 
 SamSs. Owing to his practical skill he was 
 also employed in negotiations with the allies 
 of Chios and Samos. During the Pelopon- 
 nesian War he was again one of the generals, 
 together with Nicias. In 435, as Hellend- 
 tdmids, he was at the head of the manage- 
 ment of the treasure of the allies, which 
 was kept on the AorSpSlis ; and, when the 
 4uestion arose in 413, of giving to the State 
 an oligarchical constitution, he was on the 
 commission of preliminary investigation. 
 He also filled a priestly oiflce. 
 
 The charm and the refinement of his 
 character seem to have won him many 
 friends. Among them was the historian 
 HerSdStus, who m^ich resembled him. He 
 was also deemed by antiquity as a man 
 specially beloved by the gods, especially by 
 Asclepius, whose priest he probably was, 
 and who was said to have granted him 
 
 SOPHOCLES. 
 
 (Rome, Lateran Museum.) 
 
 health and vigour of mind to extreme old 
 age. By the Athenian Nicostrate he had a 
 son, Idphon, who won some repute as a tragic 
 poet, and by Theoris of Sicyon another son, 
 Ariston, father of the Sophocles who gained 
 fame for himself by tragedies of his own, 
 and afterwards by the production of his 
 grandfather's dramas. There was a story 
 that a quarrel arose between Sophocles and 
 his son lophpn, on account of his pre- 
 
598 
 
 SOPHRON. 
 
 ference for this grandson, and that, when 
 summoned by lophon before the court as 
 weak in mind and unable to manage his 
 affairs, he obtained his own absolute ac- 
 quittal by reading the chorus on his native 
 place in the (Edipus Coloneus [Plutarch, 
 Moralia, p. 775 B]. But this appears to be 
 a legend founded on a misunderstood plea- 
 santry of a comic poet. The tales of his 
 death, which happened in 405, are also 
 mythical. According to one account, he 
 was choked by a grape ; according to 
 others, he died either when publicly re- 
 citing the Antigone, or from excessive joy 
 at some dramatic victory. The only fact 
 unanimously attested by his contemporaries 
 is, that his death was as dignified as his 
 life. A singular story is connected even 
 with his funeral. We are told that Dio- 
 nysus, by repeated apparitions in dreams, 
 prompted the general of the Spartans, 
 who were then investing Athens, to grant 
 a truce for the burial of the poet in the 
 family grave outside the city. On his 
 tomb stood a Siren as a symbol of the charm 
 of poetry. After his death the Athenians 
 worshipped him as a hero and offered an 
 annual sacrifice in his memory. In later 
 times, on the proposal of the orator Lycur- 
 gus, a bronze statue was erected to him, 
 together with .iEschylus and Euripides, in 
 the theatre, and of his dramas, as of theirs, 
 an authorized and standard copy was made, 
 in order to protect them against arbitrary 
 alterations. 
 
 Sophocles was a very prolific poet. The 
 number of his pieces is given as between 
 123 and 180, of which above 100 are 
 known to us by their titles and by frag- 
 ments. But only seven have been pre- 
 served complete : The TrdcMnim (so named 
 from the chorus, and treating of the death 
 of Heracles), the Ajax, the PhiloctetP.s, the 
 Electro, the (Edipus Tyrannus, the (Edipus 
 at Colonus, and the AntigdnS. The last- 
 mentioned play was produced in the spring 
 of 440 ; the Philoctetes in 410; the (Edipus 
 at Colonus was not put on the stage until 
 401, after his death, by his grandson 
 Sophocles. Besides tragedies, Sophocles 
 composed pseans, elegies, epigrams, and a 
 work in prose on the chorus. With his 
 tragedies he gained the first prize more 
 than twenty times, and still more often the 
 second, but never the third. Even in his 
 lifetime, and indeed through the whole of 
 antiquity, he was held to be the most per- 
 fect of tragedians ; one of the ancient 
 writers calls him the "pupil of Homer" 
 
 [Vita Anon., ad fin.]. If ^schylus is the 
 creator of Greek tragedy, it was Sophocles 
 who brought it to perfection. He extended 
 the dramatic action (1) by the introduction 
 of a third actor, while in his last pieces he 
 even added a fourth ; and (2) by a due 
 subordination of the chorus, to which, how- 
 ever, he gave a more artistic development, 
 while he increased its numbers from twelve 
 to fifteen persons. He also perfected the 
 costumes and decoration. Rejecting the 
 plan of ^Eschylus, by which one story was 
 carried through three successive plays, he 
 made every tragedy into a complete work 
 of art, with a separate and complete action, 
 the motives for every detail being most 
 skilfully devised. His art was especially 
 shewn in the way in which the action is de- 
 veloped from the character of the dramatis 
 personcB. Sophocles' great masterj' of his 
 art appears, above all, in the clearness with 
 which he pourtrays his characters, which 
 are developed with a scrupulous attention to 
 details, and in which he does not content 
 himself, like ^schylus, with mere outlines, 
 nor, as Euripides often did, with copies 
 from common life. His heroes, too, are 
 ideal figures, like those of jEschylus. While 
 they lack the superhuman loftiness of the 
 earlier poet's creations, they have a certain 
 ideal truth of their own. Sophocles suc- 
 ceeding in doing what was impossible for 
 Jilschylus and Euripides with their peculiar 
 temperaments, in expressing the nobility of 
 the female character, in its gentleness as 
 well as in its heroic courage. In contrast 
 to Euripides, Sophocles, like ^schylus, is 
 profoundly religious ; and the attitude which 
 he adopts towards the popular religion is 
 marked by an instinctive reverence. The 
 grace peculiar to Sophocles' nature makes 
 itself felt even in his language, the charm 
 of which was universally praised by the 
 ancients. With his noble simplicity he 
 takes in this respect also a middle place 
 between the weightiness and boldness of 
 the language of iEschylus, and the smooth- 
 ness and rhetorical embellishment which 
 distinguish that of Euripides. 
 
 Sophron. Of Syracuse. A Greek writer 
 of mimes, an elder contemporary of Euri- 
 pides. He composed in the Dorian dialect 
 prose dialogues, partly serious, partly comic, 
 which faithfully represented scenes of actual 
 life, mostly in the lower classes, interspersed 
 with numerous proverbs and colloquial 
 forms of speech. In spite of their prose 
 form, Sophron's mimes were regarded as 
 poems by the ancients. In Athens they 
 
SOPHRONISTiE SPARTI. 
 
 B99 
 
 are said to have become known through 
 Plato, who thought very highly of them, 
 and made use of them for the dramatic 
 form of his dialogues [Quintilian, i 10 § 17 ; 
 Diogenes Laertius iii 13]. After his death 
 it is said that they were found under his 
 pillow, together with the comedies of Aris- 
 tophanes. In the Alexandrine age, Theo- 
 critus took them for a pattern in his Idylls 
 [especially in the Adomazusce, Id. 15]. The 
 Greek grammarians also paid particular 
 attention to them on account of the popular 
 idioms they contained. The fragments pre- 
 served are so scanty, that they give no notion 
 of the contents and form of the pieces ; in 
 any case they cannot have been intended 
 for public representation. Sophron's son, 
 Xenarchus, who lived during the reign of 
 Dionysius I, also wrote mimes. 
 
 Sophrdnistse. Officers amongst the Greeks 
 who looked after the moral behaviour of 
 the youth in the gymnasia (q.v.). [Aristotle, 
 Constitution of Athens, 43.] 
 
 Soranus. AGreek physician fromEphesus, 
 who lived in the first half of the 2nd 
 century A.D., under Trajan and Hadrian. 
 His writings are now represented by a work 
 of considerable extent on the diseases of 
 women, and a surgical treatise on fractures. 
 The writings of Gsslius Aurelianus (q.v.) on 
 Acute and Chronic Diseases are translated 
 from him. 
 
 Sortes (properly " lots "). Small tablets 
 used for augury in different parts of Italji-, 
 especially in the temple of For tuna at Prse- 
 neste [Cicero, De Divin. ii 41 § 86]. They 
 were of oak or bronze, with some saying 
 engraved upon them, and were shuffled and 
 drawn by a boy. Seventeen such sayings 
 (four in the original bronze, and the rest 
 copies) are still preserved. They are known 
 as the sortes Prcenestince, but they appear to 
 have really belonged to the oracle of Geryon 
 at Patavium (Padua). 
 
 The same name was given (1) to passages 
 of some book used to foretell events, the 
 method being to open the book at random, 
 for which purpose Christians used the 
 Bible; or (2) to lines of poetry, especially 
 of Vergil, written on leaves, and drawn at 
 haphazard. [Sortes Vergtlidnce are men- 
 tioned in Spartianus, Hadrian 2, and alluded 
 to in Lampridius, Alex. Severus 14.— In 
 the cut given under Mcerm, LSchesis is 
 holding three sortes.] 
 
 Sosig^nes. A Greek mathematician from 
 Egypt, who assisted Csesar in the correc- 
 tion of the Roman calendar in 46 B.C. (Cp. 
 Calendar.) 
 
 Sosiphanes. Of Syracuse; a Greek tra- 
 gedian of the Alexandrine PlSids {q.v.), who 
 lived about 300 B.C. Of his plays only a 
 few lines have been preserved. 
 
 Sosithfius. Of Alexandria in the Troad; 
 a Greek tragedian, one of the Alexandrine 
 Plelds iq.vS). He lived in the first half 
 of the 3rd century B.C., in Athens and in 
 Alexandria in Egypt. In an epigram of 
 the Greek Anthology [vii 707] he is cele- 
 brated as the restorer of the satyric drama. 
 We still possess an interesting fragment 
 of his satyric plays, the Daphnis [twenty- 
 one lines in Nauck's Tragicorum Gr. 
 Fragm., p. 822, ed. 1889]. 
 
 Sosplta ("the saving goddess"). Epi- 
 thet of several Roman goddesses {e.g. of 
 Juno). 
 
 Sosus. A celebrated artist in mosaic, 
 who was working apparently at the time of 
 the Attalidse in Perg3,m6n. It was there 
 that he executed his famous work, " The 
 Unswept House " (dsdrOtds oikds), so called 
 because remnants of food, and all that is 
 usually swept away, were represented 
 strewn about in the most artistic way upon 
 the floor. "Much to be admired in this 
 work [says Pliny, xxxvi 184] is a dove 
 drinking, and darkening the water by the 
 shadow of its head ; while other doves are 
 sunning and pluming themselves on the 
 rim of the vessel," This is copied in the 
 mosaic [found in Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, 
 and now] in the Capitoline Museum at 
 Rome. (See Mosaics, fig. 1 .) 
 
 Sotades. A Greek poet from Milroneia 
 in Thrace, who lived at Alexandria under 
 Ptolemy PhilSdelphus about 276 B.C, He 
 is said to have been drowned in the sea in 
 a leaden chest for some sarcastic remark 
 about the marriage of the king with his 
 own sister ArsinSe. He composed in Ionic 
 dialect and in a peculiar metre named after 
 him {Sdtddeus or 8otddlcus versus), poems 
 called cincedi, malicious satires partly on 
 indelicate subjects, which were intended for 
 recitation accompanied by a mimic dance, 
 and also travesties of mythological subjects, 
 such as the Iliad of Homer. He found 
 numerous imitators. 
 
 Soter (" saviour "). An epithet of several 
 Greek gods (e.g. of Zeus), [and also of several 
 kings, e.g. Ptolemy I, king of Egypt]. 
 
 Sparti (Gr. Spartoi, " the men sown "). 
 The men in full armour who sprang up 
 from the teeth of the dragon of Ares when 
 sown by Cadmus. On their birth thej' 
 immediately fought with one another, till 
 only five remained. The survivors helped 
 
600 
 
 SPARTIANUS SPHINX. 
 
 Cadmus to found Thebes, and were the 
 ancestors of the Theban nobility. 
 
 Spartianus. A Roman historian. {See 
 
 SCEIPTORES HlSTORIiE AUGUSTS.) 
 
 Spartlatse. In Sparta the ruling class of 
 those who had the full rights of citizens, as 
 distinguished from the subject Penosci 
 and Helots {q.v). They were the descen- 
 dants of the Dorians, who had formerly 
 conquered the land under the leadership of 
 Aristodemus. As to the manner in which 
 they were divided, see PHYL.aE. Their 
 number is said never to have exceeded 
 10,000, and, as they were utterly opposed 
 to the admission of foreign elements, it was 
 constantly decreasing. At the time of the 
 Persian wars it still amounted to 8,000, 
 about 320 B.C. to little more than 1,000. 
 
 They were called homoioi (men sharing 
 equal rights), with reference to the equality 
 established amongst them by the legislation 
 of Lycurgus, (1) in their education (q.v.), 
 which was exclusively directed towards fit- 
 ting them for service in war ; (2) in their 
 way of living, especially in the meals which 
 they had in common (see Syssitia) ; (3) 
 in their property ; (4) and in their political 
 rights. 
 
 To every family of Spartiatce an equal 
 portion of land was assigned by Lycurgus, 
 with a number of helots who had settled 
 upon it, who had to cultivate the property 
 and deliver the produce to its possessor. The 
 Spartiatce themselves were not allowed to 
 engage in a handicraft, or jn trade, or in agri- 
 culture ; their whole life had to be devoted 
 to the service of the State, and therefore 
 they had their abode iSa Sparta itself. The 
 allotted land and the helots were accounted 
 State property, and the possessors had no 
 kind of right to dispose of t^em-. Fftmiljes 
 which were dying out were preserved by 
 adopting sons of families related to them, 
 and similarly heiresses were married to 
 men without inheritance of their own. 
 If a family consisted of several male 
 members, then the eldest was 66nsidered 
 as head of the family, and had to sup- 
 port his brothers. The original equality 
 of property came to an end, partly 
 through the extinction of many families 
 and the transference of their lot of 
 ground, partly by the silent abrogation 
 of the old law, which did not allow the 
 Spartiatce to possess silver or gold, but 
 chiefly after the law of Epitadeus, by which 
 the free disposal of land was allowed, if 
 not by sale, at least by gift during lifetime 
 and by will. But the principle of aristo- 
 
 cratic equality long continued in form ; and 
 only those who did not fiilfil the conditions 
 attached to the equality of rights, or who 
 did not obey the injunctions of Lycurgus as 
 to the education of the young, and as to 
 the life of adult citizens, or who did not 
 contribute to the common meals, suffered a 
 diminution of their political rights. This 
 involved exclusion from the government 
 and administration of the State, as well as 
 from the right of electing or being elected 
 to office ; but the punishment affected the 
 individual only, and did not descend to his 
 children, nor did it touch his position in 
 personal law. 
 
 Spes. The Roman personification of 
 hope, especially of hope for a good harvest, 
 and (in later times) for the blessing of 
 children. There were several temples to 
 Spes in Rome. She was represented as a 
 youthful figure, moving along lightly in a 
 long robe, which was raised a little in her 
 left hand, while her right bore a bud, either 
 closed or just about to open. In the course 
 of time she came to be usually considered 
 as a goddess of the future, invoked at 
 births and marriages, and on similar occa- 
 sions. 
 
 Sphseristerlum (Gr. sphairisterwn). A 
 court for the game of ball in the gymnasia 
 and tliervicB. Sphceristlce was the name 
 of the art of playing at ball (q.v.). 
 
 Sphendone. A fastening for the hair of 
 the Greek women. {See Haik.) 
 
 Sphinx (" the throttler "). A monster 
 borrowed from Egyptian religion and sym- 
 bolism, originally represented with the body 
 of a winged lion and the breast and head of a 
 maiden, and subsequently in still more won- 
 derful forms (as a maiden with the breast. 
 
 EGYPTIAN SPHINX. 
 
 feet, and claws of a lion, the tail of a serpent, 
 and the wings of a bird ; or as a lion in front 
 and a human being behind, with vulture's 
 claws and eagle's wings). According to 
 
SPINNING STATIUS. 
 
 601 
 
 Hesiod, Sphinx was the daughter of the 
 Chimsera and Orthrus ; according to others, 
 of Echidna and^Typhon. Hera (or, accord- 
 ing to others, Ares or Dionysus) in anger 
 at the crimes of Laius, sent her to Thebes 
 from Ethiopia. She took up her abode on 
 a rock near the citj' and gave every passer 
 by the -well-loiown riddle : " What walks 
 on four legs in the morning, on two at noon, 
 and on three in the evening ? " She flung 
 from the rock all who could not answer it. 
 When (Edipus explained the riddle rightly 
 as referring to man in the successive stages 
 of infancy, the prime of life, and old age, 
 she flung herself down from the rock. 
 
 Spinning. See Weaving. 
 
 Spolia. The Roman term for the arms 
 taken from an enemy defeated in single 
 combat, and also for those portions of the 
 captured armour which were promised by 
 the general to soldiers who distinguished 
 themselves. They were hung up in 
 a temple with a dedicatory inscrip- 
 tion [Vergil, .Ml. iii 288] or in the 
 vestibule of the house, where they 
 remained, even if the house passed 
 into other hands. Spolia djjimci 
 were the arms taken from the hostile 
 general by a Roman leader com- 
 manding under his own auspices, 
 and were consecrated to Jupiter 
 Feretrius on the Capitol. This is 
 said to have been first done by 
 Romulus, who is the traditional 
 founder of the sanctuary of Pere- 
 trius [Livy, i 10 § 6]. They were 
 legitimately won on only two sub- 
 sequent occasions [by Aulus Cor- 
 nelius Cossus from the king of Veil, 
 and by M. Claudius Marcelkis from 
 the king of the Gsesatse, Plutarch, 
 Marcellus 8]. 
 
 Stadium (Gr. stddion). The 
 course for foot-races amongst the 
 Greeks ; the usual length of it was 
 600 Greek feet, a measure which 
 Heracles, according to the myth, 
 had appointed for the course at 
 Olympia. {See Olympian Games, 
 fig. 4.) Subsequently this became 
 the standard unit for measuring dis- 
 tances. On both of the longer sides 
 of the course were natural or arti- 
 ficial elevations with terraced seats 
 for the spectators. At one end 
 there was generally a semicircular 
 space especially intended for wrestling, and 
 this was the place for the umpires. Near 
 this was the pillar which marked the goal. 
 
 The starting-point was also [sometimes] indi- 
 cated by a pillar at the other end, which 
 was originally straight, and in later times 
 curved like the end near the goal. For the 
 different kind of races, see Gymnastics. 
 Stasinua. A Greek epic poet. {See Epos.) 
 Stata Mater. An Italian goddess who 
 gave protection in cases of fires and conflag- 
 rations. {See Vulcan.) [Cicero, De Leglbus 
 ii 28 ; she is sometimes identified with 
 Vesta.'] 
 
 Stater (lit. ''a standard" coin). (1) 
 The principal gold coin of Greece. The 
 Attic stater of gold, a gold piece of two 
 gold dZ»'«c7i»)iCE = twenty silver drachmce,= 
 13s. 'id., in intrinsic value of silver. To 
 the same standard of currency belonged 
 the Macedonian gold stater first struck by 
 Philip II and Alexander the Great. (2) 
 The silver stater is a term applied in later 
 times to the Athenian tetradrachm, of four 
 
 * THE PANATHENAIC STADlnM. 
 
 (Cartius and Kaupert, Atlas ofAth&tis, p. 13.) 
 
 silver drachmce { = 2s. 8cZ. in intrinsic value). 
 {See Coinage.) 
 Statius. (1) See C^gilius. 
 
602 
 
 STELE STESICHORUS. 
 
 (2) Puhlius Pupmtus Statins. A Roman 
 poet, born at Naples about 45 a.d. His 
 fatter, who afterwards settled in Rome, and 
 was busy there' as a teacher, was himself a 
 poet, and the son owed his training to him. 
 Early in life he gained the approval of his 
 contemporaries by his poetic talent, espe- 
 cially in improvisation, and several times 
 won the victory in poetic competitions. 
 Yet he remained all his life dependent on 
 the favour of Domitian and of the great men 
 of Rome, whose goodwill he sought to pro- 
 pitiate by the most servile flatteries. In 
 later life he went back to Naples, where he 
 died about 96. Two epic poems of his are 
 preserved, both dedicated to Domitian, (1) 
 the Thebals in twelve books, published after 
 twelve years' labour in 92, on the struggle 
 of the sons of (Edipus for Thebes, perhaps 
 in imitation of the poem of the same name 
 by Antimachus ; and (2) the two first books 
 of an incomplete ArMllets. We also have 
 his SilvcE, a collection of occasional poems, 
 mostly in hexameters, but partly in lyrical 
 verse. Statius is distinguished among 
 his contemporaries by skill and imagina- 
 tion, but suffers from the tendency of the 
 time to make great display of learning and 
 rhetorical ornament. His 
 poems were much read both 
 in antiquity and in the 
 Middle Ages. 
 
 Stele (Greek). An upright 
 tablet or slab of stone. At 
 Athens such tablets were 
 set up in a public place, 
 especially on the Acropolis. 
 Laws, decrees, treaties, 
 etc., as well as sentences 
 of punishment against de- 
 faulters were engraved 
 upon them, and thus made 
 publicly known. The use 
 of stelee for funeral monu- 
 ments was common in all 
 Greek countries. In earlier 
 times they are narrow and 
 thin slabs of stone, slightly 
 tapering towards the top, 
 which is crowned either 
 with anthSmia (decorations 
 of flowers and leaves, see 
 cut), or with a small 
 triangular pediment orna- 
 mented with rosettes. The 
 shorter but broader stele, 
 crowned with a pediment, is later than 
 the other kind. Many such stelee resemble 
 small shrines or chapels [Perry's Greek 
 
 GREEK STELE. 
 
 Sculpture, fig. 121], Besides the inscrip- 
 tion referring to the dead, they often bear 
 representations of them in relief, as in the 
 famous monument to Dexileos, B.C. 390, 
 near the Dipylum at Athens. [For a stele, 
 more than a century earlier, with a warrior 
 in low relief, see Hoplites.] 
 
 Stentor. One of the Greeks before Troj^, 
 who could shout as loudly as fifty men 
 together [R. v 785]. He is said to have 
 been a Thracian or Arcadian, and to have 
 found his death in a contest of shouting 
 with Hermes. 
 
 Stephanos (Greek). The garland (see 
 Corona), also a metal band for the forehead, 
 like a diadem. (^e Hair, Mode of 
 Wearing.) 
 
 Stephauus. (1) [A sculptor of the archa- 
 istic school of Pasiteles (a contemporary of 
 Pompey). His name appears on a well- 
 known statue of a nude youth in. the Villa 
 Albani, which is repeated with very slight 
 alteration in a male statue forming part 
 of a group in the Naples Museum. Among 
 his pupils was the sculptor Menelaus. (See 
 Sculpture, fig. 16.)] [J. E. S.] 
 
 (2) Of Byzantium. Author of a compre- 
 hensive geographical work, about 500 A.D., 
 originally consisting of more than fifty 
 books in the form of a lexicon, compiled 
 out of more than 100 authors, which also 
 contained notices of myths, history, etc., with 
 constant indication of authorities. Besides 
 fragments of the original, we possess only 
 a meagre epitome by a grammarian named 
 Hermolaus ; but even in this mutilated form 
 it is of great value. 
 
 Sterope. On,e of the Pleiads, mother of 
 (Enomaus, by Ares. 
 
 St§r6pes. One of the Cyclopes (q.v.). 
 
 Stesichorus. The most famous represen- 
 tative of the earlier Dorian lyrical poetry, 
 at Himera in Sicily, about 630 B.C. Ori- 
 ginally called Tlsias, he received the name 
 of Stesichorus (" marshal of choruses "), 
 possibly from his office of directing the 
 choruses and superintending their practice. 
 It is related that he was struck blind for 
 a lampoon on Helen, as the cause of the 
 Trojan War, but received his eyesight 
 again when he composed a lyrical poem 
 recanting the first, and called paltnodia 
 [Plato, Phcedr. 243a]. He died, aged eighty- 
 five, at Catana, where he had a tomb in front 
 of the gate named after him. The choral 
 ode had been divided by Alcnian into 
 strophe and antistroplie . Stesichorus is 
 said to have completed its form by adding 
 the epodSs (epode), which was sung by the 
 
STHENELUS STOB^US. 
 
 603 
 
 chorus as they remained stationary after 
 the completion of the two preceding move- 
 ments. He is regarded as the founder of 
 the loftier style of lyric poetry. His festal 
 songs, afterwards divided into twenty-six 
 books, were chiefly on mythological themes, 
 especially the myths of Thebes and Troy, 
 in simple metrical forms closely allied to 
 epic verse, and in an epic dialect which 
 contains a few Doric idioms. His splendid 
 power of expression received the highest 
 piaise from the ancients; he was called 
 the Homer of lyric poets [cp. Quintilian 
 X 1 § 62], and it used to be said that 
 Homer's soul had passed into him [AntliQ- 
 logia Palatina vii 75J. We /only /possess 
 fragments of his poetry. — '' 
 
 Sthenglus. (1) Son of Perseus and 
 Andromeda, and father of Eurystheus. {Cp. 
 Amphitryon.) 
 
 (2) Son of Capaneus and Euadne (q.v.). 
 He took part in the expedition of the 
 Epigoni against Thebes and in the Trojan 
 War, where he fought as the brave com- 
 rade and charioteer of Diomedes. 
 
 Sth6n6. One of the Gorgons (q.v.). 
 
 Sthfinobcea. See Anteia. 
 
 Stilus [wrongly spelt stylus]. An iron 
 instrument, pointed at one end and flat at 
 the other, for writing on tablets covered 
 with a thin coating of wax. (See Writdjg 
 Materials.) 
 
 Stipendinm. The Roman military pay. 
 Originally the tribe had to contribute the 
 necessary means to provide for its contin- 
 gent. It was only at the beginning of the 
 war against Veii in 404 B.C. that payment 
 of a sum by the State was introduced. 
 This was given to the soldiers, either before 
 or after the campaign, as compensation 
 for the costs of their living during its 
 continuance. When this had gradually 
 become a regular payment, it became cus- 
 tomary in making it to deduct everything 
 which the State provided for the army in 
 the way of clothing, arms, and food ; but 
 under the Empire maintenance was given 
 free. In the time of Polybius the pay of 
 legionaries was 120 denarii (£4) ; of cen- 
 turions twice, and of knights three times 
 that amount. Csesar increased it to 225 
 denarii (£7 10s.) for a legionary, Domitian 
 to 300 (£10). The praetorians received 
 under Tiberius 720 denarii (£24). 
 
 Stipendium is also the name of the fixed 
 normal tax imposed on conquered provinces, 
 which might consist of money, or produce, 
 or both. During the Republic, when a 
 country was conquered, this was usually 
 
 fixed according to the amount of the 
 existing taxes, and the country divided 
 into fiscal districts, and the officials of the 
 chief places in each compelled to pay in the 
 portion which fell to them. Under Augustus 
 the taxes were for the first time fixed upon 
 the basis of a measurement of the ground 
 occupied, and of a computation of property 
 (census). The stipendium was either a 
 ground-tax (trlhutum soli), or a personal 
 tax (tributum capitis), which was partly a 
 poll-tax, partly a property-tax, partly a tax 
 on the trade carried on by the individual. 
 In exceptional cases special taxes were also 
 imposed. Those bound to pay the stipen- 
 dium were called stipendidrii. 
 
 Stoa. The Greek term for a colonnade, 
 such as those built outside or inside temples, 
 around dwelling-houses, gymnasia, and 
 market-places. They were also set up sepa- 
 rately as ornaments of the streets and open 
 places. The simplest form is that of a 
 roofed colonnade, with a wall on one side, 
 which was often decorated with paint- 
 ings. Thus in the market-place at Athens 
 the stoa poecUe (the Painted Colonnade) 
 was decorated with Polygnotus^ representa- 
 tions of the destruction of Troy, the fight 
 of the Athenians with the Amazons, and 
 the battles of Marathon and (Enoe. The 
 stda bdsUeios, also in the market-place, in 
 which the archon hasilcus sat as judge, 
 was probably divided longitudinally into 
 three parts by two rows of columns, and 
 was the pattei-n for the Roman hdsilicd 
 (q.v.). — Zeno of Citium taught in the stoa 
 poecile, and his adherents accordingly ob- 
 tained the name of Stoics. 
 
 Among the Romans similar colonnades 
 attached to other buildings, or built out in 
 the open, were called porttcus. They were 
 named from the neighbouring edifices (e.g. 
 porticus Concordice, close to the temple 
 of Concord) ; from their builders (e.g. por- 
 ticus Pompeia) ; also from the pictures set 
 up in them (e.g. porticus Argonautaruin) ; 
 and from the business chiefiy carried on in 
 them, as porticus Argentaria, the hall of 
 the money-changers. These halls were the 
 chief places for public intercourse among 
 the Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Stobseus (loanncs). Of Stobi in Mace- 
 donia. About 500 A.D. he composed, for the 
 education of his son Septimius, a philo- 
 sophical anthology in four books, from the 
 extracts which he had made in the course 
 of his extensive reading from more than 
 500 Greek poets and prose writers. It is 
 of great value, as it includes numerous 
 
604 
 
 STOICS STRATEGUS. 
 
 fragments of works now lost, and is parti- 
 cularly rich in quotations from the works 
 of the Greek dramatists. 
 
 The collection, which originally seems to 
 have formed one whole work, has been 
 separated into two distinct portions in the 
 course of time : (1) The " physical, dialec- 
 tical, and ethical eclogues" (or selections) 
 in two books (imperfect at the beginning 
 and end) ; and (2) the FlorUegium. also in 
 two books, on ethical and political subjects, 
 the sections of which are in great part so 
 arranged that each virtue is treated in 
 connexion with its opposite vice. 
 
 Stoics. The adherents of a school of 
 philosophy {Stoicism), founded by Zeno of 
 Cltium about 310 A.D. They derived their 
 name from the Painted Stoa (see Stoa) in 
 Athens, in which Zeno lectured. For 
 further details, see Philosophy. 
 
 Stola. The outer garment worn by 
 Roman matrons above the tunica intlma 
 or chemise. It was longer than the body, 
 slit open at the top on either side and 
 fastened together by clasp.=, while below it 
 was provided with a border (insiitd) woven 
 on to it, and was gathered up below the 
 breast by a girdle so as to form broad 
 falling folds irugcB). It had either no 
 sleeves or half-sleeves, according as the 
 under tunic had or had not half-sleeves. 
 For the garb of women unmarried or in 
 disgrace, see Toga. Under the Empire the 
 stola fell gradually out of use. After the 
 4th century a.d. there appears in its stead 
 the dalmcitlca, worn by men and women, 
 a kind of tunic with sleeves. 
 
 Strabo (Gr. Strahon). The Greek geo- 
 grapher. He was bom of a good family at 
 Amaseia in Cappadocia, in B.C. 66. After 
 the conclusion of his education in philo- 
 sophy he devoted himself to historical and 
 geographical studies, and undertook long 
 journeys in Asia, also through Egypt up 
 to the boundaries of Ethiopia, and through 
 Greece and Italy. In B.C. 28 he settled 
 in Rome, and composed a great historic 
 work in forty-seven books, which from 
 the fifth book onwards formed a continua- 
 tion of PolybTus down to his own time ; 
 but of this only a few fragments remain. 
 
 His GCogrdpMcd, however, we possess 
 complete in seventeen books, with the ex- 
 ception of a few gaps in the seventh book. 
 This was finished about a.d. 23. It is the 
 principal geographical work that has come 
 down to us from ancient times. It consists 
 of descriptions of countries and people?, 
 and is specially valuable on acf ount of the 
 
 extent and importance of the historical and 
 topographical matter it contains, partly 
 derived from personal observation, but 
 chiefly drawn from the best authorities, par- 
 ticularly from Eratosthenes. The first two 
 books contain (1) a criticism, not always just, 
 of the more ancient geographers from the 
 time of Homer; and (2) the mathematical 
 part of physical geography, the weakest 
 portion of the work; books iii-x describe 
 Europe (iii Spain, iv Gaul, Britain, Ireland, 
 and the Alps, v and vi Italy, vii the north 
 and east of Europe to the Danube, viii-x 
 Greece) ; xi-xvi Asia ; xvii Africa. Strabo 
 gives detailed accounts of manners and 
 customs, history and constitutions, whereas, 
 in topography, he generally gives only what 
 is of most importance. His style is clear 
 and attractive. Notwithstanding a great 
 extension of geographical knowledge, the 
 work was not superseded by any later one, 
 and indeed even in the Middle Ages was 
 still used in selections as a school-book in 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Strategus((T7'eefc). A general. Among the 
 Lacedamonians, it was a special designation 
 of leaders of those armies which were not 
 commanded by the kings. They were ap- 
 pointed by the public assembly, or by the 
 ephors commissioned thereby. At Athens, 
 there was annually elected, by show of hands 
 {chelrotonid) in the public assembly, a board 
 of Ten Generals, who had the superinten- 
 dence of all military affairs. Only those 
 were elected to this high and influential 
 office who were lawfully married, and who 
 possessed landed property in Attica. In 
 earlier times they superintended operations 
 both by land and sea, and assumed the 
 actual command in turn on successive days, 
 while they held a council of war in common. 
 In later times no more were sent to the 
 seat of war than were deemed sufficient for 
 the purpose ; and, from the time when the 
 Athenians carried on their wars mainly by 
 means of mercenaries, soldiers of experi- 
 ence, who did not belong to the board, were 
 not unfrequenlly entrusted with the com- 
 mand, and were called strategi during the 
 continuance of the war. Those strategi 
 who remained at home, besides seeing that 
 the country was protected against hostile 
 invasion, had the control of the war- taxes 
 and the trierarcMd, the selection and equip- 
 ment of the troops and the jurisdiction 
 affecting all the law-suits connected with 
 the war-taxes and trierarchy, as well as 
 all the military offences which had not been 
 punished by the general at the seat of war. 
 
STREN^ SUETONIUS TRANQUILLUS. 
 
 605 
 
 Their chamber of office was called the 
 strdtSgi5n, and here they dined together 
 at the expense of the State. [The office of 
 strdtegds was not created by Clisthenes, 
 but was at least as old as the time of 
 Dracon (Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 
 4). In the 4th century we find the strategi 
 no longer elected from each of the ten 
 phylce, but from the whole body of citizens 
 without distinction oi phyle {ib. 61).] 
 
 The highest officer of the ^tolian and 
 the Achsean league, who was not only a 
 commander of the federal army, but also 
 president of the council and assemblies of 
 the league, also bore the title of strategus. 
 
 StrensB. Gifts which it was customary 
 for the Romans to make at the new year 
 with accompanying good wishes. The word 
 is connected with the name of a Sabine 
 tutelary goddess, Strenia, who corre.sponds 
 to the Roman Sdlils, and from whose 
 precinct beside the Via Sacra at Rome 
 consecrated branches were carried up to 
 the Capitoline at the new year. The strence 
 consisted of branches of bay and of palm, 
 sweetmeats made of honey, and figs or 
 dates, as a good omen that the year might 
 bring only joy and happiness [Ovid, Fasti, 
 i 185-190]. The fruits were gilded [Martial 
 viii 33, 11] as they are now in Germany; 
 and the word, as well as the custom, sur- 
 vives in the French dtrennes. Pieces of 
 money, especially the ancient as, with the 
 image of Janus, who was specially honoured 
 on this day, were also sent as presents, as 
 well as small lamps of terracotta or bronze 
 stamped with a motto and with minute 
 representations of the usual gifts. Clients 
 in particular were in the habit of compli- 
 menting their patrons with such presents ; 
 and, during and after the time of Augustus, 
 the emperors benefited considerably by this 
 custom, which lasted till the fifth century, 
 although abolished several times by special 
 edict [Suetonius, Oct. 57 and 91, Calig. 42]. 
 
 Stringed Instruments. See Cithara, 
 Lyra, Sambuca. 
 
 Stylus. {See Stilus.) 
 
 Stymphalides {the Stymphalian birds). 
 According to the Greek legend these birds 
 infested the lake Stymphalus in Arcadia. 
 They had brazen claws, beaks, and wings, 
 and were able to discharge their own feathers 
 like arrows. Their destruction formed one 
 of the labours of Heracles {q.v.). 
 
 Styx. The eldest daughter of OceSnus 
 and Tethys, by Pallas, son of the Titan 
 Crius. She became the mother of Zelus 
 (zeal), Nike (victory), Kratos (power), and 
 
 Bia (strength). She was the first of all the 
 immortals who hastened with all her off- 
 spring to help Zeus against the Titans. 
 In return for this Zeus retained her chil- 
 dren with him in Olympus, and Styx her- 
 self became the goddess by whom the most 
 solemn oaths were sworn. She is the 
 Nymph of the mighty river of the same 
 name (the tenth part of the water of 
 Oceanus) which flows in the nether world. 
 She dwells in the distant west, on the 
 borders of the night, in a house supported 
 by silver columns and overshadowed by 
 lofty mountains. When one of the gods 
 had to take an oath by Styx, Iris fetched 
 some of her sacred water in a golden cup : 
 whoever swore falsely thereby was punished 
 by having to lie speechless and breathless 
 for a year, and by banishment for nine 
 years from the council of the gods [Hesiod, 
 Theog. 775-806]. 
 
 Subllgaculnm. The linen bandage worn 
 by the Roman gymnasts whilst performing 
 their exercises. It was passed round the 
 waist and between the legs. 
 
 Suetonius Tranquillus {Gains). The 
 Roman historian, born about 75 A.D. He 
 lived during the time of Trajan as an advo- 
 cate and teacher of rhetoric in Rome, in 
 close intimacy with the younger Pliny, to 
 whose influence he owed many favours. 
 Under Hadrian he was appointed private 
 secretary to the emperor; but in 121 he 
 fell into disgrace, and appears thenceforth 
 to have devoted his life to learned studies 
 and to varied research. He died about the 
 middle of the 2nd century. Like Varro, he 
 collected notes on all kinds of subjects, 
 history, literature, antiquities, philology, 
 physical sciences, and worked them up in 
 numerous writings (some of them appar- 
 ently in Greek). Amongst these an ency- 
 clopaedic work called Praia, in at least ten 
 books, occupied a prominent position ; and 
 just as he himself frequently quoted Varro, 
 so he in his turn was frequently quoted bj- 
 later writers. Apart from titles and frag- 
 ments the following works of his are still 
 intact : (1) The lives of the first twelve 
 emperors {De Vita Casdvum) in eight books 
 books i-vi treating of one emperor each, 
 from Caesar to Nero; vii, of Galba, Otho, 
 Vitellius; viii, of Vespasian, Titus, and 
 Domitian. This work contains an abun- 
 dance of more or less important facts about 
 the public and private life of the emperors, 
 grouped in a systematic manner, and ex- 
 pressed in clear and simple language. (2) 
 Of his literary and historical work, De 
 
606 
 
 SUrFECTUS SUPPLICATIONES. 
 
 Viris llhistrlbus, •which, apparently in- 
 cluded the Roman poets, orators, historians, 
 grammarians, and rhetoricians down to the 
 time of Domitian, we possess the lives 
 of Terence and JEorace, and a fragment 
 of that of Lucan, besides extracts made 
 by the grammarian Diomedes and by St. 
 Jerome from the book De Poetls. From the 
 book De Historicis, we have a fragment of 
 the biography of the elder Pliny, and the 
 greater part of the chapter -De Grmnmdticis 
 et Rhetorlbus. In the beginning of the 
 3rd century, under the reign of Alexander 
 Severus, his work on the Lives of the 
 Ccesars was continued by Marius Maximus, 
 who treated of the emperors from Nerva to 
 Elagabalus. 
 
 Suffectus. A magistrate elected in place 
 of one who vacated oiSce before the end 
 of the year for which he was elected. The 
 substitute continued in office for the rest of 
 the year. {Cp. Consules.) 
 
 SMdas. A Greek lexicographer who 
 lived about 970 A.D., and compiled, from 
 the lexicographical, grammatical, and ex- 
 planatory works of his predecessors, a 
 lexicon which contains explanations of 
 words, and accounts, mainly biographical, 
 of earlier writers. The work is put together 
 hastily, and without skill or discrimination. 
 It is also marred by numerous mistakes. 
 Nevertheless it is very valuable, owing to 
 the wealth of information on literary his- 
 tory contained in it, much of this not being 
 found elsewhere. 
 
 Sulla. See Axxalists. 
 Sulpicia. Several Roman poetesses bear 
 this name. Por the first, see Tibullus. A 
 second, who is mentioned by Martial about 
 the time of Domitian, wrote amatory poems 
 which are lost. A poem in seventy hexa- 
 meters and entitled a Satire, being a com- 
 plaint to the Muse for the expulsion of the 
 philosophers from Rome by Domitian (89 
 and 93 A.D.), is written in her name ; but 
 this puerile performance is of a later date, 
 her name having been wrongly attached 
 to it. 
 
 Sulpicius. (1) Servius Sulpicius Rufus. 
 A Roman jurist, bom about 105 B.C., praetor 
 in 65, and consul in 51. He supported 
 Caesar in the civil war, and was appointed 
 by him proconsul of Achaia in 46 ; he died 
 in 43 on the journey to Mutina as ambas- 
 sador of the Senate to Antonius [Cicero, 
 Phil. ix]. After he had abandoned his 
 rivalry with his contemporary Cicero in the 
 field of oratory, he applied himself to juris- 
 prudence, and contributed to its systematic 
 
 development by numerous writings [cp. 
 Cicero, Pro Murend^ § § 15-30, and De 
 Legibus i 17]. 
 
 (2) Gains Sulpicius Apollmdris, of Car- 
 thage. A distinguished grammarian of the 
 2nd century A.D., and teacher of Aulus 
 Gellius (q.v.). His extant writings consist 
 of metrical summaries of the comedies of 
 Terence and of the -iEneid of Virgil. 
 
 (3) Sulpicius SSvSrus, of Aquitania, 
 gave up a brilliant career as advocate and 
 orator, to devote himself to the Christian 
 priesthood and an ascetic life, and wrote, 
 between 400 and 405 a.d., a short history of 
 the Old Testament and the Christian Church 
 in two volumes, entitled Chronica. It is 
 a work executed on the model of Sallust 
 and Tacitus, and displays great industry 
 and stylistic finish. 
 
 Summanus. An ancient Etruscan deitj' 
 of the nocturnal heavens, to whom was 
 ascribed thunder by night ; as that by day 
 was ascribed to Jupiter. He had a chapel 
 on the Capitol, and his image in terra cotta 
 stood on the pediment of the great temple. 
 Besides this he had a temple near the 
 Circus Maximus, where on the 20th of June 
 an annual sacrifice was offered to him. His 
 true significance became in later times so 
 obscure that his name was falsely explained 
 as meaning the highest of the Manes {sum- 
 inus Mdniuvi) and equivalent to Dls pater, 
 or the Greek Pluto. 
 
 Sun God. See Helios and Apollo. 
 
 Sun-dial. See Gnomon. 
 
 Su6v6taurilia. A Roman sacrifice, con- 
 sisting of a boar (sUs), a ram (ovis), and a 
 bullock {taurus), which was offered in 
 nearly all cases of lustration (cp. cut under 
 Teiumph). Por female deities the female 
 animal, and on certain occasions young 
 animals, were selected. 
 
 Suppllcationes. The Roman fast days, 
 or days of humiliation, celebrated originally 
 in times of great distress, after the Sibyl- 
 line books had been duly consulted. The 
 whole population, both of the towns and 
 surrounding country, free-born and eman- 
 cipated men, women, and children, took 
 part in the solemnity. The whole ceremony 
 had a Greek rather than a Roman colour. 
 Prom the temple of Apollo, priests and 
 laymen, crowned with wreaths of bay, 
 marched in procession to the sound of sing- 
 ing and the notes of the lyre, visiting all 
 the holy places, especially those where 
 lectisfernla (q.v.) were held. According 
 to the rite introduced from the oriental 
 Greeks of Asia Minor, the Romans touched 
 
SUSARION SYMMACHUS. 
 
 607 
 
 witli their faces tlie threshold of the sanc- 
 tuaries, prostrated themselves before the 
 statues of the gods, clasping their knees 
 and kissing their hands and feet. While 
 the prayers were being said, incense and 
 wine were offered, the prayers being re- 
 hearsed by the members of the collegium 
 entrusted with the care of the Sibylline 
 books (see Sibtllje), and the performance 
 of the holy rites prescribed by them. On 
 such days the temples ordinarily closed to 
 the public, or only accessible under certain 
 restrictions, were (so far as practicable) 
 thrown open to all. The thanksgivings 
 decreed by the Senate after great victories 
 were celebrated in a similar manner. These 
 originally lasted only one day, but in the 
 course of time were lengthened, until, at 
 the end of the Republic, they sometimes 
 extended over forty or fifty days, and were 
 often united with a public feasting of the 
 people. 
 
 Susarion. The originator of the Attic 
 comedy. (iS^ee Comedy, 1.) 
 
 Sword. The ordinary sword of the 
 Greeks {xtphos, figs. 2 and 5), had a straight 
 two-edged blade 16 to 18 inches long, and 
 2 to 2f inches broad ; the handle, which 
 was often made in one piece with the blade. 
 
 12 3 4 6 
 
 (1) Scabbiivd (Gerhard, Auserhs. Vasenhilder, Taf. coi). 
 
 (2) Sword (do.). 
 
 (3) Sword (MlUingen, Pemtures des Vases, pi. v). 
 
 (4) Machiii™ in sbeatli (ib. pi. Ivii) 
 
 (6) Sword (Konumenti dell' Inst., 1866, tav. x). 
 GREEK SWORDS AND SCABBARDS. 
 (GuM and Koner, fig. 277.) 
 
 was 4 to 5 inches long, and without a bend, 
 but with a cross or shell-shaped guard. 
 The scabbard was of metal or leather 
 mounted with metal, and frequently 
 covered the hilt as well as the blade (.see 
 fig. 1). It hung by a belt thrown over 
 
 the shoulder, usually on the left side, on a 
 level with the hip. At the beginning of 
 the 4th century B.C., a sword of nearly 
 double this length was introduced by 
 Iphicrates for the light infantry called 
 peltasts. A sword slightly curved on one 
 side from the hilt upwards, and only 
 sharpened on this side, was the mdchaira 
 (figs. 3 and 4). This was the shape of the 
 Spartan sword (xySle), which was peculiarly 
 short. Por the Roman sword, see Gladics. 
 Sycophant (Gr. sukophantes), originally 
 signified, according to the popular deriva- 
 tion, one who brought into notice cases 
 of the prohibited export of figs from 
 Attica. The term was afterwards applied 
 to a professional informer and accuser. 
 There were many such persons, who carried 
 on a lucrative business in Athens at the 
 time of the decay of the democracy, in 
 spite of the fact that the authors of false 
 accusations were punished most severely. 
 
 Symbola. The Greek term for treaties 
 between two states, determining, the pro- 
 cedure in the event of lawsuits taking place 
 between their respective subjects. A com- 
 mon provision of these contracts was that 
 a party who lost his cause, when tried by 
 the laws of the foreign state, could appeal 
 to those of his own ; and similarly the 
 party who had been worsted in his own 
 state was allowed to appeal to the law in 
 his opponent's state. Such treaties were 
 made chiefly to facilitate commercial com- 
 munications between different states. 
 
 Symmachus {Quintus Aurellus). A Ro- 
 man orator and writer of letters, who lived 
 in the latter part of the 4th century a.d. 
 He was of noble birth, and was prefect of 
 Rome in 384 under Theodosius the Great, 
 and afterwards consul in 391. Although 
 he fearlessly adhered to the decaying 
 paganism, and even moved the restoration 
 of the altar of Victoria in the council- 
 chamber of the Senate in an address to the 
 emperor, he was nevertheless respected 
 by his Christian opponents for the purity 
 of his life, and for his great learning. 
 The fragments of his Orations consist of 
 three not entirely complete panegyrics on 
 Valentinian I and his son Gratian, written 
 in his youth, and larger fragments of six 
 senatorial orations. We possess a collection 
 of his Letters arranged apparently by his 
 own son, who also was a statesman of mark. 
 It is divided into ten books on the same 
 plan as those of Pliny, and containing in 
 the last book the official correspondence 
 {rSlSfiCnes) of father and son witli the 
 
608 
 
 SYMMORIA SYNTHESIS. 
 
 emperor. This is tke most valuable part 
 of a collection whicli is not unimportant 
 as affording much information about the 
 author's life and times. 
 
 Symmoria. A co-partnership, or com- 
 pany. (1) A term used at Athens to denote 
 a company formed to raise the property tax 
 instituted in the year 428 B.C., to defray 
 war expenses. {See Eisphoka.) Each of the 
 ten phylcB appointed 120 of its wealthier 
 citizens, and these were divided into two 
 srjmmorice of sixty members each, so that 
 the number of members in the twenty 
 symmorice amounted to 1,200 (called 
 symmorltcB). Out of each of the twenty 
 symmorice, fifteen of the wealthier citizens 
 were chosen, making 300 in all, whose duty 
 it was to pay the taxes in advance on 
 behalf of the rest. This sum had to be re- 
 funded to them by the rest in conjunction 
 with the poorer taxable citizens, who were 
 likewise apportioned off to various sym- 
 moria;, but without becoming actual mem- 
 bers of them, and were drawn upon by the 
 real symmoritce to an extent proportional 
 to their means. (2) After 358, this method 
 was applied to the duty of equipping the 
 war vessels, known as the trierarchtd. (See 
 Leitouegia.) Each of the twenty sym- 
 inoricB had a certain number of ships 
 assigned to it, the real symmoritcB (not 
 including the poorer citizens) divided the 
 expense among themselves, and a varying 
 number (at the most sixteen), of the richest 
 had to raise the money advanced for a 
 ship. To manage its affairs, each sym- 
 moria had its superintendents, curators, 
 and assessors. The magisterial control 
 was in both cases in the hands of the 
 strdtegi, being connected with the military 
 supplies. Though, by this arrangement, the 
 raising of taxes and fitting out of the ships 
 were accelerated, yet it was open to abuse 
 if the symmoritce unduly burdened the 
 poor by an unjust distribution. In the 
 disputes which thus arose, the decision 
 rested with the strategi. If any one 
 thought that another ought to have been 
 taxed instead of himself, he could avail 
 himself of antidosis {q.v.) Even the 
 metceci, who (like the citizens) had to pay 
 war taxes, were divided into symmorice. 
 [Aristotle, Constitution of Athens, 61, de- 
 scribes one of the strategi as individually 
 responsible for superintending the sym- 
 morice for building triremes.] 
 
 Symplegades. In Greek mythology two 
 cliffs or floating islands near the entrance 
 of the Black Sea, which crushed all vessels 
 
 that tried to pass between them. The 
 Argonauts, with the help of Hera (or 
 Athene), were the first to succeed in sail- 
 ing through ; after this the rocks became 
 immovably filxed. {Cp. Argonauts.) 
 
 Symposium. A Greek drinking-party. 
 Symposiarchus, the master of the revels. 
 {See Meals.) 
 
 Symposius {Copluts Firmianus). A 
 Roman poet who lived at the end of the 
 4th and beginning of the 5th century A.D. ; 
 author of a collection of 100 riddles in 
 verse, each written in three fairly correct 
 hexameters. 
 
 S^negori. The Athenian term for advo- 
 cates' chosen by the people. In the plead- 
 ings {see EccLESiA, 1, a) which took place, 
 when any alteration was made in the 
 laws, they had to defend the hitherto 
 existing laws. In State trials it was their 
 duty to conduct the cause on behalf of the 
 people or to speak in support of the actual 
 prosecutor. 
 
 SynSsIus. A Greek philosopher, born 
 378 A.D. at Gyrene, of distinguished parent- 
 age. He studied the Neo-Platonic philo- 
 sophy in Alexandria under Hypatia, and 
 was her most famous and most devoted 
 pupil. He afterwards became a Christian, 
 and was made bishop of Ptolemais in 410. 
 He died about 430. The zeal and faithful- 
 ness with which he discharged his office 
 and the tenacity with which he held to his 
 philosophical convictions, which he endea- 
 voured to reconcile with his Christian faith, 
 are shown by his writings. These consist 
 of several speeches and dissertations, 
 amongst whicli that entitled Dion is par- 
 ticularly interesting, as showing how he 
 came to be a philosopher, while his Praise 
 of Baldness is distinguished for its wit 
 and genius. They also comprise a collec- 
 tion of 160 letters, which present us with 
 a faithful picture of his character and 
 work ; in later times they were regarded 
 as models of epistolary style. Lastly, they 
 include ten hymns in iambic verse, which, 
 although avowedly Christian, are at the 
 same time inspired throughout by Neo- 
 Platonic ideas. 
 
 S^noecia. The Greek name for a lodg- 
 ing house which held several families. 
 
 Sj-ncecia (or Syncecesid, both neuter 
 plural). The eve of the Athenian festival 
 of the Panathensea {q.v.). 
 
 Synthesis. A comfortable, brightly 
 coloured garment usually worn by the 
 Romans at meal-times, and only in public 
 during the Saturnalia. 
 
SYEIA DEA TABLE. 
 
 609 
 
 Sjria DSi, A deity of generation and 
 fecundity worshipped in Syrian HierapSlis 
 under the name Atargdtis, whom the later 
 Greeljs and the Romans simply called the 
 Syrian goddess. Erom the time of the sove- 
 reignty of the SeleucidsB, when the ancient 
 paganism was highly honoured in Hiera- 
 polis, the wor.ship of this goddess spread 
 among the Greeks, and from them found its 
 way to Rome (where she had a temple in 
 the days of the Empire) and to other parts 
 of Italy, and still farther west. The old 
 idea of her attributes had so widened in 
 the course of time that she shared those 
 of Juno, Venus, Rhea, Cybele, Minerva, 
 Diana, the Parcse, and other goddesses. 
 She is represented on Roman monuments, 
 seated on a throne between two lions. Her 
 priests were generally eunuchs. They 
 were in the habit of making excursions into 
 Greece and Italy to extend the worship 
 of the goddess by means of ecstatic dances 
 and prophecies, and to collect pious alms 
 for her sanctuary. 
 
 Syrinx. An Arcadian Nymph, daughter 
 of the river-god Ladon ; she was changed 
 by her sisters into a reed in her flight from 
 the enamoured Pan. Pan cut this reed into 
 seven (or nine) pieces, and joined them 
 together with wax in gradually decreasing 
 lengths, to form the instrument called a 
 syrinx or " Pan's pipe." This was chiefly 
 used by herdsmen and shepherds, and is one 
 of the attributes found in pictorial repre- 
 sentations of Pan. 
 
 Syssitia (neut. pi.). The common meals 
 taken in public among the Dorians in Sparta 
 and Crete, and confined to men and youths 
 only. In Sparta, all the Spartlatce, or citi- 
 zens over twenty years of age, were obliged 
 to attend these meals, which were there 
 called pheiditid. No one was allowed to 
 absent himself except for some satisfactory 
 reason. The table was provided for by 
 fixed monthly contributions of barley, wine, 
 cheese, figs, and money to buy meat ; the 
 State only paid for the maintenance of the 
 two kings, each of whom received a double 
 portion. The places where the syssitia 
 were held were called tents, and the guests 
 were divided into messes of about fifteen 
 members, vacancies in which were filled up 
 
 by ballot, unanimous consent being indis- 
 pensable for election. The messmates were 
 called tent-companions, as they actually 
 were in time of war. The table-companions 
 of the two kings, who had a common table, 
 were those who formed their escorts in the 
 field. Accordingly, the generals of divi- 
 sions in the army had the control of the 
 syssitia. The principal dish was the well- 
 known black broth (meat cooked in blood, 
 seasoned with vinegar and salt), of which 
 each person received only a certain amount, 
 together with barley bread and wine, as 
 much as they liked. This was followed by 
 a course of cheese, olives, and figs. Besides 
 this, the table-companions were allowed 
 (and indeed were sometimes required as a 
 penalty for small offences) to give a second 
 course, consisting of wheaten bread, or 
 venison caught by themselves in the chase ; 
 no one was allowed to obtain this by pur- 
 chase. In Crete the people always sat 
 down while eating, and in Sparta this was 
 originally the custom ; but after a short 
 time they were in the habit of reclining on 
 wooden benches. 
 
 In Crete there was a public fund for the 
 syssitia. This absorbed one-half of the 
 State revenue, and every citizen contributed 
 to it a tithe of the produce of his land, as 
 well as an annual sum of money for each 
 slave. This fund not only bore the expense 
 of the meals of the men and boys above 
 a certain age, but also paid a sum sufficient 
 to defray the expenses incurred by the 
 women, children, and slaves in dining at 
 home. These companies, which dined in 
 common, were here called hetoerice. The 
 boys, who sat near their fathers on the 
 ground, only received meat to the extent of 
 one-half the portion of an adult. The youths 
 dined together and had to wait upon their 
 elders ; they had also to be content with an 
 amount of wine which was measured out 
 to them from a large bowl of mixed wine, 
 whilst the older men could replenish their 
 cups as they pleased. Here, as in Sparta, 
 there were penalties for intemperance. 
 After the repast some time was spent 
 in conversation on polities and other sub- 
 jects, principally for the instruction of the 
 youths. 
 
 T 
 
 Tabellarius. A letter-carrier or courier. 
 {See Letters.) 
 
 Taberna. (1) a shop {see House) ; (2) a 
 tavern {see Inns). 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 Table (Gr. trdpezd ; Lat. mensa). Tables 
 served in ancient times only for the sup- 
 port of vessels necessary for meals ; not (as 
 with us) for writing and reading as well. 
 
 R R 
 
610 
 
 TABLINUM TACITUS. 
 
 As the couches on which people reclined at 
 meal-times were not high, the tables were 
 mostly lower than ours. Some were quad- 
 rangular and had four legs (fig. 1) : this 
 was for a .long time the only form cus- 
 tomary among the Romans. Others had 
 circular or oval tops, and rested either on 
 one leg or (more frequently) on three, to 
 which the shape of animals' feet was given 
 by preference (figs. 2, 3). 
 
 (2) 
 TABLES. 
 (From Greek Vas' B.) 
 
 (3) 
 
 The Greeks set a high value on the ar- 
 tistic adornment of their tables ; but the 
 Roman love of display expended more 
 money on these articles of furniture than 
 on any other. The feet were wrought in 
 the finest metal, ivory, or stone work. The- 
 construction of the top of the table was a 
 matter of special luxury. It was composed 
 either of the nobler metals, rare kinds of 
 stone, or costly varieties of wood. Espe- 
 cially costly were the monopodia or orbes, 
 tables resting on one leg, with the wooden 
 top cut out of a single log in the whole of 
 its diameter. The most expensive and 
 most sought-after wood was that of the 
 citrus, an evergreen growing in the Atlas 
 Mountains (which has been identified with 
 the cypress, or juniper). The price of these 
 menscB citrece, which were generally sup- 
 ported by one ivory leg, varied according 
 to the dimensions of the diameter, which 
 were sometimes as much as four feet, and 
 also according to the beauty of the grain, 
 which was brought out by polish. The 
 prices named for single specimens of such 
 tables ranged from £50 to £13,000 [Pliny, 
 N. J?., xiii 92, 96, 102]. On account of the 
 costliness of this kind of wood, the tops 
 were sometimes made of some common 
 material, especially maple, and covered 
 over with a veneer of citnis. 
 
 The small abacus served as a sideboard. 
 Its square top, which was generally fur- 
 nished with a raised rim, rested on one 
 support (trapezophoron) which was made of 
 marble, bronze, or silver, and lent itself 
 readily to sculptural treatment. Another 
 
 kind of ornamental table was the delpMca, 
 in the form of a Greek tripod with a round 
 top. Tables were also included in the 
 ordinary furniture of a temple, especially 
 such as stood directly in front of the 
 statue of the god, and on which were laid 
 the offerings not intended to be burnt. 
 {See Sacrifices, figs. 1, 2.) 
 
 Tablinum. A room in a Roman dwelling- 
 house. {See House.) 
 
 Tacitus {Cornelius). The celebrated 
 Roman historian, born about the year 54 A.D., 
 apparently of an equestrian family. Nothing 
 is known of his birthplace, and it is only a 
 conjecture that he was born at Interamna 
 {Terni). In his rhetorical education he came 
 under the immediate influence of the most 
 distinguished orators of the time, Marcus 
 Aper and Julius Seoundus, and he made his 
 first appearance as an advocate at an early 
 age. In 77 he married the daughter of the 
 consul of that year, Julius Agricola, shortly 
 before the latter's departure for Britain 
 [Tac, Agr. 9]. In 78-79 he held the quses- 
 torship under Vespasian ; in 80-81 he was 
 sedile or tribune under Titus, and in 88 
 under Domitian. In 90 he left Rome with 
 his wife on some official commission, and 
 had not returned in 93, when his father-in- 
 law died [ib. at end]. In 97, under Nerva, 
 he was consul suffectus. He appears for 
 the last time in active public life in 100, 
 when, with his friend the younger Pliny, he 
 appeared on the side of the prosecution in 
 an important law-suit [PHny, Ep. ii 12 § 2]. 
 The date of his death is unknown, but he 
 probably survived the accession of Hadrian 
 in 117. 
 
 His writings are ; (1) A dialogueon the 
 decline of eloquence {Didlogus de Oratori- 
 bus), one of his earliest works, written 
 apparently [under the influence of Quin- 
 tilian] in the early part of the reign of 
 Domitian, and originating in a close study 
 of Cicero's rhetorical writings. It is one of 
 the ablest works of the imperial age, and in 
 language and style is so different from his 
 later works that its genuineness has fre- 
 quently been disputed. (2). The life of his 
 father-in-law Agricola {De Vita et Morlbus 
 lulli Agrlcdlce), published at the beginning 
 of Trajan's reign, and written in dutiful 
 commemoration of the deceased ; it is in the 
 manner of Sallust, from whom Tacitus to a 
 large extent borrowed his style. (3) The 
 " Germania " {De Situ, Monbus, ac Populls 
 Germanioi), written soon after his Agricola; 
 a description of the Germany of that time, 
 ■ which is founded on careful research, and 
 
TAGES TALAtJS. 
 
 611 
 
 is especially important as tlie source of all 
 our knowledge of the ancient history of 
 Germany. (4) A history of his own times, 
 from Galba to the death of Domitian (69-96), 
 under the title Histdnce, in fourteen books, 
 of which books i-iv and the first half of v, 
 covering not quite two years (69-70), have 
 alone been preserved. (6) The history of 
 the Julian house, in sixteen books, published 
 between 115 and 117, beginning with the 
 death of Augustus. (Hence the original 
 title Ab Excessu divi Augusti ; the usual 
 title, Annales^ rests on no authority.) Books 
 i-iv are still complete ; the Iktter part of 
 the fifth and the beginning of the sixth is 
 missing (the reign of Tiberius A.D. 14-37) ; 
 while the second half of the eleventh, the 
 whole of books xii-xiv and the first half 
 of XV (the reign of Claudius from the year 
 47 and the history of Nero as far as 68) 
 are still extant. 
 
 The two -principal works of Tacitus thus 
 give us a complete history of the em- 
 perors from Tiberius to Domitian. He was 
 probably prevented by his death from com- 
 pleting his design by writing an account of 
 the reign of Augustus, from the battle of 
 Actium, and also including the reigns of 
 Nerva and Trajan. In both works the 
 chronological arrangement of the materials 
 is predominant ; they are founded on the 
 most searching and comprehensive study of 
 the historical authorities, and are marked 
 by a thoroughly critical spirit. Tacitus is 
 always extremely careful to ascertain and 
 to record the truth ; he is never satisfied 
 with a mere narrative of events, but seeks 
 to elicit their causes from the facts them- 
 selves. He is an adept in fathoming the 
 hidden thoughts and motives of human 
 agents. His method of treatment is, in exter- 
 nal appearance, entirely objective; but an 
 undercurrent of sympathy, now sad, now 
 cheerful, with the events related, is every- 
 where betraying itself. He is avowedly 
 and resolutely impartial, and hia judgment 
 is eminently fair. It is only severe when he 
 is dealing with wrongs done to the State, 
 and to the moral laws of the universe. 
 Thoroughly convinced of the value of virtue, 
 he hates vice, which he seeks to terrify by 
 exposing it to the ignominy of after ages. 
 With all his admiration for the greatness of 
 republican Rome, he is a stanch imperialist, 
 being convinced of the necessity of the 
 Empire for the stability of the State. In 
 contrast with the bright elegance and rich- 
 tiess of expression characteristic of his 
 earliest work, as he advances in his literary 
 
 activity hia style becomes more sombre and 
 pathetic, in accordance with the gloomy 
 and tragic events which he has to describe. 
 He becomes increasingly fond of rhetorical 
 colouring, and avoids the ordinary diction 
 of prose, while seeking to attain sublimity 
 and novelty of style, less by archaisms than 
 by an approximation to poetical expression. 
 His grave and serious purpose finds its 
 counterpart in his efforts to express himself 
 with a terseness and precision which is 
 often peculiarly pointed and epigrammatic. 
 It is in the Annals that this last trait dis- 
 plays itself in its most characteristic form, 
 and on the most extensive scale. 
 
 Tages. The son of a Genius and grand- 
 son of Jupiter, said to be a boy with the 
 wisdom of an old man, who, at Tarquinii, 
 in Etruria, suddenly rose out of a freshly 
 ploughed field. He taught the chiefs 
 {lucumones) of the twelve Etruscan tribes, 
 who were summoned by the ploughman 
 Tarchon, how to interpret the sacrifices, 
 together with the lore of thunder and 
 lightning and other kinds of divination 
 which in later times were practised by the 
 harusptces [q.v.). Having done this, he 
 disappeared again as suddenly as he had 
 appeared. The lore of Tages was at first 
 transmitted orally from generation to gene- 
 ration in the chief families, but was after- 
 wards handed down in a comprehensive 
 literature [Cicero, De Div. ii 50, 51 ; Ovid, 
 Met. XV 558 £f ; Lucan, i 637]. 
 
 Tag6s. The federal commander who was 
 elected by the States composing the Thes- 
 salian federation. He was only elected 
 when occasion required, usually in case of 
 war. He was chosen from the most dis- 
 tinguished of the nobility, generally from 
 the Aleuadse. It was his duty to levy 
 soldiers from the States belonging to the 
 federation, to be their commander, and to 
 fix the amount of tribute to be paid by each 
 member of the league. 
 
 Talassio (Tdlassius, Tdlassus). The 
 Roman god of marriage, corresponding to 
 the Greek Hymgnseus. He was one of the 
 unknown gods, and was only invoked by 
 the appellation Talasse in the refrain to 
 the cpithdldmia sung when the bride was 
 brought home. A later account makes him 
 one of tho&e who, with Romulus, were 
 principally concerned in the rape of the 
 Sabine women, and hence explains the 
 proverbial use of his name at all marriages 
 [Livy, i 9 § 12]. 
 
 Talaiis. Great-grandson of Cretheus, son 
 of Bias and Pero, father of Adrastus, Par- 
 
612 
 
 TALENT TARTARUS. 
 
 thenopseus, Mecisteus, and Eriphyle. He 
 was one of the Argonauts, and was killed 
 by Melampus. {See Adrastus.) 
 
 Talent (Gr. tdlanton, Lat. tdlentum • lit. 
 " tte balance," and " the thing weighed "). 
 The Greek term for (1) the highest measure 
 o£ weight ; (2) the designation of a sum of 
 money consisting of a number of coins 
 originally equal to it in legal weight and 
 value. It was divided into 60 mince or 
 6,000 drachmce. Among the different 
 talents in use in Greece the most widely 
 spread was the Attic, of which -j oVo^li P^^t 
 {drachma) weighed 57| lbs. [The intrinsic 
 value of the metal contained in this sum of 
 money was about £200.] {See Coinage.) 
 
 Talos. (1) A brazen giant in Crete whom 
 Hephaestus had given to Minos. This giant 
 guarded the island. He went round the 
 island three times a day and scared away 
 those who approached it by throwing stones 
 at them ; or, if they landed, he sprang into 
 the fire with them and pressed them to his 
 glowing bosom till they were burnt to death. 
 A vein of blood ran from his head to his foot, 
 where it was closed by a nail. When the 
 Argonauts came to Crete, Medea caused the 
 nail to fall out by means of a magic song. 
 According to another account, Pceas, the 
 father of Philoctetes, shot it out with his 
 bow, whereupon Talos bled to death. 
 
 (2) Nephew of Daedalus. His ingenuity 
 and skill excited the envy of Daedalus, who 
 threw him headlong from the Acropolis at 
 Athens. {See Daedalus.) 
 
 Tamias. A treasurer ; a title borne by 
 several officials in Athens. (1) The most 
 important of these was the treasurer 
 {cpimeletes) of the revenue, elected by show 
 of hands every four years. He received 
 from the apodecta (general collectors) all 
 the money which was to be disbursed for 
 public expenses, and he paid away into the 
 treasuries of the several authorities what 
 was necessary for purposes of administration 
 in their respective departments. He also 
 provided the funds voted by the people for 
 extraordinary purposes. (2) The same name 
 was also borne by the ten treasurers of the 
 goddess Athene, who had the care of the 
 treasure of the goddess which was kept in 
 the inner chamber of the Parthenon, be- 
 sides the State treasure which (according 
 to the ordinary account) was kept in the 
 same place. They were elected annually by 
 lot, one from each of the ■phxjlce. (3) Simi- 
 larly, we have a board of ten regularly 
 constituted treasurers to the rest of the 
 gods. Their duty was to manage the sacred 
 
 treasures, which in earlier times were kept 
 in the separate temples, but in 418 B.C. 
 were transferred to the Parthenon. [(4) 
 Under the title of tamias ton strdtlotikdn, 
 we read of a financial officer of the war 
 department. He was probably appointed 
 after the Peloponnesian War in place of the 
 hellenotdmice {q.v.). Besides his duties in 
 connexion with the war department, he had 
 a share in the management of the Pana- 
 thenaic festival (Aristotle, Constitution of 
 Athens, 49).] 
 
 Tantalus. A wealthy king of Sipylus in 
 Phrygia (or Lydia), son of Zeus and Pliito, 
 father of Pelops and Niobe, grandfather of 
 Atreus and Thyestes. As the favourite of 
 the gods, he was allowed to take part in 
 their deliberations and to share their meals ; 
 but his good fortune making him over- 
 bearing, he insulted them and was thrown 
 into Tartarus. The traditions differ as to 
 the nature of his misdemeanour. Accord- 
 ing to one, he publicly revealed the secret 
 decrees of Zeus ; another relates, that he 
 purloined nectar and ambrosia from the 
 table of the gods to distribute to his 
 friends ; a third, that having invited the 
 gods to a repast, he set before them the 
 flesh of his son Pelops, whom he had cut to 
 pieces and boiled, in order to test their 
 omniscience ; while, according to a fourth, 
 he perjured himself in order to retain 
 possession of the golden dog stolen for him 
 from the temple of Zeus by Pandareos {q.v.). 
 Homer [Gd. xi 590] describes him as suffer- 
 ing in the world below from unappeased 
 hunger and thirst, being at the same time 
 immersed in water to the chin, whilst the 
 finest fruits hang before his eyes. "When- 
 ever he opens his mouth to enjoy the repast, 
 the water dries up and the fruits vanish 
 into the air. According to Pindar {Isth. 
 i 7 (8), 21], he himself is suspended in the 
 air, while above his head hangs a huge 
 rock, which is ever threatening to fall and 
 crush him. {See cut under Hades, Realm 
 OF.) Euripides combined both legends. 
 
 Taraxippus. A demon who caused horses 
 to shy. {See Hippodrome.) 
 
 Tartarus. According to the earliest 
 Greek views, a dark abyss, which lay as far 
 below the surface of the earth as the earth 
 is from the heavens. Above Tartarus were 
 the foundations of the earth and sea. It was 
 surrounded by an iron wall with iron gates 
 set up by Poseidon, and by a trebly thick 
 layer of night, and it served as the prison of 
 the dethroned Cronus, and of the conquered 
 Titans who were guarded by the hecdton- 
 
TAURISCUS TAXES. 
 
 613 
 
 cheires, the hundred-armed sons of Uranus. 
 In later times its signification altered, and 
 it came to mean the lower regions as the 
 place of damnation, in which the wicked 
 who had been condemned by the judges of 
 the world below suffered endless torments. 
 {See Hades, Realm of.) As a person, 
 Tartarus is the son of ^ther and Ge ; and, 
 by his mother, he is the father of Typhoeus. 
 
 Tauriscus. A Greek artist of Tralles, 
 belonging to the school of Rhodes. He and 
 his fellow countryman Apollonius were the 
 sculptors of the celebrated group of Dirce. 
 {See cut on p. 195.) 
 
 Taxes. In Athens, as in the free states 
 of Greece generally, the citizens were freed 
 from every personal tax ; only for their 
 slaves they had to pay the triobolfin, a 
 yearly poll-tax of three obols {4:d.) for each. 
 On the other hand, among the residents who 
 were not citizens, the metoeci {q.v.) paid a 
 yearly protection tax of twelve drachmse (8s.) 
 for each independent man, and six drachmce 
 for every woman who managed her own 
 hoiise, and the freedmen paid the tnobolon 
 in addition. Besides this, all tradesmen who 
 were not citizens had to pay a trade tax. 
 (For extraordinary taxes on property see 
 ElSPHOEA ; for the more or less costly public 
 services undertaken by wealthy citizens, 
 see Leitouegia.) As indirect taxes may 
 be mentioned: (1) the tax of 1 per cent. 
 on the selling price paid at the sale of a 
 piece of land. (2) The market tax, which 
 was paid, partly at the gates, partly at the 
 place of sale, by strangers and metoeci for 
 the wares offered for sale in retail dealing ; 
 different articles were charged at different 
 rates. (3) The tax on imports and exports, 
 which was 2 per cent, on all imported or 
 exported goods without distinction of kind. 
 The State did not levy its dues and taxes 
 itself, but caused them to be let out to indi- 
 viduals or companies by special officials, 
 called the POletw {q.v.). {See Telon^.) 
 
 As at Athens, so under the Roman Re- 
 public, there was no direct taxation for 
 citizens, except the property tax raised in 
 extraordinary cases. {See Teibutum.) The 
 Roman citizen paid indirect taxes in the 
 harbour tax {see Poetoridm), and the tax 
 introduced after 357 B.C. on the manu- 
 mission of slaves at the rate of 5 per cent, 
 of the value of the slave set free {vicesima 
 mdnHmissionis). Both taxes were let by 
 the State to publicani {q.v.). Rome did 
 not receive from her allies in Italy either 
 direct or indirect taxes, apart from the 
 obligations as to supplying soldiers and 
 
 ships imposed on them by the alliance. 
 After the right of citizenship was granted 
 to them in 89 B.C. they were placed on the 
 same footing as the citizens with respect 
 to indirect taxes. But the provinces had 
 to pay all the more to Rome, partly by 
 direct, partly by indirect taxation. Yet, 
 especially with regard to the former, there 
 was no similarity of treatment, but every 
 province had its own form of taxation, 
 which, as a rule, was assimilated to the 
 system existing in it at the time of its con- 
 quest. Some provinces paid a fixed yearly 
 sum {see StIpendium), which was raised by 
 communal districts through the chief town s 
 of each district, while others paid a certain 
 quota of the varying produce of the culti- 
 vated land in the province {see Decuma), 
 which was farmed out to publicani. The 
 provinces felt indirect taxation chiefly 
 through the harbour tax, and indeed every 
 province seems to have formed a separate 
 fiscal district. Under the Empire it was 
 only the indirect taxes that were at first 
 made higher for the citizens, as Augustus 
 added to the taxes on harbours and manu- 
 mission the centeslma rerum vendlium, 1 
 per cent, on the price of articles sold at 
 auctions ; the quinta et vicesima manci- 
 piorum, or 4 per cent, on the price of every 
 slave bought, and the vicesima hSreditdtum 
 et legdtorum, of 5 per cent, on all inheri- 
 tances above 100,000 sesterces, which did 
 not fall to the nearest blood-relations, and 
 on all legacies. The freedom of the citizens 
 from direct taxation continued unimpaired, 
 and when Caracalla, in 212 A.D., had granted 
 to all free subjects of the Empire the right 
 of citizenship, Italy, at least, maintained its 
 freedom from taxation, until Diocletian (in 
 284) removed the last distinctions between 
 the inhabitants of Italy and of other parts 
 of the Empire, and introduced into Italy 
 the same taxation as obtained in the pro- 
 vinces. It had in course of time been re- 
 duced to a more uniform system, on the 
 basis of a general census of the Empire. 
 The chief tax was the land tax {tributum 
 s6li), the total sum of which was pro- 
 mulgated every year by the emperor for 
 the whole Empire, and divided amongst 
 the provinces according to the number of 
 taxable units {iUgd or capita) which each 
 province was set down as containing in the 
 periodically revised registers. Connected 
 with this tax in money were contributions 
 in kind to the imperial stores for the army 
 and the officials, who had a claim to them. 
 The male and female population of the 
 
614 
 
 TAXIARCHUS TELCHINES. 
 
 country not possessing land paid after a 
 certain age (20-25 years) a poll tax {tri^ 
 butuni capitis), the amount of wMcli was 
 fixed by imperial ordinance, and for women 
 was about half the sum imposed on men. 
 Citizens resident in towns, and not pos- 
 sessing land, paid a tax partly on their 
 property, partly, as far as they happened 
 to be engaged in a trade, on their working 
 capital and on the trade itself. The taxes 
 apportioned to each town with its districts 
 were raised by tax collectors (exactores), 
 but the dScuriones, or members of the 
 municipal senates (see Municipium), were 
 responsible for the amount and had to 
 advance it themselves. 
 
 Taxiarchus. The Greek term for a com- 
 mander of a taxis, which contained a 
 variable number of men. In Athens the 
 ten commanders of the ten taxeis were so 
 called. They were elected annually by 
 show of hands, one for each tribe. They 
 also had to look after the levying and dis- 
 tribution of recruits, and they were thus 
 concerned in the drawing up of the register 
 of those citizens who were liable to serve. 
 On the Macedonian taxis, see Phalanx. 
 
 Taygfite, One of the Pleiades (5. v.). 
 
 Tgcmessa. Daughter of the Phrygian 
 king Teuthras, mother of Eurysaces by 
 Ajax son of Telamon. (iS'ee AiAS, 2.) 
 
 Teir6sias (Lat. TlresUs). The famous 
 blind soothsayer of Thebes, son of Eueres 
 and Chariclo, and a descendant of the Spar- 
 tan Udseus. The cause of his blindness has 
 been variously stated. According to one 
 tradition, the gods took his sight away 
 when he was seven years old, because he 
 revealed to men things which they ought 
 not to have known. According to another, 
 he became blind when, on his seeing Athene 
 in the bath, she splashed water into his 
 eyes. When invoked by his mother, the 
 goddess could not restore his sight, but en- 
 dued him with a knowledge of the language 
 of birds, and presented him with a staff, by 
 means of which he could walk like a man 
 with perfect vision. According to a third 
 account, he was blinded by Hera, because in 
 a dispute between her and Zeus he decided 
 against her, and Zeus compensated him by 
 granting him the gift of prophecy and a 
 life seven (or nine) times as long as that of 
 other men. He is also said to have been 
 changed into a woman for a short time. He 
 plays an important part in the story of 
 (Edipus and the wars against Thebes. In 
 the wars of the Seven against Thebes he 
 declared that the Thebans would be victori- 
 
 ous if Creon's son Menoeceus were to sacri- 
 fice himself. In the war of the Eplgbni he 
 advised the Thebans to enter into negotia- 
 tions for peace, and to avail themselves of the 
 opportunity thus afforded to take to flight. 
 During the flight, or else at the conquest 
 of Thebes by the Epigoni, he was made a 
 prisoner, and with his daughter Manto {c[.v.), 
 who also possessed the gift of prophecy, was 
 consecrated to the service of the Delphian 
 Apollo. He died at the well Tilphossa, near 
 Haliartus, where his grave was pointed out, 
 while he was also honoured by a cenotaph 
 in Thebes. Homer [Od. xi 90-151] repre- 
 sents him as carrying his golden staff as 
 soothsayer even in the world below, when 
 Odysseus consults him as to his way home ; 
 and of all the shades, he alone, by favour of 
 Persephone, possesses unimpaired memory 
 and intellect [Od. x 495]. He had an oracle 
 at Orchomenus in Boeotia, which is said 
 to have ceased to give responses after a 
 plague. 
 
 Telamon. Son of ^acus and Endeis, and 
 brother of Peleus. Having assisted Peleus 
 in murdering their half-brother Phocus, he 
 was expelled from .iEgina by his father, 
 and was received by Genchreus of Salamis, 
 whose daughter Glauce became his wife ; 
 and, on the death of Cenchreus, Telamon be- 
 came king of Salamis. By his second wife 
 Periboea, daughter of Alcathoiis, he became 
 father of Ajax. He was one of the heroes 
 who joined in the Calydonian Hunt, and 
 also one of the Argonauts. He further 
 took part in the expedition of his friend 
 Heracles against the Amazons and against 
 Laomedon of Troy. At the conquest of 
 Troy he was the first to scale the walls, 
 and that he did at the very spot where it 
 was built by his father. As his share in 
 the spoil, Heracles gave him the king's 
 daughter Hesione, by whom he became the 
 father of Teucer {q.v., 2). 
 
 Telchin.63. A primeval people sprung 
 from the sea, and living on the island of 
 Rhodes. They are said to have been the 
 earliest workers in metal, and to have made 
 images of the gods, together with the sickle 
 of Cronus and the trident of Poseidon. 
 Poseidon is said to have been entrusted to 
 them by Rhea to be brought up, just as 
 Zeus was to the Curetes of Crete. They 
 were also represented as envious sorcerers 
 and daemons, who were enemies of both gods 
 and men. They were therefore killed by 
 Apollo or, according to another account, 
 destroyed by Zeus in an inundation. 
 According to a third account, this inunda- 
 
TELECLEIDES TELLUS. 
 
 615 
 
 tiou led to their leaving the island, and 
 dispersing themselves over Lycia, Cyprus, 
 Crete, and Greece. 
 
 Telficleides. A Greek poet of the old 
 comedy, and a violent opponent of Pericles 
 [Plutarch, Per. 3, 16]. He is said to have 
 written only six pieces, of which a few 
 fragments are still extant. 
 
 Telggonus. Son of Odysseus and Circe. 
 At his mother's command he set out J;o find 
 his father. Landing on the coast of Ithaca, 
 he began to plunder the fields,, and Odys- 
 seus came out armed against him. Tele- 
 gonus did not recognise his father, and 
 mortally wounded him with the spine of a 
 sting-ray which Circe had given him to 
 serve as the barb of his lance. When he 
 learned that the wounded man was his 
 father, he took the body home with him, 
 accompanied by Telemachus and Penelope, 
 and subsequently married the latter. He 
 was supposed to be the founder of Tusculum 
 [Horace, Od. iii 29, 8] and Prseneste, near 
 Rome. [Plutarch, Parall. Min. 41, and Pro- 
 pertius, ii 32, 4. The legend of Telegonus 
 was the theme of the Telegonf'a, by the 
 cyclic poet Eugammo, of Cyrene. The 
 strange manner in which Odysseus met his 
 end is mentioned in Oppian, Hcdieutica ii 
 497.] 
 
 Telfimachtis. Son of Odysseus {q.v.) and 
 Penelope. 
 
 TelSphus. Son of HerScles and Auge, the 
 daughter of Aleus of Tegea and priestess 
 of Athene. She concealed the child in the 
 temple of the virgin goddess, and the 
 country in consequence suffered a blight. 
 By consulting an oracle, Aleus discovered 
 the cause of the blight, and gave his 
 daughter to Nauplius to drown her in the 
 sea ; but he exposed the infant on Mount 
 Parthenion, where he was suckled by a 
 hind and brought up by shepherds. Auge 
 was given by Nauplius to Teuthras, king 
 of Mysia, who made her his wife. When 
 Telephus grew up, he consulted the oracle 
 of Delphi to learn who his parents were, and 
 was ordered to go into Asia to Teuthras. 
 Teuthras welcomed his wife's son, and 
 married him to his daughter Argiope, and 
 at his death appointed Telephus his suc- 
 cessor. The Greeks, on their way to Troy, 
 landed on the coast of Mysia and began to 
 plunder it, thinking they had reached Troy. 
 Telephus opposed them bravely, and killed 
 Thersander, son of Polynices; but, being 
 forced by Achilles to fly, Dionysus in his 
 wrath caused him to stumble over a vine, 
 and Achilles wounded him in the thigh with 
 
 his lance. As the wound did not heal, and 
 he was told by the oracle that it could only 
 be healed by him who had inflicted it, 
 Telephus disguised himself as a beggar, 
 and went to Argos, whither the Greeks had 
 been driven back by a storm. Under the 
 advice of Clytsemnestra he carried off 
 Agamemnon's infant son, whom he stole 
 from his cradle, and took refuge on the 
 house altar, threatening to kill the child un- 
 less Agamemnon compelled Achilles to cure 
 his wound. This had the desired effect, and 
 Achilles healed the wound with the rust, or 
 with the splinters, of the lance which had 
 inflicted it. Being designated by the 
 oracle as the guide to Troy, he showed the 
 Greeks the way, but refused to take part 
 in the war, because his wife, Astyoche, was 
 a sister of Priam. His son Eurypylus 
 rendered the Trojans the last aid they re- 
 ceived before the fall of their town. This 
 he did at the prompting of his mother, whom 
 Priam had bribed by means of a golden 
 vine wrought by Hephaestus, and given by 
 Zeus to Tros in compensation for carrying 
 off Ganymede. Eurypylus was killed by 
 Neoptolemus after having performed many 
 brave exploits. In the Mysian town of 
 Pergamon, and especially by the kings of 
 the house of Attains, Telephus was revered 
 as a national hero. 
 
 T61§silla. Of Argos, A lyric poetess, 
 who flourished about the year 608 B.C. 
 After a defeat of the Argives, she is said to 
 have placed herself at the head of a band 
 of Argive women, and to have repelled an 
 attack of the Spartan king Cleomenes. The 
 figure of a woman in front of the temple of 
 Aphrodite at Argos, with books lying at 
 her feet, while she herself is looking at a 
 helmet, as though about to put it on, was 
 said to represent Telesilla [Pausanias, ii 20 
 § 7]. She is said to have become a poetess 
 because, on consulting an oracle respecting 
 her health, she received as answer that 
 she would receive health from the Muses. 
 Scarcely anything remains of her poems, 
 which consisted of hymns to Apollo and 
 Artemis. 
 
 Tfilesphorus {i.e. he who brings to an 
 end). In Greek mythology, a boy who was 
 regarded as the genius of health. {See 
 AscLEPius [and esp. Journal of Hellenic 
 Studies, iii 283-297].) 
 Tellumo. See Tellus. 
 Telliis. The Italian deity of mother- 
 earth, often called tellus mater. She was 
 invoked during earthquakes (her temple in 
 Rome having been dedicated in 268 B.C. in 
 
616 
 
 TELON^ TEMPLES. 
 
 consequence of an earthquake in the time of 
 war). She was also invoked in solemn oaths 
 as the common grave of all things, toge- 
 ther with the Manes and with Jupiter, the 
 god of heaven. Like the Greek Demeter, 
 she was also the goddess of marriage, but 
 was most revered in conjunction with 
 Ceres as goddess of fruitfulness. Thus in 
 her honour were held the festival of the 
 sowing {ferice sementlva), celebrated in 
 January at the end of the winter seed time, 
 fixed by the pontifex to be held on two 
 consecutive market days. The -paganalia 
 were celebrated at the same time in the 
 country, when a pregnant sow was sacrificed 
 to Tellus and Ceres. Besides these, there 
 was the feast of fordicldia or hordicldia, 
 at which cows in calf (fordce) were sacri- 
 ficed to her. This was held on the 15th of 
 April to insure plenty during the year, and 
 was celebrated under the management of 
 the pontifices and the Vestal Virgins, partly 
 on the Capitol in the thirty curice, and 
 partly outside the town. The ashes of the 
 unborn calves were kept by the Vestal 
 Virgins till the feast of the Pdnlia {see 
 Pal.es), when they were used for the pur- 
 pose of purification. Besides the female 
 deity, a god Tellumo was also worshipped. 
 Telonae (Gr. tSlonai, lit. "buyers of the 
 taxes "). Among the Athenians, these were 
 the farmers of the taxes and imposts, 
 which were not collected by State of&oers, 
 but were sold at cei-tain times by auction 
 to the highest bidder. Smaller taxes were 
 taken up by single persons who collected 
 the money themselves. Tor larger taxes 
 demanding a large capital, companies were 
 often formed, represented by one person 
 called the 4elonarches, who concluded the 
 contract with the State. Sureties had also 
 to be produced on this occasion. Such 
 companies employed subordinate officers to 
 collect the taxes. The payments were made 
 by the farmers at certain periods at the 
 senate-house, or bouleuterion, and one pay- 
 ment was usually made in advance when 
 the contract was made. In default of pay- 
 ment, the farmer became dtlmos, and in 
 certain circumstances might be imprisoned. 
 If the debt was not paid by the expiration 
 of the 9th prytdneia, it was doubled, and 
 the property of the debtor and his sureties 
 confiscated. The dtimid descended to the 
 children until the debt was paid. On the 
 other hand, the fanner was protected by 
 the State against fraud by severe laws. He 
 was also exempt from military service, so 
 that he might not be hindered in perform- 
 
 ing his duties. Eor the similar institution 
 among the Romans, see PubliCANI. 
 
 Temples. In ancient times temples were 
 regarded as the dwelling-places of the gods 
 to whom they were dedicated. They might 
 contain an image or not, but the latter case 
 was exceptional. As they were not houses 
 of prayer intended for the devotion of a 
 numerous community, they were usually of 
 very limited extent. There were, however, 
 temples of considerable size, among which 
 was that of Artemis in Ephesus, 438 feet 
 long by 226 broad ; that of Hera in Samos ; 
 that begun by Pisistratus and finished by 
 Hadrian, and dedicated to Zeus Olympius 
 in Athens (see Oltmpiedm) ; and the temple 
 of Zeus of Agrigentum, which was never 
 quite completed. All of these were al- 
 most as large as the first-mentioned. Only 
 temples like that at Eleusis, in which the 
 celebration of mysteries took place, were 
 intended to accommodate a larger number 
 of people. The great sacrifices and ban- 
 quets shared by all the people were cele- 
 brated in the court of the temple (Gr. pSri- 
 bolds), which included the altars for sacri- 
 fice, and was itself surrounded by a wall 
 with only one place of entrance. It was a 
 feature common to all temples that they 
 were not built directly on the surface of 
 the ground, but were raised on a sub-struc- 
 ture which was mounted by means of an 
 uneven number of steps, so that people 
 were able as a good omen to put their right 
 foot on the first and last step. 
 
 The usual shape of Greek temples was 
 an oblong about twice as long as wide, at 
 the front and back of which was a pedi- 
 ment or gable-roof (Gr. aStds or detomd, ; 
 Lat. fasttgzum). Round temples with 
 dome-shaped roofs were quite the excep- 
 tion. The principal part of the temple 
 was the chamber containing the image 
 of the god. This stood on a pedestal, 
 which was often placed in a small niche, 
 and usually stood facing the east, opposite 
 folding-doors which always opened out- 
 wards. Before the image stood an altar 
 used for unbloody sacrifices. This cham- 
 ber, called in Greek ndos, and in. Latin 
 cella, generally received its light through 
 the door alone, but sometimes there was 
 also an opening in the roof. There were 
 also temples designated hyptethral (from 
 hypaithrds, " in the open air ") ; i in these 
 there was no roof to the middle chamber 
 
 ' [Vitruvius, iii 1 § 22. The Attic form is hypai 
 Ihrios.l 
 
TEMPLES. 
 
 617 
 
 of the cella, which was separated from the 
 lateral portions by one or more rows of 
 pillars on each side. 
 
 Generally each temple belonged to only 
 one god ; but sometimes a temple was re- 
 garded as the dwelling-place of several 
 deities, either those who were worshipped 
 in groups, as the Muses, or those who were 
 supposed to stand in close alliance or other 
 relationship to each other, such as the 
 twins Apollo and Artemis ; and Apollo, as 
 leader of the Muses, together with the 
 Muses themselves. Frequently only one 
 god had an image and altar in the chief 
 cella, while others were worshipped in ad- 
 joining chapels. Lastly, there were double 
 temples, with two cellce built in opposite 
 directions. {See Architecture, fig. 13.) 
 Many temples had, besides the cella, a 
 kind of " holy of holies " (ddyton or 
 inegdron) which was only entered by the 
 priests, and only by them at certain times, 
 and which was sometimes under the ground. 
 Usually an open porch or vestibule {jpro- 
 naos), with pillars in front, stood before 
 the cella, and in it were exposed the dedi- 
 catory offerings. There was often also an 
 inner chamber behind the image {Spistlid- 
 ddmos) which served for various purposes, 
 the valuables and money belonging to the 
 temple being often kept there. It was sur- 
 rounded by a wall, and the door was well 
 secured by locks. 
 
 The various kinds of temples are usually 
 distinguished according to the number and 
 arrangement of the pillars. Thus : (1) A 
 temple in antis (fig. 1) is one in which the 
 pronaos (sometimes also the opisthodomos) 
 was formed by the prolongation of the side 
 walls of the temple (Lat. antce ; Grr. pdra- 
 stddes) and by two columns placed between 
 the terminal pilasters of the antce. 
 
 (1) TEMPLE IN ANTIS. 
 
 (2) PKOSTYLOS. 
 
 (2) Prostylos, with the columns in front 
 (fig. 2), is an epithet descriptive of a temple, 
 the front of whose pronaos was formed in 
 all its breadth by a row of columns quite 
 separate from the walls, and with the 
 columns at the extremities standing in 
 front of the antce. 
 
 (3) AmpMjJrdsti/lds (fig. 3) describes a 
 
 temple with the columns arranged as in (2) 
 at the back as well as in the front. 
 
 (3) AMPHIPKOSTTLOS. 
 
 (4) PSriptSrds (fig. 4) describes a temple 
 surrounded on all sides by a colonnade sup- 
 porting the architrave. This is the type 
 
 
 
 (4) PEBIPTEROS. 
 
 most frequently employed by the Greeks. 
 (iS^ee Parthenon, cuts 1 and 2.) 
 
 (6) PseudopSripterds (" false peripteros ") 
 is an epithet of a temple in which the archi- 
 trave appears to be carried by pilasters 
 or by " engaged " columns in the walls of 
 the cella. This form is seldom used by 
 the Greeks, but often by the fiomans. 
 
 (6) DipterSs (fig. 5) describes a temple 
 surrounded by two ranges of columns. 
 
 • • • • I • • I 
 
 • • • • I I 
 
 ••••■••I 
 
 I* • • • 
 • ••• 
 
 .■•••• 
 
 (5) DIPTEKOS. 
 
 (7) PseudodiptSrds (" false dipterds," fig. 
 6). A temple surrounded with only a single 
 
 (6) PSEUDODIPTEROS. 
 
 range of columns, but at such a distance 
 
618 
 
 TEMPLUM TEPIDAEIUM. 
 
 that they correspond in position to the 
 exterior range of the dipteral temple. 
 
 According to the number of columns in 
 front, which must always be an even num- 
 ber, since the entrance was in the middle, 
 it is usual to distinguish temples as tetra-, 
 hexa-, octa-, deed-, or dodecd-stylos (with 
 4, 6, 8, 10, or 12 columns). The number of 
 columns along each side was usually one 
 more than twice the number along the 
 front, but this was not the invariable rule. 
 Tor the architrave and for the columns of 
 the different orders, see pp. 57, 58. The 
 frieze resting on the architrave, and (in 
 the Doric order) the metopes in particular 
 iq.v.), as well as the two pediments (Gr. tijm- 
 pdnd), were decorated with sculptures, and 
 these sculptures, as well as the walls of the 
 temple often had a more life-like and more 
 varied appearance given to them by appro- 
 priate colouring. The coping of the roof, 
 as well as the angles of the pediment, were 
 ornamented by acroterid, which consisted 
 of statues, vases, or anthemia (groups of 
 flowers and leaves ; cp. cut to ^ginetan 
 Sculptures). 
 
 In the plan of their temples the Romans 
 originally followed the Etruscans {cp. Tem- 
 PLUM, below). The ground-plan of the 
 Etruscan temple was nearly a square, the 
 ratio of the depth to frontage being 6 : 5. 
 Half of the space was taken up by the 
 cella, and the rest by the columns. The 
 architrave was of wood, and without any 
 special frieze. The great temple with 
 three cellm on the Roman Capitol was 
 built in the Etruscan style, the middle and 
 largest cella being sacred to Jupiter, and 
 the smaller ones on either side to Minerva 
 and Juno. {Cp. Jupiter.) Under Greek 
 influence the different forms of the Greek 
 temple began to be imitated at Rome, the 
 most prevalent type being that described 
 as prostylos, which lent itself most easily 
 to the requirements of a templum in the 
 strict sense of the term. An important 
 alteration in the Greek form of temple 
 was brought about by the introduction of 
 vaulted arches or groined ceilings, which 
 were seldom used by the Greeks, and never 
 on a large scale; but were brought to great 
 perfection by the Romans. They took the 
 form of a cylindrical vaulting in the case of 
 a quadrangular cella, and a dome in the 
 case of the round temples, which were 
 frequent with the Romans. The two prin- 
 cipal forms of the latter are (1) the mono- 
 pteros, which consisted of a single circle 
 of columns standing on a platform mounted 
 
 by steps and supporting the columns which 
 bore a dome on a circular architrave. (2) 
 The peripteros, with the same arrange- 
 ment of columns, but with a circular cella 
 in the middle which was covered by a 
 dome rising from the surrounding colon- 
 nade. In a third variety, of which we have 
 an example in the Pantheon {q.v.), the 
 circular body of the building is not 
 surrounded by columns externally, but 
 only provided on one side with an advanced 
 portico. 
 
 Templum. The Roman term for a space 
 marked out by the augurs {see AuGURES) 
 according to a certain fixed procedure. Its 
 ground-plan was a square or rectangle, 
 having its four sides turned to the different 
 points of the compass ; its front however, 
 according to strict Roman custom, faced 
 towards the west, so that any one entering 
 the temple had his face turned towards the 
 east. It was not until later that the front 
 was frequently made to face the east. The 
 building erected on this space, and cor- 
 responding to it in plan, did not become a 
 fanum, or sanctuary of the gods, until it 
 had been consecrated by the pontifices. 
 {See Dedicatio.) 
 
 As, however, there were fana which were 
 not teinpla, e.g. all circular buildings, so 
 there were templa which were not fana. 
 Of this sort were the places where public 
 affairs were transacted, such as the rostra 
 in the Porttm, the places where the comitla 
 met or the Senate assembled, and even the 
 city of Rome itself. The sanctuaries of 
 the gods were designed as templa if they 
 were intended to serve for meetings of 
 the Senate, and if the form of worship 
 prescribed for such sanctuaries were ap- 
 propriate to the definition of a templum. 
 
 Tennes (or Tenes), son of Cycnus {q.v., 
 2). He (with his sister Hemithea) was 
 thrown by his father in a chest into the 
 sea, in consequence of the slanderous 
 accusations brought against him by his 
 stepmother. He was borne, however, by 
 the waves to the island of Tenedos (so 
 named from him), where he became king. 
 He was afterwards reconciled to his 
 father, and fell, with him, by the hand of 
 Achilles, when the father and son, as allies 
 of the Trojans, were opposing the landing 
 of the Greeks on the shores of Asia. 
 
 Tensa. The chariot used for processions, 
 or for the gods at the Circensian games. 
 {See Chariots.) 
 
 Tfipidarium. A tepid bath-room. {See 
 Baths.) 
 
TEREBRA TERENTIUS. 
 
 619 
 
 T6r6bra. A military engine for boring 
 into the walls of a besieged town. (See 
 Aries.) 
 
 Tgrentianus Maurus. A Latin gram- 
 marian, born in Mauritania. At tlie close 
 of the 3rd century B.C. he wrote a didactic 
 poem on prosody and metre, composed in 
 the most varied forms of verse {De LittSrls, 
 Syllabls, Metrls). The estimation in which 
 he was held by later grammarians is proved 
 by their frequent quotations from him. 
 
 T6rentini Liidi. See S^culaees Ludi. 
 
 Tgrentius. (1) Publius TSrentius Afcr 
 (or the African). A celebrated Roman 
 comic poet. He was born in Carthage about 
 185 B.C., and came to Rome as a slave in the 
 possession of the senator Terentius Lucanus, 
 who, on account of his promising talents 
 and handsome person, gave him a good 
 education and set him free. As early as 
 166, on the recommendation of the poet 
 Caecillus Statins, he produced his first play, 
 the Maiden of Andrds {Andria), which met 
 with great success. He succeeded in win- 
 ning the favour and friendship of the most 
 distinguished men, such as the younger 
 Scipio and Lselius. He was less successful 
 with his next piece. The Mother- in-Laiu 
 {nScyra), which came out in the following 
 year, and was without doubt his feeblest 
 production. It was only on its third repre- 
 sentation in 166 that it met with any success. 
 Meanwhile, in 163, two years after the first 
 production of the Hecyra^ he ventured to 
 appear before the public with a new piece, 
 The Self-Tormentor (Hautontimorumenos). 
 This was followed in 161 by the Eunuchus, 
 which was very warmly received, and by 
 the Phormio. In 160, after bringing out 
 another play, The Brothers (Adelphi), he 
 went to Greece, where he died 159 B.C. 
 
 Terence, like the other poets wiio wrote 
 palliatce {see Comedy, 2), borrowed from 
 the older Greek poets, especially from 
 Menander (only the Hecyra and Phormio 
 being taken from Apollodorus). This he 
 did however with a certain freedom ; and 
 sometimes by fusing together similar 
 Greek compositions, and borrowing appro- 
 priate scenes from other poets, he managed 
 to expand the simple plot of the Greek 
 original. Evidently of a refined mind, he 
 had no taste for the lively realism of a 
 Plautus. On the contrary, he aimed at 
 artistic correctness of plot, delicate deli- 
 neation of character, and elegance of form. 
 He had nothing of the vivacity, force, and 
 wit of Plautus, and fell far behind Menander 
 in freshness and vigour, for which reason 
 
 Csesar pertinently called him Menander's 
 half [o dXmididtS Menander, quoted by 
 Suetonius in his life of Terence]. 
 
 In his style, although a foreigner, he 
 caught the refined tone of Roman society 
 so successfully as to cause his detractors to 
 maintain that he had been assisted in his 
 compositions by his noble patrons, a reproach 
 from which he does not entirely exonerate 
 himself in the prologue to the Adelphi. 
 His works do not appear to have main- 
 tained their reputation on the stage with 
 the public at large for any length of time 
 after his death. They have, nevertheless, 
 remained for all time the favourite litera- 
 ture of cultivated readers. Ancient critics 
 also made them a subject of study, and 
 wrote many commentaries on them. We 
 still possess the important commentary by 
 ./Elius Donatus, belonging to the middle 
 of the 4th century A.D., as well as the less 
 valuable one by Eugraphius of the 10th 
 century, when Terence was (as for some 
 time previously) a favourite text-book. 
 These have come down to us besides the 
 didascdltce (q.v.) to the several piece.?, 
 and the metrical arguments by Sulpicius 
 ApoUinaris. 
 
 (2) Publius Terentius Varro Atdcinus. A 
 Roman poet, born 82 B.C. by the river Atax 
 in Gallia Narbonensis; he died before 36 B.C. 
 According to an ancient authority, he only 
 began to study Greek literature in his 35th 
 year. Accordingly his satires on the model 
 of Liicilius, and his epic poem on Caesar's 
 war with the Sequani (Bellum SSqudnicum) 
 must belong to his earlier years. He after- 
 wards followed the fashion of imitating the 
 Alexandrian School, which was just com.ing 
 into vogue, and composed, besides elegies 
 and didactic poems after Greek models, his 
 epic poem, entitled the Argonautce, in four 
 books, a free imitation of the Argonautica 
 by ApoUonius Rhodius. This masterpiece, 
 which has been much praised by later poets, 
 and of which (as of his poems in general) 
 only scattered fragments remain, appears 
 to have been the most remarkable produc-^ 
 tion in the domain of narrative epic poetry 
 between the time of Ennius and that of 
 Vergil. 
 
 (3) Marcus Terentius Varro Redtinus (i.e. 
 a native of Reate in the Sabine territory). 
 The most learned of theRomans; bornll6B.c. 
 of an ancient senatorial family. He devoted 
 himself to study at an early age, under the 
 direction chiefly of the learned antiquarian 
 and philologist iElius Stilo, without how- 
 ever withdrawing from public life either 
 
620 
 
 TEREUS TERMINUS. 
 
 in time of peace or war. He lield the public 
 offices of tribune, curule Eedile, and praetor. 
 In 67 he was lieutenant to Pompey in the 
 war against the pirates ; in 49 he again 
 held a command under Pompey in the 
 province of Spain beyond the Iberus, but 
 was taken prisoner by Csesar after the 
 capitulation of Ilerda. Although he after- 
 wards rejoined Pompey, Usesar received 
 him into favour, and he returned to Rome 
 in 46 B.C., where he is said to have had the 
 superintendence of the great library which 
 Csesar destined for the public use. In spite 
 of his abstaining henceforward from taking 
 any active part in public affairs, he was 
 proscribed by Antony in 43, and only nar- 
 rowly escaped with his life. Pardoned by 
 Octavlanus, he lived till the year 27, full 
 of vigour and literary activity to the last. 
 
 Varro's learning comprised all the pro- 
 vinces of literature known at that time, 
 and in productivity he was equalled by no 
 Romans, and only a few Greeks. According 
 to his own statement, he had composed 490 
 books before his 78th year; the total number 
 of his works, either in prose or verse, theo- 
 retical or practical, exceeded 70, in more 
 than 600 books. Of these, the three books 
 on agriculture {Rerum RusHcarum Libri), 
 written in the form of a dialogue in his 
 80th year, in which he treats the subject ex- 
 haustively, drawing from his own experience 
 as well as from more ancient sources, are 
 the only ones that have been completely 
 preserved. Eurther, of the original 25 
 books on the Latin language {De Lingua 
 Ldtind) dedicated to Csesar, in which he 
 systematically treats, under the head of ety- 
 mology, inflexions and syntax, only books 
 v-x exist, in a mutilated condition. This 
 work was followed by a number of other 
 grammatical writings. It is only through 
 a series of extant titles of his works that 
 we know of his literary and historical 
 studies, which were especially directed to 
 dramatic poetry, and in particular to the 
 comedies of Plautus, as well as of his re- 
 searches into the history and antiquities of 
 his own nation. His principal work, of 
 which much use has been made by later 
 writers, the Antlqultdtes Rerum HumdnCt- 
 rum et Divlndrum, in 41 books. This 
 was the most important of his writings 
 on these subjects, as it gave a complete 
 account of the political and religious life of 
 the Romans from^the earliest times. The 
 15 books, entitled Imagines or Hebdomddes, 
 published about B.C. 39, contained 700 por- 
 traits of celebrated Greeks and Romans, 
 
 in sets of seven in each group, with epi- 
 grams written beneath them. His nine 
 Disciplindrum Libn gave an encyclo- 
 paedia of the arts pertaining to general 
 culture (grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, geo- 
 metry, arithmetic, astronomy, music, archi- 
 tecture, medicine). His 76 Libri Logistonci 
 included shorter popular treatises of a his- 
 torical and philosophical nature, described 
 by titles appropriate to their contents, bor- 
 rowed from the names of well-known persons 
 (e.g. Sisenna de Histond). Among Varro's 
 numerous and varied poetical works we will 
 only mention, as the most original, the 
 150 books of Menippean Satires {Sdturce 
 Mgnippece), which were completed before 
 45 B.C., a species of composition which he in- 
 troduced into Roman literature in imitation 
 of the Cynic Menippus of Gadara. In these 
 Satires, written alternately in prose and 
 different kinds of verse, he treats of philo- 
 sophical questions, especially those relating 
 to morality, science, etc., chiefly with the 
 view of exposing the failings of the age. 
 Only a number of titles and fragments of 
 this work have been preserved. 
 
 (4) Quintus Terentius Scaurus. The most 
 renowned Latin scholar and critic of the time 
 of Hadrian (117-138 a.d.), commentator on 
 Plautus and Vergil, and author of treatises 
 on Latin grammar and poetry. A small 
 work, De OrthogrdpMd, of some value for 
 the history of the Latin language, bears his 
 name [but is probably not written by this 
 Scaurus]. 
 
 Tereus. King of Daulis, husband of 
 Procne {q.v.). 
 
 Tergiversatio. The Roman term for the 
 dereliction of duty involved in a legal 
 prosecution being dropped by the prosecutor. 
 Under Nero this offence was punished by 
 fines and disgrace {infamla). 
 
 Terminus. The Roman god of bounds, 
 under whose special protection were the 
 stones {termini) which marked boundaries. 
 The regulations respecting these stones and 
 the religious customs and institutions con- 
 nected with them went back to the time 
 of king Numa. At the setting of such a 
 stone every one living near the boundary 
 assembled ; and in their presence the hole 
 prepared for the reception of the stone was 
 watered with the blood of a sacrificial 
 animal ; incense, field-produce, honey, and 
 wine were sprinkled over it, and a victim 
 sacrificed. The stone, anointed and decked 
 with garlands and ribbons, was then placed 
 upon the smouldering bones and pressed 
 into the earth. Whoever pulled up the 
 
TERPANDER TETRALOGIA. 
 
 621 
 
 stone was cursed, together with his draught- 
 cattle, and any one might kill him with 
 impunity and without being defiled by his 
 blood. In later times the punishment of 
 fines was instituted instead. 
 
 The festival of the TermindUa was cele- 
 brated in Rome and in the country on the 
 23rd of February. The neighbours on 
 either side of any boundary gathered round 
 the landmark, with their wives, children, 
 and servants ; and crowned it, each on his 
 own side, with garlands, and offered cakes 
 and bloodless sacrifices. In later times, 
 however, a lamb, or sucking pig,- was some- 
 times slain, and the stone sprinkled with 
 the blood. Lastly, the whole neighbourhood 
 joined in a general feast. A lamb was also 
 sacrificed in the grove of Terminus, which 
 was six Roman miles from Rome, near the 
 ancient border of the town of Laurentum. 
 On the Capitol there was a stone dedicated 
 to Terminus^ which had originally stood 
 in the open air, but when the temple of 
 Jupiter was founded by the last king, Tar- 
 quinius Superbus, it was inclosed within 
 the building, as the augurs would not allow 
 it to be removed. 
 
 Terpander (Gr. Terpandros). A Greek 
 poet and musician, a native of Antissa in 
 Lesbos. He is the true founder of Greek 
 classical music, and also of lyric poetry, 
 both .iEolian and Dorian. He was the first 
 to clothe in artistic form the kind of choral 
 song, called notnos, used at the festivals of 
 Apollo ; he also introduced other important 
 innovations into music. He is sometimes 
 erroneously described as having added three 
 strings to the original Ij^re of four strings 
 [Strabo, p. 618] ; but it is more probable 
 that he added four to the seven already in 
 existence in his own time [Pausanias, iii 
 12 § 10]. The principal scene of his labours 
 was Sparta, whither he had been summoned 
 by order of the Delphic oracle to quell a 
 disturbance amongst the people. It was 
 at Sparta that he reduced to order the 
 music of the Dorians. It was here too 
 that he won the prize at the musical com- 
 petition at the Carneia. Between 672 and 
 648 B.C. he carried off the prize four times 
 in succession at the Pythian games in 
 Delphi. Only a few verses of his own 
 poems are extant. 
 
 Terpsicliore. The Muse of dancing. {See 
 Muses.) 
 
 TertuUianus {Quintus Septfmms Florens). 
 One of the most important of the Latin 
 Tathers. He was born at Carthage of 
 pagan parents about 160 A.D., and died 
 
 about 230. After receiving a careful 
 education in rhetoric and jurisprudence 
 (and probably practising as a lawyer), 
 he embraced Christianity, and became a 
 presbyter in his native town. After de- 
 fending Christianity against paganism, he 
 joined the ascetic and fanatic sect of the 
 Montanists, and became their champion 
 against the Church. His writings reflect 
 with faithfulness his general ability ; his 
 rhetorical training and legal subtlety ; his 
 rugged, combative, and passionate character ; 
 and his lively and often impetuous imagina- 
 tion. They are written in the colloquial 
 language of his time, which had many points 
 of close contact with that spoken by the 
 lower classes. His literary activity, which 
 extended over a considerable length of time, 
 was at its height in the reigns of Severus 
 and Caracalla. His Apologia, written about 
 198, holds the foremost place amongst his 
 works. It is one of his earliest writings, 
 and was addressed to the provincial gover- 
 nors of the Roman empire, in defence of 
 Christianity, during a time of bitter perse- 
 cution. 
 
 Tess6ra {Latin). (1) A die {see Dice). 
 Also (2) a ticket of admission to the 
 theatre {q.v., II). 
 
 Testiido (Lat. ; Gr. chelone, " tortoise- 
 shell "). The general designation for dif- 
 ferent kinds of sheds for the protection of 
 soldiers engaged in a siege. (See cut 2 under 
 Sieges.) 
 
 Tethys, wife of Oceftnus (q.v.). 
 
 Tetradrachmon. A Greek silver coin 
 equivalent to four drachmce (see Coinage). 
 
 Tgtralogla. The Athenian term given to 
 the group of four plays which the poets 
 produced in rivalry with each other at the 
 dramatic contests held at the feast of 
 Dionysus. After the introduction of the 
 satyric drama, this, or a drama of a com- 
 paratively cheerful character (such as the 
 Alcestis of Euripides), formed the fourth 
 piece of three tragedies or of a trilogy. 
 By a tetralogy is more particularly meant 
 such a group of four dramas as had be- 
 longed to the same cycle of myths, and 
 had thus formed a connected whole. Of 
 such a kind were the tetralogies of jEschylus. 
 It is doubtful, however, whether he found 
 this type of connected tetralogy already 
 in use, or was the first to introduce it. 
 Sophocles abolished the connexion between 
 the several pieces, and Euripides followed 
 his example. A complete tetralogy is 
 not extant, although a trilogy exists in 
 the Oresteia of ^Eschylus, consisting of 
 
G22 
 
 TETRAECH THEATRE. 
 
 the tragedies Agdviemnon, Choephorce, and 
 Eumenldes j the satyric play appended to 
 it was the Proteus. 
 
 Tetrarch. (Gr. tetrarch.es). Properly the 
 ruler of one of the four parts of a district 
 divided into four governments. Also the 
 title of a petty prince, like the rulers in 
 those provinces of Asia which were allowed 
 by Rome to retain a certain independence. 
 
 Teucer (Gr. Teukros). (1) A son of Sca- 
 mander and the Nymph Idsea ; the most 
 ancient king of Troj', from whom the people 
 were called Teucri. According to another 
 legend, he, with Scamander, was driven by 
 famine from Crete, and found refuge with 
 Dardanns ; while another version of the 
 story describes Dardanus as having been 
 received by Teucer. 
 
 (2) A son of Telamon of Siilamis (thus 
 named from his descent from Hesione, the 
 Teucrian king's daughter) ; half-brother of 
 Ajax. He was the best archer amongst 
 the Greeks before Troy. On his return 
 from the war, accused by his father of par- 
 ticipation in his brother's murder, and 
 banished from the country, he sought a new 
 home in Cyprus, by the advice of Apollo, 
 A^'here Belus of Sidon, in return for assise 
 tance rendered him in war, made over to 
 him the government, and he founded the 
 town of Salamis. After his father's death, 
 it is said that he returned to his native 
 town of Salamis, but was driven away by 
 his nephew and went to Spain. 
 
 Thalamus. The Greek term for a com- 
 modious room in a house, and especially the 
 nuptial chamber. (See House.) 
 
 Thalia (Gr. Tlidleia). (1) One of the 
 Graces. {See Chaeites.) 
 
 (2) The Muse of dancing and pastoral 
 poetry. {See Muses.) 
 
 Thallo. Goddess of flowers, who presided 
 over spring. {See HoRiE.) 
 
 Tham^ris. A Thracian bard, mentioned 
 by Homer [II. ii 595], son of Philammon 
 and the Nymph Argiope. He boasted that 
 he could rival the Muses, and was therefore 
 deprived by them of sight and voice, and 
 the power of plaj'ing the lute. According 
 to later legends, he expiated his arrogance 
 by being punished in Hades. 
 
 Thanatds. The Greek personification of 
 death. {See Death.) 
 
 Thargelia, The principal feast of Apollo 
 in Athens, held on the seventh day of Thar- 
 gelion (May-June), the birthday of the god. 
 Originally it was connected with the ripen- 
 ing of the field produce. A procession was 
 formed, and the first fruits of the year were 
 
 offered to Apollo, together with Artemis 
 and the Horse. It was at the same time an 
 expiatory feast, at which a peculiar propi- 
 tiatory sacrifice was offered, which was to 
 purify the State from all guilt, and avert 
 the wrath of the god, lest he should exer- 
 cise his avenging and destroying power 
 in burning up the harvest with parching 
 heat, and in visiting the people with pesti- 
 lence. Two persons, condemned to death, 
 a man and a woman, as representatives 
 of the male and female population, were led 
 about with a garland of figs round their 
 necks to the sound of flutes and singing, 
 and scourged with seaweed and with the 
 branches of a fig tree. They were then 
 sacrificed at a certain spot on the sea- 
 shore, their bodies burned, and the ashes 
 cast into the sea. In later times they seem 
 to have been contented with throwing the 
 expiatory victims from a height into the 
 sea, catching them as they fell, and banish- 
 ing them from the country. Besides these 
 sacrifices, festal processions and choral 
 contests between men and boys took place. 
 At the same time the great feast of Apollo 
 was probably held at Delos, to which the 
 Athenians sent a sacred embassy in the 
 ancient ship in which Theseus is said to 
 have sailed to Crete, and which was always 
 kept in repair. 
 
 Thaumas. Son of Pontus and Gsea, hus- 
 band of Electra, one of theOceanides, and 
 father of the Harpies and Iris. 
 
 Theano. The pretended wife of Pytha- 
 goras the philosopher. Seven extant letters 
 on jealousy, on the education of children, 
 the management of a household, etc., are 
 attributed to her. 
 
 Theatre. 
 
 (I) The Greek Theatre. 
 
 The Greek theatre was originally in- 
 tended for the performance of dithyramb] c 
 choruses at the feast of Dionysus. {See 
 DiTHTEAMBOS.) Prom the first it consisted 
 of two principal parts : (a) the circular 
 dancing-place, orchestra, with the altar 
 (thymele) of the god in the centre ; and 
 (b) the place for the spectators, or the 
 theatron proper. The theatron was in the 
 form of a segment of a circle, greater than 
 a semi-circle, with the seats rising above 
 one another in concentric tiers {see fig. 
 1). The seats were almost always cut 
 in the slope of a hill. [There are ex- 
 ceptions to this rule at Megal5p61is and 
 Mantineia, where there is an artificial 
 substructure.] When the dithyrambic 
 choruses had developed into the drama, a 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 623 
 
 Btructiire_ called the skSne (Lat. sccena) was 
 added, with a stage for dramatic represent 
 tations. It was erected on the side of the 
 orchestra away from the spectators, and at 
 sach a height and distance as to allow of 
 
 having " built " the theatre.] The remains 
 of this theatre have been exposed to view 
 since the excavations of 1862. [further 
 excavations in the direction of the stage 
 buildings were made in 1877 and 1886.] ^ 
 
 Theairon. 
 
 Skene. 
 (1) PLAN OF A GREEK THEATRE, 
 
 the stage being in full view from every 
 part of the theatre. 
 
 The first stone theatre was that built at 
 Athens, the home of the Crreek drama ; and 
 the theatres in every part of the Hellenic 
 world were constructed on the same general 
 principles. It is said that at a performance 
 about 496 B.C., when ^schylus, Pratinas, 
 and Choerilus were competitors, the wooden 
 scaffolding on which the spectators were 
 standing broke down ; and that it was 
 accordingly resolved to construct a theatre 
 of stone instead [Suidas, s.v. Pratinas]. The 
 building was near the east end of the 
 southern slope of the Acropolis ; and in its 
 construction partial use was made of the 
 rock against which it rested. It was not, 
 however, completed until between 340 and 
 330 B.C., when Athens was under the finan- 
 cial administration of Lycurgus. [Cp. in- 
 scription in Corp. Inscr. Att. ii 176, or Hicks, 
 Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions, 
 1^0.128; Pseudo-Plutarch, Lives of the Ten 
 Orators, p. 841 c; Pausanias, i 29 § 16. 
 All these authorities speak of Lycurgus as 
 having " completed " the theatre. It is 
 HypSrides alone {Fragm. 139 Sauppe), 
 who, in a speech on behalf of the children 
 of Lycurgus, rhetorically describes him as 
 
 ' [In connexion with these last excavations a 
 theory "was started by Dr. Dorpfeld, of the Ger- 
 man School of Archseology at Athens. Accord- 
 ing to his view, (1) the sacred precinct called 
 the Lenaion contained in the 5th century b.c. 
 no permanent building for dramatic purposes, 
 but only two temples, the older dating from the 
 time of Pisistratus, and close to it a circular 
 orchestra, seventy-eight feet in diameter. And5- 
 cides, De Mysteriis, § 38, speajis _of certain con- 
 spirators descending " from the Odeum into the 
 orchestra," not the theatron ; and in Aristophanes 
 the word theatron is applied to the auditorium 
 alone, (2) The first permanent building was 
 completed by Lycurgus jn 330 b.c, and consisted 
 of a stone wall sixty-five feet seven inches long, 
 with two wings rising like towers on either side. 
 Behind the wall was an obloug room for the 
 actors, and in front of the wall to the north there 
 was a new orchestra. Bows of seats were con- 
 structed at the same time ; but at present there 
 was no raised stage. (3) At some later date there 
 was built a permanent proscenium of stone, ten 
 or twelve feet high. (4) Under Claudius (the 
 " Nero " of the inscription) the orchestra received 
 its pavement of marble, and about this time the 
 stage was raised. (5) In the 3rd century a.d., one 
 Phsedrus, whoso name app^rs on an inscription 
 on the hyposcenlum, erected a new stage in front 
 of the older one, To this period, in other words 
 to Roman times, belongs also the continuous 
 stone balustrade separating the auditorium from 
 the orchestra. 
 
 On the other hand, it has been observed (1) that 
 B.C. 330 is a very late date for the Athenians to 
 have erected their earliest stone theatre, (2) The 
 
624 
 
 THEATRE. 
 
 With the spread of dramatic representa- 
 tions stone theatres were built in every 
 part of the Hellenic world ; and, shortly 
 after the time of Alexander the Great, they 
 were practically universal. It has been 
 estimated that the theatre at Athens had 
 room for 27,500 persons [Zeitschrift fiir 
 hildcnde Kunst, xiii p. 202]. Plato is only 
 using round numbers when he speaks of a 
 play of Agathijn having been witnessed by 
 30,000 spectators [8ymp. 175 e]. Among 
 other large theatres may be mentioned, in 
 Greece, those of Megalopolis, Sparta, and 
 Epidaurus ; in Sicily, that of Syracuse ; in 
 Asia Minor, those of Ephesus and Miletus. 
 There were also large theatres in Crete. 
 [Among other theatres of Greek origin, 
 remains of which are still in existence, are 
 the following ^ in Greece^ at the Peirseus, 
 at Thoricus, Oropus, Sicyon, Argos, Man- 
 tineia, Rhiniassa and Dramyssus in Epirus, 
 and in Melos and Delos. In Sicily, at Acrse, 
 Tyndaris, Tauromenion, and Segesta (fig. 3). 
 In Asia Minor, at Aspendus, Perge, and 
 Side in Pamphylia ; Myra, Patara, and Tal- 
 missus in Lycia ; lassos in Caria ; Assos 
 and Pergamon in Mysia; and Hierapolis 
 and Aizani in Phrygia.] 
 
 It is estimated that in the theatre at 
 Athens the space assigned to each spectator 
 was about thirteen inches in breadth ; the 
 depth of the seat was sufficient to allow room 
 behind for the feet of the spectator sitting 
 immediately above. To facilitate access to 
 the various parts of the auditorium, the 
 
 erection of a wooden structure, including a vast 
 number of seats, twice a year, or the keeping 
 of such structure in repair, would have been a 
 troublesome task. (3) The evidence from litera- 
 ture in favour of wooden seats is inconclusive. 
 Aristophanes (Thesm. 395) and Cratlnus {Fragm. 
 Incert. 51) speak of ikrid or "benches'"; but this 
 may be only a survival of the older term when it 
 was no longer strictly accurate. (4) The evidence 
 already quoted as to Lycurgus is on the whole in 
 favour of his having completed a structure that 
 was already partially finished. (5) The retaining 
 wall supporting the rows of stone seats on either 
 side is built with enormous blocks of conglome- 
 rate, hidden by a. thin wall of the finest poros 
 limestone. It is this conglomerate which is 
 understood to be one of the grousids on which Dr. 
 Dorpfeld assigns a late date to the structure. 
 But (as observed by Professor Middleton in cor- 
 roboration of a paper read by Prof. Jebb to the 
 above effect) the pointing of the blocks is all 
 " drafted " masonry, and all the joints are marked 
 with a shallow groove, and the whole face dressed 
 with a very broad chisel parted into fourteen teeth 
 just as in the walls of Clmon. For this reason 
 Prof. Middleton holds that the auditoriwm belongs 
 to the middle of the 5th century, while the per- 
 manent stage buildings may be assigned to the 
 time of Lycurgus.] 
 
 parallel tiers of seats were separated by one 
 or more broad passages running from end 
 to end, and horizontally dividing the tiers 
 into several zones ; these passages were 
 called diazdmdtd (Lat. prcecinctlones). The 
 seats were also divided vertically by stairs 
 radiating from below, and intersecting the 
 diazomata at right angles. The wedge- 
 like blocks thus formed were called ker- 
 kldes (Lat. cUnei). The number of the 
 stairs varies according to the size of the 
 theatre. In the theatre at Athens there 
 are fourteen, giving access to thirteen 
 blocks of seats. [The audience were pro- 
 bably arranged according to their respec- 
 tive tribes, and the number of the tribes 
 was raised in later times from ten to twelve 
 or thirteen.] In the Greek theatre the 
 normal number of the stairs was even ; in 
 the Roman it was usually uneven. Thej- 
 either ascend straight throughout the whole 
 building, or are differently arranged in the 
 several zones of seats. [Thus, in the 
 theatre at Epidaurus, designed by Poly- 
 clitus the younger, there are twelve ker- 
 kides in the lower zone, and twenty-two in 
 the upper; only eleven flights of stairs 
 ascending straight from the lowest to the 
 highest part of the avAiitorium.] 
 
 In the Athenian theatre, the front row 
 of seats, which was the nearest to the 
 orchestra, consisted of sixty-seven marble 
 stalls ; forty-five of these were re- 
 served for priests and other ministers of 
 religion, and the rest for the officials of 
 the State. The central seat in this row 
 was reserved for the priest of Dionysus. 
 The right of occupying a reserved seat in 
 one of the front rows was called proedrtd 
 [Aristophanes, Eq. 575, 702, 1405] ; and it 
 was in this part of the theatre that seats 
 were provided for public benefactors, for 
 the strdtegi, for the orphans of those who 
 had fallen in war [^Esehines, Ctes. 174], 
 and for ambassadors from foreign states 
 [Demosthenes, De Cor. 28]. The judges of 
 the dramatic competitions sat together in 
 a body, and would naturally have some of 
 the best places assigned to them. Behind 
 the front row were placed a number of 
 inferior priests and priestesses. It is 
 not known how the rest of the spectators 
 were arranged, but it is probable that the 
 members of each tribe sat in the same part 
 of the theatre. The tickets of admission 
 discovered in Attica are of two kinds : (n) 
 ordinary leaden tokens about the size of 
 either a florin or (mpre frequently) a six- 
 penny-bit, with Dionysus or a mask on 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 625 
 
 the obverse, and the name or number of 
 a tribe on the reverse ; (6) counters of bone 
 or ivory, about the size of half-a-crown, 
 with a head on one side, and on the other 
 a Greek or Roman numeral — never higher 
 than XV (fig. 2). The latter were for the use 
 of persons enjoying the right of proedria, 
 and belong to the Roman period (Benndorf's 
 Beitrage, p. 36ff ; Baumeister's Denkmaier, 
 figs. 1833-5). The price of a ticket was 
 two obols (about 3d.) ; and, in the case of 
 poorer citizens, this payment was made out 
 of the theoric fund. 
 
 (2) * IVORY TICKET. 
 
 With head of CrSnus. 
 (Gonzenhach Collection, Smyrna.) 
 
 Women were generally present at the 
 perfonnance of tragedies ; but from that of 
 comedies those of the higher classes usually 
 stayed away. In the 5th century, the 
 women sat in a separate part of the theatre 
 (Aristophanes, Pax 964) ; at the back, ac- 
 cording to Pollux (ix 44) ; and with the 
 resident aliens behind them. Boys were 
 admitted (Plato, Laws, 658 c) ; slaves pro- 
 bably not. The provision against sun and 
 rain customary in the Roman theatre was 
 unknown to the ancient Greeks. [Those 
 who could afford it brought cushions and 
 carpets to sit on (^schines, Ctcs. 76 ; Fals. 
 Leg. 111). By command of the oracle at 
 Delphi, all the spectators wore wreaths 
 of bay leaves in honour of Dionysus (De- 
 mosthenes, Meid. 52).] 
 
 The orchestra was considerably below 
 the level of the stage. [In the theatre at 
 Epidaurus, the stage is almost exactly twelve 
 feet high; in that of Megalopolis, excavated 
 in 1890, the height is about six feet.] The 
 chorus entered the orchestra by means of 
 passages (pdrodoi) on either side of the 
 'stage. These also gave access to the 
 audience, who came in by the orchestra, 
 and thence mounted the flights of steps 
 leading to the seats assigned them. The 
 orchestra was connected with the stage by 
 means of steps, by which the chorus 
 ascended on the rare occasions when the 
 action of the play involved their presence 
 on the stage [e.g. Soj)hocles, ffi'rf. Coh 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 856-7 : Aristophanes, Eq. 490-4 ; cp. 
 Acharn. 324-7, Av. 353-400. But, as a 
 general rule, the -chorus remained in the 
 orchestra, at a lower level than the stage].' 
 Strictly speaking, it was only the 
 decorated wall at the back of the stage 
 that was called the skene (lit. " booth "). 
 The same name was, however, given to 
 the stage-buildings, and (far more fre- 
 quently) to the stage on which the actors 
 performed. The more distinctive designa- 
 tion for the stage is jjroscSnium (Gr. 
 proskenton, " the space in front of the 
 Skene, or booth "), or logeion (" the speak- 
 ing-place "). It is also called okribas 
 
 ' [This view was first attacked by HOpken, De 
 Theatro Attico sceculi a. Clir. quinti (Bonn, 1840), 
 who is supported by Dr. Dorpfeld. It is true that 
 the stage-buildings excavated at Epidaurus are 
 twelve feet higher than the orchestra, but these 
 buildings are regarded by Dr. Dorpfeld as the 
 background of the actor's stage, partly because 
 there are no steps leading down to the orchestra. 
 On the other hand, (1) Vitruvius, v 7, tells us 
 that the Greek stage was from ten to twelve feet 
 high, but narrower than the Eoman. (2) The 
 excavation of the theatre at Megalopolis, belong- 
 ing to the 4th century B.C., has disclosed a 
 stage about six feet high and eighteen feet wide 
 with a flight of steps from end to end leading 
 down to the orchestra, thus showing that the 
 upper structure is a true stage, and not a back- 
 ground to a lower stage. The theatre of Epidaurus 
 may possibly have been provided with wooden 
 steps ; but, in its completion, it may have 
 belonged to a later date than that of Megalo])olis. 
 Dr. Dorpfeld himself {Berlin Philol. Wochenschrift, 
 1890, p. 1534) sees no objection to ascribing its 
 proscenium to the 3rd or 2nd century B.C. The 
 height of its stage, twelve feet, corresponds 
 to that given by Vitruvius as characteristic of 
 the Greek theatre. (3) Several passages of 
 Aristophanes imply that the actors were on a 
 higher level than the chorus {Eq. 149, c. schol. ; 
 Vesp. 1341, 1514; Av. 175-8, 268). (4) The use 
 of steps to connect the orchestra with the stage 
 is attested by a writer in the earUer part of the 
 3rd century B.C., Athenseus, the author of a, 
 work on engines of war, IfecA., p. 29, ed. Wescher, 
 who compares certain ladders used in sieges to 
 those " placed in theatres against the proscenia 
 for the actors " {cp. Pollux, iv 127). (5) Such steps 
 may be seen on vases of Southern Italy, beginning 
 with the 3rd century, representing comic scenes 
 {e.g. Baumeister, figs. 902 and 1828 = British 
 Museum F 101 ; Schreiber's Bilderatlas, I, v 11, 
 13 ; Heydemaun in Jahrb. des Deutsch. Archadl. 
 Inst., 1886, p. 260). If the actors were on the 
 same level as the chorus, the spectators, especially 
 the distinguished persons in the front seats, would 
 find their view of the actors intercepted by the 
 chorus, and even the use of the cothurnus in 
 tragedy would not place the actor at a sufficient 
 elevation to allow of his being seen to advantage. 
 Lastly, the chorus was seldom divided into two 
 bodies, so as to allow an uninterrupted view 
 betwerai them.] 
 
 S S 
 
626 
 
 THEATRE. 
 
 [Plato, Sy7np. 194 b] or bema [Plutarch, 
 Phor.ion 34, and inscription on the 
 liyposccniuni of the theatre at Athens]. 
 On either side of the proscenium -were 
 wings, called parascenia, -which, together 
 with the space behind the real skene, served 
 as dressing-rooms for the actors, and 
 store-rooms for the costiunes and machinery. 
 The name of hyposcenium was given to 
 the hollow space beneath the floor of the 
 stage, and also to the lower wall adorned 
 with pillars and statues facing the 
 orchestra. A flight of steps leading out 
 upon the stage from underneath was 
 occasionally used for bringing ghosts and 
 spectres upon the stage. They were 
 called " Charon's steps " [Pollux, iv 132]. 
 
 The scenery was very simple. Like many 
 other things connected with the stage, it 
 is said to have been first introduced by 
 
 to the right of the audience represented 
 views in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the city where the scene of the action is 
 laid. The periaktos to the left represented 
 a more distant country. In correspondence 
 with this, the entrance to the right of the 
 audience was reserved for actors coming 
 from the immediate neighbourhood; while 
 that to the left was for those who came 
 from a distance [Pollux, iv 126 ; Vitruvius, 
 V 6 ; Servius on Vergil, Georg. iii 24]. In 
 connexion with the action of the play, 
 accessories, such as altai'S, statues, and 
 tombs, were introduced when necessary. 
 There is no direct evidence for a drop cur- 
 tain in the Greek theatre. 
 
 Machinery of various kinds was used to 
 imitate thunder and lightning. For the 
 forraer, casks filled with pebbles were sent 
 rolling down bronze surfaces [Pollux, iv 
 
 (3) THE THEATRE AT SEGESTA, 
 
 (As restored by StracTi.) 
 
 jEschylus [Vitruvius, vli prcEf. 11] ; but 
 we have better authority for ascribing its 
 introduction to Sophocles [Aristotle, Poet. 
 iv 16]. The first painter of stage scenery 
 {skenograpMa) is said to have been Agar 
 tharchus [Vitruvius l.c.\ The principal 
 decoration consisted of a light and movable 
 screen placed in front of the wall at the back 
 of the stage. On this screen was painted the 
 scene of the play. In tragedy, it was usually 
 the front of a king's palace, with three 
 doors. The interior of a house was never 
 represented by means of painted scenery, 
 but only by means of the mechanical device 
 call the ekkyklema. Towards the fore- 
 ground of the stage, on each side, there 
 was a revolving stand of three side-scenes, 
 called a periaktos, — a contrivance which 
 allowed of the scenery at either or both 
 ends of the stage being changed without 
 changing the background. The periaktos 
 
 130]. There were also contrivances for 
 piaking persons appear or disappear in the 
 air [lb. 132]. But of these we ki^ow hardly 
 anything except the names by which they 
 were designated. In order to make the 
 actor's voice more audible at a distance, 
 vessels of bronze of different tones were some- 
 times suspended in niches in various parts 
 of the auditorium [Vitruvius v 5. Niches 
 of this kind have been observed in the re- 
 mains of the theatre at Aizani in Phrygia, 
 at Gerasa in the Decdpolis, and in Crete.] 
 Theatres werp frequently uged for public 
 purposps unconnected with the drama. At 
 Athens the custom of using the theatre for 
 agsemblies of the people prevailed fropi the 
 middle of the 3rd century B.C. 
 
 Pig. 3 represents the theatre of Segesta 
 in Sicily [situated near the crest of a hill. 
 The lower part of the auditorium is in 
 nearly perfect preservation. The structure 
 
THEATRE. 
 
 627 
 
 were 
 
 is Greek, but the stage buildings 
 altered in Roman times]. 
 
 [For further details, see A. MuUer, Die 
 Griechischen BuhnenalterthUmer , 1886; or 
 A. E. Haigh, The Attic Theatre, 1889.] 
 
 (II) The Roman Theatre. 
 
 In Rome, where dramatic representations, 
 in the strict sense of the term, were not 
 given until 240 B.C., a wooden stage was 
 erected in the Circus for each performance, 
 and taken down again. The place for the 
 spectators was a space surrounded by a 
 wooden barrier, within which the public 
 stood and looked on in a promiscuous mass. 
 It was not until 194 B.C. that a place was 
 set apart for the senators nearest to the 
 stage, but without any fixed seats ; those 
 who wanted to sit had to bring their own 
 chairs ; sometimes, by order of the 
 Senate, sitting was forbidden. In 154 
 B.C. an attempt was made to build a 
 permanent theatre with fixed seats ; 
 but it had to be pulled down by 
 order of the Senate. In 145 B.C., on 
 the conque&t of Greece, theatres pror 
 vided with seats after the Greek 
 model were erected ; these, however, 
 were only of wood, and served for 
 one representation ajone. Such was 
 the splendid theatre built in 58 B.C. 
 by the sedile Emilias Scaurus, cout 
 taining, among other decorations, 
 3,000 bronze statues, and provided 
 with 80,000 seats. The first stone 
 theatre was built by Pompey in 55 
 B.C., a second one by Cornelius 
 Balbus, 13 B.C., and in the same year, 
 the one dedicated by Augustus to his 
 nephew Marcellus, and called by his name, 
 the ruins of which still exist (fig. 4). The 
 first of these contained 17,500, the second 
 11,510, and the third 20,000 seats. Besides 
 these, there were no other stone theatres 
 in Rome; wooden theatres continued to be 
 erected under the Empire. 
 
 The Roman theatre differed from the 
 Greek. In the first place, the auditorium 
 (cdvea), which was divided in the same way 
 as in the Greek by horizontal passages and 
 by stairs (only into an uneven number 
 of divisions), formed a semicircle only, 
 with the front wall of the stage-building 
 as its diameter, whilst in the Greek it was 
 larger than a semicircle. Again, a covered 
 colonnade ran round the highest story of 
 the Roman theatre, the roof of which was 
 of the same height as the highest part of 
 the stage. The orchestra, moreover, which 
 
 was enclosed by the cavea, contained places 
 for spectators ; these were, at first, reserved 
 exclusively for the senators; foreign am- 
 bassadors whom it was wished to honour 
 were afterwards admitted to them. The 
 most distinguished places were the two 
 balconies over the entrances to the orchestra, 
 on the right and left side of the stage ; in 
 one of these sat the giver of the entertain- 
 ment and the emperor, in the other the 
 empress and the Vestal Virgins. Places of 
 dignity were also assigned to magistrates 
 and priests, probably on the podium, or the 
 space in front of the lowest row of seats, 
 where there was room for a few rows of 
 chairs. The first fourteen rows of the 
 ordinary seats were, after 68 B.C., appro- 
 priated to the iquites ; after them came the 
 general body of citizens, who were probably 
 
 (JBOUIJD-PLAIJ OF THE THEATB^ OF I(fARCELLUS. 
 
 arranged in the order of their tribes ; in the 
 upper part of the cdvea were the women, 
 who sat apart, in accordance with a decree 
 of Augustus (they had formerly sat with 
 the men) ; the lowest classes were relegated 
 
 BONE TICKET, POMPEII. 
 
 (Denoting row 12, in the block named after .SIschyluB ; 
 Overbeck, Pompeii, p. 150, ed. 1875.) 
 
 to the highest tiers. Even children were 
 admitted, only slaves being excluded. 
 Admission was free, as was the case with 
 all entertainments intended for the people. 
 
628 
 
 THEMIS THEOCLYMENUS. 
 
 The tickets of admission {tesserae) did not 
 indicate any particular seat, but only the 
 block of seats and the row in which it 
 would be found. An awning could be 
 drawn over the whole auditorium / it was 
 suspended on masts which were made fast 
 to the external wall of the theatre. In 
 order to cool the atmosphere, and prevent 
 disagreeable odours, fragrant liquids (espe- 
 cially water scented with saffron) , were shot 
 into the air, and fell in fine spray over the 
 cavea. 
 
 The fa9ade of the stage-building, the 
 sccBua, consisted generally of three stories, 
 and was richly decorated with architec- 
 ture and sculpture. The stage itself (j)ul- 
 jntum) was raised five feet at the most 
 above the orchestra, in order that the 
 spectators might easily overlook every part 
 of it. It was considerably longer and 
 wider than the Greek stage, as in the 
 Roman theatre there were nearly as many 
 actors as parts, and the Romans were very 
 fond of splendid stage-processions. There 
 were two altars on the stage, one dedicated 
 to Liber in remembrance of the Dionysian 
 origin of the drama, the other to the god in 
 whose honour the play was held. 
 
 With regard to the scenery, which cer- 
 tainly cannot have been introduced before 
 99 B.C., and the scene-shifting, for which 
 elaborate machinery of various kinds ex- 
 isted, the Roman stage did not essentially 
 differ from the Greek, except that it had a 
 curtain. This, called aulceum, was lowered 
 at the beginning of the play, instead of 
 being drawn up as with us, and it was not 
 raised again until the end : there was aL^o 
 a smaller curtain, slpdrluvi, which served 
 as a drop-scene. A portico was often built 
 behind the stage to afford shelter to the 
 spectators in bad weather. 
 
 Th6mis. One of the Titanides; daughter 
 of Uranus and Gsea, and Jupiter's second 
 wife after Metis ; mother of the Horse and 
 Moerae (Lat. Parcce). She is the goddess 
 who, with Jupiter, presides over law and 
 order. She also reigns with him in Olym- 
 pus as his trusted assessor and no longer 
 as his wife ; she represents divine justice 
 in all its relations to man. The rights of 
 hospitality are especially under her pro- 
 tection ; hence she is protector of the 
 oppressed, and honoured in many towns 
 as the saving goddess (Soteira). She also 
 had the power of foretelling the future, and 
 for this reason the Delphic oracle was in 
 her possession for some time before it came 
 into that of Apollo. She was especially 
 
 honoured in Athens, Delphi, Thebes, Olym- 
 pia, and Troezen. In works of art, she is 
 represented as a woman of commanding 
 and awe-inspiring presence, holding a pair 
 of scales and a cornucopia, the symbol of 
 the blessings of order. 
 
 Themistius. A Greek rhetorician of 
 Paphlagonia, who lived in the second half 
 of the 4th century A.D., as teacher of 
 philosophy and oratory at Constantinople. 
 He was much honoured by his contempo- 
 raries for his noble disposition and his 
 learning and eloquence, which gained for 
 him the name of Euphrddes, or eloquent 
 speaker. He was honoured with various 
 marks of distinction by the emperors. 
 Cons tan tins made him a senator ; Julian 
 described him as the first philosopher of 
 his age ; Theodosius selected him as tutor 
 to his son Arcadius, and in 384 nominated 
 him to the prefecture. He died about 388. 
 
 Thirty-four of his speeches have been 
 preserved, one of them in a Latin trans- 
 lation only. They are partly philosophical 
 and political, but principally eulogistic 
 orations, either in compliment to or in 
 memory of various emperors, composed in 
 a clear, pleasant style, and valuable for the 
 information they contain respecting con- 
 temporary history. Besides these, we pos- 
 sess four paraphrases by him of parts of 
 Aristotle. 
 
 Thgmisto. The third wife of Athamas 
 (q.v.), who married her under the impres- 
 sion that his wife Ino was dead. When 
 he heard, however, that Ino was living as a 
 votary of Dionysus, in the ravines of Par- 
 nassus, he secretly sent for her. Themisto, 
 on hearing this, determined, in revenge, to 
 kill Ino's children, and ordered a slave, 
 who had lately come to the house, to dress 
 het children in white and Ino's in black, 
 so that she might be able to distinguish 
 them in the night. But the slave, who 
 was Ino herself, suspecting the evil inten- 
 tion, exchanged the clothes. Themisto, in 
 consequence, killed her own children, and, 
 on becoming aware of her mistake, slew 
 herself also. 
 
 Themistogenes. Of Syracuse, supposed 
 (on inadequate grounds) to be the author of 
 the Andhdsis, which has come down to us 
 under the name of Xenophon {q.v.). 
 
 Th66clyin6nus. Son of the soothsayer 
 Polyphides, grandson of Melampus. When 
 a fugitive from Argos, for a murder which 
 he had committed, he met with Telemachus 
 in Pylus, who succoured him and brought 
 him to Ithaca. By means of his inherited 
 
THEOCRITUS^r-THEON. 
 
 629 
 
 gift of prophecy, he here made known to 
 PenelSpe the presence of Odysseus in the 
 island, and warned the suitors of their 
 fate. 
 
 Thfiocrltus. The founder and principal 
 representative of Greek bucolic poetry, 
 born about 325 B.C. in Syracuse, or (ac- 
 cording to another account) in the island 
 of Cos, pupil of the poet Philetas and 
 friend of the poet Aratus. He lived 
 alternately in Alexandria, at the court of 
 Ptolemy II {Philddelphus), and in Sicily 
 with Hiero, where he was much esteemed 
 for his poetical skill and refinement. He 
 died about 267. Besides a number of 
 epigrams, thirty-two poems, some of con- 
 siderable length, known as idylls, have come 
 down to us. Some of these are probably 
 spurious. Those that are undoubtedly 
 genuine are of great poetical merit. They 
 include the true bucolic idylls, descriptive 
 of the life of shepherds and herdsmen, and 
 also the genre pictures of every-day life and 
 of the mythical age, together with hymns 
 and eulogistic poems to his princely patrons, 
 an gpithdldmium in honour of Helen, and 
 some pieces in lyrical form. His poems of 
 ordinary life are especially remarkable for 
 their minutely faithful and dramatic de- 
 scriptions. Most of his idylls are written 
 in a largely modified epic language, with 
 a skilful admixture of the forms of the 
 Doric dialect spoken in Sicily, which still 
 farther enhanced their popular character. 
 Two of the lyrical poems [xxviii, xxix] are 
 composed in the iEolic dialect. 
 
 Th66dectes. Of Phaselis, in Lycia, a Greek 
 rhetorician and tragic 'poet. He carried 
 off the prize eight times, and in 351 B.C. 
 his tragedy of MausOlus was victorious in 
 the tragic contest instituted by queen 
 Artemisia in honour of her deceased hus- 
 band Mausolus. In the rhetorical contest, 
 held at the same time, he was defeated by 
 TheSpompus. Only unimportant fragments , 
 of his fifty tragedies are extant. 
 
 ThfiSdoms. (1) Of Samos, son of RhcBcus. 
 In conjunction with his father, he erected 
 the labyrinth of Lemnos [Pliny, N. H. xxxvi 
 90], and advised the laying down of a layer 
 of charcoal as part of the foundation of the 
 temple of Artemis, at Ephesus [Diogenes 
 Laertius ii 103]. He is said to have lived 
 for a long time in Egypt, where he and 
 his brother Teleoles learnt the Egyptian 
 canon of proportion for the human figure 
 [Diodorus, i 98]. He was considered by the 
 Greeks as one of the inventors of casting in 
 bronze [Pausanias, viii 14 § 8]. He wrote 
 
 a work on the temple of Hera at Samos, 
 which was begun by his father [Herodotus, 
 iii 60 ; Vitruvius, vii, pref. 12]. 
 
 (2) Son of Telecles, and nephew of (1). 
 He flourished in the time of Orcesus and 
 Polycrates, whose ring he made [Herodo- 
 tus, i 51, iii 41]. [J. E. S.] 
 
 Thfiognis. A Greek elegiac poet, born 
 about 540 B.C., of a rich and noble family 
 in MegSra. He lived at a time when bitter 
 feuds had broken out in his native town 
 between the nobles and the other citizens. 
 On the fall of his party, having espoused 
 the cause of the aristocracy, he was de- 
 spoiled of his fortune and driven into exile. 
 It was not until many years later that he 
 was able to return to the home for which 
 he yearned, and he was probably still alive 
 at the time of the Persian Wars. From 
 the remains of his elegies, which are mostly 
 addressed in a hortatory form to the noble 
 youth Cycnus, it may be seen that they were 
 closely connected with the political fortunes 
 of the poet. They exhibit the pride and 
 rancour of the ai-istocrat, in whose eyes all 
 his own party are " good " and " noble," as 
 contrasted with the adherents of the popu- 
 lar party, who are denounced as " base " 
 and " cowardly." The loss of the great 
 bulk of his poems was due to their contain- 
 ing an extraordinary abundance of proverbs, 
 which were at an early date extracted from 
 his writings, to serve (especially at Athens) 
 as precepts for the conduct of 3-outh. 
 Under his name we still possess a dreary 
 collection of all kinds of proverbial coup- 
 lets and precepts, which are strung together 
 without coherence or plan, being connected 
 by means of merely casual catchwords, 
 and including adventitious elements, such 
 as sayings of Tyrtseus, Mimnermus, Solon, 
 and others. 
 
 Th6on. (1) Of SdviOs. A Greek painter 
 who flourished in the second half of the 4th 
 century B.C. His pictures were celebrated 
 for their powerful effect on the imagination, 
 which caused those who looked at them to 
 forget that they were only counterfeits of 
 reality. The picture of a young hoplite 
 charging the enemy was especially cele- 
 brated for this effect of illusion [^lian, 
 Var. Hist, ii 44]. 
 
 (2) Of Smyrna. A Platonist living in 
 the first half of the 2nd centxiry A.D. He 
 was the author of a work of great value in 
 connexion with ancient Greek arithmetic : 
 on the principles of mathematics, music, 
 and astronomy required for the study of 
 Plato. 
 
G30 
 
 THEOPHEASTUS- 
 
 -THEORIiE. 
 
 (3) Of Alexandria. One of the last 
 members of the Alexandrian Museum, born 
 about 365 a.d. He is the author of a com- 
 mentary on Euclid and on the astronomical 
 tables of Ptolemseus. 
 
 (4) JELius. A rhetorician of Alexandria. 
 He wrote, in the 5th centurj' A.D., a book 
 on rhetoric, to which were appended exer- 
 cises on style, called progymnasmdtd, 
 deserving of much commendation both for 
 their conciseness and lucidity of exposition, 
 and for their criticisms on the style of the 
 Attic orators. 
 
 Thgophrastus. A Greek philosopher, born 
 371 B.C. at Eresus, in Lesbos. At Athens, 
 he was at first the pupil of Plato, and then 
 of Aristotle, who, on account of his fasci- 
 nating powers of language, is said to have 
 given him the name of Theophrastus 
 (" divine speaker "), instead of his original 
 name Tyrtamus. Appointed by Aristotle 
 guardian of his son and heir to his 
 library, and designated by him as his suc- 
 cessor in the leadership of the Peripatetic 
 school, he continued at its head, and pur- 
 sued, in an independent spirit, the philo- 
 sophy of his master. After long enjoying 
 the highest esteem, he died in the eighty- 
 fifth year of his age, in 287. 
 
 Like Aristotle, he succeeded in com- 
 bining with his philosophical studies (of 
 which only the fragment of a work on 
 metaphysics has been preserved), various 
 investigations in natural science, especially 
 in botany, of which science he may be said 
 to be the founder, just as Aristotle is con- 
 sidered to be the originator of zoolog}'. 
 Of his botanical works we still possess a 
 Natural History of Plants, in ten books, 
 and six books of the eight On the Origin 
 (or physiology) of Plants. A small pam- 
 phlet, containing an outline of mineralogy, 
 has also been preserved, together with other 
 scientific works. His Characters are pro- 
 bably an abridgment of a larger work. 
 They consist of thirty sections, descriptions 
 of various tj'pes of character, and are 
 remarkable for the knowledge of life and 
 keenness of observation which they display, 
 and for the intuitive skill and vivacity of 
 expression with which they are written. 
 
 Theopompus. (1) A Greek poet of the 
 Old Comedy, a younger contemporary of 
 Aristophanes; he is known to have been 
 engaged in composition as late as about 
 370 B.C. Only fragments remain of his 
 twenty-four dramas, which prepared the 
 way for the transition to the Middle 
 Comedy. 
 
 (2) A Greek historian, born at Chi6s 
 about 380 B.C. He left home, probably 
 about 361, with his father, who was 
 banished by the democratic party on account 
 of his predilection for the Spartans, and, 
 having been trained in oratory by Isocrfttes, 
 spoke with great success in all the larger 
 towns of Greece. He distinguished himself 
 so greatly in the rhetorical contest in- 
 stituted (351) by queen Artemisia, wife of 
 j\Iausolus, in honour of her deceased husband, 
 that he obtained a brilliant victory over all 
 competitors. He afterwards travelled, with 
 the object of acquiring material for his 
 historical works. The favour shown him 
 by Alexander the Great induced him to 
 return to Chios at the age of forty-five ; 
 but on the death of his patron he found 
 himself again obliged to flee from his 
 opponents, whose hatred he had incurred 
 by his vehement adoption of the sentiments 
 of the aristocracy. He took refuge with 
 king Ptolemy I at Alexandria about 305. 
 Here he did not, however, meet with a 
 favourable reception, and was compelled to 
 withdraw, as his life was in danger. Of 
 his subsequent fate nothing is known. 
 
 Besides numerous orations, he composed 
 two large histories, founded on the most 
 careful and minute research: (a) HSllSnlcd, 
 in twelve books, a continuation of Thuc}'- 
 dides, covering the period from 411-394; and 
 (b) Philippicd, in fifty-eight books, treating 
 of the life and times of Philip of Macedon. 
 Of these works only fragments remain. 
 The charge of malignity, which was brought 
 against him by the ancients, seems to have 
 originated in the reckless manner in which, 
 on the testimony of Dionysius of Halicar- 
 nassus [Ep. ad Cn. Povipeium], he exposed 
 the pettiness and baseness of the politics of 
 those times, especially those of the Mace- 
 donian party. There seems to be better 
 foundation for the charge brought against 
 him of being too fond of digressions ; for 
 when, in later times, the digressions in the 
 Philippica were omitted, the work was 
 thereb}' rediiced to sixteen books. 
 
 Theorise (Gr. thSonai). The Greek name 
 for the sacred embassies, which were 
 sent by individual States to the great 
 national festivals, as well as to those of 
 friendly States ; for instance, that sent by 
 the Athenians to the festival of Apollo at 
 Delos. A number of important men were 
 appointed to this office, the principal of 
 whom was known as the arclntheorbs. 
 Part of the cost, which was considerable, 
 was borne by the State and part by the 
 
THEORICON THESAURUS. 
 
 631 
 
 avchitheoros, on whom, as also on his com- 
 panions {synthgori), devolved the honour- 
 able and patriotic duty of appearing with 
 the utmost splendour. In Athens the archi- 
 theoria was one of the llturgice undertaken 
 by the wealthier citizens. {^Het Leitourgia.) 
 The members of the sacred embassy were 
 treated as honoured guests by the State to 
 which they were deputed.. 
 _ Thd6ric6a(" theatre-money"). A distribu- 
 tion of two obols (about 3d) a head, granted 
 from the time of Pericles to the poorer 
 Athenian citizens, from the common war- 
 chest (see HELLENOTAMI.E), to enable them 
 to attend the representations at the theatre, 
 two obols being the entrance fee levied 
 by the lessees of the theatre. By degrees 
 this grant was distributed to citizens who 
 laid claim to it in the case of other enter- 
 tainments. It was abolished towards the 
 end of the Peloponnesian War, but again 
 introduced after the restoration of the 
 democracy; and a special fund, to which, by 
 a decree of the people, the whole surplus of 
 the revenue was to be devoted, was set 
 apart for this purpose, with a special 
 treasurer, who had even for a time the 
 management of the finances of the State. 
 Demosthenes first succeeded, shortly before 
 the battle of Chseronea (338 B.C.), in putting 
 an end to this system, which so severely 
 taxed the resources of the State in time of 
 war. 
 
 Theoxgnia (" entertainments given to 
 the gods "). A festival celebrated in many 
 parts of Greece in honour, not only of the 
 principal local divinity, but of many others 
 who were considered as his guests. Such 
 was the feast held at Delphi in honour of 
 Apollo in the month hence called Theoxenws 
 (August). Of the manner of its celebration 
 nothing is known. Distinguished men, such 
 as Pindar and his descendants, were also 
 invited to the sacrificial feast. Elsewhere 
 other gods appeared as hosts at the feast, 
 as the Dioscuri, the patrons of hospitality, 
 in ParSs and Agrigentum. 
 
 Theritas ("the savage one"). A name 
 given at Sparta to Ares (q.v.). 
 
 Thermae. The name given by the Romans 
 to the public buildings, founded in and 
 after the time of Agrippa, which combined, 
 with ivarm baths, the arrangements of a 
 Greek gymnasium. These included open 
 and covered colonnades for conversation, in- 
 struction, and different exercises, especially 
 the game of ball. The most extensive and 
 splendid establishments of the sort were to 
 be found in Rome, and are still to be seen. 
 
 though, for the greater part, in ruins. Of 
 the existing remains the most important 
 are those of the Thennce of Caracalla. 
 {Cp. Architecture, fig. 14, p. 56 ; and see 
 Baths.) 
 
 Thersander (Gr. Thersandros). Son of 
 PSlynices and Argeia, husband of Demonassa 
 the daughter of Amphiaraus, and king of 
 Thebes after the taking of that city by the 
 Epigoni {q.v.). According to post-Homeric 
 traditions he took part in the expedition 
 against Troy, but was killed on first landing 
 by Telephus. In Vergil [" Thessandrus," 
 ^n. ii 261], on the other hand, he is one 
 of the heroes of the wooden horse. His 
 son and successor was TisS-menus. His 
 grandson, Autesion, at the bidding of the 
 oracle, went over to the Dorians who had 
 settled in Lacedsemon ; and his great- 
 grandson Theras founded a colony in the 
 island of Galliste, which from that time 
 was called Thera. It was from him that 
 Theron, the tyrant of Agrigentum in Sicily, 
 traced his descent. 
 
 Thersites. The most ill-favoured of the 
 Greeks assembled before Troy, and also a 
 man of evil tongue. He was severely 
 chastised by Odysseus [II. ii 212-277] for 
 speaking evil of Agamemnon. According 
 to later tradition, Achilles slew him with a 
 blow of his fist for stabbing in the eye the 
 Amazon Penthesilea, whom he had himself 
 laid low, and also for falsely accusing 
 Achilles [Quintus Smyrnseus, i 768-823]. 
 
 Thesaurus. The Greek term for a room 
 in which all kinds of objects, provisions, 
 jewels, etc., were stored ; hence a " trea- 
 sury " or " treasure house." In ordinary life 
 the underground store-chambers, circular 
 vaulted rooms with an opening above, 
 similar to our cellars, were thus named. 
 The same name was given to treasure- 
 houses which each State maintained within 
 the precincts of Panhellenic sanctuaries, 
 as repositories for their offerings to the 
 gods. Such were those at Olympia and 
 Delphi. The subterranean tombs, shaped 
 like beehives, and of a construction dating 
 from remote Greek antiquity, which have 
 been found in various places, have been 
 wrongly described as " treasure houses." 
 The most celebrated of these are the so 
 called thesaurus of Atreus at Mycenae (see 
 Architecture, fig. 3), and that of Minyas 
 at Orohomenus (see Trophonius). The 
 latter is only partly, the former wholly 
 preserved. The ground-plan of these struc- 
 tures is circular, and consists of one 
 enclosed room with a domed roof, con- 
 
I ■,32 
 
 THESEUS. 
 
 structed of horizontal laj-ers of massive 
 stone blocks, projecting one over the other. 
 This circular chamber was nsed probably 
 for services in honour of the dead. The 
 actual resting-place of the body was a 
 square room adjoining. The large room at 
 Mycense is fifty feet in diameter, and about 
 the same in height. It consists of thir- 
 teen courses, the uppermost of which was 
 only a single stone. It was decorated with 
 hundreds of bronze plates, the holes for the 
 nails being still visible. 
 
 Thessus. The Heracles of Ionian-Attic 
 fable ; son of jEthra and the Athenian 
 king .Sigeus or, according to another story, 
 Poseidon, ^geus, having consulted the 
 oracle at Delphi, in consequence of both 
 his marriages proving childless, and having 
 received an obscure reply, applied to the 
 wise Pittheus of Troezen, who gave him 
 his daughter .Sithra in marriage. On his 
 return to Athens he laid his sword and 
 shoes under a rock, and charged jEthra, as 
 soon as his son was able to lift it, to send 
 him with these tokens to Athens. When 
 Theseus, who had been educated by his 
 grandfather, had attained the age of six- 
 teen, and had dedicated his forelocks to the 
 Delian or Delphic Apollo, his mother con- 
 ducted him to the stone ; he lifted it with 
 ease, and set out to go to his father at 
 Athens, bearing the sword and shoes. On 
 the way he had a series of adventures with 
 various monsters,^ from which he emerged 
 victorious. At Epidaurus he vanquished 
 Periphetes {q.v.); on the Isthmus of Corinth, 
 Sinis (q.v.) ; at Crommyon, not far from 
 Megara, the wild sow Pheea (i.e. " the gray 
 one ") ; on the borders of Megara and 
 Attica, the robber Sciron (q.v.). In Eleusis 
 he overcame and slew Cercyon (q.v.). 
 Farther on he rid the land of the monster 
 Damastes (q.v.). He then proceeded on his 
 way to iEgeus at Athens, being purified of 
 bloodshed by the Phytalidae (see Phytalus) 
 on reaching the Cephissus. His father had 
 meanwhile married Medea, who had fled 
 to him from Corinth, and who recognised 
 Theseus as the son of the house, and per- 
 suaded jEgeus to poison the stranger during 
 a meal. The father, however, recognised 
 his son in time, by means of the sword 
 which Theseus used to cut up his meat, and 
 Medea disappeared through the air with 
 Medus, her son by jEgeus. When Pallas, 
 who had deprived his brother of the throne, 
 heard of what had happened, he and his 
 fifty gigantic sons hastened to Athens ; but 
 they were all slain by the young hero, who 
 
 was warned in time by the herald Leos. 
 After this he seized the bull of Marathon 
 (see Heeacles), which had devastated the 
 country, and sacrificed it to Apollo Del- 
 phlnius at Athens. When the time drew 
 near for the third payment of the tribute of 
 seven youths and seven maidens, exacted 
 by Minos (q.v.) for the Minotaur, he volun- 
 teered to accompany them, and to deliver 
 his country from this horrible tribute by 
 slaying the monster. Through Aphrodite's 
 favour he gained the love of Ariadne, the 
 daughter of Minos, who gave him a thread 
 that she had received from Daedalus, by 
 means of which he was able to find his 
 way into the Labyrinth to the Minotaur, 
 and emerge again in safety after having 
 slain the monster. Ariadne allowed him 
 to carry her away on his return home 
 with the rescued youths and maidens. 
 But in the island of Dia (see Ariadne) 
 he forsook her, either from faithlessness 
 or (according to another account) at the 
 special command of the gods. In his joy 
 at his success, he forgot the signal agreed 
 upon with jEgeus, that if he succeeded 
 in his enterprise a white sail should be 
 hoisted in place of the black one, and he 
 was thus the cause of his father's death. 
 (See Mg-eus.) 
 
 As king of Athens, he justified his right 
 to the significant name of "founder," by 
 inducing the independent Attic communi- 
 ties to recognise Athens as the capital and 
 centre of the whole country ; and in this 
 manner he became the founder of the Attic 
 State. To commemorate this event he is 
 said to have instituted the feast of the 
 union of the tribes (Synoikia or MetoiMa), 
 and to have caused the Athencea, a festival 
 instituted by Erich thonius, to be cele- 
 brated by all Attica, under the name of 
 Panathensea (the festival of united Athens). 
 In the same way the institution of the 
 Isthmian games is attributed to him in 
 commemoration of his victory over Sinis. 
 He IS also said to have taken part in the 
 Argonautic expedition and in the Caly- 
 donian Hunt, as well as in the expedition 
 undertaken by Heracles against the Ama.- 
 zons. In reward for the bravery which he 
 displayed on this occasion, Antiope, the 
 sister of the queen of the Amiazons, was 
 bestowed upon him ; she became the mother 
 of Hippolytus. According to another tra- 
 dition, he and his friend Pirithotis, king 
 of the Lapithse, carried her away, and, to 
 avenge the deed, the Amazons invaded 
 Attica. (See Antiope, 2.) After Antiope's 
 
THESMOPHORI A THETI S. 
 
 G33 
 
 death lie married Phsedra, the daughter 
 of Minos, sister of Ariadne, and mother of 
 Acamas and DeraophSon. On her death by 
 her own hand (see Hippolytus), he carried 
 off Helen, with the help of Pirithous, to 
 his stronghold Aphidnee. He, in his turn, 
 assisted Pirithous in his battle with the 
 Centaurs, and even descended into the world 
 below to help his friend to carry away 
 PersephSne. They were punished severely 
 for this sacrilegious attempt, as they were 
 fastened to a rock, on which they were 
 compelled to sit for ever. 
 
 Theseus, however, was after some time 
 delivered by Heracles, when the latter 
 was fetching Cerberus, and returned with 
 him to the light of day. There he found 
 everything changed. The Dioscuri had 
 in the meantime taken and destroyed his 
 town of Aphidnse, had freed Helen, and 
 had carried away captive his own mother. 
 Menestheus, son of Peteos, had usurped 
 the government of the country. Theseus 
 thereupon took his sons Acamas and 
 Demophoon to Elephenor, king of the 
 Abantes, and went himself to the island of 
 Scyros, where the king, Lycomedes, trea- 
 cherously threw him from a rock into the 
 sea. 
 
 He was worshipped as a hero at Athens; 
 yet it was not until after the Persian War 
 that the reverence paid him assumed a 
 more important form, when he is said to 
 have been seen at the battle of Marathon 
 in full armour at the head of his country- 
 men. Bones, supposed to be his, were 
 brought by Cimon from Scyros to Athens, 
 at the bidding of the Delphic oracle, in 
 476 B.C., and a splendid temple, which 
 served as an asylum especially for slaves, 
 and in which public officials were chosen 
 by lot, was erected over the spot where 
 they were buried. The building commonly 
 called the Theseum (Gr. Theseion) is a 
 peripteral hexastyle temple in antis, sur- 
 rounded by thirty-four most beautiful Doric 
 columns ; six on each of the narrow, and 
 eleven on each of the long sides, the whole 
 of Pentelic marble. (See Architecture, 
 fig. 6.) The festival of the Theseid, if not 
 actually instituted at that time, was held 
 afterwards with great splendour, with con- 
 tests and feasting, on the eighth day of 
 the month Pyanepsion (October-Novem- 
 ber), and the eighth of each month was 
 dedicated to him, as it was to his divine 
 father, Poseidon. Eepresentations of his, 
 heroic deeds, especially his combats with 
 the Amazons and Centaurs, served in par- 
 
 ticular as decorations of public buildings. 
 Poetry, dramatic poetry especially, and art 
 rivalled each other in doing him honour. 
 He is generally represented in works of art 
 as a powerful, beardless youth (cp. Sculp- 
 ture, fig. 7), but of a slighter build than 
 his prototype Heracles, whose club and 
 lion's skin are assigned him in later repre- 
 sentations, instead of the sword with which 
 he is armed in earlier times. 
 
 Thesinophoria,. A festival to Demeter, 
 as the foundress of agriculture and of the 
 civic rite of marriage, celebrated in many 
 parts of Greece, but especially at Athens. 
 It was held at Athens from the 9th to 13th 
 of Pyanepsion, the beginning of November, 
 and only by married women of genuine Attic 
 birth and of blameless reputation. Two 
 of the wealthiest and most distinguished 
 women were chosen out of every district 
 to preside over the festivals; their duty 
 was to perform the sacred functions in the 
 name of the others, and to prepare the festal 
 meal for the women of their own district. 
 Even the priestess who had the chief con- 
 duct of the whole festival had to be a 
 married woman. On the first day of the 
 feast the women went in procession, amid 
 wanton jests and gibes, to the dcTiie of 
 Halimus, on the promontory of Colias, 
 where nightly celebrations were held in 
 the temple of Demeter and her daughter 
 Core. After their return in the early 
 morning of the third day, a festival lasting 
 for three days was held in Athens. No 
 sacrifices were offered on the last day but 
 one, which was spent amid fasting and 
 mourning. On the last day, on which 
 Demeter was invoked under the name of 
 KcdligSneid (or goddess of fair children), 
 a feast was held amid mimic dances and 
 games, which probably referred to the 
 mythical stories of the goddess and her 
 daughter. 
 
 ThesmothfitsB. The six junior archons 
 at Athens, on whom devolved, specially, 
 the administration of certain branches of 
 the law. For further details, see Archon. 
 
 Thespis. Of Icaria ; the founder of 
 Greek tragedy (q.v.). 
 
 Thestius. Son of Ares and DemSnice ; 
 king of ^tolia, father of Althsea and 
 Leda (q.v.). 
 
 Thet6a. The lowest of the four property- 
 classes instituted by Solon. (See Solonian 
 Constitution and EisphSra.) 
 
 Thetis. Daughter of Nereus and Doris, 
 wife of Peleus, and mother of Achilles. On 
 many occasions she proved herself of assis- 
 
634 
 
 THIASUS THRESHING. 
 
 tance to the gods. When Zeus was threa- 
 tened by Hera, Athene, and Poseidon, she 
 called Briareus (or ^gaeon) to his aid. 
 When Hephsestus was cast out of heaven 
 by Zeus, she took him and hid him for nine 
 years. Again, when Dionysus was fleeing 
 before Lj'curgus, she afforded him protec- 
 tion in the sea. Brought up by Hera, she 
 was wooed by Zeus and Poseidon. But when 
 Themis foretold that Thetis would bear 
 a son who would be greater than his father, 
 ijhe was married against her will to a mortal, 
 Peleus (q.v.). This marriage was the source 
 of the greatest sorrow to her. Her attempt 
 to make her only son Achilles immortal was 
 frustrated by her husband, and caused an 
 estrangement between them, and she was 
 fated to see her glorious and godlike son 
 cut off in the prime of life. 
 
 Thiasus. The Greek designation of a 
 society which had selected some god for 
 its patron, and held sacrifices, festal pro- 
 csKsions, and banquets at stated times in 
 his honour. Frequently the members of 
 such societies, which took their name either 
 from their divine patron or else from the 
 days of festal celebration, pursued other 
 common ends, sometimes of business, some- 
 times of social life. The name thiasus was 
 specially applied to the festivals in honour 
 of Dionysus, and, in the representations of 
 poetry and art, to the mythical retinue of 
 the god, which consisted of Sileni, Satyrs, 
 Nymphs, Msenads, etc. 
 
 TMsbe. See Pyramus. 
 
 Tholas. A term applied by the Greeks 
 to any round building with a conical roof 
 or cupola. At Athens it indicated the 
 Rotunda used for the official head-quarters 
 of the Prytdnes {see Boule), who also dined 
 here at the public expense. It was situated 
 near the Senate-house {bouleuterion). [Aris- 
 totle, Constitution of Athens, 43.] 
 
 Thorax. The Greek term for a cuirass, 
 either of metal (usually bronze) or of leather. 
 The metal cuirass consisted of two separate 
 pieces, one covering the chest and stomach, 
 and the other the back, attached to one 
 another by means of clasps or buckles. 
 They terminated with a curved edge just 
 above the hip, and at this part were often 
 covered with a leathern belt (zosfer), fastened 
 with buckles, to bind both pieces more 
 firmly together. Another helt'{mitra), lined 
 with leather, was worn under the armour 
 and above the cMton. This was fitted with 
 a plate of metal growing broader towards 
 the middle, and serving to protect the belly. 
 In later times the front plate of the cuirass 
 
 was extended downwards, so as > to cover 
 the belly as far as the navel. As an ad- 
 ditional protection to the belly and the 
 upper part of the legs, there was on the 
 inner side of the lower edge of the cuirass 
 a series of short strips of leather or felt, 
 covered with plates of metal, often in 
 several layers. They resembled a kilt, 
 and were called ^<er?/^^s (lit. "feathers"). 
 Smaller strips of the same kind were worn 
 under the arms to protect the arm-pits. 
 
 THORAX. 
 
 (From Greek Vases.) 
 
 The leather cuirass (spolds) was a kind 
 of shirt reaching over the navel and hips, 
 and fringed with flexible strips along its 
 lower edge. It was open either in front or 
 on one side (usually the left), and was there 
 fastened together by means of clasps or 
 buckles. It was also provided with an 
 upright piece protecting the neck, and with 
 two shoulder-straps. It was frequently 
 covered, either completely, or only under 
 the arms, with metal, especially in the form 
 of scales. 
 
 Linen cuirasses are also mentioned, even 
 in ancient times. These were probably 
 either thickly quilted or strongly woven 
 corselets. {See cuts, and cp. cut under 
 
 HOPLITES.) 
 
 Threnos. The Greek term for a dirge 
 sung by a chorus to the accompaniment of 
 flutes, either at the burial, or at the funeral 
 feast. 
 
 Threshing. The Greeks and Romans 
 practised in early times the same method 
 of separating the corn from the ear as other 
 ancient nations. A threshing-floor, care- 
 fully prepared for the purpose, was con- 
 structed in the open air, and the corn trodden 
 out by oxen, mules, or horses, driven round 
 
THRINACIA THUCYDIDES. 
 
 636 
 
 in a circle. Sometimes it was beaten out 
 with sticks. The Romans sometimes used 
 machines. One of these was the trtbiilum, 
 a board or beam with a sharp edge of stone 
 or iron underneath, loaded with weights 
 on the top and drawn by oxen, which were 
 driven by a man sitting on the handle. 
 Another was the plostelluvi FcBntcum, 
 borrowed from the Carthaginians. This 
 consisted of several rollers or cylinders fitted 
 with iron spikes. 
 
 the pupil of the rhetoricians Antiphon and 
 Gorgias, and of the philosopher AnaxagSras. 
 The earliest trustworthy notice we have of 
 him belongs to the year 421 B.C., when we 
 find him at the head of an Athenian fleet 
 stationed at the island of Thasos at the 
 time when the Spartan Brasidas was be- 
 sieging Amphipolis in Thrace. He was 
 summoned to the help of the besieged, but, 
 on his arrival, found the place alreadj- m 
 th3 hands of the enemy, and had to content 
 
 * BUST OF THUCYDIDES. 
 
 (Holkham Hall, Korfolk.) 
 
 Thriii3,cia. A mythical island, on which 
 the herds of the Sun-god grazed [Od. xi 
 107, xii 127, xix 275 ; afterwards identified 
 with Sicily, Trinacria]. {Cp. Helios and 
 Odysseus.) 
 
 Thuc^dides.^, The celebrated Greek his- 
 torian, son of Olorus, an Athenian, probably 
 descended from the Thracian prince Olorus, 
 whose daughter Hegesippe was the wife of 
 Miltiades and mother of Cimon. He was 
 born about 471 B.C., and is said to have been 
 
 himsell with garrisoning the neighbouring 
 town of Elon, and securing it against 
 Brasidas. On account of his delay in com- 
 ing, he was put on his trial for treason, and 
 banished. For twenty years he remained 
 away from Athens. Part of this time he 
 spent in Thrace, where he owned valuable 
 gold-mines opposite Thasos, and part in the 
 Peloponnesus. He probably lived for some 
 time in Sicily. In 404, when the exiles 
 were recalled to Athens, he returned to his 
 
esG 
 
 THYESTES THYRSUS. 
 
 native town, but only to be murdered either 
 at Athens or in Thrace, a few years later 
 (not later than 395 B.C.). 
 
 At the very beginning of the Pelopon- 
 nesian War Thucydides foresaw, as he him- 
 self says, that the struggle would surpass 
 all earlier wars in magnitude and impor- 
 tance, and accordingly at once resolved to 
 write its history, and began his prepara- 
 tions for his narrative without delay. His 
 banishment afforded him the opportunity 
 of calmly observing the course of events, 
 of making inquiries from both parties, and 
 ascertaining the truth with the greatest 
 accuracy. At all events, at this time he was 
 already beginning the composition of certain 
 parts of his work. He proceeded to elabo- 
 rate the whole directly after his return 
 from banishment, but had only reached the 
 twenty-first year of the war (411), when 
 death prevented the completion of his task. 
 
 The existing history was published by 
 another hand, and was continued by Xeno- 
 phon as well as by Theopompus. Its 
 general plan is simple and artless in the 
 highest degree. After a critical examina- 
 tion of early Greek history and an exposi- 
 tion of the internal and external causes of 
 the war, the history follows the succession 
 of events, with a strict division of each 
 year into summer and winter. This ar- 
 rangement, while it supplies us with the 
 chronological sequence of events in an 
 accurate form, sometimes prevents our ob- 
 taining a general view of the whole, and 
 leads to facts which are intimately con- 
 nected with one another becoming separated 
 by the course of the narrative. 
 
 The matter falls into three great divisions : 
 (1) the Archidamian war down to the peace 
 of Nicias, 421 B.C. (books i-v 24) ; (2) the 
 interval of disquiet, together with the 
 great Sicilian expedition, down to 413 (v 
 26-vii); (3) the Decelean war, of which 
 the first two years alone are included in 
 the eighth book. The first four books 
 alone are marked by even and uniform 
 execution. Next to this part in excellence 
 comes the history of the Sicilian expedi- 
 tion (vi and vii). Ear inferior to the rest 
 of the work are books v and viii. The 
 latter presents us with only a sketchy col- 
 lection of historical materials. 
 
 In writing the history of the Pelopon- 
 nesian War, his aim (as he himself states at 
 the beginning of his work) was to produce 
 a possession for all time, and not only a 
 showy declamation for the listeners of the 
 moment. This object he has attained, since 
 
 he founds his work on 
 investigation of facts, 
 
 the most careful 
 carried out with 
 most conscientious criticism. Endued with 
 the most penetrating insight, he searches 
 into the connexion and causes of events. 
 His narrative is characterized with an 
 unswerving love of truth, calmness, and 
 impartiality of judgment, without the inci- 
 dental digressions with which the history of 
 Herodotus is interwoven, and is marked by 
 an abstinence from all personal reflexions. 
 The speeches, which are inserted in accor- 
 dance with the universal custom of ancient 
 historians, are in no author so far from 
 being mere displays of rhetorical skill. In 
 no history are they distinguished by such 
 depth of philosophy and richness of thought 
 as in that of Thucydides, who uses them 
 exclusively with the object of unfolding 
 the motives of actions and expounding the 
 sentiments of the speakers. 
 
 He displays a mai-vellous skill in lucid 
 description, as in the harrowing account of 
 the plague of Athens ; equally- striking is 
 his vivid portraiture of the characters of 
 distinguished personages. 
 
 In accordance with his personal charac- 
 ter, his style is grave and elevated. It does 
 not exhibit the easy flow and charming 
 grace of a Lysias, Isocrates, Xenophon, or 
 Plato. On the contrary, it is often harsh 
 and rugged, interspersed with archaic and 
 poetical phrases, and is concise to the verge 
 of obscurity and unintelligibility. This is 
 especially the case in the speeches, which, 
 with their fulness of thought and their 
 effort to express as much as possible in the 
 fewest words, are among the most difficult 
 portions of Greek literature. 
 
 Thyestes. Son of Pelops, brother of 
 Atreus (q.v.). 
 
 Thyiades. Women who celebrated.wild 
 orgies in honour of Dionysus. 
 
 Thymele. The altar 
 of Dionysus which stood 
 in the centre of the or- 
 chestra in the Greek 
 theatre {q.v.). 
 
 Thj^one. The name 
 of the deified Semele 
 {q.v., and cp. DiONTSUs). 
 
 Th^oneus. Another 
 name of Dionysus {q.v.). 
 
 Thyrsus. A staff car- 
 ried by Dionysus and 
 his attendants, and «^"'« '^"^ thyrsus. 
 
 .1 ^ .,-, .' T (Cameo in Naples Museum.) 
 
 wreathed with ivy and 
 vine-leaves, terminating at the top in a pine- 
 cone. {See cut, and cp. Dionysus, fig. 3.) 
 
TIBERINUS TIM^US. 
 
 637 
 
 , Tiberinus. The god of the river Tiber ; 
 according to tradition, an old king of the 
 country, who is said to have been drowned 
 while swimming across the river Albula, 
 which thenceforth was named Tiber {Ti- 
 hSrls) after him. The Roman legends 
 represented him as raising the mother of 
 Romiilus and Remus, Rhea Silvia, who had 
 been thrown into the Tiber, to the position 
 of his consort and of goddess of the stream. 
 As the river was of great importance to 
 Rome, the river-god was highly honoured, 
 and was invoked by the pontificSs and 
 augurs in their prayers for the welfare of 
 the State. His shrine was on the island of 
 the Tiber, where offerings were made to 
 him on Dec. 8th. On June 7th fishermen 
 celebrated special games in his honour {ludi 
 ■piscdtorii) on the opposite bank of the 
 Tiber. Under the name of Volturnus, i.e. 
 " the rolling stream," or " river " generally, 
 he appears to have had a flamen {Voltur- 
 ndlis) and a feast, the Volturndlia, on Aug. 
 27th. Of extant representations of the 
 god the finest is a colossal figure in the 
 Louvre, representing him in a reclining pos- 
 ture, as a victor crowned with bay, holding 
 in one hand a rudder, and in the other a 
 cornucopia, with the she-wolf and Romulus 
 and Remus by his side. 
 
 Tibia. See Flute. 
 
 Tibullus {Albiuii). A Roman elegiac poet, 
 born about 65 B.C., of a wealthy and ancient 
 equestrian family, which had lost a con- 
 siderable part of its property in the Civil 
 Wars. However, he still owned an estate 
 at Pedum, between Tibur and Prseneste, 
 and was able to lead a comfortable life. 
 He obtained the favour of Messala Corvinus, 
 whom he accompanied on his Aquitanian 
 campaign in 31 B.C. Messala's invitation 
 to accompany him to Asia he at first 
 declined, being captivated by love ior Delia, 
 a freed-woman whose proper name was 
 Plania. Afterwards, when he had deter- 
 mined to make the journey, he fell ill, and 
 was compelled to remain behind at Corcyra. 
 He returned to Rome, and there received 
 the sad tidings that Delia was faithless to 
 him, and had given her affections to a 
 rich suitor. The poems which refer to his 
 relations with Delia are contained in the 
 first book of his elegies. The second book 
 has as its subject his mistress Nemesis, 
 who likewise embittered his love by her 
 faithlessness. According to an epigram 
 by a contemporary poet, he died soon 
 after Vergil, in the year 19 B.C. or early 
 in 18. 
 
 Four books of elegies have come down 
 to us under his name, but of these only 
 the first two can be assigned to him 
 with certainty. The whole of the third 
 book is the work of a feeble imitator, who 
 represents himself as called Lygdamus, and 
 as born in the year 43. It treats of the 
 love-passages between the poet and his 
 mistress Necera. Of the fourteen poems 
 of the fourth book, the first, a panegyric 
 in 211 hexameters, on Messala, composed 
 during Messala's consulship in 31, is so poor 
 a production that it cannot be assigned to 
 Tibullus ; especially as he already enjoyed 
 the full favour of Messala, which is solicited 
 by the author of the poem. Moreover, 
 poems 8-12, short love-letters of a maiden 
 to a lover named Cerinthus, possibly 
 Tiberius' friend Cornutus, are from the pen 
 of a poetess, Sulpicia, probably- the grand- 
 daughter of the famous jurist, Servius 
 Sulpicius. There is no ground for not 
 attributing the remaining poems to Tibullus. 
 The spurious works owe their preservation 
 among those of Tibullus to the fact that 
 they are the production of the circle of 
 Messala; and were published with the 
 genuine works as part of the literary re- 
 mains either of Messala or of Tibullus, who 
 himself, at the very most, published the first 
 book only during his lifetime. 
 
 Among the ancients, Tibullus was con- 
 sidered the first master of elegiac composi- 
 tion. The two themes of his poetry are 
 love and country life. Within this narrow 
 range the poet moves with considerable 
 grace and truthfulness of feeling, express- 
 ing his homely thoughts in correspondingly 
 homely and natural language, without any 
 of the obscure erudition characteristic of 
 Propertius, but also without that poet's . 
 versatility and artistic skill. 
 
 Tlmsens. (1) A Greek philosopher, an 
 adherent of the Pythagorean school ; the 
 alleged author of works on the nature of 
 the world and the soul of the universe. 
 {See Pythagoras.) 
 
 (2) A Greek historian born in 352 B.C. 
 at TaurSmenium, in Sicily, where his 
 father, Andromachus, established in 358 
 the remnant of the Naxians after the 
 destruction of their town by Dionysius I 
 in 403. He was instructed by Philiscus 
 of Miletus, one of the pupils of Isocrates. 
 As a member of one of the noblest and 
 wealthiest families of Sicily, he was 
 banished by the tj'rant Agathocles in 310, 
 and went to Athens, where he lived for 
 fifty years, occupied in the composition of 
 
638 
 
 TIMANTHES TIROCINIUM. 
 
 his history. Late in life he returned to 
 his home, and died there in 256 B.C. at the 
 age of ninety-six. He composed a History 
 of Sicily from the earliest times down to 
 264 B.C., in sixty-eight books, and a work 
 On the Campaigns of Pyrrhus : only frag- 
 ments of these compositions have come 
 down to us. He himself experienced in 
 nearly every quarter the same hostile critic 
 cism which his predecessor's works received 
 at his own hands, especially from Polybius 
 [xii 1-16,] who pronounces him wholly in^ 
 capacitated for writing history on account 
 of his lack of critical acumen, his malignity, 
 his partiality, and his tendency to super- 
 stition. He was the first among Greek 
 authors who regularly adopted the reckoning 
 by Olympiads as the basis of all chrono- 
 logical statements. 
 
 (3) A Sophist, probably bom 3 A.D. He 
 compiled a Platonic dictionary, a part of 
 which is still extant. 
 
 Timanthes. A Greek painter, from the 
 island of Cythnus, flourished about 400 
 B.C. ; celebrated by the ancients for his 
 genius no less than for his art. The most 
 admired of his works was his painting of 
 the Sacrifice of IphigSmd, in which the 
 expression of the different degrees of sym- 
 pathetic grief and mourning was brought 
 out in a masterly manner. The face of 
 Agamemnon was hidden in a mantle ; a 
 striking way of representing the father's 
 untold anguish. [Cicero, Orator 74 ; Pliny, 
 H. N. XXXV 73 ; Quintilian, ii 13 § 12 ; 
 Valerius Maximus, viii 11 § 6. The same 
 device is adopted in the mural painting from 
 Pompeii reproduced under Iphigenia.] 
 
 Timema {Gr., " valuation," " assessr 
 ment"). (1) The value at which an Athenian 
 citizen's property was rated for taxation. 
 Cp. Lat. census. (See SoLONiAN Consti- 
 tution and Eisphora). 
 
 (2) In legal language, a fine. Cp. litis 
 cestimatio. {See Judicial Procedure.) 
 
 Timocracy (Gr. timokrdtid, government 
 according to property-tax or valuation of 
 property). The name given among the 
 Greeks to that form of government in 
 which, while the citizens were equal in 
 other respects, their share in the govern- 
 ment was regulated by a certain gradation 
 corresponding to the amount of their pro- 
 perty. Thus those whose property entailed 
 the greater expenditure in public services 
 possessed proportionately greater privileges. 
 The Solonian constitution {q. v.) was founded 
 on this principle. 
 
 Tlmocrion. A Greek lyric poet, of laly- 
 
 sus in Rhodes, who flourished about 480 B.C. 
 He was a renowned athlete, and a friend 
 of Themistocles. Suspected of treasonable 
 intrigues with the Persians, he was ban- 
 ished from his home ; and, not obtaining 
 his recall by aid of Themistocle^ he at- 
 tacked him, as well as his rival Simonides, 
 the friend of Themistocles, with scurrilous 
 lampoons in the form of .iEolian and Dorian 
 lyrics. He also composed scolia. Of his 
 writings only a few fragments have come 
 down to us, which show him to be a man 
 of ability and of vehement passion. [Plu- 
 tarch, Themistocles, 21.] 
 
 Timomachus. Of Byzantium. The last 
 Greek artist of note ; he probably flourished 
 in the 3rd century B.C. Amongst his most 
 celebrated pictures were his Ajax aroused 
 from his Madness and his (unfinished) 
 Medea. The latter was represented in the 
 act of deliberating whether she is to slay 
 her children. For these paintings Csesar 
 afterwards paid the sum of eighteen talents. 
 Of his Medea we have several copies, as 
 in two of the mural paintings of Hercu- 
 laneum and Pompeii [Baumeister's Denk- 
 mdler, No. 948 and 155. Pliny, N. H. 
 XXXV §§ 26, 136, 145 ; vii 126]. 
 
 Timon. A Greek philosopher and poet, 
 of Phlius, who flourished about 250 B.C. He 
 composed three books of Silloi (q.v.), in 
 which, in the form of a parody of the epic 
 poetry of Homer, he wittily ridiculed the 
 dogmatic philosophers from the Sceptic 
 point of view. As the chief representa- 
 tive of this style of writing he was styled 
 simply the Sillographer. We only possess 
 fragments of his works. 
 
 Timotheus. A Greek dithyrambic poet. 
 
 {See DiTHTRAMBOS). 
 
 Tiresias. See Teiresias. 
 
 Tiro {Marcus Tullius). The learned freed- 
 man and friend of the orator Cicero. He 
 wrote the life of his master, whom he 
 long survived, edited his speeches and 
 letters, and collected his witty sayings. 
 Besides this he composed grammatical and 
 encyclopaedical works. He is especially 
 famous as the inventor of Roman short- 
 hand writing, and his name is assigned to 
 a large collection of stenographical symbols 
 {notee Tiromdnce). He lived to the age 
 of 100. 
 
 Tirocinium (" a recruit's term of ser- 
 vice " ; from tiro, a " recruit "). The Roman 
 term for the interval between the as- 
 sumption of the toga viriUs (in the 16th 
 or 17th year) which marked the beginning 
 of independence and of liability to com- 
 
TISIPHONE TOGA. 
 
 639 
 
 pulsory military service, and the entrance 
 on a military career or official activity in 
 general. Under the EepublJc this time 
 was fixed at a year. It was looked upon 
 as the last stage of education, and in this a 
 youth qualified himself either in the army 
 for service in war or in the Torum for a 
 political life. 
 
 In the latter instance the young man 
 was handed over to the care of a man of 
 proved experience in public affairs, whom 
 he attended in the Forum and in the law^ 
 courts. In the former case he followed in 
 the train (cohors) of a general, where, 
 without performing the service of a com- 
 mon soldier, he fitted himself for the posi- 
 tion of an officer. 
 
 Tisiphone. One of the Greek Furies, 
 {See Eeinyes.) 
 
 Titan. Another name of the suurgod. 
 {See Helios.) 
 
 Titans. The children of UrS.nus and 
 G«a, six sons and six daughters : Ocednus 
 and Tethys, Hyperion and Theia (parents 
 of Helios, Selene, Eos), Casus and Phoebe 
 (parents of Leto and Asteria), Cronus and 
 RhSa (parents of the Olympian deities), 
 Crlus (father byEurybia of Astrseus, Pallas, 
 and Perses), Idpetu^ (father of Atlas, 
 Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus, 
 by the Ocean-nymph ClymSne), Themis 
 (mother of the Hours and Fates), and 
 Mnemosyne (mother of the Muses). Like 
 the parents, the children and grandchildren 
 bear the name of Titan. Incited to rebel- 
 lion by their mother Gsea, they overthrew 
 Uranus {q.v.) and established as sovereign 
 their youngest brother Cronus. He was 
 dethroned in turn by his son Zeus, where- 
 upon the best of the Titans and the 
 majority of their number declared for the 
 new ruler, and under the new order retained 
 their old positions, with the addition of 
 new prerogatives. The rest, namely, the 
 family of lapetus, carried on from Mount 
 Othrys a long and fierce struggle with the 
 Olympian gods, who fought from Mount 
 Olympus. Finally, by help of their own 
 kindred, the Hecatoncheires and the Cy- 
 clopes, whom by Hera's counsel Zeus had 
 set free from their prison, they were con- 
 quered and hurled down into Tartarus, 
 where the Hecatoncheires were set to guard 
 them. A later legend represents the Titans 
 as reconciled with Zeus and released from 
 Tartarus, and assigns them a place with 
 Cronus in the Islands of the Blest. 
 
 Tithonns. Son of Laomedon of Troy, 
 brother of Piiam, carried off by Eos on 
 
 account of his beauty. She obtained for bim 
 from Zeus the gift of immortality, but 
 forgot at the same time to ask for eternal 
 youth. When he afterwards becanie com- 
 pletely wrinkled and bent by age, and was 
 powerless to move without assistance, and 
 merely chirped like a cicada, she shut hipi 
 up in a solitary chamber. According to 
 another version, Eos changed him into a 
 cicada. His sons wer0 Emathion and 
 Memnon {q.v.). 
 
 Titles. One of the threp ancient patrician 
 tribes at Eome. {See Patricians.) 
 
 Titinius. A Roman comic poet, the 
 earliest representative of the fqhula togdta. 
 {See Comedy.) He flourished about 150 
 B.C. Owing to his skill in portraying 
 character, he was ranked next to Terence. 
 Of his comedies we only possess fifteen 
 titles and three fragments of a popular 
 character. 
 
 Tit^us. Son of Gsea, a giant in Euboea, 
 who offered violence to Leto, Ej,nd in con- 
 sequence was killed by the arrows of her 
 children Apollo and Artemis. H,e paid the 
 penalty of this outrage in the lower world, 
 where he lay stretched over nine acres of 
 ground, while two vultures perpetually 
 gnawed at his liver (the liver being sup- 
 posed to be the seat of the passions). 
 
 Toga. The distinctive garb of the Roman 
 citizen when appearing in public {see cut). 
 Its use was forbidden to exiles and to 
 foreigners ; it was indispensable on all 
 official occasions, even in imperial times, 
 when more convenient garmepts had been 
 adopted for ordinary use, It consisted of a 
 white woollen cloth of semicircular cut, 
 about five yards long by four wide, a certain 
 portion of which ^yas pressed by the fuller 
 into long narrow plaits. This cloth was 
 doubled lengthways, not down the centre, 
 but so that one fold was deeper than the 
 other. It was next thrown oyer the left 
 shoulder in such a manner that the end in 
 front reached to the ground, and the part 
 behind wa,s about twice a man's height in 
 length. This end was then brought round 
 under the right arm, and again thrown over 
 the left shoulder so as to cover the whole 
 of the right side from the arm-pit to the 
 calf. The broad folds in which it hung 
 over were thus gathered together pn the 
 left shoulder. The part which crossed the 
 breast diagonally was known as the sinus, 
 or bosom. It was deep enough to serve as 
 a pocket for the reception of small articles. 
 
 In earlier times the Romans wore the 
 toga even in warfare, although one of con- 
 
640 
 
 TOGATA TOECH-EACE. 
 
 siderably less width. It was worn on sucli 
 occasions in a peculiar mode called the 
 cinctus Gdblnus (or girding in the Gabian 
 manner, after the town Gabii). In this, 
 the end which, in the other mode, was 
 thrown over the left shoulder, was drawn 
 tightly round the body, so that in itself it 
 formed a girdle, leaving both arms free and 
 
 KOMAN CLAD IN THE TOGA. 
 
 preventing the garment from falling off. 
 This garb was subsequently retained only 
 for certain ceremonial rites, as at the found- 
 ing of towns, at the aynharvalia, during 
 incantations, at the opening of the temple 
 of Janus, and at sacrificial observances of 
 diverse kinds. After the sagum had been 
 introduced as a military garment, the toga 
 served as the exclusive garb and symbol of 
 peace. Women also in olden times used to 
 wear the toga : afterwards this was only 
 the case with prostitutes ; and disgraced 
 wives were forbidden to wear the stola, the 
 matron's dress of honour. The colour of the 
 toga, as worn by men {toga vlnlis), was 
 white : a dark-coloured toga (brown or 
 
 black, toga pulla or sordida) was only worn 
 by the lower classes, or in time of mourning, 
 or- by accused persons. A purple stripe 
 woven in the garment was the distinctive 
 mark of the curule magistrates and censors, 
 of the State priests (but only when per- 
 forming their functions), and afterwards 
 of the emperors. This, which was called 
 the toga prcetexta, was also worn by boys 
 until they attained manhood, and by girls 
 until marriage. The toga picta was a 
 robe adorned wi th golden stars ; it was 
 worn by a general on his triumph, by the 
 magistrate who was giving public games, in 
 imperial times by consuls on entering office, 
 and by the emperor on festal occasions. On 
 the toga Candida, see Candidatus. The 
 foot-gear appropriate to the toga was the 
 calcSus (q.v.). 
 
 Togata. [The general term for a play 
 with an Italian plot and surroundings, in- 
 cluding prcetextdtce (tragedies) and taber- 
 narice (comedies). See Diomedes, p. 489, 
 Keil, who makes it clear that the term 
 toyata is not confined to comedy, and that 
 Horace, De Arte Poetica 288, is wrong 
 in distinguishing togata from prcetexta, 
 as comedy from tragedy.] {See Comedy, 2, 
 and Pr^texta.) [H. N.] 
 
 Toilet. See Hair, Modes of Dressing ; 
 and Clothing. 
 
 Tolleno. A Roman siege-engine. {Sec 
 Sieges.) 
 
 Torch-race (Gr. Lampddedromia). The 
 torch-race was a contest held at night, 
 especially at Athens, at the Panathensea and 
 the festivals of Hephaestus, Prometheus, 
 Pan, and the Thracian moon-goddess called 
 Bendis [Plato, Rep. 328 A] , In this con- 
 test young men ran, with torches in their 
 hands, from the altar of Prometheus in the 
 Academia (where the torches were lighted) 
 to the city ; and whoever reached the goal 
 with his torch alight was the winner. Other 
 
 * KIDEE CARBYING A TORCH. 
 
 (Silver coin of Tarentam ; Lnynes, Choix de M^d. Gr., 
 pi. 3, 1.) 
 
 young men without torches ran after the 
 torch-bearers ; and the latter, if overtaken, 
 had to hand over their torches to the former. 
 To do this without letting the torches 
 
TOEEUTIC ART. 
 
 641 
 
 go out, required great skill [Pausanias, i 
 30 § 2]. In the time of Socrates the torch- 
 bearers sometimes rode on horseback [Plato, 
 above quoted]. The contest was attended 
 with considerable cost, as the scene of the 
 race had to be illuminated ; and at Athens 
 the duty of providing for it was one of the 
 public services incumbent on the wealthier 
 citizens. {See Leitouegia.) [The torch- 
 race is sometimes represented on vases, e.g. 
 in Gerhard's Ant. Bildw. Taf. 63, 1, copied in 
 Baumeister's Denkmdler, fig. 563. A rider 
 carrying a torch may be seen in the accom- 
 panying cut.] 
 
 [Toreutic Art (Gr. toreutike, sc. fechne). 
 The art of embossing metal, or working 
 it in ornamental relief or intaglio (Pliny, 
 N. H. xxxiv 54, 56 ; xxxv 77). The Greek 
 verb tdrmeln means " to work in relief or 
 repoussi^" and also " to chase " in metal ; 
 toreutos is an epithet of cups that are 
 " chased " or " worked in relief " ; idreia is 
 used of a " carving in relief " ; the artist is 
 called a toreutes ; and his characteristic 
 tool the tortus (Lat. caelum). The corre- 
 sponding Latin term is calatura, which, as 
 defined by Quintilian (ii 21 § 9), auro, 
 argento, cere, ferro opera efficit ; while 
 scalptura Stiani lignum, ebur, viarvior, 
 vitrum, gemmas complectUur. While 
 sculpture in bronze is primarily concerned 
 with designing the work of art which has 
 to be cast in the mould, the toreutic art has 
 to do with the elaboration and finish of the 
 metallic form when it is already cast. In 
 the case of large works in bronze, the 
 task of the toreutes is simply to remove 
 slight flaws and to add a few finishing 
 touches ; in that of smaller works, his art 
 becomes of paramount importance. The 
 term toreutes is virtually confined to artists 
 who produce for ordinary use articles in 
 metal, which owe their value as works of 
 art solely to the adornment bestowed upon 
 them. 
 
 In the best times of Greek art, the 
 favourite metal for this purpose was silver ; 
 but gold and bronze and even iron were 
 also used. The art was often applied to the 
 embellishment of armour, especially shields ; 
 and even chariots were sometimes orna- 
 mented with embossed silver (Pliny, xxxiii 
 140, carrucce argento cailatoe). Articles of 
 plate, especially large silver platters, were 
 occasionally adorned with ferns or ivy- 
 leaves (lances f%lir.atoe.i paterae hSdera- 
 cice); and goblets were decorated with 
 mythological subjects in relief (dndglypta), 
 such as figures in gold riveted on vessels 
 
 p. C. A. 
 
 of silver, or in silver on bronze. These 
 figures were either in high or low relief 
 {emblSmdtd, or crustce). The art was also 
 put into requisition for ornamenting furni- 
 ture, for embossing plates of gold, and for 
 making wreaths of that metal. 
 
 In the Homeric age, copper, gold, silver, 
 iron, tin, and lead were in use in different 
 degrees. Copper, especially when mixed 
 with tin to form bronze, was the ordinary 
 material for armour and for all kinds of 
 utensils ; gold is named in connexion with 
 articles of furniture, armour, and jewellery, 
 but is generally described as imported from 
 abroad ; silver is less frequently mentioned. 
 Iron was rare, in comparison with copper ; 
 but was used for implements of agriculture 
 as well as for armour and tools. A block 
 of iron is given as a prize at the funeral 
 games in honour of Patroclus (11. xxiii 
 826). Copper being the commonest metal, 
 a worker in any kind of metal is called in 
 Homer a coppersmith {chalkeiis) ; thus, in 
 Od. iii 426, it is applied to one who in the 
 same context is described as a goldsmith . 
 {chrf/sochdos, ib. 432). The hammer and 
 anvil sufficed for the manufacture of armour 
 and the simpler varieties of household 
 utensils. The process of beating out the 
 metal and fashioning it with the hammer 
 was called elaunein {II. vii 223, xii 295) ; 
 and a derivative of this verb, spJiyreldtos, 
 " wrought with the hammer," was after- 
 wards used as an epithet of statues made 
 of plates beaten out with the hammer, as 
 opposed to those of cast metal (Herodotus, 
 vii 69). It was in fact applied to all kinds 
 of products of hammering, and to work in 
 repoussi, large or small. The S3,me process 
 was used in making plates of metal to 
 cover tripods and candelabra, aa well as 
 shields, scabbards, chariots, an^ also images 
 of the gods. In such cases the plate of 
 beaten metal was applied to a core of wood 
 by what was termed ef)ipaistike techne 
 (Athenseus, 488 b). The chair of Penelope 
 is thus covered with ivory and silver {Od. 
 xix 56), and the bed of Odysseus, with 
 ivory, silver, and gold (xxiii 200). The 
 cuirass of Agamemnon {ll. xi 24 ff.) has 
 twenty-one alternate stripes of various 
 kinds of inlaid metal, both before and 
 behind, the metals mentioned being gold 
 and tin and kydnos, which is now iden- 
 tified as ap imitation of lapis lazuli stained 
 blue with carbonate of copper. The golden 
 belt of Heracles is adorned with figures of 
 bears, boars, and lions, and battle-scenes, in 
 relief {Od. xi 609). The brooch of Odys- 
 
 T T 
 
642 
 
 TOEEUTIC ART. 
 
 seus represents a stag attacked by a dog 
 {Od. xix 226). The cup of Nestor is 
 pierced with rivets of gold, has four handles 
 with two golden doves to each handle, and 
 two supports running from the base of the 
 cup to the lower part of the bowl, de- 
 signed to strengthen the central stem {II. 
 xi 632, with Dr. Leaf's note). The struc- 
 ture of this singular cup was the theme of 
 learned disquisitions in ancient times 
 (AthensBus, 489); it has now been made 
 intelligible by the early cups discovered at 
 Mycense and Caere (Helbig, Das Homerische 
 Epos aus den DenkmcUern erlclutert, p. 
 272). In the cup from Mycenae (Schlie- 
 mann's Mycente, fig. 346 ; Schuchhardt, 
 Schliemann's Excavations, fig. 2,40), we see 
 the supports continued into the handles 
 above them, and even two doves as orna- 
 ments on the top of the handles. EIsbt 
 where in Homer a lebes (in II. sxiii 885, 
 Orf. iii 440), and a craier(in OcZ. xxiv 275), 
 are described as " adorned with flowers," 
 i.e. with the lotus-flowers and rosettes 
 characteristic of archaic decoration (SchliO' 
 mann, Mycence, fig. 344). The shield of 
 Achilles, as wrought by Hephaestus, is an 
 elaborate work, including numerous figures 
 distributed over separate compartments and 
 inlaid in various kii;ds of metal. The 
 metal facing has apparently a bronze 
 ground, inlaid with gold, silver, and kydnos • 
 and the designs may be best regarded as 
 resembling the peculiar combination of 
 Egyptian and Assyrian styles which was 
 introduced into Europe by the Phoenicians 
 (H. xviii 478-607, ed. Leaf; cp. Helbig, 
 Z.C., chap, xxxi, and Murray's Greek Sculp- 
 ture^ ch&^.iu). 
 
 In the Homeric age the articles in metal 
 which were most highly prized are gener 
 rally described as imported from abroad. 
 Thus the silver crater given as a prize at 
 the funeral games of Patroclus is the work 
 of Sidonian craftsmen {R. xxiii 743). It 
 is the king of the Sidonians who sends a 
 crater to Menelaus {Od. iv 616 ; II. xxiii 
 741). The tripods and basket of Helen are 
 said to have been brought by Menelaus 
 from Egypt {Od. iv 126). The cuirass, as 
 well as the chariot, of Agamemnon, are 
 described as a present from the king of 
 Cyprus {11. xi 24). 
 
 According to Greek mythology, the first 
 blacksmiths were the Idcean Dactyli {q.v.)-^ 
 the first goldsmiths, the Telchines {q.v.). 
 The legends about the latter imply that the 
 forms and processes of the art were trans- 
 mitted to Greece from the East. They are 
 
 described as dwelling in turn in Crete, 
 Rhodes, Cyprus, Cos, Lycia, and in various 
 cities of Greece, especially at Sicyon, 
 which, according to Pliny (xxxvi 4), was 
 long the home of all kinds of manufacture 
 in metals. Working in metal was after- 
 wards much advanced by two important 
 inventions, (1) that of casting in moulds, 
 attributed to a Samian artist Rhoecus, son 
 of Phileas, and his son Theodorus ; and (2) 
 that of soldering, ascribed to Glaucus of 
 Chios (Pausanias, x 16 § 1), who was also 
 famed for his skill in hardening and soften- 
 ing iron (Plutarch, De Bef. Orac. 41). 
 
 The toreutic art ia described by Pliny as 
 having been founded by Phidias (xxxiv 54) 
 and brought to perfection by Polyclitus 
 (56). For the former, it is sufficient to refer 
 to the chryselephantine statue of Zeus at 
 Olympia, and that of Athene in the Par- 
 thgnOn. Among other sculptors who were 
 also tdreutcB may be mentioned Calftmis, 
 Myron, Euphranpr, Boethus, Stratonicus, 
 Aristou, Eunicus, H6catseus, Posidonius, 
 Pasiteles, and Zenodorus. The artists who 
 excelled in the chasing of silver {argento 
 cailando) are enumerated by Pliny (xxxiii 
 154-157), who observes that no one had 
 attained renown by the chasing of gold. 
 The first named is Mentor, the most cele- 
 brated of all, and with him Acrdgds, Boethus 
 (Cicero, Verr. 2 iv 32, hydriam Boethi 
 indnu factain prcecldro opSre et grandi 
 pondere), and Mys {q.v.). The last of these 
 executed in bronze, from the designs of 
 Parrhasius, the battle of the Centaurs and 
 Lapithse which adorned the shield of , the 
 Athene Promachos of Phidias (Pausanias, 
 i 28, 2). Pliny's second group includes 
 Cdldmls and Antipater, who is probably 
 mentioned by mistake for DwdOrus {An- 
 thologia Grceca i 106, 16). His third group 
 consists of Stratonicus and Tauriscus, both 
 of Cyzicus ; Ariston and Eumcus of 
 Mytilene ; and lastly HecdtceiiS. In the 
 next we have Pasiteles (in the time of 
 Pompey); also Posidonius of Ephesus, with 
 IlSdystrdchides, Zopyrus, and Pytheds. 
 After these, he adds, there was an artist 
 named Teucer, famous as a crustdrtus, a 
 worker of plaques in low relief. Thereupon, 
 he continues, art fell into abeyance, and 
 only works ascribed to the old masters were 
 of any account, even when the design had 
 been almost worn out by use. The age of 
 imitations and forgeries followed. The 
 work of Calamis was skilfully copied by 
 Zenodorus (Pliny, xxxiv 47), the sculptor of 
 the colossal bronze statue of Nero {ib. 45). 
 
TOREUTIC ART. 
 
 643 
 
 In the above list Pliny is probably fol- 
 lowing the order of fame rather than that 
 
 sibly to the age of the DiadSchi. To the 
 same age may be ascribed Pytheas and two 
 
 (1) * CVLIX, WITH SOKNBS W!OM A FOnNDBY. 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 of time. Stratonicus, Ariston, Eunicus, 
 and Posidonins, all belong to Asia, and pos- 
 
 artists remarkable for their skill in the 
 most minute and delicate kinds of work 
 
644 
 
 TOEEUTIC ART. 
 
 CaUicrdtes of Lacedsemon and Myrmedides 
 of Athens, who inscribed an elegiac couplet 
 in letters of gold on a grain of sesame, and 
 carved a quadriga of ivory which a fiy 
 could cover with its wings (^lian, Var. 
 Hist, i 17 ; Cicero, Acad, ii 120 : Pliny, vii 
 85, xxxvi 43). 
 
 Some of the technical processes of work- 
 ing in metal can be illustrated from the 
 remains of ancient art. Thus on a cylix in 
 Berlin (fig. 1) exhibiting scenes from a 
 foundry, we have (1) two workmen, one 
 attending to the fire in a furnace, the other 
 resting on a hammer, and a boy blowing the 
 bellows ; on the wall hang two ham- 
 mers and a saw, and a number of 
 metal plaques with heads and figures 
 in relief ; (2) a workman putting to- 
 gether a bronze statue, the head of 
 which lies apart on the groiind ; (3) 
 two workmen scraping the excre- 
 scences off a statue of a warrior by 
 means of a hooked instrument re- 
 sembling a strigil. The first of the 
 above scenes is closely similar to the 
 design on a vase in the British 
 Museum (B 458) representing the 
 forge of Hephaestus at Lemnos. 
 Again, a mural painting from Pom- 
 peii shows us one of the attendants 
 of Hephsestus seated at his work ; 
 in his right hand he holds a ham- 
 mer, and in his left a sharp graving- 
 tool (Grr. toreus ; Lat. ccelum), with 
 which he is tracing the ornament 
 on the helmet of Achilles (fig. 2). 
 According to the ornament required, 
 tools were used of different kinds, 
 with the extremity blunt, round, 
 or square; as well as punches for 
 repoussi work. 
 
 Among the extant specimens of 
 the art a foremost place in point 
 of time must be given to those disr 
 covered by Schliemann at Hissarlik 
 in the Troad, especially the bracelets, 
 ear-rings, diadems, and discs of gold, 
 figured in Ilios, and in Schucljhardt, Schlie- 
 mann' s Excavations (figs. 35, 54, 56-58). 
 Those of a more advanced type, found at 
 M}'cenae in and after 1874, include plaques 
 and golden studs in repouss^, bowls and 
 diadems ; also sepulchral masks of gold, 
 imitating the human countenance and 
 placed on the faces of the dead ; arms and 
 other objects in gold, copper, and bronze. 
 The blade of a short, two-edged sword 
 (Schliemann's 3It/cencr, fig. 446), when set 
 free from the incrustations on its surface. 
 
 revealed a spirited representation of a hunt 
 with five armed men pursuing three lions. 
 The bronze ground is covered with dark 
 enamel, the lions and the limbs of the 
 huntsmen are inlaid with gold of different 
 hues; their clothing and their shields with 
 silver, and other details with black (fig. 3). 
 Still more interesting in respect to artistic 
 design are the two prehistoric gold cups 
 found in 1889 at Vaphio, the ancient Pharis 
 near Amyclse, adorned with remarkable 
 reliefs representing men hunting wild bulls 
 {Ephem. Arch. 1889, pi. 7-10 ; Gazette des 
 Beaux Arts, 1890, pp. 428 and 434). 
 
 * THE MAKING OF THE ARMOUR OP ACHILLES. 
 
 (Mural painting, Pompeii ; Helbig, Taf . 17.) 
 
 We must also mention the small bronzes 
 which abound in museums of ancient art. 
 These may be divided into (a) Greek 
 bronzes of archaic style, such as those of 
 the Qth century B.C. discovered at Dodona 
 {e.g. the flute-player, fig. 4). Many such 
 bronzes are votive ; e.g. the Naxian sta- 
 tuette in the Berlin Museum, inscribed as 
 " dedicated by Deinagoras to Apollo the 
 Far-darter," and the Apollo dedicated by 
 Polycrates, probably an Argive of that 
 name, now in the Museum at St. Peters- 
 burg, (h) Bronzes of later style, such as 
 those of Pompeii and Herculaneum, pre- 
 
TOREUTIC AUT. 
 
 G45 
 
 served in large ntimbers in the Naples 
 Museum. Earlier Italo-Greek statuettes 
 are rare ; e.g. the bronze from TSrentum 
 representing a general in the act of address- 
 ing his troops (Collignon, Or. Arch., fig. 
 
 a I 
 « g 
 
 
 
 of them are pieces of armour, such as the 
 cheek-guard of a helmet with the combat 
 between Pollux and Lyneeus found at Dodona 
 (Collignon, fig. 135), and the Bronzes of 
 Slris, two shoulder-pieces of Greek armour 
 found in Southern Italy and now in the 
 British Museum (Second Bronze Room, 
 table-case D ; Baumeister's DenkmUler, 
 fig. 2204^5). In the same museum is the 
 Castellani cista, a cylindrical casket in 
 wood, covered with bands of silver fixed 
 with rivets, and representing lions and 
 winged animals, with lotuses and palmettes 
 of an oriental character (fig. 5). Another 
 group of examples includes the Greek and 
 
 134). Among objects for ornament we have 
 numerous bronze reliefs in repoussi work, 
 which are often perforated with holes for 
 the purpose of attaching them to some other 
 material, whether to strips of leather or 
 articles of furniture. Some of the finest 
 
 * SMALL BRONZE FiaDRfi OP FLUTE-PLAYER FROM 
 DODONA. 
 
 (OarapanoSj pi. 10.) 
 
 Etruscan Mirrors, with their metal backs 
 or cases ornamented with figures traced by 
 the engraver's burin (fig. 6) ; and the cistoe 
 Prcenestinm (of the 3rd century B.C.). The 
 finest of these is the Ficoroni cista, in the 
 Museo Kircheriano at Rome, with figures 
 in outline representing a scene from the 
 Argonautic expedition and with the archaic 
 inscription, Novios Plautios nied Romai 
 fecid (Daremberg and Saglio, fig. 1544). 
 There are several others in the iPirst Bronze 
 Room of the British MuseUm, one with 
 the Judgment of PaHs,, another with Bell6- 
 rdphon and SihSnobcea. 
 
 Among silver vases of various ages may 
 be mentioned the archaic pdtSra of Ama- 
 thus in Cyprus, with concentric bands of 
 
G46 
 
 TOREUTIC ART. 
 
 bssieging warriors and -wingad sphinxes 
 showing the influence of Assyrian and 
 Egyptian art (C33nola's Cyprus, p. 277; 
 Daremberg, fig. 927) ; the Munich vase, 
 with representations of captive Trojans, in 
 low relief ; the magnificent ampli6ra of the 
 4th century B.C., found at Nicopol in South 
 Russia in the tomb of a Scythian king 
 with a frieze in high relief running round 
 the upper part, representing Scythians tam- 
 
 cup, found at the ancient Antium, and 
 sometimes supposed to ba copied from a 
 Greek original by Zopyrus (i/;., fig. 976) ; 
 the paterce of Hildesheim {q.v.), about the 
 time of Augustus ; that of Rennes, of the 
 3rd century A.D., in the Paris Cabinet des 
 Antiques (ib. 972) ; and the vases from 
 Bernay in the same collection. Further, 
 in the British Museum we have a number 
 of embossed and chased caskets, vases, or 
 
 (5) * THE CASTELLAN! CISTA. 
 (British Museum.) 
 
 ing and tending their horses, while the 
 body of the vase is covered with ornaments 
 
 (6) ETKUSCAN MIREOK. 
 
 (Berlin Museum.) 
 
 in repoussiy including large birds and 
 flowers (Daremberg, fig. 975) ; the Corsini 
 
 ornaments, found at Rome in 1793, and 
 ascribed to the end of the 5th century a.d. 
 As a late Roman specimen of qpws interrdsile, 
 or open work in which part of the silver is 
 cut away on the same general principle as 
 in fig. 5, we have a ccmthdrus of dark red 
 glass mounted in silver gilt, found near 
 Tiflis in 1871, and now in the Museum of 
 the Hermitage, St. Petersburg (fig. 7). 
 
 One of the richest collections of Greek 
 jeioellery, that of the Hermitage Museum, 
 comes from the ancient Panticapseum 
 {Kertcli). The Vatican and the Louvre con- 
 tain remarkable specimens of Etrusco-Greek 
 jewels, mainly found at Vulci and Caere. 
 Modem ingenuity has at present failed to 
 recover the secret of the process of " granu- 
 lation " employed in many of these jewels, 
 a kind of decoration in which the surface of 
 the gold leaf is covered with minute and 
 almost invisible globules of gold (see fron- 
 tispiece to Martha's VArt Etrusque). The 
 Antiquarium of Munich possesses a votive 
 crown of gold, superbly executed, with 
 
TORMENTA TOWER OF THE WINDS, 
 
 647 
 
 sprays of oak-leaves and fes- 
 toons of flowers with winged 
 figures among them (fig. 8). 
 Lastly, in the British Museum 
 we have specimens of Phce- 
 nician art, ascribed to the 
 8th century B.C., in the gold 
 jewellery from Camirus in 
 Rhodes. In the same museum 
 " the Melos necklace, and 
 the sceptre from th3 tomb at 
 Tarentum, are admirable 
 specimens of that fine com- 
 bination of filagree and 
 vitreous enamels which 
 characterizes the Greek gold- 
 smith's art in the middle 
 of the 4th century B.C., and 
 the bracelet and ear-rings 
 from Capua, ornamented with 
 lions' heads, are still more 
 precious, as examples of 
 repoussd work in its per- 
 fection " (Newton's Essays, 
 p. 393). 
 
 Authorities. Brunn, Or. 
 Kilnstler, ii 397-412; Mar- 
 quardt, I)as Privatlehen der 
 BSmer, pp. 669-7182 ; Saglio, 
 article on Cceltaura in Darem- 
 berg and Saglio's Diet, des 
 Antiquitds ; and Bliimner's 
 Technologie, vol. iv, pp. 228- 
 413. Cp. the short sketch 
 in the last chapter of Col- 
 lignon's Mamial of Greek 
 Archaeology.] [J. E. S.] 
 
 Tormenta. The heavy 
 Roman engines of war. {See 
 Artillery.) 
 
 Tower of the Winds. An 
 interesting example of the 
 later Attic architecture, still 
 standing in Athens. It was 
 built by Andronicus Cyr- 
 rhestes [Vitruvius, i 6 § 4] 
 about the middle of the 1st 
 century B.C., and it served 
 at once as the public clock 
 and weather-cock of Athens. 
 It is an octagonal tower 
 of marble, with prominent 
 porches, each supported by 
 two simple Corinthian 
 columns, on the north-east 
 and north-west. On the 
 south it has a kind of turret, 
 to contain the cistern for the 
 water-clock. The eight sides 
 
 (7) -^ GLASS CnP WITH OPEN REPOUSSE WOKK IN SILVER. 
 
 (St. Petersburg, KermitagR Kuseum.) 
 
 (8) * GOLDEN CROWN, FROM AKMENTO. 
 (Munich, AniiquariVjm. 
 
648 
 
 TRABEA TRAGEDY. 
 
 correspond to the directions from which 
 the eight winds blow. The figures of these 
 are represented in beautiful reliefs on the 
 frieze, and beneath them on the marble 
 walls are engraved the lines of the sundial. 
 The culminating point of the sloping roof was 
 once surmounted by a bronze Triton, placed 
 on a Corinthian capital, so as to revolve 
 and point with his staff to the figure of 
 
 TOWER OP THE WINDS (or, Sdrdldgium of 
 Andronicus Cyrrhestes), Athens. 
 
 the wind which was blowing at the time 
 {see cut). 
 
 TrabSa. The purple-striped cloak worn 
 by Roman augurs and Roman Squltes {q.v.). 
 
 Tragedy. (I) Tragedy in Greece ori- 
 ginated in the lyric dithyramb ; i.e. in the 
 song of a chorus at the rites held in honour 
 of Dionysus. This song^ in accordance with 
 the cult of the god, expressed at one time 
 exuberant joy, at another deep sorrow. The 
 cult of Dionysus is also indicated by the 
 very name of tragedy, signifying goat-song; 
 i.e. (according to the usual explanation) the 
 hymn sung by the chorus in their dance 
 round the altar at the sacrifice of the goat, 
 which was dedicated to Dionysus. Others 
 derive the name from the fact that, to repre- 
 sent Satyrs, the chorus were clad in goat- 
 skins, and hence resembled goats. These 
 choral songs seem to have received a certain 
 dramatic form as early as the time of Arlon, 
 to whom the dithyramb owes its artistic 
 development. The true drama, including 
 tragic and satyxic plays, was evolved sub- 
 sequently in Athens. 
 
 Tradition ascribes the origin of tragedy 
 to a contemporary of Solon named Thespis, 
 of Icaria, which was a chief seat of the cult 
 of Dionysus. The date assigned to this is 
 540 B.C. Thespis was at the same time poet, 
 leader of the chorus, and actor. According 
 to the testimony of the ancients, his pieces 
 consisted of a prologue, a series of choral 
 songs, standing in close connexion with the 
 action, and dramatic recitations introduced 
 between the choruses. These recitations 
 were delivered by the leader of the chorus, 
 and were partly in the form of monologues, 
 partly in that of short dialogues with the 
 chorus, whereby the action of the play was 
 advanced. The reciter was enabled to 
 appear in different r6les by the aid of 
 linen or wooden masks. These also are said 
 to have been contrived by the poet himself. 
 The invention of Thespis, whose own pieces 
 soon lapsed into oblivion, won the favour 
 of Pisistratus and the approval of the 
 Athenian public. Tragedy thus became a 
 substantial element in the Attic festival of 
 Dionysus. Thespis' immediate followers 
 were Choertlus, Pratlnds (the inventor of 
 the satyric drama), his son Aristids, and 
 Phrynichus. Phrynichns especially did 
 good service towards the development of 
 tragedy by introducing an actor apart from 
 the leader of the chorus, and so preparing 
 the way for true dialogue. He further 
 improved the chorus, which still, however, 
 occupied a disproportionate space in com- 
 parison with the action of the play. 
 
 Tragedy was really brought into being 
 by jSSschylus, when he added a second actor 
 (called the deuterdgonistes) to the first, or 
 protagonistes, and in this way rendered 
 dialogue possible. He further subordinated 
 the choruses to the dialogue. 
 
 Sophocles, in whom tragedy reaches its 
 culminating point, added to .^schylus' two 
 nctoTS SbthiTd, oTtritagonistes^- and .^schylus 
 accepted the innovation in his later plays. 
 Thenceforward three actors were regularly 
 granted by lot to each poet, at the public 
 expense. Only rarely, and in exceptional 
 cases, was a fourth employed. Sophocles 
 also raised the number of the chorus from 
 twelve to fifteen. The only other important 
 innovation due to him was, that he gave 
 up the internal connexion, preserved by 
 .iEschylus, among the several plays of a 
 tetralogy which were presented in compe- 
 tition by the tragic poets at the festival 
 of Dionysus. {See Tetralogia.) 
 
 The third great master of tragedy is 
 Euripides, in whom, however, we already 
 
TRAGEDY. 
 
 G49 
 
 observe a decline in many respects from the 
 severe standard of liis predecessor. During 
 and after the age of these masters of the art, 
 from whom alone have complete dramas 
 come down to us, many other tragic poets 
 were actively employed, whose works are 
 known to us. by name alone, or are only pre- 
 served in fragments. 
 
 It is remarkable that, in the case of the 
 great tragic writers, the cultivation of the 
 Muse of tragedy seems to have been heredi- 
 tary among their descendants, and among 
 those of ^schylus in particular, for many 
 generations. His son Euphorion, his 
 nephew PhilCcles, his grand-nephews Mor- 
 simus and Melanthius, his grandson Asty- 
 damas, and his great-grandsons Astydamas 
 
 tury, besides the descendants of iEschylus, 
 we must mention TheSdectes, Aph&reus, 
 and Chseremon, who partly wrote for readers 
 only. 
 
 The number of tragedies produced at 
 Athens is marvellous. According to the 
 not altogether trustworthy records of the 
 number of plays written by each poet, they 
 amounted to 1,400. The works of the fore- 
 most poets were represented over and over 
 again, especially in the theatres of Asia 
 Minor, under the successors of Alexander. 
 During the first half of the 3rd century 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus built a great theatre 
 in Alexandria, where he established com- 
 petitions in exact imitation of those at 
 Athens. This gave a new impetus to tragic 
 
 PHILISCUS TRAOCEDIARUM SCKIPTOR MEDITANS (pHILISOUS IN MEDITATION) 
 
 (Relief in Lateran Museum, Rome.) 
 
 and Philocles, were poets of more or 
 note. In the family of Sophocles may be 
 mentioned his son iSphon and his grand- 
 son Sophocles ; and in that of Euripides, his 
 son or nephew of the same name. 
 
 Among the tragic poets of the 3rd century, 
 Ion, Achseus, Aristarchus, and Neophron 
 were accounted the most eminent. AgSthon 
 may also be included as the first who ven- 
 tured to treat a subject of his own invention, 
 whereas hitherto mythical history, espe- 
 cially that of Homer and the cyclic poets, 
 or, in rare instances, authentic history, had 
 furnished the materials of the play. After 
 the Peloponnesian War tragedy shared the 
 general and ever-increasing decline of poli- 
 tical and religious vitality. In the 4th cen- 
 
 poetry, and seven poets became conspicuous, 
 who were known as the Alexandrine Fields^ 
 Alexander iEtolus, Philiscus (see cut), Sosi- 
 theus, Homerus, iEantides, Sosiphanes, and 
 Lycophron. The taste of the Alexandrine 
 critics deemed them worthy to occupy a 
 place beside the five great tragic poets of 
 Athens, iEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 Ion, and Achseus. 
 
 Inasmuch as tragedy developed itself out 
 of the chorus at the Dionysiac festivals, so, 
 in spite of all the limitations which were 
 introduced as a result of the evolution of the 
 true drama, the chorus itself was always 
 retained. Hence Greek tragedy consisted 
 of two elements : the one truly dramatic, the 
 prevailing metre of which was the iambic 
 
G5IJ 
 
 TRAJAN'S COLUMN TRIBUNAL. 
 
 trimeter; the other consisting of song and 
 dance (see Chords) in the numerous varieties 
 of Dorian lyric poetry. The dramatic por- 
 tion was generally made up of the following 
 parts : the proloyos, from the beginning to 
 the first entry of the choru.s; the epeisodldn, 
 the division between each choral song and 
 the next; and the exodos, or concluding 
 portion which followed the last chorus. 
 The first important choral part was called 
 the parados ; and the song following an 
 cpcisudion, a stdshnon. There were further 
 songs of lamentation by the chorus and 
 actors together, which were called Icommoi. 
 A solo was sometimes sung by the actor 
 alone ; this became especially common in 
 the later tragedies. 
 
 (II) Roman Tragedy was founded entirely 
 on that of the Greeks. In early times there 
 existed crude dramatic productions (see 
 Satire), which provided an opening for the 
 translation from the Greek dramas brought 
 on the stage by Llvius Andronicus. He 
 was a Greek by birth, but was brought to 
 Rome as a captive about 200 B.C. It is to 
 him that Roman tragedy owes its origin. 
 His dramas and those of his successors were 
 more or less free versions of Greek originals. 
 Even the tragedies, or historical plays, 
 drawn from national Roman materials, 
 called fahulce pratextce or prcetextdtce {see 
 Pr^texta), the first writer of which was 
 his immediate successor Ncevius (about 235 
 B.C.), were entirely modelled on the Greek. 
 The most noteworthy representatives of 
 tragedy under the Republic were Ennius 
 (B.C. 239-170), Pacuvius (220-130), and 
 Acchis (170-104), besides whom only a few 
 other poets produced any works about this 
 time. It is true that the scanty fragments 
 we possess of these dramas admit of no 
 positive judgment as to their merit, but 
 there is no doubt that they rank far below 
 the original creations of the Greeks. It 
 may also be clearly inferred from the frag- 
 ments, that declamation and pathos formed 
 a characteristic attribute of Roman tragedy, 
 which was intensified by a studied archaism 
 of expression. Moreover, the titles of their 
 plays that have come down to us show 
 that preference was given to subjects re- 
 lating to the Trojan epic cycle; this is to be 
 explained by the Trojan origin claimed by 
 the Romans. Next to this the most popular 
 were the myths of the Pelopidse, of the 
 Theban cycle, and of the Argonauts. Euri- 
 pides was the favourite model ; after him 
 Sophocles; rarely jEschylus. Roman tragedy, 
 like Greek, was made up of spoken dialogue 
 
 in iambic trimeters and musical portions 
 called cantica {q.v.). On the chorus in 
 Roman ti-agedy see Chorus (near the end). 
 
 In the time of Augustus the representatives 
 of tragedy were Asinius Pollio, Varius, and 
 Ovid; under Tiberius, Pomponius Secundus; 
 under Nero and Vespasian, Curiatius Mater- 
 nus, of whose works scarcely a line has been 
 preserved. The . only tragedies of Roman 
 antiquity which we possess are those of the 
 philosopher Seneca, which show great mas- 
 tery of form and a fertile imagination, but 
 suffer from an intolerable excess of rhe- 
 torical declamation. It is doubtful whpther 
 they were intended for the stage at all, and 
 not rather for public recitation and for 
 private reading. 
 
 Trajan's Column. See Architecture, 
 Orders of. 
 
 Transvectio. The festal parade of the 
 Roman knights. {See Equites.) 
 
 Trapezitse. See Banks and Banking. 
 
 Trapezophoron. See Table. 
 
 Treasury. Sec Mrabivu. 
 
 Trgbellius Pollio. A Roman historian. 
 {See ScRiPTORES Histori/E Augusts.) 
 
 Tresviri or Triumviri. The Roman 
 term for a college or board of three men. 
 For the triumviri capitales, monetales, 
 nocturni, see Vigintisexviri. 
 
 Triarii. ;S^ee Legion. 
 
 Tribon. A garment worn in Doric states 
 by men and ephebi, generally in a double 
 fold over the cMton. It was considerably 
 shorter than the Inmdtion {q.v.). At Athens 
 also there was a tendency to imitate 
 Spartan simplicity, especially amongst the 
 philosophers, among whom this garment was 
 worn chiefly by the Cynics. 
 
 Tribonianus. A celebrated Roman jurist 
 of Side in Pamphylia, who was at first 
 an advocate, and afterwards held a high 
 official position under Justinian, and, in 
 conjunction with the most distinguished 
 lawyers of his time, made a code of Roman 
 Uw. {See Corpus Iuris Civilis.) 
 
 Tribiilum. The Roman threshing ma- 
 chine, (^ee Threshing.) 
 
 Tribunal. The Roman term fisr a plat- 
 form of wood or stone (in the camp, gene- 
 rally of turf), on which magisterial person- 
 ages sat in their chair of office (see Sella 
 CoEULis) when discharging their public 
 duties ; e.g. the consuls, when presiding at 
 the c6nvlt%a, and the prsetors when sitting 
 in judgment. In Roman theatres this name 
 was given to the two places of honour 
 immediately to the right and left of the 
 stage, the one for the person who gave the 
 
TEIBUNI iERARII TRIBUNI PLEBIS. 
 
 G51 
 
 play and for the emperor, the other for the 
 Vestal Virgins and the empress. 
 
 Tribuni .ffirarii (from ces^stipendlum, 
 "pay") The name given amongst the 
 Romans in earlier times to the wealthy 
 members of the several tribes, who were 
 entrusted with the levying of the war-tax 
 {see Teibutdm) and the distribution of pay 
 to the soldiers from the proceeds of it. 
 What position they held after the payment 
 of the troops was handed over to the 
 qusBstors is not clear, from want of infor- 
 mation on the subject. In the 1st century 
 B.C. they appear as a distinct class, from 
 which, during the years 70-46 B.C., the 
 third dScurla of judges was appointed to 
 represent the plebeians, the other two con- 
 sisting of senators and knights. 
 
 Tribuni Militum (military tribunes). 
 The superior officers of the Roman legions, 
 six in number, two of whom always held 
 the command for two months on alternate 
 days. They were appointed before the 
 levy took place, as they themselves had to 
 be in office at that time. Originally they 
 were nominated by the consuls ; afterwards 
 partly by them and partly by the people, 
 inasmuch as the people elected twenty-four 
 out of the number of candidates in the 
 comitia trlbuta for the four legions which 
 were levied regularly every year, while the 
 consuls retained the appointment for the 
 remaining legions. They were not as a 
 rule taken from veteran centurions, but 
 for the greater part from young men of 
 senatorial or equestrian rank, who had 
 sprved their first campaign in the train 
 or on the staff of a general, and then began 
 their political career with this office. As 
 a mark of distinction, all of them wore the 
 gold ring of the equestrian order. They 
 also wore a narrow or broad purple stripe on 
 their toga^ according as they were of eques- 
 trian or senatorial rank respectively. In 
 the time of the Empire, they always led 
 the legion on the march and in battle. 
 They did not, however, as under the 
 Republic, rank immediately below the 
 commanders-in-chief, but under the legatus 
 legioms, the commander of the legion and 
 its auxiliary troops. 
 
 Tribiini Plebis (tribunes of the commons). 
 The name given among the Romans to 
 the official representatives granted to the 
 plebeians in 494 B.C., as a protection against 
 the oppression of patricians and the consuls. 
 At first they were two in number, then 
 five, and (after 457) ten. Only free-born 
 plebeians were eligible for the office, which 
 
 was annual. The election took place at 
 first in the cdmitia curldta, but after 471 
 in the comitia trihuta, under the presidency 
 of any tribune who happened to be in office 
 at the time. At iirst they were only 
 magistrates of thepZefcs, and were without 
 any insignia of office, or even lictors, in- 
 stead of whom they had several attendants 
 {vlatores). This continued even after they 
 were fully recognised as public officials. 
 On the other hand, they possessed the 
 privilege guaranteed to them by the plebs 
 under solemn oath, on the institution of 
 their office, of being " sacrosanct " and 
 inviolable ; and, under the protection of 
 this right, they extended their originally 
 limited powers by judicious encroach- 
 ments. 
 
 Their earliest right, which was at first 
 exercised in favour of the plebs, but soon 
 on behalf of all citizens, was that of pro- 
 tection {auxUlum), which they could use 
 against all magistrates with the exception 
 of the dictator. This enabled them to 
 prevent the execution of official orders by 
 a simple veto (intercessio). In face of any 
 opposition they were authorized to have 
 recourse to compulsory measures such as 
 arrest, fines, or imprisonment. Their power 
 only extended over Rome and its immediate 
 neighbourhood, and was further restricted 
 by the right of veto, which they could 
 exercise against one another. For the pro- 
 tection of the individual they only inter- 
 posed when their aid was asked. For this 
 purpose their house stood open day and 
 night to any who sought their assistance, 
 and they themselves could never be absent 
 from the city a whole day, except during 
 the fence Ldtince, when all business was 
 suspended. Without appeal they could 
 interpose in any meastire which affected 
 the whole plebs, such as the levying of 
 troops and the raising of the war-tax 
 {tribUtum). This right of intercession, 
 which originally was confined to the 
 auxilium, and which could never be 
 exercised except by the tribune in person, 
 and simultaneously with the proceeding 
 that was to be prohibited, was in course 
 of time gradually extended, until finally 
 the veto of the tribunes enabled them to 
 suspend almost all official proceedings ; 
 administrative measures, transactions with 
 the Senate, and meetings of the people for 
 the purpose of legislation and election, 
 etc. They had the right of calling meet- 
 ings of the plebs for the discussion of affairs 
 relating to that body. Trom the time that 
 
G52 
 
 TRIBUNUS CELERUM TRIBUS. 
 
 the authority of these meetings extended 
 over all State business, and their decrees 
 (called plebisctta), were considered binding 
 on the whole people, this right enabled the 
 tribunes to propose changes in private or 
 public law. It is true that, for carrying 
 oat their proposals, they were dependent on 
 the sanction of the Senate ; but, as they 
 were safe from the risk of prosecution, they 
 sometimes assumed, in case of need, an 
 authority superior to that body. Originally 
 they had no official relations with the Senate, 
 but afterwards, by virtue of their inviola- 
 bility, they obtained the right of sitting on 
 their benches (subsellia) at the open door 
 of the senate-house, so as to be present at the 
 deliberations, and in case of need to inter- 
 fere by virtue of their auxilium. Soon, 
 however, they even obtained a seat in the 
 Senate, and a general right of veto ; until 
 finally they acquired the right of summon- 
 ing a meeting of the Senate, and of making 
 proposals. At the same time they acquired 
 the privilege of entrance into the Senate at 
 the first census after the expiration of their 
 office. 
 
 The office of tribune, really the highest 
 in the State, was employed by demagogues 
 in the later days of the Republic in the 
 interests of a party and to the injury of the 
 commonwealth. By Sullaj in 80 B.C;, its 
 power was cut down to the very narrowest 
 limits, chiefly by the regulation that, after 
 the tribunate, no one was eligible for a 
 curule office. However, as soon as 50 B.C. 
 there came a complete reaction and a return 
 to the old state of things, which finally 
 entailed total anarchy, and, as a natural 
 consequence, the sole rule of Csesar and 
 Augustus. In 48 B.C. Csesar, to secure his 
 position, assumed the tribunician power, 
 at first without limit of time, and after- 
 wards without limit of extent ; and in 36 
 Augustus followed his example. Erom that 
 time the tribunate became the pivot of the 
 imperial power. Nevertheless, until beyond 
 the time of Constantino, tribunes to the 
 number of ten continued to exist. They 
 were elected by the Senate, and as a rule 
 from among the senators, but were in com- 
 plete dependence on the will of the emperor. 
 In order to find candidates for the office, 
 which was now but little sought after, 
 Augustus made the candidature in the case 
 of the plebeians for the prsetorship dependent 
 on having held the tribunate. The office 
 was also thrown open to sons of freedmen. 
 
 Tribnnus C616rum. The designation, 
 under the Roman Empire, of the commander 
 
 of the cavalry, nominated by the emperor for 
 the time being. 
 
 Tribiis. Originally the name of each of 
 the three classes of Roman patricians 
 {Ramnes, Titles, and Luceres), who were 
 divided into ten ounce (q.v.). In direct 
 contrast with this was the classification 
 made by king Servius, whereby Roman 
 citizens, together with the whole territory 
 of Rome, were divided into four city (tribus 
 urbdnce) and twenty-six country tribes 
 {tribus rusticce). These were geographical 
 divisions, according to which the census 
 was taken, troops levied, and the war tax 
 imposed and collected. Erom time to time 
 the number was diminished ; but it in- 
 creased again until 241 B.C., when it was 
 raised to thirty-five (four city and thirty- 
 one country tribes), and this number re- 
 mained fixed for the future, even under the 
 Empire. The new citizens admitted after 
 241 were distributed amongst the existing 
 tribes. This was the case with all the 
 Italian communities, which in 89 B.C., by the 
 extension of the citizenship to all dwellers 
 in Italy, were included in the tribes. 
 
 Every citizen (with the exception of those 
 called ce.rdru, q.v.) belonged to some special 
 tribe, to which he himself or his ancestors 
 had been assigned, even when he no longer 
 had his home there. Accordingly, in the 
 official designation of a free citizen, the 
 name of his tribe was added to his family 
 names. Originally the country tribes were 
 on an equality with those of the city, but 
 subsequently they were deemed superior, 
 on the ground that they consisted of owners 
 of property in land, whilst the chief part 
 of the city tribes was made up of mer- 
 chants, workmen, and the proletariate, who 
 possessed no landed property, and amongst 
 whom freedmen were included. 
 
 The tribes attained political importance 
 on the establishment of the comttla tribUta 
 (q.v.), in which those present voted as 
 individuals, and not as members of property- 
 classes, as in the comitia centundta. The 
 comitia tributa thus had a democratic 
 character. The importance of the tribes 
 was further increased on the reform of the 
 comitia centuriata (q.v.), since each of the 
 thirty-five tribes was thereby divided into 
 five property-classes, each consisting of two 
 centuricR, semores and iitnzores. Under 
 the Empire they lost all political impor- 
 tance ; the country-tribes were used merely 
 as geographical subdivisions, while the 
 lists of the whole number of the thirty-five 
 tribes were treated as a register for the dis- 
 
TRIBUTA COMITIA TRILOGY. 
 
 653 
 
 tribution of the State doles of corn. Thus 
 the tribes sank at last into corporate groups 
 of pauperized citizens. 
 
 Tribiita Comitla. See Comitia (3). 
 
 Tributum. Originally an extraordinary 
 means of revenue among the Romans, levied 
 on the burgesses in the proportion of 1-3 
 per thousand in times of war, when the 
 means of the State treasury were of them- 
 selves not sufficient, and more especially 
 after 406 B.C., when the State first took 
 over the payment of the soldiers' wages. 
 When the war was over, the money was 
 generally repaid from contributions or from 
 the booty. Subsequent to the conquest of 
 Macedonia, 167 B.C., the income of the State 
 from the provinces was so considerable, 
 that the burgesses, although not legally 
 exempt, ceased any longer to be subject to 
 this payment. The strictly regulated taxes 
 of the provinces also went by the same 
 name, tributum soli, the ground-tax, and 
 trihiituni capitis, the personal tax. {See 
 Stipendium.) Italy, up to his time exempt, 
 was also made liable to these taxes by 
 Diocletian, towards the end of the 3rd 
 century a.d. {Cp. Taxes.) 
 
 Triclinium. The Roman dining-table of 
 four sides, with three low couches (lecti) 
 
 TRICLINIUM. 
 
 placed round it so as to leave the fourth 
 side free for the servants (see plan). The 
 lecti, arranged for three persons each, were 
 broad, cushioned places, lower towards the 
 outside and sloping upwards with a side- 
 support ; on each of the three places was 
 a pillow, on which the diners, as they lay 
 at table, supported themselves with their 
 left arm, their feet being towards the 
 outside. The allotment of the nine places 
 was mad^ in accordance with strict rules 
 of etiquette. The middle couch, lectus 
 medlus, and the one on its left, lectus 
 summus (the highest), were appointed for 
 the guests, the former for the most dis- 
 
 tinguished guests ; that on its right, lectus 
 tinus (the lowest), was for the host, his 
 wife, and a child, or a freedman. On the 
 lectus summus and imus, the place of 
 honour {I6cus summus) was on the left 
 side, on which was the support of the 
 couch, and consequently the most con- 
 venient seat. The place appointed for the 
 chief person of the company, the locus 
 consUlaris, was, however, on the lectus 
 medius, and not on the left, but on the right 
 and unsupported side, next that of the host, 
 who took the first place of the lectus imics. 
 
 For the tables of costly citrus-wood with 
 round tops, and similar tables, which were 
 introduced towards the end of the Republic, 
 a peculiar crescent-shaped couch was used. 
 This was called sigma from its shape C, 
 one of the forms of the Greek letter bear- 
 ing that name. It was also called stibd- 
 dium, and as a rule was suitable only for 
 five persons. On the sigma the places of 
 honour were the corner-seats, the first place 
 being that on the " right wing " {in dextro 
 cornu), the second that on the left {in 
 sinistra cornu) ; the remaining seats were 
 named from this onward, so that the last 
 was on the left side of the first. 
 
 The dining-room itself was also called 
 triclinium, even when it contained several 
 dining-tables. Romans of distinction in 
 later times had several such rooms for dif- 
 ferent times of the year ; in the winter they 
 dined in the interior of the house by lamp- 
 light, in summer in an arbour attached to 
 the house or in the upper story. 
 
 Trierarch (Gr. trlerarches ; Lat. trier- 
 arclia). Originally the commander of a 
 trireme ; afterwards of any large war-ship. 
 
 Trierarchia. The superintendence of the 
 equipment of a war-ship ; one of the public 
 burdens imposed on Athenian citizens. 
 {See Leitourgia.) 
 
 Trieres. A Greek ship with three 
 banks of oars. (See Ships.) 
 
 Triglyphs (" three channels "). A name 
 given in the Doric frieze to surfaces which, 
 projecting over every column and between 
 every two columns, are ornamented with 
 three parallel channels, two complete 
 ones in the middle and two halves at the 
 corners. Between the triglyphs are the 
 metopes {q.v.). {Cp. Architecture, Orders 
 qf; and Parthenon, fig. 2.) 
 
 Trigon. A kind of game with a ball. 
 {See Ball, Games of). 
 
 Trilogy (Gr. trilogia). A set of three 
 tragedies which, together with a satyric 
 drama, formed a tetralogy {q.iK). The 
 
654 
 
 TRIPHIODOEUS TRITON. 
 
 several tragedies were generally, but not 
 always, connected with each, other in 
 subject. The only surviving example is 
 the Orcstcid of jEschylus, consisting of the 
 Agamemnon, Choephoroe, and EumenidSs. 
 
 IripModorus. See Teyphiodorus. 
 
 Triptolemus. Son of Eleusis (or of Celeus, 
 see Demophoon) a favourite of Demeter, 
 who sent him about the world on a car 
 drawn by serpents to extend the cultivation 
 of grain, and with it agriculture. On his 
 return to Attica, Celeus of Eleusis made an 
 attempt upon his life, but, at the bidding 
 of Demeter, was obliged to give up the 
 country to him. He founded the town of 
 Eleusis, and, as first priest of Demeter, 
 .instituted the services there held in her 
 honour, as well as the ThesmdphSrtd (q.v.). 
 In various parts of Greece, as well as in 
 Italy and Sicily, he was honoured as the 
 founder and promoter of husbandry, but 
 especially in Eleusis, where, as the local 
 hero, he had a temple dedicated to him, and 
 a spot called the threshing-floor of Trip- 
 tolemus on the Rharian plain. The Argive 
 legend connected him with its local genea- 
 logies, and told how, while seeking lo in 
 Tarsus and Antioch, he founded Greek set- 
 tlements and instituted the cultivation of 
 corn. In the Attic legend of Eleusis, he is 
 also represented as a judge of the dead. 
 {See Demeter, fig. 1.) 
 
 Triptjrchon. See Dip- 
 
 TYCHON. 
 
 Trireme (Lat. trire- 
 rnis). A Roman ship 
 witli three banks of oars. 
 {See Ships.) 
 
 Tritagonist (Gr. tritci- 
 gonistes). The third 
 actor in the Greek drama, 
 who played in the least 
 important parts. 
 
 Tritogfineia. A special 
 s .trname of Athene. 
 
 Triton. Son of Posei- 
 don and Amphitrite. He 
 is described as living 
 with them in a golden 
 palace in the depths of 
 the sea. The mythical 
 lake Trttonts, near the 
 JMediterranean coast of 
 Libj-a, was regarded as 
 his peculiar abode, especiall}' in the story 
 of the Argonauts. He was represented as a 
 man in his upper parts, terminating in a 
 dolphin's tail ; his special attribute is a 
 twisted sea-shell, on which he blows, now 
 
 violently, now gently, to raise or calm the 
 billows. In the course of time there grew 
 up the notion of a large number of Tritons 
 all represented as beings of double form 
 
 (1) TIUTON. 
 
 (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 and sometimes with the fore-feet of a horse 
 
 as well as a human body and a fish's tail 
 
 I (called Centauro-tritons or Ichthyo-tauri). 
 
 'e'.i£'.:tie^>ii^-yy- 
 
 (2) CEXTAUKO-TIUTON AND NEKKIU. 
 
 (Naples Museum.) 
 
 They were, however, alwaj^s regarded as 
 attendants on the other sea^gods while 
 riding or driving over the waves ; and they 
 were represented accordingly in works of 
 art (see cuts). 
 
TRIUMPH. 
 
 655 
 
 Triumph. The Roman festal procession 
 at the head of a victorious host through the 
 city to the Capitol, the highest distinction 
 which could be accorded to a victorious 
 commander. Only the regular holder of 
 the highest command {imperium), a dictator, 
 consul, or praetor, was entitled to this honour, 
 and that too even when the decisive victory 
 had not been fought under his immediate 
 direction. It was also essential that the 
 victory should be an important one gained 
 in a regular war ; i.e. not against citizens 
 or rebellious slaves. Permission to cele- 
 brate a triumph was granted, with the 
 necessary expenses, by the Senate. Up to 
 the day of the triumph, the general was 
 obliged to remain before the city, because 
 his command expired at the moment he 
 entered it. Accordingly it was outside the 
 
 conquered country, models of the captured 
 fortresses, ships, etc., either carried on 
 men's shoulders or placed in chariots; then 
 the crowns of honour dedicated to the 
 triumphant general by the towns of the 
 province, originally of bay leaves, later of 
 gold. Then the white b\ills intended for 
 sacrifice on the Capitol, with gilded horns, 
 decorated with ribands and garlands, and 
 accompanied by youths and boys in holiday 
 attire, carrying gold and silver chalices. 
 Then followed in chains the distinguished 
 captives who had been spared for the 
 triumph, and whose fate it was, when the 
 triumphal car reached the slope of the 
 Capitol, to be dragged off to prison, there 
 almost invariably to meet with immediate 
 execution. Behind these followed the lictors 
 of the general in purple tunics, with their 
 
 (1) TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. 
 
 Relief from the Arch of Titus, representing the spoils from the temple at Jernaalem, including 
 the sevenrbranched candlestick, the table for shewbread, and the golden trumpets.) 
 
 city, generally in the temple of Bellona, 
 that the Senate assembled to receive his 
 report. 
 
 On the day of the triumph, the procession, 
 starting from the Campus Mavtius, pror 
 ceeded through the Porta Triumphalis into 
 the Circus FLaminlus ; then, after entering 
 the city through the Porta Carmentalis, it 
 marched on into the Circus Maximus, anid 
 thence to the Via Sacra, and up this across 
 the Forum to the Capitol (see plan under 
 Forcm). The streets were adorned with 
 garlands, the temples opened, and, as the 
 procession passed by, the spectators greeted 
 it with the acclamation, lo triumphs ! The 
 procession was headed by the State officials 
 and the Senate! Then followed trumpeters, 
 and after them the captured spoils {see fig. 
 1); next came painted representations of thg 
 
 fasces wreathed in bay leaves ; then a body 
 of musicians playing on the lyre, and priests 
 with censers ; and lastly the triumphal car, 
 gilded, and garlaiide4 with bay leaves, and 
 drawn by four white horses, which were 
 also wreathed with garla,nd3. On it stood 
 the general ; in earlier times his body was 
 dyed with vermilion [Pliny, iV.i/.xxxiii 111], 
 ijis head was wreathed with bay, and he 
 wore the garb of the Capitoline Jupiter, 
 furnished him from the treasury of the 
 Capitoline temple ; viz. a purple tunic em- 
 broidered with golderi. palm-shoots {tilmcd 
 palmatd), a toga decorated with golden 
 sta,rs on a purple ground {toga pictd), 
 gilded shoes, and an ivory sceptre in his 
 left hand, with an eagle on the top ; in his 
 right he carried a branch of bay. Over 
 his head a public slsi-ve, standing behind 
 
656 
 
 TRIUMPHAL ARCHES. 
 
 him, held the golden crown of Jupiter, 
 and, while the people shouted acclama- 
 tions, called to him, "Look behind you, and 
 remember you are mortal." [Tertullian, 
 Apol. 33.] He also guarded himself against 
 envy and the evil eye by an amulet which 
 he wore either on his person or tied to 
 the car. With him on the car, and some- 
 times on the horses, sat his youngest chil- 
 dren, while his grown up sons rode behind 
 with his lieutenants and ofiScers. The 
 soldiers brought up the rear, all wearing 
 decorations, and shouting lo triumphel In 
 accordance with ancient custom, they also 
 alternately sang songs in praise of their 
 general, and uttered ribald jests at his 
 expense. On arriving at the temple of 
 Capitoline Jupiter, the general, as a token 
 of his victory, placed on the lap of the god 
 the bay leaves wreathed around the fasces, 
 together with his own branch of bay, or (in 
 later times) a palm-branch, the fasces, and 
 his laurel-ahoot. He then offered the 
 sacrifice of thanksgiving (cp. fig. 2). 
 
 (2) SACRIFICE OF TKAJAN. 
 (Bas-relief from Arcli of Constantine.) 
 
 The festival, originally limited to one 
 day, gradually extended itself to several. 
 It concluded with a banquet to the State 
 officials and the Senate, and sometimes also 
 with an entertainment for the soldiers and 
 people. If the permission to celebrate the 
 ordinary triumph were refused to a general, 
 he could undertake one on his own account 
 to the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the 
 Alban Hill. If the conqueror had not 
 fought under his own auspices, or if his 
 exploits did not appear to merit the highest 
 form of triumph, he was allowed to hold 
 one of an inferior kind called an ovdtio. 
 
 In this the conqueror entered the town 
 either on foot (as in earlier times) or on 
 horseback, clad in the toga prcetexta, and 
 with a wreath of myrtle on his brow. 
 Under the Empire, only the emperors 
 1 triumphed, because the generals commanded 
 I as their lieutenants {legati Augusti), under 
 i the auspices of the emperors, and not under 
 their own. Victorious generals were then 
 obliged to content themselves with the 
 orndmenta triumphCilid ; i.e. the right of 
 appearing on holiday occasions in the 
 insignia of triumph, the tunica palmata, 
 or toga picfa, and wreath of bay leaves. 
 After Trajan's time, even this kind of 
 military distinction ceased, as all consuls 
 were permitted to wear the triumphal deco- 
 rations during festal processions. 
 
 Triumphal Arches. A type of monu- 
 mental architecture peculiar to the Romans. 
 They were erected as memorials in honour 
 of victorious generals, and (in later times) 
 in honour of individual emperors. In 
 architectural design they united the Roman 
 arch with the Greek column. In Rome (not 
 to mention the remains of the Arch of 
 Drusus) there are still extant, (1) the arch 
 which the Senate and people erected after 
 the death of Titus, in memory of the con- 
 quest of Judsea (70 A.D.). This consists of 
 two massive piers of Pentelic marble in- 
 closed by pilasters and joined together by 
 a vaulted arch, and of a lofty entablature, 
 on which the dedication is inscribed. On 
 the inner jambs of the arch are two fine 
 reliefs, representing (i) the emperor on the 
 triumphal car, and (ii)a group of soldiers 
 bearing the spoils of the Jewish War. (See 
 Teidmph, fig 1.) (2) The Arch of SeptimIus 
 Seveeus, with three entrances. This is of 
 remarkable dimensions, but the decoration, 
 though far richer, is overcharged ; it was 
 erected by the people in 203 A.D. in honour 
 of the emperor after his victories over the 
 Parthians. (3) The Arch of Constantine, 
 also with three entrances. This was built 
 after 311 A.D. {see cut), by using certain 
 portions (viz. the reliefs on both the fronts 
 and on the inner sides of the middle arch) 
 of one of the triumphal arches of Trajan, 
 which was destroyed for this purpose. 
 Among those not in Ropie must be men 
 tioned that at Orange in the south of 
 Prance. Arches of honour were also erected 
 for other serj/ices. Such are that of 
 Augustus at Arlminum (Bimini) on the 
 occasion of the completion of the road 
 leading to that place from Rome ; that of 
 Trajan at Ancona, oij the restoration of the 
 
TRIUMVIRI TROJAN WAR. 
 
 657 
 
 harbour. In Rome itself, between the site 
 of the Velabrmn and the Fdrum Boarlum 
 there is a richly decorated, but coarsely 
 sculptured, gateway with a flat lintel, 
 bearing an inscription recording its 
 erection (in a.d. 204) in honour of 
 Septimius Severus and other mem- 
 bers of the imperial house by the 
 silversmiths or bankers {argentarii) 
 and other merchants of the Forum 
 Boar mm. The arch of the Sergii 
 at Pola in Istria is a family me- 
 morial. 
 
 Triumviri. See Teesviri. 
 
 Trogus. See Pomjpeius Teogus. 
 
 Troiae Ludus. Cp. Circus, p. 139. 
 
 Trollus. A younger son of Priam 
 and Hecuba, who was slain by 
 Achilles. According to the later 
 legend, Achilles lay in wait for the 
 boy when he was exercising his 
 horse near a well in front of the 
 city, and slew him as he fled to the 
 temple of Thymbrsean Apollo, just 
 by the altar of the god, at the very 
 spot where he himself was destined 
 afterwards to meet his fate. Ac- 
 cording to another account, Troilus ven- 
 tured to meet Achilles in open conflict, but 
 was dragged to death by his own horses. 
 {See Vases, fig. 10.) 
 
 Trojan War. The storj^ of the Trojan 
 War, like the story of the Argonauts, 
 underwent, in the course of time, many 
 changes and amplifications. The kernel of 
 the story is contained in the two epic poems 
 of Homer : the Iliad and the Odyssey. 
 The incidents, either narrated or briefly 
 touched upon in these, were elaborated or 
 developed by the post-Homeric poets, partly 
 by connecting them with other popular tradi- 
 tions, and partly by the addition of further 
 details of their own invention. While in 
 Homer it is simply the rape of Helen which 
 is the occasion of the war, a later legend 
 traced its origin to^the marriage of Peleus 
 and Thetis, when Eris threw down among 
 the assembled gods the golden apple in- 
 scribed For the fairest. The quarrel that 
 ensued between Hera, Athene, and Aphro- 
 dite for the prize of beauty was decided by 
 Paris in favour of Aphrodite, who in return 
 secured him the possession of Helen, while 
 Hera and Athene became, from that time 
 onward, the implacable enemies of the 
 whole Trojan race. 
 
 According to Homer, after Helen had 
 been carried off by Paris, Menelaus and 
 Agamemnon visited all the Greek chief- 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 tains in turn, and prevailed on them to 
 take part in the expedition which they 
 were preparing to avenge the wrong. Ac- 
 cording to the later account, the majority of 
 
 TKIUMPHAL AKCH OF CONSTANTINE, EOME. 
 
 (Adorned witli reliefs from tlie Arcli of Trajan.) 
 
 the chieftains were already bound to follow 
 the expedition by an oath, which they had 
 sworn to Tyndareos. Agamemnon was 
 chosen commander-in-chief; next to him 
 the most prominent Greek heroes are his 
 brother Menelaus, Achilles and Patroclus, 
 the two Ajaxes, Teucer, Nestor and his son 
 Antilochus, Odysseus, Diomedes, Idomeneus, 
 and Philoctetes, who, however, at the very 
 outset of the expedition had to be left be- 
 hind, and does not appear on the scene of 
 action until just before the fall of Troy. 
 Later epics add the name of Palamedes. 
 
 The entire host of 100,000 men and 1,186 
 ships assembled in the harbour of Aulis. 
 Here, while they were sacrificing under a 
 plane tree, a snake darted out from under 
 the altar and ascended the tree, and there, 
 after devouring a brood of eight young 
 sparrows and the mother-bird herself, was 
 turned into stone. This omen Calchas, the 
 seer of the host, interpreted to mean that 
 the war would last nine years, and termi- 
 nate in the tenth with the destruction of 
 Troy [Iliad ii 299-332]. Agamemnon had 
 already received an oracle from the Delphian 
 god that Troy would fall when the best 
 of the Greeks quarrelled. In Homer the 
 crossing to Troy follows immediately; but 
 in the later story the Greeks at first land 
 by mistake in Mysia, in the country of 
 TeJephus (q.v.), and being dispersed by a 
 
 U u 
 
658 
 
 TROJAN ^yAU. 
 
 storm and driven back to Greece, assemble 
 afresh at Aulis, whence they are onJy 
 permitted to set out after the sacrifice of 
 IphigSnm (an incident entirely unknown 
 to Homer). On the Greek side the first to 
 fall is Protesildils, who is the first to land. 
 The disembarkation cannot take place until 
 Achilles has slain t;he mighty Cycnus {q.v., 
 2). After pitching their camp, Odysseus and 
 Menelaus proceed as ambassadors to Troy, 
 to demand the surrender of Helen. But 
 this proposal, in spite of the inclination of 
 Helen herself and the admonition of the 
 Trojan Antenor, falls to the ground, owing 
 to the opposition of Paris, and war is de- 
 clared. The number of the Trojans, whose 
 chief hero is Hector, scarcely amounts to 
 the tenth part of that of the besiegers ; and 
 although they possess the aid of countless 
 brave allies, such as JEiieas, Sarpcdon, and 
 Glaucus, in their fear of Achilles they dare 
 not risk a general engagement. On the 
 other hand, the Achseans can do nothing 
 against the well-fortified and defended town, 
 and see themselves confined to laying 
 ambuscades and devastating the surround- 
 ing country, and compelled by lack of pro- 
 
 • visions to have resource to foraging expe- 
 ditions in the neighbourhood, undertaken 
 by sea and by land under the generalship 
 of Achilles. At length the decisive tenth 
 year arrives. The Homeric Iliad narrates 
 the events of this year, confining itself to 
 the space of fifty-one days. 
 
 Chryses, priest of Apollo, comes in priestly 
 garb into the camp of the Greeks to ransom 
 his daughter Chryseis from Agamemnon. 
 He is rudely repulsed, and Apollo conse- 
 quently visits the Greeks with a plague. 
 In an assembly of the Greeks summoned 
 by Achilles, Calchas declares the only 
 means of appeasing the god to be the 
 surrender of the girl without ransom. 
 Agamemnon assents to the general wish ; 
 but, by way of compensation, takes from 
 Achilles, whom he considers to be the 
 instigator of the whole plot, his favourite 
 slave Briseis. Achilles withdraws in a 
 rage to his tent, and implores his mother 
 Thetis to obtain from Zeus a promise that 
 the Greeks should meet with disaster in 
 fighting the Trojans until Agamemnon 
 should give her son complete satisfaction 
 [II. i]. The Trojans immediately take the 
 open field, and Agamemnon is induced by a 
 
 promise of victory, conveyed in a dream 
 from Zeus, to appoint the following day 
 
 for a battle [ii]. The hosts are already 
 
 standing opposed to one another, prepared 
 
 for fight, when they agree to a treaty that 
 the conflict for Helen and the plundered 
 treasures be decided by a duel between 
 Paris and Menelaus. Paris is overcome in 
 the duel, and is only rescued from death 
 by the intervention of Aphrodite [iii]. 
 When Agamemnon presses for the fulfil- 
 ment of the treaty, the Trojan Pandarus 
 breaks the peace by shooting an arrow at 
 Menelaus, and the first open engagement 
 in the war begins [iv], in which, under the 
 protection of Athene, Diomede performs 
 miracles of bravery and wounds even 
 Aphrodite and Ares [v]. Diomede and the 
 Lycian Glaucus are on the point of fighting, 
 when they recognise one another as here- 
 ditary guest-friends. Hector goes from 
 the battle to Troy, and the day ends with 
 an indecisive duel between Hector and Ajax 
 son of Telamon, In the armistice ensiling 
 both sides bury their dead, and the Greeks, 
 acting on the advice of Nestor, surround the 
 camp with a wall and trench [vii]. When 
 the fighting begins afresh, Zeus forbids the 
 gods to take part in it, and ordains that the 
 battle shall terminate with the discomfiture 
 of the Greeks [viii]. On the following 
 night Agamemnon already begins to medi- 
 tate flight, but Nestor advises reconciliation 
 with Achilles. The efforts of the ambas- 
 sadors are, however, fruitless [ix]. Here- 
 upon Odysseus and Diomede go out to 
 reconnoitre, capture Dolon, a Trojan spy, 
 and surprise Rhesus (q.v.), king of the 
 Thracians, the newly arrived ally of the 
 enemy [xj. On the succeeding day Agr.- 
 memnon's bravery drives the Trojans back 
 to the walls of the town ; but he himself, 
 Diomede, Odysseus, and other heroes leave 
 the battle wounded, the Greeks retire behind 
 the carnp walls [xi], to attack which the 
 Trojans set out in five detachments. The 
 opposition of the Greeks is brave ; but 
 Hector breaks the rough gate with a rock, 
 and the stream of enemies pours itself un- 
 impeded into the camp [xii]. Once more the 
 Greek heroes who are still capable of taking 
 part in the fight, especially the two Ajaxes 
 and Idomeneus, succeed with the help of 
 Poseidon in repelling the Trojans, while 
 Telamonian Ajax dashes Hector to the ground 
 with a stone ; but the latter soon reappears 
 on the battlefield with fresh strength 
 granted him by Apollo at the command of 
 Zeus [xiii]. Poseidon is obliged to leave 
 the Greeks to their fate ; they retire again 
 to the ships, which Ajax in vain defends 
 [xv]. The foremost ship is already burning, 
 when Achilles gives way to the entreaties 
 
TROJAN WAR. 
 
 659 
 
 of his friend Patroclus, and sends him, clad 
 in his own armour, with the Myrmidons to 
 the help of the distressed Greeks. Supposing 
 it to be Achilles himself, the Trojans in 
 terror flee from the camp before Patroclus, 
 who pursues them to the town, and lays low 
 vast numbers of the enemy, including the 
 brave Sarpedon, whose corpse is only 
 rescued from the Greeks after a severe 
 fight. At last Patroclus himself is slain 
 by Hector with the help of Apollo [xvi]; 
 Achilles' arms are lost, and even the corpse 
 is with difSculty saved [xvii]. And now 
 Achilles repents of his anger, reconciles 
 himself to Agamemnon, and on the follow- 
 ing day, furnished with new and splendid 
 armour by Hephsestus at the request of 
 Thetis [xviii], avenges the death of his 
 friend on countless Trojans and finally on 
 Hector himself [xxii]. With the burial of 
 Patroclus and the funeral games estab- 
 lished in his honour [xxiii], the restoration 
 of Hector's corpse to Priam, and the burial 
 of Hector, for which Achilles allows an 
 armistice of eleven days [xxiv], the Iliad 
 concludes. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Hector 
 the later legends bring the Amazons to 
 the help of the Trojans, and their queen 
 PenthSsilea is slain by Achilles. Then 
 appears Memn&n, who is also mentioned by 
 Homer ; at the head of his ^Ethiopians he 
 slays Antilochus son of Nestor, and is him- 
 self slain by Achilles. And now comes the 
 fulfilment of the oracle given to Agamemnon 
 at Delphi ; for at a sacrificial banquet a 
 violent quarrel arises between Achilles and 
 Odysseus, the latter declaring craft and not 
 valour to be the only means of capturing 
 Troy. Soon after, in an attempt to force a 
 way into the hostile town through the 
 Scaean gate, or, according to later legend, at 
 the marriage of Priam's daughter Polyxena 
 in the temple of Thymbrsean Apollo, Achilles 
 falls slain by the arrow of Paris, directed 
 by the god. After his burial, Thetis offers 
 the arms of her son as a prize for the bravest 
 of the Greek heroes, and they are adjudged 
 to Odysseus. Thereupon his competitor, the 
 Telamonian Ajax, slays himself. For these 
 losses, however, the Greeks find some com- 
 pensation. Acting on the admonition of 
 HeLenus, son of Priam, who had been cap- 
 tured by Odysseus, that Troy could not be 
 conquered without the arrows of Heracles 
 and the presence of a descendant of ^acus, 
 they fetch to the camp Philoctetes, the heir 
 of Heracles, who had been abandoned on 
 Lemnos, and Neoptdlemus, the young son 
 
 of Achilles, who had been brought up on 
 Scyr6a. The latter, a worthy son of his 
 father, slays the last ally of the Trojans, 
 Eurypylus, the brave son of Telephus ; and 
 Philoctetes, with one of the arrows of 
 Heracles, kills Paris. Even when the last 
 condition of the capture of Troy, viz. the 
 removal of the Palladium from the temple 
 of Athene on the citadel, has been success- 
 fully fulfilled by Diomede and Odysseus, 
 the town can only be taken ^ by treachery. 
 On the advice of Athene, Epeius, son of 
 Panopeus, builds a gigantic Wooden horse, in 
 the belly of which the bravest Greek warriors 
 conceal themselves under the direction of 
 Odysseus, while the rest of the Greeks burn 
 the camp and embark on board ship, only, 
 however, to anchor behind Tenedos. The 
 Trojans, streaming out of the town, find 
 the horse, and are in doubt what to do with 
 it. According to the later legend, they are 
 deceived by the treacherous Sinon, a kins- 
 man of Odysseus, who has of his own free 
 will remained behind. He pretends that 
 he has escaped from the deg,th by sacrifice 
 to which he had been doomed by the malice 
 of Odysseus, and that the horse has been 
 erected to expiate the robbery of the 
 Palladium ; to destroy it would be fatal to 
 Troy, but should it be set on the citadel, 
 Asia would conquer Europe. The fate of 
 Ldocoon (q.v.) removes the last doubt from 
 the minds of the Trojans; the city gate 
 being too small, they break down a portion 
 of the wall, and draw the horse up to the 
 citadel as a dedicatory offering for Athene. 
 While they are giving themselves up to 
 transports of joy, Sinon in the night opens 
 the door of the horse. The heroes descend, 
 and light the flames that give to the 
 Greek fleet the preconcerted signal for its 
 return. Thus Troy is captured; all the 
 inhabitants are either slain or carried into 
 slavery, and the city is destroyed. The 
 only survivors of the royal house are 
 Helenus, Cassandra, and Hector's wife 
 Andromache, besides ^Eneas {q.v. ; for the 
 fate of the rest see Deiphobus, Hecuba, 
 PoLYDORUs, 2, Polyxena, Priam, Troilus). 
 After Troy has been destroyed and plun- 
 dered, Agamemnon and Menelaus, contrary 
 to custom, call the drunken Greeks to 
 an assembly in the evening. A division 
 ensues, half siding with Menelaus in a 
 desire to return home at once ; while Aga- 
 memnon and the other half wish first to 
 appease by sacrifice the deity of Athene, 
 who has been offended by the outrage of the 
 Locrian Ajax (see AiAS, 1). The army con- 
 
660 
 
 TROPiEUM TUNICA. 
 
 TKOPHY, 
 
 (Boeotian coin.) 
 
 sequently sets out on its journey in two 
 parts. Only Nestor, Diomede, Neoptolemus, 
 Philoctetes, and Idomeneus reacli home in 
 safety ; while Menelaus and Odysseus have 
 first to undei-go wanderings for many a long 
 year. Death overtakes the Locrian Ajax on 
 the sea, and Agamemnon immediately after 
 his arrival home. 
 
 Tropaeum (Gr. tropaion). The Greek 
 term for a monument of victory, coruposed 
 of the arms captured as booty, and set up 
 on the spot where the conquered enemy 
 had turned to flight. Representations of 
 the stump of a tree with 
 cross-pieces and armour 
 or weapons suspended 
 from them, are often to 
 be seen on coins {see cut). 
 The Romans borrowed tlie 
 custom from the Greeks, 
 btit generally erected as 
 memorials of victory per- 
 manent monuments, with 
 representations of the war carved in relief, 
 and with trophies of arms suspended over 
 the undecorated portions. 
 
 Trophonins and Agamedes. Sons of 
 Ergmus of Orchomenus, legendary heroes 
 of architecture. Many important buildings 
 were attributed to them, among others the 
 temple of Apollo at Delphi [Homeric Hymn 
 to Apollo, 118; Strabo, p. 421 ; Pausanias x 
 5 § 13], that of Poseidon at Mantineia 
 [Paus. viii 10 § 2], the tlialamos of Alcmene 
 in Thebes [ib. ix 11 § 1], the treasuries 
 of Augeas in Elis [Scholia to Aristophanes, 
 Nubes 508], and Hyrieus in Boeotian- Hyria 
 [Paus. ix 37 § 4]. In the last named they 
 inserted one stone so cleverly that it could 
 be easily removed from the outside and the 
 treasure stolen by night. But on one occa- 
 sion, when Agamedes was caught in the 
 trap laid by Hyrieus to discover the thief, 
 Trophonius, to save himself from being 
 betrayed as his brother's accomplice, cut 
 off the head of Agamedes. Being pursued 
 however by the king, he was swallowed up 
 in the earth at Lebadea, and by the com- 
 mand of Apollo a cult and an oracle were 
 dedicated to him as Zeus Trophonius. 
 
 The oraple was situated in a subterranean 
 chamber, into which, after various prepara- 
 tory rites, including the nocturnal sacrifice of 
 a ram and the invocation of Agamedes, the 
 inquirers descended, to receive, under cir- 
 cumstances of a mysterious nature, a variety 
 of revelations, which were afterwards taken 
 do^vn from their lips and duly interpreted. 
 The descent into the cave, and the sights 
 
 which there met the eye, were so awe- 
 inspiring, that the popular belief was that 
 no one who visited the cave ever smiled 
 again [ Athenseus, 614 A ; cp. Aristophanes, 
 Nubes 508] ; and it was proverbially said 
 of persons of grave and serious aspect, that 
 they had been in the cave of Trophonius. 
 
 According to another story, the brothers, 
 after the completion of the Delphic temple, 
 asked Apollo for a reward, and he pro- 
 mised they should have on the seventh day 
 the best thing that could be given to man ; 
 and on that day they both died a peaceful 
 death [Cicero, 7\isc. Disp. i 114; Plutarch, 
 Consolatio ad Apollonium 14]. 
 
 Tros. Son of Erichthonius, father ot 
 Ilus founder of Troy, and of Assaracus and 
 Ganymedes. {Cp, Dardanus.) 
 
 Triia {trulla). A kind of ladle. {See 
 Vessels.) 
 
 Trjphiodorus. A Greek epic writer of 
 Egypt, who composed at the beginning of 
 the 6th century B.c, a Conquest of Ilium 
 in 691 hexameters, a very indifferent poem. 
 
 Tftba. The Latin nanie for a straight 
 wind-instrument of deep, clangorous sound, 
 which was used at sacrifices, games, and 
 
 funerals, and in war among the infantry to 
 give the signal for attack and retreat, and 
 was blown by the tubicen {see cut). {Cp. 
 LiTuns, 2.) 
 
 Tiibilustrium. A festival in honour of 
 Mars. {See Salii.) 
 
 Tullins. See Ciceeo and Tiro. 
 
 Ttoica {Latin). A garment for men and 
 women worn next the person. With men 
 it was a loose shirt of woollen stuff, consist- 
 ing of pieces sewn together at the sides, 
 and having either no sleeves or only short 
 ones reaching half way down the arm. 
 Longer sleeves were considered effeminate, 
 and first came into general use in the 3rd 
 and 4th centuries A.D. Ordinarily the 
 tunica was girded up over the hip, and 
 reached to the knees only. It was con- 
 sidered unbecoming to allow it to appear 
 beneath the lower part of the tdgd. It was 
 
TURMA — TUTULUS. 
 
 661 
 
 worn by the Eoman at home and at work, 
 and also by slaves and strangers. Senators 
 and patricians were distinguished by a 
 tunica with a broad purple stripe {latus 
 clavus, hence tunica lattcldvia) extending 
 from the neck to the under seam ; the 
 knights by a narrow one {angustus clavus, 
 hence tunica angustidavia). The purple 
 tunica, adorned with golden palm-branches 
 {tunica palmata), was, with the toga picta 
 {see Toga), the dress of a general on the 
 occasion of a triumph {q.-O.). It Very early 
 became the custom to wear beneath the 
 tunic proper a tunica intSvlor, which was 
 of wool. Linen shirts did not come into 
 use until the 4th century a.d. Women also 
 wore a double tunic, an under one consist- 
 ing of a garment fitting closely to the body 
 and reaching over the knee, and over this 
 the stola {q.v.). 
 
 Tnrma. A sub-division of the Roman 
 cavalry. The 300 knights originally be- 
 longing to each legion were divided into 10 
 tumtce of 30 men: each of these had 3 
 dScUnones, the first of whom commanded 
 the whole turma, and 3 optiOnes (adjutants). 
 The divisions of allied cavalry called dice 
 {see Ala), each consisting of 300 men, con- 
 tained 5 tUrmce of 60 men each. Under 
 the Empire the independent divisions of 
 cavalry of 500 or 1,000 men, which were 
 also called ala, consisted of 16 or 24 turmce. 
 The cavalry divisions of 120 horsemen in a 
 cohort of 500 strong, which formed the unit 
 in many cohorta, and of 240 horsemen in a 
 cohort of 1,000 strong, were divided into 6 
 and 10 turmoi respectively. {See Cohors.) 
 
 Turnus. Son of Daunus and Venilia, 
 brother of Juturna {q.v.), king of the 
 Rutulians at Ardea. He was induced by 
 Amata, the sister of his mother, and wife 
 of Latinus, to make war upon jEneas for 
 his bride Lavinia, who had already been 
 betrothed to himself. After many hard 
 fights he was slain in single combat by his 
 rival. 
 
 Turpllius {Sextus). A Roman writer 
 of comedies, a younger contemporary of 
 Terence. He died at Sinuessa in 103 B.C. 
 We only possess some of the titles and a few 
 fragments of his plays. He was the last im- 
 portant writer of the fdbUla palltata {q.v.). 
 
 Tutela. The office of guardian among 
 the EoMAXS. It affected not only minors, 
 but also widows and grown up daughters 
 up to the time of their marriage, with the 
 exception of the Vestals. In the case of 
 impuberes or pupilli, ordinary minors, the 
 guardian {tutor) managed their property 
 
 until the time of their majority, which 
 with girls began at twelve, with boys at 
 fourteen. At this age the guardianship 
 determined, and girls became, like widows, 
 possessed of independent power over their 
 property, but still remained so far under 
 guardianship, that they were unable to take 
 legal proceedings without the consent of 
 their guardians. 
 
 Three kinds of tutor Ss have been dis- 
 tinguished : (1) tutor testamentai'lus, who 
 was named in the will. By a provision in 
 the will women were Sometimes allowed the 
 choice of their guardian, who was then 
 called tutor opttvus (" chosen guardian "), 
 to distinguish him frOm the tutor ddtlvus 
 (or " specified guardian "). If no guardian 
 was named in the will, Or the guardian 
 named declined the office, or subsequently 
 resigned it, the next of kin stepped in as 
 (2) tator ISgttlmus. In the case of a widow, 
 this was the son, if of age, or the husband's 
 brother, and so on. In the case of a daugh- 
 ter, the brother, if of age, the uncle on the 
 father's side, and so on. Among the patri- 
 cians, if there were no kinsmen, the gentiles 
 undertook the duties. (3) If there were 
 neither a tutor testamentarius nor a tutor 
 legitimus, then the praetor appointed a tutor 
 AtUmnus, so called because the lex AtUia 
 (about 188 B.C.) had introduced this kind 
 of guardian. Under the Empire these 
 guardians were. named by the consuls, from 
 the time of Marcus Aurelius by a regular 
 prcetor tuteldris. Women having three 
 children were exempted from all guardian- 
 ship by Augustus. Then Claudius abo- 
 lished guardianship on the part of the 
 agndtt in the case of all women. Diocle- 
 tian extended this abolition to the case of 
 minors. After the time of Diocletian, 
 guardianship over women fell into disuse, 
 and afterwards women were themselves 
 allowed to act as guardians. A guardian 
 found guilty of betraying his trust was 
 punished by infamia {q.v.). {Op. CtfEA.) 
 
 Among the ATHElfiA>ts the guardian 
 {epUropds), if not named by the father in 
 the will, was generally appointed by the 
 archon from the nearest relations. The 
 archOn Was also the proper authority in 
 Suits relating to guardianship, which, during 
 the minority of the ward, could be brought 
 forward in the form of a public prosecu- 
 tion ; and, after the ward had attained his 
 majority, in that of a private lawsuit. 
 
 Tiitor. A guardian. {See Tutela.) 
 
 Tiitulus. A kind of Roman head-dress, 
 formed by plaiting the hair high above 
 
G62 
 
 TWELVE TABLES TYNDAREOS. 
 
 the forehead. It was characteristic of the 
 flamen and his wife. {See Haie, Modes of 
 Dressing.) 
 
 Twelve Tables {Duodecim Tdbulce). The 
 laws of the Twelve Tables represent the 
 first attempt made by the decemvirs, 451- 
 450 B.C., to reduce to a regular code the 
 older unwritten and imperfectly formulated 
 laws of custom — criminal, civil, and religious 
 {ius publicum, privatum, sacrum) — which 
 had up to that time prevailed in Home. 
 To this end improvements were adopted 
 which were suggested by the constitutions 
 and laws of other nations. The code thus 
 formed was the source of the whole system 
 of Roman jurisprudence, and, so far as civil 
 law was concerned, survived until the latest 
 times. The importance ascribed to the 
 Twelve Tables by the Romans is clear from 
 their forming a principal part of the educa- 
 tion of Roman boys ; even in the boyhood 
 of Cicero they were still learnt by heart 
 in the schools of Rome. As in course 
 of time many passages became obscure, 
 through changes in the language and in the 
 state of the laws, various commentaries 
 were added to them, some as early as 204 
 B.C., by jiElius Catus (see Jurisprudence) ; 
 some as late as the 2nd century A.D., by 
 Graius. The laws were written on twelve 
 tablets of bronze, bat it is doubtful whether 
 the originals survived the capture of Rome 
 by the Gauls in 390 B.C. It was probably 
 copies of these that were still standing in 
 the Roman Forum in the 2nd century after 
 Christ. Only detached fragments, occa- 
 sionally quoted in other writings, have sur- 
 vived to modern times, yet these give a clear 
 idea of the succinct style in which the 
 laws were written, [The standard critical 
 edition is by R. Schoell, 1866, followed in 
 the main in Wordsworth's Fragments and 
 Specimens of Early Latin, Bruns' Fontes 
 luris Romdni, and P. D. Allen's Remnants 
 of Early Latin, 1880, §§ 174^207.] 
 
 Tyche. In Greek mythology, originally 
 the goddess of chance ; only occasionally 
 mentioned in the older poets. In the 
 course of time she came to be extensively 
 worshipped as a goddess of prosperity, who 
 had cities under her special protection. 
 With the general decay of belief in the 
 gods she became one of the mightiest and 
 most commonly named of all supernatural 
 powers. She is generally represented with 
 a cornucopia as the bestower of blessing, 
 with a rulder as the pilot of destiny, and 
 with wings, wheel, and ball, as emblems 
 of her variability. [For the personified 
 
 Tyche of Antioch on the Orontes, see 
 Sculpture, fig. 15.] 
 
 Tydeus. Son of (Eneus of Calydon and 
 Peribcea; father of Diomedes. Being 
 obliged to fly from his home, owing to the 
 murder of his paternal uncle Melas, and 
 of his sons, he took refuge with Adrastus 
 {q.v.) at Argos, and married his daughter 
 Deipyle. Though small of stature, he pos- 
 sessed a bold spirit and great strength, 
 together with the special favour of Athene. 
 As one of the Seven against Thebes, he was 
 sent to Thebes before the commencement of 
 hostilities in the hope of coming to terms 
 with the Theban chiefs. He found them 
 banqueting with their king Eteocles. On 
 their refusal to listen to him, he called them 
 out to combat, and defeated them one after 
 the other. On his return, the Thebans, in 
 revenge, laid an ambuscade, consisting of 
 fifty youths, under two leaders; but with 
 the help of Athene he slew them all, and 
 only suffered one of the leaders, Mseon, son 
 of Hsemon, to escape. In the disastrous 
 conflict under the walls of Thebes, he was 
 fatally wounded by the Theban Melanippus, 
 when Athene, with the permission of Zeus, 
 appeared to grant him life and immortality. 
 Then his old antagonist, Amphiaraus, laid 
 before him the head of Melanipptis, whom 
 he had just slain ; and Tydeus, in savage 
 fury, cleft open his skull and sucked out 
 the brain of his enemy. Outraged by this 
 horrible deed, the goddess recoiled from his 
 presence and delivered him over to death. 
 The corpse was buried by Mseon out of 
 gratitude for having been spared by Tydeus. 
 
 Tympanon {Greek). A hand-drum, used 
 more especially at the 
 noisy revels of Dio- 
 nysus and Cybele, a 
 broad rim of wood or 
 metal covered with skin 
 {see cut) ; sometimes 
 also set round with a 
 concave and semicircular sound-board. 
 
 Tyndargos. Son of king (Ebalus of 
 Sparta, brother of Icarius and Hippocoon. 
 Expelled by the latter, he took refuge in 
 jEtolia, with king Thestius, who gave him 
 his daughter Leda to wife. She became 
 the mother of Helen, Clytsemnestra, and 
 Castor and Pollux. (^S'ee Leda.) Heracles 
 restored him to the throne of Sparta. 
 When Helen was wooed by the noblest 
 chieftains of Greece, Tj^ndareos, acting on 
 the advice of Odysseus, made the assembled 
 suitors swear to protect the husband whom 
 Helen should choose against every act of 
 
 TYMPANON. 
 
TYNDARIDiE TYRT^US. 
 
 663 
 
 injustice. By tins oath they subsequently 
 found themselves bound to the expedition 
 against Troy. As he had on one occasion 
 forgotten to sacrifice to Aphrodite, she 
 turned his daughters into adulteresses. 
 On the death of his sons he surrendered 
 to his son-in-law, Menelaus, the throne of 
 Sparta, where he was buried, and his tomb 
 pointed out to travellers. 
 
 T3mdarldaB. [A patronymic formed from 
 Tyndares.] The children of TyndSreos, 
 especially the Dioscuri {q.v.). 
 
 T^phoeus {TypJion). According to Hesiod 
 [Theog. 869], the youngest son of Gsea by 
 Tartarus; a giant of enormous strength, 
 with one hundred snake-heads, eyes darting 
 fire, and various voices, which sometimes 
 sounded like the voice of the gods, some- 
 times like the lowing of a bull or the roar- 
 ing of a lion, or like the howl of a dog, and 
 sometimes like a shrill whistle. He was the 
 symbol of the fire and smoke in the interior 
 of the earth, and of their destructive forces. 
 Hence he was also the father of devastating 
 hurricanes. By Echidna he was the father 
 of the dogs Orthos and Cerberus, and the 
 Lemsean hydra [the Chimsera, the lion of 
 Nemea, the eagle of Prometheus, and the 
 dragon of the Hesperides]. He contended 
 with Zeus for the throne of the lower 
 world, but after some severe fighting was 
 hurled to the ground by lightning, and 
 thrown into Tartarus. In Homer he lies 
 beneath the earth, in the land of the Arimi 
 {11. ii 783], and Zeus assails that region with 
 his thunderbolts. According to another 
 account jGtna was hurled upon him, and 
 out of it he sends forth streams of flame 
 [.(Gschylus, Prometlieus 370, Septem contra 
 Thebas 493]. He was afterwards identified 
 with the Egyptian god Set, the god of the 
 sirocco, of death, of blight, of the eclipse 
 of sun and moon, and of the barren sea, 
 the author of all evil, and the murderer of 
 his brother Osiris {q.v.). 
 
 Tyrant (Gr. tyrannos). The word tyran- 
 nus originally meant no more than a ruler, 
 and carried no association of blame, but was 
 used subsequently in the special sense of a 
 ruler who exercises unconstitutional, irre- 
 sponsible, and absolute power. Such tyran- 
 nies arose most commonly in the 7th and 
 6th centuries B.C., in oligarchical states; i.e. 
 in states governed in the interests of their 
 party by an aristocratical minority. Men 
 of courage and ability, not ivnfrequently 
 themselves members of the aristocracy, 
 availed themselves of the discontent of the 
 people in order to win popularity, and then 
 
 with their help overthrew the existing 
 authority, and possessed themselves of the 
 government. For this purpose many used 
 the official powers constitutionally dele- 
 gated to them. The tyrants exercised their 
 authority mostly in their own interests; 
 and, when they did not misuse it, the people 
 on the whole fared better under the new rule 
 than under the old, while it also served to 
 remove existing anomalies, and to make room 
 for fresh developments. Many of the tyrants 
 of this time have earned a high reputation 
 for themselves, partly by the extension of 
 their power abroad, and partly by the im- 
 petus they gave to trade, and commerce, 
 and architecture, and by the encourage- 
 ment of art. Nevertheless, the dynasties 
 of tyrants in this period were seldom of 
 long duration. They generally formed the 
 transition from aristocratic oligarchies to 
 democracies. Under this last form of con- 
 stitution it was less the actual instances of 
 misconduct on the part of tyrants, than dis- 
 like to monarchs in general, that led men 
 to associate with the name of a tyrant the- 
 idea of a cruel and arbitrary ruler. When 
 the democracies had reached their furthest 
 limit, tyrannies were developed from them, 
 as in earlier days they had been developed 
 from oligarchies ; but unlike those of earlier 
 days, this development was. not progress, 
 but only a general dissolution and deterio- 
 ration. Such tyrannies, so far from work- 
 ing any good for the State, served merely 
 to promote the pleasures and interests of 
 irresponsible rulers and their ministers. 
 [Cp. Aristotle, Politics, iv 10 ; v, chaps. 5, 
 6, 12.] 
 
 Tyro. Daughter of Salmoneus, by 
 Poseidon ; mother of Neleus (q.v.) and of 
 Pelias, and, by Cretheus, mother of ^son. 
 
 Tyrtaus. A celebrated Greek elegiac 
 poet of the 7th century B.C., son of 
 Archembrotus, born either at Athens or 
 at Aphidna in Attica. He transplanted the 
 Ionian elegy to Dorian Sparta. According 
 to the ordinary story, the Spartans, being 
 hard pressed in the second Messenian War, 
 on the advice of the Delphic oracle, asked 
 the Athenians for a general, and they sent 
 them the lame Tyrtseus. By the power of 
 his poetry, he healed the divisions among 
 the Spartans, and roused them to such 
 bravery that they won the victory. His 
 poems stood in high esteem at Sparta, and 
 served as a ■ means of education for the 
 youth. In the field they were read at 
 evening after supper. Besides fragments 
 of an elegy entitled Eun6viia {lawfulness), 
 
<JG4 
 
 TZETZES VALEEIUS. 
 
 by means of wliich he put an end to tlie 
 divisions subsisting among the Spartans, 
 and an anapaestic March, we possess three 
 complete specimens of his war songs, called 
 liypothekai, or exhortations, in which he 
 encourages young men to take to heart the 
 duty and honour of courage. Their themes 
 are singularly simple and pathetic, and 
 they are among the most beautiful remains 
 of ancient poetry. 
 
 Tzetzes {Ifxinnes). A Greek grammarian 
 and poet of the second half of the 12th 
 century a.d. He lived in Constantinople, 
 and though for his time he may be called 
 learned, he was a most conceited and super- 
 ficial personage, as is amply proved by his 
 numerous writings. Besides commentaries 
 on Homer, Hesiod, Aristophanes, Lycophron, 
 
 and other writers, which are valuable for 
 the authorities quoted in them, he composed, 
 in 1,665 wretched hexameters, an epic poem 
 entitled Bidca, containing the legend of 
 Troy from the birth of Paris till the opening 
 of the Iliad, the incidents of the Iliad in 
 detail, and the further course of the war up 
 to the return of the Greeks. Besides this 
 he wrote a book of histories of 12,661 
 "political verses." These are commonly but 
 wrongly called chiliads, from an arbitrary 
 division of the work into books of 1,000 
 lines each. He is also the author of a col- 
 lection of stories partly mythical, partly 
 historical, worthless in themselves, but 
 valuable as including numerous items of 
 information which would otherwise have 
 been unknown to us. 
 
 u 
 
 Ulixes. See Odysseus. 
 
 TJlpianiis (Domittus). Next to Papinianus 
 the most celebrated among Roman jurists. 
 He was born at Tyre about 170 a.d. He 
 began his career in Rome under Septimlus 
 Severus as assessor of Papinianus; and, 
 under Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, 
 whose preceptor and guardian he had been , 
 filled the office of a prafectus pvcetorio. 
 During his tenure of this office he was mur- 
 dered (228) before the eyes of the emperor 
 by the praetorians, whom he had exasperated 
 by the strictness of his discipline. His two 
 chief works, on the praetorian law, Ad Edic- 
 turn, in 83 books, and on the civil law {Ad 
 Sdbinum) in 51 books, were held in high 
 esteem, and formed the foundation of the 
 Pandects of Justinian's Corpus ICms. Of 
 this portion the extracts from his writings 
 form a full third. Besides these excerpts 
 we have a small part of his Reguldrum 
 Liber Singuldris and of his Institutions. 
 
 Ulysses. See Odysseus. 
 
 TJmbraculum {umbella). A sun-shade. 
 {See Clothing.) 
 
 Urania. (1) Epithet of Aphrodite (f/.f .). 
 
 (2) The Muse of astronomy {see Muses), 
 
 (3) A Greek game at ball ( q.v.). 
 Uranus (lit. heaven). Son and husband of 
 
 Gr«ea, the Earth, who bore to him the Titans, 
 the Cyclopes, and Hecatoncheires. He did 
 not allow the children born to him to see 
 the light, but concealed them in the depths 
 of the earth. Enraged at this, Gaea stirred 
 up her children against him, and Cronus, 
 the youngest of the Titans, unmanned him 
 with the sickle which his mother had given 
 to him. Prom the bloody that fell upon 
 the earth were bom the Erinyes and the 
 Giants. The member which was cut off 
 fell into the sea, and out of the foam pro- 
 duced around it there came into being the 
 goddess called Aphrodite (hence called 
 Aphrogeneid, i.e. foam-born). 
 
 Urna. A Roman water-vessel. {See 
 Vessels.) 
 
 V 
 
 Valerius. (1) Vdlertiis Antids, a Roman 
 annalist. {See Annalists.) 
 
 (2) Maxvmus, a Roman historian. Of 
 his life we know only that he accompanied 
 the proconsul Sextus Pompeius to Asia 
 in 27 A.D. On his return he composed, 
 between 29 and 32 a.d., a collection of 
 historical anecdotes in nine books, Factorum 
 et Dictorum MSmdrabiltum Libri, which 
 he dedicated to the emperor Tiberius. The 
 
 book consists of an uncritical collection of 
 extracts taken mostly from Livy and Cicero, 
 but also from Sallust and Pompeius Trogus. 
 These are divided into domestic and foreign 
 instances under different headings, mostly 
 descriptive of moral qualities. The style 
 is bad, and full of declamatory bombast ; 
 the character of the compiler reveals itself 
 in abject flattery of Tiberius. Neverthe- 
 less, owing to the convenient selection of 
 
VARIUS RUFUS VASES. 
 
 G65 
 
 anecdotes which the book offered to orators 
 aad authors, it was much quoted in the 
 succeeding generations down to the Middle 
 Ages. It has come down to us with two 
 epitomes, drawn up in late Roman times, by 
 lultus Paris and laniianus Nepotlanus. 
 The short dissertation, De Prcenominibus, 
 appended to the work, has nothing to do 
 with Valerius himself. It is an epitome 
 drawn up by the above-mentioned Paris 
 from the first portion of a work on Roman 
 names by an unknown writer, who quotes 
 old authorities on the subject, especially 
 Varro. 
 
 (3) Gains Valerius Maccus Balhus 
 Setinus. A Latin writer of epic verse, born 
 at Setia, who flourished under Vespasian 
 and Titus, and died before 90 a.d. We have 
 an unfinished epic by him on the expedition 
 of the Argonauts (Argonautica) in 8 books, 
 which was begun about the time of the 
 destruction of Jerusalem (70), and was dedi- 
 cated to Vespasian. The poem is a free 
 paraphrase of the work of Apollonius 
 Rhodius, with his characteristic style and 
 manner, in language which, though careful 
 and tastefully chosen, is sometimes difficult 
 and obscure, and overladen with rhetorical 
 adornment. 
 
 (4) IvMus Valerius. Of Africa, who 
 lived about the end of the 3rd century A.D., 
 and wrote a Latin translation of the 
 Pseudo-Callisthenes. {See Callisthenes.) 
 
 Varins Rufas {Lucius). A celebrated 
 Roman poet. His poetical career began 
 in the later days of the Republic. Like 
 his younger friend Vergil, he was much 
 honoured and appreciated by Augustus and 
 Msecenaa, to whom he also introduced his 
 friend Horace. Vergil, at his death, in 
 19 B.C., left him and Plotius Tucca his 
 literarj' remains, and Augustus entrusted 
 to them the revision and publication. He 
 died before the year 12 B.C. At the opening 
 of the Augustan era he was the most con- 
 spicuous of the Latin epic poets ; but he 
 obtained his greatest reputation by his 
 tragedy Thpestes, which, with the Medea of 
 Ovid, was considered the greatest effort of 
 Roman literature in this department. The 
 work was brought out at the games held 
 in honour of the victory at Actium 29 B.C., 
 and was rewarded by Augustus with a 
 honorarium of a million sesterces (£10,000). 
 Of this, as of his epic poems (on the death 
 of CsBsar and panegyric on Augustus), only 
 a few verses survive. 
 
 Varro. See Terentius (2) and (3). 
 
 [Vases, of Greek origin, may be classified 
 
 under four heads, with several subdivisions 
 in each : (I) archaic vases, (II) those with 
 black figures, (III) those with red figures, 
 and (IV) those of the decadence. 
 
 (I) Archaic Vases. 
 
 (1) Among the oldest are those found in 
 the island of Therd, the modern Santorin, 
 One of the most southerly of the Cyclades. 
 They were found buried beneath the debris 
 of a volcanic eruption which took place in 
 pre-historic times, and they have been 
 ascribed, for geological reasons, to as early 
 a date as the 18th or 20th century B.C. 
 The colour of their ornamentation, which is 
 extremely simple, is usually a dull brown 
 on a gray ground. Among the commoner 
 designs are plants artlessly copied from 
 nature, e.g. white lilies on a reddish-brown 
 ground. A rarer specimen exhibits a series 
 of animals resembling black stags running 
 round the vase, with broad bands of red 
 beneath them (Baumeister's Denkmdler, 
 figs. 2050-2056). 
 
 (2) At a time when Phoenician influence 
 was predominant in the ^Egean, a later 
 variety of archaic vases was produced in 
 several of the Cyclades and in other islands 
 of the Mediterranean, especially in Melos, 
 Thera, Rhodes, and Cyprus. Thej' are 
 probably not later than the 12th or 13th 
 century B.C. Those of Thera are later than, 
 the group already mentioned, being found 
 above the volcanic dibris. These vases are 
 usually large jars with a dull gray ground, 
 decorated with bands and curves and zigzags 
 of a dull brown colour (CoUignon, L'Archeo- 
 logie Grecque, fig. 105). 
 
 (3) Hand-made pottery of early date and 
 primitive decoration has been found in some 
 of the northern islands of the .iEgean, in 
 the Cyclades, and especially at Hissarlik in 
 the Troad. Vases of the same class have 
 been found in Cyprus (British Museum, 
 Vase Room I, Cases 1-4). 
 
 (4) Another early class is that usually 
 called Mycence ware, from the fact that 
 attention was first drawn to it through the 
 excavations at Mycenae. It is largely 
 represented among the southern islands of 
 the .iEgean, and in parts of the mainland of 
 Greece. In the earliest type the patterns 
 are in a dull colour on a dull ground ; but 
 this is succeeded by a ware of great 
 brilliancy {ib. Cases 5-13). 
 
 (5) Vases with geometrical ornamentation 
 have been found in many parts of Greece, 
 especially in Mycenae and ^Egina, as well 
 as in Attica. Among the most important 
 
666 
 
 VASES. 
 
 specimens are those discovered at Athens in 
 the neighbourhood of the Dlpyldn gate, from 
 which this class of vases derives its ordinary 
 name. The designs are executed in reddish 
 brown, sometimes on the verge of black, on 
 a reddish ground. They include meanders, 
 chevrons, rosettes, together with oblique 
 lines and concentric circles, often traced 
 with considerable care ; also animals, such 
 as horses, stags, and birds, as well as human 
 beings. The latter are arranged in zones, 
 and drawn in a very rude and primitive 
 manner, being merely rough silhouettes 
 with slender waists, and with the thighs 
 and chest disproportionately developed. 
 
 group, being nearly contemporary with the 
 earlier specimens of " Corinthian vases " 
 (Conze, Melische Thong efdsse ; Baumeister, 
 figs. 240, 2086). 
 
 (7) Corinthian vases is the usual desig- 
 nation of a variety of archaic vases first 
 found in th3 district of Corinth, but since 
 discovered in other parts of the Hellenic 
 world, and even in Etruria, especially at 
 Caere (Dennis, Etruria, i 282). The deco- 
 ration is distinctly oriental. It includes 
 rosettes borrowed from Assyrian art, as 
 well as fantastic monsters, birds with 
 human heads, flying creatures with wings 
 curved backward, and other symbols that 
 
 (1) * DIPYLON VASE. 
 
 {Mon. d. Inst, ix 40, 1.) 
 
 Among the scenes represented are warriors 
 riding in chariots, figiires marching in pro- 
 cession, and funeral ceremonies (fig. 1). 
 There is no trace of oriental influence. 
 
 (6) Certain vases of Melos, ascribed to the 
 7th or 8th century B.C., form a small group 
 with clear indications of an oriental char-* 
 acter. Besides straight lines, that may be 
 regarded as survivals from the earlier geo- 
 metric style, they display zones of wild 
 animals of an oriental tj'pe, and decorative 
 subjects (such as chimgeras confronting one 
 another) derived from Asia. Meanwhile, 
 the figures of divinities have assumed 
 shapes approximating to the Hellenic type. 
 These vases form a transition to the next 
 
 were intelligible to oriental nations, but 
 had no special significance to the Greeks. 
 It is characteristic of this group of vases 
 that the figures are now arranged in cwi- 
 tinuous friezes. The ground is a yellowish 
 white, and the design is sometimes dull, 
 sometimes bright in colour, and is not un- 
 frequently a deep black, touched up with 
 purple or red. This group may be divided 
 into : (a) Vases with zones of anitnals, such 
 as lions, goats, tigers, and antelopes, either 
 facing one another (as in the two confronted 
 lions in the British Museum Vase, A 1), 
 or marching in file, with their dark bodies 
 relieved with touches of red, and with the 
 muscular details indicated with the dry 
 
VASES. 
 
 667 
 
 point ; the field is interspersed with rosettes 
 (see figs. 2 and 3). (b) Vases with designs 
 representing human figures, with mytho- 
 logical themes set amid zones of animals, 
 and other varieties of oriental decoration, 
 (c) Vases with mythological subjects bear- 
 ing inscriptions in Corinthian characters 
 ascribed to the earlier half of the 7th cen- 
 tury B.C. The most remarkable specimen 
 of this kind is the Dodioell pyxis,^ now in 
 
 (2) =• ARCHAIC GKEEK VASES. 
 
 (Gircl), Ancient Pottery, figs. 12R, 127; the vase to the 
 
 extreme left is in the Bi itiah Museum.) 
 
 (3) '^- CORINTHIAN VASE, FROM VULCI. 
 
 Height, 8i inches ; greatest diameter, 11^ inches. 
 (Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street, C 30.) 
 
 the Pinakothek at Munich, with its body 
 decorated with rows of oriental animals in 
 black and red, and its lid adorned with a 
 scene from the Calydonian Hunt, in which 
 AgSmemnon and other heroes are distin- 
 guished by their names (Baumeister, fig. 
 2046). It is on such vases that we find the 
 earliest signatures of the names of their 
 artists ; viz., Chares on a pyxis resembling 
 that just mentioned, and Timonidas on an 
 elegantly shaped and carefully painted vase 
 at Athens, representing Achilles lying in 
 wait for Troilus (Baumeister, fig. 2100). 
 At Athens the introduction of the " Corin- 
 
 ' A pyxia is a perfume-box, with a rounded 
 body, and a lid surmounted by a knob. 
 
 thian " style of vase has been ascribed to 
 the middle of the 7th century B.C. The 
 transition is represented in a group of vases 
 called Phdlerdn icare, first found on the 
 road between Athens and the port of 
 Phaleron (British Museum, ib. Cases 20, 21). 
 (8) The pottery of Rhodes (Baumeister, 
 figs. 2083-5) reached its highest develop- 
 ment about the time of the later Dipylon 
 vases (■*■&. fig. 2072). The most celebrated 
 specimen of Rhodian ware is the pinax or 
 platter in the British Museum represent- 
 ing a combat between Mgnelaus and Hector 
 over the wounded Euphorbus, with their 
 names inscribed in archaic letters ascribed 
 to the end of the 7th century. This is 
 probably the earliest known vase bearing 
 a Greek inscription. The design has some 
 dramatic interest, though the painting 
 (which is in brown and red ochres on a 
 red ground) is but rudely executed (fig. 4). 
 Platters of the same type have been found 
 at Naucratis in Egypt. 
 
 (II) Vases icit.h black figures. 
 
 These were in vogue from about 5i0-460 
 B.C., not to mention later times, down to 
 the 4th century, when they were reproduced 
 in imitation of earlier work. They are 
 painted in glossy black enamel on a red, 
 slightly glazed, clay ground, or (less fre- 
 quently) on a cream-white ground. The 
 hands, arms, and faces of female figures are 
 painted white (fig. 5), while red is used to 
 define clearly all kinds of details, such as 
 hair, crests of helmets, variegated patterns 
 or borders in a garment. The faces are 
 almost always in profile, and yet the eyes 
 are shown front-wise — a method of treat- 
 ment which survived eveia among vases of 
 the next period. The countenance is' desti- 
 tute of expression, and uniform in type ; 
 and the figures stand out as silhouettes 
 against the light. The designs are usually 
 mythological, and mainly Dionysiac. Among 
 many other subjects we have scenes from 
 the Trojan war, the labours of Her&cles, 
 and the legends of Attica, especially that of 
 Theseus. Some of the principal subdivi- 
 sions are the following : 
 
 (1) Vases with cre.am-ichite ground. Of 
 the few specimens of this kind the most 
 remarkable is the cylix ^ of Arcesilas, king 
 of Cyrene, in which the king is to be seen 
 superintending the weighing out of a num- 
 ber of bales of silpliium, the most valuable 
 product of the countrj' (Aristophanes, Plutus 
 
 ■ A cylix is a flat, shallow, and very wide saucer, 
 with two side handles and a tall stem or foot. 
 
6G8 
 
 VASES. 
 
 925). All the figures, which are painted 
 in black touched up with red, and even the 
 scales, which are similarly treated, have 
 their names painted beside them (fig. 6). 
 
 (2) Vases in the style of (the potter) 
 Ergdtimus and (the painter) Clitias. The 
 
 two other zones running round the neck. 
 The main subject is a procession of deities 
 driving to the marriage of Peleus and 
 Thetis in a procession of seven quadrlgce 
 (of the type represented in the cut to article 
 Chariot). The other subjects are the 
 
 (4) * RHODIAN PINAX. 
 
 (British Museum, Vase Eoom I, Table-Case D; A 268.) 
 
 names of these artists are preserved on 
 the Francois vase found at Chiusi (Clu- 
 sium), and now in the Florence Museum, — 
 a magnificent cratSr^ with its body deco- 
 rated with three zones of figures, and with 
 
 ' A crater is a large vase for mixing wine with 
 water. 
 
 funeral of Patroclus, Achilles pursuing 
 Troilus, the battle of the Lapithse and 
 Centaurs, the Calydonian Hunt, Theseus 
 and Ariadne, etc. All these compositions 
 are marked by a rare beauty, and evince a 
 keen artistic feeling and a singular fertility 
 of imagination. There are no less than 115 
 
VASES. 
 
 GSd 
 
 explanatory inscriptions. The vase is as- 
 cribed to 550-500 B.C. (fig. 7). 
 
 (3) Vases of the style of NlcosthSnSs. 
 These are characterized by greater firmness 
 of design, and, above all, by a peculiar pal- 
 metto ornament on the neck of the vase — a 
 very graceful combination of lotus flowers, 
 with interlacing knots (Baumeister, fig. 
 2195). Nioosthenes is the most productive 
 vase-painter known to us ; but his designs 
 have generally little more than an ornamental 
 value. Black-figured vases signed by this 
 artist (68 in all, including 48 amphdrce and 
 
 forms are designed with great energy and 
 with an evident desire to emphasize their 
 anatomical structure. All trace of oriental 
 ornamentation has vanished. Among the 
 artists in this group are Amasis (British 
 Museum, B 188 and 426 ; Miss Harrison, 
 in Magazine of Art, 1885, p. b05; Mythology, 
 etc., of Athens, p. xxvii) ; Tleson (repre- 
 sented by 36 cylices, 22 with figures, and 
 the rest without); and HermSgenes (17 
 cylices, 10 with figures and the rest with- 
 out, one of the former being in the Pitz- 
 william Museum, Cambridge). 
 
 (5) * ELACK-riGUKED HYDRIA, FKOM VULCl. 
 
 Height, 23 inches; diameter oE shoulder, 13 inches. 
 (Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street; C 31.) 
 
 13 cylices) have been mainly found at Vulci, 
 and Cervetri (the ancient Csere) ; and single 
 specimens at Chiusi, Girgenti, and Athens 
 {Journ. Hellenic Studies, 1885, pi. xliv; 
 and Klein's Meistersignaturen, p. 51). A 
 crater by this artist may be seen in the 
 British Museum (B 273, a Battle of the 
 Giants). 
 
 (4) Vases oi . the severe style. In these 
 the surface of the black figures is seldom 
 touched up with any other colour, but the 
 details of the limbs and drapery are indi- 
 cated by incisions with a dry point. The 
 
 (5) Panathenaic amphdrce. These were 
 presented as prizes to the victors in the 
 Panathenaic games. They are in the form 
 of an ainphora, with a lid at the top, and 
 were filled with oil from the sacred olive 
 trees of Attica (Pindar, Nem. x 36 ; Aris- 
 totle, Constitution of Athens, 60). The 
 obverse has an armed figure of Athene, with 
 helmet, shield, and lance, and, on either 
 side, a column surmounted by an owl, a 
 cock, a small vase, or a figure. In the 
 field are usually two inscriptions running 
 down the columns, indicating (a) the purpose 
 
670 
 
 VASES. 
 
 of the vase, and (b) the archon of the year 
 (fig. 8). The reverse shows the nature of 
 the contest for which the prize was given. 
 These vases have been found in Italy (at 
 Caere), in the district of Gyrene (including 
 one signed by Cittus, belonging to the 4th 
 century, and now in the British Museum 
 B 639), and in other parts of the Hellenic 
 world. One, bearing the name of Sicelus, 
 was found at Tarentum, and is assigned to 
 the 5th centurj-. Until lately only a single 
 
 in Eoom IV. The latter belong to the 4th 
 century.) Numerous fragments of such 
 vases have been noticed on the Acropolis, 
 near the temple of Athene Polias, to whom 
 they had doubtless been dedicated. In this 
 class of vases the black figures are no con- 
 clusive proof of antiquity. When this style 
 had been long superseded, the archaic type 
 of Athene, in black and white, and with 
 incised lines on a red ground, was kept up 
 for many years, as is proved by the dates 
 
 (6) * CYLIX OF AKCESILAS, FROM VULCI. 
 
 (Paris, Eihliolhe'iue Nat-kmale; copied in colours aa frontispiece to Birch's Pottery^ ed. j 
 and in Duruy's Ristoire den Grecs, i 702.) 
 
 example had been found at Athens itself. 
 This is the "Burgon amphora" in the 
 British Museum (Vase Eoom, II, B 1 ; on 
 pedestal 4, between Cases H and I). 
 Athene is in black, with the flesh coloured 
 white, and with the inscription and the 
 touches in the drapery in crimson. On 
 the other side is a charioteer driving a 
 Mga. The vase is ascribed to the 6th 
 century. (In the same room there are 
 fourteen other Panathenaic vases, and ten 
 
 of the archons inscribed upon them, rang- 
 ing from 336 to 313 B.C. (Many of these 
 vases are reproduced in colours in Monu- 
 nienti dell' Inst. Arch, x ; and single vases 
 in Birch's Ancient Pottery, p. 430; and 
 Duruy, Hist, des Grecs, i 762.) 
 
 Transition. — Before vases with hlacJc 
 figures were superseded by those with red, 
 some artists worked in both styles. Some- 
 times, indeed, both may be seen on the 
 same vase. Thus, on an amphora in the 
 
VASES. 
 
 671 
 
 (7) * THE FEANIJOIS VASE, FROM CHIUSI. 
 
 (Florence Museum.) 
 
 British Museum, (B 254) we have, on the 
 obverse, Ajax and Achilles, beside the altar 
 of Athene, engaged in a game resembling 
 draughts ; they are painted in block with 
 chocolate-red touches, and with minute 
 details, such as the drapery over their 
 armour " executed in incised lines of ex- 
 treme fineness and gem-like treatment " 
 (Prof. Middleton, EncyclopcediaBHtannica, 
 xix, p. 612). On the reverse we have, in 
 red figures on a black ground, Herftcles 
 strangling the Nemean lion in the presence 
 of Athene. Similarly on two cups, in the 
 same museum, we have red figures on a 
 black ground outside, with black figures 
 on a red ground inside. Elsewhere, an 
 amphora, signed by Andocides, shows the 
 simultaneous employment of both styles 
 {Bull. delV Inst. Arch., 1845). Other 
 artists of the transition, whose remaining 
 works exhibit both styles on the same 
 vase (always a cylix), are Hischylus, 
 Nicosthenes, Pamphseus, Chelis, Epictetus, 
 and Epilycus. Apart from vases in both 
 styles combined, the first three artists, with 
 Andocides, are represented by black-figured 
 and also by red-figured vases ; the last 
 
 (8) * PANATHEUAIC AMPHORA. 
 
 (Millingen, UnetJ. Mon., pi. i.) 
 
672 
 
 VASES. 
 
 three, by red-figured vases alone (Klein, 
 3feistersiffnaturen, p. 7). 
 
 (Ill) Vases icith Bed Figures (fig. 9). 
 
 Fragments of red-figured vases have been 
 found under the debris of the old temples 
 on the Acropolis, burnt by the Persians in 
 480 B.C. Thus the most ancient vases in 
 this style belong to the same date as some 
 of the black-figured vases. Those with red 
 figures probably continued until the early 
 part of the 2nd century B.C. This class 
 is by far the most numerous, and it also 
 includes the finest specimens. It is gene- 
 rally characterized by the disappearance of 
 all traces of conventional and traditional 
 treatment. The number of figures is fewer, 
 the execution simpler and more refined, and 
 
 the artist of the celebrated cylix at Berlin 
 with Achilles tending the wounded Patro- 
 clus in its centre, and the twelve gods on 
 its outer surface (Baumeister, fig. 2398). 
 Another is Chachkylion, who is known by 
 about sixteen vases, with compositions ot 
 an elegant design, marked by an archaic 
 severity, but already showing signs of a 
 greate" freedom and elasticity of_ style. 
 Among iiis works is a cylix, now in Plo- 
 rence, in the centre of which is a winged 
 Jlros floating over the sea, and on the out- 
 side six of the exploits of Theseus (Miss 
 Harrison's Mythology, etc., of Athens, p. 
 cxii) ; also a cylix in the British Museum, 
 with Theseus and Ariadne, as well as 
 Theseus and Antiope (ih. pp. cxxii., cxxxix). 
 A similar vase, now in Munich, with the 
 
 * HED-FIOnKED GREEK VASES OF THE BEST PEEIOD. 
 
 the draperies and other details treated with 
 an exquisite purity of taste. In the earlier 
 specimens the drawing is strongly sculp- 
 turesque ; the forms noble and massive, 
 treated with breadth and simplicity, and 
 kept strictly to one plane. The following 
 are the main sub-divisions : 
 
 (1) The severe style. The compositions 
 are somewhat stiff and ungraceful ; the ex- 
 pression of the face recalls the earlier style ; 
 but art is obviously on the point of burst- 
 ing its trammels and asserting its freedom. 
 The hair and beard are arranged with care, 
 and the folds of the drapery faU. straight 
 to the ground. The date of these vases is 
 about BOO B.C. Among the artists of this 
 period, Sosias excels in the execution of 
 detail, treated with a rare energy. He is 
 
 conflict of Heracles and Gery6neus, in the 
 presence of Athene and lolaus, is the joint 
 work of Chachrylion and his younger con- 
 temporary EcphrSnius. Euphronius is the 
 ■artist of a fine cylix with the adventures of 
 Theseus, now in the Louvre (ib., pp. cxiii. 
 and 148 ; Baumeister, fig. 1877) ; of one in 
 the British Museum (822 = E 28, Vase 
 Room III, CaseD), with Heracles and Eurys- 
 theus ; of another, now at Perugia, repre- 
 senting Achilles slaying Troilus (fig. 10) ; 
 and lastly, of one at Berlin, with a poly- 
 chrome design on a white ground for its 
 central subject, Achilles and Diomedes. 
 He is also the artist of a psykter (or wine- 
 cooler) at St. Petersburg, with women re- 
 clining and playing the game of the cottabus ; 
 and of a crater, now in the Louvre, with 
 
VASES. 
 
 673 
 
 the wrestling of Heracles and Antseus. 
 Almost all his extant works were found 
 either at Vulci or Caere, and most of them 
 are figured in the Wiener VorlcgeblMter v 
 (see alHo Klein's Euphronios, ed. 2). 
 
 xxxv). Another is no less instructive as 
 to the literary and musical education of 
 Athenian youth (fig. 11); and, lastly, one 
 in the British Museum (852 = E 48) gives 
 us a graphic picture of a symposium 
 
 (10) * CYLIX SIGNED Hy EUPHKONIUS : ACHILLES SLAYING TKOILUS. 
 (Perugia.) 
 
 Among other masters of this time was 
 DuRisToneof whose 21 extant C2/?zccs re- 
 presents the exploits of Theseus (Bau- 
 meister, fig. 1873), while others are of special 
 interest for their details of ancient armour 
 (e.g., ib., Ag. 220; Schreiber's Bilderatlas, 
 D. c. A. 
 
 ( Wiener Vorlegeblatter, vi 10 ; Schreiber's 
 Bilderatlas, Ixxvii 9). Another artist, 
 HiERON, is still represented by 16 cylices 
 and 3 cotUli ; one of the cotuli, now in 
 the British Museum (Vase-room III, case 
 E, E 137), shows us Triptolemus starting 
 
 X X 
 
674 
 
 VASES. 
 
 on his journey in his winged car, in the 
 presence of PersephSne, Demeter, and the 
 personification of Eleusis (fig. 12) ; one of 
 the cylices now in the Berlin Museum, has 
 
 Paris, an lUupersis (Louvre), a Comus 
 scene (Wtirzburg), and Satyrs and Sileni 
 (British Museum, E 77). 
 
 (2) In vases of a more graceful style we 
 
 (11) * CTLIX SIGNED BY DUKIS. 
 
 Above the central subject (a youth adjusting his sandal) runs the inscription, Aopic eypat^irev (i.e. Aovpt? eypai/zei'). The 
 inBcriptiona on the exterior stand for : fiolira. ^ot aijjf>t XKafiavSphv evppoov apxoii.' aei'Setr, and 'linroSatiaq koAo?. 
 
 (Berlin Museum, 2286.) 
 
 the Maenads dancing in the presence of an 
 archaic image of Dionysus {ib., p. 287). 
 Lastly, the artist Beyg6s is represented hy 
 8 cylices, including among their subjects 
 a Triptolemus (Prankfurt), a Judgment of 
 
 find that forms of rude strength have given 
 place to those of youthful grace, and stiff 
 attitudes have yielded to others that are 
 charming in their simplicity and their 
 truth to nature ; while the folds of the 
 
VASES. 
 
 675 
 
 drapery float softly about the limbs. 
 Among tbe best examples are the fine 
 amphortB from Nola in the Naples Museum ; 
 e.g., that representing the Last Night of 
 
 Museum, with the battle of the Athenians 
 and Amazons. Though found at Cumse, it 
 has all the characteristics of the Attic style, 
 and has nothing in common with the Italo- 
 
 (12) * COTYLUS, OK CUP, SIGNED BY HIEEON. 
 
 (British Museum, Yaao Room HI, Case E i B 137; ep. Miss Harrison's MMthology 
 and, Monwrnenis of Athens, pp. 1, Ixv, ci.) 
 
 Troy (Baumeister, fig. 795 ; Birch, figs. 138, 
 139), as well as the beautiful stamnds '^ with 
 the dancing Msenads in the same collec- 
 tion (fig. 13 : cp. Dionysus, fig. 3). 
 
 On vases of the 4th century, the 
 subjects are less exclusively mytho- 
 logical than before, and the artist's 
 fancy delights in playing with scenes 
 of daily life. We have an instance of 
 this in a cylix of Vulci, where the 
 swallow is welcomed as the herald of 
 spring (Baumeister, fig. 2128). 
 
 (3) The Attic style of perfect elegance 
 is exemplified in vases sometimes of 
 small dimensions, in the shape of a 
 pyxis, an cenochoS, or an dryballus.^ 
 They are readily recognised by the 
 beautiful black ground, and by the 
 garlands of pointed myrtle leaves that 
 frequently decorate them, but above 
 all by the extreme delicacy of their 
 pictorial designs. One of the most 
 interesting is an aryballus in the Naples 
 
 Greek products of the same period (Heyde- 
 mann. No. 239). Another is an aryballus 
 found at iExone, representing the train of 
 
 (13) * MJ5NADS. 
 
 (Prom stomnos in Naples Mnseum; Panofka, Kimi/sos imd Thyaden 
 pi. i 2; Euripides, Bacchoi, ed. Sandys, pp. xxxiiand cxxiv.) 
 
 1 A large jar for holding wine or oil, with two 
 small, ear-shaped handles. {See Vessels, fig. 1, 
 no. 18.) 
 
 2 The cmochoe is a small wine jug {see Vessels, 
 fig. 1, nos. 26-30) ; the aryballus, a globular vase, 
 shaped like a pouch {ih., no. 36). 
 
 Dionysus ; the gracefulness of the attitudes, 
 the expression of the faces, and the exquisite 
 delicacy of the design, make it a master- 
 piece (Collignon, Arch. Gr., fig. 115). 
 Scenes of daily life are also to be noticed, 
 such as ladies engaged on their toilet or 
 calling on their friends. The skill of the 
 
676 
 
 VASES. 
 
 artist is lavished even on small vases wliicli 
 were little more than playthings for chil- 
 dren, and are covered with designs repre- 
 senting the games of childhood. 
 
 (4) Vases of larger dimensions, in the 
 shape of a hydria, a calpis, a celebS, a crater, 
 or an ampJinra, with characteristic dif- 
 ferences in their subjects. The ampliora 
 often exhibits a betrothal, or a wedding 
 procession, with the bride and a number of 
 maidens bringing presents of vases, or 
 caskets of jewels. The pelike and hydria 
 frequently show us scenes of ordinary life, 
 interiors with ladies either at their toilet, 
 or else at their work surrounded by pet 
 birds. The crater and canthdrus are 
 usually reserved for Dionysiac subjects.''^ 
 
 (.5) Vases with gilded ornaments, or 
 with reliefs touched up with gold. From 
 the 4th century onwards it became common 
 to gild certain parts of the costume, such 
 as bracelets, earrings, beads in necklaces, 
 as well as berries in garlands of bay or 
 myrtle. On small vases of the Attic style 
 gilding is often applied with discretion, 
 while on larger vases it is used to excess. 
 The brilliancy of the painting is, at the 
 same time, often enhanced by touches of 
 bright colour, and tints of red, green, white, 
 blue, and violet are applied to the draperies. 
 One of the most beautiful vases of this 
 type is the pelike founded at Camirus, 
 now in the British Museum. The scene is 
 Peleus carrying off Thetis (Vase Room III, 
 E 451 ) . The peplos, which is falling to the 
 ground from the white form of the goddess, 
 is of a sea-green with a white border ; she 
 herself and her attendant Nymphs are richly 
 adorned with gold, while the field of the de- 
 sign is filled with figures floating gracefully 
 in the air {Encycl. Brit, xix pi. v). 
 
 (6) Similarly we have an Athenian red- 
 figured lecytJms, found at Marion in Cyprus, 
 representing the death of the Sphinx at the 
 hand of (Edipus in the presence of Athene, 
 ^neas, Apollo, and the Dioscuri, with 
 accessories of white colour and gilding on 
 the forms of the Sphinx and Athene. It 
 is ascribed to 370 B.C. {Journ. Hellenic 
 Studies, viii 320, pi. 81). 
 
 ' The hydria is a large water vase (see fig. B and 
 Vessels, fig. l,no. 17) ; the calpis, a modification of 
 the hydria, with a rounder body, a shorter neck, 
 and with cylindrical handles (i6., no. 16); th.e celehe, 
 a crater with columnar handles (no. 24) ; the am- 
 phora is a large oval vase with two handles (nos. 
 20-23) ; the pelike, an amphora with rather 
 large handles, and a body broader below than 
 above (no. 19) ; and the cantharus, a wine-onp 
 with two long ears (no. 12). 
 
 (7) The ivliite lecythi of Attica. The 
 neck and foot of the lecythus^ are covered 
 with a very brilliant black varnish, while 
 the body has a white ground with figures 
 carelessly but skilfully drawn in reddish- 
 brown outline and coarsely filled in with 
 colours. Such lecythi are only found in 
 tombs in the neighbourhood of Athens. 
 Aristophanes, in a play belonging to 392 
 B.C., speaks of " those who paint lecythi for 
 the dead " (Eccl. 996). Their manufacture 
 probably extended over the 4th and 3rd 
 centuries B.C., and especially over B.C. 350- 
 300. We learn from works of art that 
 they were used at the laying out (prothesis) 
 of the dead body. Among the subjects most 
 commonly represented on them are (1) the 
 laying out of the body, (2) lamentations at 
 the tomb, (3) funeral offerings (fig. 14), (4) 
 Charon and the ferry-boat (Miss Harrison, 
 I.e., p. B86) ; more rarely, we have the de- 
 position of the body treated with consum- 
 mate grace (Collignon, fig. 119). One of the 
 specimens in the British Museum shows 
 
 (14) * FUNERAL OFFERINGS ON ATHENIAN LF.CYTHUS. 
 
 (Staokelberg, Gr/iber der Hellenen, Taf. xlv.) 
 
 Electra at the tomb of Agamemnon (Birch, 
 p. 395 ; Vase Room, III, case F). As a dif- 
 ferent type of vase with polychrome paint- 
 ing on a white ground, we have a fine cylix 
 from a Rhodian tomb, now in the British 
 Museum, representing Aphrodite seated on 
 the back of a flying swan (Vase Room III 
 D 52). It has been well remarked that 
 " for delicacy of touch and refined beauty 
 of drawing this painting is quite unrivalled. 
 The exquisite loveliness of Aphrodite's 
 head and the pure grace of her profile, 
 show a combination of mechanical skill 
 united to imaginative power and realiza- 
 
 ^ A vase of tall cylindrical shape, with a long, 
 narrow neck (see Vessels, fig. 1, no. 33). 
 
VASES. 
 
 677 
 
 tion of the most perfect and ideal beauty " 
 (Prof. Middleton in Encycl. Brit., xix, p. 613, 
 •with plate v ; cp. Baumeister, fig. 938). 
 
 In place of paintings we sometimes find 
 figures in relief applied as a kind of frieze 
 to the body of the vase. The most beau- 
 tiful examples show a combination of relief, 
 polychromy, and gilding. Such is the 
 famous vase found at CumsB and now at 
 St. Petersburg ; the groundwork of which is 
 covered with a brilliant black, and is ver- 
 tically fluted. It has two friezes with 
 figures in relief, the upper representing 
 Triptolemus and the Eleusinian goddesses ; 
 the lower, lions, dogs, panthers, and griffins 
 (Baumeister, fig. 520). 
 
 and Northern Italy, but abound in Sicily 
 and in Southern Italy, especially at Ruvo, 
 Armento, and Sant' Agata di Goti. The best 
 among them range from after B.C. 404, per- 
 haps from B.C. 300 to nearly 200. After 
 this the style of the paintings became 
 extremely coarse, and about 100 B.C. painted 
 vases ceased to be made. 
 
 The technical processes followed in the 
 manufacture of vases have in part been 
 treated under Pottery. Pig. 16 exhibits 
 the design on a vase in which some of the 
 details of ornamentation are represented in 
 actual course of being carried out. In the 
 centre stands Athene, the patron-goddess of 
 all kinds of handicraft, Avith a crown in her 
 
 (15) * THREE LAHGE VASES OP THE DECADLNCE, WITH TWO SMALLER VASES, 
 (a) An atnphora, known as the Poniatowski vape, found in a tomb at Bari in Apulia, and,now 
 in the Vatican Museum, representing the myth of Triptolemua (Lenorraant and De Witte, Elites 
 C^ramograpMques, III, Ixiii). (b) A crater^ fojii A nt Sant' Agata de' Goti, now in the Louvre, 
 closely resembling the vase by Asteas, Naples, 3226 ; Cadmus slaying the dragon, (c) A cande- 
 lahnnn, amphora, with an onen building and figures grouped in two,row8. (d) A prochovs with a 
 female he»d. (e) A carchesium (Dubois Maiscnneuve, Intvod. a I'Etude des Vases Ant., pi. vii, ii, 
 Ixvii, xxxvii). 
 
 IV, Vases of the Decadence. 
 
 The red colour of the figures is now 
 paler, the glaze often of a dull, leaden hue ; 
 the ornaments are numerous and large in 
 proportion to the subjects (fig. 15 a, h, c). 
 The figures are no longer few and detached, 
 but grouped in masses on the large vases, 
 and the composition is not statuesque, but 
 essentially pictorial. White opaque colour 
 is freely introduced for the flesh of the 
 females and children, and even for that of 
 the males ; as art declines, it almost super- 
 sedes red. 
 
 Such vases are rarely found in Greece 
 
 hand to reward the successful craftsman. 
 On either side of her a winged Nike is 
 placing a wreath on the head of one of 
 those engaged in painting the decorations 
 of the vases. The shapes represented are, 
 beginning from the left, amphora, canthd- 
 rus, prdchdus (in cantharus), crater, am- 
 phora, and above the last, on the extreme 
 right, a small cantharus and an oendchoe. 
 
 Uses. Nearly all the 20,000 vases already 
 discovered were found in tombs. The earliest 
 recorded discovery of such vases was on the 
 occasion of the rebuilding of Corinth, B.C. 
 46, when the tombs of the city destroyed a 
 
678 
 
 VASES. 
 
 century before were rifled of their contents, 
 which became known in Rome as nekrd- 
 kdrintMd (Strabo, 382). Vases were doubt- 
 less originally made for the use of the 
 living ; but in process of 
 time it became customary 
 to place the more orna- 
 mental varieties in the 
 sepulchres of the dead, and 
 the custom led to the 
 manufacture of ornamental 
 vases for this special pur- 
 pose (fig. 17). An exception 
 to the rule is furnished 
 by the Greek city of 
 Naucratis, founded in the 
 Delta of Egypt, apparently 
 in the 7th century B.C., 
 where a large number of 
 fragments of pottery have 
 been found in heaps near 
 the ruins of the temples 
 of Apollo and Aphrodite. 
 Many of the fragments 
 bear incised inscriptions 
 recording the dedication 
 of the vases to those deities 
 (British Museum Guide, 
 1890, p. ]88). The vases 
 in everyday use, as op- 
 posed to those found in 
 tombs, were much plainer : 
 those I'epresented in vase- 
 paintings are almost al- 
 ways coloured black, with- 
 out any paintings. Among 
 the more interesting ex- 
 ceptions is a beautiful 
 pyxis, or perfume-box, in 
 the British Museum (Vase 
 Eoom III, E 770), repre- 
 senting a lady's toilet, 
 with several painted vases 
 set about the room as 
 ornaments, and filled, like 
 jardinieres, with flowers 
 or olive-branches {Encyc. 
 Brit., xix, p. 614, fig. 31 ; 
 cp. Birch, I.e., p. 354). 
 
 The subjects are mainly 
 mythological, but are also 
 frequently taken from real 
 life, and include religious 
 rites, athletic contests, 
 dances and marriages, 
 funerals, and scenes from the drama. Among 
 the few historical subjects are Croetus on 
 his funeral pyre (Duruy, Hist, des Grecs, i 
 680), Arcesilas of Gyrene (tig. 6), and Darius 
 
 preparing to invade Greece (a large vase in 
 the Naples Museum). 
 
 For a long time almost all the vases dis- 
 covered were found in Etruria and in South 
 
 Italy and Sicily. Most of those discovered 
 in Etruria, although popularly known as 
 Etruscan vases, are really of Greek manu- 
 facture. The finest of those found in Italv 
 
VECTIGALIA VEGETIUS. 
 
 679 
 
 were_ unearthed mainly at Capua, Nola, and 
 Vulci, no less than 3,000 of various kinds 
 having been recovered, in 1829, at Vulci 
 alone. More recently an increasing number 
 
 (17) * A child's coffin, with vases. 
 (Staokelberg, Grtber der Hellenen, Taf. vii.) 
 
 of fine vases has been found near Athens 
 and Corinth, in the islands of the iEgean, 
 on the v?estern shores.of Asia Minor, and in 
 the region of Gyrene. 
 
 The principal public collections are those 
 in the British Museum, the Louvre, and the 
 Paris BibliotMque / also in the museums 
 of Berlin, Munich, Vienna, Florence, Rome 
 (especially the Museo Gregoriano), Naples, 
 Athens, and St. Petersburg. 
 
 Literature. A popular summary of the 
 subject is included in Collignon's Manuel 
 d' ArcMologie Grecque, pp. 253-312, which 
 ias been mainly followed in the above 
 article, with additional details from Birch's 
 Ancient Pottery, from Prof. Middleton's 
 article on " Pottery " in the Encyclopcedia 
 Britannica, from Von Rohden's Vasen- 
 kunde in Baumeister's Denkmaler, and 
 other sources. Among further aids to the 
 study of vase-paintings may be mentioned 
 the illustrations edited by Millin and Mil- 
 lingen (republished in part by Reinach, 
 1890), Inghirami, Gerhard, Lenormant and 
 De Witte, and Benndorf, Dumont and 
 Chaplain; the second editions of Klein's 
 Euphronios, 1886, and- Meislersignaturen, 
 
 1887, and the same writer's Lieblings- 
 inschri/ten, 1890 ; also the systematic work 
 of Lau and Brunn, entitled Die griechi- 
 schen Vasen, 1877, and the forty large 
 plates of Genick and Furtwangler's Gr. 
 Keramik, 1883; lastly, Rayet and Collig- 
 non's Histoire de la Ciramique Grecque, 
 
 1888, and Mr. Cecil Smith's Handbook of 
 Greek Vases in the British Museum, 1891. 
 
 On the manufacture of Vases, see 
 Pottery ; on their shapes, see Vessels.] 
 
 [J. E. S.] 
 
 Vectigalia. The Roman term originally 
 denoting only the revenues flowing into the 
 
 State chest from the State domains, and for 
 the most part collected by contract. {See 
 PuBLiuANi.) The domains consisted of 
 cultivated grounds, the rent of which was 
 paid in money or kind ; of pastures and 
 meadows, for the use of which a payment 
 (scriptura) was made ; of forests, from which 
 revenue was derived mainly by the letting 
 of pitch huts ; of lakes and rivers let for 
 fishing ; and of mines and salt-works. 
 With a view to protecting the citizens 
 from exorbitant prices, the sale of salt 
 had already been made a State monopoly in 
 the earliest years of the Republic, and it 
 remained such till late into the times of the 
 Empire. In letting salt mines the price of 
 the salt was fixed in the contract, as was 
 also the case with many articles produced 
 from mines. The term vectlgal also includes 
 the rent paid for buildings, shops, booths 
 and baths erected on public sites ; the pay- 
 ment for the use of bridges and roads, 
 of public Water-ways, and sewers in cases 
 where private properties drained into them ; 
 export and import tolls (see Portoeium), as 
 well as all other indirect taxes. Such was 
 the tax which was introduced into Rome in 
 357 B.C., and under the emperors was levied 
 throughout the whole empire, the vlcesima 
 libertdtis or mdnumissionis / a tax of 5 
 per cent, paid on every manumitted slave, 
 either by himself or his master. To these 
 were added under Augustus the centestma 
 rerum vendlium, a tax of 1 per cent, on all 
 articles sold a-t auctions ; the quinta et 
 vicesima manciplorwm, a tax of 4 per cent, 
 on every slave sold ; and the viceshna herB- 
 ditatum et ISgatdrum, a tax of 5 per cent. 
 on all inheritances over 100,000 sesterces 
 (£1,000), and on all legacies not falling to 
 the next of kin. This impost, with the in- 
 crease of celibacy and the custom of leaving 
 complimentary legacies to the whole circle 
 of one's friends, proved exceedingly pro- 
 ductive, and, though originally limited to 
 Roman citizens, was, with the franchise, 
 extended by Caraoalla to all the inhabitants 
 of the Empire, and at the same time raised 
 to 10 per cent. 
 
 Vediovis. See Veiovis. 
 
 V6getius. (1) Flavius Vegetius RSnatus. 
 A Roman writer on military affairs, who, 
 under a commission from Theodosius I, com- 
 posed, between 384 and 395 A.D., ^awork 
 in four books on military affairs (EpUdme 
 Rei MiUtaris) consisting of extracts from 
 earlier writers on this subject (especially 
 Cato, Celsus, and Prontinus). He raises no 
 claim to personal knowledge or to stylistic 
 
680 
 
 VEIOVIS- 
 
 -YENATIONES. 
 
 merits, but only to a recognition of his 
 industry. Although it is on the whole an 
 arid and uncritical compilation, the book 
 is valuable for the light it throws on the 
 Roman military system. 
 
 (2) Publius Vegetius. A writer of a 
 somewhat later date than (1), who composed 
 an extensive work on veterinary science 
 (especially on the treatment of horses and 
 mules, and hence entitled Mulomedlclnd). 
 
 Veiovis (also Vedidvis). An old Italian 
 deity whose peculiar attributes were early 
 forgotten. At Rome he had a famous shrine 
 ia the depression between the two peaks of 
 the Capitoline Hill, the Capitol and the 
 Arx. There lay his asylum and afterwards 
 his temple, between two sacred groves. His 
 statue, by the side of which stood a goat as 
 a symbol, had a youthful, beardless head, 
 and carried a bundle of arrows in its right 
 hand ; it was therefore supposed that he 
 was the same as the Greek Apollo. Others 
 saw in him a youthful Jupiter ; while at a 
 later date he was identified with Dis, the 
 god of the world below. He was probably 
 a god of expiation, and hence at the same 
 time the protector of runaway criminals. 
 The goat, which was sacrificed to him annu- 
 ally on the 7th of March, appears elsewhere 
 in the Roman cult as an expiatory sacrifice. 
 Velites(" skirmishers"). The name given 
 in the old Roman legion to the 1,200 citi- 
 zens of the lowest class in the census, who 
 were distributed among the sixty centuries; 
 they differed from the other soldiers in 
 having lighter armour. {See Legion.) When 
 Marius introduced a uniform type of armour 
 throughout all the ranks, this distinction 
 disappeared. 
 
 Velius Longus. A Latin grammarian of 
 the first half of the 2nd century a.d. ; the 
 composer of a woik, De OrthogrdpMa, which 
 is still extant. 
 
 Velleius Paterculus {Marcus). A Roman 
 historian bom about 19 B.C. He entered 
 the army early, and from 4 a.d., partly as 
 an officer in the cavalry, and partly as a 
 legate, he accompanied Tiberius for eight 
 years on all his campaigns into Germany, 
 Pannonia, and Dalmatia. In 15 a.d. he held 
 the praetorship, for which he was warmly 
 recommended by Augustus and Tiberius. 
 In 29-30 A.D. he composed in a few months 
 a short sketch of Roman history in two 
 books {Histonce Bojimncp. libri duo) which 
 he dedicated to his patjon Vinicius, one of 
 the consuls for the year 30. The work 
 has come down to us in a very confused and 
 fragmentary condition. Only a few chapters 
 
 remain of the first book, which ends with 
 the destruction of Carthage. Whether 
 considered as a historian or as a stylist, 
 he is a dilettante. He had no special call 
 to be a historian, and was destitute of 
 any more than ordinary knowledge or ap- 
 propriate preparation, although not devoid 
 of imagination and genius. His brochure 
 was composed with extreme haste, and 
 merely consists of a number of items of 
 information hurriedly put together. Hence 
 its superficial execution and its numerous 
 mistakes. After the manner of annalists, 
 his work becomes more diffuse the nearer 
 he approaches his own time. It ends with 
 a panegyric on the imperial house, and 
 especially on Tiberiiis, inflated with ful- 
 some flatteries and high-sounding phraseo- 
 logy. According to him, the fortune of 
 Rome, which had declined after the destruc- 
 tion of Carthage, and had been rising again 
 from the time of Augustus, had reached 
 its culminating point under Tiberius. He 
 may be identified as the inventor of the 
 courtly style of writing history. He does 
 not linger long over facts, but prefers to 
 dwell on the portrayal of the various 
 characters that present themselves in the 
 course of the history. His language is 
 sometimes careless and commonplace, some- 
 times ornate and affected, with all manner 
 of poetical expressions. His fancy for com- 
 posing striking sentences and his undue 
 predilection for antithesis have an unfor- 
 tunate effect on his style. 
 
 Venantius Fortunatus {Honm-ius Cle- 
 mens). A Latin poet, born about 535 a.d. 
 at Tarvisiimi {Treviso) in North Italy. 
 After a learned education in Ravenna, he 
 proceeded, about 560, to Gaul, where he 
 became an ecclesiastic at Poitiers, and died 
 as bishop about 600. Among his works, we 
 possess an epic poem on St. Martin, as well 
 as a collection of 300 poems in eleven books, 
 of very various kinds, including panegyrics, 
 epigrams, letters, elegies, hymns ; and hence 
 called Miscellanea. These poems, which 
 are mostly elegiac, are not unsuccessful in 
 form, and are of great value for 'the history 
 of the time. One of the most interesting 
 is the companion piece to the Mosella of 
 Ausonius, the description of a journey by 
 the Moselle and Rhine from Metz to Ander- 
 nach {De Navlgto sua). 
 
 Venationes. The contests of beasts with 
 one another, or of men with beasts, that 
 formed part of the shows of which the 
 Romans were passionately fond. They were 
 first introduced at the games of Marcus 
 
VENUS VERGIL. 
 
 681 
 
 Fulvius Nobilior, 116 B.C. Those who took 
 part in these contests were called bestldrll. 
 They were either criminals and prisoners 
 of war, who were poorly armed or com- 
 pletely unarmed, pitted against wild beasts 
 which had previously been made furious 
 by hunger, branding, and goading ; or 
 else hired men who, like gladiators, were 
 trained in special schools and fully armed. 
 Even in the last century of the Republic, 
 and still more under the Empire, incredible 
 expenses were incurred in the collection of 
 the rarest animals from the remotest quar- 
 ters of the globe, and in the other arrange- 
 ments for their baiting. Thus Pompey pro- 
 vided a show of 500 lions, 18 elephants, and 
 410 other African animals ; and Caligula 
 caused 400 bears and the same number of 
 animals from Africa to tear each other to 
 pieces. Occasionally at these combats with 
 wild beasts the man condemned to death 
 was attired in an appropriate costume, so as 
 to represent a sanguinary scene from my- 
 thology or history, as, for example, Orpheus 
 being torn to pieces by bears. Down to the 
 end of the Republic these shows took place 
 in the Circus, and the greater exhibitions 
 were held there even after that time, until 
 the amphitheatres became the usual places 
 of performance ; and indeed, when they were 
 combined with the gladiatorial exhibitions, 
 they took place in the early morning before 
 them. [The repugnance of some of the more 
 cultivated Romans for these exhibitions is 
 shown in a letter of Cicero's, Ad Fain, vii 
 1 § 3.] They were continued down to the 
 6th century. 
 
 Among the Greeks, especially the Athe- 
 nians, cock-fights and quail-fights were very 
 popular. At Athens cock-fights were held 
 once a year in the theatres at the public 
 expense. The training of fighting cocks 
 was conducted with great care. Certain 
 places, such as Tanftgra in Boeotia, Rhodes, 
 and Delos, had the reputation of producing 
 the largest and strongest. To whet their 
 ragemess for the combat, they were pre- 
 viously fed with garlic. Their legs were 
 armed with brass spurs, and they were set 
 opposite to each other on tables furnished 
 with raised edges. Bets, often to an enor- 
 mous amount, were laid on the fights by the 
 gamesters, as well as by the spectators. 
 
 Vfinus. Originally a Latin goddess of 
 spring, presiding over flower-gardens and 
 vines, and as such worshipped by gar- 
 deners, husbandmen, florists, and vine- 
 dressers. At Lavinium there was an 
 ancient sanctuary dedicated to her by the 
 
 Latins; on the other hand, in Rome, she 
 had in olden times no State worship, at least 
 under this name. Her earliest Roman name 
 appears to have been Murcia, which was 
 interpreted later on as MyrtSa, goddess of 
 myrtles. How she came to be identified 
 with the Greek love-goddess Aphrodite is 
 not clear. The oldest historical mention of 
 her worship in this character is in 217 B.p., 
 when, by the order of the Sibylline books, 
 after the disaster at Lake Trasimene, a 
 temple dedicated to the Venus of Mount 
 Eryx in Sicily, an ancient and well known 
 place for the worship of AphrSdite Urania, 
 was built on the Capitol. 
 
 Besides the various forms of worship 
 which she enjoyed, corresponding to the 
 Greek cult of Aphrodite, Venus had a special 
 significance as GSnStrix, or mother of the 
 Roman people through her son jEneas. 
 She was especially worshipped as mother 
 of the race of the Julii, which claimed 
 descent from her grandson lulus, the son of 
 ^neas. It was on this account that Csesar, 
 in the Eorum built by him in 46 B.C., erected 
 a magnificent temple in her honour as 
 Geni'trix, in wh'ch games were annually 
 held for eleven days. To her, as mother of 
 the whole Roman race, as well as to Roma, 
 the personification of Rome, Hadrian dedi- 
 cated a splendid double temple, completed 
 135 A.D., the ruins of which can still be 
 seen in the neighbourhood of the Coliseum. 
 In later times it was called templum urbis. 
 {See ArchitecttJee, fig. 13.) 
 
 The 1st of April was sacred to Venus as 
 the day on which she was worshipped by 
 the Roman matrons, together with Fortuna 
 Vtrllis, the goddess of prosperity in the in- 
 tercourse of men and women, and also with 
 Concordia, as Verticordia, the goddess who 
 turns the hearts of women to chastity and 
 modesty. Other holidays were kept to her 
 in the same month as goddess of prostitution. 
 {See also Venos IjIBITINA. On the types 
 of Venus in works of art, cp. Aphrodite.) 
 
 Vergil [Lat. Publiiis Vergilius Maro ; 
 not Virgilius. The spelling Vergilius is 
 attested, not only by the best manuscripts, 
 but by inscriptions]. The famous Roman 
 poet, born 15th October, 70 B.C. at Andes, a 
 village near Mantua, on the Mincius, where 
 his father possessed a small estate. After 
 receiving his early education at Cremona 
 and (after assuming in 55 B.C. the toga 
 of manhood) at Milan, he proceeded in 
 53 to Rome, where he devoted himself 
 to rhetorical, philosophical, and physical 
 studies. Prevented by weakness of health 
 
682 
 
 VERGIL, 
 
 and bashfulness of maimer from looking 
 forward to any success as a pleader or in 
 the service of the State, he returned home, 
 and in the quiet of the country devoted 
 himself to the study of the Greek poets. 
 His meeting with the refined and poetically 
 gifted Asinius Pollio, who in 43 took com- 
 mand of Transpadane Gaul as lieutenant 
 of Antony, appears to have given him his 
 first impetus to poetic composition. His 
 earliest publication, his ten Eclogues, which 
 were written in the years 43-37, were 
 afterwards collected under the title of 
 BucSlica ('' Pastoral Poems "). These are 
 imitations of the idyls of Theocritus ; they 
 are, however, less natural, the pictures of 
 country and shepherd life being interspersed 
 throughout with references to contem- 
 porary events, to his own fortunes, and to 
 important persons such as Octavianus, 
 Pollio, and Cornelius G alius, to whom the 
 poet wished either to commend himself or to 
 show his gratitude by his complimentary 
 allusions. He had on several occasions 
 been compelled by the force of circum- 
 stances to appeal to the protection and help 
 of influential men. Por instance, at the 
 distribution of land to the veterans in 41 
 B.C. his own estate was appropriated, and it 
 was only the advocacy of Pollio and of Cor- 
 nelius Gallus which enabled him to recover 
 it. In the following year, when Pollio was 
 obliged to give place to Alfenus Varus, his 
 property was again threatened ; but by the 
 influence of Msecenas, to whom Pollio had 
 recommended him, amends were made him 
 by the presentation of another estate. His 
 fame as a poet was established by the 
 Eclogues. Henceforward, by the liberality 
 of noble friends, especially Octavianus and 
 Msecenas, whom he won not merely by his 
 art, but, like all with whom he came into 
 contact, by his modesty and good nature, 
 he was enabled to devote himself to his 
 studies without fear of interruption. He 
 lived in turns in Rome (where he possessed 
 a house), or on his estate at Nola, or in 
 Naples, where he mainly resided, owing to 
 his weak health. 
 
 Here, in 80 B.C. he completed the didactic 
 poem in four books begun seven years 
 previously, entitled the Georgics (Geor- 
 gicd, on agriculture), which he dedi- 
 cated to Msecenas. In this, the first Latin 
 poem of this kind, we have a masterpiece 
 of Latin poetry. The author treats of 
 Roman husbandry under its four chief 
 branches, tillage (book i), horticulture (ii), 
 the breeding of cattle (iii), the keeping 
 
 of bees (iv) ; and handles a prosaic theme 
 with thorough knowledge and consummate 
 art, together with a loving enthusiasm and 
 a fine sympathy for nature. [The work was 
 founded mainly on the poems of Hesiod 
 and Aratus, but also gives evidence of fami- 
 liarity with writers on agriculture, as well 
 as of independent agricultural knowledge.] 
 
 Immediately after finishing the Georgics 
 he began the epic poem of the JEneid, 
 which he had already promised to Octavia- 
 nus. Its appearance was looked forward 
 to by all educated Rome with extraordinary 
 anticipation. After eleven years of unre- 
 mitting labour (for to him composition in 
 general was a laborious task) he was ready 
 with a rough draft of the whole, and deter- 
 mined on a journey to Greece and Asia, 
 intending to spend - three years there in 
 polishing his work and afterwards to devote 
 himself entirely to philosophy. At Athens 
 he met Octavianus (who had received in 
 B.C. 27 the title of Augustus). The latter 
 induced him to return home with him : 
 Vergil consented, but fell ill, apparently 
 from a sunstroke, at Megara. On the sea 
 voyage his condition grew worse, and soon 
 after landing he died at Brundisium, 21st 
 September, 19 B.C. His remains were 
 buried at Naples. 
 
 It was the poet's original intention that, 
 in the event of his dying before his work 
 was completed, the twelve books of the 
 .jdSneid should be consigned to the flames. 
 In the end, however, he bequeathed it to 
 his friends and companions in art Varius 
 Rtifus and Plotius Tucca, on condition that 
 they should not publish any part of it. 
 But, by the command of Augustus, they 
 gave it to the world, after sulDmitting the 
 work to a careful revision, and only re- 
 moving what was superfluous, while refrain- 
 ing from all additions of their own. 
 
 In spite of its incomplete form, the work 
 was enthusiastically welcomed on its first 
 appearance, which had excited the highest 
 anticipations, as a national epic of equal 
 worth with the poems of Homer. This 
 approval was due to its national purpose, 
 the poetic glorification of the origin of the 
 Roman people in the adventures of Jilneas, 
 the founder of the Romans through his 
 descendant Romiilus, and in particular the 
 ancestor of the imperial house of the Julii 
 through his son Ascanius, or lulus. In 
 view of its purpose, little notice was taken 
 of the weak points in the poem, which can 
 only in part be excused by the fact that it 
 lacks the author's finishing touches. We 
 
VERRIUS FLACCUS, 
 
 683 
 
 may, indeed, admire the art wtich the poet 
 has shown in moulding together the vast 
 mass of material collected with so much 
 effort from the poetic and prose writings 
 oi Greeks and Romans, the excellences 
 of the language and of the metrical form, 
 and the beauty of many individual 
 portions ; but it cannot be denied that in 
 artistic completeness and originality the 
 JEneid falls far below the Georgics. In 
 particular, the endeavour to pourtray a real 
 hero was beyond the capacity of the gentle, 
 almost womanly, character of the poet; 
 ^neas is a true hero neither in endurance 
 nor in action. Further, the endeavour to 
 rival Homer is mainly limited to imitation. 
 This is apparent not only in countless 
 single instances, but also in the plot of the 
 whole poem. Vergil obviously wished to 
 unite the excellences of the Odyssey and 
 Iliad in one work by describing in the 
 first six books the wanderings of ^neas, 
 and in the last six his conflicts for the 
 throne of Latium. 
 
 In spite of many faults, which were 
 noticed even in ancient times, Vergil has 
 remained the most widely read, the most 
 admired, and the most popular poet of his 
 nation, and no other writer has exercised 
 such an influence on the subsequent develop- 
 ment of the Roman literature and language. 
 This remark applies to prose as well as 
 poetry. As was the case with the poems of 
 Homer among the Greeks, Vergil's works," 
 and especially the ^Stjiieid as a national epic, 
 were used down to the latest times for 
 school teaching and as a basis of school 
 grammar. They were imitated by authors, 
 particularly by epic and didactic poets. In 
 later times single verses and parts of verses 
 {see Cento) were used to compose new poems 
 of the most varying contents; and finally 
 the most famous scholars made them the 
 object of their studies both in verbal and 
 in general interpretation. Some relics of 
 their labours are preserved in the dif- 
 ferent collections of scholtd, especially in 
 that comprehensive commentary on his 
 collected poems which bears the name of 
 Servius HSnordtus. Of smaller value are 
 the commentaries of the pseudo-Probus on 
 the Biicolics and Georgics, and of Tiberius 
 Donatus on the jEneid. 
 
 The name of Vergil was also borne in 
 ancient times by a number of poems, which 
 passed as the works of his youth, but can 
 hardly any of them have been his com- 
 positions : (1) the Cdtdlecta [or more cor- 
 rectly Cataleptdn], fourteen small poems in 
 
 iambic and elegiac metre. (2) Culex (" the 
 midge "), supposed to have been written by 
 Vergil in his sixteenth year, a most insipid 
 poem. (3) The Clris, the story of the 
 transformation of Scylla, the daughter of 
 the Megarian king, into the bird Ciris (see 
 Nisus), obviously composed by an imitator 
 of Vergil and Catullus. (4) The Dirce, two 
 bucolic poems : (a) the Dirce properly so 
 called, imprecations on account of the loss 
 of an estate consequent on the proscription 
 of A.D. 41 ; and {b) the Lydia, a lament for 
 a lost love, both of which have as little 
 claim to be the writings of Vergil as of 
 the grammarian Valerius Cato, to whom 
 also they have been ascribed. (5) The 
 Mdretum, so called from the salad which 
 the peasant Simylus prepares in the early 
 morning for the day's repast, a character 
 sketch as diverting and lifelike as (6) a 
 poem deriving its title from the Cojja, or 
 hostess, who dances and sings before her 
 inn, inviting the passers by to enter. This 
 last poem is in elegiac metre. [Vergil's 
 life was written by Suetonius from earlier 
 memoirs and memoranda. See Prof. Nettle- 
 ship's Ancient Lives of Vergil, Clarendon 
 Press, 1879.] 
 
 Verrius Flaccus (Marcus). A Roman 
 freedman, " who obtained renown chiefly 
 by his method of teaching. To exercise the 
 wits of his pupils, says Suetonius, he used 
 to pit against each other those of the same 
 age, give them a subject to write upon, and 
 reward the winner with a prize, generally 
 in the shape of a fine or rare copy of some 
 ancient author " (Prof. Nettleship's Essays, 
 p. 203). He educated the grandsons of 
 Augustus and died under Tiberius. He 
 devoted himself to literary and antiquarian 
 studies resembling those of the learned 
 Varro. Thus, he wrote books Be Ortho- 
 grdphia and Rerum Memoria Digndrutn ; 
 but his most important work was entitled 
 De Verborum Signiflcatu. This may claim 
 to be the first Latin lexicon ever written. 
 It was arranged alphabetically ; it gave 
 interpretations of obsolete words, and ex- 
 plained the meaning of the oldest institu- 
 tions of the State, including its religious 
 customs, etc. We only possess fragments 
 of an abridgment made by Pestus {ti-v.), 
 and a further abridgment of the latter, 
 dedicated to Charlemagne, by Paulus. A 
 calendar of Roman festivals drawn up by 
 him was set up in marble at Prseneste, near 
 Rome ; of this there are some fragments 
 still preserved containing the months of 
 January to April inclusive and December. 
 
G84 
 
 VER SACRUM VESSELS. 
 
 These fragments are known as the Fasti Prce- 
 nestlnl [Corpus Inscr. Lat. i, p. 311]. [In 
 the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 there is a slab of stone bearing the name 
 Verrivs Flaccvs, probably the lexico- 
 grapher's epitaph. See also Prof. Nettle- 
 ship's Lectures and Essays, pp. 201-247.] 
 
 Ver Sacrum (a sacred spring). A dedica- 
 tion practised by the Italian tribes, whereby, 
 in times of severe hardship, all the pro- 
 ducts of the succeeding spring, i.e. the 
 months of March and April, were conse- 
 rated to the gods. All the fruits and cattle 
 were actually offered up in sacrifice ; while 
 the children that were then born, as soon 
 as they were grown up, were driven out of 
 the country as forfeited to heaven, and 
 required to seek a new home. Whole 
 generations in this way left their country, 
 those of the Sabine stock being led by the 
 animals sacred to Mars — a bull, a wood- 
 pecker, or a wolf. In Rome, whose origin 
 is traced back by many to a ver sacnim, 
 the ponttfices superintended the vow and 
 its fulfilment. The ver sacrum was vowed 
 for the last time in the second Punic War. 
 [B.C. 217, Livy xxii 10; btit the vow was 
 not fulfilled until twenty-one years after- 
 wards, B,C. 195 and 194, ib. xxxiii 44 and 
 xxxiv 44]. 
 
 Vertumnus (" the turner," " changer "). 
 An Italian god of fruits, who presided over 
 the changing year, 
 especially over the 
 fruits of the earth, 
 whether in orchards 
 or in gardens. Hence 
 he was generally re- 
 presented as a gar- 
 dener and a cultiva- 
 tor of the soil, with 
 fruits in his lap and 
 a pruning knife in 
 his hand, and was 
 honoured by the coun- 
 try folk with the pro- 
 duce of their orchards, 
 etc. In the belief of 
 the people, he pos- 
 sessed the faculty of 
 changing himself in- 
 to all possible shapes, 
 and they related how 
 by one of his trans- 
 formations he won 
 Pomona for his wife. 
 In Rome his statue of 
 
 bronze stood in the Tuscan quarter, where 
 a considerable trade went on ; he was on 
 
 VERTUMNUS. 
 
 this account regarded as the protector of 
 business and exchange. Sacrifice was 
 offered to him in his chapel on the 
 Aventine on August 13th. [Propertius, iv 2.] 
 Vessels. An immense number of vessels 
 for different purposes is mentioned by the 
 ancients. It is impossible within the pre- 
 sent limits to speak of more than a certain 
 number of the most important. In ordinary 
 life much use was made of pottery, which 
 was sometimes ornamented with paintings. 
 {See Pottery and Vases.) Next to clay, 
 bronze was the favourite material. The 
 precious metals, marble, and other stones, 
 such as porphyry, travertine, alabaster, and 
 onyx, were also used, and the vessels made of 
 these and of bronze were often adorned with 
 carved work. On the employment of glass 
 for this purpose, see Glass. (Cp. also MuR- 
 RINA.) It can hardly be said that wood 
 was much in use. Vessels intended to hold 
 wine, oil, salt meat, salt fish, olives, corn, 
 and the like, were generally of clay. The 
 largest of them was the pithos (,Gr.) or 
 dolium (liat.), a butt in the form of a 
 gourd, used for storing oil and wine. This 
 vessel, which was lined with pitch, was 
 often so large that a man could easily get 
 inside it. It was one of these butts in 
 which Diogenes made his abode. They 
 were generally let into the floor of the 
 cellar, and counted as immovable furniture. 
 The Greek hlkds and the Roman seria 
 were smaller vats of the same kind, used 
 for storing salt-meats, figs, corn, etc. For 
 purposes of sale and of use, the wine and 
 oil were passed from the dolium, into the 
 amphora (Gr. amplioreus), and the cadus 
 (Gr. kados). These were vessels with two 
 handles, and a slim body pointed at the 
 foot. They were either buried up to the 
 middle in the ground, or set up slanting 
 against the wall (fig. 1, nos. 20-23 ; fig. 
 2 «, b). The cadi were specially used by 
 the Romans for the storage of Greek wines. 
 Wine and oil were also, especially in the 
 country, put into leather bags (Gr. askds ; 
 Lat. uter), as is the case now in the East 
 and in the south of Europe. The bag was 
 made by sewing a number of skins together, 
 and was tapped by untying one of the legs. 
 Por drawing and holding water they used 
 the hydria, or kalpis (Lat. urna), carried 
 on the head or shoulders. This was a 
 vessel, with a short neck and large body, 
 often with three handles, two smaller ones 
 for carrying, and one behind for drawing 
 and pouring out (fig. 1, nos. 16, 17). The 
 Idgynds (Lat. Idgona or Idgoena) was a 
 
VESSELS. 
 
 685 
 
 wine-jar. It had a narrow neck, rather a 
 wide mouth, and a handle (fig. 1, no. 34). 
 It was hung up as a sign in front of wine 
 shops, and was put before the guests at 
 table. The WcythSs or ampulla was used 
 for oil (fig. 1, no. 33) ; the dldbastrdn or 
 alabaston (fig. 1, no. 35) for fragrant oint- 
 ments. This vessel was named from the 
 material of which it was usually made. 
 Both the lekythos and alabastron had 
 narrow necks, so that the liquid ran out 
 in drops. The alabastron was round at 
 
 spoons were used (trua, trulla, fig. 3), as 
 well as various sorts of cups (r.ydthus, fig. 
 1, nos. 10, 13-16). These resembled our 
 tea and coffee cups, but had a much higher 
 handle, rising far above the rim, and con- 
 tained a definite measure. Drinking- 
 vessels were made in the form of bowls, 
 beakers, and horns. To the first class be- 
 longed the flat pMdle, or saucer without 
 handle or base, corresponding to the Roman 
 pater d generally used in sacrifices (fig. 1, 
 nos. 1, 2) ; the kymbwn, a long deep vessel 
 
 (1) * VARIOUS SHAPES OP GREEK VASES. 
 
 (Jahn's Vasmisammlung in der Pinaltothdt zti Munchen, Taf. i, ii.) 
 
 1 2, vhUU. 3, cfflic. 4-7, 8C«phus. 8, cplix. 9, IiolmSs. W cpmus. U carchisWn. 
 
 13, cantMrSs. 13-15, cpnthm. 16, Llpts. 17, %d™.. 18, stjimiiSs. W.pellle. 20-2d amiiMra. 
 
 ii cSim 25 crater. 26-30, miScMe. 32, aMs. 33, lajtMs. 34,, Iwgcma. 35, umaslrHn. 
 
 36,arpbalWs. Sl.hombjlios. 38, 39, name unknown. 40, WMne. M, cijiM. 
 
 the foot, and therefore required a stand to 
 support it. 
 
 The general term krater (Lat. cratera or 
 creterrd) was used to denote the vessels in 
 which wine was mixed with water at meal- 
 times (fig. 1, no. 25 ; cp. Hildesheim, The 
 Treasure of). They were moderately large, 
 with wide necks and bodies, and two handles. 
 Sometimes they had a pedestal, sometimes 
 they were pointed or round beneath, in which 
 case they required a support (fti/po/craiej-wn). 
 Eor ladling and pouring out the wine, 
 
 without handles, so called from its likeness 
 to a boat ; and the kylix (Lat. cdlix) with 
 handle and base (fig. 1 , nos. 3 and 8) . Among 
 the beakers may be mentioned the skyphos 
 (Lat. scyphus) attributed to Heracles (fig. 1, 
 nos. 4-7). This was a large cup originally 
 of wood, and used by shepherds, sometimes 
 with a round, sometimes with a flat bottom. 
 Another was the kanthdros (canthdrus) 
 peculiar to Dionysus (fig. 1, no. 12), with a 
 high base and projecting handles. The 
 karchesion {carchesium, fig. 1, no. 11) was 
 
686 
 
 VESTA. 
 
 tall, slightly contracted at its sides, and 
 with slender handles reaching from the rim 
 to the foot [Macrobius, Satur- 
 nalia V 21]: the Mbonon 
 (cihorluin) resembled the 
 husks of the Egyptian bean. 
 The class of drinking horns 
 included the rJiyton (fig. 4), 
 with its mouth shaped lilie 
 the head of an animal. 
 
 As may be seen from the 
 names, the Romans borrowed 
 most of their drinking vessels 
 from the Greeks. They were 
 generally fitted with silver ; 
 and, during the imperial times 
 often ornamented with finely 
 cut gems. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enu- 
 merate the various vessels 
 used for washing, cooking, 
 and eating, the characteristics 
 of which were not strikingly 
 different from our own. But 
 we may observe that for 
 domestic purposes of all kinds 
 the ancients used basket work 
 of canes, rushes, straw, and 
 
 used for holding the wool used in weaving 
 and embroidery : the low kdnSon, or basket 
 
 (2) * VESSELS OP GLASS OK TEEKA-OOTTA FROM POMPEII. 
 
 (Overbeck's Pompeii, p. 402, fig. 249, ed. 3=fig. 260, ed. 4.) 
 a and b, amphHroB. c, two glass lagcBnm in terra-cotta incUega, d, e, /, wine- 
 glasses, g, wine-strainer, h, glass funnel, infundtbUlum. i, cup and saucer, 
 fc, oU-flafik. I, small flask, m, cup. u, wine-taster, o, jug. p, gourd-shaped 
 bottle, g, vessel with pointed base, r, strainer, s, small vase for unguents, 
 t, strainer. 
 
 of round or oval shape (fig. 5, c), for bread 
 and fruit. The Athenian maidens carried 
 kdnSd on their heads at the Panathenaic 
 procession. (See Canephori.) Tor baskets 
 of other shapes, see fig. 5, d, e, /. 
 
 (3) BUONZE LADLES 
 
 (triia). 
 (From Pompeii.) 
 
 (4) GREEK DKiNKiifG-HORHs (rhyton). 
 (Panofka, Griechische Trinkhorner.) 
 
 leaves, especially palm leaves. The kalcUhos, 
 made in the form of a lily (fig. 5, a and b), was 
 
 (5) BASKETS FROM GREEK VASES. 
 
 (Guhl and Koner, flg. 203.) 
 
 Vesta. The Italian, particularly the 
 Latin, goddess of the hearth and of its fire 
 
VESTALS. 
 
 687 
 
 corresponding in her name, as well as in 
 her nature, to the Greek Hestia {q.v.) Like 
 Vesta, besides her special cult on the 
 hearth of every home, she was also wor- 
 shipped by the State. This worship was 
 introduced by Numa from Lavinium, 
 whither ^neas had brought the Penates 
 and the sacred fire from Troy. Hence it 
 was that Roman consuls and dictators, on 
 taking up and laying down their office, 
 sacrificed in the temple of Vesta at 
 Lavinium. It was customary in Italy as 
 in Grreece for the colonies to kindle the 
 fire of their own Vesta at the hearth bf the 
 mother city. 
 
 The ancient round temple of Vesta, which 
 served as the central point of the city, was 
 built by Numa. In its neighbourhood was 
 the so called atrium of Vesta, the abode of 
 the virgin priestesses of the goddess, the 
 Vestals [excavated in 1883—4; Middleton's 
 Ancient Rome in 1888, pp. 181-206]. Here 
 the goddess was worshipped not in the 
 form of a statue, but under the symbol of 
 the eternal fire, which it was the chief 
 duty of the Vestals to keep alight. On 
 every 1st March it was renewed. If it 
 went out of itself, a great national disaster 
 was held to have occurred, and the guilty 
 Vestal was scourged by the pontifex. The 
 fire could only be rekindled by a burning 
 glass, or by the primitive method of friction 
 by boring a piece of wood from a fruit tree. 
 Corresponding to the lares and penates of 
 the domestic hearth, there were, according 
 to later usage, the penates of the State in 
 the temple of Vesta ; and similar l}"-, on the 
 temple-hearth, a sacrifice was offered daily, 
 consisting of the plainest form of food in a 
 simple vessel of clay. The daily purifi- 
 cations could only be made with flowing 
 water, which the Vestals carried in pitchers 
 upon their heads from the fountain of 
 Egeria, or of the Muses. By day every one 
 had the right of admission to all the temple, 
 save only that part in which the palladium 
 and other mystic relics were kept, where the 
 Vestals alone had the right to enter. It 
 was only by night that men were excluded. 
 
 As goddess of the sacred fire of the hearth 
 in every house and for the city in general, 
 Vesta was also the goddess of every sacri- 
 ficial fire. Hence she was worshipped 
 with Janus at every i-eligious service, 
 Janus being invoked at the opening, Vesta 
 at the close. Her own festival, the Vestalia, 
 was kept on July 9th. The matrons of 
 the town walked barefooted in procession 
 to her temple, to implore the blessing of 
 
 the goddess for their households, and to 
 offer sacrifice to her in rude dishes, in 
 remembrance of the time when the hearth 
 served generally for the baking of bread. 
 The millers and bakers also kept holiday. 
 The mills were crowned, and the asses 
 employed in them had garlands and loaves 
 suspended about their necks. The worship 
 of Vesta survived to the last days of 
 paganism, and was abolished by Gratian in 
 382 A.D. Although there was no image of 
 the goddess in the actual temples, her statues 
 were not uncommon at Rome in later times. 
 Like the Greek Hestia, she was represented 
 sometimes as standing, sometimes as sitting, 
 completely clothed and veiled, with chalice 
 torch, sceptre, and palladium. For cut, see 
 Hestia. 
 
 Vestals {virgines vesldles. Vestal Vir- 
 gins). The priestesses of Vesta. At Rome 
 their number was at first four, but had 
 already been increased to six during the 
 last years of the kings. Every girl possess- 
 ing the necessary qualification was liable to 
 be called on to undertake the duty, and no 
 exemption was granted, except upon very 
 strict conditions. The office was confined 
 to girls of not less than six and not more 
 than ten years of age, without personal 
 blemish, of free, respectable families, whose 
 parents were still alive and resident in Italy. 
 The choice was made by lot out of a num- 
 ber of twenty, nominated by the pontifex. 
 The virgin appointed to the priestly office 
 immediately quitted her father's authority 
 and entered that of the goddess. After 
 her inauguration by the pontifex, she was 
 taken into the dtriuvi of Vesta, her future 
 place of abode, was duly attired, and shorn 
 of her hair. The time of service was by law 
 thirty years, ten of which were set apart 
 for learning, ten for performing and ten for 
 teaching the duties. At the end of this 
 time leave was granted to the Vestals to 
 lay aside their priesthood, return into 
 private life, and marry. They seldom took 
 advantage of this permission. They were 
 under the control of the pontifex, who, in 
 the name of the goddess, exercised over 
 them paternal authority. He administered 
 corporal chastisement if they neglected 
 their duties, more particularly if they 
 allowed the sacred fire to go out ; and, if 
 any one of them violated her vow of chas- 
 tity, he had her carried on a bier to the cam- 
 pus scelerdtus (the field of transgression), 
 near the Colline Gate, beaten with rods and 
 immured alive. Her seducer was scourged 
 to death. No man was allowed to enter 
 
688 
 
 VESTIBULUM VIATOE. 
 
 tbeir apartments. Their service consisted 
 in maintaining and keeping pure the eternal 
 fire in the temple of Vesta, watching the 
 sacred shrines, performing the sacrifices, 
 offering the daily and, when necessary, the 
 special prayers for the welfare of the nation, 
 and taking part in the feasts of Vesta, Telliis, 
 and Bona Dea. They were dressed entirely 
 in white, with a coronet-shaped head-band 
 (inffila), and ornamented with ribands 
 (vittcR) suspended from it, and at a sacrifice 
 covered with a white veil [called the suffi- 
 bfduin. This was a sort of hood made of a 
 piece of white woollen cloth with a purple 
 border, rectangular in form. It was folded 
 over the head and fastened in front below 
 the throat by a fibula (Festus, p. 340, ed. 
 
 A VESTAL VIRGIN. 
 
 (Portrait statue of one of the chief Vestals, of the time of 
 
 TrtLJan or Hadritin, showinf:r the sacred vestment 
 
 called the nuffihuium.) 
 
 Miiller, quoted in Middleton's Rome, p. 198)]. 
 The chief part in the sacrifices was taken 
 by the eldest, the virgo vesfalis inaxtma. 
 
 The Vestal Virgins enjoyed Various dis- 
 tinctions and privileges. When they went 
 out, they were accompanied by a lictor, to 
 whom even the consul gave place ; at public 
 games they had a place of honour ; they were 
 under a guardian, and were free to dispose of 
 their property ; they gave evidence without 
 the customary oath ; they were, on account 
 of their incorruptible character, entrusted 
 with important wills and public treaties ; 
 death was the penalty for injuring their 
 person ; those whom they escorted were 
 thereby protected from any assault. To 
 meet them by chance saved the criminal 
 who was being led away to punishment ; 
 and to them, as to men of distinguished 
 
 merit, was assigned the honour of burial 
 in the Forum. 
 
 Vestibiiluin. An entrance-court before a 
 Roman house. {See House.) 
 
 V6t6rani. [A Latin word properly mean- 
 ing old soldiers.] During the later Re- 
 publican period and under the Empire the 
 term was applied to those who at the end 
 of their time of service retired from the 
 legion. They were kept with the army 
 under the standard, under which they were 
 taken to the military colonies appointed for 
 them, and again served there for an inde- 
 finite period. {Cp. Vexillarii.) 
 
 Vexillarii. Roman veterans who, at the 
 end of their period of service, retired from 
 the legion, but were kept together under a 
 standard {vexilluvi) up to the time of their 
 final dismissal. They formed, by the side 
 of the legion, a select corps like the evocati 
 of earlier times. They were exempt from 
 ordinary service, and only bound to take 
 part in actual fighting. [They may be 
 briefly described as the oldest class of 
 vSterani, and the last to be summoned to 
 take the field.] 
 
 Vexillum. The Latin name for a four- 
 cornered flag, attached to a cross-pole, and 
 carried by the vexillarius. [See Signum, 
 fig. a.) Every squadron (turina), and pro- 
 bably every detachment of a body of troops 
 which formed a separate command, had a 
 red, white, or purple vexillum of this kind, 
 and hence were them selves called a vexillum,, 
 or sometimes a vexilldtio. The latter word, 
 however, from the end of the 3rd century 
 A.D., signifies a squadron of cavalry. At 
 Rome a red flag was displayed on the 
 Capitol during the deliberations of the 
 comitia centUrmta, and was in time of 
 war planted as the signal lor battle on ■ 
 the general's tent or the admiral's ship. 
 Vexilla served also as marks of distinction 
 for the higher officers. 
 
 Via Appia. See Roads. 
 
 Viator (" messenger "). A subordinate 
 official {sec Appaeitoe), employed by the 
 Roman magistrates for sending a message 
 or a summons, or for executing an arrest. 
 The consuls and prsetors had probably 
 three decunce of viatores ; the tribunes 
 had a special decuria, as also had the 
 qucestores cerdru, and the officers who took 
 their place under the Empire, viz. the 
 prcefecti cerarii ; also the ssdiles, the tres- 
 viri cdpltdles, and the quattUwviri vils 
 purgandls. They also appear in connexion 
 with provincial governors and sacerdotal 
 bodies. 
 
VICTOR VIGINTISEXIVIRI. 
 
 689 
 
 Victor. See Aurelius. 
 Victoria. The Roman goddess of victory. 
 {See Nice.) 
 
 Victor inus {Gains Marms). A Latin 
 rhetorician, born in Africa, who, about the 
 middle of the 4th century a.d. taught at 
 Rome, where St. Jerome enjoyed his in- 
 struction. In his old age he became a con- 
 vert to Christianity, and served its cause 
 by his writings. Besides numerous theo- 
 logical works, he is the author of a compre- 
 hensive treatise mainly on metres, called 
 Ars Grammdtica, in four books. His name 
 is also given to some other grammatical 
 writings, as well as some poems on biblical 
 subjects; but it is doubtful whether they 
 are from his hand. A commentary on 
 Cicero's work De Inventtme, which used 
 to be ascribed to him, was more probably 
 composed by one Fabius Marius Victorinus. 
 
 Vicus. A Latin word originally mean- 
 ing a house, and afterwards a collection of 
 houses. In a town, vicus was a street or 
 section of the town ; in the country, a rural 
 community composed of farms lying close 
 together, with temples and altars of its own, 
 a common chest and annually elected over- 
 seers {nidgistri, or cedlles), to whom was 
 assigned the care of the cult, buildings, and 
 local police. The religious centre of the 
 separate townships or vici was the compitum 
 (crossway), with the chapel of the Idres 
 compUctles erected there, in whose honour 
 was annually held the festival of the Com- 
 pltdlia. Augustus divided Rome into 
 fourteen districts and 265 vicA, and ordained 
 that four magistrates should be chosen 
 annually from every vicus, partly to super- 
 intend the cult of the lares, partly to 
 perform the official duties of citizens. This 
 arrangement survived with a few changes 
 till the decline of the Empire. 
 
 Vigiles (" watchmen "). An organized 
 military body of seven cohorts, each of 1,000 
 men, appointed by Augustus to superintend 
 the firemen and night-police of Rome. {See 
 
 ~C0H0BS.) 
 
 Vigiliae (" night-watch "). The name 
 given at Rome to the four divisions of the 
 night (generally from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m.) 
 and to the night-guards of four men each, 
 who relieved one another every watch. In 
 camp the beginning of the night-watch 
 was signalled by a blast blown before 
 the general's tent {prcetSrlum) by all the 
 buglers ; and further, at the end of every 
 night-watch, the duration of which was 
 reckoned by the water-clock, a bugler gave 
 the signal for the relief. 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 Vigintisexviri (twenty-six men). The 
 collective name given at Rome to twenty-six 
 officers of lower rank {mdgistratus minor^s). 
 They were divided into six different offices, 
 and were originally nominated by the 
 higher officers to be their assistants, but 
 were subsequently chosen by the people at 
 the cdmltia tributa, and it was by this 
 appointment that they first became magis- 
 trates proper. The term included (1) 
 Indices decemviri (ten-men judges), or 
 decemviri {st)litihus iudicandis (ten-men 
 for the decision of disputed suits), origi- 
 nally named by the tribunes to inquire into 
 those civil suits in which their assistance 
 had been invoked in certain appeals from 
 the decision of the consuls. Afterwards 
 the decision of such cases was left to 
 them by the consuls from the very com- 
 mencement. In time their relations with 
 the tribunes grew less close, and they 
 became judicial magistrates, who were 
 probably chose^ in the comitia tributa, 
 under the presidency of the pi'cetor urbdnus. 
 Of their functions in detail, little more is 
 known from the time of the Republic than 
 that they decided actions for freedom, and 
 that they made the arrangements for the 
 trials heard before the court of the cen- 
 tumviri. This latter duty they lost in the 
 last days of the Republic, but it was restored 
 to them by Augustus. (2) Quattuorviri 
 iurl dlcundo (four men for pronouncing 
 judgment), whose duty it was to pronounce 
 judgment at law in the ten towns of Cam- 
 pania, like the prcefecti iuri dicundo, who 
 were nominated by the prsetor in the other 
 municipalities ; they survived only till the 
 time of Augustus. (3) TrSsviri nocturni 
 (three men for night-service), originally ser- 
 vants of the consuls, who were responsible 
 for the peace and safety of Rome by night, 
 especially in respect of danger by fire. 
 When to this duty was added that of in- 
 vestigating criminal charges, they became 
 regular magistrates under the title tresviri 
 cdpitdles. In this capacity they had to 
 track out escaped criminals, to examine 
 prisoners under the authorization of the 
 higher magistrates, to inspect the piiblic 
 prisons, and to superintend the carrying 
 out of capital sentences and of corporal 
 punishments. Hence prison-.warders and 
 executioners were placed under them. 
 Under the Empire it was also their duty 
 to bum offensive books. ' (4) Tresviri 
 mdnetdles (three men for the mint), who 
 
 ' [See Pausset on Cicero, Pro Cluentio 60.] 
 
 Y Y 
 
690 
 
 VILLA. 
 
 had, under the Eepublic, the superinten- 
 dence of the coinage of gold and silver, 
 under the Empire that of the copper cur- 
 rency only. (5) Quattuorviri vits in urbe 
 purgandls (four men for cleansing the 
 streets in the city). And (6) Duoviri viis 
 extra urbem purgandis (two for cleansing 
 
 under - magistrates became vigintiviri 
 (twenty men). These were chosen from 
 the knights, and the office of the viginti- 
 virate served as the preliminary step to the 
 qusestorship. 
 
 Vllicus. The Latin term for the steward 
 of an estate. {See Villa and Slaves.) 
 
 (1) * VILLA MAKINA. 
 
 (Mural painting from Pompeii ; Gell and Gandy's Pompeiana, pi. 60.) 
 
 (2) * PLAN OF VILLA SUEUEBANjS. 
 
 of M. Arvius Dldmedes (Donaldson's Pompeii, ii 1). 
 1, door. 2, p^rist^Vtiira. 3, tablmum. 4, gallery. 6, (ecus. 6, court. 7, crypiiSpcn-tXcus. 
 8, triangular court with cold batb. 9, tSp^daHum. 10, cdllddrtum,. 1}, bedroom. 12, staircase 
 leading to lower story. 
 
 the streets outside the city), who were 
 under the direction of the sediles. Under 
 Augustus the duoviri last named disap- 
 peared as well as the quattuorviri iuri 
 dicv.ndo, and the collective name for the 
 
 Villa. A Latin word signifying a 
 property in the country, consisting of a 
 block of buildings for habitation and for 
 domestic purposes. With the decline of 
 agriculture and with the growing preference 
 
VINALIA VOLCANUS. 
 
 691 
 
 m favour of country-hovises, there arose 
 the distinction between villa rusttca and 
 i-illa urhCtna. The former served for agri- 
 cultural purposes ; the latter, so called 
 because built in the town style of architec- 
 ture, only for pleasure. Many villas were 
 designed only for one of the two objects, 
 others were built for both. The villa 
 rusfica included apartments for the vilicus, 
 or steward (a trustworthy slave or freed- 
 man, who had to superintend money- 
 matters), the book-keeper (actor), and the 
 slaves, stalls, and store-rooms. In the 
 erection of the viUa urbana, efforts were 
 made to unite the charm of beautiful land- 
 scape with the greatest comfort and con- 
 venience, and to procure advantages which a 
 house in the town hemmed in on all sides 
 by other houses could not always afford. 
 It contained separate rooms and colonnades 
 for summer and winter, the former facing 
 the north, the latter the south ; baths, 
 rooms set apart for physical exercises, 
 library, and art collections. Outside were 
 parks, preserves, fish-ponds, aviaries, etc. 
 Towards the end of the Republic, and still 
 more under the Empire, luxury in such 
 establishments reached its highest point. 
 [In Pliny's Letters, v 6, we have an ela- 
 borate description of his Tuscan villa ; and, 
 in ii 17, a minute account of his villa at 
 Laurentum, on the coast of Latium. The 
 accompanying cuts give a view of a villa 
 mdrma (fig. 1) and a ground-plan of a 
 villa suburhana (fig. 2)]. 
 
 Vinalia. A wine festival kept by the 
 Romans in honour of Jupiter twice every 
 year: (1) on April 23rd {Vinalia prtora), 
 when the wine of the previous year was 
 broached, and a libation from it poured on 
 the sod ; and (2) on August 19th (Vinalia 
 rustica, the country festival of wine), when 
 sacrifice was made, for the ripening grapes. 
 With both festivals was associated the wor- 
 ship of Venus, who, as goddess of gardens, 
 had vineyards also under her protection. 
 
 Vinga. A shed used by besieging armies 
 to protect themselves against the missiles 
 of the enemy. (See Sieges.) 
 
 Virbius. An Italian god, identified with 
 Hippolytus, who was raised to life by 
 Asclepius, and worshipped together with 
 Diana as presiding genius of the wood and 
 the chase. (Cp. Diana and Hippolytus.) 
 
 Tirgilius. See Vebgil. 
 
 Virtus. The Roman personification of 
 bravery in war. (See HoNOS.) 
 
 Vis. The Roman legal term for acts 
 of violence. In earlier times offences of 
 
 this kind were included under the head of 
 perduellio (q-v.) and high treason (see 
 Maiestas). a special offence termed vis, 
 including disturbances of the peace, violent 
 attacks upon the magistrates and the Senate, 
 and the illegal use of weapons, was first 
 taken cognisance of by the law of Plautius, 
 89 B.C., and a special standing court estab- 
 lished to deal with it. (See Qujestio.) The 
 penalty was proscription (interdictio dqucB 
 et ignis). Afterwards more serious cases 
 of vis, which had meanwhile become subject 
 to civil process, came to be considered as 
 criminal offences, and were punished with 
 confiscation of the third part of one's pro- 
 perty and disqualification for public offices. 
 Under the Empire the penalties were in- 
 creased to death or exile. 
 
 Vitruvius PoUio (Marcus). A military 
 engineer who flourished in the time of 
 Julius Csesar and Augustus. In his old 
 age Octavia, the sister of Augustus, pro- 
 cured him a pension. The leisure thus 
 acquired he employed in composing a work 
 on architecture in ten books (De ArcMtec- 
 tUrd), drawn from Greek sources and from 
 his own experience. This work, the only 
 one of the kind which has come down to 
 us from ancient times, was composed be- 
 tween 16-14 B.C. and dedicated to Augustus. 
 The first seven books treat of architecture 
 proper (i, architecture in general ; ii, 
 building-materials; iii, temple-building; iv, 
 orders of architecture ; v, public buildings ; 
 vi, private buildings in town and in the 
 country ; vii, ornamentation of buildings) ; 
 book viii, of water and waterways ; ix, of 
 the construction of water-clocks ; x, of 
 machines. Although the author is proud 
 of his aocomplishmente, they do not include 
 a capacity for giving his subject a scientific 
 treatment. His method of expression is not 
 seldom obscure and unintelligible ; some- 
 times it is artificial and distorted; some- 
 times vulgar. An anonymous excerpt from 
 the work is still preserved under the title 
 De Dzversis Fabric-Is ArcMtectdnicw. 
 
 Volcanus (better than Vulcanus). The 
 Italian god of fire and of the art of forging 
 and smelting ; corresponding to, and identi- 
 fied with, the Greek Hepheestus. As god 
 of the forge, he also bears the name 
 Mulciber, the softener or smelter of metal. 
 As a beneficent god of nature, who ripens 
 the fruit by his warmth, he is the husband 
 of the Italian goddess of spring, Maia or 
 Maiesia, who shared the sacrifices offered 
 by his priest, the fldmen Volcdnalis, after 
 he had become identified with Hephaestus. 
 
692 
 
 VOLTUENUS WARFARE. 
 
 Venus, wKo is identified with Aphrodite, 
 was regarded as his wife. Among his 
 shrines in Rome the most noteworthy is 
 that called Volcanal, a level space raised 
 above the surface of the Comitium, and 
 serving as the hearth of the spot where 
 the citizens' assemblies were held. His 
 chief festival, the Volcdndlia, was kept on 
 August 23rd, when certain fish were thrown 
 into the fire on the hearth, and races were 
 held in the Circus Maminius. Sacrifices 
 were offered to him as god of metal-work- 
 ing on May 23rd, the day appointed for a 
 cleansing of the trumpets used in worship 
 (tubilustrium). As lord of fire he was 
 also the god of conflagrations ; hence his 
 temples were built outside the city, while 
 his temple in Rome was situated in the 
 Campus Martius. Juturna (q.v.) and Stata 
 Mdter, who causes fires to cease, were wor- 
 shipped with him as goddesses who protect 
 from fires, and a public sacrifice was offered 
 to them and him at the festival of the 
 Volcanalia. (Cp. HEPHiESTUS.) 
 
 Volturnus. See Tibeeinus. 
 
 VopiscTis. A Roman historian. {See 
 
 SCRIPTOEES HlSTOULgL AUGUSTJE.) 
 
 Vota. Religious vows were extraordi- 
 narily common among the Romans both in 
 public and private life. Public vows (vota 
 publico) were sometimes extraordinary, 
 sometimes ordinary. As regards the former, 
 a religious vow was uttered in times of 
 need, in the name of the State, to the 
 effect that, if the gods averted the danger, 
 and caused the prosperity of the State to 
 remain unimpaired for the next five or 
 ten years, a special thank-offering would be 
 paid them, consisting of presents of cattle, 
 large sacrifices, banquets {lectisternia), a 
 tithe of the booty, a teniple, games, etc. 
 In older times a ver sacrum (q.v.) was also 
 promised. These vows were drawn up in 
 writing under the direction of the ponti- 
 ficEs, recited by the pontifex maximus, 
 and privately rehearsed after him by a 
 consul or prsetor. The pontifex then put 
 
 away the document in the presence of wit- 
 nesses, for purposes of reference when the 
 vow was executed. Ordinary vows for 
 the good of the State were offered on the 
 Capitol by the higher officials on entering 
 ofiice (the consuls on January 1st) and on 
 leaving for their province. This was called 
 the votorum nuncupdtio. After 80 B.C. 
 a special votum was offered up for the 
 welfare of the emperor and his familj', on 
 January 3rd. Down to the 7th century 
 A.D., both in Rome and throughout the 
 Empire, this day, which was itself called 
 votum, was kept as a holiday by all bodies 
 both civil and religious. 
 
 Under the Empire vows were regularly 
 made for longer periods of time (five, ten, 
 fifteen, twenty years, vota quinquenndlia, 
 decennalia, quindecennalia, vlcennalia). 
 Besides these there were extraordinary vota 
 for the return and safety of the emperor, the 
 accoucliement of the empress, the birthday 
 and accession day of the emperor, and the 
 like. Private vows {vota privdta) were 
 made on the most varied occasions. They 
 might be solemnly offered in a temple, or 
 made suddenly in times of momentary 
 peril. In the former case a sealed writing 
 containing the vow was fastened to the 
 knees of the god's image, and then taken 
 by the priest of the temple into his 
 keeping, to be opened at the proper time. 
 In the latter case, if the prayer was ful- 
 filled, the vow had to be most scrupulously 
 executed. The offering was generally ac- 
 companied by a votive tablet, which was 
 placed on the walls of the temple, and 
 contained an inscription or a relief or a 
 picture relating to the vow. Thus ship- 
 wrecked mariners offered painted repre- 
 sentations of the wreck in the temples of 
 Neptune or Isis [Horace, Odes i 5, 13-16 ; 
 Persius, i 90]. 
 
 Vulcanus. See Volcanus. 
 VtilcatiTis Gallicanus. A Roman his- 
 torian. {See ScKiPTORES Historic 
 Augusts.) 
 
 w 
 
 War Dance. See Pyrrhic Dance. 
 
 Warfare. (1) Greek. The distinctively 
 warlike people among the Greeks were the 
 Spartans, whose whole life from early 
 youth to advanced age was spent in the 
 continual practice of martial exercises. 
 Even the meals shared in common by all 
 Spartans who had attained the full rights 
 
 of citizens, were arranged with reference 
 to military service. {See Stssitia.) Owing 
 to constant practice in military exercises 
 of every possible kind, the Spartan army 
 possessed a dexterity in the handling of 
 weapons, and a tactical education, which, 
 combined with their lofty sentiment of 
 military honour, for a long period ensured 
 
WARFARE. 
 
 693 
 
 their supremacy over the other Greek 
 races. The duty of service, which began 
 with the twentieth year, and admitted of 
 no exceptions, did not terminate until 
 capacity for service came to an end; but 
 with his sixtieth year the soldier became 
 exempt from foreign service. Originally 
 the heavy-armed infantry, or hoplites, con- 
 sisted solely of Spartans ; but even at the 
 time of the Persian Wars, side by side with 
 the^ Spartans, whose troops in their larger 
 divisions were termed loclioi, the pSrlceci 
 also served as soldiers, but in separate 
 divisions. The helots who accompanied 
 the army served as personal attendants to 
 the hoplites (see HvpaspIst^), and as light- 
 armed troops in battle. A picked corps of 
 the hoplites, specially employed as a royal 
 body-guard, were those known as Mppeis 
 (horsemen) composed of 300 Spartans under 
 thirty years of age, who were selected by 
 the three hippagrStce, and commanded by 
 them. A peculiar corps of lighter infantry 
 was formed from the ScTritse (the inhabitants 
 of the district of Sciritis), who were spe- 
 cially employed on the out-post service of 
 the camp ; they were used as scouts on the 
 march, and in battle had their position as- 
 signed them on the left wing. The Spartans 
 also kept up a fleet, in which the helots were 
 employed as marines and oarsmen ; in cases 
 of great emergency they were transformed 
 into heavy-armed soldiers and served in the 
 army, after which they received their free- 
 dom. (See Neodamodeis.) From the end of 
 the 5th century B.C. the Lacedaemonian army 
 was divided into six mdrcB, each commanded 
 by a polemarch. Owing to their steadily 
 decreasing numbers the Spartans only 
 formed the nucleus of the battalions, which 
 were brought up to their full complement 
 by the addition of perioeci. The officers, 
 however, were exclusively Spartans, and the 
 place of honour was always reserved for that 
 body. In military expeditions the troops 
 often consisted of perioeci, nSddamOdels, 
 allies, and mercenaries, while the Spartans 
 acted only as officers (see Xenagos) and 
 members of the royal staff. On the cavalry, 
 which only played a subordinate part among 
 the Spartans, see Hippeis. The ephors 
 had the command of the veterans in time of 
 war. In the earlier times the kings divided 
 the supreme authority; but after 612 B.C. 
 one alone commanded, unless the circum- 
 stances of the case required more than one 
 general. The fleet was commanded by 
 nauarchoi. 
 Among the Athenians the citizens of the 
 
 first three classes were alone eligible as 
 hoplites, and they were chosen, according 
 to Solon's law, from the pentdcdsiOmSdimni, 
 hippeis, and zeugltoe ; the fourth class, the 
 thetSs, were freed from service, and were 
 only exceptionally employed at sea, but 
 sometimes as light-armed troops on land. 
 They were very rarely heavily armed, and 
 were always remunerated at the expense 
 of the State. The age of military service 
 extended from the eighteenth to the sixtieth 
 year ; there were thus forty- two classes of 
 age, and every man was mustered in a 
 certain list {kdtdldgos) under the name of 
 the archon epdnymus under whom he had 
 first attained the age of service.^ The 
 first two of these classes were only em- 
 ployed (as perlpoloi) to patrol the fi'ontiers. 
 Foreign service began in the twentieth 
 year. From these classes, which were 
 on each occasion called out by a special 
 vote of the people, only so many as 
 were absolutely necessary were taken out 
 of each of the ten phylcB or tribes. The 
 members of the Council, and probably all 
 other officials, were exempt from service. 
 The men who were levied were enrolled, 
 according to their phylce, in ten battalions, 
 taxeis {see Taxiaechus), which are some- 
 times called phylce, while their subdivisions 
 are called Idchoi. On the occasion of a 
 levy the troops were sometimes equipped 
 by the aid of the aliens resident in Attica 
 (see Metceci), and also, in the days of the 
 earlier Attic confederation, by means of the 
 contingents contributed by the allies. It 
 was the hoplites who were benefited by 
 this equipment. From the time of Pericles, 
 and during the Peloponnesian War, the 
 cavalry received pay and maintenance 
 money, usually amounting in all to 4 obols 
 (5|d.) a day. The State also allowed pay 
 and maintenance for the horseman's per- 
 sonal attendant. On the Athenian cavalry, 
 which was more important than the Lace- 
 daemonian, see Hippeis. As to the fleet, 
 
 ' [This is the view of SohOmann, Antiquities of 
 Greece, Eng. trans., p. 423 ; bat in Aristotle's Con- 
 stitution of Athens 53, a distinction is drawn 
 between the archon of the year in which service 
 began and the epOni/mus, who was one of the 
 forty-two eponymoi ton helikion (the ages of mili- 
 tary service). Who these eponymoi were is un- 
 certain ; possibly (as suggested by Mr. Kenyon) 
 they were forty-two heroes of the legendary 
 history of Athens. In any case they must not 
 be confounded either with the eponymous heroes 
 who gave their names to the ten tribes instituted 
 by CllsthSnes, or with the archon eponymus, who 
 gave his name to the year in which he was chief 
 archon.] 
 
G94 
 
 WARFARE. 
 
 on wliicli Athens mainly relied in time of 
 war, the Council (see Boule) had to see 
 that a certain number of vessels of war 
 were built annually. The supervision of 
 the ships in the docks (neorla) was exer- 
 cised by a special board, the ten epimeletce 
 of the neoria. It was their duty to consign 
 the vessels, with the equipments allowed 
 by the State, to the trierarchs (see Lei- 
 tourgia), wealthy citizens who undertook 
 to complete the equipment of the vessels, to 
 provide sailors and oarsmen, and to take the 
 command over them ; while the marines, 
 the epibdtai, were under their own com- 
 manders. The strdtegoi {q.v.) held the 
 chief command over the fleet as well as 
 over the land forces. 
 
 In most of the other Greek states the 
 hoplites, consisting of wealthy citizens, 
 formed the main strength of the army, and 
 generally helped to turn the scale in en- 
 gagements in which the light-armed troops 
 and the cavalry played a subordinate part. 
 They fought in the phdlanx (q.v.), in closely 
 serried lines eight deep. The pick of the 
 troops were stationed on the right wing as 
 the post of honour, to advance to meet the 
 foe amid the singing of the pcedn. When 
 at a distance of about 200 yards, at the 
 signal of a trumpet, they raised the battle- 
 crj' (dldld) and charged either at a run or 
 at quick march. It was only the Spartans 
 who slowly advanced at an even pace and 
 to the sound of flutes. Requesting per- 
 mission to bury the dead was the formal 
 admission of defeat. The enduring token 
 of victory was a trophy composed of the 
 armour captured from the defeated side. 
 It was usual to join battle on ground which 
 was suitable for the phalanx. The Pelopon- 
 nesian War was the means of introducing 
 many innovations, including the formation 
 of a regular force of light infantry, called 
 peltastce (q.v.). Still more decisive in the 
 transformation of the general system of 
 Greek warfare was the famous retreat of the 
 Ten Thousand, the first important mercenary 
 army among the Greeks which tried to make 
 the phalanx of hoplites suit the ground 
 better, and to utilize at the same time the 
 light infantry, or peltasts, and the gymnetes 
 (spearmen, bowmen, and slingers). Iphi- 
 crates, the first distinguished general of 
 mercenary troops, introduced a lighter 
 equipment by substituting a small pelta for 
 the heavy shield, adopting a longer sword 
 and spear, lighter shoes, and a linen corslet. 
 
 In the course of the 4th century B.C. the 
 army composed of civilians gave way more 
 
 and more to the mercenary army, which, by 
 its intimate knowledge of the use of its 
 weapons gained an immense advantage in 
 actual war. (See Mercenaeies.) An im- 
 portant novelty was oblique battle-order, 
 the discovery of Epaminondas. In this the 
 great mass and strength of the hoplites was 
 drawn up in considerable depth on one of 
 the two wings, without any expansion of 
 the front. The hoplites could thus make a 
 vigorous attack on the centre of the enemy's 
 wing, whilst the true centre and other wing 
 of the assailants was held in reserve, with 
 a view to advancing later to crush the 
 enemy. 
 
 The Macedonian method of. warfare, in- 
 vented by king Philip II and his son 
 Alexander, was founded on the Greek 
 military organization adapted to Mace- 
 donian requirements. For this purpose 
 that organization was duly developed, and 
 the different parts of the army, the in- 
 fantry and cavalry, light and heavy-armed 
 troops, military levies, allies and mercenary 
 troops, were blended together into a far 
 freer and more effective system than the 
 Greeks ever attained in their art of war. 
 In point of numbers the strongest com- 
 ponent part of the Macedonian army, as 
 elsewhere, was the heavy and light infantry. 
 The former consisted of the pezStceroi, a 
 body of Macedonians of free but not noble 
 origin, corresponding to the Greek hoplites, 
 but not so heavily armed. Like the hop- 
 lites, they fought in a phalanx, but this 
 was generally deeper than theirs, being 
 eight and afterwards sixteen men deep. 
 They fell into six taxeis, corresponding 
 to the number of the districts of Mace- 
 donia, each of which was represented by 
 one taxis. (See further under Phalanx.) 
 The hypaspistce (q.v.) were the equiva- 
 lent of the Hellenic peltasts, and were a 
 standing corps of 3,000 men. Besides 
 these there were strong contingents of 
 other kinds of light infantry, especially 
 spearmen and archers. While in the 
 Greek armies the number of the cavalry 
 had always been small, they formed nearly 
 one-sixth of the whole army which Alex- 
 ander took with him on his Asiatic expedi- 
 tion, and consisted of an eqaal number of 
 heavy and light cavalry. (See further under 
 HiPPEis.) The central point in the great 
 battles of Alexander was the phalanx • on 
 the right of this were placed the hypas- 
 pistce, the heavy and light Macedonian 
 cavalry, the spearmen, and archers ; on the 
 left, the Thracian peltasts, the Hellenic con- 
 
WAR GODS WEAPONS. 
 
 695 
 
 tingent of cavalry, together with the Thes- 
 salian cavalry, and light troops and horsemen 
 and archers. The two wings were reckoned 
 from the centre of the phalanx ; the right 
 being generally reserved for the attack, and 
 led by the king. The light troops began 
 the attack, which was followed up by the 
 heavily armed Macedonian cavalry sup- 
 ported by the hypaspistce. The heavy 
 infantry came up in detachments to keep 
 the line unbroken, and formed an oblique 
 battle-array. Thus the main attack was 
 made by the heavy cavalry, and no longer 
 by the phalanx, as with the Greeks. The 
 phalanx formed instead a solid centre of the 
 whole array, which it was impossible for the 
 enemy to break through, and which, in the 
 event of its making the attack, was perfectly 
 irresistible. Under the Didddchi, or suc- 
 cessors of Alexander, the phalanx of heavy 
 infantry formed the centre of the battle 
 array, but less with a view to its taking 
 part in the attack than to lengthen out the 
 formation and give it a solid basis. The 
 battle was decided by the wings, which 
 were composed of cavalry, one wing being 
 destined for the attack, while the other 
 remained on the defensive. The light 
 infantry, and the elephants {q.v.) used by 
 the DiadocM in war, were incidentally 
 brought to bear as occasion required, more 
 especially to cover the preparatory move- 
 ments of the cavalry on the attacking 
 wing. 
 
 In the course of the 3rd century B.C. the 
 cavalry declined in numbers and impor- 
 tance ; and the heavy-armed infantry, 
 which was now armed with the long 
 sarissa even in Greece itself, became in- 
 creasingly effective. The phalanx was 
 used independently for purposes of attack, 
 and this attack was generally decisive. 
 During this century, large standing armies 
 of mercenary troops became common. In 
 Greece proper, the only army of importance 
 at this time was that of the Achaean League, 
 after its reorganization by PhilSpoemen. 
 Greek warfare succumbed in the struggle 
 with the Romans, mainly because the 
 limitations attaching to the tactics of the 
 phalanx were ill-suited to a hand to hand 
 engagement. {See Legion; and cp. Castra, 
 DiLECTUS, Sacbamentum, and Stipendium. 
 See also Sieges and Ship.) 
 
 War Gods. (1) Greek. See Ares and 
 Ento (1). 
 
 (2) Roman. See Mars and Bellona (1). 
 
 War Tribunes. See Tribuni Militum. 
 
 Watchmen. See Vigiles and Vigili^. 
 
 Water-clock. See Clepsydra. 
 
 Weapons. The weapons of attack and 
 defence employed by the Greeks of historic 
 times are essentially the same as those 
 with which the Homeric heroes appear 
 equipped in an earlier age. The changes 
 gradually introduced, especially after the 
 Persian Wars, tended to make the armour 
 lighter and to give greater power of move- 
 ment to the combatants. Tor defensive 
 armour they used a helmet {c[.v.);' a 
 cuirass {see Thorax); a girdle {zoma) of 
 leather or felt, covering the lower part of 
 the body, and reaching down to the middle 
 of the thighs. Sometimes ' this " consisted 
 of narrow strips called pterygSs (wings) 
 arranged either in single or double rows^ and 
 covered with metal. Sometimes it was a 
 complete coat plated with bands of metal. 
 The greaves {knemls) covered the front part 
 of the legs from the ankles to just above 
 the knee, and consisting of flexible metal 
 plates or leather fastened behind with 
 buckles. The weapons of defence were 
 completed by the shield {q.v.). 
 
 Por offensive weapons they had, beside 
 the sword {q.v.), the lance {ddrU), five to 
 seven feet long. This was of iron, some- 
 times broader, sometimes narrower, and 
 sometimes hooked and with an iron joint 
 on the butt end which served to fix the 
 spear more easily in the ground, or could 
 be used as an offensive weapon when the 
 regular head was broken off. The cavalry 
 used a shorter lance {palton) for hurling as 
 well as thrusting ; this was much shorter 
 than the Macedonian sarissa {q.v.). The 
 other weapons of attack were javelins 
 {dkonttdn) of different sizes, the longer 
 kinds of which were hurled by means of a 
 thong {see Gymnastics, fig 1), bows and 
 arrows {see Bows), and slings {q.v.). On 
 the equipment of the different kinds of 
 troops, see GtmnetjE, Hippeis, Hoplites, 
 Peltast^. 
 
 Among the Romans the full equipment 
 of defensive armour similarly consisted of 
 helmet {q.v.), cuirass {see Loriga), greaves 
 {ocrSa), and shield {q.v.). With regard to 
 the greaves, it must be noted that in later 
 times the infantry wore them only on the 
 right foot, which was unprotected by the 
 shield. 
 
 Besides the sword {q.v.), the horse and 
 foot of the legion alike used, as an offensive 
 weapon, the lance {see Hasta). It was 
 only the light-armed troops that fought 
 ■with, javelins and slings. Then the pllum 
 {q.v.) was introduced first for a part_and 
 
696 
 
 WEAVING WILLS. 
 
 finally for the whole of the legion. This 
 was the missile which the Romans hurled 
 at the commencement of an engagement, 
 before coming to close quarters with 
 their swords. For fuller details on the 
 changes that took place in the Eoman 
 arms see Legion. Boies were not a 
 national Roman weapon, and were only 
 used by their allies. On the engines of 
 war, see Artillery. 
 
 Weaving was practised among Greeks 
 and Romans from the earliest times. They 
 regarded Athene and Minerva respectively 
 as the inventress of spinning and weaving, 
 together with the distaff and spindle. 
 The weaving of wool was more especially 
 pursued, because the original (and down to 
 late times the ordinary) dress of Greeks and 
 Romans was of that material. From the 
 earliest date working in wool formed part 
 of the household duties of women, who 
 either wove with their own hands the greater 
 part of the clothing necessary for ordinary 
 use, or superintended its manufacture by 
 their slaves. Apart from the coarse fabric 
 used by the lower classes and slaves, the 
 only articles made by tradespeople were 
 costly woven stuffs, such as coverlets, 
 carpets, curtains, etc., the manufacture of 
 which demanded greater practice and more 
 complicated processes. 
 
 In spinning, the woman held the distaff 
 (Gr. eldkdte ; Lat. colus) wrapped about 
 
 WOMAN SPINNING. 
 
 (Vase-painting.) 
 
 with carded wool in her left hand or under 
 the left arm, or fixed it in her girdle. 
 With the right she drew out and twisted 
 the fibres, and attached them to the spindle 
 (Gr. atraktos ; Lat. fusus). The latter was 
 caused to revolve rapidly, and its rotation 
 was made more rapid and steady by means 
 of a small wheel called the whorl {vorti- 
 cellum), fitted to its lower extremity. 
 When the spindle was full, what was wound 
 
 was taken off and placed in the spinning 
 basket (kdldthds). 
 
 For weaving, the oldest looms were 
 upright with a vertically inserted warp, 
 through which the weaver had to draw the 
 woof by passing backwards and forwards 
 across the loom. After the introduction of 
 the improved horizontal loom (supposed to be 
 an invention of the Egyptians), at which the 
 weaver worked sitting, the old-fashioned 
 looms were retained in Italy only for 
 weaving flax and for making what was 
 called the tunica recta. According to a 
 long-established custom, the boy put this on 
 when receiving the tSga of manhood ; and the 
 bride also assumed it on the evening before 
 her wedding. As a rule only plain stuffs 
 were woven in lengths, and only those of 
 one colour were in general use ; but patterns 
 were also worn. The ancients were also 
 inventors of the peculiar art of weaving in 
 colours, the technique of which the Greeks 
 had very early borrowed from the Orientals, 
 since the Homeric women are well ac- 
 quainted with it [27. xiv 178 ; xxii 440]. 
 They were no less skilled in weaving in 
 gold, which also came frcm the East. The 
 principal place for silk-weaving was, till 
 the time of Pliny [N. H. xi 77], the Greek 
 island of Cos, where the fine, transparent 
 Coan fabrics were made from the cocoons 
 imported thither. Silk-stiiffs imported by 
 various means from China were also 
 taken to pieces, coloured, and then worked 
 up with linen yam, cotton-wool, or sheep's 
 wool to half-silk stuffs, called sSncce vestes. 
 Stuffs entirely Of silk first came into use in 
 the 3rd century A.D. 
 
 Wills. (1) Amongst the Athenians, a 
 testator was not allowed, in default of legi- 
 timate heirs, to bequeath his property to 
 one not of his own family. {See Gennet^.) 
 It was Solon who first legislated for the re- 
 moval of this restriction, which custom, how- 
 ever, continued to maintain. Solon, however, 
 granted free testamentary powers only in 
 those cases where there were no legitimate 
 sons. If there were any such sons, a 
 will could only be made in favour of other 
 persons in the event of the sons dying before 
 their majority. If a father had daughters 
 only, he could make a will in favour of other 
 persons only on condition that they married 
 his daughters. Children, born out of wed- 
 lock, who had not been legitimized, were 
 only allowed to have a legacy bequeathed 
 them, which was not to exceed 1,000 drachmae 
 (£33) in amount. Besides persons under 
 age or of unsound mind, those who held 
 
WILLS. 
 
 697 
 
 an official post, and had not yet rendered an 
 account of their administration, were con- 
 sidered incapable of making a will. The 
 will, when drawn up, was sealed in the 
 presence of witnesses and deposited with 
 a responsible.person in order that it might 
 be opened, also in presence of witnesses, 
 immediately on the death of the testator, in 
 case he might have given any special direc- 
 tions for his funeral. 
 
 (2) Amongst the Romans the most ancient 
 form of will is the testamentum cdmitiis 
 calatts, called thus, because it was drawn 
 up in the patrician comitia calata (g.v.) at 
 which the pontifex was present. Besides 
 this form, of which only patricians could 
 avail themselves, one which plebeians could 
 use was introduced in the time of the kings, 
 the testamentum in procinctu. This con- 
 sisted in a verbal declaration made by a 
 soldier, who was a citizen, in the presence 
 of three or four of his comrades, while 
 the general was taking the ausj)ices before 
 joining battle. Both these forms were 
 superseded by the testamentum per ws et 
 libi'am or per fdmMicB manctpattonem, 
 called mancipatio {q.v.), on account of the 
 proceedings observed on the occasion. By 
 means of a feigned sale the testator handed 
 over his fortune (familia) to a feigned 
 purchaser (fam,ilice emptor flductdrlus) in 
 the presence of six witnesses, on condition 
 that he divided it among those nominated 
 as the testator's heirs on his death. This 
 process was simplified in later times, al- 
 though, for the sake of form, the familice 
 einptor was retained ; but a single person 
 was appointed heir, and charged with the 
 duty of paying the individual legacies. If 
 the testamentary disposition was delivered 
 in writing, as was regularly the case, the 
 witnesses sealed the will, and each one 
 signed his name near the seal. The deed 
 was deposited with a friend or in a temple, 
 or with the Vestal Virgins, and, after it 
 had been opened in due course, a copy was 
 made and the original placed in the public 
 archives. 
 
 The form of the prcetorian will was still 
 simpler. It was sealed before the prsetor 
 in the presence of seven witnesses. In the 
 time of the emperors, soldiers enjoyed the 
 privilege of making wills in any form they 
 pleased, which were perfectly valid if the 
 soldier died in the service or within the 
 first year of leaving it. The testamentum 
 per ces et libram was abolished in 439 a.d. 
 by Theodosius II, and the form of the 
 praetorian will was changed to the simple 
 
 one of the Justinian law, by which a man 
 could legally register his will. The right 
 of making a will {ius testamenti factlonis) 
 was only possessed by independent Roman 
 citizens and Vestal Virgins, and only those 
 women besides who, by the death of the 
 person in authority over them, had come 
 into the possession of legal rights (silt iurls), 
 though only with the approval of their 
 guardians. {See Tutor.) Sons who were 
 under parental control were granted the 
 privilege under Augustus as a reward for 
 their services in the field {pScuUum cas- 
 trensS). Under Constantino it was granted 
 as a reward to persons holding a civil office. 
 
 Slaves and those who were not Romans 
 (pgrSgrini) had not the right of making a 
 will, yet the former might be testamentary 
 heirs, if they received their freedom at the 
 same time, and the latter might receive a 
 bequest in trust. In order to prevent the 
 accumulation of property in the hands of 
 women, the Lex VdcSnta (169 b.C,) forbade 
 women being appointed heirs [in cases where 
 the testator's property exceeded £1,000], but 
 permitted them to receive a legacy that did 
 notexceedhalf the amount of the inheritance. 
 In the interest of blood relations the Lex 
 Falcidia (40 B.C.) established that only three- 
 quarters of the heritage should be distributed 
 in legacies, and that at least one-quarter 
 should fall to the share of the natural heir. 
 Augustus ordained that unmarried {cmllbSs) 
 and childless (orbi) persons should only 
 inherit from relations within six degrees. 
 The former in particular were to be deprived 
 of the whole of their bequests, unless they 
 married within a hundred days ; the latter 
 were only to receive half; he also laid a tax 
 of five per cent, on testamentary property. 
 Not to be mentioned in the will was tan- 
 tamount to being excluded from the in- 
 heritance ; it was however the custom to 
 mention disinherited children especially by 
 name, and to add the reason for their being 
 disinherited. All those were considered 
 the principal heirs (heredes), who received 
 shares that could be expressed in terms of 
 a recognised fraction of the as, which was 
 divided into twelve uncice. The sole heir 
 was called herSs ex asse ; the co-heirs, on 
 the other hand, were designated according 
 to the share of their inheritance; for in- 
 stance, heres ex triente, heir to a third part. 
 {See also Inheeitance.) 
 
 Winds were regarded by Greeks and 
 Romans alike as divine beings. In Homer, 
 who only mentions the four chief winds, 
 JBdreas (North), ZSphyrus (West), Eurus 
 
698 
 
 WINE. 
 
 (East), and Notus (Soutli), they are, accord- 
 ing to one account [Od. x 1-75], committed 
 by Zeus to tlie charge of ^olus {q.v., 2). 
 But elsewhere they appear as indepen- 
 dent personalities, who, dwelling in Thrace 
 [II. ix 5, of Boreas and Zephyrus], display 
 their activity at the command of Zeus and 
 other gods, and are invoked by men with 
 prayers and sacrifices [II. xxiii 195]. 
 Hesiod [Theog. 378] calls these winds chil- 
 dren of Astrseus and Eos, and distinguishes 
 them as beneficent beings from the de- 
 structive winds, the children of Typhoeus 
 [Theog. 869]. Some particular myths speak 
 only of Boreas and Zephyrus iq.v.), from 
 whom, on account of their swiftness, famous 
 horses were supposed to be descended. 
 Thus [in II. xvi 160] the horses of Achilles 
 are called the children of Zephyrus and 
 Podarge, one of the Harpies (see Haepyi^.). 
 The latter, in accordance with their original 
 nature, are also deities of the wind, or 
 rather of the storm. In historical times 
 the cult of the winds in general, or that 
 of Boreas or Zephyrus in particular, 
 flourished at special places in Greece. In 
 Italy also they were held in much venera- 
 tion, particularly the fructifying wind 
 Favonius, which corresponded to Zephyrus. 
 In Rome the tempests (tempestdtes) had a 
 sanctuary of their own with regular sacri- 
 fices at the Porta Cdpena, which was 
 founded in 259 B.C., in consequence of a 
 vow made for the preservation of a Roman 
 fleet in a storm at sea. Roman generals 
 when embarking usually offered prayers to 
 the winds and storms, as well as to the 
 other gods, and cast offerings and bloody 
 sacrifices into the waves to propitiate them. 
 To the beneficent winds white animals were 
 offered, and those of a dark colour to the 
 malignant equinoctial and winter storms. 
 The victims were generally rams and lambs. 
 
 In works of art the winds are usually 
 represented with winged head and shoulders, 
 open mouth, and inflated cheeks. The most 
 noteworthy montiment, from an artistic 
 point of view, is the Tower of the Winds 
 (q.v.) still standing in excellent preservation 
 at Athens, on which eight winds are re- 
 presented (Boreas, N. ; Eaikias, N.E. ; 
 Apeliotes, E. ; Eurus, S.E. ; Notus, S. ; 
 Lips, S.W. ; Zephyrus, W. ; Arggstes or 
 Seiron, N.W.). 
 
 Wine. Erom the very earliest times 
 wine was the daily beverage of the Greeks, 
 and was made in every Greek country. 
 The best was produced on the coasts and 
 islands of the iEgean, such as Thasos, 
 
 Rhodes, Cyprus, and, above all, Chios and 
 Lesbos. 
 
 The cultivation of the vine was common 
 in Lower Italy before its colonization by 
 the Greeks, and the Romans had vineyards 
 in very early times. Wine was however 
 long regarded as an article of luxury, and 
 was limited in its use. The regular pro- 
 duction of wine (the method of which was 
 imported from Greece, together with the 
 finer varieties of vines) first came in with 
 the decline of the cultivation of cereals. 
 The home-grown wines were of little es- 
 teem, as compared with the Greek, and 
 especially the highly prized island wines, 
 until the 1st century B.C. After this date 
 the careful treatment of a number of 
 Italian, and more particularly of Campanian 
 brands (such as the Ealernian, Csecuban, 
 and Massic), procured for them the repu- 
 tation of being the first wines of the world. 
 They formed an important article of ex- 
 port, not merely to the collective provinces 
 of the Roman empire, Greece herself not 
 excepted, but also beyond the Roman 
 frontier. It was to the advantage of Italy 
 that, in the western provinces, down to the 
 3rd century A.D., the cultivation of the vine 
 was subject to certain limitations. No new 
 vineyards could be added to those already 
 existing, and the Italian vines could not be 
 introduced, although Gaul produced many 
 varieties of wine. Under the Empire wine 
 was the main article of produce and of trade 
 in Italy, Greece, and Asia, and the wine 
 merchants of Rome, who had, from the 
 commencement of the 2nd century, formed 
 two corporations, one for the eastern and 
 another for the western trade, held an 
 important position. In the 1st century 
 there were already eighty famous brands in 
 the Roman trade. Of this number Italy 
 supplied two-thirds. 
 
 The vine was grown partly on poles or 
 espaliers, partly on trees, especially on elms, 
 which, if the ground between were still 
 used for agriculture, were planted at a 
 distance of 40, sometimes of 20, feet apart. 
 The grapes intended for manufacture into 
 wine were trodden with naked feet and then 
 brought under the press. The must was 
 then immediately poured into large pitched 
 earthenware jars (Gr. ptthSs, Lat. dolium ; 
 see Vessels). These were placed under 
 ground in a wine-cellar, facing the north to 
 keep them cool, and kept uncovered for a 
 year in order to ferment thoroughly. The 
 inferior wines which were of no great age were 
 drunk immediately from the jar [de dolio 
 
WINE-GOD WRITING MATERIALS. 
 
 699 
 
 haurlre ; Cicero, Brutus 228]. The better 
 kinds, which were meant for preservation, 
 were poured into amphorce. These were 
 closed with stone stoppers, sealed with pitch, 
 clay, or gypsum, marked with a brand, fur- 
 nished with a label giving their year and 
 measure {tessera or nSta), and placed in the 
 dpothecd. This was a room in the upper 
 story, built by preference over the bath-room 
 in order to catch the smoke from the furnace, 
 and thus to make the wine more mellow. 
 
 One method of improving the wine which 
 was used in the East and in Greece was to 
 keep the wine in goat-skins, because the 
 leather tended to cause evaporation of the 
 water. In Italy the wine-skins appear to 
 have been only used in transport. To pro- 
 duce flavour, strength, and bouquet, various 
 means were employed, such as adding gyp- 
 sum, clay, chalk, marble, resin, pitch, and 
 even sea water, the last being especially in 
 use in Greece and Asia Minor. Bad wines 
 were improved by being mixed with fine 
 brands and good lees ; adulteration was 
 extremely common. The number of arti- 
 ficial wines was very large ; e.g. honey 
 wine, raisin wine, and boiled must (the 
 beverage of the common people and slaves), 
 a poor drink prepared by pouring water on 
 the remains of the pressed grapes. 
 
 The place of our liqueurs was taken by 
 flavoured wines, of which more than fifty 
 kinds are mentioned. These were simply 
 extracted from herbs, fiowers, or sweet smell- 
 ing woods (thyme, myrtle, sweet rush, 
 rose, hearts-ease, pine-cones and pine-wood, 
 cypress, etc.), or mixed with oils, such as 
 nard or myrrh. There were also wines made 
 from fruits such as apples, pomegranates, 
 pears, dates, figs, or mulberries. In respect 
 of colour three sorts of wine were dis- 
 tinguished : the black or dark red {color 
 sanguineus and niger) which was con- 
 sidered the strongest; the white {albus), 
 which was thought thin and weak ; and the 
 brown or amber-coloured {fulvus), which 
 was considered particularly serviceable for 
 promoting digestion. As in its ordinary 
 treatment the wine often retained much 
 sediment, it had to be made clear before 
 it was drunk. This was done either with 
 yolk of eggs or by straining the wine 
 through a cloth or sieve, which was filled 
 with snow to make it cool. Greeks and 
 Romans alike generally drank their wine 
 mixed with water. {Cp. Meals.) 
 
 Wine-god. See Dionysus (Liber). 
 
 Wisdom, Goddess of. See Athene and 
 Minerva. 
 
 Wonders of the World. Seven ancient 
 buildings or works of art, distinguished 
 either for size or splendour : viz. (1) the 
 Egyptian pyramids ; (2) the hanging gar- 
 dens of Semiramis at Babylon ; (3) the 
 temple of Artemis, at Ephesus ; (4) the 
 statue of Zeus {q.v.) by Phidias, at Olympia; 
 
 (5) the Mausoleum {q.v.) at Halicarnassus ; 
 
 (6) the CSlossus of Rhodes {see Chares, 2) ; 
 and (7) the lighthouse on the island of 
 PhS,r6s, off Alexandria in Egypt. 
 
 Writing materials. Prom an early date 
 the Greeks employed in the production of 
 books a paper prepared from the Egyptian 
 papyrus plant. This was probably manu- 
 factured as follows : as many strips as 
 possible of equal size were cut out of the 
 cellular tissue of the stalk ; these were 
 laid side by side, and crossed by a second 
 layer. The layers were firmly fastened 
 together by being damped with size and 
 pressed. The breadth of the scroll de- 
 pended on the height of the stalk, while its 
 length could be extended at pleasure. After 
 the time of Augustus, the preparation of 
 the papyrus by a process of bleaching was 
 brought to such perfection that the best 
 Egyptian kind took only the third place. 
 Under the Empire eight different kinds 
 were distinguished, the two best of which 
 were called the charta Augusta (only used 
 for letters), and the charta Llvia ; these 
 were 10| inches broad. The worst kind 
 was only used for packing. As a rule the 
 papyrus-rolls of moderate length were 
 written only on one side, and the writing 
 was divided into columns. [Pliny, N. H. 
 xiii 68-83]. For the binding of the 
 papyrus-rolls, see Books. 
 
 The use of skins for the purposes of writ- 
 ing was at least as old as that of papyrus. 
 The finer method of preparing them was, 
 however, first discovered during the first 
 half of the 2nd centuiy B.C. at Pergamum, 
 whence the name charta Pergdmena, 
 " parchment." But as late as the 1st 
 century a.d. papyrus was more generally 
 employed, probably on account of its 
 greater cheapness ; and it was not till the 
 4th century that parchment came into more 
 general use, as being more durable, and 
 admitting of being written upon on both 
 sides. 
 
 The pen was a split reed {calamus), the 
 best being supplied by Egjrpt and Cnidus 
 in Caria. 
 
 The ink {atramentum) employed was a 
 preparation resembling Indian ink, made 
 of soot and gum, or of the juice of the 
 
700 
 
 XANTHUS XENOPHANES. 
 
 cuttle-fish. Both of these could be erased 
 with a sponge, whereas ink made of oxide 
 
 together in the form of a book. {See 
 DiPTYCHON.) The writing materials most 
 
 INK-STAND WITH KEED PEN, ROLL WITH CORNHA AND PAKCHMENT 
 LABEL, STILUS, WAX TABLET, AND ACCOUNT BOOK. 
 
 (Mural Painting from Pompeii j Museo Borhtmico i 12, 2.) 
 
 of iron and gallnuts, which appears to have 
 been introduced later, and to have been the 
 only kind capable of being used for parch- 
 ment, left more or less clear traces behind, 
 even if rubbed out with pumice-stone. In 
 ordinary life people used for letters, notices, 
 and despatches, as also in schools, wooden 
 tablets (tdbellce) with a raised rim, within 
 which was spread a thin layer of wax. On 
 this the characters were scratched with the 
 point of a metal or ivory instrument called 
 a stilus ; they could be effaced with the 
 other end of the instrument, which was 
 bent or flattened out like a paper-folder. 
 Two or more such tablets could be fastened 
 
 BUNDLE OP EEED-PENS, WAX TABLET, AND STILUS. 
 
 (Sepulchral relief from Perret, Caiac(ymhes deI2omd,lxxiii 6. 
 
 commonly employed among the Greeks and 
 Romans are shown in our cuts. 
 
 X 
 
 Xauthus. A Greek historian. {See 
 
 LOGOGEAPHI.) 
 
 Xenagos. The Spartan commander of the 
 several contingents in the Peloponnesian 
 League [Thucydides ii 75 ; Xenophon, Hell. 
 iv 2 § 19]. 
 
 Xenarchus. See Sopheon. 
 
 Xenophanes. A Greek philosopher and 
 poet, born about 570 B.C. at CSlophon in 
 Asia Minor. At the age of 25, after the 
 conquest of his native city by the Persians, 
 he was expelled from his home, and thence- 
 forth led an unsettled and wandering life, 
 in the course of which he recited his own 
 poems as rhapsodies. Accordingly, he lived 
 from time to time at the court of the 
 Pisistratidse at Athens, and at that of 
 Hieron at Syracuse, and for a longer period 
 at Zancle and Catana in Sicily. His later 
 years he apparently spent at Elea (Lat. Velia) 
 in South Italy, a colony of the Phocseans, 
 in the founding of which he took part. In 
 one fragment he describes himself as an 
 
 old man of 92 ; according to another account, 
 he lived to be more than 100. He is the 
 founder of the Eleatic philosophy and of 
 pantheism, inasmuch as he combated the 
 anthropomorphic view of the gods dominant 
 in Homer and Hesiod, and in the popular 
 belief in general. He asserted the doctrine 
 of a one all-ruling divinity, who, as true 
 existence, opposed to appearance or non- 
 existence, as the One and the All, the 
 Whole, undivided, unmoved, and eternal, 
 underlies the universe and is identical with 
 it. He resembles man neither in form nor 
 understanding; being all eye, all ear, all 
 intellect, by the power of his mind and 
 without extraneous effort he sways and 
 governs all things. 
 
 Apart from two elegiac poems, we 
 possess only fragments of the writings of 
 Xenophanes : vis. part of the didactic poem, 
 Concerning Nature, his principal work, 
 which he himself recited ; part of an epic 
 poem on- the founding of Colophon and 
 
XENOPHON. 
 
 701 
 
 Elea ; and fragments of the Silloi, or satires 
 in which he attacked the opposing views of 
 poets and philosophers. 
 
 X6n6ph6n. (1) The historian, son of the 
 Athenian Gryllus, born about 431 B.C. He 
 was one of the most trusted disciples of 
 Socrates. On the invitation of his friend, 
 the Theban Gryllus, he betook himself in 
 401 to Sardis, in order to make the acquain- 
 tance of the younger Gyrus, and attached 
 himself without any definite military rank 
 to the Greek mercenaries, who formed the 
 most important part of the force led by that 
 Persian prince against his brother, king 
 Artaxerxes. When Cyrus had fallen in the 
 battle of Cunaxa in Babylonia, and the 
 Greek commanders had soon after been 
 treacherously murdered by the Persians, 
 he undertook, together with the Spartan 
 Chirisophus, the leadership of the despair- 
 ing forces of the Greeks, and effected the 
 memorable retreat of the Ten Thousand 
 from the heart of Mesopotamia through the 
 high tablelands of Armenia to the coast of 
 the Black Sea, and thence to Byzantium, in a 
 manner as masterly as that in which he has 
 himself described it. After he had helped 
 the Thracian prince Seuthes to recover his 
 paternal kingdom, he led the remainder of 
 the army to join the Spartan commander 
 Thimbron, who was at war with the Persian 
 satraps of Asia Minor. Banished on this 
 account from Athens, he remained in the 
 Spartan service, accompanied king Agesi- 
 laus in his campaigns in Asia, then returned 
 with him to Greece, and took part in the 
 war against the Boeotians and Athenians, 
 and in the battle of Coronea in 394. 
 
 In gratitude for his services, the Spartans, 
 at the conclusion of the war, gave him a 
 country seat near Scillus, on the land which 
 they had wrested from the Eleans, not far 
 from Olympia. He employed himself in 
 agriculture, hunting, and the breeding of 
 horses, and composed some of his extant 
 writings. When the Eleans, after the 
 battle of Leuctra in 371, again took pos- 
 session of Scillus, Xenophon was expelled. 
 He then settled at Corinth, where he re- 
 mained after the repeal of his sentence of 
 banishment from Athens. In the battle 
 of Mantinea in 362 his sons Diodorus and 
 Grryllus fought in the Athenian army, and 
 the former died a heroic death. Xenophon 
 ended his life some time after the year 355, 
 being more than eighty years of age. 
 
 The principal works of Xenophon are ; 
 (1) the Anabasis, in seven books, a descrip- 
 tion, as already mentioned, of the campaign 
 
 of Cyrus, and the retreat of the Ten Thou- 
 sand, composed about twenty j^ears after 
 the events narrated, but founded on memo- 
 randa made at the time, as may be inferred 
 from the minuteness and precision of its 
 details. Prom the fact that Xenophon is 
 always spoken of in the third person, it has 
 been conjectured, without sufficient reason, 
 that the writer was really the Syraousan 
 Themistogenes, whom Xenophon inciden- 
 tally mentions as the composer of a history 
 of the Retreat to the Sea. (2) The lielle- 
 nica, in seven books. The first two are a 
 continuation of the history of Thucydides 
 from 411 to the end of the Peloponnesian 
 War ; and the third is an account of the reign 
 of the Thirty Tyrants, their overthrow, and 
 the restoration by Thrasybulus of the demo- 
 cratic constitution at Athens. These are 
 written in the form of annals. The remain- 
 ing books, in which events related to each 
 other are grouped together, give the rest of 
 the history of Greece down to the battle of 
 Mantinea in 362. (3) The CyrOpmdla (Gr. 
 Kurou paideia), in eight books, containing 
 the story of the education and life of Cyrus, 
 resting on a historical foundation of facts 
 thrown into an idealized form. It is, in 
 fact, a political and philosophical romance, 
 showing how, according to Socratic prin- 
 ciples, one who is to be a ruler must be 
 brought up, and how he must act when on 
 the throne. (4) The Apomnemdneumdta, 
 generally called by the Latin title, MSin5- 
 rabilm (Memoirs), in four books. These 
 are reminiscences of Socrates, and are a 
 simple and faithful delineation of his work 
 and teaching, composed after 393 B.C. with 
 the object of defending Socrates against the 
 charge of impiety towards the gods, and of 
 corrupting the youth. It seems probable 
 that the work as preserved is an abridg- 
 ment only. Shorter writings, handed down 
 under the name of Xenophon, but the 
 genuineness of^ which is partly suspected, 
 are (6) the Agesilaus, a panegyric on 
 Agesilaus II, king of Sparta, written soon 
 after the king's death (361). (6) The 
 Apology of Socrates. (7) The Symposium 
 (banquet), an extremely interesting descrip- 
 tion of a banquet, at which Socrates sets 
 forth his views on beauty and love. This 
 was the model of similar narratives by 
 later writers, especially of the Symposium, 
 of Plato. (8) The (Econdmicus (on domestic 
 economy), the most considerable of the 
 smaller works, and a continuation in some 
 measure of the Memorabilia. It is a dis- 
 course of Socrates on the management of a 
 
702 
 
 XIPHOS ZENODOTUS. 
 
 household, especially on husbandry. (9) 
 HiSron, a dialogue between the poet Simo- 
 nides and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, on 
 the burden of responsibility that weighs on 
 the possessor of royal power, and on the 
 happiness caused by wisely administering 
 it. (10) DS Repuhllca LdcSdcemonioruvi 
 (On the Spartan Constitution), a glorifi- 
 cation of Sparta written soon after the 
 battle of Coronea (394). (11) De Vectl- 
 gcdibus (On the Revenues), composed after 
 the conclusion of the Social War, and there- 
 fore, if genuine, in the last years of Xeno- 
 phon's life, containing suggestions to the 
 Athenians for the improvement of their 
 revenue, without oppressing the allies. (12) 
 Hipparchicus (Directions for an Athenian 
 Commander of Cavalry in War and Peace), 
 apparently written shortly before the battle 
 of Man tinea in 362. (13) De Re Equestri 
 (On the Management of the Horse), written 
 for his youthful friends, with a consider- 
 able degree of completeness, and much 
 practical knowledge of the subject. (14) 
 The Cynegeticus (On the Chase) ; judging 
 by its lively, spirited tone, one of his 
 earliest works. A number of letters are 
 ascribed to him, which are undoubtedly 
 spurious. The same must be said of the De 
 Repuhlica Atheniensium (On the Athenian 
 Constitution), which was apparently com- 
 posed before B.C. 424 by an Athenian of 
 oligarchical views. 
 
 His style, like the man himself, is plain 
 and simple, at times even insipid ; it was 
 exceedingly admired by the ancients on 
 account of its natural charm. His Greek 
 
 is certainly not the purest Attic ; but, 
 apparently on account of his long sojourn 
 abroad, is frequently mixed with poetical 
 and dialectical words and forms. The 
 Cyropcedia, the (Economicus, and the 
 Symposium are the most carefully elabo- 
 rated of his writings. His practical and 
 unimaginative nature shows itself also in 
 the style of his historical and philosophical 
 books. In the latter he appears throughout 
 as a moralist, with no talent for speculation. 
 The former are entirely destitute of any 
 grand leading idea, or any insight into 
 the underlying connexion of events. They 
 deal for the most part with what has a 
 practical interest only. His preference 
 for the Spartan character, which entirely 
 controls his representation of the contem- 
 porary history of Greece in the Hellenica, 
 is also characteristic of the man. 
 
 (2) A Greek romance-vrriter of Ephesus, 
 who composed towards the end of the 2ud 
 century a.d. his Ephesian Stories, in five 
 books, which in a light and simple style 
 describe the adventures of a young couple 
 named Atheia and Abrocomes. It has 
 frequently served as a model for later 
 romance-writers, especially for Chariton, 
 and apparently also for Heliodorus. 
 
 Xiphos. The straight, two-edged sword 
 of the Greeks. (See Sword.) 
 
 Xuthus. Brother of ^olus (q.v., 1), and 
 husband of Creusa, the daughter of Erech- 
 theus ; adoptive father of Ion (q.v.). 
 
 Xj-ele. The short, slightly curved, one- 
 edged sword of the Spartans. (See 
 Sword.) 
 
 Zagreus. A name of Dionysus (q.v.). 
 
 Zeno (Gr. Zenon). (1) Of ElSa ; born 
 about 485 B.C., a disciple of the philoso- 
 pher Parmenides, whose doctrine he sought 
 to prove by indirect arguments. (Cp. 
 Philosophy). Of his writings only iso- 
 lated fragments are preserved. 
 
 (2) Of Cittium in Cyprus. He came in 
 390 B.C. as a merchant to Athens, and 
 there, through the study of the writings of 
 the Socratic philosophers, was led to 
 devote himself to philosophy. At first he 
 attached himself to the Cynic philosopher 
 Crates, whose doctrine was, however, too 
 tinscientific to give him permanent satisfac- 
 tion ; he then studied under the Megarian 
 Stilpo, and the Academics Xenocrates and 
 Polemon, and founded about 310 a school of 
 
 philosophy of his own, which received the 
 name of Stoic from the Stoa PcecUS, where 
 he held his discourses. After fifty-eight 
 years devoted to the teaching of philosophy, 
 he died at an advanced age, held in the 
 highest honour by the Athenians. Of his 
 numerous writings we possess only a few 
 meagre fragments. His doctrine received 
 its complete development from his fol- 
 lowers Cleanthes and Chrysippus. (See 
 Philosophy.) 
 
 Zenobius. A Greek Sophist of Antioch, 
 who lived at Rome as teacher of rhetoric 
 in the first half of the 2nd century B.C., 
 and availing himself of the works of earlier 
 writers, made a collection of proverbs, still 
 extant in an abridged form. 
 
 Zenodotns. The first considerable philo- 
 
ZEPHYEUS ZEUS. 
 
 703 
 
 logical critic of the Alexandrian school. 
 He came from Ephesus, and lived in the 
 first half of the 3rd century B.C. at Alex- 
 andria as tutor to the sons of Ptolemy 
 Philadelphus, and superintendent of the 
 library founded by that king. He under- 
 took the first critical edition of the Homeric 
 poems, and thus laid the foundation for the 
 works of Aristophanes of Byzantium, his 
 most celebrated pupil, and of Aristarchus. 
 
 Zgphyrus. The West. Wind, son of 
 Astrseus and Eos, the messenger of spring, 
 and the lover of the flower-goddess Chloris, 
 who bore to him Carpus, the god of fruit. 
 Spurned by the beautiful Hyacinthus {q.v.), 
 he caused his death, by blowing the quoit 
 of his rival Apollo against his head. The 
 Romans identified him with Fdvomus, the 
 breeze of springtide. In art he is repre- 
 sented as partly unclothed, and carrying 
 flowers in the folds of his robe. 
 
 Zetes. Son of Boreas and Orithyla, and 
 brother of Calais {q.v.). 
 
 Zethus. Son of Antiope (q.v., 1) and of 
 Zeus, brother of Amphion and husband of 
 Aedon. {Cp. Aedon and Amphion.) 
 
 Zeugitae. The third of the property- 
 classes into which the citizens of Athens 
 were distributed by Solon. {See Solonian 
 Constitution and Eisphoka.) 
 
 Zeus. The greatest god in the Greek 
 mythology ; according to the common legend 
 the eldest son of Cronus (Kronos) and Rhea, 
 hence called Cronides. According to a 
 myth indigenous to Crete, he was the 
 youngest son, and Rhea, in dread of Cronus, 
 who had swallowed all his previous children, 
 bore him secretly in a cave of the island, 
 where he was suckled by the goat AmalthSa 
 {q.v.), while the Curetes {q.v.) drowned the 
 cries of the child by the clash of their 
 weapons; but Rhea outwitted Cronus by 
 giving him a stone to swallow instead. 
 When he was grown up, Zeus married 
 Metis (q.v.), who, by means of a charm, 
 compelled Cronus to disgorge the children 
 he had swallowed. When, with the help 
 of his brothers and sisters, PSseidon, Hades, 
 Hestia, Demeter, and Hera, he had over- 
 thrown Cronus and the Titans, the world 
 was divided into three parts, Zeus obtaining 
 heaven, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the 
 lower world ; the earth and Olympus being 
 appointed for the common possession of all 
 the three. But the king of the gods is 
 Zeus, whose power, as Homer, says, is 
 greater than that of all the other gods 
 together. 
 
 Next to him, but in a subordinate 
 
 position, stands, as queen of the gods, his 
 sister and consort Hera, the mother of 
 Ares, Hephaestus, and Hebe, who was re- 
 garded as pre-eminently his rightful wife. 
 Not incompatible with this however was 
 the idea that the marriage with Hera was 
 the earliest of a series of marriages with 
 other goddesses: first, according to Hesiod, 
 with Metis, whom he swallowed, in order 
 to bring forth Athene from his own head ; 
 then with Themis, the mother of the Hours 
 and the Pates ; afterwards with Eurynome, 
 the mother of the Graces ; Demeter, the 
 mother of Persephone; Mnemosyne, the 
 mother of the Muses; and Leto, the mother 
 of Apollo and Artemis. The fact that 
 still later, in Dodona, Dione, the mother of 
 Aphrodite, was also honoured as the wife 
 of Zeus, shows the origin of the legend. 
 Originally different wives of Zeus were 
 recognised in the different local cults. 
 When the legend of the marriage with Hera 
 had become the predominant one, an attempt 
 was made to harmonize the different ver- 
 sions of the story by the supposition of 
 successive marriages. In the same way 
 the loves of Zeus with half-divine, half- 
 mortal women, of whom Alcmene, the 
 mother of Heracles, was said to be the last, 
 were originally rural legends, which de- 
 rived the descent of indigenous divinities, 
 like Hermes and Dionysus, or of heroes and 
 noble families, from the highest god ; and 
 not until they had become the common pro- 
 perty of the whole Greek people, which was 
 practically the case as early as the time of 
 Homer, could the love affairs of the greatest 
 of the gods become the theme of those 
 mythical stories which are so repugnant 
 to modern taste. 
 
 The very name of Zeus (Sanskrit, dyaus, 
 the bright sky) identifies him as the god of 
 the sky and its phenomena. As such he 
 was everywhere worshipped on the highest 
 mountains, on whose summits he was con- 
 sidered to be enthroned. Of all places the 
 Thessalian mountain Olympus {q.v., 1), even 
 in the earliest ages, met with the most 
 general recognition as the abode of Zeus and 
 of the gods who were associated with him. 
 From Zeus come all changes in the sky or 
 the winds ; he is the gatherer of the clouds, 
 which dispense the fertilizing rain, while 
 he is also the thunderer, and the hurler of 
 the irresistible lightning. As by the shaking 
 of his a>gls {q.v.) he causes sudden storm 
 and tempest to break forth, so he calms 
 the elements again, brightens the sky, and 
 sends forth favouring winds. The changes 
 
704 
 
 ZEUS. 
 
 of the seasons also proceed from him as the 
 father of the Hours. 
 
 As the supreme lord of heaven, he was 
 worshipped under the name of Olympian 
 Zeus in many parts of Greece, but especially 
 in Olympia, where the Olympian games {q.v.) 
 were celebrated in his honour. The cult 
 of Zeus at the ancient seat of the oracle at 
 Dodona recognised his character as dispenser 
 of the fertilizing dew. Among the nume- 
 rous mountain-cults in the Peloponnesus, 
 the oldest and most original was that of 
 the Lycsean Zeus, on Mount Lycseus in 
 Arcadia, where human beings were actually 
 sacrificed to him in propitiation. {See 
 Lyc^a.-) In Attica, again, many festivals 
 refer to the god as a personification of the 
 powers of nature. Various rites of purifi- 
 cation and expiation were observed in his 
 honour as the god of wrath (Gr. Maiinaktes), 
 in the month Msemacterion (Nov.-Dec.) at 
 the beginning of the winter storms ; while 
 towards the end of winter he was wor- 
 shipped as the gracious god (Gr. MeiltcMos) 
 at the festival of the Dldsld {q.v.). Among 
 the islands, Rhodes and Crete were the 
 principal seats of the worship of the sky- 
 god ; not only his birth, but also his death 
 was there celebrated, and even his grave 
 was shown, in accordance with the widely 
 spread notion that .the annual death of 
 Nature in winter was the death of the 
 god. In Asia, the summit of Mount Ida in 
 the Troad was especially and beyond all 
 other places sacred to Zeus. 
 
 As he presides over the gods and the 
 whole of nature, so also is he the ruler of 
 men, who all stand in need of his help, and 
 to whom, according to Homer, he weighs 
 out their destinies on golden scales {II. viii 
 69, xxii 209], and distributes good and evil 
 out of the two jars which stand in his 
 palace, filled the one with good and the 
 other with evil gifts [xxiv 527]. But his 
 natural attributes are goodness and love ; 
 hence Homer calls him " the father of gods 
 and men." He gives to all things a good 
 beginning and a good end : he is the saviour 
 in all distress : to Zeus the saviour (Gr. 
 sottr) it was customary to drink the third 
 cup at a meal, and in Athens to sacrifice on 
 the last day of the year. From him comes 
 everything good, noble, and strong, and 
 also bodily vigour and valour, which were 
 exhibited in his honour, particularly at the 
 Olympian and Nemean games. He is also 
 the giver of victory ; indeed the goddess of 
 victory {see Nice), and her brothers and 
 sister, Force, Might, and Strife (Gr. Bia, 
 
 Krdfos, Zelds), are his constant companions. 
 From him, as ruler of the world, proceed 
 those universal laws which regulate the 
 course of all things, and he linows and sees 
 everything, the future as well as the past. 
 Hence all revelation comes in the first 
 instance from him. At times he himself 
 announces to mortals his hidden counsels by 
 manifold signs, thunder and lightning and 
 other portents in the sky, by birds, espe- 
 cially the eagle, which was sacred to him, 
 by prophetic voices {see Mantike), and 
 special oracles. {See Dodona and Ammon.) 
 At times he makes use of other deities for 
 this purpose, chiefly of his son Apollo, 
 through whose mouth he speaks at Delphi 
 in particular. Thus the course of the world 
 is ordained by him ; he is the author and 
 preserver of all order in the life of men. 
 In conjunction with Themis, Dike, and 
 Nemesis, he watches over justice and truth, 
 the foundations of human society ; in par- 
 ticular he is the special god who guards 
 the sanctity of the oath ; he is also the 
 avenger of perjury, the keeper of boundaries 
 and of property, the defender of the laws of 
 hospitality and the rights of the suppliant. 
 But nevertheless to him who has offended 
 against the laws of human life, Zeus, as 
 the supreme god of atonement, offers the 
 power of expiating his guilt by rites of 
 purification. As he presides over the family 
 and community of the gods, so also he is 
 the chief patron of the family and of all 
 communal life. In the former relation he 
 was especially worshipped in all branches 
 of the family as protector of house and home 
 (Gr. herkeios), and defender of the domestic 
 hearth {ephestios): in the latter, as the 
 shield of the State, e.g. in Athens at the 
 DlipoUd {q.v.); as director of the popular 
 assembly and of the council ; as the god of 
 covenants ; as the source of kingship, whose 
 symbol, the sceptre, was traced back to 
 him. From him also proceed both national 
 and personal freedom ; hence a sanctuary 
 was dedicated at Athens by freedmen to 
 Zeus the Liberator {eleutherws) ; and after 
 the battle of Platsea a thanksgiving festival, 
 Eleutherld, was instituted by the allied 
 Greeks, which was still celebrated by the 
 Platseans in Roman times, and attended by 
 deputies from the other states. Zeus is to 
 the Greeks — as Jupiter {q.v.), who in his 
 principal characteristics exactly corresponds 
 to him, is to the Romans, — the essence of 
 all divine power. No deity received such 
 wide-spread worship; all the others were, 
 in the popular belief, subordinated to him 
 
ZEUXIS. 
 
 705 
 
 at a greater or less distance. The active 
 operations of most of the gods appear only 
 as an outcome of his being, particularly 
 those of his children, among whom the 
 
 G.Z.SC, 
 
 (1) BUST O^ ZEUS. 
 
 Found at OtHcoli (Rome, Vatican.) 
 
 nearest to him are Athene and Apollo, his 
 favourites, who often seem to be joined with 
 their father in the highest union. 
 
 The eagle and the oak were sacred to 
 Zeus ; the eagle, together with the sceptre 
 
 forth in the spectator the feeling that no 
 earthly dwelling would be adequate for 
 such a divinity. The bearded head was 
 ornamented with a wreath of olive leaves, 
 the victor's prize at Olympia. The upper 
 part of the body, made of ivory, was naked, 
 the lower part was wrapped in a golden 
 mantle falling from the hips to the feet, 
 which, adorned with golden sandals, rested 
 on a footstool. Beside this lay golden lions. 
 The right hand bore the goddess of victory, 
 the left the sceptre, surmounted by an eagle. 
 Like the base, and the whole space around, 
 the seat of the throne was decorated with 
 various works of art. It was supported by 
 figures of the goddess of victory ; and on 
 the back of the throne, which rose above 
 the head of the god, were represented the 
 hovering forms of the Hours and the Graces 
 [Pausanias, v 1 1 ; Strabo, p. 353]. This 
 statue was the model for most of the later 
 representatives of Zeus. Among those that 
 are extant the well-known bust of Zeus 
 (fig. 1) found at Otricoli (the ancient Ocri- 
 culum in Umbria) and now in the Vatican 
 Museum, is supposed (as well as some 
 others) to be an imitation of the great work 
 of Phidias. In the most direct relation 
 to the latter stand the figures of Zeus 
 on the coins of Elis (fig. 2). Among the 
 standing statues of Zeus the most famous 
 
 (2) THE OLYMPIAN ZEUS. 
 
 (Coins of Elis of the time of Hadrian, from the collections 
 in Paris and Florence respectively.) 
 
 and the lightning, is also one of his cus- 
 tomary attributes. The most famous statue 
 of Zeus in antiquity was that executed by 
 Phidias in gold and ivory for the temple 
 at Olympia. It represented the enthroned 
 Olympian god, with a divine expression of 
 the highest dignity, and at the same time 
 with the benevolent mildness of the deity 
 who graciously listens to prayer. The figure 
 of the seated god was about forty feet high ; 
 and since the base was as high as twelve 
 feet, the statue almost touched with its 
 crown the roof of the temple, so as to call 
 
 D. C. A. 
 
 was the bronze colossus, forty cubits (or 
 sixty feet) high, by Lysippus at Tarentum 
 [Pliny, N. H. xxxiv 40]. 
 
 Zeuxis. A celebrated Greek painter of 
 the Ionic school, a contemporary of Par- 
 rhasius ; he was a native of HerSclea in 
 South Italy, and lived till about 400 B.C. at 
 different places in Greece, at last, as it ap- 
 pears, settling in Ephesus. According to 
 the accounts of his works which have been 
 preserved, in contrast to the great mural 
 painter, P6lygn6tus, he specially devoted 
 himself to painting an panels. He endea- 
 
 z z 
 
706 
 
 ZONARAS ZOSIMUS. 
 
 voured above all things to make his sub- 
 jects attractive by investing them with 
 the charm of novelty and grace. He also 
 has the merit of having further improved 
 the distribution of light and shade, intro- 
 duced by his elder comtemporaries. Spe- 
 cially celebrated was his picture of Helen, 
 painted for the temple of HSra on the Laci- 
 nian promontory [Cicero, De Invent, ii 1 § 1]. 
 He aimed at the highest degree of illusion. 
 As is well known, he is said to have painted 
 grapes so naturally that the birds flew to 
 peck at them [Pliny, N. H. xxxv 61-66]. 
 \Cp. Paerhasius.) 
 
 Zonaras (loannes). A Greek historian, 
 who lived at Constantinople as chief of the 
 imperial bodyguard and first private secre- 
 tary to the emperor under Alexius I, Com- 
 nenus. He next became a monk, and com- 
 posed a history of the world down to 1118 
 A.D., divided into eighteen books. Its value 
 consists in its exact quotations from lost 
 works of earlier writers, especially from 
 
 those of Dio Cassius, referring to the 
 Empire. The history of his own time he 
 recorded as an eye-witness. 
 
 Zoslmus. A Greek historian who lived 
 as a high officer of State at Constantinople 
 in the second half of the 5th century a.d., 
 and composed a work, distinguished for its 
 intelligent and liberal views, on the fall of 
 the Roman Empire. It is in six books : i, 
 giving a sketch of the time from Augustus 
 to Diocletian ; ii-iv, a fuller account of 
 events down to the division of the Empire 
 by Theodosius the Great : v and vi treat 
 in greater detail of the period from 395-410; 
 the conclusion of book vi is probably want- 
 ing, as Zosimus had the intention of con- 
 tinuing the history up to his own time. He 
 attributes the fall of the Empire in part 
 to the overthrow of heathenism and the 
 introduction of Christianity, with which, of 
 course, he was not acquainted in its purest 
 form, but only in the degenerate state into 
 which it had sunk in the 4th century. 
 
 Butler t Tauner, The S«lirood Friutiog Works, Frome, and London.