CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Bequest Of Prof. -Jilcier iJ. Bancroft Tl 1077? til*" ""'''^'■^'•y Library Ainerican lubricants from the standpoint 3 1924 022 811 131 Cornell University Library The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92402281 1 1 31 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS Published by ^ The Chemical Publishing Co. | Easton, Penna. Publishers of Scientific Books Engineering Chemistry Portland Cement Agricultural Chemistry Qualitative Analysis Household Chemistry Chemists' Pocket Manual Metallurgy, Etc. AMERICAN LUBRICANTS From the Standpoint of the Consumer , BY L. B. LOCKHART Consulting and Analytical Chemist EASTON, PA. THE CHEMICAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 1918 tS LONDON, ENOLAND: TOKVO, JAPAN! WILLIAMS &, NORGATE, MARU2EN COMPANY, LTD., M HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. g. 11-18 NIHONBASHI TOHI-SANCHOME Copyright, 1918, by Edward Hart. PREFACE. The purpose of this book is to aid the user and the buyer of lubricants in a more inteUigent selection of oils and greases. The point of view throughout is that of the user rather than that of the refiner. An effort has been made to include such facts and figures in regard to lubricants as will best serve to bridge the gap between the refiner or manufacturer and the consumer. Of almost equal importance, a conscientious effort has been made also to exclude irrelevant matter so as not to obscure the main facts. In a book of this character it is of the utmost importance that the refiner, the seller, the buyer and the user of lubricating oils speak the same language. The language of the American oil trade, so far as viscosity is concerned, is that of the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter ; con- sequently all viscosities given in this book are with this viscos- imeter at ioo° F. unless otherwise specified, except that the vis- cosity of cylinder oils is taken at 210° F. lyikewise the Flash and Fire Tests are with the Cleveland (or similar) Open Cup. Unless otherwise stated, all temperatures are Fahrenheit, and the Baume gravity is based on the Bureau of Standards scale at 60° F. The specifications given are in all cases the latest obtainable. The author takes this occasion to acknowledge his indebtedness, directly and indirectly, to the published data on petroleum oils which has been drawn upon freely. He trusts that the book will prove of practical aid, especially to the buyer and the consumer of lubricants. L. B. LOCKHART. Atlanta, Ga., August i, 1917. CONTENTS. PAGE Chapter I — Crude Petroleum i-6 The Shift in Production— Characteristics of Crude Petroleum— Paraflfin-Base and Asphalt-Base Oils — Properties of Different American Crudes — Chemical Composition — Origin of Petroleum — Field Production, Storage and Transportation. Chapter II — ^The Refining of Petroleum 7-12 General Considerations — Steam . Distillation — Group Separation — Gasoline — Kerosene — Lubricating Oil Dis- tillates — Cylinder Stock — Fire or Destructive Distilla- tion — ^Yields from Different Crudes — ^Western Lubri- cating Oils. Chapter III — ^The Refined Products 13-20 A. Light Distilled Oils: Gasoline or Naphtha — Kero- sene — Mineral Sperm Oil — Gas Oil. B. Distilled Lubricating Oils: Paraffin Oils — Neutral Oils — Spindle Oils — Loom Oils — Engine Oils — Motor Oils — Turbine Oils — ^Air Compressor Oils — Paraffin Wax. C. Undistilled Oils: Cylinder Stocks — Cylinder Oils — Petrolatum or Vaseline — Car Oils — Fuel Oils. D. Mixed Oils: Blended Oils — Compounded Oils. E. Miscellaneous Oils: Rosin Oils — Coal Tar Oils — Thickened Oils— Shale Oil. . F. Special Properties of Mineral Oils: Stability — Coefficient of Expansion— Specific Heat — Heat of Combustion. Chapter IV — Friction and Lubrication 21-34 Unnecessary Stresses— Two Kinds of Friction — Solid Friction— Solid and Fluid Friction— Fluid Friction— Viscosity— Viscosity and Friction— Viscosity and Tem- perature—Oil Lubrication— Oil Testing Machines— Cir- culating Oil Systems— Bearings— Grease Lubrication— ' Graphite as a Lubricant — Mica as a Lubricant. CONTENTS V PAGE Chapter V — Lubrication of Internal Combustion Engines 35-41 Lubricating Conditions^Stationary Gasoline Engines — Gas Engines — Railroad Section Cars — Motor Boats — Motorcycle Engines — Gasoline Tractors — Kerosene En- gines — Kerosene Tractors — Aeroplane Engines^Diesel Engines. Chapter VI — Automobile Lubrication 42-53 A. Motor Lubrication: Mechanical Considerations — Temperature Conditions — ^What Happens to the Oil — Effect of Carbon Deposits — Removal of Carbon Deposits — Motor Oil Tests — Cylinder Oil Specifications — Analyses of Some Motor Oils — Motor Oil Chart — Oil Consumption. B. General Chassis Lubrication: Transmission Lubri- cation — Differential Lubrication— Worm Drives — Roller Bearings — Use of Cup Greases — Electric Road Vehicles. Chapter VII — The Lubrication of Electrical Machinery. . 54-57 Dynamos and Motors — Transformer Oil — Electric Ele- vators — Rotary Converters — Vertical Electric Genera- tors — Electric Railways. Chapter VIII — The Lubrication of Steam Cylinders and Steam Engines .^ 58-69 Saturated Steam Conditions — Superheated Steam Con- ditions — Method of Applying Cylinder Oils — Cylinder Stocks — Cylinder Oils — Analyses of Some Cylinder Oils — Cylinder Greases — Poor Lubrication — Cylinder Deposits — General Engine Lubrication — Marine En- gines—Steam Turbines. Chapter IX — The Lubrication of Steam Railways 70-82 Locomotive Cylinders and Valves — Saturated Steam Cylinders — Cylinder Deposits — Superheated Steam Cyl- inders — Conradson's Apparatus for Studying Cylinder Oils — Some Results with Conradson's Apparatus — Locomotive Journals — Crank Pins — General Engine Lubrication — Car Journals — Car Oils — ^Analyses of Car Oils— Shop Oil— Oil Supplies. VI CONTENTS PAGE Chapter X— The Lubrication of Cotton Mills and Other Textile Mills. 83-91 Lubrication and Power Losses— Spindle Lubrication— The Lubrication of Special Spindles— Analyses of Some Spindle Oils— Stainless Oils— Sewing Machine Oils- Loom Oils— Analyses of Loom Oils— General Mill Lubrication— Shafting Lubrication — Cylinder Oils — Tur- bine Lubrication— Dynamo Oil— Lubricating Greases- Lubrication of Knitting Mills. Chapter XI— The Ltibrication of Miscellaneous Plants and Machines 92-99 A. Flour Milling Machinery. B. Cotton Oil Mills. C. Rolling Mills: Hot Neck Rolls— Cold Neck Grease —Roll Gears— Cylinder Oils— Yard Cars and Locomotives — General Lubrication. D. Miscellaneous: Air Compressors — Compressed Air Machinery — Mine and Quarry Machinery — Ice Machinery — Printing Presses — Cutting Tools. Chapter XII — Physical Methods of Testing Lubricating Oils 100-107 The Determination of Viscosity and Its Significance — Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter — Engler Viscosimeter — Engler Viscosity with Small Amounts of Oil — Pennsyl- vania Railroad Pipette — ^Temperatures at which Vis- cosity is Measured — Fictitious Viscosity — ^Absolute Vis- cosities — Standardization of Viscosimeters — Mechanical Tests. Chapter XIII — Physical Methods of Testing Lubricating Oils (Continued) 108-121 A. Gravity Test: Its Value and Meaning — Baume Gravity — Specific Gravity — Method of Reading Hydrometers. B. Flash Test: Its Determination and Value — Open Testers and Closed Testers — Cleveland Open Cup Tester — Pennsylvania Railroad Tester — Bureau of Mines Closed Tester — Thermometer Correc- tions. C. Fire Test. D. Vaporization Test. E. Cold Test. Cloud Test. F. Color and Appearance. G. Bmulsification Test. CONTENTS Vll PAGE Chapter XIV— Chemical Methods of Testing Lubricating Oils 122-128 A. Free Acid: Amount of Sulphuric Acid Permitted^ Maximum Amount of Oleic Acid— Acid Number — Action on Metals. B. Ash. C. Soaps: Detection and Determination. D. Heat Test, or Carbonization Test. E. Gasoline Test. F. Carbon Residue Test. G. Distillation Test. H. Saponifiable Fats. I. Maumene Number. J. Iodine Number. K. Sitlphur. Chapter XV-^Lubricating Greases 129-135 Types of Greases — Cup Greases — Soda Greases — Fiber or Sponge Greases — Non-Fluid and Soap-Thickened Oils — Axle Grease — Petroleum Grease — Analyses of Some Greases — Gillette's Work on Lubricating Greases. Chapter XVI — Methods for Testing and Analysis of Greases 136-141 Preliminary Examination — Physical Tests ■ — Melting Point — Flash Point — Consistency — Water — Chemical Tests — Nature and Amount of Oils — Determination of Soaps — Free Acid — Ash — Filler. Chapter XVII — ^Animal and Vegetable Oils 142-151 Chemistry of Fatty Oils — Fats and Oils — Saponifica- tion — Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Oils — Hydro- genation — ^Vegetable Oils — Castor Oil — Corn Oil — Cottonseed Oil— Linseed Oil— Olive Oil— Palm Oil- Peanut Oil — Rapeseed Oil — Rosin Oils — Blown Oils — Degras Oils — Animal Oils — Bone Fat and Bone Oil — Horse Oil — Lard — Lard Oil — Menhadin Oil — Neatsfoot Oil — Porpoise Oil — Seal Oil — Sperm Oil — Tallows — Tallow Oil— Whale Oil. vni CONTENTS PAGE Chapter XVIII— Methods of Testing Fatty Oils 152-158 A. Physical Methods: Specific Gravity — Solidification Point of Oils and Fatty Acids — Refractive Index — Flash Point — Viscosity. B. Chemical Methods: Saponification Number — Iodine Number — Maumene Number — Free Fatty Acids — Reichert-Meissl Number — Color Tests — Lieber- mann-Storch Reaction — Halphen Test — Bechi or Silver Nitrate Test. Chapter XIX — Specifications for Fatty Oils 159- 171 Castor Oil— Cottonseed Oil— Fish > Oil— Lard Oils- Raw Linseed Oils — Boiled Linseed Oils — Neatsfoot Oil— Sperm Oils— Tallows— Whale Oil. Chapter XX — Specifications for Cylinder Oils 172-176 Light Cylinder Oil — Dark Cylinder Oil — Oil for Ammo- nia Cylinders — Oil for Westinghouse Engines — Cylin- der Oil No. 3— Cylinder Stock— Cylinder Oil. Chapter XXI — Specifications Tor Special Engine and Machine Oils and Car Oils 177-181 War Department Specifications — Non-Carbonizing Gas Engine Cylinder Oil — Cylinder Oil for Kerosene En- gines—High Speed Engine Oil for Dynamos— Light Machine Oil for Shafting — Heavy Machine Oil — Marine Engine Oil — Pennsylvania Railroad Specifications — Par- affin and Neutral Oils^Well Oil— 530° Flash Test Oil. Chapter XXII — Specifications for Cutting Oils 182-184 Navy Department Specifications— Paste Cutting Com- pound—Soluble Cutting Oils— Mineral Lard Oil— Rail- road Cutting Oils— Lard Oils— Screw Cutting Oils. Chapter XXIII — Specifications for Greases, Graphite, Boiler Compound and Cotton Waste 185-189 Navy Department Specifications— Mineral Lubricating Grease— Graphite Lubricating Grease— Flake Lubri- cating Graphite— Ground Amorphous Graphite— Boiler Compound — Cotton Waste. CONTENTS ' IX PAGE Chapter XXIV — Specifications for Burning Oils 190-196 Government Specifications — Mineral Sperm Oils — Kero- sene — Railroad Specifications — 150° Fire Test Oils — 300° Fire Test Oils — Long Time Burning Oil — 300° Burning Oil— Headlight Oil— Mineral Seal Oil. Chapter XXV — Specifications for gasoline and fuel Oil 197-205 Gasoline for Navy Department — 88° Gasoline — Deo- dorized Gasoline for Gas Engine Use — Deodorized Naphtha or Benzine — Gasoline — Fuel Oils. Chapter XXVI — Gasolines. . .' 206-211 Gasolines of To-day — Straight Refinery Gasoline — Cracked or Synthetic Gasoline — Casing-head Gasoline — Analyses of Some Gasolines — Value of Distillation Test — Bureau of Mines' Analyses of Gasolines — Pro- posed Specifications for Motor Gasoline — Gasoline for Special Uses — Fuel Oils. Chapter XXVII — Kerosen,e 212-216 Distillation Limits of Kerosene — Flash Test — ^Analyses of Kerosenes — Photometric Tests — Suggestions for Specifications — Kerosene for Use in Kerosene Engines. Chapter XXVIII— Tables 217-225 1. Viscosity Tables, Showing Relation of Saybolt Time to Engler Number. , 2. Tables for Converting Baume Gravity to Specific Gravity, etc. 3. Table Showing Baunie Gravity Corrections for Tem- peratures above 60° F. 4. Table of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Degrees. 5. Wholesale Prices of Oils and. Heavy Chemicals. 6. Petroleum Statistics. Index . 227 nST or ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Central Oiling and Filtering System 28 Curves Showing the Relation between New and Filtered Oil 31 Oil Filter 32, Operating Temperatures of Automobile Motor Parts 44 Sectional View of Detroit Lubricator , 61 Side View and End View of Car Journal Showing Packing in Place. . 79 A Modern Ring Spindle ;■ 84 Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter 102 Viscosimeters in General Use 104 Correct Method of Reading Hydrometer 109 Simple Flash-Point Apparatus '. 112 Modified Pensky-Martens Flash Tester 113 Emulsifier in Use at the Bureau of Standards ri8 CHAPTER I. CRUDE PETROLEUM. The Shift in Production. — .The American Petroleum Industry- began with the sinking of the first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859, two years after oil had been struck in Roumania. The pro- duction in the United States was confined to Pennsylvania and New York until 1876. In 1891 the Pennsylvania fields reached their maximum production of 33,009,236 barrels which was 61 per cent, of the country's production for that year. The Appa- lachian field as a whole reached its maximum production of 36,295,433 barrels in 1900 which was 57 per cent, of the output for that year. In 1915 the Appalachian field produced only 22,860,048 bar- rels of petroleum, or 8 per cent, of the total for that year, and of this amount only 8,726,483 barrels were actually produced in Pennsylvania and New York. The estimated production for Oklahoma in 1916 was 105,000,000 barrels which is greater than the production for the whole United States for any year prior to 1907. In 191 5 Oklahoma and California together produced 65 per cent, of the country's petroleum, the total for that year being 281,104,104 barrels. The above figures refer to the marketed production. The estimated actual production for 1916 was 292,300,000 barrels for the United States, of which nearly 20 per cent, was used for fuel oil. In February, 1916, the United States Geological Survey, after an exhaustive study of the known fields in the United States, estimated that the fields are 32 per cent, exhausted. The Appa- lachian field is 70 per cent, exhausted. Additional statistics are given at the end of this volume (pages 223-225.) Characteristics of Crude Petroleum. — Petroleum or crude min- eral oil is a dark brown liquid made up of a mixture of com- pounds, some of which would be gases and solids if separated from the mixture. Small amounts of sulphur, oxygen and nitro- gen are usually present. There are two well known types of crude petroleum: (i) 2 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS Paraffin-base oil which contains much light oil or gasoline and considerable paraffin wax, like the Pennsylvania oils, and (2) asphalt-base oils which contain very little light oil, or paraffin wax, but contain much heavy, low cold test oil, like the Texas oils. A third type is also recognized, called mixed-base oil, which is intermediate between the other two types. Paraffin-base oils con- sist largely of compounds containing relatively more hydrogen than is present in the asphalt-base or naphthene oils. Crude oils are valued largely on the basis of their distillation products. Oils which yield much gasoline and kerosene on simple distillation, and whifh are rich in paraffin, bring the highest prices , at the wells, though the amount and nature of the sulphur im- purities are of much importance. Crude oils from the different fields of the United States have the following characteristics : Oils from the Appalachian field (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Kentucky, and eastern Ohio) are rriainly paraffin base, free from asphalt and objectionable sulphur, and they yield by ordinary distillation high percentages of gasoline and burning oils. The gravity ranges from 34° to 48° Be. Oils from the Lima-Indiana field (Indiana and northwestern Ohio)^ consist chiefly of paraffin hydrocarbons, though containing some asphalt, and are contaminated with sulphur compounds which require special treatment for their removal — usually with copper oxide and lead oxide. Some lubricating oil distillates are produced in this field. The Canadian oils belong to this group. Illinois oils are of mixed asphalt and paraffin base and differ much in specific gravity and distillation products. The sulphur which is generally present can be removed without special treat- ment. Mid-Continent oils (from Kansas, Oklahoma, northern and central Texas and northern Louisiana) vary in composition with- in wide limits, ranging from asphaltic oils poor in gasoline and kerosene, to paraffin oils of low asphalt content which yield much gasoline and kerosene. Sulphur is present in varying quantities in the low grade oils which in certain instances may necessitate special treatment. CRUDE PETROLEUM 3 Oils from the Gulf field (the Coastal Plain of Texas and L,ouis- iana) are high in asphalt and low in gasoline. Much of the sul- phur is present as sulphureted hydrogen which can be removed by steaming. Oils from Wyoming and Colorado are mainly paraffin base, though there are some heavy asphaltic oils in Wyoming. California oils are chiefly asphaltic with practically no paraffin and with more or less sulphur. The chief products are fuel oils, kerosenes, lubricants and oil asphalt, with a little gasoline from the lighter southern oils. The gravity ranges from 12^ to 30° Be. (See "Petroleum in 1915;" p. 573, U. S. Geol. Survey.) Mexican oil, like the oils from' the Gulf field, are of low grav- ity, 14° to 19" Be., and they are high in sulphur compounds. The oil is largely used as fuel oil. The oils may be arranged roughly in the order of their grav- ities, beginning with the lightest oil (highest Baume gravity) : Pennsylvania,. Illinois, Caddo (Louisiana), Kansas and Oklahoma, and some oil from California. Very heavy oils come from the Gulf field (southern Texas and Louisiana), from Mexico and from most California fields. Chemical Composition. — Petroleum or crude mineral oil is made up chiefly of a mixture of compounds known as hydrocarbons, having a composition of from 12 to 14 per cent, of hydrogen and 84 to 86 per cent, of carbon. These numerous hydrocarbons vary markedly in boiling point, from the light hydrocarbons like me- thane (CH4) and ethane (CgHg), found in natural gas, to heavy solid bodies like paraffin, or asphalt and viscous oils which can- not be distilled without decomposition. The hydrocarbons in petroleum belong to several different chemical series, depending on the amount of hydrogen present with the carbon or on the way the carbon is combined with itself. Pennsylvania petroleum is inade up largely, but not entirely, of "paraffin" hydrocarbons which have the general formula CiH^n + ^. The paraffin-base oils are more likely to yield important percentages of gasoline and kerosene on simple dis- tillation, than the asphalt-base oils, as these light oils belong chemically to- the "paraffins." 4 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS The hydrocarbons in the asphalt-base oils consist largely of unsaturated hydrocarbons or of hydrocarbons of the naphthene series (polymethylenes). These hydrocarbons have the general formulas C„H,„ and CbH^k — z. Sometimes still less hydro- gen is present as in some California oils which consist partly of .aromatic compounds similar to those from coal tar with the gen- eral formula C„Hj„ _ 6. Besides having less hydrogen than is present in the "paraffins," the naphthenes (polymethylenes) are cyclic compounds while the paraffins are "chain" compounds. In these cyclic compounds, the carbon is united to form at least one ring, usually of the polymethylene type, such as, CHj.CHj.CHj.CHj.CH, while in the chain compounds, the carbon is united in an open chain, such as, CHj . CH2 . CHj . CH2 . CH3. The above discussion does not cover the field by any means, as the subject is very complex, several series being present in most oils in varying proportions. Heavy oils, like the Texas oils, usually contain a large proportion of naphthenes. The fact that oils are different in composition from the Pennsylvania oils does not condemn them for any use, but necessitates finding out ex- actly what they are suitable for without forcing them to meet certain artificial requirements which were devised for use with other oils. Heavy Pennsylvania lubricating oils consist largely of naph- thenes or hydrocarbons of the C„H.,„ and the CmH^^ _ ^ series and not of paraffins as generally supposed. In other heavy oils the series CkH^b _ 4 may also be present. The true unsaturated hydrocarbons of the define series are not present to any important extent in crude p'etroleum, but are present in ordinary cracked distillates.. Aromatic hydrocarbons are present in limited amounts in most petroleums, and in considerable amounts in Cal- ifornia petroleums. Prof. Mabery, who has done valuable work on the composition . of American petroleums, has shown that the paraffin hydrocar- CRUDE PETROLEUM 5 bons have a low lubricating value. He has also shown that the vis- cosity of hydrocarbons increases very rapidly with increase in molecular weight, so if high viscosity products are to be made, distillation must be conducted with as little decomposition as possible (/. Am. Chem. Soc, pp. 992-1001, 1908). The separation of the individual compounds from petroleum is practically impossible on account of the boiling points of the com- pounds being modified by presence of the other hydrocarbons in the mixture. Separation into groups of compounds with certain boiling limits is carried out on a large scale for the production of such commercial products as gasoline, kerosene and the various lubricating oils. Hydrocarbons resist chemical action to a considerable degree, and so petroleum oils show little tendency to attack metals. Ani- mal and vegetable oils show considerable tendency to form acid. Origin of Petroleum. — Since different petroleums have very different compositions, there is naturally a great variety of theories to account for the origin of crude petroleum. Of the in- organic theories, which depend largely on the action of water on heated metallic carbides somewhat as acetylene is produced com- mercially, Clarke says (Data of Geo-Chemistry, p. 641, 1908) that "There is no evidence to show that any important oil field derived its hydrocarbons from inorganic sources." The theories which accord with most of the facts are the theories of organic origin from the decomposition of animal and vegetable remains. Doubtless all types of organic matter have contributed their quota in varying amounts. Some oils, as in certain Texas fields, show evidence of marine animal origin. The considerable percentages of nitrogen compounds present in some oils strongly indicate animal origin. The original differences in petroleums have been further modi- fied by the migration of the oil, or its filtration through different strata which changes the composition of the oil. Field Production, Storage and Transportation. — Oil is reached by bored wells varying in depth in different fields from 100 to over 4,000 ft. If the gas pressure is sufficient, a flowing well or b AMERICAN LUBRICANTS "gusher" may result, particularly when the well is first brought in. The maximum flow is usually immediately after oil is struck, some wells coming in with a flow of thousands of barrels per day, as the famous Beaumont well with 70,000 per day. The oil is run into large metal or concrete storage tanks in the field, and is sent to the refineries by means of tank cars or pipe lines. Pipe lines run from the Oklahoma fields to the Atlantic Seaboard by way of Chicago. The Oklahoma fields are also tapped by pipe lines from the Gulf. CHAPTER II. THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM. For the manufacture of lubricating oils and other valuable commercial products, crude petroleum is refined by distillation and by filtration or chemical treatment. Distillation separates the hydrocarbons into groups of different boiling points which find .various commercial uses. When petroleum is heated, it becomes more fluid by melting certain substances present in the petroleum, or by decreasing the cohesion between the liquid particles. If the temperature is sufficiently high, some of the crude petroleum will evaporate and can be condensed so as to yield gasoline, kerosene, and various distillates. During the process of heating, some of the hydrocar- bons may be decomposed or "cracked" by the heating, yielding products of lower boiling point than those present in the original petroleum. Such decomposition is especially likely to occur if there is ovdr-heating or prolonged heating, or if certain sulphur compounds are present. Distillation of even the lightest of the petroleum products cannot be effected without evidence of some decomposition. The heaviest part of the petroleum cannot be distilled without decomposition with the formation of free carbon or "coke." In distilling lubricating oils, the best lubricants are obtained by processes which prevent prolonged heating or overheating of the oil, and which therefore cause the least amount of decomposition or "cracking" of the compounds originally present in the crude oil. There are two processes in general use for the distillation of petroleum : Fire distillation and steam distillation. Steam distil- lation will be described first and in some detail as the best lubri- cants are made by it and as certain lubricants, such as steam- cylinder oils, can be made in no other way. Steam Distillation. — The crude petroleum is put into large hori- zontal, cylindrical stills of 250 to 1,200 barrels capacity, made of sheet steel supported on brick-work. Heat is applied by means 8 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS of direct fire under the still, and as soon as the heating has begun steam is introduced by means of perforated pipes reaching nearly to the bottom of the oil in the still. The steam stirs the oil and so prevents local over-heating, and at the same time the escaping steam carries off the oil vapors as soon as formed so that they do not condense and drop back into the hot oil. The oil vapors go out through large pipes in the dome of the still and are con- densed in a vertical tower condenser. In this condenser the heavy oils condense first near the bottom and the light oils con- dense last near the top. Thus with this type of condenser the oil may be separated into groups during the first distillation. With other types of condensers the distillates may have to be redistilled for this separation into groups. The groups so collected are, in the order of their boiling points, (i) crude naphthas, (2) illuminating oils, (3) gas oil, (4) light lubricating distillate, (5) heavy lubricating distillate, and (6) undistilled residue. The distillation is usually stopped just above 600° F. The residue in the still is suitable for cylinder stock if Pennsylvania or other paraffin-base stock has been used. The various distillates are distilled to rid them of light and heavy ends and to render the removal of the paraffin from the lubricat- ing distillates less difficult. The use of steam causes the distillation to proceed at a tem- perature of at least 100° F. below what would b& required with- out the use of steam. Since "cracking" is largely prevented, the yield of gasoline and kerosene is greatly reduced by the use of steam. Steam distillation is applied to paraffin-base oils mainly, but may be used with other oils as well. Paraffin-base petroleums may also be fire distilled instead of steam distilled in order to increase the yield of gasoline and kerosene. The use of steam not only gives better grades of lubricants, but it increases the yield of lubricating oils as well, particularly of cylinder stock. A partial vacuum may be used along with the steam to aid further in the distillation for special products, as for the' production of vaseline or special filtered cylinder stocks. Vacuum stills and continuous stills have not had a wide use in this country. THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM 9 Instead of the "tower" condenser for separating into groups during the first distillation, the "cut" is often made for the differ- ent groups on the basis of the gravity of the distillate. The groups obtained by steam distillation may be treated as follows : Gasoline. — The crude naphthas are treated in turn with strong (66°) sulphuric acid, washed ^yith water, then with caustic soda solution, and finally with water again. They are then distilled with steam to make the light and heavy gasolines or naphthas of commerce. The heavy ends are added to the crude kerosene distillate. Kerosene. — The crude kerosene is steam distilled, the first part of the distillate being added to the crude naphtha distillate and the last part or "tailings" being added to the gas oil distillate. The main distillate is chemically treated (see gasoline) and is then filtered through fuller's earth to make the commercial grades of kerosene. Only "water white" kerosene is made by steam dis- tillation, but the first part of the kerosene distillate from fire distillation of petroleum is also "water white" oil. Some of the oils heavier than kerosene may be collected sep- arately and made into special burning oils, such as mineral seal oil for railroad use. Lubricating Oil Distillates. — These are distilled a second time from fire stills by the aid of steam, the undistillable residue going into fuel oil. The oils are chilled and filter-pressed to remove paraffin wax. They may be partly distilled again, or "reduced" to remove the light oils and so raise the viscosity and the fire test. The light oils distilled off in this reducing process may be run into the gas oil distillate or made into thin lubricating oils called non-viscous neutrals. The reduced lubricating oils are filtered through fuller's earth or bone-black to improve the color and remove impurities and are then ready for use as "viscous neutrals." Cylinder Stock. — The residue in the still, if a paraffin-base crude has been used, is a steam refined cylinder stock. If the tempera- ture has been carried well above 600° F. during the distillation lO AMERICAN LUBRICANTS most of the paraffin has been distilled off. To make a filtered cylinder stock, the residue is "cut back" with crude naphtha, chilled and filter-pressed or otherwise filtered, and the gasoline finally recovered. The product is a filtered, low cold-test cylinder stock. Fire or Destructive Distillation. — The more usual method of distillation has been to distil without the aid of steam, as this gives not only the gasoline and kerosene actually present in the crude oil, but additional light distillates formed by "cracking" much of the heavy hydrocarbons. The cracking is accomplished by partly drawing the fire after the regular gasoline and "water white" kerosene distillates are off, so that the oil vapors are not removed from the still as soon as formed but condense on the upper part of the still and run back into the hot oil. The prolonged and excessive heating to which the oil is thus subjected breaks down the heavy hydrocar- bons into lighter hydrocarbons which distil at a lower temperature, greatly increasing the yield of illuminating oil and somewhat in- creasing the gasoline output. The kerosene thus made has some color and a low flash point, and much of it goes into the export trade as low test oil or is used as "standard white" oil. Con- siderable unsaturated hydrocarbons, or defines, are present from the cracking. These light distillates are chemically treated and redistilled with steam as stated above for steam distilled oils. After the burning oils are all off, the "tar" residue, amounting to 10 or 15 per cent, of the original crude, is run into "tar-stills" of some 250 barrels capacity and is destructively distilled by fire until only dry coke remains in the still. The distillate is pressed to remove paraffin wax and the liquid, portion is used as paraffin oils after chemical treatment and final steam fractionation. The residue from the distillation is coke instead of cylinder stock. Yields. — While the amount of the different products varies considerably with the crude used and with the details of the re- fining process, some idea can be gained from the following table THE REFINING OF PETROLEUM II as to the relative proportion of commercial products in different cases : Kind of crude . . . Method of distillation Penn. Steam and fire Penn. Fire Okla. Fire Gasoline and naphthas. Kerosenes Gas oil and fuel oil Paraffin wax Lubricating oils (dist.) Cylinder stock Coke . - . Per cent. 15-20 30-45 15-20 2 10-15 15 o 20-25 . 60-75 1-2 5 o 4 Per cent. 25 25-30 25 I 10 o 4 Western Lubricating Oils. — The so-called western oils are made from crudes which contain little paraffin. The procedure is similar to the refining of Pennsylvania oils, except as the pro- cedure may be modified by the character of the merchantable products possible. Most of the California crudes, and much of the Oklahoma and Texas crudes are "topped" for the removal of gasoline and illuminating oils, and the undistilled residue is sold directly as fuel oil without further refining. Very little lubri- cating oil is produced west of the Mississippi River. Oklahoma crude, and some heavy crudes from Texas and Cal- ifornia, are now worked up for the manufacture of certain lu- bricants, such as cylinder oil, red engine oil and lighter lubricating distillates. The distillates have higher gravities, lower flash points, higher viscosities at low temperatures (70° or 100° F.), and lower cold tests, than do Pennsylvania products of the same class. The residue from asphalt-base oil is asphalt instead of cylinder stock, but mixed base oil may yield some cylinder stock by proper treatment. On account of the high Baume gravity of Oklahoma crude and the large percentage of gasoline and kerosene, the value of some Oklahoma oils ranks close to Pennsylvania crudes. REFERENCES ON AMERICAN PETROLEUM. I. C. Allen and W. A. Jacobs: "Petroleums of the San Juaquin Valley of California," Bur. of Mines Bull. No. 19, 191 1. 12 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS I. C. Allen et al. : "Petroleums of California," Tech. Paper 74, Bureau of Mines, 1914. Archbutt and Deeley: Lubrication -and Lubricants, 1912. Bacon and Hamor: American Petroleum Industry, 2 Vol., 1915. Clarke: "Data of Geo-Chemistry," U. S. Geol. Survey Bulletins No. 330 and 616. D. T. Day, Gilpin and Cram : "The Fractionation of Crude Petroleum by Capillary Diffusion," Bull. 365, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1908. Gilpin and Bransky : "The Diffusion of Crude Petroleum through Fuller's Earth," Bull. 475, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1911. Johnson and Huntlej': Oil and Gas Production, 1916. Mabery: Am. Chem. Jour., 33, p. 251, 1905; /. Am,. Chem,. Sac, 28, p. 415, 1906, and 30, pp. 992-1001, 1908, and other papers on the composi- tion of American petroleum. Peckham, S. F. : "Report on the Production, Technology and Uses of Petroleum and Its Products," U. S. Census Reports, 1880 and 1885. Redwood : Petrdleum and Its Products, 2 Vol., 2nd Ed., 1906. "Reports on Petroleum Production," U. S. Geol. Survey. Robinson, F. C. : "On Petroleum Refining," Met. and Chem. Eng., pp. 389-394, 1913. Sadtler : Industrial Organic Chemistry, 4th Ed., igi2. Thorpe : Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, Vol. IV, 1912. CHAPTER III. THE REFINED PRODUCTS. A. LIGHT DISTILLED OILS. Gasoline or Naphtha. — The light naphtha of 88° Be. is known as petroleum ether. It distils at a lower temperature than does gasoline. ^ Gasoline, motor fuel, or heavy naphtha has a gravity between 56° Be. and 70° Be. It is obtained by the simple distillation of petroleum, or by "cracking" petroleum oils by some of the recent processes for producing "synthetic" gasoline. It is also produced by blending certain gases from natural gas with heavy gasoline to make the so-called casing-head gasoline. Commercial gaso- line may contain products ranging from 40° to 90° Be. While a large amount of very volatile constituents facilitates explosion in the motor, the extremely volatile products increase the hazard in using and in shipping, and so the Bureau of Explosives speci- fies maximum pressure limits for gasoline shipped by common carriers. Kerosene. — The gravity of kerosene ranges from 40° to 48° Be., the distillation range being from 150° to 300° C. (302° to 572° F.). For Pennsylvania water white oil the gravity is usu- ally above 46° Be. and a slightly higher boiling point limit can be used, but with the removal of more of the lighter oils for in- corporation into gasoline, some of the heavier oils above 275° C. must also be left out in order to give a product of good candle- power. Several grades of kerosene are generally recognized: Water white oil made by straight distillation of the crude, and prime white oil made by cracking the crude during distillation. The former cbmmands the higher price and is considered the more satisfactory product. Much of the latter goes into the export trade as low flash oil. The flash point of kerosene is adjusted largely to meet State requirements. Water white kerosene is usually 150° fire test. 14 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS Mineral Sperm Oil or Mineral Seal Oil. — These heavy illumi- nating oils, of 300° F. fire test, distil off after the kerosene. They are used for railroad and similar illumination where steady burn- ing and only small illuminating power are necessary. The grav- ity ranges from 34° Be. to 42° Be. Gas Oil. — The oils distilled between the illuminating oils and the light lubricating oils are used for carbureting water gas and other gas to improve the illuminating power. This gas oil is a cheap product. In re-distilling the lubricating oil distillates, the light ends are run into the gas oil. This product is sometimes used for fuel oil. B. DISTILLED LUBRICATING OILS. Paraffin Oils. — These oils are manufactured by fire distillation (without steam) and are decolorized or bleached by treatment with sulphuric acid. The final colors are yellow or red. Some of the better grade products arg filtered instead of acid treated. The gravity seldom -goes above 30° Be. even for the thinnest oils, and the viscosity is low as compared to the gravity as the method of distillation tends to break down the more viscous portion of the oil. The viscosity ranges from that of heavy kerosene to 300 Saybolt at 100° F. The light oils can be used for spindle oils in the place of the usual non-viscous neutrals. The heavy oils are used for engine oils, loom oils, motor oils, etc. These oils are not so expensive as are neutral oils: The high viscosity paraffin oils are made by "reducing," that is, by distilling off the lighter oils by means of steam and fire. Neutral Oils. — These oils are manufactured by steam distilla- tion, and are of high viscosity in proportion to their gravity. After the wax has been removed from the mixed lubricating oil distillate, the oil is "reduced" by steam distillation to remove the lighter oils. These light oils constitute the "non-viscous" neu- trals, while the residue from this final distillation constitutes the "viscous" neutrals. The non-viscous neutrals visually have a gravity well above 30° Be. and a low viscosity, suitable for light spindles. These oils are considered the best spindle oils as they do not stain like THB REFINED PRODUCTS 15 paraffin oils if properly filtered. These oils are not usually acid treated. The viscosity is 45 to 65 at 100® F. The viscous neutrals are usually slightly above 30° Be. and have viscosities ranging from 80 to 200 at 100° F. These oils are suitable for motor oils, turbine oils, gas engine oils, air com- pressor oils, and for the highest grade service. The color is re- duced by repeated filtration through fuller's earth instead of by acid treatment. In order to make the heavier oils, the viscous neutrals are blended with small amounts of high-flash, filtered steam-cylinder stock. Blended oils of high viscosity may have gravities as low as 27° Be., even when from Pennsylvania stock. Viscous neutrals are also made from other stocks than Pennsyl- vania stocks, in which case the gravities will be much lower and the viscosities much higher than can be obtained from Pennsyl- vania distillates alone. Spindle Oils, — These are low-viscosity oils, of 45 to 100 Saybolt at 100° F. They may be light paraffin oils, but are usually and preferably the non-viscous neutrals. Loom Oils.- — ^Neutral oils are used, but the use of paraffin oils, similar to light engine oils, is common practice. The oils have been acid treated in most instances. Engine Oils. — Commercial engine oils are usually the heavier parafEn oils. The heavier oils are nearly always red, but the amount of color depends on the amount of acid treatment or of filtration. The color is not an index to the lubricating quality. The heavier engine oils may be built up by the addition of cyl- inder stocks to heavy distillates. Viscous neutrals were formerly much sold as engine oils, but high-gravity neutrals now go largely into the motor oil trade. Low-gravity western neutrals are still sold as engine oils. For circulating oil systems, neutral oils are more satisfactory than paraffin oils as they separate from water better. Motor Oils. — For lubricating gasoline engines of all kinds, the viscous neutrals are considered most suitable. While Pennsyl- vania products are generally given preference, oils can be made by the same process from other crudes with equal success. For l6 AMBRICAN LUBRICANTS western oils, the gravity is lower and the viscosity may be higher. The heavy motor oils are made by the addition of special steam- cylinder stocks to viscous neutral oils. Paraffin oils make less desirable motor oils. Turbine Oils. — These are similar to the lighter motor oils. The neutral oils separate from water better than do the paraffin oils and so are more desirable in actual service. Air Compressor Oils. — These are similar to the lighter motor oils. Paraffin. — Solid paraffin, though not used as a lubricant, comes over with the lubricating oil .distillates and has to be removed by chilling the oil and filter pressing. Ordinarily the oil distillates have to be vaporized twice in order to get the paraffin, in cdn- dition to filter from the oil. The crude "scale wax" is further treated to make the paraffin of commerce, the treatment consist- ing of "sweating'' to remove oil and filtering to remove tar and asphalt. C. UNDISTILLED OILS. Cylinder Stocks (Steam Refined). — By steam distillation of Pennsylvania oils and other paraffin-base oils, a heavy undis- tilled oily residue is left in the still. This can be used as a cyl- inder stock after removing some of the solid impurities. Steam refined stocks of high fire test (over 6oo° F.) are not filtered as filtration is difficult ahd the high temperature has removed most of the paraffin. The flash test ranges from about 550° to 600° F. and the fire test from 600° to 7CX3° F. L,ow fire test stocks are more likely to contain paraffin and high test stocks to contain tarry matter. Cylinder stocks should be free from tar, so the color should be green or brown and not black. The viscosity of Pennsylvania stocks runs from 140 to 280 at 210° F. for the steam refined stocks. The highest viscosity Pennsylvania stocks do not run below 24° Be. in gravity. Cylinder Stocks (Filtered). — Steam refined stocks can be cut back with crude gasoline and filtered through fuller's earth or boneblack to remove carbon and coloring matter. The highest THE KEFINED PRODUCTS 17 fire test stocks are never filtered, the fire test of filtered stocks rarely being bver 600° F. Also stocks of over 160 viscosity are rarely filtered. Pennsylvania stocks do not run less than 26° Be. Filtering reduces the viscosity of cylinder stocks. Bright stocks are generally low cold test stocks made in the preparation of petrolatum; Cylinder Oils. — See Compounded Oils below. Petrolatum (Vaseline). — Special Pennsylvania oils are care- fully distilled, with steam and vacuum, until the solid uncrystal- lizable paraffins are reached. The product is then filtered through boneblack after cutting back with gasoline. The light colored residue, after driving off the gasoline, is a pasty mass called vaseline. The darker colored oils which filter later are used as cylinder stock. Car Oils (Black Oil, Reduced Oil, Well Oil).— The residue left after distilling off the lighter lubricating oils by fire distilla- tion is a black oil which is sold in the unrefined condition as car oil. For winter car oil, the distillation can be stopped earlier, or the residue can be cut back with some light distillate. Fuel Oils.^Many of the western crudes, as from California, are sold for fuel, either as they come from the wells, or after "topping" or "stripping" to remove^ the light oils. Also light and heavy ends from redistilling lubricating oils are run into the fuel oil. Distilled fuel oils are really heavy gas oils. D. MIXED OILS. Blended Oils. — Blended oils are made by mixing mineral oils, either distillates or cylinder stocks. Sometimes oils are "cut back" by addition of a small amount of low viscosity oil' to re- duce the viscosity of an oil. An example would be the addition of a distillate to a cylinder stock to lower its viscosity or the addition of a distillate to car oil to change a "summer" car oil to a "winter" car oil. Sometimes the viscosity of light oils is "built up" by the addition of heavy oils, as in adding cylinder stocks to engine oil distillates to make heavy motor oils. In mixing or blending oils it is well to remember that the vis- l8 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS cosity of the mixture is always decidedly lower than would be calculated from the viscosities of the two oils and the proportions taken. Where the oils are very different in viscosity the variation from the expected viscosity is greatest. The viscosity of the mixture may be as much as 30 per cent, below the expected vis- cosity, but it is usually from 5 to 15 per cent, lower than the cal- culated viscosity. The gravities are as would be expected, but the flash point is lower than the mean of the mixture. (See Sherman, T. T. Gray and Hammerschlag on "A Comparison of the Calculated and De- termined Viscosity Numbers [Engler] and Flashing and Burning Points in Oil Mixtures," /. Ind. & Bng. Chew,., pp. 13-17, 1909; also T. T. Gray on "A Comparison of the Engler and Say- bolt Viscosities of Mixed Oils," 8th Int. Cong. Appl. Chem, X, pp. 153-158, 1913). Compounded Oils. — Compounded oils are made by mixing or blending a mineral oil with a fatty oil. The chief compounded oils are cylinder oils, made by dissolving animal oil or other fatty oil in cylinder stocks, and marine engine oils, made by dissolving rape oil of blown rape oil in mineral oil. Compounded oils for other purposes are how seldom used. The viscosity of a compounded oil is much less than the theo- retical viscosity calculated from the oils used in compounding. E. MISCELLANEOUS OILS. Rosin Oils. — These are the heavy oils from the distillation of rosin. They are used for grease making, for transformer oils, in printing inks, in paints, and in the purified condition as lubricating oils. After the rosin acids have been largely removed, the rosin oils are chiefly special hydrocarbons. Coal Tar Oils. — These belong to the aromatic series of hydro- carbons (C„Hj„_6) which are cyclic compounds. They are sometimes used in lubricating greases. The heavier tars may be used in special thick greases for chains, etc. Thickened Oils.— Oils may be thickened by the addition of cer- tain soaps to form greases, or with certain aluminum soaps to TflE REFINBD PRODUCTS 19 form mineral castor oils. Caoutchouc is also added to oils to increase their apparent viscosity. Shale Oil, — Shale oil, from the destructive distillation of oil- shales, has been produced to an important extent in Scotland and elsewhere. The large quantities of oil-shales in Colorado and other states may be similarly developed for lighting, power and lubricating purposes. F. SPECIAL PROPERTIES OF MIHERAL OILS. The advantages of petroleum lubricating oils over animal and vegetable oils are the lower cost of the mineral oils, the non-ox- idizing and non-gumming character of mineral oils and their general stability, and the great range of viscosity obtainable. This wide range in viscosity of the products available makes a knowledge of the viscosity of the various mineral oils not only desirable but necessary to meet different lubricating conditions. The chief disadvantage of mineral oils consists in the non-ad- herence of the oils in presence of hot water, and in the rapid decrease in viscosity under heat. Animal and vegetable oils also lose viscosity rapidly under heat. By proper attention to the temperature at which an oil is to be used, a mineral oil can be obtained which will meet all viscosity requirements at the desired temperature. Coefficient of Expansion. — Oils expand rapidly with rise of temperature and so decrease in specific gravity, the amount of expansion for oils of the same specific gravity being the same. The expansion for gasolines is from 0.0006 to 0.0007 ^or each- degree F. ; for kerosenes 0.0005 1 for spindle oils 0.00045 '> and for lubricating oils of 0.890 to 0.950 specific gravity (17° to 27° Be.) 0.0004. In filling cars and barrels sufficient space must be allowed for expansion (see Bureau of Standards Circ. No. 57). Specific Heat of Oils.-^This is important in oil refining or wherever oils have to be heated. It is of special importance in relation to the cooling action of oil on bearings. Oils do not vary 3 20 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS greatly in this particular, the specific heat usually being between 0.45 and 0.50 as compared to water at i. Heat of Combustion.^ — The heat of combustion varies from about 16,000 to 22,000 B. t. u., the average being about 19,000. The heat of combustion is higher for the light oils. (See under specifications, etc., for Gasoline and Fuel Oils pages 204, 210 and 211.) CHAPTER IV. FRICTION AND LUBRICATION. A large percentage of the power applied to all kinds of machines and manufacturing plants is used in overcoming friction. This power, which is largely lost or wasted so far as doing useful work is concerned, generally amounts to from 20 per cent, to 80 per cent, or more of the total power developed. Unnecessary Stresses. — Important sources of power losses are improperly aligned shafting or bearings, and tight belts, which cause excessive pressures and stresses which can only be reduced by mechanical adjustment. Properly aligned machinery, bear- ings that do not bind, and large pulleys with loose belts will greatly reduce power waste and depreciation of machinery. The first step in the reduction of friction is to remove unnecessary stresses by the best possible adjustment of the moving parts. Two Kinds of Friction. — In the operation of most machinery two kinds of friction have to be overcome by the expenditure of power: Solid friction which results from actual contact of the moving surfaces, and fluid friction which is due to the resistance the lubricant offers to motion. Since solid friction is much greater than fluid friction, lubricants are used to separate the moving parts of machines, and so substitute fluid friction for solid friction. With smooth bearings at high speeds and under moderate pressures, this substitution is practically complete with a suitable oil, and the friction developed is proportional to the true viscosity of the oil. Solid Friction. — More or less solid friction results where the lubrication is deficient either in quality or quantity. On account of the minute irregularities of bearings and journals, and on ac- count of the tendency of metals to weld or "sieze" under the in- fluence of pressure, the resistance to motion is high where the metals are in actual contact. Excessive initial power is required in starting a machine as much of the oil has been squeezed from between the bearings so that the surface depressions and pro- 22 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS jections interlace somewhat like cogs. After the machine is in motion, if the lubricating film is not sufficiently thick, or if the bearing is not smooth, the solid projections still strike or press against each other and consequently varying degrees of solid fric- tion result. The effects of solid friction are relatively large power losses, heating of the bearing, lowering of the viscosity of the oil by heating, and wear. As the bearings may be continually rough- ened by the sliding contact, the conditions become ideal for in- creased frictional losses. In extreme cases, serious seizing of the bearing and journal may occur so that proper lubrication be- comes impossible and the removal of the bearing becomes neces- sary. In most cases, the effect will be continued wear and con- tinuous waste of power through excessive solid friction. With good lubrication, serious abrasion is entirely absent, and wear and solid friction are reduced to a minimum. Solid and Fluid Friction,. — While for heavy, slow-moving machines solid friction is generally an important factor in poWer consumption, in the usual bearings and journals at normal speeds and pressures, relatively more power is used in overcoming re- sistance due to the oil. ■ This is contrary to the popular belief which ascribes most of the power losses to wear resulting from actual contact of the bearing and journal. If the lubricant does not keep the bearing and journal apart almost entirely during normal running, there is something wrong with the lubricant or with the bearing. Fluid Friction. — In perfect lubrication, the moving part is entirely supported or "floated" on a film of oil which is of suf- ficient thickness to keep the journal and bearing apart under all reasonable conditions. To maintain such a film, the oil must have sufficient viscosity or "body." Pressure, speed, wording temperature, condition of the bearings and method of oil feed determine the most advantageous oil to use, the effect of these different factors being as follows : (i) With other conditions the same, high pressures require FRICTION AND LUBRICATION 23 oils of higher viscosities than do low pressures, as high pressures tend to squeeze the oil from between the friction surfaces. (2) With the same pressures, a fast moving journal can be satisfactorily lubricated with a thinner or less viscous oil than can a slower journal. This is because the speedier journal sucks or pulls in more oil between the moving parts and so aids in maintaining the film. (3) For bearings that operate at high temperatures, as on electric motors, an oil of greater viscosity is required than for lower working temperatures under similar speeds and pressures. Raising the temperature greatly reduces the viscosity of an oil. (4) For. rough bearings, an oil of high viscosity is required in order to maintain a thick film which will reduce actual contact of the bearing and journal to a minimum. (5) With a circulating oil feed, or force feed, oil of lower viscosity can be used on account of the increased amount of oil reaching the bearing which partly compensates for the oil squeezed out. The excess of oil also tends to reduce the temperature of the oil film and cool the bearing so that the working temperature is lower and the working viscosity is higher than where less oil is fed. In general, for low pressures and high speeds a thin oil is de- sirable ; for high pressures and low speeds, a thicker, more viscous oil is necessary. Pressure per square inch is meant and not the total pressure on the bearing, while speed refers to the friction speed of the contact surfaces and not to the actual rate of rota- tion. For rubbing speeds of less than loo feet per minute, the oil film does not form properly for satisfactory oil lubrication. With good lubrication, or practically perfect lubrication, the friction is chiefly fluid friction, and the main factor in determin- ing the amount of friction is the viscosity of the oil, so far as lubrication is concerned. Obviously then, an oil which has just sufficient viscosity to carry the load under all reasonable condi- tions, but no greater viscosity, is the ideal lubricant. Viscosity. — By the viscosity of an oil is meant its internal fric- tion or its resistance to flow. It refers to the same property as 24 AMERICAN I^UBRICANTS do the terms body and cohesion. For true liquids viscosity varies inversely as fluidity. Viscosity is usually measured by noting the time required for a given volume of an oil to flow through a definite sized opening or tube under a definite pressure. With commercial viscosime- ters, such as the Saybolt and the Engler, the tube is too wide and too short for the real friction of the oil to be accurately registered, consequently such instruments do not show the true viscosities of oils, though such instruments serve to classify oils in the order of their viscosities. For high viscosity oils, above 300 Say- bolt, the true viscosities are practically proportional to the Say- bolt viscosities, but for low viscosity oils the viscosities observed are not relatively proportional. Thus an oil of 50 Saybolt vis- cosity has considerably less than one-fourth of the absolute (true) viscosity of an oil which reads 200 Saybolt. Also, the difference between two low viscosity oils, for instance of 50 and 60 Saybolt, is much greater than the two figures would indicate. Friction and Viscosity. — It is generally accepted that under good lubrication conditions, the frictional resistance necessarily varies with the pressure, with the velocity of the friction parts, and with the viscosity of the oil at the working temperature. It is, however, not so generally accepted that under definite con- ditions of speed and pressure, the coefficient of friction is solely dependent on the viscosity of the oil. This is Ubbelohde's theory which he has substantiated by calculating the actual coefficient of friction for many oils, including American oils, from the true viscosities of the oils (Pet. Rev., 27, pp. 293 and 325-326; Pe- troletmi,, 7, pp. 772i-779, and 882-889; cf. Chem. Abs., pp. 1986, 2521, and 2839, 1912; and pp. 248 and 2678, 1913). Ubbelohde states that the reason this relation has not been generally recog- nized before is due to the fact that commercial viscosimeters do not give the true viscosity, or readings relatively proportional to the true viscosities. It has been the practice also to make vis- cosity readings at temperatures which did not accord with work- ing conditions and so the relation was further obscured. The value of oils as lubricants has been explained by many Friction and lubrication 25 observers on the basis of such properties as "oiUness," unctuosity, etc., alleged to be independent of viscosity, which were considered to have an important influence in forming and maintaining the film. While these explanations have not been absolutely dis- proved, there has never been any tangible evidence on which to base any solid argument in favor of their validity. Factors which are important are adhesion (outer friction) and capillarity, but according to Ubbelohde all oils possess sufiScient adhesiveness as all oils cling to or "wet" all solid bodies. In connection with this contention that adhesion is always ade- quate, and that there is no "slip" of the oil where it is in contact with the metal, and that the outer friction of the oil on metal is practically infinitely great and independent of the wetting or ad- hesion, it is of interest to note the statement of Prof. Gill (Rogers and Aubert's Industrial Chemistry, ist Ed., p. 563) that in per- forming friction tests with a friction machine the effects of , the oil previously used on the machine persist for about eight hours. This indicates that the oil in actual contact with the metal is difficult to dislodge even when the "pores" of the metal surface are at a minimum. Ubbelohde's experiments prove that oils of the same viscosity, whether refined oils or unrefined oils, distilled oils or undistilled oils, have the same coefficient of friction, without regard to the origin of the oil. Viscosity and Temperature. — As the temperature rises, viscosity decreases rapidly. This makes it especially important that the viscosity be taken at the working temperature, or sufficiently near the working temperature to make possible an adequate compari- son of the working viscosities of the oils used. The viscosity of most oil distillates is now taken at 100° F. and this is usually sufficiently high for all such oils, except possibly for heavy engine oils. Western oils lose viscosity faster below 100° F. than do Pennsylvania oils, but at temperatures above 100° F. the drop in viscosity is not much greater for western distillates than for Pennsylvania distillates. When power acts to overcome friction, heat is generated as 26 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS will be noted from the rise of temperature of any bearing when the journal is in motion. The highest temperature observed in a bearing is necessarily much less than the temperature of the oil film actually supporting the load, and the true working tem- perature of the oil film is higher than generally supposed, with a correspondingly decreased viscosity for the oil. In practice, high temperatures from friction accompany great power losses either by. solid or fluid friction. Low temperatures above surrounding temperatures indicate small power losses. Rise of temperature, even of a few degrees, greatly lowers the observed viscosity and the lowering of the true viscosity is even greater than indicated by the reading, on account of the de- fects previously noted in commercial viscosimeters. Fatty oils (animal and vegetable oils) retain their viscosity somewhat better under heat than do mineral oils. This is es- pecially true of sperm oil, although the viscosity of sperm oil is relatively low. Castor oil and blown oils are the only fatty oils having high viscosities at elevated temperatures. One of the functions of a lubricant is to cool the bearing by absorbing and carrying off the heat from the friction surfaces, lyubricating oils vary very little in their heat absorbing capacity, consequently where considerable heat is developed, as in bearings around a steam engine, the temperature can be best kept down by a force-feed or by a circulating oil feed which feeds more oil to the bearing. While the working viscosity of an oil is primarily the viscosity corresponding to the actual temperature of the supporting film, the viscosity of the oil at the other temperatures of use, such as the temperature at which steam cylinder oils are handled and fed, may be important and should receive proper consideration. For a further discussion of viscosity and its determination see Index. Oil Lubrication, — The above statements in regard to the rela- tion of friction and viscosity apply primarily to oil lubrication. Successful oil lubrication is based on two fundamental principles : (i) The use of an oil of sufficient viscosity to maintain a film Friction and i^ubrication 27 of adequate thickness under normal working conditions plus suf- ficient additional viscosity to prevent the bearings coming in con- tact during abnormal conditions. Since solid friction is so much greater than fluid friction, if the bearings come together appre- ciably, power will be used up and more or less wear result. A lubricant which does not keep solid friction and wear to a min- imum does not meet the primary requirements of a lubricant. (2) The use of an oil of only sufficient viscosity to meet the above conditions, as all additional viscosity results in the useless consumption of power. At high speeds, not only can an oil of lower viscosity be used, but any additional viscosity results in much greater power losses than would result at lower speeds. Fluid friction is roughly proportional to the square root of the velocity of the friction surfaces. Imperfect lubrication with solid friction results where: friction speeds are too low, or too little oil is fed, or the load is too great for the viscosity of the oil under the working conditions. Con- sequently for heavy shafting where the friction speeds are low, and in similar circumstances with other machinery, an oil of sufficiently high viscosity should be used. If the speed is low a reasonable excess of viscosity will result in little lost power. Purity of Oils. — Numerous other tests are applied to oils besides the viscosity test. These are necessary to insure an oil that will be safe to use, or that can be used without undue loss from evaporation or decomposition, or without developing materials which would interfere with the oil feed or change the viscosity. Refining tests are applied to protect the bearings from the pres- ence or the formation of injurious or gumming materials. These tests ordinarily have no direct bearing on the value of the oil so far as reducing friction is concerned, but are tests of the sta- bility and suitability of the oil for the special conditions under which it is to be used. Oil Testing Machines. — Tests made on the usual testing machines are generally unsatisfactory as the machines do not duplicate working conditions. Satisfactory results can be had by selecting an oil from the physical tests, especially the viscosity 28 AMERICAN I^UBRICANTS •SOPPLV FftOrt PUMP iNDlCRTOra WRL BORRD ENOINE raOOM PLQOft OlUDRRIN TANK. - BHSEMtNT FLOO* Typical Central Oiling and Filtering System with Filter on i^ngine Room Floor and Receiver and Automatic Pump Governor in Basement. (By courtesy of The Richardson-Phenix Co., Milwaukee.) FRICTION AND LUBRICATION 29 tests at the working temperatures, and checking the selection of the oil in service or on a service bearing. Important contributions have been made by Prof. R. H. Thurston to the science of lubrication through his development and use of testing machines. Much of his work is given in his "Friction and Lost Work in Machinery and Mill Work," pub- lished in 1879, which is still the standard treatise on this subject. Circulating Oil Systems. — ^With the development of complex, heavy machinery, automatic oiling devices have come into use which feed the oil where needed without continued attention. Circulating oil systems, operated by motors or by steam pressure, feed oil to the many friction points of Corliss engines, turbines, and dynamos, collect the excess oil as it flows from the bearings, separate entrained water by appropriate means, filter off dirt and precipitated matter, and continue the oil in service with little loss. Such oil may circulate through the system 500 times or more and still be in good usable condition, as a good oil does not wear out, though it naturally darkens in service even with proper filtration. A poor oil may develop acid under exposure to heat and air, or may emulsify with water and increase in vis- cosity. In circulating systems, and with ring oilers and other devices for flooding bearings with excess oil, an oil of lower viscosity can be used than where just sufficient oil is fed, as the surplus oil serves to cool the bearing. The importance of ample lubrication, such as afforded by flooded bearings and by bath lubrication, can hardly be stressed too much on account of the great reduction in friction losses through the free use of an oil of the right viscosity. In connection with forced-feed lubrication, the following quo- tations from Technological Paper No. 86 of the Bureau of Standards, by W. H. Herschel, are of interest: "Lubricating oils are used to reduce friction, and their effectiveness depends upon the manner in which they are appHed as well as upon their quality. To obtain the best results there must be an abundant supply of the lubricant. It has thus become recognized as good practice, especially for high speed machinery, to use a forced-feed lubricating system, the oil 30 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS being pumped from a settling tank through the bearings and allowed to flow back to the tank. A filter is included in the circuit. "It has been found that oils do not wear out mechanically and may be used over and over again. Thurston says, 'A mineral oil is usually just as good after use as before, apart from the impurities, which are removed by filtering.' Similarly Sabatie and Pellet conclude, 'The appar- ent result of all these different tests is that a used oil, received in good condition and filtered with care to rid it of the material which it may con- tain in suspension, preserves its different properties almost intact." "It is on account of the necessity for filtering, upon which emphasis has been laid, th^t an emulsifying oil cannot be used in a circulatory system. An emulsion may clog the filter and result in damage to the bearings, due to the failure of the oil supply." (See also Emulsification Test, pages 117- 121.) The accompanying curves show tests made on oil after use in a circulating system for one and one-half years of continuous day-and-night operation. The circulation was at the rate of 150 gallons per hour, or 1,800 barrels per month, three barrels of new oil being added to the system per month. The oil was used to lubricate 134 points on several engines and compressors. The upper curve shows the coefficient of friction on a Thurston Rail- road Ivubricant Tester at 360 revolutions per minute for new oil and for filtered oil. The middle curve shows the temperature of the bearings in this test with the two oils. The bottom curve shows the viscosities of the iiew and the filtered oil at various temperatures with an Olsen viscosimeter. The oil increased in gravity from 0.895 to 0.903 during the period of use. The in- crease in gravity is without special significance. Bearings. — The design and fit of bearings greatly influence the quality of the lubrication. Bearings should be so constructed, by proper grooving or otherwise, and by proper location of the oil feed, that ample oil is drawn in or sucked in by the moving journal. In order to secure the best possible conditions for lub- rication, the bearing should be smoothe and of softer metal than the journal. While an excessively soft bearing would not oflfer sufficient resistance to the load, a soft bearing soon beds or flows to fit the journal so as to support the load at all points. •OiS OiZ 70.0 p t)OM. I- V 007 000^ goos U OOd 003 ^ \ CoerFtCFENT Of Fhictjom Cu«i/e.s B'NEwOl BiPuRiFito Oil From Peterson PwTer — N \ \ \^ N. y 1^. -*> •^ -^ '=^ ::: ~- R^ - ;Si fa =:^ =»^ ■■ =* =- °°^ TEMPERtiTuRE. Curves R -- New Oil D--PuRiReD Oii_FftOM PETER50M FiuTER — e lOO l^O >aO ZZO ZM SOO iao JflO 5 \ VlSCOSiTV CwW-ES P-New Oiu B-'PuRifiEO Oil From PETtresoN F1i_ter "l V \ « R \ \ ii > 1 \, N •B > IT J \ S \, ^ < N 1^- 'v •— — , ___ a » ; 1 10 t: 2 00 Temperrture, 0^ Oil, DtxiKec- Curves Showing the Relation Between New and i'iltered Oil. (By courtesy of The Richardson- Phe nix Co., Milwaukee. ) 32 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS The Cross Oil Filter "Style B." (By courtesy of Burt Mfg. Co., Akron, O.) The area of bearings is designed to secure proper load per unit area. The area of the bearing should be just sufficient to maintain the load successfully under all conditions with the grade of oil to be used, as any excess area will increase the friction loss unless a thinner oil is substituted. For high speeds, the friction is practically independent of the load and is propor- tional to the area of the friction surfaces. The proper fit of bearing for the lowest coefficient of friction is obtained by having the radius of the journal slightly less than FRICTION AND I^UBRICATION 33 the radius of the bearing to give space for the oil film which is usually 0.0002 to 0.003 ^^^^ thick. Ball bearings and roller bearings are generally lubricated with oil and thin grease, respectively, and offer less frictional resist- ance than do other bearings. Grease Lubrication. — Good lubrication with oils is difficult to attain with slow moving machines under high pressures on ac- count of the tendency of the lubricant to squeeze from between the friction surfaces faster than it is fed in by the motion of the journal. Since greases do not squeeze from bearings readily, but maintain a relatively thick film under pressure even when the journal is still, they are especially suited for slow or intermittent work where the loads are heavy. Sometimes oils of high vis- cosity can be used successfully for such work. For use on gears, greases are especially adapted as the unit pressures are high and the rubbing speeds slow. Greases are not suitable for high friction speeds on account of their greater frictional resistance as compared to oils, though they do not offer excessive resistance to flow at low speeds. The coefficient of friction is higher for greases than for oils, which is another way of saying that greases offer niore resistance to motion than oils do. Thin greases and greases of low melting point do not offer as great frictional resistance as stiff greases of high melting point. Greases ar£ also often used instead of oils for lubricating in- accessible parts of machines, for general convenience in applica- tion, for reducing the consumption of lubricant, to prevent splashing and to secure automatic feed. Graphite as a Lubricant. — Flake and amorphous graphite have been widely used in conjunction with oils and greases for lubri- cation. The function of the graphite seems to be to build up the depressions in the friction parts and so make a smoother bearing. The effect is to reduce the friction, to make possible the use of a much thinner oil and to reduce the consumption of lubricant. For very heavy work and slow speeds, graphite is extremely valuable 34 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS in preventing abrasion and seizing, and for reducing solid friction, as in steam valves and cylinders. Graphite also seems to form a veneer or coating which carries heavy loads without offering much resistance to motion. Only very finely divided graphite should be used, especially with bear- ings having small clearance. Very small amounts of graphite give the best results. Considerable work has been done by Prof. Mabery on the effect of graphite on the coefficient of friction of lubricants, using oils mixed with 0.35 per cent, of deflocculated (Acheson) graph- ite, with favorable results (/. Ind. & Eng. Chem., pp. 1 15-123, 1910, and pp. 717-723, 1913; also /. Frank. Inst., Vol. 169, pp. 317-328). Other authorities also report decreased frictional re- sistance where graphite is added to oils. Mica as a Lubricant. — In general, the action of mica in a suit- able state of fineness is similar to the action of graphite in being a surface evener. Mica has been used largely in certain greases. CHAPTER V. LUBRICATION OF INTERNAI COMBUSTION ENGINES. Most explosive engines using liquid fuel work on the four cycle principle. The oil reaches the cylinder wall either by being splashed or sprayed on the wall below the piston. In some cases the oil is supplied by a force feed, but usually the oil is largely splashed by the moving parts in the crank-case. The oil gets into the cylinder above the piston either by being rubbed up by the piston, or by being sucked in past the piston rings during the stroke preceding the compression stroke, that is, during the inlet stroke. In the stroke succeeding the explosion or firing stroke the lubrication must be effected solely by the small amount of unburned oil remaining on the cylinder walls and by the oil actually left on the piston rings. In order to secure proper lubrication an oil must be used which resists decomposition at a high heat, which leaves little undesir- able residue when exposed to heat or when burned, and which has sufficiently high viscosity to lubricate but not sufficient vis- cosity to prevent the rapid formation of an oil film or seal. While at the high temperatures which the oil attains the viscosity is very greatly reduced, yet the very high speed of the piston and the relatively small pressure exerted by a vertical piston against the V, Under wall makes an oil of very high working viscosity unnecessary. Excessive viscosity will prevent the oil film from forming rap- idly after the firing stroke. However, owing to the fact that the oil is used to seal the gap between the cylinder wall and the moving piston or piston rings, as well as for actual lubrication, an oil of a little too high viscosity gives better results than an oil of too low viscosity. A low viscosity oil, especially with locise piston rings, does not seal the cylinder properly and so results in hot gases leaking past the piston rings and contaminating the oil in the reservoir or sump, exposing the oil, which is repeatedly splashed on the cylinder wall below the piston, to fairly high temperatures for long periods. Also the use of an oil of low vis- 4 36 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS cosity may make necessary the use of excessive amounts of oil with the possibility of increased carbon formation in the cylinder. So far as temperature conditions are concerned, the oil has two kinds of temperature to withstand r the temperature just be- low the flash point of the oil (200° to 400° F.) repeatedly for long periods of time as the oil is splashed on the cylinder walls below the piston and runs back into the oil reservoir, and temperatures of 200° to 800° F. in the cylinder above the piston where the oil is readily consumed. The first condition results in more or less decomposition and blackening of an unstable oil so that good re- sults can hardly be expected when such an oil finally gets into the cylinder. The second condition must finally result in the more or less complete combustion of the oil as no oil could stand the excessive temperatures within the cylinder, but doubtless the oil remains partly unconsumed for a somewhat longer period than generally supposed. This would be due to the fact that the metal on one side of the oil film is a good conductor of heat and the oil itself is a poor conductor of heat, consequently the layer of oil next to the metal is partly protected from the heat by the outer layer of oil. This could not result in delaying actual com- bustion of the oil very long, but a fraction of a second's delay means the difference between actual lubrication and an absence of lubrication. When the oil finally burns, little carbon residue should be. formed. Except for the smaller high-speed pistons, as in automobile engines with small cylinders, the oil seal is relatively as important as actual lubrication and should be so considered. In fact, with a proper oil seal formed on the piston rings, sufficient lubrication will usually result. Automobile Engines. — See chapter on Automobile Lubrication. Stationary Gasoline Engines.— The oil used should ordinarily have a flash test of about 400° F., and should preferably be a straight distillate (viscous neutral). This mineral oil distillate may be blended with a very small amount of filtered cylinder stock, or well-refined cylinder stock, for use in heavy engines. Distillation of the oil should therefore show very little carbon I^UBRICATION OP INTgRNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINES 37 residue unless the oil is for extra large engines which require an extra heavy oil. The gravity is preferably, but not necessarily, above 26° Be., though oils of any gravity may be used success- fully if of the proper viscosity. Oils which turn black on heating to their flash points for 15 minutes or show considerable sediment on subsequent standing will tend to form excessive amounts of carbon in use (see Heat Test). All oils show some darkening when heated to high tem- peratures. Medium oils of 220 to 270 viscosity at 100° F. are suitable for small gasoline engines. For large gasoline engines heavy oils of 250 to 450 viscosity should be used. For engines operating in cold climates the cold test should be sufficiently low to meet prac- tical conditions. Engines having force feed can use the higher viscosity oils to advantage, while the high viscosity oils are re- quired for air-cooled engines. Gas Engines. — The regular medium and heavy oils just men- tioned are suitable for explosive gas engines. Railroad Section Cars. — In these cars the oil is usually fed by mixing with the gasoline. An oil of at least 350 viscosity at 100° F. is required. Usually about 5 per cent, of the oil is added to the gasoline. Motor Boats. — The engines are either two-cycle or four-cycle. For the two-cycle engines, medium motor oils of 200 to 270 vis- cosity at 100° F. are required. Where the oil is fed by mixing with the gasoline an extra heavy oil of 350 viscosity or over is necessary. For the four-cycle engines a somewhat heavier oil should be used than is necessary for the two-cycle engines, such as a medium oil of 220 to 350 viscosity, depending on the size of the engine cylinder. Where the oil is fed separately from the fuel a thinner oil can be used than with automobile engines on account of the efficient water cooling. Motorcycle Engines. — The cylinder oil is fed by mixing with the gasoline or by some other method. Usually about i pint of the lubricant is added to 5 gallons of gasoline. The oil should 38 AMgRICAN LUBRICANTS be a heavy or extra heavy motor oil of 350 to 800 viscosity at 100° F. Such an oil is suitable for all types of feed. Gasoline Tractors. — Such tractors usually require heavier cylin- der oils than the correspondingly rated automobile engines, on account of the continuous heavy duty required of tractors. Oils of about the grade specified for stationary gasoline engines above work satisfactorily. Kerosene Engines. — Explosive engines using kerosene as fuel require heavy oils for lubrication. Owing to the necessity of pre-heating the fuel charge and the introduction of water into the cylinder to aid combustion, the consumption of oil is heavy. The temperature of the gases rises to nearly 3,000° F., while the temperature of the cylinder walls and piston head ranges from 300° to 800° F. Suitable oils for kerosene engines should have a viscosity of 450 to 650 at 100° F. and a flash test of 400° F. The viscosity of these cylinder oils might preferably be taken at 210° F., as the oil in the crank-case is usually kept this hot, but of course a correspondingly lower figure for the viscosity would then be re- quiredt A suitable oil can be made by blending a large amount of cylinder stock of good grade with a suitable heavy distillate. Where the engine is constructed for using water in the cylinder with the fuel, the effect is to reduce the amount of "carbon" which would otherwise be formed by such a heavy oil and at the same time to keep the remaining carbon in such a condition that it is continually removed through the exhaust. Much of the difficulty experienced in lubricating kerosene en- gines has been due to lubricants of too low viscosity. The in- troduction of water into the cylinder makes a different condition from that present where no water is introduced as in the regular gasoline engine. Much of the kerosene is burned in a finely atomized condition instead of being actually exploded. Kerosene Tractors. — The same cylinder oil is used as for kero- sene engines above. For the lubrication of other tractor parts, medium (No. 3) cup greases are suitable for the various cups and for the axle bearings. The transmission is lubricated with LUBRICATION OP INTBRNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINES 39 transmission oil or a suitable cylinder stock of 175 viscosity at 210° F., or with a semi-fluid gear or transmission grease. The same dark grease may be used on the rear axle bearing if desired. Regular and systematic cleaning of the cylinder and all wear- ing parts will pay well in lengthened life of the tractor. Aeroplane Engines. — On account of the extreme lightness of the motors, the high speeds, the air-cooling and the absolute necessity for the motor to operate continuously at full capacity, the use of only the highest grade oils is absolutely necessary. These are usually of the same type as the very best of the auto- mobile motor oils. The gravity should be high (30° Be.), the flash test well above 400° F., the cold test not more than 15° F., and the carbonization test at 250° C. (482° F.) for 2j4 hours should show only a minimum amount of material insoluble in petroleum ether or light gasoline (see Heat Test). The oils should be straight mineral oil distillates, or heavy distillates mixed with only small amounts of well-filtered high-grade cyl- inder stock, and should show little carbon residue on distillation to dryness. These tests are to insure an .oil which will give the minimum amount of carbonization in use, as carbon would not only reduce the capacity of the engine, but might cause the en- gine to stop with all the hazard involved. The viscosity of the oil should be high, a heavy-bodied oil of 400 to 550 viscosity at 100° F. being required. Vegetable castor oil is used extensively for lubricating certain cylinders, as in the Gnome rotary motor. It can be used alone or in mixtures with distillates compounded with other fatty oils. Aeroplane engines can also be lubricated by feeding part of the lubricant mixed with the gasoline and part through the regular oiling system. While many of the newer aeroplanes have water-cooled en- gines, and consequently require somewhat less oil than the air- cooled engines, the conditions in both types of engines are ex- cessively high piston speeds, extra high pressures and tempera- tures, particularly for long flights. Diesel Engines. — The Diesel engine does not operate on the explosive principle of the usual gasoline engine, but burns an 40 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS atomized liquid fuel. The air in the cylinder is compressed to a much higher degree than in the gasoline engine, so that it be- comes heated above the ignition temperature of the fuel oil. The finely atomized oil is consequently ignited as it is. introduced into the cylinder toward the end of the compression stroke. Any liquid fuels, even heavy distillates can be readily used. The en- gines are usually built in large units and operate with a low fuel consumption for the power developed. Fuel oils can be burned which are not suitable for use in other internal combustion engines. The lubrication is usually by a forced-feed or a circulating system. For the cylinders, use a medium or heavy automobile oil of 250 to 300 viscosity at 100° F. This oil should have a flash of 400° F. or over and should ordinarily have a low cold test, and a low carbonization test when heated for 2^/2 hours at 250° C. (482° F.). (See Heat Test.) On account of the high compression of the air in the cylinder (500 pounds per square inch) and the resulting high temperature before, during and after the combustion, the oil is subjected to such a high temperature that only a good grade of oil will stand up. In case heavier oils are required they can be prepared by blending a well-filtered high-grade cylinder stock with a larger amount of a high vis- cosity distillate. A 250 horse-power Diesel engine uses about one quart of oil per hour. A high-grade oil as given above will usually meet all require- ments so far as emulsifying is concerned. In certain Diesel en- gines where moisture is present in the cylinder the cylinder oil can be used compounded with 5 to 10 per cent, of a suitable ani- mal or vegetable oil. It is preferable to use straight mineral oils wherever possible, as in the regular Diesel engines. The oil used for the air compressors in connection with Diesel engines should in general meet the conditions stated above for Diesel engine cylinders. The oil should separate readily from water, should have a high gravity (above 30° Be.), and should be a straight distillate of 200 viscosity or over. The oil should be filtered, and only just enough oil should be used. Oils sometimes form acid by oxidation under the influence of heat, and H. I^UBEICATION OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 4I Moore (Engineer, 120, p. 176, 1915, and Ch. A., p. 1093, 1916) has shown that this is somewhat dependent on the iodine number of the oil. In connection with the fuel oil consumption for a Diesel en- gine, it is interesting to note that the Bureau of Mines {Tech. Paper 37) states that i pound of fuel oil will generate the same power that 2j4 pounds of oil or 4 pounds of coal would generate in a steam turbine. It takes from 0.525 to 0.721 pound of fuel oil per brake horse-power for a Diesel engine. CHAPTER VI. AUTOMOBILE LUBRICATION. A. MOTOR LUBRICATION. Mechanical Considerations. — In any discussion of automobile lubrication, the conditions to be met in cylinder lubrication natu- rally receive first attention, owing to its importance and to the special difficulties involved. The various designers and manufacturers of autojnobiles have adopted slightly or radically different systems of supplying the lubricant to the cylinder. The most usual systems are splash feed, force feed, circulating feed, and modifications or combina- tions of these separate systems. In the splash systems all or a large part of the lubricant is carried in the crank case and is splashed on or fed indirectly to the cylinder v^ralls below the piston, any excess oil being wiped off by the piston and running back into the crank-case reservoir or sump. In the other sys- tems the oil is either sprayed directly on the cylinder walls below the piston, or it is fed directly to the friction edge of the piston where it is needed. In any case, the lubrication is effected by means of the oil which actually gets between the piston head and the walls of the cylinder. With the four-cycle engine, used in all automobiles, the pressure is higher in the cylinder than it is outside the cylinder during three of the cycles. This tends to prevent the oil entering the cylinder past the piston head, and also causes a tendency to press the oil from -between the piston head and the walls of the cyl- inder. During the remaining cycle the pressure in the cylinder is lower than it is outside, consequently there is more or less leak- age of oil into the cylinder above the piston head. Most of the oil entering the cylinder is thus introduced immediately before the compression stroke. This is the oil which does most of the work and causes most of the trouble in cylinder lubrication. The conditions are not materially different whether the motor has four cylinders or twelve, the important conditions being the size and weight of the pistons and the clearance or fit of the pis- ton rings. With the new V-type motors used on eight- and AUTOMOBILE LUBRICATION 43 twelve-cylinder cars, the lubricating system has to be more elab- orately worked out to secure proper distribution of the oil, but this is a problem for the automobile designer rather than for the automobile user. Ordinarily a working idea of the size of the cylinder can be had from the horse-power capacity per cylinder. Temperature Conditions. — While exactly the same amount of heat is developed in burning a given amount of the same gasoline completely, irrespective of the motor used, yet the temperature attained may be very different with different motors. Small cylinders have more cooling surfaces in proportion to their capac- ity than large cylinders, consequently the temperature of the cylinder walls is usually lower for small cylinders. Thus, the temperature of the cylinder walls of a twelve-cylinder motor will ordinarily be lower than the temperature of the cylinder walls of a four-cylinder motor of the same power. The following figures will give some idea of the temperature conditions in a water-cooled motor : ' \ Degrees F. 100-225 200-400 300-900 200-350 It can be readily seen that the temperatures to which the oil on the cylinder walls and piston head is exposed will not only greatly reduce its viscosity but will rapidly vaporize and burn the oil. Fortunately the larger cylinders are always installed in a vertical position. so that the weight of the piston does not come directly on the cylinder wall, otherwise much heavier oils would have to be used. What Happens to the Oil. — With a properly working motor having close-fitting pistons, and using a suitable oil, only small amounts of oil get past the piston rings. Even with close-fitting piston rings, an oil of too low viscosity would get into the cyl- inder in greater quantity, than necessary. With a thin film of oil on the cylinder walls and on the piston head, part of the oil 44 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS / is vaporized and burned during each explosion, leaving a part of the oil still in working condition on the cylinder wall. Part of u bo bo S a a '5 o< O the oil carbon may be burned without vaporizing. The small amount of formed is readily blown out through the exhaust unnoticed. AUTOMOBIIvE LUBRICATION 45 If the oil happens to be thin, an extra amount of oil gains ad- mission to the cyHnder. This oil is vaporized and burned, or else burned without vaporizing, forming more carbon than the proper amount of oil would have done and at the same time leaving the cylinder and piston with insufficient lubrication. Oils of too low flash test would also vaporize unnecessarily fast and so reduce the quality of the lubrication. If the oil happens to have sufficient viscosity, but is made by blending a large percentage of steam cylinder stock with some light distillate, as is often the case, the steam cylinder stock will not readily vaporize, but will accumulate on the piston head and on the cylinder walls. It will then be burned, or vaporized from the piston head, leaving considerable deposits. Steam cylinder stocks have not been vaporized in the process of manufacture and cannot be vaporized or distilled without partly breaking down with carbon formation. The heavy motor oils always contain considerable amounts of added steam cylinder stock. In addition to the carbon formed by "cracking," carbon is also formed by the action of heat on the oils, the amount of such car- bonization being determined by the chemical nature of the par- ticular oil. The carbon deposits consist only partly of free car- bon, the major part of the deposit being made up of grindings from the cylinder walls, road dust, and asphaltic or resinous matter formed by oxidation and polymerization of the oil under the intense heat. Dr. C. E. Waters (Tech. Paper No. /j of the Bureau of Stand- ards) states that the carbonization is due chiefly to this formation of asphaltic substances rather than to actual cracking. He rec- ommends the heat test as an' indication of the ability of motor loils to stand up under the conditions of use. Different oils heated for two or three hours to 250° C. (482" F.) show different amounts of material insoluble in petroleum ether. He does not consider longer heating necessary, but higher temperatures show even greater differences between "good" oils and "bad" oils. The amount of "carbonization" found for eight well-known brands of motor oil after heating for 2yi hours at 250° C. varied from 0.02 per cent, to 0.70 per cent. Oils which had been exposed for sev- 46 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS eral days to sunlight showed increased tendency to form carbon under heat. It is interesting to note that the oils which were tested for vaporization loss showed from 17 to 24 per cent, loss in three hours at 250° C. (482° F.), but this has no direct bear- ing on the amount of "carbon" formation. The presence of an excess of oil not only tends to the forma- tion of unusual amounts of carbon, but some of the excess oil or heavy residues from it may act to prevent blowing out much of the carbon that is formed and so aid in its accumulation in the cylinder. Too rich a gasoline mixture also tends to increase the deposition of carbon in the cylinder. The Effect of Carbon Deposits. — The cylinders are designed for a certain charge and an optimum compression. While the de- signer has allowed for the accumulation of a small amount of carbon, yet any marked accumulation of carbon will not only cut down the capacity of the cylinder and so decrease the horse- power obtainable, but it will cause the compression to increase to such a point that the charge will be over-heated resulting in spontaneous ignition. Pre-ignition troubles may also result from highly heated carbon actually firing the charge. Some of the other effects are choking up of valves, spark plugs and piston rings. Carbon may result in "knocking," in abrasion of the cyl- inder and piston, in wasted fuel, in decreased power, or even in actual stoppage of the motor. The Removal of Carbon Deposits. — The asphaltic matter usually makes up a large part of the deposit. Where the deposits are soft and powdery they can be readily removed mechanically. Harder deposits could be chiselled out. Deposits can also be burned out to advantage by the oxygen or oxy-acetylene process. Deposits can sometimes he loosened by leaving the cylinders full' of kerosene over night and then operating the motor so as to blow out the softened accumulations through the exhaust. Various otter light solvents besides kerosene have been used for this purpose. Motor Oil Tests. — The most important single test is for the vis- cosity at 100° F. or at some higher temperature. The real lubri- cating value of the oil depends primarily upon its viscosity at the AUTOMOBILE I^UBRICATION 47 temperature of use. The flash test in the open cup should be taken. Under certain conditions, the cold test, the fire test, the vaporization test and the color test should be made, but they are not usually important. The gravity is an indication of the source of the oil ; if around 30° Be., it is probably a Pennsylvania prod- uct and will probably retain its viscosity somewhat better under heat than other oils do. If the oil is not of Pennsylvania or similar origin it is well to allow a little extra viscosity as shown at 100° F. If the addition of excessive amounts of steam cyl- inder stocks is suspected, the distillaJ;ion test can be made; a high carbon residue will indicate such additions. These stocks are added to cheap, light oils to make heavier motor oils, and they are also used as a legitimate addition to heavy motor oils to make extra heavy oils. ' The carefully filtered oils may also be tested by heating to 250° C. (482° F.) for 2,y2 hours and determining the asphalt content by dissolving in petroleum ether and filtering off the undissolved asphalt. An asphalt content of 0.50 per cent, would indicate an unsatisfactory oil so far as carbon formation is concerned. Cylinder Oil Specifications. — The oils should be straight dis- tillates known as viscous neutrals, except the heavy motor oils which can be blended with a minimum amount of well filtered cylinder stock. The flash point should be approximately 400° F. or higher. An oil of proper flash consistent with its viscosity will usually be free from low boiling' constituents and will give correspondingly good results in use. The gravity test may be of value in indicating the source of the oil, an oil of high Baume gravity most likely being of Pennsylvania or similar origin. The fire test, the cold test and the color test usually give no added in- formation so far as actual lubricating value is concerned. The oil when heated for 15 minutes to its flash point should not turn black and should show very little deposit on standing 24 hours. The oils should have been purified by filtration and not by acid treatment. With light new cars, oil of 140 viscosity can often be used, but there is no advantage in using an oil below 160 viscosity at 100° F. A so-called "light" motor oil should have a viscosity of 48 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS about i8o to 200. Such an oil will usually lubricate all light cars in average condition, and all medium weight cars in good condi- tion. It is preferable, however, to "use the regular "medium" oil of 240 to 260 viscosity- for the average medium weight car as the oil consumption will be considerably less than with the light oil and the resulting carbon formation will also be less. Cars in poor condition, as with loose piston rings, will require heavier oil for proper lubrication. For heavy trucks or heavy motors, an oil of 350 viscosity or oveir can be used. The heaviest oils offered for the very heaviest work rarely exceed 700 viscosity at 100° F. Heavier oils are desirable for air-cooled cars than for water-cooled cars. Knight motors require extra heavy oils. Analyses of Some Motor Oils. — The following analyses show the properties of some oils actually in use for motor lubrication : Gravity Flash(°P) Open cup Viscosity Remarks I,ight motor oils: Sample No. i ■ • • 26.6 405 162 No. 2... 27.0 390 183 No. 3... 30.0 415 195 " No. 3a.. 22.0 380 215 Medium motor oils : Sample No. 4. •• 25-5 415 196 No. 5... 26.3 385 206 A blended oil shows 14.8% residue (liquid) on dis- tillation. No. e-.- 25.6 400 207 No. 7..- 25.8 400 228 A blended oil shows 2.8^ residue (liquid) on dis- tillation. No. 8... 26.8 430 285 Heavy motor oils: Sample No. 9 . . 24-5 420 262 " No. 10. ■ 29.0 420 310 No. II.. 27.2 430 435 Analyses of a large number of motor oils made in 1917 show gravities ranging from 19.5° to 28.5° Be., and viscosities as fol- lows : Light motor oils 190 to 220 Saybolt at 100° F., and medium motor oils 250 Saybolt and higher. The heavy and the extra heavy motor oils have considerably higher viscosities, but do not AUTOMOBILE LUBRICATION 49 Motor Oii, Chart. The Viscosity figures indicate suitable oils for engines in average work- ing condition. The minimum figures are for new cars, or for engines with close fitting piston rings, where the lubricating conditions are otherwise favorable. For summer use, and for engines in poor condition, the oils of higher viscosity are adapted. The figures represent the maximum ranges usually required for modern cars (1916 and 1917 models). Automobile or truck Abbott-Detroit Apperspn, 6 & 8-cyl. • Atlas Avery Benz Blair Briscoe, 4 & 8 cyl. ■ ■ . Buick Cadillac, 8-cyl Cartercar Case Chalmers Chandler 6 Chase (water-cooled) Chevrolet Crow-Elkhart Dart Dayton Dodge Dorris Dort Duryea Elgin 6 Empire Federal Fiat Ford Franklin, 6-cyl Haynes, 6-cyl. ....... Haynes, 12-cyl. Henderson Hollier 8 Hudson 6 Hudson Super-Six . . . Hupmobile I. H. C. (water-cooled Indiana '• Jackson 4 & 8-cyl. - • . Jeffery 4 &8 cyl ^iug 8 Kissel Kar Knox Lexington -viscosity of cylinder oil at 100 °F. 225-300 250-300 225-300 250-350 300-375 250-350 225-300 220-275 225-300 220-275 225-300 250-350 220-275 225-300 220-275 225-300 225-300 250-300 225-300 220-275 225-300 450-800 225-300 250-350 225-300 300-500 185-250 275-325 275-350 250-300 220-275 250-300 250-350 225-300 250-350 250-375 250-375 225-300 250-350 225-300 250-350 300-500 220-275 Automobile or truck Liberty 6 Locomobile, 6-cyl. Lozier, 6-cyl. -Vlack Marion, 6-cyl Marmon . . ; . .Maxwell Mercedes Mercer Metz Mitchell Moline (Knight) Monroe National, 12-cyl Oakland, 8-cyl Oldsmobile Overland, 4-cyl. Overland, 6-cyl Packard, 12-cyl Packard, Comm. Paige, 6-cyl Pathfinder, 12-cyl Peerless, 4, 6 & 8-cyl. . . . Pierce-Arrow, 6-cyl. Pierce- Arrow, Comm. . . . Premier Pullman Regal, 8-cyl Reo Saxon, 4-cyl Saxon, 6-cyl. Selden Steams-Knight, 4&8-cyl. Stevens-Duryea Studebaker Stutz Velie, 6-cyl. Westcott White Wichita Willys-Knight Winton viscosity of cylinder oil at ioo°F. 250-275 225-300 250-350 250-350 250-350 275-375 220-275 300-375 300-375 225-300 225-300 350-700 ■ 225 300 250-300 275-300 250-300 220-275 250-350 250-300 275-375 250-350 250-300 250-325 275-375 200-250 275-375 220-275 275-325 250-350 200-250 250-325 250-350 350-700 275-375 250-350 300-375 220-275 250-350 250-350 225-325 350-700 250-325 50 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS offer any regular basis for comparison so far as the viscosity at ioo° F. is concerned. Where the working conditions are severe and a heavy oil is required, the tendency is to supply oils of higher viscosity than was formerly considered necessary under similar circumstances. In winter, it is necessary to use oils of low cold test to avoid difficulty in starting the engine, conse- quently oils of lower viscosity are needed in winter than in summer, as the heavier oils usually have relatively high cold tests particularly if from paraffin-base oils. The tabulated analyses are not all for high grade oils. Owing to competitive conditions in the oil trade, and to the higher cost of the heavier oils, the tendency is to substitute low viscosity oils under the name "heavy" motor oils, and similarly for "me- dium" motor oils. While this may apparently be to the interest of the oil manufacturer, it is certainly not to the interest of the consumer. His interest demands an oil of somewhat too high viscosity in preference to an oil of too low viscosity. Oil Consumption. — Most motorists waste their cylinder oil. With an oil of proper viscosity and with proper piston clearance as in new cars, the oil consumption can be cut to 25 per cent, of the average per mile consumption. Cars which normally require a gallon of oil for each 150 to 200 miles can be run with proper motor conditions for 600 to 800 miles on the same amount of a suitable oil. With proper oil-feed, carbon troubles would be a thing of the past. The blue smoke from the exhaust is not al- ways due to a low grade gasoline; it is often due to an excess of cylinder oil. With loose "leaky" piston rings a heavier oil is needed and more of it. More gasoline is also required and the results are in general less satisfactory. The proper clearance of pistons is not over 0.002 inch per inch of cylinder diameter. The crank- case reservoir should be cleaned out at frequent intervals. This becomes more necessary if there is leakage of contaminated and sooty oil past the piston head. A proper oil seal on the piston rings is as important as actual lubrication in saving power and in protecting the oil in the reservoir from contamination by hot gases and wastes irom the cylinder. AUTOMOBII,i; IvUBEICATlON 51 The secret of successful motor lubrication is to keep the motor in good mechanical condition and use an oil of good (high) vis- cosity somewhat sparingly. It is not necessary to have an oil of quite as high viscosity for winter use as for summer use. The two most important and necessary characteristics of motor oils are proper viscosity at the working temperatures and low carbon formation. The excessive high engine speeds, 2,600 to 3,400 revolutions per minute in some modern automobile engines, and the attendant high rubbing speeds in the cylinders make an oil of just the right viscosity absolutely necessary, otherwise the oil film will not have time to form and the power out-put of the engine will also be reduced. B. GENERAL CHASSIS LUBRICATION. Transmission Lubrication. — Where the transmission is suitably housed to retain oil, a good steam refined cylinder stock of 160 to 220 viscosity at 210° F. is a satisfactory lubricant. The lu- bricant should have enough body to adhere to and cushion the gears without wiping off from the teeth under the great pressure. Such an oil should be from 25° to 26° Be., 30° F. cold test, 550° to 600° F. flash in the. open cup and 600° to 675° F. fire test. Where an oil does not have enough body, as in heavy cars and trucks, a transmission grease can be used. The true transmission greases are usually dark in appearance, being made from cylinder stocks, and are semi-fluid. The body of such a grease can be made sufficiently high for any properly designed transmission while the ability of the grease to stick to the gears is retained. If the grease is not semi-fluid, but stiff and heavy, the gears will cut "tracks" through it without being properly lubricated. If the grease is too thin, as would be the case if a thin oil were used in making the grease, the gears will not be cushioned properly. Light cars are often lubricated with cup greases or similar light greases, either alone or mixed with steam refined cylinder stock. The light greases alone are hardly to be recommended as the greases have to be fairly stiff in order to do the work properly, S 52 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS particularly if made from the usual grades of thin oils, but a stiff grease may fail to lubricate also by having the gears cut tracks through it. Differential Lubrication. — A dark semi-fluid transmission grease of good body is suitable. The grease can be somewhat stiffer than described for the transmission. It should be made from cylinder oil stock. Cup greases should not be used, except pos- sibly for light cars. Some manufacturers use graphite or mica to assist in cushion- ing the gears. Excessive amounts of these substances act as cheapeners, although reasonable additions are legitimate. Poorly designed or poorly cut bearings on heavy cars or trucks may require lubrication with a special heavy grease containing solid fiber, either asbestos or wood. Such a grease may reduce rattling, but it also increases power losses. Worm Drives. — A special heavy gear grease is used on worm drives. The oil in the grease should be a suitable cylinder stock. For some drives an extra heavy cylinder stock of 220 to 250 viscosity at 210° F. is preferred instead of the grease. The use of tar or asphalt-thickened oils or greases is inadvisable for any of the gears of automobiles or trucks. EoUer Bearings. — For automobiles a medium to soft grade of fiber or cup grease can be used. For heavy trucks, it is neces- sary to use a tough, stringy grease made from a good cylinder stock. Fiber or sponge greases are preferable to cup greases as there is less tendency for the oil to separate from the grease. Gear compounds, which should only be made from sponge or fiber greases combined with heavy oil, are least likely to leak out. The bearings of the rear axle are partly lubricated by the waste lubricant from the differential. Greases loaded with much graphite or mica should not be used on the roller bearings in the wheels. The Use of Cup Greases. — The chief use for cup greases in auto- mobile lubrication is in connection with the various compression cups. For this work various consistencies are available, the most usual grade being a medium grease of No. 3 body. AUTOMOBILE I.UBRICATION 53 Electric Road Vehicles. — For the transmission and gears a high- grade steam refined cylinder stock of 170 to 240 viscosity at 210° F. is suitable. The oil should have a fairly low cold test for winter use. Such a high viscosity oil will have sufficient adhering power to cling to the gears under pressure. In the rare cases where there is a tendency for the oil to work out, a thin, semi- fluid gear grease made from a high-viscosity cylinder stock can be used successfully. For general lubrication of the electric motors, etc., an oil of 300 to 350 viscosity at 100° F. can be used. ADDITIONAL REFERENCE. Bryan on "Motor Oils,'' /. Am. Soc. Mech. Bng., 37, p. 293. CHAPTER VII. THE LUBRICATION OF ELECTRICAL MACHINERY. Dynamos and Motors. — Most of these machines are equipped with ring-feed bearings, or with circulating feed. The usual conditions are high speeds and a fairly high operating tempera- ture due to the heat generated by the electric current in the adjacent coils. The function of the oil is to give sufficient lubri- cation and to aid in cooling the bearings. Since the oil is used over and over again, a thin oil is decidedly preferable. Such an oil circulates more readily and permits the impurities to settle out more quickly. Where the oil-cooling reservoir is not sufficiently large an oil of higher viscosity becomes necessary. Such an oil is more likely to form gummy material and give trouble than would a thinner oil kept at the proper temperature by an efficient cooling system. In starting a dynamo or motor, particularly the larger machines after long standing, the bearings can often be hand-oiled to ad- vantage. The oiling-rings should be regularly inspected to see that they are revolving and so feeding the oil properly. For lubricating the beariilgs of very small machines heavy spindle oils or non-viscous neutral oils can be used. These oils should have a viscosity of 70 to no at 100° F. For small dynamos and motors, of 5 to 35 horse-power, viscous neutral oils are required. Engine oils of good grade and light automobile oils are suitable. The oils should preferably be straight distillates purified by filtration rather than by chemical treatment, and of low enough cold test to meet the conditions of use. The gravity of the best oils will ordinarily be above 30° Be., but good oils can be had of 27° Be. The flash point will be above 380° F., the cold test below 20° F., and the viscosity 140 to 180 at 100° F. The oils should be free from gummy or tarry matter as shown by the gasoline test. For large dynamos and motors, over 50 horse-power, viscous neutral oils of 160 to 220 viscosity at 100° F., are suitable. These oils should preferably be straight distillates, have a flash test of THE I The pressure on the cutting edge is great and no lubrication is pos- sible or desired at this point. Mineral oils, such as keroserie oil or paraffin oils, can be used as cutting oils. They are more often compounded with 20 to 25 per cent, of fixed oil, such as lard oil or cottonseed oil, or even corn oil. Kerosene seems to work well on cast iron, but the presence of lard oil or some similar oil seems to make a cleaner, smoother and faster cut on steel and copper. The paraffin oil can be compounded with other fixed oils with similar results. Emulsions of water, soap and mineral oils, with or without soda, are also used for cutting purposes. These so-called soluble oils are made by combining soluble soaps with light mineral oils, such as paraffin oils. The soaps may be made from fats, rosin, etc. The product emulsifies permanently, if properly made, when brought into contact with water. The emulsion is also made by dissolving a suitable soft soap in water and then stirring in a mixture of lard oil and paraffin oil. The presence of the oils and soap tends to reduce the amount of rusting which might be caused by the water. These water soluble oils are better cooling agents than the pure oil products on account of the fact that the heat absorbing capacity of water is about twice as great as that of oils. Special merit is claimed for the suspension of graphite in water known as "aquadag.' Where a purification system is used and the oils are available for re-use, the more expensive cutting oils can be used to ad- vantage. For cutting oil specifications see Index. 8 CHAPTER XII. PHYSICAL METHODS OF TESTING LUBRICATING OILS. From the large number of tests and methods available an ef- fort has been made to give tests which meet present day re- quirements. It might be well to state that no standard methods of proced- ure have been generally adopted. The nearest approach to stand- ard methods is in the case of methods proposed for viscosity, specific gravity, free acid, and cloud and pour tests (cold test), recommended by a Committee of the American Society for Testing Materials (Proceedings, 1915), but these tests have not yet been officially adopted by the' Society. A few methods have been proposed by the International Petroleum Commission. A statement of the meaning or value of each test is usually given as an aid to its use and in interpreting the results obtained. VISCOSITY. By viscosity is meant the internal friction or "body" of an oil. In commercial instruments, the viscosity is determined by the rate of flow of the oil through a small tube, but the figures obtained are not in exact proportion to the true viscosity par- ticularly for thin oils. Viscosity in true liquids is inversely pro- portional to the fluidity. The viscosity of an oil is the most important property of the oil from a lubrication standpoint. The relation of viscosity to friction and lubrication is discussed elsewhere in this volume. The coefficient of friction has been shown to be proportional to the true (absolute) viscosity of oils at the temperature of use. The real importance of the viscosity determination has been ob- scured by the fact that determinations have been made at tem- peratures which did not represent the working temperatures, and by the fact that the viscosities as read by commercial viscosimeters do not show the true viscosity or even the exact relative viscosity, particularly for oils of less than 200 Saybolt viscosity. Thus, the real viscosity of an oil of 100 Saybolt is considerably less than half the viscosity of another oil reading 200 Saybolt. This be- PHYSICAI, METHODS Of TESTING LUBRICATING OII,S lOI comes of greater importance when it is recalled that the viscosity as read decreases rapidly with rise of temperature and the true viscosity decreases more rapidly still than is indicated by the read- ing ; also the temperature of the oil film actually doing the lubri- cating is higher than the temperature shown by any part of the bearing. The commercial methods of taking viscosity are based on the time required for a given volume of the oil to flow through a certain size opening or tube under specified conditions. In order to make a single instrument answer for all types of oils, the opening is made too large, or the tube too short, for thin oils to register their true relative viscosities as compared to the thicker oils. The recognition of this fact will greatly extend the useful- ness of the viscosity test. The Bureau of Standards ha;s under- taken the problem of determining the absolute (true) viscosities for the Saybolt and Engler viscosimeters which should put the interpretation of viscosities on a sound scientific basis. The Uni- versal Saybolt viscosimeter has not yet been fully standardized as to the exact dimensions of the outflow tube, so that the read- ings with different instruments vary more than do the readings with different Engler viscosimeters which have been fully stand- ardized in all particulars. Ubbelohde has published tables for conversion of Engler viscosities into absolute viscosities. The Saybolt universal viscosimeter, which is the only type of Saybolt viscosimeter now used, requires only a small amount of oil for the determination. The time of outflow of 60 cc. of oil expressed in seconds is taken as the viscosity of the oil at the temperature used. This viscosimeter requires about 28 seconds for 60 cc. of water to flow out at 68° F. (20° C). The Engler viscosimeter, used in Continental Europe and largely by the United States Government, requires practically 51 seconds (50 to 52 seconds) for 200 cc. of water to flow out at 20° C. (68° F.) when 240 cc. of water is used in the instrument. The viscosity of an oil is taken by using 240 cc. of the oil in the viscosimeter, adjusting the temperature to the desired point by means of the water bath which is part of the instrument, and 102 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS noting the number of seconds required for 200 cc. of the oil to flow out. The Engler viscosity or Engler number for the ob- served temperature is calculated by dividing the time of outflow of the oil (in seconds) by the time of outflow of water at 68° F. (in seconds). ^nsraKiE: Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. (Sectional View.) (By courtesy of Piatt & Washburn Refining Co., New York.) To determine the viscosity of an oil: The water-bath (A) is kept at the tempera- ture at which the viscosity is to be determined. The well-cleaned cylinder (B) is filled with the strained oil until it overflows into C. When the oil reaches the desired temperature (usually loo", 130°, or 210° F.) the thermometer is removed from B, the excess oil pipetted from C, and the stopper (D) removed. The exact time in seconds noted for 60 cc. of the oil to flow into G is the Saybolt viscosity of the oil at the temperature used. A stop-watch should be used. PHYSICAL METHODS Of TESTING LUBRICATING OILS 103 Tables are given showing the relation of Engler viscosity and Saybolt viscosity (page 218), but the relations hold only for the instruments used in making the comparisons as the Saybolt di- mensions have not been fully determined as previously stated. The Engler viscosimeter requires a large amount of oil for a complete determination, but where only a small amount of oil is available, or it is desired to shorten the time, the time of outflow of a smaller amount of oil may be taken in seconds, using a smaller amount of oil in the viscosimeter. The factors given be- low are used to multiply the seconds noted to find the time of out- flow of 200 cc. if 240 cc. of oil had been used in the instrument. The errors are somewhat larger than for a regular determination. (See Ch. A., p. 304, 1912, Offerman, also Holde and Gans.) Amount of oil used cc. Amount run out cc. Multiplying factor 25 10 13- . 45 20 7-25 45 25 5-55 50 20 7.3 50 40 3.62 60 50 2.79 120 100 1-65 240 100 2.35 The Dudley, or Pennsylvania Railroad pipette, is sometimes used to get comparative viscosities of oils where a standard vis- cosimeter is not available. An exact standardization of such an instrument is impossible, so the results are valuable only for the direct comparison of oils at room temperatures. The old practice of taking viscosities at 70° F. is indefensible as oils are practically never used at that temperature. So long as Pennsylvania oils only were used the results at 70° F. were roughly proportional for oils of the same class at 100° F. or higher. Lubricating oils from other sources may show greater viscosities at 70° F. than Pennsylvania oils and less viscosity at 100° F. or at working temperatures, owing to more rapid thinning I04 AMERICAN I^UBRICANTS >. =< a w i a *^ aj s (u 1^ (U C r- H U j:: 4; .- - £. ' Li OJ I "C u: tfi - I 3 — I ■l>^^ el's 5 11 ' U a £ ■0 '^ a 2 5 -■= s E : "o a; 4i PHYSICAI, METHODS OP TESTING LUBRICATING OII,S IO5 under heat. After this preHminary thinning, the viscosities do not vary so differently upon further heating. The determination of viscosity at 100° F. has now become general in this country, ex- cept for car oils which are tested at 210° F. and sometimes at 130° F., and for cylinder oils and stocks which are tested at 210° F. The Government, following foreign practice, sometimes takes the viscosity of engine oils at 50° C. (122° F.) which seems to be good practice as this is near the possible working temperature of the oil. The practice of taking the viscosity of engine oils and heavy motor oils at 130° F. should be encouraged, since a better basis for comparison of the true working viscosities of different types of heavy oil can be obtained at this temperature than at 100° F. The practice of taking the viscosity of cylinder oils, as is fre- quently advocated, at temperatures above 212° F. is of no value for routine testing or for specifications as the viscosity at higher temperatures can be correctly inferred from the viscosity at 210° F. The presence of soaps and other oil thickeners dissolved in an oil interfere with a correct determination of the viscosity. Such thickeners must first be removed, or the viscosity determined at a sufficiently high temperature to render their effect of minor im- portance, otherwise the viscosity reading will be misleading. Such oils give a "fictitious" viscosity reading. For change of viscosity with change of temperature, see analyses under spindle oils, loom oils and cylinder oils. Absolute Viscosities.^In commercial viscosimeters arbitrary scales have been adopted which do not give proportional viscosi- ties for different oils even with the same instrument. This is because the outflow tube is too large and too short to register the whole energy of outflow, particularly for the thin oils. Abso- lute viscosities are expressed in "dynes per square centimeter" and the specific gravities of the oils are taken into account as a heavier oil will give a slightly shorter outflow time than a lighter oil of the same absolute viscosity. Corrections are also made for I06 AMERICAN I^UBRICANTS the energy of flow not used in overcoming resistance within the outflow tube. The units used are not familiar to the oil trade, but will doubtless become so as soon as definite figures are pub- lished for the Saybolt viscosimeter. (See Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat., 1915, for the work of Dr. Waidner of the Bureau of Stand- ards ; also P. C. Mcllhiny, /. Ind. & Eng. Chem., 8, p. 434, 1916 for tables and discussion of new units.) It might be of interest and of value to coiripare briefly the Say- bolt readings in terms of relative Saybolt viscosities with an oil of 200 Saybolt viscosity. Usual Saybolt reading True relative viscosity as corupared to an oil of 200 Saybolt viscosity 400 200 100 76 50 40 405 200 94 67 36 23 The results are only approximately accurate as the efiEect of different gravities has not been considered and the published data is not exact, but they serve to show in a measure how the real viscosity varies more rapidly for low viscosity oils than revealed by the Saybolt readings. Thus an oil of 50 Saybolt viscosity, in- stead of having 50 per cent. (50/100) of the viscosity of an oil of 100 Saybolt viscosity,, as might be expected, has a viscosity of 39 per cent. (36/94) of that of the 100 viscosity oil which is only 78 per cent, of the expected viscosity. This serves to in- dicate the need for a more rational expression of viscosity meas- urements or a more rational basis for interpreting viscosity. Standardization of Viscosimeter s. — For "Standard Substances for the Calibration of Viscosimeters," see Scientific Paper No. 298 of the Bureau of Standards. This paper, by Bingham and Jackson, gives exact data for the use of sugar solutions and alcohol-water mixtures. A mixture of 45 per cent, by volume of ethyl alcohol and water has a viscosity which is almost exactly four times that of water at 0° C. Since the viscosity of ethyl PHYSICAL METHODS Olf TESTING RUBRICATING OILS IO7 alcohol-water mixtures passes through a maximum at this con- centration, the viscosity does not change rapidly with the concen- tration, which is a marked advantage. The absolute viscosity of water at 20° C. (68° F.) is given as 1.005 centipoise. MECHANICAL TESTS. The usual oil testing machines give little information of value to the user of oils. The conditions of use on testing machines do not duplicate the actual service conditions, so the tests are chiefly valuable as tests of the working conditions used, or as a test of the general principles of lubrication involved, rather than a test of the suitability of the oil for a definite purpose. Much has been learned about the science of lubrication by the use of testing machines, such as the coefficient of friction to con- sider as a working ideal for given pressures and speeds. Ub- belohde (Petrol. 7, p. 773, 882 and 938, 1912; see Chem. Ah., p. 1986, and 2521, 1912, also p. 248, 1121, and 2678, 1913) has shown by experiment that the coefficient of friction of an oil can be calculated from the absolute viscosity of the oil (Holde, Eng. Ed., p. 125). The Saybolt-and Engler viscosities are not directly pro- portional to the true or absolute viscosity of the oil, and this fact together with the practice of taking the viscosities of oils at un- suitable temperatures has tended to obscure the important rela- tion between viscosity and the coefficient of friction. High viscosity oils have high coefficients of friction and so the best oil to use in practice is an oil of just sufficient viscosity at the working temperature to keep the bearings apart with cer- tainty under all conditions. The viscosity test, in conjunction with the available information on lubricating principles, is a suf- ficient guide to successful lubrication. Actual service tests can be used to confirm the accuracy of the conclusions from the viscosity determination. Thurston and others have studied the principles underlying lubrication, and in this way the use of testing machines have proved of great service. CHAPTER XIII. PHYSICAL METHODS OF TESTING LUBRICATING OILS. (Continued.) A. GRAVITY TESTS. The gravity test has been accorded too much weight in judging the lubricating value of oils, consequently oils have often been found unsuitable because some more vital test, such as viscosity, has been sacrificed to meet an impracticable gravity requirement. It has great value in the refinery as a quick method of judging when to make the "cuts" or changes in distillation. So long as Pennsylvania crude was the only oil used, the gravity was an index to the viscosity and was, therefore, of real value to the user. With the production of lubricating oils from other crudes, the gravity test has lost much of its value unless taken in con- junction with other tests. The gravity is of value in judging the type of crude from which the oil was refined. Thus high viscosity oils (viscous neutrals) do not run over 30° Be. unless from Pennsylvania or similar crude. For a given crude the vis- cosity is generally proportional to the gravity, but this is not necessarily true for oils of the same type from different crudes. All mineral oils contain about 85 per cent, actual carbon, so a possible variation of i or 2 per cent, in the carbon content of an oil as evidenced by a lower gravity can hardly be of any prac- tical significance. It has long been a trade custom to use the Baume gravity (° Be.) instead of the specific gravity. The simplest way to take the gravity is with a hydrometer as shown in the accompanying illustration. Hydrometers are made which read either Baume gravity (degrees Baume), or specific gravity, or both. Hydrom- eters can also be had in sets so that more exact readings can be made than where the whole scale is on a single spindle. Since the gravity must be taken at 60° F., or be corrected to 60° F., hydrometers may be equipped with thermometers. Sufficient time should be allowed for the thermometer to register the true tem- perature of the oil. For most lubricating oils the correction for PHYSICAL MI;TH0DS Olf Ti;STING LUBRICATING OILS IO9 1 E Showing Correct Method of Reading Hydrometer. (From Bureau of Standards Circular No. 57.) In taking the reading the eye should be placed slightly below the plane of the surface of the oil and then raised slowly until this surface becomes a straight line. The point at which this line cuts the hydrometer scale is taken as the reading of the instrument. With an oil not sufficiently clear to allow a reading as described, the reading can be made above the oil surface and a suitable correction made. no AMERICAN LUBRICANTS temperature is approximately 0.06° Be. for each degree Fahren- heit above or below 60° F., the correction to be subtracted when the reading is made above 60° F. Tables are given (page 220) for correcting the gravity where the observation is not made at ^0° F. (pr see Bureau of Standards Circ. No. 57). For exact determinations of gravity, the Westphal specific gravity balance, or a pycnometer (specific gravity bottle) may be used. The pycnometer should be standardized with distilled water at 60° F. (15.6° C). The specific gravity correction is about 0.00036 for each degree Fahrenheit above or below 60° F. (equivalent to 0.00065 correction for 1° C), the correction to be added for temperatures above 60° F. The correction is slightly higher for lubricating oils of low specific gravity. Tables are given for converting specific gravity into degrees Baume, etc. The Baume scale is unscientific in that it was arbitrarily chosen and bears no obvious relation to the weight as does the specific gravity. There are a number of Baume scales for liquids lighter than water, but the Bureau of Standards has sanctioned the scale based on the following formula : Sp. gr. 6o°/6o° ^ 'f ^, ' 130 + deg. Be. The specific gravity shows the weight of an oil as compared to water as unity at 60° F. Since i gallon of water at 60° F. weighs 8.32823 pounds, the weight of i gallon of oil can be cal- culated by multiplying this value by the specific gravity of the oil at 60° F. Heavy oils have low Baume gravities, but high specific gravities. B. FLASH TEST. The flash point of an oil is the lowest temperature at which the oil gives off sufficient vapors to form an inflammable mixture with air. The flash point varies with the conditions of testing and with the apparatus used. The flash point does not indicate the value of an oil for lub- ricating purposes, except in a very general way. Thus very high flash oils, such as cylinder oils, mvist visvially have a high vis- cosity, and light oils such as spiridle oils cannot have as high PHYSICAI, METHODS OE TESTING RUBRICATING OIIenetrable yellow mass indicates olive oil. lyard oil shows a fairly hard mass by this test, other oils show softer, buttery masses. Palm Oil. — This oil is a yellow or orange colored solid at ordi- nary temperatures. For lubrication, the oil must be tested for free acid as free fatty acids form easily, over 50 per. cent, being present at times. In crude samples several per cent, of dirt, trash and water may be present. These can be removed by melting and straining. While palm oil is used considerably abroad, notably in England for railway carriage greases, its use as a lubricant has never been so great in the United States. For grease making, a fairly high percentage of free fatty acids is not undesirable provided the grease is made by converting the fatty acids into a soap. Peanut Oil (Arachis Oil). — This is classed as a non-drying oil and is sometimes substituted for olive oil. While it has been used very little as a lubricant, it does not gum so much as does rape oil, and so owing to its increased production in the United States it may find some application as a lubricant. Rape Oil (Rapeseed Oil, Colza Oil). — This is a pale yellow oil with a characteristic odor and taste. It is a semi-drying oil and so has some tendency to gum when used as a lubricant. The free fatty acids usually run from i to 6 per cent. Sulphuric acid \ ANIMAI< AND VEGETABI,S OII,S 147 may be present in the refined oil. Rape oil is rather difficult to saponify. Rape oil has never had the vogue in the United States it enjoyed abroad, except possibly for blending with heavy mineral ofls for use in marine engines. It has a fairly high vis- cosity and so is used to some extent for compounding cylinder oils. This is particularly true of blown rape oil which has an exceedingly high viscosity and a high specific gravity in which respects it resembles castor oil. Rosin Oils. — Many grades of these oils are obtained by the distillation of rosin, the usual standard grades being first, sec- ond, third and fourth run rosin oils. The first run oil is thicker, of a lighter color, and contains more rosin acids than the later runs. The early runs are therefore more valuable for grease making, e. g., for axle grease. Besides the rosin acids the oils consist largely of hydrocarbon oils. The iodine number varies from around sixty for the first run oil to about twenty for the last runs. The saponification number, which shows the amount of free acid and saponifiable matter present, gives. a sat- isfactory basis for the valuation of the oil for grease making, the oils with high saponification numbers being more valuable for this purpose. First run rosin oils are also known as "Hard Rosin Oils," the other grades being known as medium and soft rosin oils. When heated, rosin oils have the odor of rosin. They flash around 320° F. and contain from 3 per cent, to 40 per cent, of free acids. The specific gravity varies from 0.96 to 1.02. Crude rosin oils have a fluorescence or "bloom" somewhat like mineral oils. The late runs of rosin oil may be refined by sulphuric acid to yield a lighter colored oil. In this case most of the rosin acids are removed which makes the oil more suitable for lubricating purposes. With the increased price of rosin, and consequently of rosin oils, the chief reason for the use of rosin oil for lubri- cating oil has been removed. The refined oils have been used widely as lubricating oils, either alone or mixed with mineral oils, but this practice is not advisable as- mineral oils fully answer the same purpose. The presence of rosin oil in fatty oils can be detected by a II .148 AMERICAN I3 ° fc.'Sn << in p. n a == Permissible variation 0.003 Bone fat Castor oil Corn (Maize) oil Cottonseed oil Horse oil Lard Lard oil Linseed oil (raw) Menhaden oil Neatsfoot oil Olive oil Palm oil - ■ • Peanut (Arachis) oil Rape (Colza) oil Rosin oils Seal oil Soy-bean oil Sperm oil Tallow Tallow oil Whale oil 0-915 0.964 0.923 0.924 0.919 0-935 0.916 0-934 0.930 0.915 0.917 0.924 0.919 0.915 (0-985) 0.921 0.925 0.880 0.946 0.916 0.922 192 182 190 194 196 196 195 190 191 196 190 197 193 174 20-34 192 191 130 195 196 190 48 to 55 82 " 88 "3 105 74 52 66 171 145 65 80 50 85 96 (40 130 122 81 35 55 120 125 112 86 63 77 192 ,165 75 87 56 98 103 50) 150 1.35 88 46 57 135 35 47 83 76 50 26 42 124 125 46 43 58 59 30 92 60 47 41 41 91 (- 16 14 16 2 35 29 3 20 6 ■ 5 o 35 o 5 5) 2 5 o 35 24 4 28 3 15 33 37 38 35 17 26 21 41 27 14 18 23 14 41 23 150 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS ANIMAL OILS. The oils and fats from land animals constitute the most val- uable of the fixed oils for lubricating purposes. Bone Fat and Bone Oil. — Bone fat usually contains about i per cent, of ash and a large percentage of free fatty acids. Its general properties are somewhat similar to tallow. Bone oil, from bone fat, is somewhat like neatsfoot oil. It has a low cold test and is a good lubricant if the fatty acids are removed. Horse Oil.— This oil is used to mix with or adulterate other oils used in lubrication and for manufacturing lubricating greases and soaps. Lard. — This is the solid, rendered fat from pigs. It is chiefly used for edible purposes and for preparing lard oil. Lard Oil. — This oil is prepared from lard somewhat as tallow oil is prepared from tallow. It is used for general lubrication, and is often seriously adulterated with light petroleum oils be- fore it reaches the ultimate consumer. There are several grades of lard oil, depending on the grade of lard used and the tempera- ture of pressing. The cold test varies considerably. The best grades have very little odor. Only the better grades should be used for compounding. Menhaden Oil. — This is a fish oil with drying properties. It is used in paints and soaps, but is not generally suitable for lubri- cation. Neatsfoot Oil. — This oil consists largely of olein and does not become rancid easily. It is rendered from the feet of cattle. It is used as a lubricant, either alone or in mixtures with mineral oils similar to the use of tallow oil. It is a valuable oil for lubri- cation. Porpoise Oil. — There are two varieties, the body oil and the jaw oil, which differ considerably in character. They are used for lubricating watches and other delicate machinery. The two varieties of dolphin or black fish oil find a similar use. Seal Oil. — This oil is prepared from the blubber of the seal. It is not much used for lubrication as it has drying properties. ANIMAI, AND VIJGETABIvE OII,S ISI Sperm Oil. — This is not a true oil, but a liquid wax. It has the lowest specific gravity of .the fixed oils and a low saponifica- tion number. It contains no glycerine. While its viscosity, is not so high as that of some other oils, it keeps its viscosity unusually well at elevated temperatures. It is excellent for light running machinery, does not corrode, or turn rancid or gum. Tallows. — Beef tallow is rendered from the fat of cattle, mutton tallow from the fat of sheep and goats. Tallow varies consid- erably in melting point and other properties, depending on the animal from which it comes, the temperature of rendering, etc. Soft tallows may melt as low as 36° C. while hard tallows may melt as high as 50° C. The free fatty acids usually range from almost none up to 6 per cent. Tallow consists chiefly of olein and stearin. Tallows are valued by the melting or solidification point, the high-melting point tallows being the more valuable. Tallow is used directly as a lubricant in tallow greases, or for soap-making, or for making tallow-soap greases. Many garbage greases, yellow greases, etc., are sold for jpur- poses similar to tallow. These are valued by their melting point and the amount of saponifiable matter they contain. They usu- ally contain fairly large amounts of unsaponifiable matter. Tallow Oil. — When tallow is melted and then allowed to remain for some time at approximately 85° F., part of the stearin crys- tallizes out and can be removed from the oil by filter pressing. The stearin is used for candle and soap making, while the "tallow oil" is used for lubrication and other purposes. The relatively cheaper mineral oils have largely displaced tallow oil as a lubri- cating oil, except that up to 20 per cent, of tallow oil is still added to mineral oils for steam cylinder lubrication. For this purpose the tallow oil should be "acidless" by actual test. Whale Oil. — There are a number of varieties of this oil from the blubber of the whale. Only the best grades are suitable for lubrication. In common with most marine animal oils, the odor may be undesirable. CHAPTER XVIII. METHODS OF TESTING TATTY OUS. A. PHYSICAL METHODS. The Specific Gravity of fixed oils is characteristic for each oil and varies only within narrow limits. Any marked variation from the usual specific gravity is an indication of adulteration. The gravity can be taken with a hydrometer, but as considerable accuracy is necessary it is better to use a pycnometer or a West- phal balance, as explained under mineral oils. If the tempera- ture is not at 60° F. a' correction of 0.00038 is made for each degree Fahrenheit the temperature is found to differ from 60° F. (For each degree Centigrade the correction is 0.00068.) The correction is to be added if the observed temperature is above 60° F. (15.56° C.) The Solidification Point of fixed oils is very important if the oil is used for lubricating purposes. It is made in the same manner as the cold test or pour test for mineral oils. This is sufficiently accurate for practical purposes. The melting point is usually several degrees higher than the solidification point, which varies considerably for the same oil. Thus tallows vary owing to a variation in the amount of stearin present. The oil does not freeze as a whole, but is solidified by the crystallizing out of some constituent of the oil, usually stearin or palmitin. The Solidification Point of the Fatty Acids can be determined in the same way as for the oils. A very simple method for mak- ing the melting point determination is to put some of the melted acids in a capillai'y tube closed at one end, letting cool for sev- eral hours, fastening the tube with the closed end opposite the bulb of a thermometer, immersing in a water bath which is slowly heated, and noting the temperature at which the fatty acids be- come clear. The fatty acids for the above test can be prepared by saponi- fying 50 grams of the oil with about 50 cc. of 30 per cent, caustic soda solution to which about 50 cc. of alcohol has been added. METHODS OF TESTING FATTY OILS 153 The mixture is evaporated to dryness over a very low flame so as to prevent scorching. The soap is then dissolved in some 600 cc. of water, and boiled for some time after the soap is completely dissolved to insure the removal of the alcohol. If the solution is not clear, or great accuracy is desired, the solution is cooled and the unsaponifiable matter removed by shaking out with ether. Finally about 100 cc. of 20 per cent, sulphuric acid is added to the hot soap solution to set the fatty acids free. Boil until the fatty acids collect on top of the water, remove the fatty acids and wash free of sulphuric acid by means of hot water. Heat the acids in a dish on the water bath until clear and free from water. A determination of the Refractive Index of oils by means of the Abbe Refractometer or the Zeiss Butyro-Refractometer gives valuable data for determining the purity and character of an oil. This determination is easily and quickly made, and so is espe- cially valuable in the routine examination of a large number of oils.. The refractive index for any fixed oil varies only between narrow limits. The Flash Point of natural fixed oils is usually above 500° F. with the open cup. Only blown oils, rosin oils, and sometimes neatsfoot oil have lower flash tests. The Viscosity determination is of value in certain cases, as with blown oils, rape oil, castor oil and sperm oil. The approximate Saybolt viscosities of some fatty oils are as follows : Refined rape oil Castor oil Lard oil Neatsfoot oil Sperm oil Tallow (hard, beef) lOOOP. 255 64 1,350 105 210 — 215 98 57 46 — 59 B. CHEMICAL METHODS. The chief chemical tests for these oils are the determination of the saponification number, the iodine number, the Maumene 154 AMERICAN I^UBRICANTS number, the amount of free fatty acid, and a, few other special determinations. The Saponification Number (or Koettstorfer value) is the number of milligrams of caustic potash required to saponify i gram of the oil or fat. The number for most oils varies around 190 to 19s ; that is, most oils require from 19.0 to 19.5 per cent, of caustic potash to saponify them completely. Some oils, like castor oil, rape oil and sperm oil, have much lower numbers. The saponification number is determined as follows: Weigh 2 grams of the oil or filtered fat into a clean 200 cc. Erlenmeyer flask. Measure into the flask exactly 25 cc. of clear alcoholic potash (containing about 40 grams of KOH in a liter of 95 per cent, alcohol). A second flask is prepared at the same time and in the same way except that 'no oil is added. Connect the flask with a reflux condenser and boil on a water bath for 30 minutes or until saponification is complete. Cool and titrate with half- normal acid (HCl) using phenolphthalein as indicator. To cal- culate the saponification number, subtract the number of cubic centimeters of half-normal acid used in the titration from the number of cubic centimeters of half -normal acid used to titrate the "blank," multiply the result by 28.05 ^^^ divide by the num- ber of grams of oil used. A simple qualitative saponification can be carried out by putting a little of the oil in a flask, adding a short stick of caustic potash and a small amount of alcohol. Heat on a water bath for a half hour using a glass tube as a reflux condenser. Pour the mixture at once into a large beaker of water ; a clear solution indicates freedom from mineral oils, a turbid solution, indicates the presence of mineral oil or rosin oil. Iodine Number. — This is the most important single determina- tion for detecting the character of an oil. The Hanus method for determining the iodine number is as follows : Weigh out accurately from 0.12 to 0.25 gram of the oil, using the smaller amount for drying oils. For fats or mineral oils from 0.50 to 1. 00 gram may be used. The amount of oil should be small enough so that not over 40 per cent, of the iodine solution will METHODS 0]? TESTING FATTY OILS 155 be used up. The oil can be weighed best by difference. Dissolve the weighed oil in a 250 cc. glass-stoppered flask by means of 10 cc. of chloroform. Now add 25 cc. of the Hanus iodine solu- tion. Prepare a "blank" in the same way with exactly the same amount of iodine solution, draining the pipette carefully in each case. Let stand with occasional shaking for 30 minutes without exposing to strong light. At the end of just 30 minutes add 10 cc. of 15 per cent, potassium iodide solution, mix, add about 100 cc. of water and titrate with N/io sodium thiosulphate solution. As the color fades add a little fresh starch solution and titrate slowly until the blue color disappears. The flask should be well shaken just before the end of the titration. Calculate the iodine number as follows : Subtract the number of cubic centimeters of the thiosulphate solution required for the titration from the number of cubic centimeters of thiosulphate solution used to titrate the blank, multiply the result by 1.27 and divide by the arnount of oil used. The Hiibl and the Wijs methods -for determining the iodine number give approximately the same results as the Hanus method. Mineral oils have a very low iodine number, usually 8 to 16, or even higher for cracked oils, while fatty oils show a range from about 35 up to 200. The iodine number shows the degree of saturation of the oil, particularly the degree of satu- ration of the fatty acids. Oils with an iodine number much over 100 are not usually suitable for lubricating oils on account of their drying character which causes the oil to gum. The Maumene Number is quickly and easily determined and often gives valuable information. Fifty grams of the oil are weighed into a tall beaker, the exact temperature of the oil noted, and 10 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid at the same temperature are run in gradually with stirring. The beaker is protected as much as possible against loss of heat. The stirring is continued and the highest temperature noted, being careful to wait suffi- ciently long to be certain of the highest temperature. The rise in temperature expressed in degrees Centigrade is the Maumene number. It is usually roughly in proportion to the iodine num- ber. It is very important that strong sulphuric acid, at least 96 156 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS per cent, be used. Such an acid will show a Maumene number of about 44 when tested with water instead of with oil. Mineral oils usually give Maumene numbers from three to six. Higher values indicate the addition of rosin or fatty oils. Rosin oils usually give numbers around 30. Cylinder oil stocks have a Maumene number of four or five, while compounded cylinder oils have a Maumene number from seven to twelve. When the temperature is found to rise much above 60° C. the test should be repeated using a mixture of equal parts of pure light mineral oil and the unknown oil. Subtract two from the rise of temperature and multiply by two to get the Maumene number. Free Fatty Acids are usually present in varying amounts in fatty oils and may cause serious corrosion of machinery espe- cially in the presence of watpr or at elevated temperatures, as in steam cylinder lubrication. From 2 to 3 per cerit. of free fatty acids calculated as oleic acid should be about the maximum for fatty oils for lubricating purposes. To determine the per cent, of free fatty acids, weigh out 10 grams of the oil into a flask, add about 60 cc. of alcohol, connect the flask with a dry reflux condenser , and warm on a water-bath for a few minutes. Shake well, cool and titrate with N/5 caustic potash using phenolphthalein as indicator. The end-point is a permanent pink color after shaking the flask vigorously. A blank should be run in the same way and the proper correction made if the alcohol does not prove to have been neutral. To calculate the per cent, of "free oleic acid" multiply the number of cubic centimeters of N/5 caustic solution by 5.64 and divide by the number of grams, of oil used. Sometimes the fatty acids are reported as "acid number" which is the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free acids in i/ gram of the oil. This "acid number" can be cal- culated by multiplying the' "free oleic acid" by 2. (For other methods for determining free fatty acids, see Index.) The Eeichert-Meissi Number is important for testing certain oils \vhich contain notable percentages of volatile fatty acids METHODS OF TESTING PATTY OII,S 157 soluble in water. Such oils as cocoanut oil, palmnut oil, porpoise oil, dolphin jaw oil, lard oil, blown oils, croton oil and butter show characteristically large amounts of such fatty acids by this test. The Reichert-Meissl number for these oils is over six while for most other oils the^ number is one or less. The Reich- ert-Meissl number is the number of cubic centimeters of N/io caustic potash required to neutralize the volatile, water-soluble fatty acids obtained by a standard procedure from 5 grams of oil. See other texts for method of making the test which is not often necessary in testing lubricants. Color Tests. — A large number of color tests for special oil have been devised; but most of these tests are unreliable. Only the best of these are given. The Liebermann-Storcli Reaction is reliable for detecting rosin or rosin oils, especially in mineral oils. About 2 cc. of the oil are gently heated in a test tube with 4 cc. of acetic anhydride. Cool, filter so as to remove the oil and add to the clear filtrate i drop of sulphuric acid made by mixing equal volumes of con- centrated sulphuric acid and water. If rosin is present a fine fugitive violet color is produced at once. Some animal oils, par- ticularly fish oils, and a few vegetable • oils may give a similar test. The quantitative estimation of rosin or rosin oils is best made by Twitchell's method, but this method will not be described as the qualitative detection is usually sufficient. The Halphen Test for cottonseed oil is a reliable color test except that cottonseed oil which has beeh heated to 250° C. and blown cottonseed oil do not give the test. Two cc. each of the oil, amyl alcohol, and a i per cent, solution of carbon disulphide are heated in a test tube in a boiling water bath for 20 to 30 minutes. As much as 5 per cent, of cottonseed oil gives a char- acteristic deep red color. Fat from cattle which have been fed on cottonseed meal may give the test. The Bechi or Silver Nitrate Test is another characteristic reac- tion for cottonseed oil, although it has the same limitations as the Halphen test and is not quite so reliable. It is a very delicate test showing as little as 5 per cent, of cottonseed oil. Make a i I 158 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS per cent, solution of silver nitrate in 95 per cent, alcohol free from aldehyde and add about half as much ether as alcohol. Add I drop of nitric acid to a 100 cc. of this solution. Upon heating 10 cc. of the oil with about 5 cc. of the above reagent,, using a test tube immersed in boiling water for about 20 minutes, a dark- ening will be observed in the presence of cottonseed oil owing to the reduction of the silver nitrate. The darkening is proportional to the amount of cottonseed oil present. Rancid oils or animal oils rendered at too high a temperature may also give the reac- tion. The test is more reliable if carried out on the separated fatty acids instead of on the oil. REFERENCES. Allen : Commercial Organic Analysis, 4th Ed., Vol. II and III. Gill : A Short Handbook of Oil Analysis. Lewkovitch: Chemical Technology of Oils, Fats and Waxes, 4th Ed.', 3 volumes, 1909. Lunge : Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, Vol. Ill, Pt. I, 1914. Thorpe : Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. "Official Methods of Analysis," Bur. of Cham. Bull. No. 107 (Revised), U. S. Dept. of Agric. , CHAPTER XIX. SPECIFICATIONS FOR FATTY OILS. Castor Oil. — (Navy Department, Nov. i, 1915.*) Castor oil' should present a pale, yellowish, or almost colorless, transparent appearance ; should have at ordinary temperatures a thick, slug- gish, viscous consistency, and should give off at first a faint, mild odor, becoming soon after slightly acrid and offensive. The castor oil furnished under this specification v^^ill meet the following requirements : (a) Specific gravity at 60° F., 0.960 to 0.965. (b) Have a saponification number between 179 and 184. (c) Must be soluble in equal volume of alcohol and in all proportions in absolute alcohol or glacial acetic acid. (d) Must be insoluble in petroleum ether at a temperature of 60° F. or below. (Supplied in specified cans and cases.) Cottonseed Oil. — (Navy Department, May i, 1916.) To be thoroughly refined winter-pressed cottonseed oil; to stand a 5- hour cold test. Must be sweet, neutral in flavor and odor, and free from rancidity. To have a refractive index at 25° C. of not less than 1.47 and not more than 1.4725, and an iodine number of not less than 104 and not to exceed no. (Packed in specified I -gallon cans, labelled, and packed eight cans per case.) Each bid is submitted with the distinct understanding that the cottonseed oil is guaranteed to keep good in any climate for a period of one year after date of delivery at the navy yard. Fish Oil. — (Navy Department, Aug. i, 1914.) To be strictly pure winter-strained, bleached, air-blown menhaden fish oil, free from adulteration of any kind. The oil should show upon examination: Specific gravity Iodine number (Hanus) Acid number * All Navy Department specifications are from the Bureau of Supplies and Accounts. l60 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS The oil when poured on a glass plate and allowed to drain and dry in a vertical position, guarded from dust and exposure to weather, shall be practically free from tack in less than 75 hours at a temperature of 70° F. When chilled, the oil shall flow at temperatures as low as 32° F. To be purchased by the commercial gallon; to be inspected by weight and the number of gallons to be determined at the ^ate of jYz pounds of oil per gallon. (Delivered in barrels.) Lard Oil (For Pipe Cutting and Threading Purposes). — (Navy Department, Oct. i, 1915.) Shall be a clear, light yellow lard oil of good quality, free from rancidity or adulteration. It shall not contain more free fatty acid than 5 per cent, of oleic acid. The specific gravity at 15° C. shall be not lower than 90 per cent, or higher than 92 per cent. It shall flow at 8° C. or below. Its viscosity at 38° C. shall not exceed 220 seconds in a Saybolt viscosimeter having a water rate of 30 seconds at 15° C. (De- liveries in 50-gallon casks.) Lard Oil. — (War Department, Depot Quartermaster, New York City, Feb. i, 1909.) Must be a pure lard oil of the best quality. Must have a specific gravity between 0.910 and 0.916 at 60" F. Must not solidify above 42° F. < When saponified with alcoholic caustic potash the resulting soap must be completely soluble in water showing no turbidity. Must not show more acidity than the equivalent of 2 per cent, oleic acid. Must not show an orange or reddish-brown color when 5 cc. of oil is shaken thoroughly with 5 cc. of nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.37) and allowed to stand 24 hours. (A check test should be made at the same time with an oil of known purity.) Must be no color change when 5 cc. of oil is shaken thoroughly in a test tube with 5 cc. of an alcoholic solution of silver nitrate (made by dissolving b.i gram of silver nitrate in 10 cc. of pure 95 per cent, alcohol and adding 2 drops of nitric acid), and the mixture heated for five minutes in a water bath. ' Quart samples must be submitted with bid. Lard Oil. — (Norfolk & Western Railway, Motive Power Dept., Roanoke, Va., Feb. 27, 1912.) Two grades of lard oil, known SPECIFICATIONS FOR FATTY OIIvS l6l in the market as extra (or prime), and extra No. i will be purchased. When the shipment is received a sample will be taken from any. barrel at random, and the oil accepted or rejected on this test. The right will be reserved, however, to inspect any and all barrels. Extra lard oil will not be accepted which : I. Contains mixtures of other oils. '2. Contains more than 2 per cent, of free acid. 3. Shows a discoloration with the silver nitrate test. 4. Has. a cold test above 45° F. between Oct. i and April i. Extra No. i lard oil will not be accepted which : 1. Contains mixtures of other oils. 2. Contains more than 12 per cent, free acid. 3. Has a cold test above 45° F. between Oct. i and April i. The standard purity t^st will be Maumene test, or rise of tem- perature with sulphuric acid. Should any doubt arise, however, the right to use any test, such as specific gravity, refractive in- dex, iodine absorption, or Halphen's test, is reserved. (Methods specified for- free acid, for the silver nitrate test, and for the cold test.) Lard Oil. — (Pennsylvania Railroad, Office Gen. Supt. of Motive Power, April 14, 1904.) Two grades of lard oil, known in market as "Extra" and "Extra No. 1," will be used, the former principally for burning and the latter as a lubricant. The material desired under this specification is oil from the lard of corn fed hogs, unmixed with other oils, and containing the least possible amount of free acid. Also from Oct. i to May i it should show a cold test not higher than 40° F. Oil from lard of "mast" or distillery fed hogs does not give good results in service, and should never be sent. Also care should be taken to have the oil made from fresh lard. Old lard gives an oil that does not burn well, and also gums badly as a lubricant. The use of the so-called neatsfoot stock, either alone or as an admix- ture in making the "Extra No. i" grade, is not recommended. Neatsfoot oil is used by the railroad company when the price will admit, but it is preferred to have it unmixed. l62 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS Shipments must be made as soon as possible after the order is placed. Also shipments received at any shop after Oct. i will be subjected to the cold test and rejected if they fail, unless it can be shown that the shipment has been more than a week in transit. Shipments of the "Extra" grade will not be accepted which : 1. Contain admixture of any other oils. 2. Contain more free acid than is neutralized by 4 cc. of alkali as described in the printed method. ( See un- der tallow oil for P. R. R.) 3. Show a cold test above 45° F. from Oct." i to May i. 4. Show coloration when tested with nitrate of silver as described below. Shipments of "Extra No. i" grade will not be accepted, which: 1. Contain admixtures of any other oils. 2. Contain more free acid than is neutralized by 20 cc. of alkali as described in the printed method. 3. Show a cold test above 45° F. from Oct. i to May i. The cold test and the amount of free acid must be determined in accordance with Pennsylvania Railroad standard methods. The nitrate of silver test is as follows : Have ready a solution of nitrate of silver in alcohol and ether, made on the following formula : Nitrate of silver. Alcohol Ether I gram 200 grains 40 grams After the ingredients are mixed and dissolved, allow the solu- tion to stand in the sun or in diffused light until it has become perfectly clear; it is then ready for use and should be kept in a dimly lighted place and tightly corked. Into a 50 cc. test tube, put 10 cc. of the oil to be tested (which should have been previously filtered through washed filter paper) , and S cc. of the above solution, shake thoroughly and heat in a SPECIFICATIONS FOR FATTY OUS 163 vessel of boiling water 15 minutes with occasional shaking. Sat- isfactory oil shows no change of color under this test. Shippers must pay freight charges both ways on rejected ma- terial. Lard Oil.-^(Seaboard Air Line Railway, Motive Power Dept., July 7, 1915.) Lard oil will be obtained in two grades — No. i and No. 2. No. I. This grade will be used chiefly for burning. It must be light yellow in color and contain no other oil mixture or sediment of any kind. It must have gravity of between 23° and 24° Be., at 60° F., and not show on titration more than 3 per cent, free fat acid. No. 2. This grade will be used about shops on turret lathes, cutting threads, staybolt cutters, etc. It may be reddish in appearance, but preference will be given to oils that are lighter in color. It must contain no mixture with other oil than lard, or more than a trace of sediment. Gravity approximately as above defiiied for No. i grade. On titration it must not show more than 15 per cent, free fat acid. Such tests will be applied to either of above grades as will satisfy the inspector that no other oils than lard are contained in admixture with the samples submitted. Shipments which do not conform to this specification will be rejected. In cases of rejection the materials will be held for two weeks from the date of test. If by the end of that period the manufacturers have not given shipping directions, it will be returned to them at their risk, they paying freight both ways. Linseed Oil (Raw). — (Navy Dept., Aug. 2, 191-5.) Raw Hnseed oil shall be strictly pure, well-settled oil, perfectly clear and free from foots. The oil shall show upon examination : 164 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS Loss on heating one-half hour at 103 to io5°C. Specific gravity at I5.5°C. Iodine number { Hanus ) Saponification number Acid number Refractive index at 25° C. Unsaponifiable matter Minimum Per cent. 0.932 178. 189. 1-479 The oil when flowed on a glass plate, which is held in a posi- tion inclined 30° to the vertical, shall dry practically free from tackiness in 75 hours at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. To be purchased by the commercial gallon and inspected by weight. The number of gallons to be determined at the rate of jYz pounds of oil to the gallon. (Detailed specifications given for cans, packing and method of inspection.) Linseed Oil (Raw). — (War Dept., Office of the Depot Quarter- master, New York City, Jan. 2, 1908.) Must be absolutely pure, well settled oil of best quality, must be perfectly clear at a tem- perature of 60° F. and not show a loss of over 2 per cent, when heated at 212° F., or show any deposit of "foots" after being heated to this temperature. The specific gravity must be be- tween 0.932 and 0.937 ^t 60° F. Must not have a flash point below 470° F. Must give a reddish-brown clot when 20 cc. of oil is treated with I cc. concentrated sulphuric acid. Quart sample must be submitted with bid. linseed Oil (Boiled).— (Navy Dept., June i, 1916.) Boiled linseed oil shall be strictly pure boiled oil of high grade, made wholly by heating pure linseed oil to over 350° F. with oxides of lead and manganese for a sufficient length of time to secure a proper combination of the constituents and shall be properly clarified by settling or other suitable treatment. Evidence of the presence of any matter not resulting solely from the combination of the linseed oil with the oxides of lead and manganese will be considered grounds for rejection. The oil shall upon examination. show: SPECIFICATIONS FOR FATTY OII,S 165 Unsaponifiable matter . . . Lead oxide (PbO) Manganese oxide (MnO) Iodine No. (Hanus) Specific gravity at 6o°F. . Not more tlian 1.5 percent. Not less than 0.20 per cent. Not less than 0.04 per cent. Not less than 178. Not less than 0.938. The oil shall give no appreciable loss at 212° F. in a current of hydrogen. The oil when flowed on a glass plate held in a position inclined 30° to the vertical, shall dry practically free from tackiness in 12 hours at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. (Method of packing and inspection by weight given in detail.) linseed Oil. (Boiled). — (War Dept., Depot Quartermaster's Office, New York City, Jan. 2, 1908.) Must be absolutely pure kettle boiled oil of the best quality, and the film left after flowing the oil over glass and allowing it to drain in a vertical position must dry free from tackiness in 12 hours at a temperature of 70° F. The specific gravity must be between 0.934 and 0.940 at 60° F. Must not have a flash point below 470° F. Must show a firm clot when 20 cc. of oil is treated with i cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid and on standing no appreciable amount of scum should form on top of oil. Must not show a fugitive violet color with 2 cc. of oil shaken with 5 cc. of acetic anhydride at a gentle heat; and after cooling the acetic anhydride is drawn off by means of a pipette and a drop of sulphuric acid (specific gravity 1.53) added. ■Neatsfoot Oil. — (Navy Dept., Jan. 2, 1917.) Neatsfoot oil must be free from admixture of other oils, and must not contain more acidity than the equivalent of 2. per cent, of oleic acid. It must have a cold test below 25° C, as determined in the following manner : A couple of ounces of the oil will be put in a 4-ounce sample bottle and a thermometer placed in it. The oil will then be frozen, using a freezing mixture of ice and salt if necessary. When the oil has become hard the bottle will be re- l66 AMERICAN IvUBRICANTS moved from the freezing mixture and the oil allowed to soften, being stirred and thoroiighly mixed at the same time by means of the thermometer until the mass will run from one end of the bottle to the other. The reading of the thermometer at this moment will be taken as the cold test of the oil. Before acceptance the oil will be inspected. Samples of each lot will be taken at random, the samples well mixed together in a clean vessel, and the sample for test taken from this mixture. Should the mixture be found to contain any impurities or adul- terations, the whole delivery of oil it represents will be rejected, and it is to be removed by the contractor at his own expense. Each delivery will be considered a lot by itself and each lot will be inspected and accepted or rejected as it passes or fails to pass the test required. No second test of any lot rejected will be permitted. (Delivery to be made in specified cans and cases. Part of cans will be weighed full and empty.) Sperm Oil. — (Navy Dept., Oct. 2, 1916.) Must be pure winter strained bleached sperm oil, free from admixture or adulteration with animal, mineral, vegetable, or other fish oil, grease, lard, or tallow, or any other adulterant. The specific gravity must be between 0.875 ^"d 0.885. The flash test of the oil in open cup must not be under 440° F. The oil must show less acidity specifically than the equivalent of 0.25 per cent, of oleic acid. To be purchased and inspected by weight ; the number of pounds per gallon to be determined by the specific gravity of the oil at 60° F. multiplied by 8.33 pounds, the' weight of a gallon (231 cubic inches) of distilled water at the same tem- perature. (Method of inspection, sampling, weighing and rejection sub- stantially as given in the last two paragraphs under neatsfoot oil above. (Packed in white oak casks.) Spena Oil (Natural). — (War Dept., Office Depot Quarter- master, New York City, January, 191 5.) Must be absolutely pure natural winter sperm oil of best quality and must conform to the following tests : SPECIFICATIONS FOR FATTY OILS 167 Specific gravity Saponification value . Iodine value Maumen^ test Color Odor. Flash Cold test 0.875-0.884 at 6o°F. 123 - 147. 82 - 85. 81°- 85° F. Light straw. Slight and sweet. Must not flash below 485°F. Must flow at a temperature of 38°F. Quart samples must be submitted with bid. Sperm Oil (Bleached). — (War Dept., Office Depot Quarter- master, New York City, January, 1915.) (Specifications as for sperm oil, natural, except that color is "pale yellow," odor "none," flash "not below 500° F.," and test for acidity "must show less than the equivalent of 0.25 per cent, of oleic acid.) Tallow. — (Navy Dept., June i, 1914.) To be a high-grade tallow, pure and refined, free from rancidity, dirt, cracklings, soap, or other substances not properly belonging to tallow. To be free from more acidity than the equivalent of 2 per cent, of oleic acid, and the mixed fatty acids to titer not less than 42° C. Payment will be based on net weight, and net weight only should be delivered. (To be delivered in specified soldered top tins, to be boxed and marked as specified.) Tallow. — (Norfolk & Western Railway, Office Supt. of Motive Power, Roanoke, Va., April 15, 1912.) The material desired undei: this specification should be made from beef or sheep fat, ' free from cottonseed stearines and wool grease, and should be rendered within 12 hours after the animal is killed, at a tem- perature not in excess of 250° F. It should be as near white in color as is possible to obtain, firm, of good odor, and free from granulation. When a shipment of this material is received, a sample will be taken in such a manner as will represent the average condition of the entire lot, and acceptance or rejection will be based upon the results of the examination of this sample. Material will not be accepted which upon examination shows : l68 AMERICAN I^-20 29>^-3o 2iyi-22 18^-19 18 -19 24 -25 23>^-24 23 -23>^ 21 -22 28 -35 95<-io 17 -18 1.90- I.47-I.49 I.43-I.45 1.70- 1.55-1.60 15 -15^ 23 -24 I-51-I-55 1. 46-1.50 86 -88' 90 -92 1. 32-1.33 80 -85 93 -95 22 -23 21 -22 15- -15-25 l.TO- 16.40- 1.17- I.18- I-65-I.75 13^-14 14 -i4>^ 13 -i3>^ 2i>^-33 18 -26 27 -34 i4>^-25 23 -23>^ 18 -19 16 -16X 27 -28 15 -is% I2>^-I3 15 -16 18 -19 17 -18 16 -17 14 -15 21 -22 3 -3J^ 6 -7 92 -93 62 -63 5t -52 96 -98 64 -65 6^-7 8^-io>^ 64 -65 62 -63 32 -34 37 -38 70 - 40 -45 48 - 8 -8K IO>^-II>^ 6.35-6.40 41 -42 6-50-6.75 59 - 60 78 -82 Wholesai^ 21 -21. I 17^- 6.15- 43 - 1.50-2.25 2:65-3.05 6.75-6.87 >^ 84 -86 7-7^ 7 - 1% 62 -68 59 - 63 - — -27 — -60 5^-6^ 10 -37 — -eys 4 -4.10 47>^-48 I. -1. 10 0.57^^-0.62^ i.42>^-i.47>^ Petroleum Statistics. (From the United States Geological Survey Reports.) Rank of Petroleum-Producing States based on quantity of oil marketed (1915) with an estimate of production for 1916. (Barrel = 42 gallons.) Rank, 1915 Quantity (barrels) I9'5 Percentage 1915 Production (Est.) (barrels) 1916 Oklahoma • . . California. . . . Texas Illinois Louisiana .... West Virginia Pennsylvania Ohio Wyoming. . . . Kansas New York . . . Indiana Kentucky. . . . Colorado Alaska Missouri Michigan I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 97>9i5. 86,591 24,942 19,041 18,191, 9.264, 7,838, 7,825, 4,245, 2,823, 887, «7S 437 208, 243 535 701 695 539 798 705 326 525 487 778 758 274 475 14,265 34.83 30.81 8.87 6.77 6.47 3.30 2.79 2.78 1. 51 1. 00 0.32 0.31 o. i^ 0.08 105,000,000 89,000,000 26,000,000 16,500,000 15,800,000 8,500,000 8,000,000 7,400,000 6,300,000 6,500,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 190,000 281,104,104 292,300,000 224 AMERICAN LUBRICANTS PETROLEUM Statistics. (Continued.) Rank of Petroleum-Producing States based on value of oil marketed (1915). Oklahoma . . . California Illinois West Virginia Texas Pennsylvania Louisiana Ohio Wyoming Kansas New York . . Indiana . . Kentucky .... Colorado Alaska Missouri Michigan ... Rank I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 Value 156,706,133 36,558,439 18,655,850 14,468,278 13,026,925 12,431,353 10,804,653 10,061,493 2,217,018 1,702,891 1,390,325 «i3,395 418,357 183,485 24,295 179,462,890 Percentage 31.60 20.37 10.40 8.06 7.26 6.93 6.02 5.61 1.24 0.95 0.77 0.45 0.23 O.IO World Production of Crude Petroleum. Country United States Russia Mexico Dutch East Intiies* • Roumania India Galicia Japan and Formosa Peru Germany Trinidad Argentina Egypt Canada Italy Other countries . . . . Production, 1915 Barrels of 42 gallons '281,104,104 68,548,062 32,910,508 12,386,808 12,029,913 8,202,674 4,158,899 3,118,464 2,487,251 995.764 '750,000 516,120 221,768 215,464 39,548 '10,000 427.695,347 Percentage of total 65-73 16.03 7.69 2.90 2.81 1.92 0.97 0.73 0.58 0.23 0.18 0.12 0.05 o.os Total production, 1857-1915 Barrels of 42 gallons '3,616,561,244 1,690,781,907 123,270,377 148,999,921 130,012,387 81,592,385 136,032,500 30,169,622 16,794,223 13,961,333 2,819,430 1.033,121 1,308,496 23,709,074 5 842,020 ? 372,000 6,018,260,040 Percentage of total 60.09 28.09 2.05 2.48 2.16 1.36 2.26 0.50 0.28 0.23 0.05 0.02 0.02 0-39 0.01 O.OI 100.00 Marketed production. ' Includes British Borneo. ' Estimated. TABL5S 225 PETROI.EUM Statistics. (Continued.) AcTUAi< Production and Possible Future Suppi^y of Petroleum IN The United States. The following table was compiled by the U. S. Geological Survey and furnished by the Secretary of the Interior to Congress, Feb., 1916 (See Senate Document 310, and Mineral Resources, 1915, Pt. II of the Geological Survey). Field Production, 1859-1915 Millions of barrels Estimated percentage of total exhaustion Possible future production (millions of barrels) Appalachian Lima-Indiana Illinois Kansas-Oklahoma. . ■ North Texas Northwest Louisiana Gulf coast. . Colorado Wyoming-Montana . . California 1,150 438 251 617 44 58 236 il 12 835 70 93 51 25 8 22 13 65 2 26 3,652 32 481 31 244 1,874 484 124 1.500 6 540 2,345 7,629 Mineral Oils Exported from the United States in I9I4 AND I9I5. 1914 1915 Quantity (gallons) Value Quantity (gallons) Value Crude 124,735.553 209,692,655 1,010,449,253 191,647,570 703,508,621 $ 4.958,838 25,288,414 64,112,772 26,316,313 19,224,250 128,263,069 281,609,081 836,958,665 239,678,725 812,216,209 14,282,827 33,885,047 49.988,597 32,459,641 22,325.557 Naphtha Illuminating Lubricating and paraffin Residuum 2,240,033,652 139.900,587 2,328,725,749 142,941,669 INDEX. Acid, determination of free, 122-123, 156. effect of, on metals, 123. free fatty, 141, 168, 169. number, 122, 156. oleic, 123, 126. permissible, in oils, 122. sulphuric, 122, 123. Aeroplane lubrication, 39. Air compressor oils, 16, 96-97. carbonization of, 97. for Diesel engine, 40-41. for electric cars, S7> 97- for locomotives, 71, 97. working temperatures of, 97. Aluminum soaps, (see SoapS and Greases). Ammonia compressors, 98. cylinder oil, specifications for, 173. Analyses of car oils, 80. cylinder oils, steam, 74, 65. gasoline, 208, 209-210. greases, 132, 133.' kerosene, 212-214. loom oils, 87. motor oils, automobile, 48. spindle oils, 85. Analysis, methods, (see Tests, Fixed Oils, Greases, etc.). Animal oils, 149-151. (See Fixed Oils.) Appalachian oil field, 2. Apparatus, (see Conradson). Appearance of oils, 116. Asbestos fiber in grease, 52. Ash in oils, 123. in greases, 141. Asphalt base oils, 2, 4. Automobile lubrication, 42-53 (see also Motor oils. Internal combus- tion engines, etc.). carbon deposits in, 43-46. chart, 49. chasis, 51-52. differential, 52. motor, 42-51. temperature conditions in 43-44. transmission, 51. Axle grease, 16 131-132. B Ball bearings, lubrication of, 33. Baltimore & Ohio Railroad specifica- tions, 174, 191. Baume gravity, (see Gravity). Bearings, design of, 30, 32. ball, lubrication of, 33. roller, lubrication of, 33, 52. Bechi's silver nitrate test, 157-158, 160, 162. Belt conveyors, (see Conveyors). Belts, lubrication of, 93. Black fish oil, 150. Black oil, (see Car Oils). Blended oils, 17. viscosity of, 18. Blown oils, 26, 148. Body of oils, 22. (See Viscosity.)- Boiler compound, specification for, 187. Bone oil, 149, 150. Bureau of Mines flash tester, 113. specifications for fuel oils, 203-204. specifications for gasoline, 210. Bureau of Standards, (see Herschel, Waidner, Waters, etc.). Burning oils, (see Kerosene), specifications for, 190-196. headlight oil, (see 150° fire test oil). 150° fire test oil, 191, 194, 196. kerosene, 191, 214-215. long time burning oil, 193. mineral seal oil, (see 300° fire test oil), mineral sperm oil, 190. 300° fire test oil, 102, 194, 195. Burning point, (see Fire test). Burning test, (see Kerosene). C Cables, lubrication of, 56, 96, 98. California petroleum, 3. Calorific power of oils, 20, 204, 210, 211. Canadian petroleum, 2. Capillarity of oils, 25. Car oils, 17, 78-81. analyses of, 80. for electric cars, 57. for mine cars, 97-98. for railway cars, 80-81. for rolling mills, 96. specifications for, 180. 228 INDSX Carbon deposits, 45-46. Carbon residue test, 125-126. Carbon test, (see Heat test). Carbon, in mineral oils, 3, 108. Carbonization of motor oils, 43-46. of air compressor oils, 97. of cylinder oils, 67, 71, 73. Carbonization test, (see Heat test). Castor oil, as a lubricant, 26, 145. constants of, 149. for aeroplanes, 39. mineral, 123, 131. properties of, 144-145. specifications for, 159. viscosity of, 153, 26. Centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees, table of, 221. Chains, lubrication of, 56, 96, 98. Chassis lubrication, 51-52. Chart, for automobile engine lubrica- tion, 49. Chemical composition, of mineral oils, 3-5. of fixed oils, 142-144. Chemicals, wholesale prices of, 223. Chilling point, (see Cold test). Circulating oil systems, 23, 28-30. Cleveland flash tester, iii, 192. Cloud test, for burning oils, 192. Coal tar oils, 18. Coefficient of expansion of oils, 19. Coefficient of friction, of grease, 133, 134- 185-186. Coke, in fire distillation, 10, 11. Cold test, 1 15-116, 176. by Pennsylvania Railroad method, 116. of fatty acids, 149. of fixed oils, 149, 152, 165. of western oils, 116. Color of oils, 116, 119. Color tests, for rosin and cottonseed oils, 157. (See Bechi and Halp- hen tests.) Comb box grease, 90, 131. Compounded oils, 18. (See Cylinder oils and Marine engine oils.) Compressed air machinery, 97. Compressor oils, (see Air and Am- monia compressor oils). Conradson, apparatus for testing cylinder oils, 73-76. carbon residue test, 125-126. emulsification test, 121. superheated steam tests, 74. Consistency of greases, 138, 133. Consumption of motor oils, 50. Conveyors, lubrication of, 93. Cooling effect of oils, 19, 26. Corn oil, 145, 149. Corrosion test, on metals, 123. Cost of oils, 57, 81, 222-223. Cotton mills, lubrication of, 83-91. (See Spindle oils and Loom oils.) cylinder oils for, 89. dynamo oils for, 90. general lubrication of, 88, 89. greases for, go-91. knitting machines in, 91. power losses in, 83. sewing machines in, 87. shafting in, 89. turbine oils for, 89-90. Cotton oil mills, lubrication of, 93-94. Cottonseed oil, properties of, 145. Bechi test for, 157-158, 162. blown, 148. constants of, 149. Halphen test for, 157. specifications for, 159. Cotton waste, for car journals, 78-80. specifications for, i^. Cracking of oils, (see Distillation and Gasoline). Crank pins, lubrication of, yy. Crude petroleum, (see Petroleum, crude). Cup grease, 52, 90, 93, 129-130. Curve grease, 57. Cutting oils, 99. specifications for, 160, 182-184. Cylinder deposits, 66-67, 7i- Cylinder grease, 65. Cylinder oils, motor, (see Motor oils. Automobile lubrication. Internal combustion engines, etc.). Cylinder oils, steam, 18, 58-68, 70-76. analyses of, 65, 74. analysis of, 126. apparatus for testing, 73. carbonization of, 67, 71, 73. Conradson's tests of, 73-76. emulsification of, 121. feeding, method of, 60-62. fixed oils in, 18, 63, 64, 72, 126. for cotton mills, 89. for ice plants, 98. for locomotives, 70-76. for rolling mills, 95. for saturated steam, 63, 70-71. INDEX 229 Cylinder oils, steam — (Continued) for superheated steam, 64, 71-76. poor lubrication with, 66. specifications for, 172-176, 181. Cylinder stocks, 9, 62-63. analyses of, 65, 74. filtered, 16, 17. specifications for, 175. steam refined, 16. viscosity of, 62. Degras oils, 148, 149. Demulsibility, 11 7- 120. Deposits, carbon, 45-46. Deposits, in steam cylinders, 66-67, 71- Design of bearings, 30-32. Dielectric strength of oils, 55. Diesel engine oils, 39, 41. Differential lubrication, 52. Distillation of petroleum, 7-10. by fire, 10. by steam, 7-9. yields from, 11. Distillation test, of gasoline, 197, 200, 208. of kerosene, 225. of lubricating oils, 126. Distilled lubricating oils, 9, 14-16. Dolphin oil, 150. Drive gears, 95. Drying oils, 143. Dudley pipette, 103, 104. Dynamos, kibrication of, 54-55, 90. E Elaidin test, 146. Electric machinery, lubrication of, 54- 57- dynamos and motors, S4-SS. 90- elevators, 56. generators, 56. railways, 56-57. road vehicles, 53. rotary converters, 56. transformers, oil for, 55-56. Elevators, lubrication of, 56. Elliott flash tester, 212. Emulsification test, 117-121. Conradson's method, 121. Herschel's method, 11 7-120. Phillips' method, 120. of steam cyHhder oils, 121. Engine oils, 15. (See Loom oils, Turbine oils, etc.) specifications for, 177-180. Engine lubrication, steam, 5^-69, 70- 78. (See Cylinder oils. Railway Lubrication, Locomotives, etc.) automobile, 42-51. internal combustioji, 35-41. Diesel, 39-41. general, 67. kerosene, 38. locomotive, 70-78. marine, 67-68. turbine, 68-69, 89. Engler viscosimeter, (see Viscosim- eters). Engler viscosity, conversion tables, 218. Evaporation test, 114-115. Evaporation loss, of cylinder oils, 75. of motor oils, 46. of spindle oils, 85. of transformer oils, 55, 56. Exhaustion of American petroleum, I, 225. Exports of mineral oils, 225. Expansion of mineral oils, 19. F Fahrenheit and Centigrade degrees, table of, 221. Fatty acids, determination of free, (see Acid). occurrence of, 142. recovery, from fixed oils, 152-153. saturated and unsaturated, 143. solidification point of, 149. Fatty oils, (see Fixed oils). Fiber grease, 130. Fillers in grease, 141. Films, lubricating, thickness of, 33. Filters, oil, 29, 32. Filtered engine oil, tests of, 30, 31. Fire test, 114. Fish oil, specification for, 159. Fixed oils, composition of, 142-151. blowing of, 148. constants of (table), 149. flash point of, 153. drying, 143. glycerine in, 142. hydrogenation of, 144. in cylinder oils, 18, 63, 64, 72, 126. in mineral oils, 126. iodine number of, 143-144, 154-155. 23P INDEX Fixed oils — (Continued) Maumene number of, ISS-IS6. non-drying, 143. recovery of acids from, 152-153. refining of, 144. refractive index of, 153. saponification of, 143, 154. solidification point of, 152, 153. specifications for, 159-171. testing of, 152-158. viscosity of, 26, 153. Flash test, determination of, 110-114, 175. of fixed oils, 153. of grease, ■ 138. of kerosene, 192, 212. railroad method for, 175. thermometer corrections for, 114. value of, iio-iii. Flash testers, results with open, iii. Bureau of Mines', 113. Cleveland, 1 11. Pensky-Martens, 113. simple, 111-112^ Tagliabue, iii, 192, 212. Flock test, for burning oils, 193. Flour mills, lubrication of, 92-93. Force-feed lubrication, 61-62. Free fatty acids, 156, (see Acid). Freezing point of oils, (see Cold test). Friction, and lubrication, 21-34. and temperature, 26. and viscosity, 24-25, 107. fluid, 22. solid, 21. Fuel oils, 17, 211. specifications for, 201-205. Gallons per pound (table), 2ig. Garbage grease, 151. Gas engine oil, 37. specifications for, 177. Gasoline, 9, 13, 206-211. analyses of, 208, 209-210. casing-head, 207-209. cracked, 207. distillation test for, 197, 200, 208. non-volatile oils, 198, 199. power from, .207, 210. special, 211. specifications for, 197-201, 210-211. straight refinery, 206, 209. synthetic, 207. types of, 13, 206-207, 209-210. yield of, 11. Gasoline engines, (see Automobile engines, Internal combustion en- gines. Motor oils, etc), stationary, 36. tractors, 38. Gasoline test, for tar, 125, 180. Gear grease, 52, 57, 130, 95. Generators, electric, 56. Geological Survey, specifications for fuel oil, 204. report on exhaustion of petroleum, i, 225. statistics, i, 223-225. Gill, fererence to, 25. Gillette, on greases, 133-135, 137, 138. analyses of greases, 133. Glycerine in fatty oils, 142. Graphite, as a lubricant, 33-34, 52, 130, I3S- grease, specifications for, 186. specifications for, 187. Gravity, determination of, 108-110. Baume and specific, table, 219. Baume, corrections for tempera- ture, table, 220. and pounds per gallon, table, 219. of fixed oils, 149, 152. significance of, 108- 1 10. temperature correction for, no, 152, 220. Greases, (see Tests, Fixed oils, etc.). analyses of, 132, 133. analysis of, 136-141. ash in, 141. axle, 131. comb box, 90, 131. cold neck, 95. consistency of, 138. cup, 129-130, 52, 90, 93. curve, 57. cylinder, 65. fiber, 130. filler in, 141. flash test of, 138. free acid in, 141. friction tests of, 134, 185, 186. gear, 52, 130. Gillette on, 137, 138, 133-135. hot neck, 94-95. lime, 129-130. locomotive j ournal, 76. lubrication with, 33, 129. melting point of, 136-138. INDEX 231 Greases — ( Continued ) oils in, 139. petroleum, 132. pin, crank, 77-78. preliminary examination of, 136. soaps in, 139-141. specifications for, 185-186. transmission, 51. water in, 129, 138. Gulf oil field, 3. Gumming test, (see Gasoline test). H Halphen test, 157. Hanus iodine number, (see Iodine number). Hardening of oils, 144. Heat of combustion of oils, 20, 204, 210, 211. Heat test, 45, 124-125. Heat, specific, of oils, 19. Heating and viscosity, (see Viscosi- ty). Headlight oil, (see Burning oils and Kerosene). Herschel, 29, 69, 117-120. High-speed lubrication, 23, 51. engine oil, specifications for, 178. Holde, 56, 103, 121, 130. Horse oil, 149, 150. Horse-power from fuels, 41, 207, 210. Hot neck rolls, lubrication of, 94, 95. Hiibl iodine number, 155. Hydraulic presses, 94. ' Hydrocarbons, 3, 4, 10. Hydrogenation of oils, 144. Hydrometers, 108. method of reading, 109. Ice machinery, lubrication of, 98. Illuminating oils, (see Burning oils and Kerosene). Internal combustion engines, 35-4!. (See Automobile lubrication and Motor oils.) Iodine number, of air compressor oils, 41. of fixed oils, table, 141. of gasoline, 208. of kerosene, 214-215. of mineral oils, 127. determination of, IS4-I5S- significance of, 143. Journals, locomotive, lubrication of, 76. of electric cars, 57. of railway cars, 78-81. (See Car oils.) Kerosene, 9, 13, 212-216. (See Burn- ; ing oils.) analyses of, 212-214. burning test of, 191, 193-194, 215. distillation test of, 215. engines, 38, 177. flash test of, 192, 212. iodine number of, 214, 215. photometric test of, 191-192, 213, 214. residue test of, 213. specifications for, 191, 214-215. sulphur in, 214. tractors, 38, 215. viscosity of, 214. yield of, 11. Knitting mills, lubrication of, 91. Knocking, in automobile engines, 46. l,ace machines, lubrication of, 87. Lard, 150. Lard oil, properties of, 150. constants of, 149. mineral, specifications for, 183. specifications for, 160-163. viscosity of, 153. Lead soaps, (see Soaps and Greases). Liebermann-Storch reaction, 157, 165. Lime soaps, in greases, 129-130. Linseed oil, 145, 149. specifications for, 163-165. Locomotives, lubrication of, 70-78. (See Cylinder oils, etc.) air compressors, 71, 97. carbonization in, 67, 71, 73. general lubrication of, 78. journals, 76. superheater, 71-76. Loom oils, IS, 87. analyses of, 87. Lubricating greases, (see Greases). Lubricating oils, western, 11, 25, 62. Lubricators, sight-feed, 60-61. force-feed, 61-62. 232 INDEX Lubrication, oil, 26-27. and friction, (see Friction and Viscosity) . grease, 33. M Mabery, on graphite, 34. on viscosity, 4-5. Machine oil, specifications for, 178- 179. Marcusson, 138. Marine engine oils, 67-68. specifications for, 179. Maumene ntimber, determination of 155-156. of cylinder oils, 156. of fixed oils, table, 149. of mineral oils, 127, 156. Mechanical stresses, 21. Mechanical tests, 27, 107. Melting point, of fats, 149, 152. of greases, 136-138. Menhadin oil, 149, 150. specifications for, 159. Mexican oils, 3. Mica as a lubricant, 34, 52, 130. Mid-Continent petroleum, 2. Mine cars, lubrication of, 97-98. Mine machinery, lubrication of, 97- 98. Mineral castor oil, 123, 131. lard oil, specifications for, 183. seal oil, 14. (See Burning oils and Kerosene.) sperm oil, 14. (See Burning oils and Kerosene.) sperm oil, specifications for, 190. Mineral oils, advantages of, 19. coefficient of expansion of, 19. heat of combustion of, 20, 204, 210, 211. separation of, from fixed oils, 126. specific heat of, 19. Mixed oils, 17-18. Moisture, (see Water). Moore, on air compressor oils, 41. Motor boats, lubrication of, 37. Motor lubrication, 15, 42-51, 35-41. (See Automobile lubrication and Internal combustion engines.) chart, 49. mechanical considerations, 42. temperature conditions, 43, 44. Motor oils, analyses of, 48. carbonization of, 43-46. consumption of, 50. specifications for, 47, 177-179. tests of, 46-47. Motors, electric, lubrication of, 54, 90. Motorcycle lubrication, 37. Mule spindles, lubrication of, 86. N Naphtha, (see Gasoline). Naphthenes, 4. Navy Department specifications, 159, 160, 163-167, 171, 182-191, 197. Neatsfoot oil, 149, 150. specifications for, 165. viscosity of, 153. Neutral oils, 14-15. specifications for, 180. Non-carbonizing gas engine oil, speci- fication for, 177. Non-fluid oil, 90, 131, 134. Non-viscous oils, 14. Non-volatile oils in gasoline, 198, 199. Norfolk & Western Railway speci- fications, 160, 167, 193, 198. North Carolina residue test for kero- sene, 2^3. Oil circulating systems, 23, 27-30. Oil feeders, (see Lubricators). Oil filtering systems, 29, 32. Oil lubrication, 26-27. Oil seal, in automobile engines, 35- 36. Oil stains on fabrics, 86-87. Oil testing machines, 27, 107. Oiliness, (see Viscosity). Oils, animal and vegetable, (see Fixed oils). blended, 17. blown, 148. compounded, 18. mixed, 17. purity of, 27. Olefins, ID. Olive oil, 146, 149. Packing materials, (see Cotton Waste). Palm oil, 146, 149. Paraffin base oils, 2, 3. Paraffin oils, 14. specifications for, 180. Paraffin wax, 16. INDEX 233 Peanut oil, 146, 149. Pennsylvania petroleum, composition of, 3, 4- Pennsylvania Railroad specifications, 161, 168, 180-181, 194. Pensky-Martens flash tester, 113. Petrolatum, 17. Petroleum, crude, 1-6. Canadian, 2. characteristics of, 1-2. chemistry of, 3. distillation of, 7-10. exhaustion of, i, 225. exports of, 225. field production, 5, 6. fields in United States, 2. future supplies, 19, 225. Mexican, 3. origin of, 5. Pennsylvania, composition of, 3, 4. producing States, 223-224. products from, 13-20. refining of, 7-12. shift in production, i. statistics, i, 223-225. value of, 224. Western, 11, 25, 62. yields from, 11. Petroleum grease, 132. Philadelphia & Reading Railway specifications, 175-176, 184. Photometric test, (see Kerosene). Pickers, lubrication of, 88. Pin grease, for locomotives, 77. Pneumatic tools, lubrication of, 97, 98. Pounds per gallon, fable, 219. Poor lubrication of steam cylinders, 66. Porpoise oil, 150. Pour test, (see Cold test). Power from gasoline, etc., 41, 207, 210. Power losses, from stresses, 21. in cotton mills, 83. Presses, hydraulic, 94. printing, 98-99. Pressure film, (see Film). Printing presses, lubrication of, 98- 99. , . , Prices of oils and chemicals, 222-223. Production of petroleum, statistics, i, 223-225. Properties of animal and vegetable Oils, (see Fixed oils, etc.). Properties, special, of mineral oils, 19-20. Pulleys, size of, 21. Pyknometer, no. Quarry machinery, lubrication of, 70- 82. R Railway lubrication, steam, 70-82. (See Locomotives, Cylinder oils. Car oils, etc.) electric, 56-58. Railway cars, lubrication of, 78-80. car oils, 80-81. engine lubrication, general, 78. locomotive crank pins, 77. locomotive cylinders, 70-71. locomotive journals, 76-77. methods of testing, (see Tests). oil supplies, 81. section cars, 37. shop oil, 81. superheater, 71-76. Rape oil, 146-147, 149. blown, 148. in cylinder oils, 63. in marine engine oils, 68, 147, 179. viscosity of, 153. Rapeseed oil, (see Rape oil). Red engine oil, (see Engine oil, etc.). Reduced oils, 14. Redwood viscosity, compared to Say- bolt and Engler viscosities, 218. Refined products from petroleum, 13- 20. Refining, petroleum, 7-12. Refractive index, 153. Reichert-Meissl number, 156-157. Refrigerating machinery, 98, 173. Residue test, of kerosene, 213. of lubricating oils, 125-126. Ring spindles, lubrication of, 83-86. Roll gears, 95. Roll necks, 94-95. Roller bearings, 33, 52. Roller mills, (see Flour mills). Rolling mills, lubrication of, 94-96. Ropes, hoisting 56, 96, 98. Rosin oil, properties of, 18, 147-148. acids in, 147. constants of, 149. detection of, 147-148, 157, 165. flash test of, 147. for transformers, 56. 234 INDEX Rosin oil grease, 131-132, 134, 135, (See Axle grease, Grease, etc.) analyses of, 133. manufacture of, 132. Rotary converters, lubrication of, 56. Rubbing speeds, 23, 51. (See Fric- tion.) Saponifiable fats, (see Fixed oils). Saponification, 143. qualitative test, 154. Saponification value, determination of, 154. of fixed oils, table, 149. Saturated steam conditions, 58. Saybolt viscosimeter, (see Viscosim- eters). viscosity tables, 218. Screw cutting oils, specifications for, 184. (See Cutting oils.) Seaboard Air Line Railway specifica- tions, 163, 170, 196, 201. Seal oil, 149, ISO. mineral, 14. (See Burning oils and Kerosene.) Section cars, railroad, lubrication of, 37- Semi-fluid grease, (see Comb box grease). Sewing machines, lubrication of, 87. Shafting, lubrication , of, 27, 89. ahgnment of, 21. Shale oil, 19. Shop oil, railroad, 81. Siezing of bearings, 21, 22. Silver nitrate test, (see Bechi test). Soap, determination of, 123-124. and water, as a lubricant, 94, 97. in greases, 139-141. in oils, 123-124. lime, 129-130. soda, 130. Soap-thickened oils, 105, 123, 131. greases, 129, 133. (See Greases.) Soda grease, 130. Solid friction, (see Friction). Solid lubricants, (see Graphite, Mica and Greases). Solidified oil, (see Non-fluid oil). Solidifying point, (see Cold test). of fatty acids, 149. of fixed oils, table, 149. method for, 152. Soy bean oil, 148, 149. Specific gravity, (see Gravity). Specific heat of oils, 19. Specifications, 159-205. for animal oils, 159-171. for boiler compound, 187. for burning oils, 190-196, 214-215. for car oil, 180. for cotton waste, 188. for cutting oils, 182-184, 160, 163. for cylinder oils, 172-176, 181. for engine oils, 177-179, 180. for fuel oil, 201-205, 211. for gasoline, 197-201, 210-211. for graphite, 187. for greases, 185-186. for motor oils, 47, 177-179. for vegetable oils, 159, 163-165. Speed and lubrication, 23, 51. Speeders, lubrication of, 88. Sperm oil, 142, 149, 151. mineral, 14. (See Burning oils.) specifications for, 166-167. viscosity of, 153, 26. Spindle oils, 15, 83-87. analyses of, 85. for ring spindles, 83-86. for special spindles, 86-87. Splash lubrication, of automobiles, 35, 42. Sponge grease, 130. Spoolers, lubrication of, 88. Stainless oils, spindle, 86-87. Stains, oil, on fabrics, 86-87. Stationary gasoline engines, 36. Statistics, petroleum, i, 223-225. Steam temperatures, saturated, 58. Steam engine lubrication, 58-69, 70- 78. (See Cylinder oils. Locomo- tives, Railway lubrication, etc.) Sulphur, in oils, determination of 127-128. in kerosene, 214. Sulphuric acid in oils, (see Acid). Superheater, steam conditions, 58-60. carbonization of oil in, 67, 71, 73. locomotive lubrication of, 71-76. Supplies, oil, for railroad, 81. T Tables, Baume and Specific gravity, 219. Baum6 gravity and temperature, 220. Centigrade and Fahrenheit, 221. chart, for automobile engine lubri- cation, 49. INDEX 235 Tables — (Continued) prices of oils and chemicals, 222- 223. statistics, petroleum, 223-225. viscosity conversion, 218. Tagliabue flash and fire tests, 192, 212. Tallow, 149, 151. acids in, 168-169. rendering, 167, 168. specifications for, 167-171. viscosity of, 153. Tallow oil, 149, iji. acidless, 64. Tar, in cylinder oils, 63. test for, (see Gasoline test). Temperature conversion tables, 221. Temperature, corrections for Baume gravity, tables, 220. Temperature of saturated steam, 58. and friction, 26. Temperature and Viscosity, (see Vis- cosity) . Testing machines, 27. for grease, 134, 185-186. Tests, of oils, 100-121, 122-128. (See Fixed oils. Greases, etc.) acids, free in, 122. appearance of, 116. ash in, 123. Bechi silver nitrate, 157-158, 162. . carbon residue, 125-126. cold test, 1 1 5- 1 16, 176. color, 116. distillation, gasoline, 197-200. distillation, kerosene, 215. distillation, lubricating oil, 126. elaidin, 146. emulsification, 117-121. evaporation, 114. fire, 114. flash, 110-113, 153, 175. gasoUne, 125. gravity, 108-110, 152. Halphen, 157. heat, 124. iodine, number, 127, 154-155. Liebermann-Storch, 157, 165. Maumene number, 127, 155. mechanical, 107. refractive index, 153. rosin oil, 157, 165. saponifiable oil, 126. saponification number, 143, 154. soaps in, 123. solidification point, 152, 165. sulphur, 127-128. viscosity, 100-106. Textile mills, lubrication of, (see Cotton mills, etc.). Theory of lubrication, (see Friction, Viscosity, etc.). Thickened oils, blown, 148. soap, 18, 105, 131. Thickness of lubricating film, 33. Thurston, reference to, 29, 107. Tractors, lubrication of, 38, 177. fuel for, 215. Transformer oil, 55-56. Transmission lubrication, 51. Trucks, motor, lubrication of, 49. Turbine, lubrication, 68-69. circulating systems for, 28-31. in cotton mills, 89-90. oils, 16. oils, emulsification of, 117-121. Twitchel's method for rosin oil, 157. U Ubbelohde, 24-25, 107, 214. Undistilled lubricating oils, 16-17. V Valve oils, (see Cylinder oils). Vaporization, (see Evaporation). Vaseline, 17. Vertical electric generators, 56. Vegetable oils, 142-149, 159, 163-165. (See Fixed oils, etc.) Viscosimeters, 101-107. Dudley, 103, 104. Engler, 102, 104. Redwood, 104. Saybolt universal, loi, 102, 104. standardization of, 106-107. Tagliabue, 104. Viscosity, absolute, 24, 105. and friction, 24-25, 100. and temperature, 25-26, 65, 85, 87. conversion tables, 218. definition of, 23, 100. Engler, loi, 218. Engler with small amounts of oil, 103. fictitious, 105. of alcohol-water mixtures, 106. of fixed oils, table, 153. of oil mixtures, 18. of water, 107. Redwood, 218. Saybolt, 102, 218. 236 INDEX Viscous neutrals, 14-15. Volatility of oils, (see Distillation and Evaporation tests, and Flash test). W Waidner, 106, 218. War Department specifications, 160, 164-167, 172-173, 1777180, 190. Waste, cotton, specifications for, 188. treatment of, 78-80. Water, and alcohol viscosity of, 106, 107. in grease, 129, 138. in transformer oils, 55. Waters, C. E., on carbonization of motor oils, 45-46. on evaporation test, 115. Wax, paraffin, 16. Well oil, specifications for, 180. (See Car oils.) Western lubricating oils, 11, 25, 62. Westphal balance, no. Whale oil, 149, 151. specifications for, 17I. Wholesale prices of oils and chemi- cals, 222-223. Wood fiber in grease, 52. Worm drives, automobile, lubrica- tion of, 52. Xylol method for water in greases, 138. Yields from different crudes, 11. 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