CORNHLL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY. 
 
 This book, when not in use, must be promptly 
 returned to its place among the books of reference. 
 
 IV' A. /; 
 
 'u^ 
 
 
 f^'giA 
 
5 
 v./ 
 

 DATE DUE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1j^ 
 
 eim-. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CYLORD 
 
 
 
 PRINTED IN U S A 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 924 087 904 615 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924087904615 
 
CHAMBERS'S 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
CHAMBERS'S 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA 
 
 A DICTIONAET 
 
 OF UNIYERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE 
 
 ILLUSTBATED 
 
 WITH MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOOD ENGEAVINGS 
 
 CORNLLL 
 VOLI KUNIVERSITYi 
 LIBRARY 
 
 LONDON 
 
 Vy^. AND R. CHAMBERS 47 PATERNOSTER ROW 
 
 AND HIGH STREET EDINBURGH 
 1860 
 
Edinburgh : 
 Printed by W. and R, Chambers. 
 
NOTICE. 
 
 IT is now considerably more than a hundred years since Epheaim Chambers gave 
 to the world his Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Knowledge — the prototype, 
 as it proved to be, of a number of similar works, in Britain as well as in other 
 countries, which must have contributed in no small measure to increase the sum of 
 general intelligence.' In nearly all these works there has been a tendency to depart 
 from the plan of their celebrated original, as concerns some of the great departments of 
 science, literature, and history ; these being usually presented, not under a variety 
 of specific heads, as they commonly occur to our minds when information is required, but 
 aggregated in large and formal treatises, such as would in themselves form books of 
 considerable bulk. By such a course it is manifest that the serviceableness of an 
 Encyclopaedia as a dictionary for reference is greatly impaired, whatever may be the 
 advantages which on other points are gained. 
 
 With a view to bring back the Encyclopeedia to its original purpose of a Dictionary 
 of Knowledge, even down to matters of familiar conversation, the Germans formed the 
 plan of their Conversations-Lexicon, a work which, extending to a long series of volumeSj 
 has passed through ten editions, and obtained a world-wide celebrity. BeUeving that a 
 translation of the latest edition of that well-conceived and laboriously executed work 
 would be generally acceptable, the Editors made an arrangement for that purpose with 
 the proprietor, Mr Brockhaus of Leipsic. After some time, however, had been spent in 
 translating, the task of adapting the information to English requirements was found 
 so difficult, that the resolution was taken to bring out a substantially new work, following 
 in its construction the admirable plan of the Conversations-Lexicon, but making use of 
 its valuable matter, only so far as it might be found suitable. 
 
 Chambers's ENCYCLOPiEDiA, therefore, although consti-ucted on the basis of the 
 latest edition of the Conversations-Lexicon, is, in no part, a mere translation of that 
 work. All that specially relates to Great Britain and her colonies, as well as to the 
 states of North and South America, is collected from new and more direct sources. 
 The articles also on the physical sciences and practical arts receive greater prominence 
 than in the German work, and are nearly all original, being mostly the work of 
 contributors having special knowledge of the subjects. Even in the articles of the 
 Conversations-Lexicon relating to Germany and other continental countries, as well as 
 
NOTICE. 
 
 to subjects of a unirersal interest, the lapse of time (now ten years) since the publication 
 of that work began, as well as the difference in the relative importance of the same 
 subject in different countries, has rendered great alterations necessary in order to 
 adapt the information to the present time and to Great Britain. The employment 
 of illustrative engravings and maps, is another feature in which the present work differs 
 from the German. 
 
 The general character of the work, now thus far advanced, is indicated by its title — 
 A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge for the People. The several topics are not handled 
 with a view to the technical instruction of those who have to make a special study of 
 particular branches of knowledge or art. The information given may be characterised as 
 non-professional, embracing those points of the several subjects which every intelligent 
 man or woman may have occasion to speak or think about. At the same time, every 
 effort is made that the statements, so far as they go, shall be precise and scientifically 
 accurate. One great aim in the arrangement of the work has been to render it ea^ of 
 consultation. It is expressly a Dictionary, in one alphabet, as distinguished on the one 
 hand from a collection of exhaustive treatises, and, on the other, from a set of Dictionaries 
 of special branches of knowledge. To save the necessity of wading through a long treatise 
 in order to find, perhaps, a single fact, the various masses of systematic knowledge have 
 been broken down, as it were, to as great a degree as is consistent with the separate 
 explanation of the several fragments. In the greater number of articles, however, there will 
 be found copious references to other heads with which they stand in natural connection ; 
 and thus, while a single fact is readily found, its relation to other facts is not lost sight of 
 It will be observed, that by means of accentuation, some assistance is given in the 
 pronouncing of the proper names which form the heads of the articles. At the 
 conclusion of the work, it is intended to give a copious General Index, referring not only 
 to the distinct articles, but to subjects casually noticed — an arrangement which cannot 
 fail to be of considerable use to those who wish to consult the work on many matters of 
 interest. 
 
 W. & R CHAMBERS. 
 
 Ebinbukgh, March 31, 1S60. 
 
LIST OF MAPS FOR VOL I. 
 
 Faob 
 
 AFRICA, 65 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA, 200 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, 204 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, .... 196 
 
 ASIA, ........ 473 
 
 AUSTRALIA, 564 
 
 AUSTRIA, ....... 568 
 
UMYERSAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE 
 
 Bovind ; 
 guages 
 
 is the first letter in almost all 
 alphabets ; the only exceptions, 
 perhaps, are the Ethiopian, 
 where it takes the thirteenth 
 ) place, and the Runic, "where it 
 I stands tenth. This letter repre- 
 sents in Engli^ at least four 
 distinct sounds, as heard in cde, 
 man, father, all. Of these, the third may 
 be considered its primitive and proper 
 it is its name-sound in perhaps all lan- 
 except English, and is that which is 
 ' to it in comparative grammar. This 
 sound is the purest and fullest in human speech; 
 it is that which the child learns first and most 
 easUy to produce, and its sign stands as if by 
 right at the head of the alphabet. In the oldest 
 languages it is the predominating vowel, and gives 
 them their peculiar fulness and strength. Philolo- 
 gists consider it the heaviest of the three fundamental 
 vowels ; the other two, i and u (whose primitive and 
 proper sounds are heard in me and do), seem to 
 nave arisen out of a, ^y lightening or weakening it 
 (Lat. oodence — incidence, oalco — incwloo). By com- 
 bining with these, a gives rise to ai, au, which in 
 their turn coalesce into 4 and 6. — In the Phcenieian 
 alphabet, the letter A bears the name of aleph; i.e., 
 ' ox,' with reference to its most ancient fonu, which 
 rudely represented an ox's head. From this came 
 the Greek name alpha. For engraving or tracing 
 on stone or other hard materials, characters com- 
 posed of straight lines are best adapted, and such 
 was naturally the earliest form of A and the other 
 letters. It is easy to trace the growth of our small 
 a or a out of the monumental A. In Greek and 
 Eoman inscriptions executed hastily or carelessly, 
 
 the form 
 
 A 
 
 is often found; and this,' written 
 
 with a flexible reed, became rounded into 
 
 4 
 
 — For A and the other letters as abbreviations, see 
 Abbebviations. 
 1 
 
 A, as a note in Music, is the major sixth of the scale 
 of C, major. When perfectly in tune to 0, it stands 
 in the proportion of ^ of 1. But in this state it 
 would not be a fifth to D, the second note of the 
 scale of C, being a comma too flat, which difference 
 is as 80 to' 81. The ear being sensibly offended with 
 this deficiency, the note A is therefore made the least 
 degree higher than perfect — namely, y"^, by which 
 the advantage is gained, that A is a fifth above D 
 (-LOS.), or only deficient in the proportion of -1^ 
 — a deficiency so trifling that the ear accepts the 
 fiifth, D, A, and the sixth, C, A, as perfect, although, 
 mathematically calculated, the one is too great and 
 the other too small. — For A Major and A Minor, 
 see Key. 
 
 Al, a symbol by which first-class vessels are 
 known in Lloyd's Kegister of British and Foreign 
 Shipping (c[. v.), and by which the operations of 
 shippers of goods and insurers are governed. Sur- 
 veyors appointed by the society examine aU vessels 
 in course of building, with «■ view to ascertaining 
 then' character, and inscribing them accordingly in 
 the register. A designates the character of the hull 
 of the vessel ; the figure 1, the efficient state of her 
 anchors, cables, and stores ; when these are insuffi- 
 cient, in quantity or quahty, the figure 2 is used. 
 The character A is assigned to a new ship for a 
 certain number of years, varying from four to 
 fifteen, according to the materisJ and mode of 
 buOding, but on condition of the vessel being 
 statedly surveyed, to see that the efficiency is 
 maintained. A vessel built under a roof is allowed 
 an additional year on that account. An additional 
 period of one year, and, in certain cases, of two 
 years, is also allowed to vessels whose decks, outside 
 planking, &c., are fastened in a specified way. After 
 the origmal period has elapsed, the character A may 
 be ' continued ' or ' restored ' for a time (1 — 8 years), 
 on condition of certain specified repairs. — When 
 a vessel has passed the age for the character A, 
 but is still found fit for conveying perishable 
 goods to aU parts of the world, it is registered A 
 in red. (The symbol for this class was formerly M 
 
A CAPELLA— ABAOT)ON. 
 
 asterisk in red). — Ships ^ in black form the third 
 class, and consist of such as are still found, on sur- 
 vey, fit to carry perishable goods on shorter voyages. 
 — Classes E and I comprise ships sufficient to con- 
 vey goods not liable to sea-damage ; the one class, 
 for voyages of any length, tha other, for shorter 
 voyages. 
 
 A OAPBLLA, or A LA CAPELLA, in Mus., 
 means, in the church style ; it is equivalent to Alia 
 Breve (q. v.), a time-signature -which frequently 
 appears in church-music. It also denotes tnat the , 
 instruments are to play in unison with the voices, 
 or that one part is to be played by a number of 
 instruments. 
 
 AA, the name of a number of rivers and streams 
 in the north of France, Holland, Germany, and 
 Switzerland. As many as forty have been enume- 
 rated. The word is said to be ot Celtic origin, but 
 it is allied to the Old German aha, Gothic ahva, 
 identical with the Latin aqua, 'water.' Ach or 
 Aach is another form of the same word. Pour 
 streams of the name of Ach fall into the Lake of 
 Constance. The word, in both forms, occurs as final 
 syllable in many names of places, as, Pulda (for- 
 merly Puldaha), Biberach, Biberich, &c. In the 
 plural, it is Aachen (waters, springs), which is the 
 German name of Aix-la-chapelle (q.v.). Aix, the 
 French name of so many places connected with 
 springs, is derived from Lat. ^jMffi, which became 
 in old French Aigues, and then Aix. Compare the 
 Celtic Esk, Ex, Aie, Ouse. 
 
 AALBORG (meaning Eel-town), a seaport in the 
 north of Jutland, with considerable trade ; pop. 8000. 
 
 AAE., next to the Phine and Phone, the largest 
 river in Switzerland, rises in the glaciers near the 
 Grimsel in Berne, forms the Falls of Handeck, 
 200 feet high, flows through Lakes Brienz and 
 Thun, and passing the towns of Interlachen, Thun, 
 Berne, Solothum, Aarau, Brugg, and Klingenau, 
 joins the Rhine at the village of Coblenz, in Aargau, 
 after a course of nearly 200 miles. It is a beautiful 
 crystal stream, and, though rapid, is navigable for 
 small-craft from Lake Thun. There are several 
 small rivers of the same name in Germany. 
 
 AARGAU (ARGOVIE), a canton of Switzerland, 
 on the lower course of the Aar, and having the Rhine 
 for its north boundary. Its surface is diversified 
 with hills and valleys, is well wooded, and generally 
 fertile. The area is about 530 sq. miles, and the 
 population in 1850 was nearly 200,000, rather more 
 than half being Protestants. Besides agricultm-e, con- 
 siderable manufacturing industry in cotton and silk 
 is carried on both in the towns and country, and the 
 prosperity of the population has of late markedly 
 increased. In this canton is the castle of Habsburg 
 or Hapsburg, the original seat of the imperial 
 family of Austria. The chief town is Aakau, 
 situated on the Aar ; pop. 4657. 
 
 AARHTJtrS, a seaport on the east coast of 
 Jutland; pop. 6800. 
 
 AARON', the elder brother of Moses, was ap- 
 pointed his assistant and spokesman, and at the 
 giving of the Mosaic law received for himself and 
 his descendants the hereditary dignity of the priest- 
 hood. Aaron assisted his brother in the admin- 
 istration of public affairs. He died in the 123d 
 year of his age, on Mount Hor, on the borders of 
 Idmnea. His third son, Eleazar, succeeded him in 
 the office of high-priest. 
 
 ABACA, or MANILLA HEMP, is the fibre of a 
 species of plantain or banana {Musa troglodylarum), 
 a native of the Philippine Isles, where it is exten- 
 sively cultivated. The leaf -stalks are split into long 
 atfipes, and the fibrous part is then separated from 
 9 
 
 the fleshy pulp. A labourer can in this way produce 
 daily 50 lbs. of hemj). Before 1825, the quantity 
 produced was insignificant, but now it amounts 
 to nearly 3000 tons annually. In Manilla there is 
 a steam rope- work for making ropes of it for naval 
 purposes. They are very durable, but not very 
 flexible. — The fibre of a number of species of Musa 
 is used in tropical countries. See Plantain. 
 
 ABACUS, an instrument seldom seen except in 
 infant-schools, where it 
 is used to make the ele- 
 mentary operations of 
 arithmetio palpable. It 
 consists of a frame with 
 a number of parallel ^^^^ ^^,^^„^_ 
 
 wires, on which beads 
 
 or counters are strung. In ancient times, it was 
 used in practical reckoning, and is said to be so 
 still in China and elsewhere. — Abacus Pythagoricus 
 meant the multiplication-table. — Abacus, in arch., 
 is a square or oblong level tablet on the capital of a 
 column, and supporting the entablature. In the 
 Doric, old Ionic, and Tuscan orders, the abacus is 
 
 Doric Abacus. 
 
 a regular oblong ; but in the new Ionic, Corinthian, 
 and Roman orders, the abacus has concave sides, 
 with truncated angles. Square marble tablets let 
 
 IP 
 Corinthian Abacus. 
 
 into walls, and fields with figures in them inserted 
 in mosaic floors, were also included imder the 
 term abacus in ancient architecture. 
 
 ABAD (aUied both in etymology and meaning to 
 the Eug. abode), an afSx to names of Persian origin, 
 as Hyderct&oti, the ' dwelling ' or city of Hyder. 
 
 ABAISS]^ (lowered), a, term used in Heraldry. 
 When the fesse, or any other armorial figure is 
 depressed, or situated below the centre of the shield, 
 it is said to be abaissS. AdossS (back to back), 
 affronts or covfrontS (facing or fronting one another), 
 aiguissS (sharpened at the point), am (winged), are 
 other heraldic terms borrowed, like abaissS, from 
 the French, and used by English heralds in senses 
 not differing essentially from their ordinary signifi- 
 cations in that language. 
 
 ABANDON (Abandoning, Abandonment). This 
 term, in its different grammatical and etymological 
 forms, has various applications in legal phraseology, 
 but all more or less corresponding to its popidar 
 meauiug. The following are examples : 
 
 Abandoning an Action is a technical expression 
 in Scotch legal procedure, signifying the act by 
 which a plaintiff — or 'pursuer,' as he is called in 
 Scotland — abandons or withdraws from his action on 
 the payment of the costs iucurred, and with the 
 approval of the judge before whom the action had pre- 
 viously been conducted. The same purpose is effected 
 in England by the plaintiff in a Court of Common 
 
ABAiroOKMENT— ABAUZIT. 
 
 Law either entering a Nolle Prosequi, or at the 
 trial mtlidravnng the record. In the Ccnirts of Equity, 
 the plaintiff may move the dismissal of his own bill, 
 or the defendant may move to dismiss the suit for 
 want of prosecution by the plaintiff. Suits may also 
 abate by the death or supervening incapacity of the 
 parties. See AcTioisr. 
 
 Abandonment, in Marine Insurance, signifies 
 the relinquishment to the insurer or underwriter of 
 goods or property saved from a shipwreck, and of 
 all interest m the same, previous to the owners' 
 demanding payment in terms of the policy. See 
 Insueancb. 
 
 Abandonment of Railways. By the act of 
 parliament 13 and 14 Vict. c. 83, facilities are 
 afforded for the A. of railways, and the dissolution 
 of railway companies by consent of the holders of 
 three-fifths of the shares or stock, and by warrant of 
 the ' Commissioners of Railways,' or, as it now is by 
 the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 64, by warrant of the Board of 
 Trade, who, in this respect, as well as in other 
 matters regarding the regulation of railways, have 
 superseded the former body. See Railway. 
 
 Abandoning or deserting seamen, by masters 
 of merchant-vessels, is, by 9 Geo. IV. o. 31, s. 30, a 
 misdemeanour, and punishable by imprisonment. 
 See Seamen. 
 
 ABATEMENT. This is a term used in various 
 senses in the law of England, as follows : 1. A. of 
 Freehold, where a stranger without right enters and 
 gets possession. See Freehold.. 2. A. of Nuis- 
 ances, which is a remedy against injury by nuisance. 
 See Nuisance. 3. Plea, in A. by means of which 
 a defendant, on some formal and technical ground, 
 seeks to abate or quash the action. See Action. 
 
 4. A. of Legacies and Debts, where the estate is 
 insufficient ^for payment in full. See Leqacies. 
 
 5. A. by the death of parties to actions at law and 
 suits in equity, which are in consequence stopped 
 till revived. The marriage of a plaintiff, the change 
 or loss of interest and right, and other similar con- 
 siderations, have alsd the effect of abating legal pro- 
 ceedings. See AcnoN. 6. A. or discount, in 
 Commercial Law. Sefe Commercial Law. 7. A. 
 or deduction of duties levied by the Custom-house. 
 See Custom-house. 
 
 ABATEMENT, in Heraldry, is a mark placed 
 over a portion of the paternal coat-of-arms of a 
 family, significative of some base or ungentleman-like 
 act on the part of the bearer. The coat is then said 
 to be abated, or lowered in dignity. GuiUim gives 
 nine such marks, all of which are of either one or the 
 other of the two disgraceful colours, tenng (tawney) 
 and sanguine. Such are the deH tenng, assigned 
 to TiiTTi who revokes his challenge ; the escutcheon 
 reversed sanguine, proper to him who offends the 
 chastity of virgin, wife, or widow, or flies from his 
 sovereign's banner; the point-dexter tenng, due to 
 him who overmuch boasteth himself of his martial 
 acts ; and the like. Marks of abatement are gener- 
 
 ally repudiated by the best 
 
 heraldic authorities. Menestrier 
 calls them sotiises Anglaises, and 
 Montagu is of opinion that we 
 shall seek in vain for a more 
 appropriate designation. Abate- 
 ments are carefully to be distin- 
 guished from such subtractive 
 alterations in coats-of-arms as 
 signify juniority of birth, or 
 removal from the principal house 
 or senior branch of the family, 
 commonly called marks of cadency, 
 differences, or brisures. The latter 
 
 Abatement. 
 
 These are 
 
 distinctions, 
 
 term is generally applied to marks of bastardy, 
 
 which might with less impropriety be classed with 
 abatements. 
 
 ABATTIS, a species of intrenohment, and one 
 of the oldest. It consists of trees felled (ahaUu), 
 and laid side by side, with the branches directed 
 towards the enemy, the softer twigs being cut off. It 
 thus forms a breastwork to iire over, and is very 
 useful in field-works and in the out-works of regular 
 fortifications, for retarding the enemy's advance. 
 
 ABATTOIR (Fr. ahaOre, to feU'or destroy), a 
 slaughter-house. The use of this term has passed 
 into England from France, where the example was 
 first given of public establishments for the slaughter 
 of animals used as food, on such a scale and with 
 such sanitary arrangements as to obviate the injuri- 
 ous effects that are found to result from the existence 
 of private slaughter-houses in the midst of a crowded 
 population. Tins great public improvement origin- 
 ated with Napoleon, who passed a decree in 1807 
 for the erection of public ahattoirs. The extensive 
 works connected with this design were nearly com- 
 pleted before the fall of the Empire; but it was 
 not tin the close of 1818, "that the Parisian butchers 
 ceased to slaughter in their private establishments. 
 There are now five of these abattoirs in Paris — three 
 on the right, and two on the left bank of the Seine, 
 containing 240 slaughter-houses in all — which, both 
 in architectural propriety and completeness of 
 internal arrangement, may be regarded as models of 
 their kind. 'The charge per head is, for an ox 6 
 francs, a cow 4 fr., a calf 2 fr., and a sheep 50 cents. 
 Of the appearance and management of one of the 
 
 treat Parisian abattoirs, a good account is given by 
 ir Francis Head, in his amusing work, A Faggot 
 of French Sticlis. Other towns in Kance have sinular 
 abattoirs ; and so have Mantua and Brussels. 
 
 The erection of similar establishments in Britain 
 is of comparatively recent date. Public slaughter- 
 houses formed part of the plan iu the estabhshment 
 of the new cattle-market in the Metropolis in 
 Copenhagen Fields. Those built are well arranged ; 
 but they are few in ntmiber, and the old system is 
 still in full operation, to the great detriment of the 
 public health. In Edinburgh, an establishment of 
 this kind, excellent in its construction and arrange- 
 ments, was erected by the town-oouncU iu 1851. 
 
 A BATTTJTA (Ital.), in Music, in strict or 
 measured time. 
 
 ABAUZIT, FnusnN, a French savant, was bom 
 at XJzfes, iu Languedoc, 1679, and died at Geneva 
 1767. His parents were Protestant, and at the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, being only six 
 years of age, he escaped with difficulty, by his 
 mother's contrivance, from the hands of the authori- 
 ties who wished to educate him into Catholicism, and 
 was sent to Geneva. Here he prosecuted his studies 
 with such intense ardour and diligence, that he became 
 versed in almost all the sciences. He travelled in 
 England and Holland in 1698, where he made the 
 acquaintance of Newton, Bayle, and other eminent 
 writers;" Newton, in sending him one of his contro- 
 versial works, paid him the distinguished compli- 
 ment of saying : ' You are worthy to decide between 
 Leibnitz and me.' King William wished to retain 
 him permanently in En^and, and to that end made 
 Km several advantageous offers; but his affection 
 for his mother induced him to return to Geneva. He 
 translated the New Testament into French in 1726 ; 
 and for his lucid investigations into the ancient 
 history of Geneva, he received from its authori- 
 ties the rights of citizenship. He likewise vprote 
 numerous theological and archaeological treatises, 
 besides leaving one or two scientific and artistic 
 dissertations in \naituscript, but the greater portion 
 of these were burned by his heirs, who were Catholics. 
 
ABBADIE— ABBOT. 
 
 His ortliodoxy has been disputed. From some of his 
 ■works we gain the impression that he was a Unitarian. 
 His personal quahties secured Tiim universal esteem. 
 Rousseau, who could not bear to praise a contem- 
 porary, penned his solitary panegyric on A. 
 
 ABBADIE, Antoinb and Abnoulb-Michel d', 
 two brothers, French travellers, known for their 
 researches in Abyssinia, from 1837 to 1845. Accord- 
 ing to their own account, their objects were purely 
 ethnological and geographical; but they were 
 regarded by certain English travellers and mission- 
 aries as agents employed by the French government 
 for religious and political purposes; and were accused 
 of inducing Prince Ubie to expel the Lutheran 
 missionaries from Adoa. Amould returned a second 
 time to Abyssinia in 1853, and continued his explor- 
 ations for a year. The results of their travels 
 appeared from time to time in the French geographical 
 journals. They are chiefly valuable in a pMological 
 and ethnological point of view. 
 
 ABBAN"DO]SrAMES"TB (Ital.), in Music, with 
 self-abandonment ; despondingly. 
 
 ABBAS, the imcle of Mohammed, the Arabian 
 prophet, and the chief promoter of his rehgion (d. 652), 
 was the founder of the family of the Abbasides, 
 who ruled as califs of Bagdad from 749 to 1258, 
 and afterwards exercised the spiritual functions of 
 the califate in Egypt, under the protection of the 
 Mamelukes, tUl 1517, when that dignity passed 
 to the Turkish sultan. Descendants of this family 
 stm live in Turkey and India. — The Abbasides in 
 Persia were descended from the race of the Sofi, who 
 ascribed their origin to the calif Ali. This race 
 acquired dominion in 1500, and became extinct in 
 1736. Among them. Abbas I., surnamed the Great, 
 was the most eminent ruler. He came to the throne 
 1686, and died 1628. His reign was marked by 
 a series of victories over the Turlcs. In alliance with 
 England, he destroyed, in 1621, the Portuguese 
 colony at Ormuz. 
 
 ABBAS-MIRZA, a Persian prince, well known 
 by his wars against Russia, was the son of the Shah 
 Feth-Ali, and was born in 1783. Abbas possessed 
 great talents and acquirements, and a love for the 
 manners and culture of the West. When he was 
 yet young, his father made him governor of the 
 province Azerbijan, where, by the help of English 
 officers, he applied himself to the reform of the 
 army. , When Persia, in 1811, influenced by France, 
 declared war against Russia, Abbas was com- 
 mander-in-chief of the main body of the Persian 
 army, but was unsuccessful. Persia lost, at the 
 peace of G-uHstan, in 1813, its remaining possessions 
 in the Caucasus, and was forced to acknowledge the 
 flag of Russia on the Caspian Sea. At the instiga- 
 tion of Abbas, a new war broke out in 1826, between 
 Feth-Ali and Russia. The prince fought a second 
 time with extraordinary bravery at the head of the 
 army, but was again obliged to yield to the supe- 
 riority of the Russian arms, and to conclude a peace, 
 on February 22, 1828, at Tmrkmantschai, by which 
 Persia lost all share in Armenia. In this treaty, 
 Russia had guaranteed to Abbas the succession to 
 the Persian throne, the consequence of which was 
 that he became dependent on Russia, and was 
 obliged to give up his connection with England. 
 When, in 1829, the Russian ambassador at Teheran 
 was murdered in a popular tumult, which he had 
 provoked by imprudence. Abbas went in person to 
 St Petersburg, to prevent any fll consequences, and 
 to maintain the peace. He was received by the 
 emperor with kindness, and went back to Persia 
 loaded with presents. He died in 1833. His death 
 was II, great loss to his country, although he could 
 not have pi-evented the encroachments of Russia. 
 
 His eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, mounted the 
 throne in 1834, on the death of Feth-Ali, under the 
 united protection of England and Russia. 
 
 ABBATE, NiccoLO Dell, or Niooolo Abati, 
 was bom at Modena in 1509 or 1512, and died at 
 Paris in 1571. He was an able and skilful artist in 
 fresco-painting, and was a foUower both of Raphael 
 and Correggio; yet he rather blent the two styles in 
 one than imitated either separately. His influence is 
 traceable in the art which prevailed during the 
 second half of the 16th century. His earlier works 
 are to be seen at Modena; his later ones at Bologna, 
 among which is his ' Adoration of the Shepherds,' 
 considered his finest; but he is best known by the 
 frescoes'which he executed for the Castle of Fontain- 
 bileau, from the designs of Primaticcio. These, how- 
 ever, with the exception of the tableaux representing 
 the history of Alexander the Great, were unfortun- 
 ately destroyed in 1738, at the barbarous suggestion 
 of an architect who wished to enlarge the bmlding. 
 
 ABBE, the general title in France for a clergy- 
 man, applied at one time, in a wide sense, to any 
 one who had laid himself out for the sacred profes- 
 sion, or had merely studied at a theological seminary. 
 Before the Revolution, the king had the power of 
 nominating 225 AbbSs Commendataires (see Abbot), 
 who, without having any duty to do, drew a third of 
 the revenues of the convents. It was not even neces- 
 sary to take priests' orders, the pope in most cases 
 granting dispensation. The temptation of such sine- 
 cures made the number of abbes so great, that they 
 formed a considerable and influential class id society, 
 and an abbe was foimd, as friend or ghostly adviser, 
 in almost every family of consequence. In those 
 tunes, the title of abbg was little more than equiva- 
 lent to om- modern title of ' literary man ' or 
 'scholar ; ' but in costume the abb6 was distinguished 
 by a black or violet-coloured coat, and a peculiar 
 style of wearing the hair. Since the Revolution, 
 few abbes are to be seen in France ; but the class is 
 stiQ numerous in Italy, where a young clergyman ' 
 who has received the tonsure, but has not taken 
 holy orders, is styled Abbate. 
 
 ABBESS, the superior of a religious community of 
 women, corresponding in rank and authority to 
 an abbot (q.v.), except in not being allowed to 
 exercise the spiritual functions of the priesthood — 
 such as preaching, confession, &c. 
 
 ABBEVILLE [Abbaiis Villa), in France, next to 
 Amiens, the most considerable town in the depart- 
 ment of Somme, is situated on the river Somme ; pop. 
 18,000. The town is well built, and is the seat of 
 considerable woollen manufactures. Here a factory, 
 founded in 1669, under the patronage of the minister 
 Colbert, stfll employs above 500 hands. See Supp. 
 
 ABBEY. See Monasteey. 
 
 ABBEY is used in a legal sense in Scotland, 
 and signifies the sanctuary or protection to a debtor 
 against legal process afforded by the A. of Holyrood. 
 See Sanctuary. 
 
 ABBOT ('father'). This naine, originaUy given 
 to any aged monk, was afterwaSds more strictly 
 applied to the superior of a monastery or abbey. 
 Since the 6th c, abbots have belonged to the 
 clerical orders, but at first they were not neces- 
 sarily priests. After the second Nicene Council 
 (787), abbots were empowered to consecrate monks 
 for the lower sacred orders; but they remained 
 in subordination under their diocesan bishops 
 until the llth o. As abbeys became wealthy, 
 abbots increased in power and influence ; many 
 received episcopal titles; and all were ranked as 
 prelates of the church next to the bishops, and had 
 the right of votmg in church-councils. Even 
 
ABBOT— ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 abbesses contended for tbe same honours and privi- 
 leges, but without success. In the 8th and 9th 
 c, abbeys began to come into the hands of lay- 
 men, as rewards for military service. In the 10th 
 c, many of the chief abbeys in Christendom were 
 under lay-abbots [Abbates Miliies, or Abba-comiies), 
 while subordinate deans or priors had the spiritual 
 oversight. The members of the royal household 
 received grants of abbeys as their maintenance, 
 and the mng kept the richest for himself. Thus, 
 Hugo Capet of France was lay-abbot of St Denis, 
 near Paris. Sometimes convents of nuns were 
 granted to men, and monasteries to women of 
 ranlc. These abuses were, in a great measure, 
 reformed during the 10th c. After the reformation 
 of the order of Benedictines, monasteries arose 
 that were dependent upon the mother-monastery 
 of Clugny and without abbots, being presided over 
 by priors or pro-ahbates. Of the orders founded after 
 the 11th c, only some named the superiors of 
 their convents abbots ; most, from himiility or other 
 cause, used the titles of prior, major, guardian, 
 rector. Abbesses have ahnm always remained under 
 the jurisdiction of their diocesan bishop ; but the 
 abbots of independent or Hberated abbeys acknow- 
 ledged no lord but the pope. In the middle ages, the 
 so-called InsulpMd Abbots frequently enjoyed epis- 
 copal titles, but only a few had dioceses. Before 
 the period of secularisation in Germany, several of 
 the abbots in that country had princely titles and 
 powers. In England there were a considerable num- 
 ber of Mitred Abbots who sat and voted in the House 
 of Lords. The election of an abbot belongs, as a rule, 
 to the chapter or assembly of the monks, and is 
 afterwards confirmed by the pope or by the bishop, 
 according as the monastery is independent or under 
 episcopal jurisdiction. But from early times, the 
 pope in Italy has claimed the right of conferring 
 many abbacies, and the concordat of 1516 gave a 
 similar right to the Icing of France. Laymen who 
 possessed monasteries were styled Secular Abbots; 
 while their vicars, who discharged the duties, as 
 well as all abbots who belonged to the monastic 
 order, were styled Begular Abbots. In France, the 
 abuse of appointing secular abbots was carried to 
 a great extent previous to the time of the Revolu- 
 tion. (See Abb:^.) Often monasteries themselves 
 chose some powerful person as their secular abbot, 
 with a view of 'commending' or committing their 
 abbey to his protection {AbbSs Gommendataires). In 
 countries wmch joined in the Reformation, the 
 possessions of abbeys were mostly confiscated by 
 the crown ; but in Hanover, Brunswick, and Wur- 
 temberg, several monasteries and convents were 
 retained as educational establishments. In the 
 Greek Church, the superiors of convents are called 
 Hegwmeni or Mandrites, and general abbots, Archi- 
 mandrites. 
 
 ABBOT, Geoege, an English prelate under the 
 Stuarts — chiefly remarkable for the position he held, 
 and the part he acted, as the opponent of the poKcy 
 of Laud and a despotic court— was the son of a 
 cloth-manufacturgf in Guilford, and was born 1562. 
 After studying at Oxford, he was appointed chaplain 
 to the Earl of Dunbar (1608), with whom he went 
 to Scotland. This appointment was the basis of 
 A.'s subsequent promotion. For a, short time 
 he held the see of Lichfield and Coventry, and in 
 1610 was made Archbishop of Canterbury. As a 
 learned and able man, but more especially as a 
 friend of toleration, he gained the esteem of all 
 parties in an age of reHgious animosities. James I. 
 employed the advice of A. iu the most important 
 affairs of state, and the prelate often opposed the 
 arbitrary principles of the king. A.'s intolerance 
 
 of Arminian doctrines was an exception to his gene- 
 ral rule of conduct. His independent and liberal 
 spirit incm-red the displeasure of Charles I. A. 
 was employed on the authorised translation of the 
 Bible under James I. His other literary productions 
 are not important. He died at Croydon, 1633,' and 
 a monument was erected to his memory in his native 
 town, Guilford. — His brother, Robeet A., Bishop 
 of Saiisbui-y (b. 1560— d. 1617), was a learned theo- 
 logian, and the author of a treatise De Suprema 
 Potestate Eecjia (1616), written to controvert the 
 doctrines of BeUarmine and Saarez. 
 
 ABBOTSPORD, the seat of Sir Walter SCott, is 
 situated on the south bank of the Tweed, a little 
 above its confluence with the Gala, and about 
 three mUes from the town of Melrose. Before it 
 became, in 1811, the property of Sir "Walter, the 
 site of the house and grounds of A. formed a small 
 farm known by the name of Cartley Hole. The 
 new name was the invention of the poet, who 
 loved thus to connect himself with the days when 
 Melrose abbots passed over the fords of the Tweed. 
 On this spot, a sloping bank overhanging the river, 
 with the Selkirk HiUs behind, he built at first a 
 small villa, now the western wing of the castle. 
 Afterwards, as his fortune increased, he added the 
 remaining portions of the building, on no uniform 
 plan, but with the desire of combining in it some 
 of the features (and even actual remains) of those 
 ancient works of Scottish architecture which he 
 most venerated. The result was that singularly 
 picturesque and irregular pUe, which has been aptly 
 characterised as 'a romance in stone and lime.' 
 The present proprietor of A. is Mr Hope Scott, who 
 married the granddaughter of Sir W. Scott. A 
 considerable addition has recently been made to the 
 building. 
 
 ABBOTT, Chaeles. See Tenteeden, Loed. 
 
 ABBOTT, Rev. Jacob, a native of Maine, U.S., 
 was born in 1803, and graduated at Bowdoin CoUege 
 in 1820. He is a remarkably voluminous writer, 
 and has acquired a large measure of popularity from 
 the simplicity and earnestness of his thought. He 
 has addressed himself principally to the young, 
 and it is perhaps not too much to say, that of 
 all works intended for the juvenile mind, his are 
 the best in the English language. So thoughtful an 
 instructor of youth even as Dr Arnold, speaks in 
 high terms of The Way to do Good. Nearly all his 
 books have been repeatedly republished in England, 
 and some have been translated into various European 
 and Asiatic languages. His most popular work is 
 Tlie Young Christian. Besides this, he has written 
 T'/ie Franconia Stories, 10 vols. ; Histories for the 
 Young, 19 vols.'; Marco Paul's Adventures, 6 vols. ; 
 Harper's Story-books, 36 vols. ; &c. 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS are contrivances in writing 
 for saving time and space. They are of two kinds, 
 consisting either in the omission of some letters or 
 words, or in the substitution of some arbitrary sign. 
 In the earliest times, when uncial or lapidary charac- 
 ters were used, abbreviations by omission prevailed, 
 such as we find in the inscriptions on monuments, 
 coins, &c. In these, the initial letter is often put 
 instead of the whole word, as M. for Marcus, F. for 
 Filius. It was after the small Greek and Roman 
 letters had been invented by transcribers for facih- 
 tating their work, that signs of abbreviation or char- 
 acters representing double consonants, syllables, and 
 whole words, came into use. Greek manuscripts 
 abound with such signs, and often only one that has 
 expressly studied Greek palffiography can make them 
 out. From the manuscripts, they passed into the 
 early printed editions of Greek books, and it is only 
 recently that they have quite disappeared. Among 
 
ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 the Eomans, signs of abbreviation were called notoe, 
 and professed scribes who employed t];em were 
 notarii. To such an extent was tiie system carried, 
 that L. Annaeus Seneca collected and classified 5000 
 abbreviations. The same practice has prevailed in 
 aU languages, but nowhere more than in the 
 Eabbinioal writings. — The abbreviations used by the 
 ancient Romans were continued and increased in the 
 middle ages. They occur in inscriptions, manuscripts, 
 and legal documents ; and the practice continued in 
 these last long after the invention of printing had 
 made it unnecessary in books. An act of parliament 
 was passed in the reign of George XL, forbidding the 
 use of abbreviations in legal documents. Owing to 
 these abbreviations, the deciphering of old writ- 
 ings requires special study and training, and forms 
 a separate science called Diplomatic (q.v.), on which 
 numerous treatises have been written. Tassin's 
 Nouveau Traite de Diplomatique (6 vols.. Par. 
 1750-65) contains, in the third volume, an exposi- 
 tion of Roman abbreviations. Other works on 
 the subject are — Gatterer's Ahriss der DiplomaMk 
 (2 vols., Gott. 1798) ; Pertz's ScIirifUaflen (4 Nos., 
 Hannov. 1846) ; and Kopp's Palmographica Critica 
 (4 vols., Manh. 1817-29). — In ordinary writing and 
 printing, few abbreviations are now employed. The 
 sign &, originally an abbreviation for the Lat. et, 
 ' and,' is perhaps the only one of the arbitrary kind 
 stiU to be met with. It does not stand properly 
 for a word, for it is used in different languages, but 
 for an idea, and is as much a symbol as -I-. The 
 abbreviations by usLag the initials of Latin words 
 that are stUl in use, are chiefly confined to titles, 
 dates, and a few phrases; as, M.A. {magister ariium), 
 Master of Arts; AD. (anno domini), in the year 
 of our Lord; e.g. [exempli graiid), ^ioi example. 
 Many are now formed from Engbsh words in 
 the same way; as, F.G.S., Fellow of the Geo- 
 logical Society; B.C., before Christ. — Most of the 
 sciences and arts have sets of signs of abbreviation, 
 or symbols, peculiar to themselves. These are of 
 great use both for brevity and clearness. See 
 Ckkmtcai, Symbols, &c. 
 
 The following is a list of the more important 
 Abbreviations in general use : 
 
 Abp., Archbishop. 
 
 A.C. {Ante Christum), Before Christ. 
 
 A.D. {Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord. 
 
 A.H. {Anno Hegirce), In the year of the Hegira. 
 
 A.M. {Ante Meridiem), Before noon ; {Anno Mundi), 
 
 In the year of the world. 
 A.R.A., Associate of the Royal Academy (London). 
 A.R.S.A., Associate of the Royal Scottish Academy. 
 A.U.C. (Ab Urbe Oondita), Prom the building of the 
 
 city — that is, Rome. 
 B.A. or A.B. {Artium Bacealaureus), Bachelor of 
 
 Arts. 
 Bart, or Bt., Baronet. 
 B.C., Before Christ. 
 B.C.L., Bachelor of Civil Law. 
 B.D., Bachelor of Divinity. 
 B.M., Bachelor of Medicine. 
 Bp., Bishop. 
 
 C. {Centum), A hundred ; chapter. 
 C.A., Chartered Accountant. 
 C.B., Companion of the Bath. 
 CO., Caius College. 
 C.E., Civil Engineer. 
 Clk., Clerk. 
 C.M.G., Companion of the Order of St Michael and 
 
 St George. 
 Crim. Con., Criminal conversation. 
 Ct., Count. 
 
 cwt., Hundredweidit. 
 D.C.L., Doctor of Civil Law. 
 
 6 
 
 D.D., Doctor of Divinity ; Dono dedit. 
 
 D.G. {Dei Gratid), By the grace of God. 
 
 Do. (Ital. ditto, ' said '), The said ; the same. 
 
 Dr, Doctor, or Debtor. 
 
 D.V. {Deo Volente), God willing. 
 
 dwt., penny-weight. 
 
 e.g., or ex. gr. {Exempli Gratid), For example. 
 
 Etc. {Et cceta-a). And the rest ; and so on. 
 
 P.A.S., Fellow of the Antiquarian Society. 
 
 F.B.S., Fellow of the Botanical Society. 
 
 P.D. {Fidei Defensor), Defender of the Paith. 
 
 P.G.S., Fellow of the Geological Society. 
 
 F.L.S., Fellow of the LionEean Society. 
 
 F.M., Field-marshal. 
 
 P.R.A.S., Fellow of the Royal Astronomical, or of 
 
 the Royal Asiatic Society. 
 P.R.C.P., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. 
 F.R.C.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 
 E., of England. 
 F.R.G.S., Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. 
 P.R.S., Fellow of the Royal Society. L., London ; 
 
 E., Edinburgh. 
 P.R.S.S.A., Fellow of the Royal Scottish Society of 
 
 Arts. 
 F.S.A., Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. 
 
 P.S.A.Scot., Do. of Scotland. 
 F.S.S., PeUow of the Statistical Society. 
 P.Z.S., Fellow of the Zoological Society. 
 G.C.B., (Knight) Grand Cross of the Bath. 
 6.C.H., (Knight) Grand Cross of Hanover. 
 G.C.M.G., (Knight) Grand Cross of St Michael and 
 
 St George. 
 Gr., Greek ; Lat., Latin ; Ital, Italian ; &c. 
 H.E.I.C.S., Hon. East India Company's Service. 
 H.M.S., His or Her Majesty's Service, or Ship. 
 H.R.H., His or Her Royal Highness, 
 lb. or Ibid. {Ibidem), In the saihe place. 
 I.CTH.IT.S. {ix;itjs), lesous Christos, Thecu Huios, 
 Soter — Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the Saviour. 
 Id. {Idem), The same ; {Idus), The Ides, 
 i.e. {Id est), That is. 
 
 I.H.S.* lesus Hominum Salvator, Jesus the Saviour 
 of men ; In Mc {Cruce) Salv^, In this (cross) 
 salvation. 
 Incog. (Incognito, Ital.), Unknown. 
 I.N.R.I. (lesus Nazarenvs Rex ludceorum), Jesus of 
 
 Nazareth, king of the Jews. 
 Inst. {Instante — mense understood). Instant, of the 
 
 present (month) ; Institute. 
 I.P.D. (in Prcesentid Dominoi-um), In presence of the 
 
 Lords (of Session). 
 J.C. (Juris Congultus), Juris-consult. 
 J.P., Justice of the Peace. 
 J.V. (or U.) D. {Juris Utriusque Doctor), Doctor 
 
 both of GivU and of Canon Law. 
 Kal. (Kalendce or Kalendis), The Kalends. 
 K.B., Knight of the Bath. 
 K.C.B., Knight Commander of the Bath. 
 K.C.H., Knight Commander of the Order of Haa- 
 
 over. 
 K.C.M.G., Knight Commander of St Michael and St 
 
 George. 
 K.G., Knight of the Garter. 
 K.H., Knight of Hanover. 
 K.M., Knight of Malta. 
 K.P., Knight of St Patrick. 
 K.T., .Knight of the Thistle. 
 
 K. r. X., Kot; Tx y.ii«ofi.ivx. (Kai ta leipomena), same as 
 ' Et csetera.' 
 
 » This Tpas originally IHS, tlie first three Greek letters of 
 the name Jesus ; but its origin having been lost sight of, by 
 substituting S for 2, and then mistaking the Gr. H (Ita) for 
 Lat. H, a signification was subsequently found out for each 
 letter. The symbol was still further altered by converting the 
 horizontal stroke, vrhieh was the usual si^n of abbreviation, 
 into a cross, as it now generally appears, 1 A S. 
 
ABBREVIATIONS— ABD-EL-KADER. 
 
 U>. (libra), Pound. 
 
 L.D,, Lady Day. 
 
 LL.B. (Legum Baccalaureua), Bachelor of Laws (the 
 plural being denoted by the double L). 
 
 LL.D. {Legum Dodor), Doctor of Laws. 
 
 L.R.C.S., Licentiate of the Royal College of Sur- 
 geons. 
 
 L.S.A., Licentiate of the Society of Apothecaries. 
 
 L.S.D. (LihrcB, Solidi, Denarii), Pounds, shillings, 
 pence. 
 
 M. {Milk), A thousand. 
 
 M.A. or A.M. {Artium, Magisler), Master of Arts. 
 
 Mass., Massachusetts ; Vt., Vermont ; Pa., Pennsyl- 
 vania ; &o. See Unitkd States. 
 
 M.D. (Medicinm Dodor), Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M.P., Member of Parliament. 
 
 M.RC.S., Member of the Royal College of Surgeons. 
 
 M.R.I.A., Member of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 MS., Manuscript ; MSS., Manuscripts. 
 
 Mus. D. (MusiccB Doctor), Doctor of Music. 
 
 M.W.S., Member of the Wemerian Society. 
 
 N.B. {NoUj. bene), Mark -well ; observe. 
 
 Nem. con. (Nemine contradicente), or Nem. diss. 
 {Nemiiie iiissidente). No one contradicting or dis- 
 senting; unaJiimously, 
 
 N.P., Notary Public. 
 
 N.S., New Style. 
 
 O.S., Old Style. 
 
 Oxon. {Oxoniensis), Of Oxford. 
 
 oz., Ounce. 
 
 P., President ; professor ; &c. 
 
 P.C., Privy Councillor. 
 
 P.C.S., Principal Clerk of Session. 
 
 Per ann. {Per annvrni), By the year. 
 
 Per cent. {Per centum). By the hundred. 
 
 Ph.D. {Philosophioe Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 P.M. {Post Meridiem), After noon. 
 
 P.P., Parish priest. 
 
 pp., Pages. 
 
 Pro tern. {Pro t^npore). For the time. 
 
 Prox. {Proximo), in the next (month). 
 
 P.S. {Post scriptum). Postscript. 
 
 Q., Query or Question. 
 
 Q.C., Queen's Counsel. 
 
 Q.E.D. {Quod erat demonsij-andMm), Which was to be 
 demonstrated. 
 
 Q.E.r. {Quod eraifaeienduni). Which was to be done. 
 
 Q.S. {Quantum suffidt), Enough. 
 
 q. V. {Quod vide). Which see. 
 
 R. {Sex or Begina), King or Queen. 
 
 R.A., Royal Academician ; Royal Artillery. 
 
 R.E., Royal Engineers. 
 
 R.M., Royal Marines. 
 
 R.N., RoyaJ Navy. 
 
 R.S.A., Royal Scottish Academician. 
 
 S., South ; saint ; seconds. 
 
 Sc, Scilicet, sanpie as mz. 
 
 S.L., Solicitor at Law. 
 
 S.M. {Sa Majesty), His or Men Majesty. 
 
 S.P.Q.R. {Senatus Popvlusgue MomavMs), the Roman 
 senate and people. 
 
 Sq. {Sequens), the following ; Sqq., do. in the plural. 
 
 S.S.C., Solicitor before the Supreme Courts. 
 
 S.T.P. {SanctcE Theologifs f^qfessw). Professor of 
 Theology. 
 
 T.C.D., Trinity CoUegs, Dublin. 
 
 Ult. {Ultimo — mejise iBiderstood), In the last 
 (month). 
 
 U.P., United Presbyterian. 
 
 TT.S., United States ; United Service. 
 
 V.D.M. (Verbi Dei Minister), Preacher of the 
 Word. 
 
 Viz. ( ViddiceC), To wit ; namely. 
 
 W.S., Writer to the Signet. 
 
 Xmas., Christmas. Xtian., Christian, &c. 
 
 Ye, Y« J The, That. (Thia use of Y originated in the 
 
 Anglo-Saxon character ]) , which was equivalent to 
 the modern Ih. In manuscripts, this character 
 degenerates into a form like a black letter y, 
 which was retained in these contractions after its 
 origin and real sound had been lost sight of.) 
 Besides the generally current abbreviations given 
 above, other short methods of statement are fre- 
 quently employed in particular circumstances. In 
 the present work, for instance, in which the saving 
 of space is of great moment, when the title or head- 
 ing of a subject recurs in the body of the article, it 
 is generalljr — especially iE a proper name — repre- 
 sented by its initial letter : e.g., A. for Abd-el- 
 Kader. Two dates thus (1215—1250), following the 
 name of a king, a pope, &c., indicate briefly the 
 beginning and end of his reign or term of office ; or 
 thus (b. 1215— d. 1250), the dates of his birth and 
 death. The meaning of these and similar contrac- 
 tions is in general sufficiently obvious from the 
 connection in which they stand. 
 
 ABD signifies in Arabic ' slave * or ' servant,' and 
 enters, along with the name of God, into the com- 
 position of many proper names; as, Abd- Allah, 
 ' servant of God ; ' Abd-el-Kader, ' servant of the 
 mighty God ; ' Abd-ul-Latif, ' servant of the gracious 
 God,' &c. 
 
 ABD-EL-KADER, properly El-Hadji-Abd-el- 
 Kader-Ulid-Mahiddm, is the descendant of u, 
 Marabout family of the race of Haschem, who trace 
 their pedigree to the califs of the lineage of Fatima. 
 He was bom at Ghetna, an educational institution of 
 the Marabouts, near Mascara, which belonged to 
 his family. His father, who died in 1834, being 
 esteemed a very holy man, had exercised great 
 influence over his countrymen, which influence he 
 bequeathed to his son. In his eighth year, A. made 
 a pilgrimage to Mecca with his father ; and in 1827, 
 he visited Egypt, where, in Cairo and Alexandria, 
 he first came in contact with western civilisation. 
 Religious enthusiasm and melancholy were the 
 most prominent features of his character. He 
 early shewed an uncommonly gifted mind, and at 
 the chief school of Fez he acquired such know- 
 ledge as composes Arabian science. A. was free 
 from the savage cruelty, as well as from the 
 sensuality, of the Arabs ; he maintained purity of 
 manners, and did not suffer himself ^o be misled 
 by anger or passion. Although he firmly adhered 
 to the faith of his nation, and used their fanaticism 
 as one of his most important sources of influence, 
 yet he had no sympathy with the fanatical intoler- 
 ance of the majority among them. His pubho 
 career began at lie tune of the conquest of Algiers 
 by the French. No sooner was the. power of the 
 Turks broken, than the Arabian tribes of the 
 province of Oran seized the opportunity to make 
 themselves independent. Having got possession 
 of Mascara, liey elected A. as their emir, who 
 soon succeeded in establishing his authority over 
 a number of the neighbouring tribes. He now 
 attacked the French; and some bloody battles, 
 fought on December 3, 1833, and January 6, 1834, 
 agamst General Desmichels, then commanding in 
 Oran, obliged the latter to enter into a treaty 
 with him. In the interior of the country, the 
 power of A. now spread in an alarming way. In 
 consequence of victories over neighbouring chiefs, 
 he became master of Miliana and Medeah. AU 
 the cities and tribes of the provinces of Oran and 
 Titeri acknowledged A. as their sultan ; the more 
 distant tribes sent him ambassadors with presents. 
 It was not long before hostilities broke out between 
 hhn and the French. The commencement was 
 favourable to him, for the first operations of 
 General Tretzel led to that fatal retreat, durmg 
 
ABDICATION— ABDOMEN. 
 
 wHoli tlie EVenoli army was attacked at Makta, 
 ou June 28, 1835, by the whole assembled forces of 
 A., amounting to nearly 20,000 cavalry, and suffered 
 a disgraceful defeat. 
 
 After a protracted struggle of six years, A. found 
 himself obliged (1841) to take refuge in Maroooo. 
 Here he succeeded in getting up a sort of crusade 
 against the enemies of Islam; and the arms of 
 K-ance were now turned against Marocco for the 
 countenance given to A. After the decisive battle 
 of Isly (1844) the sultan was obliged to give up A.'s 
 cause, but soon found that the latter was at least 
 his equal in power, and that he could not even pre- 
 vent him from marching out of Nedem to attack the 
 French again, both in October 1845, and in March 
 1847. But the star of A. was now about to set. In 
 the night of the 11th December, he made a bold attack 
 on the Moorish camp, in which he was defeated, and 
 had to resolve on flight. He might easily have 
 secured his own safety, but he would not abandon 
 his attached followers, men, women, and children, 
 to the plunder and massacre of the Marocoans. 
 After a heroic combat on the 21st December, he 
 effected their retreat across the Mulviia into the 
 territory of Algerie, where they mostly surrendered 
 to the ITrench. He himself, with a few horsemen, 
 resolved to fight Itis way through to the south ; but 
 coming to the Pass of Kerbous, he found the 
 way closed, and was received with musketry. Dis- 
 pirited at length, A. surrendered, on December 
 22, 1847, to General LamoriciSre and the Due 
 d' Aumale, upon condition that he should be per- 
 mitted to withdraw either to Egypt or to St Jean 
 d'Acre. The French government, who at last saw 
 the man in their power who had given them so 
 much trouble for fifteen years, refused to ratify this 
 agreement. A. was embarked with his family and 
 sent to Toulon, whence he was removed, in January 
 7, 1848, to Fort Lamalgue, afterwards to Pau, and 
 finally to the Chateau d' Amboise. He was liberated 
 in 1852 by Louis Napoleon, and had Brussa, in 
 Asia Minor, assigned as a residence. Since the 
 destruction of Brussa by an earthquake in 1855, he 
 has been permitted to reside in Constantinople. 
 The ex-emir has several children, both male and 
 female. See Delacroix, Histoire Privee et Politique 
 d'Ahd-d-Kader (Paris, 1845) ; Bautruche, Vied'Abd- 
 d-Kadsr (Paris, 1848). 
 
 ABDICATION is the act of giving up an office, 
 generally the office of ruler or sovereign. It is 
 rarely done out of pure preference of a private station, 
 but is generally the result of vexation and disappoint- 
 ment. It. was perhaps voluntarily, and from being 
 wearied with dominion, that Diocletian, and along 
 with him Maximian, abdicated (305). Christina of 
 Swedeii retired from the throne (1654) out of prefer- 
 ence for the freedom of private life, but wished still 
 to exercise the rights of a sovereign. Charles V. laid 
 down the crown (1556) because his great schemes 
 had failed. Philip V. of Spain did so (1724) in a fit 
 of melancholy, but resumed it on the death of his 
 son. Amadeus of Savoy abdicated (1494) to become 
 a priest. Victor Amadeus of Sardinia, who abdi- 
 cated in 1730, wished to recall the step, but was not 
 allowed. Louis Bonaparte resigned the crown of 
 Holland, because he woiild not consent to treat that 
 country as a province of France. Charles Emanuel 
 of Sardinia retired from the throne in 1802, not 
 finding himself equal to the crisis ; and the same 
 was the case with Victor Emanuel in 1819. William 
 I. of the Netherlands resigned (1840), as his policy 
 had become impossible from the turn of affairs in 
 Belgium. Foreign force compelled the abdication 
 of Augustus of Poland (1707), and later, that of 
 Stanislaus Leszczynski (1735) and of Poniatowski 
 (1795); as well as that of Charles IV. of Spain 
 
 (1808), and of Napoleon (1814 and 1815). Insurrec- 
 tions have been the most frequent ca\ise of forced 
 abdications. The early history of the Scandinavian 
 kmgdoms abounds in instances. In England, the 
 compulsory abdication of Eichard II. (1399) is an 
 early example. In the case of James II., it was 
 disputed whether the king had 'abdicated' or 
 'deserted.' More recent times saw Charles X. 
 (1830) and Louis-Philippe (1848) retire before the 
 storm of revolution, without the conditions they 
 made being regarded. The abdication of Ferdinand 
 of Austria (1848) was an indirect consequence of the 
 events of the year of revolutions; that of Charles 
 Albert of Sardinia (1849), of the battle of Novara. 
 Of several recent cases among German princes, the 
 chief is that of Ludwig of Bavaria (1848). The latest 
 instance is that of Soulouque, Emperor of, Haiti, who 
 has (Jan. 1859) rather been driven from his domi- 
 nions than abdicated. 
 
 In some countries, the king can abdicate whenever 
 he pleases ; but in England, the constitutional relation 
 between the crown and the nation being of the nature 
 of a contract, the king or queen, it is considered, can- 
 not abdicate without the consent of parliament. It 
 is, however, said that the long does abdicate, or, to 
 speak perhaps more correctly, an A. may be pre- 
 sumed, and acted ou by the people, if his conduct 
 politically and overtly is inconsistent with, and sub- 
 versive of, the system of constitutional government, 
 of which the qualified monarchy of his office forms 
 part. 
 
 At the conference between the two Houses of 
 Parliament previous to the passing of the statute 
 which settled the crown on Wfiliam III., it would 
 appear that the word ' abdicated ' with reference 
 to King James II. was advisedly used instead of 
 ' deserted ' — the meaning, it is presumed, being 
 that King James had not only deserted his office, 
 but that by his acts and deeds, of which the said 
 desertion formed part, he had, id view of the con- 
 stitution, ceased to have right to the throne. From 
 this it may be inferred that A. was considered to 
 have a twofold political signification, involving 
 maladministration as well as desertion. The Scotch 
 Convention, however, more vigorously and dis- 
 tinctly resolved that King James ' had f orefaulted 
 [forfeited] the crown, and the throne was become 
 vacant.' 
 
 ABDO'MEN. The trunk of the hiunan body is 
 divided by the diaphragm into two cavities — the 
 upper being the thorax or chest, and the under, the 
 abdomen or belly. Both the cavity and the viscera 
 
 Organs of the Abdomen. 
 
 1. Diaphragm. 2. Gall-tladcler. 3. Pyloric end of Stomach. 
 4. Right Lobe of Liver. 5. Duodenum. 6. Great end of 
 Stomach. 7. Spleen. 8. Piece of Caul, or Omentum. 
 9. Pancreas (Sweetbread). 10. Small Intestine (Jejunum). 
 11, Great Intestine (Colon). 12. Small Intestine (Ilium), 
 
ABDOMEN— ABDUCTION. 
 
 it coutains are included in the term A. It con- 
 tains the liver, pancreas, spleen, and kidneys, as 
 well as the stomach, small intestine, and the colon. 
 The lower bowel, the bladder, and internal organs 
 of generation lie in the lowest part of the cavity, 
 which is called the pelvis. The A. is lined by a 
 serous membrane, the peritoneum, which is folded 
 over the viscera, allowing them a certain freedom of 
 motion, but keeping them in their proper relations 
 to each other. The A. is divided externally by 
 two horizontal lines into three principal regions — 
 the upper or epigastric, the middle or xunbilical, 
 and the lower or hypogastric. These are again 
 subdivided by two vertical lines — the side-divisions 
 bfeing called the hypochondriac, limibar, and iliac 
 regions respectively ; the names epigastric and 
 umbilical are then apphed in a restricted sense to 
 the middle divisions of the two upper principal 
 redons ; while the middle di\'isiou of the lower is 
 called the region of the pubis. Diseases of the 
 abdominal viscera are frequent, and chieiiy consist 
 either of chronic disorders of the digestive organs, 
 or of derangements of the nerve-plexuses and ganglia 
 there situated. Thege disorders annoimce themselves 
 partly in bodily pain, and partly in mental affections, 
 such as hypochondria and hysterics. 
 
 ABDOMEiir, in Entomology, the last of the three 
 parts into which the body of an insect is divided. 
 It is composed of a number of rings or segments, 
 frequently nine, more or less distmct from each 
 other. It contains a portion of the intestines and 
 the sexual organs. In the perfect insect, its 
 segments bear no legs nor wings ; but the hind-legs 
 of larvae or caterpillars, which afterwards disappear, 
 are attached to them. In many insects, its last 
 segments bear appendages of various uses and forms, 
 as pincers, stings, borers or ovipositors, &c. 
 
 ABDOMINALES, or Abdominal Fishes, in tlie 
 Linnaean arrangement, an order of Fishes including 
 all the Osseous Fishes of which the ventral fins are 
 placed upon and beneath the abdomen, and so 
 behind the pectoral fins. Subsequent naturalists 
 have thought it right in classifying Fishes to give a 
 higher place to other characters ; and in the system 
 of Cuvier, the name A. is given to an order 
 of much more limited extent, a, subdivision of 
 the Malacopterygii or Soft-rayed Osseoxis Fishes, 
 distinguished by having the ventral fins placed 
 beneath the abdomen and not attached to the bones 
 of the shoulder. It includes the Oyprinidw (Carp, 
 Minnow, &c.), Esoddcs (Pike, &o.), Siluridm, SoU- 
 monidce (Trout, Salmon, &c.), and Clupeidce 
 (Herring, &c.). 
 
 ABDUCTION, in the criminal law of England, 
 signifies the unlawful taldng away of the person of 
 a female. Such is the usual limitation of the word ; 
 although, under the Jewish law, and subsequently 
 aooordmg to the principles of the Civil law, the 
 A. or 'stealing' of the person was applied to the 
 male sex, as well as to women, coming more nearly 
 to what we now understand by Kidnapping (q. v.). 
 In the Civil law, the offence was called plagium, 
 or crimen, plagii, under whicl^ name it stiU has a 
 place in the Scotch criminal law, and, in practice, 
 is applied to the A. of children of either sex-, or 
 of women generally. The A. may be accomphdied 
 either by force or by any fraudulent or sinister means ; 
 and this latter quality seems more appropriate to the 
 strict meaning of the term, as derived from tlie Latin 
 verb dbducere, to lead off, or induce, or persuade 
 . away. 
 
 This subject will be best explained imder the 
 heads to which we have already referred. 
 
 1. Abduction of Child.— It is provided by the 
 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 21, that if any person shall 
 
 maliciously, either by force or fraud, lead or take 
 away, or decoy or entice away, or detain any child 
 under the age of ten yeaa-s, with intent to deprive 
 the parent or parents, or other person having the 
 lawfid charge of such child, of the possession of such 
 child, or with intent to steal any article on its per- 
 son; or shall with any such intent as aforesaid 
 receive or harbour such child, Icnowing the same to 
 have been so stolen or enticed, every such offender 
 shall be guilty of felony, and shall be hable to be 
 transported for seven years, or imprisoned, with or 
 without hard labour, for any term not more than 
 two years, and also, if a male, to be whipped, if the 
 court shall so think fit. 
 
 The Scotch law on this subject is more severe 
 than the English, and there also a distinction is 
 taken between stealing a child, and enticing it away. 
 The stealing a child is in that legal system a capital 
 crime. Sir Archibald Ahson, in his work on the 
 Pnndples of Hie Criminal Law of Scotland (p. 280), 
 says : ' This [stealing a child] is obviously a crime 
 of the very greatest atrocity, from the unequalled 
 agony and distress which it necessarily inflicts on the 
 unfortunate parents who are in this cruel manner 
 
 bereaved of their offspring From the 
 
 earhest times, accordingly, this atrocious offence has 
 been punished with death by the Scotch law. Nor 
 is it any defence that the child is taken away for 
 affection to itself, or from any other motive, and not 
 for the sake of lucre, taken in its ordinary sense, for 
 the detainer has at least that advantage and benefit 
 which he coveted in taking away the duld; and this 
 is sufficient to constitute theft in the estunation of 
 the law.' The same principle is recognised by the 
 law of England, which holds that as the offence 
 of A. is positively prohibited, the absence of a 
 corrupt motive wiU not be a defence to the charge. 
 Further on, in the same work (p. 630), Sir Archibald 
 lays it down that ' The wickedly and feloniously 
 enticing or inducing an infant child to leave its 
 parents or guardians without their knowledge or 
 consent is a crime at common law ; ' and in support 
 of this he refera to a case where the prisoner, who 
 was a teacher of elocution, and was desirous to get 
 a little child to recite poetry to his audience, 
 applied to a girl, an infant of nine years of age, in 
 the Orphan Hospital, and prevailed on her, by pro- 
 mises of fine clothes, and making a lady of her, to 
 leave the hospital, and come to Mm, where she was 
 soon found after in his custody. This was done at 
 clandestine interviews with the child, and without 
 the knowledge or concurrence of her relations who 
 had placed her in the hospital. The fhght of the 
 accused, who was out on bad, prevented any further 
 procedure in the case, beyond his outlawry. 
 
 2. Aeduction of Wife. — Blackstone and 
 Stephen both lay down that this species of A. 
 may be either by fraud and persuasion or open 
 violence; though the law supposes force and con- 
 straint in the former case as well as in the latter, 
 the wife having no legal power to consent. The 
 remedy to the husband is an action by which he 
 recovers not the possession of his wife, but damages 
 for the A. of her; and by statute 3 Edw. I. 
 c. 13, the offender shall also be imprisoned two years, 
 and be fined at the pleasure of the crown. Both the 
 crown and the husband may therefore have this 
 action. The husband is also entitled to recover 
 damages against such as persuade and entice the 
 wife to live separate from him without a sufficient 
 cause. But, although such appears to be the existing 
 law of England, it is too antiquated, and is quite 
 unsuited to the present state of society. The remedy 
 for the offence, or rather injury in question, wiU be 
 more appropriately found in the recent act 20 and 
 21 Vict. c. 85, to amend the law relating to divorce 
 
A£t>tJcM6if-Aii)-tiR-EAttMAN. 
 
 and matrimonial causes, and under which the mar- 
 riage may te either annulled, with, in the case of 
 the adultery of the wife, the punishment of the 
 adulterers; or the parties may be 'judicially 
 separated.' 
 
 3. Abdtjotion of Ward, ok Pupil. — ^By the 
 law of England, a guardian was always, and is stfll, 
 entitled to an action, if his ward or pupil be taken 
 from him; but the proper remedy now is by an 
 application to the Court of Chancery, which is the 
 supreme guardian of, and has iadependent jurisdic- 
 tion over, all the infants in the kingdom. In Soot- 
 land, a similar jurisdiction as to the charge and 
 custody of all Scotch pupils is exercised by the 
 Court of Session. 
 
 4. Abduction- oi' Heiress. — The law on this 
 subject is very distinct. By 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, it is 
 enacted that where any woman shall have interest, 
 present or future, in any real or personal estate, or 
 shall be heiress presumptive, or next of kin, to any 
 one having such interest, it any person shall, from 
 motives of lucre, take away or detain such woman 
 against her wiU, with intent to marry or defile her, 
 or to cause her to be married or defiled by any other 
 person ; every such offender, and every person coun- 
 selling, aiding, or abetting him, shall be guilty of 
 felony, subject to transportation for Kfe, or for any 
 term not less than seven years, or to imprisonment, 
 with or without hard labour, for any term not 
 exceeding four years. 
 
 By section 20 of the same statute, it is enacted 
 that if any person shall unlawfully take, or cause to 
 be taken, any unmarried girl under sixteen years 
 of age, out of the possession and against the will of 
 her father, or mother, or other person having the 
 lawful charge of her; every such offender shall 
 be guilty of a misdemeanour, subject to fine or 
 imprisonment, or both, as the court shall award. 
 
 It is an offence within the statute to take away 
 from the custody of her putative father a natural 
 child under sixteen years of age. 
 
 By the 10th Geo. IV. c. 34, the same law is 
 extended to Ireland, with this difference in the case 
 of heiresses, that wMle the EngHsh act apphea to 
 ' any woman,' the Irish act provides for the offence 
 against ' any unmarried girl under eighteen years of 
 age.' 
 
 The marriage of an heiress under sixteen years of 
 age, when obtained by means of force, may be set 
 aside on that ground. And the force may be actual 
 or constructive. Thus, in law, fraud is here held 
 equivalent to force ; and accordingly where (Gibbon 
 Wakefield's case) both the A. and marriage were 
 voluntary in fact, they were held in law to be 
 forcible, the consent to both having been obtained 
 by fraud. 
 
 5. Abduction" op Women" generally. — ^The 
 A. and forcible or fraudulent marriage of women 
 and girls is a felony ; and by 5 and 6 Vict. c. 38, 
 s. 11, must be tried by a superior court. 
 
 Abduction of Voters. See Voters, Abduction 
 OF, Election, Parliamentary. 
 
 ABD-TJIi-LATIP, a celebrated Arabian "writer of 
 multifarious acquirements, was bom at Bagdadin 
 1161. Diiring his youth, he underwent an amazing 
 amount of mental drudgery, in accordance "vrith the 
 eastern fashion of his time, in order to fit himself for 
 becoming a scholar. The ordeal consisted in his 
 committing to memory a large number of standard 
 works, such as the Koran, the novels of Hariri, and 
 not a few grammatical treatises. To complete his 
 culture in the various branches of Mohammedan 
 lore, he betook himself to Damascus, where "the 
 famous Saladiu ha* gathered round him the most 
 learned men of the time. Through the liberality of 
 
 10 
 
 the sultan, and the kindness of the Vizir Padhel, he 
 was enabled to proceed to Effirpt, where he delivered 
 lectures while Saladin was fighting the Lion-heart 
 at St Jean d'Acre. Here he became intimate with 
 Moses Maimonides, the great Jewish writer. He 
 now devoted himseU chiefly to the study of medicine, 
 although while at Cairo, he also "wrote his excellent 
 and accurate work on Egypt, which was translated 
 into Latin by Prof essor White of Oxford m 1800, 
 and into French by Baron de Sacy m 1810. He 
 died at Bagdad in 1231, on his way to Mecca, m 
 the 70th year of his age. 
 
 ABD-TJL-MEDJID-KHAIir, the present Grand 
 Sultan, was born May 6, 1822, and succeeded his 
 father, Mahmud II., July 1, 1839. The Turkish 
 Empire was then in a very dangerous position. Ihe 
 army had been defeated and dispersed by the Egyp- 
 tians in the battle of Nisib (June 29, 1839), and there 
 was nothing to hinder the "victorious Ibrahim Pacha 
 from advancing on Constantinople, where a large 
 party were favourable to the Egyptian power. This 
 par^ -wished to make the viceroy of Egypt, Mehemet 
 Ali, Chakan (the ancient title of the Grand Sultan) of 
 both seas. He was the only man, they maintained, 
 capable of upholding the banner of Islam against 
 the unbelievers both within and -without. Had it 
 not been for the intervention of the Christian powers, 
 the House of Osman was lost. The treaty of July 
 1840, from which France kept aloof, rescued the 
 young Padishah from sure destruction. Mehemet 
 AH had to submit (November 27, 1840) ; and the 
 treaty of July 1841, to which France subsequently 
 adhered, settled the future dependent relation of 
 Egypt to Turkey. The sultan, though not very 
 energetic in body or mind, proceeded in the path of 
 reform begun by Selim III. and Mahmud II. In 
 this he had for his chief adviser Reshid Pacha, an 
 intelligent and humane Mussulman, educated in 
 France. The aim of all his measures was to place 
 the Osman population on a footing with the ci"vilised 
 inhabitants of the west. A. "wished the happiness 
 of all his subjects, "without respect of creed. A sort 
 of proclamation of their rights was issued in the 
 hatti-sherif of November 1839. This was followed 
 by numerous reforms in all departments ; and in 
 1850, the professors of aE religions were decreed 
 equal in the eye of the law. That these decrees 
 have in a great measure remained a dead letter, is 
 not attributable to the "wfil of the sultan. The 
 chivalrous part acted by A. (1850) in refusing, at the 
 risk of losing his throne, to give up Kossuth and 
 the other pohtical refugees to me menaces of Russia 
 and Austna, "wiU make his name remembered in the 
 annals of humanity. 
 
 The sovereigns of Turkey have long been in an 
 anomalous position. The ambassadors of the great 
 powers have ruled the divan ; and the present sultan 
 has had a specially difficult part to play during 
 "the war "with Russia (1854^56), and the diplomatic 
 negotiations consequent to it. A. is the thirty-first 
 sovereign of the race of Osman, and the twenty- 
 eighth since the taking of Constantinople. lEs 
 eldest son, Mohammed Murad, was born September 
 22, 1840. According to the law of the empire, 
 his brother, Abdul-Aziz (b. 1830), succeeds to the 
 throne. 
 
 ABD-UR-RAHMAN, the sultan of Fez and 
 Marocco, born 1778, was the rightful heir to the 
 throne when his father died, 1794 ; but was super- 
 seded by an uncle, after whose death he ascended 
 the throne, 1823. His first four years of rule were 
 occupied in quelling insurrections. Next, some 
 danger to the state of Marocco was threatened by 
 the refusal of Austria to pay the tribute for safety 
 against pirates ; but the sultan "wisely adjusted the 
 
ABEii— ABENCEEEAGES. 
 
 dispute by relinquishing this sort of 'blaok-mail,' for- 
 merly levied by Marocoo on European ships in the 
 Mediterranean. The religious war under Abd-el- 
 Kader against the French in Algerie involved the 
 sultan in its movements ; but was concluded by the 
 battle of Isly, 1844, and the subsequent mediation of 
 England. The piratical habits of his subjects have 
 since brought A. to the brink of war with more than 
 one European state. The sultan is a zealous 
 Mussulman, without the wild fanaticism common 
 among his countrymen ; as a ruler, he is strict, and 
 often cruel. His eldest son, Sidi-Mohammed (b. 
 1803), is heir to the throne; 
 
 ABEL appears in the book of Genesis as the 
 second son of Adam, and a shepherd. He was slain 
 by his elder brother Cain, under the influence of 
 jealousy, because the offering of the latter had been 
 rejected by Jehovah, and that of the former accepted. 
 It is not said ia Genesis, why Jehovah accepted 
 the sacrifice of Abel ; but the Saviour, in the New 
 Testament, speaks of 'righteous Abel,' from which 
 it is concluded that there dwelt in him a spirit of 
 faith or trust ia the unseen God, of which his 
 brother was destitute. The writer of the Epistle to 
 the Hebrews opens his enumeration of the ' faithful ' 
 in the 11 th chapter of Hebrews, with these words : 
 'By faith Abel offered unto God, a more excellent 
 sacrifice than Cain.' Such, also, has been in all ages 
 the imiversal opinion of the Christian Church, which 
 has regarded Abel as a type of innocence and faith. 
 
 ABEL, Chahles Frbdebick, a native of Ccethen, 
 in Germany, bom in 1719, was a distinguished musi- 
 cian. He was a pupil of Sebastian Bach, and for 
 some years a member of the famous Dresden band of 
 the Elector of Saxony, king of Poland. In 1758, 
 when nearly forty years of age, he came to England 
 in a state of great destitution ; but his talents were 
 quickly recognised. He was appointed chamber- 
 musician to Sie queen of George III. His peculiar 
 instrument, the mola da gamha, a smaU violoncello, 
 with six strings, was never played by any one in 
 equal perfection. He also obtained considerable 
 reputation as a composer, though his pieces are not 
 now held in very great estimation. He died in 1787, 
 having shortened his life by his intemperate habits. 
 
 ABELARD, Peter, a scholastic philosopher and 
 theologian, unquestionably the boldest thinker of 
 the 12th c, was bom in France, in 1079, at Paletz or 
 Pallet, not far from Kantes, a vUlage which belonged 
 to his parents, Beranger and Lucie. An irrepres- 
 sible thirst for knowledge, and a special pleasure 
 in scholastic logic, moved him to resign his rights 
 of primogeniture in favour of his younger brothers. 
 He left Bretagne for Paris, in order to hear the pre- 
 lections of WiBiam of Champeaux, but soon incurred 
 the hatred of his master, whom he puzzled by his 
 wonderful subtlety. He fled to Melim, and after- 
 wards to Corbeil, persecuted and admired wherever 
 he went. He then returned home for the restoration 
 of his health. With renewed strength, he returned 
 to Paris, reconciled himself with his opponents, and 
 moulded, by his influence as a lecturer, some of the 
 most distinguidied men of his age, amongst whom 
 were the future Pope Celestine II. ; Peter Lombard ; 
 Berengar, his future apologist; and Arnold of 
 Brescia. At this time, there lived in Paris, Heloise, 
 the niece of the Canon Pulbert, then seventeen years 
 of age, and already remarkable for her beauty, talents, 
 and knowledge. She soon kindled in the breast of 
 A., then thirty-eight years old, a violent and over- 
 whelming passion, which was returned by Heloise 
 with no less fervour. By means of Pulbert, A 
 became teacher and companion of Heloise, and the 
 lovers were happy together until A-'s ardent poetical 
 effusions reached the ears of tiie canon. He sought 
 
 to separate the lovers; but it was too late. They 
 fled together to the country, where Heloise bore a 
 son, and was privately married to A., with the 
 consent of her uncle. Not long after, Heloise 
 returned to Fulbert's house, and denied the mar- 
 riage, that her love might be no hinderance to A's 
 advancement in the church. Enraged at this, and at 
 a second flight which she took with her lover, 
 I'ulbert, in order to make him canonioaUy incapable 
 of ecclesiastical preferment, caused A. to be emascu- 
 lated. In deep humiliation, A. entered as a monk the 
 abbey of St Denis, and induced Heloise to take the 
 veil at ArgenteuO. But the lectures which he began 
 to give soon after exposed hitn to new persecutions. 
 The synod of Soissons (1121) declared his opinions on 
 the Trinity to be heretical He left St Denis, and 
 built at Nogent-on-the-Seine a chapel and hermitage 
 called Paraclete, which, after being enlarged by his 
 scholars to a monastic foundation, he, on his appoint- 
 ment as abbot of St-Gildas-de-Euys, in Bretagne, gave 
 over to Heloise and her sisterhood for a dweling. His 
 residence in St-GUdas was imbittered by a continued 
 struggle against his love, and by the hatred of the 
 monks ; tul at last, in 1140, his doctrine was con- 
 demned by Pope Innocent III., and he was ordered 
 to be imprisoned. But Peter the Venerable, abbot 
 of Clugny, after A. had retracted his opinions on 
 the Trinity and Eedemption, reconciled him to his 
 enemies. A. died with the reputation of a model of 
 monastic propriety, on April 21, 1142, in the abbey 
 of St Marcel, not far from Chalons-on-the-Sa6ne. 
 Heloise had him interred at the Paraclete, hoping one 
 day to he by his side. She survived A. twenty years. 
 The ashes of both were taken to Paris in 1808, and 
 in 1828 were buried in one sepulchre in Pfere la Chaise. 
 — The doctrines advanced by A. in his controversy 
 with St Bemhard, have a decidedly rationaUst tend- 
 ency; and he, and his predecessor Erigena, may 
 be looked upon as the first avowed representatives 
 of that school. A. laid down the principle, that 
 nothing is to be believed but what has been 
 first understood; while the church held that we 
 must beUeve in order to understand ; and Bemhard 
 was for banishing inquiry altogether from the pro- 
 vince of religion. In judging of A.'s merits, we 
 are not to look so much to his writings, as to the 
 influence which his wonderful power of pubKc dis- 
 putation enabled liim to exercise on his age. His 
 character, no less than his doctrine, gave great 
 offence. Until recently, it is chiefly the romantic 
 history of his love that has occupied attention. 
 The chief biography that has appeared is that by 
 BSmusat, under the title of A. (2 vols., Par. 1845), 
 containing his life, character, writings, and opi- 
 nions. The Latin writings and letters of A. and 
 Heloise were collected by Amboise, and published 
 by Duchesne (Par. 1616). Some works of A have 
 been recently discovered; among others Sic d 
 Nan, a, collection of doctrinal contradictions from 
 the Fathers ; they have been published partly by 
 Cousin (Par. 1836), partly by Eheinwald (Berl. 
 1831). 
 ABELE. See Poplab. 
 
 ABBLITES, a Christian sect of the 4th c., 
 found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Hippo, m 
 North Africa. Their chief distinction consisted m 
 marrying but abstaining from matrimonial mter- 
 course, in order not to propagate original sin. iliey 
 held that Abel so Uved, because the Bible mentions 
 no children of his. > 
 ABELMOSCHUS. See Hibisots. 
 ABENCERKAGES, a noble Moorish race whose 
 stmggles with the family of the Zegris, and traacal 
 destraction in the royal palace rf the Alhambra, 
 in Granada, in the time of Abu-Hassan (146b-84), 
 
ABENDBERG— ABEEDEElir. 
 
 the last but one of tlie kings of Granada, furuisL. the 
 materials for a charming Spanish work of fiction, 
 Hisloria de las Guerras Oiviles de Oranada (Madrid, 
 1694). From this Chateaubriand composed Les 
 Aventwes du Dernier Aiencerrage, and furnished 
 the text of an opera of Cherubini's. The work, 
 however, seems to be destitute of historical founda- 
 tion,; at least Conde is perfectly silent on the 
 subject in his Historia de la Dominadon de los 
 Arabes en Mspana (3 vols., Madrid, 1829). 
 
 _ A'BElfDBBEG, a .hill m the canton of Berne, 
 rising abruptly out of the waters of Lake Thun, on 
 the south side. It is interestitig as the site of an insti- 
 tution, estabUshed by Dr Guggenbiihl, for the cure 
 of Cretins (q. v.), and supported by contributions 
 from far and near. The sanguine hopes raised as 
 to the good to be effected by the healthiness of the 
 situation, and the mode of treatment followed, 
 have been greatly disappointed, little alleviation 
 being perceptible. The estabhshment still exists 
 as an asylum for these unfortunate beings. 
 
 ABBN-BSRA, properly Abraham-Ben-Meir-Ben- 
 Esra, bom 1093 in Spain, died 1168 in Home, was one 
 of the most learned Jews of his times. He tmder- 
 stood the Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic languages ; 
 had considerable knowledge of mathematics, astro- 
 nomy, and medicine; was a scientific observer; and 
 generally distinguished himself as a sagacious thiiiter. 
 Having left his native land, he visited Lombardy, 
 Provence, France, Egjrpt, and England, and passed 
 the later years of Ms life in E.ome ; everywhere 
 giving lectures on grammar, theology, astronomy, 
 &c., besides writing and translating several works in 
 Hebrew and Ai-abic. His Commentaries on t/ie Old 
 Testament are the most important of his works, 
 which include some treaHses on astrology, since 
 pubhshed in Latin. The scholastic writers mention 
 Aben-Esra as AeenIbe or Avenahd. 
 
 ABBR is a Celtic word which enters into the 
 composition of several names of places, chiefly in 
 Wales and Scotland. It indicates the mouth or 
 embouchure of a stream, either into the sea, or into 
 another river — as Aberbrothock, at the mouth of 
 the Brothock, in Forfarshire ; Abergavenny, at the 
 junction of the TJsk and Gaveuny, in Wales. 
 
 ABBRCROMBIB, John, M.D., in his own day 
 the most eminent of Scottish physicians, and still 
 worthy of remembrance for his professional and 
 moral excellence, was bom in 1781, at Aberdeen, 
 where his father was long ji parish minister. He 
 studied medicine in Edinburgh, taking his degree in 
 1801, and thenceforth devoted himself to the practice 
 of his profession in the Scottish capital. At a com- 
 paratively early age, he attained a high reputation ; 
 and after the death (in 1821) of the celebrated Dr 
 Gregory, he became recognised as the first consulting 
 physician in Scotland. His professional writings 
 contributed to his celebrity, which was stiU further 
 extended by the publication, in 1830 and 1833, of 
 his works on The Intellectual Powers and The Moral 
 Feelings. These works have no pretensions to 
 originality or depth of thought, but acquired, from 
 the high personal character of the author, a reputa- 
 tion during his life, which a few years have sufficed to 
 impair. . They possess, however, the merit of being 
 more readable than many works of the same class, 
 and are pervaded by a moral and religious feeling, 
 which, in the case of their pious and benevolent 
 , author, was perfectly genuine. Dr A. died 
 suddenly, Nov. 14, 1844. Among the honours 
 bestowed upon him during his life were the 
 degree of M.D. from Oxford, the rectorship of 
 Marischal College, the vice-presidency of the Royal 
 Society of Edinburgh, and the ofiice of Physician in 
 Ordinary to Her Majesty for Scotland. 
 
 ABERCROMBY, Sib Ralph, was bom at 
 Menstry, in Clackmannanshire, in 1734. He was 
 designed by his father for the Scottish bar; and 
 studied from 1752 to 1755 at the universities of 
 Edinbtirgh and Leipsic. His natural inohnation, 
 however, pointed to a mihtary life ; and in 1758, he 
 went to Germany as a, cornet in the 3d Dragoon 
 Guards. In 1780, he raised a regiment in Ireland, 
 which was called the 103d, or King's Irish. It was dis- 
 banded in 1783 ; and the next ten years were spent 
 by Sir Ralph in the retirement of a country life. He 
 had married in 1767. In 1793, he accompanied the 
 Duke of York to Holland. His conduct throughout 
 that unfortunate campaign, especially during the dis- 
 astrous retreat in the winter of 1794-5, won liim the 
 love and admiration of the whole army. On his return 
 to England, he was appointed to the chief command 
 of the expedition to the West Indies, which, not- 
 withstanding the vexatious obstruction of his designs, 
 he conducted with distinguished success, taking 
 Grenada, Demerara, Essequibo, St Lucia, St Vincent, 
 and Trinidad. Soon after, he was appointed com- 
 mander of the forces in Ireland ; but his enlightened 
 and manly remonstrances against the pohcy of 
 government towards that country occasioned his 
 removal to a similar command in Scotland. In 
 1799, he was appointed second in command to the 
 Duke of York in the expedition to Holland, stUl 
 more unhappy and ignominious in its results than 
 the former. A. alone acquitted himself on aU 
 occasions with entire credit. On his return, he 
 was appointed to command the expedition to the 
 Mediterranean. The fleet anchored in Aboukir Bay 
 on the 2d of March. On the 7th, A. reconnoitred 
 the shore in person. Before mid-day of the 8th, 
 the British troops were in possession of the sand- 
 hills that commanded the shore, having landed in 
 the face of a storm of shot that ploughed the 
 water around them. On the 13th, the enemy were 
 driven within the lines of Alexandria. On the 
 morning of the 21st, Menou attempted to surprise 
 the British camp. He found them ready, under 
 arms. In the glorious action that ensued, the 
 British commander was struck by a musket-ball in 
 the thigh ; but not tiQ the battle was won, and 
 he saw the enemy retreating, did he shew any 
 sign of pain. He was borne from the field in a 
 hammock, cheered by the blessings of the soldiers 
 as he passed, and conveyed on board Lord Keith's 
 ship. The ball could not be extracted ; mortifica- 
 tion ensued ; and on the 28th he died, in the sixty- 
 eighth year of his age. In the character of A. 
 were combined the qualities that seem peculiarly 
 characteristic of a true British soldier. He was at 
 once gentle and brave, clear-sighted and cool in 
 deliberation, in action prompt and daring, even to 
 hardihood. Apart from his quahties as a soldier, 
 he was a man of liberal accomplishments, free from 
 prejudices, and of sound practical judgment. — The 
 national gratitude to this emment man took the 
 form of a peerage conferred on his widow, afterwards 
 enjoyed by his eldest son, with the title of Baron 
 Abercromby. — His third son, James Abeeceomby, 
 after being M.P. for Edinburgh and Speaker of the 
 reformed House of Commons, was raised to the 
 British peerage in 1839, with the title Babon 
 DuNFBBMLiNE. He died in March 1858. 
 
 ABBRDBBN, the principal city in the north of 
 Scotland, is situated in the S.E. angle of the 
 county of the same name, at the moutli of the river 
 Dee, which forms its harbour. This city is of high 
 antiquity, its privileges as a royal burgh being sup- 
 posed to have been conferred by WiUiam the Lion 
 as early as the yeay 1179. In 1336, it was burned 
 by the English; the city erected on the old site 
 was thenceforth locally designated New A. The 
 
ABERDEENSHIRE— ABERDEEN. 
 
 present town of Old A. included within the 
 parliamentary boundaries of the city, is situated 
 about a mile distant to the north. In 1494, King's 
 College and University was founded in Old 
 A. Marischal College and University was estab- 
 liahed in the new town in 1593. In the 17th c, 
 A. had become a place of considerable import- 
 ance, but it suffered severely from both parties 
 during the civil wars. It is now a flom-ishing seat 
 of trade and manufactures ; and its handsome 
 granite architecture excites the admiration of all 
 visitors. The harbour has been greatly improved. 
 The number of vessels belonging to the port in 
 1856 was, sailing-vessels, 231 — tonnage, 56,867 ; 
 steamers, 14 — tonnage, 4679. The principal exports 
 are, fine cotton and wooUen fabrics, granite, cattle, 
 grain, preserved meat, and fish. The granite quar- 
 ries and poUshing-works afford occupation to a large 
 number of people. The manufackn-e of combs is a 
 chief branch of industry. There are also consider- 
 able ironworks, and ship-building is extensively 
 carried on. The A. cHppers are celebrated as fast 
 sailers. As a seat of learning, A. has always main- 
 tained a high place. Connected with it, ecclesiasti- 
 cally or academically, are the names of Barbom* and 
 Boeoe ; Bishops Elphinstoue, Dunbar, and Forbes ; 
 Arthur Johnston, James Gregory, Arbuthnot, Reid, 
 Beattie, Gerard, and Campbefl. The average num- 
 ber of students annually attending both univer- 
 sities is nearly 600. The burgh of A. is governed 
 by a provost, four bailies, and fourteen councillors. 
 Pop., in 1851, of municipal burgh, 53,808 ; parlia- 
 mentary burgh, 71,973. 
 
 ABERDEENSHIRE, an extensive maritime 
 county in the E. of Scotland, bounded, N., by Banff 
 and the North Sea; S., by Kincardine, Forfar, and 
 Perth; W., by Inverness and Banff. Its greatest 
 length is about 90 miles ; its greatest breadth 
 about 40; its extent of sea-coast about 60. It is 
 the fifth in size of the Scottish coimties. Estimated 
 area, 1970 square nules ; pop. in 1851, 212,032. It 
 is stiU described under the five ancient divisions 
 (proceeding from south-west to north-east) of Mar, 
 Strathbogie, Garioch, Pormartin, and Buchan. The 
 south-western parts of the county are entirely moun- 
 tainous, the principal range of the Grampians running 
 along the southern boundary, from which a lesser chain 
 branches to the north and north-east. The highest 
 peaks are, Ben-Macdhui, 4390 feet ; Caimtoul, 4095 ; 
 Cairngorm, 4060 ; Ben-na-Buird, 3940 ; and Loch-na- 
 gar, 3815. The predominant rock-formation is mica 
 ^ate; and, in the mountain district of Braemar, 
 granite, which also underHes the whole neighbour- 
 hood of the city of Aberdeen, yielding large supplies 
 of a valuable bmlding-stone. The principal river is 
 the Dee, rising in the mountains of the south-west, 
 and falling, after an eastward com-se of 96 miles, into 
 the German Ocean. In its upper course are several 
 falls; and on its banks, in the parish of Crathie, 
 amid wild mountain scenery, is Her Majesty's 
 favourite residence, Balmoral. Next in size to the 
 Dee is the Don, rising in the west, and flowing into 
 the German Ocean, after a course of about 80 nules. 
 The Ythan rises in the north-west, and flows, with 
 slight variation, south-eastward. Its pearl-fishery 
 was once reckoned of some importance; the pearl- 
 mussel stiU inhabits its bed, but few pearls of any 
 value are found. The Deveron rises on the borders 
 of Aberdeen and Banff, and flows to the north-east, 
 into the Moray Pirth, at Banff, after a course of 
 about 60 miles, chiefly within the boundaries of 
 Banffshire, but partly in A. The arable land 
 of the county lies chiefly in the districts between 
 the Don and Ythan, in the centre of the county, 
 and in its north-eastern angle. Breeding more 
 cattle than any other coimty in Scotland, A. 
 
 also raises about three times as much oats and turnips 
 as any other. The estimated gross produce of the 
 foi-mer, in 1855, was 5,347,118 bushels; of the 
 latter, 1,232,007 tons. Clay predominates in the 
 lower coast-lands ; in the upper districts, there is a 
 considerable extent of light sandy loam. Agri- 
 culture has made great progress ; and in no part of 
 the kingdom have natural disadvantages of soil and 
 climate been more successfully overcome. The prin- 
 cipal towns and villages are Aberdeen, Peterhead, 
 Huntly, Fraserburgh, ICintore, and Inverury. The 
 county returns one member to parliament ; the city, 
 one; and the burghs of Peterhead, Kintore, and 
 Inverury, in conjimction with Elgin, CuUen, and 
 Banff, one. Pop. in 1851, 212,032 ; day-schools, 543, 
 vnth 30,271 pupils ; places of worship, 237 (70 of the 
 Established, and 76 of the Free Church). Enjoying 
 the advantage of the munificent Dick and Mill 
 bequests for the benefit of parochial schoolmasters, 
 A. holds a high place in the statistics of education. 
 
 ABERDEEN, Geokge Hamilton Goedoit, Earl 
 OF, was bom at Edinburgh in 1784. He was 
 educated 'at Harrow and at St John's CoUege, 
 Cambridge, where he took his degree of M.A. in 
 1804. Before this, on succeeding to the earldom in 
 1801, he made a tour through Greece, the record 
 of which is preserved in Byron's well-known 
 line — 
 
 * The travelled thane, Athenian Aberdeen.' 
 
 In his twenty-second year, he was elected one 
 of the sixteen Scottish representative peers, and 
 entered public life as a Tory. In 1813, he 
 was appointed ambassador to the Austrian court, 
 and conducted the negotiations which terminated 
 in, the alliance of that power with Britain. At 
 this time he formed that close friendship with 
 Prince Mettemioh which so decidedly influenced 
 his subsequent poHoy as a statesman. On the 
 conclusion of the war, he was elevated to the 
 British peerage as Viscount Gordon. From this 
 time till the year 1828, his lordship made no promi- 
 nent appearance in pubhc life. In that year he took 
 office in the new ministry formed under the Duke of 
 Wellington. The general principle 'vyhich guided his 
 poHcy, as Secretary of State for Foreign ASairs, was 
 that of non-interference in the internal affaii'S of 
 foreign states, which, joined to his weU-known 
 sympathy with such statesmen as Mettemich, has 
 exposed him — not always justly — to the suspicion of 
 being inimical to the cause of popular liberty. His 
 gradual abandonment of high Tory principles was 
 evinced by his support of the bfll for the repeal of 
 the Test and Corporation Acts, and of the Roman 
 CathoUc Emancipation Act. From the fall of the 
 Wellington ministry tiU the Peel administration in 
 1841, his lordship was out of office, with the excep- 
 tion of his brief administration of the Colonial Office 
 in the Tory ministry of 1834^5. In 1841, he again 
 received the seals of the Foreign Office. M. Guizot 
 was at that time foreign minister in France, and 
 the two statesmen acted in cordial alHance. The 
 conclusion of the Chinese War, the Ashburton Treaty, 
 and the Oregon Treaty, were the principal services 
 rendered to the country during his administration 
 of foreign affairs. His act in 1843 for removing 
 doubts regarding the admission of ministers to bene- 
 flces in Scotland, was too late to save the disruption 
 of the Church, and in working it does not seein to have 
 proved very satisfactory. He had long been ui favom^ 
 of the repeal of the corn-laws, and from the time that 
 that question became the rallying-point of the Peel 
 party, he became identified with their policy. In 
 1846, he resigned with Sir Robert Peel. In 1853, on 
 the resignation of Lord Derby, the extraordinary 
 
 state of parties necessitated a ooaHtion, and Lord A. 
 ^ 13 
 
ABERDEVINE— ABINGDON. 
 
 waa selected as tlie fittest man to head the new 
 ministry, which for some time was extremely popu- 
 lar. The feeble and vacillating pohcy displayed in 
 the conduct of the war with Russia, gradually under- 
 mined its stabOity, and the disastrous mismanage- 
 ment brought to light in the winter of 1854, in all 
 departments of the pubho business connected with 
 the war, filled up the measure of the popular discon- 
 tent. On the 1st of February 1855, Lord A. resigned 
 oflice. His lordship is author of an Essay on Grecian 
 Architecttire, published iu 1822. 
 
 A'BERDEVINE, or SISKIN (Fnngilla Spinus), 
 a song-bird, nearly allied to the goldfinch, with which 
 it is placed by Cuvier and others in the new genus 
 Gardudis. It is rather smaller than the goldfinch, 
 and less elongated in form. The crown of the head 
 and the throat are black, the nape, dusky green, and 
 there is a broad yeUow streak above and behind each 
 eye. It is only a winter visitant of Britain, and 
 breeds in the north of Europe, building its nest in 
 high trees. It is frequently kept as a cage>-bird, being 
 easily tamed ; and breeds freely with the canary. It 
 feeds on the seeds of the thistle, alder, birch, and 
 elm, and occasionally does great damage to the hop 
 plantations iu Germany. In France it iujures the 
 blossoms of the apple-trees. The nest of the A. 
 is rarely foimd. 
 
 ABERNBTHY, John, a very eminent English 
 surgeon, was born in London in 1764. His grand- 
 father was the Rev. John Abemethy, an Irish 
 Presbyterian clergyman, who acquired distinction 
 by his writings, and his bold adoption of Bishop 
 Hoadly's views on the right of private judgment and 
 the subscription of Confessions. A.'s early tastes 
 disposed mm to the bar; but in 1780 he was 
 apprenticed to Mr (afterwards Sir Charles) BUcke, 
 surgeon of St Bartholomew's Hospital. He attended 
 at the same time the lectures of John Hunter and 
 Sir W. Blizard. In 1787, A. was elected assistant- 
 surgeon to St Bartholomew's, an office which he 
 filled for twenty-eight years ; at the end of which 
 time he was appointed surgeon, with a salary. 
 Soon after his election, he began to lecture in the 
 hospital on anatomy and surgery, and may be said 
 to have laid the foundation of its character as a 
 school of surgery. At first, he manifested extraor- 
 dinary diffidence, but his power soon developed 
 itself; and his lectures at last attracted such crowds, 
 that, in 1790, it was found necessary to build a 
 lecture-theatre in the hospital for his use. His clear, 
 simple, and positive style, illustrated by an inex- 
 haustible variety of apt anecdotes, made him the 
 most popular medical teacher of his day. In 1813, 
 he was appointed surgeon to Christ's Hospital, and 
 in 1814, Professor of Anatomy and Surgery to the 
 College of Surgeons. His practice increased with 
 his celebrity, which the singular eccentricity and 
 occasional rudeness of his manners contributed to 
 heighten. Notwithstanding, however, the irritabihty 
 and harshness which he so often exhibited, those 
 who knew him best bear unanimous testimony to 
 the generosity and kindliness of his character. He 
 married in 1800, and had several children. He died 
 at Enfield, in 1831. Of his works, the most original 
 and important is his Observations on the Constitu- 
 tional Origin and Treatment of Local Diseases, first 
 published in 1806, in which a simple principle, till 
 then little attended to, was made the foundation of 
 much important and ingenious observation. His 
 Lectures on the Tlieory arid Practice of Surgery were 
 published in 1830. 
 
 ABERRATION OP LIGHT is an apparent alter- 
 ation in the place of a star, arising from the motion 
 of the earth in its orbit combined with the progres- 
 sive passage of light. When rain is falling perpen- 
 
 C' 
 
 dicularly, a drop entering at the top of an upright 
 tube at rest, wiU go through; but if the tube be 
 cairied forward horizontally, a drop entering the top 
 will strike against the side before it goes far ; and to 
 make the drop go through the tube in motion, we 
 must incline the top of it forward in the direction of 
 the motion. The amount of this inclination will be 
 the greater, the more rapid the motion of the tube is 
 compared with that of the falling drops. If in 
 the time that a drop takes to 
 fall through the height AB of 
 the parallelogram in the annexed 
 cut, the .inclined tube BC is 
 moved horizontally over a space 
 equal to its breadth, AC, a drop 
 entering the top of the tube will 
 descend without touching the 
 sides. For in half the time, the 
 tube wiU be in the position, B'C, 
 and the drop in the position d ; 
 and so for any other portion of 
 the time. This exactly illus- 
 trates the astronomical pheno- 
 menon iu question. The tube 
 is a telescope directed to receive the light of a 
 star; this tube, and the person looking through 
 it, are moving along with the earth in its orbit, 
 and the light may be conceived as particles coming 
 from the star like drops of rain, moving much 
 faster, no doubt, stiU requiring time. That a 
 particle or ray of light from the star may pass 
 through the tube, it must be directed, not straight 
 to the star, but at a slight angle in the direction of 
 the eariih's motion. Thus the place where we see 
 the star is not its true place. As the earth's motion, 
 however, is slow compared with the velocity of 
 light, the angle of inclination is small — never exceed- 
 ing about 20". The result is, that, if we conceive the 
 true place of a star as a fixed point, the apparent 
 place of the star describes about this true place, iu 
 the course of a year, an ellipse whose greater axis is 
 about 40". The aberration of light was discovered 
 by the English astronomer Bradley, in 1727, while 
 seeking to determine the parallax of certain fixed 
 stars. 
 
 ABERY'STWlTH, a seaport and municipal and 
 parliamentary borough, in Cardiganshire, Wales. 
 There are about 280 vessels belonging to the port, 
 with a toimage of 29,000. A. is mu(3i resorted to 
 for sea-bathing, and is well provided with good 
 hotels and lodging-houses. Pop. 5189. 
 
 ABEYANCE, a legal term importing that a free- 
 hold inheritance, dignity, or office is not vested iu 
 any one, but is iu expectation, or suspended, until 
 the true owner appears, or the right thereto is 
 determined. Titles of honour are said to be in 
 A. when it is uncertain who shall enjoy them. A 
 parsonage remaining void is also said to be in A. 
 This A. or suspense, being repugnant to the general 
 principles of the tenure of land, is never allowed 
 except when it is unavoidable. It finds no place 
 in the law of Scotland, where it is a maxim that 
 the fee of an inheritance, or the right of property, 
 cannot be in pendente, but must be somewhere, for 
 this, among other reasons, that creditors must know 
 with whom the right of property is. Titles of honour 
 and office stand on a dMerent footing in Scotland, 
 where, however, the general provisious of the law are 
 so comprehensive as almost to exclude a case of A. 
 
 ABIES. See Fnt. 
 
 ABINGDON, a market town in Berkshire, 
 England, situated at the junction of the Ock and the 
 Thames. The name was originally Abbendon (town 
 of the Atbey). It sends a member to parliament. 
 Pop. of parliamentajy borough, 6954. 
 
ABJUEATION— ABOLITIONISTS. 
 
 ABJURATION, Oath of. Formerly there -were 
 three oaths, called the Oaths of Allegiance, Supre- 
 macy, and Abjuration, required of all persons before 
 admission to any public oflSce ; but now, by the 21 
 and 22 Vict. o. 48, one oath is substituted for the 
 three referred to, and is as follows : 
 
 'I, A. B., do swear. That I wUl be faithful, 
 and bear true allegiance to her Majesty Queen 
 Victoria, and will defend her to the utmost of my 
 power against all conspiracies and attempts what- 
 ever which shall be made against her person. Crown, 
 or dignity, and I will do my utmost endeavour to 
 disclose and make known to her Majesty, her heirs 
 and successors, all treasons and traitorous conspira- 
 cies which may be formed against her or them ; and 
 I do faithfully promise to maintain, support, and 
 defend to the utmost of my power, the succession 
 of the Crown, which succession, by an Act, intituled 
 An Act /or the further limitation of the Grown, and 
 better securing the rights and liberties of the Sub- 
 ject, is and stands limited to the Princess Sophia, 
 Electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her body, 
 being Protestants; hereby utterly renouncing and 
 abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any 
 other person claiming or pretending a right to the 
 Crown of this realm; and I do declare, that no 
 foreign prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate, 
 hath or ought to have any jurisdjction, power, 
 superiority, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesias- 
 tical or spiritual, within this realm: And I make 
 this declaration upon the true faith of a Christian. 
 So help me God.' 
 
 The act provides for a form of affirmation by 
 Quakers and other persons permitted to decline 
 taking an oath. 
 
 By another act passed at the same time, the 21 and 
 22 Vict. c. 49, it is permitted to either house of 
 parliament to resolve that thenceforth any person 
 professing the Jewish religion, in taking the above 
 oath to entitle him to sit and vote in parliament, 
 may omit the words, ' And I make this declaration 
 upon the true faith of a Christian ; ' but on the occa- 
 sion of two members professing the Jewish rehaion 
 recently taking their seats in the House of Com- 
 mons, according to a resolution by the House, 
 under the powers of this act, it was decided by the 
 Speaker that such resolution could only remain in 
 force during the continuance of the session when it 
 was adopted; and it would therefore appear that 
 the resolution must be renewed, and of course at 
 the pleasure and discretion of the House during 
 every subsequent session of the parliament in which 
 any Jew or Jews may have been elected to sit. An 
 effective modification on this point has been proposed. 
 
 The act further provides, that in aU other cases 
 except for sitting in parliament, or in qualifying to 
 exercise the right of presentation to any ecclesias- 
 tical benefice in Scotland, whenever any Jew shall 
 be required to take the above oath, he may omit 
 the words already quoted. 
 
 The oath to be tsJien by Roman Catholics, instead 
 of the oaths of Allegiance, Supremacy, and Abjura- 
 tion, is prescribed by the 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, com- 
 monly called the Roman Catholic Relief Act, and 
 is in the following terms : 
 
 ' I, A. B., do sincerely promise and swear. That I 
 win be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
 Majesty, Queen Victoria, and wiU defend her to the 
 utmost of my power against aU conspiracies and 
 attempts whatever, which shaJl be made against her 
 person. Crown, or dignity ; and I will do my utmost 
 endeavour to disclose and make known to her 
 Majesty, her heirs and successors, all treasons and 
 traitorous conspiracies which may be formed against 
 her or them : And I do faithfully promise to main- 
 tain, support, and defend, to the utmost of my | 
 
 Eower, the succession of the Crown, which succession, 
 y an Act, intituled An Act for (lie further limitation 
 oftlie Crown, and better securing the rights and liberties 
 of the Subject, is and stands limited to the Princess 
 Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and the heirs of her 
 body, being Protestants ; hereby utterly renouncing 
 and abjuring any obedience or allegiance unto any 
 other person claiming or pretending a right to the 
 Crown of this realm : And I do further declare. That 
 it is not an article of my Faith, and that I do 
 renoimoe, reject, and abjure the opinion, that 
 princes excommimicated or deprived by the Pope, or 
 any other authority of the See of Rome, may be 
 deposed or murdered by their subjects, or by any 
 person whatsoever : And I do declare, That I do not 
 believe that the Pope of Rome, or any other foreign 
 prince, prelate, person, state, or potentate, hath, or 
 ought to have, any temporal or civil jurisdiction, 
 power, superiority, or pre-eminence, directly or 
 indirectly, within this realm. I do swear, That I 
 will defend, to the utmost of my power, the settle- 
 ment of property within this realm, as established 
 by the laws ; and I do hereby disclaim, disavow, 
 and solemnly abjure any intention to subvert the 
 present church establishment, as settled by law 
 within this realm: And I do solenmly swear. That I 
 never wiU exercise any privilege to which I am or 
 may become entitled, to disturb or weaken the 
 Protestant Religion or Protestant Government in 
 the United Kingdom: And I do solemnly, in the 
 presence of God, profess, testify, and declare, that I 
 do make this Declaration, and every part thereof, in 
 the plain and ordinary sense of the words of this 
 oath, without any evasion, equivocation, or mental 
 reservation whatsoever. So help me God.' 
 
 This oath itself, however, has been considered 
 objectionable, as covertly imputing disloyalty and 
 insincerity to the Roman Cathohc Dody, and a Bill 
 has been introduced into parliament for the purpose 
 of modifying its terms still further. 
 
 ABLATIVE CASE. See Declension. 
 
 ABLUTION. See Pueotcation. 
 
 ABO (pronounced Obo), the chief town of the 
 government of Abo, in Finland, now belonging to 
 the Russian Empire, is situated on the river Aura- 
 jokki, near its embouchure in the Gulf of Bothnia ; 
 pop. 14,000. The town was founded by the Swedes 
 in 1157, and remained the capital of Finland until 
 1819. In the year 1827, a great part of the town, 
 including the imiversity buildings, was destroyed by 
 fire, and consequently the university was removed 
 to Helsingfors, now the capital. — The Peac£ of 
 Abo, concluded August 17, 1743, between Sweden 
 and Russia, put an end to the war commenced 
 by Sweden, under French instigation, in 1741. 
 In this war, Russia had gained possession of the 
 whole of Finland through the misconduct of the 
 two Swedish generals, Lowenhaupt and Budden- 
 brock, who were beheaded. In this treaty, the river 
 Kymene was made the boundary between the terri- 
 tories of Sweden and Russia ; but by another peace, 
 concluded in 1809, the whole of Hnland, as far as 
 the Tornea, was ceded to Russia. 
 
 ABOLITIONISTS, a term used to designate a 
 party in the U.S., who desire the immediate and 
 total aboHtion of slavery. See Slaveey. They 
 are most numerous and powerful in the Northern 
 States, where they comprise a large portion of the 
 educated and thoughtful persons of the community. 
 They are also said to possess, in a larger measure 
 than is generally supposed, the sympathies of the 
 more Hberal and enlightened minds of the south. 
 By the advocates of slavery, as weU as by many 
 who profess to dislike the institution, the A. are 
 accused of entertaining views so extreme and 
 
ABORIGINES— ABRAHAM-MEN. 
 
 impractioaUe, as to be damaging to tlie cause wMoh 
 they espouse. 
 
 ABORIGINES (Lat.), properly the earliest 
 inhabitants of a country. The corresponding term 
 used by the Greeks was AiUoch&ones. The Roman 
 and Greek historians, however, apply the name 
 to a special people, who, according to tradition, had 
 their original seats in the mountains about Reate, 
 now Rieti; but, being driven out by the Sabines, 
 descended into Latium, and in conjimction with a 
 tribe of Pelasgi, subdued or expelled thence the 
 Siculi, and occupied the country. The A. then dis- 
 appear as a distinct people, they and their allies the 
 Pelasgi having taken the name of Latini. The non- 
 Pelasgio element of the Roman population is supposed 
 to represent these A., who would thus belong to the 
 Oscans or Ausoniaus. 
 
 ABORTION, in Criminal Law. Neither in the law 
 of England nor of Scotland is it murder to kill a child 
 in the mother's womb (although perhaps it would 
 be different where the mother herself dies in conse- 
 quence of the treatment). But the offence in question 
 falls under the name A., which may be defined 
 as the crime of administering to a pregnant woman 
 any medicine, poison, or noxious drug, or of using 
 any surgical instrument or other means, with the 
 intent of procuring miscarriage. The English law on 
 the subject is now regulated by the 7 Will. IV. and 1 
 Vict. c. 85, s. 6, which makes the offence felony, and 
 subjects offenders to transportation for life, or for 
 not less than fifteen years, or to be imprisoned for 
 any term not more than three years. In the law 
 of Scotland, the procuring of A. is an offence at 
 common law, punishable with 'an arbitrary pain,' 
 and that equally whether the desired effects be pro- 
 duced or not. As in England, transportation or 
 imprisonment, according to the circiraistances of the 
 case, is the punishment usually awarded. 
 
 ABOUKI'K, the ancient Ganopus, is now an 
 insignificant village on the coast of Egypt, about 13 
 mdes north-east of Alexandria. The castle of 
 Aboukir stands on the west side of the bay of the 
 same name. This bay is celebrated on accomit of 
 Nelson's victory here gained over the lYench fleet, 
 August 1, 1798. The French fleet was stationed in 
 a curved line near a, small island guarded by a 
 battery; but Nelson, with his usual intrepicdty, 
 forced a passage with half of his fleet of fifteen 
 vessels between the island and the French line of 
 battle, while the other half attacked the enemy in 
 front. The French admii-al De Brueys was kflled 
 by a cannon-baU, and his flag-ship, V Orient, was 
 destroyed by fire. Only sixty or seventy men were 
 saved out of a crew of 1000. The Firench fleet 
 was completely defeated, and only two vessels 
 escaped. 
 
 ABOUSA'MBUL, or IPSAMBUL, a place on the 
 left bank of the Nile, in Nubia, lat. 22° 22', the site 
 of two very remarkable rock-cut temples, perhaps 
 the oldest existing specimens of architecture in the 
 world. The larger temple contains fourteen apart- 
 ments, hewn out of the solid rook. The first and 
 largest of these is 57 feet long, and 52 broad, and is 
 supported by two rows of massy square pillars (four 
 in each row), 30 feet high. To each of the pillars is 
 attached a standing colossus, reaching to the roof, 
 overlaid with a kind of stucco, and painted with 
 gaudy colours. In front of the temple are four 
 colossal seated figures — the largest pieces of Egyptian 
 sculpture yet discovered. Reproductions of two 
 of these, on the scale of the original (65 feet in 
 height), form very striking objects in the Crystal 
 Palace at Sydenham, where also may be seen a fac- 
 Bunile, on a small scale, of the temple itself. These 
 figures are sixpposed to represent Rameses the Great 
 
 ABBACADABBA 
 
 ABBAOADABE 
 
 ABBACADAB 
 
 ABKACADA 
 
 A B E A C A D 
 
 A E B A C A 
 
 A B B A 
 
 ABBA 
 
 ABE 
 
 A B 
 
 (or Sesostris), whose achievements are described on 
 the painted walls of the temple. 
 
 ABRACADABRA, a word said to be of Persian 
 origin, and to designate in that language Mithra, 
 the sun-god. It was, in former times, the most 
 venerated of those magical formulas that were 
 constructed out of the letters of the alphabet, and 
 was supposed to be highly efficacious for the cure of 
 fevers, and especially quartan and semi-tertian agues. 
 Serenus Sammonicus gives' the following directions 
 for its use : "Write the letters of the word so as to 
 form a triangle, capable of being read many ways, 
 on a square piece of paper. Fold the paper so as to 
 conceal the writing, and stitch it into the form of a 
 cross with white thread. 
 This amulet wear in the 
 bosom, suspended by a 
 linen ribbon for nine days. 
 Then go in dead silence, 
 before simrise, to the 
 banks of a stream that 
 flows eastward, take the 
 amulet from off the neck, 
 and fling it backwards 
 into the water. If you 
 open or read it, the charm 
 is destroyed. The adjoining is one of the principal 
 forms of arranging this mystic word. 
 
 ABRAHAM, the progenitor of the Israelitish 
 nation. He was a native of Chaldsea, but migrated, 
 with his wife Sarah and his nephew Lot, to Canaan, 
 where he Kved a nomadic life, and worshipped the 
 one God, Jehovah, in the midst of the polytheistic 
 Canaanites. The details of the narrative, as given 
 in the book of Genesis, are familiar to every 
 one. A. died at the age of 175 (about 1800 B. c). 
 Of his two sons, Isaac was the ancestor of the 
 Israelites ; and the Arabs claim to be descended 
 from Ishmael, whose mother was Hagar, a bond- 
 woman. Later tradition ascribed to A. a complete 
 knowledge of astronomy and philosophy, the inven- 
 tion of alphabetic writing, the art of interpreting 
 dreams, &c. Even among Mohammedans, A. is 
 reckoned a prophet and the friend of God; and 
 they attribute to him the building of the sacred 
 Kaaba at Mecca. 
 
 ABRAHAM- A-SANCTA-CLARA, a very eccen- 
 tric but popular and useful German preacher, was 
 bom 1642, and died in Vienna 1709. His real name 
 was Uleioh Megeble, but he is generally Icnown 
 by the name given to him iu his monastery. 
 Uncouth puns, coarse expressions, and strange 
 freaks of humour, marked his sermons ; but beneath 
 their fantastic shells they had good kernels. A. 
 was an honest, faithful, and devoted priest, as was 
 proved by his self-sacrificing conduct dvuing the 
 plague in 1679. Though very severe in his reproof 
 of vice, he was highly esteemed. The singular style 
 of his writings is indicated by their very titles, e.g., 
 Oach Gaclc, i. c, WallfarOi Maria Stem in Texa; 
 Hdlsames Gemisch-Getnasch (AVholesome Hodi^e- 
 podge). His collected works amount to twenty vols. 
 (1835). A selection was published in 2 vols. (Vien 
 1846). 
 
 ABRAHAM-MEN, a class of sturdy beggars who 
 simulated lunacy, and wandered about the country in 
 a disorderly manner ; at one time working on the 
 sympathy, and at another on the fears of women, 
 children, and domestics. They were common in 
 Shakspeare's time, and, it would seem, existed even 
 as late as the period of the civil wars. The term is 
 a cant one. 'An Abram cove,' as Decker, ia his 
 English Villanies, calls one of these mendicants, 
 meant one who personated a ' Tom o' Bedlam.' He 
 would 'disguise himself in grotesque rags, with 
 
ABRAHAMITES— ABSCESS. 
 
 knotted hair, long staff, and with many more 
 disgusting contrivances to excite pity,' but he did 
 not hesitate to live by thieving too, and when 
 detected pilfering or in any species of depredation, 
 he pleaded the immunities of the real Bedlamite, 
 who was formally permitted to roam about the 
 country when dischai-ged from ' Bethlem Hospital.' 
 A verbal reho of this class is still preserved m the 
 slang phrase, ' to sham Abraham.' 
 
 A'BEAHAMITBS, or Bohemian deists. Under 
 this name, a number of residents in Bohemia, 
 trusting in the edict of toleration issued by Joseph 
 II., avowed themselves (1782) as believers of the 
 doctrine alleged to have been held by Abraham 
 before his circumcision. As early as the 9th 
 c, a sect of the same name had arisen in Syria, 
 and had denied the divinity of Christ. But the 
 Bohemian deists professed to be followers of John 
 Huss, though they held no Christian doctrine 
 beyond that of the imity of God, and accepted 
 nothing of the Bible save the Lord's Prayer. As 
 they would join neither Jewish nor Christian 
 sects, -the emperor refused to tolerate them; and 
 in 1783, expelled them from their native land, and 
 scattered them in various parts of Hungary, Tran- 
 sylvania, and Slavonia, where many were made 
 converts to the Koman CathoHc Church, while others 
 died as martyrs to their simple creed. 
 
 ABKANTES, Dvke of. See Jtojot. 
 
 ABEA'XAS STONES are so called from having 
 the word abi-axas or ah-asax engraved on them. 
 They axe out in various forms, and bear a variety 
 of capricious symbols, mostly composed of human 
 limbs, a fowl's head, and serpent's body. These 
 gems, whose value and significance have been 
 greatly exaggerated, are common in collections, and 
 are represented as coming from Syria, Egypt, and 
 Spain. It is certain that the use of the name 
 abraxas was at first peouhar to the Gnostic sect of 
 the BasUidians (q. v.) ; and probably the word, by 
 taking the niunerical value of its Greek letters, may 
 signify the number 365, so that there is no need to 
 have recoiurse to old Persian or Egyptian, as is 
 sometimes done. The BasUidians, however, did not 
 designate by this name the highest deity, but the 
 spirits of the world collectively. At a later period, 
 the doctrines and practices of the sect were carried 
 by the PrisoeUianists to Spain, whence many of 
 these stones are got. Gnostic symbols were after- 
 wards adopted by all sects given to magic and 
 alchemy; and thus there is httle doubt that the 
 greater part of the abraxas-stones were made in the 
 middle ages as talismans. 
 
 ABROGA'TION of laws is the repealing or recall- 
 ing of them — as where a statute repeals a previous 
 one. Generally, in England, all statutes, no matter 
 how old, or how unsuited soever to the times, 
 remain in force until they are expressly repealed. 
 But in Scotland a statute may become obsolete and 
 virtually repealed, so that it may not owing to 
 the lapse of time be founded on. See Statute. 
 
 A'BKUS, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Leguminosce, sub-order Papilionacem, of which the 
 only known species, A. precatorius, is a shrub, origin- 
 ally belonging to India, where it is chiefly found in 
 clayey aoSa, but now not uncommon in the West 
 Indies and other tropical regions. The roots possess 
 properties exactly similar to those of the common 
 liquorice. The seeds are nearly spherical, as large 
 as small peas, of a scarlet colour, with a black scar, 
 and are familiar enourfi to most people in Britain, 
 being used as beads. They are narcotic. 
 
 ABRXJ'ZZO, the north-east comer of the kingdom 
 of Naples, lies between the States of the Churdh on 
 the west, and the Adriatic on the east, and is divided 
 3 
 
 into three parts— Abruzzo Ulteriore 1st and 2d, and 
 Abruzzo Citeriore, so called in relation to the rest of 
 Naples. The whole district contains about 6000 
 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants. Its chief 
 towns are Chieti, Teramo, Aquila, Sulmona. It 
 forms the wildest and loftiest portion of the Apen- 
 nines. The streams are numerous, but the only 
 river of any consequence is the Pesoara, which flows 
 mto the Adriatic. The rent and jagged mountain- 
 groups arrange themselves in picturesque shapes, 
 reaching in 11 Gran Sasso d'ltaha, or 'the great 
 rock of Italy,' which is the highest of the chain, the 
 elevation of 10,000 feet. The highlands slope pre- 
 cipitously on all sides, but especially towards the 
 north-eastern shore. The climate of A. is raw 
 in the higher regions ; snow rests on the hills from 
 October to April, and on some of the peaks aU the 
 year round ; but the valleys are extremely fertile, 
 though husbandry is in a wretched condition, 
 and the low open plains are left without the 
 sKghtest protection from inundations of the rivers 
 in spring, or means for irrigation in the arid 
 summer. Dense forests of oak and fir clothe the 
 sides of the mountains ; at the base, almond, wal- 
 nut, and other fruit-trees grow abundantly; oUves, 
 in the -deep-lying valleys. Pine cattle pasture in 
 these regions ; herds of swine roam through the 
 lofty pine- woods ; and the remoter fastnesses are 
 the haxmt of bears, wolves, and wild boars. The 
 chief importance of A. is its mUitary position as a 
 defence of the kingdom of Naples. There are few 
 roads into it, so that it is very difficult for an enemy 
 to reach Naples from the north. It is admirably 
 suited for the purposes of guerilla warfare. But the 
 people have ceased to possess a reputation as banditti. 
 No trace of the old spirit which made their ancestors, 
 the Marsi, Sabines, and Sanmites, so terrible to the 
 Homans, and which in modern times manifested 
 itself in a. love of petty plundering, is to be found. 
 They have become a race of rude and simple shep- 
 herds, fondly attached to their mountain homes, 
 musical, superstitious, and hospitable ; but they are 
 robust and powerful, and dming the I^ench invasion 
 of Naples, in 1799, displayed a vigorous corn-age in 
 opposing the soldiers of the Revolution. 
 
 A'BSALOM, the third son of Da-vid, long of 
 Israel, remarkable for his beauty, and for hia 
 unnatural rebellion against his father. By popular 
 acts, he contrived to win the affections of the people, 
 and then stirred up a formidable- rebellion. The 
 adherents of the king having raUied round him, a 
 battle was fought in the forest of Ephraim, in which 
 the rebels were defeated. In the flight, as A. was 
 riding under a tree, his hair caught in the branches, 
 and he was left suspended ; in which position Joab, 
 the commander of Da-vid's army, thrust liim through, 
 contrary to the king's express orders that he should 
 be spared. The grief of Da-vid for his loss was 
 excessive. See 2 Sam. c. 18. 
 
 ABSALOM, Archbishop of Lund. See Axel. 
 
 A'BSCBSS {AposteTna), a collection of purulent 
 matter formed by disease -within some tissue or organ 
 of the body. The process by which an abscess is 
 formed is the foUo-wing : First, -the capillary vessels 
 become overcharged "with blood, in consequence of 
 inflammation. IVom the blood thus made stagnant, 
 or flo-ning very feebly, a fluid exudes through the 
 walls of the capillary vessels, and, containing a large 
 portion of albmnen, becomes pus or purulent matter. 
 This matter, at first contained in the minute interstices 
 of the tissues, gradually dissolves them, and so makes 
 for itself a larger cavity ; and frequently, by gradual 
 dissolution of the adjacent parts, works its way 
 either to the surface or to some natural oa-rity of the 
 body. Pus thus makes its appearance often in a 
 
ABSCISSA— ABSORPTION. 
 
 different part of the "body from where it was formed. 
 It also occurs, that when the purulent matter does 
 not find any outlet either naturally or artificially, it 
 is gradually dried up or absorbed. In abscesses 
 superficially seated — either in or close under the 
 skin — the early treatment consists chiefly in pro- 
 moting the formation of pus by the application of 
 moist and warm bandages or poultices. The next 
 step is the removal of the pus. When this is too 
 long delayed, serious disturbance of the organ, or 
 even poisoning of the blood, may ensue. An abscess 
 must be regarded not as a distinct, original disease 
 in itself, but as the result of another disease — ^inflam- 
 mation ; or as an effort of nature for the removal 
 of injurious matters from the system. 
 
 ABSCI'SSA. See Pakabola. 
 
 ABSENTEE', a term applied, by way of reproach, 
 to capitahsts who derive their income from one 
 country, and spend it in another. It has been espe- 
 cially used in discussions on the social condition of 
 Ireland. As long as Ireland had its own parliament, a 
 great portion of the large landed proprietors lived 
 chiefly in the country diuriug summer, and passed their 
 winters in Dubhn ; thus spending a large portion 
 of their incomes among their dependents, or at least 
 among their countrymen. The Union changed the 
 habits of the Irish nobility and gentry, who were 
 attracted to London as the pohtical metropoKs, or 
 were induced, by the disturbed condition of Ireland, 
 to choose residences on the continent. Such Irish 
 landed proprietors were styled ' absentees ; ' and 
 it was argued that their conduct was the great 
 source of Irish poverty, as it drained the resources 
 of the land, or, in other words, sent money out of 
 Ireland. One class of pohtical economists — among 
 them M'CuUoch — maintain that, economically viewed, 
 absenteeism has no injurious effect on the country 
 from which the absentee draws his revenue. AJii 
 Irish landlord hving in .France, it is argued, receives 
 his remittances of rent, not in bullion, but in bills of 
 exchange ; and biUs of exchange represent, in the 
 end, the value of British commodities imported into 
 France. The remittance could not be made unless 
 goods to the same amount were also drawn from 
 Britain. Thus, although the landlord may consume, 
 for the most part, French productions, he causes, 
 indirectly, a demand for as much of British produc- 
 tions ; and his income goes, in the end, to pay for 
 them. His residence abroad, then, does no harm to 
 the industry and resources of the country at large, 
 although it is admitted that it may be felt as an 
 evil in a particular locality. The truth of this 
 doctrine, however, in its full extent, is disputed. 
 Among other objections to it, it is argued, that 
 whatever may be true of the amoimt actually con- 
 sumed, aE the tradesmen and others who supply the 
 absentee's wants have their profits, and have thus 
 the means of acciunulating; and that these accumu- 
 lations which are thus added to the national wealth 
 of a foreign country, would have been added to the 
 wealth of his native country had he been living at 
 home. The result of the controversy would seem to be, 
 that absenteeism does, to some extent, act injuriously 
 on the wealth of a country, though it is not true 
 that the whole revenues thus spent are so much 
 clear loss, there being several indirect compensa- 
 tions. — On the evU of absenteeism, in a moral point 
 of view, all are agreed; especially in a coimtry in the 
 condition of Ireland, where nearly the whole wealth 
 is in the hands of extensive landed proprietors, with 
 almost no middle class. The possessors of land 
 have duties to perform which cannot be deputed ; 
 the very least of these obligations being that of 
 setting a good example in a neighbourhood, and one 
 not less important beiag that of giving personal aid 
 18 
 
 ia effecting local improvements. It is a bad sign of 
 the social' condition of a country when its pro- 
 prietors systematically live abroad, or in great 
 cities away from their estates. The relations 
 between landlord and tenant then become more 
 and more cold and distant; while, too often, 
 the agents of the landlords have no good feeling 
 towards tenants, but strive only to raise as large 
 sums as possible for their principals, and to enrich 
 themselves. But though the evils of such a state of 
 society are evident, it is not easy to propose a sound 
 remedy. Forced residence is opposed to all British 
 ideas of personal hberty. The most desirable object 
 is to make Ireland a more pleasant home for landed 
 proprietors. 
 
 A'BSOLUTB stands opposed to rdative, and 
 means that the thing is considered in itself, and 
 without reference to other things. In physios, we 
 speak of the absolute velocity of a body — ^i.e., the 
 rate of its motion through space ; and of the rdative 
 velocity of two bodies — i. e., the rate at which they 
 approach or recede from one another, one or both 
 being in motion. In the language of modern meta- 
 physics, the Absolute is the unconditioned, unalter- 
 able original — ^that which is the ultimate cause 
 and ground of the phenomena of the visible world. 
 Absolute, in 'poHtics, is applied to a ruler whose 
 authority is unrestricted by constitutional checks. 
 
 ABSOLXJTIOlir, originally a term of Eoman law, 
 signifying acquittal, is now used in an ecclesiastical 
 sense. In the primitive Christian Church, its form 
 was this : Members that had given scandal by gross 
 and open sins, were excluded from the Lord's Supper 
 or from the congregation altogether, and could be 
 readmitted only a they repented and underwent the 
 penance laid upon them by the church. When they 
 had done so, the presbyter, along with the elders, 
 pronounced the absolution in presence of the con- 
 gregation — meaning, that the congregation forgave 
 the offence, on their part, and received the sinner 
 again into their number. Down to the 3d o., the 
 concurrence of the congregation continued to be 
 necessary to absolution. But by the 4th c, it had 
 become a right of bishops to absolve, and the public 
 confession had gradually turned into a private 
 confession before the priest, who now imposed the 
 penance of himself, modified or remitted it, and then 
 absolved. Absolution had not, as yet, been extended 
 to any but open and gross sins ; but when the 
 dominion of lie hierarchy over men's minds had 
 reached its height, and the fourth Lateran CoimcU 
 (1215) had made auricular confession, at least once 
 a year, obligatory, confession and its attendant 
 absolution were extended to all sins whatever ; and 
 the absolution was made to convey, not merely, as 
 before, forgiveness on the part of the church, but 
 forgiveness in the sight of God. The formula, Dem 
 or Christies dbsolvit ie, which was used tiU the 12th 
 c, was changed into Sgo absolvo te; thus ascribing 
 to the priest the power to forgive sins in the sight 
 of God. This is stiU the received theory of abso- 
 lution in the Eoman Cathohc Church, sanctioned 
 by the Council of Trent, and grounded on John xx. 
 21. — The Protestant churches ascribe to the absolu- 
 tion of _ the clergy only a declarative, and not an 
 exhibitive power; on the groimd of repentance, it 
 announces and assures forgiveness on the part of 
 God, but does not impart it. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. See Lacteaxs and Lympha- 
 tics. 
 
 ABSORPTION (in Botany).— It is beKeved 
 that plants absorb carbonic acid gas, and also 
 to some extent fluids, by their leaves and other 
 aerial organs; and it is supposed that this absorption 
 takes place principally through the stomaia of the 
 
ABSTINENCE— ABUTMENT. 
 
 leaves (see Leaves), and toth by the upper and 
 under surface of the leaf, in some plants by both 
 surfaces indifferently, in others much more power- 
 fully by the one surface or the other. But plants 
 principally depend upon their roots for noimsmnent, 
 and it is at the extremities of their fibrils that 
 absorption taltes place most rapidly, according to a 
 peculiar process to which has been given the name 
 of Endosmose (q. v.). 
 ABSTIKBNOB. See Pasthio. 
 ABSTINENCE SOCIETIES, associations for 
 the promotion of abstinence from aU kinds of alco- 
 holic liquors, and the members of which usually 
 receive the designation of abstainers or teetotalers — 
 this last phrase inferring an utter and uncompro- 
 mising abstinence ; or at least that the only excep- 
 tion ^all be for sacramental and medical purposes. 
 Abstainers usually take a pledge or vow to that effect ; 
 the gi'ound of their abstinence from alcoholic liquors 
 being that they are injurious to, or at least no way 
 promotive of, health, and that from the great social 
 evils of intemperance it is important to set an example 
 of entire abstmence. A. S. exist in great numbers in 
 North America and the United Kingdom. In the 
 early growth of this remarkable social movement, 
 A. S. were called Temperance Societies, and under 
 that head the subject will be treated in its various 
 forms of development. 
 
 ABSTBAOTION is that intellectual process by 
 which the mind withdraws (abstrdho) some of the 
 attributes of objects from the others, and thinks of 
 them to the exclusion of the rest. The abstract is 
 opposed to the concrete. John, William, my brother, 
 form concrete images in my mind, each with a miil- 
 titude of attributes peculiar to himself. But they 
 have also certain attributes common to them and to 
 aJl individuals of the race ; I call overlook the others, 
 and attend to these, and thus form a notion or con- 
 ception, which is called a man. Man is, therefore, 
 an abstract notion, the word connoting, as it is 
 called, a certain thoudi not very well-defined num- 
 ber of attributes. With the exception of proper 
 names, all nouns are thus abstract. There are 
 degrees, however, in abstraction. The abstract 
 notion animal rises above that of man, embracing 
 all men and innumerable organised beings besides. 
 An organised being, again, is a stiH higher stage, and 
 embraces both animals and plants. Being, time, 
 space, are among the highest abstractions. The 
 higher abstractions rise, the fewer attributes are 
 implied or connoted in the name; hence the pro- 
 priety of the phrase, empty abstractions. On the 
 other hand, the number of objects to which the 
 name is applicable, increases; and thus reasoning 
 in abstract terms has the advantage of being general, 
 or extensive in its application. But such reasoning 
 is apt to become vague and fallacious, unless constant 
 regard is Ead to concrete instances. Abstract 
 language is best adapted for scientific exposition; 
 concrete, for graphic and poetical effect. — ^Abstract 
 in Arith. is applied to numbers considered in them- 
 sdveg, and without reference to any objects num- 
 bered ; thus 7, 20, are abstract numbers ; but 7 feet, 
 20 horses are concrete numbers. 
 
 ABSUEDUM, BBDtrcTio ad, the method of 
 proving a truth by shewing that to suppose the 
 proposition untrue would lead to a contradiction or 
 absurdity. 
 ABSTNTHIUM. See ■WoEmwoOD. 
 ABU or BU (Arab, for ' father ') is prefixed to many 
 Arabic proper names, as the equivalent syllable Ab 
 is prefixed to Hebrew names : ex., Abu-bekr, ' Father 
 of the virgin' (Aysha). But Abu, like Ab, often 
 signifies merely possessor ; as in, Abulfeda (possessor 
 
 of fideKty), 'the Trusty;' Abner, 'the Brilliant'— 
 literally, ' father or possessor of light.' 
 
 ABU-BEKR (' Father of the virgia' Aysha, the 
 wife of Mohammed), was a man of great influence in 
 the Koreish tribe ; and in 632, when Mohammed 
 died, was made the first calif or successor of the 
 Prophet. After defeating his enemies in Arabia, 
 and warring successfully against Babylonia, Syria, 
 and the Byzantine emperor Heraolius, Abubekr died 
 635 A.D., aged 63, and was buried at Medina, near 
 the remains of Mohammed and his wife Aysha. 
 
 ABUIiFARA'J (Lat. Ahdfaragiua), called also 
 Barhebr^us — i. e.. Son of the Hebrew, as being by 
 birth a Jew, though afterwards a Christian — was 
 bom at Malatia, ia Armenia, 1226, and became so 
 distinguished for his knowledge of the Syriao, 
 Arabic, and Greek languages, and of philosophy, 
 theology, and medicine, xasA he was called the 
 phcenix of the age. At the age of twenty, he was 
 made bishop of Gula, and afterwards of Aleppo; 
 and rose to the rank of Maphrian, the highest 
 dignity among the Jacobite Christians next to 
 Patriarch. Of his numerous Syriao and Arabic 
 writings, most of which yet He buried in the library 
 of the Vatican, the best known is a GJironicle, in 
 Syriac, of universal history from Adam down to his 
 own time. Only the first part has been published, 
 by Bruns and Kirsch (Leipz. 1789). A. himself 
 abridged this work in Arabic, under the titie of 
 History of the Dynasties (edited by Pococke, Arab, 
 and Lat., Oxf. 1663). Among lus writings of a 
 theological kind may be mentioned his Magazine 
 of Mysteries, being a Commentary on the Syriao 
 Version of the Bible. 
 
 ABU'LFBDA, a Moslem prince, ' known as a 
 writer of history, was bom 1273 A.r., at Damascus; 
 and during his youth, distinguished himself in seve- 
 ral campaigns against the Christian kingdom founded 
 by the Crusaders. Prom 1310 to the time of his 
 death, he ruled over the principality of Hamat, in 
 Syria, was a true ally of the sultan, visited Egypt 
 and Arabia, patronised literature and science, and 
 died in 1331. He left several important works in 
 Arabic, among which are his Annals, the earlier 
 portion of which has been edited by Heischer,' under 
 the titie of Historia Anteislamica (Leip. 1831), and 
 the rest by Keiske, in his Annales Moslemici 
 (Copenh. 1789-94). This work was in great part 
 compiled by A. from earlier Arabic authors, and is 
 a valuable source of history, especially of the Arabic 
 Empire. He also wrote a Geography, from which 
 extracts are given in Kohler's Tabula Syrice, 
 Michaelis's Descriptio Egypti, and Eommel's Arabioe 
 Descriptio. The whole work has been edited, with 
 a French translation, by Eeinaud and De Slane, 
 under the title OeograpMe dAbvlfeda (Paris, 1848). 
 
 ABUSHE'HE{variously writtenBushehr, Bushire, 
 in Pers. Bendershehr) is the name of a seaport on 
 the east coast of the Persian Gulf. It is situated at 
 the extremity of a peninsula. The district is liable 
 to be devastated by earthquakes, swarms of locusts, 
 and the simoom, and is deficient in water ; but the 
 situation, so favourable for commerce, has raised the 
 town to importance, so that it numbers about 15,000 
 inhabitants. It is the emporium of the Indian 
 trade with Persia; and the East India government 
 has a factory here. The exports are horses, fruits, 
 shawls, pearls, silk, rose-water, asafoetida, &c. ; 
 imports, sugar, indigo, iron, cotton goods, &c. 
 
 ABUTMENT, in Arch., is the part of a pier 
 or wall from which an arch springs, and which 
 
 resists the outward thrust The term 
 
 used when the arch is a semicircle, so that the 
 
 pressure is vertical. In reference to a bridge, the 
 
ABYDOS— ABYSSINIA. 
 
 abutments are tlie walls adjoining the land, which 
 support the ends of the roadway, or the extremities 
 of the arch or arches. 
 
 ABY'DOS, a town in Asia Minor, situated at the 
 narrowest part of the Hellespont, opposite Sestos. 
 It is celebrated as the place whence Xerxes and 
 his vast army passed into Europe in 480 B. 0. ; 
 also as the scene of iie story of Hero (q. t.) and 
 Leander. In the later times of antiquity, the people 
 of A. were reproached for their effeminate jind 
 dissolute manners. — There was another Abybos, in 
 Upper Egypt (Thebais), on the left bank of the Nile, 
 and on the main route of commerce with Libya. 
 Even in the time of Strabo, this town was in ruins. 
 Here the remains of the Memnonium and of a 
 temple of Osiris are stiU remarkable. In the former, 
 W. J. Bankes, in 1818, discovered the celebrated 
 Tablet of A., bearing, in hieroglyphics, a genea- 
 logy of the eighteenth dynasty of the Pharaohs. It 
 is now in Paris, and copies have been published. 
 
 ABYSSI'NIA, called Habesh by the Arabs, is the 
 large tract of highlands in the east of Africa. Erom 
 the Ked Sea on the north-east, it rises in a succes- 
 sion of terraces towards the south-west. Between 
 the highlands and the Eed Sea hes a flat tract called 
 Adal, narrow at the north (in lat. 15° 30'), and 
 widening to the south. The plains of Nubia and 
 Kordofan form the boundaries on the north and 
 west, while the southern limits are not well known. 
 The country consists of high table-lands, intersected 
 by deep ravines formed by the rivers, and steep 
 sandstone terraces. Numerous mountain-chains, 
 mostly of volcanic origin, rise above the table-lauds : 
 the Mghest are the mountains of Samen or Samien, 
 rising to about 15,000 feet above the sea-level. Some 
 of the plains have an elevation of from 7 to 10,000 
 feet. A. givfes birth to numerous rivers, the largest 
 of which are the Abai or Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek or 
 Blue Eiver), and the Takkazde, an affluent of the 
 Nile. In the south is the Hawash — from which 
 the comitry takes its name — ^which flows eastward 
 into the salt-lake of Assal in Adal. The largest 
 lake is that of Tzana or Dembea, through which the 
 Abai or Blue NUe flows. The climate in the elevated 
 tracts of Abyssinia is temperate and salubrious ; in 
 the low tracts along the coast, and in the north and 
 north-west, the heat is excessive, and the climate 
 noxious. On the whole, A. is a coimtry of great 
 fertility; but, like the climate, the productions of 
 the soQ vary greatly mth the different degrees of 
 elevation. Wheat and barley are cultivated, also 
 maize, the grains called Teft' (Poa Abyssinica) and 
 Toousso (Eleusine Tock^so), various leguminous plants, 
 cotton, coffee, sugar-cane, tobacco, &c. The coffee- 
 
 Elant grows wild. Among carnivorous animals, the 
 on, leopard, hyena, wolf, and jackal, are foimd. 
 There are also elephants, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, 
 zebras, ka. 
 
 The people of A. belong mostly to the Shemitio 
 race, and resemble the Arabs both in physical 
 characteristics and structure of language. See 
 j^Hiopic Language and Literature. The ethno- 
 logy of the country is variously given by different 
 authorities. According to Ruppell, there are three 
 principal races. The aboriginal Abyssinians, inha- 
 biting the greater part of Amhara, and numerous 
 also in TigrS, are of middle size, with oval faces, 
 lips not thicker than those of Europeans, pointed 
 noses, and straight or sHghtly curled hair. In this 
 race he includes the Ealashas, or Jews, the Gamant, 
 and the Agows. A second race, abounding most in 
 the north of Tigrg, have thick lips, noses blunt and 
 somewhat craved, and thick hair, verging on wooUi- 
 ness. The third are the GaUas, inhabiting the south 
 of Shoa and the regions west of Lake Dembea and 
 20 
 
 the Abai; a large-bodied race, round-faced, short- 
 nosed, with a depression between the nose and brow, 
 deep-set hvely eyes, and thickish lips. The colour 
 of these races is brown of various shades. The only 
 negroes in A. are slaves from the country of the 
 ShangaUas, to the west. 
 
 The oldest accounts of the Abyssinians are full of 
 fables, but seem suflBcient to prove that they attained 
 some degree of civilisation even in remote antiquity. 
 Christianity was introduced about the middle of 
 the 4th c, and soon prevailed extensively. Axmn 
 was at that time the capital. Two centuries 
 later, the Abyssinians were powerful enough to 
 invade Arabia, and conquer a part of Yemen. In 
 the subsequent struggles against the invading 
 Moslem, the coast-land Samhara and the country 
 of Adal were lost. In the 10th c, a Jewish princess 
 overthrew the reigning dynasty, the surviving 
 representative of which fled to Shoa. After three 
 centuries of confusion, the empire was restored 
 under Icon Amlac, and some progress was made 
 in improvement. Early in the 15th c, the Abys- 
 sinians entered into close relations with the 
 Portuguese, by whose assistance the empire was 
 saved, in 1540, from falling into the hands of the 
 invader Granie, sultan of Adal. The southern pro- 
 vuices, however, were lost, and the seat of empire 
 was removed from Shoa to Gondar. Under the 
 influence of the Portuguese missionaries, the royal 
 family adopted the Eoman Catholic faith ; and the 
 old Coptic Church was formally united to the see of 
 Rome. The people and ecclesiastics obstinately 
 resisted the innovation ; the emperor gave way ; 
 and ultimately, in 1632, the Romish priests were 
 expelled or put to death. In consequence of the 
 commotions thus excited, the monarchical power 
 declined, while that of the governors of provinces 
 greatly increased, and, indeed, became almost abso- 
 lute. The governor (Ras) of Gondar now nominates 
 the emperor [Negus). The pohtioal divisions of the 
 country are subject to continual alteration. Of the 
 existing states, the foUowiug are the most import- 
 ant : — 1. The kingdom of Tigre, extending between 
 the river Taldcazie or Bahr-el-Aswad (Black River), 
 and the moiuitains of Samen on one side, and the 
 district of Samhara on the other. Its chief towns 
 are Antalo and Adowa. 2. The kingdom of Gondar 
 or Amhara, extending on the west of the Takkazie 
 and the Samen Mountains. The capital, Gondar, is 
 situated in the north-east of the plain of Dembea or 
 Gondar, at an elevation of 7420 feet. 3. The king- 
 dom of Shoa (including j^oi), lying south of Amhara, 
 and separated from the GaUa tribes by the Hawash. 
 This is, by all accounts, the best organised and most 
 powerfid state now existing in A. The capital, 
 Aukobar, at an elevation of 8198 feet, contains 
 from 8000 to 10,000 inhabitants, and enjoys a 
 dehghtful climate. The Gallas, a savage but enter- 
 prising race, effected a settlement in the south of 
 A. in the 16th o. They inhabit the whole of the 
 eastern part of tropical Africa. Several of their 
 tribes have been modified in character and customs 
 by conversion to Mohammedanism, and have 
 founded kingdoms — such as Enarea, one of the 
 highest mountain coimtries of Africa, and rich in 
 produce; Kusha, on the river Goshob, where the 
 slave-trade is actively carried on by the Portuguese ; 
 and several smaller independent states of which little 
 is known. 
 
 In consequence of invasions and civil warfare, 
 the present social and political condition of A. 
 is very unfavourable. The kingdom of Shoa is in 
 better circumstances than the other states. Though 
 Christianity is still the professed religion of the 
 majority of Abyssinians, it exists among them only 
 in its lowest form, and is little more than ceremonial. 
 
ACAOlA— ACADEMY. 
 
 Their church is national and independent, but the 
 visible head, or Abuna (' our father') is ordained by 
 the Coptic patriarch of Alexandria. The doctrines 
 of the Abyssinian coincide with those of the Coptic 
 Church, especially in the monophysite heresy ; but 
 several peculiar rites are observed, including circum- 
 cision of both sexes, and observance of the Mosaic 
 laws respecting food, &o, ; love-feasts, and adult bap- 
 tism. iSie oldest Abyssinian churches are hewn out 
 of rocks. The modem ohiu'ches are mostly small, 
 round, or conical buildings, thatched with straw, 
 and surrounded by pillars of cedar. Statues and 
 bas-reliefs are not tolerated in churches, but paint- 
 ings are numerous. The state of manners and 
 morals in A. is as low as might be looked for in 
 a country so long a prey to anarchy and violence. 
 Human lite is li^tly valued, the administration of 
 justice is barbarously neghgent and corrupt, and the 
 marriage-bond is tied and loosed with extreme 
 facility. The land generally yields at least two 
 crops annually; but the agriculture is miserable, 
 and the condition of the lower classes proportion- 
 ally wretched. Among fruits, the fig is the most 
 plentiful. "Wine is used only for the iSicharist ; the 
 common drink is iovza, a kind of sour beer, made 
 from the fermentation of bread. The manufac- 
 tures of A. are rude, but sufficient, with a few 
 exceptions, for the wants of the natives; cotton 
 stuffs and leather goods are the staple articles. The 
 foreign trade is carried on principally through 
 Massowah ; the chief exports beiag slaves, gold, 
 butter, musk-horns, wax, and ivory. 
 
 A. has been frequently visited in recent years 
 by Christian missionaries, scientific travellers, and 
 mercantile and political agents ; and our know- 
 ledge of its Hterature has received great addi- 
 tions. See the Travels and Journals of Bruce, 
 Lord Valentia, Salt, Kitter, Gobat, Isenberg and 
 Krapf, Eochet d'Hericomi;, KuppeU, and Parkyns ; 
 the Report of the French Scientific Commission 
 (1845) ; Contributions of MM. d'Abbadie to Journ. 
 Asiat. and BidleHn de la Soc. Geogr. ; of Beke and 
 Kirk in Journ. of Boy. Geogr. Soc. 
 
 ACA'CIA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Leguminosoe, siib-order Mimosece. The genus A. 
 differs from Mimosa in 
 the greater number of 
 its stamens (10—200), 
 and in the want of 
 transverse partitions in 
 its bivalvular legumes. 
 The acacias are diffused 
 ^ over all quarters of the 
 globe except Europe. 
 The greater number of 
 them have a singular 
 appearance, because of 
 the leaf-stalks spread- 
 ing out in a leaf- 
 like form [phyllodium) ; 
 while the leaflets are 
 more or less stimted 
 in appearance, and fre- 
 quently are altogether 
 absent. Other species 
 have bipinnate leaves, with a great number of 
 leaflets, and are extremely beautiful. Many are 
 of great importance in an economical point of 
 view, because of the juice which flows from them, 
 which, when inspissated, becomes an article of 
 commerce under the name of Gum (q. v.). The 
 species called A. gmmnlfera, A. Seycd, A. Ehren- 
 hergii, A. tortilis, A. NUotica, staA. A. vera, natives 
 of Africa, produce gum-arabic, also A. speciosa, 
 and A. Arabica, natives of the south of Asia. A. 
 Arabica is called the Babul-tree in India, and its 
 
 Acacia Arabica (Gum-arabic 
 Tree). 
 
 gum, babul. A gum similar to gum-arabic is pro- 
 duced by A. decurrens, A. molhssima (the Silver 
 Wattle), and A. affinis (the Black Wattle), in New 
 HoUand, and hyA. karroo, at the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Gmn Senegal is the produce of A. Vereh, and A. 
 Adansonii, natives of the western coast of Africa. 
 Yet A. Verek is also said to yield true white gum- 
 arabic. Catechu (q. v.) is obtained from the wood 
 of A. catecliu. The astringent bark and pods of 
 some species are used for tanning. The bark of A. 
 Arabica is administered in India as a powerful tonio 
 medicine. The pods of A. concinna form an article 
 of commerce in India, its seeds being saponaceous 
 and used in washing. A decoction of the pods of 
 A. Arabica is sometimes used in the same way. A 
 considerable munber of species afford useful timber. 
 The flowers of many species are fragrant. A number 
 of species from New Holland and other countries 
 have been introduced into the south of Europe. 
 Some are of frequent occurrence in green-houses in 
 Britain ; and a few of the AustraUan species succeed 
 tolerably in the open air in the south of Eng- 
 land. The foHage of the acacias with bipinnate 
 leaves shews a peculiar sensitiveness to changes of 
 weather ; when a thick cloud obscures the sun, the 
 opposite leaflets close together, and so remain till 
 the sun reappears. The Locust-tree of North 
 America (Robinia pseud-acacia) is often called 
 A. both in Britain and upon the continent of 
 Europe. Other species of Robinia also receive the 
 same name. See Locust-tree and Rose A. Mores 
 Acacice (A. Flowers) is an old medical name for 
 Sloe flowers. 
 
 ACA'DEMY, a name originally applied to the 
 philosophical school of Plato, and derived from the 
 place in which that philosopher was accustomed 
 to meet and converse with his pupUs. This was a 
 garden or grove in the suburbs of Athens, said to 
 have once belonged to the hero Academus, and by 
 h^m to have been presented to the citizens for a 
 gymnasium. The spot is at this day known under 
 the name of Akadimia. The variations of doctrine 
 among the successors of Plato gave rise to the 
 distinctive titles of Old, Middle, and New A. 
 The first is apphed to the philosophic teaching of 
 Plato himself and his immediate followers; ftie 
 second, to that modification of the Platonic phil- 
 osophy taught by ArcesUaus (q.v.) ; and the third, 
 to the half -sceptical school founded by Cameades 
 (q.v.). 
 
 In its common EngKsh acceptation, the word 
 academy is loosely applied to any species of school 
 which professes to communicate more than the mere 
 elements of instruction. This, however, though 
 perha,ps more in affinity with the original appHcation 
 of the term, must be regarded as an abuse of its 
 more general and strict acceptation in modem usage, 
 as signifying a society of savans or artists, estabhshed 
 for the promotion of hterature, science, or art. The 
 first institution in ancient times that seems to merit 
 the name, in this sense, of academy, was the cele- 
 brated Museum founded at Alexandria in the 3d 
 century B. c. by Ptolemy Soter, which concentrated 
 in that intellectual capital all that was most eminent 
 in science, philosophy, poetry, and criticism. After 
 this model, the Jews, and, at a later period, the 
 Arabians, founded numerous institutions for the 
 promotion of learning. During the middle ages, vrith 
 the exception of the Moorish institutions at Granada 
 and Cordova, in which poetry and music formed 
 prominent subjects of study, we find nothing corre- 
 sponding to the modem idea of an academy, save 
 the learned society established in his own palace, at 
 the suggestion of his teacher Alcuin, by Charle- 
 magne. This association was dissolved by the 
 monarch's death; and not.tfll the middle of the 
 ' * 21 
 
ACADEMY. 
 
 15th c, when the conquest of Constantinople drove 
 many learned Grreeks to seek an asylum in Italy, 
 do we find any trace of a similar institution. 
 Under the enlightened patronage of Lorenzo and 
 Cosmo de' Medici, the lovers of Greek learning and 
 philosophy were united in the bond of a common 
 pursuit, and zealously laboured to revive the long 
 extinguished light of classic literature. After the 
 decline of the Greek and Platonic Academies of 
 Horeuce, there arose institutions of a more com- 
 prehensive character, the example of which spread 
 from Italy throughout aU the states of Europe. 
 
 Academies may be divided into those established 
 for general ends, and such as contemplate specific 
 objects. The members are usually classified as 
 Ordinary, Honorary, and Corresponding. The re- 
 sults of their labours in their various departments 
 are reported at the periodic meetings, and printed 
 m the records of the academy. Prizes are gene- 
 rally established as the rewards of distinguished 
 merit in original discovery, or excellence in the 
 treatment of subjects proposed for competition. 
 Among general academies, deserving of mention 
 in the fijst place is the A. of Sciences, at 
 Paris, established by Colbert in 1666, and now 
 entitled the Instibut de France (see Institxtt). The 
 first scientific academy founded in modem times 
 was the Academia Secretorum Naiiwrm, established 
 at Naples in 1560, and afterwards put down by a 
 papal interdict. It was succeeded by the A. of the 
 Lined, founded at Home by Prince Ceci, which 
 attained distinguished success. Galileo was one of its 
 members. Subsequently arose the A. dd Gimento, at 
 Plorence, and the A. degV Inquieti, of Bologna, after- 
 wards incorporated into the Accad. della Tracea, and 
 finally, in 1711, merged in the Institute of Bologna, 
 or Clementine A. — The Berlin A. of Arts and Sciences, 
 founded iu 1700 by Frederick I., was in 1710 
 divided into four sections : 1. Physics, Medicine, 
 and Chemistry; 2. Mathematics, Astronomy, and 
 Mechanics ; 3. German Language and History ; 
 4. Oriental Literature, in special connection with 
 missions. The first president was Leibnitz, whose 
 extraordinary versatility of genius qualified him for 
 a leading place in all its departments. Under the 
 G*at Erederick, new life was infused into the 
 academy by the encouragement offered to learned 
 men of aU countries to settle at Berlin. Maupertuis 
 was now appointed president, and the academy was 
 re-organised imder the four classes of Physics, 
 Mathematics, Philosophy, History and Philology. 
 The public meetiugs are held twice a year. The 
 transactions did not appear regularly • tiU after 
 1811. They were formerly pubhshed in Erench, 
 but now in German. — The Imperial A. of Sciences 
 of St Petersburg was planned in 1724 by Peter 
 the Great, with the advice of Leibnitz and Wolf. 
 It was established in the following year by Cathe- 
 rine I., and hberally supported by the empress: 
 fifteen members received pensions as professors of 
 various branches. Of these were Wolf, Bulfinger, 
 Nicolas and Daniel BemouiUi, and the two De 
 Lisles. After various fluctuations, the academy 
 attained a position of high enunenoe and utUity 
 imder the patronage of Catherine II. Among the 
 most important results of her liberality are the 
 travels and researches of such men as Pallas and 
 Klaproth. The academy is stiU composed of fifteen 
 salaried members, besides a president and director, 
 and four pensioned supernumeraries, who attend the 
 meetings and succeed to the vacant chairs. It pos- 
 sesses an extensive library and a very valuable 
 museum. The first series of its transactions (1726- 
 47) bears the name of Oommentarii ; the second 
 (1748-77), of Ifovi Commemtarii; the third (1777-82), 
 of Aaa. Up to this date, they were written in 
 22 
 
 Latin ; thenceforth in Latia or Erench. From 1783 
 to 1795, they are called N'ova Acta; from that time 
 to the present they are entitled Memoires. — The 
 A. of Sciences at Stockholm, founded in 1739, 
 consisted at first of six members, one of whom was 
 the celebrated Linnaeus. It received a royal charter 
 in 1741, but no endowment. Its publications, since 
 1779, are distinguished as New Transactions. Papers 
 on agrioultiu-e are separately published, under the 
 title of (Economica Acta. Li 1799, it was divided 
 iato six classes : 1. Political and Kural Economy, 15 
 members; 2. Commerce and Mechanical Arts, 15 
 
 3. Swedish Physics and Natural History, 15 
 
 4. Foreign Physics and Natural History, 15 
 
 5. Mathematics, 18 ; 6. History, Philology, and Eiue 
 Arts, 12. The resident members preside in rotation, 
 during a term of three months : the transactions 
 appear quarterly. At the annual meeting in 
 April, prizes are distributed. — The Moyal A. of 
 Sciences at Gopemliagen owes its origin, like the 
 last mentioned, to six learned men, employed by 
 Christian VI. in 1742 to arrange his cabinet of 
 medals. In 1743, the king, on the recommendation 
 of Count Holstein, their first president, took the 
 academy under his protection, endowed it, and 
 ordered that natural history, physics, and mathe- 
 matics should be embraced within the sphere of its 
 operations, at first limited to the national history 
 and antiquities. The academy's transactions are in 
 Danish; some of them are translated into Latin. 
 — The A. of Sciences of Mannlieim was founded 
 in 1755 by the Elector-palatine Karl Theodor, and 
 divided into the sections of history and physical 
 science ; the latter was subdivided in 1780 into 
 physics proper and meteorology. The transactions 
 under the two former heads are published under the 
 title of Acta; the meteorological memoirs are 
 entitled EpTrnnerides. — The A. (^Sciences of MuniA 
 was founded in 1759. Soon after the erection 
 of Bavaria into a kingdom, it was reorganised on 
 a very extensive footing, under the presidency of 
 Jacobi. Its memoirs are published under the title 
 of Ahhandlungen der Baierischen Aleademie. — The 
 A. of Lisbon, established by Queen Maria in 1779, 
 numbers 60 members; viz., 24 ordinary, and 36 
 honorary and foreign; and is divided iato three 
 sections: 1. Natural Science; 2. Mathematics; 
 3. Portuguese Literature. It is hberally endowed 
 ^7 government, and has a library, museum, obser- 
 vatory, and printing-office. Its Menwrias have 
 appeared since 1787.— The Boyal Irish A. dates its 
 origin from 1782, when a number of gentlemen, 
 chiefly connected with the imiversity of DubUn, 
 associated themselves for the pursuit of science, 
 history, and Hterature. The plan of the society 
 was afterwards extended. The first volume of its 
 transactions appeared in 1788.— The American A. 
 of Arts and Sciences was established at Boston in 
 1780: it had previou^y existed in another form, 
 the original institution being due to Franklin. The 
 first volume of its transactions was pubHdied in 
 1785. — The A. of Sciences at Vienna was founded 
 m 1846. It is divided into the sections of History 
 Sm ^^°l°gy ; Mathematics and Natural Science ; 
 Philosophy, Pohtical Economy, and Medicine. It 
 pubHshed Reports of its meetings since 1848, and 
 since 1850, Memoirs. 
 
 Among the academies estabKshed for the cultiva- 
 tion of particular departments of knowledge, are the 
 foUowmg:— 1. Languages. The Academia della 
 Crusca, or Academia Fmfuratorum was founded at 
 Florence m 1582, chiefly for the purpose of promoting 
 the purity of the ItaHan language; whence its some- 
 what fantastic designation— crusca signifying chaflf 
 or bran. It first drew attention by its attacks on 
 Tasso. Its principal service has been the compilation 
 
AOALEPH^. 
 
 of an excellent dictionary, and the publication of 
 correct editions of the older Italian poets. A new 
 edition of this dictionary is at present in preparation, 
 but from the slow rate of its progress, it is calculated 
 that many centuries must elapse before its comple- 
 tion. For an account of the Acadimie Frangaiae, 
 instituted in 1629, as a private society, see Institut. 
 The Boyal Spanish A. was founded at Madrid in 
 1714, by the Duke of Escalona, for the cultivation 
 and improvement of the national language, in which 
 it has done good service partioularly by the com- 
 pilation of a Spanish dictionary. A similar insti- 
 tution was foimded at St Petersburg in 1783, and 
 afterwards united to the Imperial A. At Stock- 
 holm, a similar academy was established in 1786; 
 and at Pesth (for the cidtivation of the Magyar 
 language) in 1830. — 2. Archjeologt. At the head 
 of antiquarian institutions stands the AcadSmie des 
 Inscriptions, founded at Paris in 1663, by Colbert. 
 See Institut. For the elucidation of northern lan- 
 guages and antiquities, an academy was founded in 
 1710 at Upsala, in Sweden ; a similar institution was 
 established at Cortona, in Italy, in 1727. Both 
 have issued valuable works. The A. of Herculaneum 
 was founded at Naples in 1755, by the Marquis of 
 Tanucci, for the elucidation of Herculanean and 
 Pompeian antiquities. Its publications, commencing 
 in 1775, bear the title of AniidiitA di Ercolano. An 
 academy for the investigation of Tuscan antiquities 
 was established at Florence in 1807 ; and at Paris, ia 
 1805, a Celtic A. for the elucidation of the language, 
 history, and antiquities of the Celts, especially in 
 France. This society changed its name, in 1814, 
 to Sodite des Antiquaires de France. — 3. Histobt. 
 The Royal A. of Portuguese History was founded 
 at Lisbon, in 1720, by John V. At Madrid, in 1730, 
 a learned association was formed for the elucidation 
 of Spanish history. It was constituted an academy 
 in 1738, by Plulip V. It has published editions of 
 Mariana, Sepulveda, Solis, and the ancient Cas- 
 tihan chronicles, some of which had never before 
 been printed. A historical academy has existed 
 for some time at Tiibiogen. — 4. Medicine. The 
 Academia Naturae Curiosorwm was established at 
 Vienna, in 1652, by the physician Bauschius, for the 
 investigation of remarkable phenomena in the animal, 
 vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. In honour of 
 Leopold I., who patronised it liberally, it took the 
 additional name of Ccesareo-Leopoldina ; and, since 
 1808, has had its chief seat at Bonn. Its valuable 
 memoirs have appeared at irregular intervals under 
 the title of Miscellanea, Ephemerides, and Acta. 
 The Academic Imperiale de Mededne of Paris, was 
 founded in 1820, for the prosecution of researches 
 into all matters connected with the public health, 
 such as epidemics, &o. The Surgical A. of Paris 
 (whose functions have partly descended to the 
 preceding) was founded in 1731. It was dissolved 
 during tiie troubles of the first revolution. The 
 Vienna A. of Surgery, established in 1783, is, pro- 
 perly speaking, a college. — 5. Fnra Abts. The 
 academies of painting and sculpture of St Peters- 
 burg (connected with the Imperial A.) and Paris, 
 are institutions for the education of pupils. The 
 French Acad&mie des Beaux Arts is a branch 
 of- the Institut (q. v.). The Boyal A. of Arts in 
 London was founded in 1768, for the promotion of 
 the arts of design, painting, sculpture, &o. The 
 number of academicians is 40. Connected with 
 it is a school, with professors selected from among 
 the academicians. The annual exhibition of the 
 academy is open to all artists of merit. The Royal 
 Scottish A. of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture, 
 was foimded at Edinburgh m 1825, and received a 
 royal charter in 1838. Kie number of academicians 
 ia IS J the general plan of the institution is similar 
 
 to that of the London A. Similar to these also is 
 the Boyal Hibernian A. incorporated at Dublin 
 in 1803. Numerous academies of the fine arts have 
 been established in Italy — at Pome, Milan, Turin, 
 Florence, Mantua, and Modena ; as also at Madrid, 
 Vienna, and Stockholm. 
 
 Many learned Societies differ from Academies only 
 in name; such are The Eoyal Society of London, 
 The Society of Antiquaries of London, The Asiatic 
 Society, The British Association, The Eoyal Society 
 of Knowledge at Gottingen, The Washington 
 Smithsonian liistitution, &o., c&c. See SociETrES. 
 
 ACALE'PH^ (Gr. signifying nettles), one of 
 the classes of the Eadiata or Kadiated Animals, 
 in the system of Cuvier. They are commonly known 
 by such names as Jelly-fish, Sea-bM>ber, &o., and are 
 sometimes called Sea-nettles, on account of the 
 stinging power which many of them possess. Most 
 of them were included in the Linnsean genus Medusa, 
 and the name Medusce is still very frequently applied 
 to them. They are aU inhabitants of the ocean, in 
 which they swim or float singly and freely. They 
 abound in all parts of it, although some are tropical, 
 and others belong to high latitudes. Some of 
 them are of a large size, reaching to two feet in 
 diameter, others are very small, and the phosphor- 
 escence of the sea is caused by multitudes of nunute 
 A. They consist of an extremely soft gelatinous 
 tissue, which in most of them, and in all the true 
 Medusffi, is unsupported by any harder substance. 
 The quantity of solid matter even in a large Medusa 
 
 Medusa. 
 
 A, under surface, stewing the mouth in the centre, surrounded 
 by the tentacula, and the ovarial chambers exterior to the 
 origins of these ; B, side-view, shewing the tentacula hanging 
 down in tlleir natural position. 
 
 is very small, and the appearance of muscular fibre 
 can only be detected by a microscope near the 
 margin of the disk or umbrella-like body, which 
 in most of the genera constitutes the principal 
 part of the animal, by alternate contractions and 
 expansions of which it moves in the water, and on 
 the under side of which is its mouth. The margin 
 of the disk is generally provided with tentacular 
 appendages, which are of very' various forms, often 
 thread-like, sometimes foliaceous ; and many have 
 also tentacular appendages, presenting a. similar 
 variety of form, but often much larger in proportion, 
 connected with the mouth, or attached to a probos- 
 cidean prolongation of it. There is no appearance of 
 teeth. From the gastric cavity, a system of vessels 
 proceeds through the body. No appearance of blood 
 has been detected ; nor is it certain that the A. 
 possess any of the senses except that of touch; 
 the nature of the organs sometimes called eyes or 
 ocelli being by no means satisfactorily determined. 
 These organs are situated on the margin, and in 
 some are protected by membranous hoods or cover- 
 ings ; in others, are unprotected ; those which 
 have them protected, having also a much ramified 
 and anastomosing system of vessels ; the others, an 
 extremely simple vascular system. The A feed on 
 
AOANXHOPTERYGII— ACAKNANIA. 
 
 small marine animals, often of much higher organ- 
 isation than themselves. Small fishes are amongst 
 the prey of the large Medussa. In the class A., as 
 at present constituted, there are included animals 
 difiering much from the typical form and charac- 
 ters, as the genera BerSe, Cesium, &c., having two 
 orifices to the alimentary canal ; and others, as 
 Physalia (the Portuguese Man-of-war), in which 
 
 a a, tentacula ; b, mouth ; 
 c, termination of intestine, 
 
 Physalia 
 
 there is no proper mouth, but the food is conveyed 
 to the digestive cavity through a number of flask- 
 like appendages, which hang down beneath, each 
 having an orifice and a sort of sucker. The stinging 
 power seems to be used to benumb the prey. Repro- 
 duction takes place ia the A. both by means of 
 ova and by germination. The organs of the two 
 sexes appear generally to exist in each individual. 
 The young Medusce differ very much in appearance 
 from the mature animal, and iu the process of their 
 development, assume forms resembUng those of 
 hydraform polypes, and like them are attached by 
 the base ;■ wmlst a still more wonderful fact has 
 been discovered of the formation of a number of 
 Medusa from a single polype-like individual of this 
 kind, which become detached, and swim off in the 
 water. — The A. have of late been diligently studied 
 by a number of eminent naturalists, of whom 
 may be mer(tioned Esohseholtz, De BlainvUle, Sara 
 of Norway, and the late Professor E. Forbes. 
 
 ACAiSTTHOPTERY'GII, iu Zoology, one of the 
 two primary divisions of the Osseous Fislies in 
 the system of Cuvier, distinguished by having 
 spinous rays in the first portion of the dorsd 
 
 Perch. 
 
 fin, or in the first dorsal, if there are two. The 
 name is derived from the Greek akaniha, a 
 thorn, and pteryx., a wing. The A. are divided 
 by Cuvier into fifteen families, amongst which are 
 Perddce (Perch, Bass, &o.), Triglidas (Gurnard, 
 Flying-fish, &c.), and Scomieridce (Mackerel, 
 Tunny, &c.). 
 
 ACA'NTHUS, the name given by the Greeks and 
 Romans to the plants sometimes called Brancursine, 
 of which it is also the botanical generic name. A. 
 21 
 
 mollis and A. spinosa, natives of the south of Europe, 
 are the species best known. The twining habit of 
 the plants, their large white flowers, and, above all, 
 
 A. spinosus, natural. 
 
 Ornamental A. Leaf. 
 
 the beautiful form of their dark and shining leaves, 
 have led to their artistical application, especially 
 in the capitals of Corinthian columns. See Okdeks 
 OF Architecture. Roman drinking - cups have 
 been found whose handles are twined with A. 
 leaves. — The ancients made the A. mollis chiefly 
 their pattern; but iu Gothic ornaments, more use 
 is made of the smaller and less beautiful leaves of 
 A. spinosa. 
 
 The genus A. is the type of the natural order 
 AcAiiTHACKE, which contains nearly 1400 known 
 species. They are herbaceous plants or shrubs, 
 chiefly tropical; dicotyledonous. The greater part 
 are mere weeds, but the genera Jusiiaia, ApTielandra, 
 and JRuellia contain some of .our finest hot-house 
 flowers. The leaves are opposite, rarely in fours, 
 simple ; two or three bracts, which are often large 
 and leafy, accompany each flower. The calyx is 
 persistent, usually 5-leaved, occasionally out into 
 many pieces, sometimes obsolete. The corolla is 
 monopetalous, hypogynous, usually irregular, decid- 
 uous. The stamens are generally two; sometimes 
 four, didynamous, the shorter ones sometimes sterile ; 
 the anthers 1-2-celled, opening lengthwise. The 
 disk is glandular ; the ovary free, 2-celled, with two 
 or more ovules in each cell; placentae adhering in 
 the axis ; style one. The fniit is a capsule bursting 
 elastically with two valves, the dissepiment also 
 separating into two pieces through the axis. The 
 seeds are roundish, hanging by hard, usually hooked 
 processes of the placenta; testa loose; albumen 
 wanting ; embryo curved or straight ; cotyledons 
 large ; radicle suboyhndrical, next the hilum. — Some 
 of the Acanthacece are used in their native countries 
 as medicines. A valuable deep-blue dye, called 
 Room, is obtained in Assam from a species of 
 Hudlia. 
 
 ACAPTJ'LOO, the best harbour belonging to 
 Mexico in the Pacific, and a. place of considerable 
 commercial importance; situated in lat. 16° 50' N". ; 
 long. 99° 48' W. The harbour is so well sheltered 
 that deeply laden vessels may lie safely at anchor 
 close to the granite rocks. The town, defended 
 by Fort Diego, on an eminence, has a very unhealthy 
 site, and is one of the places most frequently visited 
 by cholera, which proves especially fatal to new 
 settlers. Since the discovery of the California gold- 
 muies, it has become the most important port in 
 Mexico, an<l the principal point for the embarkation 
 of passengers between the Atlantic and Pacific ports 
 of the United States. Pop. 5000. 
 
 ACARNA'IiriA, u, country of ancient Greece, 
 separated from Epirus on the north by the Ambra- 
 cian GiUf, now the Giilf of Arta ; from ^tolia on 
 the east by the river Achelous ; and washed south 
 and west by the Ionian Sea. Along with jEtoKa, it 
 forms one of the names or departments of the modern 
 
AOARtJS— ACCEPTANCE. 
 
 kingdom of Greece. The western part of j\. — ■ 
 from the mouth of the Aohelfius or Aspropotamo to 
 Cape Actimn in the north-west — is occupied by a 
 mass of rooky and thickly- wooded mountains, rising 
 abruptly from the indented coast, and culminating 
 in the summit of Berganti. A considerable part of 
 A. is overgrown with wood — a rare feature in 
 modern Greece. There is no town of importance 
 in the whole district, though naturally it is not 
 destitute of resources. 
 
 A'CARUS, a genus of Arachnides (q. v.), of the 
 order Tradieance, the type of a tribe called Acar- 
 ides, which corresponds with the genus Acarus as 
 defined by Linnseus. The species of the Aoaridea 
 are very mmierous. All of them are small ; many 
 microscopical. Some are familiar to us under the 
 names of Mites (q. v.), Ticks (q. v.), &c. Some live 
 upon the juices of plants ; some in the dung of 
 animals ; many species are found in the vegetable 
 and animal substances used for himian food, espe- 
 cially when these have been kept for a considerable 
 time, as in cheese, flour, sugar, on the surface of 
 preserves, of dried fruits, &c. ; others are parasites 
 upon the bodies of animals, particularly in diseased 
 conditions, as in cases of itch. A minute species 
 has been detected in the foUioles of the human 
 skin, and others even in the human brain and 
 eyes. Some insects, particularly beetles, are often 
 covered with Acarides. A species [Tromlidium 
 holosericeum) common in gardens in spring, is 
 remarkable for its blood-red colour; and a nearly 
 aUied but much larger species (T. tinctorum), 
 foimd in the East Indies, yields 
 a fine dye. A Persian species 
 [Argas Persicus) is poisonous, 
 and causes sores. The bite of 
 many species is annoying, as of 
 theoommon,Harvest-bug {Lepius 
 auiumnalis). The Acarides have 
 eyes. Some of them have the 
 mouth furnished with mandibles, others with a 
 sucker. They are oviparous, and extremely prolific. 
 They have generally eight legs ; but, when yovmg, 
 many of them have only six, and in some genera 
 the additional pair seems never to be acquired. A 
 few are aquatic, and have legs covered with hairs 
 to adapt them for swimming. 
 
 ACATHI'STTJS, a hymn simg in the' ancient 
 Greek Church in honour of the Virgin. 
 
 ACOELBRA'NDO (Ital.), in Music, with gradu- 
 ally increasing velocity of movement. 
 
 ACCELERATED MOTIOlf, in mechanics, is 
 motion in which the velocity is continually increas- 
 ing. When the increments of velocity are equal in 
 equal times, the motion is said to be umformly 
 accelerated. The best example of such a motion is 
 that of a falling body. It is found that near the 
 earth's surface a body, descending from a state of 
 rest, falls IGyj- feet in the first second. Now, a 
 little consideration will shew that at the end of the 
 first second, it is moving at the rate of 32J feet 
 per second. For, since the velocity was nothing at 
 first and increased uniformly, IGy'^ feet must have 
 been the mean velocity, i. e., the velocity at the 
 middle of the time; and therefore the velocity at 
 the end must be double, or 32 J- feet : 32 i feet is 
 thus the measure of the accelerative force of gravity. 
 At the end of the second and third seconds, the 
 velocity is found to be doubled, trebled, &c., or 64J, 
 96i feet. 
 
 AOCELEEATIOIT OF THE MOON. It WaS first 
 
 observed by Halley, that the time of the moon's 
 revolution round the earth has for several thousand 
 years been decreasing, or her velocity has been 
 increasing. This phenomenon remained for a 
 
 Acarus (Mite). 
 
 considerable time inexplicable ; at last, Laplace, in 
 1787, discovered the cause in the varying eccentricity 
 of the earth's orbit, which has been on the decrease 
 since about 12,000 years B. c. Since that time, the 
 moon has been gradually coming nearer to the earth ; 
 and this will go on tUl 36,900 after Christ, when the 
 eccentricity of the earth's orbit will begin again to 
 increase.' — ^Acceleeation op the Pixed Staks is 
 the excess of a mean solar day over a sidereal day ; 
 i. e., a day measured by the transits of a star over 
 the meridian; the excess is about 3' 56y sidereal 
 time. 
 
 A'CCBNT, in Grammar, is a special stress of voice 
 laid upon one syllable of a word, by which it is made 
 more prominent than the rest ; the accented syllable 
 is sometimes indicated by a mark, as awa'y, fo'rtify. 
 Every word in English has one syllable thus brought 
 markedly into notice. When the accented syllable 
 falls near the end of a long word, there may be 
 one or more secondary accents, as in rdcommend , 
 subo'rdma"tion,. A. depends upon force of vocal or 
 articulative effort, not upon highness or lowness of 
 pitch. Variations of pitch produce what elocu- 
 tionists call injleclion. It is the confounding of 
 A. with a rise of tone, and the contrasting of it 
 with a sinking of tone, that has produced so much 
 confusion on this subject, especially as regards the 
 accents of the ancients. In English, many nouns are 
 converted mto verbs simply by transposing the A., 
 as o'bjed — object. It is A., and not qiiantity, that 
 determines English measures or metres in versi- 
 fication. No rule can be given as to what syllable 
 of a word shall be accented. There seems to be an 
 increasing tendency in oiu' language to throw the 
 A. towards the beginning of words. In the Fin- 
 nish language, the A. is said to be invariably on 
 the first syllable. — Emphasis is to sentences what 
 A. is to words; it is a stress laid upon one word 
 of a sentence to make it prominent. If A. is 
 syllabic emphasis, emphasis is logical A. 
 
 A'CCENT, in Music, is analogous with A. in 
 language. It consists of a stress or emphasis given 
 to certain notes or parts of bars in a composition, 
 and may be divided into two kinds — grammatical, 
 and rhetorical or cesthetio. The first kind of A. is 
 perfectly regular in its occurrence — always falling 
 on the first part of a bar. It is true that long or 
 compound measures of time have, besides the chief 
 A. in every bar, some subordinate accents; but 
 these are only slightly marked. As a general rule, 
 we may observe, that the grammatical or regu- 
 lar A. must not be exaggerated. It should be 
 marked only so far as to give a clear sense of 
 rhythm. The oesthetical A. is irregular, and 
 depends on taste and feeling, exactly as does the 
 A. and emphasis used in oratory. In vocal music 
 well adapted to words, the words serve as a guide 
 to the right use of sesthetical accents. 
 
 ACCE'PTANCE is the act whereby the drawee 
 engages to pay a bfll according to the terms of 
 the A. It may be said to consist in the drawee 
 writing the word 'accepted' on the bill and sub- 
 scribing his name ; or writing, as has been decided 
 in England, the word ' accepted ' only (although it 
 is not so in Scotland, where the act of A. must 
 be shewn by the actual signature of the acceptor) ; or 
 merely subscribing his name at the bottom or across 
 the bni. But there are other and various forms 
 of A., in England and Scotland, as to which, 
 and generally, see Bill oe Exchange. In com- 
 mon parlance, the accepted biU is called an A., 
 and the drawee, or party who engages to pay the 
 bill, is called the acceptm: 
 
 A. is also a term in the Scotch law of contracts. 
 A mutual contract may commence by an offer, and 
 
 2a 
 
ACCESSAilY— ACCLlMATISfi. 
 
 be completed by A. The offer is viewed as an 
 obligation provisional on the A., but may, before 
 A., be recalled, on condition of making reparation 
 for any loss fairly occasioned by the offer. The 
 offer may be verbal, by letter, or even tacit, as 
 ■when goods are sent vritliout an order, or contrary 
 to order, in which case, acquiescence is A. The A. 
 may be either tacit or express. The word is not a 
 technical one in the law of England, but the matter 
 to which it relates in that system wiU be found 
 under CoNTHAcar. 
 
 A'CCESSAKY or ACCESSORY. In the criminal 
 law of England, an A. is a person who is not the 
 chief actor in a felony, nor even present at its 
 perpetration, but who is in some way concerned, 
 either before or after the fact committed. An A. 
 before the fact is one • who procures or counsels 
 another to commit a crime, he himself being absent. 
 An A. after the fact is a person who, knowing a 
 felony to have been committed, receives, protectSj or 
 assists the felon. In sudden and unpremeditated 
 offences, there can be no accessaries before the fact ; 
 and in all crimes under the degree oifdony there are 
 no accessaries at all, either before or after the fact, 
 but all persons concerned therein are held to be 
 equally guilty as principals. 
 
 There are no accessaries in treason, but all are 
 principals, on account of the heinousness of the 
 crime. 
 
 In the Scotch law, ' art and part ' in the indict- 
 ment, or formal accusation, is the phrase by which 
 accession to a crime is signified ; and it appKes to 
 all offences against the criminal law, there being, 
 according to the practice of the Scotch courts, no 
 distinction in this respect between felonies, properly 
 so called, and misdemeanours. 
 
 ACCESSORY ACTIONS, in the practice of the 
 Scotch law, are those which are, in some degree, 
 subservient or ancfllary to other actions. Eor 
 example, actions for reviving a cause, or prosecuting 
 it against the heir of a deceased defendant, or for 
 restoring lost deeds or other documents, are of the 
 nature of A. A. 
 
 ACCESSORY OBLIGATION is a technical 
 term in the Scotch law signifying an obligation 
 annexed to another obligation which is antecedent 
 or primary. Thus, an obligation for the regular pay- 
 ment of interest, or by way of further security, is an 
 A. 0. 
 
 ACCE'SSION. In the law both of England and 
 Scotland, property may be acquired by A., and this 
 A. may be either natural or artificial. The young 
 of cattle and other animals, for example, belong to 
 the person who is the owner of the mother, and the 
 fruits and produce of the earth to the proprietor of 
 the soil ; and for the same reason, the gradual addi- 
 tion to lands on the bank of a river belongs to the 
 proprietor of the land receiving the addition. These 
 are instances of natural A. Property, again, is said 
 to be acquired by artificial A. when it is the result 
 of human • industry ; thus trees planted, or build- 
 ings erected, on the ground of another, belong to 
 the owner of the ground itself, and not to the 
 planter or builder ; and so with regard to the con- 
 version of wood or metal, which, in whatever form, 
 remain the property of the original owner. 
 
 ACCESSION TO THE THRONE signifies the 
 commencement of the sovereign's reign. 
 
 ACCESSION, Deed of. In the practice of Scotch 
 conveyancing, this is a deed by wiich the creditors 
 of a bankrupt or insolvent debtor approve of a 
 trust-settlement executed by the debtor for the 
 general behoof, and consent to the arrangement pro- 
 posed. The corresponding deed in English practice 
 26 
 
 is a^ deed of trust for creditors, or, under the Bank- 
 rupt Law Consolidation Act, 12 and 13 Vict. c. 106, 
 a deed of arrangement for creditors. 
 
 ACCIDENTAL COLOURS. See Light. 
 
 A'CCIDENTS, in Mua., occasional sharps, flats, 
 and naturals placed before notes in the course of a 
 piece. 
 
 ACCIDENTS, in Log., are opposed to Essentials, 
 or td Substance. An Accident is a property of an 
 object which may be modified, or even be altogether 
 abstracted, without the object ceasing to be essen- 
 tially what it is. But many of the distinctions 
 made by the older philosophers between accidental 
 and essential are fallacious. 
 
 ACCI'PITRES (plural of the Lat. acdpiter, a 
 hawk), the name given by Liimceus to an order of 
 Birds, including, according to his system, thegenera 
 Vultur (Vultures), Falco (Eagles, Falcons, Hawks, 
 
 Head and Foot of Golden Eagle. 
 
 &c.), Strix (Owls), and Lanius (Shrikes), and princi- 
 pally distinguished by a hooked biU, short strong 
 feet, and sharp hooked claws. The name has not 
 generally been adopted by subsequent ornithologists, 
 but the order, as a truly natural one, has been 
 retained under the names Rapaces, Baptores, &c. ; 
 the Shrikes, however, being generally excluded 
 from it. 
 
 ACCLI'MATISE, to accustom an animal or plant 
 to a climate not natural to it. The process, of course, 
 varies widely, according to the amount of difference 
 between the old and the new climate. In cases where 
 the difference is extreme, important changes take 
 place in the constitution, and are often attended 
 with certain diseases described as ' diseases of accli- 
 matisation.' Thus, Europeans settling in tropical 
 parts, are liable to disease of the Hver, while natives 
 of tropical lands, when resident in England, are 
 exposed to pulmonary disease. The power of bearing 
 changes of climate, or the capability of acclimatisa- 
 tion, is remarkable in mankind, but especially in the 
 Anglo-German race, now so widely spread over the 
 globe. Among animals, we find great powers of 
 adaptation to various cumates in the horse, dog, cat, 
 rat, &c. ; and among plants, in the various cereals, 
 in potatoes, and several weeds common to almost all 
 climates. Intelligence, of course, assists the physical 
 power of man in bearing changes of climate; but 
 there seems to be a limit to the power, at least 
 as seen in the individual. To A. beyond a 
 certain point is the work of some few generations. 
 — The Acclimatising of domestic aniimds is one of 
 the most important triumphs of human enterprise. 
 Almost all the domestic animals now commonly 
 spread over Europe, and even in high northern 
 latitudes, were originally natives of warm climates. 
 The change produced by the acclimatising of animals 
 may be either an improvement or a deterioration ; 
 of the latter, we have an instance in the Shetland 
 pony; of the former, we see an example in the 
 
ACCOLADE— Acetic acid. 
 
 merino sheep of Spain. As an instance of want of 
 the faculty of being acclimatised, the reindeer may 
 serve. Removed from the mosses and lichens of the 
 cold north to the fertile valleys of a tempenate clime, 
 the reindeer degenerates and dies. On the other hand, 
 the horse, whose native land is the East, arrives at 
 its highest development in England ; and the Syrian 
 sheep, brought northwards as far as Spain, becomes 
 remarkable for its fine fleece, Spain, on tiie whole, 
 has a climate much warmer than that of Silesia and 
 Pomerania ; and yet the merino sheep, bred in these 
 countries, have become superior to liieir ancestors 
 imported from Spain. This is a proof that art may 
 do very much in modifying the influences of climate. 
 SUk-wonns, brought from China first into Italy, 
 have been acclimatised not only in the south of 
 France, but even on the coast of the Baltic. 
 Kecently, attempts have been made to A. in France 
 the Uama, the vicugna, and the alpaca of Peru, 
 and with some success in the last instance, as 
 alpacas have been found to thrive pretty well in the 
 Pyrenees. — Acclimaiising of Plants. It has been 
 very generally believed tbat plants may become 
 gradually inured to a climate so diSerent from that 
 to which they have been accustomed, that if they 
 had been at once transferred to it, they would have 
 perished; and that their adaptation to it becomes 
 more perfect when successive generations are raised 
 by seed. On the other hand, it is maintained by 
 some of the most distinguished botanists of the 
 present time, that each species of plant has certain 
 limits of temperature, within which it wiU succeed, 
 and that alleged instances of acclimatising have 
 been merely instances of plants formerly supposed 
 to be more deUcate than they reaUy were. But as it 
 is certain that different varieties of the same species 
 are often more and less hardy, it would seem that in 
 the production of new varieties by seed, there is still 
 a prospect of the acclimatising, to a certain extent, 
 of species of which the existing varieties are too 
 delicate to grow well ia the open air. 
 
 ACCOLA'DE, the term applied to the ceremony 
 with which a knight was admitted into the order 
 of chivalry. The grand-master, in receiving the 
 neophyte, embraced mm by folding the arms round 
 the neck (ad coUwm). — In music, the A is the couplet 
 uniting several staves, as in part-music or pianoforte- 
 music. ~ 
 
 ACeCMPAKIMENT, in Music, is the assisting 
 or aiding of a solo part by other parts, which may 
 consist of a whole orchestra, or a single instrument, 
 or even subservient vocal parts. It serves to elevate 
 and beautify the solo part, and is subject to certain 
 rules for composition as well as for performance. 
 It must be subservient, and therefore should not 
 predominate, but merely assist to place the solo 
 part in its brightest Bght. In this poiat of view, 
 modem composers have often erred by making the 
 A. too full, and causing it to stand out so mde- 
 pendent and engrossing, that the solo part is often, 
 as it were, entirely lost. This abuse takes place 
 mostly in vocal music ; and not only is the eflect 
 destroyed, but the vocal organ of the singer is 
 frequently^ mined. Were it not too true that this 
 bad practice has become the fashion, it would be 
 difficult to beheve that a composer would lend him- 
 self to it. In proper A., after faithfuUy fulfilling its 
 duty to the solo part, there always remains oppor- 
 tunity enough for display ia the ritomells and 
 symphonies. The Italians in their best period were 
 celebrated for the simplicity and efiectiveness of their 
 A. Now, they have entirely lost this claim. In A., 
 the composer must keep three principal points in view 
 — namely, harmony, rhytlunioal figure, and suitable 
 choice of instrumentation, in respect to number and 
 
 character of tone ; but all must be subservient to 
 the ruhng character of the solo part. Eight or 
 proper harmony ia, or should be, easily found 
 by every experienced composer. It is, as it were, 
 bom at the same time with the melody, and only 
 requii-es to be here and there adjusted with care. 
 When this is not the case, there arises a double 
 character, which interrupts and totally destroys 
 the melody. The figure of the A. should be chosen 
 so as to be conformable to the solo part, having 
 to express what the solo part cannot be expected 
 to do, and may also, by a succession of secondary 
 ideas, render clear and certain the individuality 
 of the principal solo part, such as the blustering 
 of the poltroon, the daring of the courageous, or 
 the ■ fear of the timid. The necessity of a judicious 
 choice of instrumentation for the proper support of 
 the solo part is evident. The A. should, above aU 
 things, by its certainty'and firmness, prevent waver- 
 ing. Good A. is as creditable as solo plajrbg ; and 
 aU qualified orchestras view it as of great import- 
 ance. — The word also means the art of playing 
 harmony from a figured bass ; this, though more in 
 iise formerly, is stifl a necessary study for the A. of 
 recitative. See Figxjeed Bass. ' 
 
 ACCO'E.DIOH', a simple musical instrument, but 
 little better than a toy, which produces its tones by 
 the vibration of metallic tongues of various sizes, 
 while wind is supphed by the action of bellows. 
 The concertina and the harmonium are superior 
 instruments, constructed on the same principle — the 
 action of a gust of air on metallic tongues. 
 
 ACCtTM, Fredebick, a native of Westphalia, 
 came to London in 1803. He is known in this 
 country chiefly on account of his work, A Practical 
 Treatise on Oas-ligM, which had the effect of intro- 
 ducing that method of illumination into London and 
 all the large towns of England. It was translated 
 into several languages, and became very popular. 
 Subsequently, he wrote a book upon practical 
 chemistry, which was well received, and is still 
 held in considerable estimation. Ultimately, he 
 quitted England, and went to Berhn, where he 
 obtained employment. 
 
 ACCUSATIVE CASE. See Deolbhsion. 
 
 ACE'PHALA. See MoiiusCA. 
 
 A'CEE, and ACEEACE^. See Maple. 
 
 ACE'TIC ACID, the sour principle in vinegar, is 
 the most common of the vegetable acids. If alcohol, 
 diluted with water, be mixed with a ferment, such 
 as yeast, and exposed to the air at, or a little above, 
 its ordinary temperature, it is rapidly converted into 
 vinegar or A. A. The change is accompanied by 
 the absorption of oxygen, 2 atoms of which combine 
 with as many of hydrogen to form water, whilst 
 other 2 take the place of the hydrogen which has 
 become water, so that A. A. is produced from 
 alcohol by the substitution of 2 atoms of oxygen for 
 2 of hy(£:oaen. Thus alcohol is C4Hs0j. If we 
 take from this 2 atoms of hydrogen, and add 2 of 
 oxygen, it becomes C^H^Oj. But from the mode 
 in which A. A. acts when it combines with 
 bases, it is certain that one of the equivalents of 
 hydrogen and one of oxygen are united as water, so 
 that tiie formula of A. A. is C^HjO, -I- HO. A 
 striking experiment may be made illustrating the 
 mode itt which alcohol is converted into A. A If 
 slightly diluted alcohol be dropped upon platinum- 
 hlach, the oxygen condensed in that substance acts 
 with great energy on the spirit, and A. A. is evolved 
 in vapour. Here the whole office of the platinum _is 
 to determine the oxygen of the air, and the hydrogen 
 of the alcohol to unite. In the commercial processes 
 
 27 
 
ACHAiA— ACHILL.^. 
 
 for manufacturing vinegar, some vegetable substance 
 containing nitrogen (one of the albuminous prin- 
 ciples) takes the place of the platinum-black, and 
 determines the same change. A. A. is not known in 
 the anhydrous form. In its most concentrated state 
 it contaias an equivalent of 'water, C4H3O3 -I- HO. 
 When it combines with metallic oxides, they take 
 the place of the water; acetate of soda, for example, 
 consisting of anhydrous soda and anhydrous A. A., 
 NaOjC^HjOj. The salts of A. A., called A'oetates, 
 are numerous and important in the arts. The most 
 important is acetate or sugar of lead. See Lead. 
 Por the commercial processes of manufaotoring A. 
 A., see VnfEGAB. 
 
 ACHA'IA, a small district in the north of the 
 Peloponnesus, was divided into twelve little states ; 
 and was bounded E. by the Saronic Gulf; N. and 
 W, by the Bay of Corinth^ and S. by Arcadia 
 and Mis. The land, rising gradually from the 
 coast to the hills of the interior, was famed, 
 in ancient times, for fertility in the produce of 
 oil, wine, and fruits. When the Romans divided 
 the whole of Greece into Macedonia and A., the 
 latter included all Greece excepting Thessaly. In 
 the modem kingdom of Greece, A. forms, along 
 with EUs, a name or department, in the extreme 
 north-west of the Morea, and its chief town is 
 Patras (q. v.). Excepting the west coast, the land 
 is fertile, and produces corn, wine, and oil.^The 
 ancient Achseans were, in a great measure, separ- 
 ated from the other people of Greece. Their twelve 
 little towns, of which .^gium was the chief, 
 formed a confederacy which was dissolved in the 
 Macedonian times; but was renewed in 280 B.C., 
 and subsequently extended itself, under the name of 
 the Acluean League, throughout Greece, xmtil 146 
 B.C., when Grecian liberty fell under the power of 
 Home. 
 
 ACHAKD, Feakz Kabl, a meritorious naturalist 
 and chemist, bom April 28, 1754, in Berlin, chiefly 
 distinguished himself by his improvements in the 
 process of preparing sugar from beet-root. In these 
 labours he was supported by the king of Prussia. 
 The results of his experiments were acknowledged 
 as partly successful in 1799 and 1800 ; but were 
 not carried into extensive application imtil the 
 king gave to A. a farm in Lower Lusatia, where he 
 founded a model manufactory of beet-root sugar. 
 Here, after six years of experiments, conducted 
 with the p,id of Neubeok, a medical man, A. found 
 out the true method of extracting beet-sugar; and 
 in 1812, when the factory had become a very pro- 
 fitable investment, the kuig annexed to it a school 
 for teaching the process of manufacture. A. was 
 called to Berlin as director of the physical class in 
 the Academy of Sciences, and died April 20, 1821. 
 He v?rote, among other similar essays, one on the 
 European Manvfacture of Sugar from Beet (Leip. 
 1809). 
 
 ACHELO'US, now called ASPKOPOTAMO (i. e., 
 White Piver, from the cream-colour of its waters), 
 the largest river in Greece, rises in Moimt Pindus, 
 flows through the land of the Dolopians, divides 
 ^toha from Acamania, and falls into the Ionian 
 Sea. The extensive alluvial deposits at the mouth 
 of this river have been observed from ancient times. 
 It is said that the banks of the A. were anciently 
 the haimt of lions. 
 
 ACHE'liTIUM, ACHCENIUM, or AKBNIUM, a 
 term now very frequently employed by botanists, to 
 designate a dry, hard, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, 
 in which the integuments of the seed are closely 
 applied to it, biit distinct from it. Such are what 
 are popiilarly called the seeds of borage, and other 
 plants of the same natural order. They were termed 
 
 nuts by Linnaeus. Sometimes the achenia are aggre- 
 gated upon a common receptacle, forming what is 
 called an etaerio, as in the ranunculus, in \rfuch they 
 are placed upon a dry receptacle, or in the straw- 
 ' berry, in which the receptacle is fleshy. Sometimes 
 the aggregated achenia are enclosed within the fleshy 
 tube of the calyx, as in the rose. The fruit of the 
 Compositce is also sometimes called an A. ; but a 
 difierent appellation (cypsela) has been given to it, 
 because the tube of the calyx coheres with the 
 fruit, the name A. being limited to superior 
 fruits. 
 
 A'CHERON', the name given to several rivers by 
 the ancients, always with reference to some peculi- 
 arity, such as black or bitter waters; or mephitlc 
 gases. The A. in Thesprotia, which flows through 
 the lake Acherusia, and pours itself into the Ionian 
 Sea; another river of the same name in Elis, 
 now called Sacuto ; and several streams in Egypt, 
 were supposed to have some commimication with 
 the infernal world. According to Pausanias, Homer 
 borrowed from the river in Thesprotia the name of 
 his infernal A., which the later poets siurounded 
 vrith many imaginary horrors. Other lakes besides 
 that above mentioned, bore the name of Acherusia ; 
 e. g., the lake near Hermione in Argolis. 
 
 A'-CHBVA'L POSITIOIir. When troops are 
 arranged so that a river or highway passes 
 through the centre and forms a perpendicular to 
 the front, they are said to be drawn up in A. P. 
 Wellington's army at Waterloo was d-c/t,eval on the 
 road from Charleroi to Brussels. In cases where a 
 river forms the perpendicular to the front, secure 
 possession of a bridge is necessary ; otherwise one- 
 half of the troops might be routed, while the 
 remainder stood idly as spectators. 
 
 A'CHILL, or ' Eagle ' Isle, off the west coast 
 of Ireland, is reckoned within the county of Mayo. 
 It is 15i nules long by 124 miles broad, and has a 
 very irregular coast-line, though its general shape 
 is almost that of a right-angled triangle. It has a 
 wild and desolate appearance ; most of the surface 
 is boggy; of the 35,000 acres which the island 
 contains, not haK a thousand are cultivated. There' 
 are three villages in A., and a number of hovels 
 or huts scattered over its barren moors, sometimes 
 in small clusters, forming hamlets, but so wretched 
 as hardly to be fit for beasts. A. rises towards 
 the north and west coast, where the mountains 
 attain an elevation of 2000 feet. One of them, 
 composed, like the rest of the island, wholly of 
 mica-slate, presents, towards the sea, a sheer preci- 
 pice from its peak to its base, a height of 2208 feet. 
 There is a mission-station in the island, which forms 
 an exception to the general wretchedness of the 
 houses. It possesses, amongst other agencies of 
 civilisation, a printing-press. The population is 
 decreasing, from emigration and other causes : in 
 1841, it amounted to 5000 ; in 1851, to 4000. 
 
 ACHILL^'A, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Compositce (q. v.), having small flowers (heads 
 of flowers) disposed in corymbs, and the receptacle 
 covered with chaffy scales (small bractese). The 
 florets of the ray are female, and have a short, 
 roundish tongue or Hp ; the florets of the disk are 
 hermaphrodite, the tube of the coroUa flatly com- 
 pressed and two-winged; the involucre is imbricated. 
 —The common Tared w or Milfoil (A. millefolium) 
 aboimds in aU parts of Europe and in some parts of 
 North America— into which, however, it has perhaps 
 been carried from Europe— growing in meadows, 
 pastures, &c. It is about a foot in height : its leaves 
 bipinnate, the pinnse deeply divided, the segments 
 narrow and crowded. It has white or rose-coloured 
 flowers. The leaves have a bitterish aromatic. 
 
ACHILLES— ACHROMATIC. 
 
 somewliat austere taste, and little smell ; the flowers 
 have a strong aromatic smell, with an aromatic bitter 
 taste, and contain an eaaential oil, a resin, bitter 
 exti-aotive, gum, several salts, and traces of sulphur. 
 Both leaves and flowers are used in medicine as a 
 powerful stimulant and tonic. The leaves were 
 formerly much used for healing wounds, and are 
 still so employed by the common people in the 
 Highlands of Scotland and in some psurts of the 
 continent. The expressed juice is a popular spring 
 mediciae in Germany. Yarrow is often sown along 
 with grasses intended to foi-m pei-manent pasture 
 for sheep ; and A. moschata, sometimes called Musk 
 Milfoil, is cultivated as food for cattle in Switzer- 
 land. A. inosdiata, A. atrata, and A. nana — all 
 natives of the Alps — are very aromatic, and bear 
 the name of Gknipi or Genipp. The inhabitants 
 of the Alps value them very highly, and use them 
 for making what is called Svnss Tea. They are 
 very stimulating and tonic ; as are also A. setacea 
 and A. ncMlis, both natives of Switzerland and other 
 middle parts of Em'ope, and A. ageratum, a native 
 of the south of Europe, used by the French as a 
 vulnerary, and called Herhe au Gharpentier. — 
 Snbezewokt (A. Ptarmica) is a native of Britain and 
 other parts of Europe, 1 — 3 feet high, with lanceolate 
 leaves, and much larger flowers than the common 
 Milfoil. It grows in meadows and damp places. 
 The root, which is aromatic, is used as a substitute 
 for Pellitm-y of Spain (q. v.), and the whole plant 
 is pungent and provokes a flow of saHva. 
 
 AOHI'LLES, the hero of Homer's Iliad, was the 
 son of King Peleus and Thetis, a sea-goddess, belong- 
 ing to a line descended from Jove. Of his life 
 before the Trojan war, and of his death after the 
 fall of Troy, the poets after Homer first profess to 
 give accounts, we are told that he was dipped in 
 the river Styx by his mother, and was thus made 
 invulnerable, except in the heel, by which he was 
 held diuing the process ; hence ' the heel of A.' 
 became a proverbial phrase to denote any vulnerable 
 point in a man's character. It had been prophesied 
 at his birth that his life would be short ; and, there- 
 fore, when the seer Galchas announced that without 
 A. Troy could not be taken, his mother, to keep 
 him from the dangers of the expedition, concealed 
 him at the court of King Lycomedes, among whose 
 daughters the boy lived disguised as a gin. But 
 Ulysses discovered him by a stratagem. He offered 
 to the young ladies a number of articles, some of 
 feminine attire and others of arms ; and the young 
 warrior was betrayed by his choice. A., in the Greek 
 campaign against Troy, appeared with fifty vessels 
 manned by his followers, the Myrmidons ; but 
 remained sullen and inactive during a great part of 
 the contest. When the city of Lymessus was taken, 
 he had seized and carried away the beautiful Briseis. 
 A pestilence in the Greek camp being ascribed to 
 the anger of Apollo, whose priest had been robbed 
 of his daughter, Chrysei's, by Agamemnon ; Aga- 
 memnon was compelled by the army to send Chrysei's 
 back to her father. On this, he took away Briseis 
 from A., which greatly offended the latter. With 
 this incident, the Iliad begins. Neither the splendid 
 offers made by Agamemnon, nor the disasters of the 
 Greeks, could afterwards move A. to take any part 
 in the contest, until his friend Patroolus was slain by 
 Hector. The hero then buckled on his armour, which 
 had been made for him by Vulcan, and of which the 
 shield is described at great length by Homer. The 
 fortunes of the field were now suddenly changed in 
 favour of the Greeks ; and the vengeance of A. was 
 not satiated until he had slain a great number of 
 the Trojan heroes, and lastly. Hector, whose body 
 he fastened to his chariot, and dragged into the 
 Grecian camp. He then buried his friend Patroclus I 
 
 with great funereal honours. King Priam, the father 
 
 of Hector, came by night to the tent of A., and 
 
 prayed that the body of his 
 
 son might be given back to 
 
 the IVojaiis. A. consented; 
 
 and with the burial of Hector 
 
 the Iliad closes. We are 
 
 told, that soon after the fall 
 
 of Hector, A. made a contract 
 
 of marriage with Polyxena, 
 
 the daughter of the Trojan 
 
 king, but was slain by her 
 
 broSier Paris, in the tiemple of 
 
 ApoUo', where the marriage 
 
 should have been celebrated. 
 
 According to other accounts, 
 
 he was slain by Apollo, who 
 
 assumed the likeness of Paris 
 
 as a disguise. His ashes were 
 
 placed in an urn, with those of 
 
 his friend Patroclus, and were 
 
 buried on the promontory of 
 
 Sigeum, where, after the fall 
 
 of Troy, the princess Polyxena, 
 
 who had been made a prisoner, 
 
 was offered as a propitiatory 
 
 sacrifice. 
 
 Achilles, from an 
 ancient statue. 
 
 ACHILLES' TENDON ( Tendo Addllis), attaches 
 the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles of the calf of 
 the leg to the heel-bone. It is capable of resisting 
 a force equal to a 1000 lbs. weight : and yet is fre- 
 quently ruptured by the contraction of these muscles 
 in sudden extension of the foot. The name was given 
 with reference to the death of the Grecian hero 
 Achilles by a wound in the heel. Ancient surgeons 
 regarded wounds or serious bruises of the A. T. as 
 fatal. 
 
 ACHIME'NES, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Gesneracece (q. v.), much cultivated in stoves 
 and greenhouses for the beauty of their flowers. 
 The species are numerous — ^natives of the warm 
 parts of America. 
 
 AOHEOMA'TIC (without colour), the name 
 applied to lenses and telescopes through which objects 
 are seen without false colours, or, in other words, free 
 from that colom-ed fringe which, in the old teles- 
 copes, surrounded the object, and diminished its dis- 
 tinctness. The white, or rather colourless ray of 
 light is composed of several coloured rays which 
 have various degrees of refrangibOity. See Reteac- 
 TioN, Light, CoLotrR. When the direct ray is 
 refracted, it divides itself into coloured rays, dent- 
 ing in various degrees from the right line of the 
 primitive ray. The rays thus refracted by the con- 
 vex object-glass do not meet exactly in one point, 
 the focus of the glass, but rather at several points, 
 so as to produce the various colours, red, blue, and 
 yellow, which surround the object. Newton, misled 
 by imperfect experiments, beheved it impossible to 
 find any remedy for this defect ; but Euler, in 
 1747, expressed his conviction that the desired A. 
 improvement was practicable, and this belief was 
 confirmed by the researches of the Swedish mathe- 
 matician Klingenstiema. The practical solution of 
 the difficulty was reserved for John DoUond; 
 though, when he obtained a patent for his A. teles- 
 cope, a priority of invention was claimed for a 
 gentleman of the name of Hall. DoUond succeeded 
 in forming an A. object-glass by a combination 
 of crown-glass and flint-glass, which follow one 
 law as to their .relative refractive powers, and' 
 another as to their powers of dispersing the colours. 
 By uniting a convex lens of crown-glass with a con- 
 cave one of flint-glass, in certain relative dimensions, 
 a reunion of the coloured rays may be effected, and 
 
 29 
 
ACI EEALE— ACONITE. 
 
 the object ■will be seen without false colours. 
 In the construction of A. telescopes, Dollond 
 ■was foUo^wed by his son Peter, and also by the 
 optician Eamsden. A further improvement ■was 
 made by Fraunhofer of Munich, ■who succeeded in 
 producing perfectly pure glass— a very difficult 
 achievement in the case of iliut-glass. We o^we 
 an important improvement of the A. telescope 
 to the Viennese optician Plossl, ■who has lately 
 invented ■what he calls the dialytio telescope, in 
 ■which the several kinds of glass composing the 
 compound object-glass are not placed close together, 
 but at regulated distances apart. This arrangemen^t 
 allo^ws a shortening of the tube. 
 
 . A'CI EEA'LE, a town of Sicily, ia the district of 
 Catania. It lies at the foot of Mount Etna, on the 
 coast, where the small river Aci, flo^wing from Etna, 
 enters the sea. The to^wn is bmlt of lava, is defended 
 by a fortress, and contains 19,000 inhabitants, who 
 are employed chiefly in the manufacture of hnen 
 and silk ; it also carries on a not inconsiderable 
 trade in flax and grain. Many of the edifices 
 are very handsome. A. E. is famed for its mineral 
 waters, and for the cave of Polyphemus and the 
 grotto of Galatea in its ■vicinity. 
 
 A'CIDS. An acid is a chemical compound dis- 
 tinguished by the property of combining with bases 
 in definite proportions to form salts (q.v.). The most 
 striking characteristics of A. are a sour taste, and 
 the property of reddening vegetable blues. They 
 are also mostly oxidised bodies ; and at one time 
 oxygen was thought to be essential to an acid, as the 
 name oxygen (the acid-producer) indicates. Subse- 
 quent experience has extended the definition. There 
 is an important class of undoubted A. that con- 
 tain no oxygen ; and sUex, or flint, which, being 
 insoluble, neither tastes sour nor reddens litm^us- 
 paper, is held to be an acid because it combines ■with 
 bases and forms compounds like acknowledged 
 A. The oxygen A., which are by far the most 
 numerous class, are formed of elements (sulphur, 
 nitrogen, chromium, &c.), ■with two or more equiva- 
 lents of oxygen. The elements that form the 
 strongest A. ■with oxygen are the nou-metaUic, and 
 most of them have more than one stage of acid 
 oxidation. Thus sulphm-, ■with two equivalents of 
 oxygen, forms sulphurous acid, symbol SO^ ; ■with 
 three equivalents it forms sulphuric acid, symbol 
 SO3. Similarly, arsenic gives rise to arsenious acid 
 (ASO3) and arsenic acid (AsOj). The higher stage 
 of oxidation forms the stronger and more stalSe 
 acid. All metals, except arsenic, that form A. ■with 
 oxygen, have also, at a lower stage of oxida.tiou, 
 one or more oxides. To these oxygen A. must be 
 added the organic A., composed either of carbon 
 and oxygen, as oxalic acid (C^Og), or of these two 
 along -with hydrogen, as acetic acid (C^HjOj) and 
 formic acid (CjHOs). There are also A. found in 
 animal fluids or resulting from their decomposition 
 which contain nitrogen in addition to the three 
 elements above named ; such is uric acid (CmNjHjOj). 
 The hydrogen A. are formed of hydrogen and a 
 radical, either simple or compound. The most im- 
 portan^t of these, and the type of its class, is hydro- 
 chloric or muriatic acid (CIH) ; others are hydriodic 
 (IH) and hydrocyanic A. (NC^H). As all A., how- 
 ever, even oxygen A., possess acid properties — i. e., 
 combine with bases — only when in combination 
 ■with water, a new view of the constitution of A. 
 is beginning to prevail, which makes hydrogen the 
 real acidifying element in all A. Thus, instead 
 of considering ■vitriol as a compound of sulphuric 
 acid and water (S03+H0),the hydrated acid is held 
 to be the real siilphmic acid, and its rational formula 
 to be (SO.H). It thus becomes analogous,to hydro- 
 30 
 
 chloric acid (CIH). This view has not only the 
 advantage of bringing aU A. into one class, but 
 makes tbe theory of their combination ■with bases 
 and of their capacity of saturation uniform and 
 simple. See Salts. 
 
 ACKERMANN, Rudolph, a native of Saxony in 
 Germany (b. 1764 — d. 1834), came to London, where 
 he opened a repository of the fine arts in the Strand, 
 which succeeded well. He introduced the art of 
 lithography into England, and was the originator of 
 the 'Annuals' (q.v.), which he commenced by his jfor- 
 get-me-not, published in 1823 and foUo^wing years. 
 Among his numerous illustrated publications may be 
 mentioned his Repository of Arts, Literature, and 
 Fashions; Microcosm of London; Westminster Abbey ; 
 and Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Enghah 
 wood-engra^ving, the art of water-proofing, and the 
 introduction of gas'-hght into shops, were greatly 
 promoted by this enterprising German. His kind- 
 ness to the poor relatives whom he had left in 
 Saxony ought not to be left unmentioned. 
 
 A'COLYTES, a name occurring first about the 
 3d c, and applied to functionaries who assisted 
 the bishops and priests in the performance of reli- 
 gious rites, lighting the candles, presenting the 
 ■wine and water at the communion, &c. They 
 were considered as in holy orders, and ranked 
 next to sub-deacons. These services have, since the 
 7th c, been performed by laymen and boys, who 
 are improperly called A. ; but in the Eomish 
 Church, aspirants to the priesthood are stiU at one 
 stage consecrated as A., receiving candles and 
 cups as the symbols of the office. 
 
 A'CONITE {Aconitum), a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Banunculacece (q. v.), ha^ving five 
 petaloid sepals, of which the upper one is helmet- 
 shaped, and two hammer-headed petals concealed 
 ■within the helmet-shaped sepal. The fruit consists 
 of 3 — 5 follicles. A. Napelliis, the common Wolf's- 
 BAJTE or Monk's-hood, often cultivated in flower- 
 gardens for the sake of its erect racemes of blue 
 
 Monk's-hood (Aconitum Napellxis) : 
 a, fruit ; 6, root. 
 
 flowers, is a somewhat doubtful native of England, 
 but common in some parts of Europe. The roots are 
 fusiform and clustered. The root and whole plant 
 are very poisonous, containing an alkaloid, called 
 Acomta, or Aconitine, one of the most virulent of 
 all known poisons ; but an extract of the leaves 
 is a valuable medicine, administered in small doses 
 for nervous and other diseases. An A., sometimes 
 called A. StoercManum, but generally regarded as a 
 
ACOto-SHELL— ACOUSTICS. 
 
 variety of A. Gammarum (also known aa A. pani- 
 eulaiiim), was brought into great repute on the 
 continent during last century by Dr Stoerck, an 
 Austrian imperial physician, and is still much 
 cultivated for medicinal use. The same properties 
 seem in greater or less degree to belong to a 
 number, if not to all, of the species of this genus, 
 and they contain the same alkaloid. The virulent 
 bikh poison of India, equally fatal in its effects 
 ■whether introduced into ■wounds or taken into the 
 stomach, is prepared from the roots of several 
 species. The A. ferox of Nepaul, from ■which 
 much of it is obtained, has been identified by 
 Drs Hooker and Thomson ■with A. Napellus. Two 
 other Himalayan species, A. paZmatum and A. luri- 
 dum, are equally employed in its preparation. A. 
 album, or white-flowered monk's-hood, a native of 
 the Levant, and A. lycoctonum, yellow-flowered 
 monk's-hood, or ■wolf's-bane, a native of the Alps, 
 are not unfrequent in our flower-gardens. 
 
 ACOEN-SHELL. See Balaots. 
 
 A'CORTJS, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Aroidece (see Arum), or, according to o^ther botanists, 
 of the natural order OrotUiacece, which is regarded 
 as a connecting-link between Aroidece and Juncece. 
 The plants of this genus have a leaf-like scape, 
 which bears upon its side a dense, cylindrical, 
 greenish spike of flowers, ■with 6-partite herbaceous 
 perianth and six stamina in each flower. To this 
 genus belongs the Swdbt Tlao {A. cdlamus), which 
 was long ago brought from Asia; and in the 15th 
 c. was planted in the gardens of princes and 
 rich men, but has now become naturalised in 
 England, Germany, &c., gro^wdng in marshes and 
 ditches. Its root (rhizome) is perennial, divided into 
 long joints about the 'thickness of the thumb, has a 
 bitterish acrid taste, and is very aromatic. It is a 
 powerful medicine of transient tonic effect, occasion- 
 ally used, especially in cases of weak digestion. In 
 many places of the continent it is to be found in 
 every confectioner's, cut into slices, and prepared ■with 
 sugar. It is also used to correct tte empyreumatic 
 odour of spirits, and to give them a peculiar flavour. 
 It is called Calamus Root. In Britain it is chiefly 
 employed by perfumers in the manufacture of 
 hair-powder. — The other species of A. are like-wise 
 aromatic, and are applied to the same uses. A. 
 gramineus is cultivated ia China. 
 
 ACOSTA, Gabbeel, a Portuguese nobleman, 
 descended from a Jewish family, bom at Oporto in 
 1587. After being educated in the doctrines of the 
 Boman Catholic Church, he became sceptical, and 
 leaving Portugal, went to Amsterdam, where he 
 adopted the Je^wish faith. He did not remaiu long 
 contented ■with his new creed; but ■wrote against 
 the Pentateuch, disputed the doctrine of the soul's 
 immortahty, and became involved in controversy 
 ■with his rabbinical teachers. On account of his 
 work, entitled Escamen de Tradifoens Phariseas con- 
 feridas con d, ley Escripta (Examination of Pharisaic 
 Traditions compared with the Scriptures), 1624, 
 he was charged ■with atheism by ■the Jews before a 
 Christian magistracy. Ha-ving lost his property, 
 and being sentenced to a seven years' excommuni- 
 cation, he sought reconciliation -with the synagogue, 
 and submitted to very ignominious chastisements, 
 which were repeatedly inflicted as often as his reh- 
 gious doubts arose again; until, in a state of insanity, 
 he ended his career by suicide iu 1640, or, as others 
 say, in 1647. His autobiography was published in 
 Latin and German (Leip. 1847)., 
 
 ACOTYLE'DON-OUS PLANTS [Acotyledones of 
 Jussieu), one of the great primary classes into which 
 the vegetable kingdom is di^vided, according to 
 tiie structure of the seed and whole development 
 
 there^with connected. See Cotyledon. The class of 
 Acotyledones contains those plants which, in the 
 Linnsean system, form the class Ceyptogamia (q. v.). 
 It consists partly of Acrogenous Plants (q. v.), as 
 Ferns and Mosses, and ]iartly of Thallogenaus Plants 
 (q. v.), aa Lichens, Pungi, and Algae. It thus includes 
 the vegetable tribes of lowest organisation, whose 
 embryo exhibits no distinct seed-lobes (cotyledons), 
 but is a mere cell or spore, ■with granular matter in 
 its interior, and germinates indifferently from any 
 point of its surface. 
 
 ACOTJ'STICS (6r. akouo, I hear) ia the science 
 of sound. This part of physics is often treated in 
 connection ■with the atmosphere — an arrangement 
 that seems inappropriate ; for the atmosphere is only 
 the most common conductor of sound; and every 
 substance, whether soKd or fluid, is capable, as 
 well as air, of sounding itself, or of conveying the 
 soimd of other bodies. A. is rather a part of 
 the science of motion. All motion is either recti- 
 lineal, circular, or vibratory ; and when a ■vibratory 
 motion is quick enough to affect the sense of hearing 
 — for which at least thirty vibrations in a second 
 are required — it constitutes a sound. A definable, 
 uniform sound is a note or tone, and the rapidity of 
 the •vibrations is its pitch ; a confused indeterminate 
 sound is a noise. 'The cliief subjects treated of in 
 A are: 1. Musical soimds, or Notes (q.v.). Here the 
 question is concerning the absolute and relative velo- 
 cities of the vibrations, and those modifications, called 
 temperament, to which their original proportions 
 are subjected for the practical purposes of music. 
 
 2. The origin of Sound (q. v.), and the laws which 
 guide the vibrations of soimding bodies, and which 
 give rise to different phenomena in different sub- 
 stances. In all sounding bodies, it is elasticity that 
 is to be looked upon as the mo^ving power. The elas- 
 ticity of a sounding body may arise from stretching, 
 as in the strings of a ■vioKn or the head of a drum ; 
 or from its own stiflhesa, as in rods, belts, &o. 
 
 3. The propagation of soimd, as well through the air 
 and other gases as through solids and liquids ; and 
 the reflection of sounds or echoes. All elastic bodies 
 conduct sound, many much more powerfully than 
 air. In water the conducting power is four ■times 
 stronger than it is in air ; in tin, seven times ; in 
 silver, nine times; in iron, ten times; in glass, 
 seventeen times. 4. Perception of sound, or the 
 structure and functions of the Ear (q.v.). 
 
 The ancients had made attempts to cultivate 
 A. Pythagoras and Aristotle were aware of the 
 way that' sound is propagated through the air, 
 but as a science independent of its application to 
 music, it belongs almost en^tirely to modem tunes. 
 Bacon and Galileo laid the foundation of this new 
 mathematical science; Newton shewed by calcula- 
 tion how the propagation of sound depends upon the 
 elasticity of the atmosphere or other conduotiag 
 medium. He observed that a sounding body acta by 
 condensing the portions of air that lie next it, and 
 in the direction of the impulse. These condensed 
 portions then spring back by their elasticity, and at 
 the same time impel forward the portions lying next 
 them. Each separate portion of air is thus driven 
 forwards and backwards ; and thus all roimd the 
 sounding body there ia an alternate condensation 
 and rarefaction of air, oonstitutiag, as it were, 
 waves of sound. In determining the velocity of 
 sound, Ne'wton, Lagrange, and Euler erred in their 
 calculations ; the best researches on this subject are 
 those of Laplace. Chladni first raised A. to an 
 independent science. In recent times, compar- 
 atively Kttle has been done in this branch of physios. 
 Savart has determined more exactly the number of 
 vibrations in a second necessary to produce an audible 
 sound; and Cagniard de Latour invented the syrene, 
 
 31 
 
ACQUI— AOEOGENOUS PLANTS. 
 
 and discovered many of the conditions under winch 
 both solids and fluids sound. The sounding of heated 
 metals, when laid on cold metallic supports, has 
 occasioned much discussion. See Edinb. Phil. 
 Journal. Faraday and Marx have examined the 
 figures of sound; Wheatstone, the phenomena of 
 sympathetic sounds; and Willis, the formation of 
 vowel-sounds by the human voice. 
 
 While the principles of A. are well known in 
 theory, they are seldom carried out to a satisfactory 
 result in practice. We aUude more particularly to 
 the many instances in which costly assembly halls 
 and churches are defective as regards pubho speaking ; 
 it being seemingly a mere chance that new edifices 
 of this kind ejdiibit proper acoustic qualities. In 
 some oases, the soimds uttered cause echoes and 
 reverberations, perplexing alike to a speaker and his 
 auditory, and in others the sounds are dispersed at a 
 high elevation and are lost. This subject urgently 
 demands consideration in connection with architec- 
 ture. As a general rule, the ceilings of halls should 
 be at a moderate elevation ; the lowering of a ceiling 
 and the removal of chandeliers, have been known to 
 improve the speaking and hearing properties ; and 
 the hangiag up of flags and draperies has, in a variety 
 of instances, had a similarly good eff'eot. The 
 whispering gallery of St Paul's, London (q. v.), off'ers 
 an interesting example of one of the phenomena in 
 A. See Echo. 
 
 A'CQTJI (Lat. AqusB StatieUaj), a walled town of 
 Piedmont, on the left bank of the Bormida, and 
 distant 18 miles from Alessandria. It derives its 
 name from its hot sulphur springs, which were 
 known to the Komans, and which are much fre- 
 quented by invahds from the north of Italy. The 
 town is of great antiquity, and contains many 
 remarkable buildings, especially of an ecclesiastical 
 character. It has some silk-factories, &c. Pop., 8000. 
 
 ACKB. The word is identical with Lat. ager, Gr. 
 agros, ' a field ; ' the Ger. acker means both ' a field ' 
 and a ' measure of land.' Most nations have some 
 measure nearly con-esponding ; originally, perhaps, 
 the quantity which one plough could plough in a 
 day ; imiformity, therefore, is not to be looked for. 
 
 The English statute A. consists of 4840 square 
 yards. The chaiii with which land is measured 
 is 22 yards long, and a square chain will contain 
 22 X 22, or 484 yards ; so that 10 square chains make 
 an acre. The acre is divided into 4 roods, u, rood 
 into 40 perches, and a perch contains 30^ square 
 yards. The Scotch A. is larger than the English, 
 and the Irish than the Scotch. 121 Ir. ac. = 196 
 Eng., nearly ; 48 Sc. ac. = 61 Eng. The following 
 table shews the values of the more important corre- 
 sponding measures compared with the Enghsh A. : 
 
 English acre . I'OO 
 
 Scotch » , . .... 1-27 
 
 Irish »,..... 1-62 
 
 Austria, Joch, 1'42 
 
 Baden, Morgen or Acre, 0'89 
 
 Belgium, Hectare (French) 2-47 
 
 Denmark, Toende, 5'5 
 
 l-rance -^j^^jpcnt (common) 0-99 
 
 Hamhurg, Morgen, 2'38 
 
 Hanovei', " , 0'G4 
 
 Holland, » 2-10 
 
 Naples, Moggia, 083 
 
 Poland, Morgen 1'38 
 
 Portugal, Geira, 1*43 
 
 Pm«rfa JI''*"^ Morgen 063 
 
 "°*™ 1 Great Morgen 1-40 
 
 Russia, Deciatina, 2-70 
 
 Sardinia, Giornate, 0*93 
 
 Saxony, Morgen 1*36 
 
 Spain, Fanegada 1*06 
 
 Sweden, Tunneland, ... . 1*13 
 
 Switzerland, Faux 1-62 
 
 • , Geneva, Arpent, . . . 1*27 
 
 Tuscany, Sacoata, 1'32 
 
 32 
 
 United States, English acre, 
 \Viirtemherg, Morgen, . 
 Roman Jugerum (ancient), 
 Greek Plethron (ancient). 
 
 1-00 
 2-40 
 0-6D 
 0-23 
 
 A'CEB, St Jeak d', the ancient AMco, known .as 
 Ptolemais in the middle ages, is a seaport town situ- 
 ated on the coast of Syria, not far from the base of 
 Mount Carmel, and contains 10 — 15,000 inhabitants. 
 The harbour is partly choked with sand, yet is one 
 of the best on this coast. A. has often been the 
 arena of warfare,, and has suffered many changes of 
 fortune. In 1004, it was taken by the Genoese ; in 
 1187, by the Siiltan Saladin ; afterwards, it became 
 the chief landing-place of the Crusaders, the seat of 
 a bishop and of the Order of St John ; next, it feU 
 into the hands of the Egyptians ; and in 1517 was 
 captured by the Turks ; in 1799, it was besieged by 
 the French for sixty-one days, but was successfully 
 defended by the garrison, aided by a body of English 
 sailors and mariues under Sidney Smith. In 1832, 
 it was stormed by Ibrahim Pacha, son of the viceroy 
 of Egypt, and continued in his possession till it was 
 bombarded and taken, in 1840, by a combined 
 Enghsh, Austrian, and Turkish fleet. See Egypt. 
 
 A'GBOBAT, a word derived from the Greek, and 
 nearly synonymous with rope-dancer. It literally 
 signifies one who walks on tip-toe (ahron, an ex- 
 tremity, and laino, I go) ; and is employed to 
 designate those who perform difiicult feats, vaulting, 
 shdmg, tumbling, and dancing on a slack or tight 
 rope, stretched either horizontally or obhquely. 
 These feats require great skiU, suppleness, and 
 steadiness. For a longtime, acrobats were contented 
 to divert and astonish only children or the most 
 ignorant of the populace ; but the extraordinary 
 skill of some recent performers has given this 
 perilous art a great celebrity. Within the present 
 century, Farioso, Madame Saqui, and Signer Diavolo 
 have excited the admiration of all Paris by their 
 marvellous agOity. The acrobats of antiquity 
 appear to have closely resembled those of om- 
 own day. 
 
 ACEO'GENOUS PLANTS (Gr., growing at the 
 siunmit) are plants in which the structure of the 
 stem is acrogenous — that is, in which the vascular 
 bundles are developed simultaneously, and not in 
 succession, the stem increasing by the coherence 
 
 Section of Acrogenous 
 stem. 
 
 of the bases of the leaves and by elongation at 
 the summit. In a transverse section of the stem, 
 a circle of vascular tissue is foimd near the cir- 
 cumference, and the centre is composed of cellular 
 tissue, some portion of which frequently disappears, 
 so that the stem, although solid when young 
 becomes hollow m a more advanced stage of its 
 growth. Tree-ferns afford the finest specimens of 
 the acrogenous stem. All A. P. have stomata, or 
 breathing-pores, on the surface. In general, they 
 have a distinct stem and leaves arranged with 
 
ACROLITHS— ACT. 
 
 most perfect symmetry. Some plants, in which the 
 distinct stem is absent, are ranlced mth A. P., 
 because the thallus lias the texture of leaves, 
 and exhibits a higher organisation than in Thallo- 
 genous Plants (q. v.). A. P. are aU Acotyledonous 
 (q. V.) ; and imder this designation are included 
 Ferns, EquisetaceoB, ~ Lycopodiacece, Marsileaceoe, 
 Mosses, and Hepaticce. 
 
 A'CROLITHS (Gr. acron, extremity ; Uihos, a 
 atone), ttie name given to the oldest works of 
 Greek plastic art, ia which wood-carving is seen in 
 transition into marble statuary. The trunk of the 
 figure is still, in the old style, of wood, covered with 
 the usual temple-vestments ; but the extremities — 
 head, arms, feet — which are meant to appear naked 
 from below the drapery, are of stone. 
 
 ACEO'POLIS, 'the highest point of the city.' 
 Many of the important cities of Greece and Asia 
 Minor were protected by strongholds, so named. 
 The A. occupied a lofty position, commanding the 
 city and its environs ; inaccessible on all sides 
 except one, which had, for the most part, artificial 
 defences. It oontaiaed some of the most important 
 
 Acropolis at Athens. 
 
 pubKc buildings, especially temples, besides afford- 
 ing a last refuge in case of a hostile attack. The 
 A., like the, castle of the middle ages, had formed 
 the centre or nucleus around which the town gradu- 
 ally grew. Among the most celebrated of the 
 ancient Acropolises was that of Argos, whose name, 
 Larissa, indicates its Pelasgic orimn ; that of 
 Messenia, which bore the name of Ithome ; that 
 of Thebes, called Cadmea ; that of Corinth, known 
 as Acro-Corinthus ; but especially that of Athens, 
 which was styled pre-eiiinently the A. See 
 Athens. 
 
 ACRO'STIC is a Greek term for a number of 
 verses the first letters of which follow some pre- 
 determined order, usually forming a word — most 
 conmionly a name — or a phrase or sentence. Some- 
 times the final letters spell words as well as the 
 initial, and the peculiarity will even run down the 
 middle of the poem like a seam. Sir John Davies 
 •composed twenty-four Symns to Astrea (Queen 
 Elizabeth),-ni every one of which the initial letters 
 of the Unes foim the words Elisabetha Regina. 
 The following is one of the twenty-four: 
 
 E v'ry ni^ht from ev'n to morn, 
 L ove'8 chorister amid tlie thorn 
 I s now so sweet a singer ; 
 S o sweet, as for her song 1 scorn 
 A polio's voice and finger 
 
 B ut, nightingale, sith you delight 
 E ver to watch the starry night, 
 T ell all the stars of heaven, 
 H eaven never had a star so bright 
 A B now to earth is given. 
 
 R oyal Astrea makes our day 
 E ternal with her beams, nor may 
 G ross darkness overcome her ; 
 I now perceive why some do write 
 N o country hath so short a night 
 A s England hath in summer. 
 
 In the A. poetry of the Hebrews, the initial letters 
 of the lines or of the stanzas were made to ran over 
 the letters of the alphabet in their order. Twelve of 
 the psalms of the Old Testament are written on this 
 plan. The 119th Psahn is the most remarkable. It is 
 composed of twenty-two divisions or stanzas (cor- 
 responding to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew 
 alphabet), each stanza consisting of eight couplets ; 
 and the first line of each couplet in the first stanza 
 begins, in the original Hebrew, with the letter aleph, 
 in the second stanza, with heth, &c. The divisions 
 of the psalm are named each after the letter that 
 begins the couplets, and these names have been 
 retained in the English translation. With a view to 
 aid the memory, it was customary at one time to 
 compose verses on sacred subjects after the fashion 
 of those Hebrew acrostics, the successive verses or 
 hues beginning with the letters of the alphabet in 
 their order. Such pieces were called Abecedarian- 
 Hymns. See HooJc's Church Didionary. 
 
 ACROTB'RION (Gr., the summit or extremity), a 
 term in Arch, for a statue or other ornament placed 
 on the apex or at one of the lower angles of a pedi- 
 ment. Some undeistand by A., the pedestal on 
 which such ornament stands. 
 
 ACT, iu the Drama, is a distiuct part of the 
 general plot or action, and its conoltision is usually 
 marked by a fall of the curtain. An act should 
 be, in a certain sense, complete in itself, and at 
 the same time should form a necessary part of the 
 whole drama. As every dramatic plot naturally 
 divides itself into three parts — the exposition, the 
 development, and the conclusion or catastrophe — a 
 division into three acts would seem most natural; 
 but in practice it has been found inconvenient to 
 enclose extended plots in such limits, and since the 
 time of the ancient Greek tragedy, five acts have 
 generally been considered necessary. In the first 
 act, the general nature of the drama, is indicated, the 
 characters are introduced, and the action commences. 
 The plot should rise in interest in the second, and 
 reach its climax in the third act. In the fourth act, 
 the conclusion or catastrophe should be prepared, 
 but should by no means be anticipated so as to 
 weaken the effect of the denoiwment, which must 
 occupy the fifth act. This is a rather difficult task ; 
 and, accordingly, many dramas fail in the fourth act. 
 
 ACT, in the University sense, is an exercise pre- 
 paratory to receiving a degree. The student who 
 ' keeps the Act,' and who is called the 'Respondent,' 
 reads a Latin thesis, on some proposition which he 
 has annoimced that he is to maintain. Three other 
 students, who have been named by the Proctor as 
 ' Opponents,' then try, one after another, to refute 
 his arguments syllogistically in Latin. The practice 
 of keeping Acts is still adhered to,, as a form at least, 
 at Cambridge. 
 
 ACT, in Law, has various meanings. In its 
 more general acceptation it is used to denote the 
 solemn accomplishment of some distinctive pro- 
 ceeding, as when a person in England, when execut- 
 ing a legal instrument, declares it to be his act and 
 deed. Formerly, in Scotland, the word A was fre- 
 quently applied to the procedure in a litigate^ 
 
ACT OF BANKEUPTOY— ACT OF PARLIAMENT. 
 
 cause ; and to this day the technical term to signify 
 a plaintiff in Scotch pleadine is Actor — Whence also 
 Acts of Sederunt (q.v.). By an A. is some- 
 times meant an act or proceeding, or rather the 
 record of an act or proceeding, of a public nature — 
 and in this sense it is used when we speak of 
 aa A. of Parliament (q.v.). This use of the 
 ■word appears to be derived from the Romans, who 
 employed Acta to signify specially public official 
 transactions, and oftener perhaps the records of such 
 transactions. The Ada iSiuma was a kind of official 
 Roman gazette, giving an account of the pubKc 
 transactions and events of the day. The Germans 
 use Acten, and the French Actes, to signify official or 
 legal documents, or papers generally. The title Adn 
 has been applied in modern times to the journals 
 or records of learned societies : Acta Societatis Regies 
 — the Transactions of the Eoyai Society. Ada 
 Mruditorvm, the oldest journal of erudition in 
 Germany, was begun at Leipsic in 1680, and ceased 
 pubUcatiou in 1782, when it had extended to 117 
 quarto volumes. To these may be added (shewing 
 tile close connection between the Roman and Scotch 
 legal institutions and their phraseology) the Acta 
 Auditoram, or the records of the proceedings of the 
 Lords Auditors, who were a committee of the old 
 Scotch Parliament appointed to hear causes, by way 
 of appeal, and otherwise to exercise supreme juris- 
 diction. Also the Acta Domirtonum Gcmcilii, or 
 ancient records of the supreme court in Scotland. 
 
 But the word A. has at the present day several 
 precise legal applications, the principal of which we 
 now proceed to mention and explain : 
 
 Act of Bamkruptoy, by which is meant a 
 certain ostensible indication of insolvency on the 
 part of a debtor, sufficient to bring him within the 
 operation of the bankrupt laws. Section 67 of the 
 existing Bankrupt Law Consohdation Act, 12 and 
 13 Vict. c. 106, defines Acts of B. in the follow- 
 ing terms : ' That if any trader, liable to become 
 bankrupt, shall depart this realm, or being out of 
 this realm, shall remain abroad, or shall depart from 
 his dwelling-house, or otherwise absent himself, 
 or begin to keep his house, or suffer himself to be 
 arrested or taken in execution for any debt not due, 
 or yield himself to prison, or suffer himself to be 
 outlawed, or procure himself to be arrested or taken 
 in execution, or his goods, money, or chattels to be 
 attached, sequestered, or taken in execution, or 
 make or cause to be made, either within this realm 
 or elsewhere, any fraudulent grant or conveyance of 
 any of his lands, tenements, goods, or chattels, or 
 make or cause to be made any fraudulent surrender 
 of any of his copyhold lands or tenements, or make 
 or cause to be made any fraudulent gift, delivery, or 
 transfer of any of his goods or chattels, every such 
 trader doing, suffering, procuring, executing, permit- 
 ting, making, or causing to be made any of the acts, 
 deeds, or matters aforesaid, with intent to defeat or 
 delay his creditors, shall be deemed to have thereby 
 committed an A. of B.' — The expression, A. ofB., is 
 unknown in the phraseology of the Scotch law; but 
 ia the definition of notour bankruptcy, and of mercan- 
 tile bankruptcy in the Scotch sequestration statutes, 
 there will be found an emmieration of the evidences 
 of insolvency analogous to the English Acts of B. 
 
 Act 01' God is a legal expression, and signifies 
 any natural or accidental occurrence, not caused 
 by hiunan negligence or intervention; such as the 
 consequences arising from storms, hghtning, tempests, 
 &c., and ■yirhioh are deemed fatalities and losses such 
 as no party under any circumstances (independently 
 of special contract) is boimd to make good to another. 
 It has been ruled in England that the loss must be 
 immediate, and the necessary consequence of the 
 accident. 
 34 
 
 Act of Grace is the name given to an old 
 Scotch act (1696, c. 32) for the, maintenance of poor 
 persons imprisoned for debt. It is usually appUed in 
 England to insolvent acts, and general pardons, at 
 the beginning of a new reign or on other great 
 occasions. 
 
 Act op iNiEMNiry is an annual act of parliament 
 passed for omissions in taking the oaths and- assur- 
 ances required by law of persons admitted to any 
 public office or employment. See Abjueation. 
 
 ACT OP PARLIAMENT is a resolution or law 
 passed by all the three branches of the legislature — 
 the King [or Queen], Lords, and Commons. The 
 expression is generally used to signify the record of 
 an A. of P., and such records are strictly synonymous 
 with the term ' statutes ' or ' statutes of the realm.' 
 An A. of P. thus made is the highest legal authority 
 acknowledged by the constitution. It binds every 
 subject in the land, and even the sovereign himself, 
 if named therein. And ia England it cannot be 
 altered, amended, dispensed with, suspended, or 
 repealed, but in the same forms and by the same 
 authority of parliament. In Scotland, however, a 
 long course of contrary usage or of disuse may have 
 the effect of depriving a statute of its obUgation, for, 
 by the Scotch law, a statute may become obsolete 
 by disuse, and cease to be legally binding. It was 
 formerly held in England that the king might in 
 many cases dispense with penal statutes ; but by the 
 statute 1 W. and M. st. 2, c. 2, it is declared that the 
 suspending or dispensing with laws by royal autho- 
 rity, without consent of parliament, is illegal. 
 
 An A. of P. or statute is either public or private. 
 A public act regards the whole community, but the - 
 operation of a private act is confined to particular 
 persons and private concerns, and some private acts 
 are local, as affecting certain places only. As the 
 law till lately stood, the courts of law were bound 
 ex officio to take judicial notice, as it is called, of 
 public acts, that is, to recognise these acts as known 
 and published law, without the necessity of their 
 being specially pleaded and proved; but it was 
 otherwise in regard to private acts ; so that in order 
 to claim any advantage under a private act, it was 
 necessary to plead it, and set it forth particularly. 
 But now, by the 13 and 14 Vict. c. 21, si. 7, every act 
 made after the then next session of parliament is 
 to be taken to be a pubUo one, and judicially noticed 
 as such, unless the contrary be expressly declared. 
 
 Acts of P. are also sometimes described as declara- 
 tory, or pencil, or remedial, according to the nature of 
 their object or provisions. Declaratory statutes are 
 where tiie old custom of the kingdom has almost 
 fallen into disuse, or become disputable, in which 
 case the parliament has thought proper (in perpeluum 
 rei testimoniwm, and for avoiding all doubts and 
 difficulties) to declare what the common law is anXi 
 ever has been. Penal acts are those which merely 
 impose penalties or punishments for an offence, as in 
 the case of the statutes relative to game. Remedial 
 acts are such as supply some defect in the existing 
 law, and redress some abuse or inconvenience with 
 which it is found to be attended, without introducing 
 any provision of a penal character. There is also 'a 
 distinction of Acts of P. as being either enlarging 
 or restraining, enahling or disabling acts. 
 
 An A. of P. begins to operate from the time when 
 it receives the royal assent, unless some other time 
 be fixed for the purpose by the act itself. The rule 
 on this subject, in England, was formerly different ; 
 for at common law, every A. of P., which had no 
 provision to the contrary, was considered, as soon as 
 it passed (L e., received the royal assent), as having 
 been in force, retrospectively, from the first day of 
 the session of parliament in which it passed, though, 
 in fact, it might not have received the royal assent. 
 
ACTS OF SEDERUNT— ACT OF TOLERATION. 
 
 or eTeu been introduced into parKament, until long 
 after that day ; and this strange principle was rigidly 
 observed for centuries. The ancient acts of the 
 Scotch parliament were proclaimed in ali the county 
 towns, burghs, and even in the baron courts. Thi 
 mode of promulgation was, however, gradually 
 dropped as the use of printing became common ; 
 and m 1581, an act was passed declaring publication 
 at the Market Cross of Edinburgh to be sufficient. 
 British statutes require no formal promulgation; 
 and in order to fix the time from which they shall 
 become binding, it was enacted by the 33 Geo. III. 
 e. 13, that every A. of P. to be passed after 8th 
 April 1793 shall commence from the date of the 
 endorsement by the clerk of parKament, stating the 
 day, month, and year when the act was passed and 
 received the royal assent, unless the commencement 
 shall, in the act itself, be otherwise provided for. 
 
 An A. of P. consists of various parts — such as the 
 title, the preamble, the enacting sections and clauses, 
 and sometimes certain forms or schedules added by 
 way of appendix — and it is referred to by the year 
 of the sovereign's reign, and the chapter of the 
 statutes for that year. The old acts of the Scotch 
 parliament, before, the union with England, are 
 cited by the year in which they were passed, and 
 the order of the mmiber or chapter. See Statutes, 
 Scotch Statutes, and Bill nsr Pamiambht. 
 
 ACTS OF SBDB'RUNT are ordinances of the 
 Court of Session or supreme civil court in Scotland, 
 made originally under authority of the Scotch Act 
 1540, c. 93, whereby the judges are empowered to 
 make such rules or ordinances as may be necessary 
 for the regulation of legal procedure and the ejmedit- 
 ing of justice. The power thus conferredT was 
 exceeded, and it became necessary to ratify several 
 of the A. of S. in the Scotch Parliament. In so far, 
 however, as A. of S. are confined to declarations of 
 the purposes of the court to decide in a particular 
 way, on an occurrence of similar circumstances, they 
 seem to amount to little more than authoritative 
 announcements of the iutention of the court to adhere 
 judicially to certain precedents ; and for upwards of 
 a centuiy and a half, they have been almost exclu- 
 sively confined to the regulation of judicial procedure, 
 and to matters therewith connected. In several 
 recent statutes, express power is given to the Court 
 of Session to pass A. of S., for carrying the purpose 
 of the legislature into more complete effect ; and it 
 is usually provided that the A. of S. made in 
 virtue of such power shall be laid before parliament 
 within a limited time. The old quorum of nine 
 judges is requisite in passing an Act of S., 48 
 Geo. III. 0. 151, s. 11. 
 
 ACT OF SETTLEMENT, a name given to the 
 statute 12 and 13 WiU. nL c. 2, by which the 
 crown was limited to the family of her present 
 Majesty, Queen Victoria, It was towards iie end 
 of King WiUiam III.'s reign, when all hopes of other 
 issue £ed with the Duke of Gloucester, that, as 
 we are told by Blackstone, the king and parlia- 
 ment thought it necessary again to exert 'their 
 power of limiting and appointing the succession, 
 in order to prevent another vacancy of the throne, 
 which must have ensued upon their deaths, as no 
 further provision was made at the Revolution than 
 for the issue of Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and Kiug 
 WiUiam. The parliament had previously, by the 
 statute of 1 W. and M. st. 2, o. 2, enacted, that every 
 person who should be reconciled to, or hold com- 
 munion with, the see of Rome, should profess the 
 Roman CathoKc religion, or should marry a Roman 
 Catholic, should be excluded from succession to, and 
 be for ever incapable to inherit, possess, or eujoy 
 the crown ; and that in such case the people should 
 
 be absolved from their allegiance, and the crown 
 should descend to such persons, beiug Protestants, 
 as would have inherited the same, as if the person 
 so reconciled, holding communion, professing or 
 marrying, were naturally dead. To act, therefore, 
 consistently with themselves, and, at the same tiine, 
 pay as much regard to the old hereditary line as their 
 former resolutions would admit, they turned their 
 eyes on the Princess Sophia, Electress and Duchess- 
 dowager of Hanover ; for upon the impending extinc- 
 tion of the Protestant posterity of Charles I., the old 
 law of regal descent directed them to recur to the 
 descendants of James I. ; and the Princess Sophia, 
 being the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of 
 Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., was 
 the nearest of the ancient blood-royal who was 
 not incapacitated by professing the Roman CathoUc 
 reUgion. On her, therefore, and the heirs of her 
 body, being Protestants, the remainder of the 
 crown expectant on the death of King William and 
 Queen Anne without issue, was settled by statute 
 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 2. And at the same time 
 it was enacted, that whosoever should thereafter 
 come to the possession of the crown, should join in 
 the commumon of the Church of England as by 
 law established. , 
 
 This is the last limitation of the crown that has 
 been made by parliament; and the several actual 
 limitations, from the time of Henry IV. to the 
 present, clearly prove the power of the king and 
 parliament to re-model or alter the succession. It is 
 even made highly penal to dispute such power, for 
 by the statute 6 Anne, o. 7, it is enacted, that if 
 any person maliciously, advisedly, and directly, shall 
 maintain, by writing or printing, that the kings of 
 this realm, with the authority of parliament, are 
 not able to make laws to bind the crown and the 
 descent thereof, he shall be guilty of high treason ; 
 or if he maintains the same by only preaching or 
 advised speaking, he shall incur the penalties of 
 prcemunire. 
 
 The Princess Sophia dying before Queen Anne, 
 the inheritance, thus limited, descended on her 
 son and heir. King George I. ; and having, on the 
 death of the queen, taken effect in his person, from 
 him it descended to King George II. ; from hinn to 
 his grandson and heir. King George III. ; from liiTti 
 to his son, George IV., who was succeeded by his 
 brother, WiUiam IV. ; and from the monarch last 
 mentioned the crown descended to his heiress, the 
 daughter of his brother Edward, Duke of Kent, our 
 present gracious sovereign. Queen Victoria. 
 
 ' Hence,' Blackstone remarks, ' it is easy to colleot 
 that the titie to the crown is at present hereditary, 
 though not quite so absolutely hereditary as for- 
 merly; and the common stock or ancestor from 
 whom the descent must be derived, is also different. 
 Formerly, the common stock was King Egbert, 
 afterwards WiUiam the Conijueror, and now it is 
 Princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vested' 
 by the new king and parliament. Formerly, the 
 descent was absolute, and the crown went to the 
 next heir without any restriction; but now, upon 
 the new settlement, the inheritance is conditional ; 
 being limited to such heirs only of the body of the 
 Princess Sophia as are Protestants, members of the 
 Church of England, and are married to none but 
 Protestants.' 
 
 ACT OF TOLERATION is the name commonly 
 given to the act of parliament 1 William and Mary, 
 statute 1, c. 18, confirmed by 10 Anne, c. 2, by 
 which aU persons dissenting from the Church of 
 England (except Roman Catholics and persons deny- 
 ing the Trinity) were relieved from such <rf the acts 
 against nonconformists as prevented their assem- 
 bSng for rehgious worship according to their own 
 
 85 
 
ACT OF XmiFOEMITY— ACTINIA. 
 
 forms, or otlierwise restrained their religious liberty, 
 on condition of their taking the oaths of allegiance 
 and supremacy, and subscribing a declaration against 
 trauBubstantiation ; and in the case of dissenting 
 ministers, subscribing also to certain of the Thirty- 
 nine Articles. The clause of this act which excepted 
 persons denying the Trinity from the benefits of its 
 enactments, was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160. 
 
 The Protestant dissenters, however, stfll remained, 
 notwithstanding these provisions, subject to the 
 obligation imposed by the Test and Corporation 
 Acts (q. V.) on all those who were admitted to 
 any office, of taking the sacrament of the Lord's 
 Supper accordiag to the rites of the Church of Eng- 
 land ; but this disability was at length removed' by 
 the 9 Geo. IV. c. 17. And to this list of conces- 
 sions we are now to add the act of 15 and 16 Vict. 
 c. 36, allowing the dissenters to certify their places 
 of worship to, and register them with, the Eegistrar- 
 general of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, instead of 
 the Archbishop, Bishop, or Court of Quarter-sessions. 
 
 These various Acts of T. operated, however, to 
 the exclusive benefit of Protestant dissenters, and 
 afforded no relief to Roman Catholics. With respect 
 to the latter, the progress of emancipation was 
 slower and more reluctant. By statutes, however, 
 of 18 Geo. III. c. 60, 31 Geo. III. c. 32, and 43 Geo: 
 III. 0. 30, most of the severer penalties and disabili- 
 ties to which they were formerly subject, were 
 removed ; and by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, commonly called 
 the CathoHc Emancipation Act, Roman Catholics 
 were restored in general to the full enjoyments of all 
 civil rights, being only excluded from holding ecclesi- 
 astical offices, and certain high appointments in the 
 state. By another act of the 2 and 3 WiU. IV. c. 
 115, it was provided that Roman Catholics should be 
 subject in this particular to the same laws as were 
 applicable to Protestant dissenters ; the effect of 
 which provision is to empower them to acquire and 
 hold property for such purposes. And now, by the 
 acts of 7 and 8 Vict. c. 102, 9 and 10 Vict. c. 59, and 
 21 and 22 Vict. c. 48, Roman CathoUcs and Jews 
 are relieved from all enactments calculated to 
 oppress them, and are thus practically admitted to 
 all the privileges of the constitution. 
 
 In Scotland, toleration in religious matters is 
 secured by various old Scotch statutes passed before 
 the Union with England, particularly by the act 
 1690, c. 27 ; and this was followed up after the 
 Union by the British statute 10 Anne, c. 7, s. 5, which 
 declares that ' it shall be free and lawful for all the 
 subjects in that part of Great Britain called Scotland 
 to assemble and meet together for divine service 
 without any disturbance ; and to settle their con- 
 gregations in what forms or places they shall think 
 fit to choose, except parish churches ; ' an enactment 
 which amounts to a legal recognition of dissenters, 
 if, indeed, it may not be called their charter in 
 Scotland. 
 
 ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which 
 the statute 13 and 14 Car. c. 4, is usually described. 
 By that statute it was enacted, that the Book of 
 Common Prayer, as then recently revised, should be 
 used in every parish church and other place of pubHc 
 worship in England, and that every schoolmaster and 
 person instructing youth should subscribe a declara- 
 tion of conformity to the Liturgy, and also to the 
 effect of the oath and declaration mentioned in the 
 act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that 
 no person should thenceforth be capable of holding 
 any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, or of conse- 
 crating or administering the sacrament, till he should 
 be or&ined priest according to episcopal ordination, 
 and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed 
 any ecclesiastical benefice, it directed that they 
 should, within a certain period, openly read morning 
 
 36 
 
 and evening service, according to the Book of 
 Common Prayer, and declare before the congregation 
 their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all 
 things therein contained, upon pain of being ipso 
 facto deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this 
 statute, two thousand of the clergy, who refused to 
 comply with its provisions, were deprived of their 
 preferments. This statute also contained a regula- 
 tion that no schoolmaster in a private house shoiild 
 instruct youth without having obtained a licence 
 from the Ordinary; but this regulation was repealed 
 by 9 and 10 Vict. c. 59. 
 
 ACTS, Test and Cokpoeation. See Test and 
 CoBPOBATioN Acts. 
 
 ACTA SANCTO'RUM or MA'RTYRUM (Acts 
 of Saints and Martyrs), the collective title given to 
 several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, 
 in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but 
 now applied especially to one extensive collection, 
 begun by the Jesuits in the 17th c, and intended 
 to serve as a better arrangepient of the materials 
 found in ancient works. This great undertaking, 
 which was commenced by the Jesuit, Heribert 
 Rosweyd Of Antwerp, has considerable importance, 
 not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point of 
 view, but also wim regard to history and archee- 
 ology. After Rosweyd's death, in 1629, J. BoUand 
 was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue 
 the work ; and with the assistance of G. Henschen, 
 he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1643. 
 After the death of this editor (1665), the work was 
 earned on by a society of learned Jesuits, who were 
 styled ' BoUandists,' until 1794, when its further 
 progress was prevented through the invasion of 
 Holland by the French. In recent times, the 
 undertaking has been resumed ; and in 1846 the 
 fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Three 
 or four additional volmnes have appeared since. 
 The hves are arranged in the order of the calendar. 
 The first two volumes, published in 1643, contained 
 the lives of the saints for January. The volumes 
 last published are for October. For notices of other 
 collections of the same kind, see the articles Saint 
 and Mabtye. 
 
 ACT.ai'A, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Banunmlacece (q. v.), the type of the sub-order 
 Actaeoe, distinguished by the coloured imbricated 
 calyx and indehiscent succulent fruit. The genus 
 Actaea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a 
 single baccate carpel. — A. spicata, the Baneberry or 
 Herb Christopher, is a native of the north of Europe, 
 found in bushy places in some parts of England. It 
 is a perennial herbaceous plant, about 1 — 2 feet 
 high, with tritemate leaves, and the leaflets deeply 
 cut and serrated, the flowers in racemes, the berries 
 black and poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, 
 expectorant, and astringent, and is sometimes useful 
 in catarrh. Botrophis actaeoides {Actaea racemosa of 
 Linnseus) is a, native of the United States, whose 
 roots are said to possess similar qualities, and 
 are also reputed as a remedy for the bite of the 
 rattlesnake. 
 
 ACT.:E'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of 
 Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter by Chiron. 
 Haying once surprised Diana while bathing in a 
 fountain, he was changed by the offended goddess 
 into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, 
 tore him in pieces. According to Euripides, Diana 
 was jealous because Actseon had boasted that he 
 excelled her in hunting. 
 
 ACTI'NIA, a genus of marine animals closely 
 allied to the Hydraform Polypi, but of much greater 
 size, and always living separately, very gmeraily 
 affixed by the base to rocks or shells. The old 
 genus Actinia has been subdivided into a number 
 
ACTION— ACTON. 
 
 of genera, and is now the type of a family, Actiniad(B. 
 They consist of a fleshy sao with one orifice, around 
 which are numerous tentaoula, and when these are 
 expanded, much resemble flowers, and have there- 
 fore been called Animal Mowers and Sea Anemones. 
 They are found on all shores ; those of Britain 
 
 Actinia seen from above. Section of Actinia : 
 
 o, cavity of stomach ; 6, sur-* 
 rounding chambers. 
 
 possess a number of very beautiful species, but they 
 are most abundant, and attain their greatest size 
 and beauty in tropical seas. They are capable of 
 moving by alternate contractions and expansions of 
 the fleshy base, and can also make use of their 
 tentaoula for locomotion. The tentacula appear to 
 act as suckers in capturing prey, which they promptly 
 convey to the mouth, and which consists of small 
 fishes, moUusks, Crustacea, &o. They produce living 
 young, the germs of which are formed in ovarian 
 chanibers, divided by radiating vertical partitions in 
 the fieshy substance around the stomach cavity, and 
 which pass into the stomach cavity, and are ejected 
 from the mouth ; but simple gemmules, furnished 
 with cilia, are also discharged through the tenta- 
 cula. The Aotiniadee possess a remarkable power of 
 reproducing parts which have been cut away, and 
 may be multiplied by division. They are very sensi- 
 tive to Kght. In many parts of the world they are 
 eaten, and are esteemed a delicacy. A small A. was 
 kept by Sir John G. Dalyell for twenty-six years, 
 ana lived for some years afterwards. 
 
 ACTINISM. See Light. 
 
 ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a 
 judicial proceeding before a competent tribunal for 
 the attainment of justice ; and in this sense it is 
 applied to procedure, whether criminal or ciml. In 
 Its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify 
 proceedings in the dml com^;s, where it means the 
 form prescribed by law for the recovery of a right, 
 or what is one's due. And it is in this sense that it 
 is regarded by the Homan law, which defines an 
 action as jiis persequendi in jvdicio quod sitn debeiur. 
 In the law of England, the term A. is usually 
 applied to proceedings in the courts of common law, 
 as distinguished from those of equity, where the 
 . word suit is commonly used to denote litigation. 
 Thus, in the courts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, 
 and Exchequer, we speak of an A.-at-law ; whereas 
 in the courts of Chancery, the forensic controversy 
 is described as a suit iu equity. 
 
 In the Scotch law, which recognises no distinction 
 in legal administration between law and equity, the 
 word A. is defined comprehensively as a demand 
 regularly made and insisted on before the judge 
 competent for the recovery of a right. Accord- 
 iiigly> while in Scotland there is, as in England, 
 a remedy for every wrong, the law recognises 
 and gives effect to the right of a party to claim 
 and to have declared a particular interest or right, 
 even although that interest or right may not be 
 ndthheld, or called in question. It is sufficient that 
 it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is 
 necessary for the position and purposes of the 
 plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the 
 
 active party. This procedure is known by the name 
 of an jI. of declarator, which has been described as a 
 suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in 
 favour of the plaintiff but nothing sought to be 
 paid, performed, or done by the defendant. Lord 
 Stair, in his Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says 
 ' such actions may be pursued for instructing or 
 clearing any kind of right relating to liberty, 
 dominion, or obligation;' and he furflier observes, 
 'there is no right but is capable of declarator.' 
 Various attempts have been made to introduce this 
 mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in 
 England, but as yet without success. The idea of 
 the declarator has been said to have been derived by 
 the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, 
 according to whose forms the existing administration 
 of the Scotch law was origiDaJly moulded. In the 
 Institutes of Justinian there are, however, indications 
 of the partial use of this form of A. by the Roman 
 lawyers. 
 
 We may add that the word A. is derived from 
 the Latin actio (agere), and that the plaintiff in a 
 suit or action was originally said to be the actor, 
 which, indeed, in the recorded pleadings of the 
 Scotch courts, his coimsel or advocate stUl is called. 
 
 A'CTIUM (now Aiao), a town and promontory on 
 the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the 
 Ambraciot Bay, now the GuH of Arta, is memorable 
 for the sea-fight which took place near it, 2d Sep- 
 tember, 31 B. 0., between Octavianus (afterwards 
 the Emperor Augustus) and Marcus Antonius. These 
 two had for some time ruled the Koman world 
 between them — the former in the west, the latter in 
 the east; it now came to a struggle for the sole 
 sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on 
 the opposite shores of the gulf : Octavian had 80,000 
 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; 
 Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 
 ships. Antony's ships were large, and well provided 
 with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy iu 
 their movements ; Octavian's were smaller and 
 more agUe. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, 
 Queen of Egypt, with sixty vessels, who induced 
 him, against llie opinion of his most experienced 
 generals, to determine upon a naval engagement. 
 The battle continued for some hours undecided ; at 
 last, Agrippa, who commanded Octavian's fleet, suc- 
 ceeded, by a skilful manoeuvre, in compelling Antony 
 to extend his line of battle, whose compactness had 
 hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break 
 through. Cleopatra, whose ships w^re stationed 
 behind Antony's line, apprehensive of that line 
 being broken, took to flight with her auxiliary fleet, 
 and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of 
 his ships. The deserted fleet continued to resist 
 bravely for some time, but was finally vanquished ; 
 the land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for 
 Antonyms return, surrendered to Octavian. As a 
 memorial of the victory that had given bim the 
 empire of the world, and out of gratitude to the 
 gods, Octavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at 
 A., dedicated the trophies he had taken, and insti- 
 tuted games to be celebrated every five years. He 
 also built, on the spot where his ariny had been 
 encamped, the splendid city of Nicopolis (city of 
 victory), where Prevesa now stands. 
 
 ACTON, Joseph, Prince, prime-minister of 
 Ferdinand IV. of Naples, was the son of an Irish 
 physician, and was born at Besanjon in 1737. After 
 acquiring distinction in the naval service of France 
 and Tuscany, he gained a position in the Neapolitan 
 government, and became the favourite of Queen 
 Caroline. His measures, prompted by his extreme 
 hatred of France, were cruel and intolerant, and 
 ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family 
 
 37 
 
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES— ADAM AND EVE. 
 
 of Naples, and in favour of the iPrenoli party and the 
 Carbonari. When left unaided by English influence, 
 A, lost the power he had so often abused, and died 
 in 1808, deservedly oontenmed by all parties. 
 
 ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth book of 
 the New Testament, the authorship of which is 
 ascribed by tradition, and with the highest proba- 
 bility, to the Evangelist Lube. Beginning with the 
 asoensidu of Christ, it gives an account of the spread 
 of the Christian Church ; confined, however, ■chiefly 
 to the part taken therein by the Apostle Paul. 
 Notwithstanding its title, little is said of the other 
 apostles, with the exception of Peter. The narrative 
 closes with the year 62 a.d., Paul being then a 
 prisoner at Rome. The book has always been 
 , received as canonical, except by a few Manichsean 
 heretics. In the early centuries, niunerous spurious 
 Acts or the Apostles were put in circulation by 
 various sects. 
 
 A'CTTTAKY. The Actuarii, in ancient Eome, 
 were clerks who recorded the Acta of the senate 
 and other public bodies. The term might therefore, 
 so far as its etymology is concerned, be applied to 
 men of business in general. But in the constantly 
 increasing tendency to subdivide labour and speci- 
 alise functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a 
 distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary 
 questions that involve a consideration of the separate 
 or combined efifect of Interest and ProbabiHty, 
 especially as connected with the duration of human 
 life ; and it is to one who devotes himself to this 
 department of business that the name of A. has been 
 specially assigned. The investigations and calcula- 
 tions of the A. supply the principles of operation for 
 the numerous institutions now engaged in the trans- 
 action of Life-assurance, Annuity, and Reversionary 
 business. His functions might be briefly defined as 
 the application of t?ie doctrine of probaMlities to the 
 affairs of life. There are two Societies of Actuaries 
 in this country : ' The Institute of Actuaries of Great 
 Britain and Ireland,' established in London in 1848 ; 
 and the ' Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland,' estab- 
 lished in Edinburgh in 1856. 
 
 ACU'LETJS, in Botany. See Peiobxe. 
 
 AOUPXJ'NCTUBB (Lat., puncturing or pricking 
 with a needle [acus]), is a very ancient remedy, 
 and one practised extensively in the East, for 
 the cure of headaches, lethargies, &c. In Europe 
 it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic 
 pains, and those of chronic rheumatism. Steel 
 needles are made use of, about three inches long, 
 and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotatory 
 movement, passes one or more to the desired depth 
 in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few 
 minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied 
 by no pain, except the first prick — a fact the 
 quacks of the 16th o. did noti fail to take advan- 
 tage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they travelled 
 from place to place practising A., and before insert- 
 ing the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind 
 of magnet, either beheving, or pretending, that this 
 made the operation painless. The relief to pain 
 afibrded by this simple operation is sometimes 
 astonishing, and the wounds are so minute as to be 
 perfectly harmless. — The needles are sometimes used 
 as conductors of the galvanic current to deep-seated 
 parts, and are sometimes made hollow — on the 
 suggestion of Dr Alexander Wood of Edinburgh — 
 to^ow of a small quantity of some sedative solution 
 being injected into the tissues, by which even the 
 terrible pain of Tic Douloureux may be almost 
 immediately relieved. 
 
 ADA'GIO, a slow movement or measure of time 
 in Music, between largo, grave, and andante. In 
 our more extended Compositions of instnunental or 
 
 chamber music, the second or third movement is 
 generally marked adagio, amd serves as a contrast 
 with the rapid and energetic movement of the 
 preceding and following parts of the sonata or 
 symphony. The A. must be written in a measure 
 of time which wiU afibrd scope for a flowing and 
 expressive slow melody with a gracefully varied 
 accompaniment. .Without contrasted movement 
 and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow 
 air would have a monotonous or dull effect. A clear 
 and expressive execution of the A. is a sure test 
 of ability and good taste in the player or singer, as 
 it demands a pure and beautiful intonation, a true 
 reading and phrasing of the cantUeua, even in its 
 most minute details, and a careful attention to all 
 points of effect. The finest specimens of the A. 
 are found in the works of the old masters, Haydn, 
 Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their 
 futures as were the composers in their personal 
 characteristics. In recent works, our composers 
 have generally succeeded better in their rapid 
 movements than in the A. 
 
 ADA'L and ADB'L. The name Adal is applied 
 by geographers to the flat country lying between 
 Abyssinia and the Red Sea, from Massowa in N. lat. 
 15° 40', to the Bay of Tajurra, lat. 11° 30'. Adel 
 would seem to designate the coast-country from, 
 Tajurra to Cape Guardafui, part of which is known as 
 the country of the SomauU. 
 
 ADA'LIA, a seaport of Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey, 
 on the gulf of the same name, in N. lat. 36° 52' ; B. 
 long. 30° 45'. The streets rise Hke the seats of a 
 theatre, up the slope of the hill behind the harbour. 
 Pop. 8000. 
 
 ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation 
 and fall of A. and E. is given in Genesis. To the 
 Scriptural aocoimt, the later Jewish writers in the 
 Talmud have made many tasteless additions. They 
 tell us that the stature of A, when first created, 
 reached to the heavens, while the splendour of his 
 countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very 
 angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures 
 hastened to worship him. Then the Lord, in order 
 to shew the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall 
 on A., and removed a portion of every limb. A. 
 thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and 
 complete. His first wife was Ldlifh, the mother of 
 demons ; but she fled from him, and afterwards E. 
 was created for him. At the marriage of A, and E., 
 angels were present, some playing on musical instru- 
 ments, others serving up delicious viands; while the 
 sun, moon, and stars danced together. The happi- 
 ness of the human pair excited envy among ttie 
 angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted them, and 
 succeeded in leading them to their fall from umo- 
 cence. — ^According to the Koran, all the angels paid 
 homage to A, excepting Eblis, who, on account of 
 his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify 
 his revenge, EbUs seduced A. and E., and they 
 were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived in 
 a tent on the site of the temple of Mecca, where 
 he was instructed in the divine commandments 
 by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of 
 separation, he again found E. on Mount Arafat. 
 Many other traditions of the Jews and the Moham- 
 medans respecting A. and E. may be found in Her- 
 belot's Bihliothique Orimtale.— In the system of 
 the Christian Gnostics and Manichsans, A. is one 
 of the highest .^ons.— According to the Calvinistio 
 theology, A. was the covenant Itead or federal 
 representaiive of the whole human race, who were 
 thus involved in the consequences of his breach 
 of the Covenant (q. v.) which God made with him 
 at his creation. This view is supported by reference 
 to the parallel drawn between A. and Christ in Bom. i 
 
ADAM— ADAM'S PEAK. 
 
 V. smd 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which chapters 
 Christ is called, ia contradistiaction to A., 'the 
 second man,' and ' the last A.' 
 
 ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer, 
 whose work entitled Gesta Hammeribwrgeims Ecde- 
 sim Pontijkum, gives a history of the archbishopric 
 of Hamburg from 788 A. D. to the death of the 
 Archbishop Adalbert in 1072. This work has great 
 historical value ; in addition to its notices of eccle- 
 siastical affairs, it gives accounts of the northern 
 Slavonic tribes, which the author collected during a 
 visit to the Danish king Sveud-Estrithson. A. was 
 canon and magister scholarum at Bremen from 1067 
 to the time of his death, which took place in 1076. 
 
 ADAM, AxEXAKDBB, LL.D., an eminent scholar 
 and teacher, was bom in the parish of Kafford, near 
 Forres, in 1741. His father was a small farmer,' 
 with limited means and a numerous family, so that 
 yoimg Adam had to struggle through much hardship 
 in the pursuit of the learning for which he tbirstei 
 While studying at the University of Edinburgh, he 
 had to support nimself by giving private lessons, for 
 which he was paid at the rate of one guinea a 
 quarter. He breakfasted and supped on porridge 
 and smaU-beer ; a penny loaf served bim for dinner. 
 Such was the stern initiation — not, Ladeed, a siogular 
 case in Scotland — of the brave young scholar. TTia 
 patient merits, however, soon gained ^recognition. 
 A's first public office was that of classical master 
 in Watson's Hospital, Edinburgh; and not long after 
 (1761), he succeeded to the liead-mastership of the 
 institution. In 1768 he was appointed rector of the 
 High School ; and this situation he filled for nearly 
 forty years with distinguished abihty and success, 
 giving himself to its duties with singular devotion, 
 and raising the reputation of the school beyond 
 what it had ever been before. In some of his 
 efforts to that end he encountered such opposition 
 as now seems almost fabulous. He composed a 
 new Latin grammar (1772), in whidi he aimed at 
 combining l£e study of English and Latin ; but the 
 town-council prohibited hSn from teaching it. In 
 1791 he published his Soman Antiquities, the work 
 which did most to promote his reputation, and 
 which, though now generally superseded by more 
 accurate and comprehensive dictionaries, was for 
 many years the best manual of the kind in exist- 
 ence. His Summary of Geography and JSistory 
 appeared in 1794, his Glasdcal Biography in 1800, 
 and his Latin Dictionary — an abridgment of a 
 larger work unfinished at his death— in 1805. On 
 the 18th of December 1809, Dr A. died of a fit 
 of apoplexy, the effect of intense study, by which 
 he had been seized in his class-room five days 
 before. 'Amidst the wanderings of mind that 
 accompanied it,' says the writer of the biography 
 in the EncydopcBdia Britannica — ^who afterwards 
 filled his chair — ' he was constantly reverting to 
 the business of the class, and addressing his boys; 
 and in the last hour of his life, as he fancied 
 himself examining on the lesson of the day, he 
 stopped short and said : " But it grows dark ; you 
 may go," and almost immediately expired.' 
 
 ADAM, E.OEBRT, a distinguished architect, was 
 bom at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, WiUiam 
 Adam of Maryburgh, in Fifeshire, was also an 
 architect of no mean repute. After receiving a 
 university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 
 to Italy, and thence to Dahnatia, where he devoted 
 some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French 
 architect, to exploring and making drawings of the 
 ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. On his 
 return to Britain he rapidly rose to distinction, was 
 appointed architect to the king, and obtained exten- 
 sive employment. The publication, in 1764, of the 
 
 results of his labours at Spalatro, contributed to his 
 reputation. In opposition to the heavy style of 
 architecture prevalent at the time, A. introduced 
 a taste for lightness and decoration, which, however, 
 tended to the opposite extreme of weakness and 
 triviality. Those, however, who form the lowest 
 estimate of the general character of his designs, 
 grant him the merit of having effected great reforms 
 in British domestic architecture generaUy. In 1768 
 A. was elected M.P. for the county of Kinross. 
 During upwards of twenty-five years, his practice,' 
 in partnership with his brother James, was more 
 extensive than that of any other arcluteot of the 
 time._ In 1773, the brothers commenced to publish 
 a series of engravings of their chief designs, which 
 was continued for some years. Eobert died in 1792, 
 and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most 
 
 feneraUy admired of his works is tie Eegister 
 louse, Edinburgh. Eeddleston Hall, near Derby, is 
 regarded by some as his greatest work. Among his 
 oifier principal works are the University build&uga 
 and St George's Church, Edinburgh (both altered 
 from the original design), the Glasgow Iniirmaiy, 
 the Adelphi biuldings, London, the screen to the 
 Admiralty, Caen Wood House, Luton House 
 (altered), Lansdowne House, &c. 
 ADAMA'N-TINE SPAJB. See Coeotd™. 
 A'DAMITES, a sect of fanatics who spread them- 
 selves in Bohemia and Moravia in the 15th and 16th 
 centuries, but had no connection with the Hussites. 
 One Picard is said to have been the founder of the 
 sect about 1400. He styled himself Adam, the son 
 of God, rejected the sacrament of the supper and 
 the priesthood, and advocated the community of 
 women. After his death, his followers spread 
 themselves in Bohemia under several leaders. They 
 even fortified themselves on an island in a tributary 
 of the Moldau, and committed depredations around. 
 They were detested as much by the followers of 
 Huss as by the Catholics. Ziska (q. v.) made war 
 against them, and slew great numbers; but they 
 were never entirely rooted out. Even as recently as 
 1849, when the Austrian government declared reli- 
 gious Hberty for all its subjects, certain members of 
 this sect appeared and endeavoured to gain prose- 
 lytes. The official investigation into their character 
 which has recently taken place, represents their 
 creed as a mixture of freethinking, quietism, and 
 communism. The members belong to the peasant 
 or labouring class ; and both men and women are 
 generally industrious, temperate, and discreet in 
 their ordinary course of hfe; but at their nightly 
 meetings, at which they dispense with clothes, the 
 utmost hoentiousness is said to prevail. — As early as* 
 the 2d c, there was a sect of Gnostic tendency, 
 called Adamites, who sought, by abstaining from all 
 indulgence of the senses, to recall the state of inno- 
 cence men were in before the fall They therefore 
 rejected marriage, and in order to exercise the virtue 
 of continence, went naked. They held that for 
 those who had once attained the state of innocence, 
 all actions were alike indifferent — ^neither good nor 
 evd. This doctrine led directly to the greatest 
 licentiousness. Aberrations of this kind, imder 
 various disguises and modifications, have made their 
 appearance from time to time in all ages of the 
 world. 
 
 ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of shoals extending 
 across the Gulf of Manaar, between Ceylon and the 
 peninsula of Hindostan. It forms a great obstruc- 
 tion to vessels proceeding through the channeL 
 
 ADAM'S PEAK is the name given by the 
 Arabs, and after them by Europeans, to the highest 
 summit of the island of Ceylon, rising 7000 feet 
 above the sea-level. The native name was formerly 
 
ADAMS. 
 
 Sumanokuta, moimtam of the gods ; its present 
 name is Samanella, the rock of Samen (a mountain- 
 god). By the Buddhists it is called Seipada — ^i. e., 
 'footstep of fortraie' (feKoity), from the print of 
 Buddh's foot still helieved to be visible upon it. 
 "Hie footprint consists of a depression in the rook, 
 five feet long and two broad, and bounded by a 
 ring of brass -with a few gems of little value. The 
 mountain is ascended paruy by steps cut artificially, 
 and partly by iron chatos fastened in the rooks. An 
 Arabic legend relates that Adam here bewailed his 
 expulsion from paradise, and stood on one foot till 
 
 God forgave him. 
 * 
 ADAMS, John, the second president of the 
 United States of North America, was bom at Brain- 
 tree, in Massachusetts, on the 19th of October 1735. 
 His parents were descended from a Puritan family 
 which had emigrated from England to Massa- 
 chusetts in 1630. Before the revolution, A. had 
 distinguished himself as a jurist, and wrote in the 
 Boston Journal an essay on Canon Law and 
 Feudal Law (1765). He was sent by Massachusetts 
 to the congress which commenced its sittings in 
 Philadelphia in 1774. "With Lee and Jefferson, he 
 boldly argued for a separation from the mother- 
 country; and Lee's proposition of a declaration of 
 independence was carried on the 4th of July 1776. 
 A. and Jefferson had been appointed to draw up 
 the Declaration of Independence, but it appears 
 that Jefferson is the sole author of it. In succeeding 
 years, A. was employed on many important nego- 
 tiations with European powers ; among others, ne 
 assisted Franklin, Jay, Jefferson, and Laurens, 
 in 1782, in settling the conditions of peace with 
 England. In 1785 he came to London as the first 
 ambassador from the Union. George III. expressed 
 his pleasure in receiving an ambassador who had 
 no prejudices in favour of France, the natural 
 enemy of the English crown, and A. replied : ' I 
 have no prejudices but in favour of my native 
 land.' He published in London his Defence of 
 (he Constitvtions of Government of the United 
 States (3 vols. 1787). On his return to America, in 
 the same year, he was elected as vice-president 
 of the United States, and on the retirement of 
 Washington (in 1797) became president. The 
 enmity of the democratic party, which had already 
 been excited against him, was now increased by the 
 measures which he judged necessary to uphold the 
 national honour against the pretensions of France, 
 and still more by lus decided favour for a hereditary 
 aristocracy. In 1801, when his term of four years 
 of office had expired, his adversary Jefferson was 
 elected by a majority of one vote. A. now retired 
 to his estate of Quinoy, near Boston, where he 
 occupied himself with agricultural pursuits. After 
 this retirement, he received many proofs of respect 
 and confidence from his countrymen. Wlien 85 
 years old, we find him stUl in hia place as member 
 of the convention appointed (1820) to revise the 
 constitution of Massachusetts. He died on the 4th 
 of July 1826, on the fiftieth anniversary of the day 
 when he had proclaimed in congress the independ- 
 ence of the United States. 
 
 ADAMS, John CotroH, discoverer, simultaneously 
 with Le Verrier, of the planet Neptune, was born 
 near Launceston in Cornwall, 1816. He early mani- 
 fested an aptitude for mathematics; and after the 
 usua,l amount of school-training, he was sent to St 
 John's College, Cambridge, where he attained the 
 honour of senior wrangler, and became a mathe- 
 matical tutor. In 1841, he undertook to find out the 
 cause of the irregularities in the motion of Uranus, 
 anticipating, indeed, his own q,nd Le Verrier's dis- 
 covery — namely, that they are due to the influence 
 40 
 
 of an unknown planet. Le Vender did not com- 
 mence his res3arches till the summer of 1845 ; but 
 on the 10th of November published the results of 
 his calculations, demonstrating the existence of an 
 unknown planet, declaring' it to be the cause of the 
 known disturbance, and assigning to it almost the 
 same place as A. had done in a paper which he left 
 with the Astronomer Eoyal at Greenwich Obser- 
 vatory in the previous October, but which he 
 neglected to pubhsh. Le Verrier has thus acquired, 
 naturally, the whole honour of the discovery ; but 
 the merit of A. is not less. The researches of the 
 latter commenced earlier; his discovery, too, was 
 earlier ; and it was only unfortunate for the reputa- 
 tion of the young astronomer that he omitted to 
 pubhsh the results he had obtained. The council of 
 the Royal Astronomical Society shewed that they 
 appreciated the value of A.'s labours, by awarding 
 equal honours to both. In 1858, A. was appointed 
 to the chair of mathematics in St Andrews, which, 
 however, he vacated within a few months, on being 
 nominated to the Lowndean Professorship of Astro- 
 nomy, Cambridge. 
 
 ADAMS, John Quinoy, the sixth president of 
 the United States of North America, and son of the 
 second president, was bom in Massachusetts, July 
 11, 1767. In his boyhood he accompanied his father 
 on an embassy to Europe, and passed a considerable 
 part of his youth in Paris, at the Hague, and lastly 
 in London. When his father was elected president, 
 the younger Adams was sent on an embassy to 
 Berhn, and travelled through Silesia. Of this 
 country he gave a description in his letters, which 
 were first published in the Portfolio, a Philadelphia 
 journal, and afterwards translated into French and 
 German. In his political views, A. perfectly agreed 
 with his father, and, consequently, he was recalled 
 from Berhn when Jefferson was elected president 
 in 1801. On his return to America, he was engaged 
 as professor of rhetoric, at Harvard University, 
 in Massachusetts, the stronghold of the federalists ;■ 
 but he soon left his academical post to engage again 
 in poKtics, and was chosen as senator for Massa- 
 chusetts. He soon became prominent as a leader 
 of the federal party ; but in later years he adroitly 
 changed his course, and seemed inchned toward 
 the party of Madison. By Madison he was sent as 
 plenipotentiary to Russia, and afterwards to Eng- 
 land. On this embassy he took a part in the nego- 
 tiation of peace with England, and assisted with his- 
 counsel the deputies sent from America to Ghent. 
 When Monroe was elected president, he recalled 
 A. from Europe, and made bim secretary of state. 
 On the retirement of Monroe from office, A. gained 
 the presidency, after a hard contest against Jackson, 
 in February 1825. He had now to strive against 
 democratic majorities ; for, though- he endeavoured 
 to make himself popular by betraying the schemes of 
 his former pohtical associates, he could never win 
 the confidence of the growing party of democrats ; 
 and on the expiration of his term of office, he had 
 to give place to General Jackson. A. retired to his. 
 estate of Quincy, near Boston ; but in 1830 was 
 chosen as representative of his district. He now 
 joined the party of abolitionists, and frequently 
 raised the -whole House of Representatives against, 
 himself by his incessant petitions on the slavery 
 question. On one occasion (in 1842), in order to 
 assert strongly in the abstract the right to petition, 
 he went so far as to present a petition for the disso- 
 lution of the union ! This was misunderstood, and 
 turned against him. He died at Washington during 
 the session of congress, February 17, 1848. Among, 
 American statesmen of the old school, he was one 
 of the most able, and, as a diplomatist, was well' 
 acquainted with foreign relations. 
 
ADAMS— ADDISON. 
 
 ADAMS, Samubl, one of the leading men of the 
 American revolution, was bom at Boston, U.S., 
 "September 27, 1722. His poHtical leanings were 
 early manifested ; on taking the degree of A.M. at 
 Harvaj'd College, 1743, he maintained the affirmative 
 of the question : Whether it be lawful to resist the 
 supreme magistrate, if the cormnonwealth cannot be 
 otherwise preserved ? He intended at first to become 
 a clergyman, but afterwards commenced a small 
 business, and was made a collector of taxes. He 
 displayed on all occasions an unfliaching zeal for 
 popular rights, and was, by the patriotic party, placed 
 in the legislature in 1766. A. was a member of 
 the first congress, and signed the declaration of 
 independence iu 1776. He took an active part in 
 frammg the constitution of Massachusetts, and was 
 for several years president of the senate of that 
 state. He held the office of its lieutenant-governor 
 from 1789 to 1794, and of governor from that time 
 till 1797. He then retired from pubKc life, and 
 died at Boston, October 2, 1802, poor as he had 
 lived. A.'3 character was one of great courage 
 and determination. He was, at the same time, 
 somewhat narrow-minded and bigoted, both in 
 religion and poHties. He was prejudiced against 
 Washington, whose conduct of the war his ignorance 
 of military matters led him to think weak and dila- 
 tory; and the confidence reposed in Washington, 
 as first president of the republic, seemed to A. to 
 savour of aristocracy. 
 
 ADA'KA, a Turkish ejalet or province in the 
 south-east of Asia Miuor, derives its name from its 
 chief city Adana, containing 25,000 inhabitants. The 
 city is distant almost thirty nules from Tarsus, on 
 the way to Aleppo, oommanda the pass of the Taurus 
 mountains, and carries on a considerable trade 
 between "Syria and Asia Minor. Pompey peopled 
 the territory of Adana with pirates. The Syrian 
 kings made the place a city, under the name of 
 AnUochia ad Sanim, and on the ruins of Autiochia 
 the caliph Haroun al Kasohid built Adana. The 
 present mhabitants are mostly Turks, mixed with 
 some Greeks and Armenians. 
 
 A'DANSOISr, Michel, a celebrated IVench bot- 
 anist, bom at Aix, April 7, 1727. He soon left the 
 clerical profession, for which he was educated, and 
 devoted himself to the study of natural history. 
 In his early career, he eutertaiaed the ambition 
 of superseding the Liunsean system by a clearer 
 and more comprehensive method of arrangement. 
 When about twenty-one years old, he went to 
 Senegal in Africa, and, fearless of the unwholesome 
 climate, stayed there five years, afterwards returning 
 to France, with a large coUectiou of specimens in 
 natural history. Soon after his return, he laid before 
 the French East India Company his plan of a colony 
 on the African coast, in which all colonial produce 
 was to be raised without slave-labour. But his 
 plan was neglected. He published, in 1757, his 
 Sieioire Naiwelle du Senegal, and, in 1763, his 
 Families des Plantes, in which he endeavoured to 
 give a new form to botany ; but he could not prevail 
 against the established Linnsean system. His next 
 undertaking was one on a vast scale — nothing less 
 than a complete EncyclopEedia, for which he hoped to 
 gain the patronage of Louis XV. and the Academy; 
 But though his bold plan was regarded with admir- 
 ation, he received little substantial encouragement. 
 This, however, did not check his enthusiasm; he 
 proceeded > with the work until he exhausted his 
 means. During the Revolution he fell into very 
 indigent circumstances. When invited to become 
 a member of the National Institute, he answered 
 that he was unable to attend for want of a pair of 
 shoes. Afterwards, he received a pension, and until 
 
 the time of his death, August 3, 1806, he waa 
 earnestly devoted to the prosecution of his plan, too 
 vast to be carried out by an individual. 
 
 ADANSO'NIA, a genus of the natural order 
 Steradiacece (q. v.), sub-order Bombaceoe, named by 
 l;innseus in honour of the botanist Adanaon (q. v.), 
 and distinguished by a simple deciduous calyx, a 
 very long style, with numerous stigmas, and a woody 
 capsule containing a farinaceous pulp. The only 
 known species, ^ . digiiata, the Baohab, also called the 
 Monkey-bread Tree, is a native of the tropical parts 
 of Western Africa, but now introduced into the East 
 and West Indies. It is the largest known tree — not 
 indeed rising to a very great height, but exceeding 
 all other trees in the thickness of its trunk (20 — 30 
 feet). Even its branches (60 — 70 feet long) are often 
 as thick as the stems of large trees, and Qiey form a 
 hemispherical head of 120 — 150 feet in diameter; 
 their outermost boughs drooping to the ground. 
 The leaves are digitate or 7-fid ; the flowers are 
 white and extremefy large, on drooping peduncles of 
 a yard in length. The fruit (Monkey-oread) is of the 
 size of a citron. The bruised leaves (Laid) are mixed 
 with the daily food of the inhabitants of tropical 
 Africa ; and Europeans in that country employ them 
 as a remedy for diarrhcea, fevers, and diseases of the 
 urinary organs. The pulp of the fruit, which is 
 slightly acid and pleasant to the taste, is eaten with 
 or without sugar; and the expressed juice mixed 
 with sugar is much esteemed as a beverage, being 
 very refreshing, effectual in quenching thirst, • and 
 regarded as a specific in putrid, and pestilential 
 fevers. The bark is said to be powerfully febrifugal 
 
 ADDA, the Latin Addua, a river of Lombardy, 
 rising in the Khstiau Alps above Bormio. It 
 flows into the Lake of Como, issuing from which 
 below Leoco, it traverses the plain of Lombardy in 
 a direction S.S.E., passing Lodi and Pizzighetone, 
 and falls into the Po about 8 miles above Cremona. 
 It formerly bounded the repubHc of Venice and the 
 duchy of Milan. 
 
 ADDER, a common English name of the Viper 
 (q. v.), but also often more vaguely used for poison- 
 ous serpents of the family Viperidce. Where the 
 name occiu's in the authorised version of the 
 Scriptures, it appears to be always in this vague 
 sense; although the terms in the same places of 
 the original may probably be more precise. A very 
 venomous serpent of New South Wales (Acanihopis 
 tortor) is sometimes called the Death or Black A. 
 
 ADDISCOMBE. See Cadet. 
 
 ADDISON, Joseph, the son of an eminent clergy- 
 man of the Church of England, was born at Milston, 
 near Amesbury, in Wiltshire, on the 1st May 1672. 
 After ^ prehnunary education at various schools, he 
 entered the university of Oxford when only fifteen 
 years of age, where he greatly distinguished himself, 
 especially oy the facihty with which he wrote Latin 
 verse. He was originally intended for the church, 
 but various circumstances conspired to draw him 
 aside into literature and politics ; the principal of 
 which were, his acquaintance with Dryden, who 
 honoured the young poet with his patronage, and his 
 intimacy with Lord Somers, whose favour he gained 
 by dedicating a poem to him on one of King 
 William's campaigns. In 1699 he received a pension 
 of £300 a year, and then set out on a continental tour. 
 While in France, he perfected himself in the language 
 of the country. On the outbreak of the Spanish 
 war of succession, he departed to Italy, where 
 he penned his charming ' Letter ' to Lord HaKfax. 
 Towards the end of 1703, he returned home by way 
 of Switzerland and Germany ; but his expectations 
 of a ' place ' were disappointed, for the Whigs were 
 out of office. The battle of Blenheim, however, 
 
 41 
 
ADDISON. 
 
 which occurred in the next year, presented a bril- 
 liant opportunity to him, wluch he did not fail to 
 make the most of. The ministry wished the Tictoiy 
 commemorated in verse, and A. was appointed 
 to do it. Lord Godolphin, the treasurer, was so 
 excessively delighted with the first half of the 
 triumphal poem, that before the rest was finished, he 
 made A. a Commissiouer of Appeals. The poet was 
 ■ now fairly involved in pohtics. He accompanied 
 Halifax to Hanover; became uiider-secretary of 
 state in 1706, and in 1709 went to Ireland in the 
 capacity of secretary to the Lord-lieutenant, where 
 he also obtained the ofiioe of Keeper of the Records, 
 worth £300 a year. In the same year, his friend 
 Steele commenced The Tader, to which A. soon 
 became a frequent contributor. He also wrote a 
 number of political articles in the Whig Examine. 
 On the 1st of March 1711, appeared The SpedcUor, 
 
 c/ ^^^Sz^^?^^ 
 
 the most popular and elegant miscellany in English 
 literature. It ceased to appear on the 6tli of Decem- 
 ber 1712. A.'s fame is ioseparably associated with 
 this periodical The quality of lus genius is now 
 determined by it, rather than by the cold, sonorous, 
 artificial rhetoric of his Tragedy of Cato, which was 
 extravagantly admired in his own day, and even 
 later. He was the animating spirit of the magazine, 
 and by far the most exquisite essays and criticisms 
 which appeared in it are the work of his hand. Next 
 followed a similar work, entitled The Guardian. In 
 1713 appeared The Tragedy of Gaio, the popularity 
 of which, considering its total absence of dramatic 
 power, was amazing. It was generally understood to 
 have a poHtical as well as a poetical inspiration ; but 
 so prudently had A. expressed himself, that both 
 parties, Whig and Tory, received its frigid declama- 
 tion with rapture. It was translated into various 
 European languages; and even the monarch of 
 EVench criticism, Voltaire, held Shakspeare a bar- 
 barian in tragedy compared with our author. ' All 
 the laurels of Europe,' says Thackeray, 'were 
 scarcely sufficient for the author of this "prodigi- 
 ous " poem.' Every one in England praised it except 
 Dennis. A. was called the ' great Mr A.' after that 
 wonderful night in the theatre, when, as Pope says, 
 ' the numerous and violent claps of the Whig party 
 on the one side, were echoed back by the Tories 
 on the other.' This enthusiasm was a delusion 
 which time has effectually dispelled. In 1716, A. 
 
 married the Dowager-countesa of Warwick, and in 
 the following year was appointed secretary of state. 
 For neither of his new situations was he at aU 
 suited. Lady Mary Wortley Montague, in a letter 
 to Pope, expressed her fear that ' a day might come 
 when he would be heartily glad to resign both.' He 
 was so extremely timid and awkward m large com- 
 panies, that it was out of the question for him to 
 attempt debating in parliament—a thing indispens- 
 able to one in his position. He consequently 
 resigned in 1718. Then as to the other matter, Dr 
 Johnson sarcastically remarks, that ' the lady was 
 persuaded to marry him on terms much hke those 
 on which a Turkish princess is espoused — to whom 
 the sultan is reported to pronounce : " Daughter, "I 
 give thee this m*i for thy slave." ' No one can 
 doubt that this marriage was a mistake on the 
 part of A. His health had been for some time in a 
 very precarious state ; and at length, after an illness 
 of a few months, he died at HoBand House, Ken- 
 sington, on the 17th June 1719, in the 48th year of 
 his age, three years after what Thackeray calls ' his 
 splendid but dismal union.' A. ha^ appointed Mr 
 Tickell his hterary executor, who published his 
 works shortly after in 4 vols, quarto. Besides those 
 to which we have incidentally alluded, he wrote 
 A Treatise on the Usefulness of Ancient Medals, 
 Especially in Relaiion to the LaJtin and Greek 
 Poets, which, however, excited littie interest. He 
 also left an unfinished work on The Evidences of the 
 Christian Religion. But the most delightful and 
 original of all his productions is that series of 
 sketches in The Spectalor of which Sir Eoger de 
 Coverley is the central figure, and Sir Andrew Free- 
 port and Win Honeycomb the side ones. Sir Roger 
 himself is an absolute creation ; the gentie yet vivid 
 imagination, the gay and cheerful spirit of humour, 
 the keen, shrewd observation, and fine raillery of 
 foibles which A. has displayed in this felicitous 
 characterisation, render it a work of pure genius. 
 But A. in prose is always excellent. He has given a 
 delicacy to English sentiment, and a modes^ to 
 English wit which it never knew before. Elegance, 
 which in his predecessors had been the companion of 
 immorality, now appeared as the advocate of virtue. 
 Eveiy grace was enlisted in the cause of a benign 
 and beautiful piety. His style, too, is perfect after 
 its fashion. There are many nobler and grander 
 forms of expression in Enghdi literature than A.'a, 
 but there are none comparable to it in sweetness, 
 propriety, and natural d^uity. ' Whoever wishes,' 
 says Dr Johnson, ' to attain an English style, f amihar 
 but not coarse, 'and elegant but not ostentations, 
 must give his days and mghts to the volumes of A.' 
 His various writmgs, but especially his essays, fully 
 realised the purpose which he constantiy had in view; 
 'to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit 
 with morality.' They materially helped to reform 
 the manners of their time, and created, in addition, 
 that class of readers, which has now become so 
 prodigious ia numbers, and on which aU literature 
 now depends for its support — the middle class. It 
 must, however, be admitted, that since the beginning 
 of the present century, their popularity has under- 
 gone a considerable decline. The chief cause of 
 this is, that much in them relates to temporary 
 fashions, vices, rudenesses, and absurdities which are 
 now out of date. Yet, after making every abatement, 
 it is certain that there are in the collected works of 
 A. so many admirably written essays on subjects of 
 abiding interest and importance, on characters,- 
 virtues, vices, and manners, which will cheqner 
 society while the himian race endures, that a 
 judicious selection can never fail to present 
 indescribable charms to the man of taste, piety, 
 philanthropy, and refinement. 
 
ADELAAU-ADHESION. 
 
 A'DELAAE, Cokd Sivertsen, one of the greatest 
 naval commanders of the 17th c., was bom at 
 Bre-vig, in Norway, in 1622, and in his twentieth 
 year was employed in the naval service of Venice 
 against the Turks. Courage and good-fortune con- 
 
 r' red in his favoiu:. On one occasion, he broke 
 ough a hne of sixt^-seven Turkish galleys 
 which surrounded his ship, sunk fifteen, burned 
 several others, and destroyed about 5000 of the 
 enemy. The various navalpowers now contended 
 for his services. Frederic III., by the offer of the 
 then unheard-of salary of 7200 doUars per annum, 
 engaged him as admiral of the Danish fleet ; and, in 
 1675, \mder Christian V., he commanded the whole 
 of the Danish naval force in the war with Sweden. 
 He died at Copenhagen in 1675. 
 
 ADBLAI'DE, the capital of the colony of South 
 Australia, is situated on the Gulf of St Vincent, 
 where the first settlers arrived on the 27th July 
 1836, without knowing where they were to locate 
 themselves. It was not till March 1837 that the site 
 of the capital was fixed, and the town-lands surveyed, 
 the settlers living in the meantime in tents or in huts 
 of mud, reeds, and brushwood. The town stands on 
 both sides of the river Torrens, but at some distance 
 from the sea. It is connected by a good macadam- 
 ised road, and a railway with Port Adelaide, which 
 stands on a creek about seven miles distant, and has 
 a very fair harbour. The plan of the town is exten- 
 sive, and the streets are broad, and intersect at right 
 angles. Water is abundantly supplied by the river 
 and by sinking wells. Around the city, a public 
 demesne has been reserved, called the E^irldands. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 A'DELSBEBG, a district and market-town in 
 Camiola, in the vicinity of which is a large stalactite 
 cavern called the A. Grotto, through which flows 
 a rapid stream. This cavern, the largest in Europe, 
 is divided into the Old and the New Grrotto: the 
 former is 858 feet in length; the latter, 8550 feet 
 in length, contains some most remarkable stalactites, 
 among which is 'the curtain' {vorhang), a white 
 semi-toajisparent wall. The grotto ends in two paths, 
 one of wmch leads to a l^e, beyond which more 
 wonders of nature are likely to be discovered. The 
 cavern is shut, and can only be entered in company 
 with an appointed guide. The town of A. is 22 
 miles N.E. of Trieste. 
 
 A'DBLtTNG, JoH. CHmSTOPH, a distinguished 
 linguist and lexicographer, was bom, 1732, in Pome- 
 rania, and died, 1806, at Dresden, where he had held 
 the office of chief-hbrarian. His chief works are hia 
 Worierhuch der Sochdeutschen Mundart (Dictionary 
 of High German), in which he took Dr Johnson as 
 his model; and his Mithridatea oder aUgemeine 
 Spradienhinde, a work on general philology. 
 
 A'DEN, a peninsula and town on the south-west 
 coast of Arabia. The most southern promontory of 
 the peninsula, Cape Aden, is in N. lat. 12° 47', and E. 
 long. 45° 9'. Tms peninsula, the area of which is 
 18 — 20 square miles, is doubtless of volcanic origin, 
 and consists chiefly of a range of hiUs not exoeemng 
 1776 feet in height. It is joined to the mainland by a 
 , narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. In a valley which 
 forms the crater of a submarine volcano, stands 
 the town of A., which is also named from the neigh- 
 bouring promontory, Bab-el-Mandeb, or the Gate of 
 Maudeb. It was siyled by the native Arabs Aden or 
 Eden (Paradise), on account of its fine climate and 
 great commerce, for which it was celebrated from the 
 oldest times. It enjoys almost perpetual sunshine ; 
 a cloudy day is of rare occurrence; the heat is 
 pleasantly tempered by the sea-breezes; and the 
 inhabitants are generally healthy. Phny the Elder 
 seems to have known the native name of the 
 
 place, for which he writes 'Athana.' It was also 
 known by the name of 'Emporium Eomanum.' 
 Up to the time of the circumnavigation of Africa, 
 A., so favourably situated at the entrance of the 
 Bed Sea, was the chief mart of all Asiatic produce 
 and manufactures, and even the Chinese traded 
 here. Marco Polo and other voyagers of the middle 
 ages told wonders of the riches and splendour of 
 the place. In the course of time, however, it was 
 reduced to a small village, which in 1838 contained 
 only about 600 inhabitants, including some 250 
 Jews and about 50 Indian merchants. The Anglo- 
 Indian government had long been on the outlook 
 for a speedy route by steam from India to Europe. 
 The explorations on the river Euphrates aflbrded 
 no satisfactory results, and ultimately the old com- 
 mercial route by the Ked Sea was chosen. This, of 
 coiuse, gave to the shores and harbours of that sea 
 a new importance, and the English soon saw the 
 advantages of a position Kke Siat of A. About 
 this time, a British vessel sufiered shipwreck off the 
 coast of A., where the passengers were plimdered 
 and in other ways ill treated by the natives. A 
 vessel was therefore despatehed from Bombay, in 
 
 1838, to compel the sultan of the country to make 
 restitution, and also to learn on what terms the 
 Arabs would be wiUing to cede A. to the English. 
 Captain Haynes, by fair promises, succeeded in 
 gaining a cession of the country from the sultan, a 
 weak and covetous old man. Afterwards, fearing 
 the displeasure of some neighbouring tribes, and 
 partly moved by the suggestions of rehgious sheiks, 
 the sultan repented of tS transaction, but was held 
 to his contract by force of arms; and on January 11, 
 
 1839, after a few hours' contest, A. fell into the 
 hands of the British. Here they have now a strong 
 garrison and fortifications. In its medieval pros- 
 perity, A. had had a magnificent system of cisterns 
 for collecting the rain-water from the circle of 
 hills that surround it. Who buHt them is unknown ; 
 but it is conjectured that they had been begun about 
 the 6th or 7th century. They had been allowed 
 to fall into disuse, and were filled with rubbish, and 
 in ruins ; but recently a considerable number have , 
 been excavated and restored by the British govern- 
 ment. If all restored, they seem capable of con- 
 taining 30 million gallons. Owing to the hard and 
 naked character of the rooks, there is little absorp- 
 tion, and a few hours of rain send torrents down 
 the ravines, which soon iill the cisterns. A. is of 
 great importance in a mercantile and nautical point 
 of view, having a position between Asia and Africa 
 like that of Gibraltar between Europe and Africa. 
 The population and resources of the place have 
 rapidly increased since 1838. It has now a busy 
 population of 25,000, gathered from every nation 
 under heaven ; and its exports and imports amount 
 to about a million sterling. 
 
 A'DERSBACH ROCKS, a remarkable labyrinth- 
 ine group of sandstone rocks situated near the village 
 of Adersbach, in Bohemia. The aspect of some parts 
 of the group has been compared to that of a city 
 ruined by a conflagration. One of the pinnacles 
 rises to a height of 218 feet. The structure of the 
 rocks has been produced, not by any commotion of 
 the earth, but by the influences of rain, frost, and 
 other atmospheric changes, wearing down the soft 
 sandstone into many fantastic forms. During the 
 Thirty Years' War, the miserable people of Bohemia 
 often found refuge in this locality. 
 
 ADHE'SION is the species of attraction that is 
 manifested between two separate bodies when their 
 surfaces are brought to a considerable extent into 
 close contact. It is nearly allied to Cohesion (q. v.). 
 Adhesion is seen in the case of two solid bodies 
 
 43 
 
ADIANTUM— ADJUDICATION. 
 
 when their polished surfaces are laid on one 
 another ; but it acts more powerfully between solids 
 and fluids, owing to their intimate contact. We 
 have iastances of this in the film of water adhering 
 to any body dipped in that fluid, and in water 
 running down the side of an incHned vessel from 
 which it is being poured. AH solids and liquids 
 do not exhibit this mutual attraction. Thus^ though 
 bright metals are wetted by mercury, glass attd 
 wood are not ; nor does water adhere to fat. Capil- 
 laiy attraction (q.v.) ia a special manifestation of 
 adhesion. — The adhesion of gases to the smiace of 
 solids is described by Liebig as playing an important 
 part in many processes. A more or less condensed 
 atmosphere of gases surroimds every body, and every 
 particle of a powdered or porous body; and gases, 
 such as oxygen, have in this condition an intensified 
 chemical action. Platinum in the state of powder" 
 condenses 800 times its volume of oxygen ; and 
 when hydrogen comes in contact with the oxygen 
 in this state, the two gases combine, though, when 
 free, they require the application of flame before 
 they will combine. 
 
 Adhesion, in Pathology, is when two surfaces of a 
 living body become united. If they have been separ- 
 ated by the cut of a sharp instrument, and are icnme- 
 diately and accurately placed in apposition to each 
 other, they may adhere at once without any apparent 
 bond of union. But, generally, the blood-vessels of 
 the part pour out, between the surfaces, a fluid, 
 consisting of the watery part of the blood holding 
 fibrine in solution. The liquid part of this is 
 reabsorbed or escapes from the wound, leaving the 
 fibrine, in which first cells are developed, and then 
 blood-vessels : it is now a living tissue, and forms a 
 uniting medium between the sides of the wound. 
 
 Serous membranes, as the pleura, pour out this 
 fluid when inflamed; and hence the adhesions so 
 often the result of pleurisies. — If two granulating 
 (see Grajstulation) surfaces be kept in contact, the 
 opposite granulations may fuse together, and the 
 wound unite by secondary adhesion. 
 
 ADIA'NTUM. See Maidenhaik. 
 
 A'DIGB, after the Po, the most important river 
 in Italy, rises in the Rhsetian Alps. Various stream- 
 lets descend from these mountains, and, uniting at 
 Glarus, form the Etsoh, which is, properly speakmg, 
 the beginning of the A., and the name by which the 
 entire river is known in Germany. From Glanis it 
 flows east into the Tyrol, then, after a slight 
 ditour to the south-east, it flows due south past 
 Trent and Roveredo, into Lombardy, and, passing 
 Verona, takes a south-eastern sweep, discharging its 
 waters into the Adriatic, between the mouths of the 
 Po and the Brenta. In ancient times (when it was 
 called the Aihesis), it had a more northerly embou- 
 chure. It is very rapid, and subject to sudden swell- 
 ings and overflowings, which cause great damage to 
 the surrounding country. The two most remarkable 
 inundations on record are those which occurred in 
 1721 and 1724. During the Itahan wars, its banks 
 were repeatedly the scenes of bloody engagements. 
 Its length is about 250 nules; its breadth in the 
 plain of Lombardy, 650 feet; its depth, from 10 to 
 16 feet. It is navigable as far as Trent, but the 
 navigation is rendered extremely arduous, on account 
 of the swiftness of the current. The A. is a transit- 
 river for the trade of Germany and Italy, 
 
 ADIPOCE'RB (Lat. adeps, fat, and cera, wax), a 
 substance resembling a mixture of fat and wax, and 
 resulting from the decomposition of ardmal bodies 
 in moist places or under water. Human bodies 
 have been found, on disinterment, reduced to this 
 state. Lean beef kept imder nmning water for 
 three weeks, was found reduced to a fatty sub- 
 44 
 
 Adipose Tissue, 
 
 stance. A piece of a liver that has suffered what 
 is called fatty degeneration, if immersed for some 
 time in water, is said to become exactly like A. 
 
 A'DIPOSB TISSUE is a peculiar kind of animal 
 membrane or tissue, consisting of a,n aggregation 
 of minute spherical pouches or 
 vesicles filled with fat or oil 
 The tissue itself is organic and 
 vital, the vesicles secreting the 
 fatty matter from the oapfllary 
 blood-vessels with which they ' 
 are surrounded; the secreted 
 product, or fat (q. v.), is in- 
 organic, and devoid of vitality. 
 The adipose tissue differs from 
 cellular or filamentous tissue in 
 having the vesicles closed, so that the fat does not 
 escape even when fluid. A dropsical efiiision, which 
 infiltrates the filamentous tissues, does not affect the 
 adipose tissue. There is a considerable, layer of 
 adipose tissue hnmediately under the skin ; also 
 around the large vessels and nerves, in the omen- 
 tum and mesentery, around the kidneys, joints, &o. 
 
 A'DJBCTIVB is the name of one of the classes 
 into which grammarians have divided words. An 
 adjective is so called, not so much from its heinif 
 added to a substantive, as because it adds to the- 
 meaning, or more exactly describes the object, than 
 the simple substantive or general name does. The- 
 effect of an adjective is also to limit the appUcation 
 of the name to which it is joined. Thus, when tall 
 is joined to man, there is more meaning conveyed ; 
 there are more properties suggested to the mind by 
 the compound name tall man, than by the simple 
 name man; but tall Tnan is not applicable to so 
 many individuals as Tnan, for all men that are not 
 tall are excluded. — Nouns, or names of things, 
 are often used in English as adjectives ; thus, we 
 say a diver chain, a stone wall. In such expressions, 
 as ' Income Tax Assessment BUI,' tnciome plays the 
 part of an adjective to Tax,, which is, in the first 
 place, a noxm ; the two together then form a sort of 
 compound adjective to Assessment ; and the three, 
 taken together, a still more compound adjective to- 
 Bill, which, syntactically, is the only noun in the 
 expression. This usage seems pecuHar to Enghsh. — 
 Languages differ much in their way of using adjec- 
 tives. In Enghsh, the usual place of the adj. is before 
 the noun. This is also the case in German ; but in 
 French and Itahan, it comes after. In these languages, 
 again, the adj. is varied for gender, number, and, in 
 the German, for case. In Enghsh it is invariable ; 
 and in this simphcity there is a decided superiority ;, 
 for in modern languages these changes in the adj. 
 serve no purpose. The only modification the Eng. 
 A. is capable of is for degrees of comparison. 
 
 ADJUDICA'TION is a technical term used in 
 the practice both of the English and Scotch law, but 
 with a totally different meaning in the two systems. 
 In the law of England, the term A. is commonly 
 used to denote the judicial determination at a certain 
 stage of the proceedings in bankruptcy and insolv- 
 ency. In Bankruptcy, the procedure is regulated by 
 the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 106. The petition prays that 
 the trader may be adjudicated a bankrupt, and, 
 after proof of the petitioning creditor's debt, of the 
 trading, and of the Act of Bankruptcy, (q. v.) which 
 must have been committed within twelve months 
 before the issuing of the fiat, an A. is made by the 
 court that the party is bankrupt. But a trader may 
 be adjudicated bankrupt summarily, and without 
 previous petition for A. — namely, where, after filing 
 a petition for arrangement with his creditors, he 
 appears not entitled to the benefit of the arrange- 
 ment. See Baukbuptcv. In Insolvency, which 
 
ADJUSTMENT— AD LIBITUM. 
 
 differs from bankruptcy in this respect, that it is 
 not confined in its operation to traders, or to any 
 particular class of men, but applies to the com- 
 munity at large, the A. is made by the imprisoned 
 debtor delivermg into the Insolvent Com-t a schedule 
 containing an account of all his debts and of aU 
 his estate and effects in possession, reversion, 
 remainder, or expectancy, and of all rights and 
 powers which either he, or any person in trust for 
 hjm, is entitled to exercise ; and upon his swearing 
 to the truth of this schedule, and executing a 
 warrant of attorney, authorising a judgment to be 
 «ntered up against him in any of the superior courts 
 •at Westmmster for the amount of the debts stated 
 in the schedule, the Insolvent Court may adjudge 
 that he shall be discharged from the custody and 
 entitled to the benefit of the Insolvent Act 1 and 2 
 Vict. c. 110. This A. authorises the discharge of 
 the prisoner from custody as to all debts and sums 
 of money due or claimed to be due to his several 
 creditors. See Insolvency. 
 
 - It may, however, be stated that the distinction 
 between bankruptcy and insolvency is now generally 
 disapproved in England ; and a Bfll has been intro- 
 duced into parliament {March 1859) for the purpose 
 of reforming the bankrupt law in this and other 
 respects. 
 
 In the law of Scotland, A. signifies a process by 
 which creditors may attach heritable or real pro- 
 perty of their debtors. It applies to real estate in 
 its most extensive signification, including not only 
 feudal rights, but all rights or interests affecting or 
 connected with land, such as bonds and mortgages, 
 as also annuities, and all rights ' having a tract of 
 future time,' life-interests, reversions, rights of lease, 
 ofiices of dignity or jurisdiction, personal rights to 
 lands, a certain class of personal bonds, rights of 
 patronage, stock of any chartered bank, with, where 
 the process of arrestment (the process, in the Scotch 
 law, for attaching personal estate; see Akeestment) 
 is excluded, the husband's right in his wife's real 
 estate, fair, harbour, and ferry duties, entailed estates 
 during the life of the heir, and the like. 
 
 The arrangements for the equitable administration 
 of this law are regulated by various orders of the 
 Scotch courts and by different statutes. 
 
 There are various other forms of the A. in the 
 Scotch law, one of the most important and useful of 
 which is called the A.-in-implement, a form of legal 
 puoceeding devised for the completion of defective 
 titles to landed property. 
 
 ■ AD JU'STMENT, in the Law of Insurance, is the 
 ascertaining the exact amount of indemnity which 
 the party msured is entitied to receive under the 
 policy, and fixing the proportion of the loss to be 
 borne by each underwriter. The nature and amount 
 of damage being ascertained, an endorsement is 
 made on the back of the policy, declaring the 
 proportion of loss falling on each underwriter ; and 
 on this endorsement being signed by the latter, the 
 loss is said to have been adjusted. After an A. has 
 been made, it is usual for the underwriter at once to 
 pay the loss. As a question of law, however, it does 
 not appear to have been decided how far the A. is 
 conclusive and binding upon the underwriters. In 
 the opinion of some mercantile lawyers, the A. is 
 merely presumptive evidence against an insurer, 
 and it is, notwithstanding, open to the imderwriter 
 to shpw facts which, if proved, would have the 
 effect of relieving biTn from liability. 
 
 A'DJtTTANT, as the derivation of the word 
 implies (adjuvare, to help), is the title of an officer 
 who assists the commanding-of&cer of a garrison 
 or regiment in all the details of duty. He receives 
 orders, and promulgates them to the several 
 
 companies ; he in3j)ects escorts and guards before 
 proceeding on their duty; attends to the drill 
 of recruits, is accountable for the keeping of the 
 regimental books, and ought to note every infrac- 
 tion of established rules. An Adjutant-general 
 performs analogous duties for the general of an 
 army. He keeps an accoilnt of the strength of 
 each regiment, distributes the orders of the day 
 to the brigade-majors, and sees the troops drawn 
 up for action. The Adjutant-general of ffie Forces 
 is an officer of high ranlc at the Horse-Guards. 
 To him all commimications are addressed regarding 
 leave of absence, discharging, recruiting, &c. Besides 
 the adjutant-general at the Horse-Guards, there are 
 deputy and assistant adjutants-general for special 
 military districts. 
 
 ADJUTANT {Ciconia Argala), a bird closely 
 allied to the Stork, made by some naturalists the 
 type of a separate genus, ArgaXa. Adjutant is the 
 popular name given to it by the English in India — 
 Argala the native name. It is a native of the 
 warmer parts of India. It is of large size, and has 
 
 Indian Adjutant. 
 
 very long legs ; in its erect attitude, it is about five 
 feet high ; -its extended wings measure fourteen or 
 fifteen feet from tip to tip; its head and neck are 
 nearly bare; a sausage-like pouch hangs from the 
 under part of the neck ; the bill is of enormous size. 
 It is very voracious, swallows a cat or a leg . of 
 mutton quite readily, and is of great use in devour- 
 ing snakes, lizards, and aU sorts of offal. It some- 
 times catches birds upon the wing. The beautiful 
 Marabou feathers are obtained from the under side 
 of the wings of this bird, and of another very similar 
 species which inhabits Senegal 
 
 AD LI'BITUM (in ItaL, a piacere, or a pia- 
 cimento) is a musical term which implies that the 
 part so marked may be performed accordiug to 
 the taste of the performer, and not necessarily in 
 strict time. When there is an accompaniment to 
 the music thus marked, it must strictly follow 
 the ad libitum time of the principal performer. 
 Sometimes the words, coUa parte, meaning with the 
 leading part, are written over the accompanying 
 parts. Ad Libitum also frequently means, that a 
 part for a particular instrument or instruments, in 
 instrumental scores or pianoforte arrangements, 
 may either be played or entirely left out ; thus : 
 ' Overture arranged for the pianoforte as a duet, 
 
ADMINISTRATION— ADMIRALTY COURT. 
 
 ■witli ad libitum accompaniments for the violin, flute, 
 or violoncello.' 
 
 ADMINISTRA'TIOHr, in PoHtics, in its widest 
 sense, is equivalent to the executive government 
 of a state, as distinguished from its permanent 
 constitution, and embraces not only the political 
 ministry, but all the offices of judicature, &c. In 
 a more restricted sense, as used in England, it desig- 
 nates the Privy Coimcil (q. v.), and more especially 
 that select committee of it kno-wii as the Cabinet 
 or Ministry (q. v.). 
 
 ADMINISTRATION and ADMINISTRA- 
 TOR. An administrator, in the law of England, is 
 the person to whom, in default of an. executor named 
 in the will, the ordinary or bishop of the diocese 
 commits the administration or distribution of the 
 estate of a person dying intestate. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OP CHARITIES falls 
 in the last resort to the sovereign as parens patrics; 
 and in the case of any charity being dilapidated or 
 abused, the attorney-general will file an information 
 in the Court of Chancery. The A. of C. is now, 
 however, chiefly regulated by 16 and 17 Vict. c. 137, 
 by which the crown is empowered to appoint com- 
 missioners and inspectors for the purpose. The act 
 contains a reservation of the rights of the Church 
 of England ; and it does not extend to the universi- 
 ties, or to such charities as are partially dependent 
 on voluntary contributions. Charities for Roman 
 Cathohc purposes were also excluded from its opera- 
 tion for two years, and this term has been extended 
 by subsequent enactments. 
 
 ADMINISTRATOR-IN-LAW. In the Scotch 
 law, a father is A.-in-L. for his children, and as such, 
 is their guardian during minority. This power in 
 the father ceases by the child's discontinuing to 
 reside with him, unless he continues to live at the 
 father's expense; and in the case of daughters, it 
 ceases on their marriage. 
 
 A'DMIRAL, the title of the highest rank of naval 
 officers. The word is generally supposed to have 
 been derived from the Arabic Mmir or Amir, a lord 
 or chief [Amir-al-Mummim, 'Commander of the 
 Faithful;' Amir-cd-Omra, 'Commander of the 
 Eorces '). Thus the early English form was AmiraX 
 or Ammiral (occurring once in Par. Lost) ; and so 
 it is still preserved in French. In Spanish the_word 
 is Admirante or Almirante; in Italian, Ammiraglio. 
 The term seems to have been introduced into 
 Europe (Juring' the Crusades, and to have been 
 first used in a definite sense by the Sicilians, and 
 afterwards by the Genoese. About the end of the 
 13th c. it came into use in France and England. 
 The first English Admiral of the Seas (Amiral 
 de la Mer du Boy d^ Angleterre) of whom there is 
 record was William de Leyboume, 1286. His office, 
 however, was not that of a commander, but 
 embraced those general and extensive powers after- 
 wards associated with the title of Lord High 
 Admiral of England; that is, both the admini- 
 strative functions now vested in the Lords Commis- 
 sioners of the Admiralty (six in number), and the 
 judicial authority belonging to the present High 
 Court of Admiralty. The office of Lord High 
 Admiral was last filled by H.R.H. the Duke of 
 Clarence, afterwards WiUiam IV. It had pre- 
 viously been in commission from 1708 to 1827. On 
 his resignation in 1828, the office was again put in 
 commission. See ADMmAi/rr, Oouht 01". 
 
 In the British navy, the admirals are distinguished 
 into three classes, according to the colour Of their 
 flag (whence the general title, common to them 
 all, of _^a^-q^Jcc?'), admirals of the Red, of the "White, 
 and of the Blue. In a fleet disposed in battle-array, 
 the first of these holds the centre ; the second, the 
 
 van; and the third, the rear. In each of these 
 divisions, again, there are the three grades of 
 Admiral, \^ce - admiral, and Rear - admiral ; the 
 admiral carrying his colour at the main^ the vice- 
 admiral at the fore, and the rear-admiral at the 
 mizzen top-gallamt-mast head. Admiral of the Fleet 
 is simply an honorary distinction, with an increase 
 of pay. The rates of fuU or sea pay of flag-officers 
 are as follows : Admiral of the fleet, per day, £6 ; 
 admiral, £5; vice-admiral, £4; rear-admiral, £3. 
 An admiral commanding-in-chief receives £S afday 
 additional, when his flag is flying within the limits 
 of his station. By an order in council, 1851, the 
 number of flag-officers in the British navy was 
 reduced to 99, exclusive of admirals of the fleet, of 
 whom there is at present (1859) one. Of the 99, 21 
 are admirals, 27 vice-admirals, and 51 rear-admirals. 
 The number of admirals ' on reserved half -pay ' and 
 ' retired ' amounts (1859) to above 240. The admiral 
 and commander-in-chief of the fleet takes rank with 
 a field-marshal, admirals with generals, vice-admirals 
 with lieutenant-generals, and rear-admirals with 
 major-generals. 
 
 ADMIRALTY COURT. This court, the 
 object of which is to try and decide maritime causes, 
 is said by Sir Henry Spebnan and Lambard to have 
 been first erected by Edward III. Till recently, the 
 maritime courts of England were divided into the 
 Instance Court and the Prize Court; and these 
 courts were in reality separate tribimals. The same 
 judge usually presided in both, but his authority to 
 hear and decide questions as to prizes of war was 
 under a special and separate commission, issued at 
 the commencement of each war; and the court itself 
 existed only~during the war, or imtil the litigations 
 to which it had given rise were brought to a conclu- 
 sion. In this respect it differed from the Instance 
 Court, which was a permanent institution. The 
 jurisdiction in question of booty of war, and the dis- 
 tribution thereof, has now, however, been conferred 
 on the A. C. itself, and the Prize Court has thus 
 been virtually abolished (3 and 4 Vict. o. 65, s. 22 ; 
 see also Kerr's Bladcstone,.-vm. p. 77). By a later 
 statute, jurisdiction relating to the attack and cap- 
 ture of pirates is vested in the A. C. in this 
 country, and in the vice-A. courts abroad (13 and 
 14 Vict. e. 26, 27). Whilst there was a Lord High 
 Admiral, the judge of the A. C. usually presided in 
 virtue of a patent from him ; but since the office has 
 been intrusted to commissioners, the judge holds a 
 direct commission from the crown under the great 
 seal. By 3 and 4 Vict. o. 65, s. 1, ihe Dean 
 of the Arches is authorised to sit for the judge 
 of the A. C. in certain cases ; and advocates, 
 surrogates, and proctors of the Court of Arches are 
 admitted to practise in the A. C. (s. 2). The pro- 
 ceedings of the A, C.J like those in the ecclesias- 
 tical courts, were originally based on the civil law, 
 and upon this account it is usually held at Doctors' 
 Commons. But it is merely as the basis of the 
 earlier mercantile codes, such as the Rhodiau laws 
 and those of Oleron, and by no means exclusively, 
 that the civil law is of authority in these courts. 
 Questions of the utmost nicety in the law of nations 
 fall to be decided by maritime courts in time of war ; 
 and it was as an A. judge that many of the 
 most remarkable of Lord StoweU's famous judg- 
 ments were pronounced. The appeal from the A. 
 C, which was originally to the king in Chancery, 
 and afterwards to certain commissioners of appeals, 
 consisting chiefly of the privy council, and not 
 of judges ddegated by tiiat body, is now to 
 the judicial committee of the privy council (3 
 and 4 WiU. IV. o. 41). _ The jurisdiction of the 
 vice-A. courts in the colonies and foreign dominions 
 of the Queen has been extended and defined, and 
 
ADMIRALTY DKOITS— ADOPTIA]Sr CONTROVERSY. 
 
 their prooedure regulated by statute (2 WiU. IV. 
 0. 51). Appeals from these courts formerly lay to 
 the A. 0. in England, and were also competent to 
 the Queen in council; but, bke those from the 
 A. 0. itself, they are now carried to the judicial 
 committee (3 and 4 "Will. IV. o. 41, s. 2). The 
 civil iiirisdiotion of the A. Courts was greatly 
 extended by 3 and 4 Vict o. 26, by which their 
 practice was much improved. It now extends 
 generally to all marine contracts and other questions 
 of maritime right, such as disputes between part- 
 owners of a ^p, suits for maiinera' and officers' 
 wages, suits for pilotage, suits on bottomry and 
 respondentia bonds, and relating to salvage, wreck,- 
 comsion of ships, &o. In criminal matters, the 
 A. C. formerly took cognizance of piracy and 
 other offences on the sea, or on the coasts 
 beyond the limits of any county, and, concur- 
 rently with the common law courts, of certain 
 felonies committed in the main stream of great 
 rivers below the bridges. The criminal juris- 
 diction of the A. is regulated by 4 and 5 Will. 
 rV. c. 36, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. 2. By the 
 former statute, the judge of the A. is made 
 one of the judges of the Central Criminal Court, 
 and that court is empowered to try offences com- 
 mitted within the jurisdiction of the A. By 
 the latter, any court of assize, oyer and ter- 
 miner, or jail-delivery, may inquire of and deter- 
 mine such offences without special coramission. 
 Since the passing of these enaciments, the criminal 
 jiuisdiction of the A. C. may be regarded as 
 obsolete. There is a separate Court, of A. in 
 Ireland. The A. C. of Scotland has been abolished, 
 and its ordinary jurisdiction transferred to the 
 Court of Session, the Court of Justiciary, and 
 the sheriff; questions of prizes, captures, condem- 
 nations, and the bke, being vested exclusively in 
 the High Court of A. in Ea^and. 
 
 ATDMIRAIjTY DEOITS are a portion of the 
 hereditary revenues of the crown, arising from 
 enemies' ships detained in the prospect of a 
 declaration of war, or coming into port in ignorance 
 of the commencement of hostilities,, or from such 
 ships as are taken by non-commissioned captors, 
 the proceeds of wrecks, the goods of pirates, and 
 the Eke. The proceeds of the Droits of A. are now 
 paid into the Exchequer for the pubKo use. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAND hes on the KW. coast 
 of N. America, between 57° Z and 58° 24' lat. N., 
 and 134° 52* and 133° 30' long. W. It is about 
 80 miles long, well wooded and watered. It is 
 inhabited, and belongs to Russia. 
 
 ADMIRALTY ISLAISTDS, a group of about 40 
 islands, to the N.E. of New Guinea, between 2° and 
 3° lat. S., and 146° 18' and 147° 46' long. E. They 
 were discovered by the Dutch in 1616. The largest 
 is about 50 miles long from E. to W. They abound 
 in cocoa-nut trees, and are inhabited by a race of 
 tawny frizzle-headed savages. 
 
 ADO'NIS, a mythical personage, whose beauty as 
 a child so attracted the love of Venus and Proser- 
 pine, that they quarrelled about the possession of 
 him. Jupiter, appealed to, settled the dispute 
 by deciding that A^should spend part of the 
 year with Venus, and part with Proserpine, so that 
 lie lived eight months of the year in the upper 
 world, and four in the under. A. was afterwards 
 killed by a boar while hunting, and Venus, coming 
 too late to his rescue, changed ms blood into flowers. 
 — A yearly festival was celebrated in honour of 
 A., and consisted of two parts — a mourning for his 
 departure to the under world, and a rejoicing for 
 his return to Venus. This festival, widely spread 
 among the coimtries bordering on the Mediterranean, 
 
 was celebrated with peculiar pomp at Alexandria. 
 Connected therewith were the Gardens of A, as they 
 were called. Before the festival, wheat, fennel, and 
 lettuce were sown in earthen, and even in sUver 
 
 Adonis autumnalis. 
 
 pots, and forced by heat; intended to indicate, 
 doubtless, by their brief bloom, the transitoriuess 
 of earthly joy. The myths connected with A. belong 
 originally to the east. They display a worship 
 of file powers of nature conjoined with that of the 
 heavenly bodies, and A. himself appears to be the 
 god of the solar year. The similarity of the name 
 to the Phoenician Adon, which signified 'lord,' is 
 unmistakable ; and this word Adon was specially 
 applied to the king of heaven, the sun. — ^In refer- 
 ence to the brilliant beauty ascribed to A, a beauti- 
 ful man is called ' an Adonis.' 
 
 ADONIS, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Sanuncidaceae (q, v.), 
 in which the flower 
 has 5 sepals and 5 — 10 
 petals without scales 
 at the base, and the 
 fruit consists of awn- , ^a», 
 less pericarps. The ^^ 
 species are all her- 
 baceous — some of them 
 annual and some per- 
 ennial. Several are 
 natives of Europe, but 
 only one, A. auium- 
 naiis, sometimes called 
 Pheasant's Eye, is a 
 doubtful native of 
 Britain. Its bright 
 scarlet petals have obtained for it the name of Moa 
 Adonis, iiheir colour having been fancifully ascribed 
 to their being stained with the blood of Adonis. It 
 is a well-known ornament of our gardens ; in which 
 also A. cestivaUs frequently appears, and A. vemcdis, 
 a perennial species common upon the lower Tiillg of 
 the middle and south of Germany, with early and 
 >beautiful flowers. 
 
 ADO'PTIAN CONTROVERSY, The, was an 
 echo of the Arian controversy, and originated 
 about the end of the 8th c. in Spain, the country in 
 which the doctrine of Anus had longest held out. 
 EUpandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and FeMx, the 
 learned Bishop of TJrgel, advanced the opinion that 
 Christ, in respect of his divine nature, was doubtless 
 by nature and generation the Son of God ; but that 
 as to his human nature, he must be considered as 
 only declared and adopted, through the divine 
 grace, to be the first-bom Son of God (Rom. viiL 
 29), just as all holy men are to be adopted as 
 sous of God, although in a less lofty sense. The 
 flame of controversy thus kindled, spread into the 
 Erankish empire, the special domain of 'CathoKc' 
 Christianity, and gave occasion to two synods, one 
 held at Ratisbon (792), and another at Frankfort 
 (794), in which Charlemagne took part in person, 
 and which condemned Adoptiamsm as heresy. The 
 Catholic doctrine of the unity of the two natures of 
 
 if 
 
ADOPTION— ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 Christ in one divine person, and the consequent 
 impossibility of there being a twofold Son — an 
 original and an adopted — ^was upheld by Alcuin and 
 the other learned men of Charlemagne's court. At a 
 subsequent synod at Aix-la-Chapelle, Felix, yielding 
 to compulsion, recanted his opinions, without, as it 
 would seem, being conYuiced. EHpandus adhered 
 fanatically to his views, which were, in after-times, 
 defended by Pohnar (1160), Duns Scotus (d 1308), 
 Durandus (d. 1322), the Jesuit Vasquez (1606), and 
 the Protestant divine Oahxtus (1643). 
 
 ADOPTION (Lat. adoptio). A legal institution 
 of much importance in both of the classical nations 
 of antiquity. A., in the stricter sense, in the Roman 
 law, applied only to the case in which a person in 
 the power of his father or grandfather was transferred 
 to that of the person adopting him. Where the 
 person adopted was already emancipated from the 
 
 Eaternal power {patria potestas), and was regarded 
 y the law as his own master [md juris), the pro- 
 ceeding was called adrogation (adrogaiio). A., how- 
 ever, was also used as a generic term comprehending 
 the two species; and in Greece, where there was 
 nothing corresponding to the paternal power of the 
 Eomaas, this distinction did not obtaiu. At Athens, 
 the adopted child was transferred from his own family 
 and parish or tribe (demos), iuto those of the adoptive 
 father, whose property he inherited in the absence 
 of legitimate children, and whose sacred rights he 
 was Dound to maintaia. Only Athenian citizens 
 could be adopted, so that not only the next of kin, 
 but the whole community were interested in prevent- 
 ing fraudulent adoptions. With this view, registra- 
 tion in the demus of the adoptive father was requisite, 
 in order to entitle the son to the rights of citizenship 
 as a member of it. In Eome, the adopted child 
 assumed the name, and became bound to discharge 
 the reHgious duties, of the adoptive father, which 
 usually consisted in sacrifices to the penates or other 
 divinities. Thes6 observances were for the most 
 part connected with the gens or tribe to which. the 
 individual and his family belonged; and Savigny 
 has even denied the existence of sacra peculiar to 
 the family. A. was effected under the authority of 
 a magistrate, the prsetor at Rome, or the governor 
 (proeses) in the provinces. Adrogation originally 
 required a vote of the people in "the Oomiiia 
 Curiata; but under the emperors, it became the 
 practice to effect it by an imperial rescript. A 
 patrician was sometimes adrogated into a plebeian 
 family for political purposes. Clodius, the enemy 
 of Cicero, was so adrogated, iu order that he might 
 be eligible to a tribuneship of the people. If a father, 
 having children in his power, was adopted, both he 
 and his children passed into the power of the adop- 
 tive father. It was requisite that the adoptive father 
 should have no children at the time, and no reason- 
 able prospect of having any. He was also required 
 to be older than the person adopted Females could 
 not be adrogated, nor, from their not sharing in the 
 paternal power, could they adopt in any form. An 
 opposite rule has prevailed'where the institution has 
 been received in modem times. A. was unknown to 
 the law of the Teutonic nations ; and though most 
 of the states of the continent have borrowed it from 
 the Roman law, it has never existed as an institution 
 either in England or Scotland. The patrimonial 
 benefits of A. may, however, be conferred by deed ; 
 and there is no illegality in any one assuming the 
 name, arms, and other d&tinguishing characteristics, 
 and corresponding responsibilities, of a person who 
 does not belong to Ins family. In France, A. is 
 recognised only in a very modified form [Code Giml, 
 art. 343, et seq.). 
 
 ADOU'E, a river in France, rises near Tour- 
 
 malet, in the department of the tipper Pyrenees, 
 waters in its course of 200 mUes the department 
 Gers, and the fertUe part of the department Landes, 
 and enters the Atlantic below Bayonne. It receives 
 several tributaries, and is navigable to the extent of 
 80 miles. Bagnferes-de-Bigorre, celebrated for its 
 hot baths, is sithated on the A. 
 
 A'DRIA, in the delegation of Rovijo in Lom- 
 bardy, is situated between the river Po and the 
 Adigg, contains about 10,000 inhabitants, and is 
 chiefly remarkable as being one of the oldest cities 
 in Europe. According to tradition, it was founded 
 by the Pelasgi, 1376 B.C. In the time of the 
 Romans, A. was one of the most frequented har- 
 bours in the Adriatic Sea; but by the continual 
 deposition of alluvium on the east coast of Italy, 
 it has been gradually separated from the sea, from 
 which it is now almost ten mUes distant. It stUl 
 retains several interesting remains of Etruscan and 
 Roman antiquity; but its wine, formerly so cele- 
 brated, is now deplorably bad. 
 
 A'DBIAN", the name of six popes, none of them 
 very remarkable. A. IV. was by birth an Eng- 
 hshinan, the only one of that nation that ever 
 sat in the papal chair. His name was Nicolas 
 Breakspeare. He was a native of Langley, near 
 St Albans, became first a lay-brother or servant 
 in the monastery of St Rufus, near Avignon, and 
 in 1137 was elected abbot. His zeal for strict 
 discipline raised a combination to defame his char- 
 acter, and he had to appear before Eugenius III. 
 at Rome. Here he not only cleared himself of aU 
 charges, but acquired the esteem of the pope, who 
 appomted >'im cardinal-bishop of Albauo in 1146. 
 On the death of Anastasius in 1154, he was raised 
 to the papal see. A. was at first on friendly 
 terms with the Emperor Frederic I. ; but his high 
 notions of the papal supremacy, which he carried as 
 far as even Gregory VII., led to the beginning of 
 that long contest of the popes against the house of 
 Hohenstaufen, which ended in the destruction of 
 the dynasty. He was about to excommunicate 
 Frederic, when he died at Anagni, 1159. It was 
 in A.'3 time that the doctrine of Transubstantia- 
 tion (q. v.), advanced by Petrus Lombardus, was 
 established. 
 
 A'DRIANOPLE, the second city in the Turkish 
 empire, was founded by the Emperor Hadrian on 
 the left bank of the navigable river Hebrus (now 
 Maritza).' Here the sultans ruled from 1366 to 
 1453, when Constantinople was made the capitaL 
 The city has now about 100,000 inhabitants, the 
 half of whom are Turks. Two palaces, forty 
 mosques, twenty-four pubHc schools, twenty-two 
 baths, and the numerous 'gardens laid out on the 
 banks of the Maritza, may be named as the prin- 
 cipal features of A. Its trade consists in opium, oil 
 of roses, with sflk and other manufactures. — The 
 Russian-Turkish war was here concluded, September 
 19, 1829, by the Peace, of A., which left the Porte 
 in possession of WaUachia, Moldavia, and the con- 
 quests made by Russia in Bulgaria and Roumelia. 
 On the other side, Russia got possession of the whole 
 of the coast of the. Black Sea, from the mouth of 
 the Kuban, in lat. 45° 15', to the haven of St 
 Nichola, lat. 42", with the territories of the Cau- 
 casus, and the greater part of the pachaho of 
 Akalzik. This Peace of A. served greatly to 
 confirm the power of Russia in Eastern Europe 
 and in Western Asia. 
 
 ADRIATIC SEA, a large arm of the sea, 
 extending, in a north-westerly direction, between 
 the east coast of Italy and the west coast of the 
 opposite continent, being connected with the Ionian 
 Sea by the Strait of Otranto. In the north, it forms 
 
APULE— ADVENT. 
 
 the Gulf of Venice, and in the north-east, the Gulf 
 of Trieste ; while, on the Italian side, it forms the 
 bays of Ravenna and Tremiti, and the narrower 
 and deeper Gulf of Manfredonia. On the other 
 side, the coasts of Illyria, Croatia, Dalmatia, and 
 Albania are steep, rooky, and barren, and begirt with 
 a chaia of almost innumerable small rocky islands. 
 The chief bay in this side is that of Quarnero, lying 
 south of the peninsula of Istria. The most consider- 
 able rivers flowing into the A. S. are the AdigS 
 and the Po, which are continually depositing soil 
 on the coast, so that places once on the shore are 
 now inland. The extreme saltueas of the A. is 
 probably owing to the comparatively small quan- 
 tity of fresh water poured iato it by rivers. Navi- 
 gation in the A. is safe and pleasant in' summer, 
 but in winter the north-west gales are formidable, 
 on account of the rocky and dangerous coasts on 
 the east. Trieste, Ancona, and Sinigaglia are the 
 chief places of commerce. , 
 
 ADXJ'LE, an ancient town on the coast of the 
 Ked Sea, was the port of Axum, and is noticed 
 chiefly on account of an inscription, of some import- 
 ance relative to the ancient geography of those 
 regions, the Monumentum Advlitanum, first pub- 
 lished, in the 6th c, in the Topograplna Ohristiana 
 of Cosmos Indicopleustes. The modern town is 
 called ZuUa, , 
 
 ADULTERATION OP FOOD, &c. The more 
 important adulterations will be noticed under tte 
 various articles. 
 
 ADTJ'LTEBY (Lat. aduUerium) has been weU 
 defined as 'the voluntary sexual intercourse of 
 a married person with a person other than the 
 oflender's husband or wife.' {Bishop on Marriage 
 and' Divorce, § 415). By the Roman law, there 
 was no A. unless the woman was married, and 
 the same was the rule in Athens. It was in 
 this limited form also that A. was recognised by the 
 Mosaic law. By the canon law, the husband and 
 wife were placed on the same footing; and this view 
 has been adopted by all the nations of modern 
 Europe. In the American state of New Jersey, it 
 has been decided that a married man does not commit 
 this crime in having connection with an uniiiarried 
 woman. (Bishop, Sid.) But such has not been 
 the prevalent doctrine even in America ; and it 
 has never been doubted that the offence necessary 
 to found the sentence of divorce is committed by 
 imlawful sexual intercourse equally whether the 
 particeps ■ criniinis were married or single. A. was 
 recognised as a crime even before Moses (Gen. 
 xxxviii. 24), and it is probable that in affixing to it 
 the punishment of death (Lev. xx. 10), he followed 
 the prevailing custom. A very remarkable law was 
 introduced for the trial of A., by causing the woman 
 suspected to drink the bitter waters of jealousy 
 (Numb. V. 26). In Rome, the Julian law, enacted 
 in the time of Augustus (17 B.C.), revised the previous 
 legislation on the subject, and imposed special penal- 
 ties, consisting of forfeiture of goods and banish- 
 ment, both on the adulteress and the paramour. The 
 husband, in certain cases, was permitted to kiU the 
 latter, and the father might sometimes ViH both. 
 A constitution of Constantine, the authenticity of 
 which has been doubted, made A. a capital offence 
 on the man's part. Whatever Constantine's law was, 
 , it was confirmed by Justinian, who further condenmed 
 the wife to be whipped, and imprisoned in a convent 
 for the rest of her days, unless reHeved by her hus- 
 band within two years (Novell 134, c. 10). The 
 offence was visited in Athens with punishments 
 closely resembling those of the earlier Roman legis- 
 lation. In many continental, countries, A. is still 
 treated as a criminal offence, but in none of them 
 
 does the punishment now exceed imprisomnent for 
 a limited period, which is frequently accompanied 
 with a fine. Lord Coke says, that by the law of 
 England in early times, A. was punished by fine and 
 imprisonment (3 Inst. 306). During the Common- 
 wealth, it was made a capital offence (Scohets Acta, 
 part ii., p. 121) ; but this law was not confirmed at 
 the Restoration. In Scotland, the records of the 
 Court of Justiciary shew that capital punishment 
 was frequently ioilicted. At the present day, it is 
 punishable in Great Britain only by ecclesiastical 
 censure ; and even this may be regarded as in desue- 
 tude. But when committed by the wife, it was 
 regarded as a civil injury, and, tUl the passing of the 
 stat. 20 and 21 Vic. c. 85 and 59, formed the ground 
 of an action of damages for criminal conversation 
 (commonly known as an action of crhn. con.) by the 
 husband against the paramour. No corresponding 
 action was competent to the wife, either in England 
 or America ; and her only remedy consisted in 
 obtaining a separation or divorce. In Scotland, A. 
 forms a ground for dissolution of the marriage, at 
 the suit of the injured party. See Sepabation, 
 Divorce. 
 
 A'DVENT, or Time of Advent (Lat. the approach, 
 or coming), a term applied, by the Christian Church, 
 to certain weeks before Christmas. In the Greek 
 Church, the time of A. comprises forty days ; 
 but in the Romish Church, and those Protestant 
 Churches in which A. is observed, only four weeks. 
 The origin of this festival, as a Church ordinance, 
 is not clear. The first notice of A., as an appoint- 
 ment of the Chiu'ch, is found in the Synod of 
 Lerida (524 a.d.), at which marriages were inter- 
 dicted from the beginning of A. until Christmas. 
 The four Sundays of A., as observed in the Romish 
 Church and the Chmrch of England, were probably 
 introduced into the calendar by Gregory the Great. 
 It was common from an early period to speak of 
 the coming of Christ a,s fourfold : his 'first coming in 
 the flesh ; his coming at the hour of death to receive 
 his faithfid followers (according to the expressions 
 used by St John) ; his coming at the fall of Jerusalem 
 (Matt. xxiv. 30) ; and at the day of judgment. 
 According to this f omf old view of A., the ' gospels ' 
 were chosen for the four Sundays, as was settled 
 in the Western Church by the Homilarium of 
 Charlemagne. The festival of A. is intended to 
 accord in spirit with the object celebrated. As 
 mankind were once called upon to prepare them- 
 selves for the personal coming of Christ, so, accord- 
 ing to the idea that the ecclesiastical year should 
 represent the life of the founder of the Church, 
 Christians are exhorted, during this festival, to look 
 for a spiritual advent of Christ. The time of the year 
 when the shortening days are hastening toward 
 the solstice — which aunost coincides with the festival 
 of the Nativity — is thought to harmonise with the 
 strain of sentiment proper during A. In opposition, 
 possibly, to heathen festivals, observed by ancient 
 Romans and Germans, which took place at the 
 same season, the Catholic Church ordained that 
 the four weeks of A. should be kept as a time of 
 penitence ; according to the words of Christ : 
 ' Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.' 
 During , these weeks, therefore, pubKo amusements, 
 mairiage-festivities, and dancing were prohibited ; 
 fasts were appointed, and sombre garments were 
 used in rehgious ceremonies. The Protestant Church 
 in Germany' has also abstained from public 
 recreations and celebrations of marriage during 
 A.- It was perhaps a natural thought to begia 
 the ecclesiastical year with the days of prepar- 
 ation for the coming of Christ. This was first 
 done by the Nestorian Church in the East in 
 the Wa. c. ; the example was soon followed in 
 
ADVERB— ADVOCATE. 
 
 Gaul, and afterwards became general througliout 
 the west. 
 
 A'DVEEB. As an adjective is joined to a noun, 
 so is an A., for analogous purposes, to a verb, 
 an adjective, or another A. From the frequency 
 with which adverbs are joined to verbs, they get 
 their name. An A. cannot be the subject, the 
 copula, or the predicate of a proposition ; and is, 
 therefore, a secondary part of speech, logically 
 speaking. According to their signification, adverbs 
 may be divided into — 1. Adverbs of Place, as, wliere, 
 towards; 2. of Time, as, ever, immediately; 3. of 
 Degree, as, very, almost; 4 of Manner, as, thus, 
 wisely; 5. of Belief or Doubt, as, perhaps, no, &c. — 
 It is commonly said, that ' some adverbs admit of 
 comparison ; ' as if in this respect they differed from 
 adjectives. The truth is, that adverbs admit of 
 comparison under the same limitations, neither more 
 nor less, that restrict the comparison of adjectives. 
 Thus, soon is compared as naturally as liard. If now 
 or Urns cannot be compared, neither can wooden nor 
 circular; and in both cases, for the same reason — the 
 sense forbids it. The laws of euphony prevent alike 
 miserable and miserably from being compared gram- 
 matically, i. e., by the addition of er and est; but both 
 admit of logical comparison by the use of more 
 and most. — A large .class of adverbs in English are 
 formed from adjectives by annexing the syllable ly, 
 which is just the word like. Most languages have 
 some such means of distinguishing the A. from the 
 adjective, except the German, in which they are alike. 
 Adverbs in general may be looked upon as abbrevia- 
 tions of phrases ; thus, here = in this place, tlien = at 
 that time, vrisely = like a vyise man. Combinations of 
 words that can thus be represented by a siagle 
 adverb, and all combinations that are analogous, 
 though they may have no single word equivalent to 
 them, are called adverbial expressions. 
 
 ADVE'RtlSBMEUrT (Er. a/vertissement). The 
 pubho notification of a fact. This is now commonly 
 effected either by means of the ordinary newspapers, 
 or of newspapers, printers' lists, and other publica- 
 tions specially devoted to the purpose. Advertise- 
 ments, both printed and written, are stiU posted on 
 church-doors, and 6ther places of pubho resort, in 
 which case they are commonly called biUs or placards. 
 The most formal kind of A., and that which is em- 
 ployed in the case of royal proclamations and the 
 like, is pubHoation in the Gazette (q. v.) ; but so little 
 is the Gazette read by private persons, that the courts 
 of law have held that pubhcation in it alone is not a 
 sufficient notice of a dissolution of partnership to 
 free the partners from debts afterwards contracted 
 in name of the company. PubUc notifications are 
 frequently enjoined by statute ; as, for example, under 
 Eo'ad and Bridge Acts, the Bankrupt Statutes, &c. 
 In many other 'ways, their legal effects' are import- 
 ant. Advertisements by pubhc carriers, railway com- 
 panies, and the hke, are equivalent to offers whereby 
 the advertiser will be bound to -those who send 
 goods on the faith, and in accordance with the terms 
 of the A. By advertising a general ship, for a parti- 
 cular voyage, the master places himself on the foot- 
 ing of a public carrier, and is bound to receive goods 
 for the port to which the vessel is advertised to 
 sail. A merchant in such circumstances can insist 
 on his goods being received, unless the ship be 
 fuU, or the -entire freight engaged. The contract 
 of affreightment is completed by the A., and the 
 shipping of the goods in confomiity and with refer- 
 ence thereto. See Chaotbe-paett, Cabkieb. — In 
 1833, the duty on advertisements, which was 3s. 6d. 
 in Great Britain, and 2s. 6a!. in Ireland for each A., 
 was reduced to Is. M. in the former country, and 
 Is. in the latter (3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 23). In 1853, 
 CO 
 
 it was whoUy repealed (16 and 17 Vict. o. 62). In 
 1832, the year previous to the reduction, the duty 
 amounted to £170,650 ; in 1841 it was £131,608 ; and 
 in 1853, the year of the repeal, it had increased to 
 £180,000, thus exceeding the amount before the 
 period of reduction. Advertisements are found in 
 England as early as the middle of the 17th c. ; but 
 advertising was not general tiU the beginning of the 
 18th. In America, where advertising has never been 
 taxed, it has long been practised to an enormous 
 extent; and since the repeal of the duty, it has in- 
 creased in this country at a very rapid rate. Most 
 newspapers are rendered remunerative to their pro- 
 prietors only by means of the advertisements which 
 they contaio. See Newspapbb. 
 
 ADVICE. See Bill of ExcHAjroB. 
 
 A'DVOOATB (Lat. advocatus). An A. is gener- 
 ally deiined 'the patron of a. cause,' though it 
 does not appear that the 'patrons' who, in ancient 
 Rome, assisted their chents with advice and pleaded 
 their causes, were ever called by that name. Even 
 io the time of Cicero, the term advocatus was not 
 apphed to the patron or orator who pleaded in 
 pubMc, but rather, in strict accordance with the 
 etymology of the word, to any one who in any piece 
 of business was called in to assist another. There 
 can be no doubt, however, that the forensic orators 
 and jurisconsults of the later period of the repubhc, 
 who followed law as a profession, and received fees 
 [honoraria) for their services, occupied a position 
 closely analogous to that of the A. of modem times, 
 and thus it has been said that the profession is older 
 than the name. The occupations of a jurisconsult 
 and a forensic orator seem to have differed pretty 
 much as those of a consulting and a practising counsel 
 do with us. They might be exercised separately, 
 but were generally combined; and thus Cicero 
 speaks of his master, ScKvola, as ' the most eloquent 
 of tihe learned, and the most learned of the eloquent' 
 (jurisperitorum eloquentissimus, eloquentium juris- 
 peritissimus, De Or., i. 39). Ulpian defined an A. 
 to be any person who aids another in the conduct of 
 a suit, or action [Dig. 50, Ht. 13), and in other parts 
 of the digest it is used as equivalent to an orator (see 
 also Tacit. Annal., x. 6), so that the word would 
 seem gradually to have assumed its modem mean- 
 ing. The office of the A. or barrister who conducted 
 the cause in pubhc, was, in Rome, as with us, alto- 
 gether distinct from that of the procurator, or, as we 
 should say, attorney or agent, who represented the 
 person of the cKent in the litigation, and furnished 
 the A. with information regarding the facts of the 
 case. The distinction between these two occupa- 
 tions, however, obvious and important as it seems to 
 us, does not everywhere prevail; and in many of the 
 states of Germany, in Geneva, in America, and in 
 some ai our own colonies, as, for example, in Canada, 
 they are united in the same person. In England 
 and Ireland, advocates are called Barristers, under 
 which title wiU be found a statement of the duties 
 and responsibilities which the A. undertakes to his 
 chent, and of the state of the profession in these 
 countries. In Scotland, as in France, the more 
 ancient name has been retaiaed. See Advocates, 
 Factjlty of. 
 
 In France, the avocat and avouS correspond very 
 nearly to the barrister and attorney in England. 
 The advocates do not form a corporation, in the 
 technical sense, but are a free society or association 
 (ordre), which has the power of protecting its mem- 
 bers, and of exercising internal surveiUance and 
 discipline over them. Keither do they exercise any 
 ministerial functions like those which public authority- 
 has conferred, imder certain conditions and respon- 
 sibilities, on avou6s and notaries. Eie French A. is 
 
ADVOCATE, LORD— ADVOCATES, PACtTLTY OF. 
 
 simply a free man, who has graduated ia law, and 
 possesses the privilege of addressiiig the tribunals. 
 The advocates who practise in each court fomj a 
 separate college, admission to which can be obtained 
 only with the approval of those who are already 
 members. Enrolment in the books of the college 
 does not confer the title of A., for this title belongs 
 to every licentiate who has taken the oaths before a 
 court ; but it gives the right of communicating (droit 
 de communiquer) with tte other members , of the 
 body, without which the exercise of the profession 
 wovdd be impossible. As a necessary consequence 
 of this arrangement, erasure of the name of any 
 individual from the list is equivalent to a prohibition 
 to practise. The Prenoh A. possesses the same privi- 
 leges as to irresponsibility for his advice, and for 
 the facts contained in his instructions, which belong 
 to members of the corresponding branch of the leg^ 
 profession in this country. He is also Entitled to plead 
 covered (see Bahrettb), and as he has no action 
 for his fees, they are, as with us, paid in advance. 
 The French advocates have, on several occasions, 
 resisted, as an encroachment on their privileges, the 
 attempt to compel them to grant receipts for their 
 fees. It further belongs to the etiquette of the bar of 
 France that, in communicating articles of process to 
 each other, no acknowledgment shall be exchanged ; 
 and we are told, with honest pride, that during the 
 many centuries that, this custom has existed, not one 
 single instance of its abxise has occurred. 
 
 In Belgium, in Geneva, and also in those of the 
 German states by which the Code Napoleon has 
 been received, the organisation and discipline of this 
 branch of the legal profession are similar to those 
 which prevail in France. In the other German 
 states, with the exception of Saxony, the formation 
 of the advocates into a body has been perseveringly 
 resisted by the governments. A general assembly 
 of German advocates was attempted at Mayence in 
 1844, and in Hamburg in 1846; and in the latter 
 city, it actually took place in the following year, but 
 it fed to no permanent results. 
 
 ADVOCATE, LoED. The L. A. for Scotland, 
 called also the King's or Queen's A., is the public 
 prosecutor of crimes, senior counsel for the crown 
 in civil causes, and a political functionary of very 
 great importauoe- in the management of Scottish 
 affairs. He may issue warrants for arrestment and 
 imprisonment in any part of Scotland, and possesses 
 many other disoretionaiy and indefinite powers. 
 Previous to the Union, the King's A. had a seat in 
 the parliament of Scotland ex officio; and since that 
 event, he has been almost invariably a member of 
 parliament. He is appointed by the crown, £iud his 
 tenure of office ceases with that of the administration 
 of which he is a member. As first law-officer of the 
 crown for Scotland, the L. A., when in parliam,ent, 
 is expected to answer all questions relating to the 
 business of Scotland, and to take the superintend- 
 ence of legislation for that portion of the United 
 Kingdom. Notwithstanding his multifarious official 
 duties, the L. A. accepts ordinary practice at the 
 bar, and, indeed, is usually the most extensively 
 employed practitioner connected with the party in 
 power. He is assisted in the duties of public pro- 
 secutor by the solicitor-general, and by four junior 
 barristers, called advocates-depute, appointed by 
 himself. The L. A. and solicitor-general are alone 
 entitled to plead within the bar, and they are the 
 only barristers in Scotland who have the distinction 
 of silk gowns. When the L. A. declines to prose- 
 cute, it is competent for a private party to do so ; 
 and in this case the concurrence or ' concourse,' 
 as it ia called, of the L. A., which is granted 
 as a' matter of course, must be obtained. Such 
 a proceeding, however, is scarcely known in 
 
 practice in Scotland. The best historical account of 
 this important, and, in many respects, anomalous 
 office, with which we are acquainted, is contained in 
 the judgment of the late Lord Medwyn in Kin^s 
 A. against Lord Douglas, December 24, 1836. In 
 England, the sovereign pursues in his own name; 
 and such was the practice in Scotland also, tiU about 
 the middle of the 16th c, when we find Queen Mary 
 prosecuting by her advocate ; probably in imitation 
 of the French custom. For some time after the 
 institution of the College of Justice in 1532, the A. 
 for the crown was always one of the judges of the 
 Court of Session, and as in France the king's advo- 
 cates were also at the same time judges, this coinci- 
 dence has been mentioned by Sir George Mackenzie 
 in proof of the French origin of the office ; but a 
 combination of offices, now held to be incompatible, 
 was not then uncommon. Lord Medwyn -infoims 
 us that among the original fifteen ordinary judges, 
 was Sir Adam Otterbume, who was King's A. from 
 1525 to 1588, and also provost of Edinburgh from 
 1524 to 1535. So late as 1686, Sir George Lockhart, 
 when president of the court, was ordered by a letter 
 from King James VII. to officiate as his A. in parlia- 
 ment. It is not certain that the King's A. was origin- 
 ally authorised to act as pubHo prosecutor in crimes; 
 but he certainly possessed that power in 1587 (c. 77), 
 and it seems to be implied in an earlier statute (1579, c. 
 78). It Was indeed, as Lord Medwyn remarks, less of 
 an anomaly that a judge of the Court of Session should 
 act as the representative of the crown in criminal 
 than in civil causes, seeing that the former were 
 adjudged in another court. The King's A. is first 
 mentioned as Lord A. in the record of the Court of 
 Justiciary in 1598. But although it was not till the 
 institution of the College of Justice that this office 
 was placed on its present footing, we have mention of 
 its existence in 1479 ; but the King's A. was not then 
 one of the officers of state, a dignity, indeed,' which 
 he does not seem to have attained till 1540. In 
 1582, the salary of the L. A. was orJy £40 Scots. His 
 present salary is £2387, and he is entitied to per- 
 quisites which raise his emolimients greatly above 
 that sum. The L. A.'s deputes have £500 a year, 
 and his secretary in London £350. The crown-agent, 
 who is a Writer to the Signet (q. v.), and who per- 
 forms in reference to crown causes pretty much the 
 same duties that fall to an attorney or agent in 
 ordinary litigation, receives £1400. As to-the rela- 
 tion in which tiie L. A. stands to the public 
 prosecutors of crimes in the inferior courts, see 
 Peocdeatok-fiscal. The L. A., though not a 
 privy-councillor, is addressed as the Bight Honour- 
 able during his tenure of office. 
 
 ADVOCATES, Faculty or, in Scotland. The 
 constitution of this body, like the name by which 
 its members are known, was unquestionably derived 
 from France. The profession seems to have existed 
 in Scotland from a very early time; and in 1424 
 (c. 45) a statute was passed for securing the assist- 
 ance of A. to the poor. The words of the statute 
 are remarkable, and its spirit, when we consider the 
 period, highly creditable to the humanity and erdight- 
 ermient of the Scotch. ' And gif there bee onie pure 
 creature, for faulte of cunning, or dispenses, that 
 caimot, nor may not foUow his cause, tiie king, for 
 the love of God, sail ordaine the judge before quhom 
 the cause sulde be determined, to purwey and get a 
 leiU and a wise advocate, to follow sik pure creatures 
 causes ; and gif sik causes be obteined [gained], the 
 wranger [vnrong-doer] saU assyith baith the partie 
 skaitned, and the advocatis coastes and travel.' 
 This institution has remained with little alteration 
 to -the present time (see Poor's Boll). But though 
 existing as a profession, the A. of Scotiand did not 
 form a Faculty or society till the institution of the 
 
ADVOCATES' LIBEARY— ADVOWSON. 
 
 College of Justice (q. v.) in 1532. At first, their 
 number was limited to ten, but there is no-w no 
 limit. The number on the rolls of the body is 
 about 425; but the number of those who practise 
 does not exceed 120. Even of these a very small 
 fraction live by the practice of the profession. Erom 
 the improvements which have been made in the 
 sheriff-courts, and from Either causes, the amount of 
 litigation in the Coiui; of Session has greatly dimin- 
 ished since the begimiing of the present century, 
 and the continued accession of new members to the 
 Faculty of A. is to be accounted for only by the fact 
 that the Bar is stiU regarded as the regular avenue 
 to public and official hfe in Scotland. Two examin- 
 ations are ipiposed on candidates for admission, the 
 one in general scholarship, the other in la,w; the first, 
 however, being dispensed with in case the intrant 
 shall produce evidence that he is a Master of 
 Arts of any British university, or that he has 
 attained such degree in a foreign university as, in 
 the opinion of the Dean of Faculty and his council, 
 affords evidence of the same amount of scholarship 
 as that afforded by the degree of Master of Arts of 
 a, Scottish university. Should no such degree be 
 possessed, an examination takes place before a com- 
 mittee of the Faculty, assisted by three' or more 
 persons of learning (generally professors in the 
 university of Edinburgh), on the following subjects : ' 
 1. Latin; 2. Greek, or (in the intrant's option) any 
 two of the following languages — namely, French, 
 German, Italian, Spanish ; 3. Ethical and Metaphy- 
 sical Philosophy ; 4. Logic, or (in the intrant's 
 option) Mathematics. If the intrant be found 
 qualified in general scholarship, he may, after the 
 expiry of a year, go in for his private examination 
 on law. The examinators, however, cannot take 
 him on trial if, during the year before such examin- 
 ation, he have been engaged in any trade, business, 
 or profession, either on his own account, or as assist- 
 ant to, or in the employment of another. Proof of 
 attendance on the law-classes in the imiversity of 
 Edinburgh is also requisite. An advocate is entitled 
 to plead in every court in Scotland, civil, ecclesias- 
 tical, or criminal, superior or inferior; and also 
 before the House of Lords. A party may manage 
 his own cause in the Court of Session (q. v.), so far 
 as oral pleading is concerned, but with exception of 
 defences, every paper in process must be signed by 
 a,u advocate. There is a widow's fund belonging to 
 the body, which is also regulated by statute. The 
 supreme judges of Scotland, and principal sheriffs, 
 are always, and the sheriff-substitutes generally, 
 selected from the bar. The fees on admission to 
 the Faculty of A. are about £336. 
 
 ADVOCATES' LIBRAKY. This hbraiy, which 
 belongs to the Faculty of Advocates in Edinburgh, 
 was established by Sir George Mackenzie in 1682. 
 It had at first no fixed fund; the Faculty, from time 
 to time, set apart sums for its maintenance, and 
 donations were made for its use, not only by advo- 
 cates, but by athers. By the copyright law of 1709, 
 it obtained, along with eight other hbraries, the 
 privilege of receiving a copy of every new book. 
 This privilege is still continued to the A. L. 
 (5 and 6 Vict., c. 45, s. 8), although withdrawn 
 from the other Scottish libraries ; and to this 
 is mainly owing the complete character of the 
 collection in British books. It is comparatively 
 deficient in foreign literature and science ; for the 
 Faculty have no. other funds at their disposal than 
 the fees derived from ' intrants,' and the sum they 
 are able to devote to the maintenance of the Hbrary 
 is quite inadequate. The number of volumes is 
 estimated at 160,000 — perhaps twice as many 
 as any other Scottish library. It is particularly 
 rich in law ; in Scottish history and antiquities ; 
 
 in the works of the fathers and schoolmen, and 
 in theology generally. The Spanish department is 
 particularly valuable. The bmldiug containing the 
 library, notwithstanding the recent improvements, 
 is dark and inconvenient, most of the rooms being 
 under the Parliament House, where the courts of 
 law sit. Although the library belongs strictly to 
 the Faculty of Advocates, yet, under their liberal 
 management, it has in a great degree the character 
 of a pubKc institution. Any stranger arriving in! 
 Edinburgh is admitted to see the library; and with 
 an introduction, any one may resort to it -to consult 
 books. Books may even, be borrowed through the 
 members of the Faculty, who are remarkably liberal 
 in this respect. , Thomas Euddiman and David 
 Hume both held the office of librarian or ' keeper of 
 the A. L.' 
 
 ADVOCA'TION, a form of process in the law of 
 Scotland, the object of which is to remove a cause 
 from an inferior court to the supreme court, either 
 for the purpose of review, or that the cause in its 
 future stages may be conducted in the Court of 
 Session. ■ Pinal judgments of inferior courts are 
 thus brought under review of the Court of Session 
 by lodging a written note of A. with one of the 
 depute-clerks of Session or his assistant (1 and 2 
 Vict. c. 86). A certified notice of this proceeding 
 puts a stop to all further steps in the original 
 cause. The party advocating must find caution 
 for the expenses already incurred, or which may 
 be incurred, in the Court of Session. See CAunoN 
 and JtiEATOKY Cautoon. As a general rule, A. 
 is competent, unless debarred either by statute or 
 confirmed practice ; but no cause can be advocated 
 unless it exceed the value of £25 (16 and 17 Vict, 
 c. 80, s. 22). A. is incompetent in actions limited 
 to particular courts by express statute, e. g., by the 
 Small Debt Acts, Boad Acts, &c. Every case in 
 which the claim exceeds £40, may be removed into 
 the Court of Session, so soon as an order allowing a 
 proof has been pronounced, should either party be 
 of opuiion that it ought to be tried by jury. It is 
 now competent in all advocations for either party, 
 at the first calling of the cause before the Lotd 
 Ordinary, to move for its removal to the Inner 
 House by report. On the other hand, the parties 
 have it m their power to enter into a judicial con- 
 tract, whereby they consent that the Lord Ordinary's 
 judgment shall be final, and not subject to review ; 
 but the express consent of both parties is necessary 
 (16 and 17 Vict. c. 86, ». 25). 
 
 ADVOCA'TUS DIA'BOLI, the Devil's ^dvocate. 
 In the Komish Church, when it is proposed that a 
 deceased person shall be canonised, an examination 
 of his past life takes place. In this process, one 
 party holds the office of accuser, or advocatus diaholi; 
 and it is his duty to bring forward all possible 
 objections against the proposed canonisation ; while, 
 on the other side, the Advocatus Dei (God's Advocate) 
 imdertakes the defence. Hence the term A. D. 
 has been applied to designate any person who brings 
 forward malicious accusations. 
 
 ADVOWSON. The right of presentation to a 
 church or ecclesiastical benefice in England. Advow- 
 sons are either appendant or in gross. Lords of manors 
 were originally the only founders, and, of comse, the 
 only patrons of churches ; and so long as a right of 
 patronage continues annexed fit appended to the 
 manor, it is called an A. appendant. Such rights are 
 conveyed with the manor as incident thereto, by a 
 grant of the manor only, without adding any other 
 words. But where the property of the A. has been 
 once separated from the property of the manor by 
 legal conveyance, it is called an A. in gross, or at 
 large, and is annexed to the person of its owner, and 
 
.ffiBILES— ^GIS. 
 
 not to hia manor or lands. Advowsons are further 
 divided into presentcUive, coUaMve, or donaiive. The 
 first is where the patron has the right of presenta- 
 tion to the hishop or ordinary, and may demand of 
 him to institute his clerk, lE he find him eanonioally 
 qualified. This is thf* most usual A. The second or 
 ooUative A. is where the bishop and patron are one 
 and the same person. In this case, the bishop cannot 
 
 E resent to himself, but he does by the one act of ed- 
 ition the whole that is done in common oases by 
 both presentation and institution. The third or 
 donative A. is when the sovereign, or a subject by 
 his licence, founds a chnroh or chapel, and ordains 
 that it shall be at the sole disposal oi the patron, sub- 
 ject to his visitation only, and not that of the ordi- 
 nary, and vested in ; the clerk by the patron's deed 
 of donation, without presentation, institution,, or 
 induction. ' This is said to have been anciently the 
 only way of conferring ecclesiastical benefices in 
 England; the method of institution by the bishop 
 not being established more early than the time of 
 Archbishop I, Becket, ia the reign of Henry II.' — 
 Ken's BlacJcstone, vol. ii. p. 20. 
 
 jE'DILBS, Roman magistrates, who had the care 
 of 'public buildings {cedes), especially the temples, and 
 also attended to the cleansing and repairing of the 
 streets, the preparations for funerals, public games 
 and spectacles, the inspection ' of weights and 
 measures, the regulation of markets, &e. — At first 
 there were only two ^., who were chosen from 
 the plebeians, and styled JE. plebis; afterwards, two 
 others, styled ^. cmides, were chosen from the 
 patricians (366 B.C.), and Jxilins Caesar appointed 
 a new order of ^. cei^eales to take charge of the 
 pubUc granaries. 
 
 ^GI'XA, now written Egina, an island forming 
 part of the kingdom of Greece, of about forty 
 square miles, in area, in the ancient Sarouicus 
 Sinus, now the Gulf of Egina. It is mountainous, 
 with deep valleys and chasms; and the coast 
 affords only one haven on the north-west. The 
 modem town of Egina stands on the site of the 
 ancient town, at the north-west end of the island. 
 The island contains about 7000 inhabitants, who 
 are chiefly occupied in trade, navigation, and 
 agricrdture. The soil produces the best ahnonds 
 in Greece, with wine, oil, com, and various fruits. 
 Partridges abound in such mnnbers, that the 
 people find it necessary to thin them by destroy- 
 ing their eggs. The most ancient name of the 
 island was CEnone, and, according to tradition, the 
 Myrmidons dwelt in its valleys and caverns. In 
 ancient times, the people of M. had considerable 
 importa,nce in Greece ; and their fleet distinguished 
 itself for valour in iiie battle of SaJamis. Their 
 prosperity excited the envy of the Athenians, who 
 made the island tributary, and afterwards expelled 
 altogether the original inhabitants. The language, 
 manners, and style of art among the ancient people 
 of 2B. were Dorian. 
 
 JEGINB'TAN SCULPTURES. The smaU 
 island of .^gina holds an important position in the 
 history of Grecian art. A severely natural character 
 belongs to its works of sculpture, of which several 
 have been discovered in modem times. On an 
 eminence iu the eastern part of the island stand 
 the ruins of a temple, usually called the temple of 
 Jupiter PauheUenius, but now believed to have been 
 a temple of PaUas or Minerva. Among these 
 ruins a series of statues were excavated by a 
 company of Germans, Danes, and Englishmen, 
 which, in 1811, were purchased by Louis, then 
 crown-prince of Bavaria, and are now the most 
 remaakable ornaments of the Glyptothek at Munich. 
 • They are of various heights, and were evidently 
 
 intended to decorate the tympana of the temple 
 beside which they were found. The group that 
 
 Ruins of Temple of ^gina. 
 
 seems to have been designed for the hinder tym- 
 panum is superior in preservation, and represents 
 a combat of Greeks and Trojans for the body of a 
 
 Front elevation of Temple of .^gina, restored. 
 
 fallen hero. The other group is the contest of Tela- 
 mon with Laomedon. The 
 figures are true to nature, 
 as in the old, Greek style, 
 with the structure of bones, 
 muscles, and even veins, dis- 
 tinctly marked; but the faces 
 have that unpleasant, forced 
 smile which is characteristic 
 of aH sculpture before the 
 time of Phidias. 
 
 ^'GIS, the shield of 
 Jupiter, which had been 
 fashioned by Hephiestus 
 (Vulcan). When Jupiter was 
 angry, he waved and shook 
 the JE., making a sound like 
 that of a tempest, by which 
 the nations were overawed. 
 The M. was the symbol of 
 divine protection, and be- 
 came, in course of time, the 
 
 Minerva, with jEgis. 
 From an ancient statue. 
 
 exclusive attribute of Jupiter and Minerva. 
 
Ma'LE— AERATED BKBAD. 
 
 M'Gli^, a genus of plants of tlie natural order 
 AurantiaceoB (q. v.), distinguislied by a five-toothed 
 calyx, linear elongate mucronate anthers, and a 
 many-celled fruit. ^. Marmelos, the tree which 
 produces the bhil fruit of India, has temate petio- 
 late, ovato-oblong leaves, and the flowers in panicles. 
 It is f pund from the south of India to the base of the 
 Himalaya Mountains. The fruit is delicious, frag- 
 rant, and nutritious. In an imperfectly ripened state, 
 it is an astringent of great effect in cases of diarrhoea 
 and dysentery; and as such has lately been intro- 
 duced into English medical practice. The root, bark, 
 and leaves, are also used as medicinal The Dutch 
 in Ceylon prepare a perfume from the rind of the 
 fruit : and the mucus of the seed is employed as a 
 cement for many purposes. 
 
 ^OOSPO'TAMI oriEGOSPO'TAMOS (Gr. Goat- 
 river), in the Thracian Chersonese, is famous for the 
 defeat of the Athenian fleet by the Lacedaamonians 
 undra" Lysander, which put an end to the Pelopon- 
 nesian War and to the predominance of Athens in 
 Greece, 405 b. c. 
 
 .ai'LFEIC, or A'LFKIO, a distinguished Sa^on 
 ecclesiastic of the 10th c, regarding whose age, 
 writings, and personality even, there has been a 
 great difference of opinion amongst antiquaries. 
 He appears to have been the son of the Ealdormau 
 or Eari' of Kent ; but early manifesting a devotional 
 spirit, he entered the monastery of Abingdon, the 
 members of which belonged to the Benedictine 
 order. Towards the close of the 10th c, he 
 became a priest in the cathedral of Winchester. 
 He was next appointed Abbot of St Albans, then 
 Bishop of Wilton, and finally Archbishop of York, 
 although others appear to tmnk Tiim that jH!. who 
 was Archbishop of Canterbury. jE., Archbishop of 
 York, died in 1050 ; M., Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 in 1005. The writer ^., whether of York or of Can- 
 terbury, was a man of superior attainments for his 
 time, of excelleiit character, and one whose rehgious 
 convictions were less disfigured by superstition than 
 those of his contemporaries. The principal works 
 ascribed to ,jE. are — 1. A Latin and Saxon glos- 
 sary, printed at Oxford in 1659 ;' 2. A Saxon version 
 of most of the historical books of the Old Testa- 
 ment; 3. A charge to his clergy; 4. Two volumes 
 of Saxon homilies ; S. A Saxon grammar in Latin. 
 
 CHILIAN PROVINCES. See Emilian Pbo- 
 
 VINCES. 
 
 ^MI'LIUS PAULUS. The most remarkable 
 of this name was the son of the consul iE. P., who 
 fell in the battle of Cannse, 216 E. c. Young ^milius 
 inherited his father's valour, ajid enjoyed an un- 
 wonted degree of public esteem and confidence. In 
 168 B. c. he was elected consul for the second time, 
 and intrusted with the war against Perseus, king of 
 Macedon, whom he defeated in the battle of Pydna. 
 Duriug the war, his two younger sous died; and 
 jE. is said to have thanked the gods that they had 
 been chosen as victims to avert calamity from the 
 Koman people. 
 
 ^N"E'AS, the hero of VirgU's JSneid, was, accord- 
 ing to Homer, the son of Anohises and Venus, and 
 was ranked next to Hector among the Trojan heroes. 
 The traditions of his adventures before and after 
 the fall of Troy are various and discordant. Virgil 
 
 fives the following version : .^neas, though warned 
 y Priam in the night when the Greeks entered 
 Troy, to take his household gods, and flee from the 
 city, remaiaed in the contest until Priam fell, when, 
 taking with him his family, he escaped from the 
 Greeks, but, in the confusion of his hasty flight, 
 lost his wife Creusa. Having collected a fleet of 
 twenty vessels, he sailed to Thrace, where he began 
 building the city of Moos, but was terrified by an 
 
 imfavourable omen, and abandoned his plan of a 
 settlement here. A mistaken inteipretation of the 
 oracle of Delphi now led him to Crete; but from 
 this place he was driven by a pestilence. Passing 
 the promontory of Actiimi, he came to Epirus, ana 
 then continued his voyage to Italy and round SioUy 
 to the promontory of Drepanum on the west, where 
 his father, Anchises, died. A storm afterwards drove 
 him to the coast of Africa, and landing near Carthage, 
 he was hospitably received and entertained by 
 Queen Dido. His marriage with Dido was prevented 
 by Jupiter, who sent Mercury with a command that 
 ^neas must return to Italy. Accordingly, he sailed ■ 
 away, leaving the disappointed queen, who com- 
 mitted suicide. During his stay in Sicily, where he 
 celebrated the funeral of his father, the wives of his 
 companions and seamen, weary of long voyages 
 without certainty of finding a home, set fire to his 
 fleet. After buQdina the city Acesta, he sailed for 
 Italy, leaving behind him the women, and some of 
 the men belonging to his fleet. On landing in Italy, 
 he visited the Sibyl at Cumse, and received intima- 
 tions of his future destiny. Then, sailing along the 
 Tiber, and landing on the east side of the river, he 
 found himself in the coimtry of Latiuus, king 
 of the Aborigines. Lavinia, the daughter of Latinua, 
 had been destined to marry a stranger; but her 
 mother had promised to give her jn marriage to 
 Turnus, king of the Rutuh. A war ensued, which termi- 
 nated, in the marriage of JEaeas with Lavinia. Their 
 son, .(Enbas Sylvius, as the ancestor of the kings of 
 Alba Longa, and also of Romulus and Remus, was 
 regarded as the founder of the Roman empire. It is 
 hardly necessary to add that all these statements 
 are merely mythical, having no historical basis. 
 
 MO'IAXSS HARP, a very simple musical instru- 
 ment which produces harmonic sounds when placed 
 in a current of wind. It is formed by stretching 
 eight or ten strings of catgut, all tuned in unison, 
 over a wooden shell or box, made generally iil a 
 form sloping hke a desk. The sounds produced by 
 the rising and falling wind, in passing over the 
 strings, are of a drowsy and lulling character, and 
 have been beautifully described by the poet Thomson, 
 as supplying the most suitable kind of music for the 
 OcvsUe of Indolence. 
 
 -ffiO'LIANS, one of the principal races of the 
 Greek people, who were originally Settled in Thes- 
 saly, from which they spread and formed numeroiis 
 settlements in the northern parts of -Greece and in 
 the west of Peloponnesus. In the 11th o. B.C. 
 some part of them emigrated to Asia Minor, where 
 they founded, on the N. W. coast, in Mysia, and 
 the adjacent isles, more than thirty cities; among 
 them, Smyrna, and Mitylene in the island of Lesbos, 
 where the jEohan dialect of the Greek language 
 chiefly developed itself in the forms employed in the 
 poetry of AlcEeus and Sappho. The jEoHan shared 
 the fate of the other Grecian colonies in Asia Minor. 
 First oppressed by the Lydian kings, then deprived 
 of then independence by the Persians, they became 
 a portion of the great empire founded by Alexander, 
 and, passing through a stage of subjection to the 
 dynasty of the Seleucidse, werp ultimately absorbed 
 m the Roman empire. 
 
 ^'OSr, a Greek word signifying an age, and also 
 etermty. The Gnostics spoke of Mons, in a peculiar 
 sense, as powers that had emanated from God before 
 the beginning of time, and existed as distinct entities 
 or spunts. They were oafled ^ons either as partak- 
 ing of the eternal existence of God, or because they 
 were thought to preside over the various ages and 
 transformations of the world. See Gnosticism. 
 
 AERATED BREAD, a term that has been 
 apphed to bread prepared by a process very recently 
 
AERATED WATEES. 
 
 patented, and likely to come into use. In ordinary 
 bread-making, the wbeat-flonr is moistened with water 
 and worked mto dough, to which common salt and 
 yeast are added. The latter causes the flour to 
 ferment or decompose, when carbonic acid is given off 
 at every part ; and when the fermented dough is 
 placed in an oven, the bubbles of carbonic acid gas 
 expand, and cause the formation of the spongy 
 mass characteristio of well-made loaf-bread. The 
 new process of preparing A. B. consists- in ^placing 
 the flour in a strong enclosed iron box, and moisten- 
 ing it with oarbomo acid water, prepared as stated 
 under A. Waters. The dough is then worked 
 up by machinery inside the box, and in ten minutes 
 or so, it is taken out, shaped into loaves, and placed 
 in an oven, when the' carbonic acid, previously 
 introduced with the water within the dough, 
 expands, and forms a light palatable bread. 'Hie 
 a,dvantages which this method of working bread 
 has, as spt forth by the patentees, are — 1. There 
 is a saving of the whole of the waste caused by 
 fermentation, which averages fully 10 per cent. 
 Thus 10 per cent, more bread is made out of a sack 
 of flour than by the old process. 2. The process, 
 instead of occupying eight or ten hours, is completed 
 in half an hour. 3. The cost of machinery and gas 
 is less than iihat of yeast used in the old process. 4. 
 The dough requires scarcely any handling to form it 
 into loaves. 5. The bread is absolutely pure — it is 
 simply flour, water, and salt. Finally, should the 
 whole of the bread in the kingdom be thus made, a 
 saving would be effected in one year equal in amount 
 "to the entire ordinary importation of foreign wheat. 
 AERATED WATERS are employed largely 
 as refreshing, refrigerant, beverages to allay tnii^t 
 during warm weather, and during feverish conditions 
 of the animal frame. The most common A. beverage 
 is Garbomic add water, generally spoken of as Soda- 
 ■water, though it seldom contains any soda. It is pre- 
 pared on the large scale by placing whitmg, chalk, 
 or carbonate of lime (CaX),GO,) in a lead vessel 
 
 with water and sulphuric acid (SO,), when the 
 siilphuric acid combines with the lime to form 
 stucco or sulphate of lime (CaOjSO^), and carbonic 
 acid (CO 2) is evolved as gas. The latter is received 
 in a reservoir, and is thereafter forced into water, 
 so that the latter dissolves about five times its 
 own volume of the gas. The water then consti- 
 tutes a brisk sparkling liquid, with -■ pungent, but 
 "pleasant acidulous tastg. On the small scale, and 
 for family use, carbonic acid water may be con- 
 veniently^prepared in the apparatus known as the 
 ^azogine or seltzog&ne. The complete apparatus is 
 seen at A, and dissected at B and C. In proceed- 
 ing to use the vessel, the lower globe at B is 
 filled with water by means of the long funnel E, 
 taking care that no water runs into the smaller and 
 
 upper division. The powders, consisting of bicar- 
 bonate of soda (NaO,HO,2C02) and tartaric acid (T)t 
 are then placed in' the upper globe by means of the 
 small fimnel D, and care is taken, by plugging up 
 the tube commimicating with the lower part by the 
 stopper F, that no powder passes into the larger 
 globe. The long tube, C, is then inserted into the 
 globes, and screwed well in. The apparatus is 
 inclined till water from the lower globe enters and 
 fills the upper globe about one-third; then it is 
 placed erect, and -allowed to be at rest for two hours, 
 when, if the screw stop-cock at the upper part be 
 opened, the oarbonatedT water wiU flow out readily 
 into any vessel placed to receive it. The explana- 
 tion of the action which goes on in the vessel is, 
 that tartaric acid and bicarbonate of soda have 
 no' action on each other so long as they are dry; 
 but whenever water is admitted, the tartaric acid 
 combines with the soda and water to form tartrate' 
 of soda and water (NaO,HO,T), and at the same 
 time, carbonic acid (CO^) is given off, and descend- 
 ing the tube into the lower globe, dissolves in the 
 water contained therein. Occasionally, bisulphate 
 of potash is used instead of the tartaric acid, to save 
 the greater expense of the latter. — The gazogfenes can 
 likewise be used in* the preparation of true soda- 
 water, or Eau de Vidiy, by adding a little car- 
 bonate of soda to the water in the lower globe before 
 charging with carbonic acid. A. mne may be 
 obtained by placing white wine with a little sugar- 
 candy in the lower globe instead of water. Spark- 
 ling lemonade is procured when the carbonic acid 
 water is run into a tumbler containing a httle 
 sirup of sugar; and A. fruitrbefoerages, when the 
 water charged with carbonic acid is received in a 
 glass containing about a table-spoonful of either of 
 the fruit-sirups. 
 
 The less common A. W., prepared on the large 
 scale, are — 1. ^. soda-water (tme soda-water), obtained 
 by adding 15 grains of crystallised carbonate of 
 soda to each bottle before it is charged with the 
 carbonic acid water; 2. A. potash-water, by employ- 
 ing in a similar way 20 grains of bicarbonate of 
 potash ; Z. A. Selters-water, when carbonate of soda 
 and chloride of sodium (common salt) are dissolved 
 in carbonic acid water; 4. A. Carrara-waier, when 
 finely divided Carrara marble is dissolved in the 
 acid-charged, water; 5. A. Kme-woier, when . other 
 forms of lime than the Carrara marble are used; 
 6. A. magnesian-water, when magnesia, or the car- 
 bonate of magnesia, is used; and^. chahjbeai.e-water, 
 when a compound of iron is dissolved in the carbonic 
 acid water. The latter beverage has lately been 
 employed in medicine, as an easy means of intro- 
 ducing iron into the blood, and with good effect. 
 A. Carrara and lime waters are now administered 
 in cases where the bony structure' requires to be 
 strengthened ; and A. magnesia-water is a very 
 agreeable mode of giving a patient a dose of mag- 
 nesia. The well-known effervescing draughts* called 
 soda-powders, and seidlitz-powders, are two other 
 kinds of A. drinks. In the former, bicarbonate of 
 soda and tartaric acid are added to water in a 
 tumbler, and a refreshing draught instantaneously 
 prepared. Seidlitz-poioders contain tartrate of soda 
 and bicarbonate of soda in one paper, and tartaric 
 acid in the other ; and when both are added to 
 water, effervescence ensues, and the liquid is then 
 partaken of. 
 
 A. W. likewise occur naturally. Water, as it is 
 drawn from a spring, tastes differently from the 
 same water after being boiled and cooled ; and this 
 is due to the unboiled water containing the gases 
 oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid — especially the 
 latter — dissolved in it. Spring-water is therefore a 
 natural A. beverage. Kain-water has a mawkish, 
 
 65 
 
. AERIAL POISONS— AJEROLITES. 
 
 insipid taste, mainly because of the minute quantity 
 of gas therein dissolyed ; tut when that rain-water 
 trickles down the mountain-side, and is dashed 
 from ledge to ledge of rock, it absorbs and dis- 
 solves the gases from the air, and is thus naturally 
 aerated. Many \<raters are aerated in a natural but 
 peculiar way, which confers upon them important 
 medicinal properties ; and these will come before us 
 un'der their more popular title oT Mineral Springs. 
 
 AB'BIAL POISONS. See Miasma. 
 
 ABRODYNA'MICS is that branch of science 
 which trealjs of air and other gases in motion. It 
 examines first the phenomena of air issuing from a 
 vessel, which correspond in many respects with those 
 of water. See Hydkodynamics. Much depends, as 
 in the case of water, upon the nature of the orifice, 
 whether a mere hole in the side of the vessel, or a 
 tube or adjutage. Another subject of A. is the motion 
 of air in long tubes, where the resistance of friction, 
 &o., has to be ascertained. That resistance is found 
 to be nearly in proportion to the square of the velo- 
 city, to the length of the tube, and inversely to its 
 width. A. examines also the velocity of air rushing 
 into a vacuum, of wind, &c. The instrument used 
 for the latter purpose is called an anemometer. See 
 WnsTDS. Air is found to rush into a void space at 
 the rate of from 1300 to 1400 feet per second. One 
 of the most important inquiries in A. is the resist- 
 ance offered to a body moving in air, or — which is 
 the same thing — the pressure exerted by air in 
 motion upon a body at rest. The law may be stated, 
 with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes, as 
 follows : The resistance or pressure is proportional 
 to the square of the velocity. We might conclude 
 from reason, without experiment, that such would 
 be the case ; for if one body is moving through the 
 air four times faster than another of the same size, 
 not only will it encoimter four times as many par- 
 ticles of air, but it will give each of them four times 
 as great an impulse or shock, and thus encounter 
 4 X 4, or sixteen times as much resistance. 
 
 This resistance is greatly increased by another 
 circumstance, especially with great velocities. The 
 air in front of the moving body becomes accumulated 
 or condensed, and a partial or even entire vacumn 
 is formed behind it. "With a velocity of 1700 feet 
 per second, for instance, the resistance is found to be- 
 about three times as great as the simple law of the 
 square of the velocity would give. By the operation 
 of these laws of resistance, a heavy body let fall 
 with a parachute attached to it, comes, after a certain 
 time, to move with a velocity approaching more and 
 more nearly to a uniform motion. 
 
 A'BBOLITBS (Gr. aer, air, and liilws, stone), or 
 
 MeTEOEIC STOmES, FiKEEALLS, and SHOOTING-STAJEiS, 
 
 are now classed together as being merely varieties 
 of the same phenomenon. Aerolites that fall during 
 the day, are observed to be projected from a 
 small dark cloud, accompanied by a noise like 
 thunder, or the firing of cannon ; at night, they 
 proceed from a fireball, which splits into fragments 
 with a similar sound. It is believed that the dark 
 cloud that accompanies the fall of aerohtes by day, 
 would be luminous at night ; and smoking, exploding 
 fireballs have sometimes been seen luminous even in 
 the brightness of tropical daylight. The connection 
 between aerohtes and fireballs is thus established. 
 KrebaHs, again, cannot be separated from shooting- 
 stars, the two phenomena being sometimes blended, 
 and also being found to merge into one another, both 
 with respect to the size of their disks, the emanation 
 of sparks, and the velocities of their motion. 
 
 There are numerous records and stories in all ages 
 and countries of the faU of stones from the sky ; 
 biit until recent times, they were treated by pluloso- 
 S6 
 
 phers as instances of popular credulity and super- 
 stition. It was not tm the beginnings of the 19l3i e. 
 that the fact was established beyond a doubt. — 
 According to 1/ivy, a shower of stones fell on the 
 Alban Moimt, not far from Home, about 654 B.C. 
 The fall of a great stone at ^gospotami, on the 
 Hellespont, about 467 B. 0., is. recorded in the Parian 
 Chronicle (q. v.), and mentioned by Plutarch and 
 Pliny. It was stiU shewn in the days of Pfiny 
 (d. 79 A. D.), who describes it as of the size of a 
 wagon, and of a burned coloiu-. In the year 1492 
 A. D., a ponderous stone, weighing 260 lbs., fell from 
 the sky near the village of Bnsisheim, in Alsace j 
 part of it is still to be seen in the village church. 
 An extraordinary shower of stones fell near L'Aigle, 
 in Normandy, on the 26th April 1803. The cele- 
 brated French philosopher, M. Biot, was deputed by 
 government to repair to the spot and collect the 
 authentic facts; and since the date of his report, the 
 reality of such occurrences has no ^onger been ques- 
 tioned. Nearly all the idhabitants of a large district 
 had seen the cloud, heard the noises, and observed 
 the stones fall. Within an elliptical area of seven 
 miles by three, the number of stones that had fallen 
 could not be less than two or three thousand; the 
 largest were 17 lbs. in weight. These are only a few 
 out of hundreds of instances on record. 
 
 As was natural with objects of such mysterious 
 origin, meteoric stones have always been regarded 
 wiflh reKgious veneration. , At Emesa, in Syria, the 
 sun was worshipped under the form of a black stone, 
 reported to have fallen from heaven. The holy 
 Kaaba of Mecca, and the great stone of the pyramid 
 of Cholula, in Mexico, have all the same history. 
 
 The existence of such bodies once admitted, led 
 to assigning a meteoric character to strange ferru- 
 ginous masses found in different countries, and which 
 had no history,, or were only adverted to in vague 
 tradition. Of this kind is the immense mass seen 
 by Pallas in Siberia, now in the Imperial Museum 
 at St Petersburg. The largest known is one ia 
 Brazil, estimated at 14,000 lbs. 
 
 One constant characteristic of meteoric stones is 
 the fused black crust, like varnish, vrith which the 
 surface is coated. Prom the circumstance of this 
 coat being very thin, and separated from the inner 
 mass by a sharply defined line, it is thought to 
 indicate some rapid action of heat, which has not had 
 time to penetrate into the substance of the stone. 
 This view is favoured by the fact that the stones 
 are found in a strongly heated, but not incandescent 
 state, when they fall. Their specific gravity ranges 
 from two to seven or even eight times that of water. — 
 As to their chemical composition, the predominating 
 element is iron, in a native or metallic state, gener- 
 ally combined with a small proportion of nickel. 
 According to Humboldt, the aerohtes that fell in the 
 neighbourhood of Agram, in Croatia, in 1751, the 
 Siberian stone, and specimens brought by that 
 philosopher from Mexico, .contain 96 per cent, of 
 iron ; while in those of Sienna the iron scarcely 
 amounts to 2 per cent., and, in some rare instances, 
 metaUic iron is altogether wanting. A writer in the 
 Quarterly Remew, No. CLXXXIII., thus sums up the 
 result of all the chemical analyses hitherto made : 
 ' We find the actual number of recognised elements 
 discovered in aerolites to be nineteen or twenty — 
 that is, about one-third of the whole number of 
 elementary substances (or what we are yet forced to 
 regard as such) discovered on the earth. Further, 
 all these aerolitio elements actually exist in the 
 earth, though never similarly combined there. No 
 new substance has hitherto come to us from without ; 
 and the most abundant of our terrestrial metals, 
 iron, is that which is largely predominant in aerolites, 
 forming frequently, as m some of the instances just 
 
AEROLITES. 
 
 mentioned, upwards of 90 parts in 100 of the mass. 
 Seven, other metals — copper, tin, nickel, cobalt, 
 chrome, manganese, and molybdena — enter variously 
 into the composition of these stones. Cobalt and 
 nickel are the most invariably present; but the 
 proportion of all is trifling compared ■with that of 
 iron. Further, there hav? been found in different 
 aerolites, six alkalies and earths — namely, soda, 
 potash, magnesia, Mme, silica, and alnmina ; and, in 
 addition to these, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and 
 hydrogen. Finally, oxygen must also be named as 
 a constituent of many aSrolites, entering into the 
 composition of several of the substances just men- 
 tioned. As respects the manner of conjunction of 
 these elements, it is exceedingly varioiis in different 
 
 aSrolites. A few there are, especially examined by 
 Berzelius and Eoae, containing olivine, kugite, horn- 
 blende, and other earthy minerals ; and closely 
 resembUng certain crystaUine compounds which we 
 iiud on the surface of the earth.' 
 
 Besides those solid masses of considerable size, 
 numerous instances are on record of showers of dust 
 over large tracts of land ; and it is remarkable that 
 such dust has generally been found to contain small 
 hard angular grains resembling augite. Stories of 
 the fall of gelatinous masses from the sky are 
 ranked by Himiboldt among the mythical fables of 
 meteorology. It has been supposed that such fables 
 may have originated in the very Tstpid growth of 
 gelatinous algse, as Nostoc (q. v.). 
 
 Shower of Shooting-stars witnessed in North America. 
 
 Fireballs and Shooting-stars. — From the height 
 and apparent diameter, the actual diameter of the 
 largest fireballs is estimated by Humboldt to vary 
 from 500 to 2800 feet ; others allow a diameter of 
 about a mile. Shooting-stars are thought to have 
 diameters varying from 80 to 120 fegt. In most 
 cases of luminous meteors, a tr^ of light many 
 miles in length is left behind. One or two instances 
 are on record where the train of the fireball con- 
 tinued shining for an hour after the body disap- 
 peared. The heights of shooting-stars are found to 
 range from 15 to 150 miles, at the points at which 
 they begin and cease to be visible. Their velocities 
 vary from 18 to 36 miles in a second. When it is 
 remembered that the velocity of Mercury in its orbit 
 is 26'4 miles in a second, of Venus 19'2, and of the 
 Earth 16'4, we have in this fact a strong confirmation 
 of the planetary nature of meteorites. 
 
 One of the most remarkable facts connected with 
 shooting-stars is, that certain appearances of them 
 axe periodic. On most occasions tiiey are sporadic — 
 that is, they appear singly, and traverse tiie sky in 
 all directions. At other times, they appear in- 
 Bwaxms of thousands, moving parallel; and these 
 
 swarms are periodic, or recur on the same days of 
 the year. Attention was first directed to this fact 
 on occasion of the prodigious swarm which appeared 
 in North America between the 12th and 13th of 
 November 1^33, described by Professor Olmsted of 
 Newhaven. : The stars fell on this occasion Kke 
 flakes of snow, to the number, as was estimated, of 
 240,000 in the space of nine hom-s, and varying in 
 size from a moving point or phosphorescent line to 
 globes of the mootf s diameter. The most important 
 observation made was, that they all appeared to 
 proceed from the same quarter of the heavens — the 
 vicinity, namely, of the star y, in the constellation 
 Leo ; and although that star had changed greatly 
 its height and aztmuth during the time that the 
 phenomenon lasted, they continued to issue from the 
 same point. It was afterwards computed by Encke, 
 that: this point was the very direction in which the 
 earth was moving in her orbit at the time. Atten- 
 tion being directed to recorded appearances of the 
 same kind, it was observed with surprise that several 
 of the most remarkable had occurred on the same 
 day of November, especially that seen by Humboldt 
 at Oumana in 1799, and by other observers over a 
 
 S7 
 
AERONAUTICS— AEROSTATIC PRESS. 
 
 great extent of the eartli. The November stream 
 was again observed in the United States in 1834, 
 between the 13th and 14th, though less intense. 
 Though often vague, and in some years altogether 
 absent, this phenomenon has recurred with such 
 regularity, both in America and Europe, as to 
 establish its periodic character. 
 
 Another periodic swarm of considerable regularity 
 is that appearing between the 9th and the 14th of 
 August, and noticed in ancient legends as the ' fiery 
 tears' of St Lawrence, whose festival is on the 10th 
 of that month. There are other periodic appear- 
 ances ; and Huihboldt gives the following epochs as 
 especiaEy worthy of remark : 22d to 25th of April ; 
 17th of July; 10th of August; 12th to 14th of 
 November; 27th to 29th of November; 6th to 12th 
 of December. 
 
 It remains to notice briefly the various opinions 
 that have been advanced as to the origin of aerolites, 
 and the theory of meteors in general. The hypo- 
 theses that have been formed in answer to the 
 question — Whence come those sohd masses that fall 
 upon the earth ? — are of two kinds ; some ascribing 
 to them a telluric origin, and others making them 
 ahen to the earth. Of me first kind, is the conjecture 
 that they may be stones ejected from terrestrial 
 volcanoes, revolving for a time along with the earth, 
 and at last returning to it. Another theory, which 
 at one time found considerable favour, supposed that 
 the matter of which aerolites are composed existed 
 in the atmosphere iu the form of vapour, and was by 
 some unknown cause suddenly aggregated and pre- 
 cipitated to the earth. These conjectures are un- 
 tenable iu the face of the facta of the phenomena 
 stated above, and are now completely given up. 
 
 In seeking a source beyond the earth, the moon 
 readily presented itself. Olbers was the first to 
 investigate, 1795, the initial velocity necessary to 
 bring to the earth masses projected from the moon. 
 This ' ballistic problem,' as Humboldt calls it, occu- 
 pied during ten or twelve years the geometricians 
 Laplace, Biot, Brandes, and Poisson. ,lt was calcu- 
 lated tliat, setting aside the resistance of air, an 
 initial velocity of about 8000 feet iu a second, which 
 is about five or six times that of a caunon-baU, would 
 suffice to bring the stones to the earth with a velo- 
 city of 35,000 feet. But Olbers has shewn, that to 
 account for the actual measiured velocity of meteoric 
 stones, the original velocity of projection must be 
 fourteen times greater than the above. It is against 
 this lunar theory, that we have no proof of active 
 volcanoes now existing in the moon ; and with the 
 improvement of the telescope, the probability of the 
 contrary is increasing. It is, accordingly, giving 
 place to the planetary theory, which we noticed at 
 the outset — a theory which harmonises better with 
 the tendency of physical research and oj. speculation 
 generally. ' 
 
 The (fiscussion Of hypotheses as to the genesis of 
 the recognised planets out of portions of the gradu- 
 ally contracting vaporoiis mass of the sun ; the con- 
 tinued discovery of hitherto unobserved planets 
 between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter ; the count' 
 less multitudes of comets that are observed travers- 
 ing our system in all directions, and undergoing 
 appreciable alteration both of consistency and orbit ; 
 —all pi'epare us for the idea, that matter may exist 
 in the inter-planetary spaces, in every variety of form 
 and condition. To account for the phenomena of 
 meteors as above described, we must suppose that 
 there are both detached masses, each revolving in 
 an independent orbit, and giving rise to sporadic 
 meteors ; and also connected systems, forming rings 
 or zones round the sun. The intersection of the 
 earth's orbit by such zones or streams, would account 
 for the periodic swarms of meteors; and if we 
 eg 
 
 suppose the asteroids composing it to be irregularly 
 grouped, we see a reason why the same stream 
 should not be always of equal intensity. There may 
 even be periodicity in this respect too. Between 
 1799 and 1833 — the two most brilliant manifestations 
 of the November stream on record — there elapsed 
 34 years; and Olbers has predicted that the next 
 brilliant appearance will be in 1867. 
 
 We have not space to enter upon such questions 
 as : What" causes the luminous and ignited condition 
 of aerohtes? The height at which many meteors 
 are seen, puts the action of the atmosphere in causing 
 ignition out of the question, and the terrestrial 
 magnetism has been suggested as the exciting cause. 
 As to those meteors that are unattended by aerolites, 
 we may suppose that they are merely deflected from 
 their path by the proximity of the earth, are rendered 
 luminous through a short arc, and continue their 
 course with altered orbit. But we are not to assume, 
 that where no pfccipitation of matter from meteors 
 is visible, none takes place ; it may escape observa- 
 tion, or may be dissipated in impalpable powder. 
 
 AERONAU'TICS, the art of navigating the air. 
 See BAixooif. 
 
 AEROSTA'TICS. This branch of science treats 
 of the equilibrium and pressure of air and other gases, 
 and of tile methods of measuring it by the barometer 
 and other instruments. The expansive force or pres- 
 sure of atmospheric air varies with time and place. 
 In a medium condition of the atmosphere, and 
 near the sea-level, barometrical observations give 
 the pressure or weight equal to that of a column of 
 mercury, 30 inches high, or of a column of water 
 about 34 feet high. This makes the mean pressure 
 of the atmosphere nearly 15 lbs. on every square 
 inch. This mean pressure of the atmosphere is 
 generally taken as the unit or measiu-e of expansive 
 or elastic forces generally; any particular pressure 
 is said to be equal to so many atanospheres. Aero- 
 statics also investigates the phenomena of the 
 compression of gases; in other words, the relation 
 between the elasticity and the density or volume 
 of a gas. According to the law of Mariotte, the 
 expansive force of one and the same body of gas is 
 proportional to its density; or, which is the same 
 thing,! the expansive force of a body of gas under 
 different degrees of compression, varies inversely as 
 the space which it occupies. If its elastifc force, at 
 one stage, be measured by 50 lbs., when compressed 
 into half the space, that force will, be 100 lbs. Con- 
 nected with this is the investigation of the variation 
 of density and pressure in the several vertical strata 
 of the atmosphere. It is obvious that the weight of 
 the atmosphere must diminish as we ascend, as part 
 of it is left below ; and it results from Mariotte's 
 law, that, at different distances from the earth's 
 surface, increasing in arithmetical progression, the 
 atmospheric pressure diminishes in geometrical 
 progression. 'This principle furnishes the means of 
 measuring heights by the Barometer (q. v.). 
 
 The elastic force of air and other gases is very 
 much increased by heat ; and consequently, when 
 allowed, they expand. It is found that a rise of 
 temperature of 1° of Fahrenheit, causes any gas to 
 expand -^^ of its own bulk ; and this expansion is 
 uniform. If adding 10° to the temperature of a 
 body of gas increases its bulk 3 cubic inches, an 
 addition of 20° will give an increase of 6 inches ; of 
 50°, 15 inches, and so on. This law was discovered 
 by Gay-Lussac, and has been verified by subse- 
 quent investigators. Both it, however, and that of 
 Mariotte, can be looked upon as only nearly true, 
 and that within certain limits. 
 
 AEROSTATIC PRESS. This is a machine used 
 for extracting the colouring-matter from dye-woods 
 
^SOHINES— .ESOP. 
 
 and such like. A vessel is divided by a horizontal 
 partition pierced with small hales. Upon this the 
 substance containing the colour is laid, and a cover, 
 also perforated, is placed upon it. The extracting 
 liquid is then poured ou the top, and the air being 
 ■drawn from the under part of the vessel by a 
 pump, the hquid is forced through the substance by 
 the pressure of the atmosphere. 
 
 -ffi'SCHINES, an Athenian orator, second only to 
 Demosthenes, whose contemporary and rival he was. 
 Philip of Macedon was then pursuing his designs for 
 the subjugation of the several Greek states to his 
 own sway; and while Demosthenes advocated the 
 policy of opposing him before, it was too late, 
 J&. was the head of the peace-party. JEi. was 
 a member of more than one embassy sent by the 
 Atheniajis to deal with Philip ; and Demosthenes 
 accused him of receiving bribes from the Macedonian 
 monarch, and of betraymg the c^use of Athens and 
 of her aUies. There is no proof that t>iia was the 
 case; and perhaps 2Ei. was deceived by the wily 
 Philip into believing that he meant no harm to the 
 liberties of Athens, and that peace was the best 
 policy for his countrymen. The result justified the 
 sagacious fears of Demosthenes, and condemned the 
 selfish, isolating policy of M. When it was proposed 
 to reward Demosthenes with a golden crown, for his 
 patriotic exertions in defence of his country, M. 
 brought an accusation of iUegaUty against the pro- 
 poser, Ctesiphon. Demosthenes replied, and jEschines 
 being vanquished, and having thus incurred the 
 penalty attached to an imfounded accusation, was 
 obliged to retire from Athens. He finaUy estabUahed 
 a school of eloquence in Bhodes, which enjoyed a 
 high reputation. On one occasion, he read to his 
 audience in Khodes his oration against Ctesiphon; 
 and some of them expressing their astonishment that 
 he should have been defeated in spite of such a 
 powerful display, he replied: 'You would cease to 
 be astonished if you had heard Demosthenes.' The 
 oration against Ctesiphon and two others are the 
 only authentic productions of JSi. that have come 
 down to us. He Vas bom 389 B. c, and died at 
 Samos 314 B. c. 
 
 ^'SCHYLUS, the father of Greek tragedy, 
 was bom at Eleusis, in Attica, 525 B. c. We nave 
 but scanty notices of his life. He fought in the 
 battles'of Marathon, Salamis, and Platsea, witnessed 
 the fall of Darius and Xerxes, and shared in the 
 exulting sentiments which aiterwards pervaded 
 liberated Greece. Of the seventy or ninety tragedies 
 ascribed to Mi., only seven have been preserved — 
 Prometheus Bound, the Seoen against Thebes, the 
 Persians, Agamemnon, the Choeplwri, Eumenides, 
 and the SuppMants. These are sufficient to prove 
 that M. was the creator of the Greek drama in its 
 higher form. He introduced action in place of the 
 perpetual chorus, and dramatic dialogue to supersede 
 the long narrations of his predecessors Thespis and 
 Chcerilus. Scenic effects, masks, and dresses, were 
 other improvements introduced in the plays of ^. 
 The plots of his pieces are very simple, and display 
 no ingenuity of construction or solution. His general 
 tone IS elevated and earnest, and shews a preference 
 of strong to gentle emotions. Destiny is represented 
 in its sternest aspect; gigantic heroes. Titans, and 
 gods, rather than men, appear on the scene, and the 
 lofty grandiloquence of the language is in accordance 
 with the characters. In the choruses, the language 
 is often turgid and obscure. For some reason, not 
 well known, M. left his native city, and went to 
 Sicily, where he was honourably received by King 
 Hiero. Here he died at Gela, 456 B.C., and the 
 inhabitants of the city raised a monument to his 
 memory. In the poetical translation by Blackie, 
 
 the non-classical reader may get » very tolerable 
 notion of the grandeur and fire of this greatest 
 of all ancient dramatists. 
 
 ^SCULA'PIUS appears in Homer as an excel- 
 lent physician, of human origin ; in the later 
 legends, he becomes the god of the healing art. 
 The accounts given of his genealogy are various. 
 According to one story, he was the son of Coronis 
 and the Arcadian Isohys. Apollo, enraged by the 
 infidelity of Coronis, caused her to be put to death 
 by Diana, but spared the boy, who was afterwards 
 educated by Chiron. In the healing art, jE. soon 
 surpassed his teacher, and succeeded so far as to 
 restore the dead to life. This offended Pluto, who 
 began to fear that his realm would not be sufficiently 
 peopled ; he therefore" complained to Jove of the 
 innovation, and Jove slew .M. by a flash of hghtning. 
 After this he was raised to the rank of the gods by 
 the gratitude of mankind, and was especially wor- 
 shipped at Epidaurus, on the coast of Laconica, 
 where a temple and grove were consecrated to him. 
 Here oriental elements, especially serpent-worship, 
 seem to have been mingled vrith the rites and cere- 
 monies. From Epidaiirus the Worship of the healing 
 god extended itself over the whole of Greece, and even 
 to Pome. According to Homer, M. left two sons, 
 Machaon and Podalinos, wiio, as physicians, attended 
 the Greek army. From them the race of the 
 Asclepiades descended. Hygieia, Panaceia, and 
 iEgle are Represented as his daughters. His temples 
 usually stood without the cities in healthy situations, 
 on hillsides, and near fountains. Patients that 
 were cured of their ailments, offered a cook or a goat 
 to the god, and hung up a tablet' in his temple, 
 recording the name, the disease, and the manner of 
 cure. Many of those votive tablets are still extant. 
 The statue of the god at Epidaurus, formed of gold 
 and ivory by Thrasymedes, represented M. as seated 
 on a throne, and holding in one hand a staff with a 
 snake coiled round it, the other hand resting on the 
 head of a snake ; a dog, as. emblem of watchfulness, 
 at the foot of the deity. Praxiteles and other sculp- 
 tors represented the god as an ideal of manly beauty, 
 and closely resembling Jupiter j with hair thrown up 
 from the brow, and falling in curls on each side. 
 TJie upper part of the body was naked, and the 
 lower was covered by a mantle falling in folds from 
 the shoulders. He had sometimes a laurel-wreath 
 on his head, and a cock or owl at his feet ; or was 
 attended by a dwarf-figure named Telesphorus. — 
 AscLBPiADES, the followers of M., who inherited and 
 kept the secrets of the healing art ; or, assuming 
 that .M. was merely a divine symbol, the Asclepiades 
 must be regarded as a medical, priestiy caste who 
 preserved as mysteries the doctrines of medicine. 
 The members of the cas^e, or medical order, were 
 bound by an oath-^the Hippgcraiis jiisjwandumr-^ 
 not to divulge the secrets, of their profession. In 
 Rome, 292 B. 0., when a, fatal pestilence prevailed, 
 the SibylUne books commanded that .Slscidapius 
 must be brought from Epidaurus. Accordingly, an 
 embassy was sent to this place, and, when they had 
 made their request, a snake crept out of the temple 
 into their ship. Regarding this as the god JE,., they 
 sailed to Italy, and, as they entered the Tiber, the 
 snake sprang out upon an island, where, afterwards, 
 a temple was erected to M., and a company of priests 
 appointed to take charge of the service and practise 
 the art of medicine. Hippocrates is said to have 
 descended from the Asclepiades of Cos, who teaced 
 their descent, on the mother's side, from Hercules. 
 
 MBOV, an ancient Greek writer, whose name is 
 attached to the most popular of the existing collections 
 of Fables. His history is very uncertain, and some 
 critics have even denied his existence. First among 
 these is Luther, in his preface to the Qemum ^sop. 
 
AESTHETICS. 
 
 1530. We are told, lioTi^ever, on the authority of 
 Herodotus (ii. 134.), Diog. Laertius (i. 72), and Plu- 
 tarch [Sept. Sap. Conviv., and.De Sera Num. Vind.), 
 that ^sop lived in the latter half of the 6th century 
 B. 0. ; that he was a ala,ve at Samos ; that, on receiving 
 his freedom, he visited Crffisus and Pisistratus, by the 
 former of whom he was commissioned to distribute 
 som-e money among the citizens of Delphi, and that, 
 on his refusal to pay it, in consequence of a dispute, 
 he was thrown over a precipice by the infuriated 
 mob. We are further informed that the Athenians 
 erected a statue to bitn from the chisel of Lysippus. 
 Whether this person was the author of the ejdsting 
 .^sopean coUectiou or not, we know, from Aristoph- 
 anes, and other authorities, that fables bearing his 
 name were popular in the most brilliant period 
 of Athenian literature. The conjecture of Bentley, 
 however, seems well, founded, that these fables were 
 transmitted entirely through oral tradition. Socrates 
 (Phcedo, p. 61) turned such of them as he could 
 remember into verse, of which Diog. Laertius has 
 preserved a specimen ; and the same was done by 
 Demetrius Phalereus, 320 B.C. The only Greek version, 
 however, of which any entire fables remain, and 
 which, as shewn by Bentley, has furnished materials 
 to subsequent collections, is that of Babrius (q. v.), a 
 writer of some mark, who is supposed to have hved 
 in the age before Augustus. Of the fables now 
 bearing the name of .lEsop, there are three sets, 
 the first from a MS. of the 13th c, pubHshed at 
 Florence in 1809; the second, a collection by 
 Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th c, contain- 
 ing a life (supposed to have been the work of 
 Planudes, till it was found in the earlier MS.) of 
 .lEsop, full of fabulous particulars; and the third 
 a collection published ia 1610, from MSS. found at 
 Heidelberg. All these are contained ia the edition 
 of Schneider, Breslau, 1810. The resemblance 
 between some of the fables, and the personal peculi- 
 arities attributed in common to iEsop and to the 
 Arabian fabulist Lokman, have led some persons to 
 conclude that the two men were identical ; and 
 others, that the fables attributed to them in common 
 belong to the same eastern source. See PhjEdrus. 
 — ^A Roman actor of this name, Claudius .iEsopus, 
 a contemporary and friend of Cicero, was as eminent 
 in tragedy as Roscius was in comedy. 
 
 -S)STHE'TICS, a term invented about the middle 
 of last century by Baumgarten, a professor of philos- 
 ophy in the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, to 
 denote the science of the Beautiful, particularly of 
 Art, as the most perfect manifestation of the Beauti- 
 ful. It has the merit of being at once comprehensive 
 and clear, and has therefore been pretty widely 
 adopted, of late years, by critics both ia France and 
 Bnglani 
 
 fiie Beautiful (Gr. to halon) was a favourite subject 
 of contemplation amongst the ancients. The name 
 of Plato is inseparably associated with it, but in his 
 phUosophisings, he nowhere separated the Beautiful 
 from the Good. Aristotle, again, from the immense 
 acquaintance which he possessed with objects of art, 
 deduced the most admirable laws and rules (Canons 
 of Criticism), so that his Poetiw, according to Schiller, 
 constitute a true Ehadamanthine tribunal for poets. 
 But the results he arrived at are regarded by the 
 a priori school of asstheticians as empiricism rather 
 than science. Baumgarten they hold to be the first 
 who considered the subject from the true scien- 
 tific point of view, and therefore entitled to be 
 called the founder of the philosophy of art. All 
 sensuous apprehension, not in one form or mani- 
 festation oiily, but in every possible form or mani- 
 festation, was included in his view of the subject, 
 and this conception he expressed by the word 
 .Esthetics, from the Greek aisthanomai, I feel, 
 60 
 
 indicating not absolute or ol)jective knowledge of 
 things, but such as is conditioned subjectively by 
 the play of our sensibilities. The term is thus not 
 confined to the limits of the Beautiful, though in 
 point of fact we employ it ia this partial significa- 
 tion. Beauty was, with. Baumgarten, the result of 
 the highest and purest ffisthetio perception, to the 
 realisation of which the finer portion of our nature 
 aspires; and to trace which through the whole 
 sphere of art, was the work of sesthetic philosophy 
 (SinnenerTcenntniss). Kant subsequently, from his 
 point of view, carried out this theory of the sesthetic 
 faculty ia his critical treatise on the power of the 
 Judgment. Everything he conceived may be 
 regarded sesthetically as well as absolutely, in refer- 
 ence to ourselves as well as in reference to nature. 
 An object may be in harmony with ovi sensibflities, 
 as well as in harmony with the totality of material 
 phenomena ; or it may not be in harmony with the 
 former, and yet truly accord with the latter. So, too, 
 with the judgment. It may choose to apprehend things 
 in their adaptation to man, or in what is called the 
 teleologioal point of view — that is, their final end or 
 objective adaptation to each other. Hence the eesthet- 
 ical judgment considers objects as beautiful, agreeable, 
 or useful ; while the teleologioal judgment strives to 
 reaqh their absolute design, and remains iadifferent 
 to personal predilections. Why certain objects 
 excite in lis a purely selfish interest, and others a 
 purely unselfish pleasure, Kant does not venture to 
 determine, for he never investigates the objective 
 quality of the Beautiful, but confines himself strictly 
 to its influence upon the feeUngs and desires. 
 ScheUiae was the first to undertsie this inquiry 
 after SchiUer had paved the way for him in his 
 treatise on jEsthetics. The latter, perhaps the most 
 lucid and intelligible of German ffisthetioians, in a 
 note to his twentieth letter on ^Esthetic Culture, 
 explains his conception of the new science as follows r 
 All things that can ever be objects of perception 
 may be considered under four different relationships. 
 A fact can relate directly to our sensuous condition 
 — ^that is its physical quality ; or. to the understand- 
 ing — that is its logical quality ; or to the wiU — that 
 is its moral quality; or to the entirety of our 
 different powers, rather than to any particular mani- 
 festation of these — that is its sesthetic quality. 
 There is a culture for the health, for the imderstand- 
 ing, for morality, and for taste or beauty ; the last 
 of which has for its design to bring out the totahty 
 of our sensuous and spiritual powers in their greatest 
 possible harmony. Schiller's idea of the Beautiful is 
 necessarily as comprehensive as his conception of the 
 sphere of .Esthetics. He will not admit that it is 
 the result of a mere limited experience, ^taught us 
 through the operation of phenomena, animate and 
 inanimate, on our senses, but of pure abstract reflec- 
 tion. It ■ is, therefore, a transcendental idea. It 
 originates in the perfect union of matter and spirit. 
 From this it follows, that ' Beauty can be exclusively 
 neither mere life, as some ingenious observers have 
 maintained, nor mere form, as has been decided by 
 some speculative philosophers and philosophising 
 artists' (for instance, Burke and Raphael Mengs). 
 
 Passing over Schelling's transcendental ■ specula^ 
 tions, which are couched in a style not very intelli- 
 gible to the EngUsh mind, we come to the theory of 
 Hegel. Like that of SchelUng, it also proceeds from 
 the so-called metaphysics of the Beautiful. It is the 
 absolute ideal realising itself. Nothing is truly beauti- 
 ful except this. Nothing, therefore, which exists can 
 be termed such. Out of the sphere of the pure reason 
 we have only an eternal aspiration. In the finite 
 mind, the absolute ideal is always striving to realise 
 itself, but never completely succeeds. There is only 
 a ceaseless approximation. Hegel then traces the 
 
JESTHETICS. 
 
 growth aad development of the Beautiful, the first 
 form of whose existence is naiwral Beauty, and, as 
 Visoher justly adds, the Beauty unfolded in history. 
 But this Beauty, whether of nature or history, ia rai'e, 
 acoideutal, fugitive, and tarnished by intermixture 
 with the not-beftotiful. This deficiency or limitation 
 aiisea from its being unconscious of itself. The 
 Beautiful is, so to speak, as yet in its infanOT. It 
 does not Imow either that it is or what it is. It first 
 passes into self-recognition in the dawn of human 
 intelligence, and its conscious realisation of itself 
 increases in proportion to the culture of the race or 
 the individual. The highest finite realisation of 
 it is Art ; for though the form of art be material, 
 it is matter shaped according to an idea. The 
 ajitist looks on tiie form simply as the objective 
 embodiment of the idea — every remnant of rude 
 nature being stripped off. Form, though - springing 
 out of matter, is thus a deliverance fiom matter, 
 and the particular Arts may consequently be 
 regarded as the gradual working of the mind out 
 of materialism. The formative Arts — ^Architecture, 
 Sculpture, Painting — are silent, heavy, stijl partly 
 material. Music is an advance on these. It breathes 
 in a higher region. The materialism of Sound 
 becomes all but ideal. Poetry is a further advance. 
 It is the pathway of the intellect to pure thought. 
 jEsthetios, in this point of view, is a science, based 
 on a knowledge of the historic development of the 
 Beautiful. It wanders through its whole kingdom, 
 of which Alt is only a province, though, as has been 
 seen, the richest and most valuable. 
 
 Such was the aspect in which Hegel regarded the 
 new science. He fused it into his historico-transceu- 
 dental metaphysic, and so stirred up regarding it the 
 old quarrel wMoh had agitated the latter. Realists 
 made their appearance, who vigorously assailed the 
 principles of Fichte, ScheUing, and Hegel, in their 
 various applications to Philosophy, Theology, and 
 Esthetics. The reaction was and is most conspicuous 
 in the second of these, but has as certainly manifested 
 itself in the others also. It is denied that the Ideal 
 conceived by man is superior to the Real, as it is in 
 itself. It is man who lowers it by his inadequate 
 apprehension of its harmony and perfection. The 
 greatest artist does not strive to outshine or even 
 to reach the beauty of nature, but to smrpass himself 
 in it. The whole historic theory of Hegel is like- 
 wise rejected, after severe and searching criticism, 
 from a rationalistic point of view. Hegel conceives 
 the first effort of art to have arisen from a longing on 
 the part of the human spirit to emancipate itself 
 from the thraldom of matter. This is the idealistic 
 view of its beginning.. Kugler, on the other hand, 
 afiirms that it arises from ' the necessity which man 
 is under to bind his thoughts to one firm spot, and 
 to give to this memorial a form which may be 
 expressive of the thought.' The origin of Art is thus 
 made retrospective, not prospective. This may be 
 considered the realistic view of its beginning. So the 
 question stands at present in Germany. 
 
 In France, the founder of the Eclectic School of 
 Philosophy, Victor Cousin, has eloquently expounded 
 the Platonic view of M. In the second part of 
 Ms treatise Du Vrai, du Beau, et du Sien (On the 
 True, the Beautiful, and the Good), he has a 
 chapter on 'the Beautiful in Objects,' in which, 
 after discussing the principal theories of the mate- 
 rialists and geometricians, and pointing out what he 
 conceives to be the errors and limitations of such 
 theories, he proceeds to a consideration of physical, 
 intellectual, and moral beauty, endeavours to dis- 
 cover the quality or, quaHties ia. which they agree, 
 from this rises to the apprehension of an ideal 
 beauty whose realisation he finds in God. ' God,' 
 says Cousin, ' in whom is combined absolute unity 
 
 with infinite variety, is necessarily the realised ideal 
 of aE beauty.' 
 
 Speculations on this subject in Britain have been 
 mostly limited to the Beautiful in form and colour. 
 We have not in general sought, like the Germans, to 
 discover the idea of the Beautiful, but the Beautiful 
 itself. Our criticism may, and indeed does seem 
 meagre and imphUosophioal to them, but it is at least 
 clear, and its purpose obvious. We have put to our- 
 selves this question : Are there, or are there not, 
 constant qualities in certain objects which make 
 them what we call Beautiful? Does Beauty arise 
 from anything ioherent in these, or does it depend 
 upon accidents in us, such, for instance, as the com- 
 plex and numberless phenomena of .Association ? Is 
 it objective or subjective ? 
 
 The first publication on this subject of any con- 
 sequence — ^if we except Lord Shaftesbury's Charac- 
 teristics, in which there is set forth a 'rapturous 
 Platonic doctrine' impossible to criticise, because 
 unintelligible — was Dr Hutcheson's Inquiry (1725). 
 In this work, the existence of an 'internal sense,' 
 through which we either obtain a perception of the 
 Beautiful or are made in some way conscious of its 
 presence, was maintained. The notion of a sixth 
 sense has been very severely criticised by Jeffrey in 
 his celebrated article on Beauty. 
 
 Certain explanations and modifications of this 
 theory were made by the followers of Hutcheson, 
 but nothing really new was brought out till Edmund 
 Burke published his Treatise on the Sublime and 
 the Beautiful (1756). There is no work upon the 
 subject so popular or so worthless. Every one 
 has heard of it, large numbers have read it, and 
 yet the fundamental principle is weak and absurd- 
 He confounds the beautiful with the luxurious. ' All 
 objects appear beautiful which have the power of 
 producing a peculiar relaxation of our nerves and 
 fibres, and thus inducing a ceijiain degree of bodily 
 languor and sinking ! ' 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, a contemporary of Burke, 
 maintained a very remarkable theory of the Beautiful, 
 which he borrowed from the celebrated Pfere Buffier, 
 and illustiated at great length. Beauty was con- 
 ceived to be the mean between two extremes. This 
 doctrine is open tp the fatal objection that the most 
 ordinary is therefore the most beautiful, and that, 
 consequently, the greatest poem or the finest land- 
 scape must be that which is the most commonplace. 
 Nevertheless, Sir Joshua does not hesitate to push 
 his theory to extremities, declaring that if what we 
 term the deformed or monstrous were only more 
 common than what we call the beautiful, they would 
 exchange names and sensations — a statement which 
 may safely be left to refute itself. 
 
 The next work on this subject that excited any 
 measure of popular attention was Alison's Essays on 
 the Nature and Principles of Taste (1790). The 
 theory propounded by this writer is generally known 
 as the theory of Association. The most powerful 
 exposition of the Association theory is that given by 
 Jeffrey, in his famous article ia the JEJncyclopcedia 
 Britannica, and in his critique on Alison in the 
 Edinburgh Beview (1811). According to Jefirey : 
 'These emotions (that is, those excited by tiie 
 contemplation of certain objects) are not original 
 emotions, nor produced directly by any quaJities 
 in the objects which excite them; but are reflec- 
 tions or images of the more, radical and fanuliar 
 emotions to which we have already alluded, and 
 are occasioned not by any inherent virtue in 
 the objects before us, but by the accidents, if we 
 may so express ourselves, by which these may have 
 been enabled to suggest or recall to us our own 
 past sensations or sympathies.' In his defence of 
 tins theory, Jeffrey ia obliged to consider those of 
 
^STIVATIOIir— ^TOLIA. 
 
 Stewart and Payne Knight, the former of which 
 is partly, and the latter entirely, opposed to his 
 own. So long as he confines Ids argument to 
 association in connection with landscapes, it' seems 
 very conqlusive ; but when he comes to combat 
 Payne Knight's doctrine as to the intrinsic beauty 
 of colours, it ceases to be satisfactory. This writer 
 maintains that colours possess a primitive and 
 original beauty, which may be enriched by asso- 
 ciation, but wHch does not depeud upon it. Jefifrey 
 denies this, and attempts to prove that our percep- 
 tion of the beauty of colour, instead of being a ' mere 
 organic sensation,' arises from association alone. In 
 the same way, he refuses to beheve that there is any 
 independent or intrinsic beauty in form ; and con- 
 ceives that architecture owes its beauty not to the 
 essential harmony of its proportions, but to a variety 
 of curious considerations on our part. He considers 
 Alison's analysis of this beauty, with special refer- 
 ence to Greek architecture, ' perfectly satisfactory.' 
 It arises, 1st, from the association of utility ; 2d, of 
 security ; 3d, of the skiU of the architect ; 4th, of 
 magniflbence; 5th, of antiquity; 6th, of Grecian 
 greatness ! To this it may be replied, that such 
 associations increase, but do not create, our percep- 
 tion of the beauty of Greek architecture. 
 
 The theory of Association in this its primitive 
 nakedness cannot be said to be held now by any who 
 think on the subject. It is felt to be more plausible 
 and ingenious than sound or adequate. Ruskin, 
 Professor Blackie, and others, have nearly destroyed 
 its popularity. Professor Blackie's three essays on 
 Beauiy, which are remarkable for the brisk and 
 biting humour with which they assail the Asso- 
 ciation theory, as well as for the passages of fine 
 eloquence which they contain, make a vigorous 
 effort to indoctrinate ihe Saxon brain with the ideal 
 speculations of Plato. Professor Blackie is a 
 Platonist in theory, l;)ut the elaboration of that 
 theory is entirely modem and original. ' Beauty,' 
 he says, ' does not consist in one element, or in one 
 power, or in one proportion, but in many elements, 
 powers, and proportions ; ' the principal of these are 
 — order, congruity (or harmony), actuality, perfec- 
 tion (in the Platonic- sense — viz., the fuU result of a 
 creative energy), expressiveness, smoothness, deh- 
 cacy, and curvature. With reference to this last 
 principle, Professor Blackie points to the fact that 
 nature everywhere avoids angular lines, especially 
 in the human figure, and most of all in the sex 
 which has ever been considered the highest symbol 
 of the bejautiful. In the second volume of his 
 Lectures on Metaphysics, the late Sir WiUiam 
 Hamilton (Lecture 46tli) distinguishes Beauty 
 into Absolute and Eelative. 'In ttie former case,' 
 he says, 'it is not necessary to have a notion of 
 what the object ought to be before we pronounce 
 it beautiful or not ; in the latter case, such a 
 previous, notion is required. Mowers, shells, ara- 
 besques, &c., are freely or absolutely beautiful. We 
 judge, for example, a flower to be beautiful, though 
 unaware of its destination, and that 'it contains a 
 complex apparatus of organs all admirably adapted 
 to the propagation of the plant. When we are 
 made cognizant of this, we obtain, indeed, an addi- 
 tional gratification, but one wholly different from 
 that which we experience in the contemplation of 
 the flower itself apart from aU consideration of its 
 adaptations.' Sir William thus states his theory of 
 Free or Absolute Beauty : ' In the case of beau^ — • 
 free beauty — both the imagination and the under- 
 standing flnd occupation ; and the pleasure we 
 experience from such an object is in proporiiion as it 
 afiords to these faculties the opportunity of exerting 
 fully and freely their respective energies. Now, it is 
 the principal function of the understanding, om< of the 
 €2 
 
 multifarious presented to it, to form a whole. Its entire 
 activity is, in fact, a tendency towards- unity ; and 
 'it is only satisfied when this object is so constituted 
 as to afford the opportunity of an easy and perfect, 
 performance of this its function. In this case, the 
 object is judged beautiful or pleasing.' Sir WiUiam, 
 concludes by deflning the beautiful to be that 
 'whose form occupies the imagination and the 
 understanding in a free, fuU, and consecfuently. an 
 agreeable activity.' 
 
 There would seem, on the whole, to be a tend- 
 ency at present towards an amalgamation of what 
 have hitherto been considered irreconcilable doc- 
 trines — towards the behef that there is an essential 
 beauty in the harmony of forms and in the com- 
 bination of colours, and that the keen delight which 
 we experience in beholding them is incapable of bein^ 
 explained by any number of associations ; while it 
 is admitted, on the other hand, that many things 
 are made beautiful by association, that all things 
 have their beauty enriched by it, and that some 
 things even have their intrinsic beauty called forth 
 by it operating in the form of suggestion. 
 
 JESTIVA'TIOK", in Botany (from the Latin ces- 
 timts, belonging to summer), a term employed to 
 denote the manner in which the parts of the flower 
 are disposed in the flower-bud prior to its opening; 
 Sometimes the M. is valvate or valvular, when the 
 parts of the same vertioU exactly meet together by 
 their edges, like valves. But if the edges are turned 
 in, the Mi. is induplicate ; if they are turned out, it 
 is reduplicate. In many flowers, the ^. is contorted 
 or iwisled; sometimes it is spirally irnbricaied. In 
 pentamerous flowers, it is very generally quincunadcd, 
 two of the parts being external, two internal, and 
 one interme(£ate. In Papilionaceous Flowers (q.v.), 
 the other parts of the coroUa are generally included 
 in the standard or vexUlilm, and this is sometimes 
 called vexillary JSi. In poppies, the petals are 
 generally crumpled together before flowering. The 
 M. of the calyx is frequently of a different kind 
 from that of the corolla. Thus, in Oeramacece, the 
 M. of the calyx is imbricated, that of the coroUa. 
 twisted. The manner in which the stamens and 
 pistils are disposed in the bud is not so much taken 
 into account 'm the characters of orders and genera, 
 but is sometimes also noticed; thus, it is a character 
 of Bosacece that the stamens are curved inwards 
 in.^. 
 
 .aiTO'LIA, a district of ancient Greece, lying on 
 the north coast of the Gulf of Corintti. The ancient 
 M. was dividedfrom Acamania by the river Achelous, 
 and extended as far as the river Euenos. On the E. 
 it was bounded by Locris and Doris; on the N., 
 by Thessaly and Epirus; on the W., by Acamania; 
 and on the S., by the Bay of Corinth. In later times, 
 these boundaries were considerably extended to the 
 N. and E. The country had few cities, was generally 
 wild and barren, 'and, according to Herodotus and 
 Aristotle, was nifested by lions on the banks of the 
 Achelous and in other places. Here, according to 
 the legend, Meleager slew the Calydonian boar 
 (q. v.). The jSltolians make a great figure in the 
 heroic age of Greece; but at the time of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war, they were rude and barbarous. The 
 ^toUan Confederacy, first called into existence by 
 the Lamian war (323 B. c), became more important 
 in the time of the Achfean League (q. v.). The 
 several states assembled annually in autumn at 
 Thermum. This assemblage was styled the Pance- 
 tolicon. At first, they called in the aid of the 
 Romans against the Achaean League; but as they 
 saw that the Bomans had designs against the inde- 
 pendence of M., they next affled themselves with 
 Antiochus of Syria, afterwards with Perseus of 
 
APFIDAVIT— AFFEE. 
 
 Macedonia. In 189 B.C., they were compelled to 
 share the fate of Miicedon, and were subjugated 
 by the Romans. — M. ■ now forms a governmental 
 department, or nome, of the modern Idngdom of 
 Greece. The moimtains in the N.E. — now styled 
 Viena — ^form a wUd offset of the Pindus chain, and 
 slope steeply on the S."W". down to the central 
 plams,, partly covered with morasses and partly 
 cultivated. S. of the lakes Apokvu:o (anciently, 
 Trichonis) and Zygos (Hyria) rise a range of moim- 
 tains — ^the AracynOiMS mountain of the ancients — 
 which fall on the S.W. to a broad coast-level, 
 occupied by morasses and lagoons ; but on the 
 S.E. side extend to the gulf, where the promon- 
 tory of Antirrhion reaches to within 2400 yards 
 of the opposite cape Ehion, thus forming the 
 Strait of Lepanto (Naupaotos). The chief rivers of 
 M. are the Aspropotamo (Achdous), in the W.," and 
 the Kdaris (Euenos), in the E. The people in the 
 plains are employed in agriculture and fishing ; while 
 in the mountain-districts some traces of the rude and 
 martial character of ancient M. may stUl be found. 
 The chief towns are Missolonghi and Lepanto (q.v.). 
 
 AFiPIDA'VIT, an oath in writing, or a written 
 declaration made before a magistrate, or other person 
 legally authorised to administer an oath, the truth 
 of which is confirmed either by an oath sworn, or a 
 solemn afiiimation emitted in terms of 18 Vict. c. 
 25, and the other statutes referred to under ArriB- 
 MATIOK. Where evidence is required in England to 
 be laid before a court or a judge, it is usually 
 reduced to the form of an A., in place of being 
 delivered orally, as in jury triaL Ak A. ought to 
 set forth the matter of fact only, and not to declare 
 the merits of the cause, of which the court is to 
 judge (21 Gar. I. B. E..). The name and designation 
 of the party maJdng the A. are written at length, 
 and he signs it at the foot. When the paper is 
 shewn to him, he is required to swear or affirm that 
 its contents are true, and that the name and hand- 
 writing are his. Ai&davits in the High Court of 
 Chancery must be tajj:en and expressed in the first 
 person of the deponent. The Jurat, with which the 
 A. closes, specifies the officer before whom, the place 
 where, and the time when it was sworn, and this is 
 signed by the officer or magistrate. When an 
 A. is sworn in open court, that circumstance is 
 mentioned, and no officer is named. In Scotland, 
 voluntary affidavits are not generally received as 
 evidence, because they are ex parte statements, no 
 opportunity being afforded for cross-examination. 
 To this rule, however, there are exceptions. Claim- 
 ants are required by the Bankrupt Statute to lodge 
 iheir plaims with A. or oaths of verity; and there 
 are other similar statutory provisions. An A. is 
 Bometitnes required also- at common law, as iu 
 applications for warrants in meditatione fugce. By 
 
 5 and 6 WiU. IV. o. 62, various imnecessary oaths 
 and affirmations were abolished, and declarations 
 substituted in lieu thereof, and voluntary and extra- 
 judicial oaths and affidavits were suppressed. The 
 oath of allegiance, and all oaths in courts of justice, 
 were expressly exempted from the operation of the 
 statute ; and by 6 and 7 Vict. c. 43, this exemption 
 was extended to ratifications by married women. 
 The Lord Chancellor of England is empowered by 
 
 6 and 7 Vict. c. 82, to grant commissions for taking 
 affidavits, affirmations, and declarations in Scotland. 
 
 APFI'NITT (Lat. affinitas), the relationship 
 created by marriage between the husband and the 
 blood-relations of ws wife, and between the wife and 
 the blood-relations of the husband. The relations 
 of the wife stand to the husband in the same degree 
 of A. in which they stand to the wife by blood oi; 
 consanguinity, and vice vered. But between the 
 
 relations of the two parties by A. there is no A Thus, 
 there is no A. between the husband's brother and the 
 wife's sister; and by our law, there is no impedi- 
 ment to their marriage. The question as to whether 
 those who are related by A. stand in all respects in 
 the same position as regards marriage with those 
 connected by blood, is one on which much difference 
 of opinion at present prevails. Marriage between a 
 man and the sister of his deceased wife is at present 
 forbidden by statute (5 and 6 WiU. IV. c. 64) ; but 
 an attempt is annually made in parliament to obtain 
 its repeal. See Marriage. 
 
 AFFINITY. Chemical A., or chemical attrac- 
 tion, is the force which produces all chemical pheno- 
 mena. It differs from the attraction of gravita- 
 tion in acting, not between masses, but between 
 atoms, and only when the atoms are at iosensible 
 distances. It differs also from cohesion, which 
 unites the particles of the same substance, while A. 
 unites atoms of different substances. The compounds 
 thus formed are new bodies, often bearmg no 
 resemblance in appearance or other properties to the 
 elements which combine to produce them. Thus, 
 water results from the combination of two gases. 
 
 The strength of chemical A. is different,between 
 different substances. Sidphuric acid combines 
 with lime, Jmd forms gypsum; but if potash is 
 added, the sulphuric acid leaves the lime, and 
 combines with the potash. As a sort of choice is 
 here manifested, it is called a case of elective A. 
 These elective affinities, however, are often altered 
 by a change of temperature, or other accompanying 
 circumstance. 
 
 AFFIRM A'TION, a solemn declaration, which, in 
 the case of members of certain religious persuasions, , 
 is admitted in Heu of an oath. By 3 and 4 Will. IV. 
 c. 49, 3 and 4 WiU. IV. c. 82, and 1 and 2 Vict. 
 c. 77, it is provided that Quakers, Moravians, and 
 Separatists (q. v.) who, from conscientious scruples, 
 refuse to take an oath in courts' pf justice, may, 
 both in civil and criminal cases, make a solemn A., 
 according to a prescribed formula. For Quakers 
 and Moravians the formula is : ' I do solemnly, 
 sincerely, and truly declare and affirm.' In the 
 case of Separatists, this A. further bears to be 
 emitted 'iu the presence of Almighty God.' The 
 penalties of perjury are imposed on those who 
 shall be proved to have affirmed falsely. A later 
 statute (18 Vict. o. 25) has extended the privilege 
 of substituting an A. for an oath to all persons who 
 refuse to be sworn from conscientious motives — tJte 
 jvdge being satisfied that tite motives are conscientious. 
 See Oath. 
 
 AFFRB, Denis Augustus, Archbishop of Paris, 
 who fell in the insurrection of June 1848 (b. 1793). 
 At the time of the Restoration, he was professor 
 of" theology at the seminary of St Sulpice ; and 
 on account of his prudent and temperate character, 
 was made Archbishop of Paris by the government 
 of Louis Philippe in 1840. Though not yield- 
 ing a blind submission to all the measures of 
 the govemfeient, he abstained from all offensive 
 opposition. When Louis Plulippe became an exile, 
 and a republic was proclaimed, the archbishop 
 kept aloof from political strife, but displayed 
 earnest care for the public welfare. During the 
 insurrection in Paris, 1848, he climbed upon 
 a barricade in the Place de Bastille, carrying a 
 green bough in his hand, as a messenger of peace, 
 and wished to persuade the insurgents to lay 
 down their arms. He had scarcely uttered a few 
 words, when the insurgents and the troops com- 
 menced firing again, and he fell, mortally wounded 
 by a musket-ball, coining apparentiy from a window 
 above. He was carried by the insurgents into the 
 
AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 house of a priest, and the next day was removed to 
 his palace, where he died, June 27, 1848. He was 
 the author of several theological writings, and of a 
 work on Egyptian hieroglyphics. 
 
 AFGHANISTA'N, the land of the Afghans, for- 
 merly known by the names of Drangiana and 
 Ariana, hes in lat. from 28° to 36° N., and in long, 
 from 62° to 73° E. Its length from north to south 
 is nearly 450 miles ; its breadth, 470, with an area 
 of 212,000 square nules. Afghan is a Persian 
 name ; the inhabitants style themselves PusJitaneh 
 (plural of Pushtu). Their country is bounded on 
 the N. by Turkistan ; on the E., by Peshawur and 
 Sinde ; on the S., by Beloochistan ; and on the 
 W., by the Persian highlands of Khorassan. It has 
 been calculated to coutaia from five to six millions 
 of iuhabitants. In the N.E., the alpine region of 
 the Hindu Kush, a wild mountain isthmus cleft by 
 nimierous ravines, and towering up into the dime of 
 perpetual ice, unites the high masses of land iu 
 fiastem, with those iu Western Asia, and presents 
 formidable obstructions to commimication between 
 the territory of the Oxus and that of the Indus. In 
 the E., the parallel chains of the Soliman Mountains, 
 together with those of Kalabagh and Khyber to the 
 N., abruptly divide the country from the flat region 
 of the Punjab and the plains of the Lower Indus. 
 There are only two passes leading through the high- 
 lands of Afghanistan to the Indus : that in the north, 
 formed by the deep valley of the Cabul river, has 
 strong positions of defence at Jelalabad and Pesha- 
 wur, not far from the Khyber Pass ; while that in 
 the south, the Bolau Pass, forms a way of commu- 
 nication with Sinde. The mountain-labyrinth of 
 Paropamisus, as the Greeks called the ranges of the 
 . Hazareh and Eimaok, has been httle explored either 
 in its eastern parts or in the highlands stretch- 
 ing out towards Persia, although the historical 
 importance of this region has been long known. 
 The elevated terraces of Cabul and Ghiznee slope 
 gently down towards the south-west. This general 
 outline of the country is sufficient to shew that A. 
 holds a very important position between East and 
 West Asia, and may be regarded by India as a vast, 
 natural fortification against all inroads from the 
 west. Though the chmate has generally a continental 
 character, yet the differences of elevation and 
 unequal distribution of water render it various. The 
 date-palm ornaments the oases in the sandy desert 
 to the south-west, and in tl(e deep sheltered valleys 
 of the east, the cultivation of cotton and sugar 
 succeeds; but' the high terraces of Cabul and 
 Ghiznee (8 — 9000 feet above the level of the sea) 
 are exposed to a severe winter, with heavy falls 
 of snow. Still, the average temperature of this 
 table-land is about 48°, and the heat of the summer 
 ripens the finest grapes. The vine flourishes here 
 in company with apricots, apples, pears, plums, 
 cherries, and fields of European corn. Tulips, 
 aromatic herbs, rhubarb, tobacco, and asafoetida are 
 extensively grown ; and in the well- watered valleys, 
 pomegranates and oranges, with a profusion of roses, 
 display the luxury and splendour of an Indian chme. 
 The mulberry- tree flourishes in the cool valleys. In 
 particular, vast plantations of it are grown in the 
 valleys of the Hindu Gush, where the fruit exhibits 
 many varieties, and when dried and gi-ound into flour 
 is largely used for food by the inhabitants. The 
 animal life found in the country corresponds in 
 variety with the climate and vegetation. In the colder 
 mountainous regions, we find the bear, the wolf, 
 and the fox ; in the tropical valleys, the hon, tiger, 
 leopard, jackal, and hyena ; while fertile pastures 
 support sheep, goats, horses, and horned cattle. 
 Horses, mules, and asses are numerous, and the 
 camel is used in the table-lands. A. is rich in 
 64 
 
 minerals ; iron and copper especially, are abundant. 
 The former is of such excellent quality that, if 
 more carefully prepared, it is behoved that it would 
 rival the most valuable European iron; while the 
 ore of the latter is said to yi,eld in some places 
 nearly 80 per cent, of the metal. Lead, plumbago, 
 saltpetre, sulphur, salt, and alum, are also exten- 
 sively obtained. The four principal places — Cabul, 
 Ghiznee, Candahar, and Herat (q. v.)— have import- 
 ance as stations on the highway of commerce from 
 India to Central and Western Asia. Cabul and 
 Jelalabad guard the passage to India on the N., as 
 does Candahar on the S. ; while in the extreme W., 
 Herat guards the border near Persia. 
 
 The variety which nature has given to the country 
 is also found in the people ; but all are united by 
 national sentiment. Love of independence and 
 equahty, attachment to old customs and simple 
 modes of life, free hospitahty, carried indeed to a 
 pernicious /excess, and a martial spirit, are their 
 characteristics. The Afghans are generally power- 
 fully made; and, though the features of the men 
 may be styled harsh, the cheek-bones being high, 
 and the nose very large, they are often expressive 
 of candour, earnestness, and dehberation. Their 
 language, the Pushtu, is alKed to the Persian ; at 
 least, a great proportion of the words are Persic, 
 though the primitive roots of the language belong to 
 some unknown stock. The only authors in the 
 Pushtu language are lyrists and ballad-writers, but 
 the Persian is employed in prose composition, and the 
 Persian authors are familiar to the educated Afghans. 
 In religion they are Mohammedans according to the 
 version of the Sunites, and are strongly opposed 
 to the Persians and the Sikhs, who belong to 
 other sects. Yet they are not bigoted, for those 
 of the heretical Shiite sect may hold almost any 
 official position iu the state, while Hindus and 
 Christians enjoy the utmost toleration. The Afghans 
 are distinguished among orientals for their truth- 
 fulness, the respect with which they treat women, 
 their indifference to rank, and their reverence for 
 age. They cannot be said to be well armed, as they 
 employ matchlocks, and their artiUery is unwieldy ; 
 but, like other eastern people, they are expert in the 
 use of the sabre. 
 
 The first appearance of A. as an independent 
 power took place during the internal discords of 
 Persia after the death of Nadir Shah. Ahmed Khan, 
 of the race of AbdaEi (1747—1773), took advantage 
 of these feuds, and liberated A. from Persian rule. 
 His success founded the Douranee dynasty. When 
 his son Timur died, in 1793, a contest for the throne 
 took place between the brothers Zemaun, Mahmud, 
 and Shah Sujah, which ended in the success of 
 Mahmud, who, however, was compelled to abdicate 
 the throne in 1823, and died in 1829. The empire" 
 now fell into the hands of three brothers, of whom 
 the oldest. Dost Mohammed, ruled at Cabul, the 
 most important of the three divisions of the country, 
 where he had a Revenue of 1,400,000 doEars, and 
 an army of 18,000 men. StiU, the country was 
 in an unsettled state ; for Dost Mohammed was at 
 -war with Lahore in the east, and in the west, the 
 Persians had invaded Herat. On the 1st of October 
 1838, the governor-general of India (Lord Auck- 
 land) declared war against A., on the grounds, 
 that Dost Mohammed had unlawfully attacked 
 the British ally, Eiinjeet Singh; that the military 
 operations of the Afghans had betrayed a hostile 
 purpose towards India; and that Shah Sujah, as 
 the rightful heir to the Afghan throne, had placed 
 himself under British protection. All this was true, 
 but did not make the invasion of A. by the Anglo- 
 Indian»forces either just or poHtic. However, the 
 British forces advanced through the Bolan Pass to 
 
,1 Ear* Jom™. Bibnliitjl 
 
 [|■^'ROi'i « rOIHfllKOM 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 Candahar, where Shah Sujah formally claimed pos- 
 session of the country. On the 21st of July, the army 
 encamped before Gmznee, and after some hard fight- 
 ing, that fortress was taken. On the 7th of August, 
 Shah Sujah, with the British forces, entered Cabul, 
 and the conquest was regarded as complete. It was 
 a gross mistake of the nature of the country and the 
 character of the people. The land had been invaded, 
 but was by no means conquered. Dost Mohammed 
 had surrendered to the EngUsh ; but his son, Akbar 
 Khan, was actively engaged in a conspiracy, of which 
 Sir Alexander Burnes smd the envoy Maouaghten 
 were not aware until it was too late. At the begin- 
 ning of winter, when help from India was impossible, 
 the outbrealc took place at Cabul, when Burnes, 
 Macnaghten, and several British officers were slain. 
 Another serious error was now committed : instead 
 of making some decided and bold movement, which 
 might have inspired respect for the British forces, 
 humiliating terms of capitulation were acceded 
 to by Major Pottinger. It was agreed that the 
 invaders should leave the country ; while, on the 
 other hand, Akbar Khan and his confederates stipu- 
 lated to provide an escort, and make other necessary 
 arrangements for the rebreat. Depending on these 
 promises, the British army left Cabul on the 6th of 
 January 1842, in order to return by the Khyber Pass 
 into India ; but neither escort nor provisions were 
 suppKed by the Afghan leaders, and the severity of 
 the season increased the misery of the retreat. The 
 fanatical tribes of the districts harassed the flanks 
 and rear of the army, and slew women and children 
 as weU as men. Out of a host of 16,000 — or, if we 
 inchide women and children, about 26,000 — only 
 one man (Dr Brydon) escaped to carry the dismal 
 tidings to General Sale, who still held his position at 
 Jelalabad. Almost against his own will, the new 
 governor-general, Lord Ellenborough, sent other 
 forces into A. General Nott marched from Candahar 
 to Ghiznee, which was again taken after a slight 
 resistance, and then proceeded to meet the army 
 which, under General Pollock, had marched through 
 the Khyber Pass to Cabul. Here the force of Akbar 
 Khan was defeated and routed, and the place was as 
 far as possible desolated. The Enghsh officers and 
 their ladies who had surrendered themselves as 
 prisoners to Akbar Khan, were, restored to liberty ; 
 and soon afterwards, the troops marched back to 
 India. It was believed now that the Afghans were 
 deprived of all power to confederate against the 
 government of India ; but this conclusion was too 
 hasty, for in 1846 they formed an alliance with 
 the Sikhs against the British ; and the disturb- 
 ances in the Punjab were not quelled without 
 several sanguinary engagements. After the decisive 
 battle of Gujerat (February 21, 1849), the Sikhs 
 were forsaken by the Afghans ; and Dost Moham- 
 med, with about 16,000 men, fled over the Indus. 
 Once more the British army marched through the 
 Khyber Pass, and renewed the work of subjugating 
 the several Afghan tribes. Since the close of the Sikh 
 war, they have remained tranquil; and there is 
 every probabUity that, as they learn to recognise the 
 intention of England not to extend the boundaries of 
 her conquest beyond the Indus, they will cease to ex- 
 hibit that hostile jealousy of feeling which has long 
 characterised their relations and intercourse with her. 
 See A Journal of (lie Disasters in Afghanistan, by 
 Lady Sale (Lend., 1843) ; Eyre's Military Operations 
 at Gabid (Lond., 1843) ; and a History of the War in 
 Afghanistan, by J. W. Kaye (2 vols. Lond., 1851). 
 
 A'FEIOA, one of the great divisions of the globe 
 — the second in point of size, but by far the least 
 important as regards the civilisation and progress of 
 the human species. Thiscontiaent, so long a land of 
 mystery, has, in modem times, been partly opened 
 
 for lis by the enterprise of explorers, the zeal of 
 missionaries, the perseverance of commercial specu- 
 lation, and the mUitary aggressions of Europeans. 
 The extreme N. and N.E. borders, which in ancient 
 times were the seats of civihsation, while aU the 
 other parts lay hid in darkness, had fallen back into a 
 state of barbarism, but are now partially restored to 
 a position of importance in connection with the 
 political and commercial interests of Eiurope. Great 
 progress has also been made, from the south or Cape 
 Colony, in exploiing the elevated land of the interior, 
 and introducmg commerce among the natives. The 
 efforts of England to suppress the slave-trade, and 
 to open new channels for manufacturing industry, 
 seem likely, in the course of time, to make great 
 alterations in the condition of the countries and 
 tribes of people on the western coast, while the 
 recent and present attempts to navigate the Quorra, 
 or Niger, have considerably advanced our knowledge 
 of the interior. The chief hindrances are found in 
 the comparatively few accessible points on the coast, 
 the pestilential cUmate of the marshy lowland bor- 
 dering on the sea, the barrenness of vast tracts like 
 the desert of Sahara, over which one must travel 
 rapidly, and only by certain routes ; and lastly, the 
 barbarism and sanguinary character of the natives. 
 On the other hand, the position of A. is favourable 
 to its exploration by Europeans. Its most remote 
 harbours are almost as near as North America — 
 nearer than the Brazils, and much nearer than 
 British India. A sailing-vessel from Bristol can 
 reach the river Senegal in about twenty days; 
 Sierra Leone in thirty ; Cape Coast in thirty-five ; 
 and the Congo in fifty. Of course, steam-communi- 
 cation is far more rapid. 
 
 The valley of the Nile was known in the earliest 
 period of history as the nursery of commerce, arts, 
 and sciences ; but while Egypt was flourishing, the 
 rest of A. was almost totally unknown, and was 
 vaguely spoken of as Libya. In later times, the 
 Greeks and the Romans became more acquainted 
 with the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, and pene- 
 trated into A., probably as far as the Niger; but 
 they had scarcely any definite knowledge of the 
 countries lying beyond Numidia, while South A. 
 was entirely unknown. The tradition that Jewish 
 and Tyrian merchants, on their voyages to Ophir, 
 explored the east coast of A., is dubious; but 
 another account, that, in the time of Pharaoh-Necho, 
 the PhcEnicians circumnavigated A., seems to be 
 well authenticated ; and it is probable that the Car- 
 thaginians had a better knowledge of the interior 
 than we have in the present day. For a history of 
 the older discoveries in A., we may refer to Murray's 
 Historical Account of Discoveries and Travels in 
 Africa (2 vols., Edin. 1817), and to Leyden's Sketch 
 of the Discoveries in Northern and Western Africa 
 (Edin. 1799). 
 
 The 15th c. was marked by an extension of 
 geographical knowledge in A. as elsewhere. Henry 
 the Navigator sailed round the formidable Cape Nun 
 (non plus ultra) ; Diaz and Vasco de Gama dis- 
 covered the Cape of Good Hope ; and both the 
 western and the eastern coasts were partly explored 
 by several European voyagers. The older travels 
 and discoveries may be arranged in the following 
 order: in the 14th c, the travels of the Arabian Ebn 
 Batuta in the north of A. In the 15th c, the 
 Portuguese discoveries of Madeira, Cape Blanco, 
 Senegal, Guinea, Benin, the Cape of Good Hope, 
 &c., and the navigation of the east coast by the 
 Portuguese Covilham, who first travelled in Abys- 
 sinia. In the 16th c, the travels of Leo Africanus 
 through Barbary and Sahara to Abyssinia; the 
 travels of the German Kanwolf in North A., and 
 Windham's voyage to Guinea, which was followed 
 
 €5 
 
APEIOA. 
 
 by several other expeditiona in 1554 and 1562. In 
 1570 and 1600 the Portuguese visited Monomotapa, 
 then a powerful state near the Mozambique coast. 
 In the 17th c, the Enghshmen Jobson and Thom- 
 son, in their journey to Timbuktu, opened British 
 commerce with A., and the slave-trade immediately 
 followed. In 1662, we find a IVench colony on the 
 Senegal, and many exploring journeys to the interior 
 by Eenouard and others. In 1624, the Jesuit Lobo 
 endeavoured to find a way from the equator through 
 the interior as far as Abyssinia. Thevenot'a journey 
 to Egypt in 1652, the English occupation of Cape 
 Coast in 1664, Brue's voyage to Senegambia, and 
 several other visits to the western coast, mark the 
 progress made in the latter half of the 17th c. One 
 German traveller, Wansleben, gave a description of 
 his journeys on the west coast ; and another. Von 
 Groben, in 1683, founded in Upper Guinea the colony 
 of Eredericksburg, which afterwards fell into the 
 hands of the Dutch, but is now abandoned. 
 
 In the course of the 18th c, various additions were 
 made to our store of information on Africa; but 
 they are not aU trustworthy. In the year 1788, the 
 African Society was founded in London, and, under 
 its direction, Ledyard and Lucas were sent to explore 
 the Niger, and were followed by Major Houghton. 
 The English colony of Sierra Leone was founded in 
 1790. The Erench expedition to Egypt, towards the 
 close of this century, gave a new impulse to researches 
 in A. 
 
 In the 19th c, the most various motives have co- 
 operated in favour of an extended knowledge of this 
 vast continent. The captains of English cruisers, 
 employed to suppress the slave-trade, have suppKed 
 some valuable information; the governors of the 
 colonies and private merchants have contributed 
 their share ; and enterprising travellers from aU 
 sides of the coast have endeavoured to strike out 
 paths to the interior. The works published on A. 
 since the year 1800 are consequently very numerous. 
 It would be useless to specify the whole of these, 
 inasmuch as many of them are only hasty and frag- 
 mentary sketches by casual travellers, and have 
 recently been superseded by volumes containing the 
 results of more accurate and extensive researches. 
 A few of the more important may be mentioned. In 
 1802 — 1805, Lichtenstein travelled in the district 
 north of the Cape of Good Hope, and first furnished in- 
 formation regarding the Bechuaua tribe. The travels 
 of Mungo Park from Timbuktu to Bussa are famiHar 
 to every one. In 1809, Burckhardt was sent out by 
 the African Society, and his explorations, rich in 
 manifold results, occupied the years 1812 — 1816. To 
 the Erench we are indebted for much valuable 
 information concerning Marocco, Algeria, and the 
 neighbouring parts of Sahara. In 1821, Oudney, 
 Clapperton, and Denham set out from Tripoli, in 
 a southerly direction, through the border-land that 
 separates the Libyan from the Sah^tra Desert, intend- 
 ing to proceed to Bomu, and exj|lore the course of 
 the Niger. Oudney died in 1824 ; but Clapperton 
 and Denham continued their journey, and reached 
 Sokoto or Sacatoo, the residence of the ruler of Sudan. 
 They discovered the fresh- water lake Tchad. In the 
 following year, Clapperton, accompanied by three 
 friends, started from Benin, intending to travel 
 through the whole region lying between Timbuktu 
 and Abyssinia, but died of dysentery at Sokoto, 
 April 13, 1827. His servant, Elchard Lander, after 
 giving an aocoimt of their discoveries, was employed 
 m another exploration of the Niger, and traced its 
 lower course to the embouchure in the Bay of Benin. 
 During the last twenty years, our knowledge of 
 South A. has received many important additions 
 from the missionaries stationed there, especially 
 Moffat ; while David Livingstone, who, since 1843, 
 
 has been eamestiy endeavouring to open the coim- 
 tries north of the Cape of Good Hope, penetrated in 
 1849 as far as Lake N'gami, in 20° S. lat. ; and in 
 1853, ascending the Leeambye (Zambesi) northward 
 for several hvmdred miles, succeeded in crossing the 
 continent to Loando on the W. coast, in the Portu- 
 guese province of Angola. Having retraced his 
 steps to the point of the Zambesi from which he 
 had started, the adventurous traveller next followed 
 that stream, which there bends eastward, till he 
 reached the E. coast, in 18° S. lat. He is still (1859) 
 engaged in prosecuting discoveries in that rich and 
 interesting region. Eurther north, the geography, 
 language, and manners of the inhabitants of Abys- 
 sinia, Sennaar, and Kordofan, have, during late 
 years, been greatly illustrated by the effOTts of 
 various Europeans, who have travelled thither 
 with the hope of exploring the course of the Nile. 
 Einally, the extensive and long-continued researches 
 of Dr Barth and his companians, proceeding by the 
 same general route from Tripoli as Clapperton and 
 Denham, and investigating, though more compre- 
 hensively, the same central division of the continent, 
 have enriched our store of knowledge, and lead us to 
 cherish the expectation that the day is not far 
 distant when the secret places of this land of 
 mystery will be penetrated by the light of science 
 and civilisation. 
 
 A. is situated in the eastern hemisphere, to the 
 S. of Europe, and the S. W. of Asia, and lies 
 between lat. 37° 20' N., and 34° 50' S., and long. 
 17° 30' W., and 51° 30' E. It is of an irregular 
 triangular form, with the vertex towards the S., 
 having the Mediterranean on the N., the Isthmus 
 of Suez, Ked Sea, and Indian Ocean on the E., 
 and the Atlantic on the W. It is thus almost 
 insular, the connecting isthmus being only 72 
 miles across, of no great elevation above the sea- 
 level, and even in part occupied by salt lakes and 
 marshes — offering in this respect every facility 
 for the connection of the Ked Sea and Mediter- 
 ranean by canal. The coast-hne is marked by few 
 indentations or projections ; the most important 
 gulf being that of Guinea, on the W. ; and Capes 
 Bon, Verde, Good Hope, and Guardafui, the extreme 
 points respectively on the N., W., S., and E. 
 The greatest length of the continent, taken from 
 north to south, is about 4985 miles ; its greatest 
 breadth, from east to west, 4615; and its area, 
 including the adjacent islands, not less than 
 11,854,000 square miles. 
 
 "What is known of the physical features of A. 
 may be shortly sketched under the following heads : 
 1. The triangular region south of Cape Guardafui and 
 the Gulf of Guinea, is mostiy a high table-land, 
 having fringes of mountains crowning its edges. 
 Between the coast and the beginning of me elevation 
 runs a belt of lowlands, varying from 50 to 300 
 miles in breadth. The Lupata range, seen running 
 parallel with the coast, forms the eastern crest of 
 the table-land. Between 3° and 4° S. lat., it reaches, 
 in the snow-clad Kilimandjaro and Kenia, the 
 height of 20,000 feet. These are believed to be the 
 real Mountains of the Moon, which have hitherto 
 been represented as running across the continent from 
 E. to VV. The mountainous coimtry of Abyssinia 
 is the eastern prolongation of the plateau and its 
 elevated crest; in the summit of Abba Yared, at 
 the northern extremity, it rises to 15,000 feet. At 
 the south, the hiUs of Cape Colony rise in stages 
 from Table Mount to the summits of the Nieuwveld 
 and Sneeuwberg, in the N. of the colony, which 
 are estimated at 7—10,000 feet ; the spaces between 
 the ranges being shrubby kloofs or valleys, and 
 broad elevated terraces or karroos. From the 
 elevated crest that runs parallel to the west coast 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 from Cape Colony to Valfish Bay, Mr Galton 
 describes the country as sloping both W. and E., 
 thus giving a cup or basin-shaped appearance to 
 the interior of the continent. Towaids the N.W. 
 the border o£ the table-land rises in the Came- 
 roons to the height of 13,000 feet. Its northern 
 boundary is not determined ; but it is likely that 
 the valley of the western branch of the Nile pene- 
 trates into it, dividing it into two portions, an 
 eastern and a western. A mountain seen lying 
 south fi'om Lake Tchad is supposed to be one of its 
 northern outposts. 
 
 2. North of the great triangular table-land lies 
 Sudan or Central Nigritia, under which name may be 
 comprehended the countries watered by the Senegal, 
 Grambia, and Niger, along with the coast of Lower 
 Guinea ; and the basin of Lake Tchad. In the west 
 of this section is a mountainous table-land of no 
 gi'eat elevation, in which the rivers above named 
 take their rise ; the Kong Mountains, which run 
 parallel to the Guinea coast, are a branch of this 
 elevation. Eastward of the Niger, the country is 
 holy, alternating with rich, often swampy plains. 
 In the basin of Lake Tchad is a vast alluvial plain, 
 one of the largest on the globe, and of great fertility. 
 
 3. Between Sudan and the cultivated tract which 
 borders the Mediterranean, stretches the Sahara or 
 Great Desert. It extends south nearly to the 
 Senegal, the northern bend of the Niger, and Lake 
 Tchad, northward to the Atlas range in Marocco 
 and Algeria, and towards Egypt it reaches to the 
 Mediterranean. Its average breadth from N. to 
 S. is about 1000 miles. Its length from the 
 Atlantic to the western edge of the valley of the 
 Nile is 2000. Over a great part of this region, rain 
 never falls, and everywhere it is rare; it is thus 
 condemned to sterility. It consists partly of tracts 
 of fine shifting sand, which frequent storms of 
 wind raise into the air, so as often to overwhelm 
 travellers. But the greater part of the surface 
 consists of naked but firm soU, composed of 
 indurated sand, sandstone, granite, and quartz-rocks, 
 often rising into ridges or hiUs. The desolation is 
 interrupted at intervals by patches, sometimes of 
 considerable extent, covered with bushes and coarse 
 grass, and often of great beauty and fertility. These 
 oases, or wadies, as they are called, which are occa- 
 sioned by subterranean springs, are most numerous 
 and fertile in the eastern portion of the Desert. 
 The easiest route across the Desert to Sudan runs 
 from Tripoli through the kingdom of Fezzan to 
 Lake Tchad. Fezzan enjoys periodic rain from the 
 moist winds of the Mediterranean, which extend 
 further into the continent here than elsewhere. 
 The portion of the Desert lying east of the route 
 above described is called the Libyan Desert. 
 It is chiefly in this region that the oases are 
 susceptible of cultivation; the tracts of vegetation 
 in the western portion are fit for Httle else than 
 pasture, mainly for goats and sheep. The principal 
 production of the more fertile oases is dates ; but 
 other fruits and graia are also cultivated. Gum- 
 arabic is another production. Some of the larger 
 oases support thousands of inhabitants living in 
 villages. Commerce is carried on across the Desert 
 by various routes by means of caravans, consisting 
 of from 500 to 2000 camels, with their attendants. 
 The distance between the wells sometimes exceeds 
 ten days' journey ; and when a well is found dry, 
 men and animals are in danger of perishing. The 
 inhabitants consist of independent tribes of Moors, 
 Berbers, and Arabs. 
 
 4. The Atlas region, comprehending the mountain- 
 ous countries of Marocco, Algeria, and Tunis. The 
 northern slope towards the Mediterranean, called 
 the Tell, is, in aspect, climate, and productions. 
 
 similar to the opposite coast of Europe ; the southern 
 side merges gradually into the Sahara. Some parts 
 of the chain are considerably above the snow-line, 
 and the highest summits may reach 15,000 feet. 
 
 5. The region bordering on the Eed Sea, consisting 
 of Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt. Abyssinia, we 
 have seen, is the mountainous termination of the 
 great southern plateau. Between this and the 
 Mediterranean extends the low valley of the Nile, 
 separated from the Eed Sea on the east by a rugged 
 mountainous region, and from the Libyan Desert on 
 the west by a low ridge of limestone and sandstone. 
 
 Eegarding the hydrogi-aphy of A., much is stUl 
 to be ascertained. The portion which, until recently, 
 was termed the ' unexplored territory,' seems to be 
 anything but the barren and riverless desert that 
 we imagined ; still it may be safely stated that A., 
 as a whole, is far from being a well-watered con- 
 tinent, though hardly one of its streams has been 
 traced throughout its entire course, while nearly the 
 entire tributaries of these, if (as is probable) such 
 exist in abundance, are almost wholly unknown. 
 Those of the south, which mostly rise in the neigh- 
 bouring highlands, are, in many instances, little 
 better than mountain-torrents, having short and 
 rapid coiu^es ; and the embouchure, generally in the 
 ddta form, is commonly obstructed by a bar of 
 sand. The Orange Eiver, for instance, is filled with 
 sand at its mouth. 
 
 Rivers. — The great rivers of A. are the Nile, the 
 Niger, the Zambesi, the Orange, the Congo, the 
 Senegal, and the Gambia. See arts. Nile, Nigek, 
 &c. The first of these is formed by the junction of 
 two rivers — the White Nile (Bahr-el-Abiad) and the 
 Blue Nile (Bahr-el-Asrak). The former flows from 
 an unknown source near the equator, through a 
 region as yet unvisited by Europeans, skirts the 
 eastern edge of Kordofan, and passes into Nubia, 
 where it is joined by the Blue Nile at Kliartuin, 
 after the latter has broken through the highlands of 
 Abyssinia. The single stream then sweeps circuit- 
 ously through Nubia in a succession of cataracts, 
 and descending into ECTpt, reaches the Mediter- 
 ranean through the far-famed Delta. The second 
 of the great rivers the Niger, Johba, or Quorra — 
 for it goes by these and other names in different 
 parts of its course — arises in the Kong Mountains of 
 Guinea, about 9° 25' N. lat., 9° 45' W. long., and flows 
 first N.E. till it reaches Timbuktu, where it bends 
 E. for a short distance, and then descends in a S.E. 
 direction into the Gulf of Guinea. Its length is 
 estimated at 2500 miles ; and its navigabilify has 
 been ascertained for a distance of upwards of 400 
 miles; but its banks are veiy pestilential. Its 
 principal tributary is the Tchadda or BenuS. At 
 the extreme west of the mountains of Kong, and not 
 far from the source of the Niger, rises the Senegal, 
 which flows with a crescent sweep to the N/W. 
 through Senegambia, and enters the Atlantic north 
 of Cape Verde. The Gambia, a smaller river, nms 
 in a sumlar direction through the same country, and 
 falls into the sea south of Cape Verde. The Congo, 
 which has its origin somewhere in that great division 
 of A. south of the equator that has recently been 
 opened to us, is very imperfectly Imown. It empties 
 its waters into the Atlantic at Cape Padrone, in 
 South Guinea. The Orange Eiver flows from east 
 to west with many windings throuA what is 
 popularly termed ' the country of the Hottentots ; ' 
 while the Zambesi, though only partially explored, 
 seems rich in affluents, and runs in a general easterly 
 direction, entering the channel of Mozambique about 
 18° S. lat. 
 
 Lakes. — The lakes of A. are, as yet, no better 
 known to us than its rivers. Tcliad, Chad, or more 
 correctly, according to Dr Barth, Tsad, the chief lake 
 
 67 
 
AFRICA. 
 
 of Sudan or Central A., has a circumference of about 
 200 miles, with, a, depth varying from 8 — 15 feet, 
 and an elevation of 850 feet above the sea-level. 
 Though it has no outlet, its waters are cool and 
 clear, and abound with fish. Besides a multitude 
 of temporary streams, it is the recipient of several 
 large nvers. The chief is the Shary or Asu, from 
 the south-east. Dembea or Tzana, in Abyssinia, 
 through which the Blue Nile flows, is about 65 miles 
 long, and 30 broad, and Kes 6000 feet above the 
 sea-level. Lake N'gami, in Southern A., has been 
 already mentioned. From the concurring accounts 
 of Arab travellers and natives, it is ascertained that 
 there is a large lake in the interior called Nyassi 
 or Uniamesi, about 5° S. lat., and 29° E. long. It is 
 in the midst of a fertile and populous country, and 
 feeds a large river, the Luffia, which flows eastward 
 into the sea on the Zanzibar coast. 
 
 Geology. — The geology of A. is known as yet only 
 from cursory observations made at isolated points. 
 The character of the Sahara has been already indi- 
 cated. The section traversed by Dr Livingstone 
 presents a variety of schists, shales, sandstones, and 
 tufa, through which protrude granite and trap-rocks. 
 In one place towards the east side of the continent, 
 the sandstone is found overlying coal. Between 
 Tripoli and Murzuk there is a plateau, the dark 
 sandstone of which disintegrated, fills up the 
 inequalities of the surface, from, which the black 
 rock stands out in fantastic cones. The lofty barrier 
 of limestone which forms the western boundary of 
 Egypt, reappears in the rugged ranges of hills 
 which break the monotonous waste of Sahara; they 
 sometimes contain marine shells. Secondary lime- 
 stone also constitutes the lower skirts of the Atlas 
 Mountains, but what constitutes their basis has not 
 yet been discovered. 
 
 Glimaie. — There are three great varieties of climate, 
 corresponding to the physical structure of the con- 
 tinent : first, that of the plateaus ; second, that of the 
 terraces which lead to them ; and third, that of the 
 coasts. In the vast desert of Sahara, extending over 
 an area equal to that of the Mediterranean Sea, almost 
 destitute of water and vegetation, and partly covered 
 with tracts of sand and bare low rocks, the heat of 
 the day is uniformly contrasted with the coldness 
 of the night; while on the terrace-land of Limbu, 
 for instance, situated behind the Sierra Leone region, 
 we find a temperate and wholesome cUmate ; and in 
 that rising behind the Slave Coast, we have beautiful 
 landscapes, abujidant springs, new forms of vegeta- 
 tion, and a mild Italian air. The natives of Congo 
 call their terrace-lands, which are well cultivated 
 and thickly peopled, ' the Paradise of the World.' 
 But the flat coasts, which are often over-flooded in 
 the rainy season, have a very oppressive atmosphere, 
 and from the morasses at the mouths of the rivers, 
 a malaria arises which is pestilential to Europeans. 
 This malaria has been supposed to arise from the 
 decay of the vegetable matter brought down by 
 the rivers from the dense mangrove-woods, which, 
 mixing with the salt water on the coast, pro- 
 duces sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Nothing can be 
 more unfavourable to the health and energy of 
 Europeans tha.n the climate of Sierra Leone, the 
 Gambia, and M'Carthy's Island. In the last, the 
 thermometer is often at 106° in the shade during the 
 dry season, and the whole island is little better than 
 a morass in the four rainy months. The region of 
 pestilential air has been calculated to extend about 
 100 miles inland ; but only 40 miles out at sea, and 
 to rise to a height of 400 feet above the sea-level. 
 
 Productions. — The vegetation of A. is decidedly 
 less varied than that of Europe or Asia. Along the 
 Mediterranean sea-board, it greatly resembles that 
 of Southern Europe. The tropical regions are not 
 
 so rich in species of plants as those of South 
 America, but still they exhibit many peculiar genera. 
 As we leave the siJtry coasts, and ascend the 
 terraces towards the interior, we pass gradually from 
 tropical productions to those of vas temperate 
 zones, which all flourish well in several parts of A. 
 Though the forests cannot rival those of Brazil, 
 they are rich in valuable woods, especially the 
 harder kinds ; some of them excellent for ship- 
 building. Here we find the gigantic Adanaonia 
 (q. V.) digikcta or baobab. Ebony, certain kinds of 
 rosewood, and the timber called African teak, are 
 among the productions of the tropical forests. The 
 Butter-tree {Bassia, q. v.) is one of the most remark- 
 able productions of the central regions,. Extensive 
 level tracts are covered with acacias. Certain palms 
 are very characteristic of different parts of A., and 
 are of the greatest importance to the inhabitants, 
 particularly the Date-palm (q. v.) in the north, and 
 in an inferior degree, the Doom-palm (q. v.), both of 
 them growing in regions comparatively arid, and 
 often surrounded by the very sands of the desert ; 
 whilst the OH-palm (q. v.) flourishes amidst the 
 tropical luxuriance of the west, and supplies an 
 article of commerce which now attracts the ships of 
 Europe, in constantly increasing numbers, to shores 
 once frequented only for the prosecution of the 
 slave-trade. The Cocoa-palm (q. v.) flourishes on 
 many parts of the tropical coasts. A large quantity 
 of oil is produced also by a plant of a very different 
 description, the Ground-nut {Arachis, q. v.), a legum- 
 inous herbaceous plant, which" has the remarkable 
 peculiarity of thrusting its pods into the ground to 
 ripen there, and which is now so extensively culti- 
 vated, that nine millions of bushels of ground-nuts 
 are annually exported from the Gambia. The 
 southern extremity of A. is remarkable for the vast 
 number of its species of mesembryanthemums and 
 heaths. Pelargoniums, iridacese and proteaceee, are 
 also among the most characteristic features of its 
 vegetation. Euphorbiaoeae abound in most parts of 
 the continent. Many of the productions of other 
 countries have been introduced, both in the tropical 
 and temperate parts of A. Maize is now extensively 
 cultivated, as well as rice, wheat, and millet. A 
 peculiar kind of grain, called fundi, or fundungi 
 (Paspalurn, exile), is cultivated in the west, and 
 OTains called teff and toousso {Poa Abysdnica and 
 Bleudne Tocusso) in Abyssinia. Coffee grows luxuri- 
 antly, and of good quality. Indigo and tobacco are 
 easily cultivated, and cotton has succeeded well 
 where it has been introduced, as in Egypt, where, 
 however, it requires artificial and laborious iniga- 
 tion; while in the rich and well- watered soil of 
 Sennaar, it flourishes even with a most careless 
 style of cultivation, and might, without doubt, be 
 produced in enormous quantity. Other regions, as 
 Natal, seem likely soon to produce it abundantly. 
 The vine is cultivated with success at the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and the sugar-cane in different parts of 
 the continent. 
 
 In the animal Jcingdom, we find the hon, the 
 leopard — often caUed the tiger, but the tiger is not 
 yet known except as a native of Asia and the Asiatic 
 isles — hyenas, jackals, and others of the canine 
 family, a species of elephant, differing in some 
 particulars from that of Asia, several species of 
 rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, wart-hogs (Phasco- 
 chcerue), and many kinds of monkeys, particvdarly 
 within the tropics. The giraffe, the zebra, and the 
 quagga, are peculiar and characteristic, as are also 
 numerous species of antelope, which occupy, in 
 African zoology, the place of deer in other parts of 
 the world. The gnu is one of the most remark- 
 able of the antelope genus. Some of the smaller 
 species occasionally appear in prodigious numbers, 
 
APRICA. 
 
 devastating the fields of the colonists. The ostrich is 
 found in almost all parts of A. Parrots, flamingoes, 
 and guinea-fowls may also be mentioned among the 
 birds. Crocodiles are foimd in the rivers, and many- 
 kinds of lizards and serpents occur, not a few of the 
 latter being poisonous. There are also tortoises and 
 tm-tles of different species. The domestic animals 
 succeed well. Camels are said to have been intro- 
 duced by the Arabs, and are plentiful in the northern 
 redons. 
 
 It would be hazardous to assert that A. is deficient 
 in mineral wealth, though, judging from our present 
 imperfect knowledge, it does not seem to be exta-emely 
 rich. Gold is much more plentiful than silver, being 
 found abundantly in the sands of the great rivers 
 that flow out of the central region, on tiie coast of 
 Guinea, and also in the south-east of A. The 
 Sierra Leone coast has valuable iron ore, which is 
 also found in the Upper Senegal, the remon of 
 Timbuktu, the Congo chain of mountains, Egypt, 
 and Darfur. Copper is plentiful at Majomba, and in 
 some other places ; salt may be obtained from almost 
 every district in A. except Sudan, and sal-ammoniac, 
 saltpetre, sulphur, and emery in various portions of 
 the continent. > 
 
 Population. — The population is vaguely estimated 
 at above 100,000,000. The native inhabitants belong 
 to one of the three great divisions of the human 
 family, called, by Dr Latham, Atlantidse, the Ethiopic 
 of other ethnologists. The subdivision into tribes is 
 endless, but they may be all classed in six groups : 
 1st, The Negro AUanUdm. — These have, in an exag- 
 gerated form, the black unctuous skin, woolly hair, 
 projectins jaws, flat nose, and thick hps, character- 
 istic of the whole variety. But it is important to 
 observe the comparatively narrow area to which the 
 negroes proper are confined. They occxipy Western A., 
 from the Senegal to the Gaboon, Sudan in the centre, 
 and the low parts of the Upper Nile. The dusky or 
 brown hue is more prevalent through A. as a whole 
 than the jet-black of the negro ; wmoh seems nearly 
 coincident with river valleys and deltas lying within 
 the tropics. 2d, Kajw AUantidm. — In physical con- 
 formation, they are modified negro; the jaws are less 
 projecting ; their language has some singular pecu- 
 liarities. They occupy from north of the equator 
 to south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Sd, Hottentot 
 Atlantidm. — These, according to Dr Latham, have a 
 better claim to be considered a second species than 
 any other section of mankind. Their colour is brown 
 rather than black; the hair grows in tufts. The 
 stature is low, and the bones of the pelvis peculiar. 
 Their language has a characteristic dick. They 
 inhabit the south of the continent, and are divided 
 into Hottentots and Saabs, or Bushmen, ith, Nilotic 
 AUantidce, occupying the water-system of the Upper 
 and Middle Nile. The leading tribes are the Gallas, 
 Agows, Nubians, and Bishari, forming the population 
 of Abyssinia, Adel, and Nubia. It cormects by 
 imperceptible gradations the Coptic and Semitic 
 groups with the rest of the African, bth, Amazigh 
 Atlantidix, usually called Berbers. In conformation, 
 they vary from the negro to the Arab type. The 
 language is swA-Semitio. They inhabit the ranees of 
 the Afias, the Sahara, the Canary Isles, and are 
 f oimd as far south even as the centre of Sudan. Gth, 
 Egyptian Atlantidm, or old Egyptians, represented 
 by the modern Copts. Both language and physical 
 conformation connect them, on the one hand, with 
 Berbers and Nubians; on the other, with the 
 Assyrians, Jews, &c. 
 
 In religion, the natives are as various as in lan- 
 guage ; but it may be questioned whether some of 
 the tribes, especially in South A., can be fairly 
 described as having any religion. In not a few of 
 these, the religious consciousness seems wholly 
 
 extinguished, and the very terms which ejcpress it, 
 to have dropped out of their language. Such, at 
 least, was the result of Moffat's observations, though 
 perhaps the degradation in which he found some 
 tribes plunged was in itself a barrier to a just and 
 adequate communication with them ; for the lower 
 that races or individuals sink, the less easy is it to 
 imderstand them. Tlu-oughout the north, and to a 
 considerable extent in the interior, the creed of 
 Mohammed is received, but held very loosely by 
 many. The Mohammedan tribes on the west coast 
 divide themselves into two classes — the Marabouts 
 and the Sonnachees ; but it is not easy to under- 
 stand the exact nature of this distinction, beyond the 
 simple fact, that the Marabouts profess to adhere 
 rather strictly to the laws of the Prophet, while the 
 Sonnachees are more secular, make httle profession 
 of sanctity, but eat pork and wUl drink spirituous 
 hquors. The lowest form of superstition, styled 
 felichism, prevails among the xmcultured negro tribes, 
 as well as among the Gallas, a nation widely spread 
 south-east of Abyssinia ; and the practice of offering 
 human sacrifices is found in many tribes. The 
 Abyssiaians hold by tradition a crude form of 
 Christianity. ' 
 
 Of the forms of government among the several 
 nations and tribes, om- knowledge is not sufficiently 
 definite. Though there is despotism, it appears to 
 be limited to some extent by a respect for the ' head- 
 men ' in every tribe, who form a sort of aristocracy, 
 and whom the Icing must consult on all important 
 affairs. The liberty of speech employed in a native 
 parHament, or rather 'palaver,' is often considerable. 
 Though women are generally foimd in a degraded 
 position, the wives of the king often take a part in 
 council, and exercise their influence in the affairs of 
 state. Civilisation, in the proper sense of the term, 
 is only to be met with in the settlements of the 
 Europeans ; for the condition of the Moors, Arabs, 
 and Egyptians is scarcely entitled to rank higher 
 than that of semi-oiviUsation. 
 
 Of science, art, and literature, we can say little ; 
 for all that had been achieved imder the Pharaohs 
 and Ptolemies disappeared with the conquest of the 
 Moslems. A schoolmaster is found in almost every 
 Mohammedan village ; but the Koran is the only 
 book studied. Medicine is little understood, though 
 the tribes in the south and elsewhere have great 
 faith in its powers, and practise it in a very absurd 
 and superstitious style. Among many tribes, the 
 rehgion might be styled medicine-worship. Inocu- 
 lation, as a preservative against the small-pox, is 
 common among the Mohammedan tribes. Mechan- 
 ical sldU is generally respected; and the smith or 
 worker in iron is reckoned among the ' head-men ' 
 in every tribe. To the African mind, the products 
 of European skill and industry are the strongest 
 arguments that can be brought forward to prove 
 the superiority of our religious doctrines : thus com- 
 merce seems indispensable to prepare the way for 
 any extensive changes of creed. 
 , Of the interior commerce or barter of the natives 
 among themselves, our knowledge is scanty. Cara- 
 vans of camels pass over the wide deserts by such 
 routes as lead them to the greatest number of 
 springs, brooks, and oases, or comparatively fertile 
 places. The chieftains in the desert are the principal 
 traders ; and one feature in their character, though 
 carried to a cruel extreme, is certainly favourable to 
 commerce : debtors are treated with great severity. 
 When payments are delayed, not only the debtor 
 himself, but, if he is absent, any member of his 
 family, may be seized as a slave. Timbuktu, on 
 the southern edge of Sahara, is the chief commercial 
 dep6t and central station for the caravans which 
 arrive from Tafilet, Tripoli, and other places in 
 
 69 
 
AGA— AGAMA. 
 
 North A. !Prom Timbuktu they proceed on their 
 route along the course of the Niger to Kashna, 
 another station of commercial importance, which ia 
 also visited by the caravans from Sudan and 
 Bornu. From Kashna the caravan-rpute leads to 
 Bomu and Lake Tchad or Tsad ; thence to the 
 teiritoriea of the Tibbous and the Tawareks, and on 
 to Murzuk in the oasis of Fezzan. Kulfa is another 
 great meeting-place of the caravans coming from 
 Dahomey in the south-west, Borgu in the north-east, 
 and Niffe in the south-east. There seems to be no 
 doubt that these caravans are in conamunication 
 with others from the east, and thus connect, in a 
 primitive style of commerce, the Indian Ocean with 
 the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea. The prin- 
 cipal places of commerce in the east are Mamegar, 
 Berbera, Ancobar, Gondar, Sennaar, and Kobbe. In 
 Benguela and Angola, negro caravans from the 
 interior arrive at the chief places on the coast, 
 bringing slaves, ivory, and gold-dust, which are 
 bartered for various commodities. 
 
 Though A. is so rich in natural productions, and 
 capable of maiutaining a thriviug commerce with 
 other parts of the world, it is still a painful fact that 
 along its coasts, and ia the caravan-roads of the 
 interior, the principal trade is in slaves. Eegarding 
 the cruelty and wickedness of this traffic, it is 
 unnecessary that a single word should be said here. 
 The verdict of enlightened Christendom has con- 
 demned it, but the prejudice against the negro race 
 remains, and they are still considered by a large 
 number incapable or imworthy of culture. It is prob- 
 able that a more thorough knowledge of the Africans 
 will dissipate so erroneous and pernicious an idea. 
 As yet, we have chiefly come into contact with the 
 barbarous tribes who dwell around our settlements 
 on the coast; and it is unfair to judge the whole 
 population by these. We must remember that 
 several tribes have independently, and by their own 
 exertions, arrived at a certain stage of culture, and 
 seem to be on their way to civilisation. As we 
 advance towards the interior, we do not find the 
 people in a condition which can be fairly described 
 as savagism ; but with fixed dwellings, though they 
 are merely mud-huts, defended by stockades, and 
 possessed of some laws or customs which are favour- 
 able to commerce. Among several tribes, the native 
 merchant is highly respected ; and his goods are 
 safe even in times of feud or warfare. The land is 
 cultivated; the natives wear dyed cotton dresses, 
 thicker and more durable than those exported from 
 England, and consequently far dearer. Gold and 
 iron are manufactured with ingenuity. The principal 
 tribes on the Gambia, the Fiuahs, the Joliffes, and 
 the Mandingoes, have qualities which forbid us to 
 despair of the progress of A. in culture. All that 
 is wanted is a free commercial intercourse with the 
 civilised world. Commerce must carty into A. the 
 doctrine that it is better to employ men in trade, 
 such as collecting pahn-oil, than to sell them as 
 slaves. Ability to understand such a truth will not 
 be wanting ; and when it is known and practised, 
 the negro will prove that he is human, and will 
 break through all the natural obstacles placed in the 
 way of his development and improvement. 
 
 That portion of A. which is known is divided 
 as follows: Native states and regions — Ashanti, 
 Dahomey, Fezzan, Barca, Bornu, Darfur, Kordofan, 
 Dongola, Guinea, Abyssinia, Marocco, Senegambia, 
 Sennaar, Sudan with Sahara, the territory of the 
 Imaum of Muscat, and the countries of the interior, 
 with others on the east coast. British possessions 
 are — Cape Colony and Natal, at the south; the island 
 of Mauritius, St Helena, Ascension, Sierra Leone, 
 Cape Coast, and the Gambia Colony. — The French 
 have settlements on the Senegal, with the islands 
 70 
 
 of St Louis and Gorge, the Isle de Bourbon, St Marie, 
 and the great colony of Algeria.— Egypt, Nubia, 
 Tunis, and Tripoli belong noiuinally to Turkey. — 
 Danes and North Americans, as well as the Dutch, 
 have forts and settlements in Guinea.— The Portu- 
 guese have the Azore and Cape Verde Islands, with 
 Madeira, Porto Santo, St Thomas, Angola, Benguela, 
 and Mozambique.— The Canary Islands belong to 
 Spain.— The large island of Madagascar and the 
 Comoro group are under native rulers ; but in some 
 of these islands on the east coast the French have 
 recently established themselves, as at Mayotta. 
 
 AGA or AGHA, the Turkish title of a superior 
 miUtary commander; also of the higher officers of 
 the seraglio. 
 
 A'GADBS, formerly a very important city of 
 Central Africa, but at present in a decUning con- 
 dition. It is the capital of Air or Asben (q. v.), 
 and is built upon the eastern edge of a great 
 table-land, at an elevation of not less than 2500 
 feet, in lat. 16° 33' N., long. 7° 30' E. It holds Kttle 
 intercourse with the northern cities, such as Murzuk, 
 which, indeed, is never visited, except by pilgiima 
 on their way to Mecca ; but its merchants still 
 frequent the markets of Katsena, Tasawa, Maradi, 
 Kano, and Sokoto. At one time A. was a sort of 
 entrep&t for the vast traffic carried on with Gogo — 
 the ancient capital of the Songhay empire (q. v.) — ^but 
 the conquest and destruction of this city, the centre 
 of the gold-trade, has fatally injured the prosperity 
 of the former, ' cutting away the very roots through 
 which it received Hfe.' A. was founded some himdreds 
 of years ago, in all likelihood by the Berbers, 
 who were expelled by the great Songhar conqueror, 
 Haj, Mohammed AsMa, in 1515. Its highest degree 
 of power had been reached previous to this, when it 
 probably contained 60,000 inhabitants. At present, 
 it has not more than 6000 or 7000. The language 
 is the Emgedesiye, the same as that spoken at 
 Timbuktu, with which place, however, it has no 
 intercourse now. There is a large admixtiu-e of 
 Berber blood in the people of A. The trade and 
 manufactures are trifling in extent. Dr Barth is of 
 opinion that A. would form, for a European agent, 
 a very good and comparatively healthy place from 
 which to open relations with Central Africa. See 
 Barth's Travels in Oeniral Africa, vol. i. 
 
 A'GAMA, a genus of Saurian Reptiles, the type of 
 a family called Agamidce. The Agamas are allied to 
 the Iguanas, and have a lax skin, which they have 
 the power of inflating with air. None of them are 
 of a large size. They are found in warm climates, 
 and are of various habits, some of them living in 
 trees, and others confined to the ground. The 
 Egyptian A. (A. Egyptiaca or Trapdus Egyptiacus) 
 
 Erilled Agama. 
 
 is remarkable for changing colour, like the cha- 
 meleon. Some of the most common lizards of 
 Australia are of this family. The Frilled A. (cUamy- 
 dosaurus) is a remarkable Australian lizard, having 
 a sort of friU around the neck, which usually lies 
 
AGAMEMNON— AGAPEMONE. 
 
 back in plaits, but is raised when the xTn'Trml is 
 alarmed. 
 
 AGAME'MNON, son o£ King Atreus, and brother 
 of Menelaus. After his father's death, he reigned in 
 MyceniB, and married Clytenmestra, by whom he 
 had three childreu — Iphigenia, Electra, and Orestes, 
 aiterwards celebrated in the Greek drama. When 
 Paris, son of the Trojan king, Priam, seduced and 
 carried away Helena, the wife of Menelaus, A., 
 with his injured brother, made a tour throughout 
 Greece, exhorting aU the leaders of the peojue to 
 unite their forces in an expedition against Troy. 
 Having gained their alliance, A. was appointed 
 general-iu-chief of the united forces assembled at 
 Aulis in Boeotia, where they were delayed some 
 time. In the following campaign against Troy, 
 which forms the subject of Homer's Iliad, 
 A. is described as a very stately and dignified 
 character. After the iall of Troy, he returned 
 home, taking with him Cassandra, the daughter of 
 Priam. Shortly afterwaids, he was murdered by 
 Clytenmestra, aided by .^gisthus, in whose care he 
 had left his wife and children. A tragical fate had 
 always lowered over the house of A. ; and the 
 destinies of his children — Iphigenia, Electra, and 
 Orestes — ^were the favourite subjects of the Greek 
 drama. 
 
 A'GAMI {Psophia), a genus of South American 
 birds, allied to Cranes. Omy two species are known. 
 They are sometimes oaUed Trumpeters, from a peculiar 
 
 Agami. 
 
 sound which they make. The best known species is 
 the Gold-breasted Trumpeter (P. crepitans), which is 
 of the size of a large pheasant, but with much longer 
 legs and neck, and a very short tail. It runs very 
 quickly ; so much so, that a tame one in Endand 
 has been known to keep up with hounds. It is 
 capable of the most perfect domestication. 
 
 A!GAPJE were love-feasts, or feasts of charity, 
 usually celebrated by the early Christians in 
 connection with the Lord's Supper. The name is 
 derived from the Greek word agape, which signifies 
 love or charity. At these feasts, the rich Christians 
 presented their poorer brethren in the faith with 
 gifts, and all ate together, in token of their equality 
 before God and ttieir brotherly harmony. The 
 meetings were opened and closed with prayer ; and 
 during the feast, spiritual songs were sung. At 
 first, a bishop or presbyter presided, who read a 
 portion of Scripture, proposed questions upon it, and 
 received the various answers of the brethren. After- 
 wards, whatever information had been obtained 
 regarding the other churches, was read — such as the 
 official letters of overseers, or private communica- 
 tions from eminent members; and thus a spirit of 
 practical sympathy was engendered. Before the 
 conclusion of the proceedings, money was collected 
 
 for widows, orphans, the poor, prisoners, and those 
 who had suffered shipwreck. Then the members 
 embraced, and the feast was ended with a ' philan- 
 thropic prayer.' As early as the 2d c, the custom 
 of celebrating the A. and the Lord's Supper together 
 had ceased, on account of the persecutions. Justin, 
 when writing on the latter subject, does not speak 
 of the former; but Ignatius, on the other hand, 
 seems to regard them as identical. Generally, the 
 feast of the A. preceded the celebration of the Lord's 
 Supper. But during the period of the persecutions, 
 when the Christians had often to hold divine service 
 before dawn, the A. were, for the most part, 
 delayed till the evening. Later, a formal separation 
 was made between the two rites. In the 3d and 
 4th centuries, the A. had degenerated into a common 
 banquet, where the deaths of relatives, and the 
 anniversaries of the martyrs, were commemorated, 
 and where the clergy and the poor were guests ; but 
 with the increase of wealth, and the decay of reli- 
 gious earnestness and purity in the Christian Church, 
 these A. became occasions of great riotousness and 
 debauchery. Councils declared against them, forbade 
 the clergy to take any share in their celebration, 
 and finaJly banished them from the church. At the 
 same time, it must be admitted that the heathens 
 ignorantly calumniated the practices of the Chris- 
 tians in these A., and that the defences made by 
 Tertullian, Minucius, Felix, Origen, &c., are emi- 
 nently successful. The Moravians have attempted 
 to revive these A, and hold solemn festivals, with 
 prayer and praise, where tea is drunk, and wheaten 
 bread, called Love-bread, is used. 
 
 AGAPE'MON:]^ (Gr. love-abode), a conventual 
 establishment of a singular kind, consisting of 
 persons of both sexes, founded at Charlynch, near 
 Bridgewater, in the county of Somerset, by Mr 
 Henry James Prince, formerly a clergyman of the 
 Church of England. The inmates are called 
 Lampeter Brethren, and belong to a new religious 
 sect originating vpith Mr Prince, and a Mr Starkey, 
 also a clergyman. The adherents of the sect 
 generally, of whom there are many in the south- 
 western counties, are known as Princeites or 
 Starkeyites. 
 
 As curate in a village on the coast of Dorsetshire, 
 Mr Starkey, who possessed the gift of eloquence to 
 an extraordinary degree, effected real good. TTia 
 parishioners, most of them lawless smugglers, and 
 those who flocked to hear his discourses, listened 
 to him as to one inspired ; and many who did not 
 follow him in his wild theories, ascribe their first 
 real impressions of religion to his ministiy while 
 he was yet a clergyman of the Established Church. 
 Gradually, his doctrine changed, and in company 
 with Mr Prince, he began to hold forth in bams, 
 whence loud howhngs were heard by the passers- 
 by. People of all classes flocked to hear tiie new 
 preachers ; even clergymen's families were infected 
 with the taint of this heresy, which spread through 
 the secluded villages on the coast, obtaining especial 
 hold among the farmers, several of whom, as in the 
 times of the apostles, brought their wealth, and laid 
 it at 'Brother Prince's' feet — community of goods 
 being the tenet most strenuously insisted upon. 
 - Meanwhile, funds accumulated rapidly. Three 
 of the Brothers — Messrs Price, Thomas, and Cobb — 
 married three sisters, daughters of a wealthy widow 
 lady named Nottidge. These young women, hand- 
 some, clever, and of independent fortune, began 
 by listening, agaiast the wish of their parent, to 
 Mr Prince's preaching, and finally left their home 
 to marry his disciples. A fourth sister afterwards 
 followed their example. So strong was the feeling 
 imder which they actedj that, on their aged mother 
 coming in person to remonstrate on their conduct. 
 
AGAPEMONE— AGASSIZ. 
 
 they rejected her claima of authority, saying that 
 the devil was speaking to them by her voice. 
 
 The affairs of the A, have several times given rise 
 to proceedings in the courts of law, on whioh occa- 
 sions the public obtained some glimpses into the 
 internal regulations of the establishment. In 1846, 
 one of the ladies above mentioned, having become 
 dissatisfied -with the doctrine and rule of life in the 
 A., was expelled from the society, and put away by 
 her husband, Mr Thomas, though then about to give 
 birth to a cHld, After she had lived four years 
 with her mother, who had made provision for the 
 child, Mr Thomas wrote, renouncing her for ever, 
 and claiming the custody of his son. This was 
 resisted; and in the course of the law proceedings 
 (1850) that took place, much that was offensive 
 in the conduct of the Agapemonians transpired. 
 Although the inmates were married couples, it 
 appeared that they entertained some religious objeC' 
 tion to the increase of population, as if believing 
 that the perfection of all things will be the extinc- 
 tion of the human race. In short, the doctrines or 
 peculiar notions of this remarkable sect are seemingly 
 a natural and not unusual consequence of allowing 
 an excited imagination to overrule the judgment ; 
 and, hence, Agapemonianism is but a new or revived 
 form of extreme religious fanaticism. 
 
 Mr Prince's first establishment was at Weymouth. 
 The present A., which has existed now (1859) for 
 about ten years, is a beautiful and spacious bmlding, 
 most luxuriously fitted up, and containing a mag- 
 nificent music-hall, with all kinds of melodious 
 instruments. When summoned thither, the farmer 
 leaves his fiocks, herds, and crops, even in the 
 midst of harvest, and goes to Charlynch to do the 
 win of his 'Lord' — such is the title by which Mr 
 Prince's followers speak of him. At other times, the 
 yeoman receives at his own dwelling large parties 
 of the Princeites, and entertains them with lavish 
 hospitaHty. For this, it is to be supposed, he has 
 his reward, since one of Mr Prince's disciples, upon 
 being offered assistance towards the recovery of a 
 large sum which he had lost, replied that the money 
 ' had been repaid by the Lord — the friend of friends, 
 who sticketh closer than a brother.' 
 
 Letters intended for Mr Prince pass through the 
 post-office directed to ' The Lord ; ' and his fol- 
 lowers have been heard to say that he is their 
 ' creator.' In 1851, Mr Prince took up a party of 
 them to London to see the Great Exhibition. He 
 drove about town and in the parka in a carriage, 
 constantly attended by out-riders, bareheaded, 
 because they were in the presence of ' the Lord.' 
 
 Mr Prince has put forth many pamphlets, some 
 in the highest degree objectionable; others, in which 
 the tenets of the Christian religion are mingled with 
 his own pecuhar doctrines. Christ came to redeem 
 the soul. Prince affirms that his errand is to 
 redeem the body. One test applied to his disciples, 
 from which many shrank, was, that they were to 
 see the eternal punishment of those whom they 
 best loved, and to rejoice in it aa redounding to 
 their Master's glory. When this was proposed, 
 several persons of respectability, who had hitherto 
 gone along with Mr Prince, declined to proceed 
 further ; others agreed to it cordially. There is 
 now, it is said, no necessity for prayer; mourning 
 for deceased relatives ia forbidden; a sort of 
 millennium ia attained, in which no exertion is 
 demanded — nothing but joy and thanksgiving. 
 Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness, have for ever 
 lost their dominion over the Princeites ; yet stUl, 
 to the incredulous, it appears that consumption, 
 rheumatism, and other infirmities of human nature, 
 do affect them, and that they die, and are buried, 
 like other men. In one of Mr Prince's latest pamph- 
 72 
 
 lets, the following . words occur, which may serve 
 to elucidate his somewhat mysterious doctrine : 
 ' God in Jesus Christ has again entered into covenant 
 with man at the resurrection of mankind, and this 
 is the first resurrection, and now Brother Prince is 
 His witness.' 'This one man, Brother Prince, has 
 Jesus Christ selected and appointed His witness to 
 His counsel and purpose to conclude the day of 
 grace, and to introduce the day of judgment. To 
 close the dispensation of the Spirit-— the Gospel— 
 and to enter into covenant with flesh.' 
 
 In 1859 appeared Brother Prince's Journal, an 
 Acemmt of the Destruction of the Works of the Devil 
 in tlie Human Soul by the Lord Jesus Christ through 
 the Oospel. It was commenced, according to Brother 
 Prince, twenty-three years ago, and more than nine- 
 teen years have elapsed since its completion. Its 
 aim is simply this : to shew the work of grace in the 
 writer's soul, from its first struggling manifestations 
 to that absolute harmony in which self is utterly 
 absorbed and swallowed up in God. Brother Prince, 
 at the close of his journal, deliberately states that 
 he considera himself perfect, and incapable of fur- 
 ther improvement. These are his words : ' Having 
 neither wishes nor desires, my will can have no 
 disposition whatever to move in any one direction 
 rather than another, but like the finely poised beam 
 of a well-adjusted balance, it hangs dehcately sus- 
 pended on the divine will, in a holy equilibrium of 
 inward passiveness.' It was some time after Brother 
 Prince had reached this Buddhist-like annihilation 
 of self-consciousness, that he started his singular 
 establiahment at Weymouth. 
 
 It would appear that a society, similar in its aims 
 and character, though not conventual in its form, 
 existed in England m the 16th and 17th centuries. 
 It was called the ' Family of Love.' Its founder is 
 generally supposed to have been Henry Nicholas, a 
 native of Miinster, in Westphaha, but who hved a 
 considerable time in Holland. He held himself to 
 be grcfater than Moses or Christ, for the former only 
 taught men to hope, and the latter to believe, while 
 he first announced the doctrine of Love. He made 
 his appearance about 1540. Others, however, are 
 of opinion that the real father of this ' Family ' was 
 one David George, a fanatical Anabaptist of Delft, 
 in Holland, who died in 1556, and who imparted his 
 ' damnable errors ' to Nicholas, an old friend of his. 
 In the reign of Edward VI., according to Fuller, 
 Nicholas came over to England, and commenced the 
 perversion of sfily people in a secret way. By 1572, 
 they had apparently increased in numbers consider- 
 ably, for in that year one John Rogers published a 
 work against them, entitled. The Displaying of an 
 Horrible Secle of Grosse and Wicked Heretiques, 
 naming tliemselves the Family of Love, mth the Lives 
 of their Autlwrs, and what Doctrine they teach in 
 Comers. In 1580, Queen Elizabeth issued a procla- 
 mation for the htmtiug out and pimishing of the 
 'damnable sept.' The Family of Love, 'or Lust, 
 rather,' as old Fuller has it, tried to insinuate them- 
 selves into the good graces of King James, by pre- 
 senting a petition, casting aspersions on the Puritans. 
 At length, the society expired from continual expo- 
 sure to the effects of ridicule in prose and verse, as 
 well as from its own intrinsic worthlessness. Their 
 doctrines seem to have been a species of pseudo- 
 spiritua,l aentimentalism, inevitably resulting in gross 
 impurity. 
 
 A'GABIC and AGA'RICUS. See Mushboom. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Louis, one of the most distinguished 
 of modern naturalists, was bom at Orbe, in the 
 Canton de Vaud, in 1807. After passing through the 
 usual coiuse of elementary learning at Biel and 
 Lausanne, he prosecuted his studies at Zurich and 
 
AGATE— AGAVE. 
 
 Heidelberg, and lastly, studied medicine at Munich. 
 In early youth, he had displayed a strong love of 
 natural lustory ; and at Heidelberg and Munich 
 comparative anatomy was his favourite occupation. 
 In Munich he became acquainted with Martius and 
 Spix, the weU-known travellers in Brazil ; and when 
 Spix died (in 1826), his ooUeotiou of 116 species of 
 flsh collected iu Brazil was left in the care of A., 
 who published it under the title Pisces, <fco., qiws 
 collegit et pingendos curavit Spix, descripsit A. 
 (Munich 1829—1831, with 91 illustrations in lithog- 
 raphy.) Led by this work to study ichthyology 
 more closely, A. next undertook a systematic 
 arrangement of the fresh-water fishes found in 
 Central Europe. Of this work, the first fasciculus, 
 containing the family of the Salmonidse, appeared at 
 NeufchMel ia 1839, with 34 illustrations, and des- 
 criptions in French, English, and German. A second 
 fasciculus, prepared by his friend Togt, Emhryologie 
 des Scdmones, was published in 1840 ; and a third, 
 Anatomie des Salmones, appeared in 1845 as a part 
 of the third volume of the Memoirs of the Neufclidtd 
 Society of Natural History. Beyond this, the work 
 was not contiaued. A. at the same time devoted his 
 attention to the fossil remains of fishes, and during 
 his stay in Paris (1831 — ^1832), examined sever^ 
 private and pubho fossil ooUeotions. The results of 
 his studies were given in his work Redierches sur les 
 PoissoTis Fossiles, published at NeufchSltel, with 311 
 Hthographed illustrations, 1833 — 1842. Meanwhile, 
 he had been invited to take the professorship of 
 natural history at Neuf ohS,tel ; and here he f oimd two 
 active young friends, Desor and Vogt, who afforded 
 considerable aid in the completion of his works. With 
 their assistance, his work on fossil fishes was brought 
 to a conclusion in 1842. During several visits to 
 England, A. made himself well acquainted with the 
 coUeetions of fossils in this country; and in 1844, 
 published a monograph on fossil fishes found in the 
 old red sandstone of the Devonian system. His 
 study of these remains led liim to examine other 
 fossils; and the results appeared in his works 
 Description des Eddnodermes Mossiles de la Suisse, 
 and McmograpJiies d^ Eddnodermes Vivants et Fossiles. 
 In the latter work. Professor Valentin of Berne sup- 
 pHedthe section on the ' Anatomy of the Sea-iu'ohin.' 
 A, next turned his attention to the mollusca, and 
 produced his Critical Studies cm Fossil Mollusca, 
 which was soon followed by his Memoirs on the 
 Musdes in Living and Fossil Mollusca. His work 
 on Glaciers excited great interest, as it opened new 
 views in geology. The results of further study 
 were given in a second work on Tlie System of 
 Glaciers; or Researches on Glaciers (Paris, 1847). 
 In preparing this work, he was assisted by his friends 
 Guyot and Desor. In 1846, A. went to North 
 America, where he was appointed to a professorship 
 in Harvard College, near Boston ; from which he was 
 subsequently removed to occupy the chair of com- 
 parative anatomy in the University of Charleston. 
 He recently dechned the offer of a chair in Paris, 
 made him by the Emperor of the French, He 
 has published in America Principles of Zoology, 
 for tlie Use of Schools and Colleges (Boston, 1848) ; 
 and Lake Superior ; its Physical Character, Vegeta- 
 tion, and Animals (Boston, 1850). In Outlines of 
 Comparative Physiology, written in conjunction with 
 Mr A. A. Gould, Professor A. upholds the doctrine 
 of the successive creation of higher organised beings 
 on the surface of the earth. An Essay on Classifica- 
 tion, by A., has just been published (Lond., 1859). 
 He is at present engaged on a great work, Contri- 
 butions to the MaJtwal History of the United States 
 (Boston, 2 vols. 4to — to be completed in 10 vols.). 
 
 A'GATE, a mineral composed of layers of quartz, 
 generally of different varieties or colours, intimately 
 
 joined together. The layers are often concentric, 
 and in the section sometimes appear nearly circular 
 or elliptical, sometimes angular. Chalcedony, 
 amethyst, common quartz, jasper, flint, &c., occur 
 as layers in A. It takes a fine polish, and is much 
 used for ornamental purposes. It is common in 
 amygdaloids. Many agates are found in Scotland, 
 and are sold under the name of Scotdi Pebbles. 
 
 A'GATHA, ST, a noble Sicilian lady of great 
 beauty, who rejected the love of the Prefect Octa- 
 vianus, and .suffered a cruel martyrdom in the perse- 
 cution of Christians under Deoius (250). She holds 
 a high rank among the saints of the Eoman Catholic 
 church ; her day falls February 5. 
 
 AGA'THOCLES, one of the boldest but most 
 unworthy adventurers of antiquity, was bom at 
 Thermae, in Sicily, in 361 B. 0. He rose from humble 
 circumstances through the patronage of Damas, a 
 noble citizen of Syracuse, and received a command 
 in the expedition against Agrigentum. Afterwards 
 he married the widow of Damas, and became 
 one of the most wealthy men in Syracuse. Under 
 the rule of Sosistratus, he was obliged to flee into 
 Lower Italy, where he collected a band of par- 
 tisans. Returning to Syracuse, after the death 
 of Sosistratus, he gained the supremacy, confirmed 
 it by a massacre of several thousands of respect- 
 able citizens, and took possession of the greater 
 part of Sicily. To establish his power, and 
 keep his army employed, he now attempted to 
 expel the Carthaginians from Sicily; but in this 
 undertaking he was defeated. His next plan was to 
 pass over to Africa with a part of his army, and there 
 attack the Carthaginians. This war he carried on 
 with success for four years, or imtil 307 B. c, when 
 disturbances in SioUy compelled hiTn to leave the 
 army for a time. On his return to Africa, he found 
 his troops in a state of mutiny against his son Archa- 
 gathus, whom he had left in command, but pacified 
 them by promises of large booty. Soon afterwards, 
 he sufiered a serious defeat, and with deliberate 
 treachery, left his own son exposed to the vengeance 
 of the disappointed soldiers. The son was put to 
 death, and the troops surrendered themselves to the 
 enemy, while A. escaped safely, into Sicily, where, by 
 fraud and cruelty, he soon recovered his former 
 power, and was afterwards engaged in predatory 
 inroads upon Italy. It was his intention to leave the 
 throne to his youngest son, A. ; but his grandson, 
 Archagathus, made an insurrection, slew the royal 
 heirs, and persuaded Maenon, one of the favourites of 
 the aged tyrant, to destroy him by means of a 
 poisoned toothpick. This took place in 289 B.C., 
 when A. was 72 years old, and had reigned 28 years. 
 
 AGA'V!^, a genus of plants belonging to the natu- 
 ral Older Amaryllidece (q.v.), and having a tubular 
 perianth with 6-partite hmb, and a triangular, 
 many-seeded inferior capsiile. They are herbaceous 
 plants, of remarkable and beautiful appearance. 
 There are a number of species, all natives of the 
 warmer parts of America. By unscientific persons 
 they are often confounded with Aloes (q.v.) ; and A. 
 Americana is generally known by the name of 
 Amuricajt Aloe. The Agaves have either no pro- 
 per stem, or a very short one, bearing at its summit a 
 crowded head of large, fleshy leaves, which are spiny 
 at the margin. From the midst of these shoots up 
 the straight, upright scape, 24 — 36 feet high, and at 
 the base often one foot in diameter, along which are 
 small, appressed, lanceolate bracteas, with a terminal 
 panicle, often bearing as many as 4000 flowers. In 
 South America, these plants often flower in the 
 eighth year, but in ovu- hot-houses not until they 
 have reached a very advanced age ; whence arises the 
 gardeners' fable of their flowering only once in one 
 
AGDE— AGE 
 
 hundred years. After flowering, the plant always 
 dies down to the ground, hut the root continuing to 
 live, sends up new shoots. The best known species 
 is A. Americana, which was first brought from South 
 America to Europe in 1561, and being easily propa- 
 
 fated by suckers, is employed for fences in Italian 
 witzerland, and has become naturalised in Naples, 
 Sicily, and tbe north of Africa. -By maceration of 
 the leaves, which are 5 to 7 feet long, are obtained 
 coarse fibres, which are used in America, under the 
 
 American Aloe. 
 
 name of magwey, for the manufacture of thread, 
 twine, ropes, hammocks, &c. This fibre is also 
 known as Pita Flax. It is now produced to some 
 extent in the south of Europe. It is not very strong 
 nor durable, and if exposed to moisture, it soon 
 decays. The ancient Mexicans employed it for the 
 preparation of a coarse kind of paper, and the 
 Inmans use it for oakum. The leaves, cut into 
 shces, are used for feeding cattle. — ^Another species, 
 A. MesdcaTia, is particularly described by Humboldt 
 upon account of its utility. When the innermost 
 leaves have been torn out, a juice continues to flow 
 for a year or a year and a half, which, by inspissation, 
 yields sugar ; and which, when diluted with water, 
 and subjected to four or five days' fermentation, 
 becomes an agreeable but intoxicating drink, called 
 pulque, to which the Mexican Indians not unfre- 
 quently sacrifice both fortune and Hfe. It is made 
 likewise from A. Americana, and from several other 
 species. — The roots of A. saponaria are used in 
 Mexico for washing, being a powerful detergent, and 
 forming a lather with salt water as well as with 
 fresh. The juice of the leaves, made into cakes, is 
 used for the same purpose. 
 
 AG-DE, an ancient French town in the department 
 of Herault, foimded by the Greeks, and situated 
 about a league from the Mediterranean Sea, on the 
 left bank of a navigable stream. To the north, under 
 the walls of the town, flows the Languedoc Canal. 
 The mouth of the stream forms a harbour, which 
 is entered by 400 vessels yearly. The coast-trade 
 74 
 
 of A, in particular, is very brisk, while it is also 
 the entrepdt for the traflio of the south and west 
 of France. It has, besides, considerable intercourse 
 with Italy, Spain, and Africa. It carries on a large 
 and prosperous trade in wine, oil, salt, com, timber, 
 wool, sUk, and cloth ; but the general aspect of the 
 place is sombre and forbidding, on account of the 
 black basalt of which the hoiises are bmlt, whence it 
 has popularly received the name of the Black Town. 
 It possesses a Naval Academy, and is noted in history 
 as the place at which Alaric, king of the Goths, con- 
 vened a oouncU. Pop., 9000. 
 
 AGE. The legal divisions of human life, being 
 sometimes arbitrary, and sometimes founded on 
 nature, difier considerably in different countries. In 
 England, the whole period previous to twenty-one 
 years of A. is usually spoken of as infancy, a term 
 which has a totally diflerent signification in those 
 countries that have followed the civil law. But 
 notwithstanding this general division, which is 
 common to both sexes, tine ages of male and female 
 are different for different purposes. 'A male, at 
 twelve years old, may take the oath of allegiance ; 
 at fourteen, is at years of discretion, and therefore 
 may consent or disagree to marriage, may choose his 
 guardian, may be an executor, although he cannot 
 act until of age ; and at twenty-one, is at his own 
 disposal, and may alien and devise his lands, goods, 
 and chattels. A female, also, at seven years of age, 
 may be betrothed or given in marriage ; at fourteen, 
 is at years of legal discretion, and may choose a 
 guardian ; at seventeen, may be an executrix ; and 
 at twenty-one, may dispose of herself and her lands. 
 So that full A in male or female is twenty-one 
 years, which A is completed on the day preceding 
 the anniversary of a person's birth, who, till that 
 time, is an infant, and so styled in law.' — (Kerr's 
 Blachstcme, voL i. p. 493.) 
 
 By the law of Scotland, again, hfe is divided into 
 three T^enod^—pupilariiy, minority, and majority. 
 The first extends from birth to the age of legal 
 puberty, which is fourteen in males and twelve 
 in females, at which ages they may respectively 
 marry; the second embraces the period from 
 the termination of pupilarity till the attainment 
 of majority, which takes place at the age of 
 twenty-one in both sexes ; and the third includes 
 the whole of after-life. The term Minority, how- 
 ever, is often applied to the whole period anterior 
 to majority, and is thus equivalent to infancy 
 or nonage in England. Infancy in Scotland can 
 scarcely be said to possess a technical meaning ; but 
 when used at aU, it is always ia the sense of the 
 Roman infantia, to indicate the period from birth 
 tiU seven years of age, during which a child, 
 unless in very unusual circumstances, is intrusted 
 to the care of the mother. The office of tutory cor- 
 responds in duration to pupilarity, that of curatory 
 to minority. See TtrroE, CmiATDK. By the Roman 
 law, an approach to majority was held to modify 
 the character of minority, and so of the other periods ; 
 but this rule has not been followed by tbe law of 
 Scotland; and a youth who wants but a day of 
 twenty-one, is as much incapacitated as if he were 
 fifteen. In France, the marriageable A. is eighteen 
 in males, and fifteen in females (Code Civile, 
 art. 144), an arrangement which seems more reaspn- 
 able than that which we have borrowed from the 
 Romans, and which, however suitable it may have 
 been to the climate of Italy, could never have been 
 free from inconveniences in this country. Twenty- 
 one is generally the age at which men are eligible for 
 public offices ; and at this age they may elect, and be 
 elected members of parhament. But a man must be 
 twenty-four before he can be admitted to priests' 
 orders, and thirty before he can be a bishop. In 
 
AGEN— AGES. 
 
 America, a member of the Senate must be thirty, and 
 a member of the House of Eepresentativea, twenty- 
 five; this latter was also the period of majority by 
 the oivil law. The legal disabiHtiea attaching to 
 the different stages of minority, or, to speak more 
 correctly, the privileges which the law confers on 
 minors for their protection, wUI be treated of 
 imder the different subjects to which they relate. 
 See Guardianship, Cohsent, Contract, Crimb, 
 Marriage, &c. 
 
 AGE'N, the chief town of the department of 
 Lot-et-Garonne in Erance, is situated in a fertile 
 region on the right bank of the Garonne. The 
 town is old and gloomy in appearance ; but carries 
 on an active trade in woollen and linen fabrics, 
 leather, coloured paper, colours, cordage, and sail- 
 cloth. It forms the connecting-link of the inter- 
 course between Toulouse and Bordeaux, and exports 
 plums, brandy, hemp, flax, and poultry. Close bjr it 
 is the old-fashioned house in which Joseph Scahger, 
 the prince of achoUasts, was bom. In ancient 
 times A. was the scene of many a fierce martyrdom 
 of the Christians, when it was under the rule of 
 Boman prsetors. Afterwards it suffered the miseries 
 of war, during the barbaric irruptions from Ger- 
 many, to a most incredible extent, having been taken 
 ajid plundered by Goths, Vandals, and Huns, in their 
 turn. Next it came under the thraldom of the 
 English, in their early Erench wars, and, at a later 
 period, was twice taken by the Huguenots, in the 
 rehgious contests of the 16tii c. Pop., 16,000. 
 
 A'GENT (Lat. agens). An A. is one who is 
 authorised, or delegated to transact busiaess for 
 another (who in this relation is called his Principal 
 or constituent) in whose place he comes, and who 
 is bound by his acts in iiie business to which the 
 agency extends. The appointment of an A. may 
 either be general, having reference to all the princi- 
 pal's affairs, or special, concerning some particular 
 object. It may further be limited by instructions 
 as to the conduct he is to pursue, or ■unlimited, in 
 which case his conduct is left to his own discretion. 
 Even m the last- case, however, the A. is not 
 freed from all responsibility for his conduct ; he is 
 bound to do his best for his employer, and he ought 
 not to accept of retain the agency unless he is com- 
 petent to its performance. The mutual relations of 
 principals and agents, and their respective responsi- 
 bilities to the public in mercantile transactions, will 
 be treated under PRUitiPAi. and Agent. See also 
 Factor, Broker, Commissionbr, CoMmssioir- 
 Agent. 
 
 AGENT AND CLIENT. The employer of a law- 
 agent is entitled to presume that he is possessed of 
 competent professional knowledge, and the A. is 
 consequently responsible to his 0. for the conse- 
 quences of gross professional ignorance, or flagrant 
 negligence in the conduct of the business intrusted 
 to him. It is not enough to entitle the C. to 
 damages that the A.'s proceedings have not had 
 the effect which was expected, or which he himself 
 predicted from them. It has been observed in the 
 House of Lords, that it is of the very essence of an 
 action against a professional man by his employer, 
 that there shall be gross ignorance (Purves v. 
 LandeU, 4 Bell, 46). See ATroRNEV, Solicitor, 
 Writer to the Signet. 
 
 AGENT, Army. A person authorised by the 
 government to manage the monetary affairs of regi- 
 ments in the army, as a kind of military banker. 
 Formerly, persons were employed to effect the pur- 
 chase and sale of commissions m the British army 
 (the only army in which this strange system of pur- 
 chase exists), without much reference to honesty or 
 fitness; but to prevent pernicious trafficking, no 
 
 one is now permitted to manage these transactions 
 except" the authorised Army Agents, under a heavy 
 penalty. The Army Agents are also bound down by 
 restrictions, in relation to any pecuniary advantage 
 derivable by themselves from the sale and purchase. 
 Their business, however, is more intimately connected 
 with the regular expenditure of government money. 
 Every regiment has an agent, selected by the 
 colonel, and esmpowered by him to be his representa- 
 tive in the monetajy arrangements of the corps. The 
 colonel is responsible to the Crown for the honesty 
 of the Army A.; but the agent is in many ways 
 regarded as a servant of the public. When money 
 is wanted for the regular expenses of the regiment, 
 the agent applies to the War-office; whereupon 
 the Secretary of State for War issues an order to the 
 Paymaster of the Forces to advance the requisite 
 sum; the Paymaster does so, and takes a receipt 
 from the agent. There is an annual settlement of 
 accounts between the Paymaster and the agent, each 
 one paying or receiving, according to the side on 
 which excess or deficiency may appear. The agent 
 then distributes the pay and other charges of the 
 regiment. The percentage allowed to Army Agents 
 for their trouble in paying the full-pay of officers, is 
 allowed for by the state, and is included among the 
 annual army estimates ; but the officer generally bears 
 this charge in relation to half-pay and allowances. 
 The Army Agents conduct all correspondence, and 
 send all the requisite notices concerning pay and pay- 
 ment ; the colonel of the regiment takes no part in the 
 matter. The details of the system have varied con- 
 siderably at different times, and in different portions 
 of the British dominions. Sometimes the agent re- 
 ceives twopence in the pound on the amount of pay ; 
 sometimes three-halfpence in the pound, with an addi- 
 tion varying from sixpence to one shilling per day for 
 each company of infantry or troop of cavalry ; some- 
 times (in Ireland, and in the colonies) a fixed annual 
 salary. The amount paid for this agency is about 
 £40,000 a year. Many experienced government- 
 officers have recommended the abandonment of the 
 system, and the paying of all moneys by the War- 
 office direct, as a measure of simplification and 
 economy; but there is not a unanimity of opinion 
 on this point. When the colonels of regiments pro- 
 vided the men's clothing, under a system now aban- 
 doned, the Army Agents were very intimately mixed 
 up with the transactions; but at present, the duties 
 of those agents are limited to the following : applying 
 monthly to the War-office for the money required 
 for each regiment ; receiving that money ; applying 
 part of it to the payment of officers ; disbursing the 
 regimental paymasters' biUs for the cost of the 
 expenditure; paying soldiers' remittances for the 
 benefit of their- families; settling the effects and 
 credits of soldiers; distributing prize-money; and 
 managiug the sale and purchase of commissions. 
 
 AGENT, Navy, a naval banker, who bears 
 some such relation to Admiralty expenditure aa 
 the Army A. (q. v.) to War-office expenditure. 
 His employment consists in managing the pecuniary 
 matters of naval officers and seamen, in all that 
 concerns pay, prize-money, &c. All such agents 
 must be sanctioned by the government, and must 
 conduct their operations according to certain pre- 
 scribed rules. The Navy List for 1858 contained 
 the names of 17 navy and prize agents for officers 
 of the royal navy, resident in London ; 1 agent for 
 officers of the Eoyal Marines ; and 16 licensed 
 Navy Agents for petty officers and seamen, of whom 
 four had their offices in London, and the rest 
 at Portsea, Liverpool, Chatham, Plymouth, and 
 Birmingham. 
 
 AGES, a term employed to designate the epochs 
 
 IS 
 
AGESILAUS— AGNATE. 
 
 of civilisation in the history of the human raqe. The 
 old poets and philosophers described these 5n har- 
 mony with what they conceived to have been the 
 moral and political condition of their ancestors. 
 The idea of a succession of A. presented itself at a 
 very early period to the Greek mind. The life of the 
 race was likened to that of the individual — hence 
 the infancy of the former might easily be imagined 
 to be, like that of the latter, the most beautiful 
 and serene of all. Hesiod mentions five A.' — the 
 golden, simple and patriarchal ; the silver, voluptu- 
 ous and godless ; the brazen, warlike, wild, and 
 violent ; the heroic, an aspiration towards the better ; 
 the iron, in which justice, piety, and faithfulness had 
 vanished from the earth, the time in which Hesiod 
 fancied that he himself lived. Ovid closely imitates 
 the old Greek except in one particular — ^he omits the 
 heroic age. This idea, at first perhaps a mere poetic 
 comparison, gradually worked its way into prose, 
 and finally became a portion of scientific philosophy. 
 These A. were regarded as the divisions of the 
 great world-year, which would be completed when 
 the stars and planets had performed a revolution 
 round the heavens, after which destiny would repeat 
 itself in the same series of events. Thus mythology 
 was brought into connection with astronomy. The 
 golden age was said to be governed by Saturn ; the 
 silver, by Jupiter ; the brazen, by Neptune ; and the 
 iron, by Pluto. Many curious calculations were 
 entered into by ancient writers to ascertain the 
 length of the heavenly year, and its various divisions. 
 The greatest discrepancy prevailed, as might natur- 
 ally be expected ; some maintaining that it was 3000, 
 and others, as many as 18,000 solar years. The 
 Sibylline books compared it to the seasons of the 
 solar year, calling the golden age the spring, &c. ; 
 and on the completion of the cycle, the old order 
 was renewed. The idea of a succession of A. is 
 so natural, that it has inwrought itself into the reli- 
 gious convictions of almost all nations. It is sanc- 
 tioned by Scripture, for it is symbolically adopted in 
 the Apocalypse to a certain extent ; it also manifests 
 itself in the sacred books of the Indians. Modem 
 philosophy, at least in Germany and France, has 
 also attempted to divide human history into definite 
 A. or periods. Fichte numbers five, of which he 
 conceives that we are in the third ; Hegel and 
 Auguste Comte reckon three, placing us in the last. 
 Fortunately, the course of history is not arrested 
 by such speculations, but proceeds in quiet indiifer- 
 ence to all metaphysical dogmatism. 
 
 AGESILA'US, king of Sparta (399—360 B.C.), was 
 elevated to the throne chiefly by the exertions of 
 Lysander. Being called upon by the lonians to 
 assist them against Artaxerxes, he commenced a 
 splendid campaign in Asia ; but was compelled by 
 the Corinthian war, in which several of the Grecian 
 states were allied against Sparta, to leave his con- 
 quest over the Persians incomplete, and return to 
 Greece. At Chseronea (394 B.C.), he gained a victory 
 over the allied forces, and in 378 the war was 
 concluded by a treaty of peace in favour of Sparta. 
 Afterwards, in the Theban war, though hard pressed 
 by Pelopidas and Epaminondas, he bravely and ably 
 defended his country. He died in his 84th year. A. 
 is, described as of small stature but commanding 
 aspect, blameless in his private character, and, in 
 public life, just, as far as his partiality for his own 
 country allowed. His biographers are Xenophon, 
 Plutarch, and Cornelius Nepos. 
 
 A'GINCOtJIlT. See Azincourt. 
 
 A'GIO, an Italian word, signifying ' accommoda- 
 tion,' was first used in Italy to denote the premium 
 taken by money-changers in giving gold for silver, 
 on account of the greater convenience of gold for 
 
 transport. The same word is now used to denote 
 the difference between the real and the nominal 
 value of money ; also the variations from fixed pars 
 or rates of exchange. It corresponds very nearly to 
 the English word 'premium.' 
 
 A'GIS, the name of several kings of Sparta. Men- 
 tion is made of a king A. as early as about 1000 years 
 B.C., who subdued the old inhabitants of Sparta, 
 and made the Helots vassals or slaves. Of the 
 others, A. I. reigned during the greater part of the 
 Peloponnesian war, from 420 to 397 B.C. — A. II. 
 ascended the throne in 338 B.C. His hatred of the 
 Macedonian supremacy led him to form aUiances 
 with several Persian satraps against Alexander the 
 Great. A., after extending ms conquests to almost all 
 the cities of Peloponnesus, fell in battle 330 B.C. — A. 
 III. came to the throne in 244 B.C., when the state 
 of Sparta had fallen into a ruinous condition through 
 long-continued war. Though only twenty years old 
 when he began to reign, he boldly resolved to restore . 
 the old institutions and severe manners of Sparta ; 
 but intrigues and self-interest in the higher classes 
 frustrated his designs. The riches of the state were 
 now in the hands of a few persons, whole a great 
 majority of the people were in extreme indigence. 
 A., therefore, in accordance with the old laws of the 
 state, proposed a redistribution of landed estates by 
 lottery. The new ephonis, Agesilaus, who was rich 
 in landed property, but burdened with many debts, 
 astutely proposed that first all debts should be can- 
 celled, and next the lands should be divided. The 
 first part of this plan was soon effected ; but great 
 hindrances were opposed to the carrying out of the 
 remainder. Meanwhile, the disappointed people 
 were easily persuaded that A. had endeavoured to 
 introduce measures inimical to the welfare of the 
 state. Pursued by his enemies, he fled for refuge 
 to a temple, but was betrayed by false friends into 
 the hands of the magistrates, who immediately 
 ordered him to be put to death by strangulation 
 (240 B.C.). His mother and his grandmother, who 
 had favoured his measures, were barbarously executed 
 in the same manner. Alfieri, the Italian poet, wrote 
 a powerful tragedy on the fate of A. III. 
 
 AGNA'B'O, a small lake near Naples, is about 
 sixty feet in depth, and has no visible outlet. 
 The surrounding country is volcanic and mountain- 
 ous. Formerly, the lake was named Anguiano, 
 from the number of snakes in the neighbourhood. 
 On the right of Lake A. lies the Grotto del Gane — so 
 called from the stratum of carbonic acid gas, some 
 18 inches deep, which always covers the floor, and 
 which suffocates a dog (cane) or other small animal 
 taken into it — and on the left are found the natural 
 vapour-baths of San Oermano, used for the cure of 
 gout, rheumatism, &o., but inferior in virtue to the 
 baths [Stufe di Nerone) at Baiae. The volcanoes 
 surrounding the lake have been extinct since 
 1198 A.D. Further on the left from A. Kes the lake 
 of Astroni, which occupies the crater of an extinct 
 volcano, and is surrounded by beautiful woodlands. 
 
 A'GNATE (Lat. agnatus). Agnates, in the law 
 both of England and Scotland, are persons related 
 through the father, as cognates are persons related 
 through the mother. In the Roman law, both of 
 these terms had a somewhat different signification. 
 Agnates, by that system, were persons related 
 through males only, whilst cognates were aU those in 
 whose connection, though on the father's side, one 
 or more female links intervened. Thus, a brother's 
 son was his uncle's A., because the propinquity was 
 wholly by males ; a sister's son was his cognate, 
 because a female was interposed in that relationship. 
 With us the intervention of females is immaterial, 
 provided the connection be on the male, or paternal. 
 
AGNESI— AGRA. 
 
 side of the house. The cause of our having thus 
 changed the meaning of terms manifestly borrowed 
 from the Roman law, seems to be that in Rome 
 the distinction between agnates and cognatea was 
 founded on an institution wliich has not been 
 adopted in the Roman sense by any modern nation 
 — that, namely, of ike patria potestas (q.v.). Roman 
 agnati are defined by Hugo to be all those who 
 either were actually imder the same paterfamilias, 
 or would have been so had he been aHve ; and thus 
 it was that, as no one could belong to two diflferent 
 families at the same time, the agnation to the 
 original family was destroyed, and a new agnation 
 created, not only by marriage, but by adoption (q.v.). 
 The foundation of cognation, again, was a legal 
 marriage. All who could trace up their origin to 
 the same marriage were coffnati; and thus the term 
 cognaiua, generally speaking, comprehended agnaJLns. 
 But though an agnatus was thus almost always a 
 cognatus, a coguatus was an agnatus only when his 
 relationship by blood was traceable through males. 
 Justinian abolished entirely the distinction between 
 agnates and cognates, and admitted, both to legal 
 succession and to the office of tutor of law, not only 
 kinsmen by the father, though a female had been 
 interposed, but even those by the mother [Nov. 
 118, c. 4, 5). As to the legal effects of the dis- 
 tinction in the modern sense, see Succession, 
 Gtjabdianship. 
 
 AGKESI, Maeia GiETANA, a woman remarkable 
 for her varied attainments, was bom at Milan, 
 1718. In her ninth year she could converse in 
 Latin, and gave a lectiu'e in this language, in which 
 she argued that a knowledge of the ancient lan- 
 guages was a proper accomphshmeut in women. In 
 her eleventh year she could also speak Greek 
 fluently, and subsequently acquired with great 
 facility several of the Oriental languages, and also 
 French, Spanish, and German. She was jocosely 
 styled 'the walking polyglot.' This precocious 
 development of intellect was encouraged by her 
 father, who invited parties, of learned men to his 
 house, with whom Maria disputed on philosophical 
 points. Of her discourses in these parties, her father 
 published some specimens, entitled Propositiones 
 PMlosophiccB (Milan, 1738). After her twentieth 
 year, she devoted her mind to the study of mathe- 
 matics, wrote an unpublished treatise on Conic 
 Sections, and published her Instituzioni Analitiche 
 (2 vols., Milan, 1748). This work so extended her 
 reputation, that, when her father was disabled by 
 infirmity, she took his place as Professor of Mathe- 
 matics in the University of Bologna, by the appoint- 
 ment of Pope Benedict XIV. It is said that, after 
 her devotion to the study of mathematics, her cheer- 
 fulness vanished, she avoided society, and at last 
 became a nun, and gave the whole of her time to 
 attendance on the poor and the afflicted. Maria A. 
 was a remarkable exception to the general rule of 
 precocious intellect and short Hfe, as she lived to the 
 age of 81. 
 
 A'GNUS DE'I (Lat. 'Lamb of God'), one of the 
 titles of Christ (John i. 29); also the name given 
 to a certain prayer used in the Roman Catholic 
 service of Mass. The litanies generally conclude 
 with the same prayer : ' Lamb of God, that takest 
 away the sins of the world, have mercy upon us.' — 
 The figure of a lamb bearing a cross, stamped 
 upon an oval of wax, silver, or gold, is also styled 
 an A. D. Such medals have been consecrated by 
 the popes since the 14th c, and are generally 
 distributed among the faithful on the first Sunday 
 after Easter. In the ancient church, candidates for 
 baptism received similar medals of wax, and wore 
 them as amulets. See Amxtlei. In the Greek 
 
 Church, the cloth which covers the cup in the 
 
 Agnus Dei. 
 
 communion-service bears the image of a lamb, and 
 is styled the A. D. 
 
 AGOU'TI {Dasyprocta Agouti), a small quadruped 
 nearly aUied to the Cavy or Guinea-pig, very abund- 
 ant in some parts of the West Indies and of South 
 America. It is often very injurious to the fields of 
 
 Agouti. 
 
 sugar-cane. It is gregarious. Its flesh resembles 
 that of the hare or rabbit. Other species are found 
 in the same regions, and even in the colder parts of 
 South America. The Pampas Hare is Dasyprocta 
 Patachonica. 
 
 A'GRA, a, British district in the lieutenant- 
 governorship of the North- western Provinces, bounded 
 N. and E. by the districts of Muttra, Minpooree, 
 and Etawah, S. and W. by the territories of Dhort- 
 pore, Gwalior, and Bhurtpore. Its area is 1860 square 
 miles. The surface of the country is for the most 
 part very level, the principal elevation of the Futteh- 
 pore Sikri hUls, a sandstone range on the west 
 frontier, being about 700 feet. The principal 
 rivers are the Jumna — ^flowing along the north-east 
 frontier, and its tributary the Chumbul (along the 
 southern boundary), both of which are too deep in 
 the channel to be of much avail for irrigation. The 
 district generally is, in consequence, deficient in 
 water ; and the failure of the rains in some seasons 
 (as in 1837, 1838) Tobs been followed by severe 
 famine. The temperature has a wide range, being, 
 during the hot winds of April, May, and June, so 
 high that the city of A. is scarcely habitable by 
 Europeans, while in January, severe frosts occur at 
 night, though the thermometer at mid-day is high. 
 The most miportant commercial product is cotton, 
 which generally occupies about a tenth of the arable- 
 land. There are two crops yearly — ^the spring crop, 
 consisting of various grains (wheat, barley, oats, &c.), 
 leguminous plants, fiax, tobacco, &c., the autumnal 
 crop of maize, mung, moth, melons, &c. The cultiva- 
 tion of rice is very limited, owing to the want of 
 water. The population in 1848 was 828,220, of whom 
 86,557 were Mohammedans, Europeans, &c., the rest 
 Hindus. Of the Hindu population, about two- 
 
AGRA— AGRAEIAN LAW. 
 
 thirda are agrioultural ; of the rest, about one-fourth. 
 — The ' division ' of A. which constitutes one of the 
 six North-western Provinces, embraces the districts 
 of A., Muttra, Furruckabad, Minpooree, and Btawah, 
 and contains an area of about 9000 square miles, 
 with a population in 1849 of 3,500,000. In 1833 it 
 was resolved (3 and 4 Will. IV. cap. 85) to divide the 
 Bengal Presidency into two, one of which was to be 
 called the A, Presidency. This act was never carried 
 into effect, and a subsequent act suspended its 
 operation, substituting the present arrangement. See 
 NCBTH-WBSTBRN' PROVINCES. The Seat of the 
 lieutenant-governor is at A., from which circum- 
 stance that functionary is sometimes called the 
 lieutenant-governor of A. 
 
 AGRA, the capital of the British North- western 
 Provinces in India, is situated in the district of the 
 same name on the right bank of the Jumna, 139 
 miles S.E. from Delhi, and 783 N.W. from Cal- 
 cutta. The ancient walls of the city embrace an 
 area of about 11 square miles, of which about one- 
 half is at present occupied. The houses are for the 
 most part built of the red sandstone of the neigh- 
 bouring hUls. The principal street, nmning north- 
 west from the fort, is very spacious, but the rest are 
 generally narrow and irregular, though clean. Some 
 of the public buildings, monuments of the house of 
 Timour, are on a scale of striking magnificence. 
 Among these are the fortress bmlt by Akbar, within 
 the walls of which are the palace and audience-hall 
 of Shah Jehan, and the Moti Masjid or Pearl 
 Mosque, so called for its surpassing architectural 
 beauty. Still more celebrated is the Taj Mahal, 
 situated without the city, about a roile to the east of 
 the fort. This extraordinary and beautifiil mauso- 
 leum was built by the Emperor Shall Jehan for 
 himself and his favourite wife, Arjimand Banco 
 (sumamed Mumtaz Mahal).' 20,000 men, says 
 Tavernier, who saw the work in progress, were 
 employed incessantly on it for twenty-two years. 
 The principal parts of the building are constructed 
 or overlaid outside and in with white marble ; 
 and the mosaic work of the sepulchral apartment 
 and dome is described by various travellers in 
 terms of glowing admiration. It is composed of 
 twelve kinds of stones, of which lapis-laziJi is the 
 most frequent, "as well as the most valuable. Of 
 British edtfioes in and near the city, the principal 
 are the Government House, the College (for the 
 education of natives), the Metcalfe Testimonial, the 
 English Church, and the barracks. The cUmate at 
 A., during the hot and rainy seasons (April to Sep- 
 tember), is very injurious to Europeans ; but on the 
 whole, the average health of the city is equal to that 
 of any other station in the North-western Provinces. 
 As the seat of the lieutenant-governor of these 
 provinces and of the administrative, judicial, and 
 miUtary establishments, A. is a place of considerable 
 importance, independently of its past history. The 
 population, before the late revolt, was estimated 
 at 70,000. The principal articles of trade are cotton 
 and salt, which are conveyed in large quantities 
 down the Jumna to the lower provinces. This city 
 is held in great veneration by the Hindus, as 
 the scene of the incarnation of Vishnu under the 
 name of Parasu Kama. It first rose to import- 
 ance in the beginning of the 16th c, and from 
 1526 to 1658, it was the capital of the Mogul 
 sovereigns. In that year, Aunmgzebe removed 
 to Delhi; henceforth, A. declined. It was taken 
 in 1784 by Scindia, and surrendered in 1803 to 
 Lord Lake, after a bombardment of a few hours. 
 Among the spoils on that occasion was a cannon of 
 23 inches calibre, llj inches metal at the muzzle; 
 length, 14 feet 2 inches; weight, 96,000 pounds. 
 The balls, of oaat iron, weired 1500 pounds. 
 78 
 
 This stupendous piece of ordnance is said to have 
 been wantonly reduced to fragments by blasting by 
 some artillery-officers in 1833. (Thornton's Gazetteer 
 of India.) During the late mutiny, A. was one of 
 the places in which the Europeans were shut up. 
 At the outbreak, the garrison consisted of the 
 44th and 67th regiments of B. N. Infantry, the 
 3d European Pusihers, and a few artillery. The 
 native regiments were disarmed in June 1857; 
 and the defence of this important city devolved 
 upon the Europeans. The ladies resorted at night 
 to places of refuge appointed by the governor, 
 while the gentlemen patrolled the streets ; but 
 matters grovring worse both in the city and country, 
 it was resolved, after a battle with the mutineers, to 
 abandon the city and retire to the Port or Kesidency. 
 It was time ; for some thousands of prisoners getting 
 loose, began to fire all the European buildings in the 
 city. Hardly a house escaped destruction ; num- 
 bers of traders were ruined, and had to endure the 
 misery of beholding their ruin from the Port. As 
 the Port was both large and strongly defended, 
 fugitives flocked in from all parts of the country, 
 and the numbers soon swelled to 6846. Heroic 
 sallies were occasionally made. Major Montgomery's 
 march to Allygurh, and his defeat of the rebels, 
 though twenty times as numerous, was a feat worthy 
 of Havelock. When Delhi fell, its rabble of 
 defenders hurried off in the direction of A., which 
 place was seriously threatened by them, but was 
 reheved by the rapid and brilliant march of Colonel 
 Greathed, who discomfited the enemy, and despoiled 
 them of nearly all their baggage. 
 
 AGEAM, the capital of Croatia,, finely situated at 
 the foot of a richly wooded range of mountains, is 
 about two miles from the Save, in lat. 45° 49' N., 
 long. 16° 4' E. King Bela IV. raised it in 1266 to 
 the dignity of the royal town, in consequence of its 
 having assisted him against the Tatars. The town 
 is divided by a small stream into three parts, each 
 of which is under a separate jurisdiction. These are 
 — the royal town proper, or upper town, built upon 
 two eminences ; the capita], or lower town ; and the 
 episcopal town, under the jurisdiction of the bishop. 
 The inhabitants are principally Croats, who carry 
 on an insignificant trade in wood, com, and tobacco. 
 The lower town is the newest and finest in appear- 
 ance, many of the houses having Itahan roofs. 
 A. is the residence of the governor of Croatia, 
 of the military commander-in-chief of the Croats, 
 and of a CathoKc bishop. It also possesses a royal 
 academy, vrith a pubHc library, and various other 
 educational institutions. Pop. 14,800. 
 
 AGRARIAN LAW. With the name of A. L. 
 used to be associated the idea of the abolition of 
 property in land, or at least of a new distribution of 
 it. This notion of the A. laws of the Romans was 
 not only the popular one, but was also received by 
 most scholars. The French Convention, in 1793, 
 passed a law punishing with death any one who 
 should propose an A. L., understanding by the term 
 an equal division of the soil among all citizens. Now, 
 it would have been strange if the Romans, with 
 whom private property was so sacred, could ever 
 have been brought to sanction any measure of the 
 kind. It was the German scholars, Heyne, Savigny, 
 and especially Niebuhr, who first explained the true 
 nature and character of the Roman A. laws. There 
 are stiU some disputed points on this matter, but 
 one thing seems made out — ^that those laws had no 
 reference to private lands held in absolute property, 
 but to public or state lands. 
 
 As the dominion of Rome extended, a portion 
 more or less of each conquered territory was confis- 
 cated to the state, and became public domain. All 
 
AGRARIAN LAW. 
 
 laws respecting the disposition of these lands were 
 called A. laws ; which are therefore of various kinds. 
 What made these laws be so long mistaken for an 
 interference with private rights, and excited such 
 opposition to them at the time, was the use which 
 was made of the puhHo domains while unappro- 
 priated. 'It was the practice at Rome,' says Dr 
 Arnold, ' and doubtless in other states of Italy, to 
 allow individuals to occupy such lands, and to enjoy 
 all the benefits of them, on condition of paying to 
 the state the tithe of the produce, as an acknow- 
 ledgment that the state was the proprietor of the 
 land, and the individual merely the occupier. Now, 
 although the land was undoubtedly the property of 
 the state, and although the occupiers of it were in 
 relation to the state mere tenants-at-wiU, yet it is in 
 human nature that a long undisturbed possession 
 shotild give a feeling of ownership ; the more so as, 
 while the state's claim lay dormant, the possessor 
 was, in fact, proprietor, and the land would thus be 
 repeatedly passing by regular sale from one occupier 
 to another.' 
 
 The state, however, was often obliged to interfere 
 with these occupiers of the public lands, and resume 
 its rights. The very idea of a citizen, in ancient 
 times, involved that of a landholder, and when new 
 citizens were to be admitted, they had each to 
 receive their portion out of the unallotted public 
 domain; which was attended, of course, with the 
 ejection of the tenants-at-will. It appears, also, 
 that the right to enjoy the pubho lands in this 
 temporary way was confined to the old burghers 
 or patricians. This, taken in conjunction with the 
 tendency, strong at aU times, of larger possessions to 
 swallow up smaller, kept up an ever-increasing 
 number of landless commons, whose destitution and 
 degradation came from time to time to such a pitch, 
 that alleviation was necessary, to prevent the very 
 dissolution of the state. It is easy, however, to see 
 what motive the patricians, as a body, had to oppose 
 all such measures, since it was their interest, though 
 not their right, to keep the lands unallotted. 
 
 The enactment of A. laws occasioned some of the 
 most memorable struggles in the internal history of 
 Rome. Most of the kmgs of Rome are said to have 
 carried an A. L., that is, to have divided a portion 
 of the public land among those whom they admitted 
 to the rights of citizenship. 'The good king,' 
 Servius TuUius, may be looked upon as the firat 
 victim of the hostility of the nobles to A. laws. 
 About twenty-four years after the expulsion of the 
 Tarquins, the distress of the commons called aJoud 
 for remedy, and the consul, Spurius Cassius, proposed 
 an A. L. for a division of a certain proportion of the 
 pubhc land, and for enforcing the regular payment 
 of the rent or tithe from the occupiers of the 
 remainder. The aristocracy, however, contrived to 
 defeat the proposal, and when the year of his 
 consulship was out, Cassius was accused of trying to 
 make himself king, was condemded, scourged, and 
 beheaded, and his house razed to the ground. 
 
 The first important A. L. of a permanent nature, 
 actually passed, was that proposed by the tribune, 
 Licinius Stolo, and carried, after a struggle of five 
 years, in the year of Rome 383. The provisions of 
 Licinius's biU, or rogation, were as follows : ' Every 
 Roman citizen shall be entitled to occupy any portion 
 of the unallotted state land not exceSdmg 500 jugera 
 (see Acre), and to feed on the public pasture-land 
 any number of cattle not exceeding 100 head of 
 large, or 500 head of small, paying in both cases 
 the usual rates to the pubhc treasury. Whatever 
 portions of the public land beyond 500 jugera are at 
 present occupied by individuals, shall be taken from 
 them, and distributed among the poorer citizens as 
 absolute property, at the rate of seven jugera apiece. 
 
 Occupiers of public land shall also be bound to 
 employ a certain number of freemen as labourers.' 
 
 This law produced for a time very salutary effects. 
 But before the year 621, when Tiberius Gracchus 
 was elected tribune, the Licinian law had been 
 suffered to faH into abeyance; and although vast 
 tracts had been acquired by the Italian, the Punic, 
 and the Greek wars, no regular distribution of land 
 among the destitute citizens had taken place for 
 upwards of a century. Nimierous mfiitary colonies 
 had indeed been founded in the conquered districts, 
 and in this way many of the poorer Romans or their 
 allies had been provided for ; but stfil there remained 
 large territories, the property of the state, which, 
 instead of being divided among the poorer members 
 of the state, were entered upon, and brought into 
 cultivation, by the rich capitalists, many of whom 
 thus came to hold thousands of jugera, instead of 
 the five hundred allowed by the Licinian law. To a 
 Roman statesman, therefore, looking on the one 
 hand to the wretched pauper popmation of the 
 meaner streets of Rome, and on the other, to the 
 enormous tracts of the public land throughout Italy 
 which the wealthy citizens held in addition to their 
 own private property, the question which would 
 naturally present itself was — Why should not the 
 state, as landlord, resume from these wealthy 
 capitalists, who are her tenants, as much of the 
 pubHo land as may be necessary to provide little 
 farms for these pauper citizens, and so convert them 
 into respectable and independent agriculturists? 
 This question must have presented itseU to many ; 
 but there were immense difficulties in the way. Not 
 only had long possession of the state lands, and the 
 expenditure of large sums in bringing them into 
 cultivation, given the wealthy tenants a sort of 
 proprietary 3aim upon them, but in the course of 
 generations, during which estates had been bought, 
 sold, and inherited, the state lauds had become so 
 confused with private property, that in many cases 
 it was impossible to distingmsh between the two. 
 Notwithstanding these difficulties, Tiberius Gracchus 
 had the boldness to propose an A. L., to the effect, 
 that every father of a family might occupy 500 
 jugera of the state land for himself, and 250 jugera 
 additional for each of his sons ; but that, in every 
 case where this amount was exceeded, the state 
 should resume the surplus, paying the tenant a price 
 for the buildings, &c., which he had been at the 
 expense of erecting on the lands thus lost to him. 
 The recovered lands were then to be distributed 
 among the poor citizens ; a clause being inserted in 
 the bill to prevent these citizens from selling the 
 lands thus aUotted to them, as many of them would 
 have been apt to do. 
 
 According to the laws and constitution of Rome, 
 there was nothing essentially unjust in this proposal, 
 which was, in private, a^ least, approved of Dy some 
 of the most distinguished men of the time. The 
 energy of Gracchus carried the measure, in spite of 
 the opposition of the aristocratic party, whose 
 vengeance, however, could only be satisfied with the 
 assassiuation of Gracchus and his brother. See 
 Gkacchus. The attempts to carry out the ' Sem- 
 pronian law,' as it was called, were attended with 
 great difficulties, and although not formally repealed, 
 it continued to be evaded and rendered inoperative. 
 Various A. laws were subsequently passed, some by 
 the victorious aristocratic party, in a spirit directiy 
 opposed to the Licinian and Sempronian laws. 
 
 Besides A. laws having for their object the division 
 among the commons of pubhc lands usurped by the 
 nobles, there were others of a more partial and local 
 nature, for the estabUshment of colonies in particular 
 conquered districts : these naturally met with less 
 opposition. Still more different were those violent 
 
AGEICOLA— AGRIOULTUKB. 
 
 appropriations of tetritoiy made by tlie victorious 
 military leaders in the latter times of the republio, in 
 order to reward their soldiers, and establish exclu- 
 sively military colonies. In these the private rights 
 of the previous occupants were often diregarded. 
 
 AGRI'COLA, Gnaetjs or Cnbius Juiros, aKoman 
 of the imperial times, distinguished not less by his 
 great abilities as a statesman and a soldier than by 
 Sie beauty of his private character, was bom at Forum 
 Julii (now Frgjus in Provence), 37 A. D. Having served 
 with distiDction in Britain, Asia, and Aquitania, and 
 gone through the round of civil offices, he was, in 
 77 A.D., elected consul, and iu the following year 
 proceeded as governor to Britaiu — ^the scene of his 
 military and civil administration during the next 
 seven years. He was the first Roman general who 
 eflFectuaUy subdued the island, and the only one 
 who displayed as much genius and success in training 
 the inhabitants to the ameiiities of civilisation as in 
 breaking their rude force in war. In hia seventh 
 and last campaign (84 a.d.), his decisive victory 
 over the Caledonians under Galgacus, at the foot of 
 the Grampians, established the Roman dominion 
 in Britain to that extent northward. At the close 
 of, this campaign, his fleet circumnavigated the 
 coast, for the first time, discovering Britain to be 
 an island. Among the works executed by A. 
 during his administration, were a chain of forts 
 between the Solway and the Tyne, and another 
 between the Clyde and Forth. Numerous traces 
 of his operations are still to be found in Anglesey 
 and North Wales, and in Galloway, Fife, Perth- 
 shire, and Angus. The news of A.'s successes 
 inflamed the jealousy of Domitian, and he was 
 speedily recalled. Thenceforth he lived in retire- 
 ment ; and when the vacant prooonsulships of Asia 
 and Africa lay vpithin hia choice, he prudently 
 declined promotion. The jealousy of the emperor, 
 however, is supposed to have hastened hia death, 
 which took place at the early age of 55. Hia life, 
 by his son-in-law Tacitus, haa always been regarded 
 as one of the choicest speoimena of biography in 
 literature. 
 
 AGRICOLA, John (whose true name was 
 Schnitter or Schneider, but who was also called 
 Magiater Islebiua and John Eialeben, after the name 
 of his native town), bom 1492, was one of the most 
 zealous founders of Protestantism. Having studied 
 at "Wittenberg and Leipsic, he was sent (1525) by 
 Luther, who highly appreciated his talents and 
 learning, to Frahkfort-ou-the-Maiu, to institute 
 there, at the desire of the magistrates, the Proteatant 
 worahip. On his return, he resided as a teacher and 
 preacher in his native town of Eialeben, till 1536. 
 In 1537, he became a professor at Wittenberg, 
 where the Antinomian controversy, already begun 
 between him and Luther and Melancthon, broke 
 out openly. See Aktikomtanism. The troubles 
 in which he was thus involved obliged him to 
 withdraw (1538) to Berlin, where he was reduced 
 to extreme want, and was thus induced to make a 
 recantation, never altogether sincere. He then found 
 a protector in the Elector John of Brandenburg, 
 who appoiated him preacher , to the court and 
 general superintendent. He inade great exertions 
 for the spread of the Proteatant doctrine in the 
 Brandenburg, states; but ere hia death, which tooji 
 place at Berlin, 22d September lS66, he had become 
 as much hated for his share in the drawing up of 
 the Augsburg Interim (q. v.), as he had formerly 
 been for hia Antinomian opiniona. Beaides hia 
 numeroua theological writings, hia country possesses 
 a truly national work of his, entitled Die Gemeinen 
 Deutschen Spriichworter mit ihrer auslegung (Common 
 German Proverbs, with their Explanation ; Hagenau, 
 80 
 
 1592 ; and a very complete but somewhat altered 
 edition at Wittenberg, 1592). The patriotic feeHngs, 
 pure morals, and pithy language of this book, have 
 procured for it one of the first places among the 
 German works of that age. 
 
 AGRICOLA, RuBOLPHUS, one of the most 
 learned and remarkable men of the 15th c, and a 
 chief instrament in transplanting the taste for litera- 
 ture, just revived in Italy, into his native country of 
 Germany, was bom, 1443, in the village of Baflo, near 
 Groningen. His name was properly Rolef Huys- 
 mann (i.e., houseman or husbandman), which was 
 Latinised by him into A., after the usage of the time. 
 He was also called Frisins, and Rudolf of Groningen, 
 from his native place ; and sometimes Rudolf of 
 Ziloha, from the monastery of Silo, where he spent 
 some time. Haviug been first a disciple of Thomas ^ 
 Kempis at Zwolle, he went to Louvain, then to Paris, 
 and thence to Italy, where, during the years 1476 
 and 1477, he attended the lectures of the most cele- 
 brated men of his age. Here he entered into a close 
 friendship with Dalberg, who afterwards became 
 Bishop of Worms. He was the first German who 
 distinguished himself in Italy in public speaking and 
 lecturmg, and this he did not oifly by his erudition, 
 but by the elegance of his language and the correct- 
 ness of his pronunciation. He likewise acqtdred 
 reputation as an aocomphshed musician; and hia 
 piecea were popular throughout Italy. On his return 
 to Germany, he endeavoured, in connection with 
 several of his former co-disciples and friends, among 
 whom were Alexander Hegius and Rudolphus Lange, 
 to promote a taste for literature and eloquence in 
 Germany. Several cities of Holland vainly strove 
 with each other to obtain hia preaence, by offering 
 him public functions; but not even the briUiaut 
 overtures made to him by the court of the emperor 
 Maximilian I., to which he had repaired in connec- 
 tion with afi'airs of the town of Groningen, could 
 induce him to renoimce his independence. At 
 length yielding (1483) to the solicitations of Dalberg, 
 who was now chancellor to the Elector Palatine, 
 and Bishop of Worms, he established himself in the 
 Palatinate, where he sojourned alternately at Heidel- 
 berg and Worms, dividing his time between private 
 studies and public lectures, and enjoying high popu- 
 larity. He distinguished himself also as a painter ; 
 and at the age of 40 set with a,rdour to leaarn 
 Hebrew, in order to study theology. He went again 
 (1484) with Dalberg into Italy, and died shortly 
 after hia return to Germany (on "the 28th October 
 1485). His fame reata chiefly on the personal influ- 
 ence he exerted. Hia compositions, which are 
 written in Latin, are neither so numerous nor so 
 important as those of many of his learned contem- 
 poraries. The first nearly complete edition of them 
 was that pubhahed by Alard (2 vols., Cologne, 1539). 
 Consrdt Tresling, Vita et Merita JR. A. (Groningen, 
 1830). 
 
 A'GEICTJLTURE (Lat. ar/er, a field, and colo, I 
 till) is the art of rearing those plants and animals 
 that are best suited to supply the wants of man. 
 Man has found the earth, m almost every chme, 
 covered with vegetation, yet this often yields httle 
 that he can use. The spontaneous growth of nature 
 affording but a limited quantity of food, he at first 
 attempts to supply the deficiency by capturing the 
 wild animals, which often feed upon what is unsuited 
 for his sustenance. Sometimes, however, the most 
 fertile lands under luxuriant forests, or other natural 
 vegetation, oiily support a small number of animals. 
 In themost favourable circumstances, a given area 
 of territory cannot maintain many of the human 
 family, so long as they depend upon the natiu-al 
 vegetation or on the chase. It is only after those 
 
AGEICULTUEJB. 
 
 plants whioli yield man an abundant supply of food 
 are selected and made the objects of cultivation, 
 that population augments, and civilisation takes its 
 rise. 
 
 Man has selected a great variety of plants for 
 cultivation to afford him food and clothing. In 
 northern latitudes, wheat, barley, oats, rye, and the 
 potato form the chief plants from which he derives 
 subsistence. These crops are most productive when 
 grown in summer in the temperate climates of the 
 earth, being unsuited to the heats of the torrid 
 zone. Their geographical limits, however, aie greatly 
 extended by growing them as winter crops on the 
 borders of, and even within, the tropics. In these 
 regions, however, rice, maize, millet, and other grains 
 
 become far more productive of food than the already 
 mentioned cereals are in high latitudes, as they 
 floui-ish during the heats of summer. Where heat 
 and moisture are almost perennial in the tropics, the 
 banana, the bread-fruit tree, and other herbaceous 
 plants and trees, are most productive of human 
 food. — A short historical outline of the A. of different 
 parts of the world will exhibit the chief elements 
 that regulate the practices of the husbandman. 
 
 The early civilisation of Egypt claims for it the first 
 notice in a passing outline of the chief systems of A. 
 The teeming population that existed in ancient times 
 in the narrow vaUey of the NUe, the large standing 
 army which was maintained, the extraordinary 
 works of engineering and architecture still visible 
 
 Modem Shadoof. 
 
 in our day, and the exportation of com to other 
 nations, indicate an advanced state of the art of 
 A. Eain is a rare phenomenon in Upper Egypt, 
 and fertility is only maintaiaed by the waters 
 of the Nile, ^whioh are subject to annual floods. 
 The risings and ebbings are as regular now as 
 they were in the days of Herodotus; and the 
 agricultural systems are also in a great measure 
 the same. The inundation which, imless prevented 
 by embankments, covers the whole land, occurs at 
 the hottest season. As the waters retire in October, 
 the land is sown with what are there styled vrinter 
 crops, consisting of wheat, barley, lentils, beans, 
 flax, lupines, chiok-pease, &o. All these crops require 
 no further watering, as the moisture which the soil 
 6 
 
 has imbibed during the inundation is sufficient to 
 bring them to maturity about the end of Apiil, or 
 even a month sooner in Upper Egypt. Only one 
 crop in the year is grown upon most of the inun- 
 dated lands. But on those lands which are protected 
 from the inundation, three crops a year may be 
 raised by means of artificial watering. Pew of the 
 plants used as winter crops can be grown in summer 
 in Egypt. The plants adapted for summer consist of 
 rice (largely grown in the Delta), durra, millet, maize, 
 sesame, melons, onions ; they are sown from April 
 to August, and of several of them two crops in the 
 season ripen under the cloudless sky of Egypt. A 
 vast amount of manual labour and animal power is 
 expended in watering the ground for the summer crops. 
 
 81 
 
AGRI0T7LTTIRE. 
 
 The peasants use the shadoof for tlie purpose, wliioh is 
 a simple contrivance, used in drawing water, over a 
 large portion o£ the East. The Persian wheel, driven 
 by oxen, is largely employed ; so much so, that about 
 60,000 of these machines are at present in use in the 
 valley of the Nile. Besides these crops, cotton, indigo, 
 and sugar-cane are now cultivated to a small extent. 
 When the waters rest long on the land, it answers all 
 the ends of a fallow, by extirpating the laud- weeds 
 and disintegrating the soil. The ground, in such 
 cases, requires no further culture than treading in 
 the seed by animals, or slightly scratching the sur- 
 face with bushes. On the other hand, the summer 
 crops reqiure a great deal of tending, both in 
 cultivating and watering the soil. The diminution 
 of the population in Egypt has in some measure 
 deprived the country of the means of its former 
 advanced state of A.; nor ia its present political 
 condition at all likely to lead to much improvement. 
 
 Few historical records of the state of Babylonian 
 A. have come down to us. We can only judge of its 
 productiveness by the dense population that was 
 supported in the plains bordering the Euphrates, 
 where the summer climate is almost as arid as that of 
 ■EgyP*- That river also was subject to overflow, 
 when the snows melted on the mountains of Armenia 
 in summer. Further than this, however, we have 
 no knowledge of the systems pursued or crops 
 cultivated. 
 
 The Scriptures are full of allusions to the opera- 
 tions of the husbandman in Palestine as well as in 
 Egypt. The operations in the two countries neces- 
 sarily formed strikiag contrasts — ^the crops in the 
 former being chiefly dependent on the rains for 
 growth ; in the latter, on the inundations of the Nile. 
 In the Holy Land, there are extensive plains of 
 fertile soil which yielded the finest wheat. The 
 hillsides were covered with vines and ohves, often 
 planted on terraces formed with much labour, to 
 afford a larger mass of soil, in which the plants 
 might flourish in the almost rainless summers. The 
 valleys were well watered, and afforded pasture 
 for numerous flocks. Of the smaller cultivated 
 plants, millet was the chief summer crop, but it 
 was only cultivated to a limited extent, being confined 
 to those spots that could be artificially watered. 
 Wheat and barley were the chief cereals, as the winter 
 rains were sufficient to bring them to maturity. The 
 large number of inhabitants that Palestine supported 
 under the Jews is the wonder of all modem travel- 
 lers, who are struck with the ruins of ancient cities 
 and the desolation of the country. The means of 
 cultivation, however, disappeared with the inhabit- 
 ants ; and the destruction of the wood has added to 
 the aridity of the climate. Concurring testimony 
 indicates that the systems of cultivation were some- 
 what similar in all the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean, which are characterised by arid 
 summers, and autumn and winter rains. Irrigation, 
 therefore, was had recourse to wherever it was 
 practicable. 
 
 The A. of Italy in the present day exhibits great 
 contrasts in its condition; for while a gardeu-hke 
 cultivation is seen in Lombardy, the uimost rude- 
 ness and backwardness prevail in the southern parts 
 of the peninsula. Into the social causes that have 
 led to these results our limits forbid us to enter. The 
 literature of the A. of the ancient Komans, throws 
 much light on the systems that then existed in the 
 countries bordering on the Mediterranean. As is 
 well known, the wide-spread dominion of Home 
 rose out of a diminutive colony planted on the banks 
 of the Tiber. In the time of the early kings, its 
 original territory did not extend above five miles 
 towards the Alban HjUs, and stUl less in other direc- 
 tions. BomuluB is said to have divided a portion of 
 82 
 
 his small territory among his subjects, at the rate of 
 little more than an acre to each. This allotment, 
 granted in perpetuity, was not liable to be taxed, 
 and could be sold by its owner. The whole territory 
 was not assigned to the citizens, but the larger part 
 was kept as domain lands, which yielded a revenue 
 to the state, by being let to the wealthy classes. 
 These domain lands were either cultivated or 
 allowed to remain in pasture. The common conditions 
 were, that the occupants of the corn-land paid one- 
 tenth of the produce as rent ; of vines and fruit-trees, 
 one-fifth ; and a moderate rate a head for sheep or 
 cattle pastured. The occupants were merely tenants- 
 at- will, and the state could resume and sell their lands 
 at any time. A similar policy seems to have been 
 pursued by the numerous states of ancient Italy. As 
 these were all conquered in succession by the 
 Romans, their lands became the property of the 
 Roman state. Sometimes the inhabitants were 
 wholly extirpated, or sold into slavery, and their 
 lands were partly assigned to the poorer citizens 
 engaged in the wax ; the remainder, which was 
 always the much larger part, became domain lands. 
 In other instances, only a portion of the lands was 
 taken from the conquered nations; the former 
 owners were allowed to retain them as tenants, pay- 
 iag the ordinary rent. Thus, from the earliest times, 
 two classes of cultivators were in existence — ^the 
 small proprietors, and the wealthy tenants, holding 
 the lands of the state. Betwixt tiie two, there was 
 almost a perpetual strife— the one demanded the 
 distribution of the state domains, while the others 
 constantly resisted it. Even after the Romans 
 became masters of the whole of Italy, the citizens 
 had little more than four acres of land assigned to 
 each ; and the domain lands increased enormously. 
 Attempts were constantly made to restrict the 
 extent of domain held by the patricians, but gener- 
 ally vrithout effect. See AoRAHiAij Laws. The 
 great extent of domain lands gave rise to the 
 employment of slave-labour in their cultivation 
 by the wealthy citizens. This led to the discourage- 
 ment of small proprietors, so that the free population 
 engaged in A. diminished throughout Italy. The 
 evfl was further aggravated by the policy that 
 the Romans pursued towards the inhabitants of 
 the conquered provinces : there, none of the land 
 was held as freehold, but it was solely vested in the 
 Roman people, being all let out for the benefit of the 
 state. On the conquest of Sicily, the wealthy 
 Romans flocked over, and farmed the rents, as weU. 
 as cultivated the lands by means of slave-labour. 
 Indeed, the chief supphes of grain sent to Rome from 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Carthage, were raised by means 
 of slaves. A. was long the only source of wealth 
 open to the patricians ; and it was deemed the most 
 honourable of occupations. Its operations were 
 then directed by men of wealth and learning ; and 
 no wonder that its literature was so copious, and 
 held in so high estimation. Cato, the first and 
 most celebrated agricultural writer (who died aged 
 88, 150 B. 0.), was m the middle period of life at the 
 end of the second Punic war. The large farming 
 system had then been fuUy established ; and he gives 
 us, not only the most minute particulars regarding 
 the management of the slaves on his Sabine farm, but 
 all the details of husbandry, from the ploughing of 
 the fallows to the reaping and threshing of §ie crop. 
 The chief grain cultivated by the Romans was 
 wheat, but barley was also cultivated to a consider- 
 able extent. Land devoted to grain was fallowed for 
 a whole year every alternate year ; in other words, 
 the rotation consisted of \st, wheat, 2d, fallow. One- 
 third of the fallow was manured and sown with 
 some green crop as cattle-food. Fallow received from 
 four to five furrows before the wheat was sown in 
 
AGEICULTUEE. 
 
 autumn. The last ploughing left the land in narrow 
 ridges ; and as the seed was sown broadoast, it came 
 up in rows, which admitted of the crop heing several 
 times hand-hoed. The crops of wheat ripened about 
 the middle of June, but the summers were too dry to 
 allow of millet and other summer crops being raised 
 with certainty. Kye, hemp, flax, beans, turnips, 
 lupines, vetches, and lucerne are also mentioned 
 as occasionally cultivated. Meadows were highly 
 esteemed, and irrigation to some e^ent adopted. 
 Cattle were fed in the plains in winter, and driven 
 towards the Apennines as the snows melted in spring, 
 and when the pastures below became parched by 
 the heat. The greater proportion of the surface of 
 Southern Italy consists of thin calcareous soils, iU 
 adapted for the growth of grain or grass ; and the 
 vine, the olive, and the mulberry become the chief 
 objects of culture. The principal districts for grow- 
 ing wheat are, in the neighbourhood of Naples, 
 and in the ancient Apulia, where Hannibal gener- 
 ally wintered when he overran Italy. Some of 
 these rich plains are still held directly from the 
 government, and cultivation is of the rudest char- 
 acter. One-third of the land is in pasture, and 
 the other two-thirds in fallow and grain. Three 
 or foiu- crops are taken in succession, and the soil 
 is then allowed to recruit its exhausted strength by 
 remaining under pasture. 
 
 In the great plain of Northern Italy watered by 
 the Po, agriculture is now in a very advanced con- 
 dition. A great part of it is of great natural fertility ; 
 it drew forth the praises of Polybius, who visited it 
 about fifty years after it came into the hands of the 
 Romans. The oak-groves which he found scattered 
 over the plain, fed the immense droves of swine 
 that were then raised in Italy. Now, however, 
 rich and poor soils are subjected to the fertil- 
 ising influences of irrigation, and the region has 
 become the best eidtivated in Europe. No less than 
 1,600,000 acres of land are \mder irrigation, and the 
 results are of the most striking character. The land 
 is forced to produce a constant succession of grass 
 and grain. The irrigated meadows, like the pastures 
 of Ireland and Scotland, are made the corner-stone 
 of the systems of rotation. In general, three years 
 in meadow are succeeded by three years in rice; 
 two years in Indian corn and flax ; one year in 
 wheat sown out with grass-seeds. Large numbers 
 of cattle are kept on the farms of Lombardy, where 
 the land is often a complete net-work of canals, 
 with their smaller distributing chaimela. There is 
 a large exportation both of grain and dairy produce. 
 The vast ranges of snowy mountains that bound 
 the plain to the norths afford a never-fafling supply 
 of water during the heats of summer. The vine 
 and mulberry beautify the country, and also give 
 employment to the dense population. 
 
 The lower latitude of Spain gives it a still more 
 arid summer climate than Italy. Eains commonly 
 fall only during the autumn and winter, and the 
 supply is scanty and irregular. This renders Spain 
 a poor and xmproductive country, excepting where 
 the soil can be irrigated. For this reason, the 
 resoiu'ces of its agiiculture are chiefly confined to 
 its well-watered valleys, which are capable of being 
 made to outstrip Egypt itself in productiveness. 
 The Moors early introduced the art of irrigation in 
 the south of 'Spain, and carried it to a high pitch in 
 the kingdom of Granada. Before the conquest of 
 that coimtry by Ferdinand and Isabella, the valley 
 of Granada was one well-cultivated garden. Though 
 the undiminished powers of the land are stiU 
 attested by a few spots in the vegas of Murcia and 
 Granada, its present condition cannot be compared 
 to its condition under the Moors. The high tempera- 
 ture admits of a succession of crops being raised in one 
 
 year, as in Egypt. After wheat has been gathered 
 in Jime, a crop of maize or nuUet, or of vegetables, 
 is got. Maize is scarcely grown in Spain except 
 where the land is irrigated, so that every valley ia 
 more or less under the productive influences of 
 water. The melting of the snows in summer on 
 the high ranges of moimtaiiis, afibrds a supply 
 when it is most needed in the plains below. Vines, 
 olives, and oranges find a genial climate for their 
 growth in the southern parts, and are important 
 objects of culture. 
 
 France must be regarded as one of the richest 
 agricultural countries in Europe. In the south, 
 the cUmate is sufficiently hot for olives, maize, the 
 mulberry, and the vine. The summer rains, too, 
 are more abundant than in Spain, and permit 
 maize to be extensively grown alternately with 
 wheat, which forms a most productive course of 
 crops. Irrigation has received considerable attention 
 in the southern valleys, and the reclamation of the 
 barren wastes of the Crau in Provence, testifies to 
 its fertilising effects. Much of the soil is poor in 
 the southern provinces, and not suited to the growth 
 of grain ; but such soil admits of the growth of 
 the mulberry, the olive, or the vine. All tiiese crops 
 demand a large amount of labour in their culture, 
 and sustain a dense population. Normandy is 
 celebrated for its pastures. The north-west of 
 France generally is the most fertile tract of land 
 in Europe. In the less advanced districts, fallow, 
 wheat, and oats is the rotation stiU followed. 
 Clovers and lucerne aie largely sown in the chalky 
 districts. In the best cultivated districts in the 
 north, wheat and beet-root or poppy are sown 
 alternately. Beet forms a most important plant 
 in the agriculture of France in the present day, as 
 a large part of the sugar consumed in the country 
 is derived from it. Much of France is divided into 
 small properties, which is more especially the case 
 in the less fertile provinces. This division of pro- 
 perty is, so far, a necessity, as no other industrial 
 occupation is open to the people. As soon as manu- 
 factures raise the standard of living in the town, 
 it will infiuence the condition of the rural population, 
 and lead to the enlaigement of properties. 
 
 In Austria, Hungary, and the countries on both 
 sides of the Danube, the climate resembles that of 
 the southern half of France. Maize and wheat are 
 the chief products, but the agriculture labours under 
 so many impediments to progress, that it is yet in a 
 backward state. In Soutiiem Busda, there are vast 
 tracts of rich land bordering on the rivers flowing 
 into the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, from which 
 Western Europe derives large supplies of wheat and 
 flax-seed, as well as some maize. The nortliem 
 parts of Kussia are less fertile, and as yet the 
 means of transport is defective and limited. Oats, 
 flax, skins, and tallow are the chief products sent 
 to market. Kye forms the common bread-corn of 
 the lower classes. Prussia, unless along the shores 
 of the Baltic, has no great proportion of fertile 
 land within her territory : the chief article exported 
 is wheat from the Baltic provinces, which is of fine 
 quality. The potato enters largely iuto the food of 
 ilie common people in Prussia, and is also used in the 
 manufacture of ardent spirits. Its agriculture, how- 
 ever, has no peculiarities deserving of special notice 
 in this cursory sketch. 
 
 Flanders has long been celebrate'd for its farming, 
 and its cultivators are generally supposed to have 
 carried improved systems into the eastern counties 
 of Englaiid, It is characterised by ^painstaking 
 management, and, at the same time, hberal apph- 
 cation of manure. The general size of the farms 
 would be considered rather small in England, but 
 considerable capitals are invested in stock and 
 
AGEICULTUBE. 
 
 implements, and several kinds of crops are raised 
 unknown to British A. A large part of the stock is 
 stabled throughout the year, the grass being cut and 
 carried from the fields. The rearmg and the feeding 
 of cattle, as well as the dairy, are often combined on 
 the same farm. Flax is a crop which receives a 
 
 treat deal of careful management. Hemp and 
 eet-root require liberal treatment with respect to 
 inanure, and only enter into the rotation where 
 high farming is followed. The crops are so arranged 
 in the rotation, that two cereal crops do not succeed 
 each other. In no country are the fields kept so 
 free from weeds as they are in Flanders, and in 
 none do the agriculturists suffer so little from flilctu- 
 atious in the prices of grain, owing to the great 
 variety of crops that are raised. 
 
 England had made considerable advances iu A. 
 so far back as the 1 6th c. This fact may be gathered 
 from the writings of Fitzherbert, Tusser, and others. 
 At an earlier period, her chief article of export had 
 been wool, which supplied the seats of manufacturing 
 industry in Holland, but now she also exports a 
 large quantity of wheat. The increasing prosperity 
 of the country caused a demand for butcher-meat, 
 which began to rise in price much sooner than it did 
 in Scotland. By the middle of the 17th c, turnips 
 and red clover were introduced as field-crops, and 
 by the end of it, the two were extensively cultivated 
 in many parts, in alternation with com. In 1750, 
 the four-course shift was not uncommon in many 
 parts of Norfolk. Under this system of \st, wheat ; 
 id, turnips ; dd, barley ; 4th, grass, one half of the 
 land was constantly under corn-crops, and the other 
 under cattle-crops. Large numbers of sheep and 
 cattle were fattened on the tmmips and clover. In 
 the preparation of the land for turnips, it was well 
 cultivated and weeded, and the consumption of the 
 roots on the laud increased the yield of the barley. 
 The four-course shift has formed the basis upon 
 which further improvements have been made in the 
 southern and eastern parts of England. The strong 
 sofls of Suffolk and Essex yield good pasture, and 
 about a century ago, they were mostly devoted to 
 dairy-farming. The high price of com, however, 
 encouraged the conversion of these lands into arable- 
 farms. The course followed was \st, wheat; 2d, 
 fallow; dd, barley; ith, clover. Instead of the 
 fallow, mangel-wurzel is now largely substituted, 
 which enables the farmers to feed large numbers of 
 bullocks in the yards, without so large an expendi- 
 ture in the purchase of oil-cake as was at one time 
 thought necessary. In the western counties, where 
 the climate is more suitable for grass,.and less so for 
 wheat, dairy and stock-rearing become greater 
 objects of attention. The demand for dairy produce 
 iu the neighbourhood of the large manufacturing 
 towns of the west, renders the land of much greater 
 value under grass than under com, more especially 
 where the soil is tenacious. In the more friable 
 soils of the north-western counties of England, the 
 systems of A. resemble somewhat that of Scotland. 
 Instead of the land lying one year under grass, it 
 lies two, followed by oats, then turnips or potatoes, 
 and the wheat-crop is taken after this green crop, 
 and not after the grass. This is the characteristic 
 which distinguishes the arable farming in the western 
 from that in the eastern counties of England. A 
 large portion of the surface of England is under 
 permanent pasture, and the beauty of the meadows 
 is unrivalled in any part of the world. The surface 
 of England is very unequally farmed, for while 
 A. has attained a great degree of perfection in 
 such counties as Suffolk, Norfolk, and Lincoln, it 
 is in a comparatively primitive state iu others. 
 The causes which have led to this state of things 
 are often difficult to trace. The spirit of improve- 
 H 
 
 ment now seems, however, far more generally 
 diffused, and spirited farmers are everywhere spring- 
 ing up, who, before long, will find many imitators. ■ 
 
 In Ireland, the want of manufactures has con- 
 tinued to act as a great hindrance to agricultural 
 improvement. The competition that arose among a 
 generally indigent population in taking small farms, 
 led to extravagant rents, the payment of which 
 involved the starvation of the tenants. The faithful 
 pictures, which Arthur Young drew, towards the 
 close of the last century, shewed the workings of such 
 a system. The general introduction of the potato, 
 upon which the people chiefly subsisted, enabled rents 
 to be paid by selling the scanty produce of grain, 
 or the pigs that were reared. The failure of the 
 potato-crop in 1846 produced the most heart-rending 
 scenes of misery that have been witnessed in our 
 times. When Young made his tour, it was the com- 
 mon practice, among the small farmers, to take from 
 four to six crops of oats or barley in succession, after 
 which the land was allowed to renovate its powers 
 by the growth of the natural grasses. On the 
 moderate-sized farms, the cultivation was better; 
 but turnips had Httle place in a course of cropping 
 for nearly a century after they were largely cultivated 
 in Norfolk. The Protestant population in the north 
 of Ireland introduced, at an early period, the culture 
 of flax, which stiU forms a peculiar feature in the A. 
 of that part of the countiy. The large amount of 
 manual labour which it requires in its preparation 
 for market, has so far served to preserve the cidtiva- 
 tors from descending so low in the scale of social 
 existence as those in the south. As a general rule, 
 it is found that the worst land is most densely 
 peopled; the secondary descriptions are in moderate- 
 sized farms ; while the best land has hitherto been 
 devoted to pasture, for which the climate is admir- 
 ably suited. The winters are so mild in the south, 
 that cattle are often not stabled. In Young's time, 
 the Irish graziers were the only class of agriculturists 
 that were possessed of capital. The exodus which 
 took place after the potato-failure, has relieved the 
 country of a portion -of the redundant population, 
 but it is stfll too dense in many places. 
 
 Scotland made comparatively little or no advance 
 in A. for ages previous to the beginning of the 
 18th c. Donaldson, who published his Husbandry 
 Anatomised ten years before the Union, afford^ 
 a pretty accurate picture of the art as then prac- 
 tised. The farms were small, and divided into 
 outfield and infield land. On the former, which was 
 furthest from the homestead, the rotation consisted 
 of two years in grass, succeeded by two years iu oats. 
 On the infield land, barley, oats, and pease were 
 sown in succession, and the whole manure was com- 
 monly applied to the barley-crop. The yield of corn 
 was from three to four times the quantity of seed. 
 Pastures were of the poorest description, as no artifi- 
 cial grasses were sown. Little encouragement was 
 held out to rear cattle, for a heifer did not bring 
 more than twenty shillings in the market — scarcely 
 the price of two quarters of barley at that time. At 
 the Union, however, Scotland gained free trade 
 with her wealthier rival, from which flowed the 
 happiest consequences. Every branch of industry 
 shared in the new field opened up, and none more so 
 than A. A large trade soon arose iu sending the 
 lean cattle and sheep that were reared on the 
 mountainous wastes, as well as in the low country, 
 to be fattened on the pastures and green crops in the 
 south. A great rise in the prices of stock soon 
 followed, which not only encouraged improved 
 breeds, but enabled cultivators to devote a certain 
 portion of the arable-lands to the growth of artificial 
 grasses and turnips. Neither of these were grown pre- 
 vious to the Union ; but in little more than fifty years 
 
AGRIOULTUKE. 
 
 afterwards, one farmer in Iloxburg]is]iire ia said to 
 have had 100 acres of turnips in one year. .^ Towards 
 the end of the century, turnips and artificial grasses 
 formed the basis of improved A. in every county. 
 A great rise in the value of land took place. The 
 war-prices in the beginning of the present century 
 
 fave a further strmmus to the reclamation of land. 
 *he improvements, however, were not effected 
 without a great revolution in the state of the rural 
 population. Formerly, the farms were small, and 
 often labom-ed by the members of a single family. 
 A consolidation of farms took place, wMoh neces- 
 sitated a great change in the social condition of 
 employers and employed, producing often painful 
 contrasts. Of late years, the commercial prosperity 
 of the country has greatly helped to elevate the 
 rural population, and necessitated improvements in 
 cottage accommodation. 
 
 Scottish A. is distinguished for great economy in 
 labour, forming a contrast in this respect to that in 
 the chief corn districts of England. Few farms are 
 "to be seen in the richer districts without having a 
 fixed steam-engine for driving the barn and other 
 maohipery. Labour-saving machines have also been 
 freely introduced. With soil, climate, and situation, 
 the mode of cropping varies greatly over the country. 
 In the Lothians, w.e six-course shift is common : 
 namely, 1st, wheat ; 2d, beans or potatoes ; 3d, wheat ; 
 4ih, turnips ; StJi, barley or wheat ; &h, grass-seeds. 
 In certain situations, the potato-crop has lately been 
 still more extensively planted, occupying the place of 
 the bean or the turnip. On secondary farms, the five- 
 course rotation becomes more common : 1st, wheat, 
 or barley ; 2d, grass ; 3d, grass ; 4i7i, oats ; 5th, 
 turnips or potatoes. The larger proportion of the 
 surface of Scotland, however, is devoted to pasture 
 for sheep and cattle. The mountainous tracts are 
 generally unfit for cultivation. Little else has been 
 done in the way of improving them than digging a 
 few surface-drains, and improving the breeds of the 
 stock they feed. Sheep-farms vary ia extent from 
 1000 to 60,000 acres. A few of the best stock-farms 
 may siunmer and winter a sheep to the acre, but 
 most require three acres. The black-faced are reared 
 upon the most elevated and exposed groimd, while 
 the Cheviots thrive on those parts that are less so. 
 No other food is usually given in winter than what 
 is left on the fields in autumn. Cross-breeds between 
 the Cheviot and the Leicester are reared in the 
 lower ranges, where a supply of turnips may be had 
 to give to the ewes while suckling their offspring. 
 When the sheep are to be fattened, they are taken 
 to the arable districts. The opening of steam- 
 navigation, and lately, the system of railways, have 
 been of infinite benefit to Scottish A. in getting a 
 market for fat animals. 
 
 In North America, the same crops are raised as 
 in corresponding latitudes in Europe. The winters 
 in Canada and the United States are much more 
 severe than those of Western Europe, while ■ the 
 summers are quite as hot, and far more moist, 
 and hence arise considerable variations in the 
 practices of agriculture. In Canada and the 
 northern states, wheat is the staple article of export. 
 In aU the chief exporting districts, wheat and red 
 clover are grown as alternate crops. Betwixt 
 latitudes 42° and 39°, wheat is often grown alter- 
 nately with maize, after the land has been under 
 pasture for some years. Again, betwixt latitudes 
 39° and 35°, the climate is better suited for 
 maize than wheat, which becomes less productive. 
 The best pastoral regions are in south Ohio and 
 throughout Kentucky. Below latitude 35°, maize 
 is much less productive, and the climate becomes 
 suitable for cotton. This plant furnishes the 
 staple article of production from latitude 35° to 
 
 the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Eioe is the 
 most profitable crop in the southern states ; but its 
 culture is chiefly confined to the tidal swamps, 
 which can be fiooded by fresh water. The sugar- 
 cane is limited to the rich alluvial lands on the banks 
 of the Mississippi as far north as latitude 31°. 
 Tobacco is a principal crop in Virginia and some 
 other states. The West India Islands, surrounded 
 by the warm waters of the gulf, are free from the 
 cold north winds of the American contiaent. This 
 circumstance favours the growth of the cane, which 
 is so susceptible of injury from frosts. The rich 
 lands of these islands produce large crops of sugar. 
 Coffee is also grown to a considerable extent on 
 several of the Antilles. On the Pacific coast, the 
 climate is characterised by mild winters and dry 
 siumners, so that the methods of agriculture must 
 conform to those of the countries bordering on the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The son of South America appears to be much 
 more fertile than that of North America. In the 
 southern parts, the winters are comparatively mild, 
 when contrasted with those on the same latitudes in 
 the British possessions. The valley of the Bio de la 
 Plata is admirably suited for rearing sheep and 
 cattle, which are found in immense herds in the 
 interior. Brazil is densely wooded, shewing the 
 abundance of the rains, and the capabflities of the 
 country for the growth of the sugar-cane. In the 
 north, where the dry seasons are of longer duration, 
 there are inunense grassy plaias called savannahs, 
 covered with herds of wild-cattle. Though no cattle 
 were found on the continent when discovered by 
 Europeans, it has been asserted that more cattle 
 are now running wild in South America than the 
 whole domesticated cattle of Europe. 
 
 China possesses a climate having a great simi- 
 larity to that of the United States, east of the 
 Rocky Mountains. The winters are cold, and the 
 summers moist and hot. Bice forms the great 
 staple crop in the warmer regions of the south, 
 wherever the land can be irrigated. This plant is 
 also cultivated to a limited extent on dry lands, 
 along with millet and maize. The density of the 
 population in China, is an indication of the advanced 
 state of its A. The careful manner in which all the 
 refuse of the towns and villages is husbanded and 
 applied to the land, while weeds are not suffeiied 
 to grow among the crops, is the true secret of the 
 productive A. of the Chinese. 
 
 The condition of A. in Chjna shews what we 
 might expect from enhghtened poHcy in the promo- 
 tion of that of India. The monsoons which prevail 
 over Hindustan during summer cause a great luxuri- 
 ance of vegetation wmle they last ; but the extreme 
 droughts -Qiat precede and foUow them parch and 
 wither up the shallower-rooled plants. Over a large 
 part of India, irrigation is required to produce many 
 of the crops with certainty. In the tropical latitudes, 
 rice is the most abundant grain-yieldmg plant, and 
 forms the chief food of the people. The numerous 
 rivers of Northern India supply the means of irriga- 
 tion, and the production of food then becomes a 
 matter of comparative certainty. Where the winters 
 are cool, wheat and barley are grown at that season, 
 and rice, maize, millet, &c., in summer, jiist as we 
 find in the irrigated valleys of the south of Spain. 
 At the present time, the principal drawbacks to the 
 better cultivation of land are the deficiency in the 
 means of transporting the produce, and the tenure 
 by which the land is held. The immense quantities 
 of cotton and flax which are grown and literally lost 
 for want of a market, is a subject that is beginning 
 to attract attention, since our manufacturers are 
 suffering from the scarcity of raw material. 
 
 It would be out of place to give an outhne of the 
 
 89 
 
AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY— AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 
 
 A. of the other intertropical countries of the world, 
 which have contributed so little to the common 
 civilisation of mankind. Where rains are abundant, 
 the ease with which a subsistence can be got 
 from large herbaceous plants, and trees yielding 
 fruit at aU seasons of the year, has been justly 
 regarded as inimical to the progress of society. The 
 productiveness of the baiiana and the bread-fruit 
 tree, considering the smaU. amount of cultiva- 
 tion they require, is calculated to strike natives 
 of colder climates with astonishment. Captain Cook 
 eloquently remarks : ' AVioever has planted the 
 bread-fruit trees, has fulfUled his duty to his own 
 and succeeding generations as completely and amply 
 as an inhabitant of oiu rude clime who, throughout 
 his whole Hfe, has ploughed during the rigour of 
 winter, reaped in the heat of svunmer, and not only 
 provided his present household with bread, but pain- 
 fully saved some money for his children.' 
 
 In the southern hemisphere, the extent of sea 
 greatly predominates over the land. The vapours 
 which are raised over so vast an expanse of water 
 flow towards the equator, and are chiefly deposited 
 there in copious rains. They are not diverted by 
 the peninsulas of South America, South Africa, or 
 New Holland, as they are by the continents of 
 America and Asia. Comparatively sterile regions are 
 the result. Australia and the Cape of Good Hope 
 are sparingly suppHed with rains, so that their soil is 
 not very productive of grain. Cultivation languishes, 
 and the agriculturist devotes his attention to the 
 rearing of cattle and sheep. New Zealand, however, 
 possesses a chmate having considerable resemblance 
 to that of England, and is favourable for the produc- 
 tion of grass and grain. 
 
 Under the heads of Cultivated Plants, Dairy, 
 Domestic Animals, Drainage, Irrigation, Imple- 
 ments, Manures, Soil, Rotation of Crops, Lease, &c., 
 will be more particiilarly treated the systems and 
 rationale of farm-management pursued in the 
 British Islands. 
 
 AGRICUL'TURAL CHEMISTRY, that branch 
 of chemical science which treats of the composition 
 of soils and manures, and of the vegetable and 
 animal substances which it is the obj ect of agriculture 
 to produce. Instead of considering the subject by 
 ittelf, it will receive attention under the heads of 
 Drainage, Irrigation, Manures, Soils, &c. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, as at pre- 
 sent understood, is a comprehensive term, including 
 instruction in chemistry, geology, botany, zoology, 
 mechanics — embracing, in short, the science as well 
 as the practice of agriculture. However important 
 the branching off of education into this special 
 track, it is only of late years that adequate attention 
 has been paid to it. The first agricultural school 
 was founded by Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in Switzer- 
 land, in 1806. His pupils were taken from the 
 poorest class of peasantry, of whom he truly 
 observed, that having ' no other property than their 
 physical and mental faculties, they should be taught 
 how to use this capital to the best advantage,' by 
 a combination of ' discipline, study, and manual 
 labour.' No fewer than 3000 pupils were trained in 
 this school, which flemished for thirty years under 
 the able direction of WehrH. Since then, various 
 institutions of the same character have sprung up 
 on the continent. In France, there are several, 
 supported by the state — ^the principal being the one 
 at Grignon, to which an old royal palace with its 
 domain of 1185 acres has been given up. In Prussia, 
 there is scarcely a province that does not boast its 
 agricultural school and model farm ; and, indeed, 
 throughout Germany, as well as in Russia, we find 
 educational institutions supported by the state, in 
 86 
 
 all of which, with some slight differenee of detail, 
 agriculture is practically as well as theoretically 
 taught. 
 
 In England, there are as yet no state institutions 
 of this kind. In 1845, an Agricultural College was 
 established, by private enteiprise, at Cirencester, for 
 the education of both resident and non-resident 
 pupils— the former paying from £55 to £80 per 
 annum, the latter, £40, anil the course of instruction 
 extending over two years. A large farm is attached 
 to the school, which has acquired a high^ reputa- 
 tion, and is in every way prosperous. In Scotland, 
 special instruction in agriculture has taken the form 
 of lectures at universities, provincial associations, 
 &o., by which, as well as by the labours , of the 
 Highland Society, much valuable educational know- 
 ledge has been disseminated. Private agricultural 
 instruction is also given by farmers, who board and 
 educate students for a stipulated sum per annum. 
 Many of the counties in Scotland are exceedingly 
 well adapted for agricultural students, as the nature 
 of the ground permits of both sheep and ordinary 
 farming being practised together. 
 
 But it is in Ireland, where peculiar circumstances 
 rendered it eminently expedient, that the most syste- 
 matic and successful efforts have been made. For 
 several years past, the Commissioners of National 
 Education have judiciously paid special attention to 
 agriculture. Altogether, Ireland has 166 farm- 
 schools, with land attached of very various extent, 
 ranging from 2 to 180 acres. These schools may 
 be divided into four classes, and present a gradual 
 ascent, from small to great : 1st, There are 76 
 Workhouse National Agricultural Schools. 2d, 48 
 Ordinary National Agricultural Schools, where, by a 
 sHght addition to the ordinary salary of a national 
 schoolmaster, the teachers are encouraged to culti- 
 vate school-gardens and small holdings, and thus to 
 give daily practical lessons to the children under 
 their care. 3d, There are 37 Model Agricultural 
 Schools in various parts of Ireland; 18 of them 
 under local management, 19 under the exclusive 
 management of the Board. These, whether their 
 scale of culture be small or extensive, present 
 to the inferior schools standards of excellence and 
 imitation, linking the lowest of the agricultural 
 estabhshments — namely, the cotter farm attached 
 to the Ordinary Agricultural School with, 4tJi, 
 the highest establishment of the kind, the Central 
 Model Farm at Glasnevin, containing 180 acres, 
 and cultivated by from 80 to 100 pupils, chosen 
 for their merit from aU the minor agricultural 
 schools throughout Ireland. With regard to these 
 minor schools, which are annually visited by two 
 inspectors, the reports are, with very few exceptions, 
 highly favourable, both as to the success of 
 the establishments themselves, and their influence 
 on the surrounding population. An Irish rector 
 gives it as his opinion that they tend to make 
 districts ' more orderly and quiet, to diminish 
 drunkenness, and to keep down agrarian disturb- 
 ances.' Another good authority states that their 
 example has introduced ' rotation of crops,' and 
 encouraged 'attention to winter-feeding of stock, 
 and to the collection and preservation of manure.' 
 Glasnevin Training Farm was established by the 
 Commissioners of National Education in 1838, and 
 considerably enlarged in 1849. Its professed design 
 is to supply young men with instruction in the 
 science and practice of agriculture. Two classes 
 are admitted to its benefits ; the first including two 
 divisions, both of which are gratuitously boarded, 
 lodged, and educated. The first division consists of 
 prospective laud-stewards or farmers, drafted, as we 
 have seen, from minor institutions, undergoing an 
 entrance-examination, and receiving a, two-years' 
 
AGRIOULTUEAL SOCIETIES. 
 
 training ; the second, of literary teachers, who wish 
 to qualify themselves for conducting agricultural 
 schools, and whose period of training extends to one 
 year only. The second class is composed of young 
 men who hoard and lodge, at their own expense, in 
 the immediate neighboumood, and who axe admitted 
 on the payment of a two-guinea entrance-fee, which 
 is expended in the purchase of agricultural books 
 for the library. For both of these classes ahke, 
 labour and study systematically alternate, the entire 
 number of pupUs being formed into two divisions, 
 the one devoting the morning of one day to the 
 f ai-m, the other to the school-room, and vice versA on 
 the morrow, both working together on the land 
 in the afternoon, and windmg up the day with two 
 hours of study. Obedience, punctuality, and habits of 
 cleanliness and order are strictly insisted upon. Vari- 
 ous rotations of crops are exemplified upon separate 
 divisions of the farm, and the system of house-feeding 
 cattle is carried on both summer and winter. The 
 training institution situated on the farm comprises, in 
 addition to dormitories, school and lecture room, &c., 
 a museum, library, and laboratory. The chief super- 
 vision of the whole establishment devolves upon 
 the superintendent, Thomas Kirkpatrick, M.D. ; and 
 the entire labours of the farm, including draining 
 operations, are performed by the ^upUa, under 
 the direction of a resident agriculturist. Practical 
 horticulture is also taught, and a good general educa- 
 tion imparted by two competent literary instructors. 
 Two sessional courses of lectures are annually 
 dehvered on animal and vegetable physiology, 
 chemistry, geology, botany, and practical agriculture. 
 Between January 1847 and December 1855, no 
 fewer than 270 young men left the Albert Institution 
 at Glasneviu, to carry out its principles either on 
 farms of their ovm, or in the still more responsible 
 post of land-stewards or of teachers, to impart 
 them to hundreds. The Templemoyle Agricultural 
 Seminary, established in the county of Londonderry 
 30 years ago, and placed, within the last five years, 
 in connection with the national system of education, 
 is also worthy of special notice, as having sent forth 
 fully 1000 well-trained agriculturists. From what 
 has been stated, it wiU be evident that the benefits 
 of the system are obvious, and it is gratifying to add 
 that their annual cost is comparatively small; the 
 actual current expenses of aU the agricultural 
 schools throughout Ireland amounting to somewhat 
 less than £8000 a year, while the number of pupils 
 who attend them is estimated at 3000. It is therefore 
 to be hoped that, notwithstanding an outcry lately 
 raised against these schools on the score of thfeir 
 expensiveness, the commissioners will seek rather 
 to extend than retrench their successful labours 
 in the cause of A. E. 
 
 . AGRICTJLTITEAL SOCIETIES, associations 
 for the purpose of promoting the science and practice 
 of agriculture. Such societies were established in 
 the north of Italy in the bemming of the last cen- 
 tury. As early as 1723, a 'Society of Improvers in 
 the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland' was 
 instituted. This had a short existence; but the 
 necessity of such an association was felt, and another 
 arose in 1755. This also did not succeed well; 
 however, in 1783 a number of gentlemen met in 
 Edinburgh and founded one destined for permanency, 
 the well-known ' Highland Sociely.' The first annual 
 meeting of this body was held in 1784, and it was 
 incorporated by royal charter in 1787. Originally 
 designed for the general improvement of the High- 
 lancUi, it gradually extended the sphere of its 
 operations over the whole of Scotland, ajid confined 
 its efforts more and more to the advancement of 
 agriculture. Its title is now the ' Highland and 
 Agricultural Society of Scotland." Its eariiest efforts 
 
 were aided by a grant of £3000 out of the moneys 
 paid for the estates of the noblemen and gentle- 
 men who were attainted in consequence of their 
 accession to the rebellion of 1745. The funds 
 required to defray the expense of the charter, how- 
 ever, were raised by subscription, and the members 
 then were only about 150. In 1799 the Society 
 began to publish its Transactions or prize essays. 
 At present (1859) its members number nearly 3700. 
 The ordinary subscription is £1, 3s. 6d. annually, 
 which may be redeemed by one payment of £12, 12«. 
 Tenant-farmers are admitted on a subscription of 10«. 
 annually, or £5, 5s. for life. The more important 
 objects aimed at by the Society are — 
 
 1. Agricultural meetings, and general shows of 
 stock, implements, and dairy produce, held in the 
 principal towns of Scotland. 
 
 2. Encouraging a system of district shows, for the 
 improvement of breeds of stock most suitable to the 
 different parts of the country. 
 
 3. The encouragement and promotion of a proper 
 system of agricultural education, by means of powers 
 conferred by a supplementary royal charter, author- 
 ising 'the Council of the Highland and A. Society on 
 Education' to prescribe a curriculum of study, and to 
 grant diplomas to students of agriculture who shaU 
 pass the requisite examination. 
 
 4. The advancement of the veterinary art, by con- 
 ferring the Society's diploma on students who have 
 passed through a regidated curriculum in the Edin- 
 burgh Veterinary College, and who are found by a 
 rigid examination quahfied to practise. A second 
 cdlege, started by Mr Gamgee, has been sanctioned 
 by the Highland Society. 
 
 5. The appointment of a chemist, for the puiyose 
 of analysing soUs, manures, &c., to members, and for 
 promoting the application of science to agriculture. 
 
 6. The establishment of an agricultural Museum, 
 illustrative of the vegetable products of the country. 
 
 7. Monthly meetings during the vrinter session for 
 the discussion of a,gricultural subjects. 
 
 8. The periodical pubhcation of reports and prize- 
 essays on all branches of agriculture and arboricul- 
 ture, as well as the proceedings of the laboratory. 
 
 The general shows of stock, &c., are held once 
 every year, at Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, or 
 some other principal town, and are attended by vast 
 numbers of persons. The business of the society is 
 conducted by a secretary at an office in Edinburgh. 
 
 The writings of Arthur Young directed attention 
 to the agricultufal condition of England, shortly 
 after the middle of the last century. In 1793 the 
 ' Board of Agriculture ' was incorporated. This 
 was a private association, but being supported by 
 parhamentary grants, it so far partook of the nature 
 of a public institution. Its ' surveys' of the different 
 counties collected and diffnsed an immense amoimt 
 of information of the most valuable kind. It lat- 
 terly encouraged experiments and improvements of 
 aU kinds in agrioultiure, but was dissolved in 1816. 
 Various societies have sprung up since then in 
 different parts of England ; of tiiese, the ' Smithfield 
 Cattle Club,' 'The Bath and West of England 
 Society,' and the 'Yorkshire A. Society,' may be 
 meiitioned as the most influential. The growth and 
 vigour of the national society, ' The Koyal A. 
 Society of England,' has been beyond all precedent. 
 It was estabhshed in 'May 1838, and then consisted 
 of 466 members, but in 1858 the members amounted 
 to upwards of 10,000. The objects which it pursues 
 are almost identical with those of the Highland 
 and A. Society of Scotland. Ordinary members 
 pay £1 annually, or £10 for life. The Journal, 
 containing interesting and original reports on A 
 subjects, is sent free to all the members. Ireland 
 ^0 boasts of its 'Eoyal A. Improvement Society.' 
 
 87 
 
AGEIGENTUM— AGRIPPA. 
 
 It waa formed in 1844, and has greatly assisted 
 in advancing the agriculture of the country, especi- 
 ally by introducing improved breeds of cattle.^ — 
 Most of the countries of continental Europe have 
 followed the example of Great Britain in the form- 
 ation of A. Associations of various kiads. 
 
 In the free states of America, where the land is 
 mostly owned by those, who farm it, A. S. have 
 spnmg up in great numbers. Every state has its 
 central Society, which in its turn fosters a number 
 of local associations. Indeed, in all the chief 
 grain-producing districts, each county boasts of 
 its own society. These being all partly supported 
 by state money, useful information is collected, 
 published, and sold at a cheap rate in Reports. 
 Canada follows in the wake of her enterprising 
 neighbours, and supports by grants of money a 
 provincial show in each province, while the county 
 societies are muuerous, and supply materials for the 
 Reports of the Boards of Agriculture at Toronto and 
 Montreal. In Canada and the United States) the 
 A. S. are of a highly popular character. Prizes are 
 given, not only for animals, implements, and dairy 
 produce, but also for fruits. Being more of a general 
 nature, combining agriculture, horticulture, and 
 domestic economy, such exhibitions are frequented 
 by all classes. They are usually denominated ' fairs,' 
 though partaking httle of the character and appear- 
 ance of what is understood by n. 'fair' in Britain. 
 The dififusion of education among the farmers of the 
 free states has made them eager readers of A. 
 writings, and the numerous societies soon diffuse a 
 knowledge of improved stock, implements, and seeds, 
 over their wide territories. 
 
 AGRIGB'NTUM (Gr. Alcragas), the modern 
 Girgenti, a town on the south coast of Sicily, in 
 lat. 37° 17' N., and long. 13° 28' E., founded by 
 a colony from Gela (582 B.C.), and, in the earlier 
 ages, one of the most important places in the 
 island. In its paliny days, it is said to have 
 contained 200,000 inhabitants. After being at first 
 free, and then subject to tyrants, it waa demolished 
 by the Carthaginians (405 B. c.) ; but very soon rose 
 again. In the course of the Punic wars, it was 
 compeUed to submit to the Romans. Prom 825 to 
 1086 A. D., it was in the possession of the Saracens, 
 from whom it was conquered by Count Roger 
 Guiscard. The modem city contains about 15,000 
 inhabitants, and exhibits numerous and splendid 
 ruins, which, ghttering in the brilhant light of a 
 southern sky, afford inexhaustible materials for 
 pictorial representation. Among the best preserved 
 of these remains of antiquity is the Temple of Concord, 
 of which only the roof and part of the front are 
 wanting. The most extensive of the temples was 
 that of Jupiter, 340 feet long, 120 feet high, and 
 160 feet wide, which, at the time of its destruction, 
 appears not to have been finished. Only the base- 
 ment and some fragments remain. Considerable 
 ruins of the temples of Juno Lucina, of Hercules, 
 and j^sculapius, are stUl found. The trade of the 
 modern city is inconsiderable. Some com, fruit, oil, 
 &c., is exported, but the harbour is Httle frequented. 
 
 A'CRIMONY {Agrimonia), a genus of plants of 
 the natural oidei Sosacew (q. v.), sub-order PoiewiiKetB. 
 The calyx is five-cleft, without bracts ; the hardened 
 tube at length invests two carpels, and is covered 
 with hooked bristles. — The Common Agbhhony {A. 
 Eupatoria) is a native of Britain and other parts of 
 Europe, growing in borders of fields, on waysides, 
 &c. It has an upright habit, attains a height of' 
 two feet or more, and haa interruptedly pinnate 
 leavea, with the leaflets serrate and downy beneath. 
 The flowers are small and yellow, in close racemes, 
 The whole plant has a pleasant, slightly aromatic 
 
 smell, and is bitter and styptic. A decoction of it 
 is used as a gargle ; the dried leaves form a kind 
 of herb tea; and the root has some celebrity as a 
 
 vermifuge. — Very similar to this is A. suaveohns, a 
 native of Virginia, Carohna, &c. It has a very 
 agreeable fragrance. 
 
 AGRI'PPA, CoBNBLius HEMiy, a reniarkable 
 character of the 16th c, diatinguished aa writer, 
 philosopher, and phyaician, who united great abUity 
 and extensive acquirements with quackery, was 
 bom of a noble fanuly at Cologne, 1486. He led an 
 adventurous and unsettled life, quite in the spirit 
 of his times. As early as 1509, he was appointed 
 teacher of theology at Ddle, in Eranche Comtg, and 
 attracted great attention by his lectures ; but 
 having by his bitter satires on the monks drawn 
 upon himself the hatred of that body, he was accused 
 of heresy, and obliged to leave Ddle. He next 
 taught theology for some time in Cologne, occupying 
 himself at the same time with alchemy, and then 
 went to Italy, where he took mflitary service under 
 Maximilian I., and was knighted. He was after- 
 wards made Doctor of Laws and of Medicine, and 
 gave lectures at Pavia, until, burdened with debt, 
 he fled to Casale. After a time, he was appointed 
 Syndic of Metz; but in 1520, he was again in 
 Cologne, having excited the hostility of the inquisi- 
 tion and of the monks by his defence of a witch. 
 His old enemies, the monks, persecuted him stUl in 
 Cologne, so that he went to Ereiburg in Switzerland, 
 where he began to practise as a physician. In 1524, 
 he went again to Metz, and there he gained such 
 a reputation that the mother of Francis I. chose him 
 as her physician. As he declined to prophesy the 
 issue of the campaign that Prancis I. undertook in 
 1525 in Italy, he lost his post, and went to Holland. 
 Here he wrote his celebrated book. Be Incertitudine 
 et Vanilate ScierUiarum (Colog. 1527), a bitiog satire 
 on the sciences as they then existed. An accusation 
 against him having been brought before Charles V., 
 on account of this book, he again became a fugitive, 
 and repaired to Lyon. He there found the hatred 
 he had early excited in Prance not yet extinguished, 
 and was imprisoned ; but being hberated, through 
 the exertions of his friends, he retired to Grenoble, 
 where he died (1535). A. was a clear-headed man, 
 and had the merit of successfully combating many 
 of the prejudices of his age. His book, J)e Occulta 
 PMlosophia, which contains the most systematic 
 account of the Cabbala (q. v.), stands in direct 
 contradiction with the work above mentioned. The 
 most complete collection of his writings appeared at 
 Lyon, in two vols, without date (about 1550). 
 
 AGEIPPA Hebod, I, son of Aristobulus and 
 
AGRIPPA— AGTJADO. 
 
 Berenice, and grandson of Herod the Great, waa 
 educated at Home. He lived there in a very- 
 extravagant style, giving splendid entertainments, 
 especially to tiae princes of the imperial family, 
 and scattering his money lavishly in gifts to the 
 freedmen of the emperor, imtil his dehta rendered 
 it unsafe for Viim to remain longer in the city. He 
 then took refuge in Idumea. From this period almost 
 to the death of Tiberius, he suffered a variety of 
 misfortunes, but having formed a friendship with 
 Caligula, the latter, on his accession to the throne, 
 gave him the tetrarchies of Abilene, .Batanasa, 
 JTrachonitis, and Auranitis. After the banishment 
 of Herod Antipas, he received his tetraichy also 
 • — namely, Galilee and Perea. Claudius, whom 
 A. helped to secure the possession of the empire, 
 added to his dominions Judaea and Samaria, and he 
 was thus the ruler of a more extensive territory 
 than even Herod the Great had been. His govern- 
 ment was mild towards the Jews, with whom 
 he was remarkably popular ; but he severely 
 persecuted the Christians. He caused James, the 
 brother of John, and the head of the Church at 
 Jerusalem, to be beheaded, and Peter to be thrown 
 into prison. He died of a peculiarly loathsome 
 disease at Csesarea, in Palestine, whUe celebrating 
 games in honour of the emperor, in the 55th year 
 of his age, and the 44th of the Christian era. The 
 account given of this in the Acts of the Apostles, 
 substantially agrees with that of Josephus. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Herod, II., son of Agrippa I., wag 
 at Rome when his father died, and only IV years of 
 age. Claudius, therefore, resolved to detain him for 
 some time, and in the meanwhile re-transformed 
 the kingdom into a Roman province, but presented 
 him with the little territory of Chaleis when his 
 uncle Herod, who was its ruler, died. Ii> 53 A. D., 
 he left Rome, and received from the emperor nearly 
 the whole of his paternal possessions, which were 
 subsequently enlarged by Xero. Like his father, 
 A. was fond of fine buildings, a taste whioh he 
 probably acquired by his long sojourn at Rome. 
 He spent great sums in adorning Jerusalem, 
 Berytua, and other cities ; but he was not prudent 
 in the distribution of his favours, or just in his 
 treatment of the high-priests, so that he failed to 
 secure the good-will of the Jewa. He did all in 
 his power, however, to dissuade them from rebeUing 
 against the Romans ; but when he found his advices 
 and warnings neglected, he abandoned his country- 
 men, and joined the imperial troops. When Jeru- 
 salem was taken, he went with his sister to live at 
 Rome, where he was made prastor, and where he died 
 in the 70th year of his age — the last of the Heroda. 
 It was before bim Paul made his memorable defence. 
 
 AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsaotus (63— 12 b.c), 
 a Roman, who, though not of high birth, rose to an 
 exalted position through his own talents. He first 
 espoused MaroeUa, the niece, and then Julia, the 
 daughter of Ootaviuja. He was eminent both in war 
 andm peace ; and as a general, counsellor, and friend 
 of the emperor, did good service to him and to the 
 Roman state. As a general, he laid the foundation 
 for the sole dominion of Octavius, and conamanded 
 his fleet in the battie of Actium (31 E. c). He was 
 generous, upright, and a friend to the arts ; Rome 
 owed to him the restoration and construction of 
 several aqueducts, and of the Pantheon, besides 
 other public works of ornament and utility. 
 
 AGRIPPI'lirA.— I. The daughter of M. Vipsanius 
 Agrippa, by his wife Julia, was one of the most 
 heroic arid virtuous women of, antiquity. She 
 was married to Cfesar Gennanicua (see Geemani- 
 ons), whom she accompanied in aU his campaigns. 
 She openly accused Tiberius before the senate 
 
 of having hired the murderers of her husband; 
 and the tyrant, who hated her for her virtues, and 
 the esteem in which she waa held by the people, 
 banished her to the island of Pandataria, near 
 Naples, where she voluntarily died of hunger 
 (33 A.D.). The antiquarian museum at Dresden 
 possesses four excellent busts of her. — II. A very 
 diflferent character waa Agkippina, the daughter of 
 the last mentioned, one of the moat detestable 
 women that have lived. In her second widowhood, 
 she induced the Emperor Claudius, her own uncle, 
 to marry her, and espoused his daughter, though 
 already betrothed to another, to her son Nero. In 
 order to bring the latter to the throne, she ruined 
 many rich and noble Romans, excluded Britannicus, 
 the son of Claudius by Messalina, and finally 
 poisoned the emperor, her husband. She then 
 endeavoured to govern the empire through her son 
 Nero, who was chosen emperor ; but her ascendency 
 proving intolerable, Nero caused her to be put to 
 death (60 A.D.). She enlarged and adorned her 
 native city, Cologne, which received from her the 
 name of Colonia Agrippina. 
 
 AGTELBK, Cavern of (in Hungarian, Baradlo, 
 i. e., a suffocating place), one of the largest and most 
 remarkable stalactitic caverns of Europe, is situated 
 near the village of Agtelek, in the county of Gomor, 
 not far from the road from Pesth to Kaschau. It 
 opens at the foot of a mountain with an entrance 
 scarcely 34 feet high by 5 feet wide. It consiata of 
 a labyrinth of caverna communicating with one 
 another, many of which it is difficult, and even 
 dangerous, to explore, when the streams that flow 
 through them are high. Numerous stalactitic struc- 
 tures occur in all the caverns, which, from their 
 singular shapes, have given rise to the various names 
 of ' the Great Churdi,' ' the Mosaic Altar,' ' the 
 Image of the Virgin,' &c. The largest and most 
 imposing of those oa,vems, situated about 200 paces 
 from the entrance, is called the Mower- Garden. It 
 is 96 feet high, 90 feet wide, and runs nearly 900 
 feet in a straight line. 
 
 AGUADO, AxBXAiTOEE Mama, Marquis de Las 
 Marismas del GuadaJquiver, one of the wealthiest 
 bankers of modem times, waa born at Seville, 1784, 
 and died 14th April 1842. He was descended from 
 a Jewish family, and in his youth bore arms as a 
 soldier. Diuing the Spanish war of independence, 
 he fought with distinction on the side of Joseph, 
 rose in the French army to the rank of colonel, and 
 acted as aide-de-camp to Marshal Soult, but retired 
 in 1815, and began a commission business at Paris. 
 In this he soon realised such wealth as enabled hiTn 
 to foimd a bank. . Good-fortune, energy, and bold- 
 ness, with a singular talent for concerting schemes, 
 advanced him in a short time to be one of the first 
 bankers in Paris. He also obtained a political repu- 
 tation by negotiating the Spanish loans of 1823, 1828, 
 1830, and 1831. In these operations, the Spanish 
 government frequently iavested him with unlimited 
 powers, which he dexterously employed to save his 
 country from national bankruptcy. Ferdinand VII. 
 conferred on him the title of Marquis de Las 
 Marismas del Guadalquiver. > His services were also 
 recompensed by privileges in mining and in execut- 
 ing public undertakings; AU the Spanish bonds 
 issuing from his house received the name of Aguadoa. 
 It was through A. that the Greek loan of 1834 was 
 effected. He was naturalised in France in 1828, 
 and at his death left a fortune of above 60 million 
 francs, of which he had invested part in landed pro- 
 perty ;• the castie of Chateau-Margaux, celebrated 
 for its wine, belonged to him. His distinguished 
 coUeotion of pictures gave occasion to Gavard for 
 the publication of the OalerieA. (Paris, 1837—1842). 
 
 89 
 
AGITAS CALIENTES— A-HTTLL. 
 
 A'GUAS OALIE'STTES, a, well-buat town in 
 Mexico, ia the province of Zacatecas. It is situated 
 in N". lat. 21° 53', and "W. long. 101° 45', in a plain 
 6000 feet above the sea-level, and on a stream 
 of the same name, which is tributary to the Eio 
 Grande de Santiago. It contains a population of 
 20,000; and besides the cultivation of fields and 
 gardens, the manufacture of woollen cloth is very- 
 considerable, and is carried on on the factory system. 
 The town is favourably situated for trade, as the 
 great road from Mexico to Sonora and Durango is 
 here crossed by that from San Louis Potosi to 
 Guadalaxara. The environs abound in hot springs, 
 from which the town takes its name. 
 
 A'GTJE {Febris intermittens) is the conunon name 
 for an intermitting fever, accompanied by paroxysms 
 or fits. Each fit ia composed of three stages ; the 
 cold, the hot, and the sweating stage. Before 
 a fit, the patient has a sensation of debihty and dis- 
 tress about the epigastrium; feels weak and disin- 
 clined for exertion ; the surface of his body becomes 
 cold, and the bloodless skin shrivels up into the con- 
 dition termed goose-skin {cutis anserina). A cold 
 sensation creeps up the back, and spreads over the 
 body ; the patient shivers, Ms teeth chatter, his knees 
 knock together; his face, lips, ears, and naOs turn 
 blue ; he has pains in his head, back, and loins. 
 This condition is succeeded by flushes of heat, the 
 coldness gives place to warmth, and the surface 
 regains its natural appearance. The warmth con- 
 tinues to increase, the face becomes red and turgid, 
 the head aches, the breathing is deep and oppressed, 
 the pulse full and strong. The third stage now 
 comes on; the skin becomes soft and moist, the 
 pulse resumes its natural force and frequency, and 
 a copious sweat breaks from the whole body. 
 
 These paroxysms recur at regular intervals. The 
 interval between them is called 'an intermission.' 
 When they occur every day, the patient has quo- 
 tidian A. ; every second day, tertian ; and when 
 they are absent for two days, quartan. All ages 
 are liable to this disease ; and a case is on record 
 of a pregnant woman having a tertian A which 
 attacked her of course every other day; but on 
 the alternate days, when she was well, she felt that 
 the child also had A., although the paroxysms did 
 not coincide with her own. 
 
 The exciting causes of this disease are invisible 
 effluvia from the surface of the earth (marsh mias- 
 mata). A certain degree of temperature seems 
 necessary — higher than 60° Fahrenheit — for the 
 production of the poison. It does not exist within 
 the Arctic Circle, nor does it appear in the cold 
 seasons of temperate climates, and seldom beyond 
 the 56° of N. lat. (Watson). It also requires moist- 
 ure. In England, A. is almost exclusively confined 
 to the eastern coast ; and the extension of drainage 
 has rendered agues far more rare than before. James 
 I. and Oliver Cromwell died of A. contracted in 
 London. The Pontttie Marshes to the S. of Rome 
 have long been notorious as a source of aguish fevers. 
 Peat bog, or moss, is not productive of malaria, as is 
 seen in parts of Ireland and Scotland. Neither is 
 A. ever seen among the inhabitants of the Dismal 
 Swamp — a moist tract of 150,000 acres on the fron- 
 tiers of Virginia and North Carolina in North 
 America. — The treatment of aguish fever consists 
 generally in calomel given in purgative doses, followed 
 by preparations of cinchona-bark, and in applying, 
 during the paroxysm, external warmth to the body. 
 
 AGTJB'SSBATJ, Henbi Fkan-90is d', a distin- 
 guished lawyer and chancellor of France, and pro- 
 nounced by Voltaire to have been the most learned 
 magistrate that France ever possessed, was born at 
 Limoge, 1668 A. P. He received his earliest education 
 
 90 
 
 from his father ; and afterwards devoted himself to 
 the study of law, became avocat-g&n&ral at Paris in 
 1690, and at the age of thirty-two, jprocureur-gSnSral 
 of the parliament. In this office, he effected many 
 improvements in the laws and in the administration 
 of justice. He displayed great benevolence during a 
 famine which occurred in the winter of 1709, apply- 
 ing all the means in his power for the alleviation of 
 the calamity. As a steady defender of the rights of 
 the people, and of the GaUican Church, he success- 
 fully opposed the decrees of Louis XIV. and the 
 Chancellor Voisia in favour of the papal bull Uni- 
 genitus (q. v.). During the government of the Duke 
 of Orleans, he became chancellor ; but in the follow- 
 ing year fell into disgrace by opposing Law's system 
 of finance, and retired to his coimtry-seat at Fresnes. 
 AVhen, however, the ruin induced by Law's system 
 produced a general outcry of dissatisfaction, A. was 
 reinstated, in order to appease the people. But hia 
 well-meant efforts could not retrieve the desperate 
 state of affairs. A. was afterwards exiled a second 
 time, in consequence of his opposing Cardinal 
 Dubois; and though he (in 1727) obtained from 
 Cardinal Fleury permission to return, yet he did not 
 again resume the office of chancellor till 1737. He 
 resigned in 1750, and died, Feb. 9, 1751. His works, 
 consisting of pl^^dings and speeches at the openings 
 of the parhament, occupy thirteen volumes (Paris, 
 1759—1789. Newest edition, Paris, 1819). 
 
 AGTJ'LHAS, CAPE, (meaning Needles), the most 
 southern point of Africa, Hes about 100 miles E.S.E. , 
 of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34° 61' S., long. 
 19° 55' E. In 1849, a hght-house was erected on it, 
 at an elevation of 52 feet above high-water. The 
 A. Bank extends along the whole southern coast of 
 Africa. It is 560 miles in length, and, opposite the 
 Cape of Good Hope, as many as 200 in breadth. 
 
 A'HAB, the son and successor of Omri, was king 
 of Israel from 918 to 897 B.C. He married Jezebel, 
 the daughter of Ethbaal, iing of Sidon ; through 
 whose injurious influence the Phoenician worship of 
 Baal was introduced, the king himself seduced to 
 idolatry, and the priests and prophets of Jehovah 
 cruelly persecuted. Yet the prophets retained their 
 influence over the people ; and Elijah dared openly 
 to attack the priests of Baal, and reprove the 
 wickedness of the king with the most severe threat- 
 enings of punishment. A. prosecuted three wars, 
 with various success, against Benhadad, king of 
 Syria ; but in the last campaign he was killed by an 
 arrow. His whole family was afterwards extirpated 
 under King Jehu. 
 
 AHASTJE'EUS is the name, or rather, perhaps, 
 the title, by which several kings of Media and 
 Persia are mentioned in Scripture. The best known 
 of these is Esther's husband (see Esthee), who is 
 probably the same as the Persian kiag Xerxes ; the 
 Hebrew form of his name (Aohaschverosoh) pointing 
 to the old Persian form of the name Xerxes 
 (EChschytoschan). 
 
 A-HULL, a maritime term, used to denote the 
 position of a ship when all her sails are furled, and 
 her helm lashed on the lee-side ; in such a position, 
 she Hes nearly with her side to the wind, but vrith the 
 head turned a little towards the direction of the wind. 
 
 It may be convenient to mention in this place 
 that the phraseology adopted by British naval 
 officers and seamen, whether belonging to the royal 
 navy or to the mercantile marine, comprises a large 
 number of words formed on a principle similar to 
 that of ahead, with the vowel a (a corruption of the 
 Anglo-Saxon preposition on, meaning on, in, at) pre- 
 fixed to a noun. Such are the foUowing: Abach, 
 abaft, aboard, abreast, a-cochbill, adrift, afloat, afore, 
 aground, ahead, a-hull, a-lee, aloft, aloof, amain, 
 
AHMEDABAD— AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA. 
 
 amidships, an-end, apeak, ashore, astern, atrip, avast, 
 a-weather, a-weigh. Such of these tei-ma as seem 
 to require it, will be found briefly explamed under 
 their proper headings. 
 
 AHMEDABA'D, or more properly AHMADA- 
 BAD, the chief town in the district of the same 
 name, in the Presidency of Bombay, is situated on 
 the left bank of the Sabennutty, which flows nearly 
 due south into the Gulf of Cambay. It was bmlt 
 in the year 1412, by Ahmed or Ahmad Shah, and 
 underwent aU the vicissitudes of government incident 
 to the cities of Hindustan, tiU the year 1818, when 
 it finally came under the power of the British. It 
 was formerly one of the largest and most magni- 
 ficent capitals in the East— in the opinion of a 
 native wiiter, 'the handsomest city in Hindustan; 
 perhaps in the world.' Its architectural rehcs are 
 gorgeous, even in the midst of decay. The Jumna 
 or Juma'ah Masjid, or Great Mosque, rises from 
 the centre of the city, and is adorned by two 
 superbly decorated minarets, ' each of which con- 
 tains a circular flight of steps, leading to a gallery 
 near the summit. Its domes are supported by 
 lofty columns, regularly disposed; the concave of 
 these cupolas is richly ornamented with mosaic 
 and fret-work. The pavement is of the finest 
 marble.' The mosque of Sujaat Khan is extremely 
 elegant. There is likewise an ivory mosque, which 
 has obtained that name from the circumstance, that 
 although built of white marble, it is ' curiously lined 
 with ivory, and inlaid with a profusion of gems, 
 to imitate natural flowers, bordered by a silver 
 foHage on mother-of-pearl.' There are also the Fire 
 Temple and the Tower of Silence of the Parsis. A. 
 once abounded in gardens, aqueducts, reservoirs, 
 &c. ; but these, especially the gardens, are now sadly 
 defaced and injured. Its prosperity has been almost 
 wholly destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, 
 although at one time it was famous for its manu- 
 facture of rich fabrics of silk and cotton, articles of 
 gold, silver, steel, and enamel. ' It employed many 
 artists in portrait-paiating and miniatures,' and had 
 extensive trade in indigo, cotton, and opium. The 
 old city- walls, bmlt in 1485, which had in the course 
 of ages, and through the assaults of enemies, become 
 very dilapidated, were repaired in 1834 at an expense 
 of 230,000 rupees, and water conveyed from the river 
 throu^ the city by means of pipes. It is distant 
 from Bombay 290 miles north ; in lat. 23° N., long. 
 72° 36'. Pop. 130,000. 
 
 AHMEDlSrU'GGUE, or AHMADNUGGUE, an 
 important town in the Presidency of Bombay. It 
 was founded in 1494 by Ahmad Nizam Shah. 
 During the reign of his son, Boorhan Nizam Shah, 
 it reached a high degree of prosperity ; but after 
 his death, it witnessed an incessant series of wars, 
 confusions, and murders. In 1797, it fell iato the 
 hands of the Mahrattas; and in 1803 was sur- 
 rendered, after a trivial resistance of two days, to 
 General WeUesley. It was, however, shortly after 
 restored to the Peishwa; but in 1817, the fort 
 was again occupied by the British. The town has 
 inci;eased rapidly since it came under British pro- 
 tection and rule. It possesses a most singular 
 defence, in addition to its wall ; this consists of an 
 'immense prickly-pear hedge about 20 feet high, 
 which is so fuU of sap that no flre wiU kindle it, and 
 so vigorous that it is almost impossible to force one's 
 way through it.' A. contains an English church, a 
 dkurmsalah (or place of entertainment for travellers) 
 capable of holi&ig 250 persons. It also possesses a 
 good supply of water by means of aqueducts. It is 
 distant from Bombay 122 miles east, ia lat. 19° 6', 
 long. 74° 46'. There are several places of the same 
 name in Hindustan, 
 
 A'HRIMAN (in the Zend, aAro mainyua, i. e., 
 the malignant, destroying spirit) is, according to the 
 dualistic doctrine of Zoroaster, the personification 
 of malignity, the original source of all moral and 
 physical evil, the chief of the devils and malignant 
 spirits, the king of darkness and of death, and 
 consequently the eternal enemy and opponent of 
 Ormuzd and of his kiagdom of light. See 
 
 ZoROASTEli, 
 
 AI'DE-DE-CAMP, an officer who may be re- 
 garded as a. kind of superior confidential attendant 
 upon a general in active service. The A. is the 
 organ of the general. He carries all orders on the 
 field of battle : these he is to deliver in the plainest 
 terms, so as to be distinctly understood ; and when 
 so understood, the orders are to be as imphoitly 
 obeyed as if the general himself were present and 
 speaking. As an example of the importance of this 
 matter, may be adduced the brilliant but disastrous 
 hght-cavalry charge at Balaklava in the autumn of 
 1854. Lord Eaglan sent a message, partly verbal 
 and partly written, to the Earl of Lucan, concerning 
 a particular piece of strategy at a certain time and 
 place ; the message was misconceived, and the Earl 
 of Cardigan was directed to make a niilitary move- 
 ment, perfectly hopeless in its character, resulting 
 in a very serious cavalry loss; although the inci- 
 dent presented a fine display of heroism united 
 with discipline. An A. also acts as secretary to 
 the general, and assists him in his correspondence. 
 He aids likewise in dispensing the courtesies of the 
 general's house or tent. Generals are much accus- 
 tomed to appoint their sons or other relations to this 
 confidential post. The Aides-de-camp vary from 
 one to four in number, according as the commander 
 is a brigadier-general, major-general, lieutenant- 
 general, general, or field-marshal. Before an officer 
 can be appointed as A., he must have been two 
 years with his regiment. Aides-de-camp are not 
 to be full efi'eotive officers of regiments; but they 
 usually have the rank of captain. Besides these 
 Aides-de-camp to generals, the Queen has the power 
 to appoint any number of Aides-de-camp to herself, 
 in her capacity of nominal head of the army. There 
 are no particular duties attached to the office ; but 
 it is much sought after, both as an honour, and as 
 conferring on the holder the rank of colonel in the 
 army. The post is intended as a reward for deserv- 
 ing officers, but is not always conferred without 
 favouritism. There is a limited number who receive 
 daily pay as Aides-de-camp, and who take it in 
 turn to attend the Queen on state occasions; 
 but the others receive no direct emolument. In 
 the year 1858 there were no fewer than thirty- 
 five military Aides-de-camp to the Queen, of whom 
 six were peers of the reahn, and one a prince of a 
 German royal, or rather ducal house. In addition 
 to all the above, there are naval Aides-de-camp to 
 the Queen, of whom there were ten in theyear 1858; 
 besides two belonging to the Eoyal Marines. 
 
 AIDE-TOI ET LE CIEL T'AIDERA (Help 
 yourself, and Heaven will help you). This moral 
 aphorism was the cry of certain Erench pohtical 
 writers to the middle classes, about the year 1824, 
 and became the watch- word and title of a society, 
 having for its object to agitate the electoral body in 
 opposition to the government. This, however, was 
 to be done by means strictly legitimate, and chiefly 
 by correspondence and political publications. Most 
 of its founders and active members belonged to the 
 party of Doctrinaires (q. v.), as Guizot, who was 
 president for some time, Duchatel, Duvergier do 
 Hauranne, Dubois, Kemusat, Thiers, Cavaiguac, 
 &c. Le Globe newspaper was the organ of the 
 association, and afterwards Le National. It had 
 
AIDIN— AINMULLER. 
 
 a. great share in bringing about the revolution of 
 July 1830, and was at first countenanced by the 
 new government ; but after a short time it was 
 dissolved (1832). 
 
 AIDI'N, or GUZEL-HISSAR, a town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, on the river Meander, in the paohalic of 
 Anatolia, built out of the ruins of the ancient 
 Tralles, which was situated on a plateau above the 
 present town. It lies sixty miles south-east of 
 Smyrna, "contains 6000 houses, and 30,000 inhabit- 
 ants, is four miles in circuit, and carries on a 
 trade next in importance to that of Smyrna. It is 
 adorned, like all eastern cities, with numerous 
 mosques and other religious edifices, and has a 
 picturesque appearance. 
 
 AIDS. These were originally mere benevolences 
 
 f ranted by a tenant to his lord, in times of distress ; 
 ut gradually they came to be regarded as matters 
 of right, and not of discretion. There were three 
 principal objects for which A. were demanded: 1st, 
 To ransom the person of the lord when taken pri- 
 soner ; 2d, To make his eldest son a knight ; and 3d, 
 To provide a suitable portion to his eldest daughter 
 on her marriage. These A. were aboHshed by 12 
 Car. II. 0. 24. 
 
 Aid of the Kino is where the king's tenants 
 pray A. of the K. on accoinit of rent demanded of 
 them by others. In such cases, the proceedings are 
 stopped till the king's or queen's counsel are heard 
 to say what they think fit for avoiding the king's 
 prejudice. 
 
 AI'GRETTE, a French word, used to denote the 
 down or plume (botanically, pappus) which is found 
 attached to many vegetable seeds, as the thistle and 
 dandehon. It is also used iu reference to the feathery 
 tuft on the heads of several birds, as the heron ; and 
 in English zoology the name aigret or egret (q. v.) is 
 applied to the lesser white heron, an elegant bird, with 
 a white body and a feathery crest. Hence the term 
 A. came to be used to designate the long, delicate 
 white feathers which, being stuck upright in a lady's 
 head-dress, axe calculated to give a majestic appear- 
 ance to the person. More recently, the usage has 
 been still further extended, and any head-dress 
 bearing an analogy to a plume, even a bouquet of 
 flowers, fastened with precious stones, is denominated 
 an A. 
 
 AIGUES MORTES (AquiE Mortuae), a smaU 
 town in France (pop. 3000), in the department of 
 Gard, which claims to have been founded by the 
 Koman Marius. It is situated in an extensive 
 marsh, impregnated with sea-salt, and is about 
 three miles from the Mediterranean, with which it 
 is connected by a canal. It was from A. M. that 
 St Louis sailed in 1248, and again in 1270, for the 
 Crusades — a proof that the sea then reached this 
 spot. In 1538, Francis I. had an interview at A. M. 
 with Charles V. 
 
 AIGUI'LLE (Fr. a needle), an instrument often 
 used by mihtary engineers, to pierce a rock for the 
 reception of gimpowder, when any blasting or blow- 
 ing-up is to be effected. 
 
 AIGUILLE'TTB, a part of the decorations of 
 military dress. It was formerly worn on the right 
 shoulder by general ofiicers of various grades ; but is 
 now chiefly confined to officers of the Life-Guards 
 and Horse-Guards. It is merely an ornament, com- 
 posed of gold or silver cords and loops. 
 
 AI'GULET, a rope called a lashing-rope, 
 employed in ships-of-war for securing the breeching 
 of a gun. 
 
 AILANTO (Ailantlius glandulosa), a lofty and 
 beautiful tree, of the natural " order Xanthoayylacece 
 (see Xanthoxylon), a native of China, but now 
 
 frequently planted to shade public walks in the 
 south of Europe, and not uncommon in England. 
 The styles are combined at the base, the fruit con- 
 sists of 3-5 samarce (or winged aclimia, q. v.). The 
 leaves are large and pinnate, with an odd leaflet, 
 resembling those of the ash. The tree grows better 
 than almost any other on chalky soils, and is 
 hardy enough to endure the climate even of the 
 north of Scotland. It is easily propagated by 
 suckers and cuttings of the roots. The wood is fine 
 grained, satiny, and suited for cabinet-making. 
 
 AILB'TTBS (Fr. little wings) were appendages 
 to the armour worn by knights in the 13th c. 
 Tkej were sometimes made of leather, covered 
 with a kind of cloth called carda, and fastened 
 with sillc laces. The form was sometimes cir- 
 cular, sometimes pentagonal, cruciform, or lozenge 
 shaped, but more usually square. Sometimes they 
 were not larger than the palm of the hand ; in other 
 instances, as large as a shield. In most instances, 
 the A. were worn behind or at the side of the 
 shoulders. Whether the purpose of these append- 
 ages was as a defence to the shoulders in war ; as 
 an ensign or mark, to indicate to the followers of 
 the knight his place in the field; or as armorial 
 bearings, is not now clearly known ; but the first 
 supposition is the most probable. A. are figured on 
 many effigies, monumental brasses, and stained 
 windows, in our cathedrals and old churches. 
 
 AI'LSA CRAIG, a remarkable islet about 10 
 miles from the southern coast of Ayrshire, opposite 
 Girvan, lat. 55° 15' 12" N. ; long. 5° T W. Rising 
 abruptly out of the sea to a height of 1098 feet, it 
 forms a most striking object, even at a considerable 
 distance. It is about two miles in circumference, 
 and is accessible only at one point, where the 
 accumulation of debris has formed a rough beach. 
 The rook may be described generally as a mass of 
 trap, assuming in some places a distinct columnar 
 form, with dfmensions far exceeding those of the 
 basaltic pillars of Stafia. On the north-west, per- 
 pendicular cliffs rise to a height of from 200 to 300 
 feet ; on the other sides, the Craig descends to the 
 sea with a steep slope, covered with grass and wUd- 
 fiowers, with numerous scattered fragments of 
 rock. The only inhabitants are goats, rabbits, 
 and wild-fowl. Solan geese, in particular, breed 
 in the cKffs in countless numbers. About 200 
 feet from the summit are some springs, and on the 
 ledge of a crag on the eastern front, are the remains 
 of an ancient stronghold. In 1831, the Earl of 
 CassilUs, the proprietor of A. C, was raised to the 
 dignity of Marquis of Ailsa. 
 
 AIN, a river in France, rises in the mountains of 
 the Jura, flows through the departments of Jura and 
 Ain, and after a course of about 100 miles, falls into 
 the Rhone, 18 miles above Lyon. 
 
 AIN, a frontier department of France, is bounded 
 on the N. by the departments of Jura and Sa6ne-et- 
 Loire, on the E. it is separated from Switzerland and 
 Savoy by the Rhone, which also divides it from Isfere 
 on the S., wMe on the "W. the Sa6ne separates it 
 from the departments of the Rhone and Sa6ne-et- 
 Loire. The eastern part is mountainous ; but the 
 southern portion of that part which hes to the west 
 of the Ain, forms an argillaceous plateau, aboimding 
 with marshes, which occasion epidemic fevers. This 
 dep. is divided into five aiToudissements— Bourg, 
 Belley, Gex, Nantua, Trgvoux, and into 35 cantons 
 Area, 2258 sq. m. Pop. 370,900. Chief town, Boui-g. 
 
 AIWMiJLLBR, Max. Emajt., to whoin we owe 
 the restoration of the art of painting on glass, was 
 born at Munich, 1807. He began the study of 
 architecture, but afterwards entered the royal por- 
 celain manufactory as decorator; and it was here 
 
AIKSWORTH— AIR-BEDS. 
 
 that he first succeeded in overcoming the technical 
 difficulties in the execution of glass-paiating. A 
 separate institution was now established for the 
 art; and A., as inspector, succeeded in raising it 
 to a high degree of perfection. He is said to 
 have first conceived the happy thought of laying 
 coloured glass on coloured, instead of the process 
 hitherto followed, of laying coloured glass on white ; 
 thus giving the command of above 100 variously 
 coloured glasses, iu all gradations of tint. He was 
 also the first, in conjunction with Wehrstorfer, to 
 execute pictures on glass, and thus revive the art of 
 miniature glass-painting. Nor was it only technical 
 improvements and inventions that he contributed to 
 the new art ; his artistic culture qualified liiTn power- 
 fully to aid the regeneration of taste that has 
 accompanied it. The first work of the new institu- 
 tion was the restoration of the windows of the 
 cathedral of Ratisbon (1826 — 1833), to which A. con- 
 tributed the ornamentation', and painted several of 
 the figures. He made a like contribution to the 
 splendid windows of the church of Maria-Hilf (1833 
 — 1838), iu Munich. In the contribution of King 
 Ludwig of Bavaria to the cathedral of Cologne, 
 and the numerous other windows executed at 
 Munich for all parts of the world — England among 
 the rest — A. displayed the highest artistic faculty in 
 giving to the figures a rich setting of architectural 
 ornamentation, in such a way as to harmonise with 
 the style of the building. — A. has also acquired a 
 great reputation as an architectural painter in oU. 
 Among his pieces are St Mark's Church, iu Venice ; 
 the interior of St Stephen's Church, Vienna ; the 
 interior of "Windsor Chapel, of Westminster Abbey, 
 and the Poets' Corner. 
 
 AI'NSWORTH, RoBEET, the author of a once 
 extensively used Latin Dictionary, was born at 
 Woodvale, near Manchester, in 1660. He was 
 educated at Bolton, and taught a school there for 
 some time, but afterwards went to London, where 
 he was engaged for many years in educational 
 pursuits. In 1714, he commenced his Dictionary 
 (Latiu-English and English-Latin), which, however, 
 was not published until 1736. A. died near London 
 on the 4th of April 1743. He wi'ote also some 
 Latin poems, and a few treatises on various sub- 
 jects; but nothing keeps his memory alive except 
 the Dictionaxy, which itself is now fast passing 
 away into oblivion. The labour expended on such 
 a production was indeed highly honoiurable to the 
 author, but the work has no claim to the character 
 of an accurate or philosophical lexicon, and, in spite 
 of the numerous emendations it has received, it 
 remains essentially what it was at first. It has been 
 superseded by Riddell's, and more recently by 
 Smith's, Andrews's, and other Lexicons. 
 
 AINSWORTH, William Eeancis, an English 
 physician, geologist, and traveller, a relation of the 
 foregoing, was born at Exeter, 1807. He studied 
 medicine at Edinbiu-gh, and, after receiving (1827) 
 his medical diploma, he travelled in France, and 
 prosecuted geological investigations in the Auvergne 
 and Pyrenean mountains. Returning to Edinburgh 
 in 1828, he conducted the pubKcation of the Journal 
 of Natural atid Geographical Science, and delivered 
 lectures on geology. In 1835, he was attached as 
 physician and geologist to the Euphrates expedition 
 under Colonel Chesney, at the recommendajion of 
 Colonel Sabine, and returned home in 1837 flirough 
 Kurdistan, the Taurus, and Asia Minor. In the 
 following year, he went again to Asia Minor, being 
 sent with Rassam and Russell by the Geographicid 
 Society, and the Society for the Diffusion of Chris- 
 tian Knowledge. The objects were chiefly to explore 
 the course of the Halys, and to visit the Christians 
 
 in Kurdistan. On his return (1841), he gave the 
 result of his inquiries and observations in two 
 works — Researches in Assyria, and Travels and 
 Researclies in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Ghaldea, 
 and Armenia (London, 1842). He has pubUshed 
 also The Claims of the Christian Aborigines in the 
 East, and Travels in the Track of tlie 10,000 Qreeks 
 (London, 1844). In 1854 he edited Xenophon's 
 Anabasis and Memorabilia in Bohn's ' Classical 
 Library.' 
 
 AINSWORTH, William Harrison, a weU- 
 known writer of fiction, was born Feb. 1805, at 
 Manchester, where his father was a solicitor. His 
 creative fancy began early to shew itself in ballads 
 and tales, which appeared iu the local newspapers, 
 and in contributions to the London Magazine and 
 other periodicals. Being destined to succeed his 
 father, he entered a writer's oflice ; but after a while 
 he forsook law for hterature, and at first began a 
 pubhshing business in London, which, however, he 
 soon gave up in disappointment. He had previously 
 published his first novel. Sir John Ghiverlon (1825). 
 After spending some time on the continent, he 
 returned, to England, and wrote Roohwood (1834), 
 which was favourably received. It was followed by 
 CricMon (1837) and Jack Slieppard (1839). These 
 works deal largely in the startling and horrible,, 
 after the manner of Mrs Radcliffe ; and have been 
 considered to exercise a hurtful influence on the 
 young. A. edited for a time Bentley's Miscellany, 
 and in 1842 began his own Ainsworth's Magazine; 
 in 1845 he acquired also the New MonHily Magazine 
 from Colbum. In these periodicals, and in the 
 Sunday Times, have appeared a somewhat more 
 wholesome and creditable class of novels, such as 
 Guy Fawkes, The Tower of London, Old Saint 
 Paul's, Windsor Castle, &c. 
 
 AIR, or ASBEN, a kingdom of Central Africa, 
 extendmg from about 17° to 19° N. lat., and from 8° 
 to 9° E. long. Agades (q.v.) is the capital, and 
 residence of the sultan, btit his power is in a large 
 measure merely nominal. The coimtry contains 
 various towns and villages, and is principally 
 inhabited by three large tribes — the Kel-owi, the 
 Kel-geres, and Itisan, each of which has numerous 
 subdivisions. There are, besides, the Kel-n-Negami, 
 the Imghad, &c. The word kel means ' people,' 
 but specially denotes settled people, in opposition to 
 nomads. Thus, Kel-owi is people settled in the 
 valley of Owi. Many of the tribes and famUies live 
 not in fixed dwellings, but movable tents made of 
 mats. The valleys of A. are naturally rich, but 
 they are poorly cidtivated. Food and clothing are 
 botli imported. The population, which is very con- 
 siderable, could not be sustained, were it not for the 
 salt-trade of Bihna, a town lying to the east of 
 A., iu the Tebu country. Although the valleys 
 of A. are in the region of the tropics, the climate is 
 comparatively temperate. See Earth's Travels in 
 Central Africa, vol. i. 
 
 AIR is the name given to that compound of gases 
 constituting the substance of our atmosphere. For- 
 merly, all aeriform fluids were called ' airs,' but in 
 this sense the word gas is now used. The chief 
 properties of air, and the phenomena they give 
 rise to, will be found treated under Atmosphere, 
 Aerodynamics, Aerostatics, Air-pump, Barometer, 
 Balloon, &c. 
 
 AIR, in Music. See Aria. 
 
 AIR-BEDS and AIR-CtJSHIONS. Air-beds 
 were known as early as the beginning of the 18th c, 
 but being made of leather, were expensive. It was 
 only after the invention of air-tight or Macintosh 
 cloth that it became possible to use air in this way 
 at a moderate cost. An air-bed consists of a sack in 
 
 93 
 
AIR-BLADDER— AIR-GUN. 
 
 the form of a mattress, divided into a number of 
 compartments, eaoli air-tiglit; a projection at one 
 end forms a bolster. Each compartment has a 
 valve, through ■which the air is blown in by a 
 bellows. The advantages of such beds, in point of 
 cleanness, coolness, hghtness, and elasticity are 
 obvious. They are specially valuable in many cases 
 of sickness. The traveUing-cusMon is another coii- 
 trivance of the same kind. Recently, vulcanised 
 India-rubber, instead of cloth, has been used in the 
 fabrication of such articles. The chief drawback to 
 these contrivances is the liabflity to being spoiled by 
 a rent or other injury. 
 
 AIR-BLADDER, or SWIMMING-BLADDER, 
 in Kshes. An organ apparently intended to aid them 
 in ascending in deep water, and for the accommoda- 
 tion of their specific gravity to various depths. It is 
 made to serve this purpose by the increase or dimi- 
 nution of its volume, according to the degree of pres- 
 sure exerted upon it by the ribs. Its place is in the 
 abdomen, under the spine ; and it is very various in 
 size and form in different kinds of fishes. It gene- 
 rally has an opening into the oesophagus, or into the 
 stomach, but apparently only for the ejection, and 
 not for the admission of air. In some fishes, it has 
 no opening. The air with which the A. is filled 
 appears to be the result of secretion ; and in fresh- 
 water fishes, consists in general almost entirely of 
 nitrogen, but contains a larger proportion of oxygen 
 in sea-fishes; the oxygen in deep-sea fishes having 
 been found to amount to 87 per cent. The A. is 
 in some fishes very small; in others, it is entirely 
 wanting, particularly in fishes that are destined to 
 live chiefly at the bottom of the water, as flat fishes, 
 
 B 
 
 Air-bladder of Carp : 
 
 Consisfcing of two parts — B and C, joined by a narrow neck ; 
 
 A D, a canal communicating witti CESopliagus, E. 
 
 eels, &c. ; but there are remarkable instances of its 
 absence also in species of very different habits, such 
 as the common mackerel, whilst it exists in other 
 species of the same genus or family. The A. of 
 fishes affords the finest kind of isinglass. 
 
 AIR-CELLS, or AIR-SACS, in Birds, are remark- 
 able cavities connected with the respiratory sys- 
 tem. They are distributed 
 along the inside of the 
 whole cavity of the chest 
 and abdomen ; and in 
 birds of strong wing and 
 rapid flight, often send 
 prolongations into the 
 bones. They are con- 
 nected with the extremely 
 active respiratory system, 
 and communicate with 
 the lungs, giving an im- 
 mense extension to the 
 surface with which the air 
 inhaled comes in contact. 
 Lungs, &c., of Ostrich : The cells in the lungs of 
 a a a a a, air-cells ; 6 6, lungs ; 
 c, heart ; d, stomach ; 
 e, intestines. 
 
 the mammalia, into which the air is 
 conveyed by minute ramifications 
 of the windpipe, in order to be 
 brought into contact with the 
 blood distributed on their walls, Air-tubes of Insect, 
 are very small ; in man, only about 
 one-hundredth part of an inch in diameter. — Air- 
 91 
 
 cells, or air-sacs, may be said to form the whole res- 
 piratory apparatus in some of the lower kinds of 
 animals (see Annelida), whilst in others, higher in 
 the scale of organisation, particularly in msects, 
 air-tubes arising from these ramify throughout the 
 whole body. The air-tubes of insects are formed 
 of a spiral fibre within a- membranous coat, Hke the 
 spiral vessels of plants, so that they possess great 
 elasticity; 
 
 AIR-CELLS in plants are cavities containing air 
 in the stems or leaves. The orifices of the inter- 
 cellular passages are closed up, so as to prevent the 
 juices of the plant from entering them. They are 
 very variable in size, figure, and arrangement, but 
 are formed according to a uniform rule in each parti- 
 cular species in which they are found. They are 
 large and numerous in many aquatic plants, evi- 
 dently serving the purpose of buoying them up in the 
 water. Besides A. of regular form, there are irregular 
 cavities, also called by the same name, which seem 
 to be formed by the tearing of the cellular tissue in 
 the rapid growth of the plant, as in grasses and 
 umbelliferous plants. 
 
 AIR-ENGINE. See Caiobic Engine. 
 
 AIR-GUN, an instrument for firing bullets or 
 other projectiles, by the force of compressed air 
 instead of gunpowder. Various forms of construc- 
 tion have been adopted. The most usual plan is to 
 insert a condensing syringe in 'the stock of the gun. 
 The piston of this syringe is worked by an apparatus 
 which passes through to the exterior of the gun; 
 and this working causes a small body of air to be 
 condensed into a chamber. The chamber has a 
 valve opening into the barrel, just behind the place 
 where the bullet is lodged. The gun is loaded from 
 the muzzle, as ordinary muskets or fowling-pieces ; 
 and there is at that time just behind it a small body 
 of highly compressed air, ready to rush out at any 
 opening. This opportunity is afforded by a move- 
 ment of the trigger, which opens the valve ; the 
 air rushes forth with such impetuosity as to propel 
 the bullet. By a certain management of the 
 trigger, two or three bullets, successively and 
 separately introduced, can be fired off — i£ firing it 
 can be caUed — by one mass of condensed air. 
 Another form of A. contains several bullets in a 
 receptacle or channel under the barrel; by the 
 movement of a cook or lever, one of these bullets 
 can readily be shifted into the barrel; and thus 
 several successive discharges can be made after one 
 loading — on a principle somewhat analogous to 
 that of the revolving pistol. Some varieties of A. 
 have the condensing syringe detached, by which 
 means a more powerful condensation of air may be 
 produced ; this done, the air-chamber is replaced in 
 its proper position behind the bullet in the barrel. 
 Those air-guns which present the external appear- 
 ance of stout walking-sticks, and are thence called 
 air-canes, have a. chamber within the handle for 
 containing condensed air, which can be imscrewed, 
 and subjected to the action of the condensing syringe. 
 One inventor has devised a form of A. with two 
 barrels— one of small bore for the reception of the 
 bullets, and another of larger bore for the reservoir 
 of condensed air; the condensing syringe being 
 within the stock of the gun. An attempt has more 
 recently been made to combine the action of elastic 
 springs with that of compressed air, in an A. ; 
 springs of gutta-percha, or of vulcanised india- 
 rubber, are employed in substitution of, or in co- 
 operation with, a condensing sjringe. No form 
 of A. hitherto made has had power enough to 
 propel a bullet to any considerable distance ; and 
 therefore the instrument is scarcely available in 
 war; there are, however, oircumstanoes in which 
 
AIE-PLAliTTS— AIRY. 
 
 such an arm may lie useful — seeing that there ia no 
 expense for gunpowder, no noise, no smoke, no 
 unpleasant odom'. The A. was known in France 
 more than two centuries ago ; but the ancients 
 were ao(j[uainted with some kind of apparatus, by 
 which an: was made to act upon the shorter arm 
 of a level', while the larger arm impeUed a bullet. 
 
 AIR-PLAKTS. See Epiphytes. 
 
 AIK-PUMP, an instrument for removing the air 
 from a vessel. The essential part is a hoUow brass 
 or glass cyHnder, in which an air-tight piston is 
 made to move up and down by a rod. From the 
 bottom of the cylinder, a connecting tube leads to 
 the space which is to be exhausted, which is usually 
 formed by placing a bell-glass, called the receiver, 
 with edges ground smooth, and smeared with 
 lard, on a flat, smooth plate or table. When the 
 piston is at the bottom of the barrel, and is then 
 drawn up, it lifts out the air from the ban-el, and 
 
 Air-pump. 
 
 a portion of the air under the receiver, by its own 
 expansive force, passes through the connecting tube, 
 and occupies the space below the piston, which 
 would otherwise be a vacuum. The air in the 
 receiver and barrel is thus rarefied. The piston is 
 now forced down, and the effect of this is to close 
 a valve placed at the mouth of the coimecting tube, 
 and opening inwards into the barrel. The air in 
 the barrel is thus cut off from returning into the 
 receiver, and, as it becomes condensed, forces up a 
 valve in the piston, which opens outwards, and thus 
 escapes into the atmosphere. AVhen tiie piston 
 reaches the bottom, and begins to ascend again, this 
 valve closes ; and the same process is repeated as .at 
 the first ascent. Each stroke thus duninishes the 
 quantity of air in the receiver ; but from the nature 
 of the process, it is evident that the exhaustion can 
 never be complete. Even theoretically, there must 
 always be a portion left, though that portion may be 
 rendered less than any assignable quantity; and 
 practically the process is limited by the elastic force 
 of the remaining air being no longer sufficient to 
 open the valves. The degree of rarefaction is indi- 
 cated by a gauge on the principle of the barometer. 
 By means of the partial vacuuin formed by the 
 A., a great many interesting experiments can be 
 performed, illustrating the effects of atmospheric 
 pressure, and other mechanical properties of gases. 
 — The A. was invented by Otto Guericke (q. v.), 
 1654 ; and though many improvements and varieties 
 of structure have been since devised, the principle of 
 all is the same. Two bajrels are generally used, so 
 as to double the effect of one stroke. In some air- 
 pumps, stop-cooks turned by the hand take the place 
 of valves; and in others, the entrance of the con- 
 necting tube into the cylinder is so contrived that 
 the valve through tlje piston is not required. 
 
 AIED, Thomas, a poet of considerable genius, 
 bom at Bowden, in Roxburghshire, in 1802. 
 He received the rudiments of education at schools 
 in his nativfe county, from which he passed to the 
 
 university of Edinburgh. While in the metropolis, 
 he made the friendship of many distinguished men, 
 especially Professor John Wilaou, who was accus- 
 tomed to speak of him, in the highest terms. In 
 1835, he became editor of Tlte Dumfries Herald, a 
 new journal, started on Conservative principles. 
 His genius is of a purely literary character, and 
 not calculated to be effective in the discussion of 
 political questions. His works are not so well 
 known as they deserve to be, from their intrinsic 
 merit. In spite of very warm eulogy from some of 
 the greatest names in popular criticism, and in 
 spite of many elaborate and discriminatrag reviews 
 in various important magazines, they have failed 
 to secure a large measure of public approbation. 
 The Demi's Dream is perhaps an exception to the 
 rest, for it is both well Imown and admired. Com- 
 petent judges have asserted that there is some- 
 thing almost Danteaque in the stem, intense, and 
 subhme Kterabiesa of the conception. This power 
 of realisation in painting objects is the grand 
 characteristic of Mr A.'s mind. Whether the 
 scenes are colossal, as in The Demi's Dream, or 
 minute, as in The Sum/mer's Day, there is the same 
 clear, vigorous, and picturesque word-painting. 
 Herein hes Mr A.'s chief originality, for his 
 thought and sentiment, though always pure and 
 fine, are not strikingly novel. In 1827, he published 
 Religicnis Characteristics, a piece of exalted prose- 
 poetay; in 1845, Tlie Old Badidor, a volume of 
 tales and sketches ; in 1848, a coUeoted edition 
 of his poems — a second edition of which appeared 
 in 1856 ; and in 1852, he edited the select poems 
 of David Macbeth Moir (the 'Delta' of Blackwood), 
 prefixing a memoir for the benefit of Dr Moir's 
 family. 
 
 AI'RDRIB, a town in the parish of New Monk- 
 land, Lanarkshire, 11 miles E. of Glasgow. The high 
 road between Edinburgh and Glasgow intersecting 
 it, forms its principal street. It has risen rapidly, 
 and is now one of the most flourishing inland towns 
 ia Scotland. About a century ago, it consisted of 
 little more than a solitary farmhouse ; but the abund- 
 ance of iron and coal in the vicinity has given its 
 progress an impetus like that of an American city 
 (see Gabtshekeie). The Monklaud Canal, together 
 with a branch of the Caledonian Railway, receives 
 the produce of the coal pits and iron mines. The 
 town has some neat buildings, is well paved, and 
 lighted with gas, but is not specially characterised 
 by beauty. The weaving of cotton goods for the 
 Glasgow manufacturers is carried on to a consider- 
 able extent, as is also the distillation of spirits. 
 Pop. in 1851, 14,435. 
 
 AI'RY, Gboege Biddell, D.C.L., M.A., Astrono- 
 mer Royal, was bom at Alnwick in 1801. He was 
 educated principally at Colchester, from which he 
 passed in 1819 to the university of Cambridge. In 
 1822, he was elected Scholar; in. 1823, he took the 
 degree of B. A., with the honour of Senior Wrangler ; 
 and in 1826, that of M. A. In the same year, he was 
 elevated to the chair of Science founded by Lucas, 
 which he rescued from the reproach of being a 
 sinecure, by delivering a course of public lectures on 
 experimental philosophy. In 1828, he was made 
 Plumian professor, and had the management of the 
 newly erected Cambridge Observatory intrusted to 
 him. On account of his severe and unintermitting 
 labours ■ in connection with this office, his income 
 was augmented from the funds of the university. 
 He published his observations {Astronomical Observa- 
 tims: Cambridge, 1829—1838, 9 vols.), arranged in 
 a clear and simple manner ; and they have served 
 as a model ever since for those of Greenwich and 
 other observatories. In 1835, the office of Astronomer 
 
 95 
 
AISLE— AIX-LA-CHAPBLLE. 
 
 Eoyal becoming vacant, Mr A. -was appointed to it by- 
 Lord Auckland, then Krst Lord of the Admiralty. 
 If he has not made himself famous by any brilliant 
 discovery or important undertaking, like Herschel 
 or Hind, he has at least shewn his high talent by 
 many useful and interesting improvementa, especially 
 in the introduction of new or more perfect scientific 
 instruments, more rapid methods of calculation, and 
 researches in magnetism, meteorology, photography, 
 &c. One of the most valuable of his contributions 
 to popular science is his well-known article on 
 ' Gravitation,' in the Penny Cyclopaedia (1837). 
 Equally excellent and popular is his treatise on 
 Trigonometry, which was written for the Encyclo- 
 paedia Metropolitana (1855). He has made, besides, 
 numerous useful experiments in the apphcation of 
 mathematical science to geognostic and astronomical 
 phenomena, and has deservedly obtained the reputa- 
 tion of being one of the most able and indefatigable 
 of living savans. Mr A. is a Fellow of the Royal 
 Society ; an Honorary Member of the Institution 
 of Civil Engineers, Corresponding Member of the 
 French Institute, and other foreign scientific bodies. 
 AISLE (fromLat. ala, 
 a wing) means any lat- 
 eral division of any part 
 of a church, whether 
 nave, choir, or transept. 
 The number of aisles 
 varies in the chm-ches 
 of different countries. 
 In England, there is only 
 one on each side of the 
 nave or choir; ia most 
 foreign countries, there 
 are generally two, and 
 at Cologne there are even 
 three. The continental 
 edifices, it would seem, 
 have antiquity in their 
 favour for this arrange- 
 ment (see Basilica). The 
 word is often incorrectly 
 apphed to the open 
 space in the nave of 
 churches between the seats of the congregation. 
 
 AISNE, ". tributary of the Oise, in France, rises 
 in the department of Meuse, and flows north-west 
 through the departments of Marne and Ardennes, 
 and then west through that of Aisne and part of 
 Oise, where it falls into the river Oise, above 
 Compi&gne. Its course extends to 150 miles, of 
 which 70 are navigable. 
 
 AISNE, a department in the north of France, 
 formed of a part of ancient Picardy and the Isle of 
 France. It belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is 
 intersected by the river A., and by other navigable 
 streams and canals. The soil is fertile ; the chief 
 culture is wheat, and other grain. Its rich meadows 
 supply Paris with hay. The area is 2830 square 
 miles, with a population of 555,530. It is the seat 
 of considerable cotton and other manufactures, the 
 centre of which is St Quentia (q. v.), and at St 
 Gobin is the famous manufactory of mirrors. The 
 department is divided into 5 arrondissements and 
 37 cantons. The chief town is Laon (q. v.). 
 
 AIX, a town in France, formerly the capital 
 of Provence, now the chief town of an arron- 
 dissement ia the department of the Bouches-du- 
 Rhone. It is beheved to have been bmlt by the 
 Roman consiil, C. Sextius (120 B.C.), on account of 
 the mineral springs ia the neighbourhood, and 
 thence called Aquae Sextiee. A. is the seat of a 
 court of appeal ; and possesses an academy for 
 theology and law, and a public Hbrary which 
 
 Aisle (Melrose Abbey). 
 
 reckons nearly 100,000 vols.', and 1100 MSS. The 
 baptistery of the cathedral ia beheved to have been 
 originally a temple of Apollo. The numerous public 
 fountains give a cheerful air to the place. One of 
 them has a sculpture of the Good King Rgng, exe- 
 cuted by David. There is also an old clock-tower, 
 the machinery of which, when the clock strikes, 
 sets various quaint-looking figures in motion. The 
 industry of this again flourishing town consists 
 chiefly in the cultivation of the olive, in cotton- 
 spinning, leather-dressing, and trade in oil, wine, 
 almonda, &c. The warm springs are slightly sulphu- 
 reous, with a temperature from 90° to 100° F., clear 
 and transparent as the purest well-water, .almost 
 free from smell, yet with a slightly bitter taste. 
 They have the reputation of improving the beauty 
 of the skin, and are on this account especially fre- 
 quented by the fair sex. The field on which Marius 
 defeated the Teutones lies in the plain between A. 
 and Axles. In the middle ages, under the Counts of 
 Provence (see R^ne), A. was long the literary capital 
 of Southern Europe. The population of the muni- 
 cipahty of Aix in 1856 waa 23,346. 
 
 AIX (AquEe Gratianffi, Allobrogum), a small town 
 of Savoy, pop. 2 — 3000, in a dehghtful valley near 
 Lake Bourget, seven miles north from Chambery. 
 It was a much frequented bathing-place in the times 
 of the Roman empire, and among its numerous 
 remains of ancient times, are the arch of Pomponius, 
 the ruins of a temple and of a vaporariiun. The 
 king of Sardinia has a palace here. The hot springs, 
 two in number, are of sulphurous quality, and of a 
 temperature above 100° F. They are used both for 
 drinking and as baths, and attract annually above 
 2000 visitors. 
 
 AlIX-LA-CHAPELLB (Ger. Aachen) is the 
 capital of a district in Rhenish Prussia. It is situated 
 ia a fertile hollow, surrounded by heights, and 
 watered by the Wurm ; N". lat. 50° 47', E. long. 6° 
 5' ; pop. about 50,000, of whom 2000 are Protestants 
 and 300 Jews. A. is the centre of numerous thriving 
 manufactories, especially of needles and pias — 
 celebrated for 200 years — also of broad-cloths and 
 buckskins, which have almost driven even the 
 English goods out of the American market. As a 
 principal station on the Belgian-Rhenish railways, 
 A. is an important staple place of Prussian trade. 
 The city is rich in historical associations. It 
 emerges fromshistorical obscurity about the time of 
 Pepin, and Charlemagne founded its world-wide 
 celebrity. Whether it was the birthplace of Charle- 
 magne, is doubtful, but it became his grave 814 
 A.D. In 796 A.D., Charlemagne caused the already 
 existiag palace, called the Imperial Palace, to be 
 entirely rebuilt, as well as the chapel, in which 
 Pepin had celebrated Christmaa in 765 A.D. The 
 two bmldinga were connected by a colonnade, which 
 fell into ruins a short time before the emperor's 
 death, probably from the effects of an earthquake. 
 The present town-houae haa been bmlt on the ruins 
 of the palace ; the chapel, after being destroyed by 
 the Normans, was rebuilt on the ancient plan by 
 Otho III., in 983, and forma the nucleua of the 
 present cathedral. This ancient cathedral is in the 
 form of an octagon, which, with various additions 
 round it, forms, on the outside, a sixteen-sided 
 figure. In the middle of the octagon, a stone, with 
 the inscription ' Cakolo Magno,' marks the grave of 
 Charlemagne. Otto III. opened the vault in the 
 year 997 A.D. The body of the emperor was 
 found m a wonderful state of preservation, seated 
 upon a marble ohaur, dressed in his robes, his sceptre 
 m his hand, the Gospel on his knee, a piece of the 
 holy cross on hia head, and a pilgrim's scrip attached 
 to hia gurdle. Otto caused the tomb to be biult up 
 agam, after repairing the injuriea of the arch. lu 
 
AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 
 
 1165 A.D., when the emperor ^Frederick I. caused the 
 Taiilt td be re-o^ened, the hones of the great emperor 
 ■werfe enshrined m a casket of gold ana silver, and a 
 large and beautifully wrought chandelier was hung 
 up over the tomb aa a memorial. In 1215 A.D., 
 Mederick II. caused the remains of the emperor to 
 be enclosed in a costly chest, in which they are yet 
 kept in the sacristy. The marble chair was, in later 
 times, overlaid with gold plates, and used tUl 1558 
 A. D. at the imperial coronations, as a throne for the 
 newly crowned emperor. The imperial insignia were 
 removed to Vienna in 1795. — In the 14th c, a choir 
 in the Gothic style was added to the east side of the 
 octagon, which had been built in the Byzantine 
 style ; while on the west side, a square belfry was 
 joined to it, as well as two small round towers, with 
 winding stairs leading to the treasury. Here are 
 kept the so-called 'great relics,' which, once in 
 seven years, are still shewn to the people, in the 
 month of July, from the gallery of the tower. This 
 spectacle attracts many thousands of strangers to A. 
 Much has of late years been done to restore this 
 venerable pile. The columns brought by Charle- 
 magne from the palace of the Exarch at Ravenna, 
 to decorate the interior of the octagon, had been 
 carried off by the French; and althourfi part of 
 them had been restored at the peace of Paris, they 
 were not replaced in the building tiU recently. 
 
 The town-house — which encloses the remains of 
 the Imperial Palace — adorns the market-place, having 
 the Bell or Market Tower on the left, and on the 
 right the Granus Tower, a memorial of old Koman 
 times. The coronation-hall, 162 feet long, by 60 
 feet wide, in the interior of the town-house, was, in 
 the last century, divided in the middle by a wooden 
 partition. This noble hall, in which thirty-seven 
 German emperors and eleven empresses have been 
 crowned, has been restored to its original form, 
 and the walls are in process of being decorated 
 with large fresco-paintings of scenes from the life of 
 Charlema.gne, by Bethel. Before the town-house 
 stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue of 
 Charlemagne. In the church of the Franciscans, 
 are to be seen a fine picture of the Takiag Down of 
 .Christ from the Cross, by Vandyck, and two other 
 pictures representing the Crucifixion, by A. Diepen- 
 beeck. At a short distance from A., and surrounded 
 by the river, stands Frankenburg, once the favourite 
 abode of Charlemagne and of Fastrada, and still 
 rich in legends. It lias lately been rebuilt from its 
 romantic ruins. As a town, A. has recently been 
 much improved. It now possesses many fine build- 
 ings, among which are several large and splendid 
 hotels. I^om being a quiet old city of historical 
 interest, it has become a busy centre of manufactur- 
 ing industry. At one time, it was noted for its 
 public gambling-tables ; but these, to the credit of 
 the Prussian government, are now disallowed. 
 
 The name of Aix or Aachen is evidently derived 
 from the springs, for which the place has been 
 always famous. (See AA.) The name Aquis Granum, 
 which ii received about the 3d c, may possibly be 
 derived from Granus, one of the names of ApoUo, 
 who was worshipped by the Romans near springs. 
 The French name. A., refers to the Chapel of the 
 Palace. Charlemagne granted extraordinary privi- 
 leges to this city. , The citizens were exempted, in 
 all parts of the empire, from personal and mQitary 
 service, from imprisonment, and from all taxes. 
 The city also possessed the right of sanctuary : ' the 
 air of A. made all free, even outlaws.' In the 
 'middle ages, this free imperial city (then included 
 in the circle of Westphalia) contained more than 
 100,000 inhabitants; and held an important place 
 among the confederated cities of the Rhine. The 
 emperors were crowned in A. from Louis the Pious 
 7 
 
 to Ferdinand I. (813—1531 A.D.). 17 imperial diets 
 and 11 provincial councils were held within its 
 walls. The removal of the coronations to Frankfort, 
 the rehgious contests of the 16th and 17th centuries, 
 a great fire which in 1656 A.D. consumed about 4000 
 houses in the city, combined with other causes to 
 bring into decay this once flourishing community. 
 In January. 1793, and again in 1794, A. was occu- 
 pied by the French. By the treaties concluded at 
 Campo Foimio and LunlviUe, it was formally ceded 
 to IVanoe, and became the capital of the depart- 
 ment of Roer ; at length, in 1815, the city fell to 
 Prussia. See Quix, Gesdiidite der Btadt A. (History 
 of A.), 2 vols.. A., 1841. 
 
 The Mineral Springs of A., of which six are hot, 
 and two cold, were known in the time of Charlemagne, 
 and were much frequented as early as 1 170. The hot 
 springs are strongly sulphurous, and contain also 
 hydrochlorates. The temperature varies from 111°^- 
 136° F. They chiefly act on the Kver, and on the 
 mucous surfaces and skin, and are therefore efficaci- 
 ous in cases of gout, rheumatism, cutaneous diseases, 
 &o. The most remarkable is the ' Emperor's Spring,' 
 which rises in the middle of the 'H6tel Kaiserbad. 
 The baths themselves are from 4 to 5 feet deep, and 
 are built quite in the old Roman style. The cold 
 springs are chalybeate, and not so copious. The 
 new ' EiseuqueUe ' (iron spring), first discovered in 
 1829, is provided with an elegant bath-house. The 
 well-proved medicinal virtues of the minerar springs 
 of A. bring yearly to the city many thousands of 
 strangers. 
 
 Treaties of Peace, and Congress of A. — The 
 first Peace of A. ended the war carried on between 
 France and Sp^in for the possession of the Spanish 
 Netherlands. On the death of Philip TV., Louis 
 XIV. laid claim to a large portion of those territories 
 in the name of his wife, Maria Theresa, the daughter 
 of PhUip, urging the law of succession prevafling in 
 Brabant and Namur respecting private property. 
 The victorious progress of Louis was checked by 
 the triple alliance between England, Holland, and 
 Sweden; and a treaty of peace was concluded at 
 A. in 1668, by which France retaiaed possession of 
 the fortresses of Charleroi, Lille, &c., which she had 
 already taken. 
 
 The second Peace of A. concluded the war respect- 
 iag the succession of Maria Theresa to the empire. 
 See SirccESSiON, Wars of. After the war had been 
 carried on with various success for eight years, 
 peace was concluded in 1748. In general, the 
 possessions of the several states remained as 
 before the war. Austria ceded Parma and Placentia 
 to the Spanish infanta, Philip ; and the posses- 
 sion of Silesia was guaranteed to Prussia. The 
 privilege of the Assiento Treaty (q. v.) was anew 
 confirmed to England for four years, and the pre- 
 tender was expelled from France. Owing chiefly to 
 the exertions of her minister, Kaunitz, Austria came ■ 
 off with but small sacrifice, while England, notwith- 
 standing her splendid victories, derived little sohd 
 advantage, and was left with a debt raised to 80 
 miUions. 
 
 The Congress of A. was held in 1818, for regulating 
 the affairs of Europe after the war. It began on the 
 30th September, and ended on the 21st November. 
 Its principal object was the withdrawal from France 
 of the army of occupation, 150,000 strong, as weU 
 as the receiving of France again into the alhance of 
 the great powers. The emperors of Russia and 
 Austria, and the king of Prussia, were personally 
 present. The plenipotentiaries were — Metternich, 
 Castlereagh, and Wellington, Hardenberg and Bern- 
 storff, Nesselrode and Capo d'Istrias, with Richelieu 
 on the part of France. France having engaged to 
 complete the payment of the stipulated sums of 
 
AJACCIO— AfiBAE. 
 
 money, was admitted to take part. in the delibera- 
 tions, and the five great powers assembled, signed a 
 protocol announcing a future policy, known as that 
 of the ' Holy Alliance' (q. v.) 
 
 AJA'CCIO, the chief town of the island of Corsica, 
 which forms a department of iPrance. The population 
 is 10,000. The chief employments are the anchovy 
 and pearl fisheries, and the trade in wine and ohve- 
 oil, which the neighbourhood produces in abundance, 
 and of good quality. The harbour is protected by a 
 strong fort. A. is remarkable as the birthplace of 
 Napoleon ; the house is stUl to be seen. 
 
 A JA'N, a portion of the B. coast of Africa, extend- 
 ing from Cape Guardafui nearly to the equator. 
 
 A' J Ax was the name of two of the Greek heroes 
 of the Trojan war. One of them was called A. the 
 Less, or the Locrian, being the son of Oileus, king of 
 the Locrians. At the head of forty Locrian ships, he 
 sailed against Troy, and was one of the bravest of the 
 Greek heroes; in swiftness of foot, he excelled all 
 except Achilles. When Cassandra fled to the temple 
 of Minerva, after the taking of Troy, it is said that 
 A. tore her from it by force, and dragged her away 
 captive. Others make liirn even violate the pro- 
 phetess in the temple. Though he exculpated him- 
 seK by an oath when accused of this crime by Ulysses, 
 yet he did not escape the vengeance of the goddess, 
 who caused him to be engulfed in the waves. 
 
 The other A., called by the Greeks the Greater, 
 was the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and, by 
 his mother's' side, a grandson of JEacus. He sailed 
 against Troy with twelve ships, and is represented 
 by Homer as, next to Achilles, the bravest and 
 handsomest of the Greeks. AJfter the death of 
 Achilles, A. and tJlysses contended for the arms of 
 the hero, and the prize was adjudged to TJlysses, 
 which threw A. into such a state of rage and despair 
 that he killed himself with his sword This melan- 
 choly fate of the hero is the subject of one of the 
 extant tragedies of Sophocles. 
 
 A JMEE'E, a British ' non-regulation ' district in 
 the North-west Provinces of India, lying between 
 lat 25° 43'— 26° 42' ; long. 74° 22'— 75° 33'. Its 
 length from south-east to north-west is about 80 
 miles ; breadth, 50 ; area, 2029 square miles. The 
 surface of the country towards the south-east is 
 generally level. In the north, north-west, and west, 
 it is broken by mountaius and hills belonging to the 
 AravuUi range. The mountain of Taragurh, above 
 the city of Ajmeer, contains carbonate of lead, man- 
 ganese, copper, and abundance of iron ore. The 
 general elevation of the plain of A. is about 2000 
 feet, and the frosts in winter are sometimes severe. 
 Strong breezes are prevalent, and the climate 
 on the whole is healthy. The scarcity of water, 
 however, often occasions CTeat distress. The only 
 permanent stream is the Koree, the water of which 
 is so impregnated wiii mineral salts as to be unfit 
 for alimentary use except during the raius.' To 
 compensate for this deficiency, water- tanks are nume- 
 rous. The staple crop is bajra (Holms spicatus). 
 Sheep are reared in great numbers, and wool is 
 cheap, affording the material of their clothing to the 
 lower orders. Among the more prevalent diseases 
 are smaU-pox and ophthalmia. The population in 
 1848 was 22^891, of whom 27,288 were Mussulmans, 
 &c., the rest Hindus. The principal race are the 
 Bajpoots, the conquerors of the native Bheels, 
 Mhairs, and Neenas. The present limits of this 
 district by no means correspond to its former 
 importance. In the 12th c, at the time of the 
 Mussulman invasion, the sidtan of A. and Delhi 
 was the most powerful monarch in India. Under 
 Akbar also, who acquired this territory in 1559, 
 A. was a large and important province. It after- 
 
 wards fell into the hands of the Mairattas, from 
 whom it was wrested by the British in 1817. 
 
 AJMEER, an ancient city of Hindustan, the 
 capital of the British district of the same name, 228 
 miles west from Agra. It is situated jn a picturesque 
 and rocky vaUey, at the foot of the mountain of 
 Taragurh, which is crowned by a fort, once strong,, 
 but now dismantled. The city is surrounded by a. 
 stone wall, with five lofty and handsome gateways, 
 on the west and north. Most of the streets are 
 narrow and dirty, but some of them are spacious, 
 and contain many fine residences, besides several 
 mosques and temples of very massive architectiore.. 
 A. is the seat of a British political agency, a medical 
 school, and an English and Oriental school. The 
 tomb of the Mussulman saint, Kwajah, within the 
 town, is held in great veneration, and pilgrimages, 
 are made to it even by Hindus. The Emperor 
 Akbar journeyed to it from Agra on foot in 1570, 
 in fulfilment of a vow after tibe visit of his son 
 Jehanghir. In October, a great annual fair is held in 
 honour of the saint, at which ridiculous miracles are 
 pretended to be wrought. The pop. of A. is probably 
 about 30,000. 
 
 AKBAR (i. e., 'Very Great'), properly JELAL- 
 ED-DIN-MOHAMMED, emperor of Hindustan, the 
 greatest Asiatig monarch of modem times. His. 
 father, Humayun, was deprived of the throne by 
 usurpers, and had to retire for refuge into Persia ; 
 and it was on the way thither, in the town of 
 Amerkote, that A. was bom, in 1542 A. n. Humaynn 
 recovered the throne of Delhi after an exile of twelve 
 years ; but died within a year. The young prince 
 at first committed the administration to a regent- 
 minister; but finding his authority degenerating into 
 tyranny, he, by a bold stroke, shook it off, and took 
 the power into his own hands (1558). At this time, 
 only a few of the many provinces once subdued by 
 the Mongol invaders were actually subject to the 
 throne of Delhi ; in ten or twelve years, A.'s empire 
 embraced the whole of Hindustan south of the 
 Deccan ; but although great in subduing, A. was 
 yet greater in ruling. The wisdom, vigour, and 
 humanity with which ne organised and administered 
 his vast dominions, are unexampled in the east. He 
 promoted commerce by constructing roads, establish- 
 ing a uniform system of weights and measures, and 
 a vigorous police. He exercised the utmost vigi- 
 lance over his viceroys of provinces and other officers, 
 to see that no extortion was practised, and that 
 justice was impartially administered to all classes of 
 his subjects, ^or the adjustment of taxation, the 
 lands were accurately measured, and the statistics 
 taken, not only of the popydation, but of the re- 
 sources of each province. For a Mohammedan, the 
 tolerance with which he treated other rehgions was 
 wonderful. He was fond of inquiries as to religious 
 behefs ; and Portuguese missionaries from Goa were 
 sent at his request to give him an account of the 
 Christian faith. He even attempted to promulgate 
 a new religion of his own, which, however, never 
 took ;root. Literature received the greatest encour- 
 agement. Schools were established for the education 
 both of Hindus and Mohammedans ; and numbers 
 of Hindu works were translated from Sanscrit iuto 
 Persian. Abu-1-Eazl, the able minister of A., has 
 left a valuable history of his master's reign, entitled 
 A.-nameh (History of A.) ; the third volume, con- 
 taining a description of A.'s empire, derived fcom 
 the statistical inquiries above mentioned, and 
 entitled Ayin-i-Alchari (Institutes of A.), has been 
 translated into Englidi by Gladwin (3 vols., 
 Calcutta, 1786 ; and London, 1800). A.'s latter 
 days were embittered by the death of two of his sons 
 from dissipation, and the rebellious conduct of the 
 
AKEE-AIABAMA. 
 
 third, Selim (known as Jehanghir), who succeeded 
 his father at his death ia 1605. 
 
 AEEE' {Oupania or Blighia ayaida), a frvdt-tree 
 ■belonging to tiie natural order Sapindacece (q. v.), 
 a native of Guinea, introduced into Jamaica in the 
 end of last century. It grows to the height of 
 20 — 25 feet or upwards, with numerous branches and 
 alternate pinnate leaves, resembling those of the 
 ash. The flowers are small, white, on axillary 
 racemes ; the fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, 
 with three cells and three seeds, and its succulent 
 aril has a grateful subacid flavour. The fruit is 
 little inferior to a nectarine. Boiled down with 
 sugar and cinnamon, it is used as a remedy for 
 diarrhcea. The distilled water of tbe flowers is 
 used by negro women as a cosmetic. The A. 
 sometimes produces fruit in stoves iu Britain. In 
 order to obtain this, the roots should be cramped 
 in pots. — The Aki of New Zealand is a totally 
 different plant, Metrosideros huaiifolia, of the natural 
 order Myrtacece, a hard-wooded shrub, which sends 
 out lateral roots, and by means of them, climbs to 
 the summits of the loftiest trees. 
 
 A'KENSIDE, Make, an author of considerable 
 celebrity, in his own day, on account of his didactic 
 poem, TJie Pleasures of the ImaginaMon, and some 
 medical works. He was bom November 9, 1721, at 
 Newcastle-on-Tyne, where his father was a butcher. 
 Being intended for the Presbyterian Church, he 
 was sent to study theology at Edinburgh, but soon 
 abandoned it for that of medicine. He graduated 
 as a physician at Leyden in 1744, and practised at 
 Northampton, then at Hampstead, and finally in 
 London. His success as a practising physician was 
 never very great, owing, it is said, to Ms haughty 
 and pedantic manner. He died in London (June 
 2S, 1770), soon after being appointed one of the 
 physicians to the queen. At Leyden, he had formed 
 ail intimacy with Jeremiah Dyson, and this rich and 
 generous fiiend allowed ^lim £300 a year. Some of 
 his medical treatises, as those on" the lymphatic 
 vessels and on dysentery, possess considerable merit. 
 His later poetry, consistiiig chiefly of. odes and 
 hymns, did not attaiu the same reputation as his 
 Pleasures of the Imagination, which was written in 
 his twenty-third year, and to which is owing 
 whatever celebrity has attached to his name. 
 Dyson published his poetic works in 1772, and 
 another edition appeared in 1807. In Peregrine 
 Pickle, Smollett has satirically sketched the char- 
 acter of A., under that of the pedant who under- 
 takes to give an enteitaiomeut after the manner 
 of the ancients. A. has little originality of con- 
 ceptipn, or even of expression ; the reader is carried 
 along for a time by tiie evident enthusiasm of the 
 poet, and rapid and stately march of lofty images 
 and ideas; but, as it has been well expressed, 
 'all is operose, cumbrous, and cloudy, with abund- 
 ance of gay colouring and well-sounding words, 
 but filling the eye oftener than the imagination, 
 and the ear oftener than either.' A. became 
 dissatisfied with his juvenile production, and at his 
 death, had written a portion of a new poem on the 
 same subject. Both poems were published in the 
 complete edition of his works, Loni 1773. His life 
 has recently been written by Bucke : Life, Writings, 
 and Gemms of A. (8vo, Lond. 1832). 
 
 AKETON, another name for a portion of armour, 
 used in the feudal times, called the Gambeson (q. Y.f. 
 
 A'KJERMAJSTN or AKKBEMANN, a town in 
 Bessarabia on the Black Sea, at the mouth of the 
 Dniester, with a citadel ajid harbour; pop. 26,000. 
 It is the Alba Julia of the Komans ; and called, by 
 the Poles, Bialogrod, which, as well as A., signifies 
 the white town. It is considered a town of some 
 
 importance, on account of its harbour, fortifications, 
 commerce, and especially its extensive salt-pits. 
 
 The Treaty (supplementary of that of Bucharest, 
 1812) concluded at A. in 1826, between Russia and 
 Turkey, secured to Bussia the free navigation of the 
 Black Sea, and indemnification for losses sustained 
 by her subjects from the Barbary corsairs; the insti- 
 tution of divans in Moldavia and Wallachoa, and the 
 power of re-electing the hospodars after their term of 
 office ; and the restoration of the privileges of Servia, 
 in which Turkish troops were only to retain posses- 
 sion of the fortresses. The boundaries in Asia were 
 to remain as they then stood ; Bussia consequently 
 retaining the Turkish fortresses of which she had 
 gained possession. Th? non-fulfilment of this treaty 
 on the part of the Porte, occasioned the war of 1828, 
 which was terminated by the peace of Adrianople. 
 
 ALABA'MA one of the states composing the 
 Union of North America, was first known to Euro- 
 peans in the year 1541, half a century after the dis- 
 covery of America. The celebrated exploring expedi- 
 tion of De Soto had to fight its way fiercely through 
 the tribes who peopled its wilds at that period, and 
 who were much less savage and far more numerous 
 than the northern aborigines. In one instance, a chiefs 
 house measured 120 feet by 40, and included small 
 buildings like offices. Upon the Savannah Biver, at 
 Silver . Bluff, there was found a remarkable temple, 
 100 feet long, 40 feet wide, and proportionably high. 
 In the begioning of the ISth c, the IVench bmlt 
 a fort on Mobile Bay, but the city of that name 
 was not commenced tfll nine years later (1711). In 
 1763, when the entire French possessions east of the 
 Mississippi (except New Orleans) fell into the hands 
 of the English, A. was incorporated first with 
 Georgia, afterwards, in 1802, with the Mississippi 
 territory; but finally, in the year 1819, it became an 
 iudependent member of the great American confe- 
 deracy, and is now the fourth in point of population 
 among the southern states. 
 
 A. very nearly forms a rectangle, widening a little 
 towards the south-east and south-west, so that we 
 would naturally expect a fine sea-board ; but of this 
 it is deprived by Florida, which occupies fully three- 
 fourths of the coast-line. It lies between 30° 10' 
 and 35° N. lat., and between 85° and 88° 30* W. 
 long. ; being about 330 miles in extreme length from 
 north to south, and 300 miles in breadth. It contains 
 an area of 50,722 square nules, or 32,462,080 acres, 
 only 4,435,614 of which, or rather more than one- 
 eighth, were improved in 1850. The country is neither 
 mountainous nor level, but rugged and broken, 
 especially in the centre, with many picturesque views 
 and wild romantic gorges. The AUeghanies termi- 
 nate in the north in a series of elevated hiUs, and 
 the OTOund gradually slopes to within 60 miles of 
 the Gulf of Mexico, when it becomes level There 
 are three bays in A, the principal' of which is 
 Mobile Bay, stretching north for about 30 miles. 
 There are also three large rivers — ^the Tennessee, the 
 Tombigbee, and the A. ; the first of which only 
 makes a sweep into the state at the north-east angle, 
 and then anomer sweep out at the north-west ; the 
 second comes into A. from Mississippi, receives an 
 affluent (Black Warrior), and flows due south, until 
 it is joined by the A., flowing out of Georgia in 
 a south-westerly direcfaon. After the union, the 
 river is called the Mobile, and discharges its waters 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. The Tombigbee is about 
 500 miles in' length, and navigable for steam-boats 
 throughout its entire course in Alabama. The 
 A. is about 600 nules long, and may be ascended 
 iu steam-boats to Wetumpka (on the Coosa branch), 
 460 miles from the Gulf ; but the navigation of the 
 Tennessee, which has 130 miles of its course in A., 
 is obstructed by the Muscle-shoals, a series of rapids. 
 
ALABAMA— ALABASTER. 
 
 The climate of this state is almost tropical, reach- 
 ing to within 7° of the torrid zone, and its productions 
 are allied to those of the tropics. Eivers rarely 
 freeze. In 1850, 1851, the maximmn temperature of 
 the three winter months was ascertained to be 82°, 
 the Tnim'miiTn, 18°, and the mean at 3 o'clock P. M., 
 48° 25'. The lowlands are very unhealthy, near the 
 rivers and muscle-shoals, but the hilly regions are 
 salubrious. The soil is exuberantly fertile in many 
 places, yielding more cotton, the great staple of the 
 south, than that of any other state. There are fine 
 graziug-lands in the low hUls of the north, where 
 the Alleghanies termiaate, and the long flat vaEeys 
 between them are extremely rich. The central part 
 is a great, broken, and swelling prairie, remarkably 
 fertile ; while the southern, though often sandy and 
 inferior in productiveness, has many fertile alluvial 
 bottoms, which yield rice. Besides cotton, A. pro- 
 duces large quantities of Lidian-corn, oats, sweet 
 potatoes, and butter; a considerable amount of 
 wheat, rye, rice, wool, hay, pease, beans, potatoes, 
 fruits, market- vegetables, and sugar ; some tobacco, 
 barley, buckwheat, wine, cheese, grass-seeds, hops, 
 flax, and silk, are also raised. In 18S0, there were 
 nearly 42,000 farms in A., with a live-stock valued 
 at 21,690,000 dollars, and farming implements 
 and machinery worth more than 5,000,000 dollars. 
 There is abundance of wild deer and turkeys ; and 
 wild geese and ducks frequent the Muscle-shoals of 
 the Tennessee in immense numbers. Bears, wolves, 
 and foxes are likewise still met with. The trees, 
 like the animals, are numerous, but not remarkably 
 varied. In the centre and north, there are oaks, 
 poplar, hickory, chestnut, and mulberry ; in the 
 south, cypress and loblolly : pine is also abundant 
 south of the mountains. A. is, however, very rich 
 in mineral treasures, particularly in coal, iron, 
 limestone, and marble. 'Red ochre, lead, and man- 
 ganese are also found. A vein of bituminous coal 
 of a superior quality runs eastward from Tusca- 
 loosa into Georgia. There are, in various sections 
 of the state, salt, sulphur, and chalybeate springs. 
 At Blount's Springs, a fashionable watering-place, 
 there are several different varieties of sulphur 
 waters. A gold-mine was also wrought for a short 
 time in St Clair county, while the statuary granite 
 of A. is admitted to be the best in the whole of the 
 United States. 
 
 A. does not excel in manufactures, though it is 
 beginning to improve. The number of cotton- 
 factories (by the census of 1850) was 12, employing 
 capital to the amount of 652,000 dollars, with 346 
 male, and 390 female hands, consuming raw material 
 worth 237,000 dollars, and producing 3,081,000 yards 
 of stuffs, and 790,000 pounds of yarn, valued at 
 382,200 dollars. There were also 149 tanneries, 
 producing leather valued at 335,911 dollars. 
 
 In 1854, there were 221 miles of railway com- 
 pleted, and 659 in course of construction. The 
 commerce of A. is very extensive ; for the steam- 
 boat navigation on her rivers (1500 miles in all) 
 affords an outlet not only for her own produc- 
 tions, but also for those of Mississippi and Georgia. 
 In 1851, 1852, there were brought to Mobile 549,499 
 bales of cotton, besides what was sent to New 
 Orleans and the ports of Florida. The exports of A. 
 in 1851 were 18,528,824 dollars; imports, 413,446 
 dollars. The sawed timber exported to Cuba, 
 Mexico, and to domestic ports in 1850, 1851, 
 amounted to 6,816,054 feet ; and of staves, 360,779. 
 
 Education is progressing satisfaetorily in A. In 
 1850, there were 5 colleges, 1152 public schools, 
 and 166 academies and other schools. The num- 
 ber of pupils attending school was 62,846. The 
 annual income of the state imiversity, located at 
 Tuscaloosa, is 15,000 dollars. The newspaper and 
 100 , . 
 
 periodical literature, as everywhere else in America, 
 is very prohfio. There are '60 publications of different 
 kinds, poHtioal, critical, and scientific. The annual 
 circulation of the various daily papers is 869,201, 
 and of the weeMies, 1,509,040. Religious denomina- 
 tions exhibit a similar fecundity ; but the Baptists 
 and Methodists have a vast preponderance over the 
 others. TheVe are various public institutions in A., 
 such as a lunatic asylum at Tuscaloosa, a blind 
 asylum at Mobile, and a state penitentiary at 
 Wetumpka. An asylum for the deaf and dumb 
 was also recently organised. The buildings of A. 
 University are very fine, and cost 150,000 dollars. 
 In 1850, there were 56 libraries, with 20,623 volumes, 
 in the state. 
 
 A. is one of the slave-states. Its government 
 resembles that of the other states in its general 
 features. The senate consists of 33 members, 
 elected for 4 years; and the house of representa- 
 tives of 100, elected for 2, both by the people. The 
 judiciary consists of a supreme court, a court of 
 chancery, nine circuit courts, and the city court 
 of Mobfle. The population, in 1850, was 771,623. 
 The preponderance of the farming interests is 
 very remarkable; though, of course, extremely 
 natural, and, even, inevitable. While grocers, 
 shoemakers, engineers, wheelwrights, masons, &c., 
 are reckoned only by the hundred, there are 
 upwards of 66,000 farmers. A. has not received a 
 very great infusion of modem European blood. Of 
 its inhabitants, less than a. thousand were bom in 
 England, less than four thousand in Ireland, half a 
 thousand in Scotland, half a hundred in Wales, a 
 thousand in Germany, half a thousand in France, 
 and less than a thousand in other countries. The 
 commercial metropohs is Mobile, with, a population 
 of more than 20,000; but the state metropolis is 
 Montgomery, with a population of 9000. The other 
 chief towns are Huntsville, Selma, and Marion. 
 
 A'LABASTER. This name is given to two kinds 
 of white stone, chemically distinct, but resembling 
 each other in appearance, and both used for orna- 
 mental purposes. A. proper is a white, granular, 
 semi-transparent variety of gypsum (q. v.) or sidphate 
 
 Alabastra. 
 
 of lime. It occurs in various countries, but the 
 finest is found near Volterra, in Tuscany, where it is 
 worked into a variety of the smaller objects of 
 sculpture, vases, time-piece stands, &c. Gypseous 
 A. of good quahty is also found in Derbyshire, and 
 many omamental articles are made of it at Matlock 
 and other places. Not being quite insoluble in 
 water, it cannot be exposed to the weather; and 
 its softness makes the surface easily become rough 
 and opaque. Nor is it generally found in sufficient 
 masses for large works. The other stone is a 
 compact, crystaUine carbonaie of lime deposited 
 from water in the form of stalagmite, &c. It is 
 distinguishable from the gypseous alabaster by its 
 effervescing with an acid, and by its hardness; real 
 
ALAGOAS— AXAMC I. 
 
 alabaster may be scratched with the nail. — The name 
 is derived from Alabastron, a town in Upper Egypt, 
 where this land of stone was abundant, and was 
 manufactured into pots for perfumes. Such pots 
 ^ye^e called alabasira, even when made of other 
 materials. 
 
 ALAGO'AS, a maritime province of Brazil, which 
 formed at one time a district of the province of 
 Pernambuco. It is boimded on the K and W. by 
 Pernambuco, and on the S. is divided from the 
 province of Sergipe by the navigable river San 
 Francisco. The country, which is inountainous in the 
 north-west, and low, marshy, and unhealthy on the 
 coast, contains 220,000 inhabitants. The chief pro- 
 ductions are the sugar-cane, cotton-plant, mandioc 
 or cassava, maize, rice, &c., and also timber and 
 dye-woods. The capital. A., is situated on the 
 Lake Manguaba. The name A. is derived from the 
 lakes (lagoas) in which the province abounds. 
 
 ALAMA'NNI.LtnGi, a distinguished Italian poet, 
 born at Florence, October 28, 1495. His father, a 
 man of noble birth, was a zealous partisan of the 
 Medici, and Luigi stood high in their favour, tUl, in 
 revenge for some real or fancied wrong, he conspired 
 against the life of Cardinal Guihano, the representa- 
 tive of Leo X. This being found out, A. fled to 
 Venice, and thence, on the accession of the cardinal 
 to the papal chair, to France. In 1527, encouraged 
 by the pope's reverses, he returned to Florence, and 
 urged the Republic to seek the protection of Charles 
 v., by means of Andrea Doiia's friendly mediation. 
 The Kepublio declared such a proposal treachery, 
 and A. sailed with Doria for Spain. Finally, he 
 settled in France, employed as a diplomatist by 
 Francis I. and, Henry 11. A. died at Amboise in 
 1536. He wrote epics, dramas, and minor poems, 
 much admired in their day, and disputes with 
 Trissiuo the claim of first introducing blank verse 
 into ItaHan poetry. 
 
 A'LAND ISLAJSTDS (pronoimced Gland), a 
 numerous group of small islands and rocks at the 
 entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, opposite Abo, about 
 25 miles from the Swedish coast, and 15 from that 
 of Finland. They are called, by the Finns, Ahven- 
 amnaa. About 80 of them are inhabited. Although 
 these rocky isles are covered with but a tmn 
 stratum of soil, they beair Scotch fir, spruce, and 
 birch trees, and with proper cultivation, produce 
 barley and oats, besides affording subsistence to a 
 hardy breed of cattle. The inhabitants are of 
 Swedish origin, skilful sailors, fishermen,, and seal- 
 hunters. The total population is about 15,000. 
 The largest of the islands, which gives its name 
 (signifying ' Land of Streams ') to the whole group, 
 is about 18 miles long by 14 broad. It is tolerably 
 wooded- and fruitful, and contains nearly 10,000 
 inhabitants. - These islands belonged formerly to 
 Sweden, but were seized by Russia in 1809. Previous 
 to this, they had several times changed hands between 
 these two powers. In 1717, the Swedes were defeated 
 by the Russians in a naval engagement near Aland, 
 the first important exploit of the Muscovite navy. 
 The importance of these islands as a militaryposition 
 led to the construction, in the reign of the Emperor 
 Nicholas, of those strong fortifications at Bomarsund 
 which, in August 1854, were destroyed by the 
 Anglo-French force, commanded by Sir Charles 
 Napier and Baraguay d'Hilhers. Two thousand 
 prisoners were taken. This extensive fortress (which 
 is supposed to have been but the first of an intended 
 series of similar menacing fortifications in the Baltic) 
 commanded the anchorage of Ytternaes, capable of 
 containing a large fleet. 
 
 ALANGIA'CB^, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous plants, allied to Myrtacece 
 
 containing only about eight known species, trees and 
 large shrubs, of which the greater number belong to 
 the American genus Nyssa (see Tupelo), difiering 
 from the rest of the order in the absence of 
 petals. The one-ceUed fruit, and pendulous albu- 
 minous seeds, constitute marks of distinction from 
 Myrtacea3. The . fruit of Alangium decapetalum 
 and A. hexapetalum, natives of the East Indies, are 
 eatable, but mucilaginous and insipid. The timber 
 is good, the roots aromatic. 
 
 ALAECON Y MESTDOZA, Juan Rraz de, 
 one of the most eminent of Spanish dramatists, bom 
 at the town of Tasco in Mexico, about the end of 
 the 16th c. He belonged to the ancient family of the 
 Ruizes of Alarcon, of which a branch had emigrated 
 to America. Having studied at the college that had 
 been instituted in Mexico, he removed to Spain, 
 where he is mentioned as Relator del real consejo de 
 las Indias (Reporter of the royal coimcil of' the 
 Indies) in 1622. The success that early attended his 
 pieces, joined to the haughty disdain with which, in 
 the consciousness of his own powers, he treated the 
 opinion both of the pixbho and of his brother- writers, 
 excited the envy and jealousy of his contemporaries, 
 so that he became the object of venomous epigrams 
 by the most famous poets of the time, in winch the 
 deformed upstart from New Spain, with his pride 
 and contemptuousness, was held up to pubhc ridi- 
 cule. This kind of persecution continued till his 
 death, which occurred in 1639. Even during his 
 lifetime, his best pieces were attributed to omers, 
 an:d were printed and represented under the names 
 of more favom?ed poets. This early withdrawal and 
 oblivion of his name, together with the scarcity of 
 his works, have been the cause that he has seldom 
 been mentioned, and stOl less appreciated by histo- 
 rians of hteratiu'e, even down to the latest times. 
 Yet some of the best critics rank him next to 
 Calderon and Lope de Vega as a dramatic writer. 
 Besides many single or detached pieces printed in 
 collections, he published a number in his Com^ias 
 (vol. i., Madrid, 1628; vol. ii., Barcelona, 1634). 
 Hartzenbusch began a collected edition at Madrid, 
 1848. A. attempted almost all the kinds of drama 
 in vogue in his time ; and was especially eminent in 
 the heroic, as the best specimens of which may be 
 mentioned, El Tejedor de Segovia, and Ganar Amigos, 
 or La que muoho vale viuclio cliesta. A's mastery 
 in dehneating character is shewn in the Oomedias de 
 Costumhres, or character-comedies, of which he may 
 be held as the creator. The best known are La 
 Verdad Sospecliosa (imitated by ComeiQe in his 
 Menteur) and Las Paredes Oyen (Walls have Ears), 
 which are yet represented on the Spanish stage. 
 Of his comedies of intrigue, the best specimen is 
 Todo es Ventura. 
 
 It does not appear that A. wrote any Autos (q. v.), 
 though his two pieces, El Antichristo, and Quien mal 
 ande en mal acaha, betray a tendency to ascetic 
 mysticism. Although, through the artifices of his 
 contemporaries, as well as the iclat of Lope de Vega's 
 and Galderon's dramas, the compositions of A. were 
 soon driven from the stage, yet he remains, together 
 with Tirso de Molina, the most distinguished and 
 original among the successors of Lope. Lope and 
 Calderon, the coryphsei of that age, are the only 
 dramatists that excel A. Combining, in no mean 
 degree, the characteristics of both, he excels them 
 in purity of language and elevation of moral feehng. 
 
 A'LARIC I. (in German Al-rio, i. e., aU rich) 
 belonged to one of the noblest famihes of the 
 Visigoths. He makes his first appearance in history 
 in 394 A.D., as leader of the Gothic auxiharies of 
 Theodosius in his war with Eugenius ; but after the 
 .?I'.tl-..l1 '?''J ib.. ftl % ''• fonner, he took advantage of the 
 
 S^ 
 
ALAEIC n.— AIATEKNUS. 
 
 dissensions and weakness that prevailed in the 
 Eoman Empire to invade (395) Thrace, Maoedon, 
 Thessaljr, and lUyria, devastating the country, and 
 threatening Constantinople itself. Rufinus, the 
 minister of Arcadiua, appears to have sacrificed 
 Greece in order to rescue the capital, and Athens 
 was obliged to secure its own safety by ransom. 
 A. proceeded to plunder and devastate the Pelo- 
 ponnesus, but was interrupted by the landing of 
 Stihcho in Ehs with the troops of the west. 
 StiUcho endeavoured to hem in the Goths on the 
 Peneiua ; but A. broke through his lines, and 
 escaped with his prisoners and Booty to Illyria, of 
 which he was appointed governor by the Emperor 
 Arcadius, who was frightened by his successes, 
 and hoped, by conferring this dignity on him, 
 to make him a peaceful subject instead of a 
 lawless enemy (396). In 402, he invaded Upper 
 Italy, and Honorius, the emperor of the west, fled 
 from Rome to the more strongly fortified Ravenna. 
 On the way to Gaul, A. was met and defeated 
 by StiUcho at PoUentia on the Tanaro ; but it 
 was not till the following autumn that the result 
 of the battle of Verona forced him to retire 
 into Illyria. Through the mediation of Stilicho, 
 A. concluded a treaty with Honorius, according 
 to which he was to advance .into Epirus, and thence 
 attack Arcadius in conjunction with the troops of 
 Stihoho. The projected expedition did not take 
 place, yet A. demanded indemnification for having 
 undertaken it ; and Honorius, by the advice of 
 Stilicho, promised him 4000 pounds of gold. When, 
 after the death of StiUcho (q. v.), Honorius failed 
 ' to fulfil his promise, A. advanced with an army, 
 and invested Rome, which he refused to leave 
 till he had obtained the promise of 5000 poimds of 
 gold, and 30,000 of silver. But neither did this 
 negotiation produce any satisfactory result, and A. 
 again besieged Rome (409 A.D.). Famine soon ren- 
 dered it necessary that some arrangement should be 
 made; and in order to this, the senate proclaimed. 
 Attains, the prefect of the city, emperor instead of 
 Honorius. But Attalus displayed so little discretion, 
 that A. obliged him pubUcly to abdicate. The 
 renewed negotiations with Honorius proved equally 
 fruitless with the former, and A. was so irritated 
 at a perfidious attempt to fall upon him by surprise 
 at Ravenna, that he advanced on Rome for the 
 third time. His victorious army entered the city 
 on August 24, 410, and continued to piUage it 
 for six days, A. strictly forbidding his soldiers to 
 dishonour women or destroy reUgious buildings. 
 When A. quitted Rome, it was only to prose- 
 cute the conquest of- Sicily ; the occurrence 
 of a storm, however, which his fll-construoted 
 vessels were not able to resist, obUeed him to 
 abandon the project for the time ; and his death, 
 which took place at Cosenza, in Calabria, soon 
 after (410), prevented his resuming it. In order 
 that his remains might not be discovered by the 
 Romans, they were deposited in the bed of the 
 river Busento, and the captives who had been 
 employed in the work were put to death. Rome 
 and all Italy celebrated the death of A. with pubUc 
 festivities ; and the world enjoyed a momentary 
 repose. But A. himself was much less barbarous 
 than his followers. He admired those monuments 
 of civilisation with which the Eternal City abounded, 
 and sought to preserve them ; he checked the 
 excesses of his fierce soldiery, and at times gave 
 indications that the lessons of Christianity which he 
 had learned from the Arian missionaries had not 
 been altogether forgotten. Yet through him, the 
 Goths learned the way to Rome. 
 
 ALARIC II., eighth king of the West Goths, or 
 Visigoths, succeeded his father in 484 A. B. He was of 
 102 
 
 a peaceful disposition, and wished to live on friendly 
 terms with the Franks. His dominions were very 
 extensive. Besides Hispania Tarraconensis and 
 Bsetica, he possessed numerous rich provinces in 
 Gaiil, and formed an alliance, which stUl- further 
 increased his power, with Gondeband and Theodoric, 
 the latter of whom was his father-ia-law, and king 
 of the East Goths. At length, however, he came 
 into ooUision with the Frankish monarch, Clovis, 
 whose cupidity had been excited by the extent and 
 fertility of the territories over which A. ruled. An 
 excuse was found for breaking the peace which 
 existed between the two nations, in the fact that A. 
 was a zealous Arian. This circumstance had given 
 great offence to many of his subjects, who were 
 orthodox Catholics ; and ostensibly to vindicate the 
 true doctrine, the newly converted barbarian, Clovis, 
 declared war against him. The result was fatal to 
 A. He was slain by the hand of Clovis himself at 
 Vouflle, near Poitiers, and his forces completely 
 routed. 
 
 A. is said to have been indolent and luxurious in 
 his youth ; but this may simply imply that he was 
 not fond of those sanguinary pleasures which capti- 
 vated his savage contemporaries. He was tolerant 
 in his reUgious convictions. Though an Arian, he 
 did not persecute the CathoUcs. He even permitted 
 the orthodox prelates to hold a council at Agde in 
 506. In his secular capacity, he displayed an appre- 
 ciation of the blessings of law and order. He enacted 
 several useful statutes, and kept a watchful eye on 
 aU parts of his kingdom. It was during his reign 
 that the Sremariwm Alaricianum, or code of A, 
 was drawn up. It is a selection of imperial statutes 
 and writings of the Roman jurisconsults. A. sent 
 copies of it to all his governors, ordering them to use 
 it, and no other. An edition of it was pubUshed by 
 Sichard, at Basle, in 1528. 
 
 ALA'RM. In military matters, the word ala^m 
 has a more defiied meaning than mere terror or 
 fright. An alarm, among soldiers in an army, is not 
 so much a danger, as a warning against danger. An 
 alarm, signified by the firing of a gun or the beating 
 of a, dnim, denotes to an army or camp that the 
 enemy is suspected of intending a sudden surprise, 
 or that the siuprise has actually been made. There 
 is an alarm-posl in camp or garrison arrangements, 
 to which the troops are directed to hasten on any 
 sudden alarm being given. 
 
 AXiA'SK A or AilASKA, a long and narrow 
 peninsula of Russian America, occupying nearly the 
 same latitudes as Kamtchatka and Britain. Forming 
 the south-eastern boundary of the Sea of Kamtchatka, ' 
 it may be regarded, physically, as a continuation of 
 its southern limit, the Aleutian Isles. It was, 
 accordingly, assumed by the .Russians to be an 
 island — a hnk iu that great chain of stepping-stones, 
 which had certainly guided them, and perhaps 
 successive shoals of adventurers before them, to the 
 New World. The connection of A. with the conti- 
 nent was left to be ascertained by Captain Cook, 
 
 whose explorations iu search of an Arctic passage 
 
 for Behring's Strait was still a matter of doubt 
 
 were recorded in the adjacent names of Bristol Bay 
 to the westward, and Cook's Inlet to the eastward. 
 Thus A., though materially known only as a home 
 for the hunter and his game, becomes morally a 
 word of interest in connection with the history, 
 primeval as well as modern, of discovery and 
 colonisation. 
 
 ALATE'RlSrUS, according to some, a genua of 
 plants of the natural order Rhamnacem (q. v.), 
 akm to Rhammis (see Bttckthcen) ; but more 
 generally regarded as a sub-genus of Rhamnus, 
 consistmg of evergreen shrubs, of which the best 
 
ALAVA— ALBA. 
 
 known is Sliamnus A., or A. pMllyrea, a large 
 shrub, densely branched, with shining alternate 
 leaves, ■which are more or less ovate. The flowers 
 are dioecious, racemed, numerous, and small, much 
 sought after by bees. This rfirub is abundant 
 in the south of Europe, and is often planted in 
 town-gardens in England to conceal walls and 
 other objects, being of rapid growth, readily pro- 
 pagated by cuttings, bearing tocie clipped iuto any 
 shape, and not easily injured by smoke. Both the 
 bark and wood have been used iu dyeing. 
 
 ALA'VA, Don Miguel Ejoaudo db, a Spanish 
 general, bom at Vittoria, in 1771, of a noble family 
 ia the province of Alava. He entered the navy 
 iu early life; but afterwards changed to the land- 
 service. After the abdication of Eerdiuand VIL, 
 he was for a time a zealous partisan of France ; 
 however, in 1811, when he saw the fortunes of 
 Joseph beginning to wane, he abandoned the cause 
 of this prince, to embrace that of the national 
 party, and accepted the office of Spanish com- 
 missary on the staff of Welhngton. He gained 
 the confidence of this general, and from this time 
 manifested iiie strongest predilection for England 
 and English institutions. The war of independence 
 furnished binn with numerous occasions of dis- 
 tinguishing himself. After the restoration of the 
 king, however, he was arrested, on the suspicion 
 of entertaining liberal omnions; but on the appli- 
 cation of his uncle, Ethenard, the inquisitor, 
 seconded by the influence of Wellington, he was not 
 only liberated, but appointed ambassador to the 
 Hague. He returned to Spaui in 1820, after the 
 revolution; became captam- general of Aragon, 
 made himself conspicuous among the Exaltados, 
 and figured in the ranks of the militia on occasion 
 of the revolt of the royal guard at Madrid, July 7, 
 1822. In the Cortes assembled at Seville in 1823, 
 he voted for the suspension of the royal authority, 
 and took part in the negotiations carried on with 
 the Duke of AngoulSme, at Cadiz. The re-establish- 
 ment of absolute monarchy in theJPeuinsvila drove 
 Viitn^ as a political jefugee, to Brussels and England, 
 • till, at the death of .Ferdinand, he was recalled by 
 the regent, Maria Christina. In 1834, he was 
 appointed Spanish ambassador to London ; and 
 towards the end of 1835, he undertook a mission 
 to Paris.' Under the administration of Isturiz, 
 A. shewed himself as zealous for the • moderate 
 system as he had been for the preceding one, 
 and advocated the French intervention, which 
 he had opposed during his embassy to London. 
 After the insurrection of La Granja, he refused 
 to swear to the constitution of 1812, declaring 
 that he was tired of constantly taking new oaths ; 
 he gave in his resignation accordingly, and retired 
 to Rrance, where he died in 1843. 
 
 A'LBA, or A'LVA, Fekdhj-aitd Alvabez von 
 Toledo, Duke of, prime-minister, and general of the 
 Spanish annies under Charles V. and Philip 11., was 
 bom in 1508, of one of the most illustrious families 
 of Spain. ■ He was educated under the eye of his 
 grandfather, who instruoted'him in the arts of war 
 and of government. He fought, while yet a youth, 
 at the battle of Pavia, and had the custody of Francis 
 1. while a prisoner. He commanded under Charles 
 V. in Hungary, was present at the siege of Tunis, 
 and accompanied the expedition against Algiers. He 
 defended Perpignan against the dauphin, distin- 
 guished himself in Navarre and Catalonia, and was 
 m consequence created Duke of A. His cautious- 
 ness and his taste for political intrigue afforded as 
 yet no veiy high evidence of his military talents ; 
 •and, even Charles V., whom he counselled, when in 
 Himgary, to build a bridge of gold for the Turks, 
 
 rather than hazard a decisive battle, seems to 
 have intrusted him with the command rather as 
 matter of personal favour than recognition of his 
 abilities. His pride was hurt at the low estimation 
 in which he was held ; and hia real genius began to 
 shew itself. The victory which Charles V. gained 
 at MUhlberg over John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, 
 in 1547, was due to the able generalship of the Duke 
 of A Under his influence, as president of the 
 council of war, the captive elector was condemned 
 to death ; and it was entirely against his wish that 
 the emperor commuted the sentence. He took part 
 under the emperor in the exjjedition against Henry 
 II., king of" France, who had taken possession of 
 Metz ; but here his exertions, as well as those of the 
 emperor, proved unavailing. He was more fortunate 
 in Italy against the combined armies of the pope 
 and the French king, which he repeatedly defeated , 
 during the campaign of 1555. After the abdication 
 of the emperor Charles V. in 1556, he continued to 
 hold the command of the army, and overran the 
 States of the Church, which, after the retreat of the 
 French army in 1557, lay entirely at his mercy. He 
 was obliged, however, by the command of Philip II., 
 to conclude a peace with Pope Paul IV., and restore 
 all his conquests. Being recalled from Italy, he 
 appeared in 1559 at the court of France, with which 
 Spain had become reconciled by the peace of Ch3.teau- 
 Cambresis (April 3, 1559); and, as proxy for his 
 sovereign, espoused Elizabeth, Henry II.'s daughter. 
 When the inhabitants of the Netherlands, who 
 had been accustomed to freedom, revolted against 
 the tyranny of Spain, and especially against the 
 hated inquisition, the Duke of A.'s counsel was to 
 suppress the insurrection forcibly and with rigour. 
 The king accordingly committed the matter to his 
 hands, and sent birn to the Netherlands, 1567, with 
 unlimited power and a large military force. His 
 first 'Step on arriving was to establish what was 
 called the ' Bloody Council,' in which he himself at 
 first presided, and over .which he afterwards 
 appointed the sa&guinary Don Juan de Vargas. This 
 tribunal condemned all without distinction whose 
 opinions appeared dubious, or whose wealth excited 
 jealousy. The present and the absent, the living and 
 the dead, were subjected alike to trial, and their 
 property confiscated by the council. A number of 
 the merchants and mechanics emigrated to England; 
 above 100,000 abandoned their native country, and 
 many others enlisted under the banners of the pro- 
 scribed princes, Louis and William of Orange. A, 
 rendered still more savage by a defeat which befel 
 his lieutenant, the Duke of Aremberg, put to death 
 the Counts Egmont and Horn on the scaffold. He 
 afterwards defeated Prince Louis, and compelled 
 William of Orange to retire to Germany ; upon which 
 he entered Brussels in the greatest triumph on the 
 22d December 1568. The pope presented him with a 
 consecrated hat and sword, as Defender of the Catho- 
 lic faith; an honour which, having been hitherto 
 conferred only on crowned heads, increased his inso- 
 lence to the highest degree. He caused a statue to 
 be cast, in which he was represented as trampling 
 under foot two human figures, representing the 
 nobles and people of the Netherlancfe ; and this he 
 set up in Antwerp. His executioners shed more 
 blood than his soldiers ; and none now withstood 
 his arms, except Holland and Zealand. But these 
 provinces continually renewed their efforts against 
 him, and succeeded in destroying the fleet which had 
 been equipped by his orders. This disaster, and perr 
 haps still more the apprehension that he might lose 
 the king's. favour, induced him to request that he 
 might be recalled. PhiUp gladly acceded ; as he 
 perceived that the obstinacy of the rebels was only 
 increased by these cruelties ; and he was desirous of 
 •' 103 
 
ALBA LONaA— ALBANIA. 
 
 tryiBg the effect of milder measures. A. accordingly 
 resigned the command of the troops to Don Louis 
 de Requesens, and (December 18, 1573) left the 
 oouDtry, in which, as he himself boasted, he had 
 executed 18,000 men. The war which he had 
 kmdled burned for sixty-eight years, and cost Spain 
 800,000,000 dollars, her finest troops, and the loss of 
 seven of the richest provinces of the Netherlands. 
 
 A. was received at Madrid with the highest distinc- 
 tion, but did not long enjoy his former consideration. 
 Don Frederic, one of his sons, having seduced one 
 of the queen's ladies of honour under promise of 
 marriage, and being arrested on this account, the 
 father assisted him to escape, and in opposition to 
 the desire of the king, united him in marriage to one 
 of his relatives. He was in consequence banished 
 from the court to his castle of Uzeda, where he 
 lived two years. But now the troubles in Por- 
 tugal, the crown of which Philip claimed as his 
 hereditary right, induced the king to draw A. anew 
 from his retreat. The duke accordingly led an army 
 into Portugal, and drove out Don Antonio, who, as 
 grandson of John III., had taken possession of the 
 throne. The whole country was speedily conquered 
 (1581) ; and A., with his accustomed cruelty and 
 rapaoiiy, seized the treasures of the capital himself, 
 while he allowed the soldiers to plunder without 
 mercy the suburbs and the surrounding coimtry. 
 Philip, dissatisfied with these proceedings, desired to 
 have an investigation of the conduct of the duke; 
 but the haughty bearing of the latter, and the fear 
 of a revolt, induced him to abandon it. A. died at 
 Lisbon, December 11, 1582, at the age of 74. He had 
 a fine countenance, with a haughty air and a robust 
 frame; he slept little, while he both laboured and 
 wi-ote much. It has been said of him, that during 
 sixty years of mihtary service he never lost a battle, 
 and never allowed himself to be surprised. 
 
 A'LBA LO'NGA, one of the most ancient cities of 
 Italy, situated on the rooky ridge that runs along the 
 eastern shore of the Alban Lake, between the lake 
 and the Alban Mount. See Albano. According to 
 legendary history, it was bmlt by Asoanius, the son 
 of .tineas, about 300 years before the foimdation of 
 Kome, which is represented as a colony of A. Not- 
 withstanding this, the Romans, under TuUus Hostihus, 
 destroyed the city, and removed the inhabitants to 
 Kome. It seems certain that A. was an important 
 city long before the existence of Rome, and the head 
 of a confederation of Latin towns, and that when it 
 was destroyed, many of its inhabitants settled at 
 Rome. Some traces of its walls are yet to be seen. 
 
 A'LBAN, St, the first martyr of Britain, was 
 bom at Verulam, in the 3d c, and after having long 
 lived as a heathen, was converted to Christianity, 
 but put to death at the commencement of Diocle- 
 tian's persecution of the Christians. His anniversary 
 is celebrated on the 22d June. The town of St 
 Albans (q. v.), which bears his name, is beheved to 
 stand on the site of his birthplace, or the scene of 
 his martyrdom. 
 
 ALBA'NI is the name of a rich and celebrated 
 family of Rome, who came originally from Albania 
 in the 16th c, and settled first at Urbino. The great 
 influence of the family dates from the accession (1700) 
 of Giovanni Francesco A. to the papal throne, as 
 Clemens XI. It has since furnished a succession of 
 cardinals. It was Cardinal Alessandro A. (b. 1692 — 
 d. 1779) who formed the famous collection of objects 
 of art in the Villa A, outside the Porta Salaria 
 at Rome. It is still a rich collection, although part 
 of it was carried off by the French. The pieces 
 taken away were restored in 1815 ; but the then 
 possessor being unable to pay for their removal to 
 Rome, sold them to the king of Bavaria. 
 104 
 
 ALBANI, Francesco, a painter of the Bolognese 
 school, of the time of the Caracci ; bom at Bologna, 
 1578, and died there in 1660. He studied, along 
 with Guide Reni, first under Calvert, and afterwards 
 under the Caracci. He has painted above fifty- 
 altar-pieces, worthy of the Caracci school; but hia 
 inclination lay more to the representation of scenes of 
 a playful and pastoral, or of a mythical kind, and of 
 this nature are the greater part of his pieces. He had 
 by his second wife a family of twelve children of 
 extraordinary beauty, in whom he foimd exquisite 
 models for his Venuses, Galateas, and angels' heads; 
 with the disadvantage, however, of imj^arting a certain 
 uniformity to the countenances of his figures. His 
 representation of the Four Seasons,' so often imitated, 
 ga^ed him great renown. A.'s chief defect lies in 
 the expression of life and feeling. 
 
 ALBA'NIA (allied to Alp, and meaning ' moun- 
 tain region') forms the south-west province of Euro- 
 pean Turkey, having Montenegro, Bosnia, and Servia 
 on the N., Macedonia and ThessaJy on the E., Qreece 
 on the S., and the Ionian and Adriatic seas on the 
 W. It is divided into four circles, following the four 
 confederations of tribes that people it — the Jegani, 
 Tohkani, Liapuri, and Jamuri. These circles differ 
 both in climate and in the manners of their inhabit- 
 ants. A distinction is also made between Upper 
 Albania, the lUyria of the Romans, in the north, and 
 Lower Albania, the ancient Epirus, in the south. On 
 the east boundary, forming the water-shed of the 
 peninsula, rises the range of the Bora-dagh and the 
 Pindus. The first detaches itself from the wild 
 masses of the Tshar-dagh (dagh in Turkish mean» 
 moiiniain) and Argentaro mountains; and west of 
 it he parallel chains, enclosing on the one side, long 
 elevated valleys, and sinking on the other in 
 terraces, down to level strips along the coast, con- 
 sisting mostly of unhealthy swamps and lagoons. 
 Pindus, to the south, is also flanked by isolated 
 basins or hollows, whose western edges pass into the 
 jagged and thick-wooded Epirotic highlands. These 
 highlands advance to the sea, forming steep rocky 
 coasts; one promontory, the Aorooeraunian, project- 
 ing in Cape Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a 
 height of 4^5000 feet. 
 
 •The chief rivers are the Bojana, the Drin, the 
 Skombi, Ergent, Vojussa, Glykys or Acheron (which 
 follows for some distance a subterranean channel, 
 and on reappearing, is called Mauropotamos), the 
 Arta, and the upper course of the Aspropotamos. 
 Among the lakes, those of Bojana, Ochri, and Janina, 
 are the most important. 
 
 A fine climate, the heat of which is tempered by 
 high mountains and the proximity of the sea, and a 
 favourable soil, would seem to invite the inhabitants 
 to agriculture ; but for the most part in vain. In 
 the north, little or nothing is cultivated but maize ; 
 in the moist valleys, a little rice and barley are 
 produced; but the mountain-terraces are used as 
 pastures for numerous herds of cattle and sheep. In 
 Epirus, there is more variety.. Herathe slopes of the 
 lower valleys are covered with olives, fruit and mul- 
 berry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and 
 maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges 
 furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau of 
 Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the valleys 
 opening to the south, the finer fruits are produced, 
 along with maize, rice, and wheat. Even cotton and 
 indigo might be profitably cultivated in the moist 
 valleys; but in its present wretched condition, the 
 country can barely support its scanty population. 
 
 The inhabitants, estimated at 1,900,000, form a 
 peculiar people, the Albanians or Arnants ; they call 
 themselves Skypetars. They are the descendants of 
 the ancient lUyriaus, mixed with Greeks and Slaves, 
 and not to be confounded with the Albani that live 
 
ALBANO— AlBAIfr. 
 
 on the Caspian Sea. The Albanians are half-civiliaed 
 mountaineers, frank to a friend, vindictive to an 
 enemy. They are constantly under arms, and are 
 more devoted to robbery and piracy than to cattle- 
 feeding and agriculture. They live in perpetual 
 anarchy, every village being at war with its neigh- 
 bour, and even the several quarters of the same town 
 carrying on mutual hostilities. Many of them serve 
 as mercenaries in other countries, and they form the 
 best soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time, the 
 Albanians were all Christians; after the death of 
 their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg, and their sub- 
 jugation by the Turks, a large part became Moham- 
 medans, who distinguished themselves by cruelty 
 and treachery towards the tribes that remained true 
 to their old faith. The steep valleys of the Acheron 
 in the south, forming the district of Suli, are inhabited 
 by a powerful tribe, the Suliotes, who till their fields 
 sword in hand, and conceal their harvests in the 
 earth. They made themselves famous by their long 
 resistance to .All Pacha. In the north, between the 
 Black Drin and the sea, is the countiy or circle of 
 the Mirdites, i. e., the brave, who are always ready 
 with weapons in their hands to defend their freedom 
 and their religion — the Roman Catholic. A. is 
 divided into the pachahcs of Janina, Ilbessan, and 
 Scutari, and the sandjaks of Delvino and Avlona. 
 The chief towns are the ports of Durazzo, Avlona, 
 Prevesa, and Parga ; the more inland towns, Scutari, 
 Berat, ,Argyro Castro, and Arta ; and in the eastern 
 mountain districts, Aldirida and Joanniua. 
 
 ALBA'NO, a town in the States of the Church, on 
 the declivity of the lava- walls which encompass the 
 lake of the same name, and about 18 miles from 
 Eome. It is the seat of a bishop, numbers 5000 
 inhabitants, and is surrounded with handsome man- 
 sions of the wealthier Bomans. It is on the opposite 
 side of the lake from where Alba Longa stood, and 
 owed its origin to the viUas , of ancient Roiuan 
 magnates, such as Pompeius, Bomitian, and Clodius. 
 A valuable wine is produced in the environs. At a 
 short distance from the town, on the old Appian 
 Way, are found the remains of an amphitheatre, and 
 a sepulchre of Etruscan architecture. 
 
 Ine AxBAiJ Lake, or Lago di CasteUo, is formed 
 in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a circum- 
 ference of 6, miles, with the enormous depth of more 
 than 1000 feet. Its elevation is nearly 1000 feet 
 above the sea-level. While the Romans were at war 
 with the Veientes {390 B. c), this lake rose to an 
 extraordinary height in the heat of summer, and 
 without any apparent cause. Etruscan diviners 
 declared that the conquest of Veii depended upon 
 letting oflf the waters of the lake. Stimulated by this, 
 the Romans, under the direction of the Etruscans, 
 opened an emissary or tunnel through the lava- 
 wall which bounds it. In the execution of this work 
 they acquired the art of mining, which they now 
 applied to undermine the walls of Veii. The tunnel, 
 which still remains, and still fulfils its ancient ofiico, 
 is 1^ miles in length, with a height of 7 feet, and a 
 width of 4 feet. On the eastern bank of the lake, 
 rises Monte Cavo, the ancient Moimt Albanus, 3000 
 feet high, affording an extensive and magnificent 
 view from its summit. Upon it once stood the mag- 
 nificent temple of Jupiter Latialis, which was 
 approached by a paved way, for the ascent of the 
 solemn processions of the Latin confederation 
 [Ferice LcUinai), and for the ovations of Roman 
 generals. The road remains, in great part, perfect to 
 this day. 
 
 The Albano stone, called Peperino, was much used 
 in Roman buildings. It is a kind of volcanic tufa, of 
 an ash-colour, and is stiU quarried extensively at A. 
 
 A'LBANS, ' St, an ancient borough in Hertford- 
 
 shire, situated on the top and northern side of a 
 picturesque hiU, 21 miles north-west from London. 
 The'Ver, a small tributary of the Colne, separates 
 it from the site of the ancient Verulamium (Veru- 
 1am), an important station in the time of the 
 Romans, and the scene of a terrible slaughter in 
 the insurrection under Boadieea. In honour of St 
 Alban, said to have suffered martyrdom here in 
 297, a Benedictine monastery was founded by Offa, 
 king of Mercia, in 796. The foundation of the 
 town is supposed to be due to Ulsig (or Ulsin), 
 who was abbot about 150 years later. Two battles 
 were fought near St A. during the Wars of the 
 Roses, in 1455 and 1461. In the first, Henry VI. 
 became a captive ; in the other, he was set at hberty 
 by his brave queen, Margaret of Anjou. The most 
 noteworthy object in the town is the old abbey- 
 church, a cruciform building, of irregular architecture, 
 547 feet in length, by 206 in breadth, vpith an 
 embattled tower 146 feet high. The Abbot of St A. 
 had a seat in the House of Peers, and had precedence 
 of all other English abbots. In St Michael's Church 
 is to be seen a monument to the memory of the 
 great Bacon, who bore the titles of Baron Verulata 
 and Viscount St A. More recently, the Beauclerk 
 family have taken from this place the title of duke, 
 and the Grimston family that of earl. The popula- 
 tion, in 1851, was 7000, many of whom are employed 
 in straw-plaiting and silk-spinning. In the neigh- 
 bourhood are great numbers of corn-mills. The 
 borough, which formerly returned two members, 
 was disfranchised in 1852 for notorious bribery. 
 
 A'LBANY, or ALBAIKN, an ancient name for 
 the Highlands of Scotland, and retained in some 
 degree of use down to our own day. Connected 
 with it is the term Alhiones, appHed to the inhabit- 
 ants of the entire British island in Festus Avienus's 
 account of the voyage of Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, 
 in the 5th c. E. c. ; also the term AlUon, which appears 
 as the name of the island in Aristotle's Treatise 
 of the World. It may, indeed, be pretty safely 
 assumed that Albion or Albany was the original 
 name of Britain among its Celtic population; and 
 that it only became restricted to the north-west 
 provinces of Scotland, when the Celts had for the 
 most part become confined to the same region. 
 Albairm means a country of heights (the root being 
 aXb or alp, a height) ; and it is remarkable to find 
 Albania also a mountainous country. The modem 
 use of the name A. may be said to have taken its 
 rise in an act of a Scottish council held at Scone in 
 June 1398, when the title of Duke of A. was con- 
 ferred on the brother of KingEobert III., then acting 
 as regent of the kingdom. The titie, being forfeited 
 in the son of the first holder, was afterwards con- 
 ferred on Alexander, second son of King James II., 
 m the person of whose son, John, it became extinct 
 in j 536. Subsequently it was conferred in succession 
 on Henry Lord Damley, on Charles I. in infancy, 
 on James II. in infancy, and (as a British title) on 
 Frederick, second son of George III. The unfortunate 
 Prince Charles Stuart, in his latter years, assumed 
 the appellation of Count A. as an incognito title, 
 and gave the title of Duchess of A. to his legitimated 
 daughter. 
 
 ALBANY, the capital of New York, and the 
 second city of importance in that state, is situ- 
 ated on the west bani of the Hudson River, in 
 lat. 42° 39' N., and long. 73° 45' W. Next to 
 Jamestown, in Virginia, it is the oldest in the Union, 
 having been founded by the Dutch in 1623, though 
 it did not receive its present appellation until 1664, 
 when it came into the possession of the English, and 
 was so named in honour of the Duke of York and 
 Albany. It is sitiiated in the midst of a fertile and 
 ■' 106 
 
ALBANY— ALBE. 
 
 well-oulti-vated country, and ia one of the most flour- 
 ishing cities in the States, heing the chief emporium 
 for the transit-trade of the coast-towns with those 
 of the north and north--west. It is advantageously 
 bunt for commerce, at the head of the sloop-navi- 
 gation on the Hudson, communicating by means 
 of canals with Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and Lake 
 Champlain. It is also the centre in which a number 
 of railways meet, connecting it with New York, 
 Buffalo, Boston, &c. One of the most important 
 articles in its commerce is timber. It is perhaps the 
 largest timber-market in the world; the quantity 
 received in 1854 amounting to 311,571,151 feet of 
 boards, and 135,805,091 lbs. of staves, besides many 
 thousand cubic feet of other articles, the whole 
 valued at 6,200,000 dollars. Viewed from some 
 parts of the river, A. has a picturesque and imposing 
 appearance. In general, it is not very remarkable 
 for the regularity of its streets or the elegance of its 
 houses; nevertheless, it contains some of the most 
 splendid edifices in the Union. The Capitol, oi 
 palace of government, is bmlt of white marble, and 
 is reckoned, next to that of Washington. The City 
 Hall is also built of marble, and ornamented with a 
 gilded dome. A. is honourably distinguished for its 
 educational and literary institutions. The univer 
 sity, incorporated in 1852, has for its aim the 
 discipline of the American youth in the most 
 important branches of practical science. The medical 
 college, founded in 1839, has one of the best museums 
 in the States, and is otherwise amply furnished with 
 the means of instruction; There is Hkewise a large 
 number of pubEc schools. Its populatioil is upwards 
 of 60,000. 
 
 ALBANY, Louisa - Mabia - Caeoltne, also 
 AioYsiA, Countess of, wife of the unfortunate 
 Prince Charles-Edward (q. v.), grandson of James II. 
 of England. She was the daughter' of the Prince 
 * Gustavus Adolphus of Stolberg-Gedem, who fell in 
 the battle of Leuthen in 1757. This lady was bom 
 in 1753, and, during her married life, bore the name 
 of the Countess of A. She had no children ; her 
 marriage proved an unhappy one ; and in order to 
 escape from the iU-usage of her husband, who lived 
 in a state of continual drunkenness, she sought refuge 
 in a nunnery, 1780. At the death of the prince m 
 1788, the court of France allowed her an annual 
 pension of 60,000 livres. She outlived the House of 
 the Stuaits, which became extinct at the death of 
 her brother-in-law, the Cardinal of York, in 1807- 
 She died at Florence, which was her usual place of 
 residence, on the 29th of January 1824. Her name 
 and her misfortunes have been transmitted to pos- 
 terity through the works and autobiography of 
 AJfieri (q. v.), to whom she was privately married. 
 Their remains repose in the same tomb in the Church 
 of Santa Croce at Florence, between the tombs of 
 Macchiavelli and Michael Angelo. 
 
 A'LBATEOSS {Diomedea), a genus of web-footed 
 birds of the family of the Laridce, nearly aUied 
 to Gulls and Petrels. Their feet have no hind-toe 
 nor claw; they have a large strong beak— the 
 upper mandible, with strongly marked sutures, and 
 a hooked point. The common Albatross {D..exu,lans), 
 also caUed the Wandering A., is the largest of web- 
 footed birds, the spread of wing being sometimes 
 twelve feet, and the weight twenty pounds or 
 upwards. The wings are, however, narrow in pro- 
 portion to their length. This bird is often seen at a 
 great distance from land, and abounds in the southern 
 seas, particularly near the Cape of Good Hope, 
 whence sailors sometimes call it the Cape Sheep. 
 It often approaches very near to vessels, and is one 
 of the objects of interest which present themselves 
 to voyagers far away from land, particularly when 
 
 it is seen sweeping the surface of the ocean in 
 pursuit of flying-fish, or wjien it alights, as it not 
 unfrequently does, upon the rigging of the ship. It 
 seems rather to float and glide in the air than to fly 
 like other birds, as, except when it is rising from the 
 water, the motion of its long wings is scaxcely to 
 be perceived. The plumage is soft and abundant, 
 mostly white, dusky on the upper parts, some of 
 the feathers of the back and wings black. The 
 bin is of a delicate pinky- white, inclining to yellow 
 at the tip. The A. is extremely voracious; it 
 feeds chiefly on fish and moUusca, but has no 
 objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or to any 
 kind of carrion. It is not a courageous bird, and 
 is often compelled to yield up its prey to sea-eagles, 
 
 Albatross, 
 and even to the larger kinds of gulls. When food 
 is abundant, it gorges itself, like the vultures, and 
 then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may 
 sometimes be taken with the hand. Not unfre- 
 quently, however, on the approach of a boat, i it 
 disgorges the undigested food, and thus lightened, 
 it flies off. Its cry has been compared to that of 
 the pelican ; it also sometimes emits a noise which 
 has been likened to the braying of an ass. Its flesh 
 is unpalatable. It heaps up a rude nest of earth not 
 far from the sea, or deposits its solitary egg in a slight 
 hollow which it makes in the dry ground. The egg 
 is about four inches long, white, and spotted at the 
 larger end ; it is edible. There are seven species of 
 this genus. One of these {D. fuZiginosa), chiefly 
 found within the Antarctic Circle, is called by sailors 
 the Quaker Bird, on account of the prevailing brown 
 colour of its plumage. Albatrosses appear iugreat 
 numbers towards the end of June, about the Kurile 
 Islands and Kamtchatka. The Kamtchadales take 
 them by baited hooks, blow up the entrails for floats 
 to their nets, and make 
 tobacco-pipes and vari- 
 ous domestic articles of 
 the wing-bones. 
 
 ALBE,orALB(Lat. 
 aZtus, white), the long 
 white linen vestment 
 worn in early times by 
 all ecclesiastics at divine 
 service. It differed from 
 the more modem sur- 
 pHce (q. v.), which is 
 only a modiflcation of 
 it, in having narrower 
 sleeves. At the foot 
 and wrists were fem- 
 broidered ornaments 
 called apparels. In 
 the ancient church, Albe. 
 
ALBERONI— ALBERT. 
 
 newly baptised persons were obKged to wear a similar 
 garment for eight days ; and nenoe cateohumens 
 were caJled albccH; and the Sunday after Easter, on 
 which they usuaJly received baptism, came to be 
 called Dominica ia Albis. See WsiTSTlNDAy. 
 
 _ ALBERO'NI, GiULio, CAKDiNAii, the son of a poor 
 vine-dresser, was born on the 31st of May 1664 at 
 Krenzuola in Parma. Erom being merely a chorister 
 in a church at Piaoenza, he quicfly rose, through his 
 abilities, to the dignity of chaplain and favourite of 
 Count Roncovieri, Bishop of St Donino. He was 
 afterwards sent to Madrid as chargS cC affaires, hj 
 the Duke of Pai'ma, where he gained the favour of 
 PhUip V. of Spain, and had thenonours successively 
 conferred on him of grandee, cardinal, and prime- 
 minister. In this last capacity he was of singularly 
 great service to Spain, overthrowing the intaiguing 
 family of Ursini, bringing about the second marriage 
 of PMip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, and stimulating 
 the expiring energies of Spain. A new life dawned 
 upon me nation, which learned to forget the hard- 
 ships it had suffered in the Spanish Wars of Succes- 
 sion ; although, on the omer hand, it must be 
 admitted that it was principally through his instru- 
 mentality that the last liberties and rights , of the 
 people were sacrificed in favour of absolutism. He 
 was ambitious, and ambition is always despotic and 
 unscrupulous ; hence, to gratify the covetous desires 
 of his new mistress, he suddenly invaded Sardinia, 
 in violation of the Peace of Utrecht, cherishing the 
 hope of re-establishing the Bionarchy of Charles V. 
 and Philip II., and startling Europe by his insolent 
 audacity. The Regent of France broke off his 
 aUianoe with Spain, and united himself with Endand 
 and the Emperor ; but A. was not dismayed. Even 
 when the Spanish fleet in the Mediterranean was 
 ■ destroyed by an English one, he contemplated an 
 extensive war by land, in which aJl the European 
 powel:^ would have been entangled. He patronised 
 the Pretender, to annoy Endand, and the French Pro- 
 testants, to annoy Louis. He sought to , unite Peter 
 of Russia and Charles XII. wim him, to plunge 
 Austria into a war with the Turks, to stir up an 
 insurrection in Himgaiy, and, through his influence 
 with one of the parties at the K-ench court, he 
 actually accomplished the arrest of the Regent him- 
 self (the Duke of Orleans). But so universal became 
 the complaints against A., that Philip lost courage, 
 and concluded a treaty of peace, the chief condition 
 of which was that the carmnal should be dismissed, 
 which was effected through the influence of Elizabeth 
 herself, now weary of the arrogance of her late 
 favourite. On the 20th of Dedember 1720, A. re- 
 ceived a command to quit Madrid witiiin twenty-four 
 hours, and the kingdom within five days. E^osed 
 to the vengeance of every power whose hatred he 
 had drawn upon himseK, he knew no land where he 
 couH reinain. Not even to Rome could he venture, 
 for Clement was more bitterly inimical to him than 
 any secular potentate. He wafidered about in 
 disguise, and under fictitidus names. At length, he 
 was imprisoned in tb.e Genoese territory, through the 
 solioitation of the ;^ope and the Spanish monarch ; 
 but he speedily recovered his liberty, and ' two 
 years after the death of Clement, was reinstated by 
 Innocent XIII. in all the rights and dignities of a 
 cardinal. In 1740 he retired to Piacenza, where he 
 died twelve years after (June 26, 1752) at the 
 age of 88. He bequeathed his possessions in Lom- 
 bardy to PhUip V., while his cousin and heir, Cffisar 
 A., became possessor of 1,000,000 ducats. 
 
 A'LBBRT, AxEXABDER Maktin, a member of the 
 Provisional Government of France after the revolu- 
 tion of February 1848, was bom at Bury (Oise) in 
 1815. His father was a peasant, and he himself 
 
 learned a mechanical trade at Paris. He took part 
 in the revolution of July 1830, and was implicated in 
 the celebrated trial of 1834; after which he devoted 
 himself to the study and discussion of political 
 questions, yet not abandoning his workshop. He 
 commenced at Lyon the repiwlican journal called 
 La Glaneme, on account of which he was condemned 
 to a fine of 5000 francs when the insurrection broke 
 out at Lyon. In 1840 he began L Atelier, a paper 
 conducted exclusively by operatives, and devoted to 
 their interests. On the evening before the proclam- 
 ation of the repubhc in February 1848, he was 
 making buttons in his workshop ; and on the nomi- 
 nation of Louis Blanc, he was called to take part in 
 the Provisional Government. He was afterwards 
 chosen president of the Conmaission for National 
 Rewards ; but he soon resigned this post. He was 
 elected by a large majority of voices as the repre- 
 sentative of the department of the Seine in the 
 National Assembly; but involving himself in the 
 attempt of May 15, 1848, a,gainst the government as 
 it then existed, he was arrested the same day, and 
 condemned to a lengthened imprisoimient. 
 
 ALBERT, CoDKT OB' Bollstabt, usually called 
 Albertus Magnus, also Albertus Teutonicus, a man 
 less distinguished for originality, than for the 
 extent of his acquirements and Ms efforts for the 
 spread of knowledge, especially of the works and 
 doctrines of Aristotle, was born at Lauingen, in 
 Swabia, in 1205, or, as some say, in 1193. After 
 finishing his studies at Padua, he enterfed the order 
 of the Dominican friars, and taught in the schools 
 of HQdesheim, Ratisbon, and' Cologne, where 
 Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1230 he 
 repaired to Paris, where he publicly expounded 
 the doctrines of Aristotle, in spite of the prohibition 
 of ' the Church. In 1249, he became rector of 
 the school at Cologne; and in 1254, provincial of 
 the Dominican order in Germany. In 1260, he 
 received from Pope Alexander IV. the bishopric of 
 Ratisbon. But in 1262, he retired to his convent 
 at Cologne, to devote himself to Hterary pursuits; 
 and here he composed a great number of works, 
 especially commentaries on Aristotle. He had fallen 
 into dotage some "years before his death, which 
 occurred in 1280. The fullest edition of his works 
 was prepared by Pierre Jammy, the Dominican 
 (21 vols., Lyon and Leyden, 1651) ; but it is far 
 fronii being complete. Many of the writings 
 attributed to A. seem to be spurious ; among others, 
 that entitled De Secrelis Mvlienem, which was 
 widely circulated during the middle ages. The 
 extensive chemical and mechanical knowledge 
 which A. possessed, considering the age in which- 
 he lived, brought upon him . the imputation of 
 sorcery; and in German tradition he has a very 
 ambiguous reputation. It is recorded, for instance, 
 that in the winter of 1240, he g?,ve a banquet in 
 the garden of his convent, at Cologne, to William 
 of Holland, king of the Romans ; and that during 
 the entertainment, the wintry scene was suddenly 
 transformed into one of summer bloom and beauty. 
 This, ,myth rests inost likely on the fact of A. 
 having had a green-house. — The scholastics who 
 followed A.'s opinions \took the name of Albertists. 
 
 ALBERT, Feahcis (Ai.eeet) Auqijstdb-Chaiiles- 
 Emmakoel, Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Consort of 
 Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, born August 26, 1819, 
 is the second son of the late Duke of Saxe-Coburg- 
 Gotha, by his first marriage with Louisa, daughter 
 of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. The Prince, 
 after a careful domestic education, along with his 
 elder brother, the reigning Duke, attended the 
 uhiversity of Bonn, where, in addition to 'the 
 sciences connected with state-craft, he devoted 
 
 107 
 
ALBERT— ALBERT THE BEAK. 
 
 himself with ardour to the study of natural history 
 aud chemistry, and displayed great taste for the fine 
 arts, especially painting and music. Several compo- 
 sitions of his obtained pubheity, and an opera was 
 afterwards performed in London, said to have been 
 composed by him. Gifted with a handsome figure, 
 he attained expertness in all knightly exercises. , It 
 was this accomphshed Prince that the young Queen 
 of G-reat Britain selected as her partner for life. 
 The marriage was celebrated in London on the 10th 
 of February 1840. On his marriage. Prince Albert 
 received the title of Royal Highness, was natiu-alised 
 as a. subject of Great Britain, and obtained the rank 
 of Keld-marshal, the knighthood of the Order of the 
 Bath, aud the command of a regiment of Hussars. 
 As the union has proved, in the highest degree, a 
 happy one, the prince has been loaded with honours 
 and distinctions both by the Queen and the nation. 
 The title of Consort of Her Most Gracious Majesty 
 was formally conferred in 1842, and that of Piince 
 Consort, in 1857, made him a prince of the United 
 Kingdom. He is also a member of the Privy 
 Council, Governor and Constable of Windsor Castle, 
 Colonel of the Grenadier Guards, Acting Grand 
 Master of the Order of the Bath, Chancellor of the 
 University of Cambridge, Master of the Trinity 
 House, &c. Notwithstanding his high and favoured 
 position, the Prince has, with rare prudence and tact, 
 abstained from meddling with state aflfairs, and has 
 thus escaped the jealousy and detraction of parties. 
 When the Whig ministry of 1840 proposed for 
 hiTTi the income of £50,000, as Consort of Queen 
 Victoria, the Tories, in conjunction with the Radicals, 
 succeeded in limiting the sum to £30,000. This 
 appears to have been the only instance of any inani- 
 festation of party feeUng with reference to the 
 Prince. On ttie other hand, he has opened for him- 
 self an influential sphere of action, in the encourage- 
 ment aud promotion of science and art, appearing 
 as the patron of many useful associations and public 
 undertakings. The Industrial Exhibition of 1851 
 owed much to the suggestions and encouragement 
 of the Prince. Foiu' princes and five princesses have 
 been the fruit of his marriage with Queen Victoria. 
 
 ALBERT or ALBBECHT, Five sovereign 
 dukes of Austria (q. v.) bore this name, of whom 
 two (I. and V.) were also emperors of Germany. 
 A. I., Duke of Austria and Emperor of Germany, 
 was the eldest son of Rudolph I., and bom in 
 the year 1248. Rudolph, about the close of his 
 career, made an effort to have A. appointed his 
 successor; but the electors, tired of his authority, 
 and emboldened by his age and infirmities, refused 
 to comply with his request. After Rudolph's death, 
 Austria and Styria revolted ; but A., having vigor- 
 ously crushed the insurrection, had the audacity 
 to assume the insignia of the empire without waiting 
 for the decision of the Diet. This violent measure 
 induced the electors to choose, in preference to 
 hinij Adolphus of Nassau. Disturbances in Switzer- 
 land, and a disease which cost him an eye, now 
 rendered him more hiunble ; he delivered up the 
 insignia which he had so rashly assumed, and 
 took the oath of allegiance to the new emperor, 
 who, however, after some years, so completely 
 disgusted his subjects, that A. began to entertain 
 hopes of recovering his imperial dignity. In 1298, 
 Adolphus was deposed, and A. elected ; but the 
 former having resolved to maintain his title, A. 
 was obliged to fight for the crown. The rivals 
 drew up their forces near Worms, where a battle 
 ensued, in which Adolphus was defeated and slain. 
 A., feeling that he might now safely display magna- 
 nimity, voluntarily resigned the crown which nad 
 been recently conferred upon him; and, as he had 
 anticipated, was unanimously re-elected. His 
 108 
 
 coronation took place at Aix-la-ChapeUe, in August 
 1298. But the pope, Boniface VIII., denied the 
 right of the princes to elect A., declared himself the 
 only true emperor and legitimate king of the 
 Romans, summoned the former before him, required 
 him to ask pardon and do penance, forbade the 
 princes to acknowledge him, and released them 
 from their oath of aflegiance. A., on H;he other 
 hand, with his usual intrepidity, defied his Holiness, 
 formed an alliance With Phihp the Fair of Prance, 
 secured the neutrality of Saxony and Brandenburg, 
 invaded the electorate of Metz, and forced the 
 archbishop to break off his aUiaiice with Boniface 
 and to form one with himself for the next five 
 years. The pope was alarmed by Hs success, and 
 entered into negotiations with him. A., whose 
 duplicity and unscrupulousness equalled his courage, 
 suddenly broke off his affiance with Philip, admitted 
 the western empire to be a papal grant, and declared 
 that the electors derived their right of choosing from 
 the Holy See. Moreover, he promised upon oath to 
 defend the rights of the Romish court whenever he 
 was called upon. As a reward, Boniface gave him 
 the kingdom of France, excommunicating Phihp, 
 and declaring him to have forfeited the crown; 
 but the latter severely chastised the pope for his 
 insolence in daring to give away what was not 
 his own. In the following year, A. made war 
 unsuccessfully against Holland, Zealand, Friesland, 
 Hungary, Bohemia, and Thuringia. Shortly after- 
 wards, news reached him that a rebellion had 
 broken out amongst the Swiss in Unterwalden, 
 Schweitz, and Uri, in January 1308. A. had not only 
 foreseen, but desired this, in order that he might 
 find a pretext for completely subjugating the 
 country. A new act of injustice, however, 
 occasioned a crime which put an end to his 
 ambition and Hf e. His nephew, Duke John, claimed 
 Swabia as his rightful inheritance, and had set 
 his claims before A., but in vain. When the latter 
 was departing for Switzerland, the former renewed 
 his demand. A. scoffingly refused; and Duke 
 John resolved to be revenged. Along with four 
 others, he conspired against his vmcle's hfe, and 
 assassinated him on the way to Rheinfeldeu, while 
 separated from his followers by the river Reuss. 
 The emperor expired May "1, 1308, in the arms 
 of a beggar-woman sitting by, the wayside — a 
 spectacle calculated to excite stern reflection on 
 the vamty of human ambition. His daughter 
 Agnes, queen of Hungary, frightfully revenged her 
 father's death. See John", the Parbicide. A. 
 left five sons and five daughters, the children of 
 his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of the Count 
 of Tyrol. 
 
 ALBERT THE BEAR (so called, not from any 
 pecidiarity of character or appearance, but from the 
 heraldic cognizance that he assumed). Margrave of 
 Brandenburg, one of the most remarkable princes of 
 his age, was bom 1 106. He was the son and successor 
 of Otho, the rich Count of Ballenstadt, and of EUca, 
 eldest daughter of Magnus, Duke of Saxony. Having 
 proved faithful to the Emperor Lothario, he received 
 from the latter Lusace, to be held as a fief of the 
 empire ; but the Duchy of Saxony, to which he had 
 the best claim, was given to Henry of Bavaria (1127), 
 the son of the youngest daughter of the duke. As a 
 compensation, A. was made Margrave (Markgraf ) of 
 the Northern March or Marok (Salzwedel) ; but in 
 the year 1138, Henry having been put under the 
 imperial ban, the duchy reverted to the former, 
 when, he took the title of Duke of Saxony. Henry, 
 however, again got the upper hand, and A. was com- 
 pelled to fly, and to content himself with the mar- 
 graviate of Northern Saxony, and the government 
 of Swabia, which was given him as an indemnity. 
 
ALBERT— AI/BIGENSES. 
 
 Returning to liia own country, lie got himself invested 
 with the lands which he had conquered from the 
 Wends as a hereditary fief of the empire, and thus 
 became the founder and first Margrave of the new 
 state of Brandenburg. Under A. me Margravedom 
 was afterwards raised to be an Electorate, and he 
 himself became Elector of Brandenburg. After he 
 had quelled a revolt of the Wends m 1157, he 
 determined to take extreme measures against the 
 vanquished. He almost depopulated their country, 
 and then colonised it with Elemings. On his return 
 from a pilgrimage to Palestine in company with his 
 wife in 1159, he exerted himself to suppress the 
 language and paganism of the Wends, and to intro- 
 duce Christianity amongst them. He died in 1170, 
 at Ballenstadt, where he was buried. Brandenburg 
 continued in the possession of his descendants for 
 two centxiries, and finally (1415) fell to the house of 
 Hoheuzollern (q. v.). 
 
 ALBERT, last grand-master of the Teutonic 
 Order, and first Duke of Prussia, was born in 1490. 
 He was the son of the Margrave Frederic of 
 Anspach and Baireuth, who, having several children, 
 wished to make him enter the church. He was 
 educa.ted under the care of Archbishop Hermann, 
 of Cologne, where he became canon. He did not, 
 however, neglect knightly exerpises. He accom- 
 panied the emperor Maximilian L in his expe- 
 dition against V enioe, and ^ was present at the 
 siege of Pavia. In 1511, when scarcely twenty-one 
 years old, he was chosen grand-master of the 
 Teutonic Order, the knights expecting their feudal 
 allegiance to Poland to be abolished, on account of 
 his near relationship to Sigismund, liie monarch of 
 that country, while they also hoped for protection 
 against the latter from his friends in Germany. 
 He was consecrated at Mergentheim with lus 
 father's consent. In 1512 he removed to KHnigs- 
 berg, having been acknowledged by Poland like- 
 wise; but refusing to take the oath of allegiance, 
 he was plunged, into a war with Sigismund iu 
 1520. The year after, a four years' truce was 
 agreed to at Thorn. A. next made his appearance 
 at the imperial Diet at Numberg, as a, German 
 prince of the empire, to induce the other princes to 
 assist bim against the Poles. But Germany could 
 at that time grant no assistance to any one. , Dis- 
 appointed in his hopes, A. threw himself into the 
 cause of the Reformation, which had rapidly spread 
 into Prussia, and broken the last strength of the 
 declining order, whose possessions now appeared a 
 certain prey to Poland. A. still hoped to preserve 
 these, by acting upon Luther's advice, which was, to 
 declare himself secular Duke of Prussia, and place 
 his land under the sovereignty of Sigismund. This 
 was done with great pomp at Cracow, on the 8th 
 April 1525, the duchy being secured to him and his 
 descendants. During the remamder of his life, A. 
 zealously sought to further the welfare of his duchy. 
 He regiuated the administration of aU affairs, both 
 secular and ecclesiastical, . established' the ducal 
 hbrary, founded in 1543 ihe university of Konigs- 
 berg, gathered many literary men around him, and 
 caused their works to be printed. In 1527, he 
 married Dorothea, daughter of Erederick, king of 
 Denmark. A. earnestly desired peace, but his was 
 not an age in which peace could be purchased. The 
 transition period from the old to the new is always 
 violent, and the duke found himself entangled in 
 conflicts with the nobles, and in theological disputes, 
 which, along with other crosses of a more personal 
 character, saddened the close of his Ufe. He died 
 in 1568. See Prussia. 
 
 ALBERT, Archbishop of Magdeburg, and Elector 
 of Mentz, generally called A. of Brandenburg, 
 
 younger son of the elector, John Cicero of Branden- 
 biirg, was born in 1489. In 1513 he became Arch- 
 bishop of Magdeburg; in the same year, also, 
 Admmistrator of the bishopric of Halberstadt, and 
 in the following year. Archbishop and Hector of 
 Mentz. Leo X. having granted him permission to sell 
 indulgences, on condition that he shoiild deliver up 
 half the booty to the papal exchequer, A. appointed 
 the Dominican Tetzel 'indulgence-preacher,' who, 
 by the shameless manner in which he went about 
 his work, first stirred Luther to post up his well- 
 known ninety-five theses. Even in the archbishop's 
 own diocese, the reformer's doctrines found not a 
 few adherents, so that A. was compelled, at the 
 imperial Diet at Augsburg, to act the part of peace- 
 maker. When he joined the Holy Alliance against 
 the Treaty of Sclunalkald, Luther made a fierce 
 attack . on him in writing. He was the first of all 
 the German princes who received the Jesuits into 
 his dominions. In 1541, he granted religious liberty 
 to his subjects, under the condition that they should 
 pay his debts, amounting to 500,000 florins. He did 
 this, not from any love of religious liberty, but either 
 because of the consideration referred to, or from a 
 dread of popular compulsion. The last days of his 
 hfe were spent in Aschafienbtu-g, where he died in 
 1545. 
 
 AJIiBBRT, or ALBRECHT, Archduke of Austria, 
 bom in 1559, was the third son of the emperor 
 Maximilian II. He was brought up at the Spanish 
 court, and dedicated himself to the church. In 1577 
 he was made cardinal, in 1584, Archbishop of Toledo, 
 and diuring the years 1594 — 96, held the ofSce of 
 viceroy of Portugal. He was next appointed Stadt- 
 holder of the Netherlands, where he continued, until 
 his death, the representative of the Spanish monarch, 
 discharging the duties of his function with prudence 
 and dignity. Cardinal Bentivogho, who resided a 
 considerable time at his court, praises his upright- 
 ness, his moderation, his , love of serious study, -his 
 indiistry, his perseyerance, and his discretion, though 
 he does not conceal the fact that he was a prince 
 better fitted for. peace than for war. He displayed 
 at first both courage and enthusiasm, but afterwards 
 he was accused of dilatoriness and timidity. Mean- 
 while, he did not receive from Spain the promised 
 help; and, moreover, affairs had reached such a 
 pitch, that they could hardly become worse. A., 
 however, did the best that could be done. His mild, 
 moderate, and unpersecuting character, essentially 
 contributed to the re-establishment of the Spanish 
 authority in the Netherlands. Philip employed him 
 to mediate amid the disturbed provinces. A. now 
 abandoned lus ecclesiastical profession, and married 
 (1598) the Infanta, Isabella, who received the Nether- 
 lands for her dowry. He died in 1621. 
 
 ALBB'RTtrS MAGNTJS. See Albert or 
 
 BOLISTADT. 
 
 A'LBI, capital of the department of Tarn in 
 Prance, is bmlt on a height. It is very old, and 
 suffered greatly during the religious wars which 
 devastated the land in the time of the Albigenses. 
 Besides the usual government of&ces, it possesses a 
 public library of 12,000 volumes, and a museum. 
 The most remarkable buildings are the cathedral, 
 bmlt in the style of the 13th c, the old palace of 
 the Count of Albigeois, and the theatre. There is 
 considerable trade in com, wine, anise, prunes, and 
 clover-seed. The chief manufacfrares are table-hnen, 
 cotton and woollen goods, leather, &c. Pop. 10,380. 
 
 A'LBIGBNSBS is a name applied loosely to the 
 ' heretics,' belonging to various sects, that abounded in 
 the south of Prance about the beginning of the 13th 
 c. The chief sect was the Cathari (q. v.) ; but they 
 all agreed in renouncing the authority of the popes 
 
ALBIGEKSES— AlBOENOZ. 
 
 and the discipline of the Romish" Church. The name 
 arose from the circmnstance that the district of 
 Alhigeois in Languedoo — now in the department of 
 Tarn, of which AIbi is the capital — was the first 
 point against which the cmsade of Pope Innocent 
 in., 1209, was directed. The immediate pretence 
 of the crusade was the murder of the papal legate 
 and inquisitor, Peter of Castelnau, who had been 
 commissioned to extirpate heresy in the dominions 
 of Count Eaymond VI. of Toulouse; but its real 
 object was to deprive the count of his lands, as he 
 had become an object of hatred from. his toleration 
 of the heretics. It was in vain that he had submitted 
 to the most humiliating penance and flagellation 
 from the hands of the legate Milo, and had purchased 
 the papal absolution by great sacrifices. The legates, 
 Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux and Milo, who directed 
 the expedition, took by storm Beziers, the ■ capital 
 of Raymond's nephew, Roger, and massacred 
 20,000 — some say 40,000 — of the inhabitants, 
 CathoKcs as well as heretics. 'KjU them aH,' 
 said Arnold ; ' God will know his own ! ' Simon, 
 Count of Moutfort, who conducted the war under 
 the legates, proceeded in the same relentless way 
 with other places in the territories of Raymond and 
 his allies. Of these, Roger of Beziers died in 
 prison, and Peter I. of Aragon fell in battle. The 
 conquered lauds were given as a reward to Simon of 
 Montfort, who never came into quiet possession of 
 the gift. At the siege of Toulouse, . 1218, he was 
 killed by a stone, and Counts Raymond VI. and 
 VII. disputed the possession of their territories with 
 his son. But the papal indulgences drew fresh 
 crusaders from every province of iPrauce, to continue 
 the war. Raymond VII. continued to str uggle 
 bravely against the legates and Louis Vlil. of 
 France, to whom Montfort had ceded his preten- 
 sions, and who fell in the war in 1226. After 
 hundreds of thousands had perished on both sides, a 
 peace was concluded, in 1229, at which Raymond 
 purchased relief from the ban of the church by 
 immense sums of money, gave up Narbonne and 
 several lordships to Louis IX., and had to make his 
 son-in-law, the brother of Louis, heir of his other 
 possessions. These provinces, hitherto independent, 
 were thus, for the first time, joined to the kingdom 
 of France ; and the pope sanctioned the acquisition, 
 in order to bind Louis more firmly to the papal 
 chair, and induce bi-m more readily to admit the 
 inquisition. The heretics were handed over to the 
 proselytising zeal of the order of Dominicans, and 
 the bloody tribunals of the Inquisition ; and both 
 used their utmost power to bring the recusant A. to 
 the stake, and also, by inflicting severe punishment 
 on the penitent converts, to inspire dread of incur- 
 ring the church's displeasure. From the middle of 
 the 13th c, the name of the A. gradually disappears. 
 The remnants of them took rerage in the east, and 
 settled in Bosnia. Compare Fauriel, Grmsade eoniire 
 lea AlMgeois (Par. 1838); '^sher, Inquiry into the 
 History and Theology of the Vallenses and Albigenses 
 (Lon. 1838). 
 
 ALBI'KOS— called also Leucoethiopes, or white 
 negroes, and by the Dutch and Germans Kakerlaken 
 — ^were at one time considered a distinct race; but 
 doser observation has shewn that the same pheno- 
 menon occurs in individuals of all races, and that 
 the peculiar appearance arises from an irregularity 
 in the skin, which has got the name of leucopathy or 
 leucosis. It consists in the absence of the colouring 
 matter which, in the normal state, is secreted 
 between the cuticle and the true skin, and also of 
 the dark pigment of the eye ; so that the skiii has a 
 pale, sickly white colour, wMle the iris of the eye 
 appears red, from its great vascularity. As the pig- 
 ment in the coats of the eye serves to diminish the 
 no ^ 
 
 stimulus of the light upon the retina, A. generally 
 cannot bear a strong light; on the other hand, they 
 see better in the d^k than others. The colouiiiig 
 matter of the hair is also wanting in A., so that theif 
 hair is white. All these differences are of course 
 more striking in the darker varieties of the species, 
 and most of all in the negro albinos. 
 
 Albinoism is always bom with the individual, 
 and occurs not only in men, but also in other mam- 
 malia, in birds, and probably in insects. It is not 
 improbable that the peculiarity may, to some extent, 
 be hereditary. The opinion that A. are distinguished 
 from other men by weakness of body and mind, is 
 completely refuted by facts. 
 
 A'LBION is the most ancient name on record of 
 the island of Great Britain. See Albajtt or AiaAnnr. 
 
 A'LBOIM", the founder of the Lombard dominion 
 in Italy, succeeded his father in 561 A. D., as king of 
 the Lombards, who were at that time settled in 
 Pannonia. His thirst for action first vented itself 
 in aiding Narses against the Ostrogoths ; and after- 
 wards, in a war with the Gepidse, whom he, in con- 
 junction with the Avari, defeated in a great battle 
 (566), slaying, their king Cunimond with his own 
 hand. On the death of his first wife, Klodoswinda, 
 he married Rosamond, daughter of Cunimond, who 
 was his prisoner. Some of his warriors, who had 
 accompanied Narses into Italy, brought back reports 
 of the beauties and riches of the country. This 
 determined A., in 568, to enter Italy with his own 
 nation of Lombards, the remains of the Gepidse,- 
 and 20,000 Saxons. He soon overran and subdued 
 the north of the country as far as the Tiber, fixing 
 his principal resid'ence at Pavia — ^which long con- 
 tinued to be the capital of the Lombards ; when 
 his barbarity cost hnn his hfe. During a feast at 
 Verona, he made his queen drink out of the skull 
 of her father, which he had converted into a wine- 
 cup. In revenge, she incited her paramour to 
 murder her husband, who fell 574. Strangely enough, 
 A. was a just and beneficent ruler. He was beloved 
 by his subjects, whom he stimiilated into that vital 
 activity that characterised their descendants for ages. 
 For several centuries, his name continued to be 
 illustrious among the German nationsj who cele- 
 brated his praises in martial songs. To escape the 
 fury of the Lombards, Rosamond fled with, her 
 associate and the treasure to Longinus, the exarch, 
 at Ravenna. Longinus becoming a suitor for her 
 hand, she administered poison to Hehmchis, her 
 paramour, who, discovering the treachery, causeid her 
 to swallow the remainder of the cup, and die with 
 
 AIiBORNOZ, jEoidics Axyabez CAnnio, a 
 warKke prelate of the middle ages, was bom at 
 Cuen9a. He studied at Toulouse, and subsequently 
 became almoner to Alfonso XL, king of Castile, 
 who appointed him Archdeacon of Calatrava, and 
 finally Archbishop of Toledo. He took part in 
 the wars against the Mdors, saved the life of the 
 king in the battle at Tarifa, and was present at 
 the siege of Algeoiras, where the king dubbed 
 him knMit. On account of the Christian boldness 
 with which he denoimoed the criminal excesses 
 of Peter the Cmd, he fell into disgrace, and had 
 to flee to Pope Clement VI., at Avignon, who made 
 him a cardmal. innocent VII. also recognised 
 his pohtical talents, and sent him as cardinal-legate 
 to Rome, where, by his tact and vigour, he secured, 
 m spite of the intricate complication of affairs, 
 the restoration of the papal authority in the States 
 of the Church (1353—62). Pope Urban V. owed 
 the recovery of his dominions to bim, and out 
 of gratitude, appointed him legate at Bologna, in 
 1367. In the same year he £ed at Viterbo, but 
 
ALBUEEA— ALBUQUERQUE. 
 
 expressing a -wish to be birried at Toledo, almost 
 royal honours were rendered to his dead body 
 by the Spanish monarch, Henry o£ Castile; and 
 Urban even granted an indulgence to all who 
 had assisted in the transference of his remains from 
 Viterbo to Toledo. He left a vaiuaible work upon 
 the constitution of the Komiah Church, printed for 
 the first time at Jesi in 1473, and now very rare. 
 
 ALBUE'RA, in the Spanish province of Estrema- 
 duia, an insignificant hamlet, famous for the battle 
 of May 16, 1811, between the combined English, 
 Spanidi, and Portuguese forces vinder General 
 Beresford; and the French imder Marshal Soult, 
 who were scarcely so numerous, but had abundant 
 artillery. The object of the latter was to compel the 
 English to raise the siege of Badajos. The result was, 
 that Soult was obliged to retreat to Seville, with the 
 loss of 9000 men ; the loss of the allied forces was 
 about 7000. In proportion to the numbers engaged, 
 the battle was the most sanguinary in the whole 
 contest. The French had at first got possession of 
 a height which commanded the \niole position of 
 the allied army, but they were driven from it by 
 6000 British, only 1500 of whom reached the top 
 unwounded. 
 
 ALBUFE'RA (an Arabic word meaning 'The 
 Lake'), a lake near Valencia, in Spain, about 
 10 miles in length and the same in breadth, divided 
 from the sea by a narrow tongue of land; a canal 
 connects it with the city of Valencia. It is rich in 
 fish and fowl, and is said to ha,ve been excavated 
 by the Moors. From it, Marshal Suchet (q. v.) 
 takes the title of Duke. 
 
 A'LBUM, amongst the Bomans, was a white 
 tablet overlaid with gypsum, on which were written 
 the Annates MaaAmi of the pontifex, edicts of the 
 prsetor, and rules relative to civil matters. It 
 was so called, either because it was composed of 
 a white material, or because the letters used were of 
 that colour. To tamper vrith the names written on 
 an A. was regarded by the Eomans as a serious 
 offence, and involved a severe penalty. In the 
 middle ages, the word was used to denote any Ust, 
 catalogue, or register, whether of saints, soldiers, or 
 civil functionaries. In the gymnasia and universi- 
 ties on the continent, the list of the names of the 
 members is called the A. The name is also applied 
 to the 'black board' on which public notifications of 
 lectures, &c., are written up. But its popular signi- 
 ficatiop in modem times is that of a 'blank book 
 of ornamental exterior , fitted for a drawing-room 
 table, and intended to receive fugitive pieces of 
 verse, or tbe signatures of distinguished persons, or 
 sometimes merely drawings, prints, marine plants, &c. 
 
 ALBU'MEliT is an organic compound, found both 
 in animal and vegetable substances. It forms the 
 chief ingredient in the white of egg, and abounds in 
 the blood and chyle, and more or less in all the 
 serous fluids of the animal body : it also exists in the 
 sap of vegetables, and in their seeds and other edible 
 parts. A. farms the starting-point of animal tissues, 
 for in an egg during incubation all thei parts of the 
 chick are formed out of it. The organised sub- 
 stances, fibrine and caseine, have a chemical composi- 
 tion similar to A. ; and- hence, along with A, they 
 are called albuminous compounds. A may be 
 .considered the raw material of fibrine, and fibrine 
 as animaldsed A. 
 
 The chief component elements of A are -carbon, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, with small pro- 
 portions of phosphorus and sulphur. It is believed 
 to be a definite chemical compound, though the 
 exact proportions and the rational formula have 
 not been definitely ascertained. Carbon forms about 
 54 per cent, of it ; nitrogen, 16 ; and sulptur, 2. It 
 
 is the sulphur of the A that blackens silver when 
 brought in contact with eggs, and the smell of 
 rotten eggs arises from the formation of sulphuretted 
 hydrogen during the decomposition. 
 
 A. is soluble in water, and in such a state of solu- 
 tion is found in the egg, the juice of flesh, the serum 
 of blood, and the juice of vegetables; but when 
 heated from 140° to 160° it coagulates, and is no 
 longer soluble in water. A^Tith bichloride of mer- 
 cury (corrosive sublimate), sulphate of copper (blue 
 vitriol), acetate of lead (sugar of lead), nitrate of 
 silver (lunar caustic), it forms insoluble compounds, 
 and is therefore used as an antidote to these poisons. 
 The property of coagulating with heat adapts A 
 for the purpose of clarifying in sugar-refining and 
 other processes. The A. is added to the liquid m the 
 cold state, allowed to m^^r thoroughly therein, and 
 then, when heated, it coagulates, entangling and 
 separating all the impurities suspended in the liquid. 
 A. is hkewise coagulated by the majority of the 
 mineral acids, but not by acetic acid. Alcohol, ether, 
 oreasote, and tannic acid likewise cause the coagu- 
 lation .of A., and hence the efficacy of these sub- 
 stances, especially the two latter, in coagulating 
 and thereby killing the nerves which cause so much 
 pain in toothache. The importance of A. as an 
 article of diet, will be discussed under Food. 
 
 ALBUMEN', in Botany, a store of nutritive 
 matter, distinct from the embryo, but enclosed 
 along with it within the integuments of the seed. 
 It is also known by the names Perisperm and 
 Endosperm. When a seed has a store of A. separate 
 from the embryo, it is said to be albuminous or 
 peiispermic. When the nutritive matter is stored 
 up in the cotyledons or lobes of the seed itself, as 
 in the bean, pea, waU-flower, &c., the seed is said to 
 be exaHmminous or aperispermic. In these the A, 
 as a distinct part of the seed, is wanting, and the 
 entire seed, consists of embryo and integument. 
 When the A. is present, it is sometimes very small, 
 as in the nettle ; in other instances, on the contrary, 
 it is very much larger than the embryo, as in the 
 cocoa-nut, of which it forms the edible part. It is 
 also the edible or useful part of many other seeds 
 — as in the different kinds of com — and in coflee, 
 nutmeg, &;c. It is sometimes mealy or farinaceous, 
 as in Hie cereals ; oily, as in the poppy ; homy, as 
 in coffee ; cartilaginous, as in the cocoa-nut ; muei- 
 lagimous, as in the mallow. Vegetable ivory is the 
 A. of a palm (genus Phytelephas) which grows on 
 the banks of the Magdalena, and is used in place 
 of ivory. The presence or aibsence, and various 
 peculiarities of A., afford botanical characters of 
 great value. The A. appears to be a store provided 
 for the nourishment of the embryo, and consists of 
 starchy, oily, and albuminous matter. Vegetable A., 
 in a chemical sense, exists, and often in large quan- 
 tity, even in seeds, which, according to the langnage 
 of descriptive botany, are exalbuminous or destitute 
 of A. ; and to prevent confusion, perisperm has 
 begun to be employed as the botanic^ term ; but it 
 is not yet in general use. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE, Alfonso the Gbeat, viceroy 
 of the Indies, and also called the Portuguese Mars, 
 was bom, in 1453, near Alhandra, a town not far from 
 Lisbon, of a family of the royal blood of Portugal In 
 that age, the Portuguese people were distinguished 
 for heroism and a spirit of adventure. They had 
 discovered and subjugated a great part of the 
 western coast of Africa, and were beginning to 
 extend their dominion over the seas and the people 
 of India. A. being appointed viceroy of these 
 new possessions, landed on the coast of Malabar 
 on September 26, 1^03, with a fleet and some 
 troops ; conquered Goa, which he made the seat 
 
ALBHRNTTM, OR SAP-WOOD— ALCANTAEA. 
 
 of the Portuguese government, and the centre of 
 its Asiatic commerce; and afterwards the whole 
 of Malabar, Ceylon, the Simda Isles, the peninsula 
 of Malacca, and (in 1515) the island of Ormuz at 
 the entrance of 'the Persian Gulf. When the king 
 of Persia sent for the tribute which the princes 
 of this island had formerly rendered to bjm, A. 
 presented bullets and swords to the ambassador, 
 saying : ' This is the coin with which Portugal pays 
 her tribute.' He made the Portuguese name pro- 
 foundly respected among the princes and people of 
 the East ; and many of them, especially the kings of 
 Siam and Pegu, sought his affiance and protection. 
 AH his imdertakings bore the stamp of an extra- 
 ordinary mind. • fie maintained strict military 
 discipline, was active, far-seeing, wise, humane, and 
 equitable, respected and feared by his neighbours, 
 while beloved by his subjects. His virtues made such 
 an impression on the Indian people, that long after 
 his death, they resorted to his grave, to implore 
 his protection against the misgovernment of his 
 successors. Notwithstanding his valuable services, 
 A. did not escape the envy of the courtiers and 
 the suspicions of King Emmanuel, who appointed 
 Lopez Soarez, a personal enemy of A., to supersede 
 him as viceroy. This ingratitude affected him 
 deeply. Ismagl, the shah of Persia, offered his 
 assistance to resist the arbitrary decree of the 
 Portuguese court ; but A. would not violate his 
 allegiance. A few days after, commending his son 
 to the king in a short letter, he died at sea near 
 Goa, December 16, 1515. Emmanuel honoured his 
 memory by a long repentance, and raised his son to 
 the highest dignities in the state. His Uf e is well 
 portrayed in the Gommentarios do Grande Alfonso 
 de A. (Lisbon, 1576 and 1774), published by his son 
 Blasius. 
 
 ALBU'ENUM, or SAP-WOOD, in Botany, is 
 that part of the wood of exogenous trees which 
 is stUl imperfectly hardened, and, consistiag of 
 the woody layers most recently formed, is interposed 
 between the hark (q. v.) and the heart-wood or 
 duramen (q. v.). There is often a very marked divi- 
 sion between it and the duramen, in trees whose 
 age is such that the latter has been perfected. The 
 A. differs from the duramen in having its tubes 
 still open for the passage of fluids ; and these tubes 
 appear to be the vessels which chiefly serve for 
 the ascent of the sap. (See Sap.) It gradually 
 hardens, and is transformed into diu'amen, new 
 layers being added externally. It is almost always 
 of a white or very pale colour, wMlst in many trees 
 the duramen is highly coloured. The A. is pale 
 even in ebony, in which the duramen is black. 
 In general, the A. is much inferior in value to the 
 hardened or perfected wood, and the different pro- 
 portions which they bear to each other in the 
 thickness of the stem, go far to determine the 
 relative values of some km(is of trees. These pro- 
 portions, however, are different not only in trees 
 of different kinds, but even in trees of the same kind 
 at different ages, and according as circumstances 
 have been favourable or otherwise to rapidity of 
 growth. When there is a great proportion of A., 
 the wood dries slowly, and with difficulty, owing to 
 the quantity of sap it contains. 
 
 A'LCA and ALCAD^. See Auk. 
 
 ALCjE'XJS, of Mitylene, one of the greatest lyric 
 poets of Greece, flourished about the end of the 
 7th, or the beginning of the 6th c. B. 0. His odes, 
 in the jEolic dialect, are occupied with his grief 
 for the dissensions of his country, his hatred of 
 tyrants, his own misfortunes, and the sorrows of 
 exile; , while on other occasions he celebrates the 
 praises of love and wine. He is said to have been 
 112 
 
 ail admirer, of Sappho, who was a contemporary. A. 
 himself took part in the civil war, first as the coad- 
 jutor of Pittacus, but afterwards against him, when 
 he proved tyrannical. Being banished from Mitylene, 
 he endeavoured, at the head of the other exiles, to 
 force his way back ; but in this a^ttempt he fell 
 into the hands of Pittacus, who, however, granted 
 him his life and freedom. He was the inventor 
 of the form of verse which after him is called the 
 Alcaic, and which Horace, the happiest of his imi- 
 tators, transplanted into the Latin language. Of the 
 ten books of A.'s odes, only fragments remain, which 
 are collected in the Cambridge Museum Griticum, 
 and in Bergk's Poetce Lyrici Greed (Leip. 1843). 
 
 ALCALA' DE HEN ARES {M Oalaat, in Axahic, 
 means 'the castle'), a town in Spain, in the province 
 of New Castile, situated on the Henares, 22 mUes 
 from the capital, pop. 5300. It is built in the old 
 style, and boasts of a university, which was founded 
 by Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, and once enjoyed a 
 world-wide fame, second to that of Salamanca alone. 
 When Francis I. visited it, while a prisoner in 
 Spain, he was welcomed by 11,000 students. The 
 hbrary contains the original of the celebrated 
 polyglot Bible which was printed in this town, and 
 called the Complutensian, from the ancient name of 
 the place (Complutum). A. has, besides, a military 
 academy, and a celebrated powder and leather 
 factory. It is said, to have been the birthplace of 
 Cervantes, and various other distinguished persons. 
 — There are several other towns m Spain which 
 bear the name of Alcala; as A. of Chisberte, in 
 Valencia (pop. 6000) ; A. de Gliadaira, near SeviUe 
 (5200), and A. la Real, in Jaen (10,000), with superior 
 wine, fruit, sheep, &c. 
 
 ALOA'LDE, a corruption of the Arabic el-cadi, 
 ' the judge,' a word introduced by the Moors. It is 
 still used in Spain as the general title of judicial and 
 magisterial office, the special function being denoted 
 by another term. Thus, there are alcaldes de aldea, 
 village-justices ; alcaldes pedaneds, justices of the 
 peace ; alcaldes de corte, judges of the court, &c. 
 
 ALOA'NTARA {Al-JcantaraJi, Arabic, 'the 
 bridge'), the Norba Csesarea of the Romans, an old 
 fortified Spanish town, built by the Moors in the 
 province of Estremadura. The present population is 
 about 4000. It was plimdered by the French under 
 General Lapisse in 1809. The bridge from which it 
 takes its name was built for Trajan, 105 A.D. It 
 consists of six arches, the two central ones with a 
 span of 110 feet; the whole length is 670, and the 
 height 210 feet. This remarkable structure was 
 partially blown up by .the 
 English in 1812, and was 
 again destroyed during the 
 civil war of 1836 ; and mough 
 it might be easily repaired, it 
 is left in a state of ruin, the \ 
 lazy Spaniards being ferried 
 over in a lumbering boat. 
 
 The Ordee of A. (formerly 
 St Julian), one of the reli- 
 gious orders of Spanish 
 knighthood, was founded 
 (1156) as a military frater- 
 nity for the defence of Estre- 
 madura against the Moors. 
 In 1197, Pope Celestiue III. 
 raised it to the rank of a reli- 
 gious order of knighthood; 
 bestowed great privileges on 
 it, and charged it wiSi the 
 defence of the Christian faith, 
 and the njainteuance of eternal war with the infidel. 
 Alphonso IX., having taken the town of Alcantara, 
 
 Order of Alcantara. 
 
AXCEDO— ALCHEMY. 
 
 ceded it iu 1218 to tlie order of Calatrava (q. v.) ; 
 but the knights of this order, unable to hold it along 
 with their other great possessions, yielded it to the 
 knights of St Julian, who transferred to it their seat, 
 and henceforth were known by its name. At length 
 the grand-mastership of the order was, by Pope 
 Alexander VI., united to the Spanish crown in 1495. 
 The order is still richly endowed. The knights, who 
 foUow the rale of St Benedict, take now only the 
 vows of obedience and poverty, having, since 1540, 
 been absolved from that of celibacy. A special 
 vow binds them to defend the immaculate con- 
 ception of the Virgin. At their nomination, they 
 must prove four generations of uobUity. For a 
 time, the knights of A. acknowledged the superiority 
 of the knights of Calatrava, but they were latterly 
 absolved from it. Both the costume, however, and 
 the cross are still the same, with the exception of 
 the colour, which is green. The crest of the order 
 is a pear-tree. 
 
 ALCE'DO. See KiNorisHEE. 
 ALCHEMI'LLA. See Lady's Mantle. 
 
 A'LCHEMY is to modem chemistry what astrol- 
 ogy is to astronomy, or legend to history. In the 
 eye of the astrologer, u linowledge of the stars was 
 valuable only as a means of foreteUing, or even 
 of influencing, future events. In like manner, the 
 genuine alchemist toiled with his crucibles and 
 alembics, calcining, subliming, distilling, not with a 
 view to discover the ohermcal properties of sub- 
 stances, as we imderstand them, but with two grand 
 objects, as illusory as those of the astrologer — to 
 discover, namely, (1) tlie sea'et of transmuting the 
 baser metals into gold and silver, and (2) tlie means of 
 indefinitely prolonging human life. 
 
 iSadition points to Egypt as the birthplace of the 
 science. Hermes Trismegistus (q.v.) is represented 
 as the father of it ; and the most probable etymology 
 of the name is that which connects it with the most 
 ancient and native name of Egypt, Cliemi (the Scrip- 
 ture Cham or Ham). The Greeks and Komans under 
 the Empire would seem to have become acquainted 
 with it from the Egyptians ; there is no reason to 
 believe that, in early times, either people had the 
 name or the thing. Ghemia (Gr. clwmeia) occurs iu 
 the lexicon of Suidas, written in the 11th c, and is 
 explained by him to be ' the conversion of silver and 
 gold.' It is to the Arabs, from whom Europe got the 
 name and the art, that we owe the prefixed article al. 
 As if cliemia had been a generic term embracing aU 
 common chemical operations, such as the decocting 
 and compoimding ■ of ordinary drugs, the grand 
 operation of transmutation was denominated tine 
 diemia (oZ-chemy)' — the chemistry of chemistries. 
 The Koman emperor CaHgiUa is said to have insti- 
 tuted experiments for the producing of gold out of 
 orpiment (sulphuret of arsenic) ; and in the time of 
 Diocletian, the passion for this pursuit, conjoined 
 with magical arts, had become so prevalent ia the 
 empire, that that emperor is said to have ordered 
 all Egyptian works treating of the chemistry of gold 
 and silver to be burnt. For at that time, multitudes 
 of books on this art were appearing, written by 
 Alexandrine monks and by hermits, but bearing 
 famous names of antiquity, such as Democritus, 
 Pythagoras, and Hermes. 
 
 At a later period, the Arabs took up the art; 
 and it is to them that European A. is directly 
 traceable. The school of polypharmacy, as it has 
 been called, flourished in Arabia during the kalifates 
 of the Abbasides. The earliest work of this school 
 now known is the Summa Perfectionis, or ' Summit 
 of Perfection,' composed by Gebir (q.v.) in the 8th 
 c. ; it is consequently the oldest book on chemistry 
 proper in the world. It contains so much of what 
 
 sounds very much like jargon in our ears, that Dr 
 Johnson ascribes the origin of the word ' gibberish ' 
 to the name of the compiler. Yet when viewed in 
 its trae light, it is a wonderful performance. It is a 
 kind of text-book, or collection of aU that was then 
 known and believed. It appears that these Arabian 
 polypharmists had long been engaged in firing and 
 boiling, dissolving and precipitating, subliming and 
 coagulating chemical substances. They worked with 
 gold and merely, arsenic and sulpW, salts and 
 acids; and had, in short, become familiar with a 
 large range of what are now called chemicals. Gebir 
 
 taught that there are three elemental chemicals 
 
 mercury, sulphur, and arsenic. These substances, 
 especially the first two, seem to have fascinated the 
 thoughts of the alchemists by their potent and 
 penetrating quaHties. They saw mercury dissolve 
 gold, the most incorruptible of matters, as water 
 dissolves sugar ; and a stick of sulphur presented to 
 hot iron penetrates it like a spirit, and makes it run 
 down in a shower of sohd drops, a new and remark- 
 able substance, possessed of properties belonging 
 neither to iron nor to sulphur. The Arabians held 
 that the metals are compound bodies, made up of 
 mercmy and sulphur in different proportions. With 
 these very excusable errors in theory, they were 
 genuine practical chemists. They toOed away at 
 the art of making 'many medicines' (polyphar- 
 macy) out of the various mixtures and reactions of 
 such chemicals as they knew. They had their pestles 
 and mortars, their crucibles and furnaces, their 
 alembics and aludels, their vessels for infusion, for 
 decoction, for cohabitation, sublimation, fixation, 
 Ibdviation, filtration, coagulation, &c. Their scien- 
 tific creed was transmutation, and their methods 
 were mostly blind gropings; and yet, in this way, 
 they foimd out many a new body, and invented 
 many a useful process. 
 
 From the Arabs, A. found its way through Spain 
 into Europe, and speedily became entangled with 
 the fantastic subtleties of the scholastic -philosophy. 
 In the middle ages, it was chiefly the monks that 
 occupied themselves with A. Pope John XXII. 
 took great delight iu it, though it was afterwards 
 forbidden by his successor. The earliest authentic 
 works on European A now extant are those of Roger 
 Bacon (b. 1214, d. 1284) and Albertus Magnus (b. 
 1205, d. 1280). Eoger Bacon- (q.v.) appears rather 
 the earlier of the two as a writer, and is really the 
 greatest man in aU the school. He was acquainted 
 with gunpowder. Although he condemns magic, 
 necromancy, charms, and all such things, he believes 
 iu the convertibility of the inferior metals into .gold, 
 but does not profess to have ever effected the con- 
 version. He had more faith in the elixir of fife than 
 in gold-making. He followed Gebir in regarding 
 potable gold — that is, gold dissolved in nitro-hydro^ 
 chloric acid or aqua regia — as the elixir of life. 
 Urging it on the attention of Pope Nicholas IV., 
 he informs his Holiness of an old man who foimd 
 soine yellow liquor (the solution of gold is yellow) 
 in a golden phial, when ploughing one day ia Sicily. 
 Supposing it to be dew, he drank it off. He was 
 thereupon transformed into a hale, robust, and 
 highly accomplished youth. Bacon no doubt took 
 many a dose of this golden water himself. — Albertus 
 Magnus (q. v.) had a great mastery of the practical 
 chemistry of his times; he was acquainted with 
 alum, caustic alkali, and the purification of the 
 royal metals by means of lead. In addition to the 
 sulphur-and-mercury theory of the metals, drawn 
 from Gebir, he regarded the element water as still 
 nearer the soul of nature than either of these bodies. 
 He appears, indeed, to have thought it the primary 
 matter, or the radical source of all things — an 
 opinion held by Thales, the father of Greek 
 
 113 
 
AliCHEMY— ALCIBIA.DES. 
 
 speculation. — Thomas Aquinas (q.v.) also wrote on 
 A., and was the first to employ the word amcdgam 
 (q.v.). — Eaymond LuUy (q.v.) is another great name 
 in the annals of A. His writings are much more 
 disfigured by unintelligible jargon than those of 
 Bacon and Albertus Magnus. He was the first 
 to introduce the use of chemical symbols (q.v.), 
 his system consisting of a scheme of arbitrary luero- 
 glyphics. He made much of the spirit of wine (the 
 art of distilling spirits would seem to have been 
 then recent), imposiag on it the name of aqua vitCB 
 ardens. In his enthusiasm, he prouoimced it the 
 very elixir of life. One of the most celebrated of the 
 alchemists was Basil Valentine (q.v.), (b. 1394), who 
 introduced antimony into medical use. He, along 
 with some previous alchemists, regarded salt, sul- 
 phur, and mercury as the three bodies contained in 
 the metals. He inferred that the philosopher's-stone 
 must be the same sort of combination^a compound, 
 namely, of salt, sulphur, and meromy ; so pure, 
 that its projection on the baser metals should be 
 able to work them up into greater and greater purity, 
 bringing them at last to the state of suver and gold. 
 His practical knowledge was great ; he knew now 
 to precipitate iron from solution by potash, and 
 many similar processes, so that he is ranked as the 
 founder of analytical chemistry. 
 
 But more famous than all was Paracelsus (q.v.), 
 in whom alchemy proper may be said to have cul- 
 minated. He held, with Basil Valentine, that the 
 elements of compound bodies were salt, sulphur, 
 and mercury — ^representing respectively earth, air, 
 and water, fire being already regarded as an impon- 
 derable — ^but these substances were in his system 
 purely representative. All kinds of matter were 
 reducible under one or other of these typical forms ; 
 everything was either a salt, a sulphur, or a 
 mercury, or, like the metals, it was a 'mixt' or 
 compound. There was one element, however, 
 common to the four; a fifth essence or 'quintes- 
 sence' of creation; an unknown and only true 
 element, of which the fom: generic principles were 
 nothing but derivative forms or embodiments : in 
 other words, he inculcated the dogma, that there 
 is only one real elementary matter — nobody knows 
 what. This one prime element of things he appears 
 to have considered to be the universal solvent of 
 which the alchemists were in quest, and to express 
 which he introduced the term cdcaliesl — a word of 
 unknown etymology, but supposed by some to be 
 composed of the two German words alle geist, ' all 
 spirit.' He seems to have had the notion, that if 
 this quintessence or fifth element could be got at, 
 it would prove to be at once the philosopher'srstoue, 
 the universal medicine, and the irresistible solvent. 
 
 After Paracelsus, the alchemists of Europe became 
 divided into two classes. The one class was com- 
 posed of men of diligence and sense, who devoted 
 themselves to the discovery of new compounds and 
 re-actions — ^practical workers and observers of facts, 
 and the legitimate ancestors of the positive chemists 
 of the era of Lavoisier. The other. class took up the 
 visionary, fantastical side of the older alchemy, 
 and carried it to a degree of extravagance before 
 imknown. Instead of useful work, they compiled 
 mystical trash into books, and fathered them on 
 Hermes, Aristotle, Albertus Magnus, Paracelsus, 
 and other really great men. Their language is a 
 farrago of mystical metaphors, fuU of 'red bride- 
 grooms' and 'hly brides,' 'green dragons,' 'ruby 
 lions,' ' royal batiis,' ' waters of hfe.' The seven 
 metals correspond with the seven planets, the seven 
 cosmical angels, and the seven openings of the 
 head — ^the eyes, the ears, the nostrils, and the mouth. 
 Silver was Diana, gold was Apollo, iron was Mars, 
 tin was Jupiter, lead was Saturn, and so forth. 
 
 They talk for ever of the powder of attraction, 
 which drew all men and women after the possessor ; 
 of the alcahest, and the grand elixir, which was, 
 to confer immortal youth upon the student who 
 should approve himself pure and brave enough to 
 kiss and quaff the golden draught. There was the 
 great mystery, the mother of the elements, the 
 grandmother of the stars. There was the philo- 
 soplier's-stone, and there was the pMlosophical- 
 strnie. The "plulosophical-stone was younger than 
 the elements, yet at her virgin touch the grossest 
 calx (ore) among them aU would blush before her 
 into perfect gold. The philosopher's-stone, on the 
 other hand, was the first-bom of nature, and older 
 than the king of metals. Those who had attained 
 fuU insight into the arcana of the science were styled. 
 Wise ; those who were only striving after the fight 
 were Philosophers ; while the ordinary practisers of 
 the art were called Adepts. It was these visionaries 
 that formed themselves into Eosicrucian Societies 
 and other secret associations. It was also in con- 
 nection with this mock- A., mixed up with astrology 
 and magic, that quackery and imposture so 
 abounded, as is depicted by Scott in the character 
 of Dousterswivel in the Antiquary. Designing 
 knaves would, for instance, make up large nails, 
 half of iron and half of gold, and lacker them, so 
 that they appeared common nails ; and when their 
 credulous and avaricious dupes saw them extract 
 from what seemed plain iron an ingot of gold, they 
 were ready to advance any sum that the knaves 
 pretended to be necessary for pursuing the process 
 on a large scale. It is from this degenerate and 
 effete school that the prevaihng notion of A. is 
 derived — a notion which is unjust to the really 
 meritorious alchemists who paved the way for 
 genuine chemistry. 
 
 It is interesting to observe that the leading tenet 
 in the alchemists' creed — namdy, the doctrine of 
 the transmutabiUty of other metals into gold and 
 silver — a doctrine which it was at one time 
 thought that modern chemistry had utterly exploded 
 — ^receives not a little countenance from a variety of 
 facts every day coming to light. The multitude of 
 phenomena known to chemists under the name of 
 Allotropy (q. v.), are leading speculative men more 
 and more to the opinion that many substances 
 hitherto considered chemically distinct, are only 
 the same substance under some different condition 
 or arrangement of its component molecules, and 
 that the number of really distinct elements may 
 be very few indeed. See Kopp's GescAichte der 
 Gliende, also Alchemy and the Alchemists, by Dr 
 Samuel Brown, in Chambers's Papers for t!ie 
 People (No. 66), from which the above sketch is 
 chiefly condensed. 
 
 ALOIBI'ADES, a son of CUnias and Dinomache, 
 bom at Athens, 450 e. c. He lost his father in the 
 battle of Chseronea ; and was in consequence educated 
 in the house of Pericles, his uncle. In his youth he 
 gave evidence of his future greatness, excelling both 
 m mental and bodily exercises. His handsome 
 person, his distinguished parentage, and the high 
 position of Pericles, procured him a multitude of 
 friends and admirers. Socrates was one of the 
 former, and gained considerable influence over him ; 
 but was_ imable to restrain his love of luxury and 
 dissipation, which found ample means of gratification 
 in the wealth that accrued to liim by his union with 
 Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus. His public 
 displays, especially at the Olympic games, were 
 incredibly expensive. He bore arms for the first 
 time in the expedition against Potidaea (432 B.c.) 
 where he was wounded, and where his life was- 
 saved by Socrates— a debt which he liquidated 
 eight years after at the battle of Dehum, by saving. 
 
AliCMAN— ALCOHOL. 
 
 in his turn, the life of the philosopher; but he 
 seems to have taken no part in political matters till 
 after the death of the demagogue Oleon, when Nioiaa 
 brought about a treaty oi peace for fifty years 
 between the Athenians and Laoedfemonians. A., 
 jealous of the esteem in which Nioiaa was held, 
 persuaded iJie Athenians to ally themselves with 
 the people of Argos, Elis, and Mantinea, and did aU 
 in hia power to atu' up afresh their old antipathy 
 to Spaxta. It was at his suggestion that they 
 engaged in the celebrated enterprise against Sicily, 
 to the command of which he was elected, along 
 mth Mcias and Lamaohus. But while preparations 
 were being made, it happened during one night that 
 aU the statues of Mercury in Athens were mutilated. 
 The enemies of A. threw the blame of this mischief 
 upon him, but postponed the impeachment tiU .he 
 had set sail, when they stirred up the people 
 against Tiitti to such a degree, that he was recalled, 
 in order to stand his trial. On his way home, he 
 landed at Thurii, fled, and betook himself to 
 Sparta, where, by conforming to the strict manners 
 of the people, he soon became a favourite. He 
 induced the Lacedaemonians to send assistance to 
 the Syraousans, persuaded them to form an alliance 
 with the king of Persia, and after the unf ortimate 
 issue of the Athenian expedition in Sicily, to support 
 the people of Chios in their endeavours to throw off 
 the yoke of Athens. He went thither himself, and 
 raised all Ionia in ' revolt against that city. But 
 Agis and the other leading men in Sparta, jealous of 
 the success of A., ordered their generals in Asia to 
 have >iiTn assassinated. A. discovered this plan, and 
 fled to Tissaphernes, a Persian satrap, who had 
 orders to act iu concert with the LacedEemonians. 
 He now resumed his old manners, adopted the 
 luxurious habits of Asia, and made himself indis- 
 pensable to Tissaphernes. He represented to the 
 latter that it was contrary to the interests of Persia 
 entirely to disable the Athenians. He then sent 
 word to the commanders of the Athenian forces at 
 Samos that he would procure for them the friend- 
 ship of the satrap if they would control the extrava- 
 gance of the people, and commit the government to 
 an oligarchy. This offer was accepted, and Pisander 
 was sent to Athens, where he got the supreme 
 power vested in a council of 400 persons. When it 
 appeared, however, that this council had no intention 
 of recaUing A., the army at Samos chose him as 
 their commander, desiring hiin to lead them on 
 instantly to Athens, and overthrow the tyrants. 
 But A. did not wish to return to his native country 
 tOl he had rendered it some service, and he accord- 
 ingly attacked and defeated the Lacedaemonians 
 both by sea and land. Tissaphernes now ordered 
 Viim to be arrested at Sardis on his return, the 
 satrap not wishing the king to imagine that he had 
 been accessory to his doings. But A. foimd means to 
 escape ; placed himself agam at the head of the army ; 
 beat the Lacedjemonians and Persians at Cyzicus; 
 took Cyzicus, Chalcedon, and Byzantimu; restored 
 to the Athenians the dominion of the sea ; and then 
 returned to his country (407 B.C.), to which he had 
 been formally invited. He was received with 
 general enthusiasm, as the Athenians attributed to 
 his banishment all the misfortimes that had befallen 
 them. 
 
 The triumph of A, however, was not destined to 
 last. He was again sent to Asia with 100 ships ; but 
 not being suppUed with money for the soldiers' pay, 
 he was obliged to seek assistance at Caria, where 
 he transferred the command in the meantime to 
 Antioohus, who, being lured iuto an ambuscade by 
 Lysander, lost his Hfe and part of the ships. The 
 enemies of A. took advantage of this to accuse him 
 and appoint another commander. A. went to 
 
 Thraoe, where he Uved in voluntary exilo in Pactyee, 
 one of the castles which he had bmlt out of 
 his earlier spoils. But being threatened here with 
 the power of LaoedaBmonia, he removed to Bithynia, 
 with the intention of repairing to Artaxerxes, to gain 
 him over to the interests of his country. At the 
 request of the Thirty Tyrants of Athens, and with the 
 concurrence of the Spartans, Pharnabazus, a satrap 
 of Artaxerxes, received orders to put A. to death. 
 He was living at this time in a castle in Phrygia ; 
 Pharnabazus ordered it to be set on fire during 
 the night, and as his victim was endeavouring to 
 escape from the flames, he was pierced with a volley 
 of arrows. Thus perished A. (404 B.C.), about the 
 forty-fifth year of his age. He was singularly 
 endowed by nature, being possessed of the most 
 fascinating eloquence (although he could not articu- 
 late the letter r, and stuttered in his speech), and 
 having in a rare degree the talent to win and to 
 govern men. Yet in all his transactions, he allowed 
 himself to be dii-eote4 by external circumstances, 
 without having any fixed principles of conduct. 
 On the other hand, he possessed that boldness 
 which arises from conscious superiority, and shnmk 
 from no difficulty, because he was never doubtful 
 concerning the means by which an end might be 
 attained. His life has been written by Plutarch and 
 Cornelius Nepos. 
 
 ALCMASr, an ancient lyric poet, was born at 
 Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in Asia Minor, but lived 
 first as a slave, and afterwards as a freeman in Sparta. 
 He is the earliest erotic poet, and is said to have mtro- 
 duced some new metrical forms called Alamanica 
 metra. He composed in the Doric dialect a poem 
 on the Dioscuri, Parthenia, or songs sung by choruses 
 of virgins, bridal-hymns, verses in praise of love and 
 wine, &o. We possess only a few fragments of A, 
 nor do these justify the high opinion entertained of 
 his merits by the ancients, though some of them 
 exhibit considerable beauty. A. died of a loath- 
 some disease [morbus pedicularis). 
 
 ALCO, a variety of dog, domesticated in Mexico 
 and Peru before the discovery of America by 
 Europeans, and also found in a wild state ia these 
 countries. But whether it is originally a native of 
 them, or has escaped from domestication, is uncertain, 
 nor is the variety well known to naturalists. It is 
 described as having a very small head and pendulous 
 ears : the latter being in dogs one of the ordinary 
 results of domestication. Humboldt supposed it to 
 be allied to the shepherd's dog. It has been 
 attempted to elevate it into a species under the 
 name of Oanis A. It is not improbable that the 
 name A. was given to more varieties than one. 
 
 A'LOOHOL is a limpid, colourless liquid, of a 
 hot pungent taste, and having a slight but agreeable 
 smeU. It is the characteristic ingredient of fer- 
 mented drinks, and gives thein their intoxicating 
 quality. Looking at me extraordinary consumption 
 of these liquors, and to the extensive apjiKoation of 
 A. for other purposes, it becomes one of the most 
 important substances produced by art. 
 
 There is only one source of A. — namely, the fer- 
 mentation of sugar or other saccharine matter. Sugar 
 is the produce of the vegetable world. Some plants 
 contain free sugar, and stiU. more contain starch, 
 which can be converted into sugar. The best veget- 
 able substances, then, for yieldmg A. are those that 
 contain the greatest abundance of sugar or of starch. 
 See Diastase, Fbbmentatiok', and Dbullation. 
 
 Owing to the attraction of A. for water, it is 
 impossible to procure pure A. by distillation alone. 
 Common spirits, such as brandy, whisky, &c., contain 
 50 or 52 per cent, of A. ; in other words, they are 
 about half A., half water. Proof-spirit, which is the 
 
 116 
 
ALCOHOLOMETEY— ALCUDIA. 
 
 standard by means of whioli all nuxtures of A. and 
 water are judged, contains 57'27 per cent, by volume, 
 and 49-50 per cent, by weight of A. The specific 
 gravity of proof -spirit is 918'6; and when a spirit 
 IS called abcwe proof, it denotes that it contains an 
 excess of A. ; thus, spirit of wine, or rectified spirit, 
 with specific gravity 838, is 54 to 58 overproof, 
 and requires 54 to 58 per cent, of water to be added 
 to it, to bring the strength down to that of proof- 
 spirit; whilst the term under-proof has reference 
 to a less strong spirit than the standard. See 
 Akeombtek. The most primitive method of learning 
 the strength of A. was to drench gunpowder with 
 it, set fire to the spirit, and if it inflamed the gun- 
 powder as it died out, then the A. stood the test or 
 proof, and was called proof-spirit. The highest con- 
 centration possible by distillation gives 90 per cent, 
 of A., stiU leaving 10 per cent, of water. In order 
 to remove this, fused chloride of calcium, quicklime, 
 or fused carbonate of potash, is added to the alco- 
 holic hquid, the whole allowed to stand for twelve 
 hours, and then the spirit may be distilled off quite 
 free from water. Spirit of wine may also be deprived 
 of its remaining water by suspending it in a bladder 
 in a warm place; the bladder allows much of the 
 water to pass through and evaporate, but little 
 of the A. The latter method is called Soemmer- 
 ing's process, and depends on the different degrees 
 of rapidity with which the bladder admits of 
 water and A. passing through it. Thus, introduce 
 into one bladder eight ounces of water, and into 
 a second, eight ounces of A., and allow both 
 bladders to be similarly exposed on a sandbath, 
 tin all the water has evaporated through the pores 
 of the membrane, which will be accompUshed in 
 about four days, and it will then be observed, 
 that whilst eight ounces water have made their 
 exit from the bladder, that only one ounce of A. 
 has thus evaporated, and seven ounces stiU remain 
 in the bladder. This experiment explains why 
 smugglers, a few generations ago, could supply a 
 whisky which was stronger, and hence esteemed 
 preferable, as they carried the whisky in bladders 
 aroimd their persons, and the water escaping there- 
 from in much greater proportion than the A., a 
 stronger spirit was left. 
 
 A. is used medicinally, both internally and exter- 
 nally. The more common form for internal use is 
 brandy, and is that generally recommended by 
 physicians. As a stomachic stimulant, A. is used in 
 sea-sickness and indigestion. As a stimulant and 
 restorative, it is employed with advantage in the 
 later stages of fever. It is also employed intemaUy 
 as a powerful excitant to prevent fainting during 
 operations, and to assist in restoration in cases of 
 suspended animation. In cases of diarrhoea, unac- 
 companied by inflammation, it is often of great 
 benefit. Externally, A. is appKed to stop hemor- 
 rhage, to harden the cuticle over tender parts, as 
 the nipples of females for some time before delivery, 
 and to feet which have been bhstered from long 
 walking or tight-fitting shoes. 
 
 Absolute or anhydrous A. has a specific gravity 
 of 793 at the temperature of 60°. It boUs at 173°, 
 and has not been frozen by any cold hitherto pro- 
 duced. Ileduoed to a temperature of — 130°, A. 
 becomes of an oily and greasy consistence ; at — 146", 
 it assumes the aspect of melted wax ; and at — 166°, 
 it gets still thicker, but does not congeal at the 
 lowest attainable temperature. This property of 
 non-freezing at any degree of cold to wbich the 
 earth is siibjeoted, has led to the employment of 
 A. coloured red by cochineal, in the thermometers 
 sent out to the Arctic regions. It acts as a poison by 
 ■ abstracting the water from the parts it touches. It 
 is highly inflammable ; its combustion yielding only 
 116 
 
 carbonic acid and water. When mix;ed with water, 
 heat is evolved, and a, condensation takes place. 
 The formula of A. is C^HgOj. In 100 pounds, 
 therefore, of A., about 53 are carbon, 13 hydrogen, 
 and 34 oxygen. Besides the A. consumed in wine, 
 beer, and spirits, it is much employed in pharmacy 
 and in the arts. It is a powerful solvent for resins 
 and oils ; and hence is employed in the preparation 
 of varnishes. In Germany, a cheap spirit made from 
 potatoes is much used for cooking on a small scale. 
 See Methylated Spirit. — The use and abuse of 
 alcoholic drinks will be considered imder Food and 
 Dbink, and Tempbean"CE. 
 
 ALCOHOLO'MBTEY is the process of esti- 
 mating the percentage of absolute alcohol in a, 
 sample of spirits. See AnEOMETBE. 
 
 Jt'LCOEAlf . See Koban. 
 
 ALCO'VE (Spanish, alcoha, which is derived from 
 the Arabic, El-Tcauf, a tent), an architectural term, 
 denoting a sort of niche or recess in a chamber 
 where one may recline, or where a bed may be 
 placed. An A. is either hung with curtains or closed 
 with doors diuing the day. It was known to the , 
 ancients, and at one time very common in France, 
 when the immoderate size of the apartments ren- 
 dered it absolutely necessary as a preventive 
 against the cold during sleep. It is no longer 
 fashionable, the most eminent physicians having 
 declared it to be prejudicial to health. 
 
 ALCO'Y, a town in the province of Valencia, 
 Spain, about 24 miles north-west of Alicante. It is 
 ' built in a funnel of the hills, on a tongue of land 
 hemmed in by two streams, with bridges and arched 
 viaducts.' The old, quaint-looking houses hang 
 picturesquely over the terraced gardens and ravines. 
 The walls of A. are of clay, and suffered consider- 
 able damage during the last war ; but the town 
 contains some new edifices, and has numerous 
 manufactories. ' Here is made the papel de hilo, the 
 book Librito defumar, which forms the entire demi- 
 duodecimo library of niae-tenths of Spaniards, and 
 with which they make their papelitos, or little paper- 
 cigars.' 200,000 reams are annually made, of which 
 10,000 are used for writing, 10,000 for packing, and 
 180,000 for the paper-cigars ! A. is also famous for 
 its sugar-plums. It has a parish church, schools, 
 consistory, town-hall, poor asylum, public granary, 
 &c. Pop. 27,000. 
 
 ALCUDI'A, Manuel DB Godoy, Duke of, known 
 as the Prince of Peace, was born at Badajos, in Spain, 
 12th of May 1767. Poor, but handsome and musical, 
 at the age of twenty, he entered the king's body- 
 guard at Madrid, and soon became a favourite of the 
 weak Charles IV., as well as of his queen. Honours 
 and emoluments flowed in rapidly. In 1801, he 
 led the Spanish army against the Portuguese, and 
 signed the treaty of Badajos. In 1804, he was made 
 generalissimo of the Spanish forces on sea and land, 
 and invested with unlimited power. The aUiance 
 of Spain with France, and the war with England 
 which ensued, in spite of the smns paid by Spain to 
 secure neutrahty, the defeat of Trafalgar, and con- 
 sequent check to commerce — all tended to exasper- 
 ate the public mind, and a court-party was formed 
 against him, with the Prince of Asturias at its head. 
 A. now resolved to shake off the French aUianee, 
 and to treat secretly with the Lisbon court. But 
 however cautiously taken, his warhke measures 
 reached the ears of Napoleon, and determined him 
 to carry out his project of dethroning the Bourbons. 
 Meanwhile, the people had been further exasperated 
 against the favourite by his unprincipled accusations 
 against the Prince of Asturias; and when, in 1808, 
 Charles abdicated in favour of his son, the dulce's 
 life was only saved by the promise of his trial. 
 
ALCUIN— ALOYONIUM. 
 
 Thia trial, however, never took place. Napoleon, 
 who knew his influence over the minds of their 
 Spanish majesties, had him liberated, and brought 
 to Bayonne, where he instigated all measures taken 
 by the ex-king and queen, i-etaining their favour tai 
 ' their death. After his fall, he lived chiefly in 
 Prance. In 1808, hia income had been estimated at 
 five million piastres. After the revolution of 1830, 
 we find bim subsisting in Paris upon a small pension 
 bestowed by Louis-Ailippe. In 1847, his return 
 to Spain was permitted, and hia titles, together with 
 great part of his wealth, restored. He died at Paris, 
 4th October 1851. 
 
 A'LCUIlSr, or PLACCXJS ALBrNTTS, the most 
 distinguished scholar of the 8th c, the confidant 
 and adviser of Charlemagne, was born at York 
 about the year 735. He was educated imder the 
 care of Archbishop Egbert, and his relative, 
 Aelbert, and succeeded the latter as master of the 
 School of York. Charlemagne became acquainted 
 with him at Panua, as he was returning from Eome, 
 whither he had gone to bring home the pallium for 
 a friend ; and in the year 782, this monarch invited 
 him to his court, and availed himself of his assist- 
 ance in his endeavours to civihse his subjects. A. 
 became the preceptor of Charlemagne himsglf, whom 
 he instructed in the various sciences. To render 
 his instructions more available, Charlemagne estab- 
 lished at his court a school called Schola Palatina, 
 the superintendence of which, as well as of several 
 monasteries, was committed to him. In the learned 
 society of the court, A. went by the name of Flaccus 
 Albinus. Most of the schools in Trance were either 
 founded or improved by him. Among others, he 
 founded the school in the Abbey rf St Martin, in 
 Tours (796), taking as his model the School of York ; 
 and in this school he himself taught after his retire- 
 ment from court (801). WhUe living at Tours, he 
 frequently corresponded with Chairlemagne. At his 
 death, in 804, he left, besides numerous theological 
 writings, a number of elementary works on phil- 
 osophy, mathematics, rhetoric, and philology; also 
 poems, and a great nmnber of letters. His letters, 
 while they betray the uncultivated character of the 
 age generally, shew A. to have been the most accom- 
 pEshed man of his time. He understood Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew. The most complete edition of 
 his works appeared at Ratisbon in 1777- See the 
 life of A. by Lorenz (Halle, 1829), translated into 
 English (Lend. 1837). 
 
 ALCYO'NItrM, a genus of Zoophytes, the type of 
 a family called Alcyonidce, belonging to the class 
 
 polypes. A. digitatvm is extremely common on the 
 British shores, on stones, old shells, &c,, in deep 
 water. It sometimes appears as a mere crust, about 
 the eighth of an inch in thickness, but commonly 
 rises up in rounded cones, and often assumes forms 
 which have procured for it the popular name of 
 Dead Man's Fingers, and other similar appellations. 
 The polype-masa is gelatinous within, and covered 
 with a sort of leathery skin, the mass being traversed 
 by a multitude of minute canals, terminatmg on the 
 outer surface in starlike, figures, which, if the whole 
 is placed in sea- water, are seen to project considerably 
 from the surface, and appear as polypes with eight 
 teutaoula or feelers; so that what seems to be a 
 disgusting fleshy mass in the fisherman's net, proves 
 to be, when placed in its proper element, a structure 
 of wonderful beauty and full of animal life, exist- 
 ing under peculiar and wonderful conditions. The 
 manner in which the polypes protrude and retract 
 themselves, has been likened to that in which the 
 horns of a snail are protruded and retracted. Their 
 tentaciUa are short, obtuse, and elegantly fringed at 
 the margins. The external part of the body of the 
 polype is a membrane so transparent, that by the 
 employment of a magnifying-glass the whole inter- 
 nal structure can be seen through it. See fig. 3, b. 
 
 Alcyonium digitatum : 
 1. Reduced general 2. A portion shewing tlie 
 
 figure. polypes protruded^ and 
 
 with extended ten taenia. 
 
 Anthozoa, and order Asteroida, and consisting of a 
 polype-mass with starlike pores and proteusive 
 
 3. Aloyonitmi digitatum : 
 
 6, the polype fully protruded, magnified; c, the polype partially 
 
 protruded, magnified. 
 
 This delicate membrane, however, is composed of 
 two very thin membranes, intimately united, the 
 outer of which increases in thickness at the base of 
 the polype, coalesces with that of adjacent polypes, 
 and is continuous with the common leathery skin 
 of the polype-mass. The inner membrane retains 
 its extreme dehcacy 
 throughout ; it ex- 
 tenda into and lines 
 the cell of the polype 
 (see fig. 4) and the 
 tube or canal which 
 proceeds from the cell 
 into the mass, and is 
 thus also continuous 
 with the correspond- 
 ing membranes of 
 other polypes; for the 
 canals divide into 
 branches in their 
 course from the base 
 of the polype-mass to 
 the surface, and the 
 
 mtimacy of union in 4_ Alcyonium digitatum : 
 thewhole is mcreased section shewing internal structure, 
 by a fine tubular net- 
 work which occupies , the spaces between the 
 principal canals. If a portion of an A. is irri- 
 tated, not only the particular polypes immediately 
 subjected to irritation retract themselves as to 
 withiaw from danger, but the gradual collapse 
 
ALDEBAEAN— AliDEE. 
 
 and contraction of the whole polype-mass shews 
 that the irritation has been felt through it aU. The 
 contraction of the mass ia owing to a discharge of 
 water, which the polypes, when protruded, ioAibe, 
 and which circulates throi:^h and distends the 
 polype-mass, so that when the polypes are undis- 
 turbed, and in full activity, it has twice or three 
 times the size which it has as we ■ find it cast out 
 upon the beach. The stomach of each polype is 
 cylindrical (as may be seen in fig. 3, 6, immediately 
 under the oval disk or expanded tentacida), and 
 beneath it is a comparatively large cavity, into 
 which hang loosely (as may also be seen in the 
 figure just referred to) eight twisted filaments or 
 threads, the use of which is not well ascertained, 
 and has been the subject of very different opiuions 
 among naturalists. In the gelatinous substance of 
 the polype-mass, which fills the interstices of the 
 tubular net-work, numerous crystalline calcareous 
 spioula lie immersed, like the raphides (q. v.) found 
 in the intercellular passages of some plants. They 
 are toothed on the sides, but are of various forms, 
 and have no organic connection with any part of the 
 animal structure ; their only use apparently being 
 to impart some degree of strength to the whole. 
 These spicula are of general occurrence in zoophytes 
 of this order, and are secreted by the common skin 
 of the polype-mass. The polype-mass increases by 
 gemmce or buds, which grow into new branches; 
 but the propagation of the specieS takes place by 
 ova or eggs, which first appear as tninute smooth 
 warts on the membrane of the canals in the interior. 
 The constriction of the neck, by which they grow, 
 separates them from the parent membrane, and they 
 move through the canal by means of very minute 
 vibrating cilia or hairs with which they are fiur- 
 nished, until they reach the stomach of a polype, 
 into which they enter, and through which they 
 more slowly proceed till at last they are ejected 
 by the mouth (the only opening), aiid ijotomitted to 
 the waves and tides. The ova seem as if capable 
 of feeling whilst within the parent mass, and may 
 be observed to move backwards and forwards, and 
 to contract their sides as if by voluntary action in 
 their passage through the body of the polype. These 
 wonderful phenomena of natiire are the more easily 
 observed, because the ova are of a deep vermilion 
 colour, beautifully co^itrasting with the pure white 
 of the polype, through the tunic of which they are 
 seen. — One of the most remarkable known species 
 of A., and the largest, is that called A. poculum or 
 Neptime's Cup, which was discovered by Sir Stam- 
 ford Raffles upon the coral-reefs of Sumatra, and is 
 foimd in the neighbour- 
 hood of Singapore. It 
 grows erect, sometimes 
 attaining nearly three feet 
 m height and eighteen 
 inches in diameter. Speci- 
 ^ mens are now frequent in 
 museums in this country. 
 
 The name Alcyonium 
 was formerly also given 
 to many zoophytes now 
 found to be of very differ 
 ent structure, some of 
 which now bear the name 
 Alcyonidium, others that 
 of Alcyonella. The genus 
 Alcyonidium belongs to 
 the class of Zoophytes 
 called Polyzoa, order /n/itn- 
 dibulaia. See Zoopettes. 
 The most common British 
 Alcyonidium gelatinosum.sPf<=i?= is Alcyonidmm 
 Keduced. gelcUmosum. It resembles 
 
 118 
 
 a sponge in appearance, but is more pellucid and 
 gelatinous, and is fuU of polypes, each having 15 
 or 16 long slender tentacula. It is attached to 
 old shells and stones, and is sometimes much lobed, 
 asiin the preceding figure, sometimes almost simple. 
 The colour varies from a very pale brown to clear 
 yellow; the sm-face is speckled with minute dots, 
 from which,' when it is placed in sea- water, the 
 polypes protrude. The polype differs widely from 
 that of Alcyonium in having an intestine, which, pro- 
 ceeding from the stomach to the aperture of the cell, 
 opens there by an orifice distinct from the mouth, a 
 difference characteristic of the classes to which they 
 respectively belong. The ova are clothed with cOia, 
 and theirmotions either are ormost strikingly resemble 
 voluntary motions. — Alcyonella belongs to the class 
 Polyzoa, order Hypocrepia. See ZoopHTras. There 
 is one British species, Alcycmella slagnomm, found 
 in stagnant waters, especially in autumn, in shape- 
 less, jelly-like masses, of a blackish-green colour, 
 usually adhering to the leaves of aquatic plants. 
 The jelly-like mass is traversed from base to sxirface 
 by multitudes of tubes, which open by a roundish or 
 5-angled aperture ; the heads of the polypes project 
 a little way from the aperture, and expand into 
 a circle of about fifty tentacula. About 1600 polypes 
 are situated on a square inch of the surface of the 
 mass. The number of tentacula on a specimen of 
 moderate size has been computed at more than 
 5,000,000. The tentacula are covered with minute 
 cfiia, only to be observed with a high magnifying 
 power, by means of which a constant whirlpool is 
 maintained centering in the mouth of the polype, 
 and essential, probably, for breathing as well as for 
 the supply of food. Each polype is organically 
 connected with the mass, its tunic being continuous 
 with the tube. The alimentary canal has two 
 openings. The ova are to be found in vast numbers 
 in the tubes which traverse the mass. They are 
 dark brown, whilst the tubes are colourless or tinted 
 with green, of a lens-like form and destitute of 
 ciha. They are produced from aU parts of the inner 
 side of the gelatinous tubes ; and as there seems to 
 be no aperture for their escape, it is supposed that 
 they are hberated from the parent mass only on its 
 death and decomposition. The Alcyonella is an 
 interesting object in a fresh-water aquariiim, but 
 ia rather difficult to preserve. It is not, however, 
 always to be foimd even in ponds where it might be 
 expected, and is abundant in particular seasons and 
 rare in others. The ova are probably capable of 
 remaining long dormant, until some concurrence of 
 circumstances favours the development of the germ 
 of life which they contain. See Johnston's Sislory 
 of Sritish Zoophytes, 2 vols.. Lend. 1847 — a most 
 interesting and valuable work. 
 
 AIiDB'BARAN', the Arabic name of a star of 
 the first Uiagnitude in the consteUatiou Tailrtts. It 
 is the largest and most brilHant of a cluster of five 
 which the Greeks called the Hyades. 'Fraih its 
 position in the constellation, it is sometiihes termed 
 ' the Bull's Eye,* 
 
 AliDER (A.lmcs), a genus of plants of the natural 
 order BetvlacecB (regarded by many as a sub-order of 
 AmentaA:ecE ; see Bikoh and Amentaoke). The genus 
 consists entirely of trees and shrubs, natives of 
 cold and temperate climates ; the fiowers in terminal, 
 imbricated catkins, which appear before the leaves; 
 the male and female flowers in separate catkins on 
 the same plant ; the male or barren catkins loose, 
 cylindrical, pendulous, having the scales 3-lobed, and 
 each vpith three flowers whose perianth is single and 
 4-partite ; the fertile catkins oval, compact, naving 
 the scales sub-trifid, and each with two flowers 
 destitute of perianth; styles two ; fruit, a compressed 
 
ALDERMAJif— ALDERNEY. 
 
 mit without wings.— The Common or Black A. {A. 
 glutinosa) ia a native of Britain, and of the northern 
 parts of Asia and America. It has roundish, wedge- 
 shaped obtuse leaves, lohed at the margin and 
 
 serrated. The bark, except in very young trees, is 
 nearly black. It succeeds best in moist soils, and 
 helps to secure swampy river-banks against the 
 effects of floods. It attains a height of 30 — 60 feet. 
 Its leaves are somewhat glutinous. The wood is of 
 an orange-yellow colour, not very good for fuel, but 
 affording one of the best kinds of charcoal for the 
 manufacture of gunpowder, upon which account it is 
 often grown as coppice-wood. Great numbers of 
 small A. trees are used in Scotland for making staves 
 for herring-barrels. The wood is also employed by 
 turners and joiners; but it is particularly valuable 
 on account of its property of remaining for a long 
 time under water without decay, and is therefore 
 used for the piles of bridges, for pumps, sluices, pipes, 
 cogs of mill-wheels, and similar purposes. The bark 
 is used for tanning and for dyeing, also for staining 
 fishermen's nets. It produces a yeUow or red colour. 
 
 Alder leaves, &o. : 
 
 rt, a branchlet with male and female catkins, reduced ; 6, a 
 
 branchlet witli leaves and female catkins in a more advanced 
 
 stage, reduced; c, the fruit-bearing female catkin; d, the 
 
 sanie, cut across, to shew the small nuts or seeds. 
 
 or with copperas, a black colour. The leaves and 
 female catkins are employed in the same way, by the 
 tanners and dyers of some countries. The bark is 
 bitter and astnngent, and has been used for gard^^es, 
 and also administered with success in ague. The 
 seeds are a favourite food of greenfinches. — The 
 Alder is one of the ornaments of many of the most 
 exquisite landscapes in Britain. The dark green of 
 its foliage, and the still darker hue of its bark, con- 
 trast beautifully with the colours of the other trees 
 with which it is usually associated on the banks of 
 our rivers. In boggy grounds it is often almost the 
 only kind of tree that appears, and in many parts of 
 the Highlands, groups of alders are scattered over 
 the lower and moister parts of the mountain-slopes. 
 The individual tree viewed by itself may be regarded 
 
 as somewhat stiff and formal in appearance ; but in 
 groups or clusters, it is always far otherwise. — The 
 common A. ceases on the Swedish shore of the Gulf 
 of Bothnia, in the south of Angermarmland, and is 
 there called the Sea A., because it is only in the 
 lowest grounds near the sea that it occurs.^ — The 
 Geay Or White A. {A. incana), a native of many 
 parts of continental Euroj^e, especially of the Alp's, 
 and also of North America, and of Kamtchatka, 
 but not of Britain, differs from the common A. in 
 having acute leaves, downy beneath, and not gluti- 
 nous. It attains a rather greater height, but in very 
 cold climates and vmfavourable situations appears 
 as a shrub. It occm's on the Alps at ^u elevation 
 above that to which the common A. extends, 
 a,nd becomes abundant also where that species 
 disappears in the northern part of the Scandinavian 
 peniasula. The wood is white, fine-grained, and 
 compact, but readily rots under water. The bark 
 is used in dyeing. — A. cordifoUa is a large and 
 handsome tree, with cordate acimiinate leaves, a 
 native of the south of Italy, but found to be quite 
 hardy in England. Some of the American species 
 are mere shrubs. The bark of A. semilata is used 
 in dyeing. — Several species are natives of the Hima- 
 layas. — The Berey-bbabing A., or A. Buckthoen, 
 is a totally different plant. See Buckthoen. 
 
 A'LDERMAN, a title derived from the Anglo- 
 Saxon ealdorman, compoimded of ealdor (older) and 
 man. Whether any definite ahd invariable functions 
 were connected with the ancient rank of ealdorman, 
 does not seem to be very clearly ascertained. The 
 term was generally applied to persons of high and 
 hereditary distinction, such as princes, earls, and 
 governors. Its special signification in the titles 
 ' A. of all England' (Aldermannus totius Anglice) and 
 ' King's A.' {Aldermanmts Regis), is not distinctly 
 indicated. There were also aldermen of counties, 
 hundreds, cities, boroughs, and castles. In modem 
 times, aldermen are officers invested with certain 
 powers in the municipal corporations of England, 
 Wales, and Ireland, either as civil magistrates, or as 
 assessors of the chief civil magistrates in cities and 
 towns corporate. The corresponding title in Scot- 
 land is Bailie. The London Goiut of Aldermen 
 consists of twenty-six aldermen, including the Lord 
 Mayor, and constitutes the bench of magistrates for 
 the city, besides having judicial and legislative 
 authority in the corporation. 
 
 A'LDEENEY (Er. Aurigny, Lat. Aurinia), an 
 island in the English Channel (see Channel Islands), 
 lat. 49° 45' N.j long. 2° 13' W., separated from the coast 
 of Normandy by a strait about 7 miles in breadth, 
 called the Race of Alderney. Through this channel, 
 which is very dangerous in rough weather, the 
 remnant of the French fleet escaped after their 
 defeat at La Hogue in 1692. The distances between 
 Alderney and the nearest points of Guernsey, 
 Jersey, and Great Britain, are respectively about 
 15, 33, and 60 nules. The length of the island is 
 about 4 miles, the breadth about 1^. The coast to 
 the south-east is bold and lofty, to the north-east 
 and north, it descends, forming numerous small 
 bays, one of which, that of Crabby, affords the 
 only anchorage in the island. A harbour of 
 refuge and breakwater have been constructed on 
 the noi-th side of the island, the extensive works 
 connected with which have greatly increased the 
 population. Six miles to the west are the Caskets, 
 a small cluster of rooks, on which are three Hght- 
 houses. The soil in the centre of the island is highly 
 productive ; and the A. cows, a small but ha.ndsome 
 breed, have always been celebrated. The climate is 
 rmld and healthy, and good water abounds. The popu- 
 lation had decreased between 1813 and 1841 from 
 
 119 
 
ALDEESHOTT CAMP— ALDINE EDITIONS. 
 
 1308 to 1030; in 1851 it amounted to 3333. 
 Education to some extent is universal. Tlie 
 population was originally French, but half the 
 inhabitants now speak English, and all understand 
 it. Protestantism has prevailed here since the 
 Reformation. A. is a dependency of Guernsey, 
 and subject to the British crown. The civH power 
 is vested in a judge appointed by the crown, 
 and six jurats chosen by the people. These, 
 with twelve popular representatives or dcmzainiers 
 (who do not vote), constitute the local legislature. 
 The court of justice is composed of the judge and 
 jturats, the royal procureur and comptroller and 
 the registrar {greffier), nominated by the governor. 
 There is a local roUitia, consisting of two companies 
 of infantry, and a brigade of artillery. The ' Town,' 
 situated in a picturesque valley near the centre of the 
 island, contains a few public buildings, among which 
 is the old church, said to have been erected in the 
 12th c, and a new one in the early English style, 
 with a tower 104 feet high. ■ The living is a perpe- 
 tual curacy in the archdeaconry and diocese of 
 Winchester. 
 
 A'LDBBSHOTT CAMP. When England and 
 France declared war against Russia in 1854, in rela- 
 tion to Turkish affairs, the British army was known 
 to be in an unsatisfactory state. Thirty-nine years 
 of peace had allowed many important elements in 
 military organisation to fall into a state of ineffi- 
 ciency. Ajnong others, the power of acting well 
 together in brigades and divisions had scarcely been 
 taught to our soldiers, who had been familiar with 
 little more than the discipline and tactics of battalions 
 and companies. To remedy in part these defects 
 was the object held in view in estabUshing the 
 camp at A. It was to be a permanent camp, with 
 barracks and huts, instead of mere canvas tents ; 
 and was to be provided with all the appliances 
 for a military school, valuable to officers as well as 
 to privates. A dreary waste, on the confines of 
 Surrey, Hants, and Berks, called A. Heath, was 
 purchased by the government as the locality for the 
 new camp. The area was 7063 acres, and the 
 purchase-price about £130,000. The spot was 
 deemed suitable as being distant from any thickly 
 inhabited district ; as being within easy reach of 
 three or four stations on the South-western and 
 South-eastern railways ; and as being conveniently 
 placed for the quick transmission of tioops to any 
 part of the southern coast. The camp was ready for 
 the reception of troops in 1855. At first, no brick 
 structures were attempted. The soldiers were 
 accommodated in wooden huts, each furnishing 
 living and sleeping room for about twenty-five men. 
 When the camp was inaugurated, in April of the 
 year last named, by a review at which the Queen 
 was present, there were 18,000 troops, regulars and 
 mUitia, temporarily stationed there. The huts for 
 each regiment were grouped apart, for the better 
 maintenance of regimental discipHne. Each hut had 
 a range of iron bedsteads on either side, capable of 
 being doubled up ; and a long table through the 
 middle, in a hne with two doors at the ends of the 
 huts. The officers' huts, though of course superior 
 in construction and convenience, were as simple as 
 they could well be. The cooking was performed in 
 huts especially set apart for that purpose, provided 
 with efficient cooking apparatus. The wooden huts 
 have gradually been superseded by brick barracks, 
 at a cost of more than a quarter of a miUion sterling. 
 These will be briefly described in a future article 
 ^Babeaoks), as examples of the finest barracks 
 liitherto constructed ia this country. The Basing- 
 stoke Canal, running directly across the Heath, 
 has occasioned a division into North Camp and 
 South Camp ; but each of these is susceptible 
 
 120 
 
 of a good deal of extension. On various occasions 
 between the spring of 1855 and that of 1859, 
 the Queen has been present at grand 'field-days' 
 and reviews at the camp ; but the more import- 
 ant operations are those which are carried on daily, 
 and are known to very few besides those imme- 
 diately concerned. There are many sqirare miles of 
 plain, heath, shrub, morass, valley, and hiU sur- 
 rounding the camp, on which soldiers, and especially 
 the militia regiments, are exercised in the various 
 evolutions and strategic movements connected with 
 the battle-field and siege-works. It is no child's 
 play ; the men are often severely worked, and gain 
 a foretaste of some of the fatigues of military life. 
 On other days, they are exercised in various quiet 
 duties of tents and huts, barracks and Idtchens, 
 intended to teach them many of the useful knacks 
 ia which French soldiers are acknowledged to be 
 more sldHed than the English. DifiFerent regiments, 
 regulars as well as militia, artillery as well as 
 cavalry and infantry, take it in turn, to experience 
 camp-Ufe at A. At the time when this article is 
 beiag written (May 1859), there are about 15,000 
 troops at the camp, comprising infantry, cavalry, 
 artillery, and mihtia. The war authorities have 
 recently piu-chased or leased a portion of forest-land 
 between A. and Winchester ; camping arrangements 
 of a temporary kind will be made, and the troops 
 win be occasionally exercised with a tough march of 
 a dozen miles. One unfortunate circumstance con- 
 nected with the camp is, that the barracks have been 
 built at the very edge of the ground belonging to the 
 government ; as a consequence, private speculators 
 built beer-houses and haunts of dissipation, almost 
 close to the barracks, greatly to the demoralisation 
 of the soldiers ; and it is not easy to buy up these 
 people, owing to the enormous rise in the value of 
 the land near the camp. 
 
 A'LDINB EDITIONS, the name given to the 
 works that issued from the press of Aldo Manuzio 
 (q.v.) (Lat. Aldus Manntius) and his family in Venice 
 (1490-1597). Recommended by their intrinsic value, 
 as well as by their handsome exterior, they have 
 been highly prized by the learned and by book- 
 coUectors. Many, of them are the first editions 
 {editiones prindpes) of Greek and Roman classics ; 
 others contain corrected texts of modem classic 
 writers, as of Petrarch, Dante, Boccaccio, &c., care- 
 fully collated with the MSS. AH of them are 
 distinguished for the remarkable correctness of the 
 typography ; the Greek works, however, being in this 
 respect somewhat inferior to the Latin and Italian. 
 The editions pubUshed by Aldus, the father, form an 
 epoch in the annals of printing, as they contributed 
 in no ordinary measure to the perfecting of types. 
 No one had ever before used such beautiful Greek 
 types, of which he got nine different kinds made, 
 and of Latin as many as fourteen. It is to him, or 
 rather to the engraver, Francesco of Bologna, that 
 we owe the types called by the Itahans Corsivi, 
 and known to us as ItaHcs, which he used for 
 the first time in the 8vo edition of ancient 
 and modem classics, commencing with Virgil 
 (1501). Manuzio's impressions on parchment are 
 exceedingly beautiful ; he was the first printer who 
 introduced the custom of taking some impressions 
 on better paper — ^that is, finer or stronger than 
 the rest of the edition. The first example of this is 
 afforded in the Epistolce Grmcce (1499). It would be 
 difficult to name another who has brought so much 
 zeal, disinterestedness, taste, and knowledge to the 
 furtherance of literature, especially classical litera- 
 ture. After his death, in 1615, his business was 
 superintended by his father-in-law, Andreas Asu- 
 lanus. Paul, the son of Aldus, possessed the same 
 enthusiasm for Latin classics that his father had for 
 
ALK— ALEMBBRT. 
 
 Greek. He died at Eome in 1597. The printing 
 establishment founded by Aldo continued in active 
 operation for 100 years, and during this time printed 
 908 different works. The distinguishing mark is an 
 anchor, entwined by a dolphin, generally with the 
 motto, Sudamt et alsit. Under the direction of the 
 grandson of the foimder, it lost the superiority which 
 it had formerly maintained over all the other print- 
 ing-presses in Italy. The demand which arose for 
 editions from this office, and especially for the earlier 
 ones, induced the printers of Lyon and Florence, 
 about 1502, to begin the system of issuing counter- 
 feit Aldines. The Aldo-mania has considerably 
 diminished in later times. Among the A. works 
 which have now become very rare may be mentioned 
 the Soroe Beatce Marice Virginis of 1497 ; the Virgil 
 of 1501; and the Shetores Qrmci; not to mention 
 the editions from 1494 to 1497, which are now 
 extremely rare. The most complete collections known 
 are those of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and of 
 Renouard, the bookseller of Paris. In 1834 appeared 
 a third edition of the monograph published by 
 Kenouard, Annales de V Imprimerie des Aides, ou 
 Histoire des Trois Manuces, et de leur Editions: 
 par A. Benouard (Paris, 1834).' Ebert has published 
 a catalogue of all the authentic A. E. in the sup- 
 cement to the first volmne of his Bibliographical 
 Dictionai'y. 
 
 ALE would seem to have been the current name 
 in England for malt hquor in general before the 
 introduction of hops. This took place, according to 
 Johnston (Chemistry of Comvion Life), as late as the 
 reign of Henry VIII., about the year 1524. As the use 
 of hops was derived from Germany, the German name 
 for malt liquor (Uer), beer, was used at first to dis- 
 tinguish the hopped liquor from ale, the unhopped. 
 The word ale had in all likelihood been introduced 
 by the Danes and other Scandinavian settlers — for Ol 
 (allied probably to oil] is still the name for malt liquor 
 in the Scandinavian tongues — and must have driven 
 out the bear of the Anglo-Saxons, which that people 
 had in common with the other Teutonic nations. 
 As now used, .ale signifies a kind of beer (q.v. and 
 fEEMENTATiON), distinguished chiefly by its strength 
 and the quantity of sugar remaining undeoomposed. 
 Strong ale is made from the best pale malt ; and the 
 fermentation is allowed to proceed slowly, and the 
 ferment to be exhausted and separated. This, 
 together with the large quantity of sugar still left 
 undeoomposed, enables the liquor to keep long with- 
 out requiring a large amoimt of hops. The Scotch 
 ales are distinguished for the smaUness of the 
 quantity of hops they contain, and for their vinous 
 flavour. They are fermented at an unusually low 
 temperature. The ales of Edinburgh and Prestonpans 
 have a high reputation. Burton ale is the strongest 
 made, containing as much as 8 per cent, of alcohol ; 
 while the best brown stout has about 6 per cent., 
 and common beer only 1 per cent. India pale ale 
 differs chiefly in having a larger quantity of hops. 
 
 A- LEE, expressed by the French sous le vent, or 
 ' under the wind,' is a maritime term applied to the 
 position of the hehn when so worked, as to bring 
 the head of the ship to windward. 
 
 ALBMAN, Mateo, a famous Spanish novelist, 
 was bom about the middle of the 16th c, at Seville, 
 and died in Mexico during the reign of Philip III. 
 In 1604, he pnbhshed a poetical biography of St 
 Antonius of Padua ; and in 1608, while in the New 
 World, an Ortografia Gastellana, written during his 
 voyage ; but his great work is Ouzman de AlfaracJie, 
 a novel with a rogue for the hero, like some of the 
 more recent English fictions. It was first published 
 at Madrid in 1599, became immensely popular, and 
 in half-a-dozen years had gone through twenty-six 
 
 editions, consisting of not less than 50,000 copies, in 
 Spain and other countries. Both as regards the 
 delineation of manners and the purity of style, this 
 masterly creation of A. ranks next to that most 
 celebrated of all the Spanish novels of the same 
 character — the Lazarillo de Tormes of Mendoza. It 
 displays keen powers of observation ; and is readily 
 recognised as the work of a ripe and cultivated mind. 
 Mendoza's hero has the advantage in originality, 
 freshness, and vivacity ; but Guzman ermibits a 
 richer variety of gifts in the various characters 
 he is compelled by circumstances to assume, such 
 as stable-boy, beggar, thief, coxcomb, mercenary, 
 valet, pander, merchant, &c. The manners of the 
 author s own age are hit off with great skill and 
 effect, a wide knowledge of human nature is mani- 
 fested, and the whole narrative is interspersed with 
 shrewd and sohd reflections and moralismgs. A. is 
 considered to rank with Mendoza, Cervantes, &c., 
 as one of the masters of the Castflian style. 
 
 ALEMANNI (that is, all-men), the name of a 
 military confederacy of several German tribes 
 which began to appear on the Lower and Middle 
 Maine about the beginning of the 3d c. CaracaUa 
 fought with them first on the Maine in 211 A.D., but 
 without conquering them ; Alexander Severus was 
 equally unsuccessful ; but Maximinus at length 
 succeeded against them, and drove them beyond the 
 Khine. After his death, they again invaded Gaul, 
 but were defeated by Posthumius, who pursued them 
 into Germany, and fortified with ramparts and 
 ditches the boundary of the Koman territory, called 
 the Agri Decumates. The mounds near Pforung, 
 on the Danube, the rampart extending through the 
 principality of Hohenlohe to Jaxthausen, and the 
 ditch with palisades' on the north side of the 
 Maine, are remains of these works. See Devil's 
 Wall. The A. , however, did not desist from their 
 incursions, although they were repeatedly driven back. 
 After 282, being pressed upon from the north-east 
 by the Burgundians, they took up permanent settle- 
 ments within the Eoman boundary from Mentz to 
 Lake Constance. At last, Julian came (357) to the 
 relief of Gaul, which had been suffering from the in- 
 cursions of the A., and soon compelled eight of their 
 chiefs to sue for peace. Their united force, in their 
 principal battle with Julian, amounted to 35,000 
 men. After the 5th c. , the confederated nation is 
 spoken of as A. and Sua-id or Suevi. In the oom-se 
 of the 4th c, they had crossed the Rhine, and 
 extended as far west as the Vosges, and south to the 
 Helvetian Alps. At length. Clevis, king of the 
 Franks, broke their power in 496, and made them 
 subject to the Prankish dominion. The south part 
 of their territory was formed into a duchy, called 
 Alemannia. The name of Swabia came afterwards 
 to be appHed to the part of the duchy lying east of 
 the Ehme. From the A, the French have given the 
 name oi Allemands and Allemagne io Germans and 
 Germany in general, though the inhabitants of the 
 north of Switzerland, with those of Alsace and 
 part of Swabia, are the proper descendants of the 
 Alemanni. 
 
 ALEMBBRT, Jean le Eond d', one of the most 
 distinguished mathematicians and writers of the 
 18th c, was born in Paris, November 16, 1717. He 
 was the illegitimate son of Madame de Tencin, a 
 lady of considerable notoriety in the time of the 
 Regency, and of a M. Destouches. He was exposed 
 by his mother ■ on the steps of the church of St 
 Jean-le-Rond, and the policeman who found him 
 committed the seemingly dying infant to the care of 
 the wife of a poor glazier, thioking it too weak to be 
 taken to the dep6t. The father, without publicly 
 avowing the child, secitted to him an allowance of 
 
 121 
 
ALEMBIC— AlEMTEJO. 
 
 1200 francs a year. At the age of twelve, he entered 
 the College Mazariu, where he soon gave indication 
 of that inclination, or rather passion for mathemati- 
 cal studies which distinguished him through Ufe. On 
 leaving college, he returned to the humble home of 
 his kind foster-mother, where he continued to live 
 and pursue his favourite studies for nearly forty 
 years, sharing with her household his small revenue. 
 Although the good woman loved him as a, son, so 
 little did she encourage his exclusive devotion to 
 science, that when he spoke of his discoveries or 
 writings, she replied with a sort of pity : ' You will 
 never be anything but a philosopher ; and what is a 
 philosopher, but a fool who torments himself during 
 his Hfe, that people may talk about him when he is 
 dead.' At first, his friends urged him to qualify 
 himself for some profitable career ; but after trying 
 for a time the study of law, and then of medicine, he 
 gave up the attempt as hopeless, and abandoned 
 himself without reserve to his passion for science. 
 In 1741, at the age of 23, he was admitted a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences, having akeady 
 attracted attention by several physico-mathematical 
 tracts. Two years later appeared his Treatise on 
 Dynamics, foundfed on a, new and fertile principle 
 which makes an epoch in mechanical philosophy. 
 ' This principle consists,' says Condorcet, ' in estab- 
 hshiug the equahty, at every instant, between the 
 changes which the motion of the body has under- 
 gone, and the forces which have been employed to 
 produce them ; ' m. other words, it reduces all the 
 laws of motion to the consideration of Equihbrium. 
 Among the more important of his other scientific 
 works are : his Tlieory of the Winds, which gaiued the 
 prize of the Academy of Berlin, 1746, and which 
 contains the first conception and use of the Calculus 
 of Partial Differences ; a treatise on the Precession 
 of the Equinoxes, 1749, giving for the first time an 
 analytical solution of that phenomenon, as well as of 
 the nutation of the earth's axis ; Essay on the Resist- 
 ance of Fluids, 1752; Besearclies on some Important 
 Paints in the System of the Universe, 1754 and 1756. 
 His MatlwmaXicaX Opuscules contain aa immense 
 number of memoirs, some on new subjects, some 
 containing developments of his previous works. 
 
 But A. did not confine himself to physical science. 
 Diderot {q. v.) having conceived the idea of the 
 famous EncydopSdie, enlisted the services of A., who 
 wrote the Preliminary Discourse, which is allowed 
 by aU to be a noble tnbute to literature and philos- 
 ophy — a model of lucid and eloquent exposition, 
 and displaying an immense extent of knowledge 
 combined with rare judgment. Besides numerous 
 articles iu the Enq/clopedie, he pubhshed Elements 
 of Philosophy, 1759 ; Melanges of Literature and 
 Philosophy ; The Destruction of the Jesuits, &c. He 
 also wrote a great many iloges of members of the 
 Academy of Sciences, of which he was elected 
 secretary in 1772. His literary works have been pub- 
 hshed in a collected form, new edition, by Bossange 
 (Paris, 1821, 6 vols. 8vo). This edition contains the 
 correspondence of A. with Voltaire and the king of 
 Prussia. His scientific works have never been 
 collected. 
 
 A. gave striking proof of how Httle he regarded 
 riches and distinctions, or the flatteries of the great, 
 and how genuine was his love of independence. 
 Frederick 11. of Prussia offered liirn the presidency 
 of the Academy of Berlin, 1752, but he declined to 
 leave France, and only accepted a subsequent offer 
 of a pension of 1200 francs. The king of Prance 
 granted him a similar simi. In 1762, Catharine II. 
 of Russia invited him, through her ambassador, to 
 undertake the education of her sou, with a salary of 
 ■100,000 francs ; and when he declined, she wrote 
 him a letter with her own hand, lu-ging that to 
 123 
 
 refuse to contribute to the education of a whole 
 nation was inconsistent with his own principles ; 
 and inviting him, if he could not reconcile himself to 
 the breaking-off of his pursuits and friendships, to 
 bring all his friends with him, and she would provide 
 both for them and for him everything' they could 
 desire. But A. remained steadfast. Wien the Grand 
 Duke afterwards visited Paris, he good-hmnouredly 
 reproached A. with his refusal ; and to the excuse of 
 the rigour of the climate and feeble health, the prince 
 repHed, with the compliment : ' In truth, monsieur, it is 
 the Only false calculation you have made in your hfe.' 
 A. was never married. He was tenderly attached for 
 many years to a Mademoiselle Espinasse, although 
 their intimacy, it is believed, never went beyond a 
 warm friendship. The death of the lady was a severe 
 blow to A. His own health began to give way ; for 
 he was suffering from the stone, and would not con- 
 sent to an operation. He died, October 29, 1783. 
 
 A. was truthful, frank, and extremely benevolent. 
 He held it as a principle of morals that a man has no 
 right to dispose at will of his own superfluous means 
 while there are others in want of the necessaries of 
 hfe. A stigma has Sjttached to the name of A. from 
 his intimate association with Voltaire and other 
 assailants of Christianity; but A. never attacked 
 religion in his pubhshed writings, which might be 
 read without knowing what his opinions regarding 
 revelation were. It is only from his private corre- 
 spondence that it appears that he thought the 
 probabilities were in favour of theism. 
 
 ALE'MBIC (formed by the Arabs from then- 
 article al and Gr. ambix, a goblet), is a form of 
 stiU introduced into chemistry by the alchemists, 
 and used by the more ancient experimenters in 
 manipulative chemistry for the distUlation and sub- 
 limation of substances, such as alcohol, or formic 
 aoid obtained by heating a decoction of red ants in 
 water. The vessel consisted of a body, cucurbit or 
 matrass (A), in which the material to be volatil- 
 ised was placed; a Jiead or capital (B) into which the 
 vapours rose, were cooled, and then trickled down 
 to the lower part (0), from whence by a pipe (D) the 
 distiQed product passed into the receiver (E). "Wliere 
 very volatile liquids were being distilled, it was 
 customary to introduce the receiver (E) into a vessel 
 with cold water, so as to increase the perfectness 
 
 of the condensing part of the arrangement. The 
 A. has now been entirely superseded by the retort 
 and receiver, or by the flask attached to a Liebig'a 
 condenser. See EiBtort. 
 
 ALEMTE'JO, a large provmce of Portugal, oon- 
 tammg about 300,000 inhabitants, is the second most 
 southerly province of the country. It is partly 
 washed by the Atlantic on the west, and stretches 
 to the Spanish frontier on the east. It is traversed by 
 a number of mountain-chains, and is watered by the 
 Tagus, Guadiana, and Saado or Sado. In the south 
 
ALENCON— ALESIA. 
 
 and west, the climate is hot and dry ; tlio plains are 
 covered with brown heath, unrelieved by a tree or 
 a shrub, and only broken at intervals by marshy 
 ■wastes, -while the vegetation is extremely scanty. 
 In the east, on the contrary, the vaUeys are fertile, 
 and the mountaiiis adorned with forests. The pro- 
 ductions are singularly abundant. They consist of 
 wheat, barley, rice, maize, the vine, and a variety of 
 clioice fruits — such as the citron, the lemon, the fig, 
 the pomegranate. In the valleys, iiie principal trees 
 are the oak with edible fruits, the evergreen-oalc, the 
 cork-oak, the chestnut, and the pine ; m the plains, 
 we find lavender, rosemary, juniper, the myrtle. The 
 pasturage, aJso, is extraordmaiily fine. Great attention 
 is paid to the rearing of swine, goats, and sheep, and 
 in a less degree, of homed cattle, asses, and mules. 
 As the popmation is sparse, more grain is produced 
 than is consumed ; but manufactures are in a back- 
 ward condition. Even mining, which might be very 
 profitably carried on, is neglected. The chief towns 
 are Evora (the capital), Mvas, Portalegre, Beja, 
 Estremoz, and Mertola. 
 
 ALE'NCON', chief town of the department of 
 Orne, in France, is situated on the Sarthe, in 
 lat. 48° 25' N., and long. 0° 54' E. The town- 
 church — a structure of the 16th c, containing the 
 remains of the tombs of the A. family, which 
 were almost completely destroyed at the Revolution 
 — ^is built in the Gothio style. It has a fine porch 
 and exquisitely painted windows. A. is a clean and 
 handsome town, with good streets and a delightful 
 pubUo walk. The iimabitants produce excellent 
 woollen and linen stuffs, embroidered fabrics, straw- 
 hats, lace- work, artificial flowers, hosiery, &o. The 
 manufacture of A. point-lace {points cPA.), although 
 still important, is not carried on to the same extent 
 as formerly. The cutting of the so-called A. 
 diamonds (quartz-crystals), found in the vicinity of 
 the town, is a branch of industry which has also 
 greatly declined. 
 
 The old Dukes op A. were a branch of the royal 
 family of Valois, and were descended from Charles 
 of Valois, who perished at the battle of Crecy in 
 1346. His grandson, John I., fell at Aginconrt in 
 1415. His successor, John II., allying hSnself with 
 the enemies of the court, was twice condemned to 
 death, but pardoned both times. Ken6, son of John 
 II., also excited, not without cause, the suspicion of 
 the French monarch, Louis XI., who confined him 
 for three months in an iron cage at Chinon ; but as 
 the parhament had never condemned him, he was 
 released at the death of Louis, and restored by 
 Charles VIII. to his title and estate. Eeng's son, 
 who had married the sister of Francis I., was general 
 of the advance-guard of the French army in the 
 Netherlands. He commanded the left wing at the 
 battle of Pavia, where, instead of supporting the 
 king at a critical moment, he fled with his troops ; 
 and to him, therefore, has been attributed both 
 the disastrous defeat sustained by the French, and 
 his sovereign's falling into the hands of the enemy. 
 With him expired the old Hoxise of A. The duchy 
 was then given to the Duke of Anjou. Louis XIV. 
 conferred it upon the Diike of Berri, and Louis 
 XVI. on the Count of Provence. 
 
 ALE'PPO, a town in the north of Syria, between 
 the Orontes and the Euphrates, on the banks of the 
 little desert stream, Nahr-el-Haleb, at the north-west 
 entrance of the great Syro-Arabian waste. It stands 
 in a large hollow, surrounded by rocky hiUs of 
 limestone. The fruitful gardens, celebrated for their 
 excellent plantations of pistachios, are the sole con- 
 trast to the desolation wmch environs the city, whose 
 numberless cupolas and minarets, clean, well-paved 
 streets, and stately houses, make it even yet one of 
 
 the most beautiful in the east. It contains about 
 80,000 inhabitants, of whom 17,000 are Christians, 
 and 4700 Jews, with a small number of Europeans. 
 Sixty years ago, it had above 200,000, and suppHed a 
 great part of the east with fabrics of sflk, cotton and 
 wool, and gold and sUver stuffs ; but m 1822 an earth- 
 quake swallowed up two-thirds of the inhabitants, 
 and transformed the citadel into a heap of ruins. 
 The plague of 1827, the cholera of 1832, and the 
 oppression of the Egyptian government, all but com- 
 pleted its destruction. Durmg the sway of the last, 
 however, a new citadel and some other edifices were 
 erected ; but scarcely half of the mosques and baths 
 have been rebuilt. The aqueduct is the oldest 
 momunent of the town. A. is one of the principal 
 emporiiuns of the inland commerce of Asia. Its 
 port is Iskanderoon (q. v.), situated 60 miles to the 
 N.E., on the bay of the same name. A. has a 
 large trade in cotton and silk goods, skins, tobacco, 
 wine, oU, &c. It was once the centre of Saracenic 
 power, still retains much of the Arabic character, 
 and its citizens are famed throughout the east for 
 their elegant manners. 
 
 ALEU'TIAN ISLANDS, or the CATHERINE 
 ARCHIPELAGO, is the name of a group of islands, 
 numbering above 150, and consisting of several clus- 
 ters. They belong to Russian America, and form an 
 insidar continuation of the North American peninsula 
 of Alaska, in the shape of an arch or bridge between 
 the former continent and Asia. They lie in 55° N. 
 lat., separating the Sea of Kamtchatka from the 
 Pacific, and naturally subdivide themselves into five 
 groups : 1. Behring's Islands (where Behring died 
 m 1741); 2. the Sasignan, or 'Nearest' Islands, so 
 called because nearest to the coast of Kamtchatka ; 
 3. the Rat Islands ; 4. the Andreianowsky, which are 
 very small and little frequented; 5. the Fox Islands, 
 among which is Unimak, the largest in the archi- 
 pelago. The islands are all craggy, and have a deso- 
 late appearance from the sea. They exhibit traces of 
 violent internal commotion. Several volcanoes are 
 still periodically active ; and warm volcanic springs 
 are numerous. The whole chain or group forms 
 a connecting-link between the volcamo range of 
 the west coast of America and Kamtchatka. On 
 account of the numerous rocks which he off their 
 shores, they are not very accessible to ships. Under 
 a climate which exchanges only for a short time the 
 monotonous rigour of wmter for a cloudy spring and 
 a hot summer, httie can be expected of so niggardly 
 a soil. There are plenty of low scrubby bushes, 
 grasses, moss, and hchens, but no strong and stately 
 growth of trees. An experiment tried at Unalaska 
 of planting pines had very little success. Here and 
 there, however, European kitchen-gardens have been 
 attempted with better results ; and the cultivation 
 of the potato has likewise succeeded. The islands 
 abound in springs, and are overrun with foxes, 
 dogs, and reindeer, while the coasts swarm with fish, 
 seals, and otters. The inhabitants, who are extremely 
 rude, and of Kamtchatkan origin, were converted to 
 Christianity by Russian priests. They are reckoned 
 about 9000. Their occupation is hunting and fishing. 
 Their trade is chiefly in furs and fish, of which the 
 principal entrejpdt is Alexandria, in the island of 
 Rojak. 
 
 ALB'SIA, a town of ancient Gaul, the siege and 
 capture of which form one of Csesar's greatest exploits. 
 The Gauls were maldns a last effort to shake off 
 the Roman yoke; and v eroingetorix, their bravest 
 leader, after several defeats, had shut himself up 
 witii 80,000 men in A., there to await the reinforce- 
 ments which he expected from a general insiu'rec- 
 tion of the country. The town was situated on a 
 lofty hiU, and well calculated for defence. Ceesar, 
 
 123 
 
ALESSAITORIA— ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 
 
 ■witli Mg army of 60,000 men,_ completely sur- 
 roimded the place, with, the view of starving it into 
 a surrender. He fortified his position by two lines 
 of rampart of prodigious extent and strength; one 
 towards the town, for defence against the sallies of 
 the besieged ; the other towards the plain, against 
 the expected armies of relief. Before they could 
 assemble, 250,000 strong, he was ready for them; 
 and aU their assaults, combined with the desperate 
 efiforts of the besieged, were of no avail. A. was 
 obliged to surrender, and Vercmgetorix was made 
 prisoner. A. was afterwards a place of some note 
 under the empire, but was destroyed by the Normans 
 in 864. Near the site of the ancient A., west from 
 Dijon, stands the modem village of Alise or Sainte- 
 Keine. 
 
 ALESSA'NDRIA, the principal fortress and 
 town of the province of the same name in the 
 kingdom of Sardinia, is situated in a marshy country 
 near the confluence of the Bormida and Tanaro. It 
 was bmlt in 1168 by the inhabitants of Cremona, 
 Milan, and Plaoentia, as a bulwark against the 
 emperor Frederick I. Its original nam^was Ctesarea, 
 but it was afterwards called A. in honour of Pope 
 Alexander III., who established a bishopric in it. 
 Designed at first as a fortress to guard the passage 
 of the Bormida and Tanaro, and being the central 
 point of intercourse between Genoa, Milan, and 
 Turin, the town has frequently been the object of 
 sanguinary strife. It was taken and plundered in 
 1522 by Duke Sf orza ; besieged, but without success, 
 by the French, under the Prince of Conti, in 1657 ; 
 and again taken, in spite of an obstinate resist- 
 ance, by Prince Eugene in 1707. After the prostra- 
 tion of Austria at the battle of Marengo in 1800, 
 Bonaparte concluded an armistice at A. with his 
 enemies, according to which, Upper Italy, as far as 
 the Minoio, wag ceded to the French, with twelve 
 fortresses. It was the principal armory of the 
 Piedmontese during the insurrection of the Lom- 
 bardo- Venetian states in 1848 — 9, when many new 
 fortifications were added to it. At present, the 
 citadel is one of the strongest fortresses in Europe ; 
 of enormous size, larger, it is said, than many a 
 town, and in the event of a war in Italy, will 
 probably be once more the scene of many a desperate 
 and bloody struggle. A. contains, exclusive of the 
 garrison, about 40,000 inhabitants, who carry on a 
 considerable trade in linens, woollens, silk fabrics, 
 stockings, hats, &o. The culture of flowers is also 
 much attended to. Two fairs are held in A. annually, 
 which are largely frequented. 
 
 ALEXANDER THE GREAT, son of Philip of 
 Macedon and Olympias, daughter of Ncoptolemus of 
 Epirus, was born at Pella, 356 B.C. Endowed by 
 nature with a happy genius, he early announced his 
 great character. Philip's triimiphs saddened him. 
 On one occasion he exclaimed : ' My father will 
 leave nothing for me to do.' His education was 
 committed first to Leonidas, a maternal relation, 
 then to Lysimachus, and afterwards to Aristotle. 
 This great philosopher withdrew him to a distance 
 from the court, and instructed him in every branch 
 of human learning, especially in what relateg to the 
 art of government, while at the same time he dis- 
 cipUned and invigorated his body by gymnastic 
 exercises. As Macedon was surrounded by danger- 
 ous neighbours, Aristotle was anxious to inspire his 
 pupil with military ardour, and with this view 
 recommended him to study the Iliad, a revision 
 of which he himself undertook for his use. A. was 
 16 years of age when his father marched against 
 Byzantium, and left the government in his hands 
 during his absence. Two years afterwards, he 
 displayed singular courage at the battle of Chferonea 
 124 
 
 (338 B.C.), where he overthrew the Sacred Band of 
 the Thebans. ' My son,' said Philip, as he embraced 
 him after the conflict, 'seek for thyseK another 
 kingdom, for that which I leave is too small for 
 thee.' The father and son quarrelled, however, when 
 the former repudiated Olympias. A. took part with 
 his mother, and fled, to escape his father's vengeance, 
 to Epirus ; but receiving his pardon soon afterwards, 
 he returned, and accompanied him in an expedition 
 against the TribaUi, when he saved his life on the 
 field. Phflip being appointed generalissimo of the 
 Greeks, was preparing for a war with Persia, when 
 he was assassinated (336 B. c), and A., not yet twenty 
 years of age, ascended the throne. After punishing 
 his father's murderers, he went into the Peloponnesus, 
 and in a general assembly of the Greeks he caused 
 himself to be appointed to the command of the forces 
 against Persia. On his return to Macedon, he found 
 the lUyrians and TribaUi up in arms, whereupon he 
 marched against them, forced his way through 
 Thrace, and was everywhere victorious. But now 
 the Thebans had been induced, by a report of his 
 death, to take up arms, and the Athenians, stimu- 
 lated by the eloquence of Demosthenes, were pre- 
 paring to join them. To prevent this coalition, A. 
 rapidly marched against Thebes, which, refusing to 
 surrender, was conquered, and razed to the ground : 
 6000 of the inhabitants were slain, and 30,000 sold 
 into slavery; the house and faimly of the poet 
 Pindar alone being spared. This severity struck 
 terror into all Greece. The Athenians were treated 
 with more leniency, A. only requiring of them the 
 banishment of Charidemus, who had been most bitter 
 in his invectives against him. 
 
 A, having appointed Antipater his deputy in 
 Europe, now prepared to prosecute the war with 
 Persia. He crossed the Hellespont in the spring of 
 334 B.C., mth 30,000 foot and 5000 horse, attacked 
 the Persian satraps at the river Granlcus, and gained 
 a complete victory, overthrowing the son-in-law of 
 Darius with his own lance. The only real resistance 
 the Macedonians met with was from the Greek 
 auxiharies of the Persians, who were marshalled 
 in phalanxes, luider the command of Memnon of 
 Rhodes, but finally they were all slain except 2000, 
 who were taken prisoners. A. celebrated the 
 obsequies of his fallen warriors in a splendid manner, 
 and bestowed many privileges on their relations. 
 Most of the cities of Asia Minor, Sardis ncft excepted, 
 opened their gates to the conqueror, nor did Miletus 
 or Halicamassus ofier longer resistance. A. restored 
 democracy in aU the Greek cities, cut the Gordian-knot 
 (q. V.) with his sword as he passed through Gordium, 
 and proceeded to the conquest of Lycia, Ionia, Caria, 
 Pamphylia, and Cappadocia. His career was checked 
 for a time by a dangerous illness, brought on by 
 bathing in the Gydnus. On this occasion he displayed 
 his magnanimity in the following circumstances. 
 He received a letter from Parmenio, insinuating 
 that Philip, his physician, intended to poison 
 him, having been bribed by Darius. A. handed the 
 letter to Philip, and at the same time swallowed the 
 draught which had been prepared for him. As soon 
 as he recovered, he advanced towards the defiles of 
 Cilioia,' in which Darius had stationed, himself, 
 with an army of above 500,000 men. He arrived 
 in November 333 B. c. in the neighbourhood of 
 Issus, where a battle took place, between the 
 mountains and the sea. ■ The disorderly masses of 
 the Persians were thrown into confusion by the 
 charge of the Macedonians, and fled in terror. On 
 the left wmg, 30,000 Greeks, in the pay of the 
 Persian king, held out longer, but they, too, were 
 at length compelled to yield. AU the treasures as 
 well as the family of Darius fell into the hands of the 
 conqueror, who treated the latter with the greatest 
 
ALEXANDER THE OEEAT. 
 
 magnanimity. The king, wlio fled towards the 
 Euphrates, twice made overtm-es of peace, which A. 
 haughtily refused, saying .that Dariua must regai'd 
 him as the ruler of Asia, and the lord of all his 
 people. One of the conditions of the second overture 
 was that A. should possess all Asia to the Euphrates. 
 On heai-ing which his general, Parmenio, ej^olaimed : 
 ' I would do it, if I were A.' ' So would I,' replied 
 the monarch, ' if I were Parmenio.' The victory at 
 Issus opened the whole country to the Macedonians. 
 A. now tiurned towards Syi-ia and Phoenicia, to cixt 
 off Darius's escape by sea. He occupied Damascus, 
 where he found princely treasures, and seciued to 
 himself all the cities along the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. Tyre, confident in its strong position, 
 resisted him, but was conquered and destroyed, after 
 seven months of incredible exertion (332 B. c). Thence 
 he marched victoriously through Palestine, where all 
 the cities submitted to him except Gaza, which 
 shared the same fate as Tyre. Egypt, weary of the 
 Persian yoke, welcomed him as a deliverer ; and in 
 order to strengthen his dominion here, he restored 
 all the old customs and rehgious institutions of the 
 country, and fovmded Alexandria in the beginning 
 of 331 B.C., which became one of the first cities of 
 ancient times. Thence he marched through the 
 Libyan Desert, in order to consult the oracle of 
 Jupiter A mm on, whose priest saluted him as a son 
 of Jove; and at the return of spring went against 
 Darius, who had assembled an army in Assyria. 
 A battle ensued, in October 331 B.C., on the plains 
 of Arbela, or rather Guagamela, for Arbela, the 
 point to which A. pursued the Persians, is 50 miles 
 from the scene of the fight. See Aebela. Notwith- 
 standing the immense superiority of his adversary, 
 who had collected a new army of 500,000 men, A. 
 was not for a moment doubtful of victory. Heading 
 the cavalry himself, he rushed on the Persians, and 
 put them to flight ; but as soon as he had entirely 
 dispersed them, he hastened to the assistance of his 
 left wing, which, in the meanwhile, had been sorely 
 pressed. He was anxious to make a prisoner of the 
 Persian king himself, but the latter escaped by 
 flight on horseback, leaving his baggage and all his 
 treasures a prey to the conqueror. Babylon and 
 Susa, the storehouses of the treasures of the east, 
 opened their gates to the conqueror, who next 
 marched towards PersepoHs, the capital of Persia, 
 which he entered in triumph. 
 
 The marvellous successes of A. now began to 
 dazzle his own judgment, and to inflame his passions. 
 He became a slave to debauchery, and his caprices 
 were as omel as they were ungrateful. In a fit of 
 drunkenness, and at the instigation of Thais, an 
 Athenian courtezan, he set fire to Persepohs, the won- 
 der of the world, and reduced it to a heap of ashes ; 
 then, ashamed of the deed, he set out with his cavalry 
 to pursue Darius. Learning that Bessus, the satrap of 
 Bactriana, held the king a prisoner, he hastened his 
 march, in the hope of saving him, but he found him 
 mortally wounded on the frontiers of that country 
 (330 B. c). He mourned over his unfortunate enemy, 
 and caused his body to be buried with all the usual 
 rites observed in Persia ; but he pursued Bessus, 
 who himself aspired to the throne, through Hyr- 
 cania, Iran, Bactriana, over the Oxus to Sogdiana 
 (now Bokhara), whose satrap, Spitamenes, surrendered 
 Bessus to him. Having discovered a conspiracy in 
 which the son of Parmenio was implicated, he put both 
 father and son to death, though Parmenio himself was 
 innocent of aU knowledge of the afiair. This cruel 
 injustice excited universal displeasure. In 329 he 
 penetrated to the furthest known limits of Northern 
 Asia, and overthrew the Scythians on the banks of 
 the jaxartes. In the f oUovring year, he subdued the 
 whole of Sogdiana, and marriedKoxana, whom he had 
 
 taken prisoner. She was the daughter of Oxyartes, . 
 one of the enemy's captains, and was said to be the 
 handsomest of the virgms of Asia. A new conspiracy 
 broke out against A., at the head of which were Her- 
 molaus and CalHsthenes, a pupil of Aristotle, which 
 occasioned the death of many of the culprits ; while 
 Callisthenes himself was mutilated, and carried about 
 in an iron cage through the army, tiU some one put 
 an end to his sufferings by poison. 
 
 In the year 327 B. c, A. proceeded to the 
 conquest of India, then Imowu only by name. He 
 crossed the Indus near to the modern Attock, 
 and pursued his way under the guidance of a native 
 prince to the Hydaspes (modem Jeliuu), where he 
 was opposed by Poms, another native prince, whom 
 he overthrew after a bloody contest. Thence he 
 marched as lord of the country through that part of 
 India which is now called the Punjab, establishing 
 Greek colonies. He then wished to advance to the 
 Ganges, but the generalmurmuring of his troops obliged 
 him, at the Hyphasis (modern Sutledge), to commence 
 his retreat, which was accomplished imder circum- 
 stances of extreme danger. When he had again reached 
 the Hydaspes, he built a fleet, and sent one division 
 of his army in it down the river, whfle the other 
 followed along the banks, fighting its way through 
 successive Indian armies. At length, having reached 
 the ocean, he ordered Nearchus, the commander of 
 the fleet, to sail thence to the Persian Gulf, while 
 he himself struck inland with one division of his 
 army, in order to return home through Gedrosia (now 
 Beloochistan). Here he had to traverse immense 
 deserts, where a great part of his army perished for 
 want of food and water, and were buried in the sand. 
 The other division marched through Arachosia and 
 Drangiana (Afghanistan) under Craterus, but they 
 united again in Carmania. Of all the troops, how- 
 ever, which had set out vsdth A., only about a 
 fourth part arrived with him in Persia (325 B.C.). 
 At Susa he married Stateira, the daughter of 
 Darius, and he bestowed presents on those Mace- 
 donians (about 10,000 in number) who had married 
 Persian women, his design being to unite the two 
 nations as closely as possible. He also distributed 
 hberal rewards among his soldiers. At Opis on 
 the Tigris he declared it to be his intention to send 
 home the invalids richly rewarded; and this he 
 accomplished, but not till he had with some diffi- 
 culty repressed the mutiny which broke out on the ■ 
 occasion. Soon afterwards he was deprived, by death, 
 of his favourite Hephaestion, on which occasion his 
 grief was unbounded, and he interred the deceased 
 with kingly honours. As he was returning from 
 Ecbatana to Babylon, it is said that the Magi fore- 
 told that the latter city would prove fatal to him ; 
 but A. despised their warnings, and, in spits of 
 the advice of his friends, marched to Babylon, 
 before reaching which, however, he was met by 
 ambassadors from all parts of the world — Libya, 
 Italy, Carthage, Greece, the Scythians, Celts, and 
 Iberians. Here he again occupied himself with 
 gigantic plans for the future, both of conquest and 
 civilisation, when he was suddenly taken ill after a 
 banquet, and died eleven days afterwards, on the 11th 
 or 13th of May or June, 323 B. c, in the 32d year 
 of his age, having reigned twelve years and eight 
 months. His body was deposited in a golden 
 coffin at Alexandria, by Ptolemaeus, and divine 
 honours were paid to him, not only in Egypt, but 
 in other countries. A. had appointed no heir to 
 his immense dominions ; but to the question of his 
 friends: 'Wio should inherit them?' he rephed: 
 ' The most worthy.' After many disturbances, 
 his generals recognised as kings the weak-minded 
 Arid^us — a son of Philip by Phflinna, the dancer — 
 and A.'s posthumous son by Roxana, while they 
 
ALEXAITOER SEVERUS— ALEXANDER I. 
 
 shared the provinces among themselves, under the 
 name o£ satraps. Perdiccas, to whom A. had, on his 
 death-bed, delivered his ring, became guardian of 
 the kings during their minority. 
 
 It is but right to observe that A. did something 
 more than shed blood during his life. He diffused 
 the language and civiUsation of Greece wherever 
 ^^cto^y led him, and planted Greek kingdoms in 
 Asia, which continued to exist for some centuries. 
 At the very time of his death, he was engaged in 
 devisiag plans for the draiuage of the unhealthy 
 marshes aroimd Babylon, and a better irrigation of 
 the extensive plains. It is even supposed that the 
 fever which he caught there, rather than his famous 
 drinking-bout, was the real cause of his death. To 
 A., the ancient world owed a vast increase of its 
 knowledge in geography, natural history, &c. He 
 taught Europeans the road to India, and gave 
 them' the first glimpses of that magnificence and 
 splendour which has dazzled and captivated their 
 , imagination for two thousand years. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERTJS, a Eoman emperor 
 (222 — 235 A.D.),was the cousin, adopted son, and suc- 
 cessor of Heliogabalus. , The excellent education 
 which he received from his mother, Julia Mammsea, 
 rendered him one of the best priuces in an age when 
 virtue was reckoned more dangerous than vice in a 
 monarch. He sought the society of the learned ; 
 Paulus and Ulpian were his counsellors, Plato and 
 Cicero were, next to Horace and Virgil, has favourite 
 authors. Although a pagan, he reverenced the 
 doctrines of Christianity, and often quoted that 
 saying : ' Whatsoever ye would that men should do 
 to you, do ye so also to them.' Beloved as he was 
 by the citizens on account of his equity, he soon 
 became an object of hatred to the unruly preetoriau 
 guards. His first expedition, against Artaxerxes, king 
 of Persia, was happily terminated by a speedy over- 
 throw of the enemy. But during one which he under- 
 took against the Germans on the Rhine, to defend 
 the frontiers of the empire from their incursions, an 
 insurrection broke out among his troops, headed 
 by Maximin, in. which Alexander was murdered, 
 along with his mother, not far from Mentz. The 
 grateful people, however, placed him among the 
 gods. After his death, military despotism obtained 
 the ascendency, and the Roman power rapidly 
 declined. 
 
 ALEXAJSTDER NBWSKI, or NEVSKI, a Rus- 
 sian hero and saint, bom at Vladimir in 1219 A.D., 
 was the son of the Grand Duke Jaroslav, of 
 Novgorod. In order to defend the empire, which 
 was attacked on all sides, but especially by the 
 Mongols, his father quitted Novgorod, leaving the 
 cares of the government to his sons, Eedor and 
 Alexander, the former of whom died soon after- 
 wards. The latter vigorously resisted the enemy; 
 yet Russia was forced to submit to the Mongol 
 dominion in 1238 A.D. A. now fought to defend 
 the western frontier against the Danes, the Swedes, 
 and the Teutonic knights. He received the surname 
 of Newski, on account of the splendid victory over 
 the Swedes, which he achieved in 1240, on the Newa 
 (Neva), in the province where St Petersburg now 
 stands. In 1243 A.D., on the ice of Lake Peipus, 
 he defeated the Livonian Knights of the Sword, 
 who had been stimulated by the pope to attack the 
 Russian heretics. At the death of his father in 
 1247, he became Grand Duke of Vladimir. Pope 
 Innocent IV. now made a diplomatic attempt to 
 reunite the Greek and Roman churches, since his 
 mUitary scheme had failed, and with this view, sent 
 an embassy to A., which, however, proved as ineffec- 
 tual as the former. To the end of his life, however, 
 he remained a, vassal of the Tatars or Mongols. 
 126 
 
 Thrice had he to renew his oath of fealty to the 
 Asiatic barbarians, making in each instance a 
 ioumey to their camp. He died in 1263 A.D., at 
 Kassimcow, on ■ his return from the last of these 
 journeys; and the gratitude of the nation perpe- 
 tuated his memory in popular songs, and even 
 canonised him. Peter the . Great honoured his 
 memory by building a magnificent convent on the 
 spot where A. had fought his great battle, and by 
 founding the knightly order of A. N. 
 
 ALEXA'NDBR VI. (Boegia), 1492—1503, the 
 
 most celebrated of the eight popes (see Popes) of 
 this name, but at the same time the most infamous 
 one that ever Uved, as well as the most vicious 
 prince of his age. His most conspicuous qualities 
 were a cunning and insidious cruelty, united with 
 great fearlessness in danger, an unwearied perse- 
 verance and vigilance in all his undertakings, a 
 soft and plausible manner towards his inferiors, a 
 harsh and grasping spirit towards the rich. In spite 
 of his talents and his love of art and science, he 
 disdained, throughout his dissolute career, no means 
 of gratifying his lust — not even perjury, murder, 
 and poisoning. He was born at Valencia, in Spain, 
 1430. His own name was Rodrigo Lenzuoli, but he 
 assumed the ancient and famous one of his mother's 
 family, Borgia. He had five children by Rosa 
 Vanozza, a woman celebrated for her beauty, two of 
 whom equalled himself in criminahty, Caesar and 
 Lucretia (see Bokgia). A. was made a cardinal by 
 his uncle Calixtus III., and on the death of Innocent 
 VIII., was elevated to the papal chair, which he had 
 previously seciu'ed by flagrant bribery. The long 
 absence of the popes from Italy had weakened their 
 authority and curtailed their revenues. To com- 
 pensate for this loss, A. endeavoiured to break the 
 power of the Italian princes, and to appropriate their 
 possessions for the benefit of his own family. To 
 gain this end, he employed the most execrable 
 means. He died in 1503, from having partaken, by 
 accident, as is commonly beKeved, of poisoned wine, 
 intended for his guests. Under his pontificate, the 
 censorship of books was introduced, and Savonarola, 
 the earnest and eloquent Florentine priest, who had 
 advocated his deposition, was condemned to be 
 bmmed as a heretic. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., PAtrLowiTSCH, Emperor and 
 Autocrat of All the Russias (1801 — 1825), was bom 
 December 23, 1777. His education, in which his 
 father, Paul I., had no hand, was conducted by his 
 grandmother, Catharine II., and Colonel Laharpe and 
 other tutors. He always shewed great affection for 
 his mother, Maria, daughter of Eugene, Duke of 
 Wurtemberg. With a humane and benevolent dis- 
 position, the 'northern Telemaque' was imbued by 
 Laiiarpe with the enlightened principles of the age. 
 Professor Kraft instructed bJTn in experimental 
 physics, and Pallas in botany. It was thought 
 better not to devote his attention to poetry and 
 music, as it would have required too much time to 
 make any great acqidrements. In 1793 he married 
 Elizabeth, daughter of Karl Ludwig, Crown Prince 
 of Baden, and, on the assassination of his father 
 Paul (q. v.), on the 24th of March 1801, succeeded 
 him upon the throne. Although A. doubtless 
 knew of the conspiracy to detlxrone his father, 
 there is no reason to beheVe that he contemplated 
 the crime of murder. His accession was celebrated 
 by Klopstock in an ode. To Humanity, indicative 
 of the high expectations formed of him. The young 
 ruler seemed deeply penetrated with a sense of his 
 obligation to make his people happy and to promote 
 their civilisation and prosperity. He was tiie first 
 to lay the foundation of the national culture and 
 popular instruction on a regular plan, to introduce 
 
ALBXAJTOERI. 
 
 organisation into the internal adminiatratiou, im- 
 shaokle the indnstry of the nation, raise the foreign 
 conimeroe of iluasia, and awaken in the people a 
 feeling of unity, and a spirit of patriotism. 
 
 Of speoifio internal improvements effected by A., 
 his exertions on behalf of the language, literature, 
 and general cvdturo of the Slavonic nations deserve 
 special notice. Seven universities, at Dorpat, Kasan, 
 Charkow, Moscow, Wihia, Warsaw, and St Peters- 
 burg, were eiiiier instituted or remodelled by him ; 
 204r gymnasiums and normal schools, and above 2000 
 distnct elementary schools, were erected ; and fresh 
 life and activity given to the higher scientific insti- 
 tutions in St Petersburg and Moscow. He did more 
 than any other sovereign in Europe for the spread of 
 the Bible, by supporting the Bible Society (which 
 was suppressed, however, in 1826) ; and in 1820, he 
 had a bishop instituted for the evangelical Lutheran 
 ohiu?ch, and a general consistory in St Petersburg 
 for the whole empire. He devoted large sums to 
 the printing of important works, such ag Kruseu- 
 steriPs Travels, and Karamsin's History of Russia, 
 and prized and rewarded scientific merit both at 
 home and abroad. Several scientific collections were 
 purchased by him, and in 1818 he invited two 
 orientahsts, Demange and Charmoy, from Paris to St 
 Petersburg; to promote the study of the Arabic, 
 Armenian, Persian, and Turldsh languages. Young 
 men of talent were sent to travel at his expense. 
 By the ukase of 1816 he prepared the way for the 
 abolition of slavery iu the Baltic provinces ; he also 
 declared that no more gifts of peasants woidd be 
 made on the crown-lands. As early as 1801 he had 
 abohshed the secret tribunal which is said to have 
 extorted confession from political offenders by means 
 of hunger and thirst. The practice of shtting the 
 nose and branding, which had been customary in 
 connection with knouting, was also done away with. 
 Laws were enacted to prevent the abuses of power 
 by governors. The privilege of the nobles, that their 
 inherited property could not be confiscated as a 
 punishment, was raised by him to a common right 
 for all subjects ; and much was done in composmg 
 a code of civil law. He promoted the manufactures 
 and trade of the empire by amending the laws 
 regarding debt and mortgages ; and by the institution 
 of an imperial bank, the construction of roads 
 and canals, making Odessa a free port, and, above 
 all, by the ukase of 1818, permitting all peasants in 
 the empire to carry on manufactures, which was 
 before only allowed to nobles and to merchants of 
 the first and second guilds. 
 
 A.'s far-sighted policy with regard to the foreign 
 commerce of Russia is shewn in various expeditions 
 round the world sent out by him ; in the embassy 
 to Persia in 1817, in which was the R-enohman 
 Gradanne, who was acquainted with all the plans 
 of Napoleon respecting India and Persia; in the 
 missions to Cochin China and to Khiva; in the 
 treaties with the United States, BrazU, and Spain ; 
 in the naval and commercial treaties with the Porte ; 
 and in the settlement on the north-west coast of 
 America. 
 
 A.'s foreign policy was characterised at the outset 
 by a desire for peace ; in 1801 he concluded a con- 
 vention, putting an end to hostiHties with England, 
 and made peace with France and Spaio. He next 
 entered, along with Prance, into negotiations 
 respecting the indemnification of the minor states 
 in Germany and Italy, but soon discovered how 
 little the French ruler iutended any real compen- 
 sation. As Bonaparte encroached more and more, 
 took possession of Hanover, and annihilated Hol- 
 land, A. broke with Prance, and joined the coalition 
 of 1805. He was present at the battle of Austerlitz, 
 when the allied armies of Austria a,nd JRussia were 
 
 defeated, and retired \\'ith the remains of his forces 
 into Eussia, declining to enter into the treaty that 
 followed. Next year, he came forward as the ally 
 of Prussia ; but after the disastrous battles of Eylau 
 and Friedland, in 1807, lie was obUgcd to conclude 
 the peace of TUsit, in which he managed to prevent 
 the restoration of the kingdom of Poland, and to 
 mitigate the hard fate of the long of Prussia. During 
 the war with France, A. had also had to carry on 
 hostilities with Persia and with Turkey. 
 
 Dazzled by the fortune and genius of Napoleon, 
 A., in pursuance of the stipulations of Tilsit, acceded 
 \vith his huge empire to the French continental 
 system, thus altering entirely the foreign pohcy of 
 Russia. He began by declaring war on England in 
 1808, and attaoTcing her ally Sweden, wrested from 
 that country, by the peace of Friedrichshamm (1809), 
 the province of Finland. On the other hand, the 
 Russian fieet sent to the aid of the French at 
 Lisbon, feE into the hands of the British. In the 
 autumn of 1808, the two great potentates held a 
 meeting at Erfurt, attended with great splendour, 
 at which A. represented, as it were, the empire of 
 the east of Europe, while Napoleon assumed the 
 dominion of the west. In the war of France against 
 Austria in 1809, A. took only a lukewarm part, 
 although at the peace of Vienna he received the 
 circle of Tamopol as his share of the spoil of Galicia. 
 Against the Porte, which had not observed the 
 armistice of Slobosta, he renewed the war, which 
 was continued till the peace of Bucharest in 1812. 
 
 The alHance, however, of A. with the Corsican 
 conqueror involved such an inconsistency, and was 
 so contrary to the real interests of Russia, that a 
 rupture and a complete change of the Russian policy 
 were inevitable. The pressure of the continental 
 system on the material resources of Russia, the 
 despotic changes made by Napoleon, the aiigment- 
 ation of the duchy of Warsaw, the proffers of 
 affiance by England and Sweden, awoke in A. first 
 discontent and aversion, and soon the thought of a 
 decisive contest against the subjugator of Europe 
 and the disturber of the peace of the world. When 
 this gigantic struggle at last began (1812), Russia 
 brought into the field an army of nearly 900,000 
 men. During this war (see Russo-Gekman Wae), 
 A. repeatedly exposed himself to personal danger, 
 in order to fire the courage and patriotism of his 
 troops. His magnanimity towards France after the 
 taking of Paris facfiitated the negotiations for peace, 
 and won for h'Tn great personal regard, amounting 
 to a kind of enthusiasm. He was received with the 
 same feeling in London, which he visited after the 
 treaty of Paris in June 1814. When he returned 
 to St Petersburg, his first care was to provide for 
 the wounded, and for the families of the soldiers 
 that had fallen. The senate wished to give liim 
 the title of ' Blessed,' which, from Christian humility, 
 he declined. After a short residence in his own 
 capital, he repaired to the Congress of Vienna. Here 
 he laid claim to Poland as essential to the interests 
 of Russia, but promised to confer on it a constitution, 
 and, on the whole, appeared to act for the good of 
 humanity and the freedom of nations. 
 
 In the return of Napoleon, A. saw the confusion 
 of Europe begun again, and therefore urged the 
 fulfilment of the treaty of Chaimiont and Bae out- 
 lawry of the common enemy. His appearance in 
 the French capital after the battle of Waterloo 
 raised less enthusiasm than previously ; yet on this 
 occasion, tpo, France owed much to his generosity. 
 It was about this time that the tendency of A. to 
 pietism, fostered by intercourse with Madame 
 Kriidener (q. v.), was most strongly manifested, 
 and exercised decided influence on his political 
 views. It was under the influence of this rdigiosity 
 
 127 
 
ALEXAJTOER I.— ALEXAOT)ER II. 
 
 that he founded the Holy Alliance (q. v.), the 
 ostensible object of which was to make the prin- 
 ciples of Christianity be recognised in the poKtical 
 arrangements of the , world, but which became, in 
 fact, a mere handle for poUtical reaction. 
 
 In the end of October 1815, A. returned to his 
 own dominions. His poLcy, and the march of 
 events, had completely changed the internal con- 
 dition of Bussia and her foreign relations., Her 
 weight in European poUtics had become powerful ; 
 the limits of the empire had, extended in all 
 directions ; and notwithstanding the war, the 
 earUer legislatiye reforms had begun to act favour- 
 ably on me industry and well-being of the nation. 
 After 1806, A. had remodelled the army after the 
 fashion of the western powers, and raised it to a 
 condition that menaced Europe. When peace was 
 attained, he not only sought to heal the wounds 
 inflicted by the war, but to carry forward the work 
 of reform formerly begim. Niunerous administrative 
 abuses were done away with, and the condition of 
 the peasants was more and more alleviated. In 
 1816, the Jesuits, who were causing a great deal 
 of disturbance, were made to leave St Petersburg 
 and Moscow, and in 1820 were sent out of the 
 empire. On the other hand, proselytism was 
 rigidly prohibited, and the Duohoborze's, a sect of 
 the Kusso-Greek chiuroh, were allowed the free 
 exercise of worahip. 
 
 But however good A.'s intentions might be, his 
 internal pohcy met with obstructions, partly arising 
 from his personal views and character, partly from 
 the nature of his position. Affected with a morbid 
 religiosity, worn out and shaken perhaps in body 
 and mind by the vast events in the vortex of which 
 he had moved for the last ten years, the emperor 
 became possessed by the dread of another Euro- 
 pean revolution ; and the political struggles against 
 reaction in Germany, and the outbreaks against 
 despotism in Italy and Spain, appeared to him as the 
 beginning of a new and terrible catastrophe. The 
 attention now bestowed by A. on foreign relations 
 threw internal improvements into the backgroimd ; 
 and the hberal reformer and pupil of Laharpe found 
 himself involved in hopeless inconsistency, when he 
 fully concurred in the pohcy of the Austrian cabinet, 
 and, at the congresses of Troppau, Laybach, and 
 Verona, helped to crush, along with the insurrec- 
 tions, the just requirements and political progress of 
 the nations. 
 
 This complete reversal of policy could not fail 
 to produce fruits, especially as Russia peculiarly 
 abounded in fermentable materials. Poland saw 
 itself completely disappointed in its national expecta- 
 tions, and required the actual carrying out of the 
 promised constitution. The contact into which the 
 Russians had come during the war with the civilisa- 
 tion and institutions of the western nations, had 
 excited in different classes of Russian society wishes 
 and views by no means compatible with their 
 condition at home. On the other hand, there had 
 long existed in the most influential circles an Old- 
 Russian party, who either found their interests hiui 
 by the enlightened measures of the emperor, or saw 
 in them the downfall of the national church, and of 
 the nation itself. Besides, the army was kept up 
 on the war-footing, and in 1821 numbered about 
 830,000 regular troops ; and this pressed severely on 
 the people, and produced discontent, along with 
 exhaustion and disorder of the finances. To meet 
 this evil, A. began the planting of mflitary colonies, 
 which, however, met with insuperable obstacles in 
 the execution, and did not attain the end in view. 
 But to exorcise the spirit of pohtical discontent and 
 the phantom of a Russian revolution, the emperor 
 adopted the same measures that were very generally 
 128 
 
 applied over the rest of Europe with similar views. 
 The censorship of the press, and a rigid guard over the 
 importation of books, were again introduced; restric- 
 tions were put on science, literature, and education ; 
 inquiries instituted into all democratic movements; 
 mason-lodges and missionary societies suppressed; 
 and gradually all plans for reform and progress given 
 up. Over ai the provinces of the empire, a net of 
 pohce, open and secret, was spread, which interfered 
 with the ordinary intercourse of society. 
 
 The experience that, in spite of this system of 
 repression, public opinion could not be stifled, and that 
 parties and individuals only expressed themselves 
 more bitterly; the variance with his former self in 
 which A. found himself involved; and the difficulties 
 of governing the huge empire, which were now 
 becoming more manifest and startling — all this tor- 
 mented and imbittered his morbid mind, and led 
 him to complain of ingratitude and of a want of 
 recognition of his good intentions. Sometimes he 
 sought to forget his position in the dissipations of a 
 splendid court, in which luxury and piety were 
 strangely blended ; at other times, he plunged into 
 the darkness of rehgious mysticism. The progress 
 of the revolt in Greece brought the policy of the 
 emperor into complete opposition to public opinion 
 and the most sacred sympathies of the nation. The 
 Russian people, restraiined from all participation in 
 poUtical movements, were profoimdly affected by 
 the religious element of the Greek struggle ; but the 
 emperor condemned the rising as insurrection, dis- 
 claimed the favour he had formerly shewn to the 
 Greek cause, and confined himself to exhortations to 
 the Porte to act with humanity. The death of his 
 only and much-loved natural daughter, the terrible 
 inundation suffered by St Petersburg in 1824, in 
 which he exposed himself to personal danger, and 
 the alarm caused by a Russo-Polish conspiracy 
 against all the members of the House of Bomanow, 
 contributed not a Uttle to break the heart of the 
 emperor, and completely destroy the composure of 
 his mind. Sick in body, weary of life, and possessed 
 by thoughts of death, he commenced, in September 
 1825, a journey to the Crimea, with a view to benefit 
 the health of the empress, who was ailing, and that 
 he himself might enjoy retirement. Leaving the 
 empress at Taganrog, he continued his journey, but 
 was suddenly seized by a fever pecuhar to the 
 country, and obliged to return to Taganrog. Here, 
 in spite of all care, he became worse, and died, 
 December 1, 1825. The rumour that he had been 
 poisoned is altogether groundless. He is said to 
 have learned, shortly before his death, the details 
 of the conspiracy which his brother and successor, 
 Nicholas I. (q. v.), had to begin his reign by putting 
 down. Interesting notices of the life and character 
 of A. are given in Ohoiseul-Gouf&er's Memoires 
 Historiques mir VEmperemr Alexandre et la Oour de 
 Ewssie (Par. 1829). 
 
 ALEXANDER II., Emperor of Russia, was 
 bom April 29, 1818. He was carefully educated by 
 his father, Nicholas, who professed himself delighted 
 with the manifestations of ' true Russian spirit' in 
 his son. At sixteen, he was declared of age, made 
 commandant of the Lancers of the Guard, Hetaian of 
 the Cossacks, first aide-de-camp of the emperor, and 
 subjected daily to a life of manoeuvring, reviewing, 
 and military parade, which at last seriously injured 
 his health. He then travelled through Germany to 
 recruit his energies, and while there, concluded a 
 marriage with the Princess Maria, daughter of the 
 Grand Duke of Darmstadt, in 1841. He now 
 vigorously applied himself to his duties as chan- 
 cellor of the university of Finland. By his dexter- 
 ous and subtle manners, he insinuated himself 
 into the affections of the Finiis, and weakened 
 
ALEXAI^DER I— ALEXANDER OF BALES. 
 
 their love of independence. He founded a chair of 
 the Finnish language and literature, patronised the 
 academy for the culture of Finnish literature, and 
 defrayed the expenses of remote explorations under- 
 tjilten by their savans, such as Cygnoeus, Walliu, 
 and Castren. In 1850, he visited Southern Russia, 
 Nioolaieff, Sebastopol, TiQis, Erivan, &o. It is said 
 that lie witnessed with regret the attitude which 
 his father assumed towards Europe, and that he 
 altogether disapproved of the Crimean war. On his 
 accession to the throne, March 2, 1855, he found 
 himself in a very critical position. He had two 
 parties to conciliate at home — the old Muscovite 
 party, blindly zealous for war, and the more peace- 
 able and intelligent portion of the nation, who 
 possessed his personal sympathies. He pursued a 
 course calculated to encourage both ; spoke of 
 adhering to the policy of his ' ulustrioua ancestors,' 
 and at the same time concluded peace. Since 
 tlien, he has shewn a strong desire to purge the 
 internal administration of its impurities ; he has 
 sharply rebuked the corruption of functionaries, and 
 severely punished some, as a warning to the rest. 
 An honourable recognition has been given to pubHo 
 instruction, which he has freed from military influ- 
 ence, where that absurdly existed, as in the Law 
 School of St Petersbiu:g, and has placed it under 
 his own direct and personal superintendence. His 
 moderation has even stimulated the hopes of the 
 Poles. By a ukase of May 27, 1856, he has granted 
 to all Polish exiles who are willing to express repent- 
 ance for the past, permission to return home; but 
 though desirous of preserving the nationality of 
 Poland, he wiU not have it separated from the ' great 
 Russian family.' The grand achievement of his reign, 
 however, as yet, is the emancipation of the serfs, 
 which he had long resolved upon. It marks an 
 epoch in the national history, and is unquestionably 
 a most important step in national civilisation. 
 
 ALEXANDER I., king of Scotland, a younger 
 son of Malcolm Ceannmor (big-head), succeeded his 
 brother, Edgar, in 1107, and amidst incessant dis- 
 turbances, governed Scotland for seventeen years 
 with great abflity. In addition to good natural 
 powers, he had enjoyed, through his mother, 
 Margaret of England, the advantages of a higher 
 mental cultivation than any of his predecessors. 
 One of the most formidable insurrections which his 
 prompt energy enabled him to queU, was that 
 excited in 1120 by Angus, great grandson of the 
 wife of Macbeth ; in allusion to which, old Wynton 
 says: 
 
 Fra that day forth his lieges all 
 
 Used him Alexander the Fierce to call. 
 
 His determined resistance to the pretensions of, the 
 EngHsh hierarchy secured the independence of the 
 Scottish church, while his liberal patronage of the 
 monasteries promoted her strength at home. In 
 1123 he foimded the Abbey of Inchcolm. He died 
 at Stirhngin 1124. 
 
 ALEXANDER II. was bom in 1198; succeeded 
 his father, WiUiam the Lion, in 1214. He early 
 displayed that wisdom and strength of character, in 
 virtue of which he holds so high a place in history 
 among Scottish kings. The first act of his reign was 
 to enter into a league with the English barons who 
 had combined to resist the tyranny of King John. 
 This drew down u^on him and his kingdom the 
 papal excommunication; but two years subsequently 
 (1218), the ban was removed, and the liberties of the 
 Scottish church were even confirmed. On the acces- 
 sion of Henry III. to the English throne, A. brought 
 the feuds of the two nations to a temporary close by 
 a treaty of peace (1217), in accordance with which 
 be married Henry's eldest sister, the Princess Joan 
 9 
 
 (12Sl). The alliance thus estabhshed was broken 
 after the death, without issue, of Queen Joan (1238), 
 and the second marriage of A. with the daughter of 
 a nobleman of France. In 1244, Hemy marched 
 against Scotland, to compel A.'s homage. In this 
 emergency, the Scottish king received the steady 
 support of the barons, whose ordinary policy was 
 opposition to the crown, and is said, in a short time, 
 to have found himself at the head of 100,000 foot, 
 and 1000 horse. A peace was concluded without an 
 appeal to arms, while engaged in one of those 
 warlike expeditions which the turbulence of his 
 subjects so frequently rendered necessary, A. died 
 of fever at Kerrera, a small island opposite Oban, 
 on the west coast of Argyleahire, in the thirty-fifth 
 year of his reign. 
 
 ALEXANDER III. succeeded his father, A. IL, 
 on the Scottish throne at the age of eight, and, 
 two years later, in 1251, he married the Princess 
 Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III. of England. 
 The tender age of me sovereign enabled Henry to 
 prosecute successfully for some time his schemes for 
 obtaining entire control over the Scottish kingdom ; 
 but long before he reached manhood, A. displayed 
 so much energy and vtisdom as to give assurance 
 that when the administration of aifairs should come 
 under his personal direction, it would be vain to 
 think of reducing biTn to submission. Very shortly 
 after he had come of age, his energies were summoned 
 to the defence of his kmgdom against the formidable 
 invasion of Haoo, king of Nol-way (1263), who 
 claimed the sovereignty of the Western Isles. In 
 attempting a landing at Largs, on the coast of Ayr, 
 the Norwegian prince sustained a total defeat ; and 
 A., as the result of this important victory, secured 
 the allegiance both of the Hebrides and of the 
 Isle of Man. The aUiance between Scotland and 
 Norway was strengthened in 1282 by the marriage 
 of A.'s only daughter, Margaret, to Eric, king of 
 Norway. This princess died in the following year, 
 leaving an infant daughter, Margaret, commonly 
 designated the Maiden of Norway, whose untimely 
 death, on her way to take possession of her throne, 
 was the occasion of so many calamities to Scotland. 
 During the concluding years of A's reign, the king- 
 dom enjoyed a peace and prosperity which it did 
 not taste again for many generations. The justice, 
 hberality, and wisdom of the king, endeared his 
 memory to his subjects, while the misfortunes that 
 followed his death, heightened the national sense of 
 his loss. His only son. A., who had married the 
 daughter of Guy, Count of Flanders, died without 
 issue in 1284. A. contracted a second marriage in 
 1285 with Joleta, daughter of the Count de Dreux. 
 The hopes of the nation were soon after clouded by 
 his untimely death. Riding on a dark night between 
 Burntisland and Kinghorn, he fell with his horse 
 over a precipice, and was killed on the spot. 
 
 ALEXANDER OP HALES (in Latin, Alex- 
 ander Halensis), a famous theologian, known as the 
 'Irrefragable Doctor' (d. 1245). He was originally 
 an ecclesiastic in Gloucestershire, but had attended 
 the schools of Paris, got the degree of doctor, and 
 had become a noted professor of philosophy and 
 theology there, when (1222) he suddenly entered the 
 order of the Minorite Friars. From that time, he 
 Hved the life of a studious recluse. His chief and 
 only authentic work is the Swmma Universa Tlieo- 
 logics (best ed., Venice, 1576, 4 vols.), written at the 
 command of Pope Innocent IV., and enjoined by his 
 successor, Alexander IV., to be used by all professors 
 and students of theology in Christendom. A. gave 
 the doctrines of the church a more rigorously syllo- 
 gistic form than they had previously had, and may 
 uius be considered as the author of the scholastic 
 
 129 
 
AlEXAJSTDEES— ALEXAOT)RIA. 
 
 theology. Instead of appealiag to tradition and 
 authority, lie deduces -with great subtlety, from 
 assumed premises, the most startling doctrines of 
 Catholicism, especially in favour of the prerogatives 
 of the papacy. He refuses any toleration to heretics, 
 and would have them deprived of aU property ; he 
 absolves subjects from aU obligation to obey a 
 prince that is not obedient to the church. The 
 spiritual power, which blesses and consecrates kings, 
 is, by that very fact, above all temporal powers, to 
 say nothing of the essential dignity of its nature. It 
 has the right to appoint and to judge these powers, 
 while the pope has no judge but G-od. In ecclesias- 
 tical affairs, also, he maintains the pope's authority 
 to be full, absolute, and superior to all laws and 
 customs. The points on which A. exercises his 
 dialectics are sometimes simply ludicrous ; as when 
 he discusses the question, whether a mouse that 
 should nibble a consecrated wafer would thereby 
 eat the body of Christ. He arrives at the conclusion 
 that it would. 
 
 ALEXANDERS (Smyrnium olusatrum), a bien- 
 nial plant of the natural order Umbelliferm (q. v.), 
 foimd in waste a-ound, near ruins, &c., iu Britain 
 and the south of Europe. The stem is 3—4 feet high, 
 very stout and furrowed ; the leaves twice or thnce 
 ternate, stalked, serrate, of a bright yeUowish-green 
 colour; the leaflets very large. The flowers are 
 yellowish-green, in very dense, numerous rounded 
 lunbels, destitute of involucres ; the fruit almost black. 
 The plant has an aromatic taste, strong and pungent, 
 but becomes rather pleasant when blanched, and was 
 formerly much cultivated and used in the same way 
 as celery, although at present it is little regarded. 
 The frequency of its occurrence near ruins in Britain, 
 may probably be referred to its former cultivation. 
 The fruit is carminative. — S. perfoliatum, a native of 
 Italy, with the upper stem-leaves embracing the stem, 
 is used in the same way. — The genus Smyrnium con- 
 tains only a few known species, chiefly natives of 
 the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere. It 
 has compound umbels ; is variable in the involucres ; 
 the calyx is obsolete; the petals inflected at the 
 point; the fruit consists of two nearly globose 
 carpels, each with three prominent sharp dorsal 
 ribs ; the lateral ones distant and obsolete ; several 
 vittae in the interstices ; the albimien involute. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA (caHed Skanderi'eh by the 
 Turks and Arabs) was founded by Alexander the 
 Great in the autumn of the year 332 B. c. It was 
 situated originally on the low tract of land which 
 separates the lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean, 
 about 14 miles west of the Canopic mouth of the 
 Nile. Before the city, in the Mediterranean, lay the 
 island of Pharos, upon the north-east point of which 
 stood the famous light-house (Pharos), and which 
 was connected with the mainland by a mole, called, 
 from its length, the Heptastadium, or ' Seven Pur- 
 long' mole, thus forming the two harbours. The 
 plan of A. was designed by the architect Dinoc- 
 rates, and its original extent is said to have been 
 about 4 mQes in length, with a circiunference of 
 15 imles. It was intersected by two straight main 
 streets, crossing each other at right angles in the 
 middle of the city. Colonnades adorned the whole 
 length of these streets, which were in general 
 very regularly built. The most magnificent quarter 
 of the city was that called the Bruoheium, which 
 was situated on the eastern harbour. This quarter 
 of the city contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, 
 with the Museum and the old hbrary ; the Soma or 
 mausoleum of Alexander the Great and of the Ptole- 
 mies, the Poseidonum, and the great theatre. Further 
 west was the emporium or exohangBi The Serapeion, 
 or temple of Serapis, stood in the western division of 
 130 
 
 the city, which formed the Egyptian quarter, and 
 was called Ehacotis ; a small town of that name had 
 occupied the site before the foundation of A. To 
 the west of the city lay the great Necropolis, and to 
 the east the race-course, beyond which was the 
 suburb of Nioopolis. The greater part of the space 
 under the houses was occupied by vaulted subter- 
 ranean cisterns, which were capable of containing 
 a sufficient quantity of water to supply the whole 
 pdpulation of the city for a year. From the time of 
 its foundation, A. was the Greek capital of Egypt. 
 Its population, in the time, of its prosperity, is said 
 by Diodorus to have amounted to about 300,000 free 
 eitizeis, and if we take into account the slaves and 
 strangers, that number must be more than doubled. 
 This population consisted mostly of Greeks, Jews, 
 and Egyptians, together with settlers from all 
 nations of the known world. After the death of 
 Alexander the Great, A. became the residence of the 
 Ptolemies. They made it, next to Rome and Antioch, 
 the most magnificent city of antiquity, as well as 
 the chief seat of Grecian learning and literature, 
 which spread hence over the greater part of the 
 ancient world. The situation of the city, at the 
 point of junction between the east and west, rendered 
 it the centre of the commerce of the world, and 
 raised it to the highest degree of prosperity. 
 
 A. had reached its greatest splendour, when 
 it came into the possession of the Romans, 
 about 30 B. 0. From this moment its prosperity 
 began to decline — at first almost imperceptibly, but 
 afterwards more rapidly, in consequence of the 
 removal of the works of art to Rome, the massacres 
 of Caracalla, the laying waste of the Brucheium 
 by Aiu:ehan, the siege and piUage of the city by 
 Diocletian, and, lastly, the rising prosperity of the 
 rival city of Constantinople. All these causes 
 combined to destroy A. so speedily, that, in the 4th 
 c. no building of any importance was left in it 
 except the temple of Serapis. The strife between 
 Christianity and heathenism gave rise to bloody 
 contests in A. The Serapeion, the last seat of 
 heathen theology and learning, was stormed by 
 the Christians in 389 A. d., and converted into a 
 Christian church. This put an end to heathenism, 
 and A. became henceforward a chief seat of Christian 
 theology, and continued to be so tiU it was taken 
 by the Arabs, under Amru, in June 638 A. B. This 
 siege, and, still more, its conquest by the Turks in 
 868 A.D., completed the destruction of the city. 
 It revived, indeed, in some degree under the 
 Egyptian calits, and continued during the middle 
 ages to be the most important emporium of trade 
 between the east and west ; but the discovery of 
 America, and of the passage to India by the Cape of 
 Good Hope, very much diminished the trade of A. ; 
 and the dominion of the Mamalukes, and the con- 
 quest of the OsmahU, annihilated even the little 
 which the Arabs had restored. The result was, that 
 in 1778 A.D. A. contained no more than 6000 inha- 
 bitants. After the conquest of Egypt by the French 
 in the end of the 18th c, A. once more began to 
 revive, and under Mehemet Ali, who resided in it a 
 part of every year, it prospered to such a degree, that 
 it may now be reckoned one of the most important 
 commercial places on the Mediterranean. In conse- 
 quence of steam navigation, the communication 
 between Europe and the East Indies has again 
 begun to pass, as it formerly did, through A. 
 ^ The present city is not situated exactly on the 
 site of the old one, but is bmlt on the mole called 
 the Heptastadium, which has been increased by 
 alluvial deposits tiU it has become a broad neck of 
 land between the two harbours, of which the eastern 
 ^ called the New Port, and the western the Old 
 Port. A. is connected with Caii-o by the canal of 
 
ALEXANDEIA— ALEXANDEINB AGE. 
 
 Malunoudieh, constnioted between 1818 and 1820. 
 It is defended by fortifications on the side of the sea, 
 but, like otlier oriental cities, is dirty and ill built. 
 The popidation of A. is now about 80,000 — Arabians, 
 Turks, Jews, Copts, Greeks, and Franks. Of the 
 few remams of antiquity stUl to be seen in A., the 
 most prominent is Pompey'a Pillar, as it is erro- 
 neously called, the shaft of which, of red granite, is 
 73 feet long. According to the Greek inscription on 
 the base, which is stUl legible, this Pillar was erected 
 by the Egyptian prefect, Pulalius, in honour of the 
 Emperor Diocletian. There are also the so-called 
 Cleopatra's Needles, two obelisks of the time of 
 King Thothmes III., who lived in the 16th c. before 
 the Christian era. One of the Needles lies prostrate 
 on the ground, half covered with sand ;' the other, a 
 monolith, of about 72 feet in height, is still standing. 
 The other antiquities of A. are, some catacombs of 
 the ancient city of the dead, and some of the cisterns 
 below the city, which are aimofet entirely fiUed up. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, a port of entry on the right or 
 Virginian bank of the Potomac, U. S., about 7 miles 
 below Washington, on the opposite side of the river. 
 Though A. is fully 100 miles from the entrance of 
 the Potomac into Chesapeake Bay, yet the stream 
 in front of it, which forms its hajbour, is still a 
 mile wide. The place is accessible, all the way 
 from the sea, to the largest vessels ; but the naviga- 
 tion upwards gradually becomes less practicable, till 
 at George Town, a few miles above Washington, it 
 altogether ceases. In this commanding position 
 with respect to the coast, A. has, sin6e 1852, faci- 
 litated its communications with the intelior, being 
 connected by a branch-canal with the Chesapeake 
 and Ohio, and. by a branch-railway vfith the Yirginia 
 Central. Owing to these combined advantages, 
 the trade of the city is steadily increasing, while 
 cotton manufactures also have been recently intro- 
 duced on an extensive scale. Pop. in 1854, about 
 10,000 ; lat. 38° 49' N., long. 77° 4' W. 
 
 ALEXA'NDEIAN CODEX, an important manu- 
 script of the sacred Scriptures ia Greek, now in the 
 British Museum. It is written on parchment, in 
 finely formed uncial letters, and is without accents, 
 marks of aspiration, or spaces between, the words. 
 Its probable date is the latter half of the 6th c. 
 With the exception of a few gaps, it contains the 
 whole Bible in Greek (the Old Testament being in 
 the translation of the Septuagint), along with the 
 epistles of Clemens Komanus. For purposes of 
 bibhcal criticism, the text of the Epistles of the 
 New Testament is the most valuable part ; for with 
 respect to the Gospels, it ia clear that the original 
 text which the copyist had before him must have 
 been far inferior. This celebrated manuscript 
 beloi^d, as eai*ly as 1098, to the Hbrary of the 
 patriarch of Alexandria. In 1628 it was sent as a 
 present to Charles I. of England by CyriUus Lucaris, 
 patriarch of Constantinople, who declared that he 
 had got it from Egypt; tod that it. was written 
 there appears from internal and external evidence. 
 Grabe made this majiuscript the foimdation of his 
 edition of the Septuagint (4 vols., Oxf. 1717—1720). 
 Fac-similes have been published, of the New Testa- 
 ment, by Woide (Lond. 1786, foL) ; of the Old 
 Testament, by Baber (Lond. 1816) fol.). 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This remark- 
 able collection of bdoks, the largest of the ancient 
 world, was founded by Ptolemy Soter, in the city 
 of Alexandria, ' in E^rpt. ' ' Even in the time of 
 its first manager, Demetrius Phalereua, a banished 
 Athenian, the niumber of volumes or rolls already 
 amounted tp 30,000; and during its most flourish- 
 ing period, imde'r the direction of Zenodotus, 
 Aristarchus of Byzantium, ApoUonina Rhodius, and 
 
 others, is said to have contained 400,000, or, accord- 
 ing to another authority, 700,000. The greater part 
 of this Library, which embraced thei cofiected Uter- 
 ature of Rome, Greece, India, and Egypt, was con- 
 tained in the Museum, in the quarter of Alexandria 
 called Brucheimn. During the siege of Alexandria 
 by JuHus Ca3sar, this part of the Library was 
 destroyed by fire; but it was afterwards replaced by 
 the collection of Pergamos, which was presented tp 
 Queen Cleopatra by Mark. Antony, to the great 
 aimoyance of the educated Romans. The other 
 part of the Library was kept in the Serapeion, the 
 temple of Jupiter Serapis, where it remained tin the 
 time of Theodosius the Great.. When this emperor 
 permitted all the heathen temples in the Roman 
 empire to be destroyed, the magnificent temple of 
 Jupiter Serapis. was not spared. A mob of fanatic 
 Christians, led on by the Archbishop Theophilus, 
 stormed and destroyed the temple, together,, it is 
 most ' likely, with the greater part of its literary 
 treasures, in 391 a.d. It was at this time that the 
 destruction of the Library was begun, and not at 
 the taking of Alexandria by the Arabians, under 
 the Calif Omar. The story, at least, is ridicu- 
 lously exaggerated which relates that the Arabs 
 found a sufiicieut number of books remaining to heat 
 the baths of the city for six months. Thehistorian 
 Orosius, who visited the place after the destruc- 
 tion of the temple by the Christians, relates that he 
 then saw pnly the empty shelves of the Library. 
 See Petit-Radel, Sedieraies sur les BiUiotMques 
 Ancimnes et Modernes (Paris, 1819) ; and Ritschl, 
 Die Alexandrinischen Bibliotheken (Berlin, 1838). 
 
 ALEXANDRINE AGE. After Hberty and 
 intellectual ciUtivation had dechned in Greece, 
 Alexandria in Egypt became the home and centre of 
 science and literature. The time in which it held 
 this position is styled the A. A., and may be divided 
 into two periods : the first including the reigns of 
 the Ptolemies, from 323 to 30 B. c ; the second, 
 from 30 E. c. to 640 A. D., or from the fall of the 
 Ptolemasau dynasty to the irruption of the Arabs. 
 
 Ptolemjeus Soter, the first ruler who introduced 
 and patronisei Greek science and literature in 
 Alexandria, was followed by that yet more mimifi- 
 cent patron, Ptolemseus Philadelphus, who regularly 
 established the celebratfed Alexandrian Library and 
 Museum, which had been probably begun by his 
 fathe*. This Museum contained porticos, a lecture- 
 room, and a large hall, in which the learned men 
 — ^the. professors and fellows, as they might be 
 called— dined together. The A. school consisted of 
 Egyptians, Greeks, Jews, and latterly, Romans. The 
 grammarians and poets made the greatest figure. 
 The grammarians were both philologists and littera- 
 teurs, who explained things as wefl as words, and 
 were thus a kind of encyclopiedists. Among these 
 rank Zenodotus of Ephesus, Eratosthenes of Cyreue, 
 Aristophanes of Byzantium, Aristarchus of Samo- 
 thface, Crates of Mallus, Dionysius the Thracian, 
 ApoUonins the Sophist, and Zoflus. Their chief ser- 
 vice consists in having ooUeeted the writings then 
 existing, prepared corrected texts, and preserved 
 them for future generations. The most noted of 
 the poets of the A. school were ApoDonius 
 Rhodius, Lyoophron, Aratos, Nicander, Euphorion, 
 CaUimachus, Theocritus, Dionysius, and the seven 
 tragedians called the A. Pleiades. 
 
 The A. school has a spirit and character altogether 
 different from the previous intellectual life of Greece. 
 From the attention paid to the study of language, it 
 was natural that correctness, purity, and elegance of 
 expression should become especially cultivated ; and 
 in these respects many of the A writers are distin- 
 guished. But what no study and no efforts could 
 give — ^the spirit, namely, that animated the earlier 
 
 131 
 
ALEXAiroEINES^ALEXIUS COMNENUS. 
 
 Greek poetry, was, in' most of these^ works, wanting^ 
 In place of it, there was displayed greater art in 
 composition ; what had formerly been done by 
 
 feiiius, was now to be done by the rules furnished 
 y criticism. Only a few display real genius ; the 
 works of the rest, faultless according to rule, are 
 destitute of Kfe and soul. In a school,' where imita- 
 tion and rule thus took the place of inspiration, each 
 generation of disciples became more artificial and 
 lifeless than their masters. Criticism degenerated 
 into frivolous fault-finding, and both prose and 
 poetry became laboured affectation. 
 
 The Alexandbine Philosophy is characterised 
 by a blending of the philosophies of the East and 
 of the West, and by a general tendency to edec- 
 iidsm, as it is called, or an endeavour to reconcile 
 conflicting systems Of speculation, by bringing 
 together what seemed true in each. Not that the 
 A. philosophers were without their sects ; the most 
 famous of which were the Neoplatbnists' (q. v.). 
 Uniting the religious notions of the East with Greek 
 dialectics, they represent the struggle of ancient 
 ciyihsation with Christianity; and thus their system 
 was not without influence on the form that Christian 
 dogmas took in Egypt. The amalgamation of 
 eastern ideas with ChTistia.n, gave rise to the system 
 of the Gnostics (q. v.), which was elaborated chiefly 
 in Alexandria. — The A. school was no less distin- 
 guished for the culture of the matheinatical and 
 physical sciences, which here reached a greater height 
 than anywbere else in ancient times. As early as 
 the 3d c. B.C., Euclid had here written, his great 
 work on geometry. The astronomers of the A. sbhobl 
 were distinguished from aU their predecessors by 
 their setting aside all metaphysical speculation, and 
 devoting themselves to strict observation. Among 
 the distinguished physicists and mathematicians of 
 the A. school, were Archimedes, Eratosthenes, 
 Aristarchus of Samos, Ptolemseus, &c. For about 
 four centuries, the A. school was the centre of learn- 
 ing and science in the ancient world. Counting 
 from its origin to its complete extinction, it lasted 
 1000 years. 
 
 ALBXA'NDBINBS are rhyming verses consisting 
 each Of twelve syllables or six measures. The name 
 is most probably derived from an old French poem 
 on Alexander the Great, belonging to the 12th or 
 13th c, in which this measure was first xtsed; accord- 
 ing to others, it was so called from the name of one 
 of the authors of that poem being Alexander. The 
 Alexandrine has become the regular epic or heroic 
 verse of lie Erenoh, among whom each Hne is 
 divided in the middle into two hemistiohs, the sixth 
 syllable always ending a word. In English, this 
 rule is not always observed, as in the following 
 verse from Spenser ; 
 
 That all the woods shall anjawer, and their echo .ring. 
 
 The only considerable English poem wholly written 
 in A. is Drayton's Polyolbion ; but the Spenserian 
 stanza regidarly ends in an Alexandrine, and the 
 measure occurs occasionally in ova common heroic 
 verse, as the last line of a couplet : 
 
 "When both are full, they feed our blest abode, 
 
 Like those that watered oncelthe paradise of .God. — Bryden, 
 
 ALBXANDEO'VSK, a town in the south of 
 Bussia, capital of the district of the same name, 
 situated on the left bank of the Dnieper, below the 
 cataracts. It is 48 miles south of Ekaterinoslav, is 
 fortified, and has considerable trade. Inland pro- 
 ductions are shipped here for the Black Sea. Pop. 
 4000. — There are various other towns and districts 
 of the same name in Bussia ; the most important of 
 which is that in the government of Vladimir, in the 
 centre of the empire. It was a, favourite summer 
 132 
 
 residence of the Czar Ivan Vasiliewitoh, who intro- 
 duced there the first printing-press known in Bussia. 
 It has also a magnificent imperial ibiid, commejiced 
 by the Empress Elizabeth in 1761, and completed 
 
 about 20 years after. Pop. 3000. 
 
 ALBXE'I MICHA'ILOWITCH, the second 
 Russian czar of the House of Bomaiiow (b. March 10, 
 1629 — d. January 29, 1676), succeeded his father, 
 Michael Fedorowitch, in 1645. The young Czar A. 
 yielding himself to the control of his chancellor, 
 Plessow, and' his tutor, Morosow, the avarice of 
 these bad advisers caused an insun-ection in 1648, 
 in which Plessow lost his life. Popular discon- 
 tent favoured t^ie plains of two pretenders to the 
 throne — Demetrius III. (q. v.) and Ankudinow. 
 The latter, professing to be a son of the Czar 
 Wasili Shuiskoi, was executed at Moscow in 1653 
 A. possessed good qualities, , which appeared when 
 he came to riper years. In his two campaigns 
 against the Poles (1654—1656, and 1660—1667), he 
 took Smolensko, conquered and devastated almost 
 the whole of Lithuania, and even secured for himself 
 the possession of several provinces. , He also gained 
 a part of the Ukraine ; and though his war with 
 Sweden (1656 — 1658) was unfortunate,, he lost 
 nothing by the following peacei.- A. conferred great 
 benefits on his countrymen, by the introduction, of 
 various important reforms into the Bussian laws; 
 he ordered translations of numerous scientific worlf^, 
 chiefly of a military nature, into Bussian ; and even 
 ventiied on some ecclesiastical changes. In his 
 private character, he was amiable, temperate, i|,nd 
 pious. His second wife, the beautiful Natalia 
 Narischkin, was the mother of Peter the Great. . 
 
 ALBXBI, PETBO'WITCH. The eldest son 
 of Peter the Great of Russia, was bom at Moscow, 
 February 18, 1690. Having shewn himself opposed 
 to the reforms and innovations made by the emperor, 
 he was excluded by Peter from the line of succession 
 to the throne. With this decision, he appeared to 
 be satisfied, and declared his intention of Spending 
 the remainder of his days iu a monastery. But 
 when Peter the Great undertook his ■ second torn- in 
 Northern Europe, A., under the pretence of following 
 the czar, escaped in 1717 to Vienna, and thence 
 went to Naples. He was induced to return to 
 Btissia, where, by the ukase of February 2, 1718, he 
 was disinherited, and an investigation was ordered 
 to detect all parties concerned m his recent flight 
 from Bussia. His mother, Eudoxia, with Marie 
 Alexiewna, step-sister to the czar, and several other 
 eminent persons, were made prisoners, and either 
 executed or otherwise punished. A. was condenmed 
 to death, but soon afterwards received a pardon. 
 However, the terror and agitation of the trial so 
 affected his health, that he died June 26, 1718. The 
 czar, to avoid scandal, ordered the trial to be 
 published. Other accounts assert that A. was 
 beheaded in prison. By his wifCj Charlotte Christine 
 Sophie, Princess of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, A. left 
 a son, who, as Peter II., was elevated to the throne; 
 
 ALB'XIUS COMNB'NUS, one of the ablest 
 rulers of the Byzantine empire, was bom at Con- 
 stantinople in 1048. He was th,e third son of 
 Johannes Comnenus, the brother of the emperor, 
 Isaac Comnenus. The family came originally from 
 Italy, and settled in Asia Minor. His iather having 
 refused the purple on the abdication of Isaac, it was 
 given to one Ducas, the son of a distinguished 
 general,, A. in hjs youth gave brilliant promise of 
 the vigorous military genius which he afterwards 
 manifested ; and at length, after a series of anarchic 
 reigns of brief duration, his soldiers succeeded in 
 elevating him to the throne, while the old and feeble 
 Nicephorus Botaniates, his predecessor, was obliged 
 
ALrrEEI— ALFONSO I. 
 
 to retire to a monastery. Gibbon graphically paints 
 the position and achievements of A. in the 48th 
 chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 
 Everywhere he was encompassed with foes. The 
 Scythians and Turks werei'poiuiing down from the 
 north and north-east \, tie fierce Normans, who had 
 violfently effecteii a lodgment in Sicily and Italy, 
 were menacing his western provinces ; ^nd, finally, 
 the myriad warriors of the' first oriisacje had burst 
 into his empire on their way to Palestine, and had 
 encamped around the gates of his capital. Yet he 
 contrived to avoid all perils and disgraces by the 
 wisdom of his policy, the mingled patience and 
 promptitude of his character, his discipline in the 
 camp, and his humanity on the throne. He 
 reigned for 37 yearS ; ancl if it had beeu'possible to 
 presejrve the weak and corrupt Byzantine eiiipire 
 in its integrity, a ruler -like A. might have done 
 it. He could only delay its inevitable destruction. 
 Uudoiibtedly, the great interest which attaches 
 to A. arises from his relation to the crusaders. 
 Historians dififer as to the purity and sincerity of his 
 conduct towards them. His daughter Anna, who 
 wrote his life, defends , his ' poKcy ' with filial piety ; 
 but it seems clear that Tie entertained a profound 
 dread and suspicion of the half -civilised Franks, and, 
 knowing the weakness of his own empire, was 
 compelled to dissioiulate. He certainly promised 
 them help, and persiladed them to go off into' Asia ; 
 it is equally certain' that he did not fulfil his 
 promises, and that lie simply used them as instru- 
 ments to reconquer from tiie Turks the islands and 
 cdasts of Asia Minoi^. Perhaps, however, little 
 apology is needed for a monarch who ' subdued the 
 envy of his equals, restored the laws of public and 
 private order, caused the arts of wealth and science 
 to be cultivated, and t^•a^3mitted the ,sqeptre to, his 
 children of the third and fourth generation.' He 
 died in 1118. 
 
 ALFIEE.I, VirroEio, CoiraT, a modem Italian 
 dramatic poet, was bom at Asti, in Piedmont, on 
 the 17th January 1749. He received a very defec- 
 tive education in his father's house, and was then 
 sent to the academy. of Turin, which he quitted, as 
 ignorant and uninformed as he had entered it, to 
 join a provincial regiment, : After a hurried tour' 
 through the greater part of Europe, he returned to- 
 Turin in 1772. He then left the military service, 
 and renouncing idleness and imworthy amours, 
 devoted himself to. literary, occupation. The applause 
 which his first attempts received, encouraged liim in 
 his determination to win fame as a dramatic author. 
 But as he clearly saw the {deficiencies of his educa- 
 tion, he jbegau at a matiire .age .to learn Latin, and 
 also to study the Tuscan dialect, for which purpose 
 he went to Tuscany. On , his journey thitiier, A. 
 made the acquaintance of the Countess of Albany 
 (q. v.), to whom he became deeply attached. To 
 render himself worthy of her esteem, he strove with 
 unremitting earnestness after poetic excellence ; and 
 in order to be .perfectly free and, independent of all 
 other cares, he transferred his whole property to 
 his sister, in exchange for an annuity. , A., now 
 lived alternately in Florence and in Home. After- 
 wards, when his friend the Countess was released 
 from other ties by the death of her husband, they 
 lived together in the closest iiitimacy in Alsace 
 or in Paris, where A. was' incessantly occupied in 
 writing, revising, and publishing his works. There 
 appears to have been a marriage, although it was 
 never made pubKc. On the first outburst of the 
 'French Eevolutiou, A. went to England, bilt sobn 
 returned to Paris. In 1792 he was again forced 
 to flee from France, and he then Settled Vith his 
 inseparable companion in Florence. Here he died, 
 on the 8th October 1'803. The ashes of A. and 
 
 those of his friend repose in the church of , Santa 
 Groce, in Florence, under a beautiful monument 
 by Canova, between the tombs of Michael Angelo 
 and MacchiavcUi. As a , dramatic author, A. has 
 attempted three different departments of his art. 
 He pubhahed 21 tragedies, 6 comedies, and 1 
 ' tramelogedia,' a, name invented by himself. His 
 dramatic works shew a want of fresh imaginative 
 vigour, and betray the laborious perseverance with 
 which he did violence both to himself and to art. 
 A. was inspired more by politics than by poetry. 
 He wished to breathe a spirit of freedom into the 
 dormant minds of his countrymen, and considered 
 the theatre as a school in , which, the people might 
 learn to be ' free, strong, and noble,' In order to 
 preserve the purity of his muse, A. had resolved to 
 read no .other poet. He wislied tp produce an effect 
 by the very simplest means, and, renouncing the 
 aid of ornament, to please by manly strength and 
 earnestness alone., , His works are on this account 
 cold and stiff, his plots simple even to poverty, his 
 verse hard and unpleasiDg, a,nd his language destitiite 
 of that magic splendour of colouring which stirs the 
 inmost, soul. 5>r,otwi1;hstanding this, A. did good 
 service, to Italian tragedy. lie corrected the eff'emin- 
 ate, taste which had before prevailed, as weU as the 
 pedantry of an affected imitation of Attic models. 
 Succeeding writers endeavoured to imitate his 
 strength and simplicity. A. was more unsuccessful 
 in his comedies than in his tragedies. They manifest 
 the same serious pohtical tendency ; the invention is 
 poor, the dev-elopment of the plot uninteresting, 
 and the characters are only general sketches, without 
 individuality. The most successful of his dramatic 
 works is Ahd^ a mixture of tragedy and opera, 
 invented by himself, which he designated by the 
 singular nanie of ' tramelogedia.' Besides the 
 dramatic works of A., we possess an epic poem, in 
 four cantos, written by him, also many lyrical poems, 
 16 satires, and poetical translations of Terence, 
 Virgil, and portions of ^schylus, Sophocles, Euripides, 
 and Aristophanes. After his death, appeared his 
 Misogallo, a memorial of his hatred to the French. 
 The Countess of Albany had a collected edition of 
 his works published (35 vols. 4to, Pisa, 1805 — 1815) 
 containing his autobiography ; Centof anti published 
 Tragedie e Vita d'Alfieri (Florence, 1842). 
 
 ALFOH'SO I., earliest king of Portugal, was the 
 son of Henry of Burgundy, conqueror and Count of 
 Portugal. He was bom in 1110 a.d., and being only 
 two years of age at his father's death, the manage- 
 ment of affairs fell into the hands of his ambitious 
 and dissolute mother, Theresa of Castile, from whom 
 he was compelled forcibly to seize it, on attaining his 
 majority. He then entered on a war with Castile, 
 whose supremacy he did not recognise, and leaguing 
 himself with Navarre, made several conquests in 
 GaJicia, after which he proceeded to attack the 
 Moors, whose invasions he ' had already begun to 
 check by building the fortress of Leiria. A battle 
 was fought in the plains of Ourique, July 25, 1139, 
 when victory declared, for the Portuguese, after 
 a bloody struggle, in which; it is said, not less than 
 200,000 Moors perished. From that day, A. assumed 
 the title of king, which the pope confirmed. On the 
 25th October 1147, he took Lisbon,.by the help of the 
 English fleet of crusaders ; and in 1158, after a 
 siege of two months, made himself master of Alcazar- 
 de-Sal and Evora. In 1171, he took by assault 
 the fortress of Santarem from the Saracens, and 
 annihilated the garrison ; and at the same place he 
 defeated the Almohadian ruler, Jusuf-ben-Jakub, in 
 1184. He invited to his land the Knights-Templars 
 and Knights of St John, and estabhshed the orders of 
 Avis, and of St Michael. The Portuguese style him 
 El Gonqu'tstador (the Gonqueror)^ But he was also a 
 
 183 
 
AXFONSO VI.— ALFORD. 
 
 legislator, establisHng the Cortea of Lamego, and 
 promulgating a code of laws relatiag to tlie order of 
 succession, -^^6 privileges of the nobility, the adini- 
 nistration of justice, &c. He died at Coimbra, 
 December 6, 1185. 
 
 ALFONSO VI., king of Portugal, second son of 
 John IV., was at first destined for the church, but 
 the death of his elder brother in 1656 altogether 
 changed his circumstances. Being then a minor, the 
 government of the kingdom was intrusted to his 
 mother, Louisa de Guzman, a woman of great 
 wisdom and prudence, who felt it her duty to 
 retain the power in her own hands, even after A. 
 had reached his majority; for the sickly and dis- 
 solute prince displayed little aptitude for business. 
 But the com^i minions, who had their own reasons 
 for wishing him to rule, urged hiTn to remove his 
 mother from her office. This was accompKshed in 
 1662. The minister, Count Castel-MeUior, a mere 
 trifler, possessed supreme authority. Nevertheless, 
 Portugal was victorious in the war which she iinder- 
 took against Spain, although for this she had to 
 thank her English and French allies. In 1666, A. 
 married Maria-Francisca-Ehzabeth of Savoy, who, 
 however, soon conspired with his brother Pedro 
 against him. The plot succeeded. A. was seized 
 and imprisoned at Cmtra, where he died on the 12th 
 of September 1683. Pedro then obtained the throne, 
 and married the widow of his deceased brother. » 
 
 ALFONSO III., sumamed The Gkeat, king of 
 Leon, Asturias, and Gahcia, bom 848 A. D. He 
 succeeded his father, Ordono I., in 866, but had to 
 miaintain his rights by force of arms against Count 
 Froila, who had usurped the throne. Having caused 
 the latter to be murdered, he proceeded sternly to 
 reduce to obedience the powerful nobility of the 
 kingdom, who looked with a jealous eye ,on the 
 monarchy remaining in one family ; and then, 
 carrying his arms against other enemies, he fought 
 through more than 30 campaigns, and gained numer- 
 ous victories over the Moors. He crossed the 
 Douro, broke down the walls of Coimbra, penetrated 
 to the Tagus and Estremadura, enlarged his terri- 
 tories by a portion of Portugal and Old Castile, and 
 re-peopled the conquered and desolated Burgos. 
 But these wars entailed great expense and misery 
 on the nation. In 888, A. had to endure the pain 
 of beholding, at the head of a rebel army, his own 
 son Garcias, who wished to seize the crown, although 
 pretending a simple desire for the prosperity of the 
 commonwealth. A. collected his forces, conquered 
 his son, and threw him into prison. But Garcias' 
 mother, by the help of several of the grandees, 
 excited a new conspiracy, which resulted in the 
 abdication ■ of the monarch in favour of his im- 
 prisoned son. In order, however, to be still useful 
 to his country, A. became commander of Garcias' 
 forces in an expedition against the Moors. After 
 returning in triumph, he died at Zamora, 910. 
 
 ALFONSO v., king of Aragon, Naples, and 
 Sicily (1416 — 1458 A. D.), received the surname of .'the 
 Magnanimous,' because on his accession to the throne 
 he destroyed a document containing the names of 
 all the grandees who were hostile to him. His 
 historical importance arises from his having brought 
 Southern Italy under the dominion of Aragon. In 
 1420, he attacked Corsica, but speedily hastened to 
 Naples, at the request of Queen Joanna II., who 
 besought his assistance against Louis of Anjou. For 
 some time he enjoyed the highest favour ; but, in 
 1423, having thrown iato prison her minion Caraccioli, 
 who was his enemy, the queen declared for his rival, 
 Louis. At her death, in 1435, A. resolved to claim 
 the kingdom, but Bene of Anjou, whom Joanna had 
 appointed her successor after the death of Louis, 
 
 131 
 
 opposed him. Borne and Genoa sided with Beni, 
 and the Genoese fleet attacked and defeated that of 
 A., the monarch Jiimself being taken prisoner. He ■ 
 was sent to Duke Philip of Milan, who, charmed 
 by his manner and talent, set him at liberty, and 
 even formed an alliance with, him. After seyefal 
 battles, and a long mountain- war in the Abruzzi, A. 
 overthrew his adversary, and entered Naples in 
 triumph. Having once ftnnly established his powpr, 
 he proceeded to suppress the disorders which had 
 sprung up during the worthless reign of Joanna, and 
 honourably distinguished himself by his patronage 
 of letters. He died at Naples while his troops were 
 besieging Genoa, June 27, 1458. 
 
 ALFONSO X., surnamed ' the Astronomer,' 'the 
 Philosopher,' or 'the Wise' {M Sabio), long of Leon 
 and Castile, born 1221, succeeded his fatber, Ferdi- 
 nand III., in 1252. As early as the storming of Seville 
 in 1248, he had given indications of Ms courageous 
 spirit. But, iastead of wisely attempting to expel 
 thp Moors and subdue the nobihty, he lavished the 
 resources of his kingdom in fruitless efiforts to secure 
 his election to the imperial' throne of Germany. 
 EudoU of Hapsburg was chosen in opposition to 
 him^ Nor would Pope Gregoly X. recognise his 
 claims even to the Duchy of Swabia. Soon after, 
 his throne was threatened by the turbtilence of the 
 nobflity, and his wars with the 'Moors. ' The, latter, 
 however, he defeated in 1263, in a bloody battle, and 
 took from them Xeres, Medina-Sidonia, San-Luoar, 
 and a part of Algarve, uniting at the same time 
 Murcia with Castile. . In 1271, an insurrection broke 
 out in his dominions, at the head of which was his 
 son Phflip. Three years elapsed before it was finally 
 quelled. In the mildness with which he treated 
 the rebels, men saw only indications of his weak- 
 ness. But afterwards determining to employ more 
 stringent measures, his son Sancho also rebelled, 
 and in 1282 deprived bim of his throne. He now 
 sought the help of the Moors; but after fruitless 
 efforts to recover his power, he died at Seville, April 
 4, 1284. He was the most learned prince of his 
 time, and has acquired lasting fame through the 
 completion of the code of laws commenced (though 
 this is disputed) by his father, and called leyos de las 
 Partidas, which in 1501 became the universal law 
 of the land. There are stiU extant several long 
 poems of his, besides a work, on chemistry, and 
 another on philosophy. He is also credited with 
 a history of the church and of the crusades, and 
 is said to have ordered a translation of the Bible 
 into ■ Spanish. He laboured much to revive know- 
 ledge, iacreasing both the privileges and professor- 
 ships of the university of Salamanca. He sought 
 to improve the Ptolemaic planetary tables, whose 
 anomalies had struck observers even at that early 
 time. For this purpose, in 1240, he assembled at 
 Toledo upwards of fifty of the most celebrated astro- 
 nomers of that age. His improved tables, still known 
 under the name of the Alfonsinis Tables, were com- 
 pleted in 1252 at the cost of ' 40,000 ducats— an 
 unprecedented sum to be expended on such a work 
 ui those days. The results obtained by means of 
 the Alfonsine Tables were no more accurate than 
 those of the older ones, for both were based «on the 
 same erroneous bypothesis of Epicycles (q. v.). The 
 Opusculos Legates of A. were pubhshed by the 
 Boyal Historical Society of Madrid in 1836. 
 
 ALFOKD, Eev. Henkt, B.D., «, bibhcal critic 
 of the highest reputation, and also a poet of consi- 
 derable genius, was born in London in 1810, but was 
 educated first at Ilminster grammar-school in Somer- 
 setshire, and finally at Trinity College, Cambridge, 
 where he took his degree, and entered the church. 
 His first volume, pubhshed at Cambridge in 1831, was 
 
ALFRED. 
 
 entitled Poems and Poeiiccd Fragments. Three years 
 afterwards, the young author was elected a Fellow 
 of Trinity, and in the following year (1835), appeared 
 his moat popular work, The Sc/iool qf ihe Heart, 
 and other Poems, which has heen frequently re-issued, 
 especially in America. About the same time, A. was 
 appointed yicar of Wymeawold,Xeicestershire, where 
 he remained tiU 1853,' gradually enlarging the circle 
 of his studies, and obtaming fresh honours. In 1841, 
 he published Chapters on the Greek poets, which 
 exhibit both purit^ of taste and breadth of scholar- 
 ship. In 1844 appeared the first volume of his 
 magnum opus, the Greek Testament with notes and 
 various readings ; the second was not published till 
 1852. Both have been re-issued within the last few 
 years. The third volume, and a portion of the fourth 
 and concluding volume, have since appeared. In 1853, 
 A. was removed to Quebec Street Chapel, London, 
 where he continued to maintain his high repjftation 
 as a sound and eloquent preacher, imtu, i^ 1857, he 
 was appointed Dean of Canterbury. His poetry is 
 characterised not so much by depth, or originality, 
 as by freedom from affectation, obscuyity, or bombas);. 
 It is calm, quiet, meditative,, find chastpued by a 
 pure religious sentiment. His Greek Testament 
 occupies the first rank among English editions, A. 
 has also published several volumes of sermons, 
 ' ALFRED, surnamed The Gebat, was born at 
 Wantage, in Berkshire, in 849. His father was 
 Ethelwolf , son of Egbert, king of the West Saxons ; 
 and though the youngest of four sons, he . succeeded 
 to the crown, on the death of his brother Ethelred, at 
 the age of 23. He had already given decisive 
 proofs of high ability as a general in repeUing the 
 incessant incursions of, the Danes, at that time the 
 most terrible warriors in Europe. After he suc- 
 ceeded to the throne,' he redoubled his exertions 
 to restore the independence of his country. At first 
 he strove without success, whQst the Danes con- 
 tinued to pour fresh bands upon the coast, and the 
 Anglo-Saxons either bent to the ' yoke or forsook 
 their homes. In 878, the invaders had completely 
 overrun the whole kingdom of the West Saxons. A., 
 no longer able to collect an effective army, was 
 obliged to seek security in the hills and forests, and 
 for some time found refuge in a cowherd's hut. He 
 still, however, kept up some communication with his 
 friends ; and as soon as the people began once more 
 to arm against the Danes, he bmlt a stronghold on 
 an elevation or island (still known as Athelney, i. e., 
 the 'island of the nobles,' or the 'royal island') 
 amid the marshes of Somersetshire, to which he 
 simimoned his faithful followers. From this fortress 
 he made freqxient successful sallies against the 
 enemy, and after a comparatively short time, he 
 found himself at the head of a considerable army, 
 with which he totally routed them (878) near Eding- 
 ton, in Wiltshire. After holding out for some time 
 in a stronghold to which they had retreated, the 
 invaders capitulated. A. accepted hostages, and 
 their solemn oath to quit his territory of Wessex, and 
 receive baptism. Their king, Godrun or Guthnm, 
 was baptised, with thirty of nis followers, and ever 
 after proved faithful in his allegiance to A. 
 
 After this decisive victory, the power of A. steadily 
 increased, both by land and sea, — for already h6> had 
 btult England's first fleet — he beat the Danes iu 
 numerous battles, and gradually their possessions 
 were confined to the northern and eastern coasts. In 
 886, A., without any formal installation, became 
 recognised as the sovereign of all England, a title to 
 which he had proved his right by Sie ipost indis- 
 putable of argimients. , During the ensuing years of 
 peace, he rebuilt the cities that had suffered most 
 during the war, particularly London; erected new 
 fortresses, and trained the people to the use of arms ; 
 
 while at the same time he encouraged husbandry 
 and other useful arts, and founded those wise laws 
 and institutions which contributed so much to the 
 future grefitness and welfare of England. The 
 grateful reverence of posterity has, as is usual with 
 mankind, become prodigal in its awards, ascribing to 
 A. the entire credit of having established many 
 beneficial institutions, some of which had already 
 existed among the Anglo-Saxons, but were by him 
 revived, remodelled, and improved. Of his political 
 institutions, Uttle is known beyond the fact that he 
 oompUed a code of laws, divided England into 
 counties, hundreds, and tithings, and thoroughly 
 reformed the administration of justice by making 
 these tithings, hundreds, &c., so far as was practi- 
 cally possible, responsible for the offences committed 
 within their jurisdiction. William of Malmesbury, 
 with enthusiastic exaggeration, declared that 'a 
 purse of money, or a pair of gold.en bracelets,' might 
 in A.'s day be exposed for weeks in complete safety 
 on the common highways. A. is also said — ^though 
 erroneously, as is now believed — to have been the 
 author of ' trial by jury.' In an age of ignorance 
 and barbarism, A. was an accomplished scholar 
 and a zealous patron of learning. No prince 
 of his age did so much for the diflfusion of know- 
 ledge, and few monarchs at any time have shewn an 
 equal zeal for the instruction of their people. He 
 caused many manuscripts to be translated into 
 Anglo-Saxon from Latin, and himself translated 
 several works, such as Boethius on the Conso- 
 lation of Philosophy, the History of Orosius, Bede's 
 Ecdesiastical History, and Selections from the Solilo- 
 quies of St Augustine. Among his original works in 
 the Anglo-Saxon language, are Laws of the West 
 Saxons, Institutes, Chronicles, Meditations, &o. AU 
 his works strikingly indicate the serious, elevated, 
 and yet practical character of the man. In his 
 translations, A. is frequently more than a translator. 
 He adds his own reflections to those of his author ; 
 and expands the geographical outline of Orosius, by 
 a chart of Germany, an account of the Baltic, and 
 the icy regions towards the north pole, which are 
 pretty accurate, considering the means which then 
 existed for acquiring a knowledge of these places. 
 Several works attributed to A. are beheved not to be 
 genuine. 
 
 The peaceful labours of A. were, in 893, interrupted 
 by a fresh invasion of Northmen under Hsesten or 
 Hastings, more formidable than any that had yet 
 been attempted in his reign. The defection of 
 the East Anglians and Northumbrians added to 
 the difficulties with which he had to contend. 
 A, however, was fully prepared, and though, dur- 
 ing .their protracted stay in his dominions, the 
 invaders overran a large extent of country, and 
 committed considerable depredations, they were 
 beaten in almost every encounter with the Eng- 
 lish, and finally queUed. A. died on the 27th of 
 October 901, aged 52, leaving his country in the 
 enjoyment of comparative peace and prosperity, the 
 fruit of that wise and energetic rule which has 
 made his memory dear to all generations of English- 
 men, as that of their best and greatest king. We 
 cannot perhaps realise the resolute patience of A., 
 in his political and military capacity, for we have 
 but a very imperfect knowledge of the obstacles 
 which stood in his way ; but it must excite both our 
 highest wonder and reverence to behold a man pur- 
 suing sohtarily, in the midst of ferocity, barbarism, 
 and ignorance, and in spite of the perpetual pains 
 with which his body was racked, so many various 
 and noble schemes for the civilisation and true glory 
 of liis country. — The most authentic and interesting 
 of the original sources of information on the history 
 of A., is the life by Asser, bishop of Sherborne, a 
 
 135 
 
ALGA MARINA— ALG^. 
 
 book distioguislied by extreme simplicity and affec- 
 tion. The best edition ia-that of Wise (Oxford, 1782). 
 Of the recent Lives, the'inost complete and careful is 
 that of DrPauli,, edited by T.: Wright ; published 
 by Beutley. 
 
 ALGA MABI'IirA. ■ See Geass Wkaok. ; 
 
 A'LG^, a naturar order of plants, belonging to 
 the class Cryptogamia of Liunseus, and to the 
 Acqtyledones of the natural system. It contains a 
 great number of species, about 2000 being known and 
 described, and, among these there is a great variety 
 of forms. They erow for the most part in water, 
 some in fresh, and,some in salt water, but some also 
 on moist rocks or ground ,; whilst others are fre- 
 qfl^ntly found .covering the glass and pots of hot- 
 houses, . Some species occur even upon disqased 
 animal tissue, as AcJdya prolifera upon the gills of 
 fish, whilst Sardnula ventriculi (q. v.) appears to be 
 formed in the iramau stomach. They are most 
 numerous in stUl or stagnant water and in warm 
 climates. Their structure is very various ; they are 
 
 Algje, 
 
 1. Alalia esculenta. 
 V. DiGtyota dicliotoiiui. 
 
 3. Himantbalia lorea. 
 
 4. Rytiphlcea thuyoidea. 
 
 found of all grades, from the httle microscopic 
 vesicle, to great sea- weeds, which ramify like trees. 
 The diversity ia size is as great as in form; some 
 species being visible only through the microscope, 
 and resembhng moiild or rust ; some a few inches, 
 others several feet in length ; whilst the Laminarice, 
 which float in the South American seas, measure 
 more than lOO' feet ; and Macrocystis pyrifera of 
 the Pacific Ocean reaches the length of 1500 feet. 
 Yet they are seldom to be found as thick as the 
 finger, or as broad as the hand, although some far 
 exceed these dimensions, the trunk of Lessmia 
 fuscescens attaining the thickness of a man's thigh. 
 Some species are firmly fixed at the bottom of the 
 water, some adhere to rocks and stones left dry by 
 the retiring tide ; some frequently break loose, and 
 float about upon and beneath the surface. They 
 have in no case proper roots, but merely processes for 
 their attachment to the Surfaces on which they are 
 fixed ; they seem to derive their nourishment by aU 
 parts of their surface from the water or moist air in 
 which they grow. The GuMweed (Sargasswm) floats 
 in long pieces in the Atlantic Ocean and all the 
 great seas ; a large portion of the sea between the 
 West Indies and the Canary Islands, is specially called 
 the Mer de Sargasse. The weed is carried in such 
 quantities by the current into the Gulf of Mexico, 
 that it covers the sea in tracts of many miles in 
 breadth, and gives it the appearance of a meadow. 
 Many fabulous stories were related of this Gulfweed 
 by the mariners of the 15th c. Ships were said, to 
 have been stopped in their course, and the crews 
 obliged to cut their way through with hatchets. 
 136 
 
 Fucns vesiculosus : 
 
 The discoveries of Columbus 'put an endi to these 
 exaggerated reports. •' ; i , 
 
 : rA« are entirely cellular in th^ir structure, how- 
 ever elongated maybe their fronds, having no proper 
 vessels, but consisting of 
 an irregular tissue of utri- 
 cular cells.! The fronds 
 of many are articulated. 
 Some of the simplest or 
 lowest organisation are 
 propagated by spontane- 
 ous separation ; in others, 
 the reproductiye organs 
 consist of spores (see Aco- 
 TYLBDONOUS PtANTS) en- 
 closed ia perispores, and 
 variously disposed in recep- 
 tacles of different kinds; 
 sometimes in the interior 
 of the cells, Anffieridia 
 (q. V.) also occur in some; 
 and zoospores, or spores 
 with moving dlia, which 
 exhibit phenomena of 
 motion resenibling those 
 of animal, life. Tie J)ia- 
 
 t07aace<E, in which the ^^^^;„g tj,„,,,pj^,,e,ofthc 
 ordinary mode ot repro- fructification a, a, at the 
 duction is by spontaneous ends of the branching frond; 
 separation, have by some ''< '. *. ''"'S? air-cells which 
 been referred to the ani- help to float the plant, 
 mal kingdom. They are entirely microscopic, 
 resemble the animalcules called Infusoria, and are 
 generally found in stiU waters and moist places, 
 but occur in prodigious numbers in some parts of 
 the Antarctic Ocean, where they give a colour to 
 the water. 
 
 A. differ from Fimgi (q. v.) in deriving their 
 nourishment exclusively, as it would seem, from the 
 medium by which they are surrounded, and not from 
 the substance upon which they grow. The sub- 
 stance of which they are composed is also very 
 different. Yet it has been felt not a little difiioult 
 to determine to which order some of the lowest 
 forms of vegetable Kfe should be referred. 
 
 As to their substance, A. consist chiefly of veget- 
 able gelatine, which dissolves in water when tibey 
 are boiled in it. The harder parts of their fronift 
 are sometimes coriaceous, or horny, or carfilaginoiis, 
 but never really ligneous. Their colour is not always 
 green, but mostly brown or yellow, sometimes 
 purple or violet, or rose-colour ; and many of them 
 present a very beautifid appearance when examined 
 through a microscope. Many contain an abundance 
 of iodine. Different species of Wback (Fums), 
 (q. v.), which are cast on shore in vast confused 
 masses by the waves, are gathered and burned in 
 the Orkney Islands, in Normandy, and other parts 
 of the world, the ashes forming an article of com- 
 merce under the name of Kelp (q. v.), and contain- 
 ing much of the iodide of sodium. Sea- weeds of all 
 kinds are an excellent manure. None of the species 
 are poisonous, and some of them are used for food, 
 as Carrageen (q. v.) or Irish-moss, Dulse (q. v.), 
 Lavek (q. v.), &o. The edible swallows' nests of 
 the Indian Archipelago are composed of a species of 
 sea-weed. Several kinds are eaten as articles of 
 luxury by the Chinese. Plocaria tenax, one of the 
 species so used, furnishes them also with an admir- 
 able glue, of which great quantities are prepared and 
 brougbt to the market., Plocaria hdminthocorlon, 
 Corsican moss, a native of the Mediterranean^ and 
 found principally around the shores of Corsica is 
 used as a vermifuge. See Plocaria. 
 
 This natural order is divided into five sub-orders, 
 regarded by some as distinct orders— namely, 
 
ALGAEDI— ALGEBRA. 
 
 OHARACEiE (q. v.), FUOACILE (q. V.), OeEAMIACE^ 
 (q. v.), CoNPERVACEiE (seo CONPEKVA), and Diato- 
 MAOEiB (q. v.). The C]iaraoes3 are sometimes sepa- 
 rated as a distinct order of liiglier organisation, 
 whilst the rest are imited under the name Algse, 
 See HMzing's Phycologia OmeraUs (Leip. 1843), and 
 Ins Speoies Algarum (Leip. 1849)^; Greville's A. 
 Sntannicce (Lond. 1830) ; and Harvey's Marmal of 
 British A. (Lond. 1841). 
 
 ALGA'RDI, ALESSAKDio, an' Italian sculptor 
 (h. at Bologna 1602 — d. 1654), ranlced n^xt to Lor. 
 Bernini among 'Italian sculptors 'of the 17th c., 
 and especially excelled in the representation Of nude 
 figures. His work?, however, ' suffered from the 
 faults prevalent in his time, especially from a striv- 
 ing after pathos and picturesque effects, opposed to 
 the true character of sculpture. His most important 
 work is a colossal rehevo' of Attila in St Peters, 
 Rome. His statue of the God of Sleep in the Villa 
 Borghese has frequently been nlistaken for an 
 antique. , 
 
 ALGAEO'BA. See Cabob^ 
 
 ALGAEO'TTI," Fkanoesoo, CoiWT, an Italian 
 author, was bom at Venice in 1712, Studied in Edme 
 and Bologna, and when 21 years old, published in 
 Paris (1733) a work, entitled Newtonianismo per le 
 Dame (The Newtonian Philosophy adapted to the 
 Ladies), which was the basis of his subsequent 
 reputation. Until 1739, he Hved in I'rahce. On his 
 return from a journey ' to Russia, A. became 
 acquainted with Erederick II. of Prussia, who 
 elevated him to the rank of count, and made him, 
 in 1747, lord chamberlain. He was also patronised 
 by Augustus III. of Poland, and hved alternately in 
 Berlin and Dresden until 1754, when he returned to 
 Italy. He died March 3, 1764, at Pisa, where, in the 
 Campo Santo, Frederick the Great raised a monu- 
 ment to his memory. In his own time he was recog- 
 nised as a good judge of painting and arohitectiu'e, 
 and his reputation is confirmed by his work Saggi 
 sopra le Belle Arti (Essays on the Kne Arts), and by 
 the paintings he selected for the Dresden Gallery. 
 His poetry displays no great genius ; but his other 
 works shew that he was an accomplished man ; and 
 his letters rank with the best in. the ItaKan; laaguage. 
 
 ALGA'RV!^, the smallest and most southerly of 
 tie provinces of Portugal, lies between Andalucia 
 and the, Atlantic Ocean. In ancient, times,, it was 
 much more extensive. It received its name from 
 the Arabs, in w;hose language A. signifies ' a lamd 
 lying to the west.' It was a ]y[oorish province tiU 
 1253, when Alphonso III. united it to the crown of 
 Portiigal as a separate kingdom. Its |area is esti- 
 mated at 2730 square miles, and its population at 
 130,000. The northern part of the province i? occu- 
 pied by a raiige of mountains of an average height 
 of 4000 feet, whifch form the continuation of the 
 Sierra Morena of Spain, and terminate in Cape 
 St Vincent, the south-western extremity of Eiu'ope. 
 The highest ridges are entirely destitute of vegeta- 
 tion ; and the mountainous tract' in general admits 
 of but little cultivation. Prom the main ridge, the 
 country slopes southward in' jagged terraces and low 
 lulls, leaving a level tract of a few miles along the 
 coast. The soil of this plain is but indifierently 
 suited for the production of grain, or even of 
 pasturage ; but it f rodiices abundance of the finest 
 fruits of the south,' even plantains and dates. The 
 wine is alSD of exceUeiit quality. The African heat 
 of the chmate is mitigated by the cool sea-breeze. 
 The only river of importance is tl^e Guadiana, on 
 the frontiers of Spain. The inhabitants employ 
 themselves chiefly in fishing, in mahUfacturmg salt, 
 arid in cultivating fruit. They are considered the 
 
 best sailors and the truest friends in Portugal. ' The 
 chief town is Faro (pop. 8500). 
 
 A'LGEBRA is a branch of pure mathematics. 
 The name is derived from the Axabs, who call the 
 science Al gebr wal mohdbala — ie., supplementing 
 and equahsing — in reference to the transposition and 
 reduction pf ,the terms of an equation. Among the 
 Itahans in early times it was called Arte Maggi&re, 
 as having to do with the higher kinds of calculation, 
 arid stfll oftener Jiegola de la Oosa, because the un- 
 knowri quantity was denominated cosa, the ' thing ; ' 
 hence the name of Cossijce Art^ given to it by early 
 English writers. 
 
 The term Algebraical is generally used somewhat 
 vdguely', to deUote auy expression Or calculation in 
 wliioh sigtis are used to denote the operations, and 
 letters 'or other symbols are put instead of numbers. 
 But it is perhaps better to restrict the name A. to 
 the doctrine of Equations (q.v.). Literal arithmetic, 
 then, or multiplying, di'viding, &;c.,'wi1;h letters instead 
 of Arabic ciphers, is prOperly only a preparation for 
 A. ; while Analysis (q. v.), in the -widest sen,se, wOuld 
 embrace A. as its first part. A. itself is di-vided 
 into two chief branches. The first treats of equations 
 involving Unknown quantities ha^ving a determinate 
 valu?; in the other, caEed the Diophantine or Inde- 
 terminate Analysis, the unknown quantities have no 
 exac-tily fixed values, but depend in some degree 
 upok assumption. 
 
 The oldest -vyork in the "West on A. is that 
 of Diophantus of Alexandria, in the 4th c. after 
 Christ. It consisted origiiially of 13 books, and 
 contaitied arithiietical problems ; only six books 
 are now extant. They are written in Greek, 
 and eviiice no Httle acuteness. The modem Euro- 
 peans got their first acquaintance -with A., not 
 directly from the Greeks, but, like most other 
 knowledge, through the Arabs, who derived it, again, 
 from the Hindus. The chief European soiuoe was the 
 work of Mohammed Ben Musa, who lived in the 
 time of Calif Al Mamun (813 — 833); it has been 
 translated into English by Dr Rosen (Lond. 1831). 
 An Italian merchant, Leonardo BonaociO, of Pisa, 
 tra,velling in the east about 1200, acquired a know- 
 ledge of the science, and introduced it among his 
 countrymen on his return; he has left a work on 
 A., not yet printed. The first work on A. after the 
 revival of learning is that of the Minorite friar 
 Paciolo or Luca BoTgo (Ven. 1494). Scipio Ferreo 
 in Bologna, discovered, in 1505, the solution of one 
 case of cubic equationSi Tartaglia of Brescia (died 
 1557) carried cubic equations still further, and 
 imparted his discoveries to Cardan of Milan, as a 
 secret. Cardan extended the discovery himself, and 
 published, id 1^45, the solution kno^wn as 'Cardan's 
 Rule.' Ludovico Ferrari and BombeUi (1579) gave 
 the solution of biquadratic equa,tions. , A. was first 
 cultivated in Germany by Christian Rudolf, in a 
 work printed in 1524 ; Stif el followed 'with his Anth- 
 •metica Integra (Niimb. 1544). Robert Recorde, in 
 England, and I'eUetier, m. Franc?, -wrote about ,1550. 
 Vieta, a Frenchmian (died 1603), first made the grand 
 step of using, letters to denote 'the known quantities 
 as well as the unknown. Harriot, in England (1631), 
 and Girard, in Holland (1633), still further improved 
 on the advances made by Vieta. The Geometrie 
 (1637) of Descartes mates an epoch in A. ; it is 
 rich in new investigations. Descartes applied A. 
 to Geometry, and was the first to represent the 
 nature of curves by means of equations. Fermat 
 also contributed much to the science ; and so did 
 the Arithmetica Universalis of Newton. To these 
 names may be added Maclaurin, Moi-vre, Taylor, 
 and Fontaine. Among the chief promoters, of A, 
 in more recent times, are Euler, Lagrange, Gauss, 
 Abel, Fourier, Peacock, De Morgan, &c. 
 
 187 
 
ALGECIRAS— ALGERIA. 
 
 ALGECI'RAS, or ALGEZIEAS, a town in 
 Spain, m the province of Cadiz, on the Gulf of 
 Gibraltar. Its harbour ia bad, but it possesses a 
 
 food dock, and the . inhabitants are supplied with 
 ne aqueducts. The citadel is ia a very dilapi- 
 dated condition, and the trade m corn and brandy 
 is no longer important. The place, however, 
 which is pleasantly situated, has a picturesque 
 appearance. It was the first town in Spain taken 
 by the Moors (713), in whose possession it remained 
 for 7 centuries; but in 1344, after a siege of 20 
 months, it was retaken by the brave Alfonso XL, 
 king of Castile. It is said that crusaders from aU 
 parts of Europe were present at this siege, which 
 was the siege of the age, and is spoken of as such. 
 Edward IIL of England purposed coming in person 
 to the assistance of the Spanish monarch, whom he 
 greatly admired. Alfonso destroyed the old Moorish 
 town ; the modern one was built by Charles III. in 
 1760. On the 6th of Jvme 1801, between Algeoiras 
 and Tarifa, the English admiral Saumarez attacked 
 the combined French and Spanish fleets under Rear- 
 admiral Lmnois. He was defeated, but renewed the 
 engagement a few days after, and gained a complete 
 victory. A. is 5 miles from Gibraltar, across the 
 bay or gulf, and 10 round by land. Pop. 11,000. 
 
 ALGE'RIA (in French, Algeeie), a country 
 on the north coast of Africa, which was a sub- 
 ordiaate part of the Turkish Empire till 1830, 
 and is now a French colony. It Kes between 2° 8' 
 "W. long, and 8° 32' E. long. It is boimded on the 
 north by the Mediterranean, on the east by Timis, 
 on the south by Sahara, and on the west by Marooco. 
 The French have extended their dominions more 
 than 200 miles iuto the interior, but those of the 
 deys — the former rulers of A. — comprehended terri- 
 tories lying nearly tvrace as far south. The area of 
 A. may be estimated at 160,000 square miles, and 
 the population at 2,600,000, of which 170,000 are 
 Europeans. The chief towns are Algiers, Bona,, 
 Constantine, and Tlemzen. The number of acres 
 under cultivation in 1856 was upwards of 5,000,000. 
 Physically, A. forms a part of the northern border of 
 the great plateau of North Africa, which here rises 
 from the sea in three terraces. The Atlas Mountains 
 run parallel to the coast-hne. Behind these, a vast 
 tract of heathy plains, called the Sebkhas, interspersed 
 with salt-lakes, stretches southwards, until boimded 
 by a second chain of mountains of various heights ; 
 beyond which, again, lies the great desert of SsSiara, 
 extending to the banks of the Niger. The plains 
 and valleys which open out towards the sea in the 
 north of A., such as those round Bona, Algiers, 
 Oran, &c., are extremely fertile, abound in wood and 
 water, consist mostly of a calcareous soil, and are 
 well adapted for agriculture. They form the Tdl, 
 which was once one of the granaries of Italy. In 
 strong contrast to these are the Sebkhas or lesser 
 deserts, covered with herbs and brushwood, but 
 almost destitute of fresh water, except where here 
 and there they are interrupted by an oasis. The 
 most southern part of the country beyond the Atlas 
 partakes of the nature of the Sahara, but contains 
 oases covered with palm-trees, and well peopled. 
 This is a part of the ' date-country,' or ' Blad-el- 
 Djerid.' There are no rivers of any importance in 
 the entire colony, nothing beyond mere coast- 
 streams, which rise in the neighbouring Atlas. The 
 largest ia the Shehf, about 230 miles in length. With 
 respect to the climate, the heat in the Tell is some- 
 times very great. ■ On the coast it is mitigated by 
 the sea-breeze ; and among the high mountains of the 
 interior, the winters are even cold. The average 
 temperature of Algiers is about 63° P. A. is not 
 unfrequently visited by the simoom, or hot vfind, 
 called by the Italians sirocco, and by the Spaniards 
 
 aolano. Its mineral wealth is considerable ; iron, 
 lead, copper, and manganese are found; The marble 
 of Numidia was in requisition in ancient times. 
 Extensive forests of oaks, cedars, pines, and pistachio- 
 nut trees cover large portions of the countay, and 
 furnish an abundant supply of timber and resin. The 
 cereals and the olive are cultivated in the Tell ; and 
 the oases of Sahara are famed for their dates. The 
 domestic animals of A. are the ox, the sheep, the 
 goat, and the camel; but the once noble race of 
 STumidian horses is degenerated. The population is 
 composed of various elements. Besides Europeans, 
 there are Kabyles and Arabs, who compose the bulk 
 of the people ; also Moors, Negroes, and Jews. 
 
 Language. — Four languages are spoken in A. The 
 Berber, the Arabic, the Turkish, and the Negro dia- 
 lects. Thfi Berber, which is the most ancient of aU, 
 has a variety of dialects, and is spoken by aU the 
 Kabyle tribes. It possesses no literature written in 
 its own alphabet, Arabic characters alone being used. 
 The Arabic is of course an importation from the East, 
 and has borrowed expressions and idioms from the 
 various native languages with which it came into 
 contact ; but its differences are comparatively slight. 
 The Koran is the great bond of union. The TurkJsh, 
 since the French conquest, has become almost ex- 
 tinct. The Negro dialects are of little consequence. 
 
 History. — In the most ancient times we iind the 
 Nimiidians settled in the eastern part of the regency, 
 and the Moors (or Mauri) in the west. Under the 
 Romans, the former was included in the province of 
 Africa, while the latter was called Mauritania Caesar- 
 iensis. Like the rest of North Africa, it had then 
 reached its highest prosperity. It had numerous 
 cities, which were principally Roman colonies. But 
 its conquest by the Vandals, under the famous 
 Genseric about 440, threw it back into a state of 
 barbarism, from which it only partially recovered 
 after the Mohammedan inunigrants had estab- 
 lished their dominion. About the year 935, the 
 city, Al-Jezira, i. e., the island, and later Al-Gazie, 
 i. e„ the warlike, now called Algiers, was biult by 
 an Arabian prince, Zeiri, whose successors ruled the 
 land till 1148, after which it was governed by the 
 Ahnohades (q.v.) tiU 1269. It was then split up into 
 many small territories. In 1492, the Moors and 
 Jews who had been driven out of Spain, settied in 
 A., and began to revenge themselves on their perse- 
 cutors by piracy. Ferdinand, the Spanish monarch, 
 attacked them on this . account, took the city of 
 Algiers in 1509, and erected fortifications on the 
 island which forms its harbour. One of the Algerine 
 princes, the Emir of Metidja, whose territories were 
 threatened by the Spaniards, now invited to his 
 assistance the Greek renegade, Horuk or Harude 
 Barbarossa, who had made himself famous as a, 
 Turkish pirate chief. , This laid the foundation 
 of the Turkish dominion; for when Barbarossa 
 arrived in 1516, he treacherously turned his corsair 
 bands against the emir, whom he murdered, and 
 then made himself Sultan of Algiers. His subse- 
 quent successes alarmed the Spaniards, who marched 
 an army against him from Oran. Barbarossa was 
 defeated in many encounters, and, at last, being 
 taken prisoner, was beheaded in 1518. His brother 
 was then chosen sultan. He put himself vmder the 
 protection of the Ottoman court, by the help of 
 a Turkish army drove the Spaniards out of the 
 country, and established that system of military 
 despotism and piracy which lasted tiU 1830, and 
 which sunk A. mto a state of ruinous degradation. 
 In 1541, the Emperor Charles V. made a bold 
 attempt to crush this nation of corsairs. He landed 
 in A. with a fleet of 370 ships, and 30,000 men; but 
 a fearful storm, accompanied by earthquakes and 
 water-spouts, destroyed the greater portion of the 
 
former, and rendered the latter destitute of victuals, 
 &c. ; so that the expedition proved a failure, and 
 Charles was glad to re-embark, which he managed 
 to do with extreme difficulty. 
 
 The history of A., under the Moslems, ofifers few 
 episodes worthy Of notice. The Algerines continued 
 to carry on their piratical war against the powers of 
 
 Christendom, ventimng even to land on the Italian 
 and Spanish coasts. Inland, too, they were con- 
 stantly fighting to extend their territories. Before 
 the end of the 16th c, they had subdued the whole 
 country to the verge of Marocco, with the exception 
 of Oran, which belonged to Spain. The Spamards 
 were invariably uusucoessfid in their attempts at 
 
 reprisals. Emboldened by success, the Algerines 
 pushed their piratical expeditions even beyond the 
 Straits of Gibraltar. In the year 1600, the Turkish 
 janissaries of Algiers obtained from the Cdnstanti- 
 nopolitan court the right to choose a dey from 
 among themselves, who should share the power 
 with the pacha appointed by the Sultan, and be 
 their commander-in-chief. The result of this divided 
 authority was internal strife and confusion. Never- 
 theless, the insolence of the Algerines at sea increased. 
 They attacked even the coasts Of Provence, compel- 
 ling' Loiiis XIT. to chastise them thrice ; which he 
 did, however, with very Kttle effect. An incident 
 occurred during the first bombardment of Algiers 
 by the French fleet in 1682, which illustrates 
 the reckless ferocity of these corsairs. By way of 
 answer to the cannonading of his enemies, the dey 
 caused the French consul, Vacher, to be shot off 
 from the mouth of a mortar ! After the third bom- 
 bardment in 1687, the dey scornfully inquired of the 
 French how much money the burning of Algiers had 
 cost their master, and on being told, coolly replied 
 that ' he would have done it hitaself for half the sum, 
 and spared their king the trouble.' No more deci^Ve 
 result followed the attack of Admiral Blake in 1655, 
 nor of the English and Dutch fleets in 1669 and 
 1670 ; yet the English were the first to form treaties 
 with the Algerines. In 1708, the dey, Ibrahim, 
 inade himself master of Oran; and his successor, 
 Baba-Ali, succeeded in effecting the virtual emanci- 
 pation of the country from the dominion of the 
 Porte. He banished the Turkish' paCha; craftily 
 persuaded the Sultan of Turkey to leave the power 
 solely in his hands ; carried on war, and concluded 
 peace at his own pleasiure, and paid no more tribute. 
 A. was now ruled by a nuHtary oUgarchy, at the 
 head of which stobd the dey, and after him the 
 powerful Turkish militia, recruited from Constantin- 
 ople and Smyrna, becaxise their children by native 
 mothers could not enjoy the same privileges as 
 themselves. Besides these, there was a divan, or 
 
 council of state, chosen from the sixty principal 
 civil functionaries. The internal history of the 
 country henceforth presents nothing but a bloody 
 series of seragho revolutions, ca,used by the lawless 
 janissaries, ■who permitted few of the deys to die 
 a natural death. In the year 1775, Spain under- 
 took her last great expedition against A., with 44 
 ships of war, 340 transports, and 25,000 soldiers. 
 This, however, was as siagularly unfortunate as all 
 her previous ones. Everything went wrong, and the 
 Spaniards had to re-embark as speedily as possible, 
 leaving behind them 1800 wounded, and all their 
 artillery. Thus A. continued to defy the greater 
 Christian powers, and to enforce tribute from the 
 lesser. During the French Kevolution, and the time 
 of the Empire, its piracies were much diminished in 
 consequence of the presence of powerful fleets in the 
 Mediteiranean Sea ; but at the close of the war, they 
 were recommenced as vigorously as ever. This 
 brought down upon 'the nation of corsairs' the 
 vengeance of the Christian powers. The Americans 
 took the lead, attacked the Algerine fleet off Cartha- 
 gena, on the 20th June 1815; defeated it, and com- 
 pelled the dey to acknowledge the inviolability of 
 the American flag. About the same time, the Eng- 
 lish admiral, Lord Exmouth, extorted from the other 
 states of Barbary the recognition of an international 
 law respecting the treatment of prisoners. A. alone 
 refused to consent to it; and after a delay of six 
 Weeks, the English and Dutch fleets, under the 
 comihand of Lord Exmouth, fiercely bombarded the 
 capital. The batteries of the pirates were soon 
 silenced ; and in a few hours the half of the city lay 
 in ruins ; its naval force and its maga2anes being all 
 destroyed. The dey, an ignorant and obstinate 
 barbarian, stiU vrished to protract the fight, but his 
 soldiery forced him to yield, and a treaty was con- 
 cluded (1816), by which all Christian slaves were 
 released without ransom {the mmiber was 1211), 
 and a promise was given that both piracy and 
 Christian slavery shoula cease for ever. But nothing 
 
ALGEEIA. 
 
 could keep tlieae ■wretches from piracy. As early 
 as 1817, tiey ventured as far as the Nbrth Sea, and 
 seized aU ships in their course not helonging to any 
 of the powers ■who sent them tribute or presentsj as 
 ■was done by Sweden, Denmark, Portugal, Spain, 
 Naples, Tuscany, and Sardinia. Nor did even treaties ' 
 avail to protect European vessels at aU times. The 
 Spanish, the Papal, and, in particular, the German ship- 
 ping, suffered severely; ■while the dey mocked by, his 
 insolent replies the remonstrances addressed to him. 
 Mean'wMLe, the internal condition of A. continued 
 to present the spectacle of a cruel prastorian despot- 
 ism. In the year 1817, the po^wer of the janissaries 
 ■was greatly -weakened by the skilful tactics of thedey, 
 Ah. Upon hia death, which was occasioned by the 
 plaguciin the foUo^wing year, Hussein was chosen in 
 his stead, imder whom the Moslem dominion was 
 terminated by a conflict -with Prance. The causes of 
 this , conflict were various. A French trading-brig 
 was plundered in Bona in 1818; the dweUing of the 
 Prench consul was attacked in 1823; Roman ships 
 sailing under the protection of the French flag were 
 seized; and even French ships were detained and 
 plundered. But the chief cause of the quarrel was 
 a dispute about the payment of, a debt incurred by 
 the French goverimient to two Je^wish merchants of 
 ' Algiers at the time of the expedition to Egypt. This 
 debt was fixed at seven millions of francs ; four and 
 a half milHons were immediately paid ; the rest was 
 reserved until the counter-claims of certain French 
 creditors shoidd be decided ui the French law-courts. 
 For three years the lawsuit dragged its slow length 
 along, till the dey became impatient — ^being himself 
 a principal creditor of the Jewish- Algerine house — 
 and angrily demanded payment from the King of 
 France. To his letter no answer was returned. 
 The feast of Beiram occurring soon after, when it 
 was customary for the dey to receive all the consuls 
 pubhcly, he asked the French consul why his inaster 
 had remained silent. The latter haughtily replied 
 that ' a king of France could not condescend to cor- 
 respond ■with a dey of Algiers.' Upon this, the dey 
 struck TiiTn on the face, and fiercely abused his sove- 
 reign. In consequence of this insult, a French squad- 
 ron was sent to Algiers, which received the consid 
 on board, and blockaded the city (12th June 1827). 
 Six days after, the dey caused the French coral- 
 fisheries at Bona to be destroyed. For three years the 
 blockade was listlessly carried on ; but in AprQ 1830, 
 during the ministry of Pohgnac, a warlike manifesto 
 appeared ; and a month later, a fleet sailed for the 
 African coast, consisting of 100 ships of war, and 
 357 transports, having on board an army of 37,000 
 infantry, 4000 cavalry, and a proportionate number 
 of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant- 
 general Bourmont. The landing was effected under 
 trifling opposition. A perpetual skirmishing . then 
 took place previous to the bombardment of Algiers, 
 which commenced on the 4th July. ISText day, a 
 capitulation was agreed to. The Turkish soldiers 
 marched out — ^for such were the conditions — ^with 
 their families and private possessions, and the 
 French took possession of the place. Fifteen hundred 
 guns, 17 ships of war, and 50,000,000 francs fell 
 into their hands as spoU. The dey retired to Port 
 Mahon, ■with his private property and a train of 
 118 persons, while the greater number of the Turkish 
 janissaries were conveyed to Asia Minor. The 
 conduct of the French soldiery, however, it must be 
 confessed, tarnished the glory of their conquest. 
 They went about plundering remorselessly the 
 beautiful ■\Hlla3 and gardens in the neighbourhood 
 of Algiers, as well as the ancient valuables and 
 works of art ; thus exciting a imiversal spirit of 
 hostility in the natives, who kept up an incessant 
 guerilla warfare outside the capital. 
 140 
 
 After the revolution of July, Marshal Bourmont 
 resigned, and : General Clausel was appointed his 
 successor. The latter,; who was a prompt r and 
 vigorous man, set about subduing the country,, and 
 gi-ving, it a regular government. ,,; His predecpsspr 
 had committed a, great mistake in .driving out 
 the Tulksy who might have beep usefully :employed, 
 in subordinate functions of authority. After therr 
 baoaishment, the Kabyles and Bedouins, believing 
 tiemselves emancipated from aU subjection, and 
 stimulated by intense fanaticism against the new 
 conquerors, rose in rebellion, or rather . connnenqed 
 a iseries of petty struggles, which, obstructed the 
 colonisation of A., for many years, and which cannot 
 be said to have altogether ceased even yet. The 
 imposition of French laws and institutions -was 
 made not in the ■wisest spirit, most of the old 
 Turkish regulations being summarily abrogated. 
 Besides this, the natives -yere wounded in then- 
 most susceptible point. Their mosques and buiying- 
 grounds were frequently desecrated and destroyed ; 
 and Clausel, whose -vigour was more remark- 
 able than lis justice or prudence, confiscated — 
 in direct contradiction to the very words of the 
 capitulation — all the immovable property of the 
 deys, and other exiled Turks, and of the town- 
 ships, besides various reKgious institutions. The 
 effect of these pohtical crimes was instant. The 
 entire pro-vinces determined obstinately to resist; 
 some even of the pro-vincial rulers who had pre- 
 viously submitted, now appeared in arms again. 
 Clausel was compelled to undertake a military 
 expedition against the refractory beys ; but his 
 uncertain successes only inflamed the hatred and 
 patriotism of the Kabyles and Arabs, who opposed 
 him energetically. A young emir at last appeared 
 on the scene, Abd-el-Kader (q. V-), who soon be- 
 came the rallying-point of the Jad ('holy war'), 
 which ■the Marabouts had begun to preach. Under 
 these circumstances, it became impossible for Claiusel 
 to carry out his scheme of colonisation, and only 
 a reckless speculation in land took place, which 
 was in every way injmious. To strengthen his 
 position, the French general, whose army was now 
 greatly reduced, made a treaty -with the Bey of 
 Tunis ; but the home-government disappro-ving of 
 it, he was recalled in consequence. . His successor, 
 General Berthezfene, having achieved nothing bu-t 
 defeat and diSgrace in spite of his cruelties, was 
 also speedily recalled, and Lieutenant-general the 
 Duke of Eovigo appointed to the command. He 
 arrived in Algiers oil the 25th of December 1831, 
 and established a most severe and relentless system. 
 He scrupled not to perpetrate the most arbitrary acts, 
 cruelties, and treacheries. His two most remarkable 
 actions were, first, the complete annihilation of the 
 whole Arab tribe El-Uffia, when even old men, 
 women, and children were massacred during the 
 night, on account of a robbery committed by some of 
 the members of the tribe ; second, the execution of 
 two Arab chiefs who were hostQe ■to him, and whom 
 he had treacherously allured into the city by the 
 written promise of a safe-conduct. Such monstrous 
 proceedings fiired the entire nation. The most 
 peaceful fribes flew to arms, and the French were 
 attacked on all sides. The Emperor of Marocco, 
 who secretly fomented the strife, and even medi- 
 tated the conquest of Oran, assis^ted the fierce and 
 impetuous Abd-el-Kader in his designs. The health 
 of the dulce now declined. He returned to France 
 in March 1833, and the administration of affairs was 
 provisionally intrusted to General A^vizard, who 
 gained some credit by establishing the Bureau 
 Arabe. After the death of the duke. General 
 Voirol, a man exactly the reverse of his prede- 
 cessor, was made interim commander-in-chief. Hia 
 
ALGERIA. 
 
 efforts were more directed to promote the Jnaterial 
 interests of the eolony, than to extend the power 
 of IVanoe. He met with Kttle opposition in the 
 province of' Algiers, and in ' the eastern districts ; 
 but, on the other hand,' the war ra^d fiercely in the 
 west, where Abd-el-Kader had either gained over or 
 subdued all the tribes between Mascara and the sea. 
 At length a treaty was effected with himj in which 
 he pledged himself to mate peace, and to deliver np 
 all his pi-isoners. In return, he received a monopoly 
 of the corn-trade, and the right to buy arms and 
 amniunition inl the French jorts. Towards the end 
 of' 1834, the IVench government, ha'ving resolved to 
 retain permanent possession of the colony, organised 
 its adroinistrjitiou anew, plaining the supreme power, 
 both civil and military, in the hands of a governor- 
 general, who received Ms orders from the minister 
 of war. General Drouet' d'Erlon was the first 
 appoiiited to this high dignity. Under him there 
 wei-e' a commander of the troops, a commander of 
 the naval fbrce, a military inteiidant, a civil ititend- 
 ant„ and a director of finance. The admioistration 
 of justice was also re^tdiated' by the erection of many 
 tribunals. IVenchmen' and foreigners were' to be 
 subject to French laws, but the natives to their 
 own. Moreover, the old Algerine oom-ts of justice 
 were stUl to be kept up. P'Erlon apparently 
 desired, at first, to occupy himself with the internal 
 administration of the regency, and, in truth, 
 deserved much credit for the ihttoduction of French 
 municipal institutions, and the French system of 
 education and police arrangements ; but a disgrace- 
 ful defeat suffered by theTPrench army at Makta, 
 on an expedition against Abd-el-Kader, who had 
 secretly broken the treaty, caused the .retail both 
 of the officer in command and of , D'Erlon himself. 
 Clausel was now sent, back to A. 'with the title of 
 marshal. He arrived on, the 10th of August 1835, 
 Ins first anxiety being to wipe aWay the disgrace 
 of the defeat at Makta. About three months 
 after, he marched out at the head of 11,000 men, 
 to attack Mascara, the centre of Abd-el-Kader's 
 power : he had to fight many petty battles on 
 his way, but was al'ways siiccessftd. On reaching 
 Mascara, he resolved tp set it on fire, which he 
 did on the 8th December, and then commenced 
 his retreat, in which his army suffered severely, 
 from bad weathei;, and from perpetual harassments 
 by the enemy. Abd-el-Kader was soon more 
 powerful than ever, and General Bugeaud had to 
 bq.sent out from France ■wi'th reinforcements; but 
 notbing came of this save a few fruitless victories 
 over Abd-el-Kader, which did the latter no real harm. 
 Bugeaud was at length compelled to make peace 
 on , the 30th }S.a,y 1837. Abd-el-Kader recognised 
 the sovereignty of France over the regency : he 
 received, in return, the government of the provinces 
 of ,Oran, Titeri, and Algiers, with the exception of 
 the cities of Oran, Arzeu, ila,sagran, Mostaganem, 
 Algiers, Blidah and Kolesi, Saliel (or the 'sea- 
 coast'), and the plain of Metidja. In exchange for 
 ■the city of Tlemaen, he dehvered to the French 
 army 60,000 sacks of corn, and 5000 oxen : he was 
 likewise permitted to buy arms and ammunition in 
 France. In February 1837, Marshal Clausel was 
 recalled, and Lieutenant-general Damr^mont suc- 
 ceeded him. The conditipn of the colony was at 
 this moment desperate, for the disgraces which 
 followed the rash and even reckless measures of 
 Clausel had everywhere lowered the prestige of 
 the French army. The duty of the new governor- 
 general was clear, but difficult : he had to wipe 
 out the stain which attached to the honour of his 
 soldiery, and to re-create the conviction of, their 
 superiority. He first attacked the Kabyles of 
 the province of Algiers, and chastised them with 
 
 considerable severity, and then commenced his 
 great ,work of taking Constantine, from which his 
 predecessoi! had been compelled ignominiously to 
 retire. In the month of iMay, -with an army of 
 12,000 diaoiphned troops, besides Zuavi (originally 
 light infantry Taised among the natives), HataiUons 
 d'Afrique (con-viot-battalions at first),' the Tirail- 
 leurs d'Afrique, and the Ohassmrs d^Afrique, as 
 ,well as the Spahis (a cavalry coqis composed of 
 native soldiers commanded by IVench officers), 
 Damremont marched to the attack of Constantine, 
 audi in 'Spite of fearful weather, succeeded in 
 storming the city on the 13th. This victory laid 
 the foundation for the entire subjugation of the 
 province of Constantine, which was completed in 
 the course of the two foUowing years without any 
 great effort. 
 
 On December 1, 1837, General Valge was ap- 
 pointed governor-general in the stead of Damrfimont, 
 who had fallen at the storming of Constantine. He, 
 Uke the others, misunderstood the character of 
 Abd-el-Kader when he considered it possible for 
 him to' remain quiet. New treaties were inade, 
 which only delayed hostilities. Meanwhile, the 
 work of colonisation went on in spite of numerous 
 obstacles. The province of Constantine was much 
 improved by the building of towns and the maMhg 
 of roads; but suddenly, in October 1839, Abd-el- 
 Kader, whose power had now become formidable to 
 an vmprecedented extent, violated the treaty on an 
 insignificant pretext, and fell upon the imprepajed 
 French 'with an overwhelming force. The European 
 settlements in the open plam were attacked and 
 laid waste, bodies of French troops were surprised 
 on their march ahd cut to pieces, small outposts and 
 encampments were taken in a moment, and by the 
 24th of November, the dominion of the French was 
 confined tp the fortified cities and cainps. Even the 
 settlements in the plain of !M6tidja were lost. Forty 
 thousand Arabs swept over it, and threatened 
 Algiers itself. This state of things demanded ener- 
 getic measures. The spring caiilpaign was vigprpusly 
 ppeiied on both sides : everywhere me French gained 
 splendid successes ; while the heroic defence of the 
 fort of Masagran, near Mostaganem (garrisoned 
 by only 123 men), against from 12,000 tp 15,000 
 Arabs, who stormed it incessantly, and with the 
 utmost fury, for three days, raised the prestige of 
 the invaders higher than ever. StiU, however, 
 npthing was really accpmplished. After repeated 
 blpody defeats, the native tribes again rushed to 
 arms, swept the plains, and rendered life insecure at 
 the Y,ery gates of Algiers. The only thing of any 
 practical importance which took place dm-ing the 
 whole year, was the beginning of the circumvaUatipn 
 by which the fertile plain of Metidja was to, be 
 secured against the hostile incursions of the Arabs. 
 Marshal v alge was new recalled, and Lieutenant- 
 general Bugeaud appointed his successor. The 
 latter arrived at Algiers on February 22, 1841, and 
 adopted a new system, which was completely suc- 
 cessful. A brave, inexorable, and unscrupulous man, 
 he resolved to employ any and every means for the 
 attaiimient of his purpose. He wearied out the 
 enemy by incessant razzias (predatory exciu-sions) 
 against individual tribes, corrupted them (not 
 a difficult thing to do) by all the arts of brib- 
 ery, .and on special occasions undertook great 
 expeditions , to annihilate the regular power of 
 Abd-el-Kader, whose streng defensive positions he 
 destroyed, and whose authority he spared no pains 
 to undermine. The French army was raised to 
 80 or 100,000 men. Its operations were carried 
 on from three principal points. Victory followed 
 Bugeaud wherever he went. He relieved and 
 victuaEed hard-pressed garrisons; intimidated the 
 
ALGERIA. 
 
 Eurrounclmg country; penetrated to Tekedempt— the 
 very stronghold of Ahd-el-Kader himself— which 
 he laid in ashes ; marched thence to Mascara, which 
 was also taken; and on all sides received the 
 submission of the terrified Arabs. Even the hottest 
 period of the siunmer was made use of. Bugeaud 
 bribed and seduced from their allegiance those 
 Arabs who were under the sway of Abd-el-Kader. 
 The autiunn campaign was for the time decisive. 
 Saida, the last fortress beloiiging to the gallant 
 emir, was utterly destroyed, and now almost the 
 entire country was subdued. Abd-el-Kader retired 
 iuto Maroooo, where he raised a new aimy, for 
 his old one had been completely annihilated. He 
 was, however, defeated by G-eneral Bedeau, and 
 again compelled to retreat into Marocco, from which, 
 however, he issued a second time, in the summer of 
 1842, and contrived to maintain a fierce but desultory 
 warfare, for two or three years, aided by the Siiltan 
 of Marocco. At last, however, deserted by most 
 of his followers, pursued by his late ally, and, in 
 fact, hemmed in on all sides, he was forced to 
 siurender to General LamoriciSre, at the close of 
 December 1847. See Asd-el-Kadbe. 
 
 The revolution of February 1848, somewhat dis- 
 turbed the progress of conquest and subjugation in 
 A. That superb race of mountaineers, the Kabyles, 
 descendants of the ancient Numidiaus, and possessed 
 of the same fiery and dauntless spirit, broke out into 
 a new insurrection, which, however, was speedily 
 quelled. The National Assembly now offered to the 
 European population of A. to incorporate the country 
 with the repubhc of France, and to grant it all 
 the accompanying pohtical privileges of a French 
 province ; but intelligent men of all parties acknow- 
 ledged the uselessness and danger of this step. It 
 was, therefore, simply declared to be a permanent 
 possession of the republic. Four deputies from the 
 colony were permitted to take a part in all discus- 
 sions in the National Assembly on Algerian affairs. 
 .Meanwhile, the work of conquest, colonisation, and, 
 in some respects, civilisation went on. The French 
 troops penetrated into the far south, almost to the 
 borders of Sahara, sternly reduciug to obedience the 
 desert tribes, who manifested a not unnatural 
 antipathy to these inroads, and in some cases fiercely 
 resisted the invaders. Various tribes of the Kabyles, 
 too, opposed every attempt at organised taxation, 
 and the imposition of civilised discipline ; the result 
 of which patriotic obstioacy was, a new campaign 
 against them by the French general, Bugia. Fortime 
 again declared for the invaders ; but the most 
 aSirming insurrection was that excited by the Cherif 
 Bou-sdan, who fled for freedom to Zaatcha in the 
 oases. The French pursued him thither ; but were 
 beaten, and had to retreat. Some months after, 
 they returned, largely reinforced, and in spite of the 
 broad belt of palm-trees which hiudered their 
 operations, and the wild and strenuous heroism of 
 the besieged, the place was stormed and destroyed. 
 The defenders all perished. 
 
 Since 1850, the French governments have devoted 
 considerable attention to A. ; but the French people 
 are proverbially bad colonists. Of late, however, 
 it must be admitted that their success has ex- 
 ceeded general expectation ; still, the enormous 
 military establishment maintained, and the numer- 
 ous civil functionaries employed to administer the 
 affairs of the colony, ' divert the stream of help 
 from the colonist, and embarrass the treasury.' 
 The Kabyles, who inhabit the mountainous region 
 lying between Algiers and Constantino, and number 
 150,000 fighting-men, are, or rather were, the 
 great foes of the French. Most of the tribes 
 are now subdued; but the struggle has been a 
 sanguinary and barbarous one on both sides. Nor 
 U2 
 
 has it been at aU popular in the colony, for the 
 Kabyles are by far the most inteUigent and indus- 
 trious of the Algerian tribes. Every inch of their 
 ground that will bear the shghtest cultivation is 
 made use of; their carpets are superb, their wooUens 
 almost as good as English ; while their own gunpowder 
 was believed by the French to be of English manu- 
 facture. Yet these fine highlanders, who naturally 
 love hberty with the keen rehsh of a high-spirited 
 race, have been subjected repeatedly to horrors that 
 cover the French army with disgrace ; ' their homes 
 burned, their women violated, and their land 
 rendered desolate.' Their retaliations have, no 
 doubt, been savage enough — mutilating and roasting 
 those of the enemy who have fallen intd their hands ; 
 but nothing can excuse the brutal excesses of the 
 French troops. With the exception of the few 
 Kabyle districts that still maintain a precarious 
 independence, the whole of A. is now so completely 
 subdiied, that one may travel through any part of 
 it with perfect security. Besides, the province has 
 been divided into districts, which are ruled both by 
 French and native officers, who are responsible for 
 all offences committed within the region over which 
 their authority extends. A native chief possessed 
 of this perilous dignity is sometimes deposed, fined, 
 or imprisoned for negligence in the performance of 
 his duty, or connivance at the escape of the offender. 
 The severity of this discipline has been, on the 
 whole, beneficial to the country in general. 
 
 Since the subjugation of A., the French have con- 
 ferred various benefits on the colonists and native 
 tribes, not the least important of which has been the 
 digging of Artesian wells (q. v.) in districts formerly 
 very destitute of water, by means of which waste 
 lands have been reclaimed, and made richly fertile. 
 In May 1856, a ' boring ' was commenced in an oasis 
 of the Sahara or desert of the province of Constautine. 
 A civil engineer, a sergeant of Spahis, and a detach- 
 ment of soldiers of the Foreign Legion, succeeded in 
 bringing to light a splendid lountam or river, yield- 
 ing not less than 4010 quarts of water per minute, at 
 a temperature of 70° F. The work was considered 
 a miracle. From all quarters the Arabs flocked to 
 behold and enjoy it. The native priests blessed it, 
 naining it the ' Fountain of Peace.' Another well 
 was termed the ' Fountain of Benediction.' In the 
 oasis of Sidi-Rached, unproductive for want of 
 water, a well was dug, and at a depth of 54 metres, 
 yielded 4300 quarts per minute. It is known as the 
 ' Fountain of Gratitude.' The enthusiasm excited at 
 its opening was boimdless. 'The Arabs,' says a 
 recent writer on the subject, ' sprang in crowds to 
 the spot, laving themselves in the welcome abundance, 
 into which mothers dipped their children, while the 
 old sheikh fell upon his knees and wept, and 
 returned thanks to Allah and the French.' Else- 
 where, the new wells have been made the centres of 
 settlements by previously nomadic tribes, who have 
 constructed villages, and planted date-trees in the 
 vicinity. The official report of General Desuaux, 
 pubhshed in the Monitewr Algirim, states that the 
 best results may be expected from these ' borings.' 
 The wandering habits of many of the tribes are 
 being eradicated, and an attachment to French rule 
 will probably spring up by and by. The idea of pro- 
 viding such wells has rightly been considered ' a 
 stroke of strong pohtical wisdom.' 
 
 Nevertheless, it would be too much to affirm 
 that the colonisation of A. is rapidly advancing. 
 The French government has acted neither very 
 hberally nor very promptly towards the settlers; 
 and the number of formalities which require to be 
 gone through before one can properly secure the 
 land which he has purchased, often disgusts 
 the poor farmer. Labour ia dear; and as a 
 
ALQHERO— ALGOA BAY. 
 
 consequence, provisions are the same. However, a 
 large portion of the plain of Metidja is already well 
 drained and well farmed. ' Grubbing, firing, and 
 draining are going on,' while new villages are spring- 
 ing up even on the edge of the highland districts ; 
 but although, according to a recent report of the 
 minister of war, 'the natives are more than ever 
 tm-niug their attention to agrioultOTal plu-siiits, they 
 are not making so much improvement as could be 
 wished in their system of cultivation. They fear 
 that as colonisation by Europeans advances, they 
 shall be dispossessed of the ground they now hold.' 
 The report states that ' the country is in a state of 
 tranquillity, roads in the course of oonstnictiou, 
 cultivation on the increase — ^in 1855, the ninnber of 
 hectares (2^ acres each) sown in the provinces .of 
 Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, was 1,765,071 ; in 
 1856, 2,082,524; shewing an increase of 347,453 
 hectares — public works in progress, crimes and 
 transgressions diminishing, and the Arab population 
 more inclined to obedience ; ' while from the heart 
 of the desert, tribes, it would seem, have come to 
 witness the 'power and the glory ' of France, and 
 have returned, promising to assist in the opening up 
 of new commercial relations with Central Africa. 
 Finally, it may be mentioned as an illustration of 
 how file stern antipathy of the Mohammedans to 
 the social freedom of the 'infidels' is gradually 
 disappearing under the amenities of civihsation, that 
 the Comtesse de Eandon (wife of the governor- 
 general) has on various occasions induced some of the 
 principal Moors to bring their ladies to witness her 
 evening asaembhes — a perilous thing for the whole 
 ' domestic theory ' of the Mohammedan ; while in 
 Algiers, Constantine, Bona, Bhdah, Mostaganem, 
 &c., a number of Mohammedan schools for instruc- 
 tion in French and Arabic have been established, and 
 are regularly attended by about 1200 pupils of both 
 sexes, who learn to read and write fluently in the 
 French language, and to keep accounts. In Algiers 
 itself there are foiu' of these schools where the 
 •female children are taught the art of sewing ; and 
 European workmen who vrill take Arab boys as 
 apprentices are paid for so doing by government. 
 Thus, although progress is slower than might have 
 been anticipated, ' it is real, and its pace accelerat- 
 ing.' When fierce memories have been softened by 
 time, and such atrocities as those of Dahra (q. v.) 
 have been forgotten in the substantial blessings which 
 an enhghtened civilisation cannot fad to bestow, the 
 presence of the French in A. wiU cease to be deplored 
 by the natives. 
 
 ALGHE'RO, or ALGHEEI, a seaport on the 
 west coast of the island of Sardinia, 15 miles S.W. 
 from Sassari. It is well defended towards the sea, 
 being built on a rocky point, and surroimded by thick 
 walls, but is commanded by some hills which over- 
 hang the tovra.. A. has a cathedral, several convents, 
 a college, and public schools. It exports wine, 
 tobacco, anchovies, skins, coral, bones, &c. It was 
 a favourite residence of Charles V., in whose time it 
 belonged to Spain. Pop., 8000. 
 
 AliGIE'RS (Arabic, Al-jezira, the island), the 
 capital of Algeria, was built about 935 .A. D. by an 
 Arab chief. It rises from the sea-shore up the 
 sides of a precipitous hill in the form of an equi- 
 lateral triangle. The apex is formed by the Casbah, 
 the ancient fortress of the deys, which is 500 feet 
 above the sea-level, and commands the whole town. 
 The base is a nule in length. The present city may 
 be regarded as divided into two parts : the old, or 
 high town; and the new, or low town. With the 
 exception of some mosques, the latter consists of 
 wharfs, warehouses, government houses, squares, and 
 Streets, principally bralt and inhabited by me French ; 
 
 while the former is almost wholly Moorish both in 
 its edifices and inhabitants. The great centre of 
 bustle and activity in A is the Place Eoyale — a 
 large oblong space in the centre of the town, planted 
 wifii orange and lime trees, and surrounded by houses 
 in the European style. Here may he foimd as 
 motley a crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of 
 all nations — Arabs, Moors, Jews, French, Spaniards, 
 Maltese, Germans, ItaUans, &o. The city is inter- 
 sected by two large parallel streets, Bab-el-Ouad and 
 Bab-azoun, running north and south for more than 
 half a nule. They are flanked by colonnades, but 
 are very narrow, and therefore inconvenient for 
 trafiic ; as promenades, however, nothing coidd 
 be more agreeable. In 183.3, A. had upwards of 
 100 mosques and marabouts. The mosques are 
 divided into two classes — the djamas, or principal 
 mosques, and the mesjids, or inferior mosques. The 
 marabouts are the tombs and sanctuaries of saints. 
 Everywhere A. wears the aspect of a rising colonial 
 city. Other towns in the province stiU retain their 
 oriental character, with the exception of a few 
 military buildings; but the new town of A. might 
 deceive the traveller into the belief that he is still 
 in Europe, were it not for the throng of swarthy 
 faces he meets. The streets are regular, spacious, 
 and elegant; some of them as handsome as the 
 Parisian^oulevards, and adorned with arcades. The 
 shops, too, are occasionally very good. The houses 
 are in some instances five stories mgh, which, though 
 it gives a massive and imposing appearance to the 
 city, is yet a very perilous innovation in a place 
 which has suffered dreadfully from earthquakes. 
 
 But perhaps greater interest attaches to the old 
 Moorish town, which is connected with the new by 
 a steep, narrow, jagged-looking street called the 
 Casbah, leading down from the fortress of the deys. 
 The houses are square, substantial, flat-roofed ; rise 
 irregularly one over the other; and have no win- 
 dovra, but only peep-holes, which are intended to 
 exclude impertinent eyes, and are therefore fortified 
 with iron gratings instead of glass, so that the houses 
 have a very prison-Uke appearance. Although the 
 streets at first contrast unfavourably with those of 
 Europe, on account of their narrowness, the coolness 
 which this secures soon reconciles the traveller to 
 other inconveniences. The inhabitants have recourse 
 to their flat roofs or terraces in the evening, to enjoy 
 the dehcious sea-breeze. The French have introduced 
 many useful reforms. There are conduits in every 
 part of the city, public baths, coffee-houses, hotels, 
 omnibuses, &c. The markets are held in the Squares 
 de Chartres, Mahon, and d'Isly. Horse-racing is 
 the great amusement. The Arabs are passionately 
 fond of it. The French have also improved, at great 
 expense and labour, the port, which was in a pre- 
 carious condition. The town has supreme courts 
 of justice, a chamber and tribunal of conuneree, 
 a college and schools, a Catholic cathedral and 
 several churches, a French Protestant church, a 
 synagogue, a bazaar for the exhibition of native 
 industry, theatres, and a bank. 
 
 A, which had been wretchedly misgoverned by a 
 long succession of Turkish deys, fell into the hands 
 of the French in 1830 (see Algeria), who swept 
 away every trace of the ferocious despotism that had 
 prevailed. The Turks withdrew in great numbers 
 to Tunis and Alexandria ; a small remnant, however, 
 is StiU left. Pop. in 1857, 52,455, of which 33,733 
 were Europeans. 
 
 ALGO'A BAY, an extensive inlet at the east ex- 
 tremity Of the south coast of Africa, being intersected 
 by the parallel of Cape Town, from which it is dis- 
 tant about 8 degrees of longitude. Its anchorage is 
 sheltered, excepting on the south-east, the holding- 
 ground being excellent. It receives two rivers, the 
 
ALGOKQUDTS— ALI PASHA. 
 
 Sunday and the Baasher._ At the mouth of the 
 latter is Port Ehzaheth. A. B. is the harboiir of the 
 eastern province, by far the most flourishing section 
 of the colony ; and it will ever be locally memorable 
 as the landing->plabe of about 4000 souls iu 1820, the 
 first British emigration to this once Dutch possession. 
 Siuoe then, the trade of the bay has steadily and 
 rapidly increased. See ifurther, CiPE op GfooD 
 Hope. 
 
 ALGO'KQUINS. The A. formed the most pro- 
 minent of the three aboriginal races that the French 
 found in the great basin of thfe St Lawrence. They 
 were then the lords not merely of the best part of 
 Canada, but of much adjacent territory to the north 
 and west. At the present day, the A., as well as 
 the Hurons and the Iroquois, exist, at least within 
 the pale of settlement, only as the shadow of a 
 mighty name, ' being chiefly confined to several 
 miserable villages, with hardly anything of civiHsa- 
 tiou but its individual helplessness. This deJ)lorable 
 result, from whatever causes it may have arisen, is 
 certaijily ' not to be imputed either to oppression or 
 to'indifferehce on the part of the Prenoh, who, polit- 
 ically, rehgioUsly, and socially, have alwaiys treated 
 the red man with consideration and humanity. On 
 this interesting subject, see further under the general 
 head of Amekioa. i 1 1 
 
 A'LGtrACIL, or ALGTTAZIL (derived from the 
 Arabic Wasil, ie., the' 'power' derived from' the 
 king), is the general name in Spain of the officers 
 intrusted with the execution of justice. There are 
 ' AlguaeOeS mayores,' who either inherit the office 
 of executing justice iu a town as a hereditary right 
 belonging to their families, or are chosen to the 
 office by the mxmicipality ; fonnerly, the name was 
 also given to the officers that executed the sentences 
 or orders of tribunals, such as the tribunal of the 
 Inquisition, and of the various orders of knights. 
 .But usually, under the name of A, is understood 
 the ' Alguaoiles menores,' or , ' ordinaries,' that is to 
 say, the attendants or officers of the courts of justice, 
 gens d'armes, bailiffs — in short, aE the .inferior 
 olBcers of justice and police. 
 
 ALHA'GI. See Manna. 
 
 AIiHA'MBRA is the name given to the fortress 
 which forms a sort of acropolis or citadel to the city 
 
 Entrance to the Court of the Lions — Alhambra. 
 
 of Granada, and in which stood the palace of the 
 ancient Moorish kings of Granada. The name is a 
 corruption of the Arabic KaVai al hamra, 'the 
 144 
 
 red castle.' It is surrounded by a strong wall, more 
 than a mile in circuit, and studded with towers. 
 The towers on the north wall, which is defended by 
 nature, were used as residences connected with the 
 palace. One of them contains the famous Hall of 
 the Ambassadors. The remains of the Moorish 
 palace are called by the Spaniards the Casa Real. 
 It was begun by Ibnu-1-ahmar, and continued by his 
 successors (1248—1348). The portions still stand- 
 ing are ranged round two oblong courts, one called 
 the Court of tlie Fish-pond, the other the Ocwrt of 
 the Lions. They consist of porticos, pillared halls, 
 cool chambers, small gardens, fountains, mosaic 
 pavements, &o. The lightness and elegance of the 
 colimms and arches, and the richness of the orna- 
 mentation, are unsurpassed. The colouring is but 
 Httle altered by time. The most characteristic parts 
 of the Casa Real have been reproduced in the 
 ' Alhambra Court ' of the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
 ham. A great part of the ancient palace was 
 removed to make way for the palace begun by Charles 
 v., but never finished. It is long since any part of 
 the Moorish palace was inhabited ; but it is kept iu 
 a state of preservation as a work of art, and aa a 
 memorial of the tragic legend of the Abencerrages 
 (q.v.). 
 
 ALI PASHA, one Of the most ferocious aild 
 unscrupulous mSn that even the east has produced, 
 was descended from an Albanian pasha, who perished 
 at the siege of Corfu in 1716. He was born at 
 Tepelen, a small place at the foot of the Khssoura 
 Mountains, in Albania, in 1741. His mother was a 
 vindictive and merciless woman, who never hesitated 
 to employ the most revolting means of accomplishing 
 her purposes. Having lost his father, a comparatively 
 quiet and enlightened man, his education necessarily 
 devolved upon her ; ^nd she did iot fad to inspire 
 him with the same remorseless sentiinents that 
 animated herself. His youth was passed in extreme 
 peril and hardship, for the neighbouring pashas com- .• 
 bining, had robbed his father of nearly all his pos- 
 sessions, in the effort to recover which, young Ali was 
 repeatedly defeated, and at last had to betake him- 
 self to the mountains, and even to pledge his sword 
 to save himself from dying of hunger. These 
 cala,mities were not calculated to soften the native 
 ferocity of his disposition ; they only nurtured a 
 mingled boldness and cunning, which afterwards 
 developed itself in a variety of quaHties, such as 
 subtlety, dissimulation, foresight, ta-eachery, vigour, 
 and diabolical cruelty. It is said that the change in 
 his fortune arose from his having accidentally dis- 
 covered a chest of gold, with which he raised an 
 army of 2000 men, gained his first victory, and 
 entered Tepelen in triumph. On the very day of his 
 return, he murdered his brother, and then imprisoned 
 his mother in the harem on the charge of poisoning 
 him, where she soon a,fter died. He next reconcilea 
 himself to the Porte by helping to subdue the rebel- 
 lious Vizier of Scutari ; and thus acquired not only 
 the lauds that had been wrested from his father, but 
 likewise several Greek cities. He also attacked and 
 slew (with the permission of the sultan) Sehm, Pasha 
 of Delvino, and, as a reward, was appointed heu- 
 tenant to the new Pasha of Derwend ; but instead of 
 attending to the security of the high roads (which 
 was his office), he rendered them more insecure than 
 ever, by participating in the plunder which the 
 Uephtis (robbers) were allowed to make. The result 
 was, his deposition by the Porte; but he speedily 
 purchased back its favour, for he was a master-hand 
 at bribery. Shortly after this, he acquired a high 
 reputation as a soldier, and did such good service to 
 the Turks in their Austro-Bussian war of 1787, that 
 he was named Pasha of Trikala in Thessaly ; at the 
 same time he seized Janiaa or Joannina, of which he 
 
ALIBAUD— ALEELN. 
 
 got himself appointed paslia by the instruBiejitaUty 
 of terror, a forged finnan, and bribeiy. It must be 
 admitted tbat, as a ruler, he now diaplayed many 
 excellent quaUtiea. He swept Ma old friends,, the 
 robbers, from the momitain-roads, incorporated them 
 into militajy troops, quelled ,the wretched factions 
 that prevailed, and everywhere, introduced order in 
 the place of anarchy, by the vigour and vigilance of 
 hia administration. 
 
 A short time after this, he entered into an alliance 
 with Napoleon Bonaparte, who sent him engineers. 
 "When Bonaparte was defeated in Egypt, Ali, in 1798, 
 took the places in Albania possessed by the French. 
 After a three years' war, he, subdued the Suliotes, 
 for which tJie Porte promoted him to be governor of 
 Komania. About this time, he revenged upon the 
 inhabitants of Gardibi ajl injury done to his mother 
 forty years before, by the murder of 739 male 
 descendants of the original offenders, ■ who them-, 
 selves were aU dead. 
 
 In the interior of his dominions, Ali maintained 
 the strictest order and justice. Security; and peace 
 reigned, high roads were constructed, and industry 
 flourished, so that the, European, travellers,, with 
 whom he willingly held intercourse, considered him 
 an active and intelligent governor. !From the year 
 1807, when he once more entered, into an aUianoe 
 with Napoleon, the dependence of , AU on, the Porte 
 was merely nominal. Having failed, however, in his 
 principal object,,which was to obtain,, at the peace of 
 Xilsit, through the influence of Napoleon, Parga, on 
 the coast of Albania, and the Ionian Islands, he, now 
 entered into an alliance with the English, to whom 
 he made, many conoessipps. In, return for these, 
 they granted Parga, nominally to the sultan, but 
 really to AlL As, he. now considered his power to be 
 securely established, he caused the commanders of the 
 Greek Armatoles (or Greek militia), who had hitherto 
 given him, assistance, to,, be privately, assassinated 
 one by one, while at the same time he put to death 
 the assassins, to save himself from the suspicion of 
 having been their instigator. The Porte at length 
 determined to put an end to the power of this darmg 
 rebel ; and in 1820, Sultan Mahmoud sentenced him 
 to be deposed. Ali resisted for a time several pashas 
 that were sent against him ; but at last surrendered, 
 on the security, (2 an oath, that his Hfe and property 
 would be granted him. Kegardless of this, he was 
 put to death, February 5, 1822. AU possessed, 
 indisputably, great natural gifts; but along with 
 them, a character of the worst description. He 
 never scrupled to use any means, provided it speedily 
 secured his end. Yet we can hardly help admiring 
 the singular talent which he invariably displayed. 
 Like many other half-civiUsed monarohs and chiefs 
 who have -lived within the sphere of European influ- 
 ence, he was keenly ahve to whatever transpired 
 among the powers of Christendom. Though utterly 
 illiterate himself, he had aU the foreign journals 
 translated and read to him. fie watched every 
 political change, as if conscious that the interests of 
 his little region depended for their futiu'e prosperity 
 on the west, and not on the east; and made friendly 
 advances to both the French and the English, 
 recognising, with a sagacity remarkable in a bar- 
 barian, that the practical dominion of the world had 
 passed from the Crescent to the Cross. 
 
 ALIBAUD, Louis, notorious for hia attempt 
 to murder King Louis-PMlippe, was, at the Eevo- 
 lution of July, quarter-master in the 15th regiment 
 of the line. Having been degraded subsequently for 
 an accidental brawl in the streets of Strasbourg, he 
 demanded his discharge in 1834, and went to live at 
 Perpignan, and then at Barcelona, where, having 
 become a fanatical republican, he returned to Paris, 
 with the determination to murder the king. A 
 
 10 
 
 weariness of life had also seized him, so great, 
 that he thought of suicide. It was on the 25th 
 of June 1836, at the moment that the king, when 
 driving through the gate of the TuSeries, bowed to 
 the national guard as they presented arms, that 
 A. fired the well-aimed ball, which passed close 
 by the king's head. Being immediately seized, he 
 regretted nothing but the failure of his attempt. 
 After a short ,trial,, he was sentenced to death, and 
 was guillotined on the 1 1th of July. 
 
 ALI-BEN-ABI-TALBB, the first convert to 
 Mohammedanism, and fourli caljf, was the bravest 
 and moat faithful follower of the Prophet, whose 
 daughter, Fatima, he married. Being made caUf in 
 the place of the murdered Othman, ne was victori- 
 ous over the rebels in ninety lengagements. He took 
 prisoner Aysha, the young widow of Mohammed, 
 and his greatest , enemy, in the battle of the Camel 
 — so called ■ because AySha.; appeared in the field 
 riding on a camel. Ali was murdered by a fanatic 
 in the year 660< He was buried near Kuf a, where 
 a monument was afterwards erected to him, 
 to which his votaries still go on pilgriinage, and 
 which caused' the building of the city Medjed Ali. 
 The. rehgious sect formed by the followers of AJi, 
 called Shiites (q.v.),has spread extensivelyunder that 
 name in Persia and Tatary. The descendants c«f Ah 
 and Fatiina,,called the Fatimites (q- v. ) , although much 
 peraeputed %■ the -Ommaiadea, have nevertheless 
 ruled on the banks of the Nile and of the Tagus, in 
 West Africa and in Syria.. . The best edition ,of . the 
 Proverbs or Maxims ascribed to Ali has been , pub' 
 lished by Fleischer (All's Hundred Proverbs, Arabian 
 arid Persian, Leip. 1837) ; Ah's JOivan,' the most 
 complete coReotion of his lyrical poems, mostly on 
 r^gious subjects, appeared lately at Bulek, near 
 Cairo. 
 
 A'LIBI, Lat., signifying ' elsewhere.' This ia a 
 defence resorted to in criminal proaecutiona, when the 
 party aocuaed, in order to prove that he could not 
 have committed the crime with which he ia charged, 
 tendera evidence to the effect that he was in a dif- 
 ferent place at the time the offence was committed. 
 When true, there can be no better proof of innocence; 
 but as offering the readiest and most obvious oppor- 
 tunity for false evidence, it is always regarded with 
 suspicion. In the case of crimes the place of commit- 
 ting which is immaterial — aS, for example, the act of 
 fabricating the plates, or of throwing off the spurious 
 notes, in a case of forgery — a prora of A. is of no 
 avail. ' 
 
 ALICA'NTE, chief town of a province of the 
 same naine in Spain. The province, formed of parts 
 of the old Idngdoma of Valencia and Mureia, contains 
 about 393,000 inhabitants. The town, one of the 
 most considerable seaports of Spain, has 19,000 inha- 
 bitants, and is the staple place for the products of 
 Valencia, especially soda, cotton and linen fabrics, 
 ropes, corn, oil, silk, and the wine of the neighbour- 
 ing district, known as A. or vino Unto, on account of 
 its dark colour. A good deal of this rough, and at 
 the same time sweet, wine is used to doctor thin 
 clarets for the British market. In 1331 the town 
 was besieged by the Moors ; and again by the 
 French under Asfeld in 1709, when the English 
 commandant of the citadel. Colonel Eichards, with 
 all his staff, perished by the explosion of a mine. 
 
 A'LIBKT , (Lat.. aMenus, belonging to another, 
 foreign). The citizen of another state, when resident 
 in England, unless naturalised (see Natukalisation), 
 ia an A. The condition of an A. is not necessarily 
 the result of foreim birth, for the son of a natural- 
 born or naturalisedFInglishman is not an A, wherever 
 he maybe bom (4 Geo. IL c. 21, s. 1). This privilege 
 even extends to the second generation on the father's 
 
 145 
 
ALIGNMENT— AlIMENTAEY CANAL. 
 
 side; and thus a man 'whoSe paternal grandfather 
 was an Englishman, is an Englishman himself, unless 
 either his father or grandfather be liable to the 
 penalties of felony, have been attainted of treason, 
 or be serving in the army of a prince at war with 
 England at the period of his birth (13 Geo. IIL c. 21, 
 S. 1). By the same enactment, it is declared that 
 this privilege shall not be affected by the fact that 
 the mothers of such persons were foreigners. The 
 children of aUeus born in England, except in the 
 case of an invasion by the Queen's enemies, are 
 natural-born subjects ; but the children of English 
 women by aliens are aliens, unless born within the 
 Biitish dominions. By 7 and 8 Vict. i;. 66, s. 16, 
 A. women married to natural-bom subjects are 
 naturalised. The allegiance due by an A. or stranger 
 to the prince in whose dominions he resides, is 
 usually called local or temporary allegiance. It 
 differs from natural allegiance chiefly in this, that 
 whereas natural aUegianoe is perpetual, andimaffected 
 by change of residence, local allegiance ceases the 
 iastant the stranger transfers himself to another 
 kingdom. See AiLBGiA^^OB. In 1792 and 1793, in 
 consequence of the influx of foreigners caused by the 
 Erench Eevolution, several acts of parliament were 
 passed, which are known by the name of the A. Acts. 
 The object of these acts was expressly to confer on 
 the crown the power of banishing aliens from the 
 realm ; a power which there is reason to think was 
 included in the general prerogative which the crown 
 possesses of declaring war against the whole or any 
 portion of the inhabitants of a foreign state. These 
 enactments have been superseded by the Peace A. 
 Act (6 Will. IV. ell, 1836). By this statute, a decla- 
 ration is required of the masters of ships arriving 
 from foreign ports, of the names and number of 
 foreigners on board (mariners navigating the ship 
 excepted), and ahens are. bound, under a penalty, to 
 produce their passports to the chief-ofiicer of Customs, 
 for which they receive a certificate, which they 
 must dehver up on their departure from the realm. 
 This act does not affect foreign ministers or their 
 servants, or aliens under fourteen years of age ; and 
 as it contains no provision for recovering the penalties 
 which it imposes, it is generally disregarded by 
 foreigners. The rights of aliens to hold property in 
 England are now regulated by 7 and 8 Vict. c. 66, 
 s. 4. Every A. being the subject of a friendly state is 
 thereby authorised ' to take and hold every species 
 of personal property, except chattels real (heritage), 
 as fully and effectually as if he were a natural-bom 
 subject. And every A. residing in this kingdom 
 aiay (by any mode of acquisition) take and hold any 
 lands, houses, or other tenements for the purpose of 
 residence, or of occupation by himself or his servants, 
 for the purpose of any business, trade, or manufac- 
 ture, for any term of years not exceeding twenty-one, 
 as fully and effectually — except the right to vote at 
 elections for members of parliament — as if he were a 
 natural-born subject. 
 
 Tfll recently, the only mode of naturaUsation 
 (q. V.) was by act of parliament ; but it may now 
 be effected either by letters-patent of denization 
 from the crown, or by a certificate of a secretary 
 of state under the statute last mentioned. Letters 
 of denization confer only an imperfect sort of 
 naturg,hsation, for though a denizen may purchase 
 and transmit lands, he' cannot succeed to them. 
 The powers cdnferred by certificate are more ample, 
 including all the rights and capacities of a natural- 
 bom subject, except those of ' being a member of 
 parUament or of the privy-council (exceptions which 
 even an act of naturalisation dbes not remove), 
 or such as may be specially excepted in the certifi- 
 ■eate. Aliens desirous of obtaining a certificate of 
 naturalisation must present a memorial to one of the 
 146 
 
 secretaries of state, who, after consideration, may 
 issue the certificate, which must be enrolled for pre- 
 servation iu Chanoerjr. The A. must take the oath 
 of aUegianoe within sixty days, and obtain a further 
 certificate to that effect. Certain privileges as 'to 
 naturahsation are conferred on foreign Protestants 
 and Jews. Every foreign seaman who serves two 
 years on board a British ship in time of war is ipso 
 facto naturalised by 13 Geo. II. c. ^3. A man -vcho 
 has been naturalised in one state without losing his 
 citizenship in that to which he foriueriy belonged, 
 ia the event of a war, if he take an active part 
 on either side, vriU be guilty of treason to the 
 other. The right of merchants to reside in England 
 for commercial purposes, and, as a necessary conse- 
 quence, to possess goods, money, and other personal 
 effects, is recognised by Magna Charta (Art. 48). See 
 CoNSPiRiOY Bill. 
 
 ALI'GNMENT, a term used in military tactics, 
 equivalent to ' in hue.' Thus, the A. of a battalion 
 is effected when the men are drawn up in line ; 
 the A. of a camp is a rectilinear arrangement of the 
 tents, according to some prearranged plan. 
 
 A'LIMBNT (Lat. oMmentum), that which feeds or 
 nourishes. A. is not known as a technical term in 
 the law of England. In the law of France and in 
 that of Scotland, it has retained the meaning which 
 it possessed in the Roman law {Dig. 34, 1, 6), and 
 signifies the food, dwelling, clothing, and other 
 tlungs necessary to the support of life, or such 
 money as may be judicially demanded in heu of 
 them. In this sense, it is applied in Scotland to the 
 allowance granted to a wife deserted by her hus- 
 band, or wMst an action of divorce is in dependence, 
 whether it be at his instance or at hers, to a pauper 
 by his parish, to a prisoner for debt by his creditors, 
 and the hke. Alimentary allowances, being 
 generally barely sufficient for the support of the 
 recipient, and made to him in consequence of hia 
 being in want of such support, are not attachable by 
 Arrestment (q. v.). 
 
 ALIME'NTAKY OAK A'L, in Mammalia, is that 
 portion of the digestive apparatus through which the 
 food passes after mastication. It is hned by a 
 mucous membrane, which extends from the lips to 
 the anus, being modified in each region. See 
 Mucous MEMEEAira. The A. C. really begins at the 
 back of the mouth, in the lower part of the bag 
 called the pharynx, which communicates with the 
 nostrils above, and the gullet or oesophagus below, 
 and also with the mouth and the larynx. The 
 pharynx is surrounded by three muscles, the con- 
 strictors, which grasp the food, and force it into the 
 next portion of the A. C, the oesophagus. This is a 
 tube composed of an outer layer of longitudinal 
 muscular fibres, and an inner of circular, which 
 extend down to, and spread out upon the stomach. 
 These fibres, by a series of peristaltic contractions, 
 carry the morsel of food along into the stomach. 
 In vomiting, there is a reversal of these actions, 
 which ruminating animals can accomplish at wQl. 
 The oesophagus passes through an opening in the 
 diaphragm, and joins the stomach, which is a pouch 
 curved mth the concavity upwards, expanded into 
 a cmI de sac on the left side (the cardiac extremity), 
 and gradually narrowed to the right or pyloric end. 
 It consists of muscular fibres continuous with those 
 of the oesophagus, which become thicker towards the 
 pylorus. Its external surfaces are covered by peri- 
 toneum, and it is lined by a thick soft mucous 
 membrane, which, when' the stomach is empty, lies 
 in folds. Between the muscular and mucous layers 
 is a fibrous layer, in which the blood-vessels ' lie 
 before they pass into the mucous layer. See 
 Stomach. At its pyloric or left extremity the 
 
ALIMONY— ALISON. 
 
 Btomaoh conumuiicatea ■with the small .iateatine, 
 ■which is about 20 feet in length, becoming graduaUy 
 narro-wer to"warda ita lo^wer endi and arranged in 
 mmieroua convolutiona, ■which occupy the middle of 
 the abdominal oa^vity, and are kept in position by 
 the peritoneum, ■which attaches tham to the back of 
 the abdomen. , , , 
 
 The small intestine is subdi^vided into three parts. 
 The first 10 inches from the atomach is the duodenum, 
 iato ■wliich open the duct of the pancreas and the 
 common bile duct ; of the remainderi the jejunum 
 includes about t^wo-fifths, and the ileum, three-fifths. 
 The differences , bet-ween these last -two . are not 
 ■visible extesmaJly, buti consist in modifications > of 
 their internal structure. The tube consists of 
 peritoneum, lougitudiual and circular muscular fibres, 
 a fibrous layer, and the mucous membrane. See 
 Intestines, Small. 
 
 The ileum ends at the right Uiao region in the 
 large intestine, ■which is from 5 to 6 feet in length. 
 It begins at the pouch called the blind gut (caput 
 caecum coU) or ciil de sac (see C^otrM) ■which has a 
 small worm-like appendage (appendix vermifoi'mis) ; 
 a double valve guards the opening of the small into 
 the laj-ge intestme. The colon passes up^wards on 
 the right side to below the Hver (ascending colon), 
 then crosses from the right hypochondriimi across the 
 upper umbilical region to the left hypoohondrium 
 (transverse colon), then descends to the left ihac fossa 
 (descending colon), when it bends twice like an S 
 (sigmoid flexure), and then joins the rectum at the 
 left margin of the true pel-via. The colon is distin- 
 guished by its pouched or sacculated appearance, the 
 sacs being separated by three flat bands of longitu'. 
 dinal muscular fibres. The peritoneum only covers 
 it in parts. See Colon. The Eectiuu is not saccu- 
 lated, but its muscular coat becomes much thicker ; 
 at its lower end the longitudinal fibres atop, but 
 the muscular become more numerous, forming the 
 internal sphincter muscle. The rectum is not 
 straight, but takes a curved course. 
 
 The A. G. thus consists of a continuous paasage 
 lined by mucous membrane, which rests on a fibrous 
 and muscular basement. Its length is generally 
 about five or six tim^s the length of the body, 
 or, in other words, about thirty feet. It begins 
 below the base of the skuU, and passes through the 
 thorax, abdomen, and pelvis, and consists shortly of 
 the mouth, pharynx, ifEsophagus, stomach, small 
 intestine, and large intestine. The above is the 
 description of the A. C. in human anatomy; its 
 parts are variously ; modified in different animals, 
 as -will be found in the articles on its several 
 subdivisions. 
 
 A'LIMONY signifies, in English law, the allow- 
 ance which a. married woman is entitled to receive 
 out of her husband's estate, on separation or divorce 
 a mensd et tharo. It is generally proportioned 
 to the rank and quality of the parties. Where 
 the wife elopes and lives -with an adidterer, the 
 law allows her no A. By Scotch legal -writers, 
 the term is sometimes used- as synonymous ■with 
 Aliment (q.v,). 
 
 ALIQUOT PART. One quantity or number is 
 said to be an A. P. of another, when it is contained 
 in this other ^n exact number of times -without 
 remainder. Thus 2, 2i, 4, and 5 are A. parts of 20, 
 being contained in it 10, 8, 5, and 4 times. The 
 consideration of A. parts occurs chiefly in tlie rule of 
 JPractice. Suppose we have to find the pifoe of a 
 number of articles at G^d. : since ^d. is the gth part 
 of Gd., to the price at 6d. (which is found a,t once in 
 shillings, by taking half the number of articles), add 
 J of that pricp, 
 
 ALISMA'OEjSE, a naiturail order of monoootyle- 
 
 donous i)lauts, consisting of herbaceous pla,nta either 
 floating in water pr growing in swamps. The leaves 
 have parallel veins, even il expanded into a broad 
 blade. The flowers are in umbels, racemes, . or 
 panicles j the sepals 3, the, petals 3, the number of 
 stamens definite or indefinite. The ovaries are several, 
 superior, one-celled, distinct or united ; the styles 
 and atigmas equal to them in mmaber. The fruit 
 is dry, -with one or two seeds in each carpel ; 
 the seeds exalbimninous.— rThera ire about fifty 
 
 "Water Plantain [Alisma plcmfagg). 
 
 kno-wn species, excluding the natural order JtmcA- 
 GINK32, which is very nearly allied, and is included 
 in this by some botanists. The species of both 
 orders are chiefly natives of the northern parts of 
 the world. Water Plantain {Alisma plantago) 
 is a very common plant in stagnant waters in 
 Britain, and is not destitute of beauty. Its leaves, 
 which have long footstalks, ' shoot up above the 
 water and amongst them, but far above them rises 
 the erect scape or' leafless stem, di-riding into slender 
 whorled branches and brauchlets, ainong which the 
 little flowers appear to he thinly scattered. The 
 fleshy rhizome, or root-stock, is eaten by the Oal- 
 muoks, after it has been deprived of its acridity by 
 drying. The conns' of the Arro^whbad (jSag^'aana) 
 possess some-what similar properties. See Akbow- 
 
 HEAD. 
 
 AXISOIT, Rev. Archibald, was horn in Edin- 
 burgh in 1757. He atufUed at the university of 
 Glasgow, and afterwards at Oxford. He took 
 orders in the church of England in 1784, and sub- 
 sequently held several preferments, among others, 
 a prebendai stall in Salisbury, and the perpetual 
 curacy of Kenley, in Shropshire. Erom 1800, Mr 
 A. ceased to resifie in England, and ofliciated 
 in a chapel in his native city, -where he died in 
 1839. A. is principally kno^wn by his Essays on (he 
 Naiure and Principles of Taste, first published in 
 1790. The second edition, in 1811, gave occasion 
 to an article by JefiErey, in the Edinburgh Seview, 
 which brought . the book more before the public. 
 It has since , gone through several editions, , and 
 been translated into German and French. The 
 Essays advocate what is called ■the 'association' 
 theory of ■the sublime and beautiful, and are distin- 
 guished for their pleasing and elegant style, and the 
 Spe feeling that pervades them. See ./Esthbtios. 
 
 ALISON, SiK Ajbchibald, Bart., bom at Kenley, 
 Shropshire, in 1792, is the younger son of the Eev. 
 Archibald A., author of the Essays on the NaZure 
 
 147 
 
ALISON— ALKALIMBTER. 
 
 amd Principles fif Taste. His mother was Dorothea 
 Gregory, I .daughter of Dr John Gregory of (Edinr 
 burgh. In 1800, his father removed to, the Scottish 
 metropolis, - where he .>ad , accepted the senior 
 charge' in the Episcopal chapel in the Cowgate, and 
 thus A. had the advantage of studying in a city 
 then,' as now, distinguished for its .pohtenesa and 
 leairning. At , Edinburgh University he , obtained 
 thfej highest ' honours in Greek • and mathematics. 
 After he had finished his curriculum, he became a 
 mem"ber of the Scottish bar , in 1814, but spent a 
 considerable number of years on the Continent, 
 before devoting himself to legail avocations. In 
 1822, he was named; advocate-depute, which office 
 he held till 1830. - He, now began to appear as a 
 ■writer on law, poHtios, and literature. . His Prin- 
 ciples of ilie OriminaZ Law of Scotland, pubhshed at 
 Edinburgh in 1832, is considered a standard authority 
 on the subject. In the foHowing year he pubhshed 
 a sequel to the work, entitled The Practice of the 
 OriminaZ Law. In 1834, he was appointed sheriff 
 of Lanarkshire, by Sir Kobert Peel; in 1845, the 
 students of Aberdeen elected him ' Lord Rector ' of 
 Marischal CoUege ; in 1851, he received, the same 
 honour from the students of Glasgow University, and 
 subsequently, the title of D. C. L. from the university 
 of Omord. His great work is undoubtedly T!ie 
 History of Europe during the French Revolutimi 
 (10 vols. 8vo, 1839 — 42), which narrates the events 
 that transpired from 1789 to 1815 ; a continuation, 
 mider the title of The History of Europe from the 
 Fall of Napoleon to the Accession of Louis Napoleon 
 (9 vols.), is just (1859) finished. He has also pub- 
 lished a Life of the Duke of Marlborough, The Prin- 
 ciples of Population^ &o., Free Trade and Protection, 
 England in 1815 and 1845, besides contributing for 
 many years to Blackwood's Magazine a series of 
 tedious articles on Tory poUtics. It is very difficult 
 to characterise Sir_ Archibald's magnum opus, Tlie 
 History of Europe. Although a work of immense 
 and varied industry, of very respectable accuracy, 
 ■written with great animation and tolerable candour, 
 it has failed, to impress critics with a high idea of 
 Sir Archibald A's abilities. The style is at times 
 excessively wordy, and even when animated, it is 
 never picturesque. Neither has he much insight 
 into events or characters. Nevertheless, as his work 
 siippHed a felt want of the community, and is, 
 sirfficiently entertauiing for a large class of readers, 
 it met 'with an unbounded popularity. It has gone 
 through numerous editions, and has been translated 
 into German, French, Arabic, and other languages. 
 
 ALISON, "William PtrLTEKEy, M.D., pohtical 
 economist, physician, and professor of the practice 
 of medicine, in the university of Edinburgh, from 
 which last office, however, he retired in 1855, is an 
 elder brother of the historian. He is extremely 
 popular with all classes lof , the community, from 
 the amiable and humane disposition which he has 
 invariably shewn in his efforts to alleviate the 
 sufferings of the poor. A pamphlet pubhshed by Dr 
 A. in 1840, to shew how the inadequate provision 
 for the poor in Scotland led to desolating epidemics, 
 was the principal means of bringing about an 
 improved poor-law for , that country. His other 
 writings are — Outlines of Physiology, and Outlines of 
 Pathology and Practice of. Medicine. In a work 
 published at, Edinburgh in 1850, entitled a Disser- 
 ■ tation.on the Beclamalion .of Waste Lands, he fully 
 examines the subject, and recommends the colonisa- 
 tion of these by paupers and criminals. 
 
 ALIWA'L, a -village near the southern bank of 
 
 the Sutlej, and not far from the to-wn of Loodianah, 
 
 in lat. 30° 57' N., long. 75° 36' E. It was the scene 
 
 of a fierce conflict between the British and Sikh 
 
 14S 
 
 forces on the, 28th, of. January 1846- : The, ,la*tex, 
 having crossed the rivBj'for the purpose of foraging, 
 or otherwise obtaining supplies, , iad threatened- 
 Loodianah,, when they were attacked by Sir Harry 
 Smith, defeated,, and driven back -with great slaugh- 
 ter. The -victory of A. is said by good judges , to 
 have been '.without a fault.' '^ ,' ' .. 
 
 A'LKAHEST, or' ALCAHEST, the imiver^al 
 solvent of the alchemists. See Alchemy. 
 
 A'LK ALIES. The word cdkali is oi Arabic origin, 
 kali being the name of the plant from the ashes of 
 which an alkaline substance was first procured. 
 The name now denotes a class of substances having 
 similar properties; The aUcalies proper are four in 
 number— potash, soda; hthia, and -ammonia. The 
 first three are oxides of metals y the last is a com- 
 pound of nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, and^i being 
 in the form of a gas, is ■ called the -volatile alkali. 
 Potash, being largely present, in the ashes of plants, is 
 called the vegetable alkali; and soda, predominating' 
 in the mineral kingdom, is designated the mineral' 
 alkali. The alkaline eartlis, as they are caUed,^- 
 lime,' magnesia, baryta, and strontia-r-are distin- 
 guished from the' former by their carbonates not 
 being soluble in water. The distinguishing property 
 of alkalies is that of turning vegetable ' blues green, 
 and vegetable yellows reddish bro-wn. Blues red- 
 dened by an acid are restored by an alkali. The 
 aJkahes have great affinity for acids, and combine 
 ■with them, forming, salts, in which the peouhar quali- 
 ties of both alkali and acid are generally destroyed,; 
 hence they are said ■to neutralise one another. In 
 a pure state, alkalies are extremely oatistio, and act 
 as corrosive poisons. Combined ■with carbonic acid, 
 especially as bi-carbonates, they are used to correct 
 acidity in the stomach; but the injudicious and 
 continued use of them is aiitended ■with great evil. 
 
 ALKALI'METER. Commercial potash and soda 
 always contain greater or less quantities of foreign 
 substances, such as sulphate of potash, common salt, 
 silicates, oxide of iron, ■water, &c., which diminish the 
 percentage of real alkali in a given weight. It is 
 important, then, foi: the manufacturer to have some 
 simple and ready means of determining the propor- 
 tion of pure carbonate of potash or soda contained in 
 any sample, that he may be able to judge of its 
 value.' Ordinary chemidal analysis takes too much 
 time. The A. serves this purpose. It consists of a 
 graduated glass tube, filled -with diluted sidphurio 
 acid, and containing as much absolute sulphuric acid 
 as would neutralise a given weight, say 100 grains, of 
 carbonate of potash. 100 grains of the article to be 
 judged of is then dissolved in water, and as much 
 acid is gradually added to it from the tube as to 
 neutralise the solution, that is, take up all the 
 alkaU. The application of coloured tests determinea 
 when the neu-tralisatiou is complete. The purer the 
 article, the more of the acid -htU be required ; and 
 if the tube, which is divided into 100 degrees, has 
 been emptied to the 80°, the impure article contains 
 80 per cent, of pure carbonate of potash. 
 
 This method of determining the strength of alkalies 
 is called the aikalimetry process ; but the instrument 
 is not confined in its use to the estimation of the 
 strength of alkaline substances. It is like-wise 
 employed in the determination of the strength of 
 acids, such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric 
 acid, and acetic acid (-vinegar). For this end, -the 
 graduated instrument is charged -with a solution of 
 an alkali of known strength, such as a given weight 
 of crystalHsed carbonate of soda (washing soda), 
 dissolved in water, and according to the number of 
 divisions of the liquid poured from the A., the 
 strength of the acid into which the alkaline liquid has 
 been decanted, is calculated. The latter application 
 
ALKALOIDS— ALLAH. 
 
 of this instrument is called acidimHry. Again, 
 the same graduated elaaa tube has been recently 
 employed m many owier ways, such as the deter- 
 mination of the strength of a solution of silver, by 
 charging the instrument with a known or standard 
 solution of common salt; and for this purpose it is 
 used largely by the assayel^ to the Royal Mint, and 
 other metaUurgio chemists. Jhismod,^;.pf .analysis is 
 every day becqming of more ajid more importance, 
 and, in fact, has given rise to a new 4^partment of 
 analytical chemistry, which has been , designated 
 volumetric analysis. ' 
 
 A'LKALOIDS form an important class of sub- 
 stances discovered by modern chemistry. 3?hey are 
 divided into two classes ^ — namely, Bai?«'"o^ and 
 artifidaX^ The natural. A. are found in plants and 
 animals, and are often designated orgamic bases. 
 Those obtained from plants are likewise caiUed 
 vegeto-alkoMes. They are composed essentially of 
 carbon, hydrogenj and pitrogen; besides which, 
 the greate* ' number contain oxygen. The A. have 
 generally an energetic action on -flie animal system, 
 and hence are every day: employed in small doses 
 as medicine; whilst in oomparativdy dar^e; doses 
 they are powerful' poisons, i They have, although in a 
 low degree, the characteristic alkaline properties on 
 vegetable colours, &o.; have' generally a bitter, acrid 
 taste ; and form the active pnneiples of the plants in 
 whicli they are found. Such are morphia, codeine, 
 and narcotine, found in opium ; quinine and chinoo- 
 nine, in chincona bark; strychnine, in nux-vomica; 
 hyoscyanline, in henbane ; nicotine, in tobacco ; 
 piperiae, in- black pepper ; caffeine or theine, in 
 coffee and tea, &c; 
 
 The animal A. are few in number, the more 
 iinportant being urea, found in the urine of the 
 mammalia ; and kreatine and kreatiniue, two of 
 the constituents , of the juice of , flesh. The arti- 
 fidial A. are those organic leases which are not found 
 in any known plant or animal, but of which 
 the later researches of chemists have contriypd to 
 form a large number. As the artificial A. do not 
 differ essentially from the natural A. ia composition, 
 structure, or properties, it is confidently believed 
 that the day is not far distant when all of, the A.. 
 win be prepared aritifioially ; indeed, recently several 
 of the natural A. have been manufactured on the 
 small scale without the intervention of the Hving 
 plant or animal. For instance, urea can be formed 
 from the simplest form of dead organic nitrogenous 
 matter. 
 
 A'liKA'N'ET {Anckusa)', a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to thei natural ovier Boraginem, and having a 
 bipartite ! calyx, a fiinJiel-shaped or salver-shaped 
 coroUa, with five scales ' closing its mouth, five 
 stamens, an obtuse stigma, and ovate achsenia, which 
 ard ' surrounded at the base by a plaited tumid 
 ring. The species are herbaceous plants, rough 
 with stiff hairs, and having lanceolate or elongato- 
 ovate leaves, and spike-like, bracteated, lateral and 
 terminal racemes of flowers, which very much 
 resemble : those of the species of Myosotis',' or 
 Forget-me-not;^-The Common A. {A. ■ officinalis) 
 grows in dry and sandy places, and by waysides, 
 in the middle i and north of Europe. It is rare 
 and a very - doubtful native in Britain. The 
 flowers are of a deep purple colour. The roots, 
 leavesj and flowers were formerly used in medicine 
 as an emollient, cooling, - and soothing application. 
 ^The EvERQBEEN' A. (A. eempennrens) is also a 
 native of Europe, and a doubtful na,tive of Britain,' 
 although not uncommon in situations to which it 
 may have escaped from gardens, being often culti- 
 vated for ■ the saike of its beautiful olue flowers, 
 which appear early in the season, and for its leaves, 
 
 which retain a pleasing verdute all winter. It 
 is' a plant of humble growth, rising Only a, few 
 iiches above the ground. — A 
 number of other species are 
 occasionally seen in Our flower- 
 borders. — A.HnclOria, to which 
 the name A. or ALRAirNA'{Arab. 
 Al-dienneh) more strictly belongs, 
 is a native of the Levant and of 
 the' south of Europe, extending 
 as far, north as Hungary. The 
 root is' sold under the name of A. 
 or' Alkannaroot ; it is' somettm'es 
 cultivated in England; but the 
 greater part is imported'from the 
 Levant or the south of Prance. 
 It appears in commerce in pieces 
 of the thiekness of a qiull or of 
 the finger, the rind blackish exter- 
 nally, but internally of a beauti- 
 ful dark-red colour, and adhering 
 rather ' loosely ' to the whitish 
 heart; It contains' chiefly a resin- 
 ous red colouring-matter, called 
 Alkanna Bed, Andvimc Acid, or 
 Alichusinei The colour which it 
 yields is very beautiful, although 
 not very durable. It is readily Alkanet [Anchusa 
 soluble in oils, and is therefore officinalis).. 
 in very general use iamongSt perfumers for colouring 
 oils, soaps, pomades; hp-salves, &c. It is extensively 
 used for colouring spurious port- wine. It also enters 
 into compositions for rubbing and giving colour to 
 furniture. Its solutions in oils and alcohol have 
 almost a carmine red colour, although to water it 
 gives only a brownish hue. It combines with alka- 
 lies, forming blue solutions ; with chloride of tin, it 
 becomes of a carmine red; with acetate of lead, 
 blue; with sulphate of irbn^ dark violet; with 
 alum, purple ; and with acetate of alumina, violet. 
 -^ViEGiNiAif A. {A. Vvrginica) yields a similar 
 colouring-matter, and is used in iiie same way. 
 ' ALKA'NNA {Al-henna) is also a name given to 
 a colouring-matter prepared from the leaves of 
 Lawsonia inermis, and used by oriental ladies to 
 give a red colour to their naUs. See Hbnna. 
 
 ALKMAA'B, an old town in the province of North 
 Holland, in the Netherlands, situated on Hue. Helder 
 Canal, 20 miles N.N.W. of Amsterdam, in lat. 52° 
 38' N., long. 4° 43' E. Pop. 9800. It is well bmlt, has 
 very clean streets, and is intersected by broad canals. 
 It possesses a town-house, ornamented with curious 
 Gtothio carving; The inhabitants support themselves 
 by important manufactures > of sail-cloth, sea-salt, 
 &c., as well as by trade in grain, butter, and cheese. 
 A. is said 'to export more of the last-mentioned com- 
 modity than any other town in the world ; 9,000,000 
 lbs. annually is 'the quantity specified.'' It is the 
 birthplace of Henry of A. See EEiifEKE Euchs. 
 Here, on October 18, 1799, the Duke of York signed 
 a not Very honourable capitulation, after his Kusso- 
 British, anny had been twice defeated by the Erench 
 general BFunCi . ; 
 
 A'LLA BEEVE. In old music, the breve lloll, 
 as the longest note, was equivalent to our semi- 
 breve, o, the longest note commonly used in modem 
 music. Consequently, the minims anciently used' 
 were equivalent to our crotchets: Music Mrritten 
 with four TniniTna in a bar is signed AUa Breve, 
 which' implies that the four minims must be simg as 
 four crotchets. The difference between the two styles 
 of vniting is merely formal. Other signs for A. B. 
 time are— f , ,2 , or r> or Alia Capella. 
 
 A'LLAH (compounded of the article, al and 
 iWir—i. c, 'the worthy to be adored') is the 
 
 149 
 
ALLAHABAD. 
 
 Arabic name of tliB one God, to whose -worship 
 Mohammed pledged his followers ; and the word 
 has passed into all languages wherever the name 
 of Islam has been heard. The notions of the 
 character of this God given by Moharomed in the 
 Koran bear manifest traces of Jewish and Christian 
 iufluenoe, and are much superior to the national 
 superstitious and impassioned fancies of the orientals 
 in general. Above all other things, Mohammed 
 inculcated the unity of God in the strictest sense, 
 in opposition not only to idolatry, but also in some 
 points to the behef of the Jews and Christians, as is 
 seen in the following formula or creed : ' There is 
 no God but die God (AHah). This only true, great, 
 and highest God has his existence of hims3f, is 
 eternal) not hegottmi, and iegets not, suffices for 
 himself, fiils the universe with his infinity, is the 
 centre in whom all things unite, manifest and 
 concealed. Lord of the corporeal and spiritual 
 worlds, creator and ruler, almighty, all-wise, all- 
 good, merciful, and his decrees are irrevocable.' 
 Mohammed has ventured on very bold illustrations 
 of these attributes for popular representation, as in 
 the passage of the Koran where he says : ' If all 
 the trees on earth were pens, and if there were 
 seven oceans full of ink, they would not siiffioe to 
 describe the wonders of the Almighty.' Th,e 
 di6ferent attributes of God, divided under his ninety- 
 nine names, and connected together in a certain 
 order in a litany, form the rosary of the Moham- 
 medans, which concludes with the name A., as the 
 hundredth, including in itself aU the former, epithets. 
 
 A'LLAHABA'D, a British district in the North- 
 west Provinces of India, between lat. 24° 49', 25° 
 44' ; long. 81° 14', 82° 26'. It is 85 miles in length 
 by 50 in breadth — area, 2801 square miles. The 
 surface of the country is in general level, with a 
 slope towards the S.E. The principal rivers are 
 the Ganges (flowing partly within it, and partly 
 dividing it from Oude and Mirzapore), and its great 
 affluent the Jumna, which joins it at the city of 
 A. The district is well watered, and vegetation is 
 luxuriant. The native agriciJture at the end of the 
 last century was singularly rude and deficient, but the 
 efforts of British residents have done much for its 
 improvement. The principal products of the district 
 are cotton and salt ; and there is a brisk transit- 
 trade by the Jumna in cotton, indigo, and sugar. 
 The population, in 1848, was 710,263, chiefly agricul- 
 tural, of whom 95,740 were Mohammedans and 
 others not Hindus. The four principal towns are 
 Allahabad, Shahzadpore, Bhugeisur, and Adampore. 
 ■ — The Province or ' Division ' of A. comprehends the 
 districts of Cawnpore, Puttehpoor, Humeerpore, and 
 Calpee, Banda, and A. It is bounded N. by Oude 
 and Agra, E. by Behar, S. by Gundwana, and W. 
 by Malwah. Its length is about 270 miles ; breadth, 
 120 ; area, 11,839 square miles ; population, in 1849, 
 3,219,087. It comprises one of the most populous 
 and productive territories in India. 
 
 ALLAHABAD. This ' city of God '—for that is 
 the meaning of its variously pronounced name — 
 occupies the fork of the Ganges and Jumna, lat. 
 25° 26' K, long. 81° 85' R, thus forming the lowest 
 extremity of the extensive region which, as lying 
 between those natural boimdaries, is distinguished 
 as the Doai, or the country of Two Rivers — an 
 analogous term to the Punjab, or the country of 
 Five Rivers. The situation of A., at the confluence 
 of the holy streams of India, besides giving the city 
 its sacred appellation, has rendered it a much-fre- 
 quented place of pilgrimage for the purposes of 
 ablution, some of the devotees sinking themselves 
 with weights to rise no more. In poiat of appear- 
 ance, A. was scarcely worthy of its character and 
 190 
 
 renown. With the exception of a few ancient 
 monuments of costly, elaborate, and tasteful Work- 
 manship, the native part of the city consists of 
 mean houses and narrow streets. As in the towns 
 generally of India, the European 'quarter, on the 
 whole, is vastly superior. Its nucleus appears ' to 
 have been the native fort, which, on the east and 
 south, rises directly from the banks of both rivers, 
 while towards the land its artificial defences, of 
 great strength in themselves, are nbt commanded 
 from the neighbourhood by any higher ground. This 
 citadel, described by Heber as having been at one 
 time 'a very noble castle,' has lost much of its 
 romance by having had its lofty towers pruned down 
 to bastions and cavaliers. The Europeans' of the 
 garrison occupy well-oonstructed barracks. Beyond 
 the fort are the cantonments for the native troops. 
 In connection with these are numerous villas and 
 bungalows, few other spots in India boasting such 
 handsome buildings of ttiis kind ; and these shoviTr 
 retreats are rendered still more attractive and- 
 agreeable by avenues of trees, which wind between 
 them, and connect them with the fort, the citj', and 
 several of the circumjacent localities. 
 
 Such, at least, was A. before the summer of 1857. 
 On the 6th of June of that year, the insurrection, 
 which had begun at Meerut on 10th May, ex- 
 tended itself to A. Though the Europeans con- 
 tinued to hold the fort, yet the mutineers were, 
 for some days, undisputed masters of all beyond ; 
 and between the ravages of the marauders and 
 the fire of the garrison, the city soon became little 
 better than a heap of blackened ruins. In the 
 history of this fearful outbreak, A. must be ' a 
 magic word ' to every EngUsh ear, as the spot 
 where the fiery Nedl entered on his brief career 
 of glory. So advantageously situated as it is, both 
 for commerce and for war, A. must speedily 
 recover from its disasters. It commands the navi- 
 gation both of the Ganges and of the Jumna. It is 
 on the direct water-route between Calcutta and the 
 Upper Provinces ; and it is a main station not only 
 on the Grand Trunk Eoad, but also on the East 
 Indian Kailway. This matchless position seems to 
 be fully appreciated by the government ; the fol- 
 lowing outline of its views, however much it may 
 be modified by time or circumstances, conveying a 
 tolerably correct idea of the future of A. On the 
 land , side it has been proposed to construct a 
 line of intrenchment from river to river, which, 
 extending four miles in length, would consist of three 
 redoubts — two at the extremities, and one in the 
 middle — communicating with each other by an 
 embankment of earth. In the middle of the space 
 thus enclosed — with the military cantonment on one 
 side and the native town on the other — would be 
 erected the European city, tacked by the fort as a 
 last refuge for the European population. Accordingly, 
 on May 5, 1858, within less than a year from the 
 beginning of the insurrection, Mr Thornhill, officiat- 
 ing com mi ssioner, proposed to lease land in the 
 English quarter for bmldiiig purposes — ^the lots to be 
 three acres each, at £3 a year per acre, and the term 
 not to exceed fifty years. These conditions were 
 evidently framed with the view of converting A. into 
 a grand and safe emporium of trade ; and if, since 
 1801, when it permanently became British, the city 
 has augmented its population from 20,000 to 70,000 
 souls, it bids fair, through the united influence of 
 steam-navigation and railways, to rival in the east 
 the growth and prosperity of the commercial capitals 
 of the western hemisphere. Thus will A. become a 
 centre of civilisation thi-ongh the same peculiarity 
 which has so long elevated it into a temple of 
 superstition — the confluence of the Jumna and the 
 " streams which, if there be a holiness in 
 
ALLAMANDA— ALLANTOIS. 
 
 beuefioenoe, will then, have a higher claim to venera- 
 tion than before. A. ia distant from, Calcutta, by 
 land, 496 miles ; by water, 808 milea in the rainy 
 season ; by water, 985 miles in the dry season. 
 
 ALLAMA'NDA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order ApocynaoecB (q. v.), distiaguished by a 5- 
 parted calyx without glands, a funnel-shaped, ooroUa 
 with its lunb campanulate, and the fruit a prickly 
 capsule. A. cathaHica, a native of the '\Yest Indies, 
 is a shrub with whorled or opposite oblong leaves, 
 and large yellow flowers on many-flowered footstalks, 
 It has violently emetic and purgative properties; 
 but in small doses, an infusion of the leaves is 
 esteemed a valuable cathartic medicine, especially in 
 the cvu:e of painter's coHc. All the species are 
 natives of the tropical parts of America. 
 
 A'LLAN, Bbidge of, a beautiful viUage, con- 
 sisting chiefly of lodging-houses, lying withfn the 
 shelter of a spur of tiie Ochils, on the road from 
 Stifling to Perth, from the former of which towns 
 it is only three miles distant. It is situated on the 
 banks of the Allan, which, like the heights behind 
 the place, are richly wooded. It owes its prosperity 
 partly to its mineral (saline) wells, and pajtly to its 
 sheltered situation and imld climate, which render 
 it a favourite resort of invaUds, especially in spring 
 and autumn. There are two excellent hotels, and 
 abundance of good lodgings. 
 
 ALLAN", David,' a distinguished Scottish pauiter 
 of domestic subjects, in -roich he was the fore- 
 runner of WHkie, was born at Alloa ia 1744. 
 In 1755, he entered the academy for drawing, 
 painting, and engraving, established in Glasgow 
 by the celebrated printer Foulis, where he studied 
 for seven years. The liberaUty of friends enabled 
 him, in 1764, to go to Home, where he resided 
 for sixteen years. In 1773, he gained the gold 
 medal given by the Academy of St Luke for 
 the best historical composition. The subject was 
 lie 'Origfe of Painting,' the old legend of the 
 Corinthian maid who drew her lover's profile from 
 the shadow. This picture, the highest effort of 
 Allan's powers, was engraved by Gunego. Of his 
 other pictures executed at Rome, the best known 
 are four humorous pieces illustrating the Carnival, 
 which were engraved by Paul Sandby. In 1777, 
 A. came to London, where he painted portraits ; 
 after a year or two, he removed to Edinburgh ; 
 and, in 1786, succeeded Kuncimau at the head/ of 
 ike "ai-t academy established there by the Board of 
 Manufactures. His works subsequent to this date 
 were chiefly of a humorous description, and illus- 
 trative of Scottish domestic hfe. His illustrations 
 of Allan Eamsay's Gentle Shepherd became very 
 popular, but are of no great merit. A. died 
 at Edinburgh in 1796. 'His merits,' says Allan 
 Cunningham, ' are of a limited natiu'c ; he neither 
 excelled in fine drawiug nor iu harmonious colouring ; 
 and grace and grandeur were beyond his reach. 
 His genius lay in expression, especially in grave 
 .humo.m;' and open drollery.' 
 
 ALLAN, Sib, Wilijam, a distinguished Scottish 
 historical' ipainterj , was born at ,Edinburgh in 1782. 
 He was educated at the High School ; and having 
 early displayed a taste for drawing, was entered as 
 a pupil ini the School of Design connected with the 
 Eoyid Institution, with the intention of becoming a 
 coach-painter. Among his feUow-students and frignds 
 were David Wilkie, J(3m Burnet, and others who after- 
 wards rose to eminence. He subsequently studied for 
 some time at the Royal Academy of London. . Find- 
 ing difficulties in the way of professional advance- 
 - menit in the metropolis, he determined to go abroad ; 
 and in 1805, set out for St Petersburg, where the 
 friendly interest of his countryman, Sir Alexander 
 
 Crichton, the imperial family physician, soon pro- 
 cured him employment. In the Russian capital, he 
 spent several years, diligently pursuing his profes- 
 sional labours, and makmg occasional tours to the 
 south of Russia, the Crimea, Turkey, and Ciroassia, 
 where he made numerous sketches, some of which 
 supplied thte materials of his best known works. In 
 1814, he returned to Edinburgh, and soon after 
 exhibited his 'Circassian Captives,' a large picture, 
 distinguished by the picturesqueness of the subject 
 and the elaborate fidelity and spirit of its treatment. 
 He had exhibited Several pictures before this, but 
 not tUl now was his reputation as an artist fairly 
 estabUshed. The remuneration of his labours, how- 
 ever, was not so ready as the pubUc acknowledgment 
 of their worth. The purchase of two of his pictures 
 by the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards emperor, 
 wheii on a visit to Edinburgh, contributed m no 
 small degree to promote the sale of his works. A 
 severe attack of Ophthalmia obliged him for a time 
 to suspend his exertions. He employed his leisure 
 in visiting Italy, Turkey, Greece, and Asia Minor. 
 On returning home, he resumed his brush, and for 
 many years tboured with great assiduity. In 18^6, 
 he was elected an Associate of the London Academy ; 
 in 1835, an Academician. In 1838, on the death of Mr 
 George Watson, the Royal Scottish Academy elected 
 him as its president, and on the death of Sir David 
 Wilkie in 1841, he was appointed Limner to Her 
 Majesty for Scotland. He was at the same time 
 knighted. At intervals, he made excursions into the 
 continent, visiting Spain and Marocco in 1834, St 
 Petersburg in 1841, and Germany and Belgium in 
 1847. At St Petersburg, he received a commission 
 from the emperor to paint a large picture of ' Peter 
 the Great teaching Shipbuilding to his Subjects;' 
 it was exhibited at London iu 1845, and is now in 
 the imperial Winter Palace. For some time before 
 his death, he had been diligently working at a 
 great picture of ' Bruce at Bannockburn.' He died 
 in his painting-room, to which his bed had been 
 removed, on the 22d of February 1850. The great 
 merits of Sir W. A. as a, painter, consist in his 
 conscientious fidehty, his skill in composition, and 
 the dramatic force of his representations. The 
 impulse contributed by him to historical painting, 
 especially of national subjects, entitles him to a very 
 high place in the history of Scottish art. Among 
 his chief works, many of which are , well known 
 through engravings, are — ' John Knox admonishing 
 Queen Mary,', 1823; 'Queen Mary signing her 
 abdication^' 1824 ; ' Death of the Regent Moray,' 
 1825; ' PoHsh Exfles,' 1834; 'The Slave-market at 
 Constantinople,' 1837; 'Battie of Prestonpans,' 1842; 
 'Waterloo,' two pictures, from the French and 
 EngUsh positions, the first of which was bought by 
 the Duke of Wellington. 
 
 ALLA'NTOIS, a delicate membranous bag, 
 which makes its appearance in the eggs of birds 
 during incubation, and is a provision chiefly for 
 the aeration of the blood of the embryo or chick. 
 It sprouts from the lower part of the intestine of 
 the chick, and rapidly enlarges, so as almost com- 
 pletely to enclose it, lining nearly the whole extent 
 of the memin-ana putaminis — the double membrane 
 which is immediately within the egg-shell. It is 
 covered with a net-work of artenes and veins, 
 corresponding to the umbilical artery and vein of 
 Mammalia ; and the aeration of the blood is accom- 
 pHshed by the air which enters through the pores of 
 the shell; but as the lungs become capable of their 
 fimction, the circulation in the A. dimimshes, and 
 its footstalk contracts, and at last divides, leavmg 
 only a ligamentous remUant. In the eggs of Rep- 
 tUes, the A. is developed as in those of Bir^, but 
 it does not make its appearance in those of Fishes. 
 
 151 
 
AiLABJD— AXLEGORY. 
 
 In tlie Mammalia, iti is, superseded aa ajj prganfor 
 the aeration, of , tlie hlqo^ at an early period of festal 
 life by other contrivances, but continues tp exist in 
 the lower animals for the reception ,<?f , like .urinary 
 secretion through the uraohus, ^ purpose -virhioh ,it 
 serves in Birds andEeptUes likewise, /in theMunan 
 species, i;fc disappears very early, qnly a .fliinute 
 vesicle remaining to indicate its previous existence.., 
 ALLA'KD, generalissimo of the army of Lahore, 
 a.nd previously ,?,djutanti to .Marshal Brune under 
 Napoleon, was born in 1783. After the miurder of 
 Marshal Brune ,.(q. v.), A. .left Finance (1815), 
 intending to emigrate to'Ainerioa; tut changed 
 his plan, entered into the service of Atbas-Mirza 
 of Persia, and afterwards wejit to Jjahore (1820), 
 where he engaged in the service of Runjeet piugn 
 (q. v.), by whom he was made generalissimo, and 
 whose forces he organised and trained in the 
 European modes of , warfare. Saving married a 
 native, of .Lahore; he ' identified himself with the 
 interests of his adopted country, but could not 
 entirely forget Erauoe. ,The July revolution 
 brought him back to Paris, where he was received 
 with distinction, and was made French chargS 
 d'affaires in Lahore. He presented to the Eoyal 
 Library of Paris a valuable collection of coins, and 
 retm-ned to Lahore (1836), leaving his wife pnd 
 children in Paris. In the subsequent battles of 
 Eunjeet Singh with the Afghans, A. repeatedly dis- 
 tinguished himself, and died at Pesjiawur, January 
 23, 1839. His remaiiis were, aopording to, Hs own 
 wish, buried with miKtaJ-y hphours at Jjahore. 
 
 ALLEGHA'NIES, a name perhaps originally 
 limited to the mountain-cradle of the river next 
 mentioned, but often popularly extended to the 
 whole chain, otherwise called the Appalachians (q. v.). 
 
 ALLEGHA'NY, a river, -which, rising in the 
 north part of Pennsylvania, unites with the Moiion- 
 gahela at Pittsburg to form the Ohio. Though it 
 flows through a Mly country, yet it is navigable 
 for nearly 200 miles above Pittsburg, whence again, 
 with a trifling impediment near Louisville, Traich 
 has been overcome by a short canal, the navigation 
 embraces, down to the Gulf of Mexico, 950 miles 
 on ,the PJiio, and 1216 on the Mississippi. What 
 a suggestive fact is a steam-boat channel of 2366 
 miles in one section of a continent, equal in length 
 to the longest line that can be drawn in Europe,: 
 whether from Brest to Astrakhan, or from Cape 
 Matapan to North Cape ! 
 
 ALLE'eiANCB (Er. allegeance, from Lat. aiUgo 
 or ad-ligo, to bind to, or attach). ' A.,' says Black- 
 stone, ' is the tie or Ugamen which binds the 
 subject to the sovereign, in return for that protection 
 which the sovereign affords the subject.' In the eyS 
 of the law, A. is the highest duty of a subject, 
 and consequently its violation, treason (q. v.), is 
 the highest legji offeiice. A. is of three kinds : 
 1. Natural or implied A., which every native 
 or naturalised citizen owes to the oommimity to 
 , which he belongs. Independently of any express 
 promise, every man, by availing himself of the 
 benefits which society affords, comes under an 
 implied obligation to defend it from danger, and 
 this equally whether the threatened attack be from 
 without or from within. In time of war, this obli- 
 gation involves the , duty either of bearing arms in 
 defence of the state, or of icontributing to the addi- 
 tional taxes and other impositions which the support 
 of a standing army may render necessary. In 
 peaceful times, it wUl, by the generality of men, be 
 adequately fuffilled by a conscientious and efficient 
 performance of ordinary citizen and social duties. 
 Mxpress A. is that obligation which arises from 
 an expressed promise, or oath of A. The old 
 
 EngHshoath of A., corresponded . in the case 
 of the sovereign, as absolute , superior of aU the 
 lands in England, .to the oath of. fealty which, by 
 the , ,feud?il law, aU; vassals were required to take 
 to subject superiors : ' As, administered for upwards 
 of six hundred years, it contained a pronaise to be 
 true and f aithf id to the king and Jiis Jieirs, and truth 
 and faith to bear of life and limb and texrene honour, 
 and not tp know or hear of any ill or damage intended 
 him, without defending himtherefrom.' — Blackstone, 
 Kerr's edition, vol. i. .368i Thisi oath being ^thought 
 to favour too juuch the notion of non-resistance, the 
 following form, now in use, was introduced by the 
 Convention Parliament,: 'I ,do sincerely , promise 
 and swear that I wiU be faithful and bear true A. 
 to Her Majesty Queen Victoria,.' Erom^ the reign, of 
 Qu^en Elizabeth down to the, present time, the oath, 
 of, A. has been required from all public, functionaries 
 before entering on their respective pffices, and by 
 all professional persons before, , being permitted to 
 practise. , .3., Jjooal or teinporary ,A,, is, , that, ober 
 dience and temporary, aid due by an alien ,(q. y.) tp 
 the state or community in which he resides. ,. Local 
 differs, from t^e higher , kinds, of A. in this, - that 
 it endures only so long, as the, ahen resides within 
 the Queen's dominions, whereas natural A., whether 
 implied or expressed, is .perpetual, following not 
 only thp individual hiiaself, but,, uJoless in special 
 circumstances, to be explained under Alien^ his 
 children and grandchildren, wherciver. they may 
 be locally situated. ' An EngKshinan who removes 
 to France or China, owes the same A, to the king 
 of England there as at home, and twenty years 
 hence a^ now; for it is a principle of universal law, 
 that the, natural-born subject of que, , prince cannot^ 
 by any act of his own, no, not by swearing A. 
 to another, put, off or discharge his, natural A. to 
 the , former ; for this natural A. was intrinsic and, 
 primitive, and antecedent to the other, and pannot 
 be divested without the concurrent act of , that 
 prince to who'll i* 'w^^^ first due.' — Blackstone, 
 kerr's edition, vol. i. p. 370. The same is beHeved 
 to be the la,w of ihe, ■ United States, of America 
 (see, Kent's Oommentaries, vol. ii.). 
 
 By the law pf England, and agreeably to the spirit 
 of the ponstitiitipn, a usurper in undisputed possession 
 of the crown, or, king, de facto, is entitled to A., 
 because he then represents, not the sovereign whom 
 he has dispossessed, but 'Hie general will in which 
 the ultimate sovereignty of England resides. This 
 doctrine was applied when Edward IV. recovered the 
 crown from the House of Lancaster, and treasons 
 committed against Henry VI. ■n^ere capitally pun- 
 ished. The rule, however, would scarcely apply if 
 the usurpation were the restdt, hot of civil war,' but 
 of foreign conquest. The sovereign may by pro- 
 clamation summon his subjects to return and take 
 part ill the defence of the kingdom, when menaced 
 or endangered. Of this, an instance occurred in 
 1807, when all seamen and seafaring men who 
 were natural-bom subjects were 'recalled from 
 foreign service. 
 
 A'LLEGORY, as a figure of rhetoric, signifies 
 properly, the embodiment of a train of thought in a 
 visible form, by means of sensible ima,ges, hiiving 
 some resemblance or analogy to the 'thoughts. A., 
 therefore, is one of the Tropes (q. v.), for it involves, 
 a transfer of meaning. It differs from metaphor 
 chiefly in extent ; metaphor is confined to a single 
 expression, or at most to a sentence, A. is carried 
 through the whole representation. It is not abstract 
 ideas alone that are adapted to allegorical treatment ; 
 not only may virtue and vice, for instance, be 
 personified and treated allegorically, but real persons 
 may be represented by allegorical persons. 
 
 We find A. in use from the earliest ages. Oriental 
 
ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION— ALLIACEOUS PLANTS. 
 
 people are specially fond of it.' As examples from 
 antiquity may be cited, the comparison of 'Israel to 
 a vine in the 80th Psalm; the beautiful passage in 
 Plato's ' Phadrus, where the soul is fioilipared to a 
 charioteer 'drawn by two horses, one white attd one' 
 black'; the'description of'Fame in the 4th' Book of 
 the JEneid, ' BnnyaA's Pilgrim's Progress is perhaps' 
 the most fully carried out A. of modern times. 
 ■ — A. is not confiifed' to language, but is carried 
 into painting and sculpture, and also into scenic 
 rfepresentation^aa in the ballet and pantomime ; 
 the consideration of ' it 'is;' therefore, of itopbrtanoo 
 in the fine arts generally. ' 
 
 Alleqoeicai iNTEKfEETATioiir is that kind Of 
 interpretatioii by which the literal significance of a 
 passage is either transcended or set aside, and amore 
 spiritual and profound meaning elicited than is Cpii- 
 tained in the form or letter. The conimon idea iS 
 that it originated with the Alexandrine school, 
 but this is by no means the case, as we find it 
 employed by the older Hindus. Prom the scholars of 
 Alexandria, however, it was adopted by the Jews of 
 Palestine, a sect of whom in' particular, namely, 
 the Essenes, made abundant use of it. The apostle 
 Paid himself allegorisfe'a, or at least spiritually 
 interprets the history of the free-born Isaac and 
 the slave-born Ishmael (Gal. iv. 24). Allegorical 
 ■ interpretation, however, with reference to the 
 Old Testament, was most extensively employed by 
 PhUo JixdEeus, a philosqphical Jew of Alexandria, 
 and a contemporary of Jesus Christ. His writings 
 stimulated the allegorising teiidencies of thfe' Alex- 
 andrine school of Christian theologians, the inost 
 famous of whom are Clemens Alexandrinus and 
 Origen. The latter went so far as to say that ' the 
 Scriptures are of httle use to thoeB who ujiderstand 
 them as they are written.' As a specimen of his 
 method of biblical interpretation, we may adduce 
 the following : He maintaiued that the Mosaic 
 account of the Garden ef Eden was allegorical ; that 
 Paradise only symbolised a high primeval spirit'- 
 uality; that the fall consisted lii the loss Of siioh 
 throtigh spiritual and not material temptation ; ,'and 
 that tile expulsion from the Garden lay in the soul's 
 being driven out of its region 6f original purity. 
 The Neo-platonists were at first averse to allegor- 
 ising, but gradually acquired a relish' for it from 
 the Jews and ClmStians, and applied it to the 
 ancient myths. ' 
 
 ALLE'GRO, 'the fourth, of , th.ei five principal 
 degrees of movement in music, implying that the 
 piece is ijo be performed in a quick or hvely style. 
 A., liie all the other, degrees of movement, is oftep 
 modified by other terms,, such a? A. nan tanto, 4-. ■"»« 
 ncm troppo, A. moderalo, maestoso, giustp, commodo, 
 vivace, assia, ^i molto, con brio, &c, As a substan- 
 tive, A. i^ used as the naine oi a w^ple piece of 
 music, or a movement of a symphony, sonata, or 
 quartet. , ; , , , , 
 
 A'LLBMANDB, the nameiof a dance invented 
 by the French in the time of Louis XIV., and which 
 ; again became popular at the Parisian theatres durmg 
 the reign of the first emperor. It ha,3 a slow waltz 
 kind pi tempo, and consists of three steps {pas 
 marcMs) made in a shding manner, backwards and 
 forwards, but , seldom waJt2ing or turning round. 
 \ The, whole charm of the dance lies in the graceful 
 manner of entwining and detachiug the arms in the 
 different steps. Both the dance and the music are 
 said to have originated in Alsace ; and thus the 
 intrpduotion. of the A. at the, court of Versailles was 
 '• a sort of, artistiq way of symbolising the : incorpora- 
 tion of the newly acquired German provinces. 
 
 A'LLBN, Bog oi', a general name applied to 
 a congeries of morasses east of the Shannon, in King's 
 
 County and Kddare, Ireland, comprising in all 
 about 238,500 Eng. acres. The strips of arable land 
 iR^hioh intersect thiS'bog are occasionally watered by 
 rivers which have their sources in the contiguous 
 fens, such as the Barrow, Boyne, and Brpsna ; the 
 Grand Canal' alsp passes through it. The average 
 elfevation of the nifarasses is 250 feet above the 
 sea-level. They approach to withia 17 miles of 
 Dublin on the east; and almost to the Shannon on 
 the west." "The depth of tlie peart found in them is 
 about 25 'feet. ' ' ' ' ■' 
 
 ALLEN, JoHif, M.D., a Uu^ateii'f' of consider- 
 able talent, was born at Redford, in the parish of 
 Colinton, 'hear Edinburgh, in 1770. He was edu- 
 cated at the university of Edinburgh, where he 
 took his degree at the age of twenty-one. Pour 
 years later, he entered the lists against Dr Gregory 
 in defence of Hume's speculations on liberty and 
 necessity. In 18pl, he pubhshed An Introduction 
 to the Study of the Animal Mcmitimy, translated from 
 CUvier. About a year after, along with his friends. 
 Lord and Lady Holland, he set out on a tour 
 through Prance and Spaiu, where he resided tni 
 1,805. , On his return, he devoted himself to the 
 discussioh of political questions in the pages, of the 
 Edinburgh Eevievj. He was a keen reformer,, and 
 brought to bear upon constitutional qiiestione a 
 wealth 'bf' research, "a closeness ot reasoning, and 
 a vigour of understanding that rendered him a 
 formidable adversary. He is said to have contri- 
 buted upvrarda of forty articles to. the Edinburgh 
 Review, Chiefly on British, French, Spanish, and 
 Soilth American jpoHtics. His most valuable work 
 is considered to be his Inquiry into the Rise and 
 Growth of the Moyal Prerogative in England (1830). 
 On one or two oooasioris, he 'held temporary political 
 offices, and was, in addition, for some time. Master of 
 Dulwioh College. He died ia 1843. 
 
 A'LLBNTOWN, -a thriving borough of Pennsyl- 
 vania, U. S., 85 mUes to the east of Harrisburg, and 
 50 to the north of Philadelphia. It is situated on an 
 affluent of thei 'Lehigh, with a canal and a railway 
 passing, through it. ; It is within easy reach of slate; 
 limestone, coal, and iron. .Pop. in 1853, about 5000. 
 
 ALLBYN, EdwaeI), a distinguished actor, the 
 contemporary and friend of Shakspeare, was bom in 
 1566; and died in 1626. His connection with the 
 English stage during the peripd of its highest prospe- 
 rity, invests his life with interest to the student of 
 Uterary history; but it is as the munificent and pious 
 founder of Dulwich College ,(q. v.) that he principally 
 claims the remembrance of posterity. The builduig 
 of the coUege was begun in 1613, and in 1619 the 
 institution obtained the royal charter, after- some 
 obstruction on the ipart of Lord Bacon, who wished 
 the king- to apply part lof thei grant to the foundation 
 of| two lecturesMps at Oxford and Cambridge. 
 A. . himself took up his quarters in the college as 
 master, Hving, with his wife as a pensioner, on equal 
 tenn3,,with the sharers of his bounty.^ He also 
 founded, numerous almshouses, in London. 
 
 A'LLIA, a small stream which fell intb the Tiber, 
 eleven miles north of Rome. ■ It is celebrated as the 
 scene of the defeat of the Roman army by the GaulS ■ 
 under Brennus in 387, or, according to others, 390 
 B.C. Immediately afterwards, Rome was taken, 
 plundered, and burnt. It is difficult, to identify 
 the A. with any of the modern streams ; but the 
 evidence seems in favour of the Scolo del Oasale. 
 
 ALLIA'CEOtrS PLANTS are those' of the genus 
 Allium (ql v.), or others nearly allied to it. The 
 term is generally employed to denote not only the 
 possession of certain botanical characters, but also of 
 a certain smell and taste, well known by the term 
 alliaceous, and of which examples are readily found 
 
 1S3 
 
AtttAifca-AltlGATOtl. 
 
 in tlie onion, leek, garlic, and other familiar species 
 of Allium, much employed for culinary purposes. 
 These plants contaia free phosphoric acid, and a 
 sulphuretted oil, which is partly dissipated in boiling 
 or roastiDg. The A. flavour is, however, found also, 
 although in comparatively rare instances, in plants 
 of entirely difierent botanical aflauities — for example, 
 in Alliaria officinalis, of the natural order Orudferce 
 (see Alliaria), in the young shoots of Oedrela 
 angustifolia, a tropical American tree of the natural 
 order Gedrelacece, allied to mahogany; and in certain 
 species of Dysoxylon and Hartiglisea, of the Mndxed 
 order Meliacece, the fruit of which is used instead 
 of garlic by the mountaineers of Java. 
 
 ALLFANCE, a 
 families or nations, 
 Teiple Alliance. 
 
 compact between independent 
 See Treaty, Holy Alliance, 
 
 ALLIA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Orudferce (q. v.), closely allied to Sisymhrium 
 and Erysimum, but- differing from both in having the 
 stalks of the seeds flat and winged. The best 
 known species is A. officinalis (Erysimum A. of 
 Linnjeus, and ranked by some botanists in the genus 
 Sisymhrium), known by the popular names of Sauce- 
 alone and jack-by-the-Hedge. It is a native of 
 Britain, not unfrequently found on hedge-banks and 
 in waste places in dry rich soils, and is common in 
 most parts of Europe. It is a biennial, with a stem 
 2 — 3 feet high ; large, stalked, heart-shaped leaves ; 
 
 ALLIEB, a department in the centre of France, 
 has an area of 2830 square miles, and a pop. of 352,240. 
 It is a hiUy district, especially in the south, sloping 
 down towards the river Loire in the north, and is 
 partly woody, but generally well cultivated, pro- 
 ducing the usual kinds of grain with wine and oil; It 
 is also rich in minerals, especially iron, coal, antimony, 
 manganese, and marble. There is some manufac- 
 turing industry in cotton, wool, linen, carpets, 
 pottery, and glass; but the majority of the popu- 
 lation is engaged in agrictdture. Mineral springs 
 are found at Vichy, Neris, and Bourbon-rArcham- 
 bault. The chief town is MouMns. Other important 
 places are Montlugon, La Palisse, Gannat. At 
 Ohantelle-le- Chateau are the extensive ruins of King 
 Pepin's Castle. 
 
 ALLIGA'TION, froma Latin word signifying 'to 
 bind together,' is a rule in arithmetic which teaclies 
 to solve such questions as the following: 3 lbs. of 
 sugar at 6d. are mixed with 5 lbs. at Wd. ; what is 
 the price of a pound of the mixture? or: In what 
 proportion must sugar at 6d. be mixed with sugar at 
 lOd., to produce a mixture at 8iid. ? The solution of 
 
 the first is 
 
 3X6 + 6X1 
 
 3 + s 
 
 = 8ld. 
 
 Alliaria o^Hnalis, 
 
 a, upper part of stem, with leaves and flowers ; 6, extremity 
 
 of a branch, in fruit. 
 
 white flowers, and pods much longer than their 
 stalks, which are somewhat spreading. It is remark- 
 able for its strong alhaceous odour, is occasionally 
 used as a pot-herb in Britain, and very generally, 
 at least by the poorer classes, in some continental 
 countries. It seems more deserving of cultivation 
 than many other plants which have long received 
 the constant care of the gardener, being wholesome, 
 nutritious, and, to most persons, pleasant. The 
 powdered seeds were formerly employed as a ster- 
 nutatory. 
 
 ALLICE, or ALLIS. See Shad. 
 
 A'LLIBR, a river in France, a, tributary of the 
 Loire, has its source in the water-shed of the east 
 of the department of Lozfere ; flows with a northerly 
 course through Haute-Loire, Puy-de-D6me, and 
 Allier; and after a course of more than 200 miles, 
 falls into the Loire below the town of Nevers. It 
 is navigable for a considerable portion of its length. 
 151 
 
 In the second, the proportional number for one 
 ingredient is the difference between the price of the 
 oifier. and that of the mixture ; the number for the 
 cheap sugar is therefore IJ, and for the dear, 2 J, 
 which are as 3 : 5, so that there must be 3 lbs. at 65. 
 for every 5 lbs. at lOd. If there are more than two 
 ingredients, the problem becomes indeterminate; 
 that is, it admits of a variety of answers. Thus: 
 Of three metals, whose specific gravities are 10, 15, 
 and 16, it is required to compose an alloy, whose 
 specific gravity shall be 14 The conditions will be 
 answered by mixing them in any of the following 
 proportions: 1, 2, 1; 2, 2, 3; 6, 2, 11, &c. 
 
 ALLIGA'TOE, a genus of saurian reptUes, of 
 the family of the Orocodilidce, and still regarded by 
 some naturalists as a mere sub-genus of Grocodilus; 
 although it has recently been proposed to constitute 
 a family or sub-family of AlligMoridm, and to divide 
 it into the genera Jacare, Alligcdor, and Caiman. 
 The aUigators differ from the true crocodiles in the 
 shorter and flatter head, the existence of cavities or 
 pits in the upper jaw, iato which (and not into mere 
 notches between the teeth, as in the crocodiles) the 
 long fourth teeth of the under jaw are received, and 
 the much less webbed feet. In consequence of the 
 different manner in which provision is made in the 
 upper jaw for the reception of the longest teeth of 
 the lower, the head of the alligators is broader 
 and the snout more obtuse than m the crocodiles. 
 
 Their habits are less perfectly aquatic ; they 
 frequent swamps and marshes, and may be seen 
 basking on the dry ground dm-ing the day, in 
 the heat of the sun. They are most active dming 
 the night, and then make a loud bellowing. They 
 have great strength in their tails, with -vriiich the 
 larger ones can easily upset a light canoe. They 
 feed chiefly on fish, but do not object to other 
 animal food. The females lay their eggs, 20—60 
 m nmnber, in the mud, and leave them to be 
 hatched by the heat of the sun, but keep watch Over 
 the spot, and shew much affection for their young 
 
AILIGATOK APPLE-ALLITJM. 
 
 ones, many of which, however, fall a prey to the old 
 males, and to vulturea and fishes. There are several 
 species, varying from two to twenty feet and upwards 
 in length. Perhaps the most fierce and dangerous 
 ia that found in the southern parts of the United 
 States, as far up the Mississippi as the Red River, 
 A.. iMcius. The snout is a little turned up; and 
 its resemblance to that of a pike has led to the 
 specific name Litems. In cold weather, these animals 
 bury themselves in the mud, and become so torpid, 
 that they may be cut to pieces without shewing signs 
 of sensibiHty ; but a few hours of bright simshme are 
 enough to revive them. Like the other species, they 
 are so protected by their mailed plates, that they are 
 not easily killed, except by a shot or blow over the 
 eyes. A very strong kind of leather is prepared 
 from the skin, which is used for making saddles. 
 It is said that a considerable quantity of oil can 
 be extracted from an A., which is transparent and 
 burns well. The alligators of South Aiineriba are 
 there very often called Caymans, probably an Indian 
 name, and some of them bear the name of Tacar^, 
 particularly A. sclerops, also distinguished as the 
 Spectacled Cayman, oh account of a prominent bony 
 rim surrounding the orbit of each eye: This species 
 appears to be widely distributed over tropical 
 America, and attains a great size. AUigators are not 
 known to exist in any quarter of the world except 
 America, in which, however, true crocodiles are also 
 found. But among the fossils of the south of 
 England are remains of a true A. {A. Hantonieims) 
 in me Hordle beds. The flesh of aUigators is eaten 
 by Indians and negroes. It has a musky flavour. 
 — The origin of the name is uncertain, but it is 
 supposed to be a corruption of the Portuguese 
 lagarto, a lizard. Cuvier adopted it as a scientific 
 name. 
 
 ALLIGATOR APPLE. See Cdbtajbd Apple. 
 
 ALLIGATOR PEAR. See Avooabo Pbae. 
 
 ALLITERA'TION is the frequent occurrence in 
 a composition of words beginning with the same 
 letter. In Old Germain, Anglo-Saxon, and Scandina- 
 vian poetry, A took the place of rhyme. This 
 kind of verse, in its strict form, required that iu 
 the two short hues forming a couplet, three words 
 should begin with the same letter, two iu the first 
 line or hemistich, and one in the second ; as in the 
 following couplet of Anglo-Saxon poetry: 
 
 i''irum/oldan 
 
 ^rea almihtig.— Ccsdmon, 
 
 A. has not quite disappeared from Icelandic poetry 
 to this day. Alliterative poems continued to be 
 written ia English after it had assumed its modem 
 form; the most remarkable is Pierce Plowman, a 
 poem of the 14th c, of which the following is a 
 specimen, the two hemistichs being written in one 
 
 Ime : 
 
 Mevcy higbt tliat maid, [ a meek thing -wimal, 
 A full ienign Surd, | and iuxom of speech. 
 
 Even after the introduction of rhyme, A. continued 
 to be largely used as an embelUshment of poetry, 
 and is so, though to a less extent, to this day : 
 
 The fair Sreeze Mew, the -white /oam /lew, 
 The farvov f olloy/eA free,— ColeridgSi 
 
 Besides the Gothic, there are other nations widely 
 separated from each other, amongwhom the essential 
 distinction of verse is A.; the Finns, for iustance, 
 and the Tamuls in the south of India. 
 
 But A. is not confined to verse ; the charm that 
 lies in, it exercises great iufluence on human speech 
 generally, as may be seen in many current phrases 
 and proverbs in all languages : Ex., ' life and Hmb ; 
 'house and home,' ' wide wears, tight tears,' &c. 
 It often constitutes part of the point and piquancy 
 
 of witty writing. Among modem writers this appli- 
 cation of A. is perhaps most felicitously exempbhed 
 by Sidney Smith, as, when in contrasting the 
 ■conditions of a dignitary of the EngUsh Church and 
 of a poor curate, he speaks of them as ' the Right 
 Reverend Dives in the palace, and Lazarus-in-orders 
 at the gate, doctored by dogs and comforted with 
 crumbs. 
 
 In the early part of the 17th c, the fashion of 
 hunting after alliterations was carried to an absurd 
 excess ; even from the pulpit, the chosen people of 
 God were addressed as • the chickens of the church, 
 the sparrows of the spirit, and the sweet swallows 
 of salvation.' Ane New-year Gift, or address, pre- 
 sented to Mary Queen of Scots by the poet, Alex- 
 ander Scott, concludes with a stanza running thus : 
 
 Fresh, fulgent, flourist, fragrant flower formose, 
 
 Lantern to love, of ladies lamp and lot, 
 
 Cherry maist chaste, chief carhuncle and chose, &c. 
 
 In the following piece of elaborate trifling, given 
 (but without naming the author) in H. Southgate's 
 Many Thoughts on Many Things, AlUteration is 
 combined wifh Acrosticisnl : 
 
 A n Ajistrian army, awfully arrayed, 
 
 B oldly by battery besieged Belgrade ; 
 
 C ossack commanders cannonading come, 
 
 I) ealing destruction's devastating doom ; 
 
 E very endeavour engineers essay 
 
 F or fame, for fortune, forming furious fray. 
 
 G aunt gunners grapple, giving gashes good ; 
 
 H eaves high his head heroic hardihood ; i 
 
 I braham, Islam, Ismael, imps in ill, 
 
 J ostle John Jarovlitz, Jem, Joe, Jack, Jill; 
 
 K ick kindling Kutusoff, kings' kinsmen kill 
 
 L abour low levels loftiest, longest lines ; 
 
 M en march 'mid moles, 'mid mounds, 'mid murd'rous 
 
 mines. 
 N ow nightfall 's near, now needful nature nods, 
 O pposed, opposing, overcoming odds. 
 P oor pesisants, partly purchased, partly pressed, 
 Q, uite quaking, 'Quarter! quarter!' quickly quest. 
 H eason retui'ns, recalls redundant rage, 
 S aves sinking soldiers, softens signiors sage. 
 T ruce, Turkey, truce ! truce, treach'rous Tartar train! 
 U nwise, unjust, unmerciful Ukraine, 
 
 V anish, vile vengeance ! vanish, victory vain ! 
 
 W isdom wails war — wails warring words. What wure 
 X erxes, Xantippe, Ximenes, Xavier ? 
 
 Y et Yass/s youth, ye yield your youthful yest. 
 Z ealously, zanies, zealously, zeal's zest. 
 
 A'LLIUM, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Liliacece (q. v.), containing a large number of species, 
 perennial — ^more rarely biennial — herbaceous plants, 
 more or less decidedly bulbous-rooted, natives chiefly 
 of the temperate and colder regions of the northern 
 hemisphere. The flowers are umbellate, enclosed in 
 a spathe, and the umbel often bears also small bulbs 
 along with its flowers. The perianth is of six spread- 
 ing pieces, resembhng petals, having the stamens 
 inserted in their base. The fruit is a triangidar 
 capsule, and the seeds are angular. The leaves are 
 generally narrow, although in some species, as A. 
 ursinum, they are rather broad, and in a considerable 
 number they are rounded and fistulose. Garlic 
 (q. v.), Onios" (q.v.). Leek (q.v.). Shallot (q. v.). 
 Chive (q. v.), and Rocambole (q. v.), are Species of 
 this genus in common cultivation. The first four 
 are cultivated iu the gardens of India as well as 
 of Europe, along with A. tuberosum; and the lull- 
 people of India eat the bulbs of A. leptophyllum, and 
 dry the leaves, and preserve them as a condiment. A 
 number of other species are occasionally used in 
 different countries. — Eight or nine species are natives 
 of Britain, of which the most common is Ramsoss 
 [A. ursinum), a species with much broader leaves 
 than most of its congeners. It is most frequently 
 f oimd^ in moist woods and hedge-banks ; but occa- 
 sionally in pastures, in which it proves ■•■ trouble- 
 some weed, communicating its powerful odour of 
 garlic to the whole dairy produce. Crow Garlic 
 
ALLQA-ALLOTMENT OF LAND. 
 
 {A. vinecdfi), another British species, is sometimes 
 very troublesome in the same ■way, in drier pastures. 
 Both are perennial, and to get rid of them, their 
 bulbs musl; .be, perseveringly rppted out, whpu the 
 leaves begin to appear in spring. 
 
 A'LLOA, a seaport town in ClaciirQannanshire, 
 Scotland, is situated on the left bank of the Forth, 
 where the river widens into its estuary, 7 miles (by 
 road) below Stirling. , Population, in 1851; 6676. It 
 is a town of considerable antiquity, and is an active 
 centre of trade -■ and manufactures. The principal 
 articles manufactured are whisky and ale, the latter 
 of which is highly esteemed. There are extensive 
 ^lass,' iron, and brick works, and two Ship-bmlding 
 j^ds. Copper utensUs, shawls, and blankets, 
 leather, tobacco, and snuff, are : manufactured tO: a 
 ooiisiderable extent ; and a large quantity of coal is 
 regularly exported from the pits in the immediate 
 neighbourhood of the town. This latter forms one 
 of the chief items in the coasting trade, besides 
 which there is a considerable foreign trade, chiefly 
 outwards. The total tonnage registered at the 
 port amounts to about 20,000 tons. The harbour 
 is good, with 16 feet of water at neap, and 22 at 
 spring tides ; it is furnished with a diy-dock. There 
 is a steam-boat ferry across the Forth, conneotiag 
 the town by a short jimotion line with the Scottish 
 Central Railway. It is also connected with that 
 line, and with the Edinburgh and Northern Eailway, 
 by the Stirling and Dimf ermline branch. - There is 
 regular steam-communication by the river with 
 Edinburgh and Stirling. In the neighbourhood is 
 Alloa Tower, 89 feet Mgh, supposed" to have been 
 built ' in the 13th c, once the residence of the 
 Erskines, and at diEferent times of Scottish princes. 
 
 ALLOCU'TION',whioh simply means an 'address,' 
 is applied, in the language of the Vatican, to denote 
 specially the address delivered by the pope at the 
 College of Cardinals on any ecclesiastical or political 
 circumstance. It may be considered as correspond- 
 ing in some measure to the official explanations 
 which constitutional ministers give when questions 
 are asked in parliament, or to the political messages 
 of the French emperor. The court of Rome makes 
 abuSdaut use of this method of address, when it 
 desiJes to guard a principle which it is compelled to 
 give up in a particular case, or to reserve a claim 
 for the future which has no chance of recognition in 
 the present. ' 
 
 ALLO'DIUM, or ALLODIAL TENURE (in 
 Law), is the free and absolute right of property in 
 land, independent of any burden of nomage or lidehty 
 to a superior. When the principal landholders of 
 England submitted to the yoke of military tenure, 
 and surrendered their lands into the hands of the 
 Conqueror at, the council of Sarum, feudahty, the 
 previous existence or non-exiatence of which has 
 been a subject of much discussion, was formaUy 
 recognised, and it henceforth became a fundamental 
 maxun in the law of real property, that ' the king 
 is the universal lord and original proprietor of all 
 the lands in his kingdom, and that no man doth 
 or can possess any part of it, but what has mediately 
 or immediately been derived as a gift from him, to 
 be held upon feudal services' (Blackstone, vol. ii. 
 p. 51, Eeir's edition). This maxim, though, as 
 Blackstone remarks, it was even at first little more 
 than a fiction, was not peculiar to Englaijd, but 
 prevailed wherever the feudal system obtained, 
 and stUl forms what may be called the starting- 
 point in all feudal teniires of land. Even where 
 subinfeudations ' have prevailed to' the greatest 
 extent, every title is traceable, in the last instance, 
 to the paramount and universal superiority of the 
 crown. See Feudal Svstbm. The surreiider of 
 1S6 
 
 lands in England being the result :pf palitiical 
 measures, was one miiy;ersal national set, and,, conse- 
 quently, allodial tenures at once ceased to exist,; 'jm.t 
 in many other countries it was accomplished by 
 private arrangements between the 3,Ilodial proprietors 
 and the prince, the former bpjng anxious to exchange 
 their nominal independence for the greater security 
 enjoyed by the vassals of the sovereign, the latter 
 beiag willing to receive them as dependents, for the 
 sake ^either of their personal services in war,,, or 
 latterly, for, the equivalents of these services in 
 money ,or the produce of the lands.. In such 
 counijies, feudahty, though general, was not uni- 
 versal.; and aUqdial tenures cpnsciquejitly continued 
 to subsist alongside of those originating, vfith the 
 crown. In this position was Denmark, and it is 
 cmious. that the only examplps of allodial, tenures to 
 be met with in Great Britain are the Udal rights in 
 the islands of Orkney and Shetland, which formerly 
 telonged. to that country. ' When these islands,' 
 says Mr Erskiue, 'were first transferred from the 
 crown of Denmark to that; of (Scotland, the right of 
 their lands was held by natural possession, and 
 might be proved by wSijnesses,. without any title in 
 writing, which had probably been their law formerly 
 while tiiey were subject to Denmark ; and to th§ 
 day, the lands, the proprietors of which have never 
 applied to the sovereign, or those deriving right from 
 Slm, for charters, are enjoyed in this manner.' By 
 the law of Scotland, all property and superiorities 
 belonging to the crown itseK, and all churches, 
 churchyards, manses and glebes, the. right to which 
 does iiot flow from the crown, are regarded as 
 allodial ; and the term in a wider sense, as opposed 
 to feudal generally, is sometimes used with reference 
 to movable property. 
 
 The etymology of the word A. has been much 
 discussed, and both Celtic and Teutonic origins have 
 been assigned to it. The latter seem the more 
 probable conjectures, as the word, in senses closely 
 resembling that which we attach to it, is to be 
 found ui all Scandinavian and Germanic languages. 
 On this supposition, its derivation from all (all, 
 or wholly) and od (property), seeuis probable. 
 Another conjecture assigns it to pZl and oede (waste). 
 That adopted by Mr Erskine, of its having been 
 composed of a privative, and l^ijle or leute, people 
 (taken from the people), seems wholly iiiadmissible, 
 as being inconsistent with the ; forms of Teutofiic 
 speech. 
 
 ALLO'PATHY. See Homceopathy. 
 
 ALLO'TMEJTT of land, although not a 
 technical, is a well-understood expression in the law 
 of England; and under the General Enclosure Act 
 (41 Geo. in. 0. 109)j is used to denote the kind of 
 conveyance or distribution directed to be ma.de -to 
 the person or persons who at the time of the division 
 and enclosiire shall have the actual possession of the 
 lands, tenements, or hereditaments, in lieu of, or in 
 right of which the allotment is made, but without 
 prejudice to any question of title. By the ancient 
 Statute of Merton (20 Henry IIL c. 4), the .lord of 
 the manor, or any other owner of a common, may 
 enclose so much of the waste as he pleases for tillage 
 or wood-ground, provided sufficient is left for other, 
 parties entitled to the use of the same. Tl^is right/ 
 to enclose common fields and waste lands has in 
 modem tinaes been very generally extended through^ 
 out England by means of local acts of parliament, a 
 number of the regulations of which have been con- 
 solidated by the act above referred to, by section? 
 of which couimissioiiers are appointed to make the 
 allotment. 
 
 Generally speaking, this term, as a legal word, 
 may be considered as signifying ,the. grant or 
 
ALLOTEOtY— ALLOWANCES, OFFICERS'. 
 
 stllowanCe cif k portion of land too inconsiderable to 
 be made the subject of a formal conveyance ; and in 
 this sense it has been used to denote the system or 
 species of agricvdturiil holding which prevailed to 
 some extent in England tow^ds the close of the 
 last centxiry, but which was not in common use 
 throughout the country till 1830,! when th?" agricul- 
 tural labourers in many counties— owing to the use 
 of 'thrashing-machines and other improvements, 
 which they dreaded would lower their wages — ■ 
 rose in insurrection against tiieir employers. To 
 meet this danger, the A. system !was resorted to, 
 and different societies were established for its 
 promotion ; and by the eomparative contentment 
 and comfort; it produced, it may be considered 
 to have been successful in its- object. It has 
 been stated to have diminished crime among the 
 peasantry, and generally to have improved and 
 elevated theii? character. By the form Of agreement 
 usually signed by A. tenants, the use of the spade 
 in the cultivation of la,nd is insisted upon, and the 
 plough prohibited, and there are other conditions 
 of the occupancy more or less tiapricibus. The A. 
 may be forfeited for non-payment of the rent, 
 the tenarit's misconduct or crime, or Wilful neglect 
 of his land; but it has been thought tmadvisable to 
 ejtclude any one from enjoying an A. on account 
 of his 'pteVious bad character, as, from the nature of 
 the industrious occupation which the A. necessitates, 
 there- is the chance of his reclaiming liis character. 
 See Spade Husbandry. '■' 
 
 ' ALLOi'TROPY is the terin ipplied in chemistry 
 to the existence of thi same element in various 
 forms, each of which, though contaaning no extra- 
 neous substance, possesses diflferent properties from 
 the others. The various conditions in which a single 
 element can be obtained are known aS its auo- 
 tropic modifications, and though as yet only a few 
 elementary substances have been observed to exhibit 
 such modifications, yet it is generally believed that 
 every element is capable of existing in several 
 allotropio forms. Phosphorus affords an excellent 
 illustration of this doctrine. In ordinary circum- 
 stances, and when freshly prepared, phosphorus is a 
 pale, yellow solid, of the , consistenSe and aspect of 
 wax, and to some exteit flexible and translucent. 
 It requires to be placed in a vessel with water to 
 keep it froni taking fire spontaneously. At aiiy 
 ordinary natural temperature it appears liuniuoUs, 
 and evolves an aUiaceous odour when exposed to air, 
 ; owing to a slow process of .combustion taking place ; 
 and when wanned to 140° P., it bursts into flame, 
 and bums vividly. Common phospherus is soluble 
 in alcohol, ether, the fixed and volatile oils, and 
 especially in bisulphuret of carbon, 100 parts of 
 which, when warm, dissolve 20 parts of phosphorus. 
 Bvtt the same element, when dried and kept for some 
 days, with little or no access of air, at a' temper- 
 mature ranging from 446° to 482° ¥., passes, weight 
 for 'weight— without addition or subtraction of 
 matter— -into' a reddish substance, which is known to 
 chemists as amorphous phosphorus. The colour of this 
 new variety is scarlet, bfowliish, red, or even blackish 
 red ; and it exists as a powder or cake, which does 
 not evolve any odour, or readily take flre, and there- 
 fore needs not to be preserved under water. When 
 heated to 140°, and even to a temperature a little 
 short of 482°, it refuses to bum ; and, in fact, it is 
 questionable if phosphorus in this condition will take 
 fire at all; though at 482°, arid above, the red variety 
 passes back again to the ordinary or yellow phos- 
 phorus, and then bursts into flame. Moreover, amor- 
 I phijus phosphorus is insoluble in alcohol, ether, 
 i the fixed and volatile oils, and even in bisijphuret 
 of Carbon. -Probably the most striking dii^rence 
 between these two forins of the same substance is, 
 
 that ordinary phosphorus is a deadly poisori, as is too 
 oft^n evidenced in the death of children from suck- 
 ing the ends of lucifer-rnatches ; whilst the red or 
 amorphous phosphorus is not known to be poisonous 
 at all. — Besides the two 'Varieties already men- 
 tioned, amd which • are best, known, there are black 
 phosphorus, iwhiie phosphorus, uni scaly phosphorus. 
 The only manner of accounting for the differ- 
 ence of properties evinced by ordinary and red 
 phosphorus, is i;o refer the change to an absorption 
 of heat during the passage of the ordinary into the 
 red variety. It is an observed fact that such 
 absorption . or disappearance of h^at does then take 
 place,; tvljilst, when. the red phosphorus is heated 
 till it passes back to the ordinary kind, a very 
 rapid disengagement of heat occurs. 
 
 Sulphur furnishes another example of A. In 
 the ordinary condition of roll-sulphur, it is a pale 
 yellow, brittle, crystaUiue solid ; insipid to taste, 
 odourless when cold, and evolving a peculiar odour 
 when: heated or rubbed. It fissolves in Small 
 quantity i in turpentine and the fixed oUs, and to 
 the extent of 35 per cent, in bisulphuret of carbon. 
 When common sulphur is heated to 232°, it fuses, 
 and forms a ithin, yellow, limpid. liquid like olive- 
 oil; at 480°, it passes into a thick, dark-brown, viscid 
 liquid, resembling in consistence ordinary treacle ; 
 and if, at this stage, it be poured into water, the 
 sulphur , forms itself into a thread-like mass or net- 
 workj.possessiug great elasticity, like india-rubber, not 
 at, all brittle, and so softy that it can be moulded by 
 the fingers into casts and seals. Again, this elastic 
 form of sulphur is not soluble in turpentine and the 
 fixed oUs, or even in bisulphuret of carbon. There 
 are also other aUotropic forms of sulphur. 
 
 Oxygen may be taken as a third illustration of the 
 same doctrine. In the ordinary form in which oxygen 
 exists in the atmosphere and elsewhere, it is a gas 
 with no odour, no bleaoting properties, and no cus- 
 inf ectantj powers. To a _ certain extent, it , oxidises 
 metals, 4c.; but comparatively, it may be regarded 
 as a feeble oxidising agent. By several processes— 
 namely, the introduction of a heated glass rod into a 
 jar containing ordinary air and a little ether ; or 
 the presence of clean-scraped sticks of phosphorus, 
 in a glass vessel -with a confined portion of airj 
 or' the passage Of electric discharges through or; 
 romid a glass tube or bottle with air — the oxygen 
 of the atmospheric air is transformed into an 
 aUotropic form called ozone. In the latter condition, 
 pJcygen possesses a Very strong and peculiar odour, 
 long known as the electrical odour; has great bleach- 
 ing powers, and is regarded as the agent in the air 
 which bleaches cliJthes on the household bleach- 
 ing-green; and possesses such powerful disinfecting 
 properties, that tainted meat introduced into ozonised 
 air, has the disagreeable odour destroyed, and smells 
 fresh when taken out. Ozone is doubtless the 
 great natural agent which removes many deleterious 
 gases and vapours, and destroys infectious matter 
 floating in or diffused through the air. See OzOke. 
 
 ' ALLOW'AKCBS, Ofwceks'. In the British 
 army — and to various degrees in the armies of other 
 countries — military 'officers, besides their recog- 
 nised pay, receive certain A. for special duties, 
 or when placed under exceptional circumstances. 
 Without detailing the actual amount of these 
 A., it may be well to enumerate'! the principal 
 nipdes in which they arise. An officer command- 
 ing ' and paying a troop or company, receives a 
 contingent allowance as an indemnification for the 
 expense of repairing arms, swords, and scabbards ; 
 for. burials; and for the debts of soldiers who become 
 non-effectiVe. A kind of general aVerage is strack 
 for the probable amount of these charges. An officer 
 on duty in the United Kingdom, in a situation 
 
 157 
 
ALLOWAY KIRK— ALLOY. 
 
 entitling him to be lodged at tlie public expense, 
 and whose lodging is not otherwise paid for by the 
 public, receives an allowance as 'lodging-money,' 
 varying in amount according to his rank. An officer 
 marching with troops in the United Kingdom, on 
 a route determined by competent authority, if unable 
 to mess with his regiment or dets^ohinent on a 
 particular day, receives an allowance in compensa- 
 tion. An officer sent on permanent or temporary 
 duty from one place to another, receives a travelling 
 allowance of so much per mile. An officer serving 
 on a court-martial receives an allowance at so much 
 per day, besides a travelling allowance if the place 
 be distant. An officer temporarily detached on 
 duty, where he cannot join his regimental mess, 
 has an allowance for mess-money. Besides those 
 here enumerated, there are A. for detention at ports 
 of embarkation, &o., and others of a minor kind. 
 
 A. or extra payments to private soldiers and 
 non-commissioned officers, will be noticed under 
 Pay, Pension, &c. — The daily food served out at 
 the pubHo expense, which is called a ration by 
 soldiers, is more usually known to sailors as an 
 allowance. See Ration. 
 
 A'LLOWAY KIRK, an old ruined church in the 
 parish of Ayr, near the mouth of the Doon, celebrated 
 in Bums's Tarn o' Shanter. At very short distances 
 from it are the cottage in which the poet was bom, 
 the monument erected to his memory in 1823, and 
 the ' Twa Brigs,' ' the Auld Brig o' Doon ' and the 
 new bridge over that river. 
 
 ALLOY' (in Chemistry) is a mixture of two or 
 more metals, either natural, or produced artificially 
 by melting them together. The A., or mixture, has 
 often different properties from the component metals, 
 and bears a distinct name. Thus, bell-metal is an A. 
 of copper and tin ; tombak, of copper and zinc ; 
 brass, of copper, with a larger proportion of zinc, 
 &c. Alloys are generally harder than the metals 
 that compose them, and tbis is the motive for alloy- 
 ing the precious metals. Both gold and silver, when 
 pure, are very soft, and easUy worn away by use ; 
 and therefore, a certain proportion of copper is 
 added, to give these metals the requisite hardness. 
 In this case the word 'alloy' signifies the inferior 
 metal added, and not the mixture. For coin, the 
 proportion of copper to be added is fixed by law 
 (see the following article), and difiers in different 
 states. It has been found by experiment that ^'j- of 
 A. gives the greatest durability. This is exactly the 
 proportion in British gold coin, a pound troy of the 
 metal containing 11 parts gold and 1 part copper. 
 The A. in our silver coin is somewhat less, being 18 
 dwt. in the pound instead of 20 dwt. For conveni- 
 ence in reckoning, the standard of the coinage in 
 France, and other countries that adopt its monetary 
 system, as well as in the United States, is made -^ 
 pure metal and -jia A., usually stated 900 (in 1000) 
 parts fine. Our gold and silver standards similarly 
 stated would be 917 and 925 respectively. Gold is 
 sometimes alloyed with silver, or with a mixture of 
 silver and copper. The colour of gold and silver is 
 affected by the nature and amount of the A. A 
 strong A. of copper makes gold red ; of silver, green ; 
 and a still stronger of silver, a bright yellow. A 
 compound of mercury with another metal is an 
 Amalgam (q. v.). 
 
 AUoys seldom possess the density which theory or 
 calculation from the specific gravity of their con- 
 stituents would indicate. Thus, many alloys possess 
 a greater density thanthe mean density of their con- 
 stituents, whilst others have a less density. The 
 increase in density of the A. indicates that the 
 metals have contracted; in other words, that the 
 metallic molecules have approached each other more 
 
 1S8 
 
 liiuocij , whilst the decrease in density denotes a 
 separation of the molecules to greater distances from 
 each other. 
 
 
 ALLOTS 
 
 
 ALLOTS 
 
 which exhibit a greater density 
 
 which possess a less density 
 
 than the 
 
 mean density of the 
 
 thanthe 
 
 mean density of the 
 
 metals composing them. 
 
 metals composing them. 
 
 Gfold and Zinc. 
 
 Gold and Silver. 
 
 11 
 
 , Tin. 
 
 11 
 
 , Iron. 
 
 )/ 
 
 1 Bismuth. 
 
 !l 
 
 , Lead. 
 
 ti 
 
 r Antimony. 
 
 tt 
 
 Copper. 
 
 tr 
 
 , Cobalt. 
 
 't 
 
 Iridium. 
 
 Silver 
 
 ; Zinc. 
 
 If 
 
 , Nickel. 
 
 Fl 
 
 , Tin. 
 
 Silver 
 
 Copper. 
 
 11 
 
 1 Bismuth. 
 
 Iron 
 
 ( Bismuth. 
 
 II 
 
 / Antimony. 
 
 tt 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Copper 
 
 1 Zinc. 
 
 II 
 
 / Lead. 
 
 11 
 
 , Tin. 
 
 Tin 
 
 1 Lead. 
 
 M 
 
 1 Palladium. 
 
 II 
 
 Palladium. 
 
 II 
 
 ; Bismuth. 
 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Lead 
 
 1 Antimony. 
 
 Nickel 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Platinum 
 
 andMolybdenum. 
 
 Zinc 
 
 1 Antimony. 
 
 Palladium u Bismuth. 
 
 
 
 The strength or cohesion of an A. is generally 
 greater than that of the mean cohesion of the metals 
 contained therein, or even of that of the most cohesive 
 of its constituents. Thus, the breaking weight of a 
 bar of copper or tin (meaning the longitudinal 
 sti;ain it can bear), is very much lower than the 
 breaking weight of a bar composed of an A. of tin 
 and copper. The following tables represent the 
 
 COHKSION 01' METALS. 
 
 
 Bar, one inch squar 
 
 
 breaks with 
 
 
 Iba. 
 
 Barbary Copper, 
 
 . 22,570 
 
 Japan n 
 
 20,272 
 
 English Block Tin, . 
 
 6,650 
 
 II II II 
 
 6,322 
 
 Banca Tin, . 
 
 3,679 
 
 Malacca Tin, 
 
 3,211 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 3,008 
 
 Zinc, . 
 
 2,689 
 
 Antimony, . 
 
 1,060 
 
 Lead, 
 
 885 
 
 When any two of the above metals combine 
 together, they generally — though not always — yield 
 an A. which is much stronger than we shoidd 
 expect ; thus the 
 
 CgHBSION 01' ALLOTS. 
 
 Bar, one inch square, 
 yields with 
 
 Ibi. 
 
 10 parts of Copper and 1 part of Tin, . 32,093 
 
 8 II II 1 II „ 36,088 
 
 6 I. II 1 „ „ . 44,071 
 
 4 II ,1 1 I, I, 35,739 
 
 2 „ » 1 „ I, . 1,017 
 
 1 » i: 1 ,1 ,1 725 
 
 4 » English Tin and 1 „ Lead, . 10,607 
 
 4 „ Banca „ » 1 „ Antimony, 13,480 
 
 4 II II 11 II 1 ,1 Bismuth, 16,692 
 
 4 ,1 English Tin „ 1 ,, Zinc, . 10,258 
 
 4 II II II II 1 n Antimony, 11,328 
 
 The power of conducting electrical currents is 
 not so great in an A. as the mean conducting- 
 power of its components. 
 
 The composition, of the more commonly occurring 
 and commercially important alloys, is as follows : 
 Pliunber's solder, 1 tin and 2 lead ; soft solder, 2 tin 
 and 1 lead; common pewter, 4 tin and 1 lead; 
 gun-metal, 9 copper and 1 tin ; bronze, 9 copper and 
 1 tin and zinc; cymbals and Chinese gongs, 4 copper 
 
ALLOY— ALLSTON. 
 
 and 1 tin ; bell-metal, 3 copper and 1 tin ; speoulum 
 metal, 2 copper and 1 tin ; pot-metal or cock-metal, 
 2 copper and 1 lead ; gilding-metal, 16 copper and 1 
 to 1^ zinc; Manuheun gdd — pinchbeok or bath- 
 metal, 16 copper and 4 zinc ; Bristol brass, for 
 soldering, 16 copper and 6 zuic; ordinary brass, 
 for casting, 16 copper and 8 zinq ; Mimtz sheatlung- 
 metal, 16 copper and lOf zinc'; spelter solder, fur 
 copper and iron, 16 copper and 12 zuic ; spelter solder, 
 for brass-work, 16 copper and 16 zinc ; Mosaic gold, 
 16 copper and 16-J- zino; hardest silver solder, 4 silver 
 and 1 copper ; hard silver solder, 3 aUver and 1 
 copper; soft silver solder, 2 sUver and 1 copper; 
 German silver, 100 copper, 60 zinc, and 40 nickel ; 
 type-metal, ordinary, 15 lead, 4 antimony, and 1 
 tin, or 14 lead, 5 antimony, and 1 tin — small types, 
 4 lead and 1 antimony — large types, 6 lead and 
 1 antimony ; stereotype metal, 48 lead, 6 antimony, 
 and 1 tin; Britannia metal, 50 tin, 4 antimony, 4 
 bismuth, and 1 copper. 
 
 ALLOY, or ALLAY (in Law), the term used to 
 denote the base metal mixed with gold and silver in 
 the coinage of the realm. The gold and silver to bo 
 converted into sovereigns, half-sovereigns, shillings, 
 and the other current sOver coins, must be of wie 
 true standard, or of sterling quality, as it is called ; 
 and by the statute 25 Edward III. c. 13, all the 
 coin of the kingdom must be made of such ster- 
 liug metal. By the 56 Geo. III. c. 68, gold coin — • 
 with certain exceptions recited in the act — is declared 
 to be the only legal tender for paynients, and that 
 such gold coin shall be of the weight and fineness 
 prescribed by the indenture with the Master of the 
 Mint ; and according to the standard thus indicated, 
 the pound troy of gold, consisting of twenty- two carats 
 . — or twenty-fourth parts — fine, and two of A., is 
 divided into forty-four guineas and a half, of the pre- 
 sent value of twenty-one shillings each. In the case 
 of silver, the pound troy is declared by the same 
 act — extended by a recent statute, the 12 and 13 
 Vict. c. 41 — ^to consist of eleven ounces two penny- 
 weights of fine silver, and eighteen pennyweights 
 of A., and in weight to be (Svided into sixty-six 
 shillings. The regulation of the coinage forms part 
 of the prerogative of the crown, although parHament 
 also exercises a control over it; indeed, since the 
 Bevolution, the coiuage has been chiefly regulated 
 by the authority of parhament. See CoiKAQE and 
 Mint. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS' BAY, in the province of Bahia, 
 BrazU, in 12°— 13° S. lat, and 38°— 39° W. long. 
 It forms a superb natural harbour, in which the 
 navies of the whole world might anchor. Its length 
 from N. to S. is 37 rmles ; its breadth from E. 
 to W. 27. It contains several islands, the largest of 
 which, Itaparioa, is, 18 mUes lon^and 3 broad! The 
 entrance to the bay is easy. The town of Bahia 
 {q. V.) Hes just within it, on the right hand. 
 
 ALL-SAINTS'-DAY, in old English, All-Hal- 
 lows, AU-Hallowmas, or simply Hallowmas, a festival 
 of the Roman Catholic Church, introduced because of 
 the impossibiUI^ of keeping a separate day for every 
 saint. As early as the 4th c, on the cessation of 
 the persecution of the Christians, the Sunday after 
 Easter was appointed by the Greek Church for 
 commemorating the martyrs generally; and in the 
 Church of Rome a similar festival was introduced 
 about 610 A. D., when the old heathen Pantheon (the 
 present Rotonda, or Santa Maria dei Martin) was 
 consecrated, on the 13th of March, to Mary and all 
 the Martyrs. But the real festival of All Saints was 
 first regularly instituted by Gregory IV., in 835, and 
 appointed to be celebrated on the 1st November. It 
 was admitted into England about 870. The choice 
 of the day was doubtless determined by the fact, 
 
 that November 1, or rather the eve or night preceding 
 it, was one of the four great festivals (1st February, 
 1st May, lat August, and let November) of the 
 heathen nations of the north ; for it was the policy 
 of the church to supplant heathen by Christian 
 observances. See Beltaite and Hallow-evb. 
 
 ALL-SOULS'-DAY, a festival of the Roman 
 Catholic Church, which falls on the 2d of Novem- 
 ber. The object of it is, by prayers and almsgiving 
 to alleviate the sufferings of the souls in purgatory. 
 It was first instituted m the monastery of Clugny, 
 993, and the following is the account given of the 
 circumstance iu which it originated : A piTgrim return- 
 ing from the Holy Land, was compelled by a storm 
 to land on a rooky island somewhere between Sicily 
 and Thessalonica. Here he found a hermit, who told 
 him that among the cHffs of the island was situated 
 the opening into ' the under world, through which 
 huge flames ascended, and the groans and cries of 
 souls tormented by evil angels were audible. The 
 hermit had also frequently heard the complaints 
 and imprecations of the devils, at the number of 
 souls that were torn from them by the jfrayers 
 and alms of the pious ; they were especially enraged, 
 he said, against the Abbot and monks of Clugny. 
 The pilgrim on his arrival acquainted Odilo, Abbot 
 of Clugny, with what had come to his know- 
 ledge, and the abbot thereupon appointed the day 
 after All Saiots to be kept in his monastery as 
 an annual festival for ' All Souls.' The observance 
 was quickly adopted by the whole -Cathohc world. 
 By another aocoimt, the scene of the incident is 
 transferred to Sicily, and the institution to the 
 year 998. 
 
 In some parts of the west of England it is still 'the 
 custom for the village children to go round to aU 
 their neighbours soming, as they call it — collecting 
 small contributions, and singing the following verses, 
 taken down from two of the children themselves : 
 
 Soul ! BOul ! for a EOul-cako ; 
 Pray, good mistrosB, for a soul-cake. 
 One for Peter, two for Paul, 
 Three for Them who made us all. 
 
 Soul 1 soul ! for an apple or two ; 
 
 If you 've got no apples, pears will do. 
 
 Up with your kettle, and down with your panj 
 
 Give me a good big one, and I '11 be gone. 
 
 The soul-cake referred to in the verses is a sort of 
 bun, which, until lately, it was an almost general 
 custom for people to make, and to give to one 
 another on the 2d of November.' — Notes and Queries, 
 First Series, vol. 4. 
 
 A'LLSPICE, a name frequently given to the 
 kind of spice called Pimemta (q. v.) or Jamaica 
 pepper, the fruit of Eugenia pimenta and S. acris. 
 The name originated in its being supposed to com- 
 bine the flavour of different spices, particularly 
 cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves. — The name CAROLOrA 
 A., or American A., is given to the aromatic bark of 
 Gcdycaniku^ floridus (see Calycantuus), which is 
 employed in the United States as a substitute for 
 cinnamon. — The berries of Benzqim odoriferum, of 
 the natural order Lauracece, are said to have been 
 iised for A. in the same country during the war with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 ALLSTON, Washingtoit, one of the best known 
 of the painters and poets of America, was born at 
 George Town, South Carolina, in 1779. He at first 
 prosecuted the study of mediouie, but was after- 
 wards induced, by his acquaintance with the painter 
 Malbone, to devote himself to art. When he had 
 completed his studies in America, he went to London, 
 where he became a friend of his countryman West, 
 who was at that time president of the Academy. 
 In the year 1804, he proceeded to Rome, where he 
 
ALLUVION— ALMAGRO. 
 
 lived for some years in the closest intimacy ■with J. 
 Vanderlyn, Thorwaldsen, and Coleridge. After a 
 short stay in America, to which he returned in 1809, 
 he once more visited England in 1811, when he 
 gained the 200-guinea prize of the British Institution. 
 In 1817 he went to Paris with Leslie, and the year 
 after returned to America. In 1819, he was elected 
 an Associate of the Koyal Academy of London. He 
 now permanently fixed his residence at Cambridge 
 Port, near Boston, where he Kved, cultivating his art, 
 and the muses, tiU his death on the 8th of Jiily 
 1843. His pictures are very numerous. The subjects 
 of them are mostly taken from Scripture, such as, 
 Jacob's Dream, Elijah in the Wildeme(ss, Saul and 
 the Witch of Endor, the DeKverauce of Peter out of 
 Prison, &c. The style of A. is noble, his ideas 
 are imaginative, and many of his paintings evince a 
 true poetic spirit. In colouring, he comes nearer the 
 old masters than most modern painters do. Among 
 his printed works, the most reniarkable and best 
 known is the poem, Th& Sylphs of the Seasons 
 (published first in London, 1813), and the art-novel, 
 Monaldi (Boston, 1842). 
 
 ALLU'VIOIir. This is a legal term, signifying 
 land gained from the sea by the washing up of sand 
 and earth so as to make it terra firma. The right 
 of property thus arising is regulated as follows in 
 the laws of England and Scotland: By the law of 
 England, if the addition to the soil thus made be by 
 little and little, by small and imperceptible degrees, 
 it goes to the owner of the land immediately 
 behind ; but if the A. be a sudden and considerable 
 acquisition from the shore, the ground acquired 
 shall belong to the crown. Where, however, the 
 crown may have made a grant to a subject cum 
 littore maris — that is, the space between the high 
 and low water marks — it would seem that a sudden 
 or considerable increase of lands by A. within these 
 limits must belong to the grantee. In the Scotch 
 law, again, if the A. is made insensibly, it is said to 
 ' accresce ' to, or become the property of the owner of 
 the ground to which the addition is made ; but if it 
 be caused by a violent flood, or by any convulsion 
 of nature, the groimd so added to the soil does not 
 belong to the owner of the latter, but remains the 
 property of the person of whose land it originally 
 formed part. The Scotch law does not recognise such 
 right iu the crown on this subject as is allowed by 
 the law of England. In Scotland, the shore is not 
 considered to be the property of the sovereign ; but 
 it is presumed to be granted as a part and pertiuent 
 of the adjacent land, under the burden of the 
 crown's right as trustee for the public uses, of which 
 navigation and fishing are the chief. 
 
 ALLU'VIUM, a term originally applied to those 
 deposits which were supposed to have been formed 
 subsequently to the Flood, while DUuvium (q. v.) 
 included its products. In modem geological classifi- 
 cation, these two terms, in this sense, have been 
 abolished, as their connection with the Deluge is 
 denied. The diluvial and alluvial deposits are 
 included under the Pleistocene formation (q. v.). 
 The name is now given to those deposits of mud, 
 soil, sand, gravel, &o., which are brought down by 
 streams and rivers and spread over lower lands. 
 See Delta; Denudatios-. 
 
 ALLYGU'EH, a fort in the district of the same 
 name in India. Lat. 27° 56' N., long. 78° 8' E. It 
 hes on the route between Agra and Delhi, being 
 55 miles from the former, and 74 from the latter. 
 Partly to this commanding situation, and partly to 
 the strength derived from its surrounding marshes, 
 it owes any importance that it possesses. It was 
 stormed by the British in 1803, being then the 
 principal dep6t of the French party in the Doab — 
 160 
 
 an exploit of sufficient consequence to be commem- 
 orated by a medal in 1851. But within six years 
 after 1851, A. became the arena of a still more 
 desperate struggle. Ten days after the otitbreak at 
 Meerut, the native troops in garrison mutinied. 
 Fortunately, the Europeans escaped with compara- 
 tively httle sacrifice of life. But the temporary 
 loss of the place was severely felt far beyond the 
 immediate neighbourhood, as almost cutting off 
 the communications between the south-east and 
 the north-west. 
 
 A'LMA, a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot 
 of the Tchadir Dagh, and flowing westward into the 
 Bay of Kalamita, about half-way between Eupatoria 
 and Sebastopol. On the steep banks of this stream, 
 through the channel of which the British troops 
 waded amidst a shower of bullets, a brilliant victory 
 was won on the 20th of September 1854, by the 
 aDied armies of Britain and France, under Lord 
 Kaglan and Marshal St Amaud, over the Kussian 
 army commanded by Prince Menschikoff. 
 
 A'LMACK'S. A suite of assembly-rooms in 
 King Street, St James's. They were buUt in 1765 
 by Ahnack, a tavern-keeper, and were hence called 
 Almaek's Booms ; * they are now generally called 
 WiUis's Rooms, from the name of the present pro- 
 prietor. The name of A. is chiefly associated with 
 the balls that have, since the opening of the rooms, 
 been held there under the management of a com- 
 mittee of ladies of high rank; and has become 
 synonymous with aristocratic exclusiveness. See 
 Chambers's' Journal, First Series, vol. vi. p. 125. 
 
 ALMADB'N or ALMADEN DEL AZOGUE 
 (Arabic, 'the mine of quicksilver'), a town in Spain, 
 50 miles S.W. of Ciudad Real, is the Gisapona 
 Oetobrix of the Romans, and is situated between two 
 moimtains in the chain of the Sierra Morena. Pop. 
 8645. It is famous for its quicksilver mines, the 
 richest iu the world, producing annually about 
 2,000,000 lbs. These mines were worked by the 
 ancient Iberians ; afterwards by the Romans. They 
 were rented by the Fuggers of Augsburg in the 16th 
 c, but were taken under the care of the Spanish 
 government in 1645. Recently, the firm of Roths- 
 child has undertaken the working of. these mines. 
 There is a school of mines iu the place. 
 
 A'LMAGEST, the name given by the Arabs to 
 the great work of Ptolemy the astronomer (q. v.). 
 
 ALMAGRO, Diego d', a. Spanish conquistador 
 — ^i. e., adventurer — in the conquest of South America, 
 was born in 1464. He was a foundliug, and derived 
 his name from the town iu the vicinity of which he 
 was found. Along with many other adventurers, 
 he went, as was common in those days, to seek his 
 fortune in the new world which Columbus had 
 opened up. There he amassed considerable wealth 
 by plunder, and became one of the most influential 
 persons in the new colony of Darien, when he was 
 persuaded to join Pizarro in his attack on Peru. 
 The imdertakmg was crowned with eistouishing 
 success. He was now appointed, in the absence 
 of Pizarro, who had returned to Spaiu with rich 
 presents, governor of the conquered country, and 
 received permission from the Spanish court to conquer 
 for himself a special province south of the territory 
 subdued by Pizarro. In 1534, therefore, he marched 
 on ChiU, penetrated deeply into the land, and 
 returned in 1536, just when the Peruvians had 
 flown to arms under their young Inca, Mimeo Capae, 
 and shut up the Spaniards in Cuzco and Luna. As 
 these towns lay south of Pizarro's district, they were 
 
 * Almack, it is said, was originally a poor Scottish Higli- 
 lander, named M'Call. As a preparatory step to rising into 
 importance in London, he inverted the syllables of his name. 
 
ALMALEE— ALMANAC. 
 
 olauned by A. He dispersed the Peruvian army 
 before Cuzco, and advaaoed with; his fbroes against 
 Lima, hoping to make himself sole master of the 
 country. But the crafty Pizarro contrived, by means 
 of a truce, to gain timei for collecting his forces. 
 On the 6th of April 1538, a desperate engagement 
 took place near Cuzoo,' in -which A.- was ' defeated 
 and taken prisoner. He was condemned to death ; 
 and on the 26tii of the same month, he was strangled 
 in prison, and his corpse beheaded in the market- 
 place of Cuzoo. His son, Diego d'A., gathering 
 together several hundreds of his father's followers, 
 stormed the palace of Fizarro, whom he aasassiuated 
 (1541) ; he then proclaimed himaeK captain-general 
 of Peru ; but, the friends of the murdered governor 
 resisting his- claims, Baca de Castro was sent out 
 from Spain, as supreme arbiter, to quell all diatm-b- 
 auoea. Diego was npw requeated to submit; and 
 on his refusmg, was attacked by the troopa of Baca, 
 when the bloodiest battle took place that had, ever 
 been kno-wn in America (1542). Diego, ha-vjng 
 been defeated and taken prisoner, was executed 
 along -srith forty of hia companions. 
 ■ ALM ALEE', or ALMALI', alarge town of Asiatic 
 Turkey, in the pashaHo of Anatolia. It is situated 
 on the river Myra, about 25 miles from, the sea, and 
 is much frequented by European merchants from 
 Smyrna, &c., who purchase the various products of 
 the place. A. has numerous miUa propelled by 
 water, tan-yards, dye-works, and factories. The 
 inhabitants are very industrious, and everywhere 
 , may be seen indications, of their prosperity — in the 
 clean, and comfortable hpuaeSjpeait apparel, exceUejit 
 roads, fences, bridges, &c. A. is built m a picturesque 
 valley at the edge of a large plateau, 5000 feet above 
 the sea, and is, embosomed m gardens,, which, together 
 -with the , minarets and lofty ' poplars interspersed 
 through the town, give it a striking appearance. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 " A'LMA MA'TER (Lat: nourishing mother) is a 
 name given to a university, in relation to those who 
 have studied lat it,, to distinguish it from, inferior 
 schools of learning.- The word Alma (nourishing, 
 sustaining, or kind) was - applied by the Latin authors 
 ■to such of the deities asi were friendly to men — Ceres, 
 Venus, &o, and also to > the, earth, the light, the^ day, 
 ■wine, aad . tie soU.,! 
 
 AtLMAN'AC, from the Arabic article al; and 
 manah, to count, a word received by the European 
 nations from the east, denoting it book or table con- 
 taining a calendar of the civil divisions of the year, 
 the times of the various astronomical phenomena, 
 and other useful- or entertaining information. Till a 
 comparatively modem date, this ad<litioual matter 
 consisted of astrological predictions and other analo- 
 gous absurdities ; it now embraces, in the best 
 ^Jmanacs, a -wide -\rariety of useful notes and infor- 
 mation, chronological,- statistical, political, agrioul- 
 turalj &e. — The Alexandrian G-teeks had almanacs. 
 The time at which they first appeared- in Europe is 
 not precisely kno-wn. The oldest of which copies (in 
 manuscript) stiU exist, are of the 14th c. ; there 
 are specimens in the libraries of the British Museum 
 and of Corpus Christi CoUege, Cambridge. Tie 
 eaj-liest European A.- worthy of notice was compiled 
 by the celebrated astronomer Purbach, and appeared 
 between the years 1450 and 1461 ; but the first 
 printed A. was that composed by his pupil, Kegio- 
 montanus, for the thirty years from 1475 to 1506, 
 for which he received a muodficent donation from 
 Mathias Corvmus, king of Hungary. Bernard de 
 Granolaohs of Barcelona commenced the publication 
 of an A. in 1487 ; the printer Engel of Vienna, in 
 - 1491 ; and Stbflier of Tubingen, in 1524. Copies of 
 tiiese are now very rare. In 1533 Kabelais published, 
 11 
 
 at Lyon, -his A. for that year, and renewed the 
 publication in 1535, 1548, and 1550. The fame and 
 ptjpularity of the celebrated astrologer, Nostradamus, 
 who prophesied minutely the death of Henry II. 
 of France, the execution of Charles I. of England, 
 the great fire of London, the Pestoratiouj &c., gave 
 such an ^impiilse to the publication of predictions, 
 that, in 1579, Henry IIL of France prohibited the 
 
 insertion of any pohtical prophecies in almanacs 
 
 a prohibition renewed by Louis XIII. in 1628. 
 Before this, in the reign of Charles IX., a royal 
 ardonncmce required every A. to be stamped with 
 the approval of the diocesan bishop. 
 
 Prophetic almanacs still circulate to an incredible 
 extent in France in the rural districts, and among 
 the uneducated. The most popular of all these, is 
 the Almanaoh ZiSgeois, a venerable remnant of 
 superstition. It was first published at Liege — 
 according to the invariable title-page which takes no 
 note of 'time — ^in 1636, by one MatQiieu Laensbergh, 
 whose existence, however, at any time seems very 
 problematical. The Almanadh LUgeois is k most 
 convenient one for those who are unable to read, for 
 by certain symbols attached to certain dates, the 
 most unlettered persons can follow its instructions : 
 thus the rude representation, of a phial announces 
 the proper phase of the moon under which a draught 
 of medicine should be taken; a pill-box^designates 
 the planet most propitious for pills ; a'pair of scissors 
 points out the proper period for qutting hair,, a lancet 
 for letting blood. Of course, amidst ianumerable 
 predictions, some may naturally be expected to 
 come , to^ pass. So in 1774, this, A. predicted that in 
 the April of that year a royal favourite would play 
 her last part. Madame Dubarry . took the prediction 
 to herself,, and repeatedly exclaimed : ' I wish this 
 villanous month of April were over.' In May Louis 
 XV. died, and Madame Dubarry's last, part, was 
 really, played, The credit, of old ,Matthieu was 
 established, more firmly than ever. In, 1852 a 
 number of -commissioiters, appointed ,l)y M. Maupas, 
 minister of poUce, having, examined between 700.0 
 and ,8Q00 of the national chapbooks, which included 
 a great- number of almanacs, pronounced them so 
 deleterious, that it l)eoame necessary forcibly to 
 check their circulaljion. Although stiU in vogue 
 apiongsfi the ignorant peasantry, it is gratifying to 
 learn tha,t, their popularity is greajiyon the wane, 
 and that, various periodicala on a better plan Jiavje 
 started up in France of late years. . 
 
 In England, so far was any restraint from .being 
 put upon the pubhoation of prophetjc , almanacs, or 
 ' Prognostications,' as they were usually called, that 
 the royal letters-patent, gave a monopoly of the 
 trade to the two Universities and the Stationers' 
 Company,' uhder whose patronage, and -with the 
 imprimatur of the Archbishop of Canterbury, such 
 productions as Mobr^s ..4. and Poor SoUn's A. 
 flourished vigorously ; 'although 'it Would be diffi- 
 cult .to find, in so small a coinpass, , an equal quan- 
 tity of ignorance, profligacy, and im|posture, as was 
 Condensed in these publications.' The memory 
 of Partridge, long employed as -the prophet of the 
 Stationers' Company, is preserved in the lively 
 diatribe of S-witt, -writing under the name of Bicker- 
 staff. In 1775, a decision of the Court of Common 
 Pleas, ui favour of a bookseller named CSman, 
 abolished the monopoly of. the Stationers' Company. 
 In 1779, Lord North brought in a bUl renewing 
 their pri-vHeges. After a powerful speech against 
 the measure by Erskine, who exposed the pernicious 
 influence of the productions published under the 
 monopoly, it was rejected. The Stationers' Com- 
 pany, however, stfll maintained their ground by- 
 buying up all rival almanacs ; and it was not until 
 the publication, in 1828, of the Britisli A. by the 
 ^ 161 
 
ALMANAC— ALMEIDA. 
 
 Society for the Diffoaion of Useful Knowledge, that 
 the eyes of the English public became opened to the 
 irrational and deleterioiis nature of the commodity 
 which their own indiflference or folly, as much as 
 the selfishness of their purveyors, had hitherto 
 maintained in existence. The success of this admir- 
 able pubhcation — which still continues to appear 
 annually — stimulated the Stationers' Company to 
 improvement, and they accordingly published the 
 Mnglishmaii's A., which is entirely free from the 
 superstitious absurdities of its predecessors. 
 
 In Scotland the earliest almanacs seem to have 
 been produced about the beginning of the 16th c. 
 Shortly after the beginning of the 17th c, the 
 Almanacs or ' Prognostications ' published at Aber- 
 deen had begun to establish that celebrity which is 
 hardly yet extinct. About the year 1677, they were 
 sold for a plack each ; and the annual circulation 
 amounted, on an average, to 50,000 copies. In 1683 
 appeared a rival publication, under the title of 
 Edinburgh's Tme, Almanack, or a New PrognosH- 
 caticm. For a long time the Scottish almanacs con- 
 tinued, like all others of that age, to contain little 
 besides a calendar, with a list of fairs, and — ^what' 
 constituted the great attraction — predictions of the 
 weather. But something more instructive and com- 
 prehensive became requisite, and the Mdinhurgh A. 
 seems to have been among the first to respond to this 
 requirement of "advancing civilisation; foi*, by vari- 
 ous additions, such as a Est of Scottish members of 
 parliament, it had, in 1745, been extended from the 
 original 16 pages to 36. In twelve years from that 
 date, it had swelled to 72 pages ; in 1779 it had 
 reached 252 pages. Since 1837, it has been published 
 under the title of Oliver and Boyd's New Edin- 
 burgh A., and now (1859) extends to 800 pagfes. It 
 contains an amount of information on all public 
 matters, especially on those connected with North 
 Britain, which, in its completeness, leaves little to 
 be desired. 
 
 What Oliver and Boyd's Edinburgh ji. is to Scot- 
 land, is Thorn's Irish A. to Ireland — a work not less 
 excellent, and even more extensive. 
 
 Almanacs, containing astrological and other pre- 
 dictions, are still published in Great Britain, but 
 their influence is extremely limited, even among 
 the most ignorant portion of the community, and 
 their contents are fitted to excite amusement rather 
 th^n any stronger emotion. 
 
 Of important national almanacs are the French 
 Almanach Imperial, begun in 1679, a bulky octavo 
 volume, full of useful information; the Belgian 
 Royal A., very similar in character ; the Prussian 
 Koyal A. ; and the American A., a very meritorious 
 pubhcation. The Almanach de Gotha, begun in 
 1763, has a European, or rather a cosmopohtan 
 character. See Gotha, A. dk 
 
 The most important astronomical A. published in 
 Britain is the Nautical A., projected by the astro- 
 nomer-royal, Dr Maskelyne, and first published, 
 with the authority of government, in 1767. After 
 Ms death it gradually lost its character, and in 
 1830, in consequence of the numerous complaints 
 made against it, the government requested the 
 Astronotnical Society to pronounce upon the sub- 
 ject. The suggestions of the Society were adopted, 
 and, in 1834, the first -number of the new series 
 appeared, with such additions and improvements as 
 the advanced state of astronomical science rendered 
 necessary. Still older than this A. is the French 
 Connmssance des Temps, commenced in 1679 by 
 Picard, and now published under the authority of the 
 Bureau des Longitudes. Its plan is similar to that 
 of the. Nautical A., but it contains a larger amount 
 of original memoirs, many of them of great value. 
 Equally celebrated is the Berlin Ephemens, published 
 
 under the superintendence of Professor Encke, being 
 an improvement on the Astronomischfis Jahrhuah, so 
 long conducted by his predecessor Bode. 
 
 Another kind of A., which has especially flour- 
 ished in Germany and Prance, belongs rather to the 
 class of publications known in Britain as Annuals, 
 Such are the Almanach d€s Muses, des Dames, 
 Populaire, Icarien, NapoUonien, &o., the latter of 
 which are specially devoted to the interests of parti- 
 cular parties, political or reUgious. Of this kind, the 
 examples in Britain are innumerable, and, in fact, 
 the publication of an A. has now become a favourite 
 medium of advertising and puffery. 
 
 The heavy stamp-duty of fifteenpence per copy, to> 
 which almanacs were long liable in the United 
 Kingdom, was abolished in 1834, since which time, 
 the character, number, and circulation of this class 
 of publications have strikingly advanced. There is- 
 now a very large sale of almanacs in Great Britain 
 for popular use, at not more than one peimy each. 
 
 AtMANAC is also the term applied by antiquaries i 
 to calendars found carved, usually on staves, but 
 also on tablets of wood, scabbards of swords, handles 
 of hatchets, &c. The inscribed characters are ' 
 sometimes the Kunic — hence the name of runslafs, 
 Sdpiones Runici — and sometimes the Gothic. The- 
 saints' days are denoted by symbols, as a pair of 
 shoes for St Crispin's Day. These primitive almanacs 
 were in use among the Scandinavian nations, and 
 the examples of them found in Britain are thought, 
 to have been introduced by the Norsemen. 
 
 ALMANSOR, or, with his fuU name, Abu-Jafer- 
 Abdallah - ben - Mohammed - al - Mansor (al - mansor^ 
 'helped by God'), the second calif of the house of the 
 Abbasides (q. v.), reigned from 754 to 775. Warfare,, 
 treachery, and miu-der were his steps to the throne, 
 and his whole rule was as cruel as its beginning. 
 He especially persecuted the Christians in Syria and 
 Egypt. In war against external foes, he had but. 
 little success. He removed the seat of the oalifate 
 from Kufa to Bagdad, which he built at immense 
 cost, raising the money by oppressive taxation. He- 
 introduced the pemiSious custom of making his freed 
 slaves, mostly foreigners, rulers of provinces. The 
 best feature in his character was his patronage of 
 learning. He caused the Elements of jEuchd to be 
 translated from the Syriac, and the famous fables of 
 Bidpai (q. V.) from the Persian language. A. died 
 during a pUgrimage to Mecca, in the sixty-third year 
 of his age. j 
 
 ALMEI'DA, one of the strongest fortified placea 
 in Portugal, is situated on the jriver Coa, on the 
 Spanish frontier, in the province of Beira. Pop. 
 6000. In 1762, it was captured by the Spaniard^, 
 who soon afterwards surrendered it. Here, in 1810, 
 when the French, under Marshal Ney, attempted to- 
 cross the Coa into Portugal, the English colonel, 
 Cox, defended the town against Marshal Massena ; 
 but the explosion of a powder-magazine compelled 
 bim to. capitulate. In their retreat from Portugal,. 
 1811, the French, under General Brenier, destroyed 
 a great portion of the fortifications of A. ; which, 
 however, were speedily repaired by the English. 
 
 ALMEIDA, Don Francesco d', a famous 
 Portuguese warrior, who flourished in the latter part 
 of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th c. He 
 was the seventh son of the Count of Abrantes, and 
 at an early period distinguished himself in the wars 
 with the Moors, but especially at the conquest of 
 Granada, in 1492. In 1505 his sovereign, Emanuel 
 I., in consideration of his great abilities, appelated 
 him viceroy of the Portuguese possessions in the 
 East Indies. On the 25th of March, he set saU 
 from Lisbon with a fleet of 36 vessels, containing 
 1500 men, many of whom were noblemen, and 3.3 
 
AIMEEIA— ALMOND. 
 
 of good family. On the 22d of July, he reached 
 Quiloa, on the Mozambique coast, where he was 
 soon involved in a quarrel* with the king of that 
 city, the result of which was that A. deprived him 
 of his crown, built a fortress to overawe' the inhabit- 
 ants, and proceeding to Zanzibar, destroyed the 
 town of Mombaza. He then sailed for the Indies, 
 asserting everywhere the superiority of the Portu- 
 guese flag. At Cananor, Cochin, Coulan, Ceylon, 
 and Sumatra, he either built fortresses, to protect 
 the factories and commercial interests of his nation, 
 or established new factories. With the king of 
 Malacca, a commercial treaty was formed about the 
 same time. His son, Lorenzo, carried on several' 
 e^tjieditions as his father's lieutenant, visited Ceylon, 
 and discovered the Maldive Islands and Madagascar. 
 The chief design- of A. was to make the Portuguese 
 sole masters of the Indian seas, and by blockading 
 the Persian and Arabian gulfs, to exclude the 
 Egyptians and Venetians from commerce with the 
 east. To frustrate his endeavours, the Egyptian 
 sultan fitted out, by the help of the Venetians, a 
 large fleet, which, under the command of the 
 Persian, Mir-Hakiin (or, Hossein, according to 
 others), was sent to the assistance of the king of 
 Calicut. In the port of Chaul, young Lorenzo was 
 attacked in very disadvantageous circumstances by 
 Mir- Hakim. He fought with astonishing bravery ; 
 his ships had all but made their escape out to 
 the open sea, when his own was separated from 
 the others, and struck upon a rock; one chance 
 shot carried off one of his legs, and another, tearing 
 away a part of his side, killed him. His father 
 speedily took measures to revenge the death of 
 ms son upon ' the hated Mussulmans, when Alfonso 
 d' Albuquerque appeared on the scene (1507), having 
 been sent out by the Portuguese government to 
 supersede A., whom it had begun to distrust, on 
 account of his brilliant successes. The latter refused 
 to recognise Albuquerque as viceroy, and for some 
 months kept him prisoner at Cochin. He now 
 sailed along the coasts, burning and plundering 
 various seaports, amongst others Goa, and at length 
 utterly destroyed the Egyptian fleet at Diu. From 
 this fierce and avenging expedition, he returned to 
 Cochin, resigned his office into the hands of his 
 successor, and set out on his homeward voyage, 
 November 13, 1508. But he was not destined to 
 see his native land again, for he was slain in an 
 obscure affray with the savages at Cape Saldanha, 
 in the south of Africa, where his men had landed. 
 He was a man of stern, vigorous, and yet impulsive 
 character, capable of severe retaliation of injuries, 
 but not destitute of clemency and generosity. 
 
 ALMEEI'A (Arab. Al-Meryah, 'the conspicu- 
 ous'), anciently Murgis, or Partus Magrms, the 
 chief town ia the Spanish province of the same 
 najue, at ,the mouth of the river Almeria. It has a 
 well-defended harbour, a cathedral, besides 26 
 churches and monasteries, and. a, ^ammar-sohool. 
 In the time of the floors, it was, next to Granada, 
 the richest and most important town in the kingdom, 
 and flourished alike in arts, industry, and commerce, 
 being the ' great port' of traffic with ItaJy and the 
 east. At one time, it was as terrible a nest of 
 pirates as Algiers itself, under the Moorish chief Ibn 
 Mayman, when even Granada, according to the 
 proverb, was merely its 'farm.' Now, it has only a 
 few trifling manufactures, although it stiU keeps up 
 considerable trade in cochineal, red sUk, lead, grapes, 
 and especially wine. The cotton-tree has been 
 planted in the environs of A. by EngKsh merchants. 
 Pop. 20,000. 
 
 ALMOHADBS, the name of a dynasty that 
 rnled in Africa and Spain during the I2th and 13th 
 
 centuries. The word is Arabic, and signifies Uni- 
 tarians. It was taken as a term of distmction; for 
 the A. considered themselves tiie only Mohammedans 
 who worshipped God properly. The founder of this 
 sect, which at first was religious rather than polit- 
 ical, was called Mohammed Ibn-Toumert, a native 
 of the Atlas, region. He Was a man of a bold and 
 subtile intellect, and extremely ambitious. He had 
 travelled much, and acquired a manifold knowledge 
 and experience. His first measures were extremely 
 prudent. He commenced preaching with great zeal 
 the reformation of all abuses, affecting hunself an 
 austere and unselfish life. He went about covered 
 with rags, prohibiting wine, music, and all pleasures. 
 At first, his denunciations were generally held in 
 contempt; but at length his partisans became so 
 numerous, that Ali, king of Marooco, was compelled 
 to take measures against him. It was, however, 
 too late. The Arabs and Berbers flocked to his 
 standard; and at the end of a few years, he was 
 master of the provinces of Fez, Marocco, Tlenizen, 
 Gran, and Tunis. Mohammed imposed on his 
 disciples new ceremonies, and composed for their 
 benefit a special treatise, entitled On die Unity of 
 God. The A. extended their conquests into Spain, 
 subjugating Andalucia, Granada, Valencia, and apart 
 of Aragon, and Portugal as far as the Ebro and 
 Tagus. Mohammed was succeeded in his authority 
 by Abdelmoumen, who had formerly been his Meu- 
 tenant. Under biTn and his descendants, Jussuf and 
 Jacob, the dynasty of the A. continued to flourish 
 in great splendour. But in 1212 they were com- 
 pletely defeated by the Spaniards in the famous 
 battle of Tolosa, the result of which was. a general 
 revolt of the Christian provinces under their sway. 
 The power of the A. was destroyed in Spain in 
 1257, and in Africa in 1269. 
 
 A'LMOND (Amygdalue), a genus of the natural 
 order Rosa/xm (q. v.), sub-order Ainygdalem or Drup- 
 acece, consisting of trees or shrubs, distinguished by 
 
 Almond {Amygdalus commums) 
 
 the coarsely f nrroT^ed and wrinkled shell {endocarp 
 OT^yiitamm) of the drupe, arid by the young leaves 
 being conduplicate, or having t^eir sides folded 
 together. According to the greater number of 
 botanists, it iaoludes the Peach (q.v.), consti- 
 tuted by some into a distinct genus, Fergiqa, in 
 
 163 
 
ALMONDS, FIXED OIL OF— ALMONDS, VOLATILE OIL OE. 
 
 which the drape haa a fleshy covering (sanMcarp), 
 whereas, ia the species to which the name A. is 
 commonly given, this part is a dry fibrous husk, 
 which shrivels as the fruit ripens, and finally opens 
 of its own accord. The A.-tree (Amygdcdus com- 
 munis) is very similar to the peach-tree, and is 
 distiaguished from it principally, besides the differ- 
 , enoe o£ the fruit, by the fine glaudulous serratures 
 of the leaves, the stalk of which equals, or even 
 exceeds, in length the breadth of the blade. It is a 
 tree about 20—30 feet high, a native of the East 
 and of Africa, but has now become completely wild 
 in the whole south of Europe. Even in the more 
 northern parts of Germany and of Britain it is 
 planted for the sake of its beautiful flowers, which 
 are produced iu great abundance, and resemble those 
 of the peach in form and often in colour, although 
 generally paler and sometimes white. The blossoms 
 appear before the leaves, and are very ornamental 
 in shrubberies in March and April ; and even when 
 frosts destroy the germ of the fruit, the briUiancy of 
 the flower is not impaired The wood of the A. -tree 
 is hard, and of a reddish colour, and is used by 
 cabiuet-makers, &c. JBut it is chiefly valued on 
 account of the kernel of its fruit, well known by the 
 
 name of Almokds, 
 and forming an im- 
 portant article of 
 commerce, for the 
 sake of which it is 
 extensively culti- 
 vated in the south 
 of Europe and other 
 countries of similar 
 climate. It is men- 
 ^s^ tioned in the Old 
 "' Testament, and ap- 
 pears to have been 
 cultivated from a 
 very early period. 
 It was introduced 
 into Britain as a 
 fruit-tree before the 
 middle of the 16th 
 0. ; but it is only in the most favoured situations in 
 the south of England that it ever produces good 
 fruit. — Almonds are either sweet or bitter. The 
 bitter appear to be the original kind, and the 
 sweet to be an accidental variety, perpetuated and 
 improved by cultivation. Sweet AuttONDS contain 
 a large quantity of a very bland, fixed oil, eniulsion, 
 gum, and mucilage sugar, are of a very agreeable 
 taste, and very nutritious, and are used in the 
 dessert, in confectionary, and medicinally in an 
 emulsion, which forms a pleasant, cooling, diluent 
 drink. Bittor Almonds contain the same sub- 
 stances, and, in addition, a substance called amyg- 
 dalin, from which is obtained a peculiar volatile oil. 
 (For the oils derived from almonds, see the following 
 articles.) — The muddy water of the Nile is clarified 
 by rubbing bitter almonds on the sides of the water- 
 vessels, in the same way in which the nuts of the 
 Strychnos potatorum (see Clearing Nut) are used 
 iu India. The principal varieties of A. in cultivation 
 are — the conamon sweet A., with thick hard shell; 
 the brittle-shelled, with a very thin, almost leathery 
 brittle shell, and sweet kernels ; the hitter A., with 
 thick hard shell (sometimes also with a brittle 
 shell), and bitter kernels; the large-fruited, with 
 large flowers of a whitish rose-colour, and veiy 
 large sweet fruit ; the small-fruited, with very small 
 sweet fruit ; and the peach A., with a slightly suc- 
 culent blackish sarcoearp (see above), yeSow shell, 
 and sweet kernels. The sarcoearp is, in the different 
 varieties, more or less dry, or somewhat fleshy and 
 juicy, so that some authors have disputed even the 
 161 
 
 Almond. 
 
 specific distinction between the A. and the peach. In 
 commerce, the long almonds of Malaga, known as 
 Jordan almonds, and the broad almonds of Valencia, 
 are most valued. Large quantities of almonds are. 
 annually imported into Britain and America from 
 f'rance, Spain, ItaJy, and the Levant. Bitter 
 almonds are broHght to Britain chiefly from Moga- 
 (Jore. — The Dwabe A. (A. nana) is very similar' tp 
 the common A., except that it is a low slffub, seldom 
 more than 2 or 3 feet in height. Its fruit is also 
 similar, but much smaller. It is common in the 
 plains of the south of Eussia, and is frequently 
 planted as an ornamental shrub in Britain, flowering 
 freely in March and April, but not producing fruit. 
 It ia very beautiful when covered with its pink 
 flowers in spring, and deserves to be more frequently 
 planted than it is. A sheltered but sunny situation 
 ia favourable to it. — Other species, little known, but 
 very similar to these, are found in the east, and one 
 on arid hills iu Mexico. 
 
 ALMONDS, Fixed Oil oe. When aJmonds 
 are subjected to pressure, a fixed greasy oil exudes. 
 Either bitter or sweet almonds may be employed ; 
 but the former are generally used, as they are cheaper 
 than the sweet almonds, and the expressed cake is 
 valuable in the preparation of the essential oil. 1 cwt. 
 of the almonds generally yields 48 to 52 lbs. of 
 the fixed oil. when first obtained, it possesses a 
 turbid or milky appearance ; but when allowed to 
 stand at rest, the impurities settle, and a clear, hght, 
 yellow oil remains above. It has the specific gravity 
 of 918, and sohdifiea when reduped to — 13° F. It 
 haa no odour, and to the taste is truly oleaginous and 
 bland The fixed oil of A. is used in medicine, and 
 possesses a mild laxative property, when administered 
 in large doses. It is often given to newly bom 
 infants, mixed with sirup of violets or. simp of 
 roses. It is beneficial, also, in allaying troublesome 
 cougha, when administered Tvith confection of roses 
 and sirup of poppies. 
 
 ALMONDS, Volatile Oil or Essential 
 Oil oe. The cake which is left after the expres- 
 sion of the fixed oil from bitter A., contains, 
 among other matters, a portion of two substancea, 
 called, respectively, amygdaJin, and emulsin or 
 synaptaae. When the cake ia bruised and made 
 into a paste with water, the aynaptase acts as a 
 ferment upon the qmygdalin, and 1 atom of the 
 latter resolves itself into 2 atoms of volatile oil of 
 bitter A., 1 atom hydrocyanic (prussic) acid, 1 atom 
 of grape-sugar, 2 atoms formic acid, and 7 atoms of 
 water. This paste is placed in a retort, and allowed 
 to stand for 24 hours, when heat is cautioualy 
 apphed, and diatillation carried on. The volatile oil 
 rises in vapour, and passes over into the receiver, 
 accompanied by much water, and contaminated 
 with a considerable amoimt of prussic acid. The 
 oil ia not originally preaent in the bitter A. ; in fact, 
 the latter do not contain a trace of the oil ready 
 formed, so that the oil is purely the product of the 
 fermentation of amygdafiu, 100 parts of which 
 yield 47 of crude oil. Commercial oil of bitter A. 
 has a golden yellow colour, biit may be purified so 
 as to be almost colourless. The crude oil is very 
 poisonous, owing to the pruasic acid dissolved 
 therein, and many fatal cases have occurred from 
 the wilful, accidental, and careleaa uae of the oil. 
 It ia unfortunate that the manufacturera of the 
 volatile oil should not subject the crude oil to the 
 action of lime and an iron salt, and then re-distil, 
 when the prussic acid would be left fixed by the lime 
 and iron, and the pure volatile oil be alone obtained 
 in the receiver. As so procured, the pure oil is not 
 a dangerous poison. The oil has an agreeable odour, 
 an acrid, bitter taste, and bums with a smoky white 
 
AXMONEI^-ALOES. 
 
 flame. It is heavier than water, being of the den- 
 sity of 1083 ; is soluble in water to the e?;tent of 
 1 part in 30 parts of water, and is very soluble in 
 alcohol and ether. Heated.to 356° P., it boUs, and 
 distils over unaltered ; and, exposed to the air, it is 
 gradually oxidised into benzoic acid. The oil is 
 called by the chemist the hydride of benzoyle. In 
 medicine, the volatile oil is used in place of prussio 
 acid, but is very variable in strength, being some- 
 times- four times the strength of medicinal prussic 
 acid. The dose is a quarter of a drop to a drop and 
 a half in an emulsion. The cook and confectioner 
 employ the oil for flavouring custards, &c., and the 
 perfumer uses it for scenting toilet-soap, &c. 
 - A'LMONER is the name given originally to that 
 member of a rehgious order who had the distribu- 
 tion of the money and other things set apart for 
 alms, which, by canonical law, was to amoimt to at 
 least a tenth of the revenues of the estabhshment. 
 Afterwards, those ecclesiastics also received this 
 name who were appointed by princes .to the same 
 oiEce in their households. The Grand A. of 
 Prance was one of the principal officers of the court 
 and of the kingdom, usually a parcKual, and, in right 
 of his office, commander of all the orders, and also 
 chief director of the great hospital for the blind. 
 Queens, princes, and princesses had also their 
 almoners, and bishops werS usually appointed to this 
 office. In England, the office of Hereditary Orand 
 Almoner is now a sinecure, his only duty being 
 to distribute the coronation medals among the 
 assembled spectators. The Lwd High Almoner, 
 who is usually a bishop, distributes t^ce a year 
 the Queen's boimty, which consists in giving a sUver- 
 peuny each to as many poor persons as the Queen 
 isi years of age. 
 
 A'LMTJG TREE, ox ALG-TJM TEEE. This 
 name, occurring in the Old Testament, was formerly 
 supposed to denote a species' of Acacia, or a conifer- 
 ous tree like the cypress; but it. is now thought 
 more probable that it was one of the kinds of Sandal- 
 wood (q. v.), the Santalum album, a native of India. 
 
 ALNXJS. . See Aldbb. 
 
 A'LNWICK (town upon the Alne), the county 
 town of Northumberland, is situated in lat. 55° 25' 
 N., long. 1° 42' W., and is distant, about 34 miles 
 from Newcastle. The streets are broad, well paved, 
 and well lighted, the houses modem, built of stone, 
 and in some instances handsome. A large market- 
 place occupies the centre "of the town. The 
 town-hall is a spacious building crowned with a 
 tower. A. was at an early period a fortified town, 
 and some fragments of the ancient walls even yet 
 remain. . An ancient gate; built by Hotspur, still 
 forms one of the entrances to the city. A. Castle, 
 the residence of the Dukes of Northumberland, 
 stands at the north entrance of ■ the town.- It 
 was repaired some years ago, and is considered 
 one of the most magnificent' baronial structures 
 in England. During the .middle ages, it was a 
 bulwaMc algainst the invasions of the Scots, who 
 thrice besieged it. A. is the election town for the 
 north division of the county. It has various charity 
 schools, a mechanics' institute, a theatre, &o., but 
 the trade is insignificant. Pop. 6300. 
 
 A'LOE {Aloe), a genus of plants belonging to the 
 natural order lAliacece (q. v.) sub-order AtloinecE, dis- 
 tinguished by a regular cylindrical perianth in six 
 pieces, expanded at the mouth, and nectariferous at 
 the base, the stamens hypogynous, or springing 
 from beneath the -germen, the ovules indefinite in 
 number, the fruit a membranous three-oeUed capsule. 
 The species are numerous, natives of warm coun- 
 tries, especially of th? southern parts of Africa. 
 About fifty miles from Cape Town is a mountainous 
 
 tract completely covered with aloes, and the hiUa 
 on the west side of Socotra exhibit them in similar 
 profusion. The species all have stems, but vary 
 m height from a few inches to thirty feet. They 
 have permanent succulent leaves. The negroes of 
 the west coast of Africa make cords and nets of the 
 fibres of their leaves, and stockings are woven from 
 the fibres of a species found in Jamaica. But aloes 
 are chiefly valuable for their medicinal properties. 
 The well-known drug called Aloes (q. v.) is tjie 
 inspissated juice of the leaves of several almost tree- 
 like species, and particularly of A. Socotrina, a 
 native of the island of Socotra; A. purpurascens ; A, 
 spicata, and A. fruticosa, which principally yield the 
 Cape aloes; A. Indica; A. mbescens ; A. AraMca; 
 A. lingudformis ; A. Gommdini; and A. vulgaris, 
 which is found in the East and West Indies, in Italy, 
 and in some of the islands of the Mediterranean, 
 being the only species which' can be reckoned Euro- 
 pean, although it also is probably an introduced 
 plant. The extract prepared from its leaves is 
 known as Hepatic aloes, or as Barbadoes aloes. 
 The bitter principle of aloes has been called 
 Aloesiii. It forms several compounds with oxygen, 
 which possess the properties of acids. — The juice of 
 aloes was anciently used in embalming, to preserve 
 dead bodies from putrefaction. In the East Indies, 
 it is employed as a varnish to prevent the attacks of 
 insects; and has even been allied to bottoms of 
 ships to protect them from 
 marine worms. A beau- 
 tiful violet coloiu' is ob- 
 tained from the leaves of 
 the Socotrine A., which 
 does not require any mor- , 
 dant to fiLx it. It also 
 affords a fine transparent 
 colour for miniature paint- 
 ing. — Mohammedan pU- 
 gruns suspend an A. over 
 their doors on their re- 
 turn from Mecca, to sig- 
 nify that they have per- 
 formed the pilgrimage. 
 
 The Ameeioan A. is a 
 totally different plant. See 
 Agave. 
 
 A'LOES is a drug of 
 great antiquity, for we 
 find Dioscorides (50 a.d.) 
 making mention of Aloe 
 as a substance obtained 
 from a plant, and pos- 
 sessing cathartic proper- 
 ties. The great demand 
 for A. in Britain has led 
 to its importation from 
 numerous sources, includ- 
 ing Bombay, Arabia, Socotra, Madagascar, the Cape 
 of Good Hope, the Levant, and the West Indies. 
 The drug is the inspissated juice of various species 
 of Aloe (q. v.). AH these are characterised more 
 or less by producing large, thick, fleshy leaves, stiff 
 and brittle, pointed, and generally terminating in 
 a strong spine, filled wim a mucilagiaous pulp 
 internally, and containing in the proper vessels of 
 their exterior portion an intensely bitter juice, 
 which yields the medicinal substance A. It is 
 obtained, sometimes in the form of tears, by incision, 
 spontaneous exudation, and inspissation upon the 
 plant ; sometimes by spontaneous evaporation of the 
 juice which drops or exudes by pressure from the 
 leaves when cut away near the base ; sometimes by 
 evaporating the same juice with the aid of heatj 
 and lastly, by evaporating together the juice and a 
 
 decoction of the leaves. 
 
 165 
 
 Aloe fi^uticosa: 
 b, the flower. 
 
ALOES WOOD— ALOYSIA. 
 
 Owing to the great difficulty of determioing the 
 true botanical source of any given sample, the fol- 
 lowing names are made use of in commerce to denote 
 the various kinds of A. found in the market — namely, 
 Socotrine, Clear, Cape, East Indian, Barbadoes, and 
 CabaUine A. The most important are : 
 
 1. Socotrine A. {Aide Socotrina), so called from 
 its supposed source, the island of Socotra, near the 
 mouth of the Arabian G-ulf. this is -the most 
 esteemed of all the varieties used in medical practice. 
 Many hold that this is only a fine variety of East 
 Indian A., but the characters given in the Edin- 
 burgh Pharmacoposia — a garnet-red traoslucency in 
 thin pieces, and almost complete solubUity in spirit 
 of the strength of sherry — define a particular species, 
 which is the true Socotrine A. of pharmacolorists. 
 
 2. East Indian A. (Aloe Indica), also called Hepatic 
 A., from its liver-brown colour, is imported into 
 Bombay from Arabia and Africa, and is known in 
 India by the name of Bombay A. A considerable 
 portion is probably obtained from the same sources 
 as the Socotrine A., which it resembles in colour ; 
 and according to Dr Pereir^, 'the two are some- 
 times brought over intermixed, the Socotrine occa- 
 sionally forming a vein in a cask of Hepatic A.' 
 
 3. Barbadoes A, (Aloe Barbadensis) is prepared in 
 the West Indies from A. Socotrina, and from a 
 variety of A. mdgaris. We learn from Browne's 
 Natural History of Jamaica that the largest and 
 most succulent leaves are placed -upright in tubs, 
 that the juice may dribble out. Tiis evaporated, 
 forms what is sold as Socotrine A. ; but the com-' 
 mon A. is obtained by expressing the juice out of the 
 leaves, boiling it with water, evaporating and pour- 
 ing it into gourds ; whence this kind is often called 
 gourd A. It lis much used for veterinary medicine, 
 and thus brings a high price in the market. 
 
 Caballiue A. (Aloe cahallina) is a very coarse 
 kind, and is so called because it is considered 
 fit only for horses. It contains many impurities, 
 such as wood, sand, and charcoal, and evidently con- 
 stitutes the lowest stratum in the vessels in which 
 the better sorts are allowed to cool. It is now in a 
 
 f:eat measure superseded in veterinary practice by 
 arbadoes A. 
 
 All kinds of A. are remarkable for their disagree- 
 able taste. The odour is peculiar, and is more per- 
 ceptible when the drug is breathed upon. A. is in a 
 great measure soluble in water, and more so in hot 
 than cold water. A. was formerly considered to be 
 a gum-resin ; but the portion which was thought to 
 be of the nature of gum is now regarded as a variety 
 ,of extractive, and to it the name of Aloesiu has been 
 given. 
 
 Action. — When employed in small doses, A. exerts 
 a tonic, and in larger doses, a cathartic action. It 
 is considered by some authorities to stunulate the 
 liver, and also to supply the place of deficient bile 
 in torpidity of the intestinal canal, and more espe- 
 cially towards its lower part. Both taken singly, 
 and also in combination with other cathartics, A. is 
 perhaps the most important and the most extensively 
 used of vegetable remedies of its class ; and there is 
 no end to the variety of cases in which it may be 
 employed with advantage. 
 
 ALOES WOOD (called also Agila Wood, Eagle 
 Wood, or AgaUochum) is the inner part of the tnmk 
 of Aquilaria ovata and A. AgaUochum, trees of the 
 natural order Aquilariacece (q. v.), natives of the 
 tropical parts of Asia, and supposed to be the aloes 
 or Ugn aloes of the Bible. They are large spreading 
 trees with simple alternate leaves. Aloes-wood, con- 
 'tains a dark-coloured, fragrant, resinous substance, 
 and is much prized in the east as a medicine, and 
 for the pleasant odour which it diffuses in burning. 
 It has been prescribed in Europe in cases of gout 
 166 
 
 and rheumatism. The resinous substance is found 
 only in the inner part of the trunk and branches ; the 
 younger wood is white, and almost scentless. A 
 similar substance, still more esteemed, is obtained 
 in the south-eastern parts of Asia and the adjacent 
 islands, from the central part of the trunk of A loexylon 
 Agallochum, an upright-growing tree with - simple 
 alternate leaves, and telrminal panicles of small 
 flowers, of the natural order Legwminosce, sub-order 
 O'deaatpinieae. This tree abounds particularly on the 
 highest mountains of Coehin-China and the Moluccas ; 
 a character of sacredness is attached to it, and it is 
 cut with religious ceremonies. The A. W. which 
 it yields is not only much prized in the east as a 
 perfume, but many medicinal virtues ,are ascribed 
 to it. The ahcients ascribed to it similar virtues, 
 and so valued it for thdse and its fragrance, that 
 Herodotus says it once sold for more than its weight 
 in gold. It was regarded almost as a universal 
 medicine. Its very fragrance was supposed to have 
 a -beneficial influence, and it was therefore worn 
 about the person. As it admits of a high polish and 
 exhibits a beautiful graining, precious gems were set 
 in it ; and it was cut into fantastic forms and worn 
 in head-dresses, &c. There seems to be allusion to 
 a similar use of it in Psalm xlv. 8, 'All thy garments 
 smell of myrrh and aloes and cassia.' Or perhaps 
 this merely refers to its being employed to- perfume 
 clothing. It was also from a very early period much 
 used to perfume the apartments of the great. The 
 fragrance continues imdiminished for years. Lign 
 Aloes is a corruption of Lignum Aloes (Aloes Wood). 
 
 ALONG-SHORE, a phrase appHed in navigating 
 near a coast, to denote a passage near to, and parallel 
 with, the shore. ' Along-shore-men,' or ' 'long-shore- 
 men,' is a peculiar designation given to some of the 
 humbler and rougher men employed a^jout docks 
 and shipping, in the Thames and other rivers. 
 
 ALOO'F, at sea, is simply ' at a distance.' To 
 'keep the loof,' or 'keep the lufi^' is a command 
 given to the man at the helm. 
 
 ALOPECU'RUS. See Foxtail. 
 
 ALO'SA. See CmPBiDiE and Shad. 
 
 ALOST (the name signifies 'to the east,' and 
 was probably given to the town because it lay 
 near the eastern frontier of the province), a town 
 in Belgium, the old capital of the province of East 
 Flanders, is situated on a tributary of the Scheldt, 
 called the Dender, which is here converted into 
 a canal. It is a walled city with five gates, has 
 considerable trade in hops, com, &o., and large 
 manufactures, besides numerous breweries, distil- 
 leries, bleach-fields, print-works, copper and iron 
 foundries, flax and cotton mills, &o. The finest 
 building in A. is the church of St Martin, an 
 unfinished edifice, but one of the grandest in 
 Belgium, and containing a famous painting by 
 Rubens — 'St Roch besepching our Saviour to stay 
 the Plague of A.,'' and also the mausoleum of Thierry 
 Martens, who was bom here, and who introduced 
 the art of printing into Belgium, 1475 a.d. A. 
 has a town-hall (founded in 1200 A. D.), a, college, 
 a hospital, chamber of commerce, academy of design, 
 &c. Pop. 15,000. 
 
 ALOYSIA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Verbenaceai (q. v.), to which belongs a shrub, A. 
 citriodora, much cultivated in greenhouses and apart- 
 ments in Britain for the gratefril fragrance which 
 its leaves emit when slightly bruised. It is fre- 
 (juently to be seen in the windows of cottagers, and 
 is by them generally named Verbena. It was for- 
 merly known to botanists as Verbena triphylla, and 
 has also been referred to the allied genus Lippia. 
 The leaves are in whorla of three. It is a native of 
 ChiU. In the Channel Islands and the south, of 
 
Ali"— AXP-AESLAH. 
 
 I Ireland, it beoomea a, luxuriant shrub in the open 
 air, reaching a height of 10 — 25 feet, with osier-Eke 
 ishoots. 
 
 ALP, ALB, also called the Eauhe or Swabian Alp, 
 is a chain of mountains above 60 milea in length, 
 and from 12 to 15 ia breadth, situated between the 
 Necliar and the Danube. It forms the water-shed 
 between these two rivers and the basin of the 
 Ehine, and lies almost entirely within the kingdom 
 of WUrtemberg. It is also in the vicinity of the 
 Black Forest, but presents a totally different 
 appearance, on account of its being clothed with 
 forests of hard wood instead of pine. It forms a 
 table-land intersected by a few narrow deep vaUeys^ 
 The average height of the system is rather more 
 -than 2000 feet. On the north, it descends to the 
 Neckar in ridges of rooky cliffs, and abrupt pointed 
 headlands ; but on the south, it gradually slopes 
 away to the level of the valley of the Danube. 
 The scenery is, often very picturesque, for the sharp, 
 precipitous crags are frequently crowned with the 
 ruined castles and strongholds of the famous old 
 German families, such as the HohenzoUerna, Hohen- 
 staufens, &c. The geological formation of the Alp 
 is calcareous, and presents a regular stratification. 
 Caverns of a very remarkable character aboimd 
 .among the rocks. The valleys at the base of the 
 hills are fertile, and produce abundance of wine 
 and fruit, but the high table-land lias an extremely 
 .poor and barren soil. 
 
 ALPA'CA, or PACO {Aiiehenia Paco; see 
 AtroHBNiA), an animal of the same genus with the 
 ' Lama (q. v.), and so closely allied to it, that many 
 natiuralists regard it as a variety rather than a 
 distinct species. It is remarkable for the length and 
 fineness of the wool, which is of a silken texture, and 
 •of an imcommonly lustrous, almost metallic appear- 
 .ance. The A. is smaller than the lama; the legs 
 and breast are destitute of callosities. In form, it 
 somewhat resembles the sheep, but with a longer 
 neck and more elegant head. It carries its long 
 neck erect; its motions are free and active, its 
 ordinary pace a rapid bounding canter. The eyes 
 are very large and beautiful. The wool, if regularly 
 shorn, is supposed to grow about six or eight inches 
 in a year ; but ii allowed to remain upon the animal 
 for several years, attains a much greater length, 
 sometimes even thirty inches, and not imfrequently 
 .twenty. Its colour varies; it is often yellowish 
 brown; sometimes 'gray, or approaching to white; 
 sometimes almost black. 
 
 The A. is a native of the Andes, from the equator 
 to Tierra del Fuego, but is most frequent on the 
 
 Alpaca. 
 
 highest mountains of Peru and Chili, almost on the 
 borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of 
 
 one or two hundred. In a wild state, it is very shy 
 and vigilant ; a sentinel on some elevated station 
 gives notice Of the approach of danger by snorting I 
 to alarm the flock. Alpacas seem instinctively 
 to know when a storm is coming on, and seek the 
 most sheltered situation within their reach. Flocks, 
 the property of the Peruvian Indians, are allowed to 
 graze throughout the whole year on the elevated 
 pastures, and are driven to the huts only at shear- 
 ing-time. When one is separated from the rest, it 
 throws itself on the ground, and neither kindness nor 
 severity wiU induce it to rise and advance alone. 
 It is only when brought to the Indian huts very 
 young, that they can be domesticated so as to live 
 without the companionship of the flock ; but then 
 they become very bold and familiar. ' Their habits 
 are remarkably cleanly. 
 
 The Indians have from time immemorial made 
 blankets and ponchos or cloaks of A. wool It is 
 not quite thirty years since it became an article of 
 commerce, but its use for the manufacture of shawls, 
 coat-linings, cloth for warm climates, umbrellas, &c., 
 has gradually increased, and njore than 2,000,000 
 lbs. ^re now annually imported into Britain. The 
 credit of introducing and raising to its present 
 magnitude the Alpaca wool-manufacture in Britain, 
 is due to Mr Titus Salt. 
 
 Attempts have been made to introduce the A. into 
 Europe ; but not yet with very satisfactory results. 
 The only considerable flock known to exist is in the 
 Pytenees. There seems no reason, however, to doubt 
 that the mountains of Wales and Scotlanif are 
 suitable for this branch of husbandry ; and it is to 
 be hoped that enterprise such as has been directed 
 to the manufacture of A. w^ool in Britain, will soon, 
 and with equal success, be directed to the production 
 of it. There are probably not yet more than two 
 or three hundred alpacas in Britain, and these 
 mostly in parks connected with the residences of 
 noblemen and gentlemen, not in the situations for 
 which they seem to be peculiarly adapted. An 
 attempt is now being made to introduce the A. 
 into Australia. The ^.animals intended for this 
 purpose were brought from South America to 
 Glasgow, and again shipped for a ■ second long 
 voyage. 
 
 A. wool is straighter than that of the sheep, 
 very strong in proportion to its thickness, and 
 breaks little in combing. The fibre is small, and it 
 is very soft, pliable, and elastic. — The flesh of the 
 animal is said to be very wholesome and pleasant. 
 
 ALP-AHSLA'K, a Persian sultan, the second of 
 the Seljukide dynasty, bom in Turkestan in 1028 
 or 1030. In 1053, he ascended the throne of Khor- 
 assan, after the death of his father Daoud, and in 
 1063 he also succeeded his uncle. His first act 
 was to unite the whole of his dominions in one vast 
 monarcliy. He "toext embraced Islamism, and it 
 was on this occasion that he took the surname of 
 Alp-Aislan (the Lion-heart), his real name being 
 Mohammed-Lhaz-ed-Dyn-Abou-Choudja. The Cahf 
 of Bagdad gave him the title of Adhad-eddin 
 (Defender of the Faith), with this extreme honbur 
 — namely, that prayer should be made in his 
 name. He had an excellent vizier, Nisam-al-MuIk, 
 one of those lettered ornaments of early Moham- 
 medanism. This vizier was the founder of all the 
 colleges and academies in the kingdom. While 
 he (Erected the internal administration ■ of affairs, 
 A made war successfully. He suppressed revolts, 
 and extended the northern boimdaries of his 
 dominions. In 1067 and 1068 he pursued the course 
 of his conquests, carrying off the gates of the church 
 of St Basil at Cssarea, which were" enriched with 
 gold and pearls, and' overthrowing the Greeks under 
 ^icephorua Botoniates. In 1069, he invaded 
 
 167 
 
ALPES— ALPHABET. 
 
 Armenia and Georgia, at that time Clmstian king- 
 doms. The most remarkable incident in this expe- 
 dition -was the blockade of the convent of Mariam- 
 Nishin, situated on an island in the middle of a lake, 
 and considered impregnable. An earthquake over- 
 threw the walls during the siege, when it imme- 
 diately surrendered. He next proceeded against the 
 Greeks who, under their brave emperor, Bomanus 
 IV., had thrice driven back the Turks beyond the 
 Euphrates. In August 1071, a bloody battle was 
 fought near the fortress of Malasli;erd, between the 
 towns, of Van and Erzeroum. A. gained the victory. 
 The Greek emperor was taken prisoner, and only 
 obtained his hberty by a ransom of £1,000,000, and 
 an annual tribute of £160,000. Rather more than 
 a year after this (December 15, 1072), A perished 
 at Berzem in Turkestan by the poniard of Jussuf 
 Cothuol, whom he had insulted. He was buried at 
 Mervg, in the tomb of his ancestors. 
 
 ALPES is the name of two departments in 
 France, the Basses-Alpes (or Lower Alps), and the 
 HauUs-Alpes (or Upper Alps). The department 
 of the Bassbs-Alpbs occupies the N.E. part of 
 Provence, and includes an area of 2680 square 
 miles. It is, for the most part, mountainous, con- 
 sisting of spurs or offshoots from the Maritime 
 Alps, which run in numerous chains towards the 
 Rhone. In the north, the climate is cold, the soU 
 poor, and the cultivation bad ; in the south, the 
 climate is much better — almonds, apricots, peaches, 
 and various other choice fruits are grown, amongst 
 which the plums of BignoUes form a weU-knowa 
 artide of commerce. The wines of this region 
 are reckoned excellent. On the sides of the Alps, 
 oxen and sheep find admirable pasturage. The 
 mines produce lead, green marble, &c. At Digne 
 and Grgoulx there are hot mineral springs. Pop. 
 150,000; the trade carried on is insignificant. The 
 department is watered by the Durance. The chief 
 town is Digne; pop. 3720. 
 
 The Hatjtes- ALPES, lying north of the Basses- A., 
 and forming a part of the old province of Dauphing, 
 is traversed by the chief range of the Cpttian 
 Alps, which here rise, in Moimt Pelvoux,' to the 
 height of 14,000 feet, and Mount Olan to 13,120 
 feet. The scenery, especially along the com^e 
 of the impetuous Durance, is singularly picturesque. 
 The Hautes-A. is the highest department in Prance; 
 the fierce north wind and the perpetual snow on the 
 lofty peaks, make the climate severe and the winter 
 long, so that the barren soil wUl yield httle else 
 than potatoes, a httle rye, oats, and barley. Here 
 and there, in the most southerly valleys, nut-trees, 
 chestnuts, vines, and other choice fruits, thrive. Only 
 homed cattle, asses, and mules are bred profitably. 
 The most important road^ through this department 
 are : 1st, The road from Grenoble to Brian9on; 
 2d, The road from Briangon to Susa, in Piedmont, 
 over the Col-de-Genevxe, (which has recently been 
 used to transport masses of French soldiery into 
 Italy) ; 3d, The road from Gap to Marseflle. The 
 area is 2136 square miles ; pop. 130,000. The inhabit- 
 ants are employed in the manufacture of leather, 
 linen, and wooUens. A number are Hkewise engaged 
 in the mines, which produce lead, copper, iron, and 
 anthracite. About 4000 leave the department 
 annually to seek employment. Chief town. Gap; 
 pop. 5450. 
 
 A'LPHABET. The A. of any language is the 
 series of letters, arranged in a fixed order, with 
 which that language is written. Picture-writing was 
 doubtless the earKest method invented of conveying 
 thought through the eye. The idea of an ox was 
 readily expressed by a sketch of the animal, or, 
 for shortness, by an outline of his head and horns. 
 
 Or the picture was used symbolically; as the figure 
 of an eye, to express the action of seeing, or the 
 attribute of wisdom. In process of time, some of 
 those pictures came to be used phonetically — i. e., to 
 represent, not ideas, but sounds. But the sounds 
 so represented would at first be whole words, or, at 
 all events, syllables; and. the important step was 
 yet to be takeii of analysing syllables into their 
 elementary sounds, and of agreeing upon some one 
 unvarying picture or sign (a letter) to represent 
 each. This constituted the invention of the A. By 
 what, steps alphabetic 'writing most probably rose 
 out of picture-writing, will be seen under the head 
 of Hibboglyphics. See also Chinese LAJfGUAGE 
 and CuNEiEOBM Chahactebs. 
 
 The Phoenician A. is the oldest of which we have 
 any acooimt; and from it have originated, directly 
 or indirectly, all the modes of writing now in -use in 
 the world. It is the foundation of the Greek, the 
 Latin, and the Arabic alphabets; and the great 
 influence of the nations speaking these tongues 
 accounts for the wide-spread similarity. Taking 
 both ancient and modem times into account, as 
 many as 400 alphabets have been enumerated ; but 
 of those now in use, if we set aside slight variations 
 of form, the number does not exceed 50. Auer's 
 Sprachhalle (Vienna, 1849) contains a rich collection 
 of alphabet^. We must confine' Curselves here to 
 those more immediately connected with, the history 
 of the English A. 
 
 A point of considerable importance is the order 
 of the letters, In modem alphabets, this appears 
 at first sight to be quite arbitrary; but traces of a- 
 principle of arrangement, or natural system accord- 
 mg to which the series grew, have recently been 
 brought to light.* ^'he evidences of such a natural 
 order are best seen in the Hebrew A., which was 
 almost identical vrith the Phoenician. The following 
 table exhibits the Hebrew letters, with their names, 
 and sounds or powers ; and also' tl^e names of the 
 letters composing the early Greek A., as borrowed 
 from the Phoenician : 
 
 
 HEBREW. 
 
 GBEEK. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sound or Power. ' 
 
 r N Aleph, 
 
 a vowel or breathing. Alpha, 
 
 
 JjBeth, 
 
 B. 
 
 Beta. 
 
 ^■ 
 
 J Gimel, 
 1 Daleth, 
 
 G(gmi). 
 
 Gamma. 
 
 
 D. 
 
 Delta. 
 
 
 r HHe, 
 
 a vowel or breathing. E{psilon). 
 
 
 1 Tau, 
 
 VorF. 
 
 F = V (digamma). 
 
 2- 
 
 [T Zayn, 
 
 z.] 
 
 Zeta. 
 
 
 rtKheth, 
 
 KF or CH. 
 
 Eta. 
 
 
 ^ to Theth, 
 
 TH. ■ 
 
 Theta. 
 
 
 r ' Yod, 
 
 J. 
 
 Iota. 
 
 
 [3 Kaph, 
 
 K, variety of.] 
 
 Kappa. 
 
 q 
 
 U Lamed, 
 
 L. 
 
 Lambda. 
 
 o- 
 
 QMem, 
 
 M. 
 
 Mu. 
 
 
 3 Nun, 
 
 N. 
 
 Nu. 
 
 
 [D Samekh 
 
 S, variety of.] 
 
 Sigma. 
 
 
 ^VAyn, 
 
 a' vowel 
 
 0(mikron\ 
 
 
 Q Pe, 
 
 »P. 
 
 Pi. 
 
 
 [y Tsadi, 
 
 TS.] 
 
 
 4- 
 
 p Koph, 
 
 KorQ. 
 
 .Koppa. 
 
 
 •"1 Eesh, 
 
 R] 
 
 Eho. 
 
 
 117 Sin. 
 
 S.] 
 
 San. 
 
 
 . n Tau, 
 
 T. 
 
 Tau. 
 
 L 
 
 saving out 
 
 of account the 
 
 letters enclosed in 
 
 brackets, wMcli are not easily accounted for, and 
 
 * The theory was first propounded in 1833, by Professor 
 Key, of University College, London, in the Penny Ci/clopa:dia, 
 art. 'Alphabet.' 
 
ALPHABET. 
 
 are possibly later iaterpolations, the whole fall into 
 fovi groups, the law of which will best appear in 
 the following scheme : 
 
 1 
 
 4 -i 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 1 1 
 3 p5 fi 
 
 
 a 
 
 b g d 
 
 Flats or raedials. 
 
 e 
 
 V eh th 
 
 Aspirates. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 p 'k t 
 
 Sharps. 
 Liquids. 
 
 I m n 
 
 Without entering at present into the nature of the 
 relation. between the letters in the several rows, 
 horizontal and vertical, of the scheme (for which see 
 Lettbhs), it will be seen that group (1) in the Hebrew 
 A. consists of a vowel followed by three mute letters, 
 all having one character (fiats or medials) ; that 
 group (2) consists of a vowel followed by three 
 mutes, also having one character -(aspirates) ; and 
 that group (4) consists in Uke manner of- a vowel 
 followed by three mutes, aU of the same character 
 (sharps). The order, moreover, according to the 
 organ of utterance, m which the mutes follow in 
 each group,, is invariable: the labial (lip-sound) 
 coming first; the palatal (palate-sound), second; and 
 the dental (tooth-sound), last; This principle of 
 arrangement is characterised by Dr Latham as a 
 cirfiulating order. Group (3) likewise consists of a 
 vowel and four consonants of one character (Uquids) ; 
 but in this case the order of the vocal oi'gans ia not 
 observed — at least in the form in which the Hebrew 
 A. is known to us ; in order to be symmetrical with 
 the other groups, the sequence would require to be 
 TO, I, n. 
 
 The nucleus of the original A- would thus seem 
 to have consisted of sixteen letters, grouped in four 
 tetrads or quaternions, on an organic principle of 
 arrthigement. This principle is obscured in English 
 and other modern alphabets, by some of the letters 
 having gradually come to represent quite other 
 sounds than their original. There is sufficient 
 evidence, for example, that in the earhest Latin 
 , alphabet, from which the English is derived, the third 
 ■ letter, C, had the power of G (in gun). ■ There was 
 a subsequent period in the development of that 
 language when the distinction between the sharp 
 and flat palatal sounds seems to have been lost, and 
 when two syllables like Team aftd gam would have 
 been both pronounced ahke [ham). C thus acqxiired 
 the power of K, and the letter K itself went almost 
 out of use; But about the time of the First Punic 
 War (2*4 — 241 B.C.), the distraction between the 
 sharp and the flat sounds revived ; and while the 
 original C continued ever after to have the "power 
 of K (Oicero, for instance, was pronounced Kihero), 
 a new character (G) was formed from, it, by a very 
 slight alteration, to express the flat sound. Again, 
 the modem H, which has in most cases become a 
 mere evanescent breathing, can be traced back 
 until it becomes a strong guttural, like CH in the 
 Scotch word loch. The ;^ace of the third consopant 
 in the cycle of aspirates is a complete blank in the 
 alphabets derived from the Latia; because that 
 language being originally destitute of the soimd, 
 dropped, the sign of it, from the first. The Latins 
 were, in facii, completely destitute of the genuine 
 aspirate sounds; for even the letter P had not the 
 sound we give it. ' Therefore, when they had to 
 represent the aspirate consonants of the Greek 
 language, ip, %, I, they had recourse to the combina- 
 tions ph, eh, ft—a clumsy expedient still followed 
 in modem alphabets derived from the Roman, and 
 constituting one of their most serious defects. — The 
 
 cycle of the sharps is pretty perfect in the English 
 alphabet, for Q is only a variety of K. 
 
 It Is easy to conceive a language represented by 
 sixteen characters of the nature above described. 
 The most serious deficiency would seem to be the 
 want of r and s. But the sound of th is very nearly 
 allied to that of s (witness 'loves or loveth;' also 
 the pronunciation of a person who litfipiA), and one 
 character midit be made to stand for both, as 
 easHy^as in Enghsh c is made to represent two 
 sounds so different as those exemplified in cat and 
 city. Some nations, again, are said to make no 
 distinction between r and I, so that one character 
 might stand for both these, sounds. 
 
 But whether or not the Phoenician A. had origin- 
 ally only sixteen letters, it is evident that when 
 transplanted into Greece, it }iad twenty-one letters, 
 if not twenty-two. In accommodating itself to the 
 necessities of the Greek tongue, ij; gradually under- 
 went a series of changes. Some of the letters were 
 modified: He became e; Oheth, ee; Sigma became 
 l = x, and the name Sigma was 'transferred to San. 
 Other letters were altogether dropped, as Digamma 
 ( = v) and Koppa. . On the other hand, for such 
 simple sounds as had no representatives in the 
 Phoenician, new characters were invented, and 
 annexed to the end {v, f, Xt '>Ai ")■ 
 
 Another important change was in the direction 
 of the writing. In the Phoenician and other S^paitio 
 languages, the writing proceeded from right to left. 
 The jGreeks, on borrowing the Phoenician A., also 
 wrote for some time from right to left. The mode 
 called hustrophedon (turning hke an ox in ploughing), 
 of writing alternately from right to, left and from 
 left to right, was then introduced ; and finally the 
 direction from left to right prevailed throughout 
 the West, to the exclusion of the other modes. 
 
 In the classical period of the Greek language, the 
 A. had come to consist of twenty-four letters, as in, 
 columns 2, 3, 4 of the foUowiug table. Column 1 
 (copied from BaUhom's Alphmete) gives some of 
 the earlier, forms of the Greek letters, found on coins 
 and' other inscriptions, of the period when writing 
 still proceeded frran right to left ; column 2 is from 
 the Alexandrian ■ Codex (q. v.), as given in Key's 
 Alphabet; and Nos. 3 and 4 are the modem printed 
 forms of capitals and small letters. The small 
 characters are merely cursive forms or variations of 
 the capitals ; and it woidd not be diSicult to shew 
 how, in each case, the endeavour to trace the capital 
 on soft material rapidly and without lifting the 
 hand, would give rise to the form now used as tha 
 small letter. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 ?^ 
 
 t 
 
 5 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 e 
 
 R 
 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 K 
 
 gebbk: alphabet. 
 
 4 Name. 
 
 Power, 
 
 A x Alpha a 
 
 B /3 Beta b 
 
 r y Gamma g 
 
 A S Delta d 
 
 E I Epsilon e (short) 
 
 H » 
 
 e i 
 
 I I 
 
 K X 
 
 Zeta 
 
 Eta 
 Theta 
 Iota . 
 Kappa 
 
 ds 
 
 e (long> 
 
 th 
 
 1G9 
 
ALPHABET. 
 
 3 
 
 Ifame. 
 
 Power, 
 
 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 A\ 
 
 Wi 
 
 A 
 
 N 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 '1 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 r 
 
 /A 
 
 c 
 
 T 
 
 T 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 4> 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 (JL) 
 
 A X Lambda I 
 
 M fi, My m 
 
 N V Ny n 
 
 B I Xi I 
 
 6 Omikron o (short) 
 
 n !r Pi p 
 
 P e Eio r 
 
 2 irj Sigma 3' 
 
 T , Tau t 
 
 1 u Ypsflou u 
 
 * ?> Phi fph 
 
 X ;g Chi ch 
 
 •y r^ Psi ps 
 
 n a OmSga o (long) 
 
 With regard to ^e. figures or shapes of the letters, 
 it is believed that they all arose out of pictures or 
 hieroglyphic characters. The names of the Hebrew 
 letters are also the names of material objects; and 
 the letters themselves were at first, in aU probability, 
 rude outlines of the objects. Aleph, for example, 
 means an ' ox,' and the letter was in its orimji an 
 outline of an o;x's head. The history of Gimel, 
 which means ' camel,' is probably similar. The 
 Hebrew characters known to us are believed to be 
 comparatively' modem, and much corrupted from 
 their original forms, and the Hkeuesses are more 
 difficult to trace ia them than in the Samaritan and 
 the early Greek, or even in the Latin. Mem, agaio, 
 is the Hebrew word for 'water,' and some of the 
 earhest forms of the letter M are zigzag hnes, 
 similar to the sign of Aquarius (XHv) in the zodiac, 
 intended no doubt to represent the undulations of 
 water. Ayn, the name of the Hebrew letter equi- 
 valent to 0, also means an 'eye,' and the picture 
 of an eye would naturally degenerate iuto a circle, 
 first with a dot in the centre (which' some ancient 
 O's actually have), and then without a dot. 
 
 The A. came iuto Italy not directly from Phoenicia, 
 but from Greece, and that at a time when the Greek 
 A. had undergone some of the changes described 
 above, although not all of them; u, f, and x: liad 
 been added, but not ^^ and a. Moreover, there 
 must have hepn distinct and iudependent importa- 
 tions iuto more than one part of Italy, and that, 
 probably, from different parts of Greece, or, at all 
 events, at different periods. The Etrurian A. is 
 evidently an earUer importation than the more 
 southerly Latin, as it departs less from the Phoeni- 
 cian. There are even differences in. different parts 
 of Etniria itself. The alphabets of Etruria north of 
 the' Apennines (for numerous inscriptions recently 
 <ii3oovered shew that this remarkable race must 
 have extended at one time as far north as the 
 Alpine valleys of Provence, Tyrol, Graubiindten, and 
 Styria) differ shghtly from the alphabets of the in- 
 scriptions in Etruria proper, which are demonstrably 
 taken from the A. of the Greek colony of Caere. 
 
 The Latin A., which became that of Rome, and 
 thus of the whole western world, was borrowed from 
 a newer form of the Greek — namely, that imported 
 170 
 
 by the Dorian Greeks of Cumae and Sicily. The 
 writing jn the oldest Latin inscriptions is never 
 from right to left, as is mostly the case in Etrurian. 
 On the other hand, the Kaph and the Koph (K and 
 Q) of the Phoenician, which disappear in Etnifian, 
 are retained in Latin. The Greek A. of Cunue had 
 not yet received the addition of i/- and «; but it stiU 
 retained the representative of the Phoenician Vau, 
 the Digamma, and also Koppa, and thus consisted of 
 twenty-fom: letters. The Latin tongue, being desti- 
 tute of aspirate sounds, dropped the three letters f, 
 (f, Xt so that the original Latin A. consisted of 
 twenty-one letters, the forms of which, as seen on 
 the oldest inscriptions, were as in the following table. 
 See Corssen's Aussprache, Voccdismus und Betonung 
 der Laieinischen Bprache (Leip. 1858). 
 
 I. .. A, A, A, A. 12. m M, W,yW, nil. 
 ^, B. 
 
 2. b 
 
 3. c 
 
 4. d 
 
 5. 6 
 
 6. f 
 
 7. z 
 
 8. h 
 
 D. 
 
 E, II. 
 I" R 
 
 z. 
 
 10. k JC.(|2) 
 
 13. n 
 
 14. o 
 
 15. p 
 
 16. q 
 171 r 
 
 18. s 
 
 19. t 
 
 20. V 
 21.x 
 
 IL 1 
 
 0, <^, 0, o. 
 
 ri p. 
 
 (^, R. 
 
 r; T. 
 
 Z was early dropped, and the new letter G (see 
 above) substituted for it; and thus the Latiu A. 
 continued to the last to consist of twenty-one letters, 
 until it was appKed to the modem tongues of Western 
 Europe. The distinction made between v, and v, 
 and between i and j, in printing Latin books, is a 
 modem innovation; and no Latiu word contains 
 either y or z. The five additional letters that make 
 up the twenty-six of the English A., arose from the 
 addition of z, and the 'development of i into /, and 
 of M into w, V, and y. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon A. had two useftd letters, which 
 have disappeared from modem English— namely, 
 one for the sound of th in ffdn, and one (or rather 
 two) for that of th in thine. These were derived, in 
 all probabiHty, from the Moeso-Gothic A., which (as 
 well as the Kussian and other Slavonic alphabets) 
 was founded on the Greek rather than the Latin. 
 The loss of these letters is owing to the influence 
 of the Norman-Erench, the alphabet of which is 
 exclusively Latin. The forms of the Anglo-Saxon 
 letters are' as under: 
 
 A 
 
 a C^ 
 
 M 
 
 » (0) 
 
 B 
 
 b 
 
 C 
 
 (Q 
 
 D 
 
 d c&) 
 
 E 
 
 e Ce) 
 
 F 
 
 f (f) 
 
 G 
 
 g (pi) 
 
 K 
 
 hO>p) 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 L 
 
 h 
 
 M 
 
 m Ccy)~ 
 
 N 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 P 
 
 V 
 
 S 
 T 
 
 s (r) 
 t (fc) 
 
 U 
 
 u 
 
 W 
 X 
 
 - if fy) 
 
 Y 
 
 y 
 
 ]) th((«n) 
 i th {tfdue) 
 
AlPHEIUS— ALPINE PLANTS. 
 
 ' The characters between braoketa were written by 
 the Anglo-Saxons, but, being for the most part mere 
 corruptions of the Roman forma, are now seldom 
 printed.' — Vernon's Anglo-Saxon Qramvmar. 
 
 The pecuharitiea of the several letters will be 
 noticed in their proper places. For their olassiflca- 
 tion, and the defects and redundancies of the 
 English, A., see Lettees akd Artioplatb Sounds. 
 Other points connected with this subject will be 
 found under Blaok-Lhitbk, Orthography, and 
 Phonbtio "Wbitino. 
 
 ALPHEITJS (now Rufga, Bufift, or Rofi&) is the 
 ohief river of Peloponnesus (Morea), rising in the 
 south-east of Arcadia, and flowing -^est through Elis, 
 and past the famous Olympia, into the lomc Sea. 
 This river is one of the most celebrated in ancient 
 aong, and is connected with a beautiful and charac- 
 teristic Greek legend. The nature of the upper 
 •course of the A. was calculated to affect strongly the 
 imagination of tho Greeks. In its passage through 
 Arcadia, a country consisting of cavemoua limestone, 
 And abounding in shut-iu basins and vflUeys, it 
 repeatedly disappears under ground and rises again. 
 After 'these feats, it was capable of anything — even 
 of flowing \mder the sea — and the Greek colonists of 
 Sicily thought they recognised it in their new country. 
 ■Close on the margin of lie sea in the island of Ortygia 
 (the site of Syracuse), there was a beautiful and 
 •copious fountain ; and just where the water of this 
 fountain joined the sea, another strong spring bubbled 
 up under the salt water. This could only be another 
 freak of the A. ; and it was popularly believed that 
 the sweepings of the temple of Olympia, after the 
 great festival, when thrown into the river, reappeared 
 in the springs at Ortygia. Strabo asserts as a fact 
 that a cup did so. 
 
 This wonderful phenomenon found its explanation, 
 as usual, in a myth, connecting it with the history of 
 the gods. The river-god Alpheius became enamoured 
 of the nymph Arethusa while bathing in his stream. 
 To escape him, she prayed to Diana, who changed 
 her into a fountain, and opened up an underground 
 passage for her to Ortygia. The river stiU pursued 
 the object of his love, passing from Greecevto Sicily 
 below the sea, without minglmg his waters with it, 
 and appearing in the spring that bubbles up by the 
 shore. 
 
 A'LPINE HUSBANDRY. The characteristic 
 feature of A. farming is, that the preparation of 
 fodder is the chief objecli, and the cultivation of 
 
 train only secondary. In the less elevated regions 
 ordering on the flat country, it is the practice to 
 br,eak up the grass from time to time, and take a 
 ■succession of grain crops. In more elevated districts, 
 the moisture of the climate and the shortness of 
 the season of vegetation^ prevent crops requiring 
 tiEage from commg to perfection, and there the 
 whole attention is devoted to pasturage and the 
 . preparation of meadow-hay. The top-dressing of 
 the plots devoted to hay-growing, with the solid and 
 ' liquid manure of the cattle, the cutting and making 
 of the hay, and transporting it to the farm-offices, 
 occupy a great part of the labour of the population 
 of the Alps. Ttey turn to account for hay-making 
 those shelves and crevices among the mountains 
 which are inaccessible to cattle, and even goats ; the 
 herbage, which often grows luxuriantly in such situ- 
 ations, is cut, bound up in cloths or nets, and carried 
 down difficult paths on the head, or is flung over the 
 precipices. 
 
 The grass-lajids in the lower regions near the 
 dwellings being mostly reserved for hay, the cattle 
 are pastured in summer in those regions that lie too 
 high or too rranote to be inhabited m winter. These 
 pastures consist of plateaus and slopes, which imme- 
 
 diately on the disappearance of the snow, become 
 clothed with a rich carpet of herbage and flowers. 
 Each separate locality or pasture is called an AVp. 
 Some of thesci ' alps ' belong to individuals ; others 
 to the commune or parish. The more rocky and 
 steep places are pastured by sheep and goats. There 
 axe three zones or stages in the A. pastures. The 
 cattle are driven to the first and lowest stage about 
 the end of May ; about a month later, they ascend 
 to the ' middle Alps ' ; and by the end of July, they 
 reach the Upper Alps. As the days shorten, they 
 descend in the same gradual way, so that the whole 
 ' Alp-time'-lasts ?,bout 20 weeks. The pastures are 
 provided with huts for those who have charge of 
 the cattle, who also convert the rnilk into cheese. 
 Little butter is made. The departure for the 'Alps ' 
 in spring, and the return in autumn, are made the 
 occasion of popular festivals. 
 
 ALPINE PLANTS. This appellation is given 
 not only to those plants which are found at eleva- 
 tions approaching me limit of perpetual snow in the 
 Alps of Central Europe, but also to plants belonging 
 to other mountainotis regions in any part of the 
 world, whose natural place of growth is near snows 
 that are never melted even by the ' beams of the 
 summer's son. As the elevation of the snow-line, 
 however, varies very much in different coxmtries, 
 according to the latitude, and also from peculiar 
 local circumstances, the term A. P. is not so much 
 signiflcant of the actual elevation of the habitat, as 
 of the average temperature which prevails there. 
 On the Andes, near the equator, at an elevation of 
 12,000 — 15,000 feet above the level of the sea, many 
 kinds of plants are found, of humble growth, resem- 
 bling in their general appearance those which occur 
 in Germany and Switzerland at an elevation of 6000 
 feet ; and these, again, either resemble, or are even 
 identical with, the species which in Lapland grow 
 upon hills of very little elevation, or which, in the 
 northern parts of Siberia, are found at the level of 
 the sea. Similar plants occur also in the Himalaya 
 Mountains, at elevations varying remarkably within 
 very narrow geographical limits from local causes, 
 which also create great differences in the general 
 dryness or humidity of the atmosphere. The laws of 
 this natural distribution of plants have been in our 
 own day for the flrst time investigated and elucidated 
 by Humboldt, Wahlenberg, Schouw, Decandolle, and 
 others, and form the most essential part of a branch 
 of science still in its infancy, and much requiring 
 further study, phytogeography, or the science of the 
 geographic distribution of plants. When the A. P. 
 of Central Europe are spoken of, those are meant 
 which grow at an average height of 6000 feet, mark- 
 ing what, in tlie language of phytogeographic science, 
 is called a zone. This, on its normem hmit, the 
 Riesengebirge, or Giants' Mountains, falls as low as 
 4000 feet, andrises, in the southern Alps and Pyrenees, 
 to an elevation of 9000 feet, and sometimes even 
 above it. Although very rich in forms peculiarly its 
 own, this zone contains many plants which are lilie- 
 wise found on much lower hills, and even in the 
 plains. The number of these, however, diminishes 
 as the elevation increases. Hence the small spaces 
 clear of snow in the highest regions possess a very 
 characteristic flora, the plants of which are distin- 
 guished by a very low diminutive habit, and an 
 mchnation to form a thick turf, frequently, also, by 
 a covering of woolly hairs, whilst their stems are 
 very often either partly or altogether woody, and 
 tiieir flowers are in proportion remarkably large, of 
 brilliant colours, and in many instances very odori- 
 ferous, upon which accounts, tiiey remarkably attract 
 and please the occasional visitors from the plains. 
 In the Alps of Central Europe, the eye is at once 
 caught by gentians, saxifrages, rhododendrons, and 
 
ALPIOTA— ALPS. 
 
 various species of primrose. Witli these and other 
 phanerogamous plants, are associated a number of 
 deKoate ferns and exceedingly beautiful mosses. 
 The highest mountains in Scotland exhibit a some- 
 what similar flora, and beautiful plants, both phane- 
 rogamous and cryptogamous, are found on them, 
 wHoh never appear in lower situations, as the 
 Alpine Speedwell ( Veronica Alpina), the small Alpiue 
 Gentian {Gentiana nivalis), the Rock Scorpion Grass, 
 or Alpine Forget-me-i;iot {Myosotis Alpestris), Azalea 
 procurribens, Woodda Ilvensis and hyperhored, &c. 
 I Many A. P. are limited to a very small district. 
 Thus, the flora of Switzerland differs considerably 
 from that of Germany, the latter being now known 
 to oontaiA 3400 phanerogamous plants, of which the 
 former contains 2200, and along with them also 126 
 species which have hitherto been found only in the 
 Swiss Alps. — There are, moreover, particular species 
 of plants which are found only in single locahties, as 
 Hypericum coris, upon the mountain of Wiggis in the 
 canton of Glarus; Wulfenia Carinthiaca, upon the 
 Kiiweger Alp, iu tipper Carinthia, and many others. 
 There are, however, many species which, occurring 
 on the mountains of Central Europe, appdar also in 
 those of Britain and of Scandinavia at lower altitudes, 
 but are not found in the intervening plains. See 
 Species, Bistbibution of. — Cryptogamic plants are 
 generally found in Alpine regions in much greater 
 abundance than elsewhere. The transplanting of A. 
 P. into gardens is attended with great difficulties, 
 and is ' rarely successful. Their great beauty, even 
 when dried, makes them favourites with those 
 plaut-coUectors who have amusement more in view 
 than the mere interests of science. Small herbaria 
 of them are offered for sale everjrwhere in Switzer- 
 land; and in some places, large collections have 
 been prepared and thrown open to the pubHc. 
 
 ALPI'NIA. See GAi,A2fGAXE. 
 
 A'LPNACH, or ALPJSTACHT, a Swiss village, 
 in the canton of TJnterwalden, at the foot of 
 Mount Pilatus, IJ miles from that part of Lake 
 Lucerne called Lake A. It is known principally 
 on account of its celebrated ' shde.' This was a sort 
 of wooden trough by which the feUed timber of 
 Mount Pilatus was conveyed with amazing velocity 
 from a height of 2500 feet down to the lake. Li 
 order to prevent friction, the trough was perpetually 
 lubricated by a slender rUl of water. It is no longer 
 used, the wood being now drawn down by horses 
 and oxen. Population of A., 1500. 
 
 ALPS, the most extensive system of lofty moun- 
 tains in Europe, raise their giant masses on a basis 
 of 90,000 square miles, between 6° 40' and 18° E. 
 long., and extending in some places from the 44th 
 to the 48th parallel of latitude. The word Alp 
 or Alb, signifying in the Celtic language 'white,' 
 was the name given to these mountams on account 
 of their tops being perpetually covered with snow. 
 The Alpine system is bounded on the N. by the 
 hilly ground of Switzerland and the upper plain 
 of the Danube ; on the E., by the low plains of 
 Hungary ; on the S., by the Adriatic Sea, the plains 
 of Lombardy, and the Gulf of Genoa; and on the 
 W., by the plains of Provence and the valley of the 
 Khone. A string of lakes encircles both the northern 
 and southern bases of these mountains, the former at 
 an elevation of 1200—2000 feet ; the latter, 600—700 
 feet. The varied natural scenery of France, Italy, 
 Germany, and Hungary has a common centre of 
 union in this lofty region. Valleys open out in all 
 directions, sending their melted snows on one side 
 into the North Sea, on another Into the Black Sea, 
 and on another into tjie Mediterranean. 
 
 The water-system of the A. may be thus briefly 
 sketched : 1. In the basin of the Rhine, there is 
 172 
 
 the Rhiue itself, which partly forms the Lake of 
 Constance, at the north-eastern extremity of Switzer- 
 land, and receives on the left the important tribu- 
 taries of the liur and the Aar; the latter of which 
 flows through Lakes Brienz and Thun, and is itself 
 augmented by various affluents, the largest of which 
 are the Reuss and the Limmat. 2. In the basin 
 of the Danube there flow from the south the lUer, 
 Lech, Isar, and the Inn. Still furflier east, the 
 Danube has for its tributaries the Traun, the Ens, 
 the Eaab, the Drave, and the Save, the last three of 
 which have their sources in the extreme Eastern 
 A. 3. In the basia of the Po, there are numerous 
 streams, which rise ia the Southern A.; the prin- 
 cipal of these are the Dora Baltea, the Sesia, the 
 Ticino from Lake Maggiore, the Mmcio from Lake 
 Garda, and the Adige. 4. In the basin of the Rhone, 
 there are the Rhone {flowing through the Lake of 
 Geneva), and various Alpiue tributaries, the most 
 important of which are the Arve, the IsSre, and the 
 Durance. 5. The Var is the principal Ligurian 
 coast-stream; the Piave, and the Tagfiamento, the 
 largest of those which fall into the Adriatic from the 
 Southern A. 
 
 Divisions. — In order to give a clear view of the 
 manifold ranges of this mountain-land, a distinction 
 is generally made between the East, the West, and 
 the Middle A. ; the last of which is again divided 
 into a northern, central, and southern 3iain ; while 
 a natural separation by river-valleys into groups is 
 also made. I. West A. — The principal ranges of 
 these are : 1. The Maritime A, extending from the 
 middle Durance southwards to the Mediterranean, 
 and rising in the Col Roburent to the height of' 
 9400 feet. 2. The Cottian A., north of these, whose 
 highest summit, Monte Viso, is 13,599 feet. 3. The 
 Graian A., forming the boundary between Savoy 
 and Piedmont; and attaining in Mont IsSran an 
 elevation of 13,272 feet, and in Mont Cenis, an 
 elevation of 11,457 feet. II. Middle A. Central 
 Chain. — 1. The Pennine A., between the plains of 
 Lombardy and the valley of the Rhone. Highest 
 summits : Mont Blanc, 15,744 feet ; Monte Rosa, 
 15,151 feet; Mont Cervin, 14,836 feet. 2. The 
 Lepontian or Helvetian A., from the depression of 
 the Simplon, along the plateau and masses of St 
 Gothard (12,000 feet), to the pass of Mont Spliigen. 
 3. The Rhaetian A., between the Inn, the Adda, and 
 the Upper Adige. Northern Chain. — 1. The Bernese 
 A., between the Rhone and the Aar;, highest sum- 
 mits: Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 feet; Jungfrau, 13,716 
 feet; Schreckhom, 13,397 feet. 2. The A. of the 
 Pour ' Forest Cantons,' the Schwytz A., &c. The 
 Saathern Chain. — 1. The Oertler A., between the 
 Adda and the Adige; highest summit, Oertlerspitz, 
 12,822 feet. 2. The Trientine A., between the 
 Adige and the Piave; highest summit. La Marmo- 
 lata, 9802 feet. III. East A. — The principal chains 
 of these are : 1. The None A., between the plains 
 of the Drave and the Danube; highest summit, 
 Gross-Glockner, 12,431 feet. 2. The Camio A., 
 between the Drave and the Save. 3. The Julian 
 A, between the Save and the Adriatic Sea ; highest 
 summit, Mont Terglu, 9366 feet. 
 
 Elevaiion. — With respect to height, it is a general 
 rule that the A. are lowest where the system is 
 broadest, that is, in the E., and highest where the 
 system is narrowest, -that is, towards the W. 
 Making a threefold ■ distinction of crests, summits, 
 and passes, the principal ranges may be characterised 
 as follows. The crest-line (1) of West, A, 6000— 
 11,000 feet; (2) of Middle A., 9000—13,000 feet; (3) 
 of East A, 3600—9000 feet. The summits : (1) of 
 West A, 9000—14,000 feet; (2) of Middle A., 
 9000—15,800 feet; (3) of East A.', 6000—12,000 feet. 
 Height of the passes: (1) of West A, 4000—8000 
 
ALPS. 
 
 feet; (2) of Middle A., 6500— 11,000 feet ; (3) of East 
 
 •A., 3500—6000 feet. 
 
 A comprehensive olassifioation leads to a division 
 of the elevations into three regions: 1. The lower 
 range forming the buttresses of the main masses, and 
 reaching a height of 2500—6000 feet; that is, to the 
 extreme limit of the growth of wood. 2. The middle 
 zone lying between the former limit and the snow- 
 line, at the elevation of 80()0— 9000 feet. 3. The 
 high A., rising to 15,744 feet. The middle zone forms 
 the region of mountain-pasturagea, where the charac- 
 teristic Alpine daiiy-farming is carried on. These 
 pastures consist of a rich carpet of grass and flowers. 
 This threefold division of heights, however, does not 
 everywhere, coincide with th6 same phenomena of 
 vegetation: the hue of perpetual snow descends 
 lower on the north side, and the boundaries of the 
 zones above described vary accordingly. 1. The line 
 of demarcation between the region of mosses and 
 Alpine plants and that of perpetual snow, is from 
 8000 — 9000 feet on the northern declivities ; but 
 on the southern, it approaches 10,000" feet. 2. The 
 
 -highest hmit to which wood attains on the north is 
 about 6000 feet, while on the south it is nearly 7000 
 feet. 3. Grain, beech, and oak, on the north, disap- 
 pear at the elevation of 4000 feet; on the soutii, 
 they contrive to exist, some hundreds of feet higher. 
 4. The region of the vine, as well as of maize and 
 chestnuts, extends to an elevation of 1900 feet on the 
 
 , northern declivity; and on the southern decUvity, 
 to' 2500 feet. The ranges of , outlying lower moun- 
 tains which Sank the £igh central Alps on the N., 
 E., and'W., are mostly wanting on the ^., especially 
 where the Middle A. descend into the plains of 
 Lombardy. Thus the A. rise in steep rocky preci- 
 pices from the level of the flat plains of the Po, 
 whilst they sink more gradually into the plains on 
 the north ; hence their mighty masses closely piled 
 together present an aspect from the south more 
 grand and awful; from the north, more extended 
 and various. 
 
 Valleys. — The variety in the valleys as to form 
 and arrangement is not less striking than in the 
 elevations. Most worthy of notice is the characteristic 
 form of the wide 'longitudinal valleys that lie at the 
 
 ' foot of the high central chains. On the E. side, 
 ■they open directly into the plain; on the N., they' 
 are connected' with the plain through transverse 
 valleys which often end in la^es. The transverse 
 
 ■ valleys on the S. side are mostly in the shape of 
 steep rocky ravines, forming in some parts long- 
 stretching ■ lakes. Besides the deep-sunk principal 
 valleys, there are extensive series of basin-shaped 
 secondary valleys, which are the scenes of Alpine 
 life, properly so csdled. Many>of the Alpine valleys 
 have names distinct from the 'rivers flowing through 
 ■them. Thus, the valley of the Rhone is styled the 
 Upper and Lower 'Vallais; that of the Adda, the 
 "V^alteUne ; of the Arve, Chamonnix. 
 
 GommwnicaMons — Passes. — The valleys of the high 
 A. form the natural means of communication. Some 
 are more accessible than others. The entrance into 
 a longitudinal valley is almost always smooth and 
 easy; art has often had to force an entrance into 
 a transverse valley. On many of the high roads 
 ■which link the principal -with the secondary valleys, 
 it has been found necessary to blow up long ridges 
 of rook, to build terraces, to make stone-bridges 
 and long galleries of rook as a protection against 
 avalanches, as well as to erect places of shelter 
 (hospices) from storms. The constanction of these 
 roads may be reckoned among the boldest and most 
 skilful works of man. In crossing the A, several 
 defiles (usually seven) have to be 'traversed ; for in 
 addition to die pass of the main crest, there are 
 other defiles on both sides, at the entrances of the 
 
 different valleys. In the E., the number of these 
 narrow passes or defiles is considerably increased. 
 The names applied to the Alpine passes Vsecy accord- 
 ing to their natural features or the local dialect ; as 
 Pass, Sattel (Saddle), Joch (Yoke) Soheideok, Klause 
 Col, Chiusa. The traveller on these beautiful 
 mountain-roads passes in a short time through the 
 phenomena of the various seasons. In the course of 
 a day's journey, he experiences a succession of 
 climatic changes, which is accompanied with an 
 equal variety in the manners of the people. 
 
 No lofty mountains in the world can boast of 
 being so easily crossed as the European A. Hence 
 we can understand how the plains of Upper Italy, 
 accessible from the French, German, and Hungarian 
 sides, have been the theatre of bloody strife for ages. 
 The passage of the "West A. is made by five principal 
 roads. 1. The mili tary road, La Corniche, a coast- 
 road at the foot of the A. from Nice to Genoa. 
 2. The causeway over the Col-di-Tenda, between 
 Nice and Coni, made in 1778; highest point, 5890 
 feet. 3. The high road so much used in ancient 
 times over Moimt Genfe'vre, coimecting Provence 
 and DauphinS ■with Turin ; highest point, 6550 feet. 
 4. The carriage-road made by Napoleon in 1805, 
 over Mount Cenis, connecting Savoy with Piedmont ; 
 highest point, 6770 feet. 5. The pass of -the Little 
 St Bernard, connecting Geneva, Savoy, and Pied- 
 mont ; highest point, 7190 feet. By this pass, 
 Hannibal crossed into Italy. It is not much used 
 now. Besides these great roads, •there are many 
 smaller ones branching off from them, which form 
 a pretty close net-work of coromunication. The 
 passage of the Meddle A. is made by eight principal 
 roads. 1. That of the Great St Bernard, con- 
 necting the valley of the Ehone "with Piedmont; 
 highest point, 8170 feet. It was crossed by Napoleoij 
 in 1800. 2. The magnificent road over the Simplon, ' 
 constructed by Napoleon, 1801 — 1806, and connect- 
 ing the Vallais with the confines of Piedmont and 
 Lombardy; highest point, 6570 feet. 3. Between 
 the Great St Bernard and Monte' Rosa is the Col 
 of Mont Cervin, the loftiest pass in Europe, being 
 nearly 11,200 feet, connecting Piedmont "with the 
 Vallais. '4. The pass of . St Gothard, connecting 
 Lucerne "with Lago Maggiore; highest point, 6800 
 feet. This road passes through scenery of exquisite 
 beauty. 5. The Bemardin Pass, made 1819^1823, 
 by the S'wiss Grisons and Sardinia; highest point, 
 6800 feet. 6. The Splugen'Pass, repaired in 1822, 
 connecting the sources of the Ehine ■with the Adda. 
 This pass was the one used by the Pomans in their 
 intercourse -with the countries bordering on the 
 Danube and the Rhine, and also by the German 
 armies on their iharches into Italy io the middle 
 ages. 7. The Wormser Joch, also called the Orteles 
 Pass, or road, opened, by Austria in 1824. It 
 is the loftiest carriage-road in Europe, and con- 
 nects the Tyrol -with Lombardy. 8. The Brenner 
 Pass, known to the Romans. It also connects the 
 Tyrol ■with Lombardy; highest point, 4650 feet. 
 Besides these great roads, leading south into Italy, 
 there are two which lead north from the valley of the 
 Rhone^ and cross the Bernese A., over the Grimsel 
 Pass, 6500 feet high, and the Gemmi Pass, 7400 feet 
 high. The roads over the East A. are much lower, 
 and also much more numerous than those in the 
 MiDBLB or "West A. The principal are— 1. The 
 road from 'Venice to Salzburg, crossing the Noric A 
 at an elevation of rather more than 5100 feet. 
 2. The road over the Camic A., which divides into 
 three branches — the fijrst leading to Laybaoh; the 
 second, to the valley of the Isonzo; and the third 
 to the valley of the TagUamento. 3. The roads from 
 the Danube at Liuz to Laybach. 
 
 Geology.-^The A. offer a rich field for geological 
 
ALPS— ALPTJJAEHAS. 
 
 investigations, the results of which hitherto may be 
 thus summed up: The highest central mass — ^the 
 Primary A., as they are called— that rises from the 
 plain to the S.W. of Turin, and stretches in a 
 mighty curve ' to the Neusiedlersee, in Hungary, 
 consists chiefly of the crystalliiift rocks Gneiss and 
 Mica-slate, with a much smaller proportion of 
 Granite. Enclosed among the Central A. appear 
 representatives of the Carboniferous and Jurassic 
 formations ; but so altered and become so crystal- 
 line that their age can only be guessed from a 
 few remaining petrefactions, which are accom- 
 panied here and there by garnets. In the Graian, 
 Pennine, and Khietian A. occur great masses of 
 serpentine ; in the N. of Piedmont, and in the 
 upper valley of the Adige, quartz-porphyry. In the 
 E. there are, on the N. and S. sides of the chief 
 range, vast deposits of clay-slate and grauWacke 
 mixed with transition limestone. 
 
 Beginning on the Mediterranean coast, and follow- 
 ing in general the direction of the central chains, a 
 belt of sedimentary rocks runs along the W. and N. 
 sides to the neighbourhood of Vienna. On the south 
 side, a similar belt runs from Lake Maggiore to 
 Agram. The undulating curves and colossal disloca- 
 tions presented by these regions, shew that the 
 form of their mountains must have been the result 
 of a mighty force acting northwards and southwards 
 from the Central A. In respect of age, these sediment- 
 ary or calcareous A. include all the members of the 
 series of formations from magnesian limestone up to 
 the lowest strata of the tertiary group. The south- 
 eastern portion of these calcareous mountains, form- 
 ing the Julian A., mostly consist of cavernous rocks 
 of the Jurassic and chalk groups ; and are continued 
 with this character into Dalmatia. 
 
 Minerals. — Precious stones are found in abund- 
 ance in the trap and primary mountains, especially 
 in the region of the St Gothard. The rook-crystal 
 of St Gothard has a world-wide reputation. Mining 
 and smelting become more and more productive as 
 we advance eastward. Switzerland itself is poor in 
 useful ores. Gold and silver are found in Tyrol, 
 Salzburg, and Carinthia ; there are also sUver-mines 
 i& Styria and lUyria, and one near Grenoble, in 
 France. Copper is fovmd in the French A., in Tyrol, 
 and Styria. The lead-mines near ViUach, in Car- 
 inthia, yield yearly about 35,000 cwt. The yield of 
 • iron in Switzerland, Savoy, and Salzburg is trifling ; 
 Carinthia, on the other hand, produces 260,000 cwt., 
 and Stiiia 450,000 cwt. Quicksilver is extracted at 
 Idria, in Camiola, to the amount of 1000 — 1500 
 cwt. The Alpine region is rich in salt, especially 
 at Hall in Tyrol, and Hallein in Salzburg. Coal 
 is found in Switzerland, in Savoy, and in the French 
 A., but in no great quantity; the Austrian A. are, 
 again, richer in this important mineral. The mineral 
 springs, hot and cold, that occur in the region of 
 the A. are innujperable. See Arx, Isohl, Lege, 
 Baden, &c. 
 
 Animals. — The Alpine mountains present many 
 pecuKarities worthy of notice in the .animal as well 
 as in the vegetable kingdom (see Alpine Plakts). 
 On the sunny heights, the number of insects is 
 very great; the butterflies are especially numerous. 
 There are few fishes, although trouts are sometimes 
 caught in ponds even 6000 feet above the level of 
 the sea. Although the lofty mountains are inha- 
 bited by eagles, hawks, and various species of 
 owls; yet the birds are few in comparison with 
 the numbers in the plains, and those few are 
 mostly confined "to the larger valleys. Among the 
 quadrupeds, the wild goat 'is sometimes, though 
 rarely, to be met with; the chamois is more fre- 
 quently seen, chiefly in the eastern districts. The 
 marmot inhabits the upper Alpine regions. Wolves 
 174 
 
 are seen more frequently in the west than in the 
 east ; in the latter, on the other hand, bears, lynxes, ■ 
 and wild-cats are found, although constantly dimin- 
 ishing in number. Of the domestic animals, goat» 
 and oxen are scattered everywhere in large herds. 
 There are fewer sheep and horses, and these are not 
 of good breeds. Mules and asses are used more 
 frequently in the south than in the north, especially 
 as beasts of burden. Swine and dogs are not 
 common ; the latter are used almost solely by the ' 
 herdsmen, or are kept in the hospices, to assist in 
 searching for the imfortunate wanderers who may 
 be lost in the snow. 
 
 The Alpine mountains' are rich in singularly beau- 
 tiful natural scenery, of which the inhabitants of 
 flat countries can scarcely form an idea. Nature in 
 the A. has an infinite variety of aspects. Here the 
 hardened masses of the icy Racier cover the naked 
 rock, avalanches are hurled into immeasurable 
 abysses, the fall of rocks or mountain-sKps overwhelm 
 the dwellings, and cover the fields in the valleys ; 
 and in the east, the hora, with its hurricane strength, 
 hiurls before it the upraised masses of snow. There 
 the sun glances upon the scattered silver threads 
 of a water-fall, or mirrors himself in the peaceful 
 waters of a glassy lake, while his rising and his- 
 setting are announced to the expectant traveller by 
 the ruddy glow on the snowy mountain- tops. The 
 inhabitant of the A,, surrounded on every side by 
 mountains, is unconsciously subdued by their pres- 
 ence, and receives from them h, peculiar stamp of 
 character; their dangers fascinate him as well as 
 their charms. The most ceaseless variety of occupa- 
 tion demands all his time and his thoughts ; in 
 the mountains he acknowledges his only despots, * 
 who seize his soul, and lead it unresistingly. In~ 
 his constant struggle with the elements, the Alpine 
 dweller strengthens both his mind and body; he 
 opens his heart to the impressions of nature ; he 
 gives utterance to his childlike gladness in simple 
 songs, and at the same time defends with self- 
 sacnficing devotion his mountain-fortresses against 
 foreign aggression. But the manners and spirit of 
 the neighboyring plains have penetrated into the 
 larger valleys along with the dust of the highway. 
 There the trtie Alpine life has more and more 
 passed away. The simplicity and characteristic 
 industry of the Alpine farms are now preserved only 
 in the higher secondary valley?. 
 
 Six states share the A. The western portion is 
 shared by France and Sardinia. Switzerland claims 
 the Middle A. almost exclusively for her own. 
 Bavaria has only a small share. Austria has the 
 largest share of the A. — ^in Lombardy, the Tyrol, 
 Ulyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The wide valleys 
 opening to the east allow the civHisatiou of the 
 plains to enter easily among the mountains. The 
 value of the minerals, and the fertilily of the soil, 
 have permitted mining, manufactures, and agricul- 
 ture to take firm root, and a flourishing trade 
 has caused large towns to usurp the place of mere 
 Alpine villages; In the Tyrol, the pastoral life of 
 the mountains has long been mixed up with the 
 working of mines of salt or other minerals. The 
 inhabitants of whole valleys are occupied in various 
 branches of industry to a greater extent than in any 
 other district of the A., and their sons travel far 
 and near as artisans. See H. and A. Sohlagintweit, 
 Researches into the Physical Geography of Oie A. 
 {Unterstichungen ilber die Physikalisclie Oeographie 
 der Alpen), Leip. 1850. 
 
 ALPtrjA'RBAS (a corruption of an Arabic word 
 which signifies ' grass ' — an allusion to the splendid 
 pastiirage on the north side), <i, range of mountains 
 parallel to the Sierra NevadJa, and approaching the 
 coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Their southern aide 
 
ALSACE— ALTAI. 
 
 is prooipitous, but the northern slopes away into 
 broad valleys, beyond which rises the Sierra Nevada. 
 They commence in the west at Motril, where they are 
 separated by the Guadalfeo, from the lower Sierra 
 de Holucar, and the adjacent vine-covered hills of 
 Malaga, and stretch as far east as the river Almeria. 
 The range ia divided into two parts by the Adra, 
 each of which bears a particular name. The highest 
 peaks reach an elevation of 7000 feet. On the 
 north aide, owing to the copious raina, there is the 
 richest pasturage, both in the deep valleys and 
 on the uplands. The aouthem slope, however, is 
 almost destitute of trees or shrubs, with the excep- 
 tion of the fertile valleys near the sea, which are 
 abundantly watered by numerous little streams. 
 Here flourish, under an almost tropical climate, all 
 the products of the south, even the date-palm and 
 the sugar-cane. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in rearing sheep, and in cxiltivating the vine and 
 other frmts. A httle mining also goes on. Lead, 
 antimony, and silver are got. The Moorish element 
 is stiU quite discernible in the population of this 
 mountain region. 
 
 ALSA'OB, a province of France, now forming the 
 departments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It lies 
 betweeji the B.hine on the east, and the Voa^es moun- 
 tains on the west, extending south to Switzerland, 
 and north to Ehenish Bavaria, and occupying 3360 
 EngHsh amiare nules. It ia one of the most fertile 
 parts of France; rich also in mines and manufac- 
 tures, and contains the important cities of Strasburg, 
 Cohuar, and Muhlhausen. In Cseaar'a time, A. waa 
 occupied by Celtic tribes ; but during the decline of 
 the empire, the Alemanni and other tribes from 
 beyond the Rhine occupied and completely German- 
 ised it. It afterwards formed part of the Gennan 
 enjpire, under various sovereign dukes and princes, 
 latterly, of the House of Hapaburg ; tiQ a part of it 
 was ceded to France, at the peace of Westphalia, 
 and the reat fell a prey to the aggreaaions of Louia 
 XIV., who aeized Strasburg (1681) by surprise in 
 time of peace. By the peace of Ryswick (1697), the 
 cession of the whole was ratified. Thus — as the 
 Germarife complain — was this fine land, and one of 
 the noblest branches of the race, alienated from the 
 German people, and the command of the German 
 Rhine disgraoefiiUy surrendered to the enemy in the 
 time of misfortune, and more disgraceful still, not 
 demanded back when fortune favoured. German is 
 still the language of the people, and all newspapers 
 are printed in both languages. See Rhin, Haut- 
 and Bas-. 
 
 AXSEN (Dan. Als), an island in the Baltic 
 beloDgiag to the Duchy of Schleswig, and extend- 
 iilg from the Apenrade to the Flensborg Fiord, 
 is separated from the mainland by the Sound of 
 A., in part very narrow but deep. Its greatest 
 length is nearly 20 milea; its greatest breadth 
 about 12 ; pop. 24,000 ; lat. 54° 46' K, long. 9° 
 52' E. The ialand, one of the finest in the Baltic, has 
 a picturesque appeaj:ance, is very fertile, with rich 
 wdoda; and mmierous lakes abounding in fish. Its 
 , fruit-trees are celebrated over aU Schleswig. The 
 Gravenstein apple, in particular, forms an important 
 article of commerce. The chirf towns are Sonder- 
 borg or SUdborg (South Town), and Norborg or 
 Nordburg (North Town). The former has an excel- 
 lent harbour, with a population of 3300, and possesses 
 more than 80 vessels. Close to the harbour are the 
 ruias of an old and famous caatie, belonging to the 
 Augustenborg family, which even yet owns a large 
 portion of the island. Here Christian II. of Den- 
 mark and Norway was confined from 1532 to 1549. 
 During the Schleswig- Holsteih war, A. was a place 
 of considerable military importance. 
 
 ALSTEB, a river in Holstein, is formed by the 
 confluence of three streams, and, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Hamburg, spreads itseK out, and forms a 
 lake, called the Great or Outer A., and, within the 
 town, the Inner A. It flows by several canals into 
 the Elbe. 
 
 ALSTRCBMB'EIA, or ALSTECEMER'S LILY, 
 a genus of plants of the natural order Amaryl: 
 Kdece (q. v.), and, according to Lindley, of the tribe 
 AlstrcemerkcB, which is distinguished by fibrous — not 
 bulbous^ — ^roots, and by having the outer segments 
 of the perianth different in form from the inner. Li 
 this genus, the two lower segments are somewhat 
 tubular at the base, the capsules do not gape when 
 ripe, are 3-valved or pulpy within, and the seeds 
 globose. The leaves are twisted, so that wiat should 
 be the upper surface, becomes the lower. The 
 species are niunerous, natives of the warmer parts 
 of America. Many of them have tuberous roots» 
 Some are sufficiently hardy to endure the open air in 
 Britain, and are admired ornaments of ovx flower- 
 gardens. Some have climbing or twining stems j 
 amongst these is the salsilla {A. saXsiUa), _& plant of 
 meat beauty, with lanceolate leaves, a native of 
 Peru, which is cultivated in the West Indiea, and its- 
 tubera eaten like thoae of. the potato. In Britain, it 
 requires the stove or a hot-bed. A. ovata, also a 
 beautiful plant, with a slender twining stem, and 
 ovate leaves, is cultivated in Chili for its tubers, 
 which are used as food. It has been introdu'ced into 
 Britain, but its cultivation has made little progress. 
 The tubera wfeigh from 3 to 6 ounoea. A kind of 
 arrow-root is also prepared in Chili from the succu- 
 lent roots of A. pmlida and other species. 
 
 ALTA'I (i. e., gold mountain) is the term vaguely 
 applied to the high range in the east of Asia, forming 
 the northern border of that vast table-land known 
 by the name of Chinese Tatary, and extending 
 from 80° to 142° E. long. The' A. mountains con- 
 stitute the boundary between the Russian and 
 Chinese empires, or between, the long icy lowlands 
 of Siberia, stretching away to the Arctic Sea, and 
 the variegated central plateau that lies south of 
 them, flieir general direction is from east tlo 
 west. They are divided into many ranges and 
 groupa, each having a distinctive name. From 
 the Sea of Okhotsk, in the extreme east of Asia, 
 they extend in a broad and winding mass to the- 
 plains of Turkestan, a Kttle to the west of Lake 
 Zaisan, or Zaizang, a distance of more than 3000 
 miles. The breadth of the system is, in some places,, 
 not less than 800 — 900 mUes. From Okhotsk 
 to the Lena, it is called the Aldan Chain ; it is next- 
 separated into three groups by the valleys of the 
 Amur, Yenisei, and Irtish, the last of which is called 
 the Little A., to distinguish it from the spur that 
 strikes off into Chinese Tatary in a south-easterly 
 direction, and which is called the Great A., a range 
 that in some places towers into the region of per- 
 petual snow, and whose most easterly chffa abruptly 
 disappear in the dark clouds whici overhang the 
 sandy steppes of Gobi. The Russian A., between 
 Semipalatinsk and the sources of the Obi, have 
 been colonised by the Russians, and as they rival 
 the Ural Mountains in their mineral wealth, they 
 have already become one of the most important 
 districts of the Russian empire. This chain consists- 
 of a broad Alpine range on the north-western edge of 
 Chinese Tatary, and is called the Altai-Bjeiki, or 
 Snowy Mountains. It reaches in its highest peaks 
 an elevation of nearly 11,000 feet. Little is known of 
 the geology of the Altaian system. Jasper is found 
 in considerable abundance near the summits, red por- 
 phyry lower down, and granite stiU lower. Around 
 Late Baikal there are numerous granitic masses. 
 
 175 
 
ALTAB— ALTElSr. 
 
 interspersed with newer igneous formations, but 
 active volcanoes do not appear until the range reaches 
 Kamtchatka. The mines are rich in gold, silver, 
 copper, and lead. The botany of the mountains is 
 as imperfectly known as the geology, but it keema to 
 be worthy of closer attention. North of the A.- 
 BjeUd, lies the broad zone of the A. mineral districts, 
 the inhabitants of which are employed as miners 
 and agricultural labourers, over whom a strict watch 
 is kept. The south-east is peopled by the Cahnucks 
 of the mountains, a Mongolian race. They are 
 heathens, and their government is a patriarchal one. 
 They lead a nomadic life, encamping in summer 
 among the rich pastiu-es on the mountain-teiTaces, 
 and in winter within the sheltered recesses of the 
 woody glens. 
 
 A'LTAE (Lat. allare, from aXtus, high), the place 
 whereon offerings were laid both by Jews and 
 heathens. The first on record is that which jSToah 
 bmlt on leaving the ark. The Israelites, after the 
 giving of the Law, were commanded to make one. 
 We find, from the Old Testament (1* Kings, iii. 3 ; 
 1 Kings, xi. 7 ; and 2 Kings, xxni. 15), that altars 
 were often erected on high places — sometimes, also, 
 on the roofs of hovises. BotK in the Jewish taber- 
 nacle and temple there were two altars, one for 
 sacrifices, and another for incense. Por a minute 
 description of these, see Exodus, Leviticus, and 
 Numbers. The Jewish and oriental altars were gener- 
 ally either square, oblong, or approximating to such ; 
 those of Greece and Rome, on the other hand, were 
 often round. Sacrifices were offered to the infernal 
 gods, not on altars, but in cavities dug in the ground. 
 
 lloman Altars. 
 
 The word has been transferred into the Christian 
 system. Tor upwards of five centuries, altars in the 
 Christian churches were, for the most part, made of 
 wood ; but in 509 A. D., it was decreed by a council 
 held at Epone, in France, that none should be con- 
 secrated with chrism except those built of stone. In 
 the first ages of Christianity, there was only one 
 A. in a church; but, from a very early time, the 
 Latins have used more than one. In the 12th c, the 
 adorning of chiu-ches with images and numerous 
 altars was carried to a great extent, and they were 
 embellished with gold, silver, and precious stones. 
 The Greek Church use but one A. Altars were fre- 
 quently placed at the west end of the ancient churches, 
 instead of the east, but in England almost uniformly 
 in the east. The only perfect A. of the old times 
 in England is the high A. of Arundel Church, Sussex. 
 The slab is 12 feet 6 inches long, by 4 feet wide, and 
 2i inches thick. The support js of solid stone, quite 
 plain, and plastered over. For 300 years after the 
 time of Christ, the word A. was constantly used to 
 describe the table of the Lord; subsequently, 'table' 
 and ' altar ' were used indifferently. In the first 
 Prayer-book of King Edward, 1549, the word A. was 
 used in the Kubric, and the Lord's Supper was stiU 
 called the Mass ; but in 1550, an order was issued 
 for the setting up of tables instead of altars, and in 
 the second Prayer-book of 1552, the word altar was 
 everywhere replaced by table. The table was further 
 176 
 
 ordered to be of wood, and movable. In Mary's 
 reign the altars were re-erected; but in Queen 
 Elizabeth's, some were riotously pulled down, , and 
 injunctions were then issued directing that this 
 should not be done, except under the oversight of 
 the curate and at least one churchwarden. It was 
 charged against Archbishop Laud that he had con- 
 verted communion-taJ)les into altars. What he really 
 did was to remove the tables out of the body of the 
 church, and place them ' altarwise,' i. e., north and 
 south, at the upper end of the chancels, where the 
 altars formerly stood ; and a dog having on one occa- 
 sion run away with a piece of the consecrated bread, 
 he directed that rails should be erected to prevent 
 such desecrations in future. The old stone altars 
 used frequently to be made in the shape of tombs, 
 and they enclosed relics; this was from the early 
 Christians having often celebrated the eucharist at 
 the tombs of the martyrs, or, as others say, they 
 were thus made with the design of representing 
 Christ's humanity as having been real, and vouched 
 for by the fact of his body lying in the tomb. The 
 Credence Table and Piscina are adjuncts of an 
 A. By the judgment in the Arches Court, 1845, in 
 the case of Faulkner v. Litchfield, it was decided 
 that altars may not be erected in churches. This 
 case arose out of the erection, by the Cainbridge 
 Camden Society, of a stone A. in the Church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre in that town. 
 
 The old Enghsh divines, and, indeed, aU Pro- 
 testant ecclesiastical writers of any importance, are 
 unanimous in the opin).on, that among Christians 
 the word cannot mean what the Jews and heathens 
 expressed by it. The later fathers used various 
 phrases to denote the solemnity which should 
 attach to the communion-table, such as ' the 
 Mystical and Tremendous Table,' 'the Mystical 
 Table,' ' the Holy Table,' &c. And they termed it an 
 A., because, first, the holy eucharist was regarded as 
 a kind of commemorative sacrifice, or, more properly, 
 a consecrated memorial before God of the great 
 sacrifice on Calvary ; and, second, the prayers of the 
 communicants were held to be in themselves 
 sacrifices or oblations — sacrifices' of thanksgiving, as 
 it were. This is the. view of those who hold High 
 Church opinions, but does not exclude the other view. 
 Again, they termed it a table when the eucharist 
 was considered exclusively in the hght of a sacra- 
 ment, to be partaken of by believers as spiritual 
 food. -In the former case, the sacrifice was com- 
 memorated ; in the latter, it was apphed : in the 
 former, it expressed more directly the gratitude ; in 
 the latter, more directly the faith of the Christian. 
 
 A'LTDORFER, AtEEBOHT, painter and engraver, 
 was bom at Altdorf, in Bavaria, 1488, and died at 
 Ratisbon, 1538. He is said to have been a pupH 
 of Albert Diirer; but this is not certain. He belongs, 
 however, to that rehgioiis school of artists of which 
 Diirer was the head. His pictures are also animated 
 by a glowing and romantic spirit of poetry, which is 
 delightful to any one who appreciates the conditions 
 of old German fife. The landscape is delineated 
 with the same truth and tenderness as the figures ; 
 a rich manifold life pervades the scenes, and 
 everything is handled with the utmost delicacy. 
 His master-piece, now in Munich, is 'The Victory 
 of Alexander over Darius,' a painting which, it 
 is said, afi'ects the beholder like a heroic poem. 
 As an engraver, A. is reckoned among the lesser 
 masters. 
 
 A'liTEN, Kael August, Count of, one of the 
 chief Hanoverian generals in the French and 
 German war, was born October 20, 1764 ; entered 
 the army in 1781, and gained distinction at the siege 
 of Valenciennes, and in the decisive engagement at 
 
ALTENBUEG— ALTO. 
 
 Hondschooten. He was first lieutenant in 1800, Irat 
 on account of the luihappy capitulation at Lauen- 
 burs, found it advisable to leave Hanover, and came 
 to England. Here be was made commander of the 
 first light battalion in the German Legion (1803). 
 In 1808 he assisted, as general of brigade, in 
 coveriog the retreat of General Moore to Corunna, 
 and in the following year commanded the troops 
 stationed in Sussex. In 1811, he took part, under 
 General Beresford, in the siege of Badajoz and the 
 battle of Albuera, and iu the following year was 
 promoted by the Duke of WeUington. In almost 
 all the engagements of the SpaniSi war of libera- 
 tion — at Salamanca, Vittoria, the Pyrenees, Nivelle, 
 Nive, Orthez, Toulouse, &o., A. took a, prominent 
 part, and had the command of a corps of 30,000 
 men, stationed near Madrid, in 1812. He fought 
 with great distinction at Quatre-Bras and at 
 Waterloo, where he was severely wounded ; his 
 efforts greatly contributed to the decision of the 
 battle. After his return to Hanover, he was made 
 minister of war, and in this capacity died, April 
 20, 1840. 
 
 A'LTEKBURG, the capital of the duchy of 
 Saxe-Altenburg, is situated in a fertile country 
 about 24 miles from Leipsio, and contains 16,000 
 inhabitants. Standing on an almost perpendicular 
 rock of porphyry, the old castle of A. forms a 
 striking feature in the landscape. Its foundations 
 are probably as old as the 11th c. It is remarkable 
 as the scene of the historical incident known as the 
 Prinzenraub (q. v.). Brushes, gloves, and cigars are 
 among the chief manufactures carried on in A., and 
 the book-trade is considerable. A railway connects 
 it with Leipsic and Bavaria. 
 
 A'LTENGAARD, or ALTEN", a seaport town in 
 the province of Einmarken, Norway, situated at the 
 mouth of the river Alten, in lat. 69° 55' N., and 
 long. 23° 4' E. Beyond this point, no cultivation is 
 attempted; and even here, potatoes and barley alone 
 are produced. A. has a harbour and considerable 
 trade. It is visited principally by Russian and 
 Norwegian vessels. 
 
 ALTEN-OTTING, or ALTOTTESTG, a place of 
 pilgrimage not far from the Inn, is situated iu one 
 of the most beautiful and fertile plains of Upper 
 Bavaria. It is frequented by thousands of Roman 
 CathoKcs from Austria, Bavaria, and Swabia, on 
 account of a famous image of the Virgin Mary 
 (the 'Blade Virgin') which it possesses, and may 
 be called the Loretto of Germany. The Redemp- 
 torist fathers, who were invited hither in 1838, 
 have built an educational institution, which may 
 be held as a virtual revival of the old Jesuit col- 
 lege erected in 1773. A. was originally a villa regia. 
 Several German emperors, such as Henry III. and 
 Henry IV., held their court here. The emperor 
 Leopold I., and other princes of the House of 
 Hapsburg, made pilOTimages to it. It also con- 
 tains the tomb of Count TiUy, who was buried 
 here, at his own request. This tomb is called Tilly's 
 Chapel, and is held in such high veneration, that 
 Maximilian I., and numerous other priaces and 
 princesses of the Bavarian family, have had their 
 hearts interred in it. 
 
 A'LTERATIVES, in Medicine, a term applied to 
 remedies that have the power of changing the state 
 of the Hving soHds of the body, and consequently 
 altering the functions which they perform. It is 
 generally applied, however, to medicines which are 
 irritant in fidl doses, but which almost imperceptibly 
 alter disordered actions or secretions ; acting speci- 
 ally on certain glands, or upon absorption iu general, 
 when they are given in comparatively small doses, 
 the treatment being continued for a considerable 
 12 
 
 length of time. For example, mercury is an irritant 
 in some of its preparations ; but when small doses of 
 blue piU, Plummer's pill, or corrosive sublimate are 
 
 fiven at intervals for some length of time, they 'pro- 
 uoe alteration in disordered actions, so as to cause an 
 improvement in the nutrient and digestive functions, 
 the disappearance of eruptions, and the removal of 
 thiokemng of the skin or of other tissues ' (Royle) ; 
 and they wQl effect these changes without otherwise 
 affecting the constitution or inducing salivation. So 
 iodine, also an irritant in concentrated doses, and 
 poisonous iu some forms, is most useful, when given 
 in small doses, in eflfecting the removal of enlarged 
 glandular organs, and need not cause iodism, if 
 carefully given. 
 
 The preparations of gold are likewise stimulants 
 of the absorbents, and are used in oases of scrofula. 
 Some preparations of arsenic are powerful A. in cases 
 of skin-disease. So also are the decoctions of the 
 woods and their substitutes, such as decoction of 
 sarsaparilla, and the like, which, when taken in large 
 quantities of water, must operate partly by their 
 diluting and solvent properties, and partly by the 
 stimulant eflfect of tiie active principles of the 
 several ingredients iu these diet- drinks, conveyed 
 into the capUlaries. 
 
 It win be seen, therefore, that the term A. rather 
 implies the method in which some drugs are admin- 
 istered, than any special alterative action possessed 
 by them. The most useful, it may be added, are 
 also the most dangerous iu unskilled hands. 
 
 ALTE'RNATE, in Botany. See Leaves. 
 
 ALTHj53'A. See Maesh Mallows and Holly- 
 hook. 
 
 A'LTITTJDE, in Astronomy, is the height of a 
 heavenly body above the horizon. It is measured, 
 not by linear distance, "but by the angle which a line 
 di'awn from the eye to the heavenly body makes 
 with the horizontal line, or by the arc of a vertical 
 circle intercepted between the body and the horizon. 
 Altitudes are taken in observatories by means of a 
 telescope attached to a graduated circle (see CmCLE), 
 which is fixed vertically. The telescope being 
 directed towards the body to be observed, the angle 
 which it makes with the horizon is read off the 
 graduated circle. The A. thus observed must 
 receive various corrections — the chief being for 
 parallax (q. v.) and refraction (q. v.) — iu order to get 
 the true A. At sea, the A. is taken by means of a 
 sextant (q. v.), and then it has further to be cor- 
 rected for the dip of the visible horizon below the 
 true horizon (see HOEIZON). The correct determina- 
 tion of altitudes is of great importance in most of 
 the problems of astronomy and navigation. See 
 LoNGiTUDB. — ^An Altitude and Azimuth Instru- 
 ment consists essentially of a vertical circle with its 
 telescope so arranged as to be capable of being 
 turned round horizontally to any point of the 
 compass. It thus differs from a Transit Circle (q. v.), 
 which is fixed in the meridian. See Azimuth. 
 
 A'LTO {contralto dedso) is the deepest or lowest 
 species of musical voice in boys, in eunuchs, and 
 best of all in females, where its beauty of tone 
 gives it the preference. This quality of the human 
 voice has been too much neglected by modem com- 
 posers and singing-masters. The powers of expres- 
 sion which it possesses are quite peculiar, and 
 cannot be supplied by any other kind of voice. Its 
 tone-character (timbre) is serious, spiritual, tender, 
 and romantic. The low A. in particular has a fulness 
 of tone combined with power in the lower range. No 
 other voice expresses so decidedly dignity, greatness, 
 and religious resignation: it can also represent 
 youthful manly power as well as romantic heroism. 
 The high A. has generally the same range of 
 
ALTON-ALTO-EELIEVO. 
 
 compass as the mezzo soprano, but differs from it in 
 the position of the cantabile and in its character of 
 tone. A. voices generally consist of two registers, 
 the lowest beginning at P or G below middle 0, and 
 reaching as high as the A or B above the octave C. 
 The higher notes up to the next !F or G- partake more 
 of the character of the soprano. See Voice. 
 
 ALTOS', Jos. WiLHELM EDtTABD d', Professor of 
 ArohaBology and the History of Art at Bonn, was 
 bom, 1772, at AquUeia, and died in 1840. In early 
 years, his attention was directed to natural history, 
 especially that of the horse, on which he published 
 a splendid illustrated work {Natwrgeschichte des 
 Pferdes, Bonn, 1810), which was completed in 
 1817. In concert with his friend Pander, he pro- 
 jected an extensive work on comparative osteology, 
 of which the first division was published at Bonn 
 1821 — 1828. His etchings of animals, &c. are 
 esteemed as valuable. Albert, Prince Consort of 
 Queen Victoria, was a pupil of A. in the History of 
 Art. 
 
 A'LTONA, the largest and richest city in the 
 duchy of Holsteia in i)enmark, is situated on the 
 Elbe, so near Hamburg, that the two cities are only 
 divided by the state-boundaries. It contains 32,200 
 inhabitants. A. lies higher than Hamburg, and is 
 much healthier; but, on tie other hand, it is destitute 
 of the numerous canals so necessary for the transport 
 of goods, with which Hamburg is so abundantly pro- 
 vided. In a commercial point of view, it forms one 
 city with Hamburg. Its trade extends to England, 
 Trance, the Mediterranean Sea, and the West 
 Indies. There are many important industrial estab- 
 lishments ia A. ; among others, the manufacture of 
 tobacco is largely carried on, one factory working up 
 600,000 lbs. yearly. A. is a free port, and enjoys 
 many privileges in respect of 'trade, and also of civil 
 freedom ; all sects are allowed the free exercise of 
 their religion. The city is connected by a railway 
 with Kiel, Kendsburg, and Gliickstadt. The observa- 
 tory is a private iostitution, which has gained a 
 great reputation under the direction of Schumacher, 
 who died in 1851. The rise of A. to its present 
 importance has been recent and rapid, for a conti- 
 nental town. 
 
 A'LTOEF, the chief town in the Swiss canton 
 TTri, is situated ia a sheltered spot at the base of the 
 Grunberg, about two miles from the head of the 
 Lake of the Four Cantons, and contains about 2000 
 inhabitants. It is a well-built town, having several 
 open places, a church, a nunnery, and the oldest 
 Capuchin monastery in Switzerland. The little 
 tower on which the exploits of WiUiam Tell are 
 painted in rude frescoes, is known to be older than 
 the legend of TeU. The hme-tree under which the 
 scene of the shooting of the apple was laid, was 
 removed in 1657, and a stone-fountain erected in its 
 stead. Situated on the St Gothard road, A. has 
 some transit trade, but little or no industry of its 
 own. 
 
 A'LTO-EILIE'VO (Ital.), high-relief, the term 
 used in sculpture to designate that mode of repre- 
 senting objects by which they are made to project 
 strongly and boldly from the background, without 
 being entirely detached. In Alto-Bilievo, some por- 
 tions of the figures usually stand quite free, and in 
 this respect it differs not only from basso-rUievo, or 
 low-relief, but from the intermediate kind of relief 
 known as mezzo-riUevo, in which the figures are fully 
 rounded, but where there are no detached portions. 
 In order to be in high-relief, objects ought actually 
 to project somewhat more than half then? thickness, 
 no conventional means being employed in this style 
 to give them apparent prominence. In bass-rehef, 
 on the other hand, the figures are usually flattened; 
 
 178 
 
 but means are adopted to prevent the projection 
 from appearing to the eye to be less than half; 
 because rf an object projects less than half, or, to 
 state it otherwise, be more than half buried in the 
 background, it is obvious that its true outline or 
 profile cannot be represented. This rule, that in aU 
 reliefs there shall be. either a real or an apparent 
 projection of at least half the thickness of round 
 objects, was strictly observed in the best period of 
 Greek art, but it has been often neglected in the 
 execution of reliefs in later times, and hence attempts 
 have been made at foreshortening and perspective, 
 which have necessarily resulted in partial failure. 
 
 ReUef forms a kind of intermediate stage between 
 plastic art and painting, the mode of representation 
 being borrowed from the former, whilst the mode of 
 arrangement, to a certain extent, is in accordance 
 with the latter. The plastic principle occupies the 
 most prominent place in the simple and tranquil 
 reliefs of the earlier art of Greece, whereas the 
 pictorial principle preponderates in the crowded and 
 often excited scenes represented in the later Eoman 
 reliefs. In such reliefs as have been produced in 
 modem times, the one element or the other has 
 prevailed, according as the one model or the other 
 has been followed. The works which have been 
 recovered from the ruins of Persepolis, Nineveh, 
 and Babylon, stiU. attest the extensive employment 
 of reUef in Persian and Assyrian art. Of the latter, 
 which usually belongs to the class of mezzo-rilieoo, 
 some of the finest specimens in existence are now to 
 
 be seen in the British Museum. Though never 
 exhibiting the life and freedom of classical or modem , 
 European art, the elaborately executed and majestic 
 reliefs of these semi-oriental nations are greatly 
 in advance not only of the whimsical distortions 
 of nature exhibited by the Hindus, but of the 
 inanimate and motionless representations of the 
 Egyptians. 
 
 The earliest Greek reliefs possessed a hard and 
 severe character, somewhat approaching to the art 
 of those earlier nations' of which we have just 
 spoken, and were very slightly raised. Of this we 
 have -an example in the two lions over the gate 
 at Mycense — probably the oldest Greek relief in 
 existence. It was Pludias who gave to relief its true 
 character, and finally brought it to a degree of perfec- 
 tion which lit has never since attained. The alti- 
 riKevi which adorned the metopes of the Parthenon 
 at Athens, and the Temple of Apollo at PhigaJia in 
 Arcadia, now preserved in the British Museum, are 
 still not only unsurpassed, but unapproached as 
 examples of the style. In none of these do we see 
 any attempt at perspective, and even foreshortening 
 for the most part is avoided. 
 
 Under the Komans, sculpture was- employed 
 
ALTO-EELlEVO-AltTM, 
 
 to an enormous extent in the decoration of 
 tombs and sarcophagi, -whole streets of such monu- 
 ments being constructed, as, for example, on the 
 Appian Way. The result of the demand thus created 
 was, that sculpture became » manufacture rather 
 than an art, and attempts were made to supply by 
 technical execution and mere mass what had been 
 lost in thought and spirit. Belief was now applied, 
 often by Greek artists resident in' Italy, to .purposes 
 
 Panathenaic Frieze. — From the Parthenon. 
 
 for which the Greeks, in their own land and in their 
 better times, had rightly conceived it to be imsuited. 
 Behind figures standing nearly free, a second rank 
 was introduced, and those numerous examples of a 
 false style, still to be found in every gallery in 
 Europe, were produced, the inaitation of which after- 
 wards led to such a lavish expenditure of artistic 
 talent in Italy. The attempt which the Bomans had 
 made to invade the provincfe of painting, by means 
 of sculpture, was carried still further by the Floren- 
 tine artists of the 16th and 17th c. Not only were 
 several rows of figures represented in perspective, 
 but even landscape was introduced with a success 
 which, in the hands of such artists as Ghiberti, was 
 positively marvellous. If the highest perfection in the 
 true plastic style of relief was attained by Phidias 
 in the metopes of the Parthenon at Athens, a corre- 
 spondSig merit may be claimed as regards the 
 (Regenerate pictorial style by Ghiberti in the cele- 
 brated bronze doors of the Baptistery of San 
 Giovanni at Morenoe. Even Canova's reliefs partook 
 to far too great an extent of the character of paint- 
 ings in stone; and to Flaxman, and above all, to 
 Thorwaldsen, must be assigned the merit of restoring 
 this style of art to its genuine and original prin- 
 ciples. It is to be remembered, in studying the 
 reliefs of classical times, that studiously as the 
 Greeks avoided a pictorial conception of their sub- 
 ject, they did not eschew the use of colour where it 
 could be employed to heighten the effect of their 
 reliefs. There is reason to believe that in many 
 excellent examples the background was painted 
 blue, and that the hems of tiie garments of the 
 figures, and the like, were often coloured or gUded. 
 
 A'LUM, a whitish, astringent, saline substance ; 
 properly it is a double saB;, being composed of 
 sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumina, which, 
 along with a certain proportion of water, crystallise 
 together in octahedrons or in cubes. Its" formula 
 is KOSO,-^Al,033SO, + 24HO. A. is soluble in 
 eighteen times its weight of cold water, and in its 
 own weight of hot water. The solution thus obtained 
 has a peculiar astringent taste, and is strongly acid 
 to coloured test papers. Wlien heated, the crystals 
 melt in fheir water of crystallisation ; and wlien the 
 
 water is completely driven off by heat, there is left 
 a spongy white mass, called burnt A. or anhydrous 
 A. A. is much used as a mordant in dyeing. This 
 property it owes to the alumina in it, which has a 
 strong attraction for textile tissues, and also for 
 colouring matters; the alumina thus becomes the 
 means of fixing the colour in the cloth. The manu- 
 facture of the colours or paints called lakes depends 
 on this property of alumina to attach to itself certain 
 colouring matters. Thus, if a solution of A. is 
 coloured with cochineal or madder, and ammonia or 
 carbonate of soda is added, the alumina of the A. is 
 precipitated with the colour attached to it, and the 
 liquid is left colourless. Alumina, the basis of pure 
 clay — ^which is a silicate of alumina — derives its 
 name from being first extracted from A. A. is also 
 used in the preparation of leather from skins, and, 
 in medicine, as a powerful astringent for arresting 
 bleeding and mucous discharges. Its use in the 
 making of bread, to give a white appearance and 
 more pleasing consistence to bread made from 
 indifferent flour, is highly objectionable. A. rarely 
 occurs in nature, except in a few springs and in some 
 extinct volcanoes, where it appears to be formed from 
 the action of sulphurous acid vapours upon felspathio 
 rocks. In this country, it is prepared artificially from 
 A.-shale, obtained from coal-mines at Hurlett and 
 Campsie, near Glasgow ; and alum-slate, which occurs 
 at 'V^aiitby, in Yorkshire, and there forms precipitous 
 cliffs, extending about thirty miles along the east 
 coast of England. The alum-slate, shale, or schist, 
 consists mamly of clay (silicate of alumina), iron 
 pyrites (bisulphuret of iron), and coaly or bituminous 
 matter. Wben the shale is exposed to the air — as it 
 is in the old coal-wastes or mines from which the 
 coal has been extracted — ^the oxygen of the air, 
 assisted by moisture, effects a decided change upon 
 it. The original hard stony substance begins to 
 split up into thin leaves, and becomes studded over 
 and interspersed with crystals. The latter are the 
 result of the oxidation of the sulphur of the pyrites 
 into sulphiuic acid, and the iron into oxide of iron, 
 both of which in part combine to form sulphate of 
 iron, whilst the excess of the sulphuric acid imites 
 with the alumina of the clay, and produces sulphate 
 of alumina. When the alum-shale thus weathered 
 is digested in Water, there dissolve out, the sulphate 
 of Sumina (AloOjSSOj) and i sulphate of .iron 
 (FeOSOj) ; this "solution is treated with chloride 
 of potassium (KCl), which decomposes the sulphate 
 of iron, forming sulphate of potash (KOSO3) and 
 chloride of iron (FeOl). When this liquid is eva- 
 porated to concentration, and allowed to cool, 
 crystals of A. separate, consisting of sulphate of 
 alumina, sulphate of potash and water, thus, 
 K0S03-1-A1^033S03H-24B;0, and the chloride of 
 iron is left in the solution or mother-liquor. The 
 crystals of A. obtained from the first crystallisation 
 are not free from iron, and hence require to 
 be redissolved in water, reconcentrated, and re- 
 This operation is generally repeated 
 
 a third time before the A. is obtained pure.- 
 As the preliminary weathering of the shale takes 
 some years to proceed, a more expeditious method 
 is now largely resorted to. The shale is broken in 
 fragments, and piled up over brushwood in long 
 ridges, shaped like huge potato-pits, and the brush- 
 wood being set fire to, the coaly matter of the shale 
 begins to bum, and the whole ridge undergoes the 
 process . of roasting ; the results of which are the 
 same as that of the weathering operation— namely, 
 the oxidation of the sulphur and iron, and the for- 
 mation of sulphate of alumina and sulphate of iron. 
 This material is afterwards worked up as previously 
 described. . The roasting operation is so much more 
 expeditious than the weathering process, that months 
 
ALUM BAGH— ALUMINA. 
 
 siiffice for years. The A. made at Tolfa, near Civita 
 Vecchia, ia extracted from alum-stone, a mineral con- 
 taining sulphate of potash and sulphate of alumiua, 
 but united in such a form as to render them insoluble. 
 When the mineral is calcined, the sulphates become 
 soluble, and are extracted by lixiviation. The A. 
 thus manufactured is prized, as being free of iron. 
 The potash in A. can be replaced partly or alto- 
 gether by soda or ammonia ; the alumina by oxide 
 of chromium or sesquioxide of manganese; or the 
 sulphuric acid by chromic acid, or peroxide of iron, 
 without altering the form of the crystals. There are 
 thus soda, ammonia, chrome, &c., alums, forming a 
 genus of salts of which common A. is only one of the 
 species. The more important members of the class, 
 expressed in symbols, are : 
 
 KOS03-hAl,0,3SO,-l-24HO, potash A. 
 NaOSO, -1- Al^OjSSO, -H24H0, soda A. 
 JSTH.OSO, -I- AljO,3S03 -I-24H0, ammonia A. 
 KOSO3 -fCr.OjSSO, H-24HO, chromic potash A. 
 PeOSOj -f AljOjSSO, H-24HO, ferrous A. 
 
 ALUM BAGH, a fort rendered famous, during 
 the battles and sieges arising out of the Indian 
 mutiny in 1857, by the indomitable resolution of its 
 defenders. The A. B. (' Garden of the Lady Alum, 
 or Beauty of the Soul') was a domain about four 
 miles from the city of Luoknow, near the Cawnpore 
 road. It comprised several buildings, including a 
 palace, a mosque, and an emanbarra or private temple, 
 bounded by a beautiful garden, which was itself in 
 the middle of a park, and the park enclosed by a 
 wall with comer towers. It had belonged to some 
 members of the royal family of Oude; but when the 
 wars of the mutiny had been fairly begun, the A. B. 
 was converted by the rebels into a fort. It was 
 large enough to contain a. powerful military force, 
 and might have become a formidable stronghold, if 
 well defended; but it proved powerless against a 
 small Bi-itish force. In September, Outram, Have- 
 lock, and Neill crossed the Ganges from Cawnpore, 
 marched rapidly towards Lucknow, and captured 
 the A. B. on the way. About 300 soldiers were left 
 at the place, with four guns, a number of sick, 
 wounded, and 4000 native camp-foUowers, under 
 Colonel M'Intyre; wMle the three generals pro- 
 ceeded with the main body of their force to 
 Luoknow. It was intended that M'Intyre should 
 soon be reKeved or reinforced; but Havelock and 
 Outram, shut up for two months within the 
 Eesidency at Lucknow, could scarcely send even 
 a small note in a quUl to the A. B. Not until 
 the close of November did the British, under Sir 
 Colin Campbell, reKeve both Lucknow and the 
 A. B. He brought away aU the garrison from the 
 former place, but left Sir James Outram, with 3500 
 men, to hold the A. B. It was at that time the 
 only spot in the whole province of Oude in the 
 hands of the British ; and ditting the whole winter. 
 Sir James had to defend it against the enemy. On 
 the 12th of January 1858, he was attacked by an 
 armed rabble of sepoys and other malcontents, 
 amounting to 30,000 men. These, however, he 
 completely defeated. They attacked him again with 
 20,000 men on the 21st of February, at a time when 
 his small force was weakened by the absence of a 
 detachment employed in escorting a convoy of pro- 
 visions and stores from Cawnpore ; he, however, met 
 them with the same heroic resolution, and effectually 
 repulsed them. In the next following month. Sir 
 Colin Campbell re-conquered Luoknow ; and the 
 garrison at the A. B. was relieved from its perilous 
 isolation. Although only a domain converted 
 temporarily into a fort, the A. B. must ever occupy 
 a memorable place in mihtary history. 
 
 ALUM ROOT. . This name is given in the 
 180 
 
 United States to two plants, natives of that country, 
 very different from one another, but agreeing in the 
 remarkable astringency of their roots, which are 
 medicinally used. One of these plants is Geranium 
 maculatum (see Geranium), a plant of general habit 
 and appearance very much resembling some of the 
 species of geranium which are common weeds in 
 Britain. The root contains more tannin than kino 
 (q. V.) does. The tincture is of use in sore throat and 
 ulcerations of the mouth, and is also administered 
 in various diseases. — The property of astringency 
 belongs, in an inferior degree, to some other species 
 of Geranium, and of the kindred genera, Erodiwm and 
 Pdargonium. — The other American plant to which 
 the name A. E.. is given is Heudiera Americana, a 
 plant of the natural order Saxifragece (q. v.), an order 
 in which also astringency is a prevalent property. 
 The genus HewAera has the calyx 5-cleft, the petals 
 undivided, five stamens, and the styles remarkably 
 long. H. Americana is everywhere covered with a 
 clammy down ; the leaves are roundish, lobed, and 
 toothed ; the peduncles, dichotomous and straggling. 
 The root is a powerful styptic, and is used to form 
 a wash for wounds and obstinate ulcers. 
 
 ALU'MINA, the most abundant of the earths 
 (q. v.), is the oxide of the metal Aluminium (q. v.), 
 the formula being Al.Oj. It occurs in nature 
 abundantly in combination with silica, associated 
 with other bases. The most familiar of its native 
 compounds is felspar, a silicate of A. and 
 potass (Al203,3Si03-f-KO,Si03). This is one of 
 the constituents of granite, and of several other 
 igneous rocks. Certain varieties of these, by Expo- 
 sure to the atmosphere, become completely disinte- 
 grated, passing from the state of hard, solid rock, 
 such as we are accustomed to see in building-granite, 
 into soft, crambling, earthy masses. It is the felspar 
 which undergoes the change ; and it appears to be 
 owing to the action of rain-water charged with car- 
 bonic acid, which dissolves the potass and some of 
 the silica of the felspar, leaving the excess of silica 
 and the A. stiU united. It is not known, however, 
 why certain specimens of granite are rapidly cor- 
 roded and crumbled down, whilst others have 
 resisted for ages the same causes of decay. By 
 such a process of disintegration as we have described, 
 the clays of our arable soils are produced. Clay 
 consists of sflica and A. in a state of chemical 
 combination. It never is pure A, but the» quan- 
 tity of siUea united to the latter is variable. 
 When it is pure, clay is quite white, as we see in 
 the porcelain clay of Devonshire and Cornwall, which 
 is derived from colourless felspar. More frequently, 
 clay is red, owing to the presence of oxide of iron ; 
 or black, from the diffusion through it of vegetable 
 matter. 
 
 From alum, A. is prepared by adding to a 
 solution of the former, water of ammoniap, as long 
 as it occasions a precipitate. The A. appears as a 
 voluminous, white, gelatinous substance, consisting of 
 the oxide of the metal combined with water. When 
 A. is precipitated from a solution containing colour- 
 ing matter, such as logwood, &c., it carries down the 
 colour chemically imited to the flocculent precipi- 
 tate; in this way are formed the coloured earths, 
 called lahea (q. v.). A. in the state of precipitate, 
 after being gently dried,' is readily soluble in 
 acids and in alkahes; but if heated to whiteness, 
 it loses the associated water, contracts greatly in 
 bulk, and forms a white, soft powder, not at aU 
 gritty, and with difficulty soluble in alkalies and 
 acids. A., as generally prepared, whether hydrated 
 or anhydrous, is insoluble in water, possesses no 
 taste, and does not alter colouring matters ; but 
 recently Mr Walter Crmn has obtained A. in an 
 aUotropio form, in which it is soluble in water. 
 
ALUMIN lUM— ALUEED. 
 
 It ia quite different, therefore, in properties from 
 the alkaline earths, and is » much weaker base. 
 In the anhydrous state it absorbs water with great 
 readiness without combining with it, so that it 
 adheres to the tongue, and is felt to parch it. 
 Clay retains this property ; and the ends of tobaoco- 
 pipea are glazed, to prevent. adhesion to the lipa or 
 tongue. A. is not fusible by a forge or furnace 
 heat, but it melts before the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe 
 into a clear globule, possessing great hardness. It 
 occurs in nature in a simOar state. The more 
 coarsely crystallised specimens form the emery 
 which is used for polishing ; the transparent crystals, 
 when of a blue colour, owing to a trace of metallic 
 oxide, constitute the precious gem the sapphire, and, 
 when red, the ruby. A., in common with other 
 sesquioxides, is a feeble base. The salts it forms 
 with the acids have almost all a sour taste, and an 
 acid action on colouring matter. 
 
 ALUMI'H'ITJM is one of the metals present in 
 clay, granite, and other rooky and earthy substances. 
 It was discovered by Wohler in 1828, and was re- 
 examined by him in 1846, when he obtained the 
 metal in minute globules or beads, by heating a 
 mixture of chloride of A, and sodium. Within the 
 last five years, however, the subject has been re- 
 investigated by DevUle and others, and it appears 
 probable that the metal A., recently so rare and 
 costly, wiU soon rank among the more common 
 metals both in use and price. The original experi- 
 ments of DeviUe were made at the cost of Napoleon 
 III., who subscribed £1500, and was rewarded by 
 the presentation of two ba^s of the metal. The 
 process followed by DevUle was the same as that 
 suggested by* Wohler, and appears to have been so 
 successful, that the metal could, in 1857, be purchased 
 in Paris at the price of 7*. &d. an ounce. In 1855, 
 Rose announced to the scientific world that A. 
 could be more readily and cheaply prepared from a 
 mineral called cryoHte, found in Greenland in large 
 quantity, and cargoes of which are regularly im- 
 ported into Germany under the name of 'Mineral 
 Soda,' at the price of 9s. a cwt. This mineral is a 
 double fluoride of A. and sodium, is used on the 
 Khine as a washing-soda, and also in the manu- 
 facture of soap, and only requires to be mixed vrith 
 an excess of sodium, and heated, when the metal 
 A. at once separates. The latter process for the 
 preparation of the new metal is about to be carried 
 out on the large scale at works which are now in 
 progress of erection at Battersea, London; and it 
 is expected that the price will not exceed 3s. 9d. 
 per oimce. Indeed, an order for 500 ounces at that 
 sum has already been accepted. 
 
 The properties of A. are, that it is a white metal, 
 somewhat resembhng silver, but possessing a bluish 
 hue, which reminds one of zinc. It is very malleable 
 and ductile, and in tenacity it approaches iron. 
 When heated in a furnace, it fuses, and can then be 
 east in moulds into ingots. Exposed to dry or moist 
 air, it is unalterable, and does not oxidise so much 
 as lead and zinc do. Cold water has certainly no 
 action upon it, and in the majority of experiments, 
 hot water has not sensibly affected it. Sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, the gas which so readily tarnishes the 
 sflver in households, forming a black film on the 
 surface, does not act on A. When fused and cast 
 into moulds, it is a soft metal like pure silver, and 
 has a density of 2-56 ; but when hammered or roUed, 
 it becomes as hard as iron, and its density increases 
 to 2'67. It is therefore a very light metal, being 
 lighter than glass, and only one-fourth as heavy as 
 silver. This property has been taken advantage of 
 by Napoleon III., who some time ago ordered the 
 eagles surmounting the standards of the French 
 army to be made of A. instead of silver; and thus 
 
 the same-sized eagle was reduced to one-fourth of its 
 former weight. A. is veiy sonorous; and when a 
 rod or smaU bell made of it, is struck, it gives out a 
 very sweet clear ringing sound ; hence it has been 
 suggested that the metal would be useful in making 
 bells, gongs, &c. A. forms, with copper, severd 
 light, very hard, white alloys, which will doubtless 
 soon find their way into our manufactures of spoons, 
 tea-kettles, dish-covers, &c. ; and also a yellow 
 alloy, which, though much lighter than gold, is very 
 similar to it in colour, and in being faintly acted on 
 by acids. With iron, the new metal yields two 
 alloys, one of which, though containing 75 per cent, 
 of iron, yet wdl not rust when exposed to a damp 
 atmosphere, and may therefore be useful in making 
 steam-pipes, &c. Ornaments for the mantel-piece, 
 the arm, and the neck, have been fashioned of 
 A., but hitherto they have proved unacceptable to 
 the public eye, on account of its peculiar blue or 
 zinc hue ; but recently, Dr Stevenson Macadam, of 
 Edinburgh, has suggested a process of immersing 
 the A. in a heated solution of potash, which partially 
 eats into the surface of the metal, and produces a 
 fine white frosted appearance, like that of frosted 
 silver. A number of medals of A. have been frosted 
 in this way,- and after a, year's exposure, have not 
 lost their original beauty. 
 
 ALTJ'NNO, NiccoLO, or Niocolo of Fuligno, one 
 of the old Umbrian painters, whose works first 
 indicated the qualities discernible in that school. 
 His earliest known piece is a ' Madonna with Angels 
 and Saints,' 1458 A. D. There is also a gonfalon — a 
 banner used in religious processions — of the year 
 1466, in the church of Santa Maria Nuova at 
 Perugia, which A. painted for the brotherhood, as 
 the inscription testifies : ' Societas Annunciamenta 
 fecit fieri hoc opus.' It is a work of peculiar beauty, 
 displaying deep religious feeling and exquisite sweet- 
 ness. A. painted several of these gonfalons. Some 
 of his pictures were carried off by the French, and 
 sent to Paris ; but at the restoration of artistic 
 spoU, ' The Nativity,' ' The Eesirrrection,' &c., were 
 returned, although ' The Agony in the Garden ' still 
 remains in the Louvre. There is also a ' Madonna 
 between Two Angels,' of the year 1499, to be seen in 
 the parish church of the village of Bastia. Frag- 
 ments, too, are still in existence of an altar-piece 
 for the cathedral of Assisi. The picture represented 
 a Pieta, with two angels bearing torches, and, 
 according to Vasari, weeping so naturally, that 'no 
 one,' he thinks, 'could) have painted them better.' 
 A. is not so remarkable for the originaUty or fertility 
 of his invention, as for his selection of details, warmth 
 of feeling, purity, and devout faith. His earnestness, 
 however, leads him at times into exaggeration. 
 
 ALUEED, or ALEED, of Beverley, in York- 
 shire, an old English historian of the time of Henry 
 I. Little is known regarding liiTn ; but he is said 
 to have been educated at Cambridge, and to have 
 greatly distinguished himself by the variety of his 
 learning. It is also stated that he had enriched 
 hia mind by travel, both in France and Italy, 
 and that at Home he became domestic chaplain to 
 Cardinal Othoboni. His permanent ofSoe, however, 
 appears to have been that of canon and treasurer of 
 the church of St John in his native town of Beverley, 
 where he wrote his Annals. This work commences 
 with a fabulous period of British history, and 
 extends down to the twenty-ninth year of Henry I. 
 It was published at Oxford in 1716 by Thomas 
 Hearue, and is a remarkable production, for various 
 reasons. Its Latin is extremely good, and even 
 elegant, whUe its accuracy, especially in dates, is 
 unusual for the age in which its author lived. He 
 is said, though it is very doubtful, to have written, 
 
ALVABADO— AMADEUS. 
 
 besides the Annals, a work on the liberties or privi- 
 leges of the church of St John of Beverley. The 
 work, whoever wrote it, is a translation of old 
 Saxon documents, charters, &c., relative to that 
 edifice, and is stiU in manuscript. A. died in 1128 
 or 1129. 
 
 ALVARA'DO, Pedro de, a famous companion 
 of Cortes, was born at Badajoz in Spanish Estrema- 
 dnra, towards the close of the 15th c. In 1517 or 
 1518, he sailed for the new world, and in the same 
 year was despatched from Cuba, by Velasquez, the 
 governor of that island, to explore, under the 
 command of Grijalva, the shores of the American 
 continent. The expedition touched at Aoozamil (the 
 Isle of Swallows), and at various places in Yucatan. 
 Ascending also the rivers Tabasco and Banderos, 
 Grijalva was so enchanted with the beauty of the 
 country, its fine cultivation, and the numerous traces 
 of advanced civilisation, that he named it New 
 Spain. Now, for the first time, the Spaniards 
 heard of the riches of Montezuma, and of hia vast 
 empire. A. was ordered to return to Cuba, and 
 inform Velasquez of the result of the expedition. 
 The sight of the gold which A. brought with him, 
 stimulated the covetousness and ambition of Velas- 
 quez, who became greatly incensed against Grijalva, 
 because the latter had not penetrated further into 
 the new region, and on his return to Cuba deprived 
 liim of his command. In February 1519, Cortes 
 sailed from Havanna, solely for the purpose of con- 
 quest, with eleven ships, containing 508 soldiers, and 
 109 seamen. A. commanded one of these ships ; 
 but a storm separating the fleet, he arrived at the 
 rendezvous. Isle of Swfllows, three days earlier than 
 the others. Here the conquest of Mexico was 
 planned by these intrepid adventurers. A figured 
 in every conspicuous incident ; he was, indeed, 
 hardly less distinguished than the sagacious Cortes 
 himself, who knew his worth, and whom he served 
 with unfaltering zeal and fidelity. While he held 
 the city of Mexico, during the absence of his chief, 
 he massacred, in the midst of a fSte, a great number 
 of Aztec nobles, which act is said to nave excited 
 the indignation of Cortes ; but, on the other hand, 
 it is asserted that the Mexicans had plotted the 
 destruction of the Spaniards, and that A. had 
 become cognizant of the scheme. In the famous 
 night-retreat of Ist July 1520, A. commanded the 
 rear-guard. After the conquest of Mexico, he was 
 sent, in 1523, at the head of 300 foot, 160 horse, with 
 4 pieces of cannon, and a troop of Mexican auxilia- 
 ries, to subdue the tribes on the coast of the Pacific 
 in the direction of Guatemala. He was completely 
 successful, receiving everywhere the submission of 
 the native chiefs, while the people brought hiTn 
 presents, in token of the sincerity of their friend- 
 ship. He now returned to Spain, where the emperor, 
 Charles V., gave him a splendid reception, and 
 appointed him governor of Guatemala. On depart- 
 ing again for the new world, he was accompanied 
 by numerous friends and cavaliers desirous of making 
 their fortune. His adventurous spirit soon launched 
 him into new enterprises. Pizarro and Almagro 
 were prosecuting a brilliant career of conquest in 
 South America. A. resolved not to intrude upon 
 their territories. He considered the province of 
 Quito to be without the limits of these, and so, 
 embarking with a force of 500 soldiers, 227 of whom 
 were cavaliers, he landed at Bahia de los Caraques, 
 near Cape San Francisco, whence he penetrated into 
 the heaxt of the country, crossing the Andes by as 
 bold and hazardous a march as it is possible to con- 
 ceive. In the plain of Bio Bamba he was met by 
 some of the troops of Pizarro, headed by Almagro ; 
 but instead of disputing by force of arms his right 
 to the possession of the country in which he found 
 
 himself, he agreed to retire, on receiving an indemnity 
 for his arduous undertaking. He therefore retired to 
 Honduras, and aided the colonists in establishing new 
 settlements, amongst others, Gracias-a-Dios and San 
 Juan de Puerto de Caballos. Meanwhile, Pizarro, 
 loaded with wealth, went back to Spain in 1534, and 
 misrepresented the conduct of A. to ttie emperor; but 
 the latter following, vindicated himself so successfully, 
 that he received the government of Honduras in 
 addition to Guatemala. Again he embarked for the 
 new world, and pursued his course of discovery and 
 conquest; but in an affray vpith the Indians upon 
 the coast of Michoacan, in 1541, he was accidentally 
 killed by his horse falling upon him and crushing ' 
 him. In the same year, an inundation, accompanied 
 by a frightful tempest, overthrew the walls of the 
 town of San Jago, when his wife and children all 
 perished. 
 
 ALVAREZ, Don Jose, a Spanish sculptor, was 
 bom April 23, 1768, at Prieso, in the province of 
 Cordova. During youth he laboured vpith his father, 
 a stone-mason ; and when twenty years old, began 
 to study drawing and sculpture in the academy at 
 Granada. - His early essays in sculpture secured for 
 biTin the patronage of the Bishop of Cordova, and 
 in 1794, he was received into the academy of San 
 Fernando, where, in 1799, he gained the first prize in 
 the first class. Subsequently, he gaiaed the second 
 prize for sculpture in the Institute of Paris, and in 
 1804, increased his celebrity by a plaster-model of 
 Ganymede, which proved that he could rival Canova 
 in gracefulness of style. He now attempted greater 
 works in the more severe style, and prepared a model 
 for a wounded Achilles, which was accidentally 
 broken. Having removed to Kome, he was here 
 employed by Napoleon to design bass-reliefs for the 
 Quirinal Palace on Monte CavaUo ; but, on account 
 of poKtical changes, his works were not allowed to 
 occupy the places for which they had been destined. 
 In Kome, where he lived on terms of friendship with 
 Canova and Thorwaldsen, he executed, among other 
 works, his Grupo ColosaX de Zaragoza, now in the 
 Koyal Museum of Madrid, representing a scene in 
 the defence of Saragossa. This work alone is 
 sufficient to establish A's fame. Clearness of design, 
 dignified simplicity in execution, trueness to nature, 
 and deep sentiment, mark the sculptures of A, who, 
 next to nature and classical antiquity, studied the 
 works of Michael Angelo. He died, in Madrid, 
 November 26, 1827. 
 
 AMADE'tJS (i. e. Love-God), a common name in 
 the House of Savoy. The first who bore it was 
 Count A, eldest son of Count Humbert, who lived 
 about the commencement of the 11th c. His suc- 
 cessors gradually enlarged their paternal dominions ; 
 but the first to make an important figure in history 
 was A. v., who was born in 1249, succeeded his uncle 
 FiHppo in 1285, and died in 1323. He acquired the 
 dignity of a prince of the empire. He had a brother 
 who resided for a long period in England, and while 
 there, buUt the Savoy Palace in London. — His son, 
 A. VI., the ' Green Count,' bom in 1334, succeeded 
 his father in 1343. He was a sagacious, moderate, 
 and vigorous ruler, won various places from the 
 Dauphin of France, became lord -paramount of 
 Piedmont, and through the favour of the emperor 
 Charles IV., obtained the viceregency over a great 
 part of Upper Italy. His influence among the Italian 
 states was very great. He died in 1383. — A VIII., 
 bom in 1383, was at first under the guardianship 
 of his grandmother, a woman of superior talents; 
 but in 1398 he assumed the reins of government 
 himself, and displayed a spirit of moderation, and, 
 at the same time, a love of order which augured 
 well for his people. The zeal with whiS he 
 
AMADIS— AMADOU. 
 
 aided the policy of the Emperor Sigismund secured 
 him the imperial favour, and the elevation of Savoy 
 into a duchy (1416). On the extinction of its 
 native dynasty, in 1418, Pifedmout chose him for its 
 ruler, as he was next of kin. But a rebgious melan- 
 choly taJdng possession of his mind, he (November 
 7, 1434) laid down his authority, and along with 
 six of his knights, hetook himself to a monastic 
 hermitage which he had caused to he built on the 
 shores of the Lake of Geneva. He was elected pope 
 in 1439, when he assumed the name of Felix V. ; but 
 he resigned the papal chair in 1448, and died three 
 years afterwards at Geneva. — A. IX., after govern- 
 ing for four years, handed over his authority to his 
 wife Jolanthe, on account of ill health; but she 
 used it very imprudently. While he lived, A. was 
 a mere tool in the hands of grasping factions. He 
 died in 1472. 
 
 A'MADIS, a much-used heroic name in chivalric 
 poetry. At the head of those heroes of romance, 
 stands A. of Gaul, called the Lion Knight, from the 
 device on his shield, and also Beltenebros, or the 
 Darkly Beautiful. The other Amadises that figure 
 in romance are represented as descendants more or 
 less remote of A. of Gaul. He himself was what the 
 Germans call a love-child of the fabulous King Perion 
 of France and of EHsena, a princess of Bretagne. The 
 relationship of several of the other Amadises to the 
 princes and princesses of Colchis, Trebisond, Greece, 
 and Cathay, that figure as their parents, is of the 
 sajne unsanctioned kind. • Nor do such irregularities 
 seem at aJl to have shocked, in these fabulous 
 regions, or to have derogated from the dignity of 
 any of the personages concerned. ' The romance 
 which narrates the adventures of A. of Gaul is both 
 the most ancient and the best of all the A. romances. 
 It even found favour in the sight of Cervantes, who 
 won immortal honour by overthrowing the long 
 usurped dominion of this ' evil sect.' This one, how- 
 ever, has maintained its reputation even to the pre- 
 sent day, not only because it w:as regarded by him as 
 a literary curiosity, but also from ite own merits, as 
 the original production of a creative fancy. 
 
 The question which was early raised, and cannot 
 yet be demonstratively settled, as to whether this 
 romance was originally a Portuguese, a Spanish, or 
 a French production, proves at least the absence in 
 it of all national peculiarities, and the entire want 
 of all national traditions connected with it; and 
 hence the want also of a living historical back- 
 ground, which, in the case of all really national 
 legends, is discernible through the purely epic struc- 
 ture. It may be asserted with certainly, both from 
 internal and external evidence, that this romance is 
 the pure subjective creation of the fancy of a single 
 individual ; and that it was composed at a time when 
 the genuine epic style of chivalric writing was near 
 its deohne, consequently, not earlier than the 14th c. 
 It is also apparent that this romance must have 
 been originally written in prose, and intended to be 
 read, and not to be recited. Lastly, it is not to be 
 doubted that the author was well acquainted with 
 the earlier legendary poetry, and has imitated it in 
 many things, but has, nevertheless, stmck out for 
 himself a perfectly new path, in an opposite direc- 
 tion, which naturally tended to lead his less gifted 
 imitators into a bottomless abyss, and at last brought 
 about the extinction of the whole class. For these 
 chivalric romances — doubtless, vmintentionally — 
 became by degrees more and more of an ironical 
 cast ; and only a genius like Cervantes was wanting 
 in order to complete their extinction, by making the 
 comic element the fundamental tone, and exagger- 
 ating the incongruity inherent iu such compositions. 
 The Spanish A. romances consist of fourteen 
 books, of which the first four contain the history of 
 
 A. of Gaul. Yet, according to the researches of the 
 learned Clemencin, as stated in his Commentary on 
 Don Quixote (Madrid, 1833), it can scarcely be 
 doubted that this most ancient part was originally 
 written in the Portuguese language, by the knight 
 Vasco de Lobeira of Oporto, who died in 1403 ; and 
 that it must have been composed between 1343 and 
 1367. The original manuscry)t is said to have been 
 first in the possession of the Mant Alfonso of Portu- 
 
 fal, the son of John I., the founder of the House of 
 iraganza, who died iu 1461 ; and last, in that of the 
 Duke of Aveiro, and to have been destroyed during 
 the earthquake in Lisbon in 1755. At least, these 
 first four books have only been preserved in the 
 Spanish translation which was made by Garcia 
 Ordofiez de Montalvo, about 1460, and was first 
 printed between 1492 and 1505. The same Montalvo 
 added to it the fifth book. Las Bergas \ergas, i. e., 
 actions or deeds] de Esplandian, Hijo de Amadis de 
 Odula. He began this book in 1485, but did not 
 complete it till 1492. The books from the 6th to 
 the 14th contain the Exploits and Adventures of 
 Florisando, by Paez de Ribera ; of Lisuarte of 
 Greece, and of Perion of Gaul, by Juan Diaz ; of A. 
 of Greece, of Florisel of Nicea, and of Anaxarte, 
 by Felioiano de SUva ; of Kegel of Greece, and of 
 Sdves de la Selva, by the same ; of Lepolemo, and 
 of Leandro the Fair, by Pedro de Lujan ; and lastly, 
 of Penelva, by an anonjrmous Portuguese. The 
 French translators and continiiators, beginning with 
 Nicolas de Herberay, Sieur des Essarts, who pub- 
 lished the first eight books between 1540 — 1548, 
 have increased this series of romances to twenty- 
 four books. Gilbert Saunier, Sieur de Duverdier, 
 has written a conclusion, in seven large volumes, to 
 all the adventures begun in the whole series of 
 legMids, which he has called Le Soman des Romans. 
 How popular and widely circulated these romances 
 were iu their day, may be proved by the many 
 editions of single legends, by the translations of 
 most of them into Italian, English, German, and 
 even into Dutch, and also by the numerous chivalric 
 romances written in imitation of them. As, never- 
 theless, a change came over the public taste, they 
 almost all fell into oblivion, and indeed justly so, 
 because of their want of intnnsio merit. They were 
 transferred from the Temple of the Muses to the 
 Hterary lumber-room, where now at best they only 
 serve to feast the eyes of bibliomaniacs. A. of Gaiu 
 has been deservedly excepted from this fate, and has 
 not only f oimd readers in the present day, but has been 
 in modem times translated, revised, and imitated. 
 The Portuguese Gil Vicente, and the Spaniard 
 Andres Kei de Artieda, extracted from it the mate- 
 rials for two Spanish comedies. De Lubert and 
 Count Tressan revived this romance in tasteful 
 extracts ; and as Bernardo Tasso formerly did iu 
 his Amadigi, so now Creuzg de Lesser and WiUiam 
 Stewart Eose have extracted from it the materials 
 for epic poems : A. de Gaide, Poeme faisant suite 
 aux Chevaliers de la Table ronde (Paris, 1813), and A. 
 of Oaid, a poem in three books (London, 1803). On 
 tiie other hand, Wieland's Newer A. has nothing iu 
 common with the more ancient Amadises, except the 
 title, and the multitude of adventures encountered 
 by the hero. 
 
 A'MADOU, a name given to Polyporus igniarius 
 and P. fomentarius, fungi of the tribe or division 
 Hymenomycetes, and formerly included in the genus 
 Solelus. They grow upon old trees in Britain, and 
 on the continent of Europe. The pileus is completely 
 blended with the hymenium, which is pierced with 
 thin-sided, rather angular, tubular, vertical passages 
 — the whole fungus thus appearing as a_ leathery 
 or fleshy mass ; the under side of which is pierced 
 by deep pores. P. igniarius is called Hard A, or 
 
 183 
 
AMAIN— AMALGAM. 
 
 Touotwood. P. fomentarius is called Soft A., or 
 German Tinder. They are used as styptics for 
 stanching ahght ■woimds; and when steel and flint 
 were in general use for striking fire, were much 
 employed as tinder, being prepared for this piurpose 
 by boUing in a solution o? nitre. The Soft A. is used 
 for making small surgical pads, for which its elas- 
 ticity pecifliarly fits it. P. fomentarius, or a very 
 similar species, is found in India, and used there as 
 in Europe. It is also employed by the Laplanders 
 and others for moxa (q. v.). It is sometimes made 
 into razor-straps, and this use is likewise made of P. 
 letuUnus. — P. qffidnaUs, the Agaricon of Dioscorides, 
 which grows upon larch- trees in the south of Europe, 
 is a drastic purgative, now rarely employed. P. 
 suaveolens, which grows upon the stems of willows, 
 and is easily recognised by its anise-like smeU, was 
 
 Polyporus suaveolens. 
 
 formerly employed in medicine, in cases of consump- 
 tion, under the name of Pungiis salids. All these 
 species are very similar in appearance. Another 
 species of the same genus, P. destructor, is one of the 
 fungi known by the name of Dky Hot (q. v.). — ^The 
 remarkably light wood of Sernandia Guianends, a 
 shrub of the natural order Thymelceacece (q. v.), is 
 readily kindled by iliut and steel, and is used in 
 Guiana as A. 
 
 AMAI'N', a peculiar phrase applied by sailors 
 to signify at once or suddenly; in such orders or 
 directions as ' lower amain,' ' strike amain,' &c. 
 
 AMALEKITES, one of the most fierce and 
 warlike of the Canaanitish nations. They dwelt 
 ' in the land of the south' (Numbers, xni. 29), 
 that is, in the land south of Palestine, or between 
 Idumea and Egypt. From the very first, they 
 manifested an uncompromising hostility to the 
 IsraeKtes, whose rear-guard they smote after the 
 passage through the Ked Sea. In consequence of 
 this, they received no mercy at the hands of the 
 IsraeKtes, when the latter had established them- 
 selves in Palestine. Saul (1 Samuel, xv. 2) nearly 
 annihilated them. Twenty years later, David, while 
 dwelling amongst the Philistines, penetrated into 
 their land, and made dreadful slaughter of them. 
 After this, they made a last desperate reprisal, but 
 were overtaken, by David in the midst of their 
 drinking and dancing ; and ' from twilight, even 
 unto the evening of the next day,' he smote them, 
 ' and there escaped, not a man of them, save 400 
 young men who rode upon camels and fled.' The 
 descendants of these were finally extirpated in the 
 days of Hezekiah, king of Judah, by the Simeonites. 
 131 
 
 AMA'LFI, a seaport on the Gulf of Salerno, on 
 the E. coast of the kingdom of Naples, contains about 
 3000 inhabitants ; has a very ancient cathedral, and 
 is the seat of a bishop. It is said to have been 
 founded under Constantme the Great, and during 
 the middle ages, was once a repubhc; afterwards, it 
 was ruled by dukes of A. ; and about the close of 
 the 11th c, fell under the power of the Normans. 
 The maritime laws of A. {Tabula AmalplatanU) 
 once prevailed throughout Italy. The umque manu- 
 script of the pandects (q. v.) was discovered at A.; 
 and Flavio Gioja, the inventor of the compass, and 
 Masaniello, were bom there. 
 
 AMA'LGAM is the term applied to that class of 
 alloys (q. v.) in. which one of the combining metals is 
 mercury. On the nature of the union, it has been 
 observed that ' on adding successive small quantities 
 of silver to mercury, a great variety of fluid amal- 
 gams are apparently produced; but in reality, the 
 chief, if not the sole compound, is a solid A., which 
 is merely diffused throughout the fluid mass.' The 
 fluidity of an A. would thus seem to depend on 
 there being an excess of mercury above what is 
 necessary to form a definite compound. Mercury 
 unites readily with gold and silver at the usual 
 temperature. It has no disposition to unite with 
 iron even when hot. A sohd A. of tin is used to 
 silver looking-glasses. 
 
 Amalgamation is employed on a small scale ia 
 some processes of gilding, the silver or other metal 
 being overlaid with a film of gold A., and the 
 mercury being then driven off by heat. But its 
 most extensive use is in separating gold, and especi- 
 ally silver, from certain of their ores. The mercury 
 dissolves the particles of the metal, and leaves the 
 earthy particles ; it is then easily separated from 
 the gold or silver. This process, discovered in 
 Mexico in 1557 by Bartolomg de Medina, is very 
 extensively used in Mexico at the present time, 
 and has lately been introduced with great success 
 into the Oahforuian and Australian gold-fields. 
 The mode of application is to crush the quartz 
 rock which serves as the matrix in which the 
 small particles of gold are embedded; place the 
 fragments in a barrel or revolving drum with 
 mercury, and agitate for some time. The mercury 
 attaches all the gold particles to itself ; and in the 
 apparatus, when fuUy agitated, there is found a 
 semi-fiuid mass, which is the mercury, appearing 
 half congealed, and containing all the gold. It is 
 only necessary to place this A. in a retort and apply 
 heat, when the mercury sublimes over — and can be re- 
 employed for further amalgamation — and leaves the 
 gold in the body of the retort. This jjrocess is the 
 only known method of separating the finer particles 
 of gold from a mass of rock, and is always used by 
 the gold-crushing companies. Indeed, it is now 
 beheved that this truly commercial mode of gold- 
 seeking is the only one which, in a few years, wiU 
 be had recourse to. 
 
 Several amalgams may be regarded as definite 
 chemical compounds. Thus, when gold-leaf is placed 
 in mercury, and the A. so produced filtered by 
 being squeezed in a chamois-leather bag, the uncom- 
 bined mercury oozes through the skin, but a definite 
 A. of 2 of gold and 1 of mercury remains behind in 
 the leather filter. Tin A. is employed in silvering 
 looking-glasses, and is formed by laying a sheet of 
 tin-foil on a table, covering it vpith mercury, and 
 then placing, by a sliding movement, the sheet of 
 glass over it. This A. contains 3 of mercury and 1 
 of tin; glass balls are silvered with an A. of 10 
 mercury, 1 tin, 1 lead, and 2 bismuth. A silver A. 
 highly crystalline — and, from the clusters of crystals 
 somewhat resembling a tree, called Arior Diance, or 
 Tree of Diana — is prepared from 3 parts of the 
 
AMALIA— AMAHANTH. 
 
 sti'ougest solution of nitrate of silver, 2 parts of 
 solution of proto-nitrate of mercury added to an A. 
 of 7 mercmy and 1 silver. In a day or two, the 
 arborescent appearance presents itself, and the 
 crystals contain 65 per cent, mercury, and 35 silver. 
 The A. used for friotional electric machines is made 
 from 1 tin, 1 zinc, and 3 mercury, to which sand is 
 afterwards added. 
 
 AMALIA, AiraA, Duchess of Saxe-Weimar, an 
 amiable lady, and generous patron of literature, was 
 bom in 1739, and, diu-ing the latter part of the 18th 
 u., was the centre of the court of Weimar. Left a 
 widow in the second year of her marriage (1758), her 
 judicious rule, as guardian of her infant son, enabled 
 the country to recover from the effects of the Seven 
 Years' War; while her efforts were no less effectual 
 in promoting the education of the people. She 
 appointed Wieland tutor to her son, afterwards 
 Duke, and attracted to Weimar such men as Herder, 
 Goethe, Knebel, Bottiger, Muaseus, Schiller; forming 
 a galaxy of genius such as no single court, perhaps, 
 was ever graced ^vith. How much the fine qualities 
 of head and heart possessed by the duchess herself 
 contributed to this success, was shewn by the fact 
 that, when she resigned the government into the 
 hands of her son in 1775, she continued to be sur- 
 rounded by the same society. She has the high 
 distinction of having honoured and encouraged the 
 greatest writers that Germany has produced. The 
 battle of Jena is said to have broken her heart ; she 
 died (1807) six months after that event. 
 
 AMALIE, Makie, the wife of Louis Phifo)pe, 
 king of the French, was the daughter of King 
 Perdiaand L (IV.) of the Two Sicilies, and was born 
 April 26, 1782. When she married Louis Philippe 
 (then Duke of Orleans), he was a political exUe, 
 without a hope of ever rising to the throne of 
 France. It was a marriage of personal choice on 
 both sides, and was consequently happy. After 
 Louis Philippe's elevation to the throne, the queen 
 avoided interference in pohtioal affairs, and devoted 
 her attention to plans of beneficence. In her 
 domestic relations, her conduct was highly exem- 
 plary, and won the esteem of all parties ; indeed, 
 the only charge ever preferred against her, was her 
 supposed excess of piety. She shared the fortune 
 of her exiled husband, and was very respectfully 
 received in England. Louis Philippe, shortly before 
 his death (at Claremont, 1850), gave expression to 
 the love and esteem with which he regarded his 
 faithful wife. 
 
 AMAHTDB DB TERKE. See Oypeeus. 
 
 AMAJNTTA, a genus of Fungi, nearly allied to 
 Agaricus, but bursting from a volva. A. muscaria, 
 
 Amanita Muscaria, 
 in a young state. 
 
 Amanita Muscaria, 
 full-grown, more reduced. 
 
 which is pretty common in woods, especially of fir 
 and beech, in Britain, is one of the most dangerous 
 fungi. It is sometimes called Fly Agamc, being 
 used in Sweden and other covmtries to kill flies and 
 bugs, for which purpose it is steeped in mUk. The 
 pUeus or cap is of an orange-red colour, with white 
 warts, the gills white, and the stem bulbous. It 
 grows to a considerable size. Notwithstanding its 
 very poisonous nature, it is used by the Kamciiat- 
 kadales to produce intoxication, and it imparts an 
 intoxicating property to the urine of those who 
 swallow it, of which they or others often avail 
 themselves, when abundance of the fungus is not 
 at hand. 
 
 A'MARANTH {Amaranthus), a genus of plants 
 of the natural order Amaranthacece. This order 
 contains nearly 300 known species, natives of tropical 
 and temperate countries, but chiefly abounding within 
 the tropics. They are herbs or shrubs, with simple 
 exstipulate leaves, and flowers in heads or spikes; 
 the perianth usually coloured, 3 — 5-partite, hypogy- 
 nous, soarious, persistent, generally surrounded with 
 small bractete ; the stamens hypogynous, either 5, 
 and opposite the segments of the perianth, or some 
 multiple of 5, distinct or united into a tube, some- 
 times partly abortive; the anthers either 2-ceUed 
 or l-celled; the ovary single, superior, l-ceUed, with 
 1 or few ovules, which hang from a free central 
 cord,; style single or absent ; stigma simple or com- 
 poimd ; fruit, a small membranous bag or utricle, 
 or a caryopsis (q. v.), rarely baccate ; seeds lense- 
 shaped, externally crustaceous, embryo curved 
 round the circumference ; albumen farinaceous. 
 — The genus Amaranthus has mostly monoecious 
 flowers (although the order is generally hermaphro- 
 dite), with two or three stigmas, and a l-celled, 
 1-seeded utricle, bursting all round transversely. 
 Some of the species are naturally of singular 
 form, and others assume singular but monstrous 
 forms through cultivation. A. cavdatus (Love-lies- 
 
 Love-lies-bleeding {Amaranthus coMdatus). 
 
 bleeding), A. cnicnius, A. hypocJiondriaxms (Prmce a 
 Feather), and other species, are common annuals 
 in om- flower-gardens. The spikes of A. caudatus 
 are sometimes several feet in length. The dry red 
 bracts which surround the flower retam theu: fresh- 
 ness for a long time after being gathered ; for which 
 reason the plant has been employed by poets as 
 
AMAEAPUBA— AMAHYLLIS. 
 
 an emblem of immortality. — The Grlobe A. (Grnn- 
 phrena glohosa) and the Cockscomb (q. v.), well- 
 known tender annuals, belong to the same natural 
 order. The Globe A. is much cultivated in Portugal 
 and other Roman Catholic countries for adorning 
 churches in -winter. Its flowers, which are of a 
 s hinin g purple, retain their beauty and freshness for 
 several years. No species of the order can be regarded 
 as a true native of Britain, although Amaranihus 
 Blitmn is now found in waste places near London 
 and elsewhere. A. Blitum, A. oleraxxiis (Chusan 
 Han-tsi), and other species, are used as pot-herbs ; 
 but rarely in Britain. Wholesome mucilagiuous 
 qualities are very generally found iu the leaves 
 throughout the order. The seeds of Amaranihus 
 frumentaceus (called Kiery) and of A. anardhana 
 are gathered as corn-crops in India. — Medicinal 
 properties are ascribed to some species of the order, 
 particularly to Ocymptirena officinalis and rrCacroceph- 
 ala, which have a high and probably exaggerated 
 reputation in Brazil as cures for many diseases. 
 
 AMAHAPU'EA, or TJMMERAPOOEA, a town 
 of Burmah, on the left bank of the Irrawaddy, 9 nules 
 north-east from Ava, in lat. 21° 57', long. 96° 7'. It 
 was founded in 1783, and made the capital of the 
 empire, an honour which, in 1819, was restored to 
 the city of Ava. It was burned to the ground 
 iu 1810. The population at that time was estimated 
 at 170,000; iu 1827, it had sunk to 30,000.. In 
 1839, it was 'again almost destroyed by an earth- 
 quake. The whole city is built of bamboo, with the 
 exception of some temples ; the most celebrated 
 of which is that containing a colossal bronze image 
 of Gaudama. 
 
 AMAKA-SIJiTHA, a celebrated Hindu gram- 
 marian of great antiquity, who wrote a variety 
 of works, only one of which has come down to 
 us, the Amara-Kosha, or Thesaurus of Amara; some- 
 times caUed the Trihanda, i. e,, the Tripartite. 
 Begardiug the author's lite, little is known, nor 
 is the precise period during which he flourished 
 definitely ascertained. He is generally supposed to 
 have been one of the ' nine gems' who adorned the 
 throne of King Vikramaditya I. (56 B. c). But Mr 
 Bentley (Asiatic Researches) places Ti'td as late as the 
 11th c. A.D., while Mr Colebrooke assigns the close 
 of the 5th as the most probable. He is known to 
 have been a Buddhist ; and it is xmiversaUy believed 
 that his writings perished during the fierce persecu- 
 tion to which that sect was subjected by the ortho- 
 dox Brahmins, in the 3d, 4tli, and 5th centuries. 
 This tradition harmonises with the earliest of the 
 three ages in which he is said to have Hved. 
 
 The Amara-Kosha is a Sanscrit vocabulary, 
 divided into 3 books and 18 chapters, and contaioing 
 in all about 10,000 words. The words are classed 
 according to the nature of the things signified by 
 them. Almost aU the grammarians of Hindustan 
 imitate, translate, or comment upon the work of A. 
 
 An excellent edition of the Amara-Kosha, with 
 notes in English and an index, was published by 
 H. T. Colebrooke, Serampore, 1808 ; reprinted in 
 1829 : the Sanscrit text at Calcutta in 1813 ; and in 
 1839 a French translation appeared in Paris. 
 
 AMAKI, MiCHELE, an Italian historian and 
 orientalist, was bom at Palermo, July 7, 1806. At 
 the age of sixteen, he entered a government ofiice; 
 and Siortly after — ^his father being condemned to 
 thirty years' imprisonment for a poMtical crime^the 
 duty of supporting his mother and the other mem- 
 bers of the family devolved upon him. His straitened 
 circumstances soured him ; and he even meditated 
 becoming a bandit, but was roused from his morbid 
 wretchedness by falling passionately in love with an 
 Eaglish lady. Although he did not -flin her hajid, 
 
 186 
 
 he secra-ed a knowledge of the English language, the 
 first result of which was a translation of Sir 
 Waiter Scott's Marmion, published at Palermo in 
 1832. A. soon became a political 'suspect;' and 
 although he had conducted himself during the 
 tumult of 1837 with exemplary moderation, he was 
 summarily transferred to a situation in Naples, 
 where he remained four years, and where he pur- 
 sued with the utmost diligence his historical inves- 
 tigations. In 1842 appeared his La Querra del 
 Vespro Sidliano (The War of the Sicilian Vespers), 
 which has been often republished, and remains the 
 master-piece of its author. Its great merit arises 
 from its having successfully combated the common 
 notion, that the terrible massacre so named was the 
 result of a deep and ramified conspiracy on the part 
 of the nobles. A. proves from a letter of Charles of 
 Anjou himself, as well as from numerous other 
 sources, that it was a popular or national outbreak, 
 occasioned by the tyranny of the foreign rulers, that 
 really brought about the deliverance of Sicily. The 
 book was quickly prohibited, and, as a consequence, 
 widely read. It was translated into German by Dr 
 Schroeder of Hildesheim, and into English by Lord 
 EUesmere. A. was now ordered to Naples, but fled 
 to France, where he gave himself up to the study of 
 Arabic and modem Greek, and to the preparation of 
 his History of the Mussulmans in Sicily. At the revo- 
 lution of 1848, he returned to Palermo, where he had 
 been appointed professor of public law, but shortly 
 after Ms arrival was elected vice-president of the 
 committee of war. He was next sent on a diplomatic 
 mission by the provisional government to France and 
 England. In 1849, he published at Paris a hrochure, 
 entitled I/a Sidle et les Bourlions, the aim of which 
 was to shew the incompatibility between the rights 
 of the Sicilians and the pretensions of the Neapolitan 
 sovereign. After the Sicilian insurrection had been 
 quelled, A. took up his residence in Paris, where he 
 has since published a number of learned papers upon 
 the language and history of the Arabs, in the Bevue 
 Arch&ologique, Le Journal Asiatique, &c., besides an 
 English translation of the Solwan of Ibn Djafer 
 (London, 1852). 
 
 AMARYLLI'DE^, or AMAEYLLIDA'CEiE, a 
 natural order of Monoootyledonous plants, including 
 many species distinguished by the beaufy of their 
 flowers. They are herbaceous plants, or when, as 
 in the genera Agave and Foureroya, they form 
 woody stems, they have stiU the character of gigantic 
 herbaceous plants rather than of shrubs. The 
 greater part are bulbous-rooted. The leaves are 
 sword-shaped, with parallel veins ; the flowers have 
 spathaceous bracts. The perianth is regular, 6-cleft, 
 someiimes with a corona. The stamens are 6, 
 arising from the perianth, sometimes cohering by 
 their dilated bases j the anthers bursting inwardly. 
 The ovary is inferior, 3-ceIled, with 1, 2, or many 
 anatropal ovules ; the style is single ; the stigma, 
 3-lobed. The fruit is a 3-ceIled, 3-valved capsule, 
 or a 1 — 3-seeded berry. The seed is albuminous, 
 with the embryo nearly straight. — There are about 
 400 known species of this order, natives of tropical, 
 or sub-tropicaJ, and more sparingly, of temper- 
 ate regions — particularly abundant at the Cape 
 of Good Hope. A few species only are European. 
 Many of them are much prized ornaments of 
 our gardens and hot-houses. Amongst these are 
 different species of Narcissus (q. v.), Amabyllis 
 (q. v.), CRnnjM (q. v.), Alshmemeeia (q. v.), 
 
 NBRrNB,C0BURGIA,BEUNSVIQIA,PAa-CIU.TnjM, FOUE- 
 
 CEOYA, &0. To this order belong the Snowdeop 
 (q. V.) and Snowtlakb (q. v.), and it includes also 
 the Ameeicact Aloe (Agave, q. v.). • 
 
 AMAEY'LLIS, a genus of bulbous-rooted plants 
 
AMASIS— AMAZON. 
 
 Ameu^llis formosissmia. 
 
 of the natural order AmarylUdecB (q. v.), having a 
 simple 6-partitB perianth, 
 and containing a large 
 numher of species, na- 
 tives of the warmer re- 
 gions of the globe. Many 
 of them have flowers of 
 very great beauty. A 
 species of this genus, 
 A. formosissima, was 
 brought to Europe from 
 South America in the 
 end oftho 17th c, and 
 has since been in com- 
 mon cultivation as a gar- 
 den-flower. Its flowers 
 we of a beautiful red 
 1 colour, exhibiting a play 
 I of golden gleams in 
 the sunshine. They are 
 scentless. A. amabilis, 
 A. JosepMrus, and A. 
 vittata are amongst the 
 most admired bulbous-rooted plants. A. Samiensis 
 is one of the most hardy species, flowering freely 
 in Guernsey, with a Utile protection during winter, 
 and commonly called Guernsey Lily, although it is 
 supposed to be a native of Japan. By artificial 
 impregnation, a great number of hybrid forms have 
 been produced in this genus. 
 
 AMA'SIS, a king of Egypt. Of humble origin, he 
 rose to be general under Apries, the last king of the 
 line of Psammetichus. Bemg sent to put down an 
 insurrection, he joined the rebels, and was proclaimed 
 king (569 B.C.). He cultivated the friendship of the 
 Greeks, opened up to them the commerce of Egypt, 
 previously confined to Naucratis, married a Greek 
 wife, and took a body-guard of Greeks into pay. 
 Pythagoras and Solon are said to have visited him. 
 For his alliance with Polycrates, and the singular 
 reason for which Herodotus makes Viitn break it off, 
 see PoLYCEATBS. During his reign of 44 years, he 
 
 freatly promoted the prosperity and adornment of 
 gypt. Immediately after his death, the country 
 was conquered by Cambyses of Persia. 
 
 AMATITLA'S", a district of Central America, 
 near Guatemala city, embosomed in abrupt moun- 
 tains of volcanic origin. It produces cochineal 
 largely. 
 
 AMAUEO'SIS (Gr. amauros, obscure) is a blind- 
 ness or obscurity of vision caused by disease of the 
 optic nerve, and this cause may be situated either 
 at the origin of the nerve in the brain, in some part 
 of its course, or at its termination in the retina ; and 
 of course the degree of blindness will be in propor- 
 tion to the extent these parts are involved by the 
 disease. See Optic Neeve. A. may also depend 
 ttpou causes remote from the organ of vision; the 
 suppression of accustomed discharges from the body 
 may lead to congestion of the vessels of the brain, 
 and cause A. ; and it may spring from many very 
 shght causes, id a predisposition to the disease exists. 
 Tma is occasionally hereditary. Beer mentions 
 several cases in one family; for three successive 
 generations, all the females who had not borne 
 children became blind in middle age; the males 
 shewed a tendency to the disease, but did not become 
 blind. A common cause is exposure to bright light 
 or great heat and light, either natural or artificial, 
 occupation upon minute objects, and employment of 
 the eyes during the hours which ought to be devoted 
 to sleep. In many instances, a single imprudent 
 exposure of the eyes to the operation of some such 
 cause, has been sufficient to extinguish the sensi- 
 bility of the retina; but, in general, it is from 
 
 long-continued over-excitement of the organs of 
 vision that they begm to f aU, and at last l)ecome 
 totally unable to continue their office. The heat of 
 the sun, rage, continued stooping, and fevers or 
 other causes, causing congestion, inflammation, or 
 serous effusion in the head, cause A. Some poisonous 
 substances cause A. suddenly, as beUadonua, stra- 
 monium, and other narcotics given in large doses; 
 and others, applied to the bocfy every day in small 
 quantities, have the same effect, but more slowly. 
 Tobacco may be justly signalised as a poison of this 
 sort, as also mercury and lead. 
 
 Exhaustion of liie body and depressing mental 
 affections also are causes of A. But we can seldom 
 attribute its occurrence to the influence of any single 
 remote cause, but to a number of circumstances 
 which have been acting for a length of time upon 
 one individual, either consecutively or together. 
 
 We recognise the presence of A. by the history of 
 the case and the appearance of the eyes. The latter 
 have generally a vacant, unmeaning stare, dilated 
 pupils, and do not converge towards an object, but 
 appear to be looldng steadfastly at something in 
 the distance. The sclerotic or white of the eye is 
 generally altered in colour, and crossed by enlarged 
 blood-vessels. The history of the case varies with the 
 patient. Among the first symptoms are difficulty in 
 calculating distances, as in threading a needle or 
 pouring fluid into a glass; and sometimes there 
 is occasional loss of sight in one eye {amaurosis 
 vaga), confusion of vision — sometimes a part of the 
 field of vision wiU be clear, and part obscured. 
 There are also present spectra or muscce volitantes, 
 which sometimes are permanent, arising from the 
 existence of insensible patches on the retina. Moat- 
 ing specks are merely coincident with the disease. 
 
 A. is treated by depletion iu the robust, altera- 
 tives and tonics iu the feeble, and by those remedies 
 which act upon the nervous system, and counter- 
 irritation by bKsters or issues behind the ears, or in 
 the neighbourhood. Except iu very recent cases, 
 the prospect of recovery is slight. 
 
 AMAXI'CHI, the capital of the Ionian island of 
 Santa Maura or Leucadia, is bmlt on the edge of the 
 shallow lagoons that separate the north-east part of 
 the island from the maialand. The harbour con- 
 structed by the Anglo-Ionian government is pro- 
 tected by a mole, at the end of which is a light- 
 house. It is fitted only for small-craft. A. derives 
 its name from the Greek amoxai, ' cars,' which the 
 Venetian garrison ernployed in bringing down the 
 oil and wine from tM inland districts to the point 
 nearest the fort of Santa Maura, where, subse- 
 quently, houses began to be erected. The town has 
 a very mean and poor appearance; the buildings are 
 partly of wood, on account of the frequent earth- 
 quakes. Shght shocks occur not seldomer than ' 
 once a month. Behind A. there is an old ohve- 
 wood, extending to the base of the neighbouring 
 hiUs, and checkered vsdth cypresses and gardens. 
 The town is the residence of a Greek archbiaaop and 
 of a British governor. Pop. 4000. 
 
 A'MAZOSr, MAEAlSrO'lSr, or ORELLA'NA, a, 
 river which, after traversing nearly the entire 
 breadth of South America, enters the Atlantic 
 between Brazil and Guiana, by a mouth of about 
 150 miles in width — a mouth which, though it 
 admits the tide for nearly 500 nules, is yet so 
 far from meeting our ordinary notion of an estuary 
 that it repels, or at least overlays, the ocean 
 to a distance of more than 50 leagues. With 
 its various tributaries — the Napo, the Putumayo, 
 the Yapura, and the Eio Negro from the north, 
 and the Huallaga, the Yavari, the Jutay, the Jurua, 
 the Coary, the Purus, the Madeira, the Tapajos, 
 ' 187 
 
AMAZON— AMAZONS. 
 
 and the Xingo from the south — the A. drains 
 about 2,000,000 sc^uare miles, an area equal to that 
 of Europe, and is estimated to afford an inland 
 navigation of 50,000 miles, a line double the circum- 
 ference of the globe. In every respect, then, the 
 A. may well claim to be the largest of rivers, 
 excepting only that, in volume of contents as distin- 
 guished from volume of discharge, the St Lawrence, 
 with its computed mass of 11,000 cubic mUes, has 
 been estimated to be equal to all the other bodies of 
 freshwater on the earth's surface, from the A. down- 
 wards. "With this exception, which — as the St 
 Lawrence is really a series of lakes — ^is rather 
 apparent than real, the Amazon stands forth 
 as the king of rivers, whether trunk be com- 
 pared with trunk, or branches with branches, alike 
 in essential features and in the area of basin. 
 Viewed as one grand system, the A., from its 
 sources, from which the Pacific may be seen within 
 a distance of 60 miles, to its embouchure, comprises 
 a course of about 4000 mUes; while, gathering its 
 tribute from both sides of the equator along more 
 than 20° of latitude, it presents, perhaps, between 
 south and north, a longer line of natural com- 
 munication than even between west and east. 
 Reckoning from the western range of the Andes, the 
 A. is but little better than a mountain-torrent, 
 tin it has burst through the gorges of the eastern 
 range of the chain, where it is overhung by peaks 
 that tower thousands of feet above its bed. But, 
 within 300 miles from the Pacific — a journey of 
 about 20 days for loaded mules — the branch 
 called the HuaUaga is practicable for canoes, while, 
 after a run of 325 mUes, it becomes navigable for 
 vessels drawing 5 feet, growing deeper and deeper, 
 and more and more available as it rolls its steadily 
 swelling flood towards the ocean. Nor is this the 
 remotest point of clear navigation from the sea, for 
 the Maranon itself is estimated by Herndon to 
 carry the clear navigation about one-fifth higher up, 
 amounting in all to 3360 miles. What an idea do 
 these single threads afford of this matchless net-work 
 of inland navigation ! But it is not to its own basin 
 alone, vast as that basin is, that the value of the 
 A. is confined. The Bio Tapajos has its navigation 
 separated only by a portage of 18 miles from t£at of 
 an affluent of the Plata ; the Bio Branco, the main 
 tributary of the Bio Negro, has a water-communi- 
 cation which is only two hours distant from that of 
 the Essequibo ; whfie the Bio Negro itself is doubly 
 connected with the Orinoco, receiving from it the 
 navigable Cassiquiare (q. v.), and wanting only a 
 canal over a portage of six hom-s to complete a still 
 more useful bond of union, whose superior advan- 
 tages will certainly one day lead to the necessary 
 improvement. In addition to all this, the outlet 
 of this mighty river, besides washing Cayenne, 
 is itself, under nature's guidance, a feeder, as it 
 were, of that highway of nations, the Gulf Stream. 
 Thus does the A, to say nothing more of its 
 maritime relations, briug its inland navigation, 
 mediately or immediately, to bear. Chili alone 
 excepted, on every country in South America — 
 Venezuela, Ecuador, New Granada, Bohvia, Peru, 
 Brazil, the Guianas, and the several Argentine 
 RepubKcs. This is not mere " prospect ; not only 
 has the basin proper of the A. been more or less 
 frequently traversed, but also the various joints 
 that knit it to other basins have been tested by 
 experience. The grandest and most singular of 
 them all, besides being explored by Humboldt, 
 has been placed beyond a doubt by the denizens 
 of the country. The barge-bmlders of San Carlos, 
 at the entrance of the Cassiquiare into the Bio 
 Negro, have long sent vessels, not only down the 
 Eio Negro to Para, on the Lower A., but likewise up 
 188 
 
 the Cassiquiare to Angostura^ on the Lower Orinoco ; 
 thus solving, in their own way, the problem which 
 systematic geographers were elsewhere deriding as 
 worse than a fable — as a sheer impossibility. But 
 stUl the navigation of the A. is only in its infancy, 
 Para, its maritime emporium, having a business that 
 amounts in both directions to only 2,000,000 dollars. 
 But the httle that exists has been achieved under 
 most untoward circumstances. The local craft, badly 
 built and badly rigged, have been worse manned, 
 while the rapids above, all safe and easy for the 
 downward trip, are often rendered more arduous 
 to the upward voyager by a depth which forbids 
 pohng, and by banks which, if not actually sub- 
 merged, are in general too thickly tangled for towing. 
 What a noble field for steam! Brazil and Peru 
 have themselves seen this truth. But unfortunately 
 they seem to think more of monopolising the 
 profits of this new agency than of developing the 
 resources of the country. If opened to all-comers, 
 the magnificent region of the A. might become 
 the garden of the world, teeming as it does with 
 game, fish, coffee, sugar, cotton, tobacco, maize, rice, 
 sarsapariUa, cocoa, indigo, grapes, bananas, spices, 
 dyes, drugs, india-rubber, cabinet woods, bmlding- 
 timber, and precious metals. Yet so feebly has 
 Nature been seconded by man, red and white alike, 
 that Herndon, on his long downward voyage, seldom 
 got anything better than farinha and salt fish, 
 and even of these doubtful dehcacies not always 
 enough. What is wanted is an infusion of new 
 blood. The colonists, themselves sufSorently indo- 
 lent, describe the aborigines as bad citizens and 
 worse slaves. In short, whether for trade or 
 for colonisation, this almost \mtrodden world is 
 as promising as it is boundless. In the presence 
 of industry, every difficulty would vanish. Steam 
 must there work the same wonders that it has 
 already worked in similar wUdemesses. Nor will 
 steam have all the biirden to bear. In spite of the 
 weight of the river, which has been already stated to 
 drive back the sea, as such, out of sight of land, the 
 tide, as the reader will remember, makes its influ- 
 ence felt for nearly 500 miles from the coast ; while 
 the easterly trades are ready to waft the adventurer 
 to his destination ; and, lastly, what is more than all, 
 the wind on the river, apparently a continuation of 
 that from the sea, blows almost invariably upwards, 
 so as to be ready to help the screw or the paddle 
 against the adverse current. 
 
 A'MAZONS, AMAZONES. According to a very 
 ancient tradition, the A. were a nation of women, 
 who suffered no men to remain among them, but 
 marched to battle under the command of their 
 queen, and formed for a long time a formidable 
 state. They held occasional intercourse with the 
 men of the neighbouring states. If boys were born 
 to them, they either sent them to their fathers, or 
 killed them. But they brought up the girls for 
 war, and burned off their right breasts, that they 
 might not be prevented from bending the bow. 
 From this custom, they received the name of A., 
 that is, 'breastless.' Such is the ordinary tale ; the 
 origin of which is perhaps to be accounted for by 
 supposing that vague reports, exaggerated and poeti- 
 cally embeUished, had reached the Greeks of the 
 peculiar way in which the women of various Cauca- 
 sian districts lived, performing military duties which 
 elsewhere devolved on husbands, and also of the 
 nxunerous examples of female heroism which, travel- 
 lers inform us, still distinguish the women of that 
 region. In later times, however, the word Amazon 
 has been supposed to have some connection with the 
 Circassian word ' Maza,' signifying the moon, as if 
 the myth of the A. had taken its • origin in the 
 worship of the moon, which prevailed on the borders 
 
AMBASSADOR. 
 
 of Asia. Three nations of A have been mentioned 
 by the ancients. 1. The Asiatic A., from whom 
 the others branched off. These dwelt on the shores 
 of the Black Sea, and among the mountains of 
 the Caucasus, especially in the neighbourhood of 
 the modern Trebisond, on the river Thermodon 
 (now Termeh). They are said to have at one time 
 subdued the whole of Asia, and to have built 
 Smyrna, Ephesus, Cumse, and other cities. Their 
 queen, Hippolyte, or, according to others, Antiope, 
 was lulled by Hercules, as the ninth of the labours 
 imposed on him by Etirystheus consisted in taking 
 from her the shoulder-belt bestowed on her by 
 Mars. On one of their expeditions, the A. came to 
 Attica, in the time of Theseus. They also marched 
 under the command of their queen, Penthesilea, to 
 assist Priam against the Greeks. They even appear 
 upon the scene in the time of Alexander the Great, 
 when their queen, Thalestiis, paid him a visit, in 
 order to become a mother by the conqueror of Asia. 
 2. The Scythian A., who, in after-times, married 
 among the neighbouring Scythians, and withdrew 
 further into Sarmatia. 3. The African A., who, 
 under the command of their queen, Myrina, subdued 
 the Gorgons and Atlantea, marched through Egypt 
 and Arabia, and founded their capital on the Lake 
 Tritonis, but were then annihilated by Hercules. 
 See Nagel, Oeschidite der Amawnen (Stuttgart, 
 1838). 
 
 AMBA'SSADOR is a title by which the highest 
 order of diplomatic ministers is distinguished, and 
 the person nolding such a high commission may be 
 defined to be an officer sent by one sovereign power 
 to another to treat on affairs of state. The creden- 
 tials, or letters of credence, of an A. are addressed 
 directly by his own sovereign to the sovereign to 
 whom he is sent, and with whom he has the privilege of 
 personal communication. In the performance of all his 
 diplomatic duties, an A. is understood to represent, 
 not only the iiffairs, but the dignity and the power of 
 his master ; and by the law of nations, he has many 
 important rights and privUeees, the chief of which 
 is exemption from the control of the municipal laws 
 of the nation wherein he is to exercise his functions, 
 an exemption that is not confined to the A. himself, 
 but is extended to aU his suite, including not only 
 the persons employed by him in diplomatic services, 
 but his wife, chaplain, and household generally. 
 But there is a dispute among legal writers whether 
 this exemption extends to all crimes, or whether it 
 is limited to such offences as are mala .prohiUta, 
 as coining, and not to those that are mala in se, 
 as murder. The law of England appears to have 
 formerly allowed the exemption in the restricted 
 sense only; and in the year 1654, during the 
 Protectorate of Cromwell, the Portuguese A. was 
 tried, convicted, and executed, for an atrocious mur- 
 der. But now, according to the general practice of 
 this country, as well as that of the rest of Europe, it 
 is considered that the security of an A. in conductiog 
 the iutercourse of nations, is of more importance than 
 the punishment of a particular crime, and therefore 
 few examples have happened in modem times where 
 an A. has been punished for any offence. In regard 
 to civil suits, the privilege of exemption is clear and 
 •imdoubted, and has been expressly recognised by an 
 act of parliament, the 7th Anne c. 12, the history 
 of which, as given by Blaokstone, is curious. That 
 learned commentator cites the opinion of Sir Edward 
 Coke, who was disposed to qualify the absolute 
 exemption of ambassadors in civil proceedings, by 
 maiataining, that if an A. to the English court make 
 a contract, which is good according to the law of 
 nations, he shall answer for it in England. Blaokstone 
 then proceeds: 'But the truth is, so few cases (if 
 any) had arisen, wherein the privilege was either 
 
 claimed or disputed, even with regard to civil suits, 
 that our law-books are (in general) quite sUent upon 
 it, previous to the reign of Queen Anne, when an A. 
 from Peter the Great, Czar of Muscovy, was .actually 
 arrested, and taken out of his coach in London, for 
 a debt of £50, which he had there contracted. 
 Instead of applying to be discharged upon his privi- 
 lege, he gave bail to the action, and the next day 
 complained to the queen. The persons who were 
 concerned in the arrest were examined before the 
 privy-council (of which the Lord Chief-justice Holt 
 was at the same time sw<)rn a member), and seven- 
 teen were committed to prison , most of whom were 
 Erosecuted by information in the Court of Queen's 
 lench, at the suit of the Attorney-general ; and at 
 their trial before the Lord Chief-justice, were con- 
 victed of the facts by the jury ; reserving the ques- 
 tion of law, how far those facts were criminal, to be 
 afterwards argued before the judges ; which question 
 was never determined. In the meantime, the Czar 
 resented this affront very highly, and demanded that 
 the sheriff of Middlesex, and all others concerned in 
 the arj:est, should be punished with instant death. 
 But the queen (to the amazement of that despotic 
 court) directed her secretary to iof orm him, that she 
 could inflict no punishment upon any the meanest of 
 her subjects, unless warranted by the law of tlie land; 
 and Hierefore was persuaded that he would not insist 
 upon impossibilities. To satisfy, however, the cla- 
 mours of the foreign ministers, who made it a com- 
 mon cause, as well as to appease the wrath of Peter, 
 a bm was brought into parliament, and afterwards 
 passed into a law (the 7th Anne c. 12), .to prevent 
 and punish such outrageous insolence for the future ; 
 and with a copy of this act elegantly engrossed and ^ 
 illuminated, accompanied by a letter from the queen, 
 an A. extraordinary was commissioned to appear at 
 Moscow, who declared, Uiat though her majesty could 
 not inflict such a punishment as was required, because 
 of the defect in that particular of the former established 
 constitutions of her kingdom, yet, with the unanimous 
 consent of the parliament, slie Jiad caused a new act to 
 be passed, to serve as a law fen- the future. This 
 humiliating step,' says Blaokstone, ' was accepted as 
 a fuU satisfaction by the Czar; and the offenders, 
 at his request, were discharged from all further 
 prosecution.' 
 
 But although an A. is not amenable to any 
 tribunal of the country he resides in, he cannot mis- 
 conduct himself with impunity. He must respect 
 the laws and customs of the country in which he is 
 officially resident ; and if he violates or offends these 
 laws and customs, he may be complained of to the 
 court or government which he represents ; or if the 
 offence is of a very serious nature, his recall may be 
 demanded, or the sovereign to whom he has given 
 such offence may dismiss him peremptorily, and 
 further require that he be brought to trial iu his own 
 country. It hardly need be added, that if an A. is 
 gmlty of an offence which threatens the safety of 
 the state, he ceases to enjoy the privileges of the 
 exemption in question. 
 
 There are some other and inferior privileges which 
 are very generally allowed to ambassadors : they 
 are, for instance, permitted the free exercise of their 
 rehgion ; they are, in general, exempted from direct 
 taxation, they have special letter-bags, and they 
 are usually allowed to import their goods without 
 paying any custom-house duties^a privilege, how- 
 ever, which, being liable to abuse, has sometimes 
 been limited. 
 
 Ambassadors are of two kinds — first, those who 
 reside regularly at the court to which they are 
 accredited; and, secondly, those who are sent on 
 special occasions, when they receive the designation 
 of Ajibassadoks Extbaobdinaey. 
 
 189 
 
AMBEU-AMBO. 
 
 There are other inferior diplomatic agents, who, 
 according to the nature of their duties, receive the 
 title of (&A11QE d'Aefahmes, Minister PLBNiPOTEfr- 
 TiART, or Envoy (q.v.). 
 
 A'MBER, a substance analogous to the vegetable 
 resins, and, in aU probabUity, derived from an 
 extinct coniferous tree, ^.Ithough now appearing, like 
 coal, iu connection with beds of which it is usually 
 found, as a product of the mineral kingdom. It is 
 usually of a pale-yellow colour, sometimes reddish 
 or brownish, is sometimes transparent, sometimes 
 almost opaque. It occurs in round irregular lumps, 
 grains, or drops ; has a perfectly conchoidal fracture, 
 is slightly brittle, emits an agreeable odour when 
 rubbed, melts at 550° E\, and burns with a bright 
 flame and pleasant smell It becomes negatively 
 electric by friction, and possesses this property in a 
 high degree — ^which, indeed, was first observed in 
 it, and the term electricity is derived frOm eleklron, 
 the Greek name of A The specific gravity of A. 
 is I'O — I'l. It is ultimately composed of carbon 
 79, hydrogen 10'5, and oxygen I0'5. An acid called 
 succinic acid (named from the Lat. suceinum, amber) 
 is obtained from it. A. had formerly a high reputa- 
 tion as a medicine, ibut the virtues ascribed to it 
 were almost entirely imaginary. An antispasmodic 
 volatile oil is obtained from it by distillation. 
 A. is employed in the arts, for the manufacture of 
 many ornamental articles, and for the preparation 
 of a kind of varnish. Great quantities are con- 
 sumed in Mohammedan worship at Mecca, and it 
 is in great demand throughout the east. It was 
 obtained by the ancients from the coasts of the 
 
 Amber, with enclosed insects, 
 
 Baltic Sea, where it is stiU found, especially between 
 Konigsberg and Memel, in greater abundance than 
 anywhere else in the world. It is there partly cast 
 up by the sea, partly obtained by means of nets, 
 and partly dug out of a bed of bituminous wood. It 
 is found elsewhere also in coal, and occasionally in 
 diluvial deposits, as in the gravel near London; but 
 it is very rare in Britain. It is obtained in small 
 quantities from the coasts of Sicily and the Adriatic, 
 and is found iu different parts of Europe, in Siberia, 
 Greenland, &o. It sometimes encloses insects of 
 species which no longer exist. Leaves have also 
 been found enclosed in it. Specimens which contain 
 insects or leaves being much valued, fictitious ones 
 are often manufactured and imposed upon collectors. 
 According to an ancient fable, A is the tears of the 
 sisters of Phagthon, who, after his death, were 
 changed into poplars. The ancients set an immense 
 value upon it. Pieces of A have occasionally been 
 found of 12 or 13 lbs. weight, but such pieces are 
 extremely rare. 
 
 A'MBERG, the old capital of the Upper Palatinate 
 in Bavaria, 35 nules east of Ntimberg, and 32 north 
 of Eatisbon. It is situated on both sides of the Vilz, 
 190 
 
 is well built, with double walls and five strong gates, 
 and contains 11,000 inhabitants. It is the seat 
 of the court of appeal for the district, possesses a 
 Ubrary of 34,000 volumes, a lyceum, an agricultural 
 and industrial school, a house of correction, an 
 arsenal, &c. The principal products are firearms, 
 earthenware, wooUen cloths, ironmongery, and beer. 
 A. has 14 breweries, a large cattle and swine market, 
 a market for hops, and an important salt-trade. 
 Many of the inhabitants are employed as miners in 
 the neighbouring mountains. The suburbs are 
 adorned with beautiful gardens and shaded alleys. 
 
 A'MBERGKIS (i. e., gray amber), a fatty sub- 
 stance, of an ash-gray colour, with yellow or reddish 
 striae, like those of marble, which is found in lumps 
 of from half an ounce in weight to 100 lbs. and 
 upwards, floating on the sea, or cast upon the sea- 
 shore in different parts of the world, and is also 
 taken by whale-fishers from the bowels of the 
 spermaceti whale (Physeler macrocepJialus). Much 
 A. is obtained from the coasts of the Bahama 
 Islands; it is also brought from different parts of 
 the East Indies, and the coasts of Africa and Brazil. 
 It is probable that aU of it is produced by the 
 spermaceti whale, and that it is a morbid secretion 
 in the intestinal canal of that animal, derived from 
 the bile. It is highly valued, upon account of its 
 agreeable smell, and is much used in perfumery. 
 The price is about 20«. an ounce. It has been 
 strongly recommended for medicinal uses, but is 
 scarcely employed in Europe; although, in some 
 parts of Asia and Africa, it is much used as a 
 medicine, and also in cookery as a condiment. The 
 specific gravity of A is scarcely more than 0'9. It 
 almost always contains black spots, which appear 
 to be caused by the presence of beaks of the Sepia 
 octopodia, the principal food of the spermaceti whale. 
 It consists in great part (85 per cent.) of a peculiar 
 brilliant white crystalline substance called AmbreHn, 
 which is obtained from it by treating it with 
 alcohol. 
 
 A'MBO (Lat.), a kind of reading-desk or pulpit, 
 which, in early churches, was placed iu the choir. 
 The Gospels and Epistles were read from the A., and 
 sermons were sometimes preached from it, although 
 the more usual practice in the primitive church was 
 for the preacher to stand on. the steps iu front of 
 
 Ambo, St Clement's Church, Rome. 
 
 the altar. The A. is stiU to be foimd in oriental 
 churches, and specimens of it may be seen in Rome. 
 The A had two ascents — one from the east, and the 
 other from the west. In the Roman churches, there 
 were two ambos, one on each side of the choir, from 
 one of which the Gospel was read, and from the 
 other, the Epistle. Wliere two such ambos were 
 used, thefr construction was somewhat different. 
 The name A. was also given to the analogium or 
 
AMBOISE-AMBROSE, 
 
 reading-desk used in monastic choira, which was 
 usually in the form of am eagle. 
 
 _ AMBOrSB, a town on the left bank of the Loire, 
 m the department of Indre-et-Loire, France. It is 
 15 nules by railway east of Tours, and lies in a region 
 so rich in vineyards that it has been called 'the 
 Garden of France.' Its manufactures are unim- 
 portant. A. possesses a castle, iu which several of 
 the French kings have resided. Charles VIII. was 
 bom here. It was also the scene of his death. The 
 town is memorable as the place in which the religious 
 wars that devastated the Idngdom during the 16th 
 0. broke out, and where the word ' Huguenot' was 
 first applied to the Protestant party. The castle of 
 A. was much improved by Louis Philippe, and was 
 the residence of tbe gallant Arab chief, Abd-el- 
 Kader, during his captivity in France. Pop. 4260. 
 
 AMBOISE, Gboegb d', cardinal and prime- 
 minister under Louis XII. of France, was bom, 1460, 
 at Chaumont-siu:-Loire. When only fourteen years 
 old, he was made Bishop of Montauban, and almoner 
 to Louis XL, and, in 1493, was made Archbishop of 
 Eouen. Initiated in early years into the intrigues of 
 court, he soon, by his zealous services, secured the 
 confidene^of Louis of Orleans (Louis XII.), by whom 
 he was made premier in 1498. From this time, A. 
 became the prime mover in all the political affairs of 
 France. By his advice, the king undertook the 
 capture of Milan, which had such great influence on 
 the fortunes of France. After the death of Pope 
 Alexander VI., A. endeavoured to raise himself to 
 the papal see, and having failed, became the danger- 
 ous enemy of the succeeding popes, Pius III. — who 
 occupied the papal chair omy 27 days — and Julius 
 n. To secure his own election, A. encouraged a 
 schism between the French Church and the See of 
 Eome, and convened a separate council, held first at 
 Pisa, afterwards at Milan and Lyon ; but his plans 
 were frustrated by the failures of the French army 
 in Italy. He died at Lyon, May 25, 1510. The 
 Cardinal A. was a dexterous and experienced states- 
 man ; but was accused of avarice, vanity, and 
 ambition, and it was said that his vast fortune of 
 11,000,000 Uvres had not been accumulated by 
 over-scrupulous means. His biography was written 
 by Montagues (1631) and Legendjre (Rouen, 1724). 
 
 AMBO Y'iNA, one of the Molucca or Spice Islands 
 in the Eastern Archipelago. It is the chief of a 
 g:oup of which the next m importance are Coram, 
 Pulu-Buru, Haruco or Oma, &c., and lies in lat. 
 3° 26'— 3° 48' S., long. 127° 50'— 128° 15' E. It is 
 about 32 miles long, with an average breadth of 10, 
 and is irregular in shape, being nearly divided in two 
 by the deep Bay of Binnen ; it is mountainous, well 
 watered, and thickly wooded. The chmate is healthy 
 — average temperature, 82° F. ; lowest, 72° — ^but the 
 monsoons bring deluges of rain. It is worthy of 
 remark that the monsoons are quite reversed on 
 the opposite sides of 120° long., the east monsoon 
 bringing rain and storm in A., while in Borneo it 
 brings fair weather; and vice versd, the west monsoon 
 bringingsunshine in the Moluccas, and tempest in 
 Java. This island produces the usual spices and 
 fruits of these regions, but has been specially appro- 
 priated by its possessors, the Dutch, to the cultiva- 
 tion of the clove, to secure the monopoly of which 
 they have stooped to the most contemptible expe- 
 dients, extirpating all the trees, except in particular 
 localities, where Biey are carefully numbered. The 
 annual produce, which varies considerably, averages 
 about 500,000 lbs., each tree yielding from 2 to 5 
 lbs. The cajeput tree, which yields a valuable 
 medicinal oil, grows in A. ; and the sago-palm, which 
 affords the chief food of the inhabitants, is exten- 
 sively cultivated. Fine indigo is also raised. The 
 
 piinoipal vrild animals are hogs and deer. The pre- 
 dominant race are the Malaya. The aboriginal race, 
 the Horaforas, live in a wHd state in the forests. Th0 
 Chinese form a small but important section of the 
 population, being the principal merchants ; and still 
 fewer are the ruling race, the Dutch. 
 
 Amboyna, the principal town in the island, 
 on the south-east shore of the Bay of Binnen, is 
 clean and well built, and contains 9000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is protected by Fort Victoria, an irregular 
 hexagon, with; a horn-work towards the sea, and a 
 ditch and covered- way on the land-side, commanded, 
 however, by two neighbouring heights. 
 
 The population of the whde group of islands, of 
 which A. is the chief, waa, by the last official return, 
 282,000. A. was discovered by the Portuguese in 
 1511, and 16 years afterwards they formally took 
 possession of this among the rest of the Moluccas. 
 In 1607, their oppressive sway was succeeded by 
 that of the Dutch. The English East India Company 
 formed a settlement here m 1612, which was extir- 
 pated in 1622 by the Dutch, with those circum- 
 stances of diaboKcal cruelty which made the ' A. 
 massacre' long memorable. For this barbarous 
 proceeding due retribution was exacted many years 
 after by Cromwell. The island was taken by the 
 British in 1796, restored at the peace of Amiens, 
 recaptured in 1810, and again given up to the Dutch 
 in 1814, whose rule, though mitigated from its 
 former severity, is still characterised by an intoler- 
 ance and harshness unworthy of a civilised nation. 
 
 A'MBROSB, Saint, one of the most celebrated of 
 the ancient fathers of the chvirch, was bom about 
 the year 340, probably at Treves, where his father, 
 as Prefect of Gaul, was wont to reside. A, received 
 a fortunate omen even in his cradle : a, swarm of 
 bees covered the slumbering boy; and the astonished 
 nurse saw that the bees clustered round h|s mouth, 
 vrithout doing him any harm. His father, perhaps 
 remembering a similar wonder related of Plato; 
 foreboded from this a high destiny for A. He received 
 an excellent education, and went with his brother 
 Satyrus to Milan, in order to follow the legal 
 profession. He soon distinguished himself so jnuch, 
 that, in 369, he was appointed, by Valentinian, Prefect 
 of Upper Italy and Milan. In this office, his gentle- 
 ness and wisdom won for him the esteem and love of 
 the people, whose prosperity had been much injured 
 by th.e troubles caused by Arianism. Accordingly, 
 by both Arians and Catholics, he was imanimously 
 called to be Bishop of Milan, in 374. A. long 
 refused to accept this dignity, and even left the city; 
 yet he soon returned, was baptised, as hitherto he 
 had been only a catechumen, and was consecrated 
 eight days afterwards. The anniversary of this event 
 is stUl celebrated as a f§te by the Cathoho Church. 
 As a bishop, A. won the universal reverence of all, 
 by his mild and gentle, though, towards wickedness 
 of every kind, severe and unbending character. 
 Thus, he repulsed the Emperor Theodosius himself 
 even from ttie door of the church, on account of his 
 having caused tbe rebeUious Thessalonians to be 
 cruelly massacred by Kufinus, excommunicated him, 
 and only restored liinn to the church after eight 
 months of severe penance. A. died in 397. The 
 best edition of his works, in which he followed in 
 many, things 'tha Greek theological writers, is that 
 published by the Benedictines (2 vols^, Paris, 1686— 
 1690). The hymn, Te Deum Laudamus,, is usually 
 ascribed to A., but it is proved to have been written 
 100 years later. The Ambrosian ritual has also 
 received his name, only because A. had made some 
 changes upon it, which are retained at the present 
 day in the Milanese Church. A commentary on 
 the epistlesof Paul, which was formerly ascribed to 
 A., was probably composed by the Roman deacon 
 
AMBROSIA— AMBULAl^'CE. 
 
 Hilarixis, and is usually quoted as the Commentary 
 of the Ambrosiaater. A. is the patron saint of 
 Milan, and the Ambrosian Library received its name 
 in honour of him. 
 
 AMBROSIA, in Greek and Roman Mythology, is 
 the name of the food of the gods, -whioh conferred 
 immortal youth and beauty. It was brought by 
 doves to Jupiter, and was occasionally bestowed upon 
 such human beings as were the peculiar favourites 
 of the gods. A. was also used as a fragrant salve, 
 which the goddesses employed to heighten their 
 beauty; with which Jupiter himself anointed his 
 locks ; and which had the property of preserving 
 bodies from corruption. Hindu mythology has also 
 its amrita (from a, signifying ' without or ' not,' 
 and the Sanscrit root, aUied to the Lat. mort, and 
 Greek brot), or liquor of immortahty, that resulted 
 from the churning of the ocean by the gods ; and 
 the gods of the Scandinavian pantheon were preserved 
 in perpetual vigour by eating the apples guarded by 
 Idun. 
 
 AMBRO'SIAN CHAKT, the choral music of the 
 early Christian Church, introduced from the eastern 
 church into the western by St Ambrose, Bishop of 
 Milan, in the 4th c. ; it was founded on the first 
 four authentic modes of the ancient Greeks, and was 
 sung antiphonaUy. It continued in use until the 
 6th c, when Pope Gregory the Great reformed the 
 music of the church by introducing the Gregorian 
 chant. There exists still another specimen of music 
 by Ambrosius, which is now known only in the 
 German-Lutheran Church by Luther's translation of 
 the words, J!fun hommt der JSeiden, Heiland; it is 
 beyond a doubt 1400 years old, and remains to this 
 day a beautiful specimen of melody, expressive of 
 filial humility and submission. The A. C. continued 
 to be still sung in the cathedral at Milan long after 
 Gregory's reformation, and till this day, it ia said, it 
 may be heard there. 
 
 AMBROSIAN LIBRARY, a, library in MUan, 
 so named in honour of St Ambrose, the patron saint 
 of that city. It was established in 1609 by the 
 Cardinal Archbishop Federigo Borromeo, a lover of 
 art, who employed learned men to collect books both 
 in Europe and Asia. This Library was afterwards 
 enriched by the acquisition of the MSS. of the 
 PineUi collection. Borromeo intended to establish, 
 in connection with the Library, a college of sixteen 
 learned men, each having charge of a particular 
 department, whose duty should be to make known the 
 works contained in the Library, and assist strangers 
 in their researches. The want of funds limited 
 this college to two members, who bear the title of 
 Doctores Bibliothecse Ambrosianfe. The library 
 contains above 60,000 printed books and 15,000 
 MSS. Among the many 
 rarities belonging to it, 
 besides the Pabnipsests 
 and other as yet unedited 
 MSS. discovered by Maio, 
 Castiglione, and Mazzu- 
 cheUi, it contains a ' Vir- 
 gil,' in which Petrarch 
 had written an account 
 of his first meeting with 
 Laura. 
 
 A'MBRY, AUMERY, 
 
 ALMBRY (supposed by 
 
 some to be a corruption 
 
 Ambry, Eushden, Korth- of Abnomy), a niche in 
 
 amptonshire — 14th century, the wall of a church, shut 
 
 in by a door ; or a small 
 
 cabinet of wood placed by the side of the altar, for 
 
 the purpose of holding the vestments and utensils, 
 
 192 
 
 such as the chalices, basins, cruets, &c., used for the 
 service of the mass. In monastic buildings, ambries 
 were used for various purposes, such as keeping 
 plate, hanging towels for the monks to dry their 
 hands with before dinner, and the like. In this 
 sense, the term A. seems to have been applied to any 
 kind of cupboard which was closed in and locked, 
 and it is so used in Scotland at the present day. 
 
 AMBULA'CRA (from the Latin amhulare, to 
 walk), the name given to peculiar organs of locomo- 
 tion with which star-fishes and other Eddnodermata 
 are furnished. They are fleshy, more or less elon- 
 gated, and terminated by suckers. They pass through 
 orifices in the shell or other external integument of 
 the animal, and are generally arranged in rows. 
 Those of the Echini, or Sea-urchins, are long enough 
 
 Ambidaora of Star-fish, 
 As seen in a longitudinal and vertical section of one of the 
 rays; and three of them in a separate figure on a larger 
 scale, in which they are shewn in different conditions : 
 a, a, a, tubular feet; &, 6, &, internal vesicles ; c, the organ 
 which supplies the fluid with which they are filled. 
 
 to extend beyond the point of the spines, and by 
 means of them the animal is able to climb a perpen- 
 dicular rock. They are tubular, and each has at its 
 base a vesicle, filled with a fluid which, on the con- 
 traction of the vesicle, is forced into the tube, 
 dilating it to its full extent, whilst, on the contrac- 
 tion of the tube, the fluid returns again into the 
 vesicle. The fluid is not secreted by these vesicles, 
 but provided for them by distinct secreting organs. 
 
 A'MBTJLANCB, a nuHtary term which is some- 
 what differently applied in different countries. In 
 France, an A. is a portable hospital, one of which is 
 attached to every division of an army in the field, 
 and provided with all the requisites for the medical 
 succour of sick and wounded troops. Such an A. 
 is stationed at some spot removed from immediate 
 da,nger ; and soldiers are sedulously employed after 
 a battle in seeking out those who have fallen, and 
 conveying them to the A. Baron Larrey, during 
 the great wars of the First Napoleon, brought this 
 department of medical busiuess to a high degree of 
 efficiency, and set an example to the rest of Europe. 
 When England engaged in war with Russia in 1854, 
 the A. arrangements, like many others relating to the 
 army, were in a very imperfect state. In the Enghsh 
 army, an A. sometimes means a litter for carrying 
 from the field of battle those who have been placed 
 hors de combat; while at other times the name is 
 applied to a four-wheeled wagon or »• two-wheeled 
 cart fitted up for the reception of wounded men. 
 When Lord Raglan was about to be sent out with 
 the army, Dr Guthrie, President of the College of 
 Surgeons, devised a new form of A. cart ; while 
 Dr Andrew Smith, Director-general of the Army and 
 Ordnance Medical Department, invented a new A. 
 wagon. Annexed is a figure of Dr Guthrie's A. cart 
 
AMBULANCE CORPS— AMENDMENT. 
 
 The badiy -woimded were laid on it at full length, 
 while those slightly hurt sat in front and rear, 
 and oi;i the sides. A atretchet is slung from the 
 top for the accommodation of the former. The 
 
 Ambulance cart. 
 
 back-board is let down for cases requiring ampu- 
 tation. The hospital chests are lashed under- 
 neath. Many of Smith's A. wagons and of 
 Guthrie's A. carts were at once made and sent 
 «ut to the East ; but they were not at the proper 
 place when most wanted. After the battle of the 
 Alma, in which 1986 British ofl&cers and soldiers 
 were killed or wpunded. Lord ^glan, who was 
 almost without A. and draught-animals, was much 
 eipbarrassed for the means of dealing with his poor 
 suffering men; the conveyance of them down to 
 the beach for shipment to th? military hospitals at 
 Scutari, was a work of delay and misery to aU 
 concerned. The French, who had 1360 killed or 
 wounded at the same battle, adopted excellent 
 arrangements for conveying their invalids down to 
 the beach; they had a large number of cabolets, 
 which had been suggested to them by their experi- 
 ence in Algeria. Each of these consists of a sort 
 •of easy-chair — or rather two easy-chairs — slxmg in 
 panniers across the back of a mvde : they are com- 
 fortable to the wounded men, and are available 
 along tracks where no wheel-carriage could pass, 
 During the siege of Sebastopol, the English were 
 — ^in the early months at least — much distressed 
 in their A. arrangements by the want of men, 
 draught-animals, forage, and vehicles ; biit the 
 experience thence gained "will doubtless be valuable 
 in future ye,ars. 
 
 AMBULANCE COBPS. When the A. wagons 
 and carts, noticed in the last article, were ordered 
 ior construction, the War authorities made arrange- 
 ments for supplying a body of men, to driv^ the 
 vehicles and to attend the sick and woimded. These 
 men were to constitute an A. C, to which there had 
 been nothing before analogous in the English army. 
 , The experiment was imsuocessful ; and at a later 
 perioii. of the war, the A. C. was superseded by the 
 Land Transport Corps ; which, since the conclusion 
 of the war, has given way to the Military. Train. 
 See Lajtd Transpokt Corps, Military Train. 
 ' A'MBULATORY. a name occasionally given 
 in architecture to the cloisters of a cathedral, col- 
 lege, or Wie like. 
 
 A'MBUSCADB is one of the manoeuvres adopted 
 in_war. The original Itahan, imboscata (' concealed 
 in a wood '), denotes the general nature of the A. ; 
 But the meaning is now hiuch more extended, seeing 
 that it applies to any !|,ttempt to attack an' enemy 
 by lying in wait and cqming upon him unexpectedly. 
 In former days, when soldiers fought hand to hand 
 more frequently than at present, the A. was much 
 resflrted to ; but the tactics of modern times, render 
 it less available. It was by an A. on the part of the 
 revolted sepoys that so many British soldiers were 
 ikiHed and wounded in that adventure which was 
 known, during the wars of the Indian mutiny, as 
 
 the ' disaster at Arrah,' in July 1857. An A. is 
 neither an 'attack' iior a 'surprise,' in military 
 language; it is something rilore sudden and unex- 
 pected than either. — Ambush is another name for 
 ambuscade. 
 
 AMBLANCHIER, a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Sosacece (q. v.), sub-order Pomece, 
 distinguished by having five ovaries, each of which 
 is divided into two cells, with one ovule in each 
 cell, the ripe fruit including 3 — 5 carpels. It con- 
 sists of a few species of small trees with deciduous 
 simple leaves, abundant racemes of white flowers, 
 and small frviit of the size of a pea, or a little larger, 
 but soft, juicy, and agreeable. The common A. 
 (A. vulgaris) is a native of the Alps, Pyrenees, &c. 
 The other species are natives of North America. 
 A. hotryapium is sometimes called June-berryffrom 
 its fruit ripening in June, before that of any other 
 tree or shrub; and .4. ovalis produces a very plea- 
 sant fruit, which makes excellent puddings. The 
 amelanchiers are planted in Britain merely as 
 ornamental trees. They are very hardy. 
 
 A'ME'N, a Hebrew word of asseveration, is equiva- 
 lent to ' Yea,' ' Truly,' and has been commonly 
 adopted in the forms of Christian worsl^ip. In 
 Jewish synagogues, the A. is pronounced' by the 
 congregation at the conclusion of the benediction 
 given at parting. Among the early Christians, the 
 prayer offered by the presbyter was concluded by 
 the word A.,' uttered by the congregation. Mention 
 is iuade of the practice in the 1st Epistle to the 
 Corinthians (xiv. 16). "Justin Martyr is the 
 earliest of ■ the fathers who alludes to the use of 
 the response. ' In speaking of the sacrament, he 
 says that, at the close of the benediction and 
 prayer, all the assembly respond "A." Accord- 
 ing to Tertullian, none but the faithful were per- 
 mitted to join in the response.' A somewhat noisy 
 and irreverent practice prevailed in the celebration 
 of the Lord's Supper untU the 6th c, after which it 
 was discontinued. ' Upon the reception both Of the 
 bread and -of the wine, each person uttered a loud 
 " A. ; " and at the close of the consecration by the 
 priest, all joined in shouting a loud " A." ' The same 
 custom was observed at baptism, where thie sponsors 
 and witnesses responded vehemently. In the Xxreek 
 Church, the A. was pronounced after the name of 
 each person of the Trinity; and at the close of 
 the baptismal formula, the people responded. At 
 the conclusion of prayer, it signifies (according to 
 the English Chm-oh Catechism) So be it; after the 
 repetition of the Creed, So is it. 
 
 AME'NDMENT is a term used both in judicial 
 and parhamentaiy proceedings. In* the former, it is 
 a power of correction of any errors in actions, suits, 
 or prosecutions, which has been greatly extended of 
 late, a!iid which has largely improved and simpli- 
 fied the administration of the law, both in England 
 and in Scotland. In parliament, the word A. is 
 used when it is intended to oppose, vary, or qualify 
 a question or resolution ; and in the case of bills, it is 
 employed as a courteous method of dismissing the 
 biU from any further consideration, by moving that 
 instead of ' now,' it be read at the end of three months, 
 six months, or any other term beyond the probable 
 duration of the session. It is also competent to a 
 member to move as an A. to the question a resolution 
 'declaratory of some principle adverse to that of the 
 biU, provided it be strictly relevant, as was lately 
 done successfully by Lord John RusseU, when he 
 moved and carried, as an A. to the motion for the 
 second reading of the Reform Bill of Lord Derby's 
 government, a resolution declaratory of a principle 
 which the supporters of that measure considered to 
 
 be subversive of it. 
 
 193 
 
AMENTACE^:— AMERICA. 
 
 AMENTA'CB^, according to some botanists, a 
 natural prder of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, 
 consisting entirely of trees and shrubs, whose flowers 
 are uniseicual, the male flowers, and very often also 
 the female flowers, disposed in amenta or Catkins 
 (q. v.), and the perjanth either wanting or incomplete. 
 Tnis order, wHoh contains many well-known and 
 important trees, is divided into a number (j£ sub- 
 orders, which by many have been erected into 
 distinct orders, 'forming the AmeMal Alliance of 
 Ijndley. Under A. are ranked Salidnece or Sali- 
 cacece (see Willow), Myricece (see CANBLEBEEur 
 Myrtle), Oamarinace(E (see Casuakina), Betulacem 
 (see Bebch), Altingiacece, called also Balsamacece, 
 but not to be confounded with Balsaminacece, or 
 BahaminecB (see Liqutdambae) ; by some also 
 Corylacece or CupuUferw (q.. v.), and Platanece (see 
 Plahe), both of* which Lindley excludes from Ms 
 Amental Alliance, , associating the former with 
 Juglamdacece (see Walnut), as a distinct alliance, 
 and referring the latter to the UrHcal Allicmce, 
 See TjRTiCACaB. On the other hand, lie unites with 
 the Amental Affiance the order Elwagnaceoe. See 
 
 EuffiAGNUS. 
 
 AME'lTTHES, an Egyptian mythological word 
 eqiiivalent in meaning 'to the Greek word Hades, 
 the unseen world. Plutarch explained it as signify- 
 ing 'the giving and taking, an interpretation 
 generally .adopted, but erroneouslyi A. literally 
 means ' the hiding' (-place understood). On Egyptian 
 monuments we find the god Anubis leading to A. 
 the souls which, in the form of birds, are escaping 
 from the body through the mouth. He conducts 
 them before the throne of Osiris, who sits as judge, 
 with' a council or jury of forty-two persons. Tlie 
 .female deity, Ament, represented on momuneuts 
 in Upper Egypt, is merely a female form of Amman, 
 and her name has no connection with that of A. 
 
 . AMB'RIOA, one of the four quarters of the globe ; 
 being smaller than Asia, but larger, perh^s, than 
 both Europe and Africa taken together. It is the 
 only one of the four main divisions of the land that 
 is washed by all the four great oceans — ^the Northern, 
 the Atlantic, the Southern, and the Pacific. 
 
 If Tierra del Fuego and Greenland are included 
 — as ought to be done on geological grounds — A. 
 occupies about 150° of long., and about 135° of lat. 
 Speaking generally, its exfieme length may be said 
 to be on a meridian, and its extreme breadth on a 
 parallel — ^faots which, in the light of analogy, look 
 more Kke a law than an acfcident. As the map will 
 shew, similar coincidences occur in South A. by itself ; 
 in Africa, in Europe, in Asia, and in Australia. As 
 between Asia and A., moreover, it deserves to be 
 noticed that the meridional semicircles, along which 
 run liieir respective lengths, form, with an interval of 
 180°, one and the same meridional circle. 
 
 Like the old continent, A has been divided by 
 nature into two peninsulas — Darien and Suez being 
 the isthmuses, while South, A. corresponds with 
 Africa, and North A. with Asia and Europe. Even 
 to this extent, however, the resemblance is by no 
 means close. In the new world, the whole of the 
 lower peninsula is to 'the south of the whole of the 
 upper one, while Asia overlaps half the latitude, ^nd 
 more than half the magnitude, of Africa. 
 
 Of the northern ha^ of A., the southern section, 
 on account of essential differences in character and 
 appearance, is in general qontemplated by itself 
 under the name of Central A.— 4ihe most convenient 
 limit, perhaps, being a line drawn from the mouth of 
 Rio Bravo del Norte to the lower end of peninsular 
 California; and this line, besides its geographical 
 propriety on both coasts, has the recommendation of 
 marking, on the nearer coast, the international 
 19* 
 
 boundary of the United States and Mexico. Geniral 
 A., it is to be observed, has a political signification 
 as well as a physical one, comprising, in tiie former 
 sense, the comparatively small states between 
 Mexico and New Granada;— Guatemala, Honduras, 
 San Salvador, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua. 
 
 Physically, however, these three» subdivisions of 
 A. may be regarded as onei, being knit together on 
 the west ffldeby a backbone, as, it were, of moun- 
 tains, which, under various names and various 
 aspects, stretdhes from the extreme south at Oaj)e 
 Horn to nearly the exifcreme north at the mouth of 
 the Mackenzie. To this mountain-system we ^all 
 have occason to refer under the ditinafc Iheads of 
 Andes, Coedillpias op Centbal A, and Rocky 
 Mountains, restricting ourselves at present, in 
 accordance with the general aim of this article, tO' 
 such features of the entire chain as may incidentally 
 come under our notice in connection with earth- 
 quakes, volcanoes, 'Climate,' or hydrography; and 
 with regard to this article generally, the subject 
 being A, ap a whole, we shall,- as seldom and as 
 little as possible, an'ticipate details, itirhich, even if 
 anticipated here, must stiU be repeated under the ) 
 respective heads of their proper localities. 
 
 In thus treating of A, we shaU consider separately 
 its earthquakes and vokanoee, its climate, its hydro- 
 graphy, its history — coniprehending its discovery and 
 its colonisation, but excluding anything like the 
 annals of any individual state — and, lastly, its 
 geology, botany, and zoology. 
 
 The earthquakes and volcanoes of A. are to be 
 found chiefly in the backbone of mountains already 
 mentioned. In South A. they may be said to be 
 exclusively so found, being confined to the Andes- 
 proper, that skirt the Pacific, and to the Vene- 
 zuela'a ^ur or branch of the main range. The 
 same remark may be applied to Central A. But in 
 North A, the energy which produces both classes 
 of phenomena appears to have followed rather the 
 coast, than the continuous chain which diverges 
 gradually from i'fc — earthquakes being often felt in 
 the maritime towns of Upper California, and vol- 
 canoes having left their tocos behind -them' on the 
 islands of Russian A. The agency in question seems 
 to have travelled from north to soiith along the coast, 
 having exhausted itself in its more ancient seats ; 
 and mis view derives support from the obvious 
 formation of the Sandwich Islands, which are as 
 nearly as possible parallel with the west coast of 
 A., between Behnng's Strait and the equator. 
 On this interesting subject we quote from Sir 
 George Simpson's Overland Jowmey:^ ' The whole 
 
 froup appears to have been thrown up from the 
 eep by volcanic action advancing from the north- 
 west to the south-east, and increasing in force as it 
 advanced; so that, while island rose after island,, 
 each grew at once in height and in breadth according 
 to the intensity of the power that heaved it upwards 
 from the waters. Thus Bird Island, a barren rock " 
 taking its name from its only inhabitants, must be 
 considered as the germ of the archipelago, as ■the first 
 fruits of a submarine energy that was here only 
 kindling its fires ; while the other links in the chain, 
 Kauai, Woahoo, Mowee, and Hawaii, not only differ, 
 as I have just mentioned, at once in extent and in 
 elevation, but also present, as they proceed, less and 
 less evidence of antiqmty in their gradually diminish- 
 iug proportions of land capable of cultivation — a 
 proof the more conclusive, inasmuch as the soil of the 
 whole group undeniably consists of the successive 
 gifts of years and ages and centuries. Moreover, 
 the visible laboratories of the subterranean fire, 
 which «re scattered over 'the archipelago, confirm 
 the same ■view : the craters are all extinct, excepting 
 on Hawaii; and even on Hawaii, Mouna Loa, the 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 'most south-easterly of its three great safety-valves, 
 alone bears Uving testimony to the creative impulse 
 that has called the whole chain into existenpe, and 
 bears it, too, only through its lateral volcano of 
 KUauea, which, besides itself looking to the east, 
 appears, by the gradual advance of subsidiary out- 
 lets down its eastern declivities, to be rolling the 
 hidden sources of its strength — ^peradVenture there 
 to forge fresh islands — umder'the bed of the ocean.' 
 
 Climate. — In comparing" A. "with the older con- 
 tinent, we must, contrast not east and west with 
 each other, ,but west with west, and east with east — 
 neither Newfoundland with England, nor British 
 Columbia with Kamtohatka, but Kamtohatka 
 with Newfoundland, and England with British 
 Columbia. Such a comparison shews that the 
 difference lies .not, as is often assumed, between 
 the two continents, but between the opposite 
 shores of either continent within itself. Eor instance, 
 at Naiu, in Labrador, the mean temperature is 7° 
 i". below freezing; while at Archangel, in Russian 
 A.,, it is 12° above freezing. This difference of 19° 
 between the east and west coasts of the New World, 
 is only a very little less than the difference between 
 the east coast of the New, and'the west coast of the 
 Old ; for the temperature of Gottenburg, in Sweden, 
 is only 21° higher than that of Nain. It is to be 
 remarked, however, that this difference between the 
 opposite coasts of the two continents diminishes as 
 we proceed southwards. New York is only 7° colder 
 than. Naples; and Florida has the same temperature 
 as Caaro. 
 
 Jn. illustration of the contrast between the east and 
 west coasts of A., we are told, by the traveller already 
 cited, that, at the mouth of the Columbia Kver, 
 the first half of December presented one deluge 
 of rain after another from the south-east, this 
 weather winding up on the 16th of the month 
 with 'a storm of thunder and lightning; 'while, to 
 mark the difference of climate between the two 
 sides of the continent, the good folks of Montreal, 
 though occupying a lower parallel than ourselves, 
 were sleighing it merrily t&ough the clearest and 
 driest of atmospheres.' Nor is the difference, accord- 
 ing to the same authority, less palpable in the old 
 continent than in ike new. 'To place in the most 
 striking Eght the contrast in point of climate between 
 the opposite shores of the old continent, Kamtohatka 
 and the British Isles may be said, with sufficient 
 accurrfoy for this purpose, to lie in the same latitudes, 
 and to present the same area, and even to occupy 
 the same position with respect to the proximity of 
 water; and yet, while the British Isles, with but 
 littlejoreign aid, feed at least 25,000,060 inhabitants, 
 Kamtohatka, with the help of extraneous suppUes, 
 can barely prevent its population of 4000 souls from 
 starving.' ■ 
 
 But whatever influences may be common to 
 the climates of both continents, the climate of A. 
 is subject to two peculiar influences — that con- 
 tinent's 'prolongation southward,' and its backbone 
 of mountains. ^With respect to the former point, A. 
 advances at least 20° further southward than Africa 
 — .fuHy more than half the interval between the 
 latter and antarctic ice ; so that the southern 
 Breezes which, in summer, bring freshness and 
 , dehght to the Cape of Good Hope, waft cold and 
 misery to Cape Horn. Two of Cook's people, on 
 his first voyage, were frozen to death in Tierra del 
 Fuego towards the end of January— in a month 
 corresponding with our July,' and in a latitude the 
 same as that of Edinburgh." The backbone of moun- 
 tains, again, that other point which peculiarly 
 influences the climate of A., does its work ifl two 
 ways. Throughout almost its entire course, its height, 
 arrests the passage of the clouds and rains. Within 
 
 and about the tropics, these are borne from the 
 east by the trades ; in the more temperate regions, 
 they are brought from the west by the prevailing 
 counter-currents of air. But in either case, tho 
 windward slope, of the mountain barrier is a fertile 
 garden, the leeward slope a barren desert. In the 
 more central plateaus, again, of Quito and Mexico, 
 the various terraces present as many climates, and 
 bring together, under the same parallel, all the 
 temperatures and energies of nature. 
 
 But there exist, more particularly in North A, 
 pecuKaritiea of oliiuate wmoh cannot, perhaps, be 
 referred to any known cause. On the opposite sides, 
 for instance, of the gr.eat water-shed between the Gulf 
 of Mexico and Hudson's Bay, antagonistic results are 
 said to ;Shew themselves in winter. On the northern 
 side, the climate is understood to improve as one 
 advances westward, the Saskatchewan, though in a 
 considerably higher latitude, opening earlier in spring 
 than the St Lawrence; whereas, on tiie southern side, 
 ice forms in New Orleans, at the mouth of the Mis- 
 sissippi, strong enough to bear half-grown boys, a 
 thing whoUy unprecedented on the corresponding 
 parMlel of the Atlantic shore. Even in summer, at ' 
 least on the northern side of the water-shed in ques- 
 tion, something of a similar change of climate has 
 been observed, for maize, which, in Lower Canada, 
 is a precarious crop, even on the international line 
 of 45°, regularly ripens, in Red River settlement, 
 which, besides 5° more of latitude, is at least 1000 
 feet higher above the level of the sea. > 
 
 Wits respect to that portion of A. which is best 
 known, a popular misapprehension generally prevails 
 as to the steadiness of its chmate in any given season 
 of the year. The Canadian summer, for instance, is 
 supposed to be an unbroken period of tropical heat ; 
 and the Canadian winter to be, in its turn, an 
 unbroken period of hyperborean cold. Now, in 
 both directions, this is a great mistake. The sum- 
 mer of British A. is often tropical, and its wint^ 
 often hyp^borean, the extreme ranges of the 
 tiiermometer, according to the experience of credihle 
 inforinants .in locaihties to the south of London, 
 sometimes being, in one and the same year, 104° E. 
 above zerd, and 52° bfelow it. But tins difference 
 of 156°, which is measured probably by an inter- 
 val of six months, is far less remarkable than 
 the differences which a few days may bring forth. 
 The highest range occurred within four days 
 after parlour-fires had been given up ; and the 
 lowest fell on a day which, a year or so before, h^ 
 b'eeh marked by a powerful thaw. In the city of 
 Montreal itself, 36 hours, or less, have sometimes 
 exhibited a difference, up or down, of 60° F. in 
 winter ; and even in summer, whether in Lower 
 Canada or in the north-west, one can seldom reckon 
 on any other month than July_ as free from night- 
 frosts. In this respect, the Canadian climate may 
 be taken as a saiuple of the climate of North A. in 
 general, extreme ranges of tempei^ature, as prevaiUng 
 respectively in summer and winter, being naturally ' 
 attended by more or less considerable vicissitudes in 
 each individual season. 
 
 In" the tropical regions, however, of A, whether 
 Central or Southern, a singular uniformity of tem- 
 perature does exist on each of the various terraces of 
 the moijntaiii chain. The same parallel, as has been 
 already mentioned, presents at once the torrid, the 
 temperate, and the frigid zones. Such a view of the 
 matter, however, is, to a certain extent, deceptive, 
 for in not one of the three cases are the vicissitudes ■ 
 of the respective zones, properly so called, found to 
 shew themsdves. Each level is said to be so steady 
 in its temperature as to enfeeble and enervate the 
 inhabitaiits through the monotony even of that 
 which is in itself good; and in such cases, the 
 ^ 185 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 salutary prescription is to ascend or to descend, for 
 a time, from one terrace to another. 
 
 Hydrography. — With the backbone of mounlkins 
 as the principal water-shed of A., the rivers on oppo- 
 site sides. of the continent are still more different 
 than the climates. Excepting in Central A', the 
 difference in question is enormous. Even in. North 
 A, where it is less than in Sovith A, the contrast is 
 sufficiently striking. On the west side of the Rocky 
 Mountains, the only streams worthy of notice in 
 such a summary as this are the Colorado, which flows 
 into the head of the Gulf of Cahfornia ; the Sacra- 
 mento, which enters the harbour of San Francisco ; 
 and the Columbia, which empties itself into the 
 open ocean — ^three rivei;s which, if compared Vith 
 th9 waters of the opposite coast, are, in practical 
 value, inferior singly to the Hudson, and collectiyely 
 to the Eio Bravo del Norte. On the east side, how- 
 ever, there exist rivers to which the Eio Bravo del 
 Norte and the Hudson are but as brooks. To begin 
 with ■ the extreme north : the Mackenzie, besides 
 draining a large basin on its own side of the Roclfy 
 Mountains, draws from beyond them two of its 
 principal feeders, the Peace and the Liarde, burying 
 itself, however, under the perennial ices of the 
 Arctic Ocean. Passing, without further notice, the 
 Coppermine and the Fish River, of both which th|e 
 interest is purely historical in connection with arctic 
 discovery, we come to the Nelson, which brings down 
 to Hudson's Bay the Winnipeg and the Red River, 
 two streams bordering respectively on the head- 
 waters of the St Lawrence and tlie Mississippi, 
 an(^ also the two branches of the Saskatchewan, 
 whach aU but touch the sources, of the Columbia 
 apd the Missoiui. Next in order is that long 
 alternation of piighty river and mightier lake — 
 that reservoir of half the life-blood of the earth — 
 which, under the name of the St Lawrence, gradu- 
 ally becomes a, sea. South of the St Lawrence, 
 alojag the coast, we meet the Atlantic streajns of 
 New Brunswick and the United States, all of them 
 valuable beyond their magnitude, and most of them 
 connected, more or less closely, with the Alleghanies 
 — the St John, the Penobscot,-the Connecticut, the 
 Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, and the 
 Potomac. Round into the Gulf of Mexico, and we 
 reach, besides many second-rate rivers in either 
 direction, perchance the most important stream on 
 -the face of the globe — a stream which, after uniting 
 the Mississippi and the Missouri under the name of 
 the former, receives on the right the Arkansas and 
 the Red River, and on the left the Ohio, enriched, 
 as it is. With the tributes of the Wabash and thg 
 Tennessee. 
 
 In South A., again, the difference between east 
 and west is still more remarkable. On- the west, the 
 Guayaquil, the only stream worth mentioning, is not 
 to be compared even with the rivers that flow from 
 the subordinate ranges of Brazil or Guiana; while, 
 on the east, the Andes send down, besides the Mag- 
 dalena flowing into the Caribbean Sea, the Orinoco, 
 the Amazon, and the Plata, into the open ocean across 
 the almost entire breadth of the continent — three 
 networks of inland navigation, which, under the 
 head of the Amazon (q. v.), we have already shewn 
 to be virtually one, and, beyond that, to be virtually 
 linked with the Essequibo of British Guiana. 
 
 Nor win the disparity between the two coasts of 
 the continent be less strildng, if the harbours are 
 considered as well as rivers, the external outlets 
 as well, as internal channels. On the Pacific, South 
 A. possesses, to the north of Chili, only two ports 
 entitled to the naine, Panama and the Guayaquil 
 already mentioned ; while, on the same < coast, 
 North A, along a line of 3000 miles up to -British 
 Columbia, presents only five safe' and convenient 
 19S 
 
 havens — Acapuloo, Mazatlan, Magdalena Bay, San 
 Diego, and San Francisco. But the Atlantic side 
 presents a contrast to which., no language can do 
 justice. To take the divisions as they come : New- 
 foimdland has its St John's, Cape Breton its Louis- 
 bm-g. Nova Scotia its Halifax, New Brunswick its St 
 Andi-ews, Maine its -Portland,- New Hampshire its 
 Portsmouth, Massachusetts its Boston, ' Connecticut 
 its Newhaven, Rhode Island its Newport, and so on. 
 Nor is this all. While fully a third part of the riverd 
 of Europe and Asia are lost to the commerce of the 
 world at large in the frozen seas of the north, or in 
 such land-lockei pools as the Aral and the Caspian, 
 all the considerable rivers of A., with the Mackenzie 
 as the only exception, are, more or less, channels of 
 conomunication between the open ocean and the 
 interior. To take the three grandest examples — 
 The Amazon, with a basin estimated to contain 
 1,500,000 square miles, is navigable for steam-vessels 
 up every one of its main branches, nearly to 'the 
 eastern foot of the Andes ; thus comprising several 
 available lines of 2500 miles ' each, and presenting, as 
 a whole, a network of such lines to the amount of at 
 least ten times that length. The Mississippi, again, 
 navigable as it isi at once to the Aljeghanies and to 
 the Rocky Mountains, and between them, more to 
 the north, as far as the Falls of St Anthony, has 
 been computed to afibrd to the steam- vessel an unin- 
 terrupted career of 36,000 nules. But perhaps the 
 St Lawrence, if less extensive, is more marvellous 
 stiU. 0-wing to British improvements of i^s channel,, 
 New York and Pennsylvania have virtually a\sea- 
 board on their inland shores ; while Ohio, Indiana, 
 and Illinois, accessible to'sMps from the GuM of 
 St LaTsprenoe by -the lakes, and from the Gulf of 
 Mexico by the Mississippi, far eclipse, in the 
 heart of a continent, the pecuHar boast of ancient 
 Corinth as the mart of two seas. 
 
 To append a few subordinate examples : nearly all 
 the considerable rivers along the coast between the 
 St Lawrence and the Mississippi possess far more 
 than an average value, in proportion to their lengths, 
 as arteries of internal communication. The Atlantic 
 slope of the Alleghanies, ia particular, presents, as a 
 whole, perhaps twice as many facilities in this way 
 as any other .region of equal extent on the face of 
 the earth — ^facilities, too, which have been not less 
 zealously and successfully improved than those of 
 the St Lawrence. The Hudson has been, at vast 
 epspense, and "with indomiiable energy, connected 
 ■with the basin of the St Lawrence at three points — 
 on Lake Erie, on Lake Ontario, and on Lake Cham- 
 plain; and the Susquehanna has been iulilte manner 
 connected tvith the basia of the Mississippi by a 
 canal which terminates at Pittsburg on the Ohio. 
 
 But in one part of A., stiU smaller streams than 
 these last are entitled to particular attention. We 
 allude to those streams, five in number, which pro- 
 mise to -yie Tyith each other in connecting together 
 the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans. 
 
 The five rivers in question form parts of three 
 different routes. The Atrato of the Atlantic side 
 co-ioperates with the San Juan of the opposite 
 coast a little below the Isthmus of Darien ; the 
 San Juan of the Caribbean Sea, with the lake of 
 Nicaragua, and with the smaller lake of Leon more 
 to the westward; and, lastly, the Coatzacoalcos 
 of the Gulf of Mexico, with the Tehuantepec of the 
 bay of its own name. 
 
 To begin -with the first route : the Atrato and the 
 San Juan flow, in contrary directions, through the 
 slightly imidulating country iato which the Andes 
 gradually subside as they, approach the Isthmus. 
 Their head- waters are said to be, near to each other, 
 the Atrato being already navigable for small vessels, 
 and the San Juan, manifestly a considerable stream, 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 entering the sea by several mouths, after a coiirse of 
 150 miles. With such streams spparated by such a 
 country, a ship-channel between the two oceans 
 does not by any means appear to be impracticable. 
 Next, as tq the second route, which, as well as the 
 third, is already in actual use as a place of transit : 
 the San Juan itself, about 100 miles long, has a 
 gentle current, which, though in' some places 
 mipeded . by short rapids, is stated to be always 
 navigable tiiroughout for boats of 10 tons, and for 
 much larger vessels to a considerable distance from 
 the sea. La^ce Nicaragua, again, said to measure 
 140 miles by 40, is adapted for ships of any burden, 
 b^g fifteen fathoms deep. At its west end it 
 receives the Tipitapa from Lake Leon, which, with 
 a length of 35 miles, and a breadth of 15, is only 28 
 feet higher than itself, or 156 above the level of the 
 Pacific. .Two schemes seem to be agitated with 
 respect to the more westerly portion of the route — 
 x)ne scheme proposing to avail itself of Lake Leon, 
 and the other' to carry the ship-canal at once from 
 Lake Nicaragua. Lastly, as to the third route, 
 where the intervening land, actually designated as 
 an isthmus, is only 160 mileg wide : the Coatzacoalcos 
 alone is said to traverse nearly the entire breadth ; 
 while the Tehuantepec, which gives name to the 
 isthmus, goes far. to complete what the other has 
 begun. 
 
 The practical value of the enterprise of connecting 
 by navigation the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans is 
 already evidenced' ' by the jEact, that, ia the* face of 
 the competition of the. last two routes, the Panama 
 EaOroad is perhaps the most proijtable undertaking 
 of .the kiud in the new world. In fact, the comple- 
 tion of any one of those three Youtes for sea-going 
 ships, would be to realise . Columbus's idea of a 
 western passage to the East. -- 
 
 Of the Lakes oiA- a brief notifte'wUl bp -sufficient. 
 In North A, liesides the vast reservoirs of the St 
 Lawrence, a line drawn north-west from the centre 
 of Lake Superior, appears, on the fafee of the map, to 
 intersect a kiadred series-^LakeWinipeg, Lake Atha- 
 basca, Great Slave Lake, and Great Bear Lake — the 
 first of the four being connected with the Nelson, 
 and the remaining three vrith the Mackenzie. It 
 may not be out of place to observe, that the general 
 direction indicated is pretty nearly. parallel with the 
 Pacific coast, just as the general direction of the 
 St Lawrence froni the great bend at the head of 
 Lake Erie is pretty nearly parallel with the Atlantic 
 shores. As to the secondary lakes of North-west A., 
 flieir name is legion, almost every stream, whether 
 large or small, expanding itself here and there 
 vastly beyond its average width, and being, as it 
 were, a St Lawrence in miniature. 'One lake, or 
 rather pond, is too singiilar to be overlooked. 
 On the Athabasca Pass of the Kooky Mountains, 
 Where the road, httle better than a succession of 
 glaciers, runs through a region of perpetual snow, a 
 smaU body of water, named by the" Hudson's Bay, 
 Company's voyageurs as the 'Committee's Punch- 
 bowl,' sends its tnbute from one end to the Columbia, 
 and from the other to the Mackenzie. To proceed 
 southwards along the continent. Central A. aboimds 
 in lakes. ' The Leon and the Nicaragua have been 
 already noticed. But such bodies of water are 
 perhaps most numerous on the table-land of Mexico, 
 or as it is often termed, ^he plateau of Anahuao. 
 The largest of these is Ohapala, estimated to con- 
 tain 1300 square miles — an area which, however 
 insignificant' ia comparison with the great lakes 
 of the north, is more than equivalent to a circle 
 of 40'miles in diameter. ■ Many of these reservoirs 
 of the table-land have no loutlet. Such is the 
 case with the variouA lakes of the valley of Mexico, 
 enclosed as they are by mountains at a height of- 
 
 7471 feet above the sea-level. Of the same descrip- 
 tion, too, is the Lake of Titicaoa, decidedly the 
 largest in South A, Eaised by the tAble-land 
 of Peru and BoKvia to a height of 12,846 feet, it yet 
 has no outlet to the sea ; for the Desaguadero, which 
 empties it, loses itself in the apparently land-locked 
 •Lake Uros to the southward. Of this great body of 
 water, ,the magnitude is not so well ascertained 
 as its altitude. Besides such round numbers as 
 16,000 and 5000 square nules, which are never 
 meant to lie accurate, one is perplexed to meet 
 statements so minute, and yet so discordant, as 
 4032 and 2225 square nules. But even the lowest 
 estimate is more thaii equivalent to a square of 
 47 miles a side — an area wmch, vnth a depth ranging 
 up to 120 fathoms, exceeds, perhaps, anything to be 
 found to the sbuth pf the basin of the St Lawrence. 
 
 The vast advantage in point of fluvial communica- 
 tion possessed by i£e new world over the old, has 
 already been adverted' to. There is, however, a 
 hydrographical fea,ture in which one of the grand 
 divisions of the eastern contineflt is decidedly supe- 
 rior to A. The coast-Hne of Europe, in proportion to 
 extent of surface, is incomparably longer than that 
 of even the northern half of the western continent. 
 This is at once apparent on glancing at the two maps. 
 It is surely a suggestive fact, that the two portions 
 of the earth which are best fitted for iuman inter- 
 course, are also hydrographicaUy so connected as to 
 be beyond comparison tiie most accessible to each 
 other. The dividing sea, besides being itself physi- 
 cally by far the ua,rrower of the two intercoitti- 
 nental oceans, is virtually narrowed still more by its 
 winds and its currents. Along a belt of about 30° on 
 either side of the equator, tiie easterly trade with 
 its attendant current wafts the voyager westward 
 from Africa ; while above that belt, the reaction, 
 strengthened and accelerated by the peculiar forma- 
 tion of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, 
 is ready to carry, him round again to Europe, under 
 the double pressure of the Florida stream and its 
 generally prevailing breezes from the south-west. 
 Nor yet can the hydrographical relations "of A. with 
 Asia be denied their proportion of significance and 
 influence, linked as the two cmtinents are by 
 Behring's Strait, and twice bridgedTasis their ocean, 
 first by the Aleutian Isles — a continuation of the 
 Kuriles and Japan — and then by the Polynesian 
 clusters, that series of offehoots, as it were, from 
 the Indian Archipelago. 
 
 History. — ^We propose to glance at this under the 
 three heads of Aboriginal Ages, Discovery, and 
 Colonisation. 
 
 As to the Aboriginal Ages, there arises a question, 
 too interesting to be overlooked, and yet too doubt- ' 
 ful to be solved, as to the origin of the native tribes 
 and peoples of A. Without prejudicing the question 
 (which will be considered under Jndians)' whether 
 the aboriginal inhabitants of A. are to be considered, 
 in an ethnological point of view, as substantially of 
 one stock, it appears highly probable that they did 
 not all spring from one and the same primeval band 
 of adventurers ; in other words, that different colo- 
 nies, volimtary or involuntary, must have reached 
 the new continent at different times. This view, 
 to say nothing of the direct testimony of local 
 traditions, seems to. be in itself more than probable, 
 when we consider that, through the length and 
 breadth of the universal ocean, even the most 
 insignificant specks of land had each received, at 
 Ipast, one influx of human wanderers. But, beyond 
 such probabihties, and such traditions, the view in 
 question is strengthened by facts, which it is difficult 
 otherwise tO' explain — ^by diversities of language, by 
 different degrees, or kinds, of civiHsation, and, above 
 all, by, monuments, architectural or otherwise, of 
 
 19"7 
 
AMERICA, 
 
 'defunct races of bygone days. On this supposition, 
 ■whence came the successive shoals of invaders? To 
 this question no direct answer can be given. We 
 can only scan the various routes by which, pre- 
 viously to what we call the discovery of A., the old 
 world was most likely to people the American 
 continent. To begin with the natural routes on the 
 side of the Pacific — ^Behring's Strait, the Aleutian 
 Isles, and the Polynesian Archipelagoes — we can 
 hardly conceive anything but barbarism having been 
 conducted to A by any one of them. The country 
 which stretches back from Behring's Strait to the 
 Kolyma, may be asserted to be, without exception, 
 the most inhospitable portion even of Siberia; 
 and, moreover, the strait itself has more prob^ 
 ably been a channel of migration from America 
 than from Asia, the Tchuktchi of the latter ifegard- 
 ing themselves rather as a branch, than as the 
 stem, of the Tchuktchi of the former. With respect, 
 again, both to the Aleutian Isles and the Polyne- 
 sian Archipelagoes, the successive stepping-stones in 
 either series, instead of being presumed to have been 
 so many halts for Asiatic Columbuses and Magellans, 
 must rather be viewed as each a mother-country to 
 a new colony, as each a point of departure for a 
 fresh swarm. Thus would the ever-aggravating 
 blight of isolation — exemplified even in the old 
 world among the Laplanders, the Kamtchadales, 
 and the Hottentots— prepare at each remove a 
 deeper and deeper barbarism to land at last on 
 the western shores of A. Pur|her, it civilisation, 
 as certainly appears to have been the case, 
 ever did fin^ its way to A, it must have come 
 directly and mmiediately from the old world, amd 
 that under circumstances and conditioixs of by no 
 means a favourable character. In remote tunes, 
 such accidental, or, to speak more correctly, 
 
 ' unintentional visits of Europeans and Asiatics 
 may have occurred, as we know to have actually 
 taken place! in more modem days. Japaiiese junks 
 have repeatedly been driven, by stress Of weather, 
 across the. Pacific to the new world; and again, 
 on the Atlantic, the easterly trades, within eight 
 years after Columbus's earliest voyage, wafted the 
 unconscious Portuguese to Brazil, during their second 
 voyage to India — ^the very first, in fact, which they 
 had attempted by steering clear of the headlands of 
 Africa. Su6h incidents, however frequently they 
 might have happened, were much more likely to 
 civilise existing communities thah to found new 
 ones ; and it is at least a curious fact, that the only 
 aboriginal nations which could be regarded as in 
 any sense civilised at the date of the Spanish con- 
 quest, pointed in their traditions to such events as 
 we have endeavoured to describe. Mexico and Peru 
 had each had its Cecrops, or semi-divine civHiser 
 — ^the former referring him to the east across the 
 Atlantic, and the latter to the west, across the 
 Pacific. How far such hypotheses may account 
 for the admitted facts, we are not left altogether 
 to conjecture. Isolated individuals of our own 
 nation have enabled us to bring the light of the 
 present to bear on the past. iWhen we consider 
 •what William Adams achieved in Japan, two 
 hundred years ago, and what John Young and 
 James Brooke have, more recently, effected in the 
 Sandwich Islands and in Borneo-, we can perhaps 
 the more easily understand certain undeniable 
 
 ' traces and traditions of aboriginal civilisation. 
 
 Discovery. — Whatever may have been the kind 
 and degree of aboriginal civiKsation, A. was not 
 destined to be the perpetual inheritance of the red 
 man. New actors were to appear on the sfcene, 
 before whom the old possessors were in a great 
 measure to pass away. 
 Previously to the times of Columbus, Europestns 
 
 198 
 
 had certaioly visited A. The Scandinavians, after 
 having colonised Iceland in 875 A.D., and Greenland 
 in 983, had, by the year 1000, discovered A. as 
 ■far dotra as 41° 30' N. lat., a point near to New 
 Bedford, in the state of Massachusetts. These 
 Scandinavians afterwards settled in the neidibour- 
 hood — the mother-country, most probably Qirough 
 the intervention of Iceland and Greenland, main- 
 taining an intercourse ■with the colony down to 
 the 14th c. But these enterprises' do not appear 
 to have left any special impress on the charaotffl- or 
 prospects of the new continent, being morealkin, 
 perhaps, to similar incidents of yet earKer ages, than 
 to the long-meditated and well-matured scheme of 
 the illustrious Genoese. Subsequently to the Scandi- 
 na^yian discovery, and pre^vious to that of Columbus, 
 A. is believed by some to have been visited by a 
 Welsh prince, ia Cardoo's Historie of Gambria it 
 is stated that Madoc, son of Owen Gwynnedd, 
 prince of Wales, set sail westward in 1170 ■with a 
 smaE fleet, and after a voyage of several weeks, 
 landed in a region totally different both in its inha- 
 bitants and productions from Europe. Madooig 
 supposed to have reached the coast of Virginia, 
 Neither this, however, if true, nor the earlier Scandi- 
 na^yian expeditions, can be said even to have formed" 
 a connecting-link between the A- of the red man 
 and the A, of his white brother. Even if the north- 
 men had possessed resources worthy of their heroic 
 courage, the old world ■was not yet ripe for the 
 appropriation of the new. 
 
 At the end of the 15th c, however, science and 
 politics were alike strengthening Europe for its 
 task. The. mariner's ffompass and the astrolabe 
 had facilitated long voyages out of si^t of land ; 
 while, in almost every' country of Christendom, 
 various causes were consolidating government, and . 
 promoting the growth of population — a position 
 which derives, perhaps, its best illustration from the 
 fact that the capture of Granada — the last foothold 
 of the Moslem in Spain — preceded by only a few 
 months the discovery of A. 
 
 Columbus (q. v) set out on his great enterprise to 
 discover A, imder the patronage of the cro^svn of 
 Spain, on Priday, the 3d of August 1492 ; at which 
 date, properly speaking, begins the deeply interest- 
 ing history of A. Had the Atlantic been broader, 
 or had not the easterly trades wafted Columbus 
 almost on a parallel from the Canaries to the 
 Bahamas, he must have failed in his bold attempt ; 
 and, in fact, thoJe same easterlytrades, assisted by a 
 stiU nearer approach of the two continents, speedily 
 proved their own value in ^this respect by carrying 
 the Portuguese, ■without their o^wn consfent, to the 
 shores of Brazil Nay, Columbus's discovery of A,, 
 if not so accidental, was quite as unintentional as 
 that of the Portuguese. It was towards ■the East 
 that his hopes directed his ■western course, hopes 
 whose supposed fulfilment stfil lives in the misap- 
 plication to the new world of the terms Indian and 
 Indies. Much of our subsequent knowledge of 
 America has been owing to the same desrre of 
 reaching the E. Indies that led to its discovery. 
 The gorgeous East was the aim alike of Davis, 
 Baffin, and Hudson at the north, and of Magellan, 
 Schouten, and Lemaire at the south, to say 
 nothing of the earlier enterprise of Balboa on 
 ■the Isthmus of Darien ; while, under a sinulalr 
 impulse, the French of Canada were ascending 
 lake after lake as nature's ready-made highway to 
 the same goal. Even to more recent times may 
 these remarks be applied. While the eastern 
 (ioasts of Africa, and the upper shores of Asia, as 
 not bearing on the grand question of oriental 
 traflBc, were comparatively neglected and forgotten, 
 our own Cook and Vancouver, in quest of a passage 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 between the two oceans, surveyed every nook and 
 cranny of A. from Columbia Eiver to Behring's 
 Strait. Nor yet haVe the aspirations of Columbus 
 and his noble band of successors and imitators 
 been altogether disappointed. That same continent 
 which, in their case, barred a westward advance 
 along nearly the whole interval between the arctic 
 and antaictic circles, has to us already become, 
 or is gradually becoming,' more than a substitute 
 for the ocean which it was found so extensively 
 to displace. .By means of the railway across the 
 Isthmus of Panama, the paribbean Sea, whether 
 for passengers or for goods, is virtually nearer to 
 "the Pacific than an open channel could have 
 rendered it to any sea-goihg vessels. Nor is it 
 merely across the scamty span of Central A. that 
 art is outstripping flature in the race. For, to 
 ■take one instance, the Grand Trunk Eailway runs 
 a steefle-chase over every obstacle, St Lawrence 
 not excepted, for 1000 mfies from the' Atlantic to 
 Lake Huron, fully one-third of the entire distance to 
 "be accomplished. Since October 11, 1492, the date of 
 Columbus's first discovery, little more than three 
 and a half centuries have elapsed ; and if we look 
 at the futhre in the light of the past, it seems not 
 unreasonable to suppose, that, by 1892, the locomo- 
 tive will, within three days, connect together oceans 
 physically as distant frpm each Other as are the 
 Baliamas from the Canaries. 
 
 But Colimibus found something better than what 
 he himself or his successors and imitators looked for. 
 He had discovered a land which, besides echpsing 
 India in the richness and variety of its commerce, 
 was to confer on Europe a still more solid benefit. 
 Colonisation, which, since the early ages of Greece, 
 had slumbered for 2000 years, received an impetus, 
 which, after building up empires in the West, was 
 to bi£ld up others in an East richer far than that 
 which was so long the loadstar of European naviga- 
 tors — an east where, almost without a metaphor, the 
 grass was to be wool, and the stones to be gold. 
 
 The first-fruits of Columbus's enterprise were the 
 Baihamas, Guanahani, or Cat Island, being the spot 
 where he landed on the 11th of October 1492. With- 
 out attempting, in so summary^ sketch as this, to 
 distinguish the results «f each of his four voyages 
 .from each other, it may be sufficient to state that 
 this -great-man, besides Hispaniola, or St Domingo, 
 Cuba, Jamaica, and others of the Antilles, discovered 
 and explored Central A. from Honduras southward 
 along me coast of Veragua, and South A. from the 
 mouths of the Orinoco westward, as far as Margarita. 
 . It was OH this last-mentioned Scene of his operations 
 that he was followed by Hojeda, whose pilot, 
 Amerigo Vespucci (q. v.), has been allowed to wrest 
 from Columbus the glory of giving his panje to the 
 new world. Within twenty years after Columbus's 
 first discovery, Ponce de Leon discovered Florida; 
 and, what was certainly of iar- more consequence, 
 he ascertained that, through the strait which separ- 
 ated that peninsula from the Bahamas, there, con- 
 stantly ran a strong currMit to the north-east" In 
 1513, again, just 6ne year later, Vasoo Nunez de 
 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien to the Great 
 South Sea, or, as it was afterwards named, the Pacific 
 Ocean. About thirteen years before this last event, 
 sftmost immediately after Columbus's own continental 
 explorations, the interval left betweeji his most 
 southerly point from Honduras, and his most westerly 
 point from the Orinoco, was, in a great measure, 
 filled up by the voyage of Bastidas. To the south, 
 again, of the Orinoco, Pinzon and Solis sailed along 
 the continent down to 40° S. lat, between the years 
 1500 and 1514. The former, aftej- anticipating, by a 
 few months, the Portuguese on the shores of BrazU, 
 had seen the Amazon ; and the latter, sent out for 
 
 the express purpose of entering, if possible, Balboa's 
 Great Sojfth Sea, found his way into the La Plata or 
 plate, bemg" there slain by the neighbouring natives. 
 Moreover, to return to tiie northward, by the year 
 1519, different navigators had between them com- 
 pleted the examination of the Gulf of Mexico. 
 Within twenty-seven years, therefore, after Colum- 
 bus's first departure from Spain, the eastern shores 
 of South and Central A. had been almost continu- 
 ously explored by the Spaniards down to within 
 15° of the southern extremity of the continent. 
 ^ Nor had other nations been idle in the north. Thp 
 Cabots, on behalf of England, had discovered New- 
 foundland, and portions of the adjacent continent, 
 in 1497. In 1500, -the Portuguese, under the Cor- 
 tereafe, sailed along the coast of Labrador nearly up 
 to Hudson's Bay, iSiving, it is supposed, entered the 
 Gulf of St Lawrence, long known among them as 
 the Gulf of the Two Brothers. Thus gradually 
 there grew up the opinion, since proved to have 
 been the true and sound one, that any practicable 
 passage between the two oceans must be looked for 
 towards the south of the Plate. Accordingly, in 
 1519, Magellan,' a Portuguese in the service of 
 Spain, Undertook the voyage in which was dis- 
 covered the strait that bears his name — a voyage 
 which furnished Ijhe first" instance of the circirama- 
 vigation of the globe. Thus there remained Uttle to , 
 be done, unless in the extreme north and the extreme 
 south. In the extreme south, Schcuten, a Dutch 
 navigator, discovered, in 1610', the passage round 
 Cape Horn ; whUe, six years thereafter, Lemaire, a 
 mariner of the same nation, passed through the 
 strait of his own name between Staten Land and 
 Tierra del Fuego. Towards the north, again, the 
 French and English divided the labours and honours 
 of the enterprise between them. Scarcely had 
 MageHan's companions — for he had himself been 
 killed— returned |o Europe, when Vexazzano, 
 under the auspices of Francis I. of France, sailed 
 along what are now the Atlantic shores of the 
 United States, thereby connecting the discoveries 
 of the Cabots with thdse of Ponce de Leon; and 
 again, about ten yesirs later, Jacques Cartier, ia the 
 service also of tiie same prince, explored the gulf 
 and river of St Lawrence, penetrating as far to the 
 westward as the island of Montreal. Ei'the extreme 
 north, however, the Endish may be said to have 
 been without a rival. It is unnecessary, in this 
 summary sketch, to do more than mention names 
 which tell their own story on every map — Davis, 
 Baffin, Lancaster, and Huton, (See these Heads.) 
 
 To pass now to the western coast of A. The con- 
 queror^ of Mexico and Peru effected, in a few years, 
 more perhaps than they left behind them for ftiture 
 ages to ' effect, ranging along the coast from the 
 southern extremity of ChiU to the peninsula jmd Gulf 
 of California. Beyond Lower California, the only direc- 
 tion in yhich there was much to do, the English 
 Drake, whose voyage took pl^ce in 1578, divided with 
 the Spaniards the credit of having discovered Tapper 
 California. For nearly two centuries, excepting the 
 half-fabulous voyages of Ponte and Puca, the 
 Spaniards and the Siglish alike slumbered over their 
 task; and it was not tiU towards the close of the 
 last century, that Cook and Vancouver co-Operated 
 with Spanish and American navigators in dispelling 
 the mystery that had so long hung over the north- 
 west coast of A. 
 
 To advert to inland discoveries : As early as 
 1537, within six years after the landing of Pizarro 
 irr Peru, and vrithin two after the founding of 
 Buenos Ayres, the Spaniards met each other on the 
 eastern borders of Peru, from the opposite shores of 
 the continent ; and, in 1540, within tlffce years more, 
 they sent forth that eastward expedition which ended 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 ia Orellana's exploration of the Amazon, from ita 
 source to its moutli. In the northern half of the 
 continent, similar enterprises were of a much later 
 date. It -was in 1682 that the French v first de- 
 scended the Mississippi ; it was in 1771 that Hearne 
 traversed the wHdemess from Hudson's Bay to the 
 mouth of the Coppermine ; and it was respectively 
 iu 1789 and 1793 that Alexander Mackenzie reached 
 the mouth of the river that bears his name, and 
 passed through what is now British Columbia, to the 
 shores of the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Colonisation. — Among the European powers that 
 colonised A., the most prominent were Spain, Por- 
 tugal, France, ajjd England. 
 
 Spain, of course,, took the leadj having, with few 
 exceptions, accomplished its task before any rival 
 state had entered on its share of the work. In one 
 respect, jts colonies differed from aU others on the 
 new continent. Spain alone came in contact with 
 civilisation, such as it was among the aborigines; 
 and, accordingly, in the cases of Mexico and Peru, 
 colonisation required to be preceded by something 
 like regular war and forhial conquest. But, notwith- 
 standiag this peculiar obstacle, the colonies of Spain 
 grew at first with a rapidity which, perhaps, has 
 scarcely found its parallel even in the somewhat 
 congenial case of Australia. As an illustration of 
 this — for the statement needs no proof, — it was 
 colonial resources that armed Cortes and Pizairro for 
 their respective enterprises. Without the direct ajtjd 
 immediate aid, in either instance, of the old country, 
 Cuba, within twenty-seven years after -the first dis- 
 covery, equipped the conquerors of Mexico; while 
 the town of Panama, only twelve years later, sent 
 forth the adventurers that were to subjugate Peril. 
 So unexampled a degree of vigour and vitality con- 
 tinued to advance in Spaiu's transatlantic possessions, 
 precisely while they were so organised and conducted" 
 as to afford scope to individual ambition. Never, 
 perhaps, was this scope' sufficiently free and full, for, 
 even from the beginning, government often embar- 
 rassed and 'blighted the fairest schemes by its jeal- 
 ous and suspicious iuterference. But, for a time, it 
 generally found its account in tolerating the unre- 
 stricted hberfcy, or licence, of its instruments. It 
 was, therefore, only after law and order were estab- 
 lished, and the original actors had disappeared from 
 the scene, that the authorities of the mother-country 
 stereotyped, as it were, their despotism along the 
 length and breadth of every colony. From that 
 moment, vigour and vitality were succeeded by stag- 
 nation and torpor; Still, with such-elements of pros- 
 perity on every side — above the earth and belovir it — 
 material interests could not fail to flom-ish. But' 
 the soul had fled; the body alone remained behind. 
 Under these circumstances, Spain, though continuing 
 to claim the entire continent to the north, more espe- 
 cially on the Pacific, did very little to enforce its 
 pretensions. To this remark. New Mexico and Upper 
 California were the only exceptions. It was not 
 before 1594 that New Mexico was at- all occupied ; 
 and it Was not tiU a century later that the province, 
 after ten years of bush-fighting, was finally subdued ; 
 while it was only in 1767 that the Franciscans, on 
 behalf of Spain, -took possession of Upper California. 
 But Spain never abandoned the hope of extending 
 its dominions towards the north-west coast. As 
 late as 1790, that ppwer, while restoring Noptka 
 Soimd, and acknowledging England's right of 
 planting other settlements, took the precaution, 
 useless as it proved, of expressly reserving a similar 
 right to itself ; and it was only in 1819, nearly thirty 
 years later, that Spain, formally ceded to the United 
 States aU its claims to the coast above the parallel 
 of 42°. See further under tte separate head of 
 . Ambbica, Spanish. 
 sot) 
 
 The efforts of Portugal, in the cause of American 
 colonisation, were at first less energetic than -those 
 of Spain. Iniact, Portugal, which had doubled the 
 Oape'of Good Hope iu the year 1497, was so zealously 
 engaged in the East as to allow an age to elapse 
 before sending any colony to Brazil. The discovery 
 of the country took place in 1500 ; but its colonisa- 
 tion only in 1531, or rather 1548. Within 32 years 
 thereafter,, in 1580, Brazil, at the same time as 
 Portugal itself, -was annexed to the Spanish monarchy, 
 soon afterwards faUing, in this its new character,' 
 partly iuto the hands of the revolted Hollanders. 
 In 1640, Brazil, as well as Portugal, threw off the 
 Spanish yoke -with the help of the Dutch settlers. 
 But the continued presence of the, latter retarded 
 the progress of the colony. It was only after their 
 expulsion, that the Portuguese, who had lost nearly 
 everything in India, turned their attention mere 
 largely to Brazil. It accordingly became the most 
 fiourishing colony, as such, to the south of the- 
 Endish settlements ; and, as the refuge of the House 
 of Braganza from French domination, it received, 
 about fifty years ago, an impetus which has rendered 
 it, as an independent state, the most flourishing power 
 of Southern A. ' 
 
 France, as the claimant to the basins of the St ' 
 La-wrence and the Mississippi, may be said rather to 
 have pitched camps than to have planted colonies, 
 in those vast possessions. She regarded A. chiefly 
 as a supplementary battle-field for England and 
 herself. Every French settlement was but an iaert 
 part of "• pohtical machine, powerful, indeed, but- 
 unwieldy, expensive, and unproductive. The govern- 
 ment was everything, and the indi-vidual subject 
 was nothing. Hence, neither Louisiana nor Canada 
 at all realised our idea of a colony. In corrobora- 
 tion of this may be cited two authentic and official , 
 facts. As an encoutagement to marriage, rewards - 
 q,nd exemptions were held out to the parents of three 
 children ; and the erection of a dwelling on a lot of 
 less than forty arpents (about thirty-two acres) was 
 prohibited by a royal ordinance. In 1762, France, 
 gave up Canada to England^ and, as an indirect con- 
 cession also to the same power, transferred Louisiana 
 to Spain — events which, singularly enough, did 
 much to facihtate France's grand, scheme, the sepa- 
 ration from England of her old colonies. 
 
 England, the most energetic and successful of 
 all in the work of colonisation, was the last in the 
 field among thfe four powers already mentioned. 
 Among h,er continental colonies, to say nothing "of- 
 Newfoundland, Virgiuia, the oldest, was established 
 in 1607, just four years after the union of the cro-nrns ; 
 and Georgia, the youngest, as late as 1733. With 
 these two exceptions, the remaining eleven were, one 
 and aU, founded during that period of ci-vil and 
 religious troubles which, in the mother-country's 
 own history, sent one S-tuart to the scaffold, and 
 drove another into exile. In 1620, Massachusetts* 
 was occupied by the Puritan fathers; in 1623 and 
 1631 respectively. New Hampshire and Connecticut 
 were first settled; in 1634, Maryland was granted 
 to Lord Baltimore, a Roman Catholic nobleman ; in 
 1636, Rhode Island became a refuge from the sec- 
 tarian intolprauce of Massachusetts ; in 1653, North 
 Carolina became all offshoot from Virginia ; in 1664, 
 New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were taken 
 from the Dutch ; in 1670, South Carolina was estab- 
 lished; and in 1682, Pennsylvania was granted to 
 WiUiam Penn, the Quaker, continuing to be a proprie- 
 tary government do-vm to the Revolution. In nearly 
 all these cases, the civil and religioua liberties for 
 which 'chiefly the colonists expatriated themselves,* 
 were secured by liberal, nay, virtually republican 
 charters. Subject only to the appointment of a 
 governor on the part of the cro-wn, every colony was 
 

 ,.41. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 4. 
 
 B1GH.T oil 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 
 €llff MjL llilE2£.i 
 
 ^ 
 
 7tat2iv<iffs r^frresenJj^'i- tJuu- — h ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Gfagrnptnml .lfi7cj tf>('n*;./lftiiy* 
 
 .EnghsliJW&s eSCiie Ocgrve 
 
 Longitude "Hi's 
 
 I'L-mlK'luLC-uloui-.-L/'/rjTM'^Fjiluifi EduiTtr^h 
 
fDOjr & EDlJfBL'-fl-lva' 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 practically a state within , itself ; and it is a sugges- 
 tive fact that the very earliest assertion of legislative 
 superiority on the part of the mother-country was 7 
 and 8 WiU. III. c. 22, which, however, only operated 
 negatively by forbidding every colony to make laws 
 repugnaht to those of Eugttnd. With such aspir- 
 ations and such institutions, the enterprising inha- 
 bitants of a new home could not fail to prosper: 
 while their prosperity was rendered more soUd and 
 permanent by the comparative poverty Of a region 
 where steady indnstiy, in agriculture or ia the 
 fisheries, was, as it were, a necessary of life. Under 
 these circmuatauoes, the germs of poKtical independ- 
 ence were at work long before 1765; and it is not 
 merely a probability, but a fact, that the expulsion 
 of the dreaded power of France from Canada and 
 Louisiana, in 1762, was closely connected with the 
 troubles which so soon beg^n. See America, 
 Beitish. 
 
 _ The colonisation of the West Indies, Guiana 
 moluded, wiU be seen at a glance in the appended 
 table of American Governments. 
 
 It may be added, in conclusion, that the whole of 
 A. is now in the hands of European races, excepting 
 only the aboriginal Araucania to the south of Ohai, 
 and the African republic of Hayti, otherwise known 
 as Hispaniola or St Domingo, the oldest among the 
 colonies of Spain. , 
 
 American Antiquities. — The architectural remains, 
 to which we have already alluded in connection with 
 a general estimate of aborigiAal civilisation, are to 
 be found in each of the grand divisions of the- new 
 continent. To begin from the north. That portion 
 of the United States which lies betWeen the Appa- 
 lachians and the Eocky Mountains, presents in three 
 groups at once the oldest and the rudest monuments 
 of bygone times : the first group extending from the 
 sources of the Alleghany to -flie waters of the Missouri ; 
 the second occupying the Mississigpi VaUey, vaguely 
 so defined; and the third stretching from South 
 Carolina to Texas. These several groups, apparently 
 with very little difference among themselves, consist 
 of numberless mounds, and qircumvaUatidns of earth 
 and, stone— 1500 .of the latter, and 10,000 of the 
 former, being said to stud Ohio alone. The el-ections 
 themselves- range from 5 to 30 feet in height ; while 
 the areas enclosed — ^generally of some symmetrical 
 figure, such as circle /Dr ellipse, rectangular paraUelb- 
 gram or regular polygons-vary from twenty to forty 
 acres, though among a few of greater extent, one in 
 Arkansas is stated to embrace! a square mile. The 
 circumvallations, moreover, seem generally to con- 
 tain the mounds ; and sometimes a smaller circum- 
 vallation is surrounded by a larger one. Whether 
 these colossal structures were intended for worship 
 or for defence, it is impossible to decide; more prob- 
 ably, however, they were of a military character, 
 provided, as they ordinarily were, with cisterns for 
 w;ater. But, whatever their origin, they derive 
 interest from the analogous fact, that, within the 
 same territorial limits, have been dug up vases of 
 earthenware or copper in elegant forms, pipe-bowls 
 decorated with human heads of the type of the exist- 
 mg aborigines, or with those of birds, &c., domestic 
 utensils, personal ornaments, hatchets of stone, and^ 
 lastly, weapons of copper or'mica, or shell or obsidian. 
 ■ — ^The architectural remains of Central and South A. 
 are at once of more modem origin and more elaborate 
 character, and may be roughly compared with the 
 Cyclopean ruins in Italy and Greece. Uniformly in 
 the pyramidal style — a style likely enough to be 
 indigenous in a region of earthquakes — they are 
 composed of blocks generally huge, and sometimes 
 enormous ; those in the walls of Tiahuanaco in 
 Bolivia beingequivalent to cubes of about 16 feet 
 each way. Between those of South A. and Central 
 
 A., however, there are diversities as well as resem- 
 blances. Those of South A., situated, as the^ are, 
 within the native limits of Peru, and referred, as 
 •they must be, to its closing era under the Incas, 
 cannot reach back beyond the Spanish conquest more 
 than 300 or 400 years : the principal ruins are those 
 of Tiahuanaco, already mentioned; of a temple on 
 an island in Lake Titicaca; of another edifice of the 
 kind at Pachacamac, not far from Lima; and of the 
 palaces and mausoleums of the royal race. Those 
 of Central A., again, are reckoned to be considerably 
 more ancient, reaching five or six centuries further 
 back,. and beiug partly the work of the Aztecs, 
 whom the Spamards conquered, and partly of the 
 Toltecs, whom the Aztecs had themselves supplanted. 
 Nor is the fact altogether withoiit significance, that, 
 in the two more southerly divisions pf the continent, 
 those mysterious records of the past are generally 
 superior in development ia proportion as they are 
 anterior in age; those of Central A.', as a whole, 
 surpassing those of South A. ; and, again, within 
 Central A. itself, the earlier specimens of Oaxaca, 
 Guatemala, and Yucatan, eclipsing the later ones of 
 Mexico Proper. While attempting, in the light of 
 these remains, to appreciate aboriginal civilisation, 
 we cannot fail to be struck rather with their magni- 
 
 JFront and back of a stone idol found at Copan, in 
 Central America. 
 
 tude than with-their beauty, rather with the evidence 
 of despotism in the ruler than with traces of skill in 
 the subject — Stonehenge affording us infinitely morox 
 of a parallel than Windsor Casfle or Westminster 
 Hall. Nor does the sciilpture, so often subsidiary 
 to the architecture, lead to a more favourable infer- 
 ence, being generally rude and clumsy, and some- 
 times grotesqxie and hideous. The only safe conclu- 
 sion is this, that, in the new world as in the old, 
 there were different degrees of civilisation; some 
 of them confessedly higher than one could have 
 expected in the utter absence of the useful metals, 
 and the almost utter absence of beasts of burden. 
 Nor has even this conclusion any necessary bearing 
 on the better organised conimunities at large. Stray 
 visitors of a higher type might have produced all the 
 phenomena — visitors precisely such as appear to have 
 figured in the traditions both of Mexico and Peru. 
 Geology. — The geology of the new world presents 
 
 201 
 
AMEEICA. 
 
 some remarkable contrasts to tliat of the districts 
 in the old world which have supplied the types of 
 geological classification. None of these is more 
 striking than the enormous ejctent of country Which 
 one formsition occupies, and that without interrup- 
 tion. It has long oeen noticed that tie rock-struc- 
 ture of islands is more varied than that of continents.; 
 and thus it is that the inh^/bitants of the British 
 Isles have been to some extent compelled to become 
 acquainted with geology. A journey of a few horns 
 presents to the traveller rocks which, as regards 
 both their mineral and fossil contents, are widely 
 dififerent. In A., on the other hand, one may travel 
 for days over beds belonging to a single epoch. 
 American strata often stretch from the Atlantic 
 west beyond the Mississippi. They have, on the 
 whole, been subjected to few disturbing agencies ; 
 a^ is evidenced by the absence of any true mountain- 
 range, except the Appalachians, east of the Kooky 
 Mountains. The rocks of Britain, from their dis- 
 position and variety, have been, so to speak, the 
 'primer' and 'pocket manual' of this science, and 
 wfll always continue to be the ' vade mecwm ' of the 
 geologist; but should he desire to peruse the^large 
 ' folios ' that contain the stony records of our earth's 
 history, in their order and natural vastness, he must 
 betake himself to the new world. 
 
 It is not many years since attention was first 
 directed to American geology, but during the short 
 time that has intervened, its progress has been very 
 remarkable. This has resulted from the appoint- 
 ment of a geological staff in connection with nearly 
 evfery province of the United States, from the 
 vigorous operations of the Canadian survey under 
 Sir W. E. Logan, and from the observations of 
 arctic explorers, whose frequent visits to these 
 regiops in search of the iU-fated Franklin have sup- 
 
 gied data for the exposition of their natural history, 
 umboldt, though the first, is yet the most import- 
 ant of South Ajmerican observers. The numerous 
 facts recorded by him have been confirmed and 
 added to by recent travellers. Data have been thus 
 supplied to form an approximate estimate of the 
 geological structure of this portion of the American 
 continent. , 
 
 The names of *North American observers are 
 almost past reckoning, yet the various systems may 
 be said to have been chiefly laid open by four sets of 
 observers — ^Morton for the Cretaceous, Conrad for 
 the Tertiary, HaU and the New York geologists for 
 the Palffiozoic, and the Professors Rogers for the 
 Carboniferous strata and the AppaJachSna. 
 
 In the following rapid sketch of this subject, 
 we can do nothing more than glance at the various 
 formations, and must refer for details to the articles 
 under the difierent divisions of A. 
 
 The oldest strata are a range of Cktstalline 
 Hocks which, in North A., occupy an-area that 
 extends from the northern shores of Lake Superior, 
 and the banks of the St Lawrence, north-west to the 
 Arctip Ocean, and lies between the line of minor 
 lakes (Slave, Winnipeg, &c.) and Hudson's Bay. The 
 average width of this area is about 200 nules, and its 
 length from Lake Superior to its termination on the 
 shores of the Arctic Sea is more thail 1500 miles. The 
 rocks are chiefly gneiss, with granite and trap. They 
 form a flat plateau, very little elevated above the 
 surrounding country, and only in the Copper Moun- 
 tains rising to the altitude of hUls, the hiAest of 
 which is 800 feet, above the sea-level. In this 
 immense plain we have an example of the great 
 characteristic of American geology — ^the tranquil 
 operation of an upheaving force, exerted over a 
 wide area, with limited and regulated intensity, and 
 constancy of direction. This series of rooks stretches 
 over nearly the whole of the eastern portion of 
 202 ' 
 
 South A., extending from the northern shores to. 
 the mouth of the La Plata, being, however, hidden in 
 the vaUey of the Amazon by its aUuViaj deposits. 
 The same rocks form the western slopes of the 
 Andes and Rocky Mountains, and the plains of 
 Russi&n A. In the central district, in which we first 
 traced them, they dip east and west under the 
 Silurian strata. They are themselves free from 
 superincumbent beds, shewing < that even in the 
 Silurian age they f oimeii dry land ; and ever since, 
 although subject, like the rest of the world, to great 
 oscillation, it has apparently held its place with 
 wonderful stability, for it is now, as probably then, 
 not far above the level of the sea. 
 
 On either side of this tract there exists, as we have " 
 said, a SlLUMAlf district. That on the eastern side, 
 reaching to Hudson's Bay, hasalqw and uniformly 
 swampy aspect ; the strata are hid by superficial 
 deposits, chiefly bovilder clay or drift, large boulders 
 from which are scattered along the shore. The 
 Silurian rocks under which the crystalline strata dip 
 on their western limits,, cover a large extent of the 
 North American continent. They have been traced 
 from Canada and New England, bounding the 
 southern Umita of the azoic rocks along the Ene of 
 the great lakes, and extending in a broad band of 
 some 200 nules parallel to the more ancient forma- 
 tion, probably tiU they reach the Arctic Ocean. 
 These rocks are only slightly developed in Southern 
 A., on the eastern dopes of the Andes. 
 
 The Silurians have been divided into JJower and 
 Upper, and each of these contains three periods. 
 Begnning with the Lower, we have first the 
 
 Potsdam Period, comprising beds of slate and 
 sandstone, and containing fossils representative of 
 the three great divisions of the animal kingdom — 
 Molluscs, Articulates, and Radiates. Next foUows 
 the 
 
 Trenton Period, a period of limestones indicating a 
 sea of greater depth, and teeming with life, for some 
 beds are composed entirely of shells and corals. 
 
 Another change, and rocks of a clayey and shaly 
 structure are deposited, " containing numberless 
 zobphytes and other fossils, and forming the Hudson 
 Period: 
 
 The Upper Silurian division also comprises three 
 epochs : IThe Medina a/nd Clinton, composed of sand- 
 stones and shales ; then The Niagcura and Onondaga, 
 with limestones and saline rocks ; and, lastly. The 
 Lower Selderierg Period, a richly fossiliferous series 
 of limestone rocl^. 
 
 The Silurian beds on their southern and western 
 borders dip under the Deyoniaii rocks, which are 
 developed to a large extent north of lat. 72° N., 
 where . they appear to rest upon the azoic rocks. 
 They have been divided into five periods : Orishany, 
 Upper Hdderherg, Hamilton, Chemung, and' CatsHll. 
 
 Vast beds of conglomerate overlie the Devonian 
 rocks, and form the basis of the Cabbonifbeous' 
 strata. This formation covers large districts in New 
 Jersey and Pennsylvania, and m the Ohio and 
 Mississippi valleys, with an enormous thickness of 
 limestone, shale, and other beds, which still con- 
 tinue parallel to the previous. At the close of the 
 carbomf erous epoch, the whole character of North A. 
 was altered by the formation of itsjnpuntain systems. 
 No hill higher than Copper Mountain seems to have 
 existed at this time, although the land occupied 
 much the same area, and had a similar outline as at 
 present. The Professors Rogers, having with perfect 
 success unravelled the contortions of the Appa- 
 lachians, have shewn that the Silurian, Devonian, 
 and Carboniferous strata, which were originally laid 
 out in horizontal layers, were afterwards pressed on 
 to the north-westward, and folded up tiU the folds 
 were of mountain height. To similar causes do the 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 Rocky Mountains and the Andes owe their origin 
 — only the directions of the forces are different. 
 
 The Appalachian fires have long been extinguished ; 
 they have, however, left traces of their former violence 
 in the highly metamorphosed Silurian and Caiboni- 
 terous rocks of New York and Pennsylvania, which 
 were long supposed to be/ primary granite, &e. The 
 Igneous agency, which at first raSed the western 
 range, is still active at intervals throughout its 
 course. ' 
 
 There seems to have been a rest in the deposition 
 of sedimentary strata at this time. The only activity 
 was that of the earthquake ajid the volcano. Two 
 whole formations — the Ifermian and Tiiassic — ^have 
 no place in the rock-structure of A. The first renewed 
 signs of life are discovered iu the sandstones which 
 occupy the valleys on the eastern side of the 
 Appalachians. In these beds, which belong to the 
 OoLrrif period, occur the tracks of birds and reptiles, 
 discovered and described by Professor Hitchcock. 
 
 In the CBBTAOBOtrs beds which follow, evidence is 
 given that the Mexican Gulf extended far up the 
 Missouri VaUey, and sufficiently deep to cover Texas 
 and Nebraska with the beds which belong to this 
 formation. 
 
 The Tbetiaey formation is developed as a band of 
 about 60 miles, forming the southern extremity of 
 North A., and stretching from North Carolina to the 
 pemnajBla" of Yucatan, leaving the coast-Une only 
 at the delta of the Mississippi This formation^ 
 occupies a large amotmt of the surface of South 
 A. From Patagonia to Venezuela it can be traced 
 occupying the space intervening between the base of 
 the Andes and the azoic rooks of Brazil and Guiana. 
 The older Silurian and Carboniferous deposits are not 
 found in the positions they occupy in the northern 
 continent ; the gneiSs, &c., dip directly under the 
 tertiaries. — The valleys of the Amazon and the La 
 Plata, and the mouth of the Mississippi) contain 
 extensive Alluvial deposits. 
 
 There only remain two post-tertiary beds, which, 
 however, are of considerable importance — ^viz., the 
 Boulder Clay, and the jRiver Terraces or Loess, 
 contarning the remains of the mastodon and of the 
 elephant. The boulder clay occurs in the country 
 north of lat. 40° N., and in Patagonia in South A. 
 Its characteristics are, the same as that in the old 
 world — a stiff day, containing boulders of all sizes, 
 some being as much as one or two thousand tons 
 weight. The origin of this remarkable deposit — one 
 of the most stupendous events in geological history — 
 is still involvedTin mystery. .» 
 
 Tie pampas of Southern A. are covered with a 
 deposit of clay and sand,- containing the bones of the 
 megatherium and mylodon, genera allied to the sloths, 
 and of the glyptodon, a huge armadillo. For details, 
 see Ahbbs, Appalachians,, Rocky Motjhtains. 
 
 Botany. — On the discovery of A., Europeails 
 regarded with astonishment ^~its vegetable ^and 
 ammal productions, so different from all that 
 they had ever seen before. The difference between 
 the productions of the old and Hew worlds is 
 least remarkable in the most northern regions. 
 Around the north pole, a region having a flora and 
 fauna which may properly be designated arctic, 
 includes portions of the three conftnents of Europe, 
 Asia, and A. ; and many productions are common 
 to these three continents throughout this region, 
 whilst those which are peculiar to one, are generally 
 represented in the others by species nearly allied., 
 In A., this region extends to the northern shores 
 of Lake Superior. The polar bear haunts the arctic 
 regions of the old and new worlds alike ; and further 
 south, in both, the beaver builds his dam, and is 
 pursued for his skin. Pine and birch are the chief 
 trees of all the most northern forests, and struggle 
 
 on, dwarfed and stunted, towards the regions of 
 perpetual snow ; wlulsfthe berries of different species 
 of BubUs and Vacdnium (bilberry, &c.) ^e the last 
 fruits.which the soil offers to man during the brief 
 summer of the north — alike to the Laplander and 
 the Esquimaux. 
 
 More to the south, the flora and fauna of A. 
 become more decidedly different from those of the 
 old world ; yet the difference consists not so much 
 in the appearance of new families as in new species, 
 replacing, so to speak, those of Europe and of Asia. 
 The forests consist chiefly, as in these continents, of 
 pinea, oaks, 'birches, and willows ; but the pines, and 
 oaks, and birches, and willows, are not the same as 
 those which cover the plains and mountains eastward 
 of the Atlantic. The same remark applies to poplars, 
 ehns, ^anes, maples, hazels, and other kmds of 
 trees, and to plants of humbler growth, as roses, 
 brambles, strawberries, bilberries, &c., the pasture 
 grasses, and the common flowers and weeijs, although 
 umbelliferous and cruciferous plants are compara- 
 tively rare. Not unfrequently, also, forms' occur 
 more completely different from those of the other 
 quarters of the world, and these become more 
 numerous as we proceed southward ; although the 
 magnolias, which form so admir&ble a feature of the 
 flora of the Southern Alleghanies and other southern 
 parts of North A., have recemtly been foimd equally 
 to characterise that of the east of Asia and of the 
 Himalaya Mountains, where magnificent species of 
 rhododendron have also been (nscovered, rivalling 
 or exceUine those which are natives of the United 
 States, and very different from the dwarf shrubs 
 which represent the saiie genus on the mountains of 
 Europe. It is remarkable that no true species of 
 -heath is found in A, although many shrubs of the 
 same family occur, but none of them so strongly 
 exhibiting the social character, or covering great 
 tracts, as the^eatha do in Eiurope. Where the 
 climate begins to assume a tropical character, how- 
 ever, A. is distinguished by the abundance of the 
 Cacti (the prickly pear and its allies), which are 
 found on its plains, often forming the greater part of 
 their vegetation. The species of this order, so far as 
 is yet £iown, are exclusively American, although 
 some of them have been Introduced into thje warmer 
 parts of the old world, and are now very common 
 in the south of Europe and elsewhere. The mountains 
 of Mexico are, to a large extent, clothed with oaks 
 and pines, most of them, however, different dot only 
 from those of the eastern continents, but even froiii 
 those of the more northern parts of A. The flora of 
 tropical A. resembles that of Asia and Africa in its 
 palms, although these also are with few exceptions 
 different in species; and the species are more 
 abundant than in any other part of the world. It 
 appears, indeed, that palm-forests like those of 
 South A. scarcely exist elsewhere. The, forests of 
 the hottest parts of South A. produce also many 
 remarkable trees of other kinds, among which may 
 be mentioned the trees of the order LecyAidaceoe 
 (q. v.), one of them known as the cannon-ball tree, 
 and all of them producing huge fruits, with thick hard 
 ^ells, which are often used for domestic purposes ; 
 whilst within the shell of a particular species are 
 packed together the well-known Brazil Nuts (q. v.) 
 of our shops. In the waters of the same region has 
 recently been . discovered the Victoria Begia, the 
 most magnificent of water-lilies, aid for the growth 
 of which, hot-houses containing ponds of water have 
 been erected in our own country. The forests of 
 this part of A. are so dense and full of underwood, 
 and the trees so bound together by lianas or twining 
 plants, iiat they are in many places impenetrable, 
 and tiie animals which inhabit them either find 
 their way among the branches, or by narrow 
 
AMERICA. 
 
 paths, which they keep open by constant use. The 
 treeless plains of South A., like those of North 
 A., have, in general, much of a grassy vegetation. 
 Part of the elevated regions of the Cordillera, 
 within the torrid zone, is remarkably character- 
 ised by the presence of Cinchonce, which form its 
 principal botanical feature, and yield the celebrated 
 Peruvian bark. In still more elevated regions, 
 Esccdlonia and Calceolarice give a novel aspect to a 
 vegetation otherwise very sinular to that of Europe 
 in its general character, and containing saxifrages, 
 gentians, and many -other plants of genera common 
 in the old world. The' flora of Chm presents also 
 some irfteresting points of resemblance to that of 
 New HoUand and New Zealand. An Araucaria, 
 now not unfrequent in our pleasure-grounds, appears 
 as a representative of the pines ; and its seeds 
 afford a large part of the food of the natives of the 
 district in, which it abounds. Towards the Strait 
 of Magellan, vegetation again assumes forms more 
 similar to those of Europe. The forests consist in 
 great paxt of peculiar species of beech. Barberries, 
 different from those of other parts of the world, but 
 very nearly resembling, them, are particularly abun- 
 dant; and \pith them occur brambles, saxifrages,^ 
 gentians, primroses, &c. There are also vegetable 
 productions very different and peculiar, as the 
 "Wihter's bark, which has obtained some reputation 
 as a medicine. From this region are derived not a 
 few of the fuchsias now so familiar an ornament 
 of gardens, greenhouses, and cottage windows in 
 Britain, and which are exclusively American. 
 
 Maize is one of the most important of the botanical 
 productions of A. It is the only cultivated grain of 
 American origin; it was in ciitivation before the 
 discovery of A. by Europeans, by whom, however, 
 its value was soon recognised, and it has now become 
 an important crop in climates suitable for it in aU 
 quarters of the world. The other grains have all 
 been introduced into A. by Europeans, with the 
 sugar-cane, iihe banana and plantain, coffee, cotton, 
 flax, and many other plants now generally cultivated 
 both in the tropical and temperate regions. The 
 yam is regarded as amongst its native productions, 
 common to its tropical regions with those of other 
 quarters of the world. Tobacco is a native produc- 
 tion of A., the cultivation and use of which extended 
 from it to the old world, and rapidly became pre- 
 valent among a great part of mankind. (It is indeed 
 supposed by some that there is a species of tobacco 
 indigenous to the furthest east; but this, aind the 
 question of its use there before it was made known 
 .from A, are sjiill involved in uncertainty.) But of all 
 the vegetable productions of A., the potato is the 
 most important and useful. We owe to it also the 
 Jerusalem artichoke ; and it produces several other 
 plants, valuable for their roots and tubers, as the 
 arracacha, the meUoco, &c., the use of which has 
 scarcely yet extended beyond their native regions. 
 With them may be mentioned the quinoa, which is 
 not a grain (the seed of a grass), but the seed of a 
 species of Ghmopodium, or goosefoot, resembling the' 
 seeds of the cereal grasses in its qualities, and exten- 
 sively cultivated on the high table-lands of Chili and 
 Peru. Tapioca, arrow-root, cocoa, vanilla, pimenta 
 or Jamaica pepper, and Cayenne peppej:, are among 
 tlie native productibns of the tropical parts' of A. 
 The Agave (q. v.) or American aloe, valuable both 
 for its fibre and its ^uice, has now become common 
 in the warm parts of Europe, and in similar climates 
 in other quarters of the globe. The ^ine-apple is a 
 native of tropical A, although now naturalised, or 
 nearly so, in other tropical regions. Tropical A. 
 and the West Indies produce aEo many other fine 
 fruits, among which are the guava, different species 
 of anona or custard-apple, and of granadiUa or pas- 
 
 204 
 
 sion-flower.— The forests of North A. yield much 
 valuable timber, chiefly consisting of different kinds 
 of gak and pine. The black walnut and hickory of 
 the United States are also much esteemed. The 
 West Indies and neighbouring parts-of the mainland 
 yield mahogany; and from the same regions comes 
 logwood, one of the Inost useful of dyewoods. The 
 tropical forests of South A. produce many valuable 
 timber-trees, of which perhaps the most desefving 
 of notice are the Greenheart (q. v.) or Bibiri, and 
 the Mora. Brazil wood and Pernambuoo wood are 
 among their dyewoods. One of the most remarkable 
 productions of this region is the Cow-tree_(q. v.), the 
 juice of which possesses many pi?operties in cominon 
 with milk, and is used instead of it. The milky 
 juice of some other trees of tropical A. thickens into 
 caoutchouc. — Different parts of South A. produce 
 Mats (q. V.) or Paraguay Tea, a_^ species of holly, the 
 leaves of which possess properties similar to those of 
 tea and coffee, 'and afford a beverage which is exten- 
 sively used, although not yet an article of export to 
 other parts of the world; and the Coca (q. v.), a 
 shrub of which the leaf has been, from a remote 
 period, employed by the Indians as a narcotic. 
 'Zoology. — In the animal kingdom, as in the 
 vegetable, all seemed strange and new to Europeans 
 when they first set foot in America. Yet here also 
 the difference froin the productions of Europe is not 
 so great as in South Africa or Austraha. In North 
 A., many of the animals, as of the plants, of Europe 
 are represented by others of the same genera or 
 families. 'A few are common to the old and the 
 new world ; and in some which are now regarded 
 as specifically different, the difference is not so great 
 as readily to attract the notice of unscientific 
 observers. North A. has its elk and its deers, its 
 oxen (the bison, called buffalo in the United States, 
 and* the musk-ox), its sheep (the Eocky Mountain 
 sheep), its beavers, hares, squirrels (some of them 
 much sought after for their fur), mice, rats, weasels, 
 bats, porcupines, bears, badgers, foxes, wolves, and 
 several species offehne animals, among which are 
 the puma and the lynx; The jaguar, more power- 
 ful and dtogerouB than any otiher of the feline 
 animals of the new world, and the only very for- 
 midable beast of prey which it produces, inhabits 
 the tropical forests of South A The warm parts of 
 South A. produce the great tapir, peccaries, sloths, 
 ant-eaters, armadHloes, &c. ; but the elephant, 
 rhinoceros, hippopotamus, and boar of the old 
 world, have no more nearly aUied' representatives. 
 The lama and its congeners, among which is the 
 alpaca, are peculiar to South A., inhabiting the 
 Andes of Chili and Peru. Of the animals of the old 
 world, the most nearly allied to them is the camel, 
 which is entirely wanting in the new ; as was also 
 the horse (with all its congeners), until it was 
 introduced by Europeans — a sight of wonder and 
 of terror to the Mexicans and Peruvians 'who first 
 found themselves opposed to Spanish cavalry, but 
 now thoroughly naturalised, and roaming in vast 
 muljiitudes on the South American plains. 'The dog 
 existed in A. before the days of Columbus; it existed' 
 in f different varieties as a domesticated animal, and 
 the same difficulty arises concerning the origin of 
 the domesticated varieties as when thpse of the 
 old world alone are considered. The chinchilla, so 
 valuable for its fur, is a small quadruped, peculiar to 
 the north of ChUi. The opossums of North A. were 
 the first known of marsupial quadrupeds — ^i. e., 
 those which have a pouch for their young — and are 
 described as objects of great curiosiiy by the- earlier 
 writers on the new world and its productions. 
 Monkeys are numerous in the warm parts of the 
 new world as well as of the old, and of many 
 species ; but they are not only of different species 
 
AMERICA, 
 
 from those of Asia and Africa ; they form a different 
 section of the monkey family. There are no apes 
 resembling the orang-outang or chimpanzee, and no 
 baboons; but all of the American monkeys have 
 long tails, and many of them prehensile tails, the 
 latter peculiarity being found in none of those of the 
 old world. The absence w cheek-pouohes is another 
 character of the American monkeys. 
 
 Among the birds of A. are eagles and others of 
 the same family, vultures (among which is the great 
 condor df the Andes), owls, ravens, crows, herons, 
 thrushes of many kinds (of which the mocking-bird 
 may be mentioned as a speciSs pai^icularly interest- 
 ing), finches, sparrows, buntings, warblers, wrens, 
 larks, &c. Few, however, are identical in species 
 with those of Europe or of Asia. Few things in the 
 natural history of North A. are more remarkable 
 than its multitudinous flocks of pigeons. There are 
 nimierous species of grouse and partridge. Of the large 
 
 fallinaceous birds, the first place m importance must 
 e assigned to the turkey, now so c'oromon in a 
 domesticated state in Europe, although ia a wild 
 state it has almost disappeared from great part of 
 its native regions. Aleotors and curassoes are large 
 gallinaceous birds of Mexico, Guiana, and other warm 
 parts of A. Parrots abound iu the tropical forests, 
 and although only one species extends northward 
 .into the United States, yet in South A., birds of 
 this family range to the southern extremity of the 
 continent. Humming-birds are peculiar to A., and 
 are found not only in its tropical but in its tei^perate 
 regions, of numerous species, and many o^ them of 
 dazzling beauty, passing like bees from flowed to 
 flower, and often constituting a charact&istic feature 
 of the scenes in which they abound. Toucans and 
 aracaria are among the other kinds of birds peculiar 
 to A., and are found iu South A. alone. Swans, 
 
 fsese, and ducks, with other waterfow;l of many 
 inds, exist in great numbers^ in North A., and in 
 the warmer parts the brilliant dolours of the flamingo 
 enliven some of the coasts. 
 
 ' Serpents are numerous. Among them are boas, 
 remarkable for their great size. Rattlesnakes, the 
 most venomous and dreaded of the serpent tribe, 
 are peculiar to A. AUigators abound in the 
 rivers of the tropical and sub-tropical re^ous. 
 Turtles- are caught in great numbers in the West 
 Indian seas, and fresh-water turtle abound in some 
 of "the tropical rivers. The bull-frog is a native of 
 the United Stetes, remarkable for the loud nois^ 
 which it makes, and which those who have been 
 accustomed to it from their childhood learn to 
 associate with all that is pleasant in nature. The lakes 
 and rivers of A. abound in fish, of which many are 
 of the salmon family, the common salmon itself beiug 
 _foui>d as far south as 41° it. lat., and some are of the 
 sturgeon family. The cod-fisheries of the Bank of 
 Newfoundland and of the coasts of Nova Scotia are 
 imequaUed in productiveness ; and herrings, and 
 other species of the herring family, are taken iu 
 great numbers in the same seas. 
 
 Some parts of A. are grievously iufested by mos- 
 quitoes and other insect tribes, the vast numbers of 
 which are extremely annoying, so that some places 
 on the banks of tropical rivers are rendered almost 
 uninhabitable. Ants and teinnites, or white ants, 
 are very abundant in some parts of South A. Many' 
 species of wild bees are found in' the forests of Brazil, 
 some of them very productive of honey; but the 
 common hive-bee was unknown in A. till it was 
 introduced from Europe. It has now become natiu:- 
 alised, and is found m the forests far beyond the 
 settlements of white men. The cochineal insect of 
 the opuntia is a native of Mexico and Central A., 
 and'the plant on which it feeds has long been culti- 
 vated there and in the West Indies for its sake. , i 
 
 PoKtical Divisions. — The following are the chief 
 
 Eblitical divisions of America, each of which will 
 e described in its proper place. In North A., 
 strictly so- called, are Russian A., British A. as 
 commonly understood, the United States, and part 
 of Mexico. In Central A. are the remainder of 
 Mexico, Central A., in its political sense, compris- 
 ing Guatemala, San Salvador, Hondiu-as, Nicaragua, 
 and Costa Rica ; and, lastly, a small portion of 
 New Granada. In South A. are the rest of New 
 Granada; thence along the Pacific are Ecuador, 
 Peru, Chili, and aborigiaal Araucania; whUe round 
 by Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, the Atlantic 
 washes Buenos Ayres, Uruguay, Brazil, Guiana, 
 and Venezuela — the iaterior being occupied by 
 Bohvia, Paraguay, and the Argentine Confederatioh. 
 Finally, the W est Indies consist of the Bahamas, 
 the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles. 
 
 The annexed tables, from the American Almanac 
 for 1859, give the states of America, with their areas 
 and populations. 
 
 1. Governments of North America. 
 
 
 Area in 
 
 
 
 GoTernmenta. 
 
 Square 
 Milea. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 DaniBh Ateei-icacGreenlnd) 
 
 380,000 
 
 9,400 
 
 Lichtenfels. 
 
 French Possessions, 
 
 ' 118 
 
 200 
 
 St Pierre. 
 
 Russian America, . 
 
 394,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 N. Archangel. 
 
 New Britain, -i 
 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 ■ 180,000 
 
 YorkB'actory. 
 
 Canada West, 
 
 
 147,832 
 
 999,«47 
 
 1 Toronto. 
 Quebec. 
 
 Canada East, 
 
 m 
 
 201,989 
 
 890,261 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 lis -j 
 
 27,700 
 
 200,000 
 
 Frederickton. 
 
 Nova Scotia, &.c.j 
 
 '& 
 
 18,746 
 
 300,000 
 
 Halifax. 
 
 Prince Ed's. Isld., 
 
 p 2,134 
 
 62,348 
 
 CharlotteT'n. 
 
 Newfoundland, J 
 
 
 67,100 
 
 120,000 
 
 St John's. 
 
 British Oolumbia, 
 
 213,600 
 3,306,834 
 
 7,500 
 
 Ft. Langley. 
 
 United S, of America, 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 Washington. 
 
 United S. of Mexico, 
 
 1,038,866 
 
 7,200,000 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 San Salvador, 
 
 9,600 
 
 450,000 
 
 Cojutepeque. 
 
 Nicaragua, 
 
 44,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 Granada. 
 
 Honduras, . 
 
 63,000 
 
 380,000 
 
 Comagagua. 
 
 Guatemala, . . 
 
 59,000 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 N.Guatemala 
 
 Costa Rica, 
 
 25,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 San Jos6. 
 
 Mosquitia, 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 Blewfields. 
 
 Honduras (Brit, colony). 
 
 
 11,066 
 
 BaUze. 
 
 Total, . 
 
 
 7,779,218 
 
 "35(774,498 
 
 2. West Indian Governments. 
 
 
 Area in 
 
 
 
 GovernmentB. 
 
 Square 
 Uilci. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Hayti, 1 San f Rep,. 
 Dominica, / ^^^go. ■^ ^gp. 
 
 ■ 11,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 Cape Hayt'n. 
 
 18,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 San Domingo. 
 
 Por't^'RiccJSP-'^^'l 
 
 48,383 
 
 ,1,007,624 
 
 Havana. 
 
 3,865 
 
 600,000 
 
 San Juan. 
 
 SS, l'^--"'*' I 
 
 5,468 
 
 ,S79,690 
 
 Spanish Town 
 
 2,000 
 
 60,319 
 
 Puerta d'Esp. 
 
 Windward Islands— 
 
 
 
 Bridgetown. 
 
 Barhadoes, . 
 
 166 
 
 135,939 
 
 It 
 
 Grenada, &c.. 
 
 . 155 
 
 28,923 
 
 
 St Vincent, 
 
 131 
 
 27,248 
 
 Kingston. 
 
 Tobago, . 
 
 - 187 
 
 13,208 
 
 Scarbor5'. 
 
 St Lucia, . 
 
 ' 226 
 
 24,500 
 
 Castries. 
 
 Leeiuard Islands— 
 
 
 
 St John's. 
 
 Antigua,' . . .« , 
 
 168 
 
 36,178 
 
 If 
 
 Montserrat, 
 
 49 
 
 7,365 
 
 ^ 
 
 St Christphr. & Anguilla, 
 
 103 
 
 24,508 
 
 Basseterre. 
 
 Nevis, 
 
 30 
 
 10,200 
 
 Charlestown. 
 
 Virgin Islands, . 
 
 137 
 
 4,027 
 
 
 Dominica, 
 
 291 
 
 22,469 
 
 Rosseau. 
 
 Bahama Islands, 
 
 5,422 
 
 27,519 
 
 Nassau. 
 
 Turk's Island, 
 
 400 
 
 3,400 
 
 
 Bermuda Inlands, 
 
 47. 
 
 14,000 
 
 Hamilton. 
 
 Guadalupe, &o., 1 jS ( 
 
 534 
 
 134,644 
 
 Basseterre. , 
 
 Martinique, » > S < 
 StMaitin'aN.Side, )^ ( 
 
 322 
 
 - 121,146 
 
 Port Royal. 
 
 21 
 
 2,200 
 
 
 St Martin's S. Sd. (Dutoi), 
 
 11 
 
 3,500 
 
 
 
 580 
 
 26,311 
 
 Wilhemstadt. 
 
 Santa Cruz, &o., ) j ( 
 
 81 
 
 36,000 
 
 Christ'nstadt. 
 
 St Thomas, .* }■§< 
 
 37 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 St John's, . )i[ 
 
 72 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 S tB artholomew's (Swedish) 
 Total, . 
 
 25 
 
 9,000 
 
 La Carenage. 
 
 91,910 
 
 3,669,817 
 
AMERICA, BRITISH— AMERICANISMS. 
 
 3. Governments of South, America. 
 
 GoT«nim«ntB. 
 
 Areaia 
 
 Fopulation. 
 
 Capitolfl. 
 
 Venezuela, Republic, 
 Ecuador, do. 
 Bolivia, do. 
 Peru, do. 
 Chili, do. 
 Granadian Confederatn, 
 Argentine Confederation 
 Buenos A}Tes, Republic, 
 Uruguay, The Oriental I 
 Republic of, . / 
 Paraguay, Republic, . 
 Brazil, Empire of, . 
 Guiana fBritiah), 
 Guiana (Butch), 
 Guiana (French), 
 Patagoma, 
 Falkland islands. 
 
 Total, . 
 Grand total of America, 
 
 416,600 
 325,000 
 374,480 
 580,000 
 170,000 
 380,000 
 927,000 
 , 60,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 ' 74,000 
 
 2,300^000 
 
 76,000 
 
 38,500 
 
 21,500 
 
 380,000 
 16,000 
 
 1,336,000 
 
 665,000 
 
 1,650,000 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 1,439,120 
 
 2,363,000 
 
 874,000 
 
 . 360,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 600,000 
 
 7,677,800 
 
 127,695 
 
 64,270 
 
 30,000 
 
 120^000 
 
 500 
 
 Caraooaa. 
 
 ftuito. 
 
 Chuquisaca. 
 
 Lima. 
 
 Santiago. 
 
 StaF«deBog. 
 
 Parana. 
 
 BuenosAyres. 
 
 Montevideo. 
 
 Asuncion. 
 Rio deJaneiio 
 Georgetown. 
 Paramaribo. 
 Cayenne. 
 
 Port Louis. 
 
 6,259,080 
 
 19,967,385 
 
 14,130,208 
 
 59,411,700 
 
 AMERICA, Beitish. Erom tte small beginnings 
 specified in the general article above, British A., 
 in the proper sense of the words, is now, in mere 
 extent, at least equal to the American Republic, and 
 vastly superior to any othfr state in the -western 
 hemisphere — occupying, as it does, a breadth of 
 about 90° of long., and stretching, -with more or less 
 interruption, over a length of 120°. Besides touch- 
 ing, actually or virtual^, every considerable power 
 on thp continent, England, in the new world as in 
 thft old, commands nearly every turning-point in 
 navigation and commerce. In co-operation with 
 Ireland, Newfoundland is ready to li n k together liie 
 two continents by a suTjmarine telegraph. Again, 
 with the gulf and river of St Lawrence as its main 
 artery, British A., in. its ordinary acceptation, com- 
 prising Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward 
 Island, and the Canadas, has received from nature 
 an advantage in respect of the western trade, which 
 even the energy of Pennsylvania and New York 
 cannot counten)alance ; Halifax, the Bennudas, and 
 the Bahamas, are so many guardians of the gulf- 
 stream, freighted, as it is, with the exports of half 
 a continent. Jamaica forms the first link of a 
 chain which girds the Caribbean sea; Trinidad" fronts 
 the Orinqco, which is connected by the Cassiquiare 
 with the Amazon ; Western Guiana, also, as already 
 mentioned under another head, finds, up the Esse- 
 quibo, its own communication with the 'King of 
 Waters ; ' and, lastly, at least on the Atlantic side, the 
 Ealklan(fc, with their Port Egmont, flank aUke the 
 river Plate and the Strait of Magellan. Round, again, 
 in the Pacific, British A. exerts an influence which, 
 if absolutely less,' is perhaps relatively greater. At 
 the upper extremity of a ooast, wMch, in spite of 
 some splendid exceptions, is, as a whole, singularly 
 deficient in harbours. New Columbia, with its breast- 
 work of islands from Vaijcouver's upwards, and its 
 succession of indentations or arms of the sea, bids 
 fair, more especially with its inexhaustible 'supplies 
 of magnificent timber, to become a congenial base 
 of operations for sustaining the maritime greatness 
 of Britain. 
 
 AMERICA, RtJSSlAir.— Russian A. is the remotest 
 portion of the new world, being bounded, on the 
 side of British A., above, between the two bordering 
 oceans, by the meridian of 141° W., and below, down 
 to the parallel of 54° 40' N., by a conventional line 
 to be drawn at a distance of 30 miles from the con- 
 tinental coast. It was discovered by a Russian expedi- 
 tion conducted by Behring (q. v.), which sailed from 
 Kamtchatka in 1741. It is Ettle better than a vast 
 " hunting-ground, having, in this aspect, been long hel4 
 by the Imperial Fur Company, which differs, iowever, 
 but little from, the imperial government itself. Its 
 
 only town, or rather village, worthy of the name, is 
 New Archangel, on the iSand of Sitka. The most 
 noticeable points in geography are Cape Prince of 
 Walps, on Behring's Strait; Kotzebue's Sound abov^; 
 and below,' again, Norton Sound, Bristol Bay, penin- 
 sula of Alaska, Cooli's Inlet, and Mount St Elias. 
 
 AMERICA, Spaotsh. — Spanish A., shrunk, as it 
 is. Into Porto Bico and Cuba, now belongs rather 
 to history than to geography. For many yeairs_ it 
 embraced absolutely the entire continent, having 
 in 1580 absorbed Brazil, as Spain itself absorbed 
 Portugal, at a date prior to the intrusion of any 
 othei" European settlement. But, boundless as it 
 was, it contained, from the beginning, the seeds of 
 its ultimate ancj irremediable decay. The colonists, 
 as" hunters after the precious metals, disdaiuedJihat 
 steady industry, which, to their English competitors, 
 was a necessary of life ; while the mother country, by 
 rigorously excluding all but its own actual natives 
 from public employments, did nothing to jffepare its 
 dependencies for the rational use of that independ- 
 ence which was sure at last to come. At the same 
 time, those very circumstances did tend to prcdong 
 the subjection of Spanish A. ; for the colonies found 
 their first motive for rebellion in their fideUty to 
 their sovereign, throwing off the yoke of Spain 
 primarily dn account of Napoleon*s seizure of 
 Ferdinand VII. Similarly, Brazil, as the chosen 
 shelter of its sovereign from French domination, 
 remained faithful to the House of Braganza. 
 
 AMB'RICANISMS are words and phrases current 
 in the United States of America, and not current in ' 
 England. These peculiarities are much more promi- 
 nent in conversation than in vraiting ; indeed, in the 
 American writers that are usually considered classi- 
 cal, it is difficult to detect anything of the kind. 
 The number of absolutely new words introduced 
 into the English language in America is remarkably 
 smaU. As, an instance may be mentioned cavais, 
 for a secret political assembly. This is a corruption 
 of calh-house, a caJker's died in Boston, where 
 the patriots before the revolution had' usually 
 held their meetings. The term Yankee (an Indian 
 corruption of the French Anglais) is another. The 
 great body of A. consist in giving an unusual sense 
 to existing word? : as dever, in the sense of amiable,, 
 and smart for clever ; wagon for a very light kind 
 of carriage ; booh-store for bookseller's shop ; imlted 
 for withered; creek for a small river, instead of a 
 small arm of the sea. 
 
 The several divisions of the Union have tneir 
 characteristic peculiarities. Thus, in the New 
 England States — Yankeeland proper — ugly is used 
 for iU-natured; friends for relations (so used also 
 in Scotland) ; and gv£ss for a great variety of things 
 — ^to think, presume, suppose, &c. This use of guess 
 is confined to New England; the inhabitants of Nev 
 York and of the Middle States generally Employ 
 expect in the same way ; while those of the Southern 
 States reckon; and those of the Western States 
 calculate. Several words current in , the Middle 
 States are of Dutch origin, as loafer for a vaga- 
 bond, from the Dutch loopen, to run ; and boss 
 for a head workman or employer. The Southern 
 States have fewer peculiarities than any of Hhe 
 other divisions. In the Western States, again; there 
 is hardly any recognised standard of speech, and in 
 some districts 'it would hardly be an exaggeration to 
 say that every prominent person lias his own private 
 vockbiikry.' The verb, to fix is made to do duty for 
 expressing every conceivable kind of action. The 
 vague use of thisTvord is common all over the Union, 
 but ui the West the abuse is carried to the extreme. 
 Help, in the sense of servant, is common to -the 
 West and to New England, but is nearly unknown 
 
AMEBIGO VESPUCCI— AMEESFOORT. 
 
 in the Middle States. The well-known {phrase 
 go a-head is a coinage of the West ; it is sufficiently 
 expressive of the leading characteristic of' the 
 American people. PostM-up in a subject, for 
 ' well informed, is one of a class of metaphors indic- 
 ative of the prominence of mercantile pmsuits. 
 
 The tendency to the use of slang is excessive m 
 America, especially in the Western States. ' Every 
 state, every city has its own flash vocabulary; but 
 it is in the political world that this tendency to 
 cant phrases most develops itself. Every new 
 party, every new modification of an old party, is 
 bound to have at least one new naane, either assumed 
 \sy itself, or attached to it by its opponents.' 
 
 A variety of causes have been enumerated to 
 account for the existence of those deviations from 
 standard English, such as, the influence of the 
 Inidian languages; the various tongues sp6ken by 
 settlers from Europe other than English ; the origi- 
 nal provincial peculiarities of portions of the English 
 settlerB, &c. But even supposing the language of^ 
 the United States were at this moment in every 
 respect identical with that of England, and f he 
 henceforth unaffected by the importation of foreign 
 elements, the complete identity could not be ex- 
 pected to continue long. Not only do new circum- 
 stances and wants make new terms necessary, and 
 modify the application of old, but those changes 
 of stracture which constitute the organic growth of 
 every living tongue, are evolved more or less rapidly 
 according to the industrial and political activity of 
 those that speak it. To complain, then, that the 
 English language in America, or in any of the British 
 colonies, should exhibit deviations from the standard 
 of the mother country, is as imreasonable as to 
 complain that an anim^ should exhibit changes in 
 its coat or its habits when removed from one 
 climate to another. Nothing is more desirable for 
 the interests of humanity than that the language 
 spoken by all the sections of the great Anglo-Saxon 
 race should continue to be substantially one. All 
 wanton innovations are to be reprobated'; but when 
 a great and diversified cominunity adopt generally 
 any new term or mode of expression, it is to be 
 presumed that the cause lies deeper than any that 
 can be controlled by .criticism. 
 
 As the Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin do not 
 exceed one-third of the vmole population of the 
 United States, it seems wonderful that tile English 
 language should have held its ground so well— that 
 it should not have /been completely corrupted, or 
 even in some places extruded by other tongues. Yet 
 there is apparently no danger of this. The original 
 Dutch of New jfork has disappeared, with the 
 exception of a very few stray words ; and although 
 French is still spoken in one-halE of the city of New 
 Orleans, it has been preserved at the expense of the 
 speakers isolating themselves and losing their due 
 'influence. The same is the case viith those islands 
 of Germauispeaking population that still hold out 
 in Pennsylvania and dsewhere ; and, what is remark- 
 able, the proximity of these Germans has no sen- 
 sible efieet upon the language of their English- 
 speaking neighbours ; while, on the other hand, 
 the influence of the Ikghsh is reducing the language 
 of the Germans to a corrupt patois, swarming with 
 English words. See The EngUsh Language in 
 America, in the Cambridge Essays for 1855; also 
 Barfclett's Dictionary of Americamsms, New York, 
 new ed. 1858. 
 
 AMERI'GO VBSPU-'CCI, a naval astronomer, 
 from whom America accidentally received its name, 
 was bom at Florence, March 9, 1451. His father 
 was a notary. The educati6n of A. was intrusted 
 to his uncje, Giorgio Ajitonio Vespucci,, a monk 
 and app^rentiy a man of superior- enlightenment. 
 
 The youth made but indifierent progress in his 
 Latin ^ammar, though he shewed great aptitude 
 and liking for natural philosophy, astronomy, and 
 geography — at that period, favourite objects of 
 study, on account of their commercial importance. 
 It is not precisely ascertained when he first went 
 to Spain. We find him there, however, in 1486, 
 engaged in mercantile pursuits. He was at the 
 head of a large Florentine firm in Seville in 1496, 
 when Columbus was making preparations for a 
 second voyage to thtf new world. The success of 
 the great discoverer inflamed A. with a passion for 
 discovery, and ha,ving abandoned ' business,' he 
 sailed from Cadiz on the 20th May 1499, in the 
 expedition commanded by Admiral Hojeda, and, 
 after a voyage of thirty-seven days, arrived at that 
 portion of the coni^ent of America now called 
 Cumana, explored the Bay of Paria, lying between 
 the isle of Trinidad and the mainland, and some 
 hundreds of nules along the coast. He returned in 
 the autumn, of the same year, but commenced a 
 second voyage under Admiral Pinzon in December, 
 which resulted in the, discovery of a crowd of small 
 islands on the south of the Gulf of Mexico. He 
 was now aUuied by promises into the service of 
 Emanuel, Ving of Portugal, and undertook two 
 other voyages with Portugues? ships; the first 
 on the 10th of May 1501, and the second on the 
 10th of May 1503. His •purpose was to sail west- 
 ward, in hopes of discovering a passage to Malacca, 
 the extreme point of discovery in the east. He losti 
 one of his ships ; ajid it was only after encoimter- 
 ing great perils that the other five found refuge in 
 AU Saints' Bay, on the coast of Bra41. The monarch 
 gave orders that some remains of the ship Victoria, 
 in which A. made his last voyage, should be sus- 
 pended in the ^ cathedral of Lisbon, but fulfilled 
 none of the promises which he had made. A. con- 
 sequently returned to Spain, and in the year 1508 
 succeeded in obtaining the office of piloto-major. 
 He died at Seville on the 22d of February 1512. 
 
 The character of A. V. has-been covered vpith 
 a great deal of unmerited obloquy. He has been 
 accused of endeavouring to claim th'e honour of 
 discoveries which he never made, and has been 
 commonly regarded as an unprincipled adventurer. 
 Humboldt, however, has successfully vnwEcated 
 him from such aspersions. He had a very consi- 
 derable knowledge of various branches of science, 
 and it was on account of his superior attainments 
 in these that he was selected to accompany the 
 expeditions as naval astronomer. He was a 
 prompt and skilful inspector of the commissariat 
 while imder his control ; vigorous, practical, and 
 severe in ,his demands for increased knowledge on 
 the part of the naval functionaries under him ; 
 an earnest navigator and close friend of Columbus 
 in the last years of the great admiral's Hfe. How 
 America came to receive its name from bim is not 
 quite clear ; but it is certain, from Humboldt's inves- 
 tigation, that A. himself had nothing to do with it. 
 The name of the new world probably came from 
 Germany. A selection from A's narrative of his 
 American voyages found its way into that country. 
 Martin Waldseemiiller of Freiburg in Baden traiis- 
 lated it for a bookseller of St Diez in Lorraine. As 
 the first acooimt of the wonderful discovery, it was 
 greedily devbured. Edition after edition was printed 
 off, and, according to Humboldt, it was Wald- 
 seemiiller who proposed that the new world should 
 be called America in honour of the author. After- 
 wards, this name was genejrally employed by 
 geographical writers, and even the Spaniards and 
 Portuguese adopted it. 
 
 A'MERSPOORT, an ancient' town of the Nether- 
 lands, province of Utrecht. It is situated on the 
 
 ao7 
 
AMETHYST— AMMANATE. 
 
 Eem, vrhich flows into the Zuiderzee. There are 
 several tobaoco-plalitations in the district, and a 
 considerable trade is carried on both in cotton and 
 wooUen goods, and in such, articles as com "and 
 dried herrings. It conunimicates with Amsterdam, 
 from which it is distant 24 miles, by means of 
 barges. A. has ^a Jansenist college and a court of 
 justice. It received municipal privileges in 1259. 
 It was captured in 1483 by the Archduke Maxi- 
 milian, in 1672 by Montecuouli, and in 1785 by the 
 French. Pop. 13,000. 
 
 A'METHYST, a variety of quartz (q. v.),'dififering 
 from common quartz and rock-crystal chiefly in its 
 beautiful violet-blue or purplish violet colour — yell 
 known as amethystine — which is owing to the pre- 
 sence of a httle peroxide of iron or of manganese. 
 It is, one of the most esteemed varieties of quartz, 
 and is much employed for seals, rings, &c., although, 
 being comparatively abimdant, it is much inferior 
 in price to the true gems. An amethystine tinge is 
 frequently to be observed in specimens of quartz, 
 which yet are not perfect A. The tinge is often 
 very faint, and is frequently confined to the sum- 
 mits or edges of the crystals. The finest specimens 
 of A. are brought from India, Ceylon, and Brazil. 
 It is, however, a common mineral in Europe, and 
 occurs in many parts of Scotland. It frequently 
 occurs lining the ihterior of balls or geodes of agatg, 
 and in veins and cavities in greenstone aind other 
 rocks. The ancients imagined it to possess the 
 property of preventing dntoxication, and persons 
 much addicted to drinking therefore wore it on 
 their necks. The name is derived from a Greek 
 word which signifies unintomcated. — Not to be 
 •confounded with this mineral is that sometimes 
 •called the oriental A., which is a variety of spinel 
 (q. V.) having an amethystine colour, and is a very 
 valua,ble gem. — False amethysts made .of glass or 
 paste are very common, >ind in general very coarse ; 
 but a very perfect imitation can be, and some- 
 times is made. 
 
 A'MHERST, a sea-port of Tenasserim, on the 
 E. shore of the Bay of Bengal, in lat. 16° 4' N., 
 and long. 97° 40' E., at the entrance of the 
 Martaban or Saluen. In 1826, the province having 
 been newly ceded by the Burmese, A. was founded, 
 after a special survey of all the available sites, as 
 the commercial capital, being named after the then 
 governor-general of India, and proclaimed to be an 
 asylum for the neighbouring Peguers, still subject to 
 Burmah; but policy, prestige, and foresight alike 
 have in some measure failed ; for the harbour, other- 
 wise commodious enough, labours under two serious 
 defects — difficulty of access, and exposure to the 
 south-west monsoon. Even in trade, A. has been 
 distanced by Moulmein, selected at first merely to 
 be the military station of the territory. Its exports, 
 however, are said to be considerable, consisting 
 chiefly of teak from the upper basin of the river, 
 and partly of grain from Belu, an island at its 
 mouth. 
 
 A'MHERSTBUBG, a town on the river Detroit, 
 which empties Lake St Clair into Lake Erie. It is 
 one of the oldest settlements in Upper Canada, being 
 named from Lord Amherst, who, by the capture of 
 Montreal in 1760, completed'what General Wolfe had 
 begun at Quebec in 1759. It occupies the south-west 
 extremity of the province, the turning-point of climate 
 and character to the basin of the St Lawrence, the 
 spot where its waters, after having gained southing 
 from the 50th to the 42d parallel, suddenly assume 
 a direction which pretty .uniformly carries them 
 back to their original latitude above the island of 
 Anticosti. Pop. 1300. 
 
 AMI'DOGEN is a, substance procured by the 
 
 action of the metal potassium on dry gaseous 
 ammonia. The latter contains one atom of nitrogen 
 to three atoms of hydrogen (NH3), whilst A. 
 contains one to two (NH,). A. forms a very import- 
 ant class of organic compounds called amides, and 
 gives rise to a number of substances closely aUied 
 to the alkaloids, many of which, indeed, may be 
 regarded as natural amides. 
 
 AMIEIf S, an ancient city in the plain of Picardy, 
 and capital of the department of Somme ; it is the 
 seat of a bishop and of a court of justice, and 
 has a citadel and fortifications. It possesses a 
 college, an academy, a theological seminary, an 
 industrial school, a school of medicine, a public 
 library, a picture-gallery, a botanical garden, and 
 several literary and scientific institutions. Among 
 its public buildings, the cathedral is a, nolile 
 edifice, bmlt in 1220, and esteemed a master- 
 piece of Gothic architecture. Peter the Hermit 
 was bom here. A. has considerable manufactures 
 of velvet, silk) wpoUen, and cotton goods, ribbons, 
 and carpets. But the, place owes its celebrity chiefly 
 to the ' Peace of A.,' a treaty signed in this city, 
 March 27, 1802, by Joseph Bonaparte, the Marquis 
 of CornwalKs, Azara, and Schimmelpenuint, and 
 intended to settle the disputed points between 
 England, ^ranoe, Spain, and Holland. By this 
 treaty, - England.' retained possession of Ceylon 
 and Trinidad, and an Open port at the Cape of 
 Good Hope ; France received back her colonies ; 
 the repubhc of the Seven Islands was recognised ; 
 Malta was restored to the order of the Knights of St 
 John; Spain and Holland regained their colonieSj 
 with the exception of Trinidad and Ceylon; the 
 French were to quit Rome, Naples, and Elba ; and 
 Turkey was restored to its integrity as before the ■ 
 war. These terms were not received with any 
 degree of satisfaction by the English, and further 
 difficulties arising, through the ainbition and obstin- 
 acy of the French, the peace was dissolved, and war 
 declared against Bonaparte in 1803. 
 
 AMLETH, or HAMLETH, Prmce of Jutland, is 
 said to have lived in the 2d c. B. c. ■. According to - 
 Saxo-Grammaticu3,»he was the son of/ Horvendill 
 and Gerutha ; and after the murder of his father by 
 his uncle Fengo, who married Gerutha, he feigned 
 himself a fool, to save his own life. Saxo relates a 
 riimiber of little things regarding A., which are a 
 curious medley of sharp and lively observation, and 
 apparent madness. We are -told that, on one 
 occasion, when he visited his mother, suspecting 
 that he was watched, he commenced to crow like 
 a (J6ck and dance idiotically about the apartment, 
 until he discovered, hidden in a heap of straw, a 
 spy, in the person of one of Fengo's courtiers, whom 
 he immediately stabbed; he then so terrified his 
 mother by his reproaches, that- she promised to aid 
 him in his intended revenge on'his father's murderer, 
 and, according to the old chronicler, reaUy did so. 
 Scandinavian traditions confirm the existence of a 
 prince of this name. A field is still pointed out in 
 Jutland with a tomb bearing the name of A. In the 
 vicinity of Elsinore is shewn the spot where the father 
 of A. was assassinated. Saxo himself does not men- 
 tion the manner or circumstances of his death ; but 
 his French translator says that he was murdered at a 
 banquet. Most of the recent historians of Denmark 
 consider the history of A. f abuloiia, but MiiUer thinks 
 there is a substratum of fact in the old myth. It 
 is the source of Shakspeare's tragedy of Hamlet, 
 and thus possesses a perennial interest for all .the 
 civBised world. 
 
 AMMAN A'TE, Baetoleme'o, architect and sculp- 
 tor, bom at Florence in 1511, died in 1592. He was 
 at first a pupil of Bacoio BandineUi, and afj;erwards 
 
AMMIANUS MAECELLINUS— AMMONIA. 
 
 of Sansovino at Venice. In 15S0, he mairied Laura 
 Battiferri of Urbino, a lady celebrated for her poetical 
 gifts. Pope Julius III. employed him in the decora- 
 tion of the Capitol, and Coamo de Medici appointed 
 him his architect. His principal works are, the 
 statues which adorn the tomb of Sannazar at Naples, 
 the tomb of Cardinal de Monti at Home, the bndge 
 of the Trinity and several fountains at Florence. 
 He also completed the Pitti Palace, commenced by 
 Brunelleschi, and ornamented the court with three 
 orders of columns, which were subsequently imitated 
 by J. de Brosse in the palace of the Luxembourg at 
 Paris. In the collection of architectural designs in the 
 Florence Gallery, there is one by A., exhibiting the 
 plans of different buildings, by which a city may be 
 rendered at once magniflcent and convenient. His 
 works have all a certain grandeur of character, 
 derived, probably, from his early admiration of 
 Michael Angelo, but are somewhat marred by a 
 quaint mannerism. His bronzes are executed with 
 great delicacy. 
 
 AMMIA'NUS MARCELLrNUS, aEoman his- 
 torian of the 4th c, was present in several campaigns 
 in Gaul, Germany, and the east, and afterwards 
 lived at Home, devoted to literature. Though a 
 Greek by birth, he wrote in Latin a history of the 
 Roman empire from 91 to 378 a.d., in 31 books, 
 of which 13, containing the years from 91 to 352, 
 are lost. This work, which commenced with the 
 accession of Nerva, may be regarded as a continuation 
 of Tacitus, a,nd though the portions remaining have 
 many faults of style, they are valuable on account 
 of the author's love of truth, his careful descriptions 
 of countries, and events from personal observation, 
 and especially his remarks on Germany. After his 
 time, Latin ceased to be employed by any Eoman 
 writer in the composition of secular history. The 
 best edition of A. M. is that by Wagner and Erfurdt, 
 in 3 vols. (Leip. 1808.) 
 
 AMMON, an Egyptian deity, styled Amun on 
 hieroglyphic monuments, was compared by the 
 Greeks with their supreme deity Zeus. The sacred 
 name of Thebes, A.'s city {' No-Ammon' in the Old 
 Testament), was therefore translated into Greek by 
 Diospohs. In the temples of this town, his peculiar 
 residence, A. is represented as sitting on a throne, 
 holding the symbols of life and power, and wearing 
 a crown with a peculiar ornament of two feathers, 
 and a band falling behind and hanging down to his 
 feet. He was especially the god of Thebes ; though 
 his temples are found in other places, as at MeroB, 
 and over the whole of Nubia and Libya. The name 
 Amun signifies the hidden, unrevealed deity, and, ,iu 
 Egyptian mythology, he held the highest place. His 
 undefined character may serve to explain how other 
 deities were identified with A. After the eighteenth 
 dynasty, we find in hieroglyphics the name Amun- 
 Ea frequently inscribed, indicating a blending of A. 
 with the sun-god Ea. Similarly, the representation 
 of A. with a ram's head shews the blending of liim 
 with Kneph. The worship of A. spread at an early 
 period to Greece, and afterwards to Eome, where he 
 was identified with Zeus and Jupiter. Temples for 
 his worship were erected in Thebes (Boeotia), Sparta, 
 Megalopolis, and other places. 
 
 AMMON, Chbis. Feed., a German theologian, 
 bom January 16, 1766, died May 21, 1850, is chiefly 
 known bjr his work on ihsDeBelopmmt of Christianity 
 as a Universal Religion (4 vols., Leip. 1833—1840), 
 in which he argues in favour of such liberal 
 development of doctrine as may keep theology in 
 harmony with the progress of science. A was a 
 leader of the Eationahst school. He was a man 
 of extensive learning, united with great industry 
 and earnestness, and was generally respected in 
 
 Saxony, where he resided.— His second son, Feed- 
 BEICK AuQUSTOS A., is Well known in Germany as 
 an able physician, and the writer of several works on 
 practical medicine and surgery. 
 
 AMMO'NIA Hartshorn, or the Volatile Alkali, 
 was one of the few substances known to the chemistry 
 of the ancients; being referred to by Pliny under the 
 name of vehement odowr, which he evolved by mixing 
 lime with nitrum (probably sal ammoniac). H 
 derives its name A. from its being obtained from sal 
 ammoniac, which was first procured by heating 
 camels' dung in Libya, near the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon. The atmosphere contains a minute quan- 
 tity of A, amounting to 210 — 237 parts in the 
 10,000,000,000 parts of air, which is equal to 1 
 volume of A. in 28,000,000 of air. It is likewise 
 present in rain-water in variable proportion. The 
 supply of A. to the atmosphere is its evolution 
 during the putrefaction of animal and vegetable 
 substances, during the vinous fermentation, and the 
 combustion of cod. It is likewise present in respired 
 air, and is therefore a product of tiie daily wear and 
 tear of the animal system. The principal source of A. 
 at the present time is the destructive distillation of 
 coal, as in gas-making. The materials which pass 
 over from the retort are partly uncondensable and 
 truly gaseous, and these are carried to our gas-jets, 
 and burned; but in other parts they are condens- 
 able, and are received during the purification of the 
 gas, as a mixed tarry and watery liquid. On allowing 
 this liquid to settle, the water portion, containing A., 
 can be separated, and, hydrochloric acid being added 
 to it, there is formed a compound of A and hydro- 
 chloric acid, called chloride of ammonium, which can 
 be obtained dry, by evaporating the solution down 
 in shallow vessels. Pure A. is manufactured from 
 this impure chloride of ammonium by mixing it with 
 its own weight of slaked lime in a retort, and apply- 
 ing a gentle heat, when the A. as a gas passes over, 
 and is received in a vessel containing water. The 
 solubility of A. in water is very great, I volume of 
 water dissolving 670 volumes of ammoniacal gas, 
 increasing in bulk, and forming a liquid (liquor 
 ammonice of the chemist, and hartshorn of the shops), 
 which is lighter than water, its density being 875. 
 The solution of A is transparent, colourless, and 
 strongly alkaline. In taste it is acrid caustic, and 
 in odour very pungent. AppKed to the skin ia a 
 concentrated form, it blisters. Exposed to the air, 
 the A. escapes, and the solution thus gets weaker, 
 and, reduced to —40'' F., it freezes. As generally 
 obtained, even in the gaseous condition, it is in com- 
 bination with the elements of 1 atom of water, and 
 contains 1 of nitrogen, 4 hydrogen, and 1 oxygen 
 (NH,0). Dry A. can be procured by passing the 
 vapour of A., as ordinarily obtained, over fused 
 chloride of calcium, when the water is abstracted, 
 and true gaseous A. is left, having the composition 
 1 nitrogen, and 3 hydrogen (NH^). Gaseous A. 
 can be liquefied under pressure and cold, and then 
 yields a colourless, clear, mobile liquid, with the 
 characteristic odour and other properties of A. much 
 intensified. A. combines with acids to form a class 
 of salts which are of considerable importance. Thus, 
 the crystallised sulphate of A. (H0,NH40S03) is 
 very extensively used as a top-dressing by farmers, 
 and is also mixed with manures where an increase of 
 ammoniacal matter is desirable. The chloride of 
 ammonium is also employed in agriculture ; likewise 
 largely by the Eussian peasantry, as a condiment for 
 flavouring food in place of common salt. 
 
 In medicine, the gaseous A. has been rarely used. 
 The solution of A. is employed as a means of rousing 
 the respiratory and vascular systems ; and of the 
 speedy alleviation of spasm. It is also used as a local 
 irritant and antacid. It is serviceable in dyspeptic 
 
 209 
 
AMMONIACUM— AMMONIUM. 
 
 complaints ■with preternatural acidity of stomach and 
 flatulence ; to produce local irritation or destruction 
 of certain parts, and to render comparatively harm- 
 less the bites of poisonous animals, such as serpents 
 and insects. 
 
 Ammonium is a hypothetical metal, which is said 
 to consist of 1 volume of nitrogen with 4 of hydro- 
 gen. It has never been produced in an isolated 
 state ; but a singular amalgam of A. and mercury 
 may be formed, by subjecting a globule of mercury, 
 surrounded by a httle water of anuuonia, to the 
 action of the galvanic current : when the galvanic 
 agency ceases, this amalgam is decomposed iato 
 mercury, ammonia, and water. A. may likewise be 
 prepared by acting on an amalgam of sodium and 
 mercury with a solution of chloride of A. A portion 
 of mercury is slightly heated in a porcelain vessel, 
 and pieces of sodium introduced, when the sodium 
 and mercury combine, and form an amalgam of 
 sodium and mercury, which is a semi-solid sub- 
 stance, and scarcely occupies more space than the 
 bulk of the mercury employed. If this be intro- 
 duced into a vessel containing a 
 strong or saturated solution of chloride 
 of A. (NH4CI), the chlorine combines 
 with the sodium (Na) of the amalgam, 
 forming chloride of sodium (NaCl), and 
 the A. unites with the mercury, form- 
 ing the amalgam of A. and mercury. 
 As the change referred to proceeds, 
 the amalgam increases in size many 
 times, and forms a spongy mass of 
 the consistence of butter, which rises 
 through the saline solution and floats 
 on the surface. The amalgam of A. 
 and mercury very readily decomposes, 
 and hence the difSculty of determin- 
 ing its exact composition. 
 
 AMMONI'AOUM, or AMMO'NIAO, a gum 
 
 resin, used in medicine on account of its stimmant 
 and discutient qualities, is obtained from Dorema A., 
 a plant of the natural order Urt^elliferos, a native 
 of Persia — a perennial, about seven feet high, with 
 large doubly pinnate leaves. The leaves are about two 
 feet long. The whole plant is abundantly pervaded 
 by a milky juice, which oozes out upon the slightest 
 puncture, and which hardens, and becomes A. The 
 A. exudes from punctures made by an insect, which 
 appears in great numbers at the time when the 
 plant has attained perfection. Much of it is sent to 
 India, and it is generally imported into Britain from 
 Bombay, although sometimes from the Levant. It 
 occurs in commerce either in tears, or in masses 
 formed of them, but mixed with impurities. It is 
 whitish, becoming yellow by exposure to the atmo- 
 sphere, is softened by the heat of the hand, and has 
 a pecuUar heavy unpleasant smeU, and a nauseous 
 taste, at first mucilaginous and bitter, afterwards 
 acrid. It is not fusibfe, but bums with white crepi- 
 tating flame, little smoke, and strong smeU. — It was 
 for some time erroneously supposed to be the pro- 
 duce of a species of Heradeum, the seeds of which 
 were found enclosed in it. — ^A similar substance is 
 obtained from Ferula Tingitana, an umbelliferous 
 plant, growing on light sandy soils in the north of 
 Africa ; and is said also to be obtained from F. Ori- 
 entaZis, a native of Asia Minor and of Greece. Both 
 these plants have branched stems, and very com- 
 pound leaves, somewhat resembling fennel. It 
 would seem that the A. of the ancients was the 
 gum resin of the Ferula, which has a more faint 
 odour and less powerful medicinal properties than 
 that of the Borema. 
 
 A'MMONITES, a Semitic race of people, living 
 on the edge of the Syrian Desert ; the descendanti 
 210 
 
 of Ben-ammi, the son of Lot (Gen. xix. 38). They 
 inhabited the coimtry lying to the north of Moab, 
 between the rivers Amon and Jabbok, i. e. the 
 desert country east of Gad. Their chief city was 
 Rabbath-Ammon, to which the Greeks afterwards 
 gave the name of Philadelphia. The Israelites were 
 often at war with them and their other Bedouin 
 confederates. Jephthah defeated them with great 
 slaughter. They were also overcome by Saul, David, 
 Uzziah, and Jotham ; but after the faU of the king- 
 dom of Israel (720 B. C), spread themselves in the 
 districts of JudsBa on the east of the Jordan. In 582 
 they were subdued by the Babylonians. After the 
 captivity, they recommenced their feuds with the 
 Jews, but were conquered by Judas Maccabseus. 
 The intermarriages of Jews with the A., which had 
 been frequent, were prohibited by Nehemiah. The 
 chief deity worshipped by the A. was named Milcom, 
 who in his character seems to have resembled 
 Moloch. Justin Martyr affirms that in his time the 
 A. were still numerous. 
 AMMONI'TES, a genus of fossil shells, nearly 
 
 Ammonites : 
 
 1. Ammonites obtusns ; 2, Section of Ammonites obtnsua, shewing the 
 interior chambers and siphuncle ; 3. Ammonites nodosus. 
 
 allied to the recent genus NauiUus, being, like it, 
 chambered and spiral. The molluscous inhabitant 
 appears to have lodged in the last and largest cham- 
 ber of the shell, the spaces left behind as it increased 
 in size being successively converted into air-chambers, 
 and all connected by a tnibe (dphunde), so that the 
 animal could at pleksure ascend or descend in the 
 sea; whilst the transverse plates dividing the cham- 
 bers gave strength to the whole structure without 
 great increase of weight. A. have long been popu- 
 larly called Comua Ammonis, from a fancied resem- 
 blance to the horns on Sculptured heads of Jupiter 
 A mm on. They are found throughout the .entire 
 series of fossihferous rocks from the transition strata 
 to the chalk. They abound in the cretaceous and 
 oohtic groups. Particular kinds distinguish particu- 
 lar formations, a circumstance which renders them 
 of particular interest and importance to the geologist. 
 The number of species is very great, considerably 
 above two hundred; and several genera have been 
 constituted, as Bamlites, Samites, Scaphites, TurrU- 
 ites, forming with Ammonites, the family of Ammoni- 
 tidce. A. are of very dififerent sizes, from a very 
 small size, to two, or even three or four feet in 
 diameter. The larger ones were in former times 
 ignorantly mistaken for petrified snakes; and impo- 
 sitions have been practised upon collectors by adding 
 to specimens nicely carved snakes' heads; whilst the 
 general absence of the heads was popularly accoimted 
 for by a legend of a saint decapitating the snakes, 
 and turning them into stone. 
 
 AMM O'NIUM, now known as the oasis of Siwah, 
 in the Libyan Desert, was in ancient times celebrated 
 on account of the oracle of Ammon, the unfortunate 
 expedition of Cambyses, and the subsequent journeys 
 of Alexander the Great and Cato. Besides the 
 temple of Jupiter, placed in the centre of a grove 
 of palms, the ruins of which still exist, and which 
 
AMMONITJS SACOAS-AMNESTY. 
 
 I 
 
 contained an image of the god, composed of smarag- 
 d\is and other gems, A. was remarkable for the 
 palace of its ancient kings, surrounded by a triple 
 wall, in the very heart of the oasis, and for ita 
 ' Well of the Sun,' of which the waters were coldest 
 at noonday, and warmest at midnight. Here the 
 Emperor Justinian built a Christian church. The 
 length of the oasis is 15 miles, by 12 broad; it is 
 about 150 miles distant from the Mediterranean, 
 and is situated in lat. 29° N., and in long. 26° E. 
 
 AMMO'liTIUS SACCAS, a Greek^ philosopher, 
 founder of the Neoplatonic School, is said to have 
 been in his earlier days a porter in Alexandria. His 
 parents were Christian, but he himself is said to 
 nave abandoned his early religion, in which he had 
 been instructed by Clemens Alexandrinus, and to 
 have devoted himself to the study of heathen phil- 
 osophy under Athenagoras ; although both Eusebius 
 and St Jerome deny that he ever formally aposta- 
 tised from the Christian faith. His great endeav- 
 our was to harmonise, through a comprehensive 
 eclecticism, the various philosophical theories which 
 prevailed in the Roman world, especially those of 
 Aristotle and Plato. He also laboured to amalgam- 
 ate with these the doctrines of the Magi and 
 Brahmans; but instead of boldly announcing the 
 result as his own, he claimed for his system the 
 highest antiquity. His most distinguished pupils 
 were Longinus, Herennius, Origen, and Plotinus, the 
 last of whom, by far the most subtle and profound 
 of the Neoplatonists, always expressed the highest 
 respect for his master. A. died at Alexandria, 241 
 A.D. He left no writings behind him. 
 
 A. is the name of several learned men in the later 
 periods of Greek history; such as A., the master of 
 Jpiutarch, who lived during the reign of the Emperor 
 Adrian, and, like A. Saccas, taught a species of eclec- 
 ticism in philosophy; A., the Christian philosopher 
 of the 3d c, who wrote a Harmony of me Gospels; 
 A., son of Hermeas, a Peripatetic philosopher of 
 the 5th c, and disciple of Proolus ; A., the famous 
 surgeon of Alexandria, who lived in the time of 
 Ptolemy Pluladelphus ; and A., the Grammarian, 
 who was at first lugh-priest in an Egyptian temple, 
 sacred to the god Apis, and afterwards (389 a.d.) 
 became teacher at Constantinople, where he had the 
 church historian Socrates for his pupil. 
 
 AMMO'PHILA, a genus of Grasses, closely allied 
 to Arundo (see Reed), and distinguished by a spike- 
 like panicle, and by the glumes being nearly equal, 
 keeled, longer than the palece of the single floret, 
 and surrounded at the base by a tuft of hairs. — A. 
 arundinacea, formerly called Arundo arenaria — a 
 grass about 2 — 3 feet high, with rigid bluish leaves, 
 flie edges of which are rolled in, and very creeping 
 roots — is frequent on the sandy sea-shores of Britain 
 and the contiiient of Europe. It is sometimes called 
 Sea Eeed or Siiiro Beet, and sometimes Mat Geass, 
 the culms being wrought into foot-mats, coverings 
 for stairs, &o., in the manufacture of which many 
 families residing along the coast of Ireland are 
 employed most of the year. It is also called Marum, 
 Marrrnn, or Marram,, by which name it is designated 
 in laws both EngUsh and Scottish, by which the 
 destruction of it was prohibited under severe penal- 
 ties, because of its great utility in fixing the shifting 
 sand. In Holland, and in Norfolk, it is extensively 
 employed — along with the Sea Lyme Grass (q. v.) — 
 in preserving the banks of sand which prevent the 
 inroads of t£e sea. It is of httle value as food for 
 cattle, although they eat the very young leaves. 
 The fibre has been used instead of flax, but is too 
 short. 
 
 AMMUNI'TION'. Sometimes this name is given 
 to cannon and mortars, as well as to the projectiles 
 
 and explosive substances employed with them ; but 
 more usually A. is considered to apply to the latter 
 —such as shot, shell, gunpowder, cartridges, fuses, 
 wads, grenades. Muskets, swords, bayonets, and 
 other smaU-arms are sometimes, iDut improperly, 
 included under this term. The Royal Laboratory at 
 Woolwich is the place where A. is chiefly prepared 
 for the British army and navy. The cannon-balls 
 may be cast at some of the great iron-foundries in 
 the north; the shells maybe cast or forged in the 
 sheU-factory at Woolwich; the muskets may be 
 made at Birmingham, and the rifles at Enfield ; the 
 bullets at the shot-factories; the gunpowder at 
 Waltham- Abbey — and so on ; but the ' making up ' 
 of the A. is mostly conducted at the establislmient 
 above mentioned. Bags of serge, in enormous 
 number, are cut out and made, and fiUed to form 
 the cartridges for large ordnance. Bags or tubes 
 of paper are made and filled to constitute cartridges 
 for smaU-arms. The tubes and combustibles for war- 
 rockets and fuses are also manufactured. The cart- 
 ridges for smaU-arms (rifles, muskets, carbines, and 
 pistols) are made in millions ; since it is on those that 
 the main ofi'ensive operations of an army depend. It 
 has been calculated by the Woolwich authorities, 
 that a British army of 60,000 men, comprising a fair 
 average of infantry, cavalry, artUlery, and engineers, 
 ought to be provided with no less than 18,000,000 
 bafl-oartridges for smaU-arms, for six months' 
 operations. These woiild require 1000 A wagons, 
 and 3600 horses, to convey them all at once. It 
 is therefore deemed better that, under any such 
 circumstances, there should be established enirep6ts 
 for supplying the troops from time to time. The 
 wagons constructed for this kind of service wiU 
 carry 20,000 rounds of small-arm A each; the 
 cartridges are packed in boxes, and the wagons are 
 drawn by four horses each. Several wagons are 
 organised into an ' equipment,' under the charge of 
 a detachment of artillery; and there are several 
 such equipments for an army of the magnitude 
 above mentioned — one for each division of infantry, 
 a small portion for the cavalry, and the rest in 
 reserve. It has been laid down that an army of 
 60,000 men ought to have 2,680,000 cartridges vnth 
 them, besides those in reserve ; and that the convey- 
 ance of such a quantity, with a few forges and 
 stores, woidd require 150 A. wagons, 830 men, and 
 704 horses. The equipment would return to the 
 entrepot for a new supply when needed. In the 
 Peninsular War, and at Waterloo, the English used 
 two-horse carts, carrying about 10,000 rounds of 
 small-arm A each; but a superior kind of wagon 
 has been since introduced. In the field, an infantry 
 soldier usually carries about 60 roimds, put in 
 compartments in his pouch; the pouch having a 
 separate receptacle for percussion-caps. When the 
 word A is used in connection with artillery matters, 
 the ' fixed ' A. comprises the loaded shells, cartridges, 
 and carcasses ; whereas the ' unfixed ' are the unfilled 
 case-shot, g-ape-shot, and shell. Dtiring peace, the 
 Woolwich Xaboratory serves out httle less than a 
 miUion lbs. of gunpowder annually, in A for the 
 army and navy, for purposes of exeroisuig, saluting, 
 &c. : the quantity in war is of course indeterminable. 
 
 The chief kinds of A. wiU be found briefly described 
 under their proper headings. 
 
 A'MNESTY signifies an act of pardon or oblivion, 
 and the effect of it is, that the crimes and offences 
 against the state, specified in the act, are so 
 obliterated that they can never again be charged 
 .against the guilty parties. The A. may be either 
 absolute, or qualified with exceptions. Instances 
 of the latter are to be found in ancient and modem 
 history: thus, Thrasybulus, when he overthrew 
 the oliaarohv^ in Athens, caused an A to be 
 ^ 211 
 
AMNION— AMOEITES. 
 
 proclaimed, from the operation of which the Thirty 
 Tyrants, who had formed the oligarchy, and some 
 few persons who had acted imder them, were 
 excluded. Again, Bonaparte, on his return from 
 Elba in 1S15, issued a decree, which was published 
 at Lyon, declaring an A., from the benefits of which 
 he excepted thirteen persons whom he named. And 
 in our own country, the historical reader will be 
 able to recall the act of indemnity passed upon the 
 restoration of Charles II., by which the persons 
 actually concerned in his father's execution, were, as 
 a class, excluded from the A. 
 
 A'MNION is the membrane which immediately 
 invests the embryo, appearing very early in the 
 development of the latter, and adhering closely to 
 it. As gestation proceeds, this membrane secretes 
 from its mner surface a fluid which separates it from 
 the foetus. This fluid, the liquor amnii, consists of 
 water, with albiunen, salt of soda, and extractive 
 matters in solution; it has a specific gravity of 
 1008. It suppKes nutriment to the foBtus, preserves 
 around it an agreeable temperature, and when gesta- 
 tion is comj^eted, by projecting the membrane 
 through the os uteri, is the primary agent in opening 
 the way for the foetus. At this time, the A. is thin 
 and transparent, slightly flocculent on the side next 
 its enveloping membrane, the chorion, but smooth 
 on the" surface next the foetus. Within it, the latter 
 is suspended in the fluid which not only serves the 
 purposes just mentioned, but protects it from injury. 
 For further particulars, see Embryo, and for many 
 curious superstitions connected with the subject, see 
 Caxil. 
 
 AMO'MXJM, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Sdtaminecs (q. v.) or ZingibearacecB distin- 
 guished by perennial stems; the flowers in close 
 heads resembling cones, not upon the leafy stems, 
 but arising by memselves from the root, and little 
 elevated above the ground; the coroUa without inner 
 lateral lobes, and with a very large flat lip; the 
 filament flat, extended beyond the anther, with two 
 lateral lobes, and an emarginate middle lobe. It 
 contains a number of species, natives of tropical 
 countries, and almost exclusively of the eastern 
 hemisphere, of which several yield the Cakdamoms 
 (q. V.) of commerce, and several the spice known by 
 the name of Grains op Pababise (q. v.). The genus 
 A. was formerly more extensive, and included species 
 now forming the genus Zingiber (see Ginger), &c. 
 
 AMOO'R, or AMUR, a river formed by the junc- 
 tion (about lat. 53° N., and long. 120° E.) of the Slulka 
 and the Argoun, which both come from the south- 
 west — the former rising in Russian Siberia, near the 
 head- waters of the Yenisei ; and the latter in Chinese 
 Tatary, not far from the sandy plateau of Kobi. 
 From this starting-post, the A. presents, on its right, 
 a tolerably symmetrical curve, which, after receiving, 
 at its most southerly point, the Songari from beyond 
 the Wall of China, besides other considerable feeders 
 on both sides of either segment, enters, on nearly 
 its original parallel, the Gulf of SaghaKen, about a 
 degree below the Sea of Okhotsk, properly so called. 
 For more minute details, the reader must look 
 forward to the steadily pursued researches of the 
 Bussians, who, according to our latest information, 
 had, last season, fixed in position about 120 points 
 in the various sections of the basin of the A. 
 But they have already thrown much light on a 
 stream which, always physically interestLag, as the 
 only bond of union between the central steppes of 
 Asia and the world at large, is now, by a recent 
 change of its political relations, redeemed from an 
 isolation virtually more thorough than that of any of 
 the tributaries of the Arctic Sea. The Russians, then, 
 have ascertained that the A. offers great facilities 
 212 
 
 for colonisation, and stiU greater for navigation. 
 To begm with the latter. They have traversed by 
 steam, in the season, too, of low water, the entire 
 length upwards to the grand fork of the Argoun and 
 the Shflka, accomplishing the stretch of 3000 versts, 
 or 2000 mUes, in 30 days— and that, from want of 
 preparation, in spite of the delay of cutting wood, 
 and the difficulty of utilising it when green ; and 
 they have discovered that even the Chinese, near 
 one of their motley garrisons, have a fleet of 30 or 
 40 sailing-craft. With respect, again, to colonisation : 
 while the stream itself is said to be stocked like a 
 fishpond, the Russians have found, more particularly 
 on the Lower A., much land fitted for pasturage and 
 cultivation, whole oceans, as they express themselves, 
 of timber— oak, ebn, ash, larch, pine, and maple ; 
 vast supplies of limestone, and decisive indications 
 of iron ore — the climate, though severe in both its 
 extremes, not beiag more so than in many thriving 
 parts of Russia, whether European or Asiatic. But 
 far beyond these merely local considerations, the 
 A. has an extraneous importance, and that not 
 merely to Russia itself. Touching, as it nearly does, 
 the Yenisei, it forms a far more available continua- 
 tion of the eastward route through Siberia than the 
 only other possible line, which, crossing to the Lena, 
 and following that river to its most easterly point, 
 runs from Yakutsk to Okhotsk, by a wretched 
 bridle-path of 18 days, through a country as rugged 
 as it is inhospitable. Nor is the A. likely to be 
 less valuable in connection with the south, for 
 there, on an arena where might wfll be everything, 
 its waters are ready to carry the proverbially 
 aggressive Muscovites within easy reach of the Gulfs 
 01 Corea and Pe-che-le. But it is towards the east 
 that the A. assumes the most serviceable aspect. , 
 Already has it been a channel of traffic between the 
 outside world and Central Asia — carrying down to 
 the former the salted pork of the region of the 
 Baikal, and bringing up to the latter the produc- 
 tions and oommooities of more genial climes. This, 
 however, is but as a drop in the bucket to the 
 ambition of Russia. Even now, the significant 
 names of Nicholajesk and Petrowsk stand forth 
 as naval stations of the empire — the background, 
 as we have seen, being one huge arsenal of naval 
 stores — of timber, of iron, and doubtless, at pleasure, 
 of hemp. It was at the commencement of the 
 reign of Peter the Great that the indefatigable 
 Russians, with the open ocean — ^Russia's most 
 special want — blooming in their mind's eye, were 
 arrested on the A. by the Chinese ; and it was 
 fortunate for the AJaglo-Saxon race that that 
 gigantic power did not find the fulcrum for putting 
 forth its strength on the Pacific, tiU England 
 and America had each established a permanent 
 foothold on its shores. Even here, however, Russia 
 has to face its almost universal enemy, the ice of 
 winter. As in the White Sea, as in the Baltic, 
 and as, to some extent, in the Euxine, the frost 
 encumbers this, the newest and noblest outlet ; for, 
 in the last four springs, or rather summers, it has 
 chained the A., on an average, down to the 21st of 
 May. 
 
 A'MORITES, H, powerful nation of Canaan, ex- 
 tending on both sides of the Jordan. They were 
 vanquished by the Hebrews imder Moses, and their 
 lands beyond Jordan were distributed among the 
 tribes of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh. Their two 
 most famous kings were Sihou, king of Heshbon, 
 and Og, king of Bashan. Og was the last of the 
 giamts, or at least of that gigantic rape, the Rephaim. 
 In Deut. iii. 11, his iron bedstead is mentioned 
 as measuring 134 feet in length; but the whole 
 of this verse, with the exception of the first clause, 
 is considered by some an interpolation. The Rabbins 
 
AMOROSO— AMPHIBIA. 
 
 hold this bedstead to have been Og's cradle, and 
 affirm that his full-grown stature was 120 feet I 
 Joshua subdued, Ijut md not wholly exterminate, the 
 Amorites in Canaan. The residue of this people 
 became tributary under Solomon. (Gen. x. 15^—20 ; 
 XV. 19—21; Niunb. xiii. 29; xxi. 13; Deut. xx. 16; 
 xii. 31 ; Joshua, ix.) 
 
 AMORO'SO, in Music, affectionately, tenderly. 
 
 AMO'RPHA. See Indigo. 
 
 AMORPHOPHALLTJS. See Aetjm. 
 
 AMO'RPHOUS (Gr., a, priv., morpU, form), 
 shapeless. In chemistry, the term A. is used to 
 describe the imcrystaUised, in opposition to the crys- 
 tallised, condition of bodies. There are substances 
 which, in certain conditions, are capable of crystal- 
 lisation, but in other conditions remain A. Thus, 
 pure sugar contains carbon, which appears as an A. 
 substance after the sugar has been burned in a 
 platina crucible. The same substance, carbon, 
 appears in its crystallised form in the diamond. 
 
 A'MOS, the Hebrew prophet, was a herdsman of 
 Tekoa, in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, and also 
 a dresser of sycamore trees. During the reigns 
 of Uzziah in Judah, and Jeroboam in Israel (about 
 784 B. c), he came forward to denounce the idolatry 
 then prevalent. Hia prophetical writings, as given 
 in the Old Testament, contain, in the first six 
 chapters, denunciations of the Divine displeasure 
 against several states, particularly that of Israel, on 
 account of the worship of idols. As Kuckert poeti- 
 cally expresses it, the thunder-storm rolls over all 
 the surrounding kingdoms, touches Judah in its 
 progress, and at length settles upon Israel. The three 
 remaining chapters contain his symbolical visions of 
 the approaching overthrow of the kii^dom of Israel, 
 and lastly, a promise of restoration. The style of A, 
 remarkable for its clearness and picturesque vigour, 
 aboimds with images taken from rural and pastoral 
 life. The cauonicity of the book of Amos is well 
 attested both by Jewish and Christian authorities. 
 Philo, Josephus, and the Talmud include it in the list 
 of inspired writings. It is, moreover, twice quoted in 
 the New Testament (Acts viL 42, and Acts xv. 16). 
 
 AMOY', a seaport town of China, in a small 
 island of the same name, in the province of Po-kien, 
 on the sea-coast, lat. 24° 10' K, long. 118° 10' E. 
 It is one of the chief commercial emporiums of the 
 east, and contains a population estimated at 250,000. 
 It is divided into an outer and inner town, and has 
 an outer and inner harbour, the entrance to the 
 former of which, as well as the inner town itself, is 
 strongly fortified. In 1841, it was taken by the 
 British ; by the treaty of Nan-king, a British consul 
 and British subjects were permitted to reside there. 
 The trade is now open to all nations. The chief 
 imports are rice, sugar, camphor, raw cotton, cotton- 
 twist, and British long cloths ; the exports are tea, 
 porcelain; paper, grass-cloths, &c. Smuggling is 
 carried on extensively. Mr Fortune describes A. 
 as one of the dirtiest towns in the world. 
 
 AMPERE, AndkiS Makib, a distinguished mathe- 
 matician and naturalist, was bom at Lyon, January 
 20, 1775. The death of his father, who fell under 
 the guillotine in 1793, made a deep and melancholy 
 impression on the mind of young A., who sought 
 for solace in the study of nature and antiquity. 
 In 1805, after he had been engaged for some time 
 as private mathematical tutor at Lyon, he was 
 called to Paris, where he distinguished himself as an 
 able teacher in the Polytechnic School, and began 
 his career as an author by his essay on the Ma&e- 
 matical Theory of Chances {Sur la Tlieorie MatM- 
 maiique du Jeu). In 1814, he was elected as a 
 member of the Academy of Sciences ; and in 1824, 
 
 was appointed as Professor of Experimental Physics 
 in the CoUfige do France. He died June 10, 1836. 
 Scientific progress is largely indebted to A, especi- 
 ally for his electro-dynamic theory and his original 
 views of the identity of electricity and magnetism, 
 as given in his Eecueil d' ObservaUons Elcttro-dynam- 
 iques (Paris, 1822), and his ThSorie des PMnomines 
 Mectro-dynamiques (Paris, 1830). These researches 
 prepared the way for the experiments of Dr Faraday. 
 Several of A.'s writings may be found in the Annaha 
 de Physique et de Ohimie. 
 
 AMPERE, Jean Jacques Antoinb, son of the 
 above named. Professor of Modern Literature in the 
 CoUgge de France, at Paris, and member of the 
 French Academy, was bom at Lyon, August 12, 
 1800. He has acquired a brilliant reputation, on 
 accoimt of the keen and searching character of his 
 manifold literary efforts. After laying the ground- 
 work of his comprehensive studies in Paris, ne pro- 
 ceeded to Italy, Germany, and Scandinavia. In 
 1829, when he returned from his travels, he saw 
 no prospect of becoming a professor in Paris, and 
 so consented to give a course of lectures on the history 
 of literature at Marseille. After the July revolution, 
 he succeeded Andrieux as professor in the College 
 de France, and also took the place of Villemain in 
 the Normal School. In both chairs he taught with 
 great success. He is especially versed in the know- 
 ledge of German literature; while his valuable 
 writings upon China, Persia, India, Egypt, and 
 Nubia, as well as his Levantine voyages, prove that 
 the far east itself is embraced within the circle of 
 his studies. A. allowed many of his linguistic and 
 historico-literary investigations to see the light first 
 in reviews, especially the Bemie des Deux Mondes. 
 In 1833 he published an essay on the relations of 
 French literature to that of other countries in the 
 middle ages ; in 1841, an Essay on ihe Formation of 
 the French Language — a most valuable contribution 
 to philology in general; and in 1850, a work entitled 
 Greece, Rome, and Dante, which shews his acquaint- 
 ance with classical and south-European literature. 
 Many of his papers for periodicals have been coUeoted 
 under the title Litteraiure et Voyages (2 vols., Paris, 
 1834). Deep research and judicious criticism, 
 expressed in a clear and classical style, distinguish 
 his various compositions. 
 
 AMPHI'BIA, in the Linnaean system of zoology, a 
 class containing Reptiles and Cartilaginous Fishes. 
 The term ampMUous (Gr., having a double life) had 
 been previously employed, as it still popularly is, to 
 denote animals capable of sustaining existence for a 
 considerable time either on dry land or in water. 
 Of the animals of the Linnaean class, however, some 
 only are capable of this, whilst some are strictly 
 limited to the one element, and some to the other, 
 and only a very few are truly amphibious, or 
 adapted by the possession of lungs and gUls at the 
 same time for breathing either in air or in water. 
 The Linnaean classification was soon altered by the 
 removal of the Cartilaginous Fishes from the class 
 Amphibia, and the name was retained for a class 
 consisting of Reptiles alone — ^the Reptilia of Cuvier. 
 See Reptilis. Some recent naturalists have divided 
 this into two classes, Mepiilia and Amphibia, the 
 former having hmgs only, the latter having both 
 lungs and gills ; the former including the Chelonian, 
 Saurian, and Ophidian ReptOes ; the latter only the 
 Batrachian Reptiles, or the former order Batrachia. 
 But if it must be admitted that these differ from the 
 other orders more than they do from each other, yet 
 the propriety of separating them as a distinct class 
 is not acknowledged by naturalists in general ; and 
 oidy a very few of them possess lungs and gills at 
 the same period of their existence. See Bateaohia. 
 
 213 
 
AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL— AMPHITHEATRE. 
 
 AMPHIO'TYONIO COUKTCIL. This central 
 politioo-reKgious court of several Grrecian tribes, was 
 held twice a year. In spring, the members assembled 
 in the Temple of ApoUo, at Delphi j in autumn, in 
 the Temple of Ceres, at the village of Anthela, near 
 Thermopyte. Their purpose was twofold: 1. To 
 determine questions of international law; 2. To 
 preserve the religious iastitutions of the Grreeks. As 
 there were many amphictyonies in the early days of 
 Greek history— of which, however, by far the most 
 important was that which forms the subject of our 
 article — it has generally been supposed that they 
 originated out of a desire for social union, and were, 
 consequently, a result of the national instinct for 
 civilisation. Like the Olympic games of a later 
 period, their tendency was to develop a spirit of 
 brotherhood where it was greatly required. The 
 restless Greek iateUeot, in its application to political 
 life, had naturally an excessive and perilous love 
 of individualism, out of which rose the numerous 
 strifes and animosities of the various states. These 
 councils, on the other hand, were calculated to 
 exert a wholesome centraUsing influence. They 
 knit together, for a time, the distracted tribes in a 
 bond of common interest and piety. Like the 
 Olympic games, too, they became the occasion of 
 vast gatherings of the Greek peoples, who crowded 
 thither for every variety of purpose, sacred and 
 secular; and thus a feeling of unity and pure national 
 patriotism was, temporarily at least, excited in the 
 popiUar mind. The special origia of the A. 0. or 
 league is unknown, though we know that it was com- 
 posed of twelve tribes. The ancient writers differ in 
 the names of these ; but the list given by the orator 
 jSEschines, though containing only eleven, is perhaps 
 the safest to adhere to : the Thessalians, Bosotians, 
 Dorians, lonians, Perrhsebians, Magnetes, Locrians, 
 CBtaeans, Phthiots, Malians, and Phocians. Probably 
 the remaining tribe was the Dolopians, who are 
 mentioned in other accounts. It has been justly 
 concluded that the great preponderance of the 
 northern tribes, who were of the old Pelasgic race, 
 proves the antiquity of the Council. It must have 
 been older than the descent of the Dorians upon the 
 Peloponnesus, or the emigration of the lonians to the 
 coasts of Asia Minor. Each of the twelve tribes sent 
 to the A. C. two members. These twenty-four repre- 
 sentatives possessed equal authority, although some 
 of the tribes were very small, and hardly independ- 
 ent. They bound themselves by an oath that ' they 
 would destroy no city of the Amphictyons, nor cut 
 off their streams in war or peace ; and if any should 
 do so, they would march against tiim and destroy his 
 cities; and should any pillage the property of the 
 god, or be privy to, or plan anything against what 
 was in his temple at Delphi, they would take venge- 
 ance on him with hand, and foot, and voice, and 
 all their might' (Machines). It is onlyright to state, 
 what indeed most people would naturaUy conclude 
 for themselves, that so excellent an oath was very 
 indifferently kept. In the primitive period of Greek 
 history, it, in all likehhood, exerted the beneficial 
 and civilising influence of which we have spoken; 
 but it opposed only a feeble check to the passions 
 and ambition of a more powerful age. The members 
 at times connived and even took part in many 
 pohtical crimes, and thus violated their oath. By 
 the time of Demosthenes, the A. C. had ceased to 
 command respect; in the 2d c. after Christ, it still 
 existed, but was then just wavering on the verge of 
 extinction, 
 
 AMPHI'POLIS, a city of Macedonia, bmlt on an 
 island at the mouth of the river Strymon, which 
 flowed almost round the town, whence it derived its 
 name (6r. amphi, around, and polis, a city). In 
 ancient timea its position must have been invaluable, 
 
 311 
 
 as it conunanded the only safe entrance from the 
 Strymonic Gulf into the broad Macedonian plains. 
 It belonged originally to the Edonians, a. Thracian 
 people, and was called, on account of the roads 
 which met here, Ennea Hodoi (Nine Ways). The 
 first who attempted to colonise it, Aristagoras of 
 Miletus, was cut off with his followers by the 
 Edonians. The Athenians next tried to gain posses- 
 sion of it. Their first army, amounting to 10,000 
 men, was utterly cut to pieces at 'Drabescus, 465 
 B.C., but their second, 437 B.C., under Agnon, son 
 of Nicias, was successful. The Thraoians were 
 expelled, and a new city built, to which Agnon gave 
 the name of A. On account of its situation as an 
 emporium for Upper Thrace, and of its neighbour- 
 ing forests of timber for ship-building, A. was an 
 important place. In 424 B. c, it was taken from the 
 Athenians by the Spartan Brasidas, was restored 
 to Athens by the Antalcidean treaty of peace, and 
 afterwards was taken by Philip of Macedon. 
 Under the Romans, it was made the capital of East 
 Macedonia. In the middle ages, it was called 
 Popolia. Its site is now occupied by a Turkish 
 town, but a few of its ruins are still visible. 
 
 AMPHITHE'ATRE, a spacious building, gener- 
 ally elliptical in form, used by the Romans for 
 exhibiting gladiatorial combats, fights of wild beasts, 
 and other spectacles. The A. differed from a theatre 
 for dramatic performances (theairwm) in this, that 
 whereas the theatre had only a semicircle of seats 
 fronting the stage, the A. was entirely surrounded 
 by them ; and hence the name of Amphitheatre (Gr. 
 amphi, 'on both sides' or 'aU round'). Till a 
 late period at Rome, these erections were of wood, 
 and merely temporary, like a modem race-stand. 
 They seem, however, to have been of enormous size, 
 as Tacitus mentions one, during the reign of Tiberius, 
 which gave way, and caused tiie death or injury of 
 50,000 spectators. Amphitheatres of stone had begun, 
 however, to be erected at an earlier period than this, 
 the first having been built at the desire of Augustus. 
 The Flavian A. at Rome, known as the Colosseum, 
 which was begun by Vespasian, and finished by 
 
 Colosseum. 
 
 Titus 80 A.D., ten years after the destruction of 
 Jerusalem, was probably the largest structure of the 
 kind, and is fortunately also the best preserved. It 
 covers about five acres of ground, and was capable 
 of containing 87,000 persons. Its greatest length is 
 620 feet, and its ^eatest breadth 513. On the occa- 
 sion of its dedication by Titus, 5000 wild beasts were 
 
AMPHITEITE— AMPUTATION. 
 
 slain in the arena, fhe gomes having lasted for nearly 
 100 days. The exterior is about 160 feet in height, 
 and consists of three rows of columns, Doric, Ionic, 
 and Corinthian, and, above all, a row of Corinthian 
 pilasters. Between the columns there are arches, 
 which form open galleries throughout the whole 
 building ; and between each alternate pilaster of the 
 upper tier there is a window. There were four tiers 
 or stories of seats, corresponding to the four external 
 stories. The first of these is supposed to have con- 
 tained twenty-four rows of seats; and the second, 
 sixteen. These were separated by a lofty wall from 
 the third story, which is supposed to have contained 
 the populace. The podium was a kind of covered 
 gallery surrounding tbe arena, in which the emperor, 
 the senators, and vestal virgins had their seats. The 
 building was covered by a temporary awning or 
 wooden roof, called vdariwm, the mode of adjusting 
 and fastening which has given rise to many anti- 
 quarian conjectured. The open space in the centre 
 of the A. was called arena, vas Latin word for sand, 
 because it was covered with sand or saw-dust during 
 the performances. The taste for the excitement of 
 the A. which existed at Rome, naturally spread to 
 the provinces, and large amphitheatres were erected 
 not only in the provmcial towns of Italy, as at 
 Capua, Verona, Pompeii, &c., but at Aries and 
 Nismes, in France; and even in this country, at 
 Cirencester, Silohester, and Dorchester. 
 
 AMPHITBI'Tl^, the daughter of the sea-god 
 Nereus and of Doris — or, according to ApoUodorus, 
 of a daughter of Ooeanus — ^was the wife of Neptune. 
 When the latter demanded her in marriage, she fled 
 to Mount Atlas, but was discovered by a dolphin, 
 which Neptune had sent after her, and borne back 
 to him. As goddess and queen of the sea, she is 
 represented with her husband's trident in her hand, 
 sitting in a car of shells drawn by Tritons, or on 
 a dolphin, before which a Cupid swims. 
 
 A'MPHORA, among the Greeks and Roman's, 
 was a large vessel, usually made of clay, shaped 
 like our pitchers, with a narrow neck and 
 two handles (hence the name, from Gr. 
 anvphi, on both sides, and ■phe\'o,\a carry), 
 and often ending in a sharp point below, 
 for being inserted in a stand or in the 
 ground. Several of this sort, and in an 
 upright position, were found in the cellars 
 
 Vat Pompeii. The A. was chiefly used for 
 the preservation of various liquids, especi- 
 ally vriue, the age of which was marked on 
 tickets affixed to the vessel. There is also 
 A^_ evidence that amphorse were employed as 
 phora cinerary urns and as coffins. The A. amon^ 
 ' the ancients was likewise a measure for 
 liquids. In Greece, it contained about 9 Enghsh 
 gallons. The Roman amphora was only two-thirds 
 of the Greek A. In modem times, Anfora is the 
 name of a wine-measure in Venice. 
 
 AMPLIFICA'TION, i.e., enlargement, a- term in 
 Rhetoric, meaning that an idea, an opinion, or an 
 inference is presented to the mind, accompanied by 
 accessory circumstances. Its aim is to produce a 
 powerful and vivid impression through the instru- 
 mentaHiy of epithets, particulars, or other methods of 
 elaboration. Rhetorical A. is generally produced — 
 1st, by similitude ; 2d, by contrast ; 3d, by illustrat- 
 ing the universal in 'the particular; 4th, by piling 
 up loacal arguments. ExaggeraMon is an illegiti- 
 mate Idnd of A; being the result of an undue 
 enlargement of particular facts and circumstances. 
 
 A'MPLITUDB, in Astronomy, is the distance of 
 a heavenly body, at the time of its rising or setting, 
 from the east or the west point of the horizon. When 
 the sun is in the equator (i. e., at the time of either 
 
 Ampullae. 
 
 equinox), he rises exactly east, and sets exactly west, 
 and therefore has no A. His A. is at its maximum 
 at midsummer, and again at mid- winter ; and that 
 maximum depends upon the latitude of the place, 
 being 234° at the equator, and increasing to the 
 Arctic Circle, where it becomes 90°. The A. of a 
 fixed star remains constant all the year round. 
 
 AMPULLA was a kind of bottle, used by 
 the Romans for the preservation of 
 liquida. It was made either of earthen- 
 ware or glass, and sometimes, though 
 very rarely, of more costly materials. 
 Great numbers of such vessels have 
 found their way into collections 
 of antiquities. They are generally 
 ' beUied, ie., approaching to globular, 
 narrowing towards the mouth, and 
 provided with two handles. They 
 are frequently mentioned in connec- 
 tion with the baths of ancient times. 
 The A. olearia was a 'bottle of oU' 
 which the Roman took with him 
 when he went to the bath, and vrtth which he 
 anointed himself after his ablutions. Sometimes the 
 oils were perfumed. 
 
 The A. Memmsis (the holy vessel, Fr. la sainte 
 ampoule) was the name of that famous vessel in 
 which was contained the unguent (beheved to have 
 been brought by a dove from heaven) that anointed 
 Clovis, king of the Franks, at Rheims in 496 A.D., 
 and with which every succeeding monarch of France, 
 down to Louis XVI., was anointed at his corona- 
 tion. The A. Remensis was shattered, along with a 
 great many more valuable things, at the revolution 
 of 1789; but a fragment of it was preserved by 
 some devout royalist, and handed over at the 
 Restoration to the Archbishop of Rheims. Curious 
 to say, a little of the miraculous substance stiU 
 remained, which was mixed up with oil, and used 
 to anoint Charles X. in 1825. 
 
 AMPUTA'TION (Lat. amputo, I lop or prune) is 
 the cutting oflf of a part which, by its diseased condi- 
 tion, endangers, or may endanger, the safety of the 
 whole body. The A. of a limb was in ancient times 
 attended with great danger of the patient's dying 
 during its performance, as surgeons had no efficient 
 means of irestraining the bleeding. They rarely 
 ventured to remove a large portion of a lunb, and 
 when they did so, they cut in the gangrened parts, 
 where they knew the vessels would not bleed ; the 
 smaller limbs they chopped off with a, mallet and 
 chisel ; and in both cases had hot irons at hand with 
 which to sear the raw surfaces, boUing oil in which 
 to dip the stump, and various resins, mosses, and 
 fungi, supposed to possess the power of arresting 
 hsemorrhage. Some tightly bandaged the hmbs 
 they wished to remove, so fliat they mortified and 
 dropped off; and others amputated with red-hot 
 knives, or knives made of wood or horn dipped 
 in vitriol. The desired power of controlling the 
 haemorrhage was obtained by the invention of the 
 tourniquet (q. v.) in 1674 by a French surgeon 
 MoreU. The ancient surgeons endeavoured to save 
 a covering of skin for the stump, by having the 
 skin drawn upwards by an assistant, previously to 
 using the knife. In 1679, Lowdham of Exeter 
 suggested cutting semicircular flaps on one or both 
 sides of a limb, so as to preserve a fleshy cushion 
 to cover the end of the bone. Both these methods 
 are now in use, and are known as the 'circular' 
 and the 'flap' operations: the latter is most fre- 
 quently used in this country. 
 
 A 'flap' amputation is performed thus : The 
 patient being placed in the most convenient position, 
 an assistant compresses the main artery of the limb 
 
AMEITISIRr-AMSTEEDAM. 
 
 with his thumb, or a tourniquet ia adjusted over it. 
 Another assistant supports the limb. The surgeon 
 ■with one hand lifts the tissues from the bone, 
 and transfixing them with a long narrow knife, 
 cuts rapidly downwards and towards the sur- 
 face of the skin, forming a flap ; he then repeats this 
 on the other side of the limb. An assistant now 
 draws up these flaps, and the knife is carried round 
 the bone, dividing any flesh still adhering to it. 
 The surgeon now saws the bone. He then, with a 
 smaU forceps, seizes the end of the main artery, and 
 drawing it slightly from the tissues, an assistant ties 
 it with a thread. All the vessels beiag secured, the 
 flaps are stitched together with a needle and thread, 
 and a piece of wet lint is laid over the wound. An 
 expert surgeon can remove a limb thus in from 30 
 to 60 seconds. 
 
 AMRITSI'R, a city of the Punjab, in N. lat. 31° 
 40', and E. long. 74° 45', containing 115,000 inhabit- 
 ants. It is said to be larger than Lahore, the seat of 
 government. It is, in fact, the religious metropolis, 
 a distinction which, along with its name, it owes j to 
 its ' pool of immortality,' on an islet of which stands 
 the chief temple of the Sikh faith. A. is a favourite 
 haunt of pilgrims, to protect or to overawe whom 
 Eunjeet Singh built a formidable citadel, which the 
 British have strengthened; and it was the place 
 where, perhaps to bind the slippery Sikhs more 
 firmly, was signed the treaty of 1846, for ceding to 
 the British the territory between the Beas and the 
 Sutlej. A. is said to be the richest and most pros- 
 perous city in Northern India, being connected with 
 the capital, distant 36 miles to the west, by a canal, 
 possessing considerable manufactures of cotton, silks, 
 shawls, &c., and carrying on considerable trade at 
 once with Hindustan to the south, and with Central 
 Asia to the north. 
 
 AMSLER, Samuel, professor of the art of engrav- 
 ing on copper, in the Academy of Arts, Munich, 
 was bom December 17, 1791, at Schinznach, in 
 Switzerland, received his first lessons from Lips 
 of Zurich, and afterwards studied under Hess, in 
 Munich. His first great work was an engraving 
 from a Magdalen by Carlo Dolce. In 1816, he 
 went to Rome, where, in several engravings of 
 statues by Thorwaldsen, he succeeded well in uniting 
 the characteristics of the originals with the simple 
 style of Marcus Antonio. Aided by Barth and 
 Hildburghausen, he engraved a title-page for the 
 Lay of the Nibelungen, from a design by Cornelius. 
 During his second sojourn in Rome (1820 — 1824), he 
 began his meat work, an engraving of ' Alexander's 
 Trramphal Procession,' by Thorwaldsen. At Munich, 
 in 1831, he finished his large plate of the ' Burial of 
 Christ,' by Raphael, which, with his engraving of 
 a statue of Christ, by Danneoker, displayed the 
 highest qualities of imitative art. These works 
 were followed by a 'Holy Family,' from Ea,phael, 
 and the ' Madonna di Casa Tempi.' His last great 
 work was an engraving from Overbeck's ' Triumph 
 of ReHgiou in the Arts.' A. died May 18, 1849. 
 His style is marked by a clear and noble treatment 
 of form, rather than by strong contrast of tones. 
 Pew engravers have equalled A. in his deep know- 
 ledge and faithful representation of the works of 
 Raphael. 
 
 A'MSTERDAM, or AMSTELDAM (the dam or 
 dike of the Amstel), the chief city of the Ketherlands, 
 and capital of the province of North Holland, is 
 situated at the confluence of the Amstel with the Ij 
 or Y (pronounced Eye), an arm of the Zuiderzee, 
 and is divided by the two arms of the former, and 
 numerous canals, into 95 small islands, connected by 
 290 bridges. Almost the whole of the city, which 
 extends m the shape of a crescent, is founded on 
 216 
 
 piles. At the beginning of the 13th c, it was merdy 
 a fishing- village, with a small castle, lie residence of 
 the Lords of Amstel. In 1296, on acooimt of the 
 murder of Count Ploris of Holland, the rising town 
 was demolished, and its inhabitants were compelled 
 to leave it. Alterwards, with Amstelland (the dis- 
 trict on the banks of the Amstel), it was taken under 
 the protection of the Counts of Holland, and under 
 them enjoyed several privileges which contributed to 
 its subsequent prosperity. In 1482, it was walled 
 and fortified. It soon rose to be the first commercial 
 place in the united states of the Netherlands; in 
 1585 was considerably enlarged by the building of 
 the new town on the west ; and in 1622 had 100,000 
 inhabitants. This prosperity excited the envy of its 
 neighbours. The English, imder Leicester, in 1587, 
 and William 11., Prince of Orange, in 1650, endea- 
 voured to gain possession of the flourishing city ; but 
 their designs were frustrated by the good manage- 
 ment of the burgomasters of A. In the 17th c, the 
 war with England so far reduced the commerce of 
 A., that in the year 1653, about 4000 houses were 
 uninhabited. Prosperity was restored during the 
 next century, and, though commerce was again 
 injured by tbe disputes with England in 1781 and 
 1782, it once more revived. The union of HoUand 
 with Prance in 1810 entirely destroyed the foreign 
 trade of A., while the excise and other new regula- 
 tions impoverished its inland resources ; but the 
 old firms proved strong enough to live through the 
 time of difficulty, and in 1815 commerce again 
 began to expand. 
 
 The city has a fine aspect, when seen from the 
 harbour, or from the high bridge over the Amstel. 
 Numerous church towers and spires rise on every 
 side, to relieve the flatness of the prospect. The old 
 ramparts have been puUed down, and wind-mills for 
 grinding corn, and other purposes, have been erected 
 on the 28 bastions. Rich grassy meadows surround 
 the city. On the west side are a great number of 
 saw-mills. The three principal streets in A., each 
 of which is two miles long, are the Heerengraacht, 
 Keizergraacht, and Prinzensgraaoht. They are not 
 surpassed by any in Europe for length, breadth, 
 or general elegance. Along the middle of each, as 
 of the other streets in A., flow canals, the banks of 
 which are lined with rows of trees. The houses are 
 built principally of brick, and some have their gables 
 towards the streets, which gives them a very pictur- 
 esque appearance. In old times, A. was strongly 
 fortified; but now its only defence consists in the 
 sluices, which can flood in a few hours the surround- 
 ing land. A hard frost, however, like that of 1794 — 5, 
 when Pichegru entered the city, would render even 
 this me^ns of defence useless. 
 
 The population was numbered at 180,000 in 1820 ; 
 but in 1857 it amounted to 260,000, the majority 
 of whom are Dutch Calvinists. Of the remainder, 
 the most numerous body are the Roman Catholics, 
 next the Lutherans, and next the Jews. The chief 
 industrial establishinents are numerous dock-yards, 
 manufactories of sails, ropes, tobacco, cloth, plush, 
 sUks, gold and silver plate and jewellery, colours and 
 chemical preparations, breweries, distilleries, with 
 export houses for com and colonial produce. Among 
 the pubHc buUdiugs, the Stadhuis, formerly used as 
 the palace of King Louis Bonaparte, and still re- 
 tained by the present reigning family, is a noble 
 and imposing stracture, raised upon 13,659 piles, and 
 extending 262 feet in length, by 206 feet in breadth, 
 surmounted by a round tower, rising 327 feet from 
 the base. It is chiefly remarkable for the great hall, 
 111 feet long, 52 feet wide, and 90 feet high, lined 
 with white Italian marble — an apartment of great 
 splendour. 
 
 The Meuwe Keric (New Church), founded in 1408, 
 
AMSTERDAM— AMYGDALOID. 
 
 is the finest ecclesiastical structure ia the city, and, 
 as the Dutch think, in Europe. Its chancel is espe- 
 cially admired. It contains the tombs of Admiral 
 de Kuyter, who sailed up the Medway and burned 
 the English fleet at Chatham ; of the famous Dutch 
 poet Voudel, &c., and of various other notable per- 
 sons. The Old Church {Oude Kerk), belonging to 
 the 14th c, contains several monuments of naval 
 heroes. Literature, science, and recreation are not 
 forgotten in the pressure of business ; for A. has its 
 academy of arts and sciences, an excellent museum 
 and Ubrary, several harmonic societies, a botanical 
 and also a zoological garden, and several theatres. 
 The hospital for aged people, the poor-house, house 
 of correction, and orphan asylum, a navigation 
 school, and many benevolent societies, are •weU sup- 
 ported, and said to be managed on good principles. 
 The moist atmosphere and mephitio exhalations 
 from the canals, are unfavourable to the health of 
 the city, especially in summer. The New Canal 
 (Nieuwe Diep), or Grand Ship-canal of North Hol- 
 land, 21 feet deep and 125 feet in breadth, connect- 
 ing the Buiksloot with the North Sea at the Helder, 
 a distance of 51 miles, so that the perilous navi- 
 gation of the Zuiderzee is avoided, has greatly 
 mcreased the facUity of commerce, as even a ship of 
 the line can pass through its sluices ; and powerful 
 steam-tugs are employed to tow merchant-vessels 
 with their full cargoes out to sea. It is the broadest 
 canal in the world. Its lock-gates exceed in dimen- 
 sions the largest in the docks of Liverpool, and are 
 founded upon piles driven through the mud into 
 sand. Amsterdam is now connected by railway with 
 Botterdam and the Hague, as well as with Prussia. 
 
 AMSTERDAM, a barren islet in lat. 38° 53' S., 
 and long. 77° 37' E., the home of sea-birds, sheU-fish, 
 and seals. It is worthy, however, of notice at once 
 for its structure and its situation. Manifestly of 
 volcanic origin, it still possesses a burning soil and 
 hot springs ; and along with its single neighbour, 
 St Paul, 60 miles to the north-east, it is about mid- 
 way in the direct line between ttie Cape of Good 
 Hope and Van Diemen's Land, being also at nearly 
 the same distance from Cape Comorin. 
 
 A'MULET, any object worn as a charm. It is 
 often a stone, or piece of metal, with an inscription 
 or some figures engraved on it, and is generally 
 suspended from the neck, and worn as a preserv- 
 ative against sickness, witchcraft, &c. Its origin, 
 like its name, seems to be oriental. The ancient 
 Egyptians had their amulets, sometimes forming 
 neoldaoes. Among the Greeks, such a protective 
 
 Egyptian Amulet. 
 
 charm was styled phylcuierion ; among the Romans, 
 amvletum. This word is probably derived from 
 the Arabic hamcdet ('what is suspended'). The 
 phylacteries of the Jews (see Matthew, xxiii. 6), shps 
 of parchment on which passages of the Law were 
 written, were evidently worn as badges of piety by 
 the Pharisees ; but were also regarded as wholesome 
 preservatives from evil spirits, and from aU manner 
 of harm. lYom the heathen, the use of amulets 
 passed into the Christian Church, the inscription 
 on them being ichthus (the Greek word for a fish), 
 because it contained the initials of the Greek words 
 
 for Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour. See 
 Abbeeviations. Among the Gnostic sects, Abraxas 
 stones (q. v.) were much used. Amulets soon 
 became so common among Christians that, in the 
 4th t., the clergy were mterdicted from making 
 and selling them on pain of deprivation of holy 
 orders ; and in 721, the wearing of amulets was 
 solemnly condemned by the Church. Among the 
 Turks and many other nations of Central Asia, 
 every person considers it necessary to wear a pre- 
 servative charm. With the spread of Arabian 
 astronomy, the astrological A. or taUsman (q. v.) of 
 the Arabs found its way to Europe. Kopp, a 
 German author, has written a work, PalceograpMca 
 Gritica, on amulets and their inscriptions. Among 
 amulets in repute in the middle ages were the coins 
 attributed to St Helena, the mother of Constantino. 
 These and other coins marked with a cross were 
 thought specially efficacious against epilepsy, and 
 are generally found perforated, for the purpose of 
 being worn suspended from the neck. — The belief in 
 the virtue of amulets is not yet extinct among the 
 uneducated. 
 
 AM-Y'diM, an old Laeonian town, was situated 
 on the eastern bank of the Eurotas, 20 stadia south- 
 east of Sparta, in a richly wooded and fertile region. 
 It was a famous city in the heroic age, the abode of 
 Tyndarus and his spouse Leda, who bore to Jupiter 
 the twins, Castor and Pollux (called Amydcei Fratrea, 
 the Amyclsean brothers), and also Helena. Long aftey 
 the Dorians had subjugated and peopled the rest of 
 the Peloponnesus, A. continued to be a free Achaean 
 town. It was conquered by the Spartans only before 
 the first Messenian War, and in consequence of a 
 curious and absurd law. The inhabitants were so 
 often agitated by false rumours of the approach of 
 the Spartans, that, growing tired of living in a state 
 of continual alarm, they decreed that no one should 
 henceforth mention or even take notice of these 
 disagreeable fictions. Unfortunately, the Spartans 
 did come at length, and according to the Greek 
 saying, 'A. perished through silence.' Hence the 
 proverb, Amyclis ipsis tacitumior (More silent 
 than A. itself). After its conquest, A. became 
 a village, noted only for its annual festival of the 
 Hyacinthia, and its temple of ApoUo, with the 
 colossal statue of the god himself. — ^A., an ancient 
 city on the coast of Campania, Italy, said to have 
 been built by a colony from the Greek A. It had 
 ceased to exist in the time of Pliny. 
 
 AMYGDA'LE^, or DRUPACE^, according 
 to some botanists, a natural order of dicotyledonous 
 plants, but more generally regarded as a sub-order 
 of RoSACS^. The species are aU trees or shrubs. 
 They have the tube of the calyx lined with a disk, 
 the pistil a sohtary simrfe carpel with a terminal 
 style, the fruit a drupe. For other botanical charac- 
 ters, see RosACiLE. The bark yields gum, and 
 hydrocyanic acid is present in very notable quantity 
 in different parts, as the leaves, kernels, &c. The A. 
 are chiefly natives of the cold and temperate regions 
 of the northern hemisphere. Some of them yield 
 valuable fruits ; and various products of the order 
 are used in medjcine. See Almond, Peach, Necta- 
 rine, Plum, Cheery, and Cheery Laurel. This 
 order or sub-order contains about 110 known species. 
 
 AMY'GDALOID (from amygdaltts, an almond), 
 a rock, consisting of a basis of some kind of trap 
 rock, very frequently of greenstone, forming numer- 
 ous roundish or oval cells, which are filled with 
 nodules, often of calcareous spar or of zeolitic miuerals. 
 The cells are not of large size, but even those which 
 are almost adjacent differ much in this respect. The 
 nodules are evidently the result of a sublimation 
 and imperfect crystallisation, under the action of the 
 
AMYLACEOUS— ANABAPTISTS. 
 
 heat wHcli formed the cells. Empty cells often 
 occur amongst those which are filled with minerals. 
 The name A. is sometimes extended to rocks of the 
 same character, although the basis be not of trap. 
 
 AMYLA'CEOUS (from amylum, starch), a term 
 used in Chemistry and Botany, and equivalent to 
 starchy. — A. food is food consisting at least in great 
 part of some kind of starch, as arrow-root, sago, &c. — 
 A compound radical, called amyle, is formed by the 
 decomposition of starch in a peculiar fermentation— 
 the amylie fermentation — ^but to it the term A. has 
 no reference. 
 
 AMYLIC ALCOHOL. See Fusel Oil. 
 
 AMYOT, or AMIOT, Jacquis, a French writer, 
 well known by his excellent translations of the 
 Greek classics, was born in 1513, and died in 1593. 
 E.acrne highly esteemed the translations by A., of 
 which the version of Plutarch is one of the best, and 
 has passed through several editions. — AsnoT, Joseph, 
 a celebrated Jesuit and oriental scholar, was bom at 
 Toulon in 1718, and lived as a missionary in China 
 from 1750 to the time of his death, in 1794. His 
 knowledge of the Chinese and— Tatar languages 
 enabled mm to collect raaiy valuable notices of 
 antiquities, history, language, and arts, in China. 
 Many of his writings may be fo\md ia the MSmoires 
 concernanis VHistoire, les Sciences et les Arts des 
 Chinms (15 vols. Paris, 1776—1791). His Diction- 
 naire Tatar -Mantchou-Frangais was edited by 
 Langlfes in 1789. 
 
 AMYEIDA'CE.^!, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and 
 shrubs, natives of tropical countries, remarkable for 
 the abundance of their fragrant balsamic or resinous 
 juice. They have compound leaves, occasionally 
 with stipules and pellucid dots. The flowers are in 
 racemes or panicles ; the calyx persistent, with 2 — 5 
 divisions^ the petaJa are 3—5; sestivation valvate 
 or imbricated. The stamens are twice or four times 
 as many as the petals. The ovaiy ia superior, sessile, 
 1 — 5-celled, inserted in a large disk ; the style soli- 
 tary and compoimd, or wanting ; the stigmas as 
 many as the cells of the ovary ; the ovules ia pairs, 
 anatropal. The fruit is hard and dry, 1 — 5 celled, 
 its outer rind often spUtting into valves. The seeds 
 are exalbuminous. About forty or fifty species are 
 referred to the order ; but many of them are still 
 very imperfectly known. Some species afford valu- 
 able timber ; but the principal products of the order 
 are fragrant resins and balsams, as Myhkh (q. v.), 
 and differentkiuds of Frankincense (q.v.), Oubanum 
 (q.v.), Elbmi (q.v.). Bdellium (q.v.), JTacamahao 
 (q.v.), Balsam op Gilead (q.v.), &c. Among the 
 more important genera of the order may be named 
 Amyris, Balsamodendron, Boswellia, and Idea. — 
 Canarium commune, a native of Java, which yields 
 a gum similar ia its properties to the Balsam 
 OP CoPAiVA (q. v.), produces also triangular nuts, 
 which are eaten both raw and dressed, and from 
 which an oil is extracted for the table and for burn- 
 ing. Balanites Egyptiaca is cultivated in Egypt for 
 its fruit, a drupe, which is eaten, and from tte seeds 
 of which a fat oil is expressed, called Zachun. 
 
 A'N A, a termination added to the names of remark- 
 able men, to designate collections of their sayings, 
 anecdotes, &c. ; as in the works entitled Baconiana, 
 Johnsoniana. Such tities were first used in France, 
 where they became common after the pubUoation of 
 Scaligerana by the brothers Dupuy (Hague, 1666). 
 In English literature, there are many works of this 
 kind. America, also, has its Washingtoniana. A 
 tolerably complete catalogue of works with such 
 titles may be found in Namur'a BiUiographie des 
 Ouvrages pubU€s sons le Norn, d!Ana (Brussels, 
 1839). 
 218 
 
 AHABA'PTISTS, a term appUed generally to 
 those Christians who reject infant baptism, and 
 administer the rite only to adults ; so that when a 
 new member joins them, he or she is baptised a 
 second time, the iirst being considered no baptism. 
 The name (Gr. to baptise agaia) is thus owing to an 
 accidental circumstance, and ia disclaimed by the 
 more recent ' opponents of infant baptism, both on 
 the continent and in Great Britain. 
 
 The origin of the sect cannot be distinotiy traced ; 
 but it is manifestly connected with the controversy 
 about infant baptism carried on in the early church. 
 Opposition to this doctrine was kept aKve in the 
 various so-called heretical sects that went by 
 the general name of Cathari (i. e., purists), such as 
 the vValdenses, Albigenses, &o. Shortly after the 
 beginning of the Reformation, the opposition to 
 infant baptism appeared anew, espeoiaUy among a 
 set of fanatical enthusiasts called the Prophets of 
 Zwickau, in Saxony, at whose head were Thomas 
 Miinzer (q. v.) (1520) and others. MUnzer went to 
 Waldshut, on the borders of Switzerland, which soon 
 became a chief seat of anabaptism, and a centre 
 whence visionaries and fanatics spread over Switzer- 
 land. They pretended to new revelations, dreamed 
 of the estabhshment of the kingdom of heaven on 
 earth, and summoned princes to join them, on pain 
 of losing their temporal power. They rejected infant 
 baptism, and taught that those who joined them must 
 be baptised anew with the baptism of the Spirit ; they 
 also proclaimed the community of goods, and the 
 equality of all Christians. These doctrines naturally 
 fell in with and supported the ' Peasant War ' (q. v.) 
 that had about that time (1525) broken out from 
 real causes of oppression. The sect spread rapidly 
 through WestphaKa, Holstein, and the Netherlands, 
 in spite of the severest persecutions. The battle of 
 Frankenhauaen (see Munzer) crushed their progress 
 ia Saxony and Franconia. StiU, scattered adherents 
 of the doctrines continued, and were again brought 
 together in various places by travelling preachers. 
 In this capacity, one Melchior HofEiiiann, a furrier of 
 Swabia, distinguished himself, who appeared as a 
 visionary prea<3ier in Kiel in 1527, and in Emden in 
 1528. In the last town he installed a baker, John 
 Matthiesen, of Haarlem, as bishop, and then went to 
 Strasburg, where he died in prison. Matthiesen 
 began to send out apostles of the new doctrine. Two 
 of these went to Miinster, where they found fanatical 
 coadjutors in the Protestant minister Bothmann, 
 and the burghers Knipperdolling and Kreohting, 
 and were shortly joined by the tailor Bookhold of 
 Leyden, and Gerrit Kippenbrock of Amsterdam, a 
 bookbiader, and at last by Matthiesen himself. 
 With their adherents, they soon made themselves 
 masters of the city ; Mattmesen set up as a prophet, 
 and when he lost his life in a sally against the Bishop 
 of Miinster, who was besieging the town, Bockhold 
 and Knipperdolling took his place. The churches 
 were now destroyed, and twelve judges were ap- 
 pointed over the tribes, as among the Israehtes ; 
 and Bockhold (1534) had himself crowned king of 
 the ' New Sion,' under the name of John of Leyden. 
 The anabaptist madness in Miinster now went 
 beyond all bounds. The city became the scene of 
 the wildest licentiousness ; untU several Protestant 
 princes, uniting with the bishop, took the city, and 
 by executing the leaders, put an end to the new 
 kmgdom (1535). ■ 
 
 But the principles disseminated by the A. were not 
 so easily crushed. As early as 1533 the adherents of 
 the sect had been driven from Emden, and taken 
 refuge in the Netherlands ; and in Amsterdam the 
 doctrine took root and spread. Bockhold also had 
 sent out apostles, some of whom had given up the 
 wild fanaticism of their master ; they let alone the 
 
ANABASID-a^-ANABLBPS. 
 
 community of goods and women, and taught the 
 other doota'ines of the A., and the establishment of a 
 new kingdom of pure Christians. They grounded 
 their doctrines chiefly on the Apocalypse. One of 
 the most distinguished of this class was David Joris, 
 a glass-paiater of Delft (1501 — 1356). Joris united 
 liberalism with auabaptism, devoted himself to 
 mystic theology, and sought to effect a union of 
 parties. He acquired many adherents, who studied 
 his Book of Miracles ( Wundesrlmck), which appeared 
 at Deventer in 1542, and looked upon him as a sort 
 of new Messiah. Being persecuted, he withdrew 
 from his party, lived inoffensively at Basle, under the 
 name of John of Bruges, and died there in the com- 
 munion bf the reformed church. It was only in 
 1559 that his heretical doctrines came to hght, when 
 the council of Basle had the bones of Joris dug up, 
 and burned under the gallows. 
 
 The rude and fanatical period of the history of 
 anabaptism closes with the scandal of Munster. A 
 new era begins vrith Menuo Simons. (See Menwo.) 
 Surrounded by dangers, Menno succeeded, by 
 prudent zeal, in collecting the scattered adherents 
 of the sect, and in founding congregations in the 
 Netherlands, and in various parts of Germany. 
 He called the members of the community ' God's 
 Congregation, poor, unarmed Christians, brothers;' 
 later, they took the name of Mennonites, and at 
 present they call themselves, in Germany, Tauf- 
 gesinnte; in Holland, Doopsgezinden — corresponding 
 very nearly to the EngUdi designation Baptists. 
 This, besides being a more appropriate designation. 
 
 Menno expounded his principles in his Fundament- 
 buche von dem rechten OhristUchen Olaubm, 1556 
 (Elements of the True Christian Faith). T3iia book is 
 still an authority among the body, who lay particular 
 stress on receiving the doctrines of the Scripture with 
 simple faith, and acting strictly up to them, and set 
 no value on learning and the scientific elaboration of 
 doctrines. They reject the taking of oaths, war, 
 every kind of revenge, divorce (except for adultery), 
 infant baptism, and the undertaking of the office of 
 , magistrate ; magistracy, they hold to be an institu- 
 tion necessary for the present, but foreign to the 
 kingdom of Christ ; the church is the community of 
 the saints, which must be kept pure by strict 
 discipline. With regard to grace, they profess 
 universalism, or hold it to be designed for aJl, and 
 their views of the Lord's Supper fall in with those of 
 Zwingli ; in its celebration, the rite of feet-washing 
 is retained. In Germany, Switzerland, and Alsace, 
 their form of worship differs little from the Lutheran. 
 Their bishops, elders, and teachers serve gratis. 
 Childreu receive their name at birth, baptism is 
 performed in the place of worship, and adults that 
 join the sect are rebaptised. 
 
 But along with these general principles, there have 
 been endless diversities and spUts in the sect, occa- 
 sioned by differences as to strictness of discipline. 
 This cause divided the body, as early as 1554, into 
 the Mild and the Strict Mennonites. The first 
 are known by the title of Waterlanders, from a 
 place in Holland; the second split again into a 
 multitude of subdivisions, according to mitflite shades 
 of strictness, and their several designations, derived 
 from the names of leaders, places, and even peculi- 
 arities of dress (John-Jacob Christians, Buttoners, 
 Hook-and-eye-ers, &c.), bewilder the student of eccle- 
 siastical history. The purity of their lives, however, 
 commanded everywhere respect, and their industry, 
 made them prosperous; so that they gradually 
 secured formal toleration in many places. 
 
 Almost the onljr split among the early continental 
 Baptists on doctrinal grounds was that which took 
 place in Amsterdam in 1664. Anninianism had not 
 
 been without its influence, especially among the 
 Waterlanders, originally more liberal in their views. 
 A leading congregation accordingly divided into two 
 parties, one (Galenists, from Gsuenus, their leader) 
 advocating freerviews in doctrine and discipline ; the 
 other (Apostoolists, from Samuel Apostool) adhering 
 to absolute predestination and the discipline or 
 Menno. The liberal party rejected creeds as of 
 human invention, adopted much of the philosophy 
 and theology of England, and exercised no little 
 influence on the intellectual progress of Holland. 
 These two parties gradually absorbed the other 
 sections of the Baptists in the Netherlands ; and 
 about the beginning of the nineteenth century, a 
 union took place by which all the congregations now 
 belong to one body. In Holland, there are about 
 120 Baptist congregations. 
 
 In Germany, the Baptists made some attempts 
 in more recent tunes to extend their church, but 
 without any great 'success. In 1852 there were 
 in Germany 52 congregations, numbering about 3000 
 members, more than half of whom belong to Prussia. 
 In that country, various concessions had been made 
 to them early in this century, such as exemption 
 from certain oaths and from nxUitary service. They 
 are tolerated in Bavaria, Baden, Wilrtemberg, Meck- 
 lenburg, Bussia, France, and Denmark; but were 
 expelled from Sweden. Wherever they are settled, 
 they are respected as' quiet, industrious subjects; 
 but several German governments have lately imposed 
 restrictions on their exercise of public worship. The 
 reason assigned was the tendency to visionary 
 enthusiasm that had again shewed itself in some 
 congregations. 
 
 As the representatives of the sect in Great Britain 
 and North America have little or no historical con- 
 nection with the earlier A. of the continent, they 
 fall more properly to be noticed under Baptists. 
 
 ANABA'SID^, or LABYKINTHIBEANCH- 
 TDM, a family of Acanthopterygious Fishes, charac- 
 terised by a remarkable structure of the upper 
 membranes of the pharynx, which are divided into 
 small irregular leaves, containing between them 
 cellular reservoirs. These retain water sufficient to 
 keep the gills moist for a considerable time, and so 
 enable the fish to subsist out of water, and to travel 
 some distance on dry ground ; some of the species, 
 as the Climbing Perch (q. v.) of India {Andbaa 
 scandms), climbmg steep banks, or even larees, by 
 means of .the spines of the fins, tail, and gUl-covers. 
 Ophicephalus marginatus is often seen travelling 
 among the grass in the beginning of the rainy season. 
 The fishes of this family appear to leave the water 
 for various reasons ; but" very commonly, it would 
 appear, upon account of the drying up of pools in 
 periodical droughts, their peculiar organisation 
 enabling them to go in search of others. They are 
 aU fresh-water fishes, natives of the south-east of 
 Asia, continent and islands, and of South Africa. 
 The species are numerous, and are arranged under 
 eleven genera. Some of them are much esteemed for 
 their delicacy as food. 
 
 ANA'BASIS (Greek), literally, an ascent or a 
 march out of a lower into a higher country — the 
 name of two historical works i 1. The A. of Cyrus, 
 written byXenophon, which gives a narrative of the 
 unfortunate expedition of the Younger Cyrus against 
 his brother, the Persian king Artaxerxes, and of the 
 retreat of his 10,000 Greek allies under the com- 
 mand of Xenophon; 2. The A. of Alexander, 
 written by Arrian, and giving an account of the 
 campaigns of Alexander tie Great. 
 
 A'NABLEPS (from the Gr. anMeps, to look up), 
 a genua of fishes of the oxdjSrMalacopterygii Abdomi- 
 ncUea, family Cyprinidc^^ Cuvier— of the family 
 
ANACAEDIACEiE— ANACHRONISM. 
 
 Cyprinodontidm (q. v.) of Agassiz — oharaoterised by 
 a structure of the eyes to which there is nothing 
 similar in any other vertebrated animals. This 
 consists in a division of the cornea and iris into two 
 somewhat unequal eUiptioal parts, by transverse 
 bands formed of the conjunctiva (see Eye), so that 
 the animal appears to have four eyes, and there are 
 really two pupils on each side, the other parts of the 
 eye being single. This peculiarity of structure is 
 supposed to be connected with a habit which these 
 fishes are said to have of swimming with the eyes 
 partly out of the water. They are elongated, scaly 
 fishes, with flattish rounded back, and depressed 
 head. The young are brought forth alive, and iu a 
 state of considerable advancement. The best known 
 species, A. tetiropihalmMS, inhabits the rivers of 
 Guiana and Surinam. 
 
 ANAOARDIA'CE.^ (TebbbintACEJE of some 
 botanists, and part of TEREBiNTACEa; of others), a 
 natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous 
 plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, which abound 
 in a, resinous, sometimes acrid and poisonous juice. 
 The leaves are alternate and without dots ; the 
 flowers inconspicuous, usually \misexual. The calyx 
 is generally small and persistent, and has generally 
 five divisions ; the petals are perigynous, equal iu 
 number to the segments of the calyx, imbricated in 
 sestivation, occasionally wanting. The stamens are 
 equal in number to the petals, and alternate with 
 them, or twice as many, or more ; distinct when 
 there is a fleshy disk, cohering at the base when the 
 disk is wanting. The ovary is usually single, free or 
 adhering to the calyx, l-oeUed ; the styles 1, 3, or 
 4, occasionally wanting ; the ovule sohtary, attached 
 to the bottom of the cell by a cord. The fruit is 
 usually a drupe, the seed exalbimiinous. The order 
 contains about 95 known species, chiefly but not 
 exclusively tropical, amongst which are a consider- 
 able number valuable for the resinous juices and 
 varnishes which they yield, as the varnish of Sylhet, 
 varnish of Martaban, Japan lacker, &c., and others, 
 which produce wholesome and pleasant fruits. See 
 Cashew N'dt, Pistacia, Mastic, Tcbpentihe Thee, 
 Mango, Hog Plxtm. 
 
 ANACA'BDIUM. See Cashew Nut. 
 
 ANA'CHARIS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Hydrocharidece (q. v.), of which a species, A. 
 alsinaatrum {Elodea Canadensis of some botanists), 
 has recently become 
 naturalised in Britain, 
 suddenly appearing in 
 so great abundance as 
 to impede the naviga- 
 tion of some rivers and 
 canals. It is a native 
 of North America, 
 growing in ponds and 
 slow streams ; and is 
 a dark-green, much- 
 branched pereimial, 
 entirely floating under 
 water, its flowers only 
 appearing above water 
 for a very short time 
 at the period of fertilis- 
 ation, as in others of 
 the order to which it 
 belongs. It has numer- 
 ous leaves, which are 
 either opposite, or in 
 whorls of three or four, 
 without foot - stalks, 
 linear-oblong, transparent, 3 — 4 lines long. The 
 female flowers are sessile in the upper axils, 
 and are enclosed in a small 2-lobed spathe ; 
 230 
 
 Anacharis Alainastrum, 
 
 the slender tube of the perianth is often two 
 or three inches long, so as to attain the surface 
 of the water, where it terminates in three or six 
 small spreading segments. The male flowers are 
 seldom observed. The plant was first found in 
 Britain in 1842, by the late Dr Johnston of Berwick, 
 in the lake of Dunse Castle ; and again in 1847 by 
 Miss Kirby, in the reservoirs of a canal in Leicester- 
 shire. It is now very abundant and troublesome in 
 the Trent, Derwent, and other rivers. Its rapidity of 
 growth is extraordinary. Immense masses disfigure 
 the shallows of the Trent, and cover the beds of the 
 deeps. It strikes its shoots under the mud in a 
 lateral direction for six inches or a foot, and then 
 rises and spreads. The stems are very brittle, and 
 every fragment is capable of grovraig, so that the 
 means usually adopted to get quit of it serve rather 
 for its propagation. It appears, however, that water- 
 fowl are very fond of it ; and by them, probably, its 
 seeds may be conveyed from one river to another. It 
 has been found that swans may be fed upon it with 
 advantage, and its excessive growth kept down 
 more efiectually in this way than in any other. It 
 is supposed to be a great impediment to the progress 
 of salmon ascending the rivers in which it occurs ; 
 but for some kinds of fish, it probably affords both 
 food and shelter. The manner of its introduction 
 into Britain is unknown, although it has been con- 
 jectiired that it may have escaped from some garden- 
 pond — a conjecture the more doubtful, from the 
 distance between the localities in which it was first 
 found; but its rapid increase is of great scientific 
 interest, in connection with the important subject 
 of the distribution of species. As being calculated 
 to block up water-courses, the plant involves some 
 serious economic considerations. 
 
 ANACHA'ESIS, a Scythian and brother of King 
 Saulios, visited Athens ia the time of Solon, \rith 
 whom he lived on terms of intimacy, but whose 
 abilities for framing a constitution he does not seem 
 to have estimated highly. Incited by a love of 
 learning, he subsequently travelled through several 
 countries. On account of his clearness of under- 
 standing, he was numbered among the seven wise 
 men ; and many sagacious proverbs and sayings 
 were ascribed to him. No other 'barbarian' ever 
 received the Athenian franchise. Thfe letters which 
 bear his name were written long after his time. It 
 is said that, after his return to his native land, he 
 was put to death by order of the king, who feared 
 the introduction of the mysteries belonging to the 
 Greek religion, in which it was supposed that A. 
 had been initiated. 
 
 Under the title. Voyage du Jeime Anacharsis en 
 Orice (Travels of the young Anacharsis in Greece), 
 Jean Jacques BarthSlemy, a well-known French 
 author (q. v.), wrote a description of Greek lite and 
 manners, displaying learning and good taste, but 
 disfigured by many anachronisms. A. is made to 
 visit Athens only a few years before the birth of 
 Alexander the Great, and the features of several 
 distinct periods in Grecian history are confusedly 
 regarded as having been contemporaneous. The 
 book, therefore, will not bear a critical examination ; 
 but it has contributed its share towards an improved 
 knowledge of ancient lite, and has given rise to 
 several similar works, such as the Gcdlus and 
 Charicles of Becker. The A. of Barthglemy has 
 been translated into English, and is to be found in 
 most old libraries ; it is still a deservedly esteemed 
 work, which may be read with advantage by the 
 young. 
 
 ASTA'CHEONISM, an error in chronology. 
 Sometimes an A. is purposely made for the sake of 
 effect, or to bring certain events within convenient 
 
ANACREON— ANESTHESIA. 
 
 compass for dramatic purposes. Shakspeare, in his 
 Julius CcEsar, makes the ' dock ' strike three ; and 
 Schiller, in his Piccolomini, speaks of a ' lightning- 
 conductor' as existing about 150 years before the 
 date of its invention. These discrepancies, however, 
 do not seriotisly injure the general truth of a poetical 
 work. The A. is more oS'ensive when, ia a work 
 which pedantically adheres to the costumes and other 
 external features of old times, we find a modern 
 style of thought and language, as in the old French 
 dramas of CorneiUe and Kacine. In popular epic 
 poetry, A. is a common feature. AohiUes is always 
 young ; Helena, always beautiful. In their versions 
 of old classic toditions, the writers of the middle 
 ages converted Alexander, ^Eneas, and other ancient 
 heroes, into good Christian knights of the 12th c. 
 In the Nibehmgen-Ued, AttUa and Theodorio are 
 good friends and allies, though the latter began to 
 reign some 40 years after the former. At the end of 
 the poem, the heroine, who must have been nearly 
 sixty years old, and had passed through great 
 affliction and sorrow, is stUl 'the beautiful Queen 
 Kriemhild.' — Many ludicrous examples of A. may 
 be found in old paintings — e. g., Abraham, Isaac, 
 and Jacob in modem costumes. 
 
 ANA'CEEON, one of the most esteemed lyric 
 poets of Greece, was born at Teos, a seaport of 
 Ionia, spent part of his youth in Abdera, to which 
 place most of his fellow-townsmen emigrated when 
 the city was taken by the Persians in 540 B.C., and 
 rose to fame as a poet about 530 B.C. He was patron- 
 ised by Polyorates, the ruler of Samos, who mvited 
 tiim to his court; and there he sang, in light and 
 flowing strains, the praise of wine and beauty. After 
 the death of Polyorates, he went to Athens (521 B. c), 
 and was received with distinguished honour by Hip- 
 parchus. On the fall of Hipparchus, he left Athens, 
 and probably returned to Teos, from which, during 
 the insurrection of Ionia against Darius, he fled to 
 Abdera, where he died, at the age of 85. Accord- 
 ing to tradition, he was choked by a dried grape. 
 Great honours were paid to him after his death ; 
 Teos put his Ukeness upon its coins, and a statue 
 was raised to him on the Acropolis of Athens, which 
 represented him in a state of vinous hilarity. 
 
 Only a few of his poems have been preserved. Of 
 five Books which once existed, only 68 lyrics now 
 exist which bear his name ; but of these, compara- 
 tively few are to be confidently regarded as 
 genuine. They exhibit great simplicity and delicacy 
 of expression, fertUity of invention, and variety of 
 illustration. Moore, a poet of congenial spirit, trans- 
 lated the Odes of A. into English verse. 
 
 ANACY'CLUS. See Pblutoey or Spain. 
 
 ANADYO'MENE ('emerging'), one of the names 
 of Venus ; a painting by Apelles, representing Venus 
 rising from the sea, and wringing her flowmg wet 
 hair. Phryne or Pancaste was supposed to have 
 supplied the model for this master-piece of Apelles. 
 The inhabitants of the island of Cos bought the 
 picture, and placed it in the temple of Esculapius. 
 Augustus afterwards bought it for 100 talents of 
 remitted taxes, and placed it in the temple of Venus 
 Genetrix. It is frequently described in the Greek 
 
 AN.^'MIA (from a, privative, and aima, blood) is 
 the condition generally termed poverty of blood, and 
 consists essentially of a diminution in the fibrine, 
 and especially in the proportion of red corpuscles of 
 the blood (see Blood), which in some cases of A. 
 may be so low as 27 in 1000 parts. Persons in an 
 anaemic condition have pale waxy complexions, pallid 
 lips and tongues, and if blood be drawn from them, 
 it forms a clot which ia less rect, and also smaller in 
 
 proportion to the serum, than blood from a healthy 
 person. 
 
 They suffer from palpitations, fainting, and head- 
 aches, singing in the ears, and disturbed vision; 
 and the symptoms may simulate organic disease 
 within the head or of the heart. This A. condition 
 may be induced by repeated losses of blood, or by 
 defective nutrition, or by some cause, as in chlorosis, 
 when the balance is disturbed between the loss and 
 rejOToduction of the red corpuscles. 
 
 The curative treatment of A. consists in allowing 
 the patient fresh air, good nourishment, and those 
 materials which promote the formation of the defi- 
 cient elements of the vital fluid. Of these, the prin- 
 cipal is iron, of which there are several preparations. 
 Iliis remedy has, in some instances of chlorosis, 
 doubled the proportion of red blood corpuscles in a 
 very short time. 
 
 AN.iESTHB'SIA (ra, privative, and aiatliesis, sensa- 
 tion) is a term used to express a loss of sensibility 
 to external impressions, wMch may involve a part or 
 the whole surface of the body. In some diseased con- 
 ditions of the nervous centres, a part of the body may 
 become totally insensible to pain, while in another 
 part, sensation may be unnaturally acute, or be in 
 a state of hyperjEsthesia. When a nerve is divided, 
 the parts which it supphes lose their sensation ; and 
 in some diseases, as the elephantiasis grcecorwm, a 
 loss of sensation in patches of the skin is an early, 
 and characteristic symptom. This insensibility to 
 external impressions may be either peripheral — that 
 is, on the surface of the body— or central, that is, 
 from a cause acting primarily upon the brain or 
 spinal cord ; and some means of temporarily inducing 
 either of these has always been earnestly sought by 
 surgical practitioners. 
 
 In ancient writers, we read of inseusibiUty or 
 indifference to pain being obtained by means of 
 the Indian hemp {Ganabus Indica), either inhaled 
 or taken into the stomach. The Chinese, more than 
 1500 years ago, used a preparation of hemp, or 
 ma-yo, to annul the pain attendant upon cauterisa- 
 tion and surgical operations. Probably, they used 
 the hemp by inhalation. The Greeks and Komans 
 used mandragora for a similar purpose {poiein 
 anaisthesian) ; and as late as the 13th c, the vapour 
 from a sponge filled with mandragora, opium, and 
 other sedatives was used. The mandragora, however, 
 occasionally induced convulsions, with other alarming 
 symptoms ; and though Bulleyn, an English author 
 (1579), mentions the possibility of putting patients 
 who were to be cut for the stone into ' a trance or a 
 deepe terrible dreame ' by its use, it gradually 
 became obsolete and banished ' from the pharma- 
 copoeia; and although it is probable that surgeons 
 occasionally endeavoured to procure A. for their 
 patients, there was no one means of doing so in 
 general use. John Baptista Porta, of Naples, in his 
 work on Natural Magic (1597), speaks of a quint- 
 essence extracted from medicines by somniferous 
 mmslrua, the nature of which he does not mention. 
 This was kept in leaden vessels, perfectly closed, 
 lest the aura should escape, for the medicine would 
 vanish away. 'When it is used, the cover being 
 removed, it is appHed to the nostrils of the sleeper, 
 who draws in the most subtile power of the vapour 
 by smelling, and so blocks up the fortress^ of the 
 senses, that he is plunged into the most profound 
 sleep, and cannot be roused without the greatest 
 
 effort These things are plain to the skilful 
 
 physician, but uninteUigible to the wicked.' Dr 
 Snow suggests that the evanescent substance was 
 sulphuric ether, which had been described more than 
 fifty years before. In 1784, Dr Moore, of London, 
 used compression on the nerves of a limb requiring 
 amputation, but tMs method was in itself productive 
 
ANAGALLIS— ANAHUAC, 
 
 of much pain. In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy, experi- 
 menting with the nitrous oxide or laughing-gas, 
 suggested its usefuhiess as an anaesthetic; and 
 in 1828, Dr Hickman suggested carbonic acid 
 gas. As early as 1795, Dr Pearson had used the 
 vapour of sulphuric ether for the relief of spasmodic 
 affections of me respiration. The fact that sulphuric 
 ether could produce insensihility was shewn by the 
 American physicians, Godwin (1822), Mitchell (1832), 
 Jackson (1833), Wood and Bache (1834) ; but it 
 was first used to prevent the pain of an operation 
 in 1846, by Dr Morton, a dentist of Boston. The 
 news of his success reached England on 17th 
 December 1846 ; on the 19th, Mr Kobinson, a dentist, 
 and Mr Liston, the eminent surgeon, operated on 
 patients rendered insensible by the inhalation of 
 the sulphuric ether. This material was extensively 
 used for a year, when Dr J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, 
 discovered the anaesthetic powers of ChXoroform, (see 
 Chloroform), and introduced the use of it into his 
 own department, midwifery. Since that time, 
 chloroform has been the anaesthetic in general use. 
 
 Nothing could be more desirable than the power 
 of producing local A.; but as yet no efficient and 
 sat&factory agent has been discovered. Dr Arnott 
 has indeed shewn that the application of a freezing 
 mixture of ice and salt can render a part insensible 
 to the surgeon's knife; and for dentistry, Mr 
 Morrison, of Edinburgh, has lately introduced an 
 apparatus by which a current of air, at a very low 
 temperature, can be apphed to the gum. But the 
 pain of the application is often found little less 
 than that which it is intended to prevent. From 
 various causes, and especially the well-merited 
 confidence of the pubho in its safety, when skilfully 
 employed, chloroform continues to occupy its high 
 place as one of the greatest blessings granted to 
 man. It is proper, however, to say that it requires 
 to be used under certain precautions, and that in 
 unskilful hands its application may be fatal. It 
 should be administered only by expert practitioners. 
 
 See Ore Chloroform and other AnaestheHca, by John 
 Snow, Lond. 1858 ; The Obstetric Memoirs and Con- 
 tributions of-James Y. Simpson, Edin. 1855 ; also an 
 article on Anaesthesia in the Westmimter Beview for 
 Jan. 1859. 
 
 ANAGALLIS. See PrMPEBNEL. 
 
 A'NAGRAM (from the Greek ana, backwards, and 
 gramma, writing), the transposition of the letters of 
 a word, phrase, or short sentence, so as to form a 
 new word or sentence. It originally signified a 
 simple reversal of the order of letters, butnas long 
 borne the sense in which it is now used. The 
 Cabalists attached great importance to anagrams, 
 believing in some relation of them to the character 
 or destiny of the persons from whose names they 
 were formed. Plato entertained a similar notion, 
 and the later Platonists rivalled the Cabalists in 
 ascribing to them mysterious virtues. Although 
 now classed among follies, or at best among ingeni- 
 ous trifles, anagrams formerly employed the most 
 serious minds, and some of the puritanical writers 
 commended the use of them. Cotton Mather, in 
 his elegy on the death of John Wilson, the first 
 pastor of Boston, in New England, mentions 
 
 His care to guide his ilocic and feed his lambs 
 
 By words, works, prayers, psalms, alms, and anagrams. 
 
 The best anagrams are such as have, in the new 
 order of letters, some signification appropriate to 
 that from which they are formed. It was a great 
 triumph of the mediaeval anagrammatist to find in 
 Pilate's question, ' Quid est Veritas ? ' (What is truth ?) 
 its own answer: ' Ust vir qui adesf (It is the man 
 who is here). Anagrams, in the days of their popu- 
 larity, were much employed, both for complimentary 
 222 
 
 and for satirical purposes ; and a little straining was 
 often employed in the omission, addition, or altera- 
 tion of letters, although, of course, the merit of an 
 A. depended much upon its accuracy. 
 
 I. D'lsraeH {Curiosities of Literaiwre, vol. iii.) has 
 a chapter on anagrams, which, as an exercise of 
 ingenuity, he ranks far above acrostics. Among a 
 great many considered by him worthy of record, are 
 the following : The mistress of Charles IX. of France 
 was named Marie Tomhet; this became le charme 
 taut (I charm every one), 'which is historically just.' 
 The flatterers of James I. of England proved his 
 right to the British monarchy, as the descendant 
 of the mythical King Arthur, from his name Charles 
 James Stuart, which becomes Claims Arthur's Seat. 
 An author, in dedicating a book to the same 
 monarch, finds that in James Stuart he has a just 
 master. 'But, perhaps, the happiest of anagrams 
 was produced on a singular person and occasion. 
 Lady Eleanor Davies, Sie wife of the celebrated 
 Sir John Davies, the poet, was a very extraordinary 
 character. She was the Cassandra of her age, and 
 several of her predictions warranted her to conceive 
 she was a prophetess. As her prophecies in the 
 troubled times of Charles I. were usually against the 
 government, she was at length brought by them 
 into the Court of High Commission. The prophetess 
 was not a Uttle mad, and fancied the spirit of 
 Daniel was in her, from an A. she had formed of 
 her name, 
 
 ' Eleanor Davies. 
 Beve&l, Daniel! 
 
 The A. had too much by an I, and too little by 
 an s; yet Danid and reveal were in it, and that 
 was sufficient to satisfy her inspirations. The court 
 attempted to dispossess the spirit from the lady, 
 while the bishops were in vain reasoning the point 
 with her out of the Scriptures, to no purpose, she 
 poising text against text : one of the deans of the 
 arches, says Heylin, shot her through and through 
 with an arrow borrowed from her own quiver ; he 
 took a pen, and at last hit upon this excellent A. ; 
 
 Dame Eleanok Davies. 
 Never so mad a Ladie ! 
 
 The happy fancy put the solemn court into laughter, 
 and Cassandra into the utmost dejection of spirit. 
 Foiled by her own weapons, her spirit suddenly 
 forsook her; and either she never afterwards 
 ventured on prophesying, or the A. perpetually 
 reminded her hearers of her state — and we hear no 
 more of this prophetess.' 
 
 On a visit to King's Newton Hall, in Derbyshire, 
 Charles II. is said to have left written on one of 
 the windows, Cras era Ivx (To-morrow I shall be 
 light), which is the A. of Carolus Rex. 
 
 ANAHTJA'O, a Mexican term, said to signify 
 ' near the water.' Its application is vague in -the 
 extreme. It is either a- plateau or a ridge. As -a, 
 ridge, again it oscillates between the continuation 
 of the Kocky Mountains, below lat. 40° N., and 
 that branch of the chain which runs nearly parallel 
 to the upper course of the Eio Bravo del Norte; 
 and as a plateau, it designates either the whole of 
 the table-land of Mexico or certain portions thereof, 
 more or less extensive, with the capital as a common 
 centre. Practically, if one acceptation is more 
 generally admitted than another, A. may be re- 
 garded as the largest of those plateaus— a defini- 
 tion which, with reference to the number of lakes, 
 seems more peculiarly to suit the etymology of 
 the word. See further, Corbilleras of Central 
 America — a description which, for want of a briefer 
 and better one, may be made to embrace aU that 
 less regular section of the backbone of America 
 which lies between the simple formations of the 
 
ANAKIM— ANALOGY, 
 
 Andes to the south and the Booky Mountains to 
 the north. 
 
 A'lTAKIM, a, pgantio race of people, whose 
 stronghold was Kirjath-arha, in the south of Pales- 
 tine. In the opinion of some biblical critics, they 
 were not Canaanitea, as they are not included 
 in the hat of devoted nations ; others, again, con- 
 clude from the fact that invariably mention is made 
 only of three individuals or families, that the name 
 ia. appellative rather than gentile, and that the A. 
 were merely particular tribes of the wide-apfead and 
 powerful Amoritea, distinguished for their unusual 
 stature. Be that as it may, the Israelites conaidered 
 them too dangerous for neighbours, and consequently 
 subjected them to the same stem treatment as the 
 rest. It was the A. whose appearance so terrified the 
 Hebrew spies who entered the Land of Promise 
 from Kadeah-bamea. Those who escaped the sword 
 of Joshua fled to the country of the Philistines; 
 and it has been conjectured that Goliath and the 
 other Philistine giants were their descendants ; a 
 supposition probjible enough, when we reflect Ihat 
 the particular places in which the fugitive A. took 
 refuge were Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod. The word 
 Anak means a necklace or neck-chain ; and some 
 have supposed that these giants received that name 
 from the circumstance of their wearing such orna- 
 ments proudly round their necks; others translate 
 the word A. by 'long-necked men,' or men with 
 long-stretched necks, i. e., men of great height. The 
 A., nowever, in all probabUity, immediately derived 
 their name from Anak, the son of Arba. 
 
 ANAKOLTT'THON is a term employed both in 
 Grammar and Bhetoric, to denote ■Qie absence of 
 strict logical sequence in the grammatical construc- 
 tion. Good writers sometimes sacrifice this logical 
 sequence to emphasis, clearness, or graceful arrange- 
 ment. In colloquial speech, nothing is more com- 
 mon than examples of A. 
 
 A'lirAIi GLANDS. Under this name taay be 
 described a large and diversified group of glands, 
 found in many animals, and generally characterised 
 by the disagreeable odour of Qieir secretion. Those 
 to which the name most strictly belongs are of fre- 
 quent occurrence among camivora and rodents ; they 
 consist of follioles which pour their accretion into 
 sacs with muscular walls and narrow orifices, placed 
 one on each side of the anus. According to the 
 most recent investigations, it appears that these 
 sacs are to be considered as prolongations inwards of 
 the common integument, and that two sorts of 
 glands open into them ; one of a lobulated struc- 
 ture, having a fatty accretion, and representing the 
 sebaceous ^ands of the skin greatly hypertrophied ; 
 the other crowded more at Sie bottom of the sac, 
 tubular, and elaborating the specific secretion. In 
 the hyaena, there is a single sac, which opens by a 
 transverse fissure above tiie vent. There is a gra- 
 dual passage from true A. G. to others of a somewhat 
 different character. Thus, there are glands called 
 inguinal in the hare and rabbit — ^little bare places 
 pouring out an unctuous secretion, which are held to 
 be equivalent to A. G., only not enclosed in sacs. 
 The civet cat has an anal sac on each side of the 
 vent ; and also two other sacs opening by a conunon 
 outlet in front of the vent; and from the 
 latter is derived the substance known as civet, 
 which the negroes seek for on the trees where 
 it haa been left by the civet oats. The civet 
 gland furnishes a natural linlr between the A. 
 G. and those more closely connected with the 
 genital apertures, called preputial. The most remark- 
 able are those of the beaver, large sacs found both 
 in the male and female, and which furnish the 
 
 oastoreum of commerce. The beaver has true A. 
 G. besides. The sac which contains the musk of 
 the musk-deer lies in the middle line beneath the 
 skin of the abdomen, and opens at the prepuce. 
 The secretion peculiar to badgers, polecats, and 
 skunks, and which they use as an instrument of 
 defence, shielding themselves from their adversaries 
 by an overpowering and intolerable odour, comes 
 from a pouch situated beneath the taU. In some 
 animals, we meet with secretions similar to some of 
 the above, poured out on other parts of the body. 
 Thus, in the bat, there are glands on the face opening 
 above the mouth, which prepare a fetid oily secre- 
 tion ; the so-called lachrymal follicles of ruminants, 
 and the cutaneous glands of the tail of the deer, 
 secrete a dark unctuous humour ; and the temporal 
 gland between the eye and the ear of the elephant 
 pours out an oily substance at rutting-time. The 
 peccary has an odoriferous gland on its back ; and 
 the crocodile his a musk-sac under the Iowct 
 jaw. Anal sacs opening immediately behind tffi 
 vent are also found in the crocodile and in many 
 
 A'lfALOGXJB, a term in Comparative Anatomy. 
 Organs are analogous to one another, or are analogues, 
 when they perform the same function, though they 
 may be altogether different in structure ; as the 
 wings of a bird, and the so-called wings of the flying 
 lizard. Organs, again, are homologoua, or homologues, 
 when they are corresponding parts in the skeleton, 
 however different theu: form and fimctiou. Thus, the 
 arms of a man, the pectoral fins of a fish, and the 
 wings of a bird, are homologues of one another. See 
 Homology. 
 
 ANA'LOGY, a term originally Greek, and which 
 signifies an agreement or correspondence in certain 
 respects between things in other respects differ- 
 ent. EucUd employed it to signify proportion, 
 or the equality of ratios, and it has retained 
 this sense in mathematics ; but it is a term 
 little used in the exact sciences, and of very fre- 
 quent use in every other department of knowledge 
 and of hiunau affairs. In Grammar, we speak of the 
 A. of language, i. e., the correspondence of a word 
 or phrase with the genius of the language, as learned 
 from the manner in which its words and phrases are 
 ordinarily formed. A., in fact, supposes a rule 
 inferred from observation of instances, and upon the 
 application of which, in other instances not pre- 
 cisely, but in some respects, similar, we venture, with 
 more or less confidence, according to the degree of 
 ascertained similarity, and according to the extent 
 of observation from which our knowledge of the 
 rule has been derived. The opposite to A. is 
 Anomaly (Gr. irregularity) ; and this term is used 
 not only in Grammar, but with reference to objects 
 of Natural History which in any respect are excep- 
 tions to the ordinary rule of their class or kind. 
 In the progress of science, analogies have been dis- 
 covered pervading aU nature, and upon which con- 
 clusions are often based with great confidence and 
 safety. Reasoning from A, indeed warrants only 
 probable conclusions ; biit the probability may 
 become of a very high degree, and in the affairs of 
 life we must often act upon conclusions thus attained. 
 Keasoning from A., however, requires much caution 
 in the reasoner. Yet even when its conclusions are 
 very uncertain, they often serve to guide inquiry 
 and lead to discovery. Many of the most brilliant 
 discoveries recently made in Natural Science were 
 the result of investigations thus directed. Where 
 the proper evidence of truth is of another kind, 
 arguments from A. are often of great use for the 
 removal of objections. It is thus that they are 
 employed by Bishop Butler in his .<1. of Bdigim, 
 
AiTALYSIS. 
 
 Naimral and Revealed, to the ConstiiuMon and 
 Course of Nature. In Law, reasoning from A. must 
 often, to a certain extent, he admitted in the appli- 
 cation of statutes to particular oases. Upon shmlar 
 reasoning, the practice of medicine very much 
 d.epends. To discover the meaning of any composi- 
 tion, it is also often necessary ; the sense of the 
 author in a passage somewhat obscure being in some 
 measure determined according to passages in which 
 he has expressed himself more clearly. The appli- 
 cation of this rule to the interpretation of Scripture 
 is a point of difference between Protestants and 
 Roman Catholics, the latter insisting upon the 
 interpretation of difficult passages by ecclesiastical 
 tradition and authority. The extension of it to the 
 whole Scriptures, however, depends upon the admis- 
 sion of their inspiration ; but this, when fuUy 
 admitted, warrants a more confident use of analogi- 
 cal reasoning than in the case of the works, or even 
 of a single work, of an uninspired author. Protest- 
 ant theologians have very generally employed, with 
 reference to this rule of interpretation, the phrase 
 ' A. of Faith,' deriving it from Kom, xii. 6 ; but the 
 meaning of the ex.pression in that verse is disputed. 
 However, the reality of an A. of faith, and the right 
 of reasoning from it, are not affected by any criticism 
 on that verse. 
 
 ANA'LYSIS (Gr.), the resolution of a whole into 
 its component parts. In mental philosophy, this 
 term is apjjlied to the logical treatment of an idea so 
 as to resolve it into other ideas which combine to 
 form it. A judgment or proposition may thus also 
 be analysed. The opposite of A. is Synthesis (q. v.) ; 
 and the opposition of these terms is common in 
 other branches of science as well as in mental philos- 
 ophy. We speak of an analytic method in science, 
 and of a syntJietic method; and both are necessary, 
 the one comiog to the assistance of the other to 
 secure against error, and promote the ascertainment 
 of truth. The analytic method proceeds from the 
 examination of facts to the determination of prin- 
 ciples ; whilst the synthetic metho^i proceeds to the 
 determination of consequences from principles 
 known or assumed. The test of perfection in a 
 theory is the harmony of the results obtained by the 
 methods of A. and synthesis. 
 
 Mathematical A., in the modem sense of the term, 
 is the method of treating aU quantities as unknown 
 numbers, and representing them for this purpose by 
 symbols, such as letters, the relations subsisting 
 among them being thus stated and subjected to 
 further investigation. It is therefore the same thing 
 with Algebra, in the widest sense of that term, 
 although the term algebra is more strictly limited to 
 what relates to equations, and thus denotes only the 
 first part of A. The second pai-t of it, or A. more 
 strictly so called, is divided into the A. of Finite 
 Quantities, and the A. of Infinite Quantities. To the 
 former, also called the Theory of Functions, belong 
 the subjects of Series, Logarithms, Curves, &c. The 
 A. of Infinites comprehends the Differential Calculus, 
 the Integral^alculus, and the Calculus of Variations. 
 To the diligent prosecution of mathematical A. by 
 minds of the greatest acuteness, is to be ascribed the 
 great progress both of pure and applied mathematics 
 within the last two centuries. 
 
 The A. of the ancient mathematicians was a thing 
 entirely different from this, and consisted simply in 
 the application of the analytic method as opposed to 
 the synthetic, to the solution of geometrical questions. 
 That which was to be proved being in the first 
 place assimied, an inquiry was instituted into those 
 things upon which it depended, and thus the investi- 
 gation proceeded, as it were, back; until something 
 was reached which was already ascertained, and 
 from which the new proposition might be seen by 
 
 224 
 
 necessary consequence to flow. A reversal of the 
 steps of the inquiry now gave the synthetical proof 
 of the proposition. The modem mathematicjd A. 
 affords a much more easy and rapid means of solving 
 geometrical questions; but the ancient A. also 
 aflTorded opportunity for the exercise of much acute- 
 ness, and was the chief instrument of the advance- 
 ment of mathematical science until comparatively 
 recent times. The invention of it is ascribed to 
 Plato ; but of the works of the ancients on geometri- 
 cal A. none are extant, except some portions of those 
 of Euclid, ApoUcfnius of Perga, and Archimedes. 
 
 ANALYSIS, in Chemistry, is the term applied 
 to that department of experimental science which 
 has for its object the chemical disunion or separation 
 of the constituents of a compound substance : thus, 
 the resolution of water into its components hydro- 
 gen and oxygen ; of common salt into chlorine and 
 sodium ; of marble into lime and carbonic acid ; of 
 rust into iron and oxygen; of sugar into carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen ; and of chloroform into 
 carbon, hydrogen, and chlorine — are all examples 
 of chemical A. This department of chemistry, 
 therefore, takes cognizance of the breaking down 
 of the more complex or compound substances into 
 their more simple and elementary constituents, and 
 is antagonistic to chemical synthesis, which treats 
 of the union of the more simple or elementary bodies 
 to produce the more complex or compound. Chemi- 
 cal A. is of two kinds : Qualitative A., which deter- 
 mines the quality or nature of the ingredients of 
 a compound, without regard to the quantity of each 
 which may be present ; and quantitative A., which 
 calls in the aid of the balance or measure, and 
 estimates the exact proportion, by weight or volume, 
 in which the several constituents are united. Thus, 
 qualitative A. informs us what water, marble, com- 
 mon salt, &c., are composed of; but it remains for 
 cjuaniitative A. to tell us that water consists of 1 
 part of hydrogen by weight united with 8 parts of 
 oxygen; that marble is composed of 28 parts of 
 lime, and 22 of carbonic acid ; common salt, of 354 
 parts of chlorine, and 23 of sodium ; turpentine, of 
 30 carbon, and 4 hydrogen ; chloroform, of 12 
 carbon, 1 hydrogen, and 106^ chlorine. 
 
 The divisions of inorganic (mineral) chemistry and 
 organic (vegetable and animal) chemistry have led 
 to a corresponding classification of chemical A. 
 into inorganic A., comprehending the processes fol- 
 lowed and the results obtained in the investigation 
 of the atmosphere, water, soils, and rocks ; and 
 organic A., treating of the modes of isolation, and 
 the nature, of the ingredients found in or derived 
 from organised structures — viz., plants and animals. 
 Both departments afford examples of what are called 
 proxitnate and ultimaie A. Proximate A. is the reso- 
 lution of a compound substance into components 
 which are themselves compound : thus, in inorganic 
 chemistry, marble is resolved into lime (calcium 
 united with oxygen) and carbonic acid (carbon with 
 oxygen) ; whilst idtimate A. comprehends the 
 disunion of a compound into its elements or the 
 simplest forms of matter: thus, lime into calcium 
 and oxygen ; carbonic acid into carbon and oxygen 
 water into hydrogen and oxygen. Organic chem- 
 istry affords still better examples of e.ach class ; 
 thus, ordinary wheat-flour, when subjected to proxi- 
 mate A., yields, as its proximate components, gluten 
 (vegetable fibrin), albumen, starch, sugar, gum, oil, 
 and saline matter; but each of these proximate 
 ingredients is in itself compound, and when they 
 undergo ultimate A., the gluten and albumen 
 yield, as their ultimate elements or constituents, 
 carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and 
 phosphorus ; and the starch, sugar, gum, and oil are 
 found built up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 
 
ANAM— ANASTASIUa 
 
 Several other terma are in iise in chemical treatises : 
 thus, Oas A. is applied to the processes employed in 
 the examination of the various gases, and is every 
 day becoming of more and more importance and 
 interest. Metallurgic A. includes the smelting of 
 metallic ores, the assay of aUoya of gold, silver, &c., 
 and, in general, everything that pertains to the 
 ultimate A. of metallic ores and oompotmda. Agi-icul- 
 tural A. is, restricted to the examination of manures, 
 feeding-stuffs, and soUs ; Medical or Physiological A. 
 to the mvestigation of blood, virine, and other animal 
 fluids and juices, and the examination of medicinal 
 compounds ; whilst Commercial A. is the term 
 used where ^eat accuracy or nicety of detail is 
 not required in an A., but where the commercially 
 important constituents alone are determined, as the 
 separation and recording of the amount of phosphates, 
 ammonia, and alkaline salts in a sample of guano ; 
 the total amount of saline matter in a certain water; 
 the ii-on in an ironstone, the Ume'in a limestone, &c. 
 
 Analy'tioal Chemistby is that department of 
 chemistry which .takes cognizance of analyses. The 
 analytical chemist requires some peculiar apparatus, 
 together with reagents, generally solutions, by the 
 addition or reaction of wEchthe nature and amount 
 of the ingredients of a compound are determined. 
 
 ANA'M, a feudatory dependency of China, in the 
 east portion of Further India, comprising, from the 
 Celestial Empire southwards, Tonquin, Cochin China, 
 and part of Cambodia. It lies between lat. 90° 
 and 23° N., and between long. 102° and 109° E. Its 
 area is about 98,000 square miles — considerably more 
 than that of Great Britain ; while its population 
 is estimated at 5,000,000, aU Buddhists, excepting, 
 what is singula^ enough, about 400,000 Christians. 
 The inhabitants, however, are not noted for the 
 earnestness of their rehgious feelings. Their sense 
 of the supernatural manifests itself principally in 
 reverence for the dead, whose obsequies are per- 
 formed with great splendour. The Anamese lan- 
 guage resembles the Chinese. It is monosyUabio 
 and harsh, and contains no literature. Whatever of 
 this is found in A. is borrowed from their ' Celestial' 
 kinsmen in the north. They have a maritime taste, 
 and excel in ship-building. The king himself seems 
 to keep them busy in this way, for, besides having 
 800 war-craft, he monopolises, by means of larger 
 vessels, the foreign trade of his dominions. The 
 climate is said to be salubrious, and the soil to be 
 productive — features which, combiaed as they are, 
 with some of the best harbours in the world, recom- 
 mend A. alik^ for commerce and for colonisation. 
 These advantages France appears to appreciate, for it 
 is at this moment making its third attempt to gain 
 an ascendency in the country, the first having been 
 made as far back as the days of Louis XVI. 
 
 ANAMIETA. See Coccdlus Indicus. 
 
 ANA'NAS. See Pine Apple. 
 
 A'NAECHY (from the Gr. a, privative, and ardie, 
 government), the state of society without any 
 re^ar governqient, when a country is torn by the 
 strife of parties, and no law or authority remains. 
 Complete A. is necessarily rare and of short dura- 
 tion ; but conditions approaching to it often arise 
 after revolutions and gross abuses in government ; 
 and in such cases it is apt to become, as in the South 
 American states, a chronic or permanent evil, 
 attended with constant national decay. 
 
 ANAJBEHICHAS. See Wolf-fish. 
 
 A'KAS, a Linnsean genus of birds, included in the 
 order Palmipedes (Web-footed birds) of the system 
 of Cuvier, and divided by recent ornithologists into 
 a number of genera; one of which, retaining the 
 name A., contams the true Ducks, and others contain 
 15 
 
 thi? Swans (Gygnus), Geese {Anser), Scoters (Oidemia) 
 Garrota {Olangula), Eiders (Somaima), Pochards 
 (Fuligula), Shovellers (Rhyncaspia), Shieldrakes 
 (Tadorna), Musk-ducks {Cadrina), Teals {Querqiied- 
 ida), Widgeons {Mareca), &o. These, with Mergansers 
 (Mergus) and Flamingoes [PhcenicoptetTis), constitute 
 the family Anaiida of some ornithologists. Cuvier 
 places them in a f amUy called by him Lamelliroatres, 
 and distinguished by a thick bill, homy only at 
 the naU-Uke extremity, and elsewhere invested with 
 a soft skin, the edges furnished with laminae, or with 
 small teeth particularly adapted for the purpose of 
 separating the food from the mud which is often 
 taken into the bill along with it. The laminae, and 
 a large and broad bill, are the chief characteristics 
 of the old genus A. Some, as the true ducks, sub- 
 sist in great part on small insects ; others, as geese 
 and swans, almost exclusively on vegetable food. 
 The species are very mmierous, distributed over aU 
 parts of the world, some of them very abundant 
 in the polar regions. Some are important for their 
 feathers or down, others for their flesh and for 
 their eggs. A few have been domesticated, and are 
 conunonly kept for economic uses. See Duck, 
 Goose, Swan, Elder, Baenaolb, Teal, &c. 
 
 ANASTA'SIUS I., Patriarch of Constantinople, 
 was born in the second half of the 7th c. He 
 favoured the party of iconoclasts, or image-breakers. 
 He owed his elevation to the Emperor Leon, who 
 exacted from him a pledge that he would assist in 
 the destruction of the images. A. kept his word ; 
 but having made himself obnoxious to the new 
 emperor, Constantino Copronymus, the latter (743) 
 seized him, put out his eyes, and marched him 
 through the hippodrome (race-coTn-se) mounted on an 
 ass with his head to the tail. He died in 7S3. 
 
 AWASTASIUS, Saint, surnamed Asteic, 
 apostle of the Hungarians, was bom in 954, and 
 died in 1044. A Frenchman by birth, he finally 
 settled, after various changes, at the court of 
 Stephen, Duke of Hungary, where he became very 
 influential, and was intrusted with the ecclesiastical 
 organisation of the land. All his energies were de- 
 voted to securing the triumph of the Christian faith. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I. was elected pope, or rather 
 bishop of Eome, in 398 A. D. He succeeded Siricius, 
 one year after the death of Ambrose. Under his 
 pontificate, flourished Ohrysostom, Augustine, and 
 Jerome. The most conspicuous act of his life 
 was the reconciliation of the ' church of Antioch 
 with that of Home, after a schism of 17 years. 
 Among the epistles attributed to A., two are 
 obviously apocryphal ; the one addressed to Nere- 
 nianus ; the other, to the German bishops. The 
 latter commanded the faithful to remain stand- 
 ing while the gospel was read in the churches, that 
 neophytes should receive holy orders only on the 
 recommendation of five bishops, and that the Mani- 
 chseans, who had been expelled from Eome, should 
 not be admitted into Germany. But the first of 
 these epistles is posterior to the death of A., and the 
 second, anterior to his accession to the pontificate. 
 A. was vehemently opposed to the doctrines of 
 Origen, one qf whose works [Peri Archon, i. e., ' Con- 
 cerning Principles') he condemned as heretical. 
 For tms, he is praised by Jerome, who calls him a 
 man of a holy life, of a 'rich poverty,' and of an 
 apostohcal earnestness. During his hfe, several coim- 
 cils were held, at Carthage, Constantinople, Ephesus, 
 and Toledo. He died l)ec. 14, 401 A. D.— There 
 were three other popes of this name. Anastasius 
 IL (496^98), Anastasius IIL (911—913), and 
 Anastasius IV. (1153—1154). See Pope. 
 
 ANASTASIUS I., emperor of the East, was 
 born in 430 A. D., at Dyrraohium, in Epirus, of an 
 
 • 225 
 
ANASTATIC PEHSTTING— ANATOLIA. 
 
 obscure family. The early portion of his life is 
 unknown to history. On the death of Zeno, he was 
 proclaimed emperor by the senate, and crowned on 
 the 11th April 491, at the age of 60. He owed Jiis 
 elevation to Ariadne, widow of Zeno, whom he 
 married. No monarch was ever more notable for 
 his heresies. One of his generals, Vitalian, taking 
 advantage of this unpopular feature of his character, 
 revolted, ravaged Thrace, Scythia, and Moesia, com- 
 pelled Anastasius to promise to recall the ortho- 
 dox bishops whom he had banished, and secured for 
 himself the title of Governor of Thrace. Anastasius, 
 however, had some good natural qualities, and per- 
 formed certain praiseworthy actions. He suppressed 
 the cruel and degrading spectacles where men fought 
 with wild beasts, abolished the sale of offices, the 
 tax on domestic animals, which had existed since the 
 days of Vespasian, biult a wall on the west side of 
 Constantmople to defend it from the incursions of 
 the barbarians, constructed aqueducts in the city of 
 Hierapolis, made a harbour at Caesarea, and restored 
 the ' rfiaros ' or light-house at Alexandria. He died 
 8th July 518. — ANASTAsnrs II., emperor of the 
 East, was bom about the middle of the 7th u., and 
 died in 719 A. D. His great aim was to restore 
 peace to the church, but his measures led to his 
 deposition. 
 
 ANASTATIC PRINTING. See Printinq. 
 
 ANASTATICA. See EosE or Jbeicho. 
 
 ANASTOMOSIS (Gr. the maHng of a mouth 
 or opening), an anatomical term used to express 
 the union of the vessels which cany blood or other 
 fluids, and also, for convenience' sake, the junction 
 of nerves. The veins and absorbents anastomose 
 to form large single trunks, as they approach their 
 ultimate destinations. The arteries break up into 
 small branches, for the supply of the tissues, and 
 each small vessel, agaiu, communicates with others 
 . given off above and below. At each 
 
 / large joint there is very free A., so that 
 
 t the safety of the hmb beyond may not 
 
 "Vy be entirely dependent on the single 
 V^ arterial trunk passing into it, exposed 
 jX as it is to all the obstructive influences 
 jtj of the different motions of the limb. 
 After the main artery has been perma- 
 nently obstructed, the anastomosing ves- 
 sels enlarge, so 'as to compensate for the 
 loss ; but after a time, only those whose 
 course most resembles the parent trunk 
 continue enlarged, and the others gradu- 
 ally regain their ordinary dimensions. 
 
 An idea of the profusion of this anasto- 
 
 "mosing system may be formed from the 
 
 fact, that if the ilmominata artery, or 
 
 great vessel destiaed for the supply of 
 
 the right upper half of the body, be tied, 
 
 and tinose on the left side injected with 
 
 size and vermilion, the injection will 
 
 Arteries ^°^ freely iato the arteries of the right 
 
 anaatomos- ^""' tbrough branches as minute as they 
 
 tag. are numerous. 
 
 ANA'THBMA (Gr., a thing set or hung up or 
 apart— i. e., as consecrated), a word originally sig- 
 nifying some offering or gift to Deity, generally sus- 
 pended in the temple. Tlius, we read in Luke 
 xxi. 5, that the temple was adorned ' with goodly 
 stones and gifts' {ana&enum). It also signifies a 
 sacrifice to God; and, as the animals devoted to 
 be sacrificed could not be redeemed from i death, the 
 word was ultimately used in its strongest sense, 
 implying eternal perdition, as in Rom. is. 3; Gal. 
 i. 8 and 9 ; and other places. In the Catholic Church, 
 from the 9th c, a distinction has been made between 
 excommunication and anathematising; the latter 
 
 226 
 
 n.^ 
 
 being the extreme form of denunciation against, 
 obstinate offenders. The synod of Pavia, in 850, 
 determined that all transgressors who refused tO' 
 submit to discipline, such as penance, should be 
 not merely excommunicated, but anathematised, 
 and deprived of every kind of Christian hope and 
 consolation. Such a sentence could not be pro- 
 nounced without the concurrence of the provincial 
 bishops with their metropolitan. See ExcoMMum- 
 
 CATION. 
 
 ANATO'LIA (Gr. AnatolS, the East, i. e., from 
 Constantinople) is the modem name for Asia Minor; 
 Turkish, Anadoli. It may be considered as coin- 
 cident with the peninsula ; the boundary-line on the 
 east between it and Armenia and Mesopotamia, not 
 being natural, cannot be well defined. The area 
 of the peninsula exceeds 200,000 square miles. 
 It constitutes the western prolongation of the 
 high table-land of Armenia, with its border moim- 
 tain-ranges. The interior consists of a great plateau,, 
 or, rather series of plateaus, rising in gradation from 
 2400 to 5000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains,, 
 marshes, and lakes ; the structure is volcanic, and 
 there are several conical mountains, one of which, 
 the Agridagh (Argaeus), with two craters, rises lOjOOO* 
 feet above the plain of Kaisarijeh, whiclj has itself 
 an elevation of between 2000 and 3000 feet. The 
 plateau is bordered on the north by a long train of 
 parallel mountains, varying from 4000 to 6000 feet- 
 high, and cut up into groups by cross valleys. These 
 mountains sink abruptly down on the north side to 
 a narrow strip of coast; their slopes towards the 
 interior are gentler and bare of wood. S imil ar is the 
 character of the border ranges on the south, the 
 ancient Taurus, only that they are more continuous, 
 and higher, being, to the north of the Bay of Skan- 
 derun or Issus, 10—12,000 feet, and further to the 
 west, 8 — 9000 feet. The west border is intersected 
 by numerous valleys, opening upon the Archipelago, 
 through the highlands of the ancient Caria, Lydia, 
 and Mysia, to the northern part of which Mount* 
 Ida and Olympus belong. Between the highlands 
 and the sea lie the fertile coast-lands of the Levant. 
 The rivers of A. are not considerable ; the largest 
 are the Yeshil Irmak (Iris), the Kisil Irmak (Hajys), 
 and the Sakkariah (Sangajius), flowing into the 
 Black Sea ; and the Sarabat (Hermus) and Minder 
 (Maeander) into the .^gean. 
 
 The dimate wears on the whole a south-Europeao 
 character; but a distinction must be made of four 
 regions. The central plateau, nearly destitute of 
 wood and water, has a hot climate in summer, and 
 a cold in winter; the south coast has mild winters 
 and scorching summers ; while on the coast of the 
 jEgean there is the mildest of climates and a magni- 
 ficent vegetation. On the north side, the climate is 
 not so mild, nor the productions of so tropical a kind 
 as on the west ; yet the vegetation is most luxuriant, 
 and a more delightful or ncher tract than the coast 
 from the Sea of Marmora to Trebizond, is hardly to 
 be found. The whole peninsula, however, is liable to 
 earthquakes. 
 
 In point of natural history, A. forms the transi- 
 tion from the continental character of the East to 
 the maritime character of the West. The forest- 
 trees and cultivated plants of Europe are seen 
 mingled with the forms peculiar to the East. The 
 central plateau, which is barren, except where there 
 are means of irrigation, has the character of an 
 Asiatic steppe, more adapted for the flocks and herds 
 of nomadic tribes than for agriculture ; while the 
 coasts, rich in all European products, fine fruits, 
 ohves, wine, and silk, have quite the character of the 
 south of Europe, which on the warmer and drier 
 south coast shades into that of Africa. 
 
 The inhabitants consist of the most various races. 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 The dominant race are the Osmanli Turks, who 
 number about 1,200,000, and are spread over the 
 whole country ; next to these come the Turkomans, 
 belonging to the same stock, and speaking a dialect 
 of the same language. These are found chiefly on 
 the table-land, leadmg a nomadic life ; there also 
 live hordes, of nomadic Kurds. Among the moun- 
 tains east of Trebizond are the robber tribes of the 
 Lazes. The population of the towns, in addition 
 to Turks, consists, in the west, chiefly of Greeks 
 and Jews ; and in the east, of Armenians ; the non- 
 Turkish population, along with Europeans in the 
 maritime marts, have the whole commerce of the 
 country in their hands. The whole population of 
 the peninsula is supposed not to exceed 5,000,000 ; 
 the official census of 1844 made it 10,700,000, includ- 
 ing Armenia; but this is thought to be much over- 
 estimated. The political and social arrangements 
 are much as in the rest of Turkey (q. v.). One 
 peculiarity is the old Turkish system of vassal- 
 dynasties, the Dere-begs (valley chiefs), who, like 
 the feudal lords of the middle ages in Europe, are 
 hereditary rulers and military commanders of their 
 district, under the suzerainty of the sultan. This 
 institution is in greatest force in the north-east of 
 the peninsula. The power of these feudal chiefs, 
 however, was broken by Sultan Mahmud. 
 
 The whole country is divided at present into eight 
 eiyalets or governments, under governors-general, 
 and each of these, again, into several sandjdks, or 
 provinces, under lieutenant-governors. The eyalets 
 are : 1. E^hudavendldar, in the north-west, including 
 ancient Mysia, the west part of Bithynia, and part 
 of Phrygia; chief town Brussa: 2. Kastamuni, 
 occupying the middle of the north coast, including 
 ancient Paphlagonia, the east of Bithynia, and part 
 of Pontus ; chief town, Kastamuni : 3. Tarabosan Cr 
 Trabezun (Trebizond), the ancient Pontus and Col- 
 chis ; capital, Trebizond : 4. Aldin, in the south- 
 west, the ancient Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia; capital, 
 Ismir or Smyrna : 5. Karaman (Karamania), east- 
 ward from Aldin, the ancient Lycia, PamphyUa, 
 Pisidia, Lycaonia, and part of Cilicia ; chief town, 
 Konieh (Iconium) : 6. Adana, comprehending the 
 rest of Cihcia, Kataonia, and part of Cappadocia; 
 chief town, Adana : 7. Bosok, the central part of 
 the peninsula, ancient Cappadocia and Galatia, chief 
 town, Enguri or Angora : 8. Sivas, east from Bosok, 
 embracing parts of Pontus and Little Armenia; 
 chief town, Sivas. 
 
 ANA'TOMY (Gr., a cutting up or dissecting) is the 
 science of the form and structure of organic bodies, 
 and is practically acquired by separation of the parts 
 of a body, so as to shew their distinct formation, 
 and their relations with each other. It is generally 
 imderstood as appKed to the human body, whUe the 
 A. of animals is styled Zootomv, and that of plants, 
 Phytotomy. The investigation and comparison of 
 the structures of the mfferent kinds of organic 
 bodies is styled Compabative A. Theoretical A. is 
 divided into Gbnbbal and Special. 
 
 General A. gives a description of the elementary 
 tissues of which the systems and organs of the 
 body are composed, as prehminary to an examination 
 of them in their combined state in the various 
 organs : it also investigates their laws of formation 
 and combination, and the changes which they 
 undergo in various stages of life. This branch of 
 study may also be styled Structural or Analytical 
 A., and has been first ■ developed in recent times, 
 especially by Bicha,t (1801) and Bbrdeu, who 
 have been followed by j. Muller, Goodsir, Mayer, 
 E. H. Weber, Schwann, Valentin, and many others. 
 In our day, microscopic investigation has bden suc- 
 cessfully apphed to' the study of elementary textures. 
 See Histology. 
 
 Special A. (styled Descriptive by the French 
 writers) treats of the several parts and organs of 
 the bodjr in respect to their form, structure, and 
 grstematic connection or relation with each other. 
 The arrangement of the several parts and organs 
 in an order deduced from their similarity in struc- 
 ture or use, constitutes Systematic A. According 
 to this mode of study, which is essential as an 
 introduction to physiology, A. has been divided, 
 though not with scientific precision, into six branches 
 of study. 1. Osteology, which treats of the bones, 
 including the cartUages of the joints (chondrology). 
 — 2. Syndeamology, which describes the hgaments, 
 or bands, that unite the bones of various joints. 
 Tbe bones, with their cartilages and ligaments, 
 form- a framework, which supports the external 
 soft parts, and within which the vital organs 
 are suspended and protected from injury ; mey 
 are also arranged in a mechanical system as instru- 
 ments of motion. — 3. Myology explains the system 
 of the muscles, which, by their contractile power, 
 serve to impart motion to the bones and joints; 
 while, like the bones, they contribute to form the 
 cavities of the body, and to protect the internal 
 organs. Their structure also serves to produce 
 the external shape and symmetry. — 4. Angeiology 
 describes the vessels or ducts, with their complex 
 net- work and ramifications, spreading over most parts 
 of the body, and divided into two great systems : (a), 
 the blood-vessels with the heart, a fleshy organ pro- 
 pelling the blood through the pulsating vessels or 
 arteries, from which it returns to the heart, after 
 circulation through the veins ; (J), the lymphatics, by 
 which a certain fluid (lymph) is brought into union 
 with the blood in the organs styled lymphatic 
 glands, and is afterwards passed into the veins. — 
 5. Neurology, or the doctrine of the nerves, describes 
 the nervous system, as divided into, first, the two 
 central masses of the brain and the spinal column ; 
 second, the ramifications of nerves running from the 
 brain and spinal column to almost all points of the 
 surface ; and lastly, the order of nerves haviilg a 
 peculiar structure, and styled the ganglionic system , 
 of nerves. — 6. Splanchnology describes the viscera 
 or organs formed by combination of the distinct 
 systems of veins, nerves, lymphatics, &c., and mostly 
 situated in the cavities of the body. These are 
 divided into five groups, viz. : (a), the organs of sen- 
 sation — sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch; (6), 
 of voice and respiration — nostrils, mouth, larynx, 
 trachea, and lungs, with the thyroid gland, the 
 thymus gland, and the diaphragm; (c), digestive 
 organs — ^Sie mouth, with its salivary glands, the 
 throat, gullet, the stomach, the intestines, with the 
 liver, s^een, and pancreas ; (d), the urinary organs — 
 kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra; (e), sexual 
 organs of both sexes. 
 
 Special A. may be treated in another mode; 
 by an arrangement made in accordance with 
 natural divisions, or by imaginary lines divid- 
 ing the body into several regions — as the head, 
 the trunk, and the extremities. Again, the trunk 
 may be subdivided into neck, thorax, and abdomen ; 
 and in each of the main regions, several subdi- 
 visions may be made. This system of arrangement 
 may be styled Topographical A., and is also 
 known as Surgical A., on account of its importance 
 as the basis of operative surgery. It was the eldest 
 of the Monroes of Edinburgh University who first 
 gave this branch of the study its due prominence. 
 
 The several parts and organs of the animal body 
 win be found described under their proper heads. 
 
 History of A.— It is diBacult to determine the 
 
 date at wHch this science began to be cultivated, 
 
 but it is probable that from the earliest times some 
 
 I persons took advantage of favourable circumstances 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 to acquaint themselves with it. The Druids, who 
 were at once the priests, judges, and physicians of 
 the people, demanded from those who came for 
 their advice human victims as sacrifices, and were 
 themselves the executioners ; and it is not unlikely 
 that they availed themselves of these opportunities 
 of acquiring anatomical knowledge. It is prob- 
 able, says GaJen, that .lEsculapiua, who excelled 
 in the treatment of wounds, dissected animals 
 for the instruction of his pupils. His descend- 
 ants, the Asclepiades, cultivated A., or rather 
 zootomy, and founded the three famous schools of 
 Cos, Ehodes, and Cnidos. The rabbins tell us that, 
 although among the Jews the touching of a dead 
 body involved ceremonial uncleanness, they did 
 not entirely neglect A., which they studied from 
 the carefully preserved bones of their ancestors, 
 and the necessary manipulations of embalming. 
 They counted 248 bones, and 365 veins or ligaments, 
 which division, according to the rabbins, has rela- 
 tion to the 248 precepts of the Mosaic Law that 
 command, and the 365 that/orJicZ. 
 
 Homer exhibits a certain amount of anatomical 
 knowledge' in his description of wounds in the Iliad. 
 Pythagoras first reasoned physiologically from 
 observations made by him when in Egypt, where 
 he witnessed the sacrifices, and also the Egyptian 
 methods of embalming. Alomeou of Crotona, a 
 disciple of Pythagoras, first dissected animals with 
 the view of obtaining comparative knowledge of 
 human A. Democritus, who frequented the sepul- 
 chres, probably with anatomical views, practised 
 zootomy, and was engaged dissecting animals when 
 visited by Hippocrates. Hippocrates II., descended 
 in the eighteenth degree from ^soulapius, and born at 
 Cos in 35 A. m., was the first author who treats A. as 
 a science. He caused a skeleton of brass to be cast, 
 which he consecrated to the Delphian ApoUo, with 
 the view of transmitting to posterity proofs of the 
 progress he had made, and of stimulating others to the 
 study of A. Aristotle, who lived 384 B. c, does not 
 appear to have dissected men; and he states that 
 the parts of man are unknown to them, or that they 
 possess nothing certain on the subject beyond what 
 they can draw from the probable resemblance of the 
 corresponding parts of other animals. He first gave 
 the name aorta to the great artery. 
 
 Diodes (380 B. c.) was the first who treated of the 
 proper manner of conducting anatomical examina- 
 tions for purposes of demonstration. But no real pro- 
 gress in A. was made, owing to the researches being 
 confined to animals, till the tioie of Erasistratus, 
 who was bom at Ceos about 300 B. c, and who was 
 the first to dissect human bodies. He obtained from 
 Seleucus Meaner and Antiochus Soter the bodies of 
 criminals, and is said to have dissected some con- 
 demned to death while they were still alive. His 
 vmtings are lost, but fragments are preserved in the 
 writings of Galen. He made many discoveries, among 
 others, of the lacteal vessels. Heroplulus, who lived 
 about the same time, was born at Carthage, but 
 carried on his anatomical pursuits principally at 
 Alexandria. He also is said to have dissected 
 living subjects. Parthenius, who hved 200 years 
 B. c, published a book, entitled On the Dissection of 
 the Human Body. In the 1st c. of the Christian era, 
 the dissection of human subjects was forbidden, 
 under heavy penalties. Eufus the Ephesian, who 
 lived 112 A. D., under the empire of Trajan, taught 
 A. in a more exact manner than had been hitherto 
 done, and devised a more exact anatomical nomencla- 
 ture. He made use of animals in his demonstrations, 
 and mentions that 'of old they used for that purpose 
 human bodies.' 
 
 Galen (131 a.d.) dissected apes, as being most 
 like human subjects, though he occasionally obtained 
 
 228 
 
 bodies of children exposed in the fields, or of persons 
 found murdered, which, however, he was obliged to 
 dissect in secret. There was at this time no regularly 
 prepared skeleton, as there was a law at Home 
 forbidding the use of dead bodies. Galen's writ- ' 
 ings shew a knowledge of human A. Soranus had 
 extensive knowledge of A., derived from human 
 subjects. Moschion had some anatomical illustra- 
 tions engraved. Oribasius compiled more than 70 
 volumes, the 24th and 25th being on A., principally 
 from Galen. 
 
 Nemesius, Bishop of Nemesus, a town in Phoenicia, 
 cultivated A. at the end of the 4th c, in which also 
 Meletius hved, who wrote a complete treatise Ore the 
 Nature, and Structure of Man. Theophilus, a monk, 
 pubhshed in the Vth c. a good abridgment of the A. 
 of Galen. 
 
 A. made small progress among the Arabs, which 
 is accounted for by Sieir rehgion prohibiting con- 
 tact with dead bodies. When the great Arabian 
 physician, Ehazes, was about to be operated on for 
 cataract, he discovered that the surgeon was ignorant 
 of the structures of the eye, and refused to submit 
 to the operation. Avicenna (980 A.D.), born in the 
 province of Khorasan, was a good osteologist, and 
 described some structures not alluded to by Galen. 
 
 A was now neglected for a long period, till 
 Frederick II., king of Sicily (1194^-1250), made a 
 law forbidding any one to practise surgery without 
 having fii'st acquired some knowledge of A. He 
 founded a chair at the solicitation of Martianus, 
 his chief physician, where the science was demon- 
 strated for five years; students from aU parts 
 crowded to it, and some time after, a similar school 
 was established at Bologna — these two were largely 
 attended, but no very material progress was made 
 in A. 
 
 The university of MontpeUier was founded by 
 Pope Nicholas IV. in 1284, and the chair of A. was 
 filled by Bernard Gordon with great distinction for 
 ten years. He published a huge work, called Lilium 
 Medicinal. 
 
 Mnndinus, born at Milan, 1315, professed A. 
 there, and is considered the real restorer of A. in 
 Italy. He publicly demonstrated it, and published 
 a work which was the text-book in the academy of 
 Padua two hundred years after its publication. 
 Then came Guy de Chauliac, who first correctly 
 described the humerus. Mathjeus of- Grado pub- 
 lished several anatomical works about 1480. Gabriel 
 de Zerbus, in 1495, published a confused and im- 
 perfect work on A. at Verona. The science continued 
 to be studied by siu-geons such as Vigo (1516), 
 AchiUinus, and Berenger (Carpi), (1518), who boasted 
 of having dissected at Bologna more than a himdred 
 subjects. Keports were raised that he dissected living 
 Spaniards, and he fied or was exiled to Ferrara. 
 
 Andrg Lacima (1535), Charles Etienne, Gonthier 
 (1536), Massa, Driander (1537), Sylvius (1539), 
 Levasseur, and Gesner, were celebrated for A. ; but 
 especially Andrew Vesalius, bom 1514, who published 
 a great work on A. before he was 28 years of age. 
 He had the misfortune to open the body of a young 
 Spanish nobleman whose heart was found stiU 
 beating, and was obhged to make an expiatory 
 pilgrimage to Jerusalem. In 1564, the Venetian 
 senate recalled him to succeed, at Padua, the famous 
 PaUopius, who had just died; on his return, he was 
 shipwrecked on the island of Zante, where he was 
 starved to death. 
 
 WUHam Herman of Salisbury wrote, in 1530, 
 Anatomia Corporis Humani (A. of Human Body) ; 
 then came Jngrassias, and others of less note. 
 
 Thomas Gemini of London, in 1545, engraved upon 
 copper the anatomical figures of Vesalius, which had 
 appeared in Germany upon wood. Gemini suppressed 
 
ANATOMY. 
 
 the name of Vesalius, though using his figures and 
 descriptions. Thomas Vicary, in 1548, is said to be 
 the first who wrote in English on A. ; he published 
 Tlie Anglishman's Treasure, or the True A. of Man's 
 Body. John Ligaeus, in 1555, published an anatomi- 
 cal treatise in Latin hexameters. Franco (1556), 
 Valverda, Columbus, and others, wrote works of great 
 merit on A. In 1561, Gabriel FaUopius professed 
 it with OTeat distinction at Padua, and made many 
 original discoveries. 
 
 In the 17th c, progress was rapid : Hervey, in 
 1619, discovered the circulation of the blood, and 
 the microscope was employed to detect the structure 
 of minute vessels. AseUi, in 1622, discovered and 
 demonstrated the existence of the lymph- vessels ; 
 and his conclusions were supported by the investiga- 
 tions of Pecquet, Bartholin, and Olaus Rudbeok. 
 The glandular organs were investigated by Wharton, 
 while Malpighi, Swammerdam, and (in the foUowiug 
 c.) the illustrious Ruysch, by the use of injections 
 and the aid of the microscope, gave a new impulse to 
 research in the minute structures. Eminent names 
 in the history of A. are numerous in the 18th u. 
 In Italy, which still retained its former pre-eminence, 
 we find Pacohioni, Valsalva, Morgagni, Santorioi, 
 Maseagni, and Cotunni ; in France, Winslow, 
 D'Aubenton, Lieutaud, Vicq dAzyr, and BichJlt, 
 the founder of General A. ; in Germany, the accom- 
 phshed Haller and Meckel prepared the way for 
 greater achievements in the 19th u. ; in Great 
 Britain, Cowper, Cheselden, Hunter, Criukshank, 
 Monro, and Charles Bell contributed to the pro- 
 gress of the science ; while Holland was worthily 
 represented by Boerhaave, Albinus, Camper, Sandi- 
 fort, and Bonn. On the boundaries of the two 
 centuries, we find the names of Sommering, Loder, 
 Blumenbaoh, Hildebrand, EeU, Tiedemann, and 
 Seller ; nearly all connected with practical medicine, 
 which was benefited by their studies in A. 
 
 The necessity of a union of theory and practice 
 has led to that zealous study of Pathologioal A. 
 (the dissection and study of structures as niodified by 
 diseases) which has recently prevailed. The origin 
 of this branch of A. may be traced back to ancient 
 times in Egypt, where post-mortem examinations 
 were sometimes made to discover the seat of disease 
 and cause of death. In the medical writings of the 
 Greeks', some anatomico-pathological observations 
 are found. During the general revival of science in 
 the 16th c. many notices of pathological A. occur. 
 In 1507, Benevieni of Florence wrote the first book 
 on this branch of science ; and Bonet, in 1679, 
 published his compilation of mmierous observations. 
 StiU, these were only fragmentary indications of a 
 possible science, and the facts stated were often Very 
 erroneously interpreted. Morgagni (1767), who 
 must be regarded as the true founder of Pathological 
 A, was worthily followed by Lieutaud, Sandifort, 
 Hunter, BaOlie, and others. Meckel the Younger, 
 in Germany, in his study of malformations, &c., paid 
 Uttle or no attention to practical applications of 
 the science. The recent change of direction given 
 to the study of Pathological A, which is now 
 properly regarded as a means towards practical 
 improvements in mediciae, must be ascribed to 
 Bich9.t and the pupils of Broussais, among whom 
 may be mentioned the names of Laenneo, Cruveilhier, 
 Louis, Andral, Lobstein, Lebert, Virchow, Bennett, 
 &c. In London and other large towns there are 
 societies devoted specially to the investigation of 
 pathology. 
 
 CoMPAEATiVB A. has always preceded authro- 
 potomy, or dissection of the human subject, but was 
 first treated systematically as a distinct science by 
 Cuvier and his pupil Meckel the Younger. The 
 system proposed by the latter was, imfortunately, 
 
 never completed. Blimienbach, Tiedemann, Home, 
 BlaiuviUe, Geofiroy St Hilaire, Carus, Oken, Goethe, 
 the German poet, Kichard Owen, John Goodsir, and 
 Huxley, must be named as eminent contributors to 
 this branch of science ; while, in late years, zootomy 
 and comparative A. have been studied, with an 
 especial reference to physiology, by MuUer, Wagner,, 
 Siebold, Bowman, Todd, and AUan Thomson. 
 
 A. roE Artists is studied with reference to the 
 effects produced by intern&l structure on the 
 external form, and describes the organs, especially 
 the muscles and tendons, not only in a state of 
 rest, but also as modified by passion, action, and 
 posture. Consequently, observation of the nude 
 living form is required in this branch of study, 
 which has been treated of by Errard and Genga 
 (1691); and ia modem times, by Lavater (1790), 
 Camper (1792), Charles Bell (1806), Salvage (1812), 
 Maseagni (1816), Koeck (1822), Gardy (1831), Fischer 
 (1838), Salomon and Aulich (1841), Berger (1842), 
 SeUer and GUnther (1850), &c. 
 
 Pbactioal a. includes Dissection (q. v.) and the 
 maldng of Preparations. Preparation consists in 
 dividing parts or organs, so that their respective forms 
 and positions may be clearly shewn. Organs or parts 
 thus treated are styled Anatomical Preparations of 
 bones, muscles, vessels, nerves, &c. For example, 
 a bone-preparation is made by clearing away all 
 muscular and other adhesions ; the whole structure 
 of the bones, thus prepared and bleached, when 
 connected by wires in its natural order, forms an 
 artificial skeleton. 
 
 For preparations of parts containing vessels with 
 minute ramifications, injections are employed. Some 
 coloured fluid which has the property of gradually 
 becoming solid, is gently injected iuto the arteries 
 or other vessels by means of a syringe. Formerly, 
 materials which required a certain degree of warmth 
 to preserve their fluidity were used ; but as these 
 were attended with inconvenience, a great improve- 
 ment was made by Shaw and Weber, who intro- 
 duced the use of linseed-oil and turpentine, which, 
 when mixed with certain metallic compounds in 
 due proportions, form a fluid which, after a time, 
 becomes sohd in ordinary temperatures. Quick- 
 silver and coloured lime-water are also used for 
 injection of the finer vessels. Preparations are either 
 dried and varnished or preserved in spirit. 
 
 A series of such specimens, arranged in proper 
 order, forms an Anatomical Museum. The valuable 
 collections made by Kuysch, Eau, Loder, Walter, 
 John and William Hunter, Meckel, Sommering, and 
 Dupuytren, are all now pubKc property. There 
 is also a splendid coUeotion in the university of 
 Edinburgh, collected and prepared for the most part 
 by John Goodsir. The College of Surgeons of 
 Edinburgh also possesses a very valuable museum 
 of pathologioal preparations. As it is impossible to 
 preserve taus all parts in their integrity for any 
 great length of time, artificial copies in wood, ivory, 
 atid wax have been made with great exactitude, 
 especially in Florence ; and recently Anzou in Paris 
 has employed papier-mAcM for the same purpose. 
 But, apart from dissections and preparations of 
 the natural organs, the most general and available 
 assistance in the study of A. is found in anatomical 
 engravings and plates on wood and copper. This 
 assistance was known in ancient times. Aristotle 
 affixed to his works on A. some anatomical drawings, 
 which have been lost. In the 16th c, the greatest 
 artists — Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo, Raphael, 
 Titian, and Diirer— gave their aid m designing 
 anatomical figures ; but few of their works, in this 
 department of art, have been preserved. Lately, 
 hthography has been employed. Among the numer- 
 ous illustrations of A. which we now possess, the 
 
 329 
 
AITATOMY— AlfAXAGOEAS. 
 
 old works by Vasal (1543), Eustacliius (1714), Bidloo 
 (1685), Albin (1747), HaUer (1743—1756), and Vioq 
 d'Azyr (1786—1790), may be mentioned. The 
 present century bas supplied works of first-rate 
 excellence by Caldani (Venice, 1801—1814), Mas- 
 cagni (Pisa, 1823), Langenbeck (Gottingen, 1826), 
 Bourgery and Jacob (Paris, 1832), and Arnold 
 (Zurich, 1838). For general use, we may commend 
 the plates of Loder (Weimar, 1803), Cloquet (Paris, 
 1826), Osterreicher (Munich, 1827—1830), Weber 
 (Dusseldorf, 1830), Bock (Leipsic, 1840), and D'Alton 
 (Leipsic, 1848) : in Surgical A., the works by 
 EosenmuUer (Weimar, 1805), Pirogoff (Dorp. 1840), 
 and Gunther (Hamburg, 1844) : in Pathological A., 
 Meckel (Leipsic, 1817—1826), Craveilhier (Paris, 
 1828—1841), Froriep (Weimar, 1828), Albers (Bonn, 
 1832), Gluge (Jena, 1843—1850), and Vogel (Leipsic, 
 1843) : in Comparative A, Carus (Leipsic, 1826) and 
 Wagner (Leipsic, 1841). Among English works 
 may be mentioned those by Lizars, Jones, and 
 Bichard Quain, in Special A. ; by Morton and 
 MacHse, in Surgical A. ; and by BaiUie and Bright 
 ia Pathological A. 
 
 ANATOMY (in Law). While the study and 
 practice of A., or the art of dissecting the human 
 body, were necessary to the pursuit of surgical 
 knowledge, there were, until the year 1832, no 
 sufficient legal means ia Britain of procuring dead 
 bodies for anatomical purposes; and the conse- 
 quence was, the evasion, and sometimes even the 
 open violation of the law by persons interested 
 in supplying the sui-gical profession with subjects 
 for dissection. The mgh prices, indeed, given for 
 these subjects, may almost be said to have created 
 a lucrative and tempting trade, which led to the 
 most atrocious crimes ; and murders, with no other 
 object than the possession of the victim's body for 
 the surgeon's knife, were frequently conunitted. The 
 notorious case of Burke, tried and convicted before 
 the High Court of Justiciary in Edinburgh, in 1828, 
 is a horrible illustration of the state of the law at 
 that time, and of the position in which it placed 
 ■surgical practitioners. It was believed that Burke 
 and his associate Hare had been the murderers of 
 sixteen persons, whose bodies they sold to the 
 anatomists. It was their practice to inveigle poor 
 people, generally strangers, into their houses, make 
 them drunk, and then smother them. Biu-ke, 
 informed against by Hare, was condemned for 
 thus disposing of an old woman, and suffered the 
 last penalty of the law, bequeathing a new verb, 
 to burhe, to the English language. To remedy this 
 state of things, an act of parliament was passed 
 on the 1st of August 1832, 2d and 3d WiUiam 
 IV. c. 75, the preamble of which, sufficiently 
 disclosing its necessity, is as follows: ' Whereas 
 ■a knowledge of the causes and nature of sundry 
 diseases which afifect the body, and of the best 
 methods of treating and curing such diseases, and of 
 heahng and repairing divers wounds and injuries to 
 which the human frame is liable, cannot be acquired 
 without the aid of anatomical examination : and 
 whereas the legal supply of human bodies for such 
 anatomical examination ia insufficient fully to pro- 
 vide the. means of such knowledge : and whereas, 
 in order further to supply human bodies for such 
 purposes, divers great and grievous crimes have been 
 committed, and, lately, murder, for the single object 
 of sening for such purposes the bodies of the persons 
 so murdered : and whereas, therefore, it is highly 
 expedient to give protection, under certain regula- 
 tions, to the study and practice of A., and to pre- 
 vent, as far as may be, such great and grievous 
 crimes and murder as aforesaid' — It is therefore 
 enacted, that the Secretary of State for the Home 
 Department in Great Britain, and the Chief Secretary 
 230 
 
 in Ireland, may grant a licence to practise A. to any 
 feUow or member of any college of physicians or 
 surgeons, or to any graduate or licentiate in medicine, 
 or to any person lawfully qualified to practise medi- 
 cine in any part of the United Kingdom, or to any 
 professor or teacher of A., medicine, or surgery, or to 
 any student attending any school of A., on the appli- 
 cation of such party for Such purpose, coimtersigned 
 by two justices of "the peace acting for the county, 
 city, borough, or place where such party resides, 
 certifying that, to their knowledge or belief, such 
 party so applying is about to carry on the practice 
 of A. The act provides for the appointment of 
 inspectors of schools of A, and directs them to make 
 a quarterly return to the Secretary of State, or the 
 Chief Secretary, as the case may be, of subjects 
 removed for anatomical examination to every place 
 in the inspector's district where A. is carried on, 
 distinguishing the sex, and, as far as is known at the 
 time, the name and age of each person whose body 
 was so removed. The inspectors are further required 
 to visit and inspect places within their respective 
 districts where A. is practised ; and for the perform- 
 ance of all these duties, the inspectors are each to 
 have an annual salary not exceeding £100, with a 
 further reasonable sum for their official expenses. 
 By section 7, it is enacted that it shall be lawful for 
 any executor or other party having' lawful possession 
 of the body of any deceased person, and not being an 
 undertaker or other party intrusted with the body, 
 for the purpose only of interment, to permit the 
 body of such deceased person to undergo anatomical 
 examination, unless, to the knowledge of such exe- 
 cutor or other party, such person shall have expressed 
 his desire, either in writing, at any time during his 
 life, or verbally, in the presence of two or more wit- 
 nesses, during the iUness whereof he died, that his 
 body, after death, might not undergo such examina- 
 tion; or unless the surviving husband or wife, or 
 any known relative of the deceased person, shall 
 require the body to be interred without such exam- 
 ination : while, by section 8, it is declared that the 
 wishes of persons who had expressed a desire that 
 their bodies should be subjected to anatomical exam- 
 ination shall be respected, unless the deceased person's 
 surviving husband or wife, or nearest known relative, 
 or any one or more of such person's nearest known 
 relatives being of kin in the same degree, shall 
 require the body to be interred without such exam- 
 ination. Bodies are not to be removed for examina- 
 tion imtil forty-eight hours after death, and without 
 a certificate by the medical attendant, stating, accord- 
 ing to the best of his knowledge or beHef, the manner 
 or cause of death. The act contains a number of 
 provisions intended to secure its sufficient adminis- 
 tration; but, by section 15, it is provided that it 
 shall not extend to or prohibit any post-mortem 
 examination of any human body required or directed 
 to be made by any competent legal authority; and 
 it repeals an enactment in a previous statute, 9 
 George IV. c. 31, which directed the bodies of 
 murderers after execution to be dissected. 
 
 This act of parliament is understood to have met 
 the evU it was designed to obviate ; and under it the 
 supply of bodies of persons dying friendless, in poor- 
 houses, hospitals, and elsewhere, is stated to have 
 proved sxifficient for the wants of the profession. 
 
 ANAXA'GOEAS, one of the most eminent philos- 
 ophers of the Ionic school, was bom at Clazomenaej 
 in Ionia, 500 B. o. He belonged to a wealthy 
 and distinguished family, which circumstance may 
 have enabled him to devote himself exclusively to 
 intellectual pursuits. Yet he does not seem to have 
 entered into the possession of his property, but left 
 it to. his relations. When only twenty years of age, 
 he went to Athens, where, in the course of time, Tie 
 
ANAXIMAOT)ER-ANCELOT. 
 
 a.oquired a high reputation, and had several illus- 
 trious pupils, q,mong whom were Pericles, Euripides, 
 Socrates, and Aroheiaus. But at last, being accused 
 of impiety towards the gods, he was condemned to 
 ■death. His sentence, however, was commuted into 
 banishment for life, through the eloquence of Pericles. 
 He withdrew to Lampsacus on the Hellespont, 
 where he died in the 73d year of his age. The 
 •old man was accustomed to say proudly, in his 
 €xile : ' It is not I who have lost the Athenians, but 
 the Athenians who have lost me.' "When on hia 
 death-bed, the magistrates of the town asked what 
 funeral honours he desired ; ' Give the boys a hoh- 
 ■day,' was the quaint reply of the sage ; and for seve- 
 ral centuries the day of his death was commemorated 
 in all the schools of Lampsacus. 
 
 It is not easy to ascertain what were the opinions 
 of A. in philosophy. Pragments merely of his works 
 have been preserved, and even these are sometimes 
 contradictory. Of one thing we are certain, that he 
 had a deeper knowledge of ;^ysical laws than any of 
 lis predecessors or contemporaries. The absurdities 
 of opinion which are attributed to him. are ho proof 
 of the contrary, for, in his time, any attempt to 
 ■explain even a moderate number of the phenomena 
 ' of natiure was. sure to be attended with what every- 
 body now sees to be extravagant fictions. He 
 beheved the heavens to be a sohd vault; the stars 
 ■to be stones thrown up from the earth by some 
 violent con-vulsion, and set on fire by the ether 
 which ever burns in the upper regions of the 
 universe; the milky- way to be the shadow of the 
 ■earth; that the soul had an atrial body; that the 
 sun was a burning mass of stone, larger than the 
 Peloponnesus. But he also arrived at some tolerably 
 accurate conclusions regarding the cause of the 
 moon's light, of the rainbow, of ■wind, and of sound. 
 His great contribution to ancient philosophy, how- 
 ■ever, was his doctrine as to the origin of all things. 
 He held that aU matter existed originally in the 
 •condition of atoms; that these atoms, infinitely 
 numerous, and infinitely divisible, had existed from 
 xdl eternity, and that order was first produced out of 
 this infinite chaos of minutiae through the influence 
 and operation of an eternal inteDigenoe (Gr. nous). 
 He also maintained that aU bodies were simply 
 aggregations of these atoms, and that a bar of gold, 
 or iron, or copper, was composed of inconceivably 
 minute particles of the same material; but he did 
 not-aUow that objects had taken their shape through 
 accident or blind fate, but through the agency 
 of this ' shaping spirit' or Nous, which he described 
 as infinite, self-potent, and unmixed with anything 
 «lse. 'Nous,' he again says, 'is the most pure and 
 subtle of aH things, and has aU knowledge about 
 aU things, and infinite power.' A.'s theory is thus 
 only one step from pure theism. He makes the 
 ■work of the Eternal commence ■with providence, not 
 with creation. 
 
 The fragments of A. have been collected by 
 Sohaubach (Leipsic, 1827), and by Schom (Bonn, 
 1829). 
 
 ANAXIMA'NDBR, a Greek mathematician and 
 philosopher, the son of Praxiades, and the disciple 
 and friend of Thales, was bom at Miletus 610 
 B.C., and died in 546. His principal study was 
 matbematics. He is said to have discovered the 
 obhquity of the ecliptic, and certainly taught it. He 
 appears to have apphed the gnomon, or style set on 
 a horizontal plane, to determine the solstices and 
 equinoxes. The invention of aeographical maps is 
 also ascribed to him. As a ;^iilosopher, he specu- 
 lated on the origin (arcJie) of the phenomenal 
 world, and this prmciple he held to be the infinite 
 or indeterminate (to apeiron). This indeterminate 
 principle of A. is generally supposed to have been 
 
 much the same with the chaos of other philosophers. 
 From it he conceived all opposites, such as hot and 
 cold, dry and moist, to proceed through a perpetual 
 motion, and to return to it again. Of the manner 
 in which he imagined these opposites to be formed, 
 and of his hypothesis concerning the formation of 
 the heavenly bodies from them, we have no accurate 
 information. It would seem, however, that he did not 
 believe in the generation of anything in the proper 
 sense of the word, but supposed that the infinite atoms 
 or units of which the arche, or primary matter, is 
 composed, merely change their relative positions in 
 obedience to a moving power residing in it. Some 
 of his particular opinions were, that the sun is in the 
 highest region of the heavens, is in circumference 
 twenty-eight times greater than the earth, and 
 resembles a cylinder from which flow continual 
 stifeams of fire; that eclipses are caused by the 
 stopping of the openings from which the fire flows ; 
 that the moon is also a cylinder, nineteen times 
 greater than the earth ; and that the moon's phases 
 are caused by obliquity of position, and eclipses by 
 complete tmtiing round. He taught .that the earth 
 is of the form of a cyhnder, and that it floats in the 
 midst of the universe, that it was formed by the 
 drying up of moisture by the sun, and that animals 
 are produced from moisture. 
 
 ANAXI'MENES, a, Greek philosopher, born at 
 Miletus, flourished about 556 B. c. He held air to 
 be the first cause of all things, or the primary form 
 of matter, from which all things are formed by 
 compression. 
 
 A'NBURY, a disease to which turnips are liable, 
 and which often proves of serious iniportajxce to 
 farmers, destroying the crop of entire fields. It is 
 sometimes called Glub-root, because of the knobs or 
 tubercular excrescences which form upon the root. 
 The root, instead of swelling into one turnip of good 
 size, generally becomes divided into a number of 
 parts, each in some small degree swelling separatdy 
 by itself; whence the popmar name. Fingers and 
 Toes. The growth of the plant is arrested ; the root 
 becomes woody ; the excrescences rot, and emit most 
 offensive eflBuvia, which, however, appear peculiarly 
 attractive to insects of various kmds; and, accord- 
 ingly, eggs and maggots in abundance are soon to be 
 found in them. It has been very generally supposed 
 that these insects, or some of them, are the cause of 
 the disease; but the truth seems rather to be that 
 they are attracted by the diseased state of the plant. 
 A. has been erroneously confounded with the excres- 
 cences, each containing a small grub, which are fre- 
 quent on the roots of turnips, as on those of cabbages, 
 and many other cruciferous plants, although these 
 also sometimes effect the destruction of the plant. 
 The true nature and cause of the disease are not yet 
 well known. Much attention has been devoted to 
 the subject ; and premiums have been offered in con- 
 nection with it by the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland ; but hitherto, -without ehciting 
 any certain or satisfactory information. It appears 
 probable that the disease is in some measure owing 
 to peculiarities of soil, or of manure, and to the too 
 frequent repetition of turnip-crops upon -the same 
 field. A much greater frequency of repetition, how- 
 ever, can be safely practised in some istricts, or in 
 some fields, than in others. The Uberal apphoation 
 of lime has been found advantageous as a preventive 
 of A. ; but even this often succeeds but imperfectly ; 
 and the increasing prevalence of. this disease in 
 certain districts seems not unhkely to necessitate a 
 considerable modification iu the system of husbandry,, 
 in which the turnip-crop has long occupied so 
 important a place. See Tuemp. 
 
 ANCBLOT, Jacqtjis - AksShe - Polycabpk- 
 
 231 
 
ANCELOT— ANCHOR. 
 
 PjRAjrgois, a French poet, bom February 9, 1794, at 
 Havre, where his father was clerk of the Chamber of 
 Commerce. The latter being a weU-informed gentle- 
 man, delighting in verse, early taught his sou to recite 
 passages from the French poets. A. was from the 
 first intended for active life in connection with the 
 administration of the navy; and was employed, until 
 the revolution of July, in the government service. 
 His reputation was first established in 1819 by 
 his tragedy of Latds IX., which was played fifty 
 nights in succession, and procured Viim a pension of 
 2000 francs from the kmg. His next piece. The 
 Mayor of the Palace (1823), was not so well received. 
 In 1824, appeared his Fiesque, a work which exhi- 
 bited the great skill of the author in adopting a 
 master-piece of SchUler to the French stage. In 
 1825, he gave to the world an epic poem in six 
 cantos, Marie de Brabant; and in 1827, a clever 
 and graceful work, partly prose and partly verse, 
 entitled Six Months in Sussia; besides a novel in 
 four volumes. The Man of the World. Olga, a 
 drama, was published in 1828; and Elizabeth of 
 England in 1829. Both of these works were highly 
 successful, though neither met with the brilliant 
 reception of Louis IX. In 1834 appeared Les Em- 
 prunts aux Salons de Pans. The revolution of July 
 deprived him of his pension, and also of his situation 
 as librarian of Meudon ; and for the next ten years, 
 he was compelled to support himself and family by 
 the concoction of numberless vaudevilles, dramas, 
 comedies, anecdotes, &c., sometimes of very ques- 
 tionable morality. In 1841, the French Academy 
 chose him as the successor of Bonald. Shortly after 
 appeared his Familiar Letters (Epitres Familiires), a 
 collection of satires as remarkable for freshness 
 of epigram as for grace of style and richness of 
 versification. In 1848, he pubhshed La Hue — 
 Quincampoix. 
 
 A.'3 <3ief-db asuvre, Louis IX., is a work of genius ; 
 the versification is correct, elegant, and harmonious ; 
 the manners and characters of the period are deline- 
 ated with great fidelity and brilliancy ; the plot is 
 skilfully constructed ; and some of the scenes are 
 contrived with singular felicity. 
 . A'NCHOR, an implement for retaining a ship in 
 a particular spot, by temporarily chaining it to the 
 bed of a sea or river. Many forms of A. were 
 made by the ancients ; some were merely large 
 stones ; others, crooked pieces of wood, weighted to 
 make them sink in water. The first iron anchors 
 are supposed to have been used by the Greeks. 
 As originally made, the A. had only one fluke or 
 arm for penetrating the ground, but a second was 
 afterwards added; it had no stock (presently to 
 be described), and was, on that account, ill suited 
 for insuring a firm gripe into the ground when lowered. 
 The Greek vessels had several anchors, one of which, 
 called the ' sacred A.,' was never let go until the ship 
 was in dire distress ; something equivalent to this 
 was long retained in the English navy, but the 
 designation is now dying out. Of whatever form 
 and material the ancient anchors were made, they 
 were lowered from the ships' sides by ropes — ohaiu- 
 cables being a modern invention. 
 
 The maritime nations of Europe, and the United 
 States of America, employ anchors bearing a good 
 deal of general resemblance one to another. A large- 
 sized modem A., regarded irrespectively of improve- 
 ments recently introduced, comprises the following 
 parts : The vertical or supporting beam of the A. 
 is the shanle, B ; at the upper end of it is the ring, r ; 
 and just below the ring is a transverse piece called 
 the stock, ss; the other extremity is the crovm, c, 
 from which branch out two arms or blades, g, in 
 directions nearly at right angles to that of the 
 stock ; each arm spreads out into a broad palm or 
 
 232 
 
 Anchor. 
 
 fluhe, h, the sharp extremity of which is the peak or 
 bill, Ic. AH these parts bear special relation to the 
 fast-holding of the A. in the 
 ground. When the A. is let 
 go from the ship's side, the 
 crown first strikes the ground ; 
 it then falls over in such a 
 manner that one end of the 
 stock rests upon the ground; 
 and the subsequent movements 
 of the ship and the cable cause 
 one or other of the flukes (it 
 matters not which) to dig verti- 
 cally into the ground, and main- 
 tain a flrm hold. On the flrm- 
 ness of this gripe depends the 
 safe anchoring of the ship ; and 
 the sizes of all the different parts of the A., as well 
 as the curve of the arms and flukes, are calculated 
 with direct reference to this condition. 
 
 The number and weights of anchors in British 
 ships-of-war are nearly as foUow : Men-of-war have 
 f om- anchors — the ' best bower,' the ' small bower,' the 
 ' sheet,' and the ' spare.' For particular and special 
 services, there are also the ' stream' and the ' kedge.' 
 Smaller vessels have fewer and smaller anchors ; and 
 the 'stream'- A. of a large ship may conveniently 
 serve as the 'bower' for a smaller. There was at 
 one time a rough rale in the navy, that the chief 
 A. should weigh as many hundred- weight as the ship 
 carried guns ; thus, an 80 owt. A. for an 80-gun ship. 
 In the commercial marine there was also a kind of 
 rough formula that the chief A. should weigh one- 
 twentieth part as many himdred- weight as the ship- 
 measured in tonnage; thus, a 300-ton ship would 
 have an A. of 15 cwt. The weight of an A. 10 feet 
 long used to be laid down at 11'4 cwt., and that of 
 an A. 14 feet long, a,t 30 cwt. It must be borne in 
 mind, however, tbat these numbers and ratios are 
 no longer strictly rehable, seeing that new forms 
 of A., the use of chain-cables, the introduction of 
 steam-navigation, and the building of ships of great 
 magnitude, have rendered many old formulas inap- 
 plicable at the present day. 
 
 Many important improvements in the shape and 
 construction of anchors have been introduced within 
 the last few years. Lieutenant Kodgers, to increase 
 the strength, without increasing the weight, took out 
 a patent for hollow-shanked anchors ; these are not 
 strictly hollow, however, for there is a wooden core, 
 which is bound to the iron of the shank by iron 
 hoops. Mr Pering introduced iron shanks made of 
 layers of flat bars, instead of solid iron. The same 
 inventor increased the strength of the arms, by 
 making them in great part a curved continuation of 
 the same pieces of iron which form the shank. 
 
 The most effective novelty, however, is that intro- 
 duced under Mr Porter's patent, about twenty years 
 ago, seeing that it is the basis which supports all 
 
 Porter's Anchor at Work. 
 
 the subsequent improvements of any note. The 
 arias are pivoted to the stock, instead of being 
 rigidly fixed ; and there is a projecting piece, called 
 
ANCHOEAGE— ANCHORITES. 
 
 the toggle, on the convex part of each arm. These two 
 additions or adjustments nave a remarkable effect on 
 the action of the A. The advantages of this A. over 
 those of ordinary make are very considerable. There 
 is less chance of ' fouling,' by the cable passing over 
 the exposed fluke of the A., when the vessel is 
 swinging in a tide-way; there is less danger of 
 injury from the upper peak; the lower peak bites 
 quickly into the most stubborn groimd; the A. 
 cannot lodge on its stock-end ; it is stronger in the 
 arm than ordinary anchors ; and it is very con- 
 veniently stowed on shipboard. 
 
 Among the modifications of Porter's anchor, since 
 introduced, are those of Trotman and Honiball. 
 Trotmau's, to which most attention is at present 
 directed, has the following advantages : The arm has 
 sufficient length and curve to deepen and set the 
 palm at such an angle as to insure its biting or 
 penetrating the hardest bottom; the area and sur- 
 face of the palm are greatly increased, offering a pro- 
 portionate resistance in soft ground ; the toggle or 
 projection at the back of the arms is rendered more 
 effective by its form and position; and the mode in 
 which the upper arm rests on the shank increases 
 both the strength and the penetrating power. This 
 A. has been the subject of a long contention between 
 
 Trotmau's Anchor at Work. 
 
 Mr Trotman and the Admiralty. In 1852, in com- 
 pliance with a requisition from numerous ship-owners 
 and underwriters, the Admiralty appointed a com- 
 mittee, consistiog of eleven experienced and impar- 
 tial persons, to make trial of a large number of 
 anchors, with a view of determiniag the relative 
 merits of various forms and modes of construction. 
 The anchors were to be similar in weight, and were 
 to be tested in a great variety of ways — on shore, and 
 at sea, and in reference to the holding, stowage, 
 sweeping, tripping, fouling, &c. There were several 
 competitors, all of whom were subjected to the same 
 conditions. Every one of the recently invented 
 anchors tried was found to be better than the ordi- 
 nary Admiralty A. ; and the one which appeared to 
 possess the greatest number of good qualities was 
 Trotmau's. The patentee naturally expected to 
 derive some commercial advantage from the favour- 
 able report of the committee ; but from 1852 to 1859, 
 the successive Boards of Admiralty have refused to 
 admit Trotmau's A. into the royal navy, except in 
 a few isolated instances. The grounds for this 
 refusal have never yet been satisfactorily made 
 known. 
 
 The weights of anchors bear, or ought to bear, 
 some definite relation to the tonnage of, a ship. 
 Lloyd's Committee has agreed upon certain ratios to 
 recommend, in reference to the large or ' best bower' 
 anchors and their chain-cables ; and Mr Trotman 
 has prepared a table, shewing the diminished 
 weight of his anchors, to render equivalent ser- 
 vice. The anchors are here supposed to have iron 
 stocks : 
 
 Ship's Ordinary Trotman 'a 
 
 Size of 
 
 Tonnage. Anohors. Anchors. Chain-cables. 
 
 100 
 
 7 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 400 
 
 22 
 
 700 
 
 34 
 
 1000 
 
 41 
 
 1400 
 
 48 
 
 2000 
 
 54 
 
 cwt. 
 
 5 
 9 
 17 
 25 
 31 
 37 
 46 
 
 cwt. 
 
 OJinch. 
 1 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 The manufacture of anchors furnished, until recent 
 years, the most formidable exemplification of smith's 
 work anywhere presented, on account of the vast 
 dimensions and weight of the pieces of iron which 
 had to be welded into one mass. The anchor-snuths 
 wielded the most ponderous sledge-hammers known 
 to our artisans ; and the services of a large number 
 were needed to weld the metal while in the heated 
 and yielding state. At the present time, however, the 
 operations are wonderfully aided by Mr Nasmyth's 
 steam-hammer, which comes down upon the A. 
 with a force greater than that of any available num- 
 ber of sledge-hammers wielded by men. At some of 
 the government dockyards, anchor-making is con- 
 ducted on a great scale ; but the larger portion of 
 the supply for the navy is obtained by contract by 
 private firms. 
 
 A'NCHOBAGB is a due or toU levied on the 
 owner or captain of a ship for permission to cast 
 anchor at special anchoring-grounds. In most 
 instances, it is payable to the state ; but sometimes 
 the right is vested in corporate' bodies or in indivi- 
 duals. The tariff varies greatly, depending on the 
 size of the ship, or on the value of the cargo, accord- 
 ing to circumstances. In most cases, where a vessel 
 is driven into port by stress of weather, and does not 
 discharge cargo there, it is exempt from this toU. 
 Shore-dues differ from A. chiefly in the fact, that 
 a vessel pays duty on* entering a certain port or 
 harbour, whether she anchors or not ; and, by a 
 singular anomaly, these duties are in certain in- 
 stances vested in the corporation of an inland 
 town, many miles distant from the port in question. 
 
 .^. is a term also sometimes applied to the whole 
 suite of anchors belonging to a ship ; and stiU more 
 frequently it has the same sense as anchor-ground 
 (q. v.). 
 
 A'NCHOR-GROUNB is a part of the bed of the 
 sea, or of a river, suitable for anchoring. It must 
 not be too deep, or the cable wiU bear too perpen- 
 dicularly, and wiU be likely to drag the anchor out 
 of the ground. It must not be too shallow, or the 
 ship's bottom will be exposed to the hazard of 
 striking at low- water, or when the sea is rough. It 
 must not be too rocky, or the anchor will be liable 
 to break its flukes by hooldng into jagged rocks, 
 and the cable to be severed by rubbing against rocky 
 edges. Thus, a combination of favourable circum- 
 stances is necessary for the selection of a good 
 anohoring-ground. 
 
 A'NCHORITBS, or ANCHORETS (Gr. anacho- 
 retai, KteraUy, persons who withdraw from society), 
 the hermits who began to appear in the Christian 
 Church in the 3d c, living in solitude, and not, like 
 the monks or cenobites, in communities. During the 
 first two centuries. Christians generally thought it 
 enough to withdraw from the world by refusing to 
 participate in heathen festivals and amusements ; 
 but extreme views became gradually prevalent, and 
 were connected with a belief in the merit of celibacy, 
 of abstinence from particular kinds of food, of self- 
 inflicted tortures, &c. The persecutions to which 
 Christians were subjected, drove some into the soli- 
 tude of deserts ; afterwards, the glory of a life spent 
 in loneliness and austerity became a substitute for 
 
ANCHOVY— ANCONA. 
 
 ■that of the martyr's death. The general comiption 
 of society also caused many earnest and well-mean- 
 ing persons to flee from it ; the Ascetics (q. v.) first 
 aet the example of retiring from cities to rural dis- 
 tricts and villages ;' the A. went fm-ther, and sought 
 to withdraw themselves altogether from mankind ; 
 and if the reputation of sanctity which was con- 
 nected with a life of solitude constituted its chief 
 attraction to some, there can be no doubt that many 
 chose it ia the hope of thereby attaining to real 
 sanctity. Many of the A. voluntarily subjected 
 themselves to the vicissitudes of the weather, with- 
 out proper habitation or clothing, restricted them- 
 selves to coarse and scanty fare, wore chains and 
 iron rings, and even throughout many years rnain- 
 taiiied painful postures, such as standing on the top 
 of a pillar (see Stylites), thus displaying an earnest- 
 ness which greater enlightenment might have 
 <lirected to the good of mankind. Paul (q. v.) the 
 Hermit, and Antony (q. v.), were among the first and 
 most celebrated A. The A: were not able always to 
 preserve their sohtude unbroken. The fame of their 
 sanctity drew many to visit them ; their advice was 
 often sought ; and the number of their visitors was 
 much increased by the belief that diseases, particu- 
 larly mental diseases, were cured by their blessing. 
 Sometimes, also, they returned for a short time to 
 the midst of their fellow-men to deHver warnings, 
 instructions, or encouragements, and were received 
 as if they had been inspired prophets or angels from 
 heaven. The number of A., however, gradually 
 diminished, and the religious life of convents was 
 preferred to that of the hermitage. The Western 
 Church, iadeed, at no time abounded in A. like the 
 eastern, and perhaps the reason may in part be found 
 in the difference of climate, which renders a manner 
 of life impossible in most parts of Europe that could 
 be pursued for many years in Egypt or Syria. 
 
 ANCHO'VY (Engraulis "Enchrasicholus), a small 
 fish, about a span long, much esteemed for its rich 
 and peculiar flavour. It is not much longer than the 
 middle finger, thicker in proportion than the herring, 
 to which it has a general resemblance ; the head is 
 sharp-pointed, and the under jaw much shorter than 
 the upper; the scales large, silvery, and easily 
 removed, the tail deeply forked. It is occasion- 
 ally found on the British coasts, and is said to be 
 not at all uncommon on the coast of Cornwall in 
 the latter part of summer and beginning of autumn. 
 It would seem to have been formerly more abund- 
 ant than it now is in the British seas, as several 
 acts of parKament, of the reign of William and 
 Mary, regulated the A. fisheries. It ocoiirs on the 
 
 Anchovy. 
 
 coasts of the Baltic and of Greenland, and abounds 
 in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts 
 of Spain, Portugal, and Prance, where extensive 
 and very productive fisheries are carried on, par- 
 •fcicidarly ia the months of May, June, and July, 
 when the shoals of anchovies leave the deep seas, 
 and approach the shores for the purpose of spawn- 
 ing. They are fished during the night, and are 
 attracted to the boats by fires. They are salted 
 in small barrels, and are much used for sauces, &c. 
 The Eomans made from them a highly valued sauce 
 called garum. — Sardines (q. v.) are often sold as 
 234 
 
 anchovies. — The genus EngrauUs belongs to the 
 Glupeidas (q. v.) or Herring family, and was for- 
 merly iacluded in Glupea, from which it is distia- 
 guished by the more deeply cleft mouth, the wider 
 giU openings, and more numerous gUl rays. All the 
 species are small, and most of them tropical. M. 
 Brownii abounds in the Strait of Malacca and at 
 the mouths of the Ganges, and is used for making a 
 dehcious condiment called Bed Fish in India. 
 
 ANCHOVY PEAK (Orias cavliflora), a tree, the 
 ohly known species of a genus somewhat doubtfidly 
 referred by Lindley to his order Barrin0oniacece 
 (more generally regarded as a sub-order of Myrtacece, 
 q. v.). It grows in boggy places in the mountainous 
 districts of Jamaica and other West Indian islands, 
 attains a height of fifty feet, and has great oblong 
 leaves two or three feet in length. The flowers 
 are numerous, on short pedimcles, large and whitish, 
 the coroUa consisting of four petals, and the calyx 
 4-cleft. The fruit is an ovate drupe, crowned with 
 the persistent calyx, the stone marked with eight 
 ridges. This fruit is pickled and eaten like the 
 East Indian mango, which it resembles in taste. 
 The tree generally grows in shallow waters or very 
 moist low grounds, ia the mountainous districts of 
 Jamaica and other West Indian islands. 
 
 ANCHUSA. See Aleanbt. 
 
 ANCILLON, a French family who, after the 
 revocation of the Edict of Nantes, migrated from 
 Metz into Prussia. — David A. studied theology at 
 Geneva, was afterwards pastor of the French 
 Befoimed colony at Hanau, and died in Berlin ,in 
 1692. — Chakles, son of the former, was bom at 
 Metz, July 28, 1659, and died in Berlin, July 5, 
 1715. He is known by his writings : Z/' IrrSvocdbilite 
 de I'Edit de Nantes (1688), and Histoire de VEta- 
 hUssemeni des Frangais Befugiis dans les Etats de 
 Brandenhourg (1690). — Loms Fbederick, grandson 
 of Charles A., was bom in Berlin 1740, and died there 
 as pastor of the French congregation in 1814. His 
 son Fbedbeick, who rose to be a minister of state 
 in Prussia, was bom in Berlin, April 30, 1767. In 
 1792, he was appointed Professor of History in 
 the Military Academy of Berlin, and afterwards 
 Royal Historiographer, a, post to which he had 
 recommended himself by his work, Tahleav, des 
 Revolutions du Systime Politique de V Europe depuis 
 le 15"° Siede (4 vols. Berlin, 1803—1805). In 1814, 
 he took an administrative post under Hardenberg, 
 and, in 1818, held a very prominent position under 
 Count von Bemstorff. In 1830, when the July revo- 
 lution occurred in France, he assisted the measures 
 of King Frederick WiUiam III. for the preservation 
 of peace in Europe. While, like the pohticians of 
 Austria, he argued that ' all should be done for the 
 people, but nothing ly the people ; ' he also contended 
 for the necessity of progressive reforms in legislation, 
 in order to prevent all violent coUisions between 
 government and popular opinion. His private life was 
 simple and unostentatious. Though thrice married, 
 he left no children. A. died April 19, 1837. 
 His various writings on polities, philosophy, and 
 Hterature, are chiefly devoted to an, exposition of the 
 principles by which he was guided as a statesman. 
 
 ANCO'NA, the capital of a delegation of the 
 same name in the States of the Church, lat. 43° 38' 
 N., and long. 13° 35' E. It is situated on a 
 promontory of the Adriatic coast, and rising in 
 the form of an amphitheatre, presents a picturesque 
 appearance from the sea. It is the seat of a 
 bishop, and contains about 29,000 inhabitants, of 
 whom about 5000 are Jews. The harbour, once 
 famous, seems Hkely to be filled up with mud. The 
 commerce is much less considerable than it once 
 was, though, in that respect, it is still the most 
 
ANCRE-ANDAXUSIA. 
 
 "I 
 
 important place in the States of the Church. Com, and 
 woollen and silk goods, oils, cordage, bacon, fruits, 
 Ac, are the chief exports. A mole of 2000 feet in 
 length, built by the Ihnperor Trajan, and a triiunphal 
 arch of the same emperor, are the most notable monu- 
 ments of antiquity. There are some fine public 
 buildings. One of the most venerable of these is the 
 cathedral of St Cyriao, built in the 10th c, and pos- 
 sessing the oldest cupula in Italy. But the houses 
 are in general mean, and the streets narrow. A. is 
 supposed to have been foimded by Syracusaus who 
 had fled from the tyranny of Dionysius the Elder. 
 It -was destroyed by the Goths, rebuilt by Narses, 
 and again destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th o. 
 It afterwards became a republic ; but in 1532, Pope 
 Clement VII. annexed it to the States of the 
 Church. In 1798, it was taken by the French ; but 
 in 1799, General Meunier was obliged to surrender 
 it to the Russians and Austrians, after a long and 
 gallant defence. Since 1815, the citadel has been 
 the only fortification. When the Austrian troops in 
 1831 occupied the Roman frontiers, whose inhabit- 
 ants were then in a state of insurrection, the French 
 ministry determined to neutralise the influence of 
 Austria. A French squadron appeared before the 
 harbour, and landed 1500 men, who took possession 
 of the town on the 22d February 1832 without any 
 resistance, the citadel capitulating on the 25th. It 
 remained in their hands till 1838, when both French 
 and Austrians retired from the Papal States. In 
 1849, a revolutionary garrison in A. capitulated after 
 «nduring a siege by the Austrians of twenty-five 
 days. 
 
 ANCEE, CoNCiKO CoNciNi, Bahon db Lussigny, 
 Maeshal d', a Florentine by birth, who came to the 
 French court in the year 1600, with Maria de' Medici, 
 the wife of Henry IV., and along with his wife, 
 Eleonora Galigai, exercised an unhappy influence in 
 promoting the disaOTeement between the king and 
 queen. When, after Henry's death, the queen became 
 regent, Concini, as her favourite, obtained possession 
 of the reins of 'government ; and in 1613, was made 
 a marshal and prime minister. He purchased 
 the marquisate of Ancre in Picardy, and tpok his 
 title from it. He became an object of detestation 
 equally to the nobility and the people. A con- 
 spiracy was fonned against him, to which the young 
 king Louis XIII. was himself privy — Luynes (q. v,), 
 the kiag's worthless favourite, being one of the 
 ■conspirators — and he was assassinated in the Louvre 
 in open day, on the 24th of April 1617. His body 
 ■was privately buried, but was soon disinterred by 
 the populace, dragged through Paris, and burned 
 before the statue of Henry IV. His wife was soon 
 afterwards accused of witchcraft, which she sarcas- 
 tically repudiated, saying that the only sorcery she 
 had employed to influence the queen was ' the power 
 of a strong mind over a weak one.' The sneer, how- 
 ever, did not save her. She was executed, and her 
 son, deprived of rank and property, was driven from 
 the country. 
 
 ANGUS MA'RCIU'S, son of PompiHa, daughter 
 of King Numa Pompihus, was the fourth king of 
 Rome. Following the example of his grandsire, 
 ITuma, he endeavoured to restore the almost forgotten 
 worship of the gods and the cultivation of the arts of 
 peace among the Romans. But, despite his inclina- 
 tion for peace, he was engaged in several wars with 
 the neighbouring Latin tribes, whom he subdued 
 and reduced to order. These Latins, Niebuhr con- 
 siders to have formed the original ^Zeis. Against the 
 Etruscans, he fortified the Janiculmn, connected it 
 with Rome by a wooden bridge, and gained posses- 
 sion of both banks of the Tiber, as far as its mouth, 
 where he founded Ostia as the port of Romej he 
 
 dug what was called ' the Ditch of the Quirites ' — a 
 defence for the open space between the Caslian Hill 
 and Mount Palatine ; and bmlt the first Roman 
 prison of which we read, a proof that civilisation had 
 really commenced, inasmuch as offences then for- 
 mally ceased to be regarded as private and personal 
 matters, and were treated as crimes against the 
 community. He died in 614 B.C., after reigning 
 twenty-four years. 
 
 ANOYEA. See Angoba. 
 
 A'NDA, a genus of plants of the natiiral order 
 Euphorbiacece, the only known species of which, 
 A. Brasiliensis, is a Brazilian tree, with large yellow 
 flowers, and an angular fruit about the size of an 
 orange, containing two roimdish seeds, like small 
 chestnuts. The seeds are called in Brazil Pwga dos 
 Paulistas, are much used medicinally in that country, . 
 and are more purgative than those of the castor-oil 
 
 Elant. This quality seems to depend upon a valuable 
 xed oU, of which twenty drops are a moderate dose. 
 It is obtained by pressure. The bark of the tree, 
 roasted in the fire, is accounted in Brazil a certain 
 remedy for diarrhcea, brought on by cold. The 
 fresh bark, thrown into ponds, is said to stupify 
 fish. 
 
 ANDALU'SIA or ANDALTJCIA, a large and 
 fertile province or kingdom in the south of Spain, 
 lying between 36° 2' and 38° 39' N. lat., and 1° 38' 
 and 7° 20' W. long. Having been overrun by 
 the Vandals, it is supposed by some that they 
 
 fave it the name of Vandalucia or Andalucia ; 
 ut the real origin of the name is probably 
 Andalosh, the Land of the West. It is the 
 Tarshish of the Bible, and was called Tartessus in 
 ancient geography. 'The Romans named it Baetica, 
 from the nver Bsetis (the modem Guadalquivir). 
 The Moors founded here a splendid monarchy, 
 which quickly attained a high degree of civilisation. 
 Learning, art, and chivalry flourished in harmony 
 with industry and commerce. The four great Mooridi 
 capitals were Seyille, Cordova, Jaen, and Granada. 
 During the darkness of the middle ages, Cordova 
 was ' the Athens of the west, the seat of arts and 
 sciences ; ' .and later stfll, under the Spaniards, 
 when ' the sun of Raphael set in Italy, painting here 
 arose in a new form in the Velasquez, Murillo, and 
 Cano school of Seville, the finest in the peninsula.' 
 On the north, A. is divided from Estremadura and 
 New Castile by the mountain-chains of Aroche, 
 Cordova, and Morena. On the east it is bounded by 
 Murcia, and on the west by Portugal and the 
 Atlantic. The south coast eastward from Gibraltar 
 is mountainous; the west, where the Guadalquivir 
 flows into the Atlantic, is level A. was esteemed 
 the richest district of Hesperia, and its former 
 wealth of produce has been indicated by such 
 names as the 'garden,' the 'granary,' the 'wine- 
 ceUar,' and the ' gold-purse ' of Spain. But, in 
 the present day, such predicates are merited only 
 by comparatively small portions of the hiUy country 
 on both sides of the Guadalquivir, where, even 
 with careless cultivation, the soil is luxuriantly 
 productive. Here wheat and maize ripen in April, 
 and yield abundantly. Olives and oranges attain 
 their greatest height, and vegetation generally 
 assumes a tropical character. Cotton, sugar-cane, 
 Indian figs, and batatas flourish iu the open air, 
 and the cactus and aloe form impenetrable hedges. 
 Wine and oil abound. The botany and mineralogy 
 of A. are very rich. The ranges of the Sierra Nevadii 
 are composed principally of primary and secondary 
 formations. In the west, towards Xenil, cultivation is 
 more sparing, as there is a natural deflciency of 
 water, and the artificial means of irrigation formerly 
 employed have fallen into disuse. Nearer to the 
 
 235 
 
AOT)AMA1^S— ANDERSON. 
 
 coast lie tracts of land still more barren ; and the 
 level strip extending between the mouths of the 
 Guadalquivir and the Tinto, is covered with moving 
 sands. On the whole, A. is still one of the most 
 fertile districts of Spain, owing to its delicious 
 southern climate and the abundance of water sup- 
 plied by its snowy mountains. Its breed of horses 
 has long been celebrated, and the mules are superior 
 to those of other countries. The Sierra Morena 
 mountains supply the wild cattle exhibited in the 
 bull-fights of Madrid. The natural riches of the 
 district have at various times invited colonists and 
 invaders, such as the Phcenicians and the Moors. 
 The Andalusians are regarded as among the most 
 lively, imaginative, and active people of Spain. 
 But they are also considered by the rest of their 
 countrymen to be the Gascons — the braggarts and 
 boasters of Spain. Apparently they have never at 
 any time been warlike, since even Livy calls them 
 imbdles. They are, like all braggarts, extremely- 
 credulous, and are, besides, remarkable for their 
 intense superstition. The worship of the Virgin 
 prevails to such an extent that the very country is 
 called La Tierra de la Santisima, ' the Land of 
 the Most Holy Virgin.' They speak a dialect of 
 Spanish mixed with Arabic. The chief towns of A. 
 are named after the four ancient provinces into 
 which it was divided — Seville, Cordova, Jaen, Cadiz, 
 (q. v.). Area 27,217 nules. Pop. 2,800,000. 
 
 A'NDAMANS, a group of thickly wooded islands 
 towards the east side of the Bay of Bengal, between 
 10° and 14° of N. lat, and about 93° of E. long. 
 The population is both barbarous and scanty, and 
 bears no resemblance whatever either in physical 
 features or language to the neighbouring Asiatic races. 
 In 1793 the Great Andaman received a British 
 colony, which was withdrawn, however, in 1796. Since 
 1857, the A. have been selected as a penal settlement 
 for sepoy mutineers, though the design has not, at 
 least on any large scale, been carried into effect. It 
 is only physically, in short, that the A. deserve 
 special mention, not so much from their presenting 
 in themselves any remarkable features, as from their 
 being a portion of the long arch, mostly volcanic, of 
 the Indian Archipelago, which, with Timor at its 
 bend, comprises the Moluccas, Celebes, the Philip- 
 pines,' and Formosa, on the one side.; and on the 
 other side the Sunda Isles, Java, Sumatra, the 
 Nicobars, and tl\e A. — the outline only requiring 
 to be filled up in imagination, iu order to produce a 
 peninsiila' harmonising more or less with the other 
 southern projections of the world, Hindostan, Africa, 
 and South America. 
 
 ANDA'NT]^ (Italian), in Music, implies a move- 
 ment somewhat slow and sedate, but iu a gentle and 
 soothing style. This term is often modified, both as 
 to time and style, by the addition of other words— 
 as A. affeiiuoso, slow, but pathetically ; A. cantahile, 
 slow, but in a singing style ; A. con inoto, slow, but 
 with emotion ; A. grazio^o, slow but gracefully ; A. 
 maestoso, slow, with majesty ; A.'non troppo, slow, 
 but not too much so ; .4. pastorale, slow, and with 
 pastoral simplicity. 
 
 A'NDBENACH, a little town belonging to the 
 district of Coblenz on the Rhine, in lat. 50" 27' N., 
 long. 7° 25' E., was once a Roman fortress styled 
 Antimnacum, then a residence of the Merovingian 
 kings, and afterwards became one of the most 
 flourishing places on the Rhine. The great tower 
 on the north side, the fine old church — with one 
 tower buUt in the Carlovingian times — and the old 
 gates and walls, give quite a medieval aspect to the 
 town. It now contains about 3500 people, supported 
 by trade in leather, wine, and corn, and is especially 
 celebrated for its millstones, exported to distant 
 236 
 
 parts of the world, and for its tuffstein or trass, an 
 indurated volcanic mud, which, when pulverised and 
 mixed with lime, makes a mortar or cement for 
 constructions under water. 
 
 ANDBRSEK", Hans Christian, one of the most 
 gifted poets that Denmark has recently produced, 
 was bom April 2, 1805, at Odense in Funen. His 
 father was a poor shoemaker, who used, however, to 
 console himself by speaking of the former prosperity 
 and wealth of his family. After his father's death, 
 he was for a short time employed in a manxifactory. 
 The widow of Bunkeflod, a poet of some reputation, 
 charitably adopted him. He early displayed a talent 
 for poetry, and was known in his native place as 
 ' the comedy- writer.' Hoping to obtain an engage- 
 ment in the theatre, he went to Copenhagen, but 
 was rejected because he was too lean. He was next 
 encouraged to hope for success as a singer ; but had 
 hardly commenced his musical studies when his 
 voice failed. He found generous friends, however, 
 to help him in his distress ; and application having 
 been made by one of them to the king, he was placed 
 at an advanced school at the pubMo expense, and so 
 began his academic education in 1828. Some of his 
 poems, particularly one entitled The Dying Ghild^ 
 had already been favourably received, and he now 
 became better known by the publication of his 
 Walk to Amah, a Mterary satire in the form of a 
 humorous narrative. In 1830, he published the first 
 collected volume of his Poems, and in 1831 a second, 
 under the title of Fantasies and Sketdies. His 
 Travelling Sketches (Shyggebilleder ofen Beise til 
 Haraen, &c.) were the fruit of a tour in the north of 
 Germany. A pension from the king now enabled 
 him to visit Germany, France, Switzerland, and 
 Italy. In Switzerland he completed his Agnes and 
 the Merman ; and one of his best works, Tlie Impro- 
 visatore, a series of scenes depicted in a glowing style, 
 and full of poetic interest, was the fruit of ms visit 
 to Italy. Soon afterwards, he produced 0. T. (1835), 
 a novel containing vivid pictures of northern scenery 
 and manners, which was followed (1837) by another, 
 entitled Only a Fiddler {Kun en Spillemand). In 
 1840, he produced a romantic drama, entitled The 
 Mulatto, which was well received ; but another 
 drama, Eapliaella, was less successful. In the same 
 year appeared his Picture-book vfitliout Pictures, a 
 series of the finest imaginative sketches. Exhausted 
 by his labo\irs, he sought recreation in the end of 
 1840 in a somewhat lengthened tour in Italy and 
 the East, of which he gave an account in A Poet's 
 Bazaar (1842). After his return, appeared The 
 Flower of Fortune, a dramatised fable, and three 
 series of tales, some of which had previously 
 appeared, and by which the popularity of A. was 
 greatly extended, and particularly in Germany. His 
 works have been translated, not only into German, 
 but into EngHsh and other languages, although the 
 beauties of his style, more than of many authors, 
 are unavoidably lost in translation. His Dying 
 Child has been translated into the language of 
 Greenland. Besides the works above mentioned, 
 he is the author of Ahasuerus, a mjrthical drama, 
 and of TJie Two Baronesses, a tale illustrative of 
 Danish society. 
 
 ANDERSON, James, LL.D., a writer on politi- 
 cal economy and agriculture, was born in 1739 at the 
 village of Hermiston, near Edinburgh. He lost both 
 his parents when very young, so tiiat the manage- 
 ment of a large farm, which had been in the posses- 
 sion of the family for a long time, devolved upon 
 himself. Recognising the practical, importance of a 
 knowledge of chemistry to a farmer, he attended the 
 chemistry class in the university of Edinburgh, and 
 brought the resxdts of his study to bear on his 
 
ANDERSON— ANDES. 
 
 profesaion. He invented, at an early period of life, 
 the small two-horse plough without wheels, commonly 
 called the Scotch plough, which is generally admitted 
 to have heen one of ■flie most useful improvements 
 of agricultural implements ever introduced. When 
 only 24 years of age, he went to Aberdeenshire, 
 where he rented a large moorland farm of 1300 
 acres. Here he remained for a considerable time, 
 devoting his leism-e hours to writing upon agricul- 
 ture. His first attempt was a series of essays upon 
 planting, which, under the signature of Agricola, he 
 contributed to the Edinburgh Weekly Magazine. In 
 1780, the university of Aberdeen bestowed on him 
 the degree of Doctor of Laws. In 1784, on account 
 of his pamphlet, entitled JEncouragement of the 
 NaMoncu Fisheries, he was engaged by government 
 to make a survey of the western coast of Scotland, 
 with special reference to that object. He next 
 commenced in 1791 the publication of a periodical 
 called Tlie Bee, which was continued for three years ; 
 in 1797 he went to London, where he pursued his 
 literary avocations with such intense assiduity, that 
 his health gradually gave way. He died on the 
 15th of October 1808. 
 
 A. win deserve a place in any record which 
 details the remarkable advances made by Scotland 
 in agriculture and other sources of wealth in the 
 latter half of the 18th c. And even in the history of 
 ideas he will deserve a prominent notice, as his Bee 
 was the type of many periodical miscellanies of a 
 cheap nature, mingling instruction with entertain- 
 ment, which have since been published. It ig also to 
 be observed that, in his essay called A Comparative 
 View of ilie Effects of Bent and of Tillie in Influencing 
 the Price of Gam (contained in one of his latest 
 publications, Tlie Becreaiions of Agricidiure), he 
 anticipated some important principles subsequently 
 advocated by Malthus, Eicardo, and West, particu- 
 larly the famous theory of rent. 
 
 ANDERSON, John, P.R.S., Professor of Natural 
 Philosophy m the university of Glasgow, and founder 
 of the eminently useful institution bearing his name, 
 was born in the. parish of Roseneath, Dumbarton- 
 shire, in 1726. Having lost his father, who was a 
 clergyman, when very young, the care of his educa- 
 tion devolved upon an aunt who resided at Stirling. 
 From StirKng, he went to Glasgow University, 
 where he must have excelled in literature as well as 
 m. science, for in his 30th year he was appointed 
 Professor of Oriental Languages. Four years later 
 (1760), he was transferred to the chair of Natural 
 Philosophy — an event which, considering his decided 
 predilection for the exact sciences, must have been 
 not less agreeable to Viim than fortunate for the 
 world. He entered upon hia new duties with extra- 
 ordinary ardour. Besides the work of the class, he 
 was indefatigable in studying the application of 
 science to mechanical practice; visiting, for this 
 purpose, the workshops of artisans in the town, and 
 receiving, in return for the theories and principles 
 which he had to communicate, a full equivalent of 
 experimental knowledge. Even this, however, did 
 not satisfy him. Inspired by a rational philanthropy, 
 he instituted, in addition to his usual class, which 
 was strictly mathematical, one for the working- 
 classes and other persons whose pursuits did not 
 enable them to conform to the prescribed routine of 
 academical study. He continued to teach this Anti- 
 toga Class, as he called it — ^with reference to the 
 red toga, or coUege-gown, worn by the regular 
 students in Glasgow — twice every week, during 
 the session, to the end of his life. In 1786 appeared 
 his valuable work, eniitled Institutes of Physics, which 
 went through five editions in ten years. Shortly 
 before the Iieuch Revolution, he invented a species 
 of gun, the recoil of which was stopped by the 
 
 condensation of common air, within the body of the 
 carriage ; but hsiviag in vain endeavoured to attract 
 the attention of the British government to it, he 
 proceeded to Paris in 1791, and, being himaelf a 
 great friend of liberty, presented his model to the 
 National Convention. It was hung up in their haU, 
 with the following, inscription over it: 'The gift of 
 Science to Liberty.' Afterwards, when the allied 
 monarchical forces had drawn a military cordon 
 around the frontiers of France, to prevent the intro- 
 duction of French newspapers into Germany, A. 
 ingeniously suggested the expedient, which was 
 adopted, and proved quite successful, of making 
 small balloons of paper, to which newspapers and 
 manifestoes might be tied, and letting them off, when 
 the wind was favourable, for Germany. A. died 
 13th January 1796. By his will, dated 7th May 
 1795, he directed that the whole of his effects, of 
 every kind, should be devoted to the establishment 
 of an educational institution in Glasgow, to be 
 denominated Anderscm's University, for the use of 
 the unacademical classes. 
 
 Anbbbson's, or, more commonly, the Andbesonian 
 TJnivkrsity, was originally intended to consist of 
 four colleges — for arts, medicine, law, and theology 
 — besides an initiatory school. Each college was to 
 have nine professors, the senior professor being the 
 president or dean. The funds, however, were totally 
 inadequate to such a plan, and the institution was 
 therefore opened with only a single course of lec- 
 tures on natural philosophy and chemistry, by Dr 
 Thomas Garnett. This course was attended by 
 nearly a thousand persons of both sexes. In 1798, 
 a professor of mathematics and geography was 
 appointed. The splendid apparatus and library of 
 the founder, which were valued at £3000, added 
 greatly to the advantages of the infant institution. 
 In 1799, Dr Birbeok, Sie successor of Dr Garnett, 
 commenced the system of giving a familiar exposi- 
 tion of mechanics and general science. His class 
 was attended by 500 artisans, who received their 
 instruction gratis. This was the origin of mechanics' 
 institutes. The Andersonian Institution was placed, 
 by the will of the founder, under the inspection and 
 control of the lord provost, and many other honour- 
 able persons, as ordinary visitors, and under the 
 more immediate superintendence of 81 trustees, who 
 are elected by ballot, and remain in ofEoe for life. It 
 has gradually enlarged its sphere of instruction, and 
 brought it nearer to the design of the founder. In 
 1852, the number of professors amounted to 15. It 
 possesses a, high reputation at the present day, as a 
 school of medicine in particular. 
 
 A'NDES, the great mountain-chain of South 
 America, extending in a direction nearly parallel 
 with the Pacific, along almost the whole length of 
 the continent. "The chain falls short of the Isthmus 
 of Darien, between which and the Atrato — a river 
 falling into the Caribbean Sea — it gradually subsides 
 into a merely undulating country. It appears, also, 
 to fall stiU further short of the Strait of Magellan, so 
 far as the mainland is concerned. But, on geological 
 grounds, it has been traced, first along the islands 
 that breast Patagonia to the west, ana next along 
 those that form the Puegian Archipelago. Thus may 
 the chain be said to stretch from flie neighbourhood 
 of the mouth of the Atrato, not merely to Cape 
 Horn, but even to the rooks of Diego Ramirez, 
 which lie about 60 nules to the south-west of 
 that promontory. The extreme length, therefore, 
 is from lat. 8° 15' N. to lat. 56° 30' S.— compris- 
 ing, of course, 64° 45', or, without any allowance for 
 windings or deviations, about 4500 English mUes. 
 But to mark the scale on which nature has 
 moulded the new world, the A. may be regarded as 
 merely a part of the sufficiently continuous chain 
 
ANDES. 
 
 of atout 9000 miles which loses itself near the 
 mouth of the Mackenzie, towards the shores of 
 the Arctic Ocean. In this respect, the old continent 
 can bring nothing into comparison. 
 
 Position. — The A., besides being generally in a 
 direction nearly parallel with the Pacific, verge 
 closely on that ocean. Prom the rocks, indeed, 
 of Diego Eamirez to about lat. 40° S., the 
 mountains, whether they are found on islands or 
 on the mainland, are almost literally washed by 
 the surf ; while northward from that parallel, there 
 spreads out, between the chain itself and the sea, 
 a belt of land not exceeding, in average breadth, 
 70 or 80 nules. Within the limits of Peru, the belt 
 in question is narrowest, while above and below it is, 
 in general, somewhat more extensive. The position 
 of the A with respect to the Atlantic Ocean presents 
 a striking contrast. To illustrate this, a passage 
 is subjoined from Herndon, the explorer of the 
 Amazon on behalf of the United States. Crossing 
 from Lima to the head-waters of the Amazon, 
 by the Pass of Antarangra, he writes thus : ' Yana- 
 coto, on the western slope of the A., at the height of 
 2337 feet above the sea-level, is only 28 nules from 
 the ocean that washes the base of the slope on which 
 it is situated ; while Fort San Kamon, at nearly the 
 same elevation on the opposite side, cannot be much 
 less than 4000 miles from its ocean by the windings 
 of the river, and in the river's direct course is at 
 least 2500 nules.' Further, to compare the two areas 
 respectively to the west and east of the dividing 
 ridge, the former has been estimated at ■ 180,000 
 square miles, and the latter at twenty times as 
 much. 
 
 Hydrography. — This interesting feature of the A. 
 has been already anticipated, to a considerable 
 extent, under the heads of the Amazon and 
 America. It only remains to observe that from 
 one end of the continent to the other, the true 
 and only water-shed, wherever there are two ranges, 
 is the range nearer to the Pacific. Not only is 
 the water-shed in question obviously far closer to 
 the west than to the east, but, beyond this, it is, 
 apparently without a single exception, pushed as far 
 to the westward as possible; it thus affords the 
 most conspicuous and most decisive example of an 
 almost universal law in the hydrography of the 
 earth. Throughout both continents, almost every 
 leading water-shed presents a longer descent towards 
 the east than towards the west, or, in other 
 words, sends off larger streams in the former direc- 
 tion than in the latter. To cite a few instances : 
 compare, 'va. North America, the Missouri with the 
 Columbia ; iu Europe, the Volga with the Neva ; iu 
 Asia, the Hoang-ho of China with the Oxus of the 
 Sea of Aral ; and even in Africa, where, as also in 
 Arabia, hydrographical traces have been largely 
 overlaid by deserts of sand, the plateau of the 
 Sahara and the chain of the Atlas gradually incline, 
 both of ,them, towards the east. But, if the water- 
 shed be invariably found as far as possible to the 
 westward, it necessarily follows, tiiat, wherever 
 there are two ranges, the more easterly range cannot 
 also be a continuous water-shed — ^unless, indeed, it 
 may be regarded as such with respect to the land- 
 locked basin of the connected lakes, Titicaca and 
 TJroz, already mentioned under the head of America. 
 With this exception, all the gatherings between the 
 two ranges, whether the intermediate space be 
 plateau or sierra, have found or formed channels of 
 escape— narrow, deep, and dark as they often are — 
 only to that sea which is thirty or foriy times more 
 distant than the one at their back. 
 
 Breadth and Area. — The area, on an estimate, 
 necessarily rough and vague, has been computed to 
 be triple that of the belt of comparatively level land 
 238 
 
 that borders on the Pacific. In other words, the 
 average breadth of the chain ia reckoned to be liirice 
 that of the belt in question. In a rough way, the 
 breadth may be estimated from the very shore of 
 the Pacific, whence the west slope commences, to 
 the lowest pongos, or cataracts, on the eastward 
 streams. But it is more correct to measure it 
 from the foot of the mountains, properly so called, 
 on the one side to that on the omer. The phrase- 
 ology of the country, which, on such a subject, ought 
 to be conclusive, appears to support the latter mode 
 of computation. In Lima and its neighbourhood, 
 where Herndon crossed the A., that officer speaks 
 of ' coast ' and ' sierra,' as distinguished from each 
 other even to the westward of ttie dividing ridge. 
 The entire distance of the Pass of Antarangra, as 
 measured on the actual road, was 87 mile's — ^the flrst- 
 50 being coast, and the remainiug 37 being sierra. 
 Nor does the distinction seem to have been an arbi- 
 trary one. From Callao to Cocachera — a line of 44 
 nules — ^the rise above the sea-level, tolerably uniform 
 the whole way, amounted to 4452 feet, or rather 
 more than 101 feet to the nule ; but the next 1,5 nules, 
 of which about a half still belonged to what was called 
 coast, yielded an increase of 2850 feet, an average 
 probably of 200 feet for that part of the stage that 
 fell tmder the definition of sierra. To give instances 
 of extreme breadths of the A. — an average breadth 
 being unattainable — the least breadth, and that in 
 Patagonia, is believed to be 60 or 70 miles; the 
 greatest breadth, again, pretty nearly on the parallel 
 of Lake Titicaca, and right through the grand 
 plateau of Bolivia, is said to be 400 miles ; and 
 to give an intermediate case, the breadth from 
 Mendoza, iu the basin of La Plata, to Santiago, in 
 Chili, is given at 140 nules — the former city being 
 4486 feet above the Atlantic, and the latter 2614 
 above the Pacific. 
 
 In order, then, to have a definite idea of the breadth 
 of the A., the chain must be viewed from one end to- 
 the other. In doing this, there wUl be adopted the 
 ordinary nomenclature, referring each division of 
 the A. to the particular country through which it 
 may pass. 
 
 Patagonian Andes. — Including/the A. of the 
 Puegian Archipelago, this part of the chain, ex^ 
 tending from lat. 56° S. to lat. 42° S., a distance of 
 more than 960 miles, is the narrowest of all, or is, 
 at aU events, too irregular to have its breadth 
 accurately estimated. The Patagonian shore, strictly 
 so called, is breasted, very much like the north- 
 west coast between Puca's Strait and Mount St 
 Ehas, by a number of islands. On these, as already 
 mentioned, the true A. are to be found, or rather, 
 of these the true A. consist— the continent itself 
 affording no footing to the chain tiQ fuUy 300 nules 
 to the northward of Cape Horn. Even after the 
 chain has laid hold of the mainland, it by no means 
 can be said to abandon the islands; so that here, 
 as further to the north, the chain may be regarded 
 as made up of parallel ranges— the main cifferenoe 
 being that the intervening valleys, which, to thei 
 north, are basins of fresh-water rivers, here present 
 salt-water channels. 
 
 Chilian Andes, stretching from lat. 42° S. to lat. 
 24° S., a distance of nearly 1250 uules. Throughout 
 nearly the whole of this line, the A. consist of only- 
 one range, for the parallel ridges, which run along: 
 between the great water-shed and the Pacific, 
 cannot claim to be any exception to this remark, 
 inasmuch as their highest points do not exceed an, 
 elevation of 2500 feet above the level of the sea. 
 This part of .the chain, however, presents several 
 lateral ranges, if it does not present any parallel 
 ones of importance. These spurs are to be seen on 
 both sides, though of very different magnitudes. To> 
 
ANDES. 
 
 the west, they are akin to the comparatively insig- 
 nificant paraUel ranees just noticed, being, Q A. at 
 all, merdy A. in miniature. But to the east, the 
 spurs deserve more consideration. They are two in 
 number, the one branching off between the 33d and 
 31st parallels, and the other between the 28th and 
 24th. The former, called the Sierra de Cordova, 
 advances like a, promontory into the plains of Bio 
 de La Plata, or Pampas, as they are more gener- 
 ally denominated, as far as the 65th meridian ; 
 and the latter, called the Sierra de Salta, nms 
 nearly as far to the east, and in a direction nearly 
 paraUel. 
 
 Peruvian Andes. — This part of the chain, stretch- 
 ing from lat. 24° S. to lat. 6° S. — a distance about 
 the same as in the last paragraph — is perhaps the 
 broadest of all the divisions of the A. It certainly 
 . contains the largest of the plateaus, the plateau of 
 Bolivia. Between the 20th and 19th parallels, not 
 far from the city of Potosi, the chain separates into 
 two ranges, known as the East and West Cordilleras 
 of Bolivia; and it is the reunion of these ranges, 
 between the 15th and 14th parallels, that encloses 
 the land-locked plateau of Titicaca, containing, as is 
 said, 30,000 square miles, or an area equal to that of 
 Ireland. Immediately above this table-land, the 
 united ranges in question constitute the mountain- 
 group of Cuzoo, which, in point of superficial extent, 
 IS stated to be thrice. as large as all Switzerland. 
 About a degree further north, the chain again 
 separates as before, reuniting also, as before, between 
 the 11th and 10th parallels, so as to embrace the 
 cities of Quanta and Guanoavelica. Hardly have 
 the two ranges reunited, when they mass them- 
 selves into Qie table-land of Pasco, not quite 
 half the size of that of Titicaca. Further to 
 the north, the chain divides, not into two, but 
 into three ranges, which unite again, on the 
 frontiers of Ecuador, in the group of Loxa, about 
 lat. 5° S. 
 
 Andes of Ecuador. — ^Immediately beyond the group 
 of Loxa, between 4° and 3° of S. lat, the chain 
 divides into two ranges, which, by again uniting in 
 2° 27', form the vaUey of Cuenga ; and immediately 
 beyond this is the group of Assuay, with its table- 
 land. Then another plateau of no great extent, 
 and a short stretch of the undivided chain, lead 
 to the vast table-land of Quito, which is said 
 to be subdivided by low bills into five smaller 
 plateaus, two to the east, and three to the west. 
 Towards the north, the table-land of Quito is suc- 
 ceeded by the group of Los Pastes, forming the 
 extreme portion of the A. of Ecuador. 
 
 Andes of New Oranada. — ^Beyond the city of 
 Almaguer, the chain breats oflf into two ranges, 
 which never again join each other. The range on 
 the west side remains undivided, tiU it disappears 
 near the mouth of the Atrato, a little to the east of 
 the Isthmus of -Darien. But the range on the east, 
 after massing itself into the group of Paramo de los 
 Papas, breaks into two branches, which, as dis- 
 tinguished from the range aforesaid on the west, are 
 styled the Central and mstem Cordilleras of New 
 Granada. These two contain between them the 
 upper waters of the Magdalena, the eastern separat- 
 ing them from the basm of lie Orinoco, and the 
 central dividing them from that of the Cauca. 
 Between them also they contain several considerable 
 table-lands, the principal one being that of Santa 
 Eg de Bogota. 
 
 Height. — ^Under this head must be treated separ- 
 ately the plateaus, the most prominent mcmntains, 
 and the passes — ^the altitudes of the lines of perpetual 
 snow falling more naturally under the head of 
 Climate. Here, as in the case of breadth, the chain 
 will be followed from south to north. ' 
 
 HEIQHT OV PLATEAUS. 
 
 Table-land of Titicaca, 
 
 Group of Cuzoo, . 
 
 Table-land of Pasco, . 
 
 ir II Assuay, 
 
 II II Quito, . 
 
 II II Bogota, 
 
 Feet. 
 12,700 
 
 8,300 
 11,000 
 15,620 
 
 9,543 
 
 8,958 
 
 The average height of these six colossal masses 
 above the sea-level is thus 11,000 feet, or consider- 
 ably more than 2 English nules. 
 
 HEIGHT OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Fuegian Andes — Feet. 
 
 Cape Horn, 3,000 
 
 Sarmiento, »6,800 
 
 Paiagonian Andes — 
 
 Yanteles, 8,030 
 
 Corcobado, 7,510 
 
 Miachiuadom, 8,000 
 
 Ghilian Andes — 
 
 Antuco, 13,000 
 
 Aconcagua, 22,296 
 
 Desoabezado, 12,102 
 
 Nevado de Chorolque, .... 16,546 
 
 Bolivian Andes — 
 
 Cerro de Potosi, .... 16,040 
 
 Gualtieri, 22,000 
 
 Nevado de Chiiquibamba, . . . 21,000 
 
 „ Tllimani, .... 21,150 
 
 ,1 Sorata, .... 21,290 
 
 Analache, .... . 18,500 
 
 Peruvian Andes — 
 
 Arequipa, 20,320 
 
 Andes of Ecuador — 
 
 Chimborazo 21,420 
 
 Cotopaxi, 18,887 
 
 Antisana, 19,137 
 
 Piohinoha, 15,922 
 
 Cayambe 19,648 
 
 Andes of New Oranada — 
 
 PicdeTolima, 18,314 
 
 This last-named mountain is said to be the only one 
 in New Granada that rises above the limit of per- 
 petual snow. All the others appear to fall short of 
 that line. 
 
 HEIGHT OP PASSES. 
 
 Chiliam Andes — Feet. 
 
 La Cumbre, 12,454 
 
 Portaio, ... . . 14,365 
 
 Bolivian Andes — 
 
 Potosi, 14,320 
 
 Las GualiUas, 14,830 
 
 Peruvian Andes — 
 
 Alto de Jacaibamba, .... 15,135 
 
 Laohagual, 15,480 
 
 Antaiangra, . . . . . 16,199 
 
 Andes of Ecuador — 
 
 Assuay, 12,385 
 
 Andes of New Granada — 
 
 Quindiu 11,500 
 
 These passes will bear a comparison with the 
 loftiest pinnacles in Europe. The last and lowest 
 overtops the highest summit of the Pyrenees by 
 332 feet ; while the last but, two, that of Antarangra, 
 which Hemdon traversed, soars 389 feet above Mont 
 Blanc, the culminating peak of the Alps. 
 
 The passes across the A. present a vast variety 
 of surfaces and levels. They appear to skirt, as often 
 as practicable, the mountain-torrents; and, when 
 
 239 
 
ANDES. 
 
 tliat is impracticable, sometimes surmount them 
 by bridges, and sometimes avoid them by means 
 of a path cut along the shoulder of the overhanging 
 height. 
 
 With respect to the mountainrtorrents, Hemdon, 
 after leaving Antarangra behiad him, was enabled 
 to avail himseK chiefly of this resource. ' As far as 
 the traveller,' says he, ' is concerned, there are not, 
 on the route we have travelled, two ranges of the 
 A. — that is, Ee has not to ascend and descend one 
 range, and then ascend and descend another. From 
 the time that he crosses at Antarangra, his progress 
 is downward, till he reaches the plain. Keally, 
 however, there are two ranges. The streams from 
 the first or western range have broken their way 
 through the second, making deep gorges, at the 
 bottom of which the road generally runs, and leaves 
 the peaks of the second range thousands of feet 
 above the traveller's head.' 
 
 In addition to the essential perils of such a 
 course, Hemdon encountered, on one occasion, an 
 incidental danger, which he thus describes — the 
 scene being a narrow path on the shoulder 
 of an almost precipitous biU : ' Mr Gibbon was 
 riding ahead. Just as he was about to turn a 
 sharp bend, the head of a bull peered round it on 
 the descent. When the bull came in full view, he 
 stopped ; and we could see the heads of other cattle 
 clustering over his quarters, • and hear the shouts of 
 the cattle-drivers, far behind, urging on their herd. 
 I happened to be abreast of a shght natural excava- 
 tion ; and dismounting, I put my shoulder against 
 my mule's flank, and pressed her into this friendly 
 retreat ; but I saw no escape for Gibbon. The buU, 
 with lowered crest and savage look, came slowly on, 
 and actually got his head between the perpendicular 
 waU and the neck of Gibbon's mule. But his saga- 
 cious beast, pressing her haunches hard against the 
 rock, gathered her feet close under her, and turned 
 as on a pivot. This placed the buU on the outside ; 
 and he rushed by at the gallop, followed in single 
 file by the rest of the herd. 
 
 In the bridging of the mountain-torrents, a good 
 deal of rude ingenuity is displayed. Sometimes 
 chains are suspended from side to side ; and some- 
 times a rough flooring is laid between projecting 
 beams from either bank, which have previously been 
 fixed as soHdly as possible. Nature also has done 
 something in this respect to help man, having thrown 
 two bridges of her own over a fearful chasm at 
 Icononzo. The torrent, which they span, falls down 
 a beautiful cataract into a murky crevice — the noisy 
 haunt of nocturnal birds. At a height of 400 feet 
 above the foaming waters, the two bridges hang in 
 mid-air, both of them, apparently, though in differ- 
 ent ways, the work of an earthquake. The upper 
 one is merely a fragment of the original sandstone, 
 which must have resisted the shock that formed the 
 rent ; while the lower, probably the most singular 
 arch in the world, consists of three detached rocks, 
 so adjusted as to support each other. 
 
 The loftiest pinnacles of the A., when viewed 
 from the table-lands, and, stiU more, when seen 
 from the crests of the passes, lose, to the eye of 
 the beholder, much of their real altitude. Under 
 such circumstances, not a single moimtain presents 
 the actual dimensions of Mont Blanc, as over- 
 hanging the Vale of Chamouni. It is only from 
 a distance — ^best of aU, perhaps, from a good 
 offing in the Pacific — ^that the A, appear in all 
 their gigantic proportions. Standing thus on their 
 pedestal, the most rugged and colossal in nature, 
 they almost realise to the spectator the highest 
 Pyrenees piled on the highest Alps ; while, to 
 enhance the grandeur of the scene, the igneous 
 action, which has heaved the chain into existence, 
 
 240 
 
 is here and there adding to its stature a pillar of 
 smoke and flame. 
 
 Tlie geology of the A. is as yet very little 
 known. It is more than half a century since Hum- 
 boldt travelled through these mountains, and to 
 him we are even now chiefly indebted for our 
 knowledge regarding them. At that time, geology 
 was in its infancy — its langua,ge had not been 
 formed, its classification, at least as it now exists, 
 was unknown, and its facts were mixed with absurd 
 and now long-exploded theories ; it could, in fact, 
 scarcely be called a science. It is fortunate that as 
 regards the materials constituting the great mass of 
 the A. range — the igneous rocks wMch form its 
 back-bone, and the metamorphic rocks which form 
 its great bulk — our knowledge was almost as exten- 
 sive and explicit 50 years ago as it is now, and 
 therefore, in respect to them, Humboldt's observa- 
 tions are as good as if made but yesterday. Not so 
 as regards the more recent sedimentary formations. 
 The value of fossils was not then known, and the 
 vaguest ideas prevailed as to 'the chronolo^cal 
 order of the stratified rooks. Hence descriptions 
 written at that time are almost valueless to modem 
 science. A few scattered notes may be gleaned from 
 the small number of intelligent travellers who have 
 recently visited these mountains ; and to them we 
 are obHged for any of the facts we are able to give 
 regarding the deposits referred to. 
 
 The elevation of the A. took place at an epoch 
 anterior to the formation of the ilocky Mountains 
 of North America, which are geographically a con- 
 tinuation of them. They are composed, to "• very 
 large extent, of stratified metamorphic rocks. It 
 is remarkable that granite occurs in them not as an 
 unstratified plutonic rock, but only intercalated 
 with the other members of the stratified azoic series. 
 The true igneous rocks belong either to the trappean 
 or volcanic divisions. The grand ridge is everywhere 
 covered with one or other of the varieties of trap 
 (greenstone, clinkstone, basalt, or porphyry). These 
 are often broken into columns, and appear at a dis- 
 tance like ruined castles, producing a very striking 
 effect. 
 
 Bursting through the trap-rocks, there are a num- 
 ber of volcanoes covering their summits with more 
 recent igneous rocks. Among the mountains spe- 
 cified above as to altitude, Yanteles, Corcobado, 
 Minchinadom, Antuco, Gualtieri, Arequipa, Cotopaxi, 
 Antesana, and Pichincha belong to tins class. Fifty- 
 one volcanoes have been described as existing 
 throughout the whole range. The mountains of 
 Ecuador are so extensively and continuously of 
 volcanic origin, that they have been regarded as 
 different safety-valves of one and the same burning 
 vault. It is generally maintained that there is a rela- 
 tion between the height of a volcano and its activity 
 and the frequency of its eruptions. Thus, StromboU 
 (2957, feet) has continued in a state of activity since 
 the earhest ages, serving the piirpose of a light-house 
 to the navigators of the Tyrrhenian Sea ; while 
 Cotopaxi (18,887 feet) and Tunguragua (16,579 feet) 
 have been active only once in a hundred years. 
 Many of these 51 volcanoes have consequently not 
 yet been observed by Europeans in an active state. 
 In the Quito district there are 10 active, and 7 of 
 doubtful activity ; in Peru and Bolivia, the numbers 
 are 9 and 3 ; in Chdi, 17 and 5 : making in all 36 
 active, and 15 about which there is some uncer- 
 tainty as to their activity. Another characteristic 
 of these volcanoes, resulting from their gigantic alti- 
 tude, is that few of them emit streams of lava. 
 Thus Antisana is probably the only one in the Quito 
 range that has ejected lava. The force, however, 
 which is repressed apparently by the immense super- 
 incumbent mass wHoh fiUs the crater, is exhibited 
 
ANDES. 
 
 in a terrific manner when an eruption does take 
 place. Cotopaxi, for instance, the most regular and 
 beautiful outlet of this the grandest of nature's 
 laboratories, has been known to shoot its fiery tor- 
 rents 3000 feet above its snow-bound crater, while 
 its voice is said to have been heard at a distance 
 of 550 miles. On one occasion a piece of rock, 
 measuring 300 cubic feet, was thrown from its 
 crater to a distance of more than eight mUea. 
 
 EarOiquakes are intimately connected with these 
 volcanic phenomena. No portion of the globe is sub- 
 ject to such frequent and destructive earthquakes as 
 the coimtries embosomed within the range of the 
 A. and those lying between them and the Pacific. 
 The cities and towns of Bogota, Quito, Riobamba, 
 CaUao, Copiapo, Valparaiso, and Conoepoion, have 
 all at different times been more or less devastated 
 by their agency. During the present year (1859), an 
 earthquake buried many of the inhabitants of Quito 
 under the ruins of its churches and public edifices ; 
 scarcely « single building of any size escaped un- 
 injured. 
 
 It is to the same subterranean agency that 
 upheaved and still convulses the A. that we are 
 to ascribe those fearful ravines which are almost 
 
 Eeculiar to the chain. An apt instance has already 
 een cited in the case of the deep and dismal crevice 
 which has been spanned by the natural bridges of 
 Icononzo. A still better specimen is the valley or 
 den of Chota, which, with a width at top of only 
 2600 feet, is 4875 feet in perpendicular height. This 
 den might overlap the loftiest hUl in Scotland, with 
 St Peter's at Rome on its summit. 
 
 The flanks of the mountains are clothed with 
 crystalline stratified rooks, consisting of innumer- 
 able varieties of granites, gneiss, schists, horn- 
 blende, chloritic slates, porphyries, &c. These 
 have been greatly disrupted by the underlying 
 igneous rocks, and now occupy a vertical or nearly 
 vertical position. They often run up into bold and 
 rugged peaks on the simimits. They alternate with 
 each other in great meridional bands, but without 
 any apparent order in the succession, except that 
 the varieties of schist depend on the crystalline 
 pareijt rock below ; otherwise, no regular sequence 
 can be observed ; for miles, only granite and gneiss 
 are found, then schist, quartz, gneiss, &c., mter- 
 ohanging. The variety and quantity of the mineral 
 wealth of these rooks is remarkable; with the 
 exception of lead, most of the metals are obtained 
 in large quantities — see below. The topaz, ame- 
 thyst, and other gems are abundant. 
 
 Lying unconformable with these almost vertical 
 metamorphic rocks, there occur in the valleys and 
 table-lands, and creeping up the base of the moun- 
 tains, a variety of fossiEferous beds, which require 
 further examination before they can be clearly 
 understood. A better estimate of the nature of 
 these deposits will be arrived at by describing one 
 of the localities where they occur. Take the large 
 plateau on which Bogota is buUt, which is 8958 feet 
 above the sea. The deposits filling up this plain 
 have been formed subsequent to the present con- 
 formation of the district, though not necessarily at 
 the present altitude : the whole range may have 
 been since elevated. The almost horizontal rooks, 
 from their organic contents, consistingof Ammonites, 
 Hamites, &c., have been referred by Edward Forbes 
 to the cretaceous era. The basin consists of many 
 beds of sandstones, limestones, shale, coal, gypsum, 
 and salt. The salt occurs in large quantities, one 
 bed being.no less than 100 feet in thickness, and 
 the coal in sufficient abundance to be wrought. All 
 these rocks have been more or less affectea by their 
 proximity to the underlying metamorphic rocks. 
 The molecular action going on below has in many 
 16 
 
 places been continued in them, and has induced a 
 cleava,ge at right angles to their planes of stra- 
 tification. The other patches— some of great 
 extent, as the plateau of the Titioaca — cannot yet 
 be referred to any particular geologic epoch. Coal 
 has been found near Huanco, in Peru, at the height 
 of 17,000 feet; fossiliferous limestones and sand- 
 stones have been noticed in Peru at Micuipampa 
 and Huancavelica. 
 
 Metals. — The aboriginal term A. is said to have 
 been derived from the Peruvian anta, which signifies 
 metal in general, or rather, perhaps, copper in par- 
 ticular. Within the limits of the empire of the 
 Incas, mining-tools, evidently not European, have 
 been dug up in various places ; and in one district 
 the ancient Peruvians have left behind them traces 
 of their mining operations at a height of 17,000 feet. 
 Moreover, the term, whatever may have been its 
 meaning, appears to have been, at all events, of 
 Peruvian origin, for it does not seem to have been 
 applied to Sie great chain of mountains by the 
 aborigines of New Granada. 
 
 The A. are understood to yield every metal 
 used in the arts but lead, and, according to one 
 recent statement, they yield lead also. 
 
 Oold is found in Ohih, Peru, and New Granada. 
 In Chili, however, it is so little productive, that 
 proverbially a gold-mine is inferior to a silver one, 
 and that, again, to a copper one. In Peru, gold is 
 most abundant between the 9th and 7th parallels ; 
 though further south, to the east of Lima, the 
 mines of Carabayo have been recently wrought to 
 great advantage ; and further south still, to the east 
 of Titioaca, very rich washings are situated on the 
 river Tipuani. In New Granada, gold-mines are 
 generally so inaccessible as not to bear the expense 
 of working them. The washings, again, though per- 
 haps remotely the product of the A, are confined 
 chiefly to the alluvial soils that lie between the 
 chain and either sea. 
 
 Silver also is found in Cluli, Peru, and New 
 Granada. In Chili, the most valuable, almost the 
 only very valuable, mines are wrought on the east 
 face of the A., not far from the city of Mendoza, 
 already mentioned in connection with the breadth of 
 the chain. In Peru, the most productive mines are 
 those of Pasco and Potosi. In those of Pasco, which 
 have now been open for more than two and a 
 quarter centuries without even approaching to 
 exhaustion, the ore is a mixture of silver and oxide 
 of iron. In the mines, again, of Potosi, whose very 
 name has become a proverb, there are said to be no 
 fewer than 5000 excavations, while, to all appear- 
 ance, only the upper crust of the inexhaustible 
 deposits has been penetrated. In New Granada, it 
 is with silver as it has been shewn to be with gold, 
 the mines of the former metal, as well as of the 
 latter, being so inaccessible as not to bear the 
 expense of working them. 
 
 Mercury or quichdlver is found in Quito, near the 
 village of AzoguS, which lies to the north-west of 
 Cuenja — taking its name, as is said, from this metal ; 
 and it is found Hkewise in Peru, not far from 
 Guancavelioa, a town situated, as already stated, to 
 the north of the group of Cuzco. The mercury 
 exists chiefly in combination with sulphur, forming 
 what is called cinnabar. 
 
 Platinum appears to exist only in New Granada; 
 but like the gold-washing of that country, it is 
 found rather in the alluvial soils, that have been 
 flooded down from the chain, than in the chain 
 itself. 
 
 Copper is found chiefly in Ohili, but also in Peru. 
 In the latter country, it is of little account in com- 
 parison with silver ; but, in the former, it may_ be 
 styled the staple metal, or even the staple production. 
 
ANDIKA— ANDmON. 
 
 The most valuable mines are in the northern and 
 Bouthem provinces ; in Ooquimbo and Copiapo above, 
 and in the neighbourhood of Araucania below. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the A. ia, at every point, 
 affected by three different considerations — position 
 with respect to the length of the chain, position with 
 respect to its breadth, position with respect to its 
 height. 
 
 In connection with the length of the chain, the 
 variations of cKmate, though less peculiar than its 
 variations under either of the other aspects, are not 
 merely a counterpart of similar changes in other 
 parts of the globe. In the new world generally, 
 temperature rises and falls more rapidly in propor- 
 tion to latitude than in the old ; and, again, as 
 within the new world itself, more rapidly in the 
 south than in the north. In connection, therefore, 
 with the length of the A., the variations of climate 
 may be regarded as the greatest possible — the 
 tropical heat of the equatorial regions passing 
 gradually into something like polar cold, even within 
 a latitude not greater than that of Edinburgh. This 
 may be best illustrated with reference to the limits of 
 perpetual snow. Within the Strait of Magellan, 
 in about the latitude of Wales, the limit in question 
 is only about 3500 feet, nearly the precise height of 
 the summit of Snowdon. In lat. 33° S., about the 
 centre of Chili, the snow-line, according to Humboldt, 
 is estimated at 12,780 feet; while, on a nearly 
 corresponding paraJlel, the Himalayas present on 
 their northern slope a snow-line of 16,620 feet. In 
 the tropical regions of the A., the snow-line seems 
 to range from 16,000 feet to 18,000. This result, 
 excepting that it does not greatly surpass the height 
 of the snow-hne as above on the Himalayas, can 
 scarcely be compared with anything in the old 
 world, whose tropical regions do not present any 
 chain of the requisite altitude for the purpose. The 
 same cause which regularly lowers the snow-line in 
 proceeding from north to south, has led, in Pata- 
 gonia and Tierra del Fuego, to the formation of 
 glaciers — a feature of the Alps which is altogether 
 unknown in the central and northern divisions of 
 the A. Glaciers, as the growth of an icicle renders 
 familiar to every one, require alternations of heat 
 and cold, or rather of thaw and frost. Now, these 
 essential conditions do not exist in the lower lati- 
 tudes of the A., where, generally spealdng, every 
 stage or terrace, as already noticed under me head 
 of America, possesses an almost monotonous tem- 
 perature. But they do exist in Patagonia and Tierra 
 del Fuego ; and aocordinely, glaciers there abound on 
 the shores of the deep indentations of the coast. 
 
 In connection, next, with the hreadOi of the chain, 
 the variations of climate, if not peculiar to the 
 A., have no perfect parallel elsewhere. At every 
 point, excepting, perhaps, towards the extreme south, 
 the chain ia almost as much of a water-shed, to 
 the clouds as it is to the rivers. Earefled as the air 
 is at the elevation of the A., no vapour, generally 
 speaking, can cross them — even the existence of 
 snow at the height of several miles being a phenome- 
 non which, a priori, was hardly to be expected. This 
 fact is rendered more important by the ordinary 
 directions of the currents of air. The prevailing 
 winds blow against the A., not alongside of them, 
 being generally from the east between the equator 
 and 30°, and from the west ia latitudes towards 
 the south. Thus, generally speaking, every section 
 of the chain has permanently a windward and 
 a leeward side — ^the former intercepting nearly all 
 the moisture, and the latter being condemned to 
 comparative drought. Peru, Chili, and Patagonia, 
 one and all, confirm these observations in detail. 
 On the west, Peru, unless in the immediate vicinity 
 of the mountain-streams, is little better than a 
 3a 
 
 desert; while, on the eaat, the Montana, as it 
 is called, is remarkable for its fertility. To the 
 west, on the contrary, Patagonia has its glaciers 
 to shew as the result of its rams from that quarter ; 
 while, to the east, its five terraces, extending 700 
 nules to the Atlantic, are almost uniformly arid 
 and sterile. Between Patagonia and Peru, Chdi 
 has something in common with both, resembling 
 the former in its southern half, and the latter in its 
 northern. To take the Pacific side alone : in the 
 northern parts, showers are only occasional, some- 
 times at an interval of three years— the deficiency 
 being partly supplied by frequent dews ; while, 
 to the south of lat. 34°, the rains are sufficiently 
 copious to form considerable rivers. 
 
 In connection, lastly, with the height of the chain, 
 the variations of climate stand alone in the world, 
 being approached, though at a great interval, only 
 by the corresponding changes in Central America. 
 The Alps, to take a familiar analogy, have, it ia 
 true, their gradations of climate. But, situated, 
 in round mmibers, on about the 45th parallel, they 
 represent only half of the latitudes between the 
 equator and the pole ; while the A. of Quito, before 
 reaching, this level, must have seen melting into 
 each other the temperatures of Borneo, India, Persia, 
 Asia Minor, and Italy. Taking the snow-line of the 
 A. of Quito at 18,000 feet, and that of the Alp's at 
 8000, the lower and hotter 10,000 feet of the former 
 have no counterpart at all on the latter. Now, 
 Hemdon found Tarma to lie within this height, 
 precisely at an elevation of 9738 feet ; and he there 
 saw apples, strawberries, almonds, grapes, and 
 maize — a state of things not far behind that at 
 the foot of the Alps. No space remaining for details, 
 one general observation must close this article. In 
 an open locality, the naked eye may embrace half a 
 zone, for, to quote a traveller's words, it may look 
 upwards to the barley-field and the potato-patch, 
 and downwards to the sugar-cane and the pine-apple. 
 Perhaps the most strikmg instance of this more 
 than telescopic vision is connected with the magnifi- 
 cent fall of Tequendama, the single outlet of the 
 waters of the table-land of Bogota. This fall, 600 
 feet high, leaps down from the temperate zone to the 
 torrid, from rich crops of wheat to a few scattered 
 palms. 
 
 ANDI'EA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 Leguminosce, sub-order PapilionacecB, having an 
 almost orbicular, one-celled, one-seeded pod. — A. 
 inermis (formerly known as Geofiroya inermis) grows 
 in low savannahs in the West Indies, and is there 
 called Cabbage Tree or Cabbage-barh Tree. It is 
 a tree of considerable height, having pinnate leaves, 
 with 13 — 15 ovato-lanoeolate leaflets, and panicles of 
 reddish lilac flowers. Its bark, called Cabbage Bark 
 or Worm Baric, is a powerful anthebaintio ; and 
 although it has recently been discarded from the 
 pharmacopoeias of Britain, stiU finds a place in those 
 of other countries, along with Surinam Baric, the 
 bark of A. retusa (formerly Geoffroya Surinamensis), 
 a native of Surinam. Similar properties reside in 
 the bark of several species of the aUied genus 
 Geoffroya. Cabbage Bark contains an alkaloid called 
 
 A'NDIEON, or HANDIRON,is a term frequently 
 to be met with in inventories of the furniture of old 
 houses; and in some parts of the country is stiU 
 used for what ia more generally known as a fire-dog. 
 Andirons were used for burning wood on an open 
 hearth, and consisted of a horizontal bar raised on 
 short supports, with an upright standard at one 
 end. A pair were used, que standing at each side of 
 the hearth, and the logs of wood rested across the 
 horizontal bars. The upright portions of the A. 
 
AOTJOERA— ANDRAL. 
 
 were of various fonus, some of them, in later times, 
 representing a human figure. More generally, the 
 design ■was architectural, much ornamented with 
 
 Andiron, 
 
 arabesques, and not unfrequently with the mono- 
 grams of their possessors. The ornamental parts of 
 me A. were sometimes silver, but more frequently 
 copper. 
 
 ANDO'RRA, a valley in the Eastern Pyrenees, 
 between the French department of Arifege and 
 Catalonia, in Spain. It is enclosed by moun- 
 tains, through which its river, the Balira, breaks 
 to join the Segre at Urgel; and its inaccessi- 
 bilily naturally fits it for being the seat of the 
 interesting little republic which here holds a kind 
 of semi-independent position between France and 
 Spain. The whole territory contains only 198 square 
 miles, with 17,800 inhabitants, and is divided into 
 six parishes. The capital is Andorra, on the Balira, 
 with a population of 2000. Dense forests supply 
 abundance of timber; there is much excellent 
 pasture; vines and fruit- trees flourish on the lower 
 grounds, and the mountains contain rich iron-mines ; 
 but agriculture is so neglected, and the quantity of 
 arable land so small, Qiat the inhabitants partly 
 depend for corn upon importation from France. 
 A. was declared a free state by Charlemagne, in 
 reward for services rendered to liim by its inha- 
 bitants, when he was maroMng against the Moors. 
 He retained certain rights which Louis le Dgbonnaire 
 afterwards transferred to the Bishop of Urgel, in 
 819 A.D., and which the Bishop of Urgel BtUl 
 exercises. The republic is governed by a sovereign 
 council of twenty-four members, chosen by the 
 people, and the council elects one of its members 
 to be syndic for life, who exercises the chief 
 executive power. There are two judges called 
 inguiers, of whom the first is appointed by France, 
 which exercises a kind of protectorate, and iie second 
 by the Bishop of Urgel. The first viguier is a 
 Frenchman, and the second a native of A. Under 
 each viguier is an inferior judge called a bailie; but 
 there is an appeal from his judgment to the viguier, 
 and finally to tbe Court of Cassation at Paris, or to 
 the Episcopal College at Urgel. In criminal cases, 
 there is no appeal from the court of the republic 
 itself, in which the first vigv^ier presides. The 
 revenue of the state is derived from lands, and from 
 some inconsiderable taxes. A sum of 960 francs is 
 paid annually to France, in return for which is 
 granted the privilege of free importation of com. 
 An annual payment of 450 livres is made to the 
 Bishop of UrgeL Themannerof life of the Andorrans 
 is very simple. There are schools, but education is in 
 a low state. There is a complete military organisa- 
 tion. In recent wars, the Ajidorraus have warmly 
 supported France. 
 
 A'NDOVER, a market-town of Hampshire, lies 
 in the north-west part of the county, lat. 51° 12' N. 
 long. 1° 28' W. The origin of the town dates from 
 a remote antiquity, as might indeed be suspected 
 
 from its name, which is a modification of the Saxon 
 Andea/asran, i. e., ferry over the river Ande. It 
 is said that the corporation of A. is as old as the 
 time of King John. The inhabitants, amounting to 
 5200, are chiefly supported by their malt-trade, -flieir 
 agriculture, and their traffic iu timber with Ports- 
 mouth. At WeyhiU, a few rmles to the west of the 
 town, a fair is held, formerly one of the most cele- 
 brated and important in England. It lasts for six 
 days. The church of A. is a new erection, in 
 the early English style of architecture, and cost 
 £30,000, the whole of which was defrayed by the 
 late rector, the Eev. W. S. Goddard. Various relics 
 of antiquity have been discovered in the vicinity of 
 A., such as fine specimens of Roman pavement. 
 
 A'NDOVER, a township in Massachusetts, about 
 21 miles to the north of Boston, reaching on the 
 north to the Merrimac. It is intersected by several 
 railways, while the water-power of its streams is 
 extensively employed in the manufacturing of 
 thread, linen, and flannels. The township was 
 incorporated in 1646, just 26 years after the first 
 landing of the Pilgrim Fathers. Its population, by 
 the census of 1850, was 6945. A. is famous, even 
 in Massachusetts, for its educational institutions. 
 It has two of a superior description — ^the Theo- 
 logical Seminary of the CongregationaliSts, and the 
 Phillips Academy, instituted wiSiin five or six years 
 after the close of the war of independence, through 
 the efforts of two brothers from whom it derives its 
 name. Both these establishments are liberally con- 
 stituted and well attended ; and the latter in parti- 
 cular, with its revenue of £12,000 sterling, would be 
 reckoned very wealthy in any part even of the old 
 world. — Besides this A., there are eleven other places 
 of the same name in the United States. 
 
 ANDRAL, Gabriel, a celebrated French physi- 
 cian, member of the Institute and of the Academy 
 of Medioiae, was bom in Paris on the 6th of 
 November 1797. In 1823 he established his repu- 
 tation by the publication of the first part of his 
 OUnique MSdicalej in 1828, partly through the 
 influence of M. Eoyer-CoUard, whose daughter he 
 had married, he was appointed Professor of Hygifene ; 
 and in 1830 was advanced to the chair of Internal 
 Pathology, a branch of medical science which had 
 always possessed great attractions for him. A, in 
 fact, commenced his investigations vrith pathological 
 anatomy. He presented to the Academy, at a com- 
 paratively early period of his career, a paper Sur 
 t'Anatomie Patliologique du Tube Digest^ (On the 
 Pathological Anatomy of the Alimentary Canal), 
 which was greatly admired. Besides, he published, 
 in 1829, a Precis EUmentaire of the same science, 
 which met with striking success ; and his Glinique 
 Medicale treats principally of diseases of the chest, 
 of the abdomen, and of the brain. In 1839, A. 
 was almost unanimously elected by his colleagues 
 to succeed Broussais in the chair of pathology and 
 general therapeutics, the highest in the school. 
 Here he has shewn the vast range of his medical 
 knowledge ; but in occupying himself so much with 
 the pathological anatomy of the dead body, it is 
 alleged that he has not paid sufficient attention 
 to file' phenomena of disease before the organs 
 begin to exhibit traces of alteration. Though 
 actively engaged in his general practice, he has 
 found time to write several other works besides 
 those already mentioned. In 1835 appeared his 
 Projet d'un msai sur la VitaKtS; in 1836, he edited 
 and considerably enlarged Laennec's TraiU de 
 I'auscultaMon Midiate et du Ccemr; in 1836 — 1837, 
 a Gmtrs de Pathologie Interne; in 1837, his report 
 to the Academy Sur le TraUemetit de la FUvre 
 TypJuMepar lea Purgatifs; in 1843 he presented to 
 
ANDRE— ANDREW. 
 
 the Institute his TraiU EUmentaire de Pathologie et 
 de TMrapeutique Oenerale (publislied in 1840), &o. 
 
 A'NDE.B, John, an unfortunate soldier who met 
 his death under circumstances which have given his 
 name a place in history, was born in London in 
 1751 of Genevese parents. At the age of twenty, he 
 entered the army, and soon after joined the British 
 forces in America, where, in a few years, through the 
 favour of Sir Henry Clinton, he was promoted to 
 the important post of adjutant-general, with the rank 
 of major. 
 
 Sir Henry Clinton being in treaty with the 
 American general Arnold, who commanded the 
 fortress of West Point, for the betrayal to the 
 British of the fortress with its magazines, including 
 the whole stock of powder of the American army, 
 confided the conduct of the correspondence on lus 
 part to Major A. The secret correspondence was 
 conducted by Arnold and A. under assumed names, 
 and as if it related to commercial affairs ; and the 
 treachery was so well concealed, that the Americans 
 had no sxispicion whatever of Arnold's fidelity. At 
 last it remained only to settle the time and means of 
 caixying the scheme into execution ; and these it was 
 determined should be settled in a personal interview 
 between Arnold and A., either because Arnold 
 required such an interview, or, more probably, 
 because Clinton had some mismvings as to the 
 identity of his correspondent. Various projects to 
 bring about the interview having failed, A., at last, 
 on the 20th September 1780, proceeded in a British 
 sloop of war — ^the Vulture — up the Hudson nearly 
 to the American lines. The original design was to 
 have met under cover of a flag of truce, on the pre- 
 tence of effecting some arrangement as to the seques- 
 trated property of a Colonel Robinson, a loyalist 
 gentleman who accompanied A., and whose house 
 was at the time Arnold's head-quarters; but this 
 design had to be abandoned, and Arnold was obliged 
 to contrive a secret iaterview. On the night of the 
 21st September he prevailed on a Mr Smith, who 
 lived within the American lines, to go to the Vulture 
 with a packet for Colonel Robinson. Smith went, 
 and returned with A., who passed under the assumed 
 name of Anderson. Arnold met him on the shore, 
 where they conferred some time, after which they 
 went within the lines to Smith's house, and there 
 spent the rest of the night and part of the next day 
 arranging the details of their plan for the treacherous 
 siu^risal of West Point. The attack was fixed for 
 the day when the return of General Washington 
 was expected ; and there is reason for thinking that 
 part of Arnold's scheme was, if possible, to betray 
 Washington also into the hands of the enemy. 
 
 Early on the morning of the 22d September, a gun 
 was brought to bear on the Vulture, and obhged her 
 to fall down the river so far that A. could not 
 prevail on the boatmen to take him to her, and so 
 was forced to make his way by land to the English 
 lines in a disguise fiu-nished by Smith, and provided 
 with a pass from the general. A. actually got 
 safely within sight of the English lines, when he 
 was stopped and taken prisoner by three American 
 nulitia-men, to whom, mistaking them for British, 
 he inadvertently revealed the fact that he was a 
 British ofScer. His captors, on searching him, 
 having discovered concealed in his stockings the 
 plans of West Point and other papers connected 
 with the proposed treachery, which he was bearing 
 from Arnold to Clinton, carried him as a spy to a 
 Colonel Jamieson, who, not suspecting anything, 
 was for sending him on to Arnold. Here a chance 
 of escape opened for him, but only for a moment. 
 He was ultimately sent, with the papers found on 
 his person, to General Washington. Jamieson, mean- 
 time, having sent word to Arnold of the capture 
 
 of A., Arnold fled to the Vulture, and so saved his 
 Hfe. 
 
 A., as a spy taken in the act, was liable, according 
 to the rules of war, to be hanged at once. But 
 considering the rank of the prisoner, and the circum- 
 stances, Washington resolved on referring the case 
 to a Board of general oflicers, to report the facts, 
 with their opinion of the light in which the prisoner 
 ought to be 'considered, and the punishment that 
 ought to be inflicted. The Board found that he 
 ought to be considered as a spy from the enemy, 
 and punished with death. Strenuous efforts were 
 made by the British commander to save him. It 
 was represented to Washington that A. could not 
 be regarded as a spy, because — 1. He entered the 
 American lines vmder a flag of truce; 2. That all 
 his movements within the lines were directed by the 
 general. The first plea, on A.'s own authority, 
 was contrary to the fact; and to the Americans it 
 rightly appeared that the point of the offence lay in 
 the communication with the base traitor Arnold. 
 All the efforts of Clinton failed to move the 
 American commander. A. was sentenced to death. 
 On one condition only would Washington spare 
 him — ^that the British should surrender Arnold. 
 But this they could not think of doing ; the sense of 
 honour which, yielding to the spirit of war, offered 
 no opposition to a bargain with Arnold for the blood 
 and hberties of his compatriots, made it impossible 
 to deliver up the runaway traitor to the death that 
 otherwise awaited the soldier who only went too far 
 in his zeal for his country. 
 
 A. suffered death by hanging at Tappan, in the 
 state of New York, on the 2d October 1780, in his 
 29th year. His death everywhere excited the deepest 
 sympathy. The whole British army went into 
 mom-ning for bim ; a momunent was erected to his 
 memory in Westminster Abbey, and in 1821 his 
 remains were disinterred at Tappan, and conveyed 
 to a grave near his monument. 
 
 Much has been written on the subject of A.'3 
 execution. It has often been maintained, and 
 recently by Lord Mahon, in his History of England 
 (vol. vii.), that his sentence was unjust. But a 
 simple narrative of the circumstances, even as they 
 are to be gathered from Lord Mahon's own pages, 
 shews that the American general had no alter- 
 native. Indeed, the circumstances cited to shew that 
 A. was not a spy, in the ordinary sense, all go to 
 prove that he was a spy of the worst sort. The 
 success of the treachery of Arnold would have been 
 the destruction of the American cause ; and it is 
 hard to see how the agent who went secretly within 
 the American lines, and was captured returning in 
 disguise with the information that was to insure 
 that success, is to be held in a better case than the 
 common soldier who steals his way into the enemy's 
 camp of a night, to see the ejctfent of his preparations 
 and forces. 
 
 A. was a handsome and amiable man, of consider- 
 able accomplishments; he was a good artist, and 
 appears, when in England, to have been known to 
 certain literary circles of his time. These circum- 
 stances naturally heightened the feeling with which 
 his fate was regarded. 
 
 See Biographical Dictionary of the Society for the 
 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, vol. ii. ; also, in vol. 
 vi. of the Memoirs of the Historical Society of Penn- 
 sylvania, 1858, The Case of Major A., with a Review 
 of the Statement of it in Lord Mahon's History of 
 England, by Charles J. Biddle — an essay containing 
 a full narrative of the case, with a discussion of all 
 the questions of law and duty raised in connection 
 with it. 
 
 ANDREjE, Joh. Valent., avery original thinker 
 and writer, bom at Herrenberg, near Tubingen, on 
 
ANDE.EOSSY— ST ANDREW. 
 
 the 17th of August 1586. He studied at Tubingen, 
 spent some time in travelling in the south of 
 Europe, obtained ecclesiastical prefennents in the 
 Protestant Church of his native country, and died 
 on June 27, 1654, at Stuttgart, where he was chaplain 
 to the ooiui;. Eminentlypractioal in his mental dis- 
 position, he was grieved to see the principles of 
 Christianity made the subject of mere empty disputa- 
 tions, and all science and philosophy in Kke manner 
 perverted by a frivolous scholastioism. To the 
 correction of this prevailing tendency of his age, the 
 efforts of his whole life were directed. His writings 
 are remarkable for the wit and humour, as welt as 
 for the learning, acuteness, and moral power which 
 they display. He has been long regarded as the 
 founder, or at least the restorer of the order of the 
 Rosieruoians (q. v.) ; and this opinion is plausibly 
 supported by reference to three publications — the 
 Ghymische Hoehzeit Christiani Bosenhreuz (1616), the 
 Fama Fratemitatis R. C, i. e., rosece cntds (1614), 
 and the Confessio Fratemitatis B. C. (1615), of the 
 first of which he acknowledged himself the author, 
 and the other two have so much resemblance to it as 
 to be evidently from the same pen. But, however 
 these works were misunderstood by his contempo- 
 raries, and particularly by those who were inclined to 
 mysticism in religion, his intention in them was cer- 
 tainly not to originate or promote secret societies of 
 mystics and enthusiasts, but to ridicule the foUies of 
 the age. He attacked Rosiorucianism itself in some 
 of his later writings with great severity. Among 
 the best of his works are his Menippke s. Satyri- 
 corum Dialogorum Ceniuria (1617). His Mythologica 
 Christiana (1619) is another of the best known. He 
 wrote an allegoric poem called Die Christenburg (of 
 which an edition was pubUshed, Stuttg. 1836), and 
 an autobiography (Winterthur, 1799). Herder has 
 done much to extend a knowledge of A.'s works in 
 the present age. 
 
 ANDEEOSSY, Antoine EEANgois, Count, was 
 bom on March 6, 1761, at Castelnaudary, inLangue- 
 doc, and was the great-grandson of Erangois A., who, 
 along with Riquet, constructed the canjil of Langue- 
 doc in the 17th c. He entered the army as a lieu- 
 tenant of artiUery in 1781, joined the Revolutionists, 
 rose rapidly in military rank, served under Bonaparte 
 in Italy and Egypt, accompanied him on his return 
 from Egypt to R:ance, and took part in the revolu- 
 tion of the 18th Brumaire. He was ambassador at 
 London during the peace of Amiens, and afterwards 
 at Vienna, was governor of Vienna when it was in 
 the hands of the Trench after the battle of Wagram, 
 and was for some time ambassador at Constanti- 
 nople, from which he was recalled by Louis XVIIL 
 on the Restoration. He was raised to the peerage 
 by Napoleon after his return from Elba. After the 
 battle of Waterloo, he advocated the recall of the 
 Bourbons; but as deputy from the department of 
 Aube, he generally took part with the opposition. 
 He died at Montauban on September 10, 1828. He 
 was a man of eminent scientific attainments, and 
 distinguished himself as a member of the Institute 
 founded at Cairo. One of his first works was the 
 Histoire GSnSrcde du Canal du Midi (Par. 1800; 
 new edition, 2 vols., 1805), in which he asserted the 
 right of his great-grandfather to honours long 
 enjoyed by Riquet. Among the most valuable of 
 his works are his MSmoire sur V Irruption du Pont- 
 Evxcin dans la MediterranSe, his MSmmre sur le 
 Systeme des Eaux qui abreuvent Constantinople, and 
 his Constantinople et le Bosphore de Thrace pendant 
 les Annies 1812 — 1814 et pendant I'Annge 1826 
 (Par. 1828), a work of importance in physical 
 geography. 
 
 ANDREW, the first disciple of Christ, and 
 
 afterwards an apostle, was, like his brother Peter, a 
 fisherman. Previous to his recognition of Christ as 
 the Messiah, he had been numbered among the dis- 
 ciples of John the Baptist. (See John i. 40, 41.) 
 The career of A., as an apostle, after the death of 
 Christ, is unknown. Tradition tells us that, after 
 preaching the gospel in Soythia, Northern G-reece, 
 and Epirus, he suffered martyrdom on the cross at 
 Patras in Achaia, 62 or 70 A. n. A cross formed 
 of beams obliquely placed is styled St A.'s Cross. 
 In the early times of the Church, a spurious supple- 
 ment to the Acts of the Apostles was circulated 
 among certaia sects under the title Acta Andreas. 
 The anniversary ol St A. falls on November 30. St 
 A. is the patron saint of Scotland ; he is also held in 
 great veneration in Russia, as the apostle who, 
 according to tradition, first preached the gospel in 
 that oovmtry. In both countries there is an order of 
 knighthood named in his honour. 
 
 ST ANDREW, or THE THISTLE, a Scottish 
 order of knighthood, na.med after the patron saint 
 of Scotland. Nisbet, with pardonable partiaHty, 
 prefers it to all other orders, purely military, ' chiefly 
 for the antiquity of it, which gives it a place and 
 precedency over aU other orders now in being. 
 (Heraldry, Part iv. c. xi., p. 107.) He then pro- 
 ceeds, after Bishop Lesley, to recount the story of 
 the St A.'s Cross having appeared in heaven to 
 Aohaius, king of Scots, and Hungus, king of the 
 Picts, as a sign of the victory which they should 
 
 fain the following day over Athelstane, king of 
 Ingland ; and their subsequent vow, when the pro- 
 phecy was fulfilled, to bear it on their ensigns and 
 banners. The recognised date of the order is, how- 
 ever, no earlier than the reign of James V. Having 
 fallen into disrepute after the Reformation, it was 
 revived by James II. of Great Britain in 1687, and 
 re-estabKshed by Queen Anne December 31, 1703. 
 The star of ■file Order of the Thistle is worn on 
 
 Star of the Order of the Thistle. 
 
 the left side. It consists of a St A.'s Cross of silver 
 embroidery, with rays emanating from between 
 the points of the cross, in the centre of which is a 
 thistle of gold and green upon a field of green, sur- 
 rounded by a circle of green, bearing the motto of 
 the order in golden characters. 
 
 The badge or jewel is worn pendent to the collar, 
 or to a dark-green ribbon over the left shoulder, 
 and tied under the arm. It consists of s, figure of 
 St A. with the cross enamelled and chased on rays 
 of gold ; the cross and feet resting upon the ground 
 of enamelled green. The collar is of thistles, inter- 
 mingled with sprigs of rue. By a statute passed in 
 May 1827, the order is to consist of the sovereign 
 and sixteen knights. The letters K.T. are placed 
 after the names of knights of the order. The 
 motto is ' Nemo me impuue lacessit.' Nisbet, differ- 
 ing from Sir George Mackenzie, prefers ' laoesset,' as 
 ' having more of daring and gallantry.' 
 
 245 
 
ST ANDEEW-ANDKIEUX. 
 
 ST AJfDREW, Thi Bttssiaji Oedeb ov, is the 
 highest LQ the empire, and was founded by Peter the 
 Great in 1698. It is confined to members of the 
 imperial family, princes, generals-in-chief , and others 
 of like rank. The badge of the order shews on the 
 obverse a cross enamelled in blue, bearing a figure 
 of the saint surmoimted by a crown, and in the four 
 corners of the cross the letters S. A. P. R. {Sanctus 
 Andreas Paironus Jlussiw). On the reverse is a 
 spread eagle, with the legend (in Russian) For religion 
 and loyalty, and the name of the saint. The collar 
 consists of St Andrew's Crosses alternating with 
 imperial crowns. 
 
 ANDREWS, Lancelot, an eminent English 
 prelate, was bom in London in 1555, and educated 
 successively at the Coopers' Free School, RatcUfie, 
 Merchant Taylors' School, and Pembroke Hall, 
 Cambridge, of which college, after having greatly dis- 
 tinguished himself by his mdustry and acquirements, 
 he was ia 1576 elected a fellow. On taking orders, 
 he accompanied the Earl of Huntingdon to the north 
 of England. His talents attracted the notice of 
 Walsingham, Queen Elizabeth's secretary of state, 
 who appointed him successively to the parsonage of 
 Alton, and the vicarage of St Giles, Cripplegate. 
 In 1589 he was appointed a prebendary and canon 
 residentiary of St Paul's, a prebendary of the colle- 
 giate church of Southwell, and Master of Pembroke 
 Hall. The queen next testified her esteem for his 
 gifts and piety by appointing him one of her 
 chaplains in ordinary, and a prebendary and dean of 
 Westminster. He rose stUl higher in favour with 
 King James, who was well qualified to appreciate 
 his extensive learning and peculiar style of oratory. 
 He attended the Hampton Court conference, as 
 one of the ecclesiastical commissioners, and took 
 part in the translation of the Bible. The portion 
 on which he was engaged was the first twelve 
 books of the Old Testament. In 1605 he was con- 
 secrated Bishop of Chichester. In 1609 he was 
 translated to the see of Ely, and appointed one of 
 his majesty's privy-councillors, both for England 
 and Scotland. To the latter country he accompanied 
 the king in 1617, as one of the royal instruments for 
 persuading the Scotch of the superiority of episcopacy 
 over presbytery. In the following year he was trans- 
 lated to Winchester, where he died on the 27th March 
 1625. Bishop A. was, with the exception of Usher, 
 the most learned English theologian of his time. As a 
 preacher, he was regarded by his contemporaries as 
 unrivalled ; but the excellent quahties of his dis- 
 courses are apt to suffer much depreciation in 
 modem judgment from the extremely artificial and 
 frigid character of the style. His principal works 
 published during his bfe were two treatises in reply 
 to Cardinal BeUarmin, in defence of the right of 
 princes over ecclesiastical assemblies. His other 
 works consist of sermons, lectures, and manuals of 
 devotion. Bishop A. was the most eminent of that 
 Anglican school in the 17th c. of which the 19th has 
 Been a faint revival under the name of Puseyism. 
 Its distinctive pecuharities were high views of eccle- 
 siastical authority, and of the efficacy of sacraments, 
 ceremonies, and apostolic succession, and extreme 
 opposition to Puritanism. In his private life, A. 
 was singularly pious, meek, and charitable. 
 
 ANDREWS, St, an ancient city of Scotland, 
 is situated on the bay of the same name, in Eife- 
 shire, about 10 miles from Cupar, and 44 imles from 
 Edinburgh. Tradition dates the origin of this city as 
 far back as the 9th u., when St Regulus or Rule is 
 said to have taken refuge in this place, then called 
 Mucros, and afterward Kilrymont, bringing with 
 him some of the bones of St Andrew, which, being en- 
 Bhrined here, continued to be an object of pUgrimage 
 as 
 
 for several centuries. A cave on the sea-shore 
 still bears the name of St Rule. He would seem to 
 have founded a Culdee monastery, of which the 
 Scottish King Constantino, having resigned his 
 crown, became abbot about the year 940. Probably 
 about the same time, it became tiie seat of a prelate, 
 who, as 'bishop of the Scots,' continued to enjoy a 
 certain pre-emiaence among the other bishops, vmtil, 
 in 1471, the see was erected into an archbishopric, 
 when he became primate. In the reign of Alexander 
 I., a priory of Canons Regular was founded at St A., 
 which afterwards became one of the chief ecclesias- 
 tical establishments in Scotland. The last prior was 
 the Regent Moray. In 1140 St A. was created a 
 burgh by the bishop, with consent of King David I. 
 The cathedral, commenced in 1162, and consecrated 
 in 1318, was sacrificed in 1559 to the frenzied zeal 
 of the mob, an outrage which it is customary to 
 attribute to the preadung of Knox. The eastern 
 gable, part of the western, and part of the south side 
 wall and of the transept, are all that remain of this 
 building. It was the second cathedral of St A., the 
 first being what is now called St Rule's Church, but 
 was long known as 'the old cathedral.' Of this 
 interesting little edifice, built between 1127 and 
 1144, -tbe roofless chancel, and a square tower 108 
 feet high, are still preserved. They are in the 
 Romanesque style. 
 
 The university of St A., the oldest in Scotland, 
 was founded by Bishop Wardlaw in 1410. It con- 
 sists of the United College of St Salvator, founded 
 by Bishop Kennedy in 1456, and St Leonard, 
 founded in 1512; and St Mary's College, founded 
 by Beaton in 1537. The education in tiie latter is 
 exclusively theological. The number of chairs in 
 the colleges which constitute the university is 14, 
 and the attendance of late years has been rather 
 less than 200. The castle, once a very extensive 
 and strong building, is now in ruins. .It was for 
 some time the residence of Cardinal Beaton, who 
 was assassinated here in 1546. As the ecclesiastical 
 metropolis of Scotland, an ancient seat of learning, 
 and the centre of a considerable trade, St A., at 
 the time of the Reformation, was an important and 
 flourishing city. Since that period, it has greatly 
 declined in importance ; but its excellent educational 
 establishments and convenience as a watering-place 
 stiU make it an eligible residence for a highly 
 respectable population. Its chief interest is still 
 connected with the past. Here, in the centre of the 
 papal jurisdiction in Scotland, the Reformation flrst 
 made > its appearance'; Scotland's proto-martyr, 
 Patrick Hamilton, suffered here in 1527, and George 
 Wishart in 1546, and here John Knox first opened 
 his lips as a preacher of the Reformed faith. The 
 trade of St A. is inconsiderable. The harbour is 
 difficult of access, and particularly exposed to the 
 east wind. A few coasters and fishing-boats con- 
 stitute all the shipping of the port. St A. is much 
 frequented as a bathing-place, and the game of golf 
 is more practised than anywhere else in Scotland 
 on the Links or downs which stretch along the 
 shore to the north of the town for about two miles. 
 Besides its university, St A. affords singular advan- 
 tages for cheap and excellent education in the 
 Madras College, established by the well-known Dr 
 Andrew Bell, which attracts a very large number of 
 pupils, the annual average being about 900. The 
 grammar school and commercial school are incor- 
 porated with it. St A. is a royal and parliamentary 
 burgh, and unites with several smaller buxghs in 
 returning a member to parUamenfe The corporation 
 includ.es a provost, dean of gmld, and four baflies. 
 Pop. in 1851— parish, 6740; parliamentary burgh, 
 5107. 
 
 ANDRIEUX, EEAifSOIS GXIILLAUME JsAH 
 
ANDUOGYNOUS— ANDKONIOUa 
 
 STAinsLAXJS, a French writer of comedies, was liorn 
 at Melun, May 6, 1759. In 1798, he was elected 
 deputy of the Seine department, and distinguished 
 himself by his speeches on several points of public 
 interest. In 1800 he was made Secretary, and soon 
 afterwards, President of the Tribunal. From this 
 post he was removed by Bonaparte in 1802, and 
 afterwards devoted himself to literature. During 
 his political career he had written a comedy, Les 
 Etmirdis, VISJ. From 1803 to 1815 he held a pro- 
 fessorship in the Polytechnic School, and in 1814 
 was appointed professor in the CoUSge de France, 
 liouis XVIII. gave him a place in the Academy in 
 1816, of which he was made perpetual secretary in 
 1829. In this position he took an active part in 
 the preparation of the Dictionnaire de VAcadimie. 
 His most popular dramas were MolUre avec ses 
 Amis, Le Vieux Fat, and the tragedy of Brutus. 
 A collection of his aesthetic lectures was pubhshed 
 under the title La Philosophie des Belles LeUres 
 (Paris, 1828). He died May 10, 1833. 
 
 ANDEO'GYHrOUS (i. e., male-female ; from two 
 Greek words), a term sometimes employed in botany 
 to designate an inflorescence wmch consists of 
 distinct male and female flowers; and more fre- 
 quently in zoology in reference to animals which 
 possess a distinct male and female generative system 
 in the same individual. This is the case with very 
 many of the lower kinds of animals, but is not 
 inconsistent with a necessity for the co-operation of 
 two individuals in the propagation of the species. 
 See Heemaphbodite, Phybiology and Bepeoduo- 
 
 TION. 
 
 ANDEO'MACHE, the wife of Hector, was the 
 daughter of King Eetiou of Thebes, in Cilicia, and 
 is one of the finest female characters in Homer's 
 Iliad. During her childhood, Achilles slew her 
 father and her seven brothers. Her love of Hector 
 is pathetically depicted in her address to the hero on 
 his going to battle, and her lamentation over his 
 death (uiad, 6 and 24). After the fall of Troy, 
 she was given into the hands of Pyrrhus (son of 
 Achilles), who took her away to Epirus, but after- 
 wards surrendered hertoHelenus (Hector's brother), 
 by whom she had a son named Cestrinus. A. is the 
 heroine of one of the tragedies of Euripides. 
 
 ANDRO'MBDA, daughter of the Ethiopian king 
 Cepheus, by Cassiopeia, was, like her mother, 
 remarkably beautiful. When Cassiopeia, with 
 motherly pride, boasted that her daughter was more 
 beautiful than the Nereids, 
 these offended deities prayed 
 Neptune to revenge the 
 insult. Accordingly, the ter- 
 ritory of King Cepheus was 
 devastated by a flood; and 
 a terrible sea-monster ap- 
 peared, whose wrath, the 
 oracle of Ammon declared, 
 could only be appeased by 
 the sacrifice of A. As A. 
 was fastened to a rock, 
 and left as a prey to the 
 monster, Perseus, returning 
 from his victorious battle 
 with Medusa, saw the beau- 
 tiful victim, and determined 
 to rescue and win her. 
 Having slain the sea-monster, 
 he received A. as his reward. 
 Minerva gave A. a place 
 among the constellations. 
 
 ANDRO'MEDA, a genus 
 Andromeda polifolia. of plants of the natural 
 
 order JEJricacecB (q. v.), distinguished by a 5-valved 
 naked capsule, which splits up through the back 
 of the cells ; anthers with two awns, and a globose 
 corolla with the orifice contracted. The species, 
 which ara pretty numerous, have very mum the 
 general appearance of heaths. Most of them are 
 small shrubs, but some attain a considerable size. 
 The only British species is A. polifolia, occasionally 
 found in peat-bogs in different parts of the country, 
 and common throughout the north of Europe and 
 of North America, a small evergreen shrub with 
 beautiful rose-coloured drooping flowers. It has 
 acrid narcotic properties, and sheep are sometimes 
 killed by eating it. The shoots of A. ovalifoUa in 
 like manner poison gosta in Nepaul ; and similar 
 effects are ascribed to A. Mariana and other species 
 in the United States. — A. fasiigiata was observed 
 by Dr Hooker abounding at great elevations in the 
 Himalaya ; a humble shrub, resembling the heather 
 of Scotland. The leaves are used as a substitute 
 for tea. See Soebbl-ibee. 
 
 ANDEONI'CUS, the name of three Byzantine 
 emperors. — ^A. I., the son of Isaac Comnenus, was 
 one of the most conspicuous characters of his age, 
 which produced no man more brave, more profligate, 
 or more perfidious. His life was full of eitraordmary 
 vicissitudes. During part of his youth, he was a 
 prisoner of the Turks in Asia Minor. He afterwards 
 spent some time at the court of his cousin, the 
 Emperor Manuel, and a niece of the emperor became 
 his mistress. He was appointed to a military 
 command in Cilicia; but although his courage, his 
 noble appearance, and his gracious manners made 
 him the favourite of the army, his imprudence and 
 waste of time in dissolute pleasures involved him in 
 defeat. Having engaged in a treasonable correspond- 
 ence with the king of Hungary and the German 
 emperor, he was thrown into prison by Manuel, and 
 remained there above twelve years ; but at last 
 succeeded in making his escape, and, although not 
 without further extraordinary adventures, reached 
 Kiew, the residence of the Grand Duke Jaroslav. 
 He regained the favour of his cousin by persuading 
 the Russian prince to join him in the invasion of 
 Hungary, and by his gallantry in that war; but 
 incurred his displeasure again by refusing to take 
 the oath of allegiance to the Prince of Hungary, the 
 intended husband of Manuel's daughter, as pre- 
 sumptive heir to the empire. He W§.s sent in 
 honourable banishment to Cilicia, where he found 
 a new mistress in a sister of the empress. The 
 resentment of the emperor breaking out against him, 
 he sought refuge in a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. His 
 professions of zeal made his former conduct to be 
 forgotten, and he was invested with ' the lordship 
 of Berjrtus ; but his profligacy became, if possible, 
 more scandalous than ever in the seduction of Theo- 
 dora, the Vidow of Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 
 who lived with him for years as his mistress. The 
 emperor's anger made Palestine unsafe for him, and 
 he fled with Theodora to Damascus, and finally 
 settled among the Turks in Asia Minor, with a band 
 of outlaws, making frequent inroads into the Roman 
 province of Trebizond, from which he carried away 
 spoil and slaves. Theodora and her children were 
 at last taken and sent to Constantinople, and thither 
 he followed, imploring, with a chain about his neck, 
 and in a form of abject submission, the forgiveness 
 of the emperor, which he obtained, but was sent to 
 Oenoe in Pontus. After the death of Manuel, 
 popular indignation was excited against the empress, 
 who acted as regent for her son, Alexius II., and A. 
 was recalled in 1182 to deliver the empire from her 
 tyranny. He was appointed guardian of the young 
 emperor, and soon after, his colleague in the empire. 
 He caused the empress-mother to be strangled, and 
 
AOT)EONICUS— AKEMOMETEE. 
 
 afterwards Alexius himself, with whose widow he 
 contracted aa indecent marriage. His reign, though 
 short, was -rigorous, and restored prosperity to 
 the provinces; but tyranny and murder were its 
 characteristics in the capital He set no tounds to 
 the gratification of his revenge against all who had 
 ever offended him, and his jealousy of possible rivals 
 was equally sanguinary. At last, a destined victim, 
 Isaac Angelus, one of his relatives, having fled to 
 the Church of St Sophia for sanctuary, a crowd 
 gathered, and a sudden insurrection placed Isaac on 
 the throne, whOst A., now 73 years of age, was 
 put to death by the infuriated populace, after 
 horrible mutilations and tortures, on September 12, 
 1185. He was the last of the Comneni that sat on 
 the throne of Constantinople ; but the succeeding 
 Dukes and Emperors of Trebizond were descendants 
 of his son Manuel. — A. II., the son of Michael Palseo- 
 logus, ascended the throne in 1283 ; bxit after a weak 
 and inglorious ' reign, was driven from it in 1328 by 
 his grandson, A. III., who, after a reign equally 
 inglorious, died in 1341. During these reigns, pro- 
 vince after province was conquered by the Turks. 
 
 ANDRONI'CUS — sumamed Cyebhbstbs from 
 his birthplace, Cyrrhos in Syria — is said to have 
 erected the octagonal tower called the Tower of the 
 Winds at Athens, a building of the 3d or 2d o. B. c. 
 It probably received its name from figures repre- 
 senting the eight principal winds, and from a brazen 
 Triton which surmounted it, and shewed the direc- 
 tion of the wiud — ^the first known weather-cock. 
 
 ANDRONrCtrS of Rhodes, a Peripatetic philo- 
 sopher, lived at Rome in Cicero's tune, and employed 
 himself in criticising and explaining the works of 
 Aristotle, a great number of which he was probably 
 the means of preserring to us. None of the writings 
 of A. himself are extant ; for the works ascribed to 
 him are probably the productions of Andronicus 
 OaUistos, a learned Greek of the 15th c, who taught 
 the Greek language in Italy and France. 
 ANDROPCGON. See Lemon-grass. 
 ASTBGA'DA, the most northerly of the Lesser 
 Antilles, its lat. being about 19' N., and its long, 
 between 64° and 65° w. It contains about 13 square 
 nailes, with a scanty population 
 of little more than 200. It 
 belongs to England. It is of 
 coral formation, being, Kke most 
 , islands of the kind, low and 
 il C beset by reefs. One reef in par- 
 ticular, which nms out 10 rmles 
 to the south-east, is marked, even 
 on ordinary maps, as the scene of 
 numerous shipwrecks. 
 
 ANEMO'METBR (Gr. anemos, 
 the wind, and metron, a measure ; 
 Fr. animomUre, Ger. Wind- 
 messer), an instrument for mea- 
 suring the strength and velocity 
 of the wind. Among the various 
 instruments which have been 
 designed for this purpose, that 
 invented by Dr Lind (1775 a.d.) 
 is stUl considered to be one of the 
 most convenient and accurate. 
 The accompanjong figure gives a representation of it. 
 AB and CD are two upright glass tubes about 9 inches 
 high, and ^ of an inch wide, connected below by a 
 much narrower tube, E, varying from xV to -jV of 
 an inch in width. The tube AB is bent at right 
 angles, so as to receive the wind blowing into it 
 horizontally. A scale, graduated in inches and parts 
 of an inch, is placed between the tubes, and the 
 whole instrument is made to turn round the steel 
 spindle, L, which can be screwed iuto a block of | 
 2iS 
 
 E 
 Dr Lind's A. 
 
 wood by a screw at the bottom. When the instru- 
 ment is used, water is poured into the tubes until 
 the level in both stands at the middle of the scale. 
 When no disturbing force acts upon either column 
 of Kquid, the level of both is accurately the same ; 
 but when the mouth of the tube AB is turned 
 towards the wind, the column in AB is pressed 
 downwards, and that in CD rises proportionably, 
 and the difference of the heights of the two columns 
 gives the column of water which the force of the 
 wind sustains. Now, as we know that the pressure 
 of the atmosphere at the earth's surface supports a 
 column of water about 33 feet high, or presses with a 
 force of about 2060 lbs. on the square foot, this instru- 
 ment gives us immediately the data from which we can 
 calculate the pressure or force of the wind. Thus, 
 suppose the wind to blow with a force sufficient to 
 raise the one column one inch above the other, we 
 have -jV of '^ of 2060, or about 5-fg lbs. of pressure 
 on the square foot aa the force of the wind. 
 
 The following table gives approximately the rela- 
 tion of the height of the water in the A. to the force 
 and velocity of the wind in winds of different 
 characters. (See Abrodyttamics.) 
 
 
 Height of 
 
 Pressure per 
 
 Velocity 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Square Foot. 
 
 per Hour 
 
 Feeble Wind, . 
 
 A™- 
 
 xWlbs. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fresh Breeze, 
 
 i " 
 
 1^ " 
 
 I6i 
 
 Very Strong Wiud, 
 
 1 „ 
 
 5t% . 
 
 32i 
 
 Tempest, 
 
 4 „ 
 
 20fij „ 
 
 65 
 
 Of other anemometers, those most in use consist of 
 small metal vanes fixed to a horizontal axis, and 
 made to revolve hke a wind-miU. The revolutions 
 are recorded very much in the same way as is seen 
 in the ordinary gas-meter, and from this record, 
 within a given time, the velocity of the wind is 
 ascertained. In meteorological observatories, or 
 where a complete register is kept of the direction and 
 strength of the wind, anemometers of a much more 
 complicated nature are employed. Of these, perhaps 
 the most complete is that invented by Mr Osier. 
 In his instrument, the force of the wind is ascer- 
 tained in a different way from any of those to which 
 we have referred. A brass plate one foot square is 
 suspended by means of springs, and being attached 
 to the vane of the instrument, is maintained at right 
 angles to the direction of the wind. This plate, by 
 the action of the wind, is beaten back upon the 
 springs, and in so doing, causes a pencil to move 
 backwards and forwards on a sheet of paper placed 
 below it. This sheet of paper is made to pass under 
 the pencil in a direction at right angles to its oscilla- 
 tion ; and by means of clock-work, moves at a uni- 
 form rate, so that the force of the wind at any par- 
 ticular time of the day is recorded with perfect 
 accuracy. A pencil in connection with the vane. 
 
 12 I AM 2 3 ■+ is 7 8 9 1(3 U V2 
 Register-sheet of an Osier's Anemometer. 
 
 and moving in the same transverse hne as the 
 former, records the changes in the direction of the 
 
ANEMONE. 
 
 ■wind; and a third pencil, guided by a rain-gauge, 
 registers the quantity of rain that has fallen. Tie 
 preceding sketch, taken from the first half of a daily 
 register-sheet, gives an idea of the kind of record 
 made by an Osier's A. The space between two 
 upright lines indicates an hour ; that between two 
 horizontal lines, in the rain-register -^ of an inch of 
 rain, in the direction of the wind two cardinal 
 points, and in the force of the wind 1 lb. of pressure 
 on the square foot. 
 
 Thus, on the day in which these lines were traced, 
 there was in the rain-register, brought over from the 
 former account, between -10 and -IS of an inch ; and 
 ^ during the twelve hours, the penoU had only risen 
 one space, indicating a fall of -05, or -^ of an inch, 
 almost entirely between the hours of 3 and 4 in the 
 morning, and immediately before 12 in the day. If 
 the day had been very rainy, and the penoS had 
 risen to the top of the register, it would have fallen 
 immediately to the bottom of it, and begun a new 
 account ; and it might have done so several times in 
 the course of the twelve hours. This would have 
 been effected by the mechanism connected with the 
 rain-gauge, which enables the gauge to empty itself 
 each time that the pencil reaches the top of the rain- 
 register. As regards the direction of the wind, it 
 was, during the first six hours, south, veering slightly 
 towards the east ; and for the last six hours, it was 
 tending decidedly towards the west, being between 
 10 and 11 nearly west. From the line marking the 
 force of the wind, it wiU be seen that the day was 
 stormy. Between 1 and 2, and at 11, the wind was 
 blowing a very high gale, producing a pressure of 
 upwards of 12 pounds on the square foot ; and 
 between the hours of 4 and 5„ there was a decided 
 luU, the wind being brisk, but not stormy (2 — 3 lbs.). 
 
 ANE'MONlJi, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Sanuneidacece, having an involucre of three 
 divided leaves, more or less remote from the flower, 
 a petaloid calyx, scarcely distinguishable from the 
 coroUa, and soft wooUy achema (see Achenium), 
 which in some species have taUs. The name is origin- 
 ally G-reek, and is said to be derived from the word for 
 wind, because many of the species love very exposed 
 situations. The species are numerous, and generally 
 beautiful. Most of them flower early in spring. 
 They are natives of temperate and cold climates, 
 chiefly of the northern hemisphere. One species, A. 
 nemorosa, the Wood A., is a common native of all 
 parts of Britain, and its white flowers, externally 
 tinged with purple, are an ornament of many a wood- 
 land scene and mountain pasture in April and May. 
 Another species, A. Pulsatilla, the Pasque Flowbe, 
 adorns chalky pastures in some parts of England at 
 the same season. Its flowers are purple and exter- 
 nally silky. The Garden A. is a favourite florist's 
 flower ; the varieties are very numerous, and whole 
 works have been published on them and their culti- 
 vation, which is most extensively carried on in 
 Holland, and has prevailed from a very early period. 
 It is generally supposed that all these varieties have 
 originated from two species, A. coronaria, and A. 
 Juyrtensis or stellata. Botii are natives of the 
 Levant; the latter is found also in Italy and the 
 south of France. By cultivation, the size of the 
 flower is increased, its form and colours are modified, 
 and many of the stamens are often changed into 
 small petals, forming a sort of heart of the flower. 
 The cultivation of flie A. requires great attention. 
 It prefers a light soil. The root, which consists of 
 clustered tubers, is taken up after flowering. The 
 
 flant is propagated by parting the roots, or by seed. 
 a the latter way, new varieties are obtained. Seed- 
 ling plants do not flower till the second or third 
 year. — Besides the species which have been named, 
 
 others occasionally appear as ornaments of our 
 flower-gardens. A. Apennina and A. pratensis 
 have beautiful blue flowers. They are both natives 
 
 Anemone coronaria. 
 
 of the south of Europe. A. Japonica, a most beauti- 
 ful species, has recently been introduced from Japan. 
 — The species of this genus are characterised by the 
 acridity prevalent in the natural order to which they 
 belong ; and the rhizomes of A. nemorosa, and 
 others, have been recommended in obstinate rheu- 
 matism and in taenia. — The genus Hepatica was 
 formerly included in A. H. triloba {A. hepaUca), 
 with three-lobed leaves, grows wild in most parts of 
 Germany, and throughout the north of Europe, but 
 is not a native of Britain. It is also found in North 
 America. Varieties of different colours, and both 
 single and double, are among the finest ornaments 
 of our flower-borders in early spring. The plants 
 are very apt to suffer from being removed ,or having 
 the earth much loosened about them, and must be 
 permitted to remain as much as possible untouched. 
 ANEMONE, Sea, a popular name of the species 
 of Actinia (q. v.) and some other Actiniadce. It 
 seems to have' been first applied to them about a 
 century ago by EUis, one of the most celebrated 
 investigators of the department of natural history to 
 which they belong, who remarks that 'their tent- 
 acles, being disposed in regular circles, and tinged 
 with a variety of bright lively colours, very nearly 
 represent the beautiful petals of some of our most 
 elegantly fringed and radiated flowers, such as the 
 
 Actinia Mesembryanthemum. 
 
 carnation, marigold, and anemone.' It is only, how- 
 ever, when in their proper element and undisturbec^ 
 that the sea-anemones expand their tentacula a,nd 
 exhibit their beauty. Wlien left dry by the receding 
 tide, they contract into a jelly-like mass, usually 
 hemispherical or conical, with a puckered hole in 
 
ANEMONR 
 
 the top. The most common of all the British species 
 of sea- A. is the Actinia Mesembryanthernum, which 
 has received its specific name from another floral 
 association. It attaches itself to rocks and stones 
 from low-water almost to high-water mark, and 
 when left by the tide, appears as a sub-conical 
 liver-coloured or greenish mass, not more than 1 — IJ 
 inch in diameter, which, when touched, is found 
 to be very smooth and slippery, but of pretty firm 
 consistency. The tentacula, when fully extended, 
 are in length nearly equal to the height of the body, 
 and are nearly of the same colour. An azure line 
 frequently encircles the base ; and on the base are 
 dark-green lines converging towards the centre, and 
 which are formed by radiating vertical plates in the 
 fleshy substance of the animal, analogous (although 
 not calcareous) to the ■ calcareous partitions in the 
 single-starred madrepores. Around the margin of 
 the mouth, there is a circle of azUre tubercles, like 
 turquoise beads of the greatest beauty. Hese are 
 only to be seen when the mouth is pretty fuUy 
 expanded. They are about twenty-five in number 
 in full-grown specimens. Their use is not known, 
 though they have been conjectured to be eyes. — ^A 
 smaller species, Actinia (or Sagartia) troglodytes — 
 ohve-green, with snow-white stripes and numerous 
 tentacula, is pretty common on the British shores, 
 inhabiting (holes in the rocks, often the deserted 
 holes of me Pholas, above which its oval disc and 
 tentacula scarcely rise, and into which it quickly 
 withdraws, upon being disturbed. A number of 
 species inhabit holes as this does. — Actinia (or 
 Bunodes) coriacea, which attains a, diameter of two 
 inches, attaches itself to sand-covered rocks, and is 
 often much buried ia the sand. It is covered with 
 pale perforated warts, which have the power of 
 agglutinating to themselves sand, gravel, fragments 
 of shell, &c. ; so that, when the tide is out, the 
 animal is readily passed over by the inexperienced 
 eye as a mere inequality in the surface of the sand. 
 Unless some accidental pressure cause it to squirt 
 out water through its tentacula ; as, in such circum- 
 Btanoes, many of the species are very apt to do, 
 sometimes to the annoyance of those who incau- 
 tiously meddle with them. — Actinia (Bunodes) crass- 
 icornis is one of the largest and most beautiful British 
 
 Actinia crassicomis. 
 
 sea-anemones, being about four inches in height, and 
 fuUy more when expanded between the tips of 
 the opposite tentacula. It exhibits great diversity 
 of the most beautiful colours. Bed is usually 
 250 
 
 predominant ; the surface of many is variegated with 
 white, or with orange-green and yellow. It occurs 
 almost totally white, cream colour, sulphur yellow, 
 and bright scarlet with pale warts like ornamented 
 beads. — Beauty of colour and form are still more 
 abundantly lavished on Actinia Diantkus, a still 
 
 
 I I 
 
 Actinia Dianthus. 
 
 larger species, with very numerous tentacula, which 
 inhabits deep water. — Anthea Cerem is, on some 
 parts of the coast, one of the most abundant sea- 
 anemones. Its tentacula are from 120 to 200 in 
 number, are longer than in the Actiniae generally, 
 and are incapable, it is said, of being retracted, as in 
 the true Actiniae, but remain constantly expanded, 
 and are almost never completely at rest. 
 
 Of all the species. Actinia Mesembryanthernum is 
 perhaps most easily kept in the aquarium. It not 
 unfrequently changes its place, and its locomotion is 
 an interesting subject of observation. It will subsist 
 for a considerable time without supplies of food, but 
 readily accepts morsels of beef or mutton, fish, or 
 almost any kind of animal food. The tentacvda with 
 which the oflfered food first comes in contact attach 
 themselves to it ; those next to them are in motion, 
 as if to support them, if necessary, and a sort of 
 sjrmpathy seems to extend even to the most remote ; 
 but except in the case of struggling prey, or of a 
 very large morsel, only a small number of the whole 
 tentaciila are usually employed in conveying the 
 food into the mouth, or, more properly, into the 
 stomach, for they do not seem to part from it tfll 
 they have fairly lodged it there. 
 
 Sea -anemones are extremely voracious, and 
 almost every observer has his own anecdotes to 
 illustrate it. Dr Johnston relates one which at the 
 same time remarkably illustrates their power of 
 reproducing organs of their own body. ' I had once 
 brought to me a specimen of Act. crasmornis, that 
 might have been originally two inches in diameter, 
 and that had somehow contrived to swallow a valve 
 of Pecten mascimits of the size of an ordinary saucer. 
 The shell, fixed within the stomach, was so placed 
 as to divide it completely into two halves, so that 
 the body, stretched tensely over, had become thin 
 and flattened hke a pancaike. All communication 
 between the inferior portion of the stomach and the 
 mouth was of course prevented ;- yet, instead of 
 emaciating and dying of an atrophy, the animal had 
 availed itself of what undoubtedly had been a very 
 untoward accident, to increase its enjoyments and 
 
 
AN-END— AOTJUEISM. 
 
 ita chances of double fare. A new mouth, furnished 
 with two rows of numerous tentaoula, was opened 
 up on what had been the base, and led to the under- 
 stomach : the individual had indeed become a sort 
 of Siamese twin, but with greater intimacy and 
 extent in its unions. {British Zoophytes, i. 235.) 
 
 As inmates of the aquarium, sea-anemones are 
 apt to prey upon their feUow-prisonera. ' Simple 
 contact of the tentaoula,' says Sir J. G. DalyeU, 'is 
 the j)relude of destruction. Some animals, as if 
 conscious of their inevitable fate, seem paralysed by 
 the touch, and yield without a strug^e. Others, 
 whose size and strength should insure mdemnity, are 
 held in the relentless grasp ; the tentaoula crowding 
 faster and faster around, until the victim is speedily 
 swallowed alive.' There appears to be in other 
 marine animals an instinctive horror of the tenta- 
 oula of the sea-A. The hermit-crab will instan- 
 taneously flee out of its sheU, if the shell is caught 
 by them. It is now believed that, like the Accdephce 
 (q. V.) and the Hydras (q. v.), the sea-anemones 
 possess a power of benumbing their prey. Sea- 
 worma (Nerades) have been observed first to writhe, 
 and then to become paralysed. Little elliptioal 
 capsules are in some species scattered over the 
 whole surface of the body; in others, confined 
 to the tentacula, or even to their tips. These are 
 fumiahed vrith spicula or minute spears, by which it 
 is probable that not only are wounds inflicted, but 
 poison is also conveyed into them. The sensations 
 produced by the touch of the tentaoula appear to be 
 very different in the case of different persons, from 
 a mere ' rasping feeling ' on the withdrawal of the 
 hand, to a slight tingling, and even to a stinging as 
 by a nettle. The Anihea Gerem possesses the sting- 
 ing power in a much greater degree than the ordin- 
 ary ActinicB. Probably the skin of the human hand 
 is in general too thick or hard to be pieroed-by their 
 fine spicula. Dr A. Waller of Birmingham has recently 
 found, that, on submitting the tip of his tongue to 
 the tentacula, a pungent pain and stinging, aa by a 
 nettle, were the constant result. He has also found 
 that a thin India-rubber membrane grasped by the 
 tentaoula retaina the microscopic ' poison-darta ' 
 sticking on its surface. Some of these are only two 
 or three times the length of the capsule which con- 
 tains them, or at most 100th part of an inch ; but 
 others are much longer, and when within the capsule, 
 are coiled up after the manner of a watch-spring. 
 The capsides are therefore csSSsA. filifisrorM or mread 
 capsules. This thread is highly elastic, and the 
 expulsion of it, as of the shorter spicula, is effected, 
 Mr Goaae tella us, by organs having thia for their 
 special office, 
 
 AN-END, a maritime term relating to the posi- 
 tion of any mast or boom when perpendicular to 
 the plane of the deck or other level from which 
 it springs. When a top-mast is in its proper place 
 at the head of the lower mast, it is said to be 
 ' an-end.' 
 
 A'NBEOID (formed in an anomalous way from 
 Gr. a, priv., and neros, wet), the name given to abaro- 
 meter invented by M. Vidi of Paris, in which the 
 pressure of the air is measured without the use 
 of liquid, as in ordinary instruments. The face of the 
 A. barometer, represented in fig. 1, has a diameter 
 of about 5 inches, and the case behind, which con- 
 tains the mechanism, a general idea of which is 
 given in fig. 2, is about 2 inches deep. The pressure 
 of the atmosphere acts upon a circular metal box, 
 AA, about 3 iuohes in diameter, and ^ of an inch 
 deep, which has been nearly exhausted of air, and 
 then soldered air-tight. The sides are corrugated 
 in concentric rings, so as to increase their elasticity, 
 and one of them is fixed to the back of the brass 
 
 case which contains the whole. The amoimt of 
 exhaustion is such that if the sides of the box were 
 
 Aneroid Barometer. 
 
 allowed to take their natural position, they would 
 be pressed in upon each other, and to prevent this 
 they are kept .distended, to a certain extent, by 
 a strong spring, S, fixed to the case, which acts upon 
 the head of the stalk, B, attached to the side 
 next the face. When the pressure of the air 
 increases, there being httle or no air inside the box 
 to resist it, the corrugated sides are forced inwards, 
 and when it diminishes again, their elasticity restores 
 them to their former place; and thus the little 
 box becomes a spring extremely sensitive to the 
 varying pressure of the external atmosphere. Sup- 
 posing the two sides pressed inwards, the end of 
 the spring, E, vrall be drawn towal'ds the back of 
 the case, and carry with it the rod, EG, which is 
 firmly fixed iuto- it. EG, by the link GH, acts on 
 the bent lever, HKL, which has ita axia at K, so 
 that, while the arm, KH, is pushed to the right, 
 LK is moved downwards. By this motion, a watch- 
 chain, 0, attached at L, is drawn off the Mttle drum, 
 M, and the index-hand, PP, which ia fixed to it, 
 would move from the poaition represented in fig. 1 
 to one towards the right. When the contrary 
 motion takes place, a hair-spring moves the drum 
 and the hand in the opposite way. By this mechan- 
 ism, a very smaU motion of the corrugated sides 
 produces a large deviation of the index-hand, ^^j of 
 an inch causing it to turn through 3 inches. The A. 
 barometer is graduated to represent the inches of 
 the mercurial barometer, with which, when carefully 
 adjusted, it almost accurately corresponds. Both 
 from its small size and construction, it is extremely 
 portable, and it can in consequence give indications 
 in circumstances where the ordinary barometer is of 
 no service. The ' MetaUic Barometer ' of M. Bourdon 
 is a modification of the A. principle. —See Manual 
 oj" Barometers, by J. H. BelviUe. 
 
 A'NBURISM (Gr. aneurysma, a dilatation) is a 
 pulsating tumour consisting of a sac or pouch into 
 which blood fiows through an opening in an artery. 
 The sac of an arterial A. may be formed in the first 
 instance by one or more of the tunics of the vessel, 
 generally the outer one, the two inner having given 
 way. This is called a true A., in contradistinction 
 to the false, in which the sac is formed of ceUidar 
 tissue condensed by the blood flowing into it after 
 a wound has been inflicted on the artery from 
 without. Should the sac give way, and the blood 
 escape among the tissues, the A. is said to be 
 diffused. Varicose A. is when the sac communicates 
 both with an artery and a veia ; Aneurismal Varix, 
 when these vessels communicate without any sac 
 intervening ; both of these are generally the results 
 
ANGEL— ANGELS. 
 
 of bleeding being performed by non-profesaional 
 persons. Aneurisms prove fatal by their pressure 
 on some important part, or by buisting and aUowing 
 a sudden escape of blood. They are cured by the 
 deposit, within the sac, of fibrin from the blood 
 —a result the surgeon can promote by obstruct- 
 ing the artery above the A. by compression or by 
 ligature ; applying the latter close to the sac, if the 
 A. is of the 'false' variety, but at a distance, if it is 
 the result of disease. Internal aneurisms are treated 
 by those remedies which moderate the heart's action, 
 as digitalis, &c. 
 
 A'NGEL, an ancient English gold coin, varying 
 in value from 6s. 8d. to 10s. It was so called from 
 
 with red ; the umbel is convex. Gaedbn A. (A. 
 Archangelica or Arcliangdica officinalis) is a biennial 
 plant, beoomiug perennial when not allowed to ripen 
 
 Angel of Edward IV. 
 
 the figure of the archangel Michael piercing the 
 dragon upon its obverse. Angels continued to be 
 coined down to the time of the Commonwealth. 
 
 ANGEL-FISH {Squati'na A'ngdus), a fish com- 
 mon on the southern coasts of Britain, and remark- 
 able for its extreme ugliness. On some parts of the 
 coast, it is called monk-fah. It is very nearly allied 
 to the sharks, and was included by Linnseus in the 
 genus Squcdm. See Shabk. It is very voracious, 
 preying chiefly upon fishes. It attains a length of 
 
 Angel Fish. 
 
 seven or eight feet; and the body is broad and 
 flattened horizontally. The head is nearly round, 
 and broader than the body, from which it is separated 
 by a very distinct neck; the mouth is extremely 
 large, and at the extremity of the snout ; the eyes are 
 on the upper part of the head, and are very small ; 
 behind the eyes are large spout-holes; the skin is 
 very rough, and covered with tubercles. The upper 
 parts are of a gray colour ; the under parts, dirty 
 white. The female is said to produce seven or eight 
 young in spring and autumn. 
 
 ANGE'LICA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order tfmbelliferm (q. v.), by some botanists divided 
 into two : A., and Archangelica. The species are 
 mostly herbaceous and perennial, natives of the tem- 
 perate and colder regions of the northern'Jemisphere. 
 They have bipinnate or tripiimate leaves. Wild A. 
 (A. sylvestris) is a common plant in moist meadows, 
 by the sides of brooks, and in woods in Britain and 
 throughout many parts of Europe and Asia. The 
 root is perennial, short, ringed, and branched ; it is 
 white within, and contains a yellow mfiky juice. 
 The stem is hollow, 14—5 feet high, often flecked 
 262 
 
 Angelica archangelica. 
 
 its seeds. It has greenish flowers in almost spherical 
 umbels. The stem is as high as a man. The fruit 
 is long and straw-coloured. The root is long and 
 fusiform, an inch or more in thickness, with thick 
 irregtdar rugose radicles. The whole plant, and 
 especially the root, is aromatic and bitter, contain- 
 ing much resin and essential oU. The root is 
 admitted into the pharmacopoeia as an aromatic 
 stimulant and tonic, and is used in nervous aUmenta, 
 and in indigestion and flatulence. It is very little 
 used in Britain. The root of A. sylvestris is some- 
 times substituted for it, but is much weaker. — The 
 Garden A. was at one time much cultivated for 
 the blanched stalks, which were used as celery now 
 is ; but its cultivation for this purpose has long been 
 alniost entirely discontinued. The tender stalks and 
 midribs of the leaves, candied, are stiU, however, 
 a well-known article of confectionary, and an 
 agreeable stomachic ; the roots and seeds are 
 employed in the preparation of gin and of ' bitters.' 
 The plant is a very doubtful native of Britain, but is 
 common in many parts of Europe, and even in 
 Lapland and Iceland. The Laplanders not only 
 use it as food, but regard the stalks roasted in hot 
 ashes as an efficacious remedy in pectoral disorders. 
 — The powdered seeds of the Wild A. are used by 
 the country people in some parts of Europe to kill 
 lice. Several species of A. are natives of North 
 America. 
 
 ANGELICA TREE. See Aealia. 
 
 A'NGELO, MICHAEL. See Michael Angelo. 
 
 A'NGELS (6r. messengers), in Jewish and 
 Christian theology, a class of superior spirits, repre- 
 sented as the immediate instruments of Divine 
 Providence. As Scripture contains no complete and 
 systematic account of angels, the belief of the 
 Church respecting them, except in a few points, has 
 never been exactly defined. It has always been held 
 that A. and human soiils, notwithstan<Ung the high 
 
A^GER— ANGERS. 
 
 origin of the latter, are distinct ; only Dionysius 
 Axeopagita (q. v.) and a few modern speculators 
 have maintained the contrary. Dionysius, in his 
 Hierarchia Calesiis, divides A. into nine orders. 
 Whether there are not spirits superior both to men 
 and A., has been a disputed point. As to the 
 number of A. and their names, the Church in the 
 middle ages repeatedly checked the tendency to go 
 beyond flie usually received accounts; a Eomish 
 council, in 745 A. D., mentions with reprobation the 
 use of the unwonted names of Uriel, Eaguel, Simiel, 
 &c. The names that have aU along been in most 
 common use are Michael, Gabriel, and Raphael. 
 
 The creation of the A. was placed, by the Platon- 
 ising Church-fathers, before that of the material 
 wond ; others assigned it to some one of the six 
 days. Equally various were the opinions as to the 
 nature of the A. The second synod of Nice (787) 
 assigned them a subtle, ethereal, or firehke body; 
 the scholastics, on the other hand, and the Lateran 
 Council of 1215, maintained their immateriality; 
 while others, owing to the appearing of A., mentioned 
 in Scripture, attributed to them the power of 
 assuming momentarily the coi-poreal form. The 
 ^oet Nonnus (lived in Egypt in the 5th c.) is the 
 lirst to speak of angels' wings. 
 
 The belief in guardian A. was common both to 
 heathens and Jews, and had been reduced to system 
 by Philo ; and the doctrine was adopted in the 
 Christian Church, and defended by Origen and others, 
 founding on Matthew xviii. 10, and Acts xii. 15. 
 It has been cherished by many in all ages and of 
 all parties, but has never been decided on by the 
 Church. Some of the fathers also spoke of good and 
 bad guardian-angels, the former of whom were 
 always ready to prompt to good actions, and to 
 avert evil, while the latter were equally quick in 
 , bringing about mischief, wickedness, and calamity. 
 From Qie behef in the guardianship of A., and 
 their participation in the government of the world, 
 arose naturally the early practice of invoking 
 and worshipping them. Many Christian teachers 
 condemned it, appealing to Colos. ii. 18 ; and the 
 Council of Laodicea, 300, called it disguised idolatry. 
 But after the Council of Nice had conceded that 
 though A. were not to receive divine worship, they 
 might receive a reverential obeisance, the practice 
 mentioned became more and more rooted, and 
 continues in the Greek and Roman Catholio Churches 
 to this day. 
 
 A'NGEB is displeasure or vexation accompanied 
 by a passionate desire to break out in acts or words 
 of violence against the cause of the displeasure; 
 which must, of course, be a sentient being capable 
 of feeling the infliction. Like most other emotions, 
 it is accompanied by effects on the body, and in this 
 case they are of a very marked kind. The arterial 
 blood-vessels are highly excited; the pulse, during 
 the paroxysm, is strong and hard, the face becomes 
 red and swollen, the brow wrinkled, the eyes pro- 
 trude, the whole body is put into commotion. The 
 secretion of bUe is excessive, and it seems to assume 
 a morbid consistency. In cases of violent passion, 
 and especially in nervous persons, this excitement 
 of the organs soon passes to the other extreme of 
 depression; generally, this does not take place till 
 the A. has subsided, when there follows a period 
 of general relaxation. The original tendency to A. 
 differs much in individuals according to temperament ; 
 but frequent giving way to it begets a habit, and 
 increases the natural tendency. 
 
 From the natiu'e of A., it is easy to see that it 
 must be — often at least — ^prejudicial to health. It 
 frequently gives rise to bile-fever, inflammation of 
 the liver, heart, or brain, or even to mania. These 
 effects follow immediately a fit of the passion ; other 
 
 evil effects come on, after a time, as the consequence 
 of repeated paroxysms — such as paralysis, jaundice, 
 consumption, and nervous fever. The milk of a 
 mother or nurse in a fit of passion wiU cause con- 
 vulsions in the child that sucks ; it has been known 
 even to occasion instant death, like a strong poison. 
 The controlling of A. is a part of moral disciphne. 
 In a rudimentary state of society, its active exercise 
 would seem to be a necessity; by imposing some 
 restraint on the selfish aggressions of one individual 
 upon another, it renders the beginnings of social 
 co-operation and intercourse possible. This is its 
 use, or, as it is sometimes called, its final cause. But 
 the more social intercourse comes to be regulated by 
 customs and laws, the less need is there for the 
 vindictive expression of A. It seems au error, 
 however, to suppose that the emotion ever vrill be — 
 or that it ought to be — extirpated. Laws themselves 
 lose their efficacy when they have not this feeling 
 for a backgroimd ; and it remains as a last resource 
 for man, when society, as it does every now and 
 then, resolves itself into its elements. Even in the 
 most artificial and refined states of society, those 
 minor morahties on Which haK the happiness of 
 social intercourse depends, are imposed upon the 
 selfish, in great measure, by that latent fund of A. 
 which every man is known to carry about with 
 him. 
 
 ANGERMANNLAND (Swedish, ^ngennland, 
 pronounced Ongermland), a province of Normand, one 
 of the four great divisions of Sweden, extends along 
 the Gulf of Bothnia, and is watered by the river 
 Angermann. Next to Dalecarlia, perhaps, it exhibits 
 the richest variety of wild and beautflul landscape 
 — wood, mount, stream, and lake; vieing with the 
 banks of the Rhine, the Danube, or the far-famed 
 scenery of Switzerland. In addition, it is one of 
 the best cultivated provinces in Sweden, producing 
 barley, rye, and peas, and abounding in excellent 
 pasturage. The river Angermann, in its lower course, 
 becomes; navigable for the largest ships, and broadens 
 out into a lake shortly before discharging itself into 
 the Gulf of Bothnia. The inhabitants are reckoned 
 among the sohdest of the Swedes, and are favou*"^^ly 
 known for their sobriety and industrious habits, on 
 account of which, prosperity is general. The chief 
 town of the province is Hemcesand, with a popula- 
 tion of rather more than 2000, standing on the small 
 island of Heme, and having steam-communication 
 weekly with Stockholm. It is the see of a bishop, 
 has a cathedral-school and hterary and printing 
 establishment with Lappish type, public baths, and 
 building docks. It exports hnen fabrics, and the 
 Baltic products generally. 
 
 ANGERS, the ancient JuUomagus or Andegavum, 
 formerly the capital of the Duchy of Anjou, and 
 now of the French department of Maine-et-Loire, 
 is situated on both sides of the navigable river 
 Mayenne, not far from its junction with the Loire, 
 la,t. 47° 28' N, long. 0° 33' W. A. is the see of a 
 bishop, and was the seat of a university founded in 
 1246; instead of which it has now an academy of 
 the highest class. Lord Chatham and the Duke of 
 WeUington received a portion of their education at 
 the mihtary college which was once here, but which 
 is now removed to Saumur. It has also given birth 
 to two distinguished men, Bernier, the traveller, 
 and David, the sculptor. It has also a theological 
 seminary, an institution for the deaf and dumb, 
 a botanical garden, a large picture-gallery, and a 
 pubhc library containing 25,000 volumes. The ruins 
 of the ancient castle of A., buUt by St Louis, about 
 the middle of the 13th c, are situated on a projecting 
 rock above the river. The cathedral of St Martin 
 is a fine building of the 9th c, in the Roman basiUca 
 
 253 
 
ANGINA PECTOBIS-ANGLER, 
 
 style. Sail-making, cotton-spinning, stocking-weav- 
 ing, &c., are earned on to a considerable extent, and 
 a trade in com, wine, brandy, flax, bemp, boney, &c. 
 Tbe neigbbouring slate-quarries employ 3000 men. 
 Pop. 41,100. 
 
 ANGI'NA PECTORIS, or HEAET-STEOKE, 
 is cbaracterised by intense pain and sense of con- 
 striction, wbicb occur in paroxysms beginning at tbe 
 breast-bone, or deep in the cbest, and extending 
 towards the left shoulder. The fits recur, and the 
 patient either dies in one of them, or from eflfusion 
 of fluid within the chest. 
 
 A. P. rarely occurs before the fiftieth year, and is 
 caused by some defect in the vascular or nervous 
 supply of the heart itself ; but the exact seat of the 
 disease has not yet been ascertained, and, indeed, 
 probably varies with the individual. The paroxysms 
 are induced by any excess in diet, by exertion, as 
 walking uphill or against a boisterous wind, or by 
 mental emotions. As, during the paroxysm, but 
 little can be done, ' whoever is subject to fits of the 
 heart-stroke, should studiously shun all occasions of 
 having his feelings .roused or his passions warmly 
 interested. If he is prone to anger, he must either 
 endeavour to restrain his passion, or must withdraw 
 from scenes likely to awaken it. If he feels keenly 
 contradiction, disappointment, or insult, he had 
 better avoid aU (fisputes in which he may meet 
 either one or the other. He must lead a sober, 
 quiet, and temperate hfe, in which neither the 
 emotions of the soul are to disturb the functions of 
 the body, nor corporeal affections are allowed to 
 disturb the serenity of the mind.' — Graigie. 
 
 ANGIOSPE'EMOUS (from the Greek angeim, 
 a vessel, and sperma, seed), a term in Botany, applied 
 to phanerogamous plants which have their seeds 
 enclosed in a pericarp. This is the case with the 
 greater part of phanerogamous plants. Those which 
 have the seeds naked, as the Goniferce (q. v.), are 
 called Crymnospermous. In the Linnaean system, 
 one of the two orders of the class Didynamia is 
 called Angiospermia. 
 
 ANGLE (&om Lat. angulus, a corner) means, in 
 Geometry, lie opening or inclination of two lines 
 that cut or meet one 
 another. If the lines are 
 straight, the A. is recti- 
 linear. The magnitude 
 of an A. depends, not 
 upon the length of the 
 lines or legs, but upon 
 the degree of their open- 
 
 Angle. 
 
 ing. If tbe legs are supposed closed, like a pair of 
 compasses, and then gradually opened till they come 
 into one straight line, they form a series of gradually 
 increasing angles ; when half-way between shut and 
 straight, they contain a right A. Any A. less than 
 a right A. is called aauie, and one greater, is called 
 obtuse. Angles are measured by degrees, of which a 
 right A. contains 90. The A. made- by two curved 
 lines {curvilinear) is the same as the A. made by 
 the tangents to the two curves at the point of inter- 
 section. Angles made by planes with one another 
 can also be reduced to rectilinear angles. When 
 three or more planes meet at the same point, the 
 angular space included between them is called a 
 solid A. 
 
 The Eacial Angle, on which Camper founded a 
 scheme for estimating the degrees of intellect and 
 sagacity bestowed by nature on the several members 
 of the animal kingdom, was measured by him in the 
 following way : One straight line was drawn from 
 the ear to the base of the nose, and another from the 
 prominent centre of the forehead to the most advan- 
 cing part of the upper jawbone, the head being 
 
 2S1 
 
 viewed in profile. ' In the angle produced by these 
 two lines,' says the physiologist, ''may be said to 
 consist not only the distinction between the skulls 
 of the several species of animals, but also those 
 which are found to exist between different nations ; 
 and it might be concluded, that nature has availed 
 herself at the same time of this angle to mark out 
 the diversities of the animal kingdom, and to estab- 
 lish a sort of scaJe from the inferior tribes up to the 
 most beautiful forms which are found in the human 
 species. Thus it will be found that the heads of 
 birds display the smallest angle, and that it always 
 becomes of greater extent in proportion as the animal 
 approaches most nearly to the human figure. Thus 
 there is one species of the ape tribe in which the head 
 has a facial angle of forty-two degrees ; in another 
 animal of the same fanuly, which is one of those 
 simicB approaching most closely to the human figure, 
 the facial angle contains exactly fifty degrees. Next 
 to this is the head of the African negro, which, as 
 well as that of the Kalmuo, forms an angle of 
 seventy degrees, while the angle discovered in tbe 
 heads of Europeans contains eighty degrees. On this 
 difference of ten degrees in the facial angle, the 
 superior beauty of the European depends ; while 
 that high character of sublime beauty which is so 
 striking in some works of ancient statuary — as in 
 the head of the Apollo and in the Medusa — is given 
 by an angle which amounts to one hundred degrees.' 
 
 ANGLE, Dead. In fortification, where an angle 
 of the wall is so formed that a small plot of groimd 
 in front of it can Neither be seen nor defended from 
 the parapet, it is called a 'dead angle.' See Bastion, 
 
 CCHTAIN, EoKTirlCATION. 
 
 A'NGLEE (Lophius piscatorius), a fish not un- 
 common on the British shores, and sometimes called 
 the Fishing-frog, sometimes, from its ugliness and 
 voracity, the Sea-devil. It usually attains the size 
 of about three feet in length, sometimes five feet. 
 The head is enormously large, depressed, and spinous ; 
 the mouth is of similar proportions (whence the 
 Scottish name Wide Gab), and furnished with many 
 
 Angler. 
 
 sharp curved teeth. The lower jaw is considerably 
 longer than the upper. The body is narrow in 
 comparison with the great breadth of the head, and 
 tapers rapidly to the tad. The whole fish is covered 
 with a loose skin, almost without scales. There are 
 two dorsal fins, which are spinous, and three anterior 
 rays, regarded as belonging to the first dorsal, are 
 free and articulated to the head, which are with 
 great probability supposed to serve the animal as 
 delicate organs of touch. The nostril tube is elon- 
 gated into a membraneous stalk, capable of spreading 
 out like a cup at the upper end, and of being moved 
 in every direction by a very numerous set of muscles, 
 the bottom of the cup being divided into projecting 
 leaflets, on which the olfactory nerve is finally 
 distributed. There are also numerous worm-like 
 appendages about the mouth, and by means of 
 these, and stUl more of the filaments which rise from 
 the upper part of tbe head, the creature is supposed 
 to attract small fishes, upon which it seizes. The 
 
ANGLES— ANGLING. 
 
 wonderful stories told upon this point seem to 
 require authentication, yet they are in themaelves by 
 no means incredible, and have been current concern- 
 ing this fish and its congeners, since before the days 
 of Aristotle, who mentions them, and says that this 
 fish is called a fslier because of the means by which 
 it procures its food. Yarrell justly remarks of the 
 stratagem ascribed to the Lophius, that it is not 
 more wonderful than that of spiders, which spin and 
 repair their webs to catch insects, upon which they 
 subsist. — ^The genus Lophiua belongs to a family 
 of Acanthopterygioua Fishes, called Lophiadm or 
 Lophioids, and by Cuvier, Pectorales Pedunculati, 
 remarkable for the elongation of the carpal bones, 
 so as to form a sort of wrist, to the extremity of 
 which the pectoral fin is articulated; so that, by 
 means of it, these fishes are able to leap suddenly up 
 in the water to seize prey which they observe above 
 them ; and some of them can hop about upon sea- 
 weeds or mud from which the water has retired. 
 They do not suffer so quickly as most other fishes 
 from being out of the water, their giU-opening being 
 very smaQ, and an A. has been often known to 
 devour flounders or other fish which have been 
 caught along with it. The bones are much softer 
 than those of Acanthopterygioua Fishes in general. 
 
 A'NGLES {Angli), a German tribe of the race of 
 the Suevi, who seem originally to have occupied the 
 country lying on the east of the Elbe, between the 
 mouths of the Saale and the Ohre, and moving 
 northwards, to have settled in Sohleswig, between 
 the Jutes and the Saxons. Along with the latter 
 the A. passed over iri great numbers to Britain, 
 during the 5th u., and ultimately established there 
 ttie Anglo-Saxon (q. v.) kingdoms of the Heptarchy. 
 From titiem England derives its name IJj&t. Anglia, 
 Anglo-Saxon, Bngla-land). After these migrations 
 from Schleswig, the Danes from the north entered 
 the deserted districts, and mingled with the A. 
 who remained there. The Genpan language and 
 manners, were afterwards introduced by immigrant 
 nobles from Holatein, and prevailed among the 
 higher classes ; but to the time of Christian VI., the 
 Danish was still generally spoken by the common 
 people. During the present century, the German has 
 more completely gained the ascendency. , The Anglo- 
 Danes are of a more passive disposition than the 
 Friealanders and the people of the Dithmarsch, and 
 religious sentiment is very strongly manifested 
 among them. The district called Angeln extends 
 from file Sohlei on the south, to the Flensburg Hills 
 on the north, contains about 330 square mUes, and 
 a population of about 50,000. The name has no 
 poEtical or administrative signification. 
 
 A'NGLBSEA, Henky William Paget, Earl 
 of Uxbridge and Marquis of A., bom May 17, 
 1768, was educated in Oxford, and, as Lord Paget, 
 entered the army at the beginning of the French 
 Revolution. From 1793 to 1794 he commanded 
 a volunteer corps in Flanders, and subsequently 
 acquired a high reputation as a cavalry officer in the 
 Peninsular War, especially during the retreat imder 
 General Moore. At the battle of Waterloo, where 
 he commanded the British cavalry, he lost a leg. 
 On his return to England, he received a vote of 
 thanks from parliament, and was made Marquis of 
 A. Afterwards, he took a part in the administration 
 under Canning, and in 1828 was appointed lord- 
 lieutenant of Ireland, at a period when that country 
 was greatly agitated on the question of its religious 
 privileges. He at first opposed the emancipation 
 of the Catholics ; but ultimately became convinced 
 that it was essential to the peace of the country, in 
 consequence of which he was recalled from Ireland 
 by WeUington in 1829. He was again appoiated to 
 
 the same office under Lord Grey's administration 
 in 1831 ; but the perverse policy of the Tories had 
 involved matters m such perplexity that even the 
 decisiveness and integrity of his character could not 
 aUay the irritation. O'ConneU had now commenced 
 his ruinous career of agitation, and the marquis was 
 compelled to resort to severe coercive measures, 
 which destroyed the popularity he had previously 
 acquired. His rule in Ireland was not characterised 
 by any superior statesmanship ; but it ought to be 
 remembered, to his honour, that he founded the Irish 
 Board of Education, which has been of immense 
 service to that nation. In 1833, he was succeeded 
 by the Marquis of-Normanby; but did not again 
 take any prominent part in pubho proceedings tiU. 
 1846, when he accepted the office of Master-general 
 of the Ordnance in Lord John EusseU's mmistry. 
 In the same year he was raised to the dignity of 
 field-marshal. He died on the 29th April 1854 
 
 ANGLESEY, or ANGLESEA (Sax. Anglei Ey, 
 i. e. ' the Englishmen's island '), an island and county 
 of Wales, on the north-west coast of that principality, 
 being separated from the mainland by the Menai 
 Strait. Its form is that of an irregular triangle, the 
 base facing the mainland. Its length is about 20 
 mUes; breadth, about 17 j coast-hne, about 80; area, 
 173,440 acres. The climate is mild, but foggy, espe- 
 cially in autumn ; the soil, generally a stiff loam, 
 varying with sandy and peaty earth; the general 
 aspect of the island, flat and uninteresting, there 
 being very little wood. The prevaiUng rock is 
 mica schist ; limestone ranges traverse the county ; 
 granite, marble, coal, serpentine, soapstone, are also 
 found. The island is rich in minerals; the Parys 
 and Mona copper-mines, near .Amlwch, opened ia 
 1768, still give employment to about 1000 workmen. 
 Lead ore, containing much silver, has also been 
 found. Agriculture in A. is as yet somewhat 
 backward. The chief crops are oats, barley, and 
 potatoes. Cattle are extensively reared. The manu- 
 factures of the island are inconsiderable. The 
 communication with the mainland is by means of the 
 Menai Suspension Bridge, and the great Britannia 
 Tubular Bridge, over which the Chester and Holy- 
 head EaUway passes. See Tubulak Bridges. A. 
 was known to the Romans under the name of Mono. 
 It was one of the chief seats of the Druidical power, 
 wliich in 61 a.d. was all but destroyed by the 
 Roman general Suetonius Paulinus. The island was 
 again subdued by Agricola 76 ,'a.d. Egbert con- 
 quered it in the 9th c. ; but the native princes 
 afterwards recovered their dominion, establishing 
 the seat of government at Aberflraw. It was finally 
 subdued by Edward I. The ancient remains con- 
 sist chiefly of cromlechs, two of which, side by side, 
 are in the park of Plas Newydd, the seat of the 
 Marquis of A. At Holyhead, are the remains of a 
 Roman camp. 
 
 The climate of A. is milder than that of the 
 maioland of Wales ; but in the autumn the air is 
 frequently filled with noxious mists. The county is 
 divided into three districts, called cantrefs, each sub- 
 divided into two (.vymwds. The market-towns are 
 Amlwch (a flourishing Httle seaport, of 3169 inhabi- 
 tants), Beaumaris (q.v.), Holyhead (q.v.), Llangefni 
 (pop. 1362), and Llanerch-y-medd. The first four 
 of these towns unite in returning one member to the 
 imperial parliament; the county returns another. 
 Other small towns in A. are AberfEraw (pop. 1332) 
 and Newborough. The pop. of the county in 1851 
 was 57,327; the number of day-schools, 47, with 
 2889 pupils; of Sunday schools, 115, with 11,662 
 pupils; of places of worship, 160, belonging chiefiy 
 to the Church of England and to the Calvioistic 
 Methodists. 
 
 A'NGLING is the art of alluring and capturing 
 
 235 
 
ANGLING. 
 
 fish by means of a rod, line, and hook — the hook 
 being furnished with a lore, which ia either some 
 object on which the animals naturally prey, or is a 
 counterfeit of such an object. A. is of great anti- 
 quity, as we learn from mention beiug made of it by 
 the prophet Isaiah : ' The fishers also shall mourn, 
 and all they that cast angle into the brooks,' chap, 
 xix. V. 8. The practice has contiaued through aU 
 ages, tin the present time, and m almost all coim- 
 tries. In 1496, Wynken de Worde ' emprented at 
 Westmestre' a ' Treatise of Fysshinge with an Angle, 
 by Dame Juliana Bemers or Barnes.' Izaak Walton, 
 in 1653, gave to the world his Comply Angler, a 
 work afterwards enriched with additions by his 
 friend Charles Cotton, and till this day esteemed 
 both for correctness of details, and the singularly 
 happy humour of its apologues, poetical pieces, and 
 disquisitions. 
 
 We reserve for futile articles the habits and best 
 methods of capturing the principal species of fish that 
 haunt the streams and lochs of Great Britain, and 
 here confine ourselves to a short notice of A. appar- 
 atus, and some general directions, &o., for the 
 guidance of tyros, proceeding at once to describe. 
 
 Fishing-tackle. — The angler's equipment con- 
 sists of rod and reel, lines, hoohs, baits, Jlies, tacMe- 
 hoolc, and hasleet; these should be as simple as pos- 
 sible in their construction, many accessories added 
 by the fishing-tackle maker beiug more ornamental 
 and cumbrous than really useful. 
 
 The rod must be long or short, stiff or supple, 
 to suit the habits of different species of fish ; thus, a 
 long rod of sixteen or eighteen feet, very strong, 
 but not very elastic, is necessary for salmon ; while 
 a rod of ten to fourteen feet, Kght, elastic, and finely 
 tapering, is sufficient for trout. The rod for trout 
 and similar kinds of fishing should be light enough 
 to be wielded easOy for several hours together by 
 one hand. Spliced rods are easier mended than 
 those with joints, and do not so readily get out of 
 order. For salmon and other kinds of large fish, 
 a large rod of several pieces, united by jomts, is 
 necessary. 
 
 The reel or pirn — an apparatus fixed near the bot- 
 tom of the rod, and upon which the line is wound — 
 should be simple in its mechanism, and made so as 
 to wind or unwind freely and quickly. 
 
 Lines should be long, smooth, and flexible, aond of 
 a material not easily injured by wet. The part of 
 the line which is wound upon the reel, and passes 
 along the rod, is called the reel-line; that which is 
 attached to it, is called the casting-line. The casting- 
 line shoiJd be made of triple gut, twisted, and 
 between it and the gut to which the hooks are 
 attached, there should be several threads of strong 
 single gut. Eeel-hnes vary from twenty to one 
 hundred, and twenty yards in length, according 
 to the dimensions of the water to be fished, 
 and the habits of the species to be captured. 
 Lines are made of various materials, such as horse- 
 hair and oiled silk. If, in purchasing, the angler 
 be at a loss to decide between a heavy or a light 
 line, he should incline rather to the heavy, for the sake 
 of its casting superiority, and the advantage gained in 
 windy weather. The casting-line is sometimes made 
 of horsehair, lighter and finer than the reel-liue, and 
 at the end of this is attached the gut-line — the finest 
 of all. Sometimes, however, the horsehair casting- 
 line is dispensed with. The casting and gut lines 
 should taper in thickness from the reel-line to the 
 end hook on the gut-line ; all knots should be small, 
 but secure, the oSy breaks discernible by a general 
 glance throughout the entire length of casting and 
 gut Hnes, being the hooks. 
 
 Hooka range in size from several inches down to a 
 
 2S6 
 
 quarter of an inch in length. Their chief places of 
 mamrtacture are Kendal and Eedditch. 
 
 Baits consist of any substance put upon a hook to 
 act as a lure to the fish ; and when used, the baited 
 hook is dropped into, and allowed to sink in the 
 water, instead of being kept near the siuf ace, as is 
 the case with fly.- The materials, living or dead, 
 used for bait are very numerous, the principal kinds 
 being worms, caddis-worms, pastes, maggots, min- 
 nows, insects, and salmon-roe. The methods of 
 using baits are extremely various, and in many cases 
 rather complicated. 
 
 Artificial Flies, intended as they are to bear 
 something like a resemblance to the actual live flies, 
 are the most important lures used by the angler. The 
 chief materials for dressing flies are cocks' hackles 
 or other feathers, to form wings ; the fur of a hare's 
 ear, mouse, water-rat, or some other animal, to form 
 the body; and waxed sUk thread to tie the whole, 
 in an artful, neat manner, to the shank of the hook. 
 
 The following is a list of trout-flies and spiders, 
 with a supply of which the angler may pursue his 
 'meditative art' in almost any river or stream in 
 Great Britain throughout the entire season ; and it 
 is almost needless to add, that the wood-cut below, 
 though copied from two favourite flies and a spider, 
 is intended as a guide to size rather than to pattern. 
 Spiders are dressed, as they naturally exist, without 
 wings. 
 
 Flies. — No. 1. "Wings formed of feathers from the 
 wing of the chafBnch, with a black hackle, tied with 
 slate-coloured silk. 
 
 2. Wings composed of woodcock or partridge 
 feathers, and red hackle, tied with yellow silk. 
 
 3. Wings formed of the feathers of the com 
 bunting, with a red hackle wound round close to 
 the head, tied with orange-coloured silk. 
 
 . 4. Wings formed from the speckled feather of the 
 teal, with a black hackle wound round close to the 
 head, tied with brown silk. The same wing with 
 a red hackle, tied with yeUow sUk, also makes a 
 killing fly. 
 
 5. Wings from the feathers of the dotterel ; body 
 and hackle same as No. 2. 
 
 6. Wings from woodcock or com bunting wing; 
 body of hare's ear. 
 
 Spiders. — 1. From the small feather of the dot- 
 terel wing, tied with 
 yellow silk thread. <■ . 
 
 2. From the small / / 
 glistening feather taken 
 from the outside of the 
 shoulder of the star- 
 ling's wing, tied with 
 yellow silk thread. 
 
 3. From the neck- 
 feathers of the hill- 
 partridge, tied with 
 yellow silk thread. 
 
 - 4. From the black hen-hackle, tied with small 
 black silk thread. 
 
 5. From the blue hen-hackle, tied with yellow 
 silk thread. 
 
 6. From^ a small red cock-hackle, or the small 
 feather of the landrail's wing, tied with yellow silk. 
 
 Of salmon-flies, the best two we Isnow of are 
 formed from the following materials : 
 
 ' No. 1. Tail — crest-feamer from golden pheasant ; 
 tip— gold tinsel and orange silk, with two turns of 
 ostrich herl ; body composed of claret-coloured pigs' 
 wool .and mohair mixed, with a Kttle pigs' wool at 
 the head, of a light-blue shade ; woimd vnth silver 
 tinsel and dark-red hackle, with blue jay's feather 
 for shoulders; wings— from the teal-duci or wid- 
 geon, distinctly marked or barred; head— of black 
 ostrich herL 
 
AJ^GLING. 
 
 ' No. 2. Tail— crest feather from golden j)heasant ; 
 body composed of pigs' wool and mohair mixed, of a 
 dark-cinnamon shade ; wound with silver twist and 
 
 Salmon Flies. 
 
 ■dark-red hackle ; shoulders composed of breast- 
 feather of the argils pheasant ; wings composed of 
 golden pheasant tippet or neck feathers, distinctly 
 marked teal, four fibres of blue and red macaw 
 "tail-feathers, with pairs of wings from the brown 
 and black barred feathers of the peacock wing 
 surmounting the whole; a blue feather from the 
 kingfisher or blue chatterer on each side of the 
 wings ; feelers — from blue and buflf macaw tail-- 
 feathers ; head — black ostrich herl.' 
 
 Larger and more gaudily dressed hooks are neces- 
 sary for some of the bigger rivers of Great Britain, 
 such as the Shannon in Ireland, and the Tay in 
 -Scotland ; but the two here described are the most 
 killing ■ varieties for general use that we know of, 
 and nave been found more or less serviceable in 
 every salmon river of any importance. No. 1 may 
 be varied by different shades of vring, to suit 
 various colours and sizes of water.- Both are stock- 
 flies -with every tackle-maker. 
 
 The angler's equipment is completed by the addi- 
 tion of a basJcet or bag for holding his fish, and a 
 tcuMe-booh; also a flat, round tin box for holding his 
 fly-oasts. In fishing for perch, gudgeons, bream, &c., 
 -a small float is often used. Floats are made of cork, 
 quill, reed, and other light materials ; and a choice, 
 according to circumstances, may be added to the 
 tackle-book. Books adapted for the angler's pur- 
 pose can be had of any tackle-maker. 
 
 The angler's dress should be a plain, dull-coloured 
 suit ; his shoes strong; and if he prefers wading, his 
 boots or leggings should be waterproof. 
 
 The gaff and landing-net are each useful for 
 securing large fish when stranded in very shallow 
 water, or when fishing from a boat; and ths-drag- 
 hooh, which is an mstrument with three bent 
 prongs or hooks, with a long strong line attached, 
 is frequently useful for casting into rivers or lochs 
 to clear away any object at the bottom on which 
 the hook has fouled. 
 
 Practice or Angling. — Bait-fisIiing—Aa a rule, 
 bait-fishing is practised more on sluggish, deep 
 -rivers than on s-wift running streams, though it 
 answers as well, and, under certain circumstances, 
 •even better ill the latter than in the former. The 
 fish usually sought for in the slow-running, deep 
 rivers south of the Tweed, are gudgeon, roach, dace, 
 bream, chub, barbel, tench, carp, perch, pike, trout, 
 &c. All are sometimes taken -with fly ; but worms, 
 ■gentles, roe, or paste are more generally used. 
 ' The fitrst thing the bait-fisher has to learn, is the 
 art of baiting his hooks. Taking the hook in hia 
 
 right hand, and the bait between his fingers in the 
 left, let him enter the hook at the head of the worm, 
 and carry it through the animal to near the tail, cover- 
 ing the entire hook and its tying. The worm should 
 be broken or mangled as little as possible ; and the 
 more lifelike it appears, the greater the probability 
 of its pro^ving an effectual lure. There must not, 
 however, be too much spare worm left dangling 
 from the hook, otherwise the fish will keep nibbling 
 it away ■without biting at the bait bodily, and taking 
 it into its mouth — the thing which the angler desires. 
 
 In throwing the line -with bait, take care not to 
 splash the water, but throw forward and upward, 
 so as to let the bait fall gently on the surface, and 
 sink slowly in the water to the required depth. The 
 motion of the line down the stream must then be 
 carefully followed and watched. 
 
 Occasionally, the angler will feel a nibble, bat he 
 must not be m a hurry to striker— that is, to fix the 
 hook in the fish's mouth. Perhaps it is no more 
 than a nibble, and it is well to allow, the fish time 
 to bolt the hook. If drawn too quickly, you may 
 actually pull away the hook after it is haU-^ped. 
 Experience and dexterity are required in this ticklish 
 part of the craft. 
 
 In May, the creeper, or stone-fly, in its embryo 
 state, is a deadly bait ; and in June, when it assumes 
 the ■winged state, it is the most killing bait that can 
 be used. The creepers are found under large stones 
 in the water, the flies under large stones in the dry 
 channel at the edge of the water. On Tweedside 
 this fly is frequently but erroneously called 
 the May-fly, and is productive of large takes of 
 trout when other lures are comparatively use- 
 less. Minnows and parr-tail are two important 
 baits ; tackle is made on purpose for these, and 
 consists of several hooks tied ■within an inch or so 
 of each other. These are inserted in the minnow, so 
 as to give a curving form to the bait, for the purpose 
 of making it spin in the water ; swivels are attached 
 to the tackle further up, to prevent the hne from 
 twisting -vrith the spinning of tiie minnow. Stoddart 
 says : ' Ksh in rapid streams, also in deep dis- 
 coloured pools, and during a smart curl. Manage 
 the minnow as you would your fly, throwing it 
 down and across as far as you are able; bring it 
 towards you about six inches below the surface, 
 spinning rapidly by the aid of several swivels. 
 When a fish rises, give him time before you strike ; 
 let him turn and gorge the bait, then strike sharply, 
 and he is yours.' This mode of fishing requires 
 more dexterity and practice than ordinary bait- 
 fishing, and ■wiU be best learned by carefully 
 watching the motions of an experienced hand. 
 
 Fly-fishing. — This is the true A., all other 
 kinds beiag tame in comparison. Trout and 
 salmon are the fly-fisher's chief objects of de- 
 sire ; and here we ■wfll quote some remarks of 
 Mr Stoddart's upon the method of capturing the 
 former of these fish -with the lure in question : 
 ' Your rod and tackle being ready, -the ■wind in 
 your favour down the river, draw out with your 
 left hand a few yards of line from your reel, dip 
 the top of your rod in the water, and -with a rapid 
 jerk you wiU lengthen as you vrish that part you 
 intend for throwing. A thirteen-foot wand wiU 
 cast from six to seven fathoms of line. With a 
 large double-handed rod you may manage a much 
 greater length. Always, if you can, angle from a 
 distance. Trout see you when you least imagine, 
 and skulk off -without your notice. 
 
 'AH jerks, in casting, are apt to whip off your 
 hooks or crack your gut. A fly-fisher may use two, 
 three, or four flies on his casts, according to plea- 
 sure. When angling with small hooks, we adopt the 
 medium number. Large ones ought to be fished 
 
ANGLING— AJSTGLO-CATHOLIO CHURCH. 
 
 ■with in pairs, and well separated. In throwing the 
 cast, the lowermost or trail-fly shoiild be made to 
 alight foremost ; its fall ought to be almost imper- 
 ceptible ; it shotdd come down on the water like a 
 gossamer followed by the droppers. The moment 
 a fly touches the surface, it is ten times more apt to 
 raise a fish than during the act of drawing it along. 
 At no time are we stanch advocates for the system 
 of leading our hooks either against or across a 
 Btream; our method is rather to shake them over 
 it for a moment, and then repeat the throw. A 
 trout will discover your fly at the distance of 
 several yards, if feeding, and will dart at it like 
 lightning. 
 
 ' Trout will sometimes take in the most unlikely 
 weathers, so that the angler should not despair at 
 any time. Hunger causes them to feed at least 
 once in the twenty-four hours, and generally much 
 oftener. If the wind blows down the river, com- 
 mence at the pool-head, and fish every inch of good 
 water ; you njay pass over the very rough and very 
 shallow parts, also those which are absolutely dead 
 calm and clear, unless you see fish rising in them, 
 when, should your tackle be light, there is no harm in 
 taking a throw or two. Dead water, however, when 
 rippled or discoloured, may be angled in with great 
 success.' 
 
 The following remarks and hints apply chiefly to 
 trout-fishing in streams, and may be found of service 
 to those who follow that delightfid recreation. As 
 a rule, fish up, especially when the water is clear, 
 and the wind not directly down-stream : the advan- 
 tages are, that the fish do not so readily detect the 
 presence of the angler — their heads being directed 
 up the water; they are more easily hooked; and 
 when a large trout is hooked, he may be landed 
 down-stream, thus saving the water above for fur- 
 ther operations. The practice of angling up-stream is 
 somewhat difficult at first, but a little practice works 
 wonders, and is sure to bring its reward ultimately. 
 Gut should be round, char, strong, and fine ; the 
 finer it is, consistent with strength, the better, as it 
 scares fewer fish than coarser material. Trout-flies 
 for ordinary use in rivers such as Tweed, &o., should 
 be dressed rather sparely, and should be small ; 
 some half-dozen varieties, such as those already 
 enumerated, will be found amply sufficient; and 
 were we asked to choose three kinds as being more 
 valuable than any others, our choice would incline 
 to a red hackle, a black hackle, and a woodcock- 
 wing dressed with hare-ear body. For turbid or 
 dark water, however, the size may be increased, and 
 the dressing be made rather gau(£er by the addition 
 of tinsel. Practise casting tiU you can throw your 
 flies like gossamer on the water, and, above all, 
 avoid splashing. The use of a short line will give 
 you great advantage over your tackle. Heavy fish 
 hook themselves in nine out of ten cases, so that 
 striking is unnecessary ; striking is performed by a 
 motion of the wrist, not of the arm, and is only to 
 be learned by practice ; it then comes quite naturally 
 to the angler. Cast frequently; you get over more 
 ground, and vastly increase your chances of success. 
 Trout generally seize the fiy the instant it lights on 
 the water, or the instant after ; hence, it is necessary 
 that the angler be on the qui vive in time. Cast 
 above where fish are likely to he, and remember 
 that the greater part of your success lies in the 
 art of keeping out of their sight. Dull-coloured 
 clothes materially assist in achieving this important 
 desideratum. 
 
 When fishing with a friend, alw'ays come to a 
 distinct agreement, before starting, relative to the 
 division of the water, especially if the stream be small. 
 
 The true angler returns all smoults, parr, and 
 small trout to tiieir native element — his maxim 
 25S 
 
 being quality, not quantity. He also keeps his rod 
 well varnished, dries his line and tackle after using, 
 and looks into his tackle-book at least once every I 
 three months during the non-A. season ; he thus 
 saves his files from the ravages of the moth. The 
 -tyro should always be guided in his selection of a 
 rod and tackle by some experienced friend; and 
 upon arriving at strange angling quarters, he should 
 place himself in the hands of a resident fisherman, 
 who will guide him to the best casts of the river, 
 loch, or stream. A day spent in watching the 
 proceedings of an expert angler, is a day well spent; 
 and a few hours' lessons in fly-busking, knot-tying, 
 &c., work wonders. And, lastly, let the angler 
 practise courtesy towards all his brethren of the rod, 
 and be ever willing to lend a killing-fly to a needy 
 friend. 
 
 The principal works on A. are Izaak Walton, 
 Stoddart's Angler's Companion, the article A. in 
 the Encyclopasdia Britannica, Davy's Scdmonia, 
 the anglmg section of Colquhoun's Moor and the 
 Loch, and Stewart's Practical Angler, The last 
 is perhaps the best work ever written upon trout- 
 flshing as apphed to clear water. The angler will 
 also find many useful hints in the number on A. in 
 Chambers's Information for the People. 
 
 A'NGLO-CA'THOLIC CHURCH, or AISTGLI- 
 CAH" CHUECH, a term frequently employed to 
 designate collectively those churches which embrace- 
 the principles of the Enghsh Eeformation. The fol- 
 lowing are, in brief, the views generally entertained 
 of those principles by the meinbers of the churche* 
 •in question : By referring the Anglo-cathohc Church 
 to the Enghsh Reformation, it is not meant that 
 her origin dates from that event, but that her 
 tenets, as she now exists, are those which the- 
 Reformation cleared of what she holds to be corrup- 
 tions. For, as the word 'church' itself suggests 
 — being derived, hke ' kirk' in Scotland, from the 
 Greek adjective hiriahe, which means ' the LorcCs^ 
 (i.e. liouse) — ^the origin of the Anglican Church is 
 to be traced not to a Roman but to an Eastern 
 source. She claims the name of Cathohc — ^which 
 also is from the Greek katholilee, universal — be- 
 cause she is united, in origin, in doctrine, and 
 in form of government, with the Universal Church 
 as it has existed, with various differences of rites, 
 and ceremonies, in all countries and in aU ages. 
 Eusfebius even asserts that some of the apostles passed 
 over into Britain. TertuUian, who hved in the 2d c, 
 speaks of places in Britain which, though inacces- 
 sible to the Romans, were subject to Christ: 'Britaii- 
 nonun inaccessa Romanis looa, Christo vero subdita.' 
 At the Council of Aries, 314 a.d., there were 
 three British bishops present ; and St Alban suffered 
 martyrdom, under Diocletian, about the close of the 
 3d c, or nearly three centuries before the landing 
 of St Augustine (q. v.) and his missionaries, 596 A.D. 
 Christianity, however, was driven by the heathen 
 Saxons into the mountainous districts of Wales ; and 
 though Augustine, on his arrival, found no less thaa 
 seven bishops and one archbishop in those parts, and 
 though Bertha, queen of Ethelbert,was a Christian, 
 yet the whole Saxon part of the country was in a 
 state of heathenism. The British Church differed 
 from the Roman and other Western Churches, as to 
 the form of administering baptism, and the time of 
 keeping the festival of Easter (see Eastek), follow- 
 ing the customs of the Greek or Eastern Church; and 
 it was not until the close of the 7th c, under 
 Theodore, that the two churches became united. In 
 the meantime, the conversion of Britain was as. 
 much due to the labours of St Aidan, the Scottish 
 Bishop of Lindisfem in the north, and of St Chad, 
 the Saxon saint, as to the missionaries of the Roman 
 Church in the south. See Anglo-Saxons. 
 
ANGLOMAOTA— ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATUEE. 
 
 Nor is this glance at the history of the Anglican 
 Church, in the earUer period of her existence, unim- 
 portant, when we come to consider what and whence 
 are her present foi-m and tenets. From the begin- 
 ning of the 8th to the middle of the 16th c, she 
 became gradually, and at last completely, assimilated 
 in doctrine and practice to the Church of Rome, as 
 well as subject to her domination ; and the fact of 
 her having at length freed herself froni both, is in no 
 small degree due to her having existed, in Saxon 
 times, in a state of freedom and purity. It required, 
 as we have seen, a struggle of nearly a century to 
 make the British Church conform to the Roman in 
 the matters of baptism and Easter; and it was the 
 same spirit which offered a strenuous, and for some 
 time an effectual, resistance to the peoiiHar doctrines 
 of the Church of Rome and the claims of papal do- 
 minion. There were always found individuals, some 
 of great eminence, to protest against the former, whilst 
 large sections of the church never ceased to protest 
 against the latter. For a hundred and fifty years 
 previous to the Reformation, the doctrines of Wick- 
 liffe were leavening the body of the Anglican Church. 
 The overthrow of the papal supremacy was indeed 
 effected by Henry VIII. ; but tiiat monarch rather 
 hindered than favoured the reformation of doctrine, as 
 appeared from the rapid progress which it made when 
 Edward VL came to the t&oue. The bloody reign 
 of Mary interposed a check to further progress ; and 
 it was not tUl the accession of Queen Elizabeth that 
 the principles of the Reformation finally triumphed, 
 and the iUiglo-cathohc Church assumed the foim in 
 which she has since continued to exist. During the 
 period of more than 800 years preceding the Refor- 
 mation, she became gradually, and at length com- 
 pletely, merged in the Roman Cathohc ; at the 
 ' Reformation, she may be said to have emerged ; 
 when Rome, at the Council of Trent, anathematised 
 all who would not receive her articles, the separation 
 became final, and the positions of the two churches 
 with respect to each other irreconcilably hostile. 
 
 The doctrines of the Anglican Church are to be 
 found in the Booh of Oommon Prayer (q. v.), which 
 is based upon the second prayer-book of Edward 
 VL, and was settled iu its present form 1662 A. d. 
 Her tenets are more legally defined in the Thirty- 
 nine Articles, which were settled 1562 A. d. (see 
 Articles, TmBTr-NiNB). As distinguished from 
 Rome, she rejects tradition as a rule of faith, 
 though admitting it as to rites and ceremonies, and 
 bases all her teaching upon the books of the Old and 
 New Testaments, rejecting from them as apocry- 
 phal certain which Rome receives as canonical. She 
 recognises only two sacraments, Baptism and the 
 Lord's Supper, whereas Rome allows five others — 
 namely, Confiimation, Orders, Penance, Matrimony, 
 and Extreme Unction; she denies the doctrines of 
 transubstantiation and the propitiatory sacrifice of 
 the mass ; she forbids what Rome practises — ^the 
 adoration of the Virgin, saints, and angels, and the 
 reverence of rehcs and images ; she also denies the 
 Roman doctrines of purgatory and the spiritual 
 supremacy of the pope. It is not, however, to be 
 forgotten that a great part of her liturgy is derived 
 from the missals of the Roman Church. As distin- 
 guished from the Presbyterian Chiu-ches^e. g., that of 
 Scotland — she is Episcopal, and holds the unbroken 
 succession of her orders from the apostles, as one of 
 her most esteemed privileges; whereas the Presby- 
 terians, especially in Scotland, reject prelacy as a 
 remnant of popery. These do not, however, differ 
 from her materially in essential matters of faith, but 
 chiefly as to the sacraments, the form of administer- 
 ing them, and the grace conveyed in them ; as to 
 the observance of seasons, such as Christmas, Lent, 
 Easter; and as to the forms of pubHc worship, the 
 
 Presbyterians using no set forms. Her differences 
 with the Greek CathoUcs are less wide than with 
 the Roman, and will be best seen by referring to the 
 article Greek Chukoh. From the Lutherans she 
 differs on the doctrine of consubstantiation in the 
 sacrament of the Lord's Supper. From the Calvinists 
 she differs radically as to the extent of the efficacy 
 of Christ's death, they beheving only in ' particular,' 
 she in ' universal,' redemption (meaning, of course, 
 not that all men wiU actually be saved, but that 
 Christ died for all) ; neverOieleas, some of her 
 articles, as the 17th, are decidedly Calvinistic. The 
 numerous sects of Wesleyans, Baptists, and Inde- 
 pendents do not differ from her on what they them- 
 selves consider essential articles of faith, but chiefly 
 as to the necessity of orders, the grace conveyed iu 
 the sacraments, and the forms of pubhc worship and 
 of church government. But since their separation 
 from her, endless varieties of doctrine and worship 
 have spread among them. Unfortunately, there 
 remains no GaUo-catholic Church with which to 
 compare her. 
 
 The Anglo-catholic Church embraces in her com- 
 munion the United Church of England and Ireland, 
 the Episcopal Church in Scotland, all the colonial 
 Episcopal Churches, and the American Episcopal 
 Church. All but ihe latter use the English £oo£ 
 of Common Prayer; in America this has been 
 slightly altered. The American Church is one of 
 the most flourishing offshoots of the AugKcan. It 
 was planted in Virginia, 1607 a.d., but, for nearly 
 two centuries, the mother church iu England with- 
 held from her offspring the necessary boon of an 
 episcopacy of her own. It was not till the close of 
 the 18th c. that the first three American bishops 
 were ordained (one by the Scottish bishops in 1784, 
 and two by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the 
 Bishops of Bath and Peterborough iu 1787) ; but 
 now this branch of Anglo-cathoUcism has spread over 
 the greater part of the United States. 
 
 ANGLOMA'NIA designates, among the French 
 and Germans, a weak imitation of En^sh manners, 
 customs, &c., or an indiscriminate admiration of 
 English institutions. In German Hterature, an A- 
 was especially prevalent in the 18th c, when trans- 
 lations of Enghsh books became numerous, and were 
 read with great admiration. The Germans have 
 ascribed the sentimental and affected style of some 
 parts of their hterature to the influence of the Eng- 
 lish hteratmre of last century. But the A. was harm- 
 less in comparison with the Gallomania, or imitation 
 of French hterature and customs, which prevailed 
 in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and was 
 developed in the writings of Wieland. A reniark- 
 able A. prevailed iu Prance for some time before 
 the commencement of the Revolution. It arose out 
 of pohtical considerations and admiration of English 
 free institutions, but extended to trifles even of 
 fashions and maiuners, and often became very 
 ridiculous. 
 
 A'NGLO-SA'XON LANGUAGE AND LITE- 
 RATURE. The term Anglo-Saxon is of modem 
 origin, our forefathers having called themselves and 
 their language English or .(English. The Anglo- 
 Saxon language belongs to the Low-German family 
 of the Germanic languages, and is most nearly 
 related to the Old Saxon, the Old Dutch (or lan- 
 guage of the Netherlands), and the Old Frisian. 
 There were two principal dialects — one- spoken in 
 the north of England, which was chiefly peopled 
 by the Angles; and the other in the south of 
 England, wmch was chiefly peopled by the Saxons. 
 After Wessex acquired the supremacy over the other 
 states of the Heptarchy m the 8th c, the West 
 Saxon dialect became prevalent as the language of 
 
ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE— ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 the court and of literature. Erom the 9th c, laws 
 and poems began to he committed to writing ; and 
 Alfred the Great set the example of translating 
 Latin works into Anglo-Saxon. After the Nor- 
 man Conquest, the Anglo-Saxon language gave 
 place to the Norman-French, as the language of the 
 court, of courts of justice, of schools, and partly also 
 of the church ; but Saxon continued to be the lan- 
 guage of the common people, and became the basis 
 of the English language, which was gradually formed 
 during the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries. The 
 Anglo-Saxon of the period from 1070 to 1250 has 
 been designated by English philologists the Semi- 
 Saxon, whilst the Early English prevaOed from 1250 
 to 1350, and the Middle English from 1350 to 1550. 
 Siace the Reformation, the Anglo-Saxon has been 
 made the subject of study by a few ; and Hickes's 
 Thesaurus Linguaruin Septentrionalium (3 vols., 
 1703 — 1705) must be mentioned as one import- 
 ant work on the subject which the last century 
 produced. In recent times, the knowledge both of 
 the language and literature of the Anglo-Saxons has 
 been greatly advanced by the labours of Thorpe, 
 Kemble, Latham, Price, Guest, Sir Frederic Madden, 
 the Conybeares, and others in England; and of J. 
 Grimm and Leo in Germany. But even now it can 
 scarcely be said to have received the amount of at- 
 tention which may well be reckoned due to it, when 
 we remember that it fiumshes the basis, and, in 
 point of words, contributes by far the greater pro- 
 portion, of the EngHsh which we speak. The best 
 Anglo-Saxon dictionaries are those of Lye, edited 
 by Manning (2 vols, fol., Lond. 1772), and Bosworth 
 (Lond. 1839) ; the grammar has been exhibited by 
 Rask in his Angelsdlcsisk Sproglaere (Stockh. 1817; 
 English translation by Thorpe, Copenh. 1830), and 
 more perfectly by J. Grimm in his Deutsclie Gram- 
 maiih (4 vols., Gott. 1819—1837). 
 
 Like Latin, Greek, and modem German, the 
 Anglo-Saxon language was inflected, the cases of its 
 nouns, and the conjugations, numbers, and persons 
 of its verbs, being marked by changes chiefly in the 
 final syllable. These characteristics gradually disap- 
 peared as Anglo-Saxon passed uito modern Enghsh, in 
 which they are almost unknown. The nature of this 
 process will be understood from the following extract 
 from Professor Craik'a excellent Outlines of the 
 Hisiory of the English Language : ' It has been 
 pointed out by Mr Guest, tiiat the characteristic 
 distinction of Old, or Early English, as compared 
 with Saxon, or Semi-Saxon, is the employment of the 
 one termination e in the declension of nouns and the 
 conjugation of verbs, to represent iudiscrimitiately 
 the three Anglo-Saxon vowel-endings, o, e, and u. In 
 this way the Saxon nama, ende, and wudu, became in 
 Early English, name, ende, woode, or wood-de. Now 
 the distinction of Middle English, as compared -with 
 Early English, may be defined as being the tendency 
 to drop tms final e as a distinct syllable, and along 
 with that simplification, to throw off also whatever 
 else remained of the original inflectional system of 
 the language.' — P. 91, ed. 1855. 
 
 Of the remains of Anglo-Saxon literature which 
 the ravages of the Danes and Normans have left us, 
 the greater part are still unpriuted. Very many of 
 them are poetical. The verse is alliterative, as in 
 the Norse and oldest German poetry ; and only in 
 some of the most recent Anglo-Saxon poems do we 
 find a beginning of rhyme. The epic or naiTative 
 poems are remarkable for superabimdance of often 
 recurring epithets, bold metaphors, and a certain pomp 
 and magnificence of style. Of the genxxiae heroic 
 poetry, nowever, there are few remains, the prin- 
 cipal one being the poem of Beowulf (q. v.), a work 
 which must have been composed before the Anglo- 
 SaLXons quitted their originil seats on the continent. 
 
 260 
 
 The introduction of Christianity gave a religious ■ 
 character to Anglo-Saxon poetry ; and many narra- 
 tive poems are extant on religious subjects, some of 
 which may be seen in the Codex Oxoniends, a collec- 
 tion edited by Thorpe (Lond. 1842). The Song of 
 Ccedmon, which is preserved in Alfred's transla- 
 tion of Bede, has been edited both by Junius and 
 Thorpe ; and a metrical paraphrase of parts of the 
 Holy Scriptures, ascribed to the same author, has 
 found editors both lq Thorpe (Lond. 1832) and 
 Bouterwek (vol. 1, Elberfeld, 1847). Csedmon, who 
 was employed by the monks of Whitby, at first, it 
 would seem, ia tending their cattle, is conjectured to 
 have died about 680, so that both of the works in 
 question must belong to the 7th c. Two poems from 
 the codex which Dr Blum discovered at VerceUi in 
 1832, have been edited by Jacob Grimm (Cassel, 
 1840), under the title of Andreas undElene; a poetibal 
 calendar of the saints by Fox (Lond. 1830) ; and a 
 version of the Psalms by Thorpe (Lond. 1835). The 
 semi-Saxon paraphrase by Laymon of the 3nii of 
 iT'ace, or old French Soman de 5nrf, a work of about 
 the year 1200, which has been edited by Madden 
 (Lond. 1847), shews the language in its transition to 
 Enghsh, as do also the Proverbs of King Alfred in 
 the Bdiquice Antiquce (vol 1, Lond. 1843). Among 
 the most important prose works in the Anglo-Saxon 
 language must be mentioned the laws, civil and 
 ecclesiastical, from the time of Ethelbert of Kent 
 to that of Canute, of which the best edition is in 
 Thorpe's Ancient Laws and Institutes of England 
 (Lond. 1840). Of historical works may be mentioned 
 Alfred's translations of Orosius and Bede ; and the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, carried on by different hands 
 to 1154, of which the best edition, down at least to 
 the Conquest, is Price's, in the Monumenta Historica 
 Britannica, 1848, an earlier one being that of Ingram 
 (Lond. 1823), of which latter there is a translation by 
 Miss Gumey (Norwich, 1819). It is in the province 
 of theology that Anglo-Saxon literature is most rich, 
 abounding particularly in legends and homilies. A 
 collection of homilies made by Bishop .^Ifric has been 
 published by the Elfric Society (2 vols., Lond. 1847), 
 a society instituted in 1843 for the promotion of the 
 knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language and times. 
 .lElfric did much to enrich Anglo-Saxon literature 
 with translations, and began a translation of the 
 Bible. He translated the first seven books, the book 
 of Job, and the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, 
 and also a fragment of a poem on the history of 
 Judith, of great celebrity (Oxf. 1698). -The 
 Durham Booh, or St Outhbert's book, a very famous 
 manuscript, now in the British Museum, contains 
 an interlinear gloss of the Gospels in the East- 
 Anglian dialect, the text being probably of the 
 8th, and the gloss of the 10th u. Alfred toanslated 
 the work of Boethius, De Consolatione Philosophia. 
 The opinions of the Anglo-Saxons on astronomy, 
 natural philosophy, and medicine, are exhibited 
 from their works by Wright in his Treatises an 
 Sciences written during the Middle Ages (Lond. 
 1841). Much additional information on this sub- 
 ject will be found in an accessible form in Professor 
 Craik's Outlines of the History of the English 
 Language, already referred to ; and in Dr Pauh'S 
 Alfred, of which two translations have been pub- 
 lished, the one by Wright (Bentley, 1852), whereof 
 a second edition appeared in the following year; 
 and another by Thorpe (Bohn, 1853). See English 
 Language. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXONS, the collective name given 
 by historians to the various Teutonic or German 
 tribes which settled in England, chiefly in the 5th c, 
 and founded the kiugdoms of the Heptarchy. They 
 consisted for the most part of Angles, Saxons, and 
 Jutes. The generally received opinion is, that thes 
 
ANGLO-SAXONS. 
 
 first of these invadera made their appearance in 
 Britain in 449, having Hengest or Hengist, and Horsa 
 or Hers, as their leader. But under the more search- 
 ing scrutiny of later writers, these famous leaders 
 have evaporated into mythical heroes of romance, 
 common to most of the Germanic nations ; and though 
 the fact of a great Germanic invasion in the middle of 
 the 5th 0. is not doubted, it is heUeved that this was 
 by no means the earliest period at which Germanic 
 settlements were effected in England. Long previous 
 to this period) a portion of the coast, extending from 
 Portsmouth to WeUs in Norfolk, was known as the 
 LiUus Saaxmicum; but whether in reference to 
 Saxons by whom it was settled, or to roving adven- 
 turers of that race by whom it was ravaged, is still 
 a subject of dispute. The former view is advanced, 
 on apparently satisfactory grounds, by Kemble 
 {Saxons in England, vol. i. p. 14). But, however 
 this point may stand, the probable truth is, that 
 Britain, which for centiuries had been ravaged and 
 partially colonised by Germanic tribes, was finally 
 reduced under their rule, on the departure of the 
 Romans. Of the three tribes mentioned above, the 
 Jutes are beHeved to have been the first comers. Their 
 original settlements were in what is now the Duchy 
 of Schleswig ; and the portions of England of which 
 they possessed themselves were Kent, the Isle of 
 Wight, and the opposite coast of Hampshire. The 
 Saxons, who were the next invaders, settled chiefly 
 in the southern and central parts of En^and — in 
 Sussex, Essex, Middlesex, the south of Hertford, 
 Surrey, the part of Hampshire not possessed by the 
 Jutes, Berks, WUts, Dorset, Somerset, Devon, and 
 the portion of Cornwall which did not remain in the 
 possession of its ' fomier Celtic inhabitants. The 
 Saxons who invaded England probably belonged 
 chiefly to the portion of that great nation, or con- 
 federacy of nations, whose territories lay on the shores 
 of the Baltic — occupying what are now the Duchy 
 of Holstein, the north of Hanover, and the west of 
 Mecklenburg. The third tribe, whose name and 
 nationality afterwards prevailed over the others — 
 the Angles — did not arrive till a somewhat later 
 period. From 527 to 547, they made a succession of 
 descents on the coasts of Suffolk and Norfolk, and 
 latterly, on the country to the north of the Hnmber, 
 and the southern part of Scotland between the 
 Tweed and the Forth. Eventually, the Angles 
 obtained possession of the whole of England, except 
 the portions already mentioned; that is to say, of 
 all ile part to the north of the Avon, on the one 
 side, and the Thames on the other — Essex, Middlesex, 
 and part of Hertford excepted. The imion of difier- 
 ent bands of these conquerors amongst themselves, 
 with their countrymen who had preceded them, and 
 with the Celtic population which, though conquered, 
 there is no reason to suppose was exterminated, 
 gave rise to the so-called Heptarchy — the kingdoms 
 of Northumbria (originally Bemicia and Deira), 
 Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, and 
 Mercia. The Heptarchy (q. v.) becomes an octarchy, 
 if the provinces of Bemicia and Deira be coimted as 
 separate kingdoms ; but in place of increasing, it is 
 very doubtful if we ought not to diminish the 
 number of these divisions, it being yery questionable 
 if so many as seven states ever possessed, at one 
 time, separate and independent governments. But 
 the propriety of either term becomes still more 
 doubtful if it be understood, as it generally has been, 
 to convey the idea of all these separate kingdoms 
 being boimd together in a species of union or confe- 
 deracy, under one head, called the Bretwalda. The 
 BretwaJda is said to have been a species of war-king, 
 or temporary and elective chief of all the Saxons, 
 whose oflioe it was to lead them forth in their wars 
 against their common enemies, especially the Celts 
 
 of Wales and Scotland. Kemble has thrown serious 
 doubts on the existence of the ofSce, and has shewn 
 that the evidence which is adduced in its favour, if 
 not based entirely on ' a piece of vicious philology ' 
 (vol. ii. p. 12), is at anyrate very slight. Lappenberg, 
 however, than whom there is no higher authority 
 on Anglo-Saxon history, follows pretty nearly the 
 opinions to which Eapin and Sharon Turner had 
 given currency. On the whole, there seems reason 
 to beheve that the Bretwaldaship never was a 
 permanent and acknowledged supremacy, but a mere 
 aooidenta;! and temporary preponderance of one 
 state over the others, and a consequent pre-eminence, 
 for the time being, enjoyed by its sovereign. 
 
 The various independent states into which England 
 had till then been divided, were united by E^ert, 
 king of Wessex, in 827, into the one kingdom of 
 England (the laud of the Angles). The royal family 
 of Wessex, which was thus raised to what, for the 
 first time, probably, is entitled to be called the 
 kingly dignity, never again lost its supremacy, 
 except, indeed, during the Danish period (1017 to 
 1042), till the Norman Conquest; and to it Alfred 
 the Great (q. v.) belonged. 
 
 The Enghsh constitution, the origin of which is 
 sometimes ascribed to Alfred, was not framed by 
 him, though he restored it and improved it after 
 the dehveranoe of the country from the Danes m 
 1042. It was essentially the same as that of other 
 Germanic nations, and its germs are to be traced in 
 the account which Tacitus has given of their politi- 
 cal institutions ; but was more perf ectiy developed, 
 and continued to flourish in greater purity among 
 the Anglo-Saxons, than in those countries which 
 were more immediately subject to influences pro- 
 ceeding from Rome. At the head of the govern- 
 ment was the king [cyning, cyng, the same word 
 as the German Konig). The kingly ofiice, among 
 the Germanic nations in early times, had reference 
 solely to the tribes or peoples governed, and never 
 to the land which they occupied. During this 
 period, it was naturally elective ; but after the 
 idea of great territorial possessions came to be 
 inseparable from it, it became hereditary, though 
 a form of election, or colour of ascertaining the 
 national will, was still retained. The life of the 
 king, like that of every other man, was assessed at a 
 fixed price {weregild, q. v.), which was that of an 
 wtheling, or person of royal blood, with a sum super- 
 added as the price of his royalty. The first of these 
 sums went to his family, the second, to the people. 
 The king and his dependants possessed other special 
 privileges and protections ; one being that ' the 
 dishonour of- his maiden serf involved a fine of fifty 
 shillings ; while the eorle's female cup-bearer was 
 protected only to the amount of twelve, and the 
 ceorl's to that of six shillings' (Kemble, ii. 33). The 
 king possessed the power of calling together the 
 Witenagemdte (q. v.), and of laying before them 
 propositions for the pubhc weal ; but he had not the 
 power of dismissing the assembly when he had 
 enough of its advice, so that in England, from the 
 first, the real centre of power seems to have been 
 in parliament. Neither was the convocation of the 
 Witenagem6te at the option of the sovereign, for 
 there is every reason to beheve that his power was 
 all along limited by the necessity of consulting the 
 principal members both of the clergy and laity of 
 the Imigdom, and that though he possessed the 
 privilege of presiding in their assemblies, he had no 
 separate legislative function ; nor, it would seem, 
 could he impose taxes, or declare peace or war, with- 
 out their consent. The sons -and other near relations 
 of the king constituted an aristocracy of birth, called 
 ethehngs or sathelings {the same word with the 
 German Adel, noble). Out of the great officers of 
 
 361 
 
ANGOLA— ANGOK 
 
 tlie state, or immediate aervanta of the king, was 
 ^adually formed a hereditary aristocracy, closely 
 corresponding to that which subsequently existed in 
 feudal times. Of these, the person next in rank to 
 the king was the ealdarman or duke (heretoga). 
 ' But inasmuch as the ducal functions, in the Anglo- 
 Saxon polity, were by no means confined to service 
 in the iield, the peculiar title of heretoga is very 
 rarely met with, being for, the most part replaced 
 by ealdorman or aldormau, which denotes civil as 
 well as military pre-emiuenoe ' (Kemble, vi sup. ii. 
 126). The word is derived from an adjective si^iity- 
 ingage, though, in practice, no such meaning attached 
 to it, more than to senior, which is the original form 
 of the word seigneur. It was to the same class of 
 officials that subsequently the Danish title of earle 
 or earl came to be applied. The powers of these 
 officers probably varied in the different kingdoms, 
 whilst they remained separated ; but we shaE form, 
 on the whole, a pretty accurate conception of the 
 position of the ealdorman, if we regard h^m as the 
 governor of the gd or shire, the scirgere/a or sheriff 
 being his deputy. Much difference of opinion 
 exists as to the rank and position, social and poh- 
 tical, of the thane; and all that can be said with 
 confidence is, that, in Anglo-Saxon times, it was 
 not convertible with ealdorman, or equivalent to 
 baron, as it came to be after the Conquest. The 
 office seems to have implied subordinate landed 
 tenure, similar to that by which the lands of the 
 vassal were held of the lord in feudal times ; and 
 thus, whilst the king's thanes were frequently 
 ealdormen, these, in their turn, had thanes of a 
 lower rank, who appear to have been very mmierous. 
 This view is strengthened by the derivation of the 
 term from Uiegnian or thenian, to serve, which is 
 the same word as the modern German dimen, and 
 from the fact of its being frequently translated 
 minister in the Latin charters in Anglo-Saxon times. 
 The whole class of ordinary freemen or commoners, 
 in Anglo-Saxon times, were called ceorls (a word 
 preserved in the German Kerl, and in the Scotch 
 carle), and were generally associated tmder the 
 protection of some person of rank and influence, who 
 was called the hlaford (whence lord). This, how- 
 ever, was in itself no recognised title, and up to a 
 very late period, the An^o-Saxon laws knew no 
 other distinction than that of ceorl and eorle. The 
 Britons, who retained some degree of freedom, con- 
 stituted a lower class, called wealhas. The nimiber 
 of slaves [theow) was not very great, nor does the 
 character of the servitude imposed on them seem, 
 comparatively speaking, to have been oppressive. 
 Different rights and privileges belonged to tie 
 different ranks of the Saxon people, and, as we have 
 already said, a diSeient vieregUd (q. v.), or pecuniary 
 estimation, was fixed for each rank, as the penalty 
 for homicide. The great districts or shires were 
 subdivided into tithinga (teothung), each containing 
 ten free heads of fammes, who were held mutually 
 responsible for each other. Ten tithings .formed a 
 hundred, which had a coiort subordinate to the court 
 of the shire. In important matters, the ealdorman 
 of the shire could not decide without the concurrence 
 of an assembly (Sdrgemdte, Assembly of the Shire) 
 of thanes of the shire and representatives of town- 
 ships, which met half yearly, and corresponded to 
 the Witenagemdte (Assembly of the Wise), or 
 Michdgem6te (Assembly of the Great) for the 
 whole kingdom. 
 
 Christianity was introduced among the Anglo- 
 Saxons in the end of the 6th, or beginning of the 
 Vth c. by St Augustine, a missionary sent Dy Pope 
 Gregory I., called the Great. Augustine became the 
 first Archbishop of Canterbury; and before the close 
 of the 7th c, the whole of Saxon or German England 
 
 was a Christian country imder one metropolitan. 
 Ethelbert, king of Kent, was the first Anglo-Saxon 
 sovereign who embraced the Christian doctrine. 
 Bringing with them the traditions and feelings of 
 the empire, the whole influence of the clergy was 
 thrown into the scale of monarchy, and greatly 
 tended to its consolidation. A Christian church, 
 however, already existed in Scotland and the north 
 of England; and the influence of the Culdees 
 (q. V.) long prevailed against the efforts of the 
 Anglo-Saxon prelates to establish uniformity of 
 worship and complete conformity to Home. Nor 
 were the Anglo-Saxon -clergy themselves in general 
 very submissive to the anmority of the popes, who 
 did not succeed in reducing England to complete 
 subjection till after a long struggle. St Dunstan 
 (q. V.) gained for them th6ir final victory in the 10th 
 c. During the time of its comparative independence, 
 the Anglo-Saxon Church was distinguished for the 
 learning and laboriousness of its clergy. Bede (q. v.) 
 is the most eminent author whom it produced. 
 Between his time and that of Alfred, a very great 
 degeneracy had taken place both in the learning and 
 efficiency of the clergy, which that active and 
 enlightened sovereign laboured to restore, not with- 
 out success. His own remarks on the subject, 
 contained in the introduction to his translation of 
 Gregory's Begula Pastoris, wiU be found' in Dr 
 Paidi's excellent Life and Times of Alfred the Great, 
 to which the reader is referred for much interesting 
 information regarding Anglo-Saxon times. St Boni- 
 face (q. v.) and many other Anglo-Saxon and Scot- 
 tish missionaries laboured with success iu the propa- 
 gation of Christianity in Germany. 
 
 ANGO'LA, a name often applied to the whole of 
 the West African coast from Cape Lopez de Gonsalvo 
 iu lat. 0° 44' S., to San Felipe de Benguela, in 12° 
 14' S. ; but, in a more restricted sense, the name of a 
 kingdom in Lower Guinea dependent upon Portugal, 
 and extending from the river Coanza on the south, 
 in lat. 9° 20' S., to the Danda on the north, in 
 8° 20[ S. The natives generally call it Donga. The 
 interior is very imperfectly known, and the bound- 
 aries uncertain; but along with Benguela, and other 
 presidencies, A. is supposed to contain about 
 500,000 inhabitanta. The country being well 
 watered, is covered with a most luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion, liie heat being moderated by the sea-breeze, 
 the orange and other fruits of the warmer tem- 
 perate cbmates are produced, as well as those 
 which are strictly tropical. There is a great abund- 
 ance and variety of wild animals, and the mouths 
 of the rivers swarm with sharks and crocodiles. 
 The principal rivers are the Coanza and Danda. 
 Much of the country is mountainous. The moun- 
 tains are covered with forests, and are rich in 
 metals, particularly copper, iron, and silver, which, 
 with wax and ivory, are the principal legitimate 
 exports, although the great trade, almost to the 
 present day, has been in slaves. Fetiohism is the 
 prevailing superstition, and circumcision is general 
 among the natives. A. might easily be rendered 
 very productive both of sugar and cotton, but the 
 manner iu which it has been governed by the 
 Portuguese has not tended to develop its resources. 
 They discovered ' it in 1486, and have had settle- 
 ments in it since 1488 ; but the number of resident 
 Portuguese is very small, and they are ahnost entirely 
 confined to a few spots— forts and commercial 
 estabhshments called ^ras or fairs. The capital is 
 Loando, or San Paulo de Loando (q. v.). 
 
 ANGON, a barbed spear used by many early 
 nations. The Franks, iu the 7th c, employed 
 angons both for thrusting and hurling. The staves 
 were armed with iron, so as to leave but little of 
 
ANGORA— ANGOSTURA BARK. 
 
 the wood uncovered; the head had two barbs. 
 When hurled or thruat at an opponent, the head of 
 the A. became fixed in the flesh by meana of the 
 barbs. This form of spear waa much adopted by 
 the Anglo-Saxon and other Teutonic nations. 
 
 ANGO'RA, the Ancyra of the ancients, a city 
 in the eastern part of ihe Turkish eyalet of Bozoe, 
 in the mountainous interior of Asia Minor, and 
 •distant from Constantinople about 220 miles E.S.B. 
 It is said to have been built by Midas, the son 
 of the Phrygian Gordius; was a flourishing city' 
 nnder the Persians ; became the capital of the Gallic 
 Teotosages, who settied in Asia Minor about 277 
 B. c. ; was a principal seat of eastern trade under the 
 Romans; and was made the capital of the Roman 
 province of Galatia Prima. It was the seat of one 
 of the early churches of Galatia, and the scene of 
 two Christian councils held respectively in 314 
 and 358. A decisive battle between liie Turks 
 ' and Tatars was fought near A. in 1402, in which 
 Timur defeated and took prisoner the sultan 
 Bajazet I. A temple of white marble was erected 
 "by the citizens of Ancyra to the Emperor Augustus, 
 who had greatly beautified the city, and his deeds 
 were recorded in inscriptions upon a number of 
 tableta and the cohunns of an altar. These in- 
 scriptions, the Monumentum Ancyranwm, discovered 
 by Busberg in 1553, are important for the elucida- 
 tion of ancient history. They were first printed in 
 Schott's edition of Aurehus Victor (Antw. 1579), 
 and have recently been edited with notes by Pranz 
 and Zumpt (Berl. 1845). The present A. is said to 
 contain not more than 20,000 inhabitants, of whom 
 one-third are Armenians. It is famous for its breed 
 
 Angora Goats. 
 
 of goats, with beautiful silky hair, eight inches 
 long. Of this goat-hair, a kmd of yarn is made, 
 known as Turkish yam or camel yarn, and of 
 which also a manufacture of camlets is extensively 
 carried on in A. itself. The name cajnel yam has 
 led to mistakes ; it has no reference to the camel, 
 but is derived from the Arabic word chamal, fine. 
 Of the skin, of the A. goat, the fine Oriental 
 Morocco leaiier is made. Many of the animals 
 in this region are characterised by the length and 
 softness of their hair, especially the dogs, rabbits, 
 cats, &c. This peculiarity seems to depend upon 
 the climate, and soon disappears in Europe. 
 
 ANGOSTU'RA, a seaport town of Venezuela, in 
 lat. 8° 8' N., and long. 63° 55' W., on the right bank 
 of the Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouths. 
 It takes its name, which signifies, a strait, from 
 its being built at a point wbere, on both sides, 
 the river is narrowed by rocks to a width of 3134 
 feet, after having measured three miles across at 
 thrice the distance from the sea. The site of A. 
 is only 191 feet above the sea-level — an elevation 
 which, on the intermediate distance as above, 
 
 yields an average of less than ten inches to the 
 mile. In fact, the bottom of the river in front of 
 the town is lower than the surface of the sea, for, 
 even in the lowest state of the water, it is said to 
 be 200 feet deep, with a margin for floods to the 
 amount of fifty or sixty feet more. Under these 
 circumstances, the bed of the stream must be about 
 250 feet under the level of the city, or about 60 feet 
 under the level of the sea. When the river does 
 rise to its highest, there are at least portions of the 
 city inundated; and instances are believed to have 
 occurred in which careless people were devoured by 
 alligators in the very streets. Chiefly, as is sup- 
 posed, through the free access of the trade-winds 
 over the flat surface of the country, A. enjoys, in 
 proportion to its latitude, a singularly temperate 
 climate. Even in the hottest season of the year, 
 the thermometer is said seldom to shew more than 
 86° P. ; whUe, between the beginning of November 
 and the end of April, ,it ranges from 77° by day 
 to 69° by night. 
 
 The situation of A. is highly favourable, in a 
 commercial view. The basin of the Orinoco, which 
 lies nearly all above the town, and is estimated to 
 contain 250,000 square miles, or more than twice the 
 area of the British Isles, is particularly rich towards 
 the north. On that side it reaches very nearly 
 to the coast-Une, so as to comprise some of the best 
 parts of Venezuela. Towards the south, again, it 
 consists, in a great measure, of boundless plains, 
 traversed by countless herds of cattle. Over the ' 
 whole of this vast basin, and that almost equally in 
 both directions, the main stream and its afiluents 
 are, with hardly any interruptions, navigable to 
 near the foot of the moimtains. Owing to the 
 impetuosity of the currents and the obstruction of 
 shoals, sailing-vessels are said to take fifteen days to 
 sail up to A. ; but with steam-navigation these 
 impedinents would in great measure disappear. 
 
 With such advantages of position, A. was a 
 flourishing mart before the commencement of the 
 war of independence ; but the civil broils materially 
 interfered with its prosperity. As far back as 1807, 
 A. had 8500 iohabitants ; ere twenty years elapsed, 
 the population had been reduced to little more than 
 a third part of the number. According to later 
 information, however, it was rapidly approaching 
 its former amoimt. 
 
 ANGOSTURA BARK, or ANGUSTURA 
 BARK, the aromatic bitter bark of certain trees of 
 the natural order RuMacem, and tribe Ouspariece, 
 natives of the tropical parts of South America. It 
 derives its name from the town of Angostura, 
 where it is a considerable article of commerce. 
 It was first brought to England in 1788. It is 
 used in medicine as a remedy for weakness of 
 digestion, diarrhoea, dysentery, and fevers. It is 
 tonic and stimulant. The most important of the 
 trees producing it is the Galipea officinalis, which 
 grows upon the mountains of Columbia and near 
 the Orinoco. It is a tree of 12 — 20 feet high, and 
 3 — 5 feet in diameter, having a gray bark, trifoliate 
 leaves, with oblong leaflets about ten inches long, 
 which, when fresh, have the odour of tobacco, and 
 flowers about an inch long, in racemes, white, hairy, 
 and fragrant. The bark contains a chemical sub- 
 stance not yet sufficiently examined, called Angos- 
 turin, Cusparin, or Galipein, to which its medicinal 
 efficacy is ascribed. It is supposed that a variety of 
 A. B. is produced by Galipea Gusparia (called by 
 some Bonplandia tnfoliata), a majestic tree of 60 — 
 80 feet in height, with fragrant trifoliate leaves mora 
 than two feet long. A. B. is believed to be one of 
 the most valuable of febrifuges; but its use is at 
 present very Bmited, and has, indeed, in some 
 countries of Europe, been prohibited, in consequence 
 
 263 
 
ANGOTJLBME— AiraALT. 
 
 of its frequent adulteration with the poisonous bark 
 of the Strychnos Nux Vomica, or the substitution of 
 that bark for it. This poisonous bark is sometimes 
 called False A. B. It difl'ers from the true A. B. 
 in having no smell, in its much greater weight and 
 compactness, in its inner surface being incapable of 
 separation into small laminae, and in the effects 
 which are produced upon it by acids and other tests, 
 particularly in its outer crust being rendered dark- 
 green, or blackish, by nitric acid, whilst that of the 
 true A. B. is rendered shghtly orange-red. ' 
 
 ANGOULEMB, the capital of the department of 
 Charente in France, and formerly of the province of 
 Angoumois. It is situated on the Charente, and has 
 narrow and crooked streets, a number of paper-mills, 
 manufactures of wooUen stuffs, linen, and earthen- 
 ware, &o., and a population of about 20,300. It 
 possesses a royal college, a museum of natural 
 history, and several other useful institutions. In 
 the centre of the town stands the remnant of the 
 ancient castle of A., in which was born the celebrated 
 Marguerite of Navarre, the authoress of the Hep- 
 tameron, and other works. The railway from Paris 
 to Bordeaux passes through it. Much saffron 
 and wine are produced in the neighbourhood. The 
 province of Angoumois was in early times a county ; 
 but the heir of it, in the beginning of the 14th c, 
 being an adherent of the EngHsh, Philip the Pair 
 took possession of it, and it became an apanage of 
 younger branches of the royal family. It was made 
 a duchy by Francis I., and was sometimes bestowed 
 upon natural sons of the French kings. Charles de 
 Valois, Duke of A., a natural son of Charles IX., 
 was a distinguished general in the reigns of Henry 
 IV. and Louis XIII. 
 
 ANGOTJLEME, Louis Antoine de Boxibbon-, 
 Due d', the eldest son of Charles X. of France, and 
 Dauphin during his father's reign, was born at 
 Versailles on 6th August 1775. He retired from 
 France along with his father at the commencement 
 of the Revolution, and spent some time in military 
 studies at Turin. In August 1792 he entered Ger- 
 many at the head of a body of French emigrants ; 
 but the ill success of the campaign, and his own unfit- 
 ness for military command, led to his seeking tran- 
 quillity along with his father at Edinburgh. Tul 1814 
 he continued an exile from France, wandering from 
 one place to another on the continent, and latterly 
 resident with the other members of his family in 
 England. On the entrance of the allies into France, 
 he appeared at the British head-quarters at St Jean de 
 Luz, and thence issued a proclamation to the French 
 army. He entered Bordeaux under protection of the 
 British on 12th March, and made liberal promises in 
 the name of his uncle, Louis XVIII., among which 
 was that of complete religious liberty. He was again 
 in the south when Napoleon returned from Elba. 
 He was appointed lieutenant-general of the king- 
 dom, and hastened with such forces as he could 
 collect to oppose the emperor; but although he 
 obtained some advantages at first, he was soon 
 deserted by his troops, was for some days detained a 
 prisoner, and at last sent away in a Swedish mer- 
 chant-vessel to Barcelona. After the second restora- 
 tion, he was sent by Louis XVIII. to the southern 
 provinces to repress the political and religious move- 
 ments there ; and in 1823 he led the French army 
 into Spain, to put an end to the constitution. A 
 man of phlegmatic disposition and mean abilities, he 
 was, in aU political matters, a tool of the ultra- 
 royalists and the priests. When the revolution took 
 place in July 1830, he signed, along with his father, 
 an abdication in favour of his nephew, the Due 
 de Bordeaux ; and when the Chambers declared the 
 family of Charles X. to have forfeited the throne, he 
 
 261 
 
 accompanied tiiin into exile to Holyrood, to Prague, 
 and to Gorz, where he died, 3d June 1844. 
 
 ANGOULEME, Marie - Thbbesb - Chahlotte, 
 DuCHESSE d', the daughter of Louis XVI., was bom 
 at Versailles on 19th December 1778, and early 
 displayed much quickness of inteUigenpe and energy 
 of character, with the most tender sympathy in 
 the distresses of others. Having passed through 
 the horrors of the Revolution, and endured a long 
 imprisonment, she was exchanged, on 25th Decem- 
 ber 1795, for some French prisoners in the hands of 
 the Austrians, and Kvedat Vienna tfll her marriage, 
 in 1799, with her cousin, the Due d'AngoulSme, 
 whose subsequent fortunes she shared. She sur- 
 vived Tiitn seven years, and died on 19th October 
 1851. 
 
 ANGRA, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at 
 the head of a deep bay on the south coast of the 
 island of Terceira, lat. 38° 38' N., long. 27° 14' W. 
 It is a station for ships between Portugal and Brazil 
 and the East Indies ; but the harbour is very much 
 It is the seat of the Portuguese governor- 
 
 feneral of the Azores and of the bishop ; is well buUt, 
 ut dirty; strongly fortified, and protected by a cita- 
 del at the foot of the Monte de Brazil ; contains a 
 military college and arsenal, several scientific and 
 Hterary societies, a cathedral and numerous churches ; 
 and from 10,000 to 15,000 inhabitants. There is a 
 considerable export of wine, cheese, honey, and flax. 
 This city furnished an asylum for the Portuguese 
 regency from 1830 tiU the taking of Oporto, in 1833, 
 by Don Pedro. 
 ANGTJILLA. See Eel. 
 
 ANGTJILLA, or LITTLE SNAKE, one of the 
 West India islands, so called, perhaps, from its. 
 long and narrow figure. Next to Anegada, it is 
 the most northerly of the Lesser AntSles, lying 
 almost due east of the eastern extremity of Porto 
 Eioo, in lat. 181° N., and in long. 63°— 64° W. It 
 belongs to England, having an area of 35 square 
 miles, and a population of about 3000. It is low 
 and wooded ; but its cleared spots produce cotton, 
 tobacco, and sugar. Its harbour, such as it is, is beset 
 with reefs ; but there is said to be good anchoring- 
 
 f round in the channel between A. and the Isle of 
 t Martin to the south. 
 ANGUIS. See Blind-woem. 
 
 A'NHALT, one of the oldest principalities of 
 Germany, situated on the Elbe, the Mulde, and 
 the Saale, and consisting at present of three 
 duchies — A. -Dessau, A.-Bernburg, and A.-Kothen, 
 which, together, contain about 1034 square miles, 
 and 156,700 inhabitants. It is almost entirely 
 surrounded by the Prussian territories, which also 
 intermix with it, and divide it into portions. 
 Dessau, Zerbst, Bernburg, and Kiithen are the 
 principal towns. The country is mostly level and 
 fertile, producing wheat, flax, rape-seed, hops, and 
 tobacco. Wine is produced on the Saale. Agri- 
 culture is the chief employment of the people, 
 who are generally Protestants. Part of the duchy 
 of A.-Bemburg approaching the Harz Mountains 
 possesses some mineral wealth in iron and other 
 mines. A. began to be an independent princi- 
 pahty in the first half of the 13th c. It has been 
 repeatedly, in the course of its history, divided 
 amongst branches of the reigning family. The 
 present division dates from the beginning of the 
 17th c. It was divided originally into fouTi parts, 
 but the fine of A.-Zerbst has become extinct 
 The three duchies are independent of each other ; 
 but a family compact connects the reigning lines, 
 and in many things they have been accustomed to 
 act together. Some of the princes of A. have been 
 
ANHYDRITE— ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 
 
 eminent in the political, military, and ecclesiastical 
 history of Germany. 
 
 A'NHYDRITE, a mineral, consisting of anhy- 
 drous sulphate of lime, with some slight addition of 
 sea-salt, appears in several varieties, as, 1. Granular ; 
 fovmd in concretions with a foUated structure: 2. 
 Fibrous ; easily broken with a fracture in delicate 
 parallel fibres : 3. Radiated ; translucent : 4. Sparry, 
 or Cube Spar : 5. Compact, of various shades, white, 
 blue, gray, red. A. is converted into gypsum by 
 combination with a certain proportion of water, and, 
 where it is found in large masses, as on the south 
 of the Harz Mountains near Osterode, the surface 
 consists of gypsum. For building, A. has no great 
 value, on account of its tendency to this change; 
 but some of its varieties, espeoiaUy the SOiciferous 
 or Vulpenite, found at Vulpino, in Upper Italy, are 
 used for sculptures, and take a fine polish. When 
 burned and reduced to powder, it is used as a 
 manure, resembling gypsum in its effects. 
 
 ANHY'DEOTJS is the term appHed to a chemical 
 substance free from water. Thus, ordinary lime-sheU 
 as it comes from the kiln is simply lime (CaO) 
 without any water, and is called anhydrous lime ; 
 but when water is thrown upon the lime-shell, the 
 liquid disappears by combination with the lime, 
 which very much increases in voliune and becomes 
 hydraied lime (CaO,HO). Again, ordinary stucco, 
 before being used by the modeller, contains only 
 lime and sulphuric acid (CaOSOj), with no water, 
 and is therefore anhydrous ; but when water is 
 added, and the stucco sets into its mould, it com- 
 bines with two equivalents of water, and becomes 
 hydrated stucco (2HO,CaOS03). Examples of A. 
 substances are also foimd amongst liquids ; thus, 
 alcohol free from water iS' called A. Alcohol ; and 
 in like manner we speak of A, Acetic Acid, A. 
 Nitric Acid, &c. 
 
 ANIMA, Con, in Music; with animation, in a 
 spirited manner. 
 
 A'NIMA MXJNDI literally signifies ' the soul of 
 the world.' The doctrine contained in this phrase 
 was a favourite one with the early philosophers, 
 who conceived that there resided in nature a force 
 immaterial, yet not intelligential, which was the 
 source of all physical and sentient hfe. Plato held 
 it impossible for pure spirit^ the atmosphere in 
 which alone eternal and archetypal ideas could exist 
 — to bear any relation whatever to matter, and he 
 therefore supposed the latter to be operated upon 
 by an inferior agency, the A, M. In the system of 
 the Stoics, the A. M. was conceived to be the sole 
 vital force in the universe ; it usurped the office of 
 pure spirit, and the doctrine became indistinguish- 
 able from Pantheism (q. v.). The notion does not 
 seem to have been entertained by the schoolmen, but 
 it reappears in the writings of Cornelius Agrippa, 
 Paracelsus, and Van Hehnont, and, in a modified 
 form, was held by More, Cudworth, and others. 
 
 ANIMAL AiTD ANIMAL KINGDOM. Ac- 
 cording to a very old classification, all bodies are 
 divided into three kingdoms — the mineral, the 
 vegetable, and the animal. Animals and vegetables 
 are again classed together as organic, in opposition 
 to minerals, which are inorganic. ' Mineral bodies 
 are masses of matter without internal movement, 
 increasing by additions from without, having, with 
 the exception of crystals, no determinate form or 
 size, homogeneous throughout, and without relation 
 of one part to another. Animals and plants, on 
 the contrary, exist as individual beings, consisting 
 of various organs. Their existence has a beginning 
 and an end, and at their death they are replaced by 
 other similar beings developed out of them. 
 
 The distinction between animals and plants strikes 
 
 us at once in the higher classes; but among the 
 lower organisms there are beings which have been 
 at times classed among animals, at times among 
 plants. The marks of anunahty which, with very few 
 exceptions, have as yet been found to exist in all 
 animals, are spontaneous motion, the existence of a 
 special digesting apparatus (it may be only a mouth 
 and a stomach), and sensation by means of nerves. 
 The prevalence of nitrogen as a chemical ingredient, 
 is another general characteristic of animals, while 
 carbon prevails in plants. Most animals, though 
 not all, possess the faculty of ?oco-motiou (q. v.) ; it 
 is wanting in some, as the oyster and polype. This 
 locomotion is generally effected by appropriate 
 organs, which are very different in the diiierent 
 classes of animals, as legs, wings, fins, suckers, cilia, 
 &c., sometimes merely by muscidar dilatations and 
 contractions. In the higher animals, it is connected 
 with a special system of bones and muscles, which 
 becomes less and less prominent as we descend in 
 the scale, and at last disappears. 
 
 Nutrition is effected by swallowing and digesting 
 organic matter by means of a mouth, stomach, and 
 intestinal canal. A part of the food — the chyle, 
 namely, which results from digestion — is taken up 
 by a system of vessels into the body of the animal, 
 and thrown into the blood, into which, under the 
 action of the air in the lungs or gUls, it is converted ; 
 the other part is excreted by a second orifice, except 
 in some of the lowest forms where the mouth forms 
 the exit. For keeping up a circvilation of the blood, 
 which must be brought to all parts of the body for 
 the purpose of nourishment, there is provided a sys- 
 tem of blood-vessels and, in the higher classes, a 
 heart. See Heart. Nutrition may, to some extent, 
 take place also by absorption from the external sur- 
 face; but this is not considerable except, perhaps, 
 among the lowest classes of animals. The substances 
 that serve for the nutrition of an animal are either 
 vegetable or animal, and the mouth and other organs 
 are adapted accordingly. The number of omnivorous 
 animals is small, and among these, man has the 
 greatest latitude of choice. 
 
 Propagation or reproduction takes place in a 
 great variety of ways : among the lowest forms, 
 by division, gemmation or budding, and ceU- 
 germs ; among the more perfect, by generation 
 between two individuals of different sex. Of the 
 two sexes, the male is generally distinguished by 
 superior size and strength, more brilliant colouring, 
 larger appendages, and often stronger voice. Be- 
 sides male and female, there are among some ani- 
 mals (bees and ants) neuters. In some of the 
 lower kinds, the individuals are hermaphrodite. 
 See Reproduction. 
 
 All animals develop gradually, and most of them 
 go through one or more changes of form or meta- 
 morphoses. This is most marked among insects 
 which go through the four stages of egg, larva, 
 pupa, and perfect insect. The class of reptiles 
 with naked skins also go through changes, though 
 less striking. In the higher animals, these transi- 
 tions through a series of forms take place in the 
 ovum, or before birth. In some cases, the embryo 
 comes to maturity after the exclusion of the oviun 
 (birds and amphibia) ; in others (mammalia), within 
 the body of the mother : animals of the last kind 
 are called viviparous. The reproduction of some 
 intestinal worms is peculiar ; the egg of the mother- 
 animal produces a sexless creature — a nurse— the 
 eggs laid by which reproduce the original animal. 
 A somewhat similar pecuharity is observed in some 
 insects," as Aphides. See Aphis. 
 
 The life of animals is dependent on many condi- 
 tions. Among these rank warmth, atmospheric air, 
 and moisture, along with sufficient nourishment 
 ' ^ 265 
 
ANIMAL AND ANIMAL KINGDOM— ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Light also is essential to many, thougli most of the 
 colourless animals of the lower classes can dispense 
 ■with it. With regard to outward pressure, the 
 limits are wide, as is seen in the condor soaring to a 
 ieight of 20,000 feet, and the whale descending to a 
 depth of 1000 feet below the surface of the sea. But 
 individual animals are confined to much narrower 
 limits ; often to one circumscribed range of climate, 
 one species of food, one medium. To go beyond 
 those limits, though it does not always occasion 
 death, yet gives rise to various degrees of degeneracy, 
 from which even man with all his powers of adapta- 
 , tion is not exempt. 
 
 Most animals give more or less strong indications 
 of mind : in those high in the scale, this mental life 
 rises to intellect capable of cultivation, wMle, in the 
 lower classes, it appears as instinct confined to a few 
 operations. For commimicating with the outer world, 
 vertebrated animals are provided with a nervous 
 system in connection with a central brain — a cerebral 
 nervous system; the ganglionic nervous system of 
 the lower animals seems to serve this purpose less 
 and less as we descend in the scale. The impres- 
 sions from without are received immediately by the 
 organs of sense, which become more numerous and 
 complex the higher the animal stands in the scale ; 
 among the highest, five senses are usually distin- 
 guished, which are variously developed in different 
 species — in none so harmoniously as in man. 
 
 Nocturnal sleep, being the means of gathering 
 strength for the activity of the waking hours, stands 
 in intimate relation to that activity, and therefore 
 is wanting in beings low in the scale. Winter sleep, 
 or hybernation (q. v.), serves many animals instead of 
 migration, to enable them to outHve the cold and 
 hunger of winter. Analogous is the summer sleep of 
 serpents and crocodiles, which lie buried in the dry 
 mud during the summer droughts of the tropics. 
 
 Of the other vital manifestations of animals may 
 be mentioned, the faculty of giving light (glowworm, 
 medusae), and that of developing dectridty, both 
 possessed only by a few ; also voice, belonging almost 
 exclusively to vertebrate animals, and of them chiefly 
 to the warm-blooded. 
 
 A very remarkable peculiarity occurs in some of 
 the lowest kinds of animals, in what may be termed 
 a composite life ; individuals which separately mani- 
 fest many of the powers of life, being united in part 
 of their frame, many of them together into one living 
 mass. Of this, examples are numerous among the 
 Zoophytes (q. v.), some of which have already been 
 noticed in the article Alotgnictm. 
 
 Apart from the transforming and modifying influ- 
 ence of man, the animals and plants of a district — 
 its fauna and flora — ^give it life and character. To 
 man himself, animals stand in a variety of relations 
 of the highest importance. Some are directly useful 
 to him for labour, food, the chase, &o. ; others hurt- 
 ful, as destroyers of vegetation, as beasts of prey, as 
 vermin, or by their poisons. — The number of known 
 species of animals amounts at present to about 
 130,000. To describe and classify these on scientific 
 principles, is the object of Zoology (q. v.). 
 
 ANIMAL CHE'MISTRY. The object of re- 
 searches into the chemical nature of animal sub- 
 stances is twofold : First, to classify the proximate 
 or inunediate component ingredients of the animal 
 body, study their properties, their mutual relations 
 and metamorphoses, and the ultimate elements of 
 which they are composed ; second, to investigate the 
 processes that go on during the elaboration and 
 assimilation of new materials, and the wearing out 
 and excretion of old — ^processes that, taken together, 
 constitiite nutrition, or the vegetative side of animal 
 life. Without >•■ pretty complete knowledge of the 
 first part, no successful researches can be made in 
 
 266 
 
 the second ; and it is chiefly owing to the |reat pro- 
 gress that has been made within the last thirty years 
 in the knowledge of the chemical properties of the 
 animal compounds containing nitrogen, that we owe 
 the recent advance in our knowledge of the chemical 
 processes of life. That advance is not the less decided 
 that we are still far from a complete understanding 
 of them. The general laws of chemistry are now 
 traced into the province of organic nature much 
 ftirther than formerly, and the abrupt partition 
 between the two is removed. It is stiU. acknowledged 
 that these laws operate differently within the sphere 
 of organic life, from what they do without; but 
 instead of resting contented with saying, that owing 
 to the vital force this could not be otherwise, the 
 aim is now trf trace the why and wherefore of this 
 modified action as far as possible. 
 
 In the animal body, two classes of substances may 
 be distinguished : those that properly compose the 
 body, and those that are on the way either into it 
 or out of it. The former, or actual components of 
 the body, are, again, of two kinds : 1. Substances 
 that compose the actual tissues of the organs, and in 
 which the vital functions seem properly to inhere ; 
 the substances, namely, of muscle, of nerve, of brain, 
 of membranes, sinews, and the organic part of the 
 bones. All these agree in consisting chiefly of 
 carbon, hydrogen, nifrogen, and oxygen, with usu- 
 ally minute proportions of sulphur and phosphorus. 
 But in respect Of their mode of composition, they 
 fall into two classes — those that yield gelatine on 
 boiling, and those that do not. To the former belong 
 the substance of the cartilages, bones, sinews, and 
 skin; to the latter, the fibrin of the muscles and of 
 the blood corpuscles, the albumen of the nerves 
 and blood, the caseine of milk, &c. These last are 
 the so-called compounds of proteine (q. v.). In 
 the living tissues, all these matters are combined 
 with about 90 per cent, of water. 2. Besides the 
 above, which are the real animalised or vital 
 substances, the animal body contains substances 
 which are merely deposited in the cells and inter- 
 stices of the former for imparting colour, solidity, 
 elasticity, &c. Of this kind are fat, the earthy 
 matter of the bones, pigment, &c. Whether the 
 minute quantities of common salt and of phosphates 
 that are found in all parts of animals essentially 
 belong to the constitution of the substance they are 
 associated vrith, is not yet made out, but it is 
 extremely probable they do ; at all events, they play 
 a very important part. 
 
 The substances that are on their way into and 
 out of the body, form on the one hand the contents 
 of the digestive organs, and on the other those of 
 the organs of excretion. The vascular system forms 
 the means of communication between both and the 
 substance of the body, and the blood is the carrier 
 of all that enters that substance or leaves it. In 
 the digestive organs, accordingly, we find, along with 
 the unaltered materials of the food, the various 
 products of their d^estion, and at last the useless 
 refuse, not absorbable by the vascular system, and 
 the various fluids — some acid, some alkaline — added 
 to the food to effect its digestion, such as the saliva, 
 gastric juice, and bUe. 
 
 The matters prepared in the digestive organs for 
 being taken up into the blood, either enter the 
 venous system directly, or get there by first going 
 through the lymphatic system. This last contains a 
 fluid which is chemically very like the blood, but 
 colourless— the chyle, namely. This fluid and the 
 blood contain the so-called proteine compounds 
 derived from the food, partly in solution, and partly 
 solid in the blood corpuscles. Arterial Wood 
 contains, besides, all those salts and other substances 
 that must be supplied for the nourishment of iha 
 
ANIMAL FLOWER— ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 various organs. The venoua system, again, ■which 
 brings hack the blood from the different parts to the 
 central organs, is laden with all the matters that are 
 no longer of use, and must therefore be carried to 
 the chief excretory organs — ^the skia, liver, and 
 kidneys. The dark colour of venous blood indicates 
 that its components have undergone a change. But 
 aU blood that is on its way both to and from the 
 parts of the body, before it can impart nourish- 
 ment, must pass through the lungs, an organ in 
 which it is brought into extensive contact with 
 atmospheric air, and undergoes a process of oxida- 
 tion, producing the following palpable results : The 
 disappearance -of a portion of the inhaled oxjrgen, 
 and the substitution of water and carbonic acid in 
 its place ; the transformation, of the dark venous 
 blood and of the chyle into - red arterial blood ; 
 lastly, the develojjment of heat. Breathing, then, 
 contributes to nutrition by making the blood fit for 
 that purpose ; it is an excretory process, inasmuch 
 as it burns out useless matters and separates them 
 in the form of gases ; and at the same time it 
 produces heat, wiSiout which life could not go on. 
 
 Sweat, urine, bUe, and emanations from Qie skin 
 and lungs, contain only products of the decomposi- 
 tiou of effete animal substances ; many of these 
 products are highly interesting in a chemical point 
 of view, espeoisSly urea, uric acid, and bUe. It is 
 clear, then, that comparative investigation of the 
 blood in its different states, of the excretions and 
 secretions, can alone give any knowledge of the 
 condition of the vegetative side of the organism ; 
 and, accordingly, this kind of investigation has 
 in recent times become of the highest importance 
 for pathology and diagnosis. See Liebig's famous 
 work on A. C, translated by Gregory, and the 
 excellent Lehrbiuih der Physiologischm Chemie (3d 
 ed., Leip. 1854), by Lehmann. 
 
 ANIMAL FLOWER. See Actinia, and Ass- 
 UOKB (Sea). 
 
 ANIMAL HEAT is the warmth generated in 
 animal bodies by certain of the changes constantly 
 taking place within tbem. A certain amount of 
 heat is necessary to the proper performance of the 
 vital functions, and any material increase or decrease 
 of it from the healthy standard, endangers animal 
 life. The temperature thus necessary for the life of 
 the animal is maintained by the action of that life 
 itself. The air and other objects surrounding the 
 animal body being in almost all cases colder than it, 
 are constantly stealing part of its warmth; but 
 within the system there are processes incessantly 
 going on which produce fresh heat. When the heat 
 thus generated is not dissipated fast enough, so that 
 the body tends to become warmer than the due 
 degree, the accumiilation finds vent in perspiration, 
 the evaporation of which carries off the excess. The 
 power of producing heat is in relation to the climate 
 in which the animal is accustomed to live. It is 
 weaker in warm climates than in cold, and conse- 
 quently when an animal is removed from a warm to 
 a cold climate, it frequently pines and dies. In 
 most fish and reptiles, commonly termed 'cold- 
 llooded animals,' &e temperature differs but little 
 from that of the water or air in which they live ; 
 the same is the case with hybernating animals 
 during the latter part of their torpid conmtion, and 
 with the larva and pupa of insects. There are 
 exceptions, however; the thimny, shark, and bonito, 
 among fishes, for instance, maintain within them- 
 selves a temperature several degrees higher than 
 the water they live in. 
 
 Man has the power, to a greater degree than other 
 warm blooded animals, of a&pting himself to changes 
 of surrounding temperature, especially in temperate 
 
 but changeable climates such as that of Great 
 Britain. His average standard of heat is from 
 98° to 100°, varying with circumstances, being higher 
 after exercise or a hearty meal, and at noonday 
 than at midnight. It also varies in diseased con- 
 ditions of the body, rising to 106° in a fever, and 
 falling as low as 77° in cholera. But if the body be 
 in a healthy condition, the standard of heat is 
 maintained, even when the person is exposed to such 
 intense heat as are men attending furnaces ; one can 
 for a short time be exposed to 350° of heat without 
 materially raising the temperature of his own body, 
 although he will lose weight by the copious perspir- 
 ation necessary for the evaporation. Chabert, who 
 exhibited under the sobriquet of ' the Fire-king,' 
 could enter a furnace heated to 500° or 600°. Yet 
 we know from experiment that an elevation of the 
 temperature of his body even a few degrees, would 
 have endangered, and perhaps destroyed his life. 
 
 Throughout the animal kingdom, the power of 
 generating heat bears a close relation to the activity 
 or sluggishness of the animal. Thus, birds, which are 
 perpetually in action, have the highest temperature 
 (100° — 112°); and the swallow and quick-flighted 
 birds, higher than the fowls which keep to the ground ; 
 and among insects, the hive-bees and butterflies — so 
 perpetually on the wing — than those which crawl, as 
 some of ilie beetles. The higher the standard of 
 A. H., the less able is the animal to bear a reduction 
 of its temperature ; if that of a bird or mammal be 
 reduced 30°, the vital changes become slower, more 
 languid, and death ensues. Fish, on the other hand, 
 may be enclosed in ice, and yet survive. 
 
 This heat is- also necessary to development ; eggs 
 require warmth during incubation : the oviduct of 
 the viper or the serpent is of a higher temperature 
 than the rest of the body. 
 
 As before mentioned, the source of A. H. is in the 
 vital processes going on within the body; but as 
 to the exact mode in which it is engendered, opinions 
 are very much divided. It is usually held to arise 
 from chemical action ; from the species of combus- 
 tion that takes place in the union of the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere with the carbon and hydrogen of 
 the body. That heat must result from this union 
 there is no doubt, nor is it less certain that the pro- 
 portions of carbonic acid and of heat evolved at the 
 same time are in close relation. The source of the 
 carbon thus burned is still doubtful, though it 
 must be partly derived from the tissues and the 
 non-azotised portions of the food. But the amount 
 of carbonig acid evolved by an animal in a given 
 time is not sufficient to account for the amount 
 of heat evolved; therefore, though the combustion 
 of carbon may be the chief source of A. H., there 
 are probably others, as the hydrogen uniting with 
 the oxygen of the atmosphere, and the changes of 
 the sulphur and phosphorus of the food into their 
 acids. See Kespikatiost and Digestion. 
 
 ANIMAL MA'GNETISM or ME'SMERISM is 
 a supposed influence or emanation by means of which 
 one person can act upon another, producing wonderful 
 effects upon his body, and controlling nis actions 
 and thoughts. It was fancied to have some analogy 
 to the magnetism of the loadstone, and hence its 
 name. The term has been used to group together a 
 multitude of manifestations deemed of a wonderful 
 kind, and which have given rise to an amount of 
 delusion and credulity hardly exemplified on any 
 other subject. Electro-biology, Odyhsra, Table- 
 turning, Spirit-rapping, Table-taUdng, Spiritualism, 
 have been classed as only modifications of the same 
 phenomena. The art of inducing the magnetic state, 
 as practised by its discoverer, Mesmer, involved the 
 use of apparatus — ^the iaquet or magnetic tub, iron 
 rods, &c. : but the more common means have been 
 
 267 
 
ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 
 
 passes made by the hands of the magnetiser from 
 the head of the 'subject' or patient downward, or 
 simply making him fix his eyes on the operator. He 
 then generally feels a creeping sensation stealing 
 over the smrface, and shortly falls into the mesmeric 
 sleep — a, state more or less resembling somnam- 
 bulism. About one person in ten is found capable 
 of being thus affected, to a greater or less extent. 
 While in this state, the functions of the body are 
 liable to be much affected ; the pulsations of the heart 
 and the respiration are quickened or retarded, and 
 the secretions altered, and that chiefly at the will of 
 the operator; at his direction, the limbs are made 
 rigid, or become endowed with unnatm-al strength ; 
 one liquid tastes as any other, and is hot or cold, 
 sweet or bitter, as the subject is told; in short, every 
 thought, sensation, and movement of the subject 
 obeys the behest of the mesmeriser. According 
 to the mesmeric theory, the nervous energy of the 
 operator has overpowered that of the subject, as a 
 powerful magnet does a weak one, and the two 
 are in rapport, as it is termed. In some cases, the 
 mesmeric trance assumes the form of clairvoyance. 
 See Somnambulism. 
 
 It has been clearly established, however, that the 
 notion of a force of any kind whatever proceeding 
 in such cases from a person or from a magnetising 
 - apparatus, is a delusion. The effects, whatever they 
 are, must have their cause somewhere else. Where 
 it is to be looked for was indicated, though not fol- 
 lowed up, as early as 1785, in the report of the' com- 
 missioners, one of whom> was Frankhn, appointed by 
 the king of France to examine the pretensions of 
 Mesmer. They report that ' on blindfolding those 
 who seemed to be most susceptible to the influence 
 (of this agent), all its ordinary effects were produced 
 when nothing was done to them but when they 
 imagined they were magnetised, while none of its 
 effects were produced when they were really magne- 
 tised, but imagined nothing was done; that when 
 brought under a magnetised tree (one of Mesmer's 
 modes of operating), nothing happened if the subjects 
 of the experiment thought they were at a distance 
 from the tree, wMle they were immediately thrown 
 into convulsions if they believed they were near the 
 tree, although really at a distance from it ; and that, 
 consequently, the effects actually produced were pro- 
 duced purely hy the imagination.^ 
 
 But this part of the science of human nature — 
 the reflex action of the mental upon the physical — 
 had not then been sufficiently studied, and is not 
 now widely enough known to render the conclusion 
 of the reporters a satisfactory explanation of the 
 phenomena ; and the fallacies of mesmerism, though 
 subjected since to many similar exposures (5r 
 Falkoner of Bath, e. g., annihilated the Patent 
 Metallic Tractors of Perkm, by making wooden ones 
 exactly like them, which produced exactly the same 
 effects), have constantly revived in some shape or 
 other. One chief cause of the inveteracy of the 
 delusion is, that the opponents of mesmerism do 
 not distinguish between denying the theory of the 
 mesmerists and the facts which that theory pretends 
 to explain ; and have been too ready to ascribe the 
 whole to delusion and fraud. It thus happens that 
 the most sceptical^pften become all of a sudden the 
 most credulous. Finding that things do actually 
 happen which they cannot explain, and had been 
 accustomed to denounce as impostures, they rush to 
 the other extreme, and embrace not only the facts 
 but the theory, and call this, too, beUeving the evidence 
 of their senses. Now, the reality of the greater part 
 of the manifestations appealed to by the mesmerist 
 must be admitted, though we deny his explanation of 
 them ; and even where their reality must be denied, 
 it does not follow that the mesmerist is not sincere 
 268 
 
 in beUeviug them ; there is only greater room than 
 in any other case for suspecting that he has deceived 
 himself. 
 
 The first to give a really scientific direction to the 
 investigation of appearances of this class was Mr 
 Braid, a surgeon in Manchester (see Hypnotism), 
 who detaches them altogether from the semblance of 
 power exerted by one individual over another, or by 
 metallic discs or magnets, and traces the whole to 
 the brain of the subject, acted on by suggestion, a 
 principle long known to psychologists, though never 
 made so prominent as it ought to be. The subject 
 has since been ably handled in a paper in the 
 Quarterly Review for September 1853 (said to be by 
 Dr Carpenter). The reviewer traces the operation 
 of this principle through the most ordinary actions, 
 which no one thinks wonderful, up to the most 
 miraculous of the so-called ' spiritual ' manifesta- 
 tions. 
 
 Ideas become associated in our minds by habit 
 or otherwise, and one being awakened brings on 
 another, thus forming a tram of thought; this is 
 internal suggestion. , But impressions from without 
 originate and modify these trains, constituting 
 external suggestion. While awake and in a noim^ 
 condition, the will interferes with and directs these 
 trains of thought, selecting some ideas to be dwelt 
 upon, and comparing them with others and with 
 present impressions. A comparative inactivity of 
 this selecting and comparing faculty, leaving the 
 flow of ideas to its spontaneous activity, produtes 
 the state of mind called reverie or aistraction. In 
 dreaming and somnambulism, the will and judgment 
 seem completely suspended ; and under its internal 
 suggestions the mind becomes a mere automaton, 
 wMe external suggestions, if they act at all, act as 
 upon a machine. These are well-known facts of the 
 human constitution, and independent of mesmerism^ 
 though their bearing upon it is obvious. 
 
 Another fact of like bearing is, the effect of con- 
 centrated attention on any object of thought in 
 intensifying the impression received. This may 
 proceed so far, in morbid states of the nervous 
 system, that an idea or revived sensation assumes the 
 vividness of a present impression, and overpowers 
 the evidence of the senses. Ideas thus become 
 dominant, overriding the impressions of the outer 
 world, and carrying themselves out into action 
 independently of the will, and even vyithoiii the con- 
 sciousness of the individual. These dominant ideas 
 play a greater part in human actions and behefs 
 than most are aware of. ' Expectant attention ' ' 
 acts powerfully on the bodily organs, and often 
 makes the individual see and hear what he expects 
 to see and hear, and, without his consciousness, 
 moves his muscles to bring it about. These, too, are 
 recognised facts in the sciences of physiology and 
 psychology (see Carpenter's Human Physiology and 
 Dr Holland's Chapters on Mental Physiology). 
 
 These principles enable us to bring together and 
 explain a whole class of j)henomena, reverie, dream- 
 ing, somnambulism, the inspiration of the Delphic 
 priestess, religious ecstasies, the physical excite- 
 ment attendant on 'revivals' and 'camp-meetings,' 
 behef in witchcraft, possession, and mania, individual 
 and epidemic. And it is now held that the mani- 
 festations of mesmerism, electro-biology, &c., belong 
 to the same class, and are to be accoimted for in the 
 same way. 
 
 The mesmeric state is produced by a steady gaze 
 at some fixed object. There is no peculiar virtue in 
 the eyes of the mesmerist or in a metallic disc, for 
 a spot on the wall wiU produce the effect. The thing 
 requisite is a monotonous and sustained concentra- 
 tion of the subject's wiH, producing weariness and 
 vacancy of mind ; and this resembles the condition 
 
ANIMAL MAGNETISM— ANIMALCULE. 
 
 that induoes reverie and sleep, and leaves the inind 
 open to any suggestion, and at the command of any 
 idea that may be made to possess him. But that he 
 is governed by /lis ovm ideas, and not by the will of 
 the mesmeriser, is clear. No msh of the mesmeriser, 
 or of any other person, was ever known to affect the 
 ' subject ' until it was conveyed to Mm by voice or 
 otitermse ; while an idea suggested by putting his 
 body in a certain posture, or by an accidental touch, 
 has the same effect as a command. If he seems 
 more subject to the will of the mesmeriser than of 
 any one else, it is because he was previously impressed 
 with that idea, and is therefore more awake to his 
 suggestions. It is thus that the operator is enabled 
 to play upon him as an instrument ; to make him 
 taste, feel, think, and act, and lose and recover 
 memory, the j)ower over his limbs, or even his 
 own identity, as the operator dictates. We must 
 content ourselves with thus indicating the principle 
 of explanation, leaving to the reader to apply it in 
 detail. 
 
 The manifestations connected with table-turning, 
 such of them as are genuine, are explained by the 
 operation of expectant attention. A number of indi- 
 viduals sit round a table with their hands resting upon 
 ii,, having the idea in their minds that it wiU or may 
 move, the direction of the expected movement being 
 also agreed upon. Accordingly, if none of the party 
 are very sceptical, it generally does move after a time, 
 all declaring, and in perfect good faith, that they did 
 not press. And yet it has been proved by a con- 
 trivance of Faraday, that there always is pressure, 
 though without the wUl or consciousness of the 
 performers ; and this is only what is to be looked 
 for from the involuntary effects of a dominant idea. 
 This explanation does not suffice for many of the 
 wonders related by behevers to have happened. But 
 all such are to be received with suspicion, and that 
 without accusing the relators of bad faith. The very 
 disposition to look for something out of the usu?,l 
 course of nature makes them incapable, for the time, 
 of distinguishing what actually happens from what 
 they expect to happen. The mysterious indications 
 of the divining-rod, and of an oscillating body, such 
 as a, ling, suspended from the finger, are aU to be 
 accounted for in a similar way : they result from 
 unintentional muscular movement. 
 
 In spirit-rapping, a ' medium ' puts, somehow, the 
 questioner into communication with any departed 
 spirit he may wish to consult, and the answer is 
 given by raps, supposed to be made by the spirit. 
 The questioner runs a pencil over the letters of the 
 alphabet, and the raps are given as the pencil comes 
 to the successive letters forming the words of the 
 answer. Many of the ' media ' in this species of 
 'spiritual' manifestation have been proved to be 
 impostors, though it is not necessary to suppose that 
 they are so in all oases ; they may be imposing upon 
 themselves, as witches did of old. There is no 
 doubt, however, that the wonderful revelations they 
 sometimes made of things known only to the 
 questioner, arose from involuntary indications made 
 by the latter-rby his pausing, without knowing it, 
 at the letters of the expected answer. A variation on 
 the mode of conmnmicating with the world of spirits, 
 consists in putting the questions to a table, wMch is 
 manipulated, as in table-turning, and gives its answers 
 by rapping with one of its feet, or by rocking, as 
 may be agreed upon. The agency of the expectant 
 ideas of the performers in these cases is apparent in 
 their own narratives. Would it not otherwise be 
 strange that spirits should reveal heaven to Robert 
 Owen as organised on his own social theory, while a 
 Protestant clergyman finds the world of spirits per- 
 vaded by a horror of the pope (Rev. E. Gillson, 
 TaMe-talHng), and to pious Scotch Presbyterians 
 
 every revelatioij regarding it is completely in accord- 
 ance with Calvmistic theology. 
 
 Such are the views of Ikose who, in regard to 
 this matter, may be denominated the 'rationalist' 
 party. But there is a large class of intelligent 
 
 Eersons who hold the explanations above given to 
 e insufficient. After making every allowance for 
 deception, whether intentional or unintentional, 
 they find many undoubted facts remaining which 
 are quite beyond the scope of suggestion, dominant 
 ideas, or any other of the usually received theories, 
 physical or psychological. Phenomena of the cha- 
 racte;r in question are, therefore, still the subject of 
 earnest investigation on the part of many both in 
 Great Britain and America. 
 
 ANIMA'LCULB, a term etymologicaUy applicable 
 to any very small animal, and limited in actual use 
 to those which are microscopical. Animalcules exist 
 in prodigious numbers, and of many different kinds, 
 their size being such that multitudes' of them find 
 ample space for all the movements of an active life 
 within a single drop of water; and they abound 
 almost wherever there is moisture, at least wherever 
 organic matter is present. The Monas crepusadus 
 of Ehrenberg is only l-2000th part of a line, or 
 l-24,000th part of an inch m diameter. 'Take 
 any drop of water from the stagnant pools around 
 us,' says Professor Rymer Jones, 'from our rivers, 
 from our lakes, or from the vast ocean itself, and 
 
 Various forms of Animalcules. 
 
 place it under the microscope ; you wiU find therein 
 countless living beings moving in all directions with 
 considerable swiftness, apparently gifted with saga- 
 city, for they readily elude each other in the active 
 
 dance they keep up Increase the power of 
 
 your glasses, and you wiU soon perceive, inhabiting 
 the same drop, other animals, compared to which 
 the former were elephantine in their dimensions, 
 equally vivacious and equally gifted. Exhaust the 
 art of the optician, strain your eyes to the utmost, 
 until the aching sense refuses to perceive the Httle 
 quivering movement that indicates the presence of 
 life, and you will find that you have not exhausted 
 Nature iu the descending scale.' Animals belonging 
 to different classes are, nowever, microscopical, and 
 the term A. is either applied to them all with refer- 
 ence to their mere size, or it is restricted to those 
 which received from MiiUer, with whom the scien- 
 tific study and classification of them may be said to 
 have begun, the name of Animfilada Infusoria, and 
 which are by Cuvier made the fifth and last class, 
 under the name Infusoria, of his fourth great divi- 
 sion of the animal kingdom, Badiata. See Into- 
 SORIA. The name Infusoria, indeed, etymologicaUy 
 considered, is not more appropriate than Animalcula, 
 perhaps not quite so much so, as only a smaU pro- 
 portion of the animals of this class are actuaUy 
 found in infusions, but it continues to be generaUy 
 employed by zoologists. Attempts have been made 
 to classify them according to their structure, and to 
 assign them their proper places accordingly in the 
 
ANIMALCULE-ANIMALS. 
 
 general arrangement of the animal kingdom; and 
 one part of them have been formed into a class 
 imder the name Eotifera (q. v.), regarded as pro- 
 bably belonging to the Articulated division ; another 
 part, formed into a class called Polygastrica (q. v.), 
 consisting of the simpler kinds, have been in like 
 manner somewhat doubtfully referred to the Radi- 
 ated division. Agassiz unhesitatingly describes the 
 class Infasaria as ' an unnatural combination of the 
 most heterogeneous beings.' He regards many as 
 locomotive Alga; and of those vmch are true 
 animals, he expresses the opinion that many are 
 merely the chrysahs states of other animals. There 
 still remain, howevet, many kinds which are perfect 
 animals. 
 
 Among the most remarkable discoveries of modem 
 science must be reckoned that of fossil animalcides, 
 in such abundance as to form the principal part of 
 extensive strata. This discovery was made by 
 Bhrenberg, who found the Polierschiefer (Polishing- 
 slate or Tripoli) of BUin to be almost entirely 
 composed of the sihcioiis shields of a minute fossil 
 A, the length of one of which is about s-g-jth of a 
 
 Fossil Eemains of Ammalcules which form Tripoli. 
 
 line, so that about 23 millions of animalcules must 
 have gone to form a cubic line, and 41,000 milhons 
 to form a cubic inch of the rock. Ehrenberg suc- 
 ceeded in detecting the formation of similar strata 
 in deposits of mud at the bottom of lakes and 
 marshes, the mud swarming with Hving animalcules, 
 probably in their turn to be fossilised. The JBerg- 
 meU or Mountain Meal of Sweden and other parts 
 of Europe, which is sometimes used as an article of 
 food, is entirely composed of the remains of ani- 
 malcules; not merely, however, of their sihcious 
 shields, for it contains a considerable percentage 
 of dry animal matter. Some animalcules prefer 
 waters impregnated with iron, and their death 
 gives rise to an oehreous substance, in which iron is 
 a principal ingredient. 
 
 ANIMALS, Crueltt to. England has the 
 honour of first making this a distract subject of 
 pubhc attention by the formation of societies for its 
 prevention, and by legislative enactments making it 
 punishable. The movement has now extended into 
 3B^ance and G-ermany. 
 
 Benevolence to A. is a result and a proof of 
 extending civilisation. It is the carrying out to its 
 just limits the principle of sympathy, which first 
 appears when the savage ceases to think exclusively 
 of himself and learns to identify his tribe with him- 
 self. It is this principle of sympathy, only carried 
 farther, that, under Christianity, unites all the tribes 
 and races of men in one family. And it only requires 
 cultivation of the faculty of sympathy generally, 
 and the direction of the attention to what the lower 
 animals have in common with man — sensibility, 
 namely, to pain — to make any one feel, that need- 
 lessly to inmct that pain, is to sin against his own 
 nature, and therefore a crime. This ought to be a 
 special object of attention in the training of children. 
 Besides the cruelty to beasts of burden and domestic 
 animals arising from cupidity, many, especially 
 children, torture creatures iiam. thoughtiessnesa 
 
 and ignorance. This, therefore, is one of the many 
 instances where instruction of the head may be 
 made to mend the heart. It deserves to be re- 
 marked, that the mere extinction of life does not 
 necessanly constitute cruelty. There is often more 
 cruelty in prolonging the hfe of an animal than in 
 taking it away. It is the infliction of needless pain 
 or restraint that is the essence of cruelty to animals. 
 
 Animais, Ckublty to (in Law). This is an ofience 
 against the criminal law, and has frequently of 
 late formed the subject of legislation, the last 
 act of parliament, the 12 and 13 Vict. c. 92 (passed 
 in 1849), being that which at present regulates the 
 law of England on the subject. By this statute it 
 is provided, that if any person shall cruelly beat, 
 ill-treat, over-drive, abuse, or torture any horse, 
 mare, gelding, biill, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, 
 mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, 
 cat, or any other domestic annual, he shall forfeit 
 a sum not exceeding £5 for every such offence, 
 recoverable before a justice of the peace in a sum- 
 mary way ; and if by any such misconduct he shall 
 injure the animal, or any person or property, a 
 further sum not exceeding £10 to the owner or 
 person injured. The act also inflicts penalties in 
 the case of conveying any such animal in such a 
 manner or position as to subject it to unnecessary 
 pain or suffering; and also in the case of bull- 
 baiting, cock-fighting, and the like, and makes a 
 variety of hmnane provisions for the regulation of 
 the business of slaughtering horses and other cattle 
 not intended for butcher's meat. 
 
 Formerly, in Scotland, this offence was punishable 
 at common law — ^that is, according to the Scotch 
 legal principle, common law as distinguished from 
 statute law — and so late as the year 1826, a man 
 was convicted there of affixing a stob, or prickle 
 armed with iron nails, to the tail of a pony, by 
 which the animal was wounded in the hind-legs; 
 and punished with two months' imprisonment. 
 But the Scotch law at that time did not view such 
 conduct so much as an act of cruelty to the animal 
 injured, as of ' malicious mischief,' as it was called, 
 and, in fact, regarded such treatment of animals as 
 «imply an offence against property. An act of par- 
 liament, however, passed in the year 1850, puts the 
 law on this subject in Scotland on the same footing 
 as it is in England. The act referred to contains 
 provisions similar to those enacted by the 12 and 13 
 Vict, for England; and in both acts it is declared 
 that the word ' animal' shaU be taken to mean ' any 
 horse, mare, gelding, bull, ox, cow, heifer, steer, calf, 
 mule, ass, sheep, lamb, hog, pig, sow, goat, dog, cat, 
 or any other domestic animal.' 
 
 ANIMALS, WoESHrp of. The practice of 
 worshipping animals, as well as certain plants and 
 stones, prevailed among many of the nations of anti- 
 quity, and is stiU common among barbarous tribes. 
 That animals should be held sacred and receive 
 worship, need excite no surprise when we bear in 
 mind the origin of polytheistic worship generally. 
 They are manifestations of power ; mysterious, too, 
 because actuated by impulses differing from those 
 of man; and often, by their greater acuteness of 
 sense and more uuerriag instincts, seeming to 
 possess supernatural knowledge. Besides this 
 general ground, various animals have been asso- 
 ciated with the gods as emblems and in other ways. 
 But a more important source of the superstitious 
 regard bestowed on animals, is the belief that gods, 
 and spirits in general, often take the form of ani- 
 mals, either temporarily or as a permanent abode. 
 The doctrine of ihe transmigration of souls is not 
 confined to India. Kindred notions, though not 
 perhaps reduced to system and formally enunciated, 
 are aU but universal; they seem as indigenous in 
 
AlilTMB— iUSTKAESTKOM. 
 
 the heart of Africa as on the banks of the Ganges. 
 It was as a manifestation of the soul of Osiris — 
 originally, like all the other Egyptian deities, a 
 sun-god — that the sacred bull Apis was worshipped 
 in ancient Egjfpt. When the Spaniards first visited 
 the coasts of South America, they found a ludicrous 
 kind of animal-worship practised by the natives on 
 the coast of Cumana (Venezuela). ' They held the 
 toad to be, as they said, " the lord of the waters," 
 and therefore they were very compassionate with it, 
 and dreaded by any accident to kill a toad ; though, 
 as has been found the case with other idolaters, they 
 were ready, in times of difficulty, to compel a favour- 
 able hearing from their pretended deities, for they 
 were known to keep these toads with care under an 
 earthen vessel, and to whip them with little switches 
 when there was a scarcity of provisions and a want 
 of rain. Another superstition worthy of note was, 
 that when they hunted down any game, before 
 killing it, they were wont to open its mouth and 
 introduce some drops of maize-wine, in order that 
 its soul, which they judged to be the same as that 
 of men, might give notice to the rest of its species 
 of the good entertainment which it had met with, 
 and thus lead them to think that if they came too, 
 they would participate in this kindly treatment.' — 
 
 A'NIME, a resin ejcuding from the trunk of the 
 Hymenosa CourbarU, a large tree of the natural order 
 Leguminosce, sub-order Cmaalpinece, a native of New 
 Spain and Brazil. It somewhat resembles copal, 
 but is more easily soluble in alcohol. — The name 
 A., or Gum A., is, however, also given in Britain to 
 a resin caUed in India copal, the produce of Vateria 
 Indica, a tree of the natural order Dipteracem ; 
 whilst the copal of Madagascar is produced by 
 SymeruBa verrucosa, and that of Brazil in gr^at 
 part by several species of Hymencea, a tree of which 
 genus is also regarded as the probable source of the 
 copal of Mexico. 
 
 ANIONS. See Anode. 
 
 A'NISE (Pimpindla Anisum), an annual plant 
 of the natural order Umielliferce. The genus 
 Pimpindla has compound umbels, usually without 
 involucres. Two species are natives of Britain ; 
 they are commonly known by the name of Burnet 
 Samfrage, and have no properties of import- 
 ance. A. is a native of Egypt. It is an annual 
 plant ; the stem is 1 J to 2 feet high, dividing into 
 several slender branches.; the lower leaves roundish- 
 heart-shaped, divided into three lobes, and deeply 
 out ; those of the stem pinnate, with wedge- 
 shaped leaflets. The umbels are large and loose, 
 with yeUowish-white flowers. It is much culti- 
 vated in Egypt, Syria, Malta, and Spain, and 
 even in Germany, especially in the district around 
 Erfurt, where a large quantity of the seed is 
 annually produced. Attempts were made, more 
 than 200 years ago, to cultivate it in England ; but 
 the summers are seldom warm enough to bring it to 
 perfection. It is occasionally sown in gardens for 
 a garnish or for seasoning. A.-Beed (aniseed) is 
 used as a condiment and in the preparation of 
 liqueurs ; also in medicine as a stimuhmt stomachic, 
 to relieve flatulence, &c., particularly in infants ; 
 and it has been used in pulmonary a£fections. It 
 has an aromatic, agreeable smell, and a warm, 
 sweetish taste. It contains a volatile oil, called 
 Oil of A., which is nearly colourless, has the 
 odour and taste of the seed, and is employed for 
 similar purposes. One himdred-wei^t of seed 
 yields about two pounds of oil, which is obtained 
 by distillation ; but at Erfurt the oil is made from 
 the stems and leaives, the whole plant being aroma- 
 
 L 
 
 tic. A.-waier — water flavoured with the oil, and 
 sugared — ^is much used in Italy as a cooling drink. 
 
 Stab Amse, or Chinese Anise, is the fruit 
 of lUicium aniaatwm, a small tree of the natural 
 order Magnoliacew. See Ilucidm. It receives its 
 name from the star-like form of the fruit, which 
 consists of a number (6 — 12) of hard, woody, one- 
 seeded carpels. The tree has evergreen leaves, some- 
 what like those of the common laurel. The whole 
 plant is carminative, and is used by the Chinese as a 
 stomachic and as a spice in their cookery. The 
 qualities of the fruit so much resemble those of the 
 common anise, that it may be used instead of it, 
 and by distillation it yields an oil which is very 
 geueriJly substituted for oil of anise, and is imported 
 mto Europe in considerable quantity, to be used 
 instead of it. Star aniseed is also imported, chiefly 
 from China and Singapore. 
 
 A'NJOU, a former province in the north-west of 
 France, of about 3080 square miles in extent, now 
 forming the department of Maine-et-Loire, and small 
 parts of the departments of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, 
 and Sarthe. Its capital was Angers, lie ancient 
 inhabitants of A. were the Andegam, who long and 
 resolutely resisted the Koman arms. — The male Hue 
 of the Counts of A., who took their name from it, 
 having become extinct in 1060, their title and pos- 
 sessions passed by the female line to the powerful 
 House of Gatinais ; and from one of this family, 
 Godfrey, Count of A., sprung the Plantagenets. He 
 conquered the greater part of Normandy ; assumed 
 the title of duke; and in 1127 married Matilda, 
 the daughter of Henry I. of England, and widow of 
 the Emperor Henry V. Through her, his son 
 inherited the English throne, whiwi he ascended in 
 1154 as Henry II. A. now became one of the pos- 
 sessions of the kings of England ; but in 1204, the 
 French acquired it by fortune of war; and it was- 
 bestowed as a fief upon Philip, the son of Louis 
 VIII., and afterwards upon his brother Charles, who 
 became the founder of that House of A. which gave 
 kings to Naples, Sicily, and Hungary. Charles IL 
 of Naples gave A. to his daughter Margaret on her 
 marriage with Charles of Valois, the son of Philip 
 rV. Her son ascended the throne of France as 
 Philip VI. in 1328. King John, in 1360, made A. a. 
 duchy, and gave it to his son Louis, and he succeeding 
 to the crown of Naples, it remained a possession of 
 the kings of Naples tiU the overthrow of that 
 dynasty, when Eeng II., the last of his family, 
 was deprived of it by Louis XL, who permanently 
 annexed it to the French crown in 1484. Since 
 that time, it has merely given an honorary title to 
 princes of the royal famfly. The last who bore it 
 was the grandson oi Louis XIV., who became 
 Philip V. of Spain. 
 
 ANKARSTROM, Johit Jacob, the assassin of 
 Gustavus III., king of Sweden, bom in 1761, the son 
 of a lieutenant-colonel. He came very early to court, 
 in the capacity of a page, and next entered the aimyj 
 but having obtained tiie rank of captain, left it in 
 1783 ; married and settled in the country. He was 
 a man of violent feelings and rough manners, and 
 much opposed to the measures taken by the king for 
 curtailing the power of the senate and of the nobles. 
 Implicaiied in certain intrigues in the island of 
 Gothland, he was accused of treason, but released for 
 want of positive evidence. His hatred to the king 
 was increased by the harsh usage he met with in the 
 course of his trial. In 1790, he went to Stockholm, 
 and, together with General PecUin, Counts Horn 
 and Ribbing, and others, planned the assassiaation 
 of the king. A. begged that the execution of the 
 deed might be left to him ; but Horn and Bibbing 
 disputing the point, tiiey drew lots, and the lot fell 
 
ANKOBAR— ANNA COMNENA. 
 
 upon A In 1792, tlie king convoked the Diet at 
 Gefls, and the conspirators hoped upon that occasion 
 to carry out their purpose ; but being thwarted in 
 this, they had to wait till the 15th of March, when 
 Gustavus was to attend a bal masqug, during which 
 A. shot at and mortally wounded him. He was 
 instantly apprehended, and at once confessed his 
 crime, stoutly denying, however, that he had any 
 accomplices. On the 29th of April, he was con- 
 demned to death, publicly flogged for three succes- 
 sive days, and then beheaded. He went to the 
 scaffold with perfect composure, rejoicing to his last 
 moment in the success of his crime. 
 
 ANKO'BAR, the capital of the kingdom of Shoa, 
 in Abyssinia, is built 8198 feet above the sea-level, 
 on the ascent of the table-land, in lat. 9° 34' N., 
 long. 39° 35' E. The higher portion of the town is 
 fortified in a very, primitive way, by means of a 
 pahsade constructed of stakes, with intertwisted 
 branches of trees. The royal palace, unlike the 
 most of the buildings, which are chiefly of wood, 
 is built of stone and mortar, although the roof 
 is thatched. The vegetation around the place is 
 extremely rich, and the air is both cool and pure, so 
 that A. is a very agreeable residence, and is conse- 
 quently favoured with the presence of the court 
 ■ during a portion of the year. Pop. 10,000. 
 
 ANKYLO'SIS (6r. ankulosis, bending or crook- 
 ing; ankule, stiif-joiut), is a term used in surgery to 
 imply a stifhess in any joint. It is usually the result 
 of disease, which, having destroyed the articular 
 cartilages, leaves two bony surfaces opposed to each 
 other. The reparative powers of nature cause a 
 union to take place by means of granulations between 
 them. This bond of union may become osseous, so 
 as to render the joint perfectly rigid, or it may con- 
 tinue membranous, allowing of a certain amount of 
 motion. Some joints, especially the elbow, are very 
 apt to become ankylosed ; and in the knee or hip- 
 joints, this osseous A. is reckoned the most favourable 
 termination to disease, as the limb can then afford 
 a rigid support for the trunk. Joints, stiff through 
 a membranous A, may be forcibly bent, and the 
 bond of union ruptured, so as to restore mobihty, or 
 allow of their being placed in a convenient position. 
 A. of the joints between the ribs and the vertebriE 
 is common in advanced age ; and there are some 
 cases on record of universal A. of all the joints. A 
 case occurred in 1716 of a child only twenty-three 
 months old with all its joints thus stiffened ; and 
 there are in various museums specimens of adult 
 bodies in this condition. 
 
 ANN, or ANNAT, in Scotch law, signifies the 
 half year's stipend payable for the vacant half year 
 after the death of a clergyman, to which his family 
 or nearest of kin have right, under an act of the 
 Scottish parliament passed in the year 1672. It is a 
 right that does not belong to the clergyman himself, 
 but to his next of kin absolutely, and therefore can 
 neither be assigned or disposed of by him nor 
 attached for his debts. Compare Annates. 
 
 ANNA, St, according to tradition, was the 
 daughter of Mathan, priest of Bethlehem, and the 
 wife of St Joachim. After twenty-one years of bar- 
 renness, she is said to have given birth to the Virgin 
 Mary, the mother of the Saviour. Nothing positive 
 is known regarding her life ; her name does not 
 occur in the Scriptures, nor even in the vritings of 
 the Fathers during the first three centuries. The 
 first who mentions her is St Epiphanius, in the 4th 
 c. ; but towards the 8th, she was aU but universally 
 invoked. Her body was beheved to have been 
 transferred from Palestine to Constantinople in 710 
 A.B. ; and her head to Chartres, by Louis de Blois, 
 about 1210 A. D. The inhabitants of Dureu (Duchy 
 
 272 
 
 of Juliers, Germany) also pretend to have a head of 
 St A. ; and a third is believed to be in possession of 
 the church at TJrsitz, in the diocese of Wiirzburg, 
 although ntunerous other churches claim to be 
 equally favoured. The Koman Catholic Church has 
 a festival in her honour on the 26th of July; the 
 Greek, on the 9th of December. In Austria, Bavaria, 
 and other CathoKc countries, this festival is one of 
 great importance. In honour of St A., a fraternity, 
 called the Fraternity of St A., was instituted in the 
 13th c. After the Reformation, it was organised 
 anew by the Jesuits ; and in modem times, has 
 manifested some vitality in Bavaria and CathoUo 
 Switzerland. 
 
 ANNA CARLOVNA, regent of Russia during 
 the minority of her son Ivan, was the daughter of 
 Charles Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg, and of 
 Catharine, sister of the Russian empress, Anna 
 Ivanovna (q. v.). In 1739, she married Anthony 
 Ulric, Duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. Her son, 
 Ivan, born August 20, 1740, was nominated by the 
 Empress Anna Ivanovna as her successor. This 
 was done at the instigation of Biron (q. v.), the 
 empress's favourite, whose object was to secirre the 
 regency for himself ; and the empress, on her death- 
 bed, actually appointed him regent, but he continued 
 in power only for a short time. She died on October 
 28, 1740, and his overthrow took place on the 18th of 
 November in the same year. A. C. now proclaimed 
 herself Grand-duchess and Regent of Russia ; but 
 she shewed no capacity for managing the affairs of a 
 great country, spent her time in indolent enjoy- 
 ments, and resigned herself very much to the guid- 
 ance of one of the ladies of her court, Julia von 
 Mengden. A conspiracy was formed by a party 
 desu-ous of raising to the throne Elizabeth, daughter 
 of Peter the Great and of Catharine, and this was 
 accomplished on December 6, 1741. The infant 
 Ivan was sent to the castle of Schliisselburg, where 
 he was afterwards murdered ; Anna and her hus- 
 band were condenmed to imprisonment for hfe, and 
 conveyed to Cholmogory, a town upon an island in 
 the Dwina, near the White Sea. Here she bore two 
 children, and died in childbed in 1745. Her hus- 
 band remained a prisoner for thirty-nine years, and 
 died in 1780. 
 
 ANNA COMNE'NA, a learned Byzantine prin- 
 cess, author of one of the most valuable works 
 to be found in the collection of the Byzantine 
 historians, was the daughter of the Emperor Alexius I. 
 (Comnenus), and was bom on December 1, 1083. 
 She received the best education that Constanti- 
 nople could give, and early displayed a, fondness for 
 literary pursuits ; but was also habituated from her 
 childhood to the intrigues of the court ; and during 
 the last illness of her father, she entered into a 
 scheme, which her mother, the Empress Irene, also 
 favoured, to induce him to disinherit his eldest sur- 
 viving son, John, and to bestow the diadem on her. 
 Failing in this, she framed a conspiracy against the 
 life of her brother (1118) ; and when her husband, 
 Mcephorus Bryennius, a Byzantine nobleman, either 
 from timidity or virtuous principle, refused to join in 
 it, she passionately lamented that she had not been 
 born a man, and upbraided him as having the soul 
 of a woman. Her brother spared her life, but 
 punished her by confiscation of her property, which, 
 however, he soon after generously restored. . Dis- 
 appointed and ashamed, she withdrew from the 
 court, and sought enjoyment in literature. On the 
 death of her husband (1137), she retired into a con- 
 vent, where she died in 1148. . Her life of her 
 father, entitled Annw Oomnence Alexiados libri 19, 
 is full of professions of careful inquiry and a supreme 
 regard for truth, but ' the perpetual strain of pane- 
 
ANNA IVANOVNA— ANNATES. 
 
 gyric and apology awakens our jealousy.' The style 
 18 characterised by an elaborate affectation of 
 rhetoric. The best edition is that of Schopen (2 
 vols. 8vo, Bonn, 1839). 
 
 ANNA IVANO'VNA, Empress of Russia, was 
 born on the 8th February 1693, and was the second 
 daughter of Ivan, the elder brother of Peter the 
 Great. She was married in 1710 to the Duke of 
 Courlaud,, the last of his race, who died in the 
 following year; and she obtained the duchy of 
 Courlaud for her favourite, Biron, a Courlander of 
 low birth. The throne of Russia was offered to 
 her by the Supreme Council on the death of Peter 
 II. in 1730, on conditions which greatly limited 
 the power of the monarchy, but which she soon 
 broke. Her elevation to it was very much owing 
 to the intrigues of the Chancellor Ostermann, 
 who had had the charge of her education, but who 
 was disappointed in finding her not grateful and 
 tractable, as he expected. For three years, how- 
 ever, her rule was mild, humane, and equitable. 
 The army was reformed, greater liberty was allowed 
 to the landed gentry, government debts were paid 
 up, and the poll-tax for the serfs lessened ; but her 
 paramour, Biron, having determined to govern the 
 nation as well as the empress, a sudden and deplor- 
 able change ensued. This man, a blood-thirsty and 
 avaricious wretch, established something like a 
 reign of terror through the land. He is said to have 
 banished not less than 20,000 persons to Siberia; 
 numbers were knouted, had their tongues cut out, or 
 were broken aUve on the wheel. Eleven thousand 
 perished in this way. Prince BasU Dolgoruki, and 
 others of his family, suffei-ed the ignominy of the 
 scaffold. At length the health of the queen gave 
 way. She died on October 28, 1740, and left the 
 throne to her grand-ne^ew, Ivan, with Biron as 
 regent. See RussL*. and jBiron. 
 
 ANNALS. These were at first books which 
 contained a record, in chronological order, of the 
 principal events occurring in one or more years. The 
 name is derived from the oldest historical docu- 
 ments of the Eomans, the Anrudes Pontificum, or 
 Anncdes Maadmi, the duty of drawing up which 
 devolved upon the Pontifex Maadmus ; but these 
 were aU destroyed by the Gauls at the sack of Borne, 
 some hundreds of years before the time of Christ. 
 After the second Punic War, A. similar to the 
 fonner ones were composed, not, however, by the 
 priests, but by educated members of the Boman 
 laity, such as Fabius Pictor, Calpumius Piso, &c. 
 At a still later period, the term was applied to any 
 historical work that followed the order of time in 
 its- narrations, separating them off into single years 
 — as, for instance, the Annals of Tacitus. 
 
 ANNAMABOB', a small seaport town, protected 
 by a strong British fort, on the Gold Coast of Africa, 
 in lat. 5° 5' N., long. 1° 5' W., 10 miles east of Cape 
 Coast Castle. In 1807, the inhabitants took part 
 with the Fantees against the Ashantees, in conse- 
 quence of which the town was attacked by an 
 overwhelming force of the latter, and most of the 
 inhabitants were slain. There is little trade in any- 
 thing but gold. The present population is between 
 4000 and 5000. 
 
 ANNAN, a seaport, and royal and parliamentary 
 burgh, in the county of Dumfries, on the river of the 
 same name, near its entrance into the Solway Firth. 
 It is neat and well built, and has some cotton 
 and leather manufactures, and a small coasting- 
 trade. The river, which affords excellent salmon- 
 fishing, is spanned by a bridge of three arches, and 
 is navigable to withm half a mile of the town for 
 vessels of 300 tons. There is regular communica- 
 tion by steamers with Liverpool and Whitehaven, 
 IS 
 
 and the Glasgow, Dumfries, and Carlisle Railway 
 connects the town with Edinburgh, Glasgow, and 
 CarKsle. The burgh unites with Dumfries, &o., in 
 returning one member to parliament. Pop. in 1851, 
 4558. A. was the birthplace of the blind poet Dr 
 Blacklock, and the great preacher Edward Irving. 
 
 ANNANDALE. See Dumpbiesshiee. 
 
 ANNA'POLIS, a seaport of Nova Scotia, in 
 lat. 44° 40' N., and long. 65° 37' W. It stands on a 
 river of the same name that runs into the Bay of 
 Fundy. Its harbour is excellent, though somewhat 
 difficult of access. A. is the oldest European settle- 
 ment to the north of the Guif of Mexico, having 
 been established, in 1604, by the French as the 
 capital of their province of Acadia, under the name 
 of Port Royal. Acadia having been conquered by 
 the English in 1710, and ceded by the French in 
 1713, Port Royal changed its name in honour of 
 Queen Anne, continuing to be the seat of govern- 
 ment, tin, in 1750, it was superseded by the newly 
 founded city of Halifax on the outside coast of the 
 peninsula — the new capital, with its better position 
 and superior haven, having diverted most of the 
 trade of the place. Since then, A. has rather decayed 
 than otherwise ; and it would have done so more 
 decidedly, had not its river been navigable for boats 
 during nearly the whole of its course of 70 nules. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, a seaport of Maryland, U.S., in 
 lat. 38° 59' N., and long. 76° 29' W., standing on the 
 right bank of the Severn, about two miles from its 
 entrance into Chesapeake Bay. By the census of 
 1850, after A. had been the seat of government for 
 151 years, it contained only 3011 inhabitants, whUe, 
 by the same census, Baltimore, the commercial 
 capital, only 121, years old in all, numbered 169,054. 
 A. contains a naval academy, established and sup- 
 ported by the United States. It has likewise a 
 coHege, which, though erected by the Roman 
 Catholics immediately after the War of Independence, 
 is at present directed and maintained by Protestants. 
 
 ANN ARBOK, a city of Michigan, next iu rank 
 and importance to Detroit, the commercial capital 
 of the state. In 1850, its population was 4868. A. 
 A. stands on the river Huron, by means of which 
 it communicates with Lake Erie; and it is about 
 40 nules to the west of Detroit, on the Michigan 
 Central Railway, which, beyond this place, is 
 connected by another line with Chicago, in Illinois. 
 Besides these advantages, A. A. is the centre of a 
 fertile district of country, while its river supplies an 
 abundance of water-power. It has already a liber- 
 ally endowed university, with more than 200 
 students; and it also contains manufactories of 
 wool, iron, and flour. 
 
 A'NNATES, or FIRST-FRUITS, in the ecclesi- 
 astical law of England, means the value of every 
 spiritual living for a whole year (hence the name 
 from the Latin word annua, a year), which the 
 Pope, claiming the disposition of every spiritual 
 benefice within Christendom, reserved out of every 
 living. This impost was at first only levied from 
 persons appointed to bishoprics ; but it was after- 
 wards extended to the inferior clergy. The value of 
 these A. was calculated according to a rate made 
 under the direction of Pope Innocent IV. (1253 a.d.), 
 but which was afterwards increased by Pope 
 Nicholas IIL (1292 A.D.). The valuation of Pope 
 Nicholas is still preserved in the Exchequer. This 
 papal exaction was abolished by the act 25 
 Henry VIII. u. 20, and by an act passed in the 
 following year of the same reign (26 Henry VIII. 
 c. 3), the right to A. or First Fruits was annexed to 
 the crown. The various statutes subsequently 
 passed on this subject have all been consoHdated by 
 an act (the 1 Vict. c. 20), regulating the collection 
 
 273 
 
ANNATTO— ANNEALING. 
 
 of the moneys so levied. See FrBST Fkcits, Queen 
 Aunb's BotruTY. 
 
 ANNATTO. See Aknotto. 
 
 ANNE OF ATTSTEIA, daughter of Philip II. of 
 Spain, was born in 1602, and m 1615 became the 
 mfe of Louis XIII. of France. The marriage was 
 so far from being a happy one, that the royal pair 
 lived for 23 years in a state of virtual separation — a 
 result due chiefly to the influence of Cardinal 
 Eichelieu, whose fixed determination to humble the 
 House of Austria, led him to spare no means for 
 alienating the affection of Louis from his queen, by 
 representing her as ever involved in the most 
 dangerous conspiracies against his authority. The 
 naturally grave and phlegmatic disposition of the 
 queen was not calculated to counteract the hostile 
 influence of the great minister. On the death of 
 the king in 1643, A. became queen-regent, and 
 evinced her discernment by choosing as her minister 
 Cardinal Mazarin, by whose able management the 
 young king (Louis XIV.) came, on attaining his 
 majority, into possession of a throne firmly established 
 on the ruins of contending parties. The character of 
 A. had much iufluence in moiilding that of her son. 
 She displayed the same cold and haughty temper, 
 combined with the power to charm by a condescend- 
 ing grace, the same love of pomp and power, and 
 the same skill in the choice of able instruments, thus 
 compensating for the want of genuine personal great- 
 ness. She died in 1666. Two curious personal peculi- 
 arities of this queen are mentioned by biographers — 
 her antipathy to roses, so strong that whUe passion- 
 ately fond of fiowers and perfumes, she could not 
 endure even the picture of a rose ; and the extra- 
 ordinary delicacy of her skin, which made Mazarin 
 remark, that ' if her majesty were condemned to the 
 infernal regions, her hell would be to sleep in brown 
 hoUands.' 
 
 ANNB, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and 
 the last British sovereign of the House of Stuart, 
 was bom at Twickenham, near London, on 6th 
 February 1664. She was the second daughter of 
 James II. of England, and VII. of Scotland (who at 
 the time of her birth was Duke of York), by his first 
 wife, Anne Hyde, the daughter of the famous 
 Clarendon. When she was about seven years of 
 age, her mother died; and her father soon after 
 professed himself a member of the Church of Rome ; 
 but he permitted his daughters to be educated in 
 the principles of the Church of England, to which 
 A. always retained an ardent if not a very enlight- 
 ened attachment — seldom manifesting, in the whole 
 course of her bfe, so much resolution and independ- 
 ence of mind, as in her resistance to the attempts of 
 her father, after his accession to the throne, to 
 induce her to join the Church of Kome, accompanied, 
 as these were, with the offer that she should be 
 preferred in the succession to her sister Mary. To 
 advance his own popularity, her father gave her 
 in marriage, in 1684, to Prince George of Denmark, 
 brother of Christian V., an indolent and good-natured 
 man, who concerned himself Kttle about public 
 affairs, and was endowed with no capacity for taking 
 part in them. A's own weakness of character and 
 that of her husband gave opportunity to Lady 
 ChurcMU, afterwards Duchess of Marlborough, her 
 early playfellow, to acquire an influence over her, 
 which, during many years, was almost supreme and 
 absolute. During the reign of her father, A. lived in 
 retirement, taking no part in politics. On the 
 landing of the Prince of Orange, she seems at first to 
 have hesitated, and even to have been inclined to 
 adhere to the cause of her father, whose favourite 
 daughter she was ; but Lord ChurohiH had made up 
 his mind to an opposite course, and his wife induced 
 
 271 
 
 the princess to adopt it. She consented to the act 
 by which the throne was secured to the Prince of 
 Orange in the event of his surviving her sister 
 Mary ; but quarrelled with her sister about questions 
 of etiquette, and was afterwards .drawn into intrigues 
 in which the ChurchiUs were engaged, for the 
 restoration of her father, or to secure the succession 
 of the throne to his son; She even entered into a 
 secret correspondence with her father. She was 
 herself childless when, on the death of WiUiam 
 IIL, on 8th March 1702, she succeeded to the 
 throne. She bore, indeed, seventeen children; but 
 only one, the Duke of Gloucester, survived infancy, 
 and he (Ued in 1700, at the age of 11. The influence 
 of Marlborough and his wife was most powerfully 
 felt in all public affairs during the greater' part of 
 her reign. The strife of parties was extremely 
 violent, and political complications were increased 
 by the queen's anxiety to secure the succession for 
 her brother. In so far as she had any political 
 principles, they were opposed to that constitutional 
 liberfcy of which her own occupancy of the throne 
 was a sort of symbol, and favourable to absolute 
 government and the assertion of royal prerogative 
 according to the traditions of her family. These 
 principles and her family attachment, tended to 
 alienate her from the Marlboroughs, whose policy, 
 from the time of her accession, had become adverse to 
 Jacobitism, and who now, along with Godolphin, 
 were at the head of the Whig party. The duchess 
 also offended the queen by presuming too boldly and 
 haughtily upon the power which she had so long 
 possessed. A. found a new favourite in Mrs Masham, 
 a relation of the duchess, whom she herself had 
 introduced into the royal household. To Mrs 
 Masham's influence the change of government in 
 1710 was in a great measure owing, when the 
 Whigs were cast out, and the Tories came into 
 office, Harley (afterwards Earl of Oxford) and 
 St John (Lord BoUngbroke) becoming the leaders 
 of the ministry. But, although concurring more or 
 less in the queen's design to secure the succession 
 of the throne to her brother, the new ministers had 
 quarrels among themselves which prevented its 
 successful prosecution, and it oozed out sufficiently 
 to alarm the nation, and to alienate many of their 
 political supporters. A dispute between Oxford and 
 Mrs Masham, carried on for hours in the queen's 
 presence, and which terminated in her demanding 
 his instant resignation, seems to have brought on 
 the attack of apoplexy of which she died, Ist 
 August 1714. The Elector of Hanover succeeded 
 her as George I. — The public events of her reign 
 belong to the history of Britain ; but the union of 
 England and Scotland, in 1707, may be mentioned 
 iu its personal relation to herself, as she was the 
 last sovereign who reigned over these as separate 
 kingdoms, and the first sovereign styled of Great 
 Britain. — Queen A. was of middle size, aoad comely, 
 though not beautiful. She was virtuous, conscien- 
 tious, and affectionate, more worthy of esteem as a 
 woman than of admiration as a queen. Her reign is 
 often mentioned as a period rendered illustrious by 
 some of the greatest names, both in literature and 
 science, which her country has ever produced; 
 but literature and science owed little to her active 
 encouragement. 
 
 ANNEAXING is the process of tempering 
 resorted to in the manufacture of glass and the 
 preparation of several of the metals, whereby these 
 substances acquire a hardness combined with 
 tenacity which renders them much stronger, and 
 consequently more durable. In the making of 
 glass vessels by the glass-blower, they are of course 
 quickly reduced in temperature whilst the fused 
 glass is being modelled into the desired shape. 
 
ANNELIDA— ANNUAL. 
 
 The atoma of the glass thus rapidly compelled 
 to assume a position, do not seem to be properly 
 and firmly arranged together, and the vessel is 
 very liable to be broken, either by a slight but 
 smart blow, or a sudden increase or decrease in 
 temperature. This brittleness is very observable 
 in the lacrynuB mtrecB, or glass tears, known as 
 Prince Euperfs Drops, obtained by allowing molten 
 glass to faU into water, when the glass forms pear- 
 Siaped drops, which are so brittle, that if they be 
 scratched with a iile or the end be broken off, the 
 whole bursts asunder and falls down into a fine 
 powder of glass. The same brittleness is exhibited 
 in Bologna jars, or phials, which are small and very 
 thick in the glass; and yet, if a minute angular 
 fragment of any hard substance be dropped into the 
 jar, the latter fties to pieces. 
 
 In the A. of glass vessels, they are arranged in 
 iron trajB, and placed in a long oven, where they 
 are gradually raised in temperature to near their 
 fusing-point, by the trays being drawn along to the 
 hottest part of the oven; and thereafter, the trays, 
 with their contents, are very slowly drawn into a 
 cooler and cooler part, till they become cold. The 
 A. operation generally takes twelve hours for small 
 artides such as wine-glasses; but days, and even 
 a week or two, are required to anneal completely 
 large vessels. Many articles of glass, such as tubes for 
 steam-gauges, lamp-glasses, &c., are annealed by being 
 immersed in cold water, which is very gradually 
 raised to its boiling-point, and thereafter cooled. 
 
 The metals are often subjected to the process of 
 A. When medals are repeatedly struck by the 
 die-stamper, the gold or other metal, by the concus- 
 sion, becomes brittle, and requires to be now and 
 again heated and annealed. In wire-drawing, also, 
 the metaJ, becomes so hard and brittle, that it 
 requires A. to prevent its breaking into short 
 lengths. Boiler-plates, which have been drawn out 
 by rolling, require to be annealed before they are 
 riveted together. The brasier, in hammering out 
 copper and brass vessels, must stop now and again, 
 and anneal the metal. Articles of tin, lead, and 
 zinc can be annealed in boiling water. The temper- 
 ing of steel is just a process of A. The steel is placed 
 in an oil-bath, or surrounded by a metaUio mixture 
 which has a low fusing-point; and according to the 
 temperature to which it is subjected, a steel with 
 various degrees of softness and strength is obtained. 
 Parke's table of metaUio mixtures capable of being 
 used in the tempering or A. of instruments made 
 from steel, is as follows : 
 
 Lancets, 
 
 Razors, 
 
 Penknives, 
 
 Scissors, shears. 
 Axes, plane irons. 
 Table-knives, 
 Watch-springs, swords, 48 
 Large springs, augers, 100 
 
 AlXOT. 
 
 ,. ' — \ Fusing. 
 
 Lead. Tin. point ° F. 
 
 7 parts 4 parts 420° 
 
 8 n 4 ,< 442 
 84 « 4 „ 450 
 
 10 „ 4 « 470 
 
 14 » 4 „ 490 
 
 19 „ 4 r. 590 
 
 30 » 4 „ 530 
 
 4 „ 550 
 
 4 „ 558 
 
 The theory of A. is very imperfectly understood. 
 A certain re-arrangement of the atoms of the glass 
 or metaJ no doubt takes place, and an absorption of 
 heat occurs! It is possible that as the crystalline 
 structure is indicative of brittleness, and the fibrous 
 texture characteristic of strength, that the passage 
 of glass or metal from a brittle to a non-brittle 
 material may be due to the development of a fibrous 
 structure, where a crystalline one was originally 
 
 ANNE'LIDA, or ATSTNELIDES (from Lat. annii- 
 lus, a ring), a small class of Articulated Animals, 
 mostly included by LinnjEus in his class Vermes. They 
 have a more or less elongated body, which is always 
 composed of numerous rings. The first of these 
 rings assumes, in most of them, the characters of a 
 head, but in some there is no proper head. They 
 have no articulated hmbs, but most of them are 
 provided with bristles and hairs, often in numerous 
 bundles, which are of use to them in locomotion; 
 some, which want these, are furnished with suckers 
 at the extremities, and employ them for this purpose ; 
 some remain fixed in one place. Their bodies are 
 always soft, and without external or internal skele- 
 ton; but some of them form for themselves a calcare- 
 ous covering by exudation, others form coverings 
 partly by exudation and partly by agglutination. 
 Their blood is generally red, but not from red 
 corpuscles, as in the vertebrate animals ; sometimes 
 it is greenish or yellowish. Their nervous system is 
 simple. Many ol them have eyes, and many have 
 tentacula. Most of them live in water, and of these 
 the greater part inhabit the sea. Those which live in 
 water breathe by giUs, which are variously formed and 
 placed ; some wMch are terrestrial, as earthworms, 
 have, instead of gUls, numerous small respiratory 
 sacs. They are sSl hermaphrodite; most of them, 
 however, requiring mutual fecundation, and most of 
 them ai'6 oviparous. They feed in general upon 
 other animals, and some of them live by sucking 
 blood. They are now divided into four orders : 1. 
 Dorsihranchiata, having giU-tufta disposed regularly 
 along the body, and composed of animals of com- 
 
 Sandwonn {Aremcolapiscatonim). 
 
 paratively active habits ; 2. TvMcolcB, having gill- 
 tufts near the head, and provided with shdly or 
 other coverings ; 3. > Terricolce, destitute of all 
 external appendages except minute bristles, and 
 breathing by respiratory sacs ; 4. Suctoria, destitute 
 even of bristles, and provided with suckers at the 
 extremities. Of the first order, the Sea- worms. Sea- 
 centipedes, and Sea-mouse, are examples ; of the 
 second, the Serpvla, so often an object of interest in 
 the aquarium ; of the third, the Earthworm ; and of 
 the fourth, the Leech. 
 
 A'NNTJAL, in Botany, a term employed to denote 
 that the duration of the life of a plant is limited to 
 a single year ; within which the germination of the 
 seed, all the functions of vegetation, the ripening of 
 new seed, and the death of the plant, are included. 
 The whole duration of life in the plants thus desig- 
 nated is indeed generally much less than a year, 
 and in temperate and cold cUmates, falls within the 
 brief period of the summer months. They, as well as 
 the plants generally called biennial, produce flowers 
 and fruit only once. Some species are generally A., 
 and others generally biennial ; but whether an indivi- 
 dual plant is A. or biennial, often depends upon the 
 accidental circumstance of the season at which the 
 seed germinates, and may therefore be artiEoially 
 determined by the time of sowing. Peculiar circum- 
 stances also sometimes convert A. into biennial, or 
 even perennial plants ; and those which are mere 
 annuals in one climate,.are,perennial, or even shrubby, 
 in another, of which the Castor-oil plant affords a 
 notable example. Most kinds of corn are the pro- 
 duce of A. grasses; some of which, however, as 
 wheat, in certain circumstances, prove of longer 
 duration. The annuals cultivated in our_ flower- 
 gardens are very numerous ; and many species, both 
 
ANNUALS-ANKUAL REGISTER. 
 
 native and foreign, are among our most beautiful 
 flowers. 
 
 A'NNUALS, the name given to a class of pleasant 
 and graceful publications, which for some years 
 enjoyed an extraordinary amount of public favour, 
 intended for Christmas, New-year, and Birthday 
 presents, in imitation of the Gift-books so popular 
 among the Germans. They were illustrated by 
 exquisitely engraved prints, from paintings by artists 
 of the highest talent, and contained prose and poetry 
 by most of the best writers of the day. The first 
 of them, the Forget-me-not, edited by Frederick 
 Shoberl, was begun in London in 1822. The idea, 
 and even the tifle, were adopted from Germany by 
 the Messrs Aokermann, the London pubhshers. The 
 following year, two others made their appearance — 
 Friendship's Offering, published by Smith and Elder, 
 which had for successive editors, Mr T. K. Hervey, 
 Mr Pote, Mr Thomas Pringle, Mr W. H. Ainswortii, 
 and Mr Leitoh Ritchie ; and the Graces, containing 
 a series of elegant poems on the Months by the Rev. 
 Dr Croly. All three, in addition to their literary and 
 pictorial contents, had at first the blank paper for 
 memoranda, cash accounts, &c., which were custom- 
 ary in the Gift Pocket-books of previous times. The 
 Literary Souvenir, commenced in 1824 by Mr Alaric 
 A. Watts, was the first to discard these, and to 
 exhibit a vast improvement on this class of embel- 
 lished works. Thenceforth, the several publishers 
 vied with each other in their efforts to render their 
 respective A., every succeeding year, more and more 
 attractive. The Literary Souvenir was followed by 
 the Amulet, started by Mr S. C. Hall, and edited by 
 his wife ; the Winter's Wreath, a provincial annual ; 
 and the Keepsake, the latter commenced in 1827 by 
 Mr Charles Heath, an eminent engraver. Up to 
 this time, the price of all the A. was 12s. each : the 
 Keepsahe, however, was published at a guinea. Its 
 first editor was Mr W. H. Ainsworth. The following 
 year, the editorship was offered to Sir Walter Scott, 
 vrith a salary of £800, ^and payment besides for his 
 contributions to its pages, but was deohned by him. 
 It was then placed under the charge of Mr P. M. 
 Reynolds, who continued to superintend it for many 
 years. The Keepsake always maintained a high 
 aristocratic character, the contributors preferred 
 being those who could boast a title. In 1840, it 
 came out under the editorship of Lady Emmeline 
 Stuart Wortley. It was afterwards edited by the 
 Countess of Blessington. So popidar did the A. 
 become, that in 1829 no fewer than seventeen were 
 published. In 1840, the number had dwindled to 
 nine. The Booh of Beauty, long one of the best of 
 the series, was begun in 1833 by Mr Charles Heath. 
 The first volume was written by Miss Landon 
 (L. E. L.), the engravings being principally after 
 drawings by Prank Stone. The volume for 1834 
 was placed under the editorship of the Countess of 
 Blessington, who conducted it to the close of her 
 life. Mr Heath had also the Picturesque Annual, 
 and the Children of the NoUlity — ^the latter com- 
 menced in 1838. The Juvenile Alhwm, an annual for 
 children, was published by the Messrs Ackermanu. 
 Scientific A. also made their appearance, and the 
 musical world had its Musical Bijou. Thomas 
 Hood started the Comic Annual ; and among other 
 popular pubHcations of the class were Fisher's 
 Draimng-room Scrap-hook, edited at first by Miss 
 Landon, afterwards by Mrs Howitt, and latterly by 
 the Honourable Mrs Norton ; and Fisher's Juvenile 
 Scrap-look, edited by Mrs EUis; the Oriental Annual, 
 the Historical Annual, and the Gift and Token, 
 American productions. At first, the A were all 
 bound up in tinted paper, and enclosed in a case ; 
 but competition produced a great improvement 
 in their external appearance, as weU as in their 
 276 
 
 inside attractions. Paper gave place to silk ; then 
 followed morocco bindings, and afterwards velvet. 
 The sums of money expended on the several 
 departments were enormous. Mr Heath's outlay 
 for the literary portion alone of the second volume 
 of the Keepsake amounted to no less than £1600. 
 Of this sum. Sir Walter Scott received £S0O for 
 the Hberty of printing in it his juvenile drama 
 of the House of Aspen, Aunt MargareSs Mirror, 
 and two other' little tales. To many engravers, 
 the illustrations formed almost then: sole _ em- . 
 ployment. Sums varying from 20 to 150 guineas 
 were paid to artists for the loan of pictures for 
 engravings, of the size of 4 inches by 3 ; and engravers 
 frequently received 150 guineas for the production 
 of one plate. For several years, nearly £100,000 
 per anniun was expended on the production of 
 the A, and 150,000 copies of them were yearly 
 sold. The sale of the Forget-me-not alone was at 
 one time 20,000 copies. In their most flourishing 
 period, a calculation ■ of their expenses and profite 
 was made, which may be here quoted. For 150,000 
 volumes, including the guinea-books, of which there 
 were always two or three, the public paid about 
 £90,000, thus distributed: Authors and editors, 
 £6000; painters, £3000; engravers, £12,000; cop- 
 perplate printers, £4000; printers, £3500; paper- 
 makers, £5500; binders, £9000; sUk manufacturers 
 and leather-sellers, £4000; advertising, &c., £2000; 
 incidental expenses, £1000; publishers' profits, 
 £10,000; retail booksellers' profits, £30,000— Total, 
 £90,000. 
 
 After 1840, the demand for the A. began to 
 dechne. At the best, there had been a sickly senti- 
 mentalism in the bulk of their articles ; and at all 
 events, this class of works had been mainly addressed 
 to the refined and affluent. Better tastes in litera- 
 ture now began to prevail, and there was a feeHng 
 that A. had had their day. Deserted by public 
 favour, the character both of their engravings and 
 their literary contents became greatly deteriorated, 
 and they ceased to have any attraction, either as 
 literary productions or works of art. Publishers no 
 longer found them safe speculations, and gradually 
 discontinued them. They dropped out, one by one, 
 Hke spent stars, from the literary firmament. The 
 Literary Souvenir had been discontinued in 1834, 
 after the pubMoation of ten volumes. The Forget- 
 me-not, the first in the field, saw its 22d year. The 
 Book of Beauty and the Keepsake were the last of 
 their race. The latter, on the death'of the Countess 
 of Blessington, was placed under the editorship of 
 her niece, Miss Power. The Keepsake of 1856, the 
 engravings in which were under the superintendence 
 of Mr F. Heath, was the only relic of the past ; and 
 in that year it ceased to exist. 
 
 ANNUAL REGISTER. The first volume of 
 the useful work which bears this name appeared in 
 1759. Various publications. of a similar character 
 had previously existed, such as Boyer's Politij^ 
 State of Europe, which was published in monthly 
 numbers and yearly voliunes from 1711 to 1739; 
 and the Historical Register, a quarterly publication, 
 begun in 1716, and concluded in 1738. The A. E. 
 differed from these in being published once a year, 
 in containing a more full and able historical narra- 
 tive, and in the addition of a literary and. miscel- 
 laneous department, including notices of new books. 
 The undertaking was projected by Robert Dodsley 
 the bookseller, assisted by Edmund Burke, who for 
 some years wrote the historical narrative, and 
 assisted to some extent in the preparation of the 
 Register during most of the subsequent part of his 
 life. Indexes to the work have been published at 
 various periods, and the publication stiU goes on 
 regularly. A rival work, entitled The New A. B., 
 
AOTTUITY. 
 
 was started in 1781 by Dr Kippis. It was edited 
 after his death by Dr Morgan, and came to a close 
 in 1825. The Edinhwrgli A. R. was commenced 
 in 1808, and terminated in 1827. The histo- 
 rical narrative was, for some years wi-itten by Sir 
 Walter Scott, and afterwards, for a considerable 
 time, by Southey. A similar work was commenced 
 at Paris in 1818 imder the title of Annuaire Histo- 
 rique, and continued till 1849. The earher volumes 
 were compiled with much care and ability, but 
 latterly the work fell ofif very greatly. Its place is 
 now supphed by the Annuaire des Deux Mondea, a 
 publication connected with the well-known review 
 of that name, and compiled with high ability. The 
 American A. R. is published at New York. 
 
 ANNU'ITY, from the Latin annus, a year, is a 
 sum of money paid annually. The term, in its full 
 meaning, expresses an obligation on one party to pay, 
 and a right in another to receive the amount. The 
 different kinds of annuities that may exist are as 
 various as the conditions and fancies of those con- 
 cerned in them ; and it is impossible to define them 
 aU. An A. may be for the me of any person, how- 
 ever long that may be, becoming extmguished only 
 by his death. It may be perpetual, so that as each 
 enjoyer of it dies, his heirs may succeed tp it. It 
 may be on the life of the survivor of any number of 
 persons— for instance, a father may leave to his five 
 daughters an A. of £500 a year from his estate, to be 
 enjoyed by the latest survivor, so that while the five 
 are alive, they have £100 each ; after the first death 
 among them, the lapsed share is distributed among 
 the survivors, giving them £125 each ; and so on, the 
 last survivor enjoying the whole £500. On the other 
 hand, each might have a separate A. terminating at 
 her death; and again, instead of either of these 
 simple arrangements, there might be, and often is, a 
 more complex adjustment, giving the siirvivors on 
 each death a certain proportion only of the deceased's 
 A. An A. may begin immediately, and stop on a 
 contingency, such as the death of a person to whom 
 the annuitant is heir. It may be 'deferred,' so as 
 to begin to be payable only after the lapse of so 
 many years ; and then it may either be payable 
 absolutely in perpetuity, or for a given number of 
 years, or it may be payable to an annuitant only 
 for the remaining years of his life, if he survive 
 the contingency. 
 
 It will mas be seen that there is iuflnite variety 
 in the nature of annuities, and consequently, in the 
 calculations regarding them. The fixed elements of 
 such calculations, independently of this variety, are 
 in themselves double, being vital statistics, and the 
 profit or interest of money. As to the former, they 
 can only apply, of course, to the adjustment of annui- 
 ties on a large scale. If a person should sell a 
 single A. — that is to say, engage for a sum down 
 to pay a certain person an A. for life — no study of 
 vital statistics could make his bargain other than a 
 chance ; and though he went on the most approved 
 tables, it might occur either that the annuitant dies 
 immediately, leaving the whole purchase-money as 
 his profit, or that the annuitant lives to extreme 
 old age, and renders him a great loser by the bar- 
 gain. - But on a large, and especially on a national 
 scale, the rate of mortality and the value of life 
 may be so nicely rendered in statistics, that a 
 market may be opened for the purchase and sale 
 of annuities at their exact value — that is to say, at 
 such a rate that the saxa paid in from time to time 
 by persons purchasing annuities, shall just serve 
 to pajr each annuitant's annual claim. Such vital 
 statistics, however, can only be obtained through a 
 very accurate and long-continued registration of 
 births, deaths, and marriages (see Eeoistee) ; and it 
 is known that the government having adjusted the 
 
 price of annuities by the celebrated Northampton 
 (q. V.) Tables, made a losing bargain with their 
 annuitants as a body, and, without being consciouB 
 of it until afterwards, sacrificed a considerable 
 amoimt of public money. 
 
 The second element, besides vital statistics, in the 
 calculation of annuities, is the profit or interest of 
 money. If this did not require to be considered, 
 an A. of £1 a year for ten years would just cost £10. 
 But while paying the A., the person who has engaged 
 for it is drawing the interest of the money. If he sold 
 an A. of £1 a year for ten years for £10, he would 
 be drawing the iaterest of £10 for the first year, £9 
 for the second, and so on ; and the annuitant's 
 bargain would be to a like extent disadvantageous. 
 As the interest of money may be various, so may 
 this element of the calculation of an A. ; and to 
 calculate it with reference to future indefinite varia- 
 tions, is of course impossible. It wUl be seen at 
 once that when the variety of kinds of A. have to be 
 adjusted to different rates of profit, an immense 
 field is opened for calculation. It is, in fact, a pro- 
 vince of algebraic science in which several men have 
 achieved reputations. 
 
 The interest, as it is termed, of the national debt 
 is virtually a multitude of perpetual annuities. In 
 a country where there is so much superabundant 
 wealth, there is so vast an amount of capital for 
 which people only want interest, that although the 
 lenders of the money are not repaid by the govern- 
 ment, yet when any one has invested in the funds, 
 if I he wants his money back, he is sure to find a 
 person to take his place at something near to the 
 price paid by him. This would not be the case were 
 the quantity of these annuities in the market dis- 
 proportioned to the number desiring to invest in 
 them, and hence it is that when there is depression 
 of trade, and money wanted to meet obligations, the 
 funds fall. The government have the largest field 
 of operation, and therefore it is natural to infer that 
 their annuities are more closely adjusted to their 
 actual value than those of insurance companies and 
 other parties dealing in annuities can be. It may 
 be mentioned, however, that, for the encouragement 
 of the working classes to save and provide for old 
 age and contingencies, government, through the 
 savings' banks, grants small annuities on terms 
 advantageous to the purchasers — ^that is, at less 
 than their market value (see Savings' Bahks). 
 
 Many complicated sets of tables have been pre- 
 pared to facilitate the calculation of annuities. The 
 latest known to us are the Oommuiation Tables for 
 Joint Annuities and Survivorship Assurances, based 
 on the Carlisle Mortality at 3, 3^, 4, 5, and 6 per 
 cent., by David Chishohn, 2 vols., royal 8vo, 1858. 
 The calculations are brought out in decimals. 
 Taking the simplest of these tables — namely, those 
 containing the value of an A. of £1, payable at the 
 end of the first year, and thereafter annually during 
 life — we find the following results, commutiag the 
 decimals into fractional money through Mr Chis- 
 holm's decimal tables : 
 
 Value op Annuity of £1. 
 
 Age. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Age. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 5 
 
 16 11 
 
 94 
 
 45 
 
 12 12 Hi 
 
 10 
 
 16 13 
 
 44 
 
 50 
 
 11 14 24 
 
 15 
 
 16 4 
 
 64 
 
 55 
 
 10 7 114 
 
 20 
 
 15 16 
 
 44 
 
 60 
 
 8 18 94 
 
 25 
 
 15 6 
 
 1 
 
 65 
 
 7 17 3J 
 
 30 
 
 14 14 
 
 5 
 
 70 
 
 6 6 84 
 
 35 
 
 14 2 
 
 64 
 
 75 
 
 4 19 94 
 
 40 
 
 13 7 
 
 94 
 
 80 
 
 4 2 lOi 
 
 In political economy, annuities come within the 
 class of payments which tend rather to consumption 
 
ANNUITY— AlWUNCIAD A. 
 
 than to accumulation or reproduction. As the 
 means of attaining a legitimate object, the estab- 
 lishment of an A. may be an advantage to the 
 community in benefiting some individual member 
 of it. For instance, a man is naturally extrava- 
 gant — ^he would spend his heritage immediately, 
 and come to want, if it were paid to Viini in capital. 
 It is therefore vested iu an A. ; the man is kept in 
 comfort, and society is not burdened with a needy 
 member. Women are apt to mismanage by false 
 investments or otherwise any capital sums left 
 at their disposal, and therefore it is often advan- 
 tageous to give them an equivalent in an A. In 
 serving, however, these its legitimate objects, it 
 win be seen that the money so spent is not in 
 its character reproductive. People do save capital 
 out of annuities, but, as a general rule, the object 
 and effect of annuities are in the direction of con- 
 sumption, as contrasted with accumulation. This 
 is often overlooked in settlements, especially by 
 men who have themselves been accumulators. The 
 consumptive effect of an A. will depend much on its 
 coming out of fixed or fluctuating property. Take, 
 as an iastance of the former, a landed estate. If 
 the clear rent be paid on annuities, the estate will 
 not be improved, and it wiU be stagnant in the pro- 
 portion so paid. If, out of a thousand a year, nine 
 hundred be thus paid, the owner, out of his remainder 
 of a hundred, is not likely to accumulate sufficient 
 capital to improve the estate and double its value. 
 But fluctuating property may not only be rendered 
 stagnant, but may be destroyed by the burden of 
 injudicious annuities. This is frequently exemplified 
 in disposing of the profits of a business. Different 
 members of a family are portioned off upon it, as if 
 it were a fixed permanent estate ; and consequently, 
 there is not a sufficient balance left to induce any 
 one to give his time and energies to the management 
 of the business. 
 
 ANNTT'ITT, in the law of England, is the right 
 to the yearly payment of a certain sum of money, 
 which is charged upon the person or personal estate 
 of the individual bound to pay it. If it is charged 
 upon real estate, the burden is called a rent, or 
 rent-charge, and not an A. An A. may be created 
 for a term of years, or for the life or lives of any 
 persons named, or in perpetuity; and in the last 
 case the A. is reckoned among incorporeal here- 
 ditaments ; because, although the security is personal 
 '^^Yt yst the A. may descend in the same manner as 
 real estate. By the 53 Geo. III. c. 141, repealing 
 the 17 Geo. III. c. 26, and itself amended by 
 3 Geo. IV. c. 92, and 7 Geo. IV. c. 75, it is directed, 
 that upon the sale of A. or rent-charge, a memorial 
 of the date and nature of the security, the names of 
 the parties and witnesses, the consideration money, 
 and the manner in which it was paid, and the 
 amount of such A. or rent-charge, shall, within thirty 
 days after its execution, be enrolled in the Court of 
 Chancery, otherwise the security shall be null and 
 void. It is therefore the duty of the grantee of such 
 A. to enrol a memorial of it, or a statement of its 
 particulars, in order to make it available as a security 
 over the property charged. The above statutes do 
 not extend to Scotland or Ireland, nor to any A. or 
 rent-charge given by wiU, or by marriage settlement, 
 or for the advancement of a child, nor to any A or 
 rent-charge secured upon freehold, copyhold, or 
 customary lands in Great Britain or Ireland, or in 
 Her Majesty's possessions ;beyond the seas, or by 
 actual transfer of stock in the public funds, nor to 
 any voluntary A. or rent-charge granted without 
 regard to pecuniary consideration or money's worth, 
 nor to any A. or rent-charge granted by any body 
 corporate or under any authority or trust created by 
 act of parliament. By sec. 8 of the 53 Geo. III. o. 141, 
 
 278 
 
 it is declared a misdemeanour, punishable by fine 
 and imprisonment, or other corporal punishment, to 
 procure or sohcit any person under twenty-one to 
 grant an A. or rent-charge, or to advance or procure 
 to be advanced money to him, on consideration of 
 his granting an A. or rent-charce after he is of age. 
 In a recent case in the Irish Court of Chancery, it 
 was imsuccessfully attempted to extend the act to 
 Ireland, by endeavouring to shew that although the 
 lands on which the A. was charged were Irish, the 
 contract itself for the A. was English. The Lord 
 Chancellor (Napier), in giving judgment, observed : 
 ' The imperial legislature might have cut the matter 
 short if it had enacted one and the same law for 
 Ireland as for England, which would then have 
 governed this transaction in all its parts ; but the 
 act of the English Parliament before the Union, or 
 the act of the Imperial Parliament, in terms confined 
 to England, could not be extended to Ireland by 
 judicial construction, so as to make either, or any 
 part of either, a law of this land, and thereby to 
 control the disposition of Irish landed estate.' 
 
 In Scotch law, an A, as such, may be charged on 
 real estate as well as on personalty. In that system, 
 it has been simply defined to be a right to a yearly 
 payment in money; and 'it may be created either by 
 the payment of the sum of money in the form of a 
 purchase, or it may be secured over laud, in which 
 case the creditor, in the event of default of his A., 
 may attach the land charged, claiming in his action 
 for recovery a capital sum out of the land, sufficient 
 to produce an aimual interest equal to the A, 
 which annual interest is paid imtil the expiration 
 of the A, when the capital sum is restored to the 
 debtor. The instrument by which, in Scotland, the 
 A is constituted in either of the above forms, is 
 called a Bond of A. ; and before the repeal of the 
 usury laws (by a recent statute, 17 and 18 Vict. t. 90), 
 this form of deed was frequently resorted to as a 
 means of securing loans where a high rate of interest 
 was charged ; and the same practice prevailed ia 
 England. But the last-mentioned act renders all 
 such expedients now unnecessary. 
 
 ANNU'ITY-TAX, a local impost for the payment 
 of the salaries of the Established clergy of the city of 
 Edinburgh. It was first established on a limited 
 scale by an act of the year 1661 ; and was extended 
 in its sphere of operation by an act of the legislature 
 as lately as 1809. It amounts to 6 per cent, on the 
 rents of houses and shops. It is a peculiarity of this 
 tax that the members of 'the College of Justice,' 
 including the lawyer class generally, enjoy an 
 exemption from it, as a relic of an ancient privilege 
 by which they were bribed to reside and hold the 
 courts of law in Edinburgh. The existence of this 
 tax has been frequently the cause of much dis- 
 quietude among the inhabitants, and its abolition, or 
 at least its modification, is at present under discus- 
 sion in parliament. 
 
 A'NNULET (Lat. annulus, correctly anulm, a 
 ring), a term in Architecture for a small fillet or 
 band which frequently surrounds a, column, &c. 
 The A. is several times repeated in the moidding 
 which surmounts the shaft of a Doric piUar, and is 
 placed immediately under the ovolo of the capital. — 
 A, a ring, a charge in heraldry of frequent occur- 
 rence. 
 
 ANNUNCIA'DA. 1. The religious Order of 
 the Heavenly Annunciation, or of Sie Nuns of the 
 Annunciation of Mary, was instituted by Victoria 
 Fomare at Genoa in 1682, after the rule of St 
 Augustiue. All the convents of the order in 
 France, Germany, and the Netherlands have dis- 
 appeared since the French Revolution. Some stiU 
 exist ia Italy. 2. Another Order of the Annun- 
 
ANNUS DELIBERANDI— ANOMALISTIC YEAR. 
 
 ciation, or of Nuns of Mary's Announcement or 
 the Ten Virtues, was endowed by John of Valois 
 at Bourges in 1501, after its separation from Louis 
 XII. In 1514, it was placed under the authority 
 of the Franciscans. This order, which extended 
 to fifty convents for the reception of poor gentle- 
 women, was broken up at the Revolution. 3. The 
 Order of Knights of the Annunciation in Savoy 
 
 Star of the Order of the Annunciation, 
 
 {Ordine Supremo, delV Anmmciata), known origi- 
 nally as the Order of the Neck-chaia or Collar, was 
 instituted in 1360 by Amadeus VI., Duke of Savoy. 
 It received statutes from Amadeus VIII. in 1409 ; 
 was renewed in 1518 under the name of the Holy 
 Anmmciation ; and in 1720 was raised by Victor 
 Amadeus to be the first order of the kingdom of 
 Savoy. The king is always grandmaster. The 
 knights who, since 1720, are not limited in number, 
 must be of high rank, and already admitted to the 
 orders of St Mauritius and St Lazarus. They com- 
 pose only one class. The decoration is a gold 
 
 Decoration of the Order of the Amiunciation. 
 
 medal, on which is represented the Annunciation, 
 stirrounded by love-knots. It is usually worn 
 suspended by a simple gold chain ; but the proper 
 collar or chain of the order is composed alternately 
 of love-knots and roses. On the roses are en- 
 graved the letters P. E. B. T., which some 
 interpret ForHtudo ejus Shodum tenuit, in allusion 
 to the defence of Khodes by Amadeus I., and which 
 others hold to signify, JPrappes, entres, rompes 
 tcms. Siace 1680, the knights wear on the left 
 breast a star embroidered in gold. The four supreme 
 officers of the order — the chancellor (always a 
 bishop or archbishop), the secretary (usually the 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs), the almoner (usually 
 the king's first almoner), and the treasurer — wear 
 the decoration round the neck, suspended by a 
 sky-blue ribbon, accompanied by a star on the left 
 breast. For details of costumes, &c., see Burke's 
 Sooh of Orders of Knighthood, p. 250, et seq. 
 
 A'NNUS DELIBERANDI, in Scotch law, was 
 meant to signify the period of a year allowed to an 
 heir to deuberate whether he would accept the 
 inheritance with the burden of his predecessor's 
 debts. The year commenced on the death of the 
 ancestor, unless in the case of a posthumous heir, 
 
 when the year ran from the birth of the heir 
 himself. But by a recent act of parliament — the 
 21 and 22 Vict. c. 76, sec. 27— it is provided 
 that aU proceedings 'against an apparent heir on 
 aocoimt of his ancestor's debt or obligation, for the 
 purpose of attaching the ancestor's heritable estate, 
 and actions of adjudication against such heir on 
 account of his own debt or obligation, for the pur- 
 pose of attaching such estate, may be insisted on 
 at any time after the lapse of six montJis from 
 the date of his becoming apparent heir, any law or 
 practice to the contrary notwithstanding.' 
 
 ANOBIUM. See Bobbr and Death-watch. 
 
 A'NODE [Gr. ana, upward, and (h)odos, a way], a 
 term introduced iato the science of electro-chemical 
 decomposition (electrolysis) by Dr Faraday to 
 designate the positive pole, or that surface by which 
 the galvanic current enters the body undergoing 
 decomposition (electrolyte). The negative pole, or 
 that surface by which the current leaves the electro- 
 lyte, is called in the same nomenclature the cathode 
 [hata, downward, and (h)odos\. Electrode is the 
 general term applied to either of these. The ele- 
 ments of electrolytes are called ions (ion, going). 
 Such as go to the A. receive the name of anions, 
 and those passing to the cathode, cations. Thus, 
 in the decomposition of water by the passage into 
 it of a galvanic current through two platinum 
 plates, the water is the electrolyte; the platinimi 
 plate connected with the copper end of the battery 
 is the A. ; and the one connected with the zinc 
 end, the cathode. The oxygen and hydrogen which 
 are disengaged are the ions; the oxygen separating 
 at the A. is the anion ; and the hydrogen at the 
 cathode, the cation. Anions and cations are more 
 generally known under the name of electro-negative 
 and electro-positive substances ; but as these terms 
 are considered by Dr Faraday to imply certain 
 supposed attractions for the positive or negative 
 pole, the other terms have been employed by nim to 
 describe simply the part the substances play in 
 electrical decomposition. 
 
 A'lTODYNE (Gr. a, privative, and odyne, pain), a 
 medicine given to assuage pain. Properly, the term 
 is applied to medicines, such as opium, which act on 
 the nervous system, so as to decrease sensibility and 
 induce sleep. 
 
 ANOINTING. See Chbism, Coeonation, 
 ExTKEMB Unction. 
 
 ANOMALI'STIO YEAR is the interval that 
 elapses between two successive passages of the earth 
 through its perihelion, or point of nearest approach 
 to the sun. If the earth's orbit had a fixed 
 position in space, this period would correspond with 
 that of a sidereal revolution, or the time the earth 
 takes after leaving any point of the heavens to 
 return to it again; but the disturbing influence of 
 
 Elliptioal Orbit. 
 
 the other planets causes the perihelion to advance 
 slowly (11"'8 annually) in the direction of the earth's 
 motion ; so that the A. Y. is longer (4 minutes 39 
 
AiTOMALY— AHOPLUEA. 
 
 seconds) than tlie sidereal. This will be better 
 understood from the accompanying diagram, :in 
 which A'BB' represents the elliptical orbit of the 
 earth; S, the sun; A, the peribelion; and AB, the 
 longer axis. When the 'earth, after leaving A, comes 
 back to it again, after having completed a sidereal 
 revolution, it liuds the longer axis AB, and with it 
 the whole ellipse, advanced to A'B', and it has stUl 
 to describe an arc of ll"- 8 before it reaches its second 
 perihelion A'. The length of the A. Y. is 365 days, 
 6 hours, 13 minutes, 49 seconds. It receives its 
 name from the anomaly (q. v.). 
 
 ANO'MALY (Gr. anomalia, irregularity), the 
 angle measured at the sun between a planet ia any 
 point of its orbit and the last perihehon. In the 
 figure in the preceding article, if P be a planet, 
 A'BB' its orbit, S the sun, and A the perihelion, the 
 angle ASP is the anomaly. It is so called because 
 it was ia it that the first irregularities of planetary 
 motion were discovered. The anomaly was formerly 
 measured from the aphelion, the opposite point of 
 the ellipse; but from the fact that the a^elia of 
 most of the comets lie beyond the range of observa- 
 tion, the perihehon is now taken as the point of 
 departure for all planetary bodies, 
 
 ANONA. See Custakd- apple. 
 
 ATSONA'CEM, a natural order of Dicotyledonous 
 or Exogenous plants, of which the type is the genus 
 Anona. They are trees or shrubs, with alternate, 
 simple, generally entire leaves, destitute of stipules ; 
 flowers usually green or brown, axillary, sohtary, or 
 two or three together ; the calyx of 3—4 persistent 
 sepals ; the corolla of 6 hypogynous leathery petals, 
 in two rows. The stamens are generally munerous ; 
 the filaments short; the anthers adherent, turned 
 outwards, and with a large 4-coruered connective. See 
 Stambn. The carpels are usually nmnerous, separate 
 or cohering; the styles short; the stigmas simple; 
 the ovules inverted. The fruit consists of distinct 
 or united carpels, sometimes succulent; the seeds 
 attached to the suture ; their external covering 
 brittle ; the embryo minute, in the base of the hard 
 albumen. — There are about 300 known species, 
 mostly natives of tropical countries. They are 
 generally aromatic and fragrant in all their parts, 
 and some species are employed medicinally ; the dry 
 fruit of Xylopia aromatica is commonly used as 
 pepper by the African negroes, and was formerly 
 imported into Europe as Ethiopian Peppee or 
 Guinea Pepper. The flowers of some species are 
 of exquisite fragrance ; othete yield delicious fruits. 
 See Custakd-Applb and CHBMMoyEE. 
 
 ANO'NYMOUS (Gr. nameless), a term applied 
 to a book the author of which does not give his 
 name; when an assumed name is given, the term 
 PsEXJBOinfMOUS is used. Works of this class consti- 
 tute one of the great difficulties of bibliography. 
 French literature possesses an excellent Didionnaire 
 des Oumages Anonymes et Pseudonymes (2d ed., 4 vols. 
 Par. 1822 — 1825) by Barbier, embracing the titles of 
 about 24,000 works, with the names of those who 
 are known or assumed to be the authors. A similar 
 work for Enghsh literature is understood to be in 
 preparation by Mr Halkett, Keeper of the Advocates' 
 Library, Edinburgh. 
 
 In Great Britain, political articles are always A., 
 as is also most of the periodical criticism ; but on the 
 other side of the Channel, this practice, especially 
 under the present rSgime, is far from being common. 
 It is generally admitted, that anonymity secures the 
 independence of the critic, and enables him to vnrite 
 with greater freedom, vigour, and power; but it is 
 not less true that he frequently abuses his advantage, 
 and gratifies, under the veil of the A., the worst 
 passions of his nature. Perhaps the most intolerable 
 280 
 
 abuse of anonymity is the anonymous letter. The 
 miseries, anxieties, and terrors which this cowardly 
 method of assailing people has occasioned, must 
 excite against it the indignation and abhorrence of 
 all honourable-minded, men. 
 
 ANOPLOTHE'EIUM (from the Greek a, priv- 
 ative; (7i)oplon, armour; and therion, a beast), a 
 genus of extinct Pachydermatous quadrupeds (see 
 Pachydbbmata), established by Cuvier from bones 
 occurring in great abundance in the gypsum strata 
 of the Upper Eocene (q. v.) formation, near Paris. 
 They are found also in the same formation in the 
 Isle of Wight and elsewhere. The teeth differ from 
 those of all other Pachydermata, extinct or recent. 
 There are six incisors, two canines, eight prse- 
 molars, and six molars in each jaw — the dental 
 formula thus agreeing with that of the fossil genus 
 Palceotherium (q. v.) ; but the teeth are arranged in 
 a continuous series without intervening vacancies — 
 a circumstance very remarkable, as it does not 
 occur in any existing quadruped, but now appears 
 in man alone. The molars of the upper jaw are 
 quadrangular, those of the lower marked with a 
 double or triple crescent of enamel, which forms 
 prominent ridges. In some respects, the teeth 
 resemble those of the Buminantia (q. v.), or rumin- 
 ating quadrupeds, between which and the Pachy- 
 dermata the A. has been thought to form a connect- 
 ing link ; but in some of wie species originally 
 
 Anoplotherium. 
 
 included in this genus, and which are now sometimes 
 ranked along with it imder the name Anoplotheroids, 
 the teeth ejmibit peculiarities which have led to the 
 supposition that their food may not have been 
 exclusively vegetable. The snout is not much 
 elongated, and it is evident that there was no pro- 
 boscis. The feet are terminated by two toes, as in 
 the Buminantia ; but they have always separate 
 metacarpal and metatarsal bones, not a single 
 canon bone. A considerable number of species of 
 A. and of Anoplotheroids have been determined, 
 differing in size from that of a small ass to that 
 of a hare, or even of a guinea-pig ; so that the 
 smallest species must have been smaller than any 
 hoofed quadruped now existing, or any known to 
 have ever existed. They differ also considerably in 
 general appearance, some having had comparatively 
 long limbs and a light and graceful form, whilst 
 some were firmly buUt and heavy. Their habits may 
 be supposed to have difiered accordingly. The true 
 Anoplotheria were probably very similar in habits 
 to tapirs. The powerful and flattened tails of some 
 species are supposed to indicate a peculiar adaptation 
 for aquatic life. Some of the Anoplotheroids have 
 smaller supplemental toes, besides the two hoofs. 
 They form the genera Dichodon, Didiobune, Xipho- 
 don, and Microtherium. 
 
 ANOPLU'EA, the name given by Leach to an 
 order of insects called Parasita (q. v.) by LatreiUe, 
 Cuvier, &c. — part of the Aptera of Linnseus — and 
 of which the type is the genus Pediculm or LousK 
 (q.v.). 
 
ANQUETIL-DUPEERON-ANSON. 
 
 AKQUETIL - DtrPEEROlir, Abraham Hya- 
 CINTHE, an oriental scholar, was born at Paris, 
 December 7, 1731. He commenced the study of 
 theology in his native city, and afterwards prose- 
 cuted it at Auxerre and Amersfort. But his love 
 of oriental languages drew him back to Paris, where 
 he was assisted by the Abb4 Sallier, Overseer of the 
 Manuscripts in the Eoyal Library. As he now 
 possessed a tolerable knowledge of Hebrew, Arabic, 
 and Persian, he enhsted as a private soldier for 
 India in 1754, to gratify his passion for learning; but 
 Malesherbes and the Abbg iJarthglemy rescued him 
 from this degradation, and enabled him, through the 
 royal munificence, to proceed independently. After 
 his arrival in India, he traversed a great part 
 of the peninsula, but finally fixed his residence at 
 Surat, where there was a colony of Parsees, or 
 fire-worshippers, with whose priests he soon be- 
 came so intimate, that they not only instructed 
 him in the doctrines of Zoroaster, but also gave 
 him some of their sage's books, written in Zend, 
 in Pehlvi, and in Sanscrit. In 1762, he returned 
 to Europe, having collected one hundred manu- 
 scripts, along with other curiosities. The Abbg 
 Barthllemy now obtained for him a situation in the 
 Bibhothfeque Eoyale, and in 1763 he was elected 
 a member of the Acadgmie des Belles-Lettres. 
 In 1771, he published his Zend-avesta, in 3 vols., 
 which contained the results of his researches. It 
 consists of a Hteral translation of the Vendidad, as 
 well as other sacred books of the Parsees, pre- 
 ceded by a narrative of his travels. This work 
 created a great sensation when it first appeared. 
 Until then, our only knowledge of the doctrines of the 
 ancient Persians had been obtained from Greek and 
 Roman sources, hostile Mohammedans, and eastern 
 nations of a later origin. But A. now presented to 
 the investigation of Europeans the original records 
 of these doctrines, or, at least, records of incontest- 
 able authority. Unfortunately, his zeal far surpassed 
 his patience and sagacity. He had not a sufficient 
 mastery over the languages from which he translated. 
 His translations are, consequently, anything but 
 accurate. Since A. wrote, great advances have 
 been made in oriental scholarship, and his labours 
 are now in a great measure superseded. Among his 
 other works we may mention his Legislation 
 Orientale, 1778; Recherches Historiques et Giogra- 
 phiques mr I'Inde, 1786 ; La DigniU du Commerce 
 et de V6tat du GommSrganl, 1789; VInde en Rapport 
 avec VEurope, 1790 ; OupneFhai (a selection from 
 the theological portion of the Vedas), 1804. He 
 died at Paris 17th January 1805. 
 
 ANSE, a name sometimes given to the handles of 
 a cannon. These handles, especially in some foreign 
 cannon, are cast in the forms of dolphins or 
 serpente. 
 
 ANSELM of Canterbury, a scholastic philosopher, 
 was born at Aosta, in Piecfinont, in 1033. He led at 
 first a dissipated life ; and, like Abelard, wandered 
 through France, after the fashion of the scholars 
 of those days, disputing wherever he could find an 
 adversary. Attracted by the reputation of Lanfranc, 
 he went, in 1060, to study at the monastery of Bee, 
 in Normandy. Three years after, he became prior, 
 and in 1078, abbot of this monastery, the most 
 famous school of the 11th c. Lanfranc, who in 
 the meantime had gone to England, and become 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1089; and the 
 diocese remained four years without a successor, tiU, 
 in 1093, A. was appointed. He was distinguished 
 both as a churchman and a philosopher. His 
 numerous embroilments with William Rufus and 
 Henry I., and the unbending spirit which he dis- 
 played in these, even when subjected to banishment, 
 
 indicate the vigour and resoluteness of his character, 
 as much as his writings exhibit the depth and 
 acuteness of his intellect. In 1720, Clement XL 
 expressly placed him in the list of church authorities. 
 A. was a second Augustine, superior to all his con- 
 temporaries in sagacity and dialectical skill, and 
 equal to the most eminent in virtue and piety. 
 Embracing, without question, the doctrines of the 
 church, mostly as stated by Augustine, and holding 
 that beUef must precede knowledge, and must be 
 implicit and undoubting ; he yet felt the necessity of 
 a religious philosophy, urged the duty of proceeding 
 from beKef to knowledge, and sought to reduce the 
 truths of religion into the form of a connected series 
 of reasonings. It was for this purpose he wroto 
 his Monologium sive Exemplmn Meditandi de Ratione 
 Fidei. In his Proslogium, otherwise entitled Fides 
 qucerena Intellectum (Faith Seeking Intellect), he 
 strove to demonstrate the existence of God from the 
 conception of a perfect being. This ontologioal 
 proof, however, has never been held satisfactory. 
 His writings. Cur Z>eus Homo, and De Concordid 
 Prcesdentice et PrcedestinoMonis, made an epoch in 
 Christian philosophy. A. may justly be reckoned 
 the earhest of the schoolmen, although Alexander 
 of Hales (q. v.) was the first who completely 
 systematised in the scholastic manner the doctrines 
 of the Catholic Church. He died 21st April 1109, 
 and was buried at Canterbury near his predecessor, 
 Lanfranc. The day of his death is observed in the 
 Roman CathoHo Church. 
 
 AKSER. See Anas and Goose. 
 
 A'NSGAR, or ANSCHA'RIUS, styled the Apostle 
 of the North, on account of his labours to introduce 
 Christianity into Denmark, Sweden, and Northern 
 Germany, was born in Picardy about the year 801 
 A.I). Under the patronage of Louis le Dgbonnaire, 
 he went, with his colleague Audibert, to preach the 
 doctrines of Christianity among the heathen Northmen 
 of Schleswig, where he suffered many persecutions; 
 but had nevertheless such success that, in 832, the 
 pope estabUshed an archbishopric in Hamburg, and A. 
 was appointed the first archbishop. Here he passed 
 through many difficulties, having to save his hfe by 
 flight in 845, when the Northmen and Danes under 
 Eric I. plundered Hamburg. He afterwards made 
 several missionary tours in Denmark and Sweden, 
 and died February 3, 864, at Bremen, where a church 
 was named after him. The Roman Catholic Church 
 has canonised him. 
 
 ANSON, George, Lord, Admiral, bom on 23d 
 April 1697, at Shugborough, in Stafifbrdshire. From 
 an early period he manifested a predilection for a 
 sea-hfe. In 1716 he served as second Ueutenant 
 under Norris; next under Byng in 1718, against the 
 Spaniards ; and was made a captain in 1723. In 1739, 
 when war with Spain broke out, he was recalled 
 from the Carolina station, on which he had been 
 placed since 1724, and received the command of the 
 fleet in the South Sea, with instructions to inflict 
 whatever injury he could on the Spanish commerce 
 and colonies, and sailed from England in September 
 1740. \ The preparations for this cruise had been 
 made in the most slovenly manner. Both vessels 
 and stores were bad, and the sailors were old 
 Chelsea pensioners ; yet A., in spite of these disad- 
 vantages, achieved a brilliant reputation by the 
 heroism, prudence, diligenoe, and humanity he dis^ 
 played. After his little fleet of seven vessels had 
 been scattered by a storm, in doubling Cape Horn, 
 he landed at Juan Fernandez, where he was soon 
 joined by three of his ships, which arrived in a 
 dismantled condition. While he remained on this 
 island, he exhibited his native tenderness of charac- 
 ter by the assiduity with which he cared for the 
 
 281 
 
ANT. 
 
 sick, and the pains he took to increase their com- 
 forts. Under these disadvantages, he made several 
 prizes of Spanish vessels, and especially distin- 
 guished himself hy his captmre of the Spanish galleon 
 from Acapuloo, with a cargo worth £400,000. After 
 several other hold adventures, he returned to Eng- 
 land; and, sailing undetected through the French 
 fleet which lay iu the Channel, arrived at Spithead, 
 June 15, 1744, having circumnavigated the globe 
 after a cruise of three years and nine months. 
 His perilous voyage had great importance in 
 extending the knowledge of navigation and geo- 
 graphy. As a reward for his services, A. was 
 made Rear-admiral of the Blue (1744) ; and in 1747, 
 after he had gained a victory over the French admiral, 
 JonquiSre, at Cape Finisterre, was made Baron of 
 Soherton; and four years later, First Lord of the 
 Admiralty, in which capacity he distinguished him- 
 self not less than at sea. In 1761 he was made 
 Admiral of the Fleet. He died June 6, 1762. Few 
 works have been so popidar as Lord A.'s Voyage 
 Round the World. It has numerous readers in every 
 civihsed language. It was written by Mr B. Kobins, 
 from Lord A.'s own materials, and was carefully 
 supervised by the latter. 
 
 AKT (Farmi'ca), a Linnasan genus of Hymenop- 
 terous insects, now divided into several genera, 
 which form a family called Formicidae. The English 
 name is contracted from Emmet, still also occasion- 
 ally used. Another old English name, not now in 
 frequent use, is Pismire. The species are numerous, 
 and are generally distributed over temperate and 
 tropical regions. Their habits and instincts are 
 extremely interesting,- and have attracted attention 
 from remote ages. 
 
 Ants are small insects, but of extraordinary mus- 
 cular strength. They carry loads of ten or twelve 
 times their own weight, and display great activity. 
 They have a triangular head; the antennae are geni- 
 culate; the jaws strong; the ligula or lower lip 
 small, rounded, vaulted or spoon-Hke ; the tiiorax 
 compressed at the sides ; the abdomen nearly oval, 
 the ipedicle which joins it to the thorax forming in 
 some kinds a single, and in some, a double scale or 
 knot. They live in societies, often very large, which 
 consist, as in bees, ;of males, females, and neuters. 
 The neuters are females witU imperfect ovaries, 
 transformed at an early stage of their existence, and 
 are distinguished into two classes, workers and 
 soldiers, the former constituting the greater portion 
 
 Ants. 
 1. Female; 2. Male; 3. Neuter (Worker). 
 
 of each society, the latter somewhat differing from 
 them m larger size, and larger and more powerful 
 head. The ordinary work of the society is performed 
 by the workers: the principal part in warfare, 
 defensive or offensive, is taken by the soldiers. The 
 males and females constitute but a small portion of 
 each community. They have dehcate glistening 
 wings; but the neuters have no wings, and the 
 thorax is smaller and more compressed. The males 
 are smaller than the females, and the workers are 
 rather smaller than the males. The females and 
 neuters of some kinds (genera Ponera, Myrmica, 
 AUa, and Cryptooervs) are armed with stings; other 
 282 
 
 kinds (Formica and Polyergiie) have no sting, but 
 have the power of ejecting a peouhar volatile acid, 
 Formic Acib (q.v.), from a small sac iu the abdo- 
 men; by this means effectually repeUing many adver- 
 saries, to which the pungent fumes are intolerable. 
 Small animals are soon killed by the vapour of an 
 ant-hill ; and a dog has been known to retire yelling 
 from the effect upon his eyes, either of the vapour, 
 or of a discharge of the fluid itseM. It is said, that 
 when those ants that are unprovided with a sting 
 make use of their mandibles to inflict a bite, they 
 curve round their abdomen, so as to be ready imme- 
 diately to squirt this acid into the wound. 
 
 The winged ants mostly appear in autumn, and 
 perish before the commencement of the cold weather; 
 a few surviving to found new colonies and perpetuate 
 the race. The neuters pass the winter in large 
 numbers in a torpid state, and resume their activity 
 on the return of spring. The nests of ants, after 
 midsmnmer, are usuaJfy found to contain winged 
 males and females mixed with the wingless neuters, 
 which, however, restrain them, and particularly the 
 females, from making their escape into the air, until 
 the pairing season, when they ascend into it in 
 immense swarms, those from many ant-hiUs some- 
 times rmiting their myriads, rising with incredible 
 velocity in distinct columns, and soaring to a great 
 height. ' Each column looks like a kind of slender 
 net-work, and has a tremulous undulating motion. 
 The n6ise emitted by myriads and myriads of tiiese 
 creatures does not exceed the hum of a single wasp. 
 The slightest zephyr disperses them.' They occa- 
 sionally, however, make their appearance in such 
 prodigious numbers, that the air is obscured by 
 them. — ^The pairing of ants is supposed to take place 
 in the air. Some of the females which escape 
 destruction by their enemies, or by the elements, 
 found new colonies, in which at first they perform 
 the work usually assigned to neuters. Some, how- 
 ever, are seized by the neuters of ant-hills near 
 which they fall, and there is even reason to think 
 that these go out to search for them; they are 
 stripped of their wings, and forcibly conducted to 
 the habitation, the number of whose inhabitants is 
 to be increased by their multitudinous progeny. 
 They are fed and treated with apparent respect, like 
 the queen -bee among bees; but a society of 
 ants, unlike one of bees, often contains numerous 
 females, each thus treated and equally employed in 
 the important work of laying eggs. TTnUke the 
 queen-bees, also, they are invariably denuded of 
 their wings; nor is this always done by the neuters, 
 to prevent their escape, but the female ant, after 
 fecundation, has been seen to denude herself of her 
 own wings, as now superfluous appendages. 
 
 The eggs of ants are so small as to be scarcely 
 visible to the naked eye. The mother drops them at 
 random in her progress through the nest ; but the 
 workers, of whom some are always in attendance 
 on her, immediately seize them, moisten them with 
 their tongue, and lay them in heaps in particular 
 apartments of the nest. They continue to watch 
 them, and to remove them from one quarter of the 
 nest to another, apparently in order that they may 
 always enjoy a suitable temperature, and perhaps ia 
 order to avoid any excess of moisture. In a few 
 days, the young larvae are produced; and these 
 require the unremitting care of the workers, which 
 feed them, disgorging into their mouths, for this 
 purpose, a viscid substance, supposed to be the 
 ordinary food of the species, prepared for their use 
 by a sort of half digestion. They are also extremely 
 careful to keep the young brood clean, by constant 
 apphcation of theb tongue and mandibles; and a 
 great amount of labour is daily expended upon them, 
 m conveying them from the inner apartments of the 
 
ANT. 
 
 nest towards the surface after sunrise, when the 
 weather is fine, and back again before sunset, or 
 when the weather becomes c5d, or there is a pros- 
 pect of rain. The same care is extended to the 
 pupae. The larvis and pupae are the white objects 
 wMoh the workers are seen hastily seizing and 
 carrying off to places of safety, when an ant's nest 
 is broken open ; and the resemblance of which, 
 particTilarly of the pupse, to grains of barley, ia 
 supposed to have contributed to the general belief, 
 that ants amass stores of corn for winter food. The 
 larvae have no organs of locomotion. The pupse are 
 enveloped in deUoate silken cocoons, and unlike 
 those of other insects, require assistance to extricate 
 themselves from them when they have attained 
 their perfect state. This assistance also is afforded 
 by the workers. 
 
 The whole supplies of food for the inmates of the 
 nest are brought to it by the workers. The food of 
 some kinds is exclusively or chiefly animal, that of 
 others, vegetable. The provisions carried to their 
 nests by fiie ants of Britain and other temperate 
 countries, are now believed not at all to be intended 
 for winter, when the creatiu'es are entirely torpid, 
 but only for present use; and it appears to be 
 certain that no kind of grain forms any part of their 
 food. But Colonel Sykes has discovered at Poonah 
 a species of ants {Atta providena), which not only 
 store up provisions, but of which the stores consist 
 of the seeds of a species of millet. To habits 
 of this kind the allusions in the book of Proverbs 
 seem to be made. Virgil also speaks of the ant 
 providing against the poverty of old age — 
 
 Inopi metuens formica senectse. 
 
 [Georg. 1. 186.) 
 
 The ant has long been a sort of proverbial type, not 
 only of industry, but of provident care for the 
 future. Some ants, however, collect and carry to 
 their nests substances which are not intended for 
 food, but for the construction of- the nest, and 
 particularly for closing its apertures in cold or wet 
 weather. In this way they gather together small 
 heaps of chips of wood, bits of sfaaw, small pebbles, &c. 
 The vegetable substance which ants seem chiefly 
 to use as food is sugar ; and to this, wherever it is 
 to be found, they seem to be guided by a very acute 
 sense of smell. Honey-dew, the saccharine excre- 
 tion of the Aphides (see Aphis), ia a favourite 
 food of many species j and with this are connected 
 some of their most extraordinary instincts j for not 
 only do they chmb the plants on which the aphides 
 abound, that they may obtain this food, but they 
 have been seen to wait beSide them for new drops, 
 and even to touch them with their antennae, in 
 order to cause the drops to flow, patting the abdo- 
 men of the aphis on each side alternately and 
 rapidly ; the ant, after the drop has been obtained, 
 passing on to another aphis. The whole process has 
 been likened to the milking of cattle. Even more 
 wonderful things are asserted on this subject, as that 
 particular ants seem to regard particular aphides as 
 their own property, and are ready to fight in defence 
 of their right to them— that, to secure them for 
 themselves, they convey them from one place to 
 another — and that the Apliis radiewm, which 
 derives its nutriment from the roots of grass and 
 other plants, is actually kept in large numbers in the 
 nest of the YeUow Ant (Formica flava), in order that 
 there may be always at hand a copious supply of food, 
 these aphides and their eggs sharing the solicitude 
 of the ants equally with their own eggs and young. 
 Things so wonderful are ascertained beyond dispute 
 in regard to the instincts of ants, that even such 
 statements as these must not be hastily rejected as 
 incredible, and certainly they express the beliefs of 
 careful and soientiflo observers. 
 
 Ants which feed upon animal food render important 
 service in clearing away every vestige of the fiesh 
 of dead animals, and so preventing corruption ; and 
 very beautiful skeletons of small animals have been 
 obtained by burying the animal for a short time in 
 an ant-hill. But ants also attack living animals: 
 insects of comparatively large size fall a prey to 
 them, and in tropical countries, birds, reptiles, and 
 small quadrupeds are sometimes devoured by their 
 vast swarms, which strip the bones of the animal 
 perfectly clean with wonderful rapidity. Domestic 
 animals, at least when sick, are n«»fc safe from them, 
 and man himself regards them with dread. About 
 ninety years ago, prodigious numbers of a particular 
 kind of ant (F. saccharivofa) appeared in the island 
 of Grenada. This species makee! its nest under 
 the roots of plants, and the sugar-canes were so 
 weakened and injured in consequence, that the 
 plantations became nearly unproductive. ' They 
 descended &om the hiUs like torrents, and the 
 plantatiitttt, as welt as every path and road for 
 miles, were filled with them. £a/ts, mice, and 
 reptiles of every kind became an easy prey to 
 them; and even the birds, which they attacked 
 whenever they lighted on the ground in search of 
 food, were so harassed, as to be at length unable 
 to resist them. Streams of water opposed only a 
 temporary obstacle to their progress ; the foremost 
 rushing blindly on certain death, and fresh armies 
 instanfly following, till a bank was formed of the 
 carcasses of those which were drowned, sufficient to 
 dam up the waters, and allow the main body to pass 
 over in safety below. Even fire was tried without 
 effect. When it was lighted to arrest their route, 
 they rushed into the blaze in such myriads as to 
 extinguish it.' A reward of £20,000 was offered in 
 vain for an effectual means of destroying them; 
 but in 1780 a hurricane which tore up the canes, 
 and exposed their habitations to a deluge of rain, 
 freed the island from this plague. 
 
 The habitations of ants are very curiously con- 
 structed, displaying great ingenuity, although with 
 great diversity in the different species. The greater 
 number of species form their habitations in the 
 ground. These rise above the surface in the form 
 
 Yellow Ants (F. Flava) and Kest. 
 
 of a dome; hence the name ant-liills commonly 
 riven them. The largest ant-hiUs formed by any 
 British species are those of the large red or horse 
 ants (Formica nifa), which are sometimes as big 
 as a small haycock; but travellers in South 
 America describe ant-Mls of 15 or 20 feet in height. 
 The nest ot F. rufa is outwardly of rude appear- 
 ance — a confused heap of such portable materials as 
 were within reach ; but within, it contains numerous 
 small apartments, of different sizes, arranged in 
 separate stories, some deep in the earth, some above 
 its surface, and communicating with each other by 
 
AOT"— ANTALCroAS. 
 
 means of galleries. Use is made of the earth exca- 
 vated from below to mix with pther materials in the 
 construction of the upper parts of the fabric. Many- 
 species of ants, sometimes called Mason Ants, con- 
 struct habitations by a still more elaborate masonry. 
 
 Section of Bank, shewing Nests of the Mason Ant. 
 
 making use, for this purpose, of soft clay, which 
 they spread and mould by means of their man- 
 dibles and feet, appearing all the while to examine 
 their work by their antennae. The partition-walls 
 of the galleries and apartments of the Formica 
 hrunnea are about half a line thick, and about half 
 an inch high ; the roofs are somewhat arched, and 
 pillars are frequent in this marvellous architecture. 
 M. Huber saw a working-ant of another species 
 (F. fusca), without assistance, make and cover in a 
 gallery which was two or three inches long, and of 
 which the interior was rendered perfectly concave. 
 There are other species, sometimes called Carpenter 
 
 [M.#;]ft 
 
 Nest of Carpenter Ant. 
 
 Ants, which make their habitations in the tninks 
 of old trees, gnawing the wood into apartments and 
 galleries, with iloors and partitions as thin as card. 
 Formica jlava forms its partition- walls of a sort of 
 papier-mdcJiS of saw-dust, earth, and spider's web. 
 F. smaragdina, an East Indian species, forms its 
 nest of a thin silk-like tissue. F. Kspinosa, in 
 Cayenne, makes a felt of the down which envelops 
 the seeds of the Bowhax Criha. An East Indian 
 species, Myrmica Kirbii, forms a globular nest of 
 a congeries of tile-like laminm of cow-dung, the 
 interior exhibiting an assemblage of apartments 
 and galleries. Some Australian ants form their 
 nests of the leaves of trees glued together, after 
 being first brought into the proper position by the 
 united strength of multitudes. 
 
 Of the ants which form their nests in the groimd, 
 some, instead of constructing ant-hills, seek the 
 ilBl 
 
 protection of stones, roots of trees, &c. This is 
 the case with some of the British species, and also 
 with the sugar ant of the West Indies, already 
 mentioned. 
 
 Many interesting anecdotes are on record illustra- 
 tive of the instincts of ants, and of the sagacity 
 which they seem to possess. They appear also 
 to have some power of communicating with each 
 other, in which it has been supposed that the 
 antennae are chiefly employed. Some such power 
 might be supposed to be necessary, if we could 
 venture to reason from analogy upon such a subject, 
 not only to their architectural and other ordinary 
 operations, in which many must take part, syste- 
 matically and conjointly, but also in their predatory 
 and warlike excursions ; for these also some of the 
 species have. If, during the predatory excursions of 
 the Atta cephalotes (a South American species), an 
 intervening space occurs which they cannot cross, 
 some of the creatiu-es link themselves together — as 
 monkeys, in like circumstances, have been known to 
 do — forming a bridge over which the main body 
 passes. Ants are, in general, both courageous and 
 
 Eugnacious. Many battles take place among them, 
 oth between individuals and large parties ; and 
 after a battle, combatants may be foimd locked in 
 each other's arms, as having died together in the 
 struggle. More extraordinary than anything of this 
 kind, however, is the fact, sufficiently ascertained, 
 that some species of ants go on regular forays to 
 carry off the larvae andpupse of certain other species, 
 which they carry to their own habitations to rear 
 and employ them as slaves in the work which might 
 be regarded as properly belonging to workers of 
 their own race — a fact to which no other at all 
 analogous has yet presented itself in natural history. 
 The species known thus to make and keep slaves are 
 Polyergus rufescens and Formica sanguinea, both 
 sometimes called Amazon Ants. It has been noted 
 as a curious circumstance that the kidnappers are 
 red or pale coloured ants, and the slaves jet black. 
 The kidnapping excursions take place only at a 
 particular period of the year, when the nests of the 
 black ants contain the neuter brood. The army of 
 red ants (P. rufescens) marches forth, the vanguard, 
 which consists of eight or ten only, continually 
 changing; and on their arriving at the nest of the 
 negro ants, a desperate conflict ensues, which ends 
 in the defeat of the negroes ; and thereupon the red 
 ants, with their powerful mandibles, tear open the 
 now undefended ant-hill, enter it, and emerge, 
 carrying the pupae in their mouths, with which they 
 return m perfect order to their own nest. The 
 pupa3 are fiiere treated with great care, and spend 
 their lives among the red ants, excavating passages, 
 collecting food, carrying larvae, &o., as 5 this had 
 been their original destination. The amazon ants 
 are not natives of Britain, although plentiful in some 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 Formic acid has been employed as a stimulant in 
 gout and paralysis, and is sometimes exhibited in 
 continental practice by means of ant-batJis, which 
 are prepared by boiling crushed ants, or whole 
 aut-MUs, and immersing the diseased limb in the 
 steam. 
 
 Termites (q. v.), or White Airts, are very different 
 from the true ants, and belong to the order 
 Neuroptera. 
 
 ANT.*;. See Pilaster. 
 
 ANTA'LCIDAS, a Spartan politician, who made 
 himself conspicuous in a very perilous crisis of the 
 history of his nation by the skilful character of his 
 policy. Some time after the Peloponnesian War, it 
 seemed as if Athens were destined to regain the 
 supremacy she had lost. The Greek states raUiod 
 
ANTANANARIVA-ANTAKCTIC OCEAN. 
 
 round her; while Couon, an able and vigilant 
 Athenian admiral, and his ally, Fhamabazus, the 
 Persian, were everywhere viotorioua in their naval 
 enoountera with the Spartan fleet. It became 
 necessary, therefore, that oommunioationa should be 
 entered mto with the Persian king, from whom the 
 confederate Greeks drew their chief resources. A. 
 was chosen ambassador to Tiribazus, satrap of 
 Western Asia. On hearing this, the Athenians grew 
 alarmed, and sent Conon to frustrate the schemes 
 of the former ; but Tiribazus took A.'s part, and the 
 result was, that Conon was thrown into prison, and 
 A. secretly received money to enable Sparta to 
 continue the war. At first, Artaxerxes, the Persian 
 monarch, was dissatisfied with the conduct of his 
 satrap, recalled him, and put Struthas, a friend of 
 Athens', in his place ; but through a complication of 
 circumstances, which it is unnecessary to mention, 
 A. was subsequently completely successful in 
 securing the goodwill of Artaxerxes. He was 
 now appointed admiral of the Spartan fleet, and 
 assisted by Tiribazus, Ariobarzanes, &c., swept the 
 seas until Athens became desirous of peace. For 
 various reasons, so was Argos and Sparta herself. 
 Tiribazus therefore assembled deputies from the 
 Greek states, and, in the name of his master 
 Artaxerxes, read the famous declaration or treaty 
 of peace, to which all the members present agreed, 
 and which is known in history under the name 
 of 'the Peace of Antalcidas,' as being the result 
 of the latter's able diplomacy. Its three great 
 points were as follow : 1. That all the Greek 
 towns on the mainland of Asia Minor, together 
 • with the islands Clazomene and Cyprus, should 
 remain under the protection of the Persian king. 
 2. That all other Greek towns, large and small, 
 should be independent ; but that the islands 
 of Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros should belong to 
 Athens. 3. That war should be declared against 
 whatever state refused to accept these points. After 
 this peace, the history of A. becomes doubtful and 
 obscure. He seems to have lost favour with the 
 Persians, and Plutarch even leads us to suppose 
 that, sickened by misfortune and the loss of reputa- 
 tion, he voluntarily starved himself to death; but 
 this story is not credited by scholars, both on account 
 of its intrinsic improbability and its apparent 
 disagreement with the statements of other writers. 
 
 ANTANAXARIVA', or TANANARIVA', the 
 capital city of Madagascar, and seat of the govern- 
 ment. It is situated on a hill, in the midst of a 
 mountainous region, at an elevation of 7000 feet 
 above the level of the sea. The approach to it from 
 Tamatave, the chief seaport, is extremely tedious 
 and difficult, owing to the want of roads. The royal 
 palace occupies the summit of the hill ; adjoining are 
 the dweUings of the chief ofiicers of government; 
 and below fliese, covering the slope of the hiU, are 
 the houses of the other inhabitants, constructed 
 almost entirely of wood. The uniform shape of the 
 houses, which are just plain huts covered with 
 brown thatch, gives a sombre appearance to the 
 place. A few trees, apparently a species of fig-tree, 
 are visible here and there in the higher part of the 
 city. The people exhibit a considerable aptitude 
 for civihsea usages ; and through the agency of 
 missionary enterprise, which has been unfortunately 
 checked for a time by the arbitrary edicts of the 
 reigning queen, society is considerably advanced 
 beyond the savage state. These few particulars are 
 gathered from the work of the Rev. WiUiam EUis 
 (Three Visits to Madagascar, 1853^ — 5. London, 
 1858). 
 
 A'NTAR or ANTA'RA, a celebrated Arab chief 
 of the sixth century, one of the seven poets of 
 
 Arabia, whose prize-poems, embroidered in golden 
 characters on a silken ground, were hung up on the 
 gate of the Caaba, and thence called Moallahat — 
 1. e., the Suspended. In the poem of his that has 
 descended to our day, he paints his warlike deeds, 
 and his love for Abla. His courage and heroism 
 during a forty years' warfare between two Arab 
 tribes, and his constancy in love, were long dear to 
 the memory of his countrymen, and appear to have 
 formed the groundwork of the voluminous romance 
 called Antar, commonly ascribed to Asmai, and 
 reduced to writing as early as the days of the Calif 
 Haroun Alrashid, in the 8th u. This work, which 
 has come down to us in a later and much corrupted 
 form, gives an attractive and faithful picture of 
 Bedouin Ufe, and is rich in epic interest, although 
 too monotonous to satisfy the taste of the European 
 reader. In the East, however, it still supphes the 
 favourite themes of the professional story-tellers 
 who haunt the coffee-houses. A poetical translation 
 of it into English was made by Terric Hamilton in 
 1820. 
 
 ANTARCTIC OCBAK, the sea round the south 
 pole, as the Arctic Ocean is the sea round the north 
 pole. It is otherwise called the Southern Ocean, 
 comprising all the sea to the south of the Atlantic, 
 the Indian, and the Pacific Oceans. In this view, 
 the A. Ocean's northern limit may be conveni- 
 ently divided into three straight hnes — the first 
 between Cape Horn in South America and Cape 
 Agulhas in Africa ; the second, between Cape Agul- 
 has and the southern extremity of the Auckland 
 Islands as an appendage of New Zealand ; and the 
 third, between the southern extremity of the Auck- 
 land Islands and Cape Horn. This appears to form 
 the true boundary of the polar regions of the south- 
 em hemisphere. The most norflierly isles which 
 it encloses are New Georgia, at the mouth of the 
 Atlantic, and Kerguelen's Land, at the mouth of 
 the Indian Ocean. The latter tells its own story 
 in its other title of ' The Island of Desolation ; ' 
 and the former presented to Cook, even in the 
 middle of summer, perpendicular cliffs of ice, and 
 valleys covered with everlasting snow. 
 
 It is usual, indeed, to define the Antarctic Ocean 
 and the corresponding ocean to the north, as being 
 contained each within its own polar circle. But, with 
 regard to both oceans ahke, this definition appears to 
 be inadmissible. It is only at two points — ^the head 
 of the Pacific, and the head of the Atlantic — ^that 
 the Arctic Sea can possibly reach the Arctic Circle 
 at all; wMle, in point of fact, it overlaps it at 
 Behring's Strait by nearly a degree, and falls 
 several degrees short of it between the northern 
 half of Norway and the south-east shore of Green- 
 land. The A. 0., again, is nowhere practia3,Uy 
 limited by the definition in question : not a single 
 voyager hesitates to use the expression long before 
 he arrives at lat. 66° 30' S.; nor yet is a single 
 authority consistent in the use of the arbitrary 
 nomenclature. 
 
 The A. 0. has been explored, more or less satis- 
 factorily, by various navigators, as far as 79° S. With 
 a few exceptions, however, little of it is accurately 
 known,' the difficulties and dangers of its navigation 
 rendering thorough and contmuous investigation 
 almost impracticable. The names that wiU recur 
 in their proper places are New Georgia, Kerguelen's 
 Land, Sandwich Land, New South Shetlands, New 
 Orkneys, Enderby's Land, Graham's Land, BaUeny, 
 Sabrina, and Victoria Land. 
 
 Taken as a whole, these lands bear a very small 
 proportion to the extent of an ocean which embraces 
 half the latitudes and all the longitudes of the 
 southern hemisphere, exceeding its kindred sea to 
 the north, da a glance at the map will shew, by 
 
 28S 
 
ANT-BEAR-ANTELOPE. 
 
 nearly half of Asia and North America, and the 
 whole of Europe. Such of these lands as are really 
 accessible at all times, have been more or less 
 valuable in connection with the whale and seal 
 fisheries. 
 
 The features of the A. 0. itself may be briefly 
 stated to be constant fogs, baffling currents, innum- 
 erable icebergs, and magnificent manifestations of 
 the Am-ora Australis. On the coast of Victoria 
 Laud, beyond the parallel of 70°, two mountains 
 have been observed to be of a height altogether 
 unequalled in such a latitude — Mt. Terror, of 10,000 
 feet, and Mt. Erebus, of 12,400. The latter is a 
 volcano, being, it is apprehended, the only pheno- 
 menon of the kind in either of the frigid zones. 
 
 Of the two ciromnpolar oceans, the southerly one 
 has excited much less interest than the northerly. 
 The open passages round the two capes respectively 
 into the fiidian Ocean and the Pacific, have, from 
 the very beginning, rendered unnecessary any such 
 voyages as those which, for nearly three centuries, 
 have developed so much patience and fortitude in 
 the heroic explorers of the Arctic shores. 
 
 ANT-BEAB. See AifT-EATBB. 
 
 ANT-CATCHER .and ANT-THETTSH, names 
 given to birds of tropical and sub-tropical countries, 
 which feed chiefly upon ants. They are closely 
 allied to the Thrushes (see Thbush), and are included 
 with them in the family Twdidts or Mervlidce of 
 recent ornithologists. They are distinguished by a 
 straight sub-cylindrical strong bill, hooked at tbe 
 tip, slender legs, and very short tails. They form 
 the genus Myoth^ra of lUiger, now subdivided into 
 several genera, one of which. Pitta, contains the 
 Brives of Buffon — ^birds of brilliant pltmiage, natives 
 of the south-eastern parts of Asia and the Malayan 
 Archipelago. The true ant-catchers are mostly 
 American, are of comparatively sober plumage, live 
 among the huge amt-hiUs, seldom fly, land are re- 
 markable for their sonorous voices, the power of 
 whicii in. some species is extraordinary. The largest 
 species, known as the King of the Ant-catchers 
 {Grallaria Bex), is about the size of a quail. Its 
 legs are remarkably long. 
 
 ANT-BATEB {Myrmeco'phaga), a genus of South 
 American quadrupeds belonging to the natural order 
 JEdeniaia. The species are few. They are perfectly 
 toothless, their food being insects, and particularly 
 ants, which they procure in great numbers by 
 thrusting among them a very long cylindrical tongue, 
 covered with a viscid saliva, and then retracting it 
 into the mouth. The head is remarkably elongated, 
 with a slender muzzle, and » small mouth. The 
 tongue is doubled up in the mouth when not in use 
 for catching prey. The ears and eyes are very 
 small. The toes differ in number in the different 
 
 Great Ant-eater (M. jvJiata,). 
 
 species, but are united as far as the base of the 
 claws, which are very large and strong, adapted, to 
 tearing up the habitations of ants. The Great A.-E. 
 \M. juhata), a native of the warm parts of South 
 America, and called in Demerara uie A.-bear, is 
 
 about 4i feet in length from the snout to the origin 
 of the taQ, which is more than 2 feet long, and is 
 covered with very long hair. The body is also 
 covered with long hair, particularly along the neck 
 and back. There are four claws on each of the fore- 
 feet, and five on the hind ones. The A.-E. spends 
 much of its time in sleep, the long snout concealed 
 in the fur of the breast, the hind and fore claws 
 looked together, and the bushy tail thrown over aU, 
 as if for a shade from the sun. It is very unsocial 
 in its habits, and is regarded as a very stupid animal. 
 It has great strength in its fore-legs and claws, and 
 is said to hug like the bear, so as to crush an enemy 
 to death. The female produces one ^ young one at a 
 birth, and carries it about for some time on her back. 
 — Anotter species, the Tamandua {M. Tamandua), 
 having the same number of claws, has a less elon- 
 gated snout, comparatively short hair, and a pre- 
 hensile tail, is scarcely so large as a cat, and cUmbs 
 trees in quest of its insect food. — The Little or Two- 
 toed A.-B. {M. didactyla) differs from these species 
 not only in Hie number of its toes, but in other 
 anatomical characters. — Closely allied to this genus 
 in structure and habits is the genus Mania, contain- 
 ing the Pangolins of Africa and India; but instead 
 of hair, the body is covered with strong homy 
 scales. See Pangolin. — ^The .name A.-E. is given 
 at the Cape of Good Hope to the Orycteropus 
 Capenm, the.Aard-vark or Earth-hog of the Butch 
 colonists, a quadruped of about the same size with 
 the great A.-E. of America, belonging to the same 
 natural order, and resembling it also in its elongated 
 muzzle and extensile tongue, which it employs in 
 the same way, but provided with grinding teeth and 
 flat claws adapted for burrowing. It burrows with 
 extraordinary facihty, and it is in this way that it 
 seeks to secure its srfety when assailed. It has very 
 short hair, and Uttle of it. The ears are moderately 
 long. It is a nocturnal animal, and very timid. — 
 The Echidnce of New Holland are sometimes called 
 Porcupine Ant-eaters, from their food and their 
 similarity to the true ant-eaters in their sharp muzzle 
 and extensEe tongue; but they differ much in some 
 parts of their structure. See EcHlDlirA. 
 
 ANTBCE'DENT, a term in Logic, Gramma.r, 
 and Mathematics. Thus we call a proposition in 
 Logic from which another is deduced, or a general 
 principle which serves as the base and support of 
 some particular proposition, the A. In Grammar, 
 the A. is the word which precedes the relative — as, 
 for example, 'The man who dies for his country 
 should be held in honour.' Here ' man ' is the A. 
 In Mathematics, we speak of the A. of a ratio — 
 i. e., the first of two terms which compose the 
 ratio. Thus, in the ratio of 4 to 3, 4 is the A. The 
 word is also u^ed in the plural in a pecuhar sense. 
 ' We know very little of his antecedents ' — i. e., of his 
 previous character or conduct. 
 
 ANTEDILU'VIAN is the word used to denote 
 whatever existed before the Flood. The A. ages 
 are those which elapsed before the Flood, and, in 
 theological language, the A. reUgion means the 
 religion of the patriarchs from Adam to Noah. In 
 Ge(3ogy, the 'A. period' has no reference to the 
 deluge recorded in the Mosaic narrative, but only 
 to the final transformation of the earfh by means 
 of water. 
 
 A'NTELOPE {Aniilope), a genus of Mammalia 
 belonging to the order of Buminants (q. v.), and to 
 the hoUow-homed section of that order — ^in which 
 the horns consist of an elastic sheath surrounding a 
 bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not 
 annually renewed. The antelopes have the bony 
 nucleus of the horns soMd, not occupied, as in those 
 of goats, sheep, and oxen, to a, considerable extent, 
 
AJSTELOPB, 
 
 with cells commiimoating with the frontal sinuses. 
 They are also distinguished from the allied genus of 
 goats by having the chin beardless, and from them 
 and sheep by the horns not being longitudinally 
 angled or ridged. The horns of antelopes are, how- 
 ever, very generally aunulated, or surrounded with 
 thickened rings. The body is slender and deer-like, 
 the feet small and elegant, the tail short and tufted, 
 the hair generally short, and the colour often hvely. 
 Some species, however, have comparatively long 
 hair ; and a few which inhabit cold mountainous 
 regions are clothed with wool intermixed with longer 
 and coarser hair, particularly the Chamois (q. v.) of 
 the Alps, Caucasus, &c. ; the Eockt Mouiitain Goat 
 {q. v.) of North America ; and the CHnur (q. v.) of 
 the Himalayas. Many species have infra-orbital 
 sinuses or tear-pits (q. v.) like deer. The females 
 of many species, as of deer, are destitute of horns ; 
 and if they alone came under observation, it would 
 be difficult to say to which genus they belonged. 
 The size is very various ; !the Guevei or Pigmy A. of 
 Africa (A. pygmcea) is only 8 to 9 inches high at the 
 shoulders, wlulst the lai'gest species measure 5 or 6 
 feet. Almost all the species of antelopes are peace- 
 able, timid animals, and are distinguished by their 
 agility and fleetness. Most of them are gregarious. 
 Some inhabit plains ; others are found only in the 
 most inaccessible mountainous regions ; whilst others 
 dwell in jungles and deep forests. North America 
 possesses two or three species, which depart consider- 
 ably, as does also the ohamoi? of Europe, from the 
 typical character of the genus. Europe produces 
 only the Chamois and the Saiga (A. Saiga), the Coins 
 of Strabo, which inhabits the southern plains of 
 Poland and Russia. Asia has a greater number of 
 species ; but they are most numerous in Africa, and 
 particularly in South Africa. The known species 
 amount, to more than eighty, which are arranged in 
 sections or groups according to the peculiarities of 
 the horns and other characters, but a satisfactory 
 classification of them is difficult. Some naturalists 
 make a fauuly of AniUopece, and subdivide it into 
 genera, but they are not separated by sufficiently 
 marked characters. The flesh of all antelopes is used 
 as food ; hence they are much objects of the chase. 
 They furnish also great part of the subsistence of 
 beasts of prey in Airica, where some of the species 
 exist in such numbers that, particularly when severe 
 drought occurs in the regions which they ordi- 
 narily inhabit, dense and multitudinous herds ooca- 
 sionEflly appear in the interior of Cape Colony, to 
 the terrible devastation of the crops. Even the 
 saigas of the Tatarian plains congregate in herds of 
 many thousands in the end of autumn. 
 
 The name A. is sometimes more particularly 
 restricted to a species also known as the Common or 
 Indian A., and as the Sasin. It is a native of India 
 and its eastern parts of Asia, and is a beautiful 
 animal, about 24 feet high at the shoulder, vrith 
 erect, diverging horns, bent in a spiral of two or 
 three turns. Th§ hair is uniformly short, except 
 thatj as in many other species of A., there are 
 small tufts of bristles, on the knees. It inhabits 
 open plains, and the herds exercise great watchful- 
 ness. Its fleetness is such that greyhounds chase it 
 in vain ; and it can easily bound over an enclosure of 
 11 feet in height, or over a distance of 10 or 12 yards. 
 The flesh is held in small esteem, and the animal is 
 less than many of its congeners an object of the 
 chase. — The Saiga is a much less graceful animal ; 
 its horns are shprt, and, as in many of this genus, 
 curved first outwards and then inwards, so that the 
 whole outHue formed by them resembles that of a 
 lyre. They are used by the Russians and Chinese 
 for the manufacture of many articles of domestic 
 economy;' and it is chiefly for their sake and that 
 
 of the skin that the saiga is hunted, the flesh having 
 a disagreeable taste, which is ascribed to the saline 
 and aromatic plants of the steppes. — TheDzeren {A. 
 guUurosa), sometimes called the Chinese A., and 
 known among the Chinese by a name which signi- 
 fies the Yellow Goat, is an inhabitant of the arid 
 deserts of Central Asia, the flesh of which is highly 
 esteemed, and which is therefore a chief object of 
 the chase in these regions. It derives its specific 
 name from a large movable goitre-Hke protuberance 
 on the throat of the old males, produced by a dilata- 
 tion of the larynx. — The Addax, or Nubian A. {A. 
 Addax], which was known to the ancients, and is 
 
 Addax {A. Addax). 
 
 mentioned by Pliny, has horns very similar to those 
 of the Indian A., but is a larger animal, less grace- 
 ful, vrith a slight mane on the neck, a tuft of long 
 hair on the forehead, and large broad hoofs, adapted 
 for treading on fine and loose sands. It inhabits the 
 deserts of Central Africa, and, contrary to the usual 
 habits of the genus, is said not to be gregarious, 
 but to live in pairs. The 
 Chikara and some other 
 Indian species are dis- 
 tinguished by two additional 
 rudimentary horns in front 
 of the ordinary horns, and 
 immediately over the orbits. 
 The chikara inhabits thick 
 forests and jungles. Like 
 the addax, it lives in pairs ; 
 as do also the Stein-boc 
 (q. V.) of South Africa, an 
 extremely graceful species ; 
 and the Heene-boc of the i 
 same country (A. perp% 
 ailla), a beautiful and active Head of AntUope Chikara. 
 httle creature, with very 
 
 small horns. The kleene-boc is of a mild and gentle 
 disposition, and extremely capable of domestication. 
 The Gazelle (q. v.) of North Africa (A. Dorcas), one 
 of the species known to the ancients, is very fre- 
 quently domesticated ; and from its gracefulness of 
 form, its gentieness of maimers, and its bright black 
 eyes, has afforded to the Arabian poets one of their 
 most favourite objects of comparison. The South 
 African Spking-boc (q. v.) is another very beautiful 
 species, and is frequentiy domesticated by the 
 colonists at the Cape of Good Hope. Among the 
 numerous species which that country produces may 
 be mentioned also the Blauw-boc (A. leucophisus) ; 
 the Eiet-boo {A. aranAvnajaem) ; and the Caffi:arian 
 Oeyx (q. v.), {A. Oryx), which somewhat resembles, 
 but is quite distinct from, the Oryx of the ancients 
 {A. Leucoryx or A. Gazdla), also called the Algazel, 
 a native of the countries on both sides of the Bed 
 Sea. StiU more worthy of notice among, the South 
 African species, but in some measure departiM from 
 the strict A. type, is the Elaki) (q. v.), the largest 
 of all the antelopes — an animal which may yet pro- 
 
 2S7 
 
ANTENN.®— ANTHOLOGY. 
 
 baUy be found very valuable in domestication. The 
 KuDTJ (q. V.) is another noble species, allied to the 
 eland. The Nyl-ghatj (q. v.) of India, and the Gntj 
 (q. V.) of South Africa, are also among the largest 
 antelopes, but depart still further from the generic 
 type, particularly the latter, so that a separate genus 
 (OatoUepas) has been constituted for it, having 
 better claims to be recognised than the other genera 
 into which it has been proposed that the antelopes 
 should be divided. Less different from the ordinary 
 type, but stiU with a marked approach to a bovine 
 appearance, are the Bubalus (q. v.) of the ancients, 
 a native of the north of Africa, the Arabic name of 
 which signifies wild ox, and the Kaama (q. v.) or 
 Harte-beest of the Cape of Good Hope, which is 
 nearly allied to it. The Pbong-hokn (q. v.) and the 
 EocKr MouNTAiif Goat (q. v.) are the best known 
 North American species ; and both are foimd only 
 in the western parts of the continent. It has been 
 proposed to introduce the latter, as a wool-bearing 
 animal, into the Highlands of Scotland. 
 
 ANTE'NN.^, in Zoology, jointed filaments with 
 which the heads of Insects, Crustacea, and Myriapoda 
 are furnished, and which are evidently very delicate 
 organs of touch. They are therefore sometimes called 
 feelers. The name A. is derived from ante, before. 
 The A. are placed on the anterior or superior part of 
 the head ; the animals appear to feel their way with 
 them, and to them is ascribed the bee's power of work- 
 ing in the 'dark. Some suppose that they are also 
 organs of hearing, and by means of them it would 
 appear that many insects, as bees and ants, have 
 the power of communicating with one another. They 
 possess great flexibility, but differ very much in the 
 number of joiats which they contain (amounting 
 sometimes even to 100), iu the relative length and 
 thickness of their joints, and also in their form, 
 beiug filiform or thread-like, clavate or club-shaped, 
 feathered, &c., in endless variety. 
 
 ANTEQTJE'RA (the Anticaria of the Romans), 
 an important town in the proviace of Andalucia, 
 Spain, is situated in a fertile plain, 45 miles west of 
 Granada. Pop. 17,000. The inhabitants are engaged 
 chiefly in agricultural operations, but also manu- 
 facture baize, silk, cotton, and paper. They are 
 noted for their love of bright colours in dress. 
 Although A. is clean and well bmlt, it is rarely 
 visited by travellers, on account of its lying consider- 
 ably off the high road. As late as 1544, the place pos- 
 sessed, in almost perfect condition, an ancient palace 
 and theatre ; but about that time the stones were 
 plundered to build a convent, and only a few were 
 spared, which are now imbedded in the walls of the 
 town. A., like all the other cities of South Spain, 
 was for a while in the hands of the Moors ; but in 
 1410 it was retaken by the Regent Fernando, 
 who is hence called M Infante de A. When the 
 French took the place, during the Peninsular War, 
 they converted a curious old mosque — a relic of 
 Idoorish sway — ^into a storehouse, and on their 
 departure carried off with them the magnificent 
 Moorish armoury. 
 
 ANTHE'LIA (Gr. anti, opposite, and helios, the 
 sun ; Ger. Gegensonnen) are luminous rings, seen by 
 an observer on a cloud or fog which lies opposite 
 to the sun. They occur chiefly in alpine regions 
 and in the polar seas, and are only seen when sun- 
 shine and cloud, or fog, occur at the same time. 
 They appear in the following way : When, from an 
 elevated position— as the mast of a ship, or the ridge 
 of a hiU — the shadow of an observer is projected by 
 the sun on a cloud or fog, he sees the head encircled 
 by a glory or luminous ring, diminishing in bright- 
 ness as it leaves the head as a centre. When the 
 Bun shines brightly, and the fog is dense, as many as 
 
 283 
 
 four concentric rings of this nature are seen by the 
 observer round the shadow of his head, having their 
 common centre in the point where a line from the 
 sun through the eye of the observer meets the fog. 
 When the phenomenon assumes this form, the rings 
 are more or less coloured — the colours of the two 
 inner rings being generally brilliant, those of the third 
 more faint, while those of the fourth are scarcely 
 perceptible. This last has an angular radius of about 
 40°, and is very seldom seen. It bears frequently the 
 name of the Circle of UUoa or the White Rainbow. 
 A phenomenon substantially similar to the A. occurs 
 when, the sun being near the horizon, the observer 
 sees an aureola surrounding the shadow of his head 
 cast upon grass or com moistened with dew. The 
 occurrence of A. is generally attributed to the 
 diffraction (q. v.) of light. 
 
 ANTHEM (Gr. anti, against, hymnos, a hymn; 
 a hymn simg in alternate parts), a species of musical 
 composition introduced into the service of the 
 English Church after the Reformation, and appointed 
 to be sung daily, at morning and evening service, after 
 the third collect. The words of the A. are taken 
 from the Psalms, or other suitable parts of the 
 Scriptures, and the music is either for solo, soli, or 
 chorus, or a mixture of all three. As a specimen of 
 Enghsh music, it can only be heard .to perfection in 
 cathedral service. In its origin, musical construc- 
 tion, and use, it is similar to the motet of the 
 Romish Church, which name has been retained by 
 the Lutheran Church. See Motet ; also Autiphont. 
 
 ANTHEMIS. See Chamomile. 
 
 ANTHER. See Stamen. 
 
 ANTHBRI'DIXJM, the name given by some 
 botanists to an organ in cryptogamous plants which 
 they suppose to be analogous in its functions to the 
 stamen or male organ of fructification in phanero- 
 gamous plants. Autheridia are variously situated 
 on the surface of plants or within their tissue. 
 Sometimes they are simple cells ; sometimes they are 
 composed of a number of cells, containing a mucUa- 
 giuous fluid, and peculiar small bodies caHeA Phytozoa 
 (q. v.), which at a certain period exhibit active move- 
 ments i like those of animalcules. The antheridia 
 finally discharge their contents through an opening; 
 and it is supposed by some that their contact with 
 another class of organs, to which the name Pism- 
 IJDITJM (q. V.) has been given, is essential to the pro- 
 duction of spores, the seeds of cryptogamous plants. 
 But these names are to be regarded as at best only 
 provisional, and these views as far from being 
 sufficiently estabHshed. 
 
 ANTHO'LOGY (Gr. flower-collection) is the title 
 usually given to a book consisting of an unconnected 
 series of choice thoughts, whether in prose or verse, 
 but generally in the latter. Of the coUeotions of 
 this kind made in ancient times, which consisted 
 mostly of epigrammatic poems, the best known are the 
 
 Qreeh Anthologies. — The first Greek A. was com- 
 piled by Meleager of Gadara, in Syria, about 60 
 B.C. Besides tms, there were three or four others 
 belonging to periods considerably subsequent to the 
 birth of Christ ; but all these earlier anthologies are 
 lost. What we now possess are two later collec- 
 tions, one by Constantino Cephalas in the 10th c, 
 who borrowed largely from one of the earlier antho- 
 logies ; and another by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
 of Constantinople in the 14th c., who, by his taste- 
 less selection from the A. of Cephalas, rather spoiled 
 than increased the already existing store. The A. of 
 Planudes was first issued in print at Florence in 1494 
 by a learned Greek, John Lascaris, and for a long 
 time was the only one known. It went through 
 successive editions, and received various improve- 
 ments. The latest edition (with the Latin version of 
 
ANTHOLOGY. 
 
 Grotius, a master-piece of latinity and rapid execu- 
 tion) was commenoed by Bosch in 1795, and finished 
 by Lennep in 1822. Meanwhile, Claude Salmasius 
 had discovered in the Heidelberg Library (1606) the 
 only extant manuscript of the older and richei A. 
 of Constantiue Cephalas, which he compared with 
 that of Planudes, copying out the poems not found 
 in the latter. During the Thirty Years', War, the 
 Heidelberg manuscript was carried to Rome ; but in 
 1797, after the peace of Tolentino, the ' French con- 
 trived to secure possession of it, and brought it to 
 Paris. In 1816 it was returned to Heidelberg. 
 After the important discovery of Salmasius, the 
 ■work was often mentioned by the name of the 
 Palatinate Manuscript, or the Vaticano-Palatinate. 
 Portions of it were published by Jensius, Leich, 
 Reiske, apd Klotz. The entire collection, augmented 
 by fragments of the older poets, and by epigrams 
 found on monuments and in other works, was edited 
 by Brunck at Strasburg in 1776, under the title 
 Analecta Veterum PoStarum Qrmcorum (Selections 
 from the Old Greek Poets), and later by Jacob, 
 under the title of Anthologia] Grceca, sive Poetarum 
 Orcecoram Lusus ex Becensione Bruncbii (Greek A., 
 •or Fugitive Pieces of the Greek Poets, from the 
 corrected Text of Brunck), 1794 — 1814, at Leipsic. 
 Since then, it has been pubUshed variously, in whole 
 or part. It is impossible not to admire these gems. 
 Nowhere is there to be found a richer variety of 
 poetic hfe, greater delicacy of sentiment, -a, more 
 joyous serenity, a, greater abundance of wise, true, 
 humane thoughts, than sparlde iu the pages of the 
 Greek A. To the poet, it presents the most graceful 
 images and the most exquisite conceptions; to the 
 philosopher, maxims adorned with all the graces of 
 style ; to the historian, monumental inscriptions ; to 
 the philologist, the most varied forms of an imperish- 
 able language ; to all, a charming revelation of anti- 
 quity. 
 
 LaMn Antliologies. — In 1573, ScaHger published at 
 Leyden, in imitation of the Greek A., a Latin A., 
 under the title Gatalecta Veterum Poetarum (Gather- 
 ings from the Old Poets), and Pitthiius one at 
 Paris, 1590. A larger collection was issued at 
 Amsterdam (1759 and 1773) by Peter Burmann the 
 Younger, under the title Andiologia Veterum Latin- 
 orum Epigrammatum et Poemaium (A. of Old Latin 
 Epigrams and Poems), a more correct and better 
 arranged edition of which was published by Meyer 
 iu 1835. 
 
 Asiatic UteratiH'e is extremely rich in anthologies, 
 which consist sometimes of extracts from the best 
 poets, arranged according to the subject, and some- 
 times of 'beajities' of their best poets, with bio- 
 .graphical notices, which are either placed in chrono- 
 logical order, or according to the countries in which 
 the authors Hved. 
 
 1. Arabic Anthologies. — Abu-Temam published 
 selections from the old Arabic songs previous to the 
 time of Mohammed, arranged them in ten books, 
 and named the entire collection after the first book, 
 which consisted of war-songs, Hamdsa. Another 
 famous A. is the Divan of the Hudhaihtes (an Arabic 
 tribe), an edition of which was published by Kose- 
 garten. Abu'l-Faraj of Ispahan (died 966) gathered 
 together in his Kit&b cd-agli&ni (Book of Songs), 
 aU the ancient Arabic songs down to the first centu- 
 ries of the Califate. It was published by Kosegarten 
 in 1840. Abu'l-Faraj accompanied the work with a 
 minute commentary, which makes it one of the 
 most interesting of the old Arabic literature. But 
 the richest and most complete A. of the later Arabic 
 poesy is Yatimat al-dahr (the Pearl of the World), 
 by Taalebi, in which the writers are arranged accord- 
 ing to the provinces in which they lived. It has 
 been continued and enlarged since the period of 
 
 the original compiler. Besides these and similar 
 national anthologies, collections have been made in 
 almost every province where the Arabic culture and 
 speech prevailed. Such, for example, are the. 
 numerous Arabico-Spanish ones, though these are 
 but little known. 
 
 2. Persian Anthologies. — In the Persian literature, 
 the best known works of this sort are Tasharat al 
 Shuara (Lives of the Poets), by Daulet Shah (died 
 1495), the contents of which are to be found almost 
 entire in Hammer's work on Persian belles-lettres 
 (Vienna, 1818), and Atesh Keddh (the Fire Temple), 
 by Haje-Lutf-Ali-Beg, who lived about 1770. Both 
 works give biographical notices of the Persian poets : 
 the first, in chronological order ; the second, in 
 topographical order, with specimens from their 
 works. An A. of the best Persian poetry, arranged 
 according to the subjects; is given in the Medshua al 
 Shuara (a Collection of Poets). 
 
 3. Tata)- Anthologies. — Of the poets who have 
 written in the Tatar — i. e., the East Turkish or 
 Tshagatai dialect — we possess a collection comprising 
 441 biographies, with specimens of their poetry : 
 Madshalis alnasais (Charming Company), by Mir- 
 Alischir (died 1500), and the Lives of the Tatar 
 Poets, by Sadiki, extending down to the 17th c. 
 
 4. Turhish Anthologies. — The number of antholo- 
 gies in the West Turkish, or, as it is generally called, 
 the Turkish language, is very numerous. The most 
 famous are — Hesht Behesht (the Eight Paradises), 
 by Sehi of Adrianople (died 1548) ; Tasharat al Shu- 
 ara (Lives of the Poets), by Latifi (died 1582), 
 and, under the same title, a similar work of Ashik 
 Tshelebi (died 1571) ; and the great collection. Sub- 
 dat aX-ashaar (the Blossoms of Poetry), by Kassade 
 (died 1621). The substance of these anthologies 
 is to be found in Hammer's History of West Turkish 
 Poetry (Pesth, 1836). 
 
 5. Indian Anthologies. — The literature of the 
 Mohammedan population of Hindustan, which is a 
 mere copy of Persian literature, has also several 
 anthologies. The most important are — Oulzari Ibra- 
 him, by Ali Ibrahim, containing biographical notices 
 of 300 Hindustani poets, with specimens of their 
 writings ; the collection called Diwani lihan, by Beni- 
 Nar^yan; Childastai NisMt (Garland of Pleasure), 
 by Manu Lai (Calcutta, 1836) ; and Guldastai 
 Ndznindn, by Kerim-ed-din (Calcutta, 1845). The 
 substance of these works is to be found in Garcin 
 de Tassy's Histoire de la LiUSrature Hindui ei 
 HinduMani (Paris, 1839 — 1847), which, under the 
 title of TahaMti Shuar&i Hindi, was translated 
 into Hindustani by Kerim-ed-din (Delhi, 1848). In 
 the pure Hindi, we have a rich collection of songs, 
 the Bdgd Sdgar, by ICrislma,nanda (Calcutta, 1845). 
 
 6. Sanscrit Anthologies. — The Sanscrit literature 
 is not so rich in anthologies as the other oriental 
 Mteratures. If we do not consider the Vedic hymns, 
 and the collections of poems which bear the general 
 title Sataha (a Century), anthological in the proper 
 sense, there is only one work of this kind known — 
 viz., the Paddhati, by Sarngadhara, towards the 
 close of the 14th c, in which are gathered together 
 6000 detached strophes of the most famous epic, 
 lyric, and dramatic poets of India, arranged under 
 certain heads. 
 
 7. Chinese Anthologies. — From the earhest ages, the 
 Chinese had the custom of sending, along with the 
 yearly tribute to the emperor, copies of such songs as 
 had acquired popularity. Confucius selected from a 
 great number of these 311 of the most beautiful. 
 These are preserved under the name Shi-king (Book 
 of Songs), one of the canonical books of the Chinese. 
 This is the oldest A. in the world. A Latin version, 
 by Laoharme, was pubhshed at Stuttgart, 1830 ; a 
 German one, by Kuckert, at Altona, 1833. Besides 
 
 289 
 
ANTHON— ANTHROPOPHAGI. 
 
 this, there is Tchao-ming-wen-siouen, a collection of 
 the finest poems of the time of the Liang dynasty 
 (502 — 556 A. D.), and also Thang-shi, poems of the 
 time of the Thang dynasty (618—914 a.d.). 
 
 ANTHON', Chables, LL.D., a well-known editor 
 of classics, was bom in the city of New York 
 in 1797. At the age of 14, he entered Columbia 
 College, where he pursued his studies with ardour 
 and success for four years. Having been originally 
 intended for the law, he now passed through a pre- 
 liminary practical instruction in his brother's office, 
 and in 1819 was admitted to the bar of the supreme 
 court of the state of New York. His time, however, 
 was chiefly devoted to classical literature, for which 
 he soon began to acquire a high reputation; and in 
 1820, when only 23 years of age, he was appointed 
 adjunct-professor of Languages in Columbia College, 
 which office he held for fifteen years. He now com- 
 menced that series of classical pubKoatious which 
 has done so much to make available for popular 
 purposes the erudite researches of European scholars. 
 His first work was a new edition of Lempriere's 
 Classical Dictionary, which was almost immediately 
 re-issued in England. In 1830 appeared his larger 
 edition of Horace, quite a novelty in its way, on 
 account of the superabundant English notes which 
 accompanied the text. In 1833, he issued a smaller 
 edition, for the use of schools and colleges. Virgil, 
 Cffisar, and other ancient writers have been illus- 
 trated in the same attractive manner. A.'s editions 
 of the classics have acquired an extensive popvJarity ; 
 but scholars are disposed to regard them with a 
 kind of learned aversion, both because of the temp- 
 tations they present to the school-boy to overlook 
 the difficulties of a knotty passage, and of the super- 
 fluous and often unimportant matter which is digni- 
 fied with the title of ' commentary' or ' notes.' It 
 cannot be doubted, however, that these works have 
 given a healthy stimulus to the rudimentary study 
 of the ancient authors. In 1831, A. received the 
 degree of LL.D. from his Alma Mater. In 1835, he 
 succeeded Professor Moore in the chair of languages. 
 A. has likewise published large works on ancient 
 geography, Greek and Roman antiquities, mythology, 
 Eterature, &c. — in all, about 50 volumes. 
 
 ANTHQNY, ST. See AdTOinr, St. 
 
 ANTHOXANTHIUM. See Vernal Geass. 
 
 A'NTHBACITB (Gr. antJirax, a coal), a mineral 
 substance of the nature of coal, but consisting of 
 carbon with a minimum amount of hydrogen. It is 
 of a black colour, conohoidal fracture, and imper- 
 fectly metallic lustre (hence called glance-coal). It 
 bums slowly, and without flame, and hence is some- 
 times called bMnd-co&\. , Its vegetable origin cannot 
 be doubted. Where strata of common coal have been 
 broken through by trap dikes, the coal next the trap 
 is found to be A., with a gradual transition into the 
 ordinary state ; hence geologists look upon A. as 
 natural coke (q. v.), formed by heat or other process 
 from ordinary coal. A. is used as fuel like coke. It 
 is applied in many places to the buming'of lime and 
 bricks, the reduction of iron, &c. It occurs exten- 
 sively in Ireland, and in some of the coal-fields of 
 England, Scotland, and the continent of Europe; 
 but on the largest scale in the United States. 
 
 ■ ANTHROPO'LATBY (Gr.), a term signifying, 
 according to its derivation, the worship of man, and 
 always employed in reproach. Thus, the early 
 Christians accused the heathens of A., because, in 
 their mythology, men were represented as exalted 
 among the goas, although an apotheosis {q.v.) was 
 in these cases alleged by their worshipped ; and the 
 heathens retorted the charge because of the worship 
 of Christ ; the reply to which was the assertion of 
 his divinity. But the term is chiefly known in 
 290 
 
 ecclesiastical history in connection with the employ- 
 ment of it by the ApoUinarians (q.v.) against the 
 orthodox Christians of the 4th and 5th centuries, 
 with reference to the doctrine of the perfect 
 human nature of Christ. 
 
 ANTHROPO'LOGY (from the Gr. arUhropos, 
 man), a term signifying, aocordiag to its derivation, 
 that branch of science which has man for its subject. 
 In its proper sense, it is very comprehensive, and of 
 course includes Anatomy, Physiology, Psychology, 
 Ethnology, and even History in the latest sense of 
 the term, with much of Theology, .Esthetics, &o. 
 It is not in common use, and when it is used, is often, 
 limited to the subject of the relations between mind 
 and matter, or sold and body, in man. 
 
 ANTHROPOMO'RPHISM (from the Gr. an- 
 thropos, man, a.'oA.morphS, a form), the application, in a 
 figurative' way, to God, of terms which properly relate 
 to human beings. Thus, in the Holy Scriptures, we 
 read of the eye, the ear, the arm, the hand of God ; 
 and of his remembering, forgetting, &c. This A. 
 appears to arise of necessity from our incapacity of 
 forming conceptions of things spiritual, or finding any 
 terms in which to express them, except by analogies 
 derived from things cognizable by our senses, so wiat 
 even the language of adoration is borrowed from the 
 familiar things of this world. It must be evident, 
 however, that A. employed in an vmguarded manner, 
 or too grossly understood, might lead to most serious 
 error ; and a tendency has manifested itself at various 
 times in the history of the Christian Church, to ascribe 
 to the Divine Being a form and parts like those of 
 men. Thus, the Audseans (q. v.) or Audians, a, 
 Syrian monastic sect which sprang up in the 4th c, 
 were accused, and, it would seem, justly, of holding 
 that God was possessed of a human shape, and that, 
 when the Bible said that ' God created man in his 
 own image,' the words are to be understood of this 
 shape HteraUy. The same error was at a later period 
 ascribed to the Waldenses, but there is no evidence 
 of the justice -of the accusation. A tendency to A. 
 may indeed be regarded as always existing, and so- 
 requiring to be guarded against in the mind of every 
 man ; but the instances have been rare and isolated,, 
 although they have from time to time occurred, in 
 which anthropomorphite views have been fully 
 adopted and openly expressed among Christians. 
 The error of the anthropomorphites has, however, 
 found countenance from the speculations of philoso- 
 phers. Hobbes, Porster, and Priestley ascribed to 
 the Divine Being a sort of subtile body. Pichte, on 
 the other hand, rejected the very doctrine of the 
 personality of the Divine Being aS anthropomorphic, 
 and represented God as the morai order of the 
 universe; and ScheUing, Hegel, Feuerbach, and 
 Schleiermacher substituted for the objective person- 
 ahty of God a subjective consciousness of God in 
 the human soul. — The term Anthropopathism is 
 sometimes employed to denote the ascription to God 
 of human aflections and passions, although A., in its 
 most general sense, includes this. The language 
 of Scripture, in the many instances of this kind, 
 must be interpreted according to the same general 
 principles which are applicable in those of A, strictly 
 so called, with the same discrimination of the 
 figurative from the literal, and the same constant 
 recognition of the absolute spirituality and unchange- 
 ableness of God; :yet so that important traths 
 conveyed by means of such language, and which it 
 is probable could only be conveyed -to us by such 
 languagCi in accordance with our mental constitu- 
 tion, may not be rejected or obscured. And here, it 
 must be confessed, there is greater difficulty than 
 with regard to A. strictly so called. 
 
 ANTHBOPO'PHAGI. SeeCAimiBAM. 
 
ANTHUS— ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE 
 
 ANTHTJS and ANTHID^. See Pipit. 
 
 ANTHYLLIS. See KiDNsy Vetch. 
 
 ANTIAEIS £md ANTJAR. See Upas. 
 
 ANTI'BES (anciently Antipolis), a fortified sea- 
 port in the department of the Var, in the S.E. of 
 Provence, Prance, lat. 43° 34' N., long. 7° 8' E. Pop. 
 6200. It Ues on the east side of a small neck of land 
 called La-Garoupe, not far from the frontier of 
 Sardinia, in a very fertile district, producing wine 
 and fruits. The harbour is only serviceable, how- 
 ever, for small craft. It is a military station of the 
 third rank, possesses a naval school, and has con- 
 siderable trade in olives, dried fruits, saJt-fish, oil, 
 &o. The anchovies prepared at A. are held in high 
 estimation. The environs of the town are beautifufly 
 adorned with gardens, vineyards, and orchards. 
 
 A. is a, very old place, having been founded by 
 a colony of Greeks from Massilia (Marseille), of 
 which it was a dependency. In the time of 
 Augustus it was elevated to the rank of an Italian 
 city, and must have attained a high degree of 
 prosperity, if we are to judge from the ruins that 
 still exist. After the wreck of the old Roman 
 empire, A. suffered the fate of all classic cities in 
 , that region, becoming subject to successive tribes of 
 barbarians from the north. In the 9th c, it was 
 destroyed by the Saracens ; in the 16th c, it was 
 fortified by Francis I. and Henry IV. ; during the 
 Austrian War of Succession, it sustained a siege of 
 three months (1746) ; and in recent times, gained 
 some notoriety from having closed its gates against 
 Napoleon, on his return from Elba. 
 
 A'NTICHLORE is the name given to commer- 
 cial sulphite of soda by paper-m^ers. When the 
 rags are reduced to a pulp, they are bleached by 
 cmoride of lime (bleaehiag-powder), which thoroughly 
 soaks the pulp, and is very difficult to wash out. 
 The traces of chlorine thus left in the pulp pass 
 into the manufactured paper, and tend to bleach 
 the writing-ink which may be traced thereon. To 
 free the pulp from the residue of the chlorine, some 
 sulphite of soda is employed, and hence the name 
 A., which literally signnies ' against '{anti) chlorine.' 
 
 A'NTICHRIST (from Gr. anti, agaiast, and 
 Christos, Christ). The general notion of A., 
 as a power opposing itself to the reign of the 
 MessiE^, may be traced back beyond the Christian 
 era. Its origin is perhaps to be found in the pro- 
 phecy of Bzekiel concerning the doom of Gog and 
 Magog. In accordance with the old saying, ' When 
 need is sorest, help is nearest,' the Jews conceived 
 that, immediately previous to the Messiah's reign, 
 national adversity must be experienced ia aa extreme 
 degree, and that an agent of Satan would appear, 
 who must be overcome before prosperity could 
 be restored. This was A. The idea is adopted 
 in the New Testament, although the term A. occurs 
 in no place of Scripture, except in the First and 
 Second Epistles of John. From such passages 
 as the jro^hecies of the Saviour, Matt. xxiv. and 
 Mark xiii., it has been ipferred by some that prob- 
 ably the great truth which this conception was 
 intended to shadow forth was similar to that illus- 
 trated in the life of 'the Man of Sorrows' — ^that only 
 through tribulation and strife could the reign of 
 the Messiah be established, that Christ's kingdom, 
 like Christ himself, could be made perfect only 
 through suffering. And with this the language of 
 John itt his epistles, and of Paul in passages which 
 seem to' embody the same idea, is supposed to accord. 
 Nor is it regarded as a fatal objection to this opinion, 
 that in the Apocalypse the AJitichristian power or 
 element is associated with the ^eat heathen capital 
 .Rome, symbolically designated Babylon. 
 
 But this opinion neither has been nor is generally 
 
 prevalent. The idea of A. early became associated 
 with that of the MiUennium (q. v.), retaining a form 
 very si mi lar to that which it had among tne Jews 
 before the advent of the Messiah; and popular 
 opinion has always sought to find for it some actual 
 and definite embodiment. In the 5th c, a popular 
 delusion prevailed, foimded on the passage in the 
 Apocalypse, xvii. 8, that Nero was not dead, and 
 woidd return in the character of A. Since the 16th 
 c, the prevalent opinion among Protestants has been 
 that A. is the Roman Catholic Church; an idea 
 entertained even at an earlier period, as, for instance, 
 by Ludwig of Bavaria, regarding Pope John XXII., 
 by Occam, Wiokliffe and his pupU Cobham, and 
 the Bohemian reformer Janow, and which seems 
 to have prevailed to a considerable extent among 
 the Hussites and other opponents of Rome. This 
 opinion has of course been strenuously opposed 
 by Roman CathoUo writers, as by Bossuet, who, in 
 his comments on the Apocalypse, ably advocates the 
 opinion that Pagan Rome was A. The opinions of 
 Roman Catholics, however, are much divided upon 
 this subject, many of them maintaining that A. is 
 yet to come and 'to raise the last persecution,' as 
 'no one has yet appeared to whom we can apply 
 the character which the infallible Word of God 
 declares shall be that of the real A.' — Keenwtis 
 Catechism of the Christian Religion. 
 
 The opinion prevalent among Protestants depends 
 upon the identification of A. with the mystical 
 Babylon of the Apocalypse, and with other symbolic 
 representations in -fehat book, of a power opposed to 
 the cause of Christ, and also with the ' Wicked' one, 
 the ' Man of Sin,' and ' Son of Perdition,' in 2d 
 Thess. ii. Thus it is maintained that a definite 
 embodiment of the idea of A. is to be sought in 
 history, and that this is to be found in the Church 
 of Rome or in the Papal power. And Protestants 
 refer to the gradual growth and development of the 
 errors which they regard as culminating in the 
 Church of Rome, as accordant with the declaration 
 of Paul in 2d Thess. ii., that 'the mystery of 
 iniquity doth already work,' and with that of John, 
 ' even now are there many antichrists.' 
 
 There have been, however, among Protestants 
 eminent opponents of this opinion, among whom 
 may be named ftrotius. His own opimon was 
 singular, that Caligula, the Roman emperor, was A. 
 In the Greek Church, the term A. has been under- 
 stood as especially applicable to Mohammed, or to 
 the dominion of the Turks and Saracens. Almost 
 every great or striking event — the arrival of the 
 year 1000 ; the beginning of the Crusades ; the 
 'black death' and otiier plagues in the 14th o. ; the 
 career of Napoleon in 1805; and even the pohtical 
 movements of 1848 and 1849 — has suggested, new 
 inteipretations of the passages of Scripture regarding 
 A. See Revelation, Book op. 
 
 ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, the name adopted 
 by an association which concentrated the efforts of 
 the free-trade party in Britain, and enabled them to 
 carry the repeal of the corn-laws, and establish in 
 practice the principle of free-trade. The results thus 
 accomplished wiU have to be considered under other 
 heads, as Cokn-laws, Pree-teabb, &c. This state- 
 ment is limited to a brief account of the League 
 itself, and its method of working. Associations to 
 obtain the repeal of the corn-laws existed in several 
 places before the embodiment of the League — one 
 especially was founded in London in 1834. In 1838, 
 Mr Cobden and others took the opportunity of the 
 periodical assemblages of the Manchester Chamber 
 of Commerce for exposing the deleterious influence 
 of the restrictive commercial policy on the manufac- 
 tures and trade of the country. The friends of 
 free-trade, at the same time, occasionally met in 
 
 291 
 
ANTICOSTI— Al^TIGONUS GONATAS. 
 
 Manchester to discuss and pronnUgate their views ; 
 but it was in the beginning of 1839 fiiat the strength 
 of the party was first drawn to a focus, by the 
 appointment of delegates from the manufactur- 
 ing districts to proceed to London, and press 
 their principles on the legislature. Mr Charles 
 ViUiers, now (1859) President of the Board of 
 Trade, undertook the leadership of their cause in 
 the House of Commons, of which Mr Cobden, 
 who subsequently served it so effectively, was not 
 then a member. On the 19th of February, Mr 
 VUliers moved that the House resolve itself into a 
 committee of inquiry on the corn-laws ; and again, on 
 the 12th of March, he moved that certain manufac- 
 turers be heard by council at the bar of the House 
 against the corn-laws, as injurious to their private 
 interest. The former motion was rejected by 342 to 
 195; the latter, by 361 to 172. Immediately on the 
 return of the delegates from their imsuocessful 
 effort, the League was formed. Its constitution dates 
 from the 20th March 1839, when resolutions were 
 adopted, at a meeting in Manchester, for ' the for- 
 mation of a permanent union, to be called "The 
 Anti-corn-law League," composed of all the towns 
 and districts represented in the delegation, and as 
 many others as might be induced to form anti-corn- 
 law associations, and to join the League. 
 
 ' Delegates from the different local associations to 
 meet for business from time to time at the principal 
 towns represented. 
 
 ' With the view to secure unity of action, the 
 central office of the League shall be established in 
 Manchester, to which body shall be intrusted, 
 among other duties, those of engaging and recom- 
 mending competent lecturers, the obtaining the 
 co-operation of the public press, and the establishing 
 and conducting of a stamped circular, for the pur- 
 pose of keeping a constant correspondence with the 
 local associations.' 
 
 It was resolved that, in addition to the funds 
 which local associations might provide for their own 
 district purposes, £5000 shoiild be put at the dispo- 
 sal of the central body, and that every person, or 
 coEection of persons, contributing £50, should have 
 one vote in its deUberations. The League collected 
 and distributed large sums of money. Just before 
 its principles became triumphant in the free-trade 
 legislation of 1846, it demanded a quarter of a 
 million, which would have been supplied had it been 
 necessary. 
 
 It is of the greatest moment that the cause of the 
 success of the League should not be misunderstood : 
 it triumphed not by possessing money, but by teach- 
 ing a scientijSc truth. It was a great organisation 
 for educating the country in political economy. The 
 leading principles of this science were so little known 
 when the League began, and had been so effectually 
 promulgated before its end, that a majority of the par- 
 liament who, in 1841, had been elected for the sup- 
 port of protection, were converted to free-trade, the 
 conversion including the prime-minister. Sir Robert 
 Peel. The key-note to the literature of the League 
 was struck by the beautiful logical exposition of 
 free-trade in General Thompson's Catechism of the 
 Corn-laws, which, with other tracts, was profusely 
 dispersed over the country, while a large staff of 
 lecturers aided in the task of education. Thinking 
 to serve their cause in the same manner, the Protec- 
 tionist party, at a meeting held in the Duke of 
 Somerset's house, on 17th February 1844, founded 
 ' The Agricultural Protection Society of Great 
 Britain.' This body had inejdiaustible wealth at 
 command, but in reality its exertions only helped to 
 further the cause of free-trade, by promoting discus- 
 sion, and prompting people to work out the question 
 for themselves. 
 
 2S2 
 
 ANTICO'STI, an island in the Gulf of St Law- 
 rence, with a light-house at its south-west extremity, 
 which is in lat. 49° 24' N., and long. 63° 39' W. It is 
 estimated to contain 2000 square miles. Neither to 
 the settler nor to the mariner is A. of any value. It 
 is destitute of harbours, the north shore being 
 moimtainous, and the south low and beset by shoals ; 
 whde, to increase the danger, the neighbouring 
 currents are said to be capricious. The climate 
 is severe; while the surface is an alternation of 
 rocks and swamps. The only inhabitants are the 
 keepers of the Ught-house. 
 
 A., however, is of use, or promises soon to be so, 
 in connection with the transmission of submarine 
 telegraphs across and along the Gulf of St Law- 
 rence. It has also been proposed to construct here 
 a harbour of refuge by means of convict labour. 
 
 A'NTIDOTB (Gr. given against), a counter- 
 poison. See Poisoif. 
 
 ANTI'GONB, a character of the heroic age of 
 Greece, daughter of CEdipus by his own mother 
 Jocasta, was sister to Eteocles, Polynices, and 
 Ismene. ■ She accompanied her father in his exile 
 into Colonus in Attica, and after his death, returned 
 to Thebes. Eteocles, the king, had banished his 
 brother Polynices, who, coming back with an army, 
 engaged him in single combat. Both feU, and CreOn, 
 who after their death had become tyrant of Thebes, 
 issued an edict forbidding their interment. A. alone 
 dared to disobey. She buried Polynices, and was in 
 consequence seized by the monster, who shut her 
 up, either in the same tomb with her brother, or in 
 a subterraneous cave, where she perished. This 
 sentence threw Hsemon, son of Creon, who was 
 betrothed to A., into such despair that he destroyed 
 himself. A., as the ideal of feminine duty and fUial 
 devotion, has been immortalised by Sophocles in his 
 dramas of (Edipus at Colonus and Antigone. — A., 
 daughter of Euiytion, and wife of Peleus, who 
 hanged herself upon hearing a false report of her 
 husband's marriage to Sterope, daughter of Acastus. 
 — A., daughter of Laomedon, and sister of Priam, 
 who, having offended Jimo by comparing her own 
 beauty to that of the goddess, had her hair turned ' 
 into snakes, which so tormented her, that the gods, 
 in compassion, changed her into a stork. 
 
 ANTrGONXTS. Of the numerous persons who 
 bore this name, the most celebrated was the son of 
 PhUip of Elymiotis, and one of the generals of 
 Alexander the Great. In the division of the empire 
 which followed the death of his master, A. received 
 the provinces of Phrygia-Major, Lycia, and Pam- 
 phylia. Being accused of disobedience by Perdicoas, 
 who wished to gain possession of all the territories left 
 by Alexander, A. entered into alliancCv with Craterus, 
 Antipater, and Ptolemseus, and declared war against 
 Perdiccas in 321 B.C. In the same year, Perdiccas 
 was assassinated by his own soldiers ; but A. carried 
 on the war against Eumenes, to whom Perdiccas 
 had given rule over Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. 
 Eumenes, and afterwards Seleucus, who reigned in 
 Syria, were deposed by A., whose ambition and 
 cupidity now knew no bounds. He seized the 
 treasures of Alexander kept at Ecbatana and Susa, 
 which he refused to share with his allies, Ptolemseus, 
 Cassander (son of Antipater), and Lysnnaohus. AH 
 the other generals now allied themselves against 
 him, and a long series of contests took place in 
 Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, and Greece, which 
 ended with the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia (301 B.C.), 
 when A. was slain, in his eighty-first year. 
 
 ANTI'GONUS GONA'TAS was the son of 
 Demetrius Pohorcetes, king of Macedonia, and 
 grandson of the great Antigonus. On his father's 
 death, b.c. 283, various claimants for the throne 
 
ANTIGUA— ANTILLES. 
 
 appeared, and much confusion ensued, tte result of 
 ■wliicli was that the royal power feU into the hands 
 of Ptolemseus Ceraunua, who, however, soon after 
 perished in a battle with the Gauls, when A. G. at 
 length became rider of the country (277 3.0.), and 
 governed precariously in that age of intrigue, dis- 
 simulation, and violence, for 33 years. He was twice 
 expelled from his dominions by a, hostile force 
 from Epirus, but found refuge and assistance in the 
 Peloponnesus. The close of his career was com- 
 paratively peaceful. He died in 243 B. o. 
 
 ANTI'GtJA, a West India island, the most 
 important of the Leeward Garibbees (see Antilles), 
 and the residence of the governor-in-chief of the 
 British portion of the group. It lies in W. long., 
 between 61° 44' and 61° 58' ; and in N. lat., between 
 17° 2' and 17° 13'. Its area is estimated at 110 
 square mUes— equal to 70,400 acres, of which 
 60,000 are under cultivation. In 1851, the popula- 
 tion of A. was 37,136, yielding to a square mile 
 an average of about 338 inhabitants. It was iirst 
 settled in 1632, having till then remained, in fact, 
 uninhabited on account of the great scarcity of 
 fresh water. It has twice suffered severely from, 
 earthquakes — in 1689 and 1843 ; while of hurricanes 
 also, the other heavy scourge of the group, A. has 
 had its full share. Niunerous- islets, rocks, and shoals 
 border the shore, so that, generally speaking, access 
 is difficult and dangerous. But St John's, the chief 
 town, stands at the head of a safe and capacious 
 bay, which unfortunately, however, does not admit 
 large vessels. English Harbour is, on the whole, a 
 more commodioxis port, and has been selected as the 
 station of the Royal Mail Steam-packets. It is said 
 to be capable of receiving the largest ships in the 
 British navy. 
 
 A. is chiefly of tertiary formation. The south and 
 west shew grauwaoke, porphyry, trap, breccia, amyg- 
 daloid, and basaltic greenstone ; the north and east 
 exhibit calcareous marl and coarse sandstone, inter- 
 spersed with blocks of limestone ; while the interior 
 presents argillaceous strata and irregular beds of 
 coarse flint. 
 
 Besides provisions, generally almost sufficient for 
 its own consumption, A. produces large quantities of 
 sugar, molasses, and rum. In this respect, the 
 emancipation of the slaves appears to have been 
 rather beneficial than otherwise, as the following 
 table indicates : 
 
 Commerce. 
 Imports (value), . 
 Exports, II 
 Sugar crop (hogsheads), 
 Mdasses (puncheons). 
 Inward shipping (tons). 
 
 '1833. 1861. 
 
 £69,945 £198,425 
 
 206,464 219,235 
 
 12,189 14,739 
 
 7,177 8,701 
 
 22,790 34,439 
 
 In connection generally with the emancipation of 
 the slaves, of -vmom immediately previous to the 
 aboUtion of slavery, A., had about 30,000, it seems 
 to have occupied a prominently creditable position. 
 Immediately after the passing of the imperial 
 statute on the subject, the loo^ legislature, reject- 
 ing the intermediate and probationary state of 
 apprenticeship, proclaimed unquahfied freedom for 
 1st August 1834 — a bold measure, which proved to 
 be as judicious as it was humane. 
 
 ANTI'LLES, a term used to designate generally 
 the whole of the Wcist India Islands, except the 
 Bahamas. Generally speaking, they stretch east- 
 ward from the Gulf of Mexico to about the meri- 
 dian of the Gulf of Paria; then southward to the 
 Gulf of Paria itself ; and lastly, westward to the 
 Gulf of Maracaybo. Primarily, however, they are 
 regarded not as three sections, but as two — the 
 Greater A., to the north and west ; and the Lesser, 
 
 to the east and the south. This distinction, which 
 obviously involves considerations of position as 
 well as of magnitude, will be found to indicate also 
 a difference of organic structure. 
 
 The Greater A., reckoning from the west, are : 
 Cuba (Spanish), Jamaica (British), Hayti (indepen- 
 dent), and Porto Eico (Spanish). They extend, in 
 W. long, from 84° 58' to 65° 40', and in iST. lat. from 
 23° 9' to 17° 40' — the higher of these two parallels 
 being only 21' or about 25 miles within the Tropic 
 of Cancer. On the lowest estimate, the area is said 
 to amount to 70,000 square mUes. The Greater 
 A. appear to be of primitive formation, presenting 
 lofty granitic mountains. In Jamaica, however, 
 there are many hills of calcareous origin. 
 
 The Lesser A. may be divided into two chains — 
 the eastern, trending round from the eastward of 
 Porto Eico to the Gulf of Paria ; and the southern, 
 stretching away in a direction nearly parallel with 
 that of the Greater A., along the coast of Venezuela 
 as far as the Gulf of Maracaybo. With reference 
 to the prevailiag trade-wind, these two chains are 
 respectively designated the Windward and the 
 Leeward Islands. 
 
 The Windward Islands, reckoning from the north, 
 come in pretty nearly the following order : Virgin 
 Islands (Danish and British), Anegada (Brit'isn), 
 Anguilla (British), St Martin (French and Dutch), 
 St Croix (Danish), Saba (Dutch), St Bartholomew 
 (Swedish), St Eustatius (Dutch), Barbuda (British), 
 St Christopher's (British), Nevis (British), T^tigua 
 (British), Montserrat (British), Deseada (French), 
 Guadaloupe (French), Marie Galante (French), Domi- 
 nica (British), Martinique (French), St Lucia (British), 
 Barbadoes (British), St Vincent (British), Grena- 
 dines (British), Grenada (British), Tobago (British), 
 Trinidad (British). They extend in W. long, from 
 65° 30', at the west extremity of the Virgin Isles, to 
 59' 20', at the east extremity of Barbadoes ; and in 
 N. lat. from 18' 48', at the north extremity of Anegada, 
 to 10' 31', at the south extremity of Trinidad. 
 The entire area perhaps scarcely equals 5000 square 
 miles, being not materially larger than that of 
 Jamaica alone. — The Windward Islands are other- 
 wise called the Caribbees, from the now extinct race 
 of the Caribs (q. v.) ; and hence the sea, which they 
 cut off from the open Atlantic, has taken the name 
 of Caribbean. 
 
 The Leeward Islands, reckoning from the east, 
 may be given as follow : Testigos (Venezuelan), 
 Margarita (Venezuelan!, Tortuga (Venezuelan), 
 Blanqmlla (Venezuelan), Buen Ayre (Dutch), Curajoa 
 (Dutch), Aruba (Dutch). They extend in W. long, 
 from 63° 12', at the east end of the Testigos, to 70° 11' 
 at the west end of Aruba ; and in N. lat. from 11°, at 
 the south of Margarita, to 12°, at the north of 
 Curagoa. Their entire area cannot exceed 1500 
 square miles. 
 
 The Lesser A., as a whole, appear to be chiefly 
 of coral formation, or of volcanic origin. Many of 
 them contain extinct craters ; and, though not desti- 
 tute of harbours, their coasts are rendered in a great 
 measm-e inaccessible by reason of reefs. 
 
 The A. generally — ^but perhaps the Lesser more 
 so than the Greater — are subject to hurricanes and 
 earthquakes. Their principal productions are sugar, 
 rum, cotton, coffee, &c. The individual islands will 
 be found noticed more in detad in their respective 
 places. 
 
 The name A. is generally supposed to have been 
 given by mistake to the West Indian Islands. Before 
 the discovery of America by Columbus, a tradition 
 existed that far to the west of the Azores there 
 lay a land called Antdla, whose position was 
 vaguely indicated in the maps of the early cosmo- 
 graphers. Only eight .months after Columbus's 
 
AiraiLOPE— AJSTTINOMIAITISM. 
 
 return, we find one Peter Martyr writing tliat the 
 islands which the great navigator had touched upon, 
 must be the AntiUae ; and it is certain that Cuba 
 and Hayti were known as such before a Single link 
 in the Caribbean chain was discovered. 
 
 ANTILOPE. See Aotelope. 
 
 A'STIMONY (in Lat. Stibium; hence the 
 chemical symbol 8h) is a brittle metal of a flaky, 
 crystalline texture, and a bluish-white colour. It is 
 readily reduced to powder by ordinary pulverisation ; 
 when heated to 840° R, it fuses, and thereafter 
 being allowed to cool, it solidifies in rhombohedral 
 crystals, which are isomorphoxis with those of 
 arsenic. Heated in a retort, where the oicygen of 
 the air is excluded, as in an atmosphere of hydrogen, 
 A. volatilises as the vapour of the pure metal. When 
 raised in temperature in contact with the air, it 
 bums with a white light — combining with the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere, and forming copious 
 white fumes of the teroxide of A., or ' flowers of A.' 
 The metal is a bad conductor of heat and electricity, 
 - but may be used, in conjunction with bismuth, in 
 the construction of thermo-electric piles. Exposed 
 to the air at ordinary temperatures, A. does not 
 tarnish or rust ; and this property, combined with 
 the hardness of the metal and of its compounds, 
 renders A. of essential service in the useful arts, in the 
 construction of alloys, such as Britannia metal, type 
 metal, and plate pewter. It is likewise employed 
 in the preparation of the large concave mirrors used 
 in astronomical observations ; and in the casting of 
 bells, to make thetai harder and whiter, and to give 
 them a clearer and stronger sound. 
 
 The principal natural sources of A. are — grey or 
 crude A. of commerce, which is the impure tersul- 
 phuret of A. (SbS,); and native A., in which it 
 occurs in the metalUc state associated with silver, 
 iron, and other metals. The extraction of A. from 
 its ores is mainly carried on at Liaz, in Germany, 
 where the sulphide of A. is found extensively, and in 
 Great Britain, which receives its supply of ore from 
 Singapore and Borneo, commonly as ballast. The 
 process consists in heating the crude ore, covered 
 with charcoal, on the bed of a furnace, when the 
 sulphide of A. fuses, leaving unmelted the earthy 
 impurities; and thereafter the liquid is drawn off 
 into iron moulds, where it solidifies into cakes or 
 loaves. The latter are reduced to coarse powder, 
 placed on the bed of a reverberatory fiurnace, and 
 heated vpith access of ordinary air containing oxygen, 
 when the sulphur passes away as gaseous smphurous 
 acid (SOj), leaving behind the A. as the teroxide 
 (Sb03). The roasted mass is now mixed with one- 
 sixth of its weight of powdered charcoal, the whole 
 moistened with a solution of carbonate of soda, and 
 raised to bright redness in crucibles, when the 
 metal A. trickles to the bottom, and the impurities 
 are left above in the spent flux or scoria, which is 
 known in the arts by the name of crocus of A. 
 
 The compounds of A. are numerous : vrith oxygen 
 it forms (1) the teroxide of A, or white A. ore (SbOj), 
 which enters into the composition of tartar emetic ; 
 (2) antimoniaus acid (SbOJ, which forms one of the 
 components of Dr James's powders; (3) antimonic 
 add (SbOj), a very insoluble compound, obtained by 
 acting upon the metal vrith concentrated nitric acid. 
 With sulphur, A. forms the tersulphide (SbS,) 
 abeady referred to as a natural ore of the metal, 
 and which when roasted at a temperature sufficient 
 to fuse it, passes into the mixed teroxide and ter- 
 sulphide of A. known commercially as the glass of 
 A. A native oxysulphide, of a pretty red colour, is 
 called red A. we. AVhen the ordinary sulphide of 
 A. is boiled vrith potash, or the carbonate of potash, 
 it dissolves; and thereafter, on boiling, deposits a 
 
 reddish-brown substance, known as mineral Icermes. 
 The liquid from which the deposit has fallen, if 
 treated with hydrochloric acid, throws down an 
 orange precipitate of golden sulphide of A. 
 
 There is also a chloride of A. (SbClj) prepared by 
 heating sulphide of A. and hydrochloric acid to- 
 gether, and which has the common name of Imtter 
 of A. It is generally obtained as an oily Kquid, of 
 the consistence of melted butter, and of a golden 
 yellow colour. Mixed vrith olive oil, it is used by 
 gunmakers as bronzing salt, to impart a yellow 
 colour to gun-barrels. The surface of the metal is 
 afterwards poHshed by a burnisher, or coated vrith 
 a varnish. 
 
 The various compounds of A. are used as medi- 
 cinal agents, both in human and veterinary practice, 
 especially the tartar emetic, a compound of teroxide 
 of A, potash, and tartaric acid (Sb03,K0,T). 
 
 ANTINO'MIANISM (Gr. anti, against, and 
 nomas, law), the doctrine or opinion that Christians 
 are freed from obligation to keep the law of God. 
 It is generally regarded by the advocates of the 
 doctrine of justification by faith, as a, monstrous 
 abuse and perversion of that doctrine, upon which it 
 usually professes to be based. From several passages 
 of the New Testament, as Eom. vi., and 2 Pet. ii. 
 18, 19, it would seem that a tendency to A. had 
 manifested itself even in the apostohc age ; and 
 many of the Gnostic sects were really antinomian, as 
 were probably also some of the heretical sects of the 
 middle ages ; but the term was first, used at tiie 
 time of tiie Beformation, when it was apphed by 
 Luther to the opinions advocated by John Agricola. 
 Agricola had adopted the principles of the Refor- 
 mation ; but in 1527 he found fault with Melancthon 
 for recommending the use of the law, and particu- 
 larly of the ten commandments, in order to produce 
 conviction and repentance, which he deemed incon- 
 sistent with the gospeL Ten years after, he main- 
 tained in a disputation at Wittenberg, that as men 
 are justified simply by the gospel, the law is in no 
 way necessary for justification or for sanctification. 
 The ' Antinomian Controversy' of this time, in which 
 Luther took a very active part, terminated in 1540 
 in a retractation by Agricola ; but views more 
 extreme than his were afterwards advocated by 
 some of the English sectaries of the period of the 
 Commonwealth; and, without being formally pro- 
 fessed by a distinct sect, A. has been from time to 
 time reproduced with various modifications. It 
 ought, however, to be borne in mind, that the term 
 A. has no reference to the conduct, but only to the 
 opinions of men ; so that men who practically dis- 
 regard and violate the known law of God, are not 
 therefore antinomians ; and it is certain enough 
 that men really holding opinions more or less 
 antinomian, have in many cases been men of moral 
 life. It is also to be observed that the term A. has 
 been apphed to opinions differing very much from 
 each other. In its most extreme sense, it denotes 
 the rejection of the moral law as no longer binding 
 upon Christians ; and a power or privilege is asserted 
 for the saints to do what they please without pre- 
 judice to their sanctity ; it being maintained that to 
 them nothing is sinful; and tms is represented as 
 the perfection of Christian Hberty. But besides this 
 extreme A., than which nothing can be more repug- 
 nant to Christianity, there is also sometimes desig- 
 nated by this term the opinion of those who refuse 
 to seek or to see in the Bible any positive laws 
 binding upon Christians, and regard them as left to 
 the guidance of gospel principles and the constraint 
 of (jhristian love ; an opinion which, whatever may 
 be thought of its tendency, is certainly not to be 
 deemed of the same character with the other. 
 Probably, the A. that does not arise out of a dislike 
 
ANTINOUS— AJSTTIOCHUS. 
 
 of morality, usually originates in. mistaken notions 
 of Christian liberty, or m confusion of views as to 
 the relation between the moral law and the Jewish 
 law of ceremonial ordinances. 
 
 ANTI'NOUS, a beautiful youth of Claudiopolis, 
 in Bithynia. He waa page to the Emperor Hadrian, 
 and the object of his extravagant affection, accom- 
 panying him in all his travels, but waa either 
 drowned accidentally in the river Nile, or as some 
 suppose, committed suicide, from a, loathing of the 
 life he led, in 122 A. d. His memory and the grief 
 of the emperor were perpetuated by many statues 
 and bass-reliefs, of which several are very beautiful, 
 especially two now in Eome — one found in the 
 baths, and the other in the villa of Hadrian. ' In 
 all figures of A.,' says Winckelmann, 'the face 
 has a rather melancholy expression; the eyes are 
 large, with fine outliaes ; the profile is gently, sloped 
 downwards ; and the mouth and chin are especially 
 beautiful.' The city of Besa, in the Thebais, near 
 to which A. was drowned, was also rebuilt by 
 Hadrian, and the name of Antiaoopolis conferred 
 upon it, in memory of his favourite. A. was 
 further enrolled amongst the gods, and temples 
 erected to Viim in Egypt and Greece. 
 
 A'NTIOCH, the ancient capital of the Greek 
 kings of Syria, was the most magnificent of the 
 .eixteen cities of that name bmlt by Seleuous Nicator. 
 Its situation was admirably chosen. The river 
 Oroutes, issuing from the mountains of Lebanon, 
 flows north as Jar as the 36th parallel of latitude, 
 and then south-west into the Levant. On the 
 left bank of the river, after it has taken this last 
 -direction, and at a distance of twenty miles from 
 the sea, lay the famous city, in the midst of a fertile 
 and beautiful plain, ten miles long by five broad. 
 By its Ijarbour, Seleuoeia, it had communication 
 "with all the maritime cities of the West, while it 
 became, on the other hand, an emporium for the 
 merohandiae of the East; for bemud it lay the 
 ■vast Syrian desert, across which travelled the 
 •caravans from Mesopotamia and Arabia. On the 
 north, the plain of A. is bounded by the mountain- 
 chain of Anianus, connected with the south-eastern 
 ■extremity of Mount Taurus ; and on the south, which 
 is more rooky, by the broken decKvities of Mount 
 Casius, from which the ancient town was distant 
 less than two milea. In early times, a part of the 
 •city stood upon an island, which has now disap- 
 peared. The rest was bmlt partly on the plain, and 
 j)artly on the rugged ascent towards Mount Casius. 
 The slopes above the city were covered with vine- 
 yards, while the banks of the river displayed, as 
 they do even at the present day, a gorgeous pro- 
 iusion of eastern fruit-trees. The ancients called 
 it 'A. the Beautiful,' 'the Crown of the Eaat,' &c. 
 It was a favourite residence of the Seleucid princes 
 and of the wealthy Romans, and was famed through- 
 out the whole world for the abundance of its con- 
 -venienoea and the splendour of its luxury. It received 
 irom Strabo the name of Tetrapolis, on account 
 of three new sites having been successively built 
 upon, and each surrounded with a wall. Its public 
 ■edifices were magnificent. The principal were — the 
 Palace ; the Senate-houpe ; the Temple of Jupiter, 
 "burnished with gold; the Theatre, Amphitheatre, 
 and Caesarium, besides an aqueduct, a pubHc pro- 
 menade, and innumerable baths. At the beginning 
 of the Koman empire, it was as large as Paris, and 
 for many generations after, continued to receive 
 numeroua embellishments from' the emperors. Nor 
 ■did its glory fade immediately after the founding of 
 Constantinople, for though it then ceased to be the 
 first city of the Eaat, it rose into new dignity as 
 a Christian city. Ten councils were held in it. 
 
 Churches sprang up exhibiting a new style of 
 architecture, wmch soon became prevalent; and 
 even Constantine himself spent a considerable time 
 here, adorning it, and strengthening its harbour, 
 Seleuceia. The Antiochenes themseRres, however, 
 brought about the ruin of their beautiful city. They 
 were famous, above all other people in ancient times, 
 for their biting and acurrUous wit, and for their 
 ingenuity in devising nicknames; and when the 
 Persians, under Chosroes, invaded Syria in 538 A. v., 
 the Antiochenes could not refrain from jesting at 
 them. The Persians took ample revenge by the total 
 destruction of the city, which, however, was rebuilt by 
 Justinian. The next important event in its history 
 was its conquest by the Saracens in the 7th c. In the 
 9th e. it was recovered by the Greeks under Nice- 
 phorus Phooaa, but in lOS'i it again fell into the hands 
 of the Mohammedans. The Crusaders besieged and 
 took it on the 3d of June 1098. At the close of the 
 13th c, the aultan of JEgypt seized it : since then, 
 it has undergone a, variety of vicissitudes, and at 
 present forms a portion of Syria, in the eyalet of 
 Aleppo. Its modem name is Antaldeh. It exhibits 
 almost no traces of its former grandeur, except the 
 ruina of the walls built by Justmian, and of the for- 
 tress erected by the Crusaders. The housea are 
 generally of stone, and roofed with red tiles; the 
 streets are narrow ; the manufactures few and 
 unimportant, and the population not more than 
 6000 or 7000. 
 
 ANTI'OCHUS, a common Greek name, was 
 borne by thirteen kings of Syria, four kings of 
 Commagene (a small country between the Euphrates 
 and Mount Taurus ) , and many other personsofnote(see 
 Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Soman Biography). 
 A. Soter, the first of the Syrian dynasty, ' or Seleu- 
 cidse, as they were called from their founder, was 
 the son of Seleuous, the general and one of the 
 suocesaora of Alexander. A was the fruit of 
 one of those marriages which Alexander cele- 
 brated at Susa between his generals and the prin- 
 cesses of Persia. His mother's name was Apama. 
 From this fact we gather that A. was probably 
 born in 324 B. 0. For the earlier career of A., see 
 Seleuous. On the murder of his father in 280 B. o., 
 A succeeded him in his dominiona, but he after- 
 wards permitted Antigonus Gonatas to retain 
 possession of Macedonia on his marrying PhUa, a 
 daughter of Seleucus. A. waa much occupied in 
 wars with the Gauls, who invaded Asia Minor, 
 and, on one occasion, is said to have gained a victory 
 over them by the help of his elephants, from which 
 circumstance he derived the name of Soter (Saviour). 
 He was subsequently killed in a battle with the 
 Gaula (261 B.C.), and was succeeded by his son 
 A. II. This A. is mentioned in the Book of 
 Daniel (xi. 6) as the king of the north — the king 
 of the south being Ptolemy, whose daughter, 
 Berenice, A. had been compelled to marry. On 
 the death of Ptolemy, A. recalled his former wife, 
 Laodice; but she, in revenge for the insult which 
 she had received, caused A. to be murdered, along 
 with Berenice and her son. A lost the provinces 
 of Parthia and Bactria. 
 
 But the most diatinguiahed of the SeleucidaB was A. 
 III., surnamed the Great, who was the son of Seleucus 
 CaUinicua, and grandson of the preceding. In his ear- 
 lier wars with Ptolemy, Philopator A. was generally 
 successful; and though he was defeated in a great 
 battle fought near Gaza, he afterwards, by his victory 
 over the Egyptian general, Scopas, obtained entire 
 possession of Palestine and Coele-Syria. In this war 
 he waa assisted by the Jews, to, whom he granted 
 many privileges. Fearing the power of the Romans, 
 A. at length concluded a peace with Egypt, betrothed 
 his daughter Cleopatra to the young kmg Ptolemy, 
 
ANTIP^EDOBAPTIST— ANTIPATHY. 
 
 and gave her Coele-Syria and Palestine as a dowry. 
 The fonnidable enemy which he thus hoped to 
 escape encountered him at a later period of his 
 career. Having conquered PhiHp of Macedonia, 
 the Romans no longer dreaded a war with A., and 
 accordingly sent him an embassy, demanding the 
 smrender of the Thraciau Chersonese, and of the 
 places which he had conquered from Ptolemy, 
 whose guardian the Romans had become. In 191 
 B. c, he was entirely defeated by the consul AcUius 
 Glabrio at Thermopyls, and compelled to return to 
 Asia. Having a second time tried the fortune of 
 war, he was defeated by Scipio, who had crossed 
 over into Asia, and very severe terms were imposed 
 on him. He found so much difficulty in raising money 
 to pay the tribute the Romans demanded, that he 
 was led to plunder a temple in Elymais, when the 
 people rose against him, and killed him (187 B. c). 
 The fate of A. was foretold in the Book of Daniel 
 (xi. 18, 19). 
 
 A. IV., (175 — 164 E. c.) surnamed Epiphanes, by his 
 tyranny and sacrilege, excited the Jews to a successful 
 insurrection under their leaders Mattathias, Judas 
 Macoabseus, and the other members of that heroic 
 family. The monstrous life of A. is recorded in the 
 books of the Maccabees. The last of the Seleucidse, 
 A. XIII., surnamed Asiaticus, was deprived of his 
 kingdom by Pompey, who reduced Syria to a Roman 
 province (65 B. c.f. 
 
 AUTTIPJEDOBA'PTIST, a term exactly desig- 
 nating one who objects to child-baptism. As such 
 a one, however, is generally known in this country 
 under the name Baptist, see Baptist. 
 
 ANTI'PABOS (anciently called Olearos or Oliaros), 
 one of the Cyclades islands, celebrated for a 
 stalactitic cave, is separated from Paros by a 
 narrow strait. It contains about 400 inhabi- 
 tants, and forms a part of the eparchy of Naxos. 
 A. is 7 miles in length by about 3 in breadth ; it is 
 scantily supplied with water, but the flats in the 
 north and west are tolerably fertile. Com and 
 wine are cultivated, but not to any great extent. 
 The principal occupation of the inhabitants is 
 fishing. From Kastron, the only village in the 
 island, the distance to the celebrated grotto is 
 about an hour and a half's ride. This wonderful 
 cave is not alluded to by any Greek or Roman 
 writer whose works are extant, but must have been 
 visited by the curiosity-hunters of antiquity, for, 
 in 1806, Colonel Leake deciphered a Hellenic inscrip- 
 tion which contained the names of those who had 
 descended into it in ancient times. It is situated in 
 the side of a mountain on the S. coast of the island, 
 which is described as a mass of white marble. The 
 top or entrance of the cave has a striking appear- 
 ance ; but the sloping descent is rather dangerous, 
 on accoimt of thp cord by which the traveller holds 
 being extremely sHppery from constant humidity. 
 The bottom once reached, and the grotto entered, 
 there is presented to the eye as dazzling a specimen 
 
 of stalactitic formation as can well be conceived 
 
 the roof, floor, and walls of the various chambers, 
 aU guttering with the most gorgeous incrustation, 
 though it is said that the smoke of the torches and 
 the constant fingering of visitors, are sullying the 
 primitive purity of the massive columns. It is 
 beheved that there are other caves of equal splendour 
 in the vicinity which have not yet been discovered. 
 The height of the known cavern is 80 feet; its 
 length and breadth more than 300; but it seems 
 the eye can only take in at once a length of 150 
 feet, and a breadth of 100. The grotto was first 
 made known to the modern world in 1673, by the 
 then French ambassador to the Porte, M. de Nointel. 
 
 ANTI'PATER. Of the many persons who bore 
 396 
 
 this name in antiquity, the most celebrated was one 
 of the generals and confidential friends 6f King 
 Phihp of Macedon. When Alexander led his troops 
 into Asia, he left A. — who, along with Parmenion, 
 had endeavoured to dissuade him from the expedi- 
 tion — as governor of Macedonia. A. discharged 
 the duties of this office with great ability, suppress- 
 ing the insiu-rections in Thrace and Sparta ; but 
 Olympias, the mother of Alexander, who entertained 
 a dislike to A., prevailed on her son to appoint 
 Craterus as regent of Macedonia. Alexander, 
 prompted also, it is supposed, by his own jealousy 
 of A., consented, but died before the change was 
 carried into effect; and A. was left to share with 
 Craterus the government of Alexander's territories 
 in Europe. The government of Macedonia was 
 assigned to him ; and soon after, he was called upon 
 to defend- himself against an alliance of the Grecian 
 states. With the assistance of Craterus— on whom 
 he afterwards bestowed his daughter Phila in 
 marriage — and to a certain extent of Leonnatus, 
 he succeeded in reducing the allies to subjection. 
 Democracy at Athens was abolished, a garrison 
 admitted into Munychia, and the leaders of the 
 popidar party put to death. When Demosthenes 
 was summoned to the presence of A., he took poison, 
 which for some time he had been carrying on his 
 person, and died in the temple of Poseidon (322 B. c). 
 This war was followed by another with Perdiccas, 
 who was also his son-in-law, in which A. was again 
 successful. After the murder of Perdiccas in 321 B. c, 
 A. was appointed to the supreme regency of the 
 kingdom, and the guardianship of Alexander's 
 children. He died at an advanced age, in B.C. 318 
 or 319, leaving the regency to Polysperchon, to the 
 exclusion of his own son Cassander. 
 
 The others of this name were : I. A., second son of 
 Cassander, king of Macedonia, who lived in the 3d. c. 
 B.C. — II. A., the father of Herod the Great. He 
 flourished in the days of Pompey and Julius Caesar, 
 was a firm friend of the Romans, and about the year 
 47 B.C. was appointed procurator of Judea. He 
 was poisoned in 43 B. c. by one whose life he had 
 twice saved. — III. A., grandson of the former, and 
 son of Herod the Great by his first wife Doris, a 
 worthless prince, who was perpetually conspiring 
 against the life of his brothers, until his trial and 
 condemnation at Jerusalem before Quintilius Varus, 
 the Roman governor of Syria. He was executed 
 in prison five days before Herod died, and in the 
 same year with the massacre of the innocents at 
 Bethlehem. 
 
 A. was likewise the name of various eminent men 
 in ancient times — physicians, philosophers, historians, 
 poets, mathematicians, and grammarians. 
 
 ANTI'PATHY is the term applied to a, class 
 of cases in which individuals are disagreeably 
 affecfted by, or violently dislike, things innocuous 
 or agreeable to the majority of mankind. These 
 peculiarities are no doubt sometimes acquired in 
 early life by injudiciously terrifying children with 
 some object, the mental impression becoming perman- 
 ent. A large class of persons have an A. to animal 
 food, and from childhood refuse to taste it. In 
 others, again, the aversion is limited to one kind of 
 meat, as veal or pork ; others are averse to eggs or 
 milk. Nor is this feeling a' conscious caprice, which 
 an exertion of the will might remove ; for it is 
 geiieraUy found that contact with the object of the 
 A. is resented by the bodily economy, and symptoms 
 of poisoning are rapidly produced. Some are affected 
 with these symptoms who have no mental aversion 
 to the article. We read of a countess who had 
 a liking for beef-udder, but directly it touched her 
 lips they became swoUen. There is also the case of 
 a boy, who, ' if at any time he ate of an egg, his Lps 
 
ANTIPHLOGISTIC— ANTIPODES. 
 
 would swell, in his face would rise purple and black 
 spots, and he would froth at the mouth.' Soine 
 medicines affect particular persons dangerously, even 
 when given in very minute doses : a single grain of 
 mercury has been known to induce a profuse saliva- 
 tion, with destruction of the jaw-bones. On others, 
 medicines have a peculiar effect — astringents may 
 urge. Every summer, in Great Britain, persons may 
 e seen with the most distressing irritation of the 
 nasal and palpebral mucous membranes, produced 
 by the exhalations arising from the iields during the 
 inflorescence of the hay-crop. In others, an asthmatic 
 condition is induced by the same cause. The air of 
 some places has a, similar influence on individuals : 
 one gentleman was always attacked with asthma if 
 he slept in the town of KiUcenny, and another 
 rarely escaped a fit of that complaint, if he slept 
 anywhere else. 
 
 The most remarkable antipathies are those affect- 
 ing the special senses. Nearly aU persons have a 
 loathing at reptiles, but some iew/aint on seeing a 
 toad or lizard, others on seeing insects. ' The Duke 
 d' Epernon swooned at sight of a leverfet — a hare did 
 not produce the same effect. Tycho BrahS fainted 
 at sight of a fox, Henry III. of France at that of a 
 cat, and Marshal d' Albert at a pig.' — Millingen. 
 
 Hearing a wet finger drawn on glass, the grinding 
 of knives, or a creaking wheel, is sufficient to pro- 
 duce fainting in some. Smelling musk or ambergris 
 throws some into 'convulsions ; and we have seen 
 how articles of food affect others — often, no doubt, 
 owing to perverted taste. The touch of anything 
 unusually smooth has the same effect sometimes. 
 Zimmerman records the case of a lady who was thus 
 affected by the feeling of silk, satin, or the velvety 
 skin of a peach. — This subject will be further con- 
 sidered under Idiosynceasies, 
 
 ANTIPHLOGI'STIC (Gr. anti, against, and 
 pUego, I burn), a term applied to remedies, and also 
 to regimen, that are opposed to inflammation ; such 
 as blood-letting, purgatives, low diet, &c. 
 
 A'NTIPHON; the earliest of the ten Attic orators 
 in the Alexandrine canon, was the son of Sophilus 
 the Sophist, and born at Biamnus in Attica 480 B. 0. 
 In his youth, the reputation of Gorgias, the most 
 showy and insincere of all the Greek rhetoricians, 
 was at its height. A. soon became convinced of 
 the worthlessness of that oratory which the fashion 
 of the time so highly valued, and resolved to 
 introduce a new and better kind. He laboured 
 to make his arguments clear, solid, and convincing, 
 so that it might be impossible for the judges who 
 listened to the speeches he wrote to refuse their 
 assent to his .propositions. His success was iitimi s- 
 takable. Although he never made a public appear- 
 ance as a pleader in the courts of justice, but 
 contented himself with writing speeches for others 
 to deliver, he acquired great influence, which he did 
 not fail to exert for the furtherance of his poHtical 
 principles. To him must be attributed the over- 
 throw of the Athenian democracy (411 B. c), and the 
 establishment of the oligarchical government of the 
 Pour Himdred ; for although Piaander figured pro- 
 minently before the people in this revolution, the 
 whole affair, according to Thucydides — one of A.'s 
 pupils in oratory, and a man admirably fitted to 
 judge of such a point — ^was secretly planned by 
 him. The oKgarcmcal government did not prosper. 
 Dissensions quickly broke out among the Four 
 Hundred, and six months after, Alcibiades, the 
 brilliant demagogue, was recalled. A. was brought 
 to trial for treason, in having attempted to negotiate 
 peace with Sparta. He is said to have made a noble 
 defence of himself. Thucydides affirms that an 
 abler w&s never made by any man in a similar 
 
 I 
 
 position. It was his first and last oration. He was 
 condemned to death ; his property was confiscated, 
 his house razed to the ground, his remains forbidden 
 interment in Attica, and his children for ever 
 declared incapable of enjoying civic privileges. Of 
 the 60 orations of A. which the ancients possessed, 
 only 15 have come down to us. Three of- these are 
 written for others, and are greatly admired for their 
 clearness, purity, and vigour of expression; the 
 remaining 12 appear to have been intended as 
 specimens of school-rhetoric for his pupils. They 
 are not held in equal estinlation with the others. 
 
 ANTI'PHONY, a name given by the ancient 
 Greeks to a species of musical accompaniment in the 
 octave, by instruments or voices, in opposition to 
 that executed in unison, which they called Hrnno- 
 plwny. A. is also the name of a species of sacred 
 song, sung by two parties, each responding to the 
 other ; a practice which was cultivated in the early 
 ages of the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans. Many of 
 the Psalms of David shew that antiphonal singing was 
 then in use. Its introduction into the Greek Chiirch 
 is ascribed to Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, in the 
 2d c. ; and Ambrosius, Bishop of MUan, is said to 
 have introduced it into the w estem Church, in the 
 4th c. The dividing of the antiphoaies into verses, 
 with rules regarding the same, is attributed to Pope 
 Ccelestin in 432. Pope Gregory I., in 590, pre- 
 pared the first regular AntipJumarium (see Durandi 
 Rationale Divinorum Offidorum, Mainz, 1459). It 
 was early a custom,.which became especially common 
 after the 13th c, to date deeds with the beginning 
 words of the A. (Iniroitus), which in these times 
 served for the day of the month and of the week. 
 The Reformed Christian Churches of Germany and 
 England have still retained a certain degree of 
 antiphonal siaging. The chanting of the Psalms in 
 the English cathedral service is an imitation of the 
 ancient antiphony. 
 
 ANTI'PODES, a word of Greek origin, signifying, 
 literally, those who have their feet over against ea(5 
 other. As applied to geography, the term means the 
 inhabitants of any two opposite points of the globe, 
 or, in other words, the dwellers at the opposite 
 extremities of any diameter of the earth. From 
 this primary relation, there necessarily arise many 
 secondary relations. A. must be on one and the 
 same meridional circle, separated from each other 
 by half the circumference. Being on one and the 
 same meridional circle, they must differ in long, 
 exactly 180°, with the exception of the poles them- 
 selves, as having no longitude at aU ; and being sepa- 
 rated from each other by half the circumference, they 
 must be equi-distant from the equator in opposite 
 directions. Take Edinburgh, as an example, iji 
 lat. 55' 57' N., and long. 3° 11' W. ; its A. must be 
 in lat. 55° 57' S., and in long. 183° 11' W., or rather 
 in 176° 49' E. — which is merely an undistinguishable 
 spot in the Antarctic or Southern Ocean. Take, as 
 another example, London, in lat. 51° 30' N., and 
 long. 0° 5' W. Its A. must be in lat. 51° 30' S., 
 and in long. 180° 5' W., or rather 179° 55' E.— 
 coinciding pretty nearly with a small island to 
 the south-east of New Zealand. This small island, 
 in honour rather of London than of itself, has 
 appropriated the term A. as its own peculiar 
 name. 
 
 Between A. in general there necessarily exist alsO' 
 other secondary relations. With reference to the 
 earth's daily rotation, the noon of the one side must 
 be the midnight of the other ; while, with regard to 
 its annual revolution, the summer and the autumn of 
 the one side must be the winter and the spring of 
 the other. With respect, however, to the former 
 contrast, some explanation may be required. This, 
 
 297 
 
AUTIPOPE— ANTIQUE. 
 
 for instance, being Wednesday in London, was last 
 midniglit in that city the noon of Tuesday or of 
 Wednesday at A. Island? The answer is, that, 
 according to circumstances, it may be held to be 
 either the one or the other. In going eastward — that 
 is, in meeting the sun — one, from day to day, antici- 
 pates every noon and every midnight in the pro- 
 portion of 4' of time to 1° of long., or of 12 hours of 
 time to 180° of long. ; so that, on reaching A. Island 
 from London by the Cape of Good Hope, the middle 
 of Tuesday night, by Greenvnch reckoning, is 
 ■actually regarded on the spot as the noon of 
 Wednesday. In going westward, again — that is, in 
 leading, as it were, the sun — one, from day to day, 
 postpones every noon and every midnight in the 
 same proportion as above ; so that, on reaching 
 A. Island from London by Cape Horn, the middle 
 of Tuesday night, by Greenwich reckoning, is 
 actually regarded on the spot as the noon of Tuesday. 
 In fact, navigators in opposite directions, meeting 
 at any intermediate point whatever of the earth's cir- 
 ijjunferenoe, always diifer in their computation of 
 time by a whole day, or 24 hours. In two cases, this 
 has been permanently exemplified : the Spaniards at 
 the Philippines, who have come from the east, are 
 a day behind the Portuguese in Macao, who have 
 oome from the west ; while, on the north-west 
 coast of America, the Eussians from the west are a 
 day in advance of the British from the east. 
 
 A'TTTIPOPB was a pontiff elected by the will 
 of a sovereign, or the intrigues of a faction, in oppo- 
 sition to one canonically chosen. The emperors of 
 Oermany were the first to set up popes of their own 
 nomination against those whom the Komans had 
 elected without consulting them. Otho the Great 
 displaced successively two bishops of Home; and 
 when Sylvester III. had expelled from the capital 
 of Christendom Benedict IX., whose profligacy had 
 •compromised in the eyes of all men the honour of 
 the sovereign pontificate, Conrad II., king of Ger- 
 many, brought back this worthless pastor, who 
 liastened to sell his dignity to Gregory VI. There 
 were now, consequently, three popes, and their num- 
 her was increased to four by the election of Clement 
 II. in 1046. Shortly after, Alexander II. found a 
 lival in Honorius II. ; and in 1080 the same imseemly 
 43pectacle was witnessed, when Henry IV. emperor 
 of Germany, elevated to the papal chair Guibert of 
 Kavenna, under the title of Clement III., in oppo- 
 sition to his implacable adversary, Gregory VII. 
 But after the death of Gregory, Clement was him- 
 self opposed successively by Victor III. and Urban 
 II., and at last died at a distance from Rome, 
 laving just beheld the exaltation of Pascal II. as 
 -the successor of Urban. During the 12th c, several 
 antipopes flourished, such as Gregory VTII. and 
 Honorius III. On the death of the latter, France 
 began to intermeddle in these disgraceful strifes, and 
 ■upheld the cause of Innocent II. against Auaolet; 
 while the kings of Sicily, on the other hand, fre- 
 ■quently set up a pontiff of their own against the 
 choice of the emperors. The 13th and 14th centuries 
 swarm with antipopes ; but what specially deserves 
 notice is ' the great schism of the West,' produced by 
 "these shameless rivalries in 1378 — a schism which 
 divided the Church for fifty years. It broke out 
 after the death of Gregory XI., at the election of 
 Urban VI., whom the voice of the Roman people, 
 demanding an Italian pope, and not one who should 
 fix his pontificate, like several of his predecessors, at 
 a distance from Eomfe, had elevated to the papal 
 throne. The French cardinals objected, withdrew 
 to Provence, and elected a new pope, under the 
 name of Clement VII., who was recognised by 
 France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland; whilst Italy, 
 Oermany, England, and the whole north of Europe, 
 
 298 
 
 supported Urban VI. These two popes excommuni- 
 cated each other ; nor did they even fear to oomprov 
 mise their sacred character by the most cruel out- 
 rages and the most odious insults. The schism 
 continued after their death, when three popes made 
 their appearance 'in the field,' aU. of whom were 
 deposed by the Council of Constance in 1415, and 
 Cardinal Colonna elected in their room, under the 
 title of Martin V. The last antipope was Clement 
 VIII. With him the schism ceased; but the evil 
 was done, and nothing could remedy it. The dogma 
 of papal infallibility had received a mortal wound 'in 
 the house of its friends,' and the scepticism induced 
 on this point rapidly extended to others. See Pope. 
 
 A'NTIQUAEIES, SociEir of. Under this 
 name, associations of learned men, established for 
 the exclusive purpose of cultivating the study of 
 antiquities, exist in the principal countries of Europe 
 and in America — at London, Edinbxu'gh, Paris, Rome, 
 Vienna, Copenhagen, &c. The London Society of A. 
 received its charter in 1751, but had commenced its 
 meetings as early as 1707 ; minutes began to be kept 
 in 1718. Long previous to this, in 1572, an Ajitiquarian 
 Society was established by Archbishop Parker and 
 Sir Egbert Cotton. It was dissolved about the 
 year 1604 by King James, whose weak and narrow 
 mind regarded the inquiries of the A. with suspicion. 
 The present ' Society of A. of London ' consists of a 
 President, a Council of 21, and several hundred 
 Fellows. It has published a large number of curious 
 and valuable works, among the most interesting of 
 which is a series of Anglo-Saxon and early En^sh 
 literary remains. The Scottish Society of A. was 
 founded in 1780. It has published four volumes of 
 Transactions, and collected a valuable museum, 
 which is now become national property, and is 
 arranged for permanent exhibition at the expense 
 of the government. The SodSte des Antiguaires, 
 de France took that name in 1814, having been 
 founded in 1805 as the Academie Geltique. With 
 the change of name, the sphere of the Society's 
 labours was greatly enlarged. It has published 
 many important works. A similar institution is the 
 SodeU des Antiguaires de Normandie, founded at 
 Caen in 1824. The Copenhagen Society of A. is a 
 body of high reputation. See Aechleologt. 
 
 ANTI'QUB. As the term ancients is commonly 
 applied to the Greeks and Romans, the word A. is 
 used with reference to their works of art, espe- 
 cially their incomparable sculptures. The A. Style 
 in works of art is distinguished by critics from the 
 Romantic or Medieval, and also from the Modern. 
 The sculpture of the Greeks is characterised by 
 freshness, originality, and ideahty; and the phases 
 it underwent have their parallels in the development 
 of the literature and general culture of that people. 
 In the earliest times, the statues had a rigid, formal 
 character, and looked more like the idols of bar- 
 barous nations than deities in human, form ; then 
 came stern. Titan-like forms, corresponding with the 
 Prometheus of .^schylus; next, the sciSptures of 
 Phidias, Polycletes, and Polygnotus — ^like the char- 
 acters in the dramas of So^ocles — present to us 
 humanity in its purest and noblest ideal forms. 
 Then, as Euripides in poetry left the old domain of 
 destipy, and derived motives and action from ordi- 
 nary human passions, so statuary descended from 
 the ideal to a closer resemblance to the forms of 
 actual life ; as we see in the works of Praxiteles and 
 Lysippas. Afterwards, when Aristophanes intro- 
 duced comedy, forms of everyday-Ufe began to 
 appear in sculpture ; and thus a gradual transition 
 was made from the art of the Greeks, which was 
 ideal, in the true sense of the word, to that of the 
 Romans, which was real, monumental, and portrait- 
 
ANTIQUITIES— AITTISTHENES. 
 
 lite. The Eomans were the realists of the anoient 
 woj'ld ; their indigenous philosophy was of a popular 
 kind ; their poetiy, so far as it was national, was 
 satire ; and their works of art may be regarded as 
 monuments and portraitures of real life, quite suit- 
 able for a nation of soldiers, lawyers, j^ud poUtioians, 
 but vastly inferior to the ideal beauty displayed in 
 the best period of Grecian art. 
 
 ANTIQUITIES. See AscHiEOLOGT. 
 
 AKTIREHIlirUM. See Snapbbagmt. 
 
 AN TISCOEBUTICS. See SoimvY. 
 
 ANTISB'PTICS are substances which arrest 
 the putrefactive changes that dead vegetable and 
 animal matter ia liable to undergo when exposed to 
 air, warmth, and moisture. A. are therefore anti- 
 putrescents ; and the term itself indicates the office 
 which the members of the class fulfil {anti, against, 
 and septiJcos, putrefactive). The theory of the action 
 of all A. is, that one or two of the three indispens- 
 able conditions of putrefaction — ^viz., 1, a moderate 
 loarmth, 2, access to air, and 3, moisture — 'are arrested 
 or neutralised. Thus, in the preservation of fish in 
 stores or during transi)ort by raUway, they are 
 packed in barrels with ice, which keeps down the 
 temperature ; and though air and, moisture gain 
 admittance, yet the putrefactive processes cannot 
 proceed. The same preservative power of cold is 
 observed naturally in the discovery of remains of 
 elephants and other animals imbedded in the ice of 
 the polar regions, and which doubtless have been 
 locked up there for ages. In a less degree, the influ- 
 once of cold as an antiseptic is observed in the longer 
 time that meat, eggs, and other animal matters keep 
 fresh in winter than in summer. 
 
 Again, warmth and moisture may be present, but 
 if the air be excluded, putrefaction does not go on. 
 The ordinary mode of preparing preserved meats 
 affords the best illustration of this point. The sub- 
 stance to be preserved is placed in a tin dish covered 
 over, and leaving a very small opening. When the 
 can with its contents is heated, the air which fills 
 lip the pores of the soUds, and is dissolved in the 
 liquids, is driven off, and escaping by the aperture in 
 the cover of the dish, leaves the contents devoid of 
 air. If the opening be now closed with solder, the 
 air is kept from returning ; and whatever climate 
 the can of preserved meat be sent to, yet so long as 
 the tin casing remains good, and refuses to aamit 
 the air, so long wiU the contents contiaue wholesome 
 and palatable. The common plan of preserving 
 oggs by rubbing over the shell with tallow or oil, is 
 founded on the principle of filling up the pores of 
 the shell, so as to deny the adnussion of the air. 
 Moisture is likewise necessary for the process of 
 putrefaction. Thus, if the contents of an egg be 
 thrown out on a plate, and thoi?oughly dried in an 
 oven, the whole becomes of a hard, homy consist- 
 ence, and may be kept in this state for years with- 
 out exhibiting the slightest symptom of passing into 
 a putrescent or rotten condition. In the same way 
 meat may be kept quite fresh by depriving it of 
 moisture. Eggs dried up in this manner require 
 only to be soaked in cold water, and then boiled, 
 when they wiU present themselves in a condition 
 iardly differing in flavour and taste from an ordinary 
 boiled egg. 
 
 The more important chemical A. are — Alcohol, 
 wood-spirit, creasote, pitch-oil, coke-oil, sugar, tannic 
 acid, sulphurous acid, common salt, nitre, alum, 
 chloride of zinc, siilphate of copper (blue vitriol), 
 corrosive sublimate, arsenic. 
 
 The manner in which these A. act is very differ- 
 ent. — 1. Sulphurous acid acts by combining with 
 the oxygen, and thereby deoxidising the substance. 
 
 2. Sirup of sugar acts by combining with the water 
 of the substance to be preserved. 3. Creasote, 
 tannic acid, alum, chloride of zinc, sulphate of 
 copper, corrosive sublimate, and arsenic, are useful 
 in forming compounds with the organic matter, 
 which are not so liable to become putrescent as the 
 uncombined organic substance. 4. Alcohol, wood- 
 spirit, common salt and nitre, act in a double way, 
 by combining with the water of the putrescible sub- 
 stance, and by combining with the substance itseU, 
 so as to form a more durable compound. 
 
 Some of the more important uses to which the 
 chemical A. are appKed are — 1. In the preservation 
 of anatomical specimens, where alcohol, and less 
 often, chloride of zinc, are the agents ; 2. In the 
 curing of herring and other fish, where common salt 
 is generally used ; 3. In preparing corned or salted 
 meat and tongues, where common salt and nitre 
 are jointly employed ; and 4. In the manufacture of 
 size for' writing-papers, where the paper-maker uses 
 sulphite of soda or antichlore (containing sulphurous 
 acid) to arrest the decomposition of the scraps of 
 hides used in the manufacture of size. In the preser- 
 vation of timber, A are also taken advantage of. 
 The wood is placed in a steam-box, and the air con- 
 tained ia its pores being replaced by steam, the 
 whole casing is closed tight, and allowed to cool, 
 when the steam condenses, and leaves a vacuum in 
 and around the block of wood. On the introduction 
 thereafter of one of the A, it finds its way into the 
 iniiermost pores of the timber. Wood thus pre- 
 pared is not nearly so liable to decay as it ordi- 
 narily is; and the A. seem to act here not only 
 directly in withdrawing water, and forming durable 
 compounds, but in offering a poisonous dose to 
 minute plants and animals which tend to house 
 themselves in the wood. The use of sulphate of 
 copper for this purpose was suggested by Bonchar- ' 
 dat; of corrosive. sublimate, by Kyan (hence the 
 process was called Kyanising) ; and of chloride of 
 zinc, by Sic W. Burnett (hence the term JSwmet- 
 
 ANTI'STHENES; founder of the Cynic school of 
 philosophy, was the son of A, an Athenian. The 
 date of his birth is not known, but he fought in his 
 youth at Tanagra (426 B.C.), and he survived the 
 battle of Leuctra (371 B. c), and died at Athens 
 at the age of 70. After listening to the teaching of 
 Socrates, he gave up the profession of rhetoric, 
 which he had followed at first as a disciple of 
 Gorgias, in order to apply himself wholly to the 
 study of moral philosophy. He was present at the 
 death of Socrates, and never forgave nJs persecutors. 
 A. held that virtue mainly consists in voluntary 
 abstinence from pleasure, and in a stem contempt 
 of riches, honours, and even learning. Opinions 
 of stiU greater extravagance are ascribed to A, 
 but it is probable that they were rather extreme 
 views, which he put into the mouths of the inter- 
 locutors in his dialogues, than expressibns of those 
 which he himself entertained. Even in his con- 
 demnation of pleasure, he excepted such as springs 
 from the soul, or is founded on true friendship, tn 
 consistency with his teaching, A. appeared as a 
 beggar, clad ia ragged garments — ah eccentricity 
 which Socrates is said to have reproved by saying, 
 ' I see your pride through the holes in your cloak.' 
 The singularity affected by A. gained many imita- 
 tors, and among them Diogenes, who chose to live 
 in a tub, and surpassed the master himself in Cynio 
 practice. After the death of Socrates, A taught 
 moral and practical philosophy in the Atheniaii 
 gymnasium Cynosarges, from which, it is said, his 
 school derived its title. His writings— among them a 
 polemical work against Plato — have mostly perished. 
 Such fragments as remain have been collected by | 
 
ANTITHESIS— ANTOMMAHCHL 
 
 Wmckelmann {A., Fragmmta, Tirrici, 1842). Ktter 
 classes A. witli the ' imperfect Socratioists.' 
 
 ANTI'THESIS {titkemi, to place, anti, agaiBst), a 
 figure of speecli in which ■words are placed in direct 
 oppositio^i to each other, to produce a strong con- 
 trast. Thus Lessing, in criticism on a book, says : 
 ' It contains many good things, and many new ; hut 
 the good are not new, and the new are not good.' 
 A., when naturally and moderately employed, gives 
 liveliness to style ; but, Uke aU strong figures of 
 speech, becomes wearisome when too often repeated. 
 
 ANTITRINITA'RIAlir, one who denies the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity. An A. differs from a Uni- 
 tarian only in this respect, that his objection to the 
 doctrine in question is made on philosophical, 
 while that of the latter is made on theological 
 groimds. A Unitarian is one who accepts the 
 Bible as inspired, but does not find in it the doc- 
 trine of the Trinity ; an A. ia, or may be, a philo- 
 sophical theist, who denies the inspiration of Scrip- 
 ture. Mohammed, from the stand-poiat of a new 
 and hostile religion, also denied this great Christian 
 dogma. He announced himself, with fierce emphasis, 
 an A. ; and his followers to the present day are 
 characterised by the intensity of their monotheism. 
 See Unitabian and Sociniai^-. 
 
 A'NTITYPB, a Greek word, KteraUy signifying 
 a type or figure which corresponds to some other 
 tjfpe or figure. In its theological sense, it denotes, 
 not a type, but the person in whom any prophetic 
 type is fulfilled ; thus, Christ is caEed the A. of the 
 paschal lamb. See Type. 
 
 A'NTIUM, one of the most ancient cities of 
 Latium, stood on the coast 34 miles S.S.E. from 
 Home. Being favourably situated for commerce and 
 piracy, it became, imder the Volscians, into whose 
 hands it had fallen, one of the most powerful enemies 
 of rising Rome, until finally subdued (338 e.c.). 
 It became a favoiurite resort of the wealthy Romans, 
 and some of the most famous remains of ancient art 
 have been discovered among the ruins of their villas 
 and palaces ; such as the ApoUo Belvedere, and the 
 Borghese Gladiator. It was the birthplace of the 
 Emperors Caligula and Nero ; and the latter con- 
 structed a splendid port by means of two moles 
 enclosiug a basiu two miles in circumference. 
 Eemarus of the moles stiU exist, although the basiu 
 is mostly fiUed up with sand. 
 
 Antium was completely destroyed by the Saracens 
 during the middle ages ; and it was only in the 17th 
 c, when the port was very partially restored, that 
 the modern village of Porto b'Anzo arose, the 
 population of which does not exceed -500. Near the 
 village Nettuno, in the neighbourhood, the ruins of a 
 temple of Neptime are discernible under the sea. 
 
 ANT-LION, the larva of an insect (Myrmeleon 
 formicarium) of the order Neuroptera, remarkable 
 for its habits, which have been carefuUy observed 
 by some of the ablest naturahsts of Europe. It 
 inhabits sandy districts, is not known in Eritaiu, and 
 is more common in the south of Europe than in the 
 north. The perfect insect is about an inch long, and 
 has a considerable general resemblance to a dragon- 
 fly. The larva is rather more than half an inch 
 long ; it has a very large abdomen, and a small head, 
 which, however, is furnished with two very large 
 incurved mandibles. It has six legs, but is incapable 
 of rapid locomotion, and generally moves backwards. 
 It feeds upon the jxiices of insects, particularly of 
 ants, in order to obtain which it excavates with the 
 greatest ingenuity a funnel-shaped hole in sandy 
 ground, and hes in wait at the bottom, all but 
 its mandibles buried iu the sand. Insects which 
 approach too near to the edge of the hole, then 
 become its prey, by the loose sand giving way, so 
 
 that they fall do^vn the steep slope. If they do not 
 fall quite to the bottom, but begiu to scramble up 
 again, the A. throws sand upon them by jerking its 
 
 Ant-lion : 
 a, larva ; 6, perfect ingect. 
 
 head, and so brings them back. It employs its 
 head in the same way to eject their bodies from its 
 pit, after their juices have been sucked, and casts 
 them to a considerable distance ; and by the same 
 means throws away the sand in excavating its hole, , 
 first ploughing it up with its body, and then placing it 
 upon its head by means of one of its fore-legs. It 
 always begins by working round the circular circum- 
 ference of its future hole, and gradually narrows and 
 deepens it ; turning quite round after each time that 
 it works round the hole, so as to employ next time 
 the fore-leg of the other side. When it meets with a 
 stone which it cannot remove, it deserts the excava- 
 tion, and begins another. The pit, when completed, 
 is usually about thirty inches in diameter by twenty 
 in depth. 
 
 ANTOMMARCHI, Feanoesco, a. well-known 
 physician and native of Corsica, was born in the second 
 half of the 18th c. He owes his celebrity almost 
 entirely to his intimacy with Napoleon Bonaparte 
 during the exile of the latter in St Helena. In 1818, 
 he was induced to leave Florence, where he held the 
 ofiice of anatomical dissector in the Hospital of 
 Santa Maria Nuova of Florence, and to become 
 private physician to the banished emperor. There 
 was at first httle cordiahty between the two ; but 
 subsequently Bonaparte conceived a high regard for 
 his countryman, and at his death left bim 100,000 
 francs. In 1821, A. returned to Europe, and in 1826 
 pubHshed at Paris Les Derniers Moments de 
 Napoleon, a work which has been very extensively 
 read. He now became involved in a dispute with 
 the heirs of Masoagni — his old anatomical professor 
 — regarding certain anatomical plates which he 
 annoimced as on the eve of publication. The heirs 
 affirmed that A.'s Hthographed drawings were mere 
 copies from the plates of Mascagni, and the contro- 
 versy went on briskly for some time, till Paris 
 grew tired of it, when it gradually died away 
 and was forgotten. On the breaking out of the 
 Pohsh revolution, A. departed for Warsaw, where he 
 received the appointment of general inspector of 
 military hospitals. He soon returned to Paris, where 
 he pubhshed a cast of Napoleon's head, which he 
 affirmed to have taken when the emperor was on 
 his death-bed. This declaration again involved him 
 in a hot dispute with the phrenologists, who were 
 not satisfied with the conformation of the cranium, 
 and therefore cast suspicious — some of them appar- 
 ently not altogether ill founded — on the veracity of 
 A's. statements. Harassed by the attacks of his 
 adversaries, and sick of further controversy. A., 
 about 1836, resolved to emigrate to America. He 
 died at San Antonio, in Cuba, on the 3d of April 
 1838. 
 
ANTON ULRICH— ANTONINUS. 
 
 ANTON ULRICH, second son of Duko Ferdi- 
 nand Albert of Braimsohwcig-Wolfenblittel (till 
 1739, BraunsoKweig-Bevern, the title by which the 
 prince was first known in Russia), was born in 1714. 
 When the Russian Empress Anna was looking out for 
 an alliance for her niece, Anna Carlowua, Princess 
 of Meoldenburg-Sohwerin, the influence of Austria led 
 her to choose A. TJ. Accordingly, he came to Russia 
 in 1733, was appointed colonel of a cuirassier regi- 
 ment, and placed in the receipt of a considerable 
 pension. The marriage was, however, long delayed. 
 The princess shewed a decided distaste for the 
 insignificant character of the bridegroom-elect, and 
 only married him to avoid a still more hated union 
 with the son of Biron. The birth of the Prince 
 Ivan took place in 1740, a year after the marriage. 
 About the same time, the empress falling dangerously 
 sick, appointed the infant prince her successor, and 
 Biron regent. After her death, A. U. made some 
 feeble attempts to reverse this appoipitment, which 
 only led to the pimishment of those supposed to 
 have instigated them, and to his own military 
 degradation. Biron's conduct towards the parents 
 of the infant prince becoming unbearably insolent, 
 Anna appealed in despair to General Miinnich, 
 ■who put a sudden end to Biron's sway, and 
 declared the grand-duchess and her husband regents. 
 After a few months, Anna ungratefully overthrew 
 Miinnich. After his fall, as little unity prevailed 
 between the ministers at the helm as between her- 
 self and her husband, and the government was 
 looked upon as both a foreign and a contemptible one. 
 Then came the revolution of the 5th December 1741, 
 which in one night raised Elizabeth (q. v.) to the 
 throne. A. U. and his consort were exiled, and lived 
 long at Oholmogory, in the government of Archangel. 
 Three children were born to them in exUe. Anna 
 died in 1746. Catharine II. offered A. U. his free- 
 dom, but he declined it. Ultimately, he grew bhnd. 
 The exact year of his death is uncertain, but it is 
 supposed to have taken place about 1780. Catharine 
 offered to his children an asylum in Jutland, where 
 they all died in comfortable circumstances. 
 
 ANTONEXLI, a Roman cardinal and secretary 
 of state, descended from a family of bad reputation, 
 of which several members had been notorious as 
 robbers or banditti. A. was made a cai'dinal shortly 
 before the succession of Pope Pius IX., by whom 
 he was appointed Uuder-secretary of State for the 
 Interior, and also Minister of Finance. In these 
 offices, he gained the confidence of the pope, and 
 though removed from office by the influence of the 
 liberal party, who would not tolerate a priestly 
 poKcy, he continued to be his constant adviser in 
 aU the troubles which followed the assassination of 
 Rossi. After the flight of the pope to Gaeta, he was 
 appointed his Chief Secretary, and has since held 
 the helm at St Peter's. A. is said to be less besotted 
 in bis admiration of despotism than several of his 
 colleagues, but is accused of lierce rapacity. It 
 is alleged that, conscious of the perils which environ 
 the papal chair, and of its inability long to withstand 
 the opposition of the intellect, morahty, and enthu- 
 siasm of the national, as well as the constitutional 
 party, he is secretly hoarding up immense sums, and 
 lavishing lucrative offices on his relations. 
 
 ANTONB'LLO (of Messina), a painter who holds 
 a prominent position in the history of Italian art, 
 was bom probably about 1414, in Sicily. In his day, 
 the paintings of Johann van Eyck (of Flanders) 
 enjoyed a wide celebrity, and several specimens 
 were brought to Naples, where A. saw one of them. 
 Admiring the new style of oil-painting, he travelled 
 into Flanders, and learned the secrets of the art from 
 Van Eyck. Afterwards, he settled in Venice, and 
 
 was the first Italian who painted in oil-colours, in 
 which he gave instruction to many artists. He died 
 probably in 1493. His works are now rather scarce. 
 One, in the Museum at Berlin, bears the date 1445. 
 
 ANTONrNUS, Maecus Aurelius, the son of 
 Annius Verus and Domitia CalviUa, was born at 
 Rome on the 20th of April 121 a.d. His original 
 name was Marcus Annius Verus. On the deaSi of 
 his father, he was adopted by his grandfather, who 
 spared no pains to render him pre-eminent in every 
 art and science. His fine quauties early attracted 
 the notice of the Emperor Hadrian, who used to term 
 him, not Verus, but Verissimus, and who conferred 
 high honours on him, even while a chUd. When 
 only seventeen years of age, he was adopted, along 
 with Lucius C. Commodus, by Antoninus Pius, the 
 successor of Hadrian ; and Faustina, the daughter of 
 Pius, was selected for his wife. In the year 140 A. d. 
 he was made consul; and from this period to the 
 death of Pius, in 161 A. D., he continued to discharge 
 the duties of his various offices with the greatest 
 promptitude and fideUty. The relation which sub- 
 sisted between him and the emperor was of the 
 warmest and most familiar kind. On his accession 
 to the throne, he strikingly illustrated the magna- 
 nimity of his character, by voluntarily sharing the 
 government (which Pius had left in his last moments, 
 and the senate offered to him alone) with young 
 Commodus, who henceforth bore the name of 
 Lucius AureKus Verus, and to whom he gave 
 his daughter Lucilla in marriage. Towards the 
 'close of 161 A.D., the Parthian War broke out, 
 and Lucius, a yoimg man of vigorous bodily habits, 
 was sent to the frontiers of the empire, to repel 
 the incursions of the barbarians ; but intoxicated with 
 the enervating pleasures of the East, he obstinately 
 refused to go beyond Antiooh, and intrusted the 
 command of the army to his Keutenant Cassius, 
 who gained several brilliant victories. Lucius re- 
 turned to Rome (166 A. D.), and enjoyed a triumph 
 to which he had no real claim; for all the great 
 achievements of the war were accomplished by his 
 officers, while he was revelling in the most extrava- 
 gant licentioixsness. In the meantime, Marcus 
 Aurelius had distinguished himself by the prudence 
 and energy with which he administered aff^-irs at 
 home. A formidable insurrection had long been 
 preparing in the German provinces; the Britons 
 were on the point of revolt, and the Catti waiting 
 for an opportunity to devastate the Rhenish pro- 
 vinces. Within Rome itself raged a pestilence, 
 believed to have been brought home by the troops 
 of Lucius; frightful inundations and earthquakes 
 had laid large portions of the city in ruins, destroyed 
 the granaries in which were kept the supplies of com, 
 and thus created almost imiversal distress, which 
 stimulated to an incalculable degree the terror which 
 the citizens entertained of their savage enemies. To 
 allay the popular perturbation, Marcus resolved to 
 go forth to the war himself. Hecatombs were offered 
 to the offended gods, and the Roman legions set out 
 for the north. Marcus and Lucius were, for the 
 time, completely successful. The pride of the Mar- 
 comanni, and the other rebellious tribes inhabiting 
 the country between Illyria and the sources of the 
 Danube, was humbled, and they were compelled to 
 sue for peace in 168 a. d. ; in the year after which 
 Lucius died. The contest was renewed in 170 A. D., 
 and may be said to have continued with little 
 intermission during the whole life of the emperor. 
 Although fond of peace, both from natural dispo- 
 sition"^ and philosophic culture, he displayed the 
 sternest vigour in suppressing the revolts of the bar- 
 barians ; but in ordpr to accomplish this, he had to 
 enrol amongst his soldiery vast numbers of gladiators 
 and slaves, for his army had been thinned by the 
 
 30V 
 
ANTONINUS. 
 
 ravages of the plague: His head-quarters were Pan- 
 nonia, out of ■which he drove the Marcomatini, whom 
 he subsequently aU but annihilated in crossing the 
 Danube. The same fate befell lie Jazyges; but the 
 most famous as well as the most extraordinary of aU 
 Ms victories, was the miraculous one gained over the 
 Quadi (174 A. D.), and which gave rise to copious 
 discussion; amongst Christian historians and others. 
 Dion C^ssius's account is, that the Komans were 
 perishing of thirst in the heat of summer, when 
 suddenly the cloudless sky darkened, and abundant 
 showers fell, of which the soldiers were taking 
 advantage when the barbarians attacked, and would 
 have cut them to pieces, if a storm of hail and fire 
 had not descended on the former. That some extra- 
 ordinary phenomenon occurred is evident, for there 
 is a letter of Aurehus still extant in which he com- 
 memorates the event ; and the emperor was a man 
 incapable of uttering a falsehood, not to mention 
 that there was an entire army living to disprove the 
 statement, if imtrue. The effect of this remarkable 
 victory was instantaneously and widely felt. The 
 Germanic tribes hurried from all quarters to make 
 their submission, and obtain clemency; but the prac- 
 tical advantages that might have resulted from it 
 were nullified by a new outbreak in the Bast, occa- 
 sioned through the infamous treachery of his own 
 wife, which demanded his presence; and though 
 suffering from failing health, he was obliged to leave 
 Pannoma, Before his departure, however, he learned 
 that the ambitious governor, Avidius Cassius, who 
 had rebelled against him, and seized the whole of 
 Asia Minor, had perished by assassination. The 
 conduct of Marcus Aurehus on hearing of his enemy's 
 death was worthy of the sublime virtue of his cha- 
 racter. He lamented that the Fates had not granted 
 Tiim his fondest wish — ^to have freely pardoned the 
 man who had so basely conspired against his happi- 
 ness. Like Caesar in similar circumstances, but in 
 a more purely humane spirit, he received the head 
 of his murdered adversary with quite opposite feel- 
 iags to what had been anticipated, rejecting the 
 bloody gift with all the loathing of a benevolent 
 nature, and even shrinking from the presence of the 
 murderers. On his arrival in the East, he exhibited 
 the same illustrious magnanimity. He burned the 
 papers of Cassius, without reading them, so that he 
 might not be at liberty to suspect any as traitors ; 
 treated the provinces which had rebelled with 
 . extreme gentleness; disarmed the enmity, and 
 dispelled the fears of the nobles who had openly 
 favoured his insurgent lieutenant. While pursuing 
 his work of restoring tranquillity, Faustina died in 
 an obscure village at the foot of Mount Taurus ; and 
 her husband (and this was perhaps the single frailty 
 of his character), though undoubtedly conscious of her 
 glaring profligacy and infldehty, paid the most lavish 
 honours to her memory. 
 
 On his way home, he visited Lower Egypt and 
 Greece, displaying everywhere the noblest solicitude 
 for the welfare of his vast empire, and drawing 
 forth from his subjects, who were astonished at his 
 goodness, sentiments of the profoundest admiration 
 and regard. At Athens, which this imperial pagan 
 philosopher must have venerated as a pious Jew did 
 the city of Jerusalem, he shewed a catholicity of intel- 
 lect worthy of his great heart, by founding chairs of 
 philosophy for each of the four chief sects— Platonic, 
 Stoic, Peripatetic, and Epicurean. No man ever 
 laboured more earnestly to make that heathen faith 
 which he loved so well, and that heathen philosophy 
 which he behoved in so truly, a vital and dominant 
 reality. Towards the close of the year 176 A. D., he 
 reached Italy, and celebrated his merciful and blood- 
 less triumph on the 23d of December. In the suc- 
 ceeding autumn, he departed for Germany, where 
 sof 
 
 fresh disturbances had broken out among the rest- 
 less and volatile barbarians. He was again success- 
 ful in several sanguinary engagements ; but his 'ori- 
 ginally weak constitution, shattered by perpetual 
 anxiety and 'fatigue, at length sunk, and he died 
 either at Vienna, or at Sirmium, on the 17th of March 
 180 A.D., after a reign of twenty years. 
 
 Marcus Aurehus A. was the flower of the stoical 
 philosophy. It seems almost inexplicable that so 
 harsh and crabbed a system should have pro- 
 duced as pure and gentle an example of humanity 
 as the records, 'of heathen — we had almost said. 
 Christian history, can shew. Perhaps, as a modem 
 philosophic theologian suggests, it was because 
 stoicism was the most solid and practical of the> 
 philosophic theories, and the one which most 
 earnestly opposed itself to the rapidly increasing 
 lioentiousness of the time, that the chaste heart of 
 the youth was drawn towards it. At twelve years 
 of age, he avowed himseK a follower of Zeno, 
 Epictetus, &c. Stoics were his teachers — ^Diognotus, 
 ApoUonius, and Junius Rusticus ; and he himself is 
 to be considered one of the most thoughtful teachers 
 of the school. Oratory he studied under Herodes 
 Atticus and Comehus Eronto. His love of learning 
 was insatiable. Even after he had attained to the 
 highest dignity of the state, he did not disdain to 
 attend the school of Sextus of Chseronea. Men 
 of letters were his most intimate friends, and 
 received the highest honours both when alive 
 and dead. ' His range of studies was extensive, 
 embracing morals, metaphysics, mathematics, juris- 
 prudence, music, poetry, and painting. Nor must 
 we forget tliat these were cultivated not merely in 
 the spring-time of his life, when enthusiasm was 
 strong, and experience had not saddened his thoughts, 
 and when study was his only labour, but during the 
 tumults pf perpetual war, and the distraction neces- 
 sarily arising from the government of so vast an 
 empire. The man who loved peace with his Whole 
 soul, died without beholding it, and yet the everlast- 
 ing presence of war never tempted him to sink into 
 a mere warrior. He maintained unoorrupted to the 
 end of his noble Ufe his philosophic and philan- 
 thropic aspirations. After his decease, which was 
 felt to be a national calamity, every Eoman citizen, 
 and many others in distant portions of the empire, 
 procured an image or statue of him, which more than 
 a hundred years after was still found among their 
 household gods. He became almost an object of 
 worship, and was believed to appear in dreams, like 
 the saints of subsequent Christian ages. 
 
 There is one feature in his character, however, 
 which it would be dishonest to pass over — ^his 
 hostility, namely, to Christianity. He was a perse- 
 cutor of the new reKgion, and, it is clearly demon- 
 strated, was cognizant, to a certain extent at least, 
 of the atrocities perpetrated upon its followers. 
 Numerous explanations have been offered of his 
 conduct in this matter, The most popular one is,, 
 that he for once allowed himself to be led away 
 by evil counsellors; but a deeper reason is to be 
 found in that very earnestness with which he clung 
 to the old heathen faith of his ancestors. He 
 believed it to be true, and to be the parent of 
 those philosophies which had sprung up out of the 
 same soil : he saw that a new religion, the character 
 of which had been assiduously, though perhaps 
 unconscionsly, misrepresented to him, both as an 
 immoral superstition, and a mysterious political 
 conspiracy, was secretly spreading throughout the 
 empire, and that it would hold no commerce with 
 the older religion, but condemned it, generally in 
 the strongest terms. It was, therefore, compara- 
 tively easy, even for so humane a ruler, to imagine 
 it his duty to extirpate this unnaturally hostile 
 
ANTONINUS PIUS— ANTONINUS. 
 
 sect. Mr John Stuart Mill finds in this tragical 
 error of the great emperor a most striking warning 
 against the danger of interfering with the liberty 
 of thought. What he says is so completely in har- 
 mony with the above conception of the motives of 
 Marcus Aurelius, and is in itself so eloquent, that no 
 apology is required in quoting the passage : ' If ever 
 any one possessed of power had grounds for thinking 
 himseU the best and most euhghteued among his 
 contemporaries, it was the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. 
 Absolute monarch of the whole civilised world, he 
 preserved through life not only the most unblemished 
 justice, but what was less to be expected from his 
 stoical breeding, the tenderest heart. The few fail- 
 ings which are attributed to him were all on the side 
 of indulgence ; while his writings, the highest ethical 
 product of the ancient mind, differ scarcely percepti- 
 bly, if they differ at all, from the most characteristic 
 teachings of Christ. This man, a better Christian, 
 in all but the dogmatic sense of the word, than 
 almost any of the ostensibly Christian sovereigns 
 who have since reigned, persecuted Christianity. 
 Placed at the summit of aU the previous attainments 
 of humanity, with an open, unfettered intellect, and a 
 character which led him, of himself, to embody in his 
 moral writings the Christian ideal, he yet failed to see 
 that Christianity was to be a good and not an.evil to 
 the world, with his duties to which he was so deeply 
 penetrated. Existing society he knew to be in a 
 deplorable state. But such as it was, he saw, or 
 thought he saw, that it was held togetiier, and pre- 
 vented from being worse, by belief and reverence of 
 the received divinities. As a ruler of mankind, he 
 deemed it his duty not to suffer society to fall in 
 pieces, and saw not how, if its existing ties were 
 removed, any others could be formed which could 
 again knit it together. The new religion aimed 
 openly at dissolving these ties : unless, therefore, it 
 was his duty to adopt that religion, it seemed to be 
 his duty to put it down. Inasmuch, then, as the 
 theology of Christianity did not appear to him true, 
 or of Divine origin; inasmuch as this strange history 
 of a crucified God was not credible to him, and a 
 system which purported to rest entirely upon a 
 foundation to him so whoUy imbelievable, could not 
 be foreseen by him to be that renovating agency 
 which, after aU abatements, it has in fact proved to be ; 
 the gentlest and most amiable of philosophers and 
 rulers, under a solemn sense of duly, authorised the 
 persecution of Christianity. To my mind, this is one 
 of the most tragical facts in all history. It is a bitter 
 thought, how different a thing the Christianiiy of 
 the world might have been, 2 the Christian faith 
 had been adopted as the reHgion of the empire, under 
 the auspices of Marcus Aurelius, instead of those of 
 Constantine. But it would be equally unjust to him, 
 and false to truth, to deny, that no one plea which 
 can be urged for punishing Anti-christian teaching, 
 was wanting to Marcus Aurelius for punishing, as he 
 did, the propagation of Christianity. No Christian 
 more firmly beueves that atheism is false, and tends 
 to the dissolution of society, than Marcus Aurehus 
 believed the same things of Christianity; he who, of 
 aU men then living, might have been thought the 
 most capable of appreciating it. Unless any one 
 who approves of punishment for the promulgation of 
 opinions, flatters himself that he is a wiser and 
 better man than Marcus Aurelius — more deeply 
 versed in the wisdom of his time — more elevated in 
 his intellect above it — ^more earnest ia his search for 
 truth, or more single-minded in his devotion to it 
 when found — let him abstain from that assumption of 
 the joint infallibility of himself and the multitude, 
 which the great A. made with so unfortunate a result.' 
 ANTONrNUS PIUS, Trrus Atob'lius Fulvijb, 
 a Boman emperor (138 — 161 A.D.), was bom in the 
 
 reign of Domitian (86 A.r.). The family of A. was 
 originally from Nemausus, now Nlmes, in Gaul. A- 
 inherited great wealth, and early gave proof of 
 excellent qualities. In 120 he was made consul; 
 afterwards was sent by Hadrian as proconsul into 
 Asia, where the wisdom and gentleness of his rule won 
 for him a higher reputation i£an had been enjoyed by 
 any of his predecessors. By his wife Faustina he had 
 four children, of whom three died, leaving a daugh- 
 ter, Faustina, afterwards wife of Marcus Aurehus. 
 In 138 he was adopted by the Emperor Hadrian, in 
 consequence of merit alone, and came to the throne 
 in the same year. The reign of A. was proverbially 
 peaceful and happy. In his private character, he 
 was simple, temperate, and benevolent; while in 
 public affairs he acted as the father of his people. 
 The persecution of Christians, which was con- 
 tinued during his reign, was partly stayed by his 
 mild measures. He was little engaged in war, 
 excepting in Britain, where he extended the power 
 of Eome, and bmlt a wall between the Forth and 
 the Clyde, as a defence against invasions by the 
 predatory inhabitants of the north ; but he was fre- 
 quently employed in arbitration and general counsel 
 on the affairs of foreign states. ' Happy the nation 
 which has no history.' The reign of A illustrates 
 this saying, for by the justice, wisdom, kindliness, 
 and courtesy of the emperor, his vast empire was 
 preserved from the crimes, conspiracies, insurrec- 
 tions, and bloodshed, the recording of which formed 
 the largest part of the historian's work in the dark 
 centuries of the Roman empire. It is said that only 
 one senator was impeached during A.'s lifetime. 
 
 Copper Coin of Antoninus Pins, 
 
 commemoratiTe of bis Yictories in Britain, from one in the 
 
 British Museum. 
 
 Literature received great encouragement ; the laws 
 were improved ; commerce extended ; the means of 
 communication were facUitated by the repair of 
 roads, bridges, &c. ; new sanitary regulations were 
 introduced; and a taste for architecture fostered 
 in the citizens. The epithet Pius was conferred 
 on liim on account of his conduct in defending the 
 memory of his predecessor Hadrian against certain 
 dishonouring measures brought forward by the 
 senate. A. died in 161 A. D. The column raised to 
 his memory by his adopted son and successor, Mar- 
 cus Aurelius Antoninus (q. v.), was discovered in 1709, 
 and now exists only in fragments. The so-called 
 Pillar of Antoninus, now in the Piazza Golonna 
 at Kome, is that raised by the senate in honour 
 of Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the 
 Marcomanni. 
 
 ANTONrNUS, iTiiraEAEY of (Antonini Itiner- 
 arivm), a valuable geographical work, containing 
 the names of aU the places and stations on the 
 principal and cross roads of the Eoman empire, 
 with their distances from each other in Eoman 
 miles. It has been usually attributed to the Emperor 
 M. Aurelius Antoniuus, whence its name. The 
 testimony, however, of the Greek geographer ^thi- 
 cus, author of the CosmograpUa, assures us that 
 
ANTONINUS— ANTONIUS. 
 
 a general survey of tlie Eoman empire was com- 
 menced 44 B.C., in tlie consulship of Julius Caesar 
 and M. Antonius, and completed in the reign of 
 Augustus, when the results of the survey received 
 the sanction of the state. These results, it is 
 ■with some probability inferred, are embodied in this 
 Itinerary, which, it is further supposed, received 
 additions and amendments in the time of the 
 Antonines. Subsequent improvements were made 
 down to the reign of Diocletian. The best editions 
 are those of Wesseling (Amst. 4to, 1735), and Parthey 
 <Berl., 1848). 
 
 ANTONT'nUS, Wall of (Antmini Vallum), a 
 barrier erected between the Firths of Forth and 
 Clyde by the Eomans, in the reign of Antoninus 
 Pius, to restrain the encroachments of the native 
 tribes. A fragment of a Eoman pillar, which was 
 at one time in the university of Edinburgh, fixes 
 the date of its execution to 140 A. D. The superin- 
 tendence of the work is generally attributed to the 
 imperial legate LoDius XJrbicus. Its length was 
 about 27 English miles — the eastern termination 
 being, according to two different suppositions, at 
 Carriden, or at Kinniel, on the Forth; the western, 
 at Old Kirkpatrick, or at Dunglass Castle, on the 
 Clyde. The work consisted of a ditch about 20 
 feet deej) and 40 wide, a rampart of earth and stone 
 about 20 feet high and 24 feet thick at the base, 
 and on the inner or south side of the rampart a 
 paved military road. It was protected by a chain 
 of nineteen forts, with watch-towers between. The 
 line of the wall may stiU be traced to a consider- 
 able extent. The most perfect fragments are at Elf 
 Hfll, on the moor of Bonnieside, about a mUe and a 
 half from Castlecary ; within the park of Callander 
 House, near Falkirk ; and on the slopes at Inveravon, 
 not far from the railway station at Polmout. It is 
 commonly designated GraharrHs Dike — a name given 
 also to more than one ancient ditch and rampart in 
 England. The best accounts of the Wall of Antduine 
 are in Eoy's Military Antiquities of the Momans in 
 North Britain (Lond., 1793), and in Stuart's Cale- 
 donia Eomana (2d. ed., Edin., 1852). \ 
 
 ANTO'JSriUS, Maecus (Mark Antony), the 
 Eoman triumvir, born in 83 E.c, a descendant of 
 one of the oldest patrician families, was the son 
 of the Praetor M. Antonius Creticus, and, on the 
 side of his mother Julia, was related to Julius 
 Caesar. His youth was wasted in dissipation, 
 and finding himself pressed by numerous impatient 
 creditors, he escaped to Greece in 58 B.C., where, 
 for a short time, he listened to the teaching of 
 Athenian philosophers and orators. His studies 
 here were soon interrupted by the Proconsul 
 Gabinius, who appointed hmi as leader of his cavalry. 
 In the campaign against Aristobulus in Palestine, 
 and in Egjrpt, A- distinguished himself by his courage 
 and activity, and ingratiated himself with the 
 soldiers. After assisting Caesar in Gaul, he went 
 to Eome in 50 B. c, to advance the interests of the 
 former, who stood in great danger from the hostility 
 of the oligarchical party, and was appointed an augur, 
 and chosen one of the tribunes of the people. In 
 the following year, on account of his adherence to 
 the party of Caesar, he was expelled from the curia, 
 and fled to Caesar, who made use of this event as 
 a pretext for his war against Pompey. At the 
 outbreak of this war, A. received the appointment 
 of commander-in-chief in Italy. In the battle of 
 Pharsalia, he commanded the left wing of Caesar's 
 army. In 47, he was made Master of the Horse by 
 Caesar, who left him to govern Italy during his 
 absence in Africa. Antony, as usual, disgraced 
 himself; got perpetually drunk; divorced his wife, 
 and married an actress, with whom he paraded 
 301 
 
 offensively through the chief towns of the penin- 
 sula. In 44 B. c.,' he married Fulvia, the widow 
 of Clodius ; was made consul, and vainly endea- 
 voured to prevail on the Eomans to recognise 
 Caesar as emperor. 'After the assassination of Caesar, 
 he played the part so well described by Shakspeare ; 
 and by his funeral oration, and the well-timed 
 display of Caesar's bloody robe, so wrought on the 
 passions of the people, that the conspirators were 
 compelled to escape from Eome, leaving the success- 
 ful orator for a while in possession of almost absolute 
 power. Next, we find A. occupied in disputes; and 
 reconciliations with Octavianus (Cesar's heir), be- 
 sieging Mutiua, and then denounced by Cicero as an 
 eriemy of the state. In 43 B.C., his troops were 
 defeated at the battle of Mutina, when he escaped 
 beyond the Alps ; visited the camp of Lepidus, who 
 commanded in Gaul ; and gained the favour of the 
 army, of which he took the command. Planous and 
 PolUo joiued ln'm with their troops ; and A., who so 
 recently had escaped as a helpless fugitive from 
 Italy, returned to Eome at the head of seventeen 
 legions and 10,000 cavalry. Octavianus, who had 
 pretended to maintain repubHcan principles, now 
 threw off the mask, and held a consultation with A 
 and Lepidus on the island of Eeno (or Lavino), near 
 Bologna, when it was determined that these triiim- 
 viri should share the whole Eoman world among 
 themselves. To secure their spoil, they returned to 
 Eome, and began their course of murder and robbery 
 throughout Italy. Among their first victims fell 
 Cicero, the orator whose eloquence they dreaded. 
 According to Appian, not less than 300 senators and 
 2000 knights fell under the power of the triumviri. 
 After making Italy safe for themselves, and raising 
 an enormous sum of money to carry on their war 
 abroad, A. and Octavianus led their troops into 
 Macedonia agaiast Brutus and Cassius, and defeated 
 the repubhcan forces. A. next paid a visit to 
 Athens, and then went into Asia, to arrange his 
 dispute with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, whose 
 conduct had offended the triumviri. The queen 
 herself appeared to answer his challenge, and capti- 
 vated A. by her beauty and address. The general 
 who had overcome Brutus and Cassius was now 
 made a prisoner, though not of war. He followed 
 Cleopatra into Egypt, and lived with her in idleness 
 and luxury, imtil he was aroused by tidings of the 
 quarrel which had taken place in Italy between his 
 own relatives and Octavianus. This dispute gave 
 rise to a short war, which came to an end before A. 
 arrived in Italy. A new division of the Eoman world 
 now took place between the triumviri, and was soon 
 quietly arranged at Brundusium. A. took the East, 
 and Octavianus took the West ; while the ambition 
 of the feeble Lepidus was appeased by his having 
 the whole of Africa for his portion. Even this 
 shadow of dominion was taken from bim in 36 B. c. 
 Meanwhile A. had confirmed his friendship with 
 Octavianus by a marriage with Octavia, his 
 sister. He now returned to Cleopatra, resumed 
 his former voluptuous mode of hfe, squandered 
 the wealth of Eome in gifts to his royal mis- 
 tress, and became guilty of gross acts of injustice. 
 Octavianus made use of these facts to excite the 
 indignation of the Eoman people against A., and 
 a war between the rivals became imavoidable. 
 A., in his idleness, tried to postpone the trial of 
 strength which he saw inevitably approaching, and 
 filled the island of Samos (where his troops were 
 quartered) with musicians, jugglers, and buffoons. 
 Meanwhile, at Eome, he was deposed from the 
 triumvirate, and war was proclaimed agaiast 
 Cleopatra. Each party collected its forces, and in 
 the naval engagement which took place (31 B. c), near 
 Actium (q. v.), A. was defeated. His subsequent hope 
 
ANTONIUS— ANTRIM. 
 
 of finding troops still faithful to him in Libya was 
 disappointed. He returned to Egypt, where, with 
 Cleopatra, he once more forgot political cares and 
 vexations, until his amusements were suddenly 
 interrupted by the arrival of Octavianus at Alex- 
 andria. A. now roused himself, made a charge with 
 his cavalry, and repelled the enemy; but the 
 advantage was only momentary. Deserted by the 
 Egyptian fleet, as by his own army, and suspecting 
 that even Cleopatra had conspired against him, he 
 went to her palace, from which the queen had 
 escaped. Deceived by a false message informing him 
 of the death of Cleopatra, A. committed suicide by 
 faUing upon his sword, in the year 30 B.O. 
 
 ANTO'NIUS or A'NTONY OF PADUA, Saint, 
 was bom at Lisbon, August 15, 1195, and, on the 
 father's side, was related to Godfrey of Bouillon. He 
 was first a monk of the Augustine order, and in 1221 
 became one of the most active propagators of the 
 order of Franciscans. On his missionary voyage to 
 Africa, being cast on the coast of Italy, he preached 
 with great success at Montpelier, Toulouse, Bologna, 
 and Padua, where he died, tfune 13, 1231. The legends 
 of A. of P. are full of absurd fables. Among others, 
 we are told that his eloquence as a preacher was so 
 great that even the fish in the sea were deeply afiected 
 by it ! His anniversary falls on June 13. His monu- 
 ment, a fine work of statuary, is in the chiurch which 
 bears his name at Padua. 
 
 ANTOKY, Saint, surnamed The Gkeat, and also 
 Antony of Thebes, the father of monachism, was 
 bom about the year 251 A.D., * Koma, near 
 Heraklea, in Upper Egypt. His parents were both 
 wealthy and pious, and bestowed on him a religious 
 education. Having, in obedience to what he behoved 
 to be a divine injunction, sold his possessions, and 
 distributed the proceeds among the poor, he with- 
 drew into the wilderness, where he. disciplined 
 himself in all those austerities which have hallowed 
 his memory in the Catholic Church, and formed the 
 model of the monastic life. When 30 years of age, 
 however, desirous of obtaining a deeper repose than 
 his situation afforded, he penetrated further into the 
 desert, and took up his abode in an old ruin on the 
 top of a hill, where he spent twenty years in the most 
 rigorous seclusion ; but, in 305, he was persuaded to 
 leave this retreat by the prayers of numerous anchor- 
 ites, who wished to live under his direction. He 
 now founded the monastery of Faioum, which at 
 first was only a group of separate and scattered cells 
 near Memphis and Arsinoe ; but which, nevertheless, 
 may be considered the origin of cenobite life. The 
 persecution of the Christians by Maximian in 311 
 A.D., induced St A. to leave his cell, and proceed to 
 Alexandria, in the hope of obtaining the crown of 
 martyrdom ; but having failed in this, he returned to 
 his solitude in the course of a year, which, however, 
 he soon left, and plunged yet deeper into the desert. 
 At length he foimd a lodgment on a hUl, about a 
 day's journey from the Eed Sea; but his disciples 
 discovering his retreat, so jwessed hJTn with their 
 affectionate importunities, that he ventured to 
 accompany them back. After many pious exhort- 
 ations, he once more left them, and soon became the 
 mighty oracle of the whole valley of the Nile. In 
 355, the venerable hermit, then 104 years of age, 
 made a journey to Alexandria to dispute with the 
 Arians. He had interviews with Athanasius and 
 other distinguished persons; but feeling his end 
 approaching, ne retired to his desert home, where he 
 died, 356 A.D. 
 
 Athanasius states, in his Life of St A., that the 
 
 saint wore only a coarse shirt of hair, and never 
 
 washed his body, which is more credible than the 
 
 stories he relates of his encounters with the devil, or 
 
 20 
 
 his miracles. His whole conduct indicates the predo- 
 minance of a glowing and yet gloomy fancy, which is 
 the proper condition of rehgious asceticism. Although 
 the father of monachism, St A. is not the author of 
 any monastic ' rules ; ' those which the monks of the 
 eastern schismatic sects attribute to him are the 
 production of St Basil. He is perhaps the most 
 popular saint in the Cathoho Church. Accounts of 
 his life and miracles are given in the Acta Sanct- 
 orum of the BoUandists, under the date of the 17th 
 January, on which day his festival was kept. 
 
 St Anthony's FraB.— The Eev. Alban Butler, in 
 his Lives of the Saints, gives the following account of 
 the origin of this name : ' In 1089, a pestilential ery- 
 sipelatous distemper, called the sacred fire, swept off 
 great numbers in most provinces of France ; public 
 prayers and processions were ordered against this 
 scourge. At length, it pleased God to grant many 
 miraculous cures of this dreadful distemper, to those 
 who implored His mercy through the intercession of 
 St A., especially before his relics ; the church [of La 
 Motte St. Didier, near Vienne, in Dauphing] in which 
 they were deposited was resorted to by great 
 numbers of pUgrims, and his patronage was implored 
 over the whole kingdom against this disease.' The 
 ' order of Canons Eegular of St Anthony,' a religious 
 fraternity, founded about 1090, for the relief of 
 persons afflicted with the fire of St A., survived in 
 France till 1790. 
 
 St Anthony's Well, a small fountain near the 
 ruined chapel of St A., on the northern slope of 
 Arthur's Seat (q. v.), near Edinburgh. This inter- 
 esting fountain, which consists only of a stone basin, 
 into which water trickles from imder an incumbent 
 rook, is celebrated in the Scottish song — 
 ' 0, waly, waly.' 
 
 ANTEAl'GUES, Emanuel-Louis-Henbi De- 
 launay, Count of, a great pohtioian, but very 
 ambiguous character, was bom at Vivarais, in the 
 department Ardfeche, in 1765, and was educated 
 under the Abb6 Maury. His superior talents were 
 first displayed in his Mgmoire sur les Etats-gemeraux, 
 lews Droits et la ManUre de les convoquer (1788). 
 This book, full of daring assertions of liberty, was 
 one of the first sparks of the fire which afterwards 
 rose to such height in the French Revolution. In 
 1789, when A. was chosen as a deputy, he not only 
 defended the privileges of the hereditary aristocracy, 
 but also ranked himself with those who opposed the 
 union of the three estates ; while in the discussions 
 on the constitution, he maintamed that the royal 
 veto was an indispensable part of good government. 
 After leaving the Assembly in 1790, he was employed 
 in diplomacy at St Petersburg and Vienna, where he 
 defended the cause of the Bourbons. In 1803 he 
 was employed under Alexander of Russia in an 
 embassy to Dresden, where he wrote against Bona- 
 parte a brochure, entitled A Fragment of the \8th 
 Booh of PolyUus, discovered on Mount Athos. He 
 afterwards came to England, and acquired great 
 influence with Canning. Despite his attachment to 
 the interest of the Bourbons, he could never win the 
 confidence of Louis XVIII. In 1812 he was murdered, 
 with his wife, at his residence near London, by an 
 Italian servant, who, immediately after the act, 
 committed suicide. 
 
 A'NTKIM, a marithne county in the north-east of 
 Ireland, in the province of Ulster ; bounded, N., by 
 the Atlantic ; "W., by the north part of the river 
 Baion, dividing it from Londonderry, and by Lough 
 Neagh; S., by Lagan river, separating it from the 
 county of Down; S.E., by Belfast Lough; and E. 
 by the Irish Channel. It stands third among the 
 Irish coimties in population, but in extent only 
 ninth. Its greatest length is 56 miles ; its greatest 
 
ANTWERP— ANVILLB. 
 
 breadth, 20 ; its extent of sea-ooaat, 90 miles. Area, 
 1164 square miles. About two-thirds of this is 
 arable; a fourth, barren; and a seventy -fourth 
 in woods. Pop. in 1851, 352,264. Off the north 
 coast lie Eathliu Isle and the Skerries; and off 
 the east coast, the Maiden Rocks. The east coast 
 is hilly; and from Larne to Fair Head, parallel 
 mountain-ranges of no great height, and covering a 
 third of the coimty, stretch south-west a consider- 
 able way into the interior, forming a series of valleys, 
 opening seaward, called the Glens of A. The 
 interior of the country slopes towards Lough Neagh. 
 The highest eminences are — Trostan, 1810 feet ; and 
 Sheveance, 1782 feet. The principal streams are — 
 the Bann, running north from Lough Neagh into the 
 Atlantic ; the Main, running parallel to the Bann, 
 but in the reverse direction, into Lough Neagh ; and 
 the Bush, flowing north into the Atlantic. Large 
 and numerous peat-bogs occur in the comity. Six- 
 sevenths of the surface of A. consists of basaltic 
 trap, often alternating with beds of red ochre, and 
 overlying strata, of hardened chalk, green-sand, new 
 red sandstone, and mica-slate. The surface, and 
 especially the edges towards the sea and Lough 
 Neagh, of the trap-field, present basaltic columns of 
 varied and impressive outlines. The green-saud and 
 new red sandstone crop out along the east and 
 south-east borders of A., and a patch of millstone 
 grit occurs in the north-east corner. Between Bally- 
 castle and the mouth of the Bann, the basalt 
 assumes very picturesque forms; and the Giants' 
 Causeway, on tbe north coast, near the mouth of the 
 Bush, is one of the most perfect examples of colum- 
 nar basalt in the world. Pine salt-mines occur at 
 Duucrue and Carrickfergus ; and a small coal-field 
 near Ballycastle. The soU of A. is mostly light, and 
 the chief crop is oats. In 1858, 249,086 acres were 
 under crop, two-fifths being in oats, one-fourth in 
 potatoes, and one-fifteenth in wheat. The land is 
 very much subdivided; and the rearing of flax, and 
 the various branches of the linen, cotton, and coarse 
 woollen manufacture, employ a great portion of the 
 people, who unite mechanical and agricultural 
 occupations with the best results. In 1851, A. had 
 339 National Schools, attended by 15,746 boys, and 
 13,017 girls. The principal towns are — Belfast, 
 Lisbum, Ballymena, Carrickfergus, Lame, and 
 Antrim. A. county returns two members to parlia- 
 ment ; Belfast burgh, two ; and Carrickfergus and 
 Lisbum burghs, each one. The inhabitants are 
 mostly Presbyterians, the county having been exten- 
 sively colonised from England and Scotland between 
 the reigns of Queen Elizabeth and WiUiam III. 
 The original possessors were the O'Neills, who, in 
 1533, revolted against the English government, and 
 regained the whole country, except Carrickfergus and 
 part of the Glens — held by the Bissets of Glenarm, 
 an Anglo-Norman family. It was reduced to allegiance 
 during the reign of Elizabeth, when the forfeiture of 
 Shane O'NeiU terminated the dominion of his race. 
 
 A'NTWBRP (in Prench, ANVERS), formerly 
 the chief city of a province in the Netherlands which 
 was formed, in 1814, by a union of the old mar- 
 gravate of A. with the province of Mechlin, now 
 the capital of the province which bears its name, 
 and the chief commercial city of Belgium, is situate 
 on the river Scheldt, and contains 90,000 inhabitants. 
 Its chief public institutions are — the Academy of 
 Sciences, Academy of Painting and Sculpture, for- 
 merly known as the Academy of St Mark, a Medical 
 and Surgical School, Naval Arsenal, Museum, and 
 Zoological Gardens. The cathedral, one of the 
 noblest Gothic structures in Europe, is 500 feet in 
 length by 240 in breadth, with a roof supported by 
 125 pUlars, and a very lofty spire. The interior is 
 enriched by the two greatest of all the pictures of 
 
 306 
 
 Rubens, the Elevation of, and the Descent from the 
 Cross. The Church of St James contains the monu- 
 ment of the Rubens family. The trade and manufac- 
 tures of A. are considerable. The latter consist 
 chiefly of sugar, white-lead, cotton goods, point-laee, 
 linen thread, carpets, gold and silver lace, &c. It is 
 stni celebrated for its sewing-sHk, black silk stuffs, 
 and printers' ink, as it was in former times for its 
 velvets, damasks, and satins. The three annual 
 fairs, formerly held at A., have lost all commercial 
 importance, and are now represented by two popular 
 festivals. 
 
 A. is mentioned as early as the 8th o. ; in the 
 12th and 13th it gave signs of considerable pros- 
 perity, and, in 1550, numbered more than 200,000 
 inhabitants. The union of Belgium with Holland 
 in 1815 was very favourable to the commerce 
 and general prosperity of A. By the revolution of 
 August 1830, it was linked to the destiny of Belgium. 
 When the revolutionary party gained possession, the 
 commandant. General Chasse, retreated to the citadel, 
 and, exasperated by the breach of truce, commenced 
 a bombardment, which destroyed the arsenal and 
 about thirty houses. In 1832, a French army of 
 50,000 men, under Marshal G6rard, appeared before 
 A., to demand the surrender of the citadel, which 
 General Chasse refused. After considerable injury, 
 and the loss of several lives among the citizens, 
 General Chasse capitulated, Dec. 23, 1832. On the 
 30th of the same month, the Flemish fortification, 
 and the forts Burght, Zwindrecht, and Austroweel, 
 were surrendered to the Belgian troops, and the 
 Dutch troops were taken to France, as hostages for 
 the surrender of the forts LiUo and Liefkenshoek, 
 according to an article in the negotiation of Nov. 15, 
 1831, which stipulated that the five citadels held by 
 the Dutch troops in Belgium should be surrendered. 
 From these adversities A. has never fully recovered 
 under the Belgian government. Its once considerable 
 commerce with the colonies of Holland has gradually 
 been transferred to Amsterdam and Rotteraam, 
 
 ANU'BIS, an Egyptian deity, styled Auepu on 
 hieroglyphic monuments, was, accord- 
 ing to mytholo^, the son of Osiris 
 and Nephthys. By the Greeks, he was 
 frequently styled Hermes or Herma- 
 nubis, combining the Egyptian with 
 the Grecian name. He is represented 
 on monuments as having the head of 
 a jackal, with pointed ears and snout, 
 wliich the Greeks frequently changed 
 to those of a dog. Sometimes he is 
 seen wearing a double crown. A white 
 and yellow cock was sacrificed to 
 him. His office, like that of Hermes 
 Psychopompus among the Greeks, 
 was to accompany the ghosts of the 
 deceased into Hades ( Amenthes), and 
 there to assist Horns in weighing , 
 their actions, under the inspection of Anubis. 
 Osiris. As, in the time of the Romans, the Egyptian 
 worship had spread beyond Egypt itself, the two 
 conceptions of A. and Hermes were blent together, 
 and the dog's head of the former was found umted to 
 the insignia of the latter. 
 
 ANVILLB,- Jean Baptiste BoimGuiGNON d', a 
 celebrated French geographer, bom at Paris in 1697, 
 died iu 1782. He devoted his whole life to geo- 
 graphical science. Such was his natural taste for 
 map-drawing, that his first study' of the ancient 
 authors induced him to publish, at the age of fifteen, 
 a map of Greece. His rare qualities gained TviTn the 
 friendship of the Abbg de Sonsuerue, from whom he 
 received those instructions which were the source 
 of that profound and extensive knowledge he 
 
ANWARI— AORTA. 
 
 subsequently aoquired. He read the Greek and Latin 
 historians and philosophers,, as weU as poets, spe- 
 cially noting the names and positions of cities and 
 nations. He advanced the science of geography, 
 not only by the vast number of maps which he exe- 
 cuted, but also by the treatises, full of erudition and 
 of historic and critical details, in which he discussed 
 numerous interesting questions. The works of A 
 announced by M. de Maine many years ago, were to 
 have been contained in six volumes, exclusive of the 
 volumes of maps. The principal portion was pub- 
 lished in 1834 by Levrault. But the death of M. de 
 Maine in 1832 stopped the quarto edition near the 
 end of the twelfth vwume, to which the map of Africa 
 was however wanting, although the text had been 
 added, with notes digested from the most recent 
 investigations in that country. A. has left 211 maps 
 and plans, and 78 memoirs, the most of which are 
 inserted in the Secueil des Mimoires de VAcadimie 
 des Inscriptions et Bdles-letlres, His best map is that 
 of Ancient Egypt. His OrWs Veteribus Notus, and 
 OrMs Bcymarms, are also invaluable. The same 
 remark applies to his maps of Gaul, Italy, and 
 Greece, both ancient and medievaL His maps of 
 modem countries contain all; the knowledge attained 
 in his time. His valuable collection of maps was 
 purchased in 1779 by the French government for 
 the Eoyal Library. 
 
 ANWARI, a celebrated Persian poet, who 
 flourished during the 12th c, was bom in the pro- 
 vince of Khorassan, and educated at the college of 
 Mansur, at Tus. He emerged from obscurity in the 
 course of a night. The story goes that the Seljukide 
 sultan, Sanjar, happened on one occasion to visit 
 Tus, when lie imagination of the youthful poet was 
 so excited by the presence of the monarch and his 
 glittering retinue, that he resolved to write a poem 
 in his praise. By next morning, it was finished, and 
 presented to Sanjar, who instantly placed the fortu- 
 nate youth among his courtiers. A. now began to 
 devote himseK to astrology, which was his ruin ; for 
 having predicted that in 1185 or 1 186 A. D. a hurricane 
 would burst over all Asia, overthrow the most solid 
 edifices, and shake the very mountains, and nothing 
 of the sort really occurring, but, on the contrary, au 
 entire year of remarkably tranquil weather, he fell 
 into disgrace, and had to retire to Balkh, where he 
 died in 1200—1201 A.D. 
 
 His poems consist chiefly of lengthy panegyrics, 
 and shorter lyrical effusions. The latter (gliazels) 
 are characterised by simpHcity, ease, and natural- 
 ness ; but the hasidas, or long poems, are disfigured, 
 hke many other eastern poems, by glittering 
 imagery and historical conceits. His Elegy on the 
 Captimty of Sanjar' taken Prisoner iy the Ghurides, 
 has been translated into English by Captaui Kirk- 
 patrick in the 1st volume of Asiatic Miscellanies 
 (Calcutta, 1785). 
 
 A'OEIST, a form of the Greek verb by which 
 an action is expressed as taking place in an indefinite 
 (Gr. aoristos) time. The Greek language is especially 
 fertile in the past tenses of verbs, having, in addition 
 to the tenses common to other languages — namely, 
 the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect — me A., which 
 is- peculiarly adapted to the narrative style of 
 writing. The distinction of first and second A. is 
 purely formal. 
 
 AO'RTA is the great arterial trunk which, rising 
 from the left ventricle of the heart, sends its branches 
 ramifying through the whole body. The A. in man 
 is subdivided by anatomists into the Arch, the 
 Thoracic A., and the Abdominal A. The arch is a 
 loop with the convexity directed upwards, forwards, 
 and to the right side, reaching at its highest part to 
 a, level with the second piece of the breast-bone, and 
 
 then descending to the left side of the third dorsal 
 vertebra. Five arteries arise from the arch — viz., 
 two coronaries, for the supply of the muscular tissue 
 of lihe heart itself; the innominata; and the left 
 carotid and left subclavian arteries. At the com- 
 mencement of the arch are three small swellings or 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 Aorta: 
 a, ascending arch of aorta ; m, coronary arteries ; 6', innomi- 
 nata artery ; &, right subclavian ; c, right carotid ; d, left 
 carotid ; e, left subclavian ; /, thoracic aorta ; gg, diaphragm ; 
 hht phrenic arteries ; i, cceliac axis ; ft, coronary or gastric ; 
 I, splenic ; m, hepatic ; n, superior mesenteric ; oOj renal 
 arteries ; p, inferior mesenteric ; p', spermatic ; 3, common 
 iliac ; r, middle sacral. 
 
 pouches, the aortic sinuses, below which are the three 
 semilunar valves or folds of the lining membrane, 
 which prevent regurgitation of the blood back into 
 the heart. The thcn'ocic A. extends from the third 
 dorsal vertebra to the diaphragm, gradually getting 
 into the middle line of the spine. The thoracic A 
 gives ofi' the bronchial arteries (two or three) to 
 supply the tissue of the lungs; and some small 
 branches (three or four) to the oesophagus, and inter- 
 costal arteries, to supply the walls of the chest (ten 
 on left, and nine on right side). The abdominal A. 
 passes from the diaphragm to the fovirth lumbar 
 vertebra, opposite the lower margin of which it 
 divides into the two common Uiao trunks. The 
 abdominal A gives off the two phrenic arteries to the 
 diaphragm ; the coeliac axis, which divides into three 
 large branches for the stomach, liver, and spleen ; 
 the superior mesenteric for the small, and part of the 
 large intestine; the renals (two); the supra-renala 
 (two), one for each kidney ; the spermatic ; the 
 inferior mesenteric, for the part of the large intestiue 
 not supplied by the superior mesenteric ; and four 
 or five lumbar arteries, which supply the lower part 
 of the abdominal walls (the loins). 
 
 Where the A. bifurcates, a smjJl artery, the sacra- 
 media, or caudal artery, arises, and passes along in 
 the middle hne; in fish and in animals with large 
 tails, this branch is a continuation of the A. 
 
 The above is the usual arrangement ; but occasion- 
 ally it varies, especially in the number of .arteries 
 springing from the arch. The structure of the' A. 
 win be given under Artery ; and the comparative 
 anatomy under Heabt and Cieculation. 
 
 ' 807 
 
AOSTA— APATITE. 
 
 During foetal life, there is a commvimoation between 
 the arch of the A. and the pulmonary artery called 
 the diictus arterioms, the canal of which becomes 
 obliterated after birth. It has been calculated that 
 the velocity of the blood in tha ascending part of 
 the arch is 2J inches in a second. The pressure of 
 the blood in the A. of a horse has been estimated to 
 be 11 pounds ; and in man's, 4 pounds 6 ounces. 
 
 The coats of the A. are very subject to fatty 
 disease termed Atheroma (q. v.), and in advanced 
 life, to calcareous degeneration or deposit of earthy 
 particles, which destroys their elasticity. This change 
 renders them very liable to Aneurism (q. v.), which, 
 as may be expected, is generally situated at the 
 curves of the A., especiaUy at the arch. Sufferers 
 from this disease in the arch or thoracic A., suffer 
 from palpitation within the chest, difficulty of 
 breathing, occurring in paroxysms and during sleep, 
 and shoots of pain through the chest. If the aneur- 
 ism is on the arch, it generally presses forward, and 
 may completely destroy the breast-bone, forming a 
 pulsating tumour, covered only by the skin, or it 
 may press up into the neck. If low in the chest, the 
 aneurism may compress the thoracic duct, and cause 
 emaciation. In the abdomen, the symptoms are 
 pulsation and pain ; but in both situations aneurism 
 may exist for a length of time without attracting 
 attention. 
 
 In some cases, the A. has been found obli- 
 terated, shewing that the lower extremities can be 
 supplied with blood by the anastomosing branches. 
 Sir Astley Cooper and other surgeons have tied the 
 A, for aneurism, but without success. 
 
 AOSTA, a northern province in the kingdom of 
 Sardinia, surrounded by the highest elevations of the 
 Alps, and watered by the river Dora-baltea. It 
 contains an area of 1233 square miles. The dense 
 pine-woods on the hiUs, the alpine pastures on the 
 slopes, the plantations of vines, almonds, olives, figs, 
 and mulberry trees in the valleys, and the ores of 
 silver, copper, and iron in the bosom of the moun- 
 tains, supply occupation and means of subsistence to 
 a population of about 81,000; but the land generally 
 is not adapted to the growth of corn, though maize, 
 barley, oats, &c., are produced in the lowest portions 
 of the valleys. The disease styled Cretinism (q. v.) 
 prevails to a lamentable extent, and few persons are 
 altogether free from Goitre (q. v.). Great numbers 
 of the poorer class emigrate during winter into the 
 richer countries in their vicinity, and earn a liveli- 
 hood as chimney-sweepers, masons, and smiths. — 
 AoSTA, the principal town, 49 miles N.N.W. of Turin, 
 contains 7500 inhabitants, and has a large trade in 
 cheese, hemp, leather, &c. It was in ancient times 
 the chief residence of the Salassi, a brave race of 
 mountaineers, with whom Appius Claudius (134 B. c.) 
 had to contend on his way into Gaul. They were 
 finally destroyed by Terentius Varro in the time 
 of Augustus. Monuments of the Eoman times — a 
 well-preserved arch, two gateways, the ruins of 
 an amphitheatre, and a bridge — still remain. The 
 celebrated baths and mines of St Didier are in the 
 neighbourhood. St Bernard, the founder of the 
 famous hospice which bears his name, was Arch- 
 deacon of A. ; and Anselm, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was born here. 
 
 APA'FI, Michael I., Prince of Transylvania, was 
 bom in 1632, of an old but decayed family. He 
 accompanied Prince George II. in an expedition 
 against the Poles in 1656, but was taken prisoner at 
 the irruption of the Tatar hordes under tiieir khan, 
 Mohammed Girai. After his release, he went and 
 lived for a short time at his paternal estate ; but in 
 1661 he was chosen Prince of Transylvania, at the 
 instigation or desire of Ali Pasha, generalissimo of 
 308 
 
 the Turkish forces under Sultan Mahmoud IV. 
 During the peace concluded with Austria, he reigned 
 peaceAly under the protection of the Porte, and 
 acquired the towns of Clausenburg and Zath- 
 mar. He remained faithful to the Ottoman powelr 
 till the siege of Vienna in 1683. Fortune then 
 changed. The imperial troops penetrated into the 
 country; and on the 12th of August 1687, A. made 
 a treaty with the emperor at Harkany, by which 
 Transylvania was declared to be freed 'for ever 
 from Turkish suzerainty, and placed under German 
 protection. At Fogaras, on the 1st of July 1688, 
 the Transylvanian deputies assembled at the 
 national Diet, took the oath of fealty to the Haps- 
 burgs as legitimate monarchs of Hungary. _ Ever 
 since the death of his wife, Anna Bornemitza, in 1688, 
 A. had been sorely afflicted both in body and mind, 
 and died (April 15, 1690) on the eve of a fierce retri- 
 butive war, conmienoed by his old allies the Turks, 
 who considered themselves Ul used by his desertion 
 of them. His son, Michael II., succeeded to the 
 throne and its perils. The Turks, under the vizier 
 CuprigU, overthrew the imperial army, and took 
 several places, such as Nissa, Widdin, Semendria, 
 Belgrade, &c. ; but the intestine troubles of the 
 Ottoman empire hindered them, or rather Count 
 Tekeli, the adventurer whom they were helping, 
 from retaining these towns. The imperial troops 
 subsequently regained everything ; and at length the 
 young Transylvanian prince was inveigled to Vienna, 
 and cajoled into giving up his dominions to Austria 
 in lieu of a pension of 12,000 or 15,000 florins. He 
 died in 1713. 
 
 A'PANAGE is not an English legal tenn, but ia 
 a technical word in the French law, in which 
 system it signifies the assignment or conveyance by 
 the crown of lands and feudal rights to the princes 
 of the royal family, that they may be enabled to 
 maintain themselves according to their rank. (See 
 a long article on this subject in Knight's Political 
 Dictionary, which refers to Eotteck and Welcker, 
 Staats-Lexicon, art. by P. A. Pfizer. See also_ 
 Merlin's Repertoire de Jurisprudence under this' 
 head.) The word A., however, is sometimes found in 
 Scotch law-books, the Scotch lawyers having most 
 probably derived it from France, whose system of 
 laws was so largely imported into Scotland — ^the Court 
 of Session itself having been modelled after the plan 
 of the Parliament of Paris. Mr Erskine, in his Prin- 
 ciples of the Law of Scotland, book i., tit. 4, sec. 8, 
 says : ' The A., or patrimony of the Prince of Scot- 
 land, has been long erected into a regahty jurisdic- 
 tion, called the principality. It is personal to the 
 king's eldest son, upon whose death or succession it 
 retmns to the crown. The prince has, or may have, 
 his own chancery, from which 'his writs issue, and 
 may have his own chamberlain and other officers, 
 for receiving and managing his revenue ; ' and the 
 late Professor Bell, in his Principles of the Scotch 
 Law, calls this principality the prince's ' perpetual 
 A. and personal provision.' In England, the duchy 
 of Cornwall may be said to be an A. of the Prince 
 of Wales, in whose person, also, since the junction 
 of the two kingdoms under the same crown, now 
 merge the rights of the Prince of Scotland. His 
 roysu highness, in fact, when he goes north, ought 
 strictly to be caUed, not Prince of Wales, but Prince 
 of Scotland. 
 
 In common parlance in England, the word A. is 
 loosely used to denote any extra-territorial jurisdic- 
 tion or sovereignty by governments or states ; and 
 even any dignity or right enjoyed by persons of 
 rank. 
 
 A'PATITE is the scientific and commercial name 
 applied to a mineral mainly consisting of phosphate 
 
APE— APELLES. 
 
 of lime (bone-earth), and which ia in the course of being 
 introduced into the agricultural market as a valu- 
 able material in the preparation of artificial manures. 
 A. is found in many rock masses, but ia especially 
 disseminated in theigneoua and older crystalline rocks, 
 such as granite, basalt, and greenstone. The clay and 
 soil formed naturally by the disintegration of these 
 rocks, contain, of necessity, the A. in a fine state of 
 division, and thus are enabled to supply plants 
 growing thereon with one of the most important 
 articles of the mineral diet of the members of the 
 vegetable kingdom. The most extensive natural 
 sources of A. are in Norway, where it is found 
 largely in veins or fissures in the Syenitio rocks, and 
 from which it is now mined on a large scale, by a 
 British company, and transported to England ; and 
 in the island of Sombrero, where the A. appears to 
 compose the greater part of the island. Sombrero is 
 only one and a half miles long, by an average breadth 
 of three quarters of a mile, and is situated amongst 
 the West India Islands, about 60 miles from St 
 Thomas, and in lat. 18° 35' N., and long. 63° 28' W. 
 40,000 tons of A. have already been abstracted from 
 the island, and used, after being ground to powder, in 
 the United States as a manure. Very large quanti- 
 ties are introduced into this country under the 
 name of Sombrero Guano, and are extensively em- 
 ployed by the manufacturers of artificial manures, in 
 place of ordinary bone-ash. The general treatment to 
 which it ia subjected is to reduce it to powder, and 
 act upon the pulverised matter with sulphuric acid, 
 which renders the phosphoric acid in the A. soluble 
 in water, and thereby facilitates its introduction 
 into the plant. In the greater number of cases 
 where the A. or Sombrero Guano is treated in 
 this way, it is mixed with other manures, such as 
 Peruvian Guano, blood, or true bones, and thus a 
 complex substance is manufactured, which is much 
 more acceptable to the plant than the simple A. 
 or mineral phosphate itsplf. The A. from Norway, 
 known in commerce as Norwegian A., is also made 
 up in a similar manner. 
 
 The great importance of mineifal phosphate, in an 
 agricultural point of view, arises from the fact that 
 no mineral substance possesses more influence over 
 the growth of the edible plants, such as wheat, 
 barley, oats, turnips, &c., than phosphoric acid does ; 
 any cheap source of that substance, therefore, is a 
 great boon. When the Norwegian A. was discovered 
 in quantity, it was welcomed by the agricultural 
 publio, and immediately influenced the price of aU 
 manures. The discovery, however, of the deposits of 
 A. in Sombrero is of even greater importance, from 
 the extent to which the substance is found on the 
 island. Not only does the A. constitute large boulders, 
 weighing from one to twenty tons, and thickly 
 strewn over the island, but beneath a few feet of 
 surface-rock, a phosphatic and calcareous tufa is 
 found, which here and there has large masses and 
 dikes of A. passing through it. Again, oocasionaEy 
 this under-stratum of phosphatic mineral bursts 
 through, and is observed overlapping or covering 
 the exposed surface of the island to the extent of 
 several thousands of square leet at a single place. 
 A deposit of A. so extraordinary and abundant, 
 cannot fail to influence materially the growth of 
 plants, and this duty it is quicMy accomplishing 
 under various names. The island of Sombrero 
 contains as much phosphatic or bony 'matter as 
 is present in many millions of oxen, and repre- 
 sents as much manure as would be obtained by the 
 employment of the bones of these cattle ; in another 
 point of view it may be regarded as equivalent 
 to the discovery of an area of land extensive enough 
 to grow fodder for the growth and. maintenance of 
 those many millions of oxen. 
 
 The different varieties of A. contain a little car- 
 bonate of lime, fluate of lime, muriate of lime, &o. 
 One of these varieties is known as Phosphorite, 
 another a,3 Moroxite, a third as Asparagus Stone. It 
 occurs both massive and in crystals — which are gene- 
 rally small, and are often six-sided prisms, or six- 
 sided tables — and is found in some of the tin mines 
 in Cornwall, Saxony, Bohemia, &c., and in granite and 
 gneias in different parts both of Europe and America, 
 sometimes forming beds associated with beds of 
 limestone, as in Estremadura in Spain, It is found 
 of various colours, more or less green, blue or red, 
 sometimes white, and often gray. The proposal to 
 employ it as a manure first excited much interest in 
 1856, and began to be enterprisingly carried into 
 effect, vrith happy results — rooks once deemed most 
 barren being thus rendered very conducive to the 
 fertility of soils. Some of the super-phosphates, &c., 
 most eagerly pressed on the attention of agricul- 
 turists, bear about the same relation to A. that 
 revalenta does to lentil flour. 
 
 APE, a name commonly given to the tailless 
 monkeys. (See Barbaby Ape, Chimpanzee, GrBEON, 
 Gorilla, Oeang-Otang, &o.) It was originally 
 commensiu^ate in signification with monkey, and 
 the terms were indiscriminately used. The origin 
 of the word is uncertain. See Monkey. 
 
 The worship of apes or monkeys has been common 
 among pagan nations from a period of remote anti- 
 quity, and still prevails very extensively, being prac- 
 tised in Japan, in India, and by some of the African 
 tribes. The source of it is perhaps to be found 
 partly in the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, 
 and partly in the qualities which apes have been sup- 
 posed to possess in a conspicuous degree, and of 
 which they have been made symbolic. An A.'s 
 tooth, kept in a temple in Ceylon, was regarded 
 with extraordinary veneration, and immense wealth 
 was accumulated through the continual offerings of 
 the worshippers ; but the temple was plundered, and 
 the tooth carried away by the Portuguese in 1554. 
 
 A- PEAK, or A-PEEK, a maritime term signifying 
 the position of an anchor when ther cable has been 
 drawn so tight as to bring the ship directly over it ; 
 the sailors then say that ' the anchor is a-peak.' 
 
 APB'LL!^S, the most celebrated painter in ancient 
 times, was the son of Pythias, and was probably, in 
 accordance with the statement of Suidas, born at 
 Colophon, on the Ionian coast of Asia Minor ; though 
 Pliny and Ovid call him a Coan, and Strabo and 
 Lucian an Ephesian. This, however, may simply 
 refer to the fact that he was made a burgess of that 
 town. He flourished in the latter part of the 
 4th 0. B.C., received his first instruction in art in 
 the Ionian school of Ephesus, then studied under 
 Pamphilus of Amphipolis, and latterly at Sicyon, 
 under Melanthius, and thus he united the fine colour- 
 ing of the Ionian with the accurate drawing of 
 the Sicyonic school. During the time of Philip, 
 A. visited Macedon, where he became the intimate 
 friend of Alexander the Great. It was probably at 
 the Macedonian court that the best days of A were 
 spent. PHny relates that on one occasion when 
 Alexander visited A. in his studio, the king 
 exhibited such ignorance of art, that A. recommended 
 hiivi to be silent, as the boys who were grinding the 
 colours were laughing at him. But the same story 
 is told of Zeuxis and Megabyzus. He after- 
 wards visited Khodes (where he was familiar with 
 Protogenes), Cos, Alexandria, and Ephesus. The 
 period of his death is not known ; but as he practised 
 his art before the death of Philip, and as his visit to 
 Alexandria was after the assumption of the regal 
 title by Ptolemy, he probably flourished between 
 352 and 308 B.c. The most celebrated paictings of 
 
APELLES-APENNINES. 
 
 A. were his Anadyomene, or Venus Rising from the 
 Sea, with a shower of silver drops falling round her 
 like «. vail of gauze, the Graces, and similar sub- 
 jects; but he cultivated the heroic as well as the 
 graceful style. His ideal portrait of Alexander 
 wielding a thunderbolt was highly esteemed, and 
 preserved in the temple of Diana at Ephesus. With 
 reference to this painting, Alexander said : ' There are 
 only two Alexanders — the invincible son of Philip, 
 and the inimitable Alexander of A.' A. is said to 
 have left an incomplete painting of Venus, to which 
 no other painter would presume to give the finishing- 
 touches. The disposition of A. was remarkably free 
 from envy, and he willingly acknowledged the merits 
 of his contemporaries. Amphion, he said, excelled 
 him in grouping, and Asclepiodorus in perspective, 
 but grace was his alone. On coming to Ehodes, and 
 findmg that the works of Protogenes were not 
 appreciated by his countrymen, he at once offered 
 mm fifty talents for a picture, and Spread the report 
 that he intended to seU it again as his own. The 
 industry with which he practised drawing was so 
 great as to give rise to the proverb, Nulla dies sine 
 lined. Many other anecdotes are related of A. 
 When his pictures were exposed to public view, he 
 used to place himself behind a picture, to listen to 
 the criticisms Of the common people. A cobbler 
 having detected a fault in the shoe of one of his 
 figures, it is said that A. instantly rectified it ; bxit 
 when the cobbler, on the following day, extended his 
 criticism to the legs, the painter rushed from his 
 hiding-place, and told the cobbler to stick to the 
 shoes ; or, in the Latin version, which has become 
 proverbial, ' iCe sutor supra crepidam.' 
 
 A'PENNINES (itaL Appenni'ni; anciently, Lat. 
 Mons Apenninus), a mountain-chain extending 
 uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of the 
 Itahan peninsula. It lies between 37° and 44° 30' N. 
 lat., and 7° 40' and 18° 20' E. long., and belongs 
 to the system of the Alps, from which it branches 
 oflf at the Col de Tenda, near the sources of the 
 Tanaro. From this point, the chain, under the 
 name of the Ligurian A., girdles the Giilf of Genoa, 
 in the immediate vicinity of the sea, and then runs 
 inland to a considerable extent, forming the water- 
 shed between the Adriatic and the Mediterranean, 
 but gradually approaching the east coast, tiU, in the 
 highlands of the Abruzzi, it is close upon it ; after which 
 it takes a south-western direction through Naples, 
 dips under the sea at the Strait of Messina, and 
 reappears on the northern coast of Sicily. Recent 
 geographers divide the A. as follows : 1. The North 
 A., from the Col de Tenda in the Maritime Alps to 
 the pass of Borgo San Sepolcro, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Arezzo, on the eastern border of Tuscany. 
 
 2. The Central A., from Arezzo to the valley of the 
 Pescara, which flows between the two Abruzzi. 
 
 3. Tlie Soidh A., from the valley of the Pescara to 
 Cape Spartivento. 4. The Insular A., or the Sicilian 
 range. The leading feature of the A., wherever 
 they approach the coast, is their extraordinarily 
 steep declivities ; while in Middle Italy and the 
 adjoining portions of Upper and Lower Italy, long 
 terraced plateaus, lower ranges, and finally, extensive 
 coast-plains, mark their gradual descent on the west. 
 The general name for these lower ranges is Sub- 
 Apennine; but they have a variety of particular 
 designations, such as, the Mountains of Carrara 
 and Seravezza, Pratomagno and Monte Amiata, 
 in Tuscany ; the Sabine, Alban, and Volscian moun-' 
 tains, in the Papal States ; Monte Gargano on the 
 south-east coast, north of Manfredonia, &c. The 
 main chain of the A. does not send off spurs into 
 the Apulian peninsula, or heel of Italy, which, for 
 the most part, is rather level, or only interspersed 
 with detached groups of hUls. I 
 
 310 
 
 The direction of the great chain of the A. is 
 favourable to the formation, on the west side, of 
 important river-basins, such as those of the Arno, 
 the Tiber, the Garigliano, and the Voltumo ; while, 
 on the east side, we find nothing but small streams, 
 in most cases, destitute of affluents, hurrying down 
 to the sea through wild precipitous valleys. In 
 Northern Italy, the Ligurian A., almost overhanging 
 the Gulf of Genoa, can only develop on the south 
 puny streams, while the north sends down, through 
 the plains of Piedmont, large tributaries to the Po. 
 
 The average height of the entire chain of the A. is 
 about 4000 feet, which, however, in the north, sinks 
 down to little more than 3500 feet ; and in the 
 mountains of the Abruzzi, rises to 7000 feet. Here, 
 in Monte Corno, the highest peak of the range 
 known under the name of Gran Sasso d'ltalia, 
 they reach an elevation of 10,200 feet, and in Monte 
 Velino, of 7850 feet. The North A. attain, in Monte 
 Cimone, situated in the south of Modena, a height 
 of 6973 feet; the South A., in Monte Amara, a 
 height of 9000 feet ; the Insular A., if we exclude 
 the isolated peak of .^tna — in Pizzo di Case, a 
 height of 6500 feet. 
 
 The A. are crossed by thirteen principal passes : 
 these are, proceeding from N. to S. — 1. The Pass 
 of Savona ; 2, of Bocchetta ; 3, of Cisa ; 4, of Monte 
 Cimone ; 5, of Porretta ; 6, of Pietramala ; 7, of 
 Borgo San Sepolcro ; 8, of Furlo ; 9, of SerravaDe ; 
 10, of Aquila ; 11, of Isernia ; 12, of Arcano and 
 Troja ; 13, of Potenza. The prevalent stone is a 
 species of compact limestone, of a whitish-gray colour, 
 belonging to the Jiu-a formation. Resting on the 
 limestone is found a more recent formation of sand- 
 stone and marl, which is especially abundant in the 
 middle region of the Sub- A., contains an extraordi- 
 nary number of petrifactions, and must be reckoned 
 as belonging to the upper division of the Parisian 
 limestone. Older formations, however, frequently" 
 crop out. Thus, for instance, on the water-shed of 
 the North and Central A. there are found transition 
 clay-slate, grauwacke-slate, &c.- The A., especi- 
 ally the Roman and Neapolitan, are distinguished 
 from all other mountain-chains by the rich variety 
 of marbles which they contain. In some places, 
 the quarries seem inexhaustible. Volcanic rooks 
 are numerous in the middle and southern regions, 
 where the agency of fire has caused very wonderful 
 formations, as, for instance, the crater-lakes of 
 Albano, Nemi, Vesuvius, Solfatara. 
 
 The principal chain exhibits, for the most part, a 
 dreary and barren appearance ; it looks like a vast 
 wall, with very few projecting peaks to break the dull 
 monotony of the scene, and therefore seldom furnishes 
 any salient points on which the eye of the spectator 
 can rest vpith pleasure. jNaked, riven, covered with 
 thick debris, the declivities seem as if scorched by 
 the southern sun. Only in the Abruzzi, in the 
 Sub-A., and above all, in the marble mountains of 
 Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold and magnificent 
 forms of the Alps reappear. Where the A. — in 
 general so poorly supphed with streams — exhibit a 
 trace of Alpine abundance of water, there is no lack 
 of rich pastures and dense forests, but usually only 
 thin grass and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony 
 slopes. The greater number of the roaring forest 
 brooks, in the deep rocky ravines, display, during 
 sum m er, only a dry bed. Where the moimtains dip 
 down to the sea, as at the Riviera of Genoa and the 
 Gulf of Naples, a rich, pecuHarly southern vegetation 
 clothes the dechvities. Gigantic agaves, Indian 
 figs {Cactus Opuntia), myrtle-bushes, orange-groves, 
 hmt in these northern lands of the splendours of 
 the tropics. Up to 3000 feet of elevation, cornfields, 
 fruit-bearing chestnuts, and deciduous oaks are 
 found. Beyond this, all vegetation often ceases 
 
APENRADE-APHIS. 
 
 on the steep and stony sides of the mountains ; but 
 at other times the beeoh or the fir appears in dense 
 forests. There is no region of perpetual snow ; 
 but the summits of the Abruzzi and the lofty peaks 
 of Lunigiana, are often covered with snow from 
 October far into May, and send their icy breath 
 so suddenly down into the mild valleys, that the 
 temperature in a few hours sinks 12° — 18° F., and 
 a warm spring afternoon is succeeded by a bitter 
 December evening. 
 
 _ APBNEA'Dli!, a town in Northern Sohleswig, 
 situated at the bottom of a gulf in the Little Belt, 
 has an excellent harbour, and a considerable amount 
 of shipping. Long. 9° 25' 12" E. ; lat. 55° 2' 46" N. 
 Pop. 4100. The environs of the town are beautiful. 
 The first historical mention made of A. relates to its 
 destruction by the Slaves in 1148; and, indeed, its 
 position has always laid it open to the casualties of 
 northern war, whether on a large or small scale, as 
 has been especially seen since 1848. Near the town 
 stands the castle of Bmndlund, built by Queen 
 Margaret in 1411, in which the bailiff of the place 
 
 APB'TALOXJS, a term in Botany, applied to 
 flowers or to flowering plants, and signifying that 
 they are destitute of petals or corolla (q. v.). When 
 both the calyx and coroUa are wanting, the flower is 
 said to be achlamydeous (from the Greek chlamys, a 
 covering), or naked. The absence of the •whorl of 
 petals sometimes occurs in an exceptional manner 
 in orders or genera ordinarily characterised by its 
 presence. In some plants, as in certain species of 
 the order Garyophyllaceai, petals are sometimes 
 present, sometimes absent, a tendency apparently 
 existing to the suppression of this whorl. 
 
 .APHE'LION, that point in the elliptical orbit of 
 a planet which is most remote from the sun. The 
 opposite point, or that nearest to the sun, is styled 
 the Pbeihblion. At the former point, the swiftness 
 of the planet's motion is least, and begins to 
 increase ; at the latter, it is greatest, and begias 
 to decrease. This irregularity of motion is most 
 remarkable in comets whose orbits deviate most 
 from the circle. The motion of the comet of 1680, 
 at its perihelion, was calculated as 137,000 times 
 more rapid than its motion in A See Apsbdbs. 
 
 A'PHIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order 
 Hemiptera, sub-order Ho'moptera — ^the type of a 
 famUy called ApMdii. They are small insects. 
 
 Apple Aphis {Eriosoma Mali) : 
 
 o, wingless insect, magnified ; &, wingless insect in excrescence 
 
 of the tree, magnified. 
 
 living by sucking the juices of plants, upon which 
 they may be seen congregated in immense niunbers, 
 often doing serious injury, causing the distortion of 
 leaves, and even the blight and decay of the plant. 
 The woolly Aphis, or American Blight {A. lamgera; 
 MHoaoma Mali of Leach), is sometimes veiy injurious 
 
 to apple-trees, and when once it has found its way 
 into a garden or orchard, is very difficult of rtanoval. 
 It is a minute insect, 'covered with a long cotton- 
 like wool, transpiring from the pores of its body' — 
 
 Apple Aphis : 
 c, a branch with excreecences, reduced. 
 
 ' a cottony excretion ' — in which it differs from the 
 ordinary aphides, and takes its place in the chinks 
 and rugosities of the bark, multiplying rapidly, 
 extracting the sap, causing diseased excrescences, 
 and, ultimately, the destruction of the tree. It was 
 first observed in England in 1787 ; but it is uncer- 
 tain if it was, as has been supposed, accidentally 
 imported from America. The Hop-fly {A. Hwmidi), 
 and the A. of the turnip and cabbage (A. Brassicce), 
 have sometimes caused the destruction of entire 
 crops. The price of hops varies from one year to 
 another, very much according to the numbers in 
 which 'the fly' has appeared. The potato A. {A. 
 vasiaior) has been represented as the cause of the 
 
 Potato Aphis {Aphis vastator) : 
 magnified fifty times. 
 
 potato disease ; but this opinion has few supporters. 
 The aphides of the rose {A. Rosea) and of tlie bean 
 {A. Faice) are among the most familiarly known. 
 Every one must have observed the leaves of trees 
 and shrubs deformed by red convexities. In the 
 hollows of the under side of these, aphides have 
 their habitation, and there they find their food ; the 
 exhausted leaf at last curls up. Most of the species 
 are green ; the A. of the bean is black. They are 
 generally called Plant-lice. They have a proboscis 
 {hdustellum), by which they pierce and suck plants ; 
 and at the extremity of the abdomen, two horn-like 
 processes, from which exude frequent small drops of 
 a saccharine fluid called Honey-dew, a favourite food 
 of bees and ants. It has been seen even to fall ia a 
 kind of shower from trees much covered with aphides. 
 Mention has been made ia the article Ant, of 
 the means which ants take to obtain this food. 
 The legs of aphides are long, and they move slowly 
 and awkwardly by them. The greater number of 
 them never have wings ; it is in the autumn that 
 perfect winged insects generally appear. From the 
 pairing of these result eggs, which produce female 
 aphides in the following spring, and successive 
 generations of wingless aphides are produced in a 
 
APHORISM— APIS. 
 
 viviparous manner wiaiout impregnation throughout 
 the summer, the rapidity of multiplication being 
 prodigious. Their increase, however, is restrained 
 not only by birds, but by insects which feed on 
 them. A family of coleopterous insects, to which 
 the genus Goceindla or Lady-bird (q.v.) belongs, 
 has received upon this account the name of Apliidi- 
 phagi, or aphis-eaters. There are also certain 
 minute hymeuopterous insects, which destroy them 
 in great numbers by depositing their eggs in them ; 
 the larva feeds upon the living A., out of which it 
 at last eats its way, leaving a m'ere desiccated skin. 
 A'PHOEISM, a maxim, or any short and signifi- 
 cant saying; such as, 'Custom is a second nature.' 
 A whole piece or work is sometimes written in 
 the form of a series of aphorisms, arranged in due 
 order, and leaving their connection to be traced by 
 the reader's reflection. In certain circumstances 
 this aphoristic style has an impressive effect; but 
 long continued, it becomes wearisome. 
 
 APHRODI'T^, the Greek name of Venus, 
 according to various traditions, is derived from 
 aphros (foam), iu allusion to the old poetical myth 
 which represented the goddess as springiug from the 
 foam of the sea. See Venus and Apellbs. Aphro- 
 disia were festivals celebrated iu honour of A., in 
 numerous cities of Greece, but especially in Cyprus. 
 At Paphos, in this island, was her most ancient 
 temple. Bloodless sacrifices alone were imagined to 
 please A., such as flowers, incense, &o. Mysteries of 
 an impure kind formed part of the ceremonial of the 
 aphrodisia. Aphrodisia were no doubt held in the 
 other places where A. was worshipped, such as 
 Cythera, Sparta, Thebes, Elis, &c., though they are 
 not mentioned. At Corinth and Athena, the aphro- 
 disia were celebrated principally by prostitutes. 
 
 APIA'CE.a!. See ITmbellifer^. 
 
 APIACBRE. See Ad Libitum. 
 
 A'PIARY. See Bee. 
 
 API'CIUS, a Roman epicurean — ^in the low and 
 common sense of the word — lived in the times of 
 Augustus and Tiberius, and was celebrated for his 
 luxurious table and his acquirements in the science 
 of cookery. When, in pursuit of his favourite study, 
 he had consumed the greater part of his fortune, and 
 had only some £80,000 left, he poisoned himself, in 
 order to avoid the misery of plain diet. Two other 
 gourmands — one ia the time of Pompey, the other in 
 the reign of Trajan — are mentioned under the name 
 A. The Roman cookery-book, Ocelii Apidi de 
 Ohsoniis et Condimentis, sive de re CuUnarid (libri 
 decem), ascribed to A., obviously belongs to a 
 much later time, inasmuch as it aboimds in inac- 
 curacies and solecisms. The unknown author has 
 thought proper to recommend his work to gourmands 
 by affixiag to it the celebrated name of A. 
 
 A'PION, a Greek grammarian, was born at Oasis, 
 a town in Libya, but educated in Alexandria, which 
 he affected to consider his birthplace, from a desire 
 of being thought a pure Greek. He studied imder 
 ApoUonius, the sou of Archibius, from whom he 
 acquired an admiration of Homer, and afterwards 
 went to Rome, where he succeeded Theon as 
 teacher of rhetoric. He seems to have been as 
 remarkable for his loquacious vanity as for his 
 knowledge. He declared that himself, and every 
 one whom he mentioned, would be held in immortal 
 memory, that he was equal to the first philosophers 
 of Greece, and that Alexandria should be proud of 
 him. On account of his iucessant bragging, Tiberius 
 used to call him Oymbalum Mundi {the cymbal of the 
 universe). 
 
 With the exception of one or two fragments, the 
 whole of A.'s numerous writings are lost. He 
 
 812 
 
 composed a work on the text of Homer, partly in the 
 form of a dictionary, which was frequently referred 
 to by subsequent authors ; a work on Egypt, which 
 contained the far-famed story of Androdus and the 
 Lion, preserved by Aulus Gellius ; a work against 
 the Jews; one in praise of Alexander the Great; 
 another on the great epicurean Apioius; histories of 
 various countries, &o. 
 
 A'PIOS TUBERO'SA, formerly included in the 
 genus Glycine, and called G. Apios, a plant belonging 
 to the natural order Legwminosce, sub-order Papili- 
 onacecB, having tuberous roots, a twining stem, dark 
 red flowers, leathery, 2- valvular legumes, and pinnate 
 leaves, with seven pair of smooth ovato-lanceolate 
 leaflets. This plant, which is a native of Virginia, 
 has for a century been cultivated in botanic gardens 
 in Europe, and has recently been brought into par- 
 ticular notice on the continent, in a ^eat measure 
 through the French traveller Lamare-Picquot, who, 
 during his travels in North America, convinced 
 himself of the value of the tubers as an article of 
 food, for which they are there used to some extent. 
 Varioiis attempts have since be6u made to cultivate 
 it like the potato ; but its cultivation is found difiS- 
 cult, upon account of the length and weakness of the 
 twining shoots and the length of the roots. The 
 tubers cooked in steam are free from all acridity and 
 bitterness, and very much resemble potatoes dressed 
 in the same way. They contain more nitrogen than 
 potatoes (4"5 per cent.), also more starchy farina 
 (33'55 according to an analysis by Payen). 
 
 A'PIS, the bull worshipped by the ancient Egyp- 
 tians, who regarded it as a symbol of Osiris, the god 
 of the Nile, the husband of Isis, and the great divinity 
 of Egypt. A sacred court or yard was set apart 
 for the residence of A. in the temple of Ptah at 
 Memphis, where a numerous retinue of priests waited 
 upon him, and sacrifices of red oxen were offered to 
 him. PCs movements, choice of places, and changes 
 of appetite, were religiously regarded as oracles. It 
 
 Apis.— Golden Calf. 
 
 was an understood law that A. must not live longer 
 than twenty-five years. When he attait*d this age, 
 he was secretly put to death, and buried by tiie 
 priests in a sacred well, the popular belief being 
 that he cast h i mself into the water. H, however, 
 he died a natural death, his body was solemnly 
 interred iu the Temple of Serapis at Memphis, and 
 bacchanalian festivals were held to celebrate the 
 inauguration of a new buU as A. As soon as a 
 suitable animal was found having the required 
 marks — ^black coloiu' with a white square on the 
 brow; the figure of an eagle on the back, and a 
 knot in the shape of a cautharus under tiie tongue — 
 
APIS— APOCRYPHA. 
 
 he -was led in triumphal procession to Nilopoha at 
 the time of the new moon, where he remained forty 
 days, waited upon by nude women, and was after- 
 wards conveyed in a splendid vessel to Memphis. 
 His Theophany, or day of discovery, and his birth- 
 day, were celebrated as high festivals of seven days' 
 duration during the rise of the Nile. The worship 
 of the golden calf by the Israelites in the wilder- 
 ness, and also the employment of golden calves as 
 symbols of the Deity by Jeroboam, have been very 
 generally referred to the Egyptian worship of A. 
 
 A'PIS, APID^. See Bee. 
 
 A'PIUM. See Celery. 
 
 APO'CALYPSE. See Revelation of St John. 
 
 APOCALY'PTIC NUMBER is 'the mystical 
 number' 666, spoken of in the book of Revelation 
 (xiii. 18). As early as the 2d c, the Church had 
 found that the name. Antichrist, was indicated by 
 the Greek characters expressive of this number; 
 while others believed it to express a date. The 
 most probable interpretation is that which was 
 current in the days of Irenseus, and which found 
 the number in the word Lateinos {Latinus). The 
 Roman nation — the mightiest pagan power on earth 
 • — was the most terrible symbol of Antichrist, and 
 the number 666 appears in the Greek characters 
 which spell the name. Protestant controversiahsts 
 very generally support their views by this interpre- 
 tation, applying the prophecy to papal Rome. 
 
 APOCA'RPOUS FRUITS, in Botany, are those 
 fruits which are the produce of a single flower, and 
 are formed of only one carpel, or of a number of 
 carpels remaining free and separate from each other. 
 The term is derived from the Greek apo, implying 
 separation, and carpos, fruit. 
 
 A POCO A POCO (Ital.), in Music, by degrees; 
 by little and little. 
 
 APOCRE'NIO ACID is one of the products of 
 the natural decay of wood and other plant textiu-es, 
 and is found wherever hgnine or woody fibre is 
 decomposing in soils, &c. As A. A. is soluble in 
 water, it follows that rain-water falling on and 
 percolating through soils containing this substance, 
 becomes impregnated with it ; and hence, in many 
 natural waters, A. A. is a recognised constituent. 
 A. A. performs an important -function in the growth 
 of plants, as there is every reason to believe that it 
 forms one of the stages through which matter travels 
 from dead plants again into ihe living vegetable 
 tissue. 
 
 APO'CRYPHA, or APOCRYPHAL WRITINGS. 
 The word originally meant secret or concealed, and 
 was rendered current by the Jews of Alexandria. 
 In the earliest churches, it was applied with very 
 different significations to a variety of writings. 
 Sometimes it was given to those whose authorship 
 and original form were unknown; sometimes to 
 writings containing a hidden meaning ; or at other 
 times to such as were objectionable ; sometimes to 
 those whose pubHc use was not thought advisable. 
 In this last signification, it has been customary, since 
 the time of Jerome, to apply the term to a number 
 ^~>of writings which the Septuagint had circulated 
 amongst the Christians, and which were sometimes 
 considered as an appendage to the Old Testament, 
 and sometimes as a portion of it. The same name has 
 been retained for them in Luther's translation of the 
 Bible, where they are given as additions merely to the 
 Old Testament. 
 
 The Christian Church has fluctuated in its 
 acknowledgment and use of these writings. The 
 Greek Church, at the council of Laodicea (360 
 A. D.), pronounced decidedly against them, excluding 
 them from the canon; the Latin Church, on the 
 
 contrary, has always assigned them, at least since 
 the council of Carthage (397 A. B.), a high place as 
 worthy of reverence and esteem, without declaring 
 them to be of equal authority with the other scrip- 
 tures ; which was first done by the council of Trent, 
 although they had been in general use as part of the 
 Saored Scriptures long before. At the Reformation, 
 the Protestants generally rejected them ; but in some 
 of the Protestant churches they soon began again to 
 be read in public worship, although in some of them 
 passages occur which decidedly favoiu: Roman 
 Catholic doctrines. The Church of England, in her 
 Articles, enumerates the books of the A. as books 
 which ' the church doth read for example of life and 
 instruction of manners, but yet doth it not apply 
 them to establish any doctrine.' Some portions of 
 them are, therefore, included in the lessons of the 
 church. By the other Protestant churches in Britain, 
 as well as in America, they are completely rejected 
 from public worship. 
 
 The controversy regarding the A., after slumber- 
 ing for a long period, has been renewed in recent 
 times both in Britain and in Germany. It arose in 
 Britain very suddenly, about thirty years ago, in 
 consequence of a discovery made by some of the 
 most zealous supporters of the British and Foreign 
 Bible Society, that the funds of that society were in 
 part expended in the circulation of the A. on the 
 continent of Europe. This was defended on grounds 
 of expediency, because the people of many parts of 
 Europe had always been accustomed to see the A. in 
 their Bibles, but was on the other hand denounced 
 as contrary to the constitution of the society and 
 to principle. Every question relative to the A. 
 was opened up. Many members seceded from the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, and new Bible 
 societies were formed. In this controversy, Mr 
 Robert Haldane and Dr Andrew Thomson of Edin- 
 burgh, took a very prominent part as antagonists of 
 the A. and of its circulation. 
 
 Impartially considered, these apocryphal writings, 
 or at least a part of them, are not of very great 
 importance. They have chiefly a historical value, 
 throwing some light on the religious condition 
 of the Jews, from the time when the Old Testa- 
 ment ceases to be our guide, to the Christian 
 era. They are distinguished into : 1st, Those which 
 originated in Palestme, as Jesus Son of Sirach, 
 valuable for its generally pure morality, written in 
 Hebrew about 180 B.C., and translated into Greek 
 about 130 B.C.; the First Book of Maccabees, written 
 about 135 B. c, which is of great historical value ; and 
 the valueless book of Judith: 2d, Those which are of 
 Egypto- Alexandrine origin, as the Booh of Wisdom, 
 the Second of Maccabees, and the addition to Esther: 
 and 3d, those which bear traces of Chaldaic or 
 Persian influence, as Ezra, Tobias, Baruch, and the 
 addition to Daniel. The Book of Wisdom is the 
 crown of, the whole. In old editions of the Bible 
 the A. is sometimes seen, being bound up between 
 the Old and New Testament. Prom the authorised 
 editions in common use it is regularly excluded ; and, 
 except as a curiosity, it is little known to the 
 generality of readers. 
 
 What is called the A. of the New Testament con- 
 sists partly of histories, and partly of fragments of 
 tradition, or of doctrinal teaching, belonging to the 
 first three centuries, which have never claimed a 
 place in the canon, nor been advanced by any one to 
 that distinction even in the earliest times. They are 
 of value chiefly to the historical critic. The most 
 important among them are the pseudo-gospels ; 
 of these, a collection was made by Fabricius (Ham- 
 burg, 1719). A new edition of the Codex A-poary- 
 ■plms N, T., was commenced at Leipsic, 1832, by 
 ThUo. 
 
 S13 
 
ap6cYnace^-a1>olL6. 
 
 APOOYNA'CB^, or APOCY'NE^, a natural 
 order of Dicotyledonous plants, consisting of trees 
 and shrubs, generally with mUky juice, having entire 
 leaves, and no stipules. The calyx is usually 5-par- 
 tite, persistent; the corolla hypogynous, monopeta- 
 loua, often with scales in its throat, regular, 5-lobed, 
 twisted in bud. There are five stamens, which 
 are inserted on the corolla ; the anthers adhere 
 firmly to the stigma, to which the poUen is imme- 
 diately applied ; the anthers are 2-ceUed, and open 
 longitudinally; the pollen is granular. The ovaries 
 are two, each 1-celled, or one, which is 2-celled; 
 ovules usually numerous ; styles 1 or 2 ; the stigma 
 is contracted in the middle, and peculiarly charac- 
 teristic of the order. The fruit is a foUicle or cap- 
 sule, or drupe or berry, double or single. The seeds 
 have a fleshy or cartilaginous albumen, or (rarely) are 
 ex-albuminous. — There are about 666 known species, 
 chiefly natives of tropical countries. The Peki- 
 ■wiNKLE (q. V.) is its only representative in the flora 
 of Britain, a wanderer, as it were, from the tropics, 
 yet hardy enough for the climate with which it has to 
 contend ; the Oleander (q. v.) and a few others are 
 found in the south of Europe. Many species are 
 poisonous ; amongst which is the noted Taitghin 
 (q.v.) or Tangheena of Madagascar. Some are used 
 in medicine, in India and other countries. A num- 
 ber of species yield Caotjtchouo (q.v.). The milk 
 of others is bland and wholesome, as the Hya Hya 
 or Cow-TEEE (q. V.) of Demerara. Some are used in 
 dyeing; WrigMia tmcloria yields indigo of good 
 quahty. — A munber yield eatable fruits, as Willugh- 
 heia edulis and Garissa Carandae in India; Oarissa 
 edulis in Arabia, and certain species of Oarpodinus, 
 called PiSHABON in Sierra Leone, and Hancornia. — 
 Apocynum cannaMnwm, Canadian hemp, a herbaceous 
 plant about 4 — 5 feet in height, with unbranched 
 stem, oblong leaves, and lateral cymes of whitish 
 bell-shaped flowers, yields a very strong fibre, which 
 the Indians of North America employ for making 
 twine, cloth, fishing-nets, &c. 
 
 A'PODAL FISHES are fishes destitute of ven- 
 tral fins. In the Linnsean system, the Apodes are an 
 order of Fishes, in which genera not otherwise nearly 
 allied are brought together; but in the systems of 
 Cuvier and other recent naturalists, a less important 
 place is assigned to this distinctive character. — Eels 
 are an example of A. fishes. 
 
 APODI'CTIC, a logical term signifying a judg- 
 ment or conclusion which is necessarily true ; or, in 
 other words, a judgment of which the opposite is 
 impossible. No A. judgment can be foimded on 
 experience, because experience does not supply the 
 idea of an absolute necessity. 
 
 A'POGEE (Gr. apo, from, and ge, the earth), pro- 
 perly speaking, the greatest distance of the earth from 
 any of the heavenly bodies. Its application, however, 
 is restricted to the sun and moon, the sun's A. corre- 
 sponding to the earth's aphehon, and the moon's A. 
 being the point of its orbit most remote from the 
 earth. A. is opposed to perigee. 
 
 APOLLINA'RIS, the Younger, Bishop of Lao- 
 dicea in Syria (362), and one of the warmest oppo- 
 nents of Arianism. Both as a man and a scholar, 
 he was held in the greatest reverence ; and his writ- 
 ings were ejrtensively read in his own day. His 
 father, A the Elder, who was presbyter of Laodicea, 
 was bom at Alexandria, and taught grammar, first at 
 Berytus, and afterwards at Laodicea. When Julian 
 prohibited the Christians from teaching the classics, 
 the father and son endeavoured to supply the loss 
 by converting the Scriptiires into a body of poetry, 
 rhetoric, and philosophy. The Old Testament was 
 selected as the subject for poetical compositions 
 after the manner of Homer, Pindar, and the 
 311 
 
 tragedians; whilst the New Testament formed 
 the groundwork of dialogues in imitation of Plato. 
 It is not ascertained what share the father had in 
 this work, but as he had a reputation for poetry, 
 he probably put the Old Testament into Greek verse. 
 But it was chiefly as a controversial theologian, and 
 as the founder of a sect, that A. is celebrated. He 
 maintained the doctrine that the logos, or divine nature 
 in Christ, took the place of the rational human soul 
 or mind, and that the body of Christ was a spiritual- 
 ised and glorified form of humanity. This doctrine 
 was condemned by several synods, especially by the 
 Council of Constantinople (381), on the ground that 
 it denied the true human nature of Christ. The 
 heresy styled ApoUinarianism spread itself rapidly 
 in Syria and the neighbouring countries, and, after 
 the death of A., divided itseS into two sects — the 
 Vitaliaus, named after Vitalis, Bishop of Antioch ; 
 and the Polemeans, who added to the doctrine of A. 
 the assertion that the divine and human natures 
 were so blended as one substance in Christ that his 
 body was a proper object of adoration. On this 
 account, they were accused of sarcolatria (worship 
 of the flesh) and anthropolatria (worship of man), 
 and also were styled synousiastoi (syn, together, and 
 oTisia, substance), because they confused together the 
 two distinct substances. The whole controversy, which 
 occupied a great part of the 5th c, is an instance 
 of human reason wandering out of its proper sphere. 
 A. must not be confounded with Claudius A, Bishop 
 of Hierapohs, in Phrygia (170 A. D.), and who wrote 
 an Apology for the Christian faith, and several other 
 works, all of which are lost. 
 
 APO'LLO (Gr. Apollon). A. may be regarded 
 as the characteristic divinity of the Greeks, inas- 
 much as he was the impersonation of Greek Ufe in 
 its most beautiful and natiural foims, and the ideal 
 representative of the Grecian nation. His mild 
 worship, with its many festivals, accompanied as 
 they were by a cessation from all hostilities ; hia 
 various shrines at sacred places, with their oracles, 
 and the general idea of ms character, had a wide, 
 powerful, and beneficent influence on social and poli- 
 tical life throughout the states of Greece. Homer 
 and Hesiod mention that he was the son of Zeus 
 and Leto, but neither states where he was bom. 
 The Ephesians believed that both he and Diana, his 
 sister, were bom in a grove near their city. The 
 Tegyrseans of Boeotia, and the inhabitants of Zoster 
 in Attica, also claimed the honour of his birth ; while 
 the Egyptians seemed to think he properly belonged 
 to them ; but the most popular legend was that 
 which made him a native of Delos, one of the 
 Cyclades, where his m!other Leto, followed by the 
 jealous wrath of Juno over land and sea, at length 
 found rest and shelter, and was delivered of him, 
 under the shadow of an olive-tree, at the foot of 
 Mount Cynthus. To spite the Queen of Heaven, 
 who was far from being a favourite with the other 
 goddesses, these hastened to tender their services 
 to the weak and wearied Leto. The young A. was 
 much made of. Themis fed him with nectar and 
 ambrosia, the food of the gods, which seems to have 
 suddenly excited the conceit of the infant deity, 
 inasmuch as he surprised his nurse by starting to his 
 feet, demanding a lyre, and announcing his intention 
 of henceforth revealing to mortals the will of Jove. 
 The island, proud of having been the birthplace of 
 A., adorned itself with a robe of golden flowers. 
 
 In ancient Uterature A. is described as possessed 
 of many and various powers, all of which, however, 
 are seen on closer inspection to be intimately related 
 to each other. He is spoken of: 1. The god of 
 retributive justice, who, armed with bow and arrows, 
 sends down his glittering shafts upon insolent 
 offenders. In this character he appears in the 
 
Ai>OttO feELVEDERfi— APottO jrtttS. 
 
 Apollo. 
 
 opening of the niad. 2. As the instructor of bards, 
 and the god of song or minstrelsy, playing upon the 
 phorminx or seven-stringed 
 lyre, and singing for the diver- 
 sion of the other deities when 
 engaged in feasting. 3. As 
 the god of prophetic inspira- 
 tion, especially in his oracle at 
 Delphi. 4. As the guardian 
 deity of herds and flocks. 
 5. As the god of medicine, 
 who affords help, and wards 
 ofif evQ. In this sense he is 
 represented as the father of 
 Asclepius (.^Bculapius), the god 
 of the healing art. 6. As a 
 founder of cities. According 
 to Homer, he assisted Neptune 
 in building the walls of Troy. 
 Gyrene, Naxos in SioUy, and 
 other cities, venerated A. as 
 their founder. By the later 
 writers, A. was identiBed with Helios, the sun-god, 
 though Homer describes the latter as a distinct deity. 
 Several critics, however, have regarded Helios, or the 
 sun-god, as the true original A. — an opinion which 
 maybe supported by many probabilities. The suppo- 
 sition that A. was identical with the Egyptian, deity 
 Horus was rejected by the learned 0. MiiUer, 
 who generally opposed all attempts to deduce 
 Grecian from Egyptian mythology- According to 
 MuUer's theory, A. was a purely Doric' deity, whose 
 first residence was in Tempe, and who afterwards 
 removed to Delphi, whence the fame of his oracle was 
 spread abroad, and made him to be recognised as the 
 national divinity of Greece. The introduction of his 
 worship into Attica appears to have been contempo- 
 raneous with the immigration of the lonians, and 
 that worship would seem to have spread over the 
 Peloponnesus, immediately after it was conquered by 
 the Dorians. Much controversy has taken place, 
 both with reference to the idea which lies at 
 the root of the whole inyth of the A. worship, 
 and also as to whether this myth had its origin 
 in the north of Greece or in Egypt. Even on 
 the supposition that the original conception was 
 derived from the latter source, it was to Greek art 
 and philosophy that it owed its development into the 
 ideal of humanity. The most celebrated oracles of A. 
 were at Delphi, Abse in Phocis, Ismenion in Thebes, 
 Delos, Claros, near Colophon, and Patara in Lycia. 
 Among the Romans, the worship of A. was prac- 
 tised as early as 430 B. c, and prevailed especially 
 under the emperors. But there can be no doubt that 
 the Romans derived their conceptions of Ai entirely 
 from the Greeks. It was in honour of A. and his 
 sister Diana that the ludi scecularea were cele- 
 brated every hundred years. The attributes of A. 
 are the bow and qvuver, the cithara and plectrum, 
 the snake, shepherd's crook, tripod, laurel, raven, 
 &c. ; less frequentiy, the grasshopper, ' cock, hawk, 
 wolf, and olive-tree. In sculpture, he is generally 
 represented with a face beautifully oval, high fore- 
 head, flowing hair, and slender figure. 
 
 APO'LLO BBLVBDE'RE, a celebrated statue of 
 antiquiiy, which has generally been regarded as 
 embodying the highest ideal .of manly beauty. It 
 is generally supposed to represent the ' lord of the 
 unerring bow' in the moment of his Victory over 
 the Pyflion, but numerous other explanations have 
 been suggested. The figure (upwards of 7 feet in 
 height) IS naked, but a cloak fastened round the 
 neck hangs gracefully over the extended left arm ; 
 the expression of the face is one of calm and 
 godlike triumph, mixed with ' beautiful disdain.' 
 This great work of art was discovered in 1503, 
 
 amid the ruins of the ancient Antium, now Capo 
 d'Anzo, and purchased by Pope Julius II., who 
 
 Apollo Belvedere. 
 
 placed it in the Belvedere of the Vatican, whence the 
 name it bears. The date of its execution is with 
 probability referred to the reign of Nero, but the 
 name of the artist is a matter of mere conjecture. 
 The left hand and the right fore-arm, wanting in 
 the statue as discovered, were restored by G. A. da 
 MontorsoU, a pupil of Michael Angelo. 
 
 APOLLODO'RUS, an Athenian painter, who 
 flourished about 408 B.C., and was the predecessor 
 of Zeuxis. He introduced improved colouring and 
 distribution of light and shade. — A., a celebrated 
 architect in the time of the Emperor Trajan, 
 by whom he was employed to construct a bridge 
 over the Danube in Lower Hungary. Hia severe 
 censure, boldly pronounced on a design for a temple 
 of Venus, which the Emperor Hadrian had sent 
 to him, caused A. to be sentenced to death in 
 129 A.D. — ^A., a Greek grammarian, lived about 140 
 B. 0., studied philosophy in Athens, and grammar 
 under Aristarchus ; wrote a work on mythology, 
 giving an arrangement of old myths from the earliest 
 times to the historical period ; also a geography, a 
 chronicle in iambic verse, and several grammati- 
 cal works. The mythology, which begins with the 
 origin of the gods, probably went down as far as the 
 Trojan cycle, but a portion of it has perished. It 
 has been reckoned by some only an extract from a 
 larger work by A., tnough this is a mere hypothesis, 
 based on the fact that the legends are given with ' 
 extreme simplicity and brevity. The work is one 
 of great value to classical scholars. An edition of 
 the SiblioAeca of A., in 4 vols., was published at 
 Gottingen, 1782—1783, by C. H. G. Heyne. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, the name of several celebrated 
 Greek grammarians and rhetoricians. A., sumamed 
 Dyscolos (or iU-tempered), of Alexandria, lived in 
 the 2d c. Some of his grammatical works were 
 edited by Bekker. A. was the first who reduced 
 grammar to a system. His reputation was so high, 
 that Priscian calls him grammalicorum princeps (the 
 prince of grammarians). — ^A., son of Archebulus, 
 also of Alexandria, lived in the time of Augustus, 
 and was the author of a lexicon of Homejio 
 words. — A., sumamed Molon, was a teacher of 
 rhetoric at Rhodes, and also gave lectures at 
 Rome, where he was highly esteemed by Cicero 
 and Csesar. — A. of Peega, 240 B.C., is classed 
 with Euchd, Archimedes, and Diophantus, as one 
 of the founders of the mathematical sciences. 
 His work on conic sections has been preserved, 
 
 31S 
 
APOLLONITTS— APOLOGY. 
 
 partly in the original Greek, partly in an Arabic 
 translation. — A. of Rhodes (or of Alexandria, say 
 some authorities), bom 235 B. c, wrote many 
 works on grammar, and an epic poem, entitled 
 the Argonautica, marked rather by learning and 
 industry than by poetical genius, though it contains 
 some truly artistic passages, such as those exhibiting 
 the growth of Medea's love. It was greatly admired 
 by the Romans, was translated into Latin by PubUus 
 Terentius Varro, and was imitated, not only in a 
 wholesale manner by Valerius Flaccus, but even by 
 Virgil ill some passages. It has been edited by the 
 German scholars Brunck and Wellauer (Leipsio, 
 1813—1828). 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, OP Tyana, in Cappadocia, who 
 lived in the time of Christ, was a zealous follower of 
 the doctrines of Pythagoras. He soon collected a 
 considerable number of disciples, travelled through 
 a great part of Asia Minor, and endeavoured to find 
 his way to India, in order to become acquainted with 
 the doctrine of the Brahmiiis. On this journey he 
 stayed for a time in Babylon, was introduced to the 
 Magi, and at last reached the court of King 
 Phraortes, in India, who recommended him to 
 Jarchas, the principal Brahmin. When A. returned 
 from this pilgrimage, his fame as a wise man was 
 greatly iaoreased ; the people regarded him as a 
 worker of miracles and a diviue being, and princes 
 were glad to entertain him at their courts. He 
 himself seems to have claimed insight into futurity, 
 rather than the power of working miracles. From 
 Rome he was expelled on a charge of having raised 
 a young woman from the dead. After extensive 
 travels in Spain, Italy, Greece, and Ethiopia, he was 
 accused of having taken part in an insurrection 
 against Domitian ; but appeared before the tribunal, 
 and was acquitted. Ultunately, he appears to have 
 settled in Ephesus, where he opened a Pythagorean 
 school, and- continued his teaching until he died, 
 nearly one hundred years old. His history was 
 written about a hundred years after his death by 
 Philostratus (q.v.). It contains a mass of absurdi- 
 ties and fables, through which an outline of historical 
 facts and the real character of the man are suffi- 
 ciently discernible. Hierocles, a heathen statesman 
 and opponent of Christianity, wrote, in the 3d c, a 
 work on the life and doctrines of A, with a view 
 to prove their superiority to the doctrine of Christ. 
 In modem times, the English freethinkers Blount 
 and Lord Herbert, and Voltaire in France, have 
 renewed the attempt. 
 
 APOLLO'NIUS, of Tyke, the hero of a Greek 
 romance, which enjoyed great popularity in the 
 middle ages, and was translated into almost all the 
 languages of Western Europe. In it are related the 
 romantic adventures which befell A., a Syrian prince, 
 previous to his marriage with the daughter of King 
 Alcistrates, of Gyrene. To these are added the 
 adventures of his wife, who was parted from biTn by 
 apparent death, as well as those of his daughter, 
 Tarsia, who was carried off by pirates, and sold in 
 Mitylene. The poem closes with the reunion of the 
 whole fanuly. The original Greek work no longer 
 exists ; but there are three very early Latin versions, 
 of which one was published by Welser (Augsburg, 
 1595) ; another is to be found in the Oesta Eoman- 
 omm; and the third in the Pantheon of Gottfried of 
 Viterbo. From this Latin source have proceeded 
 tlie Spanish version of the 13th c, printed iu 
 Sanchez' Colleccion de Poedas Gastellanas (2d edi- 
 tion, Paris, 1842), several French versions, in prose 
 and verse, as well as several ItaUan. As early as 
 the 11th c. there was an Anglo-Saxon adaptation of 
 the work, and subsequently various EngUsh ones 
 appeared. Shakspeare has treated the subject in his 
 .iifi 
 
 drama of Pericles ; he substantially follows Gower, 
 in his Gonfe^sio Amantis, who bases his narrative on 
 the Pantlieon of Gottfried of Viterbo. Three popu- 
 lar EngKsh stories, drawn from a French version 
 of this romance, appeared in London in 1510, 1576, 
 and 1607; while the Dutch, in 1493, derived theirs 
 from the German. The romance was rendered into 
 German, probably from the Gesta Romanorwm, by a 
 certain 'Heiurich von der Neuenstadt' (i.e., Vienna), 
 about the year 1300, in the form of a long, and, as 
 yet, impublished poem. Later, we have a ffistori 
 des Kilniges Appolonii, translated from Gottfried of 
 Viterbo, and first pubHshed at Augsburg in 1476. 
 Simrock, in his Sources of Shakspeare, narrates 
 the story as it is given in the Gesta Eomanorum. A 
 modern Greek translation of the Latin romance, 
 imdertaken in 1500 by Gabriel Contianus, of Crete, 
 and several times reprinted at Venice, must not be 
 confounded with the lost Greek original. 
 
 A'POLOGUE, a fable, parable, or short story, 
 intended to serve as a pleasant vehicle of some moral 
 doctrine. One of the oldest and best apole^es or 
 parables is that by Jotham, as given in the Book of 
 Judges (ix. 7 — 15). Another celebrated A. is that of 
 the ' Limbs and the Body,' related by the patrician 
 Menenius Agrippa. .^sop's fables have enjoyed a 
 world-wide reputation. Luther held such an opinion 
 of the value of the A. as a vehicle of moral truth, 
 that he edited a revised .^sop, for which he wrote a 
 characteristic preface. He says : ' In doing this, I 
 have especially cared for young people, that they 
 may receive instruction in a style suitable to their 
 age, which is naturally fond of all kinds of fiction ; 
 and I have wished to gratify this natural taste with- 
 out indulging anything that is bad.' 
 
 APOXOGY. The term is now commonly under- 
 stood as synonymous with an excuse for breach of 
 an engagement, &c., but was originally used as the 
 title of any work written in defence of certain 
 doctrines, as iu the A. of Socrates, ascribed to 
 Plato and Xenophon ; the A. for ilie Christians, 
 by TertuUian, and in many other defences of the 
 Christians, written by Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, 
 Tatian, TheophHus, Origen, Eusebius, Minucius Felix, 
 Amobius, Lactantius, Augustine, Orosius, and others. 
 The attacks parried or retorted in these apologetioal 
 works are such as charges of atheism, want of 
 philosophical knowledge, anti-social tenets, &c. 
 Both the charges and the refutations brought for- 
 ward serve to give us an insight into the character 
 of the times when these works were written. Thus, 
 in the A. by TertuUian, it is curious to find a formal 
 argument employed to refute the assertion that the 
 spread of Christianity was the cause of 'earthquakes' 
 and other natural phenomena which had occurred in 
 some parts of the Roman empire. After the fourth 
 century, when the church was made dominant under 
 the Roman emperors, apologetioal writings were less 
 called for; but Bartholus Edessenus and Raymundus 
 Martinus wrote against the Jews and the Moham- 
 medans. In the 15th c, when the revival of learning 
 placed Christianity in apparent opposition to the 
 Platonic philosophy, MarsUius Fioinus wrote in 
 defence of revelation; and some time after the 
 Reformation, the spread of freethinking and scepti- 
 cism in England was opposed by a variety of apolo- 
 getical works, chiefly maintainmg the points that 
 Christianity is a divine revelation, Christ a divine 
 messenger, and his church a divine institution. 
 The defence of Christianity on grounds of reason 
 came now to be treated as a distinct branch of 
 theology, under the name of Apologetics. Among 
 the numerous apologetic works by Protestants, may 
 be mentioned those by Grotius (De Veritaie, &c.), 
 Butler (Analogy of Religion, Naiural and Revealed), 
 
APONEUROSIS— APOSTLE. 
 
 Lardner (OrediUUty of the Gospel History), Leland, 
 Addiaon, Soame Jenyns {Int^'nal Evidences of the 
 Christian Religion), Hugh Fanner, Bishop Watson 
 (A. for GhrisUanUy), Paley (Evidences of Ohrislianity, 
 and Horcs Paulince), &c. Among Koman Catholic 
 apologetic writers, the most eminent are Pascal, 
 HouteviUe, Guenge, Bergier, Mayr, and Chateau- 
 briand. 
 
 Recently, in Germany, a great number of apolo- 
 getic works by Neander, Tholuck, and others have 
 appeared, in reply to the Life of Jesus by David 
 Inedrich Strauss. 
 
 APONEURO'SIS is an anatomical term for an 
 expansion of strong fibrous tissue, of which there are 
 many examples in the hxmian body. For the sake of 
 convenience, it is generally confined to expansions 
 from the tendons of muscles, as the lumbar A. If a 
 tendon is very broad and expanded, as that of the 
 external oblique muscle of the abdomen, it is said 
 to be aponeurotic. Some muscles, as those on the 
 shoulder-blade, are partially covered with a ten- 
 dinous expansion, to which some of their fibres 
 are attached ; this is termed the aponeurotic origin 
 of the muscle ; it gives the muscle a more extensive 
 attachment, without adding materially to weight. 
 Aponeuroses stretch in some localities as protec- 
 tions over large arteries ; thus, in bleeding from 
 the vein nearest the inside of the bend of the elbow, 
 the only structure between it, the lancet, and the 
 brachial artery, is an aponeurotic expansion from the 
 biceps tendon into the muscles of the fore-arm. See 
 Fascia. 
 
 A'POPHTHEGM (Gr., an utterance), a term used 
 to designate any truth or maxim seutentiously 
 expressed. The oracles of the heathen gods often 
 took this form, as also the proverbs, memorable 
 sayings, &c., of the sages of antiquity. In modern 
 times. Lord Bacon has made a charming collection 
 of 
 
 A'POPLEXY is a term applied to an engorge- 
 ment of blood, with or without extravasation, in or 
 upon any organ, as the brain (cerebral A.), the spinal 
 cprd or limgs (pulmonary A.). As popularly used, the 
 term denotes vaguely a condition arising from some 
 disturbance within the head. A. occurs in fits, which 
 may be sudden or come on by degrees. They are char- 
 acterised by loss of sense and motion, speechlessness 
 and heavy sleep, with stertorous respiration and a 
 slow pulse. The fit may last from a few hours to 
 two or three days, and passes off, leaving generally 
 more or less paralysis, and recurs at intervals of 
 months or years. The age at which A. occurs most 
 commonly is from fifty to seventy, and is compara- 
 tively rare before and after these ages. Cerebral A. 
 may arise from mere congestion of the blood-vessels 
 of the brain, caused by impeded return of the venous 
 blood, as from the military stock pressing on the 
 jugular veins, keeping the head long in one position, 
 or tiurning it quickly. Stout persons, with short 
 necks, are more liable to this form of A. ; though 
 lean persons are also frequently its victims. But 
 in addition to congestion, there may be an escape 
 of the watery portion of the blood from the con- 
 gested vessels, and this collecting, produces serous 
 A; ; or, owing to a diseased condition of the arterial 
 walls, the vessels may burst, and A. from cerebral 
 hemorrhage be the result ; the latter is the most 
 common, and is usually preceded by some softening 
 of the brain substance itseK. If this bleeding be 
 to any great extent, death results ; if only a small 
 quantity escapes, it coagulates, and forms a clot, 
 which is absorbed in time. Persons with diseased 
 heart and lungs, and pregnant females, are liable to 
 apoplectic fits. The attack is generally preceded 
 by vertigo, headache, partial or temporary loss of 
 
 memory, and occasionally double vision. When 
 these warnings occur, medical advice should be 
 sought to correct the digestive functions ; and by 
 •relieving the oppressed brain, ward ofi" the fit. 
 When the latter occurs, the patient's head should be 
 raised, cold applied, and in some cases blood should 
 be withdrawn from the temporal artery or external 
 jugular vein. As soon as possible, purgative medi- 
 cines should be administered. For the results of A., 
 see Paralysis. Tumours within the skull produce 
 symptoms of A. 
 
 APO'STATB literally designates any one who 
 changes his religion, whatever may be his motive ; 
 but, by custom, the word is always used in an inju- 
 rious sense, as equivalent to renegade, or one who, in 
 changing his creed, is actuated by imworthy motives. 
 In early Christian times, the word was applied to 
 those who abandoned their faith in order to escape 
 from persecution ; but it was also applied to such 
 as rejected Christianity on speculative grounds (the 
 Emperor Julian, for instance). After the 5th c, 
 when heathenism was declining, many who had no 
 sincere belief in Christianity, yet made profession of 
 it, and were baptised : these also were styled apos- 
 tates. The apostates in times of persecution were 
 styled variously Saorificati, Thurificati, &c., accord- 
 ing to the modes in which they publicly made 
 known their return to heathenism, by ofiering sacri- 
 fices or incense to the gods of Rome. The Roman 
 Catholic Church at one period imposed severe 
 penalties on apostasy. The apostate was of course 
 excommunicated; but sometimes also his property 
 was confiscated, and he himself banished, or even 
 put to death. It has often been of great moment to 
 the fortunes of a nation that a prince has apostatised. 
 The most renowned instance in modern history, is 
 that of Henry IV. of France. In 1833 there was 
 published, at Erlangen, A Gallery of Important 
 Persons who in the IQth, VJth, and 18th Centuries 
 went over from the Protestant to the Soman CatJiolic 
 Church. — The term Apostasy is now employed com- 
 monly, and often abusively, as a reproach for great 
 or sudden changes in political opinions. 
 
 APO'STLB (Gr. apostolos, sent forth, sent on a 
 mission), any messenger whatever, but especially 
 used to denote the twSve disciples whom Jesus sent 
 forth to preach the gospel. Their names were 
 Simon Peter, Andrew, John (the son of Zebedee), 
 James (his brother), Philip, Bartholomew (called also 
 Nathaniel), Thomas, Matthew (surnamed Levi), 
 James (the son of Alphseus), Thaddeus, Simon, and 
 Judas Iscariot. Subsequently, Matthias was chosen 
 in the room of Judas; anti at a stiU. later period, 
 the number of the apostles was further increased 
 by the calling of Paul to the apostleship. The term 
 is sometimes used in the New Testament in its more 
 general signification. Barnabas is styled an A. 
 (Acts xiv.). It is a point of controversy between the 
 supporters and opponents of episcopacy, whether or 
 not the term A., as indicating an office, is appHed to 
 any except the original twelve, Matthias, and Paul ; 
 it being maintained, on the one hand, that the* office 
 is perpetuated in bishops ; on the other, that it was 
 temporary and belonged exclusively to those who 
 were witnesses of the resurrection of Christ, and 
 were employed by him to f oimd the Christian Church. 
 The apostles were twice commissioned by their Master 
 to go forth on their work of evangelisation. First, 
 during the third year of his public miQistey. On this 
 occasion, their labours were to be restricted to the 
 Jews, properly so called. Not even the Samaritans, 
 though natives of Palestine, were to be the objects of 
 their religious sohcitude. They were earnestly to seek 
 out the lost sheep of the house of Israel. The second 
 time was shortly before the Lord's ascension, when 
 
 317 
 
APOSTLES' CREED— APOSTOLIC MAJESTY. 
 
 their sphere of labour was indefinitely extended. ' Go, 
 and teach all nations, baptising them in the name of 
 the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' 
 On the -day of Pentecost, the apostles received 
 nuracnlous gifts fitting them for their arduous 
 work. ' And after evangelising for some years in 
 Palestine, they aU departed, with the exception of 
 St James, into various quarters of the globe ; but 
 the region of their ministry seems to have princi- 
 pally comprised the civilised provinces and cities 
 of the eastern part of the Koman empire — viz., 
 Syria, Asia Minor, and Greece; though probably 
 Peter, and after him Paul, visited Rome. There 
 is no historical foundation for the tradition that 
 the first apostles divided the then known world 
 into twelve parts, each taking one of these for his 
 special sphere of labour. This figment was very 
 likely originated by two circumstances : 1. That the 
 disciples were commanded to go into all the world 
 and preach the gospel ; and 2. That the disciples in 
 point of fact had httle personal intercourse with 
 each other. Their zeal for the propagation of 
 Christianity left them no time to gratify their social 
 inclinations. As a, consequence, we have very 
 imperfect accounts of their lives or manner of death. 
 The several apostles are usually represented in 
 medieval pictures with special badges or attributes : 
 St Peter, with the keys ; St Paul, with a sword ; 
 St Andrew, with a cross ; St James the Less, with 
 a fuller's pole ; St John, with a cup and a winged 
 serpent fiying out of it; St Bartholomew, with a 
 knife ; St Philip, with a long staff, whose upper end 
 is formed into a cross ; St Thomas, with a lance ; 
 St Matthew, with a hatchet; St Matthias, with a 
 battle-axe ; St James the Greater, with a pilgrim's 
 staff and a gourd-bottle ; St Simon, with a saw ; 
 and St Jude, with a club. 
 
 APO'STLES' CUBED. See Ceebd. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC, or APOSTO'LICAL, the general 
 cerm applied to everything derived directly from, or 
 bearing the character of the apostles. Either case 
 constitutes apostolioity. The Roman Catholic Church 
 declares itself the A. Church; the papal chair the 
 A. chair, on the ground of an unbroken series 
 of Roman bishops, from the chief apostle, Peter. 
 The Church of England, in virtue of regular episcopal 
 ordination from the pre-reformation church, claims 
 to be A. ; so likewise do the Protestant Episcopal 
 churches in Scotland and the United States. 
 ApostoHo Tradition (see Teadition) claims to have 
 been handed down from the apostles. In the same 
 special sense, the name of A. Council belongs to 
 that conclave of the apostles at Jerusalem (Acts, 
 XV.), about the year 51 or 52 A.li., occasioned by 
 the disputes raised at Antioch by Judaising Chris- 
 tians as to the admission of uncircumoised Gentiles 
 into the church. Certain congregations or churches, 
 also, which were the special scenes of the labours of 
 the apostles, bore for centuries the title of A. 
 Churches, more especially those of Jerusalem, Antioch, 
 Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome. But with the ever- 
 increasing spiritual power of the Romish hierarchy, 
 the name A. came to be more and more exclusively 
 applied to Rome, and is retained by her, despite 
 the energetic protests of the Protestant Churches. 
 Hence me term Apostolic See, i.e., the see of 
 Rome ; Apostohc Blessing, the blessing of the pope 
 as the successor of St Peter ; Apostohc Vicar, the 
 cardinal who represents the pope in extraordinary 
 missions; Apostolic Chamber, a council intrusted 
 with the care of the revenues of the see of Rome ; 
 Apostohc Months— January, March, May, July, 
 September, November— the months in which the 
 pope, according to the Vienna Concordat of 1448, 
 took possession of the vacant benefices in Germany, 
 
 &c. A papal brief or letter is styled A. in the 
 same sense. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC BRETHKBN, or APOSTOLICL 
 the name given in Italy, towards the end of the 13th 
 c, to one of those sects which, animated by the 
 spirit of an Arnold of Brescia, felt constrained to 
 oppose the worldly tendencies of the church. Its 
 founder was Gerhard Segarelli, a weaver in Parma. 
 Rejected, from some cause or other, by the Franciscan 
 order, his long-continued and enthusiastic medita- 
 tions led him to the profound conviction that it was 
 above all things necessary to return to the simple 
 forms of apostohc hfe. Accordingly, he went about 
 (1260) in ttie garb of the apostles, as a preacher of 
 repentance, and by his practical discourses gathered 
 many adherents into a kind of free society, bound 
 by no oaths. At first he managed to avoid any direct 
 colhsion with the dogmas of the church ; but after 
 twenty years of undisturbed activity and growing 
 influence, Segarelli was arrested by the Bishop of 
 Parma ; and in 1286, upon the occasion of his release, 
 Pope Honorius IV. renewed a decree of Pope Gregory 
 X. against all religious communities not directly 
 sanctioned by the papal chair. In 1290, Nicholas 
 IV. setting himself expressly to oppose the A. B., 
 they, on Qieir side, began avowedly to denounce 
 the papacy, and its corrupt and worldly church, as 
 the Babylon of the Apocalypse. In 1300, many, 
 both men and women, and among them Segarelli, as 
 having, after abjuration, relapsed into heresy, 
 perished at the stake. But his cause survived him. 
 Dolcino, a more energetic and cultivated man, 
 brought up as a priest, who had previously taken an 
 active part in the Tyrol against the corruptions of 
 the chittch, now headed the orphan sect in Italy. He 
 taught the duty of a coniplete renunciation of all 
 worldly ties, of property and settled abode, &c. 
 Having retreated into Dalmatia, he announced from 
 thence the dawning of a new era, and in 1304, 
 reappeared ia Upper Italy, with thousands of 
 adherents, as the enemy of the papacy — at that 
 time humbled and impoverished by France. In 
 1305, a crusade was preached against him. He 
 fortified the mountain Zebello, in the diocese of. 
 VerceDi, but was, after a gallant defence, compelled 
 by famine to submit. After horrible tortiires, which 
 he bore with the utmost fortitude, he was burned. 
 In Lombardy and the south of France, remnants 
 of the A. B. lingered on tiU 1368. See Krone, Fra 
 Dolcino und die Patarener. (Leipsio, 1844.) 
 
 APOSTO'LIC CATHOLIC CHURCH. See 
 
 Irvingitbs. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC FATHERS, the name given to 
 the immediate disciples and feUow-labourers of the 
 apostles, and, in a more restricted sense, to those 
 among them who have left writings behind them. The 
 A. F., specially so called, are Barnabas, Clement of 
 Rome, Ignatius of Antioch, and Polycarp of Smyrna. 
 It is uncertain whether Papias of HierapoHs, and the 
 author of the Shepherd, who gave himself out as the 
 Hennas spoken of in Rom. xvi. 14, were really 
 disciples of the apostles. The writings of the A. F., 
 as to their form and subject, may be looked upon as 
 a continuation of the apostohc epistles, though far 
 inferior to them in spirit. Their main purpose is 
 to exhort to faith and holiness before Christ's 
 coming again. The writings of the A. F. have been 
 brought within the reach of En^sh readers by 
 the translations of Archbishop Wake and Mr 
 Chevallier. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC MAJESTY, a title held by the 
 kings of Hungary, was conferred by Pope Sylvester 
 II., in 1000 A.D., upon Duke Stephen of Hungary, 
 who had not only much encouraged the progress 
 of Christianity in Hungary, but actually preached 
 
APOSTOLIC CANONS— APOTHECAEIES. 
 
 himself, in imitation of the apostles. In 1758, the 
 title was renewed by Pope Clement XIII,, in favour 
 of Maria Theresa as Queen of Hungary, and con- 
 tinues to be used by the emperor of Ausliia aa king 
 of Hungary. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC CANONS Am) CONSTITU- 
 TIONS, both ascribed by tradition to Clemens 
 Eomanus, are notes of ecclesiastical customs held to 
 be apostolical, written in the form of apostolic 
 precepts. The Constitutiones Apoitolicce, consisting 
 of eight books, were probably composed in Syria, 
 and contain, in the iirst six books, a comprehensive 
 rule for the whole of Christian life. These were 
 probably written about the end of the 3d o. ; while 
 the seventh book, which is essentially an abridg- 
 ment of them, may have belonged to the beginning 
 of the 4th c. The eighth book was put together in 
 the middle of the 4th c, for the use of the priests, 
 and only relates to the sacred oflSoes. Interpolations, 
 however, were afterwards introduced. The Ganc^ea 
 Apostolici, which were also recognised by the church, 
 were composed at a later period. The first fifty, 
 compiled in the middle of the 5th c, and translated 
 from Greek into Latin by Dionysius the Younger, 
 were acknowledged by the Latin Ohiu'oh alone. The 
 Greek Church, on the other hand, accepted the 
 thirty-five canons put forth in the beginning of the 
 6th c. ; and this became a point of discord between 
 the churches. Both collections were probably looked 
 upon at first aa apostolic traditions merely. Later, it 
 came to be believed that they were written down by 
 the apostles themselves, it being thought probable 
 that they should have expressed themselves posi- 
 tively about the constitution as well as the dogmas 
 of the church. 
 
 APOSTO'LIC PARTY, the name given to a party 
 who acted a conspicuous part in the modern history 
 of Spain. They were composed of fanatical CathoMcs, 
 who were also absolutists so far as the king con- 
 sented to be their instrument. They formed them- 
 selves (soon after the revolution of 1819) into an 
 A. P., whose leaders were fugitive priests, and whose 
 troops were smugglers and robbers. After taking 
 an active part in aS the subsequent agitations, they 
 finally merged (1830) in the Carlist party. 
 
 APOSTO'LICAL SUCCESSION is a phrase 
 used to denote one or both of two things — the deriva- 
 tion of holy orders by an unbroken chain of trans- 
 mission from the apostles, and the succession of a 
 ministry so ordained to the powers and privileges of 
 the apostles. The former is necessarily a matter of 
 fact, to be ascertained by history; the latter is rather 
 a matter of opinion — the Koman and Protestant 
 Churches, and again individuals and parties in either, 
 differing widely from each other in their views. See 
 Bishop and Ordination. 
 
 APO'STEOPHB (Gr. apostropJie, a turning away, 
 or breaking off) is a rhetorical figure by which a 
 speaker changes the course of his speech, and 
 addresses, with greater or lesser emotional emphasis, 
 persons present or absent, the dead, or inanimate 
 objects, either to invoke them as witnesses, or to pity, 
 praise, or blame them. When the figure is well 
 managed, it has a thrilling effect, both in oratory 
 and poetry; but when extravagantly introduced, it 
 becomes ludicrous. Examples of it abound iu the 
 writings and speeches of the great poets and states- 
 men both of ancient and modern times. — A. in gram- 
 mar, is the omission of a letter or letters in a word, 
 the omission being marked by a comma, as 'tis for it 
 is; the comma so employed is also called an A. 
 
 APO'THECAEIES, in general acceptation, are 
 skilled persons who keep shops or laboratories for 
 the vending and compounding of medicines, and for 
 the making up of medical prescriptions; but iu 
 
 England, they maybe not incorrectly described as an 
 inferior branch of the medical profession. They are 
 legally entitled to attend sick persons, and prescribe 
 for them, as well as to make up and dispense 
 medicines. It is not, however, usual for them to 
 prescribe medicines to be prepared and supplied by 
 others ; and it may be doubted whether they can 
 do so in London without incurring the penalties 
 of the 14 and 15 Henry VIII. c. 5, by which the 
 privileges of the London physicians are confirmed 
 and extended — their ordinary practice, in addition 
 to preparing medicines from a physician's prescrip- 
 tion, being to advise the patient, to prescribe, and 
 make up me required medicine in their own labora- 
 tory. But although an apothecary may attend sick 
 Eersons, and prescribe for them, he cannot charge 
 oth for his attendances and his medicines, but 
 must make his election between the two. It was so 
 ruled by the late Chief-justice Best, in an action 
 by an apothecary, who sought to recover on both 
 grounds (see WUcock on the Medical Profession, 
 and the law-cases there collected). Although, 
 therefore, the apothecary is inferior in professional 
 rank and authonty to the physician and surgeon, he 
 is of a higher grade than the chemist and (Eruggist, 
 who merely vends drugs and medicinal compounds, 
 but whose qualification, beyond the payment of a 
 small annual tax by way of licence, does not neces- 
 sarily offer any test or guarantee of skill. Practically, 
 however, although it may be matter of surprise and 
 regret that the legislature has not interposed, by 
 any stringent enactment, for the protection of the 
 public against the unskilful and empirical druggist, 
 little or no injury perhaps results from such a state 
 of the law, for the rules of the 'Pharmaceutical 
 Society of Great Britain,' incorporated in 1843 by 
 royal charter, and the powers of which have been 
 considerably enlarged by a recent statute, 15 and 16 
 Vict. 0. 56, passed on the 30th June 1852, operate 
 as a restraint on ignorance and want of skill. . By a 
 still more recent act called ' The Medical Act ' 
 (21 and 22 Vict. u. 90, a. 54), provision is made forthe 
 preparation of what the act calls 'the British 
 Pharmacopceia,' an enactment which would be of 
 value in the case of pharmaceutical malpractices, 
 were it not that the next section of the same act 
 expressly exempts from its operation, among others, 
 the ' lawful trade or busmess of chemists or 
 druggists,' an inconsistency of which perhaps poor 
 persons, who cannot affotd to consult a regular 
 practitioner, have the chief right to complain. 
 See Chemist and Duuggist. 
 
 The business, or profession, as it may be called, 
 of an apothecary in England, although neither 
 regulated, nor, indeed, fully recognised, till modern 
 times, has been made the subject of several ancient 
 statutes, and is traceable to a remote period in the 
 history of the healing art in England. Eichard 
 Fitznigel, who died Bishop of London, was stated 
 to have been apothecary to Henry II. ; and it is 
 an accredited teadition, that in 1345 King Edward 
 III. gave a pension of sixpence a day to Coursus de 
 Gangland, an apothecary in Loudon, for taking care 
 of, and attending his majesty during his illness 
 in Scotland. It is, however, improbable that A. were 
 then common, indeed it may be doubted whether 
 at that time they existed as a publicly known body 
 at all, for, in 1511, there was passed an act of parUa- 
 ment, the 3 Henry VIII. c. 11, for regulating the 
 admission of persons practising physic or surgery, 
 but making no mention of the class now known as 
 A. But in 1543, the parliament passed a very 
 curious act, the 34 and 35 Henry VIII. c. 8, the 
 preamble of which deals severely with the then 
 ignorance and cupidity of the London surgeons ; and 
 as a remedy, it provides for the toleration and 
 
APOTHECARIES. 
 
 protection of the irregular practitioners, who after- 
 wards, as a body, acquired the distinctive name 
 of A. This act, strange though it be in its language, 
 may perhaps be regarded as the real foimdation of 
 the office of the modem apothecary. It certainly 
 shews on its face sufficient cause for its recognition 
 of the persons, to benefit whom it was passed, for it 
 complains that the surgeons of London were not 
 only unskilful and grasping, but that they 'have 
 sued, troubled, and vexed divers honest persons, as 
 well men as women, whom God had endued with 
 the knowledge of the nature, kind, and operation of 
 certain herbs, roots, and waters, and the using and 
 ministering of them to such as had been pained with 
 customable diseases, as women's breasts berag sore, 
 a pin and the web in the eye, uncomes of hands, 
 burnings, scaldings, sore mouths, the stone, stran- 
 gury, saucelim, and morphew, and such other like 
 diseases ; and yet the said persons have not taken 
 anything for their pains or cimning, but have 
 ministered the same to poor people only for neigh- 
 bourhood and God's sake, and of pity and charity.' 
 The act, therefore, proceeds to ordain, ' That at aU 
 time from henceforth it shall be lawful to every 
 person being the king's subject, having knowledge 
 and experience of the nature of herbs, roots, and 
 waters, or of the operation of the same, by specula- 
 tion or practice, within any part of the realm of 
 England, or within any other the king's dominions, 
 to practise, use, and minister in and to any outward 
 sore, imcome, wound, apostemation, outward swell- 
 ing or disease, any herb or herbs, ointments, baths, 
 pultess, and emplaisters, according to their cunning, 
 experience, and knowledge in any of the diseases, 
 sores, and maladies beforesaid, and all other like 
 to the same, or drinks for the stone, strangury, or 
 agues, without suit, vexation, trouble, penalty, or 
 loss of their goods, the foresaid statute in the foresaid 
 third year of the king's most gracious reign, or any 
 other act, ordinance, or statute to the contrary 
 heretofore made in anywise notwithstanding.' 
 
 Anciently, the A. were not distinguishable from the 
 grocers (the surgeons being, in like manner, undistin- 
 guishable from the barbers) ; indeed, it rather appears 
 that A. and grocers were synonymous terms ; and it 
 was not tm 1617, in the 13th year of James I., that 
 these bodies were formed into two distinct corpora- 
 tions by a charter from the king, which, reciting a 
 previous grant to the grocers in 1606, by which the two 
 bodies were expressly united, declares that the A 
 shall, thenceforward, be separate from, g,nd con- 
 stitute a company distract from the grocers. The 
 privileges conferred by this charter upon the A. 
 were afterwards considerably enlarged by an act of 
 parhameut, 55 Geo. III. u. 194, to which we shall 
 presently refer. But even after the charter of 
 James, the London A. appear to have been regarded 
 merely as a trading company, occasionally prescrib- 
 ing the medicines wliich they sold, thus trespassing, 
 as it was thought, on the province of the physician, 
 until their right to do so was supported by a 
 judgment of the House of Lords, in the case of the 
 College of Physicians against. Hose, reversing a 
 previous decision of the Court of King's Bench. 
 Kose, who was an apothecary and freeman of 
 London, had attended one Scale, a butcher, and 
 made up and administered what was not denied to 
 be proper medicine to him. This, it was contended, 
 on belmlf of the physicians, was an infringement of 
 their exclusive privileges, and the Kiag's Bench 
 being of the same opinion, unanimously gave judg- 
 ment for the plaintiffs ; but the judgment was 
 reversed by the House of Lords. So generally 
 estabhshed had this branch of the medici profes- 
 sion become, that, in 1815, the act of parliament, 
 55 Geo. III. c. 194, to which we have abeady 
 
 referred was passed to provide for the sufficiency of 
 their education ; thus, for the first time, as it may 
 be said, placing the A., aa a body, on the footing 
 of a liberal profession. This statute, which com- 
 pletely regulates the position, privileges, and re- 
 sponsibilities of the A., after reciting (and for the 
 most part confirming) the charter of James I., by 
 which the A. of London had been distinctively 
 incorporated as a company, proceeds to enact that 
 no person shall practise as an apothecary, or act as 
 an assistant to an apothecary, in any part of England 
 or Wales, unless he shall have been examined by a 
 court of examiners (to be chosen by the master and 
 wardens of the said company, in such manner as the 
 act directs), and have received therefrom a certificate 
 of his being duly qualified to practise as such. And 
 with respect to what constitutes such practice as an 
 apothecary, it has been judicially determi n ed that 
 courts of law will look to section 5 of the act, which 
 defines certain of the duties and liabilities of the 
 office, but which in noway deprives A. of any of 
 their previously acquired privileges. The certifi- 
 cate — for which a sum is to be paid for the benefit 
 of the company's funds — is not to be granted to 
 any person below the age of twenty-one, or who 
 has not served an apprenticeship of five years 
 to an apothecary, and can produce testimonials 
 of sufficient medical education and good moral 
 conduct ; and any person practising without such 
 certificate, is disabled from recovering his charges, 
 and for every such offence is, moreover, liable to 
 a penalty of £20, which can be recovered iu the 
 county com-t. It is also provided that— inasmuch as 
 it is the duty of every apothecary to prepare, with 
 exactness, such medicines that may be directed 
 for the sick by any physician lawfully licensed — any 
 apothecary refusing to compound or sell, or negH- 
 gently compounding or selling any medicines as 
 directed by any prescription or order, signed by any 
 physician, lawfidly licensed, with his initials, shall 
 incur such penalties and forfeitiires as therein set 
 forth. And further, that the master, wardens, and 
 society of A. for the time being, or any persons by 
 them appointed, and being not fewer than two, and 
 properly qualified, may at all reasonable times in the 
 daytime enter the shops of any A. throughout 
 England and Wales, and search and examine whether 
 the medicines and drugs be wholesome, and meet for 
 the health of the subjects of the realm ; and destroy 
 such as they find to be otherwise ; and report to the 
 master and wardens of the society the names of the 
 offenders, who are made liable to a fine of £5 for 
 the first, £10 for the second, and £20 for the tlurd 
 offence. The act contains, however, a proviso that 
 nothing therein shall affect the busiaess of a chemist 
 and druggist in the buying, preparing, compound- 
 ing, dispensing, and vending drugs, medicines, and 
 medicinable compounds, wholesale and retail; nor 
 interfere with the rights of the universities of 
 Cambridge or Oxford, the College of Physicians or of 
 Surgeons, or the Society of Apothecaries, respectively, 
 except as altered by that act. 
 
 This act, which was passed on the 12th July 
 1815, provides for the exemption from its operation 
 of such A. as may have been in practice on or 
 before the first day of August of that year ; a class, 
 however, of whom it may reasonably be conjectured 
 there are few now surviving. StiU, it may without 
 impropriety be asserted, that there are two classes of 
 A in England — first, the licentiates of the Apothe- 
 caries' Co., or, in other words, those qualified according 
 to the provisions of the 55 Geo. III. ; and second, a 
 temporary class, namely, such A. as were in practice 
 on the 1st day of August 1815. 
 
 The A. in Ireland are an exclusive corporation, 
 whose privileges are expressly saved by the recent 
 
APOTHECIA— APPALACHIANS. 
 
 medical act (the 21 and 22 Vict. c. 90). Although 
 occupying a position corresponding in many respects 
 to that of the same hody m England, the Irish A. 
 do not appear to have established their rights as 
 medical practitionera to the extent to which the 
 English A. have succeeded in carrying their preten- 
 sions, the privileges of the Irish A., .under their 
 charter, being limited to the vending, preparing, and 
 administering drags and medicines according to a 
 physician's prescription, although they probably 
 would incur no penalty by giving advice to patients 
 in their own shops. 
 
 The existing law relating to A. in Ireland is con- 
 tained in an act of the Irish parliament, the 31 Geo. III. 
 c. 34, passed in 1791, and entituled 'An Act for the 
 more effectually Preserving the Health of his Majesty's 
 Subj eots, for erecting an Apothecaries' Hall ici the City 
 of Dublin, and regulating the Profession of an Apothe- 
 cary throughout the Kingdom of Ireland.' The 
 preamble — turning the tables on the English act, the 
 34 and 35 Henry III., which reflects so severely on the 
 London surgeons — recites that 'whereas not only 
 many but great inconveniences have arisen from the 
 want of a hall amply supplied with medicines 
 of the purest quality, prepared under the inspection 
 of persons well skilled in the art and mystery of 
 such preparations, but also frequent frauds and 
 abuses have been imposed and practised on many of 
 his majesty's subjects within the city of Dublin, and 
 the liberties thereof, and in other parts of the king- 
 dom of Ireland, by the ignorance and unskUfulness 
 of divers persons pretending to the art and mystery 
 of an apothecary, to the injury of the fair trader, 
 the disappointment of the physician, and the immi- 
 nent hazard of the lives of his majesty's faithful 
 and loyal subjects throughout the realm.' The 
 act proceeds to incorporate the A. as a com- 
 pany, and to erect their hall ; the officers of the 
 corporation being a governor, deputy-governor, and 
 thirteen directors, elected from among the members, 
 or any five or more of them, of whom the governor or 
 deputy-governor should be one, shall be called a 
 joourt of directors, for inspecting and directing all 
 chemical and compound preparations and experi- 
 ments. By section 18, no person, after , the 24th 
 -June 1791, shall be taken as an apprentice, foreman, 
 -or shopman to any apothecary in Ireland, until after 
 examination by the company; and by the 22d 
 section it is enacted that from and after the same 
 date, ' no person shall open shop or act in the art or 
 mystery of an apothecary, within the kingdom of 
 Ireland, until such person shall have been examined 
 as to his qualification and knowledge of the business, 
 T)y such persons and in such maimer as hereinbefore 
 mentioned and required for the examination of 
 persons appl5ring ;to become apprentices or shop- 
 keepers ; ' a ' provision that appears to give the 
 Apothecaries' Hall in Ireland a complete monopoly 
 in the vending and compounding of medicines. 
 
 In Scotland,"-there is no class of practitioners cor- 
 Tesponding to the English A. The word apothecary 
 does not appear, indeed, to be a generic term in the 
 medical nomenclatm-e of that country ; the chemists 
 and druggists, who are in general an extremely well 
 educated and respectable class, do all the business 
 connected with the making up of prescriptions, 
 vending and preparing medicines ; but they are not 
 medical practitioners as in England, although many 
 of them are surgeons. 
 
 APOTHB'CIA. See Licheks. 
 
 APOTHE'OSIS, deidcation, or the raising of a 
 mortal to the rank of a god (Gr. theos). Prom the 
 polytheistic point of view there is nothing monstrous 
 in this idea ; on the contrary, it is quite natural, 
 and a necessary part of the system. Among heathens 
 
 fenerally, and especially among the Romans, every 
 eparted spirit became a deity (see Manes) ; ' and as 
 it was common for children to worship (privately) 
 the manes of their fathers, so was it natural for 
 divine honours to Jie publicly paid to a deceased 
 emperor, who was regarded as the parent of his 
 country.' (See Smith's Dictionary of Cfreeh and 
 Soman Antiquities.) At the Gonseeratio, as it was 
 called, of a Eoman emperor, the body was burnt on 
 a funeral pile, and as the fire ascended, an eagle was 
 let loose to mount into the sky, carrjring, as was 
 believed, the soul of the emperor from earth to 
 heaven. Many medals are found with the word 
 consecraMo surrounding an altar, with fire on it, and 
 an eagle rising into the air. 
 
 APPAL A'OHI AN S, the general appellation of the 
 great mountain-system — called also the .AUeghanies 
 — which stretches from the interior of Maine to the 
 borders of Alabama, its distance from the sea 
 gradually ranging between about 100 miles in the 
 north, and about 300^ . in the south. Speaking 
 generally, this chain may be regarded as the parent 
 of the Atlantic rivers of the United States on the 
 one side, and on the other of the southern tributaries 
 of the St Lawrence, and of the eastern feeders of 
 the Mississippi : it is not, however, the actual 
 water-shed during its entire length, for it is crossed 
 by the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware, 
 just as the Himalayas are pierced by the Ganges, 
 and the Andes by the .Amazon. The chain, in 
 fact, consists of several ranges generally parallel to 
 each other, which, along . with ithe intermediate 
 valleys that occupy two-thirds of the breadth, form 
 a belt 100 miles wide — its multiform character, 
 however, developing itself only to the west and south 
 of the Hudson. To take the chief ridges by name, 
 and to begin from the north : the 'miite Hills of 
 New Hampshire present the loftiest elevations, 
 MoosehiUock and Washington being respectively 
 4636 and 6634 feet above me sea. Next in order, 
 the Green Mountains, which, true to the name, almost 
 cover Vermont, attain, in Killington Peak, a height 
 of 3924 feet ; then come the Highlands, on the east 
 of the Hudson, so striking an object to the voyagers 
 on its waters; immediately beyond that river, 
 again, we find the CatskiU Mountains, which, though 
 of inconsiderable length, contain two eminences — 
 Round Top and High Peak — respectively of 3804 and 
 3718 feet; while, on a terrace of another member of 
 the group. Mountain House, a favourite refuge from 
 the heats of summer, is perched 2500 feet above 
 the level of the Hudson. Proceeding onwards, the 
 Kittatinnies extend from the north of New Jersey 
 as far as Virginia; while nearer to the sea, the Blue 
 Ridge, stretching from about the same parallel down 
 to North Carolina, or rather below it, is crowned, 
 withia the limits of Virginia, by the Peaks of Otter, 
 at an altitude somewhat greater than that of any 
 joint between themselves and New Hampshire. 
 Lastly, there lie, more to the westward, the .AUe- 
 ghanies proper in Pennsylvania and Virginia, and 
 the Cumberland Mountains on the east border of 
 Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 Of all these elevations not one at all approaches 
 the lunit of perpetual snow. Yet France, while 
 struggling vrith England in North America, regarded 
 the A. a? a wall that was physically to exclude her 
 rival from the basins of the St Lawrence and the 
 Mississippi. Anglo-Saxon energy, however, has 
 virtually levelled the supposed barrier from end to 
 end. Through Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont 
 runs a railway from Portland to Canada ; by canal or 
 by railway, or even by both abreast. New York has 
 reached the waters of the St Lawrence on at least 
 four principal points between Montreal in the east, 
 and Buffalo in the west ; Pennsylvania has carried tp 
 
 0?1 
 
APPALACHIANS. 
 
 Pittsbiu'g a railway of 248 miles from Harrisburg, 
 and a canal of 312 miles from Colimibia ; while, 
 with the necessary exception of little Delaware 
 alone, the remaining states along the coast have 
 each its iron- way through the A. 
 
 The chain aboxmds in coal and iron, those 
 gifts of nature to industrious man, which in all 
 ages have done so much for civilisation, and which, 
 in our own age, have, with the aid of steam, more 
 than doubled all that they had done before; and 
 it is a curious instance of the adaptation of the 
 two worlds to each other, that, while the Spaniard 
 met, in the south, the gigantic counterparts of 
 the central plateau of his own romantic land, the 
 Englishman, in the north, stumbled, as it were, on 
 those same elements of almost creative energy which, 
 within two centuries, were to be so instrumental in 
 placing the daughter next to the mother among the 
 nations of the earth. As an evidence of the actual 
 value of the coal and iron of the A., Pennsylvania — 
 where, hitherto, they have been chiefly found — has 
 recently made more rapid strides than any other state 
 of the TTnion, having, between the census of 1840 and 
 that of 1850, outstripped in growth of population the 
 previously more progressive states of Ohio and New 
 York. Nor are iron and coal the only valuable 
 products of the A. To say nothing of the valleys — 
 many of them as fertile as they are lovely — which 
 separate the parallel ranges from each other, the 
 mountains themselves yield limestone, marble, slate, 
 building-stone, copper, zinc, chrome, &c. 
 
 Geology. — During the Azoic and Palsozoie periods 
 of the earth's geological history, the district now 
 occupied by the A. was a level plain. These moun- 
 tains date their origin from a period subsequent to 
 the Carboniferous epoch. The Coal measures are the 
 newest upturned beds associated with the Appala- 
 chian range ; and as the stratified rocks, with few ex- 
 ceptions, are laid down horizontally, these strata must 
 owe their inclined position to the dislocating agency 
 which elevated the mountains ; they, consequently, 
 supply a date anterior to its activity. At tiie base 
 of the A, on their eastern side, there are a series of 
 red sandstone beds, unconformable to the upturned 
 strata, and occup3ring the valleys in their original 
 horizontality, thus evidently unaffected by the dis- 
 ruptiag agency which must have been active prior 
 to their deposition. These beds have been referred 
 by geologists to different ages. That they are Old 
 Eed Sandstone, as coujecturedby Macliu-e and others, 
 is now universally denied. Hitchcock's supposition 
 that they were Permian, is also considered as refer- 
 ring them to too remote a geological age. W. B. 
 Kogers considered them first as members of the 
 Triassic period; but has since, from evidence 
 adduced from the contained organic remains, shewn 
 reason for relating them to the beginning of the 
 Jiirassic period. We thus obtain two grand limiting 
 dates — ^tie Carboniferous and Jurassic periods — 
 within which the A. must have been formed. There 
 are groimds for being even more specific, and 
 referring the period of the dislocating agency to that 
 immediately subsequent to the Carboniferous, repre- 
 sented in the stratified rocks of other districts by 
 the Permian series; for the older upturned rocks 
 had not only been ruptured and plicated, but also 
 denuded into the various shapes they now present, 
 before the horizontal rocks were deposited. 
 
 Professor H. D. Rogers has, after many years of 
 persevering and devoted study, enunciated a theory 
 of mountam formation based on his examination of 
 the A, which not only explains their structure, but 
 admits of a more or less complete application to 
 the mountain systems of the world. The many 
 proposed theories of mountain elevation are based 
 upon assumptions which, unfortunately, are not true ; 
 322 
 
 but that is an unimportant matter to the majority 
 of our speciilating geologists, and one never seen 
 by the inventors of the theories, who allow them- 
 selves to be led captive by a poetic imagination, 
 instead of building their inductions on field observa- 
 tions. Thus, to suppose that mountains are elevated 
 by a wedge-Uke intrusion of melted matter, is to give 
 to a fluid functions incompatible with its dynamic 
 properties. So also the supposition that the igneous 
 rocks were intruded as solid wedges, separating and 
 Hfting the crust, is opposed to the fact, that no 
 apparent abrasion, but generally the closest aclhesion, 
 exists at the line of contact of the igneous and strati- 
 fied rocks. Equally fatal objections can be adduced 
 against the other theories. Professor Kogers observ- 
 ing that the A. were formed Of a series of enormous 
 waves, and comparing this appearance with other 
 elevated districts, especially in Belgium and Britain, 
 has enunciated a theory of their structure, of which 
 the following is a condensed view. 
 
 Disturbed strata have a wave-like arrangement, 
 their dip being in curved, and never in straight planes ; 
 and in extensive areas the varying angles of dip exhibit 
 one or more wide regular curves. These undulations 
 are in the form of long parallel waves, their paral- 
 lelism being in the line of the general trend of the 
 part of the mountain system to which they belong. 
 When different grades of magnitude, as regards 
 length, height, and amplitude, occur, the waves of 
 the same grade are parallel, while the different 
 grades are not necessarily so. The waves assume 
 three different forms, which are characterised as — 
 
 Appalachian Eange. 
 
 Symmetrical flexures (a), equally steep on the two 
 slopes; normal fleomres (6), having an excess of 
 incurvation on the one side compared with the 
 other; and folded flexures (c), or those with a 
 doubling -under of their more incurved slopes, and 
 among which the steepest slopes are generally directed 
 to the same quarters. These three forms, representing 
 different gradations in the flexure, are regular in 
 their succession in disturbed regions, the order being 
 the same as in the diagram — ^that is, when we start 
 from the most disturbed side, we go from the folded 
 waves to the normal ones, and from these to the 
 synunetrical; and in the same order, the waves, as 
 they recede from the folded side, become progressively 
 wider apart and flatter. Kesting on these facts, 
 Professor Rogers has given his view of the structure 
 of elevated legions in the f oUowing words : ' The 
 wave-like structure, of undulated belts of the earth's 
 crust, is attributed to an actual pulsation in the fluid 
 matter beneath the crust, propagated in the manner 
 of great waves of translation from enormous ruptures 
 occasioned by the tension of elastic matter. The 
 forms of the waves, the close plication of the strata, 
 and the permanent tracing of the flexures, are 
 ascribed to the combination of an undulating and a 
 tangential movement, accompanied by an injection 
 of igneous veins and dikes into the rents occasioned 
 by the bendings. This oscillation of the crust, pro- 
 ducing an actual floating forward of the rocky part, 
 has been, it is conceived, of the nature of that pul- 
 sation which attends aU great earthquakes at the 
 present day.' 
 
 This theory having originated as an explanation 
 ■of the phenomena of the A, is easy of application to 
 these mountains. They are composed of a series of 
 
APPAL ACHICOLA- APPARITIONS. 
 
 parallel waves, having a general direction similar to 
 tte coa3t-line of the Atlantic Ocean. The line of 
 maximum disturbance is on their eastern limits ; 
 consequently, the folded flexures, with the inversion 
 of their steep sides, are chiefly confined to the great 
 Appalachian vaMejr, and the Atlantic slopes south of it. 
 The flexures of this type impart a prevailing south- 
 east dip to "the whole outcrop ; their number, and 
 the excessive difficulty of detecting and continuously 
 tracing them, frustrates every attempt at mapping 
 them mdividually. The flexures of the second tyfe, 
 which curve more rapidly on the one side than on 
 the other, prevail wherever the forces that disturbed 
 the crust were neither excessively intense nor Tery 
 feeble. It is the characteristic form everywhere 
 between the great Appalachian valley and the 
 Alleghany Mountains. It distinguishes not only 
 those larger waves which separate the coal — con- 
 taining sfrata east of the Susquehanna into special 
 basins — but the minor undulations which throw the 
 coal measures of these basins into groups of lesser 
 saddles and troughs. Undulations of the first or 
 symmetrical type occur beyond the Alleghany 
 Mountains, where two groups of them may be 
 distinguished: the one subdividing the bitiimiuons 
 coal-field, with its five very broad waves, into six 
 successive basins; the other, composed of four 
 equidistant and very straight undulations, traversing 
 parts of Cambria, Indiana, Somerset, and Fayette 
 counties. 
 
 The strata thus elevated, and forming 'the A., 
 belong entirely to the oldest or Palseozoio division of 
 the fossUiferous rooks. Metamorphic rocks, consist- 
 ing of felspathic, homblendic, and micaceous gneiss, 
 and mica-slate, exist on the eastern base of these 
 mountains, but have not been noticed as forming 
 part of the pUcated strata of the A. Extensive for- 
 mations of talcose and micaceous slates, indurated 
 olayjslates, and chloritic and steatitio slates, exist 
 in the more distmrbed districts. These are highly 
 metamorphosed members of the older fossfliferous, 
 and must not be confounded with, lihough they so 
 much resemble, the azoic metamorphic rooks. 
 
 The Palseozoic rooks constitute a vast succession 
 of fossiliferous strata, commencing with the lowest 
 deposits resting on the Mefemoipnic rooks, and ter- 
 minating with 'the hi^BSt of the Coal strata. Their 
 aggregate thickness, as measured in Pennsylvania, 
 amounts to 33,000 feet. While eachibiting a. remark- 
 able variety of miaeral character, th^ may be classed 
 under the mree great divisions-of sedimentary rocks — 
 viz., sandstones, slates, and hmestoues. Intercalated 
 with them, as subordinate layers, there occur deposits 
 of coal, chert, and iron ore. They are all more or 
 less fossiliferous. 
 
 Goal Measures. — The character of the rocks of the 
 AppalacTiian district of North America indicates that 
 dnring'the' Carboniferous epoch an immense continent 
 existed on the present site of the Atlantic, which 
 supplied materials for the sandstone and slate. It 
 seems to have had an extensive shallow marshy 
 shore, df sudh a character as to be able to support 
 the vegetation, which has become, in the course of 
 ages, converted, into coal. The coal-fields ^to the far 
 west of the A., in "Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and 
 Missouri, have been connected with the Appalachian 
 coal formation, which includes all 'the detached 
 basins, both anthracitic and semi-bituminous, of the 
 mountain chain of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and 
 Virginia, and also the vast bituminous trough lying 
 to the north-west in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, 
 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. 
 
 On the eastern slope of the A., the coal, from its 
 proximity i;o the region of greatest distmbauce, has 
 lost nearly all its volatile constituents, and is con- 
 verted into hard shining anthracite (q. v.). In the 
 
 troughs to the westward of the great Appalachian 
 valley, where the forces that disturbed the crust were 
 not so intense, the coal has not parted with such a 
 large proportion of volatile matter, but still is so 
 much altered as to be characterised as semi-anthia- 
 oite. Both the anthracite and semi-anthracite are 
 •extensively mined for economical purposes, but their 
 extent as well as their value is of little importance 
 compared with the enormous Appalachian bituminous 
 coal-field. From Northern Pennsylvania to middle 
 Alabama, its length is about 875 miles,' and its greatest 
 breadth between Southern Pennsylvania andl^rthem 
 Ohio is about 180 miles; it covers an area of about 
 56,000 square miles, and is almost the largest expanse 
 of coal measures in the world. A single coal-8e£(m 
 in this fiddhas been traced over an extent of country 
 225 miles long by 100 broad, shewing a superfici^ 
 area of 14,000 square nules. The actual depth of 
 workable seams in the deepest part of this basin is 
 estimated at 40 feet ; but when the amount of denu- 
 dation of the upper measures over large districts is 
 taken into account, the average depth of the entire 
 field cannot be more than 25 feet. Taking this as 
 the thickness, the amount of coal in this great coal- 
 field would be 1,387(500,000,000 tons. When this is 
 compared with the estimated quantity of coal in the 
 British -Boal-fields, viz., 190,000,000,000 tons, some 
 conception may be formed of the enormous extent 
 of coal existing in this district of North America. 
 
 Metals. — Associated with the coal are extensive 
 deposits of iron ore, both in the form of black band 
 continuous layers, and of nodular concretions in the 
 shaile. This ore is extensively wrought in Pennsyl- 
 vania and Ohio, large quantities of the anthracite 
 being used in the smelting furnaces. Veins of lead 
 occur in the Metamorphic rocks, rarely stretching up 
 into the red slate. &. the Palaeozoic beds, veins of 
 copper and nickel occur in sufficient quantity to be 
 wrought, 
 
 APPALACHICO'LA, a, river of the United 
 States, rising in Georgia, and flowing through 
 Florida into the Gulf, of Mexico, or rattier into a 
 bay that bears its own name. Keckoning from its 
 remotest sources, the head waters ot^ie Chata- 
 hodche, the A. is about 400 nules long, being navig- 
 able for boats throughout nearly its entire course. 
 It is, however, only at the junction of the Chata- 
 hooche with the Phnt that the name of A. is applied 
 to the stream; and up to this point, a stretch of 
 about 70 nules, there is a sufficient depth of water 
 for steam-navigation,; while the tides also ascend 
 for Jibout two-thirds of the distance. — A. is also a 
 seaport at the mouth of the stream above mentioned. 
 Here is shipped the produce of the river-basin, 
 consisting cmefly of large quantities of cotton. 
 
 APPA'EENT. This term is used to express a 
 number of important distinctions, especially in 
 astronomy. The A. magnitude of a heavenly body is 
 the angle formed by two lines drawn from the ends 
 of its mameter to the spectator's eye ; this obviously 
 depends upon the distance of the body, as well as 
 upon its real magnitude. A planet seen from the 
 surface of the earth seems lower than if seen from 
 the centre of the earth — the former is its A. altiiude, 
 the latter its real. A. noon is when the sun is on 
 the meridian ; true or mean noon is the time when 
 the sun would be on the meridian if bis motion in 
 the heavens were uniform and parallel to the equator. 
 See Equatigii of Time. The daily and annual 
 mxjtions of the sun in the heavens are both A. 
 motions, caused by .two real motions of the earth. 
 
 APPARI'TIONS. The belief that the spirits of 
 the departed are occasionally presented to the sight 
 of the living, has existed in all ages and countries, 
 and usually declines only when a people have 
 
 323 
 
APPARITIONS— APPEAL. 
 
 advanced considerably in the knowledge of physical 
 conditions and laws. Not that A. then cease to 
 be reported — ^for this is far from being the case — 
 but that the more intelligent part of the commimity 
 are then usually able to explain away the alleged 
 occurrence in some way satisfactory to themselves, 
 not involving the admission of a possible projection 
 of a spirit upon the living sense. 
 
 Nothing is more certain than that there are con- 
 ditions of the body when spectral appearances, such 
 as occur to us in uneasy dreams, become sensible to 
 the waking vision. One of these conditions is that 
 .of the patient under, the disease of delirium tremens, 
 who not only hears ideal enemies plotting against 
 ids life in adjacent rooms or behind hedges, but 
 thinks he sees them preparing to do him mischief, 
 and has been known to jump overboard of a vessel 
 into the sea, in order to escape the apprehended 
 danger. In such excitements it is, though arising 
 from different causes, that an intending murderer 
 thinks he hears the prince of fallen angels tempting 
 him on to crime, or sees before him a 'dagger of the 
 mind ' wherewith to end the life of his victim. There 
 are also instances of spectral illusions traceable to a 
 simply disordered state of the digestive organs. M. 
 Nicolai, an eminent bookseller in Berlin, fell, in the 
 early part of the year 1791, into a depression of 
 spirits, and in that condition neglected a course of 
 periodical bleeding which he had been accustomed 
 to observe. The consequence was his becoming 
 liable for some months to seeing trains of phan- 
 tasmata or spectral figures, which moved and acted 
 before him, nay, even spoke to, and addressed him. 
 He was fortunately able, not merely to cooUy observe 
 the phenomena, but to describe them in an ample 
 paper which he presented to the Philosophical 
 Society of Berlin. This case may be said to have 
 formed the basis of a theory of A., advanced by Dr 
 Perrier, Dr Hibbert, and others, amounting merely 
 to this, that they are aU to be accounted for by 
 peculiar conditions of the organism of the individual 
 sensible of them. 
 
 There is certainly a large class of cases which 
 _ f aU readily under this explanation ; but, if we are to 
 accept the whole that have been, on more or less 
 good authority, reported, it must be admitted that 
 a theory of a more comprehensive nature is stiU 
 required in order to satisfy the duly cautious 
 inquirer. 
 
 Let us take, for instance, an apparition story which 
 Dr Hibbert owns to be one of the best authenticated 
 on record. It was thus -nTitteu down in 1662 by 
 the Bishop of Gloucester, from the recital of the 
 young lady's father : ' Sir Charles Lee, by his first 
 lady, had only one daughter, of which she died in 
 childbirth ; and when she was dead, her sister, the 
 Lady Everard, desired to have the education of the 
 child; and she was by her very well educated, till 
 she was marriageable, and a match was concluded 
 for her with Sir William Perkins, but was then 
 prevented in an extraordinary manner. Upon a 
 Thursday night, she thinking she saw a light in her 
 chamber after she was in bed, knocked for her maid, 
 who presently came to her, and she asked why she 
 left a candle burning lin her chamber. The maid 
 said she left none, and there was none but what she 
 had brought with her at that time. Then she said 
 it was the fire ; but that, her maid told her, was quite 
 out ; and she said she beUeved it was only a dream ; 
 whereupon she said it might be so, and composed 
 herself again to sleep. But about two of the clock 
 she was awakened again, and saw the apparition of 
 a little woman between her curtain and her pdlow, 
 who told her she was her mother, that she was 
 happy, and that by twelve of the clock that day she 
 should be with her. Whereupon she knocked again 
 
 for her maid, called for her clothes, and when she 
 was dressed, went into her closet, and came not out 
 again tiU nine, and then brought out with her a 
 letter, sealed, to her father : brought it to her aunt, 
 the Lady Everard, told her what had happened, and 
 desired that as soon as she was dead, it might be 
 sent to him. The lady thought she was suddenly 
 fallen mad, and thereupon sent suddenly away to 
 Chelmsford for a physician and surgeon, who both 
 came immediately; but the physician could discern 
 no indication of what the lady imagined, or of any 
 indisposition of her body ; notwithstanding the lady 
 would needs have her let blood, which was done 
 accordingly. And when the young woman had 
 patiently let them do what they would with her, 
 she desired that the chaplain might be called to read 
 prayers ; and when prayers were ended, she took her 
 guitar and psalm-book, and sat down upon a chair 
 without arms, and played and s\mg so melodiously 
 and admirably, that her music-master, who was then 
 there, admired at it. And near the stroke of twelve, 
 she rose and sate herself down in a great chair with 
 arms, and presently fetching a strong breathing or 
 two, immediately expired, and was so suddenly cold, 
 as was much wondered at by the physician and 
 surgeon. She died at Waltham in Essex, three 
 miles from Chelmsford, and the letter was sent to 
 Sir Charles at his house in Warwickshire, but he 
 was so afflicted with the death of his da,ughter, that 
 he came not till she was buried ; but when he came, 
 he caused her to be taken up, and to be buried with 
 her mother at Edmonton, as she desired in her 
 letter.' 
 
 Dr Hibbert, in treating of this case, concludes that 
 the young lady was consumptive and about to die, 
 and in this diseased frame of body became the subject 
 of an illusion; but these are assumptions directly 
 contrary to what the record bears, and there is, after 
 aU, the singular circumstance to be accounted for, 
 that the young lady's death occurred exactly at the 
 time predicted. To a similar purport is the case of 
 the wife of Dr Donne, related .by Izaak Walton. 
 Donne left his wife pregnant in London, and went 
 with Sir Kobert Druiy to Paris. Two days after 
 arriving there, he stated to Drury that he had had a 
 vision of his wife walking through his room, with 
 her hair hanging over her shoulders, and a dead child 
 in her arms. So impressed were they by the incident 
 that they immediately sent a messenger to London 
 to inquire regarding Mrs Donne's health. The 
 intelligence brought oy the man was, that she had 
 been brought to bed of a dead child at the hour her 
 husband thought he had seen her in Paris. In this 
 case, too, if the requisite disordered state of Dr 
 Donne were granted, the coincidence of the distant 
 event in its particulars, and in point of time, would 
 remain unaccounted for by Dr Hibbert's theory. 
 
 That there is an abundance of such cases reported, 
 wHL not be disputed. In what direction speculation 
 regarding them is to move, if the insufficiency of Dr 
 Hibbert's theory be acknowledged, will probably 
 depend on the general tendency of the movements 
 of science. If psychological study were more in 
 repute, and the phenomena of dreaming in particular 
 were diligently examined, there might be a hope of 
 a satisfactory theory of what are called A. ere the 
 world was many years older. 
 
 APPEAL, in the civil procedure of courts of 
 justice, signifies the removal of a suit from one court 
 or judge to another and higher comt or judge, in 
 order that the latter may examine the vaUdity of 
 the former's jud^ent, either affirming or reversing, 
 altering or varying the judgment. A., however, 
 is not a technical term in the procedure of the 
 English and Irish common law courts, the judg- 
 ments of these tribunals, as well as of other courts 
 
APPEAL. 
 
 regulated ty the common law, being reviewed by a 
 procedure which we shall presently explain. In 
 liigland, the term A., strictly and tecmiically so 
 called, is used in the business of the following 
 courts: 
 
 1. In the Courts of Mquity (or of Chancery), where 
 there is an A. from the judgment of the Master 
 of the RoUs, and from the Vice-chancellors to the 
 Lord Ohanoellor himself, sitting alone, or conoiu'- 
 rently with him, to the Lords Justices of A. in 
 Chancery, or, if necessary, to the full court, consist- 
 ing of the Lord Chancellor and of the two Lords 
 Justices sitting together, and presided over by the 
 former. The judgment of such Court of A. may 
 then be itself appealed against to the House of 
 Lords, whose determination is final. 
 
 2. In the Courts of Banhruptcy, the judgments 
 of which may be appealed from now directly to the 
 Court of A. in Chancery, and thereafter to the 
 House of Lords, under certain restrictions. 
 
 3. In the Court of Prdbaie, there is an A. to 
 the House of Lords, with leave of the court. In 
 the procedure of this tribunal there is also an A. 
 from the county court, where such court has juris- 
 diction, to the Court of Probate itself, whose 
 judgment is final. 
 
 4. In the Court of Divorce and Matrimonial 
 Causes, the decision of the Judge Ordinary, sitting 
 alone, may be appealed to the full court, whose 
 judgment is final. But in the case of a decree 
 dissolving a marriage, there may be an A. to the 
 House of Lords. 
 
 5. In the Admiralty Courts there is an A. to the 
 Privy-council ; but when the Admiralty jurisdiction 
 merges in that of the Court of Probate, under section 
 10 of the 20 and 21 Vict. c. 77, the corarse of A. will 
 probably follow that prescribed for the latter tribu- 
 nal, and the Lords wiU deprive the Privy-council of 
 this appellate jurisdiction. 
 
 6. There is also an A. to the Privy-council from 
 the following courts and matters : from the courts 
 of India and from the colonial courts generally ; and 
 such A. includes the sentences, not only of com:ts 
 of primary jmisdiction, but also of Courts of A. in 
 the colonies ; * from the Lord Chancellor in matters 
 of lunacy or idiocy ; in apphcations to prolong the 
 term of patents for new inventions ; and in making 
 orders in certain cases relative to copyright, pur- 
 suant to the provisions of the copyright acts. 
 
 Practically, however, as we are told by Mr Stephen 
 in his Commentaries, all judicial authority of the 
 Privy-council is now exercised by a committee of 
 privy-councillors, called the Judicial Committee of 
 -the Privy-council ; who hear the allegations and 
 proofs, and make their report to Her Majesty in 
 council, by whom the judgment is finally given. 
 
 In the practice of the common law courts of 
 England — that is, the Court of Queen's Bench, the 
 Court of Common Pleas, and the Court of Exchequer, 
 or, as is put by Lord Coke, any court whose pro- 
 ceedings are regulated by the common laW' — the 
 procedure by way of A. is, as we stated at the 
 beginning of this article, technically not so called, 
 but is said to be in error, the party complainiug 
 
 * As to colonial causes, we are informed by Blackstone that 
 the jurisdiction of the Privy-council is ' both original and 
 appellate. Whenever a question arises between two provinces 
 out of the realm, as concerning the extent of their charters 
 and the like, the king in his council exercises original jurisdic- 
 tion therein, upon the principles of feudal sovereignty. And so 
 likewise, when any person claims an island or a province, in 
 the nature of a feudal principality, by grant from the king 
 or his ancestors, the determination of that right belongs to the 
 king (or queen) in council, as was the case of the Earl of 
 Derby, with regard to the Isle of Man, in the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, and the Earl of Cardigan and others, as representa- 
 tives of the Duke of Montague, with relation to the island of St 
 , Vincent, in 1764.' 
 
 of the judgment being called the plaintiff in error, 
 instead of appellant, and his opponent, the defendant 
 in error, instead of respondent. Formerly, the pro- 
 ceedings commenced by suing out a writ of error 
 first to a court of intermediate A., called the Court 
 of Exchequer Chamber, and afterwards by a further 
 writ of error to the House of Lords. But by the 
 common-law procedure act of 1852 (15 and 16 Vict. 
 c. 76, s. 148), \vrits of error are abohshed, and the 
 mode of review regulated by legal forms which need 
 not be here explained. 
 
 Error also lies to the Queen's Bench in criminal 
 oases, when, after judgment, it is considered that the 
 indictment is bad in substance, or that the judgment 
 is erroneous, or in respect of any other substantial 
 defect appearing on the face of the record. But 
 now the usual and proper method of review in 
 criminal cases is that prescribed by the 11 and 12 
 Vict. 0. 78, constituting a new Court of A., composed 
 of the judges of the thi'ee common law courts, or of a 
 quorum of, five of them at least, of whom the three 
 chiefs, or one of such chiefs at least, shall be part. 
 
 As to redress by way of A. and error against the 
 judgments in the courts of Ireland, the procedure is 
 so similar to that employed with respect to the 
 EngUsh courts, that we need not here enter into 
 particulars on the subject. We may simply remark, 
 
 fenerally, that the Irish Chancellor, sitting alone, 
 oes not appear to exercise any appellate control 
 over courts inferior to his own, such as that possessed 
 by the Chancellor in England ; for, according to the 
 Irish practice, the A., for instance, from the Master 
 of the BoUs, and in the case of proceedings in 
 bankruptcy, is not to the Chancellor himself alone, 
 but to the Court of A. in Chancery, in which the: 
 Chancellor and a Lord Justice of A. are the appointed* 
 judges ; and which Court of A. likewise reviews the 
 Chancellor's own individual judgments. The judg- 
 ments of this Court of A. itself, however, may after- 
 wards be reviewed on A. by the House of Lords:. 
 In criminal procedure, the above act (11 and 12 Vict- 
 c. 78) applies to Ii-eland as well as to England. 
 
 In the procedure of the Scotch courts, there are 
 various appeals in the practice of the sheriff or 
 county courts, and in the proceedings in bankruptcy ; 
 and the House of Lords reviews the judgments of 
 the Court of Session, the supreme civil court of the 
 country, and which tribunal, indeed, it may be said, 
 supplies the House with the larger portion of its 
 judicial business. This circumstance has frequently 
 been remarked on as proving a litigious disposition 
 on the part of the Scotch ; but perhaps the greater 
 number of Scotch appeals over English and Irish 
 may be more fairly said to be occasioned by a 
 natural feeUne on the part of Htigants and lawyers 
 ia Scotland, that there is a better chance of a nice 
 and critical examination of the judgments appealed 
 against by such judges as preside in the House of 
 Lords, who are all lawyers of the greatest learning and 
 eminence, and whose legal and judicial minds have 
 been formed under a different and larger system of 
 jurisprudence and procedure than prevails in Scot- 
 land, than there would be to a tribunal composed 
 entirely, or for the most part, of Scotch lawyers. 
 Indeed, it may be said, that although the judicial 
 staff of the House of Lords are exclusively English 
 lawyers, the system of A. to their lordships from the 
 Scotch courts works extremely well, and gives entire 
 satisfaction to the Scotch people. Some of the most 
 valuable elucidations of the pecuhar principles of 
 Scotch law are to be found in the judgments in 
 Scotch appeals by the chancellors and other law 
 lords who, since the union with Scotland, have 
 administered the jurisdiction of the House in the 
 last resort, but who were never in a Scotch court, 
 and, until called upon to discharge such responsible 
 
 329 
 
APPENZELL— APPIANTJS. 
 
 functions, had probably never opened a Sootcb 
 law-book. 
 
 There is no A. to the House of Lords from Scotland 
 in criminal cases, nor does the above-mentioned act — 11 
 and 12 Vict. c. 78, creating a court of criminal A. for 
 England and Ireland — extend to Scotland. But the 
 High Court of Justiciary there, -which is the supreme 
 criminal tribunal, and is composed of seven judges 
 of the Court of Session, presided over by the Lord 
 Justice GreneraJ, or Lord President, as he is other- 
 wise called, reviews the procedure of all the criminal 
 courts of the country (excepting where such jurisdic- 
 tion is expressly excluded by statute) ; and it is 
 believed that no inconvenience is experienced in 
 consequence of there being no other or further A. 
 from the sentences of these courts. 
 
 APPENZE'LL (from Adhoiis Cella), a canton 
 in the north-east of Switzerland. Area, 152 square 
 miles. Pop., 57,000. It is divided into two districts 
 — ^Innerrhoden and Ausserrhoden, the former of 
 which is peopled by Protestants, the latter by 
 Roman Catholies, and noted for its dense population. 
 The surface is mountainous, especially in the south, 
 where Mont Sentis attains an elevation of 8232 feet. 
 The chief river is the Sittern, which flows through 
 the centre of the canton. A. holds the 13th place in 
 the Swiss confederacy, and furnishes 972 soldiers to 
 the national army. The inhabitants are chiefly 
 employed in agriculture, cattle-keeping, cotton 
 manufactures, and embroidery. They are fond of 
 dancing, music, and athletic exercises, and have the 
 reputation of being first-rate marksmen. 
 
 Appenzell, the capital of the canton of the same 
 name, is situated on the left bank of the Sittern, in 
 lat. 47° 29' N., and long. 9° 24' E. Pop., 3200. The 
 town is iU built, and has only a small trade in 
 linens. The other towns are Trogen (with a pop. of 
 2400, and manufactures of linen and muslin), 
 Herisau, &c. 
 
 APPEELEY, Chables Jambs, the 'Nimrod' of 
 the Quarterly Semew, is a writer who deserves men- 
 tion, if not from the intrinsic importance of the 
 subjects on which he exercised his pen, at least from 
 the perfection he attained in the department to 
 which he confined himself. He was the son of a 
 Welsh country gentleman, and was bom in Denbigh- 
 shire in 1777. His education at Kugby stimulated 
 his love of field-sports more than ms love of the 
 classics. At the age of 24, he married, and went to 
 reside at Bilton Hall, in Warwickshire, where he 
 devoted his energies as exclusively to the chase 
 as the great Nimrod himself could have done. He 
 hunted everywhere in Great Britain. In 1821, he 
 began to contribute to the Sporting Magazine. Hia 
 clever, gossiping articles were so much relished, 
 that in two years that periodical doubled its circu- 
 lation. The' proprietor, Mr Pittman, was of course 
 highly gratified. He remunerated Mr A. hand- 
 somely, kept a stud of hunters for him, and paid 
 the expenses of his sporting tours ; but ' Nimrod ' 
 seems to have been of rather expensive habits, and 
 to have occasionally required an advance of money 
 from his employer. When Mr Pittman died, his 
 relatives entered into a lawsuit with the 'mighty 
 hunter,' for the recovery of this money. Nimrod, 
 however, prudently transferred himseK to France, 
 where he chiefly resided during the rest of his life. 
 He died on the 19th of May 1843. His best writ- 
 ings are Tlie Chase, the Turf, and the Eoad, which 
 appeared in the Qiiarterly Reniew (1827). 
 
 APPEET, Benjamin Nicolas Makie, a French 
 philanthropist, was born in Paris, September 10, 
 1797. He began his course in 1816 by introducing 
 into several schools a system of mutual instruction, 
 and, in 1820, founded and conducted gratuitously a 
 326 
 
 school for the prisoners at Montaigu. Being sus- 
 pected of having aided the escape of two prisoners,, 
 he was himself confined in the prison of La Force, 
 where he made good use of his opportunities of 
 becoming acquainted with the moral and physical 
 circumstances of prisoners. After his liberation, he 
 prosecuted his benevolent plans with renewed zeal, 
 and undertook a journey through the whole of 
 France, in 1825, to inspect schools, prisons, hospitals, 
 &o. The results were given in has Journal. After 
 the July revolution, he was employed by Louis 
 Philippe to superintend the measures taken for the 
 relief of the indigent classes. In his travels, he 
 visited Belgium, Prussia, Austria, Saxony, and 
 Bavaria, and gave the results of his observations on 
 the management of schools, hospitals, prisons, &c., 
 in several works. He also wrote a work entitled 
 Dix Ans d, la Gour dv, Boi Louis Philippe, and, in 
 his Confirmees centre le SystSme Cellvlaire, strongly 
 opposed the system of soHtaiy confinement. Though 
 one-sided in some of his views, A. is a sincere, 
 warm-hearted, and practical philanthropist. 
 
 APPEET, Fban'sois, a French technologist, the 
 inventor of a method of preserving meat, vegetables, 
 and other articles of food without the use of salt 
 or other chemical apphcation. This method is fuUy 
 described in his work L'Art de Conserver toutes les 
 Substances Animales et VigUales (4th edition, Paris, 
 1831). See Antiseptic. 
 
 A'PPETITE. See Hitngeb and Thiest. 
 
 APPIA'NI, Aotrka, styled in his day 'the 
 Painter of the Graces,' was born at Milan, May 23, 
 1754. His poverty compelled him to gain a subsist- 
 ence by decorative painting ; but in the course of his 
 travels, he studied the works of great masters, and 
 fonmed for himself an original style, almost rivalling 
 that of Correggio. At Home, he devoted his attention 
 to the frescoes of Eaphael, and made such progress,, 
 that !he soon excelled aU Uving artists in fresco- 
 painting. The best evidences of his genius are 
 found in the cupola of the church of Sta. Maria di 
 S. Gelso at Milan ; and in the frescoes with which 
 he decorated the viUa of the Archduke Ferdinand 
 in 1795. Napoleon I. appointed him court-painter. 
 In return, he executed portraits of the French 
 emperor and several of his generals. His most 
 beautiful frescoes are the paintings on the ceilings of 
 the palace of Milan, which consist of allegorical 
 iUustotions of Napoleon's career; and Apollo with 
 the Muses in the Villa Bonaparte. Almost all the 
 palaces in Italy contain frescoes by A. His finest 
 oil-painting is Einaldo in the garden of Aimida. 
 The fall of his patron. Napoleon I., left A. in 
 indigent circumstances. . He died November 8, 1817. 
 
 APPIA'NUS, a native of Alexandria, who 
 flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and 
 Antoninus Pius. He was author of a Koman history, 
 in twenty-four books, of which only eleven are extant. 
 It was not remarkable for anything except the plan 
 on which it was written. Instead of proceeding to 
 exhibit chronologically the growth of the empire, 
 from its rude beginning on the Palatine Hill, to the 
 period when its power held the whole world in awe, 
 which is at once the popular and the pWlosophicai 
 method, he divided his work into ethnographic 
 sections, recording separately the history of each 
 nation up to the tune of its conquest by the Komans. 
 First in order were the books devoted to the old 
 Italian tribes, and afterwards followed the history of 
 Sicily, Spain, Hannibal's wars, Libya, Carthage, and 
 Numidia, Macedonia, Greece Proper and its colonies, 
 Syria, Parthia, the Mithridatic war, the civil wars, 
 and the imperial wars in lUyria and Arabia. As a 
 historian, A. is a mere compiler, and not very accu- 
 rate in his compilation. His geographical knowledge, 
 
APPIAN WAY— APPLE. 
 
 in particular, is singularly deficient, considering, 
 the age in whidi he Kved. One specimen of his 
 blunders -will suffice: in his section on Spain, he 
 states that it takes only half a. day to sail from Spain 
 to Britain. 
 
 The best edition of A. is- that of Schweighaliser, 
 Lelpsic, 1785, in 3 vols. 
 
 A'PPIAN WAY (Lat. Via Appia), weU named 
 by an ancient writer Hegina Viarum {the queen of 
 roads), -was formed, in part at least, by Appius 
 Claudius Caecua, while he was censor (313 B. e.). 
 It is the oldest and most celebrated of all the 
 Koman roads. It led from the Porta Capena at Home 
 in a southerly direction to Capua, passing through 
 Three Taverns, Appii Forum, Terraoina, &o. Sub- 
 sequently, it was carried on to Beneventum, Taren- 
 tum, and thence to Brundusium. It had an admir- 
 able substructure or foundation, from which all the 
 loose soil had been carefully removed. Above this 
 were various strata cemented with lime ; and, lastly, 
 came the pavement, consisting of large hard hexa- 
 
 fonal blocks of stone, composed prinoipally of 
 aaaltic lava, and jointed together with great nicety, 
 so as to appear one smooth mass. The remains of it 
 are stiU visible,, especially at Terraciaa. The cost 
 must have been enormous, for the natural obstruc- 
 tions are great. Rooks had to be cut through, 
 valleys fiUed up, ravines bridged, and swamps 
 emb^mked. 
 
 AfPPIUS ei-ATJ'DIUS GRASSUS, a Roman 
 decemvir (4511 — 449 B. c). While the other decemviri 
 were engaged, in repeUing an incursion made by the 
 Sabioes, A. C. and his colleague Oppius remained 
 in Rome, with two legions to mamtain their authority. 
 Meanwhile, A. C. had been smitten by the beauty 
 of Virginia,, daughter of a respected plebeian named 
 Lucius Virginius, who was abroad with the army. 
 By force and stratagem, representing that she was 
 the born slave of Marcus Claudius, one of his clients, 
 A. C. gained, possession of the maid. His design was 
 penetrated by IciUus, who was betrothed to Virginia, 
 and who, aided by Numitorius, her uncle, threatened 
 to raise an insurrection against the decemviri. 
 Virginius, hm-riedly recalled from the army by his 
 friends, appeared, and claimed his daughter ; but, 
 after anotiier mock-trial,. she was again adjudged to 
 be the property of Marcus Claudius. To save his 
 daughter from dishonour, the unhappy father seized 
 a knife and slew her. The popular indignation 
 excited by the case was headed by the senators 
 Valerius and Horatius, who hated the decemvirate. 
 The army returned to Rome with Virginius, who 
 had carried the news to them, and the decemviri 
 were deposed. A. C. died in prison by his own 
 band (as Livy states), or was strangled by order of 
 the tribunes ; his colleague, Oppius, committed 
 suicide ; and Marcus Claudius was banished. The 
 Claudia Gens (see Gens) was one of the most 
 numerous and important of the patrician tribes or 
 clans of Rome ; and besides the sons and grandsons 
 of the decemvir, there were numerous persons of 
 distinction who bore the name of Appius. 
 
 A'PPLE [Pyrus malus. For -tlie generic character, 
 see Pykus). This; well-known fruit has been very 
 long cultivated, and by that means it has been very 
 much improved. It was extensively cultivated 
 by the Romans, by whom, probably, it was intro- 
 duced into Britein. The wild A., or CBAB-tree, 
 a native of Britain, and veiy generally found in 
 temperate climates, of the- northern hemisphere, is a 
 rather small and often somewhat stunted-looking tree, 
 with austere, uneatable fruit, yet it is the parent of 
 all, or- almost all the varieties of apple so much prized 
 for the dessert. The A. -tree, even in a cultivated 
 state, is seldom more than 30 — 40 feet high. It has 
 
 a large round head ; the leaves are broadly, ovate, 
 much longer than the petioles, woolly beneath, 
 acute, crenate, and provided with glands ; its flowers 
 are always produced, 3—6 together, in sessile umbels, 
 and are large, white, rose-coloured externally, and 
 fragrant. The fruit is roundish, or narrowest towards 
 the apex, with a, depression at each end, generally 
 green, but also frequently yellow, light red, dark 
 red, streaked, sometimes even almost black, with 
 the rind sometimes downy, sometimes glabrous, 
 sometimes thiokish, and sometimes very Sin and 
 transparent, varying in size from that of a walnut to 
 that of a small child's head — the taste more or less 
 aromatic, sweet, or subacid. It is produced on spurs, 
 which spring from branchlets of two or more years 
 growth, and continue to bear for a series of years. The 
 fruit of the A. is, with regard to its structure, styled 
 by botanists apome (q. v.). The eatable part is what is 
 botanically termed the mesocarp (see ifexnT), which,, 
 in its first development, enlarges with the calyx, the 
 summit of the fruit being crowned at last by the 
 dried 6-parted limb of the calyx'; the endocarp being, 
 when ripe, cartilaginous, and containing in its cells 
 seeds which do not correspond with them in size, but 
 are so free as often to rattle when it is shaken. 
 
 The A. is now one of the most widely diffused of 
 fruit-trees, and in the estimation of many, is the 
 most valuable of all. It succeeds best in the colder 
 parts of the temperate zone. It is, however, to be 
 met with on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, in 
 Arabia, Persia, the West Indies, &c., but there its 
 fruit is as small and worthless as in high northern 
 latitudes. The varieties in cultivation are extremely 
 numerous. They have been classified with great care 
 by recent German writers, by whom the classifioar 
 tion and description of apples, pears,(and similar fruits, 
 has been treated as a sort of science, and dignified 
 by the name of Pomology. Metzger, in his descrip- 
 tion of the pomaceous fruits of Southern Germany, 
 describes 89 different kinds of A., all of which are 
 I constant, besides sub-varietiesv New varieties are 
 continually produced ; and as they are chiefly 
 preserved and propagated by grafting — althou^ 
 
 Apple-blossom. 
 
 some of them also grow by layers and cuttings — ^the 
 old ones gradually die out. The costard, from which 
 dealers in apples received the name of costard- 
 mongers, is no longer known. Many varieties are 
 designated by the general names of Pippins, Mennets, 
 Oodlins, and GalviUes. Some kinds, not approved 
 for the dessert, are in high esteem as baking-apples, 
 and others still more acid or austere are preferred 
 for the manufacture of Cidbe (q. v.). 
 
 The A. is grown in Britain either as a standard, 
 
APPLE OF SODOM— APPOINTMENT. 
 
 an espalier, or a wall-tree, and is variously trained. 
 It is -QsuaUy grafted on A. or crab-stocks, but 
 succeeds also on hawthorn-stocks, and is in this way 
 sometimes introduced into hedges. A very dwarf 
 variety, called the Paradise A., is often used as 
 a stock on which to graft in order to produce dwarf- 
 trees ; and trees thus dwarfed are ofteri very produc- 
 tive when little larger than currant or gooseberry 
 bushes. Some of the varieties of A. are more hardy 
 than others, and are therefore to be preferred for 
 cold or exposed situations. Some of the finest kinds 
 succeed well only when the soil and cUmate are 
 
 food. Some kinds are much earlier than others, 
 oth in flowering and ripening. 
 
 The wood of the A. -tree is hard, durable, and fine- 
 grained. The crab is often planted both as an orna- 
 mental tree and for the sake of its wood. The bark 
 contains a yellow dye. — As a fruit-tree, the A. 
 requires a fertile soil and sheltered situation. The 
 various uses of the fruit — for the dessert, for baking, 
 preserving, making jelly, &c., as well as for making 
 the fermented liquor called cider — are sufficiently 
 well known. Vinegar is also made from 'it ; and 
 sometimes a kind of spirit, especially in Switzerland 
 and Swabia. It contains Malic Add, which is 
 extracted for medicinal purposes. — The fermented 
 juice of the Crab A. is called Verjuice. It is used 
 in cookery, and sometimes medicinally ; also for the 
 purifying of wax. Apples are an important article 
 of commerce. Great quantities are imported into 
 Britain, chiefly from France, Canada, and the 
 northern parts of the United States. The A. keeps 
 better than most kinds of fruit. 
 
 Beaufins or Biffins are apples slowly dried in 
 bakers' ovens, and occasionally pressed till they 
 become soft and flat. They are prepared in great 
 quantities in Norfolk. 
 
 The SiBBEiAir Crab is perhaps the parent, by 
 hybridisation or otherwise, of some of the varieties of 
 A. now in cultivation. Two species partake this 
 designation, both natives of Siberia, and frequent 
 in gardens in Britain, Pyrus baccata of Linnaeus, 
 and Pyrus prunifolia of "Willdenow, which, however, 
 scarcely differ, except that in the former the sepals 
 (leaves of the calyx) are deciduous, in the latter 
 they are persistent — a circumstance of very doubtful 
 importance as a specific distinction. The fruit is 
 sub-globose, yellowish, and rather austere, but is good 
 for baking and for preserves. 
 
 The A3IERICAJJ Oeab or Sweet-scented Crab 
 {P. coronaria) is a native of North America, especially 
 of the southern part of the AUeghanies. It is a 
 small tree with broad leaves and white flowers, 
 becoming purple before they drop off, and which 
 have a powerful smell, resembling that of violets. 
 The fruit is flatly orbicular, of a deep green colour, 
 and sweet scented. It is very acid, but is made 
 into cider, and also into preserves. P. angustifolia, a 
 native of Carolina, much resembles this, but has 
 much narrower leaves and smaller fruit. 
 
 The Chinese Cbab (P. spectabilis) is a small tree, 
 a native of China. It is very ornamental when in 
 flower ; the flowers being in sessile, many-flowered 
 umbels, and of a bright rose-colour. The fruit is 
 irregularly round, about the size of a cherry, yellow, 
 and flt to be eaten, like the medlar, only when in a 
 state of incipient decay. 
 
 A'PPLE OF SODOM. See Solanum. 
 
 A'PPLBBERE.Y. See Billarbieba. 
 
 A'PPLEBY, the county town of Westmoreland, 
 lies in lat. 54° 35' N., long. 2° 28' W. It is in the 
 north of the county, on the river Eden, which flows 
 past Carlisle into the Solway Firth. A. has two 
 parishes, one on each side of the river, which is here 
 crossed by an old stone bridge of two arches. There 
 
 328 
 
 is a castle in the town, the keep of which, called 
 Csesar's Tower, is still in tolerable condition. The 
 Lent and summer assizes are held at A. Until the 
 passing of the Reform BUI, it returned two members 
 to parfiament. It was then disfranchised, though it 
 stiU possesses a municipal corporation. Pop. 2509. 
 
 A'PPLETON, a town of "Wisconsin, in the United 
 States, worthy of notice chiefly from its promising 
 situation on the Grande Chute of the Fox River. 
 The Grande Chute, from which the town some- 
 times takes its name, affords immense water-power ; 
 and at the same time a series of dams renders the 
 stream navigable for steam-boats through its whole 
 course — a navigation which, with the aid of a canal 
 between the Fox on the north, and the Wisconsin 
 to the south, is carried aU the way froip. Lak& 
 Michigan to the Mississippi. 
 
 APPOGIATU'RA, an Italian musical term, 
 designating a form of embellishment by insertion of 
 notes of passage in a melody. The A. notes are- 
 printed in a smaller character than the leading notes- 
 of the melody, and should always be given -with 
 considerable expression. When they are extempor- 
 ised by a performer or singer, they serve as an 
 indication of good or of bad taste. The time of an A. 
 is taken from the essential note to which it belongs, > 
 as in the following example : 
 WHtten. 
 
 ^m 
 
 -m 
 
 Played, 
 
 p^rjxn ^i fa^ 
 
 For Appogia'to, see Portamento. 
 
 APPOI'NTMENT. In the law of England, there- 
 are frequently reserved in common law conveyances- 
 granted on a consideration, and in family settle- 
 ments, certain powers, as they are called, such as- 
 powers of jointuring, selling, charging land with the 
 payment of money ; and the subsequent exercise of 
 the power is called an A. This A. — which may be 
 made either by deed or by -will — is not considered as- 
 an independent conveyance, but is merely ancillary 
 to the deed or instrument in which the power of A. 
 is reserved, and from which the party in whose- 
 favour the A. is made for most purposes derives his 
 title. The Courts of Equity give relief against a 
 defective A., or defective execution of a power, where 
 there is what is called a ' meritorious consideration ' 
 in the person applying for such rehef. As to what 
 amounts to such meritorious consideration. Lord 
 St Leonards, in his work on Powers, lays down that 
 Equity will relieve the following parties : 1. A 
 purchaser, including in such term a mortgagee and 
 lessee ; 2. A creditor ; 3. A wife ; 4. A legitimate 
 child; -and 5. A charity. But in the case of a 
 defective A. by a wife in favour of her husband, 
 there is no relief in Equity ; nor is the Equity 
 extended to a natural child ; nor to a grandchild ;. 
 nor to a father or mother, or brother or sister, even 
 of the whole blood, much less of the half-blood ; nor 
 to a nephew or cousin. Against the legal conse- 
 quences of an A., the Courts of Equity give no aid. 
 
 In the Scotch law, the expressions reserved power 
 and faculty to burden correspond to the English 
 phrase * power of A. ; ' and the deed or instrument 
 subsequently executed in virtue of the reserved 
 power, is simply described according to the nature 
 and quality of the conveyance so made ; but the 
 term A. is not a technical word in Scotland. 
 
APPOINTMENTS-APPREHEND. 
 
 APPOI'NTMENTS. The 'A.' of a ship are, 
 collectively, all her varioiis articles of equipment and 
 furniture. In like manner, the 'A.' of a soldier, 
 especially ii, trooper, comprise many miscellaneous 
 necessaries which can come coUeotively under no 
 other name, but which, in part, wfll be found noticed 
 under kter headings. See Equipment, Kit, Knap- 
 aiCK. 
 
 APPO'BTIONMENT is a legal term derived 
 from the 3 and 4 Will. IV. o. 22, caUed the 
 Apportionment Act, which has given rise to much 
 litigation in England and Scotland, and the prin- 
 ciple of which may be stated to be this — that in the 
 event of the termination of a life-interest by death, 
 or of a more limited interest at a fixed period, the 
 cun-ent rent or income shall be apportioned or paid 
 over in such a way as to give the personal repre- 
 sentatives of the party, or the party himself, as the 
 case may be, a siun corresponding to the period that 
 may have elapsed between the last date of payment 
 and the death or other determination of the interest 
 or estate. But the act has no application to annual 
 sums payable by any poUoy of assurance, nor to any 
 case in which a stipulation has been made that no 
 A. shall take place. 
 
 This act was not imderstood to apply to Scot- 
 land till the year 1844, when it was decided by 
 the Court of Session that it did so apply, and the 
 judgment was afterwards aflSrmed by the House of 
 Lords. But, in consequence of the act being ex- 
 pressed exclusively in the technical phraseology of 
 the law of England, it has given much trouble and 
 difficulty to th^ Scotch courts and Scotch lawyers, 
 whose system of conveyancing, and of real property 
 in general, is altogether different from the English. 
 In the case referred to in the Court of Session, Lord 
 JeflErey, who was one of the judges, stated that 
 he was Lord Advocate at the time the act was 
 passed, but he had no knowledge of its passing. 
 See an able article on this subject in the Journal of 
 Jurisprudence (Scotch) for 1857, vol. i. p. 23. 
 
 In English law, A. also takes place where the 
 tenant, under a lease, has been deprived of part 
 of the land out of which the rent issues, by a person 
 having a better title than that of the lessor, or 
 proprietor, or where part of the rent has been 
 surrendered by the tenant to the lessor, or where 
 the lessor has disposed of the reversion as to part. 
 But where the tenant has been wrongfully deprived 
 by the act of the landlord himself, even of a part of 
 the premises, there can be no A., but the whole rent 
 will be suspended so long as such a state of things 
 continues. 
 
 A. also obtains in the case of a conveyance of 
 land to which the common of pasture is an appurte- 
 nance, the party getting the land being entitled to 
 a proportionate use of the common. 
 
 APPOSI'TION, a term in Grammar signifying the 
 annexing of one substantive to another, in the same 
 case or relation, in order to explain or limit the first ; 
 as, My brother, the physician; Thomas the Bhymer. 
 Whole sentences or clauses admit of A. : thus, 
 'Napoleon sought the way to India through Russia, 
 a stroke of genius.' Sometimes a connecting word 
 is used where logical propriety would require A.; 
 as, the city of London, for me dty London. 
 
 APPRAI'SEES AND APPEAI'SEMENT. An 
 
 appraiser is a person employed to value property, 
 but ;he must be Hoensed for the office. Formerly, 
 under the 55 Geo. III. c. 184, this annual license 
 cost only 10«.; but by the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 76, s. 1, 
 on the preamble that it is expedient to increase this 
 duty, tte provision of the 55 Geo. III. is repealed, 
 and a duty of £2 substituted for the 10s. Such a 
 license must now ' be taken out yearly by every 
 
 person, except a licensed auctioneer, who shall 
 exercise the occupation of an appraiser, or who, for 
 any gain, fee, or reward, shall make any appraise- 
 ment or valuation chargeable by law with any 
 stamp-duty (see TUsley on the Stamp-laws, 2d ed., 
 p. 65). 
 
 By an old EngKsh statute, passed in the reign of 
 Edward I., appraisers are enjoined to put a reason- 
 able price upon goods ; and if they appraise them too 
 high, they are obliged to take them at their own 
 viuuation, and to be answerable accordingly to the 
 creditor for his debt. 
 
 Appraisement, generally, is the act of valuation 
 made by the appraiser ; but in legal application, 
 in England, this term is used to signify a valuation 
 of goods taken under a distress for rent by two 
 appraisers,' who are sworn by the sheriff, under- 
 sheriff, or constable, to value the goods truly, accord- 
 ing to the best of their skill ; and after such 
 appraisement, the goods may be sold at the best 
 price that can be procured. 
 
 The duties chargeable on appraisements are as 
 follow : Where the amount of such appraisement or 
 valuation shall not exceed £50, the duty to be 2s. Gd. j 
 and where it shall exceed 
 
 £50, and not exceed £100, £0 5 
 100, „ „ 200, 10 
 
 200, „ „ 500, 15 
 
 500, 10 
 
 The exemptions from such duties are appraisements 
 or valuations made in pursuance of the order of any 
 Court of Admiralty or Vice-admiralty, or of any Court 
 of Appeal from any sentence, adjudication, or judg- 
 ment of any Court of Admiralty or Vice-admiralty ; 
 and appraisements or valuations of any property 
 made for the purpose of ascertaining the legacy- 
 duty payable in respect thereof. 
 
 The corresponding proceeding in Scotland is known 
 under the term appreciation, which has been defined 
 as the valuing of poinded or distrained goods. And 
 by the old Scotch law, these goods were valued twice 
 by different valuators — once in the house or on the 
 ground where the poinding took place, and a second 
 time at the market-croSs of the local jurisdiction or 
 chief county town. But by the 54 Geo. III. c. 137, 
 s. 4, one valuation in the place where the goods are> 
 is declared in every case to be sufficient. 
 
 APPREHE'ND. To A., in criminal law, means 
 to arrest or seize, in virtue of a warrant or other 
 legal authority, an offender taken in the act, or who 
 is suspected. Arrest or apprehension by officers 
 imthout warrant may be executed by the following 
 persons : 1. By a justice of the peace, who may 
 himself A., or cause to be apprehended, by word 
 only, any person committing a felony or breach of 
 the peace in his presence ; 2. The sheriff ; 3. The 
 coroner ; 4. The constable ; 5. By the Larceny Act 
 (the 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 29), and by the 7 and 8- 
 Geo. IV. c. 30, called the Mahcious Injuries Act, 
 a person committing any offence under the same, 
 except that of angling in the daytime, may immedi- 
 ately be apprehended without warrant ; and 6. 
 Watchmen — either those appointed by the statute of 
 Winchester (13 Edw. I. c. 4), to keep watch and 
 ward on all towns, from sunsetting to sunrising, or 
 such as are mere assistants to the constable, may, 
 in virtue of their office, arrest all offenders, and 
 particularly night-walkers, and commit them to 
 custody till the morning. 
 
 Any private person, and a fortiori, a peace-officer, 
 that is present when any felony is committed, is 
 bound by the law to arrest the felon, on pain of 
 fine and imprisonment, if he is negligently permitted 
 to escape ; and by 14rand 15 Vict. c. 19, ss. 10 and 11, 
 they may apprehend any person found committing any 
 
APPEEHEND. 
 
 offence against the provisions of that statute, or any 
 indictable offence by night ; that is, between nine in 
 the evening and six in the morning of the next day. 
 They may also, in the case of a person committing a 
 felony in their presence, justify breaking open doors 
 in pursuit of mm. Upon probable suspicion, more- 
 over, any one, even a private person, may arrest the 
 felon or other person so suspected. But there is this 
 distinction between the case of a peace-officer and 
 that of a private person — ^that the former is pro- 
 tected, though it should turn out that no such crime 
 as supposed has been in fact committed by any one, 
 providmg he had reasonable ground for suspecting 
 the party arrested ;. but the latter acts more at his 
 peril, and is not protected, unless he can prove an 
 actual commission of the crime by some one, as weU 
 as a reasonable ground for suspecting the particular 
 person. It is also to be observed that a private 
 person cannot, on mere suspicion, justify breaking 
 open doors, which a constable, though acting without 
 a warrant, is competent to do. Within the metro- 
 politan police district, a constable may take into 
 custody, without warrant, all persons whom he may 
 find, between sunset and the hour of eight in the 
 momina, loitering or lying about and unable to give 
 a satisfactory account of themselves; or persons 
 charged with aggravated assaults; or persons offend- 
 ing against the metropolitan police acts, whose 
 address cannot be ascertained. See 2 and 3 Vict. c. 
 47, ss. 36, 64, 65. 
 
 The Scotch law, with regard to the apprehension 
 of criminals, is substantially the same as the Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 By the 13 Geo. lU. c. 31, the 45 Geo. HI. c. 92, 
 and the 54 Geo. III. c. 186, facilities are afforded for 
 the apprehension of criminals in England, Ireland, or 
 Scotland, under warrants issuing from the respective 
 authorities of the three countoies, no further for- 
 mality being necessary in the case of English and 
 Irish warrants to be executed in Scotland, and iiice 
 versd, than that they should be endorsed by a judge 
 of the territory where they are to be enforced. And 
 by the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 34, provisions are made for 
 the apprehension, in the TJnited Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, of persons committing treason 
 and felony in Her Majesty's dominions out of the 
 United Kingdom, and vice versd, for the apprehen- 
 sion in such dominions of persons offending in Eng- 
 land, Ireland, or Scotland. By section 3, offenders 
 may be committed to gaol until ttiey can be sent 
 back to the plkce where the offence was committed ; 
 and informalion of the committal, in writing, imder 
 the hand of the committing magistrate, accompanied 
 by a copy of the warrant, is directed to be given, in 
 Great Britain) to one of Her Majesty's principal 
 secretaries of state, and in^ Ireland, to the chief secre- 
 tary of the lord-lieutenant ; and in any other part of 
 Her Majesty's dominions, to the governor or acting 
 governor. By section 10, the important enactment 
 is made, that it shall not be lawful to endorse any 
 warrant for the apprehension of an offender imder 
 the aot, unless it shall appear upon the face of such 
 warrant itself, that the offence is such, that if com- 
 mitted within that part of Her Majesty's dominions 
 where the warrant is endorsed, it would have 
 amounted in law to treason, or some felony such as 
 the justices of the peace in general or quarter 
 sessions ini England have not authority to try, imder 
 the 5' and 6 Vict. c. 38 — by which the jurisdiction of 
 general and quarter sessions is defined— or unless 
 the depositions taken' appear sufficient to waiTant 
 committal for trials The effect of this enactment is, 
 that "the offences for which criminals- may be appre- 
 hended, under the 6and 7 Vict. c. 34; are as follow : 
 Any treason, murder, or capital felony ; or any 
 felony which, when committed by a person not 
 
 330 
 
 previously convicted of felony,, is punishable by 
 transportation for Hfe,, or for any of the following 
 offences : 
 
 1. Misprision of treason. 2. Offences against the 
 Queen's title, prerogative, person, or goverimient, or 
 against either house of parliament. 3s Offences subr 
 ject to the penalties of praemunire. 4-. Blasphemy, 
 and offences against rehgion. 5. Admimst'ering_ or 
 taking unlawfm oaths. 6. Perjury and subornation 
 of perjury. 7. Making or suborning any other per- 
 son to make a false oath, affirmation, or declaration, 
 punishable as perjury or as a misdemeanour. 8. 
 Forgery. 9. Unlawfully and maliciously setting 
 fire to crops of com, grain, or pulse, or to any part 
 of a wood, coppice, or plantation of trees, or to any 
 heath, gorse, furze, or fern. 10. Bigamy, and offences 
 against the laws relating to marriage. 11. Abduc- 
 tion of women and girls. 12. Endeavouring to con- 
 ceal the birth of a child. 13. Offences against any 
 provision of the laws relating to bankrupts and' 
 insolvents. 14. Composing, printing, or publishing 
 blasphemous,, seditious, or defamatory libels. 15'. 
 Bribeiy. 16. Unlawful combinations and conspira- 
 cies, except conspiracies or combinations to commit 
 any offence which justices or recorder respectively 
 have or has jurisdiction to try when committed by 
 one person. 17. Stealing, or fraudulently taking, or 
 injuring or destroying records or documents belong- 
 ing to any court of law or equity, or relating, to any 
 proceeding therein. 18. Stealing or fraudulently 
 destroying or concealing wills or testamentary 
 papers, or any document or written instrument 
 being or containing evidence of the title to any 
 real estate, or any interest in lands, tenements, , or. 
 hereditaments. 
 
 On the 22d of August 1843, an act of parlia- 
 ment (6 and 7 Vict. c. 75) was passed, by which 
 provisions are made for carrying into effect a con- 
 vention entered into between the British and French 
 governments (determinable at pleasure) for the 
 apprehension of offenders in the two countries 
 respectively in cases of murder, attempts to commit 
 murder, forgery, or fraudulent banhruptey. On the. 
 same day, another act was passed (the 6 and 7 Vict, 
 c. 76), containing regulations for carrying into effect 
 a similar convention with the United States of 
 America in cases of murder, or attempts to commit 
 murder, piracy, arson, robbery, forgery, or uttering, 
 forged paper. Both these acts were afterwards 
 amended by another (the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 120), the 
 object of which is to give more immediate opera- 
 tion to these conventions, by facilitating the execu- 
 tion of the warrant, the committal, and detention in 
 custody of the person apprehended, and his ultimate 
 delivery into the hands of the Erench or American 
 authorities, as the case may be. 
 
 The law encourages the apprehension of offenders 
 by parties who simply act from a feeling of duty to 
 assist justice. By the 7 Geo. IV. c. 64, s. 28 
 (amended and extended by the 14 and 15 Vict. o. 
 55), it is provided that when any person shall 
 appear to any court of oyer and terminer, gaol 
 delivery, superior criminal court of a county pala- 
 tine, or any courts of sessions of the peace, to have 
 been active in or towards the apprehension of any 
 person charged with the various crimes contemplated 
 by these statutes, every such court is authorised to 
 order the sheriff of the county to pay to the person 
 or persons who shall appear to the court to have 
 been active in or towards the apprehension of any 
 person charged with any of the said offences, such 
 sum of money as to the court shall seem reason- 
 able and sufficient to compensate such person or 
 persons for his, her, or their expenses, exertions, and 
 loss of time, in or towards such apprehension ; but 
 this power is to be exercised subject to such 
 
APPREHEND— APPRENTICE. 
 
 regulations, as to tke rate of allowance, as shall be made 
 from time to time by a principal secretary of state. 
 Provision is also made by the above statutes for 
 compensation to the families of those who lose their 
 lives- in attempting to A. persons charged witib 
 criminal offences ; but by the latter of these (14 and' 
 15 Viot. c. 55) 3. 7), this is not to. interfere with the 
 power of the criminal court to order payment to 
 any person who shall have shewn extraordinary 
 courage, diligence, or exertion, in the apprehension. 
 
 It only remains to- be added, that any wilful 
 obstruction of a lawful arrest or apprehension is 
 esteemed an offence of a very aggravated nature. 
 The modem enactments on this subject will be 
 foxmd in the acts the 9 Geo. IV. o. 31, s. 25, and 7 
 Will. IV. and 1 Viot. o. 85, s. 4 ; and see also the 
 
 14 and 15 Viot. c. 19, s. 12, already referred to. By 
 the first of these acts, it is provided that where any 
 person shall be convicted of any assault upon any 
 peace-officer, or revenue-officer,- in the due execution 
 of his duty, or upon any person acting in aid of such 
 officer, or of any assault upon any person, with 
 intent to resist or prevent the lawful apprehension 
 or detainer of the person so assaulting, or of any 
 other person, for any offence for which he or they 
 may be liable by law to be apprehended or detained ; 
 such assault shall be a misdemeanour, punishable 
 with fine or by imprisonment, with or without hard 
 labour, for any term not exceeding two years. By 
 the second of these statutes it is enacted that who- 
 soever shall unlawfully and maliciously shoot at any 
 person, or shall, by drawing a trigger, or in any 
 other manner, attempt to discharge any kind of 
 loaded arms at any person, or shall stab, cut, or 
 wound any person ; with intent, in any of such cases, 
 to resist or prevent, the lawfvil apprehension or 
 detainer of any person; shall be guilty of felony, and 
 be punishable with transportation for lite, or not 
 less than fifteen years, or with imprisonment, with 
 or without hard labour and soHtary confinement,, for 
 not more than three years. And by the 14 and 
 
 15 Vict. 0. 19, s. 12, passed for the prevention of 
 offences at night, any one assaulting a person 
 entitled to A. or detain' liiTn, shall be guilty of a 
 misdemeanour, and on conviction, imprisoned, with 
 or without hard labour, for any term not exceeding 
 three years. 
 
 The same subject is treated in Scotch law- 
 books under the head of Deforcement, which Sir 
 AjTchibald Alison, in his work on the Criminal Law 
 of Scotland (vol. i. p. 491), says, ' consists in the 
 resistance to the officers of justice in the execution 
 of their duty.' It is essential to such deforcement 
 that it should be such as to defeat the warrant or 
 other process which authorises the apprehension. 
 Mere unsuccessful attempts with this view are 
 charged under the name of resisting and olsliructing 
 the officers of the law in the execution of their duty. 
 See Wabbant of Appbehdnsion.. 
 
 APPEE'NTICE is a person described in law- 
 books z& a species of servant, and called A. from 
 the Erench verb apprendbre, to learn, because he is 
 bound by indentiu-e to serve a master for a certain 
 termj receiving in return for his services- instruction 
 in, or learning his master's profession, art, or trade ; 
 the master, upon the other hand, contracting to 
 instruct the.A., and according to the nature of the 
 agreement, to provide food and clothing for the A., 
 and to pay him small wages. Sometimes a premium 
 is; paid by the A., or on his behalf, to the master. 
 By a provision of the 5 Eliz.o. 4,. which remained in 
 force until a recent period, it was in general required, 
 that every person exercising a trade in England 
 should have previously served as A. to it for seven 
 years ; but by 54 Geo. III. u. 96, that provision 
 was abolished, with a saving of the customs and 
 
 by-laws in London and other corporations ; and the 
 term of apprenticeship is now determined by the 
 mutual convenience of the contracting parties. By 
 the municipal act, 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76, s. 14 
 (which does not, however, extend to London), all 
 such customs and by-laws as had the effect of pro- 
 hibiting trades and occupations to persons who had 
 not served as apprentices, were also done away. 
 Apprentices, in general, are bound out by their 
 friends, though with their own consent, testified by 
 their executing the indentures, without which , the 
 transaction is not binding. To the same effect it is 
 the rule of the Scotch law that although a pupil — 
 that is, a boy under 14, or a girl under 12 years of 
 age — may be a party to an indenture as an A, yet he 
 must have the concurrence of a parent or guardian, 
 who alone can be liable to the master for the 
 A.'s non-performance of the engagement. An A., on 
 the other hand, who has passed the years of pupil- 
 arity, may effectually enter into an indenture by 
 which he wiU be personally bound. It has been 
 decided in England that the express assent of an 
 infant A. to the indentures is essential to the con- 
 tract; and therefore indentures of apprenticeship 
 which had been executed by a father and master, 
 but not by the A. himself, were held invalid. But 
 an infant may bind himself A, because it is for his 
 benefit ; for the same reason, however, he cannot 
 himself dissolve the contract. When an A. is bound 
 to two partners, on the death of one of them he 
 becomes the A. of the other. 
 
 There is a class who are bound out by the 
 guardians of the poor, and- are called 'parish appren- 
 tices, whose binding takes place under different 
 circumstances. Eor the children of poor persons 
 might formerly, even without becoming parties to 
 the indentures, be apprenticed out by the overseers 
 with the consent of two justices (and may now by 
 the guardians, without such consent), till twenty-one 
 years of age, to such persons as are thought fitting ; 
 and these persons were formerly also compellable to 
 take them. But by 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, s. 13, the 
 reception of any poor cMld as an A. is no longer 
 compulsory. A variety of statutes regulate 9ie 
 manner in which parish apprentices are to be bound, 
 assigned, registered, and maintained; a subjectwMch 
 is besides now placed' under the paramount control of 
 the Poor-law Board, who have power to introduce 
 new rules, from time to time, as they may think fit; 
 and provisions are made by which the justices of the 
 peace are empowered to settle disputes between such 
 apprentices and their masters, and to discha,rge the 
 former from their indentures, upon reasonabl6 cause 
 shewn. Similar powers belong also to the justices, 
 in the case of apprentices in general. (Stephen's 
 Commentaries, voll ii. p. 240, fourth edition.) It has 
 been decided in England that a corporation cannot 
 make a by-law limiting the number of apprentices 
 which each member shall take, because such a regu- 
 lation is deemed contrary to the laws of the land. 
 
 A mere agreement does not constitute an appren- 
 ticeship ; there must be regular indentures formally 
 executed; By statute 8 Anne c. 9, s. 39, indentures 
 of apprenticeship in which the full sum or sums of 
 money received, given, paid, secured, or contracted 
 for, are not truly inserted, are void. Biit the act 
 does not apply to cases where the sum is inserted in 
 the indentures, though it is a less sum than that 
 which was originally agreed for, and the reduction 
 made to dimimsh the amount of the stamp-duty. 
 
 In the performance of the contract, a reasonable 
 and equitable view is taken of the relative position 
 of the parties. The master is not bound to the 
 literal and uniform instruction of the A. by himself 
 personally, but under his own superintendence, and 
 by his own du-ections, he may avail himself of the 
 
APPRISING— APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. 
 
 assistance of iourneymen, or other persons serving in 
 his place of business, and even of other apprentices 
 — the object of the agreement being that the A. 
 shall have the full benefit of all the master's arrange- 
 ments in practisiag his art, craft, or trade. The A., 
 on the other hand, although in the position of a 
 servant to some extent, is not bound to serve as 
 such, but may rather be said to be placed under the 
 parental control of the master; and although the 
 master may correct the A.'s faults and disobedience 
 by moderate chastisement, he must not be vindictive 
 or cruel ; nor can he discharge! the A. To that end, 
 the master, under an unrepealed enactment of the 
 6 Eliz. c. 4, must complain to the Sessions, who 
 decide whether the A. has merited his dismissal 
 or not; the A., however, having a correspondiag 
 privilege ia the case of his complaint against his 
 master. But, by the Scotch law, a master can 
 dismiss his apprentice in the case of his proving 
 ' incorrigible.' By the custom of the city of London, 
 a freeman may tium away his apprentice for gaming. 
 It was decided by the House of Lords, on an 
 appeal from Scotland in 1837, and reversing the 
 decision of the Court of Session, that a barber's A., 
 whose indentmres bound him ' not to absent himself 
 from his master's business, hohday or week-day, 
 late hours or early, without leave first asked and 
 obtained,' could not be lawfully required to attend 
 his master's shop on Sunday mornings for the pur- 
 pose of shaving customers, because such employment 
 was a violation of the old Scotch statutes stUl in 
 operation, and which were enacted for enforcing 
 the observance of the Sunday, particularly one 
 
 Cied in 1559, by which it is provided 'that na 
 dy lauboring or wirking be used on the Sonday.' 
 The Lord Chancellor (Lord Cottenham) observed in 
 his judgment that the Enghsh law on this subject 
 was very similar, referring in particular to the 29 
 Charles II. c. 7, by which it is enacted 'that no 
 tradesman, artificer, workman, labourer, or other 
 person whatsoever shall do or exercise any worldly 
 labour, business, or work, of their ordinary callings, 
 upon the Lord's Day, or any part thereof, works of 
 necessity and charity only excepted.' 
 
 An A's indenture is determinable by the consent 
 of all the parties to it ; and also by the death of the 
 master. But the executor of the latter may bind 
 the A. to another master for the remainder of his 
 term ; and he must also discharge any covenant or 
 agreement for the A.'s maintenance, so far as he has 
 assets. By the custom of London, if the master of 
 an A. die, the service must be continued with the 
 widow, if she continue to carry on the trade. In 
 other cases, it is incumbent on the executor to put 
 the A. to another master of the same trade. The 
 bankruptcy of the master operates as a discharge of 
 the indenture of the A., who, if he has paid an A. 
 fee to the bankrupt, is entitled to be paid by the 
 court a reasonable simi out of the estate. 
 
 By the Mutiny Act, apprentices enlisting in the 
 army, and concealing their apprenticeship when 
 brought before a magistrate to be attested, may be 
 indicted for obtaining money under false pretences; 
 and if, after the expiration of their apprenticeship, 
 they do not surrender to a recruiting officer, they 
 may be apprehended as deserters. 
 
 There is some curious historical matter on this 
 subject, relating for the most part to a state of the 
 law now obsolete or repealed, for which see Knight's 
 Political Dictionary, under this head. 
 
 APPRI'SING is the old technical term in the 
 Scotch law, and now obsolete for the process of 
 adjudication. See Adjudication. 
 
 APPEOA'CHES, in military language, are the 
 sunken trenches or excavated roads which are con- 
 382 
 
 structed by besiegers. The siege camp being usually 
 at a considerable distance from the fortress or city 
 attacked, the soldiers would be exposed to immi nent 
 danger while hastening across a belt of open country 
 to enter any breaches made by the large siege guns, 
 were it not that concealed roads are first constructed 
 along which they may approach. In some cases the 
 A. are not actual trenches, but merely paths shielded 
 by a pUed-up wall of sand-bags, fascines, gabions, 
 woolpaoks, or cotton-bales. The most tremendous 
 combination of A. ever known in the history of 
 military enterprise, was at the siege of Sebastopol in. 
 1854 — 5; it comprised the digging of no less than 
 70 Tnilea of sunken trench, and the employment 
 of 60,000 fascines, 80,000 gabions, and 1,000,000 
 sand-bags, to protect the men working in the 
 trenches and at batteries. See Sap, Siege, Tkbnch. 
 
 APPROBATE AND RE'PBOBATB. This is a 
 technical expression in the law of Scotland, which 
 signifies one of those rules of justice which commend 
 themselves by their reasonable logic, and which are 
 to be found in all enlightened systems of juris- 
 prudence. It simply means, that no one can be 
 permitted to A. and R. — that is, to accept and 
 reject the same deed or instrument. Thus, it a will 
 or settlement, purporting to dispose of real and per- 
 sonal property, all of which it directs to be con- 
 verted into money, and in that form either to be 
 equally divided or apportioned among the testators' 
 children, consisting of a son or sons, and daughters, 
 should, owing to some flaw or material defect, be 
 invalid for the conveyance of the real estate, whioh^ 
 accordingly, by the operation of the law of descent, 
 becomes the exclusive property of the eldest son as' 
 his father's heir — ^the law does not permit the latter 
 to enjoy such estate, and at the same time to take 
 benefit under the will in other respects, for this 
 would be simultaneously to accept and reject the 
 same instrument : he must elect between the two 
 alternatives, and either avail himself entirely of his 
 rights at law, as heir, or claim his share of the 
 whole estate according to the testator's manifest 
 intention — he cannot do both. Other illustrations: 
 might be given, shewing distinctions too nice per- 
 haps for popular information. The analogous doc- 
 trine in the law of England is called Election (q. v.). 
 In one case decided by the House of Lords in 1819, 
 the Lord Chancellor Eldon treated the rule in the 
 Scotch and English legal systems as identical, 
 observing that it was equally settled in Scotland as. 
 in England that no person can accept and reject the 
 same instnunent ;~ and he puts the case of a testator 
 giving his estate to A, but also giving the estate to 
 which A would otherwise have been entitled, to B ; 
 in that case his lordship stated that courts of equity 
 hold it to be against conscience that A should take 
 the estate bequeathed to him, and at the same time 
 refuse to effectuate the implied condition contained 
 in the will of the testator. The court wiU not; 
 permit him to take that which cannot be his but 
 by virtue of the disposition of the will, and at the 
 same time to keep what, by the same wiU, is given, 
 or intended to be given, to another person. It is 
 contrary to the established principles of equity that 
 he should enjoy the benefit while he rejects the 
 condition of the gift. 
 
 It is chiefly in the case of wills and other testa- 
 mentary dispositions that this legal doctrine most 
 frequently arises in practice, although there can be 
 no question that both in the English and Scotch 
 systems of law it extends to all other writings, deeds,, 
 and instruments. 
 
 APPEOPRI'ATION CLAUSES, The. This 
 was the name by which, while the discussion con- 
 : tinned, reference was usually made to an important 
 
APPROPRIATION CLAUSES. 
 
 question which occupied a large share of the atten- 
 tion of the legislature and of the public between the 
 years 1833 and 1838. The expectation that the 
 state of Ireland would improve after the passing of 
 the Catholic Emancipation and Reform Acts nad 
 turned out to be fallacious. Among other grave 
 causes of complaint left untouched by these measures, 
 was the collection- of tithes by the Established 
 Church, and from that cause proceeded very many of 
 the evils with which Ireland was then afflicted. To 
 such an extent was the antipathy to tithes carried, 
 that a clergyman who ventured to exact payment 
 by legal measures in the exclusively Catholic coun- 
 ties, did so at the risk of his life. Several clergy- 
 men had actually been assassinated, and others 
 were so impopular, that the utility of the Irish 
 Church in three-fourths of Ireland was almost 
 destroyed. This was a state of matters which could 
 not be permitted to last. Coercive measures had 
 been tried, and had failed to produce any ameUo- 
 ration. The remedies which then suggested them- 
 selves were three : First, the commutation of tithes 
 into a rent-charge upon land ; second, the reduction 
 of the number of sinecures in the Irish Protestant 
 Church ; and third, the appropriation of the surplus 
 revenues of that church to the advancement of the 
 general education of the people. 
 
 The first of these measures the liberal cabinet of 
 1833 attempted, but — from leaving the commutation 
 to take place at the option of the landlord — carried 
 into effect in a manner so imsatisfaotory, that no 
 good whatever resulted. The second was carried 
 out with more success. The Irish Church Tempo- 
 ralities Act struck off two , archbishoprics, ten 
 bishoprics, and various sinecures, and applied the 
 revenues thus acquired chiefly to supply the place 
 of an impost called 'vestry cess' (analogous to 
 church-rates), which was abolished. This act, how- 
 ever, still left the church with an income greatly dis- 
 proportioned to the number of her adherents. The 
 cabinet was divided in regard to the third measure, 
 a majority being in favour of the principle of appro- 
 priation, and a minority, consisting of the Irish 
 Secretary, Mr Stanley (now Earl of Derby), Sir 
 James Graham, Lord Ripou, and another, being 
 opposed to it. The minority had influence enough 
 to prevent government from espousing the prin- 
 ciple, and even to .procure the abandonment of the 
 147th clause of the Chtttch Temporalities Bill, 
 because the opposition asserted, though incorrectly, 
 that it virtually embodied the principle. This was 
 the first of the Appropriation Clauses. 
 
 In the following year, 1834, it had become fully 
 apparent that the tithe act of 1833 had failed, and 
 the state of Ireland rendered it more imperative than 
 ever to settle the tithe question. Mr Ward, through- 
 out a steady supporter of the principle of appropri- 
 ation, moved in the House of Commons, on 27th 
 May 1834, 'that it was right that the state should 
 regulate the distribution of church property in such 
 a manner as parliament might determine.' This 
 raised the whole question of appropriation, and 
 that greatly to the annoyance of ministers. The 
 split m the cabinet was well known, not to have 
 been healed, and while Mr "Ward was speaking, 
 news reached Lord Althorp that the minority had 
 resigned. This stopped the debate for the night. 
 The ministers left in office found, themselves 
 relieved of a portion of their difficulties, but as 
 they were aware that the King was strongly opposed 
 to the appropriation principle, and that there was no 
 prospect of the House of Lords assenting to it, they 
 were most anxious to find some means to delay com- 
 mitting themselves in the matter. A commission 
 was accordingly appointed to collect information ; 
 ■ and on June . 2, Lord Althorp met the Commons, 
 
 impressed on them how useless it was to discuss a 
 mere abstract principle, and on Mr Ward's refusing 
 to withdraw his motion, moved and carried the 
 previous question by a large majority. 
 
 The short-lived ministry of 1835, under Sir Robert 
 Peel, was in office when the appropriation question 
 next came before parliament. The Liberals were in 
 opposition.; and Lord John Russell, who had suc- 
 ceeded to the Whig leadership in the Commons, on 
 Lord Althorp's removal to the House of Lords, was 
 now prepared to conunit his party to the appropri- 
 ation principle. When Sir Robert Peel brought 
 forward a tithe commutation biU to supplement the 
 bimgled measiu-e of 1833, Lord John Russell pro- 
 posed two resolutions, which gave rise to one of the 
 longest and most important of the numerous debates 
 which have taken jJace on the question. On the one 
 side, the chief speakers were Ward, Lord Howick, 
 Shell, and O'ConneU; and on the other, Peel, Stanley, 
 Sir James Graham, and Gladstone. Much of the 
 interest which attended the discussion was caused 
 by its involving the whole question of church estab- 
 lishments, and by a fear, on the part of the English 
 Conservatives, that the doctrines of utility and 
 expediency, so freely referred to in connection with 
 the Church of Ireland, might one day be turned 
 against the Church of England. On 2d April 1835, 
 the House of Commons pronounced, by a majority 
 of 33, ' that any surplus which might remain, after 
 fully providing for the spiritual instruction of the 
 members of the Estabhshed Church of Ireland, 
 ought to be applied to the moral and religious edu- 
 cation of aU classes, without distinction of religious 
 persuasion ; ' and a few days afterwards, a subse- 
 quent resolution was passed, ' That no settlement of 
 the tithe question would be satisfactory unless it 
 embodied the preceding principle.' In consequence 
 of these resolutions, the Conservatives resigned, and 
 the Liberals returned to power. 
 
 There was now in office a ministry pledged to the 
 appropriation principle. In 1836, ministers brought 
 forward a tithe commutation bUl, containing clauses 
 carrying out the principle fuUy and expHcitly. The 
 bill passed the Commons, but the A. 0. were struck 
 out by the Lords. The biU was thereupon aban- 
 doned. In 1837, a government tithe commutation 
 bin again passed the Commons with A. C, and 
 again these clauses were struck out by the Lords. 
 On the motion of the ministers, the Commons 
 rejected the amended bUl. After the general 
 election of 1837, the Melbourne ministry found them- 
 selves with a very narrow majority in the Com- 
 mons. The liberal members had made the appro- 
 priation question a prominent topic at the election ; 
 but it was too apparent that England and Scot- 
 land were becoming weary of the interminable 
 discussions upon Irish affairs. In the meantime, 
 the state of Ireland was little better, and with an 
 increasing party in the House of Commons to back 
 them, there was no prospect of the Lords giving way 
 upon the appropriation question. StiU, it was neces- 
 sary that something sh6uld be done, and the choice 
 of the"" ministry lay between carrying a commutation 
 bill without A. C., and resignation. The former 
 course was chosen. The tithe measure was intro- 
 duced, and ministers solaced themselves for their 
 desertion of principle by the reflection, that after all 
 there might be no surplus to aj^ropriate, and that 
 it would therefore be useless to prolong a collision 
 with the Upper House on a matter of no prac- 
 tical importance. This conduct emboldened the 
 opposition, and Sir Thomas Acland, on 14th May 
 1838, moved the recall of the celebrated resolutions 
 of 1835. The discussion which followed was most 
 damaging to the credit of the ministers, but they 
 were saved, by a majority of 19, from the humUia- 
 
APPKOVER— APPUI. 
 
 tion of having the resolutions recalled. A last 
 eilort in support of the principle was made in July 
 1838, by Mr Ward, who then moved the insertion 
 of A. C. into the government tithe hUl. He was 
 opposed by the whole ministerial force, and more 
 strangely still, by the Irish members. O'Connell, 
 who in 1835 had spoken of the one magical word 
 ' appropriation,' which was to bring peace to Ireland, 
 declared now that nothing would satisfy the Irish 
 people except the total abolition of tithes. Thus 
 deserted and opposed, Mr Ward's motion was lost 
 by a large majority. The government tithe measure 
 passed in August 1838, and tithes were commuted 
 into a rent-charge of three-fourths of their amount. 
 Since that, they have been collected with com- 
 parative facility, and the appropriation question, 
 once the topic of discussion over the whole country, 
 and of consequence enough to unmake and make 
 ministries, has fallen into oblivion. 
 
 APPEO'VBR, or PROVER, in the law of Eng- 
 land, is a person who had been an accomplice in the 
 perpetration of a crime, but who is admitted to 
 give evidence against the prisoner. It had not so 
 simple and intelligible a meaning in the ancient 
 practice of the criminal law, in ■roich apprbvemait 
 was a kind of confession of a complicated nature. 
 Where a person in a prosecution for treason or 
 felony confessed the fact before pleading to the 
 indictment, and, at the same time, accused others, 
 his accompMoes, of the same crime, in order to obtain 
 his pardon, he was called an A. or P. But, as the 
 condition of the pardon he thus expected was the 
 conviction of the accomplice he accused, if that 
 failed, the A. received judgment of death upon his 
 own confession. If, on the other hand, the accused 
 accomplice was found guilty, the A. was entitled 
 to his pardon ex debito justitice. But ' this course of 
 admitting approvements,' says Blackstone, vrriting 
 about a century ago, ' hath lonabeen disused ; for 
 the truth was, as Sir MatthewPCale observes, that 
 more mischief arose to good men by these kinds of 
 approvements, upon false and malicious accusations 
 of desperate villains, than benefit to the pilblio by 
 the discovery and conviction of real oflfenders ; and, 
 therefore, in the times when such appeals were most 
 frequently admitted, great strictness and nicety 
 were held therein; though, since their discontinu- 
 ance, the doctrine of approvements is become a 
 matter of more curiosity than use.' 
 
 The modem practice is to admit accomplices to 
 give evidence for the prosecution, or, as it is said, 
 to become Qtieen's evidence, upon an implied promise 
 of pardon, on condition of their making a full and 
 fair confession of the whole truth. The admission, 
 however, of an accomplice to give evidence against 
 his fellows, requires the previous sanction of the 
 judges of jail delivery, and a motion is usually 
 made at the trial to the judge for leave to admit the 
 accomplice for that purpose. The testimony of an 
 accomplice is in all cases, however, regarded with 
 just suspicion ; and unless his statement is corrobo- 
 rated in some material part by unimpeachable evi- 
 dence, the jury are usually advised by the judge to 
 acquit the prisoner ; and if the accomplice, after 
 having confessed the crime, and being admitted as 
 Queen's evidence, does not satisfy the condition on 
 which he was so received by failing to ^ve fuU 
 information without equivocation, reservation, or 
 fraud, he then forfeits all claim to protection, and 
 may be tried, convicted, and punished on his own 
 coimession. Accordingly, upon a trial at York, 
 towards the commencement of the present century, 
 before the late Mr Justice Buller, the accomplice 
 denied in his evidence all that he had before con- 
 fessed, upon which the prisoner was acquitted. But 
 the judge ordered an indictment to be preferred 
 
 against the accomplice for the same crime, and on 
 his previous confession, and other circumstances, he 
 was convicted and executed. 
 
 The term in the law of Scotland analogous to that 
 of A. is socius criminis, and the piinoiples on which 
 such socius is admitted, and on which his evidence 
 is left to the jury, are the same as in England. But 
 the criminal courts in Scotland go further in protect- 
 ing and assimng safety to the approver than the 
 Enghsh practice does. Sir Archibald AHson, in las 
 Practice of the Criminal Law of Scotland, vol. ii., 
 p. 453, says : ' It has long been an established 
 principle in our law, that by the very act of calling 
 the socius, and putting him in the box, the prose- 
 cutor debars himself from all title to molest Mm for 
 the future with relation to the matter libelled. This 
 is aJways explained to the vpitness by the presiding 
 judge as soon as he appea,rs in court, and conse- 
 quently he gives his testimony under a feeling of 
 albsolute security as to the effect which it may have 
 upon himself. If, therefore, on any future occasion 
 the witness should be subjected to a prosecution on 
 accoimt of any of the matters contained in the libel 
 on which he was examined, the proceedings would 
 be at once quashed by the supreme court. This 
 privilege is absolute, and altogether independent of 
 the prevarication or unwillingness with which the 
 witness may give his testimony. Justice, indeed, 
 may often be defeated by a witness retracting his 
 previous disclosm'es, or refusing to make any confes- 
 sion after he is put into the box ; but it would be 
 much more put in hazard if the witness was sensible 
 that his future safety depended upon the extent to 
 which he spoke out against .his associate at the bar. 
 The only remedy, therefore, in such a case, is com- 
 mittal of the witness for contempt or prevarication, 
 or indicting him for perjury, i£ there are sufficient 
 grounds for any of these proceedings. In this 
 respect the security of the soeius, and the safeguard 
 against "the contamination of the sources of evidence, 
 is much stronger in this country than in England, 
 where it is held that the circumstance of having 
 been adduced by the crown is not a bar to trial, but 
 only the foundation for a recommendation to the 
 crown for mercy, and is entirely dependent on the 
 witnesses making a full and fair disclosure.' And 
 Sir Archibald mentions a case where a soldier, who 
 was adduced as an A. or socius, and who was under 
 confinement as a military delinquent for the same 
 offence, was nevertheless allowed to ^ve evidence ; 
 and upon its being suggested as an objection to the 
 soldier's being admitted as a witness, tixat he would 
 stai be open to be tried by a court-martial, the 
 court declared that they had the power to protect 
 jiim from such an ordeal, and that they would not 
 fail to interfere on his behalf, if he were in any way 
 endangered in consequence of his evidence.r 
 
 It was chiefly on the evidence of an accomijlice 
 named WiUiam Hare, that Burke the notorious 
 criminal was convicted before the High Court of 
 Justiciary in 1828. See this case noticed previously 
 in An ATOMT. 
 
 APPBOXIMA'TION, a term commonly used in 
 mathematical science to designate such calculations 
 as are not rigorously correct, but approach the truth 
 near enougji for a given purpose. Thus in logariHi- 
 mic and trigonometrical tables nearly suU the 
 numbers are mere approximations to the taith. The 
 calculations of astronomy generally are of this 
 nature. Even in pure mathematics there are parts 
 in which approaclies to the truth, by means of 
 interminable series, are all we are able to gain. The 
 solution of equations beyoud the fourth .degree can 
 be got only by approximation. 
 
 APPUI (French), a stay or support. In military 
 
APPULBIUS— APRICOT. 
 
 tactics, the points WA. are suoh parts of the fidd of 
 battle as are suited to give support or shelter. As 
 the wings of an army (like the extreme sides of a 
 chess-board) are the weakest points of resistance to 
 attack, they especially require support or protection, 
 and are placed, when it is possible, in localities which 
 serve to obstruct the attacking forces. Lakes, 
 morasses, woods, streams, and steep declivities may 
 thus serve as points cSA. 
 
 APPULBI'US, or, less properly, APtTLEnTS, a 
 satirical writer of the 2d c, was born at Madaura, in 
 Africa, where his father was a magistrate, and a man 
 of large fortune. A. first studied at Carthage, which 
 at that time enjoyed a high reputation as a school 
 of literatitte. Afterwards he went to Athens, where 
 he entered keenly upon the study of phHosopihy, 
 displaying a special predilection for the Platonic 
 school. The fortune bequeathed to him at his 
 father's death enabled A. to travel extensively. 
 He visited Italy, Asia, &c., and was initiated into 
 numerous religious mysteries. The knowledge which 
 he thus acquired of the priestly fraternities, he made 
 abundant use of afterwards in his Golden Ass. His 
 first appearance in literature arose from a law- 
 suit. Having married a middle-aged lady, named 
 PudentUla, very wealthy, but not particularly hand- 
 some, he drew down upon his head the malice of her 
 relations, who desired to inherit her riches, and who 
 accused the youth of having employed magic to gain 
 her affections. His defence (Apologia, still extant), 
 spoken before Claudius Maximus, proconsul of Africa, 
 was an eloquent and successful vindication of his 
 conduct. After this event, his life appears to have been 
 devoted zealously to literature and public oratory, in 
 both of which he attained great eminence. He was 
 so extremely popular, itett >the senate of Carthage, 
 and other states, ereiited statues in his honour. 
 
 The Golden Ass, the mei&. by which his reputation 
 has survived, is a romance .or novfel, whose principal 
 personage is one Lvm,ari,tsim^0BeA by some, though 
 on insufficient eyidense, tto £e the author himself. 
 It is generally uuderstii>oH."tolJiave been intended as 
 a satu-e on the -sioeB ncS dshe :age, especially those of 
 the priesthood, and of fgaadfeB cor jugglers affecting 
 supernatural powers, ithough Bishpp warburton, and 
 other critics, fanqy ijiey can detect in it an indirect 
 apology for pagasnism. Ilts merits are both great and 
 conspicuous, as are Aoits faults. Wit, humour, satire, 
 fancy, learning, and even poetic eloquence aboimd, 
 but the style is disfigured by-raceessive archaisms, and 
 there is a frequent affectation in the metaphors, &o. 
 which proves A. to have been somewhat artificial in 
 his rhetoric. The most exquisite thing in the whole 
 work is the episode of Cupid and Psyche (imitated 
 by La Pontaine). It i^ supposed to be an alle- 
 gory of the progress of the soul to perfection. 
 Besides the Apologia and Golden Ass, we have 
 from the pen of A. an Anthology in four books, 
 a work on the Daemon of Socrates, one on the 
 doctrines of Plato, one on The Universe, &c. A 
 considerable number of his works also are lost. 
 The most recent and careful edition of the whole 
 works of A. is that published at Leipsic in 1842, by 
 Gr. F. Kildebrand. The Golden Ass was translated 
 into Elfish by T. Taylor (1822), and again by 
 Sir G. Head (1851). An English version of the 
 works of A. was published in London, 1853. 
 
 APRA'XIN, Thedob Matvattevich, a distin- 
 guished EuBsian admiral, was bom in 1671. When 
 hardly twelve years of age, he entered the service of 
 Peter the Great, who conceived a great attachment 
 for him, which lasted during the whole life of the 
 monarch. In 1699, he took part in the first 
 manoeuvres of the Russian fleet at Taganrog 
 on the sea of Azof. After the year 1700, he became 
 
 the most powerful and influential person at the 
 court of the czar, who made Iiitti chief -admiral 
 of the Russian navy, of which, in fact, A. may be 
 considered the creator. While Peter was fighting 
 the Swedes in the north, A. was building war-vessels, 
 fortresses, and wharfs in the south. In 1707, he was 
 appointed president of the Admiralty ; in 1708, he 
 defeated the Swedish general, Lubecker, in Inger- 
 maunland, and saved the newly-bmlt city of 
 Petersburg from destruction ; in 1710, he captured 
 the important town of Viborg, in Finland; and 
 in 1711, commanded in the Black Sea during the 
 Turkish war. The following year he returned to 
 the north; and in 1713, with a fleet of 200 vessels, 
 he sailed along the coast of Finland, took Helsing- 
 fors and Borgo, and defeated the Swedish fleet. 
 The result of his great successes was, that at the 
 peace of Nystadt, in 1721, Russia obtained some 
 most valuable advantages, being confirmed in her 
 possession of Finland, just conquered, and of 
 Esthonia. In spite of his brilliant reputation, how- 
 ever, he twice suffered an apparent eohpse of 
 imperial favour. In 1714 — 15 he was charged with 
 embezzlement, tried, and condemned to pay a fine ; 
 and a few years later, was denounced by Peter him- 
 self as ' an oppressor of the people,' and again con- 
 demned to /pay a fine ; but hia services were too use- 
 ful to be dispensed with, and in both instances the 
 czar neutralised the effect of the condemnation, by 
 conferring upon him additional riches and dignities. 
 In 1722, he accompanied Peter in his Persian waj:, 
 and was present at the siege of Derbend. His last 
 naval expedition was in 1726, when he repaired with 
 the Russian fieet to Revel, to defend that place 
 against an expected attack by the Enghsh. He died 
 at Moscow, 10th Noveniber 1728, in the 57th year 
 of his age. 
 
 A'PRIOOT (Prunus Armeniaca), a species of the 
 same genus with the Plttm (q. v.), is a native of 
 Armenia, and of the countries eastward to China 
 and Japan ; a middle-sized tree of 15 — ^20, or even 
 30 feet high, with ovate, acuminate, and cordate, 
 smooth, doubly-toothed leaves on long stalks ; soli- 
 tary, sessile, white flowers which appear before the 
 leaves, and fruit resembling the peach, roundish, 
 downy, yellow, and ruddy on the side next the sun, 
 with yellow flesh. The A. was brought into Europe 
 in the time of Alexander the Great, and since me 
 days of the Romans has been diffused over all its 
 western countries. It has been cultivated in Eng- 
 land since the middle of the 16th c. It is only in 
 the south of England that it is ever trained as a 
 standard, nor is it grown in the more northern parts, 
 even as an espalier, but almost ailways as a wall-tree. 
 More than twenty kinds are distinguished, amongst 
 which, some excel very much in size, fine colour, 
 sweetness, and abundance of juice. The Moorpark 
 is generally esteemed the finest variety, and the 
 Breda as best suited for standards in the south of 
 England, and in Scotland even for the wall, except 
 in the most favourable situations. — The A. is generally 
 budded on plum or wild cherry stocks. The fruit 
 keeps only for a very short time, and is either eaten 
 fresh, or made into a preserve or jeUy. Apricots 
 split up, having the stone taken out, and dried, 
 are brought from Italy as an article of commerce, in 
 particular from Trieste, Genoa, and Leghorn : in the 
 south of France, also, they are an article of export in 
 a preserved and candied state. Dried apricots from 
 Bokhara are sold in the towns of Russia, the kernels 
 of which are perfectiy sweet, like those of the sweet 
 almond. The kernels are sweet in some kinds, 
 and bitter in others— the bitterness being probably 
 more natural, and the sweetness, as in the almond, 
 the result of cultivation. Generally speaking, 
 they may be used for the same purposes as 
 
APRIL— APSE. 
 
 almonds. From the bitter kernels, wliich contain 
 Prussic acid, the Eau de noyayx is distilled in 
 France. The charred stones yield a black pigment 
 similar to Indian ink. The wood of the tree is good 
 only for the purposes of the tm'ner. 
 
 The BRiAN90ir A. {Prunus Briganticica) very 
 much resembles the common A. The fruit is 
 glabrous. It is found in Dauphinfe and Piedmont. 
 At Briangon, an oO, called Uuile de marmotte, is 
 expressed from the seeds. 
 
 The Siberian A. (P. Sibirica) isalso very like the 
 common A., but smaller in all its parts. The fruit 
 is small. It 'is a native of Siberia, especially of the 
 southern slopes of the moimtains of Dahuria. 
 
 The A. Plum is an excellent kind of plima, much 
 cultivated in some parts of France, and which, pre- 
 served in sugar, dried, and packed in shallow boxes, 
 forms a considerable article of trade. 
 
 A!PEIL. The Romans gave this month the name 
 of Aprilis, from aperire, to open, because it was the 
 iseason when the buds began to open ; by the Anglo- 
 Saxons it was called Ooster, or Baster-month ; and 
 by the Dutch Grass-month. The custom of sending 
 one upon a bootless errand on the first day of this 
 month, is perhaps a travesty of the sending hither 
 and tMther of the Saviom- from Annas to Caiaphas, 
 and from Pilate to Herod, because during the middle 
 ages this scene in Christ's life was made the subject 
 of -a miracle-play (q. v.) at Easter, which occurs in 
 the month of A. It is possible, however, that it 
 may be a reUc of some old heathen festival. The 
 custom, whatever be its origin, of playing off little 
 tricks on this day, whereby ridicule may be fixed 
 upon unguarded individuals, appears to be universal 
 throughout Europe. In France, one thus imposed 
 upon is called un poisson d'Avril (an A. fish). In 
 England, such a person is called an A. fool; in 
 Scotland, a gowk. Gowk is the . Scotch for the 
 cuckoo, and also signifies a foolish person. The 
 favourite jest in Britain is to send one upon an 
 errand for something grossly nonsensical — as for 
 pigeon's mUk, or the History of Adam's Grand- 
 father ; or to make appointments which are not to 
 be kept ; or to cd,E to a passer-by that his latchet is 
 unloosed, or that there is a spot of mud upon his 
 face. When' he falls into the snare, the term A. fool 
 or aowk is applied with a shout of laughter. It is 
 curious that the Hindus practise precisely similar 
 tricks on the 31st of March, when they hold what is 
 called the HuH Festival. 
 
 A-PmO'RI reasoning or demonstration is that 
 which rests on general notions or ideas, and is inde- 
 pendent of experience. Reasoning from experience 
 is called a-posteriori reasoning. A predilection for 
 one or the other of these forms of reasoning forms 
 one of the most important distinctions among 
 schools of philosophy. Plato may be taken as 
 typical of the A-P. school, Locke and Bacoh of the 
 other. A-P. speculation-is mpre in accordance 
 with the genius of the j^ermans than with that of 
 the practical British. ^A-P. philosophy claims for 
 its conclusions the character of necessary truths, 
 and denies that there can be a-posteriori proof of 
 anything, that kind of reasoning furnishing only a 
 confirmation or verificatiW. 'Hie opposite school 
 maintain that the general Nnotions or principles on 
 which A-P. reasoning res^s,( are themselves the 
 results of experience, and that, therefore, all truth 
 rests really on a-posteriori grounds. 
 
 A'PBOIT. This word is employed both in mili- 
 tary and in shipping affairs. The A. of a cannon is 
 a piece of sheet-lead which covers the touch-hole, 
 tied by two pieces of white rope. , In ship-building, 
 the A. is a piece of curved timber fixed behind the 
 lower part of the stem, and just above the fore- 
 
 336 
 
 most end of the keel ; its chief use is to fortify the 
 stem, and connect it more firinly with the keel. 
 The. name of A. is also given to the plank-flooring 
 raised at the entrance of a dock, a little higherthan 
 the bottom, to form an abutment against which .the' 
 gates may shut. 
 
 APSE (Lat. apds), a semicircular recess usually 
 placed at the^east end of the choir or chaaicel of a 
 romanesque, or what is commonly called in England 
 an Anglo-Saxon or Anglo-Norman church. The 
 origin of this peculiar termination to the choir is so 
 curious, and has been so clearly estabhshed by 
 recent German writers, that we shall endeavour to 
 state it in a very few words. It is well known that 
 the heathen structure from which the early Chris- 
 tians borrowed the form of their churches, was not 
 the temple but the Basilica or pubHc hall which 
 served at once for a market-place and a court of 
 justice. The BasiUca, for the most part, was a 
 parallelogram, at one of the shorter sides of which, 
 opposite to the entrance, there was a raised platform 
 destined for the accommodation of the persons 
 engaged in, and connected with, the distribution of 
 justice. This portion of the building was the proto- 
 type of the rounded choir, to which the name of A. 
 
 Church at Schwartz, Eheindorf . 
 
 was given, and which is still to be seen in so many 
 of the Rhenish churches. . For the prjetor's chair, 
 which was placed in the centre of this semicircular 
 space, the altar was substituted ; and the steps 
 which led to the seat from which he dispensed 
 justice, were destined henceforth to lead to the spot 
 where the Fountain of all justice should be worshipped. 
 Many A's are- to be met with in English churches, 
 an enumeration of whio|i will be found in Mr 
 Parker's excellent Glossary of Architecture. But 
 as the structure is not only much more frequent, but 
 continued to be used to a much later period on the 
 continent, we shall describe it as it may stid be 
 seen in almost every Httle village along the banks of 
 the Rhine. The lower part of the A. is there 
 usually pierced by two or- three round arched win- 
 dows, often of irregular size aad height, over which- 
 there is invariably an external gallery supported by 
 pillars, in the form of which the rude idea of a 
 Roman pillar is at once apparent ; and the whole 
 is joined to the end of the nave, which rises consider- 
 ably above it, by a roof in the form of the segment 
 of a cone. Where the churches are larger, there is a 
 
APSIDES-APULIA. 
 
 complete row of ■windows of the same romided 
 form, divided by pillars similar to those by which 
 the gallery is supported, and under them frequently 
 a line of arches of corresponding construction, whilst 
 one or two small and irregular holes of the same 
 form give a scanty light to the crypt beneath. 
 Many' of the smaller churches have no aisles ; and 
 tJie semicircular A. forms the termination of, or 
 rather contains the chancel. The more complete 
 specimens of the style, however, such as the minster 
 at Bonn, afford — ^with the exception of the tran- 
 ' septs and the towers, which are later additions — 
 about the most perfect examples to be found on 
 this side the Alps of the form of the Eoman basilioa, 
 as first adapted to Christian uses. Several examples 
 «f the A. are to be seen in the earlier ecclesiastical 
 
 Church of Dalmeny. 
 
 structures of Scotland ; as instances, we may men- 
 tion the churches of Dalmeny and Kirkliston ia 
 Linlithgowshire, and of Leuchars in Fife. _ 
 
 A'PSIDES (6r. apsis, connection), the two 
 extreme points in the orbit of a planet— one at the 
 greatest, the other at the least distance from the 
 Bun. The term A. is also applied in the same 
 manner to the two points in the orbit of a sateBite 
 — one nearest to, the other furthest from, its primary ; 
 corresponding, in the case of the moon, to the 
 perigee and apogee. A right liae connecting these 
 extreme points, is called the line of A. In aU the 
 planetary orbits, this line has no fixed position in 
 space, but makes a forward motion in the plane of 
 the orbit, except in the case of the planet Venus, 
 where the motion is retrograding. This fact in the 
 orbit of the earth gives rise to the anomalistic year 
 {q. v.). This advancing motion of the line of A. 
 is especially remarkable in the orbit of the mooii, 
 where it amounts to 40° 40' 32"-2 annually, an 
 entire revolution thus taking place in rather less 
 than nine years. 
 
 APSLBY, a river of Australia, in the north 
 division of New South Wales. It flows into the 
 open Pacific about 40 mUes to the north-east of Port 
 Macquarrie, appearing to assume at its mouth the 
 name of the M'Leay. — A. is also a strait between 
 Melville and Bathurst Islands, on the north coast' 
 of Australia. Its length is 48 mUes, with a width 
 varying from IJ to 4 ; and the depth of its channel 
 is from 8 to 24 fathoms. 
 
 A'PTEKOUS _ INSECTS are insects without 
 wings. In the Linnaeau system, the Apiera form an 
 order of insects ; but more important distinctive 
 characters being found to belong to the insects 
 included in it, it is no longer retained as an order or 
 principal division in the most improved entomological 
 systems. 
 
 A'PTBRYX (from the Gr. a, piiv., and pteryx, a 
 wing), a genus of birds allied to the ostrich and 
 
 emu, and perhaps more neatly to the extinct dodo. 
 It has a very long and slender bill, of which it 
 
 Aptoryx Australia. 
 
 makes a remarkable use in supporting itself when it 
 rests. It has three anterior toes, and a posterior 
 one which is scarcely developed. The legs are of 
 moderate length, the wings merely rudimentary. 
 The feathers have no accessory plume. The dia- 
 phragm is more complete than in any other known 
 bird. Only one species is known (A. Auslrcdis), 
 about the size of a goose, a native of New Zealand. 
 It is a nocturnal bird, and preys on snaps, insects, 
 &c. It is much prized for its feathers. The natives 
 call it Idvi-Mm, from its cry. 
 
 A!V£'H.M are small vesicles formed of the super- 
 ficial layer of a mucous membrane, elevated by 
 fluid secreted by the latter. They are usually 
 whitish in colour, and the fluid may be serous or 
 puriform. At the end of a few hours or days, the 
 apthons vesicle bursts at its summit, and Snivels 
 up, exposing an inflamed and painful patch of the 
 mucous membrane. The most common site of A. is 
 the mucous membrane of the lips and mouth, but 
 they occasionally appear wherever mucous membrane 
 approaches the skin. 
 
 Infants are liable to an apthous eruption termed 
 thmsh (q. v.). A. in adults are generally the conse- 
 quences of fevers and other diseases, or a symptom 
 of disturbance 6f the digestive system. In some 
 cases of puhnouary consumption,' they form a 
 painful addition to the patient's sufferings. In 
 ordinary cases of A., a preparation of borax, or some 
 astringent wash, generdly effects a rapid cure. 
 
 APU'LIA, a part of ancient lapygia (so named 
 after lapyx, son of Dsedalus), now includes the 
 south-eastern part of Italy as far as the promontory 
 of Leuca, and also the extreme peninsula of Calabria. 
 Here, in ancient times, lived three distinct peoples — 
 the Messapians or Salentini, the Peuceni, and the 
 Dauni or ApulianS. According to old Latin tradi- 
 tions, Daunus, king of the ApiSians, when banished 
 from lUyria, settled in these parts of Italy. Later 
 traditions say that Diomedes, the .lEtolian, with 
 several other heroes returning from the Trojan war, 
 came to Italy, and, in his war with the Messapians, 
 was assisted by Daunus, but was afterwards 
 deprived of his territory, and put to death. Boman 
 poetry has preserved these old names ; but in history, 
 no mention is made of any king of A., though 
 we find the names of , its principal cities — ^Arpi, 
 Luceria, and Canusium. The second Punic war was 
 for some time carried on in A. In the present day, 
 A. (now styled Puglia) is merely the name of a 
 geographical district, and has no poHtioal meaning. 
 The whole territory, including the Neapolitan pro- 
 vinces, Capitanata, Terra di Bari, Terra d'Otranto, 
 &o., is but a, shadow of its former self, in the time 
 of the Greek colonies, under Koman dominion, or 
 even under the Normans, who took possession of it 
 in 1043 A. D. The towns are depopulated, industry 
 
 337 
 
APUKE— AQUARIUM. 
 
 has disappeared, and commerce, once so flourisHng, 
 has passed away. Agriculture is iu a very low 
 condition, and the few roads are infested hy banditti. 
 The people are generally ignorant and superstitious, 
 but deserve praise for their hospitality to travellers. 
 
 APU'RB, a river of New Granada and Venezuela, 
 which rises in the East Andes, near lat. 7° N., and 
 long. 72° W. After receiving the Portuguesa and the 
 Guarico.' from the north, it joins the Orinoco, in 
 lat. 7° 40' ISr., and long. 66° 45' W. It waters the 
 towns Nutrias and San Fernando. 
 
 APU'EIMAC, a river of Peru, which, after a 
 course of 500 imles, assumes the name, first, of 
 Tambo, and then of UcayaH, which again, after a 
 course of 500 miles more, joins the Tangaragua to 
 form the Amazon. The A. proper rises to the north- 
 west of the great table-land of Lake Titicaca, receiving 
 from it, however, no portion of its waters. Among 
 the tributaries oi "the Amazon, it is one of the most 
 southerly ; while among them, it approaches perhaps 
 the nearest to the Pacmo. The A., from its source 
 in lat. 16° S., drains the eastern face bf the Andes 
 through about 5°, till it changes its name, as above, 
 in 10° 45' S., meanwhile receiving several consider- 
 able affluents, more especially the ViUcamayo, from 
 the opposite quarter. The A. and its feeders partake 
 of the nature rather of mountain torrents than of 
 navigable rivers; and even for travelling by land, 
 theii- rocky and rugged banks are always difficult, 
 and often impracticable. The valleys vary in climate 
 and productiveness according to their elevation. The 
 upper ones yield wheat and barley, and most of the 
 fruits of Europe; while the lower, or at least the 
 lowest ones, abound in sugar and cotton, plantains 
 and pine-apples. The basin of the A., as a whole, is 
 said to be the finest part .of Peru, and to contain the 
 largest proportion of native population — ^the best 
 specimens apparently of the aboriginal civilisation. 
 
 A'QUA FOETIS, literally, strong water, was the 
 term used by the alchemists to denote nitric acid, 
 and is stiU the 'comniercial name of that acid. 
 
 A'QUA MABINE, a name sometimes popularly 
 given to the Beryl (q. v.). Some green and blue 
 varieties of topaz have also been styled A. 
 
 A'QUA REGI'N.^, Kterally, queen's water, is a 
 mixture of concentrated sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) 
 and nitric acid, or of sulphuric acid and nitre. Either 
 mixture evolves much fumes, and may be used as a 
 disinfectant, as similar mixtures are sold under the 
 name of everlasting disinfectants. 
 
 A'QUA EEGIS, or EEGIA, literally, royal water, 
 is the common name apphed to a mixture of 1 
 part of nitric acid, and 2, 3, or 4 parts of hydro- 
 chloric acid. The general proportion is 1 to 2. The 
 term aqua regia (royal water) was given to the 
 mixture from the power it possesses of dissolving 
 gold, which is the hing of the metals. 
 
 AQUA'KIUM, a tank or vessel containing either 
 salt or fresh water, and iu which either marine or 
 fresh- water plants and animals are kept in a Uving 
 state. The name was formerly sometimes given to a 
 tank or cistern placed in a hot-house, and intended 
 for the cultivation of aquatic plants. It is not 
 long since the A., as now in use — originally called 
 Vivarium or Aquavivariwm, and intended chiefly 
 for animals — ^was first invented; but it soon became 
 extremely common, not only as an aid to scientific 
 study, but as an ornament of drawing-rooms, and a 
 source of rational amusement. It depends iu prin- 
 ciple upon the relations discovered by modem science 
 between animal and vegetable life, and particularly 
 upon the con3um.pt by plants, under the action of 
 light, of the carbonic acid gas given forth by animals, 
 and consequent restoration to the air or water in 
 
 which they live of the oxygen necessary for the 
 maintenance of animal life. The A. must, therefore, 
 contain both plants and animals, and in something 
 like a proper proportion- Zoophytes, Annehdes, 
 Mollusoa, Crustacea, and Kshes may thus, with due 
 care, be long kept in health, and their habits observed. 
 The water must be frequently abated by agitation 
 in some way, for which there are various contriv- 
 ances, but which is very well accomphshed by 
 taking up portions of it and pouring them in again 
 from a small height. The fresh- water A. is frequently 
 provided with a fountain, so that in it there is a 
 continual change of water; but even where this is 
 the case, the presence both of plants and animals is 
 advantageous to the health of both. When sea- 
 water cannot easily be procured for the marine A., 
 a substitute for it may be made by mixing with' 
 
 Simple form of an Aquarium. 
 
 i-ather less than 4 quarts of spring water 3^ 
 ounces of common table-salt, J ounce of Epsom salts, 
 200 grains troy of chloride of magnesium, and 40 
 grains troy of chloride of potassium. With due 
 care, the water may be kept good for a long time. 
 No dead animal or decaying plant must be permitted 
 to remain in it. Salt water, artificially prepared, is 
 not fit for the reception of animals at once ; but a 
 few plants must first be placed ia it, for which purpose 
 some of the green algse, species of Ulva and Con- 
 ferva, are most suitable. The presence of a number 
 of molluscous animals, such as the common periwinkle, 
 is necessary for the consumption of the vegetable 
 matter continually given off by the growing plants, 
 and of the multitudinous spores (seeds), particularly 
 of confervse, which would otherwise soon fill the 
 water, rendering it greenish or brownish, and un- 
 transparent, and which may be seen beginning to 
 vegetate everywhere on the pebbles or on the glass 
 of the tank. In a fresh-water A, molluscous ani- 
 mals of similar habits, such as species of Lymnma 
 or Planorbis, are equally indispensable. For Aquaria 
 of a large size, tamis made of plate-glass are com- 
 monly used ; smaller ones are generally in the form 
 of vases or basins, and are made of bottle-glass or 
 of crystal. 
 
 Of course, the plants and animals with which the 
 A. is stocked, are various, according to the taste and 
 opportunities of its owner, or the desire to make 
 particular kinds the subjects of careful and continued 
 observation. Blennies, gobies, and gray mullets are 
 perhaps the kinds of fish most commonly seen in 
 marine aquaria; gold-fishes, sticklebacks, andminnows 
 are frequent enough in fresh-water ones. These 
 have the advantage of being more easily kept in 
 good health than many other kinds, and a fmrther 
 recommendation is found iii their small "feize, and in 
 the fine colours of the gold-fiab. The nests of stickle* 
 
AQUAEIUS-AQUATIC. 
 
 backs are a subject of unfailing interest. Crabs 
 of various species, and actinisB, or sea-anemones, are 
 very generally among the larger inmates of the A. 
 SerpidsB contribute much boQi to its interest and 
 beauty, as they spread out ttieir delicate and finely 
 tinted brancluEB from the mouth of their shelly tube, 
 and -withdraw within it, quick as thought, upon 
 the lightest disturbance. Balani, or acom-sheUs, 
 are very beautiful objects when they are seen open- 
 ing their summit- valves, and rapidly stretching out 
 and retracting their litUe nets. Even periwinkles 
 and limpets are interesting, pajHiicularly when lihey 
 are watched by the aid 5 a magnifying-glass, as 
 they feed upon the spores of the confervas which 
 have just begun to vegetate on the glass of the A., 
 moving slowly along, with continual opening and 
 shutting of the mouth, like cows at pasture, when 
 the structure and motions of their mouths may be 
 observed, and the singular beauty and brilliancy of 
 colours never fails to command admiration. The 
 use of a good magnifying lens adds greatly to the 
 
 AQTTA'TIC plants and animals are those that 
 live either wholly or partly in water. The term is 
 very vaguely used, those plants being often called 
 A. wMon grow in ponds, ditches, &o., although not 
 only their inflorescence, but great part of their 
 foHage, is above the surface of the water, as well 
 as mose which more completely belong to that 
 element ; and a similar latitude of meaning prevails 
 with regard to animals. Few phanerogamous (or 
 
 wn 
 
 Aquarium, with fountain for aerating. 
 
 interest of the A., and zoophytes of exquisite forms 
 and colours may be watched in the actual processes 
 of life. The feeding of fishes, crabs, sea-anemones, 
 &c., is a source of amusement, and it is interesting 
 even to note how the inmates of the A. occasionally 
 feed on their fellow-prisoners. 
 
 Tlie idea of tbe A. seems to have originated from 
 Mr Ward's invention of the cases which bear his 
 name (see Waebian Cases), and in which delicate 
 ferns and other plants grow so well even in 
 towns. Mr Warrington appears to have been the 
 first to make experiments on its practicability, and 
 the name of Mr Gosse is intimately connected with 
 its early development and introduction to popula- 
 rity. The 'largest aquama in the world are tiiose in 
 the Zoological G-airdens, Hegent'e Park, London. 
 But private ones are-so •numerous, that not only the 
 manufacture of them, but also "the supplying of them 
 with plants and animals, have become distinct 
 branches of trade. , 
 
 AQTTA'EIUS, the B'irfa'-5ear'er, thereleventh sign 
 of the zodiac, through which the sun moves in part 
 of the months of January and February, It is also 
 the name of a zodiacal constellation, whose position 
 in the heavens may be found by producing a line in 
 a southerly direction through the stars in ihe head 
 of Andromeda and the wing of Pegasus. 
 
 Aquatic plant. 
 
 flowering) plants exist entirely under water, 
 although there are a few, like the common Zostera 
 manna, or Grass- wrack, which do so, and produce 
 even iieir flowers in that condition j others, of 
 which the greater part of the plant is usually under 
 water, produce their flowers upon, or considerably 
 above, its surface, as those of the genera Valimeria, 
 Anacharis (q. v.), &c. The leaves, as well as the 
 flowers, of many float upon the water, of which 
 the water-lilies furnish well'known and beautiful 
 examples ; whilst in Manuncuhis aguatiUs, that 
 exquisite ornament of our river margins, we have an 
 instance of a kind not unf requent, of great diversity 
 between the lower leaves which remain submersed, 
 and the upper leaves which float. Of cryptogaanous 
 plants, one great order, Algas, is exdusivdy A., and 
 these seem adapted to perform under water all the 
 functions of their life. A. plants are, in general, 
 of less compact structure than is usual in other 
 plants, and are thus lighter and better adapted for 
 rising in their growth towards the surface of the 
 water ; in order to which also some of the algas, as 
 may be seen in more than one of the most common 
 sea-weeds of our coasts, are provided with aiiw 
 bladders of considerable magnitude. All this is the 
 more necessary, as plants completely A. have gene- 
 rally littie firmness of stem, and if their weight 
 made them fall to the bottom, would He in a mass, 
 as they do when withdrawn from the water, in 
 which, however, they gracefully float, their flexi- 
 bility of stem enabling them to adapt themselves 
 to waves or currents which would destroy them if 
 they were more rigid. So admirably are all things 
 in nature harmonised. 
 
 Many animals, to a considerable extent A. in 
 their habits, must not only breathe air, but are 
 adapted for spending great part of their existence 
 on diy land. Such are chiefly those that seek 
 their food in the water. The peculiarities of 
 structure by which they are fitted for wading, for 
 swimming, for diving, and for remaining .under water 
 a longer time than other animals can, are very 
 interesting and admirable. Even ihe fur of the 
 beaver, the otter, the water-rat, and other animals of 
 this description, is not liable to be drenched like 
 that of othier quadrupeds; and the plumage of water- 
 fowls exhibits a similar peculiarity. The feet of 
 many are webbed, so as to enable them to swim 
 with great facility ; and to this the general form, as 
 in water-fowls, likewise exhibits a beautiful adapta- 
 tion. The webbed feet in some, of which the habits 
 are most thoroughly A, as seals, assume the character 
 
AQUATINTA— AQtJEDUCT. 
 
 of a sort of paddle, admirably fitted for use in the 
 water, but by means of ■which they can only move 
 very awkwardly on land. The forms of whales and 
 fishes are remarkably adapted for progression in 
 water ; whilst, instead of the Hmbs by which other 
 vertebrate animals are enabled to- move upon the 
 land or to fly in the air, their great organ of locomo- 
 tion is the tail, or rather the hinder part of the 
 elongated body itself, with the tail as the blade of 
 the great oar, which all the principal muscles of the 
 ,body concur to move. Remarkable provision is 
 made in A. animals of the higher vertebrate classes 
 for the maintenance of the requisite animal heat, by 
 the character of the fur or plumage ; a piu^pose which 
 the blubber of whales also most perfectly serves. 
 In the colder-blooded animals, where no such provi- 
 sion is requisite, the structure of the heart is accom- 
 modated to the diminished necessity for oxygenation 
 of the blood; and although reptiles in their perfect 
 state must breathe air, most of them can remain long 
 under water without inconvenience. ' Fishes, and the 
 many other animals provided with branchi^ or giUs, 
 breathe in the water itself, deriving the necessary 
 oxygen, which in their case is comparatively little, 
 from the small particles of air with which it is 
 mingled. They cannot subsist in water which has 
 been deprived of air by boiling. Some A. insects 
 carry down with them into the water particles of 
 air entangled in hairs with which their bodies are 
 abundantly furnished. 
 
 AQUATrNTA, a mode of etching on copper, by 
 which imitations of drawings in Indian ink, bister, 
 and sepia are produced. On a plate of . copper a 
 ground is prepared of black resin, on which the 
 design is traced ; a complicated series of manipula- 
 tions with varnish and dilute acid is then gone 
 through, imtU the desired result is attained. The 
 process of A. has fallen into comparative disuse. 
 
 A'QUA TOFA'NA, a poisonous liquid which 
 was much talked of in the south of Italy about 
 the end of the 17th o. Its invention is stiQ a 
 matter of dubiety, but is ascribed to a Sicilian 
 woman named Tofana, who lived first at Palermo, 
 but was obliged, from the attention of the author- 
 ities having been attracted to her proceedings, to 
 take refuge in Naples. She sold the preparation 
 in small phials, inscribed ' Manna of St Nicholas of 
 Bari,' there being a current superstition that from the 
 tomb of that saint there flowed an oil of miraculous 
 efiicaoy in many diseases. The poison was especially 
 sought after by yoimg wives that wished to get rid 
 of their husbands. The number of husbands dying 
 suddenly in Kome about the year 1659, raised 
 suspicion, and a society of young married women 
 was discovered, presided over by an old woman 
 named Spara, who had learned the art of poisoning 
 from Tofana, Spara and four other members of the 
 society were pubhcly executed. Tofana continued 
 to five to a great age in a cloister, in which she had 
 taken refuge, but was at last (1709) dragged from it, 
 and put to the torture, when she confessed having 
 been instrumental to 600 deaths. According to one 
 account she was strangled; but others afiirm that 
 she was stfll living in prison in 1730. 
 
 The A. T. is usually described as a clear, colourless, 
 tasteless, and inodorous fluid ; five or six drops were 
 sufficient to produce death, which resulted slowly 
 and without pain, inflammation, or fever; under a 
 constant thirst, a weariness of life, and an aversion 
 to food, the strength of the person gradually wasted 
 away. It is even stated that the poison could be 
 made to produce its effects in a determined time, 
 long or short, according to the wish of the adminis- 
 trator — a notion generally prevalent in those ages 
 respecting secret poisoning. The most wonderful 
 340 
 
 stories are told of the mode of preparing this poison ; 
 for example, the spittle of a person driven nearly 
 mad by continued tickling was held to be an essen- 
 tial ingredient. Later investigations into the real 
 nature of the A. T. lead to the belief that it was 
 principally a solution of arsenic. 
 
 A'QUA Yl'TM (Lat., water of life) is a com- 
 mon term applied to ardent spirits. During the 
 alchemical epoch, brandy or distilled spirits was 
 much used as a medicine, was considered a cure 
 for all disorders, and even got the credit of pro- 
 longing life ; and as Latin was the tongue employed 
 in the conveyance of knowledge in those days, 
 this restorer of health and prolonger of life was 
 naturally christened A. V. 
 
 A'QUBDtrCT (Lat. Aqua ductus), an artificial 
 course or channel by which water is conveyed along 
 an inclined plain. When an A. is carried across a 
 valley, it is usually raised on arches, and where 
 elevated ground or lulls intervene, a passage is out, 
 or, if necessary, -■'■ tunnel bored for it. Aqueducts 
 were not unknown to the Greeks ; but there are no 
 remains of those which they constructed, and the 
 brief notices of them by Pausanias, Herodotus, and 
 others, do not enable us to form any distinct notion 
 of their character. The aqueducts of the Romans 
 were amongst the most magnificent of their works, 
 and the noble supply of water which modem Home 
 derives from the three now in use, of which two 
 are ancient, gives the stranger a very vivid concep- 
 tion of the vast scale on which the ancient city must 
 have been provided with one of the most important 
 appliances of civilisation and refinement, when nine 
 were employed to pour water into its baths and 
 fountains. 
 
 The following are the names of the Boman aque- 
 ducts, chronologically arranged : 
 
 1. The Aqua Appia, begun by and named after 
 the censor Appius Claudius about 313 B. c. It ran a 
 course of between 6 and 7 miles, its source being in 
 the neighbourhood of Palestrina. With the exception 
 of a small portion near the Porta Capena, it was 
 subterranean. No remains of it exist. 
 
 2. Anio Vetus, constructed about 273 B. c. by 
 M. Curius Dentatus. It also was chiefly under- 
 ground. Remains may be traced both at Tivoli 
 and near the Porta Maggiore. Prom the point at 
 which it quitted the river Anio, about 20 miles 
 above Tivoli, to Rome, is about 43 miles. 
 
 3. Aqua Marda, named after the prsetor Quintus 
 Marcius Bex, 145 B. c, had its source between 
 Tivoli and Subiaco, and was consequently about 60 
 miles long. The noble arches which stretch across 
 the Campagna for some 6 miles on the road to 
 Frascati, are the portion of this A. which was above 
 ground. 
 
 4. Aqua Tepula (126 B. c.) had its source near 
 Tusculum, and its channel was carried over the 
 arches of the last-mentioned A. 
 
 5. Aqtia Julia, (constructed by Agrippa, and 
 named after Augustus 34 B. c. Like the Tepulan, it 
 was carried along the Marcian Arches, and its source 
 was also near Tusculum. Remains of the three 
 last-mentioned aqueducts stiU exist. 
 
 6. Aqua Virgo, also constructed by Agrippa, and 
 said to have been named in consequence of the 
 spring which supphed it having been pointed out by - 
 a girl to some of Agrippa's soldiers when in search 
 of water. The Aqua Vergine, as it is now called, 
 is still entire, having been restored by the Popes 
 Nicholas V. and Pius IV. 1568. The source of tlje 
 Aqua Virgo is near the Anio, in the neighbourhood 
 of Torre Salona, on the Via Collatina, and about 14 
 miles from Rome. The original object of this A. 
 was to supply the baths of Agrippa ; its water now 
 
AQUEDUCT. 
 
 flows in the Pontana Treyi, that of the Piazza 
 Navona, the Piazza Farnese, and the Baroaooia of 
 the Piazza di Spagna. The water of the Aqua Virgo 
 is the best in Kome. 
 
 T. Aqua Alsietina, constructed by Augustus, and 
 afterwards restored by Trajan, and latterly by the 
 popes. This I A.," now called the Aqua Paola, is 
 situated on the) right bank of the Tiber, and sup- 
 plies the fountains in front of St Peter's ,and the 
 Foutana Paola on the Montorio. Its original object 
 was to supply the Kaumaohia of Augustus, which 
 was a sheet of water for the representation of sea- 
 fights. 
 
 8. Aqua ClauMa, commenced by Caligula and 
 completed by Claudius, 51 A.D. A line of magnifi- 
 cent arches which formerly belonged to this A. still 
 stretches across the Campagna, and forms one of the 
 
 frandest of Eoman ruins. It was used as a quarry 
 y Sextus V. for the construction of the Aqua 
 Felici, which now supplies the Fountain of Termini, 
 and various others in different parts of the city. 
 
 9. Anio Novus, which was the most copious of all 
 the Roman fountains, though inferior to the Marcia 
 in the solidity of its structure ; it was also the 
 longest of the aqueducts, pursuing a course of no 
 less than 62 miles. By the two last-mentioned 
 aqueducts, the former supply of water was doubled. 
 In addition to the aqueducts already mentioned, 
 there was the Aqua Trajana, which may, however, 
 
 I I 
 
 j^._i 1— 
 
 Section. 
 
 Aqua Alexandrina. 
 
 be regarded as n branch of the Anio Novus, and 
 seversS others of later construction, such as the 
 Antoniana, Alexandrina, and Jovia, none of which 
 were to be compared with the older on^s in extent 
 and magnificence. 
 
 Nor was it for the uses of the capital alone that 
 aqueducts were constructed. The A. of Trajan, at 
 CivitaVecchia, which conveys the water a distance 
 of 23 miles, and that in the vicinity of Marzana, 
 near Verona, with others that might be mentioned, 
 still attest the existence of aqueducts in the smaller 
 towns of Italy in Iloman times. Even during the 
 unijromising period which succeeded, the habit of 
 their construction was not abandoned, that of 
 Spoleto having been built by the Lombard Duke 
 Theodolapius in 604. The extraordinary A. by 
 which the fountain at Siena is suppUed, is said to 
 have occupied two centuries in building; and the 
 modem A. of Leghorn, which is not unworthy of the 
 Koman models after which it was designed, is 
 surpassed in magnificence by that of Pisa, with its 
 thousand arches. In the more distant provinces 
 which fell imder the Roman power, aqueducts 
 were likewise constructed — at Nicomedia, Ephesus, 
 Smyrna, Alexandria, Syracuse, and in many of the 
 towns in Gaul and in Spain. At Merida there are the 
 repoains of two' aqueducts, of one of which there are 
 thirty-seven piers still standing, with three tiers of 
 arches. But the most magnificent structure of this 
 
 class in Spain, is the A. of Segovia, in Old Castile, 
 for which Spanish writers claim an antiquity beyond 
 that of the Roman dominion; but which; there is 
 reason to believe, belongs to the time of Trajan. 
 At Evora, in Portugal, there is likewise an A. in 
 good preservation, with a castellwm or reservoir at 
 its termination in the city, consisting of two stories, 
 the lower one being decorated with pillars. But of 
 aU the provincial aqueducts, that at Nismes, in 
 Provence, is at once the most remarkable and the best 
 preserved. The following description of it, which 
 we transcribe from Mr Murray's excellent Hand-book 
 for France, will convey to the reader a very vivid 
 conception not only of this A. in particular, but of 
 the very iiiteresting class of works to which it 
 belongs. ' It consists of three rows of arches, 
 raised one above the other, each smaller than 
 the one below it ; the lowest of six arches, the 
 centre tier of eleven, and the uppermost of 
 thirty-five ; the whole in a simple if not a stem 
 style of architecture, destitute of ornament. It 
 is by its magnitude, and the skilful fitting of its 
 enormous blocks, that it makes an impression on the 
 mind. It is the more striking from the utter solitude 
 in which it stands — a rocky valley, partly covered 
 with brushwood and greensward, with scarce a 
 human habitation in sight, only a few goats brows- 
 ing. After the lapse of 16 c, this colossal monu- 
 ment still spans the valley, joining hiU to hill, in a 
 nearly perfect state, only the upper part, at the 
 northern extremity, being broken away. The highest 
 range of arches carries a small canal, about 4J feet 
 high and 4 feet wide, just large enough for a man to 
 creep through, still retaining a thick lining of Roman 
 cement. It is covered with stone slabs, 3ong which 
 it is possible to walk from one end to the other, Snd 
 to overlook the valley of the Gardon. The height 
 of the Pont du Gard is 188 feet, and the length of 
 the highest arcade 873 feet. Its use was to convey 
 to the town of Nismes the water of two springs, 
 25 miles distant. . . . The conveyance of tms 
 small stream was the sole object and use of this 
 gigantic structure, an end which would now be 
 attained by a few iron water-pipes.' Neither the 
 date nor the builder of the Pont du Gard is known 
 with certainty, but it is ascribed to Agrippa, the 
 nephew of Augustus ; a conjecture which is rendered 
 probable l«r the fact of his having restored the 
 Appian, Marcian, and Anienian, and constructed 
 the Julian A. at Rome. The importance which the 
 Romans attached to their aqueducts may be gathered 
 from the fact, that special officers, invested with con- 
 siderable authority, and, like all the higher officials, 
 attended by lictors and public slaves, were appointed 
 for their superintendence. Under the orders of 
 these ' guardians of the waters,' we are told that, in 
 the time of Nerva and Trajan, about 700 architects 
 and others were employed in attending to the A. 
 These officials were divided into various classes, and 
 known by different names, according as their duties 
 related to the care of the course of the A., the 
 CasteUa or reservoirs at its termini, the pavement of 
 the channel, the cement with which it was covered, 
 and the hke. 
 
 The construction of aqueducts in recent times 
 is comparatively rare, water being now generally 
 conveyed in pipes ; but two instances are worthy 
 of notice — the Lisbon A., and the Groton at New 
 York. The former, completed in 1738, is about 
 3 leagues in length ; near the city, it is carried over 
 a deep valley for a length of 2400 feet, by a number 
 of bold arches, the largest of which has a height of 
 250 feet, and a span of 115. The Croton A., which 
 conveys the waters of the Croton river for a distance 
 of 38 miles to the city of New York, is one of the 
 greatest undertakings of modem times. It was 
 
AQUEOUS HUMOUR— AQUILA, 
 
 conunenced in 1837, and finished in 1842, and is 
 calculated to discharge upwards of 60,000,000 
 gallons ill 24 hours. As the magnificence of 
 aqueducts depends upon the height and number of 
 arches requisite to cany them across valleys, it may 
 give some idea of that under consideration when 
 it is stated that Haarlem Eiver is crossed by fifteen 
 arches, seven of which are of 50 feet span, and eight 
 of 80 feet, the greatest height being 150 feet from 
 the foimdation to the top of the mason-work. 
 
 A'QUEOUS HUMOUK is the fluid which 
 occupies the space in the eye between the back 
 of the cornea and the front of the lens, which, in 
 foetal life, is divided into an anterior and posterior 
 chamber by the membra pupillaris (q. v.), and in 
 adult Ufe, by the iris. It consists of water, with, 
 according to Berzelius, about a fiftieth of its weight 
 made up of chloride of sodium and extractive matters 
 held in solution. 
 
 Anatomists are not agreed as to the spring of this 
 watery secretion, aUd are inclined to doubt the 
 existence of a special secretiag membrane, which 
 used to be taken for granted. However, a layer of 
 delicate epithaUal cells, which exists at the back of 
 the cornea (q. v.), is probably concerned in its 
 formation. It is rapidly re-secreted if allowed to 
 escape by any wound in the cornea, and in some 
 cases is formed in such quantity as to cause dropsy 
 of the eye (hydrophihalmia). 
 
 A'QUEOUS ROOKS. In Geology, every layer 
 which forms a portion of the solid crust of the earth 
 is called a rock, it matters not whether its particles 
 are incoherent, like soil or- sand, or compacted 
 together, like limestone and sandstone — ^to all alike, 
 irrespective of popular usage, the geologist applies 
 the term roch. In this wide sense, the rocks of the 
 earth's crust are either igneous (q. v.) or sedimentary. 
 These sedimentary rocks have an aqueous origin, 
 with the exception of a very limited mmiber, Eke 
 drift-sand, which are brought into their present 
 position by the action of the wind. Unlike the 
 igneous rocks, whose particles have assumed their 
 present form in the position they occupy, the mate- 
 rials of the A. El. have evidently been brought from 
 a distance. They owe their origin to some older 
 rock, whose decomposition or destruction has afforded 
 the materials. The parent rock can often be 
 identified. Its distance is indicated by the condition 
 of, the materials,, whether they are rounded and 
 water- worn,, or angular and shingly. 
 
 The- agents now at work, and which have been 
 active ia past geological ages, rubbing down and 
 transporting tjie materials fcom which these rooks 
 are formed, are the following : 1. The sea, destroying 
 the roeka and cliffs, and beaches which form its 
 boundary, and carrying off the, eroded materials to 
 form new rocks below the level of the sea. 
 2. Bivers, including the action of their smallest 
 tributary riDs, and even of the drops of rain, for 
 these abrade and carry off the almost imperceptible 
 particles from the surface. where they fall ; and when 
 united, they form the rill with its suspended sedi- 
 ment, and these again unite to fonu the river, which 
 in its course not only retains what it has got, but 
 scoops up more from its own bed, and carries aU to 
 the sea or lake, to deposit it there as a new stratum. 
 It is difficult to estimate the influence of this agency. 
 Sir Charles LyeU calculates that the Nile annually 
 deposits in the Mediterranean 3,702,758,400 cubic 
 feet of sohd matter. 3. Glaciers and icebergs. These 
 enormous moving masses of ice are not only loaded 
 with rock-fragments, which are deposited as the 
 ice melts, but are ever abrading the rocks over which 
 they pass, and thus supply materials to form new 
 layers. 4. Several stratified rooks have an evidently 
 342 
 
 organic origin, such as chalk, and some lime- 
 stones chiefly composed of animal remains, and coal 
 consisting of vegetable carbon ; but even these have 
 been influenced in their formation by water so much 
 as to justify us in classifying them with A R. 
 5. The same remark applies to rocks which have 
 \ieeii. precipitated from a flvAd with which the mate- 
 rials existed in chemical combination, as has been the 
 case with beds of salt, gypsum, and calcareous tufa. 
 
 As the result of these various actions, we have a 
 series of rocks which, from their composition, may 
 be classed as Arenaceous, Argillaceous, Calcareous, 
 Carbonaceous, Saline, and Silioious. We must refer 
 to these terms for the descriptions of the various 
 rocks included imder them. 
 
 The arrangement of the A. E. depending on their 
 different ages, is of more importance in modem 
 geology than that depending on their internal con- 
 stitution. When a section of the earth's crust is 
 examined, it is found to be composed of a series of 
 layers which have been produced in' succession. 
 Comparing this with sections in other districts, it is 
 noticed that there is a regularity in the several 
 parts ; for beds of the same structure are found in 
 different localities, and these occupy the same rela- 
 tive position to the adjacent beds. A number of 
 observations have shewn that the crust of the earth 
 is composed of a regular series of earthy deposits 
 formed one after another, during successive periods 
 of time. This general induction forms the basis of 
 the following classification. For the description of 
 the included strata we must again refer to the names 
 of the different divisions : 
 
 I. Tebhaey OB Kaejozoic Epoch — 1. Superfi- 
 cial Deposits or Recent Period; 2. Pleistocene 
 Period ; 3. Pliocene or Upper Tertiary Period ; 4. 
 Miocene or Middle Tertiary Period; 5. Eocene or 
 Lower Tertiary Period. 
 
 II. Sbcoitoaky OB Mbsozoic Epoch — 6. Creta- 
 ceous Period ; 7. OoHtic Period ; 8. Triassic Period. 
 
 III. Pbimabt oe Paleozoic Epoch — 9. Permian 
 Period; 10. Carboniferous Period; H. Devonian or 
 Old Red Sandstone Period; 12. Silurian Period; 13. 
 Cambrian Period. 
 
 AQUIFOLIA'CE^, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous plants, of which the common 
 hoUy (q. V.) is the best known example, and the only 
 species that is a native of Europe. The order, how- 
 ever, contains more than one hundred species, the 
 greater part of which are natives of America, and 
 many of them belong to the tropical aud subtropical 
 parts of it. The species are all evergreen trees or 
 shrubs, with simple, leathery leavesj and without 
 stipules. The flowers are anaU and axillary, with 
 4 — 6 sepals, and a 4 — 6-parted corolla, into wluch the 
 stamens are inserted, alternating with its segments. 
 The ovaryis.fleshy and superior, with two or more 
 cells, a solitary anatropal pendulous ovule in each 
 cell, the cells generally becoming bony as distinct 
 stones in the fruit, which is fleshy. The order is 
 allied to Ehamnacem, CdastracecB, and EbenoicecB. 
 The most interesting species belong to the genus 
 Ilex, or Holly (q. v.). 
 
 AQUILA. See Eagle. 
 
 A'QUILA the capital of the Neapolitan pro- 
 vince called Abruzzo Ultra, situated on the 
 Pescara, near the loftiest of the Apennines, with a 
 population of 10,000, ranks as a fortified town of 
 the fourth class, though its citadel is its only strong 
 point. A. was built by the emperor Frederic IL 
 from the ruins of the ancient Amiternum, a town of 
 the Sabines, and the birthplace of Sallust the 
 historian. In 1703 it was almost destroyed by an 
 earthquake, in which 2000 persons perished. A. 
 is a bishop's see, has civU and criminal courts, and 
 
AQTJiLA— AQUINAS. 
 
 & Lyceum, and is considered one of the "best buUt 
 towns in <ihe kingdom. In 1841, much political 
 disturbance took place here, and 'several of the 
 inhabitants were imprisoned and executed in conse- 
 quence. Altogether, public feeling in this town aud 
 province is far more liberal' than in most other parts 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 A'QUILA, Powncus, a celebrated translator of 
 the Old Testament into Greek, bom at Sinope. He 
 flourished about the year 130 A.D., is said to have 
 been a relation of the Emperor Hadrian, and to 
 tave been first a Pagan, then a Christian, and 
 finally a Jew; submittmg in his last conversion to 
 the peculiar religious ceremony of circumcision. His 
 translation of the Old Testament — which appears to 
 have been undertaken for the benefit of his Hellen- 
 ised countrymen— was so literal, that the Jews pre- 
 ferred it to the Septuagint, as did also the Judaising 
 sect of Christians, called Ebionites. Only a portion 
 of the work remains, which has been edited by 
 Hontfaiicon and others. 
 
 AQtriLAEIA'OE.ai, a natural order of dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous, plants, containing only about 
 ten known species, all of which are trees with 
 smooth branches and tough bark, natives of the 
 tropical parts of Asia. The leaves are entire ; the 
 penanth leathery, turbinate, or tubular, its limb 
 divided into four or five segments ; the stamens 
 usually ten ; the filaments inserted into the orifice 
 of the perianth; the ovary two-eeUed, with two 
 ovules ; the stigma large ; the fruit a 2-valved cap- 
 sule, or a drupe. The order is chiefly interesting as 
 producing the fragrant wood called Aides Wood 
 <q. v.). . 
 
 AQUILBGrlA. See ConmBiirB. 
 
 AQTJIIiE'JAor AGLAE (earlier, Velia or Aquila), 
 is a town in Austrian Italy, at the head of the 
 Adriatic, 22 miles W.N.W. of Trieste. Pop. 1480. 
 It is now sunk in utter insignificance, possessing no 
 trade or public buildings of any note, except its 
 cathedral; but in the time of the Koman emperors, 
 it was one of the most important places north of the 
 metropolis. Its commerce was flourishing, for though 
 8 nules distant from the sea., vessels could reach it 
 by canals connecting it with liie rivers in its vicinity. 
 It was both the central point of the transit-trade 
 between the north, and south of Europe, and the 
 key of Italy against the barbarians. Eounded by 
 a Boman colony in 181 B. c, it became a favourite 
 residence of Augustus; and in 168 A.D. was so 
 strongly fortified by Marcus AureUus, as to be con- 
 sidered the first bulwark of the empire on the north. 
 It was called Roma Secanda, the Second Bome. 
 Here the Emperor Maximin perished; and in the 
 vicinity Constantius lost his life in a battle against 
 his brother Constans. When the town was desteoyed 
 by AttUa in 452, it had 10,000 inhabitants. It never 
 recovered^ although it received some ecclesiastical 
 honours, but has continued slowly dwindling down 
 through all the centuries into deeper obscurity and 
 wretchedness. Councils were held at A. in 381, 558, 
 698, and 1184 A.D. 
 
 AQUI'ISFAS, Thomas, or THOMAS of AQUINO, 
 one of the most influential of the scholastic ttieolo- 
 gians, was of the family of the Counts' of Aquino, in 
 the kingdom of Naples, and was bom in the Castle 
 of'Kocca Secea in 1224. He received the mdiments 
 of his education from the Benediptine monks of 
 Monte-Casiuo, and completed his studies at the 
 xmiversity of Naples. A strong inclination to philo- 
 sophical speculation determinedthe young noblematti 
 against the -wiE of his famUy, to enter (1243) the 
 order of Doininicans; In order to frustrate the 
 attempts of his friends to remove bim from the con- 
 vent, he was sent away from Naples, 'with the 'view 
 
 of going to France; but his brothers took him by force 
 from his conductors, and carried bim to the paitemal 
 castle. Here he was guarded as a misoner for two 
 years, when, by the nelp of the TDominicans, he 
 contrived to escape, and went through France to the 
 Dominican convent at Cologne, in order to enjoy the 
 instructions of the famous Albertus Magnus (q.v.). 
 According to another account, he owed his release 
 from confinement to the interference of the emperor 
 and the pope. At Cologne he pursued his studies 
 in such silence, that his companions gave him the name 
 of the ' Dumb Ox.' But Albert, his master, is reported 
 to have predicted, ' that this ox would one day flU the 
 world 'with his bellowing.' Thoroughly imbued 'with 
 'the scholastic, dialectic, and Aristotelian philosophy, 
 he came forward, after a few years, as a public 
 teacher in Paris. His masterly' application of this 
 philosophy to the systematising of theology, soon pro- 
 cured ViiTin a distinguished reputation. It was not, 
 however, till 1257, that A. obtained the degree 
 of doctor, as the university of the Sorbonne was 
 hostile to the mendicant monks. He vindicated 
 his order in his work, Contra Impugnantes Dei 
 Ovltum et Meligionem; and, in a disputation in 
 presence of the pope, procured the condemnation of 
 the books of ms adversaries. He continued to 
 lecture with great applause in Paris, tiU Urban IV., 
 in 1261, called TiJTn to Italy to teach philosophy in 
 Bome, Bologna, and Pisa. Finally, he came to 
 reside in the convent at Naples, 'where he declined 
 the offer of the dignity of archbishop, in order to 
 devote himself entirely to study and ' lecturing. 
 Being summoned by G-regory X. to attend the 
 General Council at Lyon, he was surprised by death on 
 the way, 1274, at Fossanuova, in Naples. According 
 to a report, he was poisoned at the instigation of 
 Charles I. of Sicily, who dreaded the evidence that 
 A. would give of him at Lyon. 
 
 Even during his life A. enjoyed the highest 
 consideration m the church. His voice carried 
 decisive weight -with it ; and his scholars called him 
 the 'Universal,' the 'Angelic Doctor,' and the 
 ' Second Augustine.' A general chapter of Domini- 
 cans in Paris made it obligatory on the members of 
 iihe order, under pain of punishment, to defend his 
 doctrines. It was chiefly the narratives of miracles 
 said to have been 'wrought by A. 'that induced 
 John XXII., in 1323, to give him a place among the 
 saints. His remaius were deposited in the convent 
 of his order at Toulouse. Like most of 'the other scho- 
 lastic theologians, he had no knowledge of Greek or 
 Hebrew, and was almost equally ignorant of history; 
 but his writings display a great expenditure of 
 diligence and dialectic art, set off with the irresist- 
 ible eloquence of zeal. Hia chief works are — a 
 GomineAry on tJie Four Boohs of Sentences of Peter 
 Lombard, the Swmma Tlieologice, QucestionesDisputatcB 
 et QuodM>etales, and Opmaula Theologica. He gave 
 a new and scientific foundation to tiie doctrine of 
 the church's treasury of works of supererogation, 
 to that of 'withholding the cup from tjie laity 
 in the communion, and to transubstantiation. 
 He also treated Christian morals according to an 
 arrangement of his own, and with a comprehensive- 
 ness fliat procured him the title of the 'Father of 
 Moral Philosophy.' The deflniteness, clearness, and 
 completeness of his method of handling the theology 
 of the church, gave his works a superiority over me 
 text-books of the earlier ■writers on systematic 
 theology. His Sv/mma Theologies is the first attempt 
 at a complete theological system. Accordingly, 
 Pius v., 'to whom we owe the publication of the 
 completest collection of A.'s works (18 vols., Bome, 
 1570 ; a newer but less trastworthy ed., 23 vols., 
 Paris, 1636 — 41), ranks him with the greatest 
 teachers of 'the church. In his philosophical writings, 
 
 343 
 
AQUITANIA— AHABIA. 
 
 the ablest of wliich is his Summa Fidd CcUhoUcce 
 contra Gentiles, he throws new light over the most 
 abstract truths. The circumstance of A. being 
 a Dominican, and boasted of by his order as 
 their great ornament, excited the jealousy of the 
 Franciscans against him. In the beginning of the 
 14th c. Duns Scotug (q. v), a IFranciscan, came 
 forward as the declared opponent of the doctrines 
 of A., and founded the phUosophioo-theological 
 school of thfe Sootists, to whom the Thomists, mostly 
 Dominicans, stood opposed. The Thomists leaned 
 in philosophy to Nominalism (q. v.), although they 
 held the abstract form to be the essence of things ; 
 they "followed the doctrines of Augustine as to 
 grace, and disputed the immaculate conception of 
 the Virgin. The Scotists, again, inclined to ReaHsm 
 (q. v.), and to the views of the Semipelagians, and 
 upheld the immaculate conception. 
 
 AQUITA'IfIA, the Latin name of a part of 
 Gaul, originally includiog the country between the 
 Pyrenees and the Garonne, peopled by Iberian 
 tribes. Augustus, when he divided Gaul into four 
 provinces, added to A. the country lying between 
 the 'rivers Garonne and Loire. Afterwards, A. 
 passed into the hands — first, of the West Goths, and 
 then of the Franks ; and during the Merovingian 
 dynasty, became an iadependent duchy. Though 
 subjugated by Charlemagne, the duchy again claimed 
 independence under the weak monarohs of the 
 Carlovingian dynasty. In 1137, it was united to 
 the crown of France by the marriage of Louis VII. 
 VTith Eleanor, heiress of A. In 1152, A. became 
 an English possession through the marriage of 
 Henry II. with Eleanor, whom Louis had divorced, 
 and a long series of disputes took place between 
 England and France respecting A., which was at 
 length ultimately united to the crown of France 
 by Charles VIL in 1451. 
 
 ARABESQUE (Fr.), means merely after the 
 AraMan manner ; and, so far as etymology is con- 
 cerned, might therefore be general in its appUcation. 
 In practice, however, it is used to characterise a pecu- 
 liar kind of fantastic decoration commonly employed 
 in conjunction with architecture, and which the 
 Spanish Moors are supposed to 
 have introduced into modem 
 Europe. But the species of en- 
 richment to which this term is 
 now applied, was extensively 
 employed both by the Greeks 
 and Bomans, the latter in par- 
 ticular being masters of the style. 
 The Egyptians, from whom the 
 Moors probably derived their ori- 
 ginal notions of this and other 
 forms of art, also employed it 
 in enriching their monumental 
 decorations. But the A. of the 
 Moors differed from that of the 
 Egyptians in entirely excludiag the 
 figures of animals, the represent- 
 ation of which was forbidden by 
 the Mohammedan religion, and 
 confining itself entirely to the 
 foUage, Sowers, fruit, and tendrils 
 of plants and trees, curiously and 
 elaborately intertwined. This 
 limitation of the field of A. was 
 again departed from when the 
 decorations were discovered on 
 the walls of the baths of Titus, 
 in the time of Leo X. ; and more recently those 
 in the houses at Herculaneum and Pompeii came 
 to form the models of imitation, and the modem A. 
 consists usually of combinations of plants, birds, and 
 
 Arabesque Panel, 
 
 From the Mosque 
 
 at Cordova. 
 
 animals of all kinds, including the human figure, 
 and embracing not only every natural variety, but 
 stepping without hesitation beyond the bounds of 
 nature. The freedom with which it admits the 
 fantastic is, indeed, the leading peculiarity of A. ; 
 and as it is found in some form amongst every 
 people who have attempted to give a visible repre- 
 sentation of their fancies, it is spoken of by F. 
 Schlegel as ' the oldest and original form of fancy.' 
 The arabesques with which Raphael adorned the 
 galleries of the Vatican, and which he is said 
 to have imitated from those which he had been, 
 instrumental in discovering in the baths of Titus, 
 are at once the most famous and the most 
 beautiful which the, modem world has produced. 
 Arabesques are usually painted, though the term 
 is also apphed to sculptural representations of 
 similar subjects in low relief. 
 
 ABA'BIA — called by the inhabitants, Jezirat-al- 
 Arab (the peninsula of A.); by the Turks and 
 Persians, Arabistto — is the great south-western 
 peninsula of Asia, and is situated 12° 40' — 34° 
 N. lat., and 32° 30'— 60° E. long. Its length 
 from N. to S. is about 1500 miles; its breadth, 
 about 800; its area, 1,200,000 square miles; and its 
 population is roughly estimated at 8,000,000. It is 
 bounded on the N. by Asiatic Turkey; on the E., 
 by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; on the 
 S., by the Gulf of Oman and the Indian Ocean; 
 and on the W., by the Bed Sea. It is connected 
 with Africa on the N. W. by the Isthmus of Suez. 
 Through the centre of the land, between Mecca and 
 Medina, runs the tropic of Cancer. The name A. 
 has been derived by some from Ardba (which means 
 a level waste), a district in the province of Tehama ; 
 by others, from Eber, a word signifying a nomad 
 (' wanderer '), as the primitive Arabs were such. This 
 would connect it with the word Hebrew, which has 
 a similar origin. Others, again, are inclined to derive 
 it from the Hebrew verb Arab, to go down — that is, 
 the region in which the sun appeared to set to the 
 Semitic dwellers on the Euphrates. There is also 
 a Hebrew word, Ar^bah, which means ' a barren 
 place,' and which is occasionally employed in Scrip- 
 ture to denote the border-land between Syria and 
 Arabia. Ptolemy is supposed to be the author of 
 the famous threefold division into Aralia Pelraea, 
 Araiia Felix, and Arabia Deserta — the first of which 
 included the whole of the N. W. portion ; the second,, 
 the west and south-west coasts ; and the third, the 
 whole of the dimly known interior. This division, 
 however, is not recognised by the natives themselves,, 
 neither is it very accurate as at present understood, 
 for Petrcea was not intended to mean rocky or stony. 
 Ptolemy formed the adjective from the flourishing 
 city of Petra (the capital of the kingdom of the 
 Nabathaeans), whose proper name was Thamud — 
 that is, the rock with a single stream. The word 
 Felix, also, arose from an incorrect translation of 
 Yemen, wliich does not signify 'happy,' but the land 
 lying to the right of Mecca — as Al-Shan (Syria) 
 means the land lying to the left of the same. The 
 divisions of the Arab geoOTaphers are as follows— 
 
 1. Bahr-el-Tour Sinai (Desert of Mount Sinai); 
 
 2. The Hedjaz (Land of Pilgrimage); 3. Tehama 
 and Yemen, along the Bed Sea; 4. HadramaiU, the 
 region along the southern coast; 5. Oman, the king- 
 dom of Muscat; 6. Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf; 
 7. Nedjed, the central desert region. 
 
 Our knowledge of the interior of A. is stiU very 
 imperfect in detail, but its general characteristics are 
 decidedly African. The largest portion of it lies in 
 that great desert zone which stretches from the 
 shores of the Atlantic to those of the Northern 
 Pacific. The interior, so far as it has yet been 
 explored by Europeans, seems to be a great plateau. 
 
AEABIA. 
 
 in some plaoea reaching a height of 8000 feet. The 
 western border crest of this plateau maybe regarded 
 as part of a moimtain-chain, beginning in the north 
 •with Lebanon, and stretching south to the Straits of 
 Bab-el-Mandeb. !Prom Bab-d-Mandeb another chain 
 runs north-east, parallel to the coast to Oman. IVom 
 the mountain-range on the west, the plateau slopes 
 to the uorth-east, and forms, in general, a vast tract 
 of shifting sands, interspersed here and there about 
 the centre with various ranges of hills, which, like 
 the shores of the peninsula, are generally barren and 
 uninteresting. 
 
 A. has, on the whole, an African climate. Though 
 surrounded on three sides by the sea, its chains of 
 hills exclude in a great measure the modifying 
 influence of currents of air from the ocean. In 
 several parts of A. hardly a refreshing shower falls 
 in the course of the year, and vegetation is 
 almost unknown : in oiier sultry districts, the 
 date-palm is ahilost the only proof of vegetable 
 hfe. Over large sterile tracts hangs a sky of almost 
 eternal serenity. The short rainy season which 
 occurs on the west coast, during our summer months, 
 fills periodically the wadis (hoUow places) with 
 water, while slight frosts mark the winters in the 
 centre and north-east. During the hot season, the 
 simoom (q. v.).blow3, but only in the northern part of 
 the land. The terraced districts are more favourabje 
 to culture, and produce wheat, barley, mUlet, palms, 
 tobacco, indigo, cotton, sugar, tamarinds, excellent 
 coflfee, and many aromatic and spice-plants, as 
 balsam, aloe, myrrh, frankincense, &c. A. is desti- 
 tute of forests, but has vast stretches of desert grass 
 fragrant with aromatic herbs, and furnishing admir- 
 able pasturage for the splendid breed of horses. 
 Coflfeei one oi the most miportant exports, is an 
 indigenous product both of A. and Africa. 
 
 In the animal kingdom, an African character 
 prevails generally. Sheep, goats, and oxen satisfy 
 the immediate domestic and personal necessities of 
 the inhabitants, to whom the camel and horse are 
 trusty companions in their far wanderings. Gazelles 
 and ostriches frequent the oases of the deserts, 
 where the lion, panther, hyena, and jackal hunt 
 their prey. Monkeys, pheasants, and doves are 
 found in the fertile districts, where flights of locusts 
 often make sad devastation. Fish and turtle 
 aboimd on the coast. The noble breed of Arabian 
 horses has been cultivated for several thousand 
 years ; but the most characteristic of all animals in 
 the peninsula, is the camel, which has been both 
 poetically and justly styled ' the ship of the desert.' 
 It may be regarded as an Arabian animal, for it 
 seems to be proved that it is not a native of Africa, 
 but has migrated from the peninsula with its master. 
 The camel is not found among the figures of animals 
 in the ancient Egyptian paintings on walls, nor 
 does it appear to have been known to the Cartha- 
 ^nians. The breed of Oman is celebrated for its 
 beauty and swiftness. Among the minerals of A. 
 may be mentioned — ^iron, copper, lead, coal, basalt, 
 and asphaltnm, and the precious stones, emerald, 
 camelian, agate, and onyx. Pearls are found in the 
 Persian Gulf. 
 
 But the most interesting features of the peninsula 
 are found iu its ancient and peculiar population. 
 The Arab is of medium stature, muscular make, 
 and brown complexion. Earnestness and lofty pride 
 look out of ms glowing eyes; by nature he is 
 quick, sharp-witted, lively, and passionately fond of 
 poetry. Courage, temperance, hospitality, and good 
 faith, are his leading virtues ; but these are often 
 marred by a spirit of ■ sanguinary revenge and 
 rapacity. His wife keeps the house and educates 
 the children. The Arab cannot conceive a higher 
 . feUcity than the birth of a camel or a foal. 
 
 or that his verses should be honoured with the 
 applause of his tribe. 
 
 Arabian life is either nomadic or settled. The 
 wandering tribes, or Bedouins, are well known to 
 entertain very loose notions of the rights of property. 
 The located tribes, styled Hadesi and FeUahs, are 
 despised by the Bedouin, who scorns to be tied down 
 to the soil, even where such bondage might make 
 him wealthy. As Bitter in his Comparative- 
 Geography observes — Arabia 'is the anti-industrial 
 central point in the world;' for on every side, 
 branching out to the east or west, we find industry 
 making progress, while here centuries pass away 
 without any improvement save what has been intro- 
 duced, almost oompulsorily, by foreigners. The 
 trade carried on by exports of coffee, dates, figs, 
 spices, and drugs, though still considerable, is said to- 
 be only a shadow of the old commerce which existed 
 before the circumnavigation of Africa, or when Aden 
 was in its prime and the Bed Sea was the great 
 commercial route. A. has few manufactures, but 
 carries on a transit-trade iu foreign fabrics, besides. 
 importing these to some extent for its own neces- 
 sities. Few nations have approached so near as 
 the Arabs to the condition of standing still in a 
 moral and social point of view. Considering how 
 Uttle progress has been made, it is remarkable that 
 a greater degeneracy has not taken place. Even in 
 the desert ttie children are taught to read, write, 
 and calculate; and in the towns, education to a. 
 certain degree is general. The division of the people 
 into so many tribes is a barrier to everything like a 
 great ■ national improvement ; indeed, the word 
 national can hardly be properly applied to the 
 Arabs. It would require a series of extraordinary 
 events to develop afresh that terrible unity which 
 Mohammed gave A. for a time. The government 
 is patriarchal, and the chief men of the various 
 •tribes have the title of Emir, Sheik, or Imaum. 
 Their function appears limited to leading the 
 troops in the time of war, to levying tribute, and 
 to the administration of justice. A spirit of liberty 
 in the people moderates the authority of their chief- 
 tains ; but instance's of extreme despotism have not 
 been unfrequent both in early and modem times. 
 
 To number all the distinct states of A. would b& 
 impossible in the present state of our knowledge; 
 but the seven great divisions are those which we 
 have enumerated. Of these, the most important are 
 Yemen and Oman, the former of which has its seat 
 of government at Sana, in the centre of the country, 
 and also possesses two very important commercial 
 towns, Mocha and Loheia, situated on the coast of 
 the Red Sea, while the latter has of late made con- 
 siderable advances in civilisation. It foi-ms to some 
 extent an exception to the general lack of manufac- 
 turing activity exhibited by the Arabians, having 
 manufactures of silk and cotton turbans, sashes, 
 canvas, arms, gunpowder, &c. The Imaum of 
 Muscat — ^the largest town on the south-east coast — 
 is by far the most liberal and powerful native 
 sovereign in Arabia, and claims authority over the 
 whole of Omanj the islands in the Persian Gulf, a. 
 portion of the Persian coast, and »• vast extent of 
 territory on the east coast of Africa, including some 
 valuable islands. Eostak is another large town 
 inland from Muscat. The district or division of 
 Hedjaz contains the holy cities of Mecca and 
 Medina, with their seaports, Jeddah and Yambo, 
 all of which wiU be described in their proper places. 
 
 The Histmy of Arabia, before the time of 
 Mohammed, is involved in mystery, and has little 
 interest, on account of its want of connection with 
 the world's general progress. The aborigines of A. 
 were probably Cushites, most of whom, on account 
 of the hostile immigration of certain Semitic races. 
 
ARABIA— AIIABIAIT ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 descended from Joktan, grandson of Shem, passed 
 over into Abyssinia. A few, however, remained, 
 who inhabited the western coasts. Subsequently, 
 another Semitic race, descended from Abraham, 
 settled in the land. The oldest Arabian tribes are 
 now extinct, and only a traditional memory even of 
 their names exists ; but the Semitic chiefs, Joktan 
 or Kahtan, and Ishmael, are generally considered to 
 be the fathers of the present inhabitants. The des- 
 cendants of the former are the pure Arabs ; those of 
 the latter are held to be only Arabicised. The 
 princes of A. belong whoUy to the first. A great- 
 grandson of Joktan, Himzar or Homeir, inaugur- 
 ated a dynasty — the Himyarides or Homerite — 
 which ruled in Yemen for upwards of 2000 years. 
 This was a prosperous time. The Arabs of Yemen, 
 and partly ttose of the desert, dwelt in towns and 
 cultivated the soil ; carried on commerce with the 
 East Indies, Persia, Syria, and Abyssinia, in the last 
 of which countries they planted numerous colonies. 
 The rest of the people, however, lived nomadicaUy, 
 as now. Bravely, for thousands of years, they main- 
 tained their freedom, their faith, and their peoidiar 
 customs against the assaults of the great militaiy 
 empires. Neither the Babylonian and Assyrian, 
 nor the Egyptian and Persian kings could reduce 
 the Arabs to a state of subjugation. Alexander 
 had determined to try his power against A., when 
 death interrupted his plans. Three centuries after 
 Alexander's death, the Romans had extended their 
 empire to the borders of A., and Trajan, in 107 A.D., 
 penetrated far into the interior; but though the 
 northern chieftains were brought into a formal sub- 
 jection to the Empire, A. was not made a Roman pro- 
 vince. The old Himyarides in Yemen stoutly main- 
 tained their independence, and an expedition against 
 them in the time of Augustus completely failed. With 
 the decay of the Roman empire, strife and lawless- 
 ness increased. The Arab races continued in a 
 scattered, disorganised condition, and ma.ny hundreds 
 of years passed away in intestine wars, during which 
 the central highland region was the scene of those 
 feuds < of the , Aiab clans so copiously sung by the 
 native poets. Christianity found an early enteauce 
 into A. The Jews, in considerable numbers, migrated 
 into . A. after the destruction of Jerusalem, and 
 made many proselytes, especially in Yemen. This 
 diversity of creeds in the peninsula was favourable 
 to the introduction of the doctrine of Mohammed, 
 which forms the grand epoch in Arabian history, 
 and brings it into close connection with the general 
 history of civilisation. Now, for the first time, the 
 people of A. became united, and powerfiil enough 
 to erect new empires in the three quarters of 
 the world. The dominion of the Arabs, from the 
 time of Moharomed to the fall of the Califat of 
 Bagdad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of the 
 Moors from Spain in 1492, is an important period 
 ia the history of civilisation. (See the articles 
 Mocks, Gaiafs.) But the movements which had 
 such great effects on the destinies of other nations, 
 produced but little change in the interior of A. ; 
 and, after the brilliant career of conquest was 
 ended, the peninsula was left in an exhausted con- 
 ditiod. Then followed the subjugation of Yemen 
 by the Turks in the sixteenth century; their expul- 
 sion in the seventeenth century; the dominion of 
 the Portuguese over Muscat, 1508 — 1659; the con- 
 quests of Oman and the temporary victories gained 
 by the Persians at the close of the sixteenth century; 
 and, lastly, the appearance of the Wahabis (q.v.) 
 (1770), whose moral in^uence is stUl felt. The latter 
 took an important part in the political affairs of A., but 
 their process was interrupted by Mehemet Ali, the 
 Pasha of Egypt, who subjugated the coast-coimtiry of 
 Hedjaa, with some parts of the coast of Yemen, and 
 
 316 
 
 in 1818 gained a decisive advantage through the 
 victory of Ibrahim Pasha. The subsequent events 
 of tiie year 1840, in Syria, compelled Mdiemet, how- 
 ever, to concentrate his forces, and to resign aU 
 claims upon territories lying beyond the boundary- 
 line drawn from the Bed Sea to the Gulf of Akaba. 
 ARABIAN ARCHITECTURE. So insepar- 
 able is the connection between architecture and 
 religion, that it may be stated as a general rule 
 that no sooner is a new religion engendered than 
 it finds expression in new architectural forms. 
 Of this we have an interesting instance in the 
 simultaneous rise of Mohammedanism, and of the 
 style of architecture commonly called Arabian or 
 Moorish, but to which the name of Mohammedan 
 might far more appropriately be given, seeing that 
 it nas everywhere followed the religion of the 
 Crescent, and that the Arabians previously had no 
 architeotare peculiar to themselves. It is further 
 remarkable that the style of which we speak seems 
 to have arisen, as it were, vmdesignedly, or, at all 
 events, without any conscious effort on the part of 
 the people amongst whom it first appeared. The 
 followers of the Prophet CMitemplated nothing pecu- 
 liar in their ecclesiastical structures; and at first 
 their mosques were built by Christian architects 
 from Constantinople. As a natural consequence, 
 they resembled ByzaniSne churches, modified in the 
 
 i' il.|ffJi(|i| 
 
 Moorish Gateway.. 
 
 countries of which the Moors successively possessed 
 themselves by the features of the existing churches. 
 Gradually the new and fanciful ornamentation 
 known as Arabesque (q. v.) was added to the recog- 
 nised features of Greek and Roman edifices. The 
 exclusion of animal figures, which their abhorrence 
 of the very appearance of idolatry' necessitated. 
 
AEABIAIT GITLF— AEABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 confined the Mohammedan artists to the imitation of 
 vegetable productions, varied by geometrical patterns 
 and inscriptions, of which the letters were woven 
 into forms which suited them for architectural uses. 
 But the most original feature in their edifices, and 
 that ;byjwhich they have continued to be marked 
 from all others, is the horse-shoe arch. The example 
 in the illustration presents a form which, not- 
 withstanding its extreme beauty, has strangely 
 enough scarcely ever been imitated iu the Christian 
 chur3i. The pointed' arch, on the other hand, and 
 the various forms of the trefoil and quatofoil 
 arches, though there can be little doubt that we are 
 indebted for them" to the rich invention of the 
 Moorish architects, have become so entirely Christian 
 as to be no longer associated in our minds with the 
 religion of the prophet. It is said that the pointed 
 arch is to be found in Mohammedan buildings so 
 early as 780 A. D. (Parker's Glossary of Arctiitecture), 
 whereas the earliest examples of its use ia Chris- 
 tian architecture belong to the 12th o. Moorish 
 architecture probably reached its highest point of 
 development m the Alhambra, with the characteris- 
 tics of which the English public have been made 
 familiar by means of the court which bears its 
 name in the palace at Sydenham. 
 AEABIAN GULF. See Red Sea, 
 ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITBBA^ 
 TURE. Regarding the oldest literal^ culture of 
 the Arabians, we possess but slight information. 
 That their poetry at least must have had a very early 
 development, may be inferred from the natural 
 disposition of the inhabitants, who were character- 
 ised for their high spirit, courage, love of adventure, 
 and delight in the glory of war. As far back as 
 Solomon's . time, the queen of Sheba (probably 
 AraMa, Feliw) was noted for her sententious sayings. 
 The nomadic tribes, living under the patriarchs rule 
 of their sheiks, possessed everything mat was favour- 
 able to the growth of a simple and natural poetry. 
 They had quick and vivid feelings, and a ridbi, 
 
 flowing fancy, which, operating upon tie perils, the 
 ardships, and strange confederate life they led in 
 those barren sand-deserts, and amongst naked rocks, 
 could hardly fail to call forth a wild and vigorous 
 minstrelsy. Before the time of Mohammed, the 
 Arabians bad celebrated poets who sang the feuds of 
 tribes, and the praises of heroes and fair women. 
 During the great fairs at Mecca and Okadh, poetic 
 contests were * held before the people as at the 
 Grecian games; and the poems to which the prize 
 was awMded, were re- written in golden char- 
 acters, and suspended in the Kaaba at Mecca, 
 the venerable national temple which the Moham- 
 medans affirm to' have been buUt by Abraham,, or 
 Ishmael. , They are termed the MoaUak&t—i. e., 
 'the Suspended' — ^from the honour conferred on 
 them, and are remarkable for their, pathos, soarmg 
 conceptions, richness of iinagery ama phraseology, 
 free and unconstrained spirit, and the glow of their 
 love and hate. Among the famous poets of this 
 early period are Nabe^ia, Asha, Shanfara — ^whose 
 works, were translated and published by De Sacy 
 in his Uhrestomathie Araibe — and, lastly; Kaab-ben- 
 Zohair, who lived to celebrate the praises of the 
 ' prophet Mohammeds 
 
 But the most biflliant period of Arabic culture is 
 that which Mohammed himself inaugurated in the 
 Koran. His new doctrines of faith and life, collected 
 under this title by the first calif, Abubekr, were 
 revised and published by Othman, the thirdl calif. 
 The naturally adventurous spirit of the Arabs found 
 a suitable excitement in the half -religious, half-mili- 
 tary system of Mohammed, and; after his death, 
 their fanaticism prepared them for their subsequent 
 career. Like an overwhelming torrent, they passed 
 
 over the neighbouring states, and in the short space 
 of eighty years from the death of their prophet, had 
 extended their dominion from Egypt to India, and 
 from Lisbon to Samarcaud. During this time 
 nothing can be said of their culture and refinement. 
 A fanatical desire of conquest prevailed. Gradually, 
 however, by their intercourse with civUised nations, 
 the Arabian conquerors were themselves subjected to 
 the humanising influence of letters, and, after 749 
 A.D., or during the reign of the Abassides, literature, 
 arts, and sciences appeared, and were generously 
 fostered under the spliandid sway, first of Almansor 
 (754 — 775), and afterwards of the celebrated Harun- 
 al-Raschid (786 — 808). Learned men were now 
 invited from, many countries, and remunerated for 
 their labours with princely "munificence; the works 
 of the best Greek, Syriac, and old Persian writers 
 were translated iuto Arabic, and spread abroad in 
 numerous copies. The Calif. Al-Mamun, who reigned 
 from 813 to 833, offered to the Greek emperor five 
 tons of gold and a perpetual treaty of peace, on 
 condition that the philosopher Leo should be 
 allowed for a time to give instruction to the former. 
 There are few instances of such a price offered 
 for lessons in philosophy. Under the sway of the 
 same] Al-Mamun, excellent schools were founded 
 in Bagdad, Basra, Bokhara, and Kufa; while large 
 libraries were collected at Alexandria, Bagdad, 
 and Cairo. In Spain, the high school of Cordova 
 rivalled the literary fame of Bagdad, and, generally, 
 in the 10th c, the Arabs appeared everywhere 
 as the preservers and distributers of knowledge. 
 Pupils from Erance, and other European countries, 
 then began to repair to Spain in great num- 
 bers, to study mathematics and medicine under 
 the Arabs. There were fourteen academies, with 
 many preparatory and upper schools in Spain, and 
 five very considerable public libraries ; that of the 
 Calif Hakem containing, as is said, more than 
 600,000 volumes. ^Diis state of culture, when com- 
 pared with that prevalent before Mohammed, shews 
 a rapidity of progress in knowledge almost as 
 remarkable as the career of Arabian conquest. 
 
 In geography, history, philosophy, medicine, 
 physics, and mathematics, the Arabians rendered 
 important services to science; and the Arabic 
 words stffl employed in science — such as algebra, 
 alcohol, azimuth, zenith, nadir, with many i names 
 of stars, &c. — remain as indications of their influence 
 on the early intellectual culture of Europe. But 
 geography owes most to them during the middle 
 ages. In Africa and Asia, the boundaries of 
 geographical science were extended, and the old 
 Ar^ treatises on geography and works of travels 
 in several countries by AbuMeda, Edriai, Leo 
 Africanus, Ibn Batuta, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Jobair, 
 Albiruni the astronomer, and others, are still 
 interesting and valuable. 
 
 History was also studiously ctdtivated. The 
 oldest Arabic historian of whom we know is 
 Mohammed-al-Kelbi (died in 819). About the 
 same period, however, flourished several other 
 historians. After the dawn of the lOth c, history 
 became a favourite study of the Arabs. The first 
 who attempted a universal survey of the subject 
 were Masudi, Tabari, Hamza of Ispahan, and 
 Eutychius, the Christian patriarch of Alexandria. 
 Masudi's work fe entitled Meadows qf Gold and 
 Mines qf Gems. These were followed by Abulfaraj 
 and George TOTnakin (both Christians), Abulfeda, 
 and others. Nuvairi wrote a History qf Sicily under 
 the Government of the Arabs. Various sections of 
 Arabic histories relating to the Crusades have been 
 translated into Erench. On the dominion of the 
 Arabs in Spain, several works were written by 
 Abul-Kasem of Cordova (died in 1139), Tcmim, 
 
 3« 
 
ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. 
 
 and others. For extended notices we may refer the 
 student of Arabic Literature to the translations 
 by Quatremere and others; but especially to the 
 Mncyhlopadischen UherdcU der Wissenschafien des 
 Orients, by Von Hammer (2 vols. Leip. 1804). ; 
 
 Arabian theology and jurisprudence are intimately 
 connected, and both founded on the Koran ; but are 
 by no means so simple and uniform as is generally 
 supposed. Speculation &st began to prevail dming 
 the Ommaiade dynasty, and the Aristotelian philos- 
 ophy to be studied by the Arabs. As a consequence, 
 the vague statemente of the Koran were soon vari- 
 ously interpreted, and a host of sects gradually 
 arose. Of these, four only are regarded as orthodox, 
 leaving not less than seventy-two heretical, whose 
 discordant tenets are stated in the work of Sharis- 
 tani (edited by Cureton, London, 1842). The fom' 
 orthodox sects are: the Hanefites, who do not reject 
 tradition, but subordinate it to rationalism ; the 
 Shafites, who entirely refuse the aids of reason and 
 philosophy in their treatment of theology ; the 
 Kambalites and the Malechites, who allow specula- 
 tion on points where there is no tradition. The 
 coUeotion of traditions known as the Surma gives an 
 account of the sayings and doings of Mohammed, 
 and, though pedantic in its details, is in substance 
 more valuable than the Koran. The interpretation 
 of the Koran constitutes the principal part of 
 education in theological jurisprudence. The most 
 celebrated of the commentators are Samakhshari and 
 Baidhawi. The conquest of Algiers has rendered the 
 study of Arabic or Mohammedan law indispensaUe 
 to the French. The result is, that several most 
 important works on that subject have appeared of 
 late from the Paris press, such as \Prfcs de Jwris- 
 prudence Musulmane, selon le Site MaUchiie par 
 Khalil-Ilm-Ishah (translated by Perron, Paris, 1848), 
 and Legislation Musvlmane Sunnite, Bite Hanifi 
 (Paris, 1848). 
 
 Arabian philosophy, which was of Grecian origin, 
 held the same relation to the Koran as the Scholas- 
 ticism of the middle ages did to the Christian Scrip- 
 tures — that is, it was regarded as the servant of 
 faith. The chief study of the Arabs was the 
 writings of Aristotle, who became known in Spain, 
 and subsequently in aU Western Europe, through 
 translations from Arabic into Latin ; though m& 
 Arabs themselves only knew the Greek philos- 
 opher in translations made during the time of the 
 Abassides. Especial attention was paid to logic 
 and metaphysics. The most distinguished of their 
 philosophical writers are: Alkendi of Basra, who 
 flourished about the beginning of the 9th c. ; Alfa- 
 rabi, who wrote a work on First Principles in 954 ; 
 Avicenna (died 1036), who combined the study of 
 logic and metaphysics with that of medicine, and 
 made considerable progress in chemistry, nosology, 
 and medical botany; Ibn-Yahya, who acquired a high 
 reputation as an original thinker ; Alghazali (died 
 1111), who wrote a book entitled Th& destruction of 
 all Idolatrous Philosophical Systems ; Abubekr-ibn- 
 Tofail (died 1190), who taught in his philosophical 
 novel Hai-ehn- Yokdan (edited by Pococke, Oxford, 
 1671) the development of men from animals ; and his 
 pupU, Averrhoes, greatly esteemed as an expositor of 
 Aristotle. For an account of these men and their 
 systems, see - Sur les Ecoles Philosophiques chez les 
 Arabes, &c., by Schmolders (Paris, 1842), and Eitter's 
 {75er unsere Kenntniss der Arab. Philosophie (Gott. 
 1844). 
 
 Many of these illustrious Arabian philosophers 
 were also physicians. The great skill which the Arabs 
 acquired in theirknowledge of the uses and properties 
 of medicinal herbs, is traced by Humboldt to their 
 geographical position. The southern part of Arabia 
 ' is characterised by the highly developed vital force 
 348 
 
 pervading vegetation, by which an abundance of 
 aromatic and balsamic juices is yielded to man from 
 various beneficial and deleterious substances. The 
 attention of the people must early have been directed 
 to the natural products of their native soil, and those 
 brought as articles of commerce from the accessible 
 coasts of Malabar, Ceylon, and Eastern Africa. 
 Hence arose the wish to distinguish carefully from, 
 one another these precious articles of commerce, 
 which were so important to mediciae, manufacture, 
 
 &c The science of medicine, when considered 
 
 with reference to its scientific development, is essen- 
 tially a creation of the Arabs, to whom the oldest, 
 and, at the same time, one of the richest sources of 
 knowledge — that of the Lidian physicians — had been, 
 early opened. Chemical pharmacy (see Alchemy) 
 was created by the Arabs, whilst to them are also 
 due the first official prescriptions regarding the 
 preparation and admixture of different remedial 
 agents — ^the dispensing recipes of the present day. 
 These were subsequentiy diffused over the south of 
 Europe by the School of Salerno ' (Humbolt's Cosmos, 
 vol. ii. p. 581, Bohn's translation). Pharmacy and 
 materia medica naturally led to botany and chemis- 
 try. For three centuries — from the 8th to the llth. 
 — a rich scientific culture prevailed. Schools of 
 philosophy and medicine sprung up at Jondisahur, 
 Bagdad, Ispahan, Firuzabad, Bokhara, Kufa, Basra, 
 Alexandria, Cordova, &c. In aU departments of 
 medical science a great advance was made, except 
 in anatomy. The reason of this exception lies in 
 the fact, that the Koran forbids the dissection of 
 bodies. The most famous writers on medicine are 
 Aharun, Alkendi, Avicenna (q. v.), who wrote the 
 Canon of Medicine, for a long time the only hand- 
 book on the subject; Ali-ben- Abbas, Ishak-ben- 
 Soleiman, Abulkasem, Averrhoes (q. v.), who wrote 
 a complete system of medicine ; Ali-ben-Isa, &c. 
 
 In mathematics, the Arabs made great advances 
 by the introduction of the numerals and mode of 
 notation now in use, of the sine instead of the 
 chord (in trigonometry), and of a more extended 
 application of algebra. Astronomy was zealously 
 studied in the famous schools and observatories of 
 Bagdad and Cordova. Alzahan wrote upon optics ; 
 Nassireddin translated the Elements of Euclid ; 
 Jeber-ben- Afla furnished a commentary on the trigo- 
 nometry of Ptolemy, &c. ' The Almagest or System of 
 Astronomy by Ptolemy, was translated into Arabic 
 by Alhazi and Sergius as early as 812. In the 10th 
 c, Albaten observed the advance of the line of the 
 apsides in the earth's orbit ; Mohammed-ben- Jeber- 
 al-Batani, the obHquity of the ecliptic ; Alpetragius 
 wrote a theory of the planets ; and Abul-Hassan-Ali, 
 on astronomical instnunents. 
 
 Besides these advances in the solid branches of 
 knowledge, the genius of the Arabs continually 
 flowered into poetry. Numerous poets sprung up in 
 all lands where the children of the desert had carried 
 their irresistible faith. Their verse, however, was 
 not like the rude, simple minstrelsy 'of a purely 
 patriarchal people ; it gradually allied itself to the 
 prevailing culture, and took, especially in the golden 
 epoch of Arabian civilisation, a highly artistic form. 
 Motenebbi, Abul-Ala, and others acquired a great 
 reputation for their deUcate Idylls; Busiri, for his 
 eulogy of Mohammed; Hamad9,ni, as the first to 
 introduce novels in verse (of which he wrote 400 
 under the title of MahdmM), a style of literature 
 which was brought to perfection by Hariri ; Azzeddin, 
 for his ingenious aUegorioal poem, ' The Birds and 
 the Flowers.' Besides these, a singularly wild and 
 fantastic prose literature made its appearance, iii 
 which the craving for the wonderful and gorgeous. So 
 characteristic of the restless, adventure-loving Arabs, 
 was richly gratified. Eomances and legendary tales : 
 
AEABIAN LANGUAGE— ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS. 
 
 abounded. The most famous of these axe : The 
 Arabian Nighis' Entertainments (q. v.), TheExploits of 
 A ntar. The Exploits of the Champions, aud The Exploiis 
 of €ie Hero. In fact, with the exception of the 
 drama, there was no sort of poetry which the Arabs 
 did not attempt, lie effect of this universality 
 and richness in Arabic literature was, that it exercised 
 a powerful influence on modem European poetiy. 
 The tales of fays, charms, sorceries, and the whole 
 gorgeous machinery of enohautment passed into the 
 poetry of the West. Diu-ing the middle ages' of 
 European history, several of the most popular and 
 widely-spread books were of Arabic origin ; such 
 as, Tlie Seven Wise Masters, and The Fables of 
 Bidpai, though the Arabians themselves borrowed 
 largely from the Persian stories and the Greek 
 fames. 
 
 All this culture of the early ages of Moham- 
 medanism presents a strong contrast to the ignor- 
 ance which now prevails among the Arabs. The 
 brutal fanaticism of the Turks mpped the blooming 
 promise; of the East; sunk in stupid indolence, 
 the peoples await in apathetic resignation their 
 deliverance and retmn to higher modes of life. 
 Literature furnishes now nothing worthy of notice. 
 Learning spends itself principally in commentaries 
 and scholia, in scholastic discussions on the subject- 
 matter of dogmatics and jurisprudence, and in 
 tedious grammatical disquisitions concerning the old 
 Arabic speech, generally acute and subtle, but always 
 unprofitable and unenlivening. The swift and mobile 
 genius of the East has departed, and pedantic dul- 
 ness has usurped its place. There are ' Dryasdusts ' 
 even in the desert. A few modem writers have 
 attempted, with more or less success, to imitate 
 European forms of thought and sentiment. Of these 
 may be mentioned Michael Sabbagh of Syria {La 
 Colombe Messag&re, Arabic and French, Paris, 
 1805); the Sheik, Refaa of Cairo (Tlie Broken Lyre, 
 Paris, 1827 ; Manners and Customs of the. Euro- 
 peans, Cairo, 1834; Travels in France, Cairo, 1825) ; 
 and Naaif-Effendi, of Beirut, who wrote the critical 
 observations in De Sacy's edition of Hariri {Epistola 
 Critica, Leipsic, 1848). 
 
 The Arabic also possesses a Christian and Jewish 
 literature, which, however, is chiefly ecclesiastical. 
 Its principal ornaments are Eutychius, Elmakin, 
 and Abulfaraj. Translations of the Old Testa- 
 ment were made not from the Hebrew, but from 
 the Septuagint, or from Latin versions. In the 
 middle ages, the Spanish Jews employed Arabic for 
 their learned compositions ; and several of the most 
 important works of Moses Maimonides, &c., were 
 originally written in that tongue. 
 
 The Arable language, it has been remarked, is at 
 once both rich and poor. It is necessarily destitute of 
 innumerable words describing those ideas and objects 
 which only civilisation can develop or produce ; but, 
 on the other hand, the rich and nimble fancy of the 
 Arabians has mnltiplied, to an almost incredible 
 extent, the synonyms of their desert-tongue, so that 
 in some cases several hundreds of expressions are 
 found for the same thing. The Arabic belongs to the 
 so-called Semitic family of languages, among which 
 it is distinguished for its antiquity and soft flexible 
 grace. ■ It is divided into two dialects — a northern 
 and southern. The former, through the instru- 
 mentality of the Koran, became the predominant 
 language of literature and commerce throughout the 
 whole extent of the Arabian dominions ; flie latter, 
 called the Himyarite, although in all probability 
 the source of the Ethiopic language and writing, is 
 known as yet only by a few inscriptions, &c. The 
 earliest Arabic grammarian is Abm-Aswad-al-Duli, 
 who flourished under the fourth calif, Ali. The 
 first who reduced the prosody and metre of the 
 
 Arabian poets to a system, was Khahl-ben-Ahmed- 
 al-Eerahidi of Basra. Al- Jauhari, who died in 1009 
 A. D., drew up a dictionary of the pure Arabic speech, 
 which he entitled Al-Sihdii ('Purity'), and which is 
 held in hi^ estimation to this day. Mohammed-ben- 
 Yakub-al-Kruzabadi, who died in 1414, was the 
 author of an Arabic Thesaurus, entitled Al-Kamus 
 ('The Ocean'), which is the best lexicon in the 
 language, and has consequently been translated into 
 Persian and Turkish. Jordshani has explained, in 
 alphabetical order, the meaning of the technical 
 terms used in Arabic art and science. His work 
 was published by Fliigel (Leip. 1845), under the title 
 of Definitiones. Meidani made a large collection 
 of Ara,bic ' saws,' apophthegms, &c., which was 
 published by Freytag, Bonn, 1838. Through the 
 conquests of the Arabs in Sicily and Spain, their 
 language became known in Europe; but notwith- 
 standing the numerous traces of its influence in 
 various European tongues, it became forgotten after 
 the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. The 
 first European scholars who earnestly took up the 
 subject were the Dutch, in the 17th c. ; after them, 
 the Germans, French, and English. It is now, how- 
 ever, beginning to be considered a necessary part of 
 a learned theological education. The modem Arabic 
 of the inhabitants is substantially the same as that 
 of the Koran, but the lapse of time has gradually 
 introduced changes in the grammatical forms of the 
 language, similar to those which have occurred in 
 other languaaes. The purest Arabic is said to be 
 spoken in Yemen, or Arabia Felix. With the 
 exoepti6n of the Roman characters, the Arabic have 
 been more widely difiiised than those of any other 
 tongue on the face of the earth. (See MoUer's 
 Oriental Palceography, Eisleben, 1844, &c.) 
 
 Arabic Writing. — Like all Semitic viriting, this 
 proceeds from right to left. It is borrowed from 
 the old Syriac, and was probably introduced iiito 
 Arabia by Christian missionaries about the time of 
 Mohammed. In its oldest form it is called Kufic, 
 from the town of Kuf a, on the Euphrates, where the 
 transcription of the Koran was busUy carried on. 
 Its characters are rude and coarse, and it has particular 
 symbols for only sixteen of the twenty-eight Arabic 
 consonants. This writing, nevertheless, continued 
 to be employed for 300 years, and for coins and 
 inscriptions even later ; but in the 10th c. it was 
 displaced for common purposes by a current hand- 
 writing, the Neskhi, 'introduced by Ebn Mokla. 
 This is the character stiU in use. In it, the conson- 
 ants which resemble each other are distinguished by 
 points, and the vowels by strokes over and under the 
 line. 
 
 ABABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS, 
 a collection of Oriental tales, first made known to 
 Europe by Antony Galland, a French orientalist, imder 
 the title of Th£ Thousand and One Nights, Arabian 
 Stories, Translated into French. They were published 
 at Paris, in 12 volumes 12mo, from 1704 tiU 1717, and 
 were received by many as the production of the 
 genius of the translator himself, rather than the 
 collection of an unknown Arabian author, as Galland 
 had stated in his dedication. Oriental scholars did 
 not hesitate at first to declare against their authen- 
 ticity, aud denounce them as forgeries. Having 
 taken only an obscure place in the Eterature of the 
 East, and their style unfitting them from being 
 classed among models of eloquence or taste— having 
 no object, of a religious, moral, or philosophical kind 
 in view, while the manners and customs delineated 
 in them were different from all received ideas of 
 those of the Moslem nations — their success took 
 the critics by surprise. The work became highly 
 esteemed by the public ; it filled Europe with its 
 fame ; it had abundance of readers, and no lack of 
 
AEABIAN NTJMEEALS— AHABIAN SEA. 
 
 editors. Few books have been translated into so 
 many different languages, and given delight to so 
 large a number of readers. It may be said that, 
 in these Oriental tales, there has sprung up a new 
 branch of Hterature, for their influence on the liter- 
 ature of the present day is easily discernible. Here 
 are found, depicted witii much simplicity and great 
 effect, the scenes of the town-life of the Moslem. 
 The .prowess of the Arab knight, his passion for 
 adventure, his dexterity, his love and lus revenge, 
 the craft of his wives, the hypocrisy of his priests, 
 and the corruptibility of his judges, are all dramatic- 
 ally delineated — ^far more vividly represented, in 
 fact, than is possible in a book of travels; while 
 gilded palaces, charming women, lovely gardens, and 
 exquisite repasts captivate the senses of the reader, 
 and transport him to the land of wonder and enjoy- 
 ment. Besides entertaining the mind with the 
 kaleidoscopic wonders of a teeming and luxurious 
 fancy, which is their most obvious merit, they present 
 a treasure of instruction upon life in general, and 
 Oriental life in particular. And this is imdeniable, 
 notwithstanding the fact, that the aspects of society 
 they depict are far from standing high in the social 
 scale, either as to civihsation or moraEty. In them no 
 story is to be found that will rank in morality with the 
 story of Joseph and his brethren, simply because the 
 Moslem faith wiU not admit of that, any more than 
 the decline of Arab civilisation at the time the taljes 
 must have been originally .promulgated. Indeed, 
 the first translator, having a conviction of a demoral- 
 ising tendency of this kmd, avoided giving several 
 objectionable parts of some of the stories. The 
 thread of the narrative in these entertadnments is 
 generally simple and clear, often leading into the 
 departments of fable, and occasionally into the 
 regions of the supernatural and the domains of 
 popular superstition. The tales, even when long, are 
 not tiresome ; for they consist of shorter stories 
 branching off from the main one, or rather encased 
 within it, the smaller within the larger, and perhaps 
 a smaller within that, like the httle boxes used by 
 conjurors. 
 
 For many years all doubt as to the authenticity of 
 the Thov^and and One NigMs has been dispelled. 
 Several MS. copies have been found, and no less than 
 four editions of the Arabic text have been published. 
 A more thorough acquaintance with medieval and 
 modem Arab life has proven the genuineness of the 
 stories, and the truthfulness of their general repre- 
 sentation of the mind of the Moslem. In them 
 there are evident signs of a declension from a 
 refined and superior civilisation ; the marvellous and 
 supernatural is predominant ; despotism in all its 
 forms is manifest; and a prevalent falsity and 
 insincerity of character visible, not onty in the 
 narrative^ but in the tone of common conversation, 
 replete as it is with oaths and asseverations. 
 
 The origin of the work — where and, by whom 
 written — ^is still involved in mystery. According to 
 some, the tales are susceptible of a threefold division. 
 The most beautiful, and in fancy the richest, appear 
 to have come from India, the cradle of story and 
 fable,; the tender and often sentimental love tales 
 seem of Persian origin ; while the masterly pictures 
 of life, and the witty anecdotes, claim to be the 
 product of Arabia. Throughout, however, every- 
 thing is conformable to the character and customs 
 of the town population of Arabia, and to the Moham- 
 medan faith. The Baron de Sapy, in 1829, thus 
 stated his opinion on these points. Speaking of the 
 work he says i ' It appears to me that it was origin- 
 ally written in Syria, and in the vulgar dialect ; fliat 
 it was never completed by its author ; that, subse- 
 quently, imitators endeavoured to perfect the work, 
 either by the insertion of novels already known, but 
 
 360 
 
 which formed no part of the original collection, or 
 by composing some themselves, with more or less 
 talent, whence arise the great variations observable 
 among the different MSS. of the collection ; that the 
 inserted tales were added at different periods, and 
 perhaps in different countries, but chiefly in Egypt ; 
 and, lastly, that the only thing which can be 
 aflSrmed, with much appearance of probability, in 
 regard to the time when the work was composed, 
 is — that it is not very old, as its language proves, 
 but still that, when it was brought out, the use 
 of tobacco and coffee was unknown, since no mention 
 of either is made in the work.' 
 
 GaUand's French edition was speedily translated 
 into aU the languages of Europe ; edition following 
 edition with great rapidity, some of them with 
 enlargements, and others with modiflcations. Lat- 
 terly, a Dr Scott gave a superior English edition, 
 ' carefully revised, and occasionally corrected from 
 the Arabic' At length a new English translation 
 from the Arabic, with copious notes and highly 
 artistic embellishments, appeared in 1839. It was 
 the work of Edward Wilham Lane, a gentleman 
 whose, long residence in Egypt enabled him to 
 acquire so thorough a knowledge of the language, 
 manners, and customs of the Egyptian Arabs, as has 
 furnished not only a superior version, but a series 
 of notes embodying a portraiture of Egypto-Arabian 
 life at once faithful and vivid. 
 
 The popularity of this wonderful book has given 
 rise to hundreds of imitations. Among the best of 
 the French are — Les Mille et Tin Jowrs, Mille et Une 
 Quart d'Heures, and the Oontes {tun Endormeur; 
 perhaps the best of the English imitations is the Tales 
 of the Genii, by Sir Charles Morell; while the best 
 of the German appears to be one got up from the 
 Perso-Arabic, the Paraj hdd el Shidda (Joy after 
 Sorrow), a popular work, and repeatedly published. 
 
 ARABIAN NUMERALS or CIPHERS— the 
 characters 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Properly, they 
 should be styled Hindu or Indian Numerals, for the 
 Arabs borrowed them, along with the decimal system 
 of notation, from the Hindus. According to one 
 account, Gerbert (afterwards Sylvester II.) learned 
 the use of them from the Moors in Spain in the 10th 
 c. ; others think it more probable that Leonardo of 
 Pisa (see Algebiia) first introduced them from the 
 East into Italy about 1202. Yet the use of them 
 was long in making its way, and was not general 
 before the invention of printing. Accounts con- 
 tinued to be kept in Roman numerals up to the 
 16th c. See Numbeaib and Numeeation. 
 
 ARABIAN SEA, ancientiy Mare Erythraewm, or 
 the Bed Sea, that bay of the Indian Ocean which 
 lies between India on th? east and Arabia on the 
 west. Its northern boundary is Beloochistan ; 
 while its natural and convenient limit on the south 
 is a line drawn from Cape Comorin in Hindustan 
 to Cape Guardafui in Africa, and thence continued 
 along the coast to the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. 
 In E. long, it extends from 43° 32' at Cape Bab-el- 
 Mandeb, to 77° 30' at Cape Comorin; and in N. lat. 
 from 8° 5' at Cape Comorin, to about 26° at the 
 south-west point of Beloochistan. Including its 
 two great arms, the Arabian and Persian Gulfs, 
 it stretches much further both north and west, 
 connecting itself, more or less closely, with the Medi- 
 terranean by means of the Nile and the Euphrates. 
 
 In this last aspect the A. S. long occupied a most 
 
 prominent place in the commerce of tiie world a 
 
 place which, after having lost it for more than 30O 
 years through the doublmg of the Cape of Good 
 Hope in 1497, it has lately, in a great measure, 
 regained, through the enterprise of En^h capitalist^ 
 and the liberahty of the Egyptian government. 
 
ARABINE-AEACHIS. 
 
 In tine history of navigation, also, the A. S. proper 
 is specially entitled to notioe. It was sions its 
 northern shores that Neardius, lihe admirsd of 
 Alexander of Macedon, conducted the first well 
 authenticated voyage, on a large scale, of exploration 
 and discovery; and across it the trade-winds, blow- 
 ing alternately from north-east and south-west, were 
 wont to waft the Greeks of Egypt, without either 
 chart or compass, ahout the coiomencement of the 
 Christian era. 
 
 A^ABIKE is the essential principle of giun- 
 arabic (q. v.), and is obtained jpure by adding 
 alcohol to a solution of gum-arabic in water, when 
 the A. is precipitated in white floccUh. 
 
 A'EACAN, or AERACAN, a city of Farther 
 India, and, tiE lajtely, the capital of the province of 
 the same name. It is situated about 50 miles from 
 the sea, in lat. 20° 42' N., and long. 93° 24' E. Lying 
 in a swampy valley which, on almost every side, is 
 confined by hiUa, A. is subject to febrile msease in 
 all its forms. Previous to the first Burmese war — 
 the occasion which brought it under British dominion 
 — it is said to have contained 18,000 houses ; while 
 in 1835, after an interval of less than ten years, its 
 population is represented as having been only 8000 
 or 10,000 — -the decrease being, in a considerable 
 degree, the consequence of its having ceased to be 
 the seat of government. A. is now, in fact, interest- 
 ing only from its old associations. The most striking 
 memorial of antiquity is its dilapidated fort, consist- 
 ing of three concentric walls such as oidy a powerful 
 state conld have constructed. Beyond the limits, too, 
 of this citadel, the town, as a whole, appears to have 
 been surrounded by a ciroumvaUation of 9 nules in 
 length, composed partly of steep and rugged emi- 
 nences and partly of artificial works. Thesedef enoes, 
 which are believed to be several centuries old, the 
 British carried by assault on 1st April 1825. 
 
 A'RACAN, or AREAOAN, a province of Farther 
 India, bounded on the N. by Chittagong, on the E. by 
 Ava, on the S. by Pegu, and on the W. by the Bay of 
 Bengal. It extends in N. lat. from 18° to 21° 33', and 
 in E. long, from 92° 10' to 94° 50'. Its extreme 
 length is 290 miles ; and its breadth, ftom 90 nules 
 at me N., gradualHy diminishes towards the S., so as 
 to yield an average of little |more than 45. The 
 area is estimated at 13,434 aquaire miles. The pro- 
 vince is divided into three districts — ^Akyab or Abra- 
 can Proper, Sandoway, and Ramree. The British 
 conquest of the province seems to have been highly 
 beneficial in every way. In 1825 — 6, the population 
 was only about 100,000 ; in 1831, it was 173,000, 
 ahevping an increase of 73 per cent, in 5 or 6 years; 
 in 1839, it had increased to 248,000 ; and lastly, 
 before 1854, it was upwards of 321,000. With 
 these results the face of the country and the state 
 of trade fully correspond. A stenle and tnpro- 
 fitable tra'ct has been transformed into a highly 
 cultivated country; trade has increased to an extent 
 that could not have been contemplated; and the 
 variety and quality of the productions have been 
 found to equal those of almost any other re^on in 
 the same part of the world. Rice and salt constitute 
 the chief artides of exportation; the others are 
 tobacco, sugair, wood, oil, betel-nuts, buffalo hides.and 
 horns, elephants' teeth, dried fish, and edible birds- 
 nests. The imports consist of British woollens, 
 muslins, cutlery, andiglass. 
 
 There have been various indications of a volcanic 
 nature in A. In the islands of 'Ramree aind Oheduba 
 there exist spring of muddy water which emit 
 bubbles of gas. Two severe earthquakes have taken 
 place respeotively in U763 and 1833 — ^the latter 
 having thrown up, in several places, muddy water of 
 ,a sul^urous smeiU., and also, sm one particular spot, 
 
 vapour and flame to the height of several hundred 
 feet. Of the mineral resources very little is known. 
 Iron-ore has been found, but not in such quantity 
 and quaHty as to come into profitable competition 
 with British iron. Coal also exists, which is under- 
 stood to be good, but, from whatever cause, it has 
 not been extensively worked. There are no lakes in 
 the province, nor are there any rivers of much im- 
 portance, though the Aeng, which appears to be the 
 most available among them, is said to be navigable 
 during spring-tides to 45 nules from its mouth. 
 
 ARAOA'BI, or ARIOARI (Pterogloasus), a genus 
 of birds closely allied to the Toucans (see ToucAir), 
 and differing from them chiefly in the somewhat 
 smaller bill, which is not so thick as the head. 
 They are generallly also of smaller size, and the 
 prevailing colour of their plumage is green, often 
 varied with brilliant red and yellow. Like the 
 toucans, they are natives of the warm parts of 
 South America. 
 
 AKA'CB^. SeeAKDW. 
 
 AEACHIS, a genus of plants of the natural 
 orSjsrJJeguminosm, sub-order J*api7io»ace(E, natives of 
 the warm parts of America, of which, until recently, 
 the X)hly known species was the A. hypogosa, some- 
 times called the undergroimd kidney-bean, and more 
 frequently the ground-nut. It also receives the 
 names of earth-nut, American earth-nut, and man- 
 dubL It is an annual plant, with hairy pinnate 
 
 
 Arachis hypogsea. 
 
 leaves, which have four leaflets. The flowers are 
 yellow, the standard veiaed with red. After flower- 
 ing, the flower-stalks elongate and bend towards 
 the earth, into which the pods penetrate, ripening 
 imderground. The pods have a lining of a sort of 
 net-work, and generally contain two, three, or four 
 seeds, wMch are about the size of a hazel-nut, of a 
 sweettaste, vfith' a littie of the flavour which belongs 
 to most kiads of pulse. This plant is now cultivated 
 in aE tie warm regions of the globe, and its useful- 
 ness is such that its cultivation is likely to extend. 
 It was introduced from Peru into Spain, and thence 
 into France. It succeeds in favourable situations 
 even in the middle of France, where it is sown after 
 all danger of frost is thought to be over, and yields 
 from eighty to one hundred fold. Its cultivation is 
 
AEACHNIDA— AEAGO. 
 
 so general in the western parts of Africa, and even 
 in the interior, that doubts have been therefore 
 entertained of its American origin, of which, how- 
 ever, the most eminent botanists seem to be quite 
 satisfied. The seeds are sometimes eaten raw, but 
 more generally boiled or roasted. In New Spain, 
 and in some parts of AdErica, they form one of the 
 principal articles of food ; but the importance of the 
 plant is chiefly owing to the fixed oil contained in 
 them, which is used for the same purposes as olive 
 or almond oil, and is quite equal to olive oil either 
 for lamps or for the table. This oil is also much 
 used in. Spain in the manufacture of soap and 
 of chocolate. A bushel of the seeds yields one 
 gallon of oil, when expressed cold ; if heat is applied, 
 the quantity is greater, but the quality inferior. It 
 has become a considerable article of commerce. The 
 A. hypogcea delights in a light and sandy, but at the 
 same time fertile, soU. flie seeds are dug up as 
 roots or tubers usually are. The root has equalities 
 resembling those of liquorice, for which it is some- 
 times used. The herbage is good food for cattle. 
 Several new sj)ecies of this genus have been dis- 
 covered in BrazU. 
 
 AEA'CHNIDA, or AKACHNIDES (from theGr. 
 arcuihne, a spider), a class of articulated animals, 
 commonly regarded as intermediate between insects 
 and Crustacea. They were included by Linnseus 
 amongst insects, and placed in the order Aptera. 
 like the Crustacea, they have the head and thorax 
 united into one piece, but they differ from them and 
 from inseots^in having 
 simple eyes, and in 
 the absence of proper 
 antennse, instead of 
 ■- which many of them 
 are provided with a 
 sort of antennal claws 
 caHeAcTielicerce. These 
 and other organs con- 
 nected with a complex 
 mouth, disappear,how- 
 ever, in some of the 
 lower kinds, which 
 have merely a sort of 
 proboscis for suction. 
 Some of them breathe 
 T)y means of ptdmonary cavities ; others by trachese. 
 Tike insects; and upon this difference is founded 
 "the primary division of the class into two orders 
 — Puhnonaria and TracheaHa. Spiders and scor- 
 pions belong to the first of these orders, and mites, 
 ticks, &c. (Acari) to the second. Some of the A. 
 inhabit water, but their mode of respiration is 
 that of terrestrial animals ; and they seem to carry 
 air with theSm by means of the hair which covers 
 their bodies. The sexes are distinct. They are 
 oviparous. They have two or more eyes, very 
 frequently eight ; and the relative position of these 
 affords marks for distinction of genera. They 
 have generally eight legs, but some have only six. 
 With the exception of the acari, they are solitary 
 in their mode of life, and most of them prey upon 
 insects, of which, however, in general, they only 
 suck the blood. Some of the lower kinds are 
 parasitic upon insects, and a few live on decaying 
 animal and vegetable substances. (See Acarus, 
 Mite, Scorpion, Spider, and Tick.) 
 
 ARA'CHNOID MEMBRANE, one of the three 
 coverings of the brain and spinal cord, is a thin, 
 glistening, serous membrane, which, by its parietal 
 layer, acQieres inseparably to the dura-mater on its 
 outer side, and more loosely to the pia-mater which 
 is between it and the brain substance. Between the 
 pia-mater and the A. M. in some situations there 
 
 ' Mygale fodiens. 
 
 are considerable intervals (sub-arachnoid spaces); 
 they are filled with a fluid named cerebro-spinal, the 
 presence of which is necessary to the proper action 
 of the nervous centres. See Cbrbbbo-Spinai Fluid 
 — ^Pia-Mater. 
 
 ABAD, a town in the district of A. in Upper 
 Hungary. It is situated on the right bank of the 
 Marosh, an affluent of the Theiss, and is also styled 
 Old A., to distinguish it from New A, which is 
 bunt on the opposite side of the river. A. has a 
 population of 19,564, including many Jews, who are 
 very wealthy. It carries on a large trade in com, 
 tobacco, &o., and was at one time the greatest 
 cattle-market in Hungary, and is even yet only 
 inferior to Pesth and I)ebrec2in. During the 17th 
 c, it was often captured, and at last destroyed 
 by the Turks. Its new fortifications, erected in 
 1763, made A. an important position in the revolu- 
 tionary war of 1849, when it was occupied for a 
 considerable time by the Austrian general Berger, who 
 capitulated here in July' 1849. From this place 
 Kossuth issued his proclamation of August 11, 1849, 
 in which he expressed in impassioned terms his 
 despair of the Hungarian cause for the present. 
 After the catastrophe of Viiagos, on the 17th 
 August, A. was surrendered to the Russians through 
 the treachery of Giirgey. 
 
 New a., a town in the Banat of Temesvar, contains 
 some 4600 inhabitants, including many Germans, 
 who are the principal persons in the place. The 
 district or province of A. has an area of 1700 square 
 nules, and contains about 260,000 inhabitants. The 
 eastern district is occupied by a branch-chain of 
 the Carpathian mountains, which contain marble 
 quarries, and mines of copper and iron ; the west is 
 level, and produces wheat, maize, and several varie- 
 ties of wine, as well as abundance of fruits. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly Wallaohians. 
 
 AB^O'METER. See Arbometek. 
 
 A'RAPAT, Mount, or Jebd-er-rahme (.'Moun- 
 tain of Mercy'), is a granite hiU about 15 miles 
 S.E. of Mecca, which is believed by the Moham- 
 medans to be the spot where Adam, conducted by 
 the angel Gabriel, met again his wife Eve, after a 
 punitive separation of 200 years, on account of their 
 disobedience in Paradise. It is not above 200 feet 
 high, but its circuit is a mile and a half. Its 
 importance since the time of Mohammed arises 
 from its being the scene of a yearly procession of the 
 faithful who visit Mecca. Burckhardt, who wit- 
 nessed the procession of 1814, states that not less 
 than 70,000 people were present, and that at least 
 forty different languages were spoken. The principal 
 part of the religious ceremony of this pilgrimage is a 
 sermon, the hearing of which entitles aU to the name 
 and privileges of a Hadji. 
 
 A'BAGO, Dominique, a celebrated French 
 astronomer and natural philosopher, was born 
 February 26, 1786, at Estagel near Perpignan, in 
 the department of the Eastern Psrrenees. At the 
 early age of seventeen, he entered the Polytechnic 
 School at Paris, where the spirit, promptitude, and 
 vivid intelligence he exhibited in ms answers to the 
 questions of Legendre, excited the admiration of 
 every one. In 1804, he became secretary to the 
 Observatory at Paris. Two years afterwards, he 
 was engaged, with Biot and others, by the French 
 government, to carry out the measurement of an arc 
 of the meridian, which had been commenced by 
 Delambre and Mgchain. A. and Biot had to extend 
 it from Barcelona to the Balearic Isles. The two 
 savans established themselves on the summit of 
 Mount Galatza, one of the highest of the Catalonian 
 branch of the Eastern Pyrenees. Here they lived 
 for many months, communicating by signals with 
 
ARAGO— ABAGON. 
 
 their Spanish oollaborateurs, across the Mediterranean 
 in the little isle of I\d9a, though many a night the 
 furious tempests destroyed their hut along with the 
 labours of weeks. Visitors they had none, except two 
 Carthusian monks, who were wont to come up and 
 spend a portion of the evening in converse with them. 
 Before A. had completed his calculations, Biot had 
 returned to Erance, and war had broken out betwixt 
 the two nations. A. was now held to be a spy ; hia 
 signals were interrupted; and with great difficulty he 
 succeeded in making his escape to Majorca, where 
 he voluntarily Imprisoned himself in the citadel 
 of Belver, near Pahna. At last he obtained his 
 liberty on condition of proceeding to Algiers, which 
 he did ; but was captured, on his return to France, 
 by a Spanish cruiser, and sent to the hulks at 
 Palamos. He was, however, liberated after a time, 
 and sailed once more for EVance ; but almost as he 
 was entering the port of Marseille, a tempest arose 
 which drove the vessel across the Mediterranean all 
 the way to Algiers. The former dey, to whose 
 demands he had owed his liberation from the hulks, 
 was dead ; his successor, a ferocious tyrant, placed 
 him on his list of slaves, and intended to employ him 
 as interpreter. After some time, he was released at 
 the request of the French consul, and, narrowly 
 escaping another capture by an Enghsh frigate, 
 finally found his way to Marseille in July 1809. As 
 a reward for his suffering in the cause of science, the 
 Academy of Sciences suspended its standing rules in 
 his favour ; and though only twenty- three years of 
 age, he was elected member in the place of Lalande, 
 who had just died, and was appointed Professor of 
 Analytical Mathematics in the Polytechnic School. 
 Afterwards, his attention was devoted more to 
 astronomy, magnetism, galvanism, and the polarisa- 
 tion of light. In 1811, he read a paper to the 
 Academy, which may be considered the foundation 
 of ' chromatic polarisation.' In 1812, he commenced 
 his extraordinary course of lectures on astronomy, 
 &c., which fascinated aU Paris — the savans, by their 
 scientific rigour and sohdity ; the many, by their 
 brilliancy of style. In 181G, along with Gay 
 Lussac, A. estabhshed the Annales de Qhimie, 
 et de Physique, and confirmed the truth of the 
 undiilatory theory of Hght. In the same year he 
 visited England for the fir^t time, and made the 
 acquaintance of various persons distinguished in 
 science, especially Dr Thomas Yoimg. In 1818 
 appeared his Becueil d' Olservations geodesiques, 
 astronomiques, et physiques. In 1820, he turned his 
 facile and inventive genius into a- new channel, and 
 made several important discoveries in electro- 
 magnetism. Oersted had shewn that a magnetic 
 needle was deflected by a voltaic current passing 
 along a wire. A. pursued the investigation, and 
 found that not only a magnetic needle, but even non- 
 magnetic substances, such as rods of iron or steel, 
 became subject to deflection also, exhibiting, during 
 the action of the voltaic current, a positive magnetic 
 power, which, however, ceased with the cessation of 
 the current. Some time after, he demonstrated that 
 a bar of copper, and other non-magnetic metals, 
 when moved circulai-ly, exert a noticeable influence 
 on the magnetic needle. For this discovery of the 
 development of magnetism by rotation, he obtained, 
 in 1825, the Copley Medal of the Royal Society of 
 London; and in 1834, when he again visited Great 
 Britain, especial honoiurs were paid to him by the 
 friends of science in Edinburgh and Glasgow. Four 
 years previous to this second visit to Great Britain, 
 he had received the honour he most coveted — ^that of 
 being made Perpetual Secretary of the Academy. 
 It was while holding this office that he wrote his 
 famous eloges of deceased members, the beauty of 
 which has given him so high a place among French 
 
 23 
 
 prose-writers. As a politician, also, his career was 
 remarkable. He was a keen republican, and took 
 a prominent part in th& July revolution (1830). 
 In the following year he was elected by Perpignan 
 as member of the Chamber of Deputies, where he 
 occupied a position on the extreme left. In the 
 February revolution of 1848, he was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the provisional government, and appointed 
 minister of war and marine. In this position he 
 resisted the proposed measures of the Socialist party, 
 regarding the constitution of the United States as the 
 beau-ideal of democracy. His popularity in his own 
 province was the means of preventing the discon- 
 tented population of the East Pyrenees from 
 proceeding to lawless and violent measures. On 
 the question of the presidency, A. opposed Louis 
 Napoleon, declared himself against the policy of the 
 new ministry, and refused to take the oath of 
 allegiance after the coup d'etat of 1852. The 
 emperor, in a letter, paid a high eulogium on his 
 talents and virtues, and made a special exception in 
 his case. A. died October 3, 1853. In his general 
 character A. was sociable, energetic, and fond of 
 fame. He was the intimate friend of Alexander 
 von Humboldt. 
 
 Aeago, Jacques IiItieiwe Victoe, brother of the 
 great savant, was born in 1790. In 1817 he accom- 
 panied the expedition, under Freycinet, in a voyage 
 round the world. Afterwards, we find liim engaged, 
 first at Bourdeaux, and then at Toulouse, in several 
 branches of light literature, industriously writing, in 
 company with other scribes, a multitude of vaude- 
 villes, besides publishing several poems and romances. 
 In the year 1835, he undertook the management of 
 the theatre at Eouen; but having become afflicted 
 with blindness, he was compelled to resign this post 
 in 1837. To his early voyage round the world, we 
 owe two very pleasant books of travel : Promenade 
 aidoixr du Monde (Paris, 1838); Souvenir d'un 
 aveugle, Voyage avJUmr du Monde (Paris, 1838). 
 In 1849, though deprived of sight, he formed a com- 
 pany of spe6uIatora ; placed himself at the head of it, 
 and departed for Cafifomia, to search for gold on a 
 large scale. His companions mutinied, and left him, 
 deserted and disappointed, at Valparaiso. On his 
 return, he pubhshed his painful experiences, under 
 the title. Voyage d'un aveugle en Californie ei dans 
 lesEegions aurifires (Paris, 1851). He died, January 
 1, 1855. — A, Etienne, another brother of the astro- 
 nomer, was born 1803, and is well known in France 
 as a popular /eMJKetonisi in the Siecle, and other jour- 
 nals. He held an appointment vinder the provisional 
 government, as director-general of the post-office, 
 in which he displayed great vigour, promptitude, and 
 sense, and achieved several postal reforms; was 
 elected member of the National Assembly ; was com- 
 promised by the insurrection in June, and sentenced 
 to exile for life. He went to Belgium, from which 
 the French government secured his expulsion ; then 
 to England, Holland, Geneva ; and finally to Tui-in, 
 where he has devoted himself to literary labours. — A. 
 Jean, another of the brothers A., born 1789, died 
 1836, was general o{ the repubhcan army in Mexico, 
 and wrote, in Spanish, a history of Mexico. 
 
 A'RAGON, a province in the north-east of Spain, 
 situated between 40° 2' and 42° 54' N. lat, and 
 long. 2° 10' W., and 0° 45' E. Greatest length from 
 north to south, 190 miles; breadth, 130. Area, 
 14,710 square miles. Pop. about 850,000. It is 
 bounded, N. by the Pyrenees, separating it from 
 France; W., by Navarre, and Old and New Castile; 
 S., by Valencia, and part of New Castile; and 
 E., by Catalonia, and part of Valencia. The river 
 Ebro, which descends from the northern heights 
 of Old Castile, flows through the middle of A. 
 
 353 
 
AEAGUAY— ARALIA. 
 
 in a south-easterly direction, receiving numerous 
 tributaries both from the loffy regions of the Pyre- 
 nees, and from the Sierras in the south; of the 
 former, the principal are — ^the Noguera, which forms 
 the boundary-liae between Aragon and Catalonia, 
 the Essera, and the GaJlega; of the latter, the prin- 
 cipal are — ^the Guadalope, the San Martin, and the 
 Salon. The province is naturally divided into the 
 level country, alongthe Ebro, and the northern moun- 
 tainous district of Upper Aragon. The central plain 
 is sterile, poorly supplied with water, and inter- 
 sected by deep ravines {barancos). Agriculture is 
 here confined to the raising of maize, vines, and 
 olives ; but on the sides of the Ebro, where water 
 abounds, rice and other grains are abundantly pro- 
 duced ; and in the valleys of Upper A., which are at 
 once the most beautiful and fertile of aU the Pyre- 
 nean valleys, we find a splendid vegetation, and a 
 soil that enables the inhabitants, in spite of the 
 wretchedness of their agriculture, to grow consider- 
 able quantities of wheat, rye, maize, barley, &c. The 
 ohmate of the province is various; comparatively 
 cool in the mountain-districts, but often very sultiy 
 on the plains. Spurs of the Pyrenees strike down 
 into the province a long way. It is between these 
 ridges that the rich valleys he, some of them 
 upwards of 20 nules long. The slopes of the billg 
 are clothed vnth forests of oak, beech, and pine, and 
 the felled timber is floated down the rivers iuto the 
 Ebro, and thence down to Tortosa at its mouth. The 
 minerals of the province are copper, lead, iron, salt, 
 alum, saltpetre, coal, and amber. The manufactures 
 are inconsiderable. A., peopled by a brave, active, 
 enduring, but obstinate race, has frequently been the 
 arena of sanguioary warfare. It early became a 
 Eoman province; and, on the fall of the Empire, 
 passed into the hands of the West-Goths, but was 
 conquered by the Moors in the beginning of the 8th c. 
 The rulers of A., after it had been recovered from 
 the Moors, and united with Catalonia (1137), became 
 powerful ; obtained possession of the Balearic Isles in 
 1213, of Sicily in 1282, of Sardinia in 1326, and of 
 Naples in 1440. By the marriage of Ferdinand with 
 Isabella, heiress of Castfle, in 14B9, the two states of 
 A. and Castile were united, and formed the foundation 
 of the great Spanish monarchy. After Eerdinand's 
 death ia 1516, the imiou of the states was made per- 
 manent. In the war with the French, 1808 — 9, Sara- 
 gossa, the capital of A., was remarkable for its heroic 
 defence under Palafox; and in the latest Spanish 
 wars, the people of A. have displayed the same 
 courage which marked their conduct on that memor- 
 able occasion. Upper A. was on the side of the 
 queen; but lower A. generally adhered to the party 
 of Don Carlos. The province is now divided into 
 three departments — Saragossa, Teruel, and Huesca. 
 The chief towns are Saragossa, Calatayud, Huesca, 
 and Teruel. See Sabagossa, &o. 
 
 AEAGUAY', a large river of Brazil, rising in 
 S. lat. 18° 10' and W. long. 51° 30'. Like most of the 
 considerable rivers of the coimtry, it flows towards 
 the N. After a course of about 1000 nules to San 
 Joao, it there joins the Tocantins, which again, after 
 a northerly course of 300 miles more, mingles its 
 estuary with that of the Amazon round the Isle 
 of Maiajo. Like most of the rivers in this part 
 of Brazil, the A. is of difiBcult navigation, being 
 frequently interrupted by rapids. 
 
 A'RAL, Lake, next to the Caspian Sea, from 
 which it is separated by the plateau of Ust-Urt, is 
 the largest lake in the steppes of Asia. It lies 
 in Independent Tatary, between 43° 42' and 46° 
 44' K lat., and 58° 18' and 61° 46' E. long. Length 
 from N. to S., 265 miles; breadth, 125. It is fed 
 by the river Sir (the ancient Jaxartes) on the N.E. 
 351 
 
 side, and the Amu (or ancient Oxus) on the S.B. It 
 is worthy of remark that Lieutenant Wood, in 1838, 
 found the source of the Oxus in Lake Serikol at an 
 elevation of 15,600 feet, as described bjr Marco 
 Polo in the 13th c. Lake A. prolongs itself at 
 the south-west in a vast marshy swamp of 80 or 
 100 nules, called Lake Landau. It is on the same 
 level as the Caspian, and at a remote period 
 was probably connected with it. Humboldt sup- 
 poses it to have been simply an enlargement of 
 the Oxus, when the latter was a tributary of the 
 Caspian. It is shallow, has no outlet, and is sup- 
 posed to be decreasing in size on account of the 
 excessive evaporation. Like other lakes which are 
 drained only by evaporation, it is brackish. The 
 middle of the west coast is the only spot where the 
 scenery is at aU impressive. The rocks there, which 
 form the eastern edge of the plateau of Ust-Urt, 
 open boldly and abruptly on the water in precipices 
 500 feet high. A numerous group of small islands 
 occupies the southern end. It contains sturgeon 
 and other fish, which supply food to the nomadic 
 hordes on the coasts. 
 
 ARA'LIA, a genus of plants, the type of the 
 natural order Araliacecs. This order is dicotyle- 
 donous or exogenous, and consists of trees, shrubs, 
 and herbaceous plants, resembling the Umhelliferm 
 (q. V.) both in their general habit and in their 
 botanical characters, but differing essentially in the 
 fruit, which is not didynums or formed of two 
 separable carpels as in the UmhelliferoB. The fruit 
 of the AraUacese consists of several one-seeded cells, 
 and is often succulent. The order contains about 
 160 known species, natives of tropical, temperate, 
 and cold climates, generally possessing stimulant 
 and aromatic properties. Poisonous qualities are not 
 developed as in the JJmbelUfercB. The herbage of 
 many species affords good food for cattle, and some 
 are used for human food. The genus Ajrauea con- 
 tains a considerable number of species — trees, shrubs, 
 and herbaceous plants. It has a succulent fruit, 
 with 5 or 10 cells, crowned with the styles. A. 
 nudicaulis is a native of the United States of America, 
 a species of humble growth, having a solitary radical 
 leaf with a trifid stafli and ovate serrated segments, 
 the scape is shorter than the leaf. The root is said 
 to be equal in value to sarsaparUla as an alterative 
 and tonic. A. racemosa, A. spinosa, and A. hispida, 
 also natives of North America, produce an aromatic 
 gum resin. A. spinosa is a stimulant diaphoretic, 
 rhe berries, infused in vdue or spirits, are employed 
 in America as a cure for rheumatism. It is some- 
 times called Toothache-tree : it also bears the name 
 of Angehoa-tree. It is a native of moist woods in 
 Virginia and Carolina, growing to a height of 10 or 
 12 feet, with a single stem, spreading head, doubly 
 and trebly pinnate leaves and ovate leaflets, and is 
 very ornamental in a lawn. A. polaris, found in the 
 southern island of New Zealand, and in the greatest 
 abundance and luxuriance in Lord Auddand's 
 Islands, is described by Dr Hooker as a ' very mag- 
 nificent plant,'_ a herbaceous perennial, 4 — 5 feet high, 
 with large orbicular masses of green foliage and waxy 
 flowers, presenting a very striking appearance. A. 
 edulis, now culLedL Dimorphanthvs edrdis,is employed 
 in China as a sudorific. Its shoots are very delicate 
 and pleasant when boiled; and the iroots, which 
 have an agreeable aromatic flavour, are used by the 
 Japanese as carrots or parsnips are in Europe. 
 AraHas abound in the warm valleys of the Himalaya. 
 The natives collect the leaves of many as fodder for 
 cattle, for which purpose they are of great value in a 
 country where grass for pasture is scarce ; but the 
 use of this food gives a peculiar taste to the butter. 
 Chinese rice paper has been ascertained to be cut from 
 cyhnders of the pith of an A. Gmseng (q. v.), the 
 
ARAM— AEANJUEZ. 
 
 root of a species of Panax, is one of the most 
 important products of the order Araliacew. The 
 astringent roots of Chinnera scahra, or Panke, are 
 used in tanning, hut its fleshy leaf -stallcs are eaten 
 lilie those of rhubarb. It has been seen on the 
 sandstone cliffs of Chiloe with leaves nearly eight 
 feet in diameter, each plant with four or five of these 
 enormous leaves. It has been introduced into Britain, 
 and is found to succeed well in the oHmate of Edin- 
 burgh. The only representatives of this order in the 
 British flora are the Ivy (q. v.), and a small plant 
 called the Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa moschatel- 
 
 A'RAM, Et/genb, was bom in 1704 at EamagUl, 
 in Yorkshire. His father was a gardener, and could 
 afford to keep A. at school only for a short time ; 
 but even while assisting his father, he contrived 
 to gratify his passion for learning. At an early 
 period of his life he . married, and became a 
 schoolmaster, first in Netherdale, and afterwards 
 at Knaresborough, where he continued to reside 
 till 1745. In the town of Knaresborough lived 
 one Daniel Clarke, a shoemaker, and an iutimate 
 acquaintance of A.'3. On one occasion Clarke 
 happened to purchase a quantity of valuable goods, 
 which he easily obtained on credit; but to the 
 surprise of eveiybody, he soon after disappeared, and 
 no trace of him could be discovered. Suspicion 
 lighted upon A., not as Clarke's murderer, but as his 
 confederate in swindling the public. His garden 
 was searched, and in it was found a portion of the 
 goods which Clarke had purchased. A. was arrested 
 and tried, but acquitted for want of evidence. He 
 now left his wife at Knaresborough, and went to 
 London, and other parts of England, in his capacity 
 of schoolmaster ; and in spite of his nomadic mode 
 of life, contrived to acquire a knowledge of botany, 
 heraldry, Chaldee, Arabic, Welsh, and Irish, and 
 was planning a great etymological work, ' to be 
 entitled 'A Comparative Lexicon of the English, 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Celtic languages,' when 
 he was suddenly dragged away from his ushership 
 of Lynn Academy, in Norfolk, and committed to 
 prison on a charge of murder. 
 
 The circumstances of the remaining portion of the 
 story are pretty well known. In 1759, a skeleton 
 was dug up near Knaresborough, which the inhabit- 
 ants suspected to be that of Clarke, for they had 
 now come to the conclusion that the unfortunate 
 man had met with foul-play, especially as A.'s wife 
 had, on several occasions, made strange statements 
 to the effect that her husband and a man named 
 Houseman, knew more of Clarke's disappearance 
 than they chose to admit. Houseman was now con- 
 fronted with a bone of the skeleton which had been 
 discovered. He very emphatically denied that it 
 was Clarke's. People naturally wondered how he 
 could be so positive, the bones of skeletons being, to 
 the uneducated eye, so similar in appearance. They 
 became convinced that if the skeleton was not 
 Clarke's, Houseman must know where the latter 
 was. At last he confessed that he had been a spec- 
 tator of the murder of Clarke by A. and one Terry. 
 He named the place where the body had been 
 hidden. It was searched, the buried skeleton was 
 dug up, and A. was tried at York, for the murder of 
 Clarke, on the 3d August 1759. What has given so 
 extraordinary an Sclcvt to this trial, is the fact that 
 A. conducted his own defence. He attacked, with 
 great acumen, plausibility, aid curious erudition, 
 the doctrine of circumstantial evidence ; but to no 
 efiect, for a verdict of guilty was returned, and he 
 was condemned to be executed three days after- 
 wards. In the interval, he confessed his guilt to 
 the clergymen who attended him. While in the 
 condemned cell, he wrote a defence of suicide ; but 
 
 failed in a practical illustration of the doctrine, 
 which he forthwith attempted. 
 
 ARAMj35'A (from the Hebrew word Aram, signi- 
 fying the highland in opposition to the lowland of 
 Canaan) includes the whole of the country situated 
 to the north-east of Palestine. Its boundaries, 
 though not rigorously defined, were as follows : N., 
 by Moimt Taurus ; E., by the Tigris ; S., by Arabia ; 
 and W., by Arabia, Phoenicia, and Lebanon. It 
 embraced the countries known to the Greeks by the 
 various names of Syria, Babylonia, and Mesopotamia. 
 Tlie Aramaic language, a branch of the Semitic, was 
 common to the whole country, and was divided into 
 two principal dialects — the west Aramaic or Syriac, 
 and the east Aramaic, or, as it is improperly termed, 
 the Chaldee. The former was that spoken almost 
 imiversally in Palestine in the time of Christ. Ever 
 since the Babylonian captivity, the pure Hebrew, in 
 which the whole of the Old Testament, with the 
 exception of a few chapters in Daniel and Ezra, had 
 been written, had gradually given place to the Ara- 
 maic. The Aramaic version of the Bible was that 
 used in Christ's time, who quotes from it, and not 
 from the original Hebrew; as, for instance, the 
 beginning of the 22d Psahn, which he repeats on the 
 Cross. The Talmud, especially the Babylonian, 
 has a large admixture of Aramaic elements. The 
 Aramaic dialect is, in general, the harshest, poorest, 
 and least elaborate of euI the Semitic languages, and 
 has now almost entirely died out, and given place 
 to the Arabic and Persian. Indeed, it is only found 
 Hving among some tribes in remote districts of the 
 mountains of Kurdistan, and in two or three villages 
 in Syria ; yet it is considered highly probable that it 
 is the root of the whole cluster of Semitic tongues. 
 
 ARA'NDA, Pedeo Pablo Ababca de Bolea, 
 Count oe, born in 1718 of a distinguished Arago- 
 nese family, at first embraced a mmtary career; 
 but having evinced a remarkable spirit of observa- 
 tion, he was appointed by Charles III. ambassador 
 to the court of Augustus III., king of Poland; which 
 post he filled for seven years. After his return, he 
 was appointed captain-general of Valencia, and in 
 1766 recalled to Madrid on account of its disturbed 
 state, and the presidency of the Council of Castile 
 was bestowed on him. A. not only soon restored 
 order in the capital, but limited the power of the 
 Inquisition, procured the expulsion of the Jesuits 
 from Spain, and carried the salutary terror of 
 government into the recesses of the Sierra Morena, 
 then infested by hordes of ferocious banditti. Like 
 many other reformers, he was not able fully to 
 carry out his liberal intentions. In 1773, he was 
 removed from his high position through the infiu- 
 ence of the clergy, the Dominican monks especially, 
 and sent as ambassador to Prance. Grimaldi suc- 
 ceeded him in his office, and after liini Count 
 Florida Blanca; but when the latter lost his 
 office in consequence of court intrigues, A. returned 
 to his position ; soon, however, to lose it again 
 through the agency of Godoy, Duke of Alcudia, 
 the queen's favourite. He, however, still remained 
 President of the Council of State, which he had 
 organised ; but upon his expressing his views regard- 
 ing the war witii Prance, he was banished to his 
 native province of Aragon, where he died in 1799. 
 
 AKA'NBA AND AEANE'ID^. See Spidek. 
 
 AEANJU'EZ (a corruption of the Latin Ara- 
 Joms, altar of Jupiter), a town in the province of 
 Toledo, Spain. It is situated on the left bank of the 
 Tagus, 28 miles south south-east from Madrid, in a 
 beautifully wooded valley, and is now connected with 
 the Spanish metropolis by a railway. The town is 
 buUt in the Dutch style, has broad and regular 
 streets intersecting each other at right angles, and a 
 
 365 
 
ARANY— AEAS. 
 
 popiilation of 3600. It is famed for its palace and 
 gardens. The former was long a favourite resort in 
 spring of the royal family, diiring which period A. 
 occasionally reckoned as many as 20,000 inhabitants ; 
 the latter were laid out by Philip II., who built a 
 palace also, for there was only a shooting villa here 
 during his father's time, but a fire destroyed a 
 portion of it, and more was taken down, by 
 Philip v., who reconstructed the edifice in French 
 style. The present chilteau was completed by 
 Charles IV. On aocoimt of its gardens, the 
 natives call A. 'the metropolis of Flora.' These 
 gardens are interspersed with numeroiis summer- 
 houses, the most celebrated of which is the Gasa 
 dd Labrador, or Labom'er's Cottage ; but their most 
 splendid ornament are the great ehn-trees brought 
 from England by Phihp II., which thrive magnifi- 
 cently. They radiate out from a central plot in 
 twelve distinct rows. A. is known historically for 
 the treaty of alliance concluded here between 
 France and Spain on the 12th of April 1772, and as 
 the scene of the abdication of Charles IV. on the 
 18th of March 1808. 
 
 ABANY, Janos, next to PetoS the most distin- 
 guished of modern Hungarian poets, was bom at 
 Nagy-Szalonta in 1819. His father was a poor 
 peasant, who spared no pains to get him into 
 the church. In 1832, he entered the college at 
 Debreczin, where he distinguished himself by his 
 dihgence ; but imable to restrain his love of adven- 
 ture, he joined, in 1836, a company of strolling- 
 players, Vfith whom he travelled about for several 
 months, till driven by necessity and an upbraiding 
 conscience, he hurried home to do what he could for 
 the support of a now blind and aged parent. For 
 some time he was engaged as a Latin tutor ; but in 
 1840 he was appointed notary at Szalonta. He now 
 married, and devoted his whole time to his profession. 
 When the Kisfaludy Society of Pesth offered a prize 
 for the best humorous poem, A. sent in, anonymously, 
 his Az elveszett Alkotm/my (The Lost Constitution of 
 the Past). He was successful. Thus emboldened, 
 he ventured, in 1847, to forward to the same society 
 the first part of a Trilogy, Toldi. Struck by the 
 beauty of this purely national effort, the members 
 published it at their own exjicuse, and again rewarded 
 the author. A. soon became a popular favourite. His 
 reputation penetrated even into the lowest ranks 
 of the community. In 1848 appeared his Murdny 
 Ostroma (Conquest of Miirany), which, however, 
 received less attention owing to the pohtical excite- 
 ment of the time. The poet himself took a slight 
 IDart in the revolution, but after the dismal termi- 
 nation of the war, he was allowed to return to 
 his country. Since then he has published a nar- 
 rative poem, Katalin ('Catherine'), Pesth, 1850. 
 Besides which muncrous stray pieces have appeared 
 in the magazines. Some of his works have been 
 translated into German. 
 
 AEAPAI'MA, a genus of fresh-water fishes, the 
 largest known fresh- water fishes in the world. They 
 are found in the rivers of South America, and are 
 sometimes taken in the Kio Negro 15 feet in 
 length, and of the weight of 4 cwt. They are 
 taken with the harpoon, and are highly esteemed for 
 food, both fresh and salted. In the salted state, they 
 have begun to form an article of commerce, and are 
 conveyed in large quantities to Para. The genus A. 
 belongs to the family of Glupesocidai, a family of 
 malacopterous fishes, aUied to the Clupeidce or 
 herring family, and is remarkable for the mosaic 
 work of strong, bony, compound scales with which 
 the body is covered. About six species are known. 
 
 A'EARAT (Airarat, in the old Armenian dialect ; 
 i.e., the plains of the Aryans), the ancient name of 
 
 396 
 
 the fertile plateau through wMch flows the river 
 Aras or Araxea. It occupies the centre of the 
 mountainous region of Armenia, belonging partly to 
 Tm-key and partly to Eussia. Notwithstanding the 
 passage in Genesis viii. 4, where it is said that the 
 ark rested ' on the mountains of Ararat,' it has 
 become coromon to give the name A., not to the 
 entire range, but to the mountain called by the 
 Armenians Massis Leusar — ^i. e., ' mountain of the 
 ark ' (known among the Turlcs as Aghri-Dagh, 
 ' steep mountain ; ' and among the Persians as Koh-i- 
 NHh, 'Noah's mountain'), a solitary volcanic cone 
 covered with perpetual snow and rising to the height 
 of 17,212 feet above the level of the sea. This, the 
 highest elevation of Western Asia, towers up from the 
 eastern edge of the Armenian table-laud, and foi-ms 
 
 Mount Ararat. 
 
 the point where the Russian, Turkish, and Persian 
 territories meet. It stands in 39° 42' N. lat., and in 
 44° 35' E. long. The table-laud of this part of Armenia 
 has an elevation of 7000 feet, and out of this rises 
 an isolated and sublime mass of rock 10,000 feet 
 high, whose gleaming pinnacles of ice are said 
 to be visible to mariners on the distant Caspian. 
 The summit from certain positions presents the 
 appearance of a ship. The first ascent of the 
 mountain was achieved by the naturalist Parrot 
 and his companions in 1829. They did not, however, 
 quite reach the top. In 1850, it was ascended by 
 Colonel Khoelzko, and a large party of Russians 
 engaged in the transoauoasiau triangulation. 
 
 A'RAS, the ancient Araxes, a river of Armenia, 
 formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the 
 Kaleh-Su, and uniting its waters with those of the 
 Km: (ancient Cyrus) after a course of about 500 
 miles. The main stream is the Bingol-Su, which 
 rises in the Bingol-Tagh, in lat. 41° 30' N., and 
 long. 41° 10' E. ; and flowing N.N.E., is joined 
 a little below Hasan-kaleh by the Kaleh-Su, 
 after which the combined stream is called the A. 
 It then flows eastward, forming for some time the 
 southern boundary of the province of Kars,' till it is 
 jomed by the Arpa, which flows into it from the 
 north. After this, it divides Russian and Turkish 
 Armenia ; at some distance to the south of Erivan it 
 turns to the south-east, along the base of Ararat; 
 soon after which it receives the waters of the Zenghi, 
 a river descending southward past Erivan. Near 
 Djulfa it runs eastward for about 60 mQes; after 
 which it nins to the north-east for upwards of 125 
 miles, till it is joined by the large river Kur, descend- 
 m^ from the Caucasus through Georgia. Their 
 umted waters, after a short eastward com-se, turn 
 suddenly to the south, and fall by three mouths 
 mto the Gulf of Kizilgatoh, in the Caspian, in lat. 
 39°20'N. 
 
ARATUS-ARAUOARIA. 
 
 ARA'TUS, OJ? SlOYON, a distinguished Greek 
 statesman, was bom about 271 B.C. Hia youth 
 fell amona the party strifes of his native town, 
 in which his father, Clinias, met his death ; and 
 he himself- was only saved by the efforts of his 
 aunt, who had him secretly conveyed to Argos, 
 whence he returned, in his twentieth year, and 
 liberated Sioyou from its tyrant, Nioocles, 251 
 B.C. Supported by Ptolemceus PhUadelphus, A. 
 restored the repiiblicau form of government to 
 Sicyon, and united it with the Aohaian League, 
 of which he was appointed general, 245 B.C. 
 During his honourable but checkered career, this 
 office was qonferred on him seventeen times. His 
 great object was to unite the Greek states, and 
 form out of them an iudependent nation ; but this 
 was thwarted by their mutual jealousies. A. was a 
 brave general, a skilfiil tactician, and a disinterested 
 patriot. He died by poison administered to him 
 by command of Philip III. of Macedon. 
 
 ARA'TUS, OP Soli (or Pompeiopolis, in GUicia), 
 wrote about 270 B. c, a Greek didactic poem, entitled 
 Plimnotnena, founded on the astronomical system of 
 Eudoxos of Cnidos, and appended to it another 
 poem, Diosemeia, giving rules for prognostication of 
 the weather, A pure style and correct versification' 
 mark both poems, which were translated into Latin 
 by Cicero, Ciesar Germanicus, and Rufus Festus 
 Avienus. A. was a native of the same province as 
 St Paul, who quotes from him in his speech on Mars' 
 Hill : ' For as certain of your own poets have said. 
 We also are his offspring.' The best edition is that 
 by Buhle, 2 vols. Leipsic, 1793—1801. 
 
 ARAUCA'NIA, that portion of ChUi which lies 
 between the Biobio on the N. and the Valdivia on 
 the S. But, though thus embosomed as it were 
 within ChiU, it forms an aboriginal state, which is 
 virtually independent of that republic. A. extends 
 in S. lat. from 36° 44' to 39° 50', and in W. long, from 
 70° to 74° 30' — its length being about 180 miles, and 
 its general breadth from the shore of the Pacific to the 
 crest of the Andes being 150. This country, com- 
 prising perhaps about 25,000 square miles, is divided 
 from north to south into four parallel regions, vary- 
 ing from each other, with tolerable regularity, in soil 
 and climate. These are the coast region, the plain 
 region, the region of the Lower Andes, and the 
 region of "the Higher Andes. The productions of A. 
 are similar to those of Chili. The population cannot 
 be accurately estimated on account of the independ- 
 ence of the nation ; but from their successful resist- 
 ance to the Spaniards, it must be presumed to be 
 comparatively dense. 
 
 A. has the proud distinction of being the only 
 portion of the New "World that has never received the 
 European yoke. From the days of Pizarro and 
 Almagro downwards, it has imif ormly vindicated its 
 freedom — its wars of independence having lasted, 
 with intervals of precarious truce, from 1537 to 
 1773. As early as 1568, the Araucanians, taking a 
 lesson from their enemy, brought into the field some 
 squadrons of cavalry; and in the war between ChUi 
 and Spain, some Aranoauian youths of the first rank 
 served as officers in the republican armies. 
 
 ARATJCA'RIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Coniferce (q. v.) or Pines, consisting of lofty 
 trees, natives of the .southern hemisphere, and 
 distinguished by having the male and female flowers 
 on separate plants, the pollen of the male flowers 
 contained in 10 — 20 cases pendent from the apex of 
 each scale, the female flowers two under each scale ; 
 each having one ovule. The species are all ever- 
 green, the leaves broader than in pines and firs, 
 which, however, the trees resemble in their general 
 manner of growth. A. inibricala, sometimes called 
 
 the Chili Pine, a native of the Andes of Chili, 
 forming forests on their western declivities, attains 
 a height of 150 feet, the trunk quite straight and free 
 
 Arauoaria imbricata : 
 End of a branch, much rednced, shewing the mode of ramifica- 
 tion, and the manner in which the leaves are imbricated. 
 
 from knots. The bark of the young trees is studded 
 with leaves from the base upwards, even until 12 
 or 15 years of age. The branches are in whorls of 
 6, 7, or 8. Young trees have branches almost from 
 the ground ; old trees have tail naked stems, with a 
 crown of branches. The female strobile (cone) is 
 roundish ovate, 8 — 10 inches in diameter, the scales 
 terminated by a long awl-shaped point, the seeds 
 wedge-shaped, and more than an inch in length. The 
 
 Araucaria imbricata : 
 Sketched in the Botanic Gardens, Edmburgh. 
 
 outer and inner bark of full-grown trees are each 
 4—6 inches in thickness ; the outer bark of a cork- 
 like texture ; the u^ner, fungous and porous. From 
 both outer and inner bai-k, and indeed from all parts 
 of the tree, resin flows readily and in great abund- 
 ance. The leaves are lanceolate, about IJ moh m 
 length, and i iuoh in breadth near the base, sharp- 
 
ABAITJO— AUBAtESTllfA. 
 
 pointed. The timber is teavy, soKd, hard, fibroua, 
 yellowish white, and beautifully veined. It ia very 
 suitable for masts of ships. The resio, which is 
 white, has a smell like frankincense, and a not 
 unpleasant taste. It is apphed as a plaster to con- 
 tusions. The seed is pleasant to the taste, not unlike 
 the chestnut, and is a most important article of food 
 to the Indians. It is eaten raw, boiled, or roasted. 
 A spirituous hquor is also distUled from it. A single 
 strobile sometimes contains between 200 and 300 
 seeds, and one tree may be seen loaded with 20 or 30 
 of these great strobiles. This Arauoaria was intro- 
 duced into Britain in the end of last century, and is 
 now pretty frequently planted. It promises to add 
 a new feature to British landscapes, as other trees of 
 the same order, particularly the larch and spruce, 
 have done before, and wiU probably prove unportant 
 in an economical point of view. It is the only 
 species which seems suited to the climate of Britain. 
 A. BrasiUana, the Bbazil Pine, has loosely imbri- 
 cated lanceolate leaves, and a looser and more 
 spreading habit than A. imbrkata. The seeds or 
 nuts are sold as an article of food in Eio Janeiro. 
 The resin which exudes from the tree is mixed with 
 wax to make candles. A. excelsa, now called 
 JUvtassa excelsa (and by some Altingia), the Norfolk 
 IsLAKD Pine, a native of Norfolk Island, New Cale- 
 donia, &o., attains a height of 160 — 220 feet, free 
 from branches to 80 — 100 feet, and with a tmnk 
 sometimes 11 feet in diameter. The wood is white, 
 tough, close-grained, and so heavy as almost to sink 
 in water. The leaves of the young trees are linear 
 and spreading; those of the adult are ovate, and 
 closely imbricated. The strobiles are ovate, 4 — 5 
 inches in length. A. Cunninghamii, now also 
 ranked in the new genus Evtassa or Altingia, the 
 MoEETON Bay Pine, a native of the shores of 
 Moreton Bay and banks of the Brisbane Paver in 
 New South Wales, very much resembles the last. 
 It attains a height of 60 — 130 feet, and a diameter 
 of 4 — 8 feet. The leaves of the adult trees are 
 lanceolate and imbricated. The wood is yellowish, 
 and is used for boat-bmlding, house-carpentry, and 
 the common kinds of furniture. The large seeds of 
 A. Bidwillii are used for food by the natives at 
 Moreton Bay. 
 
 Certain fossil Comi/ercE found in carboniferous sand- 
 stone have received the name Araunarites. Living- 
 stone found a forest of large silicified trees near the 
 Zambesi, which Mr Quekett, on examination of 
 specimens, ascertained to be ' silicified coniferous 
 wood of the Araucarian type.' Fossil trees of the 
 same type occur in the carboniferous strata of 
 Britain. A trunk, for instance, 47 feet long, was 
 foimd in Craigleith Quarry, near Edinburgh, in 1830. 
 
 AEAXJJO, D'Azeve'do Anto'nio, afterwards 
 Count da Barca, was born at Sa, in the neighbour- 
 hood of Ponte de Lima, in Portugal, on the 14th 
 of May 1754. At the age of 11, he was sent to 
 Oporto to study under has uncle, who held a high 
 military command there. In 1787 he was appointed 
 Portuguese ambassador to the Hague. Before 
 entering on his duties, he visited England, where he 
 omitted no opportunity of obtaining a knowledge 
 of English manufaotm-es, commerce, politics, &c. 
 He next proceeded to Paris, where he similarly 
 employed himself. Soon after his arrival at the 
 Hague, he found himself entangled in political difS- 
 culties. The French Revolution had broken out, 
 but the part which he played in the complication 
 of political affairs which ensued falls to be treated 
 more properly under the History of Portugal (q. v.). 
 
 At length he threw up his ambassadorship, and 
 travelled through Germany, enlarging the sphere of 
 his studies. He paid especial attention to minera- 
 logy and chemistry, and was fortunate enough to 
 
 become acquainted with Goethe, Wieland, Schiller, 
 Herder, &c. After the Peace of Ami nTia.j A. was 
 sent as ambassador to St Petersburg; in 1803 he 
 was recalled to Lisbon, to assume the office' of 
 Secretary of State; and in 1806 he obtained the 
 highest political dignity in the kingdom. His 
 efforts to introduce the various agencies of civilis- 
 ation, while he occupied this situation, were 
 unremitting. Glass, paper, wool, and cotton manu- 
 factures, received liberal encouragement. But the 
 sudden approach of the French army put an end 
 to all his improvements. The royal family, which 
 Bonaparte had formally dethroned in Ms victorious 
 proclamation, emigrated to Brazil. A. embarked 
 also, taking along with him a complete printing 
 apparatus, his miueralogical collection, arranged by 
 Werner, and all necessary chemical instruments. 
 During the first years of his residence in the New 
 World, he devoted himself assiduously to scientific 
 and literary pursuits ; founded a school of medicine 
 and chemistry, introduced the cultivation of tea, an 
 improved machine for sawing wood, and a sugar- 
 alembic, and established a porcelain manufactory. 
 He had also a magnificent garden, the plants of 
 which were scientifically arranged. He died on the 
 21st June 1817. 
 
 ARAU'BE, a town of Venezuela, South America. 
 It is situated in lat. 9° 17' N., long. 69° 28' W., 60 
 nules E.N.E. of TrujiUo, in a region noted for its 
 fertility in the production of cotton, coffee, cattle, 
 &c. The town itself is rather handsome, and con- 
 tains 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 A'EBALEST, AECU'BALEST, or CEOSS- 
 EOW, was a weapon much in use during the feudal 
 times. Its recognised position among mflitary arms 
 may be dated from about the period of Eichard I. 
 The smaller kinds of A. were bent by pressing the 
 
 Arbalest, 
 
 hand on a small steel lever called the ' goat's foot ;' 
 but the larger kinds were bent by placing the foot 
 in a loop or stirrup at the end of the central shaft, 
 and drawing the cord upwards with the hand. At 
 a later period, the bow was made very strong, often 
 of steel ; in this form it required a mechanical con- 
 trivance, called a ' morJinet,' to bend it. Sometimes 
 ordinary arrows were used with the A., but more 
 usually arrows of a shorter and stouter kind, called 
 'cairials' or 'quarrels,' were employed ; these bad 
 a four-sided pyramidal form of head. Occasionally 
 stones and leaden balls were shot from the larger 
 Arbalests. The arbalestiers, or cross-bowmen, carried 
 a quiver with fifty arrows as an armament in some 
 of the battles of the 13th c. They were an essen-- 
 tial component of armies of that period, taking up 
 their position in the van of the battle-array ; some 
 were mounted, some on foot, and they occasionally 
 wore armour. The supply of arrows or quarrels 
 was carried after them to the battle-field in carts. 
 The A. contuiued to be a favom-ite wpapon in Eng- 
 land throughout the 13th c. ; but in the 14th, it 
 gave way to the long-bow, which was found to be a 
 more convenient weapon in battle. The long-bow 
 is described imder Bow and Arrow ; and the gene- 
 ral military system to which it belonged, under 
 Archers and Archery. 
 
 AEBALESTI'NA, in the military system of the 
 
AEBELA— AEBITEATION. 
 
 middle ages, waa a small ■window or wioket througli 
 whioh the cross-bowmen shot their quarrels or 
 arrows at an enemy besieging a fortified place. 
 
 ARBE'LA, now Erbil or Arbil, a small town of 
 Assyria, east from Mossul, famous as having given 
 name to the battle in which Alejfander finally 
 defeated Darius, 331 B. o. The battle was really 
 fought near Guagamela (the ' camel's house '), to the 
 north-west of A. 
 
 ABBITEA'TIOlir is the adjudication by private 
 persons appointed to decide a matter, or matters in 
 controversy, on a reference made to them for that 
 purpose, either by agreement of the disputants or by 
 the order, or on the suggestion, of a court of law. 
 The proceeding generally is called a submission to 
 arbitroMon, or refefemx; the parties appointed to 
 decide are termed arlntraltors, or referees; and their 
 adjudication is called an award. This mode of set- 
 tling disputes is not only frequently resorted to by 
 litigants themselves, who are anxious to avoid the 
 delay and expense of proceedings in the public 
 tribunals, but the Statute-Book bears witness to the 
 approval of it by the legislature at various times. 
 An old act, the 9 and 10 Will. III. o. 15, testifies 
 the benefits of A. in strong terms, declaring that ' it 
 hath been found by experience that references made 
 by rule of court have contributed much to the ease 
 of the subject in the determining of controversies, 
 because the parties become thereby obliged to sub- 
 mit to the award of the arbitrators,' and it proceeds 
 to authorise and encourage merchants, traders, and 
 others to put an end to their controversies and quar- 
 rels by means of A.; and a modern 'act, passed in 
 1833, the 3 and 4 Will. IV. o. 42, ss. 39, 40, and 41, 
 contains stiU more anxious provisions for rendering 
 references to A. effectual. Since that act was passed, 
 the practice and feeling in favour of A. has increased, 
 so much so that there are recent statutes which con- 
 tain provisions renderiDg A., or private reference in 
 certain cases, compulsory. The Railway Acts of 
 1845, the Public Health Act of 1848, and the 
 Common Law Procedure Act of 1854, are modem 
 examples of this legislative peculiarity. 
 
 The matters that may be determined by an arbi- 
 trator are all personal disputes and differences which 
 might otherwise be made the subject of controversy 
 in the courts of civil jurisdiction. Thus breaches of 
 contracts generally, breaches of promises of mar- 
 riage, trespass, assaults, charges of slander, differ- 
 ences respecting partnership transactions or the pur- 
 chase price of property, and questions relating to 
 toUs or the right to tithes, may all be referred to 
 A. Questions relating to real property may also be 
 referred, such as those relating to the partition of 
 lands of joint tenants or tenants in common, to set- 
 tlements of disputed boundaries — to differences be- 
 tween landlord and tenant respecting waste — and to 
 the title to land. Pure questions of law may also 
 be referred to the decision of an arbitrator. An 
 arbitrator may have, therefore, to determine the 
 liability of "■ party on a promissory-note or biH of 
 exchange, or to construe an act of parliament, or to 
 give a judicial opinion on the effect of a wiU or 
 deed. Actions at law, and suits in equity, may 
 also be settled by A. ; and this kind of reference 
 may be made at any stage of the proceedings, some- 
 times even after verdict, and probably by analogy, 
 after decree in equity. Questions relating to the 
 future use and enjoyment of property, and future 
 or anticipated differences between parties, may 
 likewise be referred. 
 
 A matter, however clearly illegal, cannot be made 
 the subject of a valid reference. But where trans- 
 actions between parties have been brought to a close 
 by a general award, apparently good, the courts 
 
 have refused to re-open them on a suggestion that 
 some illegal item has been admitted in account. 
 
 There are certain matters which are specially 
 referred to A. by statute. Besides those we have 
 already alluded to, the following matters are all 
 referrible to A. : Questions relating to the expenses 
 of prisoners, under the 5 Geo. I v. c. 85; to the 
 regulation of municipal corporations in England 
 and Wales, under the 5 and 6 Will. IV. c. 76 ; 
 to the laws concerning prisons, under the 5 and 
 6 Vict. c. 98; to disputes between masters and 
 workmen, under the 5 Geo. IV. c. 96, amended by 
 the 7 WiU. IV. and 1 Vict. o. 67; to the laws 
 relating to savings' banlcs, under the 9 Geo. IV. 
 c. 92, and 7 and 8 Vict. c. 83; to the land rights and 
 other possessions of certain ecclesiastical and col- 
 legiate corporations, imder the 2 and 3 WUl. IV. o. 
 80; to the management and improvement of epis- 
 copal and capitular estates in England, under the 
 17 and 18 Vict. c. 116; to the conveyance of maUs 
 by railways, under the 1 and 2 Vict. o. 98 ; to insol- 
 vents and to insolvency, bankruptcy, and execution, 
 under the 1 and 2 Vict. c. 110, 7 and 8 Vict. c. 96, 
 12 and 13 Vict. c. 106 ; to the constitution of com- 
 panies incorporated for carrying on public under- 
 takings, under the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 16 ; to the taking 
 of lands for undertakings of a public nature, under 
 8 and 9 Vict. o. 18; to the metropohtan sewers, 
 under the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 112 (continued and 
 amended by 12 and 13 Vict. c. 93, the 14 and 15 
 Vict. 0. 75, the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 64, the 16 and 17 
 Vict. c. 125, the 17 and 18 Vict. c. Ill) ; to friendly 
 societies, under the 17 and 18 Vict. u. 56, and the 18 
 and 19 Vict. c. 93. 
 
 Under these acts of parhament, the class of case's 
 which may, or which must, be referred to A., have 
 been greatly enlarged. The railway acts, in par- 
 ticular, have largely contributed to this Idnd of 
 amicable determination, although the parties in such 
 cases cannot be said to have much discretion in the 
 matter. Under the provisions, again, of the Common 
 Law Procedure Act, 1854 (17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, 
 S3. 3 and 6), parties may be compelled by the court, 
 or judge who tries the case, to refer matters of mere 
 account in an action which cannot be conveniently 
 tried in the ordinary way. 
 
 Among the questions that cannot be referred to 
 A., are matters arising out of the administration of 
 the criminal law in the case of felonies and relating 
 to agreements or transactions agaiast public policy. 
 Felonies and ofl'ences of a pubhc nature cannot be 
 referred, because the public safety and good require 
 them to be punished, and for this purpose they 
 can only be properly tried in one of the ordinary 
 courts of the country. 
 
 With respect to matters which cannot be referred 
 on account of their being against public policy, the 
 rule is so obviously just as not to need illustration. 
 
 But there are certain misdemeanours which may 
 be either settled by agreement or by means of an 
 A., on a principle of very general apphcation stated 
 by Chief justice Gibbs — ^that where there is a 
 remedy, ' by action as well as by indictment, a 
 reference of the matter in controversy is good. And 
 in these cases of misdemeanour, a compromise or 
 settlement under a reference may be made, even 
 after conviction, but with the sanction of the court. 
 
 As to the parties who may make a reference to A., 
 .it maybe stated generally, that every one capable 
 of making a disposition of his property or release of 
 his rights may make a submission to an award, and 
 in this category may be placed a married woman, 
 who has a separate estate settled to her separate use, 
 and there are even cases where a reference between 
 a husband and wife has been held vahd ; and of 
 course a husband may submit to A. differences 
 
AEBITEATION. 
 
 respecting his wife's personal estate wMcli has not 
 been settled to her separate use. 
 
 Eespecting the powers of infants or persons vinder 
 age to submit to A., there are numerous decisions in 
 the courts of law and equity: but they go upon 
 refinements and nice distinctions more suited for the 
 professional lawyer than for the ordinary reader, 
 and we therefore do not think it necessary to give 
 any explanation of them ia a popular article such as 
 this professes to be. 
 
 Psurtners and corporations may make references to 
 A. on the principles already explained, and according 
 to the relation in which they stand to the matter in 
 dispute. 
 
 Those who cannot submit to A. are persons in the 
 following position : Persons who cannot contract ; 
 married women without any estate settled to their 
 separate use ; and along with them, as laid down in 
 old ante-reformation books, persons professed in reli- 
 gion, and persons under duress. There is an exception 
 to the incapacity, of married women to refer to A. 
 where the husband, by exile, banishment, or other 
 caxise, is held to be civflly dead, and when he is an 
 alien enemy. To these exceptions it may be added, 
 that in suits respecting the property of charities the 
 Court of Chancery will not permit a reference, 
 however advisable such a course may seem, unless 
 the attorney-general gives his consent. 
 
 It has generally been the opinion of the legal 
 profession, and held to be the doctrine of the 
 courts, that a reference by the consent of counsel in 
 a cause is binding on his cUent; and»Lord Chancellor 
 JE)ldon once said, that it was for the counsel to 
 consider whether he was authorised to refer, and if 
 so, he (the chancellor) would act on the consent so 
 given ; and the right and privilege of counsel to 
 make a reference has been very strongly laid down 
 in the Scotch courts. But a very recent case in the 
 Court of Common Pleas (Swinfen v. Swinfen), where 
 a compromise by counsel was successfully resisted 
 by the client, has very much unsettled the English 
 law on this subject; and now the feeling of the Bar 
 in England is, that it is unsafe to refer or compromise 
 a litigation on the independent authority of counsel. 
 
 Submissions to reference may also be made by 
 executors and administrators, by trustees, by the 
 committee of a lunatic, and by the officer of a public 
 company, who is authorised by a statute to sue and 
 be sued in the name of the company. And there 
 are persons especially empowered to refer by the 
 statutes which we have already enumerated. 
 
 Disputes may be referred to A. in any manner 
 that expresses the agreement or understanding of 
 the parties to be bound by the decision of the 
 arbitrator ; and for this piirpose no formal submission, 
 either verbal or written, is necessary; but the 
 arrangement must be such as manifestly to shew an 
 intention to have the difference concluded by a 
 private adjudication in the nature of an award. 
 But where the submission is in writing, it must be 
 executed in due form. A testator, however, cannot 
 exclude his wiU from litigation by a proviso, that all 
 differences respecting it shall be referred to A., 
 although it is thought that the parties benefited by 
 the will might themselves so refer. Generally 
 speaking, it is advantageous to make the A. in such 
 a form as that the award may be made a rule of 
 court — ^that is, may be adopted by a court of law as 
 its judgment on the matter submitted, a proceeding 
 that affords an obvious facility in enforcing the 
 award ; and for this purpose it is necessary to make 
 the procedure conformable to the directions of the 
 statutes 9 and 10 Will. III., and 3 and 4 Wm. IV., 
 already referred to. Where the submission is merely 
 verbal or constituted by a private bond or deed, it is 
 liable to be capriciously revoked, and proceedings 
 360 
 
 on the award, in such a case, can only be taken in 
 the Coiu?t of Chancery. 
 
 The arbitrator ought to be a person who stands 
 perfectly indifierent between the disputants ; but 
 there are no other particular quahfications for the 
 office. And the choice by parties of the person 
 who they agree shall decide between them, is per- 
 fectly free. Some legal writers have even gone so 
 far as to maintain, that not only infants and married 
 women, but even idiots and lunatics, can be arbitra- 
 tors, on the argument that every person is at liberty 
 to choose whom he likes best for his private judge, 
 and he cannot afterwards object to the deficiencies 
 of those whom he has himself selected. But this, 
 it ia thought, is going too far, and the policy of 
 the law would probably be interposed against such 
 extreme cases. It is better to state the rule to be, 
 that on the condition that the party selected is of 
 ordinary intelligence, the choice of an arbitrator is 
 absolutely imfettered. -The only exception to this 
 ride is the case of a party who, by office or position, 
 is the person pointed out for the duty under a 
 reference made by statute. In matters of compU- 
 cated accounts, mercantile men are generally preferred. 
 In other cases, it is usual to appoint barristers who, 
 being accustomed to judicial investigations, are able 
 to estimate the evidence properly, to confine the 
 examination strictly to the points in question, and, 
 in making the award, to avoid those informahties in 
 respect of which it might afterwards be set aside. 
 Both time and expense are thus saved by fixing on 
 a professional arbitrator. It has, indeed, been 
 wisely remarked, that an arbitrator should endeavour 
 to arrive at his conclusions upon the same rules and 
 principles which would have actuated the court for 
 which he is substituted — a rule of conduct that 
 obviously points to the expediency of a lawyer being 
 the referee. But an arbitrator is not bound by the 
 mere rules of practice which prevail in the ordinary 
 courts of justice, and he has been held justified in 
 allowing interest on both sides of an unliquidated 
 account, although such a determination was against 
 the practice of the Court of Chancery, where the 
 suit, which had been referred, had been commenced. 
 
 The proceedings before an arbitrator are regulated 
 according to the peculiar circumstances of the case 
 submitted, but generally it is advisable to conduct 
 them according to the forms observed in courts 
 of law, and they usually are so conducted. Each of 
 the parties furnishes the arbitrator with a state- 
 ment of his case, which is done by giving him 
 a copy of the briefs on each side ; and on the day 
 appointed he proceeds to hear them (either in person 
 or by their counsel or attorneys), and to receive the 
 evidence on each side, nearly in the same manner as 
 a judge at an ordinary trial. Having so heard the 
 case, the arbitrator proceeds to make his award, 
 which need not necessarily be in writing, for a verbal 
 award is perfectly valid ; but in practice it is usual 
 for the arbitrator to make his award on paper 
 stamped with the proper award stamp, and this he 
 delivers to the successful party. The unsuccessful 
 party gets a copy of the award on unstamped paper. 
 This award in its effect operates as a final and con- 
 clusive judgment respectmg all the matter submitted, 
 and it binds the rights of the parties for all time. 
 
 An award may be set aside on the ground of 
 corruption and fraud in the arbitrator, and for any 
 material irregularity or illegality appearing on the 
 face of the proceedings. But the tendency of the 
 courts is to favour arbitrations and maintain awards, 
 unless such serious grounds as we have referred to 
 can be substantiated. 
 
 Where there are two arbitrators, the submission 
 often provides that in the case of their differing 
 in opinion the matter referred shall be decided by a 
 
ARBOGA— AEBORICULTUEE. 
 
 third person, called an umpire, who is generally 
 appointed under a power to that effect, by the arbi- 
 trators themselves. But they cannot mjike such an 
 appointment unless specially authorised so to do by 
 the terms of the submission. This umpire rehears 
 the case, and for this purpose is invested with the 
 same powers as those possessed by tho arbitrators, 
 and bound by the same rules. 
 
 In Scotland an A. takes place in virtue of a 
 written submission executed by the parties in favour 
 of the chosen referee, who there is called an arbiter, 
 instead of arbitrator, as in England ; and his award 
 is called a decree-arbitral. This submission is in the 
 form of a regular deed, and is said to be general or 
 special, according to the nature of the miatters sub- 
 mitted by it, the submission specifying all the paa?ti- 
 culars of the reference, and the name of the referee 
 — ^the arbiter's powers and duties, which, in the ordi- 
 nary case, are of the most comprehensive character 
 — the specification of the time within which the 
 award or decree-arbitral is to be made — a clause 
 obHging the parties to perform the award under a 
 specified penalty ; and other anxious provisions, 
 which are all carefully specified in the submission. 
 The case then proceeds before the arbiter, generally 
 according to the forms observed in the ordinary 
 Scotch courts ; and the arbiter makes his award in a 
 very solemn manner, the decree-arbitral commencing 
 with a recital of the submission and of all the pro- 
 cedure — and after stating that the arbiter has ripely 
 considered the whole matter, and has ' God and a 
 good conscience before his eyes,' it gives the arbiter's 
 judgment, and among other things ordains the sub- 
 mission and decree to be recorded according to the 
 clause of registration in the former, and the extract 
 from the registry so made forms a judgment which 
 may be put in execution by either party against the 
 other. The decree-arbitral, like the submission 
 itself, must be executed and attested in the form of 
 a regular deed. Where there are two arbiters, the 
 submission usually provides, that in the event of 
 their differing in opinion, they shall name an umpire 
 or oversman, aa he is called in Scotland, whose 
 judgment is final. 
 
 In conclusion, and as a remark on A. generally, it 
 only remains to be stated, that of course, from the 
 nature of the case, there can be no appeal on the 
 merits of the dispute submitted to any public 
 tribunal whatever. 
 
 ARBO'GA, an ancient city in Sweden, in the 
 province of Westmannland, on a small river of the 
 same name, by which, with the aid of a canal, the 
 lakes Hialmar and Malar are united. A. used to be 
 an important commercial town, but it has now sunk 
 into insignificance, and only possesses an historical 
 interest from the antiquities in its neighbourhood. 
 Of all its churches, cloisters, and chapels there only 
 now remain the town and parish churches, the 
 former with an altar-piece of Rembrandt's. Several 
 kings of the family of Vasa have resided here. 
 Church assemblies were held here in 1396, 1412, 
 1417, 1423, and 1474; diets in 1435, 1440, 1471, 
 1529, and 1561, in which last year also certain 
 articles, known as the Arboga Articles, were passed 
 by which Eric XIV. was enabled to limit the power 
 of the nobles; and in 1625, Gustavus Adolphus 
 issued an edict here, commanding that the copper 
 coin of the realm should contain its fuU worth of 
 copper. 
 
 ARBORB'SCENT (from Lat. arlor, a tree), a 
 term applied to plants to signify that they possess 
 either altogether, or in some measure, the character 
 of trees. Even the dwarf willows and birches, on 
 the confines of polar or alpiae perpetual snow, are 
 described as the A. vegetation of these regions. 
 
 ARBORIGU'LTURE (from Lat. arlor, a tree), 
 a term literally signifying the cultivation of trees, 
 but in use generally^ restricted to the planting 
 and management of timber trees, or employed as 
 exclusive at least of the cultivation of fruit trees, 
 which is a branch of horticulture or gardening. 
 
 The ancients practised A. to some extent, but 
 chiefly with the view of beautifying their villas, or of 
 forming pubhc walks in the vicinity of cities. It is 
 only for similar purposes, and on a very limited 
 scale, that A. is yet anywhere practised in America. 
 The planting of timber trees for economical pur- 
 poses, or with a view to profit, is unnecessary whilst 
 natural forests are abundant, and can scarcely be 
 referred even in Britain to an earlier period than the 
 beginning of the 16th c, nor did it become at aU 
 general till a much later date. The early forest 
 laws of England, as of other feudal countries, had 
 reference cmefly to game, for the sake of which it 
 was, and in order to the enjoyment of the chase, 
 that large tracts were depopulated and converted 
 inio forests by the first Norman kings. Plantations 
 for timber and fuel were, however, certainly made in 
 England in the 16th c. ; and the importance of the 
 subject was urged on public attention by avtthors 
 of that period. In the 17th c, the greatly increased 
 demand for oak, for the building boBi of ships and of 
 houses, gave a new impulse to A., which attracted 
 more than ever before the attention both of the go- 
 vernment and of the great landowners ; the publication 
 of Evelyn's Sylva also did more than any previous 
 work to promote a taste for it. It was in this century 
 that nurseries for forest trees were first established. 
 It was not until the beginning of the 18th c. that the 
 first extensive plantations werd made in Scotland, nor 
 untE towards the end of that century that A. became 
 general in that country or in Ireland. How much 
 the very landscape has been changed by it — how 
 great a difference has been made by the conversion 
 of bleak hills and barren wastes into woods — how 
 much the scene has been changed by the new forms 
 of foreign trees, some of which are now in many 
 districts more abundant than those which are indi- 
 genous, it is not easy to imagine ; and how much 
 these changes have promoted and are indicative of 
 improvements in agriculture and increased produc- 
 tiveness of fields, is equally difiicult to estimate. 
 
 The A. of France, Germany, and other parts of 
 Europe, to this day, consists in a great measure of 
 the management of natural forests ; and in the more 
 eastern parts of the continent this is almost exclu- 
 sively the case. Without a careful management of 
 the natural forests, many districts of France and 
 Germany would soon be destitute of fuel ; by means 
 of it an increased supply of valuable timber is also 
 obtained ; and extensive domains belongiug to the 
 state, or to private proprietors, are rendered much 
 more productive. It is in Germany that the 
 management of the forests has received the greatest 
 attention, and has been most systematically and 
 scientifically conducted. 
 
 The forest trees of Britain, and of temperate 
 climates generally, are conveniently divided into 
 two classes — the one consisting of coniferous trees or 
 pines and firs [Naddholz, i.e., the ' needlewood' of the 
 Germans), the other including all other kinds [Lavh- 
 Iwlz, i.e., the 'leaf-wood' of the Germans); the latter 
 being sometimes subdivided into hard-wooded trees, 
 of which the most important in Britain are oak, ash, 
 elm, beech, birch, hornbeam, sycamore, walnut, and 
 chestnut; and soft-wooded trees, as wUlow, poplar, 
 lime, alder, and horse-chestnut. Of these and other 
 trees, of their particular uses, and of the soils and 
 situations to which they are adapted, notice is taken 
 in separate articles. 
 
 Plantations are generally formed in Britain by 
 
 861 
 
ARteOillCttLttttlfi. 
 
 means of trees raised from seed in a muaery ; but 
 sometimes also by sowing the seed on tbe gromid 
 intended for the plantation ; in which case, if 
 circimistanees permit, a crop of grain is often sown 
 along with the seeds of the trees, as these do not in 
 
 feneral vegetate very soon ; and the young plants 
 erive advantage from the absence of choking weeds 
 when the grain-crop is reaped, and from the protec- 
 tion afforded by the stubble. It has been supposed 
 by some, but there is no sufficient evidence in sup- 
 port of the opinion, that more healthy and vigorous 
 trees are obtained by sowing on the spot than 
 by planting those which have been raised in a 
 nursery. However, only very young trees can be 
 planted with advantage, those which have attained 
 a greater size requiring a, degree of attention far 
 beyond what is possible in plantations even of very 
 moderate extent. The time of planting is from 
 November to February. The most approved mode 
 of planting is in small pits, in which the roots are 
 disposed in a natural manner, and which are then 
 carefully filled up with earth; but it is often 
 thought sufficient when the tree to be planted is very 
 young, to make a slit for it with the spade, or two 
 slits, one at right angles to the other in the form of 
 the letter T. Other methods are also adopted, par- 
 ticularly for rocky situations, in which the spade 
 cannot be used. Economy is often a consideration 
 of great importance in determining the mode of 
 planting. 
 
 The formation of plantations bjr the sowing of 
 seed has been more generally practised on the con- 
 tinent than in Britain. In this way the vacancies 
 in the natural forests of France and Germany are 
 filled up. In this way also great sandy tracts have 
 been covered with wood on the coasts of Pomerania 
 and of France. This has particularly been accom- 
 plished on a scale of extraordinary magnitude ia the 
 downs of drifting Sand, between the rivers Adour 
 and Gtronde. The operations there were begun by 
 M. Bremontier in 1789, and deserve to be mentioned 
 as perhaps the most important operations in A. that 
 have ever been performed in the world. Vast 
 forests of pinaster now occupy what was originally 
 loose sand destitute of vegetation. 
 
 Too little attention has hitherto been generally 
 paid to the adaptation of the kinds of trees that are 
 planted to the soil and climate ; and to this cause 
 many fafliu-es ui A. are to be ascribed. Some trees 
 grow well even in exposed situations, and are fit to 
 be employed ia these, either to form entire planta- 
 tions, or to occupy the outer part, and so to shelter 
 other trees, which in general are not planted untU 
 the outer zone or belt of the most hardy kinds is 
 somewhat advanced ; some succeed only in rich 
 soils ; some are incapable of enduring the sea-breeze ; 
 others, as the sycamore, the elder, and the pinaster, 
 are comparatively unaffected by it. Some trees 
 suffer from an amount of moisture from which 
 alders or willows would rather derive advantage ; 
 but, in general, the thorough drainage of the land 
 intended for a plantation is one of the circumstances 
 most important to its success. 
 
 To the necessity of this thorough drainage we 
 must look as compensating, or more than compensat- 
 ing, the influence which woods exercise in condens- 
 ing the moisture of the atmosphere, and in render- 
 ing a climate cold and damp ; marshy soils being 
 in this respect stUl worse. The shelter afforded by 
 plantations judiciously disposed, whether in belts 
 or otherwise, is also of great importance in render- 
 ing them suitable for that improved agriculture in 
 which thorough drainage is of the first necessity, 
 and which is always productive of ameKoration of 
 climate. The influence of plantations is therefore, 
 upon the whole, beneficial, although vast masses of 
 362 
 
 forest are injurious to climate; and it must be 
 admitted that in some localities the planting of trees 
 has been carried to excess, so that fields often suffer, 
 particularly in autumn, from want of free circula- 
 tion of air, and the landscape is often restricted to 
 very narrow limits. The remedy ia such cases is 
 obvious ; and it not unfrequently happens that 
 within a short distance new plantations might be 
 formed with every prospect of benefit. 
 
 Much has been written about the pruning of 
 forest trees, with a view especially to the produc- 
 tion of taller and straighter stems ; and considerable 
 difference of opinion exists as to the extent to which 
 priming should be practised. It is, however, very 
 generally delayed till the branches to be removed 
 have attained too great a size, and is then very 
 rudely performed, to the spoiling of the timber 
 rather than to the improvement of it. The prac- 
 tice of leaving snags, instead of cutting branches 
 clean off, has particularly bad effects. Pines and 
 firs, from their manner of growth, need pruning 
 less than trees of other kinds. When trees have 
 been planted, not merely for profit but for ornament, 
 this ought to be remembered in pruning, which, 
 however, is too often intrusted to persons utterly 
 devoid of taste ; and trees which, as they naturally 
 grew, were very beautiful, are so treated with axe 
 and saw that they become deformities instead of 
 adorning the scene. 
 
 . In forming plantations, different kinds of trees are 
 very generally mixed, although masses of one parti- 
 cular kind are also frequently planted. It is usual, 
 however, to plant along with those which are 
 destined most permanentiy to occupy the ground, 
 trees of other kinds as nurses, to be gradually 
 removed as the plantation advances in growth. For 
 this purpose, spruce and larch are more generally 
 employed than any other tree ; although Scotch fir 
 and birch are also deemed suitable for certain situa- 
 tions. The removal of some of these nurses affords 
 the first returns of profit from the plantation, which 
 is afterwards thinned from time to time. Plantations 
 far more frequently suffer from being thinned too 
 little, than from being thinned too much. To the want 
 of proper thinning is to be in part ascribed the failure 
 of many of those narrow belts oi planting which are too 
 common in Scotland, and which having been intended 
 for shelter, very imperfectly serve their purpose, and 
 seem to have suffered from the hardest usage them- 
 selves. The thinning of a plantation which has been 
 allowed to grow too thick, must, however, be very 
 gradually performed, that it may be beneficial, and 
 not injurious. After a sudden thinning, a planta- 
 tion sometimes ceases to thrive, and many trees are 
 often laid prostrate by the next storm; for trees 
 accommodate themselves both in their roots and 
 branches to the situations in which they grow. 
 
 A considerable number of years must elapse before 
 any pecuniary return is derived from a plantation, 
 yet this mode of employing soils is often foimd to be 
 the most remunerative of which they are capable, 
 even without reference to the improvement of adja- 
 cent lands to which shelter is afforded; and the 
 increased demand for timber in Britain, for sleepers 
 of railways and other purposes, tends to the still 
 further encouragement of A. 
 
 The resinous products of pine- woods are not con- 
 sidered as a source of profit in Britain ; but tiie tar, 
 turpentine, and resin obtained from them in some 
 parts of Europe, form articles of commerce. The 
 great pinaster plantations already mentioned, on the 
 sands between the Adour and Gironde, now jaeld 
 products of this kind in large quantity. The employ- 
 ment of trees for ornamental purposes belongs not so 
 much to A. as to Landscape Gardening (q. v.). The 
 transplanting (q. v.) of large trees is only practised for 
 
AJaBOfi, VIT.*— AUSUTSNOt 
 
 ornamental purposes. Hedgerow trees are planted 
 chiefly for ornament, although sometimes they may 
 aflibrd useful shelter ; but where this is not the case, 
 they can seldom be reckoned profitable, as they are 
 injurious to crops. Copse or coppice-wood differs so 
 much, both in its uses and in llie mode of its man- 
 agement, from other plantations, that it must be 
 briefly noticed in a separate article. 
 
 A'EBOB VI'TiE {Thuja), a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Conifercs, allied to the cypress, and 
 consisting of evergreen trees and shrubs with com- 
 pressed or flattened branchlets — small, scale-Lite, 
 imbricated leaves — and monoecious flowers, which 
 have 4-ceUed anthers, and the scales of the strobiles 
 (or cones) with two upright ovules. — The common 
 
 Ai'bor Vitoe {Thuja occidenialis). 
 
 A. v. {T. ocddentalis) is a native of North Ame- 
 rica, especially between lat. 45° and lat. 49°, but has 
 long been well known in Europe. It is a tree of 
 40 — 50 feet high; its branches are horizontally 
 expanded, and the strobiles (cones) small and obo- 
 vate. The yoimg leafy twigs have a balsamic smell, 
 and both they and the wood were formerly in great 
 repute as a medicine ; the oil obtained by distilla- 
 tion from the twigs, which has a pungent and 
 camphor-like taste, has been recently recommended 
 as a vermifuge. The wood of the stem is reddish, 
 soft, and very light, but compact, tough, and durable, 
 bearing exposure to the weather remarkably well. 
 The tree is very common in Britain, but planted 
 chiefly as an ornamental tree, and seldom attaining 
 so great a size as in its native country. It delights 
 in cool, moist situations. — ^The Chinese A. V. (T. 
 orientaUs), a native of 'China and Japan, which is 
 immediately distinguishable from the former species 
 by its upright branches and larger, almost globose 
 and rough strobiles, is also in Britain, and upon the 
 continent of Europe, a common ornament of pleasure- 
 grounds ; but it does not attain so great a size as the 
 preceding, and is more sensible of ttie cold of severe 
 winters. The balsamic smell is very agreeable. 
 The tree yields a resin, having a pleasant odour, to 
 which high medicinal virtues were formerly ascribed ; 
 hence the remarkable name. Arbor Vitos (Latin, sig- 
 nifying Tree of Life), given to this species, and extended 
 to the genus. Other species are known, but they are 
 less important than these. In its native country, this 
 species also attains the size of a considerable tree. — 
 There are several other species of Thuja, some of 
 which seem well suited to tiie open air in the climate 
 
 of Britain, and others require the protection of green- 
 houses. Amongst the former are T. plicata, from 
 Nootka Sound; and T. dolabrata, a native of 
 Japan, a tree of great height and thickness, and 
 wmoh wfll not improbably prove the most important 
 of the whole genus. — A tree, common in North 
 America, and there known by the name of White 
 Cedae, is sometimes included in the genus Thuja, 
 under the name of T. sphceroidea, but is more gene- 
 rally ranked in the genus Gupressus as G. thyoides. 
 See Cypress. The timber is highly esteemed, and 
 an infusion of the scrapings is sometimes used as a 
 stomachic. — Closely allied to the genus Thvja is 
 Oallitris. See Sandaeach. 
 
 ARBKO A'TH, ABERBRO'THWICK, or ABEE- 
 BKO'THOCK, a small seaport town in the east of 
 Forfarshire, situated at the mouth of a stream 
 called the Brothock. Here King WiUiam the 
 Lion foimded a Tyroneusian abbey in honour of 
 Thomas-il-Becket in 1178. The kmg was interred 
 in it in 1214. In the abbey, Bruce and the Scot- 
 tish nobles met in 1320, to resist the claims of 
 Edward II. to Scotland. Cardinal Beaton was the 
 last of its abbots. Next to Holyrood, the abbey was 
 the most richly endowed monastery in Scotland. It 
 was destroyed by the Keformers in 1560. Its ruins 
 — which are cruciform, 270 by 160 feet — are very 
 picturesque, presenting lofty towers, columns, Gothic 
 windows, and a fine circular east window, 'the 
 Round of A.' The chief manufactures of A. are 
 leather, thread, coarse linens, and canvas. Its 
 harbour is artificial, and defended by a battery, but 
 a bar of rook in front injures its entrance. In 1857 
 the number of vessels belonging to the port was 
 104; tonnage, 13,896. The chief exports are grain, 
 potatoes, fish, pork, and pavement, chiefly from 
 Lower Devonian quarries 8 or 10 nules inland. A. 
 is a royal burgh, and in conjunction with Montrose, 
 Brechin, Forfar, and Bervie burghs, returns one 
 member to parliament. Population in 1851, of 
 municipal burgh, 8302; of parliamentary, 16,986. 
 A. is supposed to be the Fairport of The Anti- 
 quary, and its Bedhead Crags and Coves form 
 some of the scenes in that novel. The famous 
 Bell-rock Light-house stands in the sea, 12 mHea 
 south-east of A. 
 
 AEBTJ'THNOT, John, a distinguished writer 
 and physician, the contemporary and friend of Pope 
 and Swift, was the sou of a Scottish episcopal 
 clergyman, and bom at Arbuthnot, in Kincar- 
 dineshire, shortly after the Restoration. He studied 
 medicine at Aberdeen, where he took his degree. 
 A.'s father was obliged to resign his charge at the 
 revolution. His sons' prospects being thus blighted 
 in their own country, they were under the neces- 
 sity of going abroad to seek their fortune. John 
 removed soon after to London, and there sup- 
 ported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1697 
 he pubhshed an examination of Dr Woodward's 
 account of the Deluge, which brought him into 
 notice as a person of no common ability. Accident 
 called him into attendance on Prince George of 
 Denmark, who thenceforth patronised him. In 
 1709 he was appointed physician to the queen, and 
 in 1710 was elected a member . of the Royal College 
 of Physicians. On the death of Queen Anne, in 1714, 
 he lost his situation, and his circumstances were 
 never so prosperous afterwards. In 1717, A., along 
 with Pope, gave assistance to Gay in a farce, 
 entitled Three Hours after Marriage, which, how- 
 ever, in spite of having the aid of a trio of wits, 
 proved a complete failure. In 1723 he was chosen 
 second censor of the Royal College of Physicians ; 
 in 1727 he was made an Elect, andhad the honour to 
 pronounce the Harveian oration for the year. He died 
 
 363 
 
AEBUtHS— AECADIA. 
 
 at Hapnpstead, in 1735. A. -was one of the leaders in 
 that circle of wits whicli adorned the reign of Queen 
 Anne, and was still more nobly distinguished by the 
 rectitude of hia morals and the goodness of his heart. 
 He assisted Swift and Pope in the composition of 
 that brilliant satire, the Memoirs of Martinus 
 Scrihlerus, contributing those portions of it which 
 refer to science and philosophy ; and he Was im- 
 doubtedly the author of the celebrated political jeu 
 d^ esprit, the History of John Bull, which has so often 
 been imitated. Besides several medical essays, he 
 published Tables of Greek, Raman, and Jewish 
 Measures, Weights, and Coins (London, 1705 — 1708), 
 a work which was long the Ijest authority on the 
 subject. There is also a philosophical poem of his 
 composition in Dodsley's Miscellanies, entitled Know 
 Thyself. 
 
 A'KBTJTUS, a genua of plants of the natural 
 order Ericece, containing a number of species, small 
 trees and shrubs, the greater part of which are 
 American. The fruit is fleshy, 5-ceIled, many-seeded, 
 usually dotted with little projections, whence that of 
 some species has a sort of resemblance to straw- 
 berries ; the corolla is urn-shaped. — A. U'nedo, the 
 
 Arbutus XJnedo. 
 
 StbA'WBERry Tree, is a native of the south of 
 Europe, foiuid also in Asia and America, and in one 
 locaHty in the British Isles, the Lakes of KiUarney, 
 where its fine fohage adds much to the charm of the 
 scenery. It requires protection in winter in the 
 climate of Paris. In Britain, it is often planted as 
 an ornamental evergreen. It grows to the height of 
 20 — 30 feet, but is rather a great bush than a tree. 
 The bark is rugged ; the leaves oblongo-lanceolate, 
 smooth and shining, bluntly serrated; the flowers 
 nodding, large, gi-eenish white ; the fruit globose, of 
 a scarlet colour, with a vapid sweetish taste. It is, 
 however, sometimes eaten. Of late, excellent alcohol 
 has been made from it in Italy. A wine is made 
 from it in Corsica, which, however, is narcotic, if 
 taken in considerable quantity, as the fruit itself is, 
 if eaten too freely. The bark and leaves are astrin- 
 gent. — A. Andrachne is also sometimes cultivated as 
 an ornamental plant in Britain, but is impatient of 
 severe frosts. Its fruit, and that of A. integrifolia, 
 are eaten in Greece and the east. But all the species 
 seem to possess narcotic quahties in greater or less 
 degree ; the fruit of A. farens, a small shrub, a 
 native of Chili, so much as to cause delirivun. — A. 
 aculeata, which abounds at Cape Horn and on Staten 
 Island, is an elegant and most pleasing evergreen, 
 very much resenibling the myrtle. It grows to the 
 height of 3 or 4 feet, and produces small white 
 iiowers, followed by a profusion of red shining 
 hemes, which ornament the bush dm-ing winter. 
 
 SSI 
 
 Their flavour is insipid, but somewhat astringent. 
 Mixed with a few raisins, they have been made by 
 voyagers into tolerable tarts. — A. Uva ursi, now 
 generally called Arctostaphylos Uva ursi, the Eed 
 Bearberry, is a small traiUng evergreen shrub, 
 common in the Highlands of Scotland and ia the 
 Hebrides, and indeed in the northern parts of 
 Europe, Siberia, and North America. It grows in 
 dry, heathy, and rooky places. The flowers are in 
 small crowded terminal racemes, of a beautiful rose 
 colour. The berries are aiistere and mealy; they 
 are said to form a principal part of the food of bears 
 in northern regions. Grouse also feed on them. 
 The dried leaves are used as an astringent and tonic 
 medicine, and as such have a place in the pharma- 
 copoeias, being principally employed in chronic 
 affections of the bladder; but those of Vacdnium 
 Vitis Idcea are often fraudulently substituted for 
 them. — The Black Bearberry (A. or Arctostaphylos 
 alpina) is also a native of the northern parts of the 
 globe, a small trailing shrub, with black berries 
 about the size of a sloe, relished by some, but 
 having a peculiar taste, which to others is disagree- 
 able. The plant is foimd on many of the Highland 
 moimtains of Scotland, 
 
 AKC (Lat. arais, a bow) is any part of a curved 
 line. The straight line joining the ends of an A. is 
 its chord, which is always less than the A. itself. 
 Arcs of circles are similar when they subtend equal 
 angles at the centres of their respective circles ; and 
 if similar arcs belong to equal circles, the arcs them- 
 selves are equal. The length of an A. is readily found 
 if the angle which it subtends at the centre of the 
 circle is known, and also the length of the whole 
 circumference. Let the whole circimiference be 100, 
 and the angle of an A. 50°, the length of the A. is 
 
 360' : 50° : : 100 : ^^^-^ = 14 nearly. 
 
 ARC. See Joan oe Arc. 
 
 ARCA, or ARK-SHELL, a genus of bivalve shells, 
 and lamello-branchiate mollusca, the type of a family 
 called Arcadce, or Arcacece. In the true ark-shells, 
 the hinge is straight, and occupies what at first seems 
 the whole length of the shell, but is in reality its 
 whole breadth, the breadth being greater than the 
 length. One species is found on ■flie British shores ; 
 the species" are larger and more numerous in the 
 seas of warmer climates, and some of them are 
 frequently to be seen among the shells employed for 
 the ornament of drawing-rooms, &c. Fossil Arcadce 
 are, however, more numerous than recent species, 
 and are found in various rook systems. 
 
 ARCA'DB (Er.), a row of arches, supported by 
 columns, either having an open space of greater or less 
 width behind them, or in contact with masonry. The 
 A. in Gothic corresponds to the colonnade in classical 
 architecture, the dfiference between them being that, 
 whereas the pillars in the colonnade support straight 
 architraves, those in the A. support arches. The 
 term A. is sometimes apijlied to the row of piers, or 
 columns and arches, by which the aisles are divided 
 from the nave of a church, or by which cloisters, 
 or what are erroneously called piazzas in Britain, 
 are enclosed ; but it is more generally confined to 
 those series of smaller arches which are employed 
 simply for purposes of ornamentation. Arcades of 
 the latter kind are often found surrounding the 
 square towers of English churches. Of this we have 
 early examples in the church of Middleton Stoney, 
 Oxfordshire, and in the still older ones of Tewkesbury, 
 and Christ Church in Oxford. The term is also 
 applied, improperly, to a glass-covered street or 
 lane, with a row of shops or stalls on each side. 
 
 ARCA'DIA, the middle and highest part of Pelo- 
 ponnesus, was bounded on the N. by Achaia, on 
 
AECADIUS-AECH. 
 
 the E. by Argolia, on the S. by Messenia and 
 Laconia, and on ttie W. by Elis. According to 
 Pauaanias, it derived its name from Arcaa, the sou 
 of Callisto. Next to Laconia, A. was the largest 
 country in the Peloponnesus. It had an area of 
 1700 square noiles, and was girt round by a circle 
 of mountains, which cut off to a large extent its 
 communication with the rest of the peninsula. 
 Mountains also intersected it in different directions. 
 The western part of what was anciently A., ia wild, 
 bleak, and rugged, and was at one time covered 
 with huge forests; the eastern is more fertile, the 
 mountains not so high, and the vales more luxuriant. 
 In these eastern vaUeys lay all the principal cities 
 of A. The loftiest peak in A. — the loftiest also in 
 the Peloponnesus — ^is Mount CyUene, in the north- 
 east (778 feet). The chief river was anciently the 
 Alpheius (q. v.). Originally A. was named Pelasgia,' 
 after its first inhabitants, the Pelasgi. Subsequently, 
 it was divided into several small states, which 
 formed a confederation. Of these united states, the 
 chief were Mantinea, Tegea, Orchomenos, Pheneus, 
 Psophis, and Megalopolis. The inhabitants, engaged 
 chiefly m tending cattle and in hunting among 
 the wild highlands, remained long in a state of 
 barbarism. After civilisation had advanced, and 
 the Arcadians had become known by their love 
 of music and dancing, they still retained some mili- 
 tary spirit, and were sometimes engaged as mer- 
 cenary soldiers. But generally their character 
 accorded with their simple, rural mode of life ; 
 though it seems certain that human sacrifices were 
 offered as late as the period of the Macedonian 
 sway., The Arcadians were not remarkable for 
 their inteUigence. In fact, an 'Arcadian youth' 
 was £i synonym for a blockhead. Pan and Diana 
 were their favourite deities. Ancient and modern 
 poets (the latter especially in the time when 
 'pastorals' were popular) have described A. as 
 the land of peace, innocence, and patriarchal 
 manners. 
 
 ABCA'DITTS, first emperor of the East (39o--i08 
 A. D.), was born in Spain, 383 A. D., and was the son 
 of the Emperor Theodosius, after whose death the 
 Koman empire was divided into East and West. 
 A. lived in oriental state and splendour, and his 
 dominion extended from the Adriatic Sea to the 
 river Tigris, and from Soythia to Ethiopia ; but the 
 real rulers over this vast empire were, first, the Gaul 
 Rufiuus, and afterwards the evmuch Eutropius, who 
 openly assumed the reins of government, and the 
 command of the army, while A. reposed in luxurious 
 indifference. In 399, the eunuch Eutropius was 
 deposed by another usurper, Gainas, who, in his 
 turn, soon fell a victim to his own ambition. After- 
 wards, Eudoxia, the wife of • the emperor, assumed 
 the supremacy. One really groat man adorned this 
 period, the virtuous and eloquent Chrysostom, who 
 was persecuted by Eudoxia, and tlirough her 
 influence exiled in 404, on account of his firm 
 opposition to Arianism, which the empress herself 
 favoured. During the reign of A., his territories 
 suffered by barbarian incursions, earthquakes, 
 and famine, but nothing could disturb the indif- 
 ference of the monarch. He died, unlamented, 
 408 A. D. 
 
 AECESILA'XJS, a, Greek philosopher, founder 
 of the New Academy, was born at Pitane in iEoha, 
 Asia Minor, 316 B. c. He studied philosophy, first 
 under Theophrastus the Peripatetic, and afterwards 
 tmder Grantor. After the death of Grantor, A. 
 became the chief master of the Academic party, or 
 those who held to the doctrines of Plato ; but he intro- 
 duced so many changes that its philosophic character 
 was completely changed. His great rivals were the 
 
 Stoics, whoso opinions he attacked, but he does not 
 appear to have attained any certainty in his own 
 convictions. He had studied under too many mas- 
 ters, and discussed too many different systems, to be 
 sure of the truth of any. He denied the Stoical doc- 
 trine of a ' convincing conception,' which he affirmed 
 to be, from its very nature, xmintelligible and contra- 
 dictory. He also denied the existence of any suffi- 
 cient criterion of truth, and recommended absti- 
 nence from aU. dogmatic judgments. In practice he 
 maintained that we must act on grounds of proba- 
 bility. It is not easy to determine satisfactorily 
 what his raoral character was. A wit, a poet, and a 
 man of frank and generous disposition, which seems 
 to have captivated his disciples even more than hia 
 philosophy, he has yet been accused by his enemies 
 of the grossest profligacy; and whatever extrava- 
 gance there may be in such an extreme charge, it is 
 tolerably certain that he died of a debauch in hia 
 76th year (241 B. c). Nevertheless, his adversary 
 Cleanthes, the Stoic, passed this high eidogium on 
 him : ' The morality which A. abohshes in his words, 
 he re-estabhshea in his actions.' 
 
 ARCH, an arrangement of bricks, stones, or 
 other materials over an open space, by which they 
 are made not only to support each other by mutual 
 pressure, but to sustain a superincumbent weight. 
 We have the excellent authority of Sir G. Wilkinson 
 for stating that the A. was known to, and used by, 
 the ancient Egyptians ; and that the Assyrians were 
 acquainted with its principles is placed beyond 
 doubt by the arched gateways so frequently repre- 
 sented in their bass-reliefs. The A. is generally sup- 
 posed to have been unknown to the Greeks — a sup- 
 position which becomes very improbable if we hold 
 it to be proved that it was used by nations with 
 \^hose works they must have been familiar. But 
 that the Greeks did not employ it generally in their 
 architectural structures, is certain ; and as it is not less 
 certain that the Pomans did, it is to the latter people 
 that the nations of modern Europe are indebted for 
 their acquaintance with its great utility. The intro- 
 duction of the A. by the Romans gradually effected 
 a complete revolution in the architectural forms 
 which they borrowed from the Greeks. The predo- 
 minance of horizontal lines gave way by degrees, 
 tfll, as the Romanesque passed into the Gothic style, 
 it was superseded by the segments of a circle, placed 
 generally more or less in a perpendicular direction. 
 In its earliest application by the Romans, the A. did 
 not spring from the entablature of the columns, but 
 was generally placed behind them, and rested upon 
 separate imposts. ' Subsequently, this arrangement 
 was departed from, and the A. assumed the position 
 which it has since retained above the columns ; 
 sometimes having an entablature interposed, and 
 sometimes rising directly from the capital of the 
 column or pier, as ia the Romanesque. Before men- 
 tioning very briefly the different forms of the A., it 
 seems natural to refer to a very sunple structure, 
 frequently met with in those early edifices in our 
 own comitry which we are in the habit of desig- 
 nating as Saxon. It consists of two stones, their 
 lower ends resting on rude piers, their tops lean- 
 ing against each other, and thus forming two 
 sides of a triangle, which is capable of support- 
 ing a moderate superincumbent weight. The me- 
 chanical principles on which the A. depends, though 
 here very imperfectly employed, seem sufficiently 
 called into play to suggest their more extensive 
 application; and it is not impossible that out of 
 this rude construction the A., in its later and 
 more elaborate forms, might have developed itself 
 amongst oiuselves v/ithout hints from foreign 
 sources. 
 
 Of the A. itself, the following variations of form 
 
 3CS 
 
AECH. 
 
 may be enumerated: The semicircle (1), the seg- 
 ment (2), the ellipse (3), which were the only forms 
 employed by the ancients, and which alone were 
 known in medicTal architecture up to the time at 
 
 1. Semicircle. 
 
 2. Segment. 
 
 3. EUipse. 
 
 4. Stilted A. 5. Horseshoe A. 
 
 which the pointed A. was iatroduced. Of these, the 
 stilted A. (4), and the horseshoe A. (5), are modi- 
 fications, in both of which the centre or point from 
 which the A. is described is above the line of the 
 impost, but in the former of which the mouldings 
 are continued downwards vertically; whilst in the 
 latter they are slightly inchned inwards, or the curve 
 is prolonged till it meets the impost. The horse- 
 shoe A, belongs peculiarly to Arabian architecture 
 (q. v.), not only from its having originated simulta- 
 neously with the faith of the Prophet, but from its 
 continuing to be used exclusively by his followers. 
 Next, in point of time, though far surpassing all the 
 others in beauty and variety, is the pointed A., the 
 origin of which is still a subject of antiquarian 
 controversy. The greater or less acuteness of the 
 poiated A. depends on the position of the two centre 
 points from which its curved sides are described. 
 Its various proportions wUl be better understood 
 from the accompanying diagrams (6, 7, 8, 9) than 
 from any verbal description. 
 
 Equilateral A. 
 
 8. Drop A. 
 
 7. Lancet A. 
 
 X^'^ 
 
 9. Segmental A. 
 
 being met with in Arabian and Eomanesque build- 
 ings. At a later period of Gothic architecture, with 
 
 Of the foU arches (10, 11, 12, 13, 14), or arches 
 in which the forms of a leaf are imitated, the first 
 
 Cinquef oil A. 
 
 14. PolyfoilA, 
 
 the decorated style, the ogee A. (15) was mtroduced, 
 and the Tudor or four-cornered A. (16) appeared 
 about the commencement of the perpendicular style. 
 
 10, 11, 12. Trefoil Arches. 
 
 three are examples of the trefoil, the fourth of the 
 cinquefoU, and the fifth of the polyfoil, the latter 
 
 15. Ogee A. 
 
 16. Tudor A. 
 
 When first introduced, the proportions of this A. 
 were bold and efiective; but it was gradually 
 depressed till the principle of the A. was lost, and 
 its very form was again merged first in two and 
 then in one fiat stone or Hntel over an opening. 
 With the last form of the Tudor A. we thus reach 
 almost the point of departure in the construction of 
 the A., and complete oxa enumeration of its forms. 
 
 The sides of an A. are termed haunches oi flanks, 
 and its highest part is caUed the crown. The wedge- 
 shaped stones, bricks, or 
 other materials of which an 
 A. is constructed, are called 
 voussmrs (a, a, a); the 
 uppermost one of all (6) is 
 called the heystane; the 
 lowest, .which is placed 
 immediately over the im- 
 post, the springer, or spring- 
 
 ing-stone; the under or 
 
 lower side of the voussoirs, 
 
 the intrados ; the upper 
 
 side, the extrados or hack. 
 
 For the investigation of 
 
 the mechanical principle of 
 
 the arch, and of the con- 
 ditions of stability, see 
 
 Moseley's Mechanical Principles of Engineering and 
 
 Architectwre. See also Bkidgb, Impost, Piee, 
 
 Buttress. 
 ABCH, Triumphal, was a structure erected 
 
 by the Eomans across roads, or at the entrance of 
 
 Triimiphal Arch of Constantino at Bome. 
 cities, in honour of victorious generals. The original 
 
ARCHEOLOGY— AECHANGEL. 
 
 triiimplial arch was the Porta Triumphalia, one of 
 the gates o£ Rome through which the triumphal pro- 
 cession entered the city. Among the earUest detached 
 arches bmlt at Rome was that built by Scipio 
 Africanus (190 B.C.) on the CapitoUne TTill. Under 
 the emperors, these structures became numerous and 
 magnificent, and were decorated with bass-reliefs and 
 inscriptions. Three of what were properly triumphal 
 arches stiU remain in Rome, those, namely, of Titus, 
 Septimius Severus, and Constantine. Numerous 
 similar monuments exist also in other parts of the 
 old Roman empire, as at Rimini, Susa, Verona, 
 Ancona, Orange (in Prance), Capura (in Spain). 
 
 AEOH^O'LOGY (Gr. archaios, ancient, and 
 logos, a discourse) is the name now very generally 
 given to the study which was formerly known as 
 that of 'antiquities.' The term is well enough 
 understood, although its meaning is not at all 
 definitely fixed. In its widest sense, it includes 
 the knowledge of the origin, language, religion, 
 laws, institutions, literature, science, arts, manners, 
 customs — everything, in a word, that can be learned 
 of the ancient life and being of a people. When so 
 used, it comprehends more or less of several branches 
 of knowledge which are recognised as distinct or 
 independent pursuits, such, for example, as eth- 
 nology, philology, history, chronology, biography, 
 mythology, numismatics. In its narrower but per- 
 haps more popular signification, A. is understood to 
 mean the discovery, preservation, collection, arrange- 
 ment, authentication, publication, description, inter- 
 pretation, or elucidation of the materials from which 
 a knowledge of the ancient condition of a country 
 is to be attained. These materials wiQ be found 
 to divide themselves into three great classes : 
 (1.) written, (2.) .monumental, and (3.) traditional. 
 
 1. What may be called written A., may be again sub- 
 divided into palaeography (q. v.), or diplomatics (q.v.) 
 — that is, the science of ancient writmgs ; and bibli- 
 ography (q.v.), or the knowledge of printed books. 
 
 2. Monumental A. admits of almost endless sub- 
 divisions, according to the character of the remains 
 to be studied, which may be works of art, such as 
 buildings, sculptures, paintings, engravings, inscrip- 
 tions, coins, medals, seals, armorial-bearings, tapestiy, 
 furniture, plate, jewels, enamels, glass, porcelain, 
 pottery; works of engineering, such as roads, canals, 
 mines, piers, camps, forts, w^ls ; works of unskilled 
 labour, such as pillars of unhewn stone, caves, dikes, 
 ditches, mounds of earth or stone ; articles of dress, 
 armour, or personal ornament; tools, weapons, 
 implements, utensils, machines ; appliances for loco- 
 motion, such as canoes, boats, ships, carriages ; 
 modes of sepulture, such as mummies, sarcophagi, 
 urns, catacombs, graves ; vestiges of man and 
 animals, such as skulls, bones, skins. 3. Tradi- 
 tional A. includes as well the unwritten language 
 and oral literature of a people, their dialects, legends, 
 tales, proverbs, rhymes, songs, and ballads, as those 
 sports, customs, ceremonies, rites, and superstitions 
 now beginning to be known by the name of ' folk- 
 lore,' and formerly called ' popular antiquities.' 
 
 lie study of A. in modem Europe may be held 
 to date from the revival of letters. It was long 
 almost exclusively confined to the antiquities of 
 the Greeks and Romans. About the middle of the 
 16th c. Medieval A., or the antiquities of the Dark 
 and Middle Ages, began to be cultivated. Egyptian 
 A., or ' Egyptology,' as it is sometimes called, made 
 comparatively little progress until the discovery of 
 the Rosetta Stone, containing a bilingual and tri- 
 literal inscription, which enabled Young in 1819, and 
 Champollion in 1821, to find a key to the luero- 
 
 flyphics. The more recent discoveries of Botta, 
 /ayard, Rawlinson, and others, have already 
 advanced Assyrian A. to a point beyond all expecta- 
 
 tion. Indian A. has been successfully prosecuted, 
 especially during the last forty years, chiefly by 
 officers of the East India Company. Something also 
 has been done by them and others for Chinese A. 
 Men of letters in lie United States have devoted their 
 time to the rude and scanty remains of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of North America. The A. of Central 
 and South America, as it attracted attention much 
 earMer, so its more stately and instructive monu- 
 ments have much better rewarded such investiga- 
 tions as those of Lord Kingsborough, Messrs Stephens 
 and Catterwood, and others. 
 
 The study_ of A. has been largely promoted by 
 the publication, at the expense of the state, in 
 various countries, of the national chronicles, char- 
 ters, and records; by societies and clubs contri- 
 buting to the same end, or printing essays on 
 questions of A. ; and by the establishment by 
 the state, by associations, or by individuals, of 
 museums for the collection and classification of 
 antiquities. In England, a society for promoting 
 the study of antiquity was founded so early as the 
 year 1572. The irrational jealousy of the govern- 
 ment dissolved it in 1604. It was revived in 1707, 
 enlarged in 1717, and incorporated by royal charter 
 in 1751, under the name of the 'Society of Anti- 
 quaries of London.' An attempt to institute a simi- 
 lar society in Scotland was made about 1 700 by ' some 
 honourable and knowing gentlemen,' who resolved 
 to continue their conferences till a complete historical 
 account be made of the nation. But it was not 
 until 1780 that the Society of Antiquaries of Scot- 
 land was incorporated by royal charter. The 
 Royal Irish Academy for promoting 'the study of 
 science, polite literature, and antiquities,' was char- 
 tered in 1786. The Society of Antiquaries of Scot- 
 land, and the Royal Irish Academy, have good 
 museums of national antiquities. The British 
 Museum in London (established in 1753), besides a 
 great collection of early manuscripts and printed 
 books, has galleries of Assyrian, Egyptian, Etrus- 
 can, Greek, Roman, British, and Medieval antiqui- 
 ties. One of the most remarkable collections of 
 antiquities on the continent, is that of the Royal 
 Society of Antiquaries of the North, at Copenhagen, 
 arranged so as to illustrate a favourite theory of 
 the Scandinavian archseologists — ^that the primitive 
 antiquities of a country may be assigned to three 
 successive ages or periods of stone, bronze, and iron, 
 with as much certainty and precision as the com- 
 parative antiquity of geological strata, or periods of 
 the world's creation, may be determined by the 
 fossils which they are foimd to contain. The 
 museums of the Louvre and the H6tel de Cluny, in 
 Paris, contain fine collections of Assyrian, Egyptian, 
 Greek, and Roman antiquities, and an unrivalled 
 collection of Medieval antiquities. The Royal 
 Museum at Naples has gathered together the statues, 
 paintings, vases, household utensils, and other 
 objects recovered during the last hundred years 
 from the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. These 
 long buried cities may be regarded as being in 
 themselves museums of Roman A. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, the chief city in the Russian 
 department of Archangel, is situated in lat. 64° 32' 
 N., and long. 40° 33' B., about 40 mHea above the 
 junction of the river Dwina with the White Sea ; 
 is the seat of an archbishop, and contains 19,584 
 inhabitants. Its name is taken from the monastery 
 of St Michael. A. is the chief commercial city for the 
 north of Russia and Siberia, and is visited by nume- 
 rous vessels — especially British — ^from July to Sep- 
 tember, the port being clear of ice only during that 
 period. The houses are bmlt chiefly of wood ; and 
 their general appearance is far from handsome. The 
 finest edifices are the bazaar or mart, and the 
 
 367 
 
AECHANGEL— AECHBISHOP. 
 
 marine liospital. A. lias an ecclesiastical college 
 with 9 professors, schools for engineering and navi- 
 gation, &c. Tlie cldef articles of traffic are fish, 
 train-oil, skins, furs, timber,' wax, iron, tallow, 
 bristles, caviare. The town, which is the oldest 
 seaport of the empire and was for a long period the 
 only one, was founded in 1584., Its merchants 
 trade as far east as China, and have all the com- 
 merce of Siberia. During summer, A. has a conti- 
 nual market. 
 
 ARCHANGEL (from the Greek prefix archi- 
 or arch-, denoting chief, and angelos, an angel), a 
 term which occurs in the New Testament ; and 
 which, according to some, is there a title of our 
 Saviour — but according to others, designates an 
 angel superior in power and glory to the other 
 angels. We read, in the Epistle of Jude, of 'Michael 
 the A.', and in Kev. xii. 7, of ' Michael and his 
 angels.' In 1 Thess. iv. 16, we are told that the 
 coming of our Lord at the last day shall be ' with 
 the voice of the A., and with the trump of God.' 
 We nowhere read in the Holy Scriptures of arch- 
 angels, although the plural is popularly as much used 
 as the singular. The notion of an angeKc hierarchy 
 certainly prevailed among the Jews, the highest 
 place being assigned to Michael; and the same 
 notion has extensively prevailed in the Christian 
 chxurch. There are passages of Scripture which 
 seem to indicate different degrees and classes 
 among the angelic hosts, but no clear revelation 
 has been made upon this subject. See Anobls. 
 
 ARCHANGEL, New. See Sitka. 
 
 ARCHBI'SHOP (Gr. arch-, and episcopos, over- 
 seer) is the title given to a metropolitan bishop 
 who superintends the conduct of the suffragan 
 bishops in his province, and also exercises episcopal 
 authority in his own diocese. The title arose, in the 
 3d and 4th centuries, from the provincial synods 
 being held once or twice a year in the chief town of 
 the province under the presidency of the bishop of 
 the place. Another cause of the origin of the title is 
 said to be the custom of planting new bishoprics as 
 Christianity spread, a slight supremacy being stiU 
 retained by the original over the newly-appointed 
 chief pastors. In the Oriental Church, the arch- 
 bishops are still called ' metropohtans,' from the 
 circumstance first mentioned. In the African Chm-oh, 
 on the other hand, the term used was ' primus.' The 
 great archbishoprics of the early Church were those of 
 J erusalem, Antiooh, Ephesus, Alexandria, Constanti- 
 nople, and Rome. Since the 6th c, the A. of Rome 
 has assiunedthe name of Pope (papa). There is an 
 official letter by Justinian, addressed to 'John, 
 A. of Rome and Patriarch ; ' and several ecclesiastical 
 constitutions are addressed to ' Epiphanius, A. of 
 Constantinople and Patriarch.' The synod of 
 Antioch, in 341, assigned to the A. the superintend- 
 ence over all the bishoprics, and a precedence in 
 rank over all the bishops of the church, who, on 
 important matters, were bound to consult him and 
 be guided bjr his advice. By degrees there arose, out 
 of this superiority of rank, privileges which at length 
 assumed the character of positive jurisdiction in 
 ecclesiastical matters. Many of these rights passed 
 to the 'patriarchs (q. v.) towards the end of the 4th 
 and during the 5th centuries, and still more to the 
 pope in uie 9th. The archbishops still retained 
 jurisdiction, in the first instance, over their suffragans 
 in matters which were not criminal, and over those 
 who were subject to them they acted as a court 
 of appeal. They possessed also the right of calling 
 together, ' and presiding in, the provincial synods ; 
 the superintendence and power of visitation over 
 the bishops of the metropoHtan see ; the power of 
 enforcing the laws of the church ; the dispensation 
 
 of indulgences, and the Hke. The archbishops 
 further enjoyed the honour of having the cross 
 carried before them in their own arohiepiscopate, even 
 in presence of the pope himself, and of wearing the 
 pallium. In England, there are two archbishops, 
 of whom the one has his seat at Canterbury, the 
 capital of the ancient kingdom of Kent; the other at 
 York, the capital of Northumbria. But though as 
 ruling over a province in place of a single diocese, 
 both have enjoyed the rank of metropohtans from 
 the first, the A. of Canterbury has aU along enjoyed, 
 not merely precedence as the successor of Augustine 
 and the senior A., but as possessing a pre-eminent 
 and universal authority over the whole kingdom. 
 This pre-eminence is marked in the titles which 
 they respectively assume — the A. of Canterbury being 
 styled the Primate of all England (meiropolitarms 
 et primus totms Anglice), whilst the A. of York is 
 simply called Primate of England {primus et inetro- 
 politanus Anglice). It is also indicated by the places 
 which they occupy in processions — the A. of Canter- 
 bury, who has precedence of all the nobflity, not 
 only preceding the A. of York, but the Lord 
 Chancellor being interposed between them. Previ- 
 ous to the creation of an archbishopric in Ireland, 
 the authority of the A. of Canterbury extended 
 to that ' island. The amount of control which 
 belongs to an A. over the bishops of his province is 
 not very accurately defined ; but if any bishop 
 introduces irregularities ' into his diocese, or is 
 guilty of immorahty, the A. may call him to 
 account, and even deprive him. In 1822, the A. of 
 Armagh, who is primate of all Ireland, deposed the 
 Bishop of Clogher on the latter ground. To the 
 A. of Canterbury belongs the honour of placing 
 the crown on the sovereign's head at his coronation ; 
 and the A. of York claims the like privilege in the 
 case of the Queen-consort, whose perpetual chaplain 
 he is. The province of the A. of York consists 
 of the six northern 'Counties, with Cheshire and 
 Nottinghamshire. The rest of England and Wales 
 form the province of the A. of Canterbury. The 
 dioceses of the two archbishops — that is to say, the 
 districts in which they exercise ordinary episcopal 
 functions — were remodelled by 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 77. 
 The diocese of Canterbury comprises Kent, except 
 the city and deanery of Rochester, and some parishes 
 transferred by this act ; a number of parishes in 
 Sussex called ' peculiars ;' with small districts in other 
 dioceses, particularly London. The diocese of the 
 A. of York embraces the county of York, except 
 that portion of it now included in the dioceses of 
 Ripon and Manchester; the whole county of Notting- 
 ham ; and some other detached districts. 
 
 In Ireland, there are two Protestant and four 
 Roman Catholic archbishops. Of the former, the 
 A. of Armagh is primate of aU Ireland ; the A. of 
 Dublin beuig primate of Ireland. They sit alter- 
 nately in the House of Lords ; the three bishops who, 
 along with them, represent the Church of Ireland, 
 being also chosen by rotation from the whole body. 
 The election of an A. does not differ from that of a 
 bishop (see Bishop) ; but when he is invested with 
 his office, he is said to be 'enthroned,' whereas a 
 bishop is ' consecrated.' He also writes himself, ' by 
 Divine Providence ; ' a bishop being, ' by Divine 
 permission ;' and has the title of ' Grace,' and 'Most 
 Reverend Father in God,' whilst a bishop is styled 
 ' Lord,' and ' Pdght Reverend Father in God.' The 
 A. is entitled to present to all ecclesiastical livings 
 in the disposal of diocesan bishops, if not filled up 
 within six months; and every bishop, whether 
 created or translated, was formerly bound to make 
 a legal conveyance to the A. of the next avoidance 
 of one such dignity or benefice belonging to his see 
 as the A. shall choose. 
 
AECHDEACON— ARCHEGOSAURUS. 
 
 AROHDEA'CON (Gr. arcli-, and Aiacmos, 
 servant). An ecclesiastical dignitary -whoss juris- 
 diction is immediately subordinate to that of the 
 bishop. The A. originally was simply the chief of 
 the deacons, who were the attendants and assistants 
 of the bishop in church affairs. His duties con- 
 sisted in attending the bishop at the altar and at 
 ordinations, assisting him in managing the revenues 
 of the church, and directing the deacons in. their 
 duties. From being thus mere assistants, archdea- 
 cons in the 5th c. began to share the bishop's powers, 
 and step by step attained to the authority which 
 they now enjoy, which from the 9th c. became in 
 many respects distinct from that of the bishop. 
 Several synods protested against the innovation, 
 but it was continued in the 11th and 12th cen- 
 turies, when the archdeacons were recognised as the 
 most influential of prelates. In the 13th c, their 
 powers were limited by the establishment of episco- 
 pal courts. Their dignity and influence is now very 
 much reduced in the Catholic Church. There were 
 formerly sixty archdeaconries in England, but 
 their number has been considerably increased since 
 the passing of the act for carrying into effect the 
 report of Qie Ecclesiastical Commissioners (6 and 7 
 Wm. IV. c. 77) ; and it is probable that under the 
 provisions of tiiat act they may be still further 
 moreased. No person can be appointed an A. tUl 
 he has been six years complete in priest's orders 
 (3 and 4 Vict. o. 113, s. 27). The duty of parochial 
 visitation has long been regarded as belonging 
 specially to the arohidiaoonal office, and it was 
 by its exercise mainly that the archdeacons attained 
 to the dignity of ordinary instead of delegated 
 jurisdiction. Even in performing this function, 
 however, and in holding general synods or visita- 
 tions, ordering repairs of churches, and the like, 
 the A. is properly to be regarded as being what 
 the canon law called him, ' the bishop's eye.' 
 The judge of th^ A.'s court, when he does not pre- 
 side, is called ' the official.' There is an appeal to the 
 
 Court of the Bishop, or in the case of an A. of an 
 archbishopric, to the Court of Arches. See Deacon, 
 Dean, Priest. See also Cripps's Law Relating to 
 the Ohurch and Clergy. Edinburgh, 1857. 
 
 ARCHDU'KE. A. and Archduchess are titles 
 now taken by aU the sons and daughters of the 
 Emperor of Austria, and by their descendants 
 through the male line. The title of A. was gradu- 
 ally assumed by the dukes of Austria, as a mark of 
 precedence over the other dukes of the empire. 
 Duke Rudolph IV. of Austria, in 1359, called himself 
 Palatinus Arohidux, but he was not so styled by the 
 emperor. His brothers, Albert and Leopold, did not 
 assume the title after his death, though they had 
 occasionally done so in his lifetime. The third 
 son of Leopold, however, Emest-the-Iron, revived 
 it. Still he was addressed by the emperor simply 
 as duke. At last the title was formally conferred 
 on them by the Emperor Frederick III. in 1453, 
 who himself, as duke, was the first recipient of the 
 imperial gift. StUl the usage was not uniform, for 
 he afterwards speaks of himself as duke. The 
 privilege was extended to the Tyrolian branch of the 
 Austrian House in the person of Sigismund. The 
 value of the dignity thus assumed was a cause of 
 contention with Bavaria in 1589. The Austrian view 
 was, that to duke it held the same relation that 
 archbishop does to bishop. The dukes of Austria 
 claimed to have always had precedence over the 
 other ducal houses, and regarded the title as a mere 
 indication of what had been vmiversally acknow- 
 ledged. Bavaria, on the other hand, relied on the 
 freater antiquity of its dukedom. The contest was 
 ecided by the Emperor Rudolph II. in favour of 
 Austria, the precedence of which has not since been 
 called in question. Other dukedoms claimed the 
 privilege of being so called, but it was invariably 
 denied by the emperor. 
 
 ARCHBGOSAU'RTJS, a remarkable fossil sau- 
 rian reptile, so named by Goldf uss (archegos, leader ; 
 
 Archegosaurus : 
 a, section of a tooth ; b, scales. 
 
 and sauros, lizard), as constituting the real begin- 
 ning of reptilian life, which had previously been 
 considered as not extending below the Permian 
 series of rocks. 
 
 From the engraving, it will be seen that the head 
 of the A. is protected by a firm dermal skeleton, 
 composed of niunerous plates, wlule the internal 
 primary cartilage seems to have continued unossified. 
 The skull is flattened and triangular, with rounded 
 angles, the front one being somewhat lengthened. 
 The teeth are simple cones, having a labyrinthic 
 structure similar to that of the recent Lepidosteus. 
 The vertebral column remains ia an embryonic 
 condition; the arches and peripheral elements of 
 the vertebrse are ossified; but the chorda dorsaUs, 
 which is persistent, is unprotected below. The 
 ribs are short and almost straight, round and slender 
 in the middle, expanded and flattened at the ends. 
 The two pairs of limbs are nearly equal in size, and 
 in structure very much resemble iiiose of the Froieus. 
 
 21 
 
 They have each four long, slender digits, which 
 obviously supported a longish, narrow-pointed paddle, 
 adapted for swimming. Externally, the body was 
 protected by a covering of oblong quadrangular 
 scales, which have been preserved in some specimens. 
 
 Four species have been described. 
 
 The history of the A. is shortly this : Its remains, 
 found in the Bavarian coal-measures, had been 
 described as those of a fish under the name of 
 Pygqpterus Lucius (Agassiz). In 1844, H. von 
 Meyer terst described it under the name of Apateon 
 pedestiris. This specimen was found in the coal- 
 measures of Milnster-Appel, in Rhenish Bavaria, 
 and was supposed by Meyer to be related to the 
 salamanders, and yet not without considerable 
 doubt; for he says, 'its head might be that of a fish, 
 as well as that of a lizard, or of a batraohian.' In 
 1847, Goldfuss figvured and described three distmct 
 species discovered in large concretionary nodules of 
 clav-ironstone, from the coal-field of Saarbruck, 
 
AUCHELAUS— AECHERS AND ABCHERY. 
 
 giviag to. them the generic name of A. He con- 
 sidered them to be a transition state between the 
 fish-like batrachia and the lizards and crocodiles. 
 Professor Owen has subsequently described this 
 fossil; he makes it a remarkable connecting link 
 between the reptile and the fish, and on these 
 grounds : It is related to the salamandroid-ganoid 
 hshes by the conformity of pattern in the plates of 
 the external cranial skeleton, and by the persistence 
 of the chorda dorsalis, as in the sturgeon, while it is 
 aEied to the reptiles by the persistence of the chorda 
 dorsalis, and the branchial arches, and by the 
 absence of the occipital condyle, or condyles, as in 
 Lepidosiren, and by the presence of labyrinthic 
 teeth, as in Labyrinihodon, which, however, also 
 ally it to the ganoid Lepidosteus. There is thus in 
 the A. a blending together of the characteristics of 
 reptile and fish in one animal. It occupies a position 
 between, and equally related to, the salamandroid- 
 ganoid fishes on the one hand, and the labyrintho- 
 dont reptiles on the other, while the latter conduct 
 us through the Lepidosiren to the perennibranchiate 
 batrachia. 
 
 AECHBLA'US, one of the Heraolidas, who, when 
 driven by his brothers from his native land, fled ■ to 
 Macedon, where he became the f oimder of a powerful 
 family, of which Alexander the Great was said to 
 be a descendant. — Aeohblaus, nativral son of the 
 Macedonian king, Perdiccas II., came to the throne 
 (after he had murdered the rightful heir) in 413 B.C. 
 His reign was far better than its commencement, 
 as he introduced several salutary measures, and was 
 a generous patron of art and literature. Euripides 
 and Zeuxis frequented his court; and the palace 
 of the monarch was splendidly adorned by the 
 paintings of the latter. It is said that Socrates 
 refused an invitation to proceed thither, having no 
 great respect for the character of A., which was 
 stained with odious vices. He is believed to have 
 been murdered by Craterus, one of his favourites ; 
 but the story of his death is told differently. — A., a 
 general under Mithridates the Great, was sent into 
 Greece with a large fleet and an army of 120,000 
 men to oppose the Eomans in 87 b. c. SuUa was 
 sent against him, and besieged him in Pir^us, 
 whence A. moved to Bceotia, and here collected 
 all his forces. A battle took place at Chaeroneia, 
 when victory declared for the Bomans. A. now 
 retreated to Chalcis, where he waited until Mith- 
 ridates had despatched another army of 80,000 
 men into Greece. The second flght took place at 
 Orchomeuos, in Bceotia, and, after two days' contest, 
 the whole host led by A. was totally routed by 
 Sulla. A., after hiding for three days in a morass, 
 escaped to Chalcis. After a treaty of peace had been 
 effected between Sulla and Mithridates, A. fell 
 imder the displeasure of his monarch, being tmjustly 
 suspected of treason, and, fearing for his life, as also 
 perhaps disgusted at the return he had received 
 for his many services, he went over to the Eomans 
 at the outbreak of the second war, in 81 B.C. 
 After this time, he appears no more in history. — A., 
 son of the former, married Berenice, danghter of 
 King PtolemsBus Auletes (56 B. c), and ruled over 
 Egypt for the short space of six months during the 
 banishment of Ptolem^us. The usurper lost his life 
 in a battle against Aulus Gabinins, proconsul of 
 Syria. His grandson, also named A., obtained from 
 Marcus Antonius the province of Cappadocia, and 
 retained it during the reign of Augustus. Tiberius 
 accused him of political innovations, and condemned 
 him to death ; but, as he was old and fatuous, his life 
 was spared. He died soon after his trial, at Eome, 
 in 17 A. D. — A., son of Herod, the tyrant of Judea, 
 succeeded his father in 1 A.D., and maintained 
 his position against an insurrection raised by the 
 ^70 
 
 Pharisees. His heirship to the throne being disputed 
 by his brother Antipas, A. went to Eome, where his 
 authority was coniiimed by Augustus, who made him 
 Ethnarch of Judsea, Samaria, and Idumsea. After 
 a reign of nine years, he was deposed by Augustus, 
 on account of his cruel tyranny, land banished to 
 Vienna, in Gaul, where he died. His territories 
 were added to the Eoman province of Syria. 
 
 AROHENHOLZ, Johann Wilhelm, Baron 
 Von, a German author, bom Sep. 3, 1745, died Feb. 
 28, 1812. After service in the army, he ^ined his 
 discharge at the close of the Seven Years' war, and 
 passed several years in travel, visiting almost all the 
 principal cities of Europe, and supporting himself by 
 authorship, and, as it was generally^ eported, also by 
 gambling. He wrote a History of the Seven Yeari 
 War (2 vols., Berlin, 1793), which, when compared 
 with the generally dry style of his German contem- 
 poraries, deserves praise on account of its narra- 
 tive interest. He also wrote England and Italy 
 (2d edition, Leip. 1787), Annals of British History 
 (1789 — 1798), and biographies of Queen Elizabeth 
 of England, and Gustavus Vasa of Sweden. 
 
 A'ECHEE FISH, a name given to certain 
 small East Indian fishes of the Acanthopterygious 
 family of Squamipennes or Chcetodontidce, which 
 have the faculty of projecting drops of water with 
 siu-e a.iTn at insects, and thereby causing them to fall 
 into the water, where they are instantly seized as 
 irey. Toxotes jaculator, one of these species, is a 
 ish about six or seven inches in length, a native of 
 Java and other parts of the Indian Archipelago, and 
 is that to which the name; A. F. has been more 
 strictly appropriated. It can project a drop of water 
 to the height of four or five feet. It is the only 
 known recent species of its genus, but there is a 
 fossil one. Chehnon rostratus, also a Javanese fish, 
 possesses the same power, and the Chinese in Java 
 keep it in jars for their amusement, causing it to 
 practise its art by placing insects within its range. 
 
 A'EOHERS AND A'RCHERY. Archers are 
 soldiers whose weapons are the bow and arrow. 
 Among the ancients specially eminent in this 
 mode of warfare, we may particularise the Thra- 
 cians, Cretans, Parthians, and Numidians ; among the 
 modems, the Arabians, Germans, and Saracens. 
 The Emperor Frederick II. employed Saracenic 
 archers with great effect in his Lombard campaign; 
 and to them is ascribed the victory at Cortenuova 
 in 1237. The archers belonged to the light troops, 
 and their province was to open the battle. The 
 Emperor Leo especially lauded the dexterity of the 
 Arabian archers. In later ages, the bow came 
 to be employed in England, where the archers wore 
 light armour, a short sword, and a quiver with 
 twenty or more arrows. At first, these archers 
 fought in small groups; in later years, in large 
 masses. At the battle of Cressy, they formed in divi- 
 sions of 4000 men, 200 in hue and 400 deep. The 
 archers decided the fate of the day in several battles — 
 such as Cressy and Poitiers (1356), Agincourt (1415), 
 Crgvaut (1423), Vemeuil (1424), and Eovemay 
 (1429). The French archers never equalled the 
 Enghsh, in spite of the pains Charles VI. and 
 Charles VII. took with them. The latter organised 
 in 1448 the Franc-archers, to which corps every 
 parish had to contribute one man ; but this measure 
 was attended with so little success that the king 
 was induced to take Scottish archers into his pay, to 
 make any head against the Enghsh. The French 
 archers wore a, coat of buffalo-hide lined with strong 
 Knen, and were accompanied by shield-bearers. In 
 this manner 2000 bowmen with their shield-bearers 
 fought imder the Count de Foix at the siege of 
 Bayonne in 1451. The archers universally belonged 
 
ABCHERS AOT) AECHBRY. 
 
 to the §Ute of the troops, and received higher pay 
 than the rest. At one period, the arbalest or cross- 
 bow was more in favour than the long-bow. See 
 Abbalest. Long after the discovery of gunpowder, 
 we find the bow and arrow stUl used; as, for ex- 
 ample, at the siege of Capua in 1500 ; and the siege 
 of Peineburg in 1502. Nay, even in 1572, Queen 
 Elizabeth promised to place at the disposal of 
 Charles IX. 6000 men, of whom the half were 
 archers. Thu English archers are the subject of 
 frequent mention by our old writers. Chaucer, in 
 his Ganlerbwry Tales, speaks of the archer 
 
 * Cladde in cote and hode of ^rene, 
 A sheafe of peacock aiwea brigbte and kene, 
 Under his belt he bare ful thriftilie. 
 Wei coude he dresse his takel yewmanlie, 
 His avwea drouped not with fetbeves iowe, 
 And in his hand he bare a mighty bowe.' 
 
 In a Treatise on Martial Discipline, by Ralph Smithe, 
 written in the time of Queen Elizabeth, we have a 
 picture of the English archer two centuries after 
 Chaucer's time : ' Captens and officers should be 
 skilful of that most noble weapon the long-bow; and 
 to see that their soldiers, according to their draught 
 and strength, have good bowes, well nocked, well 
 strynged, everie strynge whippe in their nooke, and 
 in tlie middes rubbed with wax braser, and shut- 
 ing-glove, some spare strynges trymed as aforesaid ; 
 every man one shef e of arrows, with a case of leather 
 defensible against the rayne, and in the same four- 
 and-twentie arrowes, whereof eight of them should 
 be lighter than the residue, to gall or astoyne the 
 enemye with the hailshot of light arrowes before they 
 shall come within the danger of their harquebus 
 shot. Let evei'y man have a brigandine or a little 
 coat of plate, a skull or hufkyn, a maule of leade 
 of five foote in lengthe, and a pike, and the same 
 hanging by his girdle with a hook and a dagger.' 
 
 Among the Asiatic Turks, the Persians, the Tatars, 
 and other nations of the east, as well as the Ameri- 
 can Indians, the bow and arrow are stUl used as wea- 
 pons of war. In Europe, they are nearly abandoned 
 for mihtary purposes. The chief dififerences between 
 the two kinds of weapon employed by the archers 
 of the middle ages are noticed under Abbalest; 
 Bow AND Arkow. 
 
 Although archers are stiU included among the 
 fighting-men of barbarous and semi-barbarous 
 nations ; in England, archery is now nothing more 
 than a pastime, encouraged by archery clubs or 
 societies. In this sense, however, archery is expe- 
 riencing a revival, being healthful as an out-door 
 exercise, even if no further useful. During the 
 reign of Charles II., archery was much patronised 
 by the court, 'TothiU Fields being the chief scene 
 of exercise. After his reign, archery fell into 
 desuetude for about a oentmy. In 1776, a Mr 
 Aston revived archery in the neighbourhood of 
 London ; and very shortly there were several toxo- 
 philite or archery societies formed. The system 
 survived till 1793, when another period of inactivity 
 supervened, lasting tUl 1844. In this last-named 
 year, archery was revived in Yorkshire, and has 
 since gone on extending every year. A recom- 
 mendation to the sport is that ladies can take 
 part in it — one of the few open-air pastimes 
 of which this can be said. In the modern exer- 
 cise of archery, there are several varieties of 
 contests between the antagonistic parties ; but 
 the usual variety is target-shooting. In archery- 
 matches, a number of prizes are generally awarded, 
 the principal being for the greatest number of 
 arrows shot into any part of the target, and for 
 the nearest approach to the exact centee. The 
 target has a gold spot in the centre, a red ring 
 around this, then a white ring, then a black, and 
 
 outside of all a white ring bordered with green. The 
 merit of the shooting consists in a near approach 
 to the exact' centre or 'gold.' Two targets are 
 generally used in a match, on opposite sides of the 
 ■field, each by one party. The apparatus mostly 
 used at these archery meetings is represented in the 
 
 Archery Apparatus. 
 
 annexed out. 1 is the bow, varying in weight 
 according to the strength of the person who is to 
 use it ; 2 is the arrow ; 3 is the quiver, a tin case 
 for holding arrows not immediately in use ; 4 and 5 
 are the pouch and belt for holding the arrows 
 actually in use. The tassel of the belt serves to clean 
 the arrows when dusty. 6 is the brace, buckled 
 round the left arm, to protect it from being hurt 
 by the string when shooting ; 7 is the shooting- 
 glove, formed to protect the three fingers used in 
 drawing the string. Besides these articles and the 
 target, archers are sometimes provided with a large 
 case called an ' ascham,' fitted up with the neces- 
 sary drawers and compartments for the reception 
 of the bow, arrows, string, and other necessary 
 accoutrements. 
 
 In archery competition, the total number and 
 value of each person's hits are registered on a 
 scoring-card. The shots are usually punctured on a 
 card with a pin, as being preferable to pencil or inlr 
 marks ; and the mode of ascertaining the value of 
 the hits, which is increased in proportion as they 
 reach the centre, wiU be seen by the following 
 example : 
 
 FOBM OF THE SCOEING-.OAED. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Bed. 
 
 Inner 
 ■White. 
 
 Black. 
 
 Outer 
 White. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Value. 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 "" 
 
 26 
 
 68 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 • 
 
 .... 
 
 It appears by the card that A has two in the gold, 
 four in the red, six in the inner white, ten in the 
 blacki and thirteen in the outer white, making a 
 total of thirty-five. The real value of these is ascer- 
 tained by multiplying_ the hits in the gold by nine ; 
 in the red, by three ; in the inner white, by two ; by 
 adding a fourth to those in the black, and leaving 
 without alteration the number in the outer white. 
 By this process it wiU appear that A's numbers, 
 according to the value of each circle, amount to 68, 
 and B's to 48— hence A is the winner by 20. But 
 A's total might have been less than B's, and stiU 
 he might have been the winner, providing the shots 
 had lain more towards the gold than B's. 
 
 371 
 
AECHIL-AKCHILOCHUS. 
 
 As an instance of the skill wliich long and careful 
 practice may insure, Mr Horace A. Ford, who has 
 written an excellent work on Archery, on one 
 occasion, out of 144 shots, made 143 hits — 765 score ; 
 on another, 144 shots, 137 hits — 809 score ; and on 
 another, 75 shots, 75 hits — 555 score. 
 
 A'RCHIL, or O'RCHIL, is a colouring substance 
 obtained from various species of lichens. The A. 
 is not originally present in the lichens, but is 
 developed during a process of putrefaction and 
 fermentation. The lichens, collected from rocks 
 near the sea, are cleaned, ground into a powder with 
 water, placed in tanks, and ammoniaoal liquids — 
 such as purified gas liquor or stale urine — added; 
 when, by the combined influence of the ammonia, 
 air, water, and the constituents of the lichens, a 
 violet-coloured matter is generated, which appears 
 for a time to dissolve iu me water, but finally falls 
 to the bottom of the vat in the condition of a 
 moist powder or paste. The latter is then mixed 
 with some substance like chalk or stucco, to give 
 it consistence. The lichens which yield the best 
 A. in largest quantity, are Boccella tinctoria and 
 fudformis. The former is called the Archil plant, 
 and is obtained in large amount from the Canaries 
 and Cape de Verd Islands, and the Levant. Another 
 lichen, Lecanora tartarea, collected from rocks in 
 Sweden, is largely imported into Britain. It is 
 sometimes called cudbear (q. v.), or cudbear lichen, 
 and sometimes white Swedish moss. A. is soluble 
 in water and in alcohol, to either of which it 
 imparts a violet colour, with a good deal of a 
 crimson hue. It is much employed in the dyeing 
 of silks, where a beautiful Ulao colour is required; 
 but though a brilliant rich hue is imparted to 
 the silken fabric, the colour is not a, permanent 
 one, being easily acted upon by the rays of the 
 sun. Hence the A. is seldom used by itself, and 
 the cloth is first dyed hlao by another colouring 
 matter, and is then passed through an A. dye, which 
 imparts a brilliant hlao hue to the cloth. A. is 
 seldom employed to dye cotton cloth, but it is 
 often used, along with indigo, in the dyeing of 
 woollen cloth ; and besides enabling the indigo 
 colour to go much further, it imparts its peculiar 
 rich tint to the blue or black cloth or yarn im- 
 mersed in it ; the colour, however, so obtained is 
 not so permanent as where the A. is left out. 
 Cudbear (q. v.) and Litmus (q. v.) are analogous 
 to A., and are obtained from the same lichens. 
 
 The lichen distinguished by the name of the 
 A. plant or lichen, Boccella tinctoria, grows very 
 sparingly on the southern coasts of England, but 
 abundantly on the shores of the Mediterranean and 
 of the neighbouring parts of the Atlantic, where it 
 often covers rocks near the sea, so as to form what 
 has been likened to a sort of turf upon them. The 
 Spanish name is Orciglia, from wluch the French 
 Orseille, the English A. or Orchil, and even the 
 botanical name Boccella, are derived. It is of a 
 substance between cartUagiuous and leathery, round- 
 ish, pretty erect, branching in a dichotomous manner, 
 of a grayish brown colour, with powdery warts 
 {soredia); the apothecia (q. v.) orbicular, flat, horny, 
 almost black, with a scarcely prominent border. 
 That from the Canary Isles is generally regarded as 
 the best. It seldom exceeds the thickness of a pin, 
 and about an inch and a half in length. A less 
 branched and more slender, prostrate, or pendulous 
 variety {Boccella Ivypomecha of Bory de St Vincent) 
 is common at the Cape of Good Hope and in the island 
 of Mauritius, and appears in commerce along with 
 the other, but is of very inferior quality. A variety 
 remarkable for its large size, or perhaps a distinct 
 species (B. flcuxida), is brought from Lima and 
 other parts of the west coast of South America; 
 
 372 
 
 it is sometimes as thick as a goose-qufll, and 
 6 or 8 inches long, and i? of excellent quahty. 
 All these, and Boccdla fudformis, very generally 
 receive in comjneroe, and from A. -makers, the 
 name of Orchella weed, the different kinds being 
 distiuguished according to the countries from which 
 they are imported, 'fliey are also popularly called 
 Dyer's Moss. — if. /Mci/onreis now yields perhaps more 
 of the A. or Orchella weed -of commerce than B. 
 tinctoria. It differs from B. iijidoWa chiefly in being 
 not rounded, but flat, and in having the apothecia 
 very distinctly bordered. It grows in similar situa- 
 tions, and is also a native of Britain, but abundant 
 only in warmer climates, as on the coasts of Africa, 
 Madagascar, &c. That from Angola is reckoned of 
 the very best quality. 
 
 Among the lichens from which A. is manufac- 
 tured is the Pardle iPAuvergne or Orseille de terre 
 (Ground A.) of the French, Variolaria orcina or 
 corallina, which is gathered for this purpose in 
 mountainous districts of the south of France and 
 other parts of the south of Europe, and is also an 
 article of export (with other similar lichens) from 
 Sweden to Holland. But the greater facility with 
 which A. of the finest quality can be procured from 
 the species of Boccella, and the increasing abundance 
 of the supply from different quarters, particularly 
 from Angola, tend to diminish the demand for other 
 lichens. 
 
 AKCHI'LOCHUS of Paeos, in Lydia, flourished 
 about 714 — 676 b. c, and is regarded as the first of 
 the Greek lyric poets, although the origiu of the elegy 
 is claimed for Callinus, a writer whose age seems to 
 have slightly preceded that of A. Glimpses of his 
 life, especially of the calamities which befell him, were 
 frequently given in his writiugs. His father's name 
 was Telesicles, his mother was a slave called Eni-po. 
 At an early age, becoming entangled in political con- 
 tests, he abandoned his native town, and led a colony 
 of the citizens to Thasos. "While here, as he informs 
 us in some extant verses, he lost his sHdd in a battle 
 against the Thracians, yet not through cowardice. 
 Subsequently he was banished from Sparta, to 
 which he had gone, some say because he had vindi- 
 cated his conduct in running away from the fight, 
 others, because of the licentiousness of his verses. 
 He is said to have gained the laurel- wreath at the 
 Olympic Games by an ode in honour of Hercules, 
 but this is doubtful Having returned to Pares, he 
 took part in the war which broke out betwixt it and 
 Naxos, in the course of which he lost his life, either 
 in battle or by assassination. The Delphian oracle 
 pronounced a curse upon his slayer. Variety, 
 novelty, and satirical bitterness characterised lus 
 lyric poems ; so much so, that ' Archilochian bitter- 
 ness,' and 'Parian verse,' became by- words in 
 ancient times. He scourged his enemies in the 
 most merciless fashion, and always displayed the 
 most malicious skill in selecting for his sarcasm the 
 points on which they were most sensitive. It is 
 said that Lycambes, who had promised his daughter 
 Neobule in marriage to A., having failed to fulffl the 
 promise, was so severely satirised by the poet, that, 
 to escape ridicule, both father and daughter hanged 
 themselves. Among the ancients, A. was ranked with 
 Homer. They dedicated the statues of both on the 
 same day, and placed the head of A. beside that of 
 Homer on the same bust. It is therefore supposed, 
 and with high probability, that there must have 
 been far more in A. than mere vehemence of satire. 
 Even Plato, who was not likely to err on the side of 
 admiration in such a case, calls Tiim 'the very 
 wise;' and Gorgias, the rhetorician, is reported to 
 have said, when Plato sent forth his dialogues 
 against the Sophists, ' Athens has given birth to a 
 new A.' There must have been strong sense, 
 
AECHIMANDRITE— ARCHIMEDES. 
 
 and a keen perception of truth in the man, to 
 have -won so vmiversal and permanent a reputation. 
 Still the line of Horace — who was a vigorous imi- 
 tator of him in many respects — proves that 'rage' 
 ■was considered ' the special faculty' of A. 
 
 ■ Archilochum propria rabies aiinavit %amho.' 
 
 Ars Poetica, line 79. 
 
 * Bage hath armed Archilochus with his own iambus.' 
 
 The word iamtms was in use before the time of A., 
 and was employed to denote a species of rude rail- 
 lery, such as flashed out spontaneously under the 
 inspiring excitement of the Bacchic and other festi- 
 vals. A. was, however, the first to reduce these 
 irregular and capricious effusions to fixed rules. See 
 Iambics. The semi-pentameter, of which he made 
 abundant use, was called after him ArcJiUocMan 
 verse. 
 
 The fragments extant of his poetry have been 
 edited by Bergk in his Poeke Lyrici Grcecorum 
 (Leipsic, 1843). 
 
 AEOHIMA'NDEITE (Gr. archi-, chief, and 
 mandra, a fold or a convent), the title of the highest 
 order of superiors of convents in the Greek Church 
 (see Abbot). The Russian bishops are chosen from 
 among the archimandrites. 
 
 AECHIMB'DBS, the most celebrated of ancient 
 mathematicians, was bom at Syracuse about 287 
 B. c. He is said to have been a kinsman of King Hiero, 
 though he does not seem to have held any public 
 office, but devoted himself entirely to science. In 
 regard to mathematics, we cannot estimate fuUy the 
 merits of A. without a more exact knowledge of the 
 state of the science as he found it ; we know, how- 
 ever, that he enriched it with ^scoveries of the 
 highest importance, on which modem mathemati- 
 cians have founded their metiiods of measuriug 
 curved surfaces and solids. Euclid only considers a 
 few curved figures in relation to one another, but 
 without comparing them with rectilineal surfaces 
 and solids. The theorems necessary to this transi- 
 tion are laid down by A. in his treatises ' on the 
 Sphere and Cylinder,' ' on Spheroids and Conoids,' and 
 ' on the Measurement of the Circle.' His demonstra- 
 tion that the area of a segment of a parabola is two- 
 thirds of the enclosing parallelogram, is the first 
 real example of the quadrature (q. v.) of a curvilinear 
 space. In his treatise on spirals, he rises to yet 
 higher investigations, which, nowever, are not very 
 easily understood even by masters of the subject. 
 
 A. is the only one of the ancients that contributed 
 anjrthing satisfactory on the theory of mechanics 
 and on hydrostatics. He first estabUshed the 
 truth, that a ' body plunged in a fluid loses as 
 much of its weight as is equal to the weight of 
 an equal volimie of the fluid. (See the following 
 article.) It was by this law that he determined 
 how much alloy the goldsmith, whom Hiero had 
 commissioned to make a crown of pure gold, had 
 fraudulently mixed with the metal. The solution of 
 the problem suggested itself to him as he was enter- 
 ing the bath, and he is reported to have been so over- 
 joyed as to hasten home without waiting to dress, 
 exclaimuig: 'I have found it! I have found it!' 
 {Eureka! Eureka!) Practical mechanism seems to 
 have been an equally new science in the days of A. ; 
 for his boast, that if he had a fulcrum or stand-point, 
 he could move the world, betrays the enthusiasm 
 with which the extraordinary effects of his newly 
 invented machines inspired him. Among the 
 numerous inventions ascribed to A., is that of the 
 endless screw, and the cochlea or water-screw (see 
 Archimedes' Screw), in which the water is made in 
 a manner to asceiid by its own gravity. During the 
 siege of Syracuse by the Romans, he exerted aU his 
 ingenuity In the defence of the ciiy. Polybius, Livy, 
 
 and Plutarch speak with astonishment of the 
 machines with which he opposed the attacks of the 
 enemy. But while giving detailed accounts of his 
 other contrivances, they say nothing of his having 
 set fire to the ships by means of mirrors, a, story 
 which is not very probable in itself, and rests on 
 later narratives. When the Romans took the 
 city by surprise (212 B.C.), A., according to the 
 tradition, was sitting in the public square lost 
 in thought, with aU sorts of geometrical figures 
 before b™ drawn in the sand. As a Roman soldier 
 rushed upon him, he called out to him not to 
 spoil the circle ! But the rude warrior cut him down. 
 According to his own direction, a cylinder enclosing 
 a sphere was engraved upon his tombstone, in com- 
 memoration of his discovery of the relation between 
 these solids — a discovery on which he set particular 
 value. ' When Cicero was in Sicily as questor, he dis- 
 covered the tomb hid among briers. His collected 
 extant works were edited by ToreUi (Ojcf. 1792). 
 There is a French translation with notes by F. 
 Peyrard (Paris, 1808, 2 vols,), and one in German by 
 Nizze (Stials. 1824). The Arenarius was translated 
 into Enghsh by G. Anderson (Lond. 1784). The 
 object of the treatise is to prove that it is possible 
 to assign a number greater than that of the grains 
 of sand that would fill the sphere of the fixed stars, 
 the diameter of which A. assumes at a certain num- 
 ber of stadia. The difficulty lay in expressing such 
 a vast number by means of the clumsy notation of 
 Greek arithmetic, and the device by which the 
 difficulty is eluded is considered as affording a 
 striking instance of A.'s genius. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, the PRDfOiPLE op, is one of the 
 most important in the science of Hydrostatics, and 
 is so called because the discovery of it is generally 
 ascribed to the Syraousan philosopher. It may be 
 thus stated : A body when immersed io a fltiid loses 
 exactly as much of its weight as is equal to the weight 
 of the fluid it displaces ; or : A fluid sustains as much 
 of the weight of a body immersed in it as is equal to 
 the weight of the fluid displaced by it. It is proved 
 experimentally in the following way. A dehcate 
 balance is so arranged that two brass cyliaders, A 
 and B, may be suspended from one of the scale-pans. 
 
 the one under the other. The lower cylinder, B, is 
 soKd, or closed aU round, and fits accurately iato the 
 upper cylinder, A; which is hollow. When the two 
 cylinders are placed under the one scale, pan- weights 
 are placed upon the other until perfect equilibrium 
 is obtained. The cylinder B is now immersed in 
 water, and in consequence of the buoyant tendency 
 of the water exerted upon it, the equilibrium is 
 destroyed; but it may be completely restored by 
 filling the hollow cylinder. A, with water. The 
 amount of weight which B has lost by being placed 
 in iie water, is thus found to be exactly the same as 
 the weight of a quantity of water equal to its own 
 bulk, or which is the same thiog, to the quantity of 
 
 378 
 
AUCHiMEDES' SCREW— ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 ■water displaced by it. Wien bodies ligbter tban 
 water are wbolly immersed in it, they displace an 
 amovint of water of greater weight than their own, 
 so that if left free to adjust themselves, they swim 
 on the surface, only as much of their bulk being 
 submerged as will displace a quantity of water 
 weighing the same as themselves. Accordingly, 
 while bodies heavier than water displace, when put 
 into it, their own bulk, bodies lighter than water 
 displace, when allowed to float on the surface, their 
 own weight of the fluid. Bodies of the same weight 
 as water, according to the principle of Archimedes, 
 have no tendency to rise or sink in it, for the water 
 displaced by them weighs precisely the same as 
 they do. The pretty scientific toy called the 
 Cartesian Diver is intended to illustrate this. 
 Although the principle of Archimedes is generally 
 eatabhshed with reference to water, its application 
 extends equally to bodies immersed in air or any 
 other fluid. 
 
 ARCHIMB'DES' SCREW (called also the spiral 
 pump), a machine for raisiag water, said to have been 
 invented by Archimedes, during his stay in Egypt, 
 for draining and irrigating the land. Fig. 1 repre- 
 sents it in its simplest form. This consists of a 
 
 Kg. 1. 
 
 flexible tube bent spirally round a solid cylinder, the 
 ends of which are furnished with pivots, so as to 
 admit of the whole turning round its axis. The 
 machine is placed io an inclined position, so that the 
 lower mouth of the tube may dip below the surface 
 of the water to be raised. In the position repre- 
 sented in ths figure, the lowest bend (a) of the tube 
 will be filled with water, and if now the handle be 
 made to turn in the direction of the hands of a 
 watch, the mouth of the spiral tube will be raised 
 above the surface; and the water enclosed in the 
 tube, having no means of escape, wiU flow within it 
 untU, after one revolution, it will occupy the second 
 bend, 6. The first bend (a) has meanwhile received 
 a second charge, which, after a second revolution, 
 flows up into the second bend (6), and takes the 
 place of the first charge, which has now moved up 
 to the third bend, c. When, therefore, as many revo- 
 lutions of the cylinder have been made as there are 
 turns in the spiral tube, each of the lower bends will 
 be filled with water ; and in the course of another 
 revolution, there being no higher bend for the water 
 of the first charge to occupy, it wiU flow out of the 
 tube by its upper mouth. At each succeeding revolu- 
 tion, the lowest bend wiU be charged, and the highest 
 discharged. It wiU be seen from the figure that 
 there is room to dispose a second tube side by 
 side with the first, round the cylinder, in which 
 case the screw woiild be called double-threaded. In 
 the ordinary construction of these machines, the 
 cylinder itself is hollowed out into a double or triple 
 threaded screw, and enclosed in a water-tight case, 
 which turns round with it, the space between the 
 S71 
 
 threads supplying the place of such tubes as are seen 
 in Fig. 1. Fig. 2 represents a double-threaded A. S. 
 of this description, with the case removed in front. 
 It is sometimes found convenient to fix the exterior 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^'v 
 
 P-- V 
 
 V 
 
 V 
 
 Kg. 2. 
 
 Invelope, and to make the screw work within it, 
 the outer edge of the latter being as close as possible 
 to the former without actual contact. This modifi- 
 cation of the A. S. receives the name of water-screw, 
 and frequently of Dutch screw, from its being exten- 
 sively used in Holland for draining low grounds. 
 
 ARCHIPE'L AGO, a term (of doubtful etymology) 
 applied originally to that gulf of the Mediterranean 
 which separates Greece from Asia ; but now extended 
 to any sea, like it, thickly interspersed with islands, 
 or rather to the group of islands themselves. The 
 islands in the Greek Archipelago or .iEgean Sea 
 consist of two groups, called Cyclades and Sporades ; 
 the first from their being massed after the manner 
 of a circle, the secohd from their being scattered in 
 something of a line. The former lie to the east of 
 Southern Greece, while the latter skirt the west 
 of Asia Minor. 
 
 Of the Cyclades the principal islands are : Lyra, 
 Kythnos, Thera, Tenos, Andros, Naxos, Melos, and 
 many more of inferior size. They aU belong to 
 G/reece, and will more conveniently be considered in 
 connection with it. The chief islands of the Sporades 
 are: Scarpanto, Rhodes, Cos, Patmos, Nicaria, Samos, 
 Soio, Metelin, Lemnos, Imbros, Samothraki, Thasos, 
 and many more of inferior size. They will fall to be 
 considered imder the head of Turkey, to which they 
 stiU belong. Of both groups, the more consider- 
 able islands will be noticed, under the alphabetical 
 arrangement, in their respective places. 
 
 The other Archipelagoes, loosely so called, will 
 receive separate notice each in its proper place. 
 
 A remarkable bircumstance may be mentioned in 
 connection with Archipelagoes. The islands of the 
 globe rarely stand alone. With very few exceptions, 
 they may all be classified into clusters. In most 
 clusters, again, there is generally more or less of simi- 
 litude between the different members of each — simfli- 
 tude sometimes of one kind, and sometimes of another. 
 Perhaps the similitude that is most obvious even on 
 the face of an ordinary map, is that, really like the 
 links of a chain, the members of a cluster have their 
 lengths, as distinguished from their breadths, in one 
 and the same direction. In the West Indies, for 
 instance, look at the Bahamas, and look also at the 
 Antilles, Greater and Lesser. In the East Indies, 
 again, the same thing is seen in carrying the eye 
 from the north end of the Philippines to the north 
 end of Sumatra, or even of the Andamans. Lastly, 
 on the opposite coasts of the Upper Pacific, observe 
 the American side upwards from the south end of 
 Vancouver's Island to Mount St Elias, and' the 
 Asiatic side downwards from the upper extremity 
 of Kamtohatka^which is all but an island — through 
 the Kurfles, to the lower extremity of Japan. 
 
AECHITECTURAL PAINTING— ABCHITECTUKE. 
 
 AROHITE'OTURAL PAINTING has for ita 
 subjects the exteriors or iuteriors of remarkable 
 buildings; churches, castles, streets in cities, &o. 
 It is mentioned by Vitruviua, but is comparatively 
 a modem art. Benozzo Gozzoli, Ghirlandajo, and the 
 Venetian school, cultivated this department of art in 
 the middle ages ; and Pinturiochio, by order of Pope 
 Innocent VIIL, painted a series of views of cities m 
 the style of the Flemish school, which, imder the 
 brothers Van Eyck, had distinguished itself by 
 careful treatment of architectural backgroirnds, &c. 
 For a long time,"A. P. was regarded only as accessory 
 to other styles of art ; but, at the close of the 16th 
 c, P. Neefs, in his views of the iuteriors of Gothic 
 churches, gave to this branch of the fine arts an 
 independent form; and Steenwyck the younger, in 
 the following century, extended its application in 
 his views of the interiors of prisons, of which his 
 picture of 'Peter Liberated from Prison' is an 
 example. The art was still further extended and 
 cultivated by Van der Heijden, Bhok, Van Deelen, 
 E. de VUle, Johann Ghering, and others who painted 
 views of church interiors in the Italian style, palaces, 
 aud chambers. The interior view of the Church 
 of Amsterdam, painted by P-uisdael, deserves especial 
 notice. In the 18th c, me Venetian Canale and his 
 nephew BeUotto (generally known by the name of 
 Canaletto), painted many views of cities, but especi- 
 ally of the canals and buildings of Venice. Collec- 
 tions of their muuerous works are found at Dresden, 
 Wobum Abbey, &c. 
 
 In recent times, A. P. has been very successfully 
 cultivated in Germany, France, England, Holland, 
 and Belgium. Schinkel is celebrated for his fine 
 union of classical taste with richness of decorative 
 invention. His two most striking works are St 
 Peter's, and the Duomo at Milan ; Paul Gropius 
 has shewn great talent in his Cathedral at Eheims, 
 bmlt in honour of Joan of Arc. His dioramas are 
 well known; and Domenico Quaglio, who died in 
 1837, throughout his innumerable compositions, has 
 exhibited an exquisite appreciation of perspective, 
 and of the poetical arrangement of details. Among 
 modem A. painters may be mentioned-^in England, 
 Prout (views of Italy, Germany, &c.), Eoberts (whose 
 genius has sought for its materials in Spain and the 
 East, and who paints the architecture of foreign 
 lands with rare truthfulness and lively vigour), 
 Mackenzie, GoodaU, Williams, and the water-colour 
 painters Haghe, Chase, Howse, and others; in 
 France — Granet (died 1849), the most celebrated 
 art painter of the new French school; and the 
 water-colour paiaters Ouvrig, Garnery, Eoohebrune, 
 and Villeret; in Italy — MigUara and Nehrhch (a 
 German, who has been styled 'the modem Cana- 
 letto ') ; in Germany — Von Bayer, Hasenpflug of 
 Halberstadt (who paints beautifully old cloister- 
 aUeys under winter-effects), AinmuUer, Vermeersoh, 
 Pulian of Diisseldorf (who displays great skiU ia 
 the representation of old streets and time-worn 
 churches), Conrad, Gartner, Groeb, Helfft, Dietrich, 
 &c. ; in HoUaud and Belgium — ^Waldorp, Carsen, 
 Boosbom, Von Haanen, Ten Kate, Springer, and 
 Bossuet. 
 
 A'ECHITECTTTEE (Lat. arcMtedura, from the 
 Gr. arckitecton, the chief fabricator, the architect), the 
 art of building or constructing. In this country, A. is 
 usually divided into Civil, Mihtary, and Naval. In 
 the present article we shall confine ourselves to the 
 first, the two latter being treated of, the former 
 under the head of FoETmOATioir, the latter under 
 that of Ship-building. Civil A., when taken in 
 the widest sense, may be regarded either from an 
 artistioal, a scientific, or a utilitarian point of view. 
 In the first case, as a 'means of giving external form 
 and sensible expression to mental conceptions or 
 
 ideas, it is a branch of aasthetics, or of the fine arts 
 properly so called (see Akt), and takes rank with 
 sculpture and painting ; in the second case, it con- 
 sists in a knowledge of certain laws of physical 
 nature, and a consequent power of caUing them into 
 play, or counteracting their operation, and is conse- 
 quentljra branch of that wider department of science 
 to which the name of Mechanics (q. v.) is given ; 
 whereas ia the last it becomes a practical art, which 
 has for its object the application of the principles, 
 both artistic and scientific, which A. embraces, to 
 the elevation of national and individual character, 
 and the increase of the physical comfort and well- 
 being of mankind. But though it admits of being 
 thus analysed or separated in thought, it must not 
 be imagined that A. can exhibit in practice any one 
 of these principles to the exclusion of the others. 
 The abstract conception of all-pervading deity, as 
 embodied in the Greek temple — ^the religious aspira- 
 tion after a personal god, as shadowed forth in the 
 Gothic cathedral — can be realised only in accord- 
 ance with the principles of mechanics, and the most 
 rigorous adaptation of means to ends ; whereas, in 
 an opposite direction, the kraal of the Hottentot, the 
 hut of the Indian in the American wilderness, or 
 even the vulgar chimney-stalk in the dingy manu- 
 facturing suburb, if properly constructed for their 
 respective purposes, wiU, be found to have obeyed 
 such sesthetical principles as they may have come in 
 contact with. Nature is not self-contradictory ; and 
 art and science, beauty and utility, when rightly 
 understood, are never in conflict. A celebrated 
 German writer and thinker (F. Schlegel) has described 
 A. as ' frozen music ;' and the comparison is in 
 accordance' with the remarks which we have made ; 
 for music, though apparently the freest and most 
 lawless, is in reality the most rigorously scientific of 
 the arts. But though a strict adherence to all the 
 principles of A. be indispensable to every genuine 
 architectural structure, whatever be its object, it 
 by no means follows that equal prominence must 
 be given to each of these principles on every 
 occasion. If a building has for its primary object 
 the expression and commemoration of such feel- 
 ings as grief, gratitude, devotion, or the like, this 
 object manifestly will be best attained by subordi- 
 nating the scientific and utUitarian to the aesthetic 
 principles of A.; and the reverse wiU be the case 
 where mere convenience, and also, though ia a lesser 
 degree, where convenience, in combination with 
 beauty or magnificence, is sought. It is in a great 
 measure by the prominence ■Mich they have given 
 to one or other of these principles, that difierent 
 nations have displayed their diversities of character 
 in their A. The speculative and poetical character 
 of the Greeks was exhibited in their temples, whOst 
 their preference of the state to the iadividual ap- 
 peared in the fact that these structures were designed 
 for the worship of the protecting divinity of the city 
 by the citizen, not for the worship of «■ personal 
 god by the individual man. Amongst the Eomans, 
 again, terrestrial power and material aggrandisement 
 were the exclusively national aspirations, and conse- 
 quently their A. had their own honour and glory 
 primaonly in view. The basilioas, amphitheatres, and 
 triumphal arches of the Eomans were their own; but 
 the temples which they raised in honour of the gods, 
 were little else than imperfect copies from the 
 Greek, with scarcely any assignable national cha- 
 racteristics. Then, when we come to medieval 
 times, though, on the revival of spiritual tendencies, 
 Eesthetic principles again become prominent, they 
 exhibit themselves under totally different forms; 
 and the distinctions between heathen and Christian 
 thought could scarcely be more distinctly stated in 
 words than they are exhibited to the eye in the 
 
 375 
 
AECHITECTUEE. 
 
 difference between a Greek temple and a Gothic 
 cathedral. Even the relation which subsists between 
 Christian and Mohammedan A. (Gothic A.and Arabian 
 A., q. V.) strikingly reminds us of the fact that Mo- 
 hammedanism was but a sort of bastard Christianity. 
 Domestic life again appeared in full purity and 
 vigour only in modern times ; and then only do we 
 see the utflitariau principles of A. finally prevailing 
 over the assthetic. But apart from the mental cha- 
 racteristics and tendencies of a people, there are 
 many other circumstances which modify their 
 A. Of these, one of the most important is climate. 
 Arrangements for the permanent and commodious 
 residence of the family within doors could not be 
 expected to attain much perfection amongst a race 
 like the Greeks, whose lue was spent in the open 
 air; and the climate of Holland, as well as the 
 genius of the people and the character of their occu- 
 pations, has had much to do with the fact that the 
 Dutch have rarely risen above a town-house. Fol- 
 lowing thus the peculiarities of national character and 
 circumstances, it is obvious that the more widely these 
 differ in any two nations, the more dissimilar will 
 be the styles of A. which they produce respectively. 
 Moreover, it is apparent that the higher the stage of 
 national development, the more marked will be the 
 character which the A. of a people will assume. A. 
 thus bears a strict analogy to language. Both are 
 an expression of thought, and in the one and in the 
 other, the richness, variety, and precision of the 
 expression will be in proportion to the quantity and 
 quality of the thought to be expressed. Lastly, in 
 the fact that all genuine A. is the expression of the 
 ruling national ideas and forms of thought of some 
 one particular people, we perceive the reason why a 
 building compomided of several styles should be 
 characterless and unpleasing ; and why this should 
 be more and more the case, the more characteristic 
 the styles compounded, and the greater the equality 
 preserved amongst them. The Doric pillar in itself, 
 and stiU more, perhaps, the Roman adaptation of it, 
 is the simplest and most rudimentary of aU pillars ; 
 and what we are in the habit of calling Saxon, is the 
 simplest and most rudimentary of all the styles of 
 Gothic A. ; and hence the introduction of a few 
 Tuscan pillars considerably modified into a Saxon 
 or Komanic church, does not awaken feelings of 
 very decided repugnance, whereas an attempt to 
 combine equally the beauties of the Parthenon and of 
 Cologne Cathedral in the same building would be 
 unspeakably revolting. The limits of the present 
 article preclude us from presenting to the reader a 
 consecutive account of the origin and development 
 of the different styles of A. These will be treated 
 under separate heads (see Egyptian A., Indiai? A., 
 Geeek a., Gothic A., Arabian A. ; see also Arch, 
 Pillar, Architrave, &c.) ; and all that can be here 
 attempted is to trace the earHer stages through 
 which A. passed in the historical nations, before it 
 reached the point at which it afforded the means of 
 expressing the feelings or supplying the wants of 
 mankind. 
 
 1. The earKest stage of monumental A. in every 
 part of the world seems to have been that in which 
 it supplied to the existing generation the means of 
 setting a mark on the face of the earth, of a, nature 
 so ineffaceable as that it should continue to be 
 visible to future generations. No attempt was yet 
 made to teU a tale either by the form of the monu- 
 ment, or by any figure or inscription engraven on 
 it. Apart from the tradition intended to accompany 
 it, it was speechless — confessedly uuiatelligible. 
 But it is pasy to see how powerful would be the 
 effect of such an erection in preserving that tradi- 
 tion from oblivion, and fixing it down to the parti- 
 cular locality; for so long as a conspicuous object 
 
 376 
 
 existed, which obviously was the work of human 
 hands, the cause of its existence would be a subject 
 of curiosity, which could be gratified only by in,-, 
 quiries which must lead to a recital of the events 
 intended to be commemorated. It was with this 
 view that Joshua (xxiv. 26) took a stone, and set it 
 up under an oak that was by the sanctuary of ,the 
 Lord — ' And said unto all the people : Behold, this 
 stone shall be a witness unto us ; for it hath heard 
 aU the words of the Lord.' To this primary class of 
 monuments belong those tumuli or barrows, and 
 conical heaps of stones called cadms, earns, or 
 kearns, which, when they occur in Britain, we 
 perhaps rightly ascribe to the Celtic portion of our 
 forefathers, but which there is much reason to 
 believe have been erected by every race at a certain 
 stage of their progress. The barrow, it is true, is 
 not wholly destitute of architectural arrangements. 
 Occasionally it contains a passage or narrow gallery- 
 leading to a square enclosure or small chamber, 
 in which the remains of bones, and of rude urns, 
 diinking-cups, and other articles, sometimes of 
 Roman or Brito-Roman manufacture, are found, 
 The barrows are always, however, of the rudest 
 and most inartificial construction, and in consider- 
 ing them, we are only, as it were, on the threshold 
 of architectural science. 
 
 2. The earliest class of erections to which this 
 title can with any propriety be given, are those 
 which are commonly spoken of as Druidical temples. 
 These consist generally of separate stones, often of 
 enonnous size, raised on their ends, sometimes in a 
 circle, and at other times so as to enclose an oblong 
 space, which in some cases is roofed in by horizon- 
 tal slabs. These roofing-stones are frequently of 
 such prodigious weight as to give rise to many con- 
 jectures regarding the mechanical means by which, 
 and the mechanical knowledge of those by whom, 
 they were placed in the positions in which we see 
 them. These strange, and, to us, almost wholly 
 unintelligible remains of antiquity, when of great 
 extent, assume an air of savage and gloomy majesty.. 
 Of this the most conspicuous instance anywhere 
 to be found is that of Stonehenge (q. v.), in Salis- 
 bury Plain in Wiltshire. Wherever a Celtic popu- 
 lation existed, these monimients are to be found. 
 Druidical monuments are more common in France 
 than in England j and in France, as might be 
 expected, they exist in the greatest numbers and 
 variety in Brittany (q. v.), though none of them 
 approach the magnitude, or, in some respects, 
 the workmanship of Stonehenge. The Celtic monu- 
 ments of Brittany are of different classes, and have 
 received different names — that which is most archi- 
 tectural in character being the dolmen, or cromlech, 
 as iit is called in England. The cromlech consists 
 generally of two rows of perpendicular stones, 
 arranged so as to fit pretty closely to each other, 
 and covered with horizontal roofing-slabs, thus form- 
 ing a chamber, which is generally of such height as 
 to allow a man to walk lirough it upright. But the 
 largest and most perfect specimen of me dolmen is 
 to be seen, not in Brittany, but in 'the neighbour- 
 hood of Saumur on the Loire. It measures more than 
 80 feet in length. To the same early stage in the 
 science, though probably to a much earlier period in 
 point of time, are to be referred those cyclopean walls 
 and fortifications which at Tiryns and Mycenaj in 
 Argolis excited the wonder of the later Greeks ; the 
 Etruscan walls at Fiesole; and the similar struc- 
 tures which are found both in Central and South 
 America. 
 
 3. The next stage in advance of that primeval and 
 pre-historic one of which the traces are thus so 
 widely spread, is that at which the science seems to 
 have culminated in all but the classical nations of 
 
ARCHITEAVE-AEOIS-SUE-AUBE. 
 
 antiqviity, and those races which have had the benefit 
 of their genius and invention. We have here an 
 aoonrate measurement of parts, and a corresponding 
 division of the buildine. The pillar also makes its 
 appearance, though it is by no means used with the 
 same freedom, nor does it exhibit the same variety 
 of form to which it attained in Greek A. The stage 
 of which we here speak was attained by the inhabi- 
 tants of Central and Southern America before its 
 discovery by Europeans ; and in Mexico, even by the 
 Tolteoans, an earlier race, which had given way 
 before the Mexicans of the dajrs of Cortes. Peru- 
 vian A. exhibits neither columns nor arches ; but the 
 remains of the palace at Mitla possessed a portico 
 with plain cylindrical columns ; and the walls were 
 covered with rude sculpture. In the cloisters of a 
 building at Palenque, a species of inartificial trian- 
 gular arch, formed by courses of stones projecting 
 over each other, was foimd. It is very instructive 
 as shewing the natural, and, so to speak, necessary 
 character of certain architectural forms at certain 
 stages of national development, to find that the 
 pyramid, which is Kttle more than a i-egularly con- 
 structed cairn, is met with even more frequently 
 in Mexico than in Egypt ; and whether or not we 
 regard it as the primary form of the pagoda of India, 
 it certainly formed the basis both of Mexican and 
 Egyptian A. The discussions which have been 
 carried on with so much keenness as to the priority 
 of date of Indian and Egyptian A., lose much of 
 their importance when we find a race, acting in all 
 probability independently of both, starting from the 
 same primary form as the one, and in the discovery 
 of the pillar and the arch, making two of the most 
 important of the further steps in advance to which 
 they respectively lay claim. Keeping these facts in 
 view, it would seem, moreover, that something more 
 is required to prove an historical connection between 
 Doric and Egyptian A. than the circumstance that 
 the columns which they respectively employ possess a 
 base, a shaft, and a capital, or that both are used to 
 support an entablature. Even the long unbroken hori- 
 zontal lines which seem to indicate an affinity between 
 the architectural styles of Egypt and of Greece, and 
 which distinguish them both so sharply from the 
 Christian A. of medieval Europe, may be the result 
 rather of a similarity of circumstances than an iden- 
 tity of origin. Though these styles agree in having 
 columns, and though the columns support horizontal 
 entablatures in each, they disagree in the forms of 
 the columns, in the character of the entablature, and 
 indeed, in almost every other particular. Whilst 
 Greek pillars taper towards the top, and the walls 
 are vertical, in Egyptian buildings the very reverse 
 is the case, the pillars beiug vertical, and the 
 walls sloped. When the effect of a whole Greek 
 building, surrounded by a colonnade, and of an 
 Egyptian building is considered, a certain similarity 
 appears— the base in each case being wider than the 
 upper part ; but the result is produced in the one 
 case by sloping the pillars, and in the other, by 
 sloping the waUs, the external edges of which form 
 a dightly acute angle with the base of the building. 
 The great distinction, however, between the A. of 
 Egypt and Greece consists in the stages which they 
 respectively reached. The A. of Egypt retained 
 throughout a character of gloomy strength, and 
 never attained to the lightness, freedom, or variety 
 of that of Greece. In the one case, the traditionary 
 forms continued throughout to dominate and subdue 
 the free spirit of art ; in the latter, art triumphed 
 over tradition, and owned no laws but its own. 
 It is in this circumstance that the distinction con- 
 sists between the stage of A. of which Egyptian may 
 be considered the type, and of which Assyrian, 
 Babylonian, and Persian A, are also examples, and 
 
 that ultimate stage which was reached by the Greeks 
 in one direction, and by the various Germanic nations 
 in another. See Arabian A., Byzantine A, and 
 
 GOTHIO A. 
 
 A'ROHITEAVE (Gr. arcM-, chief; Lat. traba, 
 beam), the lowest part of the entablature (q. v.), or 
 that which rests immediately upon the columns. 
 
 A'ROHIVES. SeeBECOBDs. 
 
 A'RCHIVOLT, the ornamental band or moulding 
 which runs round the lower part of the voussoirs of 
 an arch. 
 
 A'EOHOK, the highest magistrate in Athens. 
 The government was originally monarchical ; but on 
 the death of Codrus (q. v.), the Athenians, according 
 to the traditionary account, resolved that no one 
 should succeed him with the title of king (hasileui), 
 and therefore appointed his son Medon with the 
 title A. (ruler). The office was at first for life, and 
 confined to the family of Medon ; but in 752 B.C., the 
 time of office was limited to ten years ; and in 714, 
 the exclusive claims of Medon's family to the office 
 of A. were abrogated, and it was thrown open to all 
 persons of noble birth ; afterwards to all citizens, 
 without distinction of rank (477 B.C.). In 683, the 
 office had been made annual, and the number of 
 archons had been extended to nine. The year was 
 named from the first A. ; to the second, styled 
 BasUeus, belonged the care of religious affairs ; the 
 third was Polemarchos, or commander-in-chief ; and 
 the remaining six, having to conduct all criminal 
 trials, were styled Thesmotheta8, or lawgivers. — 
 Amongthe Jews, during the time of their subjection 
 to the Eomans, the title of A. had various meanings ; 
 but was generally given to the members of the 
 Sanhedrim or supreme coimcU. — In the mystical 
 jargon of the Gnostics, the term A. was frequently 
 employed, and hence one of their sects, especially 
 opposed to Judaism, received the name AJbchontics. 
 See Gnostics. 
 
 ARCHY'TAS of Tarentum, one of the most 
 illustrious men of antiquity, flourished about the 
 year 400 B.C. His father's name was Mnesagoras. 
 A. is said to have been a contemporary of Plato, and 
 on one occasion to have saved the life of the latter 
 when the tyrant Dionyaius wished to put him to 
 death. His public career was glorious. He was 
 seven times elected general of his city, though it 
 was customary for the office to be held only for one 
 year ; and in every campaign which he undertook, 
 he was victorious. His civU administration was 
 equally fortunate. Affairs of the highest moment 
 were repeatedly intrusted to him ; and yet, though 
 deeply skilled in philosophy and politics, he was 
 possessed of a childlike simplicity of character. He 
 was drowned on the Apulian coast. A.'s virtues 
 were as conspicuous as his talents. He paid the 
 most humane attention to the comfort and education 
 of his slaves, and although one of the greatest 
 geometricians, he did not disdain to make a rattle 
 for the amusement of his children. He solved the 
 problem of the doubhng of tlie cube, and secured 
 almost the reputation of a magician by his numer- 
 ous mechanical contrivances, the most wonderful of 
 which was the flying pigeon. A Pythagorean in 
 philosophy, he is generally supposed to have exerted 
 a considerable influence on Plato, and some affirm 
 that even the gigantic understanding of Aristotle 
 was indebted to him for the idea of his categories. 
 Only fragments of his writings remain. They 
 relate to metaphysics, ethics, logic, and physics. 
 
 ARCIS-StTR-AUBE, a small town in the 
 French department of Aube, situated in lat. 48° 32* 
 K., long. 4' 8' E, contains 2719 inhabitants, and 
 is remarkable on account of the battle fought here, 
 March 20, 21, 1814, between Napoleon and the 
 
AUCOLA-ARCTIO HIGSLAITDS. 
 
 allied forces viiider Prince Schwartzenberg. The 
 battle, beguming with, several skirmishes on the 
 first, and ending in a general engagement on the 
 second day, when the French retreated over the 
 Aube, was not in itself very important. But 
 Napoleon now formed the plan o£ operating in the 
 rear of the Allies, and left the road to Paris open ; 
 assmning that they would not venture to proceed 
 without attempting .first to secure their rear. The 
 Allies marched, nevertheless, on the capital, and thus 
 decided the campaign. 
 
 A'E.COLA, or A'ECOLl!;, a village on the left 
 bank of the Adige, in northern Italy, 15 miles 
 E.S.E. of Verona, famous for the victory gained by 
 Bonaparte over the Austrians, 17th November 1796. 
 The Austrians, relieved by the retreat of Moreau 
 from the Ehine, had begun to take the offensive in 
 Italy, and General Alvinzy appeared at the head of 
 50,000 men, with the main body of which he advanced 
 to Caldiero, and threatened Verona. Bonaparte, recog- 
 nising the danger, descended by night the course of 
 the Adige, crossed that river at Konco, and was thus 
 in a position to threaten the left flank of Alvinzy's 
 army, which was posted at A. A causeway leads 
 from Ronco across the morasses to A., before reach- 
 ing which, the road crosses the small stream of the 
 Alpon by a narrow bridge. This bridge was de- 
 fended by the Austrian general, Mittrowsky, with 
 fourteen battahons of infantry, and two squadrons 
 of cavalry. On the 14th of November, Augereau 
 attacked the bridge with two battalions of grena- 
 diers, but being exposed in flank to the Austrian 
 fire, was obKged to withdraw. Bonaparte now 
 seized the standard himself, and rushed on the 
 bridge, followed by the grenadiers; but again the 
 iire of the Austrians, who were in much greater 
 force than the French, made it necessary to draw 
 back. The struggle was renewed on the 16th, with 
 a similar result; and it was only on the 17th that 
 the French succeeded in getting possession of A., 
 not, however, by forcing the bridge, but by sending 
 a column across the Alpon, lower down, and getting 
 in rear of the Austrians. On this Alvinzy was 
 obBged to retreat to Vicenza. It fared no better 
 with the other column of the Austrians xmder 
 Davidovioh. In this series of battles the Austrians 
 lost 18,000 men killed, and 6000 prisoners. The 
 French loss was 15,000. 
 
 ARGON, Jean Claude D', a distinguished French 
 engineer, bom at Pontarlier, 1733, was originally 
 intended for the church, but on manifesting a decided 
 preference for the study of Vauban, his father, an 
 emiaent jurisconsult, consented to his choice of a 
 military profession. In 1754, he entered the Mili- 
 tary School at Mgziferes, and, in the following year, 
 he passed as an engiaeer. During the Seven Years' 
 War, he acquired considerable reputation, especially 
 in the defence of Cassel. His fertility of invention 
 was surprising, and of the greatest benefit to that 
 branch of the service with which he was coimected. 
 In all his writings — which, in spite of a very faulty 
 style, can be read with pleasure — ^there are indica- 
 tions of a lively, rich, and vigorous genius. He was 
 even bold enough to question the vnsdom of certain 
 strategical propositions of the Great Frederick. But 
 his most famous scheme was that by which he hoped 
 to reduce Gibraltar, then in the hands of the English, 
 and defended by Governor Elliot. He contoived 
 floating batteries, incombustible, and not liable to 
 sink, which, however, were not successful, though 
 this is mainly to be attributed to the fact of his 
 efforts being indifferently supported. When the 
 French, under Dumouriez, overran Holland, A. took 
 several strongly-fortified places, amongst others, 
 
 confined himseU to the literature of his profession. 
 His most important work is. Considerations Mili- 
 taires et Politiques sur les Fortijkatiom (Paris, 1795). 
 In 1799, Bonaparte called him to the senate, but he 
 died the year after. 
 
 AECOS DB LA FKONTB'RA, a town on the 
 right bank of the Guadalete, in Andalusia, Spain. 
 Its principal manufacture is that of tanned leather, 
 which was the first established in Andalusia; thread 
 and ropes are also manufactured. Pop. 11,270. A. 
 de la P. has a, wild and romantic situation, which 
 harmonises well with the picturesque garb of the 
 inhabitants, who stiU wear the old national costume. 
 It was called Arcos, from being built in the form of 
 a 'bow;' and after AHonso-el-Sabio had rescued it 
 from the Moors, it received the additional name of 
 de la Frontera, from its frontier position, being in the 
 vicinity of the Moorish kingdom of Granada. Almost 
 impregnable by nature, it was furthermore embattled 
 with walls and towers, part of which stiU remain, 
 and afford a magnificent view of the Bonda moun- 
 tains. The rich plains that lie below the rooky town 
 are famed in the Spanish ballads for their breed of 
 war-steeds, 'Arcos barbs.' 
 
 ARGOT, a city of Hindustan, in the presidency 
 of Madras, the capital of the division of the same 
 name. It is situated on the right bank of the Palar, 
 a river which, rising in Mysore, is, in the rainy 
 season, alDout half a imle wide before the town. It 
 stands in N. lat. 12° 54', and in E. long. 79° 24', and 
 is distant from Madras 65 miles. Besides the mili- 
 tary cantonment, which can accommodate three 
 regiments of cavalry, A. contains some mosques 
 in a tolerable state of repair, and the ruins of the 
 Nawaab's palace. The town and district of A. 
 are stated to contain 10,042 houses, and 53,474 
 inhabitants. 
 
 A. is chiefly noticeable for its history. It was the 
 spot where Olive first firmly established his military 
 reputation. "With a force of 300 Sepoys, 200 Euro- 
 peans, and three field-pieces, he marched against A., 
 which was garrisoned by 1100 men ; and after having 
 taken it, he stood a siege of fifty days against thou- 
 sands of assailants, amid hardships and privations of 
 every description. 
 
 Aecot, a division of the presidency of Madras. It 
 consists of two parts, the northern and the southern, 
 of which the respective areas are 5790 square nules, 
 and 7600, and the respective populations 1,485,873, 
 and 1,006,005. 
 
 As most of the rivers are destitute of water in the 
 dry season, there are thousands of tanks in A. 
 Some of them are of an enormous size: that of 
 Cavery-pak, in particular, measures eight nules by 
 three. These tanks are indispensable, as well for 
 irrigation as for domestic use. The hot and parching 
 winds from the west, sweeping down the valleys of 
 the Eastern Ghaats, are often fatal to birds on the 
 wing, and also to human beings when exposed for any 
 length of time. Glass cracks and flies in pieces; 
 and wood shrinks, splits, and shivers ; and from the 
 mutual friction of the sapless trees, spontaneous 
 combustion sometimes takes place in the jungles. 
 
 A'RCTIC means, properly, lying near the con- 
 stellation of the Bear (Gr. arctos}, and hence, northern. 
 The Arctic Circle is a circle drawn round the north 
 pole, at a distance from it equal to the obliquity 
 of the ecliptic, or 23J°. The corresponding circle 
 round the south pole is the Antarctic Circle, within 
 each of these circles there is a period of the year 
 when the sun does not set, and another when he is 
 never seen, this period being longer the nearer to the 
 pole. 
 
 ARCTIC HIGHLANDS, a name sometimes 
 
 Breda. After this, he retired from public life, and [ applied, though not very appropriately, to that portion 
 
AUCTIO OCEAN. 
 
 of the American continent which lieS between Hud- 
 son's Bay and the Jnouth of the Mackenzie. It has 
 been the scene of all, or neariy aJl, the overiand 
 efforts in connection with the exploration of a North- 
 West Passage, from Hearne's discovery of the Copper- 
 mine, down to the recent voyage of Anderson — the 
 most prominent among the intermediate labourers 
 having been Franklin, Eichardson, Back, Dease, 
 Simpson, and Bae. 
 
 A'ECTIC OCEAN, that part of the universal 
 sea which surrounds the north pole. Its single 
 boundary, that towards the south, naturally divides 
 itself into four sections — ^the northern shores respec- 
 tively of the two continents, and the northern limits 
 respectively of the two intercontinental oceans. 
 
 The A. 0. meets the Pacific at Behring Strait, 
 in about 66° of N. lat., so that here the A. 0. 
 overlaps the Arctic Circle by about SO*. On 
 the side of l^e Atlantic, again, the common border 
 seems to be equally independent of arbitrary 
 definition, for Scoresby Sound almost as definitely 
 tertninates the south-east coast of Greenland as 
 North Cape terminates the north-west coast of 
 Europe ; so that, as both extremes are intersected 
 by about the Same parallel of 71°, the A. 0. here 
 falls short of the Arctic Circle by about 4J°. 
 
 In the Old World, the A. 0., if we include its 
 gulfs, stretches south of the Arctic Circle, in the 
 White Sea, fully 2° ; while at Cape Severe, the most 
 northerly point of Asia, in lat. 78° 25' N, it falls 
 short of the same by 11° 55'. Lastly, within the 
 range of the New World, the A. 0., in its strict 
 acceptation, is everywhere forced back within the 
 Arctic Circle, about 5° at Point Barrow, about 74° 
 on Barrow's Strait, and about 3° at the Strait of the 
 Emy and Heola. 
 
 The waters of the A. 0., however, may conve- 
 niently be extended beyond these their strict limits. 
 So far as the mere aspect of the map is concerned, 
 Davis's Strait, Baffin's Bay, and Hudson's Bay 
 may be regarded as gulfs rather of the Atlantic 
 than of the A. 0. But if essential characteristics 
 are permitted to outweigh mere position, they must 
 be assigned rather to the A. 0. than to the Atlantic. 
 Besides being all fed by currents from the A. C, 
 they are all hyperborean in temperature. Even the 
 most southerly of the three illustrates this. While 
 Hudson's Straits present, in general, more ice than 
 Davis's Strait or Baffin's Bay, Hudson's Bay itself 
 has been the scene of perhaps the two most abor- 
 tive, if not most disastrous, of all modern attempts 
 at northern discovery. On opposite sides of South- 
 ampton Island, Lyons and Back were arrested by 
 impenetrable packs, the one near the Bay of God's 
 Mercy, and the other off Cape Comfort — the latter 
 point being 1^°, and the former being twice as 
 much, south of the Arctic Circle. Beckoning, 
 therefore, to the bottom of James's Bay, as an 
 arm of Hudson's, the arctic seas, thus appended to 
 the A. 0. Proper, reach as far south as the parallel 
 of London. 
 
 Little as is yet known, at least accurately, of the 
 A. 0., its discovery and exploration have developed 
 and tasked more skill and heroism than perhaps 
 the exploration and discovery of aU the rest of 
 the world since the age of Columbus. Without 
 anticipating anything to be said on this subject 
 under the separate heads of North-East Passage, 
 North- West Passage, and Polar Voyages, it may not 
 be out of place here to state summarUy the compa- 
 ratively easy labours of the Bussiana while issuing, 
 as it were, from their domestic rivers to siurvey their 
 domestic shores. About a centiuy and a quarter 
 ago, the Muscovites simultaneously sent forth five 
 expeditions to complete, if possible, the North-East 
 Passage. Trom the Wbite Sea to the Oby, four 
 
 seasons were consumed ; from the Oby to the Yenissei, 
 four seasons ; from the Yenissei to the Lena, season 
 after season was spent in both directions without 
 success ; from the Lena to the Kolyma, six seasons 
 were occupied ; from the Kolyma to the Pacific 
 every effort was fruitless, though the Cossack Desh- 
 neffwas known to have accomplished this part of 
 the entei^irise about a century before. 
 
 Arctic navigation, in fact, is beset by almost 
 eveiy imaginable difficulty and danger. In addition 
 to the peculiar perils of ice in all possible states, 
 the adventurer, often blinded by fogs and snows, 
 has to face, generally without guide or sea-room, 
 the storms, tides, and currents of comparatively 
 unknown waters. If such be his three months 
 of summer, what must be his nine months of 
 winter! Take a general illustration from the per- 
 sonal experience of the most successful of aU the 
 arctic navigators. On the parallel of 73', and under 
 a temperataire of 15° degrees below zero of Eah., 
 Captain M'Clure spent the night of 30th October 
 1851 on the ice, amid prowHng bears, and that with- 
 out food or ammunition — ^his only guide being a 
 pocket-compass, which, however, the darkness, 
 thickened by mist and drift, rendered useless. The 
 gallant officer whiled away the time by sleeping 
 three hours on ' a famous bed of soft dry snow,' and 
 by wandering 10 miles, by the crow's flight, over a 
 surface so rugged as to endanger his hmbs. It was 
 at the close of a pedestrian expedition of nine days, 
 on very short allowance of food and water, that tiie 
 adventure took place ; and it had been immediately 
 occasioned by a generous desire of reaching the 
 winter-quarters by a nearer cut, so as to have ' a 
 warm meal ready for his men on their arrival.' 
 
 Notwithstanding the labours and researches of 
 two centuries and a half, very little of this vast 
 ocean has been even seen by man. To the north of 
 the 83d parallel, in fact, the A. 0., so far as authentic 
 evidence goes, is a mere blank to geographers, for 
 Parry, in 1827, barely reached lat. 82° 45' ; and 
 Kane, in 1854, touched only 81° 22', sighting, at the 
 same time, a lofty mountain, which he estimated to 
 be in 82° 30'. Between these extreme points, how- 
 ever, the difference of long, was precisely 85° — Kane 
 having been in 65° 35' W., and Parry in 19° 25' E. 
 Along the remaining 275° of long., more than three 
 quadrants of the circumference, the northern limit 
 of geographical knowledge falls short, more or less 
 at; every point, of the parallel of 83°. Perhaps the 
 actual average of such northern limit, even on the 
 fun tale of 360° of long., may not exceed lat. 75°, so 
 as to leave absolutely unknown a circle of 30° of 
 lat., or nearly 2100 miles in diameter — an area 
 little inferior to that of Europe. This untrodden 
 world, however, is not to be regarded as a continuous 
 wilderness of ice. Parry, at his furthest point, foUnd 
 not an unbroken field, but separate floes, with 
 more or less of open water between them — the mild- 
 ness of the temperature being indicated by falls of 
 rain ; and Kane, again, at his furthest point, saw a 
 free sea to the north, as far as the eye could reach, 
 from a promontory 240 feet high ; while, to use his 
 own words, ' a gale from the north-east, of fifty-four 
 hours in duration, brought a heavy swell from that 
 quarter without disclosing any drift or other ice.' 
 This is quite in keeping with the fact already 
 noticed, that Hudson s Straits and Bay are often 
 more encumbered with pack than the waters of far 
 higher latitudes. The only certainty with respect 
 to this central portion of the A. 0. is this, that 
 there is from it a current, more or less steady, 
 towards the south. Parry, during nearly the whole 
 of his boat-sleigh expedition of 1827, found that 
 his place by reckoning was considerably ahead of 
 his place by observation, or, in other words, that 
 
 379 
 
AKCTIUM-AHDENNES. 
 
 his northward progress on the floes was neutralised 
 more or less by the southward progress of the 
 floes themselves. Such a current, though doubt- 
 leas accelerated or retarded by the direction of 
 the wind, must be deemed a physical necessity, 
 as the only means, in the absence of evapora- 
 tion, of preventing the perpetual accretions and 
 accumulations of snow and rain. Now, as the 
 Pacific is understood rather to send off than to 
 receive water through Behring Strait, the grand 
 set of the polar currents must be into the Atlantic. 
 Under these conditions, the North-West Passage 
 would appear to have been always more easy of 
 accomplishment from the Pacific to the Atlantic 
 than from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; and, accord- 
 ingly, M'Clure derived advantage from the current, 
 whether advancing through open water or drifting 
 along at the mercy of the pack. 
 
 Of the more southerly portion of the A. 0., the 
 only section that is tolerably well known to a dis- 
 tance from the continent is that which washes the 
 north- east of America. It contains, under the collective 
 name of Polar Archipelago, these islands, or parts of 
 islands : Banks Land, Prince Albert Land, WoUas- 
 ton Land, Victoria Land, Prince Patrick Island, 
 Princess Eoyal Islands, Melville Island, Cornwallis 
 Island, North Devon, Grinnell Land, North Lincoln, 
 and various others. Off the coast of the Old World, 
 again, are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, New Siberia, 
 &c. Of all these the principal wiU be noticed in 
 their proper places, and shewn in the map of North 
 America, which will be given at the end of Vol. I. 
 The chief straits are Lancaster Sound, Barrow's 
 Strait, Smith's Sound, Kegent's Inlet, Strait of the 
 Fury and Hecla, Wellington Channel, Banks Strait, 
 Prince of Wales Strait, &o. The chief rivers, all of 
 them on the mainland, are the Oby, the Yenissei, 
 and the Lena, of the first class ; the Mackenzie, the 
 Yana, the Indigirka, and the Kolyma, of the second; 
 and many others of the third. 
 
 The principal production of the A. 0. has been 
 the whale. This valuable fish abounds chiefly where 
 the current is strongest — near the respective conflu- 
 ences, as it were, of the A. 0. with the Atlantic and 
 the Pacific. The whale-fisheries on the west of 
 Spitzbergen, and on both sides of Greenland, scarcely 
 need to be mentioned further. But it may not be 
 generally known, that, according to official returns as 
 quoted by Admiral Beechey, the Americans had, in 
 two years, drawn more than 8,000,000 of dollars, or 
 upwards of £1,600,000 sterling, from the whale- 
 fishery of Behring Strait alone. 
 
 On the side of East Siberia, however, the A. 0. 
 produces a more remarkable article of traffic. Here 
 are found, in the greatest abundance, the bones of 
 the mammoth. Spring after spring, the alluvial 
 banks of the lakes and rivers, crumbling under the 
 thaw, give up, as it were, their dead; while the 
 islands lying off the Yana, and even the depths of 
 the sea itself, literally teem with these mysterious 
 memorials of antiquity. 
 
 The American half of the A. 0., if it cannot boast 
 of fossil ivory, presents something still more difficult 
 perhaps to be explained. In lat. 74° 25', and lat. 76° 
 15' respectively, Captain M'Clure and Lieutenant 
 Meoham discovered large deposits of trees, appa- 
 rently indigenous, of considerable si^e. Writing of 
 Banks' Island, M'Clure has the following passages : 
 ' From the simmiit of these lulls, which are 300 feet 
 high, to their base, abundance of wood is to be 
 found, and in many places layers of trees are visible, 
 some protruding 12 or 14 feet, and so flrm that 
 several people may jump on them without their break- 
 ing : the largest trunk yet found measured 1 foot 
 7 inches in diameter' — equivalent in girth to about 
 5 feet. Again, ' I entered a ravine some miles inland, 
 380 
 
 and found the north side of it, for a depth of 40 feet, 
 composed of one mass of wood. • Some of it was petri- 
 fied, the remainder very rotten, and worthless even 
 for burning.' Writing of Prince Patrick Island, 
 Meoham has the following passage : ' Discovered 
 buried in the east bank of the ravine, and protrud- 
 ing about 8 feet, a tree of considerable size. During 
 the afternoon I found several others of a similar 
 kind : circumference of first and second tree seen, 
 3 feet ; of another, 2 feet 10 inches. From the per- 
 fect state of the bark, and the distance of the trees 
 from the sea, there can be but little doubt that they 
 grew originally in this country. I sawed one 
 through : it appeared very close-grained, and was 
 so immensely heavy that we could carry but little 
 of it away.' 
 
 A'RCTIUM. See Bubdock. 
 
 A'ECTOMYS. See Mabmot. 
 
 ARD, or AIRD, a Celtic root, meaning \ height' 
 (compare Lat. ardmts, high), which appears in many 
 geographical names, especially in Ireland and Soot- 
 land. 
 
 A'RDEA. See Hbbon. 
 
 AEDECHE, a department in the south of Prance, 
 takes its name from the river A., which rises in 
 the Cevennes, flows toward the south-east through 
 a romantic valley, and falls into the Ehone near 
 Pont-St-Esprit. 'The department of A. lies between 
 LozSre and Drome, with Loire on the north and 
 Gard on the south, and includes the most northern 
 part of ancient Languedoc. Its greatest length 
 from north to south is 74 miles; its greatest 
 breadth, 44. The area of the department is 2133 
 square nfiles; the population in 1856, 385,835. 
 A. is almost wholly mountainous. In the north- 
 west of the department, the Cevennes culminate 
 in the volcanic Mont-Mezfene, 5972 feet in height. 
 The variety of the numerous extinct volcanic 
 peaks, deep craters, rugged valleys, masses of tufa, 
 grottos, rook-labyrinths, ranges of basaltic columns, 
 gigantic dams, &c., give a most extraordinarily 
 picturesque appearance to the scenery. The upland, 
 which has winter for six or eight months, is devoted 
 to pasturage ; but the terraces and valleys near the 
 Rhone enjoy a warm chmate, and produce good wine 
 (white and red), olives, figs, almonds, chestnuts, &c. 
 There are manufactures of silk, paper, leather, iron, 
 &c. ; and good roads, with water-carriage, facilitate 
 commerce. Lead, iron, copper, manganese, &o., are 
 wrought. The chief towns are Privaa, Aubenas, 
 Bourg, St AndSol. 
 
 ARDBE' (Ath-air-dee — 'Ford on the Dee'), a 
 town in the west of Louth County, Ireland, on the 
 river Dee, twelve miles inland. It contains two 
 ancient castles — one built about the year 1200, and 
 now used as the town-house ; the other, a square 
 building, and now used as a prison. Pop. 3679. 
 The chief trade is in corn and other agricultural 
 products. 
 
 ARDE'NNBS, the western division of the slate- 
 plateau of the Lower Rhine. It extends over portions 
 of Belgium, France, and Rhenish Prussia, and con- 
 sists of a broken mass of lulls, for the most part of 
 no great elevation, which gradually slope towards 
 the plains of Flanders. In early times, the name was 
 riven to the whole of the region lying between the 
 Rhine and the Sambre, a length of about 160 miles. 
 The average height of the hflls is less than 2000 feet ; 
 but in the east, Mont St Hubert attains an elevation 
 of 2300 feet. Large tracts of this region consist not 
 of lulls, but of gently undulating ;^ateaus, which 
 are densely covered with oak and beech forests, 
 while other portions are marshy, heathy, and barren. 
 The districts through which the Meuse and other 
 
AEDENNES— AEEIOPAGUS. 
 
 rivers flow, preaent some extraordinary appear- 
 ances. The channel of the river is sometimes bound 
 in by rugged and precipitous cliifs more than 600 
 feet high. The principal rooks of the A. are clay- 
 slate, grauwacke, quartz, &c., interspersed with 
 extensive strata of primitive limestone. Coal and 
 iron mines are wrought in the north-west; lead, 
 ajitimony, and manganese are also found. There is 
 little cultivation of grain, but multitudes of cattle 
 and sheep are reared. 
 
 ARDENNES, a frontier depaoHanent in the north- 
 east of Prance, bordering upon the provinces of 
 Namur and Luxembourg m Belgium. It formed a 
 part of the old province of Champagne. Length, 
 from north to south, 63 miles ; breadth, from east to 
 west, 60 ; area, 2021 square miles ; pop. 322,138. 
 The north-east of A. bdongs to the basin of the 
 Meuse ; the south-west is watered by the Aisne ; 
 both of these rivers are enriched with affluents, and 
 united by the Oanal of A. About one-eighth of the 
 whole surface is hUly, and is covered with forests 
 and wide tracts of pasturage. In the north extre- 
 mity of the department, near Givet, marble is 
 obtained; but the prevaUiug rock is limestone, 
 veined with lead and iron. South of this, and 
 stretching across the department from east to west, 
 are great layers of slate, with here and there flint, 
 quartz, &c. In the south-east, muschelkalk abounds, 
 which is rich in iron-ore ; and in the south-west, the 
 soil is composed of arid chalk, a naked, treeless, 
 elevated plain. Only the valleys are fertile, and pro- 
 duce corn. The vine is nowhere cultivated, except 
 at Mgziferes, in the south-west. Besides slate, marble, 
 and iron, porcelain-clay and sand for making glass 
 are obtained. Excellent work-horses and valuable 
 sheep are reared. There are manufactures of earthen- 
 ware, glass, marble, woollen cloths, metallic wares, 
 &c. The principal towns are Mgziferes, Kethel, 
 Kocroy, Sedan, and Vouziers. 
 
 ARDNAMU'ROHAN POINT, the N.W. pro- 
 montory of Ajgyleshire, and the extreme western 
 point of the mamJand of Britain. A light-house was 
 erected here in 1849, which is visible at a distance of 
 20 mUes. For 10 miles around, the country consists 
 of trap, resting on sandstone often hardened, and 
 blue slates. The trap veins form many striking 
 reticulations in the strata. South of the point are 
 found numerous oolitic and lias fossils. 
 
 A'RDOCH, a small village in Scotland, county of 
 Perth, 8 miles south-south-west of Crieff, celebrated 
 for a Roman camp, the most entire now in Britain. 
 The camp is 2^ miles north of the Greenloaning Station 
 of the Scottish Central Railway, in the grounds of 
 A. House. The intrenched works form a rectangle 
 500 by 430 feet, the four sides facing the cardinal 
 points. The north and east sides are protected by 
 five ditches and six ramparts, these works being 270 
 feet broad on the north side, and 180 feet on the east. 
 A deep morass exists on the south-east, and the per- 
 pendicular banks of Knaig Water, rising 50 feet 
 high, protect the camp on the west. The prffitorium, 
 or general's quarter, now called Chapel HiU, rises 
 above the level of the camp, but is not exactly 
 in the centre, and is nearly a square of 60 feet each 
 side. Three of the four gates usual in Roman camps 
 are BtUl seen. A subterranean passage is said to 
 have formerly extended from the prffitorium under 
 the bed of the Knaig. Not far north of this station, 
 on the way to Crieff, may be traced three temporary 
 Roman camps of different sizes. Portions of the 
 ramparts of these camps still exist. A mile west of 
 A., an immense cairn of stones lately existed, 182 
 feet long, 45 feet broad at the base, and 30 feet in 
 sloping height. A human skeleton, 7 feet long, in a 
 stone cofSn, was found in it. 
 
 ABDRO'SSAN, a small seaport town and sum- 
 mer bathing-place in Ayrshire. It owes its rise 
 to the public spirit of the Eglintoun family. Its 
 harbour, which is sheltered by an island off the 
 coast, is one of the safest and most accessible on the 
 west coast of Scotland, and has been greatly improved, 
 at vast expense, by the Earls of Eglintoun. There 
 is a large export of coal from this place, and ship- 
 building is carried on to a considerable extent. On a 
 hfll above the town stand the ruins of A. Castle, said 
 to have been surprised by Wallace when held by 
 the forces of Edward I. Wallace destroyed the 
 garrison, and threw the dead bodies into a dungeon 
 called ' WaUaoe's Larder.' Pop. in 1851, 2071. 
 
 ARE, the unit of the French land-measure, is a 
 square, the side of which is 10 metres (or 32-809 feet) 
 long (see Mbtee), and which, therefore, contains 
 100 square metres = 1076 English square feet. The 
 next denomination in the ascending scale is the 
 decare, containing 10 ares ; but the denomination 
 commonly used in describing a quantity of land is 
 the hectare of 100 ares, = 2'47 English statute or 
 imperial acres. 
 
 A'REA (Lat.) is a term in mathematics meaning 
 quantity of surface. The calculation of areas, or men- 
 suration of surfaces, is one of the ultimate objects of 
 geometry. The measiuing unit is a square inch, a 
 square foot, &c., according to the unit of length. As 
 a figure is thus measured by finding an equivalent 
 for its surface in squares, the process is sometimes 
 called the quadrature of the figure. 
 
 ARE'CA, a genus of Palms, containing several 
 species, having pinnate leaves and double spathes. 
 The fruit is a fibrous one-seeded drupe, a nut with an 
 outer fibrous husk. A. Catedm, the Pinang Palm, 
 or Betel-nut Pahn, is a native of the East Indies, 
 whose nut yields a sort of catechu. See Catechxt. 
 This Areca-nut, or Betel-nut, is very much used in 
 all parts of the East, the chewing of it with quick- 
 lime and the leaf of the betel-pepper being one of the 
 most prevalent habits of the people. See Betel. 
 The nut is about the size of a hen's egg; the 
 fibrous husk about half an inch thick. It is austere 
 and astringent. It is doubtful if it possesses a 
 narcotic power, or if this is to be ascribed entirely 
 to the leaf which is used along with it. Areca- 
 nuts form a considerable article of trade in the 
 East. The timber of the palm which produces them, 
 and its leaf-stalks and spathes, are also used for 
 domestic purposes. The tree is often 40 or 60 feet 
 high, and in general less than a foot in diameter. 
 The leaves are few, but very large, their leaflets 
 more than a yard long. In Malabar, an inebriating 
 lozenge is prepared from the sap. — A. oleracea, the 
 Cabbage Palm of the West Indies, is a very tall 
 tree, 100—200 feet, whose huge termiaal leaf -bud is 
 sweet , and nutritious, and is sometimes used for the 
 table as cabbage, but when it is out off, the tree is 
 destroyed. The stem of this tree, notwithstanding 
 its great height, is remarkably slender. The nuts 
 are produced in great numbers ; they are about the 
 size of a filbert, and have a sweet kernel. — A. 
 sapida, the New Zealand Palm, is remarkable as 
 extending southward beyond the geographical limits 
 of any oQier of its order, as far indeed as lat. 38° 
 22', S. It is a small pahn, only from 6 to 10 feet 
 high, VTith leaves 4^6 feet long. The young inflor- 
 escence is eaten. — A. vestiaria, a native of the East, 
 is so called because clothing is made from its fibres. 
 
 ARBIO'PAGUS (Gr. for 'Mars' HiU'), a mount 
 lying to the west of the Acropolis, at Athens, 
 and celebrated as lie spot where the most venerable 
 court of justice in ancient times held its sittings. It 
 is not easy to determine satisfactorily why the lull 
 obtained its name ; most probably it was on account 
 
AEENA— AEEOMETEE. 
 
 of sacrifices having been offered there at an early 
 period to the God of War; but aU its historic 
 importance is derived from the Areiopagitio Council, 
 the origin of which reaches far back into antiquity, 
 and is ascribed by some to the semi-mythological 
 Ceorops. Orestes, according to tradition, was tried 
 before this court, and it is certain that it must have 
 existed long before the first Messenian War (740 b. c), 
 for the Messenians, in offering to submit to its deci- 
 sions certain points of dispute, speak of it, even then, 
 as 'old.' Solon, however, made many changes in 
 its constitution, enlarging its sphere of jurisdiction 
 to such an extent that it ceased to be any longer a 
 mere criminal court, and acquired henceforth social 
 and political powers in addition to the former. 
 Before Solon's time, it was strictly oligarchical. It 
 now became a tertium quid between aristocracy and 
 democracy, the new qualification for office intro- 
 duced by Solon being property instead of Urth. It 
 thus naturally allied itself with aristocracy, so that 
 we can perfectly understand why it should have 
 been considered a check upon the impetuous demo- 
 cracy, though it would, perhaps, be fairer to regard 
 it as a check upon both extremes. It is not known 
 how many members were included in its council. 
 The nine archons — if they had recommended them- 
 selves by a faithful discharge of their duties — were 
 elected life-members of it. Solon made the council 
 ' overseers of everything,' and we find instances of 
 their manifold authority in the subsequent history 
 of Greece. They granted money, at the time of the 
 Persian invasion, from a reserve treasury of their 
 own, the ordinary public treasury being empty. 
 After the battle of Chseroneia, they executed all who 
 had deserted their country. In social matters, their 
 powers appear to have been curiously minute. They 
 had officers whom they sent or accompanied into 
 private houses, on occasion of a festivity, to see that 
 the rooms were not overcrowded; they called to 
 account persons who lived in such riotous extra- 
 vagance that their example might be considered 
 hurtful to the community, and conferred marks of 
 honour on those of an opposite character. Their 
 sphere of iofluenoe seems to have extended itself to 
 religion also. Innovations in the worship of the 
 gods, neglect of the sacred ceremonies, impiety in 
 any form, brought the offenders under the rebuke 
 and punishment of the A. It is likewise asserted 
 that they possessed and exercised great authority 
 in the education of the young, although this state- 
 ment, and that regarding some charitable functions 
 attributed to them, are of dubious value. 
 
 Until the time of Pericles, the brilliant and power- 
 ful ruler of the democracy, the A. continued to 
 maintain its ancient dignity. He soon discovered, 
 however, that it would prove an iusurmountable 
 obstacle to the realisation of his designs if not shorn 
 of its privileges. After much and vigorous opposi- 
 tion, he succeeded in carrying a decree (458 B. c), by 
 which, as Aristotle says, the A. was ' inutUated,' 
 and democratic tribunals acquired supreme autho- 
 rity. It is, however, far from being clear what were 
 the precise changes which Pericles effected, whether 
 he abridged its powers as a criminal, or as a social 
 and political court. From the high estimation in 
 which it was held for centuries after, in the first of 
 these capacities, we are inclined to think that it was 
 its social and pohtical supremacy that was destroyed. 
 Probably the A. was made responsible to the demus, 
 or body of citizens. It lingered in life for a very 
 long period. We hear of it as late as 380 A. d., and 
 it would seem, from the case of St Paul, that it 
 possessed in his day a certain authority in rehgious 
 matters. 
 
 AEE'ITA, a part of an amphitheatre (so called 
 because it was usua,lly strewed vrith sand, though 
 
 382 
 
 when a fit of extravagance seized the Roman empe- 
 rors, they used borax and oiunabar instead), where the 
 combats of gladiators and wild beasts took place. 
 It had four main entrances, and was surrounded by 
 a wall about 15 feet high, so that the spectators were 
 perfectly safe. The name was afterwards applied by 
 the Romans to any building for exhibitions of baiting 
 animals, horsemanship, &c. On the continent, the 
 name has been given to the large summer theatres 
 for dramatic performances in the open air. It is 
 applied also, in a general sense, to any scene of 
 contest or display of power. 
 
 ARENA'CEOUS ROCKS. AU rocks composed 
 entirely, or to a large extent, of grains of silex, iire 
 included under this title. Beds of loose sand occur 
 extensively in the more recent deposits. The grains, 
 either of quartz or flint, are generally water-worn 
 and rounded. In older deposits, the graius of sand 
 are bound together by siUcious, calcareous, argilla- 
 ceous, or ferruginous cements. It is seldom that a 
 rock is composed of quartzy materials alone ; grains 
 or particles of other mineral substances are fre- 
 quently mingled with the grains of quartz. Silvery 
 flakes of mica are seldom absent ; and they often 
 occur in layers parallel to the planes of stratifica- 
 tion, causing the rock to spUt into thin slabs, and 
 exposing a glittering surface. These are called 
 micaceous sandstones. When grains of feldspar 
 occur, it is afeldspaffiic sandstone. Often large quan- 
 tities of calcareous matter, either as cement or as 
 distinct grains, occur; and these are called calcareous 
 sandstones. The presence of lime can always be 
 detected by the eSfervescence which takes place on 
 the appKcation of muriatic or other acid. When 
 the sandstone is coarse-grained, it is usually called 
 grit. If the grains are large enough to be called 
 pebbles, it becomes conglomerate or puddingstone ; 
 if the fragments are sharp and angular, it is called 
 hrecda. 
 
 ARENA'BIA or SANDWORT, a genus of plants 
 of the natural order Caryopliyllece, differing from 
 Stellaria (Stitchwort, q. v.) chiefly in the uudivided 
 petals. The species are numerous, annual and peren- 
 nial herbaceous plants of humble growth, rarely 
 somewhat shrubby, natives of the temperate and 
 colder parts of the world. Some of them are arctic 
 and alpine plants. Many of them are chiefly found 
 in sandy soils. The flowers are generally small and 
 iuconspicuous, but if closely examined, are seen to 
 possess no little beauty. A number of species are 
 natives of Britain. 
 
 A'RENDAL, a town on the south-east coast of 
 Norway, situated near the mouth of the Nid-elf in 
 the bay of Christiania, with a population of 2200. 
 It is buHt partly on poles, partly on rock, and this 
 circumstance, as well as its situation, gives it a very 
 romantic aspect. The bay, which is protected by 
 the island of Tromoe, forms an excellent harbour, 
 and favours the commerce of the town, which is 
 considerable, in proportion to its size. A. is inter- 
 sected by canals ; its exports are iron from the 
 neighbouring mines, and wooden articles. Ship- 
 building is also carried on; and on a smaller 
 scale, distilleries and tobacco-factories. King Louis 
 Philippe, after the French Revolution, when wander- 
 ing in the north as Duke of Orleans, made some stay 
 here. 
 
 ABE'NG or ARENGA. See Gomuto Palm. 
 
 ARENI'COLA. See Annelida and Sandwoem. 
 
 AEEO'METER {araios, thin, and metreo, 1 mea- 
 sure ; Fr. ariomMre or p^e-liquear; Ger. Araometer 
 or Senkwage), called also Hydrometer, an instrument 
 which is allowed to float freely in liquids, to deter- 
 mine their specific gravity or that of solid bodies. 
 By specific gravity (q. v.) is meant the ratio that iie 
 
AEEOMETEE. 
 
 weight of any volume of a substance bears to the 
 weight of the same volume of water. Thus, a cubic 
 foot of alcohol weighs 793 ounces, while the same 
 quantity of water weighs 1000 ounces ; the specific 
 gravity of alcohol is set down, therefore, as -j^^^ or 
 '193. A cubic foot of aulphiuic acid weighs 1841 
 ounces, and has, consequently, a specific gravity of 
 1;841. These relations are not confined to the par- 
 ticular volume, one cubic foot, of these bodies, but 
 hold for any equal volumes of them. Equal volumes 
 of alcohol, water, and sulphuric acid, have always to 
 each other the ratio respectively of 793, 1000, and 
 1841 ; and this is only an instance of the general 
 principle, that equal volumes of different substances 
 have weights bearing to each other the direct ratio 
 of the specific gravities of these substances. This 
 is the principle on which areometers with weights, 
 or weight -areometers, are constructed. If, how- 
 ever, equal weights of any two of these Uquids 
 were taken, it would be found that -793 of a cubic 
 foot of water would weigh as much as I'OOO cubic 
 foot of alcohol ; I'OOO cubic foot of sulphuric acid as 
 much as 1'841 cubic feet of water; or "793 of a 
 cubic foot of sulphuric acid as much as 1'841 cubic 
 feet pf alcohol : more generally thus — when equal 
 weights of two diflferent fluids are taken, the 
 volumes of each are inversely as their specific 
 gravities. On this latter principle depends the use 
 of areometers with scales, or scale-areometers. The 
 scale- A. is much more commonly employed than the 
 weight-A., and is, in consequence, a much more 
 important instrument. Of the various forms of 
 scale - areometers, that contrived by G-ay-Lussac 
 deserves particular notice, from the simplicity of 
 the mode of graduation ; and an account of it will 
 give the best idea of the general nature of such 
 instruments. Fig. 1 gives a representation of it. It 
 
 
 
 FlC. f 
 
 Areometers. 
 
 consists of a uniform glass tube, AB, blown into two 
 bulbs, C and D, at the bottom. The lower bulb, 
 D, is loaded with mercury, so that when the instru- 
 ment floats in any liquid, the stem, AB, is main- 
 tained in a vertical position. We shall suppose that 
 the quantity of mercury is so adjusted tiiat when 
 placed in water, the~ A. sinks to the point W, which 
 may, in consequence, be called the water-point. 
 According to the principle of Archimedes, the weight 
 of the volume of water displaced by the instrument 
 up to this point is equal to the weight of the instru- 
 ment. Let us suppose, for the sSss of simplicity, 
 
 that the water so displaced is a cubic inch, the 
 weight of the A. will be that of a cubic inch of 
 water, or 250 grains (more correctly 252-5 grains at 
 60° F.). If the A. be now placed in a fluid heavier 
 than water, such as a mixture of sulphuric acid 
 and water, having a specific gravity |- or 1-25, it is 
 manifest that if it is sunk again to the water-point, 
 the displaced fluid would weigh -J of 250 = 312^ 
 grains, or 624 grains more than the weight of 
 the instrument. As much, therefore, of the stem 
 of the A. must rise above the liquid as will 
 reduce the weight of the displaced liquid to 
 250 grains, or reduce the volume to -^ of what 
 it was before. If the stem in this case rises to 
 B, the volume displaced by the part WB is -J of 
 the volume displaced by the instrument at the 
 water-point. If we consider the whole divided into 
 100 parts, and mark 100 at W, B must be marked 
 80, as the A. displaces up to that point -^ of 100 ; 
 and if the intervening space on the stem be divided 
 into 20 equal parts, each of them wiU correspond 
 with -j^of the water-volume — viz., -01 of a cubic 
 inch, or with j^ of the weight of the instrument — 
 viz., 2'5 grains. If the same scale be carried above 
 the point W, and the divisions marked as ascending 
 from 100, the A. will be serviceable Kkewise for 
 fluids less dense than water, and wUl mark the 
 volumes which it displaces in each of them. The 
 A. thus graduated gives immediately the volumes 
 which it displaces in different liquids ; and from 
 these, seeing that it displaces in every case a weight 
 of liquid equal to its own, the specific gravities 
 may be caloulated.acoording to the principle already 
 stated — viz., that equal weights of two different 
 fluids have volumes inversely as their specific 
 gravities^ If, in a raixture of sulphuric acid and 
 water, the A. stands at 90, aocordmg to the above 
 principle, 90 volumes of the mixture weigh as much 
 as 100 of water; therefore, its specific gravity is i^ 
 or 1^. If, again, in a mixture of spirits and water, 
 it should stand at 110, 110 volumes of the mixture 
 weigh as much as 100 of water, so that its specific 
 gravity is ^§, or J-J. In all cases, then, 100 is 
 to be divided by the number read on the A., to 
 determine the specific gravity of the liquid in which 
 it floats. 
 
 The delicacy of the A. depends on the distance of the 
 divisions on ■flie scale, or on the thinness of the stem 
 compared with the bulbs. An instrument possessing 
 this advantage cannot be made to serve both for 
 liquids heavier and lighter than water, for the stem 
 would be of an inconvenient length ; and it is usual 
 to construct two areometers — one marked with 
 the water-point at the top, and the scale descending 
 to 50, for fluids heavier than water ; and the other, 
 with the water-point at the bottom, and the scale 
 ascending to 150, for fluids lighter than water. The 
 scale is generally marked on a shp of paper, which 
 is fixed inside llie stem. Gay-Lussac s A. is also 
 known under the name of ' volumometer.' Although 
 it cannot be surpassed either for accuracy or sim- 
 plicity, it is much less used than other instruments 
 of a similar nature furnished with arbitrary scales, 
 requiring the aid of tables to interpret the readings. 
 The best known of these is Twaddle's A., used in 
 England; and BeaumS's A, extensively adopted 
 on the continent. The A. with an equally divided 
 scale is a very ancient instrument; it was known 
 among the Greeks under the name of 'baryllion.' 
 On some areometers the divisions are not at equal 
 distances, but are so drawn as to give at once, without 
 table or calculation, the specific gravity of the fluid 
 in which they are placed. Although very desirable, 
 in practice they do not possess the accuracy of the A. 
 
 3S3 
 
AEEQTJIPA— AEETiEUS. 
 
 witli equally divided scales, because the graduation 
 o£ tliem is attended with considerable difficulty. 
 
 No form of A. can be made to determine specific 
 gravities with perfect accuracy, and such instruments 
 are only useful where a ready and good approxima- 
 tion is aU that is needed. They are, in consequence, 
 employed chiefly to ascertain the specific gravity of 
 the various liquors and soltitions which occur in the 
 arts and manufactures, and very frequently they 
 are graduated with reference to special liquids, as 
 spirits, wine, mflk, brine, &c. The Alcoholometer 
 or Hydrometer of Sikes is an instrument of this 
 latter description, and is in general use in the 
 Excise for estimating the strength of spirits. It is 
 represented in fig. 2. BC is a hoUow brass ball, 
 surmounted by a flat stem AB, and loaded below 
 by a short conical stem CD, terminated by the 
 pear-shaped bulb D. It is accompanied by eight 
 weights, by which the weight of the instrument 
 may be increased, and the range of the scale 
 extended to fluids heavier as well as lighter than 
 water. One of these weights, W, is shewn in the 
 figure ; it is furnished witii a sUt, so as to allow of 
 it being slipped on to the narrowest part, 0, of the 
 lower stem. The stem, AB, is graduated into H 
 equal parts, and these again into halves ; and the 
 instrument is so adjusted that its indications give 
 the volumes of water that must be added to or taken 
 from 100 volumes of the mixture imder examination 
 to reduce it to proof-spirit (see Alcohol), which is a 
 mixture of nearly equal parts of water and alcohol. 
 Thus, if the A. indicates 11 over-proof, 11 volumes 
 of water must be added in order to bring the liquid 
 down to proof-strength ; and 100 gallons of such 
 strength would be reckoned as 111 ; 100 gallons, at 
 11 under-proof, would in the same way be charged 
 as 89. Very carefuUy-constructed tables accom- 
 pany the instrument, in which the specific gravity 
 and percentage of alcohol of different mixtures, at 
 different temperatures, are marked, corresponding to 
 each degree of the A. Since the specific gravity of 
 alcohol is known, it might be thought, that if that of 
 a mixture of it with water were known, the relative 
 proportions of each would also be known. Such, 
 however, is not the case, for alcohol and water 
 possess a chemical affinity for each other, which 
 causes the combined volumes of the two to measure 
 less than the two volumes separately. Thus, 50 
 volumes of alcohol mixed with 50 volumes of water 
 does not make 100 volumes of the mixture, but only 
 96, and thereby the specific gravity of the mixture 
 is higher than it would have oeen if no contraction 
 had taken place. As the law of this contraction 
 is very complicated, the relative proportions of 
 the two in a combination of given specific gravity, 
 are only to be estimated from tables founded upon 
 experimental data. 
 
 The peculiar feature of areometers with weights 
 is, that instead of a scale, they have only one mark 
 on the stem, to which the A. is in all cases sunk. 
 One of the best-known instruments of this kind is 
 the A. of Nicholson. It consists of a brass tube, 
 BC (fig. 3), about 1 inch in diameter, closed above 
 and below by conical ends, to the upper of which 
 a wire is fixed, carrying on the top of it a cup A, 
 capable of containing the weights ; and to the lower, 
 a hook is attached, from which hangs the cup D. 
 The lower part of the cup, D, is also provided with 
 a hook, and the whole instrument is kept vertical, 
 partly by the weight of the cup, and partly by the 
 weight of the ball, E, suspended from it. On the 
 wire, a notch, W, is made, to serve as the mark or 
 fixed point to which the A. is sunk. The specific 
 gravities of liquids are determined by Nicholson's A. 
 in the following way : The weight of the A itself is 
 first ascertained— let it be in a given case 2000 grains 
 361 
 
 — it is then put into water at the temperature 60° E., 
 and weights (say 500 grains) put in, tUl it is sunk 
 to W. It is now removed to the liquid under 
 examination; and if the weight required to sink 
 the instrument now to the standard-point be 
 only 100 grains, we have the specific gravity of 
 the liquid equal to ^%^, or fl. In both fluids, 
 the same volume has been displaced, and that 
 is in each case equal to the weight of the A. ; but 
 the weight of the A in the second case was 
 2000 + 100, and in the former, 2000 -f 500; hence 
 the above result. Nicholson's A. is seldom used for 
 finding the specific gravity of fluids ; its use is 
 almost entirely restricted to ascertaining that of 
 small solid substances, as gems and smaU pieces of 
 minerals. The following example will shew how 
 this is done : If in the cup of the A. already 
 mentioned, when placed in water, the gem be put, 
 and only 440 grains be then necessary to bring the 
 instrument to W, 60 grains is manifestly the weight 
 of the gem, because 500 grains were needed without 
 it to do the same thing. The gem is next placed in 
 the lower cup, D, and if 460 grains are now needed 
 to sink to the standard-point, the gem has thus lost 
 20 grains of its weight by being immersed in the 
 water. According to the principle of Archimedes 
 (q. v.), these 20 grains are also the weight of a 
 volume of water equal to that of the gem ; so the 
 specific gravity of the gem is -f^ , or 3. By revers- 
 ing the cup D, which is furnished with perforations, 
 to allow free passage to the air, and attaching the 
 weight, E, to the handle of it, the specific gravity of 
 substances lighter than water may also be deter- 
 mined by this instrument. The other forms of 
 weight-areometers; are those of Fahrenheit, Tralles, 
 and Charles. For the more accurate determination 
 of the specific gravities of liquids and sohds, see 
 Specific Gbavity. 
 
 AEEQTJTI'PA, a term primarily applied to a 
 mountain in the west Cordillera of the Peruvian 
 Andes, and secondarily to a city at its foot, being 
 from this, again, extended to a district, a province, 
 a department, and a diocese. 1. The city, which is 
 in lat. 16° 13' S., and in long. 76' 18' W., is the third 
 largest in Peru, being inferior only to Lima and 
 Cuzco, and is said to contain 30,000 inhabitants. 
 It carries on a considerable trade both with the 
 interior and by sea. Its port is Islay, one of the 
 larger harbours of the republic. 2. The department 
 is bounded N. by Lima ; E. by Ayacucho, Cuzco, and 
 Puno ; S. by Moquega, which, along with it, forms 
 the diocese ; and W . by the Pacific. It contains 
 137,509 inhabitants, and is subdivided into seven 
 provinces. Like nearly the whole of the maritime 
 region of Peru, it is generally arid and sterile. 
 3. The mountain is volcanic, of the form of a trun- 
 cated cone, and of the height of 20,320 feet. Its 
 neighbourhood is subject to earthquakes. 
 
 ARES. See Maes. 
 
 ARETj3S'US, a, famous physician of Cappadooia, 
 who flourished in the latter half of the 1st, and in 
 the beginning of the 2d century after Christ. He is 
 considered to rank next to Hippocrates in the skiU 
 with which he treated diseases ; but he did not, in 
 every instance, foUow the practice of the ' Father of 
 Me(ficine.' He was less attentive to 'the natural 
 actions' of the system, which he frequently counter- 
 acted, if he thought it desirable ; administered active 
 purgatives copiously, employed narcotics, and did 
 not object to bleeding. He was, in fact, noted for 
 his total want of professional bigotry ; and hence, 
 not committing himself to any particular set of 
 opinions, in his accuracy in the detail of symptoms 
 and the diagnosis of disease, he is superior to most of 
 the ancient physicians. His great work, written in 
 
AEETHUSA— AEGALI. 
 
 singularly elegant and concise Ionic Greek, is divided 
 into two parts. Tlie first four books treat of the 
 causes and symptoms of acute and chronic dis- 
 eases ; the second, the cure of tbe same. They are 
 almost in a state of complete preservation, and nave 
 been translated into various European languages, 
 besides having been frequently edited m the 
 original. The finest edition is the Oxford one of 
 1723, by J. Wigan ; a German translation appeared 
 at Vienna (1790—1802), and an English by T. F. 
 Reynolds, Lond. 1837. 
 
 ARBTHTJ'SA. See Alpheius. 
 
 ARETI'NIAK SYLLABLES are the syllables 
 iii, re, mi, fa, sol, la, used by Guide d'Arezzo for his 
 system of hexachords. 
 
 AEETrNO, Pib'tro, an Italian author of the 
 16th c, was the natural son of a gentleman named 
 Luigi Eaooi, and was bom at Arezzo, in Tuscany, on 
 the 20th of March 1492. Banished from his native 
 town, he went to Perugia, where he wrought as a 
 bookbinder, and gathered up a few scraps of learn- 
 ing, unto, seized with a desire of becoming famous, 
 he abandoned his occupation, and wandered through 
 Italy in the service of various noblemen. At Rome, 
 he distinguished himself by big wit, impudence, and 
 ■talents, and secured even the papal patronage, 
 which, however, he subsequently lost by writing 
 licentious sonnets. A. now went to the Medicean 
 court, where John de' Medici grew so fond of him 
 that he shared his bed with the adventurer, and even 
 procured him an opportunity of ingratiating himself 
 with Francis I. at Milan in 1524. A few years later, 
 he settled at Venice, where he also acquired power- 
 ful friends. The Bishop of Vicenza not only soothed 
 the irritation of the pope against A., but also recom- 
 mended him to the Emperor Charles V. The latter, 
 as well as his chivalrous rival, Francis, and other 
 great persons, ptasioned the fortunate wit, besides 
 enriching him with splendid presents. He likewise 
 obtained considerable siuus for his literary efforts. 
 
 Nature had undoubtedly gifted A. with some fine 
 qualities, but these were vitiated by his love of 
 sensual gratifications. His death in 1556 accorded 
 with the character of his life. It is said that while 
 laughing heartily at some trifling adventure of one 
 of his abandoned sisters, he fell from a stool, and 
 was killed on the spot. His poetical works include 
 five comedies and a tragedy. The former are full 
 of wit and genuine comic humour ; the latter is not 
 without merit. His Sonetti Lusswriosi have been 
 translated into French under the title of AcadSmie 
 des Dames. Besides these, he wrote a number of 
 other pieces, some of which have not been published. 
 His satire procured for bim the name of ' the 
 Scourge of Princes ; ' but it seems clear that he was 
 equally well fitted to be their sycophant. Although 
 the very impersonation of licentiousness, he had 
 nevertheless the impudence to publish some books 
 of a devotional kind, with the view of obtaining the 
 favour of the pope. 
 
 ARETI'^O, Spinello, an early Italian painter of 
 great genius, was born at Arezzo in 1316, or, acoord- 
 mg to others, in 1328. He studied imder Jacopo del 
 Casentino ; but before he had attained his majority, 
 he had surpassed his master in the vigour and liveli- 
 ness both of bis conceptions and colouring.' His 
 reputation attained its fuU bloom after he went to 
 Florence,, where he painted in fresco, in the chapel 
 of St Maria Maggiore, several incidents in the life 
 of the Virgin and of St Antonio Abate. The 
 monastery of San Miniato, near, Florence, contains 
 to the present day a, few of his frescoes. He also 
 adorned the monasteries of San Bernardo at Arezzo, 
 and Monte Oliveto near Florence. Vasari thought 
 that the finest works of A. were those which he 
 25 
 
 executed for the Campo Santo at Pisa, illustrating 
 the life of San Ranieri. Of these, however, we have 
 only prints, and cannot therefore judge satisfac- 
 torily. His principal works, stUl remaining, are 
 fiiose from the life of Pope Alexander III. in the 
 town-hall of Siena, He died in 1408. 
 
 Throughout all Italy, A. was greatly admired for 
 his invention, the grace and simplicity with which 
 he arranged his figures, and the finish of his style.' 
 His Madonnas possessed a remarkable sweetness of 
 expression ; and his colouring was in most cases bold 
 and beautiful. Vasari prefers him to Giotto. 
 
 ARE'ZZO (Akeitom), the chief city of the 
 Tuscan province of A., is situated in a fertile valley 
 near the confluence of the Chiana with the Amo, 
 lat. 43° 27' N., Ions. 11° 52' E. It is 38 miles E.S.E. 
 from Florence. A. is perhaps the oldest town in 
 Tuscany, and formed one of the twelve cities of the 
 ancient Etruscans. ^It was devastated by SyUa 
 during the Social War ; and, like many other Italian 
 cities, was sacked by the Goths when they burst into 
 the peninsula. During the contest of the Guelphs 
 and Gbibellines, in a later age, it became subject 
 to Florence, whose troops defeated those of A. 
 at the battle of Camaldino, in which the poet 
 Dante took part. Arezzo contains 10,000 inhabit- 
 ants ; but its extensive walls and numerous churches 
 bear record of its more flourishing period, when 
 it had 30,000. The Piazza Grande, the Pieve, 
 an old church founded on the site of a heathen 
 temple, and the cathedral, which, like almost all 
 the other churches, has an unfinished fafade, are 
 its principal pubHo buildings. The cathedral has 
 a splendid high altar in marble by Giovanni 
 Pisano ; and the several churches contain fine speci- 
 mens of the old Tuscan school of painting. These 
 ecclesiastical decorations are contrasted with the 
 general aspect of the cjty, which has dark and dirty 
 streets. Its industry is at present at a very low, 
 ebb, there being few or no manufactures, and its 
 people are not generally favourites in Italy ; but 
 perhaps no city of its size ever produced a greater 
 niunber of celebrated men, among whom may be men- 
 tioned — Maecenas, the famous patron of letters in the 
 time of the Emperor Augustus ; Petrarch ; Pietro 
 Aretino ; Guido de A., inventor of the gamut ; 
 Leonardo de A., the historian ; Cesalpino, the 
 botanist ; Redi, the physician ; Pope Julius Ulrf 1;he 
 notorious Marshal d'Ancre ; and Vasari, author of 
 Lives of ffte Painters. Michael Angelo was also 
 born in the viciiity of A. The province of A. con- 
 tains 1268 square miles, with a popvdation of 219,537. 
 The soil is fertile in com, vrine, and oil. 
 
 A'EGALA. See Adjutant. 
 
 A'EGALI {Ovis Amman), the great wild sheep of 
 Siberia and Central Asia. It is found from Kam- 
 tchatka to the Himalaya Mountains, where, however, 
 it is only seen in the more elevated regions. ' We 
 
 Head of the ArgaH Sheep. 
 
 came suddenly,' says Dr Hooker in his Sir 
 Journal, 'upon a flock of gigantic wild sheep, feed- 
 ing on scanty tufts of dried sedge and grass ; there 
 were twenty-five of these enormous animals, of whose 
 dimensions the term sheep gives no idea j they are 
 
 385 
 
AUGAN— AUGENS. 
 
 Tery long-legged, stand as high as a calf, and have 
 immense horns, so large that the fox is said to take 
 up his abode in their hollows when detached and 
 bleaching on the barren mountains of Tibet.' The 
 horns of the male are nearly 4 feet long, and 14 
 inches in circumference at the base, where they are 
 triangular. The general colour is fulvous gray, 
 white beneath, with a whitish disk around the tail. 
 The wool is concealed by hair. The name A. is 
 Mongolian, and was adopted by PaUas. A similar 
 but smaller species is also found on the Himalaya 
 Mountains. The Rocky Mountain Sheep, or Big- 
 horn, is sometimes called the American A. See 
 Sheep. 
 
 ARGAN (Arganicb sideroxylon, Sideroxylon 
 spinosum of Linnaeus), a low spiny evergreen tree of 
 ttie natural order Sapotacew, a native of the southern 
 parts of the kingdom of Marocco, bearing an ovate 
 drupe about the size of h plum, dotted with white, 
 and full of a white milky juice. The Moors extract 
 an oil from the fruit, wMch they use with their food. 
 
 ARGAND, AbvtS, physician and chemist, was 
 bom at Geneva about the middle of the 18th u. 
 He was the inventor of the well-known Argand lamp. 
 The chief difficulties that attended the use of lamps 
 as a source of light were — ^iirst, in procuring the 
 complete combustion of the oil, so as to keep the 
 flame from smoking ; and second, in preventing the 
 level of the oil in the reservoir from sinking as the 
 combustion goes on. The round cotton-wick, used 
 in the old simple form of lamp, was always attended 
 with smoke and smeU. The oUs and fats are exceed- 
 ingly rich in carbon, containing 70 to 80 per cent. 
 of that element, and only 10 to 12 of hydrogen. 
 The round thick column, then, of oil-vapour risiog 
 from the wick of an old-fashioned lamp, presented 
 too little extent of surface to the air ; the oxygen of 
 all the air that could get access was chiefly taken 
 up in burning the hydrogen, 
 and a large proportion of the 
 carbon ascended in the burnt 
 air as smoke. A.'s improvement 
 was that he made the wick in 
 the form of a ring. The flame 
 thus became a hollow cylinder 
 with a current of air ascending 
 through the inside, so that the 
 burning surface was doubled. It 
 would appear, however, that the 
 lamp did not satisfy the expectations of A., till his 
 younger brother accidentally discovered the effect 
 of a glass cylinder, as a chimney over the flame, 
 by which the flame was steadied, a draught created, 
 and the greatest possible amount of light yielded. 
 
 A. was soon involved in a dispute with one Langg 
 of Paris regarding the originafity of his invention. 
 He went thither to vindicate his claim, but rather 
 than risk the chances of a lawsuit, he consented to 
 share the honour, and a patent was obtained by 
 which LangS and A. alone were authorised to make 
 and sell the new lamps in France for 15 years. The 
 IVench Revolution, however, destroyed their privi- 
 lege, and A. retired to England. AEter some time, 
 he returned to his native country, a victim to 
 melancholy and fantastic humours, and died on the 
 24th October 1803. 
 
 ARGATJ'M, a village in the territory of the 
 Nizam. It is in lat 21° 2' N., and in long. 77° 2' E., 
 on the route between EUichpore and Aurungabad. 
 Its single claim to notice is that, on 28th November 
 1803, about two months after the battle of Assaye, 
 Major-general Wellesley here gained another victory 
 over the Mahrattas. To commemorate this action, 
 a medal was struck in 1851, about a year before 
 the death of the illustrious conqueror. 
 386 
 
 Argand Burner. 
 
 A'RGEL, or A'RGHEL {Solenostemma A., or 
 Gynanchum A.), a plant of the natural order Asde- 
 piadacea, a native of Arabia and of the north of 
 Africa, deserving of notice only because of the fre- 
 quent use of its leaves for the adulteration of senna. 
 They are lanceolate and leathery, and may readily 
 be distinguished from genuine senna leaves by their 
 texture, Sieir being downy, their greater heaviness, 
 the comparative absence of veins, and the symmetry 
 of their sides, the sides of the true senna-leaves- 
 being unequal. They are acrid, and cause sickness 
 and griping, but a difference of opinion subsists as to 
 their possessing purgative properties. 
 
 ARGELANDER, Ekiedeich Wilhelm AtrotrsT, 
 one of the most eminent astronomers of our tim^ 
 was bom, March 22, 1799, at Memel. He studied 
 at Konigsberg, where the science of finance first 
 attracted him ; but he was subsequently drawn away 
 to that of astronomy by the lectures of Bessel, by 
 whom he was employed to make calculations and 
 observations. In 1820, he was appointed assistant to 
 Bessel in the Konigsberg Observatory, and in 1823 
 succeeded Walbeck as astronomer at the observatory 
 of Abo, in Finland. Here he commenced a series of 
 observations on the fixed stars which have a per- 
 ceptible 'proper motion.' His studies were unfortu- 
 nately interrupted by a fire which destroyed the 
 observatory ; but after a time, he resumed them in 
 a new observatory at Helsiagfors, and published a 
 catalogue of not less than 560 stars having ' proper 
 motions.' This contained the results of his obser- 
 vations at Abo, and received from the Academy 
 of St Petersburg the great Demidov prize. After 
 removing to the university of Bonn in 1837, A. pub- 
 lished his Uranometria Nova (Berlin, 1843), con- 
 taining celestial charts of the fixed stars seen in our 
 hemisphere with the naked eye ; also (in 1846) his 
 Astronomical Oiservations, containing the results of 
 an examination of the northern heavens from 45° to 
 80° declination, arid giving the positions of 22,000 
 stars. For a considerable number of years, A. has 
 been engaged in a series of observations on the 
 changes of hght in variable stars. A very interest- 
 ing work is expected to be the result of these recenfi 
 studies. 
 
 ARGE'MON:^, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Papaveracece, distinguished by 4 — 6 petals, 4 — 7 
 radiating concave stigmas, and an obovate capsule, 
 opening by valves at the point. A. Meacana, some- 
 times called Mexican Poppy, is an annual herbaceous 
 plant with large yellow flowers, and sessile, waved 
 and sinuated, spiny leaves, variegated with white. It 
 is a native of Mexico and of the southern parts of the 
 United States, and is now also common in many 
 tropical and sub-tropical countries, in which it has 
 been naturalised. Its seeds are narcotic, purgative, 
 and diuretic, exhibiting iu a strong degree those 
 qualities of the order of which the seeds of the poppy 
 are devoid. They are used in the West Indies as a 
 substitute for ipecacuanha, also instead of opium j 
 and the juice of the plant is employed as a remedy 
 for ophthalmia. — This plant is not imfrequently to 
 be seen in flower-borders in Britain; but in the 
 northern parts, at least, the seed is generally sown in 
 a hot-bed. 
 
 ARGENS, Jean Baptistb de Botee, MARQtris »', 
 born at Aix, in Provence, June 24, 1704. He was 
 originally intended for a learned career ; but, from a 
 love of adventure, he entered the army at fifteen. 
 Fascinated by a certain actress, he eloped with her 
 to Spain, but was captured, and brought back to 
 Provence. In spite of his glaring breach of disci- 
 pline, he had the good-fortune to be employed in 
 the French embassy to Constantinople, and on his 
 return, re-entered the army. Being disabled bj 
 
AEGENSOLA— ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 accidents in military service, and disinherited by hia 
 father, he tried his fortune in authorship, and by 
 his Letlres Juives, Lettres GJiinoises, Lettres Oabalis- 
 tiques, and La Pkilosophie du Bon Sens (London, 
 1737), attracted the notice of Frederick II., then 
 Crown-prince of Prussia, and became a favourite at 
 the court of Prussia when Frederick came to the 
 throne. The king appointed him chamberlain, and 
 a director of the Art Academy at Berlin, with a 
 salary of 6000 Hvres. He was a constant associate 
 of Frederick, who liked exceedingly hia frank and 
 vivacious character, but used to tease him on 
 account of his hjrpochondriaoal fits. When almost a 
 sexagenarian, he renewed the adventures of his 
 youli by again falling a victim to the charms of an 
 actress, Mademoiselle Cochois, whom he married 
 without Frederick's permission. This and otlier 
 circumstances irritated the despotic monarch, who 
 deprived A. of hia j)ension. The latter now returned 
 to Provence, and died at Toulon, January 11, 1771. 
 His uiunerous writings, but especially his Sistoire 
 de VEsprit Humain, Letlres et Mimoires, and 
 those above mentioned, once enjoyed a considerable 
 reputation. 
 
 ARGE'NSOLA, Lupbkcio and BaetolomS 
 Leonardo db, two of the first among the Spanish 
 poets in the , ' golden age,' were bom at Bar- 
 bastro, in Aragon ; the former in 1565, the latter in 
 1566. They studied at the university of Huesca. 
 Lupereio afterwards went to Madrid, while Barto- 
 lomg entered the church. In character and for- 
 tune, however, they were closely united through- 
 out the whole of their career. Both were 
 patronised by Maria of Austria, who appointed 
 the one her chaplain, and the other her private 
 secretary. The latter was subsequently made 
 chamberlain to the Archduke Albert of Austria, 
 and Philip III. appointed him historiographer of 
 Aragon. Bartolome was employed by the Count 
 de Lemos to edit the Conquista de las Molucas 
 (Madrid, 1609); and when this nobleman was 
 appointed as viceroy of Naples, both the brothers 
 A., who had acquired fame as poets, attended his 
 court at Naples, where Lupereio, who then filled the 
 office of Secretary of State, died in 1613. Bartolomg 
 returned to Spain with the viceroy in 1616, and 
 occupied the position formerly held by his brother, 
 as historiographer of the kingdom of Aragon, where 
 he proceeded with the work left vmfinished by 
 Lupereio — a continuation of Zurita's Annals of Ara- 
 gon. While engaged in this work, he died, February 
 26, 1631. The collected poems of the two brothers 
 were first published in 1634, by the son of Lupereio, 
 and passed through several editions. These poems 
 (Rimaa) consist of epistles, odes, sonnets, and satires, 
 and are singularly alike in character. They are 
 imitative of file style of the Latin poets (especially 
 Horace, for which reason the brothers have been 
 styled 'the Spanish Horaces'), and display more care 
 and polish than originality of invention or richness 
 of fancy. Bartolomg A., as a prose-vmter, is reck- 
 oned among the Spanish classics. The style of his 
 continuation of Zurita is a great advance on the 
 original, especially in correctness. 
 
 ARGENSON, Maeo Pibbeb, Comte d', a 
 celebrated French statesman, was bom in 1696. 
 After holding a number of inferior offices, he 
 succeeded M. de Breteuil as Secretary of State 
 to the war minister in 1742. On the death of 
 Cardinal Fleury, in the following year, the whole 
 care of the war then raging devolved upon him. 
 He found matters in the most deplorable condi- 
 tion. The French troops, decimated by sword and 
 disease, were in full retreat across the Rhine ; the 
 Austrians already swarmed in Alsace and Lorraine, 
 
 and the very political existence of France was 
 imperilled ; but the vigorous efforts of A., and his sin- 
 gularly lucky choice of generals, completely changed 
 the fortunes of the war in the course of one year. 
 The theatre of strife was transferred to the Low 
 Countries ; and after the victories of Fontenoy and 
 Lawfeldt, the capture of Bergen-op-Zoom, and the 
 investment of Maestricht, peace was secured by the 
 famous treaty of Aix-la-chapeUe, signed in 1748. 
 A., however, did not remain inactive. He built 
 new fortresses and repaired old ones, established the 
 E'cole MilUaire in 1751, and, by various measures, 
 sought to keep alive the military ardour and spirit 
 of the nation. He was likewise an illustrious 
 patron of literature. Diderot and D'Alembert dedi- 
 cated to him their great Encyclop^die. He was the 
 friend of Voltaire, whose feUow-student he had 
 been, and furnished him with materials for his Slide 
 de Louis XIV. On the breaking out of the war again 
 in 1756, his valuable services were neglected, and 
 next year he was deprived of his office, and exiled 
 to his estate of Ormes, where he spent six dreary 
 years. It is supposed that this calamity befell him 
 through the machinations of Madame Pompadour, 
 his worst enemy. On her decease, he returned to 
 Paris, where he died in 1764. 
 
 A'RGBNT, the French word for silver, is always 
 used in English heraldry to signify that metal. In 
 engraving shields, it is left white.' 
 
 ARGB'NTETJS COBEX. See TJmilas. 
 
 A'RGENTINB (Argentina), a genus of small 
 fishes of the family Salmonidce, of which one is 
 rarely found on the British shores, and two or three 
 are foimd in the Mediterranean. They are chiefly 
 remarkable for the resplendent silvery lustre of their 
 sides, and the abundance of nacre, the substance 
 used in making artificial pearls, with which their 
 air-bladder is externally loaded. It consists of a 
 coat of silvery fibres. Upon account of it, they 
 are sought after. They are commonly taken in 
 nets along with anchovies or sardines. 
 
 A'RGESTTINB REPUBLIC, the confedera- 
 tion of the Rio de La Plata, or River of Silver, 
 South America — ^the Latinised epithet and the 
 Spanish term being merely copy and original of 
 one and the same misnomer. This confedera- 
 tion may be described, accurately enough for the 
 present purpose, as extending in S. lat. between 
 22° and 41", and in W. long, between 57° and 70°. 
 In addition, however, to the thirteen confederated 
 provinces themselves, these limits comprise Buenos 
 Ayres, which, since 1852 or 1853, has formed an 
 entirely separate state. Including Buenos Ayres, 
 the whole country, constituting nearly a rectangle 
 of 19° of lat. by 13° of long., may be estimated 
 to contain rather less than 1,100,000 square imles ; 
 so that, after deducting 200,000 as the computed 
 area of Buenos Ayres alone, there wiU remain for 
 the thirteen provinces about 900,000 square nules 
 — a simi-total which falls somewhat short of the 
 generally received aggregate. This vast surface, 7i 
 times the extent of the British Isles, contains only 
 874,000 inhabitants, being not quite an inhabitant to 
 a square mile. This population is said to be thus 
 distributed among the thirteen provinces : 
 
 Province. 
 
 Capital. 
 
 Population 
 
 Cordova, . 
 
 Cordova, 
 
 . 160,000, 
 
 Catamaroa, . 
 
 Catamarca, 
 
 60,000 
 
 Corrientes, 
 
 Corrientes, 
 
 . 85,000 
 
 Entre Rios, . 
 
 Parana, . 
 
 80,000 
 
 Jujuy, 
 Salta, 
 
 . Salta, 
 
 30,000 
 • 65,000 
 
 Mendoza, 
 
 Mendoza, 
 
 70,000 
 
 Rioja, . 
 
 Rioja, » 
 
 . 30,000 
 287 
 
AEGENmra; republic— auges. 
 
 Province. 
 San Jago del Estero, 
 San Juan, 
 Santa Fe, 
 San Luis, 
 Tuoaman, 
 
 Capital. Population. 
 
 San Jago; . 100,000 
 San Juan, 62,000 
 
 Santa Fe, . 40,000 
 San Luis, 32,000 
 
 Tuoaman, . 60,000 
 
 Eacli of these names will again claim notice in its 
 proper place. 
 
 Xhe A. K, as a whole, is . bounded on the W. by 
 Chili, on the N. by Bolivia, on the E. by Paraguay, 
 Brazil, Uruguay or Banda Oriental, and Buenos 
 Ayres, and S. by Patagonia, on about the 40th 
 parallel. Excepting the almost purely Indian 
 districts to the west of Buenos Ayres, it lies chiefly 
 in the basin of the Eio de La Plata, embracing 
 much the larger half of the same. Mountains 
 abound in the north-west ; and elevated ranges 
 are found also in Entre Rios, which is situated, 
 as its name implies, between the Parana and the 
 Uruguay. But, with these exceptions, nearly the 
 whole country presents boundless plains, covered 
 alternately with rich pasturage and gigantic thistles. 
 The climate and productions vary considerably — 
 being tropical and temperate respectively to the north 
 and south of Corrientes (in 27' 27' K lat.). Agricul- 
 ture, however, of every description is very backward — 
 less, perhaps, than XJJTTO' ^^ *^® surface being under 
 cultivation. The rearing, in fact, of Hve-stock is 
 the grand business of the country. Millions of 
 cattle wander at will across the plains, or are kept 
 on breeding-estates of vast extent ; and likewise 
 of mules and horses there are immense bands. 
 Besides the Bio de La Plata, which is rather an 
 estuary than a river, and its far-reaching afflu- 
 ents, the hydrography of the A. R. comprises the 
 head-waters of some southern streams, which fall 
 into the open Atlantic, such as the Eio Colorado, 
 the Rio Negro, &c. ; and along the west border, 
 under the shadow, as it were, of the Andes, 
 salt-lakes are common. In connection, doubtless, 
 with this feature in the hydrography, mines of 
 rock-salt exist, and salt here and there abundantly 
 encrusts the plains, both to the satisfaction and 
 benefit of the roaming herds. The names of the 
 country and its estuary, as indicating the presence 
 of silver, have been already characterised as mis- 
 nomers ; and though mines of other minerals — such 
 as sulphur and alum — are found in the neighbour- 
 hood of the Andes, yet few, if any, of them are 
 vnrought. 
 
 In 1515, Juan Diaz da Solis, while searching 
 for a passage into the Great South Sea newly seen 
 by Balboa, entered the Rio de La Plata. In 1526, 
 Sebastian Cabot, son of the discoverer of Newfound- 
 land, penetrated nearly to the confluence of the 
 Parana and the Paraguay, being arrested by the 
 rapids, which afterwards gave name to Corrientes. 
 In 1535, Buenos Ayres was founded, to command, 
 though indirectly, the most practicable channel of 
 the only outlet of the country, a city which, in 
 conjunction with its own colony of Monte Video, 
 on the opposite bank, has virtually monopolised 
 the history of a region equal in extent to Western 
 Europe. Grradually other cities were planted, partly 
 by colonists from Spain, and partly by adventiu'ers 
 from Peru, generally giving each its own name to 
 its own province ; and the grand staples of the 
 coimtry — horses and cattle — had been largely intro- 
 duced before 1552. Down to 1775, the basin of the 
 Rio de La Plata was a dependency of the viceroyalty 
 of Lima. In that year, however, was erected the 
 viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, which, to the basiu 
 in question, added Bohvia, imder the name of 
 Upper Peru, thus embracing the head-waters of 
 the Amazon, and also moat of the plateau of 
 Kticaca. The year 1806 ushered in a new order 
 
 388 
 
 of things. Spain, as an ally of France, being 
 then at war with England, both Buenos Ayres 
 and Monte Video were occupied by the English 
 
 a change which, brief as was its duration, vni;u- 
 
 aUy sowed the seeds of revolution. The colonists 
 had felt the inconvenience of belonging to a state 
 which left them, in a great measure, to defend 
 themselves ; they had successfully tried their 
 strength against a foe more powerful than their 
 ovm masters ; and they had been encouraged not 
 less by the sayings, than by the doings, of their 
 invaders to assert their independence. These 
 influences were, in fact, instantaneously exempKfled. 
 The triumphant militia, after deposing and expelling 
 the legitimate viceroy for cowardice, elected in 
 his stead the French officer who had led them to 
 victory. Thus had the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres 
 become peculiarly ripe for taking its share in the 
 outbreak, which Napoleon's dethronement of the 
 Bourbons, in the spring of 1808, almost immediately 
 occasioned throughout Spanish America. Neither 
 the revolutionary struggles, nor the intestine broils 
 that have been almost without interruption, are 
 entitled to special notice in this article, inasmuch 
 as they will more naturally fall under the heads of 
 such sections of the viceroyalty as no longer form 
 part of the A. R., Bolivia, Buenos Ayres, and 
 Uruguay or Banda Oriental. 
 
 Two general remarks, however, on the subject 
 may not be out of place. The struggles of inde- 
 pendence, at least within the purely Argentine 
 provinces of the viceroyalty, terminated in 1816 — 
 sooner than in any other division of Spanish 
 America. Again, the intestine broils, beyond the 
 example even of Spanish republics, have been 
 aggravated by peculiar elements of discord. The 
 population, consisting chiefly of himters and herds- 
 men of mixed race, is always as ready for rapine 
 and bloodshed as it is indifferent to law and order ; 
 the boundless interior has a standing feud with 
 the narrow sea-board, which shuts it out from the 
 ocean; the Banda Oriental has been a bone of 
 contention between the Brazilians and the Argen- 
 tines ; while England and France, mth a view to 
 the freedom of commerce, have thrown their weight 
 in favour of its separate and independent existence. 
 But beyond, perhaps, all these grounds of strife, have 
 been the mutual jealousies of Buenos Ayres and 
 Monte Video. While the latter enjoys easier access 
 to the Atlantic, the former has long commanded a 
 more practicable channel to the vast country behind 
 and above. Recently, however, Buenos Ayres seems 
 to have lost something of its superiority through 
 the explorations of the Americans. The following 
 passage is from the pen of Lieutenant Page of the 
 Watermtch : ' We have discovered also a new 
 channel between the island Martin Garcia and 
 the Banda Oriental of two feet more water than 
 the old channel contains. The importance attached 
 to this discovery is not confined to the greater 
 depth of water in the new channel, but it 
 assumes a political character. Instead of Buenos 
 Ayres possessing, as she now claims, exclusive 
 jurisdiction over the entrantie of the rivers Parana 
 and Uruguay, she has, over the new channel, only 
 concurrent jiirisdiction with the Banda Oriental. 
 The hew channel is more easily entered, and in 
 it vessels are not obliged to pass nearer to Martin 
 Garcia than IJ mUe.' 
 
 A'RGES, a genus of small fishes, of the family 
 Siluridai, of extreme interest on account of their 
 being frequently thrown out in vast numbers 
 by some of the South American volcanoes, with 
 torrents of muddy water. Humboldt was the first 
 accurately to inquire into this wonderful fact, and 
 to describe one of these fishes, which he referred 
 
ARGIL— AEGOLIS, 
 
 to the genua Pimdodes, and called P. cydopurrt. It 
 is now called A. eydopum. The quantities of these 
 fishes ejected from the volcanoes in the neighbour- 
 hood of Quito is sometimes so great, that the stench 
 of their putrefaction is felt at a great distance, 
 and putrid fevers are caused by it. They are 
 expelled from craters or from lateral openings at 
 an elevation of 16,000 or 17,000 feet above the sea. 
 It is supposed that they exist in lakes within 
 the cavernous recesses of the mountains, but nothing 
 is positively known on this subject. Their capacity 
 of enduring the high temperature of the water with 
 which they are ejected, has excited much interest. 
 Several species are known, to which the common 
 name of prenadillas is given in the country, and 
 which are placed by idithyologists in the genus 
 A., and the closely allied genera Brontes and 
 
 A'RGIL, clay or white ' clay, a term now little 
 used, but of which the derivative argillaceous is still 
 in frequent use as descriptive of soils, geological 
 deposits, &c., and in the name Argillaceons Slate or 
 Argillaceous Schist, instead of which, however, the 
 name Glay-slaie (q.v.) is more generally employed. 
 The term argillaceous is rather vague, and some- 
 times clayey, sometimes aluminoas, would seem to be 
 its equivalent. See Aegillacbous Rocks. 
 
 ARGILS PLASTIQITB, a series of beds at the 
 base of the Tertiary system in France, resting on a 
 conglomerate or breccia of rolled and angular chalk- 
 flints. They consist of extensive deposits of sand, 
 with occasional beds of plastic clays, used for pottery. 
 Marls occur, enclosing, in some places, the fluviatile 
 shells that are met with in the same position in the 
 London basin, and in others, large numbers of a 
 species of oyster. Beds of impure Umite also occur. — 
 The A. P. is^the equivalent in the Paris basin of the 
 Woolwich and Reading series, or Lower Eocene of 
 the English geologists. See Eocene. 
 
 ARGILLA'CEOXJS ROCKS. All rocks com- 
 posed entirely or to some extent of clay are included 
 under this title. Pure clay is known as kaolin or 
 porcdain clay. It is a hydrated sUicate of alumina. 
 Decomposed feldspar, from which the sihcates of 
 potash, soda, &c., have been washed out, supplies the 
 material which forms kaolin. Common day, how- 
 ever, contaias many impimties; the chief are sand, 
 in variable proportions, and oxide of iron, which 
 gives its colour to the mass. Any matter that con- 
 , tains sufficient alumina (more than 10 per cent.) to 
 enable it to retain its shape when moulded and 
 pressed, is called clay. Plastic clays occur abun- 
 dantly in the superficial deposits and in the Tertiary 
 strata. The older clays become more or less indu- 
 rated. When they are regularly laminated, and 
 split into thin layers in the direction of the laminiE, 
 tiiey are called shale. In day-slate, the clay has 
 become highly indurated and metamorphosed, so as 
 to split into plates that are altogether independent 
 of the original lamination, and frequently cross it at 
 right angles. Clay-slate forms extensive deposits in 
 the Azoic Tocks, but it is not confined to these, for 
 the Palaeozoic shales are often converted into clay- 
 slate, when, from their proximity to crystalline 
 rocks, or other cause, they have been subjected to 
 the action of heat. , 
 
 A. R. can generally be distinguished by the pecu- 
 liar 'argillaceous' odour which they give out when 
 breathed upon. 
 
 A'RGOL is a crude variety of cream of tartar 
 which forms a crust in the interior of wine-vats 
 and wine-bottles. Originally, it exists in the juice 
 of the grape, and is soluble therein ; but during the 
 fermentation of the juice, and as it passes into 
 wine, much alcohol is developed, which remaining 
 
 in the fermenting liquor, causes the precipitation 
 of the A. ; the latter being very sparingly soluble in 
 an alcoholic liquid. Some wines, when they are 
 bottled; are not fully ripe, and more alcohol being 
 thereafter developed, a further precipitation of A. 
 takes place as a. crust in the bottles, and hence the 
 meaning of the term crusted port. A. is generally 
 of a reddish tinge, obtained from the colour of the 
 grapes, but sometimes is of a grayish-white colour, 
 when it has been deposited durmg the fermentation 
 of the juice of colourless grapes. The red or white 
 A. is denominated in cojnmerce crude tartar, and its 
 principal uses are in the jpreparation of cream of 
 tartar (q.v.) and tartaric acid (q.v.). The constitu- 
 ents of A. are bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar), 
 (KO,HO,T), tartrate of Hme, with colouring and 
 extractive matters. 
 
 A'RGOLA. See Adjiitakt. 
 
 A'RG6LIS, the north-east peninsula of the Morea 
 (Greece), lying between the Bays of Nauplia and 
 jS!gina, forms a nome, or department, in the modem 
 kingdom of Greece. The plain of Argos, famous in 
 ancient times for its breed of horses, is naturally 
 fertile, but is now made pestilential by morasses. It 
 is surrounded by an eastern continuation of the 
 range of moimtains on the north of the Pelopon- 
 nesus, which also girds the riven and shattered- 
 looking coast. The highest summits attain an 
 elevation of between 5000 and 6000 feet. The plain 
 of A. is the most extensive in the whole peninsula, 
 being 12 miles in length, and 5 in breadth. The 
 eastern part is higher and more rocky than the 
 western. Near where the plain opens on the sea, 
 the ground is marshy. This was the Lernean 
 marsh of antiquity. The nome, or department, has 
 now NaupHa as its capital, and contains 89,340 
 inhabitants. 
 
 It was from the importance of the ancient king- 
 dom of A. that the Greeks were collectively often 
 styled Argivi by ancient writers. A. was colonised 
 in very early times. According to the old traditions, 
 Inachus, the Pelasgic chief, settled here in 1800, and 
 Danaus in 1500 B.C., with colonists from Egypt. 
 Here Pelops ruled, and was succeeded by Atreus, 
 Agamemnon, &c. Here also Hercules was bom, and 
 achieved his victories over the Lernean hydra and 
 the Nemean lion. 
 
 The ancient capital, Argos, was situated about 
 3 miles from the sea, and was considered the oldest 
 city in Greece. It was supposed to have been built 
 by that Inachus of whom we have spoken, or, by his 
 grandson Argus ; but as the whole period in which 
 his deeds are said to have been accomplished 
 belongs to the unhistorical age, we cannot possibly 
 determine the truth of such a statement. It is 
 certain, however, that at one period A. was the 
 head of a league composed of several Doric states or 
 cities — Cleouse, Phlius, Sicyon, Trcezen, Hermione, 
 .^gina, and Epidaurus. Latterly, Sparta robbed it 
 of its supremacy and influence. The popidation of 
 A., during its most prosperous condition in ancient 
 times, was — inclusive of the town-territory — ^upwards 
 of 100,000. It was noted for the attention it paid 
 to the worship of the gods. Juno was the principal 
 divinity, but many of the other gods had temples 
 and statues also. This gave a stimulus to the fine 
 arts, and we know that A. possessed one of the 
 most famous of the ancient schools of statuary. 
 The natives were, morepver, renowned for their love 
 of music. Herodotus considered them the finest 
 musicians in Greece. They do not, however, seem 
 to have cultivated literature. Pew poets, and no 
 orators or philosophers, were born ajnongst them. 
 The modem Argos, built on the site of the ancient, 
 is 7 miles from NaupHa, and is a large and thriving 
 
ABG0NAT7T— AEGONAUTS. 
 
 town. It still exHbita some remains of antiquity, 
 though these were nearly whoUy destroyed in 1825, 
 during the Greek war of independence. Cotton, 
 vines, and rice are grown. Pop. 8000. 
 ' A'EGOH'ATJT (Argonauta), a genus of cephal- 
 apodous niollusoa, pretty generally known by the 
 name of Paper NauUlv^, and in consequence of 
 similarity in the form of the shell, often confounded 
 with the genus NavMlus (q.v.), but in fact much 
 more neariy allied to the Poulpe (Octopus). The 
 shell is not chambered like that of the true nautilus, 
 but has one spiral cavity, into which the animal can 
 entirely withdraw itself. The animal has no muscular 
 attachment to the shell, and some naturalists there- 
 fore suspected that it might be merely, like the 
 Hermit Crab, the inhabitant of a sheU originally 
 belonging to some other animal ; but this question 
 has been set at rest by the observations of Madame 
 Power, proving the beautiful but fragile shell to be 
 the production of the A. itself. It has, however, 
 also been discovered that the shell is peculiar to the 
 female A, and does not answer the ordinary pur- 
 poses of the shells of moUusca, but rather that of an 
 
 Kg.l. 
 
 'incubating and protective nest.' The eggs, which 
 are very nimieroua, are attached to filamentary 
 stalks, and by these the whole compacted mass is 
 imited to the involuted spire of the shell, where 
 it is usually concealed by the body of the parent. 
 The descriptions, until recently admitted into the 
 works of the most respectable naturalists, of 
 argonauts sailing about in pretty little fleets upon 
 the surface of the water, employing six of their 
 tentacula as oars, and spreading out two, which 
 
 are broadly expanded for the purpose, as sails to 
 catch the breeze, are now regarded as entirely 
 fabulous, and indeed are founded upon an entire 
 
 misapprehension of the position of the animal in its 
 shell, and of the use of the two expanded arms or 
 vda (sails). The membranes of these arms are 
 extended at the pleasiu?e of the animal, so as to 
 envelop the shell, and appear to be the secreting 
 organs employed in its fabrication. Two species 
 of A. are common in the Mediterranean. E^g. 1 
 represents one of them as it used to be coromonly 
 represented with oars and saUs. Fig. 2 represents 
 it as it really exists, with the membranes of the 
 dorsal arms covering the sheU. The other arms are 
 cut off. At a, in fig. 2, is seen the mass of eggs. 
 
 A'RGONATJTS, heroes of Greek antiquity (so 
 named from their ship Argo), who, according to 
 tradition, about a generation before the Trojan war, 
 undertook a long voyage into unknown seas, under 
 the command of Jason. Homer alludes to the story; 
 Hesiod, Mimnermus, Pindar, the Pseudo-Orpheua, 
 and many others relate it, all in different ways, the 
 accounts in some instances being utterly irrecon- 
 cilable. The plainest and most complete nanative 
 is that of Apollodorus, which is as follows : Jason 
 was commissioned by his uncle, Pelias — who ruled 
 over lolcus, in Thessaly — to fetch from the counfty 
 of ^etes (Colchis) the golden fleece of the ram, 
 which was suspended on an oak, and guarded by a 
 sleepless dragon. He therefore caused Argus, the 
 son of Phrixus, to build a ship of fifty oars ; and in 
 piiTSuit of this adventiu:e, gathered together the 
 choicest heroes from all parts of Greece, fifty in 
 number, with whom he sailed. Their first landing- 
 place was Lemnos, where the A. stayed two years, 
 because the women, in consequence of the wrath of 
 Aphrodite, had slain all the men, excepting Thoas. 
 Next they sailed to the Doliones, and were hospit- 
 ably received by King Cizycus, who was afterwards 
 accidentally kiUed by Jason. After landing at 
 Mysia, where they left Hercules and Polyphemus 
 — ^who had wandered too far inland in pursuit of 
 the lost Hylas — ^they came to the country of the 
 Bebryces, where King Amycus was killed by Pollux, 
 or Polydeuces, in a pugihsno fight. They next sailed 
 along the coast of Thrace to Sahnydessus, where 
 two of their number, Zetes and Calais, having 
 delivered the blind seer, Phineus, from certain 
 winged monsters called Harpies, he in return gave 
 them good counsel respecting their future adven- 
 tures, and especially warned them against the 
 dangerous passage between the opening and closing 
 Symplegades, from which they escaped with but 
 little injury to their vessel. The story goes that 
 Phineus advised the A. to let loose a dove when 
 they approached the dreaded rocks, and to judge 
 from its fortune what they themselves might expect. 
 The bird escaped with the loss of its taU. The A. 
 resolved to risk the passage, and after heroic efforts, 
 got safely through, their ship only losing ^ome of the 
 ornaments of its stem. After visiting several other 
 lands, they arrived at the mouth of the river Phasis, 
 in Colchis. Here the king, .^etes, promised to give 
 up the golden fleece to Jason, on condition that the 
 latter should yoke to a plough the two fire-breathing 
 bulls with brazen hoofs, and should sow the dragon's 
 teeth left by Cadmus in Thebes. Jason, by the 
 help of the famous sorceress Medea, daughter of 
 jEetes, who had fallen passionately in love with the 
 bold navigator, fulfilled these conditions ; and was 
 also assisted by Medea in stUl more wonderful 
 exploits. He obtained from her, under promise of 
 marriage, a charm against fire and steel, and was 
 enabled to destroy all the warriors who sprung up 
 from the land sown with the dragon's teeth, while 
 this was taking place, jEetes had resolved to bum the 
 ship Argo, and put to death the crew ; but Jason, 
 informed of the scheme by Medea, anticipated it, 
 hastened into the grove, stupifiedthe dragon-sentinel 
 
AEGOSTOLI— AEGUS. 
 
 by an opiate-charm prepared by Medea, seized 
 tbe golden fleece, and, embarking in the Argo 
 ■withms mistress and her brother Abayrtua, aailed 
 away from Colchis' by night, ^etes followed, but 
 was hindered in his purauit by an atrocity committed 
 by his fierce daughter. It is said that she slew her 
 brother Absyrtua, and cut ><im into several pieces, 
 which she threw overboard, one at a time. While 
 King jEetea stayed to gather up the fragments of his 
 son, Jaaon eaoaped from the purauit. The A. now 
 reached the mouth of the river Eridanus; but were 
 driven on the Absyrtian lalanda by a atorm sent 
 from Jove, who waa angry on account of the murder 
 of Absyrtus. Meanwmle the mast of the Argo — 
 which had been cut from the aaored grove of Dodona 
 — debvered an oracle to the effect that Jove could 
 not be appeased unless they sailed towards Ausonia, 
 and were purified through the expiatory agency of 
 Circe. This was accomplished; and next, the A. 
 passed by the Sirens, from whoae charms they were 
 preserved by Orpheus, who sang to them, but could 
 not hinder one of their uumiber, Butes, from swim- 
 ming off to the sea-maidens ; then through Scylla 
 and Chaiybdia, by the help of Thetis, and at length 
 landed on the idand of Corcyra, where Alcinoua 
 ruled. On leaving this place, they encountered a 
 storm at night, but were saved by ApoUo, who, in 
 flashes of lightning, revealed to them the haven of 
 Anaphe, where they raised an altar to their pre- 
 server. At Crete, their lauding waa opposed by the 
 giant Talus, who was slain by Medea. They subse- 
 •quently touched at ^gina, and sailing between Eubcea 
 and Looris, arrived safely at lolcus, after a four 
 •months' voyage. Jason dedicated the good ship 
 Argo to Neptune, at the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 It is perhaps uaeleaa to speculate on the real char- 
 acter of the Argonantie expedition, even if it be more 
 than a mere myth. The accounts given by other 
 writers differ so widely, especially in the geographi- 
 <al parts, from thoae of ApoUodorus, that it becomes 
 imposaible to determine satisfactorily whether the 
 •expedition sailed north, east, or west. The common 
 iiatorical interpretation of the legend ia that Jason 
 sailed on a voyage of discovery, which had for its 
 aim and stimulus the hope of new commercial rela- 
 "tions ; others would modify this hypothesis, and 
 suggest that the enterprise was partly commercial, 
 partly piratical, and partly adventurous, and that 
 Jason's crew was in all probability composed of 
 joimg, restless, and ambitious spirits, who were 
 leady for anything that might turn up. 
 
 ARGO'STOLI, a seaport on the south-west of 
 ■Cephalonia, and capital of the island. Its lat. is 38° 
 IffN., and long. 19° 59' E. Its pop. is 5000; and 
 its quay is a mile long. 
 
 AE6TTELLES, AuGCSlEf, a prominent Spanish 
 politician of the modem liberal, school. On the 
 breaking out of the War of Independence in 1808, 
 lie went to Cadiz, where he agitated for the organ- 
 isation of a regency along with a free constitution, 
 as the best method of strengthening and consolidat- 
 ing the powers and resources of the nation. In 
 1812 he was sent as representative of his native 
 province to the Cortes, where he was appointed one 
 of the members of the committee to whom were 
 intrusted the drawing up of the plan of a new 
 constitution. His splendid talents as a public 
 speaker soon won him the admiration of the liberal 
 party, who used to term him the Spanish Cicero. 
 But on the return of Ferdinand VII., A. fell a 
 victim to the reactionary spirit which ensued. On 
 the 10th of May 1814, he was arrested and impris- 
 oned ; but at hia trial he displayed such dexterity 
 that it was found impossible to convict Mm. Difi'er- 
 ent judges were nominated five successive times, but 
 
 they could not agree in their decision. At last the 
 monarch himself passed sentence, which was, that 
 A. should be confined for ten years in the prison 
 at Ceuta. He was not, however, alone in his mis- 
 fortunes. Fourteen persons were condemned along 
 with him, amongst whom Was his friend Juan 
 Alvarez Guerra. In their confinement they ex- 
 perienced such barbarous treatment, that in four 
 years three died, tWo became mad, and the rest 
 received grievous injuries. The revolution of 1820 
 restored wiem to freedom. A. became Minister of 
 the Interior, but soon resigned, in consequence of the 
 king complaining of the weakness of the executive. 
 Although provoked beyond measure by the narrow 
 bigotry of the court, he did not rush into extremes, 
 but continued a constitutional liberal to the end of 
 his life. In the Cortes held at SevUle in 1823, he 
 voted for the suspension of the royal power; but 
 after the violation of the constitution, he fled to 
 England, where he remained till the amnesty of 
 1832. On his return to Spaon, being nominated to the 
 Cortes, he was repeatedfy made pjreaident and vice- 
 president of the Chamber of Depntiea, and always 
 shewed himself a moderate but unwavering reformer. 
 In July 1841, on the discussion of the law regarding 
 the sale of church property, he delivered himself 
 strongly against all concordats with the pope. Next 
 to Espartero, he was the most popular man in the 
 kingdom with the enlightened party. During the 
 regency, he was appointed guardian to the young 
 queen, Isabella, but died soon after, on the 23d of 
 March 1844, at Madrid. In his old age, he stUl 
 exhibited the fiery eloquence that marked his youth. 
 
 A'RGTJMBNT (Lat. argwmmtum), in Logic, 
 means properly the ground or premiss on which a 
 conclusion is rested; popularly, it is appKed to a 
 series of arguments, or to a controversy. Argument- 
 ation is reasoning put into regular shape, with a 
 view to convince or silence an objector. Logicians 
 have given distinctive names to various kinds of 
 arguments. Thus, we have the Argumentum ad 
 Jiominem, which is no real proof, but only an appeal 
 to the known prepossessions or admissions of the 
 persons addressed. In this style, when a man 
 upholds one method of fraud, he may, by an appeal 
 to his consistency, be driven to uphold another. 
 The A. ad veritatem, again, has no regard to any- 
 thing save objective truth. Next we have the A. 
 e consensu gentium, or an appeal to the common 
 belief of mankind, which, of course, 'may be used to 
 prove or disprove anything. The A. a tido rests 
 upon the supposed safety or prudence of adopting a 
 certain conclusion. It is sometimes used by Roman 
 Catholics against Protestants in the following form : 
 Protestants teach that salvation is possible in any 
 church; this is denied by Catholics; therefore, it 
 is safer to belong to the Catholic Church, as even 
 the Protestant admits that a man may be saved in 
 that church. Lastly, the Argumeretum a haculo (or 
 use of the cudgel), though objectionable, is concise 
 in its style, and has settled many controversies. 
 
 AEGUME'NTUM AD HO'MINEM. See 
 
 Argument. 
 
 A'RGTJS, the son of Zeus and Niobe, succeeded 
 Phoroneus in the government of the Peloponnesus, 
 which took from hirn its name of Argos, as did also 
 the territory of ArgoHs. — ^A., sumamed Panoptes 
 (aU-seeing), had one hundred eyes, some of which 
 were always awake. He was enormously strong, 
 and on account of the wonderful ejrploits he per- 
 formed, Juno appointed ^i'tti to watch over lo, trans- 
 formed into a cow. Mercury being commissioned by 
 Zeus to carry off the cow, slew A. by stoning him ; 
 or, as Ovid says, first charmed him to sleep by 
 playing on the flute, and then beheaded him, Juno 
 
 3»l 
 
AE.GTTS— ARGYLE. 
 
 used the eyes of A. to decorate the peacock's tail. — 
 A. the builder of the ship Argo (see Argonauts). 
 
 A'RGTJS, a genus of gallinaoeous birds, remark- 
 able for magnificence of plumage. The only known 
 species is A. giganteus, formerly called Phasiarms 
 A., and still very generajly the A. pheasant. The 
 sides of the head and of tiie neck are destitute of 
 feathers ; the tail consists of , twelve feathers, of 
 which the two middle ones in the male are very 
 much elongated; the secondary feathers of the 
 wings are much longer than the primary. The name 
 A. has allusion to the many beautiful eye-Uke 
 
 Argus Pheasant {A. giganteus), 
 
 markings which adorn the plumage of the male, 
 and particularly the secondaries of the wings. The 
 long secondaries are said to impede the flight of the 
 bird ; but its wings are much employed to aid it in 
 running. The female is of comparatively tame 
 phunage, not only wanting the eye-like markings, 
 but even the great length of the secondaries and of 
 the middle taU-feathers. The size of the bird, when 
 divested of its plumage, is not much greater than 
 that of a common barn-door fowl, but the tail- 
 feathers of the male are nearly foiu- feet long. The 
 A. is a native of Sumatra and other eastern islands, 
 of the peninsula of Malacca, Siam, &c. It is said to 
 be found even in the northern parts of China. It is 
 impatient of confinement, and has very seldom been 
 brought alive to Europe. 
 
 AKGY'LE, Aechibald Campbell, Maeqtjis of, 
 an eminent political character of the 17th c, was 
 bom in 1598, and succeeded to the earldom of A. in 
 1638. Already he had given proofs of that strength 
 of religious principle which marked his whole life, 
 and of a perilous union of attachment to the king 
 and of faith in the principles against which the king 
 made war. In the General Assembly at Glasgow, 
 in November 1638, he openly took the side of 
 the Covenanters, and thenceforth became recognised 
 as their political head. In 1640, he commanded 
 a mihtaiy expedition through Badenoch, Athole, 
 Mar, and Angus, for the purpose of enforcing 
 subjection to the Scottish ParHament. On the 
 king's visit to Scotland, in 1641, he found it con- 
 venient to shew peculiar favour to A., and created 
 Vii-m a marquis. On the breaking out of hostilities, 
 A. was stiU desirous for negotiation, but was finally 
 compelled to take the fidd. In April 1644, he 
 dispersed the royalist forces under the Marquis 
 of Huntly, in Aberdeenshire. He was less suc- 
 cessful in withstanding the genius of Montrose, 
 392 
 
 who, on the 2d February 1645, almost annihilated 
 his army at Inverlochy. His estates had suffered so 
 much in the preceding year from the ravages of 
 the brilliant Cavalier, that a sum of pubUc money 
 was voted for his support. In August (1646), he 
 went to London, with Loudon and Dunfermline, 
 to treat with the parliament for a mitigation of 
 the articles presented to the king. He was at 
 the same time the bearer of a secret commission 
 from the king to treat with the Duke of Richmond 
 and the Marquis of Hertford, on the propriety of 
 a Scottish demonstration in favour of Charles. On 
 the defeat of the 'Engagement' plan, to which 
 he had been decidedly opposed, the government 
 of Scotland devolved on A. and the other Presby- 
 terian leaders. In the parliament of February 
 1649, Charles II. was proclaimed king, and at Scone, 
 on ttie 1st of January 1651, A. put the crown 
 on Ids head. At this time, it was even said that 
 the complaisant monarch intended to marry one 
 of his daughters. As head of the Committee of 
 Estates, A. took vigorous measures to oppose Crom- 
 well's invasion of Scotland, and still adhered to the 
 king, after the subjugation of the country. After 
 the battle of Worcester, he retired to Inverary, 
 where he held out for a year against Cromwell's 
 troops. Falling sick, he was taken prisoner by 
 General Dean. He refused submission to the Pro^ 
 tector, but took an engagement to Mve peaceably, 
 which he strictly kept. On the Restoration, he re- 
 paired to Whitehall, encouraged by a flattering letter 
 from the kiug to his son. Impeached with the crime 
 of having submitted to the usurper (to whom he had 
 refused allegiance), he was committed to the Tower, 
 and on the 13th February 1661, was brought before 
 the Scottish Parliament on the charge of treason. 
 He defended himself with spirit, but iu vain. On 
 the 27th May he was executed at Edinburgh — 
 having displayed throughout his whole trial, and on 
 the scaffold, the dignity of a true nobleman, and the 
 meekness of a Christian. 
 
 His son, Archibald, 9th Eabl oi' A., was early 
 distinguished by personal accomplishments, and 
 exhibited great bravery on the disastrous day of 
 Dunbar, where he commanded a regiment on the 
 royal side. After Worcester, he continued, hke his 
 father, in arms, and made himself so obnoxious to 
 the parliamentary leaders, that he was specially 
 excepted by Cromwell from the act of grace in 1654. 
 After inuch harassing persecution, he submitted to 
 the parliament, but continued to be closely watched. 
 On the restoration of Charles II., he was received 
 into high favour (as a balance to the execution of his 
 father), and unfortunately for his own fame, partici- 
 pated in some of the iniquitous acts of the Scottish 
 legislature. He had, however, numerous and active 
 enemies ; and, on the ground of an intercepted letter, 
 in which he had com;^ained of neglect, he was tried 
 and condemned to death by the Scottish Parliament 
 for the imaginary crime of Icesa, majestas. The 
 influence of Clarendon restored him to liberty^ and 
 favour; even the king himself was prejudiced 
 in his favour ; but a new opportunity was offered 
 to the malice of his enemies, by his explanation 
 iu subscribing the infamous test framed by the 
 Scottish Parliament in 1681. He was indicted for 
 treason, and_ again condemned to death by a jury 
 of his peers. The devotion of his wife enabled him 
 to escape from Edinburgh Castle, in the disguise of a 
 page ; and after remaining concealed some time in 
 Derbyshire and the vicinity of London, he fled to 
 Holland. Landing in the north of Scotland, in May 
 1685, with an aimed force, to co-operate in the 
 revolt of Monmouth, he was, after a series of mis- 
 fortunes, taken prisoner, hastily tried, condemned, 
 and beheaded, June 30, 1685. 
 
AEGYLE-AEGyLESHIEE. 
 
 ARGYLB, John Campbell, Duke of, was born 
 in 1678, and took an important part in political and 
 military affairs in the reigns of Queen Anne and her 
 successor. As royal commissioner in 1705, he had a 
 principal share in bringing about the Act of Union. 
 As a soldier, he distinguished himself under Marl- 
 borough at BamUies, Oudeharde, LiUe, Ghent, and 
 Malplaquet. Previous to the change of ministry in 
 1710, A. had been a keen Whig. He now veered 
 with the wind of the court, and became a declaimer 
 against the Duke of Marlborough. As the reward 
 oi his apostasy, he was appointed by the Tories 
 generalissimo of the British army in Spain ; but 
 considering himself to have been unhandsomely 
 treated by the ministry, he shortly after returned, 
 and finding his influence greatly diminished, he again 
 became a Whig. His career up to the rebellion of 
 1715, was most tortuous and unprincipled, and 
 seriously detracts from his meritorious services dur- 
 ing that critical period. He was, however, completely 
 successful in quelling disturbances, and his services 
 were rewarded in 1718, among other dignities, with 
 an English peerage, and the title of Duke of 
 Greenwich. His restless vanity and ambition, how- 
 ever, constantly prompted him to pohtical intrigues. 
 In 1721 he again played into the hands of the Tories, 
 for the purpose of securing the entire patronage of 
 Scotland. In 1737 he rose into immense popularity 
 in his own country, by his spirited defence before 
 parliament of the city of Edinburgh in regard to the 
 Porteous mob. He died on the 3d September 1743. 
 He was a man of lax principles and selfish 
 character, but possessed of considerable shrewdness 
 and talent, and noted for his kindness and courtesy 
 in private hfe. The benevolence of his disposition 
 procured him the title of 'the Good Duke of 
 Argyle.' 
 
 ARGY'LB, Duke of. George John Douglas 
 Campbell, 8th Duke of A., was born in 1823, and 
 succeeded his father in 1847. At the age of 19, his 
 Grace, then Marquis of Lorn, gave evidence of 
 unusual ability in a pamphlet entitled A Letter to the 
 Peers from a Peer's Son, on the subject of the struggle 
 which ended in the disruption of the Scottish Church. 
 Seven ; years subsequentiy, he gave proof of more 
 extensive study in the same field, by the publication 
 of his Essay on Presbytery, which contains an 
 elaborate historical vindication of the Presbyterian 
 system against Prelacy. On taking his seat in the 
 House of Peers, he soon gave proof of considerable 
 oratorical ability, and both by the maturity of his 
 judgment and the readiness of his powers, com- 
 manded the respect of that dignified assembly. On 
 the formation of the coaUtion ministry by Lord 
 Aberdeen, his Grace was considered of sufficient 
 importance to receive a place in the government, 
 and was invested with the ofiice of Lord Privy 
 Seal, which he continued to hold in Lord Pal- 
 merston's administration. In November 1855, he 
 relinquished his office, and accepted that of Post- 
 master-general. On the fall' of Lord Palmerston's 
 administration, he retired into opposition ; but now 
 (1859), on that nobleman's return to the helm, he 
 has again accepted the office of Lord Privy Seal. His 
 Grace has distinguished himself hot only in politics 
 but in science; to geology, in particular, he has 
 devoted much attention. In 1854 he was chosen 
 Lord Hector of the university of Glasgow, and in 
 1855 presided at the meeting of the' British Associa- 
 tion in that city. He is also Chancellor of the 
 university of St Andrews. In 1844 he married 
 Lady Elizabeth Georgiana Gower, eldest daughter 
 of the Duke of Sutherland, and niece of the Earl of 
 Carlisle. 
 
 AKGY'LESHIEE {Earra Ghaidheal, West Gael 
 
 Country), an extensive maritime county in the West 
 of Scotland, including numerous islands, and a large 
 mainland tract, cut up into many peninsulas by arms 
 of the sea. It is bounded, N. hy Inverness-shire ; W. 
 and S. by the sea; E. by Perthshire, Dumbarton, 
 Loch Lohg, and !Pirth of Clyde. Its greatest length 
 is about 115 miles; its greatest breadth, about 60 
 miles ; its extent of coast-Hne is very great, amount- 
 ing to 663 mUes, owing to the indentation of the 
 coast by numerous lochs running inland. Next to 
 Inverness, it is the largest county in Scotland — area, 
 3210 square miles, of which 1063 are occupied by 
 the numerous islands. No part is above 12 miles 
 from the sea or from large inland lochs. The county is 
 divided into the districts of Cantire, North and South 
 Argyle, Lorn, Appin, Cowal, Morven, and Sunart, 
 The chief islands are Mull, Islay, Jura, Tiree, CoH, 
 Lismore, and Colonsay. There are upwards of thirty 
 other islands of smaller size. The general aspect of 
 A. is wild and picturesque, marked by rugged and 
 lofty mountains, deep inland bays, and often preci- 
 pitous coasts. Some fertile valleys exist. The north 
 part is entirely mountainous, and presents some of 
 the grandest scenery in Scotland, as Glencoe. The 
 highest peaks are (Ord. Trig. Survey) — Bedan-ambran, 
 3760 feet; Ben Cruachan, 3668; Buachael Etive, 
 3341 — all in Lorn; Ben Ima (end of Loch Long), 
 3319; Ben More (MuU), 3174; Ben Creach (Morven), 
 2790; North Pap of Jura, 2567. The chief bays are 
 (going south) — Loch Moidart, Loch Sunart, Linnhe 
 Loch, branching off into Loch Eil and Loch Leven, 
 Loch Pyne, and Loch Long. There are no rivers of 
 any size. The streams are short and rapid, the 
 principal being the Urchvy, running through Gleu- 
 orchy into Loch Awe, and the Awe connecting that 
 lake with Loch Etive. The inland or fresh-water 
 lochs are Loch Awe and Loch Lydoch. The rocks 
 of A. are mica-slate, which predominates on the 
 mainland; trap in Mull and Lorn; quartz rock in 
 Islay and Jura; granite around Loch Etive and 
 in Knapdale ; patches of Uas and oolite in many of 
 the isles; and a little old red sandstone west of 
 Loch Fyne and in South Cantire. Lead-mines 
 occur at Strontian (where the mineral Stroutianite 
 was discovered, and from which the names of the 
 earth called Strontia and the metal Strontium 
 are derived), at Tyndrum, and in Islay and Coll. 
 A copper-mine exists in Islay. The Easdale and , 
 Ballachuhsh quarries supply the best roofing-slates 
 in Scotland. Coal occurs near Campbelton; fine 
 marble in Tiree, &c. ; excellent granite near Inverary ; 
 and limestone in mo3t parts of the coimty. The 
 fertOe parts of A. lie along the arms of the sea and 
 the mountain streams. THie soil is mostly a light, 
 sandy, and gravelly loam, along the coast and the sides 
 of rivers, and gravelly, with a tiU bottom, on the hill- 
 sides. Sheep and cattle rearing are the chief occu- 
 pations of the farmer. More sheep are reared in A. 
 than in any other Scotch county, and nearly a 
 million acres are in permanent pasture. In num- 
 ber of cattle, A. jdelds only to the counties of 
 Aberdeen, Ayr, and Perth. In 1857, 838,535 bushels- 
 of oats, and 109,657 tons of turnips, were raised. A. 
 abounds in deer and game. Loch Fyne is famed for 
 the abundance and quality of its herrings. Loch 
 Awe abounds in salmon, and in trout unrivalled in 
 size. 
 
 In many parts of A. the peasantry are still very 
 poor, notwithstanding that steamers now connect 
 every portion of the coast with the commercial 
 centre of Scotland. . The manufactures are unim- 
 portant, the chief being whisky, in Campbelton 
 and Islay, and coarse woollens for home use. The 
 chief towns and villages are Inverary, Campbelton, 
 Oban, Dunoon, Appin, LoohgUphead, and Tarbert. 
 The three former unite witii Ayr and Irvine in 
 
 393 
 
AMA— AMES. 
 
 returniBg one member to parliament; the county 
 returns another. Pop. in 1851, 89,298, represented 
 as mostly using the Gaelic language. This exhibits 
 a decrease of 11,675 since 1831, which has chiefly 
 resulted from emigration. Day-schools, 201, with 
 11,847 pupils; places of worship, 117—48 of Estab- 
 lished, 39 of Free Church, and the remaioder 
 divided amongst various small sects. The principal 
 proprietors are the Duke of Argyle, the head, and 
 the Marquis of Breadalbane, a branch of the 
 Campbell family. Ajuong the antiquities of A. may 
 be mentioned the ruins of lona and Oronsay, and 
 many duns, or circular forts, along the coast. In 
 Cantire formerly lived the .famous Maodoualds, or 
 Lords of the Isles, whose power was weakened by 
 James III. 
 
 ARIA (Air), in Music, a rhythmical song, as 
 distinct from recitative. The term was formerly 
 applied to a measured lyrical piece either for one or 
 several voices ; but is now conmionly appKed to a 
 aong introduced in a cantata, oratorio, or opera, 
 and intended for one voice supported by instruments. 
 Abiefta, a short melody. Arioso, a passage in the 
 style of the A., often introduced into recitative. 
 At. Buffo, a comic song, &c. 
 
 ARIA'DNE, daughter of Minos, kingof Crete, by 
 Pasiphae. When Theseus, with the ofi'erings of the 
 Athenians for the Minotaur, landed iu Crete, A. 
 conceived a passion for the beautiful stranger, and 
 gave him a clew by means of which he threaded 
 the mazes of the labyrinth, and was enabled to 
 slay the monster. For this service, Theseus pro- 
 mised to marry her, and she escaped with him, 
 but was slaia by Diana on the island of Naxos. 
 — ^According to another tradition, A. was left 
 by Theseus at Naxos, where she was found by 
 Bacchus returning from his triumph in India, who 
 was captivated by her beauty, and married her. At 
 her death, he gave her a place among the gods, and 
 suspended her wedding-crovni as a constellation iu 
 the sky. A., as left forsaken by Theseus, and as 
 married to Bacchus, has been a favourite subject 
 with artists. 
 
 AE.IA'LDTJS, a deacon of the church of Milan, 
 who flourished during the 11th c. He took a promi- 
 nent part in the ecclesiastical contentions of his 
 times. The Catholic Church in the north of Italy 
 was then very corrupt, a wide-spread licentious- 
 ness, originating from the unnatural institution of 
 priestly celibacy, prevailed. Great numbers of the 
 clergy kept concubines openly. Such as looked 
 earnestly m those days at this flagrant evU, were 
 disposed to consider the strict enforcement of 
 celibacy the only effectual cure. Chief among these 
 reformers stood A., whose life was one continued 
 scene of violent controversy. Although succes- 
 sively sanctioned by Popes Stephen X., Nicholas 
 II., and Alexander II., he found little sympathy 
 among his brethren, and used to complain that he 
 could only get laymen to assist bim in his agitation. 
 Having at length succeeded in obtaining a papal 
 buU of excommunication agaiost the Archbishop of 
 Milan, a fierce tumult ensued ia the city, whose 
 inhabitants declared against A. and his coadjutors. 
 A. now fled to the country ; but his hiding-place 
 being betrayed, he was conveyed captive to a dTesert 
 isle in Lake Maggiore, where he was miu'dered by 
 the emissaries of the archbishop, and his remains 
 thrown into the lake, June 28, 1066. He was after- 
 ward canonised by Pope Alexander II. 
 
 AJRIA'NA. See Abtah Eacb. 
 
 A'RIANS. SeeAnius. 
 
 A'RIAS MONTA'NUS, Benedictus, a Catholic 
 divine noted for his great Mnguistio attakiments, was 
 bom, 1527, in the village of Frexenal de la Sierra, 
 391 
 
 situated amongst the mountains separatiug Estrema- 
 dura from Andalucia. He studied nist at SeviUe, and 
 afterwards at AlcalS, de Henares, where he distin- 
 guished himself by the ardour he manifested in the 
 acquisition of the oriental languages, Arabic, Syriao, 
 and Chaldee. He next proceeded on a tour through 
 Italy, France, Germany, England, and the Nether- 
 lands, in the course of which he obtained a k^w- 
 ledge of various modern tongues. He was present 
 at va& celebrated Council of Trent ; but on his return 
 to his own country, he resolved to retire into seclu- 
 sion, and dedicat-e his whole time to literature. In 
 1568, however, Philip II. persuaded him to repair 
 to Antwerp and superintend the publication of the 
 famous edition of tiie 'Polyglot Bible,' executed in 
 that city at the suggestion of' the printer, Christo- 
 pher Plantin. After four years' labour, the work 
 wag issued under the title Biblia Sacra, Hebraice, 
 Ghaldaice, GroBce, et Latine, PhiUppi II. Regis 
 CathoUci Pietate et Studio ad Sacrosanctce Mcdesice 
 Usum Chph. Plantinus excudehat. It was received 
 vnth universal applause. The Jesuits, to whom A. 
 was sincerely and strenuously opposed, alone 
 attempted to fasten the dharge of heresy on the 
 author, who made several journeys to Rome to 
 clear himself of the accusation. Philip II. rewarded 
 him with a pension of 2000 ducats, besides bestow- 
 ing on him various other emoluments. He died at 
 SeviUe in 1598. His literary works are very nume- 
 rous. They relate principally to the Bible and to 
 Jewish antiquities ; but he also vrrote a poem on 
 Rhetoric, and a History of Nature. 
 
 ARI'CA, a seaport of Moquega, the most 
 southerly department of Peru, in lat. 18° 28' S., and 
 long. 70° 24' W. Though it has merely a roadstead, 
 it affords safe anchorage to shipping and is one 
 of the chief outlets of the trade of Bolivia, being 
 connected with La Paz in that repubhc by a mule- 
 path which leads across the west Cordillera of the 
 Andes. Its exports mostly consist of copper, silver, 
 alpaca wool, and guano. A. is subject to intermittent 
 fevers, and has frequently sufiered from earthquakes. 
 It is, therefore, merely a village, though possessed 
 of a custom-house, a pier, and a battery. 'The lead- 
 ing merchants do not reside at A., but at Taona, 
 about 30 miles up the country, the chief city of 
 the department, vrith 10,000 inhabitants. 
 
 ARICHAT, a seaport of Cape Breton Island, 
 in the province of Nova Scotia, in lat. 45° 28' 
 N., and long. 61° 3' W. It is near the Gut of Canso, 
 which separates Nova Scotia Proper from Cape 
 Breton, being the most southerly of the three 
 channels of communication between the Gulf of 
 St Lawrence and the open Atlantic. It has about 
 17,500 inhabitants, and is largely engaged in fishing. 
 
 ARIBGE, or ARRlIlGE, a river in the south of 
 France, rises in the department of the East Pyrenees, 
 flows through a beautiful vale, and falls into the 
 Garonne near Toulouse. — The department of Aeiegb, 
 which lies along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees, 
 formed a part of the old county of Foix, the terri- 
 tory of Couserans, and the province of Languedoc, 
 is boimded N. and W. by Haute Garonne, E. by, 
 Aude, S. by the republic of Andorra and the Pyrenees. 
 It contains some of the highest mountain-summits 
 in France, such as Fontargente. 9164 feet ; Serrfere, 
 9592 feet; Montcalm, 10,513 feet; Estats, 10,611 
 feet; Montvalier, 9120 feet. The department, 
 nevertheless, hag a mUd climate. Area, 1847 square 
 miles; Pop. 270,500. These are engaged chiefly in 
 agriculture, pasturage, iron mines, and the manufac- 
 ture of woollens, linen, pottery, &c. The three 
 arrondissements are Foix, Pamiers, and St Girons. 
 Chief towns — Foix, Pamiers, St Girons. 
 
 A'RIES, the Ram, one of the signs of the zodiac. 
 
AEIL— AEIOVISTUS. 
 
 including the first 30 degrees of the ecliptic measured 
 from the vernal equinox, or that point where the 
 vernal ^asage of the sun across the equator takes 
 place. The vernal equinox, or, as it is also called, 
 the first point of A., is constantly changing its posi- 
 tion among the fixed stars, in consequence of the 
 precession of the equinoxes, moving westwjird at the 
 rate of 50" -2 annually. It is from this circumstance 
 that the sign A. no longer corresponds with the 
 consteUatiou A., wliioh was the case about 2000 
 years ago, when the ecliptic was divided into 12 
 equal parts called signs, each named after the group 
 of stars through which it passed. The present sign 
 A. is in the constellation Pisces, about 30° west of 
 the original sign ; and although the sun at the 
 vernal equiaox will always be at the first point of 
 A., yet nearly 24,000 years will elapse before that 
 point will again coincide with the beginning of the 
 constellation A. 
 
 A'BIL {ariUus), a peculiar covering of the seed 
 in some plants, formed by an expansion of the 
 /uniculits (the cord which attaches the ovule to the 
 placenta), or of the placenta itself. This expansion 
 takes place after fertilisation, and sometimes iaveats 
 the seed entirely, sometimes only partially. In the 
 nutmeg, the A. forms what is called mace. In the 
 spindle-tree (Euonymus Europceiia), it forms the 
 remarkable orange-coloured covering of the seed, i 
 
 ARI'NOS, a river of Brazil, which after a north- 
 west course of 700 miles, enters the Tapajos, itself an 
 affluent of the Amazon, in lat. 9° 30* S., and long. 
 58" 20' W. 
 
 ARl'O'S, a, celebrated lute-player, a native of 
 Methymna, in Lesbos, about 700 B. c, was regarded 
 by the ancients as the inventor of the dithyrambic 
 metre. According to a tradition first given by 
 Herodotus, and afterwards decorated by the poets, 
 A. was sent by Periander, ruler of Corinth, to Sicily 
 and Italy, and at Tarentum won the prize in a poeti- 
 cal contest. As he returned laden with gifts in a 
 Corinthian ship, the avaricious mariners determined 
 to slay him and seize his wealth ; of this the poet- 
 musician was forewarned by ApoUo in a dream. 
 He asked for permission to try his skill in music ; 
 and after plajmig on his lute, threw himself 
 from the deck into the sea. Here several dolphins, 
 charmed by his music, had assembled round the 
 vessel. On the back of one of them the musician 
 rode safely to the promontory of Taenarus, where 
 he landed, and journeyed on to Corinth. The 
 sailors who, arriving afterwards, assured Periander 
 that A. was dead, were confronted with him, when 
 they confessed their guilt, and were crucified. The 
 lute and dolphin were raised among the constella- 
 tions ; and the story became a favourite theme with 
 artists. A. W. Schlegel, in one of his best poems, 
 gives this story of A. 
 
 ABIO'STO, Ltjdovico, one of the greatest of 
 Italian poets, was bom atlleggio, Septembers, 1474, 
 being the eldest son of the military governor of that 
 city. He was bred to the law, but abandoned it 
 for poetry. However, at an early period of life, he 
 was compelled to exert himself for the support of a 
 large family, left as a burden on him at the death of 
 his father. His imaginative powers were developed 
 in early life. In 1503, after he had written two 
 comedies, with 'several lyrical poems in Latin and 
 Italian, he was introduced to flie court of the Car- 
 dinal Hippolytus d'Este, who employed tiim in many 
 negotiations. Here, in Ferrara, in the space of 
 about ten years, he produced his great poem Orlando 
 Furioso, which was published in that city, in one 
 volume 4to, in 1516, in forty cantos. After the 
 death of the cardinal, the duke, his brother, 
 invited the poet to hi3 service, and acted to 
 
 him with great kindness and liberality. In the 
 early part of 1521, a second edition of his poema 
 was published, the Orlando Furioso being still in 
 forty cantos. Shortly after, he was commissioned by 
 the duke to suppress an insurrection which had 
 broken out in the wUd mountain-district of Garfas- 
 nana ; a task which seems more like a punish- 
 ment than a mark of honour. A., however, succeeded 
 in this arduous undertaking ; and after remaining 
 three years governor of the quarter, he returned to 
 Ferrara, where he lived comfortably, nominally in 
 the service of his patron, but in reality enjoying 
 what he highly prized — an abundant leisure for pro- 
 secuting his studies. It was at this time that he 
 composed his comedies, and gave the finishing touch 
 to his Orlando. At length, in the latter part of 
 1532, that poem made its appearance in a third 
 edition, enlarged to its present dimensions of forty- 
 six cantos. He now became seriously ill of a painful 
 internal distemper, of which, after a few months of 
 suffering, he died on the 6th of June 1533, in his 
 fifty-ninth year, and was buried in the church of 
 San Benedetto, at Feirara, where a magnificent 
 monument indicates the resting-place of his remains. 
 A. is described as a man of noble personal appear- 
 ance and amiable character. His Orlando Furioso 
 is a romantic, imaginative epic, marked by great 
 vivacity, playfulness of fancy, and ingenuity in the 
 linking together of the several episodes. It takes 
 its name and its theme fi-om a chivalrous romantic 
 poem by Boiardo, the Orlando Innamorato. That 
 poem treats of the wars between Charlemagne and 
 the Saracens, confounded as they were by tradition 
 with those of Charles Martel, wherein Orlando, or 
 Koland, stood forward as the champion of Christen- 
 dom. Orlando is the hero of Boiardo's piece, and 
 falls in love with Angelica, a clever and beautifiil 
 oriental princess, sent by the Paynim to sow dis- 
 cord among the knighla of the Christian armies. 
 The story of this lady being left unfinished in the 
 Orlando Innamorato is taken up by A., who 
 makes her fall in love herself with an obscure 
 juvenile squire, on which Orlando gets furious, 
 and long continues in a state of insamty. Besides 
 his great work, A. wrote comedies, satires, sonnets, 
 and a number of Latin poems, all more or less 
 marked with the impress of his genius. In 1845, 
 Giamperi, a librarian of Florence, announced that 
 he had discovered at Argenta, near Ferrara, an 
 autograph manuscript by A., containing a second 
 epic, Rinaldo Ardito, describing, like the Orlando, 
 the battles of Charlemagne and his paladins against 
 the Saracens. The manuscript had been mutflated, 
 and contained in a complete form only the cantos 3, 
 4, 5, while 2 and 6 were imperfect; and it was 
 stated that the entire poem had consisted of twelve 
 cantos. The work was published under the title 
 Einaldo Ardito di L. Ariosto, Frammenti Inediti 
 Pvbblicati sul Manuscritto Originate (Florence, 
 1846). In genius and style, it has been found by 
 critics by no means to accord with the Orlando. 
 Of the Orlando there are three several trans- 
 lations into the English language : the first, by Sir 
 John Harrington, appeared in the year 1634 ; the 
 second, by John Hoole, in 1783 ; and the third by 
 W. Stewart Rose, in 1823 and following years. 
 In the last only is there to be found a fair 
 representation of the feeling and spirit of the 
 original. 
 
 ARIOVI'STTJS (probably the Latinised form of 
 the German Heer-fiirst, army-prince), a German chief, 
 leader of the Maroomanni and other German tribes, 
 was requested by the Sequani, a GalUo pemle, to 
 assist them in a contest against the jEdui. Having 
 gained a victory for the Sequani, A. was so well 
 pleased with their fine country (now Burgundy), that 
 
AEISPE— AHISTIDES. 
 
 he and his followers detemuned to abide there. 
 Many other Germans followed him into Gavd, where 
 he soon collected an army of 120,000 men. The 
 Gallic people turned now for help towards the 
 Romans, and Caasar demanded an interview with A. , 
 who proudly replied, that 'he did not see what 
 Csesar had to do with Gaul.' After another mes- 
 sage from Csesar had been treated in the same scorn- 
 ful manner, the Eoman forces under Csesar advanced 
 and occupied Vesontium (now Besan§on), the chief 
 city of the Sequani. A furious engagement took place 
 (58 B. c), in which Roman discipline prevailed over 
 the German forces, which were utterly routed. A., 
 with only a few followers, escaped over the Ehine 
 into his own country. His subsequent history is 
 unknown. 
 
 ARI'SP:^, the capital of Sonora, the extreme north- 
 west department of the Mexican Confederation. It 
 is situated in the Sierra Madre, the western range of 
 the Rocky Mountains, on the banks of the Sonora, 
 which is said to lose itself in an inland lake. Its 
 population has been estimated as high as 7600. The 
 surrounding district abounds in the precious metals, 
 as also in cotton, wine, grain, and live-stock. 
 
 ARI'STA AMD ARI'STATE. See Awn. 
 
 ARISTAE'tJS (from a Greek word signifying th& 
 best), an ancient divinity whose worship in the ear- 
 liest times was widely diffused throughout Greece, 
 but whose myth is remarkably obscure. Accord- 
 ing to the common tradition, he was the son of 
 Apollo and Gyrene, the latter the grand-daughter of 
 Peueius, a river-god of Thessaly. She is said to have 
 given birth to A. on the coasts of Libya, in Africa, 
 whence the region is alleged to have derived its 
 name of Cyrenaica. Hermes placed the child under 
 the protection of the Horss, the fosterers of cities, 
 culture, and education. According to another tra- 
 dition, A. was the sou of the nymph Melissa, who 
 fed the infant with nectar and ambrosia, and after- 
 wards intrusted his education to Chiron. The great 
 diversities in the legend were probably caused by the 
 fusion into one of separate local divinities, whose 
 functions were similar, and whose histories were, in 
 consequence, carelessly commingled. After A. left 
 Libya, he went to Thebes, in BcEotia, where he was 
 taught by the Muses the arts of healing and prophecy, 
 and where he married Autonoe, the daughter of 
 Cadmus, by whom he had several children. After 
 the unfortunate death of his son Actseon (q. v.), he 
 went to Ceos, where he hberated the inhabitants 
 from the miseries of a destructive drought by erect- 
 ing an altar to Zeus Icmwus — i.e., the rain-maker. 
 He now returned to his native land ; but shortly 
 after, set out a second time on a voyage of benefi- 
 cence. He visited the islands of the .^Egean Sea, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, and Magna Grsecia, leaving every- 
 where traces of his divine benignity. At last he 
 went to Thrace, where he was initiated in the 
 mysteries of Dionysus ; and after a brief residence 
 in the vicinity of Mount Haemus, he disappeared 
 from the earth. 
 
 This myth is one of an extremely pleasing character, 
 from the invariable beneficence which is attributed 
 to A. It is less disfigured by anthropopathic errors 
 than most of the myths of Greek divinities. A. was 
 especially worshipped as the protector of vine and 
 olive plantations, and of hunters and herdsmen. He 
 also faained men to keep bee-hives, and averted the 
 burning heats of the sun from the open fields. Later 
 mythology often identified A. with the higher gods 
 Zeus, Apollo, Dionysus. 
 
 ARISTA'RCHUS, of Samos, a celebrated an- 
 cient 'Astronomer, of the Alexandrian school, who 
 flourished' 281 — 264 B. c. AH his writings have 
 perished, excepting a short essay on the sizes and 
 396 
 
 M« 
 
 distances of the sun and the moon. In this he 
 shews the method of estimating the relative dis- 
 tances of the sun and the moon from the earth, by the 
 angle formed by the two bodies at the observer's eye 
 at that moment when the moon is exactly half- 
 luminous. It will be obvious from a glance at the 
 annexed figure that the three bodies mxxst then form 
 a right-angled triangle, of which the . 
 moon is at the right angle. The angle ^i^^^ 
 MES, then, being observed, it is easy Sffl^- 
 to find the ratio between EM and ES. ^'/ F 
 This is quite correct in theory ; but the 
 impossibility of determining when the 
 moon is exactly half-iUuminated, ren- 
 ders the method useless in practice. 
 Besides, in the days of A., there -were 
 no instruments for measuring angles 
 with anything like accuracy. A. esti- 
 mated the angle at E at 83', and 
 determined EM to be -Jq of ES ; the 
 truth being that the angle at E differs 
 only by a fraction of a minute from a 
 right angle, and that EM, the distance of the moon 
 from the earth, is about -j-J^ of ES, the distance of 
 the Sim. According to some accounts, A. held, with 
 the Pythagorean school, that the earth moves round 
 the sun ; but this seems to be a mistake. Vitruvius 
 speaks of A. as the inventor of a kind of concave 
 sun-dial. 
 
 ARISTA'RCHUS, ov Samothkace, a gram- 
 marian, who lived, about 150 B. c, in Alexandria^ 
 where he founded a school of grammar and criticism, 
 and educated the children of Ptolemy Philopator. 
 His life was chiefiy devoted to the elucidation and 
 restoration of the text of the Greek poets, espe- 
 cially of Homer. The form in which we now have 
 the Homeric poems preserved is in a great measure 
 owing to his judgment and industry. The strict- 
 ness of his critical principles has made his name a 
 general term for a severely just and judicious critic. 
 Being afflicted with an incurable dropsy, he ended 
 his life by voluntary starvation at the age of 72. 
 The fragments of his writings that have been pre- 
 served are to be found scattered through the Sohoha. 
 on Homer, first published by ViUoison (Venice, 
 1788). 
 
 ARI'STEAS, an entirely fabulous character, who 
 may be styled ' the Wandering Jew ' of popular 
 tradition in ancient Greece. First we find A. 
 teaching Homer; then, some ages afterwards, 
 bom at Proconnesus, an island in the Sea of 
 Marmora. It is stated that having visited the 
 Arimaspse, the gold-watching griffin, and the 
 Hyperboreans, he died on his return home ; 
 but, soon afterwards, a traveller asserted that he 
 had been met and accosted by A. Consequently, 
 neighbours searched the house where the body of 
 A. was supposed to be lying, but it could not be 
 found. Seven years afterwards, he appeared as an 
 author, and wrote a poem entitled Arimaspda, in 
 three books, giving accounts of Northern and Cen- 
 tral Asia, which were copied by Herodotus and 
 others. After thus establishing himself as a poet, he 
 vanished again ; and after 340 years of mystery, 
 reappeared at Metapontum, in the south of Italy, 
 where he advised the people to erect an altar to 
 Apollo, and an altar to ' the everlasting A.,' assur- 
 ing them that, when Apollo founded their city, he 
 (A.), in the form of a raven, had accompanied the 
 god, and had assisted in the ceremony. In the early 
 controversy of the Christian Church, heathens some- 
 times quoted this tale of A. as a counterpart to the 
 miracles recorded in the New Testament. 
 
 ARISTI'DES, surnamed 'The Just,' was the son 
 of Lysimachus, and descended from one of the best 
 
ARISTIPPUS— AMSTOORAOY. 
 
 families in Athens. He was one of the ten leaders 
 of the Athenians against the Persians at the battle of 
 Marathon (490 B. c). It had been arranged that each 
 leader (or strategos) should hold the supreme com- 
 inand for one day ; but A., who saw the loUy of this 
 want of unity, induced his companions to give up 
 their claims, and make MUtiades commander-in-chief, 
 ■which proved the means of winning the battle. In 
 the following year, A. was chief archou, and in this 
 position, as in every other, secured the general 
 respect of the citizens. Some years later, probably 
 teoause he had opposed the plans of Themistooles, 
 that unscrupulous leader brought about the banish- 
 ment of A. It is said that when an illiterate 
 citizen, who did not know him personally, requested 
 him to write his own name on the voting shell, he 
 asked the man whether A. had injured Tiim. ' No,' 
 said the voter; 'but I am weary of hearing him 
 always styled "the Just."' A. submitted to the 
 sentence mth dignity, praying to the gods, as he 
 left the city, that the Athenians might not have 
 cause to repent of their decision. Only three years 
 later, Xerxes, with an overwhelming force, had 
 invaded Greece. A., hearing that the Greek fleet 
 was surrounded by that of the Persians, hastened 
 from^gina to apprise Themistocles of the danger, and 
 offer his aid. After taking a prominent part in the 
 "battle of Salamis, A. was restored to popular favour, 
 and soon afterwards aided greatly in achieving the 
 victory at Platffig., in which he commanded the 
 Athenians. In 477 B. c. he introduced a change 
 of the constitution, by which aU citizens, without 
 <3istinction of rank, were admitted to political offices. 
 As shewing the confidence reposed in A., it is related 
 "that Themistooles having announced that he had a 
 scheme very advantageous for Athens, but which he 
 could not disclose ia a public assembly, A. was 
 deputed to consult with Themistocles on the subject. 
 The plan was to secure the naval supremacy of 
 Athens by burning all the vessels of the other Greek 
 states, her allies, then lying in a neighbouring 
 harbour. A. reported to the people that nothing 
 could be more advantageous than the plan of 
 3?hemistocles, but nothing could be more unjust ; and 
 the matter was immediately rejected by the people. 
 After a variety of other public services, A. died in 
 old age, and universally respected, 468 B. c, so poor 
 that it is said his funeral had to be provided for by 
 the public. He left a son and two daughters, for 
 whom provision was made by state bounty. 
 
 ARISTrpPUS, the founder of the Cyrenaic school 
 of philosophy among the Greeks, was the sou of 
 Axitades, a wealthy gentleman of Gyrene, in Africa, 
 and was born in that city about the year 424 B. c. 
 Having come over to Greece to attend the Olympic 
 games, he heard so much of Socrates, that he was 
 filled with an eager desire to see the sage, and 
 hurried to Athens, where he became one of his pupils. 
 He remained with Socrates up nearly to the last 
 moments of the great teacher, though he does not at 
 any period seem to have followed his doctrines or 
 his practice. We know that subsequently he was 
 the object of strong disKke, both to Plato and to 
 Antisthenes the Stoic. He passed a considerable 
 part of his life in Syracuse, at the court of Dionysius, 
 the tyrant, where he acquired the reputation of a 
 philosophio voluptuary. That his manners must 
 have been at once extremely graceful and accom- 
 modating, is clear from the saying of his opponent, 
 Plato, who declared that ' A. was the only man he 
 knew who could wear with equal grace both fine 
 clothes and rags.' Diogenes Laertius records a 
 number of his Sicto,. some of which take the form 
 of h&ns-mots, and indicate a sharp, cutting, lively, 
 and self-complacent nature. A. also lived at 
 Corinth, in intimacy with the famous courtesan 
 
 Lais, but towards the close of his life, he is supposed 
 to have retired to Gyrene. His daughter Arete 
 seems to have been a person of superior abihties, 
 inasmuch as her father imparted his leading doctrines 
 to her, and she to her son, A. the Younger (hence 
 called Metrodidaktos, 'taught by the mother'), by 
 whom they are supposed to have been systematised. 
 A, in all probability, published nothing during his 
 life. He prided himself more upon spending his 
 days in what he conceived to be a philosophical 
 manner, than in elaborating a philosophical system 
 for the benefit of the race. 
 
 The Cyrenaic school, all the teachers of which 
 were probably imbued with the spirit of A., and 
 merely carried out his doctrines to their legitimate 
 results, professed a great contempt for speculative 
 philosophy, and for physical and mathematical 
 knowledge. They confined their investigations to 
 morals, and formed an ethical system completely in 
 harmony with the gay, self-possessed, worldly, and 
 sceptical character of their master. The chief 
 points of the Cyrenaic system were : 1. That all 
 human sensations are either pleasurable or painful, 
 and that pleasure and pain are the only criterions of 
 good and bad. 2. That pleasure consists in a gentle, 
 and pain in a violent motion of the soul. 3. That 
 happiness is simply the result of a continuous series 
 of pleasurable sensations. 4. That actions are in 
 themselves morally indifferent, and that men are 
 concerned only with their results. Wieland ia 
 his historico-philosophical romance, Aristipp und 
 einige seiner ZeUgenossen (A. and Some of his 
 Contemporaries), presents us with a charming 
 picture of the life and opinions of the great philo- 
 sophic sensualist, who stood out in strong relief 
 against the gloom and austerity of Antisthenes and 
 the Cynical school. See Wendt's Z>e PMlosopMA 
 Oyrenaka (Giitt. 1842). 
 
 ARISTOBTJ'LTJS, an Alexandrian Jew who 
 lived under Ptolemseus Philometer about 175 B. c, 
 and was considered by the early Fathers as the 
 founder of the Jewish philosophy in Alexandria. 
 He was long considered the author of the Exegetical 
 Gommentaries on the Boohs of Moses which went 
 under his name, but it is now admitted that the 
 work in question was the composition of a later 
 period. Only fragments of it remain. It was 
 intended to shew that the oldest Greek writers 
 borrowed from the Hebrew Scriptures ; and to sup- 
 port this theory, niimerous quotations ■v^ere pro- 
 fessedly taken from Linus, Musaaus, Orpheus, &c., of 
 which the Christian apologists made abuudSmt use. 
 These, however, have long been considered for- 
 geries, inasmuch as they do not exhibit a trace of 
 the antique Greek spirit, but make the writers speak 
 in the tone and style of the Old Testament. See 
 Valckenaer's treatise, De AristoJmlo Judceo (Leyden, 
 1806). 
 
 . AEISTO'OEACY (Gn. aristocrafia, from aristos, 
 best, and hratos, power) means etymologically the 
 power or government of the best, noblest, or most 
 worthy ; and in the sense which it originally bore, A. 
 had reference not to a social class, but to a form of 
 government in which the sovereignty was placed in 
 the hands of a minority of the citizens of the sta.te, 
 exclusive altogether of the slave population, which 
 generally existed in antiquity. It is in this sense 
 also that we use i^ when we speak of the Italian 
 states of the middle ages as aristocracies. In order 
 to constitute an A., it was further necessary that the 
 minority which composed it should consist of the 
 highest class, in point not of wealth alone, but of 
 birth and culture ; the government of a minority in 
 numbers simply, being known by the more odious 
 name of an oliqarcliv. Were the whole government 
 
 897 
 
AEISTOGEITON— AE.ISTOLOCHIA. 
 
 of England intrusted to the House of Lords, even 
 tlujugh tliat body were to become vastly more 
 nmnerous than it is, so long as it did not include half 
 of tfie whole adult males, and were not elective, but 
 hereditary, we should be ruled by an A., and our 
 rulers would be aristocrats in the antique sense of 
 the term. In this, its political sense, tiie term A. 
 has never been acclimatised in England, because the 
 thing which it signifies has always been imknown. 
 Our territorial nobility, though possessing great influ- 
 ence in the government of the country, has, at every 
 stage of its career, been controlled either by the 
 Crown from above or the Commons from below; 
 and thus it is that, though more important as a 
 social influence than in any other country, the Eng- 
 lish A. has never assumed the form of a ruling- 
 class. When used with reference to English 
 society, the term A. has two significations — a nar- 
 rower and a wider one. According to the first, it is 
 nearly synonymous with nobility. In this sense, it 
 win be treated of under that head, and its relative 
 subdivisions. According to the second, it is synony- 
 mous with gentry, and includes the whole body of the 
 people, titled and imtitled, above a certain very indefi- 
 nite social line. Perhaps the nearest approximation 
 which we shall make to a definition of A. in this, 
 its proper English sense, wiU be by adopting that 
 which Aiistotle has given not of aristocratia, but 
 of eugeneia, or good birth. ' Good birth,' he says, ' is 
 ancient (long icJierited) wealth and virtue.' {Politic. 
 lib. iv. c. 7.) The question as to the extent to 
 which either of these qualities is requisite to consti- 
 tute a claim to admission into the ranks of the A., 
 is one to which probably not two persons, either 
 within or without the pale, would return the same 
 answer ; but that the absence of either would be a 
 groxmd of exclusion, is a point on which there wJU 
 be little difference of opinion. No amount of mere 
 wealth wiU, in general, confer it either on a tradesman 
 or his immediate descendants (see Gentleman) ; and 
 scarcely any deeds, however noble, will give it to 
 bim who is not the possessor of inherited fortune. 
 Neither Bums the gauger, nor Shaw the life-guards- 
 man, has ever been regarded as an aristocrat, though 
 nobody denies that the one was a poet, and the other 
 a hero. But when the claim to recognition as an 
 aristocrat has been inherited, it wiU scarcely be lost 
 by the individual himself, however adverse may be 
 his worldly circumstances, or however ignoble his 
 conduct ; and it is not difficult to imagine an eleva- 
 tion of moral tone which would confer it even on a 
 beggar. 
 
 ARISTOGEI'TON. See Haemodids and Aeis- 
 
 TOGEITON. 
 
 ABISTOLO'CHIA, a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Ariatolochiacece or Asarinew. This 
 order, which is dicotyledonous or exogenous, consists 
 of herbaceous plants or shrubs, often cmnbing shrubs, 
 and contains upwards of 130 known species, chiefly 
 natives of warm climates, and particularly abundant 
 in the tropical regions of South America. The 
 leaves are alternate, simple, stalked, often with a 
 stipule; the flowers axillary, solitary, hermaphro- 
 dite, of a duU colour ; the perianth at its base 
 adhering to the ovary, tubular, sometimes regular, 
 but generally very irregular; the stamens 6 — 12, 
 epigynous (or inserted upon tie ovary), distinct, or 
 adhering to. the style; the ovary is generally six- 
 celled, with numerous ovules ; the style sinxple, the 
 stigmas radiating, as numerous as the cells of the 
 ovary ; the fruit dry or succulent ; the seeds with a 
 very minute embryo at the base of fleshy albumen. 
 — The genus A. is distinguished by a tubular 
 oblique perianth, generally inflated at the base, the 
 mouth dilated on one side, and by stamens adherent 
 398 
 
 to the style, so that it is included in the Linnsean 
 class Gynandria. The species are mostly shrubby, 
 and natives of tropical countries, some of them 
 climbing to the summits of the loftiest trees. Several 
 are found in the south of Europe ; one only, the 
 common Biethwort (A. Clematitis), occurs upon the 
 continent as far north as about lat. 50°, and is a 
 doubtful native of England. It is a perennial plant, 
 with erect, naked, striated stem — heart-shaped dark- 
 green leaves on long stalks— the flowers stalked, and 
 growing to the number of sometimes seven together 
 from the axils of the leaves, the tube of the perianth 
 about an inch long, and of a dirty yellow colour. 
 It grows chiefly in vineyards, hedges, about the 
 borders of fields, among rubbish, and in waste 
 places. It has a long branching root, with an un- 
 pleasant taste and smell, which, with the roots of A. 
 rotunda and A . longa, two herbaceous species, natives 
 
 Aiistolochia Clematitis. 
 
 of the south of Europe, was formerly much used in 
 medicine, being regarded as of great service in cases 
 of difficiilt parturition, whence the English name. 
 These roots possess powerful stimulating properties, 
 and those of the southern species are still used as 
 emmenagogues. The root of A. Indica is used in 
 the same way by the Hindoos. — A. serpentaria, Vm- 
 GINIAU Snakekoot, is a native of most parts of the 
 United States, growing in woods. It has a flexuous 
 stem, 8 — 10 inches high, bearing heart-shaped very 
 acute leaves. The flowers are on stalks, which rise 
 from the root ; the orifice of the perianth is trian- 
 gular. The root has a penetrating resinous smell, 
 and a pungent, bitter taste. It has long been a 
 fancied remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake. 
 It possesses stimulant and tonic properties. It 
 forms an article of export from the United States to 
 Europe, and bears a high price, being highly esteemed 
 as a medicine in certain kinds of fever. — Its reputa- 
 tion as a cure for serpent-bites is shared by other 
 species, particularly A. angui'cida and .4. gua'co (the 
 Guaco of Colombia), natives of the warmer parts 
 of America. The juice has certainly the power of 
 stupifying, and even of killing serpents ; and it is 
 said that a number of species are used by Egyptian 
 jugglers, in order to their handling serpents with 
 impunity. — Several South American species seem 
 also to possess medicinal properties analogous to 
 those of the Virginian snakeroot. — A. Sipho, a climb- 
 ing shrub, of 15 — 20 feet in height, a native of the 
 southern parts of the Alleghany Mountains, is fre- 
 quently planted in the United States, in Britain, and 
 on the continent of Europe, to form shady bowers. 
 
AEISTOLOCHIA— ARISTOPHANES. 
 
 It has very large heart-shaped leaves (a foot in 
 breadth), of a beautiful green. The flowers hang 
 sitigly, or in pairs, on long staUcs ; the tube of the 
 perianth is crooked in its upper part, inflated at the 
 base, and veined with reddish-brown veins, having a 
 sort of resemblance to the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, for 
 
 Aristolochia serpentaria : 
 
 o, a flower ; &, a flower not open, shewing the parts of fructifl- 
 cation, c ; dt the stamens ; e, the stigmas. 
 
 which reason the shrub is sometimes called Pipe-shrub, 
 Pipe- vine, or Dutchman's Pipe. — The tropical species 
 are distinguished for their beauty and the peculiar 
 forms of their flowers. Some of them are much 
 prized ornaments of our hot-houses. 
 
 To the natural order AristoloMacaB belongs also 
 the genus Asarum; 
 
 ARISTO'PHANES, the only writer of the old 
 Greek comedy of whom we possess, any entire works, 
 was the son of one Philippus, and was bom at Athens 
 about the year 444 B. 0. We know very little of his 
 history. Plato, in his Symposium, relates that he 
 was fond of pleasure — a statement which it is easy to 
 credit when we consider the tendencies of his profes- 
 sion in aU ages. ' It seems equally clear, however, 
 from the vigorous and consistent expression of his 
 convictions in his various works, and from the fear- 
 less manner in which he assails the political vices of 
 his day, that he was possessed of an honest and inde- 
 pendent spirit. He appeared as a comic writer in 
 the fourth year of the Peloponnesian war (427 B. a). 
 The piece which he produced was entitled Daitaleis 
 (the Banqueters), and received the second prize. 
 It ridiculed the foUies of extravagance, and, like all 
 his subsequent works, was pervaded by a contempt 
 of modem life, and an admiration of the sentiments 
 and manners of the earlier generations. Next year, 
 he wrote the Bcdiylonians, in which he satirised 
 Cleon, the so-called demagogue, so sharply, that the 
 latter endeavoured to deprive Tiitti of the rights of 
 citizenship, by insinuating that he was not a real 
 Athenian. This, in all probability, gave rise to the 
 various traditions of A. having been bom in Rhodes, 
 Egypt, &c. Fragments of these plays remain. In 
 425, hia Achamians obtained the first prize. It 
 was written to expose the madness of the war 
 then waging between Athens and Sparta, and 
 exhibits the feelings of the ' peace- party ' in the 
 former city. It is stiU extant. In 424 appeared 
 Hippeis, the Knights or Horsemen. It was the first 
 which the poet produced in his own name, and 
 evinces the singular boldness of the author. It 
 
 is levelled against Cleon, and presents us with a 
 striking picture both of a vulgar and insolent 
 charlatan, and of the fickle, cunning, credulous, 
 and rather stupid mob over whom he precariously 
 despotises. It is related of this piece that, when 
 no actor would undertake tc play the part of the 
 influential Cleon, A. himself impersonated the 
 demagogue. Unfortunately for the character of 
 Cleon, as well as that of the Athenian democracy, 
 these caricatures and misrepresentations of A. have 
 been received as historical pictures. How far 
 they are from the truth, has been clearly shewn by 
 Grote in his History of Greece. See OLEOir. In 
 423, A. produced the Clouds, which, along with the 
 Knights, are the two most famous of his comedies. 
 They exhibit in overflowing richness that fancy, wit, 
 humour, satire, and shrewd insight which charac- 
 terise this greatest of all Greek comic writers. The 
 Clouds, however, displays at the same time the 
 weaknesses and limitations of A.'s mind. Its aim 
 was to deride the pretensions of the new sophistical 
 school, and to point out its pernicious tendencies. 
 So far weU. But A., who was no philosopher, 
 demonstrates his own incapacity to appreciate the 
 highest range of thought and character, by selecting 
 no less a person than Socrates as the most perfect 
 representative of a sophist. A., who was both 
 religiously and poUticaUy conservative, had appar- 
 ently no clearer conception of abstract truth than 
 is involved in reverence for the sanctities of the 
 past, the old gods, old traditions, old manners, and 
 old sentiments. He had an instinctive hatred of 
 innovations, and considered all equally pernicious. 
 As he had represented Cleon the reformer as a 
 vulgar innovator and demagogue, ruled by the lowest 
 considerations, he makes the innovating views of 
 Socrates also proceed from corrupt motives, veiled 
 perhaps with more craft. Alcibiades is caricatured 
 in this brilliant comedy as a wildly extravagant 
 youth, whose career of ruin is accelerated by the 
 insidious instructions of Socrates; and a hint is 
 thrown out towards the end of the piece, which 
 unfortunately proved to be the ' shadow ' of a 
 ' coming event. A. represents the father of Alci- 
 biades as about to bum the philosopher and his 
 whole phrontisterion (subtlety-shop) ; and there cam 
 be little doubt that this dramatic vilification of the 
 purest of heathen moralists led to that persecution 
 which, twenty years later, culminated in his con- 
 demnation and death. In 422 appeared the Wasps, 
 still extant, in which the popular courts of justice 
 are attacked; and three years later, in his Peace, 
 he returns to the subject of the Peloponnesian 
 war, which is ridiculed with great cleverness. In 
 414 he produced two comedies, Amphiaraus and 
 the Birds, both of which caricature, in the liveliest 
 manner, the Sicilian expedition, then being medi- 
 tated, but which proved so utter a failure. The 
 Lysistrata belongs to the year 411, and exhibits a 
 civil war of the sexes, as the monstrous issue of 
 that in the Peloponnesus. In his Plutus and 
 Ecdesiazusai, which respectively appeared in 408 
 and 392, true to his mission as the enemy of 
 innovation, he assailed the new passion for Doric 
 manners and institutions, and ventured to ridicule 
 Plato, in that, however, in which the philosopher 
 is weakest — namely, his poHtical theory. Euripides, 
 also, as the sophist among poets, is severely handled 
 in the Frogs, which belongs to the year 405. 
 
 A. wrote fifty-four comedies, of which only eleven 
 are extant. He is acknowledged to stand far a.bove 
 all his contemporaries or successors of the middle 
 and new comedy in wealth of fancy and beauty of 
 language. His choruses sometimes exhibit the 
 purest spirit of poetry ; and Plato himself says that 
 the Boul of A. was a temple for the Graces. The 
 
AEISTOTELIA— ARISTOTLE. 
 
 ingenuity whieli he displays in the mechanical 
 artifices of verse is not less -wonderful. Frogs are 
 made to croak choruses, pigs to grunt through a 
 series of iambics, and words are coined of amazing 
 length — the Ecdedazxisce closes with one composed 
 of 170 letters. It only remains to be added, wha-> 
 might naturally be expected, that the personalities 
 in which' A. indidged descend at times into coarse- 
 ness and iadecency, and that even the gods whom 
 he imdertook to defend are treated with levity, and 
 placed in the most ludicrous lights. 
 
 The comedies of A. have been edited by Brunck 
 (1781—1783), Dindorf (1794^1826), Beldcer (1829). 
 They have all been translated into German by Voss 
 (Brunswick, 1821), and there are several trandations 
 •of single plays into English. 
 
 ARISTOTB'LIA. See Maoqui. 
 
 A'RISTOTLE was bom at the Grecian colonial 
 town of Stageira, on the west side of the Strymonic 
 Gulf (now the Gulf of Contessa, in Turkey in 
 Europe), in the year 384 B. c. He belonged to a 
 family in which the practice of physic was hereditary. 
 His father, Nikomachus, was the friend and physician 
 of Amynta? II., king of Macedonia, father of Philip, 
 and grandfather of Alexander the Great. A. lost 
 both parents while he was quite young, and was 
 brought up under the care of Proxenus, a citizen of 
 Atarneus, in Asia Minor, who was then settled at 
 Stageira. It is to be conjectured that his education, 
 such as it was, would take the direction of preparing 
 him for the family profession, and that whatever 
 knowledge and power of manipulation attached to 
 the practice of physic at that time, would rank 
 among his early, acquisitions. In after-hfe, he 
 occupied himself largely in the dissecting of animals, 
 and was acquainted with all the facts that had been 
 derived from this source by others before him. It 
 seems probable, however, that he'early abandoned 
 the intention of following physic as a profession, and 
 aspired to that cultivation of universal knowledge 
 for its own sake, in which he attained a distinction 
 without parallel in the history of the human race. 
 
 In his 18th year (367 B.C.) he left Stageira for 
 Athens, then the intellectual centre of Greece and 
 of the civilised world. Plato, on whom he doubtless 
 had his eye as his chief instructor, was then absent 
 at Syracuse in that extraordinary episode of his life, 
 connecting him as political adviser with the two suc- 
 cessive Syracusan despots— Dionysius the Elder, and 
 Dionysius the Younger — and with Dion. A., there- 
 fore, pursued his studies, by books, and by the help 
 of any other masters he could find, during the first 
 three years of his stay. On the return of Plato, he 
 became his pupil, and soon made his master .iware 
 of the remarkable penetration and reach of his 
 intellect. The expressions said to have been used by 
 Plato imply as much ; for we are told that he spoke 
 of A. as the ' Intellect of the School.' Unfortunately, 
 there is a total absence of particulars or precise infor- 
 mation as to the early studies of the rising philosopher. 
 He remained at Athens twenty years, during which 
 the only facts recorded, in addition to his studying 
 with Plato, are, that he set up a class of rhetoric, 
 and that in so doing, he became the rival of the 
 celebrated orator and rhetorical teacher, Isocrates, 
 whom he .appears to have attacked with great 
 severity. It was in the schools of rhetoric that the 
 yotmg men of Athens got the principal part of their 
 education for public life^ They learned the art of 
 speaking before the Dikasteries, or courts of law, 
 and the pubhc assembly, with efficiency and elegance ; 
 and incidentally acquired the notions of law and 
 pubKo policy that regulated the management of 
 afiairs at the time. We can easily suppose that A. 
 would look with contempt upon the shallowness — in 
 
 400 
 
 aU that regarded thought or subject matter — of the 
 common rhetorical teaching, of which, doubtless, the 
 prevailing excellence would lie in the form of the 
 address, being artistic rather than profound or 
 erudite. One of the disciples of Isocrates, defending 
 his master against A., wrote a treatise wherein 
 allusion is made to a work (now lost) on proverbs, 
 the first recorded publication of the philosopher. 
 
 The death of Plato (347 B. o.) was the occasion 
 of A.'s departure from Athens. It was not extra- 
 ordinary or unreasonable that A. should hope to 
 succeed his master as the chief of his school, named 
 the Academy. We now know that no other man 
 then existing had an equal title to that pre-eminence. 
 Plato, however, left his nephew Spensippus as his 
 successor. We may suppose the disappointment 
 thus arising to have been the principal circumstance 
 that determined A. to stay no longer in Athens; 
 but there are also other reasons that may be 
 assigned, arising out of his relations with the 
 Macedonian royal family at a time when the 
 Athenians and Philip had come into open enmity. 
 
 Whatever may be the explanation, he went in 
 his thirty-seventh year, after a stay of nearly twenty 
 years in Athens, to the Mysian town of Atarneus, 
 in Asia Minor, opposite to the island of Lesbos. 
 Here he lived with Hermeias, the chief of the 
 town, a man of singular energy and ability, who 
 had conquered his dominion for himself from the 
 Persians, at that time masters of nearly aU Asia 
 Minor. A. had taught him rhetoric at Athens, and 
 he became in return the attached friend and admirer 
 of his teacher. For three years the two lived 
 together in the stronghold of Atarneus; but by 
 treachery and false promises, the Ehodian Mentor, 
 an officer in the Persian service, got possession 
 of the person of Hermeias, put him to death, and 
 became master of all the places held by him. A. 
 accordingly fled, and took refuge in Mitylene, the 
 chief city of the neighbouring island of Lesbos. He 
 also took with him Pythias, the sister of Hermeias, 
 and made her his wife. In a noble ode, he has 
 commemorated the merits of his friend thus lost 
 to him through the treachery of a Greek renegade. 
 His wife, Pythias, died a few years afterwards 
 in Macedonia, leaving him a daughter of the same 
 name. His son, Nikomachus, to whom he dedicated 
 his chief work on ethics — called, in consequence, the 
 NikcrmacJman Ethics — was born to him at a later 
 period of his Mfe by a concubine. 
 
 After two years' stay at Mitylene, he was invited 
 (in the year 342 B.C., age 42) byPhdip to Macedonia, 
 to educa,te his son Alexander, then in his fourteenth 
 year. What course of study Alexander was made 
 to go through, we cannot state. He enjoyed ilie 
 teaching of A. for at least three years, and contracted 
 a strong attachflient to his preceptor, which events 
 afterwards converted into bitter enmity. The two 
 parted finally when Alexander commenced his 
 expedition into Asia (334 b. c), and A. came from 
 Macedonia to Athens, having recommended to the 
 future conqueror, as a companion in his campaigns, 
 the philosopher CaDisthenes, whom he educated 
 along with Alexander. Now at the age of fifty, 
 he entered on the final epoch of his life ; he opened 
 a school called the ' Lyceum,' from its proximity 
 to the temple of Apollo Lyceius. From his practice 
 of walking up and down in the garden during his 
 lectures, arose the other name of his school and 
 sect, the Peripatetic. It would appear to have been 
 his habit to give a morning lecture to select pupils 
 on the more abstruse subjects, and one in the evening 
 of a more popular kind to a general audience. He 
 may now be supposed to have composed his principal 
 writings ; but, unfortunately, there is nothing known 
 of the dates of any of them. This crowning period 
 
ARISTOTLE-ARISTOXENUS. 
 
 of his life lasted twelve years. After tbe death of 
 Alexander, the anti- Macedonian party at Athens ob- 
 tained an ascendency, and among other consequences, 
 an accusation was prepared against A., the pretext 
 being impiety. With the fate of Socrates before his 
 eyes, he chose a timely escape, and in the beginning of 
 322 B. c, took refuge at Chalcis in Euboea, where, in 
 the autumn df the same year, he died, aged 62. He 
 had long been afflicted with indigestion, and ulti- 
 mately sank imder this malady. 
 
 The philosophy of A. differed from that of Plato on 
 many points, especially iu the fundamental doctriae 
 termed the Theory of Ideas. The Platonic ' ideas ' 
 or 'forms' were conceived as real existences, impart- 
 ing all that is common to the particular facts or 
 realities, instead of being derived from them by an 
 operation of the mind. Thus, the actual circles 
 ■of nature derive their mathematical properties from 
 "the pre-existing 'idea,' or circle iu the abstract; 
 the actual men owe their sameness to the ideal man. 
 A. was opposed to this doctrine throughout, although 
 'he always speaks of its author with respect, and 
 sometimes with affection. The whole method of A. 
 was in marked contrast to the Platonic handling of 
 philosophical subjects : he was a most assiduous 
 ■observer and collector of facts, from which he drew 
 "inductions with more or less accuracy. Plato, on 
 the other hand, valued facts merely in criticising the 
 "views that he was bent upon demolishing, ana not 
 as a means of establishing sound theories. 
 
 The writings of A. may be said to have embraced 
 the whole circle of the knowledge of \his time. Many 
 ■of them are lost ; those that remain refer principally 
 to the following departments. 
 
 Asta'onomy, Mechanics, Physics, were treated 
 ■of by him at some length; but here his failure 
 was complete, if we look at his writings from 
 the point of -view now acquired. He was the 
 victim of capricious fancies, based upon doctrines 
 -common among his contemporaries, accepted by 
 ■him as principles of reasoning, and conducting him 
 ■"to the most unsound conclusions. His theory of 
 the rotation of the sphere, the necessary perfection 
 ■of circular motion, of the impossibility of a vacuum, 
 and the like, did more to confuse than to explain 
 "the phenomena of nature. Nor can it be ' said that 
 the time was not ripe for putting these subjects on a 
 rational basis ; for he was very shortly followed by 
 a series of rjien, who both observed and reasoned 
 •soimdly respecting them, and laid the foundation of 
 'their great subsequent progress — namely, Euclid, 
 ApoUonius, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, and Hippar- 
 •chus. 
 
 The thirteen books called Metaphysics contain 
 much profound thought, but are obscure and de- 
 fectively arranged ; indeed, neither the actual 
 arrangement of the books, nor the title which they 
 bear, can be ascribed to A. himself. The subject to 
 which they are devoted is Ontology — ^the science 
 of Ens, quaMnua Uns — which he terms PMlosophia 
 Prima, and sometimes Theology. He distinguishes 
 "three branches of theoretical philosophy. 1. Physics 
 — the study of sensible material particular things, 
 each of which differs from every other, and all of 
 which have in themselves the principle of change 
 «r motion. 2. Mathematics — ^that of geometrical 
 and numerical entities, known by general defiEiitions, 
 susceptible neither of change nor of movement, 
 capable of being considered and reasoned upon apart 
 from matter, but not capable of existing apart 
 
 from matter. 3. The First or Highest Philosophy 
 
 which studies the essences of Biings eternal, un- 
 changeable, and apart from all that change, move- 
 ment, and differentiation which material embodi- 
 ment involves. 
 
 The Metaphysics, or Eirst Philosophy, does in fact 
 26 
 
 deal with the extreme abstractions or generalities of 
 all sciences. It is a collection, partly of doubts and 
 difficulties, partly of attempted solutions, upon these 
 last refinements of the human mind. It includes 
 many valuable comments on the philosophy of Plato 
 and others anterior to or contemporary with A. 
 The general terms and subtle distinctions which this 
 treatise first brought to "view, were highly prized 
 throughout all the philosophy of the middle ages. 
 
 He appears in a very different light in his great 
 work on Animals. He has here amassed a stock of 
 genuine observations, and also introduced a method 
 of classification which continues to this day as the 
 most approved groundwork of zoological classifica- 
 tion. In this work we see perhaps, in the most 
 advantageous light, the two great qualities of his mind, 
 rarely coupled in the same individual — the aptitude 
 for observation, and logical method. The excellence 
 shewn in his various writings generally depends upon 
 one or other of these qualities. 
 
 His Orsanon or Logic is his complete develop- 
 ment of formal reasoning, and is the basis and 
 nearly the whole substance of Syllogistic or schol- 
 astic logic. This science he almost entirely created. 
 Mr Grote observes (Eistory of Greece, part ii. 
 chap. Ixviii.) that 'what was begun by Socrates, 
 and improved by Plato, was embodied as a part of a 
 comprehensive system of formal logic by the genius 
 of A. ; a system which was not only of extraordinary 
 value in reference to the processes and controversies 
 of its time, but which also, having become insensibly 
 worked into the minds of instructed men, has con- 
 tributed much to form what is correct in the habits 
 of modem thinking. Though jt has now been 
 enlarged and recast by some modern authors (espe- 
 cially by Mr John Stuart Mill in his admirable 
 System of Logic) into a structure conunensurate 
 ■with the vast increase of knowledge and extension 
 of positive method belonging to the present day — 
 we must recoUect that the distance between the best 
 modern logic and that of A. is hardly so great as 
 that between A. and those who preceded him by a 
 century — Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and the Pytha- 
 goreans ; and that the movement in advance of these 
 latter commences "with Socrates.' 
 
 A considerable portion of his "smtings relate to 
 the Human Mind and Body. In one of these, a 
 short treatise on Memory and KecoUeotion, he gave 
 the first statement of the laws of Association of 
 Ideas. 
 
 His treatises on Ehetoric and Poetics were the 
 earliest development of a Philosophy of Criticism, 
 and stUl continue to be studied. 'The same remark 
 is appKcable to his elaborate disquisitions on Ethics. 
 
 Perhaps one of his greatest works is his Politics, 
 based upon a collection made by himseK of 158 
 different Constitutions of States ; the collection itself 
 being unhappily lost. Here we see the spirit of the 
 inductive observer, which indeed is no less apparent 
 iu the works mentioned in the last paragraph. It is, 
 however, a singular fact, that he gives no e-videnoe of 
 ha-ving read the historian Thucydides ; and his only 
 reference to Herodotus is on a point of natural 
 history. Yet the narratives and descriptions con- 
 tained in the works of both these writers are 
 probably of as much value, and as much in point, in 
 a PoHtical Philosophy, as the very best observations 
 made by himself. 
 
 The great current distinctions of Matter and 
 Form, Substance and QuaHty, Actuality and Poten- 
 tiality, are due to A. 
 
 ABISTO'XEKrUS, of Tarentum, a pupil of Aris- 
 totle's, and one of the oldest -writers upon music, 
 flourished about 330 years E. c. He was extraordi- 
 narily active and versatile in his literary studies, and 
 is said to have composed upwards of 450 treatises 
 
 ■ 401 
 
ARITHMETIC— ARItJS. 
 
 on music, history, and philosophy. On the death 
 of Aristotle, he fuUy expected to be appointed his 
 successor, and is said to have been deeply morti- 
 fied when Theophrastus was preferred; but this 
 statement is discredited by many. He founded a 
 school of musicians, who were called after him, 
 Aristoxeneans, and whose distinguishing character- 
 istic was that they judged of the notes in the 
 diatonic scale exclusively by the ear, while the 
 Pythagoreans determined these mathematically. 
 Incept his Elements of Harmony, in three books, 
 which we stOl possess, only a few fragments of 
 his writings survive in later authors. 
 
 ARI'THMETIO is the science that treats of 
 numbers (Gr. arithmos). It is sometimes divided 
 into theoretical and practical ; the former'inyestigat- 
 ing the properties of numbers and their combinations, 
 the latter applying the principles so established, in 
 the form of rules, to actual calculations. Some 
 restrict the term A. to this art of reckoning, assigning 
 the investigation of the principles to analysis. 
 
 Among Sie ancient Greeks and Eomans, A. made 
 little progress, owing to their clumsy modes of 
 notation. Few of their writings on the subject 
 have come down to us ; the most important are 
 those of EuoM (7 — 10 B, of the Elements), Archi- 
 medes, Diophantus, and Nicomaohus. After the 
 introduction of the decimal system and the Arabic 
 or Hindu numerals (see Numerals), about the 11th 
 v., A. began to assume a new form ; but it was 
 not tiU the 16th c. that the Double Rule of Three, 
 or Compound Proportion, was discovered, and 
 decimal fractions were introduced. The invention 
 of Logarithms in the 17th c. is the last great step 
 in advance that the art has made. Passing over 
 the elementary operations of Addition, &c., the 
 chief heads, such as Feaotions, Dbcimais; Peo- 
 POETION, LoGAEiTHMS, &0., wiU be noticed in their 
 proper places. 
 
 ABITHME'TICAL MEAN is that number that 
 lies equally distant between two others: thus, the 
 A. M. between 11 and 17 is 14, which is found by 
 taking half their sum. 
 
 ABITHMB'TICAl PROGRESSION is a series 
 of numbers that increase or diminish by a common 
 difference, as 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22; or 12, lOJ, 9, 7i, 
 6. To find the sum of such a series, multiply the 
 sum of the first and last terms by half the number 
 of terms. The series of natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 
 &c., form an A. P., of which the difference is 1. 
 
 ARITHME'TIOAL SIGNS are arbitrary marks 
 or symbols used to denote the operations to be per- 
 formed on numbers, or the relations existing between 
 them. Ex. gr., 7-1-5 indicates that 7 and 5 are to 
 be added together ; 7 — 5, that 5 is to be subtracted 
 from 7 ; 7' ^t 7 is to be raised to the fifth power ; 
 7-f 5 = 15 — 3, that when 7 and 5 are added 
 together, the result is eqiiai to the difference between 
 15 and 3. The same signs are also used in Algebra ; 
 and an enumeration and explanation of thein may 
 be found in almost any treatise on Arithmetic or 
 Algebra. 
 
 A'BIUS, the celebrated foimder of Arianism, 
 was a native of Libya, and is generally supposed to 
 have been bom shortly after the middle of the 
 3d c. About the year 306 A. D., Alexandria was 
 thrown into confusion by the violence of its religious 
 disputes, and in these A. was largely mixed up. At 
 first, he took part with Meletius, Bishop of Lycopohs, 
 in Upper Egypt, a man who was strenuously 
 opposed to certain notions of discipline entertained 
 by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria; but afterwards 
 he became reconciled to the latter, who made A. 
 a deacon. The reconcihation, however, was brief. 
 A. once more took the part of Meletius, and was 
 402 
 
 excommunicated by Peter in consequence; but the 
 latter dying soon after, AchiUas, his successor, 
 restored A. to his oflBLCe, and even advanced him to 
 the dignity of a presbyter, 313 a.d. His new func- 
 tion required that he should interpret the Scriptures, 
 and, as he possessed an abundance of natural gifts, 
 united with great learning, it is not wonderful that 
 his preaching should have become popular, and his 
 peculiarities of opinion been vehemently embraced. 
 The first time, however, that A. was brought into 
 collision on a point of doctrine with his ecclesiastical 
 superiors, was in 318 a.d. Alexander, Bishop of 
 Alexandria, and successor of Achillas, having in a. 
 pubKo assembly of clergy, while speakiog of the 
 Trinity, said that it contained one single essence, 
 or indivisible imity of substance, A alleged that 
 such a conception was impossible to the human 
 mind, and accused Alexander of SabeUianism — ^i. e., 
 of destroying the distinction of peiBons. The dis- 
 pute! grew hot, and a conference which was held to 
 settle it only embittered the disputants. In main- 
 taining his ground, A went beyond his first state- 
 ment of the absolute distinctness of person between 
 the Father and the Son; he maintained that the- 
 Son was not co-equal or co-eternal with the Father, 
 but only the first and highest of all finite beings, 
 created out of nothing by an act of God's free wiQ, and 
 that he ought not to be ranked with the Father. 
 
 A. was successful in securing the adherence of larg& 
 numbers both of the clergy and laity in Egypt, Syria, 
 and Asia' Minor. In 321 a synod of bishops wa» 
 held at Alexandria. These deposed and excommuni- 
 cated A., and active measures were taken to let this- 
 decision be known over all the Christian churches; . 
 Alexander himself -wrote numerous letters (two of 
 which are still extant), exhorting the bishops not to 
 receive the ' heretic' In consequence of these -violent- 
 steps, the breach was -widened between both parties. 
 To escape persecution, A. retired to Palestine, where 
 he wrote a letter to his friend Eusebius, who wa» 
 Bishop of Nicomedeia, a city of Bithynia, and not far' 
 from Constantinople. Eusebius, one of the most 
 influential Christiajis of his time, warmly sympathised 
 -with y<™ ; -wrote in his behalf to Paulinus, Bishop of 
 Tyre, and others; absolved him from the Alexan- 
 drian synod's excommunication; and in 323 con- 
 vened another synod in Bithynia, which pronounced 
 favourably on A. He even enlisted Constantine on 
 the side of the latter, to this extent at least, that 
 the half -pagan emperor i addressed admonitions to 
 both Alexander and A., assuring them that the point 
 in dispute was a trifling one, and ought not to pro- 
 voke a serious quarrel. While A was residing at 
 Nicomedeia, he -wrote a theological work in verse 
 and prose, called Thaleia, some fragments of which 
 remain, and indicate an earnest and phUosophio 
 mind, but at the same time contain expressions which 
 could not but pain a behever in the divinity of 
 Christ. The ThaZeia is said to have been sung 
 by the Arian neophytes, who thus kindled the 
 passions of -their adversaries, and increased the 
 virulence of the contest. The comedians, who were 
 pagans, took advantage of the occasion to ridicule 
 the Christian reUgion in the theatres. The offioera 
 of the emperor in several cities -wished to repress- 
 this profane temerity, but the interference only 
 created greater confusion. 
 
 It now became impossible for the emperor to 
 remain neutral or indifferent, -with safety to him- 
 self, or to the tranquiUi-ty of the empire. Hosius, 
 Bishop of Corduba, whom he had appointed 
 mediator betwixt Alexander and A., took pait with 
 the former, and reported imfavourably of A. The 
 result was, that Constantine, in order, as he thought, 
 to effect a final settlement of the question, convoked 
 the memorable Council of Niosea (Nice, q. v.)> "* 
 
AEITJS. 
 
 Bithynia, 325 A.D. Three huhdred and eighteen 
 bishops from aJmost all parts of the Christian 
 ■world, but especially from the east, were present, 
 besides numbers of priests, deaoons, and aeolytes. 
 A. boldly expounded and defended hia opinions. 
 He declared in the most imambiguous manner that 
 the Son of God was created out of nothing ; that 
 he had not always existed ; that he was not mmiut- 
 able or impeccable; that it was through his free- 
 will he- remained good and holy ; that if he had 
 chosen, he could aa easily have sinned as not; in a 
 word, that he was a mere creature and work of the 
 Deity. He further aflSrmed that the Son of God 
 was not of the same substance with the Father ; that 
 he was not the ' Word' or ' Wisdom,' projperly speak- 
 ing; and that the Scriptures only attribute these 
 names to tiim as they do to other created intelli- 
 gences. These propositions were listened to with 
 great cahnneas by the bishops, but the inferior 
 clergy, or at least a majority of them, manifested 
 the most violent opposition. The document con- 
 taining his confession of faith was torn to pieces 
 before his face. Arguments, however, of a more 
 rational kind were also employed. Alexander was 
 ably seconded by the young deacon, Athanasius, the 
 equal of A in eloquence, ana in the power of his logic. 
 It was principally by the reasonings of Athanasius 
 that the Council was persuaded to de£ne, in the 
 most precise manner, the doctrine of the Godhead — 
 viz., the absolute unity of the divine essence, and the 
 absolute . equality of the three persons. All the 
 bishops subscribed it except two, Theonas of Mar- 
 marica, and Secundus of Ptolemais, who had the 
 heroism (for it must be considered such) to follow 
 the banished A. into lUyrioum. 
 
 An imperial edict was now issued commanding the 
 •wiitings of A. to be burned, and threatening with 
 capital punishment all who 'should be convicted of 
 concealing them. This change in the emperor's senti- 
 ments as- to- the importance of the doctrine at issue is 
 attributed by some writers to his recognising the vrill 
 of Heaven in, the harmonious consent of so many 
 bishops. A more probable explanation is, that he 
 anticipated the utmost social confusion from the col- 
 lision of opinions, and resolved to crush that which 
 was at once the youngest and the weakest, hoping 
 thereby to remove the groimd of disturbance. He 
 was mistaken, however. At Alexandria, the Ari^s 
 continued in a state of open insurrection, and began 
 to league themselves with other condemned sects, for 
 the purposes of mutual defence. The great influence 
 of Eusebius was also exerted on behalf of the exiled 
 heretic, as well as that of Constantia, the sister 
 of the emperor, who had herself embraced Arian 
 tenets, and in 328, permission was granted him to 
 return from lUyrioiim. Constantino was very gra- 
 cious, perhaps because he thought the chances of 
 peace being restored to the community were now 
 
 f:eater, for it had been represented to Tiirn by 
 usebius that the doctrines of A. did not essentially 
 diflfer from those of the Nicene Council. In 330 A. D., 
 A. had an interview with the emperor, and succeeded 
 in convincing him that Eusebius had only spoken the 
 truth. In Sie confession of faith which he pre- 
 sented, he declared his belief that the Son was bom 
 of the Father before all ages, and that as the ' Word,' 
 he had made all things both in heaven and earth. 
 The emperor was satisfied, and sent orders to 
 Athanasius, now Bishop of Alexandria, to receive A. 
 into the communion of the church. This Athanasius 
 refused to do, and a series of tumults was the con- 
 sequence. Eusebius was greatly irritated. He called 
 a synod of bishops at Tyre, in 335 A. D., which pro- 
 ceeded to depose Athanasius. The emperor was even 
 ■prevailed on to remove i;he latter to G^ul, though he 
 . alleged as his reason, that he wished to deliver liiTn 
 
 from the machinations of his enemies. In the same 
 year, another synod met at Jerusalem, which revoked 
 the sentence of excommunication uttered against A. 
 and his friends. Still the majority of the Christiana 
 of Alexandria clung to the doctrines of Athanasius, 
 and resolutely resisted every effort to establish the 
 new opinions among them. Disappointed in his 
 expectations, A., in 336 A. D., proceeded to Constan- 
 tinople, where he presented the emperor ■with another 
 apparently orthodox confession of faith; whereupon 
 orders were issued to Alexander, Bishop of Constan- 
 tinople, to administer to Arius ■the holy communion 
 on the Sunday foUowing. This was considered a 
 grand triumph by Eusebius and his friends, and 
 when the day arrived, they escorted A., as a guard 
 of honoiu;, iirough the streets of the metropolis. 
 When about to enter the temple in which it was 
 intended that he should be received ■with solemn 
 pomp, he retired a moment to relieve nature, but 
 fainted, and died of a violent hemorrhage. His. dis- 
 ciples declared that he had been poisoned, while the 
 orthodox devoutly affirmed that God had answered 
 the prayers of Alexander. 
 
 A. was exceedingly handsome, but the harassing 
 cares of a life spent in a continual struggle ■with his 
 adversaries, is said to have given him a worn and 
 haggard look. His manners wer? graceful and 
 modest ; he was noted for even an ascetic abstinence, 
 and the purity of his moral character was never 
 challenged by a single enemy. A. is said to have 
 composed songs for sailors, millers, and travellers, in 
 popular measures; for the purpose of spreading his 
 peculiar tenets ; but no traces of these survive. 
 
 After the death of A., his followers rallied round 
 Eusebius, now Bishop of Constantinople (338), from 
 whom they were styled Eusebians. The reconcihatory 
 middle party of Eusebius of Csesarea (died 340 A. D.), 
 who wished to end the great controversy by abstain- 
 ing from all strict dogmatic assertions on the 
 matter, soon dwindled into insignificance between 
 the two contending parties. Constans, who ruled 
 the West after the death of Constantine (337), and 
 Constantius, in the East, made an essay towards re- 
 conciliation ; but it failed at the synod of Sardeis (347), 
 where the occidental bishops gathered themselves 
 roimd Athanasius in support of the Somoomiam 
 doctrine (identity or sameness of mbstance),wh^e in a 
 separate council at PhilippopolM,'the oriental bishops 
 asserted the Hommousian doctrine (implying merely 
 similarity ofsuistance). Slight as might appear the 
 verbal difference between the two parties, tiie bitter- 
 ness of tbe controversy was intense, and pervaded 
 almost all departments of public and private hfe. 
 Constantius having, by the death of Constans (350) 
 and conquest over Magnentius (353), gained domi- 
 nion over the west, the Arian cause, which he 
 favoured, triumphed at the synod of Arelate or Aries 
 (353) and at that of Milan (355). These victories, 
 however, were more apparent than real. The Nicene 
 doctrine had still strong support on its side, and 
 was strictly maintained by the banished Athanasius 
 and his friends, while the Antinicseans, soon after 
 their triumph, were di^vided into at least three 
 parties. The old Arians, also styled Anomoeoi, or 
 Heterousians, asserted, in the boldest style, their 
 doctrine of ' distinct substances.' The semi- Arians 
 (a large majority-in the Eastern Church) maintained 
 the Homoiousian doctrine of similar substances. 
 A third party held the same doctrine "with some 
 qualification. Morally, the -victory was leaning to 
 the side of the Nioaeans. Julian the Apostate 
 (361—363), in his hatred of the Christian religion, 
 left all parties at hberty to contend as they pleased 
 ■with one another, so that they did not interfere with 
 his plans. Jo-vianus and his followers in the west, 
 Valentinianus I., Gratianus, and Valentinianus H., 
 
 403 
 
AEKANSAS— AUK OP THE COVENANT. 
 
 extended full toleration to botli parties. Arianism, 
 at last, was virtually abolished in the Roman empire, 
 under Theodosius in the east (379 — 395), and Valen- 
 tinianus 11. in the west. ^Among the German 
 nations, however, it continued to spread thi'ough 
 missionary efforts. Bishop Ulfilas, the translator of 
 the Bible' into the Msso-Gothic language, had been 
 the means of converting the West Gotns to Arian 
 Christianity as early as 348 ; and they adhered to 
 it until the synod of Toledo in 589. _ The East 
 Goths, Vandals, Burgundians, the Suevi in Spain, 
 and the Longobards also adopted Arianism; but in 
 all these instances the Nicene doctrine ultimately 
 prevailed, most slowly among the Longobards, who 
 retained the Arian creed untS 662. The Arian con- 
 troversy has never excited any great interest in 
 modern times, though in England it was revived for 
 a time by the writings of the learned Dr Samuel 
 Clarke (1675—1729), and also by Whiston, who died 
 in 1752. More recently, a part of the Arian doctrine, 
 the denial of ' the eternal sonship,' was broached in 
 the Wesleyan Methodist Society by Dr Adam Clarke 
 and a few followers ; but it was soon suppressed by 
 the Conference. Pure Arianism can hardly now 
 be said to exist. It has gradually lapsed into 
 Unitarianism (q. v.) ; see also Socinianism. 
 
 ARKA'STSAS, one of the larger states of the 
 American Union, taking its name from the river 
 A. Throughout its entire length, it occupies the 
 right bank of the Mississippi, being separated by 
 that stream, towards the east, from Tennessee 
 and the north half of Mississippi. Its boundaries 
 to the south, west, and north are pittely arbitrary 
 and conventional, and are best learned from a map. 
 With a length of 240 miles, and a breadth of 224, 
 the area of A. is 52,198 square miles, being pretty 
 nearly the same as that of England proper. In 1854, 
 out of the equivalent 33,406,720 acres, only 857,179 
 were cultivated — very little more than -J~ of the 
 whole, or than -f of the lands liable to taxation as 
 being allotted and occupied. Of this aggregate, again, 
 256,666 acres were in cotton, and 600,513 in grain. 
 In 1858, the population was 331,213, while in 1850 
 it had been only 209,639 — the increase in eight 
 years being about 60 per cent. A. is a slave state ; 
 of its entire population, the slaves appear to average 
 rather less than a fourth part. Though nominally 
 colonised by the French in 1685, yet in 1803 it was 
 stiU virtually a wilderness, when, as a portion of 
 Louisiana, it came by purchase into the possession of 
 the United States, whfle it was only in 1819 and 1836 
 respectively that it became first a territory, and then 
 a state of the Union. The towns of A. are small, for 
 Little Hock, which is the seat of government, with 
 3000 inhabitants, is twice as populous as any other 
 place in the state. 
 
 In climate and productions A. occupies, as it were, 
 an intermediate position between the states of the 
 west and those of the south. A. is rich in minerals, 
 particularly in manganese, zinc, and gypsum. It 
 also contains the principal varieties of coal — cannel, 
 anthracite, and bituminous. It likewise possesses 
 lead-ores, which are said to contain a large proportion 
 of sUver. The manufactures of the state are com- 
 paratively insignificant. 
 
 The internal improvements of A. are confined 
 chiefly to plank-roads and levees or embankments 
 against the Mississippi. Of a projected railway of 
 155 miles from Little' Rock to Memphis in Tennessee, 
 only 29 miles appear to have been actually com- 
 pleted. In fact, the state is comparatively inde- 
 pendent of works of this description, penetrated as 
 it is by so many navigable rivers — the A., the 
 White River, the St Francis, the Red River, the 
 Washita, &o. 
 404 
 
 On 1st October 1858, the public debt of A., con- 
 tracted mainly in support of banks, amounted to 
 3,138,972 dollars, ' nearly half of it representing 
 ' interest accrued and unpaid.' The revenue for the 
 preceding two years was 945,884 dollars, being 
 generally the result of a direct assessment on pro- 
 perty of almost every description — ^lands, houses, 
 fm-niture, horses, mules, cattle, stock-in-trade of aU 
 -trades, gold watches, jewellery, &c. 
 
 The state legislature meets only once in two years. 
 To the Lower House of Congress, A., in the propor- 
 tion of its population, sends two representatives ; 
 while, like every other state, it has two senators in 
 the Upper House. 
 
 AEKA'NSAS RIVER, next to the Missouri the 
 largest affluent of the Mississippi. It is 2000 miles 
 long, rising in the Rocky Mountains on the borders 
 of Utah, and joining the ' Father of Waters ' in lat. 
 33° 54' N.,- and long. 91° 10' W. Flowing gener- 
 ally through a level country, it presents but few- 
 obstacles to navigation. The principal difficulty is 
 connected with its periodical rise and fall — the 
 difference between season and season being not 
 less than 25 feet. Notwithstanding this, however, 
 the A. is practicable for steamboats, during nine 
 months of the year, to a distance of 800 miles 
 from its mouth. It divides the state which takes 
 its name into nearly equal parts, varying in breadth 
 within the limits of the same from 3 furlongs to 
 half a "mile. Its banks also, in its lower course, 
 contain a good deal of stone-coal. 
 
 A'RKLOW, a seaport town in the south-east 
 corner of Wicklow county, in lat. 43° 40' N., 
 and long. 4° 38' W., at the mouth of the river 
 Avooa, which is crossed here by a bridge of nine- 
 teen arches. It consists of an upper well-built town, 
 and a lower, inhabited by fishermen. 200 boats 
 are employed in the herring and oyster fishery. 
 Near the town is Shelton Abbey, the seat of the 
 Earl of Wicklow. Sand-banks unfit the harbour for 
 ships of any size, and extensive sand-dunes exist on ^ 
 the adjacent coast. In 1798, a bloody encounter 
 took place here between the royal troops and the 
 United Irishmen. Pop. in 1851, 3306. 
 
 ARK OF THE COVENANT, ARK OF THE 
 TESTIMONY, or ARK OF JEHOVAH, one of 
 the most important parts of the furniture of the 
 tabernacle, which, by divine direction, the IsraeKtes 
 constructed in the wilderness, and afterwards of 
 the temple bmlt by Solomon at JerusaleuL A 
 description of it is to be found in Exodus xxv., in 
 the command given to Moses for its construction ; 
 and also in Exodus xxxvii., from which it appears 
 that it was a chest of shittim-wood (very generally 
 supposed to be the wood of a species of acacia, but 
 by some regarded as more probably that of the 
 wild-olive), overlaid with gold within and without, 
 two cubits and a half in length, one cubit and a half 
 in breadth and in height — that is, according to the 
 common estimate of the length of the cubit, 3 feet 
 9 inches in length, and 2 feet 3 inches in breadth 
 and height — the lid being formed entirely of pure 
 gold, with a crown or raised border of gold round 
 about. Within the ark was deposited the 'testi- 
 mony,' consisting of ' the two tables of the law,' i. e., 
 the stone tablets upon which the ten commandments 
 were inscribed. The golden lid of the ark was called 
 the mercy-seat or propitiatory, and above it were the 
 cJiervMms (q. v.), made of the same piece of gold with 
 it, and between them was the place of the Sheehinah 
 or manifestation of the Divine presence. The ark 
 had also golden rings, through which passed staves 
 of shittim-wood, overlaid wifli gold, for carrying it 
 in the journeyings of the Israehtes, concerning 
 which very particular rules were laid down (see 
 
AEKONA— AEKWTRIGHT. 
 
 Numbers, iv.). Whilst being carried from one place 
 to another, it was covered first with a 'covering 
 of badgers' skins,' and above this with ' a cloth 
 whoUy of blue;' and in the tabernacle and temple 
 it was put into the ' most holy place,' into which 
 the high-priest alone was to enter upon the ' day of 
 atonement.' The ark was called the A. of the C, 
 because it was the appointed symbol of the presence 
 of God as the God of Israel, and of his covenant 
 with his people. The things of the Jewish dispen- 
 sation being regarded as typical, and the Jewish 
 reli^on as essentially one with the Christian, the 
 ark is commonly regarded as a type of Christ ; the 
 excellency and unohangeableness of the moral law, 
 as indicated by the place assigned to it within the 
 ark, which, however, sprinkled with the blood of 
 typical sacrifice, was interposed between it and 
 men, who, having transgressed it, Were exposed 
 to its curse ; and the mercy-seat, in like manner 
 sprinkled with the blood of sacrifice, was interposed, 
 as it were, between the law and God, who is repre- 
 sented in the Old Testament as ' duelling between 
 the cherubims,' and thence shining forth as the 
 God of mercy, favourable to his worshippers. A 
 complete harmony is thus made out between these 
 Old-Testament types and Christian theology. — It is 
 worthy also of notice, that sacred arks or chests 
 have been connected with the worship of various 
 heathen nations, and have been placed as the most 
 sacred things in the innermost parts of the temple, 
 which only the priests were permitted to enter. 
 The relation of these to the ark of the Jews has 
 been the subject of much learned inquiry, but has 
 not yet received thorough and satisfactory elucida- 
 tion. — The ark appears not to have been brought 
 back from Babylon, and so never to have been in 
 the second temple. No figure of it appears among 
 the sacred vessels of the temple represented on the 
 Arch of Titus. 
 
 AEKO'NA, the north-east promontory of the 
 island of Rugen, in the Baltic, almost the most 
 northern extremity of Germany. Its steep cliffs 
 mainly consist of mixed chalk and loam, with hori- 
 zontal veins of flint ; there is a small deposit of pure 
 chalk towards the east. Myriads of sand-martins 
 build in the clefts of these cliffs. The view from 
 their summit extends to the coast of Jaamund on 
 the right, on the left to the islands of Hiddensoe 
 and Moen. The name A. is veiy ancient. In the 
 chronicles of Saxo Grammaticus we find it written 
 Archona, but its derivation is quite uncertain. On 
 the west side is the famous wall or fortified enclo- 
 Bure in which stood the temple of the Wend 
 deity Swantewit. King Waldemar I. of Denmark, 
 after a bloody conflict, took possession of the fortress 
 in 1168, burnt the idol and its temple, and carried 
 away its treasures to Denmark. On its site, a light- 
 house, 75 feet high, was built in 1827. 
 
 A'RKWRIGHT, Sm Eiohaud, celebrated for his 
 inventions in cotton-spinning, was bom at Preston, 
 in Lancashire, December 23, 1732. Of humble origin, 
 the youngest -of thirteen children, and bred to the 
 trade of a barber, his early opportunities of cultivation 
 were exceedingly limited. In 1760, he gave up his 
 business as a barber, and became a dealer in hair. 
 A secret process for dyeing hair, said to have been 
 discovered by himself, increased considerably the 
 profits of his trade. Very little is known regarding 
 the first movements of his mind in the direction of 
 mechanical''invention. His residence in the midst of 
 a cotton-spinning population naturally led bim to 
 take an interest in the processes used. in that manu- 
 facture. That the development of his mechanical 
 ingenuity -fras not, however, due to circumstances, is 
 ■' svumoiently proved by the fact, that his first effort 
 
 was an attempt to discover the perpetual motion. 
 Having no practical skill in mechanics, he secured 
 the services of a watchmaker, named Kay, to assist 
 him in the construction of his apparatus. About 
 1767, he seems to have given himself whoUy up to 
 inventions in cotton-spinning. In the following year* 
 he removed to Preston, where he set up his first 
 machine, the celebrated spinning-frame, consisting 
 chiefly of two pairs of rollers, the first pair moving 
 slowly in contact, ,and passing the cotton to the other 
 pair, which revolved with such increased velocity as to 
 draw out the thread to the required degree of fineness. 
 No previously invented machinery had been able 
 to produce cotton-thread of sufficient tenuity and 
 strength to be used as warp. An invention, indeed, 
 by Mr Charles Wyatt of Birmingham, which was 
 patented in 1738, but never succeeded, deprives 
 A. of the honour of having been the first to use 
 rollers in spinning ; but there is no reason to believe 
 that he owed anything to this previous attempt. 
 The first suggestion of the idea, he said, was derived 
 from seeing a red-hot iron bar elongated by being 
 made to pass between rollers. At this time A. was 
 so poor that he needed to be furnished with a suit of 
 clothes before he could appear to vote ^t an election 
 as a burgess of PrestoiL Soon after, he removed to 
 Nottingham, to escape the popular rage, which had 
 already driven Hargrteaves, the inventor of the 
 spinning-jenny, out of Lancashire. Here he fortu- 
 nately fell in with Mr Jedidiah Strutt of Derby, the 
 celebrated improver of the stocking-frame, who 
 entered into partnership with him, in conjunction 
 with his partner Mr Need. In 1769 A. set up his 
 first mill, driven by horses, and took out a patent 
 for his invention. In 1771 he set up a larger fac- 
 tory, with water-power, at Cromford, in Derbyshire. 
 The remarkable capabilities of his mind were strik- 
 ingly evinced in the management of the great busi- 
 ness which now demanded his undivided attention. 
 Without personal experience, and with no model to 
 guide him, he introduced a system of management 
 so admirable that it was afterwards universally 
 adopted, and has never been materially improved. 
 In 1775 he took out a fresh patent for various addi- 
 tional improvements in machinery. The success 
 attending these undertakings stimulated rivals to 
 invade his patent ; and to such an extent did other 
 cotton-spinners use his designs, that he was obliged, 
 in 1781, to prosecute at once nine different manufac- 
 turers. The first action against Colonel Mordaunt, 
 backed by a strong combination of Lancashire 
 manufacturers, was lost, solely on the ground thal^ 
 his description in his specification was not suffi- 
 ciently clear and distinct. The other actions were 
 abandoned; and, in the following year, A. published 
 a pamphlet containing a statement of his case. In 
 a new trial, in 1785, he obtained a favourable ver- 
 dict. The whole question, however, was brought 
 finally before the Court of King's Bench, a few 
 months after, when A.'s claim to the inventions 
 patented was for the first time called into dispute. 
 On the doubtful evidence of a person named Highs, 
 or Hayes, combined with , that of A.'s old assis- 
 tant Kay, the jury decided against him, and his 
 patent was annulled. , This was but the formal out- 
 come of an opposition which had from the beginning 
 marked out A. as an object of hostility. The manu- 
 facturers at fbrst combined to discountenance the 
 use of his yarn. When the yarn was made into 
 calicoes, and parliament was petitioned to lessen the 
 duty on that cloth, they strenuously opposed the 
 measure, but in vain. Popular animosity was also 
 excited against the man who abridged labour, but in 
 reality increased its sphere ; and on one occasion, 
 a large factory belonging to A. was destrojred in the 
 presence of a powerful military and police force, 
 
AELES— ASM. 
 
 without a ■word of interference from tlie magis- 
 trates. The energy and good sense of A., however, 
 triumphed over all opposition ; and at the time of 
 his deith, in 1792, the value of his property- 
 amounted to about half a million sterling, In 1786 
 he was appmnted high-sheriff of Derbyshire ; and on 
 the occasion of presenting an address to the king, 
 congratulating him on his escape from the knife of 
 tlie maniac Margaret Nicholson, he received the well- 
 merited honour of knighthood. A severe asthma 
 had pressed upon bim from his youth; and a 
 complication of disorders, the result of his busy 
 sedentary He, terminated his honourable career 
 at the comparatively early age of sixty. 
 
 ARLES (anciently, Arelate), one of fhe oldest 
 towns in France, situated on the left bank of the 
 principal branch of the Khone, after it has divided 
 into a delta, in the department of Bouches du 
 Rhone. Population of the municipality, 22,971 ; of 
 the town, 14,750. A. carries on % considerable 
 trade. It has manufactures of silk, hats, tobacco, 
 brandy, &c., and forms a market for the productions 
 of the surrounding country. It also possesses a 
 college, a naval school, a public library, and a superb 
 museum of antiquities in natural history. The 
 marshes which rendered the district so unhealthy for 
 a long time, have been considerably drained, and a 
 canal has been formed which connects it with the 
 south coast. Railways also bring it into easy com- 
 munication with Marseille, Avignon, Ntmes, Mont- 
 peDier, &c. Under the Romans, it was the seat of a 
 prefect ; afterwards, for some time, the residence of 
 the Gotiiic king, Eurich ; . and, in 879, was the metro- 
 polis of the kingdom of Arelate (see Buhguitdy). In 
 the early Christian times, several important synods 
 were convened here (314, 354, 452, and 475 A. D.). 
 Among the antiqviities of A. are amagmficent amphi- 
 theatre, which could contain between 20,000 and 
 30,000 spectators ; the ruins of a theatre, also of a 
 palace of Constantine the Great; an obelisk of 
 granite, dug up from the mud of the Rhone in 1389 ; 
 a burial-place (the Elysian Fields) used by the 
 Romans ; and a medieval cathedral, in the old 
 Roman style, with a splendid portal arch. 
 
 ARM, the upper extremity of the human body, 
 consists of two portions — ^the A., strictly so called, 
 and the forearm ; the former having one bone, the 
 humerus (1), which moves 
 freely by a globular head 
 uK upon the scapula, forming 
 the shoulder-joint; and 
 
 the latter having two 
 bones, the radius (3) and 
 ulna (2), which move on 
 the lower end of the 
 hiunerus, forming the 
 elbow- joint, and below, 
 with the carpus, forming 
 the wrist. 
 
 The humerus is attached , 
 by a loose capsular liga- 
 ment to the scapula, 
 allowing great freedom of 
 motion; and were it not 
 for the muscles passing 
 into I and K, would be 
 frequently dislocated, but 
 ' it is supported by these 
 muscles on all sides except 
 underneath or opposite 
 the armpit (q. v.), into 
 which the head of the bone is often driven. The 
 roundness of the shoulder is due to the head of the 
 humerus, so that any displacement is accompanied 
 by a flattening, which at once suggests the nature 
 
 Bones of the Human Arm. 
 
 of the accident. On the shoulder is a large trian- 
 gular muscle, the deltoid, which, lifts the A. from 
 the side. At the back is the triceps, which extends 
 the forearm ; jn front are two muscles which flex or 
 bend it — ^the biceps, and the brachialis antious ', and 
 on each side below are muscles passing to the 
 forearm and hand ; while on each side above, the 
 great muscle of the back (latissimus dorsi) and that 
 of the chest (the pectoralis major) are inserted on 
 each side of a groove, wherein lies one of the ten- 
 dons of the biceps (q. v.). The motions of the ulna 
 are flexion or bending effected by the biceps, and 
 extension or straightening by the brachiahs anticus 
 and the triceps, its projections D and A being 
 received in these movements into corresponding 
 depressions on the humerus. The movements of 
 the hand are principally due to the radius, the head 
 of which roUs at C and H upon the ulna at F and 
 L, thereby turning the palm downwards (pronation), 
 or restoring the palm upwards (supination), these 
 
 HumaifArm 
 
 dbc, deltoid muscle; (Z, coraco brachialis mnscle; r, r, triceps; 
 c, i,, extensors of -wrist and long supinator of the hand ; km, 
 iiexor of fingers and radial and ulnar sides of the wrist, and 
 ;, palm of the hand, or palmatis longus ; p, palmarls brevis ; 
 g, palmar fascia; o, biceps. 
 
 movements being effected by muscles, two for each 
 movement, which taking their fixed points from the 
 humerus and ulna, ;puB. the radius round on the 
 latter. The elbow-joint is ginglymoid or hinge-hke,, 
 and therefore has strong laterd ligaments; but it is 
 extremely hable to dislocations, often accompanied 
 by fracture, especially in the young. The accident 
 being followed by severe inflammation, the joint 
 is very apt to stiffen, thereby seriously (see Ajtkv- 
 LOSis) deteriorating from the Tisefulness of the 
 limb; it is, therefore, unadvisable to keep the 
 limb too long in any one position after such an 
 injury. This joint is also very Hable/ to disease; 
 but as this is confined to -the ends of -the bones, the 
 small portions of the latter affected can be readily 
 cut out, and the arm be restored to usefulness and 
 mobility in a few weeks. 
 
 The upper extremity is supplied -with blood by 
 
AEM— ARMADA. 
 
 thebrachial arteiy, the continuation, of the axillary 
 trmik. The veins collect into large superficial trunks, 
 wliich vinite at ttie bend of &e elbow, at -which 
 situation one is frequently selected for venesection, 
 and tiien pass on to the axillarjr, on the outside by 
 the cephalic vein, on the inner side by the basilic. 
 
 The nerves pass down as large cords by the side ' 
 of the artery, and diverge from it to their ultimate 
 ■distributions ; the musoUlo-spiral soon ^ passing 
 round at the back to appear on the outside, and 
 teoome the radial and posterior interosseous nerves ; 
 "the ulnar running bemnd the internal condyle, N, 
 for which it has obtained the term ' funny bone,' 
 irom the eleotrio-bke thriU which passes along the 
 arm when the nerve is struck or pressed. The 
 median, as its name implies, keeps a middle course 
 with the artery. 
 
 In wounds of the forearm, the bleeding is often 
 excessive, but may be at once controlled by pressure 
 ■«n the brachial artery, on the inner side of the 
 biceps^^ 
 
 The arm affords excellent illustrations of some of 
 "the principles of mechanics. The insertion of the 
 muscles so near, as will be seen, to the fulcra or 
 ■centres of motion, involves a loss of power in the 
 usual sense of the word ; there is, however, a corre- 
 sponding gain in velocity at the end 'of the lever ; and. 
 ior most of the purposes to which the hand is put, 
 agility is of far greater moment than dead strength. 
 
 ABM. In maritime language, besides the Obvious 
 apphcatiou to weapons of warfare, this term is 
 ■applied to each extremity of a bibb, or bracket, 
 attached to the mast of a ship for supporting the 
 trestle-trees. The same name is also given to a part 
 ■of the anchor. See Anchob. — In military language, 
 the infantry, the cavalry, the artiUeiy, and vas 
 engineers are each called ' an A. ' of the service- 
 equivalent to branch or department. 
 
 ARMA'DA, a Spanish word signifying simply an 
 armed force, but applied specially to the great 
 ■Spanish fleet which invaded England iu 1588. The 
 king of Spain, Philip II., had resolved to strike a 
 ■decmve blow at the Protestant interest, by conquer- 
 ing England, which Pope Sistus V. had made over 
 •to him. The ports of Spain, Portugal, and other 
 iuaritiine dominions belonging to him, had long 
 resounded with the noise of his preparations, and the 
 most eminent Catholic soldiers from aU parts of 
 Europe flocked to take a share in the expedition. 
 "The .Marquis of Santa-Croce, a sea-officer of g»eat 
 reputation and experience, was destined to command 
 -the fleet, which consisted of a hundred and thirty 
 vessels, of greater size than any that had been hitherto 
 seen in Europe. The Duke of Parma was to conduct 
 •the land-forces, 20,000 of whom were on board the 
 .ships of war, and 34,000 more were assembled in the 
 Netherlands, ready to be transported into England ; 
 so that, as no doubt was entertained of success, the 
 ifleet was ostentatiously styled the Invincible A. 
 Nothing could exceed the terror and consternation 
 -which seized aU ranks of people in England upon the 
 news of this terrible A. being under sail to invade 
 -them. A squadron of not more than thirty ships of 
 the line, and those very small in comparison, was all 
 -that Elizabeth had to oppose it by sea ; and it was 
 considered impossible to make any effectual resist- 
 ance by land, as the Spanish army was composed of 
 men well disciplined and long inured to danger. 
 But although the English fleet was much inferior in 
 number and size of smpping to that cxt the enemy, it 
 ■was much more manageable, whUe -the dexterity and 
 ■courage of the manners were greatly superior. 
 Lord Howard of Effingham, a man of great valour 
 and capacil^r, took upon him, as lord high admiral, 
 the conuuand of the na^ry; Drake, Hawkins, and 
 
 Frobisher, the most renowned seamen in Europe, 
 served under him ; while another squadron, consist- 
 ing of forty vessels, EngKsh and Flemish, commanded 
 by Lord Seymour, lay off Dunkirk, in order to inter- 
 cept the Duke of Parma. Such was the preparation 
 made by the English; while all the Protestant 
 powers of Europe regarded this enterprise as the^ 
 critical event which was to decide for ever the fate 
 of their religion. In the meantime, while the Spanish 
 A. was preparing to sail, the admiral, Santa-Croce, 
 died, as likewise the vice-admiral, PaUano ; and the 
 command of the expedition w'as given to the Duke 
 of Medina Sidonia, a person utterly inexperienced in 
 sea affairs ; these unexpected circumstances served, 
 in some measure, to frustrate the design. Some 
 other accidents also contributed to its failure. Upon 
 leaving the port of Lisbon, the A. next day met with 
 a violent tempest, which sank some of the smallest 
 of the ships, and obliged the rest to put back into 
 the harbour. After some time spent in refitting, the 
 Spaniards again put to sea, where they took a fisher- 
 man, who gave them inteUigenoe that the English 
 fleet, hearing of the dispersion of the A in a storm, 
 had returned to Plymouth, and that most of the 
 mariners were discharged. From -this false intelli- 
 gence, the Spanish admiral, instead of going to the 
 coast of Flanders, to take in the troops stationed 
 there, resolved to sail directly to Plymouth, and 
 destroy the shipping laid up in the harbour. But 
 Effingham was very well prepared to reopive him, 
 and had just got out of port, when he saw the 
 Spanish A. eommg full sail towaicds him, disposed in 
 the foisBi of a M^^aoon, and stieteOaJng seven miles 
 from the on© extrematy to ibe ««liheE. Itlhe English 
 admira9,8eQ0iLdedb^ Drake, Hawkins, iundFrobisher, 
 attacked &e Spaniaa;ds at a distance, pouring in their 
 broadsides with admirable dexterity. They did not 
 choose to engage the enexn^ more (dosely, because 
 they were ■gneatly inferior n ipwaalher .of ships and 
 guns, as w.6ffl as jn weight of metal ; nor could they 
 pretend to board suc^ lofty .vessds without manifest 
 disadvantage. In this action, howeweir, ■bwo Spanisli 
 galleons were disabled and taken. As the A. 
 advanced Up the Channel, the English still followed 
 and infested its rear ; and as 'their ships con'tinually 
 increased from different ports, they soon found them- 
 selves in a capacity to attack the Spanish fleet more 
 nearly, and accordingly fell upon -them while they 
 were taking shelter in -tlie port of Calais. To increase 
 their confusion, Howard selected eight of his smaller 
 vessels, whidi, after filling them -with combustible 
 materials, he sent one after another, as if they had 
 been fire-ships, into the midst of the enemy. The 
 Spaniards, taking them for what they seemed to be, 
 immediately bore off in great disorder; while the 
 English, profiting by their panic, captured ordestroyed 
 about twelve ships. The Duke of Medina Sidonia 
 being thus driven to the coast of Zealand, held a 
 council of war, in which it was i;esolved, that, as 
 their ammunitiou began to fajl, as their fleet had 
 received great damage, and as the Duke of Parma 
 had refused to venture his arany imder their protec- 
 tion, they should return to Spain by sailing round 
 the Orkneys, as the -winds were contrary to their 
 passage directly back. Accordingly, they proceeded 
 northward, and were followed by the English fleet 
 as far as Flamborough Head, where t£ey were 
 terribly shattered by a storm. Seventeen of the 
 ships, having 5000 men on board, were afterwards 
 cast away on the Western Isles and the coast of 
 Ireland. Of the whole A, fifty-three ships only 
 retimied to Spain, and these in a ■wretched condi- 
 tion. The seamen, as weE as the soldiers who 
 remained, were so overcome -with hardships and 
 fatigue, and so dispirited by their discomfiture, that 
 they filled all Spain with accounts of the desperate 
 
ARMADILLO— ARMAGH. 
 
 valom- of the English, and of the tempestuous violence 
 of that ocean by whicluthey were surrounded. 
 
 AKMADI'LLO {Da'sypus), a genus of mammalia 
 of the order Edentata (i. e., toothless)— not, however, 
 truly toothless, but having feeble teeth destitute of 
 true roots, and set apart from each other, and so that 
 those of the one jaw fit into the interstices of those 
 of the other. The number of the teeth is different in 
 different species. The muzzle is elongated, and the 
 tongue smooth and slender, with, a glutinous saliva, 
 adapted to the capture of ants and other insects, 
 after the manner of the. ant-eaters, but not long and 
 ejrtensile, like theirs. The hmbs are 'short and 
 strong, as are also the claws, and the animals have 
 a great aptitude for digging and burrowing, by 
 means of which they seek to shelter themselves 
 from enemies — burrowing in sand or soft earth with 
 such rapidity that it is almost impossible to dig 
 them out, and indeed it can only be done by persever- 
 ing till they are exhausted. But that which peculi- 
 arly distinguishes the A., and in which this genus 
 differs from all the other mammaha, except the 
 CHamyphorus (q. v.), is the bony armoiu- with which 
 the body is covered, and which consists of polygonal 
 plates not articulated, united on the head to form a 
 solid coveting, and similarly to form soHd bucklers 
 over the shomders and the haunches ; and between 
 
 these, disposed in transverse bands, which allow of 
 freedom of motion to the body, similar bands in most 
 species protecting also the tail. Armadillos feed not 
 only on insects, but on vegetable and animal food 
 of almost every kind, which by decomposition or 
 otherwise has acquired a sufficient softness. Some 
 of them prefer vegetable food, others delight chiefly 
 in carrion. They are all natives of the warm and 
 temperate parts of South America, in the woods and 
 pampas of which they are found in immense numbers. 
 They are timid and inoffensive, although, when they 
 are incautiously assailed, injury may be received 
 from their claws. Their flesh is esteemed a delicacy, 
 particularly that of the species which feed chiefly on 
 vegetable food. The largest species is fully three 
 feet long, exclusive of the tail ; the smallest, not 
 above ten inches. The species are numerous, and 
 the genus has been divided into a number of sub- 
 genera, which some naturalists elevate into genera, 
 naming the family Loricata (i. e., mailed). To this 
 family belongs also the genus Ohlamyphorui, also 
 South American. Fossil remains of gigantic extinct 
 armadillos have been found in the pleistocene strata 
 of South America, forming the genus Olyfptodon of 
 Owen, so named from the fluted teeth. 
 
 ARMADI'LliO is also the scientific name of a 
 genus of Crustacea of the order Isopoda of Cuvier. 
 This is one of the genera usually included imder the 
 popular name of Woodlouse, and one of which 
 (Porcdlio) is very generally known by that of 
 Slater. The armadillos derive their name from the 
 
 408 
 
 scaly armour of their body, in which an analogy is 
 
 found to the mailed quadrupeds of South America. 
 
 They have, in a remarkable degree, the 
 
 power of rolling themselves into a ball, when 
 
 alarmed, so as to expose nothing but the 
 
 plates of the back, and have thence received 
 
 the name of PUl Beetles. Like some of 
 
 the other closely allied Isopoda, they were 
 
 at one time reputed to possess medicinal 
 
 virtues, now accounted merely imaginary. 
 
 i?hey were not only used in a dried and j^j^^- 
 
 pulverised state, but they are said to have g^^ \ 
 
 been actually swallowed entire as piUs. 
 
 A. vulgaris is not uncommon in damp places, under 
 
 stones, &o., in Britain. 
 
 ARMA'GH, a small inland county in Ulster, 
 Ireland ; bounded N. by Lough Neagh, E. by Down, 
 S. by Louth, W. by Mbnaghan and Tyrone. Its 
 greatest length is 32 miles, and, breadth 20. It is 
 the 27th in size of the Irish counties; area, 512^ 
 square miles, about four-fifths being arable, and a 
 36th part in woods. The surface is hilly in the 
 south, and undulating in the centre, attaining in 
 Slieve GuUion, in the south-west, the height of 
 1893 feet. The other chief heights are the Newry 
 Mountains, 1385 feet; the Armagh-breague Hills, 
 1200 ; and MuUy'ash, 1034. The country bordering 
 upon Lough Neagh is low and boggy, and the Louth 
 plain extends into the south end of A. The prin- 
 cipal rivers, navigable in their lower parts, are the 
 Upper Bann, flowing out of Down north-west for 11 
 nnles before it enters Lough Neagh ; and the Black- 
 water, which, in its lower part, separates A. from 
 Monaghan. The rocks of A. are — Lower Silurian in 
 the south and middle of the county; the trap of 
 Antrim, with the underlying greensand, around 
 Portadown ; carboniferous limestone in the basins 
 of the Blackwater, and its tributary the Callan; 
 granite in the mountains of the south-east; and 
 tertiary strata bordering Lough Neagh. The soil 
 is fertile except in the southern extremities. In 
 1858, 179,598 acres — nearly half the county — ^were 
 in crop, the principal crops being oat|, potatoes, 
 wheat, and flax. The stock in that year was 13,943 
 horses, 72,176 cattle, 8043 sheep, 21,647 pigs. The 
 north and central parts of A. exhibit a dense popula- 
 tion, low hills cultivated to the tops, hedgerows, 
 orchards, and thickly scattered farm-steadings. Pop. 
 in 1851, 196,085, shewing a decrease of 6308 in ten 
 years. The county is mostly in the diocese of 
 Armagh, and contains 28 parishes and parts of 
 parishes. It returns three members of parliament 
 — two for the county, and one for the city. The 
 chief towns are A., Liirgan, Portadown, and Newry. 
 Armagh, the capital of the county of A., in a car- 
 boniferous limestone district, in the north-west of the 
 county. It is, situated round the base and on the 
 slopes of a gentle eminence, hence its original name, 
 Ard-Magha, 'the high field.' It is well bmlt, of lime- 
 stone. The only edifice of other material is the 
 cathedral, which is built of red sandstone, and is 
 cruciform — 184 by 119 feet — crowning the central 
 eminence, and is supposed to occupy the site of that 
 erected by St Patrick in the 5th c. It has recently 
 been repaired and beautified, chiefly at the cost 
 (£10,000) of the present Lord Primate, Lord Beres- 
 ford. Lesser eminences rise on the north-east and 
 south of A. A new Gothic Roman CathoHc cathe- 
 dral occupies the principal height to the north, and 
 the primatial palace that to the south. There is 
 a fever hospital for forty patients, maintained by 
 the present primate, and a limatic asylum for four 
 counties. A. is the seat of the Archiepiscopal see 
 of the Primate and Metropolitan. of aU teland, who 
 has an income of £12,087 a year. Pop. of the town 
 in 1851, 9306. A. returns one member to parliament. 
 
ARMAGNAC— AEMED SHIP. 
 
 The chief manufacture is liaen-weaving. A., from the 
 year 495 to the 9th c, was the metropolis of Ireland, 
 the native kings Hving at Eamania, 2 miles to the 
 west of the city. It was then renowned as & school 
 of theology and literature — its college being the first 
 in Europe. After the Reformation, it suffered severely 
 in the_oonflicts between the English and Irish ; and 
 it contained only three slated houses in 1765. 
 
 ARMAGNAC {Ager Aremonicus), the old name 
 of a district in the south of France, which at one 
 time seems to have extended from the valleys of the 
 Pyrenees to the Garonne. It is now included 
 in the departments of Hautes Pyrgnges and Gers. 
 The remarkably fertile land, producing grain and 
 the best descriptions of vraie, and also favourable 
 for pasturage, is out up into an extraordinary number 
 of small estates, and divided among numerous petty 
 proprietors. The principal branch of trade is the 
 distillation of the brandy known in commerce as 
 JEIau d^Armagnac, which rivals those of Cognac and 
 Saiutonge. The ancient capital is Leotoure, on the 
 river Gers, with 2879 inhabitants. To the south of 
 it 'lies Aueh, the chief town of the department of 
 Gers. Pop., 7942. The people are noted for their 
 simplicity, strength, and bravery ; but, on the other 
 hand, they are extremely credulous and igndrant. 
 Formerly, their services were highly valued in 
 times of war. The A. family, descended from the 
 old Merovignian king. Clevis, played an important 
 part in French history. 
 
 A'RMAMENT is a general name for the weapons 
 of war employed in sea and land battles; all the 
 weapons collectively being oaUed the A. of a ship or 
 an army. 
 
 ARMANSPERG, Jos. Ludw., Coukt or, formerly 
 president of the government in Greece, was bom in 
 Lower Bavaria in 1787, and early embraced an admini- 
 strative and diplomatic career. On the accession of 
 King Louis to the throne. A., who had already occu- 
 pied several important posts, was summoned to 
 Munich, where, rapidly rising from one dignity to 
 another, he at length became minister of finance and 
 of foreign affairs. In both capacities he proved active 
 and successful ; but he drew upon himself the hatred 
 of the Camarilla by his strenuous opposition to 
 the claims of Rome, as well as by his attempts to 
 identify himself with ths decidedly liberal party. 
 The consequence was that, in 1831, he lost his post, 
 and in the same year was appointed ambassador to 
 London, but preferred retiring to his family estate. 
 However, he could not resist the king's repeated 
 request that he would xmdertake the formation of 
 his sou's government in Greece, and accordingly, 
 accompanying j'oung King Otho, A. landed at Nauplia 
 in January 1833. For four years he was at the head 
 of public affairs, and Greece derived many benefits 
 from his administration ; but ithe heat of party 
 strife and court intrigues led to his • dismissal, 
 and he left Greece in March 1837. Since that 
 time he has lived in retirement upon his property, 
 near Deggendorf. 
 
 ARMATO'LBS, a body of Greek militia, first 
 formed under the reign of Sultan Selim I. about 
 the beginning of the 16^h c. They were intended 
 to preserve the fertile plains from the ravages of 
 the Klephts (mountain robbers of Thessaly), who had 
 never been entirely conquered by the Turks. The 
 A. themselves were .originally Klephts, but received 
 their more honoiu'able designation when the Porte 
 had metamorphosed them into a sort of nulitary 
 police. The safety of the public roads was intrusted 
 to their care. The whole of Northern Greece was 
 divided into sixteen districts (capitainesriea), each 
 placed under the supervision of " a chief of these 
 militia, who, however, had himself to receive ordex-s 
 
 from a Turkish pasha or Greek bishop. But although 
 the A. frequently suppressed the brigandage of 
 the Klephts, they still regarded them m the light 
 of brothers, inasmuch as they had a common origin 
 and faith; both detested the oppressors of their 
 country ; and the sentiment of patariotism overruled 
 every other consideration. This S3rmpathy aflast 
 appeared to the Turks so dangerous that they grew 
 alarmed, and desired to substitute for the A. the 
 Mohammedan Albanians, who were the implacable 
 enemies of the Greeks, which resolution did not 
 a Uttle to hasten the insurrection which the Porte 
 ever dreaded. The moment it broke out, the A. 
 pronounced themselves in favour of the national 
 cause, and in the war of independence that ensued, 
 distinguished themselves by their brdliant exploits. 
 
 A'RMATURE {wrmaiwra, armour ; 'Ger. anher). 
 The term A. is applied to the pieces of soft iron that 
 are placed at the extremities or poles of magnets to 
 preserve their magnetic power. When magnets are 
 allowed to remain any length of time without such 
 appendages, in consequence of the disturbing influ- 
 ence of terrestrial magnetism they lose considerably 
 in strength ; but when they are provided with them 
 their magnetism is kept in a st/ite of constant 
 activity, and thereby shielded from this disturbance. 
 The reason of this is found in two facts well known 
 in the science of magnetism — viz., that when a piece 
 of soft iron is brought into contact with the ex- 
 tremity of a magnet, it is itself induced to become 
 magnetic ; and that the unlike poles of two different 
 magnets powerfully attract each other. Referring 
 to the figure, the north pole, N, of the horseshoe 
 magnet, NHS, acting on the arma- 
 ture, sjiy induces it to become a 
 magnet, having its south pole, s, 
 next to N, and its north pole, n, 
 at the opposite extremity. The 
 pole, S, by virtue of its magnetic 
 affinity, powerfully attracts the 
 north pole, n, thus formed, and 
 adds its own inducing influence 
 to heighten the magnetic condi- 1 
 tion previously induced in the 
 armature by tiie pole N. The 
 A., from the combined action 
 of both poles of the horseshoe 
 magnet, is thus converted into a 
 powerful magnet, with its poles 
 lying in an opposite direction to that of the primary 
 poles. The original magnet is, in consequence, 
 brought into contact with one of its own making, 
 the exact countei^part of itself — a condition highly 
 favourable to the maintenance of its strength. 
 It is due to the same mutual attractions that a 
 much larger weight can be suspended from the 
 A. thus placed, than what the single poles can 
 together sustain. Bar magnets may be armed in 
 the same way by laying them at some distance 
 parallel to each other, with their unlike poles towards 
 the same parts, and then connecting their extremities 
 by two pieces of soft iron. "When a magnet, such as 
 a compass-needle, is free to take up the position 
 requifed by the magnetism of the earth, the earth 
 itseK plays the part of an armature. 
 
 ARMED SHIP, in the official language of the 
 Royal Navy, occupies a sort of medium position 
 between a merchant-ship and a man-of-war. It is a 
 private vessel, hired occasionally by the Admiralty 
 for a special purpose, and commissioned for a 
 temporary period. The duty is usually that of 
 guarding some particular coast, or attending on a 
 particular fleet, during a time of war ; and while so 
 employed, it is officered and equipped hke one of 
 the smaller ships-of -war in the Royal Navy. 
 
 409 
 
AEMENIA. 
 
 AHME'NIA, a high table-land on the Bouthem 
 slope of the Caucasus, stretching down towards 
 Mesopotamia. It has had different Doundaries iu the 
 various centuries of its history. It is the original 
 seat of one of the oldest ciialised peoples in the 
 world, the Armenians, who belong to the Indo- 
 Crermanic family of nations. Their oldest records 
 contain nothing certain beyond the facts that, in 
 ancient times, they were governed by iadepend- 
 €nt kings, but afterwards became tributary to the 
 Assyrians and Medes. That t^im period which 
 wavers between myth and history begins, in the 
 case of A., about the middle of the 6th c. B. c, when 
 King Dikran, or Tigranes I. of the Haig Dynasty, 
 restored the independence of the kingdom. The last 
 king of this dynasty was slain in battle against 
 Alexander the Great, who conquered the country. 
 After Alexander's death, A. passed through several 
 changes of fortune under the Seleucidse, who 
 appointed governors over it. Of these, two — 
 Artaxias and Zariadres — ^made themselves independ- 
 ent of their sovereign, Autiochus the Great, during 
 the time when he was engaged in his contest with 
 the Romans, 223—190 B.C. They divided the 
 province into two districts — ^Artaxias taking A. 
 Major . (that part of the country lying E. of the 
 Euphrates), and Zariadres A. Mmor (the part to 
 the W. of that river). The dynasty of Artaxias 
 did not reign long; for about the middle of the 
 2d c. B.C., we find A. Major in the possession of 
 a branch of the Parthian Arsacida, of which the 
 most powerful king was Tigranes the Great, who 
 added to the conquests made by his predecessors in 
 Lower Asia and the region of the Caucasus, Syria, 
 Cappadocia, and A. Minor ; defeated the Parthians, 
 and took from them Mesopotamia and other coun- 
 tries. He lost an these territories by his war with 
 the Romans, into which he was led by his father-in- 
 law Mithridates, king of Pontus, in 63 B. c. After 
 this, the assaults of the Romans from the west ever 
 
 f rowing more and more vigorous, and those of the 
 arthians from the east, listened the downfall of 
 A. Major. The successors of Tigranes became 
 dependent, partly on the one nation and partly on 
 the other, while internally the nobles broke through 
 the restraints of a feeble monarchy, and claimed 
 the privileges of petty kings. XTnder Trajan, 
 A. Major was for a short time a Roman province. 
 Its subsequent history exhibited an unbroken series 
 of tumullB and wars, of violent successions to the 
 throne, despotic reigns, and rapid decay. In 232 
 A.D. the province was conquered by the Sassanides, 
 who held possession of it 28 years, until Tiridates III., 
 the rightful heir, was restored to the throne by 
 Roman assistance. 
 
 It was about this time that Christianity became 
 the religiou of A., which was thus the first nation to 
 embrace the new religion. Tiridates himself had 
 been converted by St Gregory the Illuminator 
 as early as about 276 A.D. The old religion of 
 Armenia had for its basis the doctrines of Zoro- 
 aster, with a curious intermixture of Greek myth- 
 ology, and of ideas peculiar to the country. It is 
 certain that the Armenians worshipped as their 
 mightiest gods, Aramazt and Mihir (the Ormuzd and 
 Mithras of the old Persians) ; but they had also a 
 kind of Venus, whom they styled Anaitis, and several 
 other deities, to whom they offered animal sacrifices.. 
 This change of creed, however, made no improve- 
 ment in the political circumstances of the falling 
 state. The Byzantine Greeks on one side, and 
 the Persians on the other, regarded A. as ■ their 
 prey; and in 428, Bahram V. of Persia made A. a 
 province of the empire of the Sassanides, tod with, 
 the deposition of Artasir the dynasty of the Arsaoidse 
 was brought to a close. The rule of the Sassanides 
 410 
 
 in A. was marked chiefly by their sanguinary but 
 unsuccessful attempts to extirpate Christianity, 
 lix 632, the unhappy country was subjected to 
 Another form of despotism under the Arabian califs, 
 and suffered terribly during their contest with the 
 Byzantine emperors. In 885 A. D., Asohod I., of an 
 old and powerfid Armenian fanuly, ascended the 
 throne, with the permission of the califs, and founded 
 the third Armenian dynasty — that of the Bagratidse. 
 Under them A. was prosperous till the 11th c, 
 when divisions and internal strife began to weaken 
 the country; till at length the Greeks, having 
 murdered the last monarch of the Bagratidse, seized 
 a part of the kingdom, while the Turks and Kurds 
 made themselves masters of the rest — only one or 
 two of the native princes maintaining a perilous 
 independence. In 1242, the whole of A. Major was 
 conquered by the Mongols, and in 1472 became a 
 Persian province. Afterwards the western part 
 fell into the hands of the Turkish sultan, Selim II. 
 
 The fate of A. Minor was hardly better. The 
 dynasty founded by Zariadres pr^aHed to the time 
 of Tigranes the Great, sovereign of A. Major, who 
 conquered the cojmtry a,bout 70 B. c. Afterwards 
 A Minor was subjugated by the Romans, and made 
 a Roman province. On the division of the Empire 
 into eastern and western, it became attached to the 
 former, and shared in all its changes of fortune 
 until near the close of the llth c. At this time 
 A. Minor — which had long been a place of refuge 
 for many who had fl.ed from the rage of the Turks 
 and Persians in the sister province — was again 
 raised to independence by Rhupen (a refugee from 
 A. Major, and descendant of the Bagratidse). His 
 successors extended their dominion over CUicia and 
 Cappadocia, and took a prominent part in the 
 Crusades. This djrnasty ruled prosperously until 
 1374, when A. Minor was conquered by the Egyptian 
 sultan Schaban. Since that time A., wilii the 
 exception of the parts which Russia has won in the 
 present century from Persia, and which are better 
 governed, has remained subject to the despotism of 
 the Turks and Persians. Notwithstanding this, the 
 Armenians have steadily preserved their nationality, 
 both in its physical and moral lineaments; their 
 faith; and even — ^though only a relic of their ancient 
 culture — a higher civilisation than their conquerors. 
 The political storms which devastated the country 
 during the middle ages, and the persecutions of the 
 Turks, have driven many of the inhabitants from 
 their homes. This is the reason why we find them 
 scattered [over all Asia and Europe. In Htmgary, 
 Transylvania, and GaJicia they number 10,000. 
 They are very numerous in Russia, but most of 
 all in Asia Minor, and in the neighbourhood of 
 Constantinople, where they number 200,000. 
 
 The greater part of A. is an elevated table-land. 
 Its area is estimated at 90,000 square nules ; pop. 
 about 2,000,000. It is watered by tiie rivers Kur, 
 Aras, Joruk, Euphrates, and to a sUght I extent by 
 the Tigris. The lakes which lie withm this moun- 
 tainous region are Van, Urumiyah, and Sevan. The 
 Armenian plateau, on the eastern side of which 
 the volcanic range of Ararat lifts itself, forms the 
 central point of several mountain-chains, such aa 
 Taurus and Antitaurus, the mountains of Kurdistan, 
 and those which run north to the Black Sea. It 
 exhibits numerous traces of having been subject to 
 volcanic agency, and even yet — as was shewn by 
 the severe earthquake of the summer of 1840, and 
 the recent (1859) total destruction of Erzerum— 
 possesses an internal volcanic activity. The olhnate 
 in the higher regions is hot in summer and cold in 
 winter, but in the valleys it is more temperate. 
 The country laboiu-s under a great scarcity of wood, 
 and in some parts is sterile, through a deficiency of 
 
AEMENIAN CHUECH-AEMENIAN LITEKATURE. 
 
 ■water ; in other parts the soil is extremely fertile, 
 producing rice, hemp, flax, tobacco, wine, cotton, and 
 many varieties of fruit. Cattle-breeding and grazing 
 are more extensive than agriculture. The mountains 
 contain iron, copper, lead, salt, and naphtha. The 
 number of the inhabitants of pure Armenian origin 
 is reckoned at nearly 1,000,000, but there is a large 
 admixture of Turkomans, G-reeks, Jews, Kurds, &o. 
 The Armenians belong physically to the finest variety 
 of the Indo-Germanio race. Their inteUeotual 
 capacity is also remarkable, as is shewn both by their 
 literature, and their singular dexterity in business. 
 Still, long centuries of oppression have exerted a 
 "withering influence on their native strength of 
 character, so that the mass of those who remain at 
 home are sunk in superstition and ignorance. They 
 profess Christianity. The principal towns in A. are 
 Erivan (q.v.) and Akhamkh (both belonging to 
 Eussia). Aihalzikh has a population , of 12,000 or 
 13,000, is fortified, and adorned by a mosque and 
 many Armenian churches. It possesses a college and 
 library, and has trade in silk and honey. Besides 
 these there are in Turkish A., Erzerum, Van, 
 &o. [q. V.) 
 
 AEME'NIASr CHUECH. Christianity appears 
 to have been introduced into Armenia as early as 
 the 2d c, for, according to tradition, Dionysius, 
 Bishop of Corinth, wrote an epistle to the Armenian 
 Christians, who were then under the authority of a 
 bishop named Meruzanes. It was first firmly estab- 
 lished, however, about the end of the 3d c. by the 
 appstoHcal exertions of Bishop Gregory (q. v.), who 
 converted Tiridates (see Amsibnia). The Bible 
 was translated into the Armenian language in Hke 
 5th c. After this period great animation prevailed 
 in the A. C. Numbers flocked to the colleges at 
 Athens and Constantinople. In the ecclesiastical' 
 controversy concerning the twofold nature of 
 Christ, the Armenian Christians held with the 
 Monophysites (q. v.); refused to acknowledge the 
 authority of the Coimcil of Chalcedon; and con- 
 stituted themselves a separate church, which took 
 the title of Gregorian from Gregory himself. For 
 several centuries a spirit of scientific inquiry, 
 especially in theology, manifested itself among 
 them to a far wider extent than in the other 
 Eastern dhurohes. Their greatest divine is Nerses 
 of Elah, belonging to the 12th c, whose works 
 have been repeatedly published. The most re6ent 
 edition was issued in Venice, 1833. The Gregorians 
 have continued to entertain a deeply rooted aver- 
 sion to the so-called orthodox church. It is true 
 the Eoman Catholic popes have at various times 
 (1145, 1341, 1440), when the Armenians accepted 
 the hdp of the West against the Mohammedans, 
 tried to persuade them to recognise the papal supre- 
 macy ; but, for the most part, only the nobles con- 
 sented to do so, while the mass of the people olung 
 to their peculiar opinions, as we see from the com- 
 plaint of Pope Benedict XII., who accuses the 
 A- C. of 117 errors of doctrine. There is a sect 
 of United Armeniams in Italy, Poland, Galicia, 
 Persia, Eussia, and Marseille. These recognise the 
 spiritual sovereignty of the pope, and hold the same 
 doctrines as the Eoman Catholic Church, but have 
 their own form of church-government. On the 
 irruption of the Persians into Armenia, at the begin- 
 ning of the 17th c, many of the inhabitants were 
 forced to become Mohammedans, but by far the 
 greater number remained true to their ancient 
 faith. The A. C. has never scrupled to put 
 itself under the protection of the Porte against the 
 aggressive demands of the CathoEos, and recently 
 of Eussia against the intrusions of Cathoho and 
 
 Protestant missionaries. Its theology differs from 
 that usually styled orthodox, in atlxibutiag only 
 
 one nature to Christ, and holding that the Spirit 
 
 Erooeeds from the Father alone ; the latter doctrine, 
 owever, being held by it in common with the 
 ' orthodox Greek Church,' although contrary to the 
 theology of the western churches. With respect to 
 the 'seven sacraments,' it entertains the peculiar 
 notions that at baptism one must be sprinlded 
 three times, and as often dipped'; that confirma- 
 tion is to be conjoined with baptism; that the 
 Lord's Supper must be celebrated with pure wine 
 and leavened bread; that the latter, before being 
 handed round, must be dipped in the former; 
 and that extreme unction is to be administered to 
 ecclesiastics alone, and that immediately after (and 
 not before) their death. It beheves in the worship 
 of saints, but not in purgatory. It exceeds the 
 Greek Church in the number of its fasts, but 
 has fewer religious festivals. These, however, are 
 more enthusiastically kept. Divine service is held 
 in Itokey chiefly by night. Mass is celebrated 
 in the old Annenian language ; preaching is 
 carried on in the new. Its sacerdotal constitution 
 differs little from the Greek. The head of the 
 church, whose title is Catholikos, resides at Etsh- 
 miadzin, a monastery near Erivan, the capital of 
 EuSsian Armenia. To this place every Armenian 
 must make a pilgrimage once in his life. The monks 
 of this church follow the rule of St Basil. The War- 
 tabieds form a peculiar class of ecclesiastics ; they 
 live like monks, but are devoted exclusively to 
 learning. Secular priests must marry once, but 
 none are at hberty to take a second wife. 
 
 AEME'NIAN LITEEATUEB. Previous to 
 the introduction of Christianity by Gregory (300 A.D.), 
 the Armenians had adhered to the Assyrian or Medo- 
 Persian system of culture; but excepting a few 
 old songs or ballads, no remains of that early period 
 exist. After their conversion to Christianity, the 
 Greek language and its literature soon became 
 favourite objects of study, and many Greek authors 
 were translated into Armenian. (See Wenrioh De 
 Auctorvm Gh-(xcorimiverBiomlmsA'rabicis,Armeniacis,'' 
 &c. Leipzig, 1842.) The Armenian language has an 
 alphabet of its own, consisting of 36 letters, intro- 
 duced by Miesrob in 406. The most flourishing period 
 of A. L. extends from the 4th to the 14th c. The 
 niunerous Armenian theological writers and chroni- 
 clers of this era supply materials for a history of the 
 East during the middle ages which have hitherto 
 been too much neglected. These Armenian writers 
 generally copied the style of the later Greek and 
 Byzantine authors ; but in adherence to facts and 
 good taste, th^.are superior to the general order of 
 oriental historians. In the 14th c, literature began 
 to decline, and few remarkable works were afterwards 
 produced; but since the time of their dispersion, 
 the Armenians have preserved recollections of their 
 national literature ; and wherever they are found 
 — iR Amsterdam, Lemberg, Leghorn, Venice, Astia- 
 kan, Moscow, Constantinople, Smyrna, Ispahan, 
 Madras, or Calcutta — ^the printing-office is always 
 a feature in their colonies. The most interesting 
 Armenian settlement is that of the Mechitarists 
 ((3[. v.), on the island of San Lazaro, near Venice. 
 
 The Bible translated into Armenian (the Old 
 Testament from the text of the Septuagint) by 
 Miesrob and his scholars (411 A.D.), is esteemed the 
 highest model of classic style. Translations of 
 several Greek authors, made about the same time, 
 have been partly preserved, and contain some writ- 
 ings of which the originals have been lost — namely, 
 the Chronicle of Eusebius ; the Discourses of Pbilo ; 
 Homilies by St Chrysostom, Severianus, Basil the 
 Great, and Ephraim Syrus. Several old geographi- 
 cal and historical works have been preserved. 
 Among philosophical and theological writers may be 
 
 411 
 
AEMERIA— AEMIES. 
 
 mentioned : David, the translator and commentator 
 of Aristotle, Esnik, and Joannes Ozniensis. The 
 Vitce Sanctorum Oalendarii, Armeniad (Lives of 
 Armenian Saints, 12 vols. Ven. 1814) contains many 
 notices of the history of Armenia. In poetry and 
 fiction, A. L. is poor. Somal, in his work entitled 
 Quadro ddla Storia Litteraria di Armenia (Venice, 
 1829), gives a general view of the contents of A. L. 
 The Armenian belongs to the Indo-Germanio group 
 of languages, but has many peculiarities of struotijre. 
 It is harsh and disagreeable to the ear. The old 
 Armenian, the language of literature, is no longer 
 a living tongue ; while the new Armenian, spht up 
 into four dialects, contains many Turkisji words and 
 grammatical constructions. 
 
 AEMB'RIA. See Thrift. 
 
 ARMFELT, Gustap Maubitz, a celebrated 
 Swede, whose public life was characterised by strik- 
 ing vicissitudes of fortune, was the eldest sou of 
 Baron Armfelt, and born at Juva, in the govern- 
 ment of Abo, on the Ist of April 1757. Having, 
 as an officer of the royal guard, displayed great 
 activity and zeal in opposing the machinations 
 of the nobles, who were at that period disaffected 
 towards Gustavus III., the latter appreciated the 
 value of his services, and appointed him to a post 
 in the service of the Crown Prince. During the 
 war between Sweden and Eussia (1788 — 90), in 
 which he was commander of one of the three divi- 
 sions of the Swedish army, he displayed remarkable 
 courage and spirit, and advanced stUl higher in the 
 good graces of the monarch. He defeated a Kussian 
 force at Summa, near Fredrikshamm ; and as mili- 
 tary representative of Gustavus, had the honour of 
 concluding a peace at Verela on the 14th of August 
 1790. On the 16th of March 1792, Gustavus was 
 assassinated. His wound, though mortal, did not 
 instantly deprive him of life, and he employed the 
 brief interval that elapsed before his death in 
 drawing up a codicil to his wiU, by which the 
 regency was intrusted to the king's brother, Charles, 
 Duke of Sudermania, during the minority of Gustavus 
 rV., A. being named governor of Stockholm, and 
 member of the counc3 appointed to advise with 
 the regent. The Duke of Sudermania, however, 
 coidd not brook the idea of a check being placed 
 upon his liberty of action, and found means to 
 destroy the codicil, the , conditions of which he 
 never intended to observe. A. soon became con- 
 scious that his influence was rapidly evaporating. 
 He was rarely permitted to see the young king ; and 
 at last, after a secret interview with young Gustavus, 
 departed as ambassador to Naples in July 1792. 
 While in Italy, he entered into correspondence with 
 certain parties in Sweden for the purpose of over- 
 throwing the regency, and inducing the States to 
 proclaim Gustavus IV. of age. The correspondence 
 was discovered. A. fled to Poland, and afterwards to 
 Russia. He was condemned, during his absence, for 
 high treason, and strijiped of his goods and titles, 
 while one of his associates, the beautifid Countess 
 Eudenskbld, was subjected to the most brutal 
 punishment, being publicly declared 'infamous,' 
 exposed on a scaffold for some hours, and imprisoned 
 in a house of correction for Hfe. A. expressed his 
 horror of such an atrocity in language sufficiently 
 emphatic, yet, at a later period, he did not pcruple 
 to accept office tmder . Charles, on his election 
 to the throne. In 1799, Gustavus IV. received 
 the crown at the age of eighteen, and A. was 
 restored to aU his honours. In 1805, he was 
 appointed governor-general of Finland ; and in 
 1808 he commanded the Swedish army raised for 
 the invasion of Norway; but his plans were so 
 completely frustrated, that he was compelled to 
 412 
 
 witness the invasion of Sweden by the successful 
 Norwegians, and was in consequence recalled and 
 dismissed by the king.' In. the following year a revo- 
 lution took place, Gustavus was deposed, the Duke 
 of Sudermania elected in his place, and A. was 
 appointed president of the Military Council. But 
 shortly after, being implicated in the poisoning of 
 the Prince of Augustenburg, he was obliged to fly to 
 Eussia, where he lived durmg the remainder of his 
 life in high honour. The title of Count was 
 conferred on him, he was made chancellor of the 
 university of Abo, president of the Board of Finnish 
 Affairs, and member of the Russian senate. He died 
 at Tzarskoe Selo on the 19th August 1814. ' 
 
 ARMIDA, one of the most prominent female 
 characters in Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered. As the 
 poet tells us, when the Crusaders arrived at the 
 holy city, Satan held a council to devise some 
 means of disturbing the plans of the Christian 
 warriors, and A., a very beautiful sorceress, was 
 employed to seduce Rinaldo and other Crusaders. 
 Rinaldo was conducted by A. to a remote island, 
 where, in her splendid palace, surrounded by delight- 
 ful gardens and pleasure-grounds, he utterly forgot 
 his vows, and the great object to which he had 
 devoted his Hfe. To liberate hJTn from his voluptuous 
 bondage, two messengers from the Christian army — • 
 Carlo and Ubaldo — came to the island, bringing a 
 talisman so powerful that the witchery of A. was 
 destroyed. Rinaldo escaped, but was followed by 
 the sorceress, who, in battle, incited several warriors 
 to attack the hero, and at last herself rushed into 
 the fight. She was defeated by Rinaldo, who then 
 confessed his love to her, persuaded her to become 
 a Christian, and vowed to be her faithful knight. 
 The story of A. has been made the subject of an 
 opera both by Gluck and Rossini. 
 
 ARMIES, armed forces imder regular mUitary 
 oi^anisation, employed for purposes of national 
 offence or defence. An army may comprise the 
 whole military men employed by the state, or only 
 a portion under a particular commander. When an 
 armed force is under no constituted authority, and 
 imperfect in its organisation and discipline, it cannot 
 be said to be worthy of the name of an army, and 
 may be little better than a horde of banditti. Of 
 this nature are the JUlibastering expeditions (see 
 FiLMBUSTBEs) in which certain portions of the 
 citizens of the United States frequently engage. 
 Through long ages of experience, the principles of 
 military organisation, and the laws to which A, 
 are specially amenable, have gradually reached a 
 high degree of perfection. The primitive wars among 
 barbarous people are always stealthy, depending on 
 the forest and the wilderness for their tactics, and 
 considered successful if an enemy can be attacked 
 unawares, despoiled, and carried into slavery. After 
 a time, war advances to the position of an art, and 
 is conducted by men who have received a certain 
 training. An army becomes an instrument not only 
 for vanquishing enemies, but for seizing countries. 
 Even then the highest position of an army is not 
 reached ; for the defence of a country requires more 
 military skiU, perhaps, and a better organisation of 
 troops, than an attack. 
 
 In the several historical articles in this Encydo- 
 pcedia relating to the chief nations of ancient and 
 modem times, the wars in which these nations 
 engaged are succinctly noticed as elements in the 
 life of each nation ; but it seems desirable, in the 
 present place, as a means of rendering intelligible 
 certain minor details scattered through the work, 
 to give a brief description of the chief points in 
 which the A. of different states or countries have 
 differed in constitution. 
 
AEMIES. 
 
 ARMIES, Ancient — Egyptians. — The most ex- 
 traordiaary conqueror among the Egyptians, Sesos- 
 tris or Ehamses, lived sixteen centuries before the 
 Christian era ; and although the evidence for his 
 deeds of valour is very questionable, there is reason 
 to believe that the organisation of his A. can be 
 pretty accurately traced. His father, Amenophis, 
 laid the foundation for the military glory of Sesostris. 
 When the latter was born, Amenophis caused aU the 
 male children who were born on the same day as his 
 son, to be set apart as a special body, to be reai'ed for 
 a military life ; they were taught everything that 
 could strengthen their bodies, increase their courage, 
 and develop their skill as combatants and leaders ; 
 and were to consider themselves bound as the 
 chosen dependents or companions of the young 
 prince. In due time Sesostris became king of Egypt ; 
 and then he formed a sort of militia, distributed as 
 military colonists, each soldier having a portion of 
 land to maintain himseU and his family. When 
 this militia had been drilled to military efficiency, 
 Sesostris headed them as an army for military con- 
 quest in Asia, and placed the chosen band above 
 mentioned as officers over the different sections of 
 the army. 
 
 Persians. — In the great days of the Persian 
 •empire, the flower of l£e army consisted of cavalry, 
 who were distinguished for their bravery and impe- 
 tuosity of attack. The infantry were little better 
 than an armed mob. The war-chariots, too, though 
 calculated to strike terror when dashing into hostile 
 ranks, were available only on level ground. As to 
 the numbers of men composing the great Persian 
 A., the statements are too wild to be trustworthy. 
 Allowing for all exaggeration, however, it is cer- 
 tain that the Persian A. were very large. When 
 Darius was opposed to Alexander the Great, his army 
 was set down at various numbers — from 750,000 to 
 1,000,000 men. The king was in the centre, sur- 
 rounded by his courtiers and body-guard ; the Per- 
 aans and Susians were on the left ; the Syrians and 
 Assyrians on the right. The foot-soldiers, forming 
 the bulk of the army, and arme(J with pikes, axes, 
 and maces, were formed in deep squares or masses ; 
 the. horsemen were in the intervals between the 
 squares, and on the right and left flanks ; and the 
 chariots and elephants in front. 
 
 Lacedcemonians. — The Greeks introduced many 
 important changes in A, both in the organisation 
 and in the manoeuvres. Every man, in ttie earlier 
 ages of the country at least, was more or less a 
 soldier, inured to a hard life, taught to bear arms, 
 and expected to fight when called upon. The lead- 
 ing men in each state paid attention to organisation 
 and tactics in a way never before seen. It was not 
 standing annies, but a sort of national militia, that 
 gained Marathon, Platsea, and Mycale. So far as 
 concerned the arrangement of A, the Lacedse- 
 monians invented the phalanx (q. v.), a particular 
 mode of grouping foot-soldiers. This phalanx con- 
 sisted of eight ranks, one behind another ; the front 
 and rear ranks being composed of picked men, 
 and the intermediate ranks of less tried soldiers. 
 The number of men in each rank depended on the 
 available resources of the commander. These men 
 were mostly armed with spears, short swords, and 
 shields. 
 
 Athenians. — The Athenians made a greater number 
 of distinctions than the Lacedsemonians in the differ- 
 ent kinds of troops forming their A. They had 
 heavy infantry, constituting flie men for the phalanx, 
 and armed with spears, daggers, corslets, and shields ; 
 light infantry, employed in skirmishes and in cover- 
 ing the phalanx, and armed with light javelins and 
 shields ; a sort of 'irregular infantry, who, with 
 javelins, bows and arrows, and slings, harassed the 
 
 enemy in march, and performed other services 
 analogous in some degree to those of sharpshooters 
 in a modern army. It is recorded that Miltiades, the 
 Athenian hero at Marathon, invented the ' double- 
 quick march,' to increase the momentum of a phalanx 
 when rushing on the enemy. 
 
 Macedonians. — PhUip of Maoedon, the father of 
 Alexander the Great, having the sagacity to see 
 that he could not vanquish his neighbours so long as 
 he adopted the same formation and. tactics as them- 
 selves, set about inventing something new. He 
 resolved to have a standing army instead of a 
 militia ; to have at command a set of men whose 
 trade was fighting, instead of citizens who were 
 traders and soldiers by turn. As a further change, 
 he made the phalanx deeper and more massive than 
 it had been among the LacedaBmonians. He brought 
 into use the Macedonian pike, a formidable weapon 
 24 feet in length. With a phalanx sixteen ranks in 
 depth, four rows of men could present the points 
 of th^ir long pikes protruding in front of the front- 
 rank, forming a bristling array of steel terrible to 
 encounter. Besides these heavy infantry, there 
 were light troops marshalled into smaller bodies for 
 more active manoeuvres. Philip organised three 
 kinds of cavalry — heavy, armed with pikes, and 
 defended by cuirasses of iron-mail; light, armed 
 with lances ; and irregular. 
 
 Tliehans. — This nation introduced the army-for- 
 mation of columns, much deeper than broad, or 
 having more men in file than in rank. A new 
 kind of tactics was introduced in accordance with 
 this formation ; the movement being intended to 
 pierce the enemy's liae at some one point, and 
 throw them into confusion. 
 
 Romans. — These able warriors initiated changes 
 in army matters, which had a wide-spread influence 
 on the nations of the civiliaed world. About the 
 period 200 B. c, every Koman, from the age of 17 to 
 46, was liable to be called upon to serve as a soldier ; 
 the younger men were preferred ; but all were avail- 
 able up to the middle-time of life. They went 
 through a very severe drilling and discipline, to fit 
 them alike for marching, fighting, camping, working, 
 carrying, and other active duties. Every year the 
 Senate decreed the formation of legions, or army 
 corps, deputing this duty to the consul or prsetor. 
 Magistrates sent up the names of eligible men, 
 and tribunes selected a certain number from this 
 list. See Legion. The Roman legion, in its 
 best days, had rnany excellent military qualities — 
 great facility of movement ; a power of p;reserviug 
 order of battle unimpaired ; a quick rallying-power 
 when forced to give way; a readiness to adapt itself 
 to varying circumstances on the field of battle ; a 
 formidable impetuosity in attack ; and a power of 
 fighting the enemy even while retreating. The heavy 
 infantry were armed iwith javelins, neavy darts, 
 pikes, and swords ; the lighter troops with bows and 
 arrows, slings, and light javelins ; while the defen- 
 sive armour comprised shields, cuirasses, helmets, 
 and greaves. 
 
 Those ancient nations which had no distinctive 
 features in their A., need, not be noticed here. 
 
 ARMIES, Medieval. The downfall of the 
 Roman Empire marked the dividing-point between 
 ancient and medieval times in military matters, as 
 well as in other things that concern the existence of 
 nations. The barbarians and semi-barbarians who 
 attacked on all sides the once mighty but now 
 degenerate Empire, gradually gained possession of 
 the vast regions which had composed it. 'The mode 
 in which these conquests were made gave rise to the 
 Feudal System (q. v.). What all had aided to acquire 
 by conquest, all demanded to share in proportions 
 more or less equal. Hence arose a division of the 
 
 113 
 
ARMIES. 
 
 conquered territory ; lands were held from tlie chief 
 by feudal tenure, almost in independent sovereignty. 
 When European kingdoms were gradually formed 
 out of the wrecks of the Empire, the military arrange- 
 ments put on a peculiar form. The king could not 
 maintain a standing army, for his barons or feudal 
 chieftains were jealous of allowing Tii-m too much 
 power. He could only strengthen himself by obtain- 
 ing their aid on certain terms, or by allowing them 
 to weakbn themselves in intestine broils, to which 
 they had always much proneness. Each baron had a 
 small army composed of his own mHitia or retainers, 
 available for battle at short notice. The contests of 
 these small armies, sometimes combined and some- 
 times isolated, make up the greater part of the wars 
 of the middle ages. Of military tactics or strategy, 
 there was very little ; the campaigns were desultory 
 and indecisive ; and the battles were gained more 
 by individual valour than by any well-concerted 
 plan. 
 
 One great exception to this military feudality was 
 furnished by the Crusades (q. v.). So far as concerns 
 A., however, in their organisation and discipline, 
 these expeditions effected but httle. The military 
 forces which went to the Holy Land were little 
 better than armed mobs, upheld by fanaticism, but 
 not at aU by science or discipline. Numbers and 
 individual bravery were left to do the work, com- 
 bination and forethought being disregarded. 
 
 A much greater motive-power for change, during 
 the middle ages, was the invention of gunpowder. 
 When men could fight at a greater distance than 
 before, and on a system which brought mechanism 
 to the aid of valour, everjrthing connected with 
 the military art imderwent a revolution. Histori- 
 cally, however, this great change was not very 
 apparent until after the period usually denominated 
 the middle ages. The art of making good cannon 
 and hand-guns grew up gradually, l^ie other arts ; 
 and A. long continued to depend principally on 
 the older weapons — spears, darts, arrows, axes, 
 maces, swords, and da.ggers. 
 
 During the greater part of the 14th and 15th 
 centuries, the chief A. were those maintained by the 
 Spaniards and the Moors on one European battle- 
 ground, by the English and the French on another, 
 and by the several Itahan repubMcs on a third. In 
 those A., the cavalry were regarded as the chief 
 arm. The knights and their horses alike were 
 frequently covered with plate or chain armour ; and 
 the offensive weapons were lances, swords, daggers, 
 and battle-axes. A kind of hght cavalry was some- 
 times formed of archers on smaller horses. As to 
 army-formation, there was still little that could 
 deserve the name ; there was no particular order of 
 battle ; each knight sought how he could best dis- 
 tinguish himself by personal valour ; and to each was 
 usually attached an esquire, abetting him as a second 
 during the contest. Sometimes it even happened 
 that the fate of a battle was allowed to depend on a 
 combat between two knights. N o attempt was made, 
 until towards the close of the 15th c, to embody a 
 system of tactics and manoeuvres for cavalry ; and 
 even that attempt was of the most primitive kind. 
 Nor was it far otherwise with the foot-soldiers ; 
 they were gradually becoming acquainted with the 
 use of firearms; but, midway as it were between 
 two systems, they observed neither completely ; and 
 the A. in which they served presented very little 
 definite organisation. 
 
 ARMIES, MoDBKN. The formation of standing 
 A. may be said to have introduced the modern 
 military system. When the remarkable exploit of 
 Jeanne d'Arc (Joan of Arc) had enabled Charles 
 VII. to check the victorious progress of the Eng- 
 lish in France, he set about remodelUng his atmy. 
 
 414 
 
 By gradual changes, and amid great difficulty, he 
 converted his Hi-governed forces into a disoiphued 
 standing army. During the reign of his son, Charles 
 VIII. (1483 — 1498), the consequences of this change 
 made their appearance. Charles conducted a weu- 
 appointed army into Italy (1494), in support of some 
 pretensions which he had to the throne of Naples. 
 
 The change made by Charles VII. was not simply 
 that of substituting a compact standing army for an 
 iH-organised medley of feudal troops and of mercen- 
 aries; feudahsm itself gave way under the influ- 
 ence of this combined with other reforming agencies. 
 So far as concerned the actual formation and discip- 
 line of the standing A. above noticed, a few changes 
 were from time to time introduced : pistols and 
 carbines were given to the cavalry ; cuirasses were 
 worn by the heavy troopers ; and new evolutions 
 were introduced. During the Thirty Years' War 
 (1618 — 1648), Gustavus Adolphus and WaHenstein 
 adopted opposite modes of dealing with masses of 
 infantry : the former spread them out to a great 
 width, and only six ranks in depth ; whereas the 
 latter adopted a narrower front, with a depth of 
 twenty to thirty ranks. Frederick the Great, in 
 the next century, introduced a most complicated 
 system of tactics and drilling ; insomuch that when 
 he could manoeuvre, he nearly always won his. 
 battles ; but when the result depended on bold and 
 unexpected onslaughts, he was more frequently a. 
 loser than a winner. The great military leader in 
 the early part of the present century. Napoleon 
 Bonaparte, made a larger use than any previous 
 European general of the method of moving masses 
 of troops with great celerity, beating the enemy in 
 detail before they could combine in one spot. 
 
 It is desirable to present, in the most condensed 
 form, a few statistics of the actual A of Europe ; 
 leaving to future articles, under the names of th& 
 several countries, cities, and battle-fields, all details 
 concerning special A. and military encounters. We 
 shall select for this purpose the year 1853, when the 
 A. of Europe had not yet been augmented by the 
 military operations in Bussia (1854 — 1856), India 
 (1857—1858), and Italy (1859), and brought up to an 
 imusual amount. 
 
 France. — The 86 departments of Prance form an 
 equal number of military districts, each placed 
 under a general of brigade ; and these are OTOiIped 
 into 24 divisions, each under a general of division, 
 with his staff and administrative machinery. The 
 aMive troops comprise the following corps : 340 
 battalions of infantry (line, hght, chasseurs. Zouaves, 
 Turcos, &c.), averaging about 1100 men each, grouped 
 into 105 regiments and 26 single or uncombined bat- 
 tahons, and making about 380,000 foot-soldiers in 
 all; 61 regiments of cavalry (carbiniers, cuirassiers, 
 dragoons, lancers, hussars, chasseurs-a-cheval, spahisj 
 guides, &c.), averaging about 1400 men each, andl 
 amounting in the aggregate to 86,000 troopers ; IT 
 regiments of artillery (foot, horse, fortress, and pon- 
 tonier), and othei: allied corps raising the number 
 of men to about 60,000; 3 regiments and some single 
 companies of engineers, with sappers and miners, 
 about 8000 men ; 5 squadrons of military transport 
 corps, about 8000 men; and about 3000 men engaged 
 in various sanitary and artisan duties — ^making the 
 whole active army about 550,000 men. In times of 
 peace, however, the battaJions are never up to the 
 strength indicated in this enumeration. There is an 
 indefinite number of troops for home-service, com- 
 prising gendarmerie, veterans, and national guards. 
 
 Prussia. — The Prussian army maybe said to have 
 had its birth in the time of Frederick the Great ; it 
 at one time comprised 200,000 of the best troops in 
 Europe. At the present day, it bears a ratio to 
 the whole population scarcely equalled by that of 
 
ARMnss. 
 
 any other country in Europe ; but tluB is owing to 
 the peculiar constitution of the landwehr. The 
 infantry compriaea guards, line, firat landwehr, and 
 second landwehr. The guards form 4 regiments of 
 about 3000 men each, and an extra battalion of 
 rifles ; they consist of the finest and tallest men in 
 the army. The line comprises 32 regiments of 3000 
 men each ; three-fourths musketeers, and the others 
 fusiliers armed with rifles ; together with 32 extra 
 battalions of 1000 men each. The first landwehr, 
 or landwehr of the first levy, consists of men 
 between 26 and 32 years of age, who have already 
 served their time in the line regiments, and who, 
 during time of peace, are only required to manoeuvre 
 for a few weeks with the line once in two years. 
 They are about as nimierous as the line j each line 
 regiment having a landwehr regimjeat attaclied to it, 
 bearing the sanje number, and brigaded with it ; 
 and the same may be said of the guards and the 
 landwehr guards.. The second TkiAfskr, or land- 
 wehr of the second Hevy, confflsts of men between 
 32 and 39 years of age, wh® hwm already served 
 their time in the Bne, aaxS. who are only to be 
 employed at home in ease of war; they number 
 somewhat over 80,000. K the exigencies of the 
 state required the arming of all these guards, line 
 regiments, and first and second landwehr at once, 
 Prussia would have 375,00© infantry. The cavaJry 
 comprises cuirassiers, hidiai9% hussars, and dragoons 
 on active service ; with coiresponding regiments of 
 first and second landwehr. The total strength of 
 cavalry is 70,000. The artillery comprises 19,000 
 men, in 9 regiments ; there is no separate landwehr 
 of artillery ; but each regiment has landwehr officers 
 and men attached to it, to strengthen it in time of 
 need. The engineers, pioneers, pontoniers, and trans- 
 port corps, amount collectively to 35,000 men. If 
 all these military forces were armed at once, Prussia 
 would have an army of half a million of men : 
 an immense force for a country with 16,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Austria. — ^The , Austrian infantry comprises 77 
 regiments, besides 26 separate battalions. Every 
 line regiment has a number ; but it is more usually 
 known by the name of some prince or general, to 
 whom it is said to belong — 62 of the regiments are 
 line, 4 chasseurs, and the rest border infantry. The 
 Une' regiments are enormous, being each 6700 men, 
 in 6 battalions; the border or nuHtary frontier 
 infantry (a peculiar kind of military colonists) is 
 in regiments of about half this stoength. The 
 cavaby is in two divisions — German or heavy, 
 and Hungarian or light. The heavy comprises 
 8 regiments of cuirassiers and 8 of dragoons ; the 
 light comprises 12 of hulans and 12 of hussars. AH 
 these 40 remments are named after princes and 
 generals. The heavy cavalry regiments number 
 about 1200 men each; the light about 1800. The 
 artilleiy comprises 14 field, rocket, and coast 
 artillery regiments, averaging about 2400 men each ; 
 besides 14,000 artillerymen employed in fortress 
 and laboratory service. The engineers comprise 
 8 battalions of sappers and pioneers, or about 11,000 
 men ia all. Altogether, Austria could send 450,000 
 men into the field, leaving 200,000 at home to 
 guard fortresses, dep6ts, &c. Owing to the disastrous 
 result of the late conflict with Prance and Sardinia, 
 Austria, it is understood, is now (September 1859) 
 engaged in organising her army on a new footing. 
 
 Germany. — Austria and Prussia, besides Qieir 
 own interests as independent nations, are members 
 of the general Germanic Confederation, which consists 
 of nearly 40 distinct states and independent cities. 
 In time of war, all these are bound to assist each 
 other, whenever the diet or parliament summoned at 
 Erankfort for that purpose shall have agreed to such 
 
 a course by vote ; and in this case, every state 
 senda a precise ratio or contingent as ita contribu- 
 tion towards the federal army. By an agreement 
 made in 1842, the ratio is to be 1 per cent, of the 
 whole population for an active army, and an extra 
 4 per cent, for reserve. This amounts to about 
 300,000 men active, and 150,000 reserve, or 450,000 
 altogether. It has been often doubted among 
 military men whether an army thus singularly 
 constituted would prove efficient in a severe war ; 
 the test of experience has yet to be brought to bear 
 on this matter. Most of the German states keep up' 
 small armies independent of the contingents which 
 they are bound to send to the federal army when 
 required. 
 
 Suseia. — There is no army in Europe which 
 departs further from its nominal strength than that 
 of Russia; the actual number of fighting-men being, 
 far short of that which is entered on paper. The 
 active armyi comprises 108 very large infantry regi- 
 ments, besides separate battafions ; 61 regiments- 
 of cavalry ; 11 divisions of artillery; and numerous 
 miscellaneous troops. There are generally 5 bat- 
 tahons, of 1000 men each, to an infantry regiment. 
 The cavalry regiments average about 1300 men 
 each. The total strength of the infantry is 540,000 
 men ; of the cavalry, 80,000 ; of the artilleiy, 
 44,000 ; of the engineers, 12,000— or 676,000 in all. 
 This, it will be remembered, is. the active armyj 
 besides which are the first and second reserves, the 
 garrison corps, the invalids, the gendarmerie, the 
 irregulars, and the military coloniste. The enormou& 
 total exceeds 1,200,000 men, besides the uncertain 
 number in the 800 companies of invalids. It is 
 believed, however, by competent authorities, that; 
 Russia could not easily bring into the field more 
 than 500,000 to 600,000 men at one time, so many 
 are the i:awbacks from the above paper-list. 
 
 Denmarh. — ^The Danish army comprises 23 bat- 
 talions of guards, line infantry, light infantry, and 
 chasseurs; 27 squadrons of dragoons and hussars; 
 2 regiments of artiEery ; and a small engineer corps. 
 The whole amount to 23,000 men. But this is the 
 peace establishment; there is a great power of 
 augmentation in war-time by calling out the reserves. 
 Denmark entefs into the Germanic Confederation 
 to a small extent, iu virtue of her possession of 
 Holstein and Lauenburg. 
 
 Sweden and' Iforway.— The Swedes are fond of 
 military display ; they hate conscription, but wiU 
 cheerfvJJy enlist. The army is kept small, for the 
 sake of economy ; but it could readily be increased. 
 It is classified into recruited troops, 8000 men j 
 incorporated troops, 33,000 ; reserve or conscription 
 troops, 95,000; and the Gothland militia, 8000. The 
 recruited troops form the chief part of the regular 
 or standing army. The Norwegians, although under 
 the same king, maintain a separate army of abou1> 
 24,000 men. 
 
 Belgium and Holland. — The Belgian army com- 
 prises 18 regiments of line, carbiniers, and chasseurs- 
 E-pied; 7 regiments of cuirassiers, guides, lancers, 
 and chasseurs-§,-cheval ; 4 regiments of artUler?', 
 with a few extra companies and batteries ; 1 regi- 
 ment of engineers ; and 1 of gendarmerie. The 
 whole amount to 62,000, which can be raised to 
 100,000 by calling out the reserves.— The Dutch 
 army comprises 9 regiments and a few companies 
 of grenadiers, chasseurs, and line infantry; 5 regi- 
 ments of dragoons and chasseurs -S.-cheval; S' 
 regiments of artillery ; and a few engineers. The 
 whole amount to 52,000 men ; but there is a great 
 power of augmentation by militia conscripts and 
 reserve levies. 
 
 Sardinia. — This state has been forced into a 
 somewhat distinguished military position, partly by 
 
 41S 
 
AEMILLAEY SPHERE— AEMINIUS. 
 
 its geograpMcal relations, and partly by the warlike 
 tendencies of tlie princes of the House of Savoy. The 
 array comprises 20 regiments of line infantry; 10 
 battalions of bersagliari or riflemen; 10 regiments of 
 cavalry ; 3 regiments of artUlery ; and a few thousand 
 engineers, pioneers, transport corps, and sanitary 
 corps. The total is about 48,000 ; but there is 
 a power of raising this to 100,000 by calling out 
 certain reserve corps. 
 
 Turkey. — The strange condition of the Ottoman 
 empire renders it impossible to state the strength of 
 the army, for it is hard to say whether the Danubian 
 Principalities belong to Turkey or not ; while the 
 tributary Asiatic and African pashas can seldom be 
 relied on for furnishing the expected contingents. 
 "Setting aside the Principalities, the theoretical force 
 of the empire, in active and reserve troops, has been 
 ■set down at little less than half a miUion of men; 
 but these figures are worth very Httle. 
 
 The A. of Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Naples, 
 ■the Papal States, the small ItaUan duchies, and 
 'Greece, are not of sufficient extent to need separate 
 notice here. It is true that Switzerland, by a law 
 •enabling the federal states to draw to almost any 
 ■extent on the male population between 20 and 44 
 ■years of age, can raise a very formidable anny ; but 
 this army only exists in skeleton in time of peace. 
 
 The A. of Asia, Africa, and America, with a few 
 ■exceptions, are not such as need be noticed here; 
 ■our information concerning them is too vague to be 
 TeUed on. The British, Indian army is at the present 
 time undergoing a thorough re-organisation, after the 
 break-up during the mutiny of 1857 — 1858; the result 
 ■vrill be found noticed in a later portion of this work. 
 The United States army is singularly small for so 
 large a covmtry, the inhabitants having a consti- 
 tutional jealousy of standing A. 'Hie regular 
 army barely exceeds 10,000 men ; but there is a 
 prodigious militia of more than 2,000,000. 
 
 A separate and fuller, treatment of the army of 
 Great Britain is reserved for British Aemy. 
 All the various matters relating to the formation, 
 organisation, discipHne, arms, eqidpments, duties, 
 and tactics of A., ■vrill be found succinctly treated 
 \mder appropriate headings. 
 
 AEMI'LIiABY SPHERE (armilla, a ring), an 
 instrument intended to give a just conception of 
 the constitution of the heavens, and of the motions of 
 the heavenly bodies, as seen by an observer on the 
 earth. It consists of a number of rings fixed together 
 so as to represent the principal circles of the celestial 
 sphere, and these are movable round the polar axis 
 within a meridian and horizon, as in the ordinary 
 celestial globe. It was by means of such rings fur- 
 nished ■with sights that Hipparchus, Ptolemy, and 
 other ancient astronomers made many of their obser- 
 vations, and we find even Tycho Brahg making most 
 X)t his planetary observations ■with the help of such 
 stuL instrument. The A. S. is, however, now only used 
 as an aid to instruction in astronomy, and in this 
 respect is generally supplanted by the celestial globe. 
 'The object aimed at in the A. S. ■wiU be better 
 ^lnderstood by reference to the celestial globe repre- 
 .sented in the diagram. Supposing the observer on 
 "the earth to be in the centre of the sphere, the earth 
 •on which he stands shuts out from his view the 
 lower half of the heavens, or the part lying below the 
 horizon HH. The hemisphere above him may be 
 regarded as divided into two equal portions, an 
 eastern and a western, by the meridian MM, which 
 passes through the pole P, and the zenith Z, of which 
 the eastern half is she^wn in the figure. The north 
 pole is supposed to be elevated above the horizon, 
 and its elevation is measured by the arc NP, or the 
 height above the north point ; and the heavens 
 appear to rotate round an axis PQ, of which P is one 
 
 41EI 
 
 extremity; the south pole, Q, the other extremity,, 
 being below the horizon. The meridian MM, and 
 the horizon HH, are the only circles which main- 
 tain a fixed position with regard to the observer. 
 
 Of the other leading celestialtiircles, the equator or 
 equinoctial LL, extending from the east to the west 
 point of the horizon, the tropics of Cancer and 
 Capricorn, respectively BB and CC, and the arctic 
 circle AA, although rotatiug with the stars, maintain 
 the same position with regard to the horizon ; while 
 the ecliptic, KK, is constantly changing its inclination 
 and position towards it. Circles ■Mich extend from 
 pole to pole, cutting the equator at right angles, are 
 called circles of declination. The circle which passes 
 through the vernal equinox cp (see Abies), is denomi- 
 nated the equinoctial colure ; and that passing through 
 the summer solstice (see Soishce), the solstitial 
 colure. The circles just named, together ■with the 
 Antarctic Circle, are represented by corresponding 
 rings in the A. S. If S be a star, the foUo^wing are the 
 names given to the arcs which determine its position 
 with regard to these circles : cpV, Right ascension ; 
 SV, Declination ; SP, Polar distance ; SZ, Zenith 
 distance ; XS, Altitude ; (XN 4- 180°), Azimuth, 
 reckoned from the south pole westward. 
 
 ARMrNITJS, Jacobus, the founder of Armini- 
 anism, was born at Oudewater (Old Water) in 1560. 
 His real name in Dutch was James Harmeusen ; but 
 in accordance ■with the prevailing custom amongst 
 scholars in those days, he Latinised it. His father 
 was a cutler, and died when A. was a child. After 
 a preliminary education at Utrecht, he commenced 
 (in 1575) a course of study at the newly founded 
 university of Leyden, where he remained for six 
 years, and where he seems to have acquired a high 
 reputation, for the Amsterdam merchants undertook 
 to bear the expense of his further studies for the 
 ministry, on condition that he would not preach 
 out of their city unless permitted to do so. In 
 1582, he went to Geneva, and received the instruc- 
 tions of Theodore Beza, the most rigid of Calvinists. 
 Here he made himself odious by the boldness with 
 which he defended the logic of Peter Ramus, in 
 opposition to that of the Aristotelians of Geneva, 
 and in consequence had to retire to Basle, whither 
 his fame must have preceded him, for he was offered 
 by the faculty of Divinity in that university the 
 
ARMINIUS. 
 
 degree of doctor gratis, whioh, however, he did not 
 venture to accept, on account of his youth. At 
 Basle he studied under Gyrnaeus. He subsequently 
 (1586) travelled into Italy. On his return to 
 Amsterdam (1588), he was appointed minister. 
 Shortly after this, he was commissioned to defend 
 the doctrine of Beza, regarding predestination, 
 against the changes which the ministers of Delft had 
 proposed to make on it. A. carefully examined both 
 sides of the question, but the result of his study was, 
 that he himself began to doubt, and at last came to 
 adopt the opinions he had been conmiissioned to 
 confute. Some time after this change of view, he came, 
 in the course of his expositions, upon the Epistle to 
 the Romans, the most explicitly doctrinal in the New 
 Testament, and the 8th and 9th chapters of which 
 have always been considered the strongholds of 
 Calvinism. His treatment of this epistle excited 
 much dissatisfaction, and involved him in shajrp 
 disputes with his orthodox brethren. StiU his views 
 were, as yet, either ambiguously or vaguely expressed, 
 or, at least, had not attamed to that clear consistency 
 they subsequently acquired, for in 1604 he was made 
 professor of theology in the university of Leyden. 
 
 The greatest enemy of A. was Francis Gomar, 
 his colleague in the university of Leyden. In the 
 course of the year 1604, the latter attacked his doc- 
 trines, and from that hour to the end of his life, A. 
 was engaged in a series of bitter disputes with 
 bis opponents. The odium iheologiaim was never 
 exhibited in more unmingled ' purity. Anninius 
 asserted, in substance, that God bestows forgiveness 
 and eternal life on all who repent of their sins and 
 believe in Christ; he wills that all men should 
 attain salvation, and only because he has from 
 eternity foreseen the beUef or unbelief of individuals, 
 has he from eternity determined the fate of each. 
 On the other hand, Gomar and his party, appeal- 
 ing to the Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg 
 Catechism, maintained, that God had, by an eternal 
 decree, predestinated what persons shall, as being 
 elected to salvation, be therefore awakened : to 
 repentance and faith and by gi-aoe made to persevere 
 therein ; and what persons shall, as being rejected 
 (rep?-o6aii), be left to sin, to unbelief, and to perdition. 
 See Predestination, Peksevekanoe of Saints. 
 
 While these fierce disputes were continuing. A., 
 who was not destitute either of friends or influence, 
 was created rector magnificus of the university, but 
 resigned the honour on the 8th of February 1606, 
 havmg held the office only for one year. All the 
 pulpits in Holland now fulminated against him. 
 At length, in 1608, A. himself apphed to the states 
 of Holland to convoke a synod for the purpose of 
 setthng the controversy; but, worn out with care 
 and disease, he died, on the 19th of October 1609, 
 before it was held, leaving seven sons and two 
 daughters by his wife, Elizabeth Eeael, daughter of 
 Laurent Reael, a judge and senator of Amsterdam. 
 
 There can be no doubt that A. himself was much 
 less Arminian than his followers. He had not 
 matm'ed his opinions sufficiently to elaborate a com- 
 plete system of anti-Calvinistio doctrine, though it is 
 perfectly certain that the conclusions at which his 
 disciples arrived — as stated in the famous 'Five 
 Articles' — are the logical and legitimate results of 
 his teaching. He always complained, however, that 
 his opinions were misrepresented ; but this is invari- 
 ably the fate of controversialists, and the penalty of 
 controversy. A. was an extremely good man, as 
 even his enemies allow ; his abilities were also of a 
 high order ; his thinking is clear, bold, and vigorous ; 
 his style remarkably methodical, and his scholarship 
 respectable, if not profound. 
 
 After the death of A., his followers gained 
 strength, and boldly asserted their views, but still 
 
 remained in a minority. In 1610, .they presented 
 to the assembled states of the province of Holland 
 a ' Kemonstrauce ' — from wliich they were styled 
 'Eemonstrants' — which contained the following pro- 
 positions : 1. That God had indeed made an eternal 
 decree, but only on the conditional terms that all 
 who believe in Christ shall be saved, while all who 
 refuse to believe must perish ; so that predestination 
 is onlv conditional. 2. That Christ died for all men, 
 but that none except believers are really saved by 
 his death. The intention, in other words, is univer- 
 sal, but the efficacy may be restricted by unbehef. 
 3. That no man is of himself able to exercise a 
 saving faith, but must be born again of God in 
 Christ through the Holy Spirit. 4. That without the 
 grace of God, man can neither think, will, nor do any- 
 thing good; yet that grace does not act in men in an 
 irresistible way. 5. That behevers are able, by the 
 aid of the Holy Spirit, victoriously to resist sin ; but 
 that the question of the possibility of a fall from 
 grace must be determined by a further examination 
 of the Scriptures on this point. 
 
 This last point, left as an open qtiestion, was 
 decided by the Remonstrants in the affirmative 
 soon afterwards (1611). Whereupon the Gomarists 
 (Calvinists) put forth a strong 'Counter-remon- 
 strance,' asserting plainly absolute predestination 
 and reprobation. After several fruitless discussions, 
 the states of Holland, in January 1614, acting under 
 the advice of Oldenbameveld, a senator, and the 
 learned Hugo Grotius, issued an edict of full toler- 
 ation for both parties, prohibiting at the same time 
 the continuance of the controversy. The Counter- 
 remonstrants (or Calvinists) refused to submit to this 
 edict, and the strife soon became so furious, that in 
 1617, or soon afterwards, the Arminians found it 
 necessary to guard themselves from personal violence 
 by appointing a safeguard of militia-men {Waard- 
 gelders). The controversy now merged in the strife 
 of parly poHtios. The ambitious Maurice of Orange 
 took advantage of the passions of the majority to 
 crush his opponents of the republican party, whose 
 leaders were adherents of the Arminian doctrines. 
 Several Arminians were put to death — among them 
 the aged senator Oldenbameveld, May 13, 1619 — 
 while Grotius and others were imprisoned. In 
 these circumstances, the Synod of Dort was held 
 (1618—1619), attended by selected representatives 
 from the Netherlands, England, Scotland, the 
 Palatinate, Switzerland, Nassau, East Friesland, 
 and Bremen. From this convocation (January 14, 
 1619), the thirteen Arminian pastors, with the 
 learned and eloquent Simon Episcopus at their head, 
 were excluded. The doctrines of the Counter-remon- 
 strants were embodied in ninety-three canons ; the 
 Belgic Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism 
 were confirmed as authorities for the reformed 
 churches of the Netherlands ; and three hundred 
 Arminians (chiefly preachers) were expelled from 
 office. In consequence of this decision, the defeated 
 party sought shelter in France, Holstein, England, 
 &c. Afterwards, under Frederick-Henry, the stadt- 
 holder after Prince Maurice (1630), they were again 
 tolerated in Holland, and in 1634 Episcopus opened 
 his theological college in Amsterdam. 
 
 Since that time, tiie Remonstrants (or Arminians) 
 in Holland have inclined more and more towards 
 freedom of thought on rehgious questions and inde- 
 pendence in church government. The rejection of 
 aU creeds and confessions ; the free interpretation 
 of the Scriptures ; a preference of moral to doctrinal 
 teaching; Ariau views respecting the 'Trinity; the 
 virtual rejection of the doctrines of original sin and 
 imputed righteousness, and the view of the sacraments 
 as merely edifyiog forms or ceremonies : all these 
 and other points of belief display the same tendency 
 
AHMISTICE-ARMOTJR. 
 
 ■vrMch is found in tlieir church polity. Their 
 annual conference on ecclesiastical affairs is com- 
 posed of ministers and lay-deputies, and takes place 
 in June, alternately at Amsterdam and Kotterdam. 
 The number of Jlemonstrants is now only about 
 5000, and is still decreasing. In 1809, they had 34 
 congregations with 40 preachers in Holland ; but in 
 1829, only 20 congregations with 21 preachers. The 
 largest society of A. is in Kotterdam, and numbers 
 only 600 members. 
 
 Although the Arminians are thus dwindling away 
 as a distinct body, their tenets respecting predestin- 
 ation have been adopted with greater or less modi- 
 fication by several other Christian denominations 
 (see Methodists, Wesleyan ; Baptists, General) ; 
 as well as by multitudes of the individual members 
 of those churches whose formularies are CalvLuistio 
 (see Calvinism). They are also very prevalent in 
 the Church of Ilome. 
 
 A'BMISTICE, a suspension of hostilities between 
 two armies, or two nations at war, by mutual agree- 
 ment. It sometimes takes place when both are 
 exhausted, and at other times when an endeavour to 
 form a treaty of peace is being made. A particular 
 example wUl best illustrate the nature of an A. On 
 the 25th of February 1856, the representatives of 
 England, France, Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Turkey, 
 and Kussia, met in congress at Paris, to consider the 
 terms of a treaty of peace which should terminate 
 the war at that time going on between five of the 
 above-named powers. The British nation was very 
 unwilling to suspend hostilities during the sitting of 
 the congress — partly on account of the numerous 
 failures of diplomacy in the preceding year, and 
 partly because Kussia was suspected of only wishing 
 to gain time. It was agreed, however, at the first 
 sitting, in conformity with the laws of nations and 
 the usages of war, that an A. should be declared, 
 to be announced by telegraphic message to the com- 
 manders in the Crimea, and to last until the 31st of 
 March. During that period of about one calendar 
 month, the hostile armies were to remain strictly at 
 peace, but the fleets of the allies were to continue 
 their blockade of Russian ports. The information 
 reached the generals late on the 28th of February. 
 On the mommg of the 29th, a white flag was hoisted 
 in the Russian camp outside Sebastopol; several 
 Russian officers assembled around it ; and a glitter- 
 ing cavalcade of British, French, and Sardinian officers 
 proceeded thither. The accredited officers compared 
 notes, found the terms of the A. clear, agreed on a 
 boundary-Hue between the hitherto hostile forces, 
 and formally gave pledges for a cessation of fighting. 
 The courtesy of civilised nations at once succeeded 
 to the horrors of war; the Russian commander 
 gave a magnificent entertainment to the allied com- 
 manders, and was entertained in tiu:n ; the soldiers 
 ' fraternised,' by little gifts of tobacco, and ludicrous 
 attempts at conversation, across a small stream which 
 formed part of the boundary-line ; and a few British 
 officers were permitted to make excursions into the 
 interior of the Crimea. The A. ended on March 31, 
 not by a renewal of hostilities, but by the signing 
 of a treaty of peace. 
 
 A'RMORER. The old meaning of this word 
 has nearly passed away -with the system to which it 
 belonged. The armour-smiths, or makers of armour, 
 were among the most skilful workers in metal during 
 the feudal times ; but their trade afterwards fell 
 away. In the year 1690, the workmen-armorers of 
 London, in a petition to parliament, complained that 
 their trade was well-nigh ruined. 
 
 Armorers, in a somewhat different sense of the 
 word, belong to the British army and navy at 
 the present time. There are armorers to every 
 
 413 
 
 regiment, not to make armour, but to repair arms. 
 There is one to each troop of cavalry, and one to 
 each company of infantry. The A. is paid one 
 penny per month for taking to pieces and cleaning 
 the lock of each soldier's musket. There is also a 
 regular tariff of prices for every minute detail of 
 repair in the stock, lock, or barrel of muskets, pistols, 
 carbines, and rifles, and in bayonets and ramrods. 
 A school for training 'A. -sergeants' has recently 
 been established in Xondon, to supply one such 
 artificer to each battalion, who shaU have a certain 
 degree of control over the ten or twelve company- 
 armorers in the battalion. 
 
 On shipboard, the A. is a warrant-officer, who 
 has charge of all the muskets, pistols, cutlasses, 
 boarding-pikes, &o., which he is expected to keep 
 clean and in ready order. He is assisted by a 
 subordinate called the ' A.'s mate ; ' ,and both are 
 skilled in the general routine of smith's work. 
 
 ARMO'RICA, the country of the Armorici, i.e., 
 'the dwellers on the sea' (Celt, ar, on or near; and 
 mm; sea), the name by which the people occupying 
 the coast of- Gaul between the Seine and the Loire 
 were known to Cffisar. At a later period, the name 
 A. was confined to the country afterwards styled 
 Britannia Minor, or Bretagne (q. v.). 
 
 A'RMORY may mean a storehouse for arms; 
 but the name is also often apphed to a collection of 
 ancient armour and weapons — such as those in the 
 Tower of London, in Sir Samuel Meyrick's mansion 
 at Goodrich Court on the Wye, and in Warwick 
 Castle. 
 
 A'BMOTJR is a general name for the apparatus 
 for personal defence, as contradistinguished from 
 arms or weapons of offence. Little of it is worn by 
 soldiers at the present day, seeing that hand-to- 
 hand conflicts, in which it is especially serviceable, 
 are rather exceptional in modem warfare. It was 
 before the invention of gunpowder that A. — often 
 called in England by the name of harness — was 
 especially used. 
 
 All the ancient nations who occupy a place in 
 history were accustomed to adopt one or other of 
 the defensive clothing or implements which collect- 
 ively come under the denomination of A. Leather- 
 A. was sometimes worn ; but brass, iron, and other 
 metals were preferred. Some of the more luxurious 
 leaders had much silver and gold in their A. In the 
 Bible, shields, helmets, breastplates, and greaves, 
 are mentioned among the articles of A. borne or 
 worn by the Israelites and their opponents. The 
 classical writers — Homer, Xenophon, Herodotus, 
 Livy, Tacitus, Varro, &o. — supply abundant evi- 
 dence of the use of A. among the nations concerning 
 whom they wrote. 
 
 It is believed that the early Britons bore little or 
 no other A. than shields. The Anglo-Saxons were 
 more fully provided. At different times before the 
 Norman Conquest they appear to have had four- 
 cornered helmets ; loricse made of leather ; scale- 
 A. ; leathern helmets ; wooden shields covered with 
 leather ; sheep-skin shields ; conical caps or helmets 
 of metal ; pectorals or neck-guards ; breast-guards 
 of imdressed hide ; flat-ringed A. ; byrnes or 
 tunics of overlapping pieces of leather; close- 
 fitting cuirasses of leather, and sometimes of strong 
 linen ; leg-guards of twisted woollen cloth ; shields 
 of various sizes, from half a yard to a yard and 
 a half in length; and casques having more or less 
 resemblance to the ancient helmete. When the 
 Danes were in Britain, they had at first no other 
 A. than leathern neck-pieces, which descended some 
 way over the shoulders and chest ; and greaves or 
 shin-pieces for the legs. In the time of Canute or 
 Knute, however, they adopted a kind of A. which 
 
AKMS— AEMSTEONG. 
 
 Sir Samuel Meyriok supposes them to have ■borrowed 
 from the Norsemen or Norwegians, It comprised a 
 tunio, with a hood and long sleeves ; pantaloons 
 which covered feet as well as legs ; and sugar-loaf 
 shaped helmets or skull-caps, with attached pieces 
 which hid nearly the whole face except the eyes. 
 All these were probably made of leather ; but mo^t 
 of the surfaces were strengthened by macles or 
 masoles, a perforated net-worn of steel. 
 
 With William the Conqueror came in the kinds of 
 A. which were at that time prevalent among the 
 knights and soldiers of the continent of Europe, and 
 which became afterwards more or less combined with 
 the A. previously known in England. William himself 
 occasionally wore a hauberk of ring-A. This kind 
 of A. was much worn during his reign, the rings 
 being usually attached to a foundation of leather. 
 One curious variety of ring-A., called the haubergeon, 
 had the tunic and breeches all in one piece. The 
 helmets were generally conical, with a nasal or nose 
 guard descendmg from the front. A distinct ring-A., 
 called hose, was often worn on the legs. The 
 shield was generally kite-shaped, unlike the oval 
 shields carried by the Anglo-Saxons. Gradual 
 changes in these various portions of A. were 
 made between the reigns of William Rufus and 
 John. Under Henry III., we find stitched and 
 padded hauberks and chaussSs, called ' ouvrages 
 de pourpointerie ; suits of ring-A. ; greaves or 
 sMn- pieces of steel; poleyns or knee -guards; 
 vambraces or arm-guards ; jacks, jaques, or jackets, 
 made of leather, and worn over the ring-A. ; inter- 
 laced ring-A., of oriental invention, not requir- 
 ing to be stitched to any garment or foundation ; 
 hdmets, visors, and skuH-caps of various forms ; and 
 chanfrons, or A. for the head, and face of horses. 
 During Edward III.'s reign, iron plate- A. was much 
 used by troopers, in the various forms of helmet, 
 breast-plate, gauntlet, and greaves. In the 14th c, 
 chain-mail fell into disuse, and was succeeded by 
 plate-A. ; this last-named kind became more and 
 more complicated, and reached its greatest pitch of 
 elaboration in the reign of Eichard III. During the 
 times of Henry VIL and VIII., the A. was some- 
 times fluted, often elaborately engraved, and even 
 damascened or inlaid with gold. Under James I., 
 the knightly ideas of the feudal times gave way, 
 and the use of A. declined ; a knight armed cap-h- 
 pie was a rarity. Charles I. tried to revive its use. 
 
 Suit of ArmoTir, 
 presented by the Euipei-or Maximilian to Henry VIII. 
 
 but he had few followers; and the days of CromweU 
 may be regarded as the last in which A. was worn 
 to any considerable extent by the regular soldiers. 
 Hehuets and cuirasses are stiU worn by the three 
 regiments of Household Cavalry (Life-guards and 
 Horse-guards), but more for show than for service. 
 
 The chief pieces of A. will be found briefly 
 described and illustrated under the proper headings. 
 
 ARMS, or weapons of offence, may be divided 
 into two great classes — those that act by means 
 of gunpowder, and those that do not. Of arms that 
 act otherwise than by explosion, the greater part 
 have been in U3e from the earliest times; they 
 include the bow and arrow, sling, pike, spear, 
 lance, dart, javelin, dagger, axe, mace, spiked or 
 knotted club, scythe for chariots, dirk, bayonet, 
 sword, cutlass, &c., together with such artUlery 
 as the baUista, catapulta, and battering-ram. Wea- 
 pons depending on the use of gunpowder are of two 
 kinds — those that can be held in the hand, and those 
 that are too heavy to be portable. In the first class, 
 we find the names of the hand-cannon, hand-gun, 
 arquebus, haquebut, demi-haque, matchlock, wheel- 
 lock, firelock, currier, snaphaunce, caliver, esclo- 
 pette, petronel, dragon, hand-mortar, dag, tricker-lock, 
 carbine, fusil, fowhngpiece, blunderbuss, pistol, 
 musket or musquet, musketoon, rifle, &c. In the 
 second class, more usually included under the name 
 of artillery, we find the springel, war- wolf, bombard, 
 cart -of -war, culverin, demi-culverin, serpentine, 
 falcon, saker, cannon, howitzer, petard, carronade, 
 mortar, rifled cannon, war-rockets, &c. The more 
 important of these are briefly noticed imder the 
 proper headings. 
 
 The Adjutant-general of the British army watches 
 the state of the A. in all the regiments and at all 
 the stations, receives reports on their condition, 
 supplies all deficiencies, and insures readiness for 
 immediate service. Each regiment makes a report 
 to him on these subjects yearly. If the commanding 
 officer of a regiment ascertains that a new supply 
 of A. is needed for the men under him, or a supply 
 of anything in relation to the A., he notifies the 
 fact to the army agent for the regiment, who acts in 
 many ways as a sort of factor or middleman. See 
 Agent, Army. The agent applies to the War- 
 office. The Secretary of State for War, if satisfied 
 that the demand is proper, writes an order for the 
 supply ; this order is sent to the Adjutant-general, 
 who acts as the second in influence under the 
 Commander-in-chief ; and then the store-keepers or 
 ordnance ofiioers receive orders to furnish the supply. 
 
 ARMS, ARMO'RIAL BEARINGS, or EN- 
 SIGNS, are the names given to such devices as when 
 paiQted on a shield form a coat. These terms in 
 popular speech include all the accompaniments of a 
 shield — ^viz., the crest, helmet, and where such exist, 
 the supporters, &c. See these terms. See also 
 Heealdby. 
 
 ARMS, AsscMPTivE. See Heealdey. 
 
 ARMS, Bells op, are tents, mostly of a conical 
 shape, for containing the small-arms for each com- 
 pany in a regiment of infantry. The tent is frequently 
 painted with the colour of the facings of the regi- 
 mental uniforms. 
 
 ARMS, Messengee at. See Mbssengee-at- 
 Aems. 
 
 ARMS, Seejbant at. See Seejeant-at-Aems. 
 
 ARMS, Stand of. A stand of A. is the complete 
 set necessary for the equipment of one soldier, 
 whether horse or foot. 
 
 A'RMSTRONG, John, physician and poet, was 
 born about 1709 at Castletown, a pastoral parish in 
 Roxburghshire, of which his father was minister. 
 He studied medicine at the university of Edinburgh, 
 where he took the degree of M.D., February 4, 1732. 
 Soon after, he commenced practice in London, and 
 became known by the publication of several fugitive 
 pieces and medical essays. In 1737 he pubhshed a 
 very objectionable poem. The EamomyofLove, which 
 injured his reputation for a time. His principal 
 
 419 
 
AEMSTEONG. 
 
 work. The Art of Preserving Health, a didactic 
 poem in blank verse, extending througli four tooks, 
 appeared in 1744. In 1746 lie was appointed physi- 
 cian to the hospital for sick and lame soldiers. In 
 1751 he pubhshed a volume on Benevolence; in 
 1753, a poetical epistle on Taste; and in 1758, a 
 volume of prose essays of no great merit. In l760 
 he was appointed physician to the forces in Germany. 
 In 1761 appeared from his pen Day, a Poem. On 
 the peace in 1763, he returned to London, and 
 resumed practice. In 1771 he made a continental 
 tour with Fuseli, the painter, an account of which he 
 published, with the title of A Short Ramble through 
 some Parts of France and Italy, by Lancelot Temple, 
 Esq. His last work was a volume of medical essays. 
 He contributed to Thomson's Castle of Indolence the 
 four stanzas at the end of the first part, descriptive 
 of the diseases resulting from sloth. Died 7th Sep- 
 tember 1779. A. was the friend of Thomson, Mallet, 
 Aaron Hill, Dr Young, WOkes, and the principal 
 wits and literary men of the period. He seems to 
 have been a reserved, indolent, and splenetic man, 
 ' who quite detested talk;' kind-hearted withal, and 
 of frugal habits, having left £3000, saved out of a 
 small and precarious income. His fame rests entirely 
 on The Art of Preserving Health, his other works 
 being now only known by name. 
 
 A'EMSTROK'G, John, an eminent physician and 
 medical writer, was born 8th May 1784, at Ayres 
 Quay, near Bishop- Wearmouth, where his father was 
 the superintendent of some glassworks. He studied 
 medicine at the university of Edinburgh, and in 
 June 1808 took the degree of M. D. He commenced 
 practice at Bishop-Wearmouth, and in 1811 was 
 chosen physician to the infimiary at Sunderland. 
 In 1816 he published a work on Typhus, which 
 greatly extended his reputation. His researches 
 concerning the causes and phenomena of febrile dis- 
 eases having made his name well known in the 
 metropohs, he was induced, in February 1818, to 
 remove to London, where his practice became exten- 
 sive, and he was elected physician to the Fever 
 Hospital. In 1821, in concert with Mr Edward 
 Grainger, he established a medical school in Webb 
 Street, Borough, where he lectured on the practice 
 of physic. He also delivered a coiurse of lectures 
 on Materia Medioa. In 1826 he joined Dr Boot 
 and Mr E. Bennett in establishing a new school of 
 medicine in Dean Street, Soho, but shortly after 
 relinquished his connection with it. He died of con- 
 sumption, 12th December 1829, aged 45. Exclusively 
 devoted to the duties of his profession, Dr A. was 
 very successful in the elucidation of medical science. 
 His works are numerous, and he contributed various 
 papers to the medical journals. His lectures, 
 inserted in the Lancet in 1825, were pubhshed in a 
 separate form after his death, with the following 
 title. Lectures on the Morbid Anatomy, Nature, and 
 Treatment of Acute and Chronic Diseases, by the late 
 John Armstrong, M.D. Edited by Joseph Rix — one 
 of his pupils. (London, 1834, 8vo.) 
 
 A'RMSTRONG, SiB William Geohge, noted for 
 various mechanical inventions, and particularly that 
 of a gim of extraordinary power and precision, was 
 born in 1810 at Newcastle, where his father was an 
 eminent corn-merchant, and in 1851 filled the ofBoe 
 of mayor. A. was educated at the school of Bishop- 
 Auckland ; but his peculiar mental powers were 
 chiefly cultivated by the opportunities which his 
 father's tastes gave him at home, of acquainting 
 himself with chemistry, electricity, and mechanics. 
 Though the natural bent of his mind was to some 
 profession in which these sciences would have been 
 available, he readily yielded to his father's wishes, 
 and was articled to Mr Armourer Donkin, an 
 420 
 
 eminent soliciter in Newcastle, who, at the expira- 
 tion of his time, adopted him as a partner. A high 
 sense of duty enabled A. to give his excellent general 
 powers of mind to business ; but he devoted much of 
 his leisure to his favourite pursuits, and his inventive 
 faculty was constantly active. About 1838, observing 
 one day a little stream descending along a height near 
 Newcastle, and driving but a single miU, he thought 
 to how much more purpose it might be apphed 
 hydraulically, and thus was led into a course of 
 experimenting, which resulted in his producing a. 
 much improved hydraulic engine, of which a descrip- 
 tion was given in the Mechanic^ Magazine for 
 April 18, 1840. Following up this invention with a 
 view to practical applications, he gave to the world, 
 in 1845, a hydraulic crane, which has proved to be of 
 eminent utility in raising weights at harbours and in 
 warehouses. The discovery of electricity in steam by 
 a workman at a fixed engine on the Cramlington 
 Railway in 1840, had meanwhile led A. into a new 
 path, and in 1842 he brought to perfection an appa- 
 ratus for producing electricity from steaig, which 
 was soon after introduced into the Polytechnic In- 
 stitution in London. The evolution of the electricity 
 depending in reality on the friction sustained by 
 the small quantity of water which accompanies the 
 steam in its discharge, the great merit of A.'s inven- 
 tion in this case lay in the form he gave the orifice 
 through which the steam passed. A friend, writiug 
 of A. at this time, remarked that he ought to have 
 been an engineer, so great evidently were his talents 
 for mechanical science. 'Plain, simple, and unassum- 
 ing, no one at first sight could form any idea of the 
 depth of thought and vast amount of scientific 
 knowledge which he possesses, and which are accom- 
 panied by a straightforwardness and consistency 
 truly admirable.' A change of profession was in 
 such a case inevitable, and few were surprised when, 
 soon after being elected a member of the Royal 
 Society in 1846, A., in conjunction with some 
 friends, commenced the Elswick Engine-works. 
 This establishment is upon a large scale, hitherto 
 chiefly employed in producing nydrauhc cranes, 
 engines, accumulators, and bridges, for use in Great 
 Britain, the continent, and India, but now embracing 
 also works for the production of ordnance for the 
 service of the government. 
 
 In 1854, while war was raging in the Crimea, the 
 War-office was sohcited by many inventors to make 
 trial of new forms of cannon and projectiles. Mr 
 Armstrong, one of the number, attracted the atten- 
 tion of the authorities, and was employed to make 
 explosive apparatus for blowing up the ships sunk 
 at Sebastopol. This led him soon afterwards to 
 consider improvements in ordnance; and he devised 
 a form of breech-loading cannon, combining many 
 peculiarities in structure and action. He received 
 encouragement to make a few field-pieces on his 
 new method. He made lengthened experiments on 
 the strength of iron and steel, on the relative merits 
 of cast and wrought iron, on the best number of 
 grooves in rifling, on the best pitch or twist for these 
 grooves, on the most convenient modes of loading at 
 the breech of the gun, on the mechanism for lessen- 
 ing the recoil, on the best form and structure of 
 shot and shells, and on the fuses best suited for 
 igniting the shells during their flight. 
 
 Most of the early experiments were made with 
 guns throwing 6-lb. and 18-lb. shot and shells, and 
 subsequently 32-lb. shells, and this larger gun may 
 be taken as a tj'pe of the whole. It is built up 
 with small pieces of the very best wrought-irou, to 
 avoid flaws or faults, and to insure strength, light- 
 ness, and durability. It is made in 3-feet lengths. 
 Bars of wrought-iron, 2 inches wide, are heated 
 to whiteness, twisted spirally round a steel bar or 
 
AllMY-ARMY ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 core, and •welded ; other bara are twisted over these 
 in a similar way, but with an opposite turn of the 
 spiral ; a third, and perhaps a fourth coating follow, 
 according to the thickness and strength needed. 
 Another heating to whiteness precedes a thorough 
 welding of all the layers of bars by a steam-hammer. 
 The ends of two of these 3-f eet pieces are then nicely 
 trimmed and adjusted, placed in contact, and bound 
 together by the enormous pressure of a wrought-iron 
 ring shrunk on while at a white heat. By varying 
 the number and length of these sections, a gun oi 
 any length is made. The internal core is then 
 removed, and the bore of the gim is rifled by 
 exquisite inachinery. The rifle-grooves are so small 
 and close as to be upwards of 40 in number ; their 
 pitch or twist is such as to make a complete circuit 
 in a gun 10 feet long. The breech of the gun is 
 wholly distinct, and constructed in a difierent way ; 
 it can be drawn backward by unscrewing, and has a 
 hole through its centre for introducing the shot or 
 shell and i£e charge. At first, the inventor adopted 
 a steel interior for his gun ; but now he relies wholly 
 on the toughest wrought-iron. The projectile 
 employed with this gun may be solid shot, shell, 
 case-shot, or canister-shot ; but the shell is that to 
 which most interest is attached. It is about three 
 diameters in length ; and thus a 32-lb. shot or shell 
 can be fired from a gim of much smaller caHber than 
 if it were spherical. The shell is bmlt up of about 
 50 separate pieces of cast-iron, very accurately 
 fitted, and enveloped in an iron sheath. Outside of it 
 are two bands of lead, soft enough to be forced into 
 the rifled grooves of the gun, and thus to acquire 
 the rotatory movement by which the straightness of 
 ilirfit is so much insured. 
 
 The actual results obtained by a gun such as is 
 above described are almost incredible. An ordinary 
 long 32 pounder weighs 57 cwt. ; Armstrong's 32 
 pounder weighs 26 cwt. The former requires 10 lb. of 
 powder as a charge ; for the latter 5 lb. wiU sufiice. 
 The former will send a shot or shell 3000 yards ; 
 the range of the latter exceeds 9000 yards, or 5^ 
 mUes. One particular A. gun has been fired 3500 
 times without exhibiting any flaw or failing — a feat 
 never before even approached in gunnery. At 4000 
 yards' distance, a target 9 feet square can be hit 
 90 times out of 100. At 1000 yards' distance, the 
 A. gun will hit every time an object so small as to be 
 missed 56 times out of 57 by an ordinary 32 pounder, 
 fired by the same gunner in the two cases. The 
 fuses attached to the shells are so exquisitely 
 adjusted that the shell can be made to burst either 
 directly on leaving the gun, or half way on its path, 
 or when it strikes an object; in the last-named case, 
 even a sack of shavings will afford the necessary 
 concussion ; and yet, so close is the structure, that 
 an uncharged shell has been fired completely through 
 9 feet of solid oak without the pieces separating. 
 For naval use, the small diameter of • the gun wUl 
 allow small port-holes to be used, and thus lessen the 
 danger to which the seamen-gunners are exposed. The 
 gun-carriages, for ship or garrison use, have a sloping 
 slide on which the gun runs up to lessen the recoil, 
 and down which it runs again by its own gravity 
 after firing. The shells to be directed against a ship 
 are so formed, and provided with fuses of such a 
 kind, as to explode exactly when striking the hull, 
 and when the rent made wUl be most mischievous. 
 
 Although the wonderful effects of the A. 
 gun relate chiefly to the 32 pounder, the principal 
 experimental researches were made with one much 
 smaller, but not less worthy of admiration. It had 
 a bore of only 1| inch, and was Ught enough to be 
 lifted about (without its carriage) by two or three 
 men. It had eight spiral grooves, making one turn 
 in 12 feet. When fured at a timber butt measuring 
 
 7 feet by 5, at 1500 yards' distance, this little gun 
 propelled shot which hit the butt nearly every time, 
 the average deviation from the centre of the butt 
 being little more than 1 foot laterally ; whereas an 
 ordinary brass 6 pounder, which affords the nearest 
 parallel as to weight, is perfectly useless at 1500 
 yards, and nearly so at 1000. At one particular eleva- 
 tion, the Armstrong shot, barely 2 inches in diameter, 
 took the amazing flight of 3000 yards. The 32- 
 pounder gun introduced many improvements on this 
 little 6 pounder; and the inventor established 
 the bases for further improvements in stUl larger 
 specimens — up to 100 pounders, if needed. 
 
 When Mr Armstrong had spent much of his time 
 and thoughts during four years on this subject, the 
 government, supported by the strongly expressed 
 opinions of artillery officers of all ranks, proposed to 
 secure the result of these experiments for the nation. 
 Mr Armstrong offered to the government, without 
 any stipulation, not only aU his past inventions, but 
 also all such as he might hereafter discover. This 
 led to arrangements which the ministers in parlia- 
 ment characterised as liberal and patriotic on his 
 part; and the terms thus suggested by Mr Arm- 
 strong were accepted. An office was created for 
 him, that of Chief-engineer of Eifled Ordnance, for 
 seven years provisionally ; and a certain amount of 
 salary was determined on, in consideration at once 
 of his past inventions and of his future services. 
 Working arrangements have been organised at New- 
 castle-ou-Tyne and Woolwich, which will render 
 possible the production of many htmdred gims per 
 annum. Sir W. G. Armstrong (the honour of knight- 
 hood having been conferred on the inventor by the 
 Queen) has pointed out reasons why foreign govern- 
 ments must necessarily be, for a lengthened period, 
 unable to surmount the extreme mechanical diffi- 
 culties of the manufacture of these guns. 
 
 ARMY. Eeferring to Abmies (Ancient, Medi- 
 eval, and Modern) and to British Army for brief 
 historical notices of national military forces, and 
 leaving to other portions of this work all details 
 concerning the formation and tactics of such forces, 
 it may be well to mention here certain distinctions 
 in the apphcation of the name A. A Covering A. is 
 encamped or in cantonments, for the protection of 
 the different passes or roads which lead to the town 
 or other place to be protected. A Siege A. is 
 ranged around or in front of a fortified place, to 
 capture it by a regular process of besieging. A 
 Blockading A., either independent of or auxiliary 
 to a siege A., is intended to prevent all ingress 
 and egress at the streets or gates of a besieged place. 
 An A. of Observation takes up an advanced posi- 
 tion, and by celerity of movement keeps a close 
 watch on all the mancEuvres of the enemy. An 
 A. of Seconnaissance has a more special duty at a 
 particular time and place, to ascertain the strength 
 and position of the enemy's forces. A Flying A. 
 comprises a strong body of horse and foot, moving 
 quickly from place to place, to alarm the enemy, 
 and to protect garrisons. Any one of these may be 
 forced into an engagement in the field; but they 
 are all more or less subsidiary to the Main A,, 
 by which the greater operations in the field are 
 usually conducted. 
 
 ARMY ADMINISTRATION. The whole of 
 the operations connected with the raising, clothing, 
 paying, maintaining, and controlling of the British 
 army, are included in the term A. A. They are dis- 
 tinct matters from military command and discipline. 
 The Sovereign has the supreme command of the 
 British army ; but the Secretary of State for War is 
 her responsible representative in all that concerns 
 administration — the Commander-in-chief being her 
 
 421 
 
AKMY AGENT— AEMY WORKS COEtS. 
 
 representative in matters relating to military organ- 
 isation and discipline. IJie Secretary is the organ 
 through whom the wishes of the Sovereign are recon- 
 ciled with the wishes and intentions of parliament. 
 Until the war with Russia in 1854, the administra- 
 tive departments were much scattered ; their defec- 
 tive organisation led in great part to the miseries 
 suffered by the British troops in the Crimea ; but 
 now they are all consolidated under the Secretary of 
 State for War. See Wah Department. 
 
 AEMY AGENT. See Agent, Aemy. 
 
 ARMY ESTIMATES. In the spring of every 
 year, the British government having formed a plan 
 concerning the extent and appliances of the mili- 
 tary force for that year, the War-office sends 
 to the Treasury a series of accounts setting forth 
 the probable cost of everything required. These 
 accounts are called the A. E. If they are approved 
 by the Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer 
 adverts to these, along with other estimates, in his 
 annual ' financial statement,' made to the House 
 of Commons in its capacity as guardian of the 
 public purse. In preparing the A. E. the Secre- 
 tary of State for War appEes to the heads of all 
 the departments uuder him for detailed accounts 
 of their probable reqiiirements. Another functionary 
 then incorporates and adjusts these into a whole; 
 they are submitted to the Treasury ; and, if 
 approved, are presented to the Hoiise as the A. E. 
 Should the Commons grant the money, the Accoimt- 
 ant-general of the War-office makes the requisite 
 drafts or demands from time to time ; and the Trea- 
 sury authorises the Paymaster-general of the Forces 
 to honour these drafts. The money itself is in 
 the Bank of England ; this establishment receives 
 a certain annual sum from the government for 
 managing such financial matters. 
 
 The A E. are drawn up in conformity with a 
 model which differs httle from year to year. There 
 are certain great headings, each comprising many 
 minor divisions : viz.. Land Forces and Militia 
 (numbers, pay, allowances, and miscellaneous 
 charges) ; Civil Establishments (administration, 
 manufacturing estabUshments, civil departments) ; 
 Supplies (clothing, provisions, forage, warlike stores) ; 
 Works and Suildings (barracks, fortifications, &c.) ; 
 Mducational Eslablishments (schools, chaplains, libra- 
 ries, &c.) ; Non-effective Services (half-pay, retiring 
 allowances, pensions, &o.). These are not exactly 
 the technical names of the several headings; but 
 they wUl be more intelligible to general readers. 
 The various items are more or less sifted by the 
 House of Commons ; and any one or more of them 
 can be refused altogether, or granted in diminished 
 amount. The A. E. for 1859 — 60, which may be 
 cited here as an illustrative example, refer to the 
 period from April 1, 1859 to March 31, 1860. The 
 total number of British troops provided for in these 
 estimates is 229,557 ; but as 106,902 are charged to 
 the East Indian treasury, as being required for 
 India service, the House of Commons was asked 
 only to provide for the remaining 122,655. The 
 horses are 24,069, of which 11,321 are for India ser- 
 vice. Without going into any details, we wUl simply 
 give the amounts under the six great headings : 
 
 £4,524,843 
 
 1,170,787 
 
 Pay and allowances, .... 
 Civil and manufacturing departments. 
 Clothing, provisions, forage, warlike 
 
 stores 
 
 Barracks, fortifications, buildings, . 
 Educational and religious charges. 
 Reduced and retired pay, pensions, 
 
 rewards, . . . . ' . 
 
 2,121,692 
 
 1,334,701 
 
 268,532 
 
 2,147,505 
 
 122 
 
 £11,568,060 
 
 ARMY LIST is the name of a publication 
 issued by authority of the War-office. It contains 
 the names of all commissioned officers in the 
 British army, arranged according to the dates of 
 their commissions. Then come the oificers of the 
 East India Company's service— or, now, that por- 
 tion of the Queen's army which belongs exclu- 
 sively to India. Next the names of aJDl officers 
 who hold military honours or staff appointments. 
 The bulk of the work, however, is taken up with an 
 enumeration of all the regiments in the Queen's 
 army, and aU the officers in each regiment, arranged 
 according to the numerical rank of the regiments. 
 To this are added lists of the officers of the Rifle 
 Brigade, Colonial Corps, Royal Artillery, Royal 
 Engineers, Royal Marines, Commissariat, and Army 
 Medical Department ; and of officers retired on full- 
 pay and on half -pay. The A. L. for 1859 contains 
 the names of little less than 14,000 commissioned 
 officers. Another work of similar but non-official 
 character. Hart's A. L., by a more condensed 
 arrangement of type, gives all the information 
 contained in the official list, and much in addition. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS. The colleges, academies, 
 and schools relating to military matters in this 
 country may be grouped into two classes — ^those 
 intended to increase the military efficiency of the 
 officers and men ; and those which bear relation to 
 the ordinary school-tuition of soldiers of the ranks 
 and their children. The principal of those in the first 
 group are the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, 
 the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich, the 
 School of Instruction at Chatham, the Department 
 of Artillery Studies at Woolwich, the School of 
 Artillery at Shoebury, the School of Musketry at 
 Hythe, and the Royal Artillery Institution at Wool- 
 wich. The chief among the second group are the 
 Royal Mihtary Asylum (better known as the Duke 
 of York's School), the Regimental Schools, and the 
 Garrison Schools. Chelsea College or Hospital is an 
 asylum for veterans, not a school of instruction. 
 Most of these educational establishments wiH be 
 found briefly described in this work, either imder 
 the names of the places where they exist, or of the 
 arm of the service to which they belong. 
 
 ARMY WORKS CORPS. When the British 
 generals engaged in the Crimean war, in the later 
 months of 1854, knew that the siege-army would 
 need to winter outside Sebastopol, grave difficulties 
 were presented to their notice. The distance from 
 the landing-place at Balaklava to the front of the 
 siege-camp was not less than eight miles ; and the 
 only road was a mud-track, almost impassable in 
 wet weather. How to get the heavy guns, the shot 
 and shell, the provisions, and the general stores, up to 
 the front, was a question not easy of solution. The 
 British soldiers were too few even for the ordinary 
 military duties, and yet they were called upon for 
 services of an extra and arduous nature. When 
 these facts became known in England, a suggestion 
 was made that an 'Army Works Corps' should be 
 formed, to consist of strong and efficient railway 
 excavators, Cornish miners, and weU-sinkers ; that 
 these should have with them all the tools and appli- 
 ances for making roads and digging wells ; and that 
 they should be accompanied by travelling work- 
 shops and skmed artisans, to effect that which might 
 require more skill than physical labour. The ioune- 
 diate necessities of Lord Raglan, in regard to bring- 
 ing up supplies, were met by the construction of a 
 railway from Balaklava to the heights outside 
 Sebastopol, by special contract with Messrs Peto 
 and Brassey; but the large amount of bodily 
 labour continually needed for various services, led 
 to the foniiation of the A. W. C. The raising and 
 
AUNAULD. 
 
 organisation of this force were intrusted to Sir Josepli 
 Paxton. As soon as he had obtained 1000 efficient 
 men, he sent them out ; and their value was so soon 
 felt by Lord Raglan, that other detachments gra- 
 dually followed, until the corps comprised 3500 men 
 in the later months of 1855. The men were paid 
 well, and they worked well; and aa their engage- 
 ment related only to the special duties connected 
 with the siege-camp, the coimtry was not saddled 
 with any burden after the need for these services 
 had ceased. They did not require to be drilled for 
 their duties, like sappers ; ' and they were ready for 
 work at once, as artisans or labourers. There were 
 some cases of disagreement between the men and 
 their employers, after the whole of the British had 
 returned from the Crimea, in a matter of wages due ; 
 but this was a question of detaU, and did not affect 
 the usefulness of the corps. The experience gained 
 has been valuable, as shewing in what way, imder 
 special circumstances, ordinary workmen and la- 
 bourers may be employed as assistants to a military 
 force. 
 
 ARNAULD,- ANG^LiQtns, a daughter of Robert 
 Arnauld d'AndiUy, was bom on the 28th November 
 1624 From her earliest years, she exhibited an 
 extraordinary force and resoluteness of character, 
 and excited much anxious speculation concerning 
 her future career among her relatives. "When not 
 quite twenty years of age, she became a nun at 
 Port-Royal des Champs, where she had been edu- 
 cated by her aunt, Marie Jaqueline Augghque 
 Arnauld, sister of the great Arnauld. Nine years 
 after, she was made subprioress ; and on removing 
 some years later to Port-Royal de Paris, she held 
 the same office. During the persecution of the Port- 
 Royalists, A. A., by her piety and courage, sustained 
 the spirit of the sisterhood. The whole family, 
 male and female, were determined Jansenists, and 
 none more so than Mother AnggUque de Saint- 
 Jean (her conventual name). She had much to 
 endure, but she met misfortunes with earnest intre- 
 pidity. A royal order was issued to break up the 
 nunnery. The police arrested the iimaates, who 
 were dispersed in various convents throughout 
 Prance, and constant efforts were made by the 
 Jesuits to induce them to sign the ' Formulary of 
 Alexander VIZ.' A. A. was alone exempted from 
 listening to their arguments and solicitations, her 
 'obstinacy' being supposed invincible. At length, 
 by command of the Archbishop of Paris, the nuns 
 were restored to Port-Royal des Champs ; but for 
 some years they were subjected to a strict surveil- 
 lance by soldiers, who watched all their movementsi 
 and allowed them no intercourse with persons out of 
 the convent. In 1669, however, was issued the edict 
 of Clement IX. for the peace of the church, which 
 was a kind of compromise on this vexed question of 
 Jansenism and Jesiutism. The nuns received back 
 the privileges of which they had been stripped, and 
 constituted their society anew. A. A. was again 
 elected prioress. In 1678, she was made abbess. 
 The next year, her protectress, the Duchesse de 
 Longueville, died, and the persecution recommenced, 
 by the prohibition to receive any more novices. Still 
 Angglique did not despair. ' She consoled the nuns, 
 and exerted all her influence with persons in power, 
 but with little effect. At last she sank vmder a 
 complication of griefs, and expired on the 29th of 
 January 1684, leaving behind her as bright and 
 beautiful a memory as any of her countrywomen. 
 She was learned without being pedantic, pious with- 
 out bigotry, and gentle to others in proportion as she 
 was severe to herself. A. A. wrote several works, 
 the most valuable of which is M6moires pour servir 
 & la Vie de la Mfyre Marie AngMiqve Arnauld de 
 Sainte Madeleine, BSformatrice de PortSoyal. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, the greatest advocate of 
 his time in France, was born at Paris in 1560. He 
 was descended from an ancient family of Auvergne, 
 which had distinguished itself both in civil and 
 military affairs. A. was not less remarkable for his 
 eloquence than for his probity. His zealous defence 
 of the university of Paris against the Jesuits in 
 1594 won for him a wide celebrity. It was re- 
 printed in 1717. He pubUshed another work 
 against the Society of Jesus, and several tractates of 
 an earnest political character. The Jesuits accused 
 him of being a Huguenot, but the accusation was 
 unfounded, for he had no personal predilection in 
 favour of Protestantism as a distinct religious sys- 
 tem. He had several children, who formed the 
 nucleus of the Jansenists and Port-Royalists. He 
 died 29th December 1619. 
 
 ARNAULD, Antoine, known as ' the great A.,' 
 the twentieth and youngest son of the preceding, was 
 bom at Paris, February 6, 1612. Although origmaUy 
 intended for the bar, he could not conceal his dislike 
 of the legal profession, and was in consequence 
 dedicated by his mother to the service of the 
 church. Entering the Sorbonne, he became a pnpO 
 of Lescot; the confessor of Cardinal Richelieu,, and 
 afterwards Bishop of Chartres. Lescot initiated 
 him into the scholastic theology ; but his attention 
 having been drawn to the writmgs of Augustine, he 
 soon conceived an admiration for that profoundest 
 of the early Christian thinkers which he ever after 
 retained. It was Augustine, he himself admitted, 
 who first shewed him the great difference between 
 the two states — that of a nature whole and sound, 
 and that of a nature corrupted by sin. In 1641, 
 the Sorbonne wished to receive him into their 
 society, on account of his extraordinary piety and 
 talents, but Cardinal Richelieu opposed this. In 
 the following year he was ordained a priest, and in 
 1643 he' puHished a work entitled De la FrSquente 
 Ccrmmunion, which was received in the most favour- 
 able maimer by all except the Jesuits, who had taken 
 alarm at the virtues of A., and were already attempt- 
 ing to defame one whom they instinctively felt to be 
 a reproach to their order. As a consequence of this 
 publication, he was now admitted ' of the Society' of 
 the Sorbonne. i A. not only replied to the aspersions 
 of the Jesuits in his Avertissement, but also sent 
 forth a work which was the prelude to a long and 
 iierce contest with his adversaries, Theologie Morale 
 des Jisuites (Moral Theology of the Jesuits). But 
 the hatred of the latter was not confined to literary 
 libels ; they advised the chancellor of the Sorbonne 
 to carry the dispute to Rome, whither A. would 
 be obUged to follow and defend himself. Iii this 
 scheme, however, they were defeated. 
 
 A. now buried himself in seclusion for twenty-one 
 years, during which period, however, his pen was 
 almost continuously active. In 1644 appeared his 
 Tradition de VEgliae sur la Penitence (Opinion of 
 the Church on the Doctrine of Penitence). It 
 was a reply to the attacks which the Jesiiits had 
 made against his Frequent Communion. A. was 
 stiU entangled in the disputes which arose out of 
 this treatise, when he became involved in another 
 controversy that coloured the whole of his subse- 
 quent career, and may be said to have won for him 
 his position in history. This was the great Jansenist 
 controversy. In 1640 had appeared a posthumous 
 work of Jansenius, Bishop of Ypres, entitled Angus- 
 iinus ; seu Doctrina Sancti Augustini de Humance 
 Natures Sanctitate, Mgriiudine, Medidnd, adversus 
 Pelagianos et Massilienses. It laid down with a 
 rigour equal to that of Calvin the doctrines of pre- 
 destination, ibs corruption of human nature, and 
 the depravity of the wUl. It was specially intended 
 as a counteractive against the lax principles and 
 
ARNAULD— AENDT. 
 
 morality of the Jesuits, many of whom, and espe- 
 cially their great champion, Molina, entertained 
 extreme -Pelagian views of the freedom of the 
 human will, which they had cunningly interwoven 
 into their 'scarlet-coloured' web of ethics. The 
 work, in the meantime, was condemned by Pope 
 TJrban VIII., on the 1st of August 1641. A., who 
 quickly apprehended its vital importance in the 
 existmg state of things, boldly ventured to defend 
 it against the censures of the papal bull. He pub- 
 lished several pamphlets, closing with a first and 
 second Apologie de Jansenius. It is to the honour 
 of the religion of A., however, that it was not always 
 controversial. Whenever a moment of armistice was 
 permitted him, he occupied it in writing such works 
 as Mcmrs de VEglise Oatholique, La Correction, La 
 Grdce, La VeritS de la Religion, De la Foi, de 
 VBspgrance, et de la ChariU, and the Manuel de Saint 
 Augustine. He also varied these occupations by 
 translating into Latin his Frequent Communion, and 
 by the composition of his Novoe Ohjectiones contra 
 Menat. Descarlis Meditationes, and several smaller 
 tractates. In addition to his literary labours, he 
 undertook the direction of the nuns of Port-Royal des 
 Champs, a convent of which his sister, Marie JaqueHne 
 Angghque Ai-nauld, was abbess. In this retreat he 
 was surrounded by many friends, thirsting like 
 himself for the quiet pleasures of study, some of 
 whom have left their mark in the world, such as 
 Pascal, Nicole, &o. Here they wrote in common 
 numerous excellent works. A. executed parts of the 
 Grammaire Oenerale Baisonnee, Elements de Gecrnie- 
 trie, and L'Art de Penser. In 1649 the Jansenist con- 
 troversy broke out more fiercely than ever. The 
 Augustinus of the Bishop of Ypres was again attacked 
 and condemned by the Sorbonne and the pope. A. 
 replied in his Considerations. In 1650 appeared 
 what he conceived to be his best work, U Apologie 
 pour les Saints Peres. For the next half-dozen years 
 he was engaged in constant and painful disputes ; yet, 
 in spite of the polemical character of his life, the im- 
 pression of his piety and earnestness was deepened 
 in the mind of the nation ; and on reading some of 
 his compositions, even Alexander VII. is reported to 
 have praised the author, and to have exhorted him 
 for the future to despise the Hbels of his adversaries. 
 During the strife he published La Concorde des 
 Evangiles and L' Office du Saint- Sacremmt. In 
 1655 — 56, for prudential reasons, he left his retreat 
 at Port-Eoyal ; about the same time he was expelled 
 from the Sorbonne and the faculty of theology. 
 
 In 1656, the war with the Jesuits was renewed — 
 not, however, by A. in person. An imknowii km'ght 
 with closed visor had ridden into the lists— the great 
 Pascal. Under the nom deplume of Louis de Mon- 
 talto, he discharged his scorpion wit against the Jesuits 
 for about a year and a half in the Provincial Letters. 
 A. furnished him with materials;- but, in 1658, he 
 took the field in proprid peisond, by publishing his 
 Cinq Merits en faveiir des Cures de Paris conire les 
 Gamistes reldcUs. In 1662 appeared La Nouvelle 
 Herisie (of the Jesuits) ; m 1669 the first volume of 
 his Morale Pratique (of the Jesuits), the last of which 
 was not published until the year of his death. 
 
 A, who was a sincere Cathoho after his fashion, 
 next had a theological controversy, properly so called, 
 with the reformed minister Claude, the consequence 
 of which was his volume, Du Menversement de la 
 Morale de J. G. par la Doctrine des Calvinistes 
 touchant la Justification (1672). In 1675 he returned 
 to the subject in his ImpiUe de la Morale des Calvin- 
 istes. Some years previous to this, A. had enjoyed 
 the peace of Clement IX., which put a stop for the 
 time to the Jansenist controversy. He had been 
 presented to the papal nuncio and to the Grand 
 Mo7iarque, both of whom flattered him hiehlr; but 
 424 ° ■^ 
 
 the Jesuits, who could not breathe freely in his pre- 
 sence, used their utmost efforts to prejudice Louis 
 against him, and at last the king issued an order for 
 his arrest. A. hid himself for some time, but finally 
 withdrew into Belgium. He felt his exile keenly, 
 though honoured by many learned and influential 
 persons, and could not rest in one city, but wan- 
 dered from place to place, ever displaying the same 
 astonishing vigour of mind and the same polemical 
 tendency. It is strange that this man, who was 
 celebrated amongst his friends for equanimity and 
 gentleness of heiirt, should have been so bitter in his 
 controversies, even with his friends, for he wrote not 
 against his enemies only, but against Pascal, Domat, 
 !Nicole, his protector. Pope Innocent XL, and his old 
 friend, Pere Malebranche. So earnest was he for 
 the truth — which earnestness had no doubt been 
 greatly intensified by persecution and controversy — 
 that he could never thoroughly realise the idea, that 
 there might be truth on the other side also. He 
 died at Brussels, 8th August 1694. His works, 
 which amount to upwards of 100 volumes, were 
 published at Paris, 1775-1783. 
 
 AENAULD, Egbert d'Akdilly, the eldest son 
 of Antoine Amauld, the advocate, and brother of 
 the great Arnauld, was born at Paris in 1588. He 
 was a person of considerable consequence at the 
 French court, where his influence was ever exerted 
 beneficially. Balzac spoke very highly of him. At 
 the age of fifty-five, he quitted the bustle of the 
 world for the sohtude of Port-Eoyal des Champs, 
 where he devoted himself to religious history and 
 biography. His chief works are translations, such 
 as those of the Confessions of St Augustine, and of 
 the History of the Jews, by Josephus. The latter 
 work is esteemed more elegant than accurate, how- 
 ever. In 1668, appeared his translation of the 
 Lives of the Holy Fathers of the Desert, and of 
 several Saints; and in 1670, that of the works 
 of St Theresa. He was likewise the author of some 
 pieces of religious verse. He died 27th September 
 1674. 
 
 ARND, a German Protestant clergyman, born at 
 Ballenstadt, in the duchy of Anhalt, in 1555, became 
 Lutheran pastor at Quedlinburg, Brunswick, and 
 elsewhere, and died at Celle, in Hanover, in 1621. 
 As a man he was remarkable for his piety and active 
 benevolence ; but he is chiefly known for a work 
 entitled Triie Christianity (Wahres Christenthum), 
 which was translated into most European languages, 
 and is yet popular in Germany. Its object is ' e£fi- 
 catiou' — the promotion of practical rehgion ; and it 
 is written with great warmth and unction, and in a 
 strain of piety bordering on mysticism. It has been 
 called the Protestant S, Kempis, and its author the 
 Fenelon of the Protestant Church. There is an 
 Enghsh translation by W. Jaques (Lend. 1815, 
 2 vols.). 
 
 AENDT, Ernst Moeitz, professor in the univer- 
 sity of Bonn, and for the last half century one of 
 the leading pohtical writers of Germany, was born 
 in the island of Eiigen in 1769. He gave up the 
 clerical profession, for which he was at first intended, 
 and after travelling over great part of Europe, 
 became, in 1806, Professor of History in Greifswalde. 
 Here, among other writings, he published his History 
 of Serfdom in Pormerania, for which he was for- 
 mally denomiced and accused by several nobles. In 
 his Spirit, of {lie Times (Altenb. 1807), he attacked 
 Napoleon with such boldness, that, after the battle 
 of Jena, he had to take refuge in Stockholm. 
 Eeturuing under a feigned name, he resumed his 
 functions at Greifswalde in 1810 ; but war becoming 
 i m minent, he resigned the following year, and 
 became an active co-operator with the minister, Von 
 
AKNE— ABNICA. 
 
 Stein, and other patriots, in throwing off the foreign 
 yoke. His numerous fugitive -writings, full of 
 energy and fire, contributed not a little to rouse and 
 sustain the spirit of Germany for the war of libera- 
 tion. His best poems belong to this period, and 
 several of them have become national songs. (A 
 new selection, Leip. 1850.) His song, Wliat is the 
 Oerman's Fatherland? is sung wherever German is 
 spoken. In 1818 he was made professor of modem 
 history in the new university of Bonn, but became 
 involved in 1819 in the prosecutions for what were 
 called ' demagogic movements,' and was suspended. 
 Though acquitted on trial, he was made to retire, 
 retaining his salary. After twenfar years' suspen- 
 sion, he was restored in 1840. His writings are 
 numerous: we may mention his Beschreibung und 
 Gesdiichte der SchotUand, Inseln, &o. (Leip. 1826) ; 
 a collection of his fugitive Schriften an und fur seine 
 Hebe Deutschen (3 vols. Leip. 1845) ; and. £lHnnerungen 
 aus dem aussem Leben (3d ed. Leip. 1842). He was 
 elected a member of the German national assembly 
 in 1848, but seceded from it along with the whole 
 Gagern (q. v.) party in 1849. He powerfully sup- 
 ported tiie party who advocated a constitutional 
 hereditary monarchy, and took a prominent part in 
 the appointment of the Archduke John as regent, 
 and in the fruitless deputation to Berlin to offer the 
 empire to the king of Prussia. Since the dissolution 
 of the Frankfort Assembly, A. has not ceased in his 
 fugitive writings to advocate the views of the German 
 national party, to which he has always belonged. 
 
 ABNE, Thomas Augustine, Doctor in Music, 
 one of the best and most genial of Enghsh com- 
 posers, was bom in London, 17 10, and received 
 his early education at Eton. His father, who 
 was an , upholsterer, intended to educate him for 
 the bar; but the love of music was too strong 
 to be restrained. Yoimg A. became skilful as a 
 violin-player, forming ms style chiefly on the 
 model of Corelli ; and his zeal in the study of 
 music induced his sister (afterwards celebrated as 
 Mrs Gibber) to cultivate her excellent voice. He 
 wrote for her a part in his first opera, Bosamond, 
 which was first performed with great success in 
 1733. Next followed his comic operetta, Tom 
 Thumb, or the Opera of Operas ; and afterwards his 
 Gomus (1738), which displayed greater cultivation of 
 style. He married a singer, CeciHa Young (1740); 
 and after a successful visit to Ireland, was engaged 
 as composer to Drury Lane Theatre, and wrote 
 many vocal pieces for the VauxhaU concerts. The 
 national air, Bule Britannia, which was originally 
 given in a popular performance, The Masque of A If red, 
 was of his composition. He composed also two 
 oratorios, the opera Eliza, and another, Artaxerxes, 
 in the Italian style; but his genius was better 
 adapted to simple pastoral melody than to great 
 dramatic compositions. He died in London, 1778. 
 
 ARNEE, or AKNA, the largest animal of the 
 ox kind yet known. It is a native of India, 
 
 Skull and Horns of Amee, 
 
 and is found chiefly in the forests at the baSS 
 of the Himalayas and in the north-eastern pro- 
 vinces, never descending to the low plains. It 
 is usually regarded by naturalists as a wild variety 
 of the buffalo ; but Mr Vasey thinks ' our infor- 
 mation on the subject not yet sufficiently precise 
 
 Amee. 
 {From an Indian picture. ) 
 
 to determine this point.' It is named Bos Amee, 
 as a distinct species, by some authors. A pair of 
 horns in the British Museum measure more than 
 six feet each along the outer curve. When the 
 head of an A. is placed with the muzzle on the 
 ground, it requires the outstretched arms of a man 
 to hold the points of the horns. From the maimer 
 in which the A. is introduced in Indian paintings, 
 it would seem to have been sometimes tamed. 
 
 A'ENHEIM,orAJRNHEM, the Roman Arenacum, 
 capital of the province of Guelderlandnin Holland, 
 with a population of 18,000, is situated on the 
 right bank of the Ehiue, which is here crossed 
 by a bridge of boats ; it has a considerable transit- 
 trade between Amsterdam and Germany. The 
 environs of this strongly fortified town are exceed- 
 ingly picturesque. Its most remarkable buildings 
 are the ancient residence of the Dukes of Guel- 
 derland, and the Keformed Dutch Church, which 
 contains their monunaents. There are several 
 paper-mflls in the neighbourhood. In 1813, A. 
 was taken by storm by the Prussians, under 
 General Bulow, and the way thus prepared for the 
 occupation of Holland. 
 
 A'KNHEM LAND, that part of North Aus- 
 tralia which lies between Anson Bay on the west 
 and the Gulf of Carpentaria on the east, stretching 
 in E. long, from about 129° to about 137° ; in lat. 
 it extends indefinitely southwards from about 12° S. 
 It takes its name from the ship of the Dutch 
 navigators who discovered it in 1618. 
 
 A'RNICA, a genus of plants belonging to the 
 natural order Compositce, sub-order Corymbiferce. 
 The flowers of the ray are female and ligulate, those 
 of the disk hermaphrodite and tubular. The recep- 
 tacle is naked ; the pappus hairy. The root, 
 leaves, and flowers of the Mountain A. [A.montana), 
 sometimes called Mountain Tobacco, are much 
 valued in medicine, and administered in various 
 forms as a stimulant in paralytic affections, typhoid 
 fevers, and other diseases. They are also appHed 
 with much beneflt to bruises, to promote the reabsorp- 
 tion of extravasated blood. They contain a peculiar 
 volatile oil, a resin, an extractive matter, and an 
 alkaloid (Arnicina). The root is perennial and 
 crooked, the stem abput two feet high, simple or 
 little branched, with few leaves, bearing on the sum- 
 mit a head of flowers of a dark golden yellow, often 
 
 425 
 
ASUriM-AllNOtD. 
 
 two inches in breadth. It flowers from June to 
 August, forms an ornament, of mountain meadows 
 
 Arnica montana. 
 
 in Germanj* and Switzerland, and is found upon the 
 continent as far south as Portugal, and as far 
 north as Lapland, but is not a native of Britain. 
 
 A'RNIM, Elizabeth VON, better known as Bettina, 
 wife of Ludwig Achim von Arnim (q. v.), was bom in 
 1785 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. From her ohOd- 
 hood excitable and eccentric, an early and profound 
 impression was made upon her mind by the suicide 
 of her friend, the Canoness von Gunderode. The 
 next great event of her life was her devoted attach- 
 ment to, and intimacy with Goethe, at that time a 
 man of nearly sixty. Their correspondence, entitled 
 GoelMs Letters to a Child, was published in 1835, 
 and translated by Bettina into English. Her letters 
 are poetical, graceful, and fascinating, though often 
 careless and extravagant, and abound in graphic 
 sketches of men of the time. Goethe turned many 
 of these letters into verse. Bettina's later works 
 were semi-pohtical in their character, and like her 
 earUer, full of fantastic beauty. Although a septua- 
 genarian, she appears to be stUl Bettina ' the child.' 
 
 A'RNIM, Karl Otto Ludwig von, a well-known 
 writer of travels and other works, was bom at 
 Berlin 1779. After studying at Halle and Gottingen, 
 he travelled at different times over the most of 
 Europe, and was employed on the embassies at 
 Stockholm and London. His FUlchiige Bemerkungen 
 eines fliichitigen Beisenden (Passing Remarks by a 
 Passing Traveller, 6 vols., Berl. 1837—1850), is 
 recommended for its clear elegant style, as con- 
 trasted with the lumbering and involved writing of 
 the 'Academic' school. A. also wrote in English 
 Napoleon's Conduct towards Prussia (Lond. 1814), 
 and published German National Melodies, with 
 German and English text (Lond. 1816). He is the 
 author of a play and several poems. 
 
 A'RNIM, LuDwio Achim von, a fantastic but 
 original German writer of romances, was born in 
 
 426 
 
 Berlin, January 26, 1781. After devoting some 
 years to the study of the physical sciences, he began 
 his career as an imaginative author with Ariel's 
 Revelations, a romance which, though based on 
 the principles of the new poetic school which had 
 then risen in Germany, indicated, nevertheless, that 
 the author could strike out a way of his own. His 
 travels through Germany afforded him an oppor- 
 tunity of catching the peculiarities of popular life in 
 its various provincial manifestations. He was especi- 
 ally interested in the old popular poetry, and stirred 
 up among his countrymen a warmer sympathy for it 
 by the publication, along with Clemens Brentand, of 
 Tlie Boy's Wonderliorn (Heidelberg, 1806—1808). 
 In 1809 appeared the Winter Garden, a collection of 
 novels ; in 1810, the romance, entitled The Poverty, 
 Riclies, Guilt, and Repentance of the Countess Dolores ; 
 in 1811, HaXle and Jerusalem, the Sports of w 
 Student, and the Adventures of a Pilgrim, in which 
 last his humour took a very saucy turn. In 1817, 
 he published the Crown Guardians, a work charac- 
 terised by its originality, richness of fancy, and 
 vivid portraitures. The later years of his Ufe were 
 spent partly in BerUn and partly at his estate near 
 Dahme, where he died, Jan. 21, 1831. 
 
 A'RNO, next to the Tiber the most considerable 
 jiver of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, an 
 offset of the Apennines, at an elevation of 4444 feet 
 above the level of the sea, and 25 miles north of 
 Arezzo. It flows through the deep and fertile valley 
 of Casentino, in a south-east direction; enters the 
 richly cultivated plain of Arezzo, where it receives 
 the water of the Chiana ; then flows in a north-west 
 and north course through the upper valley of the 
 A. [Valdarno), one of the most dehcious parts of 
 Tuscany ; afterwards it receives the Sieve, its largest 
 tributary, and turns its course toward the west, 
 flowing past Florence, Empoli, and through the 
 town of Pisa. The whole length of its course is 
 about 140 miles. In old times, the embouchure of 
 the A. was at Pisa ; now it is about four or five 
 miles distant, in lat. 43° 41' N., and long. 10° 15' E. 
 It is navigable for barges as far up as Florence, but 
 in the summer season even this frequently becomes 
 impossible. The ItaUan poets speak of ' the golden 
 A. ; ' but, in truth, its waters have mostly the 
 unpleasant colour of milk and coffee mixed together. 
 The A. is noted for the rapid and destructive 
 character of its inundations. The most memorable 
 are those of September 1537, when the whole of 
 the Valdarno was laid under water, which rose to 
 the height of 8 feet in some parts of Florence ; and 
 of 1740, the latter being caused by the long con- 
 tmuance of the sirocco, which completely melted the 
 snows on the Apennines. 
 
 ARNOLD, or ARNALD,, of Bekscia, was a 
 native of that town, and was distinguished by 
 the success with which he contended against the 
 corraptions of the clergy in the early part of 
 the 12th c. He was educated in France under 
 Abelard, and adopted the monastic hfe. By his 
 preaching, the people of his native place were exas- 
 perated against their bishop, and the fermentation 
 and insurrectionary spirit spread over a great 
 part of the country, when he was cited before the 
 second Lateran Council, and banished from Italy. 
 He retired to France, but experienced the bitter hos- 
 tihty of St Bernard, who denounced Viirn as a violent 
 enemy to the church. He thereupon took refuse in 
 Zurich, where he settled for several years. Mean- 
 while his doctrines exerted a powerful influence in 
 Rome, which ended in a general insurrection against 
 the government, whereupon A. repaired thither, and 
 endeavoured to lead and direct the movement. He 
 exhorted the people to organise a government similar 
 
ARNOLD. 
 
 to the ancient Eoman republic, -with its consuls, 
 tribunes, and equestrian order. But they, provoked 
 by the treachery and opposition of the papal party, 
 and disunited among themselves, gave way to the 
 grossest excesses. The city, indeed, continued for 
 ten years in a state of agitation and disorder. Lucius 
 II. was killed by the populace in an iusiureotion in 
 1145, and IDugenius III., to escape a similar fate, fled 
 into France. These violent struggles were subdued 
 by Pope Hadrian IV., who, feeling the weakness of 
 his temporal authority, turned to the spiritual, and 
 resorted to the extreme measure of laying the city 
 under excommunication, when A., whose party be- 
 came discouraged, and fell to pieces, took refuge with 
 certain influential friends in Campania. On the 
 arrival of the emperor, Frederick I., for his corona- 
 tion, in 1155, A. was arrested, brought to Rome, 
 tried, hanged, his body burned, and the ashes 
 thrown into the Tiber. 
 
 A'ENOLD, JoHANN, a miller of Newmark, who 
 lived in the time of Frederick II. of Prussia, and 
 gave rise to a remarkable legal process. He com- 
 plained to the king that his landlord, by making 
 a pond, had taken away water from the mill ; that 
 he (A.) had therefore refused to pay rent for the mill, 
 of which he held a lease ; but had been condemned 
 to pay by the unanimous decisions of two legal 
 courts. The king took up the case, and regarding it 
 as an oppression of the poor, reversed the decisions 
 of the courts, dismissed his high-chancellor, impri- 
 soned several other officers of justice, and gave 
 orders that restitution should be made to the miUer. 
 Soon afterwards, the king died, and under Frederick 
 WiUiam II. the case was more coolly investigated, 
 when the result was that the condemned chancellor 
 and other official persons were exonerated from all 
 blame in the matter, and the miller was recompensed 
 by the state for loss of time and money. 
 
 A'RNOLD, Matthew, a living English poet, the 
 eldest son of the late Dr Ajnold of Rugby, was born 
 on the 24th December 1822, and educated at 
 Winchester and Rugby. In 1840 he was elected 
 scholar of Balliol College, Oxford; in 1844 he 
 obtained the Newdegate prize for an EngUsh poem ; 
 in 1845 he was elected a fellow of Oriel College ; and 
 in 1846 he became private secretary to Lord Lans- 
 downe, which office he held for several years. In 
 1851 he espoused Frances, daughter of Mr Justice 
 Wightman, and about the same time was appointed 
 one of Her Majesty's Inspectors of British Schools. 
 Two years ago, he was elected Convocation Professor 
 of Poetry at Oxford. Mr A. has been before the 
 world now as a poet for several years, and his success 
 has been considerable. Although he has not achieved 
 popularity, his position in literature is established, 
 and as his works become better known, admiration 
 for them wUl increase. If he has failed to obtain the 
 applause of the noisy many, he is rewarded by the 
 approval of the judicious few. The strain of his 
 mind is calm and thoughtful ; his style is the reverse 
 of florid ; deep culture and a certain severity of 
 taste have subdued every tendency to a gay or a 
 passionate exuberance. As a poet, he has Httle 
 sympathy with the present ; his muse has hitherto 
 dehghted in the remoteness and repose of the 
 ancient world. In his eloquent and voluminous 
 prefaces, hi advocates the return of poetical art to 
 the antique forms. Mr A. practises his own creed. 
 The story of Sohrab and Rustum is as old as 
 Herodotus. Balder, a later production, and as yet 
 his most considerable and perhaps finest poem, is 
 a story of the Norse gods ; and the tragedy of 
 Merope, published last year, is an attempt to 
 naturalise in English literature the form of the 
 Greek drama— an attempt induced, says its author. 
 
 ' by a passion for the great masters, and an effort 
 to study them without fanoifulness.' 
 
 A'RNOLD, Thomas, D.D., head-master of Rugby 
 School, and the author of a History of Borne, was 
 born June 13, 1795, at West Cowes, in the Isle of 
 Wight. In 1803 he was sent to Warminster School, 
 in Wiltshire, but was removed in 1807 to the public 
 school of Winchester, where he remained till 1811, 
 when he was elected a scholar of Corpus Christi 
 College, Oxford. In 1815 he was elected fellow of 
 Oriel College, aud he gained the chancellor's prize 
 for the two university essays, Latin and English, for 
 the years 1815 and 1817. As a boy, we are told he 
 was shy and retired; as a youth, disputatious, and 
 somewhat bold and unsettled in his opinions ; but 
 before he left Oriel, he had won the good opinion of 
 a college which at that time boasted of such names 
 as Copleston, Davison, Whately, Keble, Hawkins, 
 and Hampden. He took deacon's orders in 1818, 
 and the year after settled at Laleham, near Staines, 
 where he occupied himseU in preparing pupils for 
 the university. In 1820 he married Mary, youngest 
 daughter of the Rev. John Penrose, rector of Fled- 
 borough, in Nottinghamshire, and sister of one of 
 his earliest school and college friends, Trevenen 
 Penrose. About ten years were spent in this quiet 
 and comparatively obscure life; he was preparing 
 himself for the arduous post he afterwards occupied; 
 he was maturing his opinions, and he had also 
 already commenced his great literary undertaking, the 
 History of Home. It was a period which he himself 
 was accustomed to look back upon with some feel- 
 ing of regret. His letters at this epoch reveal to us 
 a fine ambitious spirit bending cheerfully to the task 
 of tuition, more useful than glorious ; they also prove 
 to us that those views of a religious aud political 
 character which afterwards distinguished him, were 
 being matured in the privacy of Laleham. ' I have 
 long had in my mind,' he thus writes to a Mr 
 Blackstone, 'a work on Christian politics, or the 
 application of the Gospel to the state of man as a 
 citizen, in which the whole question of a religious 
 establishment, and the education proper for Chris- 
 tian members of a Christian commonwealth, would 
 naturally find a place. It would embrace also an 
 historical sketch of the pretended conversion of the 
 kingdoms of the world to the kingdom of Christ 
 in the 4th and 5th centuries, which I look upon as 
 one of the greatest tours d'adresse that Satan ever 
 
 playi^ I mean that by inducing kings and 
 
 nations to conform nominally to Christianity, and 
 thus to get into their hands the direction of Christian 
 society, he has in a great measure succeeded in 
 keeping out the pecuhar principles of that society 
 from any extended sphere of operation, and insuring 
 the ascendency of his own.' He here expresses, in a 
 somewhat sportive and familiar manner, the great 
 principle wMch he afterwards contended for with so 
 much earnestness, that there should be a Christian 
 laity, a Christian legislature, a Christian govern- 
 ment ; by which he did not mean a system of laws 
 or government formed in the manner of the 
 Puritans, out of texts of Scripture, rashly applied, 
 but imbued with the spirit of the New Testament 
 and of the teaching of Christ. 
 
 It was at Laleham also that A. first became 
 acquainted with Niebuhr's History of Home. This 
 was an era in his life. It produced a revolution in 
 his historical views, and lus own History of Home 
 became modelled almost too faithfully on that of the 
 great German. 
 
 From Laleham he was called to undertake the 
 arduous duties of the head-mastership of Rugby 
 School. On these he entered August 1828. Our 
 space does not permit us to dwell upon the details 
 of that system of pubHo education which he perhaps 
 
 427 
 
ASiTOTT— AENOTTO. 
 
 carried to its perfection. We can only take notice 
 of the high tone, moral and religious, which he pre- 
 served amongst the boys. He had the tact to make 
 himself both loved and feared. He guided -with 
 great dexterity the public opinion of the scJiool. ' In 
 the higher forms,' says his biographer, ' any attempt 
 at further proof of an assertion was immediately 
 checked. " If you say so, that is quite enough ; 
 of course I beheve your word;" and there grew 
 up in consequence a general feeling that it was a 
 shame to tell A. a lie — he always believes one.' On 
 one occasion, when he had been compelled to send 
 away several boys, he said : ' It is not necessary that 
 this should be a school of 300, or 100, or of 50 boys, 
 but it is necessary that it should be a school of 
 Christian gentlemen.' 
 
 But the school was very far from occupying the 
 whole energies of A. The History of Borne went 
 on ; he took part in all the great questions of the 
 day, political and theological. In polities he was 
 a Whig, without beiug fettered — as we need hardly 
 say — by the ties of party. In the theological 
 discussions of the day, he was chiefly distinguished 
 by the broad views he had adopted of the nature 
 of a Christian church. As already intimated, it 
 was his leading idea that a Christian people and 
 a Christian church ought to be synonymous expres- 
 sions. He would never tolerate that use of the 
 word church which limited it to the clergy, or 
 which implied in the clergy any peculiar sacred- 
 ness, or any traces of mediatorial function. The 
 priest was imknown to him in the Christian com- 
 munity; this placed him at once ia antagonism 
 to the High Church party ; and even clergymen of 
 the Low Church complained that he did not set 
 suiEcient value on their sacred order. But all men, 
 of whatever party, admitted and admired the zeal 
 with which he taught that the full spirit of Chris- 
 tianity should permeate the whole of our civil or 
 political life. If he seemed to lower the altitude of 
 the clergy, it was only because he would raise the 
 general level of the laity. He was convinced that 
 ' the founders of our present constitution in church 
 and state did truly consider them to be identical, 
 the Christian nation of England to be the church of 
 England ; the head of that nation to be, for that 
 very reason, the head of the church.' It may be 
 doubted whether this is quite historically correct; 
 but it certainly presents a noble theory to the 
 imagination. 
 
 In domestic life, Dr A. was most happy* here 
 he was distinguished by unfailing cheei-fuluess and 
 amiability. In 1832, he purchased Fox How, a 
 small estate between Kydal and Ambleside, and it 
 was in this charming retreat that he enjoyed in the 
 vacations, amongst the family circle, his own unin- 
 terrupted studies. Fox How has become a classical 
 spot to every tourist. 
 
 For a brief time he held a place in the senate 
 of the London University ; he resigned the seat on 
 finding that he could not introduce some measures 
 which he had at heart. In the year 1842, he 
 received from Lord Melbourne the offer of the 
 Eegius Professorship of Modem History at Oxford. 
 This appointment he accepted with peculiar gratifi- 
 cation. He deUvered some introductory lectures, 
 which were heard with enthusiastic iuterest ; 
 and it was his intention, on his retirement from 
 Kugby, to enter with zeal upon the duties of his 
 professorship. But this and all other literary 
 enterprises were cut short by a sudden and most 
 painful death. The last vacation was at hand, the 
 journey to Fox How was to be taken in a few days, 
 when he was seized with a fatal attack of spasm of 
 the heart. Few biographies" end more abruptly or 
 more mournfully ; but the sufferer met his death 
 423 
 
 with perfect fortitude and the fuU hope of a Chris- 
 tian. He died June 12, 1842. His principal works 
 are five volumes of sermons; the History of Borne 
 (3 vols.), broken off by his death at the end of the 
 second Punic war; and an edition of Thucydides. 
 His miscellaneous contributions to literature are too 
 numerous to be mentioned. 
 
 A'RlfOTT, Neil, M.D., was bom in 1788 at 
 Arbroath, but his family-home was Dysart, near Mon- 
 trose, Scotland. He was educated at the Grammar 
 School of Aberdeen, and subsequently at Marisohal 
 College in the same city, where he had the advantage 
 of studying natural philosophy under Professor 
 Copland, one of the most successful expounders of 
 mechanical science then living. A. made choice of 
 medicine as a profession ; and after going through 
 the medical course at Aberdeen, he went to London 
 in 1806, where he became the pupU of Sir Everard 
 Home, surgeon of St George's Hospital. After 
 spending some years in the naval service of the 
 East India Company, he settled in 1811 as a medical 
 practitioner in London, where he has lived ever 
 since. In addition to his extensive general prac- 
 tice, A. was appointed, in 1815, physician to the 
 French embassy, and afterwards to the Spanish 
 embassy. In 1836, Dr A. was appointed a member 
 of the Senate of the University of London, then 
 established by government. He was afterwards 
 elected a fellow of the Koyal Society, and then of 
 the Geological Society. In 1837, he was named a 
 Physician Extraordinary to the Queen. He has 
 recently retired from practice. 
 
 In 1823 — 24, Dr A. was induced to deliver a course 
 of lectures on natural philosophy in its applications 
 to medicine. The substance of these lectures formed 
 the basis of his Elements of Physics, or Naiural 
 Philosophy General and Medical, published in 
 1827. Owing to the professional occupation of the 
 author, the second part of the second volume 
 was never completed ; nevertheless, the work 
 enjoyed immense popularity, and five editions were 
 called for in six years. Since 1833, the work 
 has not been rejjublished, but a new and com- 
 plete edition is understood to be in progress. 
 Of numerous new appUcations of physical science to 
 medical practice, and to the alleviation of human 
 suffering in general, invented by Dr A., may be men- 
 tioned the water-bed (q. v.). But it is in connection 
 with improvements in the warming and ventilating 
 of houses that the name of Dr A. is most extensively 
 known. In 1838, he published a treatise on Warm- 
 ing and Ventilating ; and in 1855, another, On the 
 Smoheless Fireplace, Chimney -valves, &c. The 
 'Amott Stove' and ' Arnott Ventilator,' which, with 
 characteristic philanthropy and disinterestedness, 
 Dr A. refrained from patenting, vrill be noticed 
 under Stoves and Ventilators. 
 
 ARNO'TTO, ARNA'TTO, ANNO'TTA, AN- 
 NA'TTO, or ROUCOU, also known on the continent 
 of Europe by the name of Oelban, is a red colouring 
 matter, which is obtained in South America and the 
 West Indies from the reddish pulp surrounding the 
 seeds of the Amotto-tree (Bixa orellana) by wash- 
 ing, maceration, fermentation, and subsequent evapo- 
 ration. It appears in commerce in cakes or balls of 
 2 — 4 lbs. weight, wrapped up in leaves, externally 
 brown, internally of a pale blood-red or yellowish- 
 red colour, and which have a peculiar animal smell 
 and an astringent taste. Pure A. seldom appears in 
 the market. It is obtained by the mere rubbing off 
 and drying of the red pulpy pellicle which covers 
 the seed ; but that which is thus obtained is very 
 pure, and occurs in small round or angular lozenges. 
 The Indians rub this colouring matter into the skin 
 of their whole body, thus intending both to adorn 
 
AKNSBBRG— ARPAD. 
 
 themselves, and to obtain protection against the 
 bites of mosquitoes. Amongst us, A. is used in 
 medicine for colouring plasters, ointments, &o. ; and 
 to a considerable extent by farmers for giving a 
 
 Amotto : 
 
 ii, end of a branch Tpith leaves and Howcrs reduced ; b, capsule ; 
 
 c, the seeds and pulp. 
 
 rich colour to cheese. It is also used in dyeing, 
 although it does not produce a durable coloiir. It 
 is employed to impart an orange tint to simple 
 yellows. It is an ingredient in some varnishes. It 
 dissolves in alkaHes, producing a brown solution, 
 from wliioh it is precipitated yellow by acids. It 
 imparts little colour to water, but dissolves m 
 alcohol; alum and sugar of lead throw down a 
 brick-red precipitate from the alcohoHc. solution. 
 In South America, A. is very extensively mixed 
 with chocolate, not only for the sake of the colom-, 
 but also for the improvement of the flavour. — The 
 genus Bixa belongs to the natural order Flacoub- 
 MAOBiE (q. v.), and is distinguished by complete 
 flowers with simple stigma,^ a hispid calyx of five 
 sepals, and a two-valved capsule. The A. shrub is a 
 native of tropical America, but has been introduced 
 into other warm countries. It grows to the height 
 of 7 — 8 feet, and has heart-shaped pointed leaves, 
 and large flowers of a peach-blossom colour, which 
 grow in loose clusters at the extremities of the 
 branches. The capsules are oblong, and contain 
 30 — 40 seeds enveloped in red pulp (the A.). The 
 seeds are said to be cordial, astringent, and febri- 
 fugal. The roots are used in broth. They have the 
 properties of A. in an inferior degree. 
 
 A'RNSBBRG, one of the three departments of 
 the Prussian province of Westphalia (q. v.), having 
 an area of 2900 square miles, and a population of 
 580,000. With the exception of the Valley of the 
 Lippe, the whole department belongs to the high- 
 lands of the Lower Rhine. Only in a few of the 
 valleys is there good arable soU ; on the other 
 hand, there is a great deal of good timber, more 
 than a third of the whole area consisting of forests. 
 But the principal resources of the district are its 
 subterranean riches, in. coal, iron, lead, sUver, &c. 
 Its abundant water-power has also led to the 
 establishment of numerous factories, mills, &c. 
 Akn'SBKRG, the chief town of the department, is 
 situated on the Rhur, 44 miles south-east from 
 M'dnster ; pop. 4500. It has several manufactures, 
 such as linen, broadcloth, potash, &c. ' In the 
 orchard below the castle is stUl pointed out the 
 
 spot where the famous Femgerichta (q. v.) of A. was 
 held. 
 
 A'RNSTADT, the chief town in the principality 
 of Schwarzburg-Sonderhausen, is situated in a 
 picturesque country on the banks of the Gera, 
 twelve miles south of Erfurt, and has a population of 
 5820. It is one of the oldest Thuringian cities, its 
 existence being traceable as far back as 704 A.D. 
 Formerly it was the chief emporimn for the trade 
 in fruit and timber between the fertile lowlands 
 and the Thuringian forest region, but is now a 
 manufacturing town, employing a very considerable 
 number of hands in weaving, glove-making, brewing, 
 pottery, &c. A rich vein of rook-salt has been 
 recently discovered in the neighbourhood of the 
 town, and a new copper-mine opened. 
 
 ARO'MA, a term sometimes employed to desig- 
 nate those substances the extremely minute particles 
 of which are supposed to affect the organ of smell so 
 as to produce particular odours, and frequently as 
 synonymous with odour. The particles difiiised 
 through the atmosphere, and affecting the olfactory 
 nerves — if the theory of particles of matter so diflfused 
 be correct — must indeed be extrernely minute, as 
 odoriferous substances such as musk, the smell of 
 which is felt at a considerable distance, continue to 
 diffuse their odour, and according to this theory, 
 these particles, for years, without sensible diminution 
 of weight. See Smelling. The term A. is usually 
 employed only with reference to particular kinds of 
 odours, not easily defined or distinguished in words. 
 Thus, we speak of the ^.,of roast-meat, and of the A. 
 or aromatic smell of hyssop, mint, and other plauts. 
 Aromatic smeDs are very characteristic of some 
 natural orders of plants, as ZaMatCB (Mint, &c.) and 
 Composites (Milfoil, &c.). They have been very 
 generally supposed to depend, vipon essential oUs, 
 but resins are often equally aromatic. 
 
 AROMA'TIC VIJTBGAR differs from ordinary 
 vinegar (which is acetic acid diluted with water) in 
 containing certain essential oils which impart an 
 agreeable fragrance. It is generally prepared by 
 adding the oils of cloves, lavender, rosemary, and 
 Acoi-us Calamus (and sometimes camphor) to crystal- 
 hsable acetic acid, or by distilling the acetate of 
 copper in an earthen retort and receiver, and treating 
 the hquid which passes over with the fragrant oils 
 mentioned above. A. V. is a very pleasant and 
 powerful perfume; it is very volatile, and when 
 snuffed up by the nostrils, is a powerful excitant, 
 and hence is serviceable in fainting, languor, head- 
 ache, and nervous . debility. A. V. is generally 
 placed on a sponge in a smelliag-bottle or in a vinai- 
 grette; it can also be purchased as a liquid in phials ; 
 and a drop or two allowed to evaporate into a 
 sick-room, overpowers, but does not destroy any 
 unpleasant odour. The liquid must, however, be 
 cautiously dealt with, as it is a very corrosive 
 substance. 
 
 AKONIA. See Ceat^gus. 
 
 AROO'STOOK, a river which, rising in the north 
 of Maine, falls into the St John in New Brunswick, 
 after a course of about 120 miles. It possesses a 
 historical interest from its connection with the long- 
 agitated question of the north-east boundary between 
 British America and the United States. 
 
 ARPAD, the national hero of Hungary, was the 
 son of Amos, the leader under whom the Magyars 
 first gained a footing in Hungary. He was chosen 
 duke on his father's death in 889, and by a course 
 of incessant and mostly successful warfare with the 
 Bulgarians, WaUachians, Moravians, &o., extended 
 the first conquests of the Magyars on all sides. He 
 also made more than one successful incursion into 
 
 429 
 
AEPEGGIO— AKRACK. 
 
 Italy about 900, and returned laden with booty. 
 He died in 907, leaving his son in possession 
 of the supreme conunaud. The A. dynasty became 
 extinct in the male line with Andreas III. in 1301. 
 A. yet lives in the popular songs of the country, and 
 his history, even in the ojdest chronicles, is mixed 
 up with a deal of legendary matter. 
 
 AEPE'GGIO, in Music, a chord of which the 
 notes are given, not contemporaneously, but in 
 succession. From any one chord, several forms of A. 
 may be produced. Bass-chords thus treated form 
 an Alberti Bass, so named from Domenioo Albert! 
 (1730 — 1740), a popular singer and player, who often 
 played the bass in this style. 
 
 ARPENT was the old French land-measure, 
 corresponding to our acre. The name is from the 
 ancient Gallic aripennis, which was identified by 
 Columella with the Roman actus, or half jugerum. 
 Almost every parish had an A. of its own. The 
 comparative value of the three most in use wDl be 
 seen in the following table : 
 
 French Hectares. 
 
 Acre, English imperial or statute, 0'40466 
 
 Arpent, of Paris, .... 0-32400 
 
 u d'ordonnance, . . 0'48400 
 
 „ common, . . . 0-40000 
 
 ARPI'NO, the Arpinum of the ancients, a town 
 of the kingdom of Naples, the birthplace of Cicero 
 and Cains Marius, is situated in the province of 
 Terra di Lavoro, 65 miles north by east of Naples. 
 It stands on the lower ridge of a lofty hill, some 
 6 miles to the left of the river Garigliano, the 
 ancient Liris. The old town, in early Roman times, 
 was bunt on the top of a steep rock, forming part 
 of the territory of the Volsoians. Many remains 
 of the ancient structures are stUl to be seen, 
 especially a cyclopean wall, which runs along the 
 northern brow of the hill occupied by the present 
 town, and extending to the ancient citadel. About 
 the year 188 e.g., the citizens received the freedom 
 of the city of Rome, -with all its privileges, and 
 Arpinum, during the later years of the repubho, 
 was a flourishing miinicipal town. 
 
 The population of A. is 12,648. Manufactures of 
 woollen cloth, parchment, paper, and leather are 
 carried on. The town has a charming appearance 
 from the highly picturesque character of the 
 surrounding woods and mountains. Iron, white 
 marble, variegated red marble, and marble of a 
 yellowish colour, are got in. mines and quarries in 
 the neighbourhood. 
 
 A'RQTJA, a village in the delegation of Padua, 
 Venice, 12 miles south-west of Padua, iu the heart 
 of the Euganean Hdls. Pop. 1200. Petrarch's 
 furniture is still preserved in the house in which he 
 died here (July 18, 1374), and his monument of red 
 marble is to be seen in the churchyard. 
 
 A'KQUEBITS, or HA'RQUEBUS, was the first 
 form of hand-gun which could fairly be compared 
 with the modem musket. Those of earlier date 
 were fired by applying a match by hand to the 
 touch-hole ; but about the time of the battle of 
 Morat, iu 1476, guns were used having a contriv- 
 ance suggested by the trigger of -fixe arbalest 
 or cross-bow, by which the burning match could 
 be applied -with more quickness and certainty. 
 Such a gun was the A. Many of the yeomen of 
 the guard were armed with this weapon, on the 
 first formation of that corps in . 1485. The A. 
 being fired from the chest, -with the butt in a 
 right line with the barrel, it was difficult to bring 
 the eye down low enough to take good aim; but 
 ■the Germans soon introduced an improvement by 
 giving a hooked form to the butt, which elevated 
 
 430 
 
 the barrel ; and the A. then obtained the name of 
 the haquebui. Soldiers armed with these two kind-i 
 
 Arquebusier. 
 
 of weapon were designated arquehusiers and Jiaque- 
 batters — the former were common in the English 
 army in the time of Richard III., the latter in 
 that of Henry VIII. 
 
 ARRACA'CHA {Arracacha esadenta), a plant of 
 the natural order Umbelliferm, a native of the 
 elevated table-lands in the neighbourhood of Santa 
 Fe de Bogota and Caraocas, 
 and of regions of similar cli- 
 mate in other parts of tropical 
 America. It is much culti- 
 vated in its native country for 
 its roots, which are used as an 
 esculent. The root divides 
 into a number of parts, which 
 resemble cows' horns or large 
 carrots. When boiled, they 
 are firm and tender, -with a 
 flavour not so strong as that 
 of a parsnip. The plant is very 
 like hemlock, and has a similar 
 hea-vy smeU. Humboldt, in- 
 deed, referred it to the genus 
 Ganium (Hemlock), but it has 
 since b°.en made the type of a 
 new genus. The flowers are 
 in compound umbels, and are of a dull purple colour. 
 The A. was at one time very strongly recommended 
 as a substitute for potatoes ; it was introduced into 
 Britain through the exertions of the Horticultural 
 Society, and its cultivation perseveringly attempted ; 
 but it has been found unsuitable to the climate 
 of Britain and of other parts of Europe, where it 
 has been tried, perishing on the approach of the 
 frosts of winter -ndthout ha-ying perfected its roots. 
 The dry weather of summer is also unfavourable to 
 it. The climate of the south of Ireland resembles 
 that of its native regions more than any other in the 
 British Islands. It seems to require a very regular 
 temperature and constant moisture. There are 
 probably some parts of the British colonies in which 
 the A. would be found a very valuable plant. In 
 deep loose soils, it yields a great produce. It is 
 generally propagated, hke skirret, by offshoots from 
 the crown of the root. By rasping the root and 
 washing, a starch, similar to arrow-root, is obtained. 
 — There is another species of the same genus, 
 A. moschata, a native of the same regions, the root 
 of which is uneatable. 
 
 ARRA'CK, RACK, or RAKI, is an alcoholic 
 liquor or spirit, largely prepared, and extensively 
 
 Arracacha. 
 
ARRAGONITE-AEKAIGNMENT. 
 
 partaken of, in India and other parts of the East, 
 including the Indian Archipelago, the Moluccas, 
 and the Philippines ; in Africa; in Chili, South 
 America, and in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. 
 The term A. is often used in eastern countries to 
 designate any ardent spirit, but there are two prin- 
 cipal varieties — viz., that prepared from palm-toes, 
 and that procured from rice, which is also named 
 rice-spirit. Many species of palm-tree yield the 
 juice which constitutes the raw material for the 
 manufacture of A. This sap or juice may be drawn 
 from the tree by making an incision near the top, 
 when the sweet sap exudes, and is collected ; or by 
 taking the partially developed spathe of the palm- 
 tree (the pjirt from which the flower and fruit are 
 produced), tying it tightly near its attachment to the 
 tree, and then cutting off the end of the spathe, and 
 coUeoting the sweet juice which flows away from the 
 wound. In either case, a milky-looking substance 
 is obtained, which tastes, when fresh drawn, Uke the 
 milk of the cocoa-nut ; but which, when allowed to 
 stand for a short time, passes into a state of fermen- 
 tation ; the liquid becomes alcoholic and acid, and in 
 a few days an intoxicating liquor is left in the fer- 
 menting vessel, called palm wine or toddy, which on 
 distillation yields A. The amount of mUky sap and 
 A. thus yielded by a single palm-tree ranges from 2 
 or 3 pints to 100 pints in the 24 hours. A. is 
 likewise prepared from rice, which is first treated 
 ■with water, allowed to germinate or sprout to a 
 slight extent, then heated and dried, and lastly placed 
 in vessels vfitli water, where it ferments as in ordi- 
 nary beer-brewing (q. v.). Though A. is little known 
 in Britain, it is so extensively employed in other 
 countries, that it appears probable that it is partaken 
 of by more human beings than those who taste the 
 produce of the vine (wine and brandy) or the barley 
 (beer and whisky). In the desert Sahara of 
 Africa, the soil is enlivened here and there by fertile 
 oases, where clusters of date palm-trees stud the 
 earth ; and these not only supply food to the inhabi- 
 tants, but in the flowering season the A. also, which 
 is greedily partaken of by the Arab Mohammedans, 
 and is to be found in every domicile. On the west 
 coast of Africa, the oU-palm is likewise resorted 
 to for its juice to make A. ; whilst in India, the date 
 and fan palms are principally placed under contri- 
 bution. In the islands of tie Pacific Ocean, the 
 cocoa-nut palm is resorted to; and in Java, very 
 large quantities of ardent spirit, or A., are prepared 
 from rice. In Ceylon and Siam, the A. is manufac- 
 tured from the cocoa-nut palm and from rice. The 
 Chinese, who prepare and partake of A. in consider- 
 able quantity, get the credit of manufacturing the 
 best kind of distilled A., known as the A. of Batavia. 
 The latter owes its excellence to the manner in which 
 the somewhat disagreeable flavour characteristic of 
 ordinary A is a little more than neutralised by the ad- 
 dition of cinnamon and anise-seed, and subsequently 
 by very careful distillation. The inhabitants of Mada- 
 gascar attempt to overcome the unwelcome flavour 
 1)y the addition of the leaves of a species of tre- 
 foil ; and the Asiatics generally add the bjrk of a 
 kind of thorny acacia, called Pattay. Whilst the 
 greater quantity of A. is consumed where it is 
 manufactured, a smaller amount is exported. Cey- 
 lon despatches from its shores 700,000 gallons every 
 year, of which England receives about 30,000 gallons. 
 In Britain, A. is seldom used by itself, but is occa- 
 sionally employed to impart an agreeable flavour to 
 punch. An imitation A. is prepared by dissolving 
 benzoic acid in rum, m the proportion of 20 grains of 
 the former to 2 pounds of the latter. 
 
 A'RBAGONITB, a mineral essentially consisting 
 of carbonate of lime, and so agreeing in chemicju 
 composition with calcareous spar (q. v.), but differing 
 
 from it in the form of its crystals, of which the prim- 
 ary form is a rhombic prism with angles of 116° 16' 
 and 63° 44', the secondary forms being generally 
 prismatic and pyramidal. The effects of heat on 
 them shews another difference, A. being reduced to 
 powder by a heat in which calcareous spar remains 
 unchanged. Such differences between minerals of 
 the same chemical composition appeared very impro- 
 bable, and when Stromeyer, in 1813, detected the 
 presence of a Lttle carbonate of strontia in A., they 
 were immediately ascribed to this as their cause ; but 
 it has since been shewn not only that the quantity 
 of strontia is very small, variable, and therefore to 
 be regarded as accidental, but also that the differ- 
 ences between the two minerals may be accounted 
 for by difference of temperature when crystallisation 
 was taking place. A. appears to be the product of 
 a crystallisation taking place at a higher temperature 
 than that in which calcareous spar is produced ; 
 and accordingly it is frequent in volcanic districts 
 and in the neighbourhood of hot springs, as at Carls- 
 bad. It is frequently found in trap-rooki, as in Scot- 
 land. It derives its name from the province of 
 Aragon in Spain. It sometimes occurs stalactitic. 
 Its crystals are sometimes prisms shortened into 
 tables, sometimes they are lengthened into needles. 
 Twin crystals (modes) are very common. Satin Spar 
 is a variety of it, in which the crystals are of a finfe 
 fibrous silky appearance, and combined together into 
 a compact mass. Flos fern (i. e., flower of iron) is a 
 name given to a coralloidal variety which sometimes 
 occurs in iron mines. 
 
 A'RBAH, a town ia the district of Shahabad and 
 the presidency of Bengal, in lat. 25° 31' N., and long. 
 84° 43' E. It is situated in a fertile country, and 
 contains 2775 houses, with a population of at least 
 15,000. It is on the route between Dinapoor and 
 Ghazeepore, 25 miles W. of the former, and 75 E. of 
 the latter. During the mutiny of 1857, A. became 
 in variety and intensity of interest second only to 
 Cawnpore; Delhi, and Lucknow, connected as it was 
 with a heroic defence, a heavy disaster, and a bril- 
 liant victory. The defence was that of an isolated 
 house, for eight days, against 3000 sepoys with 2 
 fleld-pieces, the garrison consisting of less than 20 
 whites, all civilians, and 50 Sikhs, whose fidehty 
 perhaps was doubtful till proved by trial. The dis- 
 aster was the nocturnal surprise in the jungle of a 
 detachment almost entirely European, sent to the 
 relief of the beleaguered dwelling — ^the loss having 
 been 290 out of 415. The victory was won by a 
 force of 172 men, 12 of them mounted volunteers, 
 and 3 guns, over a host numbering nearly 20 to 1. 
 In fact. A., happily with the exception of the cold- 
 blooded massacre of women and children, presented, 
 in miniature, nearly all the phases of the most formi- 
 dable and eventful insurrection on record. For a 
 detailed account of these events, see Chamberis 
 History of the Indian Revolt. 
 
 ARKAIGN'MENT, in the practice of the crimi- 
 nal law in England, means calling a prisoner by his 
 name to the bar of the court to answer the matter 
 charged upon him in the indictment. And having 
 the presumption of innocence in his favour, it is the 
 law, and so laid down in the most ancient books, 
 that, though charged upon an iodictment of the 
 highest nature, he is entitled to stand at the bar in 
 the form and in the garb of a free man, without irons 
 or any manner of shackles or bonds, unless there be 
 evident danger of his escape, or of violence at his 
 hands. When arraigned on the charge of treason 
 or felony, the prisoner is called upon by name to 
 hold up his hand, by which he is held to confess his 
 identity with the person charged. This form, how- 
 ever, is not an essentiail part of the proceedings at 
 
 431 
 
AEEAN. 
 
 the trial, and it is sufBoient for the prisoner, when 
 arraigned, to confess his identity by verbal admis- 
 sion or otherwise. When thus duly arraigned, the 
 indictment is distinctly read over to the accused in 
 the English tongue, and he then either confesses the 
 fact — ^that is, admits his guilt — or he puts himself 
 upon his trial by a plea of Not guilty. Formerly, 
 one of the incidents of the A. was the prisoner 
 standing mute, as it was called — that is, refraining 
 from, or refusing, a direct answer to the indictment ; 
 in which case the court proceeded to inquire whether 
 the silence was of mahce on the part of the prisoner, 
 or was produced by the visitation of God, and to 
 deal with him accordingly. But by the 7 and 8 
 Geo. IV. c. 28, s. 2, it is enacted that where a pris- 
 oner shall stand mute of mahce, it shall be lawful 
 for the court to order the proper officer to enter a 
 plea of 'Not guilty,' on which the trial shall proceed, 
 as if the plea had been actually pleaded by the 
 prisoner hunself. Where there is reason to doubt, 
 however, that the prisoner standing mute is sane or 
 not, a jury consisting of any twelve persons who 
 may happen to be present is forthwith charged to 
 inquire whether he has intellect enough to plead and 
 to imderstand the course of the proceedin6;s. If 
 they find the affirmative, the plea of ' Not gudty ' is 
 entered, and the trial goes on ; but if the negative, 
 the insane person wiU be ordered by the court to be 
 kept in strict custody during Her Majesty's pleasure, 
 according to the 39 and 40 Geo. III. c. 94, s. 2. 
 
 By 19 and 20 Vict. c. 16, facilities are provided 
 for the trial of prisoners in the Central Criminal 
 Comrt, although the offence may have been com- 
 mitted out of the jurisdiction of that tribunal, and 
 it directs the A. to take place in the ordinary form. 
 
 In the Scotch criminal law, the expression Calling 
 the Diet corresponds to A. The prisoner is called 
 upon by name by the presiding judge to attend to 
 the indictment against him, which is read aloud by 
 the clerk, and the prisoner is then required to plead, 
 which he does, as in England, by a plea of ' Guilty ' 
 or of ' Not guilty ;' in the event of which latter, the 
 trial proceeds— the prisoner, either by himself or his 
 counsel, having always the last word before the 
 comrt and before the jury. In this respect, it is 
 otherwise in England. 
 
 According to Su- Matthew Hale, the term A. 
 is derived from arraisoner, ad rationem ponere, 
 to call to account or answer, which in ancient French 
 law would be ad-reeoncr, or, abbreviated, a-resner. 
 See Teial, Inbictment, Inpoemation, Pkosecit- 
 TiON, Plea, Vekdict, Not Pboven. 
 
 A'RBAN, an island in the mouth of the Firth of 
 Clyde, Scotland, about 5 miles south-west of Bute, 
 13 west of Ayrshire, and 4 east of Cantire, from 
 which it is separated by ICUbrennau Sound. It is 
 of an oval form, about 20 mUes long and 12 broad ; 
 area, 165 square mUes, about 15,000 acres or a 
 seventh part being cultivated. Pop. 6000. The gene- 
 ral aspect of A. is mountainous and heathy, and m the 
 north, the jagged peaks are singularly grand. Around 
 the coast is a low belt of ground, with lofty cliffs on 
 the south and south-west shore, from which the 
 country rises abruptly. The highest point is Goatf ell 
 (an English corruption for Goath-Bhein, ' Wind 
 Mountam'), an obtuse pyramid, 2865 feet high, and 
 a prominent feature ia the island. From its sides 
 slope the romantic glens of Kosa and Sannox, and 
 at its base to the south-east opens Brodick Bay, 
 at the head of which lay, until lately, Brodick 
 village. The houses which composed it have now 
 been removed, and a new village has sprung up on 
 the opposite side of the bay, called Invercloy, where 
 there ia a spacious hotel. To the south of this, 
 round a bluff headland, is Lamlash Bay, the chief 
 harbom' of A., and the best on the Firth of Clyde, 
 
 432 
 
 sheltered by Holy Island, once the seat of a monas- 
 tery. A picturesque mass of columnar basalt, 900 
 or 1000 feet high, succeeds. Further south lies 
 Whiting Bay, near which are two cascades 100 and 
 50 feet high respectively. At the south-east point 
 of A. is Kildonan Castle, opposite which is the 
 small isle of Pladda, crowned by a light-house. 
 Large caverns occur in the cliffs of the south and 
 souHi-west coasts. In one of these, the 'King's 
 Cave,' in the basaltic promontory of Druimodime, 
 Robert the Bruce hid himself for some time. Shiskan 
 Vale, opening into Druimodune Bay, is the most 
 fertile part of A. Loch Eanza, a bay in the north end 
 of A., runs a mile inland, and is a herring-fishing 
 rendezvous. There is daily communication with A. 
 by means of steam-boats from the Clyde, the ports 
 touched at being Brodick and Lamlash. 
 
 The geology of A. is almost unique, and displays a 
 greater succession of strata than any other part 
 of the British Isles of equal extent. The south- 
 east half of A. consists of Devonian sandstonS, 
 extending from the east coast 4 or 5 mUes inland, 
 and running south-west from Brodick beyond the 
 centre of the island ; and of trap rocks and carbon- 
 iferous strata, which occupy the middle and western 
 portions. The north-west half consists of a central 
 granite nucleus, including Goatfell, bordered on the 
 west by a tract of mica-slate, and on the north, east, 
 and south by lower Silurian rocks, which, again, have 
 a run of Devonian sandstone on the east and south. 
 Lias and oolite lie on the mica-slate. There are 
 only rivulets in A., and one of them tumbles over 
 a precipice 300 feet high. Some level parts in the 
 south half of A. are fertile. The chief crops are 
 oats and potatoes. Cattle, sheep, fish, and oats 
 are exported. The greater part of A. belongs to the 
 Duke of Hamilton, whose seat is Brodick Castle. 
 A. forms part of the county of Bute, and contains 
 two parishes. Many antiquities occur, such as 
 cairns, xmhewn obehsks, momuneutal stones, and 
 Druidical circles. Several stone coffins were found 
 in a cairn 200 feet in cu'cumferenoe. Loch Banza 
 Castle, now in ruins, was formerly a residence of the 
 Scottish kings. 
 
 A'RRAN, South Isles or. These are three 
 small islands lying north-west and south-east across 
 the entrance to Galway Bay, about 4 miles off the 
 west coast of Ireland, and 27 west of Galway city. 
 They form the barony of A., and give the title of 
 Earl to the Gore family. Total area, 11,287 acres. 
 The principal or west island, Inishmore, is 7 miles 
 long and 2 broad ; Inishmain, or ' Middle Isle,' comes 
 next ; and then luishere to the south-east. Pop. in 
 1851, 3333, of which number 2312 inhabited Inish- 
 more. The islands consist of the carboniferous lime- 
 stone of the bed of Galway Bay. From this bay they 
 gradually rise to the height of 100 to 200 feet on the 
 west side, ending in cHffs facing the Atlantic. Most 
 of the laud is cultivated, but in a very primitive way. 
 The chief crops are rye, oats, and potatoes. Most 
 of the inhabitants engage in fishing ; and the corragh 
 or wicker-work skiff is still to be seen here. Like 
 other isles on the west coast of Ireland, they are sub- 
 ject to famines from parching rainless west winds 
 in August, destroying the potato-crop. Anciently, 
 these islands formed an important ecclesiastical seat, 
 containing at one time 20 churches and monasteries. 
 Inishmore was the centre of these, stUl known as 
 Aran-na-naomh, or 'Arran of the Saints.' Many 
 pilgrims still visit the old shrines and rehcs scattered 
 through the islands. St Kenanach Church, built in 
 the 7th c, stiU exists, all but its stone roof, as well 
 as the stone oratories and little bee-hive stone huta 
 of the monks of the 6th and 7th centuries. The 
 military antiquities are not less remarkable, consist- 
 ing of nine circular cyclopean fortresses of unhewn 
 
AERANGING-AEEEST. 
 
 iinoemented stones (portions o£ the walls still being 
 20 feet liig^)) suppoaed to have been built in the 1st 
 e. bythe rir-BoIg or Belgse. The largest of these, 
 Dun- Aengua, on a cliff in Inishmore, 220 feet high, is 
 one of the moat magnificent barbaric monmneuts in 
 Europe. 
 
 ARRA'NGtlN'G, a term in Music which means 
 the adapting of a piece of music so as to be performed 
 on an instrument or instruments different from those 
 for which it was originally composed, as when orches- 
 tral or vocal compositions are set for the piano- 
 forte, or the reverse. An arrangement is often a 
 mere lifeless transposition of the original, the only 
 guiding principle being the mechanicS possibility of 
 performance. -Of this kind are most of the piano- 
 forte arrangements of (the orchestral works of Mozart, 
 Beethoven, &c. — partly from the arranger working 
 merely for hire, and partly from a mistaken reverence 
 for, and fear of altering, the original. It is different 
 when an arranger, who thorou^y comprehends the 
 spirit of the original, takes advantage of the peculiar 
 means of expression afforded by the new form of 
 presentation, to reproduce as much as possible the 
 original effects. In this last respect, the arrange- 
 ments of Franz Liszt have excelled all others, 
 although in some cases he may have overstepped 
 the boundary of propriety. See Pot-poueki and 
 Fantasia. 
 
 ABBAS (the ancient Nemelacwm), a fortified 
 town and capital of the department of Pas-de- 
 Calais, as it was formerly of the province of Artoia, 
 in France. It is situated on the banks of the 
 Scarpe, partly on an eminence, and partly on a 
 plain, and consists of four divisions — the city, upper 
 town, lower town, and citadel. It is a principal 
 station on the French Northern EaUway, distant 
 from Paris by this route 134 miles, and from Brus- 
 sels, 97. The pop. (1856), 21,984. The houses 
 are of hewn stone, and in the lower town they are 
 handsomely built and uniform ; the streets straight 
 and wide, set off with several fiiie squares, and many 
 beautiful public buildings. Among the principal 
 edifices are the Cathedrd of Notre Dame, the resi- 
 dence of the prefect, the town-hall, the theatre, and 
 the public library. 
 
 A. ranks as a fortified town of the third class, its 
 fortifications being the first that were conatructed 
 by the celebrated Vauban, according to his own 
 syatem. It has been the seat of a bishop since 390 
 A. D., and two ecclesiastical councils have been held 
 here — one in 1025, the other in 1490. 
 
 The corn-market of A. is the moat important in 
 the north of France. Ita principal manufactures are 
 iron-ware, woollen and cotton goods, hosiery, lace, 
 pottery, and leather. Its trade, which is consider- 
 able, is in'com and fiour, oil, wine and brandy, with 
 the industrial products of the city. 
 
 It appears from the writings of Jerome that A. 
 was remarkable for its woollen manufactures in his 
 time; and afterwards, during the middle ages, it was 
 famed for its tapestry; indeed, the name of the 
 town was transferred to this article of manufacture, 
 and arras was the name given in England to the 
 richly figured hangings that adorned the halls of the 
 kings and the barons. 
 
 . In 1482, A with Artois was ceded by the states of 
 the Netherlands to Louis XI. of France; but the 
 inhabitants having revolted, the king laid siege to 
 the town, stormed it, and slew or expelled the people, 
 whom he replaced by others brought from all parts 
 of his dominions, ordering the city to be thencefor- 
 ward called Franchise, to obhterate the very name 
 of A. Soon afterwards (1493) it was ceded to 
 Maximilian of Austria, and was possessed by the 
 Spanish branch of the House of Hapsburg till 1640, 
 28 
 
 when Louis XIII. of France took it after a long siege. 
 By the treaty of the Pyrenees, it was finally ceded to 
 France. A suffered much in the time of the first 
 French revolution, especially in the year 1793. 
 Robespierre, the Terrorist, was a native of the town. 
 
 AtlBA'YBE, a title given to certain military 
 officers in England in the early part of the 15th c. 
 There were two of them in each county, sometimes 
 called Commissaries of Musters. Their duties were 
 set forth in an ordinance of Henry V., from the 
 terms of which it appears that the arrayera were 
 army inspectors, or, rather, militia inspectors, and 
 in some sense precursors to the modern lords- 
 lieutenant of counties. 
 
 ABBE'ST is a legal term used both in criminal 
 and civil process. Criminal A. has already been 
 sufficiently conaidered under the word Appkehend 
 (q. v.); and in civil procedure it may be simply 
 defined to be the execution of a judicial or preroga- 
 tive order, by which the liberty of the person may 
 be restrained, and obedience to the law compeUed. 
 In the practice of the Court of Chancery, a defendant 
 may be arrested for his contempt in not putting in 
 his answer to a biU filed against him; and suitors 
 generally who disregard the rules of that tribunal are 
 Eable to feel ita power in this respect. But in its 
 ordinary legal acceptation, A. is used to signify the 
 enforcement of the judgment or order of a court of 
 law, in order to satisfy justice. In the execution of 
 such judgment, the party against whom it has been 
 given may be arrested by means of a writ of capias 
 ad satisfaciendum, as it is called, the purpose of 
 which is to imprison the body of the debtor till he 
 pays the debt or damages and costs. It is directed 
 to the sheriff, commanding him to take the body of 
 the debtor, and have tiim at Westminster immediately 
 after execution thereof, to make the plaintiff satis- 
 faction for his demand. This writ might, until 
 lately, iasue for a judgment debt of any amount ; 
 but by the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 96, s. 57, it ia provided 
 that it ahall not issue in the case of a debt not 
 exceeding £20, exclusive of costs; subject, however, 
 to this proviso, that where such debt should appear 
 to the judge trying the cause (being a judge of the 
 superior courta, or a barrister or attorney) to have 
 been incurred under false pretences, or with a frau- 
 dulent intent, or without a reasonable aaaurance of 
 being able to pay or discharge the same, it shall be 
 lawful for such judge to order the defendant to be 
 taken and detained in execution upon such judg- 
 ment, as if the act had not passed. And it has been 
 since provided by 8 and 9 Vict. c. 127, and 10 and 
 11 Vict. c. 102, s. 2, that judgment debtors to 
 the extent above mentioned may be summoned 
 before the Insolvent Court in London, or the county 
 court for the district in the country (as the case may 
 require), and thereupon be ordered to pay the debt 
 by instalments or otherwise; and further, that in 
 case of their non-compliance with such order, or of 
 its appearing to the court that they have been guilty 
 of fraud in contracting the debt, or of having con- 
 tracted it without reasonable prospect of being able 
 to pay the same, they may be committed to prison for 
 forty days, and the imprisonment under such com- 
 mittal shall not operate in satisfaction or discharge 
 of the debt. 
 
 A defendant may also be arrested under a writ of 
 capias ad respondendum, which issues as follows — 
 where a plaintiff swears by affidavit that he has a 
 cause of action against a defendant to the amount 
 of £20 or upwards, or haa austained damage to that 
 amount, and that there ia reason for believing that 
 the defendant is about to quit the country, an order 
 is made by a judge — and such order maybe made at 
 anv time between the commencement of the action 
 
 ■' 433 
 
AEREST OP JUDGMENT— ABBESTMENT OF WAGES. 
 
 and final judgment — ^when the writ in question issues, 
 directing the sheriff to arrest the defendant, who 
 remains in custody until he has given satisfaction in 
 respect of the plaintiff's demand. The practice with 
 reference to this writ is regidated by the 1 and 2 
 Vict. c. 110. Formerly, a defendant might he 
 arrested on what is called mesne process, that is, 
 process issuing at the Commencement and during 
 the progress of a suit ; but by the act jvist referred to, 
 such A. is abolished, excepting as above explained. 
 
 Under such and similar authority, A. may be made 
 of the person. There are classes, however, who 
 are exempted by privilege from A. — ^thus, am- 
 bassadors and other diplomatic representatives of 
 foreign courts; all members of the peerage, Scotch 
 and Irish as well as English; all members of 
 parliament; all persons connected with a cause 
 before a court of justice, and attending in the 
 course of it, such as witnesses, attorneys, and bar- 
 risters — although in regard to the latter (barristers), 
 it may be more correctly stated that they are 
 entitled to the privilege only when attending the 
 superior courts; and Mr Archibold, in his Practice 
 of the Common Law, refers to a case where a bar- 
 rister was discharged who was arrested on circuit. 
 The Queen may also, by her writ of protection^ pri- 
 vilege any person in her service from A. during a 
 year and day, a prerogative, however, which is 
 seldom, and, at the present day, scarcely ever 
 exercised. In regard to parliamentary exemption 
 from liability to civil process, however, the privilege 
 does not preclude the process from issuing, it 
 only protects the person of the member himself; 
 for by 10 Geo. III. c. 50, it is enacted that any 
 action or suit may at any time be brought against 
 any member of either House, or against their servants, 
 or any other person entitied to privilege of parlia- 
 ment ; and that none such, nor any process or pro- 
 ceeding thereupon, shall at any time be impeached, 
 stayed, or delayed, by pretence of any such privilege, 
 except that the person of a member of the House of 
 Commons shall not thereby be subjected to any 
 arrest or imprisonment. It is likewise provided by 
 the Bankrupt Consolidation Act, 1849 (12 and 13 
 Vict. c. 106), that if a trader,-being a member of par- 
 liament, who was sued for a debt of such amount as 
 shall be sufficient to support a petition in bank- 
 ruptcy, shall not pay or otherwise satisfy the debt 
 within one calendar month, he shall be deemed to 
 have committed an act of bankruptcy, and may be 
 dealt with! as a bankrupt, though not to the extent 
 of making him liable to A. 
 
 In the Scotch law, the word A. is not a technical 
 term for process against the person. But see 
 Abeestmbnt, and Aebbstmbmt eob founding 
 JuiasracTioN. 
 
 ABEEST OP JUDGMENT, in the practice of 
 the : English common law courts, was an expedient 
 after verdict on the part of an unsuccessful defendant, 
 who endeavoiu-ed to get the judgment arrested or 
 withheld, on the ground that there was some error 
 which vitiated the proceedings ; and if this objection 
 succeeded, it was fatal, no amendment being allowed 
 after trial. But as tins rule was found to be pro- 
 ductive of great inconvenience, expense, and often 
 injustice, it has been considerably modified by the 
 Common Law Procedure Act of 1852 (the 15 and 16 
 Vict. c. 76), under which, oroitted facts or other 
 matter may, by leave of "the comi;, be suggested, by 
 which the error may be corrected. See Judgment. 
 
 AEKB'STMBNT, in the Scotch law, is the legal 
 process or diligence, as it is called, by means ^ of 
 which a debtor, where the debt is of a personal 
 natm-e, is prohibited from making payment or 
 delivery to his creditor until another debt or claim 
 
 due to the person making use of the arrestment by 
 such creditor is secured or paid. Thus, if A owes 
 £100 to B, but B, again, is indebted to C, arrestment 
 may be used by C in the hands of A ; the effect of 
 which is to prevent A paying to B untU C's claim 
 has been satisfied. A, the party in whose hands 
 the arrestment is laid,\is called the arrestee ; 0, the 
 user of the arresiament, is called the arrester ; and 
 B, the arrester's debtor, is called the common 
 debtor. The arrestment, however, has ilot the 
 effect of transferring the debt or subject arrested. 
 For that purpose, a particular form of action, called 
 an action of furthcoming, is necessary, decree in 
 which operates as a complete transfer to the 
 arrester. This process may be sued out either by 
 authority of the Court of Session or by that of an 
 inferior judge. The procedure is now regulated by 
 the 1 and 2 Vict. c. 114, ss. from 16 to 22 inclusive. 
 The corresponding English term is Attachment 
 (q. v.). 
 
 ABBESTMENT FOE FOUNDING JUEIS- 
 DICTION. This is a form of proceeding in the 
 practice of the Scotch law, and it is of an extremely 
 important nature, for, by means of it, a foreigner, or 
 one beyond the jurisdiction of the courts of Soot- 
 land, who happens to have any property in that 
 country, may be sued in the Scotch tribunals. It is 
 a personal remedy, and the mode of procedure is 
 thus : The summons (or declaration, as it would 
 be called in England), which is executed by leaving 
 a copy in the proper office in Edinburgh, contains 
 in express terms a warrant to arrest ad, fundandam 
 jurisdiciionem J and when served on the party 
 having possession of the foreigner's property, such 
 warrant has the effect of attaching it, so as to give 
 the court jurisdiction over the foreigner himself. 
 This manner of founding jurisdiction is said to have 
 been borrowed by the Scotch from the lawyers of 
 the Netherlands, and it can be traced back in the 
 practice of the Scotch courts for upwards of a 
 century. In a recent case, however, brought by 
 appeal to the House of Lords from Scotland, an 
 attempt was made to shew, that for this mode of 
 A. there was no sufficient authority in the law of 
 that country, and it was represented to the House 
 as a barbarous contrivance of comparatively recent 
 introduction. But their lordships had no hesitation 
 in affirming the judgment of the Court of Session 
 in favour of their jurisdiction so obtained. See 
 Jtteibdiction. 
 
 ABBESTMENT OP WAGES is supposed to 
 exercise a baneful influence on some of the working- 
 classes in Scotland, by putting them in the power of 
 greedy and oppressive dealers, who, in the know- 
 ledge of the power they thus possess, are too ready to 
 give credit to working-people, and thus encourage 
 them in extravagance. It was the object of so 
 much complaint in Glasgow, that a government 
 inquiry was instituted into its operation in 1853. 
 Tha,t inquiry developed a sad amount of extrava- 
 gance and foUy, but did not afford a hope that any 
 mere alteration in the machinery of the law would 
 remedy a deep-rooted social evil. Its most alarming 
 features were foimd in the female manufacturing 
 population, the younger of whom especially, led by 
 avidity for fine clothes, were the victims of a power- 
 ful organisation of dealers, on what is called the club- 
 ticket system, the peouUarity of whicli is, that the 
 price of the article purchased is paid in instalments, 
 according to the payment of wages. It was part of 
 the system, whenever any defalcation occurred, to 
 arrest the wages, and thus legal expenses were 
 added to the cost of an article which, to Keep up the 
 ejcpensive organisation of the system, would be 
 originally sold at an excessive price. 
 
AEEHENATHERUM— AEROW-ROOT. 
 
 A'RRHBNATHE'ETJM, a genua of Grasses, 
 allied to Holcus (see Soft-qkass) and Avma (see 
 
 Oat), and distinguislied by 
 a lax panicle, 2-flowered 
 spikelets ■with two glumes, 
 the lower floret Jiaving 
 stamens only, and a long 
 twisted awn above the 
 base ; the upper floret per- 
 fect, with a short straight 
 bristle below the point. — 
 The name A. is from the 
 Greek arrhen, male, and 
 oilier, an awn. A. aven- 
 acemm (Avma elaiior of 
 Linnffius, also known as 
 Holcas avenaceus) is a com- 
 mon grass in Britain. It 
 is sometimes called Oat- 
 t.tkt; Geass, fi;om the re- 
 semblance to the coarser 
 kinds of oats in the general 
 appearance of the panicle. 
 In France, it is very much 
 cultivated for fodder, and 
 is often called French 
 Ryi-gkass. It has, how- 
 ever, no affinity to the true 
 Rye-grass (Lolium). It is 
 a tall perennial grass, 2 — 3 
 feet Mgh, becomes luxu- 
 riant early in the season, 
 and continues long pro- 
 ductive. It is, however, a 
 rather coarse grass, and has 
 , , , , a somewhat bitter saline 
 o,pamole, reduced; J, root and i„of„. ;j. ;„ „„-t. -„ spopi*.. 
 lower part of culm, reduced; *?^*^'" ^^^i ^'=<=^P' 
 
 c, a single spikelet, natural able to cattle as many 
 size. other grasses, and is there- 
 
 fore generally regarded by 
 British agriculturists as unworthy of otdtivation on 
 the best soils ; but it is found suitable for some 
 comparatively arid situations, and to form a coarse 
 herbage under trees in plantations. — A variety or 
 distinct species, diflering from it in having a knotted 
 or bulbous base to the stem, instead of a simple fibrous 
 root, is called by some botanists A. hdboswm. It is 
 also common in Britain, but is a very inferior grass, 
 and owing to the character of its roots, difficult of 
 extirpation from lands in which it appears as a weed. 
 
 ARRIA'NTJS, Flavius, a native of Mcomedia, in 
 Bithynia, bom about 100 a.d. He became a disciple 
 of Epiotetus, the Stoic philosopher, and, under his 
 instructions, a warm advocate of that system. On 
 bringhig before the public the earliest products of his 
 pen, the learned men of Athens were highly pleased 
 with them, and honoured him with the freedom of 
 their city. A. had chosen Xenophori as his model of 
 composition, and hence the Athenians called bJTn 
 the young Xenophon. In 124 A.D. he was intro- 
 duced to the Emperor Hadrian in Greece, who con- 
 ferred on him the freedom of the eternal city. He 
 was appointed prefect of Cappadocia in the year 
 136. Under Antoninus JPius, the successor of 
 Hadrian, he was promoted to -the consulship. But 
 
 Arrhenatherum : 
 
 some four years afterwards, he appears to have 
 retired from public hfe, and devoted himself to 
 literature in his native place. As the pupil and 
 friend of Epictetus, he edited the Manual of Ethics 
 (Endi^ridion) left by his master, and wrote the 
 Ledtmrm of Epictetus, in eight books, of which only 
 four have been preserved — ^to be had in Sohweig- 
 hauser's PMlosomicB Epictetem Monvmenta, vol. iii. 
 (Paris, 1827). He wrote also The Conversations of 
 Epictetus, a work which has been lost, except a few 
 fragments. The most important work by A. is the 
 Anabasis of Alexander, or History of the Oampaigns 
 of Alexander the Great, which has come down to us 
 entire, all but a gap in the 12th chapter of the 7th 
 book. This book is our chief authority on the 
 subject of which it treats, and is a work of great 
 value. In close connection with it, A. wrote his Indian 
 History, giving an account of the people of India. 
 Other writings by A., his letter to Hadrian on 
 A Voyage round the Coasts of the BwuAne Sea, and 
 another, A Voyage round the Coasts of the Red Sea, 
 are valuable with regard to ancient geography. 
 There is still another work by our author — a Trea- 
 tise on the Chase (Kynegeticos) — in which, as well as 
 in the Anabasis, he has imitated Xenophon. 
 
 A. was one of the best writers of his day. Tfia 
 works bear the marks of cafe, honesty, and correct- 
 ness ; and they were numerous, though several have 
 not been handed down to our time. All that we are 
 possessed of appear to have had translations into 
 Latin. There is a good French translation of the 
 Anabasis by Ohaussard, with commentary, 3 vols. 
 (1802), and also a good one of the Lectures of Epic- 
 tetus by Thurot (1838). The best critical edition of 
 A. is that by Miiller (Paris, 1846). 
 
 ARRO'BA, a weight commonly used in Spain, 
 Portugal, Brazil, and in the principal Spanish and 
 Portuguese colonies. In the first of these countries, 
 it is equivalent to the English quarter of a cwt., or 
 28 lbs. ; it is nearly the same in Portugal, &o. In 
 Spain, the A. is also a measure for wine, brandy, 
 &c., and contains four of oxu- quarts. 
 
 ARRON DISSEMBNT (from the French arron- 
 dir, to make round), the subdivision of a French 
 Department (q. v.). 
 
 ARROW. See Bow akb Abbow. 
 
 A'RROWHEAD (Sagittaria), a genus of plants of 
 the natural orderi Alismacece, distmguished by uni- 
 sexual flowers, having three herbaceous sepals and 
 three coloured petals, uiunerous stamens, and numer- 
 ous carpels, which are compressed, one-seeded, and 
 on a globose receptacle. They are aquatic plants, 
 natives of very difierent climates, from the tropics to 
 the cold regions of the world. — ^The Common A. 
 (S. sagittifolia) is a beautiful aquatic, a native 
 of England, with arrow-shaped leaves which rise 
 above the surface of the water. It is one of those 
 plants which have enjoyed an undeserved reputation 
 as cures for hydrophobia. The conns (or solid bulbs), 
 dried and powdered, have sometimes been used for 
 food, but have an acrid unpleasant taste. — The 
 Chinese A. (S. Sinensis) is a native of China, 
 and has long been cultivated in that country 
 and Japan fpr its eatable corms, which, in a fresh 
 state, are somewhat acrid, but abound ia starch. It 
 has arrow-shaped acute lea|Ves, and a branched poly- 
 gonal scape (leafless stem). It is grown in ditches 
 and ponds. It is one of the plants sometimes culti- 
 vated in tanks in the hot-houses of Britain. 
 
 ARROW-HEADED CHARACTERS. See 
 
 CUNBIFOKM. 
 
 ARROW-HEADS. See Elf-Akrow-hbads. 
 A'RROW-ROOT is a variety of starch extracted 
 from the roots of certain plants growing in tropical 
 
 13S 
 
AEROW-BOOT. 
 
 countries. It is a fine starchy farina, much valued 
 as a delicacy, and as an easily digestible food for 
 children and invalids. It is ohtained from the 
 tuberous roots — or more correctly, the root-stocks 
 {rhizmnes) — of different species of the genus, Maranta, 
 belonging to the natural order Marantace(E, and 
 characterised by solitary ovules, a fleshy style curved 
 downwards, branching stems, and white flowers. 
 The species chiefly yielding it is M. anmdinacea, a 
 native of tropical America, cultivated in the West 
 India Islands, and growing about two feet high, 
 ■with ovato-lanceolate somewhat hairy leaves, clusters 
 of small flowers on 2-flowered stalks, and globular 
 fruit about the size of currants. i?he roots (or 
 rhizomes) contain a large proportion of faiina. They 
 are often more than a foot long, of the thickness of a 
 finger, jointed, and almost white, covered with pretty 
 large paper-like scales. They sometimes curve so 
 that the points rise out of the earth, and form new 
 plants. They are dug up when a year old, washed, 
 carefuUy peeled, and reduced to a mUky pulp. 
 Mills for this purpose have been introduced; but in 
 Jamaica the roots are usually reduced by beating in 
 deep wooden mortars ; in Bermuda, by means of a 
 wheel-rasp. The pulp is then mixed with much 
 water, cleared of fibres, by means of a sieve of coarse 
 cloth or hair, and the starch is allowed to settle 
 to the bottom. The water dissolves, and so removes 
 the greater part of the albumen and salts, the starch 
 
 because substitutes for the genuine A. more fre- 
 quently receive that name. The Maranta arundinacea 
 is now, however, cultivated to some extent both in 
 the East Indies and in Africa. M. Indica, which 
 was supposed to be distinct from M. arundinacea, is 
 now regarded as a mere variety of it, with perfectly 
 smooth leaves. It is cultivated both in the East 
 Indies and in Jamaica. A. is obtained also from 
 M. AUouyia and M. noUlis in the West Indies, and 
 from M. ramodssima in the East. 
 
 The amount of fecula or starch present in the 
 roots of the Maranta varies according to age, and 
 runs from 8 per cent., in those of the young plant, 
 to 26 per cent, when fuU grown. The latter stage 
 is reached when the plant is 10 to 12 months old; 
 and the roots then present the following composition 
 in 100 parts : 
 
 Starch, fecula, or arrow-root, . 
 
 Woody fibre, 
 
 Albumen, 
 
 Gummy extract, volatile oil, and salts, 
 Water, .....■■ 
 
 26 
 6 
 
 14 
 1 
 
 654 
 
 Arrow-root (ilf. arundinacea). 
 a, tu1)erB ; b, leaf and flowers ; c, stamen and style. 
 
 quickly settling down as an insoluble powder. Suc- 
 cessive washings are employed for further purifica- 
 tion. The A. is finally dried in the sun or in 
 drying-houses, great care being taken, by means of 
 gauze, to exclude dust and insects. The careful 
 peeling of the roots is of great importance, as the 
 skin contains a resinous matter, which imparts a 
 disagreeable flavour to A. with which it is allowed 
 to mix. Great care is taken to preserve the A. from 
 impurities ; and the knives used in peeling the roots, 
 and the shovels used in lifting the A., are made of 
 German silver. The West Indian A., most esteemed 
 in the market, is grown in Bermuda ; the next, and 
 almost equal to it, in Jamaica. The East Indian 
 A. is not in general so highly valued, perhaps 
 
 A. is ejcported in tin cases, barrels, or boxes, 
 carefully cfosed up. It is a Hght, opaque, white 
 powder, which, when rubbed between the fingers, 
 produces a slight crackling noise, like that heard 
 when newly faflen snow is being made into a snow- 
 ball. Through the microscope, the particles are 
 seen to be convex, more or less elliptical, soinetimes 
 obscurely triangidar, and not very different in size. 
 The dry farina is quite inodorous, but when dis- 
 solved in boiling water, it has a slight peculiar 
 smell, and swells up into a very perfect jeUy. 
 Potato-starch, vpith which it is often adulterated, 
 may be distinguished by the greater size of its 
 particles, their coarser and more distinct rings, and 
 their more glistening appearance. Kefined sago-flour 
 is used for adulteration, many of the particles of 
 which have a truncated extremity, and their surface 
 is irregular or tuberculated. A. is also sometimes 
 advUterated with rice-starch and vrith the common 
 starch of wheat-flour. 
 
 Not less than 400,000 lbs. of A. are annually 
 imported into the British Isles. As an article of 
 diet, it is often prepared for invalids and children 
 by merely dissolving it in boUing-water and flavour- 
 ing with sugar, lemon-juice, wine, &o. It is also often 
 prepared with milk, made into puddings, &c. When 
 most simply prepared, it forms a light meal, which, 
 however, is not very nutritious. See Nutritios:. 
 
 A farina somewhat similar to A., and partly 
 known by the distinct name of Tous-les-mois, is 
 obtained from some species of the allied genus 
 Ganna (q. v.). But East Indian A. is in part 
 obtained from the tubers of Curcuma angustifoMa, 
 Other species of Curcuma (see Tubmeric), as G. 
 Zerumhet, C. leucorhiza, and G. rubescens, also yield 
 a similar farina ; the same tubers which, when young, 
 jneld a beautiful and pure starch, yielding turmeric 
 when old. In Travancore, this starch is a principal 
 part of the food of the inhabitants. The young 
 tubers of the Galangal (q. v.), (Alpinia Galanga), 
 another plant of the same natural order (Sdtaminece), 
 are another source of this farina. — A farina some- 
 what resembling A., and often sold under that name, 
 is obtained from different species of the natural 
 order Gycadacece, as from the dwarf fleshy trunks 
 of Zamia tenuis, Z./urfuracea, and Z. pumila in the 
 West Indies, and from the large seeds of Dion edule 
 in the lowlands of Mexico. — The starch of the 
 Cassava, Manihot or Manioc (see Manioc), is some- 
 times imported into Europe under the name of 
 Brazilian A. Potato-starch, carefully prepared, 
 is sometimes sold as English A. ; and the farina 
 I obtained, from the roots of the Arum maciUcUum 
 
AUBOYO MOLINOS-AESENIO. 
 
 (see Arum), aa Portland A. Otaheite A. is the starch 
 of Tarca (q. v.) pinnatifida. — All these, as well as 
 Oswego imd Chicago corn-flour — the starch of maize 
 or Indian com — are so nearly allied ;to true A. as not 
 to be certainly distinguishable by chemical tests ; 
 but the forms of the granules differ, so that they can 
 be distinguished by flie microscope. 
 
 The name A. is commonly said to have had its 
 origin from the use of the fresh roots by the South 
 American Indians as an application to wounds to 
 counteract the effects of poisoned arrows ; and the 
 expressed juice has been recently recommended as 
 an antidote to poisons, and a cure for the stings and 
 bites of venomous insects and reptiles. But it is not 
 improbable that the name is really another form of 
 Ara, the Indian name. 
 
 AKRO'YO MOLl'KrOS, a village in Estremadura, 
 Spain, noted as the scene of General Girard's com- 
 plete discomfiture by Lord HUl on the 28th October 
 1811. General Girai'd had been sent out by Soult 
 on a plundering foray with 5000 men, when he was 
 surprised early in the morning by Lord Hill, who 
 had slept a league off at Alcuescar ; the natives of 
 which had the good sense not to betray the presence 
 of their deliverers. With a couple of regiments, the 
 7lst and 92d, the English general dashed through 
 the rain upon the enemy, who fled in all directions, 
 leaving behind everything, arms, packs, &o. 1300 
 prisoners were taken ; the whole artillery, colours, 
 baggage, &c. French historians (Thiers, &c.), how- 
 ever, maintain that the battle was ' undecided,' and 
 that their countrymen only retreated in good order, 
 under the pressure of much larger forces. 
 
 AREXT' ISLANDS, a group lying about 80 miles 
 to the south of the west part of New Guinea, extend- 
 ing in S. lat. from 5° 20' to 6° 55', and in E. long, 
 from 134° 10' to 134° 45'. The largest of the cluster is 
 70 miles long and 20 broad. The inhabitants, 
 many of them said to be Christians, are a mixed 
 race oi Malays and Melanesians or oriental negroes. 
 British goods, to the annual value of £30,000, are 
 imported into Dobbo, a mart on the island of 
 Warud, mostly by Dutch and Chinese merchants — 
 the returns being chiefly pearls, mother-of-pearl, and 
 trepang, which abound on a coral-reef to the east. 
 In position and formation, these islands appear to 
 be rather Australian than East Indian, 
 
 AESA'CES, a name common to several Parthian 
 and Armenian kings. The accounts concerning 
 them which have been transmitted to us by the 
 ancient historians are exceedingly vague, confused, 
 and contradictory ; and modern criticism has found 
 itself unable to reconcile or simplify the conflicting 
 statements. The two most important members of 
 the dynasty of the Scythian Arsaoidffi were A. I. 
 and A. VL 
 
 Aesaces I., the f oimder of the Parthian monarchy, 
 flourished in the 3d e. B. c, under the reign of 
 Antiochus-Theos. An ^atrocious insiJt offered to 
 his brother Tiridates by Pherecles or Agathocles, 
 Macedonian satrap of the country, is said to have 
 fired his spirit, and driven him to rebel. The Mace- 
 donians were expelled, 256 B. c. Autiochus, embroiled 
 in a war with Egypt, could not immediately find 
 time to attempt the recovery of this portion of 
 his dominions. Seleuous, the son of Antiochus, 
 made two unsuccessful expeditions against the insur- 
 gent chief, in the last of which he was taken 
 prisoner. A. I. now acquired regal power, built a 
 city called Dara, on the mountain Zapaortenon, 
 developed the internal resources of his new king- 
 dom, and endeavoured to organise it ; and, after the 
 conquest of several coimtries, died at a great age. 
 Such, at least, is the account given by Posidonius, 
 &c. ; but Arrian states that A. died after a reign of 
 
 two years, and that his brother Tiridates succeeded 
 him, imder the name of A. II., and ruled for thirty- 
 seven years, whence we may conclude that many 
 of the acts attributed to the founder of the Parthian 
 kingdom were the work of his successor. 
 
 Absaces VI., or Mitheidates I., flourished about 
 the middle of the 2d c. B. c. He enlarged the 
 territories of the Parthians by the conquest of 
 Bactria ; and is even supposed to have penetrated 
 into India, and subdued the nations between the 
 Hydaspes and Indus. In the year 138 B. c, he 
 defeated and took prisoner Demetrius Nicator, king 
 of Syria, whom, however, he treated generously, 
 bestowing on him his daughter in marriage. He 
 was a just and merciful prince, and an enemy to 
 luxury. 
 
 A'ESENAL is the name given to a great mili- 
 taiy or naval repository, where the munitions of war 
 are to some extent manufactured, but more particu- 
 larly stored imtil required for use. Every royal 
 dockyard, every magazine, every armoury, is to 
 some extent an A. ; and therefore the meaning of 
 the word is not quite definite. In Erance, the chief 
 arsenals are at Cherbourg, Brest, and TouImi. In 
 England, although Deptford is a considerable 
 storehouse for naval clothing and provisions, and 
 Weedon and the Tower great repositories for mili- 
 tary stores, the only establishment vast enough 
 to deserve the name of A. is at Woolwich. This 
 is truly a remarkable and important place. In the 
 spring of 1859, when war was raging in Italy 
 between the French and Sardinians on one side, 
 and the Austrians on the other, and when an un- 
 easy feeling pervaded our own country, there were 
 for a short time more than 10,000 men employed 
 in Woolwich A. There were at that time nearly 
 12,000 pieces of iron ordnance in store, of which 
 7000 were of modern make and of heavy calibre. 
 This store was supplementary to that which is 
 always kept at the dockyards of Woolwich, 
 Chatham, Sheerness, Portsmouth, Plymouth, and 
 Pembroke. There were resources at the A. for 
 bringing forward, fitting, and issuing these reserve 
 guns at the rate of 200 per week, or double this 
 number on an emergency; and many hundreds were 
 within a brief period shipped thence, to strengthen 
 our forts in the Mediterranean, in the colonies, and 
 around the coasts. AH the shot and shell used down 
 to the period of the Crimean war, were ordered of 
 private makers; but the charge was so enormous 
 during the early months of that war, that the 
 government resolved to try the manufacture at 
 Woolwich; this was done, with a very manifest 
 saving of expense. It has been calculated that the 
 A., when at full work, could produce large shot and 
 shell with six times the rapidity with which those 
 missiles were used by the British outside Sebastopol 
 during the eleven months' siege. These observations 
 do not apply to 'rifles or muskets; none of these 
 weapons are made at Woolwich. iSiere have been 
 times, however, diuing the year 1859, when nearly a 
 hundred million rifle-bullets were in store at the A. 
 The Armstrong guns (described under that head- 
 ing) are, at the period of printing this sheet, being 
 made at the A, 9, 12, and 18 pounders, in sufficient 
 number to supply all our fleld-artfllery batteries: 
 siege-guns and ships' guns, of this construction, 
 are left for future consideration. It is calculated 
 that there are 15,000 great guns on board the 
 ships of the Queen's navy, besides a number vary- 
 ing from 15,000 to 20,000 at Woolwich and in the 
 dockyards. 
 
 A'RSENIO is the name applied in popular 
 language to a well-known poisonous substance, 
 Arsenious Acid (q. v.), but, strictly speaking, the 
 
ARSENICAL MINERALS— ARSENIOtJS ACID. 
 
 term is restricted to a metallic body which in part 
 enters into the composition of the poison. The metal 
 A. is rarely found free in nature, hut in a state of com- 
 bination it occurs largely (see Aesenical Mimsbais). 
 The metal is generally prepared from arsenious acid 
 (AsOj) by mixing it -with its own weight of char- 
 coal, placing the mixture in a weU-covered crucible, 
 and subjectiag the whole to heat, when the metal 
 set free by the charcoal rises, and condenses in the 
 upper part or cover of the crucible. Metallic A. is 
 very brittle, can easily be reduced to powder by 
 hammering, or even pounding in a mortar ; and 
 when a freshly cut surface is examined, it presents 
 a brilliant dark steel-gray lustre, which, however, 
 readily tarnishes on exposure to the air. The metal, 
 as such, is not considered poisonous, but when intro- 
 duced into the animal system, it is there faintly 
 
 
 f- ' Jpv " f, 'v^ "-.. "-II 
 
 Native Arsenic. 
 
 acted upon by the juices, and in part dissolved, at 
 the same time, exhibiting poisonous properties. 
 When heated ia the open air, it bums with a peculiar 
 bluish flame, and emits a characteristic alliaceous 
 odour. The only use to which the metal A. is 
 applied in the arts is in the manufacture of leaden 
 snot of the various sizes, when its presence in small 
 quantity in the lead renders the latter much more 
 brittle than it ordinarEy is. Of all the compounds 
 of A. the most important is the one already aUuded 
 to— namely, Arsenious Acid, which is an oxide of 
 A. With sulphur, A. forms two important com- 
 pounds: Realgar (AsS,), a red, transparent, and 
 brittle substance, which is employed in the manu- 
 facture of the signal-light called White Indian Fire; 
 and Orpiment (AsSj) or King's Yellow, a cheap 
 pigment of a yellow colour. With hydrogen, A. forms 
 arseniuretted hydrogen (AsHj), a very poisonous 
 gas, and one which has been fatal to several 
 chemists. 
 
 ARSE'NICAL MINERALS occur chiefly in 
 primitive rooks, and frequently associated with other 
 metalliferous minerals. — Naiive Arsenic, although 
 nowhere very abundant, is not unfrequently found 
 in mines in Europe, Asia, and America, generally 
 along with sulphur and metallic sulphurets. In 
 Britaia, it occurs at Tyndrum iu Perthshire. It has 
 usually a fine granular character. It is very seldom, 
 if ever, quite pure, usually containiug a little anti- 
 mony and iron, and not unfrequently a very little 
 silver or gold. — A very similar, and stni rarer mine- 
 ral, found in similar situations, is known as Arsenic- 
 antimony, and consists of about two parts of metal- 
 lic arsenic, and one of metallic antiinony. — Arsenic- 
 Mver, or Arsenical Silver, is another very rare mine- 
 ral, consisting chiefly of arsenic and iron, but con- 
 taining also about 13 per cent, of silver and a little 
 antimony. — Arsenic-glance, found at Marienberg in 
 Saxony, and containing about 3 per cent, of bismuth, 
 has the remarkable property of taking fire at the 
 438 
 
 flame of a candle. — Arsenious Add occurs native in 
 a few localities in Germany and Erance, and as a 
 mineral species, has received the name of ArsenUe, 
 which perhaps too closely resembles the chemical 
 designation of its salts. — Arsenic Add, another com- 
 pound of arsenic and oxygen (AsOg), containing more 
 oxygen than arsenious acid, although it does not 
 itself occur native, is not unfrequent in the form of 
 compounds with copper and lead {Arseniates of cop- 
 per and lead), which enter into the composition of a 
 number of minerals, none of them so abimdant as to 
 be of any importance. — Among A. M. are also to be 
 ranked the compounds of arsenic with sulphur, par- 
 ticularly Orpiment (q. v.), Eealgar (q. v.), and Dimorr- 
 pTiine, a Barer mineral than the other two, and there- 
 fore less important.^ — But the most important of all 
 A. M., because of their use as ores of arsenic, for the 
 preparation of white arsenic, or arsenious acid, are 
 those in wMch arsenic is combined with nickel and 
 cobalt. One of these is Arsenical Pyrites, or Leuco- 
 pyrite, found in various mines of the continent of 
 Europe, and containing arsenic, iron, sulphm', nickel, 
 and coljalt, in somewhat various proportions — ^the 
 arsenic, however, always the principal constituent. 
 It generally occurs massive. — Mispickd, which fre- 
 quently occurs in rhombic crystals, but often also 
 massive, diflfers from it in containing a considerable 
 quantity of silver, so that it is used both as an ore of 
 arsenic and of silver. It is found in many of the 
 tin-mines of Cornwall, and is pretty frequent in 
 different parts of the world. — Nickeline consists of 
 nickel and arsenic, and is used as an ore of nickel, 
 and also for the preparation of white arsenic. — Oobal- 
 tine and Smaltine — the former consisting of cobalt, 
 sulphur, and arsenic; the latter, of cobalt and 
 arsenic — are used for the preparation of blue colours 
 for porcelain and stoneware. Both are found in 
 Cornwall; they occur also in some of the mines of 
 the continent of Etu-ope, and in other parts of the 
 world. — The presence of arsenic in a mineral may 
 commonly be detected by the alliaceous odour 
 which it emits before the blow-pipe. 
 
 ARSB'NIOUS ACID is the arsenical compound 
 most familiarly known. It is obtained principally 
 during the roastiag of the arsenical nickel ores in 
 Germany in furnaces communicating with flues. 
 When the arsenic of the ore bums, it passes into the 
 condition of A. A. (AsOj), and rising as vapour into 
 the somewhat cool flue, is there deposited as a 
 
 frayish powder, known by the names of Smelting- 
 ouse Smoke, Flowers of Arsenic, Poison-flour, or 
 Ronigh A. A. In this condition, the A. A. is con- 
 taminated with some impurities, from which it may 
 be separated by introducing the gray powder into 
 an egg-shaped vessel, and applyingheat at the lower 
 end, when the A A. rises in vapour, and condenses 
 in the cool end as a transparent glassy or vitreous 
 substance. Ordinary A. A. of the shops (which is 
 what is popularly known as arsenic) is a white 
 crystalline powder, which feels decidedly gritty, 
 like fine sand, when placed between the teeli, 
 and has no well-marked taste. It is very heavy, 
 so much so as at once to be noticeable when a 
 paper or bottle containing it is lifted by the hand. 
 It is soluble in water to the extent of 1 part of 
 A. A. in about 100 parts of cold water, and 1 part 
 of A. A. in about 10 parts of boiling water. As 
 ordinarily sold in quantities under 10 lbs. in weight, 
 the A. A. is required by law to be coloured witti 
 ■gV of its weight of indigo, or -^ of its weight of 
 soot ; the object of the admixture being to render 
 any liquid to which the A. A. might be added, with 
 a murderous intent, of a black or bluish-black hue, 
 and thus indicate the presence of something unusual. 
 In packages of 10 lbs. and upwards, A. A. is allowed 
 to be sold in the pure white crystalline form without 
 
AESENIOTJS ACID. 
 
 coloration. Wlen placed in a spoon, or other 
 vessel, and heated, vae A. A. volatilises, and con- 
 denses in crystals on any cool vessel held above. 
 By this means, it can be distinguished from ordinary 
 flour, which, when heated, -would char, and leave a 
 coal behind; and from chalk, stucco, baking-soda, 
 tooth-powder, and other white substances, which, 
 when heated, remain in the vessel as a non-volatile 
 white residue. Again, when A. A. is placed on a 
 red-hot cinder, and the escaping vapours cautiously 
 brought under the nostrils, the strong alUaceous 
 odour characteristic of arsenic is given off. The 
 mode in which A. A. comports itself, when thrown 
 upon water, is likewise pecuUar. Instead of at once 
 descending through the water like sand, the A. A., 
 notwithstanding its great density (sp. gr. 3'70), par- 
 tially floats on the surface, as wheat-flour does ; and 
 that portion which sinks in the water, rolls itself 
 into little round pellets, which are wetted only on 
 the outside, and contain much dry A. A. within. 
 The solution of A. A. in water is recognised by three 
 tests: 
 
 . 1. Hydrosulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid 
 produce a yeUow precipitate of sulphuret of arsenic 
 (AsSj), soluble ia'ammonia. 
 
 2. Ainmonio-sulphate of copper, an apple-green 
 precipitate of arsenite of copper (2CnO,As03). 
 
 3. Ammonio-nitrate of silver, a yellow precipitate 
 of arsenite of silver (2AgO,As03). 
 
 In many oases, A. A. is used as a means of destroy- 
 ing -animal life, but, happily, the processes for the 
 detection of the poison in organic mixtures and in 
 the animal tissues are so unerring and trustworthy, 
 that it is hardly within the range of possibility 
 that an animal can be destroyed by the administra- 
 tion of A. A. without very decided evidence of the 
 existence of the poison being obtained on examina- 
 tion of the various parts of the animal structure ; 
 indeed, it may be safely said that there is no limit 
 to the detection of the poison, as even after the 
 animal structure has been so far decomposed tl\at 
 little remains, yet stOl the poison, from its inde- 
 structibility, survives, and will indicate itself clearly, 
 on the application of the several tests. 
 
 For the isolation and recognition of A. A. in 
 organic mixtures, such as the contents of a stomach, 
 three processes may be followed. The method 
 
 fenerally pursued, and that upon which greatest 
 ependence is placed, is called Eeinsch's process, 
 from the name of its discoverer. The manner of its 
 application is to treat the organic mixture with 
 water sufficient to render it tlun, then add hydro- 
 chloric acid to the extent of one-eighth of the 
 volume of the liquid; apply heat, and when the 
 whole has been raised to near the boiling-poiut, 
 introduce clean, newly burnished pieces of copper in 
 the form of wire, gauze, or foil. If A. A. be present 
 in the mixture, a steel gray coating of metaUio 
 arsenic will form on the surface of the copper. This 
 apparent tarnishing of the copper may take place 
 when no A A. is ia the mixture, and may be pro- 
 duced by salts of mercury, antimony, &c., as well as 
 by sulphur compounds, and even oocasionaUy by 
 fatty matters. To distinguish between the coating 
 formed by A. A. and that produced by other sub- 
 stances, tiie copper is taken out of the mixture, 
 washed with water, to remove acid ; immersed in 
 ether, to dissolve off any adherent fatty matter ; 
 dried between folds of blotting-paper ; introduced 
 into the lower end of a dry glass test-tube, and.there 
 cautiously heated. The metallic arsenic (As) is 
 driven off by the heat from the surface of the 
 copper, rises in vapour iuto the upper portions of 
 the test-tube ; there meets the oxygen of the air, 
 with which it combines, forming A. A. (AsO^), and 
 thereafter deposits itself on the ioner surface of 
 
 the cool part of the tube in little glistening crystals. 
 On aUowiug the tube to cool, addmg water thereto, 
 and applying heat, the water dissolves the crystals 
 of A. A., yielding a solution, to separate portions of 
 which the hquid tests mentioned above may be 
 successfully applied. This process may likewise 
 be employed in the detection of A. A in animal 
 tissue, as in the liver, spleen, kidneys, &o., by first 
 dividmg the animal matter iato small pieces, and 
 thereafter treating with water, hydrochloric acid, 
 and copper. The precautions which require to be 
 exercised in trying this process are, that the 
 hydrochloric acid and copper are themselves free 
 from A. A. Hydrochloric acid has long been known 
 to be liable to contain at timeS a very sensible 
 proportion of the poison, and it is therefore neces- 
 sary, before using the acid in any experiment, to 
 make a preliminary trial with dilute hydrochloric 
 acid, into which, when heated, a piece of copper is 
 immersed ; and if no tarnishing occurs after a quar- 
 ter of an hour's trial, the acid may be declared free 
 from contamination with arsenical compounds. The 
 liability of copper to contain arsenic has only very 
 recently (August 1859) assumed importance in con- 
 nection with a trial for murder by slow poisoning 
 with arsenic, which took place in Britain. In this 
 case, a considerable amount of copper was dissolved 
 during the testing, and supplied the poison in quan- 
 tity enough to produce a faint coating on a piece of 
 copper which was subsequently introduced into the 
 liquid. The result was that A. A. was at first 
 declared to be present in the material imder exami- 
 nation ; but further experiments demonstrated that 
 the copper itself had afforded the arsenic. To free 
 copper from any arsenic which it may contain 
 originally, it is only necessary to heat the copper 
 over a gas or spirit-lamp flame, when the arsenic 
 volatflises, and leaves the copper uncontaminated 
 therewith. 
 
 The other two processes for the detection of 
 A. A. in organic mixtures are — 1. That recom- 
 mended by Marsh, in which the material is treated 
 with dilute sulphuric acid and metallic zinc in 
 
 1. Marsh's process. 
 
 2. Berzelius's process. 
 
 a gas - generating apparatus, when the arsenic 
 combining with hydrogen, forms arseniuretted 
 hydrogen (AsH^), from which, in the act of 
 escaping, the metaUio arsenic, and subsequently 
 A. A, can be obtained; and 2. That known as 
 Berzelius's process, in which dry arsenical compoimds 
 are mixed with a reducing flux, and heated in a con- 
 stricted tube, when the metal arsenic is produced, 
 which in its turn is converted into A. A. by heating 
 in a wide test-tube. The processes of Marsh and 
 BerzeKus are not so senersdly followed, as that of 
 Eeinsoh; but in eaSi and all it is absolutely 
 
 439 
 
AESINOE— AESON. 
 
 necessary, in order to avoid the possibility of mistake, 
 (1) that metallic arsenic be obtained from the organic 
 mixture ; (2), that the metallic arsenic be converted 
 into A. A. ; and (3), that this A. A., treated with 
 water, should yield a soli\tion which wiU give the 
 three liquid tests mentioned previously. 
 
 A. A. forms compounds (salts) with aUialies and 
 other bases, which are called Arsenites. Some of these 
 are employed in commerce and medicine. A. A., 
 boiled with a solution of potash, or carbonate of 
 potash, forms an arsenite of potash, used iu medicine, 
 and known as Fowler's Solution. The more largely 
 used sheep-dipping mixtures are composed of A. 
 A., soda, sulphur, and soap, which, when used, 
 are dissolved in a large quantity of water, and thus 
 constitute essentially dilute solutions of arsenite of 
 soda. A compound of A. A. and the oxide of 
 copper, called the arsenite of copper, ot Schede's 
 Green, is a pigment largely used by painters as a 
 pretty and cheap green paint. The same substance 
 is extensively employed in the manufacture of com- 
 mon green paper-hangings for the walls of rooms ; 
 and recent inquiries would lead to the belief that 
 rooms covered with paper coated with this green 
 arsenite of copper, are detrimental to the health of 
 human beings residing therein, from the readiness 
 with which minute particles of the poisonous pig- 
 ment are detached from the walls by the slightest 
 friction, are diffiised through the room, and ultimately 
 pass into the animal system. Another green pigment 
 is named Schweinfurth Green, and contains A. A., 
 oxide of copper, and acetic acid, and is a double 
 arsenite and acetate of copper. 
 
 Aesenic (Aesenious Acid), Properties of , as a 
 Drug. — A. has long been used as a medicine. 
 When taken into the stomach, it is soon absorbed 
 into the blood, and circulates with that fluid, exhi- 
 biting great power over certain diseases, especially 
 skin diseases, as psoriasis, lepra, eczema (q. v.), &c. 
 It is also classed among the tonic minerals, and given 
 for nervous disorders, especially those that are 
 periodic. Of late it has been much recommended for 
 rheumatism ; and Dr Begbie, of Edinburgh, considers 
 that among the remedies for chorea (St Vitus' dance) 
 it holds the foremost place. In ague, also, and 
 remittent fever, as well as in other disorders origin- 
 ating from the same source, A. and quinine are our 
 chief remedies. They are considered to act as 
 alteratives of the blood. The usual method of 
 administering A. is in small doses (from three to 
 five drops) of the liquor arsenicalis, largely diluted 
 with water, twice or thrice in the day. Arsenic is 
 sometimes given combined with iodine and mercury 
 (Donovan's solution). 
 
 When given in the doses above mentioned, for 
 eight or ten days, symptoms of poisoning begin to 
 appear ; the skin becomes hot, the pulse quick, the 
 eyelids hot and itchy; the tongue has a silvery 
 appearance; the throat is dry and sore, the gums 
 swollen and tender; and if the treatment is j)ersisted 
 in, sahvatiou ensues, and then come nausea, vomit- 
 ing, diarrhoea, nervous depression, and faintness 
 (Begbie). The quantity necessary to destroy life, of 
 course, varies. Dr Christison records the case of a 
 man who died in six days, after taking thirty grains 
 of the powdered white A. ; but a much smaller dose 
 will prove fatal ; a girl was killed with two grains 
 and a half of A. contained in two ounces of fly- 
 water. According to Dr Swaine Taylor, a medical 
 witness is justified in stating, that under cii-cum- 
 stances favoiu'able for its operation the fatal dose for 
 an adult is from two to three grains. Death from a 
 poisonous dose of A. may occur in a few hours, or 
 after the lapse of days. A woman, aged 56, used a 
 solution of A. in water to cure the itch; she expe- 
 rienced severe suffering, and died after two years, 
 
 440 
 
 having had symptoms of arsenical poisoning all that 
 time. 
 
 A. has been used frequently as a slow poison, the 
 symptoms being attributed to inflammation of the 
 bowels from natural causes. Portunately, in most 
 oases its detection is easy. Orfila foimd A. in 
 the SOU of cemeteries, a fact which has created some 
 discussion among toxicologists. A. is used by anato- 
 mists as an antiseptic, but is dangerous, as it is apt 
 to get into cuts on the hands, and under the finger 
 nails, and cause disagreeable symptoms. It is stated 
 that in some countries, especially in Styria, A. is 
 taken by ,the young female peasants to increase 
 their personal attractions ; a statement which prob- 
 ably amounts to this, that experience of its tonic 
 and other qualities induces some individuals to 
 prescribe for themselves a medicine which ought 
 only to be administered by a skilful and cautious 
 hand. That A. can be taken habitually for. any 
 length of time, woidd seem a physiological impossi- 
 bility; and yet such statements are made on 
 what appears to be imquestionable authority. See 
 Chambers's Journal, Vol. V. p. 90, and VI., p. 46 ; 
 also Johnston's Chemistry of Common, Life. 
 
 No effective chemical antidote for A. has yet been 
 discovered. In case of an overdose, or of intentional 
 poisoning, the following treatment is recommended : 
 Evacuate the stomach by the stomach-pump, using 
 lime-water; administer large draughts of tepid sugar 
 and water, chalk and water, or hme- water ; avoid 
 the use of alkalies, but administer charcoal and 
 hydrated sesquioxide of iron ; bleed freely ; take a 
 tepid bath, and use narcotics. If the fatal symptoms 
 be averted, let the patient for a long time subsist 
 wholly on farinaceous food, nulk, and demulcents. 
 
 ARSI'NOE, the daughter of Ptolemy I., king of 
 Egypt, and of Berenice, was bom about 316 E. c, 
 and married in her sixteenth year to the aged Lysim- 
 achus, king of Thrace, whose eldest son, Agatho- 
 cles, had sdready wedded Lysandra, the half-sister 
 of A. Desirous of securing the throne for her 
 own children, A. prevailed on her husband to put 
 Agathocles to death ; the consequences of whioh 
 crime, however, were fatal to the Thracian monarch; 
 for Lysandra, having fled with her children to 
 Seleucus in Asia, managed to induce him to declare 
 war against her unnatural father-in-law. Lysimachus 
 was slain, and Seleucus seized the kingdom. A. now 
 sought refuge in Macedonia, which, however, was also 
 taken possession of by Seleucus ; but on the assassi- 
 nation of the latter, after a few months, by Ptolemy 
 Ceraunus, the half-brother of A., she received a 
 hypocritical offer of marriage from Ptolemy, who 
 wanted to destroy her two sons, lest they should 
 prove formidable rivals to his ambition. She con- 
 sented to the union, and opened the gates of the 
 town in which she had taken refuge, but her childreu 
 were butchered before her eyes. She then fled to 
 Egypt (279 B. c), where she married her own 
 brother, _ Ptolemy II. Pluladelphus. These unna- 
 tural unions subsequently became common among 
 the Greek kings of Egypt. It does not appear that 
 A. had any children by her brother, though she was 
 regarded by him with the deepest affection. He 
 named several cities, and also an entire district, by 
 her name. After her death, he ordered Dinochares, 
 the architect, to build a temple to her memory, and 
 roof the edifice with loadstones, so that her iron 
 statue might seem to float in the air. 
 
 A'ESIS AND THE'SIS (Gr. raising up, and laying 
 down), a term in music applied to the rising and 
 falling of the hand m beating time. It is also 
 applied to the elevation and depression of the voice 
 in speaking. 
 
 A'KSON, or, as it is called in Scotland, vnlfvlfire- 
 
ARSON— AUT. 
 
 ramng, is, in the laws of all civilised countries, a, 
 capital crime of the deepest atrocity ; for it involves 
 in its consequences not only destruction of property, 
 but also the destruction of, or at least an indifference 
 to, the life or lives of others, v^hich can only be 
 imputed to the most wicked and malignant spirit. 
 In the criminal law of England, it is a felony, and has 
 been described as the malicious and wilful burning 
 of the house or building of another man. It is 
 essential to the offence that the house or building 
 burned should be that of another ; for although it 
 is a misdemeanour to destroy one's own house by 
 fire, especially in a town, or where other buildings 
 are contigaoua, which are thereby put in danger, 
 such an offence does not amount to a felony, strictly 
 so called. To constitute such felony, there must be 
 an actuaX burning; for no intent, however clear, 
 would suffice at common law to support a charge of 
 A. This crime is the subject of two recent statutes 
 (the 1 Vict. c. 89, and the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 62), the 
 provisions of which considerably modify and enlarge 
 the doctrines of the common law on the subject. 
 The first of these acts (amending two others, the 
 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 30, and the 9 Geo. IV. c. 56) 
 enacts that whoever shall unlawfully and maliciously 
 set fire to any dwelling-house, any person being 
 therein, shall be guilty of felony, and shaU suffer 
 death. Also that whoever shsdl unlawfully and 
 maliciously set fire to any church or chapel ; or to 
 any chapel for the religious worship of persons 
 dissenting from the United Church of England and 
 Ireland; or to any house, stable, coach-house, out- 
 house, warehouse, office, shop, mill, malthouse, 
 hop-oast, barn, or granary ; or to any erection used in 
 carrying on any trade or manufacture, or any branch 
 thereof, whether in possession of the offender or any 
 other person — ^with intent, in any of these cases, to 
 injure or defraud any person, shall be guilty of 
 felony ; and he is liable to penal servitude for life, 
 or not less than fifteen years, or to imprisonment not 
 exceeding three years. Doubts having been con- 
 ceived upon this act, whether its provisions extended 
 to the setting fire to a hovel or shed not appendant 
 to any house, it was afterwards provided, by 7 and 8 
 Vict. c. 62, that whoever should unlawfully and 
 mahciously set fire to any hovel, shed, or fold; or to 
 any farm-building; or any building or erection used 
 in farming land — whether the same, or any of them 
 respectively, shaU then be in the possession of the 
 offender, or the possession of any other person — with 
 intent thereby to defraud any person, shall be guilty 
 of felony, and he is liable to a like punishment. 
 Moreover, that whoever shall unlawfully and mali- 
 ciously set fire to any hay, straw, wood, or other vege- 
 table produce, being in any farrnhouse or farm-bmld- 
 ing ; or to any implement of husbandry, being in any 
 farmhouse or farm-building ; with intent to set fire 
 to such farmhouse or faim-bmldiug, and to injure 
 or defraud any person — shall be liable to the same 
 punishment as for setting fire to the farmhouse or 
 farm-building itself; and every male so offending, 
 under eighteen, shall be also liable, at the discretion 
 of the court, in addition to any other sentence, to 
 be whipped. Again, unlawfully and mahciously, by 
 any overt act, to attempt to set fire to any building, 
 stack, or steer, or vegetable produce, of such kind 
 and with such intent that iE the offence were com- 
 plete, the offender would be guilty of felony, and 
 liable to penal servitude for life (though such build- 
 ing, stack, steer, or vegetable produce be not actually 
 set on fire)j is deemed felony; and is punishable with 
 penal servitude for fifteen years ; or imprisonment 
 for two years, with the same addition in respect to 
 whipping, if the offender be a male under eighteen. 
 And lastly, if any person shall maliciously set 
 fire to any station or other: building belonging to 
 
 any railway, dock, canal, or other navigation, he is 
 guilty of felony ; and he is liable to penal servitude 
 for life, or any term not less than three years ; or to 
 be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any 
 term not exceeding three years ; and if any person 
 maliciously set fire to any goods or eJudtels, being 
 in any building, the setting fire to which is made 
 felony by act of parliament, he is guilty of felony ; 
 and he is liable to penal servitude for any term not 
 exceeding ten years, nor less than three years, or to 
 be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, for any 
 term not exceeding three years. 
 
 Servants convicted of neghgently setting fire to 
 houses and buildings, shall, by 14 Geo. III. c. 78, s. 
 84, forfeit £100, to be distributed among the sufferers, 
 by the churchwardens, in such propprtions as to such 
 churchwardens shall seem just ; and in case of 
 default, shall be committed to jail or the house of 
 correction for eighteen months, to be kept to hard 
 labour. 
 
 It has been laid down in Scotland, that if the fire 
 has been wilfully kindled, it matters not how cir- 
 cuitous may have been the mode of operation 
 selected, although the injury intended to have been 
 done was not the actual burning of the house, but 
 some inferior mischief. And it is the law of both 
 countries, that if the proprietor of a house set fire to 
 it while in possession of a tenant holding under a 
 lease, the crime of A. is completed ; and in Scotland, 
 the same has been ruled where the house was occu- 
 pied by a party having a life-interest in it. 
 
 By -file 29 Geo. III. c. 46, an act which applies to 
 Scotland as well as England, it is enacted^ that if 
 any person shall maliciously and imlawfully set fire 
 to, or in any wise destroj^, any ship or vessel, 
 whether the same be complete or in an unfinished 
 state, or shaU maliciously and unlawfuUy set fire to, 
 cast away, or in anywise destroy any ship or vessel, 
 with intent thereby to prejudice any owner or part 
 owner of such ship or vessel, or of any goods on 
 board the same, or any person that hath under- 
 written, or shaU underwrite any policy of insurance 
 upon such ship or vessel, or on the freight thereof, 
 or upon any goods on board the same ; every such 
 offender shall suffer death as a felon.* 
 
 Both in England and Scotland, it is a considerable 
 aggravation of the offence where the burning is to 
 defraud insurers. 
 
 ART. The word A. is here meant as designating 
 what is more specificaUy termed Fine A., being 
 opposed to the useful arts, or the industrial operations 
 for supplying the common necessities of life. Paint- 
 ing and Poetry are fine arts ; Agriculture, Navigation, 
 and Medicine are useful arts. 
 
 The great end of A. is to give pleasure, but the 
 kind of pleasure is peculiar and circumscribed. 
 There are many of owe enjoyments that no artist 
 woiild ever think of attempting to provide. The 
 gratifications of eating and drinking, of exercise and 
 repose, warmth and coolness, form a class in contrast 
 with the pleasures of music, sculpture, or the drama. 
 It is a matter of some nicety to draw the line 
 between these two regions of our pleasurable suscep- 
 tibility ; indeed, it is not clear that a precise line 
 can be drawn. Certain peculiarities can be assigned 
 as disqualifying circtimstances, such that any mode 
 of pleasure labouring under them is debaixed from 
 entering into A. ; but after we have aUowed for 
 these, there will remain a disputed border-land, on 
 which no general criterion wiU hold. 
 
 The various indulgences caUed sensual are the 
 
 * It 13 curious, as pointed out by Sir Archibald Alison in 
 his work on the Crimina.1 Law of Scotland (vol. i. p. 441), that 
 the subsequent act, 7 and 8 Vict. c. 30, which re-enacts the pro- 
 visions of the above statute, is only applicable to England, 
 
 HI 
 
AUT. 
 
 best examples of contrast to the pleasures of A. In 
 th.e first place, as our frame is constituted, these 
 bodily functions, while incidentally ministering to 
 our pleasure, are in the main subservient to main- 
 taining our existence, and being in the first instance 
 guided for that special end, they do not neSessaiily 
 rank among our gratifications as such; in the 
 second place, they are connected with the production 
 of what is repulsive and loathsome, which mars their 
 purity as sources of pleasure ; and in the third 
 place, they are essentially confined in their influence 
 to the single individual ; for the sociability of the 
 table is an element superadded. Now, a mode of 
 pleasure subject to one or more of these three condi- 
 tions may belong in an eminent degree to the list of 
 utilitieg, and constitute an end of industry, but does 
 not come under the class we are now considering. 
 Wealth is disqualified by the third condition, 
 inasmuch as, while in the shape of money, it is con- 
 fined to some single proprietor. The same may be 
 said of the pleasures of Power and Dignity. Even 
 Affection is too exclusive to come under the artistic 
 head. Anything so restricted in its sphere of 
 action as to constitute individual property, and 
 give occasion to envy and jealousy, is not a pleasure 
 aimed at by the producer of Kne A. ; for there do 
 exist objects that can give us delight as their primary 
 end, that have no disagreeable or revolting accom- 
 paniments, and whose enjoyment is not restricted to 
 a single mind ; all which considerations obviously 
 elevate the rank of such objects in the scale of oiu: 
 enjoyments. The landscape, the glowing sunset, the 
 song of the lark, the flowers of the field and the 
 garden, yield unalloyed pleasure, and create no mono- 
 poly. The painter, sculptor, and musician aim at 
 corresponding effects. 
 
 The eye and the ear are the chief avenues of 
 artistic delight ; the other senses are more or less in 
 the monopolist interest. Moreover, one important 
 feature in the somewhat capricious attribute termed 
 refinement, attaches more particularly to the objects 
 of these two senses'; namely, the power of protracted 
 enjoyment without fatigue. A coarse effect is one 
 that is intense and pungent, but too exhausting to be 
 kept up ; such is a noisy clash of loud instruments 
 in a musical performance, or a tale of overdone mar- 
 vels. To remove all the fatiguing accompaniments, 
 and thereby tone down the exciting influence, while 
 retaining as much as possible the really pleasurable 
 part, is to refine upon the effect, and produce a 
 higher work of art. Now, in the sensations of taste 
 and smeU generally, the stimulus is apt to be of 
 short duration ; the pleasure is said to pall soon. 
 Yet there are degrees in the case ; some of the 
 choicer odours can affect us for hours together with a 
 gentle and pleasing sensation. But it is the ear, and 
 perhaps still more the eye, that can remain open to 
 agreeable stimulation for the greatest length of 
 time ; and taking this fact along with the uncon- 
 suming nature of their objects, we see good reasons 
 for the artist striving so earnestly towards the grati- 
 fication of those two senses. 
 
 The sensual elements can be brought into A. by 
 being contemplated in the idea, in place of being 
 enjoyed in the reaUty. A painter or poet may 
 depict a feast to our minds, and impart a pleasure 
 that differs essentially from the delights of eating 
 and drinking. The imagined repast has nothing to 
 do with our bodily necessities ; the disagreeable 
 acc6mpaniments can be kept out of view ; and any 
 number of persons may share in the effect. So with 
 the elements of wealth, power, dignity, and affection, 
 which in their actuality want the liberal character 
 of the true artistic delight ; if we can only derive 
 pleasiKe from the spectacle of them in the hands of 
 the select number of their possessors, they become 
 
 442 
 
 to us an enjoyment that can be shared by the general 
 multitude, like the blue sky, or the towering peak. 
 It is tiie fact that mankind find a charm in contem- 
 plating the wealthy, the powerful, the elevated, the 
 illustrious, the beloved; and accordingly such ele- 
 ments are freely adopted into artistic compositions. 
 
 If aU the sensual gratifications could become artis- 
 tic by being contemplated in idea, or merely thought 
 of, as in the above case of imaging a rich feast, we 
 should have the means of distinctly circumscribing 
 the select region of the beautiful or artistic, and of 
 resolving a difficult problem. It would be admissible 
 for the poet or painter to suggest any of those 
 inferior pleasures to the mind by descriptive touches, 
 and he woiild thereby elevate them into the region 
 of art. But we find that every mode of sensual grati- 
 fication is not open to this ideal presentation. Even 
 as regards eating and drinking, exception is taken 
 against the too free allusion to those pleasures; 
 while the sensuality of love is hardly to be sug- 
 gested through the most distant allusion. We may 
 revel in tales of mere tender emotion — of parental 
 love and of pure affection — ^but those other subjects 
 are kept at the utmost distance ; and we should be 
 said to be revelling in sensuality, if we were merely 
 to indulge in the imagination of those species of 
 deHght. There is no help, therefore, but to consider 
 tluit there are conventional and arbitrary limitations 
 of the sphere of the artist, rendering it quite impos- 
 sible to draw any clear and universal boundary-Une 
 between the beautiful and the agreeable generally. 
 
 Sublimity, Beauty, Grace, Harmony, Melody, 
 Pathos, Ideality, Picturesqueness, Proportion, Order, 
 Ktness, Keeping, and the Ludicrous — ^though they 
 do not aU relate to the so-called beautiful, are aU 
 involved in the circle of pleasures now before us ; 
 and it is quite obvious that no one fact can run 
 through this variety of designations. There must be 
 a great multitude of agents operating to produce 
 these different impressions, which are related to one 
 another only by attaohingin common to the sesthetio 
 class of compositions. Doubtless, several of these 
 names may be employed to mean the same thing, 
 being, in fact, partially synonymous terms ; as Beauty 
 and Grace — Proportion, Fitness, and Keeping; but 
 hardly any two terms are synonymous throughout, 
 and there are distinct conceptions implied in Subli- 
 mity, Beauty, Picturesqueness, Ktness, and the 
 Ludicrous. 
 
 Among the elementary sensations and emotions of 
 the human mind that are of a pleasurable kind, a 
 certain number may enter at once into the composi- 
 tion of , A. ; such are the pleasures of sound and 
 sight, the emotion of surprise, and plot-interest. 
 Others may enter by ideal presentation; as the 
 gratifications of the remaining senses, and the 
 emotions of fear, tenderness, irascibility, power. 
 The feelings more specific to A. are those produced 
 by Harmony under its various aspects. When sweet 
 soimds are harmoniously combined, we have the 
 musical art ; the painter has a similar aim in refer- 
 ence to colours and forms ; and so through all the 
 Pine Arts, this quality is found recurring as the 
 crowning work of the artistic hand. Nothing is so 
 indisputably included within the circle of the sesthet- 
 ical or beautiful as finely struck harmonies, melo- 
 dies, or concords. Whatever else may be included 
 in a, composition, it is the admission of these that 
 gives the specific 'charm, although it would be a 
 mistake to dispense with other elements of interest 
 common to art and to every-day life. Story is 
 essential to Romance and Poetry ; sweetness in the 
 separate sounds is requisite for good Music; and 
 colour in itself imparts sesthetio pleasure apart from 
 harmonious union. 
 
 The agreeable effect designated by Fitness takes 
 
ART. 
 
 rank with the artistic pleasures ; we may call it the 
 sesthetio of the useful. When a work is not only- 
 done effectually, but done with the appearance of 
 ease, or the total absence of restraint, difficulty, and 
 pain, we experience a delight quite different from 
 the satisfaction growing out of the end q,ttaiiied. 
 Much of the pleasure of architectural support is 
 referrible to this source. 
 
 Among the susceptibilities touched by artistic 
 arrangements may be noticed the sense of Unity in 
 multitude, arising when a great number of things 
 are brought under a comprehensive design, as when 
 a row of pillars is crowned by a pediment. The use 
 of simple figures — the triangle, circle, square, &o. — 
 for enclosing and arranging a host of individuals, has 
 the tendency to make an easily apprehended whole 
 out of a numerous host of particulars. In all large 
 works abounding in detail, we crave for some such 
 comprehensive plan, whereby we may retain the total, 
 while surveying the parts. A building, an oratorio, 
 a poem, a history, a dissertation, a speech, should 
 have a discernible principle of order throughout; 
 the discernment of which gives an artistic pleasure, 
 even in works of pure utility. 
 
 The craving for Variety and Novelty is a powerful 
 impulse of the human mind, and makes itself eapeoi- 
 aUy apparent in the appreciation of works of A. 
 The greatest works cease to please after a time, and 
 temporary fashion may occasionally lord it over the 
 perennial in taste. 
 
 In looking at the Pine Arts individually, we may 
 divide them into two classes, by drawing a distinc- 
 tion of some importance as regards the question of 
 an artistic standard. The one class contains the 
 ive arts, or those which consist of mere out- 
 
 bursts of the inward spontaneity, regulated by the 
 effect of the display on the sense of vas beholder or 
 listener. Music is a good example. The spontan- 
 eous effusions of the human voice, and those 
 prompted by the various emotions, are corrected 
 and tuned by the ear into melody and harmony, and 
 after this process has been often repeated, pleasing 
 airs and compositions are the result. It is the same 
 with the Dance, considered as a fine art. In like 
 manner, dramatic gesture and display, and the graces 
 of elocution and fine address, are the natural 
 promptings rendered pleasing by being changed and 
 modified for that express end. The first movements 
 are mere random, but the delicate sensibihty of the 
 beholder causes some to be suppressed, and others 
 brought out, untU a really pleasing combination is 
 attained. Contrasted with the purely effusive, are 
 the so-called imitative arts, or those that involve 
 the representation of some of the appearances of the 
 outer world. Such are Painting, Sculpture, and 
 Poetry. In these, the artist, while stiU aiming at 
 pleasing effects, is trammelled with a new condition — 
 namely, a certain amount of fidelity to his original. 
 In the others, there are no originals. The musician 
 imitates nothing, and is bound by the sole condition 
 of gratifying wie ear; but a painter chooses his 
 subject from nature, and although he must contrive 
 to yield the pleasures of colour, outline, .and group- 
 ing, he must do so with a certain respect to the 
 object copied. The poet, in depicting the life of 
 men, comes under the rule of fidelity to this extent, 
 that an obvious misrepresentation is apt to give a 
 painful shock, and mar the pleasure that would 
 otherwise be derived from the poetry itself. It is 
 not so much that truth is a part of the artistic 
 pleasure, as that falsehood is a stumbling-block in 
 the way ; for even the imitative arts are only so in 
 part. There is no imitation in the mefre and 
 cadence of a sor^, and yet these often constitute the 
 main charm. So a certain licence of fantastic 
 effusion is allowed to poets, subject to no rules but 
 
 the giving of pleasure. The creation of imaginary 
 worlds, when avowed, is not objected to ; and the 
 criterion of fidelity to the actual is accordingly laid 
 aside for the time. The various arts of Decoration 
 and Design are for the most part effusive, although 
 occasionally imitative. Architecture is not in any 
 way imitative ; the coincidence between the Gothic 
 roof and the interminghng foliage of a double row of 
 trees, is a mere accident. 
 
 These observations are necessary in order to 
 qualify the current maxim, that Nature is the 
 artist's standard, and Truth his chief end; condi- 
 tions that, in their strictness, apply only to science. 
 It is the scientific man that should never deviate 
 from nature, and should care for truth above every 
 other consideration. The artist's standard is feding, 
 his end is refined pleasure; he may go to nature, 
 but it is to select what chimes in with his feehngs 
 of artistic effect, and pass by the rest. He is not 
 bound to adhere to nature even in her choicest 
 displays ; his own taste being the touchstone, he 
 alters the originals at his wiU. The student of 
 science, on the other hand, must embrace every fact 
 with open arms. If a nauseous fungus or loath- 
 some rat meet the eye of a naturalist, he is bound 
 to record it as faithfully and minutely as he would 
 dilate on the violet or the nightingale. When a 
 painter adopts the human figure as a basis for 
 setting forth harmonies of colour, beauties, and f onn, 
 and picturesqueness of grouping, he ought not to jar 
 our sense of consistency by a wide departure from 
 the usual proportions of humanity. Still, we do not 
 look for anatomical exactness; we know that the 
 studies of an artist do not imply the knowledge of 
 a professor of anatomy ; but we expect the main 
 features of the reality to be adhered to._ In like 
 manner, a poet is not great because he" exhibits 
 human nature with literal fidelity; to do that 
 makes the reputation of a historian or mental 
 philosopher. The poet works by his metres, his 
 cadences, his touching similes, his graceful narra- 
 tive, and his exaltation of reality into the region 
 of ideality; and if in all this he avoids serious 
 mistakes and gross exaggerations, he succeeds in his 
 real vocation. 
 
 The attempt to reconcile the artistic with the true 
 — art with nature— has given birth to a peculiar 
 school, in whose productions a restraint is put upon 
 the flights of pure imagination, and whichclaims the 
 merit of informing the mind as to the realities of the 
 world, wMle gratifying the various emotions of 
 taste. Instead of the tales of Fairyland, -the Arabian 
 Nights, and the Romances of Chivalry, we have the 
 modern noveHst, with his pictures of living men and 
 manners. In painting, we have naturd scenery, 
 buildings, men, and animals represented with scrup- 
 ulous exactness. The sculptor and the painter 
 exercise the vocation of producing portraits that 
 shall hand down to future ages the precise linea- 
 ments of the men and women of their generation ; 
 hence, the study of nature has become an element in 
 artistic education ; and the artist often speaks as if 
 the exhibition of truth were his leading purpose. 
 It is probably this endeavour to subject the imagina- 
 tion more ' strictly to the conditions of truth ajid 
 reality, that has caused the singular inversion 
 whereby the definition of science is made the 
 definition of art. 
 
 But while fidehty, in the imitative class of arts, 
 is to be looked upon, in the first instance, as avoiding 
 a stumbling-block rather than constituting a charm, 
 there are still certain ways wherein we derive from 
 it a sort of pleasure that may be called aasthetic. 
 We feel drawn by fellow-feeling towards one who 
 has attended to the same objects as ourselves, or 
 who has seized and put into vivid prominence what 
 
 413 
 
AUT. 
 
 ■we have felt, withiout ever liaving expressed. The 
 coincidence of mind with mind is always productive 
 of the agreeable effect of mutual sympathy, and, in 
 some circumstances, there is an additional effect of 
 pleasing surprise. Thus, when an artist not merely 
 produces in his picture those features of the original 
 that strike every one, but includes all the minuter 
 objects that escape the notice of the generality, we 
 sympathise with his attention, we admire his powers 
 of observation, and become, as it were, his pupils, in 
 extending our study and knowledge of nature and 
 life. We feel a pungent surprise at discovering, for the 
 first time, what has been long before our eyes ; and 
 so the minute school of artists labour at this species 
 of effects. Moreover, we are brought forward as 
 judges of the execution of a distinct purpose ; we 
 have to see whether he that is bent on imitation does 
 his work well or Ul ; and if our verdict is favourable, 
 our admiration is excited accordingly. There is, too, 
 a certain exciting effect in the reproduction of some 
 appearance in a foreign material, as when a plain 
 surface is made to yield the impression of solid 
 effect, and canvas or stone imitates living humanity. 
 Finally, the sentiment of reality and truth, as 
 opposed to fiction or falsehood, appealing to our 
 practical urgencies, disposes us to assign a value to 
 every work m which truth is strongly aimed at, and 
 to derive an additional satisfaction when fidelity of 
 rendering is induced upon the charms peculiar to A. 
 Thus imitation — which, properly speaking, is a mere 
 accident attaching to Sculpture, Paintiag, and Poetry, 
 and has no place in Music or Architecture — ^may 
 become the centre of a small group of agreeable or 
 acceptable effects. These effects are the more prized, 
 that we have been surfeited with the purely sesthetio 
 ideals. We turn refreshed from the middle-age 
 romance to the graphic novel of our own time. 
 
 Besides being a source of pleasure, art is frequently 
 spoken of as having an elevating and refining influ- 
 ence on the mind and character ; for which reason 
 it is considered a proper object of public encourage- 
 ment in civilised communities. This circumstance 
 is owing to the higher nature of artistic pleasure as 
 above described, the taste for which helps to rescue 
 mankind from the exclusive dominion of sensual and 
 selfish enjoyments. At the same time, we must 
 admit that the devotion to art may be itself exces- 
 sive, and have the effect of withdrawing men too 
 much from the urgency of practical life, rendering 
 them a, prey to political despotism, as well as 
 indifferent to moral principle. Instances are not 
 w.anting to justify this remark. 
 
 See Dugald Stewart's Philosophical Essays, Part 
 II., and Bain on the Emotions and the Will, p. 247. 
 
 ART, History of. The history of the origin 
 and development, growth and decline of beautfful 
 artistic forms, constitutes a portion of the history 
 of civilisation. As regards each particular people, 
 the history of their efforts to conceive and express 
 absolute perfection, or what is commonly called ideal 
 beauty, in form and colour, is, with the single excep- 
 tion of the history of their speculative opinions, the 
 most reliable test of the stage of progress which they 
 have attained. Nor is it as an indieation of their 
 command over physical nature, of the abundance of 
 their external resources, or even of their intellectual 
 activity alone, that the history of the art of a people 
 is thus important. It determines their moral, and 
 even, in a certain sense, their religious position, for 
 the inseparable connection between the beautiful 
 and the good is in no way more clearly manifested 
 than in the fact, that the lirst inroads of demoralisa- 
 tion and social disorder are invariably indicated by 
 a diminution in the strength and purity of artistic 
 forms. It has been usual to include under the term 
 history of art merely the history of the arts of form, 
 414 
 
 including architecture, but excluding, of course, 
 poetry and music, though these latter, again, are 
 generally included when we speak of the fine arts. 
 See Art. 
 
 The classical nations of antiquity were not insen- 
 sible to the importance of tracing the development 
 of that rich artistical life which they had originated, 
 and we accordingly find the germs of artistic history 
 in Pliny, QuintiHan, Pausanias, and others. In_the 
 middle ages, every trace of a general historical treat- 
 ment of art disappears, though casual remarks and 
 incidental notices on the subject of artists and the 
 arts are abundant, particularly in such works as the 
 Liber Poniificaiis of Abbot Anastasius (q.'.v.), who is 
 commonly known as ' the Librarian,' in consequence 
 of his having filled that office at the Vatican in the 
 9th 0. But a history of art, in the sense which we 
 have here assigned to the term, made its appearance 
 in the world for the first time on the revival of 
 letters, in the 15th and 16th centuries ; when the artis- 
 tic treasures of the heathen world, which had come 
 upon mankind as novelties, fell to be contrasted 
 with that peculiar type which art had assumed under 
 Christian influences during the middle ages, on the 
 one hand (see Byzantike Akt), and on the other 
 with that rich harvest of fresh invention which 
 ripened during the long lives of Leonardo da Vinci 
 (q. V.) and Michael Angelo (q. v.), in the period of 
 which Raphael's (q. v.) short career may be regarded 
 as the noon-day. Whilst Vasari (q. v.) traced the 
 great epochs of Italian art, from a biographical point 
 of view only it is true, in his celebrated work ; the 
 students of classical literature collected such expres- 
 sions of opinion on artistic subjects as the writings 
 of the ancients contained, and Palladio, Ligorio, 
 Vignola, and others meas\u:ed ancient buildings and 
 their constituent members. In this way a vast mass 
 of information on artistic subjects was brought 
 together. But though the materials which might 
 have served for a history of art were thus supplied, 
 it was a long time afterwards before anything like 
 proper historical treatment arose ; and the know- 
 ledge of ancient art which had been gained, was 
 apphed to their respective purposes by artists on the 
 one hand and philologists on the other. As regarded 
 modern art, the biographical method of Vassari was 
 adhered to, and to this circumstance we are indebted 
 for the innumerable artistic anecdotes which have 
 been preserved. The remarkable variations in style 
 which exhibited themselves between the 16th and 
 18th centuries, gave rise to a species of historical treat- 
 ment which hadfor its object the discovery of thecom- 
 mon features by which the artists of the respective 
 periods were distinguished. But the history of style, 
 strictly speaking, begins with Winckehnanu , (q. v.), 
 who was the first to divide ancient art into epochs, 
 and to trace its connection with the general lustory 
 of human progress. It was from this period that the 
 history of art came to be regarded as a branch of the 
 history of civilisation. Even where the biographical 
 method continued to be followed, it was henceforth 
 with this difference that the division into schools 
 took the place of mere chronological arrangement. 
 The strongly classical tendency which exhibited 
 itself towards the end of last century, and the 
 romantic reaction and consequent admiration for 
 the middle age which succeeded, though both must 
 be regarded as one-sided influences, had an imques- 
 tionable effect in calling attention to what was 
 really great in the artistic productions^ of these 
 respective periods ; and during the present century, 
 the history of art has gradually assumed a more im- 
 portant place as a department of general history. It 
 was only in very recent times, however, that a com- 
 plete artistic history appeared in Kugler's Handbook 
 of tJie History qf Art, which has been partially 
 
AUT EXHIBITIONS— ART UNIONS. 
 
 translated into English, and edited by Sir Charlea Eaat- 
 lalie. In the original work, which is very excellent, the 
 immense mass of material which the subject offered 
 has been arranged in periods, and treated in such a 
 manner as to present a sketch which is complete in 
 itself, whilst at the same time its connection with 
 and dependence on general history, social, political, 
 and philosophical, are carefully indicated throughout. 
 Alongside of Kuder'a history, that of Schnaaae falls 
 to be mentioned— a work less directed towards 
 completeness of narration than to a philosophical 
 and historical accoimt of the origin of the various 
 styles, and their connection with each other. Kiii- 
 kel's history of Christian art has unhappily remained 
 incomplete. Waagen's works on art and artists in 
 England, France, and the other countries by which 
 Germany is surrounded, are the best artistic hand- 
 books for the traveller. Those which have reference 
 to England have been translated. There are many 
 other historical works of importance on special 
 departments and separate schools of art, monographs 
 and the hke, but, with the exception of Stirling's 
 Annals of the Artists of Spain, and Velasquez and 
 his Works, very few belong to our own literature. 
 
 ART EXHIBI'TIONS. Public displays of the 
 works of Uving artists, with the view of affording 
 gratification and instruction to the community on 
 the one hand, and on the other, of procuring piur- 
 chasers for the works exhibited, have taken place 
 in most of the principal towns of Europe, for more 
 than a century and a halt. Though now for the 
 most part connected with Art Unions (q.v.), A. E. 
 are thus in reality much older institutions. Still, as 
 the offspring of a necessity which did not exist in 
 earlier times, they are essentially modem. So long 
 as artists were chiefly patronised either by the 
 church, by their respective governments, or by indi- 
 viduals of sovereign rank, meir works were placed 
 either ii^ churches, in public buildings, or in palaces, 
 and were thus continually exhibited' to the public; 
 but when private patronage came to be their chief 
 support, and their works, if sold at all, were certain 
 to be buried in private houses, the necessity for 
 making arrangements by which they could be dis- 
 played to the public either before they were disposed 
 of, or afterwards with the consent of their owners, 
 became apparent. We have mentioned under Art 
 Unions that, till aided by these latter institutions, 
 A. E. for the most part did not succeed in effecting 
 the objects which their promoters had in view. The 
 earliest collective art exhibition was probably that 
 of the members of the Academy of the Fine Arts 
 at Rome; anything of the kind which had pre- 
 viously existed being confined to the works of 
 a particular artist and his pupils, enriched per- 
 haps by a few contributions from his friends. 
 Something of this earHer character probably 
 attached to these Roman exhibitions ; and the first 
 art exhibition, in the sense in which we now under- 
 stand it, seems to have been that of the French 
 Academy in 1673. From 1745, down to the period 
 of the Revolution, this exhibition, which from its 
 commencement had been confined to the works of 
 members of the Academy, took place biemviaUy. 
 During the Revolution it was thrown open to foreign 
 artists, and in 1796 it was again made annual. An 
 exhibition was attempted ia England in 1760, but 
 it was not till 1769 that the regular exhibitions 
 of the Royal Academy commenced. They have 
 since gone on, not only without interruption, but 
 with increasing energy. The number of works 
 exhibited in 1760 was only 130, the number of 
 exhibiters being 69; in that of 1859 there were 
 works exhibited by 918 artists. The annual revenue 
 which the Academy derives from the fee of one 
 shilling paid by each visitor has also been steadily 
 
 increasing; in 1855 it amounted to about £8000. 
 The exhibition of the Scottish Academy, which ia 
 the second in importance in this country, has 
 existed since 1826. To the first exhibition, 178 
 works were sent by 27 contributors ; the exhibition of 
 1859 consisted of 745 works, which were contributed 
 by 291 artists. The annual revenue of the Scottish Aca- 
 demy derived from this source exceeds £2000. ' Tiie 
 only other exhibition of the same class in the United 
 Kingdom is that of Dublin, which is supported by 
 an annual grant from government— the exhibitions 
 of London and Edinburgh being merely furnished 
 with rooms erected at government expense. Several 
 private societies in London, however, have exhibitions 
 for similar objects, and conducted on similar princi- 
 ples. Of these we may mention the British Institution, 
 the Society of British Artists, the National Institu- 
 tion, the Society of Painters in Water-colours, and its 
 rival, the New Society of Painters in Water-colours. 
 There are also exhibitions in several of the large pro- 
 vincial towns, such as Manchester, Liverpool, Glas- 
 gow, &c. On the continent, wherever an academy 
 of art exists, there is now an exhibition, which takes 
 place for the most part annually, but sometimes 
 biennially. In New York there is a permanent 
 exhibition of the works of DUsseldorf artists; and 
 from thence they are frequently carried for exhibi- 
 tion to the provincial towns of the Union. 
 
 The London Exhibition of 1851, commonly known 
 as the Great Exhibition, was not only on a larger 
 scale, but introduced new features into these displays. 
 Though confined to industrial objects and works of 
 plastic art, it gave an impulse to A. E. strictly so 
 called, which shewed itself almost simultaneously 
 in the great international artistic exhibition of 
 Brussels; and even those exhibitions wliich have 
 been formed more closely on its model — those of 
 Dublin in 1853, and of New York in the same year 
 — have not excluded the fine arts in any of their 
 forms. See Exhibitions. 
 
 ART UNIONS. These institutions, which have 
 for their object the promotion of a livelier interest 
 in, and more liberal patronage of, the fine arts on 
 the part of the general public, have gone far in 
 modern times to supply the place of that encourage- 
 ment which, at an earlier period, they received from 
 prmces and prelates. 
 
 The origin of A. U., though claimed by the 
 Germans, seems really to belong to the R-ench, 
 and to be traceable to the stirring days of the 
 first Napoleon. Prom France they passed over 
 into Belgium, where they at once took root, and 
 established themselves even in the less important 
 towns, ten years before they were introduced into 
 Germany. The Art Union of MaKnes dates from 
 1812, which is eleven years anterior to that of 
 Munich. But it was in Germany that the importance 
 of the results which A. U. were capable of produ- 
 cing first became apparent, and it was from Germany 
 that they were carried into England. The Art Union 
 (Kunslverein) of Munich was established in 1823, and 
 became the model of most of those which afterwards 
 arose. The example of Munich was speedily followed 
 (at the suggestion, we believe, of no less distinguished 
 a personage than Alexander von Humboldt) by 
 Berlin, and shortly thereafter by Dresden, Leipsic, 
 Breslau, Halberstadt, &c.; and in less than ten years 
 there were few of the larger towns of Germany hi 
 which A. U. were not to oe found. But the most 
 important of all the A. U. of Germany is that which 
 was estabHshed at DUsseldorf in 1829, for the Rhine 
 provinces and Westphalia. The DUsseldorf Asso- 
 ciation has aimed at higher objects than A. U. have 
 usually had in view, either in Germany or in England, 
 and has been instrumental in promoting the execu- 
 tion of monumental works of art of the highest 
 
 415 
 
AET UNIONS. 
 
 class. In the space of twenty years from its insti- 
 tution (1849), it had expended on works of art what 
 in Germany was regarded as the enormous sum of 
 268,000 thalers, ecLuivalent to about £40,200 sterling; 
 and had been ike means of placing 24 altar-pieces in 
 churches, eleven paintings on a large scale in public 
 buildings, of which the frescoes in the council 
 chambers at Elberfeld and at Aix-la-OhapeUe may 
 be mentioned as examples. The Association of 
 Dusseldorf aJso publishes an artistic periodical 
 {CorreepondenzblaM). Other associations have imi- 
 tated, not without success, the Association of Dus- 
 seldorf in directing their attention to the promotion 
 of great works. The Bohemian Association at 
 Prague has been peculiarly meritorious in this 
 respect ; and those of Berlin and of Cologne deserve 
 the highest commendation for the zeal with "which 
 the first promoted the erection of Kiss's magnifi- 
 cent group of the Amazon on the steps of the 
 Museum at Berlin, and the second urged on the 
 completion of what already, in its half-finished 
 condition, is the greatest architectural monument of 
 Northern Europe — the cathedral of Cologne. The 
 establishment of permanent galleries of art in the 
 cities to which they respectively belong, is also 
 regarded in Germany as one of the higher objects of 
 A. U. ; and in this they lave been recently followed 
 in this country, as, for example, in Edinburgh. In 
 Munich there is already a very noble collection of 
 modern works of art, which have been brought 
 together in this manner ; and another of the same 
 description is in course of formation in Berlin. 
 Association galleries also exist in Dresden, Leipsic, 
 Breslau, Stettin, &c. Groups of associations have 
 also been formed in Germany for the promotion and 
 encouragement of extensive works. The western 
 group, or cycle, as it is called, includes Hanover, 
 Halberstadt, Magdeburg, Halle, Gotha, Brunswick, 
 and Cassel ; the eastern, Danzig, Konigsburg, Stettin, 
 &c. This arrangement, by ■vroich the influence of 
 these associations on the highest class of art must 
 be vastly augmented, seems worthy of imitation in 
 this country. 
 
 Scotlandy as is not unusual where the suggestion 
 conies from a continental source, preceded England 
 in the establishment of A. TJ. ; the first that was 
 formed in Britain being that of Edinburgh in 1834. 
 The cause of its introduction was not so much the 
 hope of bettering the condition, as the necessity of 
 preventing the utter extinction of everything beyond 
 mere imitative art. Portrait-painting continued to 
 furnish the means of living to those who practised 
 it with success ; and those who represented familiar 
 occupations or popular customs, obtained a more 
 limited encouragement ; but it was' found that pre- 
 cisely as the artist rose in the scale of artistic endea- 
 vour, and tended in the direction of ideal art, the 
 sympathy and interest of his countrymen, and con- 
 sequently his own remuneratiCn, declined. The 
 Eoyal Academy of London, and the academies which 
 had been formed after the same model m Edinburgh 
 and in Dublin, notwithstanding the annual exhibi- 
 tions which they had instituted, had entirely failed 
 to remove this evU. Private purchasers were not 
 to be found; and in Edinburgh it was calculated 
 that never more than £300, and sometimes as little 
 as £35, were expended in the purchase of pictures 
 exhibited by the Academy, and even these insignifi- 
 cant sums were usually paid for pictures of the very 
 lowest class. Elsewhere, matters were even worse. 
 Mr Cash, a witness examined before the select com- 
 mittee of the House of Commons on A. U. in 1845, 
 stated that previous to the establishment of the art 
 union in Dublin, 'in four years, during the exhibition 
 of the works of the Boyal Hibernian Academy, 30s. 
 only were expended on the patronage of art.' 
 us 
 
 'Thirty shillings annually?' asked the chairmaui 
 ' No,' replied the witness ; ' thirty shillings was the 
 entire sum expended in the four years.' The success 
 of the Scottish Association was immediate ; and to 
 its founders the pubUo are in no small degree 
 indebted for the rapid progress which art has made 
 in this country during the last twenty years. 'A 
 large annual fund,' says the secretary, in his state- 
 ment to the above-mentioned committee, ' exclusively 
 devoted to the purchase of paintings and sculpture, 
 and to the dissemination of engravings, was speedily 
 realised, which in the course of nine years amounted 
 to not less than £36,900. During the same period, 
 771 paintings, 40 pieces of sculpture, and about 30,000 
 impressions from engraved plates, were distributed 
 among the members of the Association.' Since this 
 period, the annual funds of the Edinburgh Association 
 have continued steadily to increase ; and its promoters, 
 as the results of their disinterested labours, have had 
 the satisfaction to see a school of art spring up around 
 them which is probably second to those of Munich 
 and Dusseldorf alone. Our limits preclude us from 
 entering into the history of the other societies in 
 Britain which have been formed after the model 
 of the parent institution of Edinburgh; but some 
 conception of the success which has attended them 
 may be gathered from the fact, that in 1856 it was 
 calculated that they had expended not less than the 
 enormous sum of a milEou sterling on the encourage- 
 ment of art. In addition to this direct expenditure, 
 what is a very remarkable, and was to most persons 
 probably an unexpected result, was, that the patron- 
 age of private individuals, in place of diminishing, 
 greatly increased, both in Edinburgh and London, 
 during the period in question. Before concluding 
 our sketch of the rise of these very remarkable insti- 
 tutions, it is proper to mention the art union of New 
 York, established in 1838, which now supports two 
 galleries with works of art in that city, and tiie 
 members of which have had the wisdom to establish 
 an intimate relation and lively interchange of works 
 between their own institution and that of Dussel- 
 dorf. 
 
 As regards the constitution of A. U., the follow- 
 ing arrangements may be stated to be common to 
 them all. Each member, in return for an annual 
 contribution (in Britain, usually a guinea), receives 
 an acknowledgment, which acts as his ticket 
 in the lottery by which the works of art, pur- 
 chased with the sum thus contributed, are distri- 
 buted amongst the members. Generally, a fixed 
 proportion of the contributions is retained and 
 devoted to the preparation of an engraving, which is 
 presented' to those who have drawn blanks in the 
 lottery. The engraving is usually executed by a 
 local engraver, after a work of the local school 
 intended to be patronised. The association further 
 makes provision for an exhibition, either permanent, 
 as at Munich, or annual, as in London and Edin- 
 burgh, consisting mainly of the works of local artists, 
 though most associations now admit those of 
 strangers. A diversity of practice has existed as to 
 the mode of distributing the funds of the unions, 
 and much controversy has taken place between their 
 respective partisans. The first, common on the con- 
 tinent, and adopted in Edinburgh, consists in putting 
 the whole sum collected for each year into the 
 hands of a committee of gentlemen, who are chosen 
 for their supposed aesthetic acquirements and impar- 
 tiality, and requesting them to select the pictures and 
 other works of art afterwards to be distributed to the 
 subscribers by lot ; the second is the London plan of 
 distributing the money itself by lot, and then per- 
 mitting, or rather compelling, the prize-holders to 
 expend it on the pictures exhibited, the selection of 
 I the pictures, however, being left to their own taste 
 
AETA— ARTEMISIA. 
 
 and judgment. If the object of these institutions be 
 to cultivate an artistic taste higher than that which 
 exists in the general community for the time being, 
 the advantages of the first over the second of these 
 modes of distribution seem scarcely to admit of ques- 
 tion. The subject was eagerly canvassed before the 
 select committee to whose labours we have already 
 referred, and their report was to the efifect that the 
 constitution of the Edinburgh Association was pre- 
 ferable to that of the London Union. The principle 
 of the A. TJ., under some modifications, but retaining 
 the distribution of prizes by lot, has been extended 
 to the patronage of art manufactures, but not 
 hitherto with the success which has attended it 
 when limited to the fine arts, strictly so called. See 
 Exhibitions. 
 
 A'ETA, the ancient Ambrada, a town of Albania, 
 in lat. 39° 8' K, and long. 20° 50; E., seven miles 
 from the northern coast of the gulf to which it 
 ^ves name, and thirty-nine miles south from 
 Janina. It stands on the left bank of the river Arta, 
 the ancient Aradhus, whence the modern name. It 
 is the see of a bishop, and is governed by a bey. It 
 has a considerable trade, and some manufactures, 
 chiefly of cloths and leather; the floccata, or ' shaggy- 
 capote,' alluded to in Byron's earlier poems, is 
 greatly esteemed ; but the town has never recovered 
 from the disasters of 1828, when it was stormed by 
 the G-reek patriots under Marco Botzaris. Portions 
 of the old walls, which were of great strength, 
 and the foundations of the Acropobs, are the only 
 relics of Hellenic times. Bemaina of the lower 
 empire exist in a convent founded 845 A.D. by the 
 Empress Theodosia. 
 
 The ancient city of Ambracia, founded by a Corin- 
 thian colony about 635 B.C., was at one time a 
 flourishing independent state, with a considerable 
 territory. It was ruined in the struggle with the 
 Amphilochians, and subsequently became subject 
 to Philip of Maeedon. Pyrrhus made it the capital 
 of Epirus, after which it fell into the hands of the 
 jEtoUans, and lastly of the Romans. 
 
 A'RTA, Gulf of, an arm of the Ionian Sea, 25 
 miles long and 10 wide, forming part of the 
 boundary between Turkey and Greece. Under its 
 ancient name of the Ambraciot Gulf (Sirma Airibra- 
 dus), it separated Epirus and Acamania. At its 
 entrance on the south is the promontory of La 
 Punta, the ancient Actium (q. v.). 
 
 ABTABA'ZUS, the name of several distinguished 
 Persians in the times of the Achsemenidse. When 
 Xerxes advanced against Greece, A. led the Par- 
 thians and Chorasnu. At a later period he warned 
 Mardonius, but in vain, against engaging in battle 
 at Platffia ; and on the first indications of defeat, he 
 withdrew his own division, amounting to 40,000 men, 
 from the field, and succeeded, though with great 
 difficulty, in forcing his way through the wilds of 
 Thesaaly, Macedoma, and Thrace to Byzantium, 
 where he crossed to Asia. Subsequently, he acted 
 as negotiator between the Spartan Pausanias and 
 Xerxes. — Another A. was general under the Persian 
 king, Artaxerxes Mnemon, and revolted against 
 Artaxerxes Ochus in 356 B. o. For this oflence he 
 appears to have been forgiven ; and subsequently 
 we find Viim accompanying King Darius after the 
 battle of Arbela. Alexander rewarded his fidelity 
 by appointing him satrap of Bactria. 
 
 ARTANTHB. See Matico. 
 
 ARTAXE'RXES, the name of several Persian 
 kuigs. A. I., sumamed Longimanus, the second 
 son of Xerxes, escaped from the conspiracy of 
 Artaban and others, and ascended the throne in 465 
 B.C. His long reign, extending to 425, was marked 
 by a decline of power. — A. II., sumamed Mnemon, 
 
 succeeded his father, Darius II., in 405 B. 0. After 
 
 faining the victory over his brother Cyrus, he 
 ecame involved in war with Sparta, whiph ended 
 with the Antalcidean Treaty of Peace. He died in 
 361. — A. III., sumamed Odma, was the son and 
 successor of the former, and reigned in the true 
 style of oriental despotism until 338 B. c. One of 
 his most daring exploits took place in Egypt, 
 where he caused the divine buU Apis to be 
 slaughtered and cooked as ordinary beef. A. III. 
 was poisoued va. 338 by his eunuch Bagoas. It is 
 said that his flesh was eaten by cats, and that hilts 
 for scimitars were made of his bones. — The founder 
 of the new Persian dynasty of the Sassanidse (which 
 ruled from A. D. 226 to 651) was named A. 
 
 ARTEDI, Peter, a celebrated naturalist, was 
 bom on the 22d of February 1705, at Anund, in the 
 proviQce of Angermannland, Sweden. He was at 
 first designed for the church, and entered the 
 miiversity of Upsala, intending to pursue the usual 
 course of philosophy and theology; but he soon 
 abandoned all thought of the ministry, and betook 
 himself to medicuie. In 1728, LinnsBus went to 
 Upsala, to study the same science, and a close 
 intimacy sprung up between the young men. They 
 worked together, and to a certain extent, on the prin- 
 ciple of a division of labour. Physiology, chemistry, 
 and mineralogy they pursued in common ; but 
 to this A. added ichthyology, and Linnaeus orni- 
 thology and entomology. In 1734, A. sailed for 
 England, and Linnffius went to Lapland, each having 
 made the other his heir and executor of all his 
 scientific documents. While in London, A. wrote 
 the preface to his Ichthyologia. Next year he went 
 to Leyden in Holland, where he found Linnaeus just 
 arrived from the north. Each shewed the other tho 
 results of his labours. A.'s useful career was 
 abruptly ended, on the 21st of September 1735, by 
 his falling into one of the canals near Amsterdam, 
 
 A.'s omy complete work is the Philosophia Idithy- 
 ologica. The Synonymologica is described as a work 
 of extraordinary labour, but somewhat confused. 
 Linnseus faithfully performed his duty as his 
 friend's executor. He arranged, corrected, and 
 completed his manuscripts, and published the whole, 
 together with a life of the author, in 1738. Aocord- 
 iag to Cuvier, the great work of A. is the first named, 
 which gave a truly scientific character to the study 
 of fishes. The only error of any magnitude which 
 occurs in it is including the Cetaoese among fishes. 
 A. was also a distin^iished botanist. He was 
 the fiirst to indicate, as a special characteristic, the 
 presence or absence of involucra in the umbelliferous 
 plants, whose species are so difficult to distinguish 
 from each other. Linnseus has called a genus of 
 these, in memory of his friend, Aiiedia. 
 
 ARTEMI'SIA, queen of Caria (352—350 B. c), 
 was the wife of Mausolus, and is celebrated for 
 the magnificent mausoleum which she caused to 
 be erected to her husband's memory. See Mau- 
 SOLBUM. — Another A., queen of Halicamassus, 
 accompanied Xerxes in his expedition against 
 Greece, and distinguished herself at the battle of 
 Salamis (480 B. c.) ; she ended her hfe, ia consequence 
 of an unfortunate attachment, by leaping from a 
 rock. 
 
 ARTEMI'SIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order GomposUce, sub-order OoryrrMferw, in which the 
 flowers of the disk are hermaphrpdite, those of the 
 ray in one row, the bracts forming a roundish 
 imbricated head, the receptacle naked or hairy, the 
 achoenia obovate, and destitute of pappus. The 
 heads of flowers are numerous and small ; the leaves 
 generally much divided. There are many species, 
 herbaceous plants and shrubs, natives chiefly of the 
 ' 447 
 
ARTEMISIA— ARTERY. 
 
 more temperate regions of the eastern hemisphere. 
 They have generally an aromatic smell, more or less 
 agreeable, and a ■warm, sometimes rather aciid and 
 bitterish taste. — To this genus belongs Woemwood 
 {A. Absinthium), the Apdnthion of the ancient Greeks, 
 to whom its medicinal properties were well known. 
 It is a native of Britain, the continent of Europe, 
 and the northern parts of Asia, growing in waste 
 places, by waysides, &e. It is a perennial, 2 — 4 feet 
 high; its leaves bipinnatifid and clothed with a 
 silky down, and its small hemispherical drooping 
 heads of flowers are of a dingy yellow coloiir, and 
 are produced in axillary panicles. It is aromatic 
 and bitter, containing a bitter principle and an 
 essential oil, both of great strength, upon account 
 of which it is used in medicine in various forms (oU, 
 extract, tincture, &o.), as a stomachic and anthel- 
 mintic or vermifuge. It was formerly in much use 
 as a febrifuge. It is a plant very frequently to be 
 found in cottagers' gardens, occupying an important 
 place in their domestic pharmacopoeia. It is an 
 essential ingredient in a number of compound 
 medicines. Its roots, and those of some other species 
 of this genus, have been recommended in epilepsy. — 
 Sea Wormwood {A. maritima, including a variety 
 which has been called A. Oallica), » native of salt- 
 marshes in Britain and other parts of Europe, 
 possesses similar properties, and is occasionally 
 used for the same purposes ; as also EoMAif Woem- 
 wood {A. Pontica), a native of the middle and south 
 of Europe, but not of Britaia — Tartaeian Woem- 
 wood [A. Sanlonica), a native of Tatary, Persia, and 
 other parts of the . East ; and Indian Woemwood 
 (A. Jndica), a native of the Himalaya, abounding at 
 
 Wormwood (Artemisia Ahsinthivm). 
 
 elevations of 2000 — 6000 feet. Indian wormwood 
 grows to the height of 12 feet. It is considered in 
 India a powerful deobstruent and antispasmodic. 
 Tree Woemwood (A. arhorescens), a native of the 
 south of Europe and the Levant, is also larger and 
 more shrubby than the common wormwood, which, 
 in characters and quahties, it much resembles. — The 
 dried flower-buds of a number of species of A. are 
 sold under the names of Woemsbed and of Semen 
 Contra, Semen Cince, Semendne, &c., and have Ions 
 448 ° 
 
 been in much repute as an anthelmintic. A. 
 Santonica, and A. Sieberi (or A. Contra), a native of 
 Palestine, are beUeved to yield much of the worm- 
 seed which is brought from the Levant, also 
 A. Judaica, a native of the East and of Barbary, 
 which is regarded as the principal source of the 
 Barbary wormseed. The flower-buds of A. glomer- 
 Ota, A. LercMana, and A. paudflora, natives of the 
 banks of the Volga, are also said to form part of the 
 wormseed of the shops ; and those of A. Vahliana are 
 collected in the north-east of Persia, and form the 
 Semen Cinw Levanticwm or Semen Gince in grains. 
 The flower-buds of A. ccendescens, a Mediterranean 
 plant, which is said to have been found on the sea- 
 coast of England, form the anthelmintic called 
 Semen Seriphii or Bartoiine. Those of A. campJwraia, 
 another native of the south of Europe, are used in 
 the same way. Even those of A. Absinthium and 
 A. vulgaris are used imder the name of wormseed. 
 — The plants from which the bitter aromatic Kquor 
 called JUactiuit, Eau, or Crfyne d'absinthe is prepared, 
 are small low-growing species of A (A. mutdlina, 
 A. glaciaiis, A. rupestris, A. spicata, &c.), foimd on 
 the Alps, and known to the inhabitants of the Alps 
 by the name of Genipi. This liqueur, generally 
 diluted with water, is sometimes used by persons so 
 devoted to the pleasures of the table that they 
 cannot wait for the natural return of appetite, and also 
 by those who really suffer from weakness of diges- 
 tion. It is a useful and agreeable stomachic, and is 
 very popular in France. — ^Mugwoet [A. vulgaris), a 
 common native of Britain and of the continent of 
 Europe, often found about ruins and in waste places, 
 grows to the height of 3^4 feet, with pinnatifid 
 leaves and somewhat racemed small flowers, which 
 have each five florets of the ray. It emits, when 
 rubbed, an agreeable smell, and has a bitter taste. 
 In Germany, the young shoots and leaves are used 
 in cookery for seasomng. It is used also for the 
 same medicinal purposes as wormwood, but is 
 weaker. Its leaves, and those of some of the other 
 species, are used as fomentations for cleansing and 
 healing wounds. — Sotjtheenwood {A. Abrotanum) 
 is a shrubby plant with long straight stems, 3 — 4 
 feet high, the lower leaves bipinnate, upper leaves 
 pinnate, their segments hair-like. It is a native 
 of the south of Europe and middle parts of Asia, 
 and has long been a favourite plant in cottage- 
 gardens in Britain. It has an aromatic and pleasant 
 odour. The leaves are used to drive away moths 
 from linen; and in some parts of the continent 
 of Europe, as an ingredient in the manufacture of 
 beer. The smell of this plant appears to be pecu- 
 Uarly disagreeable to bees, which retreat from it; 
 and a Httle branch of southernwood is sometimes 
 efficaciously used when they are swarming, to pro- 
 mote their ascent into the new hive placed over 
 them. — Taeeagon {A. DracuncvZus) is a perennial 
 plant, a native of Siberia, which has also long been 
 cultivated in gardens in Britain. It has a branching 
 stem 1 — 14 feet high, with narrow leaves. It is 
 fragrant, and has an aromatic smell and taste. The 
 leaves and tender tips are a favourite ingredient 
 in pickles. An infusion of the plant in. vinegar 
 is used as a fish-sauce. — The leaves of A. Mader- 
 aspatana are regarded in India as a valuable, sto- 
 machic, and are also used in anodyne fomentations. 
 — Moxa (q. v.) is prepared by the Chinese from the 
 leaves of A. Moxa and other species, the whole 
 surface of whose leaves is covered with a thick down. 
 — A. acetica, a Persian species is said to have a strong 
 odour of vinegar. 
 
 A'RTERY (Lat. aer and tero), named from the old 
 idea that these tubes were air-carriers. Arteries are 
 the vessels through which the blood passes from the 
 left side of the heart to the tissues. The structure 
 
AETEEY— ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 of an arterial tube ia very complex, and a section of 
 it may be roughly subdivided into tbree layers, called 
 the coats of the artery : an external, which ia elastic 
 
 III 
 
 1 t 5 
 
 III 
 ^56 
 
 Subdivisions of Arterial WalL 
 
 ]. Epithelial, ) !„,„„,„i 3. Muscular, ) „!^j,„ 
 
 8. Fenestrated, } """iml. ^ Elastic, ; ""^^'«- 
 
 6. Fibrous, ) p_t.r„.i 
 
 6. Areolar, / s=""»a'- 
 
 and distensible; a middle, which is muscular, con- 
 tractile, and brittle ; an internal, also brittle, smooth, 
 and transparent, being lined with epithelium on the 
 side washed by the blood. The tube is also enveloped 
 in cellular tissue, termed the sheath of the A. When 
 an A. is wounded by a sharp instrument, the effect 
 varies with the du-ection of the cut. Thus, if 
 longitudinal, the edges may not separate, and the 
 wound may heal without much bleeding ; if oblique 
 or transverse, the edges gape, and a nearly circular 
 orifice allows of a profuse hemorrhage. If the A. be 
 completely divided, its walls do not collapse like 
 those of a vein, but pass through certain changes 
 provided by nature to prevent fatal bleeding. The 
 cut orifice contracts, and also retracts into its cellular 
 sheath; this checks the flow of blood, a clot 
 of which shortly forms on the outer side; then 
 another forms inside the vessel ; and together, they 
 stem the flow, till the cut edges of the A. have 
 time to throw out lymph (see Adhesion), and heal 
 as wounds of other tissues. When an A. is com- 
 pressed by a ligature, the brittle inner and middle 
 coats crack, cud inwards, and heal. See Bleeding. 
 The arteries of the human body are all offsets, 
 more or less direct, of the aorta. As each main trunk 
 passes into a portion of the body, it divides into 
 two principal divisions: one, which breaks up into 
 branches for the supply of the tissues iu the vicinity 
 — ^the A. of supply; and another, which passes 
 almost branchless to supply the parts beyond — ^the 
 A. of transmission. These, however, anastomose 
 (q. V.) freely, so that the distant tissues are not 
 solely dependent for their supply on only one 
 arterial trunk. Thus, the femoral A. divides in the 
 groin into the profunda, or deep femoral, to supply 
 the thigh, and the superficial femoral, to supply the 
 leg below the knee. Again, the common carotid 
 divides into external carotid, to supply the neck and 
 head, and the internal carotid, to supply the brain. 
 Although arteries have generally the same distri- 
 bution or arrangement of branches, they occasionally 
 vary, and thereby are apt to puzzle a superficial 
 anatomist. Mr Thomas Nunn of London, an excel- 
 lent human anatomist, has lately shewn that these 
 anomalies in arterial distribution are all governed 
 by the law of arterial distribution just mentioned, a 
 fact which not only simplifies the study of arterial 
 anatomy, but assists the operative surgeon out of 
 perplexing positions. The principal arteries will be 
 considered under their distinctive names. The best 
 
 99 
 
 authority on arteries ia the splendid work of E. 
 Quain. 
 
 AETE'SIAN WELLS are perpendicular borings 
 into the ground, through which water rises, from 
 various depths, according to circumstances, above 
 the surface of the soil. The possibility of obtaining 
 water in this way in a particiiar district depends on 
 its geological structure. All rocks contain more or 
 less water. Arenaceous rooks receive water mecha- 
 nically, and according to their compactness and 
 purity, part with a larger or smaller proportion of it. 
 A cubic yard of pure sea-sand can coiitaia, in addi- 
 tion to the quantity of dry sand which occupies that 
 space, about one-tMrd of its bulk of water. It would 
 part with nearly the whole of this into a well sunk in 
 it, and regularly pumped from. Chalk and other 
 rocks, composed of fine particles, closely compacted 
 together, contain as large a propOTtion of water; but 
 from the power of capillary attraction, Httle or none 
 of this water would be drained into a well sunk 
 in such rock. Erom the existence, however, of 
 numerous crevices in chalk through wliich the water 
 freely flows, and from the general presence of a 
 larger quantity of water than the porous rock is 
 able to retain, wells stmk in chalk often yield water. 
 There is yet a , third class of rocks, which are 
 perfectly impervious to water : such are clays, 
 which are absolutely retentive, neither allowing 
 water to be obtained from them nor to pass through 
 them. When such rocks occur in basins (q. v.) 
 in alternating layers, and in such order that pervious 
 beds are inserted between impervious ones, it ia 
 evident that if a perforation is made through the 
 retentive barrier-bed in the lower portion of the 
 basin, the water contained in the water-logged 
 strata wiU rise through the bore to a height depend- 
 ing upon the pressure of water which has accumu- 
 lated in the confined sloping space between the two 
 impervious beds. The explanation wiU be more 
 evident by a reference to the accompanying figure, 
 which may be considered as a diagrammatic section 
 of the London basin. There is here a number of 
 porous beds, b, b, composing the cretaceous measures, 
 resting on the impervious gault, aa, and these. 
 
 IF^' 
 
 LJ -JL 
 
 Section of the London Basin. 
 
 again, are covered by the equally impervious series 
 of the London clay, cc, which form the strata on 
 the surface, and extend to a considerable depth. 
 The edges of the chalk-beds are largely exposed 
 in the higher grounds around London ; the water 
 falling on the whole area of these exposed edges, 
 sinks into the more or less porous cretaceous beds, 
 and would, in course of time, by continued accessions, 
 fiU up the basin, were it not prevented by the 
 clay above. By driving a bore, d, through this 
 superior bed, the inferior water-logged strata are 
 reached, and the subterranean water rises to the 
 surface, and flows continuously, by means of hydro- 
 static pressure. 
 
 Many such wells exist in London and its vicinity; 
 those which form the ornamental fountains in 
 Trafalgar Square descend into the upper chalk 
 to a depth of 393 feet. The most famous artesian 
 well perhaps is that of GreneUe, in the outskirts of 
 Paris, where the water is brought from the gault 
 
 449 
 
AETEVELDE— AUTHTTE- 
 
 at a depth of 1798 feet. It yields 516i gallons 
 of water in a minute, which is raised with such 
 a force as to be propelled 32 feet above the surface. 
 The pressure required to effect this has been 
 calculated to exceed 50 atmospheres at the bottom 
 of the bore. The water has a constant temperature 
 of 81°-7 F. 
 
 It is believed that the Chinese have been long 
 acquainted with artesian wells. They hkve been in 
 use for centuries in Austria, especially in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Vienna, where they are very abundant. 
 No knowledge existed as to their source, and conse- 
 quently the boring for them was engaged in and 
 conducted in a rude and empirical manner. An 
 excavation was made tUl a bed of clay was reached ; 
 on this a perforated mill-stone was laid, and through 
 the hole the clay was bored until water rose. As 
 soon as geology took the position of a science, 
 and the theory of A. W. was propounded, the 
 engineer was able, after the geological survey of 
 a district, to discover whether a supply of water 
 coiild there be obtained in this way. Already, 
 districts formerly dry and arid have received a 
 plentiful supply of water by means of such wells, 
 and many more applications have yet to be made : it 
 seems likely that erelong Africa's deserts may thus 
 be converted into fertUe plains. In an official 
 report of the Algerian government for 1856 — 1857, 
 it is stated that artesian borings have been executed 
 in the Sahara of the province of Constantino with 
 remarkable success. The first attempt, after a 
 few weeks' labour, produced a constant stream, 
 forming ■-■ perfect river, and yielding 4010 quarts 
 of water per minute, at a temperature of 78° F. 
 Several oilier wells have been sunk with equal 
 success. The result is likely to be beneficial 
 not only to the country materially, but also to 
 the character and habits of its nomadic Arab 
 inhabitants. Several tribes have already settled 
 down around these wells, and forming thus the 
 centres of settlements, have constructed villagea, 
 planted date-palms, and entirely renounced their 
 previous wandering existence. 
 
 A. W. have supplied a portion of the data upon 
 wliich the internal temperature of the earth has 
 been calculated. They have their origin below that 
 zone which is affected by the changing superficial 
 temperature of the seasons, and consequently the 
 water is of a constant temperature. Thus the 
 Crenelle artesian well has a temperature of 81°'7 F., 
 while the mean temperature of the air in the 
 cellar of the Paris Observatory is only 53°. MM. 
 Arago and Walferdin observed the temperature as 
 the work proceeded, and found that tiiere was a 
 gradual and regular increase downwards. The latter 
 gentleman has recently made a series of very accurate 
 and careful observations on the temperature of 
 two borings at Creuzot, within a mile of each other, 
 commencing at a height of 1030 feet above the 
 sea, and going down to a depth, the one of 2678 
 feet, the other about 1900 feet. The results, after 
 every possible caution had been taken to insure 
 correctness, gave a rise of 1° F. for every 55 feet 
 down to a depth of 1800 feet, beyond which the 
 rise was more rapid, being 1° for every 44 feet of 
 descent. 
 
 ARTEVELDE, Jacob, a brewer of Ghent, cele- 
 brated as a popular leader in the 14th c. In the 
 ■war between England and France, he gave his aid 
 to the former, while the counts of Flanders sup- 
 ported the latter. A., after gaining great advantages 
 over the party of the nobles, went too far when he 
 proposed that the son of Edward III. of England 
 should be elected Count of Flanders. For this the 
 Flemings were not prepared, and, in consequence, 
 A. was killed in a popular insurrection, August 19, 
 i50 , 
 
 1.'545. His son Philip, in 1381, Was leader of the 
 people of Ghent in their civil war against Bruges, 
 and gained a victory over Count Louis. The latter 
 was afterwards assisted by Charles VI. of France, 
 and Phdip.A. was defeated and slain in the battle of 
 Rosbeke, 1382. The history of A. has been several 
 times treated dramatically. In England, Henry 
 Taylor, a living writer of eminence, has produced a 
 beautiful ' closet-play,' entitled Philip Van Artevdde. 
 
 A'RTHUR, King of the tribe of ancient Britons 
 called Silures, lived in the beginning of the 6th o. He 
 rallied round him the remains of the British tribes, 
 now driven into the west of England, and bravely 
 defended the liberty and faith of his people against 
 the encroaching and conquering pagan Anglo-Saxons, 
 under Cerdic. Lancashire and the north-west seems 
 to have been the scene of the first part of his career; 
 afterwards it lay in the south, where he fought the 
 battles of Llongborth, supposed to be Portsmouth, 
 and Badon, identified by some with Bath. In a 
 battle with his own nephew, Modred, who had 
 revolted, fought on the Camlan, in Cornwall, in 542, 
 A. was mortally wounded, and being conveyed to 
 Glastonbury, died, and was buried there (in insiUa 
 Avalonia). Tradition preserved the memory of the 
 place of his interment; and Giraldus Cambrensis 
 relates that he was present when the tomb was 
 opened by command of Henry II., and the bones 
 and sword of the monarch found. Thus much may, 
 perhaps, be received as history. 
 
 But this, last struggle of the Celtic peoples before 
 they were nationally extinguished, became the 
 groundwork of a multitude of heroic legends, which 
 spread from Wales and Bretagne (Araiorica) over 
 the whole Romanic and Teutonic worlds, and for 
 centuries furnished favourite themes for the poets of 
 the middle ages. In the lays of the Welsh bards, 
 supposed to De as early as the 6th and 7th cen- 
 turies (although no manuscript is extant of older 
 date than the 12th c), the national hero A. and his 
 brave companions are celebrated. It is in the 
 chronicles of the 9th c. (Nennius) that the legend- 
 ary additions begin to develop themselves, and the 
 magician Merlin comes into association with A. 
 According to the romances, A.'s father, Uther, con- 
 ceiving a passion for Igema, wife of Gorlois, Duke 
 of Cornwall, was changed by Merhn into the like- 
 ness of Gorlois, and A. was the result. After his 
 father's death, A. became paramount leader of the 
 British, vanquished the Saxons in a number of 
 battles, and made victorious expeditions to Scotland, 
 Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and even to France, 
 where he defeated a great Roman army. During his 
 absence, his nephew, Modred, revolted, and seduced 
 Ginevra or Guinevere, Prince A.'s wife. A. return- 
 ing, fell in a battle with his nephew ; but according 
 to popular belief, he is not dead ; his soul went into 
 a raven, and he will yet reappear. His habitual 
 residence was at Caerleon, on the Usk, in Wales, 
 where, with his beautiful wife Guinevere, he lived in 
 splendid state, surrounded by hundreds of knights 
 and beautiful ladies, who served as patterns of 
 valour, breeding, and grace to all the world. Twelve 
 knights, the bravest of the throng, formed the centre 
 of this retinue, and sat with the king at a round 
 table — the ' Knights of the Round Table.' From the 
 court of King A. there also went knights to all 
 countries in search of adventures — to protect women, 
 chastise oppressors, liberate the enchanted, enchain 
 giants and malicious dwarfs, was their knightly 
 mission. The description of these adventures, the 
 scene of many of which is laid in what is still called 
 the BrezUian forest in Bretagne, forms the subject 
 of the innumerable romances about A. and his 
 knights that abounded in all the languages of the 
 West. A Welsh collection of stories called the 
 
AUTHUE'S SEAT-AHTICLE. 
 
 MaMnogion, supposed to be of the 14th c, and 
 lately translated into English by Lady Charlotte 
 Guest, gives an idea of the Arthurian legends 
 that circulated in the native land of the nero. 
 In France, whither the subject first found its 
 way, the 'knights of the round table' became the 
 ideal of that splendid and courtly chivalry, which 
 there reached its acme in the 12th c. Early in 
 that century, the chivalrio romances of France 
 became known in Germany, and there the rather 
 lifeless and wearisome matter of the Arthurian 
 legends assumed a more animated and artistic form 
 in the Pandval of Wolfram of Eschenbach, Tristan 
 and holt of Gottfried of Strasburg, Erec and Iwein 
 of Hartmann, and Wigalois of Wimt. The most 
 renowned of the heroes of the Arthurian school are 
 Peredm- (Parzival or Perceval), Tristan or Tristram, 
 Iwein, Erec, Gaweiu, Wigalois, Wigamur, Gauriel, 
 and Lan,celot. From France, the Arthurian romances 
 spread also to Spain, Provence, Italy, and the Nether- 
 lauds, and were also retransplanted into England. 
 It was only towards the end of the middle ages that 
 these legends made their way through Germany to the 
 Norse and Slavonic peoples. As early as the middle 
 of the 12th c, Geoffrey of Monmouth (q.v.) — pro- 
 fessing to translate from a history of Britain written 
 in the British tongue, and found in Armorica or 
 Brittany, but more probably himself weaving into a 
 kind of connected history tiie popular tales current 
 in Wales, of which he was a native, and in Armo- 
 rica — had written the story of King Arthur in Latin 
 prose, but without many of the embellishments it 
 subsequently received from the Romancers. One of 
 the publications that issued from the press of Caxton 
 (1485), was a collection of stories by Sir Thomas 
 Malory, either compiled by him in English, from 
 various of the later French romances (such as The 
 Prophecies of Merlin; The Quest of the St Qraal; 
 The Romance of Sir Lancelot of the Lake; The 
 History of Sir Tristram, &o.), or translated directly 
 from an already existing French compendium. A 
 reprint of Caxton's Kynge Arthur, with an intro- 
 duction and Notes, by Robert Southey, was issued 
 in 1817 (The Byrth, Lyfe, and Actes of ICyng 
 Arthur ; of his Noble Knyghtes of the Round Table, 
 &c., 2 vols. 4to). The name of King A. was given 
 during the middle ages to many places and monu- 
 ments supposed to have been in some way associated 
 with his exploits, such as 'Arthur's Seat' near 
 Edinburgh, ' Arthur's Oven ' on the Carron near 
 Falkirk, &o. What was called the sepulchre of his 
 queen was shewn at Meigle, in Strathmore, in the 
 16th c. The interest of the legends about King A. 
 and his knights has recently been revived by the 
 publication of Tennyson's Idylls of the King (1859). 
 See TuTuer's llistonj of the Anglo-Saxons, Appendix; 
 Warton's History of English Poetry; Ritson's King 
 Arlliur; De la Villemarqug, Conies Populaires des 
 Anciens Bretons (2 Vols., Paris, 1842) ; Griisse, Die 
 Grosse Sagenkreise des Mittelalters (Leip. 1S42). 
 
 ARTHUR'S SEAT, a hiU in the immediate 
 vicinity of Edinburgh, which rises to the height of 
 822 feet above the level of the sea. The ascent is 
 easy, and the prospect from the top unrivalled. 
 
 A. S. is supposed to derive its name from the 
 British king of that name. When the hill received 
 this appellation is not known ; but as early as the 
 close of the 15th c, Kennedy, the Scotch poet, 
 mentions ' Arthur Sate or ony hlcher hiU.' 
 
 The hill is formed of a mass of trap of various 
 species, upheaved through the carboniferous strata 
 of Central Scotland, and presenting on the west 
 and south sides, at the height of 570 feet, a perpen- 
 dicular range of precipices, called Sahsbury Crags, 
 60 to 80 feet high. The trap is in tabiilar masses, 
 and has elevated and .hardened the carboniferoiis 
 
 sandstone, shale, and limestone beds, which dip east, 
 and crop out on the west, besides being broken 
 through and overflowed by the trap-rocks. In the 
 centre of the hill, the trap often encloses fragments 
 of sandstone, and divides it by veins. The central 
 and upper part of the hUl, and the remarkable 
 columns called ' Samson's Ribs,' consist of basalt. 
 To determine the density of the earth, a series of 
 observations was made in 1855 by Lieutenant-colonel 
 James of the Ordnance Survey, on the attraction of 
 A. S., or the amount of deviation from the vertical 
 caused by its mass on the plumb-line. Calculation 
 made the mean density of the, whole earth 5'316 
 (water being 1), or about twice the mean specific 
 gravity of the rocks forming the hill, which experi- 
 ment gave as 2710. 
 
 A'RTICHOKE (Oynara Scolymus), a thistle-like 
 perennial plant, now growing wild in the south of 
 Europe, but probably a native of Asia. The genus 
 Cynara belongs to the natural order Composilce, sub- 
 order Gynarocephalce, and is distinguished by the 
 bracts of the involucre being fleshy at the base, nnd 
 emarginate, with a hard point, and the receptacle 
 fringed. C. ScolymMS has the radical leaves 3—4 feet 
 
 Artichoke. 
 (Head of flowers.) 
 
 long, somewhat spiny, some of them pinnatifld, some 
 immvided. The stem is two or three feet high, 
 branched, with large heads of violet-coloured (some- 
 times white) thistle-like flowers at the summits 
 of the branches. The involucre is tumid, and 
 consists of fleshy, roundish-ovate, • crenate, acu- 
 minate, imbricated scales. The seeds are elongated 
 and quadrangular, with smooth and firmly attached 
 pappus. The plant has been long cultivated tor the 
 sake of the delicate succulent receptacle's of the heads 
 of flowers, taken before the flowers expand, which 
 are boiled and eaten, or, on the continent of Eiu-ope, 
 eaten raw with salt and pepper. The part used is 
 the same which is called the cheese in thistles by 
 children, and is sometimes eaten by them. The ten der 
 central leaf-stalk is also occasionally used in the 
 same way as that of the Cardoon. Several varieties 
 are in cultivation, differing in the more or less 
 spiny leaves, and the more or less globose form of 
 the head. Artichokes are generally propagated by 
 rooted slips or suckers in spring. These are planted 
 in rows about four feet asunder, and two feet apart 
 in the row. The A. bed continues productiye for 
 several years. Seaweed is an excellent manure. — 
 The CAiiDOON (q. v.) belongs to the same genus. — 
 The Jerusalem A. (q. v.) is a totally different 
 plant. 
 A'BTICLE (Lat. artiaikts, a joint) aignifies in 
 
 151 
 
ARTICLE— ARTICLES OP WAR. 
 
 general a part of a systematic whole. Tims, ive 
 speak of lie several articles of a confession; the 
 articles of war ; a leading article, &o. 
 
 The use of A. as a grammatical term arose as 
 follows. In such a sentence as, ' He found thai (or 
 the) man thai he was looking for,' the Greeks con- 
 sidered the defining particles as connecting the two 
 parts of the sentence, and called them joints (Gr. 
 arthra, Lat. articuli) ; the name was subsequently 
 confined to the first of the two, the other being called 
 the relative. 
 
 In English, there are two articles — the definite the, 
 and the indefinite a or a7i; and other modern 
 languages have corresponding words. But articles 
 are not essential to language. The Latin had no 
 articles, and the Greek, as weE as the older Germanic 
 languages, the Mceso-Gothio and Old Norse, e.g., 
 had oSy the definite A. 'In no language,' says 
 Dr Latham, ' in its oldest stage, is there ever a word 
 giving, in its primary sense, the idea of an or of the. 
 As tongues become modern, some word with a 
 similar sense is used to express the relation. In 
 the course of time, a change of form takes place, 
 corresponding to the change of meaning.' 
 
 The definite articles originate uniformly in demon- 
 strative pronouns. Eng. the is only a weakened form 
 of that (Anglo-Sax. thcet). The same is the case with 
 Ger. der; and Fr. le, Ital. il and lo, and Sp. el, 
 are aU from the Lat. ille, ' that.' In like manner, an 
 or a is from the old form of one (ane) ; Ger. ein is 
 both one and a; and so are Fr. un, Ital. and Sp. uno, 
 both from Lat. umts = one. 
 
 In the Scandinavian tongues, the article is attached 
 to the end of the word; the Danish, for example, 
 writes hong-en, the king ; hus-et, the house. 
 
 A'RTICLES OF WAR are regulations made for 
 the government of the military and naval forces of 
 the country. They are of three classes — 1. Those 
 relating to the army, including therein the forces in 
 India, according to the provisions of the 21 and 
 22 Vict. c. 106 ; 2. Those relating to the marine 
 forces ; and 3. Those relating to the navy. 
 
 1. A. of W. far the Army. — These are regu- 
 lations or ordinances issued under the authority of 
 the annual Mnnirr Act (q. v.), and which Articles 
 that act provides shall be judicially taken notice of 
 by all judges and in all coxirts whatsoever ; and 
 copies of the same printed by the Queen's printer 
 shall, as soon as may be after the same shall have 
 been made and estabhshed by Her Majesty, be trans- 
 mitted by Her Majesty's Secretary-at-war to the 
 judges of Her Majesty's superior courts at West- 
 minster, Dublin, and Edinburgh respectively, and 
 also to the governors of Her Majesty's dominions 
 abroad ; provided that no person within the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, or within 
 the British Isles, shall by such A. of W. be subject 
 to be kept in penal servitude, or to suffer any 
 punishment extending to life or limb, except for 
 crimes which the act expressly declares shall be 
 so punishable. And for the enforcement of such 
 A. of W., a power is given to the crown to erect, or 
 grant authority to convene, courts-martial with the 
 jurisdiction to try and punish offences according to 
 the Articles themselves and the provisions of the 
 Mutiny Act. In order, however, to limit as far as 
 possible the power conceded to the crown in this 
 matter, it is enacted that nothing therein contained 
 shall be construed to exempt any ofi&cer or soldier 
 from being proceeded against by the ordinary course 
 of law ; and that where he is accused of any offeruce 
 against a subject of the realm, punishable by the 
 known laws of the land, he shall be delivered over 
 to the civil magistrate. The military offences against 
 which these A. of W. are directed, relate to the 
 soldier's duties and obligations ; to crimes and 
 
 452 
 
 offences an'd their punishments ; to couits-martial ; 
 and to military rank. The military crimes' and 
 offences referred to are those against divine worship, 
 mutiny, and insubordination, desertion and absence 
 without leave, offences in the field, camp, garrison, 
 or quarters ; drunkenness, disgraceful conduct, false 
 returns, billets and carriages, and miscellaneous 
 offences.' By the 3d of these Articles it is ordered 
 that every recruit shall, within ninety-six hours 
 after recruiting, have the 40th* and 46th of the 
 Articles read to him, and shall, within ninety-six 
 hours,, but not sooner than twenty-four hours, make 
 the following oath before some qualified authority : 
 ' / do make oath, Thai I Ivill be faithful and dear 
 true allegiance to her Majesty, her heirs and successors, 
 and that I mil, as in duty bound, honestly and faith- 
 fully defend her Majesty, her heirs and successors, 
 in person, crown, and dignity, against oil enemies, 
 and mil observe and obey all orders of her Majesty, 
 her heirs and successors, and of ike generals and 
 officers set over me. So help me God.' The 160th 
 article also deserves notice. It is to the effect, 
 that whenever any military forces shall have 
 embarked on board ships of war or transports, the 
 officers and soldiers of such forces shall, from the 
 time of embarkation on board ship, strictly, conform 
 themselves to the laws and regulations established 
 for the government and discipline of the ship ; and 
 shall consider themselves, for these necessary pur- 
 poses, under the command of the senior officer of 
 the particular ship, as well as under the superior 
 officer of the fleet (if any), to which such ship 
 belongs. See A. of W. for the Marine Forces. 
 
 2. A.ofW. for the Marine Forces are the regulations 
 made imder the authority of another annual Mutiny 
 Act, which relates exclusively to the royal marine 
 forces ; but, unlike the A. of W. for the army, they 
 do not issue directly from the crown, but are made 
 by the Lord High Admiral of the navy, or by the 
 commissioners for executing that office, and they are 
 expressly authorised so to be made by the first sec- 
 tion of the last-mentioned Mutiny Act. With this 
 exception, they are in themselves very much the 
 same as the A. of W. for the army. They relate 
 exclusively, however, to the marine forces while on 
 shore, and this specialty is very anxiously expressed 
 in the preamble of the act, which proceeds on the 
 recital that ' the said forces may frequently be quar- 
 tered, or be on shore, or sent to do duty, or be on 
 board transport-ships, or merchant-ships, or vessels, 
 or they may be under other circumstances in which 
 they will not be subject to the laws relating to the 
 government of Her Majesty's forces by sea.' Of 
 course, while on board, and doing duty in any of 
 Her Majesty's ships or vessels in commission, the 
 marines, like the other naval forces, are subject to 
 the A. of W. made for the government of the navy. 
 
 Z. A. of W. for the Navy. — In regard to such 
 articles or regulations, the navy is differently situ- 
 ated. Unlike the army or the marine forces on 
 shore, the navy is not controlled or governed by any 
 anmial Mutiny Act, but the A. of W. relating to it 
 are contained in, and expressly enacted by, an old 
 act of parliament, the 22 Geo. II. c. 33, which, with 
 some slight alterations, stiU supplies the law of the 
 sea-service. The first naval A. of W. authorised 
 by parhament were those contained in the 13 Chas. 
 IL c. 9, which was said to have been drawn up by 
 Admiral Montague, afterwards Earl of Sandwich, 
 vidth the approbation of Lord Chancellor Clarendon 
 and other distinguished members of the privy councU. 
 
 • This is evidently a mistake, for tlie 40tli article relates to 
 the misconduct of commissioned chaplains. It would appear to 
 be move reasonable that the articles to be read to the recruit 
 should be those relating to mutiny and insubordination, being 
 from the 4l8t to the 46th inclusive. 
 
AETICLES, THE SIX— AETIOLES, THE THIRTY-NINE. 
 
 But tHat statute and its subsequent supple- 
 mentary acts wefe all repealed by the 22 Geo. II. 
 0. 33. See Mr Prendergast's Law of the Navy, 
 1852, Fart I., p. 15. 
 
 A'RTICLBS, THE SIX, often mentioned in the 
 ecclesiastical history of England in the 16th c, were 
 articles imposed by act of parliament in 1539, when 
 Henry VIII. being displeased with some of the 
 bishops most favourable to the Reformation, their 
 opponents for a time regained the ascendency. 
 These A. asserted the doctVme of transubstantiation, 
 declared communion in both kinds not to be neces- 
 sary, condemned the marriage of priests, enjoined 
 the continued observance of vows of chastity, and 
 sanctioned private masses and aimoular confession. 
 The act imposing them was popularly called 'the 
 six-stringed whip? Severe penalties were appointed 
 for writing or speaking against them, and for 
 abstaining from confession or the sacrament at the 
 accustomed times, for priests failing to put away 
 their wives, and for persons writing or speaking 
 against the doctrine of transubstantiation. Arch- 
 bishop Cranmer vainly opposed the act in the House 
 of Lords : the king was resolute to have it passed. 
 Its severity was mitigated by a subsequent act of 
 his reign (1544), and ^though it continued substan- 
 tially unrepealed, it was transgressed with impunity 
 even by ecclesiastical dignitaries. 
 
 ARTICLES, THE THIRTY-NINE, of the 
 Church of England, are the articles of rehgion 
 which were agreed upon by the archbishops and 
 bishops of both provinces and the whole clergy 
 in the convocation held at London in the 4th 
 year of Elizabeth, 1562, under Archbishop Parker. 
 To have a clear view of the history of these im- 
 portant articles, we must go back to the promul- 
 gation of the original ones, forty-two in number, 
 m the reign of Edward VI. The council appointed 
 by the will of Henry VIII. to conduct the govern- 
 ment during the king's minority, was for the most 
 part favourably disposed towards the Reformed 
 opinions, and the management of church affairs 
 devolved almost entirely upon Archbishop Cran- 
 mer. In the year 1549, an act of parliament was 
 passed, empowering the king to appoint a commis- 
 sion of 32 persons, to make ecclesiastical laws. 
 Under this act, a commission of 8 bishops, 8 divines, 
 8 civihans, and 8 lawyers (amongst whom were 
 Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper, Coverdale, Soory, Peter 
 Martyr, Justice Hales, &c.) was appointed in 1551, 
 and one of its first acts was to draw up a code of 
 articles of faith. These were forty-two in number, 
 and were set forth by the king's authority in 1553. 
 Strype and Burnet make it appear that these forty- 
 two articles were agreed upon in the convocation 
 that was sitting in 1552, but this was not the case. 
 Fuller, speaking in his quaint way of this convoca- 
 tion, declares that it had ' no commission from the 
 king to meddle vrith church business, and,' he 
 adds, ' every convocation in itself is born deaf and 
 dumb, so that it can neither hear nor speak con- 
 cerning complaiats in religion tUl first ISphphatha, 
 " Be thou opened," be pronounced unto it by 
 royal authority. However,' he continues, ' this 
 barren convocation is entitled the parent of those 
 forty-two articles which are printed with this title, 
 Artiadi de quilms in Synodo Ltrndinensi 1552 A. D. 
 inter JSJpiscopos et alios convmerat.' To these articles 
 was prefixed the Catechism, and there is no doubt 
 of Cranmer having had the principal hand in their 
 composition ; for he owned before Queen Mary's 
 commission that they were his doing. But immedi- 
 ately after their publication, Edward, died, and one 
 of the first acts of the convocation summoned 
 with the parliament in the first year of Queen 
 Mary, was to declare that these forty-two articles 
 
 had not been set forth by the agreement of that 
 House, and that they did not agree thereto. In 1558, 
 Elizabeth succeeded her sister. In 1559; Parker was 
 installed in the see of Canterbury, and immediately 
 the other vacant sees were filled up. And now came 
 a fresh opportunity of drawing up some articles of 
 faith which might serve as a test of orthodoxy in the 
 Reformed Church. Parker applied himself to this 
 work, and for the purpose, revised the forty-two 
 articles of King Edward, rejecting four of them 
 entirely, and introducing four new ones, viz., the 5th, 
 12th, 29th, and 30th as they now stand, and alter- 
 ing more or less seventeen others. This draft Parker 
 laid before the convocation which met in 1562, where 
 further alterations were made ; and the 39th, 40th, 
 and 42d of King Edward's, which treated of the 
 resurrection, the intermediate state, and the doctrine 
 of the final salvation of all men, were finally rejected. 
 The 41st of King Edward's, which condemned the 
 Millenarians, was one of the four which Parker 
 omitted. Thus the articles were reduced to thirty- 
 nine. They were drawn up and ratified in Latin, 
 but when they were printed, as was done both in 
 Latin and English, the 29th was omitted, and so 
 the number was further reduced to thirty-eight. 
 From these thirty-eight there was a further omis- 
 sion, viz., of the first half of the 20th article, which 
 declares that 'the church hath power to decree 
 rites and ceremonies, and hath authority in contro- 
 versies of faith.' As all the records of convoca- 
 tion perished in the great fire of 16^6, it is very 
 difficult to ascertain how these omissions arose. 
 However, in 1571, the articles once more under- 
 went revision. Archbishop Parker and Bishop 
 Jewel made a few triftlng alteration's, and the 29th 
 being restored, the convocation which was then ■ 
 sitting ratified them both in Latin and Enghsh, and 
 an act of parliament was passed in that year com- 
 peUing the clergy to subscribe ' such of them as only 
 concern the confession of the true Christian faith, 
 and the doctrine of the Sacraments.' There stiU, 
 however, remained some difficulty as to which was 
 the authorised copy, some of the copies being printed 
 with, and others without, the disputed clause of the 
 20th; but this was finally settled by the canons 
 passed in the convocation of 1604, which left the 
 thirty-nine articles as they now stand. 'His Ma- 
 jesty's Declaration,' which precedes them, and directs 
 that they shall be interpreted ' in their literal aoad 
 grammatical sense,' was prefixed by Charles I. in 
 1628. 
 
 It may be interesting to know from what other 
 sources the thirty-nine articles are derived. Some 
 of them, as the 1st, 2d, 25th, and 31st, agree not 
 only in their doctrine, but in most of their wording, 
 with the Confession of Augsbiurg. The 9th and 
 16th are clearly due to the same source. Some of 
 them, as the 19th, 20th, 25th, and 34th, resemble, 
 both in doctrine and verbally, certain articles drawn 
 up by a commission appointed by Henry VIII., and 
 annotated by the king's own hand. The 11th 
 article, on justification, is ascribed to Cranmer, but 
 the latter part of it only existed in the articles of 
 1552. The 17th, on predestination, may be traced 
 to the vmtings of Luther and Melanothon. 
 
 The thirty-nine articles have been described as 
 'containing a whole body of divinity.' This can 
 hardly be maintained. They contain, however, what 
 the Church of England holds to be a fair scriptural 
 account of the leading doctrines of Christianity, 
 together with a condemnation of what she considers 
 to be the principal errors of the Church of Rome, 
 and of certain Protestant sects. As far as they go 
 (and there are many things unnoticed by them) they 
 are a legal definition of ttie doctrines of the Church 
 of England and Ireland; though it is to the Boole 
 
ARTIOULATA— ARTILLERY. 
 
 of Common Prayer that members of that communion 
 look for the genuine expression of her faith. They 
 ■were adopted by the convocation of the Irish Church 
 in 1635, and by the Scotch Episcopal Church at the 
 close of the 18th century. Corpus Christi College, 
 Cambridge, contains the only copies of the A. in 
 manuscript or print that are of any authority. 
 Amongst them are the Latin manuscript of the A. of 
 1562, and the English manuscript of the A. of 1671, 
 each with the signatures of the archbishops and 
 bishops who subscribed them. See An Account of 
 the Thirty-nine A., by Dr Lamb. 
 
 For other 'Articles,' see Lambeth, Perth, and 
 Smalkald. 
 
 ARTICULA'TA or ARTI'CULATED ANI- 
 MALS, one of the great primary divisions of the 
 Animal Kingdom, according to the system of Cuvier, 
 •who in this is foUowed by recent naturalists generally.' 
 The term indicates not the possession of articulated 
 members, but the articulated stracture of the whole 
 body. The A. are composed of segments articulated 
 or jointed together in a line, each segment being 
 formed of one or more rings, which in some appear 
 externally as mere transverse folds in a soft skin, 
 but are often covered with a hard substance similar 
 in chemical composition to the bones of vertebrated 
 animals. To this the muscles are attached, and it 
 has sometimes received the name of an external 
 skeleton — a name perhaps suggestive of closer and 
 more numerous analogies to the bony framework 
 of the vertebjKited animals than actually exist. In 
 some of the A. the rings are almost equally deve- 
 loped ; in others, the difference is very great. They 
 are divided into those which have, and those which 
 have not articulated members ; the first subdivision 
 including Insects, Arachnida, Crustacea, and Myri- 
 apoda ; the latter, Annelida and Entozoa. Some 
 naturalists raiik Cirrhopoda (Barnacles, Acorn-shells, 
 &c.) among the A., and regard them as intermediate 
 between these two subdivisions ; others foUo w Cuvier 
 in placing them among the Mollusca. The Rotifera 
 (or wheel animalcules) are also placed by some in the 
 second subdivision of the A., but their right to be so 
 placed is by no means well established. It is in the 
 first subdivision only that the rings are very dis- 
 tinctly grouped in what are called segments of the 
 animal ; and even in the Myriapoda (Centipedes, 
 Juli, &o.) they often seem little else than mere 
 repetitions of each other ; whilst in some of the 
 Crustacea, as the Crabs, the trunk beconiing encased 
 in a hard envelope, the segments become immovably 
 united, so that they no longer appear as distinct. A 
 few only of the lowest A., however, are destitute 
 of a distinct head, in which are placed the eyes 
 and other organs of special senses, with regard to 
 which there is considerable dififereuce in the different 
 classes. In it also they usually have jaws for 
 seizing their food and cutting or tearing it to pieces. 
 Their jaws do not open vertically, as in vertebrate 
 animals, but laterally; and there are frequently 
 several pairs of them. Some, however, have the 
 mouth adapted merely for suction. The alimentary 
 tube often proceeds in a straight line from one 
 extremity of the body to the other ; and when it is 
 convoluted, its convolutions are usually few. There 
 is no proper heart ; but instead of it, we find a 
 dorsal vessel, a tube carried along the central line of 
 the body near the back or upper side, and divided 
 in a manner corresponding with the division of the 
 body into rings and segments ; a general con- 
 nection being thus maintained, whilst each segment 
 or each ring has to a certain extent a system 
 of circulation for itself. Respiration is effected 
 either by gills (branchim), which is the case 
 in those A. that live in water, or by air-tubes 
 {frachece) and sacs; and the aeration of the blood 
 
 451 
 
 taking place not merely in one or two, but in many 
 of the rings, great muscular power and activity 
 are maintained without a very active circulation. 
 The muscular power is, indeed, greater in proportion 
 to the size in the A. than in any other animals. 
 The blood is usually white ; in some of the Annelida 
 alone it is red ; but this colour (see Annelida) does 
 not indicate any approach to the higher classes of 
 animals, although even Cuvier appears to have 
 regarded it as a reason for assigning to the Annelida 
 the first place among the A. The nervous system 
 exhibits a great similarity throughout the whole of the 
 A., and corresponds in its general plan with their 
 system of circulation. It consists of a series of small 
 nervous masses or ganglia, arranged in a chain along 
 the central line of the body on the under side of 
 the animal. A ganglion in the head is often termed 
 the brain, and from it proceed the optic nerves and 
 other nerves of the special senses ; but it by no 
 means perfectly corresponds to the brain in ver- 
 tebrate animals. There is usually a ganglion for 
 each ring. The ganglia themselves are double or 
 composed of two halves, 
 more or less distinctly 
 separated ; the connecting 
 cord also is double. In 
 those A. which have arti- 
 culated limbs, the ganglia 
 are largest in the parts 
 of the trunk with which 
 the limbs are connected, 
 whilst they almost disap- 
 pear from the more unim- 
 gortant rings ; in the 
 rabs, and some other tail- 
 less or very short-tailed 
 Crustacea, they are con- 
 densed into two masses. 
 
 The remains of the A. in 
 the fossiliferous rocks are 
 numerous, although often 
 so fragmentary and imper- 
 fect that the determination of genus and species ia 
 impossible, and their complex organisation cannot be 
 thoroughly investigated. It is evident, however, 
 that many of them differed much from any animals 
 now known to exist, and changes can be observed 
 from one geologic period to another; the great 
 Crustacean family of the Trilobites(q.v.),for example, 
 being found only in the palaeozoic rocks. Markings, 
 which are regarded as the tracks and burrows of 
 mariae worms, appear among the earliest traces of 
 animal life. 
 
 AETI'CULATB SOUNDS. See Lettees. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY . The various meanings given to 
 this word render it desirable that the reader should 
 know under what headings in the Encyclopaidia to 
 look for information on the subject. Sometimes A. 
 means large cannon or ordnance of every kind; 
 sometimes it includes the shot and shell as well as 
 the cannon; sometimes it applies to the soldiers, 
 officers and men, who manage the large cannon in 
 military battles and sieges ; sometimes it designates 
 the soldiers as well as the cannon, the personnel as 
 wen as the mat^el. In the present work, the large 
 pieces of ordnance, as a class, are described under 
 Cannon ; while the specialties of each kind wiU be 
 found briefly noticed under such headings as Cae- 
 BONADE, Howitzer, Gun, Mortar, Shell-gun, &c.; 
 and in some cases under the names of the inventors, 
 as Armstrong Gun, Lancaster Gvs, &c. By this 
 arrangement, we shall be enabled to confine the 
 word A. to such articles as relate more especially to 
 the personnel of the service — ^the skilled soldiers 
 who have to deal with large pieces of ordnance in 
 
 Nervous System of an 
 Insect. 
 
ARTILLERY COMPANY— ARTILLERY CORPS. 
 
 land-warfare. It may, hovrever.lDe well here to explain 
 that the term Llquiimieni of A. is applied to a oom- 
 bination of men, matfiriel, and horses, sviitable for 
 coast-defences, sieges, or the arming of fortified 
 posts. There are several kinds of equipments of 
 light A., under the names of horse, field, rocket, 
 mountain, and reserve ; and others of heavy A., for 
 the attack and defence of coasts and fortified places. 
 These various equipments are generally divided into 
 smaller collections called batteries (q. v.), for more 
 easy control and manoeuvring. Brief explanations 
 wUl be found under nearly all the names here 
 indicated. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY COMPANY, Honoubable, is 
 the oldest existing volunteer corps in Britain. 
 Four military bodies — the A. C, the Sergeants-at- 
 Arms, the Yeomen of the Guard, and the Oentlemen 
 Pensioners, were established as far back as the time 
 of the Tudors ; they all still exist, but under greatly 
 altered circumstances. In 1537, Henry VIII. granted 
 a patent to three persons, appointing them ' Over- 
 seers of the Science of Artillery,' for long-bows, 
 cross-bows, and hand-guns. They were to constitute 
 a guild or fraternity for this purpose, with power 
 to appoint assistants and successors, to purchase 
 lands, and to use a common seal ; and their formal 
 official name became 'The Masters, Rulers, and 
 Commonalty of the Fraternity or Guild of Artillery 
 of Long-bows, Cross-bows, and Hand-guns.' The 
 freemen of the guild or Company were empowered to 
 keep arms, and to exercise themselves in shooting. 
 In 1605 a patent was granted by James I., intended 
 chiefly to effect the preservation of the shooting and 
 practising grounds around London, for the A. C. In 
 1633 a commission was appointed by Charles I., stiU 
 further to insure this object. In 1638 the corpora- 
 tion of the city of London presented to the Company 
 the plot of ground ever since called the Artillery 
 Ground, near Moorfields, as a field for military 
 exercise. Royal princes frequently enrolled them- 
 selves as members of the Company, usually as 
 'captain-general.' In 1719, George I. issued an 
 order that all the commission and staff officers of 
 the City Train-bands (a metropolitan militia) should 
 become members of the A. C, and exercise with the 
 other members at all convenient times. The word 
 ' artillery ' had heretofore been considered as apply- 
 ing to bows and arrows as well as to firearms ; but 
 the members of the Company, Hke other marksmen, 
 had almost abandoned archery, without, however, 
 making any change in their designation. In a 
 summons to the Company to meet for exercise on a 
 particular day in 1682, it is said : ' Those gentlemen 
 that on that day handle muskets are desired to take 
 care that their arms are clean and well fixed, and 
 that they bring with them fine dry powder, and even 
 match.' The Company, like many other city guilds, 
 has nearly outlived its original purpose. In 1780, 
 when the ' Lord George Gordon riots ' afflicted the 
 metropolis, the members of the A. C. effectually 
 protected the Bank of England ; in 1848, when 
 Chartist riots were apprehended, the Company was 
 on the alert to render good service if needed ; and 
 in the spring of 1859, when an uneasy feeling pre- 
 vailed in England ooncemiug the designs of France, 
 the members polished their arms and looked forward 
 to eventuahties ; but the Company has never been 
 engaged in actual warfare with an enemy. 
 
 The A. C. consists of members elected by ballot, 
 who pay one guinea annual subscription, and supply 
 themselves with dress, arms, and accoutrements. 
 These payments, together with the rental received 
 from a small amount of real property, constitute 
 the fund out of which the expenses are defrayed. 
 The members learn rifle-shooting as well as artil- 
 lery practice; there are certain daya of meeting 
 
 at Moorfields ; and every summer there are 
 certain days of drill and practice at Seaford. 
 The Prince Consort is the present colonel or 
 captain-general. The corps comprises six infantry 
 companies, a grenadier company, a hght-infantry 
 company, a rifle company, and an artUlery company. 
 Until 1849, the members elected their own officers ; 
 but since that year the crown has appointed them. 
 The lieutenant-colonel appoints the non-commis- 
 sioned officers. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY CORPS. Referring to Cannon 
 for a history of large pieces of ordnance, we here 
 treat of the organisation of the artillery service. 
 
 The larger weapons, before the invention of giin- 
 powder, were sometimes called engines of war, some- 
 times artillery, and were worked by strong and 
 rough soldiers, who needed no particular apprentice- 
 ship to that art. When, however, large balls of 
 iron came to be propelled by the irresistible force 
 of gunpowder, a great revolution gradually took 
 place, though garrison-guns and siege-guns were im- 
 proved more rapidly than field-guns. Nevertheless, 
 field-guns changed the whole aspect of military 
 tactics ; for it became necessary that an army 
 should form in order of battle at a much greater 
 distance from the enemy than in older times. And 
 when the cannon were made more rapidly movable, 
 so did tactics vary. Gradually, a body of men were 
 set apart to study the force and action of gun- 
 powder, the flight and range of projectiles, the 
 weight and strength of cannon, and the manceuvring 
 of heavy masses. The French were'the first to 
 make these researches ; after them, the English ; 
 and still later, the Germans. During the Thirty 
 Years' War, an important step was taken in Ger- 
 many — that of including the artillerymen, who were 
 tin then a sort of guild, as a component in the regular 
 army. Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden, Frederick 
 II. in Prussia, and Napoleon I. in France, all 
 attached a very high degree of importance to the 
 artillery as an arm of the service. After the great 
 wars in the beginning of the present century, 
 nearly all the states of Europe formally recog- 
 nised the artUlery as the third great branch of mih- 
 tary service (next after the infantry and cavalry) ; 
 indeed, some of them, including Russia and Sardinia, 
 have shewn a tendency to elevate it to the first 
 rank. 
 
 A. C, or artillerymen, are divided into land- 
 artillery and marine-artillery. The land-artillery is 
 divided into field, coast, garrison, and siege artil- 
 lery. The field-artillery is subdivided into horse 
 and foot. There are also the special appellatiou 
 of reserve, light, and heavy artillery. In most 
 Em-opean states, the artiUerj-men are divided into 
 regiments, battalions, brigades, and companies ; but 
 in Britain the whole form one enormous regiment, 
 which is expanded or contracted according to the 
 exigencies of the service. See Artillery, Royal 
 Regiment of. When military men speak of the 
 field-artillery, they usually include cannon, carriages, 
 horses, ammunition, and stores of every description, 
 as well as the artillerymen. The distinction between 
 heavy and light artillery depends on the size of the 
 cannon, and the weight of the shot and shell pro- 
 pelled from them. For obvious reasons the construc- 
 tion of very large field-guns is avoided. Militai-y men 
 are not quite agreed as to the precise figures ; but 
 there is a general concurrence in opinion that a well 
 appointed field-force should have two or three artil- 
 lery guns to every 1000 infantry, and five or six horse- 
 artiUery guns to every 1000 cavalry. The proportion 
 is necessarily affected by the kind of country and the 
 amount of available transport. During the Penin- 
 sular war, Wellington had seldom more than 1 
 gun to every 1000 soldiers ; when he entered France, 
 
ARTILLERYMAiir-AJRTILLERY SCHOOLS. 
 
 he had 3 to the 1000. Napoleon preferred 2 per 
 1000, with a larger supply of anunuiiition than had 
 before been deemed necessary; and many foreign 
 governments followed his example. Experienced 
 officers in the British artillery have laid it down as 
 a useful rule that an army of 60,000 men, comprising 
 50,000 infantry, 7500 cavalry, and 2500 artillery, 
 should have 100 pieces of ordnance — ^viz., 30 for 
 horse-artiUery, 54 for foot-artillery, and 16 in 
 reserve. 
 
 ARTI'LLERYMAN. See Aetillbby Coups ; 
 Artillery, Royal Regiment of. 
 
 ARTI'LLBRY, Paek of, is a, collective name 
 given to the whole of the guns, carriages, ammuni- 
 tion, and other appurtenances essential to the work- 
 ing of siege or held A. Besides reserve guns and 
 carriages, there belong to it the ammunition wagons, 
 as wefl for the infantry and cavalry as for the A., 
 the implements and materials necessary for repairing 
 and completing equipments, harness-stores, field- 
 forges, laboratories, and (in some armies) transport 
 and provision wagons. The personnel of a park of A. 
 consists of A. officers, non-commissioned officers, and 
 artillerymen; besides a large number of smiths, 
 wheelwrights, saddlers, armourers, drivers, and other 
 mechanics and labourers. Sometimes the term is 
 applied to the place selected, as well as to the vast 
 military stores collected there. During a siege, the 
 park of A. is stationed out of reach of the enemy's 
 fire, but in communication with the besiegers' 
 trenches. If possible, its looahty is chosen close to 
 some good line of communication, either road or river. 
 All pioneering or intrenching tools, and all handi- 
 craft implements, are arranged in rows nearest to 
 the field- of action, with requisite spaces for the con- 
 venience of the storekeepers and workmen. Behind 
 these are the materials for erecting batteries, making 
 fascines and gabions, and filling sand-bags. Furthest 
 removed from the enemy are the laboratories, in 
 and near which shot and shell and other kinds of 
 ammunition are stored. A large park of A. is 
 usually divided into park-columns, for the sake of 
 better supervision. Under some circumstances, the 
 engineering park is distinct from the park of A., 
 especially where these two arms of the service 
 are so mutually independent as in the British 
 army. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY, ROYAL REGIMENT OP, is 
 
 the collective name for the whole of the A. belonging 
 to the British army. Under Artillery Corps, the 
 origin of similar bodies on the continent of Europe is 
 briefiy noticed. There was no regular regiment or 
 corps of A. soldiers in the Enghsh army 'till the 
 time of Queen Anne, when the present Royal Regi- 
 ment was formed. Since that period, from some 
 alnomaly which is not easily explained, all the addi- 
 tions have been made to the same regiment, instead 
 of forming new regiments, to be combined into a 
 division or corps. The regiment is now almost an 
 ariny in itself ; and to increase the anomaly, it com- 
 prises horse as well as foot. The foot-A, with 
 medium guns, attend infantry in the battle-field ; and 
 with heavier guns, besiege and defend fortified places ; 
 while the horse- A., with lighter guns, accompany the 
 cavalry. The mounted artillerymen were organised 
 into a body long after those who manoeuvre on foot. 
 Though both corps form one regiment, they have 
 distinct designations — ^the Rmjal-A., and the Royal 
 Horse-A. Besides these two corps, the regiment is 
 considered to include the Bocket-A., the Master 
 Gunners, and the Invalid Ounners. 
 
 The regiment has varied from 18,000 to 28,000 
 strong (including those placed upon the East India 
 estabSshment) during the last few years ; the foot 
 being divided into baitaliona and companies, and the 
 
 456 
 
 horse into troops. A battaUon usually comprises 
 8 companies. At a time when the number was 18,000, 
 the regiment comprised lid companies and troops, 
 averaging somewhat over 150 men each. At other 
 times, the companies have varied from 130 to 200 
 men each. The companies and battahons of foot- 
 A. are designated by ordinal numbers, such as 
 ' 6th company, 12th battahon ; ' the troops of horse- 
 A. are designated by letters, such as 'D troop.' 
 There are, nominally, 5 officers for each company 
 and troop ; but some of these are usually absent on 
 staff or brigade duties. In battles and sieges, a 
 brigade of this A. usually consists of either two 
 or three companies, attached to a division of the 
 regular army. Each company, with its quota of 
 gana and stores of all kinds, constitutes a field- 
 battery; and each troop with its quota, constitutes 
 a horse-battery. It has been proposed to abandon 
 the terms company and troop altogether, as being 
 properly apphoable only to infantry and cavalry, 
 and to use only the term battery; but this change 
 has not yet taken place. Among the officers of 
 the Royal A, there are no majors, ensigns, or 
 comets ; equivalent services are rendered by officers 
 otherwise designated. The men are chiefly classified 
 as gunners and drivers. 
 
 The army estimates for 1859 — 60 will afford 
 pretty correct information concerning the present 
 state of the Royal A 
 
 ROYAL POOT-AETILLEEy. 
 
 Commissioned officers, . . . 918 
 
 Non-commissioned officers, . 1,785 
 
 Rank and file 22,351 
 
 EOYAL HOKSE-ARTILLEEY. 
 
 Commissioned officers, ... 78 
 
 Non-commissioned officers, . 148 
 
 Rank and file 2,120 
 
 Total, 27,400 
 
 Of this number, 8707 are placed at the disposal 
 of the East Indies, to be paid for out of Indian 
 revenues. There were also voted 5368 horses for 
 the foot-A., and 1880 for the horse. 
 
 The internal organisation of the Royal A., and 
 the relation between the men and the guns which 
 they serve, will be described under Battery ; while 
 the specialties of the several kinds of service will 
 be found briefiy noticed imder Field-aetilleey, 
 
 HORSE-ABTILLBKY, SlBGE- ARTILLERY. 
 
 ARTI'LLERY, SCHOOLS OF. The first school 
 for A. instruction was established by the Venetians 
 in the beginning of the 16th c. Soon afterwards, 
 Charles V. established similar schools at Burgos and 
 in SicUy. The French founded a school of practical 
 A. in 1675 ; and in 1679, they added to it a theoretical 
 school at Douai. At present, France has no fewer 
 than nine such establishments. Saxony had an 
 A. school in 1766 ; but the other Gei-man states 
 were more tardy in this work. In Prussia, the 
 artfllery and engineer schools are combined ; but in 
 most of the European states, a separation between 
 these two arms of the science is made. In most 
 schools of A, the officers' studies comprise mathe- 
 matics, as much of physics and chemistry as is 
 necessary to the duties of the artillerist, field 
 and permanent fortification, garrison-warfare, field- 
 tactics, military history and topography, military 
 surveying and sketching, drawing from the model, 
 &c. The practical exercises include the serving and 
 firing of guns and mortars, the laying out and 
 constructing of field-batteries, and the operations of 
 the laboratory and A. workshop. 
 
 The head-quarters for A. instruction in England 
 
ARTOCAEPAOB^— ARUM. 
 
 are at Woolwich. A JRoyal Military Academy was 
 established there in 1741, to impart professional 
 instruction to the artilleriste and engineers belonging 
 to the royal army. The East India Company sent 
 their A. cadets to this Academy from the year 1798 
 to 1810 ; but afterwards, they maintained a separate 
 establishment at Addisoombe. At the present day, 
 the students in the Academy are recruited by fair 
 open competition. They enter between the ages of 
 seventeen and twenty ; and they remain two years, 
 or such longer time as may fit them to pass an examin- 
 ation for the Eoyal A. or Engineers. The sons of mili- 
 tary officers are admitted on lower terms than those 
 • of other persons. The financial control is under the 
 Secretary of State for War ; but the Commander-in- 
 chief regulates the discipline and iiiternal arrange- 
 ments. There are about 40 professors, lecturers, 
 masters, and instructors of various kinds. Besides 
 this Royal Military Academy, there is at Woolwich 
 a Department of A. Studies, for the instruction of 
 jimior officers of A., and for facOitating their visits 
 to the fortifications and public works of foreign 
 countries. There is also a Select Committee, whose 
 duties are not so much educational as experimental; 
 it is a small establishment for examining and report- 
 ing on the numerous inventions relating to artillery, 
 brought before the War-office.* The estabhshment 
 at Shoebury Ness, subordinate to the head-quarters of 
 the A. at Woolwich, is intended to experiment upon 
 ordnance, gunpowder, and projectiles, and to exercise 
 young A. officers in some of their duties. 
 
 AETOCARPA'CE^, a natural order of Dicotyle- 
 donous plants, of which the Bread-fruit [Artocarpiis 
 incisa) is the type ; very nearly allied to that oiMoraceas 
 (Mulberries, Figs, &c.), and, Hke it, by many botanists 
 regarded aa a sub-ord.er of Uriicacece (Nettles, &c.). 
 The botanical distinction between Artocarpacese and 
 Moracese lies chiefly in the straight embryo and 
 large cotyledons of lie former. The fruit is often a 
 sorosis (a single succulent fruit formed of the aggre- 
 gated germens of a whole spike of flowers), as in the 
 case of the Bread-fruit (q. v.). There are upwards 
 
 Bread-fruit {A. incisa). 
 
 of fifty known species, natives exclusively of the 
 tropics. The miUcy juice of some yields Caout- 
 chouc (q. V.) ; and that of a few species is so bland 
 as to be used as a substitute for mUk (see Cow- 
 tbeb). The juice of others is, however, very 
 
 * This committee lias recently (in the summer of 1859) teen 
 remodelled, or rather superseded by a new organisation. 
 
 poisonous, as that of Antiaris ioxicaria, the Antjar 
 poison, one of the poisons called Upas by the 
 Javanese. The seeds are always wholesome; and 
 those of the Musanga of the Gold Coast of Africa, 
 and of Brosimum alicaslrum in the West Indies, are 
 eaten as nuts. The fibrous bark of the Bread-fruit 
 Tree is made into cloth in the South Sea Islands, 
 and that of other species of Artocarpus is capable of 
 being used in the same way. The bark of Antiaris 
 or Lepurandra saccidora is used in Western India 
 for making sacks, which are formed by cutting a 
 branch of the dimensions of the sack wanted, and 
 simply turning back and drawing oflf the bark 
 after it has been soaked and beaten, the wood 
 being sawn off so as to leave a little portion to form 
 the bottom of the sack. The fibrous bark of 
 Oecropia peltata, or Trumpetwood, is used for cordage 
 in tropical America. The stem and branches are 
 very hollow, and are used, for wind-instruments. 
 The wood of some species is valuable, as that of the 
 Brosimum or Piratinera Ouianensis, the Snake- 
 wood of Demerara. 
 
 ARTOIS was formerly a province of France> 
 bounded by Flanders and Picardy, and almost 
 corresponding with the modern department of Pas- 
 de-Oalais {q.v.). The capital of A. was Arras. Louis 
 IX., in 1239, made A. a county, and gave it to his 
 brother Robert, who was succeeded by his son, 
 Robert 11., surnamed Posthimious, who died in 
 1.302. Afterwards it passed into the hands of Flan- 
 ders and Burgundy, but was ceded to France by 
 treaties in 1659 and 1678. Charles X., in his early 
 life, and also after his abdication, was known by 
 the title of Count d'Artois. 
 
 ARTS, Degeees in. The term 'Arts,' or ' Liberal 
 Arts,' as technically applied to certain studies, came 
 into use during the middle ages, and on the estab- 
 lishment of universities, the term ' Faculty of Arts ' 
 denoted those who devoted themselves to Science 
 and Philosophy, as distinguished from the faculty of 
 Theology, and afterwards of Medicine and Law. 
 The number of ' Arts ' embraced in the full medieval 
 course of learning was seven : Grammar, Logic, 
 Rhetoric (constituting the Trivium), Music, Arith- 
 metic, Geometry, and Rhetoric (the Quadrivium). 
 The terms Master and Doctor were originally applied 
 synonymously to any person engaged in teaching. 
 In process of time, the one was restricted to the 
 liberal arts, the other to Divinity, Law, and Medi- 
 cine. When regulations were established to prevent 
 unquaHfied persons from teaching, and an initiatory 
 stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms 
 became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
 possession of certain powers, and were called 
 gradus, ' steps ' or ' degrees.' The passing of the 
 initiatory* stage, said to have been first instituted 
 by Gregory IX. (1227—41), conferred the title of 
 bachelor (q. v.), and an additional course of discipline 
 •and examination was necessary to obtaining that of 
 master. The title of Master of Arts originally implied 
 the right, and even the duty of publicly teaching some 
 of the branches included in the faculty of Ajts ; a 
 custom which is stiU retained, to some extent, in 
 the German universities, but has fallen into disuse 
 in Britain and France, where the title is nearly 
 honorary. The subject wiU be more fuUy considered 
 under the general head of Degree. 
 
 A'RUM, a genus of Monocotyledonous plants, 
 belonging to the natural order Aracece or Aroidece. 
 This order consists of herbaceous plants, some of 
 which are stemless, and shrubby plants, some of 
 wliioh are arborescent, and some climb by aerial roots, 
 clinging to the trees of tropical forests. The leaves 
 are sheathing at the base, convolute in bud, usually 
 with branching veins. The flowers are male and 
 
AEUN— AEUNDEL. 
 
 female, naked, arranged upon a spadix, which, is 
 generally enclosed in a spaihe (q. v.) ; the male 
 flowers at the upper part of the spadrx, and the 
 female flowers at its base. The stamens are definite 
 or indefinite in number; the anthers sessile, or 
 nearly so, and turned outwards. The ovary is free, 
 generally one-ceUed, many-seeded ; the stigma ses- 
 sile. The fruit is succulent, the seeds pvdpy, the 
 embryo in the axis of fleshy or mealy albumen, 
 with a lateral cleft in which the plumule hes ; the 
 albumen, however, is wanting in some plants of the 
 order.— As thus defined, this order contains almost 
 SOU known species, natives chiefly of tropical coim- 
 tries, but some of the herbaceous kinds belong to 
 colder climates. — The limits of the order are, how- 
 ever, sometimes extended, so that it includes as sub- 
 orders Typliacece, Pistiacece, &c. — The genus A. has 
 a convolute spathe ; the spadix naked at the point. 
 In some species, a stench like that of carrion is pro- 
 duced during flowering, as well as a remarkable heat. 
 Flowers, in general, are slightly warmer than the air 
 around them, the heat being produced by the union 
 of oxygen with some staroh-like ingredient in the 
 sap of the petals, or other parts of the flower '; for 
 flowers, instead of absorbing carbonic acid gas and 
 giving o£f oxygen in the sunshine, like the leaves of 
 plants, absorb oxygen and give off carbonic acid, 
 like the Ixmgs of animals. But flowers, in general, 
 are only one degree, or one degree and a half, warmer 
 than the air, whereas the flowers of some of the 
 Arums and nearly aUied plants are sensibly warm 
 to the touch, and that of A. cordifoUum has been 
 
 Arum maculatum. 
 
 <z, leaveB and root ; 6, spathe, with base of spadix exposed ; 
 c, fruit. 
 
 found to have a heat of 121° F., while that of the 
 air was only 66' F.— The only British species is 
 A. maculatum, Cuckow-pint or Wake-robin, which 
 is abundant in England and in most parts of Europe, 
 growing chiefly in moist shady woods and under 
 hedges. It has a tuberous perennial root ; its leaves 
 are all radical, on long stalks, strongly arrow-shaped, 
 often spotted ; the spathe greenish yellow, enclosing 
 a rather short violet or brownish red spadix. It 
 produces scarlet berries, 1 — 2 seeded, about the size 
 of peas, clustered upon the spadix. The root has a 
 burning acrid taste, which, however, it loses in drying 
 or boiHng. In a fresh state, it is a drastic purgative, 
 
 458 
 
 too violent for medicinal use ; and, indeed, it, aa 
 well as the leaves, is an active poison ; yet a nourish- 
 ing farina is prepared from it, after the acrid juice 
 has been removed. This farina is a pure starch, and 
 is known in England by the name of Portland Sago 
 or Portland Arrow-root. It was formerly prepared 
 to a considerable extent in the isle of Portland, where 
 also the tubers (conns) themselves are eaten by the 
 country-people. A cosmetic, called Cypress Powder, 
 is made from them in France, and they are used in 
 Switzerland as a substitute for soap. They contain, 
 indeed, a quantity of Saponine, to which their 
 acridity is supposed to be owing. They lose great part 
 of their acridity in drying, and were formerly used • 
 in medicine as a stimulant in impaired digestion, 
 a diuretic in dropsies, and an expectorant in chest 
 complaints. The plant is extensively cultivated in 
 India for food. — A. Indicium, is also much cultivated 
 in Bengal tor its esculent stems and small pendulous 
 tubers. — Acridity in the juice, and the presence of 
 an amylaceous substance of very nutritious quality, 
 from which the acrid juice is easily separated, are 
 characteristics of many plants of this order, particu- 
 larly species of Caladium and GolocoMa, much used 
 for food in warm countries, under the names Cocco 
 (q. v.), Eddoes, &c. — Amorphopallus campanulatua 
 (A. campanulatum), called Ol by the Bengalese, is 
 very much cultivated in some parts of India for its 
 roots (flat underground corms), which form a very 
 important article of food ; yet in a fresh state it is 
 so acrid that it is employed as an external stimulant, 
 and is also used as an emmenagogue. Other species 
 of Amorphopallus are still more powerfully stimu- 
 lant. — Two large species of ArisoBTna, another genus 
 very closely allied to A., were found by Dr Hooker 
 to afford food' to the inhabitants of the Sikkim 
 Himalaya at an elevation of upwards of 10,000 
 feet. Their tuberoxis roots are bruised by means 
 of wooden pestles, and thrown into small pits with 
 water, until the commencement of acetous fermenta- 
 tion, when the acridity is mostly dissipated ; but the 
 process is so imperfect that cases of injury from the 
 poisonous juice are frequent. The tubers of Arisaima 
 airorubens (A. triphyllum of Linnaeus), a native of the 
 United States, and there known as Dragon-root and 
 Indian Turnip, yield a pure white starch like that 
 of A. maculatum. Their medicinal uses are also 
 similar ; they are employed as a stimulant of the 
 secretions. — The Dragon-plant, A. Dracuncalus, a 
 native of the south of Europe, is not uncommon in 
 gardens in Britain, although it has a carrion-like 
 smell, and its emanations are apt to produce head- 
 ache and other disagreeable effects. It has a singu- 
 lar appearance— straight stalks, three feet high, 
 curiously spotted like the belly of a snake. — The 
 peculiar acridity of the Aracece is most remarkably 
 displayed in the DtrMB Cane (q. v.). 
 
 A'SUN, a river rising in St Leonard's Forest, 
 in the middle of North Sussex, and after a course 
 of 35 miles, falling into the English Channel. A 
 canal unites it with the Wey, a feeder of the 
 Thames. 
 
 A'RUNDEL, a small town 5 miles inland from 
 the mouth of the Anm, in a tertiary and chalk dis- 
 tinct, on the south side of the South Downs, in the 
 S.W. of Sussex. It consists mainly of a very steep 
 street rising from the right bank of the Arun to the 
 summit of a hill crowned by a' castle. The Arun is 
 navigable for vessels of 150 tons up to the town. 
 Bark and timber are the chief exports. Pop. in 
 1851, 2748. It returns one member to parhament. 
 It is governed by a mayor, four aldermen, and twelve 
 councillors. The castle, from its site, is a striking 
 object, and was bmlt soon after the Norman con- 
 quest. It is an oblong, including 5i acres within its 
 
ARUNDEL MAEBLES-ARYAN RACE. 
 
 walls. It was laid in ruins during the civil wars of 
 Charles I., but, being the baronial residence of the 
 Dukes of Norfolk, the late duke restored it to its 
 former Gothic magnifloenoe. The keep, containing 
 the dungeon, is a curcular Norman tower of imposing 
 strength, the walls being 8 or 10 feet thick. 
 
 A'RUNDEL MARBLES, part of a collection of 
 ancient sculptures, formed about the beginning of 
 the 17th c. by Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, 
 and presented in 1667 to the university of Oxford, by 
 his grandson, Henry Howard, afterwards Duke of 
 Norfolk. The principal portion of it is the ' Parian 
 Chronicle,' consisting of the fragments of an inscrip- 
 tion in marble, supposed to have been executed in 
 the island of Paros, about 263 B. c. In its perfect 
 state, tliis inscription contained a chronological table 
 of the principal events in Grecian history from the 
 time of Cecrops (1582 B.C.) to the archonship of 
 Diognetiis {264 B.C.). The chronicle of the last 
 ninety years is lost, and the extant portion of the 
 inscription is much corroded and defaced. This 
 curious and interesting monument, the authenticity 
 of which has been questioned and vindicated with 
 almost equal ingenuity and learning, was pur- 
 chased for the Earl of Arundel, along with many 
 other relics of antiquity, at Smyrna, by Mr (after- 
 wai'ds Sir William) Petty. The inscription, and all 
 the other {Hrincipal sculptures in the Oxford Collec- 
 tion, are to be found fuUy illustrated in the relative 
 publications of Selden, Prideaux, Maittaire, and 
 Chandler, under the various titles of Marmora 
 ArundeUiana and M. Oxoniensia. 
 
 The nobleman whose name is associated with these 
 ancient marbles is worthy of remembrance, independ- 
 ently of his general merits, as the first of his order 
 in Ikigland who liberally encom-aged the fine arts, and 
 communicated the influence of his own taste and 
 enthusiasm in their cultivation to a wide circle of 
 imitators and successors. Among the scholars and 
 artists on whom his liberal patronage was specially 
 bestowed, were Francis Junius the Younger (his Ubra- 
 rian), and Oughtred the mathematician, Wenceslaus 
 Hollar the engraver, whom he brought over to Eng- 
 land, Vandyck and Inigo Jones, and the sculptors 
 Stone, Le Soeur, and Panelli. His collection of works of 
 art, for the supply of which, from the treasures of 
 antiquity, he engaged the services of two distin- 
 guished men of Jetters, Evelyn and Petty, rivalled 
 the galleries of princes. After Ms death, it was 
 unfortunately dispersed, and many of its choicest 
 treasures were for ever lost sight of. His collection 
 of sculpture alone, when entire, numbered 37 statues, 
 128 busts, and 250 inscribed marbles, besides altars, 
 sarcophagi, fragments, and gems. 
 
 A'RUNDEL, Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury 
 in the reigns of Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry 
 v., bom in 1353, was the second son of Robert Fitz- 
 Alan, Earl of Arundel and Warren. He was first 
 Archdeacon of Taunton, and at the early age of 
 twenty-one, he was, by the pope's appointnient, con- 
 secrated Bishop of Ely. In 1388, he was, by the 
 same authority, transferred to the archiepiscopal see 
 of York. He was also for some years Lord High 
 Chancellor of England. Having been banished the 
 kingdom for taking a leading part in the first attempt 
 which was made to deliver the nation from the 
 oppression of Richard II., he was honourably received 
 at Rome, and by Pope Boniface IX. nominated Arch- 
 bishop of St Andrews, with a promise of future pre- 
 ferment in England. In 1396 he was enthroned, 
 with great pomp, as Archbishty of Canterbury. He 
 was a bitter persecutor of the Lollards and followers 
 of WickUfie, and a chief instrument in procuring the 
 horrible act for the biu:niug of heretics (De Heretico 
 Combarendo), passed in the reign of Henry IV, He 
 
 even carried his bigotry so far as to solicit from the 
 pope a bull for digging up Wickliffe's bones, which, 
 however, was wisely refused him. He also procured, 
 a synodal constitution, which forbade the transla- 
 tion of the Scriptures into the vulgar tongue. 
 Amongst others whom he caused to be convicted of 
 heresy, and sentenced to the flames, was Lord 
 Cobham, one of the principal patroiis of the new 
 sect, at the commencement of the reign of Henry V. 
 Soon after, A. was seized with an inflammation in 
 the throat, which proved fatal. He died 20th 
 February 1413. 
 
 ARU'NDO. See Reed. 
 
 ARVI'COLA. See Vole. 
 
 ARYAN RACE, ARYAN LANGUAGES. 
 
 The name Aryan (less properly, Arian) Race or Aryan 
 Family of Nations is now generally used to designate 
 that ethnological division of mankind otherwise 
 called Indo-European or Indo-Germanio. It consists 
 of two branches, geographically separated, an eastern 
 and a western. The western branch comprehends 
 the inhabitants of Europe, with the exception of the 
 Turks, the Magyars of Hungary, and the Finns of 
 Lapland (see Europe) ; the eastern comprehends 
 the inhabitants of Armenia, of Persia, of Afghanistan, 
 and of Northern Hindustan (see Hindustan). The 
 evidence on which a family relation has been estab- 
 lished among these nations is that of language. 
 Between Sanscrit (the mother of the modern Hindu 
 dialects of Hindustan), Zend (the language of the 
 ancient Persians), Greek (which is yet the language 
 of Greece), Latin (the language of the Romans, and 
 the mother of the modern Romanic languages, i. e., 
 Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, WaUachian), 
 Celtic (once the language of great part of Europe, 
 now confined to Wales and some parts of Ireland 
 and Scotland), Gothic (which may be taken as the 
 ancient type of the Teutonic or Germanic languages 
 • — includmg English — and of the Scandinavian), and 
 Slavonic (spoken in a variety of dialect-s all over 
 European Russia and a great part of Austria), the 
 researches of philology have within the present 
 century established such afiinities as can be accounted 
 for only by supposing that the nations speaking 
 them had a common origin. No one of these nations, 
 whether existing or historical, can claim to be the 
 parent nation of which the others are colonies. The 
 relation among the languages mentioned is that of 
 sisters — daughters of one mother, which perished, 
 as it were, in giving them birth. No monuments of 
 this mother-language have been preserved, nor have 
 we any history or even tradition of the nation that ' 
 spoke it. That such a people existed and spoke 
 such a tongue is an inference of comparative philo- 
 logy, the process of reasoning being analogous to 
 that followed in the kindred science of geology. The 
 geologist, interpreting the inscriptions written by 
 the finger of Nature herself upon the rock-tablets of 
 the earth's strata, carries us back myriads of ages 
 before man appeared on the scene at all, and enables 
 us to be present, as it were, at creation itself, and 
 see one formation laid above another, and one plant 
 or animal succeed another. Now languages are to 
 the ethnologist what strata are in geology ; dead 
 languages have been well called his fossUs and 
 petrifactions. By skilful interpretation of their 
 indications, aided by the hght of aU other available 
 monuments, he is able to spell out, with more or 
 less probability, the ethnical records of the past, and 
 thus obtain a glimpse here and there into the gray 
 cloud that rests over the dawn of the ages. 
 
 When these linguistic monuments are consulted 
 as to the primitive seat of the Aryan nations, they 
 point, as almost all ethnologists are agreed, to 
 Central Asia, somewhere probably east of the 
 
 459 
 
AS— ASA. 
 
 Caspian, and north of the Hindu Kush and Paropa 
 misan Mountains. There, at a period long anterior 
 to all European history — while Europe was perhaps 
 only a jungle, or, if inhabited at all, inhabited by 
 tribes akin to the Finns, or perhaps to the American 
 Indians — dwelt that mother-nation of which we 
 have spoken. From this centre, in obedience to 
 a law of movement which has continued to act 
 through all history, successive migrations took place 
 towards the north-west. The' first swarm formed 
 the Celts, who seem at one time to have occupied 
 a great part of Europe ; at a considerably later 
 epoch came the ancestors of the Italians, the 
 Greeks, and the Teutonic peoples. All these would 
 seem to have made their way to their new settle- 
 ments through Persia and Asia Minor, crossing into 
 Europe by the Hellespont, and partly, perhaps, 
 between the Caspian and the Blaek Sea. The 
 stream that formed the Slavonic nations is thought 
 to have taken the route by the north of the Caspian. 
 At a period subsequent to the last north-western 
 migration, the remnant of the primitive stock would 
 seem to have broken up ; part poured southwards 
 through the passes of the Himalaya and Hindu Kush 
 into me Punjab, and became the dominant race in 
 the valley of the Ganges ; while the rest settled in 
 Persia, and became the Medes and Persians of history. 
 
 It is from these eastern members that the whole 
 family takes its name. In the most ancient Sanscrit 
 writings (the Veda), the Hindus style themselves 
 Aryans ; and the name is preserved in the classic 
 Aru, a tribe of ancient Persia, Aria, the modem 
 Herat, and Ariana, the name of a district compre- 
 hending the greater part of ancient Persia, and 
 extended by some so as to embrace Bactriana. 
 Ariana, or Airyana, is evidently an old Persian 
 word, preserved in the modern native name of 
 Persia, Airan or Iran. Arya, in Sanscrit, signifies 
 'excellent,' 'honourable,' being allied probably to 
 the Greek an(stos), the best. Others connect it 
 with the root or (Lat. arare, to plough), as if to 
 distinguish a people who were tiUers (earers) of 
 the earth from the purely nomadic Turanians or 
 Turks. 
 
 The several membera of this ethnological group 
 win receive special notice each in its place. As 
 to the hypothetical mother-nation — ^the primitive 
 Aryan stock before separation, it might seem impos- 
 sible to affirm anything beyond its mere existence 
 and locality. But the ethnologist does not con- 
 tent himself with this. In an admirable essay on 
 Comparative Mythology (Oxford Essays, 1856), Pro- 
 fessor Max MUller has drawn a picture of the 
 Aryan family while yet one and undivided, in which 
 the state of thought, language, religion, and civilisa- 
 tion is exhibited in a multitude of details. "Where 
 the same name for an object or notion is found used 
 by the widely spread members of the family, it is 
 justly inferred that that object or notion must have 
 been familiar to them while yet resident together 
 in the paternal home. It is in this way established, 
 that among the primitive Aryans not only were 
 the natural and primary family relations of father, 
 mother, son, daughter, hallowed, but even the more 
 conventional affinities of father-in-law, mother- 
 in-law, sister-in-law ; that to the organised family 
 life there was superadded a state organisation with 
 rulers or kings ; that the ox and the cow constituted 
 the chief riches and means of subsistence ; and that 
 houses and towns were built. 
 
 One general observation made by Miiller is so 
 interesting that we take the liberty of quoting it 
 entire. 'It should be observed,' he says, ' that most 
 of the terms connected with chase and warfare differ 
 in each of the Aryan dialects, while words con- 
 nected with more peaceful occupations belong 
 
 generally to the common heir-loom of the Aryan 
 language. The proper appreciation of this fact in its 
 general bearing wiU shew how a similar remark 
 made by Niebuhr, with regard to Greek and Latin, 
 requires a very different explanation from that which 
 that great scholar, from his more restricted point of 
 view, was able to give it. It will shew that all the 
 Ajryan nations had led a long life of peace before 
 they separated, and that their language acquired 
 individuality and nationahty as each colony started 
 in search of new homes — new generations forming 
 new terms connected with the warlike and adven- 
 turous life of their onward migrations. Hence it is 
 that not only Greek and Latin, but all Aryan lan- 
 guages have their peaceful words in common ; and 
 hence it is that they all differ so strangely in their 
 warhke expressions. Thus the domestic animals are 
 generally known by the same name in England and 
 in India, while the wild beasts have different names, 
 even in Greek and Latin.' 
 
 In this mainly pastoral hfe, the more important of 
 the primitive arts were known and exercised : fields 
 were tilled ; grain was raised and ground into meal ; 
 food was cooked and baked ; cloth was woven and 
 sewed mto garments; and the use of the metals, 
 even of iron, was known. The numbers as far as 
 a hundred had been named, the decimal principle - 
 being followed. The name for a thousand had not 
 come iato requisition until after the dispersion, for it 
 differs in the different Aryan tongues. 
 
 Finally, it was among the yet tmdivided Aryans, 
 while abstract language did not yet exist, while every 
 word was a metaphor, and the setting of the sun, for 
 example, could only be expressed by his growing old 
 and dying, that those stories of gods, heroes, and 
 monsters originated, which, with more or less of 
 variety, but still with a famUy-hkeness, formed the 
 pagan mythology of every member of the group. 
 
 AS was the designation both of a Koman weight 
 (called also libra) corresponding very nearly to an 
 Enghsh pound (q. v.), and also of a coin made of the 
 mixed metal aes, or bronze. The As (coin) originally 
 no doubt weighed a (Roman) pound ; but it was 
 gradually reduced to -^^ of a pound, and even lower. 
 It is thus difficult to assign any fixed value to the 
 As. About 270 b.c, the denarius (= SJd.) contained 
 
 10 ases ; so that the value of the As was then a 
 little more than 3 farthings ; when 16 ases went to 
 the denarius, the value was about a halfpenny. It 
 was by the sestertius (q. v.) that money was reckoned 
 at Rome. The oldest form of As usually bore the 
 figure of an ox, a sheep, or other domestic animal 
 {p^ms) ; from which it is usually supposed that the 
 Latin word for money, pecimia, is derived. 
 
 A'SA, son of Abijah, and grandson of Rehoboam, 
 was the third king of Judah. At the beginning of 
 his reign, he was very young, and his character appa- 
 rently undeveloped, for he allowed his grandmother, 
 Maachah, to encourage idolatry; but on assuming the 
 reins of government, one of his earliest acts was to 
 remove her from aU authority ' because she had made 
 an idol in a grove' (1 Kings, xv. 13 ; 2 Chron. xv. 16). 
 His zealous efforts to extirpate the vices and impieties 
 
ASA DULCIS— ASAEABACCA, 
 
 of the people were on the whole successful. He took 
 away the Sodomites out of the land, and the altars 
 of the strange gods, broke the images, and cut down 
 the groves. For the next ten years, he devoted him- 
 self to strengthening the defences of his kingdom, 
 and organised a magnificent army of more than half 
 a million, which seems to have been looked upon as 
 a menace by other monarchs, for one of these, Zerah 
 the Cushite, took the initiative, and penetrating 
 through AraMa Pebrcsa, invaded Judah, but was 
 defeated with immense slaughter. Before the battle 
 commenced, Asa had invoked the aid of Jehovah; 
 and some time after the victory, he and all his people 
 entered into a solemn covenant ' to seek the Lord 
 God of their fathers with aU their heart and with 
 all their soul' (2 Chron. xv. 12). Peace lasted for 
 twenty years in the kingdom, but in the 35th year 
 of Asa's reign, war again broke out between him 
 and Baasha, liing of Israel. He sought and obtained 
 the aid of the Syrian monarch, Benhadad, but at 
 the expense of ' the treasures of the house of the 
 Lord;' and although successful against his adversary, 
 he was indignantly upbraided and threatened by 
 the prophet Hanani for not relying on Jehovah 
 alone. Asa, flushed with success, threw the prophet 
 into prison, and, it would appear, 'in his rage' 
 oppressed some of the people at the same time — ^per- 
 haps those only who sided with Hanani, for we know 
 that at his death the nation honoured him with a 
 splendid fimeral ; and the sacred historian pays the 
 mghest tribute to his memory, declaring that ' Asa's 
 heart was perfect with the Lord all ms days.' He 
 reigned from 955 to 914 B. o. 
 
 A'SA DULCIS (i. e., Sw«et Asa), a drug in high 
 repute among the ancients as an antispasmodic, 
 deobstruent, and diuretic ; also for supposed virtues 
 of the most extraordinary kind, such as neutralising 
 the effects of poison, curing envenomed wounds, 
 restoring sight to the blind, youth to the aged, &c. 
 Its value was estimated by its weight in gold. The 
 princes, of C3nrene caiised a figure of the plant pro- 
 ducing it to be struck on the reverse of their coins, 
 and it was sometimes called ioser Cj/renaicum. The 
 plant is of the genus Thapsia (of the natural order 
 Umidliferce), either T. Garganica, or a nearly allied 
 species, T. Silphium — ^perhaps the drug was pro- 
 duced by both. They are natives of the south of 
 Europe and of Barbary, and appear to be very active 
 purgatives. 
 
 ASAF(E'TIDA, or ASSAFCETIDA (i. e.. Fetid Asa 
 or Assa), is a gum-resin, which has been supposed to 
 be identical with the exuded juice of the Silphion 
 of Dioscorides, so highly esteemed among the Greek 
 physicians ; but which, perhaps, was rather the Asa 
 dulais. Its name is derived from the Persian word 
 assa, which means a staff. This drug is brought 
 from Persia and Afghanistan, and is procured by 
 drying the milky juice which flows from the root 
 of the plant Feiida (Nartliex) A., which has been 
 referred to the genus Ferula by Linnseus, and to 
 Nariheoi by Dr Falconer. The root of the A. plant 
 is long, and generally undivided; white inside, but 
 having a black covering ; and contains in its interior 
 a quantity of. juice of an overpowering odour, which 
 much resembles that of garhc. Ferula or Nartkex 
 A. has its radical leaves tripartite, their segments 
 bipinnatifid, and nearly two feet in length. The 
 gum-resin is said by some to be obtained also from 
 Ferula Persica, a plant which has the root-leaves 
 very much divided, and all either tripinnate or 
 quadripinnate. The name ferula, like the Persian 
 assa, refers to the appearance of the stem of the 
 plant. Ferula Persica has long been propagated 
 successfully in Britain, and even brings its seeds 
 ,to perfection. 
 
 A. is prepared in the dry southern provinces of 
 Persia, but chiefly in Khorassan and Afghanistan, 
 and also to the north of the Hindu Kush range 
 of mountains. About April, the root-leaves m:a 
 taken away, and the root itself is more or less 
 exposed by removal of the soil from about it. 
 After a lapse of six weeks, a slice is cut hori- 
 zontally from its summit, and a thick white 
 juice exudes, the smell of which even exceeds 
 in strength that of the- drug when dry. The 
 drug is sometimes met with in the market in the 
 form of tears, but more frequently in lumps, which 
 are made up of irregularly shaped tears, agglutinated 
 together by a softer substance. A. is extensively 
 used in medicine, and possesses stimulant and anti- 
 spasmodic properties. When taken internally, it 
 undergoes absorption, and may be detected in almost 
 every secretion of the body, as the saliva, breath, 
 and urine. According to the analysis of IPelletier, 
 A. is composed of the following substances : resin, 
 65 parts ; volatile oil, 3'6 ; gum, 19'44 ; bassorin, 
 11'66 ; various salts, 'SO. In many parts of the East, 
 this drug is used as a condiment, in which respect 
 it seems to take the place of the garlic of some 
 European nations. 
 
 A'SAPH, St, a cathedral city, on a smaU hiU 
 between the rivers Clwyd and Elwy, in the north- 
 west of Flintshire, Wales. The cathedral is a cruci- 
 form building, 178 by 68 feet, and was built in 1284 
 on the site of a wooden structure founded before 596. 
 It has been enlarged and repaired since last century, 
 and has a tower 93 feet high. It is one of the 
 smallest of British cathedrals, and stands on the top 
 of the hill on which the city is built. Kentigern, or 
 St Mungo, Bishop of Glasgow, and his disciple, St 
 A., are said to have founded the see of St A. in the 
 6th c. The bishop, who has a revenue of £4200, is 
 patron of 121 of the 148 benefices in the diocese. 
 Pop. in 1851, ^041. St A., with the Flint district of 
 burghs, returns one member to parliament. 
 
 A'SAPHXJS. See Tkilobite. 
 
 ASAEABA'COA (A'sarum EuropcBum), a plant 
 of the natural order Aristolochiaceoe (see Aeisto- 
 LOCHIA), a native of Europe, growing in woods; 
 rare, and perhaps not truly indigenous, in Britain. 
 The whole plant has acrid properties ; the roots and 
 leaves are aromatic, purgative, and emetic. The 
 vise of A., however, as an emetic has been mnoh 
 
 Asarabacoa {Asarum EwoptEvm). 
 6, detached anther ; c, style. 
 
 superseded by that of ipecacuanha, which is- milder 
 and. safer. The powdered roots and leaves enter . 
 into the composition of cephalic snuffs, which cause 
 
 461 
 
ASBEN— ASCAEIS. 
 
 sneesdng, and are employed as a counter-irritant in 
 cases of headache, ophthalmia, toothache, &o. The 
 plant contains a volatile oil, and a crystalline sub- 
 stance called Asarine, to which it seems to owe its 
 active properties. The genus Asarum is distin- 
 guished by twelve horned stamens, distinct from 
 each other and from the style, and by a beU-shaped 
 three-lobed perianth. A. Europceum has a very 
 short stem with two shilling kidney-shaped leaves 
 on long stalks, from the axil of which springs a 
 single drooping greenish-brown flower. — A nearly 
 allied species, A. Oanadense, a, native of Canada, is 
 stimulant and diaphoretic, and is used under the 
 name of Canada Snakeeoot, instead of Aristo- 
 lochia Serpentaria. It is also called Wild Ginger, 
 and used as a spice, being of a, warm aromatic 
 quahty, and not acrid, like its European congener. 
 
 AS'BBN, or A'lR, a country of Central Africa, 
 situated in 15°— 20° N. lat, and 6°— 11° E. long. 
 Pop. estimated at 64,000. Its territory comprises a 
 large amount of desert, as well as considerable tracts 
 of moimtain land. The inhabitants are chiefly of 
 Berber extraction, and generally profess the religion 
 of Mohammed. They are of a degraded character, and 
 given to marauding. The climate is rather healthy, 
 and generally hot and dry. The rainy season is from 
 August till October. The soil in many places is 
 fertile, producing the doom palm, dates, and senna. 
 Dr Barth, the traveller, says of the aspect of the 
 country: 'Rocky ground, overtopped by higher 
 mountain masses or by detached peaks, and hollows 
 overgrown with rich vegetation, and preserving for a 
 longer or shorter time the regular form of valleys, 
 succeed each other by turns, and constitute the pre- 
 dominant feature of the country of Asben.' The 
 capital is Agades (q. v.). ■> 
 
 ASBB'STXJS, a mineral very closely aUied to 
 tremolite, actinolite, and hornblende, and which, 
 along with tremolite and actinolite, is often ranked 
 among the varieties of hornblende. It consists 
 chiefly of sUica, magnesia, Ume, and oxide of iron, 
 and is of a fine fibrous character, the fibres some- 
 times combined together in a compact mass, some- 
 times easily separable, elastic and flexible. It is 
 generally of a whitish or greenish colour. The 
 variety called Sock-cork very much resembles cork, 
 is soft and easily cut, and so light as to swim in water. 
 Sock-leather and Sock-wood are varieties somewhat 
 similar to rock-cork, but not so light. The finest 
 fibrous variety with easily separable fibres is called 
 Amianthus (from a Greek word signifying unpol- 
 lutible, as A. is fi-om a Greek word signifying inde- 
 structible), because cloth made of it was cleansed by 
 passing it through fire. This cloth was used by the 
 ancients to enwrap dead bodies placed on the 
 funeral pile, so as to preserve the ashes of the body 
 unmixed. Amianthus has sometimes been used for 
 the wicks of lamps, and is often employed to fill 
 vinaigrettes, being moistened from time to time 
 with a few drops of aromatic viiiegar. The finest 
 amianthus is found in the Tarentaise in Savoy. It 
 is particularly abundant in Corsica. It is found also 
 in Cornwall, at Portsoy in Scotland, and in several 
 of the Shetland Islands. None of the varieties of 
 A. are very common, but they are not unfrequent in 
 serpentine and allied rocks in'different parts of the 
 world. Minerals which resemble A. in their fibrous 
 character are sometimes called' oaSastous or asbesti- 
 form, and some of them are believed to be varieties 
 of augite rather than of hornblende. 
 
 A'SCALON, or ASHKELON, a ruined city of 
 Palestine, situated on the shore of the Mediterranean, 
 36 miles W.S.W. of Jerusalem, and 12 N. by W. of 
 Gaza. It was in ancient times a fortified city, and 
 the principal town of one of the five lordships of the 
 
 463 
 
 Philistines. Its name often occurs in the history of 
 the people of Israel in the Old Testament, where it 
 is represented as falling at an early period into the 
 hands of the tribe of Judah. Herod the Great 
 embellished it with baths, palaces, and fountains; 
 but in the subsequent wars with the Romans, it 
 suffered much damage. There was a celebrated 
 temple of Derketo, the Venus of the Syrians, at 
 A., which is recorded to have been plundered by 
 the Scythians, 630 B.C. After continumg long 
 under the dominion of the Roman empire, the city 
 came into the possession of the Saracens in the 
 7th c. In 1099 a great battle was fought on the 
 plains of A., between the Crusaders and Saracens, 
 when the Christians gained a decisive victory. 
 The city, however, a number of years after, was 
 recaptm-ed by the Moslems, and held by them as 
 a strongly fortified place until 1153, when it was 
 taken by the Crusaders under Baldwin III. In 1187 
 it was retaken by the Saracens, but afterwards 
 (1192) fell into the hands of Richard Coeur de Lion. 
 Subsequently, being more than once dismantled and 
 repaired during the wars between Richard and 
 Saladin, it was reduced to desolation by Sultan 
 Bibars in 1270. 
 
 The ruins of this ancient city occupy an extensive 
 semicircular eminence, sloping gently to the east, 
 but abrupt and steep towards the sea. Part of the 
 walls are stiU standing, with the remains of Gothic 
 churches, a palace, and several edifices of more 
 ancient date, which attract the notice of the traveller 
 and the antiquary. 
 
 A'SCARIS, a genus of Entozoa, or intestinal 
 worms, of the order Mematoidea of Zeder, Cuvier, 
 &c., and of the division Sterdmintha of Owen. 
 The asoarides have a body approaching to cylindri- 
 cal, but thickest in the middle. They inhabit the 
 intestines of animals. .The species are numerous. 
 One of the best known is A. lumbricoides, often 
 called the Common round worm, which oocm-s in the 
 intestines of man and of some of the lower animals, 
 as the hog, ox, horse, &c., and which often occasions 
 severe disease, and sometimes death, particularly 
 when it ascends from the intestines to the stomach. 
 Its presence even in its most ordinary situation in 
 the small intestines, is attended with unfavourable 
 effects upon the general health ; and the greater the 
 number present — which, however, is not usually 
 large — the greater, of course, is the injury ; althougli 
 when they remain in the intestines, worms of this 
 species are less injurious and less annoying than 
 other, and even much smaller intestinal worms. In 
 subjects otherwise diseased, they occasionally find 
 tUeir way out of the intestines into the closed serous 
 cavities of the body, and even pass through ulcerated 
 parts of the external integument ; but the mouth 
 IS formed only for suction, and is provided with no 
 
 Ascaris lumbricoides (male). 
 
 One-third of the true linear dimensions j a is the head of the 
 
 worm. 
 
 means of boring through the healthy intestine. An 
 immense number of remedies (anthelmintics or ver- 
 mifuges) have been proposed and used in order to 
 expel this parasite, some of which are very effectual. 
 They do not in general kill the worms, but act by 
 making their dwelling-place disagreeable to them 
 (see Vermifuge). It is, however, remarked by 
 Kiichenmeister, in his work on Parasites, that the 
 
ASCARIS-ASCENSION. 
 
 treatment of cases of this description is as yet purely 
 empirical, beoanse, although there must be a condi- 
 tion of the intestinal canal which favours the thriv- 
 ing of worms, we are by no means certain what it is. 
 The A. lumbrkaides is ordinarily, in size and 
 
 The mouth of Ascaris lumbriooides, magnified. 
 Shewing the fleshy tubercles spread out, with cockscomb-like 
 muscles interior to them, and the entrance to the intestinal 
 canal. 
 
 appearance, pretty much like the Common Earthworm 
 (Lwmbricus terrestris), from which resemblance it has 
 received its specific name, although the resemblance 
 is rather in general form than in more essential 
 characteristics. It has been seen fifteen inches in 
 length. Its mouth consists of three fleshy tubercles, 
 which can be spread out upon the intestine to form 
 a broad circular sucker, and within which there is 
 a small tube capable of being protruded. The ali- 
 mentary canal consists of a muscular gullet and 
 stomach, and a thin-walled intestine. Between the 
 muscular layers of the body is produced a pale 
 reddish oily matter, with a strong and very pecuhar 
 odour, which is gradually communicated to spirit in 
 which the worm is preserved. The males are smaller 
 than the females, and much more rare. The females 
 produce eggs in great numbers ; but it is uncertain 
 fi ever they are developed within the intestine in 
 which the parent worm resides. They are certainly 
 capable of being developed elsewhere, and probably 
 the young enter the intestines of th^ animals of 
 which they are eventually to 'be the parasites, after 
 having spent a certain stage of their existence in 
 very different circumstances : the worm in a very 
 young state having never been found in the intestines 
 of man or of quadrupeds, the situation of its perfect 
 development. The inhabitants of damp valleys are 
 believed to suffer more than others from the A. 
 lumbricoides. It is said also to be particularly 
 frequent in persons who are much accustomed to 
 eat raw leaves and roots. ; and it has been supposed 
 that the young may exist, perhaps in an encysted 
 state, in the bodies of insects or other very small 
 animals which are accidentally eaten along with 
 such food, as the young tapeworm finds its way into 
 the hiuuan intestines from its residence as a creature 
 of very different size and form in the flesh of the 
 sheep or tlie pig. The once prevalent idea of the 
 , equivocal generation of these worms is now com- 
 pletely abandoned. 
 
 A. vermicuians is another species usually referred 
 to this genus, and is the only other species trouble- 
 some to mankiad. It is Icnown as the Thread- worm 
 or Maw-worm, and is very common both in children 
 and adults. It infests chiefly the lower part of the 
 intestines, and particularly the rectum, great numbers 
 being often present together, and occasioning intoler- 
 able itching, irritation, and loss of sleep, although 
 there is not in general much serious injury to healQi. 
 The same anthelmintics employed against other 
 intestinal worms are found efficacious also in the 
 expulsion of this; and clysters are often employed 
 with great success. The thread-worm is white, not 
 more than half an inch in length, the male much 
 
 less. Some recent authors of high reputation have 
 separated this species from A., and call it Oxywris 
 
 Ascaii„ M,imicularis (male). 
 
 Magnified twenty-five diameters ; 
 a, the mouth. 
 
 Aaoaris vcrmicularis 
 
 (female). 
 
 Magnified eight diameters. 
 
 venrdadaria, but the term AscaHdes is often 
 employed in medical works with exclusive reference 
 to it ; and indeed this name, derived from the Greek 
 aakarho, to jump or move'briskly, probably owes its 
 origin to the liveliness of motion which this species 
 exhibits. It has been recently discovered that its 
 nervous system is very highly developed, consisting 
 of many ganglia, with connecting and ramifying 
 cords. 
 
 ASCE'NSION, one of the comparatively few 
 single islands on the globe, being about 800 miles to 
 the north-west of St Helena, and almost as far to the 
 south south-west of St Matthew. It is said to have 
 received its name from the circumstance of its having 
 been discovered by the Ijortuguese on Ascension-day. 
 It is nearly in the middle of the South Atlantic, the lat. 
 of its fort being 7° 55' 55" S., and its long. 14° 23' 5" W. 
 A. is 8 miles long by 6 broad ; its area being about 
 35 square miles. Though it was discovered as early 
 as 1501, yet it remained uninhabited tUl 1815, when, 
 in connection with Napoleon Bonaparte's detention 
 in St Helena, the English tooii possession of it. 
 Even now the population, about 400, is chiefly mili- 
 tary. Like St Helena, it is of volcanic origin, and 
 generally mountainous — one peak rising to a height 
 of 2870 feet. Owing to the extreme dryness of the 
 climate, which, however, is healthy, the surface is 
 nearly destitute of verdure. Among indigenous 
 productions are the tomato, castor-ou plant, and 
 pepper; and various European vegetables are suc- 
 cessfully cultivated. The chief exports of A. are 
 turtle and birds' eggs — 10,000 dozens of the latter 
 having occasionally been collected in one week. 
 
 ASCE'NSION, Right (Lat. ascensio, a rising; 
 Ger. gerade aufsteigung), the name given in astronomy 
 to one of the arcs which determine the position 
 relatively to the equator of a heavenly body on the 
 celestial sphere, the other being the declination. See 
 Abmillabv Sfbxbe. It is the arc of the equator 
 
ASCENSION-DAY-ASCETICISM. 
 
 intercepted between the first point of Aries (q. v.), 
 and tlie point at which the circle of declination 
 passing through the star cuts the equator. Measured 
 always from west to east, right A. on the heavens cor- 
 responds to longitude on the earth. The right A. of a 
 heavenly body is ascertained by means of the transit 
 instrument and clock. The transit instrument deter- 
 mines its meridian passage, and the transit clock 
 gives the time at which this takes place. When the 
 first point of Aries is in the meridian, the clock 
 stands at hours, minutes, seconds, and it is so 
 arranged as to indicate 24 sidereal horn's, the time 
 that elapses between two successive passages of that 
 point. The reading of the clock, therefore, at the 
 passage of any heavenly body gives its right A. in time, 
 and this, when multiplied by 15, gives the same in 
 degrees, minutes, and seconds. The right A. is usually 
 given, however, in time. The old term, oblique A., 
 was given to the right A. of the point of the equator 
 that rose simultaneously with the heavenly body ; 
 and the difference of the oblique and right A. was 
 called the ' ascensional difference.' 
 
 ASCE'NSION-BAY, or HOLY THURSDAY, 
 
 one of the great religious festivals of the Episco- 
 pal, and also of the Eoman Catholic Church. It 
 is held on the fortieth day after Easter, and is 
 intended to commemorate the ascension of Christ 
 into heaven. It is one of the six days occur- 
 ring in the year for which the Church of England 
 appoints special psalms, and the same church also 
 particularly recommends it as a. fitting day for 
 the receiving of the communion. Ascension-day 
 has been observed from the earhest times of 
 the Christian Church. St Augustine believes it to 
 have been instituted either by the apostles them- 
 selves, or the primitive bishops succeeding them. 
 Connected with the religious observances of this 
 day were certain civic ones, which in some parts of 
 England and Scotland are continued to this day — 
 viz., beating the bounds, or riding the marches, though 
 their rehgious connection is apparently forgotten. 
 
 See EOGATION Days and PERAMBUIiATIONS. 
 
 ASCE'TICISM. Among the Greeks, aslcesis 
 denoted the exercise and discipline practised by the 
 athletes or wrestlers, who had to harden their bodies 
 by exertion and to avoid aU sensual and effeminating 
 indulgences. In the schools of the philosophers, 
 especially of the Stoics, the same word signified 
 the practice of mastering the desires and passions, 
 or of severe virtue. In these senses it passed into 
 the language of the early Christians. The language 
 of St Paul in comparing the Christians to wrestlers 
 who had to contend wiUi Satan, the world, and the 
 flesh, contributed to this. But the plnlosophy 
 of the time had more to do with it, which held the 
 freeing of mind from matter to be the means of union 
 with God ; or, at least, that the refraining from aU 
 luxurious pleasure was the way to restore the soul 
 to its original purity. To understand the vast influ- 
 ence that ascetic ideas have exercised on the Christian 
 religion, we must look beyond the bounds of its 
 history. Their root lies in the oriental notion, that 
 the Absolute or All is the only real existence ; and 
 that individual phenomena, especially matter in all 
 its shapes, are really nothing, and are to be despised 
 and avoided, as involving the principle of separation 
 from the Absolute. The East, accordingly, is the 
 native soil of A. The glowing imagination of 
 the oriental carries the practice of it to a monstrous 
 extravagance, as is seen in the frightful self- 
 tortures of the yogis and fakirs, the suicides in 
 the sacred Ganges and under the wheels of Jugger- 
 nauth, and the practices now or recently prevalent 
 of offering children in sacrifice, and of burn- 
 ing widows; most of which, however, have been 
 48* 
 
 humanely suppressed by the efforts of the British 
 government. Buddhism, which may be considered 
 as a kind of puritan revival or reformation — 
 the methodism of the Indian religion — carried 
 the principle beyond its previous bounds. In 
 its contemning the world; in its inculcating a life 
 of solitude and beggary, mortification of the body, 
 and abstinence from all uncleanness and from all 
 exciting drinks, the object was to keep as distant and 
 detached as possible from this ' Vale of Sorrow ' (see 
 Buddhism and Nievana). The sober Chinese, and 
 the more moral and rational Persians, never carried 
 asceticism to these extravagances ; and the earnest 
 Egyptians sought to confiue it to monogamy of the 
 priests, abstaining from the flesh of swine and from 
 beans, rigid purity, circumcision, moderate flagella- 
 tion, and frequent contemplation of death (which 
 there were arrangements for bringing to remem- 
 brance, even in the midst of festivities). These 
 are certainly milder forms of A., but the principle 
 is the same. 
 
 It is in the light of this fore-history that we must 
 consider Judaic and Christian asceticism. In the 
 oriental mind, especially in Egypt, circumcision, 
 avoiding of all uncleanness, and fasting, were signs of 
 humiliation before God ; and in the Mosaic ritual they 
 were conditions of the favour of the holy Jehovah. 
 Voluntary vows, abstaining even from lawful food, 
 wine, &c., were held to JSave a special purifying, 
 consecrating efficacy, particularly for prophets and 
 men of special callings. But self-castigation con- 
 tinued for long foreign to the sobriety of Judaism, 
 and even hermitism came into established practice 
 only shortly before Christ, in Palestine among the 
 Essenes (q. v.), in Egypt among the Therapeutae 
 (q.v.); though doubtless Jewish A. had become 
 more stem and gloomy since the exile in Babylon. 
 
 A. was far less congenial to the reflective nations 
 of the West, above all to the cheerful Greeks. A 
 Greek felt himself entitled to enjoyment as well as 
 his gods ; hence Greek religious festivals were per- 
 vaded by cheerfulness. The only exception appears 
 to be the Eleusinian mysteries, which never took 
 hold of the people generally, and the passing pheno- 
 menon of the Pythagorean fraternity. The attack 
 made by the Socratic school upon the body as the 
 prison of the soul — a view reminding one of the East 
 — and the extravagant contempt for the elegances, 
 and even decencies of life, professed by the later 
 Stoics and Cynics, were no genuine fruits of the 
 popular Greek mind; and we must also ascribe to 
 the infusion of oriental philosophy the ascetic ten- 
 dencies of Neoplatonism, in holding abstinence from 
 flesh and from marriage as chief conditions of 
 absorption into the divinity. 
 
 It was into the midst of these ideas that Chris- 
 tianity was introduced. The Jewish converts brought 
 with them their convictions about fasting. Easting 
 and Nazaritio observances were thought sanctifying 
 preparatives for great undertakings ; and the incul- 
 cation of abstinence from marriage, on the ground of _ 
 the expected speedy re-appearance of Christ, falls in' 
 with the same notion, namely, that the flesh, that is, 
 the sensuous part of our nature, is the seat of sin, 
 and must therefore, before all things, be rigorously 
 chained. The old oriental traditions of A. ; the 
 spirituahty of Christianity, pointing away from earth 
 to heaven ; opposition to the corruption of the 
 heathen world ; the distinction made between behef 
 and knowledge, as a higher and lower stage of intel- 
 ligence, leading to a corresponding distinction of a 
 higher and lower stage of virtue: all combined to 
 make the Christians of the first two centuries hold 
 aloof from the world and its wisdom, and favour 
 abstinence from marriage, more especially on the 
 part of the clergy. This ascetic spirit began as early 
 
ASCHAFFENBUBG— ASOHAM. 
 
 aa the commenoement of the 2d o. to court trial in 
 the perilous practice of men and women living 
 together under vows of continence. We find 
 Cypriem dissuading from the dangerous experiment, 
 and even the authority of the church interposed to 
 the same effeftt. But during the first three centuries 
 no irrevocable vows yet bound the devotees to a life- 
 long A. Fasting was also comparatively rare. 
 
 But the tendency to outward manifestations now 
 began to grow stronger. The inward and spiritual 
 life of the Christians had greatly declined ; and if 
 the previous bloody persecutions had driven indi- 
 viduals from human society into the deserts, the 
 growing secularisation of the church, after Christi- 
 anity became the state religion, had the same 
 effect to a still greater degree. AU this paved the 
 way for the chief manifestation of A. — namely, mon- 
 astioism (q. v.) ; and the church found hersdf com- 
 pelled by the overwhelming tide of opinion withia 
 and without to recognise Siis form of A., and to 
 take it imder her protection and care. From the 
 African Church, represented by Tertullian and 
 Augustiae, a spirit of gloomy and crushiug super- 
 naturalism spread deeper and deeper over the Western 
 Church generally, intensifying the ascetic tendencies, 
 and leamng to still more marked separation from a 
 despised world. There were not wanting healthier 
 minds — as Jovianus, VigUautius, and others — to 
 raise their voices against fasting, monkery, and the 
 outward works of A. generally; but sudi protests 
 were vain, and became ever rarer. 
 
 From the 11th c, the Cathari, Waldenses, and 
 other sects, though ascetics themselves in a way, 
 yet assailed the external A. of the church; the 
 classic Petrarch fought on the same side ; and so 
 did Wickliffe, Huss, and Jerome of Prague, in their 
 premature struggles at reformation. After a pre- 
 liminary skirmSi by Erasmus, the struggle was 
 decided in the reformation of the 16th c. The 
 fundamental principle of that movement, that salva- 
 tion is secured by justification through faith, and 
 not through dead works, struck at the root of 
 monkery and mortification in general. But the 
 victory has not been so complete as is often assumed. 
 The ascetic spirit often shews itself still alive under 
 various disguises even in Protestantism. The 
 Mennonites inculcated a rigid A. ; and with the 
 Shakers of America, cehbaoy is practised ks a virtue. 
 The essence of A. is to hold self-denial and suffering 
 to he meritorious in the sight of God, in and for 
 itself, without regarding whether it promotes in any 
 way the good of others or the improvement of the 
 individual's own character. In this light, many 
 traits presented by Puritanism, Methodism, and 
 Quakerism appear ascetic. It is not impossible that 
 vegetarianism, total abstinence, and other recent 
 austerities, though advocated on other grounds, 
 recommend themselves to the feelings of many 
 from their falHng in with this deep-seated pro- 
 . pensity to A. ; which seems a relic of that dread of 
 the malignity of the invisible and supernatural 
 powers which haunts the human mind in an 
 unenlightened and savage state. 
 
 Even in the Komish Church, ascetic practices have 
 been modified in recent times; fastings are less 
 rigorous, and the self-sacrifice of conventual life is 
 more directed to beneficial ends. Mohammedanism 
 has undergone the same change. In the Greek 
 Church, monastioism had always a milder form. 
 
 ASCHA'FFENBUEG, the chief town on the right 
 bank of the Maine, in the Bavarian principality of 
 the same name (lat. 50° 1' N., long. 9° 7' E.). It is 
 built upon an eminence, and has both a healthy and 
 attractive situation; but the streets are narrow, 
 irregular, and slope steeply towards the river. The 
 castle of Johannisburg, built between 1603 — 1614, 
 30 
 
 by Johann Sohweikhardt, Elector of Mentz, and the 
 favourite hunting residence of many of his suc- 
 cessors, forma a quadrangle, with towers at each 
 comer, and overlooks the whole town. Besides the 
 ooUegiate church, the military barracks, and the 
 town-hospital, A. possesses a Koman villa, buUt by 
 the late King Loius, in imitation of the Castor and 
 Pollux edifice discovered at Pompeii. It ia celebrated 
 for its manufacture of coloured papers, besides carry- 
 ing on a considerable trade in wood, bmlding-stone, 
 tobacco, wine, &c. Pop. 8500, principally Catholics. 
 
 A. existed as early as the invasion of Germany 
 by the Romans, who buUt a, castle here. In 974, 
 Otto I., Duke of Swabia and Bavaria, founded 
 the collegiate church, which greatly increased the 
 prosperity of the place. After Otto's death, it came 
 into the possession of the archbishops of Mentz, and 
 remained with them until the dissolution of the 
 Germanic empire. In 1814, along with the princi- 
 paKty of which it is the capital, it was ceded to 
 Bavaria by Austria. 
 
 ASCHAM, KoGEB, a distinguished English writer 
 and classical scholar, was born in 1515 at Kirby 
 Wiske, in Yorkshire. He received his early educa- 
 tion in the family of Sir Anthony Wingfield, and in 
 1530 entered St John's CoUege, Cambridge, where he 
 took his degree of M.A. in 1536. The study of the 
 classics, especially Greek, had recently been revived 
 at Cambridge, and the natural bent of A. impelled 
 him with ardour to these studies. His reputation 
 as a classical scholar soon brought him numerous 
 pupils ; and there being at that time no Greek chair, 
 he was appointed by 3ie university to read lectures 
 in the public schools. He at first opposed the then 
 new method of pronunciation which ia stiU used in 
 England ; but afterwards adopted and defended it. 
 His leisure hours were devoted/ to music, penmanship, 
 in which he excelled, and archery. In defence of 
 the latter art, he wrote, in 1544, a treatise entitled 
 ToxopMlus, the pure Enghsh style of which, inde- 
 pendently of its other merits, ranks it among the 
 classical pieces of English literature. For this treatise, 
 which was dedicated to Henry VIII., he was 
 rewarded with an annual pension of £10, equivalent 
 to about £100 of our present money. About the 
 same time, he was appointed imiversity orator. In 
 1548, on the death of his former pupil, Grindal, he 
 was called to supply his place as master of languages 
 to the Lady Ehzabeth. In this office he gave Qie 
 tiighest satisfaction; but at the end of two years 
 abruptly resigned it, on account of some offence he 
 had taken at some persona in the princess's house- 
 hold. That he did not lose favour at court, however, 
 is manifest, from his having soon after been appointed 
 secretary to Sir Bichard Morysine, ambassador to the 
 court of Charles V. He spent three years in Ger- 
 many, and published an account of his observations 
 in that coimtry. He also made a short tour in Italy. 
 During his absence, he had been appointed Latin 
 secretary to Edward VI. On his return, after the 
 death of the king, the interest of Gardiner, Bishop 
 of Winchester, secured his appointment to the same 
 office under Mary; his pension also was doubled. 
 His prudence and moderation preserved him from 
 offending by his Protestantism. After the death of 
 Mary, Elizabeth retained him at court in the double 
 capacity of secretary and tutor, which he discharged 
 till his death, in 1568. Hia principal work, The 
 Schoolmaster, a treatise on clasaical education, was 
 published in 1571 by hia widow. His Latin letters 
 and poems have been frequently reprinted. The 
 best edition of the former is that of Elstob (Oxford, 
 1703). To an edition of his Enghsh works, by the 
 Rev. J. Bennet (1767), is prefixed a life by Dr 
 Johnson. — Ascham, a case for the reception of the 
 bow, arrows, strings, and other accoutrements of the 
 ' " 465 
 
ASCHERSLEBBN— ASCIDIA. 
 
 arclier, derives its name from the author of the 
 Toxophiliis. 
 
 ASCHBRSLE'BEKr, a town in the circle or 
 district of the same name, in the Prussian province 
 of Magdeburg, lat. 51° 46' N., long., 11° 27' E. It is 
 situated on the river Eine, is 7 miles distant from 
 Magdeburg, and has a population of 11,500. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly occupied in agriculture and 
 gardening, but its trade is not very important. It 
 has, however, considerable manufactures of woollens, 
 linens, earthenware, &o. In the vicinity are the 
 ruins of the old burgh of Ascania, the original seat 
 of the House of Anhalt. 
 
 ASOI'DIA, a liinnaeau genus of marine moUusca, 
 now much restricted as a genus, but the type of a 
 family called Amdiadce. Kie name Ascidians is also 
 commonly employed to designate all those tunicated 
 moUusca whidi form the order Saccobranchiaia of 
 Owen, or in which respiration is carried on by 
 means of giU-saca (bratuMal sacs); and these are 
 divided into Compound and Solitary Ascidians {Ag- 
 gregaia and Solitaria). The ascidians, along with 
 the other Tunicafa, are acephalous, or destitute of a 
 head, and are enclosed, not in a shell, but in an 
 elastic tunic with two orifices, composed of a sub- 
 stance apparently identical with the cdlulose of 
 plants, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen, 
 w ithin the external tunic is a muscular membrane, 
 regarded as corresponding to the mantle of other 
 mollusca, and the openings of which agree with 
 those of the tunic. The greater part of tiie cavity 
 of the mantle forms a, branchial sac, the lining of 
 which, folded in various ways, constitutes the gUls 
 (Jjranchim) ; and into it currents of sea- water are 
 continually brought by the respiratory movements, 
 passing out through the vent or anal orifice. 
 Multitudinous cilia in the mouth and branchial sac, 
 cause by their action this continual flow of water. 
 The motion of the cilia is apparently quite involun- 
 tary. By this flow of water, the particles of food 
 requisite for the animal are brought in, so that the 
 aeration of the blood and the supply of the stomach 
 are carried on together and by the same means. The 
 oesophagus or gullet opens from the branchial sac, 
 which is indeed regarded as probably an expansion 
 of the upper part of it — a dilated pharynx. Under 
 the branddalsac is the stomach ; and the alimentary 
 canal, which is more or less tortuous, finally returns 
 upon itself, so that the two orifices are not far 
 separate. The Uver consists of follicles produced 
 into tubes, and communicating 
 with the stomach by a single 
 opening. There is a heart and 
 a chcmation of blood, with the 
 remarkable peculiarity of alter- 
 nations in its coxuse, the cir- 
 culation every now and then 
 pausing and being reversed. 
 The transparency of many of 
 the ascidians permits these and 
 other internal movements to 
 be easily observed. The ner- 
 vous system is very simple, 
 consisting of a single gangKon, 
 situated Detween the mouth 
 and the anal orifice, and which 
 Nervous System of ggnds out filaments to both of 
 Ascidia. them, and other branches over 
 
 a, moutli; ». ™nt; ?. the surface of the mantle. The 
 ganglion; a, the mantle ., - ^1 e^ i i 
 
 (the external ttinio mantle 13 capable of contract- 
 being removed). jng suddenly to eject a jet of 
 water, and along with it any 
 body the presence of which is disagreeable. It also 
 contracts and ejects water, if the animal is touched, 
 and this appears to be the only means of defence 
 
 46S 
 
 which these creatures possess. There is no trace of 
 eyes or of other organs of special sense. 
 
 The ascidians are found in all seas, and often 
 constitute an important part of the food of fishes. 
 Some of them are occasionally used as human food, 
 as Cynthia microcosmus on the shores of the Medi- 
 terranean. Many of them are very small, but some 
 attain a size of five or six inches in diameter, and 
 when touched, eject water to a considerable height, 
 the largest of them to about three feet. They are aU 
 fixed by the base, in their mature state, to some solid 
 substance, as a rock or seaweed ; sometimes by the 
 
 Section of Social Ascidian. 
 
 a, moutli ; &, vent ; c, stomach ; d, intestinal canal ; 
 
 e, common tubular stem. 
 
 intervention of a stalk or peduncle. In some 
 kinds {Social Ascidians), the peduncles of a nimiber 
 of individuals are connected by a tubular stem, and 
 to some extent they have a common circulation of 
 blood, although each has its own heart, respiratory 
 apparatus, and digestive system ; and if a ligature 
 is drawn around the peduncle of one so as to cut 
 it off from the common circulation, circulation takes 
 place in it as in a solitary ascidian. In other kinds 
 (more strictly called Compownd Ascidians— yrhiiih 
 designation, however, is by some authors applied 
 to those just described, whilst these are called 
 Aggregate Ascidians), the tunics of many are united 
 into a mass, and they form systems like zoophytes. 
 The compound system sometimes bears a general 
 resemblance to an actinia. Very frequently it forms 
 a slimy crust upon algse, shells, &c., or projects in 
 globular or corneal masses, 'more like a liunp of 
 manimate matter than a being endowed with vitaUty ' 
 — ' a curious and interesting internal organisation, 
 veiled by the coarsest exterior.' The individuals are 
 sometimes connected by a gelatinous flesh, which 
 consists of cellulose, and there is sometimes a calca- 
 reous deposition in this connecting substance as in 
 the compound polypes. The individuals in these 
 systems have always sprung by gemmation from 
 one, and both the sohtary and compound ascidians 
 propagate by eggs. The young have the power of 
 active locomotion, resemble tad- 
 poles inform, and swim by means 
 of a vibratile tail, which disap- 
 pears when they settle, being | 
 usually detached by contraction 
 at the base. The sexes are sup- 
 posed to be distinct only in some 
 of the ascidians. The ovaries are 
 
 ca^edaTOfbythestrta^which ^'^^^ (y°""g)- 
 passes through the animal. It is in the solitary 
 ascidians that the highest organisation is to bp 
 observed, and in which alone a distinction of sexes 
 appears. In them, a muscular ring surrounds the 
 mouth, and can be closed to exclude what is unfit 
 to enter. Within this aperture there is also a 
 fringe of tentacula, short and simple, or longer 
 and minutely divided. In the compound ascidians, 
 
 femmation does not begin till the single animal 
 as been fuUy developed ; thereafter, bud after 
 
ASOLEPIADAOagE— ASCLEPIADES. 
 
 bud is produced, SMSoording to the plan upon which 
 the compound system is constructed, and ' the pro- 
 creative force of the germ-mass finally exhausts 
 itseU in the formation of male and female organs, in 
 which that force is again mysteriously renewed under 
 its two forms of the spermatozoon and the germinal 
 vesicle, by the combination of which the reproduc- 
 tive cycle again begins its course.' 
 
 The name Ascidian Zoophytes {Zoophyta Asn- 
 dioida) has been used to designate those zoophytes 
 or polypes which form the class Polyzoa of Thomp- 
 son, Bryozoa of Ehrenberg, and which in certain 
 features of their organisation resemble the A., 
 although in other respects they widely differ from 
 them. The Aleyrniidium and jlfcyoneKa, already 
 noticed in the s^ici'S Alcyonium, belong to this class. 
 See Polype and Zoophyte. 
 
 ASCLEPIABA'CEJE, or ASCLEPIADB^, a 
 natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, 
 mostly shrubs, often with twining stems, almost 
 always with milky juice. The leaves are entire, and 
 have cilia between their stalks in place of stipules. 
 The flowers are peculiar in their structure, although 
 symmetrical and regular. The ! calyx is divided 
 into five segments, the corolla into five lobes ; there 
 are five stamens, and the stigma has five angles. 
 The filaments are usually united so as to form a 
 tube, whi6h is generally furnished with a coronet of 
 peculiar hoodrshaped appendages ; the anthers are 
 two-celled, the pollen grains cohering in wax-hke 
 masses, which fall out of the anther cells, and 
 become attached to glands at the angles of the 
 stigma ; there are two ovaries and two styles very 
 close together, and often very short, with one 
 dilated stigma common to both. The fruit consists 
 of two folEoles," or, by abortion, of one only, having 
 numerous imbricated seeds with thin albumen, the 
 ends of the seeds terminating in long down. There 
 are nearly one thousand known species, chiefly 
 
 Vincetoxicum o£Sciiiale. 
 a, root ; i, fruit ; c, a Gingle seed. 
 
 natives of warm climates. Some of them are culti- 
 vated in gardens and hothouses, upon account of 
 their curious or beautiful flowers, among the most 
 familiar of which are some of the species of Asclepias 
 [q. V.) or Swallow- wort j perhaps none of them is 
 
 more highly or deservedly esteemed than Stephanotia 
 flmhunda, the fragrance of which equals its beauty, 
 and which, since its introduction into British hot- 
 houses, has been sought for the bridal-garlands of 
 the highest aristocracy. No hothouse climber is 
 better known than Hoya carnosa, at each flower of 
 which a drop of honey is always found to hang. 
 A number of species are medicinal, as Indian Sar- 
 saparUla (q. v.), (Hoemidesmus Indicus) ; Mudar (q. v.) 
 (Gahtropia giganiea), so highly prized in the East 
 Indies ; Sarcostemma glaucwm, the Ipecacuanha of 
 Venezuela; Tylophora aslhmaiica and Secamone 
 emetica, the roots of which are used as emetics, and 
 in smaller doses as cathartics, and the former of 
 which is reckoned among the most valuable medi- 
 cinal plants of India; Cynanclium acutum, which 
 yields a purgative called Montpeher Scammony, and 
 Vincetox/ieum officinale, which possesses similar pro- 
 perties. Argel (q.v.), much used for adulterating 
 senna, belongs to this order. — The down of the see(fi 
 is sometimes employed as a substitute for silk or 
 cotton (see Asclepias) ; and the stems of not a few 
 species afford usefiil fibres, as those of the Asclepias 
 Syriaca (see Asclepias), the Mudar (q.v.) and other 
 species of Oalotropis, natives of India and Persia, 
 Hoya viridiflora, Holostemma Eheedianum, &c. The 
 Mudar or Yercum fibre is very highly extolled by 
 Dr Eoyle {Fihroua Plants of India). The bark of 
 Marsdenia tenaaissima, a small climbing-plant, yields 
 a fibre called Jetee, of which the Eajmahal moun- 
 taineers make bowstrings, remarkable for their 
 great elasticity, which they are supposed in some 
 measure to owe to the presence of caoutchouc. The 
 fibre of M. Boylei is used in Nepal. Orthanihera 
 viminea, which grows at the base of the Himalayas, 
 and has long leafless wandlike stems of ten feet in 
 height, yields a fibre of remarkable length and 
 tenacity, and which is supposed to be peculiarly 
 suited for rope-making. The fibres of Leptadenia 
 Jaequemontiana and Periploca aphyllum are used 
 in Sinde for making the ropes and bands used in 
 wells, aa water does not rot them. — The milky juice 
 of most species of A. is acrid, but in some it is bland, 
 and they are used for food, as is the Tnillr itself of 
 the Kiriaghuna or Cow-plant of Ceylon -((rymrsfima 
 la/Mferum). A few species, as Marsdenia iincloria, 
 a native of Silhet, yield indigo of excellent quality. 
 The flowers of the genus Stapelia have a strong 
 smell of carrion, and flies sometimes lay their eggs 
 upon them, as it were by mistake. — ^No species of 
 A. is a native of Britain. — The order is generally 
 regarded as nearly allied to Apocynaoeas. 
 
 ASCLBPI'ADES, a Greek physician, bom at 
 Prusa, in Bithynia, who flourished during the early 
 part of Cicero's hfe. He has been confounded with 
 several other persons of the same name, and, in con- 
 sequence, our accounts concerning hiTn are both 
 confused and contradictory. He seems to have 
 wandered about considerably before he finally settled 
 at Rome, as we read of his being at Alexandria, 
 Parium on the Propontis, and Attiens. It is not 
 known either when he was bom or when he died. 
 A. was opposed to the principles of Hippocrates in 
 medicine. Pliny, who professes veiy little respect 
 for him, reduces his medicinal remedies to five : 
 abstinence from flesh, abstinence from wine under 
 certain circumstances, friction, walking, and ' gesta- 
 tion ' or carriage exercise, by which he proposed to 
 open the pores, and let the corpuscles which caused 
 disease escape in perspiration ; for his leading doctrine 
 was, that aU disease rose from an inharmonious dis- 
 tribution of the small, formless corpuscles of which 
 the body was composed. He is said to have been 
 very popular with the Komans on account of his 
 pleasant and simple cures. His maxim was, that a 
 physician ought to cure surely, swiftly, and agreeably 
 
 467 
 
ASCLEPIAS-ASGILL. 
 
 — a thing whioli, unfortunately, is not always possible. 
 A. is also alleged to have been the first who distin- 
 guished between acute and chronic diseases, but his 
 knowledge of anatomy was apparently vei-y shght. 
 The fragments of lus which remain have been 
 withered together, corrected, and published by 
 Criimpert, under the title, Asclepiadis Bithyni Frag- 
 menta (Weimar, 1798). 
 
 ASCLE'PIAS, or SWALLOW-WORT, a genus of 
 plants, the Ijype of the natural order Asclepiadacece. 
 The corolla is wheel-shaped and reflexed ; the coronet 
 fleshy, and each of its hooded tips has a horn. The 
 species are generally upright — seldom cUmbing and 
 twining — ^herbaceous plants with opposite, whorled, 
 or alternate leaves. They are mostly American. 
 The flowers are disposed in simple umbels between 
 the leaf-stalks. — A. Syriaca, Syrian or Virginian 
 Swallow-wort, sometimes called Virginian Silk, 
 appears to be a native of North America, and not of 
 Syria, as was supposed. It is frequently cultivated 
 in flower-gardens. It has an unbranched stem 4 — 7 
 feet high ; thick, ovate leaves, covered with a grayish 
 down on the under side ; and large, stalked, nodding 
 umbels of many dull red flowers, which dififase a 
 strong and sweetish odour. The whole plant is full 
 of an acrid white milk, which contains caoutchouc. 
 The young shoots are eaten in North America like 
 asparagus, as those of A. stipitacea are in Arabia. 
 A brown well-tasted sugar is prepared in Canada 
 from the flowers ; and the silk-like down of the seeds 
 has been used for the manufacture of textile fabrics, 
 either alone, or along with wool or silk, but is more 
 frequently employed for the preparation of wadding, 
 and for stuffing mattresses and pUlowa. The plant 
 appears, however, to be chiefly valuable for the fibre 
 of its stalks, which is used for the manufacture of 
 thread, cloth, ropes, nets, &c., in many parts of 
 North America, and upon accoimt of which it has 
 been recommended for general cultivation in Europe. 
 The fibre is said to be of very superior quahty. The 
 plant rapidly extends by its creeping roots, and 
 readily becomes a weed, where it has been intro- 
 duced. — The roots of several other North American 
 species are used as diaphoretics and expectorants, as 
 A. incamata, A. tuberosa, &c. The latter is a very 
 ornamental garden-flower, and is called Butterfly 
 Weed and Pleurisy Hoot in the United States, where 
 it is frequent on stony and sandy grounds. A. 
 Gurassavica is called Wild Ipecacuanha in the West 
 Indies, and a decoction of it is used by the negi-oes 
 as an emetic and purgative. 
 
 A'SOOLI (anciently, Aseulum Picenum), an old 
 episcopal city of Italy, the capital of a delegation in 
 the States of the Church, lat. 42° 50' N., long. 13° 
 37' E. It is built on a hfll, on the right bank of 
 the Tronto, which forms the boundary between the 
 Koman and Neapohtan territories. Pop. 11,000. 
 From the Adriatic, it is distant 16 miles west ; 
 from Anoona, 53 south. Its harboiu: (Porto 
 d'Ascoli) has some coasting-trade, and is defended 
 by two forts. The town is beautifully situated, 
 commanding a fine view of the fertile valley through 
 which the river flows, and of the rugged Apennines, 
 which here rise to an elevation of 7212 feet. 
 
 In ancient times, it was inhabited by the Piceni, 
 the descendants of a colony of Sabines, who main- 
 tained their independence against the Romans until 
 268 B.C. Nearly two centuries after, they took a 
 prominent part in the Social War; and on the taking 
 of their town by Pompeius Strabo, were subjected 
 to the severest punishments. The town was finally 
 annexed to the Papal States by Pope Clement V. in 
 1426. 
 
 ASELLI, ASELLIO, or ASELLIUS, Caspab, a 
 celebrated Italian physician, was bom at Cremona 
 
 about the year 1581. He served at first as a mili- 
 tary surgeon, but afterwards became professor of 
 anatomy and surgery at Padua. In 1622, while at 
 Milan, where he was in the habit of spending a 
 great portion of his time, he discovered the lacteal 
 vessels. Before A.'s time, anatomists had supposed 
 that the chyle was carried from the intestines into the 
 liver by the mesenteric veins. Happening one day 
 to dissect a living dog, he noticed for the first time 
 the multitude of little vessels, which suck up the 
 nutritive portion of the food. At fiirst, he took 
 them for nerves, and did not pay particular atten- 
 tion to them; but on pricking one with the point 
 of his scalpel, a white liquid spurted out, and the 
 discovery ffashed on him in a moment. He seems, 
 however, never to have understood or described 
 them with complete accuracy. He died at the age 
 of 45, leaving a treatise on the subject of ms 
 discovery, which was published a year after his 
 death. It is entitled De Lactibus, sim Lacteis Venis, 
 Quarto Vasorum Mesaraicorwm Genere, Novo Invento, 
 Dissertatio, and has several times been reprinted. 
 
 It is curious to reflect that such men as Gaspard 
 Hofl&nan and Harvey zealously combated the opinions 
 of A. It was nearly half a century before profes- 
 sional men admitted that a great discovery had 
 been made in anatomy. See Lacteals. 
 
 ASE'LLTJS, in Ichthyology, a generic name now 
 disused, but by which the cod and other Gadidce 
 were formerly sometimes designated. It is retained 
 in the pharmacopoeias, in the name of Cod-liver Oil, 
 Oleum jecoris aselli. — The same generic name is now 
 employed, in a different department of natiural 
 history, to denote a genus of small Isopod Crusta- 
 ceans, one of which, A. aquaticus, is common in 
 stagnant ponds in Britain, and is sometimes called 
 the Water Hog-louse. This genus is the type of a 
 family, AselKdce. 
 
 A'SES. The singular of this name in Old Norse is 
 As, pi. Aedr; in Gothic, Ans ; in Saxon, Os (Es). 
 The A. are a race of gods in Northern or Scandina- 
 vian Mythology (q. v.), though not the oldest, yet the 
 most powerful, like the Jupiter dynasty among the 
 Greeks. They are usually considered as numbering 
 twelve gods, and as many goddesses. The gods are — 
 Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niord, Ereyr, Tyr, Bragi, Heim- 
 dal, Widar, WaU, Uller, and Eorseti; the best known 
 of the goddesses — Frigga, Freyja, Idunna, Eira, and 
 Saga. The worship of the A., or the Odm religion, 
 was rooted not only among the nations of Scandi- 
 navia, but among the Germanic races generally, at 
 least in its outlmes. Besides other traces, proofs 
 of its prevalence are to be found in a multitude of 
 Gothic, Saxon, and Old High German proper names, 
 many of which continue still in use, though their con- 
 nection with German paganism passes unperceived : 
 Oswald, Esmond, Oswin, Anselm, Ansgar, &c. 
 
 ASGILL, John, an eccentric English lUt&rateur, 
 bom about the middle of the 17th c. He studied 
 for the bar, and at intervals during the whole of 
 his checkered life transacted legal business in some 
 form or other ; but having early displayed a predilec- 
 tion for writing political pamphlets, he soon became 
 involved, in spite of his cleverness, in serious pecu- 
 niary difliculties. Fortunately for 7dm, parliament 
 had Just passed an act (1699) for the resumption of 
 forfeited estates in Ireland, and commissioners were 
 appointed to settle claims. A bright vision flitted 
 across the mind of the much-harassed man. He 
 sailed for the sister isle, and found the whole coun- 
 try wranghng in lawsuits. His talents, and the 
 favour of the commissioners, secured to him a 
 lucrative practice; and he even acquired sufficient 
 influence to obtain a seat in the Irish parliament. 
 Some time, however, before taking possession of 
 
ASGILL-ASH. 
 
 hia seat, A. had published a most extraordinary 
 pamphlet, entitled An Argument proving that, 
 according to the Covenant oj Eternal Life revealed 
 in the Scriptures, Man may he translated hence 
 into that Mtemal Life vntJiout passing through 
 Death, although (he Humane Nature of Christ 
 himself could not Urns he translated till he had 
 passed t/irough Death ,(1700). Much to A.'s 
 surprise, the public flew into a rage against this 
 absurd production; the Irish parliament voted it a 
 blaBphemous libel, and the astonished author was 
 expelled from the House after four days. In 1705, 
 A. returned to England, and entered the English 
 parHament as member for Bramber, in Sussex. But 
 the fame of his unlucky pamphlet haimted him 
 perpetuaHy, and at. last proved a Nemesis ; for the 
 English House, resolving to be not less virtuous than 
 the Irish one, took up the treatise, condemned it to be 
 burnt by the common hangman, as profane and 
 blasphemous, and expeUed A. on the 18th December 
 1707. After this his circumstances rapidly grew 
 worse, until at last he found something like peace 
 in the King's Bench and the Meet, between which 
 two places his excursions were confined for the term 
 of his natural hfe. Here he continued to practise 
 professionally, and — for he never succeeded in over- 
 coming this weakness — to indite innumerable pam- 
 phlets on pohtical and theological topics. He died 
 in November 1738. 
 
 ASH {Fra'xinus), a genus of trees belonging to 
 the natural order Oleacem, and distinguished by very 
 imperfect flowers, in which the calyx is obsolete, 
 and the corolla either wanting or 3— -4-partite ; the 
 
 Common Ash. 
 
 fruit is a samara, a seed-vessel foliaceous at the 
 extremity. The leaves are decidvious, and are 
 pinnate with a terminal leaflet. There are about 
 fifty species, mostly natives of Europe and of North 
 America.— The Common Ash {F. excelsior) grows 
 wild in the middle and south of Europe and north 
 of Asia. It is an undoubted native of Britain. The 
 flowers are quite naked ; the leaves have five or six 
 pairs of leaflets. The flowers appear before the 
 leaves in spring, and the tree is not covered with 
 leaves until the season is far advanced, losing them 
 again early in autumn. It is, however, a most beau- 
 tiful and umbrageous tree, highly ornamental in 
 parks ; but in parks or hedgerows it is extremely 
 injurious to the grass or crops immediately around 
 it. It rises to ttie height of 100 — 150 feet, gener- 
 ally with a smooth stem. The wood is white, 
 tough, and hard, much valued .by wheel-wrights, 
 cart-wrights, coach-makers, joiners, and turners. It 
 is also excellent for fuel. Sometimes it becomes 
 irregular in the disposition of -its fibres, and finely 
 veined, and is then prized by cabinet-makers. The 
 wood of the yoimg trees is almost as valuable as 
 that of the old. Indeed, the value of the timber is 
 
 greatest in trees of which the growth has been 
 rapid, as it exhibits the characteristic toughness in 
 
 sah.--n,^ 
 
 Common Ash. 
 
 the highest degree. The A. prefers a loamy soil, 
 but grows in almost any, and succeeds in situa- 
 tions too elevated or too exposed for most other 
 trees. It has of late been extensively planted 
 in elevated situations in some parts of the north of 
 Scotland, and there, in the more sheltered glens, it 
 grows to a large size. Cultivation has produced and 
 perpetuated a number of varieties, of which the' 
 most remarkable are the Weeping A., with boughs 
 bent almost straight down to the ground ; the 
 Curled-leaved A., with dark-green wrinkled or curled 
 leaves; and the Entire-leaved A., a very curious 
 variety, with many or all of the leaves simple (not 
 piimated), which has been erroneously regarded by 
 
 Common Ash. 
 
 a, a branch with leaves ; i, flowers ; c, fruit (on a considerably 
 
 larger scale than the leaves and flowers). 
 
 some botanists as a distinct species, and named F. 
 simplicifolia, F. heterophylla, &c.— The Smail-leavbd 
 A. {F. parvifolia) and the Lentise A. {F. lentiscifolia) 
 are both natives of the shores of the Mediterranean, 
 and are very graceful and ornamental trees. — ^The 
 AMBBiCAii A., or White A. {F. Amei-icana), is readily 
 distinguished from the Common A. by its lighter 
 bark and paler green leaves. The flowers have a 
 calvx, and the leaflets are shortly stalked and eutu:e 
 
ASHANTI— ASHBUETON. 
 
 (those of the Common A. being sessile and serrated). 
 It is abundant in New Brunswick and Canada, but 
 becomes rare to the south of New Jersey. The 
 trunk often rises more than forty feet undivided. 
 The wood is used for the same purposes as that of 
 the Common A— The Red A., or Black A. (F. 
 pubescem), is very similar, but of smaller size, and 
 has a deep brown bark. It is most abundant in 
 Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, especially in 
 Bwampy OTound.— The Black A., or Water A. of 
 the New England States, New Brunswick, &c. {F. 
 sambudfolia), is a large tree with buds of a deep blue 
 colour. — The Blub A. of Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, 
 &c. {F. quadrangulaia), is also a large tree. The 
 branches are quadrangular, the. young shoots having 
 on the angles four membranes which extend their 
 whole length. — The Geben A. {F. juglandifoUa), 
 readily recognised by the brilUant green of its young 
 shoots, is chiefly foipid in the middle states ; and 
 the Carolina A. (F. Oarolmiana), remarkable for 
 the great size of its leaflets, chiefly in the southern 
 states. Besides these. North Anjerica produces a 
 considerable number of other gpgeies or varieties. 
 The wood of aU of theni is xised for somewhat similar 
 purposes to that of the Common A — In the south of 
 Europe grows the Manna A., or Floweeing A. {F. 
 Ormis, called Ornus Europcea by some botanists), 
 whose flowers have a 4-partite calyx, and four small 
 yellowish-white petals. The tree has much resem- 
 blance to the Common A. From it the substance 
 called Manna (q. v.) is obtained by means of trans- 
 verse incisions in the bark ; but in very favourable 
 situations, it flows spontaneously during the greatest 
 heat of summer. Manna is chiefly coUeoted in 
 Calabria and Sicily. A nearly aUied species, F. 
 rotundifolia, a native of Greece and the Ionian 
 Islands, yields it also in perhaps equal quantity. 
 The Common A. is said sometimes to produce the 
 same exudation in the same warm climates. 
 
 The MotTNTAiN A. is the Rowan Teee (q. v.), and 
 belongs to a different natural order. Its resemblance 
 to the A. is chiefly in its leaves. 
 
 The A. has a peculiar importance in Scandinavian 
 mythology. The first man and woman formed were 
 Ask and Embla (Ash and Elm). The court of the 
 gods is represented in the Edda as held under an A, 
 called Yggdrasil (q. v.). Connected, perhaps, with 
 these traditions is the superstitious belief in A, 
 twigs as a charm against witchcraft and magic. 
 
 ASHANTI', or ASHANTEE', a negro kingdom'in 
 Western Africa, on the north of the Gold Coast, and 
 near the British settlement of Cape Coast Castle, in 
 lat. 6°— 8° N., and long. 0°— 3° W. A. is the most 
 powerful state of Upper Guiuea. It is mountainous, 
 weU watered, and healthy, except in the lower alluvial 
 districts. _ The principal rivers are the Volta and 
 the Assinie. , The population is estimated at about 
 a million. The land is extremely fertile; covered, 
 indeed, with wild liixuriant forms of vegetation, and 
 producing maize, miUet, rice, yams, tobacco, sugar, 
 cocoa, the pine-apple, and other fine fruits, with 
 gums, dye-woods, and timber. The principal exports 
 are gold-dust and palm-oil, together with slaves. 
 The natives are remarkable for their skiU in certain 
 articles of manufacture ; their cottons are beautiful, 
 as also their earthenware and sword-blades. The 
 capital is Coomassie (q. v.). 
 
 The kingdom of A. was founded between 1730 
 and 1740 by a barbarian conqueror, who established 
 a kind of feudal sovereignty over the adjoining 
 states. In their course of conquest over the Eantees, 
 the Ashantees became iuvolved in war with the 
 British (1807 — 1826), and were finally driven from 
 the sea-coast, and confined within their inland terri- 
 tory. Missionaries who have resided in A. describe 
 the people as exceedingly sanguinary in their 
 
 470 
 
 disposition and in their religious ceremonies, but 
 courageous, and characterised by a higher degree 
 of iuteUigence than the tribes which surround them. 
 Human sacrifices are said to be very common. To 
 celebrate the funeral of a great personage, numbers 
 of slaves are massacred. On the death of a royal 
 person, these sacrifices were formerly great ; but 
 through the influence of the authorities at Cape 
 Coast Castle, and that of the missionaries, they are 
 happily on the decline. A mission to A. has been 
 maintained by the Wesleyau Missionary Society 
 since 1841, and with encouraging prospects of suc- 
 cess. 
 
 A'SHEOtrENE, a small town in a rich district 
 near the left bank of the river Dove, in the west of 
 Derbyshire. It lies on a steep south slope, with high 
 hiUs on the north. It has a cruciform church, as 
 old as the 13th c, with triplet lancet windows, 
 which was restored in 1845 at the cost of £5000. 
 Pop., in 1851, 2418, chiefly engaged in the cotton, 
 lace, and iron manufacture, and in the cheese and 
 malt trade. At A., in 1644, the parliamentary troops 
 defeated those of Charles I. 
 
 A'SHBURTON, Loud, (Alexander Babino), 
 born in 1774, a younger son of Sir Francis Baring, 
 Bart., was, in early Efe, for many years commer- 
 cially engaged in the United States and the 
 Canadas, in the service of the great London mer- 
 cantile house founded by his father. On the 
 death of the latter, in 1810, he became the head 
 of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co., and in 1812 
 was elected M.P. for Taunton. He represented 
 that place, CaUington, and Thetford, on the liberal 
 interest, till 1831, and in 1832 was returned for 
 North Essex as a moderate Conservative. In the 
 short administration of Sir Robert Peel (1834 — 1835), 
 he was President of the Board of Trade, and Master of 
 the Mint, and was created Baron A'-by patent in April 
 1835. This title had been conferred, in April 1782, 
 on the celebrated lawyer, John Dunning, who had 
 married Ale^nder Bafjn^s aunt, and it became 
 extinct on the de^th of his' cousin, the second Lord 
 A., in 1823. In 1842, Lord A-'? knowledge of busi- 
 ness, and thorough acquaiitenpe with American 
 institutions, customs, and qapdes of thought, caused 
 him to be appointed special ambassador to the 
 United States, to settle the nprth-west boundary 
 question,'and other disputes, that then threatened to 
 involve the two countries in war. In August of the 
 same year, he concluded the famous treaty of Wash- 
 ington, commonly called the A. Treaty, by which the 
 frontier hue between the state of Maine and Canada 
 was definitively agreed to. By this treaty, seven- 
 twelfths of the disputed ground,, and the British 
 settlement of Madawaska, were given to the United 
 States, and only fivertwelfths of the ground to 
 Britain ; but it seemed a better military frontier to 
 England, and included heights commanding the St 
 Lawrence, which the award of the king of Holland, 
 who had been chosen arbiter, had assigned to the 
 Americans. By the 8th and 9th articles, provisions 
 are made for putting an end to the African slave- 
 trade ; and the tenth article provides for the mutual 
 extradition of suspected criminals. Lord A. opposed 
 free-trade, but strongly supported the penny-postage 
 system when first proposed by Rowland TTill in 
 1837. He formed a valuable collection of old 
 paintings. His death took place May 13, 1848. — 
 His eldest son, WiUiam Bingham Baring, second 
 Lord A. of this creation, born in 1799, and educated 
 at Oriel College, Oxford, entered parliament in 1836, 
 as member for Taunton, and in September 1841 was 
 appointed Secretaiy to the Board of Control. In 
 February 1845 he became Paymaster-general of the 
 Forces, and Treasurer of the Navy. In 1855 he was 
 
ASHBURTON— ASHMUN. 
 
 made Conunander of the Legipn of Honour, 'for 
 services rendered to oommeroe? 
 
 A'SHBURTOlir, a small town, two to tliree miles 
 east of the river Dart, in the south of Devonshire. 
 It mainly consists of two paved streets crossing each 
 other. It has a church in the perpendicular style, 
 with a tower 94 feet high. Pop. in 1851, 3432, 
 but decreasing; employed in the mines, slate- 
 quarries, and serge maniuaoture. The town returns 
 one member to parliament. 
 
 A'SHBY-DB-LA-ZOU'OH, a small town near 
 the source of the Mease, a tributary of the Trent, in 
 the north-west of Leicestershire. Pop. in 1851, 3762, 
 chiefly engaged in the manufacture of stockings, 
 hats, and Jirebricks, and in iron-smelting works and 
 collieries. A canal 30 miles long, without a lock, 
 connects the town with Coventry in Warwickshire. 
 Geologically, the district is caiboniferous ; and near 
 the town, in the coal-field, there are saline springs, 
 containing common salt in greater proportion than 
 the sea, and also bromine. The ruins of A. Castle, 
 once a vast and lofty pile, stand on a height on the 
 south side of the town. Mary, Queen of Soots, was 
 once confined in this castle. St Helen's Church, 
 an ancient structure with a tower, is the burying- 
 place of the Hastings family, as well as of Sehna, 
 Countess of Huntingdon, the founder of the sect 
 called the Coimtess of Himtingdon's Connection. 
 
 A'SHDOD. See AzOTUS. 
 
 ASHES, the remains of animal and vegetable 
 bodies after burning. It is not strictly correct to 
 speak of the ashes of a mineral. When lead, for 
 instance, is exposed to heat, it turns to dross, which 
 has the appearance of A., but is merely the lead 
 combined with oxygen. In the same way, volcanic 
 A., as they are called, are only a finer kind of 
 pumice-stone, the solidified scum of molten lava. 
 The ashes of organic substances destroyed by fire 
 consist of the fixed salts, contained in these sub- 
 stances. In land-plants, the most important are 
 salts of potash, along with silica and lime; in sea- 
 plants, soda takes the place of potash. By liiviation 
 of the A., the potash or soda is dissolved and sepa- 
 rated from the insoluble mass, and is then purified 
 by crystaUisation. The A. of sea-plants contain 
 also more or less iodine. Peat and turf ashes con- 
 tain, besides alkalies, more or less clay and sand; the 
 same is true of pit-coal, which sometimes contains 
 iron. 
 
 At one time, the A. or inorganic ingredients of 
 plants were considered unessential to their existence. 
 But the progress of vegetable chemistry has taught 
 that a certain proportion of sahne food is abso- 
 lutely necessary to the development of plants. The 
 analysis of the A. of the different kinds of vegetable 
 substances has since become of great interest. 
 
 The A of animal bodies do not differ greatly 
 from those of vegetables. Bone-A consist essen- 
 tially of lime united with phosphoric acid. This 
 bone-earth is very valuable as manure for grain. In 
 well-wooded countries, A. from burnt wood form an 
 article of considerable trade. Ttey are much used 
 in the arts, as soap-boiling, bleaching, dyeing, glass- 
 making, &c. Wood- A. are also used in washing and 
 other domestic processes, as a cheap preparation of 
 potash (q. v.). 
 
 The covering of tiie head with A. has long been a 
 common sign of mourning among eastern nations, 
 indicative of 'the very deepest distress. Instances 
 of this are mentioned in Scripture. Penitents in 
 the early Christian Church signified their sorrow 
 and humiliation in like manner, by standing at the 
 door of the church in 'sackcloth and ashes.' See 
 Ash-Wedotsday. 
 
 ASHFOED, a small town on. the west of the 
 
 confluence of the two upper branches of the river 
 Stour, near the middle of Kent. Pop. in 1851, 4092, 
 which has largely increased from its having become 
 the junction station of three great lines of railway. 
 Damask is manufactured here. 
 
 A'SHLAE, or A'SHLER, building"stone squared 
 and hewn, as distinguished from rubble, or rough 
 stones which are used as they come from the quarry 
 without being dressed. A. is laid in regular courses 
 in building, and is of various kinds, according 
 to the style of working that side of the stone 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 ' 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 — , J..- 1 
 
 Ashlar. 
 
 which is to form the facing of the wall. Thus, there 
 are tooled A. — the marks of the tooling being either 
 random or in grooves; polished A., in which the face 
 of the stone is rubbed smooth; and rustic A., in 
 which only the joints are accurately hewn, the face 
 of the stone being left projecting irregularly. Quar- 
 riers apply the term A. to squared stones before 
 being hewn. In old documents, the term appears 
 under a variety of forms, such as achlere, ashelar, 
 aslure, and estlar. 
 
 ASHLEY, LoED. See Shattesbubv. 
 
 ASHMOLE, EuAS, a celebrated antiquary, was 
 bom at Lichfield on the 23d May 1617. In 1633, 
 when only sixteen years of age, he commenced the 
 study of law, and five years after, he was admitted 
 to practice as a solicitor in Chancery. During the 
 civu wars, he embraced the side of the Royalists, 
 and was appointed captain in Lord Ashley's regiment, 
 and comptroller of the Ordnance ; but at the same 
 time exhibited his love of study by joining Braaenose 
 College, Oxford, where he sedulously ap;^ed himself 
 to mathematics, natural philosophy, astronomy, and 
 astrology. In 1646, he became acquainted with 
 several famous astrologers; amongst others, William 
 LUly, whose conversation had a great charm for 
 him ; and in 1650, he published a work of Dr Dee's, 
 to which he subjoined a treatise of his own. Continu- 
 ing with singular perseverance his researches in this 
 dim region of superstitious philosophy, he was 
 enabled, in the course of two or three years, to issue 
 his Theatrum C%}iM"cMm5rito»mcMm, which procured 
 for him a high reputation, and the frienddiip even 
 of men liie John Selden. In 1658, appeared his 
 Way to Bliss, a work on the philosopher's stone— 
 the last he published in connection with astrology. 
 At the restoration of King Charles various honours 
 and emoluments were conferred upon him. In 1682, 
 he presented to the university of Oxford a very fine 
 collection of rarities, which properly, however, be- 
 longed to certain persons of the name of Tradescant. 
 In this transaction he exhibited a rather mean ambi- 
 tion to exclude the rightful owners of the cabinet of 
 curiosities from participating in the honour of the 
 gift, and posterity has unfortunately gratified his 
 wish by calling it the Ashmolean Museum. He 
 died May 18, 1692, leaving behind him a, large 
 quantity of manuscript, a considerable portion of 
 which has since been published. 
 
 ASHMUlir, Jehttoi, an American philanthropist, 
 was bom at Champlain, in the state of New York, 
 in 1794. He was educated with a view to the 
 Christian ministry; but eventually became editor, 
 
 471 
 
ASHTAROTH— ASIA. 
 
 in Washington, of a montUy magazine called The 
 Repei-tonj. In this periodical he advocated the 
 views of the African Colonisation Society for found- 
 ing a colony of liberated negroes on the west coast 
 of Africa. In 1821 he published a life of the Eev. 
 Samuel Bacon, who had fallen a victim to an unsuc- 
 cessful attempt to realise these views in the previous 
 year. Learning the difficulties which surrounded a 
 second attempt at planting a settlement in Africa, 
 A. resolved to devote himself to the good work. 
 Eeceiving an appointment as one of the agents of 
 the African Colonisation Society, he conducted a 
 body of liberated negroes from Baltimore, and 
 landed at Cape Mesurado, the seal of the infant 
 colony, in the autumn of 1822. Dr Ayres and the 
 other agents of the Society having meanwhile 
 abandoned the settlement from severe illness, he 
 assumed the superintendence of affairs as the sole 
 representative of that body. Here, for more than 
 six years, he devoted his powers and his life to the 
 establishing, on a fair and solid basis, this colony, so 
 full of hope for the American negro. He shewed 
 great courage and tact in opposing the united forces 
 of the natives at the outset of his management, and 
 no less ability in after-negotiations with the chiefs, 
 by which the colony acquired very considerable 
 accessions to its territory. His health at length 
 becoming sadly impaired, he bade adieu to the 
 settlement, then recently called Liberia, in March 
 1828, and landed at Newhaven, Connecticut, in a 
 state of great exhaustion. After a brief revival, he 
 relapsed, and died on the 28th August 1828, in his 
 thirty-fifth year. His remains were honoured with 
 a public funeral. A memoir of his life, by R. E. 
 Gijley, appeared at Washington in 1835. 
 I A'SHTAEOTH. See Astakte. 
 
 A'SHTOST-IN-MAKERFIELD, a small town 
 I in a carboniferous district, in the middle of South 
 I Lancashire. Pop. in 1851, 5679, chiefly engaged in 
 [ collieries, and in the cotton manufacture. 
 ! A'SHTOSr-UNDER-LINE, a town in the south- 
 east of Lancashire. Pop. in 1851, 29,791. It returns 
 one member to parliament. It is a great seat of 
 the cotton manufacture. The population is also 
 employed in bleaching, dyeing, and calico-printing, 
 in collieries, and in the manufacture of machines, 
 bricks, &e. To the west of the town is a large moss 
 or shaking bog, containing fir-trees full of turpentine, 
 and black oak, with a loamy bottom at the depth 
 of 10 feet. 
 
 ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent (q. v.), 
 BO called from the Roman Catholic ceremony of strew- 
 ing ashes on the head as a sign of penitence. This 
 custom, probably introduced by Gregory the Great 
 (590 — 604), was sanctioned by Pope Celestin III. 
 in 1191, and afterwards generally prevailed. Before 
 mass, the ashes were consecrated on the altar, 
 sprinkled with holy water, and signed three times 
 with the cross, while the priest recited the words. 
 Memento quod, cinis as, et in cinerem reverteris ! 
 ('Remember that thou art dust, and must return to 
 dust ! ') Next, they were strewed on the heads 
 of the officiating priests, the clergy, and the assem- 
 bled people. The ashes were said to be those of the 
 palms consecrated on the preceding Pabu Sunday 
 (q. V.) — The Protestant Church in , Germany does 
 not celebrate A. In the Church of England, it is 
 observed by the stricter members, but without 
 anything of the ceremony from which it derives its 
 name; and the commmaMon — a series of denuncia- 
 tions against impenitent oflFenders — is appointed to 
 be read in the service for this day. 
 
 A'SIA, the largest division of land on the globe, 
 generally regarded as the birthplace of the human 
 race, and the most ancient seat of civilisation. Its 
 
 472 
 
 superficial area, including islands, has been estimated 
 at from 16 to 20,000,000 square mUes, and its popu- 
 lation at 650,000,000. This enormous mass of con- 
 tinent lies almost entirely in the northern division of 
 the eastern hemisphere, while its world of islands 
 extends across the equator on the south-east. On 
 three sides, it is surrounded by the ocean; but on 
 the west, is partially connected with Africa and 
 Europe. The continental mass is more than four 
 tunes as large as Europe. Some idea may be formed 
 of its vast extent by the calculation that, though it 
 contains more than half of the whole population of 
 the globe, the number of its inhabitants is so small 
 compared with its area, that Europe may be^said to 
 be three times more densely populated. The coast- 
 line is about 33,000 miles in length; and on the 
 south and east, is diversified by seas, bays, and gulfs, 
 affording advantages to navigation and commerce 
 far superior to those of .Africa, but inferior to those 
 possessed by Europe and America. On the west 
 side, the Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmora may 
 be regarded as but a slight interruption of the great 
 table-lands of Europe and A. which form the conti- 
 nent of the old world. 
 
 Horizontal Oonjiguration. — A. is bounded N.,.by 
 the Arctic Ocean ; E., by the Pacific Ocean ; S., by 
 the Indian Ocean ; and on the W., by Europe, the 
 Black Sea, Archipelago, Mediterranean, and the 
 Red Sea. On the extreme north-east, the peninsular 
 laud of Kamstchatka is separatedfrom North America 
 only by the narrow Behring's Strait. On the south- 
 east, a bridge of numerous islands — Sumatra, Java, 
 Borneo, Papua, &c. — extends towards Australia. 
 The body of the continent may be regarded as a 
 trapezium, of which the offsets, consisting of several 
 large peninsulas, bear some resemblance to those 
 of Biu-ope ; though in A. everything is on a more 
 gigantic scale. Thus, one of these offsets, the penin- 
 sula of Arabia, is four times as large as I^ance. 
 On the west extends the peninsula of A. Minor, 
 or Anatolia, divided from Europe by the Strait of 
 Constantinople, the Sea of Marmora, and the 
 Dardanelles, with the Black Sea on the north, and 
 the Levant on the south. On the south of A., the 
 peninsular configuration may be divided into three 
 principal masses, corresponding to the southern 
 coast of Europe : Arabia may be considered as a 
 counterpart to Spain ; Italy, with its neighbour- 
 island, Sicily, is represented by Hindustan and 
 Ceylon ; and, as in Europe, the broken Grecian 
 peninsula is connected with A. by a bridge of 
 numerous islands extending on the soiith-east, so, 
 in A., the Eastern Peninsula (or India beyond 
 the Ganges), lying between the Bay of Bengal and 
 the Chinese Sea, is connected with Australia on 
 the south-east by the vast Eastern Archipelago. 
 This world of islands is divided into the several 
 groups of the Philippine Islands, Borneo, Celebes, 
 Molucca Islands, Sumatra and Java, Timor and 
 the numerous adjoining isles. The east coast of 
 A. is characterised by the deep indentations of the 
 Pacific Ocean in the Chinese Sea, Yellow Sea, and 
 Seas of Japan, Okhotsk, and Kamstchatka; all 
 fringed with numerous islands, and separated by the 
 peninsula of Corea, the island of Saghalien, and the 
 peninsula of Kamstchatka. On the north, the Sibe- 
 rian coasts are also deeply indented ; but rather by 
 the embouchures of large rivers than by arms of the 
 sea. The whole length of continental A, from the 
 Dardanelles to the Japan Islands, is 6000 mUes ; its 
 breadth, from Malacca to the north-east cape of 
 Siberia, is 5300 miles; with its islands it extends 
 from 10° S. lat. to 78" N., and from 26° E. long, to 
 190° E. or 170° W. Such an extent of surface 
 must include aU varieties of soil, climate, and 
 production. 
 
30 30 *0 50 60 70 BO 
 
 A.T L A^*■T I C OC_E^i<F 
 

 
 
 
 <>LfA~ 
 
ASIA. 
 
 Vertkcd ConfiguraMon. — Equally grand are the 
 features of this continent when regarded vertically: 
 it has the most extensive lowlands, the most immense 
 table-lands, the highest chains of mountains, and the 
 most elevated summits in the world ; tracts doomed 
 to everlasting snow or aoorohing sterility, salubrious 
 valleys of continual verdure, ana noisome jungles of 
 the rankest growth. The table-lands of Asia occupy 
 two-flfths of the whole continent. The eastern 
 extremity is 2000 miles broad ; the western, less than 
 1000. The whole mass may be regarded as consist- 
 ing of two parts, separated, or, to speak more 
 properly, perhaps, connected by the lofty, snow- 
 covered mountain-isthmus of the Hindu Kush. These 
 CTeat divisions are styled respectively : 1. The 
 Eastern Plateau, including the Table-land of Tibet 
 and the Desert of Gobi ; 2. The Western Plateau, 
 or Table-land of 'Iran. The former, a vast four- 
 sided mass, considerably larger than the whole area 
 of Europe, extends 2800 miles from the mountain 
 chain, Hindu Kush, to the Tonquin Gidf in China. 
 On the south, the plateau is divided from the plains 
 of Hindustan by the Himalaya Mountains, which 
 have a mean height of 18,000 feet, while several of 
 their summits rise from 25,000 to 29,000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. Even the passes over this 
 enormous range of laountains are almost as high as 
 the summit of Mont Blanc. Here Dhwalagiri, long 
 supposed to be the Mont Blanc of the Himalayas, 
 and with precisely the same signiiication, viz., 'white 
 mountain,' rising to 27,600 feet, leaves all the peaks 
 of the Andes far below; while Kinchinjunga reaches 
 to 28,178 feet, and Deodunga, now believed to be 
 the loftiest summit in the world, attains the height 
 of 29,002 feet. Cultivation is found at 10,000 feet 
 above the sea ; while flocks graze some 4000 feet 
 higher. In Chinese-Tatary and Tibet, the ground is 
 ciutivated at a height only 2000 feet lower than the 
 summit of Mont ffianc. On the east, the table-land 
 of Tibet is bounded by the Chinese mountain-ranges 
 Yun-ling and Khiug-khan, which, towards the south, 
 are connected with wild Chinese alpine regions of 
 which Httle is known ; while, towards the north, they 
 extend into another mountainous region, where the 
 eastern chain of Shangpe-shan opposes to the 
 Pacific Ocean a wall of rock 3000 feet high. On 
 the north, the chain of the Altai Mountains, 3000 
 miles long, and divided into several groups, forms 
 the boundary between the great plateau and the 
 plain of Siberia, which is larger than the whole area 
 of Europe. 
 
 The Western Plateau, or Table-land of Iran, rises 
 generally about 5000 feet above the sea; but in some 
 parts to 7000 feet; descending again, however, in the 
 central and southern parts, where it spreads out into 
 sandy and gravelly plains, to 2000 and 1200 feet. It 
 has been divided into three sections : the Plateau of 
 Iran proper ; the Median- Armenian Alpine region ; 
 and the Anatohan Table-land. The first division, 
 or the Plateau of Iran, has a mean altitude of about 
 3000 feet. Salt plains, with gravel and sand, form 
 large portions of the surface, and mountain- walls on 
 all sides hem it in. On the northern edge ascend the 
 Persian mountains ; on the east, the steep and lofty 
 parallel chains of the Indo-Persian boundary moun- 
 tains ; and on the south, the plateau, for 1000 miles 
 along the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea, is bounded 
 by the wild terraced regions of Beloochistan and 
 Farsistan. The secxmd division, or the Median- 
 Armenian Alpine region, includes the mountainous 
 regions of Armenia, Kurdistan, and Azerbijan. 
 Here the table-land is compressed to about half its 
 general width. From this plateau, of which a part 
 is mentioned in Scripture as 'the mountains of 
 Ararat,' rises the volcanic cone commonly styled 
 Mount Ararat, to the height of 17,212 feet above 
 
 the sea-level. Anatolia, the third and most westerly 
 division of the table-land, is boimded along the 
 shores of the Black Sea by mountains rising to 
 6000 or 7000 feet, and partly covered with forests; 
 on the south-west, the Taurus chain of mountains, 
 beginning in the islands of Rhodes, Cos, &c., extends 
 in several ramifications through a part of Asia 
 Minor, runs in a single range along the coast of 
 Karamania, and in the east has an occasional height 
 of 12,000 and 13,000 feet. 
 
 The Western Plateau, thus divided into three 
 sections, is full of diversities of soil and scenery. 
 A great part of the table-land of Iran (or Persia) is 
 extremely barren and arid, which serves to explain 
 the enthusiastic terms in which the Persian poets 
 have spoken of the beautiful valleys found here and 
 there among the mountains. The coasts of the 
 Persian GuH are sandy wastes. Between Irak and 
 Khorassan, a desert of clay, covered with salt and 
 nitre, varied only by patches of verdure here and 
 there, occupies 27,000 square miles, and joins the 
 wide sandy desert of Kerman. A great part of 
 Beloochistan is an arid plain, covered with red 
 sand. 
 
 Besides these central masses, there are several 
 detached mountain chains and plateaus. The 
 Ural Mountains, forming the land-boundary be- 
 tween Europe and Asia, and separated from the 
 Altai chain by salt lakes, marshes, and deserts, 
 is divided into three sections : the Northern, 
 Central, and Southern Ural. The second of these 
 divisions is rich in minerals — gold, platina, 
 magnetic iron, and copper. On the isthmus between 
 the Black Sea and the Caspian, the alpine ridges 
 of the Caucasus reach a height of from 10,000 to 
 11,000 feet, while individual peaks tower up to the 
 gigantic height of 17,000 or 18,000 feet, as, foi: 
 iustance, the stUl faintly volcanic peak of EUerus, 
 the exact elevation of which is 18,493 feet, and 
 Mount Kasbeck, 16,523 feet. The high lands of 
 Syria rise gradually from the neighbouring deserts 
 to the height of 10,000 feet, in Libanus and Ajiti- 
 Hbanus, and slope steeply in terraces down to the 
 narrow coast-lands of Phcenioia and Palestine. The 
 plateau of the Deccan, in India, rises to an aver- 
 age height of from 1500 to 2000 feet, and is divided 
 on the west from the narrow coast-level of Malabar 
 by the Western Ghauts, 4700 feet ; on the east, from 
 the broad level coast of Coromandel, by the Eastern 
 Ghauts. On the north, it is divided from the low 
 plains of Hindustan by the Vindhya and Malwah 
 mountain-chains; and, on the south, the Ghauts 
 unite at the- sources of the Cavery, and form the 
 Neilgherry (or Blue Mountains, 8760 feet high), the 
 loftiest in the peninsular portion of Hindustan. 
 These slope steeply down to a low narrow plain, 
 then rise again to a considerable height in the 
 Aligheny range, sink into the sea at Cape Comorin, 
 and reappear in the group of Adam's Peak in 
 Ceylon. The Malayan Mountains, or chains of 
 the Eastern Peninsula, may be regarded as offsets 
 of the Siue-shan, and extend to the extreme south 
 point of A., reappearing with volcanic peaks in the 
 Sunda Islands. 
 
 The six great Lowlands of A. are, Ist, The Siberian 
 lowland in the north, which is by far th© largest. It 
 stretches from the northern declivities of the Altai 
 and Ural Mountains to the shores of the Arctic Sea, 
 and is, for the most part, cold, gloomy, and barren. 
 2d, The Bucharian lowland, or the wild sterile waste 
 between the Caspian Sea and Lake Aral, much of it 
 beneath the level of the sea. It is conrposed to a 
 large extent of gravelly soil. 3d, The Syrian and 
 .draSiajj lowland, the south of which is hot and arid, 
 with almost no oases ; but the north is watered by 
 the Tigris and Euphrates. 4th, The lowlands of 
 
ASIA. 
 
 Hindustan, comprising the great Indian desert, 400 
 miles broad, together with the vast and fertile plains 
 of Bengal, generally called the Valley of the Ganges, 
 and ranking, perhaps, next to China as a region of 
 fertility. 5th, The Indo-Chinese lowlands, comprising 
 the long levels of the Burman empire, through which 
 flows the Irrawady, and the rich regions of Cam- 
 bodia and Siam. 6th, The Chinese lowlands, com- 
 mencing in the east at Pekin, and extending as far 
 south as the Tropic of Cancer, containing 210,000 
 square miles, or an area seven times the size of Lom- 
 bardy. It is watered by a copious river-system and 
 numerous canals, and may be regarded as «■ vast 
 garden, exceeding in productiveness aU other parts 
 of the world. 
 
 Hydrography. — The hydrography^ of A. displays 
 as striking a variety as the striicture of its laud. 
 The alpine regions send down in some directions 
 torrents of water, which form rivers almost rivalling 
 in magnificence those of America, and which flow 
 for hundreds of miles through plains of unsurpassed 
 fertility. On the other hand, there are wide stretch- 
 ing tracts, like the deserts of Africa, destitute of 
 water, and doomed to eternal sterility. Only one 
 cousid.erable sheet of water. Lake Hamoon (q. v.), 
 refreshes the high table-land of Iran. The low steppe 
 of Turan contains the Caspian Sea (q. v.), the largest 
 of all lakes, and Lake Aj-al (q. v.). In the vsfley 
 of Cashmere lies Lake Ular, 40 miles in circum- 
 ference, and the only considerable sheet of water 
 in the Himalaya chain. At the northern base of 
 this mountain-chain, Lake Palte is remarkable for its 
 annular forpi. In Tibet and the Altai Mountains, 
 lakes are very numerous. 
 
 One of the most striking characteristics of Asian 
 river-systems is found in its double rivers, or two 
 streams rising in the same region, flowing in almost 
 parallel directions, and either uniting, or nearly so, 
 before entering the sea. Among these twin rivers 
 may be mentioned — the Sihou and Gihon, flowing 
 into Lake Aral; the Euphrates and Tigris, in 
 Western A., surrounding the plain of Mesopotamia, 
 uniting at Koona, and together flowing* into the 
 Persian Gulf ; the Gauges and Brahmaputra ; and 
 the Yang-tze-kiang and Hoang-ho, in China, rising 
 near each other, then widely separated in their 
 courses, but again approaching each other, and both 
 falling into the Yellow Sea, only 100 miles apart. 
 
 The six great river-systems of A., comprising 
 rivers which wiU be found fully noticed under their 
 respective names, are — the Mesopotamian, that of 
 North-west India, that of North-east India and Tibet, 
 the Indo-Chinese, the Chinese, and the Siberian. The 
 first comprises the two famous streams, the Tigris and 
 Euphrates. The second comprises the Indus with its 
 tributaries. The third system comprises the Brah- 
 maputra and Ganges. The fourth system comprises 
 the rivers of the Indo-Chinese peninsula ; the chief 
 of which are the Irrawaddy, the Martaban or Saluen, 
 the Me-nam, and the Me-king or Cambodia. The 
 Jifth system is the Chinese. It comprises four great 
 streams, all of which flow in an eastern or north- 
 eastern direction into the Pacific : the Hong-kiaug, 
 or Canton Kiver; the Yang-tze-kiang (or Son of the 
 Sea) ; the Hoang-ho, or YeUow Eiver ; and the 
 Amur. The sixth system comprises the large rivers 
 of Siberia, the principal of which are the Obi, the 
 Yenisei, and the Lena. They all have their sources 
 in the Altaian Mountains ; flow north, or nearly so ; 
 and for 800 or 900 miles before their embouchure, 
 traverse a dreary, flat, monotonous waste, until 
 their sluggish waters creep into the Prozen Sea. 
 
 Geology. — The geological structure of Asia is so 
 
 complex, the diBferent formations are so broken up 
 
 and scattered, that a general description would be 
 
 unintelligible. We must refer to separate notices, 
 
 m 
 
 where the geological structure and phenomena of 
 circumscribed districts will be given in detail, and 
 the reader will, in this way, be enabled to form a. 
 correct iuipression of the geology of Asia as a whole. 
 See HnvTAT.AVA, Hindustan, CmifA, Sibeeia, &c. 
 
 Natural History. — The vast extent of A., and its 
 great diversities of cHmate, naturally lead us to 
 expect in it a great variety of natural productions, 
 both animal and vegetable. This expectation is 
 heightened when we consider how completely this 
 vast contiueut is divided into separate portions by 
 mountain ranges of great altitude, and how exten- 
 sive the mountainous tracts themselves are, as well 
 as the great extent of the elevated plateaux or table- 
 lands, and when we add to these considerations that 
 of the peculiar character of wide regions — wastes of 
 sand-— -level steppes — and extensive mstricts of which 
 the soil is strongly impregnated with salt. Accord- 
 ingly, we flnd, both in the flora and fauna of Asia, all 
 the variety which such considerations might lead us 
 to expect. 
 
 The most northerly part of the continent, however, 
 differs comparatively little in its productions from 
 the corresponding parts of Europe and America. It 
 exhibits the same arctic flora, with differences compa- 
 ratively inconsiderable. Pines, birches, and wiUowa 
 form, as in the other continents, the last forests of 
 the north; but upon account of the more severe 
 cHmate, they do not reach a limit so northerly as in 
 Europe, and particularly in the west of Europe. 
 Some of the common plants of Europe are abundant 
 as far east as Kamstchatka : the Crowberry {Empe- 
 trum nigrum), so plentiful in the moors of Scotland, 
 is still more plentiful throughout Siberia; the same 
 Vanxinia, (Bilberries, &c.) and Rvibi (Brambles, &c.) 
 abound in the Kamstchatkan forests as in those of 
 Scandinavia. There are, however, interesting dif- 
 ferences. Heaths are comparatively rare in Asia, its 
 flora agreeing in this respect with that of America, 
 rather than with that of Europe. The larch, which 
 in Europe occurs only on the central mountains, 
 extends far northward at the mouth of the Obi to 
 the utmost limits of arborescent vegetation; probably 
 a mere variety of the same species, although it has 
 been described as distinct. In Kamstchatka, a dif- 
 ferent kind of birch replaces the common birch of 
 Europe as a forest tree, and the Siberian stone pine 
 is different from that of the south of Europe. Siberia 
 in its less frigid regions produces a luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion, of which herbaceous plants of unusually large 
 size for a cold or temperate climate are a charac- 
 teristic feature; as species of Rhubarb, AngeHca, 
 and Cow-parsnip (Heradewm), some of which are 
 now well known in Britain. It is indeed from the 
 central and eastern temperate parts of Asia that the 
 cultivated species of rhubarb are derived, and from 
 the same region the rhubarb root, so valuable in 
 medicine, is brought. In the abundance of Grossu- 
 lariacece (Currants), the warmer parts of Siberia 
 resemble North America, although most of the 
 species are different. 
 
 To the south of the Altaian Mountains, the flora 
 of Asia corresponds in part with that qt the great 
 eastern plain of Europe ; but it exhibits also pecu- 
 liarities which may in some measure be ascribed to 
 the saline character of large districts, the stony or 
 sandy desolation of others, and the elevation of the 
 great central plateau. The flora of Asia Minor and 
 of Syria has a general resemblance to that of the 
 south of Europe, although exhibiting also features 
 which belong rather to that of India or of Africa. 
 Shrubby Labiaice are particularly characteristic of 
 this region, from which not a few of them have 
 found their way into the gardens of Europe and of 
 other parts of the world, upon acooimt of their 
 fragrance, their medicinal quaUties, or their use for 
 
ASIA. 
 
 the erateful seaaoning of food. — The tropical flora of 
 Arabia ahoiinda in trees which yield fragrant balsams 
 and resins, particularly of the natural order Amyri- 
 dacece. Indeed, both the "warmer temperate and the 
 tropical regions of Asia excel other parts of the world 
 in the number and variety of the odoriferous drugs 
 which they produce, with odours of the most various 
 characters, from myirh and frankincense to asafcetida. 
 Arabia has long been noted for the production of 
 coffee, which is now also pretty extensively cultivated 
 in other warm parts of A. The date-pahn is as 
 characteristic of Arabia as it is of, Egypt. Acacias 
 and mimosas also abound. — The flora of Persia in 
 part resembles that of Arabia, although it is less 
 tropical, and the altitude of its moimtains gives to it 
 in some places an extremely different character. — The 
 abundance of Scitaminece is regarded as particularly 
 characteristic of India ; and plants of this order yield 
 ginger, galangal, cardamoms, turmeric, and other 
 aiticles of commerce, amongst which not the least 
 important is a kiad of arrow-root. Its Legtmdnosce 
 are also very numerous, both herbaceous and shrubby, 
 or arborescent, many of them exhibiting great beauty 
 of foliage and splendour of flowers ; some producing 
 useful kinds of pulse ; others timber, gum, medicines, 
 &c. The number of valuable medicinal plants which 
 belong to the Indian flora is very great, as is also 
 that of dyewoods; and it abounds m flne fruits, of 
 which the mango and mangosteen may be particu- 
 larly noticed. Citcurbitacece (Gourds) are very nume- 
 rous; as are also trees of the genus Ficus (Fig), 
 some of which produce caoutchouc, and amongst 
 which axe the sacred peepul and the banian-tree, 
 so remarkable for the roots which descend from its 
 branches to become new stems, and for the extent 
 of ground which it canopies. Pahns are numerous 
 in file tropical; parts of A., and particularly in its 
 south-eastern regions, but less numerous than in the 
 tropical parts of South America. The cocoa-nut is 
 one of the most common pahns in the vicinity of the 
 sea. Some of the Asiatic palms are valuable for 
 the sago which they yield. The natural order 
 Dipteraeem is one of those that are peculiar to India 
 and South-eastern A., and includes some of the 
 noblest timber-trbes ; but the Indian teak, so 
 valuable for ship-building, is of the order Verben<Kece. 
 The flora of the Eastern Peninsula, Siam, Oochin- 
 China, and the south-eastern part of A. generally, 
 differs considerably from that of India, and exhibits, 
 if possible, a richer variety. The change from the 
 Indian flora is stUl greater in the islands, and a 
 resemblance to that of Polynesia and of AustraUa 
 begins to appear. The bread-fruit takes the place 
 of its congener, the jack of India. These regions 
 produce nutmegs, cloves, and other spices. The 
 Lauracea are abundant, yielding cinnamon, cassia, 
 and camphor. Gutta-percha has recently been 
 added to the number of the most valuable, ejcports. 
 China and Japan have many plants peculiar to 
 themselves, and are remarkable for the prevalence 
 of the Temstroetniacece, the natural order to which 
 the tea -plant and the camellia belong. It is 
 scarcely necessary to mention how extensively tea 
 is cultivated in China, and how important it is 
 in the commerce of the world. The diversity of 
 climate, however, both in China and Japan, is so 
 considerable, as to imply no small diversity of 
 productions. In like manner, the Himalaya Moun- 
 tains possess a flora very different from that of 
 the Indian plains, and which in some of its 
 most characteristic features, particularly ia the 
 prevalence of large rhododendrons and magnolias, 
 has been found remarkably to agree with the flora 
 of the southern parts of llie Umted States ; whilst 
 at BtiU greater altitudes there is a strong resem- 
 blance to ihat of more northern regions, or of the 
 
 European Alps; forests of pines appear, and along 
 with them tie deodar, a cedar scarcely, if at afl 
 different from the cedar of Lebanon. The moun- 
 tains of Java also produce oaks and other trees 
 resembling those of the temperate zone, although the 
 species are peculiar. But many parts of A. have as 
 yet been very imperfectly explored. 
 
 Many of the cultivated plants of Europe are 
 known to be natives of A., and others are supposed 
 to be so. As the cradle of the human race, and the 
 scene of the earhest civilisation, it is natural to 
 suppose that it supplied the first fruits and other 
 vegetable productions which man sought to improve 
 by cultivation ; and of some which, as the apple 
 and the cherry, are probably natives of Europe, 
 it seems prohable that the first improved varieties 
 were introduced from A. We do not know with 
 certainty of what part of the earth some of the 
 principal cereal plants or grains are natives — as 
 wheat, barley, oats, and rye ; but there seems great 
 probabiUty in the supposition that they are of 
 Asiatic origin. Eice certainly is. It has been 
 cultivated from time immemorial in some of the 
 warm parts of A. ; and its. introduction into other 
 quarters of the world is comparatively recent. 
 Maize — ^introduced from America — ^is now to be 
 reckoned amoUg the most important cultivated 
 plants of A., and its cultivation is rapidly extending, 
 as is that of the potato. Wheat, oats, barley, rye, 
 beans, pease, and buckwheat, are the principal crops 
 of regions similar in climate to those in which they 
 are cultivated in Europe. Barley and buckwheat 
 are cultivated in the Himalayas at the extraordinary 
 elevation of almost 12,000 feet, and crops of barley 
 are to be seen even at 15,000 feet above the sea. 
 Millet of different kinds, durra, and other grains' of 
 inferior importance, are cultivated to some extent 
 in India and other warm regions ; also different 
 kinds of pulse. The banana and plantaiu are of the 
 same importance as in other Ixopical countries ; 
 and the yam and cocco or eddoes contribute 
 largely to the supply of human food. The sugar- 
 cane is cultivated in the warm parts of A., but 
 not with so much spirit or success as in America, 
 althoi^h it is a native of the East and not of 
 the West Indies. Pepper is one of the native 
 productions of the East Indies, and is extensively 
 cultivated. Tobacco, whether or not any species 
 of it is indigenous to A., is now produced in 
 large quantities. Indigo is extensively cultivated 
 in India, and the opium poppy too extensively. 
 Different species of cotton are natives of India, 
 and have long been cultivated there and in China. 
 Hemp is cultivated in India, not for its fibre, but 
 to afford the means of intoxication; and fiax 
 chiefly for the oil of its seeds; but both hemp 
 and flax are extensively cultivated for their fibres 
 in other parts of A. ; and India and the other tropical 
 regions produce many plants valuable for their 
 fibres, among which are species of Musa, Oorchorus 
 (yielding the jute of commerce), and Urtica (nettle). 
 Among the crops of India is sesamum, valued for 
 the oil of its seeds. 
 
 It seems probable that we are indebted to the 
 warmer temperate parts of A. not only for the 
 orange, the lemon, and aU the other species of 
 the genus Citrus, but also for the olive, the peach, 
 and nectarine, the apricot, the fig, the mulberry, 
 and the vine, with many other of the fruits now 
 most generally esteemed and cultivated. China and 
 Japan being the seats of an ancient civilisation, 
 many useful plants have long been cultivated there, 
 which have scarcely yet foimd their way into other 
 parts of the world. Floriculture has been pra,ctised 
 there with great assiduity from a remote antiquity ; 
 and varieties of Hydrangea, Camellia, Tree Pseony, 
 
ASIA. 
 
 Chrysantliemum, &c., have, from time immemorial, 
 been scarcely if at all less numerous than those 
 of the tulip and hyacinth in Holland. 
 
 The zoology of A. is not less interesting than its 
 botany. Amongst domestic animals, the most 
 important are the ox and buffalo, the sheep, the 
 goat, the horse, the ass, the camel, and the elephant. 
 A number of species of ox and buffalo are natives 
 of A., from more than one of which the domesti- 
 cated races appear to have derived their origin. 
 Very distinct from all the others is the yak (q. v.) 
 of Tibet, a creature which is of great use to the 
 inhabitants of the elevated regions of the Himalayas, 
 and is to them almost what the reindeer is to 
 the Laplander. The sheep and goat are natives 
 of the moimtainoua parts of Central A. The horse 
 and the ass seem to belong to the same regions ; 
 and all of these have been domesticated from the 
 earliest times. The camel is of incalculable value 
 as a beast of burden in the regions of heat and 
 drought, and as affording the means of traversing 
 the great deserts. It is used principally in the south- 
 west of A. and in India. The elephant is a native 
 of the tropical parts of A., but is of a different 
 species from that of Africa. The reindeer constitutes 
 the chief wealth of some of the tribes of the 
 north. Dogs are also used by some of the Siberian 
 tribes for drawing their sledges. Different races 
 of dogs are domesticated in different parts of A., 
 and a small kind is fattened for its flesh in China ; 
 but in the Mohammedan parts of A., the dog is 
 reckoned an imclean animal, and is known chiefly 
 as a prowler about towns and villages, and a devourer 
 of oflal. 
 
 The tropical parts of A. abound in monkeys, 
 of which the species are very numerous. Among 
 them are some with long, and some with short tails, 
 but none with prehensile tails, like the sapajons 
 of America. Many ai'e altogether tailless, and 
 among these is the orang-outang, found in the 
 south-eastern islands. A much larger ape, called 
 the pongo, has been said to exist in Borneo, but it 
 is still a doubtful species. The same warm regions 
 aboimd in bats, many of which are of large size, and 
 feed upon fruits, not upon insects. The flying 
 lemur or colugo is another remarkable animal of the 
 Indian Archipelago. — Bears are found in all parts 
 of A. — the white bear in the extreme north, and 
 other formidable species in the more temperate parts ; 
 whilst the tropical regions produce bears which 
 are by no means ferocious, and feed chiefly on 
 insects, fruits, and honey. Badgers are also found 
 in A., and quadrupeds of several other plantigrade 
 genera, allied to the bear, but of comparatively small 
 size and inoffensive habits, as the beautiful Panda 
 {Ailwrus) of the north of India, and the Binturongs 
 {Ictides) of Malacca and the neighbouring archi- 
 pelago. — Animals of the Weasel family {Mustelidw) 
 are numerous, among which the Teledu {Mydaus 
 meliceps) of Java rivals the skunks of America 
 in the horrible stench with which it surrounds 
 itself for defence. More important are the sable 
 and the sea otter, pursued in the northern regions 
 upon account of their furs. — Of the Dog family, 
 or Canidce, A. has not only wild dogs, but also 
 wolves, foxes, hysenas, and jackals ; the two former 
 abounding chiefly in the colder, the two latter in 
 the warmer regions. The arctic fox inhabits the 
 most northerly . shores and islands. The warmer 
 parts of A. produce a number of species of the allied 
 family of the Viverridce, among which are the 
 mangouste or Indian ichneumon — famous, like the 
 Egyptian ichneumon, for the destruction of serpents 
 — and the civet, from which is obtained a celebrated 
 perfume. — Of feline animals, the most dreadful are 
 the lion and tiger; the latter of which is peculiar to 
 «6 
 
 A., abounding in the warm regions of the south 
 and east, never extending westward beyond the 
 mountains and deserts which separate India from 
 Persia ; but, on the contrary, advancing far to the 
 north, beyond the Umits to which the lion advances, 
 and even to the confines of Siberia. The leopard, 
 the ounce, and many other cats, some of them large 
 and dangerous, are found in A., especially in the 
 warmer parts of it. Among them may be mentioned 
 the chetah, or hunting-leopard, tamed for the chase 
 in India.— A few small marsupial (or pouched) 
 quadrupeds (Pkalangers) are found in the Moluccas, 
 and form one of the links by which the natural 
 history of A. is connected with that of Australia. — 
 The Olires or Bodentia, on the contrary, are niunerous 
 in all parts of A., and many species are peculiar 
 to it. Squirrels, marmots, rats, mice, hares, &c., 
 are common in all except the most northerly regions. 
 The brown rat, now so common in Europe, is said 
 to have emigrated from Persia so recently as the 
 beginning of the 18th c. Lemmings abound in 
 Siberia and the Tatarian deserts, of which the 
 jerboa is also an inhabitant. Porcupines are frequent 
 in the warmer parts of A., and the beaver is found 
 in the north. — Of Edentate quadrupeds, the Pan- 
 golins (Manis) alone are Asiatic, and these are 
 conflned to the tropical regions. — Of Pachydermata, 
 there are, besides the elephant, the horse, &c., 
 already mentioned, several species of rhinoceros, 
 wild boars, the babyroussa, and a species of tapir ; 
 all, except the wild boar, natives of the warmest 
 climates. One of the most interesting facts, how- 
 ever, connected with the natural history of A., is 
 the abundance of remains of the mammoth, or fossil 
 elephant, in the coldest parts of Siberia, its tusks 
 still affording a considerable supply of ivory. — Of 
 ruminating animals, besides those of the ox-kind, 
 already mentioned, and the sheep and goat, there 
 are deer, antelopes, and musks or musk-deer. The 
 reindeer and elk are natives of Siberia; further 
 south, the species of deer are much more nmuerous, 
 and the same countries produce many species of 
 antelope. The musks are found in the central and 
 southern parts of the continent ; one of them, a 
 native of the highest mountains, yielding the much- 
 prized perfume from which it derives its name. — A. 
 possesses vultures, eagles, and other Falconidce, owls, 
 ravens, and other birds of the crow kind, herons, 
 storks, cranes, &c. Swans, geese, ducks of various 
 species, and many other Anaiidw, frequent its 
 waters, some of them aboimding even in the coldest 
 regions. Albatrosses are very numerous on the 
 Kamstchatkan shores; flamingoes on those of the 
 more southern countries. Pigeons abound, and 
 among them is the turtle-dove. The gouras of the 
 Indian Archipelago are birds of the pigeon family, of 
 which one species is almost as large as a turkey. 
 There are many kinds of thrush, finch, warbler, 
 bunting, sparrow, and other birds identical with 
 or aUied to those of Europe, among which is the 
 nightingale, often mentioned by the Persian poets, 
 and many also, particularly in the warmer regions, 
 which are peculiar and characteristic. Of these may 
 be mentioned the splendid birds of paradise of the 
 south-eastern islands, peacocks, pheasants, &c. The 
 gallinaceous birds of Asia are numerous, and from 
 tliis continent were probably derived the domestic 
 poultry of other parts of the earth. The abund- 
 ance of the parrot tribe constitutes a point of resem- 
 blance between the tropical parts of Asia and other 
 tropical countries, but lories are peculiar to the East 
 Indies. The ostrich inhabits the deserts of Arabia as 
 well as of Africa. The cassowary is foimd in the 
 south-eastern islands. The edible swallows' nests of 
 the East Indian coasts have long been celebrated. — 
 Lizards and other saurian reptiles are very abundant 
 
ASIA. 
 
 in the warmer parts of Asia ; and great crooodilea 
 and gavials infest tie rivers of the East Indies. 
 Boas, pythons, and other great serpents, are found 
 in the tropical regions, 'v^ioh produce also many 
 venomous serpents. The cobra da capello is one of 
 the most dreaded. But the temperate pai-ts of Asia 
 have also venomous serpents, scarcely less dangerous. 
 Some of the East Indian tortoises are remarkable for 
 their great magnitude, and turtles are found in the 
 seas. — Both flie salt and fresh waters of Asia 
 produce many kinds of fish. The Salmonidce of the 
 rivers of Siberia supply an important part of the 
 food of its inhabitants. The goldfish, now so well 
 known in Britaia, is a native of Cluna. Some of the 
 fish of the tropical parts of Asia have attracted 
 attention from tte peculiarity of their form or habits. 
 Insect life is exceedingly abundant in the warm 
 parts of Asia, as in all other warm countries. Bees 
 are numerous, and honey is produced in great quan- 
 tities. Of other insects, it seems only necessary here 
 to mention the siUc-worm, which was introduced 
 from Asia into Europe ; and the locust, which some- 
 times devastates great tracts of the Asiatic countries 
 bordering on the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, 
 and occasionally extends its ravages into regions 
 further west. Of molluscous animals, the pearl- 
 oyster deserves particular notice, upon account of 
 the important pearl-fisheries which exist in diflferent 
 places. 
 
 Ethnography. — The whole population, consisting of 
 650,000,000 people, may be divided into the Mongo- 
 lian, Aryan, and Semitic groups. The first of these 
 includes all the peoples and tribes in the east, north, 
 and south-east of Asia ; the second (see Aryajt 
 Race) embraces the inhabitants of Northern India, 
 Afghanistan, Persia, and part of Asiatic Turkey ; the 
 third includes the Syrian, Hebrew, and Arabian 
 races (see Ethnology). 
 
 A further subdivision and classification may be 
 made as follows : 1. The East-Asian group, includ- 
 ing the peoples of Tibet, China, Japan, Corea, 
 and the Indo-Chinese peninsula ; all alike in the 
 use of monosyUabio languages. This last people, 
 however, must be subdivided into Western and 
 Eastern, the former comprising the inhabitants of 
 the Burman empire, Pegu, Laos, and Siam, having 
 aflBnities with the Hindus; and the latter, com- 
 prising the inhabitants of Tonquin, Cochin-China, 
 and Cambodia, have affinities with the Mongolians 
 of Tibet and China. 2. The Tatar group, molud- 
 ing the Turkomans, Mongols, and Tungusians, who 
 are spread over the whole ' table-land of Central 
 Asia and the neighbouring lands in the north. The 
 Turkoman family is divided into three sections — 
 the first including the east Turkomans, inhabiting 
 Tashkend, Khiva, Balkh, and Usbekistan ; the 
 second including the so-called Tatars of the Urals 
 and the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and Kazan ; 
 the third including the Turks or Osmanli. With 
 the exception of a few smaU tribes in Siberia, 
 all the Turkish varieties are Mohammedans, use 
 the Arabic alphabet, and employ numerous Arabic 
 words in their dialects. 3. The Siberian group, 
 including the Samoiedes, people of Kamstchatka, 
 &c., speaking languages which have only recently 
 been studied by philologists. 4. The Malay-Poly- 
 nesian group, mixed with Australasian negritos, are 
 spread over all the islands of Polynesia and the 
 Indian Archipelago. The Malayan people of Java, 
 Sumatra, Celebes, the peninsula of Malacca, the 
 Sunda Islands, Moluccas, and Philippines, have 
 an incipient literature, which has been formed 
 under Moslem and (since the 16th c.) under Euro- 
 pean influence. The South Sea islanders are clearly 
 divided into two races by physical form, colour, 
 and language. One race is allied to the Australasian 
 
 negrito, and the other to the Malayan. In most 
 of the islands, there is a partial intermixture of 
 the two races, but generally the distinction is 
 obvious. It is probable that all the copper-coloured 
 Polynesians belong to the same family with the 
 people of the Indian Archipelago. 5. The Deccan 
 group, including aU the people employing the Tamul, 
 Carnatic, Telugu, and Singalese languages, all having 
 a certain measure of civilisation and a literature. 
 6. The Indo-Germanic or Aryan group, marked and 
 subdivided by the three languages, Sanscrit, Persian, 
 and Armenian. About thirty mstinct nations, each 
 having a peculiar dialect and literature, belong to 
 the first subdivision ; the second includes the peoples 
 of Eeloochistan, Afghanistan, Persia, and Kurdistan ; 
 the third, the Armenians. All these families have 
 literatures partly written in dead languages — ^the 
 Sanscrit, Pali, Zend, and old Armenian. 7. The 
 heterogeneous tribes inhabiting the Caucasus, whose 
 affinities are not yet settled. 8. The Semitic group, 
 including aU the peoples whose languages are related 
 to the Hebrew and Arabic. 
 
 JSeligions. — The same Asian characteristic of 
 variety and wide contrast is found in the creeds as 
 in the countries and tribes of people : the Brahmiu- 
 ical religion of India ; the doctrines of Buddha, 
 Confucius, and of Lao-tse in China'; the worship of 
 the Grand Lama in Tibet ; the creed of Islam in 
 several varieties in Arabia, Persia, and India^ the 
 rude heathenism of the north ; the various sects of 
 native Christians in Armenia, Syria, Kurdistan, and 
 India; the Greek Church in Siberia; these and 
 other fdrms of faith or rehgious profession display 
 diversities and contrasts nearly as striking as those 
 of Asian geography. Christianity, now the religion 
 of Europe and America, owes its origin to Asia. 
 For an account of the existing religious systems of 
 Asia, see articles Mohammedanism, Hindpism, 
 Buddhism, Lamaism, &c. 
 
 -Oivilisaiion. — The number of people civilised — in 
 the Asiatic sense of the word — is far greater than 
 that of wild and nomadic hordes ; but culture here, 
 when arrived at a certain point, assumes a station- 
 ary character, widely differing from the restless intel- 
 lectual activity and industrial progress of Europe. 
 The laws of states, families, industry, commerce, 
 art, and science are, in India and China, so many 
 branches of one fixed and permanent religious 
 system, which has maintained its sway through 
 many centuries, and would long remain unchanged, 
 if left undisturbed by European infiuence. The 
 Arabs, Persians, and Turks, collectively known as 
 the Easterns, are distinct in civilisation from the 
 Hindus and Chinese. The institution of slavery 
 among the former, of caste among the Hindus, 
 and.tiie civil and political equality of China, are 
 distinguishing marks. The l\irk is a monotheist 
 and fatalist; the Hindu is either a mystical pan- 
 theist or polytheist, acknowledging a multitude of 
 gods ; the Chinese is rather a uialitarian moralist. 
 
 Industry. — The industry and commerce of the 
 Asiatic continent bear no adequate proportion 
 to its capabilities — such as they are, they will be 
 described under the different countries. 
 
 Political Aspect. — The political institutions of A. 
 present to us some striking contrasts. While the 
 barbarous hordes in the north live almost without the 
 idea of government, and scarcely know, that the 
 Kussian czar claims them as his subjects ; and the 
 nomadic tribes, under their khans or sheiks, have a 
 sort of patriarchal government, subordinate to higher 
 powers ; the most extreme forms of monarchy and 
 despotism have existed among the more cultivated 
 nations. The government of China is an absolute 
 monarchy in form, but, in fact, is strictly limited by 
 the force of tradition. The emperor is apparently 
 
 477 
 
ASIA MINOR-ASMANNSHAUSEN. 
 
 unlimited in authority; but it is an essential duty of 
 an emperor to rule exactly according to the precepts 
 handed down by his ancestors. Reverence for 
 ancestors and their iastitutions is, therefore, the 
 sole presiding and conservative principle which has 
 so long preserved the great Chinese empire from 
 poUtical changes. A., now so passive, anciently took 
 an active part in the great movements of the world's 
 history ; contended against Egypt and Greece, and 
 afterwards contributed to the greatness and glory 
 of the Macedonian and Roman empires. From 
 the north of the Caspian Sea, came the vast 
 hordes of the Huns who spread themselves abroad 
 over Europe. The armies of Genghis Khan and 
 Tamerlane overran the Slavonian ;^ains, while the 
 Arab califs, with their fanatical troops, estabUshed 
 their religion and government in three quarters of 
 the world. Under the Osmanh fell the eastern 
 Roman empire, and still the Turk maintains a 
 political position'in Europe, but one now becoming 
 very feeble and insecure. In proportion as Europe 
 has advanced, A. has declined in political power, so 
 as to countenance the theory of a gradual movement 
 of the spirit of civUisation and progress from the 
 eastern to the western world. It would appear that 
 all great future changes in the destinies of Asiatic 
 nations must proceed from European influence. 
 The Portuguese, Spaniards, Dutch, and French 
 have acquired possessions in India, but all are 
 now insignificant when compared with the vast ter- 
 ritory under British government. The followiug 
 table, from Johnston's Gazetteer (ed. 1859), gives the 
 ejcisting political divisions, with their extent and 
 population, as nearly as the data wiU permit : 
 
 Arabia, 
 
 China Proper, including the 
 Islands Formosa, Hainan, 
 Loo.Choo, .... 
 
 Chinese Empire, assumed De- 
 pendencies of Tibet, Mongolia, 
 Mantchuria, Korea, 
 
 Japan, 
 
 Further India, or India Jjeyond 
 the Ganges: 
 Anam or Cochin-China, with 
 Tonquin and part of Cam- 
 bodia, .... 
 Burmah, and part of 1 
 
 Cassay or Cathi, | . 
 Malay Peninsula, 
 Siam, 
 
 Afghanistan, . 
 Beloocbistan, . 
 Kalirstan, 
 
 Independent Tatary or TurTiestan. 
 Bokhara, . 
 Khokan, 
 Koondooz, . 
 Kliirghiz Dominion, 
 
 Persia or Iran, 
 
 BKITISH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. 
 
 Hindustan : 
 
 Bengal Presidency, 
 
 North-West Provinces, m 
 
 Madras Presidency, 
 
 Bombay Presidency, 
 Native States in 
 
 Bengal, 
 
 Madras 
 
 Bombay, . • * 
 
 Ceylon (Island), 
 
 1,200,000? 
 1,700,000? 
 
 3,693,000? 
 ^6,600 
 
 140,000? 
 255,000? 
 8,000? 
 45,000 ? 
 220,000? 
 
 160,000? 
 7,000? 
 
 235,000 
 
 } 485,000? 
 
 460,000? 
 
 325,652 
 85,571 
 144,889 
 120,065 
 
 582,518 
 61,802 
 67,376 
 
 23,310 
 
 PopulaUon. 
 
 8,000,000? 
 369,600,000? 
 
 35,000,000 i 
 30,000,000 
 
 6,000,000? 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 30,000 ? 
 
 375,000 
 
 4,600,000? 
 
 6,120,000 
 
 480,000 
 
 Not known. 
 
 1,000,000? 
 600,000? 
 
 200,000? 
 8,000,000? 
 
 41,094,325 
 23,803,349 
 22,301,697 
 11,109,067 
 
 43,009,862 
 4,762,975 
 4,393,400 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 State. 
 
 Sqnaro 
 UUea. 
 
 Population. 
 
 BEITISH POSSESSIONS IN ASIA. 
 
 
 
 Further India : 
 E. Straits Settlements— Ten- 
 asserim, Pulo Penang, Pro- 
 vince, "Wellesley, and 
 Islands adjacent, 
 E. Archipelago and Malacca, 
 Singapore, .... 
 
 1,575 
 
 90O' 
 270 
 
 202,540 
 50,000 
 67,421 
 
 China Sea : 
 
 Labuan 
 
 Hong Kong, 
 
 260 
 
 1,800 
 26,000 
 
 French Fomssions in India ; 
 Chandernagor, 
 Karikal, .... 
 Mahe, ... 
 Pondicherry, 
 
 !■ 188 
 
 
 r 31,447 
 
 56,683 
 
 3,341 
 
 . 81,154 
 
 Portuguese Asia: 
 Goa,Damaun, Diu, &c. (inlndia). 
 Settlements in the Islands Solor, 
 
 Timor, Midora, . 
 Macao (China), . 
 
 800 
 
 660,000? 
 12 
 
 400,000? 
 
 220,000? 
 38,000 
 
 Russian Asia ; 
 
 Siberia, 
 
 Transcaucasia, &c., . 
 
 6,486,750 
 
 2,937,000 
 2,648,000 
 
 Ottoman Asia : 
 Asia Minor, .... 
 
 1 
 
 
 Syria 
 
 Mesopotamia, 
 
 Assyria, .... 
 
 \ 608,800 
 
 16,050,000 
 
 478 
 
 A'SIA MI'NOR, the ancient name of what ia 
 now called Anatolia (q.v.). Here, in Ionia, was the 
 early seat of Grecian civilisation, and here were the 
 countries of Phrygia, Lycia, Caria, Paphlagonia, 
 Bithynia, Lydia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Cilicia, Galatia, 
 Cappadocia, &c., with Troy, Ephesus, Smyrna, and 
 many other great and famous cities. Here, from 
 the obscure era of Semiramis (about 2000 years B. c), 
 to the time of Osman (about 1300 A. D.), the greatest 
 conquerors of the world contended for supremacy; 
 and here took place the wars of the Medes and 
 Persians with the Scythians; of the Greeks with 
 the Persians ; of the Romans with Mithridates and 
 the Parthians; of the Arabs, Seljuks, Mongols, and 
 Osmans with the weak Byzantine empire. It was 
 here that Alexander the Great and the Romans 
 successively contended for the mastery of the civi- 
 lised world. But, notwithstanding all these wars, 
 the country still continued to enjoy some measure of 
 prosperity tiU it fell into the hands of the Turks, 
 under whose mUitary despotism its ancient civilisa- 
 tion has been sadly brought to ruin. 
 
 ASKEW, or ASCOUGH, Anne, one of the suf- 
 ferers for Protestant opinions at the dawn of the 
 Reformation in England. Having embraced the 
 views of the reformers, she was turned out of doors 
 by her husband, a gentleman of Lincolnshire, and a 
 zealous Roman CathoUo. On this she went up to 
 London to sue for a separation; but was event- 
 ually arrested on a charge of heresy, and was 
 examined by the Bishop of London and others on 
 the doctrine Of transubstantiation, the truth of 
 which she denied. After further examination and 
 torture by the rack, she was burned at the stake, in 
 Smithfield, July 16, 1546. 
 
 ASMANNSHAtT'SEIir, a viUage in the jurisdic- 
 tion of Rudesheim, Nassau, is famed for the wine 
 which is produced on the slate-mountains in its 
 vicinity. Of this there are two kinds, red and 
 white, the former of which is greatly preferred. It 
 has a rich red colour, like Burgundy, possesses a 
 rare aromatic flavour, and is noted for its uncommon 
 
ASMODEUS-ASPABAGUS. 
 
 strength and fire. But it retains its excellent 
 qualities only about three or four years ; after 
 which, year by year, it becomes weaker, and loses 
 its colour. The choicest sort, which is preferred by 
 connoisseurs to all the other red wines of the Ehrne, 
 and even to Burgundy itself, is cultivated in the 
 ducal vineyards at Wiesbaden. 
 
 ASMODB'US (properly, Asohmbdai, 'the de- 
 stroyer'), an evil genius or demon mentioned in the 
 later Jewish writings. A. was described as the 
 author of many evils. In the Book of Tobit (q. v.), 
 he is represented as slaying the seven husbands of 
 Sara, and hence, in modern times, has been jocularly 
 spoken of as the destroying demon of matrimonial 
 happiness. In the Talmud, A. is described as the 
 prince of demons, and is said to have driven 
 Solomon from his kingdom. 
 
 ASMON^'ANS. See Maccabees. 
 
 ASP {aspis), a venomous serpent, the name of 
 which has come down from ancient times; the 
 vague descriptions of ancient authors, however, 
 causing uncertainty as to the species. It is very 
 genersdly supposed to be the I^aja Haje, the El Haje 
 or Haje Nasher of the Arabs, wiiich is very conunon 
 in Egypt, Cyprus, &c., and often appears in hiero- 
 glyphic and other sculptures as one of the sacred 
 animals of ancient Egypt. It is sometimes from 
 3 to 5 feet in length, of nearly equal thickness 
 throughout, with a gradually tapering tail ; brown- 
 ish, varied with dark and pale spots ; the scales of 
 the neck, back, and upper surface of the tail slightly 
 carinated; the tail abotit one-fourth of the whole 
 length of the animal. The neck is capable of con- 
 siderable dilatation, thf dugh the distension of its loose 
 
 Naja Haje. 
 
 skin, although not so much as that of the nearly 
 allied cobra da capello of India (Naja tripudians). 
 The dilatation of the neck takes place when the 
 serpent is irritated. The jugglers of Egypt are 
 accustomed to perform tricks with this serpent, as 
 those of India with the cobra da capello, causing it 
 to dance to their music ; after they have first, how- 
 ever, carefully extracted the poison-fangs. It is 
 very venomous. Several varieties exist at the Cape 
 of Good Hope, one of which is nearly white ; and 
 
 one is called Spuugh Slang, or Spitting Snake, by the 
 colonists, from its supposed power of ejecting its 
 poison to a distance when irritated ; the poison 
 which distils from the fangs in such circumstances 
 being probably carried off by the forcible expira- 
 tions which the creature makes — a characteristic, 
 however, not exclusively belonging to a particular 
 variety. — Other serpents of the same family. Viper- 
 idee, are by some beUeved to be the true asp, parti- 
 cularly Vipera Eehis and V. Cerastes. The former 
 is of a grayish or yellowish broWn colour, with rays 
 and eye-like spots oh the upper parts : it is found 
 both in India and the north of Airica. The latter 
 is of a grayish colour, and has a very broad heart- 
 shaped head, a short obtuse rounded muzzle, and 
 the superciliary lOi eyebrow scales remarkably de- 
 veloped, so thstt One of them is often produded into 
 a sort of spinfe : it ilihabits the deserts of Northern 
 Africa. — The ilame asp is now generally given to 
 Vipera Aspis, a native of the Alps, found allB in the 
 south-east of Europe and in Sicily, which much 
 resembles thfe cotnmou Viper, but is more slender, 
 and has a large* head j it is also more venomous. 
 
 ASPA'EAGUS, a genus df plants of the natural 
 order Liliacece, having an dlniost bell-shaped six- 
 partite perianth upon an articillated stalk, six 
 stamens, one style, with three recurved stigmas, and 
 the cells of the berry two-seeded. The species of 
 this genus are herbaceous or shrubby plants, natives 
 chiefly of the south of Europe an^ of Africa, with 
 abortivelydiceoious flowers ; the stem is unarmed in 
 some, in others thorny ; at its first sprouting leafless, 
 and covered with scales at the top ; afterwards very 
 much branched, with numerous fasciculate, gener- 
 ally bristle-like leaves. The most widely diffused 
 species is the Common A., A. officinalis, a 
 native of Europe, which grows on the banks 
 of rivers and on the sea-shore, in meadows 
 and bushy places, especially in sandy soils, 
 occurring in a few places in Britain, and 
 is also m general cultivation as a garden 
 vegetable ; its young shoots, when they first 
 sprout from the earth, forming a much esteemed 
 article of food, which, however, is only in a 
 slight degree nutritious. These sprouts con- 
 tain a peculiar crystalline substance, called 
 A^aragine, and have a specific action on the 
 urinary organs, so that tiieir long continued 
 use in very large quantities is apt even to 
 produce bloody urine. They are no longer 
 retained in the pharmacopoeia, but both the 
 shoots and the roots of A. are still occasion- 
 ally used as a diuretic in dropsies, and as 
 a llthic to dissolve urinary calcuU. For these 
 purposes, the root is preferred, and is adminis- 
 tered in the form of an infusion or decoc- 
 tion. — The thick and tender kinds of A. are 
 most esteemed for the table. It is one of 
 those plants which have been much increased 
 in size, and considerably altered in general 
 appearance, by cultivation, being seldom more 
 than a foot high in its wild state, and not 
 much thicker ■man a goose-qufll, whereas it 
 has been obtained in gardens more than half 
 am inch in diameter, and its stems rise to the 
 height of four or five feet. It was a favourite 
 vegetable of the ancient Komans. It is generally 
 planted in rows, at distances varying from 1 foot to 
 24 feet. Litter or vegetable mould is spread over 
 it in autumn. It is allowed to occupy the same 
 ground for many years, and the shoots are not 
 gathered for use tiU the plants are four years old. 
 Some of the growers of A. for the London market 
 h3,ve 100 acres under this crop. — The seeds have 
 been used as a substitute for coffee, and are recom- 
 mended for that use upon the continent, even at the 
 
 479 
 
ASPARAGUS STONE— ASPEN. 
 
 present day. A kind of spirit has been made fiom 
 the fermented berries. The young shoots of .several 
 other species are also eaten, as those of A. tenuifolius, 
 
 Asparagus. 
 
 a, a young shoot ; &, flowers ; c, the npper end of a stem, 
 
 shewing branches, leaves, and fruit (all reduced). 
 
 A. acutifoUus, and A. alhus, natives of the south of 
 Europe ; the last of which is much used in Spain 
 and Portugal as a salad, in soups, and as a boiled 
 vegetable. On the other hand, the sprouts of the 
 Bitter A., A. scaber, which is very similar to the 
 Common A, are uneatable, on account of their great 
 bitterness. 
 
 ASPARAGUS STONE. See Apatite. 
 
 ASPA'SIA, one of 'the most remarkable women 
 of antiquity, was the daughter of Axiochus, and 
 born at Miletus. The circimistance that in Athens 
 all foreign women, whatever their character, were 
 equally esteemed, or rather disesteemed, and that 
 their children, even when begotten in wedlock, were 
 held iUegitimate, has originated the erroneous notion 
 that A. was a courtesan. She certainly broke through 
 the restraint which confined Athenian matrons to 
 the seclusion of their own homes ; for after her union 
 with Pericles, who had parted from his first wife by 
 her own consent, her house became the rendezvous 
 of all the learned and distinguished people in Athens. 
 Socrates often visited her. Her eloquence and know- 
 ledge of politics were extraordinarily great. Her 
 husband — though, strictly speaking, the Athenian 
 law would have refused this appellation to Pericles 
 — ^was honoured with the title of Olympian Jove, 
 while she herself was dignified with the name of 
 Juno. From the comic writers and others, she 
 received much injustice. It was Hermippus, the 
 comic poet, who took advantage of a temporary 
 irritation of the Athenians against Pericles, to 
 accuse A. of impiety ; but the eloquence of the great 
 statesman disarmed the enmity of the judges, and 
 procured her acquittal. Her iaSuence over Pericles 
 must have been singularly great, although this 
 has obviously been exaggerated, and even carica- 
 tured. The brilliant but not historically accurate 
 Aristophanes charges her with the origin both of the 
 Samian and Peloponnesian war, the latter on account 
 of the robbery of a favourite maid who belonged to 
 her. Plutarch vindicates her against such accusa- 
 tions; and Thucydides, who detaUs minutely the 
 causes of the Peloponnesian war, does not once 
 
 4S0 ' 
 
 mention her name in connection with these. After 
 the death of Pericles, A. married Lys'ieles, a cattle- 
 dealer (an important, lucrative, and dignified pro- 
 fession in ancient times), who, through her influence, 
 soon became an eminent man in Athens. The name 
 of A. was, after her death, apphed to many women 
 of remarkable accompUshments and amiability. 
 
 A'SPECTS, in Astronomy, are certain positions of 
 planets with respect to one another, as seen from the 
 earth. In the days of astrology, there were five 
 Aspects — Conjunction (indicated by the symbol (5), 
 Sextile (*), Quartile (D), Trine (A), Opposition (J). 
 Two planets are in conjunction when they have the 
 same longitude ; the aspect is sextile when they are 
 60° apart ; quartile, when the distance is 90° ; trine, 
 when it is 120° ; and at 180° tfiey are opposite to one 
 another, or in opposition. Astrology ascribed to 
 these A. gi'eat influence over the fate of individuals 
 and of nations. The only two of the terms now in 
 use are conjundion and opposition. 
 
 A'SPEN, or TREMULOUS POPLAR (Po'pvlus 
 trimula, see Poplak), a tree which grows plentifully 
 in Europe and in Siberia. It is a native of Britain, 
 and is frequent in Scotland, where it is found even 
 at an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea. It has 
 received the specific name tremvla, from the readi- 
 ness with which its leaves are thrown into a tremu- 
 lous motion by the slightest breath of wind — a pro- 
 perty for which, indeed, the aspen-leaf has become 
 
 Aspen (Popidus tremula), reduced. 
 a^ a portion of a hranch ivith catkins ; d, do., with leaves. 
 
 proverbial. The leaves are nearly orbicular, but 
 broadly toothed, so as almost to exhibit angles. The 
 footstalks are compressed, which favours the readi- 
 ness of motion. It grows quickly, with a straight 
 stem, reaching to a height of from 60 to 80, or even 
 100 feet. In unfavourable situations, it becomes 
 dwarfish. The wood is soft, porous, light, white, 
 and smooth ; it does not make good fuel, but is very 
 fit for the turning-lathe, and especially for being 
 made into troughs, trays, pails, &c. It is deemed 
 excellent for arrows. If the stem be peeled and 
 allowed to dry before it be cut down, the wood 
 becomes harder, and is then capable of being used 
 as timber for the interior of houses; and on this 
 account the tree is of great importance in many dis- 
 tricts, and the more so as it succeeds in any soil, 
 although it prefers one which is moist and gravelly. 
 The bark contains a great quantity of a bitter alka- 
 loid, Scdicin. The charcoal made from this tree can 
 be used in the manufacture of gunpowder. — Popvlus 
 
ASPEEGILLUM— ASPHALT. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 Aspergillum. 
 
 tr^pida, a very similar, speciea, a native of North 
 America, is called the American A. It ia re- 
 garded by some as a mere variety. Very similar, 
 also, is another North American species, P. grandi- 
 dentata. 
 
 ASPEEGFLLUM, a remarkable genus of Lamel- 
 libranohiate Conchiferous MoUusoa, in which the 
 shell has the form of an elongated 
 cone, terminating at the larger 
 end in » disk, which is pierced 
 with numerous small tubular holes, 
 the little tubes of the outer range 
 being largest, and forming a sort 
 of ray around it. The animals of 
 this genus are borers, some of 
 them living in sand, others bur- 
 rowing in stone, wood, or tliiok 
 shells. A. Javanum is popularly 
 called the Watering-pot, and the 
 same resemblance has suggested 
 the name A. (from th4 'Latin 
 aspergo, to sprinkle). The most 
 interesting circumstance in the 
 structure of the shelly tube of A. 
 is the presence of two small 
 valves, incorporated in the sub- 
 stance of the tube, to which they 
 3, the disk with holes ; ijgar a very small proportion. 
 ?'ai™.™*™'°""'^ ' They there form the stamp,' says 
 Owen, 'of its true afSnities, b^it 
 subserve as little any ordinary final purpose as the 
 teeth buried in the gums of the foetal whale.' The 
 affinities are with moUusca inhabiting bivalve shells. 
 A rudimentaiy bivalve shell is found, in like manner, 
 cemented into the shelly tube of the fossil Teredina, 
 which bored the drift-wood of the London clay. 
 
 There is also a genus Aspbegillus in Botany, 
 containing many of the small fungi commonly known 
 by the name of Mould (q. v.), which occur on decay- 
 ing substances of various kinds. Some of the species 
 are peculiar to diseased animal tissues. 
 
 A'SPERlSr, or GROSS A'SPERN, a village of 
 Austria, on the left bank of the Danube, 5 miles 
 E.N.E. of Vienna. Pop. about 700. This viUage 
 and the neighbouring one of Essling are celebrated 
 as the scene of a sanguinary battle in the summer of 
 1809, between the Irench army under Napoleon L 
 and the Austrians under Archduke Charles. After 
 the battle of Eckmilhl, in which the Austrians were 
 defeated, the Archdulce retired to the left bank of 
 the Danube, leaving the road to Vienna open to the 
 Erench. On the 12th of May 1809, the Erench army 
 entered Vienna, when the Archduke cqnoentrated 
 his forces on the opposite bank of the river. Napoleon 
 threw bridges over the river, and on the 21st the 
 Erench army began crossing to the attack. The 
 Austrians at first seemed to give way; but whfen 
 about half the Erench had crossed the river, they 
 returned to the charge, and almost surrounded 
 the enemy in the narrow plain between the two 
 villages. Here ensued the battle of Aspern, a 
 terrific conflict, the grand object of the contending 
 hosts being the possession of the villages. At the 
 close of the day, it remained undecided ; but next 
 morning it was renewed with fury on either side, 
 when, after terrible slaughter. Napoleon ordered a 
 retreat, and his shattered ranks retired to the httle 
 island of Lobau, in the middle of the river, whence 
 they afterwards slowly withdrew to the right bank. 
 The loss on the side of the Austrians was given at 
 4000 killed, and 16,000 wounded ; that of the Erench 
 at double that amount. Marshal Latmes, the most 
 daring among the Erench generals, was among the 
 slain. Both the villages were reduced to heaps of 
 ruins. 
 
 31 
 
 ASPE'ETJLA. See Woodbotf. 
 
 ASPHA'LT, or ASPHA'LTUM, is the name given 
 to a bituminous substance of a solid consistence. 
 See BiTtTMEN. It probably owes its origin to veget- 
 able matter which has been subjected to a slow 
 process of decomposition or decay, resulting in the 
 production of a bituminous coal, from which, by 
 volcanic agency, the A. has been distilled and 
 diffused over the neighbouring district. The largest 
 natural deposit of A. is ia flie island of Trinidad, 
 where the plain known as the Pitch Lake is 
 foimd. See Teinidad. The A. from Trinidad is 
 largely used for ships' bottoms, and is reputed to 
 kill the teredo or borer, which proves itself so very 
 destructive to the wood of ships in tropical regions. 
 A. is also found on the shores of the Dead Sea in 
 large quantity, and is known to the Arabs by 
 the name of Hajar Mousa, or Moseses Stone. It 
 likewise occurs in South America at Coxitambo near 
 Cuenca, in Alsace, and other parts of the European 
 continent, in East Lothian and Eifeshire (Scotland), 
 in Shropshire, &c. 
 
 During the manufactiu^e of coal-gas, much tairy 
 matter is evolved from the retort, and is received in 
 the coolers or condensers. If this tar be subjected 
 to partial distillation, naphtha and other volatile 
 matters escape, and an artificial A. is left behind, 
 which possesses the principal properties, and can be 
 employed for the majority of piu:poses to which 
 native A. is applied. The various kinds of A. have 
 a pitchy odour, are of a black or dark-brown colour, 
 but do not soil the fingers ; are insoluble in water, 
 sparingly soluble in alcohol ; but are in great part 
 dissolved by ether, oil of turpentine, and naphtha. 
 Petroleum (ij. v.), or Boch Oil, is a native liquid bitu- 
 men, which largely exudes from crevices in rocks in 
 many districts, and is essentially A. dissolved in 
 naphtha. The specific gravity of A. is very near that 
 of water, ranging from 1000 to 1100. When set fire 
 to, it burns readily with a smoky flame, and is often 
 used in the smaller gas-works as fuel, by being 
 allowed to run very slowly into the furnace-fires. 
 A., besides being employed for coating the exterior 
 of ships' bottoms, is also used, in a heated condition, 
 for saturating timber wHch is intended for piles in 
 the construction of breakwaters, river-bridges, and 
 other situations where the combined action of the 
 air, water, and minute animals would soon render 
 ordinary wood rotten and useless. Wooden houses 
 may be preserved in the same manner by a coating 
 of A. applied externally; and ground-flooring placed 
 in damp situations is much the better of the spaces 
 between the planks being filled up with A. 
 
 About 1840, A. began to be generally used for 
 foot-pavements in cities, and also for floors of 
 cellars and outhouses. Eor purposes of this nature 
 it is heated in portable boilers, into which, at a 
 certain stage of the preparation, there is poured a 
 quantity of thoroughly dried sand, gravel, or powdered 
 limestone, which is well mixed with the liquid A. 
 The mixture is then spread on the spot prepared for 
 it ; and when cool, forms a hard kind of pavement. 
 Of this method of forming footways, high expecta- 
 tions' were at first formed ; but latterly the process 
 of asphalting has gone out of use in England, as it 
 is foimd not to be so durable as stone, and there- 
 fore, in ordinary circumstances, more costly. In 
 Paris, however, asphalting is still extensively prac- 
 tised in the more spacious thoroughfares. The 
 better kinds of A. are used in the manufacture of 
 the black varnish, which is employed in forming the 
 enamel which coats the variety of leather known 
 as PaUnt Leather. A. is not of itself used in 
 medicine, but its natural solution in naphtha, viz.. 
 Petroleum, is a valuable agent when applied either 
 externally or internally. The synonyms of A- are — 
 
ASPHODEL— ASPHYXIANTS. 
 
 Native Pitch, Mineral Pitch, Jews' Pitch, Dead Sea 
 Pitumen, Compact Bitumen, Trinidad Bitumen, and 
 MaU!ia. 
 
 A'SPHODEIi [Aspho'delus), a genus of plants 
 whioh has by many botanists been made the type 
 of a natural order Asphodelece, now, however, gener- 
 ally regarded as forming part of the order Liiificew. 
 The AaphodeiecB are either fibrous-rooted or bulbous- 
 rooted. Among the latter, are onions, hyacinths, 
 squills, star of Bethlehem, &o. ; among the former, 
 asparagus, A., &c. The roots of the asphodels are 
 
 White Asphodel 
 
 fleshy and thick. The species are not very numer- 
 ous, and are mostly natives of the countries around 
 the Mediterranean Sea. The Yellow A. {A. luteus) 
 and the White A. [A. alius) have long been known 
 in Britain as garden-flowers. The yellow A. has an 
 unbranched stem 2 — 3 feet high, much covered 
 by the sheathing bases of the long narrow leaves. 
 The leaves of the white A. are all radical, and its 
 flowers are in branched clusters. Both species 
 flower about the time when spring , passes into 
 Bummer. 
 
 ASPHY'XIA (Gr.) means literally a cessation of 
 the pulsation from any cause, but is usually apphed to 
 the condition resulting from the blood in the body 
 no longer being brought into the proper relations to 
 the atmospheric air by respiration, so as to allow 
 a sufficiently free exchange of carbonic acid for 
 oxygen. See Respieation. A., or suspended respira- 
 tion, may result from several causes. No air, or but 
 a scanty supply, may be admitted, as in strangula- 
 tion, drowning, choking, or disease in the windpipe ; 
 the chest may be prevented from expanding either 
 from a superincumbent weight or paralysis, as when 
 a man breaks the upper part of his neck above the 
 
 phrenic nerve, thus paralysing the diaphragm ; and, 
 again, although there may be every cfipacity for 
 respiration, the air itself may be in fault, and contain 
 too little oxygen in proportion to other elements, as 
 carbonic acid or sidphuretted hydrogen, which act, 
 as poisons when inhaled. Aquatic animals may be 
 asphyxiated either by depriving the water they 
 inhabit of oxygen, or impregnating it with the gases 
 just mentioned. 
 
 As this condition of A. advances, in drowning or 
 otherwise, the small vessels of the lungs become 
 gorged with blood, which the heart has no longer 
 power to force freely through them, the right side 
 of the heart and pulmonary artery become filled with 
 blood, while but little retimis to the arterial or left 
 side of the heart. 
 
 The person becomes pallid, except in such vascular 
 parts as the lips, cheeks,' and finger-tips, which 
 become blue; and soon the blood, no longer aerated, 
 produces the phenomena of poisoning by carbonic 
 acid. After' some slight convulsive movements, 
 the person becomes insensible, the pulsations of 
 the heart grow gradually feebler, and at last cease 
 altogether. In man this occurs in from a minute 
 and a half to five minutes. Some persons, no doubt, 
 as the Ceylon divers, can by habit do without a 
 fresh supply of air for a longer period'; and some 
 diving animals have an arrangement of blood-vessels 
 by which they are enabled to be under water for 
 a long time. Restoration of asphyxiated persons 
 may be attempted with hopes of success at a very 
 long period after apparent death. The object of all 
 metiiods is of course to fiU the lungs with fresh air. 
 The most efficient is that of the late Marshall Hall : 
 lay the person down at once with his head on his 
 left arm, open the mouth, and draw the tongue for- 
 wards, then roll him gently over towards the left 
 till he is nearly quite over on his face, then on to his 
 back again, making the body by its own weight 
 compress the chest, which, on expansion by its elasti- 
 city, fills with air. Repeat this about 15 times in a 
 minute. This remedy has of late nearly superseded 
 all others for the restoration of stUl-born infants and 
 other asphyxiated persons. It should be persevered 
 in for a long time, especially in cases of drowning, 
 as even after an hour it has been successfuL 
 
 ASPHY'XIANTS. Chemical substances enclosed 
 in shells or other projectiles, and which act by produ- 
 cing a sufibcating and poisonous effect. The French 
 secretly made experiments with asphyxiating shot 
 at Brest in 1851. The principle of these missiles 
 seems to have been to carry into an enemy's ship 
 the means of generating deadly gases which would 
 suffocate the crews between decks. Scientific artil- 
 lerists dread and discountenance these novelties ; 
 they have learned to regard war almost as a mathe- 
 matical science, or, at any rate, as an elaborate 
 apphcation of such science ; and they see nothing 
 but savage cruelty in the 'diabolical chemistry' of 
 asphyxiants. General Sir Howard Douglas, in a late 
 edition of his Naval Gunnery, says : ' The authot 
 learns, with great regret, that some awful experi- 
 ments have been made with fearful success, in the 
 royal arsenal, with asphyxiant projectUes, combining 
 in a frightful degree mcendiary with suffocating 
 effects.' Adverting to sick and wounded men on 
 board a ship-of-war, he exclaimed : ' 'Wiat shall be 
 said of that inhuman system preparing for naval 
 warfare in this age of enlightened humanity, which 
 would advisedly, purposely, and deliberately con- 
 sign the whole of these, and all other survivors, to 
 indiscriminate death or mutilation ? A ship may be 
 sunk in action ; yet there is always time to remove 
 the sick and wounded, and save the survivors ; but 
 who shall approach a ship on fire to rescue her crew 
 from the sudden and awful effects of that mercilesa 
 
ASPIDIUM— ASS. 
 
 and barbarous system, the object of ■wbioh is to set 
 fire to her at heart, and, if possible, blow her up ? ' 
 The Earl of Dimdonald, Captain ' 'Norton, Mr Mac- 
 intosh, and many other inventors, have within the 
 last few years brought asphyxiating compositioua 
 before the notice of the English Admiralty and War- 
 office ; and the French are known to possess many 
 such in store. Some of these compositions are 
 liquids which burn fiercely, and ignite wood and 
 canvas readily ; some are contained in shells which, 
 on bursting, scatter the suffocating and burning sub- 
 stances all around ; and some assume other forms. 
 ASPI'DIUM. See Eebn, Male. 
 
 ASPINWALL, a town in New Granada, virtu- 
 ally, however, a colonjf of the United States. It is 
 situated at the Atlantic extremity «»{ the Panama 
 RaUway, in lat. 9° 22' N., and long, 79' 55' W., being 
 about 8 miles to the north of the old Spanish 
 port of Chagres, 49 mUes front Panama, and equi- 
 distant from the great trading papitala of Valparaiso 
 and San Francisco. From its commanding position 
 as a place of transit, A- is one of the busiest and 
 most prosperous towns iu the New World. It mono- 
 pohaea the benefits of the traffic in both directions, 
 to the almost utter exclusion pf the rapidly decay- 
 ing Panama. Alrea4y the great link between the 
 Atlantic and the west coasts of America, it promises 
 at no distant day to connect that ocean with Aus- 
 tralia, India, China, and Japan. 
 
 A'SPJBATB, the name given to the letter h in 
 gramma?, as marking, not an articulate sound, but a 
 breathing (Lat. spiro, I breathe). It is also applied to 
 a class of. consonants. There is felt at once to be 
 a relation, accompanied by a difierence, between p 
 and/, t and ih, &c. To express the difference, the 
 Greeks oaUed the first of such a pair psilon (bare), 
 the second dam, (rough) ; the Latin grammarians 
 adopted the terms lene and aspirate, probably from 
 the erroneous notion that the difference consists in 
 the addition of the sound of li. There being no 
 sound and no character in Latin corresponding to 
 the Greek i (</ieto),the Romans represented it by th; 
 and this misleading expedient is continued for repre- 
 senting this aspirate and several others in all the 
 alphabets derived from the Roman. According to 
 some, the word ought to be asperate, i. e., ' roughened.' 
 Of the sixteen mutes in a complete system (see 
 Lettebs), eight are lene, each having its correspond- 
 ing aspirate. 
 
 Lene — p,h, t, d, h, g, s, z. 
 
 Aspirate—/, v,ih{iii), th{ine),ch, gh, sh,zh. 
 
 In the corresponding 
 ;^ words of aUied languages, 
 nothing is more common 
 than the interchange of an 
 aspirate and a lene : Ex., 
 Ijai. pater, Eng. father; Gr. 
 thura, Ger. thiir, Eng. door; 
 Lat. cop(ut), Fr. ch^, Eng. 
 chief; Ger. weib, Eng. wife. 
 Aspirated letters are also 
 frequently interchangeable 
 with one another : thus, Gr. 
 ther, a wild beast, is in Lat. 
 fera; Lat./accre, to do, be- 
 comes in Span. Jiacer. 
 
 ASPIEA'TOR is the 
 name of an apparatus em- 
 ployed to draw air or other 
 gases through bottles or 
 other vessels. It is of great 
 use in the examination of 
 gases by the analytical 
 Aspirator. chemist. The simplest form 
 
 of the apparatus is that represented in the figure, 
 
 where A is a large vessel capable of being filled 
 with water, having a tube with stop-cock at B, a 
 second tube with stop-cock at 0, and a thermometer 
 introduced at D. In working, the apparatus is filled 
 with water ; the tube C is attached to the vessels 
 through which the gas is to be drawn; and the 
 stop-cocks at C and B being opened, the weight oi 
 the water escaping at B acts as suction, and draws 
 in the gas from the tube C and the attached bottles 
 or other vessels. The thermometer at D denotes 
 the temperature of the water, and subsequently gas, 
 contained in the reservoir, while the upright turn 
 of the tube B keeps any air from entering the 
 reservoir by that route. — A more complicated form 
 of A., but one which is much more convenient 
 to experiment with, is that laiown as Brunners's A. ; 
 the principle of action, however, is the same. 
 
 ASPLE'NITJM, a genus of Ferns, of the order 
 or sub-order Polypodiaceae. The species are niuner- 
 ous, and widely diffused both in the northern and 
 southern hemispheres. Many of them are of great 
 beauty; and the small size of some recommends 
 them to cultivators of ferns who find themselves 
 much limited as to space. Some of the species 
 bear the English name Spleenwort, as A. Triclio- 
 manes, A. viride, A. Adiantum-nigrum, &c., having 
 been formerly supposed efficacious in removing 
 obstructions of the viscera. From the same cir- 
 cumstance the name A. (Gr. a, privative, and 
 splm, the spleen) is derived. They have now fallen 
 completely into disuso, but were at one time very 
 much employed, chiefiy in the form of a syrup like 
 GapiUaire (q. v.), and were administered not only in 
 cases of cough, asthma, diseases of the liver, and 
 cutaneous diseases, but even in stone and gravel. 
 But perhaps none of them was so extepsively used 
 as the species which is styled in old books Common 
 Spleenwort {A. Ge'terach), now the type of a distinct 
 genus, and known as Ce'terach officinani/m. Some of 
 them, as A. Trichomanes and A. Adiantum-nigrum, 
 are frequently called Maidenhair. A. Trichomanea 
 is a very beautiful httle fern, common on rocks and 
 old walls in Britain, and most parts of Europe, found 
 also in some parts of Africa, and in North America. 
 A very common British species, A. Euta-muraria, 
 is popularly known as Wall-rue. 
 
 ASS (Equus Asinus), a well-known quadruped, 
 usually referred by naturahsts to the same genus 
 with the Horse (q. v.), but which it has recently 
 been attempted to make the type of a distinct genus 
 {Asinus), including all the solid-hoofed quadrupeds 
 (Solidungula or Equidoe, see Hobse) except the horse 
 itself. The distinction is founded on the short hair 
 of the upper part of the tail and the tuft at the end 
 of it, the darker stripes with which the colour is 
 marked, and the absence of the hard horny warts 
 which are found on the hinder-legs of the horse, 
 although the fore-legs exhibit warts in a similar 
 position. The long ears of the A. are one of the 
 characteristics of the species, but they are longer 
 in domestication than in a wUd state. It is usually 
 also distinguished by a black cross over the should- 
 ers, formed by a longitudinal and a transverse 
 streak, the general colour being gray ; but when the 
 general colour is darker or lighter than usual, the 
 cross is often less apparent, or to be observed with 
 difficidty. The facial line is arched. 
 
 Some uncertainty still exists as to the origin of 
 the domestic A. ; a number of wild races having 
 been described, some of which are perhaps, like the 
 wild horses of America, the progeny of animals that 
 have escaped from domestication. The probability, 
 however, appears to be that the A. is a native of 
 Central Asia, where it is found in a perfectly wild 
 state, in Tatary, Mesopotamia, Persia, &o., on the 
 
ASS— ASSAI. 
 
 banks of the Indus, and even to the southern 
 extremity of Hindustan; hut its range does not 
 extend so far northward as that of the wild horse— 
 a circumstance which may perhaps partly account 
 for the inferiority of the domestic A. in northern 
 climates. The wild A. is found both in mountainous 
 districts and in plains; vast troops roam over the 
 great Asiatic deserts, migrating, according to the 
 season, in summer, as far northward as the Ural ; 
 in winter, southward to the borders of India. It is 
 fond of bitter and saline herbage, and of brackish 
 water. It was first accurately described by PaUas, 
 under the name Koulan, which it bears on the high 
 
 -steppes around the Caspian Sea. It was, however, 
 well known to the ancients, and is called Onager 
 and Asinus sylveshis by PKny, who also mentions, 
 under the name Hemionus, another species (Equus 
 Hemionus), a native of the same regions, now 
 called the Kiang, or the Dziggethai. The latter 
 name appears to be of Turkish origin, and to 
 signify Mountain A, but seems to be sometimes 
 
 ' applied to the one of these species and sometimes to 
 the other. This seems also to be the case with some 
 of their other eastern names, as Khur or Goer, and 
 is a source of no little confusion. — The cross on the 
 shoulders is less observable in the Koulan than it 
 usually is in the domesticated A. It ought also to 
 be mentioned that, in one remarkable particular, the 
 domesticated A. agrees with the Equus Hemionus, 
 and differs from the Koulan, the infra-orbital foramen 
 of the skull being situated much lower. But the 
 Kiang neighs like a horse, and the other brays. The 
 harshness of the voice of the A. is ascribed to two 
 small peculiar cavities situated at the bottom of the 
 larynx. 
 
 The allusions to the wild A. in the Old Testament, 
 and particularly in Job xxxix., naturally excite the 
 surprise of readers acquainted only with the dull 
 domestic drudge, the emblem of patience and 
 stolidity ; but to this day they are beautifully 
 appropriate to the wild A. of ' the wilderness,' which 
 has the 'barren land' or ' salt places' for its dwel- 
 ling, and ' the range of the mountains' for its pasture. 
 ^The wild A. has a shoH mane of dark woolly hair, 
 and a stripe of dark bushy hair runs along the ridge 
 of the back from the mane to the tail. It has longer 
 legs, and carries its head higher than the domestic 
 A. Its troops have always a leader. It is a high- 
 spu-ited animal, very fleet and very wary, trying to 
 the utmost the powers of the hunter. It is a prin- 
 cipal object of the chase in Persia, where its flesh is 
 prized as venison is in Europe, -and it is accounted 
 the noblest of game. Xenophon, in his Anabasis, 
 describes the wild A. as swifter of foot than the 
 horse, and its flesh as like that of the red deer, but 
 more tender. 
 
 The domestic A. is also, in Arabia, Persia, Syria, 
 and other eastern countries, a much finer animal than 
 as it is usually seen in Europe, although in Spain 
 the favourable influence of a more genial chmate 
 upon its development is visible, perhaps also of 
 better treatment, the A. being more highly valued. 
 
 - The A is much used for riding in the East. From 
 Judges v. 10, we learn that, at a very early period, 
 the great were accustomed to ride upon white asses, 
 and a preference is given to white asses in the East 
 to this day. The A. has been domesticated from 
 the earliest times; but it does not seem to have 
 been introduced into Europe till a comparatively 
 recent date. In Britain, it is employed chiefly by 
 the poor, but might probably with advantage be 
 much more generally employed than it is. Its price 
 is scarcely one-twentieth of the price of the horse, 
 and it can be kept at one-fourth of the expense, 
 dehghting in the coarse herbage which other animals 
 reject, and satisfied with comparatively scanty fare. 
 Hi 
 
 The obstiuacy ascribed to the A. seems to be veiy 
 generally the result of ill treatment ; and proverbial 
 
 as it has become for stupidity, it is probably quite 
 equal in iuteUigence to the horse. 
 
 There are two hybrids between the A. and the 
 horse — the Mule (q. v.), bred between the male A. 
 and the mare; and the HlNUY (q. v.), the offspring of 
 the horse and the female A. 
 
 The milk of the A. contains more sugar of milk 
 and less caseine than that of the cow, and is 
 therefore recommended as a nutritious diet in cases 
 of weak digestion. Its usefulness in cases of con- 
 .sumption has been long known, and it was often 
 prescribed as a kind of specific when that disease was 
 treated on principles very different from those which 
 regulate its treatment now, and when very nutri- 
 tious food was not usually prescribed to consumptive 
 patients. 
 
 The leather called Shagreen (q. v.) is made by a 
 peculiar process from the skin of the A., which also 
 affords excellent leather for shoes, and the best 
 material for drums. The bones of the A., which are 
 very solid, were used by the ancients for making ' 
 flutes. 
 
 AS SAX, a beverage very much used at ParS, and 
 other places on the Amazon, and which is prepared 
 from the fruit of certain species of palm nearly 
 allied to the Cabbage Palm of the West Indies. See 
 Akeca and Cabbage Palm. The A. palms are 
 remarkably slender trees ; the most common species 
 {Euterpe oleracea of Martins) rising to the height of 
 sixty or eighty feet, with a smooth stem only about 
 
ASSAL^ASSASSINS. 
 
 Assai Palm {Euterpe 
 oleracea). 
 
 four inches in diameter. The fruit is small, in size 
 and colour resembling sloes, but is produced in great 
 quantity upon branched spa- 
 dices, which are thrown out 
 horizontally beneath the 
 crown of leaves. It consists 
 of a hard seed, with a very 
 thin covering of a firm pulp 
 or flesh. The tree grows in 
 swamps flooded by the high 
 tides. Boys climb the trees 
 for the fruit, upon which 
 warm water is poured, and 
 by rubbing and kneading, a 
 liquid is procured, consisting 
 simply of the pulp of the 
 fruit and water, which is 
 constantly vended in the 
 streets of ParS., and of which 
 the inhabitants are extremely 
 fond. This is A. It is a thick, 
 creamy liquid, of «■ purplish 
 colour, and a flavour like 
 that of a freshly gathered 
 nut. It is commonly used 
 along with the bread made 
 from Manioc (q. v.), called 
 farinha, and either with or 
 without sugar. Half this 
 population of ParS, make a 
 daily meal of A. and farinha; 
 and upon this hundreds are 
 said chiefly to subsist. — The 
 stem of the A. palm is some- 
 times used for poles and 
 rafters, and its terminal bud 
 or as a salad with oil and vinegar ; 
 but it is too much valued upon account of its fruit 
 to be often cut down for these purposes. — An- 
 other species, Euterpe Oatinga, is found in forests 
 of a dry sandy soil and very peculiar vegetation, 
 ' known as Catinga forests. The beverage made 
 from it is sweeter than the common kind, but 
 the produce of the tree is much smaller. 
 
 ASSA'L, an important salt-lake in the east of 
 Africa, 25 miles south-west of Tajurrah, the chief 
 seaport of Adel, lat. 11° 40' N., long. 42° 40' E. Its 
 length is 8 miles ; its breadth, 4. It lies in a land 
 remarkable' for its wild, waste, and sterile character. 
 A. is enclosed on aU sides but the east by hills, and 
 is nearly 700 feet below the level of the sea. Abys- 
 sinian caravans resort to it for the purpose of carry- 
 ing off the salt which incrusts its shores hke ice, 
 sometimes to the depth of half a foot. It has been 
 supposed that it was at one time connected with the 
 Bay of Tajurrah. 
 
 ASS A'M, a province at the north-east extremity of 
 British India, stretching in N. lat. from 25° 40' to 28° 
 17', and in E. long, from 90° 40' to 97° 1', and contain- 
 ing 710,000 inhabitants on an area of 21,805 square 
 nmes. " It forms part of the basin of the Lower 
 Brahmaputra, and is intersected also by about sixty 
 other rivers. Being thus irrigated, as it were, by 
 nature, A. abounds in wood, and is very fertile. 
 Among its indigenous productions is the tea-plant, 
 which, under the management of a joint-stock com- 
 pany, promises to be at once beneflcial to the country 
 and profitable to the shareholders. The other pro- 
 ducts are rice, mustard, gold, ivory, amber, musk, 
 silver, iron, lead, petrdeum, and ■ coal. Rrom 
 Bengal the principal imports are wooUens, India 
 fabrics, salt, opium, glass, earthenware, tobacco, 
 betel, &c. 
 
 In 1826, at the ,close of the first Burmese war, A. 
 was ceded to the British. The upper portion of the 
 
 province, howevel', was conferred, as a separate 
 principality, on the native rajah, whom the Burmese 
 had expelled; and it was only in 1838, that, in 
 consequence of his misgovemment, the entire country 
 was actually placed imder British administration. 
 Since then, the province has exhibited a noticeable 
 improvement, for which, considering that the popu- 
 lation is barely 33 to the square mile, there is still, 
 however, almost unUmited scope. The great evil is 
 the prevalence of earthquakes, few mouths passing 
 without a shock or two. The people, however, seem 
 to think lightly of them — the only one that is 
 specially remembered as being of extraordinary 
 severity having occurred as far back as 1807. 
 
 A. is divided into Upper and Lower, which are 
 again subdivided into districts. Gowhati is the 
 only town worthy of the name. 
 
 One of the most stril^ng features of A. is the 
 abundance of wild animals, such as tigers, rhino- 
 ceroses, leopards, buffaloes, and elephants. Of the 
 elephants, not less than 500 are annually caught; 
 and, when tamed, bands of them may be seen, harm- 
 less as cows, in the chp,rge of a single attendant. 
 The forests teem with game, and the rivers with 
 fish. 
 
 ASSAS'SINS, a military order, a branch of the 
 secret sect of the Ismaehtes (q. v.). The secret 
 doctrines of these Ismaehtes, who had their head- 
 quarters in Cairo, declared the descendants of I'smael, 
 the last of the seven so-called imaums, to be alone 
 entitled to the oahfate ; and gave an allegorical 
 interoretation to the precepts of Islam, which led, as 
 their adversaries asserted, to considering all positive 
 rehgions equally right, and all actions morally indif- 
 ferent. The atrocious career of the A. was but a 
 natural sequence of such teaching. The founder 
 of these last, Hassan-ben-Sabbah-el-Homairi, of 
 Persian descent, and imbued with the free-thinking 
 tendencies of his country, had, about the middle of 
 the 11th c, studied at Nishpur, under the celebrated 
 Mowasek, and had subsequently obtained from 
 Ismaelite dais, or religious leaders, a partial insight 
 into their secret doctrines, and a partial conse- 
 cration to the rank of dai. But on betaking him- 
 self to the central lodge at Cairo, he quarrelled 
 with the heads of the sect, and was doomed to 
 banishment. He succeeded, however, in making his 
 escape from the ship, and reaching the Syrian coast, 
 after which he" returned to Persia, everywhere 
 collecting adherents, with the view of founding, upon 
 the Ismaelite model, a secret order of his own, a 
 species of organised society which should be a terror 
 to his most powerful neighbours. In 1090, Hassan 
 conquered the fortress of Alamut, in the Persian 
 district of Rudbar; and continued to increase in 
 strength, intimidating princes and governors by a 
 series of secret murders, and gaining possession of 
 several fortified castles, with their surrounding 
 territories, both in the mountain range south of 
 the Caspian, in Kuhistan, and in the moun- 
 tains of Syria (Massiat). The internal constitution 
 of the order, which had some resemblance to the 
 orders of Christian knighthood, was as follows : 
 First, as supreme and absolute ruler, came the 
 Sheikh-al-jebal, the Prince or Old Man of the Moun- 
 tain. His vicegerents in Jebal, Kuhistan, and Syria 
 were the three Dai-al-hehir, or grand-priors of the 
 order. Next came the Dais and Refiks, which last 
 were not, however, initiated, like the former, into 
 every stage of the secret doctrines, and had no 
 authority as teachers. To the uninitiated belonged 
 first of all the Eedavies or Fedais— i. e., the devoted : 
 a band of resolute youths, the ever ready and 
 blindly obedient executioners of the Old Man of the 
 Mountain. Before he assigned to them their bloody 
 tasks, he used to have them thrown into a state of 
 
ASSAULT— ASSAY. 
 
 erataoy, by the intoxicating inHuenoe of the Hashish 
 (the hemp-plant), which circumstance led to the order 
 being called Hashishim, or hemp-eaters. The word 
 was changed by Europeans into Assassins, and trans- 
 planted into the languages of the West with the 
 signitication of murderers. The Lasiks, or novices, 
 formed the sixth division of the order, and the 
 labourers and mechanics the seventh. Upon these, 
 the most rigid observance of the Koran was enjoined ; 
 while the initiated, on the contrary, looked upon all 
 positive religion as null. The catechism of the 
 order, placed by Hassan in the hands of his dais, 
 consisted of seven parts, of which the second treated, 
 among other things, of the art of worming them- 
 selves into the confidence of men. It is easy to 
 conceive the terror which so unscrupulous a sect 
 must have inspired. Several princes secretly paid 
 tribute to the Old Man of the Mountain. Hassan, 
 who died at the age of 70 (1124 A.D.), appointed as 
 his successor, Kia-Busurg-Omid, one of his grand- 
 priors. Kia-Busurg-Omid was succeeded in 1138 by 
 his son Mohammed, who knew how to maintain his 
 power against Nureddiu and Jussuf-Salaheddin. In 
 1163, Hassan II. was rash enough to extend the 
 secret privilege of the initiated — exemption, namely, 
 from the positive precepts of religion — ^to the people 
 generally, and to abolish Islam in the Assassin 
 state ; which led to his falling a victim to his 
 brother-in-law's dagger. Under the rule of his son, 
 Mohammed II., who acted in his father's spirit, the 
 Syrian Dai-al-kebir, Sinan, became independent, and 
 entered into negotiations with the Christian king of 
 Jerusalem for coming over, on certain conditions, to 
 the Christian faith; but the Templars killed his 
 envoys, and rejected his overtures, that they might 
 not lose the yearly tribute which they drew from 
 him. Mohammed was poisoned by his son, Hassan 
 III, who reinstated Islamism, and thence obtained 
 the surname of the New Moslem. Hassan was 
 succeeded by Mohammed III., a boy of nine years 
 old, who, by his effeminate rule, led to the over- 
 throw of the order, and was eventually murdered by 
 the command of his son, Bokn-eddin, the seventh 
 and last Old Man of the Mountain. In 1256, the 
 Mongolian prince, Hulagu, burst with his hordes 
 upon the hill-forts of Persia held by the Assassins, 
 which amounted to about a hundred, capturino' 
 and destroying them. The Syrian branch was also 
 put down about the end of the 13th c, but remnants 
 of the sect still lingered for some time longer in 
 Knhistan. In 1352, the A. reappeared in Syria, and 
 indeed they are still reported to exist as a heretical 
 sect both there and in Persia. The Persian Ismael- 
 it^s have an imaum, or superintendent, in the 
 district of Kum, and stiU inhabit the neighbour- 
 hood of Alamoot under the name of Hosseiuis. The 
 Syrian Ismaelites Hve in the district of Massiat or 
 Massyad. Their castle was taken from them in 1809 
 by the Nossaries, but afterwards restored. See 
 Hammer, Geschichte der Assassinen (Stutt. and Tiib. 
 1818). 
 
 ASSAU'LT. In the sudden and vigorous attack 
 of a fortified post, which is called an A., the troops 
 are told-off into ' storming-parties,' ' supports,' and 
 'firing-parties.' The storming-parties are those 
 who take the most terrible duty, being that of mak- 
 ing a forcible entry into the place. The firing- 
 parties or musketeers seek to shield the storming- 
 parties as much as possible from the fire of the 
 enemy ; they spread themselves out in extended 
 order, to keep down the fire of the garrison — aiming 
 at any soldier who may shew his head above the 
 
 Earapet, and seeking to disable the artillerymen by 
 ring into the embrasures. Many assaults are made 
 by surprise ; and in that case the storming and firing 
 parties order all their preliminary movements as 
 
 4S6 
 
 quietly as possible. In most oases, there is d neces- 
 sity for the stormers to descend into a dry ditchj 
 and to ascend from the ditch to a breach or a gate 
 in the fortified wall. To aid in this duty, ' ladder- 
 parties' are placed at the disposal of the storming- 
 parties ; these men have previously been practised 
 in carrying scaling-ladders, descending and ascend- 
 ing ditches, and adjusting the ladders. In some 
 celebrated sieges, ladders 40 feet long have been 
 used, where the ditch was deep and the wall or 
 bastion high ; but it is seldom that a storming-party 
 could venture on so perilous a work, for the men 
 crowded on such a ladder would endanger each 
 other. The ' supports ' are troops who keep a little 
 in the rear of the storming and firing parties. 
 ASSAULT, in Law. See Beating and 'WoinirD- 
 
 ING. 
 
 ASSAT, or ASSA'YING, is the process employed 
 in determining the proportion of pure metal in a 
 metallic ore or in an alloy. This method of analysis 
 is more generally followed in the examination of 
 compounds of silver and gold, but is likewise 
 resorted to in the investigation of ores of iron, 
 copper, tin, zinc, bismuth, antimony, mercury, and 
 lead. In manufactured articles, also, such as silver- 
 plate and gold-plate, some foreign metal (generally 
 copper) is present, to impart hardness to the metal ; 
 and in Great Britain, each article is assayed at the 
 Goldsmiths' Hall, previously to being sold, so as to 
 determine the exact richness of the metal whereof 
 it is made. In the A. of compounds containing 
 silver, the apparatus employed is a ciipeZ — a small 
 
 CupeL 
 
 basin-shaped vessel of the form and size of the 
 figure, made of bone-ash ; and a muffle, composed of 
 fire-clay, about 8 inches in length and 3 to 4 inches in 
 diameter, shaped like a ininiature railway-tunnel, 
 
 Muffle. 
 
 open at the one end, A, closed at the other end, B, and 
 having numerous shts or air-holes, C, along the side. 
 The more simple A. of silver consists in the examin- 
 ation of argentiferous lead ore. By a preliminary 
 process, the sulphur is separated (see Lead) ; and 
 weighed fragments of the mixed lead and silver 
 being placed on cupels, the latter are introduced 
 into the mufiie, which has been previously heated in 
 a furnace, where it stQl remains. The fire is then 
 increased, and air being admitted to the muffle, the 
 oxygen of the air unites with the lead, forming oxide 
 of lead (PbO), which in part volatilises through the 
 openmgs in the side of the muffle, and in other part 
 smks mto the porous bone-earth of which the cupel 
 IS made. Whilst the lead is thus carried away, the 
 silver remains behind as a molten metallic globule, 
 and when the last traces of lead-fumes leave the 
 silver bead, the latter suddenly lightens, and imme- 
 diately thereafter becomes brilliant and white. On 
 being slowly allowed to cool, the globule of silver 
 may be weighed, and the amount of pure metal 
 
ASSAY. 
 
 thua detennined. The use of the cupel during this 
 process has led to the term cupellation being em- 
 ployed in place of A. When silver contains copper, 
 ■ which it does in ordinary coinage and silver-plate, it 
 becomes necessai-y to mix laad with the alloy before 
 attempting to separate the copper. The manner in 
 which the lead is generally added is to roU the 
 alloy of silver and copper in a piece of sheet-lead or 
 lead-foil, and place the whole package on the cupel. 
 During the heating in the mttSle, the lead oxidises 
 as usual; and in part passing into the bone-earth of 
 the cupel, carries the copper with it. The amount 
 of lead required to effect the separation of copper 
 from silver in this way is given in the following 
 table : 
 
 Standnrd of SilTcr 
 in Oue Fart. 
 
 1000 
 950 
 900 
 800 
 700 
 600 
 500 
 400 
 300 
 200 
 100 
 Pure copper. 
 
 Amount of Copper Qnantlty of Lead Quantity of Lead in 
 
 AlloT in Ono KcceEiHry for Ono Aelntion to that 
 
 Part. Part of Alloy. of Coi)per. 
 
 
 
 50 
 100 
 200 
 300 
 400 
 500 
 600 
 700 
 800 
 900 
 1000 
 
 1% 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 10 
 12 
 14 
 
 16 to 17 
 16 „ 17 
 . 16 „ 17 
 16 „ 17 
 16 „ 17 
 16 „ 17 
 
 part, 
 parts. 
 
 60tol 
 
 70 „ 1 
 
 50 » 1 
 
 40 „ 1 
 
 35 ,. 1 
 
 32 „ 1 
 
 27 « 1 
 
 23 ;. 1 
 
 20 „ 1 
 
 18 » 1 
 
 16 „ 1 
 
 The metallurgic chemist, while performing an A., 
 can determine, by the examination of the stains on 
 the cupel after the process has been finished, what 
 metal may have accompanied, and been separated 
 from, the silver, even in minute quantity. Thus, 
 lead alone imparts a straw-yellow 6r orange stain ; 
 copper, a gray or dark-brovim tint ; and iron, a 
 black stain. 
 
 During the A. of sUver by the foregoing or dry 
 method, a certain loss of metal generally occurs, 
 which averages 2 parts in 1000 ; and this circum- 
 stance has induced the authorities in the mints 
 of Great Britain, France, and other European 
 kingdoms, as well as the United States, to adopt 
 a humid process for the A. of silver, which wUl 
 determine the value of a sUver alloy to within 0'5 
 (or half a part) in 1000. The humid or wet A. 
 consists in dissolving the compound of silver in 
 nitric 'acid of density 1'25, and thereafter adding 
 a solution of common salt (chloride of sodium, NaCl), 
 which causes the precipitation of the chloride of 
 silver (AgCl) in white flooculi. The common salt is 
 made of a definite strength, and is poured out of a 
 measured or graduated vessel, till all further pre- 
 cipitation of the silver ceases, when the amount 
 required of the solution of common salt is read off, 
 and by a simple calculation its equivalent in pure 
 silver is obtaiaed. 
 
 The A. of gold ores is conducted in a manner 
 similar to that of silver. When the ore contains 
 gold, lead, and copper only, it suffices to mix more 
 lead with it, and heat in the cupel ia the muffle 
 furnace, when the lead and copper sink iato the 
 cupel, and the gold forms a globule on the upper 
 surface. The proportion of lead required is regu- 
 lated by the amount of 9opper present in the aUoy. 
 
 Proport!oTi of Gold contained in Oaa 
 
 Pan of ilie Alloy. i 
 
 Quantity of Lead necessary 
 
 to completely remuve tlio 
 
 Copper by Cupellation. 
 
 1000 thousands 
 
 1 part. 
 
 900 „ 
 
 10 parts. 
 
 800 „ 
 
 16 ,, 
 
 700 
 
 22 „ 
 
 600 
 
 24 „ 
 
 500 
 
 26 „ 
 
 400 ir and under. 
 
 34 „ 
 
 When the gold is accompanied by silver as well 
 as copper, iron, and lead, it is necessary in the first 
 place to subject the alloy to the A. process in the 
 ordinary way, which gets rid of the copper, iron, 
 and lead, but leaves the silver still incorporated with 
 the gold. The weight of this residual button gives 
 the combined weights of the sUver and gold present 
 in the alloy. The method of separating the silver 
 from the gold is called parting, and consists essen- 
 tially in acting on the alloy with hot nitric acid, 
 which dissolves away the silver, forming the soluble 
 nitrate of silver (AgONOj), and leaves the gold 
 undissolved. When the sUver is present in small pro- 
 portion, the gold assumes a protective influence, and 
 keeps the nitric acid from acting on the sUver ; and 
 to effect this separation satisfaotorUy, it is necessary 
 that there should be about three parts of sUver to 
 one of gold. As that proportion does not occur 
 naturally, or in any kind of manufactxired gold-plate, 
 it is requisite to incorporate some sUver with it. 
 This is generally accomphshed by taking the proper 
 quantities of gold and sUver, wrapping them up in a 
 piece of lead-foU, and heating on a cupel. The lead, 
 during its disappearance from the heating vessel, 
 causes the most intimate amalgamation of me sUver 
 and gold, which are left on the cupel as a metallic 
 button. The latter, on being allowed to cool, is 
 beaten out on an anvil with a smooth hammer, and 
 is then passed through steel rollers, which yield a 
 ribbon of alloy about the thickness of an enamelled 
 address-card. The ribbon of metal being coUed up, 
 is technically caUed a comet, and when introduced 
 into the flask with nitric acid, the entire solution 
 of the sUver is accomphshed, whilst the gold is left 
 as a brown-coloured spongy mass, of the shape and 
 size of the cornet. To give the metal the appearance 
 and compactness of ordinary gold, the very friable 
 metaUic ribbon is gently transferred from the parting 
 glass to a crucible by inverting the former into the 
 latter ; and the liquid which runs in with the gold 
 being poui-ed off, the crucible and its contents are 
 raised to a red heat in a furnace, when the gold 
 recovers its beautiful yeUow colour and metaUic 
 lustre, and at the same time becomes soft and 
 flexible. The gold is now pure, and iu a fit condi- 
 tion to be weighed, and the amount obtained indi- 
 cates the proportion of pure gold in the original 
 alloy. As the quantity of sUver which is required 
 to be present during this process, in order that the 
 parting by nitric acid may readily take place, is 
 three parts of sUver to one of gold, it is customary 
 to call this department of a gold A. quartaiion or 
 inquartaiion. 
 
 During the A. of sUver or of gold, it is necessary 
 to guard against any sudden increase or decrease in 
 temperature. Independently of the probable loss of 
 metal through the fracture of the cupels, it is found 
 that when the final buttons of pure metal are 
 obtained on the red hot cupel, if great care be not 
 taken to cool the whole very slowly, the bead of 
 gold or silver spits, and httle portions are thrown off. 
 
 The mode of assaying gold now described can- 
 not always be followed out in the examination 
 of jewellery and other manufactured articles, as, 
 though ' only a few grains are required for the A., 
 yet the removal of such might entaU the destruc- 
 tion of the article, and in such ciromnstanoes the 
 taudistone is resorted to; This stone was origin- 
 ally brought from Lydia in Asia Minor, and con- 
 sisted of a coarse-grained quartz saturated with 
 bituminous matter, but black basalt and other stones 
 are now employed for the same purpose. The 
 manner of using the stone is to draw a streak 
 upon it with the auriferous article ; and from the 
 colour of the streak the richness of the gold can 
 be very accurately determiaed by the practised 
 
ASSAYS— ASSEMBLY. 
 
 assayer. The subsequent action of nitric acid on the 
 golden streak serves still further as a means of 
 determining the purity of the metal, as the acid 
 readily dissolves the copper and silver, and leaves 
 the gold. 
 
 ASSA'YE, a village in the territory of the Nizam, 
 lat. 20° 18' N., and long. 75° 55' E. It stands in 
 the doab, or fork, of the Juah and Kaitna. A. 
 claims notice chiefly as the scene of the first great 
 victory of the Duke of Wellington, then Major- 
 general WeUesley, won on the 23d September 1803. 
 Jhe British troops in action were only about 4500, 
 while the Mahrattas under Scindia and the rajah 
 of Berar numbered 50,000, of whom 10,000 were 
 commanded by French officers. 98 pieces of 
 cannon, 7 standards, all the baggage, and a large 
 part of the ammunition of the Malirattas fell into the 
 hands of the conquerors, whose military supremacy 
 was soon acknowledged over a great portion of India; 
 In 1851 a medal was struck in commemoration of 
 the victory. 
 
 ASSEERGHTJ'R, a fort situated on an isolated 
 mountain at the north-east angle of the presidency 
 of Bombay, in lat. 21° 26' N., and long. 76° 26' E. 
 Its elevation above the base of the mountain is 
 estimated at 750 feet. Its extreme length and 
 breadth are respectively 1100 and 600 yards ; from 
 the irregularity, however, of the outline, the area is 
 computed at not more than 300,000 sqiiare yards, or 
 somewhat less tjian y^th of a square imle. With 
 the exception of two avenues of ascent, both of 
 them difficult and strongly fortified, the space is 
 everywhere terminated by a carefully scarped pre- 
 cipice, varying in height from 80 to 100 feet. This 
 formidable fastness has been twice taken by the 
 British— first in 1803, and finally in 1819. 
 
 ASSE'MBLY (assemhUe), in the conduct of an 
 army, is the second beating of the drum before a 
 march, at which the soldiers strike their tents if 
 encamped, roU them up, and stand to arms. 
 
 ASSE'MBLY, GENERAL, in Scotland, Ireland, 
 and the United States, denotes the highest court 
 of the Presbyterian Church. It differs from the 
 AngHcan Convocation at once in its constitution 
 and in its powers, representing as it does both the 
 lay and the clerical elements in the church, and 
 possessing supreme legislative and judicial authority 
 in all matters piurely ecclesiastical. The General A. 
 of the Established Church of Scotland consists 
 of representatives, clerical and lay, from all the 
 presbyteries of the church. The royal burghs of 
 Scotland also return elders to the General A. of 
 the Established Church, and each of the Scottish 
 universities sends a representative. The Assembly 
 meets once a year, in the middle of May, at Edin- 
 burgh, and sits for ten days. Its dehberations are 
 presided over by a Moderator, whose election is the 
 first step in the proceedings, after a sermon by his 
 predecessor. In former times, this office was some- 
 times' filled by laymen : among others, in 1567, by 
 George Buchanan. In modern times, the moderator 
 is always a clergyman. 84 presbyteries, composing 
 16 synods, return members to the General A. of the 
 Estabhshed Church of ScoUand. Its relation to the 
 state is represented by a royal commissioner, who 
 exercises no function in the A. beyond that of adding 
 by his presence the sanction of the civH authority 
 to its proceedings. The other functionaries ■ are a 
 principal and a deputy clerk, both clergymen, a 
 procurator, and an agent. AJl business not des- 
 patched during the session of the A. is referred 
 to a commission, with the moderator as convener, 
 which meets immediately after the dissolution of the 
 A., and again quarterly. The General A. of the 
 Free Church of Scotland, which has 16 synods 
 
 comprising 71 presbyteries, and of the Irish Presby- 
 terian Church, are similarly constituted, the principal 
 point of difference being the absence of the royal 
 commissioner. See Pkesbyteby, Synod, Baekier 
 Act, &c. 
 
 ASSE'MBLY, Na'honal (Prance). The States- 
 general (q. v.), convoked by Louis XVI. of France, 
 and opened May 5, 1789, consisted of the two privi- 
 leged orders, clergy and nobles, and of the tiers-gtat 
 or commons. The privileged orders refusing to join 
 the third estate and deliberate in a common chamber, 
 the latter, of its own authority, June 17, assumed 
 the title of AssemhUe Nationale, and the right to act 
 in the name of France. The coiui; attempted to annul 
 this resolution in a royal sitting, June 23 ; but the 
 deputies of the third estate, along with the liberal 
 members of the other two orders, had bound them- 
 selves by oath not to separate until they had given 
 France a constitution, and had declared every 
 attempt at violence on the part of the court, treason. 
 They refused to quit the common haU, and the court 
 yielded, and commanded the nobles and clergy to 
 join the National A. This was the beginning of the 
 revolution, and the A. proceeded with astounding 
 rstpidity to metamorphose old France. The aboli- 
 tion of all privileges on the 4th August was 
 followed by that of hereditary jurisdiction, and 
 of restraints on religion and the press, and by the 
 declaration of the Eights of Man (q. v.). In February 
 1790, the monastic orders were suppressed, and all 
 remnants of feudahsm swept away ; in March, 
 leWres de cachet and the oppressive salt-tax were 
 abolished ; in June, all orders and titles of nobility. 
 In July, non-catholics had the property confiscated 
 from their ancestors restored; Jews were reHeved 
 from personal taxation.; and game-laws done away. 
 A decree of October 18 abolished the cruel criminal 
 penalties of Loi^ XIV. In January 1791 all cor- 
 porations and guilds were abolished, and free-trade 
 introduced. In February, poUtical rights were con- 
 ceded to Quakers ; in May, the customs at city gates 
 were abolished ; in June, the torture ; the violation 
 of the secrecy of letters was also declared criminal. 
 In September, all citizens, of whatever colour or 
 religion, received political rights. 
 
 The principles on which the Assembly proceeded 
 were the sovereignty of the people, the independence 
 of the communes, the limitation of the royal power 
 through a conditional Veto {q. v.), the separation of 
 the political authorities, and the responsibility of 
 ministers. Accordingly, the A., shortly after it was 
 constituted, declared that to it alone, subject to the 
 royal veto, belonged the legislative power. Several 
 decrees, in September 1789, determined that the 
 legislative body should form only one chamber, and 
 should be renewed every two years ; other decrees 
 declared the king inviolable, and the throne malien- 
 able. A decree of 7th November forbade the deputies 
 to undertake the place of ministers; in December, 
 the new organisation of the communes was begun. 
 January 1790, France was divided into departments ; 
 m April, trial by jury was introduced ; in May, it 
 was declared that the right of war and peace belonged 
 to the nation alone, that is, to the A. 
 
 In regard to finance, which had been the imme- 
 diate cause of the Assembly's being convoked, the 
 reforms were equally thorough. It was decreed at 
 the outset that taxes were to be apportioned and 
 raised without regard to rank or person. Then 
 followed the approval of a loan of 80 milHons of francs. 
 A decree of November 1789 ordered the publication 
 of the public accounts ; another in December estab- 
 lished a national bank. In March 1790 appeared 
 the first law sanctioning the sale of 400 miUions 
 worth of the national domains ; and in AprU, 
 another ordering the issue of asdgnais (q.v.) on the 
 
ASSEMBLY OI* BIVINES-ASSER. 
 
 national property ; in Oototer, these asaignats were 
 declared to bear no Interest. These measures were 
 followed, in the beginning of 1791, by a series of laws 
 regarding coining, taxation, encouragement to indus- 
 try, revenue-management, &o. A committee of the 
 A, appointed to reform church matters, made a 
 complete overturn of the old ecclesiastical system. 
 After a declaration that Cathohcism had ceased to be 
 the state religion, tithes were abolished, and church 
 property confiscated. Church ornaments and valu- 
 ables were appropriated as patriotic gifts to the 
 state ; the oivU jurisdiction of the bishops was taken 
 away, and monks and nuns were freed from their 
 vows. The clergy were put under a civil constitu- 
 tion. Each department was a see, and the com- 
 munes ruled and paid bishop and cur^s. All the 
 clergy were amenable to the civil courts, without 
 appeal to the pope or the interference of any ecclesi- 
 astical authority whatever. Every clergyman had 
 to take an oath accepting this constitution, which 
 led to the emigration of a number, and subsequently 
 to enactments of excessive rigour against refractory 
 priests {prStres insermentSs). 
 
 The A. having thus laid the revolution on a 
 foundation of 3250 decrees, and having sworn to 
 the new constitution, and got it accepted by the 
 king, closed its sittings, September 30, 1791. From 
 its having framed the constitution (which lasted only 
 12 mon-Ms), this assembly is usually called the 
 Constituent A. It made way for the Legislative 
 Assembly, which was to reform the civil and 
 criminal laws in accordance with the spirit of the 
 new constitution. A decree had provided that no 
 member of the Constituent should be returned to 
 the Legislative A. But the democratic party received 
 such preponderance at the elections, that the A. 
 forgot its mission from the very first, and commenced 
 a war with the remnants of the royal authority, 
 which ended, August 10, 1792, with the over- 
 throw of the throne and the suspension of the king. 
 The constitution had provided for an appeal to the 
 nation in extreme cases,, and the Legislative A. now 
 exercised that right by convoking a National Con- 
 vention (q. v.), which, being invested with the powers 
 of the sovereign, was to decide on the fate of the 
 monarchy, and rembdel the whole pohtical system. 
 
 The title of National A. has been assumed by 
 various other parliamentary bodies, originating in 
 popular commotions, and aiming at radical pohtical 
 changes; as the French A. that met after the 
 revolution of February 1848, and organised the 
 repubUc, and which was hkewise followed, April 
 1849, by a Legislative A. (see Fkance) ; the German 
 National A. at Frankfort (see Gbkmany); and the 
 Prussian National A. 
 
 ASSE'MBLY OF DIVI'NES, or WE'ST- 
 MINSTER ASSE'MBLY, a celebrated convocation 
 appointed by the Long Parliament for settling the 
 doctrine, liturgy, and government of the Church of 
 England. It consisted of 121 clergymen and 30 lay- 
 men — 10 of whom were lords iand 20 commoners — 
 together with 4 clerical and 2 lay commissioners 
 from the Chm-ch of Scotland. Among the more 
 distinguished of the divines were Usher, Saunder- 
 son, Reynolds, Brownrigg, Ward, Twisse, Lightfoot, 
 Gataker, Surges, Goodwin, Calamy, and Nye ; of 
 the laymen, Selden, Prideaux, the two Vanes, Rouse, 
 Pym, WTiitelooke, St John, and Maynard. The 
 Scottish divines were Henderson, GiUespie, Ruther- 
 ford, and BaiUie. 25 of those whose names were 
 contained in the ordinance calling the Assembly, 
 which was dated 12th June 1643, never appeared 
 at the discussions, one or two of them having died 
 about the time of the first meeting, and the others 
 fearing the ' displeasure of the king. To supply 
 the place of these absentees, 21 additional members, 
 
 called the superadded ' divines, were summoned 
 to attend. This notable Assembly held its first 
 meeting on the 1st of July 1643, and continued 
 to sit tUl the 22d February 1649, during which 
 time it had met 1163 times. Its most import- 
 ant work was concluded long before that time. 
 One of the first things it did was to give its sanc- 
 tion to the Solemn League and Covenant, against 
 which Dr Surges alone stood out for several days. 
 The Presbyterians formed a large majority in the 
 Assembly, and exercised a corresponding influence 
 on its decisions. In doctrine, the members were 
 almost unanimous; but on the subject of church 
 government, opinions extremely opposite were main- 
 tained with keenness, especially on the (juestion 
 touching the sphere and limits of the civil power 
 in matters ecclesiastical. The principal fruits of its 
 dehberations were the Directory of PuUic Worship, 
 submitted to parliament April 20, 1644; the Con- 
 fession of Faitli, October and November 1646 ; the 
 Shorter Catedliism, November 6, 1647 ; and the 
 Larger Catechism, September 15, 1648. These seve- 
 ral formularies, which contain a clear and rigid 
 embodiment of Calvinistic theology and Presbyterian 
 church government, constitute to this day the autho- 
 rised standards of ■ the Presbyterian churches of 
 Scotland, Ireland, and England. The Directory of 
 Public Worship was ratified by both Houses of par- 
 liament, October 2, 1644, and the doctrinal part of 
 the Confession of Faith in March 1648. An order 
 of the House of Commons, October 13, 1647, ordained 
 that the Presbyterian form of church government 
 should be tried for a year, but no further legislation 
 foUowed. What has hitherto been known as to the 
 details of the proceedings of this remarkable convo- 
 cation, has been derived chiefly from the Letters 
 of Bafllie, and Lightfoot's Journal, no complete 
 account being known to exist ; but the minutes of 
 its meetings, or great part of them, are reported 
 to have Been discovered quite recently. See 
 Hetherington's History 6f the Westminster Assembly 
 (1843). 
 
 ASSE'NT, RO'YAL, is the regal act by which the 
 sanction of the crown to bills which have passed 
 through both Houses of parhament is given. ' See 
 Royal Asseot?. 
 
 ASSEE, John, the learned and congenial bio- 
 grapher of Alfred, was a monk of St Davids, from 
 the Latin name of which, Menevia, he is termed 
 in the old . records Asserius Meneverisis. About 
 the year 880, his reputation for learning and 
 piety procured him an invitation to the court of 
 Alfred, where he resided at intervals during the rest 
 of the king's life, assisting him in his studies, and 
 enjoying an affectionate confidence, of which he 
 seems to have been every way worthy. The king 
 promoted him to various dignities, and finally made 
 him Bishop of Sherburn. The Saxon Chronicle fixes 
 the date of his death to the year 910. Several works 
 have, with more or less authority, been attributed to 
 A. The only one undoubtedly his, by which we 
 can now judge of him as a man and a writer, is his 
 Annales Serum Gesiarum Aelfredi Magni. This 
 simple and most interesting narrative was first pub- 
 Usjied in 1574 by Archbishop Parker. Its trust- 
 worthiness has recently (1842) been questioned by 
 Mr Thomas Wright, in the article 'Asser' of his 
 Siographia Britajrmica Litteraria. This gentleman 
 has assuredly made the most of the objections to its 
 rehabflity that can be legitimately urged. Lingard 
 and Dr Pauli have replied to these, and, at present, 
 the general impression of scholars of Anglo-Saxon 
 hterature is that tiiere is no good reason for doubting 
 its general accuracy and fidehty. The best edition 
 is that of Wise (Oxf. 8vo. 1722). 
 
 489 
 
ASSfiS-ASSI&lsrAMOl^. 
 
 ASSES, Feast op. See Foois, Feast op. 
 
 ASSE'SSED TAXES. These are duties assessed 
 and charged upon the people, under the authority 
 of numerous acts of parliament, beginning with 
 the 43 Geo. III. c. 99. The duties now comprised 
 under this branch of taxation are those on inhabited 
 houses, male-servants, carriages, horses, and mules, 
 doss, horse-dealers, hair-powder, armorial bearings, 
 and game. The duty on inhabited houses was sub- 
 stituted, by the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 36, for a former 
 tax on windows. The A. T. are under the manage- 
 ment of the Commissioners of Inland Eevenue. 
 See Taxes. 
 
 ASSE'SSORS may be definedas persons who are 
 sometimes associated with judicial functionaries, to 
 assist in the argument and procedure before them, 
 and to advise their judgments. They are called 
 A., because, according to the Latin derivation and 
 literal meaning of the word, they sit side by sidewith. 
 others. They may be usefully employed by per- 
 sons in judicial stations whose previous education 
 and pursuits scarcely qualify them for the duties 
 cast upon them. A. are usually barristers or advo- 
 cates learned in the law, and familiar with judicial 
 proceedings. By the 5 and 6 WflHam IV. c. 76, 
 commonly called the Municipal Corporation Act, it 
 is, by section 37,' enacted that the burgesses shall 
 annually elect from among those qualified to be coun- 
 sellors, two auditors and two A., the former to audit 
 the accounts of the burgh, and the latter to revise 
 the burgess hst. In the ecclesiastical law of England, 
 a bishop, who is a spiritual judge, is assisted by his 
 chancellor, as the episcopal assessor, and who,* in 
 fact, holds courts for the bishop. But in the case of 
 a complaint against a clergyman for any ecclesias- 
 tical offence under the Church Discipline Act (the 3 
 and 4 Vict. c. 86), the bishop is directed to inquire 
 into the matter, assisted by three A., of whom the 
 dean of his cathedral, or one of his archdeacons, or 
 his chancellor, must be one, and a Serjeant at law, or 
 an advocate who has practised five years in the 
 court of the archbishop of the province, or a barrister 
 of seven years' standing, another. 
 
 The judges of the common law courts, and the 
 Queen's counsel, being Serjeants, are, as a condition 
 of their offices, A. of the House of Lords, advising 
 the House on points of law wliich may be propounded 
 to them by their lordships. 
 
 A'SSETS. This is one of those terms in the law 
 of England which in itself bears evidence of a 
 Norman origin. It is derived from the French word 
 assez, or more exactly, in Norman-French, assetz, 
 ' enough' or ' sufficient,' signifying the property of a 
 deceased person, which is sufficient in the hands of 
 his executor and heir for the payment of his debts 
 and legacies. In strictness, therefore, the term is not 
 applicable to the property of a person who dies 
 intestate, and without any debts to be paid. In 
 general acceptation, however, it is understood to 
 mean the property left for distribution by a deceased 
 person, whether testate or intestate ; and in com- 
 merce, and also in bankruptcy and insolvency, the 
 term is used to designate the stock in trade and 
 entire property of aU sorts belonging to a merchant 
 or to a trading association. 
 
 A. are either personal or real, the former compre- 
 hending such goods, chattels, and debts as devolve 
 on the executor; and the latter including all real 
 estate, whefher devised or descending to the heir at 
 law. In connection with this distinction. A, are also 
 said to be ^. by descent, and A. in hand, the former 
 of these being recoverable from the heir to whom 
 the land descends, and so far as such lands wiU 
 extend— A. in hand, again, signifying such property 
 as a person leaves to his executors sufficient for the 
 490 
 
 clearing of burdens and bequests affecting his per- 
 sonal estate. A. are also in their nature either legal 
 or equitable, according to the nature of the remedy 
 which may be used by creditors against the executor 
 or heir. Where there are several creditors of equal 
 degree, the executor is bound to pay him who hrst 
 obtains judgment for his debt ; and he cannot resist 
 on the ground that nothing will be left for the other 
 creditors. If, after exhausting the whole A. which 
 have come to his hands, by the payment of debts in 
 due order, he be afterwards sued by a creditor 
 remaining unpaid, he is entitled to protect himself 
 by an allegation that he has f uUy administered, or 
 technically by a plea of plene administravit ; and 
 upon this plea the creditor is entitled to judgment 
 that he shall be paid out of any other A. that shall 
 come to the defendants, which is called a judgment 
 of A. in fviuro.- 
 
 A. is not a technical term in Scotland, but it is 
 nevertheless much used in the legal business of that 
 country. 
 
 ASSI'DIANS. SeeCHASiBlM. 
 
 ASSIE'NTO, i. e., treaty, a word specially applied 
 to a compact between Spain and some foreign 
 nation, according to which the Spanish government 
 conferred upon the latter, under certain conditions, 
 the monopoly of the supply, of negroes for its 
 American colonies. It was Charles I. of Spain 
 who first concluded an A. with the Flemings. 
 Next, a similar compact was entered into with the 
 Genoese (1580 A.D.), the Portuguese (1696), and on 
 the accession of Philip V. to the Spanish throne in 
 1702, with the French Guinea Company, which from 
 that time took the name of A. Company, upon the 
 understanding that for ten years it should have the 
 exclusive right of annually importing 4800 negroes 
 of both sexes to the continent and islands of Spanish 
 America. The A. was next transferred to England 
 at the peace of Utrecht in 1713, and made over by 
 government to the South Sea Company for 30 years, 
 permission being also granted to the company to 
 send yearly, during the term of contract, a ship, 
 carrying 500 tons of goods, to these Spanish colonies. 
 The misunderstandings that grew out of this last 
 clause contributed not a little to the war that broke 
 out between the two nations in 1739. At the peace of 
 Aix-la-chapeUe in 1748, the English company having 
 stiU four years to run, their rights were guaranteed 
 to them ; but they relinquished them at the Madrid 
 Convention of 1750, upon the payment of £100,000, 
 and the concession of certain commercial advantages. 
 
 ASSI'GN, To, in Law, signifies to transfer or grant 
 over to a third party a security, a right of credit, or 
 other right, whether in possession or in' reversion, 
 granted by a party indebted or under obligation to 
 the party assigning. The words of assignment are 
 to A., transfer, and set over, and they operate to 
 transfer both real and personal property. A chose en 
 action (q. v.), contrary to the ancient principle, can 
 now be assigned in England indirectly by the com- 
 mon law, and directly according to the recognised 
 principles of the courts of equity. Besides this 
 general application of the word, as a technical term 
 in conveyancing, both in England and Scotland, it is 
 also employed in England in judicial procedure, 
 where the decision of an inferior court is brought 
 under review, and in proceedings in bankruptcy. 
 See AssiorrMENT, Assignation, Assignment op 
 Eeeok, Bankruptcy. 
 
 ASSIGNA'TION is a legal term in Scotch con- 
 veyancing, analogous to the English word Assign- 
 ment (q.v.), by means of which the nolder of any right, 
 or the creditor in any obhgation, or the proprietor 
 of any subject not properly feudal (see Feudal 
 System), transfers hS right or estate to a third 
 
ASsmi^ATtON-ASStGl^ATS. 
 
 party. The party malting %h.& A. ia called the cedent, 
 and the party in whose favour the A. ia made ia 
 called the assignee or cessionary, and the act of 
 assignment thus made ia irrevocable, an element in 
 the deed which haa been traced to the practice of 
 the French law, a source from which the Scotch 
 lawyers of the 16th c. borrowed so much — the Court 
 of Seaaiou itself being a mere copy of the Parliament 
 of Paris. A direct conveyance of a debt in France waa 
 termed un transport; the grantor, cidant; and the 
 grantee, cessionnaire ; and these terms, derived from 
 a Latin origin, were introduced into the Scotch law ; 
 and hence the namea of the partiea to an A., as we 
 have stated. XTnUke the English common-law view 
 of the assignment, the Scotch A. has the effect of 
 investing the assignee with the whole right, which 
 was in the cedent, although, according to the ancient 
 practice, the A. gave, not simply the sum or subject 
 assigned, 'but also the deed or written evidence of 
 the right or thing assigned, a form arising from the 
 circumstance of 3ie inatrument having been regarded 
 as of the nature of a mandate or power of attorney 
 to the assignee to make his claim and to act as in 
 right of the cedent. In modern practice, however, 
 it is usual to employ simply the terms ' assign, 
 convey, and make over,' which correspond with the 
 real character of the deed. In order, however, to 
 complete the A., it must be intimaied to the common 
 debtor — ^that is, the party originally indebted to the 
 cedent — and so essential is this intimation, that in 
 the case of competing claims against the right 
 interest or estate assigned, the A. first intimated 
 wUl be preferred to one prior in date, but posterior 
 in the date of intimation. Such intimation ought to 
 be made by a Notary Pvhlic (q. v.), but other formal 
 
 notice of the A. is sometimes admitted. But 
 there are certain assignations which require no 
 intimation, such as the endorsement of bills of 
 exchange, adjudication (q. v.), which is a judicial A., 
 and marriage, which is a legal A. ; and the same is 
 the ruld With regard to all nght and estate assigned 
 under the operation of the bankruptcy laws. In 
 Scotch agricultural leases, assignees are generally 
 excluded expressly. 
 
 But although A. is the strict Scotch term for 
 assignment, the latter is in Scotland the technical 
 term for the transference of certain property, auch 
 as property in copyrights, patents, and registered 
 
 A'SSIGNATS. After appropriating to national 
 purposes the land belonging to the church, the French 
 National Assembly (see Assembly, National), 
 instead of bringing it into the market at a time 
 of insecurity, when its value was depreciated, 
 issued bonds on the security of it, which were called 
 assignats, as representing land assigned to the 
 holder. This paper-money consisted chiefly of 
 notes for 100 francs (£4) each, though many of 
 them were.'for sums as low as ten or five francs, 
 and even lower ; and the first issue amounted 
 to 400 mUlion francs. The first A., which were 
 issued in the spring of the year 1790, bore interest ; 
 but subsequent issues did not. The facility of 
 this plan of providing government income led 
 to its being repeatedly had recourse to, as the 
 property of wealthy emigrants — persona who aban- 
 doned their, coimtiy in alarm— fell into the hands 
 of the rulers, and waa confiscated, till the amount 
 rose to the enormous simi of 45,578 million francs, 
 besides a great number of forged A. manufactured 
 
 '' dm 23 Mai 
 
 cfoimeM^U. 
 
 
 I)omaiiip^'ii^ioi]LcU}2t. 
 
 ^ ■uuiAflilil ^ UMIUUL 
 
 Fac-simile of Assignat, 
 
 abroad, and smuggled into the kingdom. The 
 value of the A. -naturally soon began to decline, 
 and confidence once gone, the declension became 
 fearful. In June 1793, one franc in silver was worth 
 three francs in paper ; in August, it was worth six. 
 The state took the most extreme measures to compel 
 the acceptance of A. at their fuU nominal value. 
 The effects of these were to cause the A. to flow 
 back into the public treasury, to raise the prices of 
 aU commodities, and to make every one averse to 
 have any dealings with the state. One of these 
 
 consequences waa attempted to be met by fixing a 
 maximum of prices. But no one could compel pro- 
 ducers and dealers to produce and sell at a loss ; so 
 that all business became disorganised. At last the 
 value of A. came almost to nothing. Millions of 
 individuals had suffered incalculable loss, and only 
 a few who had bought public lands with the A. that 
 cost them little or nothing, had enriched themselves 
 at the expense of the community. In March 1796, 
 a louia d'or (24 francs) brought 7200 franca in A. 
 After this, they were withdrawn from the currency 
 
 491 
 
ASSISNEB IN BANKRUPTCY— ASSISI. 
 
 in 1796, and redeemed, at -g^th of tlieir nominal value, 
 by mandats, a new kind of paper-money, ■whioh 
 enabled the holder at once to take possession of 
 pubHo lands at the estimated value, while A. could 
 only be offered at a sale. The mandats also soon fell 
 to a seventieth of their nominal value, and were 
 returned to government in payment of taxes or of land. 
 At length, in July 1796, the system of paper- 
 credit, so obstinately persisted in by government 
 and so disastrous in its results to the public, came 
 to an end. A law was passed, declaring that every 
 one was entitled to transact business in whatever 
 circulating medium he pleased; that the mandats 
 should be taken at their current value ; and that 
 the taxes be received either in coin or mandats at 
 that rate. The A. were executed on a coarse kind 
 of paper, and, as wUl be seen by the accompanying 
 fac-simUe, the devices were so meagre as to be easily 
 counterfeited. 
 
 ASSIGNEE' m BA'NKBUPTCY. See Bank- 
 ruptcy. 
 
 ASSI'GNMENT, in the law of England, is the 
 name given to a conveyance by which the party 
 making the A. transfers or grants over, for a suffi- 
 cient consideration, a right in expectancy, in rever- 
 sion, or other right not in possession, such as a bond, 
 a debt, or other chose en action (q. v.). In England, 
 according to the strict rule of the old common law, no 
 "such right could be assigned or granted over, because 
 such a proceeding was thought to be an encourage- 
 ment to litigation. The only exception to this 
 general rule was in the case of the Crown, which 
 might always either grant or receive a chose en action 
 by A. ; and now the proceeding is in constant prac- 
 tice, the courts of equity, making the rule itself 
 give way to the expediency of facflitating the trans- 
 fer of property, having directly sanctioned the prac- 
 tice ; and even in the courts of common law the 
 application of the ancient principle is evaded. Mort- 
 gages may be assigned; indeed the right to make 
 such a transfer is one of the properties of a mortgage 
 security. A. is also the proper mode of assurance or 
 conveyance for passing leasehold estates for years, 
 and other chattel property; and by the 8 and 9 
 Vict. c. 106, s. 3, it is enacted that all assignments 
 made after the 1st of October 1845, not being an 
 interest which before the passing of the act might 
 have been created without writing, shall be void 
 at law, unless made by deed. But a mere note in 
 writing, if duly signed by the parties, will neverthe- 
 less be supported m equity as an agreement, and pass 
 an equitable interest to the assignee. It also appears 
 that a parol or verbal lease for a term not exceeding 
 three years, and valid as such within the Statute of 
 Fraud!s (q. v.), may be assigned by a simple note in 
 writing, if impressed with a proper stamp. Copy- 
 right is assignable ; indeed, by the 5 and 6 Vict. 
 u. 45, s. 3, copyright is expressly given to the author 
 and his assigns ; but it is not required, hke a patent 
 right, to be in every case under the seal of the pro- 
 prietor, it being enacted by section 13 of the same 
 act that an A. properly entered in the book of 
 registry at Stationers' HaU shall be as effectual as if 
 made by deed. 
 
 In regard to the right of A. generally, it may be 
 laid down that the property in things personal is 
 transferable with absolute freedom ; and if they are 
 assigned under a condition which is either repugnant 
 to the gift itself, or ; against the policy of the law — 
 such as a prohibition to dispose of the property 
 assigned — ^the condition is void. There are some 
 cases, however, where the right of aMenation is, in 
 respect of the incapacity of the owner, suspended ; 
 as to which it will be sufficient to remark that the 
 law with respect to the disability of infants, insane 
 492 
 
 persons, and persons under duress, applies in general 
 to personal as well as to real property. A married 
 woman, too, is in general under an absolute inca- 
 pacity to make any transfer of things personal ; for, 
 with the exception of her equitable interest in pro- 
 perty settled in trust expressly for her separate use, 
 the goods and chattels which she may have possessed 
 at the time of marriage, or subsequently acquired, 
 belong, by the gejieral rule of law, to her husband. 
 There are also some few cases where, in respect 
 of the nature of the interest itself, its alienation 
 is absolutely prohibited. Thus, generally, the pay 
 or half-pay of a military or naval officer, or the 
 salary of an officer of trust, is, on a principle of 
 pubHc policy, not assignable, the object being to 
 secure to such persons, even against their own 
 improvidence, the possession of those means which 
 are essential to the maintenance of their station and 
 the performance of their duties. The sale or transfer 
 of public appointments themselves is also, iu general, 
 contrary to the policy of the law, and in most cases 
 expressly prohibited. See Stephen's Commentaries, 
 vol. ii. p. 43. 
 
 An A. of goods and chattels is frequently made 
 by a Bfll of Sale (q. v.). BUls of Exchange (q. v.) 
 and Promissory Notes (q. v.) are assigned by 
 endorsement. 
 
 The corresponding term in the Scotch law is 
 Assignation (q. v.). But in that system, A. is the 
 legal and teclmical word for the transference of pro- 
 perty iu copyrights, patents, and registered vessels. 
 
 ASSreNMBNT OP ERROR is the technical 
 statement of certain grounds on which the judgment 
 of a court of law is sought to be reviewed by a 
 higher tribunal ; but by the Common Law Procedure 
 Act (15 and 16 Vict. c. 56., s. 152), it is now limited to 
 the case where the defendant in error intends to 
 rely in support of the judgment on the proceeding 
 in error being baired by lapse of time, or by release 
 of error, or other like matter of fact. See Appeal 
 and Eeboe. 
 
 ASSI'GNS, or, in Scotch, law, ASSIGNEES, is 
 the legal name given to parties in whose favour an 
 assignment or assignation (q. v.) is made. 
 
 ASSIMILATION. See Nutbition. 
 
 ASSINIBOI'A, the district round Red River 
 Settlement. It takes its name from the Assiniboine 
 river, as the settlement itself does from the river 
 into which the Assiniboine flows. See Red Riveb 
 
 Settlement. 
 
 ASSINIBOI'NE, a river in the Hudson's Bay 
 Territory. Near lat. 50° N., and long. 96° W., it falls 
 from the north-west into the Red River (q. v.), which 
 discharges its waters into Lake Winnipeg. 
 
 ASSrSI {Assisium), a town of Italy, in the 
 Papal States, in the delegation of Perugia, is 
 bufit upon a steep bfll, in 43° 5' N. lat., and 12° 33 
 E. long. Pop. about 5000. It is surroimded by a wall 
 flanked with towers, and overhung by a lofty citadel 
 in ruins. It is the birthplace of St Francis, who 
 here founded the Convento Sacro, the first monas- 
 tery of the Mendicant order that bears his name, 
 a large and beautiful structure, and one of the earliest 
 specimens of the Gothic style of architecture in 
 Italy. The chm-ch and the galleries of the monastery 
 contain fine paintings by Cimabue' Giotto, and other 
 old masters. Besides the Convento Sacro, there are 
 eleven other monasteries in A. Of these, the largest 
 is the Portiuncula, which has a richly decorated 
 church, with a cupola by Vignola. In the last 
 century, this place was a great resort of pilgrims, 
 visiting the tomb of the saint, of whom one himdred 
 thousand are said to have been assembled here on 
 one day. 
 
ASSIZE-ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. 
 
 A. oooupiea the site of the ancient Assisiiuu, a 
 municipal town of Umbria, and presents the remains 
 of the forum, the baths, and the aqueducts of the 
 days of the Romans. In the piazza, or square, there 
 stands a beautiful portico of the ancient temple of 
 Minerva, consisting of fluted Corinthian columns and 
 a pediment. There are abundance of olive-trees, and 
 some fine njineral springs in the vicinity.. The town 
 has given title to a bishop since 240 a.d. It has 
 manttfactures of needles and files. 
 
 ASSI'ZE. This word, literally signifying a ' sitting ' 
 or 'session,' is a term used in the principal European 
 legal systems, and very much in the same sense, or 
 rather senses in all, for it has more than one distinctive 
 meaning. As is common with regard to mo jfc of our 
 ancient legal technicality, the Latin language, in the 
 first instance {a^deo), and then the Frendi (assis), 
 appear to have led to its introduction into the phra- 
 seology of the law of England, and, it may be added, 
 also of Scotland, although in the latter country it 
 has a more limited application in judicial procedure 
 than in England, A. being in Scotland the old tech- 
 nical expression for a jury. In England, this word 
 may also signify a jury, and it is sometimes used to 
 denote an ordinance, decree, or law. But in modem 
 practice, it is commonly applied to the sessions or 
 sittings of the judges of the superior law-courts, 
 held periodically in each county, for the purpose of 
 administering civil and criminal justice. These 
 courts came into xise in room of ancient justices in 
 eyre, jusbicia rei in itinere. They are now appointed 
 by commissions issued to aU the judges of the courts 
 of common law, and to other learned persons, such 
 as Serjeants and barristers of suitable rank; and 
 such commissions are accompanied by writs of asso- 
 ciaiion, whereby certain persons (usually the clerk 
 of A. and his subordinate officers) are directed to 
 associate themselves with the justices and Serjeants, 
 and they are required to admit the said persons into 
 their society, in order to take the assizes, &c., that a 
 sufficient supply of commissioners may never be 
 wanting. But, to prevent the delay of justice by the 
 absence of any of them, there is also issued, of course, 
 a writ of Si non onmes, directing that, if all cannot be 
 present, any two of them (a justice or Serjeant being 
 one) may proceed to execute the commission. These 
 commissioners or judges of A. are sent twice in every 
 year on drcuits all round the kingdom, to try by a jury 
 of the respective counties the truth of such matters 
 of fact as are then under dispute in the courts of 
 Westminster Hall ; and occasionally a third circuit 
 is appointed in the course of the year, for the pur- 
 pose of jail delivery. The circuits are eight in 
 number — such as the Home, the Midland, the Nor- 
 folk, the Oxford, the Northern, the Western, the 
 North Wales, and the South Wales circuit ; and in 
 going them, the judges or commissioners sit by 
 virtue of four several authorities : 1. The commis- 
 sion of the peace ; 2. A commission of oyer and 
 terminer ; 3. A commission of general jail delivery. 
 The other authority is, 4. That of nisi prius, which 
 is a consequence of the ancient commission of A. 
 being annexed to the office of justices of A. by the 
 statute of Westminster the second (13 Edw. I. c. 
 30) ; and it empowers them to try all questions of 
 fact issuing out of the courts at Westminster that 
 are then ripe for trial by jury. These, by the 
 ancient course of the courts, were usually appointed 
 to be tried at Westminster in some Easter or 
 Michaelmas term, by a jury returned from the 
 coimty wherein the cause of action arose ; but with 
 this proviso, nisi prius, unless before the day pre- 
 fixed the judges of A. Should come into the county 
 in question, which in modern times they have 
 invariably done in the vacations preceding ; so that 
 the trial has always, in fact, taken place before 
 
 those judges. And now, by the effect of the statute 
 15 and 16 Vict. o. 76 (the Common Law Procedure 
 Act, 1852), the course of proceeding is no longer 
 even ostensibly connected with a proviso at nisi 
 prius, but the trial is allowed to take place without 
 the use of any such words in the process of the 
 court, and as a matter of course, before the judgeS 
 sent imder commission into the several counties. 
 The circuit system, however, does not extend to 
 London and Middlesex, which have instead courts 
 of nisi prius, which are held before the chief or other 
 judge of tlie superior courts for the trial of civil 
 causes, at what are called the London and West- 
 minster Sittings — the times for which sittings are 
 now regulated by the Common Law Procedure Act 
 of 1854 (17 and 18 Vict. o. 125, s. 2) ; and the estab- 
 lishment of the Central Criminal Court (by the 4 
 and 5 Will. IV. c. 36, the jurisdiction of which has 
 been recently extended by the 19 and 20 Vict. c. 16), 
 has sufiieiently provided for the administration of 
 criminal justice within these districts. 
 
 The circuit courts of Justiciary in Scotland, of 
 which there are three — the North, the West, and 
 the South — very much resemble the assizes in 
 England, and have, in criminal matters at least, 
 very much the same jmisdiotign ; but in civil causes 
 their authority is very limited. 
 
 In the sense of an ordinance or law, the term A. 
 has various applications, although chiefly in the 
 more ancient systems of jurisprudence. Thus, the 
 'Assizes ' of Jerusalem were, as we are told in Gibbon's 
 Decline and Fall (vol. xi. p. 93), a code of feudal laws 
 for the kingdom of Jerusalem, formed in 1099 by an 
 assembly of the Latin barons and of the clergy and 
 laity under Godfrey of Bouillon. Then there were 
 the 'Assizes' or ordinances regulating the price of 
 bread, ale, fuel, and other common necessaries of 
 life, but all of which have been abolished. The 
 same regulations appear to have prevailed in Scot- 
 land in ancient times. See JunY, Teial by Juby, 
 Markets. 
 
 ASSOCIATE SYNOD, ASSOCIATE PRES- 
 BYTERY, &o., designations adopted among the 
 Sbcbdees (q. v.) from the Church of Scotland. 
 There is also an Associate Synod in America, and 
 an Associate Reformed Church, both of which have 
 sprung from the Scottish Secession. 
 
 ASSOCIA'TION. See Co-opeuation ; also, 
 Society, League, Company. 
 
 ASSOCIA'TION OP IDE'AS. This is a phi-ase 
 of great importance in the Philosophy of the Human 
 Mind, as expressing the most pervading fact at the 
 foundation of our intelligence. By giving, therefore, 
 a somewhat fuU exposition of this subject, we are 
 able to explain, at once, a considerable number of 
 the complex phenomena of mind in a more satisfac- 
 tory way than by treating the several phenomena 
 separately. VvThat is meant by Association of Ideas, 
 is familiarly illustrated by such occurrences as the 
 following : When we see the sky becoming overcast, 
 we think of rain as about to follow, the notion of 
 rain not having previously been present to our mind. 
 When we hear the church-beUs, we are apt to think 
 of the crowds in the street, or of some of the other 
 circumstances of public worship. When we pass a 
 house, we are reminded of its occupier ; and meeting 
 a person we know, we may be carried in thought to 
 his office, and from that to other persons holding the 
 same office, and so on. If an object is before my 
 eyes, as a mountain, I am said to receive an impres- 
 sion or sensation of it, in consequence of the actual 
 presence of the thing ; but it is possible for me to 
 remember the mountain, or to have an idea of it, 
 when far away from the reality, in which case there 
 must be some power in the mind itself, different 
 
ASSOCIATION OP IDEAS. 
 
 from tlie susceptibility to present objects, a power of 
 retaiaing, reviving, or resuscitating tbose states at 
 first induced by contact ■ndth. the actuaJ. Besides 
 the sights, and sounds, and touches caused by con- 
 tact with real things, we are greatly occupied with 
 sights, sounds, and touches remembered, anticipated, 
 or imagined, which is to live in a world of ideas ; and 
 it is in this world that the process termed Associa- 
 tion has its sphere. When an idea is brought before 
 the mind without its original, as when I picture to 
 my mind the late Duke of Wellington, the circum- 
 stance IS owing to the mention of his name, or of 
 some incident connected with him ; and my remem- 
 brance of his personal appearance, as I have seen 
 him when alive, is said to be the result of an associa- 
 tion existing in my mind between two ideas, so that 
 the one is able to recall or restore the other. The 
 association between names and things comprehends 
 one of the most extensive applications of the power 
 in question. 
 
 The circumstances under which one idea brings 
 forward another into the view are principally these 
 two — viz., first, previous proximity; and second, 
 likeness. The terms 'Contiguity' and 'Similarity' 
 are used in Mental Philosophy to express them. The 
 first is exemplified in the examples of association 
 given above ; for in most of those it will be found 
 that the conjoined notions have been frequently in 
 the view at the same time, in consequence of which 
 they have, as it were, grown together, or become 
 part of the same whole. Thus, we have often noticed 
 the darkened sky followed by a shower; the two 
 facts have occupied the attention simultaneously, 
 and in virtue of some power belonging to our mental 
 framework, they have cohered into an inseparable 
 couple or aggregate in the mind. This is proximity, 
 or contiguity. When one idea suggests another 
 which was never in company with it before, it is 
 generally through the force of some likeness between 
 the two. I meet an old man in the street with a 
 very peculiar face, which reminds me of the bust 
 of Socrates. These two things had never accom- 
 panied one another in my mind before, and therefore 
 it could not be the force of proximity that made the 
 second to arise at the instigation of the first; but 
 there was a certain amount of likeness or similarity 
 between the old man's features and the features of 
 Socrates, as. represented to us in the bust; and it is 
 a fact of our constitution, no less certain and no less 
 important than the foregoing, that in cases where 
 something now before the mind has a strong cast of 
 resemblance to something formerly observed or con- 
 ceived by us, but not at present thought of in any 
 way, the present is apt to recall that past idea, what- 
 ever it may be. By the force of likeness, the travel- 
 ler in new countries is constantly reminded of the 
 scenes and objects familiar to him, and so is induced 
 to draw comparisons beween the one and the other. 
 Identification and comparison both imply that things 
 are brought together by virtue of their similarity, 
 they not having been in company before. The 
 principle of proximity operates most in Memory, 
 Habit, and Routine ; similarity has to do with 
 invention and originality, and is essential to the 
 processes of Reason and Imagination. 
 
 Law of Contiguity. — The principle of association 
 by proximity is not confined to ideas. We must 
 state it in a more comprehensive form, in order to 
 comprise the full sphere of its application ; for our 
 mechanical habits are formed through the very same 
 power of our constitution that enables us to recall 
 or remember ideas. The taught movements of a 
 soldier • or of a skilled workman are connected 
 together so firmly that one succeeds to another 
 almost of its own accord. Everything of the nature 
 of acquisition supposes a plastic property in the 
 491 
 
 human system, giving permanent coherence to acta 
 that have been performed together. 
 
 The following is a general statement of the law 
 under consideration : 
 
 Actions, Sensations, States of Feeling, and Ideas, 
 ocairring together, or in dose succession, tend to grow 
 together, or cohere in such a way that when any one of 
 them is afterwards presented to the mind, the others 
 are apt to arise. 
 
 And first, as to association of Actions, or volun- 
 tary movements. When we perform a train of 
 movements without any further aid of the will than 
 to commence the series, there must be a fixed connec- 
 tion between each and the one that follows, and 
 this connection may be either instinctive or acquired. 
 There are various cases of instinctive trains, such 
 as the action of the heart, lungs, and intestines, and 
 the movements of deglutition. When a morsel of 
 food reaches the back part of the mouth, the 
 muscles of the throat seize hold of it, and transmit 
 it to the stomach, independent of our will. The 
 connected movements in this case are provided for 
 in the original structure of the nervous and muscu- 
 lar system. In walking, there is partly an instinc- 
 tive tendency to alternate the limbs, and partly a 
 confirming acquisition, the result of practice. But 
 in those complicated operations that, human beings 
 are taught to execute in the various avocations of 
 life, the associating principle is everything. The 
 apparently simple and easy act of taking food is a 
 comphcated acquisition ; in other words, an exten- 
 sive group of associated movements. The seizing of 
 the morsel is followed by the movement of the .arm 
 that carries it to the mouth ; the mouth is opened 
 simultaneously; after which follow the processes 
 of biting and chewing; all which take place with 
 the certainty of a machine, and without effort or 
 attention directed to them. These associations were 
 originally bmlt up by slow degrees. ' As a general 
 rule, it takes many repetitions to cement so firm a 
 union between successive and simultaneous move- 
 ments as is implied in the above instance.' 
 
 A good example of the association of movements 
 is furnished in our acquirement of spoken language, 
 as in committing to memory words, sayings, and 
 passages of books. When a child has perfectly 
 acquired the Lord's Prayer, the chain of association 
 is so firmly knit, that the articulation of the words 
 ' Our Father ' is followed irresistibly yith those next 
 succeeding, and so on to the end. The cohesion in this 
 case is between the vocal movements corresponding 
 to the emmciation of the words. Having gone 
 many times through this one definite succession, tha 
 stream of nervous power, in some way that we can- 
 not at present explain, acquires a tendency to fall 
 into this one definite track, and in future to bring 
 on the movements in the exact order that they have 
 so frequently followed. 
 
 It is not merely actual movements that can be 
 joined together in this way, but the ideas of move- . 
 ment ; for a man, meditating in language, and not 
 speaking out his thoughts, can consoHdate his trains 
 so as to remember them afterwards. 
 
 When we proceed to Sensations and the Ideas, 
 or subsequent traces, of Sensations, and take along 
 with these the variety of our movements vidth their 
 ideas, we find an unlimited scope for the associating 
 principle; and the consequences of its operation 
 spread far and wide in the domains of our happiness, 
 our knowledge, and our active capacity. It is only 
 possible here to present a few illustrative examples. 
 
 In the various mechanical acquirements, which 
 include the whole of special handicraft industry 
 and skill, as well as the use of the bodily members 
 in the more general actions of daily life, there may 
 be traced the Unkings of actions with actions, or 
 
ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. 
 
 aotiona with seusationa and ideas. The helmsman 
 steering a ship associates in his mind each deviation 
 of the needle from the proper point with the specific 
 muscular exertion to be applied to the wheel to 
 rectify the ship's direction. The workman fabricat- 
 ing in wood, metal, or stone, acquires a iirm connec- 
 tion between each aspect of the material and the 
 muscular power to be applied to bring it one step 
 nearer the desired form. The power of copying 
 anything we see, as in writing, drawing, moulding, 
 &o., when completely mastered, is made up of asso- 
 ciations between a visible appearance, and the train 
 of movements calculated to reproduce it. After 
 practice, all this is done, as it is called, mechani- 
 cally, or without those operations of considering, 
 vrilling, and remembering directions, that are essen- 
 tial to the learner in a new art. The associations 
 that grow up after a certain amoimt of practice, are 
 in this case associations between movements and 
 appearances to the eye, or sensations of sight. In 
 the greater number of crafts, the eye is the guid- 
 ing sense to the operator, but not in all. Some- 
 times the effect is vocal, as in performing music, and 
 in making and tuning musical instruments, in speak- 
 ing, &c. In other arts, the touch is the guiding sense, 
 an(i in some, as in cookery, the taste and smell direct 
 the operator. Each accomplished workman has in 
 his mind many hundreds, not to say thousands, of 
 couples or aggregates of definite movements with 
 other movements and with sensations, contracted in 
 the course of his apprenticeship to his calling. 
 
 If we inquire into the circumstances that favour and 
 promote this expensive circle of acquisitions, we shall 
 find several that may be named as of importance. 
 In the first place, a natural aciimty of tempesrament, 
 or an abundant flow of power to the active mem- 
 bers, as shewn in a great and various mobility of 
 the frame, is a good ijasis of bodily acquirements. 
 When the force of the system runs feebly towards 
 the muscular framework, being perhaps expended 
 in other ways, as in the thinking powers, more time 
 is requisite to attain difficult mechanical arts. 
 Another important circumstance is the acuteness or 
 delicacy of the sense involved in the operation. A 
 keen eye, sensitive to minute degrees of effect, is 
 wanted in all the various occupations that turn on 
 visible appearances ; a good ear is indispensable to 
 music and the arts of producing sounds ; and so on. 
 With a naturally duU sensibflity to flavour, no man 
 can easily become a good cook, or a taster of tea or 
 wine. The third consideration is the natural power 
 of adhesive association belonging to the individual 
 character. Some minds have originally a more 
 powerful adhesiveness than others, either for things 
 generally, or for special departments. We see this 
 when a number of boys come together at school, and 
 in apprentices learning together. Some are always 
 found taking the start of the rest in rapidity of 
 acquirement ; and although the reason may be found 
 in some of the other circumstances now mentioned, 
 yet observation shews that when everything else is 
 allowed for, there remain natural differences in the 
 rapidity with which the adhesive bond is cemented ; 
 some acquiring without effort what others take both 
 time and labour to accomplish. The fourth princi- 
 pal circumstance is the interest taken in the work, 
 or the degree to which it engages the feelings of the 
 learner. This is a material consideration, account- 
 ing for the acquisitions made in matters that we 
 have a strong taste for vrithout our having a pre- 
 eminence in those other points that constitute 
 natural capacity. These four conditions apply more 
 or less to acquisition generally. 
 
 A detailed exemplification of this great principle 
 of our nature might be given through all the depart- 
 ments of the human intellect. The acquirements 
 
 of speech, as already said, contaia a wide range of 
 instances. The adhesion of language is partly in 
 the vocal organs, partly in the ear, and partly in the 
 eye, when we come to written and printecj. charac- 
 ters. The associations of names with things, vnth 
 actions (as in obeying direction and command), 
 and with other names (in acquiring foreign lan- 
 guages), are a gradual growth favoured by such con- 
 ditions as the above. The acquirements in Science, 
 Pine Art, and business, and in everything that con- 
 stitutes skill or knowledge, proceed upon this plastic 
 property of the mind. It also enlarges the sphere 
 of our pleasures and pains. There are connections 
 established in the mind between our states of f eeUng 
 and the things that have often accompanied them, 
 so that the accompaniment shall have power to 
 revive the feeling. It is thus that we contract affec- 
 tions, both benevolent and malevolent, towards per- 
 sons and things, our friends, our home, our country, 
 our property, our pursuits. 
 
 This power of stirring up dependent associations 
 to an extent that may be almost called imlimited 
 (although there are lunitations), is peculiar to the 
 animal organisation. Nothing parallel to it occurs 
 in the mineral or vegetable world. It is a property 
 of miad alone, and has its seat in the nervous tissue. 
 We know that growth or change is requisite to the 
 progress of the adhesion; for it proceeds most 
 rapidly in youth, health, and nutrition, and decays 
 in old age, and during exiaustion and disease. And 
 even to keep our acquisitions from fading away, it is 
 requisite that they should be ocoasionsdly revived. 
 A language acquired in early years may be utterly 
 lost by disuse. Sustained practice seems particularly 
 necessary in early education ; children's acquisitions 
 are very liable to disintegrate, if not kept up and 
 confirmed by new additions. 
 
 Law of Similarity. — This may be expressed as 
 follows : 
 
 Present Actions, Sensations, Thoughts, and Emo- 
 tions tend to revive their_ Like among premaus 
 impressions. 
 
 If the mind worked only by the principle of con- 
 tiguity, nothing would ever occur to us except in 
 some connection already formed. ■ But some explana- 
 tion is necessary as to the .precise relationship sub- 
 sisting between the two d[istiuct forces of mental 
 resuscitation, in order to shew at once their distinct- 
 ness and their connection. When the cohesive linlr 
 between any two contiguous actions, sensations, or 
 ideas, is confirmed by a new occurrence or repetition, 
 it is perfectly obvious that the present impression 
 must revive the sum-total of the past impressions, or 
 reinstate the whole mental condition left on the 
 occasion immediately preceding. Thus, if I am dis- 
 ciphning myself in the act of drawing a round figure 
 with my hand, any present effort must recall the 
 state of the muscular and nervous action, or the pre- 
 cise bent acquired at the end of the previous effort, 
 while that effort had to restore the condition at the 
 end of the one preceding, and so on. But this rein- 
 statement of a former condition by a present act 
 of the same kind, is reaUy and truly a case of the 
 principle before us, or of like recalling like ; and 
 without such recall, the progressive adhesion of 
 contiguous things would be impossible. It would 
 appear, therefore, that similarity is tacitly assumed 
 in the operation of contiguity, and is indispensable 
 to tbe process by which our acquisitions are gradually 
 built up. Why, then, do we set up the associating 
 force of likeness as something independent and dis- 
 tinct? To answer this question, we must advert to 
 the fact, that in those oases where the same impres- 
 sion is deepened by every new repetition, the old and 
 the new are not merely similar, they are identical, 
 and the resuscitation takes place without fail, and 
 
 , 495 
 
ASSOCIATION 01" IDEAS. 
 
 as a matter of course. But in going deeper into the 
 explanation of tke human intellect, we encounter 
 many classes of similars, where there is not absolute 
 identity, but the mixing up of a certain amount of 
 diversity with the likeness actually existing. The 
 botanist classing together all the plants of the same 
 order, as, for example, the Bosacece, has to be struck 
 with the occurrence of certain common characters — 
 viz., the properties that distinguish the order — ^in.the 
 midst of great varieties in all other respects. It is 
 important that he recognise these general marts, 
 whether the plants be trees or shrubs, whether they 
 be poisonous or wholesome, and under many other 
 diversities. It is exceedingly important in science, 
 in the business of life, and even in the creations of 
 fine art, that the mind should take cognizance of 
 likeness surrounded by milikeness; which is the 
 case that renders it necessary to characterise as 
 distinct the associating force now under discussion. 
 In the case of perfect identity between a present 
 and a past impression, the past is recovered, and 
 fused with the present, instantaneously and surely. 
 So quick and certaiu is the process, that we lose 
 sight of it altogether ; we are scarcely made aware 
 of the existence of an associating link of similarity 
 under such circimistances. But when we pass from 
 perfect to imperfect or partial identity, we are more 
 readily led to perceive the existence of this hnk of 
 attraction between similars, for we find that the 
 restoration sometimes does not take place ; oases occur 
 where we fail to be struck with a similitude : the 
 spark of resuscitation does not pass between the new 
 impression and the old dormant one. Then it is that 
 we recognise differences between different minds ; one 
 man tracing resemblance and making out identity 
 better than another. Moreover, we can assign rea- 
 sons connected with the culture of the individual, 
 which partially explain superiority or inferiority in 
 this important faciity ; just as we have' pointed out 
 the conditions favourable to the rapid growth of the 
 adhesive bond of proxinjity. The fa3ure in rein- 
 stating an old impression by virtue of a present one 
 like it, is solely ascribable to the want of perfect 
 identity. When in some new presentation of an 
 object, the old familiar form is muffled, obsciu'ed, 
 distorted, disguised, or in any way altered, it is just 
 a chance if we recognise it ; the amoimt of likeness 
 still remaining will have a tendency to revive the 
 object, wMle the points of difference or unlikeness 
 will operate against the revival, and tend to restore 
 things of their own kindred. If we hear a musical 
 air that we are accustomed to, the new impression 
 revives the old as a matter of course ; but if the air 
 is played with complex harmonies and accompani- 
 ments which are strange to us, it is possible that 
 the effect of these additions may be to check our 
 recognition of the melody; the unlike circumstances 
 may repel the reinstatement of the old experience 
 more strongly than the remaining likeness attracts 
 it. If our hold of the essential character of the 
 melody is but feeble, and if we are stunned and con- 
 founded by the new accompaniments, there is every 
 probability that we shall not be put upon the old 
 mental track made by the same air ; in other words, 
 we shall not identify the performance. 
 
 A few examples may next be given, to shew the 
 workings of this associating power, and the conse- 
 quences thence arising. The intellectual operations 
 knownunder the names Classification, Generalisation, 
 Induction, and Deduction, all proceed upon the dis- 
 covery of likeness among things lying wide asunder 
 in space and time, and very often veiled by diversity. 
 Thus, in order to include in one list aU the species of 
 the rose, botanists have had to trace the characters 
 of the genus through its various members, wherever 
 ihey occur, and under the greatest differences in 
 496 
 
 every other respect. It takes a keen identifying 
 faculty — that is, a strong natural tendency for the 
 resurrection of like to meet like — to see the resem- 
 blance of some of these species to the rest; and it 
 has happened in many departments of knowledge 
 that a class has remained incomplete for a time, 
 purely from the disguised character of some of the 
 individuals. So in the process termed induction, by 
 which a general law is arrived at by comparing 
 instances of it everywhere, there must be an attrac- 
 tion of similars, in order to bring together in the 
 mind the collection of particulars that the induction 
 is based upon. Thus, Newton assembled in his view 
 the various transparent bodies that he had found in 
 the course of his experiments to refract or bend 
 light strongly, his oidy intellectual instrument for 
 doing so being the bond of likeness operating as a 
 power of recall. Having looked at them in company, 
 he saw that some were remarkable for their weight 
 or specific gravity, and others for containing inflam- 
 mable ingredients ; upon which he raised the general 
 induction, connecting these two properties with high 
 refrangibility. Then, deductively, he apphed tMs 
 generiuisation to the diamond, which refracts light 
 more than any other known substance ; and as it is 
 not a heavy material, he extended the other infer- 
 ence to it-— namely, that it was made up of some 
 inflammable material, an inference afterwards con- 
 firmed by the discovery that it is ciystalhsed carbon. 
 Many of the greatest discoveries in science have 
 turned on the identification of modes of action never 
 before supposed the same, as when !Eranldin was 
 struck with the resemblance between the atmos- 
 pheric thunder and lightning, and the phenomena of 
 common electricity. 
 
 Another wide field for the operation of the same 
 principle, is the region of illustrative companions, 
 whereby two things widely remote are brought 
 together, in the view either to elucidate one another, 
 or for the sake of ornament and poetic effect. Most 
 men of genius in hterature and poetry have contri- 
 buted original illustrations, similes, metaphors, or 
 comparisons in the course of their compositions. 
 Shakspeare carries the palm in this faculty. The 
 writings of Bacon are remarkably rich in those that 
 serve the purpose of exposition. Science is with 
 him the 'interpretation' of nature: final causes 
 are ' vestal virgins ; ' they have no fruit : fallaoies 
 are 'idols.' Edmund Burke, another master of 
 illustrative comparison, has termed revolufions the 
 'medicine' of the state, and regular government 
 ifa'food.' 
 
 If we inquire into the circumstances that render 
 one mind more prolific in new identifications and 
 comparisons than another, apart from difference of 
 original capacity, we must refer mainly to the fact, 
 that the one has had the greater previous familiarity 
 with the class of things thus brought up by the 
 attraction of similarity. A mathematician is the 
 most likely person to bring up comparisons from 
 mathematics ; a botanist is prepared to identify 
 plants ; a travelled man provides illustrations from 
 foreign cotmtries ; a historian, from history. The 
 sailor is notoriously rich in nautical similes and 
 illustrations. AVhen any one not specially versed in 
 a subject is yet prone to draw upon it profusely in 
 the way of comparison, we must then refer to great 
 natural endowment as the sole explanation. But our 
 space does not allow us to dwell further on the 
 subject. (For the fuU exemplification of both the 
 associating principles and of the complications that 
 they give birth to, see Bain on The Senses and the 
 Intellect.) 
 
 The earHest known attempt to lay down the 
 laws whereby thought succeeds to thought, is that 
 contained in Aristotle's treatise on Memory. He 
 
ASSOUAN— ASSYRIA. 
 
 enumerates .three different principles of mental 
 reausoitation — ^viz., Similarity, Contrariety, and Co- 
 adjaconoy. He has heen followed by most other 
 pMlosophers as regards all the three principles. It 
 IS now, however, clearly seen and generally admitted, 
 that contrariety is not an independent associating 
 force. When a thing suggfests its opposite or con- 
 trary, it will be found that the two have been pre- 
 viously together in the mind, and have therefore 
 acquired a mutual hold by contiguity. Such, for 
 example, is black and white, wet and dry, health 
 and sickness, prosperity and adversity, &c. Con- 
 traries, in fact, have a natural inseparabihty ; they 
 are of the class of relatives like father and son, which 
 imply each other necessarily, and have no meaning 
 except by mutual reference. It requires no new 
 principle of our constitution to account for sugges- 
 tion in this particular case. Moreover, when things 
 are strongly contrasted with one another, as hi^ 
 position before a, fall, the mind is greatly impressed 
 with the shock of transition, and so retains a lively 
 recollection of the sequence, having by that means 
 a greater tendency to pass from the one to the 
 other. Thus, then, the enumeration of Aristotle is 
 reduced to the two principles that we have now 
 expounded. 
 
 Hobbes recognised the principle of contiguity as 
 the foundation of reminiscence ; but the Aristotelian 
 philosopher, Vives, who wrote in the 14th c, was the 
 first to specify in minute detail the various circum- 
 stances that determine the adhesive bond of recollec- 
 tion. Hume's enumeration is well known to have 
 comprised the three principles of resemblance, con- 
 tiguity, and causation, which he illustrates as 
 follows : ' A picture naturally leads our thoughts to 
 the original, [resemblance]. The mention of one 
 apartment in a building naturally introduces an 
 inquiry or discourse concerning the others, [conti- 
 guity]. And if we think of a wound, we can scarce 
 forbear reflecting on the pain which follows it, 
 [causation].' Causation, however, is merely a case 
 of contiguity ; so also we may say of Order in Place, 
 and Order in Time, which have been given as 
 distinct principles. 
 
 An attempt has been made to generalise Similarity 
 into Contiguity, but without success. For a full and 
 critical view of the history of these laws, see Sir W. 
 Hamilton's edition of Keid. 
 
 ASSOUA'Sr, ESSUA'N, or ESWA'N, the ancient 
 Syene, a town of Upper Egypt, on the east bank of 
 the Nile, near the borders of Nubia, 110 miles south 
 of Thebes, in lat. 24° 5' 30" N., and long. 32° 55' E. 
 There are few remains existing of the ancient city. 
 Some granite columns present themselves among the 
 ruins, but do not seem of an early date ; and part 
 of a temple stUl remains with a dilapidated portico. 
 Of the town-wall, that part which lies to the south 
 of the old town is stUl standing ; and beyond it is 
 the cemetery of A., where there are numerous tombs, 
 mostly cenotaphs, with Arabic inscriptions. In the 
 neighbourhood there are several granite quarries, 
 some of them remarkable for remains of ancient 
 materials that had been cut from the rock, and 
 partially hewn, and for antique inscriptions and 
 tablets, announcing the removal of blocks and the 
 reign of the Egyptian monarch by whose orders 
 they had been quarried. The environs of A. are 
 sterile and sandy ; but the palm thrives, and the 
 dates, which are excellent, form the staple of the 
 trade. Some traffic is carried on in senna, henna, 
 charcoal, wicker-baskets, and slaves. 
 
 The ancient name Syene is the Coptic word sovan 
 or suan, signifying ' opening ; ' and the modern one 
 is formed by addmg the Arabic el, 'the,' softened 
 into es, viz., Es-saan, 'the opening.' A. and its 
 vicinity are highly interesting to geologists and 
 32 
 
 mineralogists ; that kind of granite called syenite 
 receives its name from the town, 
 
 ASSU'MPTION, a village and river of Lower 
 Canada. About 8 miles below the village, the river 
 flows into the St Lawrence, or rather into the Ottawa, 
 nearly opposite to the lower extremity of the island 
 of Monteal. — A., or Asuncion, is also the name of 
 the capital of Paraguay, on the left bank of the 
 river of that name. It has a population of 8000, 
 and has «■ trade in hides, tobacco, timber, wax, and 
 Paraguay tea. The city was founded in 1535 by the 
 Spanish, and soon became a place of importance, 
 though not of beauty, being ill buUt, dirty, and 
 disagreeable. The surroundmg cotmtry is rich in 
 pastures, and also produces crops of wheat, maize, 
 sugar, tobacco, honey, wax, &c. 
 
 ASSU'MPTION OF THE VIRGIN MARY. 
 A festival of the Romish Church. In the 7th c, the 
 idea originated that the soul and body of the Virgin 
 had been carried up to heaven by Christ and his 
 angels. The Roman Catholic Church, therefore, has, 
 ever since that period, kept the 15th of August in 
 memory. of Mary's translation into glory; although, 
 from the 4th c. until then, it had kept the same day 
 in memory of her death. Liguori, in bis Olory of 
 Mary, gives a very minute account of the circum- 
 stances of her Assumption. 
 
 ASSU'RANCE. See Instjkance. 
 
 ASSURANCE, CoMMOif, is described by Black- 
 stone as the legal evidence of the translation of 
 property, whereby every man's estate is assured to 
 him, and all controversies, doubts, and dififioulties 
 are either prevented or removed. For an account of 
 these common assurances' or conveyances, as they are 
 generally termed, see Deed and CoNVKTAlfCE. 
 
 A'SSYNT, a mountainous, moorish, and very 
 ragged district or parish, 25 miles long, and 15 broad, 
 in south-west Sutherlandshire. It mostly consists of 
 a net-work of rooky heights, interspersed with a 
 multitude (200) of dark, motionless tarns or pools, of 
 various sizes, with some larger lochs, the largest. 
 Loch Assynt, being 10 miles long and 1 broad. 
 The district consists of gneiss, Silarian rocks, and 
 primitive limestone. There are a dozen moimtains 
 3000 — 3500 feet high. Some of the mountains are 
 covered with white bleached stones and protruding 
 rocks like patches of snow. The mountains have 
 frequently the form of artificial pillars and cairns, 
 and are the remains of an enormous denudation 
 of the nearly horizontal strata of the district. 
 Sml Veinn is a perfect sugar-loaf, towering nearly 
 2000 feet, above a rugged table-land of gneiss hills, 
 800 to 1000 feet above the sea. In Advreck Castle, 
 on a promontory on the east side of Loch A., the 
 famous Marquis of Montrose was confined in 1650. 
 
 ASSY'RIA (called Athura on Persian cuneiform 
 inscriptions, and Assura on the Median) was the 
 northernmost of the three great coimtries that 
 occupied the Mesopotamian plain. It was bounded 
 on the N. by the Niphates Mountains of Ai-menia ; on 
 the S., by Susiana and Babylonia ; on the E., by 
 Media ; and on the W., according to some, by the 
 Tigris, but more correctly by the water-shed of the 
 Euphrates, for many Assyrian ruins are found to 
 the west of the Tigris. It was thus about 280 miles 
 long from north to south, and rather more than 150 
 broad from east to west. This plain is diversified 
 by mountain-chains on the north and east, and 
 watered by the Tigris and its affluents, between 
 two of which — the Zab rivers — lay the finest part 
 of the country, called AdiabenS. As it was the 
 boundaiy-land between the Semitic people and Iran, 
 it became the scene of important political events. 
 Its extraordinary fertility- enabled it to support a, 
 large population. The high degree of prosperity 
 
 497 
 
ASSYRIA. 
 
 and civilisation reached by its inhabitants in very 
 early times is attested not only by ancient writers, 
 but by the extensive ruins of mighty cities, by the 
 canals and contrivances for irrigation, and by the 
 many proofs — furnished by recent excavations — of 
 an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. The 
 ruins of many cities are grouped around Nineveh"; 
 while lower down, the ffigris exhibits an almost 
 unbroken line of rains from Tekrit to Bagdad. 
 Under the Mohammedans, this fine country is now 
 almost a desert. 
 
 History. — Ancient authorities differ widely from 
 each other respecting the rise and progress, the 
 extent and the duration, of the Assyrian empire. 
 Ctesias, a Greek of Cnidus, court-physician to 
 Artaxerxes Mnemon, is quoted by various ancient 
 ^vriters; and hisinformation, though utterlyincredible 
 and fabulous, has been followed by most classical 
 historians, and by the whole series of ecclesiastical 
 writers. Many ingenious but futile attempts have 
 been made to reconcile his history with the Scrip- 
 ture narrative. Berosus, a priest of Bel at Baby- 
 lon, who wrote about 268 B. c, and Herodotus, differ 
 widely from Ctesias, but are confirmed in many 
 important particulars by the Bible, and by the con- 
 tinually increasing evidence derived from cuneiform 
 inscriptions. 
 
 In the Bible narrative, we are told that Nineveh 
 was founded by Asshur from Babylon (Gen. x. 
 11). The latter city, therefore, must have been the 
 capital of a more ancient empire, as Berosus asserts, 
 and recent discoveries go far to prove, though Greek 
 writers maintain the reverse. The next notice we 
 have of_A. does not occur till 770 B.C., when Pul, 
 long of A., invaded Palestine, but was bought off 
 by Menahem, king of Israel. Tiglath-pileser, who 
 succeeded Pul (738 B. c), conquered Syria, and carried 
 off many of the Jews into captivity. Next, Sahnan- 
 ezer (730 B. c.) subdued Israel, which, at the instiga- 
 tion of the Egyptians, had refused to pay tribute. 
 The next is Sennacherib (713 B.C.), who attacked 
 Egypt, and threatened Judah under Hezekiah. He 
 was slain by his two sons, and succeeded by his 
 son Esarhaddon, who was also master of Babylon 
 (2 Chron. xxxiii. 11), which, imder Nabonassar, had 
 been independent of Nineveh since 747. Very little 
 credit is to be attached to the expedition of 
 Holofernes recorded in the book of Judith. 
 
 After this, the empire appears to have gradually 
 decayed, until at last, in the reign of Sardanapalus 
 II., or Saracus, a league was formed for its destruc- 
 tion between Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, 
 and Cyaxares, king of Media, which was strength- 
 ened by the marriage of Nebuchadnezzar, son of the 
 former, to Nitooris, daughter of the latter. The 
 war and siege are said to have been interrupted 
 by an invasion of the Scythians, which drew off 
 Cyaxares ; but at length Nineveh was taken and 
 destroyed about 606 B.C., or, according toEawlinson, 
 625. In the time of Darius Hystaspes, A rebelled 
 without success in conjunction with Media. In the 
 time of Herodotus, the capital had ceased to exist ; 
 and when Xenophon passed it, the very name was 
 forgot, though he testifies to the extent of the 
 deserted city, and asserts the height of the ruined 
 walls to be 150 feet. Probably in this height is 
 included the elevation of the river-bank and of the 
 moimd on which the wall stood. An inconsiderable 
 town seems to have existed on its ruins in the reign 
 of Claudius ; and the last notice we have of Nineveh 
 in the classics is in Tacitus. 
 
 According to the Greek legends, the Assyrian 
 empire was founded by Ninus. To this monarch 
 and his consort Semiramis are ascribed expeditions 
 on an incredibly magnificent scale against Bactria, 
 Ethiopia, and India. We are told that Semiramis 
 
 498 
 
 led an army of 3,000,000 infantry, 500,000 cavalry, 
 and 100,000 chariots, and a fleet of 2000 ships, and 
 was encoimtered by forces more numerous stiU, and 
 defeated ; that she returned to Nineveh, where she 
 soon afterwards died, and was reckoned among the 
 gods, and was succeeded by her son Ninyas, an effemi- 
 nate prince. The succeeding part of the history 
 as related by Ctesias is equally false, though that 
 writer managed to make the ancient world give 
 credit to his narrative in preference to that of 
 Herodotus. He gives a list of monarchs from Ninus 
 to Sardanapalus, which is now considered to be a 
 clumsy forgery. According to him, for thirty genera- 
 tions after Ninyas, the kings led a life of luxury and 
 indolence in their palace ; the last of them, Sarda- 
 napalus, made a vigorous defence against Arbaces/ 
 the rebel governor of Media, but finding it impos- 
 sible to defend Nineveh, he set fire to his palace, and 
 burnt himself with all his treasures ; this event took 
 place 1306 years after Ninus. Now, the above account 
 represents Nineveh to have perished nearly three 
 centuries before the real date, which was about 605 
 E. o., and is utterly iucompatible with Scripture. 
 Herodotus assigns to the empire a duration of 520 
 years, and Berosus of 526. In order to reconcile 
 these conflicting accounts, historians have supposed 
 that Nineveh was twice destroyed, but this supposi- 
 tion is now generally rejected. However, that 
 Nineveh was actually destooyed by fire, is proved 
 from the condition of the slabs and statues foimd 
 in its ruins, which shew the action of intense 
 heat. 
 
 A. became a Median province, 605 B.C., and after- 
 wards, in conjunction with Babylonia, formed one 
 of the satrapies of the Persian empire. In 331 B. c, 
 at Gaugamela, near Arbela, in A,, Alexander 
 defeated Darius Codomannus. In 312 B.C., A. 
 became part of the kingdom of the Seleucidse, whose 
 capital was Seleucia, on the Tigris. It was after- 
 wards subject to the Parthian kings, whose capital 
 was Ctesiphon, and was more than once temporarily 
 in possession of the Romans. When the Persian 
 monarchy of the Sassanides was destroyed by the 
 successors of Mohammed, A. was subject to the 
 califs. Their seat was Bagdad from 762 A.i). till 
 1258. It has been imder the Turks from 1638, at 
 which period it was wrested from the Persians. 
 
 We shall now proceed to mention a few historical 
 points that have been satisfactorily ascertained 
 from the cuneiform inscriptions. For these we are 
 indebted to RawHnson's Herodotus. 
 
 It has not been ascertained when A. first became 
 independent of Babylon (q. v.). The seat of govern- 
 ment was first at Asshur (now Kileli-Shergat), on the 
 right bank of the Tigris, 60 miles south of the later 
 capital, Nineveh. At this place have been found the 
 bricks and fragments of vases bearing the names of 
 the earliest known Assyrian kings, for Ninus and 
 Semiramis are to be considered as mere inventions 
 of Greek writers. The earliest known king is 
 Bel-lush, one of a series of four. These reigns 
 probably occupy from 1273 to 1200 B. c. Of the 
 next series of six, the names of five are recorded on 
 the famous Kileh-Shergat cylinder, the earliest 
 purely historical document as yet discovered in 
 Mesopotamia. The fifth king of this series, Tiglath- 
 pileser I., records on this cylinder his own annals, 
 and traces back his ancestors thus : ' Tiglath-pileser, 
 the illustrious prince, whom Asshur and Hercules 
 have exalted to the utmost wishes of his heart, who 
 has pursued after the enemies of Asshur, and has 
 subjugated all the earth— the son of Asshur-rish-ih, 
 the powerful king, the subduer of foreign countries, 
 he who has reduced all the lands of the Magian 
 world— the grandson of MutaggU-nebu, whom 
 Asshvu- the great lord aided according to the wishes 
 
ASSYRIA. 
 
 of his heart, and established in strength in the 
 government of A. — ^the glorious offspring of Asshur- 
 dapal-il, who held the sceptre of dominion, and 
 ruled over the people of Bel, who in all the works 
 of his hands and the deeds of his life placed his 
 reliance on the great gods, and thus obtained 
 a prosperous ajid long life — ^the beloved son of 
 Nin-pala-kura, the king who first organised the 
 country of A.,' &c. 
 
 Tiglathi-nin,ihelastof the Kileh-Shergat series, was 
 succeeded by his son, Asshur-dani-pal, the warlike 
 Sardanapalus I. of the Greeks. He made Calah, the 
 modem Nimrud, his capital, lying 40 nules further 
 north, on the.left bank of the Tigris. His annals are 
 very complete. Among other conquests, he mentions 
 that he had taken tribute from Tyre, Sidon, and 
 other Phoenician cities. He was the founder of the 
 north-west palace at Nimrud, which, next to that of 
 Sennacherib at Kojnmjik, is the largest and most 
 magniiioent of aU the Assyrian edifices. The greater 
 portion of the sculptm'es now in the British Museum 
 are from this buidins. The palace of Solomon 
 covered little more tiista one-tenih of the space 
 occupied by this palace, and not one-thirtieth of 
 that covered by the vast building of Sennacherib. 
 
 Sardanapalus I. was succeeded by his son Shalman- 
 ubar, whose deeds are briefly recorded on the black 
 obelisk now in the British Museum, the full account 
 being apparently reserved for the colossal bulls, 
 which seem to have been the usual dedication after 
 a victory. Of. his campaigns, the most interesting to 
 us are those in whidi he defeated Benhadad of 
 Damascus, and his murderer and successor Hazael. 
 According to his own account, Shalmanubar defeated 
 Hazael, killing 16,000 of his fighting-men, and 
 captming more than 1100 chariots (884b.c.). The 
 obelisk also records the tribute paid by Yahua, son 
 of Khumri, i.e., Jehu, son of Omri, king of Israel. 
 Now Jehu was son of Jehoshaphat, and had done 
 his utmost to extirpate the family of Omri ; but 
 probably Jehu, like other usurpers, was anxious to 
 identify himself with, the family which he had dis- 
 possessed, and of course the Assyrians accepted the 
 title he gave himself. 
 
 Iva-lush, probably the Pul of the Scriptures, is 
 recorded on a pavement-slab from Nimrud to have 
 received tribute from Samaria, Tyre, Damascus, 
 Idumsea, and Palestine, which assertion agrees with 
 the account given (2 Kings xv.) of the 1000 talents 
 paid by Menahem. With this king ends the first 
 dynasty, in which we have 18 monarchs from 
 Bei-lush to Iva-lush (1273—747 B.C.). 
 
 The later Assyrian empire begins with Tiglath- 
 pileser II. (747), and ends with the destruction of 
 Niueveh (625). It is plain from Scripture that the 
 empire was in a flourishing condition during the reigns 
 of tiiose kings who came in contact with the Hebrews, 
 and this account exactly accords with the monuments, 
 but contradicts Herodotus. Probably, on the acces- 
 sion of Tiglath-pileser II., who, in his inscriptions, 
 makes no mention of his ancestors, nor even of his 
 father, and therefore may be considered a usurper, 
 Babylon had revolted, and this partial rebeUion had 
 reached Herodotus in an exaggerated form. The 
 annals of this prince exist only m a very fragmentary 
 state. The name of his successor, Shalmaneser, has 
 not yet been found on the monuments. The capture 
 of Samaria is usually ascribed to this prince, but his 
 successor, Sargon, expressly asserts that Samaria 
 was taken by himself in his first year. Besides, in 
 2 Kings xvii. 6, the 'king of A.' is not necessarily 
 th^ same monarch as the ' king of A.' in the preced- 
 ing verse. It would appear, therefore, that Shal- 
 maneser died, or was deposed, while Hoshea still held 
 out. Sargon's palace at Khorsdbad, near Niueveh, 
 furnished the valuable series of monuments now in 
 
 the Louvre. Sargon was succeeded by his son Sen- 
 nacherib. He fixed the seat of government at 
 Nineveh, and employed the forced labour of 360,000 
 men to repair the great palace. Later in his reign, 
 he bifilt a new and more magnificent edifice, which 
 he decorated with sculptures representing his various 
 exploits. This is the palace excavated by Layard. 
 It contained at least three spacious haUs — one of 
 them 150 feet by 125, and two long galleries, one of 
 200, the other of 185 feet, besides innumerable 
 chambers. The excavated portion covers above eight 
 acres. The annals of Sennacherib extend only to 
 his eighth year. He relates at length his successful 
 attack upon Babylon, his invasion of Judsea, the 
 submission of Hezekiah, and his deportation of 
 200,000 Jews. This expedition is not to be con- 
 founded with the second invasion, in which he failed 
 ignominiously, and which is not recorded on his 
 monuments. His assassination very shortly after 
 his return to Nineveh, after his second expedition, 
 readily accounts for this silence. 
 
 Esarhaddon, his son and successor, held his court 
 sometimes at Nineveh, sometimes at Babylon. Bricks 
 bearing his name have been discovered at Hillah, 
 and a tablet at Babylon dated in his reign. This 
 explains how Manasseh was brought to him at 
 Babylon, when he was led captive from Jerusalem 
 (2 Chron. xxxiii.). No record has as yet been dis- 
 covered of this expedition against Palestine. His 
 edifices are not inferior to those of hisi predecessors. 
 He employed Greek and Phcenician artists, and to 
 them probably we owe the beautiful bas-reliefs that 
 adorn the edifices of his erection. The decline of 
 the empire probably commenced with Asshur-bani- 
 pal II. The arts of peace flourished, while the nuli- 
 tery vigour of the nation declined. The sculptures 
 of this reign are decidedly superior to the earlier in 
 spirit, delicacy, and freedom from conventionality. 
 The slabs shew that hunting, not war, was tlus 
 king's favourite pursuit. He was succeeded by his 
 son Asshur-emit-ili, the last king of whom any 
 records have yet been discovered. It is uncertain 
 whether Nineveh was destroyed under him, or under 
 a successor, the Saracus of Berosus, the effeminate 
 Sardanapalus of the Greeks. The character usually 
 given of this last king, as a debauchee throwing off 
 his indolent habits, and after performing prodigies 
 of valour, perishing by a glorious death, rather than 
 surrender, is derived solely from Ctesias. All we 
 know distinctly is, that Saracus was betrayed by 
 Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, who made an 
 alliance with Cyaxares the Mode, and cemented it by 
 a marriage which has been alluded to before ; that 
 Saracus, despairing of success, fired his palace with 
 his own hand, and perished with all belonging to him 
 in the conflagration. 
 
 Oovemmmt. — The government was despotic, as 
 suited the character of the people. The empire was 
 a mere congeries of kingdoms bound to the supreme 
 authority only by certain obhgations of paying 
 tribute, giving presents, and shewing due respect. 
 Each kingdom retained its own rulers, laws, and 
 religion, slthough we do find some attempts to rule 
 by satraps and collectors of tribute. Tiglath-pileser 
 also boasts, in an inscription, of having punished 
 and crucified the Chaldseans who refused to worship 
 his gods. In consequence of this imperfect organi- 
 sation, the empire was exposed to frequent revolts 
 of the subject nations, when such opportunities 
 offered as a disputed succession, or want of energy 
 in the ruling prince. Then the labour of conquest 
 had to begin anew, and it was sought to diminish 
 the danger of the central power by inflicting severe 
 punishments on the rebels. The lustory of the Jews 
 has made us familiar with one of these devices — viz., 
 the wholesale deportation of the inhabitants of the 
 
 499 
 
ASSYEIA. 
 
 offending diatrict. It may be readily believed that 
 suoh an empire, tbough imposiag from tlie magnifi- 
 cence and wealth of the capital, yet, from the 
 impoverishment and weakness of the subject states, 
 was continually liable to faU to pieces, and was ill 
 fitted to resist an attack from without. That A. 
 did actually last for five centuries, was owing to a 
 long succession of warlike princes, and to the energy 
 of the population. 
 
 Religion. — The religion of the Assyrians was 
 nearly identical with that of the Babylonians. It 
 was a gross polytheism, their gods being thousands 
 in number, and each village having its own particular 
 deity. From thousands of theological tablets now 
 in the British Museum, it is known that each 
 divinity had many names, and some of them as 
 many as fifty titles besides. Again, many deities 
 that are promiaent in the Babylonian pantheon are 
 either unknown or occupy a subordinate position in 
 the Assyrian. Besides, the same gods did not remain 
 equally popular throughout. The supreme god was 
 Asshur, probably the deified patriarch. His worship 
 was confined to A. He is generally associated in 
 the inscriptions with Nin and Nergal (2 Kings 
 xvii. 30), who are represented by the man-bull and 
 the man-lion. The winged globe, so often seen in 
 the sculptures, from which a figiu:e with a horned 
 helmet shoots his arrows, is supposed to be the 
 emblem of Asshur. Next in rank is the governing 
 triad, answering to the Pluto, Jupiter, and Neptune 
 of the classical mythology ; the next group corres- 
 ^jUJ/^ to .lEther, the sim, and the moon ; then five 
 iKrior deities, representing the five planets. Each 
 god is associated with a goddess. Mylitta, or Beltis, 
 IS the ' queen.' The male and female powers of the 
 sun are represented in the Scripture phrase, ' Adram- 
 meleoh and Anamelech, gods of Sepharvaim ' — that 
 is, of Sippara, a town a few miles above Babylon. 
 Bel-'merodach was originally an inferior deity, son of 
 H6a, the fish-god ; but under the later Babylonians, 
 we find him monopolising the greater part of the 
 homage which used previously to be divided among 
 several. Nebuchadnezzar says : ' Merodach, the great 
 lord, the senior of the gods, the most ancient, has 
 given aU nations and people to my care.' Nisroch 
 (2 Kings xix. 37) has not been yet ascertained. 
 Nebo (Isaiah xlvi.) is one of the five planetary gods, 
 and corresponds to Mercury. The systems of nota- 
 tion, divisions of time, the planets and stars, animals 
 and metals, diviaation and astrology, were all more 
 or less closely connected with theology. 
 
 Ethnology. — When we consider that Babylon was 
 flourishing in all its splendour many centuries after 
 its rival had ceased to exist; that it was a city of 
 marveUoiis size, antiquity, and magnificence, enriched 
 not only by the amazing fertility of its territory, but 
 by its commerce with India and other countries ; 
 inhabited by a population remarkable for skUl and 
 taste in costiy manufactures, and possessing a priestly 
 caste, renowned as philosophers, astronomers, and 
 magioians^-we are not surprised that the curiosity 
 and admiration of ancient writers were excited, and 
 that numerous notices respecting Babylon are found 
 in them. On the other hand, the importance and 
 dignity of A. as a country fell with its burning 
 capital; and since that event happened long before 
 classical historians had commenced to write, we can 
 easily account for finding in them extremely little 
 information respecting the character of its population. 
 The Assyrians have been assigned by some ethnolo- 
 gists to the Aryan race, but it is now generally 
 acknowledged that they were a branch of the 
 Semitic family of nations, and therefore were mem- 
 bers of the same grand division of the human race 
 as the Syrians, the Phoenicians with their colonies, 
 the Jews, and the modern Arabians. In the 20th 
 
 £00 
 
 c. B.C., Semitism, as a distinct ethnic element, 
 appears to have first developed itself. The origiDal 
 races, variously called Soythic, Turanian or Tatar, 
 appear to have once been spread over' the whole 
 space from the Caucasus to the Indian Ocean, and 
 from the Mediterranean to the mouths of the Ganges. 
 Their type of language has continued to our time to 
 exist in four-fifths of Asia, and in some of the remoter 
 comers of Europe, as among the Fins, Lapps, Turks, 
 and Hungarians. In Mesopotamia, and in the valley 
 of the Nue, where natural advantages induced men 
 early to form settled communities, the rude and 
 inartificial type of language was developed into 
 Hamitism, and afterwards stiU further improved 
 into Semitism. Then seems to have commenced a 
 series of migrations. Asshur went forth probably 
 at this time from Babylon to A., Abraham and his 
 followers to Palestine, the Joktanian Arabs to 
 Arabia. From these seats, Semitism was afterwards 
 carried to Cyprus, to the southern seaboard countries 
 of Asia Minor, to Carthage, Sicily, Spain, and 
 Western Africa. 
 
 The Semitic family occupies a district of very 
 small size compared with the space occupied by 
 the Turanian and the Aryan or Indo-European. 
 Semitism has had remarkable influence over man- 
 kind in the development of religious ideas, and 
 by one Semitic people an enterprising and suc- 
 cessful conuneroe was long carried on, and con- 
 siderable conquests made. But if we except the 
 rise of the Arabs in the 7th c. of oiu: era, produced by 
 religious excitement, we find that this race, though 
 possessed of great passive vitality, has been unable 
 to sustain an aggressive action for any length of 
 time. The traditions of A. indicate a very early 
 connection between Ethiopia, Arabia, and the cities 
 on the Euphrates. Mesopotamia imdoubtedly con- 
 tained a large proportion of Arabians, and this 
 accounts for the fact that Herodotus styles Senna- 
 cherib king of the Arabians and Assyrians. The 
 Chaldseans, colonies of whom were planted in 
 Armenia by the Assyrian kings, are supposed by 
 some to have been a foreign tribe, which had immi- . 
 grated from the north, and become a priestly caste. 
 But the Ahhad race, of which the Ghaldffian is a tribe, 
 is with more probability thought to have inhabited 
 Babylonia from the remotest times, and by it the 
 earliest civilisation in Mesopotamia was originated. 
 Probably the art of picture-writing was possessed 
 by the Hamitio tribes who lived in the valley of the 
 NUe, and passed eastward to the Euphrates. The 
 Ahkad language appears to have been formed before 
 Semitism attained its peculiar development and 
 organisation. Long after Semitism had become pre- 
 dominant m Mesopotamia, the Aklcad or Chaldsean 
 alphabet continued to be the scientific language in 
 which aU the tablets relating to mythology, astro- 
 nomy, or science, as well as most historical and 
 oflicial records, were written. This alphabet was 
 adopted with certain modifications by the Semitic 
 tribes, which became predominant in A. The cunei- 
 form characters were elaborated from the forms of 
 natural objects, and gradually became phonetic from 
 being symbolic, and for convenience of engraving, 
 assumed the form of arrow-heads, instead of the 
 rounded and flowing forms which are introduced by 
 the use of plastic materials. After the Aryan race 
 had spread more extensively in Western Asia, the 
 Persian monarchs, when they wished to make any 
 communication to their subjects generally intelli- 
 gible, foimd it necessary to publish it in three 
 languages belonging to the principal divisions of 
 human speech ; hence the trilingual inscriptions of 
 Behistun, &c., which consist of an Indo-European, a 
 Tatar, and a Semitic column. It is stiU necessary in 
 many places to employ three tongues, representatives 
 
ASTACUS— ASTER. 
 
 of the three families, the Persian, the Turkish, and 
 the Arabic. 
 
 Antiquities, Oimlisation, &o. — The excavations 
 carried on by M. Botta, French consul at Mosul, and 
 by Layard near Mosul, Khorsabad, and Koyunjik, 
 have led, as we have partly seen, to very interesting 
 discoveries. The palaces and buildings that have 
 been laid open are full of sculptures, all covered 
 with inscriptions, in deciphering which considerable 
 progress has been made, and more may be expected. 
 Among the most remarkable monuments now in the 
 British Museum are two winged, human-headed 
 lions, 12 feet high, and as many in length ; winged 
 human-headed bulls of similar dimensions with the 
 lions ; winged sphinxes ; and the famous obelisk of 
 black marble, sculptured on the four sides. On 
 this last are represented a victory, a prisoner pros- 
 trate at the feet of the king, and foreign people 
 offering tribute, and leading such animsSs as the 
 Bactrian camel, elephant, lion, and rhinoceros — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ) 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^tl' 
 
 isn^^^A 
 
 
 '^^ 
 
 ,^S.^^ 
 
 i= 
 
 Lion-hunt. 
 (From the ITorth-west Palace at Nimrud.) 
 
 animals found only in lands far east of the Tigris. 
 The bas-reliefs are very numerous, exhibiting especi- 
 ally war and hunting. The march, the onset, the 
 pursuit, the siege, the passage of rivers, the submis- 
 sion and treatment of captives, secretaries noting 
 the number of heads taken in battle, and the amount 
 of spoil ; the chase of the lion, of the antelope, of 
 the wild ass, and other animals — such are the 
 favourite subjects of the Assyrian sculptor. Nor 
 are they treated in the conventional style of Egypt, 
 but in a manner which, for grace, spirit, correctness 
 and delicacy of execution, excels everything else 
 known in Asiatic art. The artists sometimes follow 
 modes of representation different from om-s; for 
 instance, a bull has five legs given him, in order 
 that from all points of view he may be seen with 
 four ; a ladder stands edgeways against a wall, to 
 shew it is not a pole. But a truthful impression is 
 always aimed at, and it is this that gives these 
 sculptures their value. The laboin- bestowed on the 
 careful finish of a priest's dress, and in the tasteful 
 decoration of an article of furniture, proves them to 
 be ibe work of an ingenious and painstaking people. 
 From the bas-reliefs we gain but little information 
 respecting the private life of the Assyrians. There 
 are a few which represent the foddering of cattle, 
 women riding on mules, &o. 
 
 It is natural to expect that Nineveh — a wealthy 
 and luxurious city — imported many of the products 
 of other countries, yet the manufactured goods 
 would mainly be of home production. The jars, 
 bronzes, glass bottles, carved ornaments in ivory and 
 mother-of-pearl, engraved gems, bells, earrings, arms, 
 utensils, are of excellent workmanship. Tne orna- 
 ments especially are in, good taste, and evince no 
 inconsiderable skiU in the working of metals. Trans- 
 parent glass was not unknown, nor the use of the 
 lens as a magnifying agent. The Assyrians knew the 
 principle of the arch, the use of the lever and roUer, 
 and the construction of aqueducts and drains. In the 
 
 arts of peace, they appear to have been not inferior 
 to any ancient nation ; while their conquests, and the 
 long duration of their empire, suffice to prove their 
 capacity for war. Even their ruin, though usually 
 ascribed to degeneracy in warlike spirit; may pos- 
 sibly, with equal probability, be attributed to the 
 neighbourhood of a powerful and jealous rival, aided 
 by the arms of the most formidable of its subject 
 states. 
 
 A'STAOUS. See Ceayfish and Lobstees. 
 
 ASTA'RTlfi (styled Ashtaroth in the Old Testa- 
 ment), the name of the chief female deity of the 
 Phoenicians, .Carthaginians, and Syrians (Syria Dea), 
 also worshipped by the Jews in times when idolatry 
 prevailed. A. was the original from which the Greeks 
 borrowed their Aphrodite (q. v.). As Baal was god 
 of the sun, A. was goddess of the moon. Her chief 
 temples were in Tyre and Sidon. According to 
 ancient accounts, her worship was of a licentious 
 character. The oldest known image of her 
 — that in Paphos— represented her simply 
 under the form of a white conical stone. In 
 Canaan and Phcenioia she was subsequently 
 typified under the form of a cow, or some- 
 times she had oBly a cow's or bull's head ; 
 still later, her emblem became a star ; and 
 finally, she was conceived of as the 'queen 
 of heaven,' sitting on a lion, her head sur- 
 rounded with rays, and in the one hand a 
 thunderbolt, in the other a sceptre. 
 
 ASTA'RT]^, a genus of MoUusca, with, 
 bivalve shells, the type of a family Astar- 
 tidce, very closely allied to the Venendce 
 or Venus family. It is interesting chiefly 
 with reference to geologic changes and 
 the history of life and organisation, because 
 only a few species seem now to exist, and 
 these limited to the North Atlantic and Arctic 
 Oceans, whereas the fossil ■ species are extremely 
 numerous, commencing with the lias period, and 
 distributed over the whole world. The Astartidffl 
 may be regarded as having given place to the Vene- 
 ridse, whidi commenced with the oolitic period, and 
 are among the most abundant bivalve moUusca of 
 the present time. 
 
 A-STAY', the position of an anchor when, during 
 heaving, the cable forms an acute angle with the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 A'STER (Gr. a star, from the form of the flowers), 
 a genus of plants of the natural order CompositoB, 
 which liindley has therefore chosen to call Asteracem. 
 The ray and the disk are of different colours. The 
 genus contains a great number of species, both herba- 
 ceous and shrubby, which have been arranged into six 
 or seven groups, regarded by many as distinct genera. 
 One species only, A. Tripolium or Tripolium mdgare, 
 the Sea Starwort, is a native of Britain. It is com- 
 mon in salt marshes. A number of perennial species 
 are in cultivation as garden-flowers, of which the 
 New-England A. (A. Novce Anglice) and the Michael- 
 mas Daisy (A. Tradescanti), both natives of North 
 America, are perhaps the most common, and, with 
 some of the other species, are prized as among the 
 comparatively few flowers to be seen at that duU 
 season when autumn is giving place to winter. But 
 the best known and most valued of all the asters is 
 the China A. (A. Ghinensis), a summer annual, of 
 which many varieties are in cultivation, and new 
 ones are continually introduced. It was brought 
 from China jn the earlier part of the ISth c. The 
 varieties exhibit great diversities of form and colour. 
 The plant deUghts in a rich free soil. In the northern, 
 parts of Britain, fhe seed is generally sown in April 
 in a hot-bed, or in pots under a frame, and the 
 
ASTEEABAD— ASTON. 
 
 young asters are planted out in the open air in May. 
 They flower from July to the end of autumn, and 
 contaibute much to the liveliness of the flower- 
 garden, — A. argophylhis, or Haxtonia argophylla, is 
 a shrub, a native of Van Diemen's Land, smelling 
 strongly of musk. The whole plant has a whitish 
 aspect. It grows to a considerable size, but suc- 
 ceeds iu the open air only in the very south of 
 England, 
 
 ASTBEABAT). See Asteabab. 
 
 ASTB'RIAS AOT) ASTEEI'AD^. See Stae- 
 
 BISH. 
 
 A'STBRISK (Gr. a Httle star), a sign or symbol (*), 
 used in writing and printing either as a reference to 
 a note at the bottom or on the margin of the page. 
 The obelisk (q. v.), or dagger (t), and many other 
 mariis, are sioularly employed ; but when there are 
 several references on the same page, it is now com- 
 mon to use the numerals 1, 2, 3, &c. The A. and 
 other s imil ar signs may have any arbitrary meaning 
 assigned to them at the will of the Writer, an expla- 
 nation being previously given what the signification 
 is to be. The Greek grammarians, or critics, used 
 the A. to mark a passage that had been unjustly 
 suspected, but was to be held as genuine, or a 
 passage in any way remarkable ; the obeUsk, again, 
 marked an interpolated or an objectionable word or 
 
 ASTEEOI'DS. See Planetoids. 
 
 ASTBROPHY'LLITES (Gr. aster, a star, and 
 phyllon, a leaf), a generic name, under which are 
 included many of the most abundant fossil plants of 
 the coal-measures. The leaves are arranged in a 
 stellated manner around the stems or branches. 
 The A. are ranked among the exogenous or dicoty- 
 ledonous fossils, but they are of doubtful affinity, 
 and the exact determination of their place in the 
 system has not yet been accomplished. 
 
 A'STHMA is a disease characterised by the 
 breathing, previously natural, becoming difficult, 
 and accompanied by wheezing ahd a distressing 
 sense of tightness in the chest. A. generally appears 
 at first after some inflammatory affection of the 
 respiratory mucous membrane, and more especially 
 in those who have led dissipated lives. In others, it 
 is clearly hereditary, and frequently affects several 
 members of the same family. A. may be habitual, 
 or may occur in spasms, generally preceded by some 
 premonitory symptoms, as in some by great drowsi- 
 ness ; others, says Dr Hyde Salter, ' know by extreme 
 wakefulness and unusual mental activity and 
 buoyancy of spirits ; and I knew one case in which 
 an attack of ophthalmia occurred.' 
 
 The spasms may occur at any hout; but, in nine- 
 teen out of twenty cases they waken the patient 
 from sleep between three and four in the morning. 
 The horizontal position facilitating the flow of blood 
 to the right side of the heart, and therefore to the 
 lungs, the disadvantage at which the muscles of 
 respiration are placed, and the greater readiness 
 wim which sources of irritation act during sleep, 
 explain this fact. 
 
 Persons subject to A. scarcely dare fall asleep after 
 any imprudence in diet ; if they contiiiue awake till 
 their supper is fairly digested, and the stomach empty, 
 they may go to sleep fearlessly, and have a good 
 night's rest. The asthmatic paroxysm is thus 
 described by Dr Salter, the latest authority on this 
 common but terrible disease : ' The patient goes to 
 bed and sleeps two or three hours, becomes dis- 
 tressed in his breathing, and begins to wheeze, so as 
 to waken those in adjoining rooms. He awakes, 
 changes his position, falls asleep again and again, 
 502 
 
 and the miserable fight between A. and sleep may 
 go on, tin the increased suffering does not allow the 
 patient longer to forget himself for a moment; he 
 becomes wide awake, sits up in bed, throws himself 
 forward, plants his elbows on his knees, and with 
 fixed head and elevated shoulders, labours for 
 breath like a dying man.' 
 
 If the spasm is protracted, the oxygenation of his 
 blood is imperfectly performed, owing to the scanty 
 supply of air, and his extremities get cold and blue, 
 but at the same time the violent muscular efforts at 
 respiration cover him with sweat. The pulse is 
 always small. The muscles of the back and neck 
 attached to the ribs, act as extraordinary muscles 
 of respiration. The chest enlarges during the 
 paroxysm, but in it there is almost perfect stagna- 
 tion of air. The respiratory tubes affected are very 
 small, and the parts at which they are so constricted 
 are constantly shifting. 
 
 The rememes for A. are numerous, but not to be 
 depended on. They consist in pasring attention to 
 the digestive system, and in antl-spasmodics, either 
 taken mternally or by inhalation. 
 
 A'STI (Asia Pompda), a city of Piedmont, in the 
 government of Alessandria, hes on the left bank 
 of the Tanaro, on the line of railway from Turin 
 to G«noa, 26i miles E.S.fe. of Turin. Pop. 25,200. 
 It is a large town, with walls considerably dOapidated, 
 and the streets generally very narrow and irregular. 
 It is the seat of a bishop, and has a court of justice 
 and a royal coUese. There is carried on a consider- 
 able trade in silk and woollen fabric's, leather, and 
 hats, as well as in wines and agricultural produce. 
 A. is a town of high antiquity, having been famous 
 for its pottery before its capture by the Gauls in 
 400 B. c. On the occasion of its being again taken 
 and destroyed in an irruption of the Gams, it was 
 rebuilt by Pompey, and received the name of Asta 
 Pompeia. In the middle ages, A. was one of the 
 most powerful republics of Upper Italy. It was 
 captured and burnt by the Emperor Frederick I. in 
 1155 ; and after a series of vicissitudes, it came into 
 the possession of the Visconti of Naples, by whom 
 it was ceded to the French, in whose hands it 
 remained till the middle of the 16th c, when it 
 came into the possession of the Dukes of Savoy, as 
 it still remains. — The province of Asti, one of the 
 six subdivisions of the government of Alessandria, is 
 bounded on the W. and N. by the province of Turin, 
 S. by Alba, S. E. by Alessandria Proper, and N. E. 
 by the province of Casale. The surface is hilly and 
 picturesque. The soil rests upon limestone abound- 
 ing in fossils, and is fertile, producing com, fruit, 
 and wine. It is celebrated for a fine white wine 
 resembling champagne, called ra»o d'Asti. Silk is 
 one of its most important products, and the mulberry 
 is extensively cultivated. Pop. 118,709. 
 
 ASTON, LuiSE, a German authoress of some 
 note, but principally known for her zeal in behalf 
 of the 'rights of women.' She was bom in the 
 vicinity of Halberstadt, and at an early age was 
 married to a wealthy English manufacturer. Their 
 imion was not happy ; perhaps her pecuhar views of 
 society and of the proper position of her sex contri- 
 buted to the estrangement of their sympathies. 
 After separating fl-om her husband, she attracted 
 public attention, especially in Berlin, by appearing 
 on the streets in man's dress, smoking cigars, &o. 
 This conduct brought her into several collisions 
 with the police, and she was twice forced to leave 
 the city. During the Schleswig-Holstein war, 
 however, she found a nobler sphere for her woman's 
 nature, and displayed the greatest heroism and 
 self-sacrificing devotion as an hospital nurse. She 
 has written various books, the principal are — WM 
 
ASTOlU-ASTllA&ALm 
 
 Roses (Berlin, 1846), and Freischdrler-Reminiscenzen 
 (Leip. 1849), each of -which contains twelve lyrical 
 poema, none remarkable for ability ; Meine Emanci- 
 pation, Verwdsung, und Rechtfertigung (My Emanci- 
 pation, ExUe, and Vindication, Brussels, 1846) ; a 
 novel, Aus dem Lehen einer Frau (The Biography of 
 a Woman, Hamburg, 1847) ; Revolution und Contre- 
 reeoluiion (Mannh. 1849). In the beginning of 1851, 
 she married Dr Meier of Bremen. 
 
 ASTOR, John Jacob, an enterprising merchant, 
 founder of the ' American Fur Company,' was bom in 
 a village near Heidelberg, in Germany, 1763. After 
 spending some years in London, he sailed to America 
 in 1783, and soon invested his small capital in fura. 
 By economy and industry, he so increased his 
 means that after six years he had acquired a. for- 
 tune of 200,000 dollars. Although the inoreaaing 
 influence of the English Fur Companies in North 
 America was unfavourable to his plans, he now 
 ventvu^ed to fit . out two expeditions to the Oregon 
 territory — one by land, and one by sea — the purpose 
 of which was to open up a regular commercial inter- 
 course with the natives. After many miahaps, his 
 object was achieved in 1811, and the fur-trading 
 station of Astoria (q. v.) was established ; but the 
 war of 1812 stopped its prosperity for a time. From 
 this period A.'s commercial connections extended 
 over the entire globe, and his ships were foimd in 
 every sea. He died March 29, 1848, leaving property 
 amounting to 30,000,000 dollars. He left a legacy, 
 amounting to 350,000 dollars, for the establishment 
 of a public library in New York. (Washington 
 Irving's Astoria.) 
 
 ASTO'RGA, Emanuele d', a muaician, celebrated 
 partly on account of his personal history, was born 
 in Sicily in 1680. His father, a baron of SioUy, in 
 the contest respecting the annexation of the island 
 to Spain, was delivered over to the enemy by his 
 own mercenary soldiers, and was executed in 1701 ; 
 while his wife and son (Emanuele) were barbarously 
 compelled to witness the tragedy. The wife . died 
 on the spot, and the son fell mto a state of uncon- 
 sciousness. Afterwards, through the interest of the 
 Spanish Princess Ursini, he was educated in a 
 monastery at Astorga in Leon, from which he 
 derived his name. Here he especially devoted 
 himself to music, and made such progress that, in a 
 few years, he was invited to the court of the Duke 
 of Parma. His patron, ei*oneously suspecting that 
 his daughter was receiving the addresses of the 
 musician, sent bim away to the court of the 
 Emperor Leopold. After Leopold's death, A. 
 travelled through a great part of Europe, and it is 
 supposed that he died in a Bohemian monastery. 
 His best work is the Stabai Mater, a masterly com- 
 position, of which the origin&l score is still preserved 
 in Oxford. 
 
 ASTO'RIA, originally a fur-trading station on 
 the left bank of the Columbia, near the Pacific, 
 taking its name from its founder, John Jacob Astor 
 of New York. It demands notice here chiefly as 
 having been a main point in the American claim to 
 the Oregon Tgrritory (q. v.). 
 
 ASTRABA'D, a town in the north of Persia, 
 capital of the province of the same name, is built 
 at the foot of the northern slope of the Elbruz 
 Mountains, on a small river which runs into A. 
 Bay, at the south-east extremity of the Caspian, 
 from which it is distant 20 nules. Lat. 36° SC N., 
 long. 54° 31' E. It was long the residence of the 
 Kajar princes, from whom the present Shah of 
 Persia is descended ; but on account of its situation 
 in a remote corner of the kingdom, it was not 
 advanced to the dignity of the metropolis of Persia. 
 Teheran, at the foot of the chain of moimtains which 
 
 separates Iran from Mazanderan, became the capital ; 
 and since then the importance of A. has consider- 
 ably sunk. It is still enclosed by a dry ditch and 
 mud-wall, 3 miles in circumference, but its great 
 towers have disappeared. Trade ia small. The 
 causeway constructed by Shah Abbas is, how- 
 ever, kept in good repair, and connects A. with 
 Khorassan, Afghanistan, &c. Pop. varies from 4000 
 to 40,000, on account of the unhealthiness of the 
 place during the summer rains. 
 
 ASTRjE'A, daughter of Zeus and Themis, or 
 of Astrseua and Aurora, was the goddess of justice, 
 the last of all the goddesses who left the earth when 
 the golden age had passed away and men began to 
 forge weapons and perpetrate acts of violence. She 
 took her place in heaven as the constellation Virgo 
 in the zodiac. — Greek art usually represented her 
 with a pair of balances in her hand, and a crown of 
 stars on her head. — A. is also the name of one of the 
 Planetoids (q. v.). 
 
 ASTR^'A. See Cokal and Madkbpoee. 
 
 ASTRA'GALUS, a bone of the foot, which, by a 
 convex upper surface and smooth sides, forms, with 
 the leg-bones, the hinge of the ankle-joint. Its lower 
 surface is concave, and rests on the os calds, or heel- 
 bone, to which it is attached by a strong ligament. In 
 front, it has a round head, which rests in the concavity 
 of the scaphoid, another bone of the tarsus, and upon 
 an elastic ligament, its pressure upon which gives in 
 a great measure the necessary elasticity to the foot : 
 it is at this joint that inversion and eversion of 
 the foot take place. It vpill be seen that the A. is 
 a bone of great importance to the member, as it 
 supports the weight of the body in standing, and 
 enters into most of the movements of the foot. It 
 is occasionally displaced, generally in front of the 
 outer ankle. 
 
 ASTRA'GALUS, a genus of plants of the natniral 
 order LeguminoscB, sub-order Papilionacece. The 
 
 Astragalus Boetious. 
 
 pod is more or less perfectly 2-celled. The leaves 
 are pinnate, with a terminal leaflet. The species 
 are numerous, natives chiefly of the temperate and 
 
 603 
 
ASTRAKHAN— ASTROCAEYUM. 
 
 colder parts of tie Old World, shrubby, and often 
 spiny, or unarmed and herbaceous. A number of 
 the shrubby species yield the substance called 
 Tragacanth (q. v.), or Gum Tragacanth. — A. Boe- 
 ticits, an annual, native of the south of Europe, 
 with upright branching stems, is cultivated in 
 Hungary, Germany, and other parts of Europe, for 
 its seeds, which are roasted, ground, and used as a 
 substitute for coffee, or mixed with it to improve its 
 •flavour. — The Sweet MOk- vetch, or Wild liquorice 
 {A. glycyphyllos), a native of Britain and other parts 
 of Europe, perennial, with long and very thick 
 roots, which penetrate deep into the soil, and 
 almost prostrate stems, three feet in length, is occa- 
 sionally cultivated for food of cattle, yielding a very 
 abundant herbage. Cattle are not fond of it at 
 first, but are said to become fond of it after being 
 accustomed to it for some time. The roots have 
 somewhat of the sweetness of liquorice. 
 
 ASTEAKHA'N, originally a province of the 
 Mogul empire, but united with the Russian empire 
 in 1554. At present, A. forms one of the south- 
 east governments of Russia in Europe, and is 
 bounded on the S. by the Caspian Sea and the 
 Caucasus; on the W., by the country of the Don 
 Cossacks; on the N., by the government of Saratov; 
 and on the E., by Orenburg. Area, 50,000 square 
 miles ; pop. 285,000. The province of A. is almost 
 entirely a barren waste, the only fertile portions 
 being the banks of the Volga, which divides the 
 province into two equal parts. Salt is prociu'ed 
 from the marshes of the steppes, considerable num- 
 bers of cattle are reared, and the annual value of the 
 sturgeon-fishing in the Volga is as much as 2,500,000 
 rubles (about £400,000). The climate varies from 
 70' F. in summer, to 13° in winter. The population 
 is composed of diverse elements — ^Russian, Tatar, 
 Georgian, Armenian, Bokharese, Persian, and 
 Hindu. 
 
 Astkaeha'n, the chief town of the government 
 of the same name, is situated on an island of the 
 Volga, and near the Caspian Sea, in lat. 46° 21' K, 
 and long. 48° 4' E. It is the seat of a Greek 
 archbishop and an Armenian bishop; has thirty- 
 seven Greek, two Roman Catholic, one Protestant, 
 and two Aiiuenian churches; fifteen mosques, an 
 Indian temple, a gymnasium, a seminary for priests, 
 a botanical garden, and many manufactories. Pop. 
 30,480. The houses are mostly of wood, and irre- 
 gularly built. The fisheries in the Volga supply 
 occupation to great numbers of the inhabitants of 
 A. and its neighboiu'hood. The principal exports 
 are leather, linen and wooUen goods, salted sturgeon, 
 caviar, and isinglass. Imports consist chiefly of 
 gold-embroidered silken goods from Persia, silk 
 stuffs, wooUen goods, rice, rhubarb, raw sUk, drugs, 
 &c. Prom July to October, the neighbom-hood of 
 A. is frequently visited by swarms of locusts. — A. 
 is the name of a fine description of fur, the produce 
 of a variety of sheep found in Bokhara, Persia, and 
 Syria. 
 
 A'STRAL SPI'RITS. The star (Gr. aslron) and 
 fire worship of the eastern religions rested on the 
 doctrine, that every heavenly body is animated by a 
 pervading spirit, forming, as it were, its soul ; and 
 this doctrine passed into the religio-physical theories 
 of the Greeks and Jews, and even into the Christian 
 world. In the demonology or spirit-systems of 
 Christendom in the middle ages, A. S. are conceived 
 of sometimes as fallen angels, sometimes as souls of 
 departed men, sometimes as spirits originating in 
 fire, and hovering between heaven, earth, and hell, 
 without belonging to any one of these provinces. 
 Their intercourse with men and their influence were 
 variously represented, according to the notion formed 
 504 
 
 of their nature. As the belief in spirits and 
 witchcraft reached its height, in the 15th c, the 
 demonologists, or special students of this subject, 
 systematised the strange fancies of that wild period; 
 and A. S. were made to occupy the first rank among 
 evil or demoniacal spirits. Paracelsus, however, and 
 others attributed to every human being an astral 
 spirit, or sidereal element, in which the human soul, 
 or spirit proper, is thought to inhere, and which lives 
 for a time after the person dies. 
 
 ASTEnSTGENTS, medicines employed for the 
 purpose of contracting the animal fibres and canals, 
 so as to check fluxes, haemorrhage, and diarrhoea. 
 The drugs most commonly uSed as A. are alum, 
 catechu, oak-galls, rhatany-root, &c. Many of the 
 vegetable A. owe that property, in whole or in great 
 part, to tannin. A severe degree of cold is a 
 powerful astringent. 
 
 ASTROCA'EYUM (from the Gr. astron, a star, 
 and Icaryon, a nut), a genus of Palms, of which about 
 sixteen species are known, natives of tropical 
 America, > remarkable for the abundance of acute 
 and formidable spines — in some cases, a foot long — 
 with which almost every part — stem, leaves, spathe, 
 and fruit-stalk — ^is armed. They have beautifid 
 pinnated leaves ; some of them are lofty, others are 
 of very moderate height, as 8 — 15 feet, whilst some 
 are almost or altogether stemless. The fniit of some 
 species is eatable — a juicy pulp covering a stony 
 seed — as the fruit of the Mubumdhu palm (A. 
 Mummuru), the pulp of which is said to resemble 
 a melon in flavour, has a sort of musky odour, and 
 is highly esteemed. It is a pabn of only about 8 — 12 
 feet high, abundant about Para and elsewhere on 
 the Amazon. Cattle roam the forests in quest of 
 its fruit, and swine fatten on the seed, which they 
 crush with their teeth, although to break it requires 
 a smart blow of a hammer, and in hardness it 
 
 Tucfim Palm (A. vulgwre). 
 
 almost resembles vegetable ivory. Another edible 
 fruit is that of the Tucuma' palm (A. Tvicuma), 
 abundant in the same regions. These fruits are about 
 an inch long, the Miuumurti ovate, the Tncum& 
 
ASTROLABE— ASTRONOMY. 
 
 almost globular. The Tucumft palm is 30—40 
 feet Men, the stem encircled with narrow rings 
 of blaoE spines, which arc disposed with beautiful 
 
 StemlessPalm {A. acaule). 
 
 6, spadix, with spatlie forming a liood over fruit; c, fruit, 
 
 about one-fifth natural size. 
 
 regTilarity. The TucuM palm {A. imlgare), a species 
 quite distinct from the TuonmS,, and more lofty, is 
 of great . importance to the Indians, and in places 
 where it is not indigenous, is cultivated with care 
 for the sake of the epidermis of its unopened leaves, 
 of which they make cordage, very useful for bow- 
 strings, fishing-nets, &c. The fibre is at once fine, 
 strong, and dm'able, and may yet perhaps become 
 important as an article of commerce. Beautiful 
 hammocks are made of tucum thread, which are 
 sold at about £3 each, or if ornamented with feather- 
 work borders, at twice that sum. Martins, in his 
 great work on Palms, has, by mistake, represented 
 ike Tacwcah instead of the Tucum palm as yielding 
 this fibre. See Wallace, Palm Trees of the Amazon. 
 Lond. 1853. The fibre is obtained by ciitting down 
 the terminal bud or column of unopened leaves 
 which rises from the centre of the crown of foliage. 
 The tender leaflets are then carefully stripped of 
 their epidermis, in pale, ribbon-hke pellicles which 
 shrivel up almost to a thread. These are tied in 
 bundles, and dried, and are afterwards twisted into 
 thread, or made into thicker cords, by mere rolling 
 and manipulation. 
 
 A'STROLABE (from two Greek words signifying 
 'to take the stars'), the name given by the Greeks 
 to any circular instrument for observing the stars. 
 Circular rings, arranged as in the ArmiUary sphere 
 (q.v.), were used for this purpose. A projection of 
 the sphere upon a plane, with a graduated rim and 
 sights for taking altitudes, was known as an A. in 
 the palmy days of astrology, and was the badge of 
 the astrologer. The A. has been superseded by the 
 more perfect instruments of modern astronomy. 
 
 ASTEO'LOGY meant originally much the same 
 as astronomy, ' the knowledge of the stars,' but was 
 at length restricted to the science of predicting 
 future events, especially the fortunes of men, from 
 the positions of the heavenly bodies. This was con- 
 sidered the higher, the real science ; while the mere 
 knowledge of the stars themselves, their places and 
 motions (astronomy), was, tiU a very recent period, 
 cultivated mostly with a view to (judicial) astrology. 
 A. is one of the most ancient forms of superstition, 
 and is found prevailing among the nations of the East 
 (Egyptians, Chaldseans, Hinmis, Chinese) at the very 
 dawn of history. The Jews became much addicted 
 to it after the captivity. It spread into the West and 
 to Rome about the beginning of the Christian era. 
 
 Astrologers played an important part at Rome, 
 where they were called Chaldseans and Mathe- 
 maticians ; and though often banished by the senate 
 and emperors under pain of death, and otherwise 
 persecuted, they continued to hold their ground. The 
 Roman poet Manilius, author of an astronomical 
 poem stul extant, was addicted to A.; and even 
 Ptolemy the astronomer did not escape the infection, 
 which in his time had become universal It accords 
 well with the predestinarian doctrines of Moham- 
 medanism, and was accordingly cultivated with 
 great ardour by the Arabs from the 7th to the 13th 
 c. Some of the early Christian fathers argued 
 against the doctrines of A., others received them in 
 a modified form. In its public capacity, the Cathohc 
 Church several times condemned the system; but 
 many zealous Catholics, even churcmnen, have 
 cultivated it. Cardinal d'Ailly, 'the Eagle of the 
 doctors of Prance' (died 1420), is said to have calcu- 
 lated the horoscope of Jesus Christ, and maintained 
 that the deluge might have been predicted by A. 
 Por centuries the most learned men continued 
 devoted to this delusive science ; Regiomontanus, 
 the famous mathematician Cardan, even Tycho 
 Brahg and Kepler could not shake off the fascina- 
 tion. Kepler saw the weakness of A. as a science, 
 but could not bring himself to deny a certain con- 
 nection between the positions ('constellations') of the 
 planets and the qualities of those bom under them. 
 The Copernican system gave the deathblow to A. 
 When tiie earth itself was found to be only one of 
 the planets, it seemed absurd that all the others 
 should be occupied in influencing it. The argument 
 has really little force, but it produced the effect. 
 Belief in A. is not now ostensibly professed in any 
 Christian country, though a few sohtaty advocates 
 have from time to time appeared, as J. M. Pfaff 
 in Germany, Astrologie (Bamb. 1816). But it still 
 holds sway in the East, and among Mohammedans 
 wherever situated. Even in Europe the craving 
 of the ignorant of all countries for divination is 
 stUl gratified by the publication of multitudes of 
 almanacs containing astrological predictions, though 
 the writers no longer believe in them. 
 
 Many passages of our old writers are unintelligible 
 without some knowledge of astrological terms, num- 
 bers of which have taken root in tiie language. In 
 the technical rules by which human destiny was 
 foreseen, the heavenly Jumses played an important 
 part. Astrologers were by no means at one as to 
 the way of laying out those houses. A very general 
 way was to draw great circles through the north 
 and south points of the horizon, as meridians pass 
 through the poles, dividing the heavens, visible and 
 invisible, into twelve equal parts — six above the 
 horizon, and six below. These were the twelve 
 houses, and were numbered onward, beginning with 
 that which lay in the east immediately below the 
 horizon. The first was called the house of life ; the 
 second, of fortune, or riches ; the third, of brethren ; 
 the fourth, of relations; the fifth, of children; the 
 sixth, of health ; the seventh, of marriage ; the 
 eighth, of death, or the upper portal ; the ninth, of 
 religion; the tenth, of dignities; the eleventh, of 
 friends and benefactors ; the twelfth, of enemies, or 
 of captivity. The position of the twelve houses for 
 a given time and place — the instant of an individual's 
 birth, for instance — was a tJieme. To construct such 
 a plan was to cast the person's nativity. The houses 
 had different powers, the strongest being the first; 
 as it contained the part of the heavens about to rise, 
 it was called the ascendant, and the point of the 
 ecliptic cut by its upper boundary was the Jioro- 
 scope. Each house had one of the heavenly bodies 
 as its lord, who was strongest in his own house. 
 
 ASTRO'KOMY (Gr. astron, a star, nomas, a law) 
 
 SOfi 
 
ASTRONOMY. 
 
 teaches whatever is known of the heavenly bodies. 
 A. may be properly divided under three heads. I. 
 Geometrical or Mathematiccd A., including the exact 
 determination of the numerical and geometrical ele- 
 ments of the heavenly bodies — that is, their distances, 
 shapes, magnitudes, the figures they describe in 
 their motions, &c. 2. Physical A., or the nature of 
 the powers or forces that carry on the heavenly 
 motions, the laws that they observe, and the 
 calculation of the motions from a knowledge of 
 these laws. 3. Sidereal A., or whatever is ascer- 
 tained regarding the universe of the fixed stars. 
 Practical A. might form another division, which 
 would include a knowledge of the various astro- 
 nomical instruments; and a familiarity generally 
 with the rules and calculations by which the re- 
 quisite results are deduced from observations. 
 
 Such parts of this extensive subject as are deemed 
 suited to the present work, wiU be found under their 
 appropriate heads, such as Circle, Tbanbit Isr- 
 
 STRUMBNT, AbBBRATION, REFRACTION, PARALLAX, 
 
 Equator, Precession of the Equinoxes, Time, 
 Solar System, Sun, Libration of the Moon, 
 Planets, Planetary Motidn, Fixed Stars, Comets, 
 &c. A brief sketch of the history of astronomical 
 discovery is aU that can be attempted in the present 
 article. 
 
 The history of A. dates from a very early period. 
 It is the most ancient of aU the sciences. The 
 Chinese, Hindus, Chaldseans, Egyptians, and even the 
 Greeks, are Imown to have investigated the heavens 
 very long before the Christian era. But with the 
 first four nations, A. may be said to have been a 
 sentiment rather than a science — a vague notion 
 built up out of crude speculations, rather than a 
 correct theory founded on systematic observation. 
 In China, A. was intimately associated with state 
 politics; the Indians, Chaldseans, and Egyptians 
 made it a matter of religion ; and each of these 
 nations applied it to astrological purposes. In 
 Greece alone was it prosecuted for its own sake. 
 
 The Chinese, Chaldseans, Hindus, and Egyptians 
 each claim the honour of having been ttie first 
 students of A., and each has had advocates to sup- 
 Jiort its claim. The Tirvalore tables (asserted by the 
 Hindus to belong to an epoch of 3102 years B. c. — 
 the commencement of the CaU-yug, or iron age, of 
 their mythology — at which period a conjunction of 
 the sun, moon, and planets is said to have occurred) 
 are, so far as their date is concerned, altogether unre- 
 liable. Modem calculations have conclusively proved 
 that no such conjimction could possibly have taken 
 place at the time specified ; and the elements of the 
 tables are, in the general opinion of scientific men, 
 of a character far in advance of the actual observa- 
 tions of that period. There is no doubt that the 
 epoch is fictitious — that the date of these tables is 
 fixed much earher than their internal evidence 
 justifies ; but it is matter of dispute whether they 
 were the result of the observations of Hindus them- 
 selves at some later period before the Christian era, 
 or whether they were constructed after that era 
 from data furnished to them by the Arabs or Greeks. 
 Those who hold the former view, quote the well- 
 known mathematical attainments of the Indians, 
 and their aversion to intercourse with foreigners, as 
 argiunents in its favour; those who support the 
 latter, point out that the tables are a mean between 
 those of Ptolemy and Albategnius, or Al Batani, a 
 distinguished Arabian astronomer, and therefore 
 likely to have been derived from these two sources. 
 Those who are interested in the question of the 
 originahty of these tables, may refer to Delambre, 
 and to BaiUy's Hist, de I'Astronomie Indienne. 
 
 The Chinese have astronomical annals claiming 
 to go back 2857 years b. o. In these there is little 
 fioe 
 
 record of anything but of the appearance of comets 
 and solar eclipses ; and regarding the latter pheno- 
 mena, they tell nothing, save the fact and date of 
 their occurrence. Professional astronomers were 
 compelled to predict every eclipse under pain of 
 death. The popular idea was, that an eclipse was a 
 monster having evil designs on the sun, and it was 
 customary to make a great noise, by shouting, beat- 
 ing of gongs, &C., ifl order to frighten it away from 
 its solar prey. The many eclipses Which the Chinese 
 report have' been i^calculated, but not more than 
 one anterior to the time of Ptolelny could be verified. 
 At an early period, however, the Chinese appear to 
 have been acquainted with the luni-solar cycle of 
 nineteen years (inti'oduced into Greece by Meton, 
 and since known as the Metonio Cycle), and they had 
 also divided the year into SB5^ days. Solstitial 
 observances are said to have been made by a 
 gnomon in the 11th c. B.C. To the burning of all 
 scientific books by one of their princes (Tsin-Chi- 
 Hong-Ti), 221 b. c, the Chinese attribute the loss of 
 many theories, or methods previously in use. The 
 precession of the equinoxes was not known to the 
 Chinese until 400 A.D.,but long prior to that they 
 were familiar with the motion of the planets. 
 
 The mass of evidence seems in favour of the 
 plains of Chaldsea being the primal seat of observa- 
 tive A. The risings and settings of the heavenly 
 bodies and eoUpses were subjects of observation and 
 notation by their priests at a very remote period. 
 SimpUcius and Porphyry mention that Anstotle 
 had transmitted to him from Babylon, by order of 
 Alexander the Great, a catalogue of eclipses observed 
 during 1903 years preceding me conquest of that city 
 by the Macedonians. Ptolemy gives six of the eclipses 
 from this catalogue, but the earHest does not extend 
 further back than 720 B. C. The probability there- 
 fore is, that the statement of Simplicius, as to their 
 early date, is an exaggeration. In these observations, 
 the time is only given in hours, and the part of the 
 diameter eclipsed within a quarter; but rough as 
 they are, they are the earliest reliable observations 
 extant; and a comparison of them with modem 
 observations, led HaJley to the discovery of the doc- 
 trine of the moon's acceleration — ^that is, that she 
 now moves round the earth with greater velocity 
 than formerly. It is remarkably illustrative of their 
 habit of diligent observation, that the Chaldseans 
 were acquainted with the cycle of 6585^ days, during 
 which the moon makes about 223 synodicaJ revolu- 
 tions, and experiences the same number of ecUpses, 
 alike, too, in order and magnitude, comparing cycle 
 with cycle. The clepsydra as a clock, the gnomon 
 for determining the solstices, and a hemispherical dial 
 for ascertaining the positions of the sun, were used 
 by the Chaldseans, and they have the credit of the 
 invention of the zodiac and the duodecimal division 
 of the day. 
 
 The Egyptians, it is supposed, were the first 
 instructors of the Greeks in A. They do not, how- 
 ever, appear to have observed much for themselves. 
 The meaning of what data they have left behind 
 them can be guessed at only in a few instances. No 
 mention is made by Ptolemy of the idea ascribed to 
 them, that the planets Mercury and Venus moved 
 round the sun; the probability therefore is, Ptolemy 
 not being likely to overlook such a novel theory, 
 that they entertained no such notion at the time 
 of his visit, but that it is an after-thought of 
 more recent ages. From the accuracy with which 
 some of the pyramids face the cardinal points, 
 there is a supposition that they must have been 
 erected for astronomical purposes; but if it be 
 true, as is stated, that Thales taught the Egyptians 
 how to find the height of the pyramids by the 
 shadow, and that the latter informed Herodotus 
 
ASTROiTOMY. 
 
 that the sun had twice been seen to rise in the 
 ■west, the conclusion is that the A. of the ancieiit 
 Egrptians was very meagre anA absurd. 
 
 Up to this time, A. is little else than tradition. 
 The Greeks have the honour of elevating it into a 
 reliable history, and to the dignity of a science. 
 Thales (640 B.C.), the founder of the Ionic school, 
 laid the foundation of Greek A. He it was who first 
 propagated the theory of the earth's sphericity. 
 The sphere he divided into five zones. He predicted 
 the year of a ^eat solar eclipse, but this it is now 
 supposed he must have casually succeeded in 
 doing — the Greeks at this time having no observa- 
 tions of their own to ^uide them — by means of the 
 Chaldiean Saros, or period of eighteen years and ten 
 days, which gives a regular recurrence of ecKpses. 
 He made the Greeks, who, prior to his time, were 
 content to navigate their vessels by the Great Bear 
 — a rough approximation to the north — Acquainted 
 With the lesser constellation of that name, a much 
 better guide for the mariner. His system, however, 
 contained a good deal of absurdity. Among other 
 things, he held that the stars were composed of fire, 
 and that the earth was the centre of the universe. 
 The successors of Thales held opinions which in 
 many respects are wonderfully in acdordance with 
 modern ideas. Anaximander, it is said, held that 
 the earth moved about its own axis, and that the 
 moon's light was reflected from the sun. To tiim is 
 also attributed, on somewhat slender authority, the 
 belief in the grand idea of the plurality of worlds. 
 Anaxagoras, who transferred the Ionic school from 
 Miletus to Athens, is said to have offered a conjec- 
 ture that, like the earth, the moon had habitations, 
 hills, and valleys. 
 
 Pythagoras (500 B.C.), who was the next astro- 
 nomer of eminence, was very far in advance of his 
 predecessors. He promulgated, on grounds fanciful 
 enough, the theory, the truth of which, however, has 
 been since estabHshed, that the sun is the centre of the 
 planetary world, and that the earth circulates round 
 it. Pythagoras also first taught that the morning 
 and evening star were in reality one and the same 
 planet. But the views of Pythagoras met with 
 little or no support from his successors until the 
 time of Copernicus. Between Pythagoras and 
 the advent of the Alexandrian school, nearly a 
 couple of centuries later, the most prominent names 
 in astronomical annals are those of Meton (432 B. c), 
 who introduced the luni-solar cycle, as already 
 intimated, and in conjunction witb Euctemon, 
 observed a solstice at Athens in the year 424 B. o. ; 
 CaUippus (330 b. c), who improved the Metonic 
 cycle; Eudoxus of Cnidus (370 B.C.), who brought 
 into Greece the year of 365^ days, and wrote 
 some works on A.; and Nicetas of Syracuse, who 
 is reported to have taught the diurnal motion of 
 the earth on its axis. 
 
 To the Alexandrian school, owing its existence to 
 the munificent ttolemies, we are indebted for the 
 first systematic observations in A. Hitherto the 
 truths of A. rested on no better evidence than the 
 conjectures of sagacious minds, and these being 
 opposed to the testimony of the senses, met with 
 but little acceptance from the world. The Alex- 
 andrian school originated a connected series of obser- 
 vations relative to the constitution of the universe. 
 The positions of the fixed stars were determined, 
 the paths of the planets carefully traced, and the 
 solar and limar inequalities more accurately ascer- 
 tained. Angular distances were calculated with 
 instruments suitable to the puijose by trigono- 
 metrical methods, and ultimately the school of 
 Alexandria presented to the world the first system 
 of theoretical astronomy that had ever comprehended 
 «a entire plan of the celestiai motions. The system 
 
 we know to be false, and inferior to the Pjrthasorean 
 notions ; but it had the merit of being founded upon 
 a long and patient observation of phenomena, a 
 principle which finally brought about its own 
 destruction, while the previous theories were the 
 results of pure hypothesis. 
 
 The most interesting circumstances connected with 
 the early history of the Alexandrian school are the 
 attempts made to determine the distance of the 
 earth from the sim, and the magnitude of the terres- 
 trial globe. Aristarchus of Samos — the pioneer of 
 the Copernioan system, as Humboldt calls him — is 
 the author of an ingenious plan to ascertain the 
 former. See Aristarchus oi' Samos. 
 
 Among other eminent members of this school were 
 Timocharis and Aristyllus, who made the observa- 
 tions, which, together with observations of his own, 
 enabled Hipparchus (q. v.) to discover the precession 
 of the equinoxes ; Eratosthenes (q. v.), who was the 
 first who attempted to determine on true principles 
 the magnitude of the earth, and to clear, as Hum- 
 boldt expresses it, ' the description of the earth from 
 its fabulous traditions ;' and Autolycus, whose books 
 on A. are the earliest extant in the Greek language. 
 
 We have now arrived at by far the greatest name 
 we have yet met in astronomical science — ^that of 
 Hipparchus of Bithynia (160 — 125 B.C.), and here 
 may be said to begin the real written history of 
 scientific A. ; for not until his era were there facts 
 correct enough and sufBcient in number upon 
 which to biuld a system. Hipparchus was at once 
 a theorist, a mathematician, and an observer. He 
 catalogued no less than 1081 stars. This is the first 
 reliable catalogue we have. He discovered, as we 
 have already mentioned, the precession of the equi- 
 noxes ; he determined with greater exactitude than 
 his predecessors had done, the mean motion, as well as 
 the inequality of the motion of the sun ; and also the 
 length of the year. He also determined the mean 
 motion of the moon, her eccentricity, the equation of 
 her centre, and the inclination of her orbit ; and he 
 suspected the inequahty afterwards discovered by 
 Ptolemy (the evection). He invented processes ana- 
 logous to plane and spherical trigonometry, and was 
 the first to use right ascensions and declinations, 
 which he afterwards abandoned in favour of latitudes 
 and longitudes. 
 
 i'or more than two centuries and a half after the 
 demise of this indefatigable astronomer, we meet with 
 no name of note. Ptolemy (130 — 150 A. d.) is the 
 next who rises above the mass of mediocrities. 
 Besides being a practical astronomer, he was accom- 
 plished as a musician, a geographer, and mathema- 
 tician. His most important discovery in A. was 
 the hbration or evection of the moon. He also was 
 the first to point out the effect of refraction. He 
 extended and improved many of the theories of 
 Hipparchus, and was the founder of the false system 
 known by his name, and which was universally 
 accepted as the true theory of the universe, until the 
 researches of Copernicus exploded it. The Ptolemaic 
 system, ejroounded in the Great Collection, or, as it 
 was called by the Arabs, the Almagest — from which 
 source most of our knowledge of Greek A. is 
 derived — ^placed the earth immovable in the centre 
 of the universe, making the entire heavens revolve 
 round it in the course of twenty-four hours. 
 
 With Ptolemy closes the originality of the Greek 
 school. His successors were men of no mark, con- 
 fining themselves for the most part to astrology, or 
 to comments on earlier writers. It is to the Arabs 
 that we owe the next advances in A. They com- 
 menced making observations 762 A.D., in the reign 
 of the Caliph Al Mansur, who gave great encour- 
 agement to science, as did also his successors, the 
 ' good Haroun Alraschid ' and Al Mamoum, both of 
 
 ^ 60T 
 
ASTRONOMY. 
 
 •wiom were themselves diligent students of A. For 
 four centuries, the Arabs prosecuted the study of 
 the science with assiduity, but they are chiefly meri- 
 torious as observers. They had little capacity for 
 speculation, and throughout held the Greek theories 
 in superstitious reverence. They, however, deter- 
 mined with much more accuracy than the Greeks 
 had done the precession of the equinoxes, the 
 obliquity of the ecHptic, and the solar eccentricity ; 
 and the length of the tropical year was ascertained 
 within a few seconds of the truth. The most iUiis- 
 trious of the Arabian school were Albategnius or 
 Al Bataui (880 A.D.), who discovered the motion of 
 the solar apogee (see Anomalistic Year), and who 
 was also the first to make use of sines and versed 
 sines instead of chords; he corrected the Greek 
 observations, and was altogether the most dis- 
 tinguished observer between Hipparchus and the 
 Copemican era ; and Ibn- Yunis (1000 A. D.), an excel- 
 lent mathematician, who made observations of great 
 importance in determining the disturbances and 
 eccentricities of Jupiter and Satmn, and who was 
 the first to use cotangents and secants. 
 
 In the northern part of Persia, an observatory was 
 erected by a descendant of the renowned warrior 
 Genghis Khan, where some tables were constructed 
 by Nasir-Eddin ; and at Samarcand, Ulugh Beg, a 
 grandson of Tiraur, made, in 1433 A.D., many obser- 
 vations, and the most correct catalogue of stars 
 which, up to his time, had been piiblished. 
 
 In the 1.3th c, A. was again introduced into 
 Western Europe, the first translation from the 
 Almagest being made under the Emperor Frederick 
 11. of Germany, about 1230 ; and in 1252 an impulse 
 was given to the science by the formation of astrono- 
 mical tables imder the auspices of Alfonso X. of 
 Castile. An Englishman, named Holywood (Sacro- 
 bosco), in 1220 wrote a book of great repute in its 
 day on the spheres, chiefly abridged from Ptolemy ; 
 and among others who did much to promote a taste 
 for A. were Piu-bach (1460), Eegiomontanus (John 
 Muller), who died in 1476, and waltherus, a pupil 
 of the latter, who made numerous observations of 
 merit. 
 
 We now come to the illustrious name of Coper- 
 nicus (b. 1473, d. 1543), to whom was reserved the 
 grand honour and the danger — for there is ever 
 ganger in bringing old notions into disrepute by 
 mtroducing new systems of truth — of exploding the 
 Ptolemaic idea, and of promulgating a correct though 
 imperfect theory of the universe. His system is in 
 some part a revival and systematic application of 
 the opinions said to have been held by Pythagoras. 
 It makes the sun the immovable centre of the uni- 
 verse, around which all the planets revolve in con- 
 centric orbits, Mercury and Venus within the earth's 
 orbit, and all the other planets without it. In the 
 Copemican theory, there were many of the old notions 
 wmch have since been exploded. It is a current 
 belief that Copernicus, afraid to state boldly such 
 heterodox views of the universe as those he enter- 
 tained, gave them forth in the form of an hypothesis. 
 Humboldt, in his second volume of Cosmos (p. 345), 
 denies that he did so. This distiaguished authority 
 says : ' The language of Copernicus is powerful and 
 free, and bursts forth from his inmost convictions, 
 and thus sufficiently refutes the ancient opinion, that 
 he has brought forward the system which is immor- 
 talised by his name, as an hypothesis made for the 
 convenience of calculating astronomers, or for one 
 which has but a probable foundation.' The same 
 author also refutes the popular notion that Coper- 
 nicus died a few hours after receiving a printed 
 copy of his book. He was broken down in body 
 and mind when his work On the Sevolutions of the 
 Heavenly Bodies was brought to him, but he did 
 «03 
 
 not die until 'many days afterwards, on the 24th 
 May 1543.' 
 
 Among the contemporaries of Copernicus were 
 Rheinhold, who constructed the Prutenio tables ; 
 Eecorde, who was the first to write on A. in EngHsh ; 
 and Nonius, a Portuguese, who invented a method 
 for dividing the circle. The study of A. was also 
 much aided about this time by the liberality of the 
 Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, WiUiam IV. 
 
 Decidedly the most industrious observer and enji- 
 nent practical astronomer from the time of the 
 Arabs to the latter half of the 16th c. was Tycho 
 Brahg (b. 1546, d. 1601). Considerable odium att 
 taches to him on account of his repudiation of the 
 Copemican system, but it should not be forgotten 
 that in the time of Tycho that system was not 
 supported by the conclusive evidence we are now in 
 possession of. Tycho's system, which made the sun 
 move round the earth, and all the other planets 
 round the sun, they moving with it round the earth, 
 explained all natural phenomena then observed 
 equally well, while it must have appeared more 
 probable than the crude and, at that era, undemon- 
 strable theories of Copemiciis. Tycho Brahg com- 
 piled a catalogue of 777 fixed stars, more perfect 
 than any that had previously appeared. He made 
 the first table of refractions, and discovered the 
 variation and annual equation of the moon, the 
 inequalities of the motion of the nodes, and the 
 inclination of the lunar orbit, and rejected the 
 trepidation of the precession, which had hitherto 
 injuriously affected all tables. He also made some 
 interesting cometary investigations. 
 
 To his researches are mainly due the discovery 
 by Kepler (b. 1571, d. 1630) of those famous laws 
 which have rendered his name immortal. See 
 Kepler's Laws. To Kepler is due the credit of 
 divestuig the Copemican system of its absurdities. 
 Kepler is also said to have had some notion of the 
 law of gravitation. 
 
 Gableo Galilei (b. 1564, d. 1642) first applied the 
 telescope (which he made from a general description 
 of the instrument of Hans Lipperhey of Holland, who 
 was the first inventor of the telescope) to the investi- 
 gation of the heavens. He was rewarded by the 
 discovery of the inequalities on the moon's surface. , 
 The important discoveries of the four satellites of 
 Jupiter, the ring of Saturn — not then distinctly recog- 
 nised as a circle — the spots on the sun, and the cres- 
 cent form of Venus, followed in quick succession. 
 For propagating the Copemican doctrine of the 
 world, Galileo incurred the displeasure of the priests, 
 and was compelled by the Inquisition to retract his 
 opinions. 
 
 But the eternal laws of nature are not to be sus- 
 pended by the recantation of a philosopher forced by 
 the tyranny of priestcraft. The earth moved grandly 
 on round the sun in spite of both ; and scientific 
 truth was now too old to remain in the restrictive 
 leading-strings of any ecclesiasticism. 
 
 The next great epoch in the history of A. brings 
 us to England and Newton (b. 1642, d. 1727). In 
 the interval, practical A had profited largely by the 
 logarithms of Napier; the mathematical researches 
 of Descartes ; the application of the telescope to the 
 quadrant by Gascoigne, an Englishman, and after- 
 wards by Auzout and Picard; by Eomer's discovery 
 of the progressive motion, and measurement of the 
 velocity, of light ; by the invention of Vernier; and 
 the application of the pendulum to clocks by Huy- 
 gens, who also brought into use the spiral spring, 
 and made some valuable observations on the ring 
 and satellites of Saturn ; as well as by the investiga- 
 tions of Norwood, Horrocks, Hooke, Hevelius, Gilbert, 
 Leibnitz, and Dominicus Cassini, to the last of whom 
 especially the scientific world owes much. Among 
 
ASTUEr-ASTUEIAS. 
 
 a variety of other valuable observations and dis- 
 coveries may be mentioned his thorough investiga- 
 tion of the zodiacal light, his determination of the 
 rotations of Jupiter and Mars, and of the motions of 
 Jupiter's satemtes from their eclipses, his discovery 
 of the dual character of Saturn's ring, and also of 
 foxir of his satellites. Newton^s fame rests upon 
 his discovery of the law of gravitation, upon whioh 
 the common belief is he was led to speculate by the 
 fall of an apple. Newton announced his discovery 
 in the Prindpia in 1687, whioh was briefly that 
 every particle of matter is attracted by, or gravitates 
 to, every other particle of matter, with a force 
 inversely proportional to the squares of their dis- 
 tances. The first gleam of this grand conclusion is 
 said to have so overpowered Newton that he had to 
 suspend his calculations, and call in a friend to finish 
 the few arithmetical computations that were incom- 
 plete. This discovery is perhaps the grandest eflbrt 
 of human genius of which we have any record. 
 Newton also made the important discovery of the 
 revolution of comets round the sun in conic sections, 
 proved the earth's form to be an oblate spheroid, 
 gave a theory of the moon and tides, invented 
 fluxions, and wrote upon Optics. 
 
 While the foimdations of physical A. were thus 
 broadly, laid by Newton, Flamsteed — the first astro- 
 nomer royal at Greenwich, to whom, until recently, 
 scant justice has been done — and Halley were 
 greatly improving and extending the practical 
 department of the science. To the former we are 
 indebted for numerous observations on the fixed 
 stars, on planets, satellites, and comets, and for a 
 catalogue of 2884 stars. His Histona Gcelestis 
 formed a new era in sidereal A. Dr Halley, who suc- 
 ceeded Flamsteed as astronomer royal, discovered 
 the accelerated mean motion of the moon, and certain 
 inequalities in Jupiter and Saturn, but he is most 
 famed for his successful investigations into the 
 motions and nature of comets. His successor was 
 Dr Bradley, who, in the year of Newton's death, 
 made the important discovery of the aberration of 
 light, which furnishes the only direct and conclusive 
 proof we have of the earth's annual motion. To 
 him also we are indebted for our knowledge of the 
 . nutation of the earth's axis. . He was, besides, an 
 unwearied observer, and left behind him at his 
 death upwards of 60,000 observations. Altogether, 
 Bradley's is deservedly one of the most honoured 
 names in modem A. Dr Maskelyne, who was 
 appointed to the observatory after Bradley, origi- 
 nated the Nautical Almanac. 
 
 Merely to mention the names of men who from 
 the death of Bradley to the present time have added, 
 by theory and practice, to our knowledge of A., 
 would extend this synopsis much beyond the limit 
 necessarily assigned to it. If the 18th o. opened with 
 lustre derived from the physical demonstrations of 
 Newton, it closed magnificently with the telescopic 
 discoveries of Sir William Herschel, who a^ded to 
 our universe a primary planet (Uranus) with its 
 satellites, gave' two more sateUites to Saturn, resolved 
 the milky-way into countless myriads of stars, and 
 unravelled the mystery of nebulae and of double 
 and triple stars. Laland, Lagrange, LacaUle, and 
 Delambre, in the latter half of me 18th c, did 
 much by their researches and analyses to systematise 
 and improve the science of A. The instrumental 
 means of observation were also, during that time, 
 brought to high perfection. Laplace, in his great 
 work the MSchnique G&leate (1799—1808), gave 
 what farther proof was needed of the truth and 
 sufficiency of the Newtonian theory. 
 
 The 19th c. opened with the discovery of the four 
 small planets — Ueres, in 1801, by Piazza ; Pallas and 
 Vesta by Olbers — the former in 1802, and the latter 
 
 in 1807 ; and Juno, by Harding, in 1804. In 1845, 
 Henoke discovered the fifth of this group revolving 
 between Mars and Jupiter, to which the name of 
 Astrsea was given ; and up to the present time (1859), 
 upwards of 50 planetoids (q. v.) have been discovered. 
 The greatest event of the century has been the dis- 
 covery of the planet Neptune in 1846. 
 
 Observations upon Uranus had shewn the motions 
 of that planet to present great irregularities, which 
 could not be explained by the action of Jupiter and 
 Saturn ; and after carefully examining the analyti- 
 cal theory of Uranus, Leverrier, a young academi- 
 cian of France, in the summer of 1846, published 
 the elements of an undiscovered planet, the cause 
 of the perturbations. He boldly predicted its exist- 
 ence, calculated its mass, and referred to its place 
 in the heavens ; and scarcely a month afterwards, 
 on the 23d of September, the hitherto concealed 
 object (Neptune) was found by M. Galle of Berlin. 
 But it has only been by accidental circumstances 
 that France has the honour of this remarkable 
 achievement. Mr Adams of Cambridge had an-ived 
 at results more perfect than those of Leverrier, and 
 had communicated them to Mr Challis, professor of 
 A. at Cambridge in September 1845, a year before 
 the discovery of the planet, and 4|early a year before 
 the publication of Leverrier's final calculations. Mr 
 ChaUis, it appears, commenced a search for the 
 planet on July 29th, and on August 4th and 12th, 
 he actually seized the planet, and recorded two 
 positions of it, but did not recognise it, through not 
 comparing his observations, which a pressvu:e of 
 occupation, and an impression that the discovery 
 required a much more extensive search, prevented. 
 But for this, and the non-publication of the Cam- 
 bridge mathematician's results at the time they were 
 forwarded to Mr Airy in October 1845, the honour- 
 able position of M. Leverrier would have been 
 occupied by Mr Adams, and that of M. GaUe by 
 Mr Chalhs. 
 
 The century so far, however, has been chiefly 
 'remarkable for its laborious efforts to correct, 
 systematise, and extend the results of former dis- 
 coveries. Admirable and extensive catalogues of 
 stars, double stars, and of nebulse, have been made ; 
 and optical and other instruments in use by the 
 astronomer have been brought to what now appears 
 almost a state of perfection. Lord Eosse's reflecting 
 telescope, mth a speculum six feet in diameter, being 
 the triumph of modem mechanical and mathemati- 
 cal skill. The speculations which have excited most 
 attention within recent years are the Nebular Hypo- 
 thesis (q. V.) and the Plurality of Worlds (q. v.). 
 
 A'STUB. See FALCONiD.a; and Goshawk. 
 
 ASTU'BIAS, a northern province of Spain, 
 bounded on the E. by Sautander, on the S. by Leon, 
 on the W. by Galicia, and on the N. by the Bay of 
 Biscay. The low hiUs of Leon and Old Castile rise 
 gradually to the mountain-chain which forms the 
 south boundary, and towers to a height of about 
 11,000 feet in the summit Pena-de-Penaranda. The 
 main road from Leon to Oviedo passes over the 
 mountain-chain at Pajares. The northern slopes 
 are broken by steep and dark valleys or chasms, 
 which are among the wildest and most picturesque in 
 Spain. The summits of the mountains are covered 
 with snow even as late in the year as August. The 
 climate lis damp ; clouds hang almost continually 
 about the peaks, gathering to them the fogs of the 
 Atlantic. From the mass of calcareous rook, 
 marble crags rise from 200 to more than 400 feet. 
 The principal kinds of wood are oak, chestnut, 
 silver and Scotch firs. Some of the forests in the 
 remoter districts are very superb. Alpine pastur- 
 age decks the slopes, and a richer covenng of green 
 
ASYLUM— ATACAMITE. 
 
 is found in the narrow valleys. In tlie wider 
 valleys, the soil yields barley, wheat, maize, flgs, 
 olives, grapes, oranges. The coasts have good 
 fisheries. The chief minerals of the province are 
 copper, iron, lead, cobalt, arsenic, antimony, and 
 coal. The pasturage of the higher valleys supports 
 an excellent breed of horses, with numerous horned 
 cattle. 
 
 A. was never firmly occupied by the Arabs, but 
 afforded a place of refuge to the Goths in the 8th c. 
 Here the famous Pelayo was made king in 718 
 A. D. ; and his successors, after contending success- 
 fully against the Arabs, were made kings of Leon 
 iu the 10th c. The Asturian stiU boasts of his 
 independence as a free hidalgo, and is simple in 
 manners and brave, but less industrious and sociable 
 than his neighbours in Biscay and Galioia. Many 
 Asturians leave their province to seek a livelihood 
 in other parts of Spain, and after saving money, 
 return to dweU among their native hills and valleys. 
 They have been termed the Swiss of Spain; and 
 they are equally faithful and fond of money. Among 
 them, the Vaqueros form a distinct caste, inter- 
 marrying among themselves, and leading a nomadic 
 course of life, spending the winter on the sea-coast, 
 and the summer on the lulls of Leytariegos. 
 OviEDO, the capital of A., has, since 1833, given its 
 name to the whole province. The other consider- 
 able towns are the ports Gijon and Aviles. The 
 whole area of A. includes about 2148 square miles, 
 with a population of 510,000. 
 
 The eldest son of the Spanish king has the title of 
 Prince of A., professedly an imitation of the English 
 Prince of Wales, having been taken at the sohoita- 
 tion of the Duke of Lancaster in 1388, when his 
 daughter married the eldest son of Juan L 
 
 ASY'LtJM, a place of refuge. In ancient times, 
 sacred places, especially the temples and altars of 
 the gods, were appointed as asylums to which crimi- 
 nals, as well as persecuted individuals, might ilee 
 for refuge ; and to molest them in such places was 
 regarded as an impiety. An analogous institution 
 is found in the laws of the Jews as described in 
 the 35th chapter of Numbers, where six 'cities of 
 refuge' are appointed for persons guilty of man- 
 slaughter. Among the Greeks in early times, these 
 asylums might be sofiietimes useful in preventing 
 hasty retribution ; but in the course of time they 
 were so much abused that their sanctity was in a 
 great measure disregarded. Thus Pausanias, who 
 fled to the altar of Minerva, was taken and slain 
 there by the Lacedaemonians, and in other cases the 
 refugee was compelled to leave the A. by fire or 
 starvation. In Home, the Emperor Tiberius abolished 
 aU such places of refuge from law, excepting those 
 in the temples of Jimo and ^sculapius. - The 
 custom of allowing to real or supposed criminals a 
 place of safety in temples, was also adopted by the 
 Christian Church. In the time of Constantine the 
 Great, the churches were made asylums ; and Theo- 
 dosius II. extended the privilege to all oom-ts, alleys, 
 gardens, and houses belonging to the church. In 
 681 A.D., the synod of Toledo extended the privi- 
 lege of A. to a space of 30 paces around every 
 church. In the lawless periods of the middle 
 ages, the influence of the church often prevented 
 deeds of gross injustice and violence ; but the 
 sanctity of churches was abused by criminals ; and 
 this led to several modifications which gradually 
 destroyed the privilege of Sanctuary (q. v.). In 
 England, it was abolished by acts passed in 1534 
 and 1697. The word A. is now apphed to places of 
 shelter for unfortimate or destitute persons, and 
 especially to hospitals for the insane. See Luitacy. 
 
 A'STMPTOTE (Gr. not coinciding), a line that 
 SlO 
 
 approaches nearer and nearer to some curve without 
 ever meeting it. An example of an A. will be seen 
 under Hyperbola. As another illustration, let AB 
 be a straight line which can be produced to any 
 length towards B. Take any point, C, without the 
 line, and draw a perpendicular reaching to any 
 
 Asymptote. 
 
 distance, D, beyond the line ; set off any equal dis- 
 tances, E— 1, 1—2, 2—3, &c., along AB ; and draw 
 Old, C2d', C3d", &c., making Id, 2d', 3d", &c., equal 
 to ED. Now, it is evident that each of the points d, 
 d', &c., is nearer to the line AB than the one to the 
 left of it ; if, therefore, a curve is traced through 
 these points (the ciurve is called the conchoid), it 
 must continually approach the line AB. On the 
 other hand, it is evident that the curve can never 
 meet AB ; for a line drawn from C to any point in 
 AB, however distant that point, must, when pro- 
 duced, cross AB. AB is thus an ^. to the curve. 
 To the senses, indeed, the curve and line soon 
 become one, because all physical or sensible lines 
 have breadth. It is only with regard to mathematical 
 lines (see Line) that the proposition is true ; and the 
 truth of it has to be conceived by an effort of pure 
 reason, for it cannot be represented. 
 
 ATA'GAMITE, an ore of copper, found as a crust 
 on the lavas of Vesuvius and Etna, especially on 
 those of Vesuvius erupted in the years 97, 1804, 
 1820, and 1822. It occurs abundantly in some parts 
 of South America, as at Atacama in Peru, from 
 which it derives its name ; at Kemolinos, Santa 
 Bosa, and other districts in Chili ; and at Sarapaca 
 in Bolivia, where it is associated in veins with ores 
 of silver. The natural varieties of A. are crystallised, 
 massive, and pulverulent or granular. The massive 
 or compact variety is usually reniform) with a fibrous 
 structure. The crystals are short and needle-shaped; 
 the primary form is a rhombic prism. It has been 
 sometimes described as a chloride of copper, but 
 incorrectly ; and sometimes as a hydrochlorate 
 (muriate) of copper ; it is rather to be regarded as 
 a combination of protoxide of copper with chloride 
 of copper. It is a rich and productive ore, contain- 
 ing about 55 to 60 per cent, of copper. The percent? 
 age composition of various specimens of A. is as 
 follows : 
 
 Copper Mnriatic -^f, ^^ „ , , 
 Protoxide. Acid. water, lotai. 
 
 Compact ataoamite, 72'0 
 
 II H 76"5 
 
 Sandy atacamite, . . 70'5 
 
 Crystallised atacamite, 73"0 
 
 16-3 11 -7 100 
 
 110 12-5 100 
 
 11-5 180 100 
 
 16-2 10-8 100 
 
 A. often forms on the surface of copper exposed 
 to the air or sea-water ; and the greenish incrustar 
 tion observed on antique bronze utensils, weapons, 
 and other articles, and commonly known as the 
 (Bi-ugo nobilis, is composed of this salt. On some 
 antique 'bronzes from Egypt the 'A. is crystaUiue. 
 Atacamite is worked in South America as an 
 ore of copper ; and considerable quantities are sent 
 to England to have the metal extracted therefrom. 
 See Copper. 
 
'■m 
 
 ATAHUALPA— ATa 
 
 ATAHUALPA, the fayourite son of Huayna 
 Capao, Inoa of Peru, who died in 1525, about seven 
 years before Pizarro's arrival in Peru. The mother 
 of A. not being of the pure Inoa blood, her son was 
 formally excluded, from inheriting the throne; but 
 his handsome figure, bold spirit, and quick intelli- 
 gence so won upon the aflfeotions of his father, that 
 on his death-bed he declared it to be his will that 
 A. should receive as his portion the ancient kingdom 
 of Quito (recently conquered), while Huascar, his 
 eldest son, should possess Peru. For five years the 
 brothers lived on terms of real or apparent friend- 
 ship; but at length the restless ambition of A., who 
 was constantly aspiring to new conquests, excited 
 the uneasiness of Huascar, who, in an evil hour, 
 was induced to send an envoy to his brother, with 
 instructions to require Viim to render homage for 
 his kingdom of Quito. A. fired at the proposal, 
 and war was instantly declared. Placing hmiseU at 
 the' head of the army of veterans which his father 
 had left him, he invaded Peru, and in the spring of 
 1532 completely defeated Huascar on the plains of 
 Quipaypan, in the neighbourhood of Cuzoo, the 
 native Peruvian metropolis, only a few months 
 before the arrival of the Spaniards. Huascar was 
 taken prisoner, and confined in the strong fortress of 
 Xauxa. Then followed, according to Garcilasso de 
 la Vega, a series of atrocious massacres of all in 
 whose veins ran the blood of the Incas; but his 
 statements are so monstrous, and possess so little 
 oongruity, that they are rejected by Prescott as 
 intrmsically incredible. In the meantime, the 
 Spaniards had disembarked at Tumbez; and after 
 a long, brave, and perilous march through the 
 unknown country, Pizarro, at the head of his two 
 himdred cavaliers, approached the victorious camp 
 of A., where he found some fifty thousand men 
 assembled. By a daring but diabolical stratagem, 
 Pizarro obtained possession of the person of the 
 kin^, who had come to visit him in a friendly spirit. 
 While a priest was explaining the Christian religion, 
 and the power of the pope over all the kingdoms of 
 the earth, and how the pope had presented Peru 
 to the Spanish monarch, in whose name they had 
 come. A., indignantly interrupting him, told him 
 that the pope (whoever he was) must be a crazy 
 fool to talk of giving away countries which were 
 not his own. 'WTien he inquired on what authority 
 such claims were made, the priest pointed to the 
 Bible,- on which A. dashed the book on the ground, and 
 the fifelds began to fiU with Indians. The moment 
 was critical. The crime which Pizarro had resolved 
 upon the night before must be executed then or 
 never. He waved a white scarf, which was the 
 signal agreed upon. The mysterious artillery poured 
 sudden death into the terrified masses of Peruvians, 
 while the Spanish cavalry rode them down with 
 merciless fury. Confusion seized the natives ; 
 they submitted — being vmarmed — ^to this horrible 
 butchery, only anxious to save their sacred Inca; 
 but all their efforts to accomplish this proved un- 
 availing, and after exhausting hours in the miserable 
 work of murder, the inhuman Spaniards succeeded 
 in capturing him. A. was treated with a great show 
 of kindness at first, and more especially when he 
 offered, as a ransom, ' not merely to cover the floor, 
 but to fill the room in which he stood with gold 
 as high as he could reach.' When A.'s brother, 
 Huascar, who was still a prisoner, heard of this, he 
 offered still more advantagepus terms for himself. 
 To prevent this, A. had him secretly assassinated. 
 The golden treasure which was to constitute the 
 ransom of A. now began to pour in, and at length 
 A. demanded his freedom. This Pizarro refused to 
 grant, and accused A. of plotting against him. The 
 result, after much base treachery on the part of the 
 
 Spaniard, was a mock-trial, in which A. was con- 
 demned to be burned. On the 29th of August 1533, 
 he was led to the stake, but on agreeing to be 
 ' baptised,' his sentence was commuted to (feath by 
 strangulation. 
 
 ATALA'NTA, a mythical personage, the daugh- 
 ter of Jasus and Olymene, was born in Arcadia, and 
 celebrated as a huntress, well skilled in the use of 
 the bow and arrow. Her father, who had wished 
 a son, exposed her, while an infant, on Mount 
 Parthenios, where she was foimd near the entrance 
 of a cave by hunters, who are said to have brought 
 her up, and afterwards restored her to her parents. 
 While living as a wild moimtaiu-maiden, she 
 slew the centaurs Khoeous and Hylseus. After- 
 wards, she sailed with the Argonauts (q. v.) to 
 Colchis, and took a prominent part in the chase of 
 the Calydonian boar (q. v.)i She had many suitors, 
 but was merciless in the conditions which she 
 imposed on them. Being the swiftest of mortals, 
 she offered to become the wife of him that should 
 outstrip her — the penalty of defeat being death. 
 At length she was conquered by a trick of one 
 Meilanion, whom she was compelled to marry. He 
 obtained from Venus a gift of three golden apples, 
 which he successively dropped in the race; and A. 
 was so charmed by their beauty, that she could not 
 refrain from stooping to gather them, and so lost. — 
 Mention is made of another A. in Greek antiquity, 
 to whom a different parentage is assigned, but 
 regarding whom the myth is essentially the same. 
 
 ATARAIPU', a term signifying Demi's Each. It 
 is applied to one of the most singular eminences in 
 the world, a granite pyramid in British Guiana, 
 which rises abruptly from the plain about 900 feet, 
 wooded for rather more than one-third of the height, 
 but bare thence to the peaked summit. 
 
 ATCHAFAIiAY'A, a branch of the Mississippi 
 at its delta. It forma so large an angle with the 
 main river, that, after a course of only 130 nules, it 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico, 120 miles to the west of 
 New Orleans. From the Eed Eiver, which enters 
 the Mississippi just above its own point of departure, 
 the A. had received so much drift-wood, as formed 
 at last a stationary raft 10 nules long, 220 yards 
 broad, and 18 feet deep — an obstacle to navigation 
 which the state of Iiouisiana required four years to 
 remove. 
 
 ATCHEE'lSr, or ACHEE'N, the capital of a nearly 
 extinct independent kingdom of the same name in 
 the north-west of the large island of Sumatra, is 
 situated on a river a few miles from the sea, and 
 surrounded at a distance by ranges of hills. Lat. 
 S° 35' N., long. 95° 45' E. Pop. uncertain. The 
 entrance from the sea is rather dangerous, as a 
 bar stretches across the delta, and, at best, is 
 only possible for smaU-craft, so that the trade 
 which it carries on with Singapore and a few other 
 places, in camphor, benzoin, betel-nut, pepper, sul- 
 phur, 'cotton cloths, and gold-dust, is inconsiderable. 
 A. has a pretty look, a short way off, on account of the 
 houses, which are separate, being girt in many cases 
 with a luxuriant fringe of trees, while the environs 
 are beautifully adorned in the same way. 
 
 ATCHB'VEMENT is a term nearly equivalent to 
 armorial bearings, and is often used when speaking 
 of the arms of a deceased person as displayed at his 
 funeral or elsewhere. In this sense it is more com- 
 monly used in its abbreviated form of Hatchment 
 (q.v.). 
 
 A'TB, according to Homer, the daughter of 
 Jupiter— or of Eris, as Hesiod says— was a vengeful 
 goddess, ever attending dysnomia, or transgression 
 of law, though she herself prompted men to such. 
 She was banShed from Olympus by Jove, whom she 
 
 611 
 
ATELE&-ATH. 
 
 had incited to take an oath of which he subsequently 
 repented. She then travelled to and fro over the 
 earth with great rapidity, always intent on exercising 
 a pernicious influence upon mankind. But her steps 
 were followed by the goddesses lAtai (prayers), 
 benevolent daughters of Jove, who healed those who 
 had been afflicted by A. The tragic writers describe 
 A. as the goddess of retribution. Their represen- 
 tations almost identify her with Nemesis and 
 ERiNinrs. 
 
 ATE'LES (Gr. incomplete), a genus of American 
 monkeys, of the division with long prehensile tails, 
 to which the name Sapajous (q. v.) is sometimes 
 collectively applied. In the genus A., the head is 
 round, and the facial angle about 60°; the limbs are 
 remarkably long and slender, upon which account 
 the English name Spider Monkey (q.v.) is some- 
 times used as a generic designation; and the fore- 
 limbs are either entirely destitute of a thumb, or 
 have a mere rudimentary one, a peculiarity in 
 allusion to which the name A. was given. The 
 name Coaita or Quata is frequently given to some 
 of the species of A., but is sometimes limited 
 to A. Paniscus, as Spider Monkey sometimes is to 
 A. ararJmoides. One of the best known species is 
 the Marimouda (A. Belzebuh), a common monkey 
 of Guiana, and which occurs in immense numbers 
 on the banks of the Orinoco. 
 
 ATELIERS NATIOlSTAtrX, or NATIONAL 
 WORKSHOPS, a term under which such institu- 
 tions became renowned in connection with the French 
 revolution of 1848. In almost all countries and 
 ages, there have been projects for organising labour 
 imder public authority, designed generally for the 
 benevolent purpose of obviating the distress caused 
 by casual depressions in trade. However distinctly 
 the laws of pohtical economy were laid down on the 
 point, it could always be said that these were merely 
 theoretic, and therefore this one instance of practical 
 experiment, however calamitous in its day, left behind 
 it a valuable lesson. The principles of pohtical 
 economy on this matter are — ^that, competition only 
 can iix the extent to which labour is required in any 
 department, and the rate at which it must be remu- 
 nerated ; that it is this competition which gives the 
 workman a stimulus to labour effectively and profit- 
 ably ; and that if this stimulus were withdrawn, and 
 aU were paid alike, whether they worked well or fll, 
 all would work iU, the pubHc would be losers, and the 
 large fund out of which labourers are supported under 
 the competitive system would cease tq exist. Imme- 
 diately on the formation of the Provisional Govern- 
 ment in February 1848, a permanent department was 
 established, called The Committee of the Government for 
 the Workmen. This establishment acted on the doc- 
 trine, that aU workmen were entitled to have a living 
 provided for them on a certain uniform scale. They 
 did not forcibly abolish private employment, but they 
 held out inducements which made workmen leave 
 and employers break up the existing establishments. 
 Consequently, nearly all the Parisian workmen threw 
 themselves on the government, and others flocked 
 in from other quarters in alarming numbers. It was 
 found that these crowds of men, who claimed the 
 privilege of employment by the state, had very little 
 idea of the duty of working, even were there distinct 
 employment for them. But when the body had 
 increased to considerably above a hundred thousand, 
 the government found that they had this ever-increas- 
 ing mass to feed, and nothing to feed them with, 
 since trade thus meddled with was in reahty ruined. 
 It was consequently found necessary to put an end to 
 the system, and the result was the bloody battle of 
 Paris, which brought about the restoration of despot- 
 ism. One incidental experiment will perhaps best 
 
 explain the ruinous tendency of the whole system. In 
 the H6tel Chchy, 1500 taUors were assembled to make 
 uniforms for the new garde mobile. The men were 
 to receive among them for the completed work as 
 much as an army-contractor would have demanded. 
 In the meantime, they were paid two francs a day of 
 subsistence money; the rest was to be divided among 
 them at the end. The men were buoyed up with the 
 notion that they were to receive not only their own 
 proper wages, but the indefinite and enormous sum 
 which they supposed to form the profit of the con- 
 tractor, forgetting that such profit seldom exceeds 
 about 3 per cent. Their disappointment, was great 
 when they found nothing to divide. There was, in 
 fact, a loss. When paid their two francs — not much 
 more than half what they obtained when employed by 
 a contractor— they were paid more than the value of 
 their labour and the profit of the transaction to boot. 
 The reason is pretty obvious. Each man working 
 for himself, and paid for his work on the competitive 
 system, exerted himself ; but when one man s exer- 
 tions went virtually for nothing, unless he got the 
 1499 others to exert themselves to the same amount, 
 all were alike lazy. 
 
 ATELLA'N.aj, Fahdce Atetlance (also styled 
 Litdi Osci), a kind of popular drama in Rome, first 
 introduced from AteUa, a town in Campania, between 
 Capua and Naples. After the Greek drama had 
 been brought to Rome by Livius Andronicus, the old 
 Fdbulce Atellance were stfll retained as interludes 
 and after-pieces. They are not to be confounded 
 with the Greek satiric drama, although the character 
 of both was to some extent the same. In the latter, 
 satyrs figured; wiule the former personated real 
 Osoan characters. The Maeehus and Bucco of the 
 fabulcB Atellance may be considered the origin of the 
 modem Italian arlecchino (harlequin), and other 
 characters of the same stamp. They were the 
 favourite characters; spoke the Oscan dialect, and 
 excited laughter by its quaint old-fashioned words 
 and phrases. The A. were neither so dignified as 
 the comcedia prcetextata, nor so low as the comcedia 
 tabemaria, but indulged in a kind of genial and 
 decent drollery. The caricatmre was at first always 
 pleasant, and though quizzical, it did not lapse into 
 obscenity, like the mimi. Respectable Roman youths, 
 who could not appear as actors in the regular Greek 
 drama without losing caste, were allowed to take 
 parts in the A. A few fragments of these popular 
 farces have been collected by Bothe in his Poelarwm, 
 Laiinonum Scenicorum Fragmenta (Leip. 1834). See 
 aJso Munk, De FaJbulis Aiellanis (Leip. 1840). 
 
 A TE'MPO (Ital.), in time. A term used to 
 denote that, after some short relaxation in the time, 
 the performer must return to the original degree of 
 movement. 
 
 A TE'MPO GIU'STO (Ital.), in correct tune. 
 A term used to denote that, after a recitative, the 
 performer should keep the music true and correct, 
 which, during the recitative, had been altered to 
 suit the action and passion of the scene. 
 
 A'TESHGA (the Place of Fire), a spot on the 
 peninsula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the 
 Caspian Sea. It is considered sacred by the Guebres, 
 or Persian Fire-worshippers, who visit it in large 
 numbers, and bow before the holy flames which 
 issue from the bituminous soil. It is about a, nfile 
 in diameter, and from its centre, in clear dry weather, 
 creeps forth a blue flame (caused by the ignition of 
 the naphtha), which shines with great brightness by 
 night. 
 
 ATETJ'CHUS. See Beetle and Scarab^us. 
 
 ATH, or AATH, a strongly fortified town in the 
 province of Hainault, Belgiiun, situated on the 
 Bender, in lat. 50° 36' N., long. 3' 46' E. It has an 
 
ATHABASCA— ATHANASIAN CREED. 
 
 arsenal, Ii03;^ital, and college, and important manu- 
 factures of linen, calicoea, lace, gloves, cutlery, large 
 hammers, &o., and carries on a brisk trade. Pop. 
 10,000. The ancient church of St Julien in A. is 
 nbted for its extraordinarily high tower. The town 
 has been several times besieged and taken : in 1697, 
 by Catinat and Vaubau ; in 1706, by the allied forces 
 under the Dutch general Owerkerke ; in 1745, by the 
 French after a short siege ; and in 1792, by the 
 forces of the Republic imder Berneron. 
 
 ATHABA'SCA, a. river and lake in the north- 
 west of America, forming part of the great basin of 
 the Mackenzie, and lying, therefore, beyond the 
 Hudson's Bay Territory, properly so called. The 
 riva- rises in the Eooky Mountains near Mount 
 Brown, the highest point in the range. Its actual 
 source is the small lake, already mentioned under 
 the head of America as the Committee's Pimoh 
 Bowl, which sends its tribute at once through the 
 A. to the Frozen Ocean, and through the Columbia 
 to the Pacific. Its general coixrse is north-east, 
 till, after passing through A. Lake, or rather crossing 
 its west end, it turns towards the north-west, and, 
 after a course of 30 or 40 miles, unites with the 
 Peace River, from beyond the Eooky Mountains, to 
 form the Slave River, which, again, after passing 
 through Great Slave Lake, takes the name of the 
 Mackenzie. — Lalce A. receives nearly aU its waters 
 from the A. river, and is probably imique in this, 
 that its principal feeder traverses not its length but 
 its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at its 
 extremity. The lake's single outlet is the river A. 
 The lat. is about 59° N., and the long, between 106° 
 and 112° W., the length 230 miles, and the average 
 width 20. 
 
 ATHALI'AH, the daughter of Ahab, king of 
 Israel, married Jehoram, kmg of Judah, who died 
 885 B. c. After the death of ner son Ahaziah, who 
 succeeded him, bul; reigned for only one year, she 
 paved her own way to the throne by putting 
 to death (as she supposed) all the seed-royal. 
 ' But Jehosheba, the daughter of king Jehoram, 
 sister of Ahaziah, took Joash, the son of Aha- 
 ziah, and stole him from among the king's sons, 
 who were slain.' The young prince thus rescued 
 was privately educated in the temple, and, after 
 A. had reigned six years, the high-priest Jehoiada 
 placed Joash on the throne (878 B. c). A., hearing 
 the noise attending the coronation, hastened to 
 the temple, where the people were shouting, ' God 
 save the king ! ' As she looked round in astonish- 
 ment on the young king, whom she had supposed 
 to be dead, surrounded by priests, Levites, rulers, 
 captains, and a rejoicing multitude, she 'rent her 
 clothes, and cried, " Treason ! treason ! " ' By the 
 command of the high-priest, she was led out of the 
 temple, and slain in the gateway of the palace. The 
 house of Baal, with its altars and images, was broken 
 down. This narrative (2 Kings xi. ; 2 Chronicles 
 xxi. 6, xxii. 10 — 12, xxni.) is the subject of Racine's 
 drama, Aihcdie. 
 
 ATHA'NARIC, a king of the Western Goths, 
 whose settlements lay on the north bank of the 
 Lower Danube, in the 4th c. Having taken advan- 
 tage of the weakness of the Roman empire when 
 the imperial armies were engaged in suppressing the 
 rebellion of Prooopius, war was declared against him 
 by the Emperor v alens. A. acted stricfly on the 
 defensive during two campaigns, in which the 
 Romans gained no advantage over him; but ia 
 the third year of the war (369 A.D.), he hazarded 
 a general battle, and was defeated, whereupon he 
 sued for peace, and, with that object, had a confer- 
 ence with Valens in a boat on the Danube. Peace 
 was concluded, and A. had his attention occupied in 
 33 
 
 settling dissensions arising out of the Arian contro- 
 versy wluch then agitated his people, when the first 
 advance of the Hims on Europe alarmed the Gothic 
 nation. A. attempted to secure the eastern borders 
 of his kingdom ; but the Huns forced the passages 
 of the Dnieper, defeated the Goths, and advanced in 
 great force into the plains of Daoia. When, in 374, 
 the Western Goths were received by the Romans as 
 allies, and had settlements granted them on the 
 south of the Danube, A., with a part of his people, 
 refused to accompany them, removing to the west, 
 and fortifying himself against the new enemy. In 
 380, however, he was obliged to retire, when he 
 accepted the hospitality of the Empire, and removed 
 to Constantiaople, where he met with a cordial and 
 honourable reception by the Emperor Theodosius. 
 At this time died Fritigem, the long of the Goths 
 that had settled on the south of the Danube ; and 
 A. being made king of the whole Western Gothic 
 nation, concluded a treaty of peace, in behalf of tho 
 whole, which had the effect of incorporating that 
 people with the other subjects of the empire. ITe 
 died at Constantinople in 381. 
 
 ATHANA'SIAlSr CREED, the third of the throe 
 oecumenical symbols, derived its name from its com- 
 position being attributed to Athanasius ; it is also 
 known, from its initial words in Latia, as the creed 
 QuicuTique Vult. The first part of this creed 
 contains a detailed exposition of the Trinity; the 
 second, the doctrine of the incarnation. Modern 
 criticism has called in question the title of Athanasius 
 to be considered the author of this creed. It was 
 known as early as the begiiming of the 6th c, but 
 not under its present name. It is spoken of as 
 ' Athanasius's Tract on the Trinity,' in some Articles 
 of the middle of the 8th c, and is supposed to bo 
 alluded to, ' as the Faith of the holy prelato 
 Athanasius,' in the Council of Autun, about 670. 
 Athanasius himself makes no mention of this 
 creed, although its doctrines are essentially his ; 
 nor do any of the church fathers. Other two 
 circumstances speak against its authenticity : it 
 is in Latin, and Athanasius wrote in Greek ; the 
 expressions, again, are different from those used 
 by Athanasius in speaking of the same things. By 
 Protestants, therefore, and even by most Cathohcs, 
 its Athanasian origin has been given up, and its pro- 
 duction has been assigned with most probability to 
 the 5th c, and to Gaul ; Hilary, Archbishop of Aries 
 (about 430), being conjectured to bS the author. The 
 title of Athanasian probably became attached to it 
 during the Arian controversy in Gaul, as being an 
 exposition of the system of doctrine which was' 
 opposed to the Arian system, and which would 
 naturally be called Athanasian from its chief pro- 
 pounder. It was received into the public offices of 
 the GaUio Church in the 7th c, and by the middle 
 of the 10th c. it was adopted at Rome and all over the 
 West. In Britain, it was probably in use as early as 
 800. The Greek Church was late in receiving it, and 
 even then not without altering the article concerning 
 the ' Procession of the Holy Ghost.' The Reformers 
 adhered to the A. C, and Luther called it ' a bulwark 
 of the Apostles' Creed.' Even those churches that 
 do not in any way acknowledge it as a symbol (as 
 the Presbyterian Churches of Britain and America, 
 as well as the Independents) generally accept its 
 doctrines. 
 
 The A. C. is the most rigid and intolerant of the 
 three CathoUo symbols, and has given rise to much 
 controversy ; and though stUl generally- received by 
 Protestants as well as Catholics, the regard once had 
 for it has declined. The points in this creed that 
 give offence to some are defended by others, on 
 the plea that it was not drawn up for the sake 
 of gratuitously dogmatising on abstruse speculative 
 
ATHANASIUS— ATHEISM. 
 
 trutlia, but to counteract other domias wHch were 
 held to be dangerously heretical. Waterland, in his 
 Critical History of the Athanasian Creed, says : ' The 
 use of it will hardly be thought superfluous so long as 
 there are any Arians, Photinians, SabeUians, Mace- 
 donians, Apollinarians, Nestorians, or Butychians, in 
 these parts.' (See Articles under these heads.) With 
 respect to what are called the ' damnatory clauses ' 
 (the clauses, namely: 'Which Faith except every 
 one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he 
 shall perish everlastingly ; ' and : ' This is the Cathohc 
 faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he can- 
 not be saved'), the churches which adopt the creed 
 do not mean by them to imprecate curses, but to 
 declare, a,s a logical sequence of a true faith being 
 necessary to ssdvation, that those who do not hold 
 the true faith are in danger of perishing ; as it is 
 said, Mark xvi. 16, ' He that believeth not shall be 
 damned.' These clauses are also held to apply to 
 those who deny the substance of the Christian 
 religion, and not infaUibly to every person who may 
 be in eri-or as to any one particidar article. A rubric 
 to this effect was drawn up by the commissioners 
 appointed in 1689 for the review of the English 
 Common Prayer Book, but none of their suggestions 
 took effect. Compare also the 18th Article of the 
 Church of England with these clauses. 
 
 ATHANA'SIUS, Primate of Egypt, was born 
 in Alexandria about the year 296 a.d. There are 
 no particulars on record of his lineage or his parents. 
 Alexander, then officiating as primate or patriarch of 
 Alexandria, brought Tiim up in his own family, and 
 superintended his education, with the view of' his 
 entering on the Christian ministry. In his youth, he 
 often visited the celebrated hermit St Antony, and 
 embraced for a time the ascetic life with the venerable 
 recluse. He was but a youth and only a deacon when 
 appointed a member of the first general coimcU 
 at Nice, in which he distinguished himself by his 
 erudition and his eloquence. 
 
 His patron, Alexander, having died in the fol- 
 lowing year, he was duly elected to the primacy 
 by the clergy and people ; and was but newly 
 installed in his office, when Arius, who had been 
 banished at the tirae of the condemnation of his 
 doctrine at Nice, was recalled, and made a recanta- 
 tion of his erroneous principles. A., it is said, refused 
 on this occasion to comply with the wiU. of the 
 emperor that the heretic should be restored to 
 communion. On this account, and in consequence 
 of several other charges brought against Viim by the 
 Arian party, he was summoned by the Emperor 
 Constantino to appear before the synod of Tyre, 
 in 335 A.D., which deposed him from his office. 
 His sentence was confirmed by the synod of Jerusa- 
 lem in the following year, when he was banished 
 to Treves. In .338, Constantius, now Emperor of the 
 Bast, though imfriendly to the principles of the 
 Trinitarians, recalled A. from his banishment, and 
 restored him to the primacy at Alexandria. His 
 entrance into the city was like a triumphal proces- 
 sion; but the Arians soon rose against him, and 
 (in 341) he was again condemned by a council of 90 
 Arian bishops assembled at Antioch. Against this 
 decision a protest was made by 100 orthodox bishops 
 at Alexandria ; and in a council held at Sardis, 300 
 bishops, with Julius, bishop of Rome, at their head, 
 confirmed the decision in favour of ' A., who was 
 again replaced in his office (349 A.D.). The Arians 
 once more acquired the ascendency after Constantius 
 (in 353) had been made Emperor of both the East and 
 the West ; for in that year A. was condemned by a 
 council held at Aries, and the sentence was con- 
 firmed by another held at Milan in 355, the influence 
 of the sovereign being strongly exerted to secure 
 his condemnation. As the resolute patriarch had 
 ei4 
 
 declared that he would not leave his place without 
 an express order from the emperor, violent means 
 were resorted to for his expulsion. While engaged 
 in conducting divine service, he was interrupted by 
 a company of soldiers, from whom he made his 
 escape into the Egyptian desert. A price was set on 
 his head; and to avoid his persecutors, he retired 
 from the usual haunts of the anchorets to a remote 
 desert in Upper Egypt, where he was attended by 
 one faithful follower. Here he wrote several woika 
 to confirm orthodox Christians in their faith. On 
 the accession of Jidian to the imperial throne, 
 toleration was proclaimed to all religions, and A. 
 returned to his former position as Patriarch of 
 Alexandria (361 A.D.). .His next controversy was 
 with the heathen subjects of Julian, to whom the 
 patriarch, by his zeal in opposing their religion, had 
 made hiinself very offensive. To save his Mfe, he 
 was compelled again to flee from Alexandria, and 
 remained concealed in the Theban desert until 363, 
 when Jovian ascended the throne. After holding 
 office again as patriarch for only a short space of 
 time, he was expelled anew by the Arians, under 
 the Emperor Valens. A. now found refuge in the 
 tomb of his father, where he remained hidden four 
 months, until Valens, moved by petitions from the 
 orthodox Alexandrians, restored the patriarch to his 
 see, in which he continued tiU his death in 373 A. D. 
 
 A. was the leading ecclesiastic in the most trying 
 period of the history of the early Christian Chufch, 
 His ability, his conscientiousness, his judicious- 
 ness and wisdom, his fearlessness in the storms of 
 opposition, his activity and patience, all mark him 
 out as an ornament of the age, as weU as the most 
 influential pubHo character in matters of rehgion. 
 Though twenty years of his life were spent either 
 in ejole, or what was equivalent to it, yet hia 
 prudence and steadfastness, combined with the 
 support of a large party, crowned his exertions with 
 complete success. He was a clear thinker, and as 
 a speaker, was distinguished for extemporaneous 
 precision, force, and persuasiveness. 
 
 His writings are polemical, historical, and moral ; 
 all marked by a style simple, cogent, and clear. The 
 polemical works treat chiefly of the doctrines of 
 the Trinity, the incarnation of our Saviour, and the 
 divinity of the Holy Spirit. 
 
 The earliest edition of the collected works of 
 A. in the original Greek appeared in two volumes, 
 folio, at Heidelberg in 1600. It was accompanied 
 with a Latin translation. The most complete edition 
 is that published at Padua in 1777. A.'s Eour Ora- 
 tions against the Arians, and his Oration against the 
 GeutUes, were translated by S. Parker (Oxford, 1713) ; 
 also, his Treatise on the Incarnation of the Word 
 was translated by W. Whiston, forming part of 
 that gentleman's Collection of Ancient Monuments 
 Bdating to the Trinity and Incarnation, London in 
 1713. The Epistles of A. in defence of the Nioena 
 Creed, and on the Councils of Ariminum and 
 Seleucia, together with his first Oration against the 
 Arians, were translated, with notes, by the Rev. 
 John Henry Newman, Oxford (1842). 
 
 A'THBISM, a word of modem formation, from 
 Gr. atheos, 'without God,' signifies the doctrine of 
 those who deny the existence of a God. The term 
 atheist conveys such terrible associations to almost 
 all minds, that there is perhaps no reproach from 
 which men shrink more ; and yet it has been freely 
 applied by the zealous of all ages to those whose 
 notions of the invisible powers differed from their 
 own. The imputation is the most damaging that 
 can be made, and it requires only a little ingenuity 
 to make out a case of constructive A. from any set o£ 
 opinions at all differing from the common. Thus, 
 the ancient Greeks accused some of their philosophers 
 
ATHELNEY— ATHENS. 
 
 of A. though they did not deny the existence of a 
 divinity, but only rejected the common notions of a 
 plurality of gods. And in the Christian Church, 
 after the doctoine of the Trinity had been fixed and 
 defined, those that denied the divinity of Christ 
 were not unusually branded as atheists. 
 
 The horror inspired by this name is strikingly 
 shewn in the way it is repudiated by the adherents 
 of pantheism (q. v.), who reject a personal god, 
 and substitute the idealised principle of order that 
 pervades the universe. It is hardly to be denied, 
 however, that the idea associated with the word God 
 has hitherto involved personality as its very essence ; 
 and except for the purpose of avoiding odium, there 
 could be Httle propriety in retaining the vord when 
 the notion is so completely filtered. 
 
 The view of those who, like Kant, believe it 
 impossible to demonstrate satisfactorily the existence 
 of God, though it must be held on other grounds, is 
 called speadaiive A., in opposition to the dogmatic 
 A. of those who attempt to disprove that existence. 
 
 A'THELNBY, Isle of, a marsh at the junction of 
 the rivers Tone and Parret, in the middle of Somer- 
 setshire. Here Alfred, when driven from his throne, 
 hid from his enemies, and founded, in 888, a 
 Benedictine abbey, now entirely gone. Among the 
 many rehcs found in this spot is a ring of Alfred's, 
 preserved in the Oxford Museum. The name 
 Athelney means 'island of the nobles,' or 'royal 
 island.' 
 
 A'THELSTAN, the grandson of Alfred the Great, 
 was born about 895 A.D., and was the first Saxon 
 monarch who took the ,title of king of England, 
 Alfred himself only assuming that of king of the 
 Anglo-Saxons. He was crowned at Kingston-upon- 
 Thames in 925, and seems to have possessed both 
 great ambition and high talent. It is supposed that 
 his design was to unite in subjection to his single 
 sway the entire island of Britain. His resources, 
 however, were not equal to the undertaking, and he 
 had to content himself with the acquisition of 
 portions of Cornwall and Wales. On the death of 
 Sigtric, king of Northumbria, who had married one 
 of nis daughters, A, took possession of his dominions. 
 This excited the alarm and animosity of the neigh- 
 bouring states, and a league, composed of Welsh, 
 Scotch, and Mab, was formed against the English 
 king, for the purpose of placing Aulaflf, the son of 
 Sigtric, on his father's throne. A fierce and decisive 
 battle was fought at Brunenburgh, in which the 
 allies were utterly defeated, and which became 
 famous in Saxon song. After this, the reputation 
 of A. spread into the continent. His sisters were 
 married into the royal families of France and 
 Germany, and he himself enjoyed the greatest 
 influence and consideration. At home, he exhibited 
 a deep interest in the welfare of his people, improved 
 the llaws, built monasteries, and encouraged the 
 translation of the Bible into the vernacidar. He died 
 at Gloucester on the 25th October 941, in his 47th 
 year. 
 
 ATHENiE'UM (Gr. Aihenaion), the Temple of 
 Minerva (Gr. Athene) at Athens, which was fre- 
 quented by poets, learned men, and rhetoricians, who 
 there read sloud their works. — The A. in Home was 
 a school or college erected, by the Emperor Hadrian, 
 for the study of poetry and rhetoric, with a regular 
 staff of professors. It existed for a long period. In 
 the time of Theodosius II., it had three professors of 
 oratory, ten of grammar, five of sophistry or dialec- 
 tics, one of philosophy, and two of jurisprudence. — 
 In modem times, the name A. has been revived as an 
 appellation for certain literary institutions, and also 
 as a collective title for literary essays and reviews. 
 A. is the title of two weekly journals of literature 
 
 and the fine arts — one published in London, the 
 other in Paris. 
 
 ATHEN^'US, a Greek rlid(yr and liltirateur, 
 born at Naucratis in Egypt. He lived at the close 
 of the second .and begmning of the third century. 
 His work, entitled SeipnosopMstw (Banquet of the 
 Learned), in fifteen books, but of which we possess 
 the first two, and parts of the third, eleventh, and 
 fifteenth only in an abridged form, is very interest- 
 ing, as it has preserved for us copious fragments 
 of old writers, and treats, in the form of dialogue, 
 of almost all the topics of ancient Greek man- 
 ners, private and public life, arts, sciences, &c. It 
 is not a work indicative of any high ability; the 
 author, for the most part, appears in the character 
 of an agreeable, well-read, epicurean gentleman, 
 excessively fond of tit-bits, both of scandal and 
 cookery. He tells many stories to the disadvantage 
 of people whom history praises; but these we are 
 by no means bound to believe, nor, indeed, is he a 
 man whose opinions are worth much on any subject; 
 but as a melange of literary, social, and domestic 
 gossip, the value of the work is imrivaUed. A. 
 appears to have read enormously; he states that he 
 had made extracts himself from 800 plays of the 
 middle comedy alone. But his dialogue is prolix and 
 lumbering ; and his work is not irradiated by a single 
 gleam of genius, and has only achieved immortality 
 through being a store-house of miscellaneous informa- 
 tion, that otherwise would have been lost to the 
 race. The best editions are by Sohweighauser (14 
 vols. Strasb. 1801—1807), and Dindorf (3 vols. Leip. 
 1827). There is an EngUsh translation of A. in 
 Bohn's Classical Library (3 vols. Lond. 1854). 
 
 ATHENA'GORAS, an early Christian philo- 
 sopher, who taught first at Athens, and afterwards 
 at Alexandria. He is one of the oldest of the 
 apologetical writers, and is favourably known by 
 Ms Legatio pro Ohristianis, which he addressed to 
 the Emperor Marcus Aurelius in the year 177 A. D. 
 He therein defended the Christians against the 
 monstrous accusations of the heathen, viz., that they 
 were guilty of atheism, incest, and cannibalism. His 
 work is written in a philosophical spirit, and is 
 marked by great clearness and cogency of style. 
 We likewise possess a valuable treatise of his on the 
 resurrection of the dead. 
 
 ATHBNA'IS, an Athenian of distinguished 
 beauty, the daughter of Leontinos the Sophist, 
 was born about the close of the 4th c, a.d. She 
 received from her father a superior education, beiog. 
 skilled in Greek and Latin literature, rhetoric, 
 astronomy, geometry, and the science of arithmetic. 
 After his death, she repaired to Constantinople, to 
 obtain justice for the harsh treatment to which her 
 brother subjected her. Here her beauty and intelli- 
 gence made her the favourite of Augusta Pulcheria, 
 sister of Theodosius II., who considered that she 
 would make an excellent wife for the emperor. 
 In 421, A. having been baptized and named 
 Eudocia, was married to Theodosius, and in 438, 
 made a splendid pilgrimage to Jerusalem, bringing 
 with her, on her return, the supposed relics of the 
 first martyr, Stephen. Afterwards, she lost the 
 favour of Pulcheria — the real manager of affairs — 
 and was banished from the court. She then retired 
 to Jerusalem, where she suffered many persecutions, 
 and died, in the odour of sanctity, 460 a.d. A. 
 wrote an epic poem on the war of Theodosius against 
 the Persians, and several other metrical works which 
 have not been preserved. 
 
 A'THENS, the capital of the ancient state of 
 Attica, is said, to have been founded by Cecrops, 
 about 1550 B.C., and styled Cecropia; but even the 
 ancients themselves doubted this todition. Equally 
 
 519 ' 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 uncertain is the story that it was first styled A., in 
 honour of Athene, during the reisjn of Erichthoniua. 
 The ancient citadel was situated on the top of a 
 square craggy rook, 150 feet high, with a flat summit, 
 1000 feet long, and 500 broad. Gradually, as popula- 
 tion increased, A. extended itself over the wide and 
 beautiful plain helow. This increase is said to 
 have been occasioned by the organisation of the 
 twelve Attic tribes into a political confederacy 
 or union by Theseus, the brightest figure that shines 
 through the ' dark ages ' of Attic history. The posi- 
 tion of A. near the Gulf of Saronica, opposite the 
 eastern coast of the Peloponnesus, was favourable 
 to the acquirement of naval power. The city, which 
 was distant four or five miles from the sea, possessed 
 three harbours, aU situated on the south-west, and 
 connected with it by walls. The oldest of these 
 harbours was Phalerum. It was also the nearest to 
 the city, and accessible at all times by a dry road. 
 The Peirseus was first used as a harbour by Themis- 
 tocles. Munychia was the Acropolis of the whole 
 rocky peninsula termed the PeirsEus, and of immense 
 importance strategetically. The two last harbours 
 were connected with the city by the famous ' long 
 walls,' of which we read so much in Athenian 
 history. They Were forty stadia, or nearly five 
 nules in length. Two streams iiowed in the vicinity 
 of A.; on the east side, the Ilissus, which also 
 washed the southern part of the city; and on the 
 west, the Oephisus, about a mile and a half beyond 
 the walls. To the west lay Salamis, with Eleusis 
 on the north-west, Phylse and Decelea on the north, 
 Marathon on the north-east, and Hymettus on the 
 south. All along the coast rose splendid buildings. 
 
 The whole of the magnificent prospect was crowned 
 by the Acropolis, where all the most glorious 
 monuments of A. were assembled. Pirst rose the 
 Parthenon (q. v.), or Temple of Minerva, a pile which 
 even now, after the lapse of centuries, remains 
 among the wonders of the world. The Propylsea, 
 all built of white marble, formed the entrance to 
 the Parthenon. Close to it, on the north side of the 
 Acropohs, rose the Erechtheium, the most venerated 
 of all Athenian sanctuaries, and connected with the 
 oldest religious history of the city. The whole of it 
 was destroyed by the Persians, but was restored 
 during the Peloponnesian war. Its ruins still exist, 
 and allow us to form a very correct idea of its 
 external form and structure. In some points, it 
 differed from all other examples of Greek temples. 
 But it would be tedious and unprofitable to mention 
 in detail all those magnificent buildings which were 
 the glory of ancient Athens. It is sufficient to say, 
 that gods were never more superbly honoured in any 
 land. That enthusiastic love of the beaiitiful which 
 animated the Athenians, turning their religion into 
 an art, and making worship an education in testhe- 
 tics, is nowhere so clearly visible as in then- reli- 
 gious architecture. Their mythological faith stood 
 daily before their eyes in monumental splendour, for 
 almost every de'ity had his temple or shrine m the 
 city. Two of the finest buildings — the Temple of 
 Theseus, and that of Jupiter Olympus — were on 
 the outside of the city; the first to the north- 
 west, the second to the south. The former was 
 both a temple and a tomb, inasmuch as it held the 
 remains of Theseus himself. It was Tjuilt about 
 465 B. C, and was therefore older than the Par- 
 thenon. It had the privilege of an asylum for 
 slaves, and the large space of ground which it 
 enclosed was frequently used as a muster-ground 
 for the Athenian soldiery. It was built of the 
 favourite Pentelio marble, in the Doric style of 
 architecture, and is the best preserved of all the 
 monuments of ancient Athens. For centuries it was 
 a Christian church, appropriately enough dedicated 
 516 
 
 to St George, the chivalrous hero of the ' dark 
 ages ' of Christianity, as Theseus had, been of the 
 ' dark ages' of Attic history; but is now the national 
 museum of the city. The Temple of Jupiter, of 
 which sixteen grand Corinthian columns are still 
 extant, to the south-east of the Acropolis, and near 
 the right bank of the Ilissus, in size, splendour, 
 and beauty, excelled aU other Athenian structures. 
 Immense sums of money were expended upon it 
 from the time when it was commenced by Peisis- 
 tratus, until it was completed by Hadrian, a period 
 of 700 years. The building of it was frequently sus- 
 pended, so that Philostratus calls it ' a struggle with 
 time.' At the time the Persians sacked the city, it 
 was fortunately only beginning to be built, and so 
 escaped destruction. Aristotle speaks of it as a 
 work of despotic grandeur, and equal to the 
 pyramids of Egypt. The exterior was decorated by 
 about 120 fluted columns, 61 feet in height, and 
 more than 6 feet in diameter. It was 354 feet 
 long, and 171 broad, and contained the celebrated 
 statue of the Olympian Jupiter in ivory and gold, 
 the work of Phidias. 
 
 Besides these wonders of art, ' the city contained 
 places of interest of which the memory 'will perpe- 
 tually remain — ^the Academy where Plato, whose 
 estate lay near it, gave his lessons in a grove of 
 plane-trees adorned with statues; tradition alleged 
 it to have belonged originally to Academus. Hip- 
 parchus surroimded it with a wall, and Cimon 
 adorned it with walks, fountains, and ohve-aroves. 
 The Lyceum, the most important of the Athenian 
 gymnasia, where Aristotle lectured; and, near to 
 this, the Cynosarges, where Antisthenes the Cynic 
 expounded his 'harsh and crabbed' doctrine; the 
 hiU of the Areiopagus, where the most venerable court 
 of judicature was held; and the Prytanemn, or 
 senate-house. About a quarter of a mile to the west 
 of the Acropohs rises a low hfll, which marks the 
 looaUty of the Pnyx, a place of public assembly, 
 forming a large semicircular area, boimded at the 
 base by a limestone wall, from which projects a 
 pedestal, carved out of the rock, and ascended by 
 steps. This most interesting place has been pre- 
 served almost in its integrity, and, as we look 
 around, we are carried back to the times when some 
 six thousand Athenian'citizens were here assembled, 
 when the orator, standing upon the pedestal, could 
 survey the Acropolis, with all its temples, the vene- 
 rable Areopagus, and beyond the city, the extended 
 plains and viSages of Attica, with corn-fields, olive- 
 grounds, and vineyards. 
 
 A, in its most flourishing period, numbered 
 21,000 free citizens; from which we may calculate 
 that it contained about 200,000 inhabitants. More 
 than two thousand years have passed over the 
 beautiful city, and still its remains excite the admi- 
 ration of the world. The Turks surrounded it with 
 wide irregular walls, partly built out of the ruins of 
 the old walls, and containing many fragments of 
 noble columns. Of the Propylasa, the right wing, or 
 Temple of Victory, was destroyed in 1656 by the 
 explosion of a powder-magazine. Six columns, with 
 lofty arches, remain to mark the site of the opposite 
 wing. The interior of the Parthenon was used 
 for some time as a Turkish mosque. Bight columns 
 remain on the east of the front, several colon- 
 nades at the sides; and of the back pediment, 
 where the combat of Minerva and Neptune was 
 sculptured, nothing remains save the head of a sea- 
 horse, and two decapitated female figures. Of the 
 pediment in front, several figures belonging to the 
 group representing the birth of Minerva are pre- 
 served in the British Museum, and justly regarded 
 as master-pieces of ancient sculptm-e. Of all the 
 statues which the Parthenon contained, only one, 
 
ATHENS. 
 
 that of Hadrian, has been preserved. Ruined as it 
 has been, the general aspect of the Parthenon is still 
 sublime. Of the Erechtheium (or Temple of Neptunus 
 Ereohtheius) considerable vestiges remain, especially 
 the beautiful female figures styled Caryatides. 
 
 The situations and vast extent of the two theatres 
 may stiU be traced, though grain is now grown in 
 the arenas. All these remains belong to ■fiiie Acro- 
 polis. In the city below, there are no such splendid 
 memorials. The Horologium, or octagonal Temple 
 of the Winds (bmlt by Andronicus Kyrrhestes), has 
 
 been well preserved ; but a few fragments found in 
 broken walls are aU that remain to tell of the splen- 
 did Gymnasium built by Ptolemaeus. Beyond the 
 city, the attention of the spectator is arrested by 
 the sublime ruins of the Temple of Jupiter Olympus. 
 Pedestals and inscriptions have been found here and 
 there, sometimes buried in the earth. The sculptures 
 on the friezes of the interior of the Temple of 
 Theseus, representing the exploits of Theseus, have 
 been well preserved, while the external sculjitures 
 are almost utterly destroyed. A Turkish burial-place 
 
 Temple of the Winds, Athens. 
 
 now occupies the lull where the Areiopagus held its 
 sittings. The site of the Lyceum is incEoated only 
 by scattered stones, and a modem house and garden 
 occupy the place of the Academy. Scarcely anything 
 remains to shew the old magnificence of the harbours 
 Peirseus, Phaleros, and Munychia. 
 
 It is probable that, in the time of Pausanias, many 
 structures remained belonging to the period before 
 the Persian war, as Xerxes, during his short time of 
 mastery over A., would scarcely have been able to 
 destroy more than the fortifications and principal 
 public bmldings. Themistocles, in his ' restoration 
 of the city, had chiefly a regard to utiUty; Cimon 
 paid attention to its decoration; but Pericles far 
 exceeded them in the magnificenoe of his designs, 
 which were too vast to be carried into effect in later 
 times. The civilisation, spreading from A. as its 
 centre, raised Macedon and other states into dan- 
 gerous rivalry. The defeat at ChEeroneia was as fatal 
 to the fine arts as to the liberty of the Athenians. 
 After the works at the Peirseus had been destroyed 
 by Sulla, the naval power, and with it the whole 
 poKtioal importance of A., rapidly declined. It is 
 true that the city was treated leniently by its con- 
 querors; the temples and statues were preserved 
 from violation, and A., with all the trophies of eight 
 centuries of greatness, remained under the Antonines ; 
 but the free national spirit of the Athenians had 
 departed for ever, and slowly, but surely, the fine 
 arts shared the fate of Grecian liberty. Their trea- 
 sures, which had been spared by the Soman emperors, 
 were gradually stolen away by various thievish 
 collectors, especially for the decoration of Byzan- 
 tium, or were destroyed by irreflective Christian 
 zeal and barbarian iuvasion. About 420 A. D., the 
 ancient rehgion and temple-service of A; had entirely 
 disappeared; afterwards, the schools of phOosophy 
 were closed by Justinian, and Greek mythology 
 was gradually forgotten. St George took the place 
 of Theseus, and the Parthenon was converted into a 
 church. The surviving industry of A . was injured by 
 Roger of Sicily, who removed its silk manufactures. 
 
 In 1456, A. fell into the hands of Omar, and, to 
 consummate its degradation, under the low, sensual 
 Turks, the city of Athene was regarded as an 
 appanage of the harem, and governed by a black 
 eunuch. The Venetians, having captured the city 
 in 1687, intended to carry away as a trophy the 
 quadriga of victory from the west front of the 
 Parthenon, but shattered it iu their attempt to 
 remove it. In 1688, A. was again delivered into 
 the hands of the Tm-ks, and the work of demohtion 
 now proceeded rapidly. The grand remaias of 
 antiquity were used as quarries to supply materials 
 for all ordinary buildings, and, iu the course of 
 another century, the city was reduced to its lowest 
 point of degradation. 
 
 Modem A. (styled by the Turks Athina or 
 Setines) is now the capital of the new kingdom of 
 Greece. Previous to the Greek revolution (1821), 
 it was a provincial city of inferior importance, the 
 seat of a Greek metropolitan bishop, and under the 
 jurisdiction of the Tiu-kish governor in Euboea. In 
 1821, the war of liberation commenced, and the 
 Turks surrendered Athens in the following year ; 
 but again captured it in 1826, and took the Acropolis 
 in 1827. After this it was left iu ruins uutU 1830, 
 when Attica was declared united with Greece by 
 the protocol of the London Conference. In 1834, 
 Otho, the son of the Bavarian monarch, who had. 
 been elected to the sovereignty of the new king- 
 dom, removed his residence from Naupha to A. 
 Improvements now proceeded rapidly : ' Turkish 
 manners and customs disappeared ; the contemptible 
 wooden houses and crooked streets were superseded 
 by new ones — among which the Hermes, iEolus, 
 Athene, and New Stadion streets are conspicuous; 
 and, in 1836, the foundation of a new palace was 
 laid. The municipal affairs of A. are now regu- 
 lated by a mayor (demarches) and councD. elected 
 by the citizens. Besides other pubho institutions, 
 modern A. has a gymnasiiun, a library enriched with 
 many donations from France and Germany, and a, 
 imiversity, where about 39 professors and tutors are 
 
 617 
 
ATHENS— ATHEEINE. 
 
 engaged. The number of students is between 500 
 and 600. Several interesting works have been 
 printed in A. The French government has founded 
 an ArohEeological Institute, and several missionary 
 societies have ajjpointed agents here. A. has almost 
 no trade except in walking-sticks and smoking-tubes 
 made of the black-thorn of old Parnassus. 
 
 Political History of A. — It was the Ionic race 
 that manifested most signally the distinguishing 
 characters of Greek civilisation ; and of this portion 
 of Hellas, A., in the brilliant part of its history, 
 stands out most prominently. According to tracfi- 
 tion, its poKtical power was first established by 
 Theseus, king of Attica, who made A. the metropolis. 
 Here he instituted the great popular festival of the 
 Panathensea, and, by encouraging settlements in the 
 city, greatly increased its population. He divided 
 the citizens into three classes : nobility, agriculturists, 
 and mechanics. Until the death of Codrus in 1068 
 B. c, A. was governed by kings ; afterwards, by 
 arohons elected from the nobility. The time of 
 holding ofELce was limited to ten years in 752 B. c, 
 and to one year in 683 B.C., when nine archons were 
 annually elected, one being called the arckon epony- 
 mus, because the year was distinguished by his name. 
 Here begins the aitthentic history of A. These 
 archons, together with the council of nobles, after- 
 wards called the Areiopagus, exercised the whole 
 power of the state, and administered justice. The 
 Athenian government was thus, like aU other 
 Hellenic governments, an oligarchy; but the changes 
 introduced by the archon Solon, 594 b. c, though 
 remarkably moderate, laid the foundation of that 
 democratic constitution which was afterwards per- 
 fected by Cleisthenes. The condition of the popu- 
 lation at the time of Solon was one of extreme 
 suffering and discord, arising chiefly from the oppres- 
 sive execution, by the aristocratic archons, of the 
 law of debtor and creditor. This law was of old 
 extreinely harsh in Greece as well as in Eome ; it 
 assigned the debtor that could not fulfil his con- 
 tract as the slave of his creditor. The great part 
 of the soil of Attica was in the hands of the rich, 
 and the mass of the population, who tUled the 
 lands as tenants, were either in hopeless arrears, 
 or already, with their families, actual slaves. Driven 
 to desperation, the populace were ready to rise in 
 mutiny; the ohgarchy were afraid or unable to 
 enforce the laws ; and thus it was agreed to confer 
 dictatorial power on Solon, well known for his 
 wisdom, integrity, and sympathy with the people, 
 and allow him to solve the problem. The disease 
 being desperate, Solon applied the desperate remedy 
 of abolishing existing contracts, liberating those that 
 had been reduced to slavery, and forbidding for the 
 future any one from pledging his own person or that 
 of a member of his famOy. He next reformed the 
 pohtical constitution by dividing the freemen into 
 four classes, according to the amount of their pro- 
 perty. It was only the richer classes that paid 
 taxes and were eligible to the ofiices of state ; but 
 all had votes in the assembly that elected the 
 archons, and all sat in judgment on their past con- 
 duct, on the expiry of their year of office. The 
 fovemment, though stiU ohgarohical, was thus modi- 
 ed by popular control. Its free operation was for 
 some time (560 — 510 B. c.) interrupted by the usurp- 
 ation of Peisistratus and his sons, whose tyranny, 
 howeverr was mUd and enlightened, the forms at 
 least of the Solonian constitution being preserved. 
 
 On the banishment of the Peisistratidae (510 B. c), 
 a further pohtical reform was introduced by Cleis- 
 thenes, who extended the basis of the constitution, 
 and rendered it essentially democratic. To Cleis- 
 thenes is ascribed the origin of the practice called 
 ostradsm (q. v.). 
 61S 
 
 Then followed the brilliant period of the Persian 
 war, when out of the circumstances which had seemed 
 to threaten destruction, A. rose to the highest poiat 
 of power and prosperity. Miltiades at Marathon, 
 and Themistooles at Salamis, gained the victories 
 which infused new courage and enthusiasm into 
 the Greek nation. The period between the Persian 
 war and the time of Alexander the Great, or from 
 500 to 336 B.C., was the most glorious in Athenian 
 history; and in 444, Cimon and Pericles raised the 
 city to its highest point of grandeur and beauty. 
 But under Pericles, the beginning of a decline took 
 place, through the decay of ancient morals and the 
 Peloponnesian war, which ended in the capture of 
 A. by the Lacedsemonians. After this, A. retained 
 only the shadow of its former power and dignity. 
 The thirty appointed ministers of government were, 
 in fact, so many tyrants, supported by the Laeedse- 
 monian army. After eight months of despotism had 
 been endured, the tyrants were expelled by Thrasy- 
 bulus, a free constitution was restored to A., and a 
 new period of prosperity commenced. But it was 
 not destined to endure long; a formidable foe, 
 Philip of Macedon, now appeared in the north. The 
 Athenians having opposed nim in the Phocian war, 
 Philip took from them several of their colonies. 
 Then followed the defeat of the Athenians at 
 Oh^roneia (338 B. c), a fatal blow to Greece. A. 
 with other states became subject to Macedon. The 
 free spirit of the citizens was broken, and in moral 
 character they degenerated. ■ After Alexander's 
 death, a fruitless attempt was made to regain their 
 liberty. Antipater instituted an oligarchy of wealth. 
 Soon afterwards, A. was taken by Cassander, and 
 placed under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus, who 
 employed his power wisely and beneficently. Once 
 more the old constitution of A. was restored by 
 Demetrius PoKorcetes, and a short interval of inde- 
 pendence was enjoyed, until the city was taken by 
 Antigonus Gonatas. After liberating themselves 
 from the dominion of Macedon, and joining the 
 Achaian confederacy, the Athenians were so mis- 
 guided as to support Mithridates against the Romans. 
 This last error was fatal. SuDa conquered A., 
 destroyed the port of the Piraeus, and left only the ap- 
 pearance of liberty and independence, which entirely 
 vanished in the time of Vespasian. StiU, after the 
 spirit of liberty and progress had departed, A. long 
 remained safe from spoliation. The Romans, in 
 their respect for Grecian pre-eminence in art and 
 philosophy, and moved also by rehgious reverence, 
 long regarded Athens as a captive too noble and 
 beautiful to suffer any indignity. 
 
 A'THBNS, a name applied to twenty- three places 
 in the United States. The most important of them is 
 a thriving town in Georgia, 92 miles to the west-north- 
 west of Augusta. It IS the terminus of a branoh- 
 raUway, which joins the Georgia Central. It con- 
 tains a cotton manufactory, and is the market for 
 an extensive cotton-growing region. It is the seat 
 also of Franklin College, a flourishing seminary of 
 education. 
 
 A'THERUiTE (Atheri'na), a genus of small fishes, 
 allied to the Mullet family (Mugilidce), but latterly 
 separated into a distinct family, Atherinidce. The 
 Atherines have more than twice as many vertebras 
 as the Mullets ; they are of a rather slender form, 
 but few of them exceed six inches in length. They 
 have a protractile mouth, and very small teeth; 
 some are quite toothless. Almost aU the known 
 species, which are numerous, and found in the seas 
 of different parts of the world, have a broad silvery 
 band along each flank. Some of them are much 
 esteemed for their delicacy. They all congregate in 
 great shoals. They abound in the Mediterranean. 
 
ATHEROMA— ATHOS. 
 
 One species, A. Presbyter, ia very common on the 
 south coast of England and on some parts of the 
 coast of Ireland, but is rare on the east coast of 
 Britain. In the markets of some of the southern 
 
 Atherine (Atlierina Presbyter). 
 
 towns of England, where the Smelt (q. v.) ia 
 unknown, it is sold vmder that name : in Brighton 
 and some other places, it is called Sand Smelt. 
 Where this fish abounds, it is often taken by anglers 
 from the shore, biting readily at almost any bait. 
 
 ATHERO'MA, or 'fatty deposit,' ia generaUy 
 found in the tissues of aged persons, or those who 
 have lived dissipated and ill-nourished lives. In 
 appearance, it is yellow and cheesy, shewing under 
 the microscope fatty granules and crystals of choles- 
 terine. Its most common situation is between the 
 middle and inner eoata of arteries, and is dangerous, 
 inasmuch as it interferes with the elasticity of the 
 arterial tube, rendering it more liable to injury, and 
 less able to repair itself, should any occur. A. gene- 
 rally precedes aneurism (q. v.). Cysts filled with con- 
 tents resembling bread-sauce, which frequently occur 
 in the scalp, are termed atheromatous tumours. 
 
 _ A'THLETB (Gr. otMeo, to contend), the name 
 given to a combatant, pugilist, wrestler, or runner, 
 in ancient Greece. Aliletics were studied in 
 Greece as a branch of art, and led to several 
 useful rules of diet, exercise, &c., apphcable to 
 ordinary modes of life. Bodily strength and activity 
 were so highly honoured by the Greeks, that the 
 A. held a position in society totally different from 
 that of the modem pugUist. When he proposed to 
 enter the lists at the Cflympie or other pubHc games, 
 he was examined with regard to his birth, social 
 position, and moral character. A herald then 
 stepped forth and called upon any one, if he knew 
 aught disgracefijl to the candidate, to state it. Even 
 men of genius contended for the palm in athletic 
 exercises. Chrysippus and Cleanthes, the famous 
 philosophers, were victorious athletes, or, at least, 
 agonistcB, i. e., persona who pursued gjramastic 
 exercises, not as a profession, but for the sake of 
 exercise, just as at the present day we have gentle- 
 men-cricketers, amateur-pugilists, &c. The profound 
 and eloquent Plato appeared among the wrestlers in 
 the Isthmian games at Corinth, and also in the 
 Pythian games at Sicyon. Even the meditative 
 Pythagoras is said to have gained a prize at Elis, and 
 gave instructions for athletic training to Eurymenes, 
 who afterwards gained a prize at the same place. 
 So great was the honour of an Olympian victor, that 
 his native city was regarded as eimobled by his suc- 
 cess, and he himseK considered sacred. He entered 
 the city through a special breach made in the walls ; 
 he was supported at the public expense ; and when he 
 died, was honoured with a public funeral. Euthymus, 
 of -Locri in Italy, who had, with only one exception, 
 been regularly victorious at Elis, was honoured with 
 a statue, to which, even during his lifetime, homage 
 was paid by command of an oracle. Athletic sports 
 were first witnessed at Rome 186 B. o. They were 
 introduced by M. Fulviua at the end of the .^itolian 
 war, and became excessively popular in the time 
 of tiie emperors. At Rome, the athletes formed a 
 corporation. ' 
 
 ATHIiO'NB, a small town in the centre of 
 
 Ireland, on both sides of the Shannon, chiefly in 
 the county of Westmeath, but partly in that of 
 Rosoonmion. It is the largest town between Dublin 
 and Galway, and lies on a commanding situation, 
 3 miles below Lough Ree, in a carbonireroua lime- 
 stone district. The chief manufactures are felt-hats, 
 friezes, linens, and stays. A canal here, a mile 
 long, enables large river-steamers to navigate the 
 Shannon for 116 miles, from Killaloe to Carriok- 
 on-Shannon, uninterrupted by the river-rapida. 
 The Shannon ia crossed by a fine bow-string and 
 lattice iron bridge of two arches, 175 and 40 feet 
 span. Pop. in 1851, 6218. A. sends one member to 
 parliament. A. Castle, on the Roscommon bank of 
 the Shannon, was founded in the reign of King 
 John, and has now been rendered one of the chief 
 mmtary positions in Ireland. The fortifications 
 cover 15 acres, and contain barracks for 1500 men. 
 
 A'THOLE (Pleasant Land), a district of 450 
 square mUes, in the north of Perthshire. It occupies 
 a great part of the southern slopes of the Grampian 
 moimtains, and is intersected by many narrow 
 glens, down which flow the rapid tributaries of the 
 Tay. It is chiefly composed of gneiss and quartz 
 rock, with beds of primary limestone. Dr Hutton's 
 explorations among the granite veins in Glen Tilt, 
 were among the chief means of establishing the 
 Plutonic theory of geology. A. was once one of the 
 best hunting districts in Scotland. Athble deer-forest 
 is said to contain 100,000 acres, and 6000 head of deer, 
 of which 100 are killed annually. In the picturesque 
 Pass of KiUiecrankie,in this district, 17 miles north- 
 west of Dunkeld, Claverhouse fell in 1689, though 
 victorious over the troops of King WiUiam III. 
 
 A'THOR, or ATHYR, but properly, .ffei-Ae?-, i.e., 
 'the habitation of God,' the name of an Egyptian 
 goddess who, in the mythological system of that 
 people, is ranked among the second class of deities. 
 She was the daughter of Ra, the sun. By the 
 Greeks, she was identified with Aphrodite (Venus). 
 The cow was regarded as her symbol, and, in 
 hieroglyphics, she generally appears with the head 
 of that animal, bearing between her horns the 
 figure of the sun's disk. A. is also represented as a 
 cow itself, and as a bird with human face, horns, 
 and the sun's disk. On the oldest monuments, she 
 is frequently portrayed bearing a temple on her head, 
 as in the Athor-capitals of the Ptolemaic buildings, 
 falsely supposed to be heads of Isis. Originally, 
 the goddess had a cosmogonio significance ; later, she 
 was called the ' mistress of dance and jest,' and held 
 in her hands, as symbols of joy, the cord of love and 
 the tambourine. Queens and princesses were often 
 represented by the figure of A. Her worship was 
 generally spread through Egypt. Her most sacred 
 abode was at Denderah. After he* the third month 
 of the Egyptian year was named. 
 
 A'THOS, HA'GIOSr CEOS, or MO'NTiiS 
 SA'NTO, i. e., the Holy Hill, the |ainoipal mountain 
 of a chain extending, in a peninaular form, from the 
 coast of Macedonia into the .(Egean Sea, between 
 the Gulfs of Contessa and Montg Santo, and con- 
 nected with the mainland by a narrow isthmus. 
 The length of the peninsula is 40 miles ; breadth, 4. 
 According to tradition, it received its name from A., 
 son of Neptime, or from A., a giant who battled 
 against the gods. The highest summit in the chain, 
 or Mount A. proper, a solitary peak at the southern 
 extremity of the peninsula, rises 6350 feet above the 
 sea-level. In ancient times, several towns were 
 buUt on A. Herodotus mentions five. The most 
 memorable thing in connection with A., is the canal 
 which Xerxes cut through the isthmus, in order to 
 escape the stormy gales which rendered the naviga- 
 tion round the promontory very perilous, and which 
 
ATHY— ATLANTIC OCEAN. 
 
 had shattered the fleet of Mardonius some years 
 before. Traces of this canal still exist. In the middle 
 ages, A. -was covered with monasteries, of which 20 
 still remain (besides several hermitages, chapels, 
 &c.). The largest are the monasteries of Ivoron 
 and St Laura ; the richest, Vatopaedi. The entire 
 number of monks who inhabit the ' Holy Hill ' is 
 about 8000. They form a kind of monastic republic 
 under the Turkish government, to which they 
 pay an annual tribute of nearly £4000. The 
 monks follow the rule of Basflius, and lead an 
 ascetic life, engaged chiefly in agriculture, gardening, 
 and the care of bees. In diet, they restrict them- 
 selves to herbs, fruits, and fish. They carry on a 
 considerable trade ia amulets, images, crucifixes, 
 wooden articles of fumitiu-e — all of their own manu- 
 facture — and also reap profits from the numerous 
 visits of pilgrims. Karyses, the principal place in the 
 peninsula, is picturesquely situated in the midst of 
 vineyards and gardens, and has 1000 inhabitants. 
 Here the market is held ; but no female, even of the 
 animal kind, is permitted to be present, or even to 
 enter the peninsula. In the middle ages, A. was 
 the centre of Greek learning and Christian-Byzantine 
 art. Now, scarcely more than two or three monks, 
 of tolerable education, can be found in a monastery. 
 The libraries are neglected, though containing several 
 beautiful old manuscripts, some specimens of which 
 have been brought to Western Europe. They 
 contain, however, Uttle or nothing of value in 
 classical literature. 
 
 ATHY', a small town in the south-west of KUdare 
 county, Ireland, on the east side of the river Barrow, 
 here navigable for barges. It lies in a carboniferous 
 limestone district. It chiefly consists of two main 
 streets. Pop. (1851) 5210. Its chief export is 
 grain. 
 
 ATLA'NTA, a flourishing city of Georgia. 
 Though it was founded only in 1845, yet, in 1853, 
 it munbered 4000 inhabitants. It owes its pros- 
 perity chiefly to its situation, being the focus of four 
 of the principal railways of the state — the Georgia, 
 the Macon and Western, the Atlantic and Western, 
 and lastly, the La Grange. Independently of these 
 means of commimioation, the surrounding country, 
 besides being rich in grain and cotton, contains gold, 
 iron, and other valuable minerals. 
 
 ATLA'NTES, in Arch., so caUed, by the Greeks, 
 in reference to the mythical Atlas (q.v.), are male 
 
 Atlas Column, from the Baths at Pompeii. 
 
 figures used instead of columns. The Romans called 
 them Telamones. 
 ATLANTIC OCEAN, so caUed either from 
 
 £20 
 
 Mount Atlas, or from the fabulous island of Atlantis, 
 is that part of the ocean that divides the Old World 
 from the New. Its extreme breadth is about 5000 
 miles, and its narrowest part, between Cape Ht 
 Eoque in Brazil, and the nearest jfoint in Africa, 
 about 1600 nules. If the A. be supposed to be 
 bovmded by the polar circles, it covers an area 
 computed at 25 million square miles. The A. is 
 naturally divided into three portions — the north, 
 south, and intertropical A. It stands in open con- 
 nection with the north and south polar seas, and 
 in the remarkable parallelism of its coasts, resembles 
 rather a vast river than an ocean. Its northern half 
 sends off numerous ramifications on both sides, some 
 of them forming almost shut seas: on the west, 
 Hudson's Bay, the Gulf of St Lawrence, and the 
 Gulf of Mexico ; on the east, the Baltic, North, 
 Mediterranean, and Black Seas. In the south, again, 
 both coasts present a comparatively unbroken line ; 
 but there is a remarkable correspondence between 
 their projecting and retiring angles, the convex 
 coast of Brazil lying opposite to the Gulf of Guinea, 
 and the projection of Senegambia answering to the 
 retirement of the American coast in the Caribbean 
 Sea. 
 
 The whole of the New World, with the exception 
 of the narrow strip lying west of the Andes and 
 Kocky Mountains, belongs to the basin of this ocean. 
 It drains comparatively httle of the Old World, as 
 may be seen by tracing the water-shed on a, map. 
 Owing to the numerous seas and inlets connected 
 with it, the extent of its shores is immense, over 
 50,000 miles, several thousands more than that of 
 the shores of the Pacific Ocean and Indian Sea 
 together. Except near the continents, the Atlantic 
 is poor in islands compared with the Pacific. The 
 chief islands in the open ocean are Iceland, the Faroe 
 Islands, Bermudas, Azores, Ascension, St Helena, 
 the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and Sandwich. 
 Land. 
 _ The A. is now the greatest highway of the 
 civilised world, and eveiything that ■ cdncems its 
 navigation becomes of vast importance. Under the 
 system of observations established by Lieutenant 
 Maury of the United States Observatory at 
 Washington, and now co-operated in by England, 
 much has been done, and is doing, to amass infor- 
 mation as to its currents, winds, depth, temperature, 
 &c. The operations connected with the Telegraph 
 cable were also the means of furnishing us with some 
 valuable information regarding the Atlantic. It 
 was then discovered, from a comparison of meteorolo- 
 gical observations extending over a long period, that 
 the western part of what has been named the Tele- 
 graphic Plateau is exempt from gales during summer ; 
 that the eastern part is almost free in August, except 
 on the coast of Ireland; and that there is Mttle risk 
 from storms in June and July. In June, fogs are of 
 more frequent occurrence on the western than on the 
 eastern side. Between ^June and August, there is 
 less danger from ice than at any other time of the 
 year ; and, considering all things, the A. is freest from 
 disturbing causes between the 20th of July and the 
 12th of August. 
 
 The chief A. currents are two. The Equaiarial 
 Current, which, starting from the Bay of Benin, 
 proceeds westwards on both sides of the equator 
 till near the coast of Brazil, where it divides, one 
 branch running south, and the other along the 
 coast of Guiana into the Caribbean Sea. The velo- 
 city of this current is very varied, in some places 
 flowing at the rate of 25 nules a day, and in others, 
 at three times the speed. Its force also varies 
 with the months ; but the mean velocity may be set 
 down at about 30 nautical miles a day. Its breadth 
 varies from 200 to 400 miles ; and its temperature is 
 
ATLANTIC OCEAN-ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. 
 
 lower tlian the surrounding ocean. The other great 
 current is the Gulf Stream. This issues from the 
 Gulf of Mexico through the Strait of Florida, and 
 after following the direction of the American coast 
 to about 40°, turns seaward, touches the great New- 
 foundland Bank, and OTa^ually curving round, is 
 lost about the Azores, ^ut part of its waters find 
 their way to the British and Faroe Islands, and 
 to the coast of Norway. The water jof this stream 
 is often upwards of 20° warmer than the surround- 
 ing ocean. Its physical identity is preserved for 
 thousands of miles. Lieutenant Maury calls it 
 -a river in the ocean;' and the line of junction, 
 even as far out from the gulf as the Carolina 
 coasts, is so distinctly marked, that it may be 
 traced by the eye. 'Often one half of the vessel 
 may be perceived floating in the Gulf Stream water, 
 while the other half is in common water of the sea ; 
 so. sharp is the hue, and such the want of affinity 
 between those waters.' The Gulf Stream has an 
 immense influence on the A. According to Lieu- 
 tenant Maury's calculation, it keeps in perpetual 
 motion one-fourth of all the waters in the ocean. 
 Its velocity and breadth vary very considerably. 
 The branches and fniits of tropical trees, often 
 found on the coasts of the Hebrides and Faroe 
 Islands, are no doubt transported by this current. 
 See Gulp Stream. Besides these great currents, 
 the A. abounds with smaller ones, which are as 
 yet mysteries to the mariner. No researches that 
 have hitherto been undertaken have enabled him to 
 define their whereabouts and their strength and 
 direction so precisely and accurately that he may 
 at all times ' be certain of their help, when favour- 
 able, and sure of avoiding them if adverse.' — 
 Speaking of under- currents. Lieutenant Maury 
 says : 'There seems to be a larger flow of polar waters 
 into the A. than of other waters from it, and I can- 
 not accoxmt for the preservation of the equilibrium 
 of this ocean by any other hypothesis tiian that 
 which calls in the aid of under-currents. They, I 
 have no doubt, bear an important part in the system 
 of oceanic circulation.' As a means of ascertaining 
 the force and direction of these under-currents, 
 the same authority recommends a submarine kite, 
 constructed on the principle of an air kite. 
 
 It is only within very recent years that the depth 
 of the A. has been determined with anything like 
 accuracy. Under the old system of lead-and-line 
 sounding, enonnous depths were reported. Liues 
 34,000 feet, 46,000 feet, and even 50,000 feet, had 
 been run out in the South A. without discovering 
 aiiy bottom. The reason of this is now attri- 
 buted, not to the great depth of the ocean, but 
 to the fact that the shock caused by a weight so 
 light as that in common use strikiug the bottom 
 cannot be communicated through very great depths ; 
 and besides, the under-currents have, as a general 
 rule, more than suflSicient force to take the hne out 
 long after the pliumnet is at rest. Varioxis experi- 
 ments were made with a view to improve the method 
 of sounding, chiefly by officers in the service of the 
 United States government, and, finally, it was deter- 
 mined to sound with a cannon-ball of 32 lbs. (which 
 it was thought would be of sufficient weight to give 
 an indication when it touched the bottom) attached 
 to sounding-twine marked every hundred, fathoms, 
 and wound on reels holding 10,000 fathoms each. 
 As soon as the slack gave token that the ball had 
 reached the bottom, the line was cut and the length 
 remaining " on the reel measured, the difference 
 between that and the original length being the 
 depth of the ocean. This plan was not perfect 
 without various calculations as to currents, velocity 
 of descent, &c., which have since been made, and 
 which have rendered deep-sea soundings something 
 
 like reliable. The result is, that the ocean is not 
 above half the depth it was formerly supposed to 
 be. The greatest depth of the North A. yet dis- 
 covered is 25,000 feet, about 4| miles. The deepest 
 part, in the opinion of Lieutenant Maury, is probably 
 between the parallels of 35° and 40' N. lat., and 
 immediately to the southward of the Grand Banks 
 of Newfoundland. A remarkable ridge, about 400 
 miles wide, and 10,000 to 12,000 feet, or 2 to 2^ 
 miles below the surface of the sea, extends along the 
 bottom of the A. from Cape Clear in Ireland to 
 Cape Race in Newfoundland, a distance of 1640 
 miles. A specimen of the natm-e of this plateau 
 was brought up by a beautiful sounding-apparatus, 
 the invention of a United States officer, which 
 detaches the sinking-weight as soon as it touches 
 the ground, and is so contrived that it brings up 
 specimens of the bottom along with it. When 
 examined by the microscope,'this specimen was found 
 to be chiefly composed of little calcareous shells 
 {Foraminiferce). No particle of sand mingled with 
 these shells. Lieutenant Berryman has since found 
 in this track obsidian, pumice, &c., forming a line of 
 volcanic cinders 100 miles long. Upon tms plateau 
 lies the A. Telegraph cable, unfortunately in a 
 ■useless condition. 
 
 Leaving out of account the coasts, the A. is 
 shallowest in what the Portuguese call the Mer de 
 Sargasso (q.v.), or 'Weedy Sea;' a vast tract extend- 
 ing from the 30th meridian to the Bahama Islands, 
 and between the parallels of 36° N. and 19° N., 
 densely covered in many parts with gulf-weed 
 (Fucas nutans). See Gulf-weed. 
 
 The bottom of the A., as shewn in a map executed 
 by Lieutenant Maury, is a series of ridges. The first 
 ridge nearest the shore is less than 6000 feet beneath 
 the surface of the sea ; the second ridge is reached 
 at a depth of 12,000 feet ; the third, at a depth of 
 18,000 feet ; and the fourth, at a depth of 24,000 feet. 
 This last ridge rises over depths yet unfathomed, 
 between the Bermudas and the Grand, Banks of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 In the intertropical portion of the A., the trade- 
 winds (q. V. ) regularly prevail ; beyond this, the vrinds 
 are variable. On an average of six years, the voyage 
 from Liverpool to New York, by sailing-vessels, 
 takes not less than 40 days, while tiie return voyage 
 is accompUshed in 23 days. The difference of time 
 out and home is entirely due to the prevalence of 
 south-west winds in the North A. 
 
 The A. aboimds mth fish ; herring and cod fishing 
 forming' important branches of industry in Northern 
 Europe. 
 
 Johnston's Physical Atlas, and Lieutenant Maury's 
 Physical Geography of the Sea, afford detailed infor- 
 mation regarding the temperature, winds, currents, 
 navigation, &o. of the A. 0. 
 
 ATLANTIC TE'LEGRAPH, Histoey oi?. In 
 1842, Professor Morse of New York, having 
 stretched a submarine cable between Castle Garden 
 and Governor's Island, Boston, and succeeded 
 in transmitting an electric current from one end 
 to the other, expressed his opinion that it would 
 be possible to effect an electrical communication 
 through the sea. After further investigations, he 
 announced to the Secretary of the Treasury of 
 the United States, ' that a telegraphic communica- 
 tion on his plan might with certainty be established 
 across the Atlantic' Three years prior to that, 
 Sir WiUiam O'Shaughnessy gave practical proof that 
 electrical messages could be conveyed through water, 
 by depositing a cable in the bed of the Hooghly; 
 but it was the successful submarine telegraphic 
 undertakiags of the Messrs Brett, who, in Jime 1845, 
 registered a ' General Oceanic Telegraph Company,' 
 with the object among others of joining this coimtry 
 
ATLANTIS-ATLAS. 
 
 with America by means of a telegraph ' across the 
 Atlantic Ocean,' and six years afterwards united 
 England with iSrance (see Submarine Telegraph), 
 that first fairly convinced the public mind that 
 the New World might be put on what may be 
 called conversational terms with the Old. The 
 supposed great depths of the Atlantic Ocean pre- 
 sented the most imposing obstacle to this desired 
 closeness of communion ; but when it was dis- 
 covered that between Ireland and Newfoundland 
 there ejctended, along the bottom of the Atlantic, 
 at a depth of not more than two miles below the 
 surface, a fine broad platform (see Atlantic 
 Ocean), seemingly so specially formed by nature 
 for the purpose of electrical communication, that 
 Captain Maury at once designated it the Tele- 
 graphic Plateau, the project of an Atlantic sub- 
 marine cable assumed a practicable form. In 1854, 
 the colonial government of Newfpimdland passed 
 an act incorporating a company to establish a tele- 
 graphic communication between the Old World and 
 the New, and aided it by a subsidy, and by grants of 
 lands. The colonial government also conferred upon 
 the company the exclusive right of landing a tele- 
 graphic line upon the coast under its jurisdiction. 
 The governments of Prince Edward's Island and 
 the state of Maine made similar concessions ; and 
 authority for certain subsidiary operations in Canada 
 was also obtained. The company, incorporated under 
 the title of 'The New York, Newfoundland, and 
 London Telegraph Company,' commenced operations 
 by uniting St John's in Newfoundland with lines in 
 the United States and British North America. This 
 done, nimierous preliminary experiments were under- 
 taken by eminent electricians and engineers, in order 
 to determine the amount of retarding force which 
 inducted and disguised electricity were likely to 
 offer to the transmission of currents along submarine 
 ■wires of unusual length. Having by these experi- 
 ments, 2000 in number, tried with 62 different kinds 
 of cable, determined the one best adapted for the 
 conveyance of electricity through such a length, 
 and at such a depth in the Atlantic, the next step 
 was the formation of a more influential company. 
 In 1856, 'The A. T. Company,' to which all the 
 privileges conferred on the old company were handed 
 over, was formed with a capital of £350,000. The 
 governments of Great Britain and the United States 
 EberaUy aided the company, guaranteeing, by a con- 
 tract of 25 years' duration, to pay to the company, 
 until such time as its dividend reached 6 per cent., a 
 subsidy of £14,000 a year, and of £10,000 subse- 
 quently. They also agreed to furnish ships for laying 
 down the cable. 
 
 The cable, which weighed about a ton per nule, 
 equal to 14 owt. in water, was composed of a strand 
 of seven wires of pure copper, coated with three 
 separate layers of gutta percha, wrapped over with 
 hemp saturated with pitch and tar, and finally bound 
 round with iron wires, 332,500 nules of iron and 
 copper wire being employed in its construction. 
 It was deposited in the holds of the Agamemnon, 
 a line-of -battle ship supplied by the British govern- 
 ment, and the Niagara, a splendid frigate furnished 
 by the United States, and the two vessels started 
 on their grand mission. After two unsuccessful at- 
 tempts during the years 1857 and 1858, the expedition 
 started again for mid-ocean, whence the ships were to 
 start, paying-out towards opposite shores, on the 17th 
 of July 1858. The cable was united and lowered on 
 the 29th of the same month ; and the Agamemnon, 
 notwithstanding a severe gale of wind, arrived at 
 Valentia, having successfully laid her portion of it, 
 on the morning of the 5th of August. The Niagara 
 about the same time arrived in Trinity Bay, 
 Newfoundland, and science had annihilated space 
 
 between the Old World and the New. On the 
 17th August, the extremities of the cable having 
 been put in connection vrith the recording-instru- 
 ments, the following message was flashed through 
 the ocean in thirty-five minutes : ' Europe and 
 America are united by 'telegraph. Glory to God 
 in the highest; on earth peace and good- will 
 towards men.' Messages and replies from the 
 Queen to the President of the United States, from 
 the Mayor of London "to the Mayor of New York, 
 &c., followed. But on the 4th of September, the 
 signals at Valentia became unintelligible, and up to 
 this time they have remained so. The general behef 
 of scientific men appears to be, that the cable is defec- 
 tive about 300 nules from Valentia; but whether 
 this is or is not the real cause of the stoppage, has 
 not been clearly ascertained. One commercial mes- 
 sage of great importance passed through the cable, 
 in reference to the collision between the Atlantic 
 steamers, the Europa and Arabia; this single 
 message saved the conmiercial world £50,000, which 
 would doubtless have been spent in extra insurance 
 on the vessels and cargoes thus delayed beyond 
 their anticipated time of arrival. 
 
 ATLA'NTIS, according to ancient tradition, the 
 name of a vast island in the Atla,ntic Ocean. It ia 
 first mentioned by Plato, whcrepresents an Egyptian 
 priest as describing it to Solon, but, of course, accord- 
 ing to Plato's view of the matter. In this description, 
 A. appeared as an island larger than Libya and Asia 
 Minor taken together, and lying off the Pillars of 
 Hercules in the Atlantic Ocean. Plato gives a beau- 
 tiful picture of the interior of this imaginary land, 
 and enriches it with a fabulous history. Some early 
 writers supposed that the Canary Islands were the 
 remains of the old A. ; for Plato had stated that at 
 the close of the long contest which its inhabitants 
 maintained against the Athenians, nine thousand 
 years before his time, the sea suddenly engulfed 
 the island, and had ever since been unnavigable, by 
 reason of the shoals of mud created by the sunken 
 island. Some formd it in the Scandinavian penin- 
 sula ; others (first Bircherod in 1685) have supposed 
 that Phoenician or Carthaginian merchant-ships had 
 been driven by storm on the coast of America, and 
 that the supposed vast island of A. mentioned by 
 Plato, as well as the great unnamed island spoken of 
 by Phny, Diodorus, and Amobius, may have been 
 the New World. 
 
 A'TIiAS is that piece of the human vertebral 
 column which is nearest to the skull; in other 
 words, it is the first cervical vertebra. It may 
 be known from the other six by its being without 
 a body or spinous process, by its being a mere 
 irregular bony ring, partly divided into two unequal 
 parts by a constriction; this division in the recent 
 subject is completed by a ligament, the part in front 
 being occupied by the tooth-hlce process of the second 
 cervical vertebra, and that behind, by the spinal- 
 marrow. On each side, the ring is very thick ; it is 
 smooth and cupped above to receive the condyles of 
 the occipital bone. The corresponding parts below 
 are flat, and rest on the second cervicM vertebra. 
 
 The A., with the occipital bone, forms the joint 
 on which the head moves in bovidng ; and turns on 
 the pivot of the second cervical vertebra, when we 
 look from side to side. 
 
 A'TLAS, according to Hesiod's Theogony, one 
 of the Titans, the son of lapetus and Clymene, and 
 brother of Menoetius, Prometheus, and Epimetheus. 
 ApoUodorus, however, states him to have been a 
 son of Asia, and Hyginus, a son of .lEther and 
 Gaea. He married Pleone, daughter of Ooeanus 
 (or Hesperis, his own niece) , and became the father of 
 the Pleiades. As leader of the Titans, he attempted 
 
ATLAS— ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 to storm the heavens, and for this supremo 
 treason waa condemned by Zeua to bear the vault 
 of heaven on his head and hands— the sting of this 
 mythological punishment obviously being, that A. 
 was compeUed to support what he tiiirated to 
 destroy. The later writers, however, rationalise 
 the myth, and state that A. was a mighty king who 
 had great skUi in astronomy, and only tried to 
 etorm heaven intellectually. — In consequence of the 
 ancient views which made the vault of heaven rest 
 on solid piUars or other' supports, the name A., 
 originally mythological and oosmogonic, was intro- 
 duced into geography. Mercator, in the 16th c, 
 fave the name A. to a collection of maps ; probably 
 ecause the figure of A. supporting the heavens had 
 been given on the title-pages of such works. 
 
 A'TLAS, a mass of mountain-land in the western 
 part of North Africa. Herodotus mentions a 
 smoking mountain of this name situated on the 
 south-west of the Little Syrtis, add twenty days' 
 journey westwards from the Garamantes, styled by 
 the natives the '. piUara of heaven.' By later writers, 
 after the time of Polybius, the name A. was always 
 given to the chain of mountains in North-west 
 Africa extending from the island of Cerne (now 
 Cape de Ger) north-west through Mauritania, and 
 Tingitana (now Fez and Marocoo), and including 
 also the heights dispersed through the region of 
 Sahara. It is divided into the Little Atlas and the 
 Great Atlas ; the former denominating a secondary 
 range in the country of Sous, and the other, the 
 ' loftier mountains of Marocco. The A. is not properly 
 a mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular 
 mountainous mass of land formed of many chains 
 running in various directions, meeting in mountain- 
 knots, or connected by yokes, or snort chains of 
 inferior height, and diversified stiU further by 
 several solitary mountains and groups of mountains. 
 The A. attains its greatest height (13,000 feet) in 
 Marocco, the only part where it rises aboye the 
 snow-hne, and obtams the name of Jebel-el-Thelj, 
 or Snowy Mountains. Its highest peaks are Miltsin — 
 27 miles south-east of the city of Marocco — Bibawan, 
 and Tagherain. The most southern chain diverging 
 here from the central mass bears the name Jehd- 
 Hadnar. The heights approach the sea, and form 
 the promontories jutting out into the Atlantic. 
 From Marocco, the A. gradually decreases in height 
 towards the east. In Algeria, the elevation is only 
 7673 feet; in Timis, 4476 feet; and in Tripoli, 3200 
 feet. The whole mountain-system is intersected by 
 the valley of the Muluia river, which flows through 
 the north-east part of Marocco, and falls into the 
 Mediterranean. The slopes on the north, west, and 
 south are covered with vast forests of pine, oak, 
 cork, white poplar, wild olive, &o. The valleys are 
 well watered and capable of cultivation with great 
 profit. The A. seems to be chiefly calcareous in its 
 composition. The mineral wealth remains, however, 
 almost wholly unexplored, though copper, iron, lead, 
 antimony, &c., are stated to exist in abundance. 
 
 A'TMOSPHBRE (Gr. atmos, vapour, sphaira, 
 sphere) is the name applied to the gaseous envelope 
 which surrounds the earth. The existence of an A. 
 is to us a matter of vital importance. We owe 
 to its influence the possibility of animal and veget- 
 able life, the modifying and retaining of solar 
 heat, the transmission of sound, the gradual shading 
 of day into night, the disintegration of rooks, and 
 the occurrence of weather phenomena. In conse- 
 quence of the action of gravity, the A. assumes the 
 form of a spheroidal stratum concentric with the 
 earth, and presses heavily on its surface. It exhibits, 
 in common with all fluid bodies, the usual charac- 
 teristics of hydrostatic pressure, but its internal 
 
 condition differs from that of a liquid inasmuch 
 as its particles repel each other, and can only be 
 held in proximity by external force. From thia 
 circumstance, it follows that the volume of any 
 portion of air varies much more under the influence 
 of external pressure than that of an equal volume of 
 water ; hence, the stratum of air nearest the earth 
 is denser than strata in the upper regions, where, 
 from their being subjected to the weight of a smaller 
 mass of superincumbent air, the repulsive force of 
 the particles has freer play. 
 
 That air possesses weighl, is illustrated by the 
 following simple experiment. If a hollow glass 
 globe of 5 or 6 inches in diameter be weighed first, 
 when filled witii saX; and then, after the air has 
 been extracted from it by means, of the air-pump, 
 it wiU, when thus exhausted, weigh sensibly less 
 than it did before,, and the diflierenoe of the two 
 results will represent the weight of the quantity 
 of air which has been withdrawn. It has been 
 determined by Biot and Arago that 100 cubic inches 
 of dry air, when the barometer is at 30 inches, and 
 the thermometer at 60° Fahrenheit, weigh 31 '074 
 grains. The law of Archimedes (see AEOHnnSDES, 
 Pehiciple 01'), that a body immersed in a fluid 
 loses a part of its weight equal to the weight of 
 the volume of fluid disj^aced by it, finds its appli- 
 cation in the A. as well as in water. If a glass 
 globe filled with air and closed be suspended at the 
 extremity of the beam of a delioate balance, and 
 be kept in equilibrium by a brass weight at the 
 other extremity, and it the whole be then placed 
 under the receiver of an air-pump, and the air 
 extracted, the equilibrium previously existing in air 
 wUl be disturbed, and the larger body will become 
 the heavier. The reason of this is, that when first 
 weighed, they each lose as much of their own weight 
 as that of the respective volumes of Uir displaced 
 by them, and are therefore made buoyant, though in 
 different degrees, the ball with the larger volume 
 having the greater buoyancy. In a vacuum, they 
 are deprived of this buoyancy, and the larger 
 body, suffering the greater loss, becomes sensibly 
 heavier than the other. In like manner, a balloon 
 filled with heated air or hydrogen gas is lighter 
 than the volume of air displaced by it. It is there- 
 fore forced upwards till it reaches a stratum of such 
 density that the weight of the volume of air there 
 displaced by it equals the weight of the baEoon 
 itaelf. In this stratum it will remain poised, or 
 move horizontally with the currents to which it may 
 be exposed. 
 
 In endeavouring to determine the form of the 
 atmospheric envelope, it is necessary to bear in mind 
 that, according to the law of fluid-pressure, in order 
 to produce a state of equilibrium at the level of the 
 sea, the pressure of the A. must be equal at that 
 level over the whole of the earth's surface. Gravity 
 acts with less force on the air at the equator than 
 on that at the poles, in consequence of the spheroidal 
 form of the earth. It has there, in addition, to 
 contend with the centrifugal force, which entirely 
 fails at the poles, and which has a tendency to 
 Ughten the air by acting contrary to that of gravity. 
 Hence we infer, that in order to produce the same 
 pressure at the level of the sea, the atmospheric 
 height at the equator must be greater than that at 
 the poles, and that the A. must therefore possess the 
 form of an oblate spheroid, whose obiateness is con- 
 siderably greater than that of the earth itself. The 
 greater -heat at the tropical regions must also Ijave 
 the efiect of increasing the obiateness. . 
 
 The heigM of the A. has not yet been determined. 
 That it must have a certain limit, is evident from 
 the consideration that there must be a, point at 
 which gravity on the one hand, and centrifugal 
 
ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 force and tlie repulsive action of the particles on the 
 other, are poised, and beyond which the latter 
 forces on balancing the former force, the aerial 
 particles wotdd be borne away from the earth. As, 
 however, the law.of the diminution of temperature, 
 which materially affects the repulsive action, is 
 unknown for the upper regions of the air, it is 
 impossible to calculate the height of the atmosphere 
 from the relations of these forces. The only result 
 upon which dependence can be placed is derived from 
 the mathematical data founded on the duration of 
 twilight, which gives a height of about 45 mUes. 
 
 The pressure of the A. is one of its most import- 
 ant properties. Its eflfect is exhibited in the action 
 of the ordinary water-pump. The piston is fitted 
 air-tight in its cylinder ; and on being drawn up, 
 creates a vacuum. The water within the pump 
 being thus freed from- pr,essure, while that outside 
 of it is exposed to the pressure of a column of 
 air reaching to the surface of the A., is at once 
 forced up by reason of the weight of air which it 
 must rise to balance. The ascent of the water takes 
 place till the piston has reached the height of nearly 
 34 feet, from which we conclude that a column of 
 air is equal in weight to a column of water of the 
 same horizontal section, and of the height of nearly 
 34 feet. As mercury is 13'6 times heavier than 
 water, a mercurial column freed from atmospheric 
 pressure at the one extremity, and subjected to it 
 at the other, is 13'6 times less in height than the 
 column of water, or about 30 inches. From the 
 more convenient size of this column, mercury has 
 been adopted as the standard for atmospheric pres- 
 sure, and is employed in our ordinary barometers 
 (q. v.). A mercurial column of 30 inches in height, 
 and 1 square inch in section, weighs 15 lbs. (more accu- 
 rately, 14'73), which gives us the equivalent weight of 
 a column of atmospheric air of the same section. The 
 word A. is often employed to express this weight or 
 pressure on a sqjiare inch of surface, so that when 
 we speak, in Mechanics, of the pressure of steam on 
 a boier as amounting to three atmospheres, we mean 
 a pressm-e of 45 lbs. on the square inch. The pres- 
 sure on a square inch being thus ascertained, we 
 have merely to multiply it by the number of square 
 inches on the earth's surface to obtain the total 
 weight of the A. It amounts to 11 '67085 triUions 
 of lbs., or about issoOOOOO °^ ^^ earth's mass. 
 It must be observed that the height of the baro- 
 metric column is not a constant quantity, as it varies 
 with the latitude, the season of the year, and the 
 hour of the day. At London, its mean height is 29-88 
 inches ; at Paris, 29'92 inches. The pressure of the 
 A. in the northern hemisphere increases as we 
 recede from the equator, reaching a maximimi at 30° 
 N. lat., and decreasing from 30° to 65°, where it again 
 begins to rise. The greater height at 30° is said to 
 be due to the accumulation of air at that latitude 
 by the action of the trade-winds. As the heat of 
 the earth's siuface increases the rarity of the air 
 above it, and causes the air at the top of the heated 
 column to overflow, we would expect that, during 
 the year, the barometer would stand at a minimum 
 in summer, and a maximum in winter. In reality, 
 however, although the barometer is highest in mid- 
 winter, there is another maximum in mid-summer, 
 making thus two minima — one in spring, the other 
 in autumn. This arises from the part which watery 
 vapour plays in the pressure of the atmosphere. The 
 heat of mid-summer introduces into the air a large 
 quantity of moisture, in the form of elastic vapour, 
 which, adding its pressure to that of the dry air, 
 raises what would otherwise be the minimum baro- 
 metric column to a higher point than that at which 
 it stands in spring and autumn. Similar causes 
 affect the pressure of the A. during the 24 hours of 
 524 ■ ■ 
 
 the day. There are two maxima — one at 10 A. M., 
 the other between 10 and 11 p. M. ; and two minima — 
 at 4 A. M. and 4 p. M. V ery slight variations indicate 
 the existence of atmospheric tidal waves ; but this 
 subject is still involved in some obscurity. The 
 pressure of the A. exercises a most important 
 influence on the organism of the human frame. A 
 man of ordinary stature is exposed to a pressure of 
 about 14 tons ; but as the air permeates the whole 
 body, and presses equally in all directions, no 
 inconvenience is found to result from it. From 
 experiments instituted by the brothers Weber in 
 Germany, it has been ascertained that the heads of 
 the thigh and arm bones are kept in their sockets by 
 the ijressure of the A. ; and in balloon ascents the 
 aBronaut often suffers from bleeding at the nose, 
 lips, and even eyes — a fact that would seem to indi- 
 cate that the strength of the blood-vessels has been 
 adjusted with reference to atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Gliemical Composition of the A.' — Recent chemical 
 researches give the following as the mean composi- 
 tion of 100 voltmies and of 100 grains of dry air : 
 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Grains 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 . 7902 
 
 76-84 
 
 Oxygen, . 
 
 20-94 
 
 2310 
 
 Carbonic acid. 
 
 . 0-04 
 
 0-06 
 
 100-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 Besides the substances just named, other gaseous 
 matters occur, but in quantities so small as not 
 sensibly to increase the bulk of the A., such as 
 aromonia and ammoniacal salts, carburetted and 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, sulphurous 
 and sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and perhaps iodine, 
 the quantity and even the presence of which are 
 affected by local and meteorological causes. Roughly 
 speaking, then, dry air may be said to consist of 4 
 volumes of nitrogen and 1 of oxygen, with a slight 
 admixtiu-e of carbonic acid, and a. mere trace of 
 several other substances. As, however, the air of the 
 A. is never found dry, we mxist add to the con- 
 stituents already named watery vapour, the amount 
 of which is constantly changing, accordmg to loca- 
 lity, weather, wind, and temperature. It is stated 
 that of 1000 grains of atmospheric air, the propor- 
 tion due to aqueous vapour varies from a minimimi 
 of 4 to a maximimi of 16 grains. By far the most 
 active chemical constituent of the A. is oxygen, to 
 the agency of which are owing the existence of 
 animal life, the maintenance of combustion, the rust- 
 ing of metals, and the occurrence of several other 
 chemical phenomena too numerous to be detailed. 
 A small portion of this oxygen occurs in the form of 
 ozone (q. v.), a modification which, according to recent 
 chemical discoveries, plays an important part in the 
 chemistry of the A. The nitrogen which forms the 
 bulk of the A. possesses few chemical properties of 
 importance, but performs the important part of 
 diluting the oxygen, which, if it occurred alone, 
 would act with too great intensity. The presence 
 of carbonic acid in the air is shewn by the produc- 
 tion of the white carbonate of lime in lime-water 
 freely exj)osed to its influence. Carbonic acid is 
 produced in aU processes where carbonaceous matter 
 unites itself with the oxygen of the air, such as in 
 animal respiration, in combustion, in fermentation, 
 in putrefaction, and similar processes. The green 
 leaves of plants, on the other hand, possess, in 
 presence of sunshine; the power of decomposing 
 carbonic acid into its elements, absorbing the carbon 
 for their own tissues, and restoring the oxygen to 
 the A. in its original purity. Between the processes 
 above mentioned, on the one hand, and the action of 
 plants on the other, the quantity of carbonic acid 
 in the air is kept nearly constant. From the table 
 
ATMOSPHERE— ATMOSPHEEIC ELECTRICITY. 
 
 it win be seen that 10,000 voliunes of atmospheric air 
 contain 4 volranes of oarbonio acid. If it occurred in 
 a much larger proportion, being poisonous, it would 
 become dangerous to animal life ; and if it occurred 
 in a much loss proportion, the vegetable world 
 would lack its requisite nourishment. The other 
 substances, of which a trace is always or only some- 
 times found in atmt)spheric air, are difficult to detect 
 in the air itself, but are generally found dissolved in 
 rain-water, more especially in that which has fallen 
 immediately after a long drought. Of these, by far 
 the most important and widely diffused are ammonia 
 and ammoniacal salts, which are of essential import- 
 ance to the vegetable economy, because, dissolved 
 in the rain, they furnish plants with the nitrogen 
 required by them for the production of their flowers 
 and fruit. Nitric acid is detected in the air after 
 thunder-storms, sulphuretted hydrogen in the tainted 
 air of sewers and such like places, and sulphurous 
 and sulphuric acid only in the neighbourhood of 
 chemical or smelting works. A considerable quantity 
 of carbonic oxide and carburetted hydrogen escapes 
 uncousumed from our furnaces; and although the 
 latter gas is in addition given oflf to the air in marshy 
 and bituminous districts, the two occur in almost 
 inappreciable quantity in the atmosphere. 
 
 In addition to its gaseous constituents, the A. 
 contains solid substances in a state of exceedingly 
 fine division, the presence of which is revealed 
 in the sunbeam. Many of these minute particles, 
 being the seeds of plants or eggs of animals, must 
 exert an important influence on the organic^ sub- 
 stances on which they may finally settle, induoiiig 
 in many of them the conditions of disease or 
 putrefaction. 
 
 When the composite nature of the A. was first 
 discovered, it was supposed to be a chemical 
 combination of nitrogen and oxygen, but further 
 inquiries have rendered this opinion highly im- 
 probable. When any two bodies unite with each 
 other chemically, the substance which results 
 from their combination invariably possesses pro- 
 perties which the original constituents did not 
 possess. Now the atmospheric union of oxygen and 
 nitrogen is distinguished by no properties which may 
 not be attributed individually to these gases. We 
 have, then, in this respect, no indication that the 
 atmospheric combination of oxygen and nitrogen is 
 a chemical one. Agaia, when any composite gas is 
 dissolved in water, 5ie proportion of the ingredients 
 dissolved in it is exactly the same as that in which 
 they occur in the compoimd itself ; but this is not 
 the case with air dissolved in water, which is found 
 to be richer in oxygen than atmospheric air. Now, 
 as oxygen dissolves more readily in water than 
 nitrogen, it is manifest that this larger proportion of 
 oxygen arises from both gases acting independently 
 of each other in respect tcthe water, a condition 
 that would be impossible if they were in chemical 
 union. From these and other corroborative facts, 
 the A. is considered to be simply a mechanical com- 
 bination of the gases contained in it. This, however, 
 does not prevent the A. from having a uniform com- 
 position, as might at first sight be supposed; for 
 when gases are mixed with each other, they inter- 
 mingle thoroughly throughout the whole space 
 occupied by them. Local causes may temporarily 
 affect the relative proportion of the atmospheric 
 ingredients, but the changes are so minute as to 
 require the most delicate analysis to detect them. 
 
 ATMOSPHB'EIC ELECTRI'CITY. Franklin 
 was the first to estabhsh the identity of the light- 
 ning of the heavens with the electric spark. By his 
 famous kite-experiment, he ascertained that the 
 thunder-cloud assumes an electrical condition 
 precisely similar to that of the conductor of an 
 
 electrical machine, and that the same mechanical and 
 luminous effects are common, though in a different 
 degree, to both. The attention that was first 
 directed by this discovery to the A. E., as displayed 
 in the thunder-cloud, has since then been extended 
 to the electrical condition of the air in aU the 
 different states of the weather. It is now found that 
 the air is sensibly electrical not only when the sky 
 is overcast with thunder-clouds, but when the 
 weather is clear, or when no thunder-clouds are 
 present. The observations of A. E., in the latter 
 circumstances, are made by means of very delicate 
 electroscopes (q. v.). These instruments are con- 
 structed for being used either alone in the open air, 
 or in a room, in conjunction with an apparatus on 
 the roof of the house for collecting the electricity. 
 The following are some of the results derived from 
 these observations : When the sky is clear and free 
 from clouds, the A. E. is always positive, and an elec- 
 troscope exposed to the action of the air is charged 
 with positive electricity. On the other hand, the 
 electricity of the groimd is found to be negative. 
 This was shewn in a very ingenious way by volta, 
 who, by catching the fine spray of a fountain on the 
 plate of a straw electroscope, found the straws to 
 diverge with the negative electricity communicated 
 to them by the water, which was necessarily of the 
 same character as that of the ground. It is from 
 this fact that electroscopes, or the coUeeting appa- 
 ratus connected with them, must not be overtopped 
 by' the neighbouring trees or buildings, the negative 
 electricity of which materially affects ihe indications 
 given, and it is due to the same fact that no A. E. is 
 discovered in the middle of a wood, or in a room, 
 however high the ceiling. Under a clear sky, the 
 tension of the A. E. is found to increase as we ascend, 
 the lower atrial strata being less electrical than the 
 higher. Becquerel proved this by a simple experi- 
 ment on the plateau of Mount St Bernard. On a 
 piece of oiled sUk he placed a silk thread, covered with 
 tinsel, one end of which, terminated by a ring, was 
 connected with the rod of a Straw electroscope, and 
 the other end was tied to an arrow armed with a 
 metal point. When the arrow was shot horizontally, 
 the straws shewed no divergence ; but when the 
 arrow was shot upwards, they opened as it ascended, 
 and diverged most when the arrow, in ascending, 
 disengaged the ring from the rod of the electroscope. 
 The same fact is shewn in the following way : When 
 a very delicate electroscope is adjusted for any par- 
 ticular position, it wiU, when elevated a few feet 
 above that position, give indication of positive elec- 
 tricity, and when placed a few feet below, it will be 
 charged negatively. In clear weather, likewise, the 
 A. E. is found to be subject to certain daily period- 
 ical variations, and appears to have two maxima 
 and two minima in the course of twenty-four hours. 
 The first maximum takes place a short time after 
 sunrise, and the second shortly after sunset ; the 
 first minimum shortly before sunrise, and the second 
 in the afternoon, when the heat of the day is 
 greatest. The cause of these periodical changes is 
 attributed to the formation and condensation of 
 watery vapour in the atmosphere ; shortly after sun- 
 rise, a vast quantity of vapour rises into the lower 
 stratum of the air, and acting as a conductor, trans- 
 mits the electricity of the higher strata towards the 
 surface of the earth, giving rise to the first maxi- 
 mum. As the heat of the day increases, the air 
 becomes less and less moist, arid loses, in conse- 
 quence, its conducting power, so that when the 
 atmosphere is hottest and driest, the afternoon 
 minimum takes place. After sunset, a rapid 
 condensation occurs, and the lower strata are once 
 more charged with moisture, which causes a second 
 maximum at the beginning of night. Before sunrise. 
 
ATMOSPHERIC EAILWAY— ATOM. 
 
 tlie deposition of dew becomes greatest, so that tte 
 positive electricity of tlie lower strata is transmitted 
 to its soil, causing a minimum at that time. It 
 seems to hold generally that anything which tends 
 to increase the conduotiag power of the lower strata, 
 such as watery vapour in a visible form, increases at 
 the same time the A. E., and hence it is that in time- 
 of mist the electrical tension is higher than in clear 
 weather. It may also be attributed to the same 
 fact that the A. E. is greatest in January, and least 
 in June, the former month being cold and misty, 
 and the latter warm and clear. In cloudy weather, 
 the electroscope is affected sometimes .positively, 
 sometimes negatively, and is generally less influenced 
 than in clear weather. The electricity of rain, snow, 
 haU, &c., is sometimes positive, sometimes nega- 
 tive. In Stuttgart, for instance, it was found in the 
 course of a year that the rain was 71 times positive 
 to 69 times negative, and the snow 24 times positive 
 to 6 times negative. 
 
 The cause of A. E. has given rise to much dis- 
 cussion among meteorologists, and as yet no theory 
 has been proposed which satisfactorily accounts for 
 it. According to PomUet's theory, the electricity 
 developed in evaporation and vegetation is a 
 sufficient cause for the pc^^itive electricity of the 
 air ; the vapours and gases evolved in these pro- 
 cesses being charged positively, the soO and plants, 
 on the other hand, negatively. This opinion is com- 
 bated by more recent observers, such as Eiess and 
 Beich, who, after a series of careful experiments, 
 give it as their opinion that if such be the cause of 
 A. E., the fact is wholly without experimental data. 
 Lament maintains that the air itself is not electrical, 
 and is not capable either of conducting or of retain- 
 ing electricity, and that the phenomenon of A. E. is 
 due to the induction arising from the negative elec- 
 tricity of the earth, which he considers to be perma- 
 nent. This theory can account for all the phenomena 
 referred to in this article ; but the statement that 
 atmospheric air is incapable of conducting or retain- 
 ing electiicity, stands in need of experimental con- 
 firmation. Eor the electricity of the thunder-cloud, 
 see Lightning. 
 
 ATMOSPHE'RIG EAI'LWAY, a railway on 
 which the locomotive-power is supplied by the pres- 
 sure of the atmosphere more or less directly on the 
 carriages themselves. The idea of producing rail- 
 way locomotion in this manner has been succes- 
 sively prosecuted by Lewis, Medhurst, Vallance, and 
 Piokus ; and latterly with a greater prospect of suc- 
 cess by Clegg, in connection with Sa^auda. Valiancy 
 patented a plan which proposed the conveyance of 
 passengers along a railway laid within an air-tight 
 tunnel exhausted in front of a carriage working as a 
 piston, the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the 
 carriage from behind. This plan was made public in 
 1825, and ultimately brought into experimental oper- 
 ation at Brighton, proving the possibility of such a 
 mode of transit. The general opinion as to its merits 
 was, that though it might succeed in the transmis- 
 sion of goods, or, with a smaller tube than the 
 tunnel, might suit well the conveyance of the mails, 
 it could not be expected to enjoy the favour of the 
 traveUing public, on accoimt of its dark close timnel. 
 Thus the subject of atmospheric railways had 
 ceased to attract attention, when the curiosity of the 
 public was again called to it, by the proposal of 
 another plan of propulsion, by Henry Pinkus, an 
 American gentleman, resident m England, who took 
 out a patent for it about the year 1835, under the 
 name of the Pneumatic EaUway. The apparatus for 
 this was to consist of a cast-iron tube of about forty 
 inches diameter, having a sht of about two inches 
 wider on its upper side, the slit (which was covered 
 by a flexible flap or valve) furnishing an opening 
 S2S 
 
 through which the mechanism of a piston working 
 within the tube might be connected with that of 
 the leading carriage without. 
 
 Under improved arrangements of the details, 
 Messrs Clegg and Samuda made an experiment of 
 this plan in 1840, on a. part of the line of the West 
 London Eailwayj and so favourable was the issue, 
 that the directors of the Dublin and Kingstown Rail- 
 way adopted the atmospheric pressure system for a 
 projected extension of their line from Kingstown to 
 Dalkey. The nature of the ground through which 
 this extension was to pass was so undulating, as to 
 render the cutting of a line on it for being worked 
 by locomotive engmes very expensive. Accordingly, 
 parliamentary sanction was obtained for the line, and 
 the first A. B. was in full operation at the beginning 
 of the year 1844. In that year the London and 
 Croydon Eailway Company began to lay down a 
 line of A. E. alongside of their locomotive line from 
 London to Croydon. The South Devon Eailway 
 Company also adopted the atmospheric mode of 
 working on a part of their railway. Both of these 
 Hues, however, were shortly afterwards abandoned 
 as unsatisfactory. 
 
 The residt of these trials has clearly shewn that 
 the A. E. system cannot stand in competition with 
 that of the locomotive engine, unless, perhaps, in 
 some very peculiar situation. The expense and care 
 necessary to keep the tube with its valve in good 
 working-order, led to the removal of the atmospheric 
 mechanism from the various railways on which it 
 was established ; so that the history of Atmospheric 
 Bailways may be ranked imder the chapter of 
 failures. 
 
 A'TOM (Gr. atomos, an indivisible particle ; from 
 a, not, and temno, I cut). In ancient philosophy, two 
 theories of the nature of matter were recognised, 
 and these have continued to form subjects of argu- 
 ment among speculative men since the year 510 B.C. 
 to the present time. The one theory is, that matter 
 is infinitely divisible. Thus, a needle may be divided 
 into two, and each of the parts may in its turn be 
 broken or cut into two, and each of the latter again 
 and again be subdivided, tiU the parts become so 
 small mat it may be impossible to see them by the 
 naked eye ; but these parts are regarded as capable 
 of stiU further division, without limit or stoppage, 
 provided more perfect or delicate means could be 
 employed to act upon them. The second theory 
 regarding the constitution of matter is, that in 
 the repeatefl division and subdivision of a sohd, 
 liquid, or gas, a point wfll be at length reached 
 when it will no longer be possible, by any conceiv- 
 able means, to break a molecule in two, the molecule 
 being a real unity, not composed of separable parts — 
 in other words, an atom. The latter theory recognises 
 the finite divisibility of matter, and considers that 
 all matter is more or less compactly built up of 
 myriads of atoms aggregated together, and having 
 spaces or pores between the several atoms or par- 
 ticles. If it were possible to subject such matter to 
 the scrutiny of a sufficiently powerful magnifying- 
 glass, or microscope, and thus exhibit or behold the 
 atoms so separated by spaces, then an appearance 
 would be presented similar to that which the painter 
 chooses to depict on the canvas when he is repre- 
 senting a snow-storm, and where every little flake 
 of snow is separated from its neighbour one by a 
 space in which there are none; or that which 
 would be observed if, durina a hailstorm, some great 
 power were to cry, 'Halt!° and that instant every 
 minute hailstone was arrested in the spot- it had 
 reached. 
 
 This view of the physical nature of matter is that 
 which is known as the atomic or corpuscular theory, 
 and has in modem times received some support 
 
ATOMIC HEAT— ATOMIC THEORY. 
 
 from the facta embodied in the chemical atomic theory 
 origiaated by Dalton. Granting, however, that the 
 chemist can prove that his simple and compound 
 forms of matter are buUt up of chemical atoms, the 
 problem stUl remains to be solved as to the possible 
 identity of physical and chemical atoms. What the 
 chemist regards as an A. in his science, may not be 
 an ultimate and indivisible A. in a physical point of 
 view ; the chemical A., though incapable of division 
 as a chemical A., may still he composed or built up 
 of many physical atoms, and may be capable of being 
 subdivided into such. Indeed, whilst the atomic 
 theory of Dalton, when first announced, was eagerly 
 seized upon as the best possible evidence for the 
 existence of both chemical and physical atoms, the 
 tendency of recent researches and discussions in 
 chemistry has been to shew that the chemical A. is 
 different from the physical, and does not necessitate 
 the existence of m.e latter. See Atomic Theoey. 
 According to the ordinary acceptation of the term, 
 it is a molecule of matter having a definite weight, 
 magnitude, and form, possibly alike for the atoms of 
 the same material, but differing in those of different 
 Bvibstances. The form of an A. is supposed by some 
 men of science to be the same as that which the 
 fragments of a substance assume when it is split in 
 the direction of the planes of the cleavage of its 
 crystals (see Ckystallogeaphy), but the general 
 belief is, that all atoms are spherical, and that the 
 various crystalline forms are produced by the manner 
 in whieh the atoms are grouped together. In regard 
 to the size of atoms, the researches of the famous 
 microscopist, Ehrenberg, have demonstrated that an 
 A. must be less than ^.TTXfJ.-jnjir °^ ^ ^^ ''' diameter ; 
 and the late Dr Thomas Thomson, of the university of 
 Glasgow, shewed that an A. of lead must occupy 
 a space something less than s^^ . ioci . oU . OOO . OOO 
 part of a cubic inch. 
 
 ATO'MICHEAT. See Heat. 
 
 ATO'MIC THE'OBY. When one or more atoms 
 of one kind of substance are brought into physical 
 contact with one or more atoms of a different sub- 
 stance, the various atoms unite together by the force 
 of chemical affinity (q. v.), and produce a chemical 
 compound. The respective quantities of each of 
 the combining substances are not the result of mere 
 chance or casual freak of nature, but are regulated 
 by certain laws. These laws were partially observed 
 and discussed by earlier chemists and physicists, 
 but it was reserved for Dalton (q. v.) to systematise 
 the somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors, 
 and to announce, in positive language, tiie four laws 
 which regulate the union of various kinds of 
 substances, and which are still acknowledged by 
 chemists as the laws of combining peoportion, 
 or the Atomic Theory. These laws regulate the 
 combination of unhke substances by weight, and 
 not by volvme; and they ^e based upon the prelimi- 
 nary acknowledged fact, capable of expermiental 
 demonstration, that the same compound substance is 
 always composed of the same ingredients or elements. 
 
 The first law of combination by weight compre- 
 hended under the A. T. is TbB law op constant 
 PEOPOKTION, which teaches that the elements or 
 ingredients which form a chemical compound are 
 always united in it in the same proportion by 
 weight. Thus, water, which consists of oxygen and 
 hydrogen, does not contain one or both of these 
 elements in indefinite amount, but it is invariably 
 made up of 8 parts by weight of oxygen to 1 
 part by weight of hydrogen. It makes no matter 
 whether the total amount of either element be 
 represented by grains, ounces, pounds, or tons, it 
 wfll always be found that the proportion of 8 
 parts of oxygen to 1 part of hydrogen is kept up. 
 
 Neither does the source of the water make any 
 difference, for pure water obtained from rain, snow, 
 or hail,_the river or the sea, the sap of plants 
 or the juices of animals, invariably contains the 
 same elements in the same proportions. Again, 
 common salt (chloride of sodium), whether it be 
 obtained from sea-water, salt-springs, rook-salt, 
 or even the blood of animals, always consists 
 of chlorine and sodium in the exact and never 
 varying proportion of 35^ parts of chlorine to 23 
 parts of sodium. Whilst the law of constant 
 proportion teaches us that the same compoimd is 
 always bmlt up of the same ingredients in the same 
 proportion, it does not necessarily follow that the 
 same elements or components in the same propor- 
 tions wiU invariably form the same compound body. 
 It is far otherwise ; and many examples can be 
 obtained, especially from organic chemistry, where 
 the same components in the same proportions pro- 
 duce very different substances. Thus, starch and 
 cotton (hgnine) — ^very dissimilar substances — consist 
 of I carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the very same 
 proportions ; and gum-arabic and cane-sugar are 
 similarly circumstanced. See Isombeic Bodies. 
 
 The second law is the law op eecipeocal 
 PROPOETION, which tells us that if two substances 
 combine in certain propoftions with a third, they com- 
 bine in the very same proportion with each other. 
 Thus, as has been already observed, 8 is the propor- 
 tion in which oxygen will unite with 1 of hydrogen, 
 and 6 is the proportion in which carbon unites with 
 1 of hydrogen ; and the law now under considera- 
 tion teaches us, that whilst oxygen combines with 
 hydrogen as 8 to 1, and carbon with hydrogen as 6 
 to 1, we can, from these experimental results, deduce 
 the conclusion that 8 mil be the proportion of 
 oxygen which will combine with 6 of carbon. Again, 
 8 parts of oxygen unite with 28 of iron, and 16 parts 
 of sulphur combine with 28 of iron, and from these 
 statements we can deduce, by the aid of the second 
 law, that sulphur and oxygen wUl unite together 
 in the proportions of 16 to 8. The figures which 
 represent the proportions in which the elements 
 constantly combine with each other, are called their 
 equivalents or atomic weights (q. v.). The second 
 law is one of great importance, and simplifies much 
 the researches of the chemist, for it renders it 
 unnecessary for him to determine in order the 
 proportion in which a new substance will unite with 
 every other of the sbrty-one elementary substances ; 
 for having experimentally estimated the proportion 
 in which the stranger element combines with one or 
 two substances, he can predict that the very same 
 proportion wiU regulate its chemical union with all 
 the others. 
 
 The third law is the law op multiple peopok- 
 TION, which is, that when one substance combines 
 with another in several proportions, the higher pro- 
 portions are multiples of the first or lowest. Thus, 
 hydrogen unites with oxygen in two proportions ; as 
 1 of hydrogen to 8 of oxygen, when ordinary pure 
 water is the result of union ; and as 1 of hydrogen to 
 16 of oxygen, when peroxide of' hydrogen, a power- 
 ful bleachmg agent, is produced — ^the difference in 
 the respective amounts of the oxygen — 8 and 16 — 
 being, tiiat iihe latter is a multiple of the former by 2. 
 Again, carbon unites with oxygen in two proportions : 
 as 6 of carbon to 8 of oxygen, when the infiammable 
 gas, carbonic oxide, is formed; and as 6 of carbon 
 to 16 of oxygen, when the non-inflammable gas, 
 carbonic acid, is the result. The variation in this 
 instance is, that the oxygen is present in the one 
 case as 8, and in the other as a multiple of that 
 number by 2, viz. 16. One of the best illustrations 
 of this law occurs in the case of th,e union of nitrogen 
 and oxygen: 14 parts of nitrogen can unite with 
 
ATOMIC VOLUMES— ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 
 
 8 of oxygen, and tlien exist as laughing-gas ; but the 
 same amount of nitrogen can combine with 16, 24, 
 32, or 40 of oxygen — in the latter case, constituting 
 nitric acid — all of the higher numbers being multiples 
 of the first or lowest, viz. 8 by 2, 3, 4, and 5 times. 
 
 The fourth law is the law of compound pbopor- 
 TION, which teaches that the combining proportion 
 of a compound substance is the sum of the combining 
 proportions of its components. Thus, the compound 
 body, carbonic acid, which consists of 6 of carbon 
 united with 16 of oxygen, has the combining propor- 
 tion 22, which is the sum of the combining propor- 
 tions of the carbon and oxygen composing it, viz. 
 6 -(- 16 = 22. Similarly, the compound substance, lime, 
 contains 20 of the metal calcium combined with 8 of 
 oxygen, and has the combining proportion of 20-)- 8, 
 or 28. When carbonic acid and lime are linked 
 together, as in marble, which is the carbonate of 
 lime, then they are united in the proportion of 22 
 parts of carbonic acid and 28 of hme. Not only is 
 22 the proportion in which carbonic acid will com- 
 bine with lime, but it is the proportion in which it 
 will form compounds with every other substance of 
 the same chemical constitution. 
 
 The preceding laws regulating the union of sub- 
 stances by weight were announced by Dalton as the 
 residts of experimental observation, and they are 
 therefore entitled to have fuU confidence placed in 
 them. Moreover, every succeediag observer ia the 
 same department of chemical science has brought 
 forward researches which tend to strengthen the 
 behef in the existence of such laws, and in the inter- 
 pretation placed upon them. So long as we deal 
 with quantities of material which can be weighed 
 upon balances which may be so delicate in their 
 movements as to turn and indicate with a thousandth 
 of a grain weight, then each fresh experiment but 
 serves to add fresh laurels to the profound wisdom 
 and the clear head of the discoverer of these laws ; 
 but Dalton, in his zeal to fathom the subject to its 
 greatest depths, carried these laws from their proper 
 sphere, viz. the regulation of weighable quantities of 
 material, to the support of a hypothesis which took 
 cognizance of unweighahle quantities or atoms. He 
 believed that, if it were possible to get hold of a 
 single atom of hydrogen, it would be represented 
 by the weight 1 ; that a single atom of oxygen 
 would be found to be 8 ; an atom of carbon, 6 ; 
 &c. In short, that the figures which signified the 
 proportions in which the various substances entered 
 into imion with each other, also indicated the pro- 
 portional weights of single atoms of these substances. 
 It is scarcely necessary to mention that the latter 
 hypothesis is quite separable from the doctrine pro- 
 pounded in the four laws of combining proportion, 
 and, whilst it assists in the conception of these laws, 
 it is merely entitled to the position of a poetical 
 fancy. The laws of the A. T., however, are not based 
 upon this atomic hypothesis, and they demand our 
 adherence solely on account of their being the 
 enunciation of experimental facts, and are and may 
 be believed in, totally irrespective of any opinion as 
 to the existence or non-existence of atoms. 
 
 Recently, the subject of chemical atoms, and their 
 construction, has been revived by the celebrated 
 French chemist, Dumas. He considers it Ukely that 
 chemical atoms are different from physical atoms, 
 and supposes it probable that whilst a chemical 
 atom of oxygen may be represented by the propor- 
 tional number 8, and carbon by 6, &c., and that these 
 are not divisible by chemical means, yet that such a 
 chemical atom may be capable of division or separa- 
 tion by mechanical force, and then, ceasing to be a 
 chemical atom, it may fall down into an indefinite 
 number of physical atoms. In fact, Diunas inclines 
 to the behef, which is now beiog shared by many 
 
 £38 
 
 chemists, that all physical atoms are the same ; that 
 a chemical atom of any substance consists of 
 a number of physical atoms enveloped as it were in 
 a bag or otherwise held together; that the oxygen 
 bag or aggregated ohemioal atom contains 8 times 
 more physical atoms than the hydrogen atom, and 
 thus its combining weight is 8 times greater; that the 
 carbon bag is 6 times that of the hydrogen, &o. ; at 
 the same time, no opinion is expressed as to the 
 number of physical atoms which may be in a 
 chemical atom, for thousands of the former may be 
 required to constitute one of the latter. 
 
 ATO'MIC VO'LXTMES. The combmation of 
 simple and compound gases by volume occupied the 
 attention of Dalton and Gay Lussao, and they 
 announced a very simple relation which subsists 
 between the A. V. of gases. Thus, taking equal atomic 
 weights (q. V.) of various elements, we find that 
 1 equivalent I or 8'0 grains of oxygen occupy, at 60° 
 F. and a barometric pressure of 30 in., 23'3 cubic 
 inches; 1 equivalent or I'O grain of hydrogen 
 occupies, at 60° F. and 30 in. bar., 46'7 cubic inches ; 
 1 equivalent or 35'5 grains of chlorine occupy, 
 at 60° F. and 30 in. bar., 46-2 cubic inches; 1 
 equivalent or 127'0 grains of iodine vapour occupy, 
 at 60° F. and 30 in. bar., 467 cubic inches. In 
 other words, that equal atomic weights of hydro- 
 gen, chlorine, and iodine, occupy twice the bulk 
 of the same amount of oxygen, and hence the 
 atomic volume of the former is 2, as compared with 
 oxygen, which is I. Other gases exhibit a similar 
 relation, and an attempt has lately been made to 
 carry out an analogous 'relation in regard to liquids 
 and solids, but with very unsatisfactory results. 
 
 ATO'MIC WEIGHTS, or CHE'MICAL EQUI'- 
 VALENTS, are the proportions by weight in which 
 the various elementary substances unite together. 
 It is necessary that one element be selected as the 
 starting-point of the series, and an arbitrary sura 
 affixed to it, and thereafter all the other elements 
 can have their sums awarded to them, according to 
 the proportional amounts in which they combme vsdth 
 each other. The second law, mentioned under the 
 Atomic Thboby (q. v.), explains the manner in 
 which it can be demonstrated that a given amount 
 of one element is equivalent to, and serves the 
 same pmrpose in combining with a second element, 
 as a greater or less amount of a third substance. 
 In Britain and America, hydrogen is taken as 1, 
 and all the other elements are represented by 
 a quantity which is the minimum amount in which 
 they might or do unite with 1 of hydrogen. On the 
 continent, oxygen is regarded as the starting-point 
 of the series, and is called 100, whilst the other 
 elements have a proportional number attached. 
 In the following table, the various elementary sub- 
 stances are arranged alphabetically, and in a line 
 therewith, the symbol of each is given, and the 
 atomic weight or equivalent on the hydrogen and 
 oxygen scales. 
 
 Elementaky Substances, with theik Symbols, 
 AND Atomic Weights or Equivalents. 
 
 Element. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 H = l. 
 
 = 100. 
 
 Aluminium, 
 
 Al 
 
 13-67 
 
 170-90 
 
 Antimony (Stibium), 
 
 . Sb 
 
 12903 
 
 1612-90 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 As 
 
 75-00 
 
 937-50 
 
 Barium, '. 
 
 . Ba 
 
 68-64 
 
 858-03 
 
 Bismuth, 
 
 Bi 
 
 212-86 
 
 2660-75 
 
 Boron, 
 
 . B 
 
 10-90 
 
 136-20 
 
 Bromine, 
 
 Br 
 
 79-97 
 
 999-62 
 
 Cadmium, 
 
 . Cd 
 
 55-74 
 
 696-76 
 
 Calcium, 
 
 Ca 
 
 2012 
 
 251-31 
 
 Carbon, . 
 
 . C 
 
 6-00 
 
 7500 
 
ATOMIC WEIGHTS— ATONEMENT. 
 
 Element, 
 
 Cerium, 
 Chlorine, 
 Chromium, . 
 Cobalt, . 
 Copper (Cuprmn) 
 Didymiwm, 
 Erbium, 
 Fluorine, 
 Ohmnum, . 
 Gold (Aurum), 
 Hydrogen, 
 Ilmemium, 
 Iodine, 
 Iridium, . 
 Iron (Ferrum), 
 Lantmium, 
 Lead (Plumbum), 
 Lithium, 
 
 Mercury (Hydrargyrum), 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Niobium^ 
 
 Nitrogen, , . 
 
 Osmium, 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 Palladium,, 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 Platinum, 
 
 Potassium (Kalium), 
 
 Rhodium, 
 
 Silicon, 
 
 Silver (Argentum), . 
 Sodium (Natrium), 
 Strontium, . , 
 Sulphur, . . . 
 Tantalum or Columbium, 
 
 Terbium,, 
 
 Thorinum, . 
 
 Tin (Stannum), 
 
 Titanium,, . 
 
 Tungsten (WoKram), 
 
 Uranium, 
 
 Vanadium, 
 
 Yttrium, 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Zirconium, . , 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ce 
 . CI 
 
 Cr 
 . Co 
 
 Cu 
 . D 
 
 E 
 . P 
 
 G 
 . Au 
 
 H 
 . II 
 
 I 
 . Ir 
 
 Ee 
 . La 
 
 Pb 
 . Li 
 
 Mg 
 . Mn 
 
 Hg 
 
 Mo 
 
 Ni 
 
 Nb 
 
 N 
 
 Os 
 
 
 
 Pd 
 
 P 
 
 Pt 
 
 K 
 
 Eo 
 
 Ru 
 
 Se 
 
 Si 
 
 Ag 
 
 Na 
 
 St 
 
 S 
 
 Ta 
 
 Te 
 
 Tb 
 
 Th 
 
 Sn 
 
 Ti 
 
 W 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 Y 
 
 Zn 
 
 Zr 
 
 A. W. or Equivalent. 
 
 H = l 
 46-00 
 35-49 
 26-27 
 29-49 
 31-65 
 48-00 
 
 126-88 
 98-56 
 28-04 
 
 los-ev 
 
 6-53 
 12-65 
 27-57 
 100-10 
 47-69 
 29-54 
 
 14-00 
 99-41 
 8-00 
 53-24 
 32-02 
 98-56 
 38-96 
 52-16 
 52-11 
 39-62 
 21-36 
 108-00 
 22-97 
 43-84 
 16-00 
 
 59-50 
 58-82 
 24-12 
 94-64 
 60-00 
 68-46 
 
 32-52 
 33-58 
 
 = 1UO 
 
 575-00 
 443-67 
 328-38 
 368-65 
 395-60 
 600-00 
 
 19-00 237-5 
 
 6-97 87-12 
 
 98-33 1229-16 
 
 1-00 12-50 
 
 1585-99 
 
 123208 
 
 350-50 
 
 1294-64 
 
 81-66 
 
 158-14 
 
 344-68 
 
 1251-29 
 596-10 
 369-33 
 
 175-06 
 1242-62 
 100-00 
 665-47 
 400-30 
 1232-08 
 487-00 
 651-96 
 651-39 
 495-28 
 267-00 
 1350-00 
 287-17 
 548-02 
 200-00 
 
 64-08 801-76 
 
 743-86 
 735-29 
 301-65 
 1183-30 
 750-00 
 855-84 
 
 406-59 
 419-73 
 
 The less' important, because rare elements, are 
 printed in italics. 
 
 On comparing the respective coliunns on the 
 hydrogen and oxygen scales, it -will be apparent that 
 the two lines of figures correspond ; the only diifer- 
 ence being, that whilst hydrogen is 1 in the first 
 column, it is 12-5 or 12^ in the second, and this pro- 
 portional difference is kept up with all the other 
 elements. To convert the colimm on the hydrogen 
 scale to the oxygen scale, it is only .necessary to 
 multiply by 12^ ; and to find out the equivalent on 
 the hydrogen scale from the figures given under the 
 oxygen, it is sufficient to divide by 12^. Recent 
 researches in A. W. have led to the conclusion that 
 ■the majority of the decimal figures attached to many 
 of the substances might be dispensed with ; and it 
 was anticipated that possibly the -whole of the deci- 
 mals would be swept away. Several of the elements 
 refuse, however, to part with all their decimals, such 
 as chlorine, which is 35-50, or 354 ; but it is believed 
 that all the equivalents -will be reduced to whole 
 numbers, or, failing that, to -5. In order to obtain 
 31 
 
 whole figures for all the A. W., it has been suggested 
 that hydrogen, though stiU represented by 1, should 
 be halved in value, so as to possess one-half the 
 weight that it now possesses. If this suggestion 
 be carried out, the foUo-wing woidd then be the 
 A. W. of a few elements : 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 Chlorine, 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 1-00 
 16-00 
 71-00 
 12-00 
 56-00 
 
 ATO'NBMENT. Sin violates the ground of 
 union which the personal creature has, by nature, 
 with the holy God. The act of sin is one of separa- 
 tion ; the act begets the state of sin, the state con- 
 firms and repeats the act. The doctrine of the A. 
 treats of the mediation necessary for restoring the 
 union between God and man, which has been lost 
 by sin. The A., therefore, must ever be the funda- 
 mental doctrine in every religion of sinful creatures. 
 In the Christian religion, it manifestly occupies this 
 central position; for the Christian doctrine of the 
 A. is but the explanation of its great historic fact — 
 the embodiment in one person of the Divine and 
 human natures in perfect agreement. In the person 
 of Christ, God and man are atoned: He is their 
 Atonement. 
 
 So fundamental is the doctrine of the atonement 
 in the Christian reUgion, that it does not, like many 
 other doctrines, form a ground of distinction among 
 the different bodies into which the Christian world has 
 been divided. ' All churches may be said to be equally 
 orthodox on this point. The Church of Home, the 
 Greek Church, the various Protestant churches — 
 established and dissenting — all agree, taking their 
 standards as a criterion, in resting the sinner s hope 
 of salvation on the mediatorial work or atonement of 
 Jesus Christ. Nevertheless, there have been from the 
 very beginning of speculative Christian theology, 
 and stiU contmue to be, within the bosom of flie 
 several churches, various ways of conceiving and 
 explaining the exact nature and mode of operation of 
 this mediatorial work. What foUows is a brief 
 sketch of the historical development of these 
 speculations. 
 
 Christianity differs from heathenism in the clear 
 perception which it has of the antagonism sin has 
 introduced between God and man. Heathenism but 
 vaguely conceives of this variance, and consequently 
 has but an ill-defined notion .of the atonement re- 
 quired, the notion seldom containing more than the 
 idea of a reconciled union of the individual man with 
 nature and the universal Ufe. Even where its myth- 
 ical divinities assume personality, it is but an ideal 
 personality -without any concrete reality of life, and 
 consequently without any real significance for the 
 conscience. In this state, the abject subjection of 
 man to nature prevents his rising into that sphere 
 of conscious freedom which makes sin sinful, and 
 demands an A with one who is Lord both of nature 
 and man. 
 
 In Judaism, man stands above nature, in conscious 
 relation to a personal God, whose -written law 
 exhibits the requirements of His relationship with 
 man — ^requirements which are never met, and which 
 only make him fearfully conscious of the ever- 
 widening breach between him and his God. Thus 
 the law awakened the sense of gmlt, and the desire 
 for an A.; a desire it could never satisfy. The 
 never-ceasing demands of these ever-u nf ul fi lled 
 requirements were constantly acknowledged by its 
 whole sacrificial cultus, which expressed tiie hidden 
 ground of Jewish hope, and prophetically pointed to 
 its future manifestation. 
 
 But whilst the Holy Scriptures, throughout the 
 
ATONEMENT. 
 
 Old Testament, exhibit the making of an A. by 
 ■vicarious sacrifice (Lev. xvi. 21 ; xwi. 11) ; and the 
 idea, both of the suffering and the deliverance of 
 maiiy by the, sins and virtues of one, was common 
 to eJI antiquity, the idea of the suffering and 
 vicarious Messiah, plainly declared in the writings 
 of the prophets (Luke xxiv. 46 ; Isaiah liii. ; 
 Psalms xxii.), and not entirely hidden from the 
 more thoughtful and devout contemporaries of 
 Jesus (Luke ii. 34; John i. 29), was one which was 
 foreign to the Messiajiic faith of the great body 
 of the people. 
 
 In the New Testament, Christ is everywhere exhi- 
 bited as one sent from God for the salvation of the 
 world (John iii. 16, 17); and as the condition, on 
 the part of man, of his obtaining this salvation, we 
 read of the requirement of repentance, faith, and 
 reformation (Matt. iv. 17; v. 3, 11; vi. 12; Mark 
 xvi. 16; Luke xv. 11), whilst, on the part of 
 God, as conditioning and mediating His forgive- 
 ness of sins, we have exhibited the entire life 
 of Christ upon earth conceived of as embracing 
 severally its individual features (Acts v. 31 ; 
 Eom. iv. 25; viii. 34); but more especially His 
 death as a ransom for our sins (Matt. xx. 28; xxvi. 
 28), as a vicarious sacrifice (1 Peter i. 19; 2 Cor. v. 
 21), by which we are redeemed from the bondage of 
 sin (1 Tim. ii. 6; Gal. iii. 13; 2 Peter ii. 1), and 
 obtain forgiveness (Rom. v. 19 ; 1 Cor. xv. 3 ; 1 John 
 i. 7), and eternal life and peace with God (John x. 
 11 ; Col. i. 20). Christ is therefore the Mediator 
 between God and man (1 Tim. ii. 5), having made 
 peace through the blood of His cross (Col. i. 20) ; th? 
 propitiation for our sins (1 John ii. 2 ; iv. 10) ; and 
 our high-priest who offers Himself a sacrifice to 
 reooncSe us with God (Heb. ii. 17; v. 1; is. 28). 
 Moreover, we are also taught that God has in Christ 
 reconciled the world with Himself (Rom. v. 10; 
 Col. i 22; 2Cor. V. 19). 
 
 In accordance with this full and explicit teaching 
 of Holy Scripture, we find that the sufferings and 
 death of Christ were ever regarded as of primary and 
 essential importance in His work of redemption ; but 
 notwithstanding this, we look in vain throughout the 
 early centuries of the Christian Church for anything 
 like a systematic development of the doctrine of 
 the Atonement. The germs of the doctrine existed, 
 but without any logical connection or clearness. ' On 
 this head there has been a twofold mistake — some- 
 times the existing beginnings of many later ela- 
 borated dogmas have been overlooked; or, on the 
 other hand, it has been attempted to point out with 
 Eteral distinctness church doctrines as if already 
 developed.' The early church fathers dwell with a 
 sort of inspired devotion upon those facts of the 
 gospel which represent Christ as the sacrifice for our 
 sins, as the ransom paid for our redemption, as our 
 deliverer from the power of Satan, as the restorer to 
 mankind of whatever was lost by the fall of Adam ; 
 but they seldom cMempt to shew how these blessed 
 results connect themselves with the sufferings and 
 death of Christ; neither 'do they shew in what 
 manner the A. has objectively been made, nor how 
 it is brought to the experience of its individual 
 subjects. 
 
 The narrow limits of this article wiU not allow us 
 to specify the many ways in which the sufferings 
 and deatii of Christ were regarded in relation to 
 their A. for sui. During the first four centuries 
 there appeared no certainty of opinion as to whether 
 they were a ransom-price paid to God or to the 
 deiTl. The latter supposition is the more prevalent, 
 and is shared in by Origen and St Augustine. Gregory 
 of Nyssa explains this opinion by saying, that the 
 devil consented to receive. Jesus as a ransom, because 
 he regarded Him as more than an equivalent for all 
 
 630 
 
 those under his power; but that, notwithstanding 
 his subtilty, he was outwitted, for, owing to the 
 humiliation in which Christ was veiled, he did not 
 fully recognise Him as the Son of God, and conse- 
 quently was himself deceived. But having consented 
 to receive Him as a ransom for mankind, he was 
 righteously deprived of his dominion over man, 
 wmlst he could not retain Jesus when he discovered 
 Him to be the Holy One of (Jod, being horrified and 
 tormented by His holiness. 
 
 Athanasius first of aE successfully controverted 
 this notion, and maintained that the ransom was 
 paid to God. He argued that as God had threatened 
 to punish transgressors with death. He could but 
 execute His threat. But then it was not becoming 
 the character of God to allow His purpose in the 
 creation of man to be frustrated by an imposition 
 practised upon him by the devil. The only expedient, 
 therefore, which remained for his deliverance from 
 death, was the incarnation and sacrifice of the Logos 
 in his stead, by which the justice and veracity of 
 God would be maintained, man delivered, the law 
 fulfilled, and the power of the devU broken. It has 
 often been stated that TertuUian uses the term 
 satisfaction with respect to Christ's A. for sin, but 
 this is incorrect, for although he employs the term, 
 he never does so in the sense of a vicarious satisfac- 
 tion, but only in the sense of making amends for our 
 own sins by confession and repentance. 
 
 These elemental and mythical conceptions of the 
 doctrine of the A. remained in a most imperfect and 
 altogether undeveloped condition, until the acute and 
 subtle genius of lie Piedmontese Archbishop of 
 Canterbury reduced them to order, and presented 
 them in logical consistency. We must regard 
 Ansehn, therefore, as the author, at least as to its 
 form, of the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction, which, 
 under various modifications, has ever since continued 
 to be held as the orthodox doctrine of the church. 
 The following is, in all essential respects, his state- 
 ment of the doctrine : The infinite gmlt which man 
 had contracted, by the dishonour of his sin against 
 the infinitely great God, could be atoned for by no. 
 mere creature; only the God-man Christ Jesus could 
 render to God the infinite satisfaction required. 
 God only can satisfy Himself. The human nature of 
 Christ enables Him to incur, the infinity of His 
 divine nature to pay, this debt. But it was incum- 
 bent upon Christ as a man to order His life accord- 
 ing to the law of God; the obedience of His life, 
 therefore, was not able to render satisfaction for our 
 gmlt. But although He was imder obligation to live 
 in obedience to the law, as the Holy One he was 
 under no obligation to die. Seeing, then, that He 
 nevertheless voluntarily surrendered His infinitely 
 precious life to the honour of God, a recompense 
 from God became His due, and His recompense 
 consists in the forgiveness of the sins of His bretiiren. 
 — In this form of the doctrine we are taught the 
 necessity of an active vicarious satisfaction; but 
 Ansehn nowhere teaches the passive satisfaction, he 
 nowhere says that Christ endured the punishment of 
 men. Nor do we find in his writings the develop- 
 ment of the subjective side of the doctrine — namely, 
 how the satisfaction rendered to God mediates the 
 A in the experience of the behever. 
 
 Subsequent to the time of Ansehn, and prior to 
 the Reformation, there are two views of the A. which 
 divide the opinions of this period : the one regarding 
 the peculiar manner in which it was accomplished 
 as absolutely necessary, and deriving its efficiency 
 from its objective nature ; the other svmposing a 
 subjective connection between the sufferings of 
 Jesus and the price of redemption, because this was 
 best fitted to effect the moral transformation of men. 
 According to Anaehu, the satisfaction rendered by 
 
ATONEMENT. 
 
 Christ was greater than the guilt for ■which He 
 atoned; and it needed to be greater, for the pay- 
 ment of the debt due to God gave men no claim to 
 th.e favour of , God. Thomas Aquinas and his 
 followers maintained Augustine's opinion of the 
 infinite value of the blood of Chijst rendering i:b 
 more than sufficient ; while the Sootists maintamed 
 that it was sufficient only because God was pleased 
 to regard it as snfficienfc But in the period between 
 Anselm and the Beformation, httle or no progress 
 was made in the development of this doctrine. 
 
 We now come to the period of the Reformation, 
 when the objective speculations of the schoolmen are 
 brought under the subjective requirements of human 
 souls, and the doctrine of the A. is viewed in this 
 light. In the writings of Luther, one wiU only with 
 djmculty arrive at Ms intellectual apprehension of 
 this doctrine in its scientific form ; but setting out 
 with the consciousness of sin, one will everywhere 
 discover how he realised that in Christ all sin is 
 'vanquished, killed, and buried, and righteousness 
 remaineth a conqueror and reigneth for ever.' The 
 following is an outline of the Lutheran doctrine, as 
 laid down in the Ooncardienformd : It is alone by 
 faith we can receive the blessings presented to us 
 in the gospel by the Holy Ghost. Faith justifies, 
 because it appropriates the merit of Christ. There- 
 fore, the righteousness which is imputed to the 
 behever, simply by the grace of God, is the obedience, 
 the suffering, and the resurrection of Christ, by which 
 He has satisfied the claims of the law, and atoned for 
 our sins. For as Christ is not merely man, but God 
 and man in one person. He was, as Lord of the law, 
 no more subject to it than He was subject to suf- 
 fering and death. For this reason, Hia twofold 
 obedience — that which He rendered, on the one hand, 
 by His suffering and death ; and, on the other, by His 
 righteous fulfilment of the law on our behalf — ^is 
 imputed to us, and God acquits us of our sins, and 
 regards us as just, in view of His complete obedience 
 in what He did and suffered. This obedience em- 
 braces the entire existence of Christ upon earth, and 
 is so complete that it fully covers the disobedience of 
 men, so that it is not reckoned against them for con- 
 demnation. Christ is our righteousness, therefore", 
 only in so far as in His entire person the most perfect 
 obedience is exhibited, which He was able to render 
 in that He was neither God alone nor man alone, but 
 both in one, God and man. 
 
 According to Calvin : if one asks how Christ has 
 reconciled us with God, and purchased a righteousness 
 which made TTirn favourable to us, it may be answered 
 generally, that He accomplished this by the whole 
 course of His obedience. But although the hfe of 
 Christ is to be regarded as paying the price necessary 
 for our deliverance, the Scriptures ascribe our redemp- 
 tion especially to His death. Calvin attached great 
 importance to the particular mode of His death — any 
 other mode of death would not have rendered the 
 same satisfaction to God. He, however, says little 
 or nothing about Christ's fulfilling the law for us, 
 but dwells upon His delivering us from its curse. He 
 does not, therefore, exhibit His active obedience sepa- 
 rated, as an essential part of His satisfaction for sin, 
 from His passive obedience. The importance attached 
 to the obedience of His life arises from its natural and 
 necessary connection with His suffering and death. 
 And the great importance attached to His death is 
 drawn rather from the view of its subjective neces- 
 sity, than from the idea of the divine righteousness — 
 namely, that without such a death there would have 
 been no sufficient ground for the subjective realisa- 
 tion of deliverance from sin and gmlt. Calvin's view 
 differs from that of the Lutheran Goncordienformel 
 in that he does not regard the relationship of God to 
 man merely from the stand-point of punitive and 
 
 satisfying righteousness, which always leads to the 
 merely negative notion of a Redeemer from guilt and 
 punishment, but looks upon Christ as the highest 
 Mediator, through whom the nature of God^ is 
 communicated to man. There was a necessity for 
 Christ's iuoarnation, not merely because, apart from 
 the suffering of the God-man, the divine righteous- 
 ness could not be atoned, but also because, without 
 such a divine Mediator, there could be no vital rela- 
 tion between God and man. ' Had man remained 
 free from all taint, he was of too humble a condition 
 to penetrate to God without a Mediator.' 
 
 While the reformers established the doctrine of 
 the A. on the theory of Anselm, and extended it so 
 as to make the sufferings of Christ include the Divine 
 curse, and introduced distinctions between Christ's 
 active and passive obedience, Socinus endeavoured 
 to prove the falseness of Ansehn's theory. He 
 shares with the Protestants the subjective principle, 
 which the period of the Reformation estabHshed, but 
 developed it in a one-sided manner. Socinianism 
 represents man as attaining to oneness with himself 
 and with God by his own moral energy. It rejects 
 that idea of the righteousness of God which makes it 
 impossible for Him to forgive sin without a satisfac- 
 tion, as imposing finite limitations upon the divine 
 Being ; and also objects to the doctrine of satisfaction, 
 on the ground that satisfaction for sin and forgive- 
 ness of siu are incompatible with each other ; and, 
 moreover, objects that sin and punishment are of so 
 personal a nature as not to allow of their being trans- 
 ferred. It further opposes the doctrine of the active 
 and passive obedience of Christ, on the ground, that 
 the one excluded the other. Another objection 
 maintained the actual impossibility of Christ's 
 rendering the supposed satisfaction for sin. 
 
 The doctrine it sought to establish in the place of 
 the one it attempted to overthrow may in brirf be 
 stated as follows. Man is reconciled to God by 
 repentance and reformation. Only from an act of 
 man changing his disposition, and not from an act 
 of God changing His relation to man, follows his 
 reconciliation with God. God is in Himself ever 
 the same towards man — reconciled from all eternity ; 
 man alone has to assume a new relation ; as soon as 
 he does this, he is immediately reconciled ; by this 
 act of his WiU, he is at one with God. Only in 
 man's moral state is there any obstacle to his recon- 
 ciliation. This greatest and holiest accomplishment, 
 the reconciKation of man with God, is achieved by 
 an aotof his wiU. 
 
 In this purely subjective theory, repentance 
 occupies the place of faith in the orthodox doctrine, 
 and faith becomes identical with obedience ; for 
 repentance and reformation are regarded as but the 
 two sides of the same act of the will. It follows 
 from this that justification is of works as well as 
 reconciliation. A necessity for the sufferings of 
 Christ is shewn for the following objects — that He 
 might become our example ; better fitted to render 
 us help ; that we might have a pledge and guarantee 
 of the Divine forgiveness ; and as conditioning His 
 resurrection and ascension to glory. 
 
 We must now hasten to the form of this doctrine 
 among ' Modem Calvinists,' without attempting fur- 
 ther to exhibit the links iu the chain of ite historic 
 connection. ' Modern Calvinism ' represents the A. as 
 that satisfaction for sin which was rendered to God, in 
 His pubHo character as moral governor of the world, 
 by the perfect obedience unto death of our Lord Jesus 
 Christ. The nature of this satisfaction was a moral, 
 not a pecuniary satisfaction. It preserves to the 
 moral government of God its authority, whilst its 
 tendency is to secure the forgiveness of sia. The 
 value of the sufferings of Christ consists in their 
 tendency to uphold wie Divine moral govenuueut 
 
 £31 
 
ATONEMENT. 
 
 vinimpaired whilst pardon is extended to those who 
 have violated it, rather than in their intrinsic excel- 
 lence, which, though essential to, did not constitute 
 thSir value. There was a moral necessity for Christ's 
 sufferings and death — obstacles to the bestowment 
 of pardon had to be removed — the influence of 
 the Holy Spirit had to be secured. The whole 
 contents of Christ's earthly existence, embracing 
 both His active and passive obedience — a distinction 
 which is unsupported by the word of G-od — must be 
 regarded as contributing to the A. which He made. 
 Of the actual sufferings of Christ immediately attend- 
 ing His death, it would be unpardonable to speak 
 with confidence, so little has been revealed. It may, 
 however, be considered — whether the Saviour's de- 
 privation of His Father's countenance may not have 
 been indirectly caused rather by His awful and afflict- 
 ing sense of the evil of sin, than otherwise ? — As to 
 the 'Extent' of the A., there is a broad distinction 
 to be made between the sufficiency of the A., and 
 its efficiency. It may be true that Jehovah did not 
 intend to exercise that influence of the Holy Spirit 
 upon aU which is necessary to secure the salvation 
 of any one, but as the A. was to become the 
 basis of moral government, it was necessary that it 
 should be one of infinite worth, and so in itself ade- 
 quate to the salvation of all. See, on this point of 
 the ' Extent' of the A., the art. Redemption, Paeh- 
 CULAB and Uotvbbsal. 
 
 The foregoing represents the modified view of the 
 doctrine as advocated by Dr Payne, and as held, in 
 aU essential respects, by such men as Pye Smith 
 and Wardlaw, which in its earher form, and as found 
 in the writings of Owen and Edwards, maintains 
 that the A. was made only for the elect; and 
 that its necessity with respect to them arose out of 
 the eternal justice of God, which required that every 
 individual should receive his due desert ; and, conse- 
 quently, that the sufferings of Christ were the 
 endurance of punishment equivalent in amount of 
 sufferiag, if not identical in nature — as Owen main- 
 tains — with that to which the elect were exposed ; 
 and, moreover, that the meritorious obedience of 
 Christ in fulfiUing the law, imputes a lighteouness 
 to those for whom the A. secures salvation, which 
 gives them a claim to the reward of righteousness. 
 
 Our space wiU not allow us to present to the 
 reader the various forms which this doctrine is made 
 to assume in the philosophic theology of Germany 
 from Kant to the present time. See Neandee. 
 We must, therefore, confine oiu'selves to the pre- 
 sentation of those views of the doctrine advocated 
 by our own countrymen in our own time, which may 
 fairly represent the present state of opinion with 
 respect to this fimdamental doctrine. 
 
 Let us begin with the view of modern Unita- 
 rianism, which may very clearly and fairly be pre- 
 sented in the words of one of its most able living 
 advocates, the Kev. Professor John James Tayler : 
 '" There is one mediator between God and men, 
 the man Christ Jesus." This can only refer to 
 unrivalled pre-eminence, not to exclusive function. 
 For all higher minds do, in fact, mediate between 
 their less gifted feUow-creatures and the great 
 reahties of the invisible world. This " orae is 
 a human mediator, " the man Christ Jesus " — not 
 a being from another sphere an angel or a God — but 
 a brother from the bosom of our own human family. 
 " He gave himself a ransom for all " who embrace 
 His offers and will hearken to His voice. He brings 
 from God a general summons to repent ; and with 
 that He conveys, through faith, a spiritual power to 
 shake off the bondage of sin, and put on the freedom 
 of a new heart and a new hfe. He is a deliverer 
 from the power of sin and the fear of death. This 
 is the end of His mediation. This is the redemption 
 S32 
 
 of which He paid the price. His death, cheerfully 
 met in the inevitable sequence of faithful duty, was 
 only one among many links in the chain of instru- 
 mentalities by which that deliverance was effected. 
 It was a proof such as could be given in no other 
 way, of trust in. God and immortaHty, of fidelity 
 to duty, and of love for mankind. In those who 
 earnestly contemplated it, and saw all that it 
 implied, it awoke a tender response of gratitude and 
 confidence, which softened the obdurate heart, and 
 opened it to serious impressions and the quickening 
 influences of a reUgious spirit.' 
 
 Professor Jowett advocates an opinion peculiarly 
 his own, if, indeed, language so confessedly vague 
 and indefinite can be said to embody an opimon. 
 It is this : ' that the only sacrifice. A., or satisfaction 
 with which the Christian has to do, is a moral and 
 spiritual one ; not the pouring out of blood upon the 
 earth, bxit the living sacrifice " to do thy will, God ; " 
 in which the behever has part as well as his Lord ; 
 about the meaning of which there can be no more 
 question in our day than there was in the first ages.' 
 — 'Heathen and Jewish sacrifices rather shew us 
 what the sacrifice of Christ was not, than what it 
 was. They are the dim, vague, rude, almost bar- 
 barous expression of that want in human natiure 
 which has received satisfaction in Him only. Men 
 are afraid of something ; they wish to give away 
 something ; they feel themselves bound by some- 
 thing ; the fear is done away, the gift offered, the 
 obligation fulfilled in Christ. Such fears and desires 
 can no more occupy their souls ; they are free to 
 lead a better life ; they are at the end of the old 
 world, and at the beginning qf a new one.' — The 
 work of Christ is set forth in Scripture under many 
 different figures, lest we should rest in one only. 
 His death, for instance, is described as a Ransom. 
 It is not that God needs some payment before 
 He will set the captives free. Ransom is deliver- 
 ance to the captive. ' Whosoever committeth sin 
 is the servant of sin.' Christ dehvers from sin. 
 'If the Sou shall make you free, ye shall be free 
 indeed.' To whom? for what was the ransom 
 paid ? are questions about which Scripture is silent, 
 to which reason refuses to answer. 
 
 A remarkably original work has been issued 
 within the last few years by the Rev. John M'Leod 
 Campbell on the subject of the Atonement. His 
 views are as follows : The work of the Son of God, 
 who came to do and did the will of His Father, 
 must, in view of the deliverance which He wrought, 
 be regarded as twofold : first, as dealing with man 
 on bSialf of God, and second, as dealing with God 
 on behalf of man. 
 
 In dealing with man on behalf of God, Christ 
 revealed to us the Father in His relation to a siuful 
 world, shewed us what our sins were to God, vindi- 
 cated in the world the Father's name, and witnessed 
 to the excellency of that will against which we were 
 rebelling. In thus revealing the wdl of the Father 
 towards sinful men. He necessarily became a man of 
 sorrow and suffering, but these arose naturally out of 
 what He was, and the relation in which He stood to 
 those for whom He suffered ; and to the hohness 
 and love of His very nature must we refer their 
 awful intensity and immeasurable amoimt. He 
 suffered what He suffered just through seeing sia 
 and sinners with God's eyes, and feeling in refer- 
 ence to them with God's heart.' By what He suffered, 
 He condemned sin, and revealed the wrath of God 
 against it. His holiness and love taking the form 
 of suffering, compose the very essence and adequacy 
 of His sacrifice for sin. 
 
 Again, in dealing with God on behalf of man, the 
 oneness of mind with the Father whidi towards man 
 took the form of condemnation of sin, became in 
 
ATONEMENT. 
 
 His dealing with the Father in relation to us a 
 perfect comeasiou of our sins, which was a perfect 
 Amen in humanity to the judgment of God on the 
 sin of man. Such an Amen was due in the truth of 
 all things, due on our behalf, though we could not 
 render it, due from Him as in our nature and our 
 true broljier. He who was the truth, could not 
 he in humanity and not utter it ; and it was 
 necessarily a first step in dealing with the Father on 
 our behalf. This corSession of our sins by Him who, 
 as the Son of God and the son of man in one person, 
 could perfectly realise the evil of man's alienation, 
 was a peculiar development of the holy sorrow in 
 which He bore the burden of our sins ; and which, 
 like His sufferings in confessing His Father before 
 men, had a severity and intensity of its own. But 
 apart from the sufferings present in that confession, 
 this Amen from the depths of the humanity of Christ 
 to the divine condemnation of sin, is necessarily con- 
 ditioned by the reception of the full apprehension 
 and realisation of the wrath of God, as well as of 
 the sin against which it comes forth into His aovl 
 and spirit, into the bosom of the divine humanity, 
 and, so receiving it. He responds to it with a perfect 
 response, and in that perfect response He absorbs it. 
 For that response has all the elements of a perfect 
 repentance in humanity, for all the sin of man — a 
 perfect sorrow — a perfect contrition — aU the ele- 
 ments of such a repentance, and that in absolute 
 perfection ; all — excepting the personal consciousness 
 of sin — and by that perfect response or amen to the 
 mind of God, in relation to sin, is the wrath of God 
 rightly met, and that is awarded to divine justice 
 which is its due, and could alone satisfy it. 
 
 This confession of the world's sin by the Head and 
 Kepresentative of humanity, was followed up by His 
 intercession as a part of the full response of the 
 mind of the Son to the mind of the Father — a part of 
 that utterance in humanity which propitiated the 
 divine mercy by the righteous way in which it laid 
 hold of the hope for man which was in God. ' He 
 bore the sins of many, and made intercession for 
 the transgressors.' 
 
 The Kev. F. D. Maurice professes to hold a purely 
 biblical theology, as opposed to the theologies of con- 
 sciousness, wmch he repudiates. His doctrine of the 
 A. is the answer which tiie Bible gives to the demands 
 of a sin-smitten conscience. A sinner requires, and 
 is content to be told on the authority of Scripture, 
 that the Son of God has taken away sin. This 
 message from God is the gospel for all men. The 
 sinner wants to be assured that God has spoken, 
 that He has declared Himself the Reconciler, and 
 desires to be shewn how and in whom He has 
 accomplished that work on his behalf. 
 
 To this question — How and in whom the work of 
 reconoOiation has been accomplished ? — Mr Maurice 
 replies, in effect and almost in words as follows: The 
 wSl of God is set forth in the Bible to be a will 
 which is good to all, and the ground of all that is 
 right, true, just, and gracious ; that it also sets forth 
 the Son of God as being one in wOl, purpose, and 
 substance with the Father, and that His whole life 
 on earth was an exhibition of, and submission to His 
 Father's wiU; that the Son of God was Lord of 
 men, the Boot and Head of hmnanity, and the source 
 of ail light and righteousness in man : that being 
 thus one with God and one with man. He brought 
 the will of God into ovcc nature, fulfilled it in our 
 nature perfectly, and carried it down into the lowest 
 condition into which it had fallen through sin ; that 
 in the fulfilment of this wiU in our nature, as its 
 head. He shared its sufferings, enduring that wrath, 
 or pimishment, which proceeded from Holy Love, 
 thus realising, on the one hand, the sins of the world, 
 and on the other, the consuming fury of the holiness 
 
 of the love of God — with an anguish which only a 
 perfectly pure and holy Being, who is also a perfectly 
 sympathising and gracious Being, can feel : that the 
 man Christ Jesus was for this reason the object of 
 His Father's continual complacency — a complacency 
 fully drawn out by the death of the cross— which so 
 perfectly brought out to view the uttermost power 
 of self-sacrifice which lay hidden in the divine love, 
 and consequently that He exhibited humanity, in its 
 head, atoned for, reconciled. In this way, to Mr 
 Maurice, is Christ ' the Lamb of God, which taketh 
 away the sin of the world.' 
 
 Finally, Dr Trench, who may be regarded as fairly 
 representing the prevalent views of the more devout 
 and thoughtful men of the present day holding ortho- 
 dox opinions, speaks as follows : ' The spirit of man 
 cries out for something deeper than repentance, conr 
 fession of sin, amendment of life ; something which 
 shall reach further back ; which shall not be clogged 
 with sinful infirmities, as his own repentance even at 
 the very best must be. Men cry for some work to rest 
 upon, which shall not be their work, but which shall 
 be God's ; perfect, complete. They feel that there 
 must be something which God has wrought, not so 
 much m them as fir them ; they yearn for this, for 
 A., propitiation, ransom, and conscience purged from 
 dead works by the blood of sprinkling; a rock to 
 flee to which is higher than they, than their repent- 
 ance, than their faith, than their obedience, even 
 than their new life in the spirit. Now, this rock is 
 Christ ; and John the Baptist pointed to this rock, 
 when, to those about bim who longed after more than 
 amendment of life, he exclaimed, in the memorable 
 words: "Behold the Lamb of God which taketh 
 away the sin of the world." ' 
 
 Christ's sacrifice was vicarious — He died not 
 merely for the good of, but in the room and in the 
 stead of others, tasted death fir them. He did this 
 jDf His own free will. He saw that nothing else 
 would overcome their sinful perversity and wilful 
 obduracy, and that this would be effectual to do so. 
 
 Christ took upon Himself the penalties of a sinful 
 world, and His self-sacrifice is only not righteous, 
 because it is so much better than righteous, because 
 it moves in that higher region where law is no more 
 known, but only known no more because it is 
 transfigured into love. Vicarious suffering is the 
 law and condition of all highest nobleness in the 
 world. It is this which God is continually demand- 
 ing of His elect, they approving themselves His elect 
 as they freely own themselves the debtors of love 
 to the last penny of the requirements which it 
 
 But the sufferings and death of Christ were not 
 merely vicarious, tiiey were also satisfactory ; and 
 thus atoning or setting at one, bringing togetiier the 
 Holy and the unholy, who could not have been 
 reconciled in any other way. It is not maintained 
 that God could have pleasure in the sufferings of 
 the innocent and the holy, and that innocent and 
 holy His own Son ; but only that He must have 
 the highest pleasm-e in the love, the patience, the 
 obedience which those sufferings gave Him the 
 opportunity of displaying, which but for those He 
 never could have displayed. Christ's sublime 
 devotion to the will of God permitted the Father 
 to say, 'I have found a ransom.' Christ satisfied 
 herein, not the divine anger, but the divine craving 
 and yearning after a perfect holiness, righteousness, 
 and obedience in man; which craving no man had 
 satisfied, but all had disappointed, before. 
 
 The reader is referred for further and fuller infor- 
 mation on this subject to the following works, which 
 have been consulted and used in the preparation 
 of this article : Baur's Ghristliche Lehre von der 
 VersShmmg; Hase's HuUerua Bedimims; Neander's 
 
 533 
 
ATRATO— ATTACHMENT. 
 
 OhrislUche Dogmmgesclmhie ; Gieseler's Lehrbuch 
 der DogmengeschiclOe ; Hagentaoli's Lehrhich der 
 DogmengeschicMe, vierte Aimage; Calvin's InstUtdes 
 of the Ohristian Jldigion ; Edwards, Concerning the 
 Necessity and Reasonableness of the Ohristian Doctrine 
 of Satisfaction for Sin ; Owen's Death of Death in 
 the Death of Christ, and Of the Death of Christ ; 
 Payne's Lectures on Divine Sovereignty ; Chalmers's 
 Institutes of Theology; Wardlaw's Systematic Theo- 
 logy; Campbell's (John M'Leod) Nature of the 
 Atonemernt, &c. ; Tayler's (J. J.) Christian Aspects of 
 Faith and Duty (Discourse on ' Christ the Mediator ' ) ; 
 Maurice's Theological Essays; Jowett's St Paul's 
 Epistles, first and second editions (Article 'On Atone- 
 ment and Satisfaction') ; Trench's Five Sermons 
 (sermon on ' Christ the Lamb of Grod '). 
 
 ATKA'TO, a river of New Granada, more import- 
 ant from its position than from its magnitude. It 
 has already been mentioned under tiie 'head of 
 America in connection with the scheme of opening 
 a communication by water between the Atlantic and 
 the Pacific. 
 
 The main stream falls into the Gulf of Darien by 
 9 mouths — ^the quantity of water, from the almost 
 daily rains, being large in proportion to the area 
 drained, which does not, at the utmost, exceed 300 
 nfiles by 75. Of the 9 mouths, the third in rank, 
 the Boca Coquito, appears to offer the most avail- 
 able facilities for improving the navigation. About 
 220 miles above this entrance, opposite to Quibdo, 
 the A. is 850 feet wide and 8 feet deep at the shal- 
 lowest parts, while the entire faU to the sea averages 
 less than 3 inches to a nule. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, the A. itself cannot advantageously be followed 
 thus far, because, as one advances to the south, 
 the intervening ridge to the west, and its streams 
 towards the Pacific become less and less practicable. 
 
 But a comparatively convenient route has been 
 surveyed through the munificence of Mr F. M. 
 KeUey, a private citizen of New York. Ascending 
 the Boca Coquito as before, this route leaves the 
 main stream at a distance of 63 miles from the sea, 
 following the Truando, one of its western affluents, 
 for 36 miles more without impediment or interrup- 
 tion. From this point on the Truando to the Pacific 
 there would stfll remain 32 miles ; and it is only on 
 this section that any serious difficulties would be 
 found. The heaviest work would be a tunnel of SJ 
 nules in length. According to the plan, the canal 
 would be without a lock; and its termini would 
 require but little improvement to render them excel- 
 lent harbours. 
 
 Thus would the A. realise the destiny which 
 Humboldt chalked out for it upwards of 50 years 
 ago. 
 
 ATEI'P. An anchor is said to be A. when it is 
 just drawn out of the ground in a perpendicular 
 direction. A top-sail is A. when it is just started 
 from the cap. 
 
 A'TRIPLEX. See CHENOPODiAdiLa! andOnACHB. 
 
 A'TRIUM, in Roman Architecture, was the 
 covered court or entrance-haU which formed the 
 chief part of a Roman house. It was lighted from 
 the roof, which sloped towards an opening in the 
 centre (the compluvium), through which the rain- 
 water flowed into a kind of cistern situated on the 
 floor (the vmpluvium). On both sides, passages led to 
 the several chambers. Its size was in proportion to the 
 other parts of the house. _ After the burning of Rome 
 in the reign of Nero, great attention was paid to the 
 decorations of the enteance-haUs or Atria. Here 
 the female slaves were engaged in weaving and other 
 domestic occupations, under the superintendence of 
 their mistress. Family pictures were preserved in 
 the A, it also contained the nuptial couch, and it 
 £31 
 
 served as a general waiting-rooln for visitors and 
 clients. The Atria of the temples were used as 
 places of assembly of the senators, and for other 
 pubHc meetings. 
 
 A'TEOPA. See Belladonna. 
 
 A'TROPHY (Gr. atrophia, want of nourishment ; 
 from a, not, and trophi, nourishment) is a morbid 
 condition of animal or vegetable life, resulting in 
 deficient nutrition of the body, or part of the body, 
 and a consequent decay and waste of its substance. 
 The term is not applied to the mere withholdiujg 
 the requisite supply of nutriment, but to the condi- 
 tion produced by various diseases that affect the 
 body. See Nuieition, also Digestion, Dyspepsia, 
 Hypbeteopht. 
 
 A'TEYPA, a genus of fossU brachiopod or lamp 
 shells, having a close resemblance to the well-known 
 TerSratula. It possessed a perforation for the pas- 
 sage of the peduncle, by which the animal attached 
 itself to foreign bodies. This foramen is not visible 
 in all examples of the same species, from the beak 
 touching and overlying the umbo of the other valve ; 
 the animal was, therefore, probably free during a 
 portion of its existence. The name (derived from a, 
 without, and trypa, foramen) was given to this genus 
 by Dalman, as he erroneously supposed that the 
 perforation was entirely absent. Judging from the 
 markings on the interior of the shell, the animal 
 seems to have differed little from the recent Bhyn- 
 condla, except that it had large calcareous spines 
 for the support of its labial appendages. A. is a 
 strictly palseozoio brachiopod, the solitary Permian 
 species being the last representative of the genus. 
 Of the 179 described species, 100 are Silurian, 56 
 Devonian, 22 Carboniferous, and 1 Permian. 
 
 ATTACH:^ (French), a subordinate or assistant. 
 The term is generally applied to young diplomatists 
 who accompany embassies. 
 
 ATTACHMENT is an English legal term, si^- 
 fying the form of process, by tiie authority of wmch 
 the person or the goods of a debtor may be seized in 
 satisfaction. As a proceeding against the person, it 
 is a species of criminal process, and has the force 
 of much that wiU be found under Appebhend 
 (q. V.) J but in strictness, it means a process issuing 
 from a court of record against a person guilty 
 of a contempt, or, more properly, of a judicial con- 
 tempt, and who is punishable in a summary maimer 
 by tiie court in whose presence, against whose autho- 
 rity, or against whose writs the contempt has been 
 overtly Jdisplayed. Thus, in Hawkins's Pleas of 
 the Crown, such contempts are thus classed : 
 1. Disobedience to the Queen's writs ; 2. Contempts 
 in the face of a court ; 3. Contemptuous words or 
 writings conoetning a court ; 4. Remsing to comply 
 with the rules and awards of a court ; and 5. For- 
 gery of writs, or any other deceit tending to impose 
 on a court. Parties are also liable to the process of 
 A. as for a contempt of court where, in an arbitra- 
 tion (see Arbitration) the award having been made 
 a rule of court under the 9 aid 10 WiE. III. c. 15, 
 the parties refuse to obey the same. In Chancery, 
 there may be A. of the person for judicial default or 
 other offence to the court, as, for example, where a 
 defendant fails to put in his answer or proper plea 
 to the plaintiff's b3l of complaint. The only other 
 process of A. against the person which it is necessary 
 here to notice, is the non-attendance in court of a 
 witness, who in such event is considered to have 
 committed a contempt of court, and to be liable to 
 be punished for such contempt by attachment. An 
 action may also be brought against such defaulting 
 witness at the suit of the aggrieved party, on 
 account of any loss or damage occasioned by the 
 non-attendance. 
 
ATTACHMENT— ATTAINDER. 
 
 The proceeding by A. of goods resemUes in some 
 respects the Scotch diligence or process of arrest- 
 ment. SeeAKRESTMENT. The hest ulustrationwe oan 
 give of it, in this sense, is that relating to the power, 
 of a judgment creditor to recover under his judg- 
 ment. By the 17 and 18 Vict. c. 125, it is provided 
 that the judgment creditor may apply to the court or 
 a judge for a rule or order to have the debtor orally 
 exammed as to the debts owing to him by any third 
 party, or gai-nishee, as he is csffled (see Garnishee), 
 and also for an order that all such garnishee debts 
 be attached to answer the judgment debt, the 
 service of which order has the eflect of binding or 
 attaching the debts in the garnishee's hands. 
 
 ATTA'CHMENT, Fobbiqn. See Foreign 
 Attachment. 
 
 ATTA'CK, in military warfare, is an advance 
 upon the enemy, with a view of driving him from 
 ms position. It may either be an attack in the open 
 field or an attack upon a fortress. 
 
 In an attack in the open field, the general first 
 ascertains the strength and position of the enemy, 
 by means of a reconnaissance or of spies. He then 
 seeks to discover at what point the enemy can make 
 the least resistance; which is generally on one or 
 other flank. He next arranges to concentrate his 
 chief strength upon this particular point; and to 
 mask his real intention by feigned operations in 
 other places. He then attacks with energy and 
 force ; his troops advancing without halt tUl near 
 enough to use their weapons with the greatest effect. 
 The more the attack has the character of a 'sur- 
 prise,' the greater the probability of its success. In 
 order to make this success as much felt as possible, 
 and to be provided also against unforeseen disaster, 
 the attacking body should be followed at a distance 
 by a reserve; a neglect of this precaution has 
 frequently caused the entire failure of an attack. 
 Various forms have been devised for the attack ; but 
 generally the paraUd oi frontal is the one made use 
 of. Frederick the Great, however, won most of his 
 battles by the oblique attack, in which one wing is 
 more advanced than the other. The first Napoleon 
 preferred, by means of his heavy columns, to pene- 
 trate and break up the enemy's centre. Another 
 mode combines an attack on one flank as well as 
 in front, by two separate corps ; so as either to get 
 into the enemy's rear, or to perplex him as to his 
 retreat. A skilful general will be guided by circum- 
 stances in his selection among these several modes 
 of operating. An attack by night might act most 
 signally as a surprise; but as this requires a very 
 exact knowledge of the ground, an attack at early 
 dawn is generally preferred. 
 
 The different arms of the service render each its 
 own kind of aid during an attack. First come the 
 skirmishers, or perhaps whole battalions of light 
 and active troops, whose rifles or long-range guns 
 commence the firing. Then come the main bodfy of 
 infantry in heavy column ; they halt within musket- 
 ^ot, fire, and charge with the bayonet — the skir- 
 mishers meanwhile deploying round to the rear of 
 the column, but holding themselves in readiness to 
 harass the enemy's flauis. English troops especijtUy 
 excel in the attack by bayonet in line ; but foreign 
 armies, for the most part, rely more upon the 
 momentum of a compact and heavy column in an 
 attack. There are positions in wmch the cavalry 
 attack, with its shock and the use of the sword, is 
 more efficacious than that of the infantry. The 
 troopers approach at a trot, break into a gaUop at a 
 distance of one or two hundred paces from Sie enemy, 
 and endeavour by their weight and impetuosity to 
 force the enemy's line. There are many fortns of 
 cavalry attack, according to the nature of the ground 
 
 and the position of the enemy. The artillery, work- 
 ing at a distance, often begin an attack long before 
 the infantry and cavalry can come up, harassing 
 and confusing the enemy. At 800 to 1200 jsxm 
 distance, the artiUery pour out shot and shell, and 
 try to silence the enemy's guns, so as to make 
 way for the attack of the infantry ; while the 
 bayonet-charge is being made, the artillery keep in 
 check the enemy's cavalry. If the attack succeeds, 
 the infantry and artillery take up the ground 
 recently occupied by the enemy, leavmg the cavalry 
 and riflemen to maintain a pursuit ; but if it fail, 
 the artillery and cavalry take up such positions as 
 win cover the retreat of the infantry. 
 
 In an attack upon a fortress, the operation is a 
 part of that of besieging (see Siege) ; but very 
 often intrenchments are attacked in the open field. 
 Such an attack has the character of a surprise, 
 when the works are approached under cover of 
 night, and an attempt is made to break into them 
 on all sides. In such case, there is a reserve corps, 
 which is rapidly brought up when wanted ; but 
 the attacking corps retire behind the reserve, if 
 repulsed. The artillery post themselves on the pro- 
 longation of the line of works, and try to dislodge 
 the enemy's guns and gunners; or pour a con- 
 centric fire sufficient to breach the works. The 
 infantry advance as close as vnll enable them to 
 fire upon the gunners. When the enemy's fire is 
 silenced, the engineers (under cover of the artil- 
 lery) proceed to remove palisades and all other 
 obstacles, and to bridge over ditches and openings. 
 Then follow the operations of the stonning-parfy, 
 analogous to those noticed under Assault. 
 
 ATTAI'lfDER is the legal consequence of judg- 
 ment of death or outlawry, in respect of treason or 
 felony. It is said to have been derived from the 
 Latin word aitind/us, attaint, stained, and it is 
 followed by forfeitare of estate, real and persona], 
 and by corruption ofhlood; and generally it imports 
 the extinction of civil rights and capacities. Thus, 
 an attainted person cannot sue in a court of justice ; 
 he loses all power over his property; and he is 
 by his A. rendered incapable of performing any 
 of the duties, or enjoying any of the privileges of 
 a free citizen. But absolute and severe as the con- 
 sequences of A. seem to be, they have their limits. 
 In regard to .the attainted person, neither the govern- 
 ment nor the crown can exercise absolute or capri- 
 cious authority; everything must be done accortog 
 to legal and constitutional principle and rule, and 
 for the ends of pubhc justice alone. Formerly, an 
 attainted person could not give evidence in a ooijrt 
 of justice ; but that disability in England has been 
 removed by the 6 and 7 Vict. o. 85, and in Scotland 
 by the 15 and 16 Vict. c. 27. 
 
 We have stated that the immediate consequences 
 of A. axe forfeiture of estate and corruption of blood. 
 The forfeiture is of estate real and personal ; the 
 latter, indeed, may be forfeited by mere conviction 
 alone, and without A., no sentence or judgment being 
 necessary to infer it. But A. is essentisu to the for- 
 feiture of real estate, as to which the most serious 
 A. occurs in treason, where the attainted man for- 
 feits to the crown all his lands and freehold inherit- 
 ance, whether fee-simple or fee-tail, and all his rights 
 of entry on lands and tenements of freehold tenure, 
 to be for ever vested in the crown; and also the 
 profits of all lands and tenements of freehold tenure 
 which he had in his own right. This forfeiture 
 relates backward to the time of the treason com- 
 mitted ; and yet it does not take effect unless there 
 be A. oolnplete ; and therefore, if a traitor dies before 
 judgment, or is killed in open rebellion, or is capi- 
 tally punished by martial law, thelA. operates no 
 forfeiture of lands, for he never was attainted of 
 
 S3S 
 
ATTArNDER-ATTEEBUEY. 
 
 treason. But to this there is a curious exception 
 mentioned by Blackstone — viz., that where the 
 chief- justice of the Court of Queen's Bench in per- 
 son, as the supreme coroner of all England, upon the 
 view of the body of one killed in open rebellion, 
 records the fact, and returns the record into his own 
 court, both lands and goods shall be forfeited. 
 , A. for felony involves the forfeiture of all chattel 
 interest absolutely, and the profits of all freehold 
 estates during hf e ; and by A. for murder, the free- 
 hold lands of the offender held in fee-simple are also 
 forfeited to the crown for a year and day, with 
 power to the crown of committing upon them what 
 waste it pleases. See Waste. . This doctrine of year 
 and day, and waste, applied, until recently, to any 
 felony whatever, with the exception of treason. But 
 now, by the 54 Geo. III. c. 145, no A. for felony 
 — except in the cases of treason or murder, or of 
 abetting, procuring, or counselling the same — shall 
 extend to the disinheritance of any heir, nor to the 
 prejudice of any person other than the right or title 
 of the offender hiiaself during his own life. 
 
 The other consequence of A. — viz., corruption 
 of hlood, is anxiously and learnedly treated of in old 
 law-books, and in Blackstone's Commentaries ; but 
 the ancient law on the subject has been so much 
 narrowed in its application by modern legislation as 
 to have lost much of its importance ; and, indeed, 
 this doctrine of corruption of blood was in modern 
 times always looked upon as a peculiar hardship, at 
 least as regards the family of the offender ; and 
 now, by the statutes 54 Geo. III. o. 145, already 
 referred to, 3 and 4 Will. IV. u. 106, and 13 and 14 
 Vict. i;. 60, whatever savoured of inhiunanity or 
 harshness under the ancient system has been effec- 
 tually removed; in fact, it may be stated that, 
 excepting in the cases of treason and murder, th© 
 law of corruption of blood, so far as the family of 
 the offender are concerned, has ceased to form part 
 X)f the law. Besides A. by the operation of law as 
 above stated, there have been frequent instances of 
 attainders by express legislative enactment, as to 
 which, see Bill op Attaindek, 
 
 The Scotch law of A., consequent on a conviction 
 for treason, corresponds to the English doctrine ; and 
 although the word A. is not a Scotch technical term 
 in regard to crimes other than treason, the for- 
 feitures consequent on conviction and judgment are 
 very much the same as the English. 
 
 ATTArWDEE, Bill of. See Bill of Attain- 
 der. 
 
 ATTAI'NT, Wbit of, was anciently a mode of 
 inquiring whether a jury had given a false verdict, 
 wmoh has been aboUshed by the 4 Geo. IV. c. 50. 
 A. is, however, stUl in use to some extent as a tech- 
 nical word in the law of England ; thus, there is 
 the plea of autrefois A., or of a former attainder, 
 for the same crime, and now regulated by the 7 and 
 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, s. 4. 
 
 In the old Scotch criminal law. A., or attaynt, 
 signified a conviction, or being convicted. 
 
 ATTALB'A, a genus of Palms, comprising a 
 number Of species, natives of the tropical parts of 
 South America. They have in general lofty cylin- 
 drical smooth stems, but there are some stemless 
 species. The leaves are large and pinnate. The 
 fruit has a dry fibrous husk, enclosing a nut with 
 three cells and three seeds. The leaves of some 
 species are much used for thatching, and those of 
 some are woven into hats, mats, &o. The nuts of 
 A. excdsa and of A. spedosa are burned to dry the 
 India-rubber obtained from the Siphonia elastica, 
 which acquires its black colour from their smoke. 
 The leaf -stalks of A.funifera, which is found in the 
 southern maritime provinces of Brazil, and is there 
 
 636 
 
 called Piassaba, yield a fibre much used for cordage. 
 The ropes made of it are very strong, and extremely 
 durable in salt water. The Piassaba palm of the 
 northern parts of Brazil, however, is totally differ- 
 ent, and much of the Piassaba (q. v.) fibre imported 
 into Britain is obtained from it. The fruit of A. 
 funifera, known by the name of Coquilla nut, is as 
 large as an ostrich's egg, and supplies a kind of 
 vegetable ivory, used for making umbrella handles, 
 &e. The fruit of A. compta, the Pind&va or Indaj& 
 pahn, is of the size of a goose's egg, and the kernels 
 are eatable. It is a stately and beautiful tree, with 
 a wide-spreading crown. 
 
 A'TTAE. See Otto. 
 
 ATTEMPT to commit a felony or criminal offence 
 is in many instances equally cognizable by the crimi- 
 nal tribunals with the completed crime itself. See 
 Treason, Felony, Misdemeanour. 
 
 A'TTEEBURT, Ebakcis, Bishop of Eochester, 
 was born on the 6th of March 1662, at Milton, 
 near Newport Pagnel, in Buckinghamshire, and 
 educated at Westminster School, from which, in 
 1680, he passed to Christ Church, Oxford. _ In 1687, 
 he gave proof of that ready controversial talent 
 which distinguished him through life, in a reply 
 to a pseudonymous attack on Protestantism by 
 Obadiah Walker, master of University College. 
 Disappointed in his expectation of succeeding to his 
 father's rectory, in 1693, he sought a wider field 
 of distinction, for ambition seems to have stimulated 
 his efforts rather more than the love of souls, and in 
 London his rhetorical powers soon won him reputa- 
 tion. He became a royal chaplain, minister of 
 Bridewell, and lecturer of St Bride's. In 1698, a 
 temporary sensation was created in the learned 
 world by the appearance of the Hon. Charles Boyle's 
 Examination of Dr Bentley's Dissertaiions on. (lie 
 EpisUes of Phalaris and the Fables of Msop. This 
 clever, but shallow and malicious performance was 
 in reality composed chiefly by A., who had been the 
 young nobleman's tutor at Christ Church. In 1700 
 he dStinguished himself in a controversy with Dr 
 Wake and others regarding the powers and privi- 
 leges of convocations. A7s zealous and caustic 
 defence of the ecclesiastical against the civil 
 authority, procured him the thanks of the lower 
 House of Convocation, and the degree of D.D. 
 In 1704, he was promoted to the deanery of Carlisle, 
 on which occasion he subjected himself to just 
 obloquy by attempting to procure an alteration in 
 the date of his predecessor's resignation, which 
 happened to interpose a temporary obstacle to his 
 appointment. In 1707 he was made a canon of 
 Exeter; in 1709, preached at the EoUs Chapel; in 
 1710 he was chosen prolocutor to the lower House of 
 Convocation, and in the same year he had the chief 
 hand, according to the common behef, in drawing 
 up the famous defence of Dr Sacheverell ; in 1712, he 
 became Dean of Christ Church, where, however,, 
 his turbulent and combative spirit had meanwhile 
 involved him in so many controversies, that there 
 was no peace until he was removed ; in 1713, he 
 was made Bishop of Eochester and Dean of West- 
 minster. It is supposed, not unreasonably, that 
 A. aspired to the primacy ; but the death of Queen 
 Anne extinguished his hopes in that direction. His 
 known character and Jacobite leanings made him 
 no favourite with George I. In 1715 he refused 
 to sign the bishops' declaration of fidelity, and 
 some of the most violent protests of the Peers 
 against the government measures proceeded from 
 his reckless pen. His deep complicity in a suc- 
 cession of plots for the restoration of the Stuarts, 
 brought down upon him at length the charge of 
 treason, and, in August 1722, he was committed to 
 
ATTESTATION— ATTILA. 
 
 the Tower. A bill of paina and penalties was brought 
 into the House of Commons, and passed in the Lords 
 by a majority of 83 to 43. A., who had defended 
 himself with great ability, was deprived of all his 
 ecclesiastical offices, incapacitated from holding any 
 civil or spiritual office in the king's dominions, and 
 condemned to perpetual banishment. There is no 
 doubt of the fact that A. was implicated in treason- 
 able plots, but the legal proof on which this sentence 
 was founded cannot be regarded as sufficient to 
 justify its severity. In June 1723, he quitted 
 England for France, and after a short stay at 
 Brussels, finally settled in Paris, where he died, 
 February 15, 1732. In his exile, he maintained a 
 constant correspondence with his friends, and took 
 an active part m the abortive conspiracies of the 
 Jacobites. His fame as a writer is founded on his 
 sermons, and his letters to Pope, Swift, &o. ; as a 
 letter- writer, indeed, he has seldom been surpassed. 
 
 ATTESTATION, in conveyancing, is the verifi- 
 cation of the execution of deeds and wills by 
 witnesses ; hence the clause at the end of these 
 instruments which immediately precedes the signa- 
 tures of the witnesses, is called the A. clause. See 
 Deeds, Wills, Witnesses. In the Scotch practice, 
 the corresponding clause is called the testing-clause. 
 See TESTiNG-CLAtrsE. 
 
 A'TTIO, a term in Architecture, employed to 
 designate a low story rising above the cornice that 
 terminates the main elevation of a building ; in 
 domestic architecture, it is usually appHed to sky- 
 lighted rooms in the roof. 
 
 A'TTICA, one of the political divisions or states 
 of Ancient Greece or Hellas, of which Athens was 
 the capital. The territory is of triangular shape, 
 having its north-east and sc-ath-west sides washed by 
 the sea, while on the north it is connected with the 
 mainland. In ancient times, it was bounded on the 
 W. by Megaris and the Gulf of Saronica; on the 
 S., which ran out into the ' marble steep ' of Sunium, 
 by the .^gean Sea ; on the E., by the ^gean Sea ; and 
 on the N., by Boeotia, from wMch it is separated by 
 a lofty range of hills, the most famous part of which 
 was formeriy called Cithseron. Ancient A. was thus 
 walled in from the rest of Greece. The two principal 
 rivers were the Cephissus and Ilissus; and if they 
 exhibited the same features in ancient times as they 
 do now, must have been mere mountain-torrents, diy 
 in summer. The unfruitfulness of the soil, and the 
 scarcity of water, compelled the inhabitants occa- 
 sionally to send out colonies. According to ancient 
 tradition, the Aborigines of A. were first civilised 
 imder Oecrops, who is said to have come hither from 
 Sais, at the mouth of the NUe in Egypt, about 1550 
 B. c. ; and to have introduced the culture of ohves, and 
 of several species of grain, as also to have implanted 
 milder manners, and taught the worship of the gods. 
 He is stated to have divided the country into 12 
 communities or states. This, however, was not the 
 only division known in early A. A still older division 
 into phylai, or tribes, existed, as also a minute 
 subdivision into demci, or townships. By Theseus, 
 Athens was united with the eleven other states of A. 
 imder one government, of which Athens was made 
 the seat. After this union of the several states, the 
 whole of A. shared in the fortunes of Athens (q. v.), 
 and, under Vespasian, became a Eoman province. On 
 the division of the Eomau empire, A. naturally feU 
 into the hands of the Greek emperors. In 396 a.d., 
 it was captured by Alaric, king of the Goths. 
 What may have been its population in ancient 
 times, it is impossible to determine precisely. 
 Clinton estimates it at upwards of half a mflhon, 
 but this is probably exaggerated. 
 
 At the present day, A., with Megaria and jEgina, 
 
 forms a department or government in the kingdom 
 of Greece. The surface of the country is broken into 
 hills and narrow plains. The most considerable hills 
 are— Oxea, 4636 feet; BlatS, 4629; Pentelious, famous 
 for its marble in ancient times, of a white brilliant 
 appearance and perdurable character, 3884; and 
 Hymettus, 3506. The largest plains extend in the 
 neighbourhoods of Athens and Eleusis. As early 
 as the time of Solon, A. was well cultivated, and 
 produced wine and corn. Mount Hymettus was 
 celebrated for its bees and honey, and metals were 
 found in the range of Laurium. Figs, olives, and 
 grapes are stiU cultivated. Goats and sheep find 
 suitable pasturage; but the country does not now 
 produce much grain. The modem population of A. 
 is 87,000. See Leake on the Demoi of A. 
 
 A'TTICUS, Titus Pomponius, one of the most 
 noble and generous men in ancient Rome, was bom 
 in 109 B. c, or a few years before the birth of Cicero. 
 His excellent education, during which he enjoyed 
 the companionship of Torquatus, the younger Marius, 
 and Cicero, developed, at an early age, a love of 
 knowledge, which was increased duriag his stay in 
 Athens, where he remained many years, glad to be 
 separated from the political distractions of his native 
 land. After 65 b. c, when he was induced by Sulla 
 to return to Rome, he stiU devoted himself chiefly 
 to study and the pleasures of friendship, and refused 
 to take any part in political affairs. Yet he was by 
 no means without influence on public matters, as he 
 lived on terms of familiar intercourse with several 
 leading statesmen, and freely gave his counsel, which 
 was generally sound and wholesome, while it was 
 always benevolent. He was a man of great wealth, 
 having been left a large inheritance by ms father and 
 his uncle, which he greatly increased by judicious 
 mercantile speculations. His mode of life was frugal. 
 When he was informed that a disorder under which 
 he was labouring was mortal, he voluntarily starved 
 himself, and died in 32 B.C. Among his personal 
 friends, Cicero held the first place. The lAnnales, 
 written by A., were highly commended by his 
 contemporaries. They were especially valuable on 
 accoimt of containing genealogical histories of the 
 old Roman families. A. was one of those men (not 
 uncommon either in ancient or modern times) in 
 whom fine culture and a fortunate social position had 
 highly developed the faculty of good taste. He had 
 no creative genius, but was possessed of such delicate 
 discernment that he could detect the flaw that would 
 have been invisible to Cicero. Every author was 
 anxious to secure his favourable opinion. None of 
 his writings have been preserved. His biography is 
 found in Cornelius Nepos, and in Cicero's Epistles 
 to A. 
 
 A'TTILA (Ger. Etzd; Hungarian, Etliele, conjec- 
 tured to have been originally titles of honour), king 
 of the Huns, was the son of Mundxuk, a Hun of the 
 royal blood, and in 434 a.d. succeeded his uncle 
 Roas as chief of countless hordes scattered over the 
 north of Asia and Europe. His brother Bleda, or 
 Blodel, who shared with him the supreme aiithority 
 over all the Huns, was put to death by A. in 444 or 
 445 A. D. The Huns regarded A. with superstitious 
 reverence, and Christendom with superstitious dread, 
 as the ' Scourge of God.' It was believed that 
 he was armed with a supernatural sword, which 
 belonged to the Scjrthian god of war, which must 
 win dominion over the whole world. It is not known 
 when the name 'Scourge of God' was flrst apphed to 
 A. He is said to have received it from a hermit in 
 Gaul. The whole race of Huns was regarded in the 
 same light. In an inscription at Aqmleia, written 
 a short time before the siege in 452, they are 
 described as imminentia peccatorum Jlagella (the 
 
 537 
 
ATTOCK— ATTORNEYS. 
 
 tlireatening scourges of sinners). The Vandals, 
 Ostrogoths, Gepidse, and many of the Franks, fought 
 under his banner, and in a short time his dominion 
 extended over the people of Germany and Scythia 
 — i. e., from the frontiers of Gaul to those of China. 
 In 447, after his unsuccessful campaign in Persia 
 and Armenia, he advanced through Illyria, and 
 devastated all the countries between the Black Sea 
 and the Mediterranean. Those inhahitauts who 
 were not destroyed were compelled to follow in his 
 train. The Emperor Theodosius collected an army 
 to oppose the inundation of the barbarians, but in 
 three bloody engagements fortune declared against 
 him. Constantinople owed its safety solely to its 
 fortifications and the ignorance of the enemy in 
 the art of besieging; but Thrace, Macedon, and 
 Greece were overrun ; seventy flourishing cities 
 were desolated, and Theodosius was compelled to 
 cede a portion of territory south of the Danube, and 
 to pay tribute to the conqueror, after treacherously 
 attempting to murder him. In 451, A. turned his 
 course to the West, to invade Gaul, but was here 
 boldly confronted by Aetius, leader of the Romans, 
 and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths, who compelled 
 him to raise the siege of Orleans. He then retired 
 to Champagne, and in the wide plain of the Mame 
 ■ — called anciently the Catalaunian Plain — ^waited to 
 meet the enemy. The army of the West, under 
 Aetius and Theodoric, encountered the forces of the 
 Huns near the site now occupied by the city of 
 Clialons-sur-Mame. Both armies strove to obtain 
 the hill of moderate height which rises near Mury, 
 and commands the field of battle, and after a terrible 
 contest, the ranks of the Eomans and their allies, 
 the Visigoths, were broken. A. now regarded victory 
 as certain, when the Gothic prince, Thorismund, 
 immediately after his father had fallen, assumed the 
 command, and led on the brave Goths, who were 
 burning to avenge the death of Theodoric. Their 
 charge from the height into the plain was irresistible. 
 On every side the Huns were routed, and A. with 
 difficulty escaped into his encampment. This, if old 
 historians are to be trusted, must have been the most 
 sanguinary battle ever fought in Europe ; for it is 
 stated by contemporaries of A., that not less than 
 252,000 or 300,000 slain were left on the field. A, 
 having retired within his camp of wagons, collected 
 all the wooden shields, saddles, and other baggage 
 into a vast funeral pUe, resolving to die in the ifames 
 rather than surrender ; but by the advice of Aetius, 
 the Roman general, the Huns were allowed to retreat 
 without much further loss, though they were pur- 
 sued by the Franks as far as the Rhine. In the 
 following year, A. had recovered his strength, and 
 made another incursion into Italy, devastating 
 AquUeia, Milan, Padua, and other cities, and driving 
 the terrified inhabitants into the Alps, Apennines, 
 and the lagoons of the Adriatic Sea, where they 
 founded Venice. The Roman emperor was helpless, 
 and Rome itself was saved from destruction only by 
 the personal mediation of Pope Leo I., who visited 
 the dreaded barbarian, and is said to have subdued 
 his ferocity into awe by the apostoho majesty of his 
 mien. This dehverance was regarded as a miracle 
 by the affrighted Eomans, and old chroniclers relate 
 that the apostles Peter and Paul visited the camp of 
 A, and changed his purpose. By 453, however, 
 A. appears to have forgotten the visit of the two 
 beatified apostles, for he made preparations for 
 another invasion of Italy, but died of haemorrhage on 
 the night of his marriage with the beautiful Ildiko. 
 His death spread consternation through the host 
 of the Huns. His followers cut themselves with 
 knives, shaved theii: heads, and prepared to celebrate 
 the funeral rites of their king. It is said that his 
 body was placed in three coffins— the first, of gold ; 
 £38 
 
 the second, of silver; and the third, of iron; that 
 the caparison of his horses, with his arms and 
 ornaments, were buried with him ; and that aU the 
 captives who were employed to make his grave were 
 put to death, so that none might betray the resting- 
 place of the king of the Huns. 
 
 Jdmandes describes A. as having the Mongolian 
 characteristics — low stature, a large head, with small, 
 brilliant deep-seated eyes, and broad shoulders. There 
 can be little doubt that circumstances conspired, in 
 the case of A., to give a certain largeness to his 
 barbaric conceptions, which made him a most 
 formidable foe to the civilisation of Europe. 
 
 A'TTOOK, a town and fort of the Punjab, on the 
 left or east bank of the Indus, lat. 33° 54' N., long. 
 72° 20' E. Pop. 2000. A. stands within the Umits 
 of the fort, which is itself a parallelogram of 800 
 yards by 400. The place was established by the 
 Emperor Akbar in 1581, to defend the passage of 
 the river, being planted for this purpose on a, steep 
 and lofty part of the bank. In modern warfare, 
 however, it is no longer a position of strength, being 
 commanded by the neighbouring heights. 
 
 The situation of A. is important, whether in a 
 commercial or in a military view. It is at the head 
 of the steam-boat navigation of the Indus, being 940 
 mUes from its mouth ; while about 2 miles above 
 it, the Cabul River, the only considerable affluent 
 of the Indus from the west, is practicable for vessels 
 of 40 or 50 tons to a distance of 50 miles. The 
 valley, again, of this last-mentioned stream, present- 
 ing, as it does, the best approach to the east and 
 south from Central Asia, has been the route of 
 nearly all but the maritime invaders of India from 
 the days of Alexander the Great downwards. 
 Taaila, where the Macedonians crossed the Indus, 
 is supposed to have been the same as Attock. 
 
 ATTG'RKEY, in its general meaning, is one 
 appointed by another to act for li'Tn in his absence, 
 the authorilyior so acting being expressed by a_ deed 
 called a Power of Attorney. 
 
 ATTO'RNEYS and SOLrCITORS are those 
 legal practitioners who conduct litigation in courts 
 of justice, preparing the cause for the barristers, 
 or counsel, as they are called, whose duty and privi- 
 lege it is to plead and argue on behalf of the con- 
 tending parties, and who in open court have its 
 exclusive audiencei. A. and S. also practise convey- 
 ancing, or the preparation of legal deeds and instru- 
 ments, and they manage a great deal of other general 
 business connected with the practice of the law, for 
 which, as weU as for the discharge of aU their duties, 
 they are highly remunerated by a fixed and liberal 
 scale of charge. Theirs is, indeed, an extremely 
 important, influential, and lucrative profession, and 
 the well-employed attorney, and the ' family solici- 
 tor,' are expressions which readily suggest the idea 
 of acute intelligence, along with comfort and affluent 
 means. 
 
 They are called A. as practitioners in the courts of 
 common law, because the attorney is one who is 
 put in the place, stead, or' turn, of another. Formerly, 
 when prosecuting or defending, suitors were obliged 
 to appear personally in court; but now, on principles 
 of convenience, A. may represent, and be made to 
 prosecute or defend any action or suit in the 
 absence of, the parties. They are called 8. in the 
 Courts of Chancery, according theoretically to the 
 more gentle (but not less absolute) compulsion of 
 equity. S. also is the name usually given to this 
 profession when they transact family or other gene- 
 ral business out of court, and in their own chaiMers. 
 A. and S. are admitted by the superior courts, of 
 which, therefore, they are officers, having many 
 privileges as such, and they are, in consequence. 
 
ATTORNEYS AND SOLIOITOES. 
 
 peculiarly subject to tlie censure and control of the 
 judges. 
 
 Tlie statutes relating to this branch of the legaJ 
 profession being numerous and complicated, were 
 amended and consolidated by the 6 and 7 Vict. o. 73, 
 by which it is enacted that no person shall act as 
 an attorney or solicitor in any court of civil or crimi- 
 nal jurisdiction, or in any court of law or equity 
 in England or Wales, unless he shall have been 
 admitted, em-oUed, and be otherwise duly, qualified 
 aooording to the provisions of the act. And it has 
 been decided that the person who acts as an attor- 
 ney without being properly qualified, is liable to be 
 indicted for a misdemeanour. There is an exception, 
 however, to the rule of admission as stated, con- 
 tained in a subsequent act, the 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, 
 s. 68, which provides that clerks or other officers to 
 any board of guardians under the poor laws, may 
 coTninence or defend proceedings before magistrates, 
 in special or petty sessions, or out of sessions, with- 
 out being qualified as attorneys. And by the 20 
 and 21 Viot. o. 39, facilities are afforded for the admis- 
 sion and enrolment in England of A. and S. of those 
 colonial courts where the English system prevails. 
 
 To entitle a, person to admission as an attorney 
 and solicitor imder'the above act, the 6 and 7 Vict. c. 
 73, it is required : 1st, That he shall have served 
 — shaving been duly bound by contract in writing so 
 to do — with some practising attorney or solicitor in 
 England or Wales, a clerkship of five years ; or — if 
 he shall have taken a degree, under such circum- 
 stances as in the act mentioned, at Cambridge, 
 Oxford, Dublin, Durham, or London — a clerksmp 
 of three years ; and 2d, That in addition and subse- 
 
 rsntly to such service, he be examined by, or by 
 ection of, one or more of the judges at West- 
 minster, or (in the case of a soUoitor) by the Master 
 of the Rolls, touching his articles, service, fitness, 
 and capacity to act ; and the judges (or Master of 
 the RoUa, as the case may be), upon being satisfied 
 by such examination, or by the certificates of ex- 
 aminers appointed by them, of the competency of 
 amy candidate for admission, shall administer to Tiim 
 such oath as specified in the act, viz., ' that he will 
 truly and honestly demean himself in practice,' and 
 also the oath of allegiance; and after such oaths, 
 shall cause him to be admitted as an attorney of the 
 said courts of law at Westminster, or as solicitor 
 of the High Court of Chancery, as the case may be, 
 and his name to be enrolled as an attorney or soli- 
 citor of such courts. It is moreover enacted, that 
 there shall be a registrar of A. and S., whose duty 
 it shall be to keep an alphabetical list or roll of 
 all A. and S., and to issue certificates as to persons 
 who have been duly admitted and enrolled ; and the 
 duties of this office are by the act committed to the 
 ' Incorporated Law Sociefy,' until some person shall 
 be appointed in their room. Such a certificate from 
 the registrar, of due admission and enrolment, must 
 be produced to the proper authorities, by any person 
 desirous of practismg as an attorney or solicitor, 
 before he can obtain wie stamped certificate required 
 by the Stamp Act, 55 Geo. III. c. 184, authorising him 
 to practise for the ensuing year; and in order to 
 obtaia such registrar's certificate, a declaration in 
 writing, signed by the attorney desirous of practising, 
 or by nis partner, or in some cases by his London 
 agent, containing his name and address, the courts of 
 Traich he is an admitted attorney or solicitor, and 
 the date of his admission, must be delivered to the 
 registrar. And if any attorney or solicitor shaU 
 practise in any of the courts aforesaid, without having 
 obtained a stamped certificate for the current year, 
 he shall be incapable of maintaining any action or 
 suit to recover hjs fees or disbursements for business 
 done Itader such circumstances. 
 
 The same statute also contains the following 
 regidations, among others of less general informa- 
 tion : That no attorney or soUcitot shall have more 
 than two clerks, bound by contract in writing, at one 
 and the same time ; nor any such clerk after he shall 
 have left off busiaess. That all persons admitted as A. 
 of one of the superior courts of law at Westminster 
 may, upon production of a certificate thereof, be 
 admitted in any other court of law in England or 
 Wales, upon signing the roU of the same; and 
 that persons adniitted as S. in the High Court of 
 Chancery may in hke manner obtain uieir admis- 
 sion in all other courts of equity, and in the Court of 
 Bankruptcy. That no attorney or solicitor, who shall 
 be a prisoner in a;ny jail or prison, may commence or 
 defend any action, suit, or proceeding in law, equity, 
 or bankruptcy ; or maintain any action for fees for 
 business done during such his confinement ; and that 
 no practising attorney or solicitor shall be a justice of 
 the peace ia England or Wales, except in counties or 
 towns corporate having justices by charter or other- 
 wise. And that no attorney or solicitor shall commence 
 an action or suit for his fees or charges in respect of 
 any business whatever, until after me expiration of 
 one calendar month after a biU of his costs and 
 charges, signed by such attorney or solicitor, shall have 
 been delivered to the party to be charged ; and such 
 party may, on a proper application, obtain an order 
 for referring such biu to be taxed ; and for staying 
 all proceedings to recover the amount thereof in the 
 meantime. An order may also be obtauied directiag 
 an attorney or solicitor to deliver his bill (when he 
 has not done so) ; and also an order for his defivering 
 up, upon payment of what is due, all deeds, papers, 
 and documents in his possession or power touching 
 the business in such bill comprised. It is provided, 
 however, that the act shall not extend to the exami- 
 nation, admission, rights, or privileges of any per- 
 son appointed to be solicitor to the Treasury, Cus- 
 toms, Excise, Post-office, Stamp-duties, or any other 
 branch of the revenue ; or to be the solicitor of the 
 city of London ; or the assistant of the council for 
 the affairs of the Admiralty or Navy ; or the soli- 
 citor to the Board of Ordnance. (See Stephen's 
 Commentaries, vol. iii. p. 308, et seq.) 
 
 The position of A. and S. in Ireland, Uke the system 
 of law and practice in that country generally, is so 
 like that of the same profession in England, that it is 
 unnecessary here to give any details respecting them. 
 
 The corresponding professional class in Scotland 
 is a numerous one, and of various qualities and 
 degrees. The chief and most privileged body among 
 them are the Writers to the Signet (q. v.), who, with 
 the Solicitors before the Supreme Courts, conduct 
 all the business before these tribunals, although the 
 latter have not the privileges of the former, nor are 
 they so influential a body. They are botii, how- 
 ever, on a, footing of equality as practising A. or 
 S., or law-agents, as they are called in Scot- 
 land, and they are both adnaitted by the Court of 
 Session, and have the' exclusive right of conducting 
 legal business before that tribilnal and the other 
 superior courts; and they have facilities also for 
 practising before all the inferior courts of the coun- 
 try. The provincial attorney class in Scotland are 
 variously denominated as writers and solicitors, the 
 former being the more general name among them. 
 But in Aberdeen they have assumed the name of 
 advocates— a name, however, by which they must not 
 be confounded with the Faculty of Advocates at the 
 Scotch bar. The Aberdeen advocate is neither more 
 nor less than a country attorney. These proviaoial 
 Scotch practitioners are not admitted in that coun- 
 try by the . superior courts, but by the various 
 sheriSs or county courts within whose jurisdiction 
 they practise their profession. 
 
 63» 
 
ATTORNEY-GENERAL— ATWOOD'S MACHINE. 
 
 ATTOENEY-GENEEAL, the; title by which, 
 in England and Ireland, the first ministerial law 
 officer of the crown is known. The A, is ap- 
 pointed by letters patent. His office corresponds in 
 many respects to that of the Queen's Advocate in the 
 Court of Admiralty and of the Lord Advocate in Scot- 
 land (q. v.), though the powers of the latter are more 
 ejctensive and less clearly defined. Originally, the 
 A. was simply the king's attorney, and stood; to 
 the sovereign in the same relation that any other 
 attorney does to his employer. The term',' general ' 
 was afterwards coirferred to distinguish hirn from 
 attorneys appointed to represent the interests of the 
 crown in particular courts, such as the Court of 
 Wards ; or from the master of the crown office, who 
 is called the ' Coroner and Attorney for the Queen.' 
 The early history of this office is involved in obscu- 
 rity. Though there can be no doubt that the crown 
 must always have been represented by an attorney 
 in the courts of justice, there is no trace of the exist- 
 ence of such an officer as the A., in the modem 
 sense, till some centuries after the Conquest. Up to 
 a period comparatively recent, the king's Serjeant 
 was the chief executive officer of thejcro'.vn in crimi- 
 nal proceedings, and this circiunstance gave rise to 
 various questions of difficulty as to the right to 
 precedency of these officers respectively. These 
 questions were set at rest in 1811, by a special war- 
 rant by the then Prince Regent, afterwards King 
 George IV., by which it was declared that both the 
 attorney and solicitor general should have place and 
 audience before aU other members of the English 
 bar. A similar question arose in a Scotch appeal 
 in the House of Lords in 1835, between the A. 
 and Lord Advocate, which was also decided \' in 
 favoiu? of the former. The following may be enume- 
 rated as the principal duties of the A. : 1st, iTo 
 exhibit informations and conduct prosecutions for 
 crimes which have a tendency to disturb the peace 
 of the state or endanger the constitution (see Pleas 
 OP THE Cbown); 2d, To advise the government on 
 legal questions ; 3d, To conduct prosecutions and suits 
 relating to the revenue ; 4th, To file informations in 
 the Exchequer for personal wrongs comnaitted on 
 any of the possessions of the crown ; 5th, To protect 
 charitable endowments in the sovereign's name, as 
 parens pairim, and, generally, to appear in all legal 
 proceedings in which the interests of the crown are 
 at stake. The attorney and solicitor general are two 
 of the Commissioners of Patents (q. v.) ck officio. 
 The powers of the solicitor-general are co-ordmate 
 with those of the A., and in the absence of the 
 latter, or during a vacancy, the former may perform 
 his functions in all their extent. Both must have 
 seats in the Hoiise of Commons, and their tenure of 
 office concurs with that of the government of which 
 they are members. If not honourable by birth, they 
 are always knighted. 
 
 The duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall, and the 
 county palatine of Diu?ham, have separate attomey- 
 
 ATTEA'CTION is the general name for the force 
 or forces by which all bodies, from the minutest 
 particles to the largest planets, suns, and systems of 
 suns, tend to approach, or are dravm towards (ad, to ; 
 iradus, drawn) one another, and when in contact, 
 are held together. The term is generic, embracing a 
 vast variety of facts, which are subdivided under five 
 heads or species of A. These are — 1. Gravitation; 
 2. Cohesion; 3. Adhesion; 4. Chemical Affinity; 
 5. The attractions of Electricity, Magnetism, &o. 
 See Gravitation, Cohesion, &c. Attempts have 
 been made to deduce all these phenomena from one 
 principle of A., modified by an opposing force of 
 repulsion, but as yet without success. .Still less 
 can they be explained by assuming only o»e force — 
 
 A. alone, or repulsion alone — for this, too, has been 
 attempted. The idea of an attractive force acting as 
 the bond of the universe was first introduced as a 
 scientific hypothesis by Newton, and was violently 
 combated by Leibnitz and others. 
 
 A'TTKIBUTE, in the Fine Arts, is a species of 
 symbol, consisting of a secondary figure or object 
 accompanying the principal figure — as the trident of 
 Neptune, or the owl of Minerva. Attributes serve 
 to mark the character meant, and add to the 
 significance of the representation. The necessity 
 of using them lies in the limited means of expression 
 possessed by the formative arts. Attributes maybe 
 either essential or conventional. Essential attributes 
 have some real relation or resemblance to the object 
 or idea to be expressed ; and are often such as could 
 stand alone as symbols — as the bee, representing 
 diligence. Attributes, in the strictest sense, and as 
 distmguished from symbols, are such as are signifi- 
 cant only in connection with a figure, to which they 
 in a manner belong ; e. g., the wings of ■ genii, the 
 finger on the mouth of Harpocrates. The last is an 
 example of an accidental or conventional A, of 
 which kind are also the anchor, to express hope ; 
 the cross, faith. Common attributes in Christian art 
 are — the harp for King David, and writing materials 
 for the evangelists, especially St John. 
 
 A'TTRIBUTB, in Logic, is used to denote the 
 opposite of substance. The latter is considered to 
 be self-existent, while the former can only be 
 conceived as possessing a dependent existence. 
 Attributes are commomy said to belong to sub- 
 stances. Thus,'wisdom, hoKness, goodness, and truth 
 are termed attributes of God, who is Himself regarded 
 as the substance in which they inhere ; in the same 
 way, whiteness is called an A. of snow. 
 
 A'TWOOD'S MACHI'NB, an instrument for 
 illustrating the relations of time, space, and velocity 
 in the motion of a body falling under the action of 
 gravity. It was invented by George Atwood or 
 Attwood, a mathematician of some eminence, who 
 was born in 1745, educated at Cambridge, became 
 fellow and tutor of Trinity College in that univer- 
 sity, pubfished a few treatises on Mechanics and 
 Engineering, and died in 1807. It is found that a 
 body falling freely, passes through 16 feet in the 
 first second, 64 feet in the first two seconds, 144 feet 
 in the first three seconds, and so on. Now, as these 
 spaces are so large, we should require a macliine 
 of impracticable size to illustrate the relations just 
 mentioned. The object of A M. is to reduce the 
 scale on which gravity acts without in any way 
 altering its essential featm-es as an accelerating 
 force. The machine consists essentially of a pulley, P 
 (see fig. 1), moving on its axis with very little, 
 friction, with a fine silk cord passing over it, sus- 
 taining two equal cylindrical weights, p and g, at its 
 extremities. The pulley rests on a square wooden 
 pillar, graduated on one side in feet and inches, 
 which can be placed in a vertical position by the 
 leveUing-screws of the sole on which it stands. Two 
 stages, A and B, slide along the pillar, and can 
 be fixed at any part of it by means of fixing-serews. 
 One of these stages. A, has a circular hole cut 
 into it, so as to allow the cylinder, p, to pass freely 
 through it ; the other is unbroken, and intercepts the 
 passage of the weight. A series of smaller weights, 
 partly bar-shaped, partly circular, may be placed on 
 the cylinders in the way represented in figs. 2 and 
 3.. A pendulum usually accompanies the machine, 
 to beat seconds of time. The weight of the cylin- 
 ders, p and g, being equal, they have no tendency to 
 rise or fall, but are reduced, as it were, to masses 
 without weight. When a bar is placed on p, the 
 motion that ensues is due only to the action of 
 
AUBE-AUBEE. 
 
 Atwood's Machine. 
 
 gravity upon it, so that the motion of the whole 
 must be considerably slower than that of the bar 
 falling freely. Suppose, for 
 instance, that p and g are 
 each 7i ounces in height, 
 and that the bar is 1 ounce, 
 the force acting on the sys- 
 tem — cleaving the friction 
 and inertia of the pulley 
 out of account — would be 
 xV of gravity, or the whole 
 would move only 1 foot in 
 the first second, instead of 
 16. If the bar be left free 
 to fall, its weight or mov- 
 ing force wouM bring its 
 own mass through 16 feet 
 the first second; out when 
 placed on p, this force is 
 exerted not only on the 
 mass of the bar, but on 
 that of p and g, which is 
 15 times greater, so that 
 it has altogether 16 times 
 more matter in the second 
 case to move than in the 
 first, and must, in conse- 
 quence, move it 16 times 
 more slowly. By a proper 
 adjustment of weights, 
 the rate of motion may 
 be made as small as 
 we please, or we can 
 reduce the accelerating 
 force to any fraction of 
 OTavity. Suppose the weights to be so adjusted 
 Biat under the moving force of the bar or circular 
 weight the whole moves through 1 inch in the first 
 second, we may institute the following simple 
 experiments : Expesriment 1. — Place the bar on p, 
 and put the two in such a position that the lower 
 surface of the bar shall be horizontally in the same 
 plane as the point of the scale, and fix the stage A 
 at 1 inch. When allowed to descend, the bar wiU 
 accompany the weight, p, during one second and 
 for 1 inch, when it wiU be arrested by the stage A, 
 after which p and g wiU continue to move from the 
 momentum they have acquired in passing through 
 the first inch. Their velocity wiU now be found to 
 be quite uniform, being 2 inches per second, iUus- 
 tratmg the principle that a falling body acquires, at 
 the end of the first second, a velocity per second 
 equal to twice the -space it has fallen through. 
 Exp. 2.— Take, instead of the bar, the circular 
 weight, place the bottom of jp in a line with the 
 point, and put the stage B at 64 inches. Since the 
 weight accompanies p throughout its fall, we have 
 in this experiment the same conditions as in the 
 ordinary fall of a body. When let oS, the bottom 
 of the cylinder, p, reaches 1 inch in 1 second, 4 
 inches in 2 seconds, 9 inches in 3 seconds, 16 inches 
 in 4 seconds, 25 inches in 5 seconds, 49 inches in 7 
 seconds, and 64 inches and the stage in 8 seconds — 
 shewing that the spaces described are as the squares 
 of the timfes. Exp. 3. If the bar be placed as in 
 •Exp. 1, and the stage A be fixed at 4 inches, the bar 
 win accompany the weight, p, during two seconds, 
 and the velocity acquired in that time by p and g 
 vriU be 4 inches per second, or twice what it was 
 before. In the same manner, if the stage A be 
 placed at 9, 16, 25, &c. inches, the velocities acquired 
 in falling through these spaces would be respectively 
 6, 8, 10, &c. inches— two inches of velocity being 
 acquired in each second of the fall. Prom this it 
 is manifest that the .force under which bodies fall is 
 a uniformly accelerating force — that is, adds equal 
 
 increments of velocity in equal times. By means 
 of the bar and the stage A, we are thus enabled to 
 remove the accelerating force from the falling body 
 at any point of its fall, and then question it, as it 
 were, as to the velocity it has acquired. 
 
 AUBB, the name of a river and a department of 
 France. The river A., a tributary of the Seine, rises 
 near Pralay, on the plateau of Langres ; flows in a 
 north-west course by Eouvres, La Fertg, Bar, and 
 Arcis; and falls into the Seine at Pont-sur-Seine, 
 after a course of 90 miles. — The department of A., 
 which occupies the southern part of the old province 
 of Champagne, and a small portion of Burgundy, is 
 bounded on the N. by the Mame ; on the E. by the 
 Haute-Mame ; on the S.W. by the Yonne ; and on 
 the N.W. by the Seine-et-Mame. The eastern part 
 belongs to the basin of the A.; the western, to the basin 
 of the Seine. Area, 2351 square miles. Pop. 261,673. 
 The climate is mild, moist, and changeable ; but on 
 the whole healthy. A great portion of the area 
 is arable land. The north-east is chiefly applied 
 to pasturage; but the south-east is far more 
 fertile, rich in meadow-land and forest, and pro- 
 ducing grain, hemp, rape, hay, timber, and wine. 
 In minerals, the department possesses little besides 
 limestone, marl, and potters' clay. The chief 
 manufactures are woollen cloth, cotton and linen 
 goods, ribbons and stockings, leather, parchment, 
 &c. The sausages and bacon of A. have long been 
 famous. Troyes is the capital of the department. 
 
 ATIBBNAS, a town in France, in the department 
 of Ardlche. It is picturesquely situated on the 
 right bank of the Ardfeche, 14 miles south-west from 
 Piivas, in the middle of the volcanic region of 
 Vivarais. It looks well from a distance; but the 
 streets, with the exception of one traversed by the 
 diligence, are narrow and crooked, the squares small, 
 and the houses very irregularly built. An old and 
 rapidly decaying wall, flanked with towers, girds 
 the town, winch contains an ancient castle. A. is the 
 principal mart for the sale of chestnuts and silk in 
 the department. Several important fairs are also 
 held here. It possesses in addition manufactures of 
 silk, paper, cotton, coarse cloths, leather, &c., the 
 machmery of the miUs being driven by water. Pop. 
 7410. 
 
 AUBBR, Daniel Feansms Espbit, a composer 
 of operas, was bom at Caen in Normandy, January 
 29, 1784. His father was a printseUer in Paris, 
 and being desirous that his son should devote 
 himself to business, he sent him to London to acquire 
 a knowledge of the trade. But his irresistible passion 
 for music obtained the upper-hand, and after a short 
 stay, he returned to Paris. Among his earliest com- 
 positions may be noticed — the concertos for the 
 violoncello, ascribed to Lamare the violoncellist; the 
 concerto for the violin, played by Mazas with great 
 applause at the Conservatory of Music, Paris ; and 
 the comic opera, Jvlie, with a modest accompani- 
 ment for two violins, two altos, and a bass. These 
 works were very successful ; but A, aspiring to 
 greater things, now devoted himself to a deeper 
 study of music under Cherubini, and wrote a mass 
 for four voices. His next work, the opera Le SSjour 
 Militaire (1813), was so coldly received that A. 
 grew disheartened, and resolved to abandon the 
 idea of reaching eminence as a musical composer. 
 However, the death of his father compelled him to 
 be dependent on his own resources; and in 1819 
 appeared Le Testa/imni et les Billets-doux, which was 
 also unsuccessful; but in La BergSre Ch&tdame 
 he laid the foundation of his subsequent fame. 
 In all these early essays, as well as in the opera 
 of Emma (1821), he displayed an original slyle; 
 but afterwards he became an imitator of Bossmi, 
 
 Ml 
 
ATJBIGNE-AUBUSSON. 
 
 and disfigured his melodies -witli false decorations 
 and strivings for effect. All his later works, except- 
 ing La MuMe de Poriid (MasanieUo), produced 
 in 1828, are written with an assumed mannerism, 
 but in a light and flowing style, with many 
 piquant melodies which have made the tour of 
 Europe. The operas Leicester (1822), La Neige 
 (1823), Le Concert cb la Cowr, and Liocadie (1824), 
 Le Mofm {1S25), Fiordla (1826), LaFiamie (1829), 
 Fra Diavolo (1830), were followed by a series of 
 lighter works: L' Elixir d!Ama)ir, Le Dieu, el la 
 Bajad^re, Les Faux Monnayeurs, &c.; the later 
 operas, Gustave aa le Bal Masque, Le Lac des Fies, 
 Le CheoaJ, de Bronze, Les Diamants de la Couronne, 
 La Part du Diahle, La SirSne, and Hayd^e, exhibit- 
 ing the same popidar qualities as their predecessors ; 
 but their interest is evanescent, as they are deficient 
 in depth of thought and feeling. His later works 
 are Jenny Bell (1855), and Manon Lescaut (1856). 
 After the death of Cherubini (1842), A. was appointed 
 director of the Conservatory of Music, Paris. 
 ATJBIGNlil, Mebm) d'. See Meeib d'Aubign^. 
 
 AUBIGNIS, Theodokb Ageippa d', a famous 
 French scholar, was bom on 8th February 1550, 
 near Pons in Saiutonge. At an early period, he 
 exhibited a remarkable talent for the acquisition of 
 languages. Although come of a noble family, he 
 inherited no wealth from his father, and conse- 
 quently chose the military profession. In 1567, he 
 distinguished himself by his services to the Protest- 
 ant cause, and was subsequently rewarded by Henry 
 rv., who made him vice-admiral of Guienne and 
 Bretagne. His severe and ioflexible character fre- 
 quently embroiled tiiTn with the court; and after the 
 death of Henry, he betook himself to Geneva, where 
 he spent the remainder of his life in literary studies. 
 He died April 29, 1630. 
 
 His best known work is his Histoire Universdle, 
 1550—1601 (Amsterdam, 1616—1620), which had 
 the honour of being burned in France by the common 
 hangman, as also Eis Histoire Secrete, krite par lui- 
 m^me (1721). A. was possessed of a spirit of biting 
 satire, as is proved by his Confession Catholique du 
 Sieur de Sancy, ajiAhis Aventures duBaron deFcmeste. 
 
 AUBBY DB MONTDIDIEK, a French knight 
 who lived in the times of Charles V., and, as tradi- 
 tion says, was assassiaated in the forest of Bondy 
 by Eichard de Macaire in 1371. The latter became 
 suspected of the crime on account of the dog belong- 
 ing to the deceased Aubry invariably displaying 
 towards him the most vmappeasable enmity. Macaire 
 was therefore required by the king to fight with 
 the animal in a judicial combat, which was fatal to 
 the murderer. This tale was afterwards, under the 
 titles of Avbry^s Dog, The Wood of Bondy, The Dog 
 of Montargis, frequently acted, the ' dog ' always 
 gaining the greatest share of applause ! After being 
 performed with success at Vienna and Berlin, it was 
 appointed to be played at the Weimar Theatre, of 
 which Goethe was the manager; but the poet resigned 
 his office before the dog made his dSbnit. 
 
 AU'BUEN', the name of 23 places in the United 
 States. Of these, the most important is in the state 
 of New York, on the railway between Albany and 
 Buffalo. It is in lat. 42° 53' K., and long. 76° 40' W. 
 Pop. about 12,000. The outlet of Owasco Lake, 
 which is two or three miles to the north, flows 
 through the town, furnishing a water-power which 
 is employed in mills of various kinds, and in manu- 
 factures of wool, cotton, carpets, iron, and paper. 
 A. abounds iu seminaries of education, but is 
 perhaps most widely known for its state prison. 
 The building itself is a large structure of stone; 
 while the wall that encloses it is 30 feet high, and 
 500 long, on each of its four sidea. The number 
 912 
 
 of convicts sometimes exceeds 600 ; and their labour 
 is said to be generally equal to the expejises of the 
 establishment. 
 
 ATJBUSSON", PrEREE d', grand master of the 
 order of St John of Jerusalem, was born iu 1423 of 
 an ancient and noble French family. His early his- 
 tory is imperfectly known, but he is said to have 
 borne arms, when very young, against the Turks in 
 the wars in Hungary, and to have distinguished 
 himself by the mingled zeal and yalour he displayed. 
 Here he acquired that intense antipathy to the 
 ' Infidels ' which subsequently animated hi? whole 
 public career, and gave a peculiar bias to his ambi- 
 tion. Having returned to France, he accompanied 
 the dauphin in his expedition agaiust the Swiss, and 
 was instrumental in securing their defeat at the 
 battle of St Jacob near Basle. His mind, however, 
 constantly reverted to the ominous encroachments 
 in the East of the dreaded Mussulman, and at last 
 he resolved to betake himself to Eiodes, where he 
 enrolled himself among the brotherhood of Christian 
 knights. Now, his history emerges iato clear Hght, and 
 assumes a very considerable importance. He swept 
 the Levant, and chastised Ithe pirates who prowled 
 perpetually among the Greek isles, obtaining the 
 approbation and regard of the grand master. In 
 1458, by his ardoxu: and address he succeeded in 
 forming a kind of Christian league between the 
 French monarch and Ladislaus, king of Hungary, 
 against Mohammed II. This was the great aim of 
 A.'s life, the ' idea ' which continually possessed liirn 
 — viz., the necessity of a vast organisation of aU 
 Christendom to overthrow the power of the Turks. 
 Step by step, through long years, he won his way to 
 supreme power in ms order. In 1476, he was elected 
 Grand Master. It was a icritical period for the civi- 
 lisation and religion of Europe. Constantinople had 
 recently been taken and the Byzantine empire de- 
 stroyed by Mohammed II. Every day the conqueror 
 marched further west. Thrace, Macedonia, Central 
 Greece, Servia,'Wallachia, Bosnia, Negropop.t, Lesbos, 
 and the islands of the Adriatic, had been succes- 
 sively conquered by him. Proud of his rapid glories, 
 and sustained by an immense prestige, the sultan 
 threatened to dictate terms from Eome to the entire 
 West. Bhodes, however, stood in his way, the 
 sentinel isle of Christianity, on the great maritime 
 route between Asia and Europe. Mohammed saw 
 that the battle between the two faiths must begin 
 here ; and iu May 1480, a Turkish army of 100,000 
 men, commanded by a Greek renegade, Palaeologos, 
 landed iu the island, and commenced to besiege the 
 town. Two desperate assaults were made. The 
 Turks, however, were compelled to desist, and 
 sailed away, leaving 9000 dead. Mohammed was 
 enraged, and planned a second expedition, which 
 was interrupted by his death at Nicomedeia in Asia 
 Minor, May 1481. After this, A. took a leading 
 part in the religious diplomacy of the papal court, 
 and received from the pontiff many honours and 
 privileges. Meanwhile, he exerted himself to improve 
 and strengthen the internal organisation of the 
 brotherhood, enrichiug the diplomatic code of his 
 order with several wise statutes and regulations 
 relative to the election of dignitaries, the finances, 
 &o., and exciting^ great admiration throughout 
 Christendom. In 1501, he was appointed general- 
 issimo ;of the forces of the German emperor, Ihe 
 French king, and the pope, against the,Turks ; and 
 iu spite of his great age, he enthusiastically entered 
 on his duties, and sailed to attack Mitylene ; but 
 the expedition failed on account of the discordant 
 aims which the various belligerents had in view. 
 Broken by disappointment and vexation, the grand 
 master returned, and died at Khodes in July 1503, 
 at the age of 80. 
 
AUCH— AUCTION. 
 
 AUOH, the capital of the department of Gera, in 
 the south of Prance, situated on the river Gers, 42 
 miles west of Toulouse, lat. 43° 38' N., long. 0° 35' E. 
 Pop. 7942. It is the seat of an archbishop, and 
 possesses a museum of natural science, together 
 with au old and beautiful pathedral, the painted 
 windows of which are greatly adnjired. Its chief 
 articles of trade are wooUen and cotton stuffs, fruits, 
 wine, and brandy. 
 
 lu ancient times, it was called Elimbaria; and 
 at a somewhat later period took its name from the 
 Auscii, whose chief town it was. In the 8th c, it 
 became the capital of Gasoony, and later, of the 
 county of Armagnac. 
 
 ATrCHE'NIA (from the Gr. auclien, the neck), a 
 genus of ruminating quadrupeds, of which the Llama 
 (q. V.) and the Alpaca (q.v.) are the best known. 
 The genus is exclusively South American ; indeed, 
 the species occur only on the lofty ranges of the 
 Andes. They are nearly allied to the camels, and 
 may be regarded as their representatives in the 
 zoology of America. They form, along with them, 
 the family GamiKdce (see Camel), and were included 
 by Linnaeus in the genus Camehis. They agree with 
 the camels in certam important anatomical charac- 
 ters, particularly in the structure of the stomach; 
 and also resemble them very much in general form, 
 in the long neck, small head, prolonged and movable 
 upper lip, and small apertures of the nostrils. They 
 differ from them partly in dentition, and partly in 
 the more cloven feet and movable toes. The nails, 
 also, are stronger and curved, and each toe is sup- 
 ported behind by a pad or cushion of its own ; 
 by all which the feet are admirably adapted for 
 the rocky heights which the animals inhabit. Con- 
 siderable doubt exists as to the number of species 
 of A. The Llama and the Vicugna (q. v.) are uni- 
 versally admitted to be distinct; but it is not so 
 certain tiiat the Alpaca is more than a mere variety 
 of the llama, or that the Guanaco (q. v.) or Huanaca 
 is not the Uama in its wild state, although the obser- 
 vation of M. d'Orbigny, who resided long in their 
 native country, that in no circumstances do these 
 animals breed together, is of great importance with 
 reference to this question. As to the Hueque or 
 Chilihueque — ^the Chilian sheep of some old authors 
 . — perhaps too much dependence has been placed on 
 imperfect descriptions, and further information would 
 ,Beem to be requisite ere any place can be assigned 
 to it. — The genus A. is by some naturalists caUed 
 Llama. 
 
 AUCHTEEA'BDBR, a village in the south-east 
 of Perthshire, on the west side of the Scottish 
 Central Kailway. Pop. (1851) 2520, chiefly employed 
 in cotton-weaving. The popular opposition to the 
 presentee to the church of A. originated (1839) the 
 struggle which ended in the secession from the 
 Church of Scotland and the formation of the Pree 
 Church in 1843. 
 
 ATJ'CKLAND, Bishop, a small town in the 
 middle of the county of Durham. Pop. (1851) 4400. 
 It stands on an eminence, 140 feet above the plain 
 of the Wear. A. contains the abbey-Uke palace 
 of the Bishop of Durham. 
 
 ATJ'CKLAND, Lobd, Wtt. t.tam Eden, an able 
 statesman and diplomatist, third son of Sir Kobert 
 Eden, Bart., of west Auckland, Durham, bom in 
 1744, educated at Eton and 0:rford, and called to 
 the bar in 1768. In 1772, he became TJnder-secre- 
 tary of State, and one of the directors of Greenwich 
 Hospital ; was chosen M.P. for Woodstock ; and in 
 March 1776 appointed a lord of trade. In 1778, he 
 was nominated, with the Earl of Carlisle and 
 Governor Johnstone, a commissioner to treat with the 
 insurgent colonists of North America, but without 
 
 success. When the former was, in December 
 1780, named Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, he accom- 
 panied him as chief secretary, and renjained there 
 till April 1782. Accredited in 1785 minister pleni- 
 potentiaiy to the court of France, he concluded a 
 commercial treaty with that country in September 
 1786 ; and in the following August signed a conven- 
 tion for preventing disputes between the subjects of 
 the two crowns m the East (Indies. In 1788, he 
 went as ambassador to Spain ; and on his retiu'n 
 in October 1789, he was created an Irish peer as 
 Baron A. In 1790 he was ambassador to Holland, 
 and in May 1793 was created a British baron. From 
 1798 to 1801, he was joint Postmaster-general. He 
 died suddeidy, May 28, 1814. A. was the author 
 of the Prmdples of the Penal Law (1771, 8vo); 
 Four Letters, addressed to the Farl of Carlisle, on 
 temporary political subjects (1779) ; Benmrks on the 
 Apparent Circumstances of vie War (1795); Speech 
 on the Jncome-tax (1799) ; Speech in Support of tlie 
 Union vnth Ireland (1800) ; and other pamphlets. 
 
 AU'CKLANDjEahl o]r,GEOii«B Eden, Governor- 
 general of India, son of William Eden, Lord Auck- 
 land, bom August 25, 1784, was called to the bar 
 in 1809 ; succeeded his father in 1814 as Lord A. ; 
 and in November 1833 was appointed, in Earl Grey's 
 administration. President of the Board of Trade 
 and Master of the Mint. In July following, in 
 Viscount Melbourne's first ministry, he became First 
 Lord of the Admiralty. He vacated that office in 
 November of the same year, but was appointed to 
 it again in 1846. In 1835, he went out to India as 
 governor-general, on which occasion he was made a 
 Knight Grand Cross of the Bath ; and in 1839 
 advanced a step in the peerage, being created Earl 
 of A. and Baron Eden. He returned to England 
 in 1841, and in 1843 was elected president of the 
 Asiatic Society. He died unmarried, January 1, 
 1849, when the earldom became extinct, and the 
 barony of A. devolved on his brother, Robert John 
 Eden, born in 1804; Bishop of Bath and Wells, 
 1854. 
 
 ATJ'CKLAND, the capital of New Zealand, stand- 
 ing on the more northerly island in lat. 36° 50' S., 
 and long. 174° 50' E. A. was founded in 1840, and by 
 1856 it contained 7000 inhabitants. In 1857, the 
 imports were £271,613, and the exports £93,454. 
 Ships inwards were 60 of 16,420 tons ; and outwards, 
 47 of 8402. The native vessels registered were 51, 
 averaging rather more than 20 tons each. The tem- 
 perature appears to be singulaiiy equable. The 
 mean of the coldest month is 51° F., and that of the 
 warmest 68°. Annual depth of rain is 45| inches ; 
 and the days with rain are 100. 
 
 AU'CKLAND ISLANDS, a group of islands 
 to the south of New Zealand, being about the 51st 
 parallel S., stad. the 167th meridian E. The largest 
 of them measures 30 miles by 15. It has two good 
 harbours, and is covered with the richest vegetation. 
 The A. I. are valuable chiefly as a whaling station, 
 being at the confluence, as it were, of the Pacific 
 and Southern Oceans. 
 
 AU'CTION (Lat. aucHo). The character of this 
 convenient mode of offering property for sale is 
 correctly indicated by the name. The Latin word 
 audio ,means ' an increasing or enhancement,' and 
 an A. is an arrangement for increasing the price 
 by exciting competition amongst purchasers. What 
 is called a Dvich AvxMon, in \rtiich the usual mode of 
 proceeding is reversed, the property being offered 
 at a higher price than the seller is willing to accept, 
 and gradually lowered tiU a purchaser is found, 
 is thus no A. at all in the original and proper 
 sense of the term. The A. is of Roman origin, and 
 is said to have been first introduced for the purpose 
 
 513 
 
AUCTIONEER— ATJDE. 
 
 of disposing of spoils taken in war. Such sales -were 
 said to take place sub hastd (under the spear), from 
 the custom of sticking a spear into the ground, 
 probably to attract purchasers to the spot. ' Condi- 
 tions of Sale,' or 'Articles of Eoup,' as they are 
 called in Scotland, ' constitute the terms on which 
 the seller offers his property, and form an integral 
 part of the contract between seller and purchaser. 
 The contract is completed by the offer or bidding 
 on the part of the purchaser, and the acceptance 
 by the seller or his representative, which is formally 
 declaimed by the fall of the auctioneer's or salesman's 
 hammer, the running of a sand-glass, the burning 
 of an inch of candle (hence the term ' sale by the 
 candle '), or any other means which may have been 
 specified in the conditions of sale. These conditions 
 or articles ought further to narrate honestly and 
 fully the character of the object or the nature of 
 the right to be transferred, to regulate the manner 
 of bidding, prescribe the order in which offerers 
 are to be preferred, and to name a person who 
 shall be empowered to determine disputes between 
 bidders, and in cases of doubt to declare which is 
 the purchaser. Before the sale commences, these 
 conditions, which are executed on stamped paper, 
 are read over, or otherwise intimated to intending 
 purchasers. The conditions, thus published, cannot 
 be controlled by any verbal declaration by the 
 auctioneer. The implied conditions, which, in 
 addition to those thus expressed, are binding on 
 the seller and purchaser in all auctions, are : 1. That 
 the seUer shall not attempt to raise the price by 
 means of fictitious offers, but shall fairly expose his 
 goods to the competition of purchasers ; and 2. That 
 the pxu-chasers shall not combine to suppress com- 
 petition. Much doubt has arisen as to the lawful- 
 ness of biddings for the exposer. The exposer may 
 set a price below which the thing is not to be sold, 
 which is best and most openly done by fixing an 
 upset price, or he may expressly reserve to himself 
 a power to offer. ' But if the sale is declared to 
 be without reserve, or at the pleasure of the com- 
 pany, the plain meaning and effect of this, even in 
 England, is held to be to bar all biddings in behalf 
 of the seller.' 'In Scotland, the law condemns 
 absolutely such interference.' ' It has been said, 
 that if there be no upset price, and no agree- 
 ment to sell at the pleasure of the company, the 
 owner may bid, but that is not law, or is at least 
 too broadly laid down.' Bell's Commentaries, i. 97, 
 edit. 1858. The A. duties were repealed by 8 and 
 9 Vict. c. 15. 
 
 ATJCTIONEE'R, the person who conducts an 
 auction (q.v.). The A. is in a certain sense the 
 agent both of seller and purchaser, and by the fall 
 of his hammer, or by writing the purchaser's name 
 in his book, he binds him to accept the article sold 
 at the price indicated. The A. may also, and fre- 
 quently does, act as agent for absent purchasers, 
 or for persons who have instructed >iiTn to make 
 biddings for them during the sale. In both cases, 
 however, the purchaser must be bond fide, otherwise 
 the A. would himself become a ' puffer.' As to the 
 circumstances in which he may bid for the seller, 
 see Auction. Where the A. declines or omits to 
 disclose the seller's name, he undertakes his respon- 
 sibilities to the purchasers. To the seller, again, 
 he is responsible for ordinary skill, assidiuty, and 
 prudence. 'Every A. pays an annual duty of £10 to 
 government for his licence, which must be renewed 
 on the 5th July; though there are certain judicial 
 sales which may be conducted by baiUffl's without 
 licence (see 19 Geo. Ill, c. 56, s. 3, and later Stamp 
 Acts). 
 
 AU'CtJBA, a genus of plants of the natural order 
 
 OomacecB (q. v.), of which the only known species is 
 A. Japonica, an evergreen shrub resembling a laurel, 
 but with dichotomous or verticillate yellow branches, 
 and, as seen in Europe, always with pale green 
 leaves curiously mottled with yellow. It is dioecious, 
 produces its small purple flowers in summer, and 
 ripens its fruit,-a small red drupe, in March. It is 
 a native of China and Japan, and was originally 
 introduced into Britain as a stove-plant, but is 
 found to be at least as hardy as the common 
 laurel, and is now a very common ornamental shrub, 
 especially in the suburbs of large towns, a sort of 
 situation for which it is particularly adapted, as it 
 is very little liable to suffer injury from smoke. It 
 is often called the Variegated LaureL The mottled 
 appearance of the leaf is said, however, not to belong 
 to the plant in its ordinary natural state ; but only 
 this variety has yet been brought to Europe, and of 
 it only the female plant. 
 
 AUD.^'0S, AuDfus (or, according to his native 
 Syriac name, Udd), the founder of a religious sect 
 in Mesopotamia, flourished during the 4th c. He 
 commenced by accusing the regular clergy of world- 
 liuess, impure morals, &c., and is said to have 
 opposed to their manner of life a strict asceticism, 
 until his conduct seemed dangerous to the welfare 
 of the church, when he was excommunicated. His 
 disciples, who were pretty numerous, now clung 
 more closely to him, and he was elected their 
 bishop. In 338 a.d., he was banished to Scythia, 
 where he instituted a kind of rival church, and 
 where he died about 370 A. D. Our knowledge both 
 of his character and opinions is derived solely from 
 inimical authorities, such as Augustine, Athanasius, 
 &c., and is therefore to be accepted with caution. 
 But his labours amongst the fierce barbarians in the 
 north are acknowledged to have been beneficial, 
 and one writer, Epiphanius, states that he ou^t to 
 be considered sckismatical, but not heretical. But if 
 the leading feature of his system was, as is alleged, 
 a decided tendency to anthropomorphism, we cannot 
 see — according to the principles upon which the 
 church usually proceeded — ^why he should not have 
 been so called. He is said to have held that the 
 language of the Old Testament justifies the belief 
 that God has a sensible form — a doctrine deemed 
 heretical in all ages of the church's history. This 
 particular tenet took firm hold on many minds, 
 and in the subsequent century, was widely spread 
 through the monasteries of Egypt. 
 
 ATJDE {Atax), a river in the south of France, 
 rises in the east Pyrenees, not far from Mont Lotus ; 
 flows for some time parallel to the canal of Languedoc ; 
 and falls into the Mediterranean 6 miles east-north- 
 east of Narbonne, after a course of more than 120 
 miles. 
 
 AUDE, a maritime department in the south of 
 Franfie. It comprises some old ' counties ' which for- 
 merly constituted a portion of the province of Langue- 
 doc. Pop. 282,833. Area, 2438 square miles. The 
 southern part of A. is mountainous, but the greater 
 portion of it belongs to the valley of the lower A. and 
 the canal of Languedoc. Its northern boundary is 
 formed by the Black Mountains, the most southerly 
 offsets of the Cevenues. The coast is flat, with no 
 bays or roadsteads, but several lagunes. The climate 
 is warm, but variable. The mountains are composed 
 of granite, while the soil of the plains is chiefly 
 calcareous, and about the coast — where salt and 
 soda are procured — is extremely fertile, producing 
 cereals, olives, fruits, and wines. A. is rich in iron 
 and coal, and mineral springs. The woollen and 
 sills manufactures are of considerable value. There 
 is likewise a considerable export of com, honey, &c. 
 The chief town is Caroassone. 
 
AUDEBERT— AUDITORY NERVE. 
 
 ATJDEBERT, Jean Baptiste, a diatinauislied 
 French naturalist, was born in 1759 at Rocnefort; 
 studied the arts of design and painting at Paris ; and 
 in early life attained a degree of eminence aa a 
 miniatiu^e-painter. Indulging a predileotion for the 
 study of natural history, ne was much employed by 
 naturalists in painting the more rare and beautiful 
 objects in then: collections. In 1800, after having 
 visited England and Holland for the purpose of 
 making sketches, he pubHshed at Paris, on his own 
 account, a splendid volume, which raised him at once 
 to celebrity, both as a painter and. author. This 
 work, the Histcm-e Naturelle des Singes, des MahU, 
 et des OMopUMques (Natural History of Monkeys, 
 Lemurs, and Pljring Lemurs), was a large folio, with 
 62 coloured plates, remarkable alike for their truth 
 and beauty. His method of colour-printing in oil, 
 which was then novel but now common, was to dis- 
 pose aU the colours on one plate instead of using a 
 separate plate for each colour. His use of gold and 
 bronze in the illustrations and letterpress was then 
 also as new as it is attractive. In his Histoire des 
 Golibris, des Oiseavx-mouches, des Jacamars, et des 
 Promlrops (Natural History of Humming-birds, 
 Jacamars, and Promeropses), he succeeded by the 
 same process in giving to his plates even a greater 
 briUiancy and finish. He died in 1800. 
 
 AXJ'DITOR. The name given to certain ofiBoers 
 appointed to examine accounts in behalf either of 
 the government, of courts of law, of corporations, or 
 of private persons. — Audit-office. In 1785 public 
 auditors were appointed, under the title of ' Commis- 
 sioners for Auditing the Public Accounts,' by 25 Geo. 
 III.C. 52, by which the patents of Lord Sondes and 
 Lord Mountstuart, as auditors of the imprests, 
 were vacated, the sum of £7000 per anmmi being 
 made payable to each of them for hfe, in Meu of a 
 percentage which had been paid them on the 
 amount of expenditure audited. Many subsequent 
 statutes have been passed for the purpose of extend- 
 ing and defining the duties of these commissioners, 
 and regulating the business of the audit-office. The 
 commissioners of audit are empowered to call on all 
 public accountants to account for moneys or stores 
 intrusted to them; and should they fail to do so, 
 are required to certify their names to the Remem- 
 brancer of the Exchequer, and the Attorney-general 
 of England or Ireland, or the Lord Advocate of Scot- 
 land, in order that they may be proceeded against aa 
 defaulters. These proceedings, however, may be 
 stayed for a time by the Lords of the Treasury, by 
 whom the whole arrangements of the audit-office are 
 controlled, on the application of the accused. The 
 accounts of the Ordnance, of the Army and Navy, 
 and the Land Revenue, are now subjected to exami- 
 nation in the audit-office. By 2 Will. IV. c. 99, the 
 powers and functions of the Commissioners of Public 
 Accounts in Ireland were transferred to the Commis- 
 sioners for Great Britain. The present establish- 
 ment at the audit-office consists of a chairman, five 
 commissioners, a secretary, and a large nimiber of 
 inspectors and examiners. The patronage is in the 
 Lords of the Treasury. — Auditor of the Coukt of 
 Session, in Scotland, is an officer whose duties con- 
 sist in taxing the costs of suits in which expenses 
 are found due, a remit being made to him for that 
 purpose, either by a division of the court or a Lord 
 Ordinary. The auditor returns a report to the judge 
 or court making the remit, by whom decree is pro- 
 nounced for the amount of the taxed account. Objec- 
 tions to the auditor's report may be stated to the 
 judge or court. The nomination of the auditor is in 
 the crown, the office being held ad mtam avt culpam. 
 The auditor cannot practise before the court, on pain 
 of deprivatipn. The persons eligible to the office 
 are writers to the signet, and solicitors before the 
 35 
 
 Supreme Courts in Scotland. In the inferior courts 
 an officer with corresponding powers is usually 
 appointed by the court' in which he officiates. The 
 office of auditor of the Court of Session corresponds 
 in many respects to that of the taxing-masters in 
 the Court of Chancery, and of the masters of the 
 Queen's Bench and Common Pleas. 
 
 AU'DITORY NERVE. By anatomists, the 
 A. N. js associated with the facial, and is the seventh 
 in order of origin from the brain, counting from 
 before backwards. The seventh pair consists of the 
 portio dura or facial, the portio mollis or auditory, 
 and a small intermediate portion. The portio molUs 
 apparently commences by some white streaks in the 
 floor of the fourth ventricle ; it then nms forward 
 to the back of the petrous portion of the temporal 
 bone, and enters the internal auditory meatus. 
 The facial then leaves it to pass along the canal 
 called the Aqueductus Fallopii, and the auditory 
 divides into two portions, which diverge — the smaller 
 one posterior for the semicircular canals and the 
 vestibule, the other for the cochlea. Those entering 
 the semicircular canals divide into five branches, 
 forming at last a nervous expansion somewhat 
 analogous to the retina. Figs. 1 and 2 represent the 
 A. N. (I) dividing into its two portions, the lesser 
 branch supplying the semicircular ' canals (2), the 
 larger branch supplying the cochlea (3). Fig. 1 repre- 
 sents the semicircular canals of the left side, with 
 their bony rings round the membranous labyrinth. 
 In this figure, the cochlea is cut in half longitudin- 
 ally from base to apex, shewing a section of the 
 spiral canal, with the nerve proceeding up through its 
 
 Fig. 1. — Left Auditory Nerve. 
 
 axis. Fig. 2 represents the membranous labyrinth 
 (2), with the bony framework cut away, and with 
 the cochlea opened so as to shew the manner in 
 which the nerve spreads out in the spiral lamina. 
 
 Several theories have been held at different periods 
 with regard to the manner in which the nerves ter- 
 minate m the cochlea, and how sound is transmitted 
 from the latter to the brain. The latest, and that 
 which is at present entertained by most physiolo- 
 gists, is that of M. Schultze. It has been shewn by 
 actual experiment, that when a nerve iu connection 
 with a muscle is acted upon by a succession of very 
 rapid strokes from the little hammer of a tetan- 
 motor, and when the strokes have arrived at a 
 certain number iu the second, a stimulus is sent 
 along the nerve exciting the muscle to action. It is 
 in the same way that M. Schultze supposes the 
 impression of sound to be propagated to the nerves 
 of the cochlea, by means of a series of little tetan- 
 motors called the teeth of Corti, who discovered them. 
 They are situated in the spiral lamina, which sepa- 
 rates the spiral canal in the interior of the cochlea 
 
ATJDLEY— ATJBK. 
 
 into an upper and a lower half or scala. The spiral 
 lamina consists of an osseous septum, next to the 
 central axis of the cochlea, and of a membranous 
 
 FJ^;. 2. — Eight Auditoiy Nerve. 
 
 layer, which prolongs the osseous septum to the 
 outer wall of the cochlea, thus completing the spiral 
 lamina. This membranous septum is double, and 
 between its layers there is a chamber which contains 
 the teeth of Corti, ranged side by side throughout 
 the whole length of the spiral lamina, and gradually 
 getting shorter from base to apex, like the strings 
 of a harp or pianoforte. The chamber is fiUed 
 up by a tremulous jelly-like fluid. The diagram, 
 fig. 3, represents a perpendicular section of the spiral 
 
 Uj the osseous septum grooved for the passage of the cochlear 
 nerve &, which terminates by a free end inside the chamber 
 c, along the floor of which it lies for a short distance ; d, d 
 are the two layers of the membranous septum. Lying in con- 
 tact with the end of the nerve is the enlarged extremity of a 
 rod e, which is connected in a flail-like manner by the hinge 
 /to another rod, which is fixed at ^. 
 
 lamina. When the waves or vibrations of sound 
 strike against the bones of the head, those bones 
 are caused to vibrate ; this vibration is transmitted 
 through the head to the bones of the cochlea, which 
 in turn set in motion the tremulous JeUy which fills 
 up the membranous chamber, c. 
 
 ATJ'DLEY, SlB James, one of the original 
 knights of the Order of the Garter, founded in 1344 
 by Edward III., on his return from France after 
 the victory of Cressy, was frequently in personal 
 attendance on Edward the Black Prince, whom he 
 accompanied to France in 1346. He was so 
 conspicuously brave at the battle of Poictiers, that 
 the prince retained him as his own knight, and 
 declared him to be the bravest soldier on his side. 
 He conferred on him an annual revenue of 500 
 marks, which A. immediately gave up to his squires. 
 This act of disinterestedness becoming known, the 
 Black Prince conferred a further annual sum of 600 
 marks upon him. A. also accompanied the Black 
 Prince into Spain, and in 1369 the office of seneschal 
 of Poitou was conferred upon him. He took part in 
 
 516 
 
 the capture of La-Boohe-sur-Yon in Poitou, in the 
 same year, and died a few months after. The Prince 
 attended his funeral obsequies at Poictiers. 
 
 AUDRAlir, Gr^EAKD, one of the most 
 celebrated engravers of the French school, 
 was born at Lyon in 1640. He belonged 
 to a family distinguished for its excellence 
 in this department of art. After a three 
 years' residence at Borne, where he studied 
 under Carlo Maratti, and acquired a high 
 reputation by his engraving of Pope 
 Clement IX., he was reoaUea to France 
 by Colbert, and was appointed engraver 
 to his majesty Louis XIV. Here he 
 engraved the principal works of Lebnm, 
 with whom he lived on terms of the 
 closest friendship. His master-pieces are 
 a series of engravings illustrating the 
 battles of Alexander. He died at Paris 
 1703. 
 
 AUDUBON, John Jambs, a distin- 
 guished American ornithologist, was born 
 m Louisiana, United States, in May 1780, 
 where his parents, who were both French, 
 had settled on a plantation. His father, 
 who was himself an ardent lover of nature, 
 early directed his son's attention to natu- 
 ral objects. The youth conceived a passion 
 for the study of birds ; and a book of ornithological 
 specimens determined him to become a draughtsman. 
 About the age of fourteen, he went to Paris, and 
 studied for some time under the celebrated David. 
 In 1798 he was settled on a faorm in Pennsylvania 
 by his father, but he did not distinguish himself 
 as an agriculturist. In 1810 he sailed down the 
 Ohio wim his wife and child, on a bird-sketching 
 expedition. The following year, he visited Florida 
 for a like purpose ; and for many years after he 
 continued Ins ornithological researches among the 
 American woods, to the neglect of his ordmary 
 business. The latter he finally abandoned; and 
 in 1824 he went to Philadelphia, where he was 
 introduced to Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte, who 
 so warmly encouraged him in his plans' that he 
 determined on publication. After two years' further 
 exploration of the forests of his native country, he 
 came to Europe with the view to secure subscribers 
 for his work on The Birds of America. He met with 
 a warm reception from such men as Herschel, 
 Cuvier, Hiunboldt, Brewster, Wilson, and Sir Walter 
 Scott. The issue of his work was commenced shortly 
 after, each bird being delineated life-size. The 
 coloured engravings were chiefly executed by the 
 late Mr W. H. Lizars of Edinburgh. The work was 
 completed in 87 parts, elephant folio, containing 448 
 plates. While the work was in process of pubMcation 
 in this country (it was finished in 1839), A. revisited 
 America three times, in order to make further 
 researches. In 1831, he began the pubKcation of his 
 American Ornithological Biography in Edinburgh, 
 which was also completed in 1839. In 1839, A 
 finally returned to America, where, in 1844, he pub- 
 lished a reduced edition of his works. Assisted by 
 Dr Buchanan, he also published The Quadrupeds of 
 America, and a Biography of American Quadrupeds. 
 He died, January 27, 1851, in his 71st year. 
 
 AU'ER, Alois, director of the National Printing- 
 office at Vienna, was born May 11, 1813, at Wels, 
 in Upper Austria, and was trained in a printing 
 estabEshmeut of his native town to be a compositor, 
 corrector, and manager. He thus went through all 
 the grades of his profession. During his scanty 
 leisure moments, A. employed himself in acquiring a 
 knowledge of French, ItaUan, English, and other 
 languages, in which he' underwent an examination 
 
AUERBAOH— AUGMENTATION. 
 
 in 1835 and 1836, before the university of Vienna. 
 His brUliant appearance on this oooasion opened up 
 to hia ambition the probability of a professorial 
 chair. In October 1837, he was appointed professor 
 of Italian in the college at Linz, in Upper Austria. 
 Here he laboiured assiduously in pubUo and private 
 teaching, and published a variety of useful school- 
 books, on a system peculiar to hupself. In 1839 
 he set out on his travels through Germany, 
 Switzerland, Prance, and England, coUecting mate- 
 rials for his favourite art. On his return Tie was 
 appointed, iu 1841, to the office which he now holds. 
 As a specimen of his typographical learning, and the 
 resources of the office under his care, A. has printed 
 and published the Sprachalle, or Lor<Pa Prayer in 
 608 languages, with Roman types (Vienna, 1844) ; 
 and the Lard's Prayer in 200 languages, with their 
 national alphabets (1847). 
 
 , AU'ERBACH, Bebthoid, a popular German 
 author, of Jewish extraction, was born at Nordstet- 
 ten, in the WUrtemberg Black Forest, February 28, 
 1812. He received his education at Carlsruhe, 
 Stuttgart, Tubingen, Munich, and Heidelberg. 
 Having at an early period abandoned the study 
 of Jewish theology, he devoted his attention to 
 literature. His first publications, Judaism and 
 Modem Literature (Stutfcg. 1836), and a translation 
 of the works of Spinoza, with a critical hfe of his 
 author (5 vols. Stuttg. 1841), had a philosophical 
 tendency. In his fldvicaled Citizen (Carlsruhe, 
 1842), and Village Tales of the Blaeh Forest 
 (1843), he applied himself to the portraiture of 
 real life, and succeeded well. The Village Tales 
 were translated into English, Swedish, and Dutch, 
 and were generally admired. One of his later 
 publicationa, Schrift und Volk (Literature and the 
 People, 1846), discusses the relation ia which litera- 
 ture stands to the mass of the people. 
 
 AU'GBAS, or AU'GEIAS, according to one 
 account, the son of Helios and Iphiboe, but accord- 
 ing to others, of Phorbas and Hermione, was king of 
 Ehs, and renowned for his wealth in oxen, of wmch 
 he fed 3000 head in his stables. ASTien the dung 
 of these animals had been allowed to accumulate 
 for many years, Hercules was commissioned by 
 Eurystheua to cleanse the Augean stables in one 
 day, and was promised as payment a tenth part 
 of the oxen. -Hercules accomplished the task, 
 by turning the courses of the rivers Peneus and 
 Alpheus through the masses of ordure. Wien 
 A. refused to pay the stipulated wages, a war 
 ensued, and A. was slain by Hercules. The fable of 
 the Augean stables often serves as an allusion iu 
 declamations on political corruptions, &c. 
 
 AUGERBAU, Pieeeb Feansois Chaeles, Duke 
 of Castiglione, marshal and peer of France, one of the 
 most brilliant and intrepid of that band of general 
 officers whom Napoleon gathered around himself, was 
 the son of a tradesman, andwasbom21st October 1757. 
 After serving some time in the French carabiniers, 
 iuto which he enlisted at the age of seventeen, he 
 entered the Neapohtan service, ia which he remained 
 until 1787, when he settled in Naples as a fencing- 
 master. With other French residents, he was 
 banished from that city in 1792, and immediately 
 volunteered iuto the French revolutionary army 
 intended- for the repulsion of the Spaniards. His 
 services were so conspicuous, that in less than three 
 years he was made general of a division. In 1795 he 
 accompanied the army to Italy, where he greatly 
 distinguished himself, especially in the field, but 
 also in the council. He took an active part and 
 
 fained much glory in the battles of Millesimo, Ceva, 
 ;odi, Castighone (for which he received his title), 
 Roveredo, Bassano, &c. In 1797 he was appointed 
 
 to the command of the Army of the Rhine ; but in a 
 few months after, the Directory not liking the spirit 
 he displayed there, made him commander of the 
 tenth division at Perpignan. This post he resigned in 
 1799, when he was elected as deputy into the coimcil 
 of the Five Hundred. In 1801 he received the com- 
 mand of the army in Holland, and was active in 
 several engagements. In 1804 he was made a 
 marshal; and in the following year he commanded 
 a division of the army which reduced the Vorarlberg ; 
 and was afterwards engaged at Wetzlar, Jena, 
 Eylau; also in Italy (1809); Spain (1810); BerUn, 
 Bavaria, and Saxony (1813). He died of water in 
 the chest, June 11, 1816.- 
 
 AU'GITB (from Gr. aug^, briUianoy), or PY'- 
 ROXENE (from 6r. pyr, fire, and xenos, a guest), 
 a mineral very nearly allied to Hornblende (q. v.), 
 which has, indeed, by some mineralogists been 
 regarded as a variety of it, although the distinction 
 between them is undeniably important, as charac- 
 terising two distinct series of igneous rocks. A. 
 consists of 47 — 56 per cent, of silica, 20—25 per cent, 
 of lime, and 12 — 19 per cent, of magnesia, the mag- 
 nesia sometimes giving place in whole or in part to 
 protoxide of iron, and some varieties contaming a 
 little alumina, or a little protoxide of manganese. Its 
 specific gravity is 3'195 — 3'525. It is litue afiected 
 by acids, or not at all. It is usually of a greenish 
 colour, often nearly black. It crystallises in six or 
 
 ^f^^\ 
 
 "1 
 
 a,, Common Augite ; 6, Green Angite. 
 
 eight-sided prisms variously modified ; it often 
 occurs in crystals, sometimes imbedded, often 
 in grains or scales. It is an essential component 
 of many igneous rocks, particularly of Basalt (q. v.), 
 Dolerite (q. v.), and A. -porphyry (see Porphyby), 
 from which chiefly it derives its importance as 
 a mineral species. A. Rock, consisting essentially 
 of A. alone, occurs in the Pyrenees. A. is a 
 common mineral in the trap-rocks of Britain 
 and other countries. It is rarely associated with 
 quartz, in which respect it differs from hornblende, 
 but very often with labradorite, olivine, and leucite. 
 Fluorine, which is generally present in small 
 quantity in hornblende, has never been detected in 
 A. The form of the crystals is also different in 
 the two minerals, as well as their cleavage ; but 
 Professor Gustav Rose of Berlin has endeavoured to 
 shew that the difference between A and hornblende 
 arises only from the different circumstances in which 
 crystallisation has taken place, and that A. is the 
 production of a comparatively rapid, and hornblende 
 of a comparatively slow cooling. He regards some of 
 the varieties as intermediate. His views have been 
 supported by experiments, and by a comparison of 
 A. with certain orystaUine substances occurring 
 among the scoriae of foundries. — Diopside, Saldite, 
 and Goccolite are varieties of A. — Diallage (q. v.) 
 and Hyperstkene (q. v.) are very nearly allied to it. 
 AUGMENTATION, in Herald^. See Hee- 
 
 ALDEY. 
 
 AUGMBNTA'TION, inM^isio, is the reproduction 
 of a melody, or principal subject of a composition, 
 in tiie course of the progress qf the piece, in notes of 
 
 547 
 
AUGMENTATION— AUGSBURG CONFESSION. 
 
 greater length than those notes in which the melody- 
 is first introduced. The tempo remains unaltered. 
 A. is of great importance in the treatment of the 
 subjects, or themes, for fugues, and when cleverly- 
 used, produces great effects. 
 
 AUGMENTA'TION, Process of, in Scotch law, 
 is an action in the Court of Teiuds (q. v.) by the 
 minister of a pariah against the titular, or beneficiary, 
 and heritors, for the purpose of procuring an increase 
 to his stipend. The moderator and clerk of the 
 presbytery to which the minister belongs must also 
 be called as parties. By 48 Geo. III. o. 138, it 
 is enacted that no A. shall be granted till the 
 expira-tion of 15 years from any A. pre-vious to the 
 act, nor tiU the expiration of 20 years from any 
 A. subsequent to the act. A period of 20 years 
 must thus elapse between each augmentation. The 
 amount of the A. is fixed, or modified, as it is 
 termed, in grain or -victual; the stipend itself 
 being paid in money, according to the fiars' prices 
 (q. V.) of each year. In addition to the ascertain- 
 ment or modification of a suitable stipend, regard 
 being had to the state of the teinds, the extent 
 of the parish, the expense of living, and the like — 
 a process of A. has the further object in -view 
 of localling the stipend' so modified — i. <=., of 
 assigning it in due proportions to the heritors or 
 other parties in possession of the tithes. This latter 
 object is attained by means of what is called' a 
 scheme of locality — i. e., an allotment of the stipend 
 modified to the several parties liable therefor. This 
 scheme is prepared at the instance of the second 
 junior Lord Ordinary (q. v.), on a remit from the 
 Teind Court. The last conclusion in a summons of 
 A. is for a suitable sum, or increase to the sum 
 already allowed, for communion elements — i. e., for 
 bread, -wine, and other necessaries for celebrating 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper after the 
 Presbyterian fashion. When there is not a suf- 
 ficient amount of teind to bring the stipend of 
 the minister up to £150 per annum, with £8, 6«. 8d. 
 for communion elements, it is provided by 50 
 Geo. III. c. 84, and 5 Geo. IV. c. 72, that the 
 residue shall be paid by the Exchequer. In 
 addition to their stipend, ministers have right to 
 a manse and glebe, or a provision of £50 annually 
 in heu of them. See Stipend, Glebe, Manse; 
 see also Parliamentary Church^ 
 
 AU'GSBURG, historically one of the most notable 
 cities in Germany, is situated in the angle between 
 the rivers Wertach and Lech, and is the chief city of 
 the circle of Swabia and Neuburg, in the kingdom of 
 Bavaria. The population is about 38,000. Though 
 presenting an antique and rather deserted appearance, 
 A. has numerous fine buildings, and especiaEy 
 one noble street, the ' imperial' Maximilian Strasse, 
 adorned with bron2e fountains. Various buildings 
 are associated -with historical events of w;orld-inte- 
 rest. The industry of A. is re-ri-ying ; several cotton 
 and wooUen factories are in operation, as well as 
 manufactories of paper, tobacco, and machinery. Its 
 gold and silver wares still retain their ancient repu- 
 tation. The once flourishing art of copper engra-ving 
 is extinct ; but printing, lithography, and bookseUing 
 have taken a new start. The AUgemdne Zdtung, or 
 Augsburg Gazette, the most -widely circulated paper 
 in Germany, is pubhshed here. Banking and stock- 
 jobbing are extensively carried on ; and it is still 
 the emporium of the trade -with Italy and Southern 
 Germany. It is the centre of a system of railways 
 connectmg it -with Niimberg and Leipsic, -with 
 Switzerland, Munich, &o. The foundation of A. 
 was the 'colony' planted by the Emperor Augustus, 
 12 B.C., after the conquest of the Vindelici, probably 
 on the site of a former residence of that people. 
 
 It was called Augusta Vindelicorum, and hence the 
 present name. It became the capital of the pro- 
 vince of Rhsetia, was laid waste by the Huns in the 
 5th c, and came next under the dominion of the 
 Franlcish kings. In the war of Charlemagne with 
 Thassilo of Bavaria, it was again destroyed. After 
 the di-rision of Charlemagne's empire, it came under 
 the Duke of Swabia ; but ha-ving become already 
 rich by commerce, was able to purchase gradually 
 many pri-vileges, and finally became, in 1276, a free 
 city of the empire. It now rose to greater conse- 
 quence than ever, and had reached the summit of 
 its prosperity by the end of the 14th o. About this 
 time (1368), its aristocratic government was set aside 
 for a democratic, which lasted for 170 years, till the 
 aristocracy, favoured by Charles V., regained the 
 ascendency. A. continued in great eminence for its 
 commerce, manufactures, and art, till the war between 
 Charles V. and the Protestant league of Schmalkald 
 (1540). Along -with Niimberg it formed the empo- 
 rium of the trade between Northern Europe and the 
 south, and its merchants were princes whose ships 
 were in all seas. See Fd-q&br. It was also the 
 centre of German art as represented by the Holbeins, 
 Burkmair, Altdorfer, and others. Many diets of the 
 empire were held in A., and the leading events of the 
 Reformation are associated -with its name. The 
 discovery of the road to India by the Cape, and of 
 America, turned the commerce of the world into new 
 channels, and dried up the sources of A.'s prosperity. 
 It lost its freedom -with the abolition of the German 
 empire in 1806, and was taken possession of by 
 Bavaria. 
 
 AU'GSBURG CONPBSSION,the chief standard 
 of faith in the Lutheran Church. Its history is the 
 folio-wing. With a -view to an amicable arrangement 
 of the rehgious split that had existed in Germany 
 since 1517, Charles V., as protector of the church, 
 had convoked a diet of the empire, to meet at Augs- 
 burg, 8th April 1530, and had required from the 
 Protestants a short statement of the doctrines in 
 wlfich they departed from the Catholic Church. The 
 Elector, John, of Saxony, therefore, in March, called 
 on his Wittenberg theologians, -with Luther at their 
 head, to draw up articles of faith, to lay before him 
 at Torgau. The commissioned doctors took as a 
 basis, m so far as pure doctrine was concerned, 
 articles that had been agreed to the previous year at 
 conferences held at Marburg and Sohwabach, in the 
 form of resolutions of the Lutheran reformers of 
 Germany against the doctrines of ZwingU. These doc- 
 trinal articles supplemented, and with a practical part 
 newly added, were laid before the Elector at Torgau. 
 Melanchthon then, taking the Torgau articles as a 
 foundation, began in Augsburg, in May, and -with the 
 ad-yice of various Protestant -theologians, as well as 
 princes and other secular authorities, composed the 
 document, which he first called an Apology, but 
 which in the diet itself took the name of the A. C. 
 Luther was not present in Augsburg, being then 
 under the ban of the empire, but his advice was had 
 recourse to in its composition. The Torgau articles 
 were in German ; the Confession was both in German 
 and Latin; and Melanchthon laboured incessantly 
 at its improvement tUl it was presented to the 
 emperor, June 25. The character of Melanchthon, in 
 the absence of Luther, had led him, in setting about 
 the composition of the document, to aim at main- 
 taining a spirit of love, forbearance, and mediation, 
 as well as the utmost bre-vity and simplicity. Its 
 object, which only became gradually apparent after 
 the meeting of the diet, was, in the first place, to 
 give a collected view of the belief of the Lutheran 
 Protestants, aiming at the same time at refuting 
 the calumnies of the CathoHcs, and at laying a 
 foundation for measures of reconciliation. 
 
AUGSBURG INTERIM— AUGURIES AND AUSPICES. 
 
 The first part of the Confession contains 21 articles 
 of faith and doctrine : 1. Of God ; 2. Of Original Sin ; 
 3. Of the Son of God ; 4. Of Justification ; 5. Of 
 Preaching; 6. Of New Obedience; 7 and 8. Of the 
 Church ; 9. Of Baptism ; 10. Of the Lord's Supper ; 
 11. Of Confession ; 12. Of Penance; 13. Of the Use 
 of Sacraments ; 14. Of Church Government ; 15. Of 
 Church Order ; 16. Of Secular Government ; 17. Of 
 Christ's Second Coming to Judgment ; 18. Of Eree 
 Wm ; 19. Of the Cause of Sin ; 20. Of Eaith and 
 Good Works ; 21. Of the Worship of Saints. The 
 second and more practical part, which is carried out 
 at greater length, contains seven articles on disputed 
 points : ' 22. On the Two Kinds of the Sacrament ; 
 23. Of the Marriage of Priests; 24. Of the Mass; 25. 
 Of Confession ; 26. Of Distinctions of Meat ; 27. Of 
 Conventual Vows ; 28. Of the Authority of Bishops. 
 
 This document, signed by some six Protestant 
 princes and two free cities, was read before the emperor 
 and the diet, 25th June 1530. Melanchthon, not 
 looking upon the Confession as binding, began shortly 
 after to make some alterations in its expression ; at 
 last, in 1540, he published a Latin edition {Gon/essio 
 Variata) in which there were important changes 
 and additions. This was especially the case with 
 the article on the Lord's Supper, in which, with a 
 view Jo concihation, he endeavoured to unite the 
 views of the Lutherans and Calviuists. This gave 
 rise subsequently to much controversy; orthodox 
 Lutheranism repudiated the alterations of Melanch- 
 thon, and long continued to subject his memory to 
 great abuse ; though it is clear that Melanchthon and 
 His adherents contemplated no substantial departure 
 in doctrine from the original Confession. It is not 
 certain that the form of the Confession found in the 
 Lutheran standards is identical with the unaltered 
 A. G, as the two original documents — German and 
 Latin — ^laid before lie diet have been lost. The 
 chief distinction between the orthodox Lutherans 
 and the reformed churches of Germany has aU along 
 been adherence to the ' unaltered' or to the ' altered 
 Confession. It was even a matter of controversy 
 whether the 'reformed' were entitled to the rights 
 secured to the Protestants by the Religious Peace of 
 Augsburg, concluded in 1555, on the ground of the 
 'unaltered' Confession. — Though the A. C. is still 
 formally adhered to by the Protestant churches of 
 Germany, it is confessedly no longer the expression 
 of the behef of the vast majority of the members, 
 after the great advances mads by theology, and the 
 many alterations in public opinion and feeling. 
 
 AU'GSBURG I'NTERIM. See Interim. 
 
 AU'GURIBS AND AU'SPICES. These terms 
 are familiar to every reader of Roman history, and 
 are, besides, so frequently employed in English in 
 a secondary and metaphorical sense, that a vague 
 notion of their original meaning is caught up even 
 by those who know nothing of classical anti- 
 quities. As, however, the entire religious and 
 political life of the early Romans was deeply pene- 
 trated by the influence of their sacred superstitions, 
 and as amongst these auguries and auspices held a 
 prominent place, a clear conception of what they were 
 is a matter of considerable moment. The foUowing 
 statements exhibit, in a condensed form, the sub- 
 stance of what is known on the subject. 
 
 Like almost all primitive nations, the Romans 
 believed that every unusual occurrence had a super- 
 natural significance, and contained, hidden in it, the 
 wUl of Heaven regarding men. To reveal or inter- 
 pret this hidden wiU, was the exclusive privilege of 
 the augur, who apparently derived his official desig- 
 nation, in part at least, from avis, a bird ; while 
 Roman history abundantly proves that the observa- 
 tion of the flight of birds was a principal means 
 
 adopted for discovering the purpose of the gods. It 
 was not, however, any one who could be appointed 
 an augur. The gods selected their own interpreters 
 — that is to say, they conferred the divine gift upon 
 them from their; very birth ; but an educational 
 discipline was also considered necessary, and hence 
 a 'college of augurs' figures in the very dawn of 
 Roman history. Romulus, it is almost certain, was 
 an augur himself. He is said to have been 
 skilled in the art of divination from his youth ; 
 and by ' divination ' we must 'specially under- 
 stand augury; for the Romans, with patriotic piety, 
 held all the forms of divination practised in other 
 countries to be useless and profane. Previous to the 
 Ogulnian law, passed in the year 307 B. o., there 
 were only four augurs, who were selected from the 
 patricians. By tiiis law, however, the plebeians 
 became eligible for the pontifical or augural offices, 
 and five were immediately created. Eor more than 
 two hundred years, the number continued the same, 
 till Sulla, in 81 B. C, increased it to fifteen. Finally, 
 in the first days of the Empire, when aU parties, 
 sick of the long civil wars, hurried to throw their 
 privileges at the feet of the monarch who had 
 brought peace into their homes, the right of electing 
 augurs at his pleasure was conferred on Augustus, 
 after which the nimiber became indefinite. 
 
 At first, the augiu's were elected by the Comilia 
 Curiata ; but as the sanction of the former was 
 necessary to give validity to the acts of the latter, 
 they coiid always ' veto ' any elections which were 
 obnoxious to them; so that the power of electing 
 members to fill up vacancies naturally fell into the 
 hands of the college itself, and so continued tiU 103 
 B. 0., when a tribune of the people named Ahenobar- 
 bus carried a law by which it was enacted that for 
 the future, vacancies in the augural and pontifical 
 offices should not be filled up by those religious 
 corporations themselves, but by a majority of certain 
 picked tribes. This new law was occasionally repealed 
 and re-enacted during the civil wars which lasted till 
 the time of Augustus. The scramble for power, how- 
 ever, during these political vicissitudes, as well as 
 the general advance of knowledge, had rendered its 
 prophetic pretensions ridiculous in the eyes of edu- 
 cated people. By Cicero's time, it had lost its reli- 
 gious character altogether, but was still regarded as 
 one of the highest political dignities, and coveted 
 for the power it conferred. 
 
 The modes of divination employed by the augurs 
 were five in number — auguriwm ex cado, ex avibus, ex 
 tripudiis, ex quadrupedibus, ex diris. The first, related 
 to the interpretation of the celestial phenomena, 
 such as thunder and lightning, was apparently of 
 Etruscan origin, and held to be of supreme signifi- 
 cance. The second related to the interpretation of the 
 noise and flight of birds. It was not every bird, 
 however, that could be a sure messenger of the gods. 
 Generally speaking, those ' consulted,' as it was called, 
 were the eagle, vulture, crow, raven, owl, and hen. 
 The first two belonged to the class of alites, or birds 
 vihoae flighi revealed the will of the gods ; the last 
 four to the class of oscines, whose voice divulged 
 the same. These two modes of augury were the 
 oldest and most important. Of the other three, the 
 auguries ex tripudiis were taken from the feeding 
 of chickens ; the auguries ex qixadrwpedihus, from 
 four-footed animals — as, for instance, if a dog, or woM, 
 or hare, ran across the path of a Roman, and startled 
 him by any unusual motion, he mentioned it to an 
 augur, who was expected to be able to advise him 
 what to do ; the auguries ex diris (a vague kind of 
 augury), from any trifling accidents or occurrences 
 not included in the previous four — such as sneezing, 
 stumbhng, spilling salt on the table, &o. 
 
 At Rome, the auspices were taken on the summit 
 
 £49 
 
AUGUST— AUGUSTINE. 
 
 of the Capitoline Hill ; and the ground on which the 
 angur stood was solemnly set apart for the purpose. 
 The latter then took a wand, and marked out a 
 portion of the heavens in which his observations 
 were to be made. This imaginary portion was called 
 a templum (hence contemplari, to contemplate), and 
 was subdivided into right and left. According as the 
 birds appeared in either of these divisions were the 
 auspices favourable or vmfavourable. How vast the 
 political influence and authority of the augurs must 
 nave been is seen from the fact, that almost nothing 
 of any consequence could take place without their 
 sanction and approval. The election of every im- 
 portant ruler, kmg, consul, dictator, or praetor, every 
 civic officer, every religious functionary, was invalid 
 if the auspices were unfavourable. No general 
 could lawfully engage in battle — no public land 
 could be allotted — no marriage or adoption, at least 
 among the patricians, was held valid — ^unless the 
 auspices were first taken, while the Oomitia of the 
 Centuries could be dispersed at a moment's notice 
 by the veto of any member of the augural college. 
 
 We have employed the two terms, auguries and 
 auspices, as synonymous. But a slight difference is 
 perceptible between them : not the augurs only, but 
 the chief magistrates of Rome (inheriting the honour 
 from Romulus), held the ' auspices,' while the ' augu- 
 ries ' were exclusively in the possession of the former ; 
 but the mode of divination, and the end to be 
 obtained by it, seem to have been the same in both 
 cases. 
 
 The power of taking the auspices in war was 
 confined to the commander-in-chief; and any victory 
 gained by a legate was said to be won under the 
 auspices of his superior, and the latter alone was 
 entitled to a triumph. Hence has originated the 
 very common phrase in our language, 'under the 
 auspices ' of some one, which usuaUy (fenotes nothing 
 more than that the person alluded to merely lends 
 the influence of his name. 
 
 AU'GUST, the sixth month in the Roman year, 
 which began with March, was originally styled 
 Sextilis, and received its present name from the 
 Emperor Augustus, on account of several of the 
 most fortunate events of his life having occurred 
 during this month. On this month he was first 
 admitted to the consulate, and thrice entered the 
 city in triumph. On the same mouth, the legions 
 from the Janiculum placed themselves under his 
 auspices, Egypt was brought under the authority 
 of the Roman people, and an end put to the 
 civil wars. (See Macrobius, i. 12.) As the fifth 
 month, or Qwintilis, had previously been styled 
 Julius in honour of Julius Csesar, a day was taken 
 from February to make A. equal with July. 
 
 AUGU'STA, the name of two considerable cities 
 in the United States. — 1. A is the capital of Maine, 
 situated principally on the right bank of the 
 Kennebec, which is here crossed by a bridge 520 
 feet long. Its lat. is 44° 19' N., and long. 69° 50' 
 W. Up to A., the river is navigable for sloops from 
 its mouth, a distance of 43 mUes, in a straight line ; 
 while a dam, constructed immediately above the 
 city, enables steam-boats to ply more than 20 mUes 
 above, as far as WaterviUe. A. is also a station on 
 the railway between Portland and Bangor. The 
 dam, too, which improves the navigation, has 
 created a vast water-power, which is extensively 
 employed for manufacturing purposes. Between 
 1830 and 1853, the population had increased from 
 3980 to 9500. — 2. A. is the second city in Georgia, 
 on the Savannah, 231 miles from its mouth. Its lat. 
 is 33° 28' N., and long. 81° 54' W. Standing at the 
 head of the navigation of the river, it is connected 
 with the interior by the A. and Atlantic Railway, 
 
 650 
 
 170 miles long ; while to the north again, it com- 
 mrmicates with Charleston by means of the South 
 Carolina Railway. The construction of the fopner 
 of these lines was at first prejudicial to the city ; but 
 the internal improvement soon brought more business, 
 though of a different kind, than it had taken away. 
 Anomer cause of prosperity is a canal, which, from 
 a point 9 miles up, brings the waters of the Savannah 
 to the city on such a level as to furnish a fall of 
 35 or 40 feet— a water-power which is extensively 
 and profitably employed. Of late years, the popula- 
 tion has increased rapidly. In 1853, it was upwards 
 of 12,000. 
 
 AUGU'STENBURG, a village of 800 inhabitants 
 in the centre of the island of Aften. It is noted for 
 being the residence of the Duke of Holstein-Sonder- 
 biu:g-Augustenburg, for its splendid 'stables,' and 
 for the castle belonging to the ducal family. 
 
 AUGU'STI, a learned German theologian, born 
 in 1772 at Eschenberga, near Gotha. He studied at 
 Jena under the celebrated Griesbach, and afterwards 
 devoted himself for some time to public teaching. 
 In 1798, he became lecturer (•privai-docent) in philos- 
 ophy, and in 1800 he was appointed professor- 
 extraordinary of the same. Three years after, he 
 succeeded Hgen in the chair of Oriental Literature ; 
 but his love of theological studies becoming pre- 
 dominant, he accepted the offer of a theological 
 professorship in the university of Breslau, where he 
 exerted a wide and beneficial influence. In 1819 he 
 was transferred to Bonn, and made a director of the 
 consistory at Cologne. Other ecclesiastical honours 
 were conieixed on biin during the course of his life. 
 He died on the 28th April 1841. 
 
 In the early part of his career, A. was a 
 decided rationalist; but subsequently he returned 
 to orthodox Lutheranism, more, perhaps, from the 
 conservative bias of his nature, than from any 
 profound conviction of the truth of the national 
 creed. The change, however, was not accompanied, 
 as is usual in such cases, with any intense bigotry. 
 A. remained to the last a liberal-hearted Christian. 
 His writings, marked by great learning, industry, 
 and spirit, are much esteemed by his coimtrjmien. 
 The most important is his Manual of Christian 
 Ardiceology (Leip. 1836—1837). 
 
 AUGUSTINE, AuRBLitrs St, the greatest of the 
 Latin fathers, was born at Tagaste, a town of 
 Numidia, on the 13th of November 354 A. D. His 
 father, Patricius, was poor, but of good family, and 
 filled the office of magistrate. He continued a pagan 
 tin advanced in years, and was only baptised shortly 
 before his death. He does not seem to have been 
 remarkable for any elevation of mind ; on the con- 
 trary, one may fairly conclude, from his son's state- 
 ments, that he was an irascible, kind-hearted man, 
 more intent on his son's advancement in this world 
 than in that which is to come. His temper often 
 caused great sorrow to his gentle and pious wife, 
 who loved him faithfully, however, and was there- 
 fore rewarded with the secret by which she could 
 charm the evil spirit out of him. Patricius was very 
 anxious that A. should become a fine scholar, as he 
 noticed that not a few people in his day were obtain- 
 ing large incomes by their ' wits.' A. was accord- 
 ingly sent to school at Madaura, and subsequently 
 to Carthage, to complete his studies. Previous to 
 this, however, he had enjoyed the inestimable felicity 
 of a rehgious education at home. His mother, 
 Monnica, had been his best instructor. Neander 
 truly says : ' Whatever treasures of virtue and 
 worth the life of faith, even of a soul not trained 
 by scientific culture, can bestow, was set before 
 him in the example of his pious mother.' 
 
 The energy and penetration of inteUeot exhibited 
 
AUGUSTINE. 
 
 by the young A. excited the most flatteruig hopes. 
 When he left home for Carthage, a joyoiiB, ardent, 
 and resolute student, a bright career of worldly pros- 
 perity seemed to open before him. But strong as 
 A. was, the temptations of Carthage were stronger. 
 His nature, deep, impetuous, and passionate, thirsted 
 for excitement. He had just reached the age when 
 happiness is conceived to be synonymous with plea- 
 sure, and Carthage, the second city of the empire, was 
 rank as Bome in its sensual corruptions. A. fell. 
 In his Confessions, he paints the frightful abyss into 
 which he felt himself plunged ; nor does he seek to 
 excuse himself ; on the contrary, the shadow of his 
 gmlt is thrown forward over all his boyish life, and 
 he displays even a morbid zeal and acuteness in 
 pointing out what others, less censorious, might term 
 the frivolous errors of his childhood, but which 
 seemed to A. the parents of his subsequent vices, 
 and therefore equally bad and equally reprehensible. 
 Before he had reached his eighteenth year, his mis- 
 tress bore him a son, who was named Adeodatus — 
 afterwards baptised along with him at Milan. The 
 thing which appears to have first stirred his deeper 
 being into life was a passage which he suddenly 
 came across in the Sortensius of Cicero, treating of 
 the worth and dignity of philosophy. To use the 
 language of Neander: 'The conflict now began in 
 his soi3 which lasted through eleven years of his 
 Hfe. As the simplicity of the sacred Scriptures 
 possessed no attractions for his taste — a taste 
 formed by rhetorical studies and the artificial dis- 
 cipline of the declamatory schools — especially as 
 his mind was now in the same tone and direction 
 with that of the Emperor Julian, when the latter 
 was conducted to the Platonic theosophy ; as, 
 moreover, he found so many things in the doctrines 
 of the church which, from want of inward experi- 
 ence, could not be otherwise than unintelligible to 
 him, while he attempted to grasp, by the under- 
 standing from without, what can be understood only 
 from the inner Hfe, from the feeUng of inward wants, 
 and one's own inward experiences ; so under these 
 circumstances, the delusive pretensions of the Mani- 
 chasan sect, wliich, instead of a blind belief on autho- 
 rity, held out the promise of clear knowledge and 
 a satisfactory solution of all questions relating to 
 things human and divine, presented the stronger 
 attractions to his inexperienced youth.' A. now 
 became a professed Manichsean. Returning to his 
 native town, he lectured for a short time on ' gram- 
 mar' — ^that is to say, on literature. Soon after- 
 wards, he returned to Carthage, to pursue his pro- 
 fession imder more favourable auspices. Here he 
 wrote, in his twenty-seventh year, his first work, 
 De Apto et Pulchro — a treatise on aesthetics, which 
 has unfortunately been lost. About the saime time 
 his spiritual nature became keener and more impera- 
 tive in its demands. The futile speculations of the 
 visionary sect to which he had attached himself now 
 became apparent. He had a series of interviews 
 and conversations with Faustus, one of the most 
 celebrated teachers of Maiichseism ; and these so 
 utterly disappokited his expectations, that he left 
 the society in disgust and sad bewilderment, after 
 having wasted ten years in a fruitless search for 
 wisdom and truth. 
 
 In 383 he went to Rome, followed by the tears, 
 the prayers, and the anxieties of his excellent mother, 
 who was not, however, bereaved of hope, for both 
 her faith and her love were strong. Alter a short 
 stay, A. left Rome, and proceeded to Milan, where 
 he became a teacher of rhetoric. No change could 
 have been more fortunate. At this time, the Bishop 
 of Milan was the eloquent and devout St Ambrose. 
 An intimacy sprang up between the two. A. 
 often went to hear his mend preach. He was not, 
 
 however, as yet a Christian. He had only emerged, as 
 it were, fromMauiohseism — the region of night-clouds 
 and shadows — and was now gazing on the gray dawn 
 of the Platonic philosophy, prophetic of the noon- 
 tide splendours of Christianity which were soon to 
 burst upon his vision. Still, A. did not afterwards 
 despise this preliminary training ; he was too great 
 and honest a man for that. He confesses that the 
 Platonic writings ' enkindled in his mind an incred- 
 ible ardour;' they awakened his deeper spiritual 
 nature, which keenly upbraided him with his sins. 
 Once more he studied the Bible, although from a 
 purely Platonic point of view, and rather wishing to 
 find in it ' liiose truths which he had already made 
 himself acquainted with from the Platonic philo- 
 sophy, but presented in a different form.' He began 
 to think that Christ and Paid, by their glorious life 
 and death, their divine morality, their great holiness, 
 and manifold virtues, must have enjoyed much of 
 that ' highest wisdom ' which the philosophers 
 thought confined to themselves. For some time he 
 clung to his Platonic Christianity, and shaped the 
 doctrines of the Bible according to it ; but when he 
 found that it was weak to overcome temptations, 
 and that 'he himself was continually borne down 
 by the ungodly impulses which he thought he had 
 already subdued,' the necessity of a living personal 
 God and Saviour to rescue him from the condemna- 
 tion of his own conscience, and impart a sanctifying 
 vitaKty to the abstract truths which he worshipped, 
 shone clear through all the stormy struggles of his 
 heart. In the ei^th and ninth books of his Con- 
 fessions, he has left a noble though painful picture 
 of his inward life during this momentous crisis. It is 
 sufficient to say, that the Spirit of God triumphed. 
 On the 25th of April 387 A.D., A., along with his 
 natural son Adeodatus, of whom he seems to have 
 been justly fond, was baptised by Ambrose at Milan. 
 Shortly after, he set out on his return home. At 
 Ostia, on the Tiber, his beloved mother, who had 
 followed him to MUan, died ; her eyes had seen the 
 salvation of her son, and she could depart in peace. 
 After her death, and before leaving Italy for Africa, 
 A. wrote his treatises, De Moribus Ecdesice Catholicce 
 eJ de Moribus Manidiceorum ; De QuantitcUe Animce; 
 and De Libera Arbiirio. It is unnecessary to relate 
 at any length the subsequent life of Augustine. 
 His character and principles of action had become 
 fixed, and he now brought the whole majesty of 
 his intellect to bear upon the side of Christianity. 
 Having, as was then customary for converts, 
 divided his goods among the poor, he retired into 
 private life, and composed several treatises — De 
 Genesi Contra Manichceos, De MusicA, De Magislro, 
 and De Vard Meligione, -which, secured him a high 
 reputation. In 391, he was ordained a priest by 
 Valerius, Bishop of Hippo ; and during the next four 
 years, though earnestly engaged in the work of 
 preaching, contrived to write fliree different works. 
 In 395, he was made colleague of Valerius. Then 
 ensued aperiod of hot strife, known in church history 
 as the Donatist and Pelagian controversies. A., 
 as may naturally be supposed, having passed through 
 so fierce a fire of personal experience on religious 
 questions, would be very jealous both of what he 
 Imew to be the truth, and of what he only thougM to 
 be the truth. This, added to his acute and pro- 
 found intellect, made, him, in spite of the poverty 
 of his historical erudition, a most formidable and 
 relentless antagonist. But this portion of his 
 career will fall to be treated more properly under 
 Pelagius and Pblagiait Contbovebsy (q. v.). In 
 397, appeared his Confessiones, in 13 books. It is 
 a deep, earnest, and sacred autobiography of one of 
 the greatest intellects the world has seen. Passages 
 of it have no parallel except in the Psalms of 
 *^ S51 
 
AUGUSTINE-AITGTJSTINES. 
 
 DaTid. In 413, he commenced his De Oivitdte Dei, 
 and finished it in 426. It is generally considered 
 his most powerful work. Exception may be taken 
 to much that it contains. The learning is no 
 douht very considerable, but it is not accurate. 
 A. was an indifferent scholar: he had studied 
 the Latin authors well ; but of Greek ' he knew 
 little, and of Hebrew, nothing.' Many of his 
 reasonings are based on false and untenable pre- 
 mises, and he erred often in his etymological explan- 
 ations ; but in spite of these and other drawbacks, 
 the final impression left on the mind is, that the 
 work is one of the most profound and lasting monu- 
 ments of human genius. In 428, A. published his 
 Metractationes, in which he makes a recension of all 
 his previous writings. It is a work of great candour. 
 He frankly acknowledges such errors and imstakes 
 as he had discovered himself to have committed, 
 explains and modifies numerous statements, and 
 modestly reviews his whole opinions. His end was 
 now drawing nigh. In 429 the Vandals, under the 
 barbarian Genseric, landed in Africa ; next year 
 they besieged Hippo. A., now in his seventy-sixth 
 year, prayed that God would help his imhappy 
 chmroh, and grant himself a release out of this 
 present evil world. He died on the 28th of August 
 430, in the third month of the siege. 
 
 No mind has exerted greater influence on the chiirch 
 than that of Augustine. Consistency of theological 
 opinion is not to be looked for from him, nor from 
 any of the church fathers. A larger sphere of freedom 
 was permitted to religious speculation in those un- 
 fettered days, before creeds were encircled with that 
 traditionary sanctity they now possess. Nevertheless, 
 we have little difficulty in determining the central 
 tenets of his theological belief. He held the corrup- 
 tion of human nature through the fall of man, and 
 the consequent slavery of the human will. Both on 
 metaphysical and rehgious grounds, he asserted the 
 doctrine of predestination, from which he necessarily 
 deduced the corollary doctrines of election and 
 reprobation ; and finally, he strenuously supported, 
 against the Pelagians, not only these opinions, but 
 also the doctrine of the perseverance of the saints. 
 At the same time, it is but fair to add that, even on 
 such points, his language is far from uniform; that 
 much of the severity of his doctrines arose from the 
 bitter and painful remembrance of his own early 
 sins, and from the profound impression which the 
 corrupt state of society in his time, and the vast 
 desolations of barbarism, had made on his earnest 
 and susceptible soul; and that, in his desire to give 
 gloiy to God, he sometimes forgot to be just to man. 
 In fllustration of this may be mentioned the fact 
 (see Weander, Mosheim, and Waddington's Church 
 Histories), that the maxim which justmed the chas- 
 tisement of religious errors by civil penalties, even 
 to burning, was estabhshed and confirmed by the 
 authority of A., and thus transmitted to following 
 ages. In his epistle to Dulcitius, a civil magistrate, 
 who shrank from putting in force the edict of Hono- 
 rius against heretics, he uses these words : ' It is much 
 better that some should perish by their own fires, 
 than that the whole body should burn in the ever- 
 lasting flames of Gehenna, through the desert of their 
 impious dissension.' In the opinion of Neander, it was 
 to the somewhat narrow culture, and the peculiar per- 
 sonal experience and temperament of Augustine, that 
 the doctrines of absolute predestination and irresist- 
 ible grace, first systematised by him, owed much of 
 that harshness and one-sidedness which so long 
 obstructed their general reception by the church, 
 and which continue to render them repulsive to 
 multitudes. 
 
 His life hasbeen written by Tillemont, and his entire 
 works have been repeatedly edited. The Benedictine 
 
 552 
 
 edition, published at Paris in 11 vols. (1679—1700), 
 is the best. Numerous editions of the Gonfessionss 
 and the De Oivitaie Dei have also appeared. In the 
 'Library of Fathers of the Holy CathoHc Church,' 
 published by J. H. Parker, there are translations 
 into English of A.'s Confessions, Exposition on Si 
 John's Oospel, and on the Psalms, Semums on the 
 New Testament, and Short Treatises. His Sermon 
 on the Mount has been translated by Trench, and 
 pubhshed by Parker and Son. 
 
 AUGUSTINE, St, first Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, was originally a monk in the convent of St 
 Andrew at Eome. In 596 he was sent, along with 
 forty other monks, by Pope Gregory I., to convert 
 the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity, and establish the 
 authority of the Eoman see in Britain. The mission- 
 aries were kindly received by Ethelbert, king of 
 Kent, whose wife Bertha, daughter of the king of the 
 Parisians, was a Christian, and retained a Frankish 
 bishop in her suite as chaplain. A residence was 
 assigned to them at Canterbury, then called Dwro- 
 vernum, where they devoted themselves to monastic 
 exercises and preaching. The conversion and baptism 
 of the king contributed greatly to the success of 
 their efforts among his subjects, and it is recorded 
 that in one day A. baptised 10,000 persons in the 
 river Swale. Nominal as much of this conversion 
 must have been, there is abundant testimony to the 
 fact, that a marked improvement in the life and 
 manners of the Anglo-Saxons followed the evangel- 
 istic labours of A. and his companions. 
 
 In 597 he went to Aries, by direction of the pope, 
 and was there consecrated Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury and MetropoKtan of England. On his return, 
 he despatched a presbyter and monk to Rome, to 
 inform the pope of his success, and obtain instruc- 
 tion on certain questions. Gregory's advices with 
 regard to the propagation of the faith are admirable 
 examples of that pious ingenuity which has often 
 characterised the missionary policy of the Church of 
 Eome. Thus, instead of destroying the heathen 
 temples, A. was recommended to convert them into 
 Christian churches, by washing the walls with holy 
 water, erecting altars, and substituting holy relics 
 and symbols for the images of the heathen gods. 
 A.'s subsequent efforts to establish his authority 
 over the native British church were not so suc- 
 cessful as his missionary labours. He died in 604, 
 and was buried in the churchyard of the monastery 
 bearing his name, founded by King Ethelbert. His 
 body was removed to the cathedral of Canterbury 
 in 1091. Bede's Historia Ecdesiastica Gentis Anglo- 
 rum is the great authority for the life of St Augustine. 
 A thoughtful and pleasing sketch of it will be found 
 in the Rev. Arthur P. Stanley's Historical Memorials 
 of Ganterlmry. Lond. 1855. 
 
 The site and remains of St A.'s monastery were 
 purchased in 1844 by Mr Beresford Hope, by whom 
 they were presented to the Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury in trust, for the erection of a missionary col- 
 lege in connection with the Church of England. 
 This instittition was incorporated by royal charter 
 in 1848. The buildings, in which as much of the 
 ancient structure as possible has been " preserved, 
 contain accommodation for about 45 students, whose 
 course of study extends over three years. Twenty 
 exhibitions have been founded in connection with 
 the college. 
 
 _ AUGU'STINES, or AUGUSTI'NIANS, names 
 given to several religious bodies in the Roman 
 Catholic Church. Whether St Augustine ever framed 
 any formal rule of monastic life, is uncertain; but 
 one was deduced from his writings, and was adopted 
 by as many as thirty monastic fraternities, of which 
 the chief were the Canons Regular, the Knights 
 
AUGUSTULUS— AtTGUSTUS. 
 
 Templars (q.v.), the Begging Hermits, the Friars 
 Preachers or Dominicans (q.v.), and the Premon- 
 stratensians (q.v.). The Canons Regular of St 
 Augustine, or Austin Canons, appear to have been 
 founded or remodelled about the middle of the 
 11th c. Their discipline was less severe than that of 
 monks properly so called, but more rigid than that 
 of the secular or parochial clergy. They lived imder 
 one roof, having a common dormitory and refectory. 
 Their habit was a long cassock, with a white rochet 
 over it, all covered by a black cloak or hood, whence 
 they were often called Black Canons. In England, 
 where they were established early in the 12th c, 
 they had about 170 houses, the earliest, it would 
 seem, being at KosteU, near Poutefract, in (York- 
 shire. In Scotland, they had about 25 houses : the 
 earliest at Scone was founded in 1114, and filled 
 by canons from NosteU ; the others of most note 
 were at Inohcolm in the Krth of Forth, St Andrews, 
 HcJyrood, Cambuskenneth, and Inchafiray. 
 
 The Begging Hermits, Hermits oe St Augus- 
 tine, or Austin Feiaes, were a much more austere 
 order, renouncing all property, and vowing to live 
 by the voluntary alms of the faithful. They are 
 believed to have sprung from certain societies of 
 recluses who, in the 11th and 12th centuries, 
 existed especially in Italy without any regulative 
 constitution. At the instigation, as is alleged, of the 
 rival fraternities of Dommicans and Franciscans, 
 Pope Innocent IV., about the middle of the 13th c, 
 imposed on themfthe rule of St Augustine, whom they 
 claimed as their founder. In 1256, Pope Alexander 
 rV. placed them imder the control of a superior or 
 president called a ' general.' In 1287, a code of rules 
 or constitutions was compUed, by which the order 
 long continued to be governed. About 1570, Friar 
 Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese brother of the order, 
 introduced a more austere rule, the disciples of which 
 were forbidden to wear shoes, whence they were 
 called discakeaii, or ' barefooted friars.' 
 
 The degeneracy of the order in the 14th c, called 
 into existence new or reformed Augustinian societies, 
 among which was that Saxon one to which Luther 
 belonged. But in his day, even these had fallen 
 victims to the general corruption of the priesthood, 
 and he inflicted serious injury upon it by his unspar- 
 ing denunciations. After the French Kevolution, 
 the order was wholly suppressed in France, Spain, 
 and Portugal, and partly ia Italy and Southern 
 Germany, It was diminished even in Austria and 
 Naples. It is most powerful in Sardinia and 
 America. 
 
 The name of Augustines was given also to an 
 order of muis who claimed descent from a convent 
 founded by St Augustine at Hippo, and of which his 
 sister was the first abbess. They were vowed to the 
 care of the sick and the service of hospitals. The 
 H6tel-Dieu at Paris is still served by them. 
 
 ATJGU'STULUS, Eomulus, the last emperor of 
 the western portion of the Roman empire. His 
 name was Augustus, but the diminutive title under 
 which he is universally known was given him by 
 the Romans on account of the essential littleness of 
 his character. He was the son of Orestes, a Panno- 
 nian of birth and wealth, who rose to high rank 
 under the Emperor Jidius ISTepos, whose favour he 
 repaid by stirring up the barbarian troops in the pay 
 of Rome to mutiny against him. On the flight of 
 the emperor, Orestes conferred the vacant throne on 
 his son A. (476 A.D.), retaining all substantial power 
 in his own hands. Orestes, failing to conciUate the 
 barbarians, who had helped him against Nepos, with 
 a grant of the third of the lands of Italy, they, under 
 the command of Odoacer, besieged hiTn in Pavia, 
 and capturing, put him to death. A. yielded at 
 once, and being of too little consequence to be put 
 
 to death, he was dismissed to a villa near Naples 
 with an annual pension of 6000 pieces of gold. His 
 after-fate is unknown. 
 
 ATJGU'STUS, Caius Julius Cjesae Ootavianus, 
 the son of Octavius and Atia (daughter of Julia, 
 the younger sister of Julius Caesar), was bom 23d 
 September B. c. 63. The Octavian family came origin- 
 ally from Velitrae, in the country of the Volsoi; and 
 the branch from which A. descended was rich and 
 honourable. His father had risen to the rank' of 
 senator and prsetor, but died in the prime of life, 
 when A. was only four years old. A. was carefully 
 educated in Rome under the guardianship of his 
 mother and his step-father, Lucius Maroius PhUip- 
 pus. At the age of 12, A. delivered a funeral 
 oration over liis OTandmother; at 16, he received 
 the toga virilis. The talents of the youth recom- 
 mended him to his grand-uncle, Juhus Caesar, who 
 adopted A. as his son and heir. At the time of 
 CsBsar's assassination (March 15, B. c. 44), A. was a 
 student under the celebrated orator Apollodorus, at 
 Apollonia in lUyricum, where, however, he had been 
 sent, chiefly with a view to gain practical instruc- 
 tion in military affairs. He returned to Italy, 
 assuming the name of Juhus Caesar Octavianus, and 
 at his landing at Brundusium, was welcomed by 
 deputies from the veterans there assembled; but 
 deohning their offers, he chose to enter Rome 
 privately. The city was at this time divided between 
 the two parties of the republicans and the friends 
 of Mark Antony; but the latter had, by adroit 
 manceuvres, gained the ascendency, and enjoyed 
 almost absolute power. A. was at first haughtily 
 treated by the consul, who refused to surrender the 
 property of Caesar. After some fighting, in which 
 Antony was worsted, and had to flee across the 
 Alps, A., who had made himself a favourite with the 
 people and the army, succeeded in getting the will 
 of Julius Caesar carried out. He found an able 
 friend and advocate in Cicero, who had at first 
 regarded him with contempt. The great orator, 
 while imagining that he was labouring in behalf of 
 the republic, was in fact only an instrument for 
 raiding A. to supreme power. When Antony 
 returned from Gaul with Lepidus, A. joined them 
 in establishing a triumvirate. He obtained Africa, 
 Sardinia, and Sicily ; Antony, Gaul ; and Lepidus, 
 Spain. Their power was soon made absolute by the 
 massacre of those unfriendly to them in Italy, and 
 by victories over the republican army in Macedonia, 
 commanded by Brutus and Cassius. After the 
 battle of Phnippi, won by A. and Antony, of which 
 the former unjustly claimed all the credit, whereas 
 it mainly belonged to the latter, the triumvirs made 
 a new division of the provinces — A. obtaining Italy, 
 and Lepidus, Africa. The Perusian war, excited by 
 Fulvia, wife of Antony, seemed likely to lead to a 
 contest between A. and his rival ; but was ended by 
 the death of Fulvia, and the subsequent marriage 
 of Antony with Octavia, sister of Augustus. Shortly 
 afterwards, the claims of Sextus Pompeius and 
 Lepidus having been settled by force and fraud, the 
 Roman world was divided between A. and Antony ; 
 and a contest for supremacy commenced between 
 them. WhUe Antony was lost in luxurious 'dissipa- 
 tion at the court of Cleopatra, A. was industriously 
 striving, to gain the love and confidence of the 
 Roman people, and to damage his rival in pubKc 
 estimation. At length war was declared against the 
 queen of Egypt, and at the naval battle of Actium 
 (q. v.), B. o. 31, A. was victorious, and became sole 
 ruler of the whole Roman world. Soon afterwards, 
 Antony and Cleopatra ended their lives by suicide. 
 The son of Antony by Fulvia, and Caesarion, son of 
 Caesar and Cleopatra, were put to death ; and in 
 B. c. 29, after disposing of several affairs in Egypt, 
 
 £63 
 
AtTGUSTtTS. 
 
 Greece, Syria, and Asia Minor, A. returned to Rome 
 in triumpli, and closing the temple of Janus, 
 proclaimed universal peace. 
 
 His subsequent measures ivere mild and prudent. 
 To insure popular favour, he abolished the laws of 
 the triumvirate, adorned the city of Kome, and 
 reformed many abuses. At the end of his seventh 
 consulship (b. c. 27), he proposed to retire from 
 office, in order that the old republican form of 
 government might be re-established, but he was ulti- 
 mately induced to retain his power. Hitherto, since 
 Csesar's death, the consul had been named Octavian ; 
 but now the title of Augustus (meaning ' sacred ' 
 or 'consecrated') was conferred on him. In the 
 eleventh consulship of A. (B.C. 23), the tribunitian 
 power was conferred on him for life by the senate. 
 Eepublican names and forms still remained, but 
 they were mere shadows. A. was in aU but name 
 absolute monarch. In 12 B.C., on the death of 
 Lepidtts, he had the high title of Pontifex Maximus, 
 or Histh Priest, bestowed on him. The nation 
 surrendered to him all the power and honour that 
 it had to give. 
 
 After a course of victories in Asia, Spain, Pan- 
 nonia, Dalmatia, Gaul, &c., A. (9 B.C.) suffered the 
 greatest defeat he had sustained in the course of his 
 long rule, in the person of QuintiKus Varus, whose 
 army was totally destroyed by the Germans. 
 
 This loss so afflicted A., that for some time he 
 allowed his beard and hair to grow, as a sign of deep 
 mourning, and often exclaimed : ' Varus, restore 
 me my legions ! ' From this time A. confined 
 himself to plans of domestic improvement and 
 reform, and so beautified Rome, that it was said, ' A. 
 found the city built of bricks, and left it built of 
 marble." He also founded cities in several parts of 
 the empire ; and altars were raised by the grateful 
 people to commemorate his beneficence ; while by a 
 decree of the senate, the name Augustus w^s given 
 to the month SextUis. 
 
 Though surrounded thus with honour and pros- 
 perity, A. was not free from domestic trouble. The 
 abandoned conduct of his daugbter Julia was the 
 cause of sore vexation to him. He had no son, and 
 MarceUus, the son of his sister, and Caius and 
 Lucius, the sons of his daughter, whom he had 
 appointed as his successors and heirs, as weU as his 
 favourite step-son Drusus, all died early ; while his 
 step-son Tiberius was an unamiable character whom 
 he could not love. Age, domestic sorrows, and failing 
 health, warned him to seek rest ; and, to recruit his 
 strength, he undertook a journey to Campania ; but 
 his infirmity increased, and he died at Nola (August 
 19, A. D. 14), in the seventy-seventh year of his age. 
 According to tradition, shortly before his death, he 
 called for a mirror, arranged his hair neatly, and 
 said to his attendants : 'Have I played my part 
 well ? If so, applaud me ! ' A. had consummate 
 tact and address as a ruler and poKtician, and could 
 keep his plans in secrecy while he made use of the 
 passions and talents of others to forward his own 
 designs. The good and great measures which marked 
 his reign were originated mostly by A. himself. He 
 encouraged agriculture, patronised the arts and 
 literature, and was himself an author ; but only a 
 few fragments of his writings have been preserved. 
 Horace, Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin 
 poets and scholars, were his friends. His was the 
 Augustan Age of literature. His death threw a 
 shade of sorrow over the whole Roman world ; the 
 bereaved people erected temples and altars to his 
 memory, and numbered him among the gods. 
 
 ATJGU'STtrS, Elector of Saxony (1553—1586), 
 
 son of Duke Henry the Pious, and of Katherine of 
 
 Mecklenbiirg, was bom July 31, 1526, at Freiberg, 
 
 then the seat of his father's court. AVhile still a 
 
 6S1 
 
 youth, he spent some time at Prague, and there 
 formed an intimate friendship wiSi MaximUiaB, 
 King Ferdinand's son, afterwards Emperor of Ger- 
 many. In 1548 he married Anna, daughter of 
 Christian III. of Denmark, who was universally 
 popular on account of her devoted adherence to 
 Lutheranism and of her domestic worth. After the 
 death of his brother, Maurice, in 1553, A. succeeded 
 to the electorate. His rule is chiefly noticeable as 
 bearing upon the history of the newly established 
 Protestant Church. Equally intolerant and incon- 
 sistent in his theology, A. first used his utmost 
 influence in favour of the Calvinistic doctrine of the 
 sacraments ; and then, in 1574, adopted the Lutheran 
 tenets, and persecuted the Calviuists. On the other 
 hand, however, it must be owned, to his honour, 
 that, by his skilful internal administration, he 
 raised his country far above the level of any other 
 in Germany, introducing valuable reforms both in 
 jurisprudence and finance, and giving a decided 
 impetus to education, agriculture, manufactures, and 
 commerce. He even wrote a book on the manage- 
 ment of orchards and gardens, and commanded that 
 every newly-married pair should, within the first 
 year of their marriage, plant two fruit-trees. The 
 Dresden Library owes its origin to him, as do also 
 most of its galleries of art and science. His own 
 favourite private pursuit was that of alchemy, in 
 which the Electress Anna also took a part. In the 
 January of 1586 — the electress having died in the 
 previous year^ — A. married a young princess of 
 Anhalt, but died a month after, and was buried in 
 the cathedral of Freiberg. He was succeeded by his 
 son. Christian I. 
 
 AUGU'STTJS II., Fbbdebiok, commonly called 
 the Strong, Elector of Saxony and king of Poland, 
 second son of the elector, Jolm George III., and of 
 the Danish princess, Anna Sophia, was bom at 
 Dresden in 1670. His extraordinary strength was 
 developed by a careful physical education, and his 
 mental faculties more successfully cultivated than 
 his morals. From 1687 to 1689 he travelled over 
 the greatest part of Europe, but was prohibited by 
 his father from visiting Rome. Upon his father's 
 death (1691), he went to Vienna, and there formed 
 an intimacy with Joseph, king of Rome, which 
 materially influenced his politics. When, in 1694, 
 he succeeded to his brother George as Elector, 
 instead of turning his arms against France, according 
 to previous arrangement, he vmdertook the com- 
 mand of the Austro-Saxon army against the Turks 
 in Hungary. After the battle of Olasch, in 1696, he 
 returned to Vienna as a candidate for the throne of 
 Poland, vacated by John Sobieski. Bidding higher 
 than Prince Conti for the crown (10 million Polish 
 florins), and adopting the Cathohc faith, he was 
 elected king by the venal nobles ; and having, by his 
 imposing force, awed the adherents of Conti, he 
 was crowned at Cracow, 15th September 1697. On 
 ascending the throne, he promised to regain, for his 
 new kingdom, the provinces that had been ceded to 
 Sweden ; but his efforts to do this only led to the 
 defeat of himself and his allies, his own deposition 
 as king of Poland, the election of Stanislaus Lesz- 
 cynski, and the ignominious peace of Altransfadt in 
 1706. So complete was his humiliation, that A. was 
 compelled to send a letter of congratiflatiou to the 
 new Polish king, together with all the crown- jewels 
 and archives. However, on receiving intelligence of 
 the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa, in r709, he 
 declared the treaty of Altranstadt annulled, marched 
 with a powerful army into Poland, formed a fresh 
 alliance with the czar, and recommenced a war with 
 Sweden, which continued raging with redoubled 
 fury, tiU the death of Charles XII. at FrederickshaU, 
 in 1'718, gave a new aspect to affairs, leading first to 
 
AtJGUSTUS-AUK. 
 
 a truoe, and eventually to a peace with Sweden. 
 Meanwhile, a confederation, headed by a Polish 
 nobleman, had been formed against the Saxons, and 
 repulsed them with much success, till, in 1716, 
 through the mediation of the czar, a compact was 
 made between the Poles and A., agreeably to which 
 the Saxon troops left the kingdom. The king now 
 found himself obliged to employ conciliation, and the 
 splendour of his dSsolute court soon won the favour 
 of the Polish nobles, who followed his example but 
 too closely. Saxony had bitter cause to regret the 
 union of the crowns. Its resources were shame- 
 fully squandered, even when want and famine were 
 in tiie land, on the adornment of the capital, on the 
 king's mistresses, his iUegitimate children, and the 
 alchemists who deluded him with hopes of the elixir 
 of life. A. supported the fine arts as ministering 
 to luxury, but did little for the cause of science. 
 Despotic in principle, though easy in temper ; ambi- 
 tious as well as luxurious; reckless alike in the 
 pursuit of war and pleasure, death overtook him in 
 the midst of projected festivities. On his way to 
 the Warsaw diet, gangrene of an old wound set 
 in, and he died in February 1733, and was buried 
 at Cracow. By his wife — a Protestant, and daughter 
 of the Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach — he 
 left an only son, who succeeded tonim. The most 
 celebrated of his numerous illegitimate ofispring — 
 amounting, it is affirmed, to somewhere about 300 
 — ^was Maurice, Count of Saxony. 
 
 AtTGU'STUS III.,Feedeeiok, Elector of Saxony 
 and king of Poland, the son and successor of the 
 above, was born in October 1696, and carefully 
 educated by his mother in the Protestant faith. At 
 the age of fifteen, however, he left her tutelage for 
 a tour through Germany, France, and Italy, where 
 he changed his reUgion, secretly professing Catho- 
 licism at Bologna, m 1712, though the fact was 
 not publicly known in Saxony till five years 
 later. It is possible that an eye to the crown of 
 Poland, and to an alliance with one of 1ihe Austrian 
 princesses, may have had something to do with 
 this step. After succeeding his fether in the 
 electorate in 1733, he was chosen king of Poland 
 by a part of the nobility; and triumphing over 
 the rival claims of Stanislaus Leszoynski, sup- 
 ported by Louis XV., was imanimously proclaimed 
 three years later. He inherited his father's sump- 
 tuous tastes, though not his talents ; and his 
 love of art, cultivated by his ItaUan tour, enriched 
 the gallery of Dresden with noble paintings. The 
 government of his country he made over entirely 
 to his prime minister. Count von Bnihl, whose whole 
 political system consisted in complete dependence 
 upon Russia. In 1742, alarmed at the increased 
 power Prussia had obtained by the conquest of 
 Silesia, A. formed an alliance with Maria Theresa ; 
 and by the secret treaty of Leipsic, contracted to 
 supply her with 50,000 men. But their united troops 
 were completely routed by the Prussians in 1745 ; 
 and Frederick II. pushing on into Saxony, A. had 
 to escape from his capital, saving his art-treasures, 
 but leaving his state-papers in the hands of the 
 conqueror. In 1746, the peace of Dresden restored 
 ViiTn Saxony ; but the close of the year again saw 
 him embro&ed with Prussia. Joining the camp at 
 Pima, he narrowly escaped being taken prisoner, 
 and had to flee to Poland, where his popularity, 
 never very great, was much diminished by his 
 recent reverses in Saxony, added to which the 
 Empress Catharine of Kussia used every effort to 
 dislodge him, as being an a% of Fi-ance. At the 
 conclusion of the peace of Hubertsburg, A. returned 
 to Dresden, where he died in 1763. His son, 
 Frederick Christian, succeeded him in the electorate, 
 and Stanislaus Pouiatowski became king of Poland. 
 
 AUK {Mca), a genus of web-footed birds, the type 
 of a family called Alcadce, which was in great part 
 included in the Linnaean genus Alca, and to many of 
 the species of which, now ranked in other genera, 
 the name A. is stiU popularly extended. The Al- 
 cadoB are amongst those web-footed birds oolleotively 
 called Brachypterea (i. e., short-winged) or Divers 
 by Cuvier, remarkable for the shortness of their 
 
 wings, which they employ as fins or paddles for 
 swimming- under water, some being even incapable 
 of flying ; and for the position of their legs, further 
 backward than in other birds, which makes walking 
 difficult, and compels them, when on laud, to main- 
 tain an upright atbitude. They are distinguished by 
 the very compressed biU, which, in the true auks, 
 is vertically elevated, and so sharp along the ridge 
 as to resemble the blade of a knife ; and by their 
 entirely palmated feet, destitute of hind toes. The 
 auks are entirely confined to the seas of the northern 
 hemisphere — the penguins taking their place in the 
 southern — and are most abimdant in the colder 
 regions. All of them have a dense plumage, which 
 generally exhibits on its surface a beautifully polished 
 appearance and silvery lustre. The genus Alca, as 
 restricted by Cuvier and others, contains only two 
 species, distinguished from the Puffins (q. v.), which 
 also belong to this family, chiefly by the greater 
 length of the biU, and its being covered with 
 feamers as far as the nostrils. The bill, both in 
 the auks and puffins, is transversely and strongly 
 grooved. But even the two known species of the 
 restricted genus Alca differ from one another in a 
 most important particular — the wings of the one, the 
 Great A., being so short that it is quite incapable of 
 flight, like the penguins, of which it may be deemed 
 the true northern representative, whilst the other, 
 the Eazor-biU, has comparatively long wings, and 
 flies well. — The Geeat A. (Alca impennis) is as 
 large as a goose. It is an inhabitant of the most 
 northerly shores, and a very rare visitant of those of 
 the Orkney and Shetland Islands and the Hebrides. 
 It is almost equally rare in Norway and Sweden, 
 and has nearly disappeared even from Iceland and 
 Greenland, and from localities on the coasts of 
 Labrador and Newfoimdland, where it is said to 
 have been formerly frequent. The rapidity with 
 which this bird moves under water is extraordinary : 
 one of them has been pursued by a six-oared boat 
 for hours in vain. Like most of the AlcadcB, the 
 Great A. lays only one egg, which is very large, about 
 five inches in length, and three in its greatest breadth. 
 
 666 
 
ATILIC COUNCIL-AtJllANTIACEJ!. 
 
 The egg is laid on the bare rock, without any 
 attempt at a nest.— The Razoe-bill (q. v.) {A. 
 Tarda) is the only other species now commonly 
 included in the genus Alca. — The name Little A. 
 is often given to a bird also called the Eotche (q. v.) 
 {Mergidiis AUe, formerly Alca Alle), common in 
 arctic regions. — The common puffin is sometimes 
 called the Labrador Auk. — The northern parts of the 
 Pacific Ocean abound in auks remarkable for a 
 somewhat quadrangular biU, notched near the tip, 
 which form the genus Phaleris. One of them, P. 
 psittacula, is known as the Parrakeet Auk. — All the 
 auks feed upon fishes, crustaceans and other marine 
 animals, which they pursue under water, and for 
 which they dive to great depths. 
 
 ATJ'LIO COUNCIL (Lat. aula, court or hall), 
 one of the two highest cotirts of the old German 
 empire, co-ordinate with the Imperial Chamber. 
 It came into existence in 1495, and seems to have 
 been at first employed principally in preparing 
 business-matters regarding the crown-lands and the 
 empire generally, in order to expedite the decisions 
 of the Imperial Chamber. It soon, however, began 
 to assume or acquire higher functions. After 1502, 
 the States submitted important grievances to its 
 independent consideration ; but it did not receive a 
 fixed constitution before 1559. In 1654, it was for- 
 mally recognised as the second of the two supreme 
 courts, and equal in dignity to the Imperial Chamber. 
 It was composed of a president, a vice-president, a 
 vice-chancellor, and eighteen coimciUors, who were 
 all chosen and paid by the emperor, with the excep- 
 tion of the cvice-chancellor, who was appointed by 
 the Elector of Mainz. Of the eighteen councillors, 
 six were Protestants, whose votes, when they were 
 Tinanimous, could not be set aside by those of the 
 others, so that a rehgious parity was to some extent 
 preserved. The councillors were divided iuto three 
 classes — counts, barons, and men of learning — all of 
 whom were on a footing of equality, except that the 
 last mentioned received a higher salary, and were 
 usually advanced into the ranks of the nobility. 
 The CoimcH held aloof from politics, but under 
 its jurisdiction were placed : 1st, All matters of 
 feudality ia which the emperor was immediately 
 concerned ; 2d, All questions of appeal on the part of 
 the States from decisions in favour of the emperor 
 in. minor co^u^;s ; 3d, Whatever concerned the impe- 
 rial jurisdiction in Italy. On the death of the 
 emperor, the Council was dissolved, and had to be 
 reconstructed by his successor. It finally ceased to 
 exist on the extinction of the old German empire in 
 1806. 
 
 ATJMALE, Chaeles de Loeeaine, Due d', bom 
 1554, was an ardent partisan of the League in the 
 politico-religious wars which devastated Stance in 
 the latter half of the 16th c. The aim of the League 
 was ostensibly to suppress the Huguenots, but in 
 reaUty to secure the supreme power to the Guises. 
 Closely allied by blood to this crafty and ambitious 
 family, A. from the very first entered with fanatical 
 sympathy into its schemes ; and after the murder 
 of the Duke of Guise at Blois in December 1588, 
 he became, along with the Duke of Mayenne, the 
 leader of the party. In 1589, he seized Paris, 
 dissolved the parliament, and imprisoned its mem- 
 bers. Shortly after, he put himself at the head of a 
 body of troops to attack the town of Senlis, but was 
 defeated by La None, and compelled to retreat. 
 Always unfortunate in war, his presence seemed 
 invariably to insure the overthrow of his friends. 
 He commanded a portion of the forces of the League 
 at the battles of Arques and Ivri, where the Hugue- 
 nots triimiphed under their skilful and sagacious 
 monarch. Henry IV. But A. was as obstinate as he 
 856 ' ' 
 
 was unlucky, and in the end proved himself as 
 traitorous as he was obstinate. He held out for the 
 League in Amiens until the populace expelled him, 
 when he suddenly allied himseU with the Spaniards 
 who had invaded Picardy, refused the royal pardon, 
 and delivered over to the enemy several places in his 
 possession. For this he was impeached, condemned, 
 and sentenced to be broken abve on the wheel. His 
 property was confiscated, but he himself escaped. 
 He lived in exEe tiU his death, which took place 
 at Brussels in 1631. He left no male posterity. 
 
 ATJMALE, Henei- Eugene -Philippe, Louis 
 d'0el£ans. Due d', bom at Paris, January 16, 1822, 
 ia the fourth son^ of the late king of France, Louis 
 Philippe. He enjoyed the privilege — so rare among 
 princes — of being educated along with his fellow-men, 
 at the college of Henri IV., where he exhibited 
 considerable talent, and obtained several honours. 
 When 16 years of age, he entered the army, 
 soon distinguished himself by his bravery, and 
 passed rapidly through the various grades of rank. 
 In 1843, he embarked at Brest for Algeria, where 
 he commanded a subdivision of the French army, 
 and performed some brilliant exploits, the most 
 signal of which was his " surprising Abd-el-Kader, 
 when encamped in the environs of Goudjilab. By 
 this coup de main, which occurred on the 16th of 
 May 1843, there fell into his hands a multitude of 
 cattle, 4 standards, 3600 prisoners, and the correspond- 
 ence and treasure of the Emir. He was, in conse- 
 quence, elevated to the rank of lieutenant-general, 
 and appointed to the government of the province of 
 Constantine. In 1847 he succeeded Marshal Bugeaud 
 in the governor-generalship of Algeria. While hold- 
 ing this high office, he was exposed to a series of 
 bitter attacks by the Democratic ' opposition ' in the 
 Chamber of Deputies, but was ably defended by 
 Guizot. After the expulsion of his father, he with- 
 drew from Algeria, having Sist, with self-denying 
 patriotism, exhorted the colony peaceably to obey 
 the orders of the metropoKs. The duke now resides 
 in England, and apparently takes no part jn 
 poKtics. He has written two remarkable articles 
 in the JRevue des Deux Mondes — one on the Zouaves, 
 and another on the Ohasseurs-d-pied. He has also 
 composed a Histoire des CondSs, and several other 
 works. 
 
 AUNE, the French cloth-measure corresponding 
 to the English ell. Both words are derived from the 
 Lat. ulna. The Enghsh ell = IJ yard = 45 inches ; 
 the French aune usuelle (or nouvelle) = H^mfetre= 47| 
 inches English. The old aune was a little shorter. 
 
 AUNOY, Marie-Catherine-Jumelle de Beene- 
 viLLE, CoMTESSB d', a Celebrated French authoress 
 of the reign of Louis XIV. She was born about 
 1650, and died at Paris, January 1705. She com- 
 posed fairy tales, romances, and historical memoirs. 
 Among her fairytales may be mentioned. The Yellow 
 Dwarf, The White Oat, and Chepry and Fair Star. 
 Many of these fictions have bien translated into 
 Enghsh, and are greedily read by school-boys. They 
 have, both in France and other countries, gone 
 through numerous editions, and are the sole monu- 
 ments of her fame ; for her sentimental novels, 
 Sippolyte, and Oomte de Duglas, have long ago 
 vanished frpm the eyes of men ; while her historical 
 memoirs are not regarded as in the shghtest degree 
 trustworthy. 
 
 AURANTIA'CEjE (from aurawtium, modern 
 Latin for an orange), a natural order pi exogenous 
 plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, often of great 
 beauty. Both leaves and bark are generally very 
 smooth, and all parts are fiUed with httle trans- 
 parent receptacles of a fragrant volatile oil, which 
 especially abounds in the leaves and in the rind of 
 
A0REL1A— AURICULA. 
 
 the fruit. The leaves are alternate, and always 
 artioiilated with their stalks, which are frequently 
 winged. The flowers have a short, 3 — 5 toothed, 
 withering calyx, and 3 — 5 petals, which are broad at 
 the base, sometimes slightly coherent, and imbri- 
 cated in bud. The stamens are equal in number to 
 the petals, or a multiple of their number ; the fila- 
 ments sometimes slightly coherent in one or more 
 bundles ; the anthers terminal and erect. The 
 stamens and petals 'are inserted on a disk. The 
 ovary is free; there is one style with a thickish 
 stigma. The fruit (a hespmdium) is pulpy, with a 
 leathery or spongy rind, of one cell, or of a number 
 of separable cells ; the seeds attached to the axis, 
 with thick cotyledons and no albumen, not unfre- 
 quently containing more embryos than one. — The 
 order contains about one hundred known species, 
 natives of warm climates, and almost aU of the East 
 Indies. The species of the genus Citrus (q.v.) are 
 the best known, among which are the orange, lemon, 
 citron, &c. But the order contains many other 
 plants producing agreeable fruits, among which the 
 jEgle Marmdos (see jEglb) — called Bhel, or Bael, 
 in India — Goolda punctata (the Wampee), Olycosmis 
 citri/olia, and Triphasia trifoliata deserve particular 
 notice. The fruits, ripe and imripe, juice and rind, 
 the flowers, leaves, bark, &c., of a number of species 
 are employed medicinally. The medicinal uses of 
 jEgle Marmdos have been already noticed in the 
 article Mgis, ; those of the species of Gitnis will be 
 mentioned under their proper heads. The leaves of 
 Bergera Koemigii are used by the Hindus as a 
 stomachic and tonic, the bark and roots as stimu- 
 lants. — Feronia elephantum, a large tree growing in 
 most parts of IncUa, yields a gum which closely 
 resembles gum-arabic, and is used for similar pur- 
 poses. The young leaves of this tree have a smell 
 like that of anise, and are used by the native prac- 
 titioners of India as a stomachic and carminative. 
 — Skimmia (or Limonia) Laureola and SMmmia 
 Japonica are remarkable exceptions in this order, 
 as to the climate to which they are adapted: the 
 former grows on the cold and lofty mountains of 
 the north of India, braving frost and snow; the 
 latter, a beautiful shrub, recently introduced into 
 Britain from Japan, is perfectly hardy even in the 
 severest winters; its evergreen leaves and pretty 
 little red berries remaining quite uninjured by frost, 
 whilst its small white flowers, produced early in 
 summer, have the fragrance of orange blossoms. 
 
 AUEE'LIA. See Chbtsalis. 
 
 AURELIA'NUS, Lucius DoMrnus— also named 
 Claudius Domitius and Valebius — one of the most 
 powerful of the Roman emperors, was of very 
 humble origin, his father having been a husbandman. 
 He was bom about a.d. 212, and enlisting early as 
 a common soldier, he rapidly distinguished himself, 
 and held the highest nulitary offices under Vale- 
 rianus and Claudius II. On the death of Claudius 
 (a.d. 270), A. was elected emperor by the army. 
 He commenced his reign byvigorous opposition to 
 the barbarian Alemanni, or Marcomanni, whom he 
 expelled. Thereafter, he commenced the erection 
 of a new line of fortified walls round Rome, 
 which were not completed till the reign of Probus 
 (A.D. 276). Their ruins stiU mark the boun- 
 daries of Rome in the time of Aurelian. Finding 
 that the province of Daoia (now "Wallachia) could 
 not be maintained against the assaults of the 
 Goths, he surrendered it, on certain conditions, and 
 strengthened the frontier of the Roman empire by 
 making the Danube its boimdary. He next turned 
 his attention to the East, where the renowned 
 queen, Zenobia (q. v.), had extended her sway from 
 Syria to Asia Minor and Egypt. A. defeated her in 
 
 two battles, and besieged her in Palmyra, from which 
 she attempted to escape, when she saw defence would 
 prove unavailing. She was, however, taken prisoner, 
 and soon after the city surrendered, and was treated 
 leniently. Shortly after A. had departed, a new insur- 
 rection took place. He returned, in 273, and gave 
 the splendid city up to destruction. A. was again 
 called to the East oy a rebellion in Egypt, insti- 
 gated by Firmus, a merchant of great mfluence, 
 which he speedily quelled. Besides, Tetricus, who 
 had held imperial power in Gaul since before the 
 death of Gallienus, finding himself unable to wield 
 it, surrendered it to Aurelian. By restoring good 
 discipline in the army, order in domestic anairs, 
 and political unity to the Roman dominions, A. 
 merited the title awarded to him by the senate — 
 ' Restorer of the Roman Empire.' He fell a 
 victim to conspiracy during his campaign against 
 the Persians (a.d. 276). 
 
 ATTRE'LIUS, Maec0S. See Antoninus. 
 
 AU'RICLES, two cavities of the heart. See 
 Heart. 
 
 AURI'CULA {Primula Auricula], a plant of the 
 same genus with the Primrose (q.v.), much cultivated 
 in fiower-gardens. The A. has long been a florist's 
 flower. It was highly esteemed by the Romans, and 
 has, at least since the beginning of the 18th c, 
 received particular attention from the florists of 
 England and Holland. It is one of those flowers, 
 the cultivation of which is often most successfully 
 
 Auricula (wild state). 
 
 prosecuted in the little gardens of operatives near 
 large towns. Lancashire is particularly famous for 
 it.^ — The A. has smooth, dark-green leaves, scapes 
 (or leafiess stems), and caUces, covered with a mealy 
 powder. A similar fine meal appears also on the 
 flowers, and adds much to their beauty. The A. 
 is a native of the Alps and other mountains of 
 the middle and south of Europe, and of sub-alpine 
 situations in the same countries. It is found also 
 on the Caucasus and the mountains of Syria; it 
 grows in shady and moist places. In a wild state, 
 it has comparatively small flowers, of a simple 
 yellow colour, on short stalks, forming an umbel 
 of generally six or seven on one scape, with the 
 
AUEICTTLA— AUEOEA BOREALIS. 
 
 same deligMful fragramoe which aids so much to 
 make it a favourite flower in cultivation. The 
 leaves are used hy the inhabitants of the Alps as a 
 remedy for coughs. 
 
 By cultivation and art, the A. has been brought 
 to great beauty and splendour of colour. Red, pink, 
 crimson, apple-green, and mulberry are the chief 
 colours which the different varieties exhibit. More 
 than 1200 varieties have been reckoned, and new 
 ones are continually raised from seed. Some of them 
 are entirely of one colour, others of two or more ; 
 some are dehcately shaded, and some vai-iegated. 
 The mere coloirr of an A. is not of so much con- 
 sequence, in the eye of a florist, as the form and 
 shading. The chief requisites of a good A. are large 
 flowers, so many of them on one scape as to give 
 fulness to the umbel, the flower-stalks so strong fliat 
 the flowers do not hang down ; the scape itself must 
 be so tail, that the umbel of ilowers may rise com- 
 pletely above the leaves, and so strong as to bear it 
 erect ; the flower must be nearly round ; the white 
 or yellow eye in its centre must be distinct and round, 
 its colour not mixing with the groimd colour, which, 
 however, may mix at the outer part with the green 
 of the margin. The green margin adds much to 
 the beauty of many varieties. The mealiness of the 
 flower differs much in different varieties. — The A. 
 blooms in April and May, and often also a second 
 time in the end of autumn, which adds to the charms 
 of the flower-border, although it is to the first or 
 proper flowering-season that the florist looks. It 
 succeeds best in a rich light soil, and cultivators 
 diligently prepare for it composts of various kinds, 
 but in general consisting chiefly of fresh loamy soil, 
 and of well-rotted horse or cow dung, often with 
 the addition of a little sand. The finer varieties are 
 always cultivated in pots, and require great atten- 
 tion. They are protected from the severe weather 
 of winter, and during the flowering-season, from wind 
 and rain. They ought, however, previous to flower- 
 •ing, to stand in an airy, sunny situation. Their deli- 
 cacy forms a striking contrast to the natural hardi- 
 ness of the plant ; but few sights are more pleasing 
 than that of a collection of choice auriculas, taste- 
 fully arranged. They are propagated by offsets, 
 generally in the latter part of August. — ^When it is 
 proposed to raise the A. from seed, care ought to be 
 taken to select the finest flowers, which are encour- 
 aged to ripen their seeds by exposure to sun and air, 
 hand-glasses being placed over them during heavy 
 rains. The seed is sown either in autumn or spring, 
 generally in boxes placed under shelter, or in a 
 slight hot-bed. The more weakly plants are tended 
 with particular care, as they are generally found to 
 produce the finest flowers. 
 
 The name A, originally Latin, is derived from 
 auris, an ear, on account of a fancied resemblance 
 of the leaves to the ears of an animal. 
 
 AXJEI'CTJLA, a genus, and AURICU'LID^, a 
 famUy of Gastropod MoUusca. They have a spiral shell, 
 
 Auricula. 
 
 covered with a horny epidermis, the first whirl very 
 large and the spire short, the aperture elongated and 
 toothed. They belong to that section of Gastropods 
 
 in which the sexes are united in the individual, 
 and to the same order with the common snails, 
 having respiratory organs adapted for breathing in 
 air, although some of them are capable of subsisting 
 for a considerable time in water. Some of them 
 inhabit fresh-water marshes, and others prefer the 
 vicinity of salt water. They generally belong to 
 warm climates, and some of them attain a large size. 
 Auricula Midce, a native of the East Indies, is known 
 to sheU-ooUectors by the name of Midas's Ear. 
 
 AUEI'OULAB CONFESSION. See Conpession-. 
 
 AUEI'CULATE, in Botany, a term applied to 
 leaves, stipules, &o., and signifying that they have 
 at the base two small ear-like lobes. 
 
 AURILLAC, a town of Erance, capital of the 
 department of Cantal (Auvergne). A. is situated in a 
 pleasant valley on the banks of the Jourdanne, about 
 269 miles south from Paris. It is said to owe its 
 origin to a Benedictine monastery foimded in the 
 9th c. by St Gerard. The English, in the I4th and 
 15th centuries, often besieged the town, and it was 
 frequently taken and pillaged during the religious wars 
 in France in the 16th o. The streets are wide, but 
 irregular, and are kept clean by streams supplied by 
 a reservoir above the town and by a canal from the 
 Jourdanne. The neighbouring quarries supply slates 
 to cover the houses. The principal bmldings of A. 
 are the churches of Notre Dame and St Gerard, St 
 Stephen's Castle, the theatre, college bmldings, 
 which contain a valuable public library, and the 
 com-market. There is also a monument erected to 
 the memory of the French philanthropist, M. de 
 Montyon. Paper, jewellery, lace, copper utensils, 
 leather, and beer are the chief industnal products. 
 Pope Sylvester II. was born at A, and the infamous 
 Carrier of the first French revolution. Pop. about 
 11,000. 
 
 AURO'RA (styled Eos by the Greeks), the god- 
 dess of the dawn, or 'morning redness,' was the 
 daughter of Hjfperion andTheia, and sister of Helios 
 and Selene, and wife of the Titan Astrseus. Zephyrus, 
 Boreas, Notus, Hesperus and the other stars were 
 her children. She was described as rising in the 
 morning from her bed in the ocean, borne along on 
 a chariot drawn by the divine steeds Lampus and 
 Phaeton, ascending heaven from the river Oceauus, 
 where she lifted with her 'rosy fingers' the curtain 
 of night, and aimoimced the Hght both to gods and 
 men. Homer frequently describes A. as the goddess 
 of day, and the tragic writers identified A. with 
 Hemera (the day). She was represented as clothed 
 in a rosy-yellow robe, with a star shining on her 
 forehead, and a torch in her right hand. Sie had a 
 passion for mortal youths, and carried off Orion, 
 Cleitus, and Tithonus. 
 
 AURO'RA BOREA'LIS, or NORTHERN 
 LIGHTS (Ger. Nordlicht), the name given to the 
 luminous phenomenon which is seen towards the 
 north of the heavens by the inhabitants of the higher 
 latitudes. During the winter of the northern hemi- 
 sphere, the inhabitants of the arctic zone are without 
 the light of the sun for months together, and their 
 long dreary night is relieved by the hght of this 
 beautiful meteor, which occurs with great frequency 
 in these regions. Those who have explored the 
 southern seas have seen the same phenomenon in the 
 direction of the south pole, so that the term Polar 
 Lights might be more appropriate than Northern 
 Lights to designate the aurora. The appearance of 
 the A. B. has been described by a great variety of 
 observers, both in Northern and Central Europe, all 
 of whom give substantially the same account of the 
 manner in which the phenomenon takes place. It is 
 briefly as follows : A dingy aspect of the sky in the 
 direction of the north is generally the precursor of 
 
AUROBA BORBALIS. 
 
 the aurora ; and this gradually becomes darker in 
 colour, and aasiunes the form of a circular segment 
 siuTounded by a luminous arch, and resting at each 
 end on the horizon. This dath segment, as it is 
 called, has the appearance of a thick cloud, and is 
 frequently seen as such in the fading twilight before 
 the development of the auroral li^t. Its density 
 must, however, be very small, as stars are sometimes 
 seen shining brightly through it. This dark segment 
 is bounded by a luminous arch of a bluish-white 
 colour, which varies in breadth from 1 to 6 diameters 
 of the moon, having the lower edge sharply defined, 
 and the upper edge only when the breadth of the 
 arch is small. This arch may be considered to be a 
 part of a luminous ring elevated at a considerable 
 distance above the earth's surface, and having its 
 centre corresponding with some point near the north 
 pole. An observer several degrees south of this 
 auroral ring would see towards the north only a 
 small arc of it, the larger part being hid by the 
 earth; to one situated not so far south, it would 
 appear as a larger and higher arch ; to one placed 
 
 below it, it would be seen as an arch p.assing through 
 the zenith ; and to one situated withm the ring and 
 further north, it would be found as an arch culmi- 
 nating in the south. On this supposition, nearly all 
 the various positions of the auroral arch may be 
 accounted for. The centre of the ring corresponds 
 probably with the magnetic north, which is at pre- 
 sent situated in the island of Boothia Felix. Hence 
 it is that in Greenland, which is situated to the east of 
 this island, the auroral arch has been seen stretching 
 from north to south with its highest point in the 
 west. The luminous arch, once formed, remains 
 visible for several hours, and is in a constant state of 
 motion. It rises and falls, extends towards the east 
 and towards the west, and breaks sometimes in one 
 part, sometimes in another. These motions become 
 all the more observable when the arch is about to 
 shoot forth rays; then it becomes luminous at one 
 point, eats in upon the dark segment, and a ray of 
 similar brightness to the arch mounts with the 
 rapidity of hghtning towards the zenith. The ray 
 seldom keeps the same form for any length of time ; 
 
 ' » 'j » ^ ' JIT >• 
 
 Aurora Eorealis. 
 
 but undergoes continual changes, moving eastward 
 and westward, aoad fluttering Eke a ribbon agitated 
 by the wind. After some time, it gradually fades 
 in brightness, and at last gives way to other 
 rays. When the aurora attains its full brightness 
 and activity, rays are projected from every part 
 of the arch, and if they do not rise too high, it 
 presents the appearance of a comb furnished with 
 teeth. When the rays are very bright, they some- 
 times assume a green, sometimes a violet, a purple, or 
 a rose colour, giving to the whole a variegated and 
 brilliant effect. The accompanying sketch, taken 
 from Mliller's Kosmische Physih, of the A. B. 
 in Norway, represents a beautifid aurora of this 
 comb-shaped character; the effect of colour, how- 
 ever, is wanting to complete the picture. When the 
 rays darted by the luminous arch are numerous and 
 of great length, they culminate in a point which is 
 situated in the prolongation of the dipping-needle, 
 somewhat south-east of the zenith. There they 
 form what is called the Boreal Grown ; and the whole 
 heavens, towards the east, west, and north, present 
 
 the appearance of a vast cupola of fire, supported by 
 columns of variously coloured light. When the rays 
 are darted less brilliantly, the crown first disappears, 
 then, here and there, the light becomes faint and 
 intermittent, till at last the whole phenomenon 
 fades from the sky. 
 
 The preceding description indicates the general 
 features of the appearance of the A. B. ; but several 
 auroras have been described which presented striking 
 peculiarities. Sometimes the phenomenon assumed 
 the form of one or more curtains of light, depending 
 from dingy clouds, whose folds were agitated to and 
 fro, as if by the wind. Sometimes tliis curtain 
 seemed to consist of separate ribbons of light, 
 arranged side by side in groups of different lengths, 
 and attaining their greatest brilliancy at the lower 
 edges. In this country the A. B. seldom occurs 
 with the distinctness and brilliancy which attend 
 it in northern latitudes, but the description just 
 given portrays the type to which such appearance of 
 the meteor more or less approximates. 
 
 The height of the am-ora has been variously 
 
 eS9 
 
ATJE.UNGABAD— AUKTJNGZEBE. 
 
 estiiaated. The first observers were inclined to place 
 the seat of it beyond the atmosphere; but this 
 hypothesis is untenable, as the aurora does not seem 
 to be affected by the rotation of the earth, but 
 appears to be in every respect a terrestrial pheno- 
 menon. By taking observations of the altitude of 
 the highest point of the arch of the same aurora at 
 different stations, heights varying from 5 to 500 
 miles have been calculated. The cause of these 
 widely differing results may be found in the prob- 
 abihty that exists of each observer seeing a different 
 arch of the aurora for himself, and he is, in conse- 
 quence, furnished with no comparable or reliable 
 data for his calculations. It is now, however, gene- 
 rally admitted, on what are considered to be 
 sufBcient grounds, that the A. B. occurs at various 
 heights, and that it is seldom foimd beyond ninety 
 miles above the surface of the earth. The distance 
 of the stations at which the same aurora has been 
 visible, indicates the enormous geographical extent, 
 and likewise the great altitude which the phenomenon 
 frequently attains. One aurora, for instance — that 
 which occurred on the 3d of September 1839 — 
 was seen in the Isle of Skye by M. de Saussure; 
 at Paris, by the astronomers of the Observatory; 
 at Asti, in the Sardinian states, by M. Quetelet; 
 at Newhaven, ia Connecticut, by Mr Herrick; 
 and at New Orleans, by credilDle observers. On 
 the other hand, some observers of eminence 
 assert that the aurora sometimes descends to the 
 region of the clouds, and appears almost as a local 
 phenomenon. A brilliant aurora was seen by Mr 
 Farquharson, the minister of Alford, in Aber- 
 deenshire, on the 20th of December 1829, from eight 
 to half-past eleven iu the evening, above a thick 
 bank of clouds, which covered the tops of the lulls 
 to the north of where he lived, and which never 
 attained an altitude of more than 20°. The same 
 aurora was seen in the zenith, at a, quarter-past 
 nine, by Mr Paul, another minister, at Tullynessle, 
 which is about two miles north of Alford, so that 
 the height of it could not have been quite 4000 
 feet. 
 
 The noise that is alleged to accompany the 
 A. B. in high latitudes would indicate for it a 
 comparatively moderate height. Some of those who 
 have heard it, compare it to the noise that is pro- 
 duced by the rolling of one piece of silk upon 
 another ; and others, to the sound of the wind blowing 
 agaiust the flame of a candle. In Siberia, it has been 
 related that this noise sometimes resembles that 
 attending the discharge of fireworks; and that the 
 dogs of the hunters, when overtaken by such an 
 aurora, lay themselves with terror on the ground.* 
 
 The intimate connection between the A. B. and the 
 magnetism of the earth is shewn by various facts. 
 During the occurrence of the phenomenon, the mag- 
 netic needle appears very much disturbed, some- 
 times deviating several degrees from its normal 
 position, and appearing to be most affected when the 
 aurora is brightest ; and this oscillation is frequently 
 perceived far beyond the district where the aurora is 
 seen. The vertex, hkewise, of the lumuious arch is 
 almost always found to be in or very near the 
 magnetic meridian, and the boreal crown has its 
 seat iu the prolongation of the freely suspended 
 needle. There seems, moreover, to be a connection 
 between the magnetic poles of the earth in regard to 
 the aurora, for, so far as has been ascertained, the 
 meteor occurs simultaneously at both. The origin 
 of the A. B. is as yet a matter of conjecture. The 
 most common hypothesis is, that it is an electrical 
 
 * Arctic voyagers, such as Parry and Franklin, throw doubt 
 on tlie existence of any such noise, for not one of the numer- 
 ous and brilliant auroras seen by them was erer attended with 
 the faintest sound. 
 560 
 
 phenomenon; and this is borne out to some extent 
 by the great resemblance which the light attending 
 the passage of electricity through a nearly vacuous 
 jar bears to the lumuious appearance of the aurora. 
 If one of the vacuous tubes lately invented by Mr 
 Gassiot be brought into the neighbourhood of a 
 powerful electrical machine, both while the machine 
 is in motion and for some time after, flashes of light 
 pass from the wire at the one end of the tube to 
 that at the other extremity, which bear a striking 
 resemblance to the auroral rays. If the conditions 
 necessary for the production of the aurora be similar 
 to those holding in this experiment, it must be caused 
 by the electricity accumulated round the magnetic 
 poles discharging itseK through the rare strata of the 
 higher atmosphere; but how such conditions (if 
 actual) occur, is a question still in need of solution. 
 
 ATTEtTNGABAD, or Throne-town, the name of 
 at least four places in India. The most important 
 is in the territory of the Mzam, situated on the 
 Doodna, a, tributary of the Godavery. Its lat. is 
 19° 51' N., and long. 75° 21' E. It is one of the stations 
 of the Nizam's army. In 1825, its population was 
 estimated at 60,000 — a number supposed to have 
 since then considerably diminished. Its monuments 
 of former grandeur are a palace, built by Aurungzebe, 
 and the mausoleum of AxuTingzebe's daughter. The 
 former is now in ruins ; and the latter, though bear- 
 ing some resemblance to the Taj Mahal of Agra, is 
 greatly inferior. 
 
 AURUNGZEBE (properly, Aurangzlb, 'Orna- 
 ment of the Throne') was the most powerful of the 
 Great Moguls, the last who ruled with energy and 
 effect. He was bom on the 22d October 1618, and 
 was ten years old when, his grandfather dying, his 
 father, Shah-Jehan, ascended the throne. A. early 
 aspired to wield the rod of empire, but he craftily 
 hid his designs beneath the cloak of piety. In 
 
 Aurungzebe. — From a Native Drawing. 
 
 1657, his father, who had previously promoted him 
 to high civil and military offices in the state, in per- 
 formma the duties of which he greatly distinguished 
 himself, was seized with an ilmess from wmoh he 
 was not expected to recover. The reins of power 
 were at once seized by his eldest son, DS,ra, who 
 treated his brothers very arbitrarily — ShujS. at 
 that time being governor of Bengal, A. of the Deooan, 
 and Mfirad of Guzerat. The first immediately 
 took up arms. A.'s policy was to let the two fight 
 it out, and exhaust each other, and then to play off 
 his third brother against the victor. He conferred 
 with Mlirad ; assured him he had no earthly ambi- 
 tion; that the crown he strived for was a spiritual, 
 
AUSCULTATION— AUSTEN. 
 
 and not a temporal one ; and that, for affection's aake, 
 and mth a view to promote the interests of the true 
 faith — Dfiia was liberal in his religious opinions, and 
 had written a hook to prove that Mohammed and 
 Brahma agreed in all essential poiats — ^he would 
 support his pretensions to the throne. Mlirad 
 believed him, and the forces of the two were joined. 
 Meanwhile, D&ra having overcome Shuj^'s army, 
 directed his forces against his other two brothers ; 
 but A.'s plausibility prevailed over DS,ra's generals, 
 who deserted, and Dto had to seek safety in flight. 
 By this time, however, Shah-Jehan had somewhat 
 recovered. A. professed the utmost loyalty, but 
 secretly gave his son iostruotiona to take possession 
 of Shah-Jehan's palace, which was done, and the 
 aged monarch was made prisoner. A. next seized 
 and confined his too confi(£ng brother, Mtirad; and 
 after a struggle of two or three years' duration, 
 DSra and ShujS. also fell into his power, and all 
 three were put to death. The sceptre was now firmly 
 within the grasp of Aurungzebe. He professed not 
 to care for tiie imperial insignia, but was ultimately 
 induced to receive them on August 2, 1678. He, at 
 the same time, assumed the presumptuous title of 
 Alemglr, ' Conqueror of the World.' He also took 
 the title of Mohi-eddln, ' the Eeviver of Keligion.' In 
 ihe seventh year of A.'s reign, his father died, at a 
 good old age ; but there are suspicions, nevertheless, 
 fiiat his death was hastened by slow poison, admini- 
 stered by command of his son. 
 
 A.'s long reign of half a century was distiaguished 
 by great outward prosperity, but the empire was 
 diseased at its heart. Everywhere there was dis- 
 trust ; A., who had established his empire by fraud, 
 was naturally enough distrusted by all. He lacked 
 confidence in his statesmen, who, ia their turn, dis- 
 trusted him and one another. His sons imitated 
 him in his disobedience to his father, and the Hin- 
 dus, whom he treated with great harshness, excited 
 the Mahrattas against him in the south. Still his 
 great abiUties sufficed during his reign not only to 
 preserve his empire intact, but even to enlarge it 
 considerably. Discord between the monarcha of 
 Bljapur and Goloonda, which was mainly due to 
 his policy when acting as governor of the Deocan, 
 enabled him to add these two kingdoms to his 
 «mprre. But the seeds of decay which had been 
 sown in his reign bore ample fruit in the reign of 
 his son. The decadence of the Mogul empire dates 
 from A's death, which took place at Ahmednuggur, 
 ^ on the 21st February 1707, in the, eighty-ninth year 
 of his age, and fiftieth of his reign. The latter years 
 of A.'s life were passed in misery. The memory of 
 his own crimes weighed heavy on his soul. He lived 
 in constant dread that he himself would receive of 
 the measure which he had meted out to others. His 
 court was remarkable among Oriental courts for its 
 economy and freedom from ostentation. A.'s charac- 
 ter was not without its good features, as instanced 
 by the fact, that in the third year of his reign, when 
 there was a great famine in the land, he gave unre- 
 servedly the funds of his treasury, which had been 
 greatly augmented by his frugality, to procure food 
 for his people. 
 
 AUSCULTA'TION (Lat. auscuUo, to listen), a 
 mode of detecting diseases, especially those of the 
 'heart and lungs, by listening to the sounds produced 
 in the cavity of the chest. This is done either by 
 •the unassisted ear (Immediate A.), or by the aid of a 
 simple sound-conveying instrument, the stethoscope 
 (q.v.) (Mediate A.). By care and attention, the 
 normal sounds produced by respiration and the 
 beating of the heart may be distinguished from the 
 several abnormal sounds indicating disease. A. is 
 classed among the most important of discoveries 
 in modem medical science. Its details are ably 
 
 explained by the discoverer, Laennec. See Pee- 
 
 CUSSION. 
 
 AUSO'NIUS, Deoius Magntis, the most conspi- 
 cuous Roman poet in the 4th o. after Christ, was 
 born at Burdegala (Bordeaux), about 309 A.D. 
 Scaliger asserts that his father, Julius A., was the 
 favourite physician of the Emperor Valentinian, but 
 the assertion has no historic basis, so far as we know. 
 He was, however, a man of considerable importance, 
 having been at one time honorary prefect of Illyri- 
 cum, and he appears to have taken care that the 
 young A. should receive an excellent education. 
 Many amiable female relatives fostered, and prob- 
 ably flattered the talents of the boy. After finish- 
 ing his curriculum at Toulouse, he returned to 
 Bordeaux, where, after practising for a short time 
 at the bar, he turned his attention to literature, and 
 soon distinguished himself as a professor of oratory. 
 Some years later, he was appointed by Valentinian 
 tutor to his son Gratian ; afterwards qusestor, and, 
 by Gratian, prefect of Latium, and sutsequently 
 consul of Gaul (379 A.D.). On the death of Gratian, 
 A. retired from public life to his estate at Bordeaux, 
 where he occupied himself with literature and rural 
 pursuits until the time of his death (392 A. D.). The 
 question whether or not A. was a 'Christian,' has 
 occasioned much controversy, and remains yet 
 unsettled. His works include translations of Greek 
 eclogues, a coUeotion of 160 epigrams, epistles in 
 verse and prose, 20 so-called idyls and other de- 
 scriptive pieces, which, though admired in their- day, 
 are generally worthless, and bear all the marks of 
 the corrupted taste prevalent in literature during 
 his' time. But though destitute of every true poetic 
 quality, A. occasionally displays a certain neatness 
 and grace of expression, which shew that, in a 
 better era, he might have proved a greater poet. 
 Besides these, he also wrote a panegyric on the 
 Emperor Gratian, full of bombastic phrases and 
 fulsome ' adulation. Editions of his writings have 
 beeiL given by Scaliger (Leyden, 1575), ToUius 
 (Amsterdam, 1669—1671), and Souchay (Paris, 1730). 
 
 AUSTEN, Jane, a novelist of deservedly high 
 reputation. Her father was rector of Steventon, 
 Hampshire, at which place his daughter was bom, 
 December 16, 1775. Mr Austen, vrtio was himself 
 a gentleman of some literary attainments, bestowed 
 on his daughter an education superior to that 
 usually given to young ladies in her sphere of life 
 in the end of last century. Jane was distinguished 
 alike by good sense, sweetness of disposition, and 
 personal attractions. Her novels, which are rather 
 limited in subject, are remarkable for the truth- 
 fulness with which they portray the everyday life 
 of the middle classes of England in her time, and 
 for their delicate, yet withal distinct discrimination 
 of the various shades and peculiarities of character. 
 Sir Walter Scott said of her: 'That, young lady 
 had a talent for describing the involvements, 
 feelings, and characters of ordinary life which is 
 to me the most wonderful I have ever met with. 
 The big bow-wow I can do myself like any one 
 going; but the exquisite touch, which renders 
 common-place things and characters interesting from 
 the truth of the description and the sentiment, is 
 denied to me.' Miss A.'s first four novels — Sense 
 amd Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park, 
 and Emma — ^were published anonymously between 
 1811 and 1816. Northranger Abbey and Persuasion 
 followed, with her name on the title-page, in 1818, 
 after her death, which took place af Winchester, 
 July 24, 1817. 
 
 AUSTEN, William, an English metal-worker 
 and designer of the 15th c, celebrated as the 
 constracter of the famous tomb of Eichard da 
 
 £61 
 
AITSTERLITZ— AtrSTBALIA. 
 
 Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, in St Mary's Churcli, 
 Warwicksliire. Men of taste and judgment have 
 not hesitated to put his works on an equality with 
 those of Italian artists of the same period, 
 
 AU'STERLITZ, a small town in Moravia, about 
 12 miles east-south-east from the town of Briinn, 
 stands on the Littawa, and has a population of 
 2400. A. has a handsome palace; but it is cele- 
 brated chiefly as the place where Napoleon I., in 
 December 1805, defeated the combined forces of 
 Austria and Russia, under the command of their 
 respective emperors. After the capitulation of Mack, 
 at Ulm, October 17, Napoleon had marched on 
 without opposition to Vienna, of which he took 
 possession, November 11, 1805. The Russian and 
 Austrian forces had retreated to Moravia, and 
 Napoleon had fixed his head-quarters at Briinn. 
 Towards this locality the troops of' Alexander 
 and Francis marched in five parallel columns to 
 offer battle. The movements of the allies were iU- 
 oonduoted, and evidently made without a due know- 
 ledge of the strength of the French army, which was 
 concealed by the tactics of Napoleon. It amounted 
 to about 80,000 men; while the aUiedt armies 
 numbered 84,000, of which 16,000 were cavalry. 
 The battle commenced at seven, on the morniag of 
 December 2, and the Russian line was soon broken. 
 The left wing of the allies si^ffered severely towards 
 the close of the engagement, and endeavoured to 
 save themselves by crossing a frozen lake; but 
 Napoleon ordered his artillery to play upon the ice, 
 which was broken up, and about 2000 perished in 
 the water. According to Alison, the allies lost 
 30,000 in killed, wotmded, and prisoners, and the 
 French 12,000. Russian and French accounts make 
 their respective losses smaller. The battle was 
 followed by an armistice, the terms of which were 
 dictated by Napoleon; and immediately after, on 
 the 26th of December, by the treaty of Presburg, 
 which determined that Austria should surrender the 
 Venetian territories, and also her possessions in 
 Swabia and the Tyrol. 
 
 ATT'STIN, the capital of Texas since 1844^ is 
 situated on the left bank of the Colorado, in lat. 
 30° 15' N., long. 97° 47' W., at a distance of 200 
 miles from its mouth. In the season of high- water — 
 that is, in the winter — ^A. is accessible to steam-boats 
 from the sea. Population, in 1853, estimated at 
 3000. 
 
 ATTSTBALA'SIA, a term etymologically equiva- 
 lent to Southern Asia, but according to usage 
 different. While Soiiihem Asia vaguely means the 
 lower repons of that continent, A. definitely indi- 
 cates those large, or comparatively large, islands 
 which, lying between the Malayan or Indian Archi- 
 pelago and Polynesia Proper, are at once rounded 
 off in collective position from the former, and 
 distinguished in individual magnitude from the 
 latter. The islands in question are chiefly Papua 
 or New Guinea, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, 
 New Caledonia, New Hebrides, New Ireland, and 
 New Britain— all to be again noticed in their 
 places. Though the name is not in general use, yet 
 it seems necessary, to a satisfactory system of 
 geographical classification. In its entire extent, A. 
 cannot be much less than Europe. 
 
 AXJSTRA'LIA, the south-west division of Aus- 
 tralasia. By some, it is strictly defined to be an 
 island — as, indeed, may either of the masses of land 
 caUed the Old and the New Worlds — ^whHe by others 
 it is loosely described as a continent. It is bounded 
 on the W. by the Indian Ocean ; on the N., by Torres 
 Strait ; on the E., by the Pacific ; and on the S., by 
 Bass's Strait. It extends in S. lat. from 10° to 39°, 
 and in E. long, from 113° to 154°; while its longest 
 562 
 
 dimensions, as incidentally noljced under the head 
 of Akeeica, may be said to run respectively on a 
 meridian and a parallel. The parallel in question is 
 that of about 25°, nearly the mean lat. of A. ; and 
 the meridian is that of 142° or 143°, nearly the mean 
 long, of Australasia — a meridian, too, which, when 
 produced in either direction, seems to mark out both 
 Tasmania and Papua as geological continuations of 
 Austraha. In English measure, the greatest breadth 
 from north to south is upwards of 2000 ; and the 
 greatest length from east to west nearly 2600 nules. 
 Of the resulting rectangle of 5,200,000 square nules, 
 A. comprises more iian a half, perhaps four- 
 sevenths, or, in aU, about 2,970,000 square miles — 
 half the area of South America, as the next larger 
 continent, or ten times that of Borneo, as the next 
 smaller i^and. 
 
 In the mutual relations of itself and the ocean 
 — a point of vast importance to so large a mass 
 of land — A is decidedly inferior to every one of 
 the grand divisions of the globe. It is not indented 
 by the sea, as is North America on the east, or Asia 
 on the east and south, or Europe on all sides but 
 one. Again, as to navigable channels between the 
 coast and the interior, A is not to be compared even 
 to Africa with its Nile and its Zambezi, its Niger 
 and its Congo, its Gambia and its Senegal, and its 
 many smaller arteries of communication besides. 
 
 Among the indentations of the coast, the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria, on the north-east, the only one of 
 considerable magnitude, does, it is true, penetrate 
 inwards about 500 nules from Cape York on the 
 east, and about 400 from Cape Amhem on the west. 
 But this opening, even if in itself more available, is 
 practically of little value. It is entirely surrounded 
 by tropical regions — ^regions adverse to colonisation, 
 at least on the principle, now the only admissible 
 one, of free labour. This fact has been established 
 by experience; for a settlement in the kindred 
 climate of Port Essington to the north-west was 
 abandoned as hopeless after a trial of seven years. 
 But the approach, such as it is, of this gult towards 
 the interior has prompted aspirations which, wild 
 as they might seem elsewhere, are perhaps less 
 extravagant than some of the sober realities of 
 this marvellous land. Assuming the inland parts 
 of A., like the surface of the Caspian or of the 
 Dead Sea, to be considerably lower than the 
 ocean-level, some have suggested that, by means of 
 a cut through the southern shore of Carpentaria, 
 the central desert might be converted into a great 
 inland sea, connecting the comparatively fertile 
 countries around, not only with each other, but 
 also with the rest of the world. Perhaps all the 
 other inlets put together are scarcely equal in 
 size to the Gulf of Carpentaria alone ; while, strictly 
 speaking, most of them are rather mere bends 
 in the coast-line than actual arms of the ocean. 
 Of the secondary inlets, the two that cut deepest 
 into the land are the Gulf of St Vincent and 
 Spencer Gulf, in the south. Of harbours, properly 
 so called, there is a remarkable deficiency ; and this 
 deficiency is all the more important from the 
 dangerous character of the reef-girt shores. As to 
 fluvial communications between the coast and the 
 interior, they can, with a single exception, hardly 
 be said to exist at all. The interior andTthe coast are 
 alike unfavourable to the production and mainte- 
 nance of regular and permanent streams. The interior 
 — comprising the whole mass within a border of not 
 more than 100 nules in average width, and repre- 
 senting, in proportional size, the plate of a mirror 
 with the scantiest possible breadth of fi-ame round 
 it — sends, as a general rule, hardly any tribute to 
 the ocean. So far from possessing any reservoirs for 
 the supply of rivers, its only large body of water, 
 
AUSTRALIA. 
 
 the brackish pool or salt marsh, according to circiun- 
 stanoea, of Lake Torrens {q.v.), is the landlocked 
 receptacle of at least one of its principal streams. 
 With the single exception of the Murray, and per- 
 haps its southern affluents, even such inland water- 
 courses as do conduct their surplus to the sea, lose 
 each a large proportion of its volume through 
 evaporation and absorption. With regard to the 
 coast streams, again, the mountains, which form 
 the dividing ridge, being, as already hinted, only 
 about 100 miles from the sea, the streams are 
 necessarily, from their shortness, of comparatively 
 insignificant size. This is more peculiarly the case 
 on the south — ^for the Murray, as flowing from the 
 inner slope of the maritime ridge, is no exception 
 to the general rule. To the west of the Glenelg, 
 which empties itself into the Southern Ocean, 
 between Capes Northumberland and Bridgewater, 
 the coast yields not a single river worthy of the 
 name ; while the entire line between Streaky Bay 
 and Cape Arid — a stretch of 10° of long, on the Great 
 Australian Bight — pours, incredible as it may seem, 
 not a single (fiop. of fresh water into the Southern 
 Ocean. 
 
 But the poverty of Australian hydrography is 
 aggravated by the singularities of the so-styled 
 'weatherology.' An alternation of rainless and of 
 rainy periods is pretty nearly the normal con- 
 dition of Australian skies. The rivers imdergo 
 a similar alternation of drought and flood, the 
 one state being, within certain limits, almost as 
 destructive as ike other. Even in these inequali- 
 ties there is great irregularity. During the period 
 of drought, a river presents a succession of phases 
 — a scanty, though stiU regular stream; nearly 
 stagnant ponds with a connecting thread of water 
 between them; detached 'water-holes' in all the 
 gradations of a constantly decreasing depth ; moist 
 pits that may shield their buried treasure to the 
 spade; and, lastly, parched hollows where the 
 labour of digging may be expended in vain. In 
 the drought, for mstance, from July 1838 to August 
 1839 — during which ' not a drop of rain fell in 
 Sydney' — even the Murray, generally described 
 as the only permanent river of any magnitude 
 in the countiy, dwindled away into a chain of 
 pools; and a recent explorer in Western A found 
 on the bed of a large river — an affl/ueat, if it may 
 be so called, of the thoroughly broiled and baked 
 Murohison — ^the indubitable footprints, then 3 years 
 old, of preceding explorers. The flood, again, varies 
 as wid^y, if not so deflnitely and gradually, as the 
 drought. To select what may be regarded as an 
 average instance from a list of the floods of the 
 Hawkesbury in New South Wales : the torrent, at 
 the end of July and beginning of August 1808, rose 
 to a height of 86 feet, or fuUy 50 above the edge of 
 the bank, destroying the uncut crops of the settle- 
 ment, and sweeping away stacks of wheat and 
 great quantities of stock of every description. 
 No fewer than 57 such visitations appear to have 
 been ascertained and recorded within the historical 
 period of 70 years since 1788, being distributed in 
 the respective numbers of 14, 11, 17, and 15, between 
 spring, summer, autumn, and winter, and iiiat with- 
 out the exemption of any one of the twelve months 
 of the year. 
 
 The rivers of the east coast — the Brisbane, 
 Eiohmond, Clarence, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, 
 Hunter, Hawkesbury, and ShoaLhaven — are, m 
 general, towards their mouths, tidal streams, 
 flowing between high; banks through a compara- 
 tively level region. Some of those of Victoria 
 — such as the Glenelg — spring from a moist and 
 undulating tract of country; while most of the 
 others rise among the lofty ranges and snowy 
 
 peaks of the Australian Alps — the coldest section 
 of the bordering mountains by reason both of 
 their altitude and of their distance from the 
 equator. They are subject to frequent freshets 
 in winter, and are less eccentric than the other 
 rivers of A. in general. To the west of the 
 Glenelg, as stated afcove, rivers may be said almost 
 to disappear. South A. possesses only a few incon- 
 siderable streams, and a mmiber of usually diy 
 torrent-courses; and as to the Great Bight, stiU 
 further to the west, more than 600 imles of the 
 coast have been already characterised as utterly 
 waterless. To the west, again, of Cape Arid, the 
 coast presents only a few small lakes and incon- 
 siderable water-courses, but nothing worthy of 
 the name of river. On the west side of A, the 
 Swan Biver is by far the largest of the water- 
 courses. Generally speaking, the whole of them are 
 fed almost solely by the winter rains, many of 
 them, during the dry season, either disappearing 
 through a great part of their course, or dwindling 
 into a series of detached pools. Along the remainder 
 of the west coast, no rivers worth notice have yet 
 been discovered. Nor yet along the north-west 
 have any been found, excepting a few small ones 
 towards Cambridge Gulf. The rivers of this neigh- 
 bourhood much resemble in character those, of the 
 opposite angle in the colony of Victoria. They rise 
 at no very great distance from the sea. Near their 
 sources they are mere torrents ; but in the lowlands 
 their generally slow currents wind through fertile 
 plains and valleys, which are subject to sudden and 
 terrific inundations. In North A. are several com- 
 paratively considerable rivers — the Victoria, the 
 South Alligator, the Koper, and the Albert. They 
 are wide streams, rising in the elevated region of 
 the interior, and traversing a rugged country, which 
 is often flooded. Lastly, along me north-east,, the 
 streams are distinguished by their length, a distinction 
 which they owe to their being paraUd with the coast. 
 They are the Mitchell, Lynd, Burdekon, Mackenzie, 
 Dawson, Fitzroy, Belyando, &c.; the whole of them, 
 with the exception of the two last-named, having 
 been discovered by Dr Leiohhardt. To pass from 
 the rivers of the coast to those of the interior, 
 we must confine ourselves to two of the latter — 
 Barcoo or Victoria, and the Murray with its numer- 
 ous tributaries. The up{)er part of the Barcoo was 
 first discovered by Sir T, Mitchell, in a broken 
 district, lying 300 or 400 miles from the east coast, 
 and nearly on the Tropic of Capricorn. Its broad 
 reaches might there have floated a steamer. Since 
 then, it has been traced by Mr Gregory through 
 a solitary course into Lake Torrens, though, in point 
 of fact, it is only from time to time that it actually 
 has a surplus to pour into its receptacle. The 
 system, again, of the Murray and i& tributaries 
 is vastly more complex. Bising on the west or 
 inner slope of the Australian Alps, it flows to the • 
 west-north-west with a plentiful stream, which 
 alone in the country, after the fashion of a tropical 
 river, rises and falls regularly according to the 
 season; and, though inaccessible to ships of any 
 size ifrom the sea, it has an internal navigation of 
 about 2000 nules in length. On its left or southern 
 side, it receives several considerable streams, such as 
 the Ovens and the Goulburn. But it is on the right 
 or northern side that the basin of the Murray is 
 most peculiar. The principal affluents in this direc- 
 tion are the Murrumbidgee and the Darling. The 
 Murrumbidgee, to which the Lachlan, only less 
 'mysterious than the Darling, contributes such 
 surplus as it from time to time may have, forms the 
 chief strand of a complicated net-work of water- 
 courses. The Darling, after it has received all its 
 tributaries, pursues its lonely way for 660 miles, 
 
 £63 
 
AUSTUALIA. 
 
 sending off branch after branch to lose themselves in 
 landlocked lagoons. Nor is its growth less curious 
 than its lower channel. The whole of the interior 
 drainage of the maritime ridge of New South Wales 
 between lat. 25° and lat. 34", a stretch of about 625 
 mUes, converges into a vast basin of clay, on the 30th 
 parallel, where the Balonue, Dumaresque, Gwydir, 
 Namoi, Castlereagh, Maoquarie, and Bogan, after 
 spreading out in spacious marshes, and amid com- 
 plicated junctions and bifurcations, unite such 
 surpluses as absorption and evaporation may have 
 left them to form the ' mysterious ' Darling. 
 
 Such being the hydrography of A., the investiga- 
 tion of the interior, so far as it has hitherto advanced, 
 has been conducted almost entirely by land. In 
 1844, Sturt penetrated to the centre of the country, 
 between Spencer Gulf on the south, and the Gulf of 
 Carpentaria on the north, meeting sterility and 
 drought.- In 1847, Leichhardt, encouraged by the 
 success of his previous expedition from Sydney to 
 Port Essingtou, started from Moreton Bay on the 
 east, for Western A., following a sort of diagonal of 
 nearly the greatest possible length ; and, as was to 
 be dreaded, he must have failed in his bold enter- 
 prise ; for neither of himself nor of hia companions 
 has any intelligence ever been received. In 1856, 
 Gregory, proceeding from the north-west, seems to 
 have come upon Sturt's central desert, at a distance 
 of 200 or 300 miles from the coast; and again, in 
 1858, the same traveller made his way across the 
 country from the mouth of the Victoria to the head 
 of Spencer Gulf. 
 
 Ally detailed view of the cHmate, besides being 
 equally difficult and unsatisfactory with respect to 
 so vast an aggregate of latitudes and longitudes, has 
 been rendered comparatively unnecessary by the 
 incidental allusions to the subject in the preceding 
 paragraphs. The following are tabular statements, 
 extracted from local publications : 
 
 MEAN ANNUAL KAINrALL. 
 Latitude. 
 27°!' 
 
 Locality. 
 Brisbane, Queensland, lately 
 
 Moreton JBay, . 
 Port Macquarie, New South 
 
 Wales 
 
 Sydney, New South Wales, 
 Port P hillip , Victoria Colony, 
 Lake Alexandrina, Mouth of 
 
 the Murray, . 
 Adelaide, South Australia, 
 York, West AustraUa, 
 
 31° 25' 
 
 33° 51' 
 38° 18' 
 
 35° 
 
 34° 55' 
 31° 53' 
 
 Rainfall. 
 35-92 in. 
 
 70-79 „ 
 
 49-00 „ 
 29-16 „ 
 
 17-45 „ 
 
 19-90 „ 
 25-39 „ 
 
 EBEQUBNCY OF BAINY DATS. 
 
 Month. 
 January, 
 February, 
 March, . 
 AprU, 
 May, . 
 June, 
 July, . 
 August, 
 September, 
 October, . 
 November, 
 December, 
 
 Adelaide. 
 
 4 
 
 . 4 
 
 5 
 
 . 10 
 
 10 
 
 . 11 
 
 14 
 
 . 15 
 
 11 
 
 . 10 
 
 6 
 
 . 5 
 
 Port 
 Phillip. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 11 
 13 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 12 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Sydney, Port 
 
 South Head. Macquarie. 
 
 13 
 12 
 13 
 12 
 12 
 12 
 13 
 11 
 11 
 12 
 H 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 _9 
 
 120 
 
 Whole Year, 105 120 143 
 
 The mean temperature of Melbourne is 59°, being 
 about 9° higher than that of London._ The warmest 
 month is January, the mean of which is 68° ; the 
 coldest is July, 49'-34. The corresponding tempera- 
 tures of London are 63° and 36°. 
 mi 
 
 Geology. — The little that is yet known of the 
 geology of A. has been chiefly obtained from occa- 
 sional notes scattered through the journals of scien- 
 tific travellers. So utterly unknown were the mineral 
 treasures of this continent, that it was only compa- 
 ratively lately, and by the merest accident, that the 
 Burra Burra copper-mines were discovered. In 1851, 
 farmers were turning up with the plough the auri- 
 ferous alluvixun ; pebbles of gold-bearing quartz were 
 used for garden-walks; and we have heard of an 
 Oxford graduate who ornamented his garden-walls 
 by building into them masses of white quartz varie- 
 gated with portions of the vmrecognised yellow metal. 
 In 1846, when Count Strelecki submitted to Sir R. 
 Murchison a series of rock and mineral specimens 
 gathered in Southern A., the practised eye of that 
 veteran in geology recognised in them a remarkable 
 resemblance to the rocks in the auriferous districts 
 of the Ural Mountains, which he had thorougl^ly 
 explored. He could not ascertain that gold had ever 
 been found in the colony, but so certain was he that 
 the precious metal existed, that he printed and circu- 
 lated amongst the miners of Cornwall a paper urging 
 them to emigrate to New South Wales, and seek 
 there for gold, as they had been accustomed to seek 
 for tin and zinc among the alluvial dSbris of their 
 own hills. After a few years, in the researches of 
 Mr Hargreaves, and the diggings that followed, this 
 remarkable prediction was fulfilled to an extent that 
 could not have been anticipated. This narrative is 
 of much value, ^s shewing that geology is no longer 
 in the hands of empirics ; that its truths have been 
 so gathered and arranged as to afford bases for safe 
 inductions ; and that, when rightly used, this science 
 is of the first importance, even when tested by the 
 utilitarian Cut hono ? of the age. Kecognising this, 
 the colonial governments of A. have appointed state 
 geologists, who have begun their examination of the 
 Australian continent, and a few reports on circum- 
 scribed districts have been published. 
 
 In looking at the continent as a whole, it will 
 require not many broad touches to convey all that is 
 at present known. An immense, roughly quadran- 
 gular and comparatively flat disliict m Central A., 
 extending from the southern shores in lat. 33° S., 
 where it forms a coast-line of somewhat bold cliffs, 
 to 18° S. lat., and having for its eastern and western 
 limits 124° and 138° E. long., is composed of Tertiary 
 rooks. The superficial characteristics of this vast 
 almost unpeopled tract have already been described. 
 Nothing more is known regarding its structure. 
 Three other patches of Tertiary rocks exist. The 
 largest is a broadish tract, which forms the coast of 
 Western A. northwards from the colony of Perth, 
 as far as the Tropic of Capricorn. The second occu- 
 pies a considerable portion of the valley of the 
 Murray Biver, iu that district known as Lower Dar- 
 ling. The last and smallest patch covers the 
 southern slope of the Australian Alps, extending 
 along the shore from Wilson's Promontory to Cape 
 Howe. 
 
 The immense central expanse of Tertiary beds 
 is surrounded by a continuous belt of Plutonic and 
 Metamorphic rocks, only broken on the southern 
 shores, where it forms the ooast-Une, and where the 
 sea has indented it, forming a bay which has for its 
 boundaries the more enduring primitive rocks. This 
 crystalline belt is, on its east, north, and western 
 sides, separated from the sea by a tract of land ha-ving 
 a nearly equal breadth of 100 miles throughout 
 its course. Tracing this from its southern termina- 
 tion in Western A., we find a limited region of 
 paleozoic rooks occupying the colonised district 
 around Perth, and containing valuable coal-beds. 
 Northwards, as already indicated, the coast-line 
 consists of j?ertiary rocks. From their termination 
 
AUSTRALIA. 
 
 in lat. 23i° S., the rooka along the whole western and 
 northern shores are composed of Secondary strata. 
 On the eastern shm-e, from Cape York to the western 
 boundary of Victoria, the formations belong to one 
 or other of the Primary series. Throiigh the whole 
 extent of this boundary tract, whether consisting 
 o£ Tertiary, Secondary, or Primary strata, numerous 
 and often extensive patches of igneous rocks exist 
 which have been erupted during the Tertiary or 
 Post-tertiary epochs. 
 
 About 100 miles from the bounding tract of 
 palsBozoio rooks on the eastern limits of A., and 
 running parallel with it, there is an equally broad 
 strip of similar strata extending from the shores 
 of the Gulf of Carpentaria to Bass's Strait. These 
 two regions, which unite together and are largely 
 developed in the southern portion of Victoria, 
 supply the great store of Australian miueral wealth. 
 The veins which intersect these strata were the 
 original matrices of the gold. It has not, to any 
 extent, been sought for in this, its original position, 
 from a belief that the amount of metal decreases as 
 we descend in the solid rock. Mr Selwyn, colonial 
 geologist for Victoria, has, however, lately reported 
 in favour of quarrying for the gold in the solid rock. 
 The greatest amount of gold is found in the heaps of 
 dSbria or old alluvium derived from the denudation 
 of the old slaty rooks. The auriferous rocks of 
 Eastern A. are Lower Silurian, as shewn by Messrs 
 Lonsdale and Salter, from the examination of 
 specimens of pentameri, trilobites, and corals from the 
 strata which overlie them. Mr Selwyn has referred 
 the Victoria gold-bearing strata to the same age, 
 from the occurrence in fliem of about 60 species 
 of Lower Silurian fossils, including trilobites, grapto- 
 lites, and lingulse. The auriferous quartzose veins 
 are most abundant in the vicinity of eruptive rocks, 
 whether granite, porphyry, or greenstone. 
 
 Messrs Selwyn and Resales have shewn that the 
 superficial drifts containing the gold consist of three 
 distinct stages. The lowest or oldest contains the 
 remains of wood and seed-vessels differing little 
 from the present vegetation ; among them the cones 
 of Banksia, an exclusively Australian genus, have 
 been identified. The remains of animals exhibit also 
 the representatives of the living fauna of the country. 
 Gigantic marsupials then existed — kangaroos, poto- 
 roos, and wombats — representing the elephants, and 
 even the large carnivora of Asia; but with the 
 exception of the mastodon, of which, one species 
 has been found in A,, there were, it would seem, no 
 generic forms common to this great district and 
 the rest of the land in the eastern hemisphere. In 
 Victoria, these beds of alluvium have been over- 
 flowed and even interlaced by basaltic couUes, which 
 evidently proceeded from terrestrial volcanoes, inas- 
 much as the vegetable matter beneath them has 
 been charred and destroyed in situ by the eruption. 
 
 An extensive cocd-Jield has been known for some 
 time as occupying the whole of the great basin of 
 the Hunter River and its tributaries, down to the 
 sea-coast at Newcastle, wbere several beds crop out 
 on the beach. For more than 12 years, the monopoly 
 held by the Australian Agricultural Company, in 
 the working of the coal, has ceased to exist, and 
 as the result, the trade has increased enormously. 
 From Port Hunter the coal is despatched to all 
 parts of A., and even to New Zealand and California. 
 Beds belonging to the carboniferous system have 
 been discovered also in Western A., near Perth, and 
 the coal has been successfully, though not so 
 extensively wrought there. 
 
 After gold and coal, the next most important 
 Australian mineral is copper. The Burra Burra 
 mines, in South A., were discovered in 1842. The 
 lode is 17 feet wide, and of vast extent. The ore 
 
 contains 75 per cent, of metal, and is quarried out 
 like stone in immense masses. Copper has also 
 been wrought for several years at Batnurst, in New 
 South Wales. The poorest ores are here most 
 abundant, the rich pyrites existing only in small 
 quantity. Traces of copper have been noticed in 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Iron is spread in great profusion over all the 
 continent. To such an extent does it exist in several 
 of the mountains on the north coast, that they 
 violently affect the magnetic needle. At Berrima, 
 in New South Wales, an oxidulated iron ore, from 
 which is manufactured a good steel, has been 
 worked, but not successfully. Iron has been noticed 
 in quantity in both Southern and Western Australia. 
 
 Lead is most abundant east and south-east from 
 Adelaide, at Mount Beevor, and near Cape Jervis. 
 The ore of Glen Osmond mines, near Adelaide, 
 yields "75 per cent, of lead, besides a proportion of 
 silver. This metal is also wrought at Geraldine, in 
 Western Australia. 
 
 Manganese, zinc, quicksilver, and antimony have 
 been met with in South A., as also good specimens 
 of jasper, chalcedony, and opal. 
 
 Zioc and quicksilver are mentioned as occurring 
 in Western Australia. 
 
 Botany and Zoology. — ^The natural history of A. is 
 remarkably diflferent from that of any other quarter of 
 the globe. Its trees — which seldom form dense forests, 
 but are scattered as in a lawn or park, where the 
 colonist finds pasture for his flocks without any pre- 
 vious clearing — are, almost without exception, of very 
 peculiar appearance. Among the largest of them 
 are species of JEucalyptus (q. v.), some of which attain 
 the height of 150 or 200 feet, rising without branches- 
 to at least half tkeir height, their stately stems 
 resembling beautiful columns. Some of the Eucalypti, 
 on account of their resinous exudations, are known 
 to the colonists as Gum-trees. Their leaves are- 
 leathery. It is, indeed, a general characteristic of 
 the trees and shrubs of A., that their leaves are ever- 
 green and of a firm texture ; and although in this a 
 beautiful adaptation may be perceived to the pre- 
 vaUiug dryness of the climate, the foliage wants the 
 delicacy and the liveliness of tints which in other 
 countries form so much the charm of the landscape. 
 The Oasuarinm (see Casuajbina) or Cassowary-trees 
 (Beef-wood, She-oak, Swamp-oak, &c.), among which, 
 as among the Eucalypti, are some of the largest and' 
 most useful timber-trees, are still more singular in- 
 appearance ; their long, wiry, jointed branchlets, 
 which greatly resemble those of Equiseta, are quite- 
 leafless, ha-ving only very small sheaths instead of"' 
 leaves. Equally destitute of fohage are the greater 
 munber of the Acacias (q. v.), which abound in the 
 Australian flora. The abundance of Proteacem— 
 which order includes the genus Banksia, already 
 noticed in the geology — connects the flora of A. 
 with that of the Cape of Good Hope, to which 
 •there are also other points of resemblance; and 
 although true heaths do not appear, their place 
 is supplied by a variety of heath-like plants of 
 other natural orders, and particularly of the 
 order Epacridacea, of which some (of the genus 
 Epacris) now take their place with heaths among 
 the favourite ornaments of our green-houses. Arau- 
 carias (q. v.) form a connecting link between the 
 flora of A. and that of ChiU. In the more northern 
 parts, palms and other tropical productions corjiect 
 it in like manner -with that of the south-east of Asia. 
 
 Few of the trees or shi-ubs of A. produce edible 
 fruits, and those known as Tasmanian Currants, 
 Tasmanian Cranberries, &o,, are not of much value. 
 The seeds of the Araucarias are edible, having 
 some resemblance to almonds. Almost none of the 
 native vegetable productions of A. have been found 
 
 S6& 
 
AUSTKALIA. 
 
 ■wortliy of the care of the gardener, except as objeota 
 of beauty or curiosity; and it produces no plant 
 which has yet found its way, or seems in the least 
 degree likely to find its way, into agriculture — unless, 
 indeed, some of its pasture plants may prove to be 
 peculiarly adapted to dry clunates. But the culti- 
 vated plants of other countries have been introduced 
 ■with, great success by the colonists, and their gardens 
 boast not only of the fruits common in England and 
 the south of Europe, but of some of those of China. 
 
 The zoology of A. is particularly characterised by 
 the_ prevalence of Marsupial (q. v.) Quadrupeds, of 
 which comparatively few exist in any other part of 
 the world. Some of them are herbivorous, as the 
 Kangaroos (q. v.), Potoroos (q. v.), and Wombats 
 (q. V.) ; some feed indifferently on roots and 
 insects, as the Bandicoots (q. v.) ; some are car- 
 nivorous, as the Thylacine (q. v.) and the Dasjrure 
 (q.v.) — the tiger and the wild cat of the colonists 
 — ^but all are marsupial; that is, the females have 
 a pouch for the young, which are born in a much 
 less advanced state than the young of other vivi- 
 parous animals. Besides its marsupial quadrupeds, 
 A. has few others, yet known, except some species 
 of bat; a kind of dog, known as the Dingo (q. v.); 
 and the Echidnas (q. v.) and duck-bills (Omitho- 
 rhynclms) (q. v.), animals which have been regarded 
 as forming a connecting linlr between quadrupeds 
 and birds, both upon account of external form and 
 anatomical structure, and to which nothing at all 
 similar exists in any other part of the world. ■ 
 
 Many of the birds of A. are very beautiful, but 
 ihey do not exhibit peculiarities so general and 
 striking as its quadrupeds, or even its plants. The 
 Emu ((J. V.) may be regarded as the Austoalian repre- 
 sentative of the Ostrich and Cassowary. The Black 
 Swan is chiefly remarkable for its colour. Ducks of 
 various kinds, falcons, doves, parrots, and many other 
 birds of families well known elsewhere, connect the 
 natural history of this isolated continent with that 
 of the other regions of the globe. — Reptiles are 
 nmnerous, but exhibit as a class no very marked 
 peculiarities, nor is there in any other department 
 of zoology so wide a difference from the rest of the 
 world as ia the Mammalia. Among the fish of the 
 Australian shores and rivers are many species which 
 are not found elsewhere, but they present no remark- 
 able common characteristic. Among them are no 
 trouts, salmon, or other Salmonidce, which, indeed, 
 do not extend -into the southern hemisphere. A 
 premium has been offered for the introduction of 
 salmon into one of the colonies. 
 
 As to the cultivated productions, wool may be 
 reckoned the grand staple of A. as a whole. Between 
 1793 and 1858 — a period of only 65 years — 8 merino 
 sheep had increased to 16,000,000. For sheep-farm- 
 ing, indeed, the coimtry, so far as it is not a desert, 
 
 seems to be admirably adapted. The colonist, 
 instead of having, as in America, to hew his way 
 through dense forests, with tangled underwood, sees 
 around him either open pastures or parklike woods 
 overshadowing their green sward. His mam diffi- 
 culty is the scarcity of water, or rather the possibihty 
 that such a scarcity may occur. Frequently, in some 
 parts of the covmtry, and habitually in others, he 
 is obliged to rely on the 'water-holes,' already so 
 often mentioned, for those natural tanks are said to 
 keep sweet to the last ; and when these fail, then do 
 his poor sheep, in whole flocks at a time, die_ of 
 thirst, or rather, through the simultaneous parching 
 of the grass, of hunger and thirst combined. 
 
 History.— la 1606, the north coast was descried 
 by the Dutch on board of the Duyfen, and about 
 the same time by a Spanish expedition sent from 
 Peru in 1605, one of the commanders of which gave 
 his name to Torres Straits. It is probable, how- 
 ever, that A. had been long known to the Chinese. 
 In 1619 and 1622 respectively, the west and south- 
 west coasts were seen. In 1642, the island, called 
 for some time Van Diemen's Land, but now Tas- 
 mania, was visited by Tasman, who, within a 
 month, sighted also New Zealand. In 1697, Swan 
 Biver was discovered by Vlaming. In 1770, Cook, 
 then on his first voyage, explored nearly the 
 whole of the east coast, designating the same New 
 South Wales. In 1798, Bass, a surgeon in the navy, 
 ascertained the separation of A. and Tasmania, 
 by passing through the strait that bears his 
 name. In 1802, Port Phillip was entered ; and in 
 the same year. Flinders pretty nearly completed the 
 
 feneral outline by sailing along the southern shore, 
 'o pass from discovery to colonisation : there was 
 established, in 1788, tiie^ settlement of New South 
 Wales, and from this all the other British Austral- 
 asian settlements, with the exception of Swan River, 
 have successively been planted. Norfolk Island, 
 erected, in 1790, into a penal settlement for New 
 South Wales, has recently been allotted to the 
 descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty, 
 removed for this purpose from Pitcaim's Island. 
 The other colonies, whether offshoots or not of 
 New South Wales, assumed an independent exist- 
 ence in the following order : Tasmania, 1825 ; 
 Western A. or Swan River, 1829; South A., 1834; 
 New Zealand, 1841; Victoria, 1851; and, lastly, 
 Queensland or Moreton Bay, 1859 (see these heads). 
 Besides these flourishing colonies, a settlement was 
 established near Port Essington in 1839, but was 
 abandoned in 1845, on accoimt of the unhealthiness 
 of the climate. Subjoined is a summary table of 
 statistics for all the more important of these depend- 
 encies, excepting that as yet — November 1859 — no 
 official return has had time to recognise the separa- 
 tion of Queensland from New South Wales. 
 
 COLOKIES. 
 
 Square 
 MUej. 
 
 Pop. 
 18S8. 
 
 Exports, 
 1857. 
 
 Imports. 
 1857. 
 
 Wool. 
 
 1857. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 1857. 
 
 ■^X!'- 
 
 Agri. Pro. 
 185?. 
 
 Pub. Rev. 
 1857. 
 
 Pub.DeIjt. 
 
 1857. 
 
 New South Wales, 
 Victoria, 
 South Australia, 
 West Australia, 
 Tasmania, or Van) 
 Diemen's Land,! 
 Kew Zealand, . 
 
 450,000 
 86,801 
 
 300,000 
 80,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 121,875 
 
 315,000 
 
 482,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 82,500 
 
 65,000 
 
 £ 
 
 4,012,000 
 
 15,079,612 
 
 1,958,572 
 
 60,000 
 
 1.354,655 
 
 400,000 
 
 £ 
 
 6,729,400 
 
 17,256,209 
 
 1,623,022 
 
 160,000 
 
 1,271,087 
 
 709,000 
 
 Ul. 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 17,176,920 
 
 6,772,560 
 
 650,000 
 
 6,697,492 
 
 3,071,542 
 
 Ot 
 
 148,126 
 
 2,767,047 
 
 1 3,000 
 12,000 
 
 Lbi. 
 
 438,035 
 
 88,000 
 633,218 
 
 431,573 
 100,000 
 
 £ 
 
 1,196,301 
 
 3,153,297 
 
 451,526 
 
 42,000 
 
 183,978 
 
 237,245 
 
 £ 
 
 2,306,000 
 
 2,176,780 
 
 555,000 
 
 8,688 
 
 223,680 
 
 600,000 
 
 Total, 
 
 1,063,670 
 
 1,066,500 
 
 22,884,739 
 
 27,738,718 
 
 54,368,514 
 
 2,920,173 
 
 488,035 
 
 1,252,791 
 
 5,264,347 
 
 5,770,148 
 
 The native population of A. belongs to the race 
 or group of tribes variously designated as Negritos, 
 Austrcd Negroes,OT Kelmnonedaris ('h]su<ik.iais,'DAs3:&'). 
 The chief members of the group, besides the Aus- 
 tralians, are the Papuans of New Guinea, New 
 Caledonia, and New Hebrides, and the natives 
 of Tasmania. See Ethnolooy, Negritos. The 
 
 Tasmaniana are now extinct, and the Austrahana 
 are rapidly diminishing in number ; their condition 
 wiU be considered under the head of each colony. 
 In Victoria they still number 1700 (not included 
 in the foregoing table). The 60,000 natives of New 
 Zealand (also not included in the table) belong to 
 the Polynesians (q. v.). 
 
AUSTEASIA.— AUSTRIA. 
 
 ATJSTRA'SIA, or the East Kingdom, the name 
 given, Tinder the Merovingians, to ttie eastern pos- 
 sessions of the Franks, embracing Lorraine, Belgium, 
 and the ri^ht hank of the Rhine, and having their 
 central pomt at Metz. At the time of the rise of 
 the Frankish power, these districts were of great 
 importance, as they formed the connection with the 
 German mother-country, and were the most tliickly 
 inhabited by Franks. After the time of Charles 
 Martel, the division of the Frankish kingdoni into 
 A. and Neustria lost its political importance. Under 
 Charlemagne's successors, A. merged into Germany — 
 and Neustria, or West Frank-land, into France. 
 
 AU'STRIA, Abchdtjchy ov, the cradle and 
 nucleus of the Austrian empire, lies on both sides of 
 the Danube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg, 
 on the borders of Hungary, and embraces an area of 
 about 15,000 square mues, with a population, in 1854, 
 of 2,624,237. It now forms three of the crown-lands, 
 or administrative provinces of the empire — viz.. 
 Lower and Upper Austria (or Austria below, and 
 Austria above the Ens), and the Duchy of Salz- 
 burg. See Austria, Empibb or. The south and 
 west portions are mountainous ; the north and east 
 are more level and fertUe, containing the great plain 
 of Vienna, the Marchfeld, &c. The population is 
 mostly German and Catholic. The cmef towns, 
 Ijesides Vienna, are Wiener-Neustadt, Salzburg, 
 Steyer, Linz, and Ischl (q. v.). 
 
 AU'STRIA,* Empibb op. The Austrian domi- 
 nions form, on the whole, a compact territory, with 
 a circumference of about 6349 males. It is included 
 between 42°— 51° N. lat, and between 8° 20'— 26° 20' 
 X long. The body of the empire lies in the interior 
 of the European continent, though, by means of the 
 southern projection of Dalmatia, it has about 1200 
 Tniles of sea-coast, on the Adriatic. With the rest 
 of its circumference, it borders on the States of 
 the Church, Modena, Raima, Sardinia, Switzerland, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Moldavia, Wal- 
 laehia, Servia, Turkey, and Montenegro. It embraces 
 an area of 254,548 square miles, and a population 
 <1854) of 39,411,309. Under the new organisation, the 
 empire falls into twenty administrative ohvisions called 
 crown-lands {Kronlander), together with a Military 
 Frontier. Their area and population are as follows : 
 
 Crown-lands. 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population 
 in 1854. 
 
 Lower Austria, 
 
 7,563 
 
 1,714,608 
 
 Upper Austria, 
 
 4,576 
 
 755,250 
 
 Salzburg, 
 
 2,734 
 
 154,379 
 
 Styria, 
 
 8,567 
 
 1,095,078 
 
 
 3,958 
 
 346,150 
 
 Camiola, 
 
 3,811 
 
 605,886 
 
 Coast Districts, orlUyria, 
 
 3,048 
 
 613,056 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 
 
 10,980 
 
 925,066 
 
 Bohemia, 
 
 19,822 
 
 4,800,818 
 
 Moravia, 
 
 8,481 
 
 1,972,165 
 
 Silesia, , . 
 
 1,964 
 
 479,321 
 
 Gahcia 
 
 29,874 
 
 5,056,647 
 
 Bukowina, . 
 
 3,981 
 
 430,664 
 
 Dalmatia, , 
 
 4,881 
 
 432,337 
 
 *Lombardy, . 
 
 '8,235 
 
 3,009,505 
 
 Venice 
 
 9,111 
 
 2,493,968 
 
 Hungary, . 
 
 68,583 
 
 8,744,481 
 
 Woiwodina of Servia, ) 
 and Banat of Temes, ) 
 
 
 
 11,445 
 
 1,574,428 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia, 
 
 6,987 
 
 967,136 
 
 Transylvania, 
 
 23,147 
 
 2,285,572 
 
 Military Frontiers, 
 
 12,800 
 
 1,054,794 
 
 Total, 
 
 254,548 39,411,309 
 
 » Lombardy has just {Nov. 1859} been ceded to Sardinia, but 
 the statistics of tbe empire can as yet be given only on the 
 
 previous footing. ~- __ _ 
 
 * For latest information, see Geemant, in Sdcplemekt, vol. 
 
 To this population must be added the military 
 establishment, which, on a peace-footing in 1858, 
 amounted to 400,000 men. On a war-footing, the 
 army numbers 800,000. 
 
 The first eleven of these divisions — except a part 
 of Dlyria — and also part of Galicia, making an 
 extent of 75,180 square miles, with a population 
 of above 12 millions, belong to the German Con- 
 federation. 
 
 Surface. — Three-fourths of A. is mountainous 
 or hilly, being traversed by three great mountain- 
 chains — the Alps, Carpathians, and Sudetes (q.v.), 
 whose chief ridges are of primitive rock. The Rhse- 
 tian and Norio Alps stretch from Switzerland to 
 the Danube, and contain the highest points of the 
 Austrian territories, the Ortler Spitze rising to 
 12,779 EngUsh feet. Their height declines gradually 
 towards the east, where the Leitha Hills (3000 feet), 
 overlooking the plain of Vienna, form the transition 
 to the Carpathians. This chain rises on the left 
 bank of the Danube, near Presburg, and sweeping 
 in a curve, first east, and then southward through 
 Transylvania, again meets the Danube. The highest 
 point is Butschetje in Transylvania, where a height 
 of 9528 feet is reached. The central part, or Tatra 
 Mountains, are vast granitic masses, resembling the 
 Alps in character ; the highest of these is the Lomnitz, 
 in the longitude of Cracow, 8133 fe6t. The Alps 
 are accompanied, north and south, by parallel ranges 
 of calcareous mountains, covering whole provinces 
 with their ramifications. The Carpathians are lapt 
 on their northern side by sandstone formations; 
 mountains of the same character also occupy 
 Transylvania. Springing from the north-west bend 
 of the Carpathians, the Sudetes run through the 
 north-east of Moravia and Bohemia, in which last 
 the range is known as the Riesen-gebirge, or Giant 
 Mountams. The boundary between Bohemia and 
 Prussian Silesia passes over the Sohneekoppe, the 
 highest peak of these mountains, which is 5275 feet 
 in height. Continuous with this range, -and begin- 
 ning on the left bank of the Elbe, are the Erz- 
 febirge, or Ore Mountains, on the confines of 
 axony ; and veering round to nearly south-east, the 
 range is further prSonged in the Bohemian-Forest 
 Mountains, between Bohemia and Bavaria. — The 
 chief plains of the Austrian empire are : the great 
 plains of Hungary (the smaller of these is in the 
 west, between the offsets of the Alps and Carpa- 
 thians, and is about 4200 square miles in extent; 
 the other, which is in the east, and traversed by the 
 Danube and the Theiss, has an area of 21,000 square 
 nules), and the plains of Lomhardy and GaUoia. 
 
 From the mouth of the Po to the south point of 
 Dalmatia, A. has a sea-line of about 1200 miles, not 
 counting the coasts of the numerous islands, the 
 largest of which is Veglia, 23 nules by 12. The chief 
 lakes are : the Platten See (about 400 square miles), 
 and the Neusiedler See (about 100 mUes), both in 
 Hungary. The first is navigable by steamers, and 
 both are rich in fish, and have fruitful vineyards 
 around them. In the Italian provinces are Lakes 
 Garda, Como, and Maggiore (q.v.). The last belongs 
 only in part to A. ; which is me case also with Lake 
 Constance. The Alps and Carpathians enclose 
 numerous mountain lakes. The Long Lake in the 
 Tatra Mountains Hes at an elevation of 6000 feet. 
 The most remarkable of all is the Zirknitz Lake 
 (q.v.) in Ulyria. There are extensive swamps or 
 morasses in Hungary and on the Po. One connected 
 with the Neusiemer See covers some 80 square imles. 
 A good deal has been done in draining morasses. 
 
 The leading rivers that have navigable tributaries 
 are: the Danube (q.v.), which has a course of 849 
 miles within the Austrian dom i nions, from Passau, 
 at the mouth of the Inn, to Orsowa, on the frontier 
 
 567 
 
AUSTKIA. 
 
 of Wallachia, and receives, on the right, the Inn, 
 Traun, Ens, Leitha, Eaab, I)rau, and Save; and, on 
 the left, the March, Waag, Neutra, Gran, Theiss, 
 Bega, and Temes : the Vistula (q. v.), with its tribu- 
 tary the Bug: the Elbe (q.v.), with the Moldau and 
 Eger: the Po (q.v.), with the Tessino (q.v.), Oglio 
 (q.v.), Adda (q.v.), and Mincio (q.v.). The Dniester 
 and Adige (q. v.) have no navigable tributaries ; this 
 last is the only principal river of European note that 
 belongs exclusively to Austria. The Bhine only 
 bounds the empire for about fourteen miles above 
 Lake Constance. The Brenta, Bacchighone, Piave, 
 Tagliamento, Isonza, Zermagna, Kerka, and Narenta, 
 several of which are navigable, flow eastward into 
 the Adriatic. 
 
 The canal system of Austria is in general not 
 extensive. It is most so in the Lombardo- Venetian 
 kingdom, where great attention has been paid to 
 this subject since the middle ages; in the other 
 parts of the monarchy, canal construction is chiefly 
 recent. In Lombardy, the principal canals are: 
 the Naviglio or Canal of CasteUeto, those of 
 Martesana, Javia, Treviglio, &c. ; in Venice, the 
 Canal Bianco, CavaneUo di Po, Di Legnano, &c. 
 The Vienna and Neustadt Canal, in Lower Austria, 
 has a length of 40 nules; the Bacser or Eranz 
 Canal, between the Danube and Theiss in Hungary, 
 69 miles; and the Bega Canal, constructed by the 
 Romans, between the Bega and Temes, 83 mUes. 
 The whole interior navigation of A., both by 
 steam and oar, is reckoned at about 7280 miles. 
 Extensive lines are stiU capable of being opened 
 up, afibrding the only possible communication with 
 many places now inaccessible, and, at the same time, 
 the means of rescuing tracts of arable laud from 
 inundations. 
 
 The climate of A. is on the whole very favourable ; 
 but from the extent and diversity of surface, it pre- 
 sents great varieties. In the warmest southern 
 region between 42° — 46" lat., rice, oUves, oranges, 
 and lemons ripen in the better localities ; and wine 
 and maize are produced everywhere. In the middle, 
 temperate region from 46' — 49°, which has the 
 greatest extent and diversity of surface, wine and 
 maize still thrive in perfection. In the northern 
 region, beyond 49°, except in favoured spots, neither 
 wine nor maize succeeds ; but grain, fruit, flax, and 
 hemp, thrive excellently. The mean temperature of 
 the year is, at Trieste, 58° E. ; at Vienna, 51° ; at 
 Lemberg, in Gahcia, 44°. 
 
 The raw products of A. are abundant and various ; 
 and in this respect it is one of the most favoured 
 countries in Europe. What one province lacks, 
 another supphes. Its mineral wealth is not sur- 
 passed in any European country ; it is only lately 
 that Russia has exceeded it in the production of gold 
 and silver. Mining has been a favourite pursuit 
 in A. for centuries, and has been encouraged and 
 promoted by the government. Bohemia, Hungary, 
 Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, and Tyrol, take the first 
 place in respect of mineral produce. Except platina, 
 none of the useful metals is wanting. The mines 
 are partly state property, and partly owned by 
 private individuals. The value of their yearly pro- 
 duce was stated in 1851 at 119,664,781 florins 
 (£11,966,478). Of this, salt yields 53 miUion 
 florins ; stones and earths, 40 million ; and metals, 
 coal, and other products, 26J million. (In 1855, the 
 value of metals and coal had increased to 37^ 
 miUion florins.) Gold is found chiefly in Hungary 
 and Transylvania, and in smaller quantity in Salzburg 
 and Tyrol. The same countries, along with Bohemia, 
 yield silver. The discovery of quicksilver at Idria 
 (q. V.) first brought this branch of mining industry 
 into importance. This metal is now also found 
 in Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, and Carinthia. 
 
 568 
 
 Copper is found in many districts — tin, in Boheniia 
 alone. Zinc is got chiefly in Cracow and Carinthia. 
 The most productive lead-mines are in Carinthia. ^ 
 Iron is found in almost every province of the mon- •y^ 
 archy, though Stjrria, Carinthia, and Carniola are 
 chief seats. The production, though great, is not yet- 
 equal to the consumption. Antimony is confined to 
 Hungary ; arsenic is found in Salzburg and Bohemia j 
 cobalt in Hungary, Styria, and Bohemia ; sulphur in 
 GaHcia, Bohemia, Hungary, Venice, Salzburg, &c., 
 though not enough to supply home consumption. 
 Graphite is found abundantly in Bohemia, Moravia,. 
 Carinthia, &c. 
 
 The useful earths and building-stones are to be 
 had in great profusion ; aU sorts of clay up to tha 
 finest porcelain earth (in Moravia, Boheniia, Hun- 
 gary, Venice), and likewise marble, gypsum, chalk, 
 &c. Of precious and semi-precious stones are the 
 Hungarian opal, which passes in commerce as orien- 
 tal, Bohemian garnets — the finest in Europe, corne- 
 lians, agates, beryl, amethyst, jasper, ruby, sapphire, 
 topaz, &c. _ ■ 
 
 A. is peculiarly rich in salt. Bock-salt exists in 
 immense beds on both sides of the Carpathians, 
 chiefly at Wiehczka (q. v.) and Bochnia in Galicia, 
 and in the county of Marmaros in Hungary, and im 
 Transylvania. The annual produce of rock-salt is- 
 greatly above 3 million cwt. Salt is also made at 
 state salt-works by evaporating the water of salt- 
 springs. The chief works are those at Hallstadt, 
 Ischl, HaUein, and Hall in Tyrol. Erom two to 
 three miUion cwt. are thus produced annually. A 
 considerable quantity is also made from sea-water 
 on the coasts of the Adriatic. Of other salts, alum, 
 sulphate of iron, and sulphate of copper, aire the' 
 chief. There are inexhaustible deposits of coal in- 
 the monarchy; but they have not yet been rightly 
 explored, nor are nearly aU that are known yet 
 worked. They are spread over all the provinces ; 
 but the richest are in the mountain-systems of 
 Moravia and Bohemia. Of recent years, however, 
 a great deal has been done to develop this particu- 
 lar branch of mining. A. has abundance of mineral 
 springs, frequented for their salubrity; 1600 are- 
 enumerated, some of them of European reputation, 
 as the sulphurous baths of Baden in Lower A, the- 
 saline waters of Karlsbad, Marienbad, and Ofen, &c- 
 
 The vegetable prodtictions, as might bo expected 
 from the vast variety in the soil and position of th& 
 different provinces, are extremely various. Althoughi 
 three-fourths of the surface is mountainous, more 
 than five-sixths is productive, being used either for- 
 tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest. Grain of all 
 kinds is cultivated, most abundantly in Hungary 
 and the districts south of it on the Danube; ia 
 Lombardy and Venice, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia^ 
 and Galicia. Agriculture is not yet far advanced ;. 
 the prevailing system is stiU what is called the three- 
 field system, introduced into Germany by Charle- 
 magne, in which a crop of winter wheat is followed 
 by one of summer grain, and that by fallow. In 
 Lombardy, which soil and ehmate combine to ren- 
 der one of the most fruitful spots on the earth, the- 
 fields are scarcely ever allowed to rest, but are made- 
 to yield two and even three crops of wheat and rye 
 in succession. In Hungary, the Magyar adheres to> 
 his primitive husbandry, the German and Slave are 
 adopting rational methods. Rice is cultivated ia 
 Lombardy and Venice, and in the Banat, but not 
 enough for the consumption. Potatoes are raised 
 everywhere ; and in elevated districts, are often the 
 sole subsistence of the inhabitants. Horticulture is 
 carried to great perfection ; and the orchards of 
 Bohemia, A. Proper, Tyrol, the Italian provinces, 
 and many parts of Hungary, produce a profusioii (A 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 fruit. Great quantities of cider are made in Upper 
 A. and Carinthia, and of plum-lirandy in Slavonia. 
 In the Italian provinoea and Dahnatia, oranges 
 and lemons are produced, but not sufficient for the 
 rec[mrements of the country ; twice as much olive-oil 
 is miported as is raised in the monarchy. 
 
 In the production of wine, A. is second oply 
 to France. With the exception of GaUcia, Silesia, 
 and Upper Austria, the vine is cultivated in all the 
 provinces ; but Hungary stands first, yielding not 
 only the finest quality of wine, but four-fifths the 
 amoimt of the whole produce of the empire. - The 
 average produce of the whole empire is estimated at 
 about 680 miUiou gallons, which is mostly oon- 
 Biuned by the inhabitants themselves. 
 
 Of plants used in manufactures and commerce, 
 the first place is held by flax and hemp. Flax 
 is cultivated almost universally; white hemp in 
 Galicia, Italy, Moravia, Hungary, &o. Tobacco is 
 raised in great quantities, especially in Hungary, 
 which also is first in the cultivation of rape-seed. 
 Bohemia raises hops of the first quality, which are 
 partly exported; though other provinces require 
 to import from abroad. The indigo plant has been 
 lately successfully acclimatised in Dalmatia. More 
 than a third of the productive surface is covered 
 with wood (75,000 square nules), which, besides 
 timber, yields a number of secondary products, as 
 tar, potash, charcoal, bark, cork, &c. 
 
 As to animals, bears are found in the Carpathians, 
 Alps, and Dalmatia ; wolves, jackals, and lynxes in 
 these same districts, and also in the Banat, Croatia, 
 Slavonia, and the Military Frontiers. The marmot, 
 otter, and beaver, are also found in Dalmatia. 
 Game has of late sensibly diminished. The wild 
 goat lives in the highest, the chamois and white 
 Alpine hare in the middle regions of the Alps and 
 Carpathians. More productive than the chase are 
 the fisheries of the Danube, Theiss, and munerous 
 streams, lakes, and ponds. The chief sea-fishing is 
 in Dalmatia. The oysters of Venice are famous. 
 Leeches, procured chiefly in Hungary and Moravia, 
 form an article of considerable trade. For foreign 
 commerce, the most important branch of rural 
 industry is the rearing of silk. A. produces more 
 sUk cocoons than any other European state, at least 
 half a million cwt. yearly; of which 252,000 cwt. 
 fall to Lombardy, 19,500 to Venice, and 32,000 to 
 
 The breeding of domestic animals has not yet 
 advanced to what the home wants require. In some 
 districts, it is excellent; in others, quite neglected. 
 Horse-breeding is promoted by what are called 
 ' mili tary studs.' Besides a number of imperial studs, 
 .there are a great many private establishments, 
 especially in Sungary, for the same purpose. The 
 supply of black-cattle is not equal to the demand; 
 
 freat numbers are furnished by Hungary and Galicia. 
 he breeding of sheep, like that of Tiorses, has been 
 a special object of care to the government. The 
 finer wools are furnished by Moravia, Bohemia, 
 Silesia, Lower Austria, and great part of Hungary 
 and Galicia. The great mass is, however, composed 
 of what is known as middling and inferior sorts. 
 Goats are reared chiefly in Dalmatia, and swine in 
 Hungary. In 1851, the number of horses in the 
 monarchy was stated at 3,229,884 (not including 
 75,000 belonging to the army); cattle, 10,410,484; 
 sheep, 16,801,545; goats^ 2,275,900; and swine, 
 7,401,300. Nearly three-fourths of the population 
 are engaged in husbandry, so that A. is decidedly 
 an agricultural state, though its capabilities in this 
 respect have by no means been fuUy developed. 
 
 The population is very unequally distributed. 
 The most populous districts are those of the south- 
 west and of the north-west. The Alpine regions 
 
 and those of the Carpathians are the sparsest ; and 
 generally the density diminishes towards the east. 
 The extremes oocm- in Lombardy, with 364 inha- 
 bitants to the square mUe, and Salzburg, with 
 56. In 1851 were enumerated 864 cities, 2355 
 market-towns, 64,883 villages, 5,297,946 dwelling- 
 houses, and 8,218,597 families. The population of 
 Austria embraces a greater number of races, distinct 
 in origin and language, than that of any other 
 European country except Russia. The proportions 
 in this respect can only be given from the official 
 statements of 1851. The Slaves are the most numer- 
 ous race, amounting to 14,802,71, or about 41f per 
 cent, of the whole population in 1851. They form 
 the bulk of the population of Bohemia, Moravia, 
 Carniola, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, the MUitary 
 Frontiers, the Woiwodina, the north of Hungary, 
 and Gahcia. They are, however, split up into a 
 number of peoples or tribes, differing greatly in 
 language, religion, culture, and manners ; so that 
 then: seeming preponderance in the empire is thus 
 lost. The cmef branches of the Slavic stem are the 
 northern Czechs (the most numerous of all), Euth- 
 enes, and Poles, and the southern Slowens, Croats, 
 Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans numbered 
 7,870,719, or about 22 per cent. They are dispersed 
 over the empire, but predominate most in the duchy 
 of A., Salzburg, Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, the west 
 of Hungary, &c. The Romanic peoples (speaking 
 languages derived from that of ancient Rome) 
 amounted to 8,051,906, or 22 J per cent., and are 
 divided into western and eastern. To the first, the 
 Germans. give the general name of Welsoh. They 
 consist of Italians (5 nulhons), inhabiting the Lorn- 
 bardo- Venetian kingdom, the south of T^rol, Istria, 
 and Dalmatia; theLadins (Latins), occupying some^ 
 vaUeys in Tyrol; and the Friauls about Gortz, north 
 of Trieste. The eastern Romans are the Valaks or 
 WaUachians, styled by themselves Rumuni, who 
 are found in. Transylvania, Hungary, the Woiwo- 
 dina, Bukowina, and Military Frontiers. The 
 Magyars, or Hungarians proper, numbered 4,866,55ft 
 (13| per cent.) : they are located chiefly in. 
 Hungary and Transylvania; also in the Woiwo- 
 dina, and a few in Croatia and Slavonia. The- 
 small remaining portion are composed chiefly of 
 Jews, Armenians, and Bohemians, or gipsies; the 
 first numbering 706,657 ; the second, 15,996 ; and 
 the last, 83,769. 
 
 As to rdigion, the great bulk of the nation ia 
 Roman CathoHc. In 1851, there were 25,509,62& 
 Roman Catholics ; of Greeks in union with the 
 Church of Rome, there were 3,505,668 ; not in imion, 
 2,751,846. The Protestants of all denominations, 
 numbered 3,130,176; and the Jewish persuasion, 
 claimed 853,304. The Church of Rome has 15 arch- 
 bishoprics, and 76 bishoprics; and in 1851, there 
 was an army of 40,516 secular priests. At the 
 accession of Joseph II,, there were 2024 convents; 
 but at the end of the French war (1816), they had. 
 been reduced to 800. Since then, they have begun 
 to increase, and in 1849, there were 959. 
 
 Education, since 1849, is under the care of a, 
 minister of Public Worship and Instruction. As 
 compared with other Gerinan states, the education 
 of A. presents some peculiarities. There is a greater 
 prevalence of establishments where the pupils both 
 live and receive instruction ; also of schools for 
 special callings. Instruction, again, whether high or 
 low, is mostly gratuitous, or of trifling cost, being, 
 provided from general or local pubHc funds. An- 
 other pecxiKarity is the sway of the clergy, both in. 
 schools and universities. The primary schools are 
 entirely in their hands. The Jesuits, banished in- 
 1848, have been allowed to return, and have had 
 their schools restored. The number of elementary 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 scliools haa increased greatly in recent times ; 
 Ilvmgary is still backward in this respect. In 1851, 
 there were (not counting Hungary) 44,669 element- 
 ary scliools, having 57,987 teachers, and educating 
 3,435,978 children. There are 9 universities, 139 
 establishments for giving instruction in theology (of 
 which 121 were Roman Catholic), 7 technical insti- 
 tutes, and 7 surgical schools. There are also a large 
 number of establishments where the pupils are 
 received young, and educated and trained for special 
 professions ; for the army and navy, for the counting- 
 house, for the mine and the farm, as accoucheurs, &c. 
 There are besides a large number of institutes, &c., for 
 the promotion of science and art. The total number 
 of educational establishments in the Austrian empire 
 (excluding Hungary) in 1851 was 45,604, and the num- 
 ber educated 3,543,560. The fruits of this extensive 
 educational system are not what might be expected, 
 in consequence of the priestly and monarchical re- 
 strictions which hedge it round. The chief libraries 
 are, the Imperial and University libraries of Vienna, 
 the Ambrosian Library at Milan, that of St Mark 
 at Venice, &c. In 1853, there were in the whole 
 monarchy 249 newspapers and other periodical 
 prints ; of which only 77 were political. Fully the 
 half were in German ; but the whole are fettered by 
 conditions which render them quite worthless as 
 organs of public opinion. 
 
 The manufacluring industry of A. is not yet 
 adequately developed. The annual value of its 
 manufactures — ^not including small trades— is esti- 
 mated at 1000 — 1200 million florins, while that 
 of its husbandry may reach 3000 million. Bohemia 
 takes the lead in this industry; then follow Lom- 
 bardy, Austria Proper, Moravia and Silesia, Venice, 
 Hungary, &c. Vienna is the chief seat of manufac- 
 ture for articles of luxury ; Milan, Venice, and other 
 Italian cities for siUc stujffs; Moravia, Silesia, and 
 Bohemia for linen, woollen, and glass wares; 
 Styria and Carinthia for iron and steel wares. 
 The chief manufactured articles of export are those 
 of silk and wool; the only others of consequence 
 are linen, twist, glass-wares, and cotton goods. 
 The yearly value of manufactured iron is about 
 54 minion florins. The glass wares of Bohemia are 
 of: special excellence. The hemp and flax industry 
 is one of' the oldest and stiU most important. 
 The value of the raw materials is estimated at 62 
 million florins ; of the manufactured articles, at 
 130 million. WooUen goods are stated at 106 
 million. No branch of industry has risen more 
 rapidly than that of cotton. In 1850, it gave employ- 
 ment .to 400,000 persons, producing goods to the 
 value of 80 miUion florins, deducting 20 million as 
 the cost of the raw material. The quantity of cotton 
 worked up was five times what it had been in 1831. 
 The aimual value of the silk industry is estimated at 
 60 million florins. The manufacture of tobacco is a 
 state monopoly, and brings a revenue of 26 million 
 florins. 
 
 In respect of commerce, A. is most imfavourably 
 situated. High mountains oppose great obstacles on 
 all hands to communication, and separate the pro- 
 ducing districts from the only sea that touches the 
 empire ; while the chief navigable rivers, except the 
 Po, have their mouths in other countries. Much has 
 been done to remedy these obstacles. Since 1809, a 
 length of 19,000 miles of highways has been made. 
 The great Alpine roads over the Stelvio Pass, the 
 Splugen, and the Semering (q. v.), are among the 
 most remarkable constructions of our times. The 
 first railway opened in A. extends from Linz on the 
 Danube north to Budweis on the Moldau, and south to 
 WeEs and Gmunden. It is worked by horse-power. 
 The state, in 1841, resolved to undertake the con- 
 struction of railways, and since then a great extent 
 570 
 
 has been laid down. In 1858, 2086 miles of railway 
 were opened for traflic. The principal lines are from 
 Vienna to Gratz, from Gr'Stz to Cilly, thence to 
 Trieste ; from Vienna to Stockerau, and thence to 
 Briick ; and from Vienna to Briinn, thence to 
 Olmiitz and Prague. In Hungary, the chief lines 
 are from Pesth to Szolnok, and from Pesth to 
 Presburg, vid, Waitzen, thence to Tyrnau. In the 
 Italian provinces, again, there is a line from Venice 
 to Milan, and from Milan to Como. 
 
 River-communication received a great impulse 
 from the introduction of steam. By means of the 
 Danube Steam-company, formed in 1850, and a 
 second company (1852) confined to tug-navigation, 
 passengers and goods are now conveyed ' on the 
 Danube between Uhn and Galatz, and on to Coii- 
 stantinople. In 1854, the Austrian Danube Steam- 
 company had 83 steamers plying on the Danube, 
 the receipts from conveyance of goods being in that 
 year nearly 7 million florins. Tms traffic would be 
 vastly greater were the Lower Danube freed from 
 the in&ience of Russia. On the Po, the Lloyd 
 Company has now a large number of steamers and 
 tugs plying. 
 
 A great number of the political impediments to 
 commerce have been removed or dimmished. The 
 customs-boundary that separated Hungary and the 
 adjoining provinces from the rest of the empire, was 
 done away in 1851, so that the whole is included in 
 one customs-district, with the exception of Dalmatia, 
 which still forms a small district by itself. The 
 tolls that , obstructed the navigation of the Elbe, 
 Danube, and Po, have also been removed by means 
 of conventions with the states through which they 
 pass. By the new tariff, which came into partial 
 ojjeration in 1852, A. has passed from a prombitive 
 to a protective system. No article is admitted duty- 
 free ; but absolute prohibition is confined to articles 
 of state monopoly (salt, powder, and tobacco). Goods 
 for mere transit or transhipment pay no duty. 
 But the foreign commerce of A. is nothing compared 
 with that between the different provinces. The 
 great centre of this internal commerce is Vienna; 
 other important markets are Linz, Prague, Lemberg, 
 Brody, Pesth, Gratz, Milan, Verona, &c. The fol- 
 lowing table gives a comparative view of the foreign 
 trade of A., exclusive of Dalmatia, at difierent 
 periods : 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 Florins. Cloiins. 
 
 1831, . 
 
 69,000,000 
 
 79,500,000 
 
 1847, . 
 
 . 134,000,000 
 
 116,000,000 
 
 1850, . 
 
 158,955,431 
 
 104,847,458 
 
 1852, . 
 
 . 199,361,761 
 
 186,490,312 
 
 1855, . 
 
 236,464,912 
 
 232,508,707 
 231,018,109 
 
 1857, . 
 
 . 281,932,922 
 
 In 1857, the imports of Dalmatia were valued at 
 7,460,574, and the exports at 4,661,836 florins ; so 
 that the total value of the imports of the whole 
 Austrian empire ia 1857 was 289,393,496 florins 
 (£28,939,349), and of exports, 235,679,945 florins 
 (£23,567,994). The value of the transit merchandise 
 was, in 1857, including Dalmatia, 162,661,783 florins. 
 
 In her 1200 miles of sea-coast, A. has 121 har- 
 bours. The chief of these are, on the coast of Venice 
 — ^Venice and Chioggia; of Istria — Trieste, Rovigno, 
 Pirano, Citta Nuova, &o. ; of Croatia — Fiume, 
 Bucoari, Novi; of Dalmatia— Zara, Spalatro, Ragusa, 
 Cattaro, Curzola, &c. The merchant marine in 
 1857 consisted of 9590 vessels, of which 61 were 
 steamers, with a tonnage of 376,239. 
 
 As to form of government, A. is a monarchy here- 
 ditary in the House of Hapsburg-Lothringen. In 
 the case of the reigning family dymg out, the states 
 of Bohemia and of Hungary have the right of 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 Aooarng a new king; but for the other orown-landa, 
 the last sovereign appoints his own successor. The 
 reignmg House must profess the Eoman CathoHc 
 faith. 
 
 ™i?*8 Hungary and Transylvania had a 
 constitution hmiting the monarchy, which was 
 absolute for the rest of the empire ; though the 
 several provmces had each its consultative council 
 composed of clergy, nobles, and burghers. Since the 
 Eevolution of 1848, and the subsequent reaction, all 
 marks of mdependenoe of the separate provinces 
 have disappeared, and A. now forms one whole. 
 The imperial constitution granted {octroyirte) March 
 4, 1849, as weU as the provincial constitutions that 
 followed, have been aboUshed, and government has 
 been organised in the most absolute form by the 
 imperial ' patent ' or charter of December 31, 1851. 
 The patent guarantees to every religious body reoog- 
 nised by law protection in the observance of public 
 ordinances, in the management of its own affairs, 
 and in the possession of buildings and funds for the 
 purpose of worship and instruction. The relation of 
 the Roman Catholic Church to the state has been 
 put upon a new footing. It is no longer under 
 the oversight of the secular authority, the place- 
 turn regium and church-patronage are abolished, 
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction for discipline, and the 
 independent administration of church-property, are 
 conceded, and the intercourse of bishops and of all 
 Catholics with Rome left free. The clergy have no 
 longer to submit to examination or tests on the part 
 of the state ; they are nominated by the state, but 
 only with the concurrence of the bishops ; and with- 
 out that concurrence they cannot be deprived of 
 their office. Along with aU this, they have obtained 
 an overwhelming influence over education, even in 
 the universities ; and by the concordat signed in the 
 early part of 1856, this influence has been very 
 greatly increased. The patent further guarantees 
 the equality in the eye of the law of aU citizens, 
 irrespective of nation, rank, or religion, and the 
 liberation of the land from all serfdom. Subsequent 
 patents (e.g., for Hungary, Croatia, &c., in 1853) have 
 regulated the claims between existing proprietors 
 and their vassals, and determined the indenmities 
 due to the former for their seignorial rights. 
 
 The administration of the empire is divided at 
 present among six ministries — ^Foreign Aflaors ; Inte- 
 rior ; Worship and Instruction ; Finaiices ; Justice ; 
 Trade; Industry; and PubHc Works. In the coun- 
 cil of ministers, one, named by the emperor, has 
 the office of president. The collective ministiy is 
 merely the executive organ of the emperor, and 
 responsible to him alone ; its function is to discuss 
 measures, legislative and administrative, and ooimter- 
 sigu the imperial decrees. There has existed also 
 since 1852 a supreme police board, independent of 
 the minister of the interior, and imder the imme- 
 diate direction of the emperor. Co-ordinate with 
 the ministry, and without communication with it, 
 is the Council of the Empire, consisting of notables 
 of independent position named by the emperor, and 
 entitled Actual Privy Councillors. They are con- 
 sidered the personal advisers of the 'emperor, are 
 presided over by him, or by one of themselves, and 
 consult on such questions of legislation as the 
 emperor sees fit to lay before them. 
 
 At the head of the provincial administrations 
 stand in some cases military and civil governors, in 
 others, presidents, &c., and under these, whole hosts of 
 officials in gradation. Whatever local elective bodies 
 exist, have no real authority, but are completely 
 subordinate to the bureaucracy. The Austrians 
 have good grounds for the complaint, common 
 througuout Grermany, that they get too much govern- 
 ment; nor is it worth while to describe minutely 
 
 institutions that may be suspended, altered, or 
 annulled at the caprice of the rulers. 
 
 In the administration of justice, publicity is 
 not allowed. In 1852, the practice of flogging 
 the accused while under examination was again 
 introduced, as a corrective punishment, in case of 
 contempt of court or other refractory behaviour. 
 
 Finance. — The protracted wars of the first 15 years 
 of the 19th c. had so exhausted the resources of A., 
 and shattered her credit, that paper-money, after 
 being already twice reduced, had agam sunk to 25 per 
 cent, of its nominal value ; and even 5 per cent, loans 
 could only be obtained at a sacrifice of sometimes 
 more than 50 per cent. During the 30 years that 
 followed the war, much was done to restore the 
 state credit, and 4 per cent, state paper was bought 
 at par. The revolution of 1848 brought new diffi- 
 culties, from which the finances had not recovered, 
 wh^n the Crimean war increased the expenditure, 
 and the Italian war must have added to it enor- 
 mously. The f oUovfing table shews the revenue and 
 expenditure of A. during the ten years from 1847 to 
 1857: 
 
 Receipts. Expendltnre. Deficiency. 
 
 MiUionBofFIorisB. Olillioni of Florlni. Millioni of Flolliu. 
 
 1847, 
 
 . 162 
 
 209 
 
 47 
 
 1848, 
 
 . 122 
 
 187 
 
 65 
 
 1849, 
 
 . 144 
 
 289 
 
 145 
 
 1850, 
 
 . 191 
 
 268 
 
 77 
 
 1851, 
 
 . 217 
 
 289 
 
 72 
 
 1852, 
 
 . 226 
 
 279 
 
 53 
 
 1853, 
 
 . 237 
 
 293 
 
 56 
 
 1854, 
 
 . 245 
 
 386 
 
 141 
 
 1855, 
 
 . 263 
 
 402 
 
 139 
 
 1856, 
 
 . 273 
 
 335 
 
 62 
 
 1857, 
 
 . 298 
 
 340 
 
 42 
 
 The national debt in 1856 amounted to 2417 
 million florins (£241 million). In 1818 it was only 
 £50 million. 
 
 The army of A., as already incidentally mentioned, 
 amounts, even in peace, to more than 400,000 men, 
 including upwards of 60,000 cavalry and 1200 pieces 
 of artOlery. In the war in Lombardy (1859),= the 
 Austrian army is said to have been increased to 
 something like a miUion of men. The navy, in 1858, 
 numbered in all 135 vessels, carrying 852 guns, and 
 maimed by 8707 men. Of these, 1 was a steam line- 
 of -battle ship, of 800 horse-power, carrying 91 guns ; 
 7 frigates, of which 3 were steam-vessels, carried 260 
 guns ; the rest consisted of corvettes (2 of which had 
 steam), brigs, &o.; and 13 steamers, with 43 guna. 
 A. has also a flotilla on the Lower Danube, and 
 another on Lake Garda, and a third called the 
 Flotilla of the Lagunes. 
 
 Siatory* — The nucleus around which this great 
 empire has grown was that part of the Archduchy of 
 A. that lies below the Ens. In the age of Charle- 
 magne, about 800, the defence of the south-eastern 
 frontier of Germany against Asiatic hordes gave rise 
 here to a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark 
 or boundary of the empire, or Ostreich (Austria), 
 the eastern government; which, being united in 1156 
 to the country above the Ens, was raised to a duchy. 
 After coming, in 1282, into the possession of the House 
 of Hapsburg (q. v.), it rapidly rose to a powerful 
 state. The princes of that House extended their 
 dominion by marriage, purchase, and otherwise, over 
 a number of other states, and from 1438 held almost 
 uninterruptedly the throne of the German empire. 
 By the acquisition (1526 and 1527) of the crowns of 
 Bohemia and Hungary, the House of A. rose to the 
 rank of a European monarchy. In 1804, Francis 
 
 •,As the history of A. and its rulers involves, for many 
 centuries, the main strand of the thread of European history, 
 it is eiven at somewhat more than the usual length. 
 
 571 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 declared himself hereditary Emperor of A., and, two 
 years afterwards, laid down the title of Emperor of 
 Germany and King of the Romans. 
 
 In the earliest times, what is now the Duchy of A. 
 was inhabited by the Taurisci, a Celtic people ; but 
 their name subsequently disappeared before that of 
 the Noiici. After the conquest of the Norioi by the 
 Romans (14 B.C.), the coimtry to the north of the 
 Danube belonged to the kingdom of the Maroomanni 
 (q. V.) ; on the south of the river lay the Roman pro- 
 vinces of Norioum and Pannonia, in which last was 
 the municipal city of Vindobona (Vienna). Tyrol 
 formed part of Risetia. All these boundaries were 
 swept away by the irruption of the northern peoples ; 
 and the regions in question were occupied in suc- 
 cession, during the 5th and 6th centuries, by Boii, 
 Vandals, Goths, Huns, Lombards, and Avari. After 
 the Lombards had settled in Italy, the Ens came, 
 about 568, to be the boundary between a tribe of 
 German origin and the Avari, a people who had 
 penetrated thither froin the east. The Avari having, 
 in 788, crossed the Ens, and fallen upon Bavaria, 
 then part of the Prankish empire, Charlemagne 
 drove them back (796) as far as the Raab, and united 
 the district from the Ens to that river with Germany, 
 under the name of the East Mark, Marohia Orientalis, 
 or Austria. He sent colonists, mostly Bavarians, 
 into the new province, and appointed over it a 
 margrave. It came into the possession of the 
 Hungarians in 900, but was reconquered by Otto I. 
 in 955, and reunited with Germany. 
 
 As margrave of the reconquered province, the 
 emperor, in 983, appointed Leopold of Babeniierg 
 (q. v.), whose dynasty ruled A. for 260 years. IJnder 
 Henry Jasomirgott( 1141 — 1177), the Mark above the 
 Ens was annexed to the Lower Mark, the united 
 province raised to a duchy, and important privileges 
 conferred on the newly named duke and his heirs. 
 This Henry Jasomirgott took part in the second 
 crusade ; he also removed the ducal residence from 
 Leopoldaberg to Vienna, now first called a city, and 
 began the building of the cathedral of St Stephen. 
 Under his successors, numerous additions (Styria, 
 Carniola) were made to the possessions of the House. 
 Leopold VI. undertook numerous expeditions against 
 the Hungarians and the infidels, and is reckoned the 
 best of the Babenberg princes. The Hue became 
 extinct with his' successor, Frederic, who fell in battle 
 with the Magyars (1246). 
 
 Then followed an interregnum from 1246 to 1282. 
 The Emperor Frederic II. at first treated the duchy 
 as a lapsed fief of the empire ; shortly, claims were 
 set up by Count Hermann of Bavaria, who was 
 married to a niece of the deceased margrave, 
 Frederic ; and when Hermann died, and the empire 
 was distracted by the contests between rival 
 emperors, the 'States' of A. and Styria chose 
 Ottokar, son of the Bohemian king, as duke, who 
 made good his nomination about 1260. Ottokar, 
 refusing to acknowledge RudoK of Hapsburg as em- 
 peror, was defeated, and lost his life and possessions, 
 in the battle of Marchfeld (1278) ; and the emperor 
 shortly afterwards (1282) conferred the duchies of 
 A., Styria, and Carinthia on his son Albrecht. 
 
 The accession of the Hapsburg dynasty with 
 Albrecht I. (q. v.) was the foundation of A.'s subse- 
 quent greatness. The despotic Albrecht contended 
 successfully with Hungarians and Bavarians, but 
 while attempting to subdue the Swiss, he was mur- 
 dered near Bhemfelden (1308) by his nephew, John 
 of Swabia, whom he had deprived of his hereditary 
 possessions. Of his five sons, Frederic was chosen 
 (1314) by a party to the imperial throne, but was de- 
 feated (1322) by his rival, Ludwig of Bavaria. Duke 
 Leopold was defeated at Morgarten (1315) in his 
 attempt to reduce the Swiss cantons that had thrown 
 
 off their allegiance to Albrecht I. At last, by the 
 death of all nis brothers, Albrecht II. reunited the 
 Austrian possessions, increased by various additions. 
 After his deatK (1358), two sons, Rudolf and Albrecht 
 III., successively followed in the Duchy of Austria. 
 Another son, Leopold, held the other lands, but lost 
 his He at Sempaoh, in seeking to regain the Haps- 
 burg possessions in Switzerland. The posterity of 
 Albert and Leopold formed the two lines of A. and 
 Styria. During Albrecht III.'s reign, Tyrol and 
 other districts were ceded to Austria. After his 
 death (1395), the dukedom was held by his son, 
 Albrecht IV. Albrecht V., who succeeded his father 
 in 1404, by marrying the daughter of the FJmperor 
 Sigismund, succeeded (1438) to the thrones of Hun- 
 gary and Bohemia, and was at the same time raised 
 to the dignity of German Emperor, as Albrecht IL 
 With his death, in 1439, Bohemia and Hungary were 
 for a time lost to the House of A., as were also, after 
 a bloody struggle, the last of the family possessions 
 in Switzerland. But the imperial dignity was hence- 
 forth uninterruptedly held by them. With Ladislaw, 
 Albrecht's son, the Austrian line of the House closed 
 (1457), and their possessions went to the Styrian 
 line. Of this line was the Emperor Frederic III., 
 who raised the dignity of his House by making A. 
 an archduchy. After the death of Ladislaw and of 
 his own brother, Albrecht, Frederic came into the 
 luidivided possession of the archduchy (1464). 
 
 His son, Maximilian I., by marrying Maria, 
 daughter of Charles the Bold, acquired (1477) the 
 Netherlands. Becoming emperor on the death of 
 his father (1493), he ceded the government of the 
 Netherlands to his son Philip. Under Maximilian, 
 Tyrol fell again to the chief branch of the House of 
 A., several districts were acquired from Bavaria, 
 and fresh claims were established on Hungary and. 
 Bohemia. The court of Vienna began to be the seat 
 of German art and science. The marriage of the 
 emperor's son Philip with Johanna of Spain set the 
 House of Hapsburg on the throne of Spain and the 
 Indies. Philip died in 1506 ; and on the death of 
 Maximilian I., in 1519, PhUip's son, Charles I. of 
 Spain, was elected German emperor as Charles V. 
 (q. v.). Charles resigned by treaty all the German, 
 possessions, except the Netherlands, to his brother, 
 Ferdinand I. (q. v.). 
 
 Ferdinand I. had married the sister of Lewis II» 
 of Hungary ; and on the death of the latter in the 
 battle of Mohacz (1526), he claimed the kingdoms of 
 Hungary and Bohemia, along with Moravia, Silesia, 
 and Lausatia. His claim was contested by John. 
 Zapolya, who secured the aid of Sultan Soliman 
 II. ; and Ferdinand, after contests extending 
 over twenty years, had finally to pay an annual 
 tribute of 30,000 ducats to Soliman for possession 
 of Lower Hungary. Ferdinand was also fain to 
 surrender Wurtemberg to Duke Ulrich (1534), on 
 condition of its rfeverting to A. on the death of the- 
 male Tine. Nevertheless, the possessions of the- 
 House of A. (in the German line) were at this time 
 already of the extent of . 110,000 square miles. 
 On the abdication of Charles V. (1556), Ferdinand 
 succeeded to the imperial dignity ; he died 1564, 
 with the reputation of a good ruler, though he was 
 strongly conservative of everything estabhshed, and 
 introduced the Jesuits. 
 
 In the partition of the inheritance tliat took place 
 among his three sons, the eldest, Maximilian II.> 
 received the imperial crown along with A., Hungary, 
 and Bohemia ; the second, Ferdinand, Tyrol and 
 Upper A. ; the third, Karl, Styria, Carinthia, &c. 
 Maximilian was more fortunate in Hungary than his: 
 father. The death of Soliman before Szigeth (1566) 
 led to a truce ; he got his eldest son, Rudolf, cVowned 
 king of Hungary in 1572, and shortly after, of 
 
ATJSTRIA. 
 
 Bohemia, and also chosen king of Home. But his 
 attempt to bring the orown of Poland into his House 
 failed. Maximilian H. was fond of peace, tolerant 
 in religion, and a just ruler. He died 1576 ; and of 
 liis five sons, the eldest, Kudolf II., became emperor. 
 Under him, the possessions of "the Archduke Ferdi- 
 nand of Tyrol, who had married Philippine Welser 
 (q. v.), the beautifid daughter of an Augsburg 
 burgher, reverted to the other two lines, Ferdinand's 
 children not being considered noble. Rudolf II. 
 adhered to the old feudal usages, and was a 
 negligent sovereign, leaving everything to his 
 ministers and the Jesuits. His war with the Porte 
 and Transylvania brought him little credit ; and the 
 Protestants of Bohemia, oppressed by the Jesuits, 
 «xtorted from him a charter of religious liberty. At 
 last he was obliged, in 1608, to cede Hungary, and, 
 in 1611, Bohemia and A, to his brother Matthias 
 (q. v.). Matthias, who became emperor in 1612, 
 concluded a 20 years' peace with the Turks, and 
 ceded (1617 and 1618) Bohemia and Hungary to his 
 cousin Ferdinand, son of the Archduke Karl of 
 Styria, third son of Maximilian II. Matthias Uved 
 to see the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (q. v.), 
 and died March 20, 1619. 
 
 Bohemia refused to acknowledge his successor, 
 Ferdinand II. (q.v.), to whom all the Austrian 
 possessions had agaih reverted, and chose the 
 Elector Palatine, Frederic V., the head of the 
 Protestant union, as king. The States of A. and 
 the Hungarians were also refractory. But the 
 battle of Prague (1620) subjected Bohemia to Ferdi- 
 nand ; who formally set about rooting out Protes- 
 tantism in that country and in Moravia, annulled 
 their right of electing their king, and the patent of 
 lehgious freedom granted them by Kudolf II., and 
 set up a Catholic reformation tribunal which drove 
 thousands into exile. The emperor also succeeded 
 in extorting acknowledgment of hi^ sovereignty 
 from the States of A., among which Protestantism 
 predominated ; after which Protestantism was 
 rigorously prohibited. Hungary also was at last 
 compelled to yield, which had revolted under the 
 Prince of. Transylvania. But this religious war 
 and persecution cost the House of A. the hfe-blood 
 of its possessions. Of 732 cities in Bohemia, only 
 130 were left ; of 30,700 villages, only 6000 ; of 
 3 million inhabitants, only 780,000. Under Ferdi- 
 nand's successor, the Emperor Ferdinand III. (1637 
 — 1657), A. continued to be a theatre of war ; and 
 at the peace of Westphalia (1648), had to cede Alsace 
 to France. Ferdinand III.'s son and successor, 
 Leopold I., provoked the Hungarians to rebellion by 
 his severity. Tekeli (q. v.) received aid from the 
 Porte, and Kara Mustapha besieged Vienna (1683) ; 
 which was rescued only by an army of Poles and 
 Germans under John Sobieski hastening to its assist- 
 ance. The emperor's generals now reduced the 
 whole of Hungary, which was declared a hereditary 
 kingdom in the male line (1687). PrincejEugene 
 compelled the Porte (1699) to restore the country 
 between the Danube and Theiss, and, in 1718, to 
 cede other important provinces to Hungary. The 
 struggle between Leopold and Lotiis XIv!of France 
 ior the heirship to the king of Spain, led to the war of 
 the Spanish Succession (q.v.), during which Leopold 
 died, May 5, 1705. He was of sluggish phlegmatic 
 character, and wholly under the influence of the 
 Jesuits. 
 
 His eldest son and successor, the enlightened 
 Joseph I. (q. v.), continued the war. He died child- 
 less, April 17, 1711, and was succeeded by his 
 brother, Karl VI. The peace of Utrecht concluded 
 under his reign (1713) secured to A. the Netherlands, 
 Milan, Mantua, Naples, and Sicily. The monarchy 
 now embraced 190,000 square miles, with 29 million 
 
 inhabitants, and had a revenue of 14 million florins, 
 with an army of 130,000 men. Its strength, however, 
 was soon much exhausted by fresh wars with 
 France and Spain. At the peace of Vienna (1737), 
 Karl VI. had to give up Naples and Sicily to Don 
 Carlos of Spain, and part of MUan to the king of 
 Sardinia ; receiving only Parma and Piacenza 
 instead. He also lost at the peace of Belgrade 
 (1739) nearly aU the fruits of Eugene's conquests, 
 giving back to the Porte Belgrade, Servia, and the 
 parts of WaUachia and Bosnia that had belonged to 
 Austria. The emperor conceded all these points 
 with the view of securing adhesion to the Prag- 
 matic Sanction (q. v.), which conferred the succession 
 on his daughter, Maria Theresa. 
 
 With his death (October 20, 1740), the male line 
 of the Hapsburgs was extinct, and Maria Theresa, 
 who was married to Franz Stephan, Duke of Lor- 
 raine, assumed the government. But counter-claims 
 were raised on all sides, and a violent war arose, in 
 which England alone sided with Maria. Frederic 
 II. of Prussia conquered Silesia. The Elector of 
 Bavaria took the title of Archduke of A, was 
 crowned king of Bohemia at Linz and Prague, and 
 elected emperor as Karl VII. (1742). The Hunga- 
 rians alone stood by their heroic queen ; who, at the 
 peace of Breslau (1742) was forced to yield Silesia 
 to Prussia. Frederic renewed the war by coming 
 to the assistance of the emperor; but Karl dying 
 (1745), Maria Theresa's husband was elected Ger- 
 man emperor as Franz I. A second treaty of 
 peace (1745) secured Silesia anew to Prussia ; and at 
 the peace of Aix-la-chapelle (1748), A. had to cede 
 Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to Don Philip of 
 Spain, and several districts of Milan to Sardinia. 
 These sacrifices secured the existence of the Austrian 
 monarchy; but Maria Theresa wished to recover 
 Silesia, and with this view, entered into alliance with 
 France, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden ; but after a 
 bloody Seven Years' War (q. Vi), Prussia retained 
 Silesia, and A. had spent her blood and treasure in 
 vain. At this time, paper-money first appeared in 
 A., , under the name of state-bonds. At Franz's 
 death (1765), his son, Joseph II., became German 
 emperor, and joint-regent with his mother of the 
 hereditary states. Collateral branches of the House 
 of A. were planted by the younger sons of Maria 
 Theresa, the Archduke Leopold in Tuscany, and the 
 Archduke Ferdinand, who married the heiress of 
 Este (see Modbna). In the first partition of Poland 
 (1772), A. acquired GaUcia and Lodomeria, and the 
 Bukowiua was ceded by the Porte in 1777. At the 
 death of the empress in 1780, the monarchy had an 
 extent of 234,000 square' nJiles, with a pop. of 24 
 millions, and a debt of 160 milhon florins. The 
 administration of Maria Theresa was distinguished 
 by unwonted unity and vigour, both in home and 
 foreign relations. 
 
 Her successor, Joseph II., was an active reformer 
 in the spirit of the enlightened despotism of the 
 times ; though often rMh and violent in his mode of 
 proceeding. He introduced economy into every 
 department, remodelled the censorship of the press, 
 granted hberties and rights to Protestants, abolished 
 900 convents, and revised the school-system. His 
 protective' system of duties, though ejdiibiting hia 
 narrowness as a statesman, gave a start to native 
 manufactures. But his reforming zeal and passion 
 for uniformity excited opposition; the Netherlands 
 rose in insurrection, and other disturbances broke 
 out, which hastened his end (1790). He was suc- 
 ceeded in the government by his brother, the Grand 
 Duke of Tuscany — as German emperor, Leopold II. 
 — who succeeded in pacifying the Netherlands and 
 Hungary. Peace was concluded with Prussia and 
 Turkey (1790). The fate of his sister, Marie 
 
 573 
 
AUSTRIA. 
 
 Antoinette, and her husband, Louis XVI., led Leopold 
 to an alliance with Prussia; but he died (March 1, 
 1792) before the war with !Prauce broke out. The 
 war was declared by EYauoe on his son Franz II., the 
 same year (see France). By the treaty of Campo 
 Formio (q. v.), 1797, A. lost Lombardy and the Nether- 
 lands, receiving in lieu the Venetian territory ; two 
 years later, at the second partition of Poland, it was 
 augmented by West G-alicia. Franz, in alliance with 
 Russia, renewed the war with France in 1799, which 
 was ended by the peace of LuneviUe. It is needless 
 to foUow all the alteratioils of boundary that the 
 Austrian dominions underwent during these wars. 
 The most serious was at the peace of Vienna (1809), 
 which cost A 42,000 square miles of territory, and 
 11 minion florins of her revenue. It was in 1804, when 
 Napoleon had been proclaimed Emperor of France, 
 that Franz declared himself hereditary Emperor of 
 Austria, uniting all his dominions in one empire. 
 On the establishment of the Confederation of the 
 Rhine, he laid down the dignity of German emperor, 
 which his family had held for nearly five hundred 
 years, and now took the title of Franz I., Emperor 
 of Austria. 
 
 The hunuliating peace of Vienna was followed 
 (1809) by the manriage of Napoleon with the Arch- 
 duchess Maria Louisa; and in March 1812, Napoleon 
 and Franz entered into alliance against Russia. But 
 when the Pussian campaign of 1812 had broken 
 the power of the French emperor, his father-in-law 
 declared war on him (August 1813), and joined the 
 alliance of England, Russia, Prussia, and Sweden. 
 The active part which the Emperor Franz now took 
 in the downian of Napoleon, his consenting to the 
 banishment of his son-in-law to Elba, and the 
 firmness with which he signed the declaration of 
 outlawry against him on his return to France, and 
 contributed to his final overthrow, thus deciding the 
 fortunes of his own daughter and her son — all 
 furnished grounds of claim to that full indemnity for 
 her losses which A. obtained at the close of the 
 war. In the remodelling of the map of Europe that 
 took "place at the Congress of Vienna (1815), 32,000 
 square miles were added to the 253,000 possessed by 
 A. after the last partition of Poland, besides the 
 advantages she gained in point of compactness, and 
 facilities for trade, especially by the acquisition of 
 Venice and Dalmatia. Ferdinand, the emperor's 
 uncle, was also restored to the grand duchy of 
 Tuscany, of which he had been dispossessed by 
 Napoleon. 
 
 Since that time, A has exerted a powerful influ- 
 ence in European politics generally, and more 
 especially in the German Confederation; and that 
 influence has been uniformly hostile to constitution- 
 alism (see Metteenich). When the Polish revolu- 
 tion broke out, a strict neutrality was assumed ; but 
 a Polish corps that was driven into the Austrian 
 territories, was disarmed, and sent into Himgary, 
 while a Russian division that had taken refuge on 
 Austriaa soil, was let go, and equipped with the 
 Polish weapons. 
 
 The death of Franz I. (March 2, 1832) made little 
 alteration in the policy of A. ; Ferdinand I. trod in 
 his father's footsteps. The political alliance with 
 Kussia and Prussia was drawn closer by a personal 
 conference of the emperor with Nicolas I. and 
 Frederic William III at Teplitz, October 1833. 
 The wonted cahn was interrupted in 1840 by the 
 war against Ibrahim Pacha in Syria, in which A. 
 took part in union with England. An attempt at 
 insurrection in Italy in 1844 was a complete failure. 
 
 But raider this long-continued peace and super- 
 ficial cahn, the internal condition of the empire was 
 coming to a crisis. The stifling bureaucratic system 
 of government and police supervision, had produced 
 671 
 
 only irritation and discontent, and was powerless to 
 compress the fermentation. The opposition in the 
 several nationalities became stronger and stronger, 
 and the tactics of playing these nationalities off 
 against one another, no longer succeeded. The 
 Polish insurrection, which led to the incorporation 
 of Cracow with the monarchy (November 1846), had 
 turned into a frightful rising of the peasantry in 
 GaUcia against the nobles. This enabled the govern- 
 ment to overpower the political rising ; but ' the 
 success only increased the danger of the crisis, by 
 encouraging it to proceed in the old reckless way. 
 In the meantime the opposition to Austrian rule iu 
 Italy, Hungary, and Bohemia, was becoming uncon- 
 trollable, and even the states of Lower Austria 
 insisted on some control in the management of the 
 state. The revolutionary movement was already in 
 full swing in Italy, when the fall of Louis-Philippe 
 (February 24, 1848) shook Eiu-ope to its foundations. 
 A host of petitions and addresses was followed, 
 March 13, by a popular movement in Vienna, to 
 which the government and military, after a feeble 
 resistance, succumbed. Mettemich resigned, the 
 arming of the citizens and freedom of the press were 
 granted, and the emperor promised to convoke a 
 consultative assembly from aU parts of the empire. 
 At the same time, the opposition in Hungary had 
 carried their demand for an independent ministry 
 responsible to the national diet, and the emperor 
 was not in a position to withstand it. The 22d of 
 March saw the insurrection break out at Milan, and 
 Kadetzky, the military commander, forced to retire 
 on Verona. Venice rose at the same time, and 
 drove out the Austrians. 
 
 While the revolution was thus victorious in the 
 provinces, the central authority was in a state of 
 dissolution. The authority passed into the hands of 
 the national guards and the students' legion (the 
 Aula). A rismg of the people (May 15), in support 
 of the Central Committee, formed from the national 
 guards, which the government had attempted to 
 dissolve, compelled its continuance, and also a 
 revision of the electoral law, so as to convert the 
 new diet into a constituent assembly. These pro- 
 ceedings led to the flight of the court to Innsbruck 
 (May 17). An unsuccessful attempt of the govern- 
 ment to break the power of the ' Aula,' resulted in 
 the appointment of a Committee of Safety, to whose 
 influence the government had to submit. A Slavic 
 insurrection broke out in Prague after Easter, which 
 was repressed with bloody severity by Prince 
 Windisidigratz. While the emperor was thus linger- 
 ing at Innsbruck, leaving Vienna in the power of 
 the populace, and the Hungarians were pursuing an 
 independent course, it was in Italy that the powet 
 of A began to recover itself. 
 
 Eadetzky had at first been reduced to the main- 
 taining of a defensive position at Verona, against 
 Charles Albert of Sardinia, who had declared war 
 on A. at the outbreak of the revolution, and the 
 forces that came to his aid from Tuscany, Eome, 
 and Naples ; and the foreign polioy of A. was in 
 such a state of discouragement, that negotiations 
 were entered into under the mediation of Great 
 Britain, offering the Lombards independence ou 
 moderate conditions. But in June, liadetzky took 
 up the offensive, reduced in succession Vicenza, 
 Padua, and other cities, and then turning against 
 the chief Sardinian force, defeated it at Custozza 
 (25th July), and drove it from the field. The fruits 
 of the victory were the dissolution of Chaales 
 Albert's army, and a truce which again delivered 
 Lombardy to Austria. 
 
 In the meantime, the government at Vienna was 
 more powerless than ever. The emperor remained 
 at Innsbruck, and the constituent diet was opened, 
 
AUSTRIA, 
 
 July 22, by the Archduke John, as his representa- 
 tive. But a new crisis was ripening in Hungary. 
 The Croats, under their Ban, Jellaohioh (q.. v.), 
 opposed the predominance of the Magyars, and 
 refused obedience to the Hungarian government, 
 which, under the Batthyanyi-Kossuth ministry, was 
 pursuing a policy almost independent of Austria. 
 JeUachich's resistance was officially condemned by 
 the emperor, and he was threatened with deposition; 
 but, as subsequently appeared, his conduct was 
 secretly approved by the court. The Archduke 
 Palatine, Stephen, now left Himgary, after a last 
 attempt at conciliation ; and the emperor, who had 
 returned to Vienna after repeated invitations, named 
 Count Lamberg commissioner, with the supreme 
 command in Hungary. Lamberg, however, was 
 murdered on the bridge of Pesth (September 28). 
 The Himgarian parliament was now dissolved, and 
 the command given to JeUachich. But the parlia- 
 ment continued its Sittings, and appointed Kossuth 
 president of the committee of defence. When the 
 imperial troops now began to march against Hungary, 
 a mghtful insurrection broke out in Vienna (October 
 6), which was attributed to Hungarian instigation. 
 The arsenal was stormed, and the war-minister, 
 Latour, murdered; the court fled to Olmtitz, a 
 committee of safety was appointed, the armed 
 populace organised, and the Polish general, Bern, 
 put at the head of nulitary affairs ; while the diet 
 wavered between loyalty and revolution. In the 
 meantime, the military forces had withdrawn, and 
 joined JeUachich, in order to prevent the Hungarians 
 coming to the aid of the Viennese. WindisSigratz 
 now approached with an army, and declared Vienna 
 in a state of siege. The attack began on the 23d 
 of October, and alter a resistance of 8 days, Vienna 
 surrendered. 
 
 Severe measures were then taken ; ' and a number 
 of leaders, among others, Robert Blum (q. v.), were 
 condemned and shot. The diet now met at Kremsir, 
 and a new ministry was formed, into which Prince 
 Schwarzenberg, Count Stadion, Bach, Bruok, and 
 others entered. But the vigorous policy thought to 
 be necessary for the restoration, and advocated by 
 the Archduchess Sophia, was not responded to by 
 the easy nature of Ferdinand I. Accordingly, the 
 emperor abdicated, December 2, as did ^so the 
 Archduke Franz Karl, and the latter's son, Franz 
 Joseph (q. v.), "was declared emperor. 
 
 In winter, Windisohgratz entered Hungary, and 
 began the Hungarian war. After the eiicounters 
 at Kaab and B^olna, Ofen was besieged (January 
 1849), and the^Hvmgarians retired beyond the Theiss, 
 and had time to organise themselves under such able 
 leaders as Gorgei and Klapka, and to prepare for 
 the struggle of the following summer. ■ 
 
 In the meantime, important events took place 
 elsewhere. In March (21 — 23), Eadetzky made his 
 rapid and decisive campaign, which, by the victory 
 of Novara, led to the abdication of Charles Albert, 
 and an indemnification for war expenses from 
 Sardinia of 15 nullion lire. With the siurender of 
 Venice, which took place in August, the subjugation 
 of Italy was complete. 
 
 At Kremsir, the diet proving intractable, was 
 dissolved, March 4, 1849 ; and a constitution was 
 granted {octroyirt), with two elective chambers, 
 responsible ministers, and other constitutional pro- 
 visions. In the National Assembly at Frankfurt, 
 A. opposed the project of a confederated state under 
 the leadership of Prussia, and managed to thwart 
 the conferring of the empire of Germany on the 
 Prussian king (March 1849). 
 
 In Hungaiy, the Magyars, though the Germans 
 and Slaves within the countiy itself were hostile to 
 them, began the campaign with decided success. 
 
 Bem conquered Transylvania in spite of Russian aid; 
 and the rest of the Hungarian army advancing 
 westward in spring, were successful against the 
 imperial forces at Szolnok and Waitzeu. vVindisch- 
 gratz was replaced in the command by Welden, but 
 the imperial cause was not improved. Kossuth's 
 hopes rising, he proclaimed the deposition of Hiie 
 House of Hapsburg, and virtually made Hungary a 
 republic. By May, Pesth and Ofen were again in 
 the hands of the Magyars ; and although General 
 Welden was recalled, and the command given to 
 Haynau, there was little prospect of success against 
 the Magyars, if a treaty with the czar had not 
 brought the aid of a Russian army under Paske- 
 witsch. The, Austrians still suffered several reverses, 
 and the Hungarians performed splendid feats of 
 arms, such as GBrgei's victory at Waitzen, and 
 Klapka's saUy from Komom; but from June, the 
 war on the whole began to be more favourable to 
 A., whose forces were weU managed by Haynau and 
 JeUachich; and the intervention of the Russians 
 brought an irresistible weight of numbers against 
 the Magyars. After the affairs of Szegedin and 
 Debreczm, Haynau's engagements on l£e Theiss, 
 and the raising of the siege of Teu^eswar, it was in 
 vain that Kossuth transferred the dictatorship to 
 Gorgei. .Gorgei, whether from treachery, as the 
 other Magyar leaders maintain, or from necessity, as 
 he himself avers, laid down his arms to the Russians 
 at VUagos (August 13). The surrender of Komom, 
 in September, courpleted the subjugation of Hungary, 
 which was treated as a conquered country, and the 
 officers taken in Arad were dealt with by Haynau 
 with a blood-thirsty rigour. 
 
 A. was now free to attend to politics, internal 
 and external, and the spirit of the restoration 
 soon shewed itseU. One important fruit of the 
 revolution has been retained — the liberation of the 
 soU from the burdens and trammels of feudalism. 
 All other liberal concessions very soon disappeared. 
 For a time, the forms of the constitution of March 
 1849 were retained; biit the rigorous military 
 government and the surveiUance exercised Over the 
 press, shewed the tendency of things. The funda- 
 mental principles of the constitution turned out to 
 the profit only of the Catholic Church, which 
 gofrid of the placetum regium. In the beginning 
 of 1851, SchmerUng and Bruck, the liberal dement 
 of the ministry, retired; and in August appeared 
 a number of imperial decrees rendering the minis- 
 ters accountable to the emperor alone. At lal^t, 
 January 1, 1852, it was announced that the con- 
 stitution and the fundamental rights were abolished, 
 trial by jury set aside, the old press law revived, 
 &c. This was foUowed by still greater concessions 
 of influence to the clergy. The emperor did not 
 conceal his predilection for absolute military govern- 
 ment. All this was not effected without manifesta- 
 tions of discontent. The flres of revolution were 
 still smouldering in Hungary and Italy; and in 
 Lombardy, though still under strict mflitary law, a 
 tumult broke out, February 1853, in which a number 
 of officers and soldiers were stabbed. The finances, 
 too, notwithstanding vigorous measures for improv- 
 ing the material resources of the country, contmued 
 in a bad state, so that incessant loans were required 
 to cover the current deficit. 
 
 On the confused arena of German politics, the 
 struggle for ascendency was kept up between A. 
 and Prussia. In October 1850, the two powers were 
 armed and ready to come to blows; but the bold 
 and determined pohcy of Schwartzenberg prevailed, 
 and Prussia gave way. The points in dispute it 
 might be difficult for any but a German to under- 
 stand, even if it were worth ti-ying. See GBRUAfrr, 
 Hesse-Cassel. The result was that Prussia's 
 
 S7S 
 
AUTEITIL— AUTO DA FE. 
 
 Bcheme of a imion was given up, and also A.'s 
 admission with all her territories into the German 
 Confederation ; and since 1851, the old diet has been 
 restored. Since the death of Schwartzenberg, the 
 foreign polioy of A. has been more conciliatory, and 
 her interference in German affairs less dictatorial. 
 Prussia and A. have, since December 1852, been 
 more friendly, on the whole, though the late war in 
 Italy gave rise to considerable 2l-feeling between 
 the two powers. In February 1853, a commercial 
 treaty was concluded, which is of the utmost con- 
 sequence to the prosperity of A., as removing a 
 great part of the obstructions to her commerce with 
 the rest of Germany. 
 
 In 1853, a difference took place between A. and 
 Turkey, which formed, as it were, a prelude to the 
 war in the Crimea. In the quarrel between the 
 Montenegrines and the Porte, A. took the part of 
 the Montenegrines; she had also complaints as to 
 the infringement of rights possessed by her on 
 the Adriatic coast, and regarding the treatment of 
 Christians in Turkey. The threatening mission of 
 Count Leiningen, February 1853, procured redress 
 of these grievances. As if following up this move- 
 ment, Russia came forward as the special protector 
 of the Greek Christians of the Ottoman empire, and 
 made demands on the Porte which were held iacon- 
 sistent with his sovereign rights. It was the interest 
 of A., as well as of the rest of Europe, to maintain 
 the iategrity of the Ottoman empire; but although 
 she united with England and France in endeavour- 
 ing to settle the question by negotiation, when the 
 war broke out, her peculiar relations to Kussia led 
 her to remain neutral during the contest. 
 
 The conduct of A. in Italy, especially since 1849, 
 has been such as to make that country ' a standing 
 menace to Europe.' The government of A. in that 
 portion of Italy of which she obtained possession by 
 the treaty of 1815, was far from satisfactory; but 
 what was chiefly complained of by the other powers 
 was her interference in the affairs of the independent 
 states of the peninsula. By means of secret treaties 
 (copies of wMch were laid before the British Houses 
 of Parliament this year, 1859), A. obtained a most 
 undue influence in Parma, Tuscany, Modena, the 
 States of the Church, and in the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies. That influence was of course exercised in 
 the interests of despotism, and in opposition to the 
 welfare of the people, whose wishes their rulers, 
 backed by Austrian troops, were enabled to set at 
 defiance. The position of A. in Italy was canvassed at 
 the meetings which followed the signing of the treaty 
 of peace at Paris in 1856, but nothing resulted from 
 the discussions. Sardinia seeing herself gradually 
 environed by, and afraid to fall a victim to the 
 prevailing Austrianism, after all remonstrances of 
 a peaceful kind had failed, began to arm. A. 
 demanded her immediate disarmament, on pain of 
 war; but Sardinia, whose army was swelled vidth 
 volunteers from every part of the peninsula, and 
 who had previously entered into a treaty, offensive 
 and defensive, with France, refused. A accordingly 
 commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino on the 
 29th of April 1859. On the 3d May, France, as the 
 ally of Sardinia, formally declared war against A. ; 
 but in anticipation of what was to follow, she had 
 several days before despatched troops into Pied- 
 mont. The Austrian troops were beaten in every 
 engagement that followed, and so effectually, that 
 on the 6th July, the emperor, who latterly had 
 taken the chief command of his army, was fain to 
 conclude an armistice with the Emperor Napoleon, 
 who also commanded in person. On the 12th of the 
 same month, the two potentates met at VUlafranca, 
 and agreed to come to terms of peace, the chief 
 conditions of which were to be the cession of 
 676 
 
 Lombardy to Sardinia, while Venetia was stiU 
 retained by Austria. The formal treaty was con- 
 cluded at Zurich in October. See Italy, LoMBAitpT, 
 &c. Since the war, A has made some rather im- 
 portant concessions to popular rights in her own 
 empire. 
 
 AUTBTJIL, a village with 5734 iniabitants, at 
 the entrance of the Bois de Boulogne, about three 
 miles from Paris, but enclosed within the forti- 
 fications of the city, is known as the residence of 
 famous literary men. Here Uved BoUeau, Molifere — 
 whom Aadrieux introduced in his Moliere avec 
 ses Amis, ou le Souper d, Avteuil^anA the gifted 
 widow of Helvetius, whose parties even Bonaparte 
 often frequented in 1798 and 1799. This lady was 
 buried in her own garden at AuteuH. In the church, 
 is a monument of the Chancellor d'Aguesseau. 
 
 AUTHE'ISTTIO (Gr.) is a term applied to any 
 writing or document, the contents of which may be 
 depended upon for their truth or accuracy. It is 
 frequently employed as synonymous with genuine, 
 though a distinction has been drawn, especially by 
 bibHoal critics, between the two words. Authenticity, 
 it is said, refers to the statements made by an 
 author ; genuineness, to the authorship itself. Thus, 
 we speak of a History of England as A., when the 
 narrative is admitted to be. correct ; and we say of 
 such and such a gospel or epistle that it is genuine, 
 when we are convinced that it is the composition of 
 the writer to whom it is attributed. See Bishop 
 Watson's Apology for the Bible, and Dean Trench's 
 Study of Words. This distinction, however, appears 
 to be artificial rather than real ; that is to say, it 
 does not inhere in the original signification of the 
 words. 
 
 ATJ'TO, entering into many compound scientific 
 terms of Greek extraction, is the Greek pronoun self. 
 In some compounds, it denotes the agent or subject, 
 as in auiocrai, automaton, autonomy; in others, the 
 object, as in autobiography, aviocritic, autodidadic ; 
 in others, again, a mere reference to the subject, as 
 in aviiochilmnous. This variation in the grammatical 
 relation of A. sometimes occasions ambiguity in the 
 meaning of the compound. Thus, autograph means 
 both a machine that vrrites of itself, and also a 
 writing done with the person's own hand; autocracy, 
 both ttie mastery over one's self, and the sole rule 
 or absolute authority over a people or state. 
 
 AUTO'CRACY (Gr. self-mastery, or sole mastery) 
 signifies that form of government in which the 
 sovereign unites in himself the legislative and the 
 executive powers of the state, and thus rules uncon- 
 trolled. Such a sovereign is therefore called an 
 autocrat. Nearly all eastern governments are of this 
 form. Among European rulers, the Emperor of 
 Russia alone bears the title of Autocrat, thus signi- 
 fying his constitutional absoluteness. — Kant used the 
 word A., in philosophy, to denote the mastery of 
 the reason over the rebellious propensities. 
 
 AXJ'TO DA P^ (Port. Act of Faith) was the 
 name given to the procession or ceremony that 
 used to take place ra Spain and Portugal at the 
 execution of heretics condemned to death by the 
 inquisition. It was generally held on a Sunday 
 between Whitsunday and Advent, very often on 
 All-saints Day. At dawn, the dismal tolling of the 
 great bell of the high church gave the signal to 
 begin the drama of the day; for as such it was 
 looked upon by the people, who thronged to it in 
 troops, believing that they did a good work ia 
 merely looking on. Men of the highest rank 
 reckoned it prudent to give their countenance to 
 the 'holy' tribunal at these processions, and even 
 grandees of Castile did not disdain to make them- 
 selves familiars of the inquisition. The procession 
 
ATJTOGEAPH— AUTOMATON. 
 
 was led by the Dominioans, carrying the flag of the 
 inquisition; next followed the penitents, on whom 
 only penance had been laid; behind them, and 
 separated by a great cross which was borne before, 
 came those condemned to death — barefoot, clad in 
 the sanbenito, and with a pointed cap on the head ; 
 then, efiSgies of the fugitives ; and lastly, the bones 
 of dead culprits, in black coffins painted with flames 
 and hellish symbols. The frightful train was closed 
 by the army of priests and monks. The procession 
 went through the principal streets to the church, 
 where, after a sermon on the true faith, the sentence 
 was announced. In the meantime, the accused stood 
 before a crucifix with extinguished torches in their 
 hands. After the sentence had been read to them, an 
 officer of the inquisition gave eaohi of the condemned 
 a blow on the breast with his hand, as a sign that 
 they were given over by that tribunal to the secular 
 power ; on which a secular officer took them in 
 charge, had them fettered, and taken to prison. A 
 few hours afterwards, they were brought to the 
 place of execution. If they yet, at the last, made 
 profession of the CathoKo faith, they were so far 
 favoured as to be first strangled ; otherwise,^ they 
 were burned alive, and with them the effigies and 
 bones of the fugitive and dead culprits. As a rule, 
 the king, aJong with his whole court, had to exalt 
 by his presence the solemnity of the horrid transac- 
 tion. The most splendid Auto da K took place at 
 Madrid, imder Charles II., in 1680; the last was 
 held as recently as towards the middle of last 
 century. 
 
 ATJ'TOGEAPH (Gr.) is a term applied to what is 
 written with the person's own hand, and not by an 
 amanuensis. In relation to manuscripts, it is used 
 in opposition to a copy. The coUeotion of autographs 
 has, especially in recent times, become an object of 
 eager pursuit, and consequently they form a branch 
 of literary trade. Their value is detemnned by the 
 interest felt in the writer, the scarcity of such relics 
 of him, and the contents of the writing. Besides 
 portraits of famous persons, we wish, particularly in 
 the case of distinguished contemporanes, to possess 
 a specimen of their handwriting, or at least their 
 signature, as the peculiarity of the style — the 
 physiognomy of the handwriting — completes our 
 knowledge of their personality. Lithography is 
 particularly serviceable iu this matter, not only by 
 supplj-ing fac-simHes for biographical and historical 
 works and for portraits, but also by multiplying 
 impressions of collected autographs, such as have 
 appeared in England by Smith, in Holland by 
 Kathan, and in Germany by Dorow. But deserving 
 mention before all others are the Isographie des 
 Bommes GlUbrea (3 vols. Par. 1828—1830), to which 
 
 Signature of Eichard III. (Eioardus Eex). 
 From the Paston Letters. 
 
 a supplement appeared in 1 839 ; and the Aviographm- 
 Prcu^lbwm zur 200 jarigen Oedachtmissfeier des 
 Wes§ulischen, FriedensscMusses (fol. Leip. 1848). We 
 possess an uninterrupted succession of the royal 
 autographs of England from King Richard II. down- 
 war<5'. Eac-similes are to be found in Aidographs 
 ofSoyal, Noble, Learned, and RemarhaUe Person- 
 ages, Conspicuous in English History, from the Reign 
 of Richard II. to that of ^Charles II., by John Gough 
 Nichols (fol. Lond. 1829). The preface to the work 
 contains some interesting notices. 
 
 AUTO'LYCUS, a Greek astronomer and mathe- 
 matician of Pitane in jEolia, about 330 B.C., wrote 
 on the Efivolving Sphere, and on the Eising and 
 Setting of the Fixed Stars. Both works, printed 
 in Dasypodius's Propositiones Doctrince Sphericm 
 (Strasb. 1572), contain, for the most part, only such 
 propositions of spherical astronomy as can be solved 
 by means of a globe ; and, instead of presupposing 
 the knowledge of spherical trigonometry, they seem 
 rather to prove that A. himself was unacquainted 
 with it. 
 
 AtJTO'MATOIir is derived from two Greek words 
 signifying self-movement, and is usually applied to 
 machinery constructed to represent human or animal 
 actions. The construction of automata has occupied 
 the attention of mankind from very early ages. 
 Archytas of Tarentiun is reported, so long ago as 400 
 B.C., to have made a pigeon that could fly. Albertus 
 Magnus and Eoger Bacon, in the 13th c, are said— 
 but there is some dubiety about the matter — to have 
 made respectively a porter to open the door, and a 
 speaking' head ; while Eegiomontanus, in the 15th c.,, 
 is declared to have been successful iu imparting life- 
 like motion to a fly. In France, in the beginning 
 of the 18th c, many persons busied themselves in 
 the construction of automata ; and among other 
 tilings, a pantomime, in five acts, was represented by 
 actors moved by machinery. An automatic carriage 
 group, made by M. Camus for the amusement of 
 Louis XIV., is stated to have been very perfect ; but 
 it is doubtful whether it was so complete as it is 
 represented to have been. The most perfect A. 
 about which there is absolute certainty, was one 
 constructed by M. Vaucanson, and exhibited in 
 Paris in 1738. It represented a flute-player, which 
 placed its lips against the instrument, and produced 
 the notes with its fingers iu precisely the same man- 
 ner as a human being does. In 1741, M. Vaucanson 
 made a flageolet-player, who with one hand beat a 
 tambourine ; and in the same year he produced a 
 duck. This was a most ingenious contrivance, the 
 mechanical duck being made to conduct itself iu 
 every respect hke its animated pattern. It swam, 
 dived, ate, drank, dressed its wings, &c., as naturally 
 as its live companions ; and, most wonderful of all, 
 by means of a solution in the stomach, it was actu- 
 ally made to digest its food! Maelzel made a 
 trumpeter, which, about 1809, was exhibited in 
 Vienna, and played the Austrian and French cavalry 
 marches with much skfll. An A., produced by M. 
 Droz, drew likenesses of public characters ; and, some 
 years ago, Mr Faber contrived a figure, exhibited in 
 various places, Edinburgh among others, which, by 
 means of certain keys, was made to articiilate simple 
 words and sentences very intelligibly, but the effect 
 was not pleasant. The inventor first mentally divided 
 the word or sentence into its distinct sovmds — as a 
 phonographer would do in writing — and having 
 determined the sounds, pressed one after the other 
 the keys which admitted the air into the various 
 compartments containing the mechanism constructed 
 to imitate them. The chess-player of Kempelen was 
 long regarded as the most wonderful of automata. 
 It represented a Turk of the natural size, dressed in 
 the national costume, and seated behind a box 
 resembling a chest of drawers in shape. Before the 
 game commenced, the artist opened several doors iu 
 the chest, which revealed a large number of pulleys, 
 wheels, cylinders, springs, &c. The chessmen were 
 produced from a long drawer, as was also a cushion 
 for the figure to rest its arm upon. The A. not being 
 able to speak, signified when the queen of his anta- 
 gonist was in danger by two nods, and when the 
 king was in check by three. The A. succeeded iu 
 beating most of the players with whom it engaged ; 
 but it turned out afterwards that a crippled Kussian 
 
AUTONOMY— AVA- 
 
 officer — a very celebrated chess-player — was con- 
 cealed in the interior of the figure. The figure is 
 said to have been constructed for the purpose of 
 effecting the officer's escape out of Russia, where 
 his life was forfeited. So far as the mental process 
 was concerned, the chess-player was not, therefore, 
 an A. ; but great ingenuity was evinced in its move- 
 ment of the pieces (see Chamheris Journal, vol. 
 xii., p. 66). In 1845, Mr John Clark of Bridge- 
 water exhibited an A. Latin Versifier, which he 
 himself described as a practical illustration of the 
 law of evolution. ' The machine,' he said, ' contains 
 letters in alphabetical arrangement ; out of these, 
 through the medium of numbers, rendered tatOgible 
 by being expressed by indentures on wheel- work, the 
 instrument selects such as are requisite to form the 
 verse conceived ; the components of words suited to 
 form hexameters being alone previously calculated, 
 the harmonious combination of which will be found 
 to be practically interminable.' An automatic group, 
 consisting of a child, monkey, hare, and goat, was 
 exhibiteain this country in 1856, the motions of the 
 animals being very perfect. M. Houdin, the cele- 
 brated conjuror, is ilie inventor of some striking 
 automata. Automata have also been constructed to 
 play on the piano, and to set up type. The latter 
 are very ingenious machines, but hitherto they have 
 not been successful enough to warrant their general 
 introduction. They are, however, in use in some 
 printing-offices in London. One practical difficulty 
 they have not yet overcome, is tiie spacing out of 
 the lines ; that has to be done by the human hand. 
 See Hutton's MathemcUicaZ BeareaMons; Memoirs of 
 Robert Houdin. Lond. 1859. Chapman and Hall. 
 
 AUTCNOMY (Gr. sdf-legislaMon) is the arrange- 
 ment by which the citizens of a state manage their 
 own legislation and government ; and this evidently 
 may, with certain restrictions, be ■the case also within 
 limited bodies of the same people, such as parishes, 
 corporations, religious sects. The term A. is used to 
 designate the characteristic of the pohtical condition 
 of ancient Greece, where every city or town com- 
 munity claimed the .right of independent sovereign 
 action. The idea of two or more town commimities 
 sinking their individual independence, and forming 
 the larger aggregate unity which we understand by 
 a state, seems to have been intolerable to the Greek 
 mind. 
 
 ATJTTJ]Sr (Bibracte, Augustodunum), a town in 
 France, department of the Sa&ne-et-Loire, in 
 the Burgundian district of Autunois. Pop. 9348. 
 It is situated on the river Arroux, is the seat of a 
 bishop, and has a fine cathedral. Cloth, carpets, 
 leather, stockings, and paper are manufactured in 
 the place. — ^The ancient Bibracte was the chief city 
 of the .^dui, and had a much frequented Druid 
 school; and at a later period, imder the Komans, 
 when it got the name of Augustodunum, it was no 
 less famous for its school of rhetoric. A. was 
 piUaged by the Saracens in 725, and nearly destroyed 
 by the Normans in 888. There stiU exist at A. many 
 ruins of Koman temples, gates, triumphal arches, and 
 other antiquities. At the Council of A (1094), King 
 Philip I. was excommunicated for divorcing his 
 queen. Bertha. 
 
 AUVERGNE, a southern central district of 
 Prance, was before the revolution a separate pro- 
 vince, composing almost exclusively the modem 
 departments of Cantal and Puy-de-Ddme. Between 
 the Allier and the upper course of the Dordogne 
 and the Lot, A rises into a highland region, having 
 Bourbonnais, Limousin, and Bouergue, as terraces 
 of descent into the western platas, while on the east 
 it joins the Cevemnes and the southern highlands. 
 Not only do the cone and dome-like shapes of the 
 S78 
 
 summits betray a volcanic formation, but also the 
 great masses of basalt and trachyte that break 
 through the crust of granite and gneiss, render it 
 probahle that this was a chief focus of plutonio 
 action. Among the summits that have apparently 
 been at one time volcanoes, the most remarkable 
 are Cantal (6093), Mont-d'Or (6188), Puy-de-D6me 
 (4806), and Pariou; the latter, adjoining Puy-de- 
 D6me, is basin-shaped on the top, and one of the 
 finesj specimens of an ancient and extinct volcano : 
 all are now covered with verdure. A. falls naturally 
 into two divisions — Upper A., to the south, and 
 Lower A., to the north ; in which last the valley of 
 Limagne, on the left bank of the Allier, is distin- 
 guished for extraordinary fertility. The chmate is 
 colder in the mountainous districts than the southern 
 position, with a less elevation, would lead us to 
 expect, and is remarkable for furious winds and 
 violent thunder-storms ; but in the deep valleys the 
 heat of summer is often oppressive. The lava- 
 covered plateaus are desert, but the pulverised 
 volcanic earths that cover the slopes and valleys 
 form a rich and fruitful soil, as is shewn by the 
 crops of grain, garden produce, fine fruits, wine, 
 abundance of chestnuts in the south, and of walnuts 
 in the north, as well as by extensive thriving forests, 
 along with flax and hemp fields and meadow-lands, 
 in, the poorer districts. Agriculture is in a rather 
 neglected condition ; but the breeding of cattle, 
 especially of mules, is weU managed. A. produces 
 iron, lead, copper, antimony, and coal, and is rich 
 in mineral springs. 
 
 The Auvergnese are a highland people, rude in 
 their manners, poor, igncwant, at the same time 
 honest and Idnd, though not free from the propen- 
 sity to revenge. They five by cattle-keeping and 
 agriculture, and by going to Paris as labourers. 
 Domestic manufactures, merefore, remain confined 
 to weaving, tanning, and paper-makuig. A. has, 
 however, produced distinguished men. It was the 
 native place of statesmen and warriors of the 15th 
 and 16th centuries ; and also of the Amauld (q- v.) 
 family, so distinguished in the history of Port 
 Royal and of Jansenism. In more recent times, 
 Lafayette and Polignac may be named. Chief towns, 
 Clermont and AunUac (q. v.). The country derived 
 its name from the Averni, who long defended their 
 fastnesses against Caesar, as later against the Goths, 
 Burgundians, and Franks, with whom they at last 
 coalesced. 
 
 AUXI'LIAEY SCREW. See Sckbw-propellbk. 
 
 AUXI'LIABY VERBS. See Verbs, Conjuga- 
 tion'. 
 
 A'VA, in 1819 made the capital of the Burman 
 empire (which it had been twice before, in 1364 
 and 1761), is. situated in lat. 21° 51' N., and 
 long. 95° 58' E. It stands on a well-watered and 
 fertile plain, on the south-east bank of the river 
 Irawaddy, here about 4000 feet broad. The riv*, 
 at this point, receives two affluents, and these 
 being joined by a canal, the whole city is rendered 
 circumnavigable. The name is a corruption, made 
 by the Hindus and Malays, of Aen^a or Aen-ua, 
 meaning fish-pond, given it from bemg built where 
 there were formerly seven fish-ponds, of which 
 five still remain; but ia. native official documents, 
 the name of Batnapura, or the City of Pearls, is 
 used. The city, which is or was 5 J miles in cir- 
 cumference, is surrounded by a wall 15 feet high, 
 and 10 feet thick, with a bank of earth on SLe 
 inside, and a ditch on the outside, and has 21 
 gates. Pop. in 1826, 30,000, but now much less, on 
 account of the seat of government having been trans- 
 ferred to Monchobo Ster the earthquake of 1839, 
 which destroyed nearly all the important buildings. 
 
AVA— AVEBURY. 
 
 A'VA, ABVA, YAVA, or KAVA {Macropiper 
 methyaticum), a plant of the natural order Piperacecs 
 (q .v.), possessing narcotic properties. Until recently, 
 it was ranked in the genus Piper (Pepper). It is a 
 shrubby plant, with heart-shaped, acuminate leaves, 
 and very short, solitary, axillary spikes of flowers. 
 It is a native of many of the South-sea islands, 
 where the inhabitants intoxicate themselves with 
 a fermented liquor prepared from its root or (more 
 accurately) rhizome. The rhizome is thick, woody, 
 rugged, and aromatic. A tincture of it is useful in 
 chronic rheumatisms. The intoxicating liquor is 
 prepared by macerating it in water. The savage 
 TaJttitians were accustomed to prepare it in a very 
 odious manner ; much as the Indians of the Andes 
 prepare Chica or Maize beer — chewing tte root, 
 depositing it in a bowl, straining through cocoa-nut 
 husk, and mixing with water or cocoa-nut milk, after 
 which fermentation speedily ensues. The taste is 
 unpleasant to those unaccustomed to it, and has been 
 likei^ed to that of rhubarb and magnesia. The 
 intoxication is not like, that produced by ardent 
 spirits, but rather a stupefaction like that caused 
 by opium. It is succeeded by a copious perspira- 
 tion. The habitual use of ava causes a whitish 
 scurf on the skin, which, among the heathen 
 Tahitians, was reckoned a badge of nobility, the 
 common people not having the means of indul- 
 gence requisite to produce it. — The leaf of the ava 
 plant is in some places used with the betel-nut, 
 instead of that of the betel-pepper. 
 
 A'VALANCHES are masses of snow or ice that 
 aUde or roll down the declivities of high mountains, 
 and often occasion great devastation. They have 
 various names, according to their nature. Drift or 
 ■powder avalanches {Stavb Lavineti) consist of sno-w, 
 which, loose and dry from strong frost, once set in 
 motion by the wind, accumulates in its descent, and 
 comes suddenly into the valley in an overwhelming 
 dust-cloud. A. of tills kind occtu? chiefly in winter, 
 and are dangerous on account of their suddenness, 
 sufibcating men and animals, and overturning 
 houses by the compression of the air which they 
 cause. Another kind of avalanche resembles a land- 
 slip. When the snow begins to melt in spring, the 
 soU beneath becomes loose and sUppery; and the 
 snow slides down the declivity by its own weight, 
 carrying with it soU, trees, and rocks. The great- 
 est danger is where, elevated tracts of moderate 
 declivity are separated from the valleys by precijpi- 
 tous waUs of rock; the softened snow of sprmg 
 beginning to roD or slide on these slopes, is hurled 
 over the precipices with fearful force into the valleys. 
 The very wind caused prostrates forests and houses. 
 Ice A are those that are seen and heard in sum- 
 mer thundering down the steeps, e. g., of the Jungf rau. 
 They consist of masses of ice that detach themselves 
 from the glaciers in the upper regions. They are 
 most common in July, August, and September. 
 
 AVA'S'TURXSTB, a variety of quartz, remarkable 
 for the briUiancy with which it reflects hght, which 
 is supposed to result from small particles of mica 
 enclosed in it. It is of a yellow, red, or brown colour. 
 It is used in jewelleiy, but is not so much valued as 
 amethyst or Cairngorm stone. It is found in India, 
 Spain, and Scotland. 
 
 AVA'KI, a tribe of eastern origin, made their 
 appearance 100 years later than the Bulgarians, 
 in the countries about the Don, the Caspian 
 Sea, and the Volga. One part of them remained 
 at the Caucasus, another part pressed forward 
 (about 555 A.D.) to the Danube, and settled in 
 Dacia. Here they served in Justinian's ariny, 
 and assisted the Lombards to overturn the king- 
 dom of the Gepidsa; and, about the end of the 
 
 6th u., under the mighty Khan Bajan, they con- 
 quered Pannonia. Later, they made themselves 
 masters of Dalmatia; made devastating incursions 
 into Germany, as far as Thuringia; and into Italy, 
 where they warred with the Pranks and Lombards, 
 and extended their dominion over the Slaves living 
 on, and northwards from, the Danube, as well as 
 over the Bulgarians as far as the Black Sea. These 
 nations at last rose against tkem, and, in 640 A.D., 
 drove them out of Dalmatia. Confined to Pannonia, 
 they were subdued by Charlemagne, and weU-ni^ 
 extirpated by the Moravians, so that, after 827, 
 they disappear from history. They usually sur- 
 rounded their settlements with fortifications of 
 stakes driven into the ground, and earth, of which 
 traces, under the name of Avarian Kings, are yet 
 found ia the countries formerly occupied by them. 
 The results of the most recent criticism shew that, in 
 all probability, the A. belonged to the same great 
 Turanian stock as the Huns, and that their original 
 residence was the land lying east of the Tob<3, in 
 Siberia. 
 
 AVA'ST, one of the pecuEar terms employed on 
 shipboard. It is a command to stop or cease in any 
 operation going forward — such as, ' avast heaving.' 
 
 AVATA'E primarily signifies, in Sanscrit, a 
 descent, but is specially applied to the descent of 
 a Hindu deity upon the earth in a manifest shape, 
 either for beneficent or for retributive ends. It is 
 thus almost synonymous in its signification with the 
 Christian term Incarnation. The word is sometimes 
 rhetorically employed in EngUsh Eterature. The 
 avatars of Tishnu (q. v.) are the most famous in 
 Hindu mythology. 
 
 AVA'TCH A, a mountain and bay of Eamstchatka. 
 The bay is on the east coast, being by far the best 
 harbour of the whole peninsula, and containing the 
 capital city of Petropaulowsk (q. v.). The mountain, 
 9055 feet in height, is about 20 miles to the north, 
 and not far from the sea, in lat. 52° 15' N., and long. 
 158° 50' E. It is a volcano with two craters — one at 
 the summit, and the other rather more than half- 
 way up, on the seaward side. 
 
 A'VEBURY, A'BUBY.or A'BIEY, asmall village 
 of Wiltshire, situated in N. lat. 51° 25', and W. long. 
 1° 50', 25 miles north of Salisbury, and 6 west-by- 
 north of Marlborough. It is a place of no importance 
 iu itself, having a population of 751 ; but is remark- 
 able as the site of the largest so-called Druidical 
 temple iu Europe — ^in fact, occupying the most of the 
 sacred enclosure itself — and as having ia its neigh- 
 bourhood several remarkable barrows and cromlechs 
 of remote antiquity. 
 
 What is called the temple occupies a flat area 
 of ground on the south of the Kennet, a diminu- 
 tive tributary of the Thames. It consists, or rather 
 consisted, of a hundred large blocks of stone, 
 placed on end in a circular form, around a level 
 area of about 470 yards ia diameter, bounded by 
 a deep ditch and a high embankment forming the 
 enclosure. There are also the remains of two small 
 circles of stones within the enclosure, supposed to 
 be inner temples. Of these, one consisted of two 
 concentric circles of 43 upright stones, having a 
 single stone near the centre; the other, a similar 
 double circle of 45 stones, to the north-west of 
 the former, with three large and high blocks in 
 the centre. The stones that remaia of this ancient 
 work are not of uniform size; they measure from 
 5 to 20 feet in height above the ground, and from 
 3 to 12 in breadth and thickness. 
 
 The embankment, which is broken down ia several 
 places, had originally two entrances to the temple, 
 eastward and westward, from which Issue two 
 long walks, bending round to the southward, each 
 
AVEIRO— AVEEAGE. 
 
 furnislied ■with, a range of blocks on either side similar 
 to tliose of the temple itself. These avenues are 
 each upwards of a mile in length, the width 
 varying from 56 to 35 feet. That which issues to 
 the east, or rather south-east, after turning south- 
 ward, bends near its extremity to the south-east 
 again, and closes on a knoU called Overton HiU in 
 two concentric oval ranges of blocks. That which 
 issues to the west, also bends to the south, and then 
 to south-west, ending in a point with a single block. 
 
 Of the surrounding antiquities, that which appears 
 most closely connected with the temple is a large 
 barrow, or lofty conical mound, called Silbiuy 
 Hfll, lying due south of it, at a distance of three- 
 quarters of a mile. It is situated nearly midway 
 between the two avenues, in the line of the ancient 
 Eoman road between London and Bath. Close to 
 the base, it measures 2027 feet in circumference; 
 the sloping height is 316 feet; the perpendicular 
 height, 170 feet ; the diameter of the level area at 
 the top, 120 feet; the space covered by the whole 
 work, over 5 acres. What proves the structure to 
 have been more ancient than the time of the 
 BiOmans, if such proof were necessary, is, that the 
 BiOman road, as it comes from the west, is straight for 
 several miles tfll it reaches Silbury, when it bends 
 round it to the south, and again proceeds in a direct 
 line to Marlborough. 
 
 About a mUe north of A. there are remains of a 
 large cromlech, the stones of which have been over- 
 turned; and about 3 miles east there is another, 
 which has two upright blocks standing apart, with a 
 larger one surmounting them. In the neighbour- 
 hood, all round the Marlborough Downs, there are 
 remains of earthworks and upright stones, and the 
 sites of other antiquities now nearly obHterated. 
 
 Very little was known of A. temple and the 
 antiquities in its vicinity till the year 1740, when 
 Dr Stukeley, a somewhat fanciful antiquary, pub- 
 lished his work, Stonehenge and Abury, Two 
 Temples Restored to the British Druids; although 
 Aubrey, an ardent student of antiquarian lore, 
 had written an account of them in 1663, by 
 command of Charles II., the manuscript of which 
 still exists. None of the earlier topographers or 
 antiquaries appear to have left any description 
 of them. When Sir Richard Hoare, in collecting 
 materials for his Ancient Wiltshire, made his ex- 
 amination of them in 1812, 72 years after the 
 appearance of Stukeley's work, and 164 after the first 
 survey by Aubrey, a great number of the stones had 
 disappeared, and in many places it was difficult to 
 trace out even the plan of the works. In 1849, in 
 order to satisfy the curiosity of the lovers of 
 antiquity as to the nature and intention of the 
 great barrow, Silbury HiU, a tunnel was cut to its 
 centre, but nothing was discovered to throw light on 
 the subject. Some modern archseologists altogether 
 reject the conclusions of Stukeley and his followers, 
 and call for proof of any connection between the 
 Druids and the stone-circles which it has been the 
 fashion for the last century to call Druidical. 
 
 AVE'IRO, a maritime town of Portugal, in the 
 province of Beira, between Oporto and Counbra, 
 situated in an unhealthy locality at the mouth of the 
 Vouga, which forms a wide but shallow harbour, is 
 the see of a bishop, has 5000 inhabitants, and trade 
 iu oil, wine, oysters, sardines, and other fish, oranges, 
 and sea-salt. 
 
 AVBLLFNO (anciently, Abdlinum), chief town 
 of the province of Principato-Ultra, Naples. It is 
 on the high road from Naples to Ban, at the foot of 
 Monte Vergine, on which is the famous monastery 
 founded by S. Guglielmo da Vercelli, on the ruins 
 of a temple of Cybele, in 1119. Pop. 23,000. A 
 
 580 
 
 sufifered greatly from earthquakes in 1694, 1731, 
 and 1805. It has manufactures of woollens, paper, 
 macaroni, and considerable trade in corn and hazel- 
 nuts. The nuces Avdlance were famous even in 
 Pliny's time. Between A. and Benevento is the 
 Val de Gargano, where the Samnites defeated the 
 Romans in 433 A.tr.c. 
 
 A'VB MARI A, also ANGE'LICA SALUTA'- 
 TIO, or the Angelic Salutation, are names given by 
 the Roman Cathohcs to a very common form of 
 address to the Virgin Mary. Ave Maria are the first 
 two words of the prayer, in Latin, which is _ taken 
 from the angel Gabriel's salutation (Luke i. 28): 
 ' Hail, Mary, highly favoured, the Lord is with thee ; 
 blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the 
 fruit of thy womb.' In this form, according to an 
 ordinance of Gregory I., the invocation was at first 
 said by the priests during mass, on the fourth Sun- 
 day after Advent. With the extended worship of 
 the Virgin since the 11th c, the A M. appears as 
 a lay-prayer of nearly equal use with the Pater 
 Noster, and was sanctioned as such at the end of 
 the 12th c. Accordingly, not only did Urban IV. 
 (1261) add the concluding words, Jesus Ghristus, 
 Amen, but since the first half of the 16th c, the 
 prayer began to receive, more and more commonly, 
 as an addition to the old formula, what constitutes 
 the conclusion of the modem form: 'Holy Mary, 
 mother of God, pray for us sinners, now and 
 at the hour of our death. Amen.' An edict of 
 John XXII. (1326) ordains that every Catholic shall, 
 morning, noon, and evening, at the warning of the 
 bells, repeat three aves. This ringing of bells 
 as a summons to morning, mid-day, and evening 
 prayers, is retained in some Protestaht countries, and 
 is still called the Ave Maria, or Angelus Domini. 
 The aves are reckoned by the small beads of the 
 rosary, which are hence called Ave Marias, while 
 the large beads are devoted to the Pater Noster. 
 150 Ave Marias form— after the 150 Psalms — a 
 Psalterium Marice, and are thought to possess high 
 propitiatory power. 
 
 AVB'NA. See Oat. 
 
 AVENGER OE BLOOD. See Blood, Avenoke 
 or. 
 
 A'VBNS. See Geum. 
 
 AVBNTI'NUS, Johannes Thuemaye, a scholar 
 and historian, born at Abensberg, Bavaria, where 
 his father was a publican, in 1476. Having studied 
 at Ingolstadt, he went to Paris, where he took the 
 degree of M.A He afterwards taught Greek and 
 mathematics at Cracow, and poetry and eloquence at 
 Vienna. In 1512, the Duke of Bavaria called Tn'm 
 to Munich, and intrusted hnn with the education 
 of his sons. Here A wrote his esteemed History of 
 Bavaria (Annales Boiorum), a work which occupied 
 hirri sixteen years. This work was not published 
 until twenty years after his death, which took place 
 in 1534, and then only with large portions, more true 
 than pleasant, about the Romish Church, excised. 
 These, however, were all restored in Cisner's edition 
 of 1580. A. wrote several other learned works. 
 
 A'VBRAGE. If any number of unequal quanti- 
 ties are given, another quantity may be found of a 
 mean or intermediate magnitude, some of the given 
 quantities being greater, and others less, than the 
 one found, which is called the average. The exact 
 relation is this : that, the sum of the excesses of the 
 
 freater above the A. is equal to the sum of the 
 efects of the less below it. If there are, say, 7 
 vessels unequally filled with sand, and if we take 
 handfuls from the greater, and add these to the less, 
 until the sand is equally distributed, then any one 
 of the equalised measures of sand is the A. of the 
 7 unequal measures. If the quantities of sand in 
 
AVERAGE— AVEESA. 
 
 the several vessels are stated in numliers, as 5, 10, 
 12, 8, 11, 14, 3 ounces, the A. is found by adding 
 together the numbers, and dividing by how many 
 there are of them — viz., 7. The sum being 63, 
 thds, divided by 7, gives 9 ounces as the average. 
 The system of averaging is a very important and 
 time-saving one. By averages, the farmer calculates 
 the value of his crops ; the grazier, the value of his 
 cattle; and the forester, -tte value of his trees. 
 Reflection, however, requires to be exercised in striking 
 averages ; otherwise, serious errors may be com- 
 mitted. If a farmer, for instance, has three lots of 
 cattle, the first of which he averages at £25 a head, 
 the second at £15, and the third at £9, it might be 
 thought that the A. of the whole stock made up of 
 the three lots would be got by taking the mean 
 
 of £25, £15, and £9— viz. 
 
 25 + 15 + 9. 
 
 :£16J. But 
 
 this would be correct ' only it there were an equal 
 number of cattle in each of the lots. To get the resd A. 
 in case of the lots being imequal, he must multiply the 
 A. of each lot by the number of cattle in it, add the 
 three products together, and divide by the whole num- 
 ber of cattle in sSl three lota taken together. If we 
 suppose 9 head in the first lot, 20 in me second, and 
 
 15 in the third, the A. is 
 
 25X9+15X20 + 9X15 
 
 £15. 
 
 9 + 20 + 15 
 
 A'VBRAGB (in Marit. Law). A rule was estab- 
 lished by the Ehodian law ,(q. v.), and has prevailed 
 in every maritime nation, that where a loss has been 
 sustained, or expense incurred, for the general safety 
 of the ship and cargo, a contribution should be made, 
 in proportion to their respective inter'ests, by the 
 owners of the ship, freight, and goods on board ; or, 
 in modern times, by the insurers of these. To this 
 contribution the name of General A. is given. The 
 apparel, jewels, and other personal property of the 
 passengers, not carried for purposes of trsSSc, and 
 the seamen's wages and provisions, are not liable 
 for any share ia this contribution. Goods thrown 
 overboard are now estimated at the price they would 
 have yielded at the port of dehvery at the time, 
 freight, duties, &c., being deducted. See Jettison. 
 Particular A., again, is the loss of an anchor, the 
 starting of a plank, the leaking of a cask, the loss of 
 goods washed from the deck, or the like, where the 
 common safety was not in question, and where there 
 is, consequently, no contribution. To losses of this 
 description, the term A., though generally, is incor- 
 rectly applied. Petty Averages are the duties of 
 anchorage, pilotage, &c. If these occur in the ordi- 
 nary course of the voyage, they are not loss, but 
 simply part of the expense necessarily incurred. 
 But fi they have been incurred in extraordinary 
 circumstances, and for the purpose of avoiding 
 impending daiiger, they are a kiss which is included 
 in the general A., and covered by the contribution. 
 A. Bond is a deed which parties liable to a general 
 A. are in the habit of executing, by which they 
 empower an arbiter to value the property lost, and 
 fix the proportion which shall be borne by each 
 proprietor. 
 
 AVBEDTJPOI'S. See Avoiedtjpois. 
 
 AVE'RNUS, in Gr. Aomo8, or 'without birds,' 
 called now Lago d'Averno, is a small, nearly circular 
 lake in Campania, Italy, situated between Cimiae, 
 Puteoli, and Baise. It is about a mile and a half in 
 circumference, and occupies the crater of an extinct 
 volcano. It is in some places as deep as 180 feet, 
 and is almost completely shut in % steep and 
 wooded heights. The sulphureous and mephitic 
 vapours arising from the lake were believed in 
 ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it; 
 hence, according to some, its Greek appellation. 
 Owing to its gloomy and awful aspect, it became 
 the centre of almost all the fables of the ancients 
 
 respecting the world of shades. Here was located 
 Homer's Wekyia, or entrance to the under world ; 
 here the Cimmerians are said to have dwelt— a 
 peojile who lived in deep caverns, without ever 
 coming into the light of day, explored metals, and 
 imparted Stygian oracles ; here also were placed the 
 grove of Hecate and the grotto of the Cmnean Sibyl. 
 Agrippa caused the dense woods to be thinned, by 
 wmch the place lost much of its wildness; and by 
 his orders Cocceius constructed the famous tunnel 
 through the mountain to Cumas, a work of compara- 
 tive ease, considering that the hills round about are 
 composed of volcanic tufa. The lake was also con- 
 nected in ancient times with the Gulf of Baise. 
 
 AVERRHO'A. See Cabambola. 
 
 AVERRHO'ES, properly, Ibn Eoshd, or more 
 fuUy, Abul-Walid Mohammed -Ibn, Ahmed-Ibn, 
 Moha;mmed-Ibn-E.oshd, the most famous of the 
 Arabian philoso^ers, was bom at Cordova, in 
 Spain, in 1149. His father, who was chief judge 
 and mufti, instructed bim in Mohammedan juris- 
 prudence. In theology and philosophy, he had 
 ThophaU for his teacher; and in medicine, Ibn 
 Zohr, the elder. His talents and acquirements 
 made him be appoiated successor to his father, and 
 afterwards chief judge in the province of Mauritania. 
 Being accused, out of envy, of a departure from 
 the orthodox doctrines of Mohammedanism, he was 
 dismissed from his ofiice, and condemned by the 
 ecclesiastical tribunal of Marocco to recant his here- 
 tical opinions, and do penance. After this, he returned 
 to his native place, and hved in great poverty, until 
 the Calif Ahnansor reinstated him in his offices, on 
 which he went back to Marocco, where he died in 
 1198 or 1206. A. regarded Aristotle as the greatest 
 of all philosophers. He translated and illustrated 
 Aristotle's writings with great penetration; but the 
 influence of the Alexandrine view laid down in the 
 commentaries of Ammonius, Themistius, and others, 
 is easily seen in his works, as in those of most of the 
 Arabian philosophers. In opposition to the Arabian 
 orthodox school, especially against Algazali, A. stood 
 forth on the side of reason as the defender of philo- 
 sophy. The Arabians called him, by way of eminence, 
 the Expositor (of Aristotle), and his Syriac transla- 
 tion of Aristotle was held in the highest esteem 
 among them. His writings are known to us only 
 through Latin translations (Ven. 1489). His Com- 
 mentaries on Aristotle appeared in an edition of 
 that philosopher's works (11 vols. Ven. 1560). He 
 also wrote a sort of medical system, which, under 
 the name of Colliget (a corruption of the Arabic title 
 Kulliyat — L e., 'The Total' system), was translated 
 into Latin, and repeatedly printed (Ven. 1482 and 
 1514). The philosophy of A. attained to importance 
 in the Christian Church as early as the 13th c, 
 although his pantheistic doctrine of the unity of the 
 active principle in the imiverse was often repudiated 
 as an error, and astrology was characterised as 
 Averrhoism. 
 
 AVE'RSA, a, town in the province of Terra di 
 Lavoro (Campania), in the kingdom of Naples, is 
 situated between Naples and Capua, in a beautiful 
 district rich in oranges and wine. It is well built, 
 with 18,789 inhabitants ; has a cathedral, and a 
 number of monasteries, in one of which, Andrew of 
 Hungary, the Damley of Neapohtan history, was 
 murdered with the connivance of his wife, the beauti- 
 ful but guilty Joanna, queen of Naples ; an excel- 
 lent asylum for the insane, established by Murat; 
 and a foundling hospital. A. was built in 1029 by 
 the Normans on a territory ceded to them by Duke 
 Sergius of Naples, to be held in fief. About two 
 nules from A., are stiU to be seen a few ruins of the 
 Oscan city of AteUa, famous as the birthplace of 
 
 £81 
 
AVES-AVILA. 
 
 the satirical farces so poptilar on the Boman 
 
 A'V^S. See Birds. 
 
 AVETRON, a river and department in the south 
 of IVance. The river rises near Severao-le-Chteau; 
 flows, for the most part, in a westerly direction 
 through the department of the same name; and, 
 after a course of 90 miles, falls into the Tarn — a 
 feeder of the Garonne — below Montauban. It 
 touches in its course the towns of Ehodez, ViUe- 
 franohe, and Negrepelisse. — The department of A. 
 has an area of 3402 square miles, and is one of the 
 most mountainous parts of France. Situated between 
 the highlands of Auvergne and the Cevennes, it 
 slopes like a terrace south-west to the Garonne, to 
 the basin of which the department belongs. The 
 principal rivers flow through the department from east 
 to west; and between these, several ramified offsets 
 from the chain of the Cevennes traverse the country. 
 The climate is healthy, but cold and raw, especially 
 in the north and east. North of the Lot, only rye 
 and oats are grown ; in the rest of the valleys, other 
 kinds of grain also thrive, as well as fruit, chestnuts, 
 potatoes, and truffles. A third part of the land is 
 unfit for cultivation, but affords excellent pas- 
 ture for the numeroiis herds of cattle, goats, and 
 sheep, which, along with the breeding of swine, form 
 the principal resources of the mountaiaeers. 18,000 
 cwt. of cheese is sold yearly under the name of 
 Roquefort cheese. The mineral wealth of the depart- 
 ment is considerable. Coal, iron, lead, zinc, copper, 
 vitriol, alum, and antimony are found in abundance, 
 the mining, preparing, and sale of which form a 
 principal means of support to the 393,890 inhabitants. 
 Besides these, the principal employments are paper- 
 making, ootton-spinning, tanning, the manufacture 
 of woollen cloth and carpets, &c. The seat of the 
 departmental courts is Bhodez, which is also a 
 bishop's see. 
 
 A'VIAR Y, a place for keeping birds. The arrange- 
 ments of an A. depend upon the habits of its iomates, 
 the climate suited to them, and other circumstances. 
 A bird-cage is a domestic aviary. Aviaries on the 
 largest scale are to be seen in zoological gardens. 
 
 AVICE'NN'A, properly, Ibn Sina, or more ftdly, 
 Abu Ali Al-Hossein Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina, a famous 
 Arabian philosopher and physician, whose authority 
 for many centuries passed for indisputable, was bom 
 980, at Chaitnatain, a village near Bokhara, where he 
 received a very learned education. He studied with 
 special fondness mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, 
 and medicine. He was physician to several of the 
 Samanide and DUemite sovereigns, and also for 
 some time vizir in Hamadan, but afterwards retired 
 to Ispahan, and died during a journey of the Emir 
 Ala-ed-Daula to Hamadan, in 1037. He left a 
 multitude of writings, among which his system of 
 medicine, Kanun fl_ 'l-Tibb, acquired the greatest 
 reputation. It is distinguished less by originality 
 than by an intelligible arrangement and judicious 
 selection from the writings of the Greek physicians, 
 at a time when the knowledge of Greek was not 
 widely spread. A. himself knew the Greek writers 
 only through Arabic translations. The Arabic text 
 of the Kanun, and of several of his philosophical 
 writings, among which those on metaphysics espe- 
 cially attracted the attention of the schoolmen, 
 appeared at Rome, 1593, in 2 vols. The Kanun was 
 translated into Latin by Gerardus Cremonensis, and 
 repeatedly printed (Ven. 1595, 2 vols.). His philo- 
 sophical writings have also appeared several times 
 in Latin translations (Ven. 1490, 1523, 1564). 
 
 AVICE'NNIA, a genus of plants' of the natural 
 order Avicermece or MyoporaeeoB, an order very nearly 
 allied to Vesrbmace(B (a. x.), and almost exclusively 
 
 682 
 
 confined to the southern hemisphere. The genus A. 
 consists of trees or large shrubs resembling man- 
 OTOves, and, like them, growing in salt-swamps. 
 Their creeping roots, often curving for the space of 
 six feet above the mud before they stick into it, and 
 the naked asparagus-like suckers which they throw 
 mp, have a •singular appearance. A. tomentosa, the' 
 White Mangrove of Brazil, has cordate ovate leaves, 
 downy beneath. Its bark is much used for tanning. 
 A gi'een resinous substance exuding from A. redni- 
 fera is eaten by the New Zealanders. — The genus is 
 named in honour of the Arabian physician Avicenna. 
 AVrCULA. See Pearl Oystek. 
 
 AVIGNON {Avenio Cavarum), a city of Provence, 
 in the south of Erance, capital of the department of 
 Vaucluse, is situated on the left bank of the Rhone, 
 which is here crossed by a long bridge. The popu- 
 lation is about 26,312 ; the streets are narrow and 
 crooked. There is a multitude of churches and reli- 
 gious establishments, among which the cathedral on 
 the Rocher des Dons and the church of the Fran- 
 ciscans, as well as the old papal palace and the 
 tower GlaoiSre, are distinguished. The Dominican 
 convent now serves as a cannon-foundry. The city is 
 the see of an archbishop, has amuseimi and picture- 
 gallery, and several other valuable institutions. The 
 university, founded in 1303, was abolished in 1794. A. 
 has manufactures of sUk, silk-dyeing, tanning, iron- 
 founding, &o., and is famous for its garden produce, 
 its fruit, wine, honey, &c. The country about A. 
 is delightful, and extremely fruitful in com, wine, 
 olives, oranges, and lemons. — In A., Petrarch spent 
 several years ; it was here he saw Laura, whose 
 monument is to be found in the Franciscan church. 
 Vaucluse, which he has immortalised, lies about 
 three leagues from Avignon. A. was the capital 
 of the ancient Cavares, and presents many remains 
 of the times of the Romans. In the middle ages, 
 it formed, with the surrounding district, a county, 
 which the popes, who had already received the 
 coxmty of Venaissin as a gift from King Philip III., 
 bought in 1348 from Joanna, queen of Naples and 
 Countess of Provence. The pope governed both 
 counties through a vice-legate, and continued in the 
 possession of them till 1790, when, after several 
 stormy and bloody scenes, the city with its district 
 was united with France. At the peace of Tolentino 
 (1797), the pope formally resigned A. and Venaissin. 
 A. is celebrated in ecclesiastical history as being, 
 for a time, the residence of the popes. By order of 
 ftiilip IV. of France, Pope Clement V. and six of 
 his successors from 1309 to 1377, were obliged to 
 reside there. It was afterwards the residence of 
 more than one anti-pope. Two ecclesiastical coun- 
 cils were also held at A. (1326 and 1337) : the first 
 took into consideration the relation of the clergy to 
 the laity ; the other, the bad training of the clergy. 
 
 A'VIIiA, a town of Spain, capital of the province 
 of A., in Old Castile, 53 miles north-west of Madrid ; 
 pop. 5000. The Spaniards declare that its original 
 name was Abula, and please themselves and amuse 
 strangers with the belief that it was built by 
 Hercules 1660 B.C. It is the birthplace of two 
 highly remarkable persons — ^the first was the learned 
 Alfonso Tostado de Madrigal, who died in 1455, and 
 whose doctrines (according to his biographer) were 
 so enlightened that they caused the blind to see, 
 though, in the opinion of Don Quixote, he was more 
 volimainous than luminous ; the second is ' Our 
 Seraphic Mother, the Holy Teresa, Spouse of Jesus,' 
 bom March 28, 1515; she was made the lady- 
 patroness of Spain by Philip III., and shares the 
 honours of worship with St James. A. is the see of 
 a bishop, with a beautiful cathedral, and was at one 
 I time one of the richest and most flouris^ng cities of 
 
AVILA Y ZUNIGA— AVOIEDTJPOIS. 
 
 Spain. The muTersity, wMch had been founded in 
 1482, and enlarged in 1638, waa abolished in 1807. 
 It waa at A. that the nobles of Old Castile assembled 
 in 1465 to depose King Henry IV., and raise his 
 brother Alfonso to the throne of Leon and Castile. 
 At A., also, was held the meeting of the so-caUed 
 Third Estate, or of the Holy League, in 1520, under 
 the leadership of Juan PadiUa, to which nearly all 
 the cities of Castile sent representatives. 
 
 AVILA Y ZUNIGA, Don Lmz db, a Spanish 
 aeneKuI, diplomatist, and historian, bom at Hacencia, 
 in Estremadura, enjoyed the favour and confidence 
 of Charles V., who intrusted him with embassies to 
 the popes Paul IV. and Pius IV., and made him 
 grand master of the order of Alcantara. He accom- 
 panied the emperor on his expeditions to Africa and 
 against the princes of the league of Schmalkald, and 
 wrote an account of the wiar which goes under that 
 name, partial, indeed, but able and spirited. The 
 Commentanos de la Ouerra de Alesmamta heeha 
 par Carlos V. en 1546 y 1547, have been published 
 repeatedly (first, Ven. 1548), and translated into 
 several iMiguages. — ^Avila., Gil Gonzaiez db, bom 
 at Avila, in Old Castile, in 1559, and died in 1658, 
 was a Jesuit and canon of Salamanca ; also royal 
 historiographer for Castile and the Indies.^ He com- 
 posed a great number of historical works, of which 
 the following may be mentioned as containing many 
 valuable facts : Hisloria de la Vida y H^kos del 
 Hey Don Jlmrigue III. de Oaaiilla (Madr. 1638) ; 
 JSistoria de la Vida y Hechoa dd Monarca Z>. 
 FiUpe III. (in Mendoza's Monarquia de Espaikt, 
 3 vols. Madr. 1770) ; Hidoria de Salamanca (Salam. 
 1606) ; and the Teatro Ecclesiastico de la primiHva 
 Igleda de las Indias Ocddesntales (2 vols. Madr. 
 1649-1656). 
 
 AVI'Z, an order of tnight- 
 hood in Portugal, instituted 
 by Sancho, the first king of 
 Portugal, iu imitation of the 
 order of Calatrava, and having, 
 like it, for its object the sub- 
 jection of the Moors. By the 
 present usage, the king of 
 Portugal, who is grand master 
 of all of them, wears decor- 
 ations of the first three orders 
 of Portugal — ^those of Christ, 
 St James, and Aviz united in 
 one medal, divided into three 
 equal spaces. ' 
 
 Badge of Order of Aviz. AVO'OA, or OVO'CA (Celt, 
 meeting of the waters), a small 
 river in the south-east of Wicklow county, formed 
 by the union of two streams, rising in the hills of 
 the centre of the county. ^Ilie A. runs through a 
 very picturesque vale only a quarter of a mile 
 broad, with wooded banks 300 to 500 feet high, 
 and, after a course of nine miles, reaches the sea 
 at Arklow. A Vale is celebrated in Moore's Irish 
 Melodies, 
 
 AVOOA'DO PEAR, or ALLIGATOR PEAR 
 {Persda graiissima), a fruit-tree of the natural 
 order Lauracece (q. v.), a native of the warm 
 regions of America. It attains the height of 30 — 70 
 feet, and is a slender tree with a dome-Kke top. 
 The leaves resemble those of the laurel. The flowers 
 small, and are produced towards the extremities of 
 the branches. The fruit is a drupe, iSxt in size and 
 shape resembles a large pear ; is usually of a brown 
 colour, and has a soft green or yeUowiah pulp, not 
 very sweet, but of a deucate flavour, which dissolves 
 like butter on the tongue, and is believed to consist 
 principally of a fixed oil. It is called vegetable butler 
 
 in some of the French colonies. It is much esteemed 
 in the West Indies, and often eaten with sugar and 
 lime-juice or wine, or with spices. 
 
 AVOCE'T, or AVOSET {Eecwrmrostra), a genus 
 of birds, which, although having the feet webbed 
 nearly to the end of the toes, is usually ranked 
 among the Orcdlce or Orallatores, upon account of 
 the length of the legs, the half-naked thighs, the 
 long, slender, elastic bill, and the general agreement 
 in habits with snipes. They are (Sstiugui^ed from 
 all other birds, except a few species of humming- 
 bird, by the strong upward curvature of the bifl, 
 which is much like a thin piece of elastic whalebone, 
 and most probably a delicate organ of touch, adapted 
 for seeking food in mud, as their webbed feet are 
 for walking upon it, and their long legs for wading 
 in the fens and marshes which they frequent. They 
 are birds of powerful 'Vfing. They are not much 
 addicted to swinuning. They scoop through the 
 
 Avocet. 
 
 mud with the biU, first to one side, and then to the 
 other, in quest of worms and other small animals; 
 although Audubon has also observed the American 
 A taking insects which were swimming on the 
 surface of the water, and expertly catching them in 
 the air, running after them with partially expanded 
 wings. — The Common A. {B. Avocetta), tiie body of 
 which is about as large as that of a lapwing, is found 
 in the fenny districts of England, where, however, it 
 is much more rare than it once was, and is a native 
 also of the continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, 
 occurring even at the Cape of Good Hope. — Other 
 Species are natives of North America, India, and 
 New, Holland. — The American A. {S. Ammxma) 
 has the biU less recurved than the Common A., but 
 its habits appear to be very similar. 
 
 AVOEDANCB, in English ecclesiastical law, the 
 term Toy which the vacancy of a benefice, or the 
 fact of its being void of an incumbent, is signified. 
 A is opposed to plenarty, or fulness. See BBUia'icB. 
 
 AVOIRDUPOrS, or AVERDTJPOI'S, is the 
 
 name given to the system of weights and measures 
 applied in England to all goods except the precious 
 metals, precious stones, and medicines. The word is 
 generally said to be derived from the French avoir 
 du pais, to have weight; but the middle-age Latin 
 word avena or avera^ used for goods in general, 
 or the middle-age Latin averare, and French avSrer, 
 meaning to verify, seem to offer more probable 
 etymologies. 
 
 The grain is the foundation of the A. system, as 
 well as of the Troy and Apothecaries'. A cubic 
 inch of water weighs 252-458 grains. Of the ^ains 
 so determined, 7000 make a pound A., and 5760 a 
 pound Troy. See Weights amd MJEAsnBES.— The 
 A. pound is divided into 16 ounces, and the ounce 
 into 16 drams. A dram, therefore, contains 27^4 
 grains, and an ounce 437^ grains. 
 
 £83 
 
AVON— AXEL. 
 
 TABLE OF AVOIEDUPOIS WEIGHT. 
 
 27JJ grains . are 1 dram, 1 dr. 
 
 16 drams or drachms » 1 ounce, 1 oz. 
 
 16 ounces . . » 1 pound, 1 lb. 
 
 28 pounds . . » 1 quarter, 1 qr. 
 
 4 quarters . . » 1 hundredweiglit, 1 cwt. 
 20 hundredweight » 1 ton, 1 ton. 
 
 A cubic foot of water weighs 997'14 ounces A., 
 or nearly 1000 ounces, which gives an easy rule for 
 determining the weight of a cubic foot of any sub- 
 stance from its specific gravity. A. is the weight 
 used in the United States of North America, where, 
 however, in many places, the cwt. contains only 
 100 lb., and the ton, 2000 lb. 
 
 A'VON, a word of British or Celtic origin, mean- 
 ing 'river' or 'stream,' which seems allied to Aa 
 (q.v.), the name of so many continental rivers. It is 
 the name of several of the smaller British rivers. Of 
 these may be noticed : 1. The Upper or Warwick- 
 shire A., which rises in north-west Northampton- 
 shire, runs south-west through Warwickshire and 
 Worcestershire, passing Rugby, Warwick, Stratford, 
 and Evesham, and joining the Severn at Tewkes- 
 bury. It has a course of 100 mUes, and receives 
 several tributaries. 2. The Lower, or Bristol, or 
 West A., which rises in north-west Wiltshire, 
 and runs 70 or 80 miles, first south in Wiltshire, 
 and then west and north-west between Glou-' 
 cestershire and Somersetshire. It traverses an 
 oolitio basin, passing Bradford, Bath, and Bristol, 
 and empties itseU into the Bristol Channel. It is 
 navigable for large vessels up to Bristol. It runs 
 generally between deep banks in a rich vaUey. A 
 canal through the middle of Wiltshire connects it 
 with the Thames. 3. The Wiltshire and Hampshire, 
 or Bast A, which rises in the middle of Wiltshire, 
 and runs south 70 miles through Wiltshire and 
 Hampshire, passing Amesbuiy, Salisbury, and Ring- 
 wood, and entering the English Channel at Christ- 
 church. It is navigable up to Sahsbury. It abounds 
 in the small delicate loach. In Wales two rivers 
 named A.^one rising in Monmouth shire, the other in 
 Glamorganshire — fall into Swansea Bay. In Scot- 
 land there are several of the same name, affluents of 
 the Spey, Annan, Clyde, and Forth. 
 
 AVBA'NCHES, a, town of France in the dep. of 
 Manche (q. v.). 
 
 AWE, Loch, a lake in the centre of Argyleshire, 
 extending in a direction north-east and south-west 
 about 24 miles, with an average breadth of from 
 half a mile to 2J mUes. It rarely freezes, and its 
 surface is 108 feet above the sea. The country 
 around consists of mica slate. The scenery is most 
 striking at the north-east end of the lake, where the 
 water is studded with numerous wooded islets, 
 overshadowed by towering and rugged mountains, 
 prominent among which rises the dark and rocky 
 ridge of Ben Cruachan, 3669 feet high, and 14 miles 
 in circuit. Of the islands, the most noted is Fraoch- 
 eilean, containing the remains of a castle granted to 
 Gilbert M'Naughton in 1267 by Alexander III. On 
 a peninsula, in- the north end of the lake, stands 
 Kjlchurn Castle (Caesteal ChaoU-ohuim), once a 
 fortress of great strength, built about 1440 by Sir 
 Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, and garrisoned, as late 
 as 1745, by the king's troops. The waters of the 
 lake are carried oflf at its north-west end by the 
 river Awe, which, after a course of 7 miles, enters 
 the sea at Bunawe on Loch Etive. The magnificent 
 ' Pass of Awe,' through which the road runs beneath 
 the shoulder of Ben Cruachan, was the scene of a 
 conflict, in 1308, between Robert the Bruce and the 
 M'Dougalls of Lorn, in which that clan was all but 
 extemunated. At the north-east end of the loch, it 
 £84 
 
 receives the waters of the Orchy and Strae, flowing 
 through glens of their own names. Loch A. abounds 
 in fine fish, especially trout and salmon; and the 
 small village of Claddich, on the east side of the 
 loch, due north of Inverary, is the general resort of 
 anglers. 
 
 A-WBA'THER is a term denoting the position 
 of the helm when jammed close to the weather-side 
 of a ship ; it is the reverse of a-lee. 
 
 A-WEI'GH, as appHed to the position of an 
 anchor, when just loosened from the ground, and 
 hanging vertically in the water, is nearly equivalent 
 to a-trip. 
 
 AWN (Arkta), in the flowers of Grasses, a. 
 solitary pointed bristle, growing either from a glume 
 or a palea. The flowers of some grasses are entirely 
 axonless; in many, the glumes alone are awned 
 (or arikate), or only one of them; in others, the 
 glumes are awnless, and the palese, or one palea, 
 awned. The awn is often terminal, and appears as 
 a prolongation of the midrib of the glume or palea j 
 from which, however, it sometimes separates below 
 the point, and is then said to be on the back of it, 
 or dorsal; sometimes it is jointed at the base, and 
 finally separates at the joint ; sometimes it is knee- 
 bent or geniculate ; sometimes it is twisted, and 
 liable to twist and untwist hygrometricaUy ; some- 
 times it is rough, or even serrate, at the edges, as in 
 barley ; sometimes it is feathery, as in feather-grass 
 (Stipa), which also is remarkable for the great 
 length of its awn. The characters of genera and 
 species are often derived from it, but it is not always 
 invariable, even in the same species, and the culti- 
 vated varieties of wheat and oats differ much in 
 being more or less hearded. There appears to be a 
 tendency to the diminution or disappearance of the 
 awn through cultivation. 
 
 AXE, the name of two small rivers in the south- 
 west of England. One rises in the Mendip HiUs, 
 north of Somerset, runs first south-west, and then 
 north-east, through a carboniferous limestone, trias, 
 and diluvial basin, past Wells and Axbridae, into 
 the Bristol Channel. The other rises in west Dorset, 
 and flows 21 miles south and south-west, through 
 east Devonshire, in an oolitic and trias basin, past 
 Axminster into the English ChauueL A. is only 
 another, form of Exe. See Aa. 
 
 A'XEL, or A'BSALON, Archbishop of Lund, in 
 Denmark, and also minister and general of King 
 Waldemar I., was born in 1128, and died 1201. He 
 was descended of a distinguished family, and, in his 
 youth, studied at Paris. A. distinguished himself 
 as well by wisdom and uprightness in peace, as by 
 valour and address in war. The Wendish pirates 
 were not only driven from the coasts of Denmark, 
 but attacked in their own settlements, and subdued. 
 He defeated the Pomeranian prince, Bogislav, and 
 made him dependent on Denmark. In the wise 
 legislation of Waldemar and of his son, he took a 
 great part. He favoured and promoted learning 
 and art, and to his encouragement we owe the first 
 connected history of Denmark bySaxo Grammaticus. 
 By building a fortified castle for defence against the 
 pirates, he laid the foundation of the future great 
 city of Copenhagen, which was then an insignificant 
 vUiage, inhabited only by fishermen. Owing to 
 this origin, Copenhagen has sometimes got the name 
 of Axelstadt. A. lies buried in the church of Soroe, 
 where he had founded a monastery. The relics 
 found when his grave was opened in 1827, the chief 
 of which were a bishop's staff and ring, are described 
 in the latest complete biography of A. by Estrup, 
 translated into German by Mohnike in lUgeifs 
 ZeiUchrift fiir Higtoriache Theologie (2 vols. Leip. 
 1832), 
 
AXESTONB— AXIS. 
 
 A'XESTONE, a mineral generally regarded as a 
 variety of Nephrite (q. v.). It is of a greenish colour, 
 is more or less translucent, hard, tough, and not 
 easily broken. It occurs in primitive rocks, always 
 massive, and is found in Saxony, in Greenland, 
 and in New Zealand and other islands of the 
 Southern Pacific. It derives its name from the use to 
 which it is put by the natives of these islands for 
 making their hatchets. They also make ear-drops 
 of it. 
 
 A'XHOLMB ISLE (A. Sax. holme, a river-isle), a 
 low level tract in tlie north of Nottinghamshire, sur- 
 rounded by rivers — the Trent on the east ; Don, north 
 and west ; Tome and Idle, on the west ; and Vicar- 
 dyke, between the Trent and Idle on the south. This 
 ditriot, 18 miles from north to south, and 5 on an 
 average east and west, was anciently a forest, but 
 afterwards became a marsh. The marsh was drained 
 into tixe Trent in 1634 by Vermuyden, a Dutchman, 
 after 5 years' labour, and at the cost of £56,000. 
 The reclaimed land became very fertile under Dutch 
 and French Protestant settlers, and after much 
 litigation, it was, in 1691, divided, the original 
 inhabitants receiving 10,532 acres, and the settlers 
 2868. On the land are raised abundant crops of 
 wheat, oats, rye, pease, beans, clover, flax, rape, 
 hemp, potatoes, and onions. Peat and turf fuel 
 abound, and valuable gypsum beds occur. The 
 water is brackish, too hard for washing, and curdles 
 milk when boiled with it. A, I. includes seven 
 parishes, with a population (1851) of 13,869. There 
 are two small towns, Crowle and Epworth. 
 
 A'XIL {axilla), in Botany, the angle between the 
 upper side of a leaf and tbe stem or branch from 
 which it OTOws. Buds usually grow in the axils of 
 leaves, alSiough they are not always actually devel- 
 oped ; but a bud may be made to appear in such a 
 situation, and to form a new shoot or branch, by 
 artificial means, which direct the strength of the 
 plant more particularly to that quarter, as cutting 
 over the main stem, wounding it above the place 
 where the new branch is desired, &c. Flowers or 
 flower-stalks {peduncles) growing from the axils of 
 leaves are called axillary. 
 
 AXINOMANCY (Gr. (mne, an axe, and nuvnida, 
 divination), a mode of divination much practised by 
 the ancient Greeks, particularly with the view of 
 discovering the perpetrators of great crimes. An 
 axe was poised upon a stake, and was supposed to 
 move so aa to indicate the guilty person ; or the names 
 of suspected persons being pronounced, the motion 
 of the axe at a particular name was accepted as 
 ai sign of guilt. Another method of A. was by 
 watching the movements of an agate placed upon 
 a red-hot axe. This is only one of a multitude of 
 analogous modes of divination practised in all 
 ages and aijiong aU nations. See Divination, and 
 Divnmsfo-ROD. 
 
 A'XIOM, a Greek word meaning a demand or 
 assuimption, is commonly used to signify a general 
 proposition, which the understanding recognises as 
 true, as soon as the import of the words conveying 
 it is apprehended. Such a proposition is therefore 
 known directly, and does not need to be deduced 
 from any other. Of this kind, for example, are 
 all propositions whose predicate is a property 
 essential to our notion of the subject. Every 
 rational science requires such fundamental propo- 
 sitions, from which aU the truths composing it 
 axe derived; the whole of geometry, for instance, 
 rests on, comparatively, a very few axioms. Whether 
 there is, for the whole of human knowledge, 
 any single, absolutely first A., from which all else 
 that is known may be deduced, is a question that 
 has given rise to much disputation; but the fact. 
 
 that human knowledge may have various starting- 
 points, answers it in the negative. Mathematicians 
 use the word A. to denote those propositions which 
 they must assiune as known from some other source 
 than deductive reasoning, and employ in proving all 
 the other truths of the science. The rigour of 
 method requires that no more be assumed than are 
 absolutely necessary. Every self-evident proposi- 
 tion, therefore, is not an A. in this sense, though, of 
 course, it is desirable that every A. be self-evident; 
 thus, Euclid rests the whole of geometry on fifteen 
 assumptions, but he proves propositions that are at 
 least as self-evident as some that he takes for 
 granted. That 'any two sides of a triangle are 
 greater than the third,' is as self-evident as that ' aU 
 right angles are equal to one another,' and much 
 more so than his assumption about parallels, which,, 
 it has been remarked, is neither self-evident nor 
 even easily made evident. See Parallels. Euclid's 
 assumptions are divided into three 'postulates' or 
 demands, and twelve 'common notions' — the term 
 A. is of later introduction. The distinction between 
 axioms and postulates is usually stated in this way : 
 an A. is ' a theorem granted without demonstration ; ' 
 a postulate is ' a problem granted without construc- 
 tion' — as, To draw a straight line between two 
 given points. 
 
 A'XIS, in Geometry. — The A. of a curved line is; 
 formed by a right line dividing the curve into two 
 symmetrical parts, so that the part on one side 
 exactly corresponds with that on the other; as in 
 the parabola, the ellipse, and the hyperbola. The 
 A. of any geometrical soHd is the right line which, 
 passes through the centre of aU the corresponding, 
 parallel sections of it : in this sense, we speak of the 
 A. of a cylinder, a globe, or a spheroid. By the A. 
 of rotation, we imderstand the right line aroimd 
 which a body revolves. — In physical science, the 
 A. of a lens is the right line passing through it in 
 such a manner as to be perpendicular to both sides 
 of it ; and the A. of a telescope is a right line which 
 passes through the centres of aU the glasses in the 
 tube. The A. of the eye is the right line passing 
 through the centres of the pupil and the crystalline 
 lens. 
 
 A'XIS, in Botany, a term applied to the central! 
 part both above and below ground, around which 
 the whole plant is regarded as arranged. The stem, 
 is called the ascending A. ; the root, the descending' 
 axis. The opposite tendencies of growth appear as. 
 soon as a seed begins to germinate, in the radicle- 
 and plumule ; the former of which is the descending. 
 A., and the latter the ascending A. ; the former 
 descending deeper into the soil, the latter ascending; 
 towards the air and light. That part of the stem 
 around which the flowers are arranged is called the 
 floral A., and, in describing some kinds of inflores- 
 cence, the terms, primary floral A., secondary floral 
 A., &c., are occasionally employed. 
 
 A'XIS {Genms Axis), a species of deer, abundant 
 on the banks of the Ganges, but found throughout 
 India and in many islands of the Eastern Archipelago. 
 It was known to the ancients by the name Ans. 
 One of its Indian names is Chittra, and by British 
 sportsmen in India it is generally called the Spotted 
 Hog-deer. By some naturalists, it has been mada 
 the type of a genus of Genndce, called Axis. The A. 
 has a great resemblance in size and colouring to the 
 Emropean fallow-deer ; it is generally of a rich fawn 
 colour, beautifully spotted with white, nearly black 
 along the back, the under parts snow-white. The 
 horns, however, differ very much from those of 
 the fallow-deer, being slender, sharp-pointed, little 
 branched, and not at all pahnated. The female has 
 no horns. The A. frequents thick jungles in the 
 
 586 
 
AXMINSTEKr-AYALA. 
 
 vicinity of water, and feeds during the night. It is 
 commonly found in herds of 15 or 20, of which 3 or 4 
 are males. Its sense of smell is remarkably acute, 
 and it is generally very shy and timid, so that 
 sportsmen find it difficult to get within shot. The 
 males, however, sometimes exhibit great courage ia 
 defence of the young. It is very easUy domesticated, 
 is very gentle in ite manners, has been frequently 
 imported iuto Europe, and breeds freely in the parks 
 in which it is kept at a few noblemen's and gentle- 
 men's seats ia Britain and Stance. 
 
 A'XMINSTEB, a small town in east Devonshire, 
 on the side of a little hiU on the left bank of the 
 Axe. Pop. (1851) imder 2000. A. was once famous 
 for the manufacture of Turkey and Persian carpets, 
 which were little inferior to those imported. Two 
 celebrated geologists have been connected with A.': 
 DrBucklaud was brought up here, and Dr Conybeare 
 was lord of the manor, and vicar. 
 
 A'XMOUTH, a village at the mouth of the Axe, 
 east Devonshire. A male east of A. occurred, in 
 1839, a landsKp ; an area 200 feet wide, for three- 
 quarters of a mile parallel to the shore, having sunk 
 250 feet below the sea, with a great noise. The 
 chasm thus formed became a lagoon, while the 
 neighbouring sea-bed rose 40 feet. Kather more 
 thata a mile further east, occurred another but smaller 
 landshp in 1840. The district around consists of 
 greensand strata. 
 
 A'XOLOTL (Gyrinus, or AxoloU, oiAxolotes edii- 
 Ms), a remarkable animal, found in great abundance 
 in some of the Mexican lakes, and particularly iu the 
 Lake of Mexico itself. It is a Batrachian (q. v.) 
 reptile of the family of the Proteidce or Perenni- 
 hranchiate Bairadkians, in which the gills remain 
 during life, and the lungs are never sufficiently 
 developed to maintain respiration by themselves. 
 It is in general form very hke a fish; has a large 
 
 Axolotl. 
 
 and broad head ; and tapers iato a long com- 
 pressed tail, which has a thin membranous fin 
 both on its upper and its lower side. It has four 
 legs, with toes not webbed; and on each side of 
 the neck the gills form three long branched or 
 feathered processes, which give it a very remark- 
 able appearance. It ia brown, and mottled with 
 small black spots. When fuU grown, it is 8 or 9 
 inches in length. It is esteemed a great delicacy 
 in Mexico, and is there constantly brought to the 
 market. 
 
 AXUM, once the capital of the Ethiopian king- 
 dom of the same name, is situated in the modem 
 Abyssinian province of Tigr§, west from Adowa. 
 Lat. 14° 7 N. . long. 39° 27' E. It now lies in 
 ruins, among which stands the principal chvirch 
 of Abyssinia, built in 1657. The former greatuess 
 
 886 
 
 of the city is testified by yet remaining structures 
 cut in granite, some of which have inscriptions^ 
 From these it appears that the Axumite empire 
 extended over Abyssinia, and even over Yemen 
 and Saba in Arabia, and possessed the command 
 of the Ked Sea. It acquired political importance 
 from the circumstance, mat it formed on the south 
 a boundary to the world-embracing power of Home, 
 as well as to that of Parthia, which then extended 
 as far as Arabia. The Byzantine emperors even paid 
 an annual tribute to the sovereigns of Axum. This 
 country was also the furthest point southward that 
 Grecian civilisatiou reached; through the medium 
 of Egypt, Greek philosophy spread into A., and the 
 Greek language became the language of the coiurt 
 and of the priests. Under King Aizanes, who, in a 
 still remaining inscription, appears as a heathen, 
 Christianity was introduced into the country from 
 Egypt by tiie two apostles Erumentius and yEdesius, 
 who were followed by many priests from the same 
 quarter. The new doctrine soon spread over the 
 whole country; Frumentius was made the first 
 Bishop of A., and Eremona was built in honour of 
 him. The stone churches, many of them very impos- 
 ing, yet scattered over the whole of Abyssinia, owe 
 their architecture to Egyptian priests, and arose at 
 that period, as well as the most celebrated Abyssinian 
 convents and hermitages. The Axumite empire 
 carried on, through Adme, an active commerce with 
 Arabia and India ; it formed the outermost bulwark 
 of Christianity; and, as such, particularly from about 
 thc' 6th c, it interfered in belialf of the Christians in 
 Arabia, and became the natural enemy of Moham- 
 medanism. The contests in which it soon became 
 involved with that power caused its fall, as the kings 
 gradually lost their possessions in Arabia, and the 
 whole coast on the Eied Sea and Gulf of Aden. The 
 outlets for commerce were thus cut off, and the 
 empire was at the same time so weakened by con- 
 stant wars, that internal disorders brought on its 
 complete dissolution. 
 
 ATACU'CHO, a town in a department of the 
 same name in South Peru. Here, on the 9th Decem- 
 ber 1824, the combined forces of Peru and Colombia 
 — ^the latter then comprising Ecuador, New Granada, 
 and Venezuela — totally defeated the last Spanish 
 army that was ever seen on the new continent. 
 
 AYA'LA, Peso Lopez de, called El Viejo, to 
 distinguish him from his son of the same name, was 
 bom at Murcia in 1332, of one of the first families of 
 the CastUian nobility. He stood high in the regard 
 of several kings of Castile, and filled the first offices 
 of the state, latterly, that of high-chancellor and 
 high-chamberlain of Castile. At the battle of Kajera, 
 in 1367, he was taken prisoner by the English, then 
 in league with Peter the Cruel, and confined for 
 some time in an English dungeon ; and again in 1385, 
 by the Portuguese, at the battle of Aljubarota. He 
 died at Calahorra in 1407. A. has acquired a 
 name, not only as a statesman, but as a writer, 
 especijJly as a historian and poet. Hia test known 
 work is his Crdnicas de los Reyes de Costilla D. 
 Pedro, D. Enrique II., D. Juan I., D. Unrique III. 
 (2 vols. Madr. 1779-80— the older editions of 1495 
 and 1591 are imperfect). He was iie first among 
 the Spaniards to give up the usual simple narrative 
 of events in the order of time, and to seek to give 
 a more rational representation of them according to 
 the rules of historic art. It is only in recent timea 
 that the poetical works of A. have been discovered ; 
 the most remarkable of which is the Libra o' Eimado 
 de Palado. This ' Book in Ehyme on Court-life,' as 
 its singular title may be translated, was begun during 
 the poet's first captivity in England, and is composed 
 in me old national form of rhyming Alexandrine 
 
AYE-AYE— AYMAK. 
 
 stanzas of four lines; the contents are satirical and 
 didactic. A. appears also in his poetical works as a 
 representative of that transition epoch of Spanish 
 national literature, when it was passing from_ a 
 popular original literature to one of a more artificial 
 imitative character. 
 
 AYE- AYE {Chdromys MadagcLscarienm), a quad- 
 ruped about the size of a hare, a native of Mada- 
 gascar, which was at first placed by naturalists 
 among Squirrels, and was ranked by Cuvier along 
 with them in the order of Rodents (Bodeniia), 
 although Sonnerat, who discovered it, pointed out 
 its ajmity also to the Makis or Lemurs, to which 
 family it is now pretty generally referred. The 
 principal reason for placing the A. among the Rodents 
 has been found in the conformation of its teeth ; but 
 
 Aye-aye. 
 
 the other characters of the animal amee generally 
 with those of the Lemurs, and its habits resemble 
 theirs. The A. has large broad ears, large round 
 eyes, long brownish gray nair, and a large bushy tail, 
 which it does not carry over its back as squirrels 
 do. It is very active during the night, but sleeps 
 during the day. Li confinement, it will subsist on 
 boiled rice and fruits. It seems to be able to make 
 as good use of its front teeth forgnawing as any 
 of the Bodents (Gnawers). Mr Effis mentions one 
 which ate its way through a barrel, and made its 
 escape. He thinks it prooable that there are more 
 than one species. 
 
 AYESHAH, the favourite wife of Mohammed, 
 was bom at Medina in 610 or 611 A.D. She was 
 only nine years of age when she married the 
 Prophet. Her. father's name was Abdullah, but he 
 was sumajned Abu-Bekr, 'father of the virgin,' in 
 consequence, it is said, of his daughter being the 
 only One of Mohammed's wives who was a virgin. 
 AHiough A. bore no children to Mohammed, she 
 was so tenderly beloved by him, that he was wont 
 to say that she would be the first of his wives to 
 whom the gates of Paradise would be opened. It 
 is stated by Mohammedan historians, that to the 
 charms of her beauty she added a knowledge of 
 mathematics, rhetoric, and music. But this state- 
 ment is improbable. She was accused of adultery, 
 but Mohammed having produced a revelation from 
 Heaven to the effect that she was innocent, pun- 
 ished her accusers, and made it an article of faith 
 for all time, that whoever" should not beheve in her 
 purity should endure the pains of hell for ever. In his 
 last illness, Mohammed, by his request, was carried 
 to her house, and expired in her arms. After the 
 
 Prophet's death, A. took an active part in the plot 
 which deprived Kalif Othman of his power and life, 
 and head!ed a force to resist the accession of Ali. 
 After some partial success, however, the troops under 
 her were effectually defeated by Ali, and she was 
 taken prisoner. All spared her fife, and allowed her 
 to reside in any town in Arabia she chose, provided 
 she did not interfere with state affairs. She died at 
 Medina (677 A.D.). In spite of her political adver- 
 sities, A. was highly venerated by all true Mussul- 
 mans, and named the Prophetess, and the Mother of 
 BeHevers. She was consulted on divers points of the 
 Koran, and her interpretations were held to be 
 binding. They have been collected in the Surma 
 (q.v.). 
 
 AY'LBSBtJRY, a town in the centre of Bucking- 
 hamshire, on a rivulet which flows into the Thame, 
 an east branch of the Thames. It Ues high above 
 the vale in which the rivulet runs, which often 
 causes a scarcity of water in the town. Pop. (1851) 
 26,794. A. returns two members to parliament. It 
 is chiefly an agricultural town, but the inhabitants 
 also engage in straw-plait, lace, and silk manufac- 
 tures. Many ducks are reared for the London 
 Christmas market. A. is a very ancient town, 
 having been taken from the Britons by the Saxons 
 in 571. 
 
 AY'LESFOBD, a village near the centre of 
 Kent, on the ridit bank of the Medway, SJ miles 
 north-east of Maidstone. Eemarkable ancient 
 remains occur here. On a hill-slope a mile and a 
 •half to the north-east, there still stands a cele- 
 brated ancient cromlech, or burying-plaoe, called 
 Kits Coity House — a small truncated pyramidal 
 chamber, open in front, and formed of four large 
 rude Kentish rag blocks, three of which are uprights, 
 with a slight slope inwards, and the fourth laid on 
 them. Of the side-stones, one is 7 by 1^ feet, 2 feet 
 thick, and 8 J tons in weight; the second is 8 by 8 J 
 feet, weighing 8 tons; and the third is smaller and 
 more irregular in form. The capstone is 12 by 9J 
 feet, 2J feet thick, and weighs lOJ tons. This crom- 
 lech seems to have been ttie centre of a group of 
 ancient monuments connected by a long stone avenue 
 with another group, 7 miles to the south-east. In this 
 district also occur, on the brow of the chalk-hills on 
 both sides of the Medway, large circular sepulchral 
 pits, opening at bottom into one or more chambers. 
 Some of these pits are covered with flat stones, and 
 filled with flints. At A. the Britons defeated the 
 Saxons in 455,' and drove them from the island ; but 
 early in the 7th c. the Saxons were victorious here. 
 
 AY'LOFFE, Sib Joseph, an EngUsh antiquary 
 of cdebrity, bom about 1708 in the parish of Rram- 
 field, Sussex. In 1731 he was elected a Fellow of 
 the Eoyal Society, and in the following year, a 
 Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries. He was one 
 of the first council of this Society, after it received 
 its charter of inoQrporation in 1751; and he was 
 made vice-president some years after. When the 
 new State-Paper Office was established in 1763, he 
 was made one of the commissioners for the preserva- 
 tion of the state papers. In 1772, he published a 
 valuable work oit the national records. He also 
 wrote several useful papers for the publications of 
 the Society of Antiquaries; and projected, and was 
 engaged in the execution of the work, afterwards 
 continued by Gough, and known as Gough's Sepul- 
 chral Manumemts, at the time of his death in 1781. 
 
 AYMAB, Jaques, a celebrated French professor 
 of the art of divination. A. was the son of a peasant 
 of Dauphing, and was bom at St Veran in September 
 1662. He was brought up as a mason, but he for- 
 sook that trade for the divining-rod, which he used 
 at first to point out springs, Edden treasures, &c. 
 
 687 
 
AYMON— AYKSHIEE. 
 
 In 1692, a murder and robbery was committed at 
 Lyon, and A. and his rod were called into requisition 
 to detect the criminals. In some way or other, he 
 succeeded in discovering one o£ the guilty par- 
 ties. A.'s fame having been spread by this inci- 
 dent, he was called to Paris to exhibit his art before 
 the Prince de Condg; but, unfortunately for his 
 reputation, his power of divination utterly failed him ; 
 and being forced to confess himself an impostor, he 
 was sent back in disgrace to his original obscurity. 
 
 AYMOK, the surname of four brothers, called 
 respectively Alard, Eichard, Guiscard, and Eenaud, 
 sons of Aymon or Haimon, Count of Dordogne, 
 who figure among the most illustrious heroes of 
 the ohivalric poetry of the middle ages ; but their 
 historic existence must be considered problematical, 
 as the deeds attributed to them possess in so large a 
 measure a miraculous character. What basis of fact 
 may underlie the fanciful accretions of mythology, 
 it is now impossible to determine. Their career 
 belongs to the cycle of marvels, of which Charle- 
 magne is the central point, and their adventures 
 fiunished rich material to the romantic narratives 
 of Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries, and, 
 in fact, were the exclusive subject of some of 
 these. A novel, entitled Les Quatre Fils Aymon, 
 by Huon de Villeneuve, a French poet of the 
 age of Philippe Auguste, details very minutely 
 their exploits. Finally, Ariosto conferred a poeti- 
 cal iiomortaKty on the family by the publication 
 of his Eoland, in which Eenaud, the bravest of 
 the four brothers, plays continually the most 
 distinguished part. The traditions concerning them 
 are not uniform or consistent. Some have a 
 Proven9al origin ; but the author or authors of the 
 popular German book which Tieok has edited and 
 published, entitled The Beautiful and Untertaijiing 
 History of the Four Brothers Aymon, and of their 
 Horse Bayard, with the Deeds and Heroic Feais that 
 they accomplished against the Pagans, in the Time 
 of Charlemagne, seem to have drawn from a 
 different source. The most probable hjrpothesis, 
 therefore, is, that the varieties in these poetic legends 
 are due to the fancy and national predilections of 
 the particular; authors, and that there originally 
 existed a single tradition, out of which the whole 
 sprang. 
 
 AYR, the county town of Ayrshire, is situated on 
 the left bank of the river Ayr, about the middle of 
 the coast of Ayrshire, 40 miles south-south-west of 
 Glasgow by raU. It lies in a coal district. A. is a 
 clean and handsome town, and its principal streets 
 are well bmlt. To the south, between the town and 
 the race-course, numerous elegant villas have recently 
 sprung up. The spire of the Assembly-rooms is 217 
 feet, and the Wallaoe Tower, 113 feet high. The 
 river is here spanned by three bridges — the ' Auld 
 Brig' and 'New Brig' of Bums, and one bmlt 
 long after, to permit the Glasgow and South- 
 western Eailway to be carried on uninterruptedly 
 into Carrick. These connect the town with Newton- 
 upon-Ayr. A harbour is formed by the estuary 
 of the river, and is protected on each side by 
 a pier. There is a bar at its mouth, with a depth 
 only of sixteen feet at spring-tides, which pre- 
 vents the entrance of vessels above 200 tons. The 
 coasting-trade is considerable. The chief export 
 is coal, 60,000 to 70,000 tons yearly being sent 
 to Ireland from the Newton-upon-Ayr coflieries. 
 Formerly, much wine was imported from France. 
 At an early date, A. was a, commercial and military 
 place of some importance. William the Lion made 
 it a royal burgh about 1202. During the Scottish 
 wars of independence, it formed a regular centre of 
 military operations, and, while in possession of an 
 £88 
 
 English garrison, it was the scene of Wallace's 
 first exploits. The principal objects of interest near 
 A. are connected with the memory of Eobert 
 Burns. See Alloway KiEK. Pop. in 1851, municipal 
 burgh, 9097; parliamentary burgh, including Newton- 
 upon-Ayr, 17,624. A. unites with Campbelton, 
 Irvine, Inverary, and Oban, in sending a member to 
 parliament. In 1857, custom diities, £4930 ; value 
 of exports, £7160; registered shippiag, 35 vessels, or 
 3919 tons. 
 
 AY'RSHIRE, an extensive maritime county in 
 the south-west of Scotland, bounded, K, by Eenfrew- 
 shire; W., by the Firth of Clyde and the North 
 Channel; S., by Wigton and Kirkcudbright; E. 
 and N. E., by Dumfries and Lanark. Its greatest 
 length is 78 miles; its greatest breadth, 26 — 
 average 14^; estimated area, 1016 square miles. 
 It is the seventh in size of the Scottish counties. 
 The general aspect of the county is undulating and 
 hilly, the land attaining no great elevation, except 
 a small portion in the north, and some consider- 
 able tracts in the south and south-east, which 
 are mountainous. None of the eminences exceed 
 2000 feet. A. contains a great number of lakes 
 and small streams, the latter rising near the 
 inland boxmdary of the county. The chief rivers 
 — only 20 to 35 miles long — are the Ayr, with 
 its tributary the Lugar, and the Doon, which flow 
 across the centre of the county; the Gamook and 
 Irvine iu the north; and the Girvan and Stinchar 
 in the south. A. to the south of the Girvan consists 
 of Lower Silurian rocks, and to the north of that 
 river, of patches of Devonian, carboniferous, and 
 trap rocks. It is rich in valuable minerals, espe- 
 cially coal, ironstone, limestone, and freestone. 
 The other minerals have been long wrought, but 
 it is only of late years that the working of iron- 
 stone has been established — and is now carried on 
 on a large scale in the north of the county. On the 
 banks of the Ayr, is found an excellent species 
 of whetstone, called Water-of-Ayr Stone. The 
 climate of A. is mild and healthy, but moist. The 
 soil along the coast is light and sandy, interspersed 
 with deep loam ; the most fertile districts are in the 
 centre of the county, where clay predominates. On 
 the east side are ejctensive mosses and moorlands. 
 The three ancient divisions of the coimty are — 
 Carrick, south of the Doon, mostly wild and hiUy ; 
 Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine, containing 
 much rich level land, but towards the coast the sou 
 is light, and, though well cultivated, is less produc- 
 tive; and Cimningham, comprising all the country 
 north of the Irvine, mostly fertile. The character- 
 istics of these districts are rudely indicated in the ' 
 old country rhyme : 
 
 Eyle for a man ; 
 
 Carrick for a coo ; 
 
 Cunningham for butter and cheese ; 
 
 And G^oway for woo. 
 
 Agriculture in A, till about 1800, was very back- 
 ward ; but since that time, especiaUy of late years, 
 extraordinary progress has been made in furrow- 
 draining, improved rotation, and road -making ; 
 while the condition of the peasants has been much 
 improved. In 1857, 259,911 acres were in crop, held 
 by 3300 persons, the farms being generally smalL 
 Dairy-husbandry is carried to Mgh perfection in 
 Ayrshire, the breed of milch cows, of which it rears 
 a greater number than any other Scotch county, 
 being noted as the finest in the kingdom for the 
 quantity and quality of their milk. The Dunlop 
 cheese, so called from the parish of that name, is 
 almost as celebrated as Stilton. The breed of horses 
 is alsd excellent. Manufactures, especially woollen 
 and cotton, are carried on to an important extent 
 
AYEBR— AYUNTAMIENTO. 
 
 The muslin manufacturers o£ Glasgow and Paisley- 
 employ a considerable proportion of the female 
 population, whose needlework is celebrated. Of 
 the minor manufactures, the most characteristic is 
 that of snuff-boxes, which is extensively carried 
 on at Old Cumnock and Mauohline. KUmamook 
 ' cowls' or night-caps used to be famous aU over 
 Scotland, but they have now disappeared. Ironworks 
 exist at Muirkirk. There are considerable willow- 
 plantations for hoops and baskets. 'Pop. in 1851, 
 189,858 ; inhabited houses, 23,554 ; day-schools, 
 298 with 23,372 scholars ; places of worship, 1T9 (54 
 of the Estabhshed, and 46 of the Free Church). A. 
 county returns one member to parliament. The chief 
 towns, besides Ayr, are Kilmarnock, Girvan, May- 
 bole, Dairy, Kilwinning, Beith, Irvine, Stewartgn, 
 Ardrossan, Saltcoats, Troon, Mauchline, Galston, 
 Newnulns, Kilbirnie, and Largs. Of antiquities, the 
 most interesting are the ruins of Crossraguel Abbey, 
 near Kirkoswald, and of the castles of Turnberry, the 
 family seat of Robert the Bruce, Dunuie, Loch Boon, 
 Dean, Auchinleck, Dundonald, &c. ; also the ruins 
 of Alloway Kirk. There are also rehos of early 
 times in the form of cairns and encampments. 
 
 A. was inhabited, in the time of Agricola, by the 
 Damnii, with whom were afterwards mixed the 
 Soots from the opposite coast of Kintyre. In the 
 8th 0., the Northumbrian Saxons seized the territory ; 
 and afterwards came the Normans, whose traces 
 still exist in local names. During the religious 
 persecutions of the Stuarts, A. was a stronghold 
 of the Covenanters. 
 
 AY'JBER, Jacob, next to Hans Sachs the most 
 prohfio and important; German dramatic writer of 
 the 16th c. His history is involved in obscurity ; 
 but it is known that he was a citizen of Numberg 
 in 1594, and a procurator in the courts of law. It 
 was not tfll after his death, in 1605, that a collection 
 of his pieces was published, consisting of 66 trage- 
 dies, comedies, and carnival plays (Numb. 1618). A. 
 has the same garrulous breadth of dialogue as Hans 
 Sachs, but is iirferior to bim in wit and humour. 
 
 AY'TON, Sir Robert, a Scottish poet and favour- 
 ite coiurtier in the reign of James VI. He was a 
 younger son of Andrew Ayton of Kinaldie, Eifeshire, 
 where he was bom in 1570. He was enrolled as a 
 student in St Leonard's College, St Andrews, in 1584, 
 and took his degree of M.A. in 1588. For purposes 
 of study, he next visited France, from whence he 
 addressed, in 1603, an elegant panegyric, in Latin 
 verse, to King James, on his accession to the throne 
 of England. This poem appears to have been the 
 making of A.'s fortune, for we find him afterwards 
 appointed, successively, one of the gentlemen of 
 the bedchamber, private secretary to the queen, and 
 master of requests. Subsequently, he held the 
 appointment of secretary to the queen of Charles I. 
 King James employed him to convey copies of one 
 of his works, conjectured to be his Apology for 
 Oie Oatli of Allegiance, to the German courts. A. 
 was on terms of familiarity with all the most 
 eminent men of his time — ^poets, wits, and philoso- 
 phers alike — among others, Hobbes and Ben Jonson. 
 He was himself a poet of considerable merit ; but, 
 unfortunately, a large number of his effusions being 
 complimentary verses to his friends, are characterised 
 by conceit and extravagant flattery. He was one 
 of the first Scotsmen who wrote in EngHsh with 
 any degree of elegance and purity. His verses on 
 , general topics ' are conceived in a refined and tender 
 strain of fancy, that reminds us more of the fairy 
 strains of Herrick than anything else.' Bums had 
 a great admiration of some of A.'s pieces, two or 
 
 - three of which he paraphrased. A is also said to 
 
 - have written verses in Greek and French, as .well 
 
 as in English and Latin. Several of his La;tin poems 
 are preserved in the work called Delidce Poetarum 
 Scotorum, printed at Amsterdam in 1637. A died 
 in Whitehall Palace, March 1638. 
 
 AY'TOUN, William EDMONDSTOtJifE, is a native 
 of Edinburgh, having been born there in 1813. He 
 received his education at the metropolitan university, 
 and was called to the Scottish bar in 1840. In 
 1845, he was appointed Regius Professor of E,hetorio 
 and BeUes-Lettres in the university of Edinburgh ; 
 and after the formation of the Derby administra- 
 tion, in 1852, he was promoted to the shrievalty 
 of Orkney and Shetland. He married a daughter 
 of the late Professor WUsou. During the last 20 
 years. Professor A. has wielded an indefatigable pen. 
 The earliest work of his with which we are ac- 
 quainted is entitled Tlie Life and Times of Richard I., 
 published in 1840 — a subject well treated, and 
 singularly in consonance with his chivalrous and 
 romance-loving nature. Despitp his minstrel ten- 
 dencies, he is a master of caricature and parody; 
 and many of the most successful of the Bon. GaiiUier 
 Ballads are xmderstood to be from his pen. In 
 1849, he published the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers 
 and other Poems, which established his reputation as 
 a poet of the school of Sir Walter Scott, and which 
 has run through eleven editions. His subsequent 
 writings are — Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, pub- 
 lished in 1854; Bothwell, a narrative poem of 
 considerable length, in the measure and manner 
 of Scott, and which has, since its publication in 1856, 
 to a considerable extent been recast and improved. 
 His edition of the Scottish Ballads, in 2 vols., appeared 
 in 1858. In the ensuing year, he, in conjunction 
 with his friend Mr Theodore Martin, issued trans- 
 lations of various minor poems of Goethe, in one 
 volume. He has for many years been one of the most 
 frequent and brilliant contributors to Blaclewood^s 
 Magazine. Professor A. has been successful in 
 quite opposite departments of literature — he is 
 distinguished , as a poet and humorist. His poems 
 exhibit a ballad-like simpHcity, and a fiery flow 
 of narration — the special merits of the poetical 
 school in which he has graduated ; while his tales 
 — the best known and appreciated of which are 
 T/ie Qlenmutchhin Railway, and How I became a 
 Yeoman — possess a certain robust humour and farci- 
 cal abandonment, and are related to the writings of 
 the great masters of humour much in the degree 
 that the ' screaming farce' is related to genteel 
 comedy. His poetical powers appear in their greatest 
 perfection in the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers ; the 
 special merits of his humour are best exhibited in 
 How I became a Yeoman. He has also acquired 
 some reputation as a critic, and wields, with con- 
 siderable dexterity and force, to the terror of a later 
 generation, the knout of the dreaded Christopher 
 North of the ' Noctes.' 
 
 AYUNTAMIB'NTO is the name given in Spain 
 to the councils or governing bodies of towns. Sprung 
 from the institutions of the Romans, and iirmly 
 established during the long struggles with the Moors, 
 the ayuntamientos acquired great influence and 
 political power, the more so that. the nobility were 
 not excluded from them. Although this importance 
 was impaired through the insurrection of Juan de 
 Padilla in 1521 ; and at a later period, imder the 
 Bourbons, the last shadow of municipal freedom was 
 lost ; the remembrance of it continued to be cherished 
 by the people. Accordingly, the oortes of Cadiz, in 
 1812, took up the leadmg features of the former 
 system, adapting them, by more democratic modi- 
 fications, to the requirements of the time. On 
 the return of ■ Ferdinand VII., the ayuntamientos 
 were abolished; they were again restored by the 
 
 S89 
 
AZALEA— AZEGMO. 
 
 I 
 
 cortes, in 1823 ; and after the invasion by France, 
 once more set aside. During tlie civil war, various 
 
 iroposals were made regarding the ayuntamientos ; 
 
 lut at last the arrangements of 1812 were confirmed 
 by the constitution of 1837. According to that 
 statute, the A., with the alcalde as president, is 
 appelated by the free choice of the people, and is 
 entitled to exercise the highest functions within the 
 circle of its jurisdiction. The government can 
 provisionally annul its acts, but must afterwards 
 procure the ratification of the cortes, by which alone 
 an A. can be dissolved. The ayuntamientos are 
 empowered to make up the lists of electors and 
 jurors, to organise the national guards, to command 
 the police within their own bounds, to direct the 
 apportionment arid raising of taxes, and to manage 
 the funds of the commune. In 1840, a bill was 
 brought into the cortes, formed on the model of 
 the French law, proposiag to deprive the ayunta- 
 mientos of all political power, and restrict their 
 functions to purely municipal matters, and also to 
 limit the franchise to the most highly taxed. But 
 the insurrection which this step excited, and which 
 ended in the expulsion of the queen, Maria Christina, 
 prevented the project from being carried out. At 
 last, in 1844, a law, similar to that proposed in 1840, 
 was, through the intriguing of Chnstina, supported 
 by French mfluenoe, adopted by the cortes, then 
 composed of moderados ; and this law, with little 
 alteration, continues in force to the present day. 
 
 AZA'LEA, a genus of plants belonging to the 
 natural order Mricece, and distinguished from 
 Rhododendron (q. v.) chiefly by the flowers having 
 five stamens instead of ten. Most of the species of 
 A. also difler from the rhododendrons in having 
 
 Azalea Indica, 
 
 thin deciduous leaves. Some botanists unite the 
 genus A. to Bhododmdron. One of the species best 
 deserving of notice is A. Pontica, a shrub from 
 three to five feet high, a native of the countries 
 around the Black Sea, with large obovate or oblongo- 
 lanceolate shining leaves and umbellate yellow 
 flowers, which are externally covered with glutinous 
 hairy glands, and are very fragrant. It may be 
 regarded as, like many of the owier Ericeee (heaths, 
 &o.), a social plant; and its golden flowers give great 
 
 brilliancy to the landscape in many parts of the 
 Crimea, the south-east of Poland, the Caucasus, &c. 
 It covers many mountain slopes, but does not 
 ascend to great elevations, giving place to the more 
 alpiue Bhododendron Ponticum. It is common in 
 gardens and shrubberies in Britain, and varies with 
 orange, red, and almost white flowers. The whole 
 plant is narcotic and poisonous, and the honey col- 
 lected by bees from its flowers, which very much 
 abound in honey, is said to cause stupefaction and 
 delirium, as happened to Xenophon's soldiers in their 
 famous retreat in Asia. — North America abounds 
 in azaleas as well as iu rhododendrons, and some of 
 the species have been long cultivated in Britain, par- 
 ticularly A. nvdiflora aoAA. viscosa, which, with A. 
 Pontica, have become the parents of many hybrids. 
 Both have nearly white flowers, very beautiful, and 
 of delicious fragrance. A. viscosa has the flowers 
 covered with ^itinous hairs like A. Poniica; but 
 the flowers of A. nvMflora are nearly destitute of 
 them. Both species abound from Canada to the 
 southern paorts of the United States. They are 
 taller shrubs than A. Poniica. Upon account of 
 its sweet smell, A. nudiflora is called in America, 
 the Upright Honeysuckle. A. ealendulaoea, a, 
 native of the southern parts of the United States, 
 is described as frequently clothing the mountains 
 with a robe of living scarlet. — India and China 
 produce several species of A., of which one of the 
 finest is A. Indica, well known in Britain as a 
 greenhouse shrub. Its flowers exhibit great bril- 
 Eancy of colours. Many hybrids exist between the 
 more hardy species and ijhis. Another extremely 
 beautiful species is A. ledifolia, an evergreen, which 
 has been introduced into Britftin from China. 
 
 A diminutive, procumbent, evergreen shrub, a 
 native of alpine regions ia Europe and North 
 America, plentifnl on high mountains in Scotland, 
 was long known as A. procumhens, but is now called 
 Ldsdeuria procumhens. The flowers are small and 
 rose-coloured. The whole appearance of the plant 
 widely differs from that of the genus Azalea. 
 
 AZE'GLIO, Ma'ssdio Makquis d', famous as an 
 artist, a publicist, a romance-writer, and a states- 
 man, is the descendant of an ancient and noble 
 family of Piedmont. He was born ia 1801 at Turin, 
 where his father held a high military position. In his 
 fifteenth year, A. foEowed his father to Borne, 
 where he had been appointed ambassador, and there 
 contracted a love for tiie fine arts ; but lus study of 
 music and painting was cut short by his father pro- 
 curing him an appointment in a Piedmontese cavalry 
 regiment. Here A. devoted his leisure with such 
 iatensity to scientific pursuits, that he brought on 
 an illness which forced, him to quit the service. A 
 journey to Home, from which he returned to Turin in 
 1820, restored his health, but deepened his passion for 
 painting. After some difficulty, he got hjs father's 
 permission to devote himself entirSy to this art. 
 A year had hardly elapsed ere A. had made himself 
 a name in Rome as an artist. In landscape-painting 
 he soon attained complete artistic skill After a 
 residence of eight years at Rome, during which 
 he had pursued the study of history along with 
 painting, he returned to Turin. On the death of 
 his father ia 1830, he went to Milan, where painting 
 was then flourishing. In Milan he made the friend- 
 ship of Alexander Manzoni, whose daughter he 
 married. A. now began to make himself favourably 
 known also in literature, his novels, Ettore Pierw- 
 mosco (1833), and Niccolo di Lapi , (1841), having 
 done much to fan the national spirit of the Italians. 
 The political affairs of Italy soon occupied l<im 
 exclusively ; he traversed the provinces, cities, and 
 villages, seeking to stir up the spirit of patriotism, 
 and to conciliate the tmhappy party divisions, and 
 
AZEEBIJAN— AZINCOUET. 
 
 was everywhere received •with rejoicing and accla- 
 mation. A. never belonged to a secret political 
 society, but opposed conspiracies as miscriievous, 
 and exhorted the impatient to moderation. While 
 in Florence, he wrote his famous piece, DegU vUwii 
 0<m di Somagna, in -which he lashed the miser- 
 able papal government, denounced the vain attempts 
 at insurrection, and proved to the Italian princes 
 the necessity of a national policy. After the elec- 
 tion of Pius IX. as pope, A. returned to Home, 
 and to his influence were ascribed the reforms 
 with which Pius began his government. He was 
 intensely active at this time, and wrote much on 
 pubhc questions. (The whole of his political writ- 
 mgs, collected in one volume, appeared at Turin, 
 1851.) When Charles Albert, after the rising of 
 Lombardy, crossed the Ticino, A. left Rome with 
 the papal troops destined to support the Italian 
 contest. In the battle of Vicenza, where he com- 
 manded a legion, he was severely wounded in the 
 leg while %hting at the head of his troops. 
 Scarcely was he recovered, when with his pen he 
 courageously opposed the republican ;party, now 
 intoxicated wilJi victory. On the opening of the 
 Sardinian parhameut, he was chosen a member of 
 the Chamber of Deputies. After the unfortunate 
 event of the battle of Novara, the young king, 
 Victor Emanuel II., appointed Mm (1849) presi- 
 dent of the cabinet, an office which he undertook 
 solely out of love to his king and country. His 
 influence in this high position was most beneficial, 
 Sardinia owing much of the prosperity and proud 
 national jposition she now enjoys to his foresight 
 and sagacity. At the close of ttie late war (1659), 
 when several important towns in the States of tlie 
 Church declared for Piedmont, A. was appointed 
 {pro tempore) General and Commissioner Extraor- 
 dinary, purely mihtary, for the Roman States. On 
 his retirement, he issued a proclamation to the 
 people, which greatly tended to strengthen their 
 resolution by its noble yet temperate advice. 
 
 AZBRBIJA'N, or ADERBAIJA'N, the ancient 
 Media Airopatene, is the most northerly province 
 of Persia. It is situated between lat. 36° and 40° N., 
 long. 44° and 48° 40' E.; bounded on the S. by 
 Persian Kurdistan and Irat, B. by Ghilan, N.E. and 
 N. by the Russian territory, and W. by Turkish 
 Kurdistan. It has an area of about 30,000 square 
 miles, and a population of 2,000,000. The surface 
 of A. is very mountainous, many of the ranges 
 rising from 7000 to 9000 feet in height. The peak 
 of Savalan (an extinct volcano) reaches an eleva- 
 tion of 13,000 feet. > Mount AJrarat rises on the 
 north-west border. The chief rivers of A. are the 
 Aras or Araases, the Kara Su, and the Kiidl-Uzen. 
 The salt lake UrunMyah or Urumieyeh (q. v.), the 
 largest in Persia, is situated on the western border 
 of Qie province. The climate of A. is not unhealthy, 
 but it is subject to the extremes of heat and cold. 
 The transition from cold to heat is very rapid. 
 In the mountainous districts, the hail-storms 
 are occasionally so violent as to kiU cattle. The 
 priucip^ products of A. are rice, barley, wheat, 
 maize, flax, hemp, cotton, tobacco, honey, and 
 saffi-on ; camels, horses, cattle, and sheep are also 
 reared; velvet, silks, stuff, carpets, wooHens, and 
 leather are the most important articles of manu- 
 facture, and a little is done in hardware. Lead, 
 iron, copper, sulphur, saltpetre, and salt are found 
 in the province. The capital of A. is Tabriz, with 
 a population of about 30,000. It has suffered 
 greatly from earthquakes. The oHier towns of 
 note are Urumiyah, on the lake of that name ; 
 . Maragha, famous as the place where Nasir Eddin, 
 the astaronomer, fixed his observatory; Miana, Khoi, 
 Selmas, and ArdebiL 
 
 AZIMGHU'R, or AZIM'S PORT, a name prim- 
 arily applied to a town in India, and thence extended 
 to its mstrict. 1. The town is in lat. 26° N., and 
 long. 83° 14' E. Prom Calcutta it is 448 miles to 
 the north-west ; from Benares, 81 to the north ; 
 from Allahabad, 109 to the north-east ; and from 
 Luoknow, 171 to the south-east. It is situated on 
 the north-eastern Tons, a considerable offset of the 
 Gogra, which is here crossed by a bridge of boats, 
 and which is navigable downwards, a distance of 40 
 nules, to its confluence with the Surjoo. The town 
 is estimated to contain about 14,000 inhabitants, 
 besides the troops in garrison. During the mutiny 
 of 1857, A. was, so far, a creditable exception to 
 the general rule of ruthless cruelty among the 
 insurgents. The sepoys did indeed mutiny, actu- 
 ated, apparently, by a wish to appropriate a passing 
 treasure of 7 lacs of rupees, or £70,000 sterling. 
 But, having formed a square round their officers, 
 and sworn to protect them, they brought carriages 
 for them and their famihes, and escorted the whole 
 ten nules towards Ghazeepore. — 2. The district 
 stretches in N. lat. between 25° > 36' and 26° 24', 
 and in B. long, between 82° 45' and 84° 12'. Its 
 area is said to be 2520 square nules ; and its 
 population to be 1,313,950. These two estimates 
 can scarcely be^both correct, yielding, as they do, an 
 average of 521 rohabitants to a square mile — a very 
 improbable average, more particularly as populous 
 towns are unknown. The district is low and 
 remarkably level. The soil is fertile, excepting 
 that a few tracia are irreclaunably barren from 
 being impregnated with soda, niti:e, and other 
 saline substances. There are tolerably extensive 
 manufactures — the silk looms being 3122, and the 
 cotton ones, 10,560. Connected with the latter is 
 the. curious fact, that scarcely any cotton- wool is 
 produced on the spot. 
 
 A'ZIMXJTH. The A. of a heavenly body is the 
 angle measured along the horizon between the north 
 or south point, and we point where a circle, passing 
 through the zenith and the body, cuts the horizon. 
 The word comes from the Arabic, and is said to 
 be derived from a word signifying a quarter of 
 the heavens. It is usual to measure the A. west- 
 ward from the point most remote from the elevated 
 pole, beginning at 0°, and returning to it at 360°. 
 Thus, in northern latitudes, where, me north pole is 
 elevated, the A. is measured from the south point, so 
 that the east point, for instance, has an A. of 270°. 
 See ABMXLiiAicY Sphere. A. circles are those which 
 extend from zenith to nadir, cutting the horizon at 
 right angles, or those in which all the points have 
 the same azimuth. 
 
 A'ZINCOURT, or AGESTCOURT, a village in 
 the department of Pas-de-Calais, Prance, celebrated 
 for a bloody battle between the English and 
 French, October 25, 1415. The internal distrac- 
 tions of Prance under the imbecile Charles VI. 
 (q. V.) had encouraged England to attempt to make 
 g)od her ancient claims on Prance. Henry V. of 
 England had landed at Harfleur, had taken that- 
 for&ess, and wished to march through Picardie to 
 Calais, in order to go into winter-quarters. The 
 Dauphin advanced against him with a powerful 
 force. A great number of the nobility accompanied 
 hiTn ; and so great was their confidence, that the 
 offered aid of the Duke of Burgundy and of the 
 city of Paris was rejected. Henry hastened to the 
 Sonuue, but was followed by the French, who 
 opposed his passage; he at last managed to cross 
 with his army at St Quentin. Greatly weakened 
 in numbers, and suffering extremely from want 
 of provisions, Henry offered to purchase peace by , 
 reparation of injuries. But the French would not 
 
AZORES— AZOTUS. 
 
 hear of a treaty, as they entertained the hope of 
 completely annihilating the Endish army. Tliey 
 had, in fact, intercepted the EngUsh , march to 
 Calais, by getting possession of the Mgh road behind 
 the little river Temoise, near the vUlagea of A. and 
 Ib-amecourt. The invading army, therefore, still 
 (according to French accounts) 14,000 strong, of 
 whom 2000 were men-at-arms — though no English 
 writer makes it more than 10,000 — ^prepared for an 
 engagement by posting themselves between two 
 woods, in a single line of battle, with the archers 
 on the wings. The French, to the number of 50,000, 
 under the command of the Constable, D'Albret, 
 were drawn up in two lines, the men-at-arms, of 
 whom only 2000 were mounted, being in the first. 
 The Engfish were the first to begin the onset. 
 The French cavalry rushed forward to meet them, 
 but were received with such a storm of arrows 
 that they took to flight, threw themselves upon the 
 first line, and put it into disorder. On this, the 
 light-armed Enghsh archers took to their bill- 
 hooks and hatchets, broke into the ranks of the 
 men-at-arms that fought on foot, whose heavy 
 armour and close array rendered them almost incap- 
 able of resistance, and made the greatest havoc 
 among them. This being followed by a charge of 
 the EngHsh horsemen, the first Hue took to flight, 
 the second was unable to arrest the victors, and the 
 whole French army was soon completely dispersed. 
 The victory- was decided. For a moment, Henry 
 believed that the rallying masses were going to 
 renew the figlit ; and hearing also that "a troop of 
 armed peasante were plundering his baggage, he gave 
 orders to slay all the prisoners taken. The order 
 was already executed when he discovered the ground- 
 lessness of his alarm. As many as 10,000 French- 
 men were slain, among whom were the Constable 
 and six dukes and princes, the Duke of Brabant, 
 the Count of Nevers, the Duke of Alen9on, the 
 Duke of Bar and his two brothers. Five princes, 
 among them the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, 
 were taken prisoners. The EngUsh lost 1600 kflled, 
 including the Duke of York, the king's great-uncle, 
 whom the Duke of Alen^on slew. Alenson had 
 even struck the crown from King Henry's head, 
 when he was surrounded by all present, and fell 
 with many wounds. Henry, however, was too weak 
 to pursue his advantage, and therefore continued his 
 march to Calais, where he embarked for England. 
 
 AZO'RBS, a cluster of islands in the Atlantic, 
 •800 mUes due west of the southern half of Portugal, 
 rauring in N. lat. between 36° 55' and 39° 44', and 
 in W. long, between 25° 10' and 31° 16'. In the 
 first half of the 15th c, the A. were discovered by 
 the Portuguese, or rather, it has been said, appro- 
 priated by them, after having been revealed to them 
 by a Flemish navigator, Joshua Vanderberg of 
 Bruges. They were at that time uninhabited — a 
 
 - fact which, so far as it goes, seems adverse to any 
 motion that America could have been colonised from 
 Europe in this direction. Their salient position, 
 however, may soon be turned to account, for the 
 A. have recently been suggested as a resting-place 
 
 • for an intercontinental telegraph— and that in con- 
 nection with the Bermudas, which are precisely as 
 far to the east of South Carolina as the A. them- 
 selves are to the west of Portugal. The Portuguese 
 
 ' colonists called the whole group A., from appr or 
 azor, a hawk ; and they named two individual 
 islands Corvo and St Jorgo, from Corvos Marines 
 and St Jorsi, which, according to the maps of the 
 14th c, had been previously seen in the western 
 ocean. Without reckoning mere rooks, the islands 
 are nine in number. Taken from east to west, they 
 are as follow: St Mary, St Michael, Terceira, 
 Graciosa, St Jorgo, Pico, Fayal, Flores, and Corvo. 
 
 492 
 
 The area of the group is estimated at 700 square 
 mUes; while its population is 343,572, yielding an 
 average of nearly 500 to a square mile. In the 
 order of population and importance, the islands 
 stand thus : St Michael, Terceira, Pico, Fayal, St 
 Jorgo, Flores, Graciosa, St Mary, and Corvo. The 
 A. are still a dependency of Portugal. Their capital 
 is Angra, in Terceira; but Ponta Delgada and 
 Eibeira Grande, both in St Michael, are .larger 
 towns. 
 
 As may be presumed from the density of the 
 population, the soil is fertile, and the climate healthy. 
 The islands are also well watered. The exports are 
 oranges, wine, brandy, grain, pulse, pork, beef, 
 cheese, and coarse linens ; and the imports are 
 woollens, cottons, hardware, iron, glass, cordage, 
 pitch, tar, staves, timber, oil, fish, rum, coffee, sugar, 
 salt, and tea. Perhaps the greatest want of the group 
 is a good harbour. The A. are of volcanic origin — 
 a fact from which may probably be inferred their 
 identity with the Isles of Brazil or of Fire in the 
 maps above mentioned, of the 14th c. Though most 
 of the volcanoes themselves appear to be extinct, 
 yet the islands contain hot springs, and are subject 
 to violent earthquakes. The coasts are generally 
 steep and rugged, while the interior parts abound in 
 ravines and mountains. The mountains range from 
 1869 feet to 7613— the latter being the height of the 
 lava-covered peak which gives name to JPico. 
 
 AZO'TE (Gr. a, depriver of, and zoe, life) is the 
 name given by French chemists to Nitrogen (q. v.). 
 
 A'ZOTISED BODIES are those substances which 
 contain azote or nitrogen as one of their consti- 
 tuents, and which form part of the living struc- 
 ture of a plant or animal, or are produced during 
 its natural decay. The principal members of the 
 group are albumen, present in white of eggs, and the 
 juices of plants and animals ; globuline, or crystalline, 
 a variety of albumen found in the lens of the eye ; 
 midline, another variety of albumen, composing the 
 greater bulk of the yolk of the egg ; paralhwmen, a 
 third variety of albumen found in the animal 
 system during certain diseases •,fbrine, which occurs 
 largely in the seeds of cereals and in animal muscle ; 
 casdne (or cheese matter), present in all milk ; legu- 
 mine, a variety of caseine found in pease, beans, 
 and leguminous ' seeds in general ; gelatine, which 
 is present in the skin, bones, and other parts of 
 animals ; chondrine, a variety of gelatine obtainable 
 from the cornea of the eye and the permanent 
 cartilages; isinglass, another variety of gelatine 
 manufactured from the inner membrane of the 
 floating bladder of sturgeons and other fishes ; glue 
 and size, which are secondary forms of gelatine; 
 urea, uric add, and Aippuric acid, which are present 
 in the urine of the higher animals ; kreatine and 
 hreatinine, occurring in the juice of flesh; several 
 forms of urinary calculi, which are found as stones 
 in the bladder ; and the very large and important 
 class of alhalmds, including strychnine, morphine, 
 quinine, &c. The principal members of the series 
 of A B. will be considered under their special head- 
 ings ; and the use of several of them as articles of 
 diet wiU come into notice under Food. 
 
 AZO'TUS, the Ashdod of the Old Testament 
 (now Esdud), a village on the Mediterranean, 21 
 mUes south of Jaffa. Lat. 31° 45' K, long. 34° 
 37' E. It was formerly one of the chief cities of 
 the Philistines, strongly fortified, and the scene of 
 numerous contests between that race and the Jews. 
 Into this city the Ark of the Covenant was brought 
 by the Philistines, and placed in the temple of their 
 god Dagon, whose image fell in pieces before 
 it. In the 8th c. b. c, the town fell into the hands 
 of the Assyrians ; and in the following century was 
 
AZOV— AZUEITB. 
 
 captured by the Egyptians, after a 29 years' blockade 
 and siege. In the wars between Alexander Balas 
 and Demetrius, A. was destroyed by Are. It was 
 afterwards rebuilt by the Eomans, but never 
 regained its early importance. It has now a popu- 
 lation of about 300, and the sea is gradually receding 
 from its harbour. 
 
 A'ZOV, or A'SOW, a fortress and port-town in the 
 south of Kussia, situated on the Don, about 20 miles 
 from its mouth. The sand and mud deposited by 
 the river have choked up the port, so that the trade 
 and shipping of the place have dwindled away, and 
 the 3000 inhabitants now depend mostly on fishing. 
 A. was anciently a Greek colony, under the name of 
 Tanais, and carried on extensive coromeroe with the 
 northern peoples. In number of inhabitants and in 
 wealth it often rivalled Panticapseum (now Kertch). 
 In the 13th c. it was taken possession of by the 
 Genoese, who called it Tana. They were driven 
 out of it by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1392. In 1471, 
 it was taken by the Turks, and since then has borne 
 the name of A., the Turks calling the town and the 
 neighbouring sea Asak. After an obstinate struggle, 
 at which Peter the Great, then beginning his career, 
 was present, it was captured by the Russians about 
 the end of the 17th c. It more than once fell again 
 under the dominion of the Turks, but at last, in 
 1774, remaiued in the undisturbed possession of 
 Bussia. It was bombarded and destroyed by an 
 allied English and French squadron in 1855. 
 
 A'ZOV, Sea oi', named after the town, is a large 
 gulf of the Black Sea, formed by the peninsula of 
 Crimea, or rather an inland lake connected with the 
 Black Sea by the long narrow strait of Kaffa. The 
 Siwash or Putrid Sea is the western portion of the 
 Sea of A. out off by the long narrow shp of low sandy 
 land called the Tongue of Arabat. The entrance to 
 ^the Putrid Sea is by the naiTOW strait of Genitschi at 
 the north of the Tongue. The Putrid Sea is little but 
 a, succession of swamps. The ancient name of the Sea 
 of A. was Palus Mseotis. It gets the name of Balik- 
 Denghis, or, Fish-sea, from Sie Tm-ks and Tatars, 
 from its abundance of fish. The water is almost 
 fresh. The whole sea is shallow, and occupies an 
 area of about 14,000 square miles. During the 
 Crimean war, an expedition, having on board 16,500 
 English, French, and Tiu'ks, was sent to this sea in 
 May 1855, which devastated the ports, and cut off 
 snpphes intended for Sebastopol. 
 
 AZ'TEC CHI'LDBEIf. In the year 1853, there 
 were brought over to this country from America 
 two diminutive children, a boy and a girl, said to 
 be aged respectively 17 and 11, and who were 
 represented as descendants of the ancient Aztecs. 
 The height of each was under 3 feet. Their figure 
 was slender and not Hi-proportioned ; that which was 
 chiefly remarkable being their features. While the 
 forehead and chin receded, the nose was so singu- 
 larly prominent as to suggest the idea of the face 
 of a bird. Yet, with dark lively eyes, an ohve 
 complexion, and glossy long black hair, and a great 
 fund of good-nature, they were far from unpleasing. 
 They spoke no intelligible language, but imderstood 
 a few words of English, and seemed to have a taste 
 for music. Shewn to the public as curiosities, they 
 were usually exhibited on a large table, on whicid 
 they ran about amusiag themselves. Their exhibitor 
 told, a very incredible story of how they had been 
 obtained from the ancient city of Iximaga, where 
 they were reverenced as gods. A certain Sefior 
 
 Velasquez, in company with a Canadian and American, 
 penetrated into this ancient city of Central America, 
 where they made the acquaintance of one of the 
 guardian priests of these undersized deities, who 
 was so charmed with the accounts of the outer world, 
 that he resolved to steal the gods of his people, and 
 escape with the strangers. One after the other — 
 the Canadian, the American, and the priest — were 
 overtaken by disaster, and Velasquez alone was 
 left to teU the wondrous tale, with no attestation 
 but such as the children themselves furnished. 
 Professor Owen considered them mere dwarfs, and 
 other authorities held a similar opinion. Belonging 
 probably to some Indian tribe, they were doubfless 
 monstrosities ; and this becoming apparent, interest 
 in them ceased. 
 
 AZ'TECS. The name of the dominant tribe in 
 Mexico at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. 
 See Mexico, Antiquities oi'. 
 
 AZU'NI, DoMENico Albeeto, a distinguished 
 jurist, born at Sassari, in the island of Sardinia, 
 August 3, 1749. He early applied himself to the 
 study of law, devoting himseK particularly to the 
 maritime relationships of nations. He became judge 
 of the Tribunal of Commerce at Nizza or Nice ; and 
 in 1795, after that city had been taken by the 
 French, he published a work in which he endeavoured 
 to reduce maritime laws to fixed principles, and 
 which, being recast, was published at Paris in 1805 
 under the title of Droit Maritime de VEurope. 
 The work was sufficiently anti-British in tone to 
 secure its author the favourable consideration of 
 Napoleon's ministry, by whom he was appointed one 
 of the commissioners for compiling the new com- 
 mercial code, the maritime portion being allotted 
 to him. Genoa having been annexed to France, 
 A., in 1807, was appointed president of the Court of 
 Appeal there, where he remained until the fall of 
 Napoleon. Among other things, A. published an 
 Essai sur VHistoire Glographique Politique et Morale 
 de la Sardaigne, and a Dictionary of Mercantile 
 Jurisprudence, and some controversial brochures. 
 For some time after he had withdrawn from Genoa, 
 he resided at Nice, and afterwards in his native 
 island, where he was appointed, by King Charles 
 Felix, judge of the consulate of Caghari, and 
 librarian to the university of that city. He died 
 in January 1827. 
 
 A'ZURB, a French word technically used in 
 Heraldry to signify blue. In engraving arms, it is 
 always represented by horizontal lines. 
 
 A'ZTJRINE (Lemdscus ccendeus), a fish of the same 
 genus vsdth the roach, chub, &c., and most nearly 
 resembling the Red-eye (q. v.) or Budd {L. erythropli- 
 thalmus), from which, however, it is readily distin- 
 guished by the slate-blue colour of the back, and the 
 whiteness of the abdomen and fins. It is a fresh-, 
 water fish, and was first described by YarreU from 
 specimens received &om Lancashire, where it is 
 called the Blue Boach, but it is also an inhabitant 
 of some of the lakes of Switzerland. 
 
 A'ZUEITE, a name which has been given to 
 the mineral more commonly called Lazulite (q. v.), 
 and to which, along with Lapis Lazuh (q. v.) or 
 ^ZMrc-sforae, mineral turquoise (see Tuequoise), &o., 
 the generic name. Azure Spar, is sometimes given. 
 — The name A. is also given by mineralogists to 
 an ore of copper, generafly known as Blue Copper 
 (see Copper), nearly allied to Malachite (q. v.), 
 and remarkable for its beautiful azure colour. 
 
 593 
 
B 
 
 THE second letter in the Hebrew 
 or Phoanioian alphabet, and. in all 
 alphabets derived from it, belongs 
 to the order of labials, and is of 
 the kind called medial or flat. See 
 Lbttees, Alphabet. Its name in 
 Hebrew is leth, signifying ' house,' 
 probably because its original hiero- 
 glyphic or picture form was an outline of 
 a house or tent. In the corresponding 
 words of sister-languages, we find. 6 very generally 
 replaced by some one of the other labid letters 
 \Pt f ipJi), v\ ; these substitutions, however, take 
 place not by chance or caprice, but according to 
 ascertained laws. See Philology, Compaeative, 
 and Geimm's Law. The following are some examples 
 of the interchange of 6 with other letters : Corre- 
 sponding to Eng. bear are Sansc. hhri, Lat. ferre, 
 (Jr. pherein : Eng. ie, Sansc. bhu, Lat. Jio and fui, 
 Gr. phito : Eng. bore, Lat. forare : Eng. of and off, 
 Gr. apo, Lat. ab : Eng. vrife, plural wives, Ger. weib. 
 Old H. Ger. wip : Eng. web, weave, weft : Gr. epis- 
 copos, Eng. bishop, K. evigue. In several Latin 
 words, b arose out of u (pronounced like v or w). 
 Thus, the original form of bdlum, war, was dmellum 
 or dvellum; of bonus, dvonus; and the d being 
 dropped (as we drop the sound of i in hnee), the 
 V became hardened into 6. Similarly, bis, twice, is 
 for duis. A remarkable interchange sometimes takes 
 place between 6 and m, as in Sansc. mri, to die ; Lat. 
 mort-, death; and Gr. brotos, mortal. 
 
 The Greeks pronounced their b {fi) like a v, for 
 they spelled Virgilius, e.g., Birgilios ; and this con- 
 tinues to be the case in modern Greek. In Latin, 
 during the classical ages at least, the letter was pro- 
 nounced as it is in English, !Prench, &c. But in the 
 time of the later emperors (beginning with the 3d c. 
 of our era), b was softened down, in the popular 
 language at least, to a slovenly sound like v ; for in 
 inscriptions of this period, such spellings as verva for 
 verba, miramli for mirabili, are quite common. The 
 distinction between the two sounds being once lost 
 sight of, the letter b was frequently substituted for 
 V — as berba for verba, bivus for irivus. This softening 
 of 6 into V in the middle-age Latin, has left traces in 
 the modem Italian and French ; as Lat. habere, Ital. 
 avere, Fr. avoir; Lat. tabula, Ital. tavola. A Spaniard, 
 on the contrary, has a tendency to use b instead of 
 v; thus he pronounces mvere like hibere, and Jovis 
 as if written Jobis. 
 
 B, in Music, is the seventh degree of the diatonic 
 scale of C, and the twelfth degree of the diatonic- 
 chromatic scale. In harmony, it is called the major 
 seventh. According to the tempered system of 
 tuning, the ratio of B, to the fundamental note C, is 
 .■^. In the ancient diatonic scale, B was never used 
 as a key-note, as its fifth, F, was imperfect. In the 
 German notation, B is called H, while B flat is 
 called simply B. B flat is half a tone lower than B, 
 and in harmony is called the flat seventh. As a 
 harmonic arising from 0, B flat, as produced by 
 nature, is considerably flatter than in the tempered 
 system of tuning. 
 BA'AL, a Hebrew word signifying lord, ovmer, 
 
 £94 
 
 or master, and applied as a general title of honour 
 to many different gods. In Hosea ii. 16, it is men- 
 tioned as a name which had been given to Jehovah 
 himself ; but when used with the deflnite article, 
 it specially designated the principal male deity of 
 the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, as Baaltis or 
 Astarte was the principal female deity. In connec- 
 tion with Babylon and Assyria, the same deity 
 is spoken of under the name of Bel or Belus. 
 Originally, B. was the god of the sun, the ruler 
 and vivifier of nature, and Astarte the goddess of 
 the moon. In the later star- worship of the western 
 Asiatic nations, B. was the name of Jupiter, the 
 ^anet of .fate, or, as some suppose, of Saturn. 
 The proper Phcenician name of B., however, was 
 Melkart, Melkrat, or Melchrat, which is usually 
 supposed to mean "king of the city'^ — i.c., Tyrej 
 but others consider it a contraction of two worda 
 signifying 'king of the earth;' while the learned 
 
 Eg. 1. — ^Baal, or Melkart. 
 
 From a copper coin of Cossyra in the Britieli Museum. 
 
 (Twice the size of the original.) 
 
 Selden is of opinion that it is equivalent to ' strong 
 king.' B. was perhaps the same god as the 
 Phoenician Moloch. The Greeks confounded B. or 
 Melkart with their own Hercules ; and, for the pur- 
 pose of distinction, termed him the Tyrian Hercules. 
 From the earliest foundation 
 of Tyre, he seems to have been 
 the tutelar god of that city, 
 and his worship apparently 
 extended thence imtil it was 
 prevalent in all the towns of 
 the Phoenician confederation, 
 and was established in their 
 remotest colonies, such as 
 Malta, Carthage, and Cadiz. 
 It also overspread the neigh- 
 bouring countries of Assyria 
 and Egypt. Each country or 
 locality had its B. or chief 
 god. According to Scrip- 
 ture, the temples of this 
 idol (at least in Phcenicia 
 and Assyria) were built on 
 the tops of hUls, or stUl 
 more frequently in solemn 
 groves, and sometimes altars 
 
 Eg. 2.— Baal 
 
 In a warlike aspect, with 
 four legs, representing 
 the pervading energy 
 and rapidity of the suOi 
 
BAALBEK— BABATAG. 
 
 were erected to him on the roofs of houses. His 
 priests were numerous. Incense was the most fre- 
 quent offering presented to him, but we aJeo read 
 of saorifioes of bullocks, and even of children. 
 In 1 Kings, chap, xviii., we read that the priests 
 of B. danced about the altar during the sacrifice, 
 and barbarously cut and mangled themselves, if 
 their god did not speedily answer their prayers. 
 
 The word B. enters into the composition of 
 many Hebrew, Chaldee, Phoenician, and Cartha- 
 ginian names, such as Jezebel, Hasdrubal ('Help 
 of Baal'), Hannibal ('Grace of Baal'), Ethbaal 
 ('With_ Baal'), Baal-beo ('City of Baal'). The 
 word is also frequently found in conjunction 
 with some epithet, and in such cases appears to 
 have denoted a different deity, though it is not 
 impossible that it may have been the same person 
 regarded in another aspect, and as exercising 
 merely a different function. Thus, we have Baal- 
 Berith, 'the Covenant Lord,' who was specially 
 worshipped by the people of Shechem; Baal-Peor, 
 the Priapws of the Moabites and Midianites; and 
 Beelzebub, or Baalzebub (the Fly-god), the idol of 
 the Philistines at Ekron, where he had a temple. — 
 The Celtic deity Beal is usually identified with Baal. 
 See Beltbin. 
 
 BAA'LBEK, the name of a ruined city in the 
 ancient Ccele-Syria, signifies the ' City of Baal,' 
 the Sun-god, and was by the Greeks, during 
 the Seleucide dynasty, converted into HeUopolis. 
 Lat. 34° 1' 30" N., long. 36° 11' E. It is situated in 
 the plain of Buk^'a, ' at the northern extremity of a 
 low range of bleak hills, about one nule from the 
 base of Antilebanon,' in a well- watered, and delight- 
 ful locality, rather more than 40 nidles north-west of 
 Damascus. It was once the most magnificent of 
 Syrian cities, full of palaces, fountains, and beautiful 
 
 Euins of Baalbek. 
 
 monuments. It is now only famous for the splendour 
 of its ruins, of which three deserve special notice. 
 ■The most imposing is that of the great Temple of the 
 Sun, which was a rectangular bmlding, 290 feet by 
 160, having its roof supported by a peristyle of 
 54 Corinthian columns, ' 19 at each side, and 10 at 
 each end.' Of these, six are yet standing. The 
 circumference of these columns is about 22 feet, 
 and the length of the shaft 58 ; with pedestal, capi- 
 tal, and entablature, they measure about 89 feet in 
 height. The approach to this temple was through 
 two spacious courts, surrounded on all sides with 
 porticos and other buildings. Except the columns 
 mentioned, little of the great temple, or of the build- 
 ings in front of it, is left standing, but the ground is 
 covered with their ruins. The vast size of l£e stones 
 used in the substructions is remarkable, some of 
 thembeing 60 feet long and 12 thick. South from 
 
 the great temple is a smaller one, known as the 
 Temple of Jupiter. It is similar in form, having its 
 perislyle and/ the walls of its ceUa stiU mostly 
 standing. Its dimensions are 227 feet in length, 
 by 117 feet in breadth, being thus larger than the 
 Parthenon at Athens. Both temples, as well as the 
 surrounding structures, are built of limestone, in a 
 richly decorated somewhat fantastic Corinthian 
 style. Besides these, there stands at the distance 
 of 300 yards from the others a circular building, 
 supported on 6 granite columns ; style, mixed Ionic 
 and Corinthian. It was once used as a Christian 
 church. 
 
 The early history of B. is involved ia darkness ; 
 but it is certain that, from the most distant times, 
 it had been a chief seat of sun-worship, as its name 
 implies. Julius Caesar made it a Eoman colony, and 
 imder Augustus it was occupied by a Eoman garri- 
 son. B. had an oracle held in such high esteem that, 
 in the 2d u. A. r., it was consulted by the Emperor 
 Trajan prior to his entrance on his second Parthian 
 campaign. To test the prescience of the oracle, 
 Trajan sent to it a blank piece of paper, which was 
 returned to him blank. This gave mm a high opinion 
 of its powers, and he consulted it in all seriousness a 
 second time. ■ The response was some dead twigs 
 from a vine, wrapped up in cloth. Trajan's decease 
 some two years afterwards, and the transmission of 
 his bones to Eome, was deemed a sufficient interpre- 
 tation of the symbolical utterance, and confirmed 
 the celebrity of the oracle. Antoninus Pius (138 — 
 161 A. D.) built the great temple, which the legend 
 current among the modem inhabitants counts a 
 work of Solomon. This temple is said to have 
 contained a golden statue of Apollo, or of Zeus, 
 which on certain annual festivals the chief citizens 
 of Heliopolis bore about on their shoulders. When 
 Christianity, under Constantino, became the domi- 
 nant religion, the temple became a Christian church. 
 In the wars that followed the taking of the city 
 by the Arabs, who sacked it in 748 A.r., the 
 temple was turned into a fortress, the battlements 
 of which are yet visible. The city was completely 
 pillaged by Tunur Bey, or Beg, in 1400 A. D. Bofiti 
 city and temple conianued to fall more and more 
 into decay under the misery and misrule to which 
 Syria has been subject ever since. Many of the 
 magnificent pillars were overturned by the pachas 
 of Damascus merely for the sake of the iron with 
 which the stones were bound together. What the 
 Arabs, Tatars, and Turks had spared, was destroyed 
 by a terrible earthquake in 1759. B. is now an 
 insignificant village, with a population of some few 
 hundreds. See wood and Dawkins's Euins of 
 Baalbec (Lond. 1757) ; Cassaa, Voyage Fittoreeque de 
 la Syrie (1799); Murray's Handhooh for Travellers 
 in Syria and Palestine (1858). 
 
 B A'B A, a Turkish word signifying father, originat- 
 ing, like our word papa, in the first efforts of children 
 to speak. In Persia and Turkey, it is prefixed as 
 a title of honour to the names of ecclesiastics of 
 distinction, especially of such as devote themselves 
 to an ascetic life ; it is often aflSxed in courtesy, also, 
 to the names of other persons, as Ali-Baba. 
 
 BA'BA, Cape, a bold rocky headland near the 
 western extremity of Anatolia— the Lectum of the 
 Greeks— in lat. 39° 29' N., long. 26° 4' E., about 12 
 miles from the noriiiern extremity of Mitylene, 
 the ancient Lesbos. On a shelving point of the 
 cape stands the town of Baba, with a population of 
 about 4000, who do some trade in cutlery of a supe- 
 rior quality. The once large and prosperous, but 
 now utterly ruined city of Assos, mentioned by St 
 Paul, is in the vicinity. 
 
 BABATA'G, or BA'BA DAG, a city with 10,000 
 
 S95 
 
BABBAGE— BABEB, 
 
 inhabitants, in the sandjak of Siliatria, iu the north- 
 eastern part of European Turkey. It ia situated 
 in a marshy district ; has a high school and five 
 mosques, of which that built by Bajazet I. is the 
 finest. It was Bajazet that founded the city, which 
 he peopled with Tatars, and named after a saint, 
 whose monument, on a lull near by, is resorted to 
 as a place of pilgrimage. Through the port of 
 Kara-Kerman, lying a short way to the south, the 
 inhabitants of B. caiTy on a considerable commerce 
 with the Black Sea. 
 
 BA'BBAGE, Chables, bom in 1790, entered 
 early at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he took 
 his degree of B.A. in 1814. In 1828, he was elected 
 Professor of Mathematics in his own university, an 
 office which he filled for eleven years. B. unites, 
 in the most happy combination, powers of inven- 
 tion and observation with thorough scientific 
 culture. Among his writings, we notice fitrst his 
 extremely correct and well-arranged Tables of 
 Logarithms (Lend. 1834). He was the first to 
 make the method of constructing suqh tables the 
 object of earnest study. The difficulty of securing 
 accuracy in getting up tables on a large scale, led 
 him to the idea of conmiitting the execution of the 
 work to a machine. Being commissioned by the 
 government to superintend the construction of such 
 a machine, before beginning the work, he visited a 
 great many manufactories and machine establish- 
 ments, both in Britain and on the continent, in order 
 to become acquainted with all the resources of 
 mechanical art, and thus be in a position to make 
 a combined use of them in his great undertaking. 
 This survey affi)rded him the necessary information 
 for his able work. On the Economy of Manufactures 
 and Machinery (Lond. 1832) — a book which has run 
 through several editions, and been translated into 
 several languages — ^in which aU mechanical processes 
 are classified from the most scientific point of view, 
 and the most interesting examples of the more 
 important kinds of manufacture are described. 
 Besides his Comparative View of the Different 
 Life-assurance Societies, his Differential and Integral 
 Calculus, his Decline of Science (1830), A Ninth 
 Bridgewater Treatise, and The Exposition of 1851 
 (1851), B. has contributed a number of very interest- 
 ing papers to the Transactions of the Royal Societies 
 of London and Edinburgh. — With regard to B.'s 
 calculating machine, which, from some cause not well 
 explained, was never completed, see Calculating 
 Machines. 
 
 BA'BBL, Tower op. For an account of this 
 building, and the confusion of tongues which it 
 brought about, see the 11th chapter of Genesis. 
 The distinction of being a remnant of the Tower of 
 B. has been claimed for three different masses : 
 1st, for Nimrud's Tower at Akkerkuf ; 2d, the Mujd- 
 libe, 950 yards east of the Euphrates, and five miles 
 above the modem town of Hillah; 3d, the Birs 
 Nimrud, to the west of that river, and about six 
 nules to the south-west of HiUah — the whole 
 situated in Babylonia (q. v.). The last of these has 
 the majority of .opinions in its favour. Every one, 
 it is said, who has seen the Birs Nimrud, feels at 
 once that, of the ruined mounds in this region, there 
 is not one which so nearly corresponds with his 
 previous notions of the Tower of Babel. According 
 to Mr Eich, it is of an oblong form, the total cir- 
 cumference being 762 yards. At the eastern side 
 it is cloven by a deep furrow, and is not more than 
 50 or 60 feet high ; but on the western side it rises 
 in a conical figure to the elevation of 198 feet ; and 
 on its summit is a solid pile of brick 37 feet high by 
 28 in breadth, diminishing in thickness to the top, 
 which is broken and irregular, and rent by a large 
 
 696 
 
 fissure extending through a third of its height. It 
 is perforated by small square holes, disposed in 
 rhomboids. The fire-burnt bricks of which it is built 
 have inscriptions on them ; and so excellent is the 
 cement, which appears to be lime-mortar, that it is 
 nearly impossible to extract a brick whole. The 
 other parts of the summit of this hiU are occupied by 
 immense fragments of brickwork, of no determinate 
 figm'e, tumbled together, and converted into solid 
 vitrified masses, as if they had undergone the action 
 of the fiercest fire, or had been blown up with gun- 
 powder, the layers of brick being perfectly discern- 
 ible. These ruins stand on a prodigious mound, 
 the whole of which is itself in ruins, channelled by 
 the weather, and strewed with fragments of black 
 stone, sandstone, and marble. Sir R. K. Porter has 
 shewn that the intense vitrifying heat to which the 
 summit has been evidently subjected, must have 
 been the result of fire operating from above, and was 
 probably produced by lightning. This is a curious 
 circumstance, taken in connection with the ancient 
 tradition that the Tower of B. was rent and over- 
 thrown by fire from heaven. Porter thinks that 
 the works of the Babylonish kings, especially the 
 stupendous temple of Belus, which was erected on 
 the site of the old Tower, concealed for a while the 
 marks of the original devastation ; and that now 
 the destructions of time and of man have reduced 
 it to nearly the same condition in which it appeared 
 after the confusion. 
 
 BAB-EL-MA'NDEB (i.e., 'the Gate of Tears') 
 is the name of the strait between Arabia and 
 the continent of Africa, by which the Red Sea ia 
 connected with the Gulf of Aden and the Indian 
 Ocean. The Arabian peninsula here throws out 
 a cape, bearing the same name as the strait, rising 
 to the height of 865 feet. About 20 nules distant 
 from this cape stands the waU-Kke coast of Africa, 
 rising in Ras Sejan to the height of 380 feet. Within 
 the straits, but nearer to Arabia, lies the bare rooky 
 island of Perim (q. v.), now occupied by the English, 
 as a fort ; the strait on the east side of this island 
 is called the Little Strait, and that on the west the 
 Great Strait. The depth of the former varies from 
 8 to 12 fathoms ; that of the latter reaches 185 
 fathoms. The first is usually chosen by vessels on 
 account of its aflbrding good anchorage. Close to 
 the African coast lie eight small islands, called the 
 Eight Brothers. The currents in these straits are 
 generally very strong, and are extremely dangerous 
 for small vessels. The name B. is supposed to have 
 originated in the frequent disasters occurring in the 
 strait. 
 
 BA'BER, or BA'BUR (Zohir-Eddin Mohammed), 
 the first of the Great Moguls in India,, a descendant 
 of Timur, was born in 1483. He was barely 12 years 
 of age when he succeeded his father, Omar Sheikh 
 Mirza, in the sovereignty of the countries lying 
 between Samarkand and the Indus. With a view 
 to the conquest of India, although constantly con- 
 tending with revolts in his own dominions, he made 
 himself master, by fraud and force, of the provinces 
 of Kashgar, Kundez, Kandahar, and Cabul. Having 
 thus opened the way to India, he made two or three 
 rapid incursions into Hindustan ; and finally taking 
 advantage of the feeble government of Ibrahim 
 Lodi, about the end of 1525, he crossed the Attook 
 (the Cabul branch of the Indus), quickly defeated 
 some bodies of troops that opposed him in the 
 Punjab ; and at last, in April 1526, on the plain 
 of Panipat, not far from Delhi, encountered and 
 fought a decisive battle with his enemy, whose army 
 was far superior in numbers. The 100,000 men and 
 1000 elephants of Sultan Ibrahim were dispersed ; 
 Ibrahim himself fled; and B. made his entry into 
 
BABEUF— BABOON. 
 
 Delhi. In the following month, Agra, the second 
 city of the empire, surrendered. B. a enjoyment of 
 empire in India was short ; he died in 1530, having 
 had to contend during the five years of hia reign 
 with niunerous oonsparacies and revolts. To the 
 talenta of a general and statesman, which he 
 manifested in his conquests, his improvements of 
 public roads, measuring of lands, adjustment of 
 taxation, postal arrangements, &o., B. united a 
 taste for science and art. He wrote, in the Tatar 
 language, the history of his own life and conquests, 
 which was translated into Persian by Abdul 
 Eaohim, and, more recently, from the Persian into 
 English. B. was succeeded on the throne of Delhi 
 by the eldest of his four sons, Humayun, and was 
 the founder of the B. or Great Mogul dynasty. 
 
 BABEUF, Fbajtsois Noel, generally known by 
 the name of ' Gains Gracchus,' which he affixed to 
 his poKtical" articles, was bom in 1764 at St Quentin, 
 in the department of Aisne, France. On the break- 
 ing out of the Revolution in 1789, he became a 
 fanatical advocate of the popular demands. During 
 ttie Reign of Terror he took up a position of 
 hostility to Robespierre and the Terrorists. In his 
 journal, estabhshed at Paris in July 1794, and 
 termed TM Tribune of tJte People, he preached 
 the sovereignty of the masses, and defended the 
 absurdest consequences flowing from that political 
 doctrine. He was in favour of a new distribution 
 of -Oie land, of the abolition of every political order, 
 and the equaUty of all individuals, wise and foolish. 
 His violent language caused him to be imprisoned. 
 On his release, he attached himself to the members 
 of the extreme Jacobin party, which had just been 
 overthrown. A secret conspiracy was formed, the 
 aim of which was the destruction of the Directory, 
 and the complete re-establishment of the democratic 
 constitution of 1793, which had been suspended 
 during the Reign of Terror. The plot was discovered 
 through the treachery of one of the members. B. 
 and other chiefs were seized, imprisoned, and ulti- 
 mately brought to trial. B. defended himself with 
 the courage of a fanatic, and ove^hehned his 
 judges with abuse. He was of course condemned to 
 death, and was guillotined on the following day. 
 May 24, 1797. B. was a weak-headed enthusiast, 
 without talent or culture ; but abler men in the 
 conspiracy made use of his furiously resolute 
 character to secure the ends they had in view. 
 
 BA'BINGTON, Antony, an English gentleman 
 of the county of Derby, head of a conspiracy in 
 favour of Mary Stuart of Scotland. The rivalry 
 between Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth of 
 England was at the same time a contest between 
 Camolicism and Protestantism. Accordingly, the 
 various plots for rescuing Mary from the power of 
 her enemy wore the same character, and have been 
 misrepresented and judged of according to the 
 ecclesiastical prejudices of each historian. B., 
 young, rich, a zealous Catholic, and on that account 
 already an enthusiastic admirer of the unfortunate 
 Mary, was induced, through the agents of a deter- 
 mined conspirator, Morgan, who had been arrested 
 in France at the instance of the English court, to 
 put himself at the head of a plot that had for its 
 object the murder of Queen Elizabeth, and the 
 rescue of Maty. The execution of the murder was 
 undertaken by one Savage, in which he was to be 
 assisted by a number of the Catholic nobihty, as 
 circumstances might require. The day of action 
 was fixed for me 24th of August 1586. B. 
 reserved the dehveranoe of Mary for his own share, 
 entered into correspondence witii her, and received 
 letters purporting to be from her in return, approving 
 of the asaassruation of Elizabeth. The aecretary. 
 
 Walsingham, not only had all the threads of the 
 plot in his hand, but contributed, through his emis- 
 saries, to spur on the conspirators to the execution 
 of their plans. When the right moment was come, 
 B. and his accomplices were arrested, and con- 
 demned. B. made no denial, acknowledged the 
 letters to Mary to be his, and, September 20, 
 1S86, laid hia head on the block. Savage, Barn- 
 well, Bollard, Abington, Tichbume, and Tunec, had 
 a hke fate. Mary Stuart herself had, four months 
 later, to ascend the bloody scaffold; and her con- 
 denmation was justified chiefly on the ground of 
 those letters received by Babington. Mary, however, 
 denied to the last moment that the letters were 
 written by her hand, or v^th her knowledge ; and 
 her friends constantly maintained that they were 
 the work of WaJaingham himself, in order that the 
 unhappy queen might be got rid of vidth a show of 
 justice. The rest of Walsingham's conduct in this 
 affair, as well as the way in which he was in the 
 habit of supporting Elizabeth's viewa in general, give 
 at least a high degree of probability to the accusation. 
 BABOO'N {Gynoeephalus), a genus of the Monkey 
 family, or Simiadce {see Monkey), and distinguished 
 from all the rest of that family by the very elongated 
 muzzle, which terminates abruptly, and ia pierced 
 with nostrils at the end like that of a dog. The 
 face has, indeed, a general resemblance to the face 
 of a dog. The dentition agrees with that of the 
 other apes or monkeys of the Old "World, to which 
 the baboons are entirely confined, being only dis- 
 tinguished by the remarkable strength of the canine 
 teeth. Baboons, like almost all the Monkey family 
 in the Old World, have callosities upon the but- 
 tocks; and, like the greater part of them, they have 
 cheek-pouches. The tail of some of the species 
 is of considerable length, that of others is a mere 
 tubercle, with an erect tuft of hairs. The physiog- 
 nomy of all baboons is repulsive, and indicates 
 the fierceness which strongly characterises them, 
 and in which they differ from monkeys in general; 
 some of the larger ones are dreaded by the inhabit- 
 ants of the countries in which they are found; 
 the danger to be apprehended from them being 
 increased by the numbers in which they usually herd 
 together. Their fore and hind legs are so propor- 
 tioned, that they walk easily, and run swiftly on 
 the ground; But, like all other quadrumanous ani- 
 mals, they climb trees and rocks with great agility. 
 Their hair is long, forming a sort of mane on the 
 upper parts. All of them are veiy susceptible of 
 cold, and they seldom Uve long when removed from 
 their native tropical countries. They feed chiefly on 
 fruits and roots : some of them inhabit barren and 
 stony places where scorpions abound, which they 
 seize, adroitly deprive of the sting, and devour. 
 They are very cunning, mischievous, and revengeful; 
 troops of them sometimes enter a plantation, not 
 merely to plunder, but apparently to amuse them- 
 selves by destroying ^Hrhatever they can find; they 
 seem, however, always to have some appointed to 
 keep watch, and they make off vrith great rapidity 
 on the first signal of alarm. When plundering, they 
 cram their cheek-pouches before they begin to eat. 
 These cheek-pouches are very capacious : a B., kept 
 in confinement, has been seen to put eight eggs 
 into them at once, and then to take out the eggs one 
 by one, to break them at the end, and dehberately 
 to suck their contents. The larger baboons are 
 sometimes htmted by dogs where they have not 
 trees to take refuge in ; but a single dog, however 
 powerfiU, cannot safely attack them ; a baboon will 
 seize a dog by the hind legs, and whirl him round 
 and round tiU he is stupified. Baboons are not so 
 easily domesticated as many kinds of monkey; 
 however, they ai-e not quite incapable of it when 
 
BABKIUS— BABYLON. 
 
 taken young. ' Happy Jerry,' a mandrill or rib-nose 
 B., whicli ■was long a great object of attraction at 
 Exeter Change, naed to sit with great gravity in an 
 arm-chair, awaiting orders, whidi he obeyed with 
 slowness and composure. He smoked tobacco, but 
 did not seem much to relish it, and was rather 
 induced to do it by a bribe of gin and water, for 
 which his fondness was unquestionable. 
 
 As examples of baboons with tails of considerable 
 length, may be mentioned the Chacma, or Pig-faced 
 B., also called the Ursine B. (O.porcarius), a native of 
 SouthAfrica; and the Dog-faced B. {0. Hamadryas), 
 a native of Arabia, Persia, and the mountains of 
 Abyssinia. The latter species, perhaps the only one 
 known to the ancients, is often sculptured on the 
 ancient monuments of Egypt, and it is supposed to 
 have been the species of monkey to which divine 
 honours were paid. Its body was frequently 
 embalmed, and B. mummies are still found-^The 
 Chacma is one of the largest of the baboons, about 
 the size of an English mastiff, and very much 
 stronger: it is common on the mountains of the 
 Cape Colony, and in troops would be very formid- 
 able, but that they usually scamper out of the way, 
 instead of attacking travellers, umess they are pro- 
 voked. It is of a dark-brown colour, with long 
 shaggy hair. The tail is rather more than half the 
 lengfti of the body, and is terminated by a tuft of 
 long black hair. 
 
 The, short-tailed, or almost tail-less baboons, far 
 exceed their longer-tailed congeners in ugliness. 
 Only two species are certainly known — ^the MandriU 
 or Rib-nose B. (C. Mormon), and the Drill (C leuco- 
 phaeus), both natives of Guinea. The mandrill is 
 
 Mandrill or Kib-nose Baboon. 
 
 the largest, fiercest, and most powerful of the whole 
 genus. The colours of its fur are very fine, of a 
 Eght olive brown above, and silvery gray beneath ; 
 but besides other things unpleasant to the sight, its 
 face is peculiarly hideous; the cheek-bones in the 
 adult males being enormously swollen, so that the 
 cheeks are protuberant to the size of a man's fist 
 upon each side, and ribbed with blue, scarlet, and 
 purple. In their native forests, mandrills generally 
 live IQ large troops, and are said to put to flight 
 every other wild beast. 
 
 BA'BRIITS, a Greek fabulist, who lived about the 
 close of the Alexandrian age, or the beginning of the 
 succeeding Raman-sophistic period, made a consider- 
 able collection of .^sopian fables (see ^sop), which 
 he turned into verse, in a natural and popular 
 style. Several versions and transformations of these 
 were made during the middle ages, and have come 
 down to us under the name of JEsop's Fables. 
 Bentley, who, in his Dissertatio de Bahrio, was the 
 first to recognise in these fables of jEsop the 
 original work of B., endeavoured to restore portions 
 
 of the verses, and pointed out other fragments 
 of the genuine B. in other quarters. A few_ fables 
 were added from manuscripts by Furia, Korais, and 
 Schneider, and all that was known at the time was 
 coUected by Knoche (HaUe, 1835). At last, in 1842, 
 a Greek of the name of Minoides Minas, employed by 
 the French government to explore the convents of 
 the East, discovered a manuscript with 123 hitherto 
 unknown fables of B., a copy of which he made and 
 brought to Paris, where they were published in 
 1844. The best edition is that by Lachmann (Berl. 
 1845). 
 
 BA'BYLON, BABYLO'NIA. Babylonia was 
 the name given in ancient times to the flat country 
 about the lower course of the Euphrates, called in 
 modern times Irak-Arabi. In the Old Testament, 
 it is called Shiuar, Babel, and also 'land of the 
 Chaldeesj' and by the later Greek and Roman 
 writers, occasionally ChaJdsea. Its proper bound- 
 aries were: on the N., towards Mesopotamia, the 
 Euphrates and the Median Wall, which extended 
 from the junction of the Chabur with the Euphrates 
 to the Tigris; on the E., towards Assyria and 
 Susiana, the "Kgris; on the S., the Gulf of Persia; 
 and on the W., the desert of Arabia. During 
 the wider extension of the Babylonian dominion, 
 the name comprehended also ^syria and Meso- 
 potamia. The country forms a perfect plain, which 
 is a contniuation of that of Assyria. The two 
 rivers, Euphrates and Tigris, here approach each 
 other most nearly, until their blended waters fall 
 into the Persian Gulf. The country was once 
 protected from flooding by numerous canals and 
 embankments, and several artificial lakes, which 
 are now mostly in ruin. The most important canal 
 was that now known as Nabr-el-Mehk, which is 
 undoubtedly the ancient royal canal that joined 
 the two great rivers. It was kept in repair by the 
 Roman emperors, and was serviceable as late as the 
 7th c, tin the Mohammedans took possession of the 
 countiy. The soil, naturally fertile, was rendered 
 more so by the garden-like way in which it was 
 cultivated, and yielded abundant crops, especially of 
 wheat, barley, and dates. The want of stone and 
 wood was more severely felt than in Assyria. The 
 only bmldiag material was brick, for which the soil 
 afforded abundance of clay. The bricks were either 
 dried in the sun or burnt, and were very durable, 
 resisting, in the ruius, the effects of the weather to 
 this day. Mineral bitumen, springing up everywhere 
 in abundance, served as mortar. In this favoured 
 plain, the human race attained early a state of social 
 and political organisation, the oldest, indeed, that 
 antiquity gives us any aoooimt of. 
 
 The Babylonians belonged to the Aramaic branch 
 of the Semitic stock, as Sir Heniy Rawliuson, by his 
 discoveries among the cuneiform inscriptions, has 
 now made clear ; and to them the Assyrians owe 
 their origin. The Mosaic accounts give, as the 
 founder of the kingdom, Nimrod, the Cushite, 
 which, from the construction of the whole gene- 
 alogy, seems to point to an immigration from 
 the south. Later Greek writers make the god 
 Baal or Bel the founder. Although there were 
 regular astronomical observations, and imperial 
 annals extending back to 1903 years before Alex- 
 ander the Great, and long lists of dynasties, from 
 Berosus, the national sacred historian of B., and 
 the old chroniclers, have been handed down, the 
 whole history of B. is doubtful and dark.. To 
 an ancient native dynasty of 86 kings, succeed two 
 Median dynasties of 8 and 11 kings, which are fol- 
 lowed by a Chaldaio dynasty of 49 kings, and an 
 Arabian of 9 ; and lastly, by Queen Semiramis. This 
 much is evident, that the kingdom of Assyria, which 
 was at first an offshoot from B., gradually gained 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 the supremacy, and reduced the mother-state to 
 subjection. 
 
 In the histonr of B. we find frequent mention 
 made of the Chaldseans. T^a term is used in 
 various senses: as denoting the inhahitants of 
 Chaldsea Proper, which formed the southern portion 
 ■of B.; as synonymous with Babylonians or subjects 
 of their empire; and, lastly, as the name of a 
 priestly caste. With respect to their origin, various 
 •opinions are held by modern writers. Some main- 
 tain that they may be identified with the Kurds 
 or Carduchiau mountaineers, who are supposed 
 to have left the mountainous region between 
 Assyria and the Euxine, and to have invaded 
 and conquered the plain country. By this theory, 
 the connection with the Persian Magi is readily 
 «}i:plained. Others, again, as Bawhnson, think 
 that the tide of immigration set in the opposite 
 direction, and that the Phoenicians and Chaid»ana 
 both originally came from Mam or Susiana. A 
 third opinion is, that they were a considerable tribe 
 originally settled in B., which gradually became the 
 ruling race. 
 
 No legends have yet been found among the 
 ouneiform inscriptions by which we may ascer- 
 tain the date of the commencement of the early 
 Ohaldsean empire, which preceded the Assyrian, but 
 probably the traditional date (2234 B. c.) is historic. 
 An imperfect list of 26 kings has been deciphered 
 from various legends ; but as the interval to fill up 
 is more than seven centuries, we must wait for 
 further discoveries before a successful attempt can 
 be made at arranging the chronology of this remote 
 period. Bricks have been found bearing the inscrip- 
 tion of Kedur-ma'pula, who is conjectured to be the 
 Chedoj^laomer of Scripture, and to have lived in 
 the early part of the 20ih o. B. o. This king's 
 •expedition seems to have been one of the migratory 
 movements, in which, as stated above, the Phcsnicians 
 and Chaldseans bore a part, for the distance from 
 Elam to Syria is too great to allow us to believe that 
 the incursion was merely for the sake of plunder. 
 In these ancient Chaldaean legends, Assyria is not 
 once mentioned; and the only notice we have that 
 Assyria was subject to B., is found on the cylinder 
 of Tiglath-pileser I., where it is recorded that an 
 Assyrian temple had been originally built by a son 
 of Ismi-dagcm, the fifth king of the early Chaldsean 
 dynasty, whose date is about 1861 B. c. 
 
 At the close of the Chaldaean period (1273 B. c), the 
 •empire was transferred from the mother-country to 
 its offshoot Assyria ; and from this date tiU 747, the 
 position of the former state is very subordinate. 
 
 The history of the period between 747 and 625 is 
 in many points uncertain. One point, however, 
 has been clearly ascertained from the inscriptions — 
 that B. was by no means a submissive vassal, but 
 that, on one occasion at least, a Babylonian monarch 
 Invaded Assyria, defeated the opposing forces, and 
 insulted the'capital. The name of Merodach-Baladan 
 occurs both in Scripture and iu the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions. From the former, we know that this king sent 
 a message to Hezekiah, king of Judah, ostensibly to 
 inquire about his recovery, probably with a view to 
 an alliance agaiast Assyria ; and from the latter, that 
 Merodach was expelled by Sargon, king of Assyria, 
 that he made a fresh attempt to recover his throne, 
 and was finally dethroned by Sennacherib. An 
 inscription of this last-named monarch, which de- 
 scribes the puiaishment inflicted on llie revolted pro- 
 vince, also records that he had recovered certaiugods 
 which had been taken from Nineveh 418 years before 
 by a Babylonian monarch. The complete subjection 
 of B. to Assyria at this time (680 B. c.) is proved 
 also from the Scripture account, which states that 
 Esarhaddon, son of Sennacherib, reigned in Babylon. 
 
 About fifty years afterwards, Nabopolassar, governor 
 of B. for the Assyrian king, proved faithless to his 
 trust, and entered into an aUianoe with the Median 
 lung, Cyaxares, for the overthrow of the ruling state. 
 See AssyuiA. This undertaking was successful, and 
 B. now (625 B. o.) became, though it was but for a 
 short time, an independent and conquering power. 
 The son of Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar EC. (or, 
 as he is called in the Persian cuneiform inscriptions, 
 Nabuohudratshara), next defeated the Egyptian 
 king, Necho, at Circesium (Karohemish), on the 
 Euphrates (604 B. c), and thus annihilated the 
 Egyptian dominion in Asia. . He then subdued 
 Jehoiakim, king of Judah; and in consequence of 
 repeated revolts, destroyed Jerusalem, and put an 
 end to the kingdom of Judah under Zedekiah (588 
 B. c), carrying the inhabitants captive to Babylon. 
 The Phoenicians submitted to him voluntarily, with 
 the exception of Tyre, which underwent an obstinate 
 siege wifiiout yielding. After a fortunate expedition 
 against Egypt, Nebuchadnezzar turned his attention 
 to the adornment of his capital ; and we may believe 
 that a considerable part of those buildings, usually 
 ascribed to a very early period, and especially to 
 Semiramis, belong to him. The great embankment 
 at Bagdad, usually ascribed to the califs, has been 
 proved by Kawlinson to date from this monarch. 
 After his death (562 b. c), the Neo-Babylonian empire 
 fell to pieces as suddenly as it had sprung up, and 
 under Nabonedus (Nabunita, in the cuneiform 
 inscriptions, and in Herodotus, Labynetos), who had 
 entered into an alliance with Croesus of Lydia, 
 against Persia, it came under the dominion of Cyrus 
 (539 B. 0.). The Belshazzar of Scripture is thought 
 to be the son of Labynetos, to whom was confided 
 the defence of B., while the elder prinoe held 
 Borsippa. After the fall of B., Labynetos submitted 
 to Cyrus, and was treated with kindness. As a 
 Persian province, however, B. made many attempts 
 to assert its freedom. Thus, in the great inscription 
 of Behistun (q. v.), Darius L relates, that after his 
 accession to the throne at B., a certain Nuditabira 
 gave himself out for Nabuohudratshara, the son of 
 Nabunita, and gained over the whole people ; that 
 he (Darius) hadT defeated tiiin in battle, but iiiat it 
 had been necessary to besiege the rebellious city, in 
 the course of wMoh sie^ the rebel had met his 
 death. From this time B. appears on the Persian 
 monuments as a Persian satrapy, under the name of 
 Babirus. 
 
 With the overthrow of the Persian monarchy, 
 B. came under the short-Uved dominion of Alex- 
 ander the Great, who died in that city (323. b.c.). 
 Seleucus L, to whom it had been promised at the 
 conference of Triparadisus, contested and won the 
 possession of it from Antigonus (312 B. c). About 
 140 B. c, it was taken from the Syrian monarchs by 
 the Parthians. It came into tiie hands of the 
 Eomans only temporarily, first under Trajan (114 
 A. s.), under Septimius Severus (199 A. J>.), and again, 
 under Julian (363 A. D.). When, in 650, the suc- 
 cessors of Mohammed put an end to the new 
 Persian monarchy of the Sassanides, the province of 
 B., where Bagdad was built (762—766), became the 
 seat of the califs till 1258. Siace 1638, when the 
 Turks, for the second time, took it from thePersians, 
 it has been imder the dominion of Turkey, divided 
 into the pachaHcs of Bagdad and Basra. 
 
 The civilisation of the ancient Babylonians was 
 of a rather high stamp, much like that of the 
 Assyrians. The government was despotic, of a 
 kind to suit a crowded, luxurious, and effeminate 
 population. In the accounts of Herodotus, we see 
 traces of administration by satraps. Justice is said 
 to have been dispensed by three great courts of 
 law. Arts and commerce were highly flourishing — 
 
BABYLON. 
 
 the last was carried on by caravans with Bactria, 
 Persia, and Media, perhaps as far as India, and 
 by shipping on the Persian Gulf with Arabia. 
 The commerce has indeed remained much in the 
 same position down to the most recent times. In 
 the 16th c, the English carried on traffic with 
 this country ; in modern times, Bagdad holds 
 the place of the ancient B. and Ctesiphon. B. 
 was famous for its dyes, its cloths, and em- 
 broideries, especially for the maniifacture of rich 
 carpets with inwoven figures of strange animals 
 and arabesques, such as we yet see on the Nineveh 
 sculptures. Commerce gave rise to the invention 
 of measxires and weights ; and the general prosperity 
 was such, that B. and Assyria together were able 
 to pay to Persia, in the time of Darius Hystaspes, 
 a yearly tribute of 1000 talents (upwards of 
 £280,000)— a sum considerably greater than that 
 contributed by any other provmce. This, how- 
 ever, reveals also the national character of the 
 Babylonians, who were notorious for their effem- 
 inacy, luxury, and Hcentiousness. Their reli^on 
 was nearly allied to that of the Phoenicians. The 
 essential part of it was the worship of the powers 
 of nature, as they are manifested in the larger 
 heavenly bodies and in the fertility of the earth. 
 At the head of their system of belief stood 
 Baal (see Baal), reverenced through the whole 
 of Mesopotamia and Canaan, who represented, 
 in a general way, the power of nature, without 
 having any moral signihcance, and was specially 
 ideutiiied with the sun. Along with liim stood, 
 as feminine complement, the goddess Baaltis, the 
 receptive Earth, with whose worship all manner 
 of ficentious rites were associated. She makes 
 her appearance principally as Melyta or MyHtta — 
 i. B., 'the causer of generation.' How nearly she 
 is related to Ashtaroth (among the Greeks, Astarte), 
 whose functions are so similar, it is not easy to 
 determine. Education and religion were in the 
 hands of the caste of the Chddees, which was 
 not, however, hereditary, but was drawn from 
 the body of the people, since even the foreign 
 prophet Daniel was taken into the number. They 
 occupied themselves at the same time with astro- 
 nomy and astrology, and kept records, from the 
 earliest times, of their astronomical observations, 
 associating with them the chronicles of their kings. 
 All this they did in a strictly collegiate capacity, 
 for we always find the colleotive name, ' the 
 Chaldees,' and never the name of an individual. 
 Their scientific acquirements must have been con- 
 siderable. See Ideler On the Astronomy of the 
 Chaldceans (in the Transactions of the Berlin 
 Academy, Historico-philologioal class, 1814 — 1815). 
 Beyond engraved cylinders and stones, we have 
 no considerable monuments of the state of the 
 representative arts among them, and cannot, there- 
 fore, satisfactorily judge of it. Their architecture, 
 on the contrary, according to the testimony of 
 the ancients, and the ruins still remaining, deserves 
 to be ranked high. 
 
 Apart from canals, bridges, embankments, and 
 sluices, the interest on the subject of Babylonian 
 architecture is concentrated in the ruins of the 
 capital, Babylon'. The accounts that we find in 
 the ancients of the origin, the greatness, and the 
 structure of the city, are exceedingly confused. The 
 
 §od Belus is named as its founder, and also Queen 
 emiramis ; how we are to understand the two 
 statements is not explained. Semiramis, according 
 to the account of Diodorus, employed on it two 
 millions of workmen, collected from all parts of 
 her dominions. With the capital of the older 
 kingdom, the accounts of the ancients known to 
 us have, for the most part, nothing to do; they 
 
 are aU to be referred to the resuscitated and adorned 
 residence of Nebuchadnezzar. Herodotus gives 
 a description of the city, apparently from his own 
 observation. It stood on both sides of the river, 
 in the form of a square, the length of whose sides 
 is variously given ; by Herodotus it is stated at 120 
 stadia, making the whole circumference 60 miles'. 
 It must be remembered, however, that the walls, like 
 those of most oriental towns, enclosed rather popu- 
 lous districts than cities, so that the whole mass of 
 the population might easily find shelter -within 
 the space enclosed. It was surrounded by a, waU 
 200 cubits high, and 50 cubits thick, and furnished 
 with 100 brazen gates — the last number is raised 
 by Diodorus to 250. The city was buUt 'with 
 extreme regularity, 'with broad straight streets 
 crossing one another at right angles ; and the two 
 parts were connected by a roofed bridge bmlt of 
 he'wn stones, fastened together -with iron clamps. 
 Of this bridge, not a trace has yet been discovered. 
 The western part of the city is undoubtedly the 
 older, belonging to the early and properly Babylonish 
 dynasty. Here stood, in the middle of the city, 
 as it is described, the famous temple of Belus or 
 Baal, called by the Arabs, Birs Nimrud. See Baeel, 
 Tower oi'. The next important point on the 
 west side is the mass of ruins called MujelKbe, 
 which was probably the royal citadel of the 
 old Babylonian monarchy. On the east side of 
 the river stood the buildings of the Neo-Baby- 
 lonian period, among which the 'Hanging Gar- 
 dens' of Semiramis are to be singled out as one 
 of the wonders of the world. Of these gardens, 
 Diodorus has left us a detailed descrip'tion. Their 
 ruins may be recognised in the moimd called 
 El-Kasr. The city suffered greatly from the Persian 
 conquest. When it revolted under Darius I., and, 
 after a siege of two years, was recaptured through 
 the ingenuity of Zopyrus, the outer walls were 
 demolished. Xerxes plundered the temple of 
 Belus, which had been hitherto spared, and Herodotus 
 found it empty. Although the Persian kings made 
 B. their residence, nothing was done for the restora- 
 tion of the city; and Alexander the Great, who, 
 on his entrance, in 331 B.C., had promised the 
 inhabitants to rebuild the ruinedtemple, was unable 
 even to clear away the rubbish, although he 
 employed 10,000 workmen for two months. After 
 his death in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, and 
 the foundation of Seleucia on the Tigris by Seleucus 
 Nicator, B. went rapidly to decay. This was partly 
 owing to the new city's being buUt of the materials 
 of the old, and partly to the want of durable mate- 
 rials for monumental buildings. Stones of any size 
 had to be brought from the mountains of Armenia ;■ 
 their place was mostly supplied by burned brick. 
 As early as the 'time of Pausanias, there was little 
 to be seen but the ruins of the walls. The older 
 Arabian geographers know, indeed, of a 'riUage, 
 B3,b0, but speak more of the great masses of ruins. 
 Since the time of Delia V^e, who erroneously 
 looked upon the ruia MujeUibe as the tower of 
 Belus (in which he is followed by Rennel), the site 
 of B. has been the object of many travels and 
 researches. The greater number of the explorers, 
 among whom Eich is the most distinguished, con- 
 sider the to'wn of Hillah, with 7000 inhabitants, 
 as the representative of the ancient Babylon. The 
 great masses of ruins, from which we must not, 
 with Rennel, exclude the Birs Nimrlid, embrace, 
 indeed, an enormous extent, but agree perfectly -with 
 the accounts of the ancients in being arranged in 
 the form of a square. Recently, Bawlinson has 
 transferred the site of B. to Niffer ; but before 
 anything can be determined, researches must be- 
 made on the spot, which could hardly fail to lead 
 
BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY— BACCHUS. 
 
 at the same time to valuable results, like those 
 of Botta and Layard in Assyria, and increase 
 the colleotion of cuneiform inscriptions, which are 
 yet only fragmentary. See Rich's Memoirs on t!ie 
 Ruins of Babylon (3d ed., lond. 1818), and hia 
 Personal Narrative of a Journey to England by 
 Biissorah, Bagdad, the Ruins of Babylon (Lond. 
 1826) ; Mignan's Travels in Ghaldcea (Lond. 1829) ; 
 leaser's Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia (Lond. 
 1840); Wellsted's Travels to the City of the 
 Califs (Loud. 1840) ; Vaux's Nineveh and PersepoUs 
 (Lond. 1850) ; EawUnson's Herodotus (Lond. 1858). 
 
 BABYLO'NISH CAPTI'VITY. In the despotic 
 poUcy of the East in ancient times, it was a rule to 
 remove the rich and leading inhabitants of a con- 
 quered province to a distant part of the empire, 
 where they were separated by nationality, language, 
 customs, and rehgiou from the great body of the 
 population, and thus rendered pmitically harmless; 
 while the people that remained behind were by this 
 means deprived of influential leaders. The inhabit- 
 ants of Judea underwent oftener than once a depor- 
 tation of this kind, after they came into conflict 
 with the powerful kingdom of Assyria. Thus, the 
 kingdom of Israel was put an end to under King 
 Hosea (722 B. c), by the Assyrian monarch Salmanas- 
 sar, who, after taking the capital, Samaria, carried 
 the principal inhabitants into captivity in Assyria, 
 and brought stranger tribes into the land of Israel in 
 their stead ; these, with the Israelites that remained, 
 formed afterwards the mixed nation of the Samari- 
 tans. The most remarkable exile, however, befell 
 the tribe of Judah under Nebuchadnezzar. Zedekiaih, 
 king of Judah, warned in vain by the prophet Jere- 
 misih, allied himself with the king Of Egypt against 
 the sovereignty of Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar soon 
 appeared with a powerful army before Jerusalem, 
 which he took (588 B. c). King Zedekiah had his eyes 
 put out, and he and the principal part of the inha- 
 bitants were carried captive to Babylon. It is this 
 Captivity, the duration of which is usually reckoned 
 at 70 years, although, strictly speaking, it lasted 
 only 56 years, that is called, by way of distinction, 
 .'the Babylonish Captivity.' The situation of the 
 exUes was in other respects tolerable. Most of them 
 settled down, and acquired property, and even riches ; 
 many were called to court, and even raised to high 
 offices in the state. They were allowed to retain 
 their organisation by families, and Uved by them- 
 selves essentially according to the Mosaic law. 
 They had also their own chief, and were allowed 
 the free exercise of their rehgion. Nor did they 
 want consolation and encouragement; for Ezekiel 
 raised among them his powerful prophetic voice, 
 and the idea of the Messiah became more clearly 
 developed. When Cyrtis overthrew the Babylonian 
 empire (538 B.C.), he allowed the Jews to return 
 to their own country. Only the tribes of Judah, 
 Benjamin, and Levi, availed themselves of this 
 perroission, the other ten tribes disappear from 
 history after the Captivity. It is probable that 
 they had become so mingled with the Babylonians, 
 a people of kindred origm, that they had ceased to 
 remember the country of their race. Vain attempts 
 have, in recent times, been made to discover the ten 
 lost tribes. Some learned men have sought for 
 them in China and India, while others have declared 
 the Afghans to be their descendants, and even the 
 North American Indians. A more probable con- 
 jecture, perhaps, is, that they were the ancestors 
 of the Nestorians in the mountains of Ktirdistan. 
 
 BABYROU'SSA {Sus Baiyroussa), a species of 
 Hog (q. V.) inhabiting the forests of Java and 
 the Molucca Islands, remarkable for the extraordi- 
 nary tusks of the upper jaw, which rise like horns 
 
 through the bone and integuments, are long, some- 
 what slender, and curved backwards ; their use being 
 
 Babyroussa. 
 
 probably similar to that of horns. The animal is- 
 sometimes called the Homed Hog. Its limbs are 
 much more slender than those of the common hog. 
 
 BACCHIGLIO'N^ a river of Northern Italy, 
 having its source in the Alps, and its outlet in the 
 Adriatic. It passes through the town of Vicenza, 
 where it is crossed by a fine bridge of nine arches ; 
 flows through the plain of Padua, and enters the 
 Adriatic about 3 miles south of Chioggia. Its whole 
 course is about 90 miles, and it is navigable by large 
 boats from Vicenza to the sea. 
 
 BA'CCHUS, the god of wine (called in Greek 
 Bakchos, Dionysos, and also, especially in the 
 Mysteries, lakchos), was the son of Zeus and Semele, 
 the daughter of Cadmus. Before his birth, Semele 
 feU a victim to the insidious counsels of the jealous 
 Here, who induced her to petition Zeus to visit 
 her in his proper form and majesty — ^i. e., attended 
 with thunder and lightning. The mother was of 
 course consumed, but the six-months-old B. was 
 saved by being enclosed for some time in the thigh 
 of Zeus. He was first consigned to the care of Ino, 
 the sister of Semele, and her husband Athamasj 
 but when Ino and Athamas were driven mad by 
 Here, Zeus caused him to be carried to Nyaa, in- 
 Thrace, and given in charge to the Nymphs. It 
 
 Bacchus. 
 
 was here that B. taught the cultivation of the vine,, 
 and prepared intoxicating drink from the grapes. 
 In order to impart his discovery to mankind, 
 or, as some say, because Here smote him with 
 madness, he wandered through many countries 
 attended by the Nymphs, who were crowned 
 with ivy and vine-leaves, and bore in their hands 
 the thyrsus, a pole bound round with leaves and 
 fruit. This expedition, according to a later form 
 of the myth, extended to Bactria and Media, to 
 Egypt and India, where B. is said to have erected 
 pfllars as the eastern boundary of the world. 
 Wherever he came in his wide progress, there is a 
 Nysa to be found. The worship of the god, which 
 
 601 
 
BACCHUS. 
 
 came originally from the East, and was introduced 
 into Greece by Melampus, was thus spread over 
 nearly the whole of the then known earth, and at 
 ■the same time the myth of B. was variously modified 
 among the diflferent peoples, so that it has become 
 one of the most perplexed and difficult. B. was, 
 besides, the protector of fruit-trees, and of fruits in 
 general. His worship being thus extensively spread, 
 and his festivals being held with music and song, he 
 naturally received a great many sumames; for 
 example, he was called Lenseos, from the wine-vat 
 {lenos) ; Bromius, from shouting {bromos) ; Euios (in 
 Latin, Evius), from the" exclamation Huoi, &c. The 
 mythical march or expedition above spoken of, was 
 suggested to the fancy by the Bacchanalian festivals, 
 at which Bacchantes roved about in feigned madness, 
 and made midnight processions to the mountains by 
 torch-light. B. met with much opposition on hfe 
 «xpeditions, many refusing to acknowledge his divi- 
 nify. Thus, Lycurgus, king of the Edones, opposed 
 Imn, and also Pentheus of Thebes, who was on 
 ■that account torn to pieces by his own mother and 
 •her sisters. The daughters of Mynias (q. v.), who 
 refused to celebrate his festivals, were punished by 
 him with madness and metamorphosis. As he was 
 •crossing to Naxos, the Tyrrhenian sailors wished to 
 ■carry Mm oflf to Italy, and, with this view, bound 
 him ; but the chains fell ofiF, vines and ivy entwined 
 the ship, and held it fast in the middle of the sea. 
 B. changed himself into a lion, and the eaUors from 
 terror leaped into the sea, where they were trans- 
 formed into dolphins. Those, on the contrary, who 
 received him with hospitality and reverence, were 
 rewarded; such as Midas (q. v). In general, the 
 •character of B. is nuld. In works of art, his type is 
 that of a youth inclining to effeminacy. His pecu- 
 liar ornament is the fillet. The long blond hair is 
 bound up in a knot behind, and omy a few locks 
 fall down on both sides over the shoulders ; the hair 
 is surrounded by a twig of vine or of ivy. His figure 
 is neither stout nor sUm. He is usually represented 
 ■quite naked; sometimes with a wide robe negligently 
 thrown over, which either covers a part of the 
 shoulders and thighs, or, though more rarely, 
 «nwraps the greater part of the body. Frequently, 
 a deer-skin hangs across the breast; at times, he 
 wears shoes, more rarely, buskias. From this, the 
 properly Grecian B., the bearded or Indian B. is 
 completely distinct. This last appears in a more 
 ■dignified, lofty, regal form; he is clad in a tunic 
 reaching to the feet, over which he wears a wide and 
 splendid mantle. As a warrior, he wears a short 
 tunic girded round the waist, -with buskins on the 
 feet; a panther's skin serves T»™ for a shield. In 
 addition, he is to be seen at •times wit3i horns. After 
 the institution of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the 
 service of B. was conjoined with these ; accordingly, 
 Pindar makes him the companion of Demeter. As 
 the followers of Or^ieus held Tiii:n to be also Apollo, 
 Jie is associated with the Delphic oracle. 
 
 The worship of B. consisted in noisy rites. Thebes, 
 in Boeotia, held to be the birthplace of the god, was 
 ■considered the chief seat of those rites in Greece. In 
 Athens, the worship of the Lensean B. was the most 
 ancient, and may be traced back to ante-historic 
 times. The chief offerings made to him were goats 
 and oxen; the last, because he himself was con- 
 ceived and represented under the form of an ox. 
 The Bacchic festivals deserving special notice are — 
 i. The Attic Dionysia, of which the minor, or country 
 Dionysia, were celebrated in the country in the 
 month Poseideon, at the time of the grape-gathering. 
 Among the characteristic amusements of the occa- 
 ■sion were the AskoHa, which consisted in smearing 
 full wine-skins {ashoi) with oil, on which the young 
 peasants attempted to leap with one foot, and by 
 
 602 
 
 their frequent falls prodiieed merriment. There 
 were also dramatic entertaiuments. This festival 
 was probably held at the approach of the wine- 
 harvest, and that of the Haloa at its dose. These 
 were followed, iu the month Gramelion, by the 
 festival of the Lenasa, which was peculiar to the 
 city of Athens; The festivities on the occasion, 
 besides theatrical representations, consisted in a great 
 banquet, for which the state provided the meat, and 
 in a procession through the city, attended with the 
 jesting and raillery usual at Bacchic ceremonies. 
 After the Lensea came the Anthesteria, on the 11th, 
 12th, and 13th of the month Anthesterion, when the 
 new wine was first drunk. On the second day of 
 this festival, the chief solemnity consisted in a great 
 public dinner, at which the guests, crowned with 
 flowers, and to the music of trumpets, entered into 
 regular contests in drinking, and in a private sacri- 
 fice for the prosperity of the state offered by the 
 'king archon's' wife, who was at the same time 
 symbolically married to the god. On the third day, 
 a sacrifice was offered to the Chthoniau Hermes and 
 to the souls of the dead. Last came the Great 
 Dionysia, which were celebrated in the month 
 ElapheboKon, and at which new comedies and 
 tragedies were represented. 2. The Triateric Dio- 
 nysia, which were celebrated every third year in 
 the middle of winter. The performers were women 
 and girls (called in Greek, Mcmades; in Latin, 
 Bacehm or Bacchantes), and the orgies were held at 
 night, on -the mountains, with blazing torches and 
 the wildest enthusiasm. This mystic solemnity came 
 from Thrace, and its institution is referred to 
 Orpheus. When it was adopted in Greece, cannot 
 be exactly determined. It is earliest met with in 
 Boeotia, particularly at Thebes, where the Cithseron 
 was the scene of celebration. An important place in 
 connection with it is also Parnassus, on the highest 
 summit of which the women of Attica and Delphi 
 celebrated nocturnal orries in honour of B. and 
 Apollo. The Msenades orBacchantes were clad on the 
 
 Bacchant, 
 
 occasion in fawn-skins, swung about the 'thyrsng,' 
 made a great noise with clapping of hands, and danced 
 wildly with streaming hair. In this ecstatic solem- 
 nity, the god himself was represented by the victim 
 sacred toTiim, the ox, which the Msenades in their 
 fury tore in pieces. In the most ancient times, even 
 human sacrifices were not uncommon. Descriptions 
 of these wild and terrible rites are not unfrequent 
 in the poets. 3. The Bacchanalia of later times, the 
 foimdation of which was laid in Athens, during the 
 
BACCIO DELLA PORTA— BACH. 
 
 Pelopcomesian war, by the introduction of foreign 
 ritea. From Greece they were carried to Italy. As 
 early aa 496 B.a, the (jreek worship of B. was 
 introduced at Rome along with that of Ceres; 
 and Ceres, Liber, and Libera were worshipped in a 
 common temple. In honour of these deities, the 
 Liberalia were celebrated on the l7th of March, and 
 were of a yet simpler and ruder kind than the great 
 Dionysia of Athens. Afterwards, however, 'these 
 rites degenerated, and came to be celebrated with a 
 licentiousness that threatened the destruction of 
 morality and of society itself. They were made the 
 occasion of the moat unnatural excesses. At first, 
 only women took part in these mysterious Bacchic 
 rites, but latterly men also were admitted. When 
 the evil had reached its greatest height, the 
 government (186 B. o.) instituted an inquiry into it, 
 and rooted out the Baccha,nalia with the greateat 
 severity. This was the occasion of the well-known 
 SenaMs Oonsultum de BacchanaUbus. Mention of 
 them, however, still occurs at a later period under 
 the emperors. — ^WHd, excessive revels are still Called 
 Bacchanalia. 
 
 EA'CCIO DELLA POETA, better known by 
 the name of Era Bartolomeo di San Marco, one of 
 the most distinguished masters of the Florentine 
 school of painting, was born at Savignano, in 
 Tuscany, in 1469. His first teacher was Cosimd 
 EoseBi ; but he owed his higher cultivation to the 
 study of the ~works of Leonardo da Vinci. His 
 subjects are mostly religious, and by far the greater 
 part of his pieces belong to the later years of 
 his life. He was a warm adherent of that bold 
 reformer of church and state, Sayonarola (q.v.), 
 after whose tragical end he, 1500, took the habit of 
 the cloister, and for a considerable time renounced 
 art. Tjje visit of the young Raphael to Florence 
 in 1504 seems to have been inatrumental in atimu- 
 lating him to return to it. He imparted to Raphael 
 his knowledge of colouring, and acquired from >iim 
 a, more perfect knowledge of perspective. The two 
 remained constant friends — B., on one occasion, 
 finishing certain of Raphael's unfinished works', 
 Raphael performing a like kindness for liim at 
 another time. B. died at Florence, 1517. The 
 geater number of his works are to be seen at 
 llorence, in the gallery of the Pitti Palace. 
 
 . BACH, Alezakdeb, an Austrian statesman, was 
 bom January 4, 1813, at Loosdorf, in Lower Austria, 
 where his father held a judicial office. The yoimg 
 B. received a careful education. At the age of 24, 
 he was promoted to the rank of Doctor of Laws, 
 and then entered the imperial service, in which he 
 remained about nine years. During this period also 
 he travelled over the greater part of Europe and 
 eome of the countries of Asia. He was on terms of 
 friendship with the members of the opposition of 
 Lower Austria, and belonged to that circle of young 
 men who weU imderstood the failings of the old 
 ^stem, and the inevitability of a change in the 
 organisation of Austria. He took an active part in 
 founding the Juridico-political Reading Club, and 
 courageously defended it against the police. On the 
 occurrence of the events of March 1848, B. took 
 a distinguished place as a mediator. He formed part 
 of the Provisional Committee of the Commons, and 
 was also chosen in April, by the states of Lower 
 Austria, one of their repreaentativea in the Central 
 Commission of the Provmcial States of Austria. 
 
 In this, the outset of his pohtical career, B. 
 already shewed a leaning to those views which he 
 afterwards manifested as minister. He advocated 
 the centralisation of the Austrian monarchy, and 
 declared himself against the independence of Hun- 
 gary, as well aa against the entiy of the Germaa 
 
 provinces of Auatria into the German confederation. 
 But he also desired an extension of the basis of the 
 atatea, and of their parliamentary influence in the 
 direction of pubUc affaira. During the occurrences 
 of the 15th of May 1848, B. kept away from Vienna. 
 When, after these occurrences, the old liberal opposi- 
 tion came to the helm, B. undertook the ministry of 
 justice. He now entered with talent and energy 
 into the remodelling of the whole system of Austrian 
 law. On the other hand, the part he took in the 
 aaaembly brought upon him the hatred of the ' left,' 
 and of the democratic party generally. The opposi- 
 tion was particularly bitter on the question of 
 removing tire burdena from peasant proprietors, on 
 which B. maintained the principle of compensaiaon, 
 and wished a part of that compenaation to be made 
 good by those who had hitherto borne the burdens 
 m question. His poUcy, also, with regard to Hun- 
 garian affairs met with violent opposition from the 
 ' left.' In the events of the 6th of October 1848, 
 B. would have fallen a victim to popular fury, like 
 the war-minister Latour, had he not found an 
 opportunity of withdrawing from pursuit. On the 
 formation of the Schwartzenberg-Stadion ministry, he 
 again took the portfolio of justice, and participated 
 in the measures regarding Hungary and all the other 
 important steps taken by that ministry. On the 
 vrithdrawal of Stadion in May 1849, B. took his 
 place at the head of the ministry of the interior, 
 which office he continued in 1859 to retain. Among 
 his most important labours in this department are 
 the constitutions for the diflferent crown-lands, as 
 well as the organisation of their political adminis- 
 tration. His political opponents allow him to 
 possess cleverness, energy, and activity. 
 
 BACH, JoHANif Sebastian, a celebrated musi- 
 cian, born at Eisenach, Upper Saxony, in March 
 1685. When he was ten years old, his father, who 
 was a musician at Eisenach, died, and B. sought the 
 protection of an elder brother, who, dying soon after, 
 he was again left destitute, and, to earn a livelihood, 
 entered vas choir of St Michael's, Liineburg, as a 
 soprano singer. In 1703 he became court-musician 
 at Weimar, and, the following year, organiat to a 
 new church at Arnatadt. His reputation in this 
 capacity soon spread, and in 1708 he was appointed 
 court-organist at Weimar, by the reigning duke. 
 While holding this office, he laboured assiduously to 
 make himself master of every branch of music. In 
 1717, he was made director of concerts, and six years 
 afterwards, director of music, and cantor to St 
 Thomas's School, Leipsic, an appointment which he 
 held to his death. About ten years later, the hono- 
 rary distinctions of Kapellmeister to the Duke of 
 Weissenfels, and court composer to the king of 
 Poland, wfire conferred upon bim. B., who had a 
 son in the service of Frederick the Great, received a 
 pressing request to visit Potsdam on the occasion of 
 a concert there. He went, and acquitted himself 
 greatly to the satisfaction of that monarch, some of 
 whose music he played at first sight. B.'s close 
 studies affected his eyes, and an operation designed 
 to benefit them, left him totally blmd, and hastened 
 his death, which took place in July 1750. With the 
 exception of Handel, B. had no rival as an organist ; 
 and his compositions for the organ have a deservedly 
 high reputation. They are too elaborate, however, 
 ever to become very popular, though his fame as a 
 composer is sure to advance with the progress of 
 scientific musical culture. The highly educated 
 musician vriU best appreciate the grandeur of some 
 of his works. In 1850, a Bach Society for the study 
 and practice of his compositions was formed in 
 London, and since that time some of them have 
 been publicly performed in this country. Three of 
 his sons were also musicians of some note. One of 
 
BACHABACH— BACHELOR. 
 
 them, Johann Christian, held the appointment of 
 music-preceptor to Queen Charlotte. 
 
 BA'CHARACH, a smalltown of Rhenish Prussia, 
 romantically situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 224 nules above Coblenz. It has a population of 
 1900, with a brisk trade, and a good deal of commerce 
 by river-craft. It is said to have derived its name 
 from Bacchus (Bacchi arw), and the vine is stUl largely 
 cultivated in the neighbourhood — ^the wine produced 
 being of a superior quality. B. is noteworthy also 
 as the place where Blucher crossed the Rhine, on 
 January 1, 1814. 
 
 BA'CHBLOR (Ft. hacJielier, Lat. baccalaureus, 
 or, as it is variously written in old documents, 
 bacccdareus, haailarius, and hadllarius). This 
 word, which first makes its appearance in middle- 
 age Latin, is of very uncertain etymology, and its 
 primary meaning is consequently involved in 
 obscurity. The usual derivation, from bacca laurea, 
 a laurel berry, gives us little help ; but the Spanish 
 ha/Jiillir, which means at once a babbler and a 
 master of arts, taken in conjunction with the Por- 
 tuguese bacharel and badllo, a shoot or twig of the 
 vine (from the Latin baailus or baadum, a stick or 
 shoot), and the French bachelette, a damsel, seem to 
 point to its original and generic meaning, which 
 probably was a person shooting, or protruding from 
 one stage of his career into another more advanced. 
 With this general signification, all the special 
 meanings of the word given by Duoange seem to 
 have some analogy. 1. It was used, he says, to 
 indicate a person who cultivated certain portions 
 of church-lands called baccalaria — which he sup- 
 poses to have been a corruption of vasseleria — a feu 
 belonging to an inferior vassal, or to one who had 
 not attained to a full feudal recognition. 2. It 
 indicated ecclesiastics of a lower dignity than the 
 other members of a religious brotherhood — i. e., 
 monks who were still in the first stages of monk- 
 hood. 3. It was used by later writers to indicate 
 persons in the first or probationary stage of knight- 
 hood; i. c, not esquires simply, but knights who, 
 from poverty and the insufficient number of their 
 retainers — from their possessing, perhaps, only the 
 baccalaria above referred to — or, from nonage, had 
 not yet raised their banner in the field [leve banniSre). 
 4. It was adopted to indicate the first grade or 
 step in the career of imiversitylife. As an academi- 
 cal title, it was first introduced by Pope Gregory 
 IX. in the 13th c, into the university of Paris, to 
 denote a candidate who had vmdergone his first 
 academical trials, and was authorised to give lec- 
 tures, but was not yet admitted to the rank of an 
 independent master or doctor. At a later period, it 
 was introduced into the other faculties as the lowest 
 academical honour, and adopted by the other univer- 
 sities of Europe. See Desbbes, tJiovBESiry. 5. 
 It came to be used in its popular meaning of an 
 unmarried man, who was thus regarded as a candi- 
 date or probationer for matrimony. 
 
 The legislation of almost every country, at some 
 period of its history, has imposed penalties on male 
 celibates or bachelors, on the principle that every 
 citizen is bound to rear up legitimate children to the 
 state. By the Jews, the command, ' Be fruitful and 
 multiply,' was interpreted strictly, and every Hebrew 
 regarded marriage as a duty. In Sparta, where the 
 interests of the individual were entirely sunk in those 
 of the state, crimiaal proceedings were authorised 
 by the laws of Lycurgus not only against those 
 who neglected to marry, but against those who, from 
 marrying late in hfe, or any other cause, formed 
 such alliances as rendered the procreation of healthy 
 children vmlikely. By the laws of Solon, ceHbacy 
 was also treated as a crime, though the practice of 
 604 
 
 interfering with the feelings of the individual in this 
 respect early fell into desuetude at Athens. At Rome, 
 penalties and disabilities were imposed on unmarried 
 men from an early period, and latterly on unmarried 
 women also. In the allotment of the Campanian 
 lands, Julius Csesar gave portions only to those who 
 had three or more children ; and in later times we 
 have the jus trium [quaiuor et quinque) liberorum. 
 The most important provisions on this subject are 
 contained in the law (or rather the laws, for it 
 consisted of an act and an amended act) called 
 Lex Julia et Papia Poppsea, the first portion of which 
 belongs probably to 18 B.C., and the second portion 
 to 9 A.D. In addition to various other provisions 
 regarding marriage, this law imposed penalties on 
 those who lived in a state of ceHbacy after a certain 
 age. No immarried person could take a legacy, 
 whether of a portion or of the whole possessions 
 of a deceased person, unless he complied with the 
 law — i. e., got married within a hundred days 
 from the testator's death. Widows were at first 
 allowed a year from their husbands' death, and 
 divorced women six months from the time of the 
 divorce, before they came within the penalties 
 of the law; and these periods were afterwards 
 extended to two years, and a year and six months, 
 respectively. The original provisions of the law 
 did not apply to men beyond sixty, or women 
 above fifty, but they were extended to them by 
 subsequent enactments, and made perpetual even 
 in case of their marrying. The Senatus considtum 
 passed in the time of Claudius, however, again 
 exempted men above sixty who married wives under 
 fifty, as from their unions it was supposed there was 
 a fair prospect of issue. Childless married persons, 
 moreover, from the ages of twenty-five to sixty in 
 males, and twenty to fifty in females, were subject 
 to the penalties of the lex, to the extent of losing 
 one-half of any inheritance or legacy which might 
 be bequeathed to them. The Lex Papia also con- 
 tained a provision by which a candidate who had 
 several cmldreu was preferred to one who had fewer ; 
 and various other premiums on fruitfulness were 
 held out both at Rome and in the provinces. 
 
 In Britain, there are numerous instances of addi- 
 tional or higher taxes being imposed on bachelors 
 and widowers, but apparently more with a view 
 to the revenue than with any other object. Of 
 this, 6 and 7 WHL III. c. 6, which was passed 
 in 1695, and which granted to his majesty cer- 
 tain rates and duties upon marriages, births, and 
 burials, and upon bachelors and widowers for five 
 years, ' for carrying on the war against France with 
 vigour,' is an instance ; and another, probably, may 
 be found in the higher charge for the servants of 
 bachelors, first imposed by Mr Pitt in 1785, and 
 continued to the present time. By 52 Geo. III. c. 93, 
 unmarried daughters of persons alive are exempted 
 from the tax upon hair-powder ; and in the income- 
 tax of 1798, deductions were made on account of 
 children, 5 per cent, being allowed to a person 
 who had a family, and vmose income was above 
 £60, and under £400 a year, corresponding deduc- 
 tions being made in other cases. Much might be 
 said in favour of such distinctions, on the ground 
 of expediency, as they enable the government to 
 impose a, higher taxation, by lessening the burden 
 on those members of the community who are most 
 likely to complain ; but their recognition in practice 
 would, no doubt, be regarded as impossible by the 
 financiers of our day, who have hitherto failed to 
 distinguish between income derived from realised 
 property and from personal labour. 
 
 BACHELOR, Knight, the lowest grade of 
 knighthood, now very frequently conferred not 
 only on military and naval officers, but upon 
 
BACIOCCHI— BACKGAMMON. 
 
 civilians who have in any way merited the favour 
 of the sovereign. The person who is to receive the 
 honour of knighthood kneels down before the sove- 
 reign, who touches him on the shoulder with a naked 
 sword, saying, in French : ' Sois dievalier au nom de 
 Dim' (Be a knight in God's name), and then adds : 
 ' Ejse, Sir A. B."" The ceremony of degradation, in 
 former times, was more remarkable. It was effected 
 by ungirding the belt of the knight, taking off his 
 sword, and Dreaking it, and hewmg off the gilded 
 spurs, which were the peculiar emblems of knight- 
 hood, with a hatchet. In ancient times, earls 
 used to confer the honour of knighthood, but the 
 privilege is now confined to the sovereign and to the 
 lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 1859 there were in 
 all about 330 British knights-bachelors. 
 
 BACIO'COHI, Marie-Anne-Elisa Bonapaetb, 
 the eldest sister of Napoleon Bonaparte, was born 
 at Ajaccio, Corsica, in 1777. When that island 
 was occupied by the Enghsh, she, vrith her family, 
 emigrated to Marseille. Here she married, at the 
 age of 20, a countryman of her own. Captain 
 Bacioochi. The elevation of Napoleon raised her 
 also to rank and power; and in 1806, the princi- 
 pality of Massa and Carrara was intrusted to her 
 administration, which was, on the whole, a bene- 
 ficial one for the people. In 1809, she was made 
 Grand Duchess of Tuscany, and appointed as 
 administrator over that country in Napoleon's 
 name. Here the arbitrary measures of her brother, 
 which she had to carry out, and her own self- 
 wiU and harshness, rendered her anything but 
 popular. Her husband took no part in the govern- 
 ment. When the allies entered Tuscany in 1814, 
 she of course had to leave Florence. She died, at 
 Bologna, of nervous fever, in 1820. 
 
 BACK, in maritime language, has many techni- 
 cal applications. To hach an anchor, is to support 
 the large anchor by a smaller one, in order to 
 prevent it from loosening and coming home in bad 
 ground. To hack andJUl, is a mode of tacking when 
 the tide is with a vessel, but the vidnd against her. 
 To bach the sails, is so to arrange them as to make 
 the ship move astern or backwards; it is done 
 when the tide or current is with the ship, and light 
 winds against her ; and the manoeuvre is useful to 
 avoid ooUisiona in narrow channels, to bring the 
 ship into a particular position during naval engage- 
 ments, or to keep ships well asunder when crowded 
 in convoy. To back the maintop-sail, and analo- 
 gous operations to other sails, is so to arrange a 
 sail that the speed of the ship's progress may be 
 checked. 
 
 BACK, Sir Geobge, a well-known traveller in 
 the polar regions, was born at Stockport in 1796. 
 He entered early on a naval career, and accompa- 
 nied Franklin and Eichardson in tbeir expedition 
 to the north coast of America. He volunteered to 
 the government to go in search of Captain Boss, 
 who was supposed to have been lost in his attempt 
 to discover the North-west Passage; and his offer 
 having been accepted, he left London, February 17, 
 1833, and on the 28th of June, started from 
 Norwayhouse, a station of the Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany, on his journey to the north. After passing 
 a terrible winter with his companions at Slave 
 Lake, he discovered, in 1834, Artillery Lake, and 
 the Great Fish Kiver, or Back's River, which he 
 followed to the Frozen Ocean. Being hindered 
 hy the ice from proceeding along the coast as far 
 as Cape Turn-again, he returned by the river ; but 
 although he had received news of the return of 
 Captain Boss, he continued his explorations in 
 the North Sea, and did not return to England 
 until 1835, when he was raised to the rank of 
 
 post-captain for his services. In 1836 and 1837, he 
 further explored the arctic shores in the interests 
 of geography— the Geojgraphical Society, in the 
 latter year, bestovidng its gold medal upon him. 
 Two years afterwards, he was knighted, and he 
 has smce had a lucrative Treasury appointment. 
 Accounts of his two expeditions, written by himself, 
 have been published. 
 
 BAOKBRGU'NGE, a town of Bengal, situated 
 on Backergunge Creek, an offset from the Qanges, 
 in lat. 22° 33' N., and long. 90° 22' E.— 125 miles to 
 the east of Calcutta. Till supplanted by Burrisol, 
 which is 12 miles to the north, it was the capital of 
 the district of the same name. 
 
 BACKEEGTJ'NGB, the district named from the 
 foregoing town. It extends in N. lat. from 22° 2" 
 to 23° 13', and in E. long, from 89° 49' to 91°, 
 containing 3794 square mUes, and 733,800 inhabit- 
 ants, or about 193 inhabitants to a square mile. 
 Like the rest of the great delta of Bengal, B. 
 is of alluvial formation and level surface, being 
 watered at once by the lower streams of the Ganges 
 and the Brahmaputra, and also by the various 
 branches or offsets which interlace together those 
 mighty rivers. In consequence of the great number 
 of water-courses, which at once cool the atmosphere 
 and drain the soU, the country is fertile, and the 
 temperature is said never to rise above 88° in the 
 shade. From the same cause, the district is inde- 
 pendent of regular roads for intercourse and com- 
 munication. In the season of high-water, as may 
 be expected, inundations are common. To guard 
 against them, the houses are built on mounds; 
 while the corresponding excavations, like the natural 
 ' water-holes ' of Australia, serve as tanks against 
 the effects of the dry season. As is often the case 
 in alluvial regions, land-slips are frequent, and also 
 the opening of new channels for the streams. The 
 productions are rice, sugar, cotton, pulse, mustard, 
 cocoa-nut, betel-nut, mango, guava, plantains, limes, 
 pine-apples, ginger, and turmeric. Buffaloes are 
 said to be generally used instead of oxen, of which 
 the domestic breed is small and poor. 
 
 BACKGA'MMON is the modem name of a game 
 of considerable antiqmty in England, where it was 
 formerly known by the appellation of ' the tables.' 
 The words bach-gammon have been ascribed to the 
 Welsh tongue, in which they are said to signify 
 Utile battle; but Strutt, with greater plausibility, 
 traces the term to the Saxon ' bac and gamen — that 
 is, back-game — so denominated because the perform- 
 ance consists in the two players brioging their men 
 back from their antagonist's tables into their own ; 
 or because the pieces are sometimes taken up and 
 obliged to go back — ^that is, re-enter at the table 
 they came from.' Whatever be the etymology of 
 the term, the game has been long established in the 
 country ; and as a fireside amusement of a decorous 
 nature, is a favourite among clergymen, squires, 
 farmers, and retired professional persons. 
 
 B. is played with an apparatus consisting of a 
 board or tables, men or pieces, dice, and dice-boxes. 
 The introduction of dice into the game, and their 
 constant use in determining moves, makes B. 
 essentiallya game of chance, and therefore brings 
 two players of tmequal talents nearer a level 
 than other diversions in which skill is the sole 
 or predominant element. The B. board consists 
 of two parts or tables, generally united by a hinge 
 in the middle, by which they can be shut up as 
 a box. Each table possesses twelve points, six 
 at each end. These points are coloured white 
 and black alternately ; but this variation of colour 
 has no reference to the game, and is only done 
 to make the points more easily counted. The game 
 ^ 605 
 
BACKHUYSEN— BACON. 
 
 is played by two parties, and witli 30 pieces or 
 men ; each party has 15 men, one set of 15 being 
 black, and the other white. In beginning the 
 game, the men are placed on certain points on 
 Bie tables, as shewn m the following figm'e. The 
 ^me is played with two dice and two dice-boxes. 
 The dice are common to both; but each party 
 uses his own dice-box, and the throws are alternate. 
 Each die is a perfect cube, marked on its sides with 
 dots from 1 to 6. The 1 is called ace ; the 2, deuce ; 
 the 3, tre or trois; the 4, quaire; the 5, cinque; and 
 the 6, size. At every throw, the two dice are 
 employed ; consequently, a person may throw from 
 2 up to 12 — ^that is, two aces up to two sizes. If 
 a player throw doublets, or both dice of one number, 
 double the number of dots is reckoned ; thus, by 
 a throw of two aces, the player does not count 
 2, but 4. These numbers thrown or accidentally 
 turned up by the dice, bear a reference to the points 
 on the tables. In order to understand this connec- 
 tion between the dice and the men, the learner must 
 observe how the men are placed on the points, and 
 the rales by which their shifting from one to another 
 is governed. 
 
 The Backgammon Table. 
 
 The tables are here spread out as if two partners 
 were seated, and about to begin to play. The party 
 owning the white men is seated at W, and the party 
 owning the black men at B. We shall call one 
 party White, and another Black. White counts 
 round from the ace-point of Black, and Black 
 counts round from the ace-point of White. These 
 ace-points are respectively seen to have two men 
 upon them in opposite comers of the same table. 
 TTie grand object of the game is for each party 
 to get all his men played round into the table 
 containing the aces, removing them from point 
 to point agreeable to the throws of the dice. In 
 throwing, the number upon each die turned up 
 may be reckoned by itself, or collectively, with the 
 number on the other die. , Thus; if quatre be thrown 
 by one die, and size by the other, a man can be 
 advanced 4 poiats, and another 6 points ; or one 
 man can be advanced 10 points, always providing 
 that a point is open to suit this movement to it. 
 No point can be moved to if covered by two men 
 belonging to the adversary. If covered by only 
 one man, which is called a blot, then that man can 
 be hit, and be removed from the point, and placed 
 on the bar between the tables, his place being taken 
 by the man who has won it. The removal of a man 
 to the bars throws a player considerably behind 
 
 in the game, because the man must remain out 
 of the play till the dice turn up a number corre- 
 sponding to one open point on the adversary's table. 
 Being fortunate to get an open point by this means, 
 the man must be entered and wrought round from 
 thence, as in the case of others in tiie set to which 
 he belongs. The frequent occurrence of this hitting 
 of a blot gives an adversary a great advantage, an3 
 allows bim to win the gammon. There are two 
 kinds of victory — winniog 'the hit, and winning 
 the gammon. The party who has played aU hi» 
 men round into his own table, and by fortunate 
 throws of the dice has borne or played the men 
 off the points first, wins the hit. The gammon may 
 be explained as follows: When you nave got all 
 your men round to your own table, covering every 
 point, and your adversary has a man out, then you 
 are enabled to hear or lift your men away. If you 
 can bear all away, so as to clear your taMe before- 
 the adversary gets his man placed by a throw oa 
 your table, you win the gammon. If the adversary 
 has been able to bear one before you have borne 
 all your men, it reduces the victory to a hit. Two 
 hits are reckoned equal to one gammon in playin? 
 matches. To win two games out of three is called 
 winning the rub, as at ■vmist. 
 
 BA'CKHUYSBN, Ludolph, one of the most 
 famous painters of the Dutch school, a master 
 in marine painting, was bom at Emden in 1631. 
 His parents intended him for a commercial career j 
 but he had not -been long in a mercantile office 
 in .Amsterdam, to which he had been sent at the 
 age of 18, before he resolved to devote himself to- 
 painting, and with that object received .instruction 
 from Evendingen, and attained, in a short time, 
 extraordinary skill and readiness in execution. He 
 was a close student of nature ; so much so, that on 
 the approach of a ' storm he often put to sea in a. 
 boat, in order to watch and sketch its effects, which 
 he transferred to canvas immediately on his return 
 home. His most famous picture is the sea-piec& 
 in the gallery at Paris, which he was commissioned 
 to paint by the magistrates of Amsterdam, and 
 which was, in 1665, sent as a present to Louis. 
 XIV. In all his pictures, the utmost truthfulness 
 prevails, at the same time that they embody aU the- 
 poetiy of the sea. His colouring is also excellent. 
 After he was 71 years old, he began etching on 
 copper. He also made attempts m poetry, and 
 gave lessons in -writing, an art which he did much 
 to promote. He died, aJEter long illness, in 1709. 
 
 BACK-STAYS are long ropes which extend from 
 the topmast-heads down to the sides of a ship, 
 where they are fastened in such a way as to assis-t 
 the shrouds in supporting the masts. Different- 
 kinds are distingaished as afier-B., breast-B., and , 
 travdling-stays. One rope generally forms a pair of 
 B. ; being looped in the middle to pass over the 
 mast-head. 
 
 BACON (from a root in the Teutonic languages 
 which seems to be allied to -the Lat. vacca [in mid. 
 Lat. ia£d\, a cow, and to have signified an animal 
 in general; bache, in Ger., signifies among hunters, 
 a -wild SOW; bake, in Dutch, a, swine in generaiy 
 is the cured sides of a pig; while baoon-ham» 
 are the hind-legs cured. The mode of curing -will 
 be described under Hams ; and their properties 
 as articles of food, under Poeb:. 
 
 BACON BEETLE. See Dekmestes. 
 
 BACON, Sm Nicholas, the father of Lor* 
 Bacon, was bom in 1510, at Chiselhurst, in Kent. 
 He received an excellent education ; and being: 
 gifted by nature -with sound and practical abilities, 
 he quickly prospered in the legal profession, to 
 which he attached bimseU. .At the age of 27, 
 
BACON. 
 
 he was appointed solicitor to the Court of Aug- 
 mentations; two years later, on the dissolution of 
 the monasteries by Henry VIII., he had the courage 
 to present to that irascible monarch a reasonable 
 project for appljring the wealth which had been 
 ' rescued ' from the church. It was this : that 
 Henry should employ a portion of it in founding 
 a college for the study of politics and diplomacy. 
 Unfortunately, the king had already squandered it 
 away in presents, and was unable to comply with 
 the wise suggestion of the young lawyer ; but pro- 
 bably he remembered his good sense, for, in 1546, 
 Henry advanced him to the .office of Attorney of 
 the Court of ^ards, which he retained during the 
 reign of Edward VI. ; but his Protestantism neces- 
 sarily caused him to be deprived of all public 
 honours and emoluments after the subsequent 
 Catholic succession. On the death of Mary, how- 
 ever, he was made a member of the Protestant part 
 of the Privy Council, by Queen Elizabeth; and 
 in 1558, received at her hands the Great Seal. In 
 the beginning of 1559, he opened parliament with 
 a judicious speech on the difficult subject of a 
 national religion. He was also president of that 
 assembly of ecclesiastical disputants which met in 
 Westminster two months later, to discuss the 
 points of controversy between' Protestants and 
 Catholics. In 1564, he suffered a temporary eclipse 
 of royal favour, on account of the too patriotic 
 character of his religion ; but through the persever- 
 ing effijrts of his old and constant friend, Sir William 
 Cecil, he was at length restored to the sunshine in 
 which he had been accustomed to bask. Elizabeth 
 even went the length of paying >>iwi a visit in 1577, 
 at his magnificent mansion of Gorhambury, in 
 Hertfordshire. He died on the 20th of February 
 1579. Sir Nicholas was one of those solid and 
 stately EngUshmen to whose sagacity, high principle, 
 and firm demeanour his country owed its safety in 
 that critical period when Elizabeth mounted the 
 throne. 
 
 BA'CON, IPeaitcis, Lord Verut.am, ViscotrNT 
 St Albans, bom in London, January 22, 1561, 
 was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (q. v.). His 
 mother was the learned Anne Cooke. In early 
 childhood, he manifested superior powers, and an 
 ardent love of knowledge; his iuteUigence was so 
 precocious, and his sedateness so remarkable, that 
 the queen took pleasure in calling him her ' young 
 Lord Keeper.' At the age of thirteen, he was sent 
 to the imiversity of Cambridge, which he quitted, 
 after a residence of three years, with a low opinion 
 of the course of study pursued there, and, as well, of 
 the Aristotelian philosophy. On leaving the tiniver- 
 sity, he went to Paris, in the suite of Sir Ainias 
 Paulet, the English ambassador, and there occupied 
 himself chiefly with statistics and diplomacy, the 
 resiflt of his studies and observation being a work, 
 afterwards published. Of the State of Europe. The 
 sudden death of his father, about Ihe end of 1679, 
 recalled him in 1580 to England, where, after failing 
 to procure from the government a provision which 
 would enable him to devote himself to science and 
 Uterature, he betook himself for several years to the 
 study of law. His professional progress was at first 
 very slow, and, oonteaxy to what might have been 
 expected, it was long before he could obtain promo- 
 tion in the public service. This want of success 
 was chiefly owing to the hostility of his uncle, the 
 queen's first minister, Lord Burleigh (see Cecil), who 
 regarded him as a dangerous rival to his own son. 
 To Lord Burleigh and fis son, B., in the hope of ad- 
 vancement, had paid court tUl it was clear no favour 
 was to be expected from them, when he betook him- 
 self to their rival, the Earl of Essex, whose friendship 
 he speedily won. But the earl's influence could not 
 
 counteract the continued opposition of the CeoUfl, 
 through whom he was defeated, in 1594, in an 
 attempt to obtain for B. the then vacant office of 
 attomey-^neral. What he could do for his friend, 
 however, he did, for shortly after this disappoint- 
 ment he presented him with an estate at Twickenham 
 worth £2000 a year. It is painful to relate that B. 
 repaid the generous friendship of his patron with 
 flagrant ingratitude. When Essex was subsequently 
 brought to trial for a conspiracy against tie queen, 
 B. came forward as his accuser with tongue and pen ; 
 he unnecessarily appeared as counsel against the 
 friend who had so largely obhged and confided in 
 him, and used all his great talents and ingenuity as 
 a pleader to magnify his crimes and secure their 
 punishment. B. was straitened at the time in his 
 circumstances, through his extravagant mode of hfe, 
 and, moreover, was anxious to conciliate the court, 
 whose anger he had provoked by having espoused the 
 popular cause on his first entering parliament as mem- 
 ber for Middlesex in 1595. But whatever the temp- 
 tation was, it cannot affect our opinion of conduct so 
 mean and immoral. It remains to be stated, that, 
 after the earl's execution, he wrote, at the request 
 of the queen, A Declaration of the Practices amd 
 Treasons Attempted and Committed hy Eolert Earl oj 
 Essex, which was printed by authority. 
 
 In 1590, B. obtained the post of Counsel Extra- 
 ordinary to the Queen, and a few years afterwards, 
 he entered parliament as member for Middle- 
 sex. It was not, however, tiU the reign of James I. 
 that he made rapid progress. He was knighted in 
 1603, and in the following year was appointed 
 salaried counsel to the crown; by 1613, he had 
 advanced to the office of Attorney-general, in which 
 he unconditionally subserved the purposes of the 
 court. His conduct as attorney, in attempting to 
 extort by the rack a confession of treason from an 
 old clergyman of the name of Peacham, has met with 
 universal and deserved condemnation. He did not, 
 however, cringe to the king and the royal favourite, 
 ViUiers, except to good purpose. In 1617, he was 
 appointed Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1619 
 attained the diguity of the Lord Chancellorship, 
 with the title of Lord Verulam. In the year follow- 
 ing, he was created Viscount St Albans. 
 
 Having attained the highest honours of the 
 state by truckling to the king and his favourite, 
 B. proceeded to abuse his judicial functions to 
 increase his revenues, which, great as they were, 
 were unequal to "his extravagance. Though his 
 official income was great, and his means had been 
 enlarged by a marriage with the daughter of a 
 wealthy alderman, he could only support his style 
 of life by contracting debt and accepting bribes from 
 suitors. Nor was money his only motive to false 
 judgments ; he more than once polluted the stream 
 of justice, to maintain the favour of Buckingham. 
 By 1621, the state of the courts had become so scan- 
 dalous as to call for a parliamentary inquiry, which 
 resulted in bis beiag convicted, on his own written 
 confession, of twenty-three acts of corruption. In 
 consequence, he was condemned to pay a fine of 
 £110,000, and to be confined in the Tower during 
 the king's pleasure ; he was banished for life from 
 the court, and declared unfit to hold any office of 
 state, or to sit in parliament. The iine, however, 
 was remitted; the imprisonment lasted only two 
 days ; he was aJlowed again to appear at court, and, 
 indeed, was summoned to sit in the very next par- 
 hament. Age, however, failing health, and perhaps 
 shame, prevented ^ith from appearing. Banished 
 from public life, he henceforth devoted himself to 
 literature and science, enjoying from the government 
 a pension of £1200, and an annual income, in all, of 
 £2500. His mode of life still, howevei*, continued 
 
 607 
 
BACON. 
 
 to be so prodigal and ostentatious that, at his death, 
 in 1626, his debts amounted to upwards of £22,000; 
 The immediate occasion of his death (as related by- 
 Aubrey, who probably got it from Hobbes, who was 
 B.'s intimate friend) was cold caught in making an 
 experiment to test the power of snow to preserve 
 flesh. He died in the house of the Earl of Arundel, 
 to which he had been removed with the fatal chiU 
 upon him which he had caught in the course of the 
 eimeriment. 
 
 while, on the whole, the public hfe of Lord B. 
 is marked by meanness and dishonour, his literary 
 and scientific works are everywhere irradiated by 
 the powerful light of an intellect which towered 
 over those of other men. The first edition of his 
 Essays appeared in 1597 ; his two books of the 
 Advancement of Learning in. 1605; his Wisdom of 
 the Ancients — in. Latin — in 1610 ; a third edition 
 of his Essays, greatly extended, in 1612 ; his two 
 books of the Novum, Organum, or second part of 
 the Instauratio Magna, designed to consist of six 
 parts — also in Latin — in 1620; his History of the 
 Reign of Henry VII., in 1622 ; his nine books, De 
 Augmentis Seientiai-um — a Latin trjuislation and 
 extension of his' Advancement of Learning — in 1623. 
 Besides these, he wrote several minor works, which 
 need not here be specially mentioned. It is enough 
 to say that his writings embrace almost all subjects, 
 from jurisprudence — which he treated not as a 
 mere lawyer, but as a legislator and philosopher — to 
 morality and medicine. The Sermones Fideles is a 
 treasury of the deepest knowledge of human rela- 
 tions, conveyed in a gorgeous and energetic style. 
 Almost the only science with which he was unac- 
 qxiainted was that of mathematics. Thus singularly 
 gifted and accomphshed, he appeared at a time when 
 science, from a variety of causes, started on that 
 progress which has never since been arrested. If it 
 is now a question how far he contributed by his 
 genius to that progress at its commencement, it is 
 a fact that he was long vulgarly regarded by his 
 countrymen as the father of Inductive Philosophy 
 — as having been the inventor and first teacher 
 of the method of interrogating nature by obser- 
 vation and experiment and inductive reasoning. 
 Nor are his writings wanting in materials quali- 
 fied ex facie to support his title to that eminence. 
 His claim to the distinction, however, has of late 
 been the subject of much controversy, the result 
 of which is that it has been generally disallowed. 
 But if it be true that he had a somewhat vague 
 and imperfect apprehension of the philosophy of 
 induction, overestimated the province of observa- 
 tion, and undervalued the use of deduction and 
 hypothesis, and that even his classification of the 
 sciences in the De Augmentis, on which his reputa- 
 tion long turned, has been properly superseded by 
 the superior and better-reasoned classification of M. 
 Comte ; still it must be borne in mind that he was 
 one of the first that was aware of the true character 
 of the positive philosophy, and who understood its 
 conditions, and foresaw its final supremacy ; and as 
 for his classification, that it was a marvellous effort 
 of reason at a time when the sciences were in their 
 infancy, and many of them were yet unborn. Also, 
 it must be said, that if B. cannot be claimed by the 
 physicists as the father of their science, and they 
 must look rather to Galileo, yet he may fairly be 
 claimed in that character by the students of man and 
 society; for he was the first to aim at the exten- 
 sion of the methods of positive philosophy to moral 
 and social conceptions. If recent criticisms have 
 ■dethroned him from the position which for centuries 
 he occupied in relation to the physical sciences, by 
 shewing that neither his doctrines, experiments, nor 
 writings have materially affected their course, it is 
 
 608 
 
 only to leave him free to be placed in a position no 
 less dignified in relation to human and social 
 philosophy. 
 
 As a writer, B. presents us in combination an 
 intellect at once one of the most capacious and pro- 
 found that ever appeared among men — one of the 
 most penetrating, one of the most far-reaching — and 
 an imagination almost equally remarkable. In no 
 other writer is so much profound thought to be 
 found expressed in such splendid eloquence. 'If," 
 says Haflam {Literature of Europe, iii. 218), ' we 
 compare what may be found in the sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth books De Augmentis, in the Essays, the 
 History of Henry VII., and the various short 
 treatises contained in his works on moral and 
 political wisdom and on human nature, from expe- 
 rience of which all such wisdom is drawn, with the 
 Ehetoric, Ethics, and Politics of Aristotle, or with the 
 historians most celebrated for their deep insight 
 into civil society and human character — with 
 Thucydides, Tacitus, Philip de Comines, Machiavel, 
 Davila, Hume — we shall, I think, find that one man 
 may almost be compared with all of these together.' 
 
 The collected works and life of Lord B. were 
 published by Mallet in 5 vols. (Lond. 1765) ; a good 
 edition is that of Montague (16 vols., Lond. 1825 — 
 1834) ; but the best, it is generally admitted, is the 
 last (5 vols., edited by Messrs Spedding, EUis, and 
 Heath, Lond. 1858). Montague's edition gave occa- 
 sion to an able review of B.'s character by Lord 
 Macaxilay, to be found among his Essays. The 
 Encydopcedias Britannica and MelropoUtana con- 
 tain valuable papers on his writings, on which 
 also Sir John Herschel's Preliminary Discourse in 
 Lardner's Encyclopcedia may be consulted. 
 
 BA'COlf, KoQBE, an English monk, who, through 
 the force of his intellect, raised himself far above 
 his age, made wonderful discoveries in several 
 sciences, and contributed much to extend the then 
 scanty knowledge of nature. He was descended 
 of a respectable family, and born at Hchester, 
 in the county of Somerset, 1214. He studied 
 at Oxford, and then at Paris, where he received 
 the degree of Doctor in theology ; and soon after 
 his return home, he entered the order of the 
 Franciscans, and settled at Oxford. Physics seems 
 to have been at that time the chief object of 
 his labours ; and liberal friends of science supplied 
 him with the means of pursuing his researches. In 
 exploring the secrets of nature. Tie made discoveries 
 and invented applications which were looked upon 
 by the ignorant as the work of hellish magic. 
 This prejudice was encouraged by the jealousy 
 and hate with which his brother monks regarded 
 his superiority. Besides, he loudly denounced the 
 ignorance and immorality of the clergy, especially 
 of the flionks, and even wrote a letter to the 
 pope, in which he represented to bim the necessity 
 of clerical reform. Out of revenge, an accusation 
 was brought against him at the papal court, and 
 the pope interdicted him from teaching in the 
 university. He was shortly after imprisoned, 
 forbidden all human intercourse, and hardly allowed 
 sufficient food. Among the few clear-sighted men 
 who admired Bacon's genius, and pitied his misfor- 
 tunes, was the cardinal-bishop of Sabina, at that 
 time papal legate in England. He desired to see 
 Bacon's writings, but the interdiction of the Fran- 
 ciscans prevented a compliance with his wish. On 
 his ascent to the papal throne as Clement IV., B. 
 wrote to him, expressing his readiness to furnish him 
 with whatever he desired, and Clement in reply 
 repeated his request to see B.'s works, in defiance of 
 the Franciscan prohibition. B. accordingly drew 
 up his OpusMajus (edited by Jebb, 1733), which he 
 sent, along with two other works, it is said, to the 
 
BACON— BACTRIS. 
 
 pope, by hi3 favourite pupil, John of London, and in 
 which he represented the necessity of a reformation 
 in the sciences through a diligent study of the 
 languages and of nature. How Clement received 
 them is not very well known j but they could only 
 have reached him about the time he was seized with 
 his last iUness. For ten years after Clement's death, B. 
 was free from open persecution at least. But in 1278, 
 under Nicolas III., the general of the Franciscan 
 order, Jerome of Esoulo, declared himself against B., 
 forbade the reading of his books, and issued an 
 order fol his imprisonment, which was sanctioned 
 by the pope. This new imprisonment lasted ten 
 years. When Jerome of Esculo became pope, under 
 the name of Nicolas IV., B. sent him a, Treatise on 
 tlie Means of warding off the Infirmities of Old Age 
 (Lat. Oxf. 1590 ; Eng, by Brown, 1683), with a 
 view to convince biiri of the harmlessness and 
 utility of his labours, but in vain. What the pope 
 refused to the representations of the old philosopher, 
 was yielded to the intercession of several influential 
 English noblemen, and B. at last recovered lys free- 
 dom. He returned to Oxford, wrote a compendium 
 of theology, and shortly after died — according to 
 some, in 1292, to others, in 1294. 
 
 B., although an extraordinary genius, could not 
 rid himself of all the prejudices of his times. He 
 believed in the philosopher's stone and in astrology. 
 His chief invention is the magnifying-glass. There 
 are also in his writings other new and ingenious 
 views on optics ; for example, on refraction, on the 
 apparent magnitude of objects, on the great increase 
 in the size of the sun and moon in the horizon. On 
 other subjects, again, he fell into the greatest errors. 
 He made severed chemical discoveries which were 
 wonders at that time. He knew, for instance, that 
 with sulphur, saltpetre, and charcoal, we may imitate 
 lightning, and produce explosions. Mathematics, 
 applied to observation, he considered to be the only 
 means of arriving at a knowledge of nature. He 
 studied several languages, and wrote Latin with 
 great elegance and oleamess. Deserving of honour- 
 able mention are his discoveries of the errors that 
 prevailed in the calendar, and his proposals and 
 data for remedying them, in which he came very 
 near the truth. He prepared a rectified calendar, of 
 which a copy is preserved in the Oxford library. 
 On account of his extensive knowledge, he received 
 the name of ' Doctor mirabilis.' Several of his works 
 have never been printed, and are preserved among 
 the Cottonian manuscripts in the British Museum ; 
 some are to be found in French libraries. 
 
 BA'CON, John, a distinguished statuai-y, was 
 born in London, 1740, and died there August 7, 1799. 
 He was at first a painter on porcelain, and only 
 began to work in marble at the age of 23 ; yet in 
 1769 he received the first prize from the Eoyal 
 Academy, of which he was soon after made a mem- 
 ber. His statue of Mars first established his fame. 
 Among his principal works are, two busts of George 
 III., one in Christ Church College at Oxford, the 
 other in the university Kbraty at Gottingen ; the 
 monuments of Lord Chatham in Westminster 
 Abbey and in Guildhall ; the statues of Howard 
 and of Samuel Johnson in St Paul's, and that of 
 Blackstone at Oxford. B. was deficient in imagi- 
 nation, and had no refined perception of beauty. 
 
 BACSA'NYI, Janos (pronounced Bat-shan-yi), a 
 Hungarian writer and poetj was born May 11, 1763, 
 at Tapoloza, in the circle of Szalader. After study- 
 ing at Vessprim, Oedenburg, and Pesth, he became 
 tutor to the son of General Orczy, and while thus 
 employed, pubhshed his first work. The Valour of 
 the Magyars (Pesth, 1785). He received the same 
 year an appointment in the finance department at 
 
 Kasohau, and there, in conjunction with Baroti and 
 Pazinozy, he began the Magyar Museum (Kasohau 
 and Pesth, 1788—1792). In 1793, in consequence of 
 a liberal poem, he was deprived of his office, and in 
 1794, having taken part in the conspiracy of Bishop 
 Martinovich, he was carried to Spielberg, where he 
 was confined till 1796. After recovering his free- 
 dom, he assisted in editing the Magyar Minerva, 
 then came to Vienna, where he held an office in 
 the bank, and married (1805) the German poetess, 
 Gabrielle Baumgarten — an unhappy match. When 
 the French entered Vienna in 1809, B. translated 
 Napoleon's proclamation to the Hungarians, on 
 which account he found himseK afterwards obliged 
 to take refuge in Paris. After the peace of Paris, 
 he was given up, and had Linz assigned him as a 
 compulsory residence, but was allowed to receive his 
 French pension till his death. He died at Linz, May 
 12, 1845 : the Hungarian Academy had in 1843 again 
 elected the octogenarian a corresponding, member. 
 In the latter part of his life, B., besides other works, 
 pubhshed his GoUecied Poems (Pesth, 1827 ; Of en, 
 1835). We are also indebted to him for the collected 
 edition of the poetical works of Anyos (Vienna, 
 1798) and of Faludi (Pesth, 1824). 
 
 BA'CTBIA, the ancient name of the imperfectly 
 known land lying between the western part of the 
 Hindu Kush mountains, and the river Oxus (Amu, 
 or Gihon), which separated it from Sogdiana on 
 the north and north-east. Its boundaries in early 
 times cannot be precisely ascertained, but it is gene- 
 rally considered to have been identical with the 
 modern Balkh (q.v.). -B. is supposed to have been 
 the seat of the parent-people from which the Aryan 
 (q. V.) or Indo-European family of nations branched 
 off. The ancient Bactrians of historic times were 
 akin to the Medes and Persians, and used the 
 Zend language. B. was originally the centre of a 
 powerful kingdom, which extended itself over the 
 east of Persia, but we have almost no record of its 
 early greatness ; we only know that Ninus, the 
 Assyrian king, in spite of his vast army, foimd much 
 difficulty in conquering it, and that when Arbaces 
 besieged the last Assyrian king, Sardanapalus, in 
 his metropolis, he was assisted by a large force of 
 Bactrians. It is believed that the ancient Persian 
 rehgion was first developed in Bactra or Zariaepa, 
 the capital of B., which was the head-quarters 
 of the Magi till the land was overrun by the 
 Arabs, and a centra-point of the inland trade of 
 Asia. The modern town of Balkh (q. v.) is built 
 upon its site. Alexander, on his return from Persia, 
 left in B. a colony of 14,000 Greeks, who here 
 extended civilisation. After the death of Alexander, 
 B. was annexed to the kingdom of Syria ; but was 
 raised to independence by its governor, Diodotus I., 
 who founded the Greek kingdom of New B. about 
 256 B. c. The history of this kingdom was formerly 
 little known, but has been recently elucidated by. 
 niunerous Graeco-Bactrian coins found in the topes 
 or burial-places of Afghanistan. These coins give 
 the names of a series of kings, and bear indications 
 of the political circumstances of the Greek king- 
 dom of B. On those of Eucratides, a monarch who 
 fiourished in the age of Mithridates, there are found,. 
 beside the Greek characters, others which have been 
 proved to belong to a dialect of the Sanscrit, and 
 have been very happily deciphered by Mr Prinsep. 
 
 BA'CTmS, a, genus of PaJms, of which nearly 
 fifty species are known, all American. The leaves 
 of some are pinnate, those of others entire. They 
 are (generally small palms, some of them very small, 
 and. with slender stems ; that of B. tenuis is not 
 thicker than a goose-quill. Some are spiny, and 
 form thickets not easily traversed. S. acanthocarpa 
 
 609 
 
BACTEITES— BADEN. 
 
 is called ' TucfDM, near Bahia, and from it an 
 extremely tough thread i^ obtained, which is used 
 for making nets. B. Maraja, the Maeaja' palm, 
 produces large clusters of fruit, resembling small 
 
 f rapes, with a thin pulp of an agreeable subacid 
 avour. 
 
 BACTEI'TES, a genus of fossil AmmonUidce, with 
 
 a straight shell, and mdented but not ramified septa. 
 
 Mve species have been described, aU from Devonian 
 
 strata. 
 
 BA'CTJLITES, a genua of the family of Aminon- 
 
 itidce, dilfering from the true Ammonites 
 
 "tq. V.) in the perfectly straight form of 
 
 the shell, which tapers to a point, and is 
 
 either round or compressed. The species, 
 
 like the other AmmonitidEe, are all fossil. 
 
 B. are characteristic of the upper chalk, 
 
 and appear to have existed only towards 
 
 the expiry of the period over which the 
 
 existence of the Ammonitidas extended. 
 
 BADA'GBY, a seaport town on the Gold 
 Coast of Upper Guinea. Pop. 10,000. At 
 one time it carried on a large trade in 
 slaves with the Portuguese, who here estab- 
 lished several factories. B. has a monarch, 
 who is subject to the kiug of Katimga. 
 It was from this place that Lander and 
 Clapperton started on their expeditions to 
 explore the African intferior. 
 Baculite. BADAJO'Z, called by the Romans 
 Pax Augusta, and by the Moors Bele- 
 daix, i. e. ' Land of Health,' is the capital of the 
 Spanish province of Estremadura. It is situated 
 about five miles from the borders of Portugal, in a 
 fruitful district on the left bank of the Guadiana, 
 which is here crossed by a stone-bridge of 28 
 arches. It numbers 12,000 inhabitants, is the 
 residence of a captain-general, and the see of a 
 bishop, has a cannon-foundry, and an old cathe- 
 dral with a splendid organ, and paintings by 
 Mateo Cerezo and Morales, who was born at B. ; 
 a brisk traiEc, chiefly contraband, is carried on with 
 Portugal. Its chief articles of manufacture are 
 soap, coarse wooUens, leather, and delft-ware. As 
 one of the keys of Portugal, B. has often been 
 a place of importance in war. It was besieged in 
 vain by the Portuguese in 1660, and again by the 
 allies, in the Spanish "War of Succession, in 1705. 
 During the French war, B. was besieged by the 
 French in 1808 and in 1809, and agam in 1811, 
 when it ^surrendered, March 11, to Soult. It was 
 thrice besieged by the English imder "Wellington: 
 first on AprU 17, 1811, after the conquest of Olivenza, 
 on which occasion, the approach of Soult to its relief 
 caused the siege to be raised on the 14th of May ; 
 the second time, after the battles of Fuentes d'Onor 
 and Albuera, the city was invested from May 27 
 to June 10, 1811, but stiU in vain. The third invest- 
 ment, March 17, 1812, ended in the taking of the 
 city by storm, on the night of April 6, after a mur- 
 derous contest, and a loss during the twenty days' 
 siege, of 72 officers and 963 men kiUed, and 306 
 officers and 3483 men wounded. The garrison and 
 their commander, General Philippon, became pri- 
 soners of war. 
 
 BADAiCHSHA'N, or BUDUKHSHA'N, a terri- 
 tory of Central Asia, lying between 36° and 38° 
 N. lat., and 69° and 73° E. long. B. occupies the 
 western declivity of the great mountain-chain 
 of Bolor-Tagh (q. v.), and includes several of the 
 valleys through which the head streams of the 
 river Oxus (q.v.) flow. The territory is subject to 
 the ruler o£ Kunduz. It is bounded on the W. by 
 Kunduz, on the S. by Chitral, on the E. by the 
 plateau of Pamir, and on the K by Bokhara. B, is 
 610 
 
 for the most part mountainous. The mountains are 
 generally bare and barren; but the slopes of some 
 of them are rendered productive by the terrace 
 system of cultivation. Gold is found in considerable 
 quantities in the tributaries of the Oxus, the prin- 
 cipal of which is the Kokcha. B. has several ruby- 
 mines, and is famous for its production of lapis-lazuli. 
 Iron is also found, which the inhabitants smelt with 
 much more skill than most eastern peoples do. 
 The country is marked by great variety of climate. 
 Among the principal indigenous trees are the 
 willow, the pistachio, and almond-trees, which gro\y 
 on the lower slopes ; and the archa or dwarf ia in 
 the higher regions ; but poplar and fruit trees 
 are grown in the vicinity of villages, and the mul- 
 berry-tree, for food to the silk-worm, is largely 
 cultivated in the valley of the Oxus. The chief 
 domestic animals are horses, sheep, and cattle, 
 which find rich pasture on the plains; asses, hogs, 
 and the yak (q. v.), which in the more mountain- 
 ous districts is the most important animal of all. 
 It yields richer milk, but in less quantities than the 
 cow ; and as a beast of burden, if not so strong, it 
 is more sagacious and sure-footed than the horse. 
 Among the wild animals are lions, wolves, foxes, 
 &c., while deer, hares, pheasants, and other game 
 abound ; eagles and ravens are also met with. The 
 population of B. consists of Tadjihs and Moham- 
 medans, who speak the Persian language. B. is 
 little known to Europeans. About the beginning of 
 the 16th c. it was conquered by Baber, the founder 
 of the Mogul empire. After the fall of that empire, 
 B. became subject to Cabul. In 1823, the Uzbecks, 
 under Murad Beg, defeated the tribes of B. in a 
 pitched battle ; and two years after, their subjuga- 
 tion was completed. Their conquerors have treated 
 them most harshly, demolishing their towns, and 
 either selling them as slaves, or carrying them oflf to 
 people the unhealthy swamps of Kimduz. 
 
 BA'DDERLOCKS, or HEK'"WAKB (Alana 
 esculenta), a sea-weed (see Alg^, where a figure of 
 it is given), of the sub-order Fucacem, growmg on 
 rocks in deep water on the shores of Britam, Iceland, 
 and the northern parts of Europe. It has a stem 
 4 — 8 inches long, pinnated with a few short leaflets, 
 which contain the seeds, and a membranous ohve- 
 green frond of 2 — 12 feet long, with a stout mid-rib. 
 The frond being stripped off, the mid-rib forms an 
 article of food ta the inhabitants of the sea-coasts 
 of Iceland, Denmark, Scotland, Ireland, &c. The 
 thinner part of the frond is also sometimes eaten. 
 
 BA'DEN", The Grand Duchy or, is situated at 
 the south-western extremity of the German Con- 
 federation. "With an area of 5900 square nules, it 
 runs in the direction of the valley of the Upper 
 Ehine and of the Black Forest, from the southern 
 bend of the Main at "Wertheim to the Bodensee or 
 Lake of Constance, and is bounded on the N. by 
 Bavaria and Hesse -Darmstadt; on the E. by 
 HohenzoUern, "WUrtemberg, Bavaria ; and on the 
 "W. and S. by the Rhine, which separates it from 
 Rhenish Bavaria, France, and Switzerland. It is 
 divided pohtically into four circles — the circle of 
 the 'Lake,' at the south, and the circles of the 
 ' Upper Rhine,' of the ' Central Rhine,' and of the 
 ' Lower Rhine;' these are again diyided into 79 
 districts. 
 
 Surface aTid Hydrography. — Physically, B. falls 
 into two divisions — the western plain, lying along 
 the right bank of the Rhine, and the eastern high- 
 lands; the plain occupying about a fifth of the 
 whole duchy, and the hUly part, four-fifths. Of the 
 mountain-ranges, the Sohwarzwald, or Black Forest, 
 is the most prominent. See Black Forest. For a 
 distance of 96 nules, it belongs almost exclusively to 
 
BADEN, 
 
 Baden. It terminates in abrupt declivities towards 
 the west, and on the east descends by degrees into 
 the plateau of the Neokar in WUrtemberg. It 
 decreases in height from south to north, its mean 
 elevation being from about 4000 to 2700 feet, 
 and is cut up into sections by numerous deep and 
 wildly romantic valleys. The most remaritable 
 summits are Peldberg and Belchen in the south. 
 The less elevated part of the mountainous division 
 of B., which lies to the north of the Murg, 
 receives the general name of the Neokar highlands, 
 as far as to its intersection by the Neokar valley, 
 on the north side of which the Odenwald begins. 
 Southward, in the circle of the 'Lake,' rise the 
 extensive plateaus of the German Jura. This table- 
 land is known by the local name of the Eandeu. 
 In the plain of the 'Upper Khine' between Alt- 
 breisaoh and Endingen, stands the small isolated 
 basaltic group of the Kaiserstuhl, or Emperor's 
 Seat, rising to the height of 1100 feet, and overlook- 
 ing the Bhine. 
 
 Being drained by the Ehine and the Danube, 
 B. belongs to the basins of. two opposite seas; 
 the sources of the Danube, however, drain only 
 about 336 sqiiare miles in the northern part of the 
 ' Circle of the Lake.' Beginning with the Bodensee, 
 which projects three arms or bays on the north- 
 weat into B., the Kbine, in its tumultuous course, 
 forms the south boundary, interrupted, however, 
 by several encroachments of the Swiss territories 
 upon its north bank. From Basel to below Man- 
 heim, the stream is the only and natural boundary. 
 The chief tributaries of the Khiue, on the B.. side, 
 are the Neokar, the Kinzig, the Murg, the Elz, the 
 Treisam, and the Pfinz. On the north-east the 
 Baden territories are bounded by the Main, which 
 there receives the Tauber. Except a part of the 
 Bodensee, B. has no lake of importance. In the 
 Sohwarzwald, however, there are the following 
 sheets of water which go by the name of lakes: 
 Mummelsee, WEdsee, Feldsee, Titisee, and the 
 Nonnenmattweiher, with a floating island. 
 
 Climate. — As the difference between the highest 
 and lowest points of B. — Eeldberg, which rises to a 
 height of 4892 feet, and Manheim — amounts to some- 
 thing like 4500 feet, there is naturally a great 
 variety of climate, especially ia respect of tempera- 
 tm-e. The mean temperature of the plains may be 
 stated at 50°, and that of the highlands at 44° 
 Eahr., so that the Bhine valley of B, is one of the 
 warmest and most fruitful districts, not only of 
 Germany, but of Europe ; the land yielding often, 
 in the case of maize, a retiurn of more than three 
 himdredfold. Walnuts, cherries, apples, and pears 
 grow in abuuditnce, while the western terraces of 
 the Schwarzwald are decked with vines. On these 
 charming decKvities, the walnut thrives at a height 
 of 1340 feet, the grape at 1450 feet; other kinds 
 of fruit are cultivated in the higher regions to 
 an elevation of more than 2000 feet. The wild 
 cherry is found even as high as 2600 feet; the 
 cereals being profitably cultivated to at least an 
 equal height. Oats rise as high even as 3600 feet, 
 above which lie the exclusively pastoral districts. 
 
 About two-thirds of the population are engaged 
 in the cultivation of the land, which, as may be 
 inferred from the description, yields rich returns. 
 An area of about 2100 square miles is occupied 
 with fields and gardens, growing wheat, oats, rye, 
 barley, maize, potatoes, pulse, and vegetables of 
 all sorts. Tobacco, hemp, rape, opium, '&c., yield a 
 large revenue. Meadow land and pasturage occupy 
 about a fifth of the surface. An important branch of 
 cultivation is also the production of chestnuts, wal- 
 nuts, almonds, &o. The quantity of wine produced 
 yearly is, on an average, 14 million gallons. About 
 
 1790 square mUes are under wood. The Schwarz- 
 wald is one of the most remarkable pine-forests of 
 Germany. There whole tracts may be seen of pines 
 of the height of from 160 to 180 feet, which are 
 exported to the Netherlands for ship-building. The 
 rearing of cattle is carried on to a large extent. 
 The several kinds of stock may . amount to the 
 following numbers : horses, 73,200 ; asses, 700 ; 
 cattle, 481,000; sheep, 189,000; goats, 22,100; 
 swine, 480,000 ; making a total of 1,246,000 head of 
 animals, and representing a large amount of wealth. 
 Honey is also an important product, more than 
 14,000 bee-hives being kept in the duchy. Various 
 societies exist for improving the breed of horses and 
 perfecting agriculture. 
 
 Minerals. — The mineral wealth of the country 
 does not seem to be valued yet as it deserves, if we 
 may judge from the extent of mining operations 
 carried on ; but the activity of the Mining Society at 
 Carlsruhe is yearly bringing this department of the 
 national industry more and more into a fitting 
 condition. Iron, lead, silver, copper, and salt are 
 among the chief productions ; gold is extracted from 
 the sands of the Bhine, near Wittenweier, and 
 cobalt, sulphur, marble, and several kinds of precious 
 stones are found. B. is rich in mineral springs; 
 as many as 60 are enumerated, some sulphureous, 
 some chalybeate, and some acidulous. Hence there 
 are a great number of much frequented watering- 
 places, as Baden-Baden,' BadenweUer, Griesbach, 
 Petersthal, &c. 
 
 Manufactures, &c. — The increasing activity in the 
 various branches of industrial art is testified by 
 the existence of 300 manufacturing establishments, 
 with more than 9000 hands, and a yearly produce 
 of 14 million florins (£1,666,666). The industrial 
 activity extends chiefly to the following articles : 
 ribbons and cotton fabrics, mostly at St Blasia; 
 toys and trinkets, and tobacco, which occupies the 
 first place; chicory, paper, cloth, leather, beer, 
 wooden clocks, and articles of straw ; the last two 
 are characteristic of the Schwarzwald districts, and 
 known all over the world. The chief articles of 
 export are wine and timber, which last is sent almost 
 exclusively to the Netherlands, and brings in a sum 
 of at least 3 million florins (£250,000). The prin- 
 cipal imports are colonial goods, fruits, drugs, horses, 
 wool, cotton, silk-goods, iron, steel, and articles of 
 luxury. Money is reckoned in guldens or florins of 
 24 to the mark of silver, a florin being equal to 2Qd. 
 sterling. Weights and measures are divided accord- 
 ing to the decimal system. 
 
 Population, Beligion, HducaMon. — The population 
 of B., in 1858, amounted to 1,335,952, being a 
 decrease of above 20,000 as .compared with 1852. 
 With tlie exception of Jews, the inhabitants are 
 exclusively German. The dominant church is the 
 Boman Catholic, whose adherents, in 1858, num- 
 bered 877,311, or about two-thirds of the whole 
 population. Protestants numbered 433,075; Dis- 
 senters and Mennonites, 2004; and Jews, 23,562. 
 The school-system of B. is excellent ; it ofl'ers the 
 means of instruction, to every individual ; and a 
 multitude of public institutions, such as libraries, 
 museums, and collections of all sorts, are significant 
 indications of the higher elements of culture. 
 
 Government. — The sovereignty of the grand duchy, 
 which is strictly indivisible and inalienable, is here- 
 ditary in the eldest of the male hue, and, failing 
 that, of the female. The heir-apparent is styled 
 Hereditary Grand Duke, and the other sons and 
 daughters are called Margraves and Margravines. 
 The sovereign is bound down by a parliamentary 
 constitution. The parliament, which meets regularly 
 every two years, consists of two chambers. The 
 first chamber consists of the princes of the grand- 
 
BADEN— BADEN-BADEN. 
 
 ducal houae, the heads of the seignorial families 
 (seven princes and three counts), and of the nobility 
 — on •whom, when they possess hereditary property, 
 under feudal tenure, to the value of 300,000 florins, 
 the king confers the rank of the high nobility — the 
 Catholic bishop and the protestant prelate, two 
 representatives of the universities, and eight mem- 
 bers chosen by the grand duke, without regard to 
 rank or birth. The second chamber consists of 63 
 representatives chosen for eight years, 22 for the 
 cities, and 41 for the country districts, giving one 
 representative for about 21,540 inhabitants. As 
 to the franchise, less regard has been paid in 
 B. than elsewhere to the property quahfioation ; 
 every settled citizen and all state officials may take 
 part in the nomination of electors, and may become 
 electors ; only representatives must either pay tax 
 on a capital of 10,000 florins, or be in possession of 
 an ecclesiastical or secular office bringing in at least 
 1500 florins. The highest dehberative and executive 
 body in the country is the council of state. The 
 grand duke is its president, and it is divided into the 
 ministries of foreign affairs, of justice, of the interior, 
 of war, and of finance. The expenditure, according 
 to the ordinary estimates for the united years of 
 1858—59, was 21,295,365 florins ; the estimated net 
 receipts for the same years being 21,640,052 florins, 
 leaving an excess of income of 344,687 florins. The 
 total receipts of each of these years are given at 
 16,327,572 florins, the expense of collection, admi- 
 nistration, &c., being 6,507,546 florins, leaving a 
 net balance of 10,820,026 florins. There is a par- 
 ticular budget dealing with the finances of the 
 post-office, railways, and baths. 26J millions of 
 florins were added to the pubKc debt of the country 
 by the events of 1848 and 1849. The total state- 
 debt, including that on railways, amounted in 1859 
 to 95,369,886 florins (£7,947,490). Military ser- 
 vice is obligatory on all, with the exception of the 
 high nobihty ; and B. furnishes to the eighth divi- 
 sion of the army of the German Confederation a con- 
 tingent of 10,400 men, with a reserve of 3333. The 
 effective war-strength of the army in 1858 was 
 16,667 ; peace, 7691. There exist three orders of 
 knighthood, besides a medal for military service, 
 and other decorations of merit. The capital and 
 residence of the sovereiga, is Carlsruhe ; the capitals 
 of the four 'circles,' are Constanz, Freiburg, Carlsruhe 
 (formerly Eastadt), and Manheim. 
 
 History. — The original inhabitants of B. wore 
 Alemauni. These fell under the dominion of the 
 Franks, the conquerors of Gaul, and submitted at 
 the same time to the Christian religion. Under 
 their duke, Gottfried, they made repeated attempts 
 to regain their independence, but in vain ; and the 
 dukedom of the Alemauni was abolished in 748 by 
 Pepin the Little. In the 11th c, a Duke Berthold, 
 said to have been a descendant of the Alemannian 
 Gottfried, buflt the castle of Zahringen in Breisgau, 
 and with him begins the imbroken line of the 
 princes of the House of Zahringen. A descendant of 
 his second son took the title of Margrave of B., and 
 became the ancestor of the still flourishing House of 
 Baden. He died in 1130. The history of this House 
 presents, for long, httle else but a succession of 
 partitions of the territories among brothers, to be 
 again and again reunited by one or other of the 
 collateral branches becoming extinct. The prosperity 
 of the country was thus greatly retarded. The 
 present capital, Carlsruhe, was built in 1715 by the 
 reigning count, Charles III. It is to his grandson, 
 Charles Frederic, who succeeded in 1746, that B. 
 owes considerable accessions of territory and political 
 importance. By favouring the policy of Napoleon, 
 and joining the Confederation of the Rhine, he 
 doubled his possessions in extent and population, 
 
 612 
 
 and acquired successively the dignity of elector and 
 the title of grand duke. In 1811 he was succeeded 
 by his grandson, Charles Ludwig Frederic, who, five 
 years before, had married Stephanie Louise Adrienne 
 Napoleone, an adopted daughter of Napoleon. After 
 the battle of Leipsic, Charles Ludwig seceded from 
 the Confederation of the Rhine, and (1815) joined 
 the German Confederation, in which B. holds the 
 seventh rank. 
 
 The original constitutions or ' states ' of the sepa- 
 rate territories composing the grand duchy having 
 mostly become extinct, the Grand Duke Charles 
 granted (1818) the charter which forms the basis of 
 the present constitution. Charles was succeeded in 
 the same year by his uncle Ludwig, who was inchned 
 to absolutism, and had to contend at first with a 
 powerful opposition, which led him frequently to 
 dissolve the Chambers. He succeeded, in 1825, in 
 carrying through an alteration of the constiti^tion, 
 extending the duration of the parliaments; after 
 which the government and the Chambers acted 
 more harmoniously. Ludwig dying childless (1830), 
 was succeeded by his brother Leopold. The known 
 hberal tendencies of this prince promised at first 
 a new life to constitutional government; but the 
 tide of reaction, become strong since the fall of 
 Warsaw, soon -seized the government, and the act 
 establishing the freedom of the press, which in 1831 
 had been hailed with delight by B. and the whole 
 of Germany, was, in 1832, declared impracticable 
 and abrogated. A fluctuating contest between a 
 reactionary government and a growing opposition 
 was carried on tUl 1846, when the constitutional 
 Bekk was made minister of the interior, and 
 liberalism thus placed at the helm. The first effect 
 was to calm the pubHc mind, and to cause a spht 
 between the liberals and the radicals. The ninth par- 
 hament met (December 1847) under the most friendly 
 and promising auspices ; when the French revolution 
 (February 1848), the vibrations of which were first 
 felt by B., suddenly called the radical party into the 
 most violent activity. Not satisfied with a multitude 
 of liberal measures passed by the legislature, the 
 revolutionary leaders, Hecker and Struve (q. v.), 
 aimed at establishing a republic, and stirred up 
 an insurrection. The troops having sided with the 
 insurgents, the grand duke fled, and a Constituent 
 Assembly was called (May 1849). The duke had 
 recourse to Prussian aid, and after several battles, 
 was reinstated on his throne (July 1849). The 
 restoration was followed by some thirty executions, 
 consisting chiefly of soldiers that had borne arms 
 against the government, and of a few political leaders. 
 Upon the whole, the reactionary tendency has been 
 less marked in B. than in most other German states, 
 and many valuable reforms effected in 1848 have 
 been retained. 
 
 BA'DEN, a town and fashionable watering-place 
 in the canton of Aargau, Switzerland, is situated on 
 the left bank of the Limmat. It has a population of 
 2840. It is of ancient date, being known to the 
 Romans as Thermce Hdveticm. The temperature of 
 the baths is as high as 117° Fahrenheit. B., from 
 the 15th to the beginning of the 18th c, was the 
 seat of the Swiss diet. 
 
 BA'DEN-BADEN, a town in the grand duchy of 
 Baden, situated in a pleasant vaUey at the base of 
 the Black Forest. It contains about 6500 inhabit- 
 ants ; but its visitors during the season, which is 
 at its height in July and August, are often double 
 the number of the settled population. It is chiefly 
 celebrated for its medicinal springs, which were 
 known in the time of the Romans. B. having been 
 a fashionable place of resort so early as the days 
 of Antoninus and Aurehus, numerous Roman 
 
BADEN BEI WIEN— BADGE. 
 
 antiquities have been found in the neigli'bourhood, and 
 are preserved in a museum here. There are several 
 springs of a saline character, varying in tempera- 
 ture from 117° to 154° F. These springs are impreg- 
 nated with iron, magnesia, and lime, with sulphunc 
 and carbonic acid, and are especially recommended 
 in chronic cutaneous diseases, gout, rheiunatism, &o. 
 The chief spring (Ursprung) fischarges in twenty- 
 four hours about 4200 cubic feet of water. The 
 gaming-tables of B. are the most renowned in 
 Europe. 
 
 BA'DEN BEI WIEN (i. e., ' Baden near Vienna'), 
 a much-frequented watering-place of Lower Austria, 
 about fifteen miles S.S.W. of Vienna. It was the 
 Aquce Pannonice or Oethice of the Komans, and is 
 still famous for its warm mineral springs, which 
 are frequented during the season by from 12,000 
 to 15,000 persons chiefly from the Austrian capital. 
 The temperature varies from 90° to about 99° F. 
 The baths are frequented by persons of both sexes, 
 who, in the bath, promenade arm in arm. Many 
 of the Austrian nobihty have palaces here. The 
 favourite walk in the neighbourhood is along the 
 romantic valley, the Helenenthal. Pop. about 4000. 
 
 EA'DEliTOCH, a Highland district in the south- 
 east part of Inverness-shire, 30 miles long by 15 
 broad, bounded by Lochaber, Athole, Braemar, and 
 MuiTay, and traversed by the Spey. It is much 
 covered with forest, and is chiefly composed of 
 
 fneiss rock, with a little granite. It was a lordship, 
 eld during the 13th c. by the eldest branch of the 
 great House of Cumyn, on whose forfeiture Bruce 
 bestowed it on his nephew Eandolph. In 1371, 
 King Robert II. gave it to his son, 'the Wolf of 
 Badenoch,' on the failure of whose descendants it 
 reverted to the crown, which, about 1456, granted it 
 to the Earl of Huntly. 
 
 BADGE, the term by which, in general, all 
 honorary decorations and special cognizances are 
 known. Badges are either conferred by the state 
 or sovereign, or assumed by the individual for pur- 
 poses of distinction, the former class having very 
 frequently had their origin in the latter. Of badges 
 conferred by public authority, for the purpose of 
 inciting to exertion, and gratifying honourable ambi- 
 tion, munerous instances are to be met with in every 
 part of the world. The garter of the English knight, 
 the golden fleece of the Spanish grandee, and the 
 button of the Chinese mandarin, wUl occur as fami- 
 liar examples. To the same class belong not only 
 the stars and crosses with which princes and other 
 persons of rank are adorned in this country, and to 
 a far greater extent on the continent, but the medal 
 of the private soldier, and even those not less 
 honourable decorations which are now frequently 
 conferred by private societies for acts of voluntary 
 daring, such as the medal given by the Humane 
 Society for saving from drowning. Amongst the 
 ancients, one of the most usual emblems of authority 
 was a gold ring, which was worn generally on the 
 fourth finger. A ring of this description was the 
 mark of senatorial and magisterial dignity, and 
 lairtierly of Icnighthood at Home ; iron rings, during 
 the earlier period, at all events, having been used by 
 private citizens. The right of wearing a gold ring 
 {j-us annuli aurei) was gradually extended, till at 
 length Justinian conferred it on aU the citizens of 
 the empire. In the early times of the republic, 
 when ambassadors were sent to foreign states, they 
 were furnished with gold rings, which they wore 
 during their mission as badges of authority. From 
 an early period, every freeman in Greece appears to 
 have used a ring, though the custom, not being men- 
 tioned by Homer, can scarcely have belonged to the 
 earliest period of the history of that people, and is 
 
 commonly supposed to have been of Asiatic origin. 
 Eings are often mentioned in Scripture as badges of 
 authority both amongst the Jews and other oriental 
 nations. We read of Pharaoh taldng off his ring 
 and putting it on Joseph's hand, as a token of the 
 power which he committed to him (Gen. xli. 42); 
 and still earlier (Gen. xxxviii. 18), Jndah left his signet 
 with Tamar as a pledge. In the New Testament, 
 rings are spoken of rather as marks of wealth and 
 luxury than as badges of official rank ; e. g., James 
 h. 2, and Lulce xv. 22, where, on the return of the 
 prodigal son, the father ordered that a ring should 
 be put on his finger. As to the workmanship and 
 materials of ancient rings, see Ring, Signet, &c. 
 Of badges assumed for the purpose of distinction, 
 none are more famous than the white and red roses 
 of York and Lancaster. Henry VII. combined these 
 two emblems, first carrying a rose per pale, white 
 and red, and afterwards placing the white rose 
 within the red one. One of Queen Elizabeth's 
 badges was a golden falcon perched on the stump of 
 a tree between two growing branches of white and 
 red roses, a B. which is said to have been given to 
 her mother, Anne Boleyn, by Henry VIII. CThe 
 hear and, ragged staff, which still exists as a sign in 
 London, was the B. of the great Earl of Warwick. 
 The white hart and silver swan, which are fre- 
 quently met with as signs to inns, have a similar 
 origin, the first having been the B. of Richard II., 
 and the second having belonged to the House of 
 Lancaster. The garb and sickle, the B. of the 
 
 Garb and Sickle. 
 
 Hungerfords, is another very beautiful and less 
 common example of the same class of badges. 
 Different countries have also 
 distinctive badges, generally 
 connected with the history 
 either of the actual ruling or of 
 some former dynasty. Of these, 
 thefieur de lis of France (repre- 
 sented in the accompanying 
 engraving of the seal of Louis 
 VII.), and the other badges, for 
 which it from time to time 
 makes way — viz., the cap of 
 hberty and other emblems of 
 repubhoanism, the eagles of the 
 Empire, borrowed from Rome, 
 and the bees and other insignia which the Bonaparte 
 family have assumed, may all be taken as examples. 
 JB. of England. — The present B. of England is a 
 rose white and red, ensigned with the royal crown. 
 The initials V. R., ensigned with a crown, which are 
 used on military accoutrements, is also a species of 
 national badge. 
 
 B. of Scotland is a thistle ensigned with a royal 
 crown. 
 
 S. of Ireland. — Ireland has two national badges 
 — ^the golden harp and the trefoil, both of which 
 are carried ensigned with the royal crown. 
 
 613 
 
 ileur de lis of Louis 
 
 vn. 
 
BADGE-BADGBE. 
 
 The three badges of England, Scotland, and 
 Ireland, carried conioined, may he seen under any 
 representation of the royal arms. 
 
 B. of Wales is a dragon passant, mngs elevated, 
 gules, on a mount vert. 
 
 B. of Ulster is on a shield or canton, or, a sinister 
 hand erect and apaimige, gu. This B., which is 
 popularly known as ' the bloody hand,' is home in 
 the paternal coats of English baronets. 
 
 B. of Nova Scotia, which is bo'me by the 
 Kova Scotia baronets, is, or, a saltire azure, th(frean 
 an escutcheon of the arms of Scotland, andensigned 
 with an imperial crown, the motto being, Fax 
 mentis honestce gloria. 
 
 One of the oldest and most celebrated badges m 
 existence is the so-called jewel of King Alfred. For 
 
 hind feet, and the feet are peculiarly adapted for 
 digging and burrowing. A peculiar characteristic 
 of tie badgers, not found in any other quadrupeds of 
 the same family, is the possession of a bag, beneath 
 the tail, for the secretion of a peculiar substance, 
 of a disagreeable odour, which is supposed to be 
 of use in directing the sexes to each other m their 
 sohtary wanderings.— The common B. {M. Tmsus 
 or M. vulgaris) is the only quadruped of the Bear 
 family now found in the British islands. It is 
 widely diffused over Europe and the middle parts 
 
 Alfred's Jewel, 
 An pmai^eiit of gold, apparently intended to hang round the 
 neck, found in Athelney, and now in the Ashmolean 
 Museum, Oxford. The inscription on the side here repre- 
 sented, around tlie female figure holding flowers, is ' i^^lfred 
 me haet gewercan * (Alfred had me wrought). On the other 
 Bide is a flower. The worUmanship is in a good style. 
 
 the badges of the different orders of knighthood, see 
 their respective titles. 
 
 BA'DGBR {Meles), a genus of quadrupeds of the 
 Bear family or Ursidce {see Bear), and included by 
 Linnaeus in the genus Ursus or Bear, but forming a 
 sort of connecting-link between this family and 
 the Mustelidcs or weasel and Otter family. To the 
 Skimks (q. v.), which are ranked in that family, the 
 ' badgers have a particularly strong resemblance, and 
 their dentition and habits are almost the same. 
 The dentition of badgers differs from that of bears 
 chiefly in the large size of the tuberculous molar 
 teeth at thp bottom of each jaw, shewing a still 
 greater adaptation to vegetable food. Badgers, like 
 the rest of the family to which they belong, are 
 plantigrade, i. e., they walk on the whole sole of the 
 foot, and not merely on the fore part of it. The 
 body is thus brought nearer to the groimd than it 
 otherwise would be from their length of limb. The 
 head is long, with a pointed muzzle, the taU short, 
 the skin very thick and tough, the hair long. The 
 
 fait is slow, the habits nocturnal and sohtary. 
 'here are fiv§ toes on each, both of the fore and 
 
 614 
 
 of Asia. It is grayish brown above, and black 
 beneali ; the head white, with a longitudinal black 
 band on each side ; the body long but robust, in 
 size about equal to that of a small fox, the hair 
 coarse and reaching to the ground as .the animal 
 walks. The average length is 2 feet 6 inches, and 
 the height at the shoulder 11 inches. It haunts 
 the gloomy recesses of woods, or thick coppices on 
 the sides of hills, and digs for itself ' a deep and 
 well-formed domicile, consisting of more than one 
 apartment, the single entrance to which is by a 
 deep, oblique, and even tortuous excavation.' The 
 innermost chamber is circular, and lined with grass 
 and hay. The B. makes use of its nose in digging, 
 scrapes with the fore-paws, flinging the earth as far 
 back by them as possible, and when the accumii- 
 'lation is considerable, pushes it away by means of 
 the hind-feet. The B. is extremely cleanly in its 
 habits. It is one of the most perfectly omnivorous 
 of animals, in a wild state as well as in confine- 
 ment; fruits, roots, beech-mast, eggs, young birds, 
 small quadrupeds, frogs, snails, worms, and insects, 
 equally constitute its natural food. It has been 
 known to visit a garden for strawberries. It is 
 also fond of honey, and of the larvse of wasps and 
 wild bees, for the sake of which it digs up their 
 nests, its hide being impervious to their stings. 
 It is often caught by placing a sack in the 
 mouth of its hole, when it is out at night ; dogs 
 are then sent into the wood to alarm it, "upon which 
 it flees to its hole. Dogs sent into the hole 
 are often foiled by .earth which the . B. throws 
 back upon them, to block up their way, nor is it 
 easy for a dog to contend with it, owing to its great 
 strength, and partiojilarly the strength of its jaws. 
 A barbarous sport was formerly, and to some 
 extent still is practised, called B. -baiting, or drawing 
 the badger. A badger kept in a barrel was assailed by 
 dogs, and at last, yielding to superior numbers, was 
 dragged out, upon which it was released, and allowed 
 to go back to its den, to recover itself, and be baited 
 again, which happened several times daUy, when 
 the B. was kept as an attraction to a public-house 
 of the lowest sort. The verb to badger, expressive 
 of persevering annoyance by numerous assailants. 
 
BADIA-Y-LEBLICH-BAEZA. 
 
 ■wag originally employed with reference to the 
 practice of B. -baiting. The flesh of the B. is said 
 to be very agreeable, particularly when cured in 
 the form of hams. It is much used in China. The 
 B. is easily domesticated when taken young, and 
 becomes very familiar. In Scotland and the north 
 of England, a B. is still called a Brock, its Anglo- 
 Saxon name ; and in some parts of England it is 
 termed a Grey, from which some derive greyhound. 
 — The Balysaur of India, also called the Sand 
 Bear and Indian B. (M. collaris), very much 
 resembles the common B., but is taller, and has a 
 more hog-like muzzle, and a longer tail. Its habits 
 and its food are similar to those of the common 
 B., and when attacked, i^; defends itself with great 
 vigour. It is chiefly found in hilly districts. — The 
 American B. [M. Lahrixdorica) was at first supposed 
 to be a mere variety of the European B., but has 
 proved to be very distinct, so that it has been 
 regarded by some naturalists as worthy of a separate 
 genus (Taxidea), and is sometimes called Taxel. 
 Ifts teeth are more adapted than those of the B. 
 for carnivorous subsistence, and it chiefly preys on 
 small animals, such as marmots, which it pursues 
 into their holes in the sandy plains near the Missouri 
 and the Rooky Mountains. It is in that region that 
 it abounds, over a considerable range of latitude, 
 but it is not known to exist in Labrador, so that 
 its specific name is perhaps the perpetuation of an 
 error. In its pursuit of the smaller quadrupeds 
 upon which it preys, it enlarges their burrows, and 
 renders some parts of the plains dangerous to 
 persons on horseback. Its prevaihng colour is 
 hoary gray in winter, yeUowisn brown in summer, 
 the under parts generally yellowish white ; a white 
 stripe runs from the nose over the forehead to the 
 neck. The hair becomes not only very long but 
 woolly in winter.— The burrowing powers of this 
 animal are extraordinary. It sometimes makes 
 burrows six or seven feet deep, running imder 
 ground to a length of 30 feet. 
 
 BADI'A-Y-LEBLICH, Domingo, known also by 
 the name AH-Bei-el-Abbassi, one of the most enter- 
 prising of modem travellers, was born at Barcelona, 
 April 1, 1%7. He studied the Arabic language, 
 and also physicalf science and mathematics at 
 Valentia. Possessed of a lively and restless spirit, 
 he formed the project of visiting Africa and Asia, 
 under the disguise of a Mussulman, both for the pur- 
 pose of avoiding the suspicions of the natives when 
 visiting those places forbidden to Christians, and 
 also for giving greater iclat to his adventures. In 
 pursuance of this scheme, therefore, he resigned an 
 oifice under government in the year 1797, and went 
 to Madrid, to make proposals of a scientific and 
 mercantile toiu" of exploration in Africa. Having 
 
 fained promises of support from Don Godoi, the 
 'rince of Peace, he betook himseK for a short time 
 to Jiondon, to study commerce and poHtics. He 
 also spared no labour to make himself familiar 
 with the manners and customs of the people 
 he was about to visit; and in his anxiety to 
 escape detection, he even ventured to imdergo 
 the severe ordeal of circumcision. In 1803, he 
 sailed for Africa, where he represented himself, 
 under the name Ali-Bei, as a descendant from the 
 Abbasides. His tact and talents gained for him 
 such esteem that he was invited to the court of 
 the Emperor of Fez and Marocco. After a two 
 years' residence in Marocco, he set out on a pilgrim- 
 age to Mecca in 1805, and after sojourning some 
 time in Tripoli, Cyprus, and Egypt, arrived at the 
 holy place in 1807, bemg the first Christian that had 
 visited it since the institution of Islam. Subse- 
 quently, he visited Jerusalem and the chief places in 
 Palestine and Syria, and in the autumn of 1807 
 
 arrived at Constantinople, whence he had soon to 
 flee, the reality of his Mohammedanism being sus- 
 pected. After his return to Spain, he was made 
 Intendant of Segovia and Prefect of Cordova ; but 
 the easy way in which he shelved his patriotism, and 
 submitted to the French conquerors, was fatal to 
 his prospects, for, on the expulsion of the latter, he 
 was compelled to leave the country. He went to 
 Paris, where, in 1814, he published an account of 
 his travels under the title Voyages d! Ali-Bei en 
 AJrique et en Asie pendant les Annies 1803 & 1807. 
 His work was translated into most of the European 
 languages. Four years after the publication, B. set 
 off on another journey to the East, but died sud- 
 denly at Aleppo on the 30th of August 1818. The 
 Pacha of Damascus seized his papers, so that his 
 second enterprise has been without results for 
 Europe. 
 
 BAELorBHEL. See Aegle. 
 
 BAE'NA, a town in the province of Cordova, Spain, 
 of about 12,000 inhabitants. It is situated about 24 
 miles south-south-east from Cordova, on the river 
 Marbella, and carries on a considerable export and 
 inland trade, chiefly in grain and oil. B. was a 
 Eoman town ; and a Eoman sepulchre was dis- 
 covered here in 1833. i 
 
 BAEB, Kael Ernst Von, a distinguished Rus- 
 sian naturalist, was bom February 17, 1792, in 
 Esthonia. During 1810 — 1814, he studied medicine 
 at the university of Dorpat, but convinced that 
 Russia as it then was presented very few advan- 
 tages for the acquisition of scientific knowledge, 
 he went to Germany in 1814, where he studied com- 
 parative anatomy under DoUinger in WUrzbtirg. 
 He also made the acquaintance of Professor Nees of 
 Eseifbeck, who exercised a considerable influence 
 over him. In 1817, he went to KSftigsberg, where, 
 two years after, he was appointed professor of 
 zoology, and charged with the organisation of the 
 zoological museum. In 1834, he was called to St 
 Petersburg, where he continues to be one of the 
 most important members of the Academy, and 
 has obtained several honorary distinctions. As a 
 naturahst, he has specially occupied himself with 
 the difiioult subject of embryology ; and to his 
 laborious investigations we owe several most valu- 
 able discoveries in regard to. the development of 
 organic bodi^. Beginning with his Epistola de 
 Ovi Mammalium et Hominis Genesi (Leip. 1827), 
 he stiU fiurther elucidated this subject in his 
 History of Animal Development (Konigsberg, 1828 
 — 1837) and History of the Development of Fislies 
 (Leip. 1835). After his return to St Petersburg, 
 he made the polar regions the objects of his 
 study. Setting out (1837), by order of the czar, 
 from St Petersburg on his voyage of exploration, 
 he examined carefully the northern shores of Russia 
 from Archangel to Nova Zembla, and subsequently 
 published a minute description of these and of their 
 peculiar animals and plants, partly in the Memoire^ 
 de VAcadSmie de St Pelersbourg, and partly in the 
 Bulletins Scientifiques de VAcadimie. In 1856 
 appeared his Reflections on the Russian, Empire and 
 the Neiglibouring Countries of Asia. 
 
 BAE'ZA, a handsome old town of Spain, in the 
 province of Jaen, from the capital city of which it is 
 about 22 miles distant in a north-east direction. 
 Pop. about 10,000. It was here that the younger 
 Scipio routed Asdrubal with immense loss, taking 
 10,000 Spaniards prisoners. It was a flourishing city 
 undef the Moors, several of whose caliphs and 
 kings resided here, but it never fairly recovered its 
 sack by St Ferdinand in the 13th o. Gaspar 
 Becerra, the celebrated sculptor, was born here in 
 1720 ; but B. is chiefly proud of being the birthplace 
 615 
 
BAFFA— BAGDAD. 
 
 of the 11,000 virgins, usually named of Cologne. Its 
 principal buildings are the university, the old monas- 
 teiy of St Philip de Neri, and the cathedral. Cloth, 
 leather, and soap are the chief manufactures. 
 
 BA'FFA, the PapJios of ancient times, a seaport 
 town on the south-west coast of the island of 
 Cyprus. It has no"w fallen much into decay, and 
 has but a small population, who trade in cotton, 
 eUk, and grain ; but under the Venetian rule, it was 
 a place of considerable importance. The present 
 town occupies the site of New Paphos, which, 
 under the Romans, was a beautiful city, fuU of 
 fine temples and other public buildings. The Old 
 Paphos, famous as the place where Venus landed 
 immediately after her birth from the foam, and as 
 her favourite residence, stood a little to the south- 
 east. A hundred altars were here erected to her 
 name, to which numerous worshippers, male and 
 female, from New Paphos, trooped annually to pay 
 their devotions. An earthquake in the time of 
 Augustus destroyed the Roman Paphos, but it was 
 rebuilt soon afterwards. The Roman deputy-gover- 
 nor, Sergius Paulus, was here converted by St Paul. 
 
 BA'FFIN'S BAY, a gulf, or rather sea, on the 
 north-east coast of North America, extending 
 between that continent and Greenland. Lat. 68° 
 to 78' N., and long. 51° to 80° E. It is about 800 
 iniles long, with an average breadth of 280. Its 
 greatest depth is 6890 feet. The tides do not 
 rise more than 10 feet. The cmrents are gener- 
 ally towards the south, though recent investiga- 
 tions would seem to shew that on the east 
 side of Davis' Strait and B. B. a em-rent from 
 Spitzbergen iiows northwards round Cape Farewell. 
 The shores are for the most part lofty and precipit- 
 ous, backed by ranges of snow-clad mountains. The 
 prevailing rocks are granite and gneiss ; ithe princi- 
 pal animals inhabiting the coasts are, on land, bears, 
 black foxes, and hares ; in the sea, the black whale, 
 walrus, and seal, gulls, ducks, and other sea-fowls. 
 The south shore of "Whale Sound on the east coast 
 in lat. 77° 20' N. was found by Captain Inglefield 
 in 1852 to be inhabited. There are Danish settle- 
 ments on Disco and Whale Islands. B. B. communi- 
 cates with the Atlantic Ocean by Davis' Strait ; and 
 with the Arctic Ocean by Smith Somid on the north, 
 and Lancaster Sound on the west. Welhngton 
 Strait, which forms the north-west outlet of Lan- 
 caster Sound, was entered in 1852 by 8ir E. Belcher. 
 B. B. was first explored in 1616 by William Baffin, 
 after whom it was called, and who was pilot of 
 the expedition, which was commanded by Bylot. 
 Baffin's title to this honour seems to have been most 
 faithfully earned ; and the accuracy of his observa- 
 tions and descriptions has been confirmed by subse- 
 quent navigators. Whale and seal fishing are pro- 
 secuted to a large extent in B. B., which, on account 
 of ice, is only navigable for some two months in 
 summer. 
 
 BAGASSE, CA'NE-STRAW, or CA'NE- 
 TRASH, is the refuse matter obtained during the 
 expression of the saccharine juice from the sugar- 
 cane. In the manufacture of sugar (q. v.), the 
 sugar-canes, in lengths of 3 to 4 feet, are passed 
 between heavy rollers, which only partly squeeze 
 out the juice, and yield the bruised canes, or B., 
 still retaining a large percentage (usually about 18) 
 of sugar. — The only use to whiclj thfe B. is put is as 
 fuel in the heating of the boilers and pans in the 
 sugar-manufactory. ITie improved apparatus intro- 
 duced of late years has done much to save the large 
 amount of sugar wasted in the B. and in other parts 
 of the process, which at one time amounted to not 
 less than one-half of the entire quantity of sugar in 
 the sugar-cane. 
 6lf> 
 
 BAGATB'LLE (Fr. signifying primarily any 
 trifle), the name of a game somewhat resembhng 
 bilhards. A bagatelle-table is usually about 7 feet 
 long and 21 inches broad ; it is lined with cloth, and 
 a game is performed on it with balls and a cue 
 or mace. The balls are small ivory spheres, and 
 the sport consists in striking one or more into 
 holes ^t one end of the board. To perform 
 this and other feats, some skiU and experience 
 are required, and the sport is far from imamus- 
 iug in a cheerful parlour circle. Of late years, 
 bagatelle-tables have become very common in the 
 houses of the middle classes of society ; they possess 
 the recommendation of being purchasable at a small 
 expense. 
 
 BA.GDA'D, the name of a town and pachalio 
 in the south-east of Asiatic Turkey. The pachahc 
 extends from lat. 30° to 38° N., and from long. 40" to 
 48° E. ; and is bounded on the N. by the pachaMcs 
 of Diarbekir and Van ; on the W. and S., by Syria 
 and Arabia ; and on the E., by Persia ; while at its 
 south-east extremity Kes the Persian Gulf. Extreme 
 length, 550 mUes; breadth, 350. Pop. 1,300,000. 
 It IS watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, 
 which unite their streams at the town of Korna, in 
 lat. 31° N., and long. 47° E. The pachalic of B. is 
 usually divided into three parts. 1. That east of 
 the Tigris, comprehending the districts of Khuzistan 
 (anciently, Susiana) and Kurdistan (part of ancient 
 Assjrria), the former of which is rich in grain and 
 fruit. 2. That west of the Euphrates, a sterUe 
 waste, losing itself at last in the great Syro- Arabian 
 desert. 3. That between the two rivers, the 
 northern portion of which is known under the 
 name of Algesirah, or ' the Island' (anciently, 
 Mesopotamia), and the southern under that of 
 Irah-Araii (anciently. Babylonia and Ohaldaa). 
 The last of these divisions, though now a barren 
 wilderness, was in ancient times luxuriantly fertile, 
 the seat of mighty empires, and inhabited by indus- 
 trious populations. The barbarous misgovernment 
 and wretched incapacity of the Turks have reduced 
 it to its present condition. The pachalio produces, in 
 the better-cultivated districts, crops of rice, wheat, 
 maize, barley, with some hemp, flax, tobacco, &;c., 
 while dates are brought to great perfection. The 
 chief wild animals are lions — not numerous — 
 hyaenas, jackals, wolves, gazelles, ostriches; the chief 
 domestic ones are horses, asses, mules, bufialoes, 
 camels, and dromedaries. The inhabitants are 
 composed of Turkomans, Armenians, Turks, Jews, 
 Arabs, and Kurds ; the last two of which races are 
 notorious for their open and audacious depredations, 
 their mutual wars, and their utter contempt for 
 the authority attempted to be exercised over them. 
 Principal cities — Bagdad, Bassora, and Mosul. For 
 a description of the cities which in ancient times 
 adorned this region, see Assyria, Babylonia, 
 Nineveh, Babylon, Ctesiphon, Sbleucia, &c. 
 
 BAGDA'D, the capital of the pachahc of the 
 same name, is situated on both banks of the 
 Tigris, in lat. 33° 20' N., and long. 44° 23' E. Pop. 
 estimated at 65,000. The city is smTounded 
 by a brick- wall 5 miles in circumference ; the two 
 parts are connected by a bridge of boats, and the 
 communication is guarded by a citadel. It has an 
 extremely picturesque appearance from the out- 
 side, being enchcled and interspersed with groves 
 of date-trees, through which one may catcli the 
 gleam of domes and minarets ; but it does not 
 improve on closer inspection. The streets are 
 narrow, crooked, impaved, and dirty, full of ruts, 
 and strewed with dead carcasses, which, however, 
 are for the most part removed by dogs, the only 
 public scavengers in the east. The exterior of the 
 
BAGGAGE— BAGLIVI. 
 
 individual hovises corresponds with the repulsive 
 aspect of the streets. They have, in general, no 
 windows towards the front, and are huilt of old 
 brick; but their interior is often very gorgeously 
 decorated. The vaulted ceilings, rich mouldings, 
 inlaid mirrors, and massive gilding, bring back to 
 the recollection of the traveller 'the golden time 
 of good Harun Al-Kasohid.' B. contains upwards 
 of 100 mosques. These, together with the khans, 
 bazaars, and the palace of the governor, are the 
 only noticeable buildings in the city. The domes 
 and minarets are said to be liner than those of 
 Constantinople, and are beautifully painted. The 
 bazaars exhibit the produce of both Turkish and 
 European markets ; but commerce has greatly 
 decreased since Persia began to trade with Europe 
 by way of Trebizonde on the north, and by the 
 Persian Gulf on the south. Nevertheless, though no 
 longer the chief emporium of merchandise between 
 East and West Asia, as in the middle ages of 
 European history, and though Kurds and Arabs lurk 
 on all the roads that lead from the city to waylay 
 and rob travellers and caravans, E. stiU carries on a 
 oonsidarable traffic with Aleppo and Damascus, and 
 has manufactures of red and yellow leather, silks, 
 and cotton stuffs. Of the 65,000 inlialjitants, four- 
 fifths are Turks and Arabs ; the remainder are 
 Jews, Armenians, Hindus, Afghans, and Egyptians. 
 In simimer, the heat is oppressive ; rain does not 
 fall on more than twenty or thirty days throughout 
 the whole year ; but when the snows melt on the 
 Armenian hills, the Tigris becomes a majestic, and 
 often a destructive river. In 1831, an inundation 
 destroyed one half of the town, and several thou- 
 sand lives. The plague visits it periodically — once 
 every ten years. In 1831, 4000 people perished 
 daily for several days from its ravages ! These 
 calamities, added to the blind stupidity of Tiu:kish 
 misrule, which depresses aU native effort by a 
 system of rapacious taxation, are gradually accom- 
 plishing the ruin of this once flourishing and famous 
 city. 
 
 B. was fou.nded by the Abbaside calif Almausur, 
 762 — 766 A..T>. It was built out of the ruins of 
 Ctesiphon and Seleucia. In the 9th c, it was 
 greatly enlarged by Harim Al-Easohid, who erected 
 numerous edifices on the east side of the Tigris, and 
 connected its two banks by a bridge of boats. The 
 palace, bmlt for himself, and the tomb of his 
 favourite wife, Zobeide, are said to have been of 
 extraordinary splendom-. A hundred years later, 
 B. was ravaged by the Turks. In 1253, the grand- 
 son of Genghis Khan, Hulaku, put an end to the 
 old califate ; but the descendants of this Tatar 
 conqueror weire expelled by Timur, who took the 
 city in 1393. After several vicissitudes, it remained 
 in the possession of a Turkoman chief, whose 
 dynasty governed until 1470. In the beginning of 
 the 16th c. Shah Ismael, the founder of the Sumde 
 dynasty in Persia, made himself master of it ; since 
 which period it has repeatedly been a bone of 
 contention between Turks and Persians. After a 
 memorably obstinate siege, it was conquered by 
 the sultan, Murad IV., in 1638. Nadir Shah vainly 
 essayed to retake it in the 18th c, and ever since 
 it has been under the sway of the Porte. 
 
 BA'GGAGB, in the marching an-angements of 
 the British army, is placed under strict rules, in 
 order that the accumulation of weight may not 
 impede the movement of the troops ; and rules 
 of an analogous kind are enforced in troop-ships, 
 when soldiers are on a voyage. The term itself is 
 made to apply chiefly to articles of clothing, and to 
 small personal effects. A private soldier is allowed 
 to carry nothing except that' which his knapsack 
 and other accoutrements can hold; but those who 
 
 are married with their officers' consent — a small 
 number in every regiment — are allowed one small 
 chest each of definite size, which may be carried on 
 a march, but at the men's own expense. Staff- 
 sergeants and pay-sergeants have similar permis- 
 sion. , The B.-wagons are not expected to receive 
 packages weighing more than 400 lbs. each, or as 
 much as four men can lift. Officers' B. is, of course, 
 much more considerable in amount than that of 
 the non-commissioned officers and privates. On 
 board troop-ships, the weight to be carried for each 
 person is strictly defined — from 18 owt. for a field- 
 officer, down to 1 owt. for a married private soldier, 
 with hia wife and children. In encampments, 
 whether permanent or temporary, and in armies on 
 field-service, the utmost care is taken to preserve 
 the B. from the enemy, by surroimding it as much 
 as possible with defensive troops. 
 
 BA'GGESEN, Jens, a well-known Danish poet, 
 but who also has a place in German literature, was 
 born at Korsor, in the island of Zealand, February 
 15, 1764. He first obtained a reputation by his 
 Comic Tales (1785), the opera Holger Danske (1790), 
 as weU as by his odes and songs. Through the kind 
 assistance of the Prince of Augustenbura he was 
 ■enabled, in 1789, to make a tour through Germany, 
 Switzerland, and Prance. In 1811, he was appointed 
 professor of Danish language and Hterature at Kiel ; 
 in 1814, he removed to Copenhagen, where he 
 became involved in an unseemly strife with Ohlen- 
 schlSger, and in 1820 he left his native country 
 altogether. Some years later, a home - sickness 
 seized him, and he set out on his return, but died 
 at Hamburg, October 3, 1826. B.'s nature was a 
 curious compound of pride and humility, love and 
 hate, sensitiveness and reflective power, free-think- 
 ing and faith; and these conflicting qualities also 
 appear in his poems, which possess an unfinished 
 and inharmonious character. In 1803 appeared at 
 Hamburg a collection of his German poems ; in 
 1806, he pubhshed an idyllic epic, entitled Par- 
 thenais oder Alpenreise, in twelve cantos, and 
 written in hexameters, which greatly increased hia 
 reputation. It contains single passages of great 
 beauty. B. possessed no lyrical talent, in spite of 
 his warm-hearted and enthusiastic character. Only 
 a very few of his songs exhibit that simphcity and 
 tenderness which are the essential requisites of song- 
 writing ; and, besides, they are almost all destitute 
 of originality. Klopstock was the model whom 
 he had in view in the composition of his odes ; but 
 he was far from reaching the level of his master. 
 The sphere in which he shone mosfr conspicuously 
 was the seiio-comic. His 'humorous epic' (as he 
 called it) of Adam and Eve, published shortly after 
 his death, is a singular mixture of humour, pathos, 
 levity, and earnestness. He left in manuscript a 
 poem of a similar character on the suliject of 
 Faust. His Poetical Worhs in the German Lan- 
 guage (Leip. 1836, 5 vols.) have been published by 
 his son, who has prefixed to them an excellent 
 biography. 
 
 BAGLI'VI, Gboegb, a celebrated Italian physi- 
 cian, born at Kagusa in September 1669. The inci- 
 dents of hia life are almost entirely confined to his 
 professional career. Originally descended from an 
 Armenian family, he took the name of his adoptive 
 father, who was a wealthy physician of Lucca, and 
 who bestowed on him an excellent education. He 
 studied at Salerno, Padua, and Bologna, and after- 
 wards visited the principal hospitals of Italy. In 
 1692 he went to Eome, where he enjoyed the ana- 
 tomieal prelections of his friend Malpighi. Shortly 
 after, he was appointed professor of anatomy at the 
 college of La Sapienza, Eome, where he died in 
 
 617 
 
BAGNAEA-BAGBATION. 
 
 1706. His great discovery in medical sciettce is the 
 system of ' soUdism,' as it is called. Previous to 
 the time of B., physicians had held the doctrine 
 of Hippocrates in reference to the primary seat of 
 diseases — viz., that it is in the fluids. B. came 
 to the conclusion that this was erroneous, and that 
 the real seat of disease is in the solids. Ilis reasons 
 are, on the whole, soimd, and the doctrine is now 
 all but universally prevalent, though it is admitted 
 that cases do occur in which the fluids appear to 
 have been first affected. He published several 
 treatises of great merit, in which his then novel 
 views were explained. B. was very honest and 
 independent in his judgment, and used to warn his 
 profession against a bhnd adherence to mere dogmas 
 on matters which were but imperfectly known. 
 
 BAGNA'RA, a seaport town of Naples on the 
 Gulf of Gioja, 16 mUes.N.E. df Reggio. Excellent 
 wine is produced in the neighbourhood. Pop. 5718. 
 
 BAGNERES, the name of two towns in the 
 Pyrenees, France, both well known as watering- 
 places. — B. DE BiGOEEB on the Adour, in the 
 department of the High Pyrenees, is situated at 
 the base of Montahvet, and at the entrance to 
 the romantic valley of Campan. Besides its exten- 
 sive bathing-houses, it has a college, a theatre, a 
 Pyrenean museum, a trades-hall, and contains 
 6659 inhabitants. By the Romans, it was known 
 as Vicus Aquensis, or Aquce Bigerronum. It was 
 destroyed by the Goths, but the fame of its waters 
 survived, and is now so great that it is visited 
 by 5000 or 6000 strangers yearly. The tepid, 
 warm, and hot saline springs are numerous, and are 
 recommended for cutaneous and nervous diseases. 
 Woollens, linens, and barfeges are manufactured 
 here. — B. de Lxjchon — the Aquas Grnivmarum of 
 the Romans — is situated in the departinent of 
 Upper Garonne, and in a pleasant valley watered 
 by the Pique. Its cold, tepid, and hot sulphurous 
 waters are reconuuended in rhexmiatism, gout, cuta- 
 neous diseases, and paralysis. It has a pop. of 2690. 
 
 BAGNES, the convict-prisons of France. In 
 ancient times, the severest punishment, next to 
 death, was that of the galleys (q. v.). In 1748, these 
 were abolished, and the convicts were employed 
 in hard labour in arsenals and other pubHo works ; 
 and the prisons in which they were lodged were 
 called bagnes, from the Italian bagno, HteraUy, a 
 bath — a name supposed to have originated in the 
 fact, that the slave-prisons at Constantinople con- 
 tained baths, or because they stood near the baths 
 of the seraglio. The Constituent Assembly of 
 1791 and 1792 mitigated the sufferings of convicts, 
 and substituted for the detested name galires, 
 that of travaux publics, to which succeeded the 
 travaux forces of the Code Napoleon. The prac- 
 tice of branding criminals with a hot iron was not 
 abolished till 1832. The existing institutions of 
 this class are at Toulon, Brest, and Bochefort, 
 at which the number of convicts, in 1850, was 
 respectively 3873, 2831, and 986. In these estab- 
 lishments, the labour of the convicts is turned to 
 profitable accoimt, and the various handicrafts are 
 taught in the prison under the direction of overseers. 
 The industrious and clever are enabled to earn 
 small wages, and good behaviour is rewarded with 
 a gradual relaxation of restraint. Formerly the 
 punishment of the galleys was inflicted for com- 
 paratively slight offences, such as removing land- 
 marks, begging, poaching, &c., but now hard labour 
 in the B. is reserved exclusively for such as commit 
 crimes which seriously menace the public peace 
 and personal safety. The number of these, how- 
 ever, is not less than 51. Of 7689 convicts 
 (formats) in 1850, 3070 were condemned to 6 — 10 
 
 6 IS 
 
 years; 2239 to 11—20 years; 282 to 20—30; 
 41 to 30—40 ; 23 to 40—50 ; 9 to above 50 ; and 
 1965 for life. The principal crime was theft, for 
 which 4750 had been condemned; for murder, 1027. 
 The greater proportion of the criminals, viz. 4595, 
 were from the rural districts; from towns, 2452; 
 foreigners, 643; most of them were of the age 
 between 20 and 40; and 3902 were unable to read 
 or write. The most numerous class were husband- 
 men, threshers, gardeners, 1278 ; next, day-labourers, 
 and terrassiers (navvies?) 1078. The number of 
 pardons to convicts in 1848 was 90; in 1849, 52. In 
 1852 the imperial government decreed the sup- 
 pression of the B., and substituted in their place 
 deportation to Guiana. But in case any of the 
 prisoners then in the B. might have considered 
 deportation a greater pimishment than what they 
 were condemned to, it was resolved to give them 
 the choice of remaining in prison or of being trans- 
 ported : 3000 chose transportation. 
 
 BAGNES-LE-CHABLE, a parish and village in 
 the canton of Valais, Switzerland, on the left bank 
 of the Dranse. The parish occupies the whole valley 
 of the Bagne. Pop. 9000. The valley was twice 
 inundated during the 16th c; again in 1818, when 
 400 cottages were swept away, and 34 lives lost. 
 
 BA'GPIPB, a wind instrument, which, up to the 
 18th c, was common in almost every country in 
 Europe, and still continues in use among the 
 country people in Poland, Italy, Sicily, the south 
 of France, Scotland, &c.; but being far from a 
 sweet-toned ihstrament, and limited in its range 
 of notes, it has fallen into disuse wherever there 
 is any pretension to musical refinement. It con- 
 sists of a leathern bag, which the player inflates 
 by blowing with his mouth through a tube. The 
 music proceeds from three or fom: pipes, whose 
 mouth-pieces are inserted into the bag ; the wind 
 being forced out by pressing the bag under the 
 arm. One of the pipes, the chanter, is a kind of 
 oboe with eight holes, and is similarly handled ; the 
 others, called drones, sound each only one continuous 
 low note. It is certain that the bagpipe was in use 
 among the Hebrews and Greeks, and there are plenty 
 of proofs that in Germany and elsewhere in Europe 
 it was among the most favourite instruments in 
 the 15th c. 
 
 Though fallen generally into disuse, the B. is 
 stUl a popular instrument in the Highlands of 
 Scotland, and wherever there are gatherings of 
 Highlanders, and even of Lowland Scotch, in 
 England and other countries. Pipers in proper 
 costume are also attached to the Highland regi- 
 ments, and in some instances pipers are retained 
 by Scottish noblemen to play on festive occasions. 
 Skill in playing the B. is promoted by various 
 Highland societies, which, at periodical competi- 
 tions, give prizes to the best players of pibrochs 
 (q.v.), reels, and other airs. 
 
 BAGRATION, Peter, PeincS, a, distinguished 
 Russian general, descended from the noble fsrauly of 
 the Bagradites of Georgia and Armenia, was born in 
 1756. He entered the Russian service in 1783, and 
 was trained under Suwarrow. In 1788 he was 
 engaged at the storming of Oczakow; fought in 1792 
 and 1794 against the Poles ; in 1799, in Italy 
 and Switzerland ; and distinguished himself in the 
 Austro-Russian war of 1805 against the French, 
 especially in the sanguinary engagement of Novem- 
 ber 16 of that year, when, with a small body of 
 troops, he bravely stood during six hours opposed 
 to the superior forces under Murat, and thus enabled 
 the Russian general, Kutusow, to reach Znaym with 
 the main army. Subsequently, Prince B. was 
 engaged in the battles of Austerlitz, Eylau, and 
 
BAGSHOT BEDS— BAHAR. 
 
 Friedland, and took a part in the Russian campaign 
 against the Tiu-ks, especially in the battle of Silistna, 
 1809. In the campaign of 1812, he commanded the 
 second Russian army of the west, and had the 
 misfortune to fail in his attack on Davoust near 
 Mohilew ; but succeeded in forming a jimotion with 
 the west army at Smolensk. He was, however, 
 mortally wounded in the battle of Mosaisk, and 
 died Optober 7, 1812. 
 
 BA'GSHOT BEDS, the lowest series of strata 
 in the Middle Eocene formation of Britain. The 
 name is derived from Bagshot Heath in Surrey, 
 where they were first examined ; but, as they are 
 more fully developed and better seen in the Isle of 
 Wight, the rocks there are now considered the 
 typical representatives of the series. The strata are 
 arranged into four groups : 1. The Upper B. B., 
 composed of yellow and white sands with ferru- 
 ginous stains, generally unfossUiferous, though a 
 remarkable exception exists at Whitecliff Bay, Isle 
 of Wight, where a bed contains a large number of 
 very friable shells. 2. The Barton beds, consisting 
 of coloured clays interstratified with sand and 
 loam. They are rich in fossils, chiefly the shells of 
 moUusca, but contain also the remains of a fish and 
 several reptiles. Here, too, the Nummulite (q. v.), 
 so characteristic of the Tertiary formations, makes 
 its first appearance in a descending order. This 
 genus dies out with the NummvMtes variolaris, the 
 small species found in these beds. 3. The Brack- 
 lesJiam beds, so called from their extensive develop- 
 ment at Braoldesham Bay, near Chichester in 
 Sussex, are composed of marly clays and white 
 sands, capped by a bed of flint-pebble conglomer- 
 ate, and resting on dark carbonaceous clays. This 
 is the most highly fossiUferous group in the series. 
 Two species of plants have been noticed. The 
 remains of 6 reptiles and 21 fishes have been 
 described, besides a long list of mollusca, amongst 
 which is the magnificent Gerithium (q. v.) gigan- 
 teum, so conspicuous in the Calcaire grassier of 
 Paris, where it is sometimes two feet in length. 
 The prevalence of genera now only known as inha- 
 bitants of tropical or sub-tropical seas, such as 
 volutes and ■ cowries, together with their companion 
 lunuUtes and corals, makes it highly probable that 
 a warm climate prevailed during the deposition of 
 these strata. 4. The Lower B. B., consisting of 
 alternations of variously coloured sands with gray, 
 chocolate-coloured, or white pipe-clays. The white 
 clays contain the only fossil organisms found in this 
 group — beautifully preserved leaves spread out in 
 the layers of the clay. 
 
 The series rests on the true London clay. Its 
 maximum thickness is about 1200 feet. 
 
 BA'GUL, or BHA'GUL, a smaU state in Nortt- 
 west India, on the south or left bank of the Sutlej. 
 It contains about 100 square miles, and 40,000 
 inhabitants, yielding the high average of 400 inhabi- 
 tants to a square mile. Its lat. is about 31° N., 
 and long. 77° E. The surface is generally mountain- 
 ous, presenting two summits, Bahadurgaxh and 
 Bara Devi, respectively 6233 and 7003 feet above 
 the sea-level. With a revenue of about £5000, B. 
 has nearly 3000 men under arms. 
 
 BAHAMAS, or LUCAY'OS, a chain of islands 
 stretching in a north-west direction from the neigh- 
 bourhood of the north coast of Hayti to that of 
 the east coast of Florida. From Florida they are 
 separated by the channel through which flows the 
 Gulf Stream (q. v.) ; and from Cuba, by the Old 
 Bahama Channel. These are the principal passages 
 between the open ocean and the Gulf of Mexico. 
 The chain extends in N. lat. from 20° 55' to 27° 31', 
 and in W. long, from 72° 40' to 79° 5', having an entire 
 
 length from north-west to south-east of about 550 
 mUes ; and it rests mainly on two shoals — the Great 
 Bank to the south, and the Little Bank to the north. 
 The islands are perhaps 500 in number. To take 
 no account of coral rocks, or of sandy shelves, the 
 chief members of the group, if reckoned from the 
 north-west, are these : Great Bahama ; Abaco ; 
 Eleuthera ; New Providence ; Andros ; Guanahani 
 or Cat Island, or San Salvador; Watling's Island; 
 Exuma; Long Island; Crooked Islands; Maricuana; 
 Inagua ; Little Inagua ; Caicos ; Turk's Island. 
 
 Tie estimated area is 3521 square mUes ; and, in 
 1851, the population was officially stated to be 
 27,519—5499 white persons, and 22,020 coloured. 
 The islands generally are of reef-hke shape, long, 
 narrow, and low — so much so, that in some of the 
 smaller islands crops are frequently damaged by the 
 spray of the sea. With very little appearance of 
 soU, they derive considerable fertility from the ten- 
 dency of the porous rock to retain moisture. Besides 
 excellent pasturage, they yield Guinea corn, maize, 
 cotton, pine-apples, lemons, oranges, pimento, and a 
 species of cinnamon. In the larger islands, too, 
 there is exceUeut timber, both for ship-building and 
 for cabinet-work. Some of the more southerly links 
 of the chain depend chiefly on their salt-pans. During 
 the summer, the temperature ranges fr^m 73° to 
 93° F. ; but in the winter the climate is so delight- 
 fully temperate, as to be generally prescribed in the 
 United States for pulmonary complaints. The annual 
 fall of rain is from 43 to 45 inches, being heaviest in 
 October, November, and December, but pretty equally 
 distributed over the other months. Hurricanes are 
 not unknown, for three severe ones have been recorded 
 within the last sixty years. 
 
 The B. were Columbus's earliest discovery. But 
 the precise spot of his first landing has not been 
 ascertained. Guanahani or Cat Island has generally 
 been believed to be the San Salvador of Columbus ; 
 but recent investigations appear to have transferred 
 the honour to WatUng's Island, situated a Kttle 
 further to the east. The B. having been depopulated, 
 but not again colonised, by the Spaniards, were 
 occupied by the Enghsh in 1629 — to whom, after 
 various vicissitudes of fortune in the wars with 
 Spain and France, they were ultimately secured by 
 the treaty of 1783. Nassau, in New Providence, is 
 the seat of government. PoliticaUy, however, the 
 group has been recently subdivided. The more 
 southerly islands, particidarly Turk's Island and the 
 Caicos, have, at their own soKcitation, been sepa- 
 rated from the B., and erected into a dependency 
 of Jamaica. 
 
 BAHA'R, a district in the presidency of Bengal, 
 so called from a town of the same name. It extends 
 in,N. lat. from 24° 12' to 25° 22', and in E. long, from 
 83° 25' to 86' 6'. It contains 5694 square nules, and 
 2,500,000 inhabitants, yielding an average of 439 
 inhabitants to a square mile. It is bounded on 
 the N. by Patna; on the E. and N. E., by Monghir; 
 on the S., by Ramghur and Palamow; on the 
 W., by Mirzapore; and on the N. E., by Shaha- 
 bad. Its towns are : Gayah, the chief place ; Bahar, 
 now in ruins ; Shergotty, Danduagar, Urwal, Juha- 
 nabad, Aurungabad, Rajagriha, and Holasganz. The 
 roads, in general, are said to be worse than those of 
 almost any country professing to be civilised ; but 
 roads and bridges can neither be well made nor 
 thoroughly repaired, where, during nearly half the 
 year, me surface of the country is inundated, and 
 torn by innumerable torrents. In the dry season, 
 the beds of the rivers present only detached pools.- 
 Among the minerals, the most important are coal and 
 mica. The latter, nearly as pellucid as glass, is some- 
 times found in blocks, yielding plates of 36 inches 
 by 18. Potatoes, cabbages, cauliflower, lettuces, 
 
 619 
 
BAHIA— BAI^. 
 
 turnips, &c., have been introduced from Europe, and 
 succeed well. Of indigenous productions, the moat 
 considerable are rice, pulse, sugar, cotton, indigo, and 
 tobacco. The district is largely engaged in the 
 manufacturing of muslins, silks, carpets, blankets, 
 tents, tapes, thi-eada, ropes, paper, glass, cutlery, 
 jewellery, leather, ink, soap, and pottery. Ardent 
 spirits, too, are extensively distilled from the flowers 
 of the Bassia latifolia (q. v.). Before the days even 
 of Moslem domination, B. appears to have been the 
 centre of a Hindu empire, which native accounts 
 describe as of matchless splendour, and of fabulous 
 duration. 
 
 BAHI'A, capital of the Brazilian province of the 
 same name. It is otherwise called San Salvador — 
 the more visual term being taken from Bahia de 
 Todos-os-Santos, or Bay of All Saints, on which it 
 is situated, in lat. 13° 1' S., and long. 38° 32' W. B. 
 contains about 125,000 inhabitants, pretty equally 
 divided between whites, blacks, and mulattoes. 
 The number of vessels entering the port of B. in 
 1858 was 1084, with a tonnage of 220,478, while 
 the number clearing out was 999, with a tonnage of 
 226,158. The shipping trade for the last two or 
 three years has been on the decline. The value of 
 imports for home consumption into B., in 1857, was 
 £2,325,152; and the value of exports in the same 
 year, £1,984,819. The chief exports of B. are sugar, 
 cotton, coffee, tobacco, rice, rum, dye-stuffs, fancy 
 woods, cocoa-nuts, horns, hides, and bullion ; and it 
 imports manufactured goods, provisions, flour, salt, 
 iron, glass, and wines. B. is the oldest city in Brazil, 
 having been founded by the first captain-general of 
 the country, and was for a long tune the capital 
 of the whole colony. 
 
 BAHI'A, a province of Brazil, about the middle 
 of the coast, taking its name from its chief city. It 
 extends in S. lat. from 10° to 16°, and in W. long, 
 from 37° to 44°. Its length is 480 miles ; and its 
 breadth about half as much. It3 population in 
 1856 was 1,100,000. In addition to the usual pro- 
 ductions of the tropical regions, it yields salt and 
 Brazil-wood. The interior contains lofty sierras; 
 but the maritime districts are fertile, being well, 
 watered by the Itapicuru, Contas, and other rivers. 
 Besides the streams that flow through B., tjie San 
 Francisco, a vastly larger river, forms about half of 
 the inland boundary, dividing this province from 
 that of Pemambuco. 
 
 BAHI'A HO'NDA, a harbour on the north coast 
 of Cuba, 60 miles west-south-west of Havana, 
 protected by a fort, and much resorted to by 
 privateers and slavers. 
 
 BAHNA'SA or BEHNE'SEH, a town of Central 
 Egypt, on the Bahr Yousef (Joseph's Canal). It is 
 noteworthy as the site of the ancient Oxyrynchus, 
 celebrated for its numerous monasteries, the ruins of 
 which are still to be seen. 
 
 BAHR, an Arabic word signifying a large body 
 of water, is applied both to lakes and rivers. — Bahe- 
 el-Abiad (the White River), and Bahr-el-Azeak 
 (the Blue River), are the chief branches of the 
 Nile (q. v.). — Bahr-Assal is Lake Assal (q.v.). — 
 Bahk-Bela-Ma (the Sea without Water), a long, 
 deep valley in the desert, west from Cairo. It is 
 completely barren, but has the appearance of having 
 been once a water-coujtee. 
 
 BAHR, Jon. Christian Felix, an eminent 
 German philologer and critic, was bom, 1798, at 
 Darmstadt. He was educated at the Heidelberg 
 pmmasium and university, where he gained the 
 favour and friendship of Creuzer, whose symbolic 
 system of interpretation in mythological matters he 
 himself pursued at a later period. He was elected 
 
 a professor in 1826. Previous to. this, he had 
 occupied himself chiefly -with the elucidation and 
 criticism of Plutarch, the result of which was an 
 annotated edition of A^dbiades (Heid. 1822), and of 
 Philopoemen, Flaminius, Pyrrlms (Leip. 1826). At 
 the same time, he collected and published the frag- 
 ments of Ctesias. But a greater interest was excited 
 by his History of Roman Literature (1828), which is 
 noted for its clearness and comprehensiveness. Three 
 supplements to this work have also appeared : TM 
 Christian Poets and Historians of Rome (1836), Tlie 
 Christian- Roman Theology (1837), and the History 
 of Roman Literature in the Carlovingian Period 
 (1840). One of his most important works is his 
 version of Herodotus (1832—1835). In 1835, he 
 published his De Universiiate Constantinopoli Quinto 
 Sceculo Conditd. He has likewise contributed num- 
 erous articles to Jahn's Jalirhucher fur PMlologie, 
 and other works. 
 
 EAHRDT, Karl Fbiedrich, a German theo- 
 logian of the extreme sceptical school, was bom, 
 1741, at Bischofswerda, in Saxony, and studied at 
 Leipsio, where he soon displayed extraordinary 
 talents, and some restlessness of disposition. His 
 early theological writings betrayed the sceptical 
 tendencies which were afterwards more fully de- 
 veloped. On account of his immoral conduct, how- 
 ever, he was, in 1768, compelled to leave Leipsic, 
 where he had been a popular preacher. In Erfurt, 
 his next residence, he was appointed professor of 
 Philosophy and Hebrew Antiquities, and wrote 
 Letters on a Systematic Theology, ^an(\: Aspirations 
 of a Mute Patriot, two works whose heterodoxy 
 involved bim in controversies, and made his position 
 untenable. In 1771, he went to Giessen, where he 
 delivered theological lectures, and preached with 
 approbation. His translation of the New Testament 
 was regarded as so dangerous, that the author was 
 deprived of the privilege of teaching. His creed, 
 in fact, was simple Deism, and one of the chief 
 points in his theology was his rejection of miracles. 
 Even the immortality of the soul was not positively 
 maintained in his works. Ultimately, after attempt- 
 ing to establish various institutions, he was reduced 
 to the position of a tavern-keeper ; and as he still 
 persevered in his attacks on orthodoxy, he was 
 imprisoned for one year at Magdeburg, where he 
 wrote an autobiography. Among his others works 
 are — The Religious Edict (a satire on the Prussian 
 reHgious edict of 1788), and The German Union. 
 He died at HaHe, April 23, 1792. 
 
 BAHREI'N ISLANDS, or AVAL ISLANDS, 
 a group of islands lying in the Persian Gulf. The 
 most important of these is Bahrein, or Av&l, about 
 27 miles long, and 10 broad. It is hilly in the 
 centre, but the soil generally is fertile, and produces 
 dates, figs, and other eastern fruit, besides wheat 
 and barley. Bahrein is badly cultivated. Spring- 
 water is plentiful in the interior, but on the coast 
 it can only be procured from the bottom of the 
 sea, where it springs up quite fresh, and is brought 
 up by divers in skins. Manama, the capital, in lat. 
 26° 12' N., and long. 50° 39' E., has a good harbour 
 on the north, but a safer though smaller one on the 
 south. The B. I. are chiefly remarkable for their 
 pearl-fisheries, which were known in ancient times, 
 and which employ, during the season, from 2000 to 
 3000 boats, each manned with from 8 to 20 men. 
 The annual value of the pearls is estimated at from 
 £200,000 to £300,000. Tortoise-sheU, shark-fins, 
 and dates are also articles of export. The islands, 
 which have been subject to a good many pohtical 
 changes, are now inhabited by Arabs. Pop. 60,000. 
 
 BAI'^^Jl, a small town of antiquity, on the coast 
 of Campania, 10 mUes west of Naples, where the 
 
BAIKAL-BAIL, 
 
 preaent castle of Baja stands. When the Komau 
 empire was in its greatest splendour, the beauty 
 of its situation, the fineness of the suiTounding 
 scenery, and the exoellenoe of its mineral springs, 
 made B. such a favourite resort of the Roman 
 nobles, that for want of space for their baths and 
 villas they encroached on the sea. Julius Csesar, 
 Piso, Pompey, Marius, Julia Mammsea, and others, 
 had country-houses at Baise. Horace preferred B. 
 to aU other places in the world. Seneca warned 
 every one who desired to maintain dominion over 
 his passions, to avoid this watering-place. Cicero 
 thought it necessary to excuse himself for under- 
 talcing the defence of Marcus Ccelius, a man who 
 had often visited B., for B. was considered by 
 the stricter moralists of those, times as the abode 
 of voluptuousness and luxury, and a den of vice. 
 The rums, still standing on the desolate coast, or 
 rising from the sea, are now the only evidence of 
 the former magnificence of B., whose population, 
 dwelling in mean hovels, gnly amounts to 800. 
 The ruins of three supposed temples — one of Venus, 
 one of Mercury, and one of Diaua Lucifera — as well 
 as the remains of a few thermal, or warm baths, 
 still attract the attention of archseologists. The 
 harbour, one of the largest belonging to the Romans, 
 is now much destroyed. The surrounding country 
 is covered with the ruins of Roman viUas, sepul- 
 chral monuments, and other buildings. 
 
 BAI'KAL (in Turkish, Bei-kul, i.e.. Rich Lake) 
 is, after the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, the 
 largest lake of Asia. It is a fresh-water lake, and 
 is situated in the south of Siberia, in the gov. of 
 Irkutsk, near the great military road between 
 Moscow, Kiachta, and the mines of Nertschinak. 
 Lat. 51° 20' to 55° 30' N., long. 103° to 110° E. 
 It somewhat resembles a sickle in shape, and 
 varies considerably in breadth. Between the mouths 
 of the Selenga and the Buguldeicha, it is only 
 19 miles across. Its length is about 400 miles, 
 and its average breadth 45 miles ; the estimated 
 area, 14,000 square miles. The Baikal Moun- 
 tains, a spur of the Altai, enclose the lake, which 
 is fed by numerous streams, the chief of which 
 are the Selenga and Bargusin. Its outlet is 
 by the Lower Angara, a drief tributary of the 
 Yenisei; but the river is inconsiderable in size 
 compared with those which flow into the lake. It 
 has several islands, the largest of which, Olkon, 
 has a length of 30 miles. B., which forms an 
 important link in the chain of communication 
 between Russia and China, has two commercial 
 ports, and of recent years, steam-boats have given a 
 considerable impetus to its trade. Its sturgeon and 
 seal fisheries are valuable, and large quantities of a 
 fish resembling a herring are also caught in it. A 
 peculiar fish, called the golomynka (Gallionymus 
 Baicalemsis), which is almost one mass of fat, yield- 
 ing beautiful train-oil, was at one time caught in 
 immense numbers, but it is now much scarcer. 
 The surface of the lake is frozen from November 
 to April, but the traffic is carried on over the ice. 
 Besides the Russians settled on the banks of the 
 Selenga and Angara, the shores of Lake B. are also 
 inhabited by tribes of the Burates and Tunguses. 
 
 BAIL is a technical term in the practice of the 
 law both in England and Scotland, with this differ- 
 ence, that, in England, it is used both in civil and 
 criminal procedure, whereas in Scotland it is applied 
 exclusively to the latter. By B. is understood 
 the security given by sufficient sureties for the 
 appearance in court on a day, and at a place certain, 
 of a person arrested or imprisoned, and who, in 
 consequence of such security or B., is in the mean- 
 time set at liberty. Such security, however, involves 
 
 the assumption of the custody of the arrested or 
 imprisoned party by his B., the meaning of the rule 
 bemg that the party arrested or imprisoned is 
 delivered into the hands of those who bind them- 
 selves for his forthcoming, in order that he may 
 be protected from prison until he has to make 
 his personal appearance ; and, in this sense, it 
 difiered from the old term, mainprize, now obsolete, 
 and which signified a mere security without any 
 other or corresponding guarantee, as in the case of 
 bail. A technical and necessary distinction is taken 
 in law-books between what is called common B., or 
 B. to render to prison, and special B., or B. to the 
 adion; but for general information, the following 
 statement of the law may suffice. 
 
 In civil process, the sureties give their bail-bond 
 to the sheriff himself for the appearance of the 
 defendant, according to the exigency of the case, 
 and for nothing else. It does not appear that any 
 particular or limited number of sureties is to be 
 taken; but it would seem that the sheriff cannot 
 insist on more than two, provided they have both 
 sufficient property withili the county to answer the 
 penalty; but if more than two be tendered, it is 
 not necessary that each should be worth the full 
 amoimt. On the other hand, the bail-bond wUl be 
 good though there be only one surety ; but in 
 accepting such security it would seem that the 
 sheriff does so at his own risk. If there is reason- 
 able ground for believiug the sureties to be sufficient, 
 the sheriff has no discretion, but is bound to accept 
 the B. ; and if he refuses to do so, he is liable to an 
 action. 
 
 The necessity of B., however, may be avoided 
 by the defendant avaihng himself of the provisions 
 of the 43 Geo. III. c. 46, extended by the 7 and 8 
 Geo. IV. 0. 71, by which it is enacted that the 
 arrested or imprisoned party may obtain his imme- 
 diate discharge by depositing with the sheriff the 
 sum demanded by the plaintiff, together with £10 
 towards the costs, the same to remain in court to 
 abide the event of the suit. The 7 and 8 Geo. IV., 
 however, contains a proviso that it shall be lawful 
 for a defendant who has made such deposit in pay- 
 ment, at any time in the progress of the cause, before 
 issue joined, or final or interlocutory judgment, to 
 receive out of court the sum so deposited and paid, 
 upon putting in and perfecting special B., and 
 paying such costs as the court shall direct ; and, by 
 another enactment of the same statute, provision is 
 made for the case where a defendant who has put 
 in B., afterwards elects to deposit the plaintiff's 
 demand, and to pay the costs to abide the event of 
 the action. 
 
 As to those who may or may not be B., it would 
 appear, from the nature of the security undertaken, 
 that persons privileged from arrest cannot be B., 
 because the engagement on the part of the B. being, 
 in default of the principal party, to pay the debt or 
 damages and costs, the plaintiff is entitled to require 
 the security of persons who are amenable to the 
 ordinary process of the courts. Therefore, peers, 
 members of parhament, ambassadors, and other 
 privileged persons, cannot become baU ; nor, gener- 
 ally, can attorneys or those employed in executing 
 the process. But persons who are not in such a 
 position, but who are either housekeepers or free- 
 holders, may be taken as baU. The possession of 
 leasdiold property is not enough, unless the party is 
 also a housekeeper ; but the real owner of s,freeliold^ 
 estate, however small it may be, situated within the 
 jurisdiction of the court, and provided he can other- 
 wise make up the amoutit required, is qualified, 
 though he be only a lodger, or merely an occupant 
 by sufferance in the house of another. Again, to 
 constitute a ' housekeeper,' within the meaning of 
 
 621 
 
BAIL COUET-BAILEY. 
 
 the rule, the house must be within the juriadiotion 
 of the court, and such a party must be' the bond-Jide 
 tenant of the house in his own right, enjoying its 
 benefits, and bearing its burdens. A person, there- 
 fore, in lodgings in England, but with a house in 
 Scotland, is not admissible as B. ; and such B. 
 must strictly in this sense be a housekeeper, for 
 ' householder ' seems not to be sufficient. See Lush's 
 Practice by Stephen. 
 
 Besides these arrangements of the common law 
 with regard to B., we may mention two other forms 
 of it — namely, B. in Error, and B. in Attachment. 
 The former is regulated by the Common Law Pro- 
 cedure Act (1852), 15 and 16 Vict. c. 76, by section 
 151 of which it is provided that proceedings in error 
 shall not stay or delay execution on a judgment, 
 unless the person alleging or pleading such error 
 shall be bound, along with two sufficient sureties, in 
 double the sum recovered by the judgment, in order 
 to prosecute the proceedings in error with effect, 
 and make payment of the costs, in the event of the 
 judgment being affirmed, or the proceedings in error 
 being discontinued. B. in attachment, again, signi- 
 fies the sureties required for a party arrested upon 
 a writ of attachment, and brought up before a judge 
 in order to obtain his discharge from custody, the 
 sureties undertaking that he shall appear and 
 answer such interrogatories as may be required of 
 him. This, however, only applies to attachment in 
 the ease of contempt of court ; for it would appear 
 that an attachment for the non-payment of money, 
 or the non-performance of an award, is not bailable. 
 In the Court of Chancery, also, there are rules for 
 accepting B. ; as, for instance, for a defendant against 
 whom attachment has issued for his contempt in 
 not making appearance to the plaintiff's suit ; but 
 an attachment for nou-performanoe of a decree in 
 Chancery is not a bailable process. 
 
 In criminal procedure, the subject of B. is at 
 present regulated by the 11 and 12 Vict. o. 42, 
 which provides that if the justice or justices, before 
 whom a prisoner is brought, shall be of Opinion that 
 the evidence against the prisoner be sufficient, or 
 even if it raise a strong or probable presumption of 
 his gmlt, they shall either commit hrm to prison, or 
 admit him to B.i — that is, allow him to be discharged 
 on entering into a recognizance — with some sufficient 
 surety or sureties — to appear and surrender himself 
 to custody, to take his trial on such indictment as 
 may be found against him, in respect of the charge 
 in question, at the next assizes or sessions of the 
 peace. The crime of treason, however, ia not a 
 bailable offence, except by order of a Secretary of 
 State, or by the Court of Queen's Bench, or by a 
 Judge thereof in vacation. But Justices are bound 
 to admit to B. in all cases of misdemeanour, except- 
 ing in the case of a misdemeanour in receiving 
 property stolen or obtained by false pretences, or in 
 the case of any misdemeanour for the prosecution of 
 which the costs may be allowed out of the county 
 rate, as to aU which misdemeanours, as well as in aU 
 felonies — treason excepted — justices and magistrates 
 have a discretionary power either to aduHt to B. 
 or to commit to prison. The Court of Queen's 
 Bench exercises a paramount jurisdiction and con- 
 trol over this department of criminal practice ; but 
 it is not usual for that court or for justices or 
 magistrates to admit to B. in any case of felony, 
 except under circumstances of a special and favour- 
 able kind. 
 
 In Scotland, the term B., as we have mentioned, 
 is only used in the proceedings in the criminal 
 courts ; and there the general distinction is taken 
 between offences that are capital and not capital, 
 the former not being bailable except by order of the 
 High Court of Justiciary, who exercise a power in 
 
 623 
 
 this respect analogous to the jurisdiction OjE the 
 Court of Queen's Bench; offences that are not 
 capital being bailable by magistrates, sheriffs, or 
 other competent judges. In the civil process of the 
 Scotch courts, the term corresponding to B. is 
 Caution (q. v.). 
 
 BAIL COURT is the name given to a new and 
 supplementary tribunal at Westminster, called into 
 existence by the 11 Geo. IV. and 1 WiU. IV. c. 70, 
 by which, after providing for the appointment of an 
 additional puisne judge in each of the three courts 
 of common law, it is made lawful for any one of the 
 judges of either of these courts, when occasion shall 
 so require, where the other judges of the same court 
 are sitting in banc (see Banc), to sit apart from 
 them for the business of adding and justifying 
 special bail, discharging insolvent debtors, adminis- 
 tering oaths, receiving declarations required by 
 statute, hearing and deciding upon matters in 
 motion, and making rules and i orders in causes and 
 business depending in the court to which such judge 
 shall belong, in the same manner and with the same 
 force and validity as may be done by the court 
 sitting in banc. 
 
 This statute has been hitherto acted on only by 
 the Court of Queen's Bench, wherein one of the 
 judges sits from time to time in the B. C. for the 
 purposes above specified. It may be remarked that 
 a rule of the B. C. cannot be reopened in the full 
 court after the term in which it is made, even 
 though the judge who pronounced it sanctions the 
 application ; and a judge sitting apart, under the 
 authority of the statute, has equal authority with 
 the full court to reverse the decision of a judge 
 sitting at chambers. See Lush's Practice by Stephen. 
 
 BAILEE'. See Bailment. 
 
 BAI'LEY, derived through the French haille, from 
 the middle age Latin Balliitm, which is a corruption 
 of the Lat. vallum, a rampart. The B. was the 
 whole space enclosed within the external walls of a 
 castle, with the exception of that covered by the 
 keep. This space was variously disposed of, and, 
 of course, differed greatly in extent. Sometimes it 
 consisted of several courts, which were divided from 
 each other by embattled walls, so as to form a series 
 of fortifications. When these courts were two in 
 number, they were known as the outer and inner 
 bailey. The entrance to the B. was generally by a 
 drawbridge over the ditch, and through a strong 
 machioolated and embattled gate. The B. was often 
 of great extent, containing the barracks for the 
 soldiers, lodgings for workmen and artificers, maga- 
 zines, wells, chapels, and sometimes even a monas- 
 tery. In towns, the B. had even a wider significa- 
 tion, and was often retained after the castle or keep 
 had long disappeared, as in the case of the Old B. 
 in London, and the B. in Oxford. 
 
 BAI'LEY, Philip James, a distinguished living 
 poet, was born at Basford, in the county of Not- 
 tingham, in the year 1816. His early education 
 was conducted in his native town, and afterwards ■ 
 he became a student at the university of Glasgow. 
 He was called to the English bar in 1840, but 
 never practised. The first edition of Festus, the' 
 poem by which he is best known, was published in 
 1839, and has in subsequent editions received a large 
 amount of new piatter. It attracted considerable 
 notice in England, and was in America assailed by 
 a perfect tornado of applause. While the enthusiasm 
 lasted, Mr B. was in certain quarters mentioned in 
 the same breath with Shakspeare, Milton, and 
 Goethe. This injudicious admiration was, however, 
 certain to cool down, and to prove more prejudicial 
 to the real interesta of the author than unmerited 
 
BAILIE-BAILIWICK. 
 
 censure itaeU; oonaequently, in literary journals, 
 Festm is frequently mentioned with a contempt 
 which it is far from deserving. It is a wonderful 
 work, when the age of the author at the period of its 
 production ia taken into account. It was com- 
 menced before the author had reached his 20th 
 year, and completed in three years. Festus errs from 
 excess of boldness. Mr B. speaks of universes as 
 other poets speak of butter-cups. He has the enlrie 
 to the highest heaven and to the regions of penal 
 Are. He is on terms of perfect familiarity with 
 Eternity. He lays his scenes in the ' Centre,' ' Else- 
 where,' ' Everywhere,' ' Nowhere.' Despite its 
 extravagance, Festits is full of poetical thought and 
 felicitous expression, and has occasional dashes of 
 grim humour in it, not unworthy of Goethe's mook- 
 mg fiend himself. The faults of the poem are as 
 great as the beauties; there is no congruity or 
 proportion in it, and you lay it down with a sense 
 of admiration qualified with disgust. In 1850, Mr 
 B. published the Angel World, which possesses all 
 the faults and all the beauties of the former work 
 on a reduced scale. If the reader's admiration is 
 less, his disgiist is less. The 'Angel World is now 
 incorporated vrith the larger work. Mr B.'s sub- 
 sequent writings have been the Mystic, and the Age, 
 a colloquial satire. The first production is in the 
 writer's early style, with aU the beauties deleted. 
 The second ia an attempt in a new field. But 
 whatever measure of success may attend Mr B. in 
 'Elsewhere' and 'Nowhere,' complete failure awaits 
 him when he deals with manlcind and the ordinary 
 affairs and follies of earth. 
 
 BAI'LIE, a Scotch term, with several legal appli- 
 cations. It chiefly, however, and popularly, sienifies 
 a superior officer or magistrate of a municipal cor- 
 poration in Scotland, with judicial authority within 
 the city or burgh. In royal burghs, the office is in 
 some respects analogous to that of Alderman in 
 England. The chief magistrate of a Scotch cor- 
 poration, called the Provost (q. v.), and often one 
 or more of the baUies, are, in virtue of their office, 
 in the commission of the peace; and by the 6 
 Geo. IV. 0. 22, bailies are exempted from serving 
 on juries. There are also Bailies of Regality and 
 Barony, who are appointed by the Superior or 
 over-lord of the manor (q. v.), with limited powers 
 fixed by the 20 Geo. II. o. 43. There is a B. for 
 the Sanctuary or Abbey of Holyrood, appointed by 
 the Duke of Hamilton as hereditary keeper, and 
 having jurisdiction within the precincts. See Abbey, 
 Sanctuary. The word B. was also formerly a 
 term in the practice of Scotch conveyancing, and 
 signified an officer who represented the seller, and 
 who, as such, gave seisin or sasine (q. v.), or delivery 
 of the lands sold to the buyer or his attorney; 
 but by the changes and simplifications effected by 
 recent legislation, the office of B. in this sense 
 may be said to be virtually abolished ; indeed, by 
 the 21 and 22 Vict. o. 76, s. 1, called The Titles 
 to Land Act, seisin itself, as a separate and inde- 
 pendent documentary title, is declared to be un- 
 necessary, and registration of the conveyance of the 
 estate held to be sufficient. 
 
 BAI'LIFF in English, Bailie in Scotch, Bailli 
 in Erench, and Balio in Ital., are terms having a 
 common origin — namely, the middle Latin ballivics, 
 which is again connected with the older form, 
 bagaliis, or bajulm. Through aU the changes of 
 application they have undergone in the course of 
 hostory, they have continued to agree in denoting an 
 overseer of some kind — an officer exercising superin- 
 tendence on behalf of some superior authority. At 
 the Greek imperial court in Constantinople, the chief 
 tutor of the imperuil children was called Bajuloa. 
 
 The same title seems also to have been given in 
 Constantinople to the superintendent of the foreign 
 merchants, who was appointed by the Venetians, 
 and it may possibly be for this reason that the 
 title Balio came at length to be applied also to the 
 Venetian ambassadors themselves. The title Bal- 
 livua was introduced by the Knights of St John into 
 the south and west of Europe, as the eight members 
 of their chapter were called Ballivi conventuales, 
 whence also the name Ballei, given to the circles 
 into which the possessions of the order were divided. 
 In France, the royal BaOHs were at one time com- 
 manders of the troops, administrators of the royal 
 domains, and judges each in his district. In later 
 times, the royal Baillis were deprived of the two 
 latter offices, and were consequently then called 
 BaiUis d'Epfe only. Proprietors of estates, also, 
 possessing supreme jurisdiction, appointed BaiUis to 
 superintend these courts of justice. As very little 
 knowledge was required for these situations, and as 
 they might be purchased, they were held in little 
 estimation ; and in later times, the Baillis became 
 standing characters on the stage, held up to ridicule 
 on account of their ignorance and their absurd pre- 
 tensioiis, as well as for cheating and injustice. In 
 England, the name B. was introduced in the reign 
 of WiUiam I., to designate the superintendents of 
 counties, which were called Ballivffi. 
 
 BAI'LIFF, in EngKsh law, is a legal officer, 
 and may be described as the keeper, protector, or 
 superintendent of some duty or charge legally 
 imposed on him. As officers of the law, bailiffs 
 put in force arresting process, and they perform 
 other duties within the county or bailiwick required 
 of them by the sheriff, who is their immediate 
 official superior. In this sense bailiffs are either 
 bailiffs of hundreds, or bound bailiffs. The duty 
 of the former is to collect fines, summon, juries, 
 attend the judges and justices at the assizes and 
 quarter-sessions, and execute writs and processes 
 in the several hundreds. Bound bailiffs, again, 
 are officers usually joined by the sheriffs with 
 the bailiffs of hundreds, and employed on account 
 of their adroitness and dexterity. They are called 
 bound bailiffs, because the sheriff, being civilly 
 responsible for their official misdemeanours, they 
 are annually bound in an obligation, with sureties, 
 for the due execution of their office. There are 
 also special bailiffs, who are officers appointed by 
 the sheriff on the application of the party suing 
 out the process to be executed; and whenever a 
 party thus chooses his own officers, he is considered 
 to discharge the sheriff from all responsibility for 
 what is done by him. There is, besides, another 
 exceptional class of bailiffs, called bailiffs of liberties, 
 honours, manors, and other lordships and franchises, 
 whose appointments, duties, and responsibilities are 
 regulated by the 7 Vict. c. 19. The county courts 
 likewise have bailiffs for the execution of their 
 process, as to whom see 9 and 10 Vict. o. 95, 12 and 
 13 Vict. c. 101, 13 and 14 Vict. c. 61, and 19 and 20 
 Vict. c. 108. 
 
 The sheriff himself is the Queen's B., and, as such, 
 it is his business to preserve the rights of the 
 Grown within his bailiwick. He must seize to the 
 sovereign'EJ use aU lands devolved to the Crown by 
 attainder or escheat ; must levy aU fines and for- 
 feitures ; and must seize and keep all waifs (q. v.), 
 wrecks, estrays (q. v.), and the Mke, unless they be 
 granted to some subject. 
 
 BAI'LIFF, HIGH. See High BailIff. 
 
 BAI'LIWICK legally means the county or dis- 
 trict within which the sheriff's bailiffs may execute 
 their office. Blackstone says that this word was 
 introduced by the princes of the Norman line in 
 
BAILLBUL— BAILLIE. 
 
 imitation of tte French, wlioae territory was divided 
 into baUiwicks, as that of England into counties. 
 
 BAILLEUL, a town of France, department of the 
 Nord, with manufacturea of woollens, cottons, lace, 
 hats, beet-root, sugar, &c. — the cheese of its neigh- 
 bourhood being also celebrated. Pop. in 1856, 5943. 
 
 BAI'LLIE, Joanna, a modem poetess of distin- 
 guished merit, was bom in 1762 at BothweU, in 
 Lanarkshire, Scotland. Her father was a Presby- 
 terian clergyman. She received a superior educa- 
 tion, and soon began to manifest those talents which 
 subsequently excited the admiration of the public. 
 Her career was a singularly happy one, but devoid 
 of all striking incident. At an early period, she 
 went to reside in London, where her brother, 
 Matthew BaiUie, had established himself as a phy- 
 sician. Here she remained till her death, which 
 occurred on the 23d of February 1851, when she 
 had attained the venerable age of eighty-nine. No 
 authoress ever enjoyed a larger share of the esteem 
 and affection of her literary contemporaries. AH 
 vied in shewing her a courteous respect, and even 
 America sent its votaries to her little shrine at 
 Hampstead. Her greatest achievement is undoubt- 
 edly the Plays on the Passions, which, though 
 erroneous in conception, are full of noble and 
 impressive poetry, and often characterised by intense 
 dramatic power. The principle upon which Miss 
 B. proceeded in the construction of these works, 
 was to take a single passion as the subject of a 
 play, and to exhibit its influence on an individual 
 supposed to be actuated by nothing else. In point 
 of fact, such persons do not exist in society; men 
 are swayed by a variety of conflicting emotions; 
 and even when any one of these becomes domi- 
 nant, it does not wholly destroy the rest, otherwise 
 the victim of a ruling passion would lapse into 
 a monomaniac. The leading personages of Miss 
 B.'s plays are, jjierefore, rather impersonations of 
 certain elements of human nature, than genuine 
 human beings. They are vivid poetical studies in 
 psychology ; not mirrors held up to nature, like the 
 brilhant and variegated creations of Shakspeare. 
 StiU, there are scenes, in her tragedies especially, 
 where the interest of the reader is intensely excited, 
 by the great art shewn in the minute delineation 
 of a particular passion, and where he is forced to 
 forget the artificial theory of the authoress. The 
 first volume of the Plays of the Passions appeared 
 in 1798, and met with remarkable success. Four 
 years afterwards, she pubUshed a second volume ; in 
 1804, Miscellaneous Plays; in 1812, the third volume 
 of her Plays of the Passions; and in 1836, three 
 volumes of dramatic poetry. The most popiJar as 
 well as the most powerful of her works is the 
 tragedy of De Montfort. It was brought upon the 
 stage in London, Kemble acting for eleven nights 
 the character of the hero. Many of Miss B.'s minor 
 pieces are very sweet, simple, and beautiful ; and 
 are marked by a sprightly grace of versification, and 
 a playful serenity of spirit, which pleasantly remind 
 one of the personal character of the authoress herself. 
 
 BAI'LIilE, Matthew, M.D., a distinguished 
 physician and anatomist, was born on the 27th 
 October 1761, in the Manse of Shotts, Lanarkshire, 
 Scotland. His father was descended from the family 
 of BaUUe of Jerviswood, so noted in the history 
 of Scotland during the reign of Charles II.; his 
 mother was a, sister of the two celebrated anato- 
 mists, WiUiam and John Hunter ; and one of his 
 sisters was Joanna BailUe, the poetess. Talent seems 
 to have been both hereditary and abundant in the 
 family. On account of his abilities, his father was 
 appointed professor of divinity in the univcjrsity 
 of Glasgow, where yoimg B. went through the 
 
 624 
 
 usual curriculum, and afterwards proceeded to 
 Balliol College, Oxford, as an exhibitioner on the 
 Snell foundation. In 1780, he commenced his 
 anatomical studies in London under the care of his 
 uncle, and was frequently employed as demonstra- 
 tor to the latter ia his theatre at G-reat WindmOl 
 Street. His success in this capacity was so great, 
 that on the death of Dr Hunter, in 1783, he was 
 fonnd quahfied to become his successor. In 1784, he 
 began to lecture, and acquired a high reputation as 
 a vigorous and lucid expositor of the science of 
 anatomy. In 1795, he published a small work 
 entitled. The Morbid Anatomy of some of the -most 
 Important Parts of the JIuyian Body. It made an 
 era in medical science. In addition to the infor- 
 mation formerly scattered through the writings of 
 Bonnetus, Lieutaud, Montagni, and others, it con- 
 tained a multitude of ingenious observations made 
 by his uncle and himself, and greatly enhanced our 
 knowledge of the changes produced on the human 
 frame by disease. It had a remarkable influence on 
 the study of medicine, and excited in a greater 
 measure, perhaps than any other book, a spirit of 
 careful induction among professional men. In 1799, 
 Dr B. relinquished his anatomical lectureship, and 
 in 1800, his appointment as physician to St George's 
 Hospital, which he had held for thirteen years. ,He 
 now devoted himself exclusively to his duties as a 
 medical practitioner, and by his honourable assiduity 
 succeeded in reahsing a large fortune. In one of 
 his busiest years, when he had scarcely time to 
 take a single meal, his professional income is said to 
 have reached £10,000. In 1810, he was appointed 
 physician to the king, and offered a baronetcy, 
 which, however, he declined. At last, worn out 
 with incessant labour, he died on the 23d September 
 1823. 
 
 BAI'LLIE, KoBEET, one of the most eminent, 
 and perhaps the most moderate of all the Scottish 
 Presbyterian clergy during the time of the civU 
 war, was bom at Glasgow in 1599, and educated 
 at the university of that city. In 1622, he received 
 episcopal ordination — episcopacy being then nomin- 
 ally the estabhshed religion of the country — from 
 Archbishop Law, and was shortly after presented to 
 the parish church of Kilwinning. At first a maiu- 
 tainer of the doctrine of passive obedience, he seems 
 to have changed his opinions on this point some time 
 during 1630 — 1636. In 1638, he sat in that famous 
 General Assembly of the Kirk of Scotland which met 
 in Glasgow to protest against episcopacy being thrust 
 on an unwilling people, but conducted himseU with 
 greater prudence and temperance than was quite 
 agreeable to his excited brethren. However, he 
 soon threw himself eagerly into the national cause. 
 In 1640, he was selected by the Scottish leaders, 
 on account of his pamphlet against Laud's party, 
 as a proper person to go to London, along with 
 other commissioners, to prepare charges against 
 Archbishop Laud, whose rash and tyrannical 
 measures were^alleged to have been the origin of the 
 recent hostilities against the sovereign. On his 
 return to Scotland in 1642, he was appointed joint-' 
 professor of divinity at Glasgow, along with Mr 
 David Dickson, an equally distinguished, but less 
 moderate divine. In 1643, he was again sent to 
 London as a delegate to the Westminster Assembly 
 of Divines, where he conducted himself in an 
 unobtrusive manner, but cordially concurred in the 
 doctrines which were drawn up. It is curious to 
 notice, in connection with this incident of his career, 
 that though Mr B. had himself experienced the 
 injustice of intolerance, like almost every other 
 theologian of his age, he vehemently discarded the 
 principle of toleration, and asserted the divine right 
 of presbytery with as much emphasis as Laud did 
 
BAILLIE-BAILY. 
 
 the divine right of epiaoopaoy. After the execu- 
 tion of Charles I., in 1649, B. was chosen by 
 the church to proceed to Holland, and to invite 
 Charles II. to accept the Covenant and crown of 
 Scotland. Though it was not easy to deal with 
 one of Charles's slippery character, B. is admitted 
 to have home himself in the matter with great 
 prudence and dignity. After the Restoration, he 
 was made Principal of Glasgow University. He died 
 July 1662. His Letters are a valuable contribution 
 to our knowledge of the times. 
 
 BAI'LLIE, Robert, of Jerviswood, happily de- 
 scribed as the Scottish Sydney, was a native of 
 Lanarkshire, and distinguished himself during the 
 latter part of the reign of Charles II. by his bold 
 opposition to the tyrannical misgovernment of the 
 Duke of Lauderdale. Having on a certain occasion 
 (June 1676) rescued a relative, the Rev. Mr Kirkton, 
 from. the clutches of Archbishop Sharpe's principal 
 informer, a wretched profligate of the name of 
 Carstairs, who pretended that he had a warrant for 
 the apprehension of the clergyman, but refused to 
 shew it, B. was actually prosecuted for interfering 
 to prevent the illegal capture of his friend. For this 
 purpose, an ante-dated warrant was furnished to 
 Carstairs, signed by nine of the councillors. The 
 Marquis of Athole afterwards admitted to Bishop 
 Burnet that he was one of the nine who lent their 
 names to this infamous docmnent. The case was 
 therefore made out to be a tumult against the 
 
 fovemment. B. was fined in 6000 meris (£318). 
 [e refused to pay, and was sent to prison ; but so 
 strong was the indignation of the Scottish gentry, 
 that he was released at the end of four months, in 
 consideration of payment of one-half of his fine to 
 Carstairs. In 1683, B. took a prominent -part in a 
 scheme of emigration to South Carolina, as he saw 
 no other refuge from the degrading tyranny of the 
 government. About the same time, however, he 
 filtered into correspondence with the heads of the 
 new Puritan party in London, whose leaders were 
 Bussell, Sydney, and the Duke of Monmouth, and 
 subsequently repaired to that city to concert mea- 
 sures for a vigorous insvurection against the govern- 
 ment, not, however, so far as he was concerned, -^th 
 a view to revolution, but as the only me3.ns of secur- 
 ing adequate reforms. On the discovery of the 
 Byehouse Plot, B. was arrested, and sent down to 
 Scotland. Accused of conspiring against the king's 
 life, and of being hostile to monarchical government, 
 B. was tried at Edinburgh, and condemned to death 
 upon evidence at once insignificant and illegal. His 
 bearing both on his trial and during his imprison- 
 ment was such, that his cousin, Bishop Burnet, 
 declared ' it looked like a reviving of the spirit of the 
 noblest of the old Greeks or Romans, or rather of 
 the primitive Christians and first martyrs ; and the 
 celebrated Dr Owen speaks of him as a ' great spirit,' 
 • a person of the greatest abilities I almost ever met 
 with.' The sentence was carried into execution on 
 the 24th December 1684 It is to be regretted that 
 so few opportunities were afforded B. of achieving 
 anything really great, for he seems from all accounts 
 to have pbssessed a remarkable strength of character 
 and noble fearlessness of spirit. 
 
 BAILLY, Jean Sylvain, a distinguished French 
 savant. President of the National Assembly of 1789, 
 and Mayor of Paris, was born in that city, Septem- 
 ber 15, 1736. Originally intended by his father 
 for an artist, he first turned aside into literature, 
 until, becoming acquainted with LacaiUe, he was 
 fortunately induced to study astronomy, which 
 proved to be the true sphere of his genius. In 1763, 
 B. presented to the Acadgmie des Sciences his Lunar 
 Obeervations ; in 1766, appeared his JEssay on the 
 
 40 
 
 Satellites of Jupiter, with Tables of their Motions; and 
 in 1771, a treatise on the light of these sateUites, 
 remarkable for the profimdity of its astronomical 
 views, and which classed him at once among the 
 greatest astronomers of his time. His historico- 
 scientific works, especially his History of Indiam, 
 Astronomy, axe full of learning and ingenious disqui- 
 sition, and written with great elegance. In 1777, 
 he published his Letters on (lie Origin of the Sciences; 
 and in 1799, his Atlantis of Plato. In 1784, he was 
 elected a member of the Acadfimie Fransaise ; and 
 in the following year, of the Acad6mie des Inscrip- 
 tions. The Sloges which he wrote about this period 
 for the Acadimie des Sciences on Charles V., 
 Molifere, Comeille, Lacaille, Leibnitz, Cook, and 
 Gresset, were very highly praised. FonteneUe was 
 the only Frenchman Before him who had enjoyed 
 the honour of ffeing a member of the three acadgmies 
 at once. The revolution interrupted his peaceful 
 studies. During the earlier part of it, he occupied a 
 very prominent position. Elected President of the 
 National Assembly, June 17, 1789, and Mayor of 
 Paris on the 15th of Jxily, he conducted himself in 
 these capacities with great integrity and purity of 
 purpose ; but at last lost his popularity by allowing 
 the National Guard to fire on the masses who were 
 assembled in the Champ de Mars, on the 17th of 
 July 1791, to demand the dethronement of the king. 
 He now threw up his mayoralty, considering it 
 impossible to satisfy either party, withdrew alto- 
 
 feflier from public affairs, and went to live first at 
 Tautes, and afterwards with his friend Laplace at 
 Melun. Here he was seized by the Jacobin soldiery, 
 and brought to Paris, where he was accused of being 
 a royalist conspirator, condemned and executed with 
 the usual Jacobin preliminary of savage insult, 
 November 11, 1793. Among his papers were 
 found, and afterwards pubhshed, an Essay on tlie 
 Origin of Fables and Ancient Religions (1799), and 
 Memoirs of (lie Revolution by an Mye-viitness (1804). 
 There cannot be two opinions regarding the merit of 
 B.'s style, but.his historico-astronomical speculations 
 are now considered fantastic. 
 
 BAILMENT, an EngUsh law term, defined to 
 be ' a dehvery of goods for a particular purpose, 
 upon a contract, express or implied, that the pur- 
 pose shall be carried into effect, and that, when 
 that is done, the goods shall be restored by the bailee, 
 or person to whom they are delivered, to the owner 
 or bailor, or according to its directions.' — Tomlin's 
 Diet. 
 
 BAI'LY, Edwabd Hodges, R.A., an eminent 
 living sculptor^ was born at Bristol, March 10, 1788. 
 In 1807, he went to London, saw Flaxman, and 
 entered his studio. In 1809, he gained the silver 
 medal at the Society of Arts and Sciences, and the 
 silver and gold medals at the Royal Academy. His 
 works during this part of his career were chiefly, if 
 not altogether, classical figures. They exhibit great 
 care in execution, and are simple and pure in con- 
 ception ; but it was not tiU his twenty-sixth year that 
 the full power and originality of ms genius mani- 
 fested itself in his celebrated ' Eve at the Fountain,' 
 a figure of exquisite grace and loveliness. His next 
 works were, ' Hercules casting Lyons into the Sea,' 
 ' Apollo Dischaimng his Arrows,' and 'Maternal 
 Love.' George IV. also employed him, along with 
 other artists, to execute the sculpture in front of 
 Buckingham Palace, the figures on the marble arch, 
 and the 'Triumph of Britannia,' as also the 6assi- 
 relAem that surround the throne-room. Besides these, 
 B. has executed a great number of busts and statues 
 of distinguished contemporaries, such as Telford the 
 engineer. Earl Grey (14 feet high), and Sir Astley 
 Cooper. The statue of Nelson, in Trafalgar Square, 
 is likewise the work of his hands. His ' !^e listening 
 
 626 
 
BAILY— BAIEJ). 
 
 to the Voice,' the ' Sleeping Nymph,' ' Girl preparing 
 for the Bath,' and ' The Graces Seated,' are among 
 the finest efforts of his genius. 
 
 BAI'L Y, Fbancis, an eminent English astronomer, 
 ■was bom at Newbury, Berks, in 1774, and died in 
 London in 1844 In the midst of active business as 
 a London stockbroker, he laid the foundation of his 
 scientific fame, and during the years of fife usually 
 devoted to repose, underwent labours and rendered 
 services to astronomy, which entitle bim to be 
 regarded as one of the most remarkable men of his 
 time. Among the chief of these services were his 
 share in the foundation of the Astronomical Society, 
 and in the improvement of the Nautical Almanac, 
 his laborious repetition of Cavendish's pendulum 
 experiments, and the production of the Astrono- 
 inical Society's Star-catalogue. The fetter, says his 
 biographer. Sir J. Herschel, 'put the astronomical 
 world in possession of a power, which may be said, 
 without exaggeration, to have changed the face of 
 sidereal astronomy.' Li addition to several stand- 
 ard works on Life-annuities, &c. (1808 — 1813), and 
 an immense mass of contributions to the Memoirs of 
 fke Astronomical Society, he wrote a valuable Life 
 of Flamsteed (1835), which gave rise to much hot 
 discussion on the subject of that eminent man's 
 connection with Newton. 
 
 BAINI, GnrsBPPB, one of the most distinguished 
 scientific musicians of modern times, was bom in 
 Rome on the 21st October 1775. In 1795, when 
 still only a pupil in the Seminario Romano, he was 
 admitted among the singers in the Papal Chapel, on 
 account of his fine voice and his musical acquire- 
 ments. Having been initiated by G. Zannaconi into 
 the art of composition, he soon gained distinction 
 by his compositions. The severe gravity and pro- 
 found science of these contrasted strongly with the 
 careless style and shallow dilettantism of the modem 
 Italian masters. B. has secured for himself a pro- 
 minent place in musical literature, less, however, 
 by his compositions than by his historical researches, 
 which he found both encouragement and opportu- 
 nity to make, when he was appointed director of 
 the papal concerts in 1804, and general director of 
 the choir in 1814. His principal work is his Memmie 
 Storico-criticJie della Vita e ddle Opere di Giov. 
 Pierluigi da Palestrina, &c. (2 vols. Rome, 1828). 
 It is a valuable work, although disfigured by pre- 
 judices. The German edition of B.'s work, additions 
 and explanations by Kandler, published by Kiese- 
 wetter (Leip. 1834), is especially deserving of notice, 
 as very soon after its first publication it became a 
 rare book on account of the small number originally 
 published. "Winterfeld pubhshed an edition of the 
 same work with critical remarks (Bredau, 1832). 
 B. died on the 10th of May 1844. 
 
 BAIRAKTA'R, or, more correctly, Bairak-dar, 
 signifying Standard-bearer, is the title of the ener- 
 getic Grand Vizier Mustapha. He was bom in 1755, 
 and was the son of poor parents. He entered the 
 military service at an early age, and soon distin- 
 guished himself by his valour, when he was Pacha 
 of Rustohuk in 1806, he fought not without success 
 against the Russian army, which had advanced into 
 Moldavia and WaUachia, and had taken Bucharest. 
 After the revolt of the janizaries in 1807, by which 
 Sehm HI. (q. v.) was deposed from the throne, 
 in favour of Mustapha IV., B. at first con- 
 cealed his attachment to the deposed monarch, and 
 marched with his troops apparently against the 
 revolted Servians ; but as soon as he reached 
 Adrianople, he compelled the grand vizier to return 
 with him to Cohstantinople, in order to restore the 
 throne to Sultan Selim. On their return, they found 
 this prince murdered, and his dead body lying 
 
 626 
 
 in the first court of the seraglio. Pilled with rage 
 at this sight, B. caused aU those to be executed who 
 had had any share in the mutder. He deposed 
 Mustapha IV., and proclaimed the brother of this 
 prince, Mahmoud II., sultan on the 28th Jidy 1808. 
 B. was now appointed grand vizier. In the exercise 
 of this oflice, he deposed the grand mufti, the leader 
 of the janizaries, and aU the ulemas who had taken 
 any part in the last revolution ; while at the same 
 time he was careful to secure the tranquillity of the 
 capital, and strengthened the regular army. His 
 chief object was the annihilation of the janizaries; 
 but, like the unfortunate Selim, he also feU a victim 
 to these fierce bands of soldiery, who resisted every- 
 thing like military discipline. Favoured by the 
 fanatical people, the janizaries rebelled, and, with 
 the support of the fleet, attacked the seraglio 
 on the 15th November 1808, and demanded the 
 restoration of Mustapha IV. B. defended him- 
 self bravely; but when he saw that the flames 
 threatened to destroy the palace, and that he was 
 in danger of falling aUve into his enemies' hands, he 
 strangled Mustapha, threw his head to the besiegers, 
 and then blew himself up. 
 
 BAIRD, Sib Davtd, Bart., a general in the British 
 army, was born 6th December 1757, at Newbyth, 
 Scotland. He entered the service in 1772 as an 
 ensign in the 2d Foot, was promoted to a lieutenancy 
 in 1778, and immediately after obtained a company 
 in the 73d, a Highland regiment just raised by Lord 
 Macleod, with which he sailed to India. In the 
 course of a few months, the young ofl&cer was plunged 
 amid the perils of a sudden and sanguinary war. 
 The English had excited the hostility of Hyder All 
 by a gross breach of faith ; and in the July of 1780, 
 the latter burst into the Camatic at the head of 
 100,000 men, disciplined and commanded by French 
 officers. On the 10th of September, a portion of the 
 English army fell into an ambuscade at Perambou- 
 cum, and was cut to pieces. Among the few who 
 remained alive to be taken prisoners was Baird, 
 whose heroism had actually startled the French 
 officers who were opposed to him. He was thrown 
 into a dungeon at Seringapatam, where he endured 
 a captivity of four years, that must have been pecu- 
 liarly galling to a spirit so fierce, restless, and resolute 
 as his. Released in July 1784, he obtained the 
 majority of the 71st in 1789, and in the October of the 
 same year visited England. In 1791, he returned, a 
 heutenant-colonel, and took part in several important 
 sieges, attacks, and skirmishes; in 1795, he received 
 a colonelcy ; in 1798, he was raised to the rank of 
 major-general; and in 1799 memorably signalised 
 himself at the victorious assault of Seringapatam. 
 He led the storming-party, having obtained that 
 perilous honour at his own urgent request. Colonel 
 WeUesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) com- 
 manding the reserve. In requital of his brilliant 
 services, he was presented by the army, through the 
 commander-in-chief. General Harris, with the state- 
 sword of Tippoo Saib, and also with a dress-sword 
 from the field-officers who served under him at the 
 assault. His merit was likewise acknowledged by 
 the home government. In the following year, he 
 was appointed to the command of an expedition 
 against Batavia, but which was afterwards sent to 
 Egypt. On his return to India, he found that the 
 star of Wellesley was in the ascendant; and B., who 
 had already complained of the preference given to 
 that officer, and who was, besides, of opinion that his 
 own merits were constantly overlooked, applied for 
 leave of absence, and sailed for Europe in 1803. He 
 was received at court with great distinction, knighted 
 in June 1804, and made a K.C.B. in the following 
 August. In 1805, he commanded an expedition 
 against the Dutch settlements at the Cape of Good 
 
BAlRETJfa— BAJtra. 
 
 Hope, which was suooessful ; in 1807, he commanded 
 a division at the siege of Copenhagen ; and in 1808, 
 ■was sent to Spain with an army of 10,000 men, to 
 assist Sir John Moore. He distinguished himself in 
 the battle of Corunna, January 16, 1809. Moore 
 having been kUled in the action. Sir David succeeded 
 to the chief command, and had the honour of com- 
 municating intelligence of the victory to government. 
 On tliis occasion, he received, for the fourth time in 
 his life, the thanks of parliament, and was created a 
 baronet. After this period, he retired from active 
 service. In 1810, he married Miss Preston Campbell, 
 a Perthshire lady, by whom he left no issue. He 
 died, August 18, 1829. 
 
 BAIREUTH, a city, with a population of 17,000, 
 capital of the province of Upper I*ranconia, Bavaria, 
 and formerly the capital of the principality of the 
 same name. B. is beautifully situated on the Eed 
 Mayn, about 126 mUes due north from Munich. Its 
 streets are broad and well paved, and are inter- 
 spersed with groves, promenades, fine gardens, and 
 public fouutamq. Its principal buildings are the 
 old palace, now the residence of the provincial 
 governor ; the new palace, containing a gallery of 
 paintings; the mint, opera-house, riding- school, 
 mfirmary, and town-hall. Its chief articles of 
 industry are leather, cottons, woollens, linen, tobacco, 
 parchment, and porcelain. Jean Paul Richter died 
 here in November 1825, and a. monument has been 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 BA'JA, an important market-town of Hungary, 
 in the circle of Bacs, on the banks of the Danube, 
 and celebrated throughout Austria for its annual 
 swine-fair. Grain and wine, in large quantities, are 
 produced in its neighbourhood. Pop. 14,500. 
 
 BA'JAN-. See Bbjan. 
 
 BA JAZE'T, orBAJASI'D (pronouncedBayaze't)I., 
 Sultan of the Turks, was bom in 1347. In 1389, 
 he succeeded his father, Murad I., who fell in battle 
 near Kossova, fighting against the Servians. Imme- 
 diately on ascending the throne, he inaugurated his 
 rule, after the fashion of eastern kings, by strangling 
 his younger brother Yacub, lest he should dispute 
 the succession. In three years, he conquered Bul- 
 garia, a part of Servia, Macedonia, and Thessaly; 
 he also subdued most of the states of Asia Minor. 
 From the rapidity with which these extraordinary 
 conquests were effected, he received the name of 
 Uderim — that is. Lightning. He even blockaded 
 Constantinople itself for ten years, thinking to subdue 
 it by famine. To rescue thos ciiy, King Sigismund 
 of Himgary (afterwards Emperor of Germany) as- 
 sembled a large army, in which there were 2000 
 French nobles imder the command of the Duke of 
 Nivey. With this army. King Sigismimd attacked 
 the city of Nikopolis, in Bulgaria, situated on the 
 Danube. B. hastened to meet him, and gained a 
 decisive victory over the allied Hungarians, Poles, 
 and French, on the 28th September 1396. Sigjsmund 
 iescaped captivity only by a speedy flight in disguise; 
 but the greater part of the French, through whose 
 impetuosity the battle was lost, were taken pri- 
 soners, and were nearly all executed. B. would now 
 have entirely destroyed the Greek empire, if he had 
 not been prevented by Timur (q. v.), who attacked 
 his possessions in Asia Minor, and completely de- 
 feated him on the 16th June 1401, near Angora, the 
 capital of what was anciently called Galatia, on the 
 very spot where Pompey had formerly overthrown 
 Mithndates. B. himself fell into the hands of the 
 conqueror, who treated binn -with great generosity. 
 The story that he was carried about imprisoned in a 
 cage is without any historical foundation. B. died 
 in 1403, in the camp of Timur. He was succeeded 
 in the government by his son Soliman I. B. was 
 
 honourably distinguished by his efforts to improve the 
 administration of justice. During the 14 years of 
 his reign, he built a large number of mosques, among 
 others, one at Adrianople, and a second at Broussa, 
 which two cities were then the ordinary residences 
 of the Ottoman princes. 
 
 BAJAZE'T II., son of the Sultan Mohamme'd H., 
 the conqueror of Constantinople, was born in 1447, 
 and ascended the Ottoman throne after his father's 
 death in 1481. His reign, which lasted 32 years, 
 was a succession of uninterrupted wars agaiilst Hun- 
 gary, Poland, Venice, Egypt, and Persia, which were 
 carried on with various success and without any 
 events of striking importance, yet which served on 
 the whole to establish the Ottoman power. The last 
 years of his reign were much disturbed by disputes 
 between his sons about the' succession to the throne. 
 Influenced by the preference shewn by the janiza- 
 ries for his younger son Selim, B. abdicated in his 
 favour, but died before he could reach the place of 
 his voluntary exile, in the neighbourhood of Adri- 
 anople, in the year 1513. B. was a friend to the 
 dervishes, at the same time liberal and fond of pomp 
 and splendour. Many of the most beautiful mosques 
 in Constantinople and Adrianople were bmlt by him, 
 and fitted up in a style of the greatest magnificence. 
 
 BA'JIMONT'S ROLL, the name given to a 
 valuation, according to which the ecclesiastical 
 benefices of Scotland were taxed, from the end of 
 the 13th 0. to the Reformation. It took its name 
 from an Italian churchman, Benemund or Baiamund 
 de Vicci, who was sent from Rome by the pope about 
 the year 1276, to collect the tithe, or tenth part of aU 
 the church livings in Scotland, for an expedition to 
 the Holy Land. Hitherto, the Scotch clergy had 
 been taxed according to a conventional valuation, 
 called the ATttigim Taxatio. But Baiamund set this 
 aside; and, in spite of their reclamations, assessed 
 the benefices at their actual yearly worth, or verus 
 valor. Although more than once referred to as an 
 authoritative document in statutes of the 15th c, no 
 complete copy of B. R., in its original shape, is now 
 known to exist. A contemporary manuscript of so 
 much of the RoU as apphes to the archdeaconry of 
 Lothian, or that portion of the diocese of St Andrews 
 which lies to the south of the Forth (comprehending 
 the counties of Berwick, Haddington, Edinburgh, 
 LinKthgow, and part of Stirlingshire), is preserved 
 at Durham. The real value of the benefices in this 
 district, as set down in B. R., exceeds the conven- 
 tional value in thsAntiqua Taxatio in the proportion 
 of 420 to 286. A copy of B. R., as it appears to have 
 existed in the reign of King James V. (1513 — 1542), 
 is preserved in the Advocates' Library at Edinburgh, 
 in a hand of the beginning of the 17th c. It is fuU 
 of inaccuracies ; and it omits aU livings of less than 
 40 marks a year. Of the Antigua Taxatio, which 
 was superseded by B. R., there are good copies ia 
 the handwriting of the 13th c, so far as concerns 
 the benefices in the four dioceses of St Andrews, 
 Brechin, Aberdeen, and Moray. 
 
 BAJO'CCO, or BAIO'CCO (pi. Bajocchi), is a 
 copper coin in the Papal States, value nearly a halt- 
 penny. It is 1-lOOth of the scudo, which is equal 
 to 4s. 3id. In the island of Sicily, the NeapoHtan 
 grano, Sie 1-lOOth part of the ducato (= Zs.id.), ia 
 also called a bajocco. 
 
 BA'JUS, Michael (properly, De Bay), one of the 
 most distinguished theologians of the Catholic 
 Church in the 16th c, was bom in 1513 at Melun. 
 He studied at Louvain, and became professor of 
 theology there in 1550. He was present at the 
 Councfl of Trent in 1563, and also in 1564. He 
 was the founder of a system of theology, based 
 
 627 
 
BAJZA— BAKEWELL. 
 
 directly on the Bible and the -writinga of the 
 Fathers, and setting aside the scholastic method. 
 He had studied much the writttigs of St Augustine, 
 and therefore confined himself closely within the 
 circle of ideas held by this Father of the church, 
 whose doctrines of the entire inability of the human 
 will to do good, and the absence of merit in all 
 good works, B. defended against the Jesuits. The 
 assertions that the human will, so long as it is left 
 to its own freedom, can do nothing but sin, and that 
 even the mother of our Lord was not free from 
 original and actual sin, together with other such 
 doctrines, drew on him the accusation of heresy. 
 Seventy-six of his propositions were condemned by 
 a papal bull. B. submitted, but nevertheless did 
 not give up his doctrines, and, in consequence, the 
 persecutions to which he was subjected did not 
 cease. He died December 16, 1589, having earned 
 the reputation of great learning, pure manners, and 
 singular modesty. He may be regarded as the 
 predecessor of the Jansenists, who inherited his 
 Augustinian views, which were at that time terined 
 Bajanism. His vmtings, mostly of a polemical 
 nature, were published by Gerberon (2 vols. 
 Cologne, 1696). 
 
 BAJ'ZA, Anton, a Hungarian poet and prose- 
 writer, was bom January 31, 1804, at Szilcsi, in 
 Hertes. His Poems (2 vols. 1835), which were pub- 
 lished in Pesth, earned for him a place among the 
 best Hungarian lyric poets. In the Kritischen Slat- 
 tern, to which he contributed from 1831 — 1836, the 
 Athenceum, and the Figyelmezo (Observer), to which 
 he contributed from 1837 — 1843, in common with 
 many of the best literary writers of the day, he 
 exercised a beneficial influence on the rising litera- 
 ture of Hungary by his severe criticism, and his 
 soHd and theoretically correct essays. He likewise 
 materially aided the Himgarian stage, then in its 
 infancy, by the publication of the Aueldndischen 
 Biihne {Foreign Dramas, Pesth, 1830), and also by 
 his exertions as director of the National Theatre, 
 opened in Pesth on August 22, 1837. At the same 
 time, he had begun to occupy himself with historical 
 studies, and enriched the literature of Hungary, 
 very poor in this respect, with a TortSreti Konyvtdr 
 (Historical Library, 6 vols., Pesth, 1843—1845), 
 which contained translations from many excellent 
 foreign historical works. He also pubHshed a com- 
 pilation from the German, Dj Plutarch (The Modem 
 Plutarch, Pesth, 1845—1847). His VMgtBrteret 
 (Universal History, Pesth, 1847) is a rather unskilful 
 compilation from Schlosser, Heeren, Eotteck, and 
 other German historians. After March 1848, Kos- 
 suth appointed him editor of his half-official organ, 
 the Kossuth Hirlapja (July tiU December 1848), in 
 conducting which, however, he displayed no great 
 editorial talent. B. was made a member of the 
 Hungarian Academy in 1832. 
 
 BA'KER, Sm PaoHABD, aiithor of the Ghronide 
 of the Kings of England, a book long esteemed and 
 quoted on all matters of English history by the 
 country gentry. Addison makes his model squire. Sir 
 Eoger de Coverley, refer to it frequently. Notwith- 
 standing its reputation, however, among that class, 
 the book had no lack of errors, and is now all but 
 forgotten. Its author was bom in Kent, or, accord- 
 ing to other accoimts, in Oxfordshire, about the 
 year 1568. He was educated at Oxford Univer- 
 sity, and in 1603 was made a knight. About 1620 
 he married and settled in Oxfordshire, of which 
 county he was made high sheriff; but he was soon 
 after thrown into the Fleet Prison for debt which 
 his wife's family had contracted, but for which he 
 had become responsible. Here he wrote his Chronicle, 
 first published in 1641, besides several pious works 
 62S 
 
 of less note. He died in prison, in great poverty, in 
 1645. 
 
 BA'KEBIES, Abmy. Foreign armies have gener- 
 ally the means of obtaining soft or loaf bread ; but 
 British troops, on active service, are more frequently 
 confined to biscuit— much to their own dissatisfac- 
 tion. The French, ever since the time of Louis 
 XIV., have been accustomed to take portable ovens 
 with their armies ; those now used will each bake 
 450 rations at once. Outside Sebastopol, in the 
 winter of 1854, the British soldiers sometimes will- 
 ingly exchanged with the French three or four 
 pounds of biscuit for one pound of soft bread. From 
 the attention now paid to the wellbeing of the 
 soldiers; there is every reason to beheye that 
 improvements will gradually be introduced into our 
 military system in this matter ; the army-surgeons 
 and the commissariat strongly recommend a more 
 liberal poHcy. The French depend more on bread 
 and less on meat than the English ; and this may 
 partly account for the difference. The French 
 soldiers are taught to construct field- ovens, and to 
 bake their bread in camp, while government B. are 
 established all over France, entirely conducted by 
 soldiers. Among other lessons afforded by the 
 siege of Sebastopol, was one relating to an improved 
 supply of army-bread. Two screw-steamers, the 
 Bruiser and the Abundance, were sent out to_ Bala- 
 klava, one provided with machinery for grinding 
 corn, and the other with machinery and ovens for 
 malong and baking bread. In each case, the ship 
 and the machinery were propelled by the same 
 steam-engine. When quietly anchored in the har- 
 bour, the mill ground 24,000 lbs. of flour per day 
 — better in quality, and cheaper than could have 
 been obtained by contract. The bakery ship Alund,- 
 ance had four ovens of 14 bushels' capacity each ; it 
 baked in an excellent manner 6000 loaves of 3 lbs. 
 each per day, which loaves were sent up to the 
 siege-army as soon as cooled. The snips and 
 machinery were sold when the war was over — a 
 proceeding which the commissariat ofiicers much 
 regretted ; but the experience thence obtained will 
 not be lost. The improved arrangements suggested 
 for the meat-rations will be noticed under Cookeky, 
 Aem7. 
 
 BA'KEWELL, a small but very ancient town in 
 Derbyshire, on the left bank of the Wye, near its 
 confluence with the Derwent, and 24 miles north- 
 north-west of Derby. It lies on the slope of a hill, 
 in the midst of very beautiful scenery, in a carboni- 
 ferous limestone tract, and in the vicinity of black 
 marble quarries, and of coal and lead mines. Its 
 chalybeate springs and warm baths are much 
 resorted to. The celebrated Arkwright first estab- 
 lished cotton-mills here. On the opposite bank of 
 the Wye are the traces of a castle bmlt by Edward 
 the Elder in 924. B. is now the property of the 
 Duke of Rutland, whose seat is Haddon Hall, two 
 miles from the town. B. is a centre for visiting the 
 fine scenery of North Derbyshire and the Peak ; and 
 the streams in the vicinity are much resorted to by 
 anglers. It contains a spacious cruciform church, 
 founded in Saxon times, and shewing specimens of 
 ecclesiastical Gothic architecture of three different 
 periods. Three miles from B. stands Chatsworth 
 House, the splendid mansion of the Duke of Devon- 
 shire. Pop. (1851) 9897. 
 
 BA'KEWELL, Eobebt, a celebrated agricul- 
 turist, was bom in 1726 at Dishley, in the county 
 of Leicester, and died in 1795. He does not 
 appear to have written anything, even upon the 
 subjects with which he was so well acquainted, 
 so that his fame rests entirely upon his Successful 
 efforts to improve the breed of domestic animals. 
 
BAKHTEGAN— BALAAM. 
 
 His reputation was so gi'eat as a breeder of sheep, 
 that he is said to have received the fabulous 
 sum of 400 guineas for one season of a ram. The 
 long-horned Tireed of cattle which he introduced 
 is still known as the Dishley or New Leicestershire 
 breed. His horses were also famous, and almost 
 as profitable to bim aa his sheep. One of his 
 objects was to produce a breed of animals that 
 would fatten on the smallest quantity of food. 
 
 BAKHTEGA'N, a salt-lake of Persia, province 
 of Farsistan, from which remarkably fine salt is 
 obtained. Its size is variously stated — some writers 
 making it 60 miles in length, with an average 
 breadth of 8 miles ; others, only 70 miles in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 BA'KING is the mode of cooking food in an air- 
 tight chamber or oven. The term is also applied in 
 the manufacture of bricks (q. v.), porcelain (q. v.), 
 &c. The B. of bread will be treated under Bkead. 
 The oven attached to Idtchen-grates for cooking is 
 simply an iron chamber, with flues for conveying the 
 heated gases of the fire round it. In B., stricfly so 
 called, ttie oven is kept close, so that the steam and 
 aroma arising from the enclosed substances are con- 
 fined ; but by opening ventilators a current of air is 
 produced, and then these ovens may be used for 
 what is called oven-roasting. The rank taste that 
 often characterises baked dishes is thus avoided., 
 Ovens are now often heated by water, or by steam, 
 and also by gas. Meat for B. is placed in a d^h, from 
 the bottom of which it is raised on a wire frame or 
 trivet. In M. Soyer's Baking-diah, a vnre frame 
 rests on the edge of the dish, and on this potatoes 
 are laid ; a trivet, rising above the frame, supports 
 the meat ; while the bottom of the dish contains 
 a Yorkshire pudding ; the dripping thus falls upon 
 the potatoes and pudding below. 
 
 B., although a convenient mode of cooking, is not 
 considered quite so good as roasting (q. v.). The 
 
 Eractice of having recourse to the baker's oven, saves 
 oth trouble and expense in heating, and is a matter 
 of necessity with those who have not means of cook- 
 ing at home; but it has this chief objection, that 
 every dish becomea impregnated with the steam and 
 odours of all the rest. Soyer pronounces it to be 
 semi-barbarous. 
 
 BAKO'lfY "WALD (Forest of Bakony), a densely 
 wooded mountain-range of Hungary, south of the 
 Danube, dividing the great and httle Hungarian 
 plains. Immense herda of swine are annually driven 
 hither to feed upon the mast of the forest. The 
 keepers of these swine furnish those notorious 
 robbers who play so important a part in the ballads 
 of the Hungarian people, and in the imagination of 
 travellers. The saintly King Stephen founded a 
 cloister in the forest 1030 A.D. Only in recent 
 times has this dangerous territory been thoroughly 
 explored. The hills have an average height of 2000 
 feet, with quarries of valuable marble, in which a 
 considerable export trade is done. 
 
 BA'KSHISH. The ordinary meaning of this 
 word in Persian is a present ; but in the East, in 
 modern times, it haa acquired the special significa- 
 tion of gratuity (Ger. Trinkgeld), which, however, 
 the orientala do not quietly wait to receive, but 
 demand loudly, and even insolentljr. Every traveller, 
 whether in Turkey or in Egypt, in Asia Minor or 
 in Syria, if he receives the smallest service from any 
 one, is unmediately reminded by the cry of ' Bak- 
 shish, Bakshish,' to pay for the courtesy by a gift of 
 money. Even when the ambaasadora to' the Supreme 
 Porte obtain an audience from the sultan, or from 
 any of the high dignitaries, they are obliged, by the 
 prompt gift of a B., to avoid a peremptory demand 
 
 for it on the part of the door-keepers and other 
 servants. By degrees, the B. has been fixed by 
 custom at certain sums. 
 
 BAKTSHI-SBEAI' (the 'City of the Gardens'), 
 the residence of the ancient princes or khans of the 
 Crimea, stands in a deep limestone valley, not far 
 from the present capital, Simferopol. Tide city is 
 kept in excellent repair, and has -■•■ population of 
 12,779, consisting almost exclusively of remnants of 
 the old Tatar inhabitants. It thus presents a 
 striking contrast to the modern towns of the 
 Crimea, and is one of the most singular in Europe. 
 The palace of the ancient khans has been completely 
 restored by the Russian government in the oriental 
 style. It consists of a great labyrinth of biuldiugs, 
 courts, and gardens, and is situated about the middle 
 of the town, dividing it into two parts. The chief 
 manufactures of the place consist of articles of 
 copper, Turkish saddles, and silk. 
 
 BAKU', a aeajport town of the Apsheron penin- 
 sula, in the Caspian Sea. It is under the dominion 
 of Russia, and contains 5413 inhabitants. The 
 whole soil around B. is impregnated with naphtha, 
 which forms an important branch of its industry. 
 Some of the fountains ignite spontaneously, and this 
 natural phenomenon has caused B. to be esteemed as 
 a holy city by the Parsees or fire-worshippers, many 
 of whom resort to it from very long distances. 
 Modem travellers have found there some of the 
 sepoys pensioned by the Indian government. B. 
 haa aeveral fine moaques and bazaars, and besides its 
 trade in naphtha, it exports cotton, sUk, opium, 
 saflron, and salt. 
 
 The Arabian, Masudi (q. v.), is the first who 
 mentions B., about 943, and he gives an account of 
 a great volcanic mountain in its vicinity, which is 
 now extinct. B. was ceded by the Persians to the 
 Russians in 1813. The peninsula on which it is 
 built is notable for its volcanoes. In the immediate 
 vicinity of B. there is a remarkable spring of white 
 mineral oil, and in calm weather the people often 
 amuse themselves by pouring tuns of it into the 
 Caspian, and then setting fire to it, the effect being 
 that the whole sea appears as if in flames. 
 
 BA'LA BEDS, a local deposit, occurring in the 
 neighbourhood of Bala, in North Wales, and forming 
 a group in the Lower Silurian of Murchison. They 
 consist of a few beds, rarely more than 20 feet in 
 thickness. The beds are chiefly composed of hard 
 crystalline limeatone, alternating with softer argil- 
 laceous bands, which decompose more freely, and 
 leave the limestone like a cornice moulding, afford- 
 ing a characteristic by which, at a considerable 
 distance, the B. B. can be distinguished from the 
 rooks of hard gritty slate above and below. TrUo- 
 bites and Cystidese are the predominant fossils of 
 the group. Calcareous beds, containing similar 
 fossils, have been noticed in the Silurian district of 
 the south-east of Ireland, and referred to this group. 
 
 BA'LAAM, the name of a prophet who figures 
 prominently in the early history of the Israelites. 
 55e is "first mentioned in Numbers xxii. 5, where 
 Balak, king of the Moabites, alarmed at the irrup- 
 tion of the chosen people into his territories, is 
 represented aa sendmg mesaengera to Pethor, in 
 Meaopotamia, the dwelling-place of the aeer, to 
 beseech Ihtti to come and curse the invaders. The 
 narrative is, of course, familiar to every one, and it 
 is therefore imneoessary to recount it ; but it is 
 marked by two peculiarities, which have excited 
 much speculation and controversy. The first is, 
 the admittedly prophetical character of B., who 
 was a Gentile; the second is, the curious miracle in. 
 the case of his asa. With regard to the supernatural 
 
 629 
 
BAXiEaSTA— BALANCE. 
 
 powers attributed to B. the most prevalent hypothesis 
 is, that he was the last relic of the patriarchal age, 
 during which communion with God was not for- 
 mally restricted to one race, but diffused more or 
 less among all the Semitic peoples. Some, again, 
 suppose that his knowledge of God, from \rfiom 
 he apparently received miraculous communications, 
 was derived from traditions of the primitive faith 
 scattered over Mesopotamia by Abraham, Jacob, 
 Laban, &c. ; though Hengstenberg conceives that he 
 had been led to renounce idolatry by hearing of the 
 miracles which attended the exodus of the Israelites, 
 anticipating, as a reward for his change of worship, 
 a further insight into futurity, and a greater power 
 over nature. B. has ever been considered a type 
 of those men who prostitute their powers and hold 
 the truth in unrighteousness, receiving the wages 
 thereof. 
 
 BAL.^E'H'A, See Whaml 
 
 BAL^NO'PTERA. See KoeqtjaI;. 
 
 BALAKL A' VA, a small port in the south-west of 
 the Crimea, separated by a rocky peninsula from the 
 harbour of Sebastopol, from which the direct dis- 
 tance is about 6 miles. Population in 1849, 1067. 
 The harbour, which affords secure anchorage for the 
 largest ships, is perfectly landlocked, the entrance 
 being so narrow as scarcely to admit more than one 
 vessel at a time. To the east, overlooking the bay 
 from a rocky eminence, are the ruins of a Genoese 
 fortress. The foundation of the work is excavated 
 into numerous chambers and galleries. It is the 
 Symbolon Limen of Strabo ; and the present name 
 is supposed by Dr Clarke to be a corruption of the 
 Genoese Bella-chiava, or Fair Haven. This was long 
 the seat of a Greek colony; in the 14th c, it feU 
 into the hands of the Genoese ; about the end of the 
 15th, they were expelled by the Turks ; and on the 
 conquest of the Crimea by Catharine II. of Bussia, 
 it was made a military station for a regiment of 
 Greeks and Albanians. In 1854, a few days after 
 the battle of Alma, the town was occupied by the 
 British army under Lord Raglan, and the harbour 
 formed, during the ensuing campaign, the head- 
 quarters of the fleet, and the basis of operation of 
 tiie army. Here ensued those scenes of misman- 
 agement and confusion that have rendered B. a 
 synonym for chaos, and the recital of which, with 
 the resulting privations and misery to the soldiers, 
 stirred so terribly the heart of England in the winter 
 of 1854 — 1855. A terrible hurricane on November 14, 
 1854, in which nine vessels were totally destroyed, 
 and several others seriously injured, tended greatly 
 to increase the confusion which incapacity and 
 divided responsibility first occasioned at Bala- 
 klava. Soldiers, six miles distant, were dying for 
 want of food, clothing, and medicine, which were 
 hidden hopelessly beyond reach in store-rooms at 
 B., or stowed away in the holds of ships that were 
 not permitted to enter the harbour. Transport 
 vessels, for which the country was paying enormous 
 sums of money daUy, were kept lying idle in port 
 with their most amciously awaited cargoes (for lack 
 of which the troops were perishing by hundreds) 
 unladen, while poor mutilated and dying soldiers 
 lay miserably exposed on the heights for want of 
 sMps to convey them to the hospitals at Scutari. 
 The rebuilding of the greater part of the town, the 
 formation of a line of railway between B. and the 
 camp, and certain official investigations in 1855, 
 completely remedied this disgraceful state of things. 
 The 25th of October 1854 was signalised, on the 
 heights between the town and the Tchemaya, by 
 those unparalleled cavalry charges, the record of 
 which is among the saddest but proudest memories 
 of the British army. A detailed account of the 
 
 630 
 
 events connected with Balaklava is given in the 
 Pictorial History of the Buaaian War, published by 
 W. and E. Chambers. 
 
 BA'LANCE (of doubtful derivation), an instru- 
 ment for ascertaining the weight of bodies in grains, 
 oimoes, pounds, or any other units of weight. The 
 ordinary B. consists of- a lever called a beam, 
 whose point of support is in the middle of its 
 length, and having dishes or scales suspended from 
 either extremity. As it is of importance that the 
 beam should move easily round its point of sup- 
 port, it rests on polished agate or steel planes, by 
 means of knife-edges of tempered steel, which pro- 
 ject transversely from its sides, and serve as the axis 
 of rotation. By this arrangement, the surface of 
 contact is reduced to a mere line, and the friction of 
 the axis of the beam on its support almost entirely 
 obviated. The scales are hung by means of chains 
 attached to steel hooks, which rest also on knife- 
 edges, but turned upwards instead of downwards, as 
 in the first case. The essential requirements of a B. 
 of this description are : 1st, That the beam shall 
 remain in a horizontal position when no weights are 
 in either scale; and 2d, That the beam shall be a 
 lever of equal arms, or have the distances between 
 the central knife-edge and those at either end 
 exactly the same. To insure the first of these con- 
 ditions, it is necessary that the centre of gravity of 
 the beam lie vertically below the point of support, 
 when the beam is horizontal. When such is the 
 case, iie centre of gravity at which the weight 
 of the beam may be considered to act, oscil- 
 lates as in a pendulum round the point of support, 
 and always comes to rest right under that point, 
 thus restoring to the beam its horizontal position 
 when it has been tilted out of it. If the centre of 
 gravity were above the point of support, the beam 
 would topple over; and if it coincided with that 
 point, there being no restoring force, the beam 
 would occupy indifferently any position into which 
 it was thrown, the B. in both cases being useless. 
 That a B. possesses the second of the above condi- 
 tions, is ascertained by putting weights into the 
 scales which keep the beam horizontal, and then 
 transposing them, when, if it stiU remain so, the 
 lengths of the arms are equal. Should the arms be 
 of different lengths, a less weight at the end of the 
 longer arm will balance a larger weight at the end 
 of 4e shorter arm (see Lever) ; but when transposed, 
 the larger weight having the longer arm, and the 
 smaller weight the shorter, the beam can no longer 
 remain horizontal, but wiU incline towards the larger 
 weight. A balance with unequal arms is called a 
 false B., as distinguished from an equal-armed or 
 just balance. When weighing with a false B., it is 
 usual to weigh a body in both scales, and take 
 the arithmetical mean — that is, half the sum of 
 the apparent weights for the true weight. This 
 is near enough to the truth when the apparent 
 weights differ little from each other ; but when it is 
 otherwise, the geometrical mean (q. v.) must be 
 taken, which gives the exact weight in all cases. 
 
 Although the preceding conditions are of essential 
 importance, they do not supply aU that we look for 
 in a good balance. It is necessary, in addition, that 
 the beam should turn visibly from its horizontal 
 position, when there is a slight excess of weight in 
 the one scale as compared with the other. This 
 tendency is termed sensibility, and depends upon the 
 weight of the beam, the position of its centre of 
 gravity, and the length of its aims. Let ABD (fig. 1) 
 represent the beam of a balance, C the point of 
 suspension, G the centre of gravity, and ACB the 
 straight line joining the knife-edges, which may be 
 taken as the skeleton lever of the balance. We 
 shall here confine our attention to that construction 
 
BALANCE. 
 
 where the three knife-edges are ia a line, because 
 it is the most simple and at the same time the most 
 desirable. We may, without altering the principles 
 of equilibrium, consider the beam reduced to the 
 
 Fig.1. 
 
 lever AB, and embody its weight in a heavy point 
 or small ball at the centre of gravity, 6, connected 
 with by the rigid arm CG. The scales (repre- 
 sented small in the fig. for the sake of space), with 
 the equal weights in them being at an equal distance 
 from C, have their centre of gravity in that point ; 
 and their combined pressure acting there, is met 
 directly by the supporting plane, so that they have 
 no influence in determining any particular position of 
 the beam. If a small weight, p, therefore, be put 
 into the scale at B, the position of the beam is deter- 
 mined by its rotating tendency (mopient) round C, 
 and the counter-rotating tendency of the weight of 
 the beam, W, acting at G. The question of sensi- 
 bility is iiius reduced to the action of the crooked 
 lever GOB, with p acting at one end, and W at the 
 other. Pie relations of the arms and forces of a 
 crooked lever will be found under Levbb. It is only 
 necessary here to state, that the moment of the 
 weight acting at the end of a crooked lever, increases 
 with its size, the length of its arm, and the smaU- 
 nesa of the angle which that arm makes with the 
 horizontal line passing through the fulcrum. Let ua 
 suppose that, under the effect of the opposing 
 moments, the beam, as represented by the line AB, 
 takes up the position marked by the dotted lines. 
 If, now, we were to lengthen OB', and keep CG' as it 
 is, CG' woidd rise nearer to the horizontal ' 
 
 line, and CB' fall further from it, before equi- 
 librium would be restored; and the inclination 
 of CB', or the beam to the horizontal hne, thus 
 being greater, the sensibility of the balance 
 would be increased. Consequently , the longer 
 the arms of a B- ore. all otJier things being the 
 same, tlie greater will he Us sensibility. But 
 the same object would be reached by keeping 
 CB' its original length, and shortening CG', 
 or bringing the cenfre of gravity of the beam 
 nearer to the point of support. The weight of 
 the balance iSieu having a shorter arm, the 
 point G', for the same reason as before, 
 would need to rise higher, and B' sink lower, 
 before A'B' would fmd its position of rest. 
 Here, also, the nearer the centre of gravity of 
 the beam is to the point of support, the greater 
 will be the sendbility of the balance. If now, 
 however, we keep the length of the arms 
 CG', CB' constant, but diminish the weight 
 feting at G', while p acting at B' remains 
 the same, it is manifest, that to make up the 
 deficiency in the weight W, the two arms 
 will turn to the left, as in the preceding 
 cases, so as to give TV a longer, and p a shorter 
 effective arm. The smaller, therefore, the weight 
 acting at G, or the smaller the weight of the beam, 
 ike greater wUl be the sensiUUty of the balance. 
 
 In the construction of the B., it is a matter 
 of importance to have the sensibility independent 
 of the amount of weight in the scales, so that, 
 
 when heavily loaded, a small weight will produce 
 the same inclination as when not loaded at aU. 
 This condition is implemented, as we have already 
 shewn, when the three knife-edges are kept in the 
 saipe straight line. If the line joining the two 
 terminal knife-edges lie below the point of sus- 
 pension, then the centre of gravity of the equal 
 weights corresponding with the middle of that 
 line, wiU, upon the turning of the beam, be forced 
 from below that point, and will accordingly have 
 a tendency to resume its former position. The 
 equal weights thus counteract to some extent the 
 effect of the additional weight, in causing the beam 
 to incline, and their influence in this way will be all 
 the greater as they themselves increase. When a 
 B. is too heavily loaded for its strength, the three 
 knife-edges, although previously in a line, do not 
 retain that position, for the arms of the beam yield- 
 ing to the pressure, cause the terminal knife-edges 
 to sink below the one in the middle, and the knife- 
 edges themselves losing their shape under the pressure, 
 the sensibility is considerably diminished. 
 
 When a B. is very sensible, the beam keeps oscil- 
 lating for a considerable time from one side to the 
 other of the position in which it finally settles. 
 Although such an instrument may be useful for phy- 
 sical and chemical experiments, it is not serviceable 
 for the purposes of ordinary life, where minute 
 quantities of the substance to be weighed are of 
 httle value, and where time, and consequently 
 rapidity of indication, are matters of importance. 
 The sensibility of a B. must, therefore, be adjusted 
 to the purpose for which it is designed ; sensible 
 balances being employed for weighing finer, and less 
 sensible, or stable balances, for weighing coarser 
 materials. The stability, or the tendency of the beam 
 to come quickly to rest, depends on requirements 
 nearly the opposite of those which conduce to sen- 
 sibility. In the construction treated of above, the 
 stability increases with the moment of the weight of 
 the beam acting at G round C, so that it thus 
 increases with the weight of tiie beam, and the 
 distance of the centre of gravity from the point of 
 suspension. The stability is also increased, as already 
 
 L 
 
 t 
 
 i- 
 
 Kg. 2. 
 
 shewn, .by having the line joining the scale knife- 
 edges below the point of support. 
 
 Kg. 2 is the representation of a common form 
 of the dehcate balances employed in physical and 
 chemical researches. The beam is constructed so as 
 to combine lightness with strength, and rests by a 
 fine knife-edge on an agate plane. It is surmounted 
 
 631 
 
BALANCE AND BALANCB-SPRINO. 
 
 by a weight moving on a screw, so that the sensi- 
 bility may be increased or diminished, according as 
 the weight is raised or depressed. In order that 
 the knife-edge may not become blunted by constant 
 contact with the supporting plane, a cross-bar, with 
 two projecting pins, is made to lift the beam from the 
 plane, and sustain its weight when the balance is 
 not in play. The beam is divided by lines marked 
 upon it into ten equal parts, and a small weight 
 made of fine wire bent into the form of a fork, called 
 a rider, is made to sKde along to any of the divisions. 
 If the rider be, for instance, J^ of a grain, and if, 
 after the weight of a body is very nearly ascertained, 
 it brings the tjeam, when placed at the first division 
 next the centre, exactly to its horizontal position, 
 an additional weight of y^ of a grain will be 
 indicated. The use of inconveniently small weights 
 is, by this arrangement, to a large extent obviated. 
 As the beam takes some .time before it comes to 
 rest, it would be tedious to wait in each case till 
 it did so, and for this reason a long pointed index 
 is fixed to the beam below the point of suspension, 
 the lower extremity of which moves backward 
 and forward on a graduated ivory scale, so that 
 when the index moves to equal distances on 
 either side of the zero point, we are quite certain, 
 withou.t waiting tiU it finally settles, that the beam 
 will be horizontal. The same is seen in ordinary 
 balances, only the tongue or index is above the 
 beam ; and according to its deviation on each side of 
 the fork or cheeks by which the whole is suspended, 
 is the future position of the beam ascertainei The 
 finer balances are never loaded to more than a 
 pound in each scale, and when so charged, will 
 deflect with ^hu °f ^ grain of additional weight in 
 'One of the scales, or will turn, as it is technically 
 called, with i^.s'iOO "^ *^® load. The finest 
 balances turn with joooooo °^ *^® ^°^'^' ^^^ some 
 have been constructed which turned with much less. 
 Eveu with the best achievements of mechanical skiU, 
 no B. can be made whose arms are absolutely equal ; 
 and to remedy this defect, the method of double- 
 weighing is resorted to, when the utmost accuracy is 
 demanded. This consists in placing the body to be 
 weighed into one scale, and sand, or the like, into 
 the other, until exact equiUbriimi is obtained, then 
 removing the body, and putting weights or another 
 body in its place which exactly counterbalance the 
 sand. Both being thus weighed in precisely similar 
 circumstances, must weigh precisely the same. 
 The Koman B., or Steelyard (Ger. Sdmdlwage), is 
 
 Eg. 3. 
 
 more portable than the ordinary balance. It consists 
 of a lever (fig. 3), AB, moving round a knife-edge or 
 point at C. The body to be weighed, W, is' put into 
 the scale which hangs from A ; and a movable 
 weight, P, is made to slide along the longer arm, until 
 the lever, AB, remains horizontal. The weight of 
 W , is then read off from the division at which P 
 rests. If the lever lie horizontal when unloaded, then 
 equal weights at equal distances from C wiU balance 
 
 each other, so that when W is balanced by P at a 
 distance from C equal to AC, the two are of equal 
 weight ; but if eqiuHbrium take place when P, say, 
 is ten times as far from C as A is, then W will be 
 ten times the weight of P ; and the same holds for 
 any intermediate point at which P may stand, W 
 weighing as many times P as P's arm is a multiple 
 of vfa arm. To weigh a body of 10 lbs. by the 
 ordinary B., a counterweight of 10 lbs. is necessary, 
 making a total load of 20 lbs. ; but in the case just 
 supposed, 1 lb. balances 10, making a total load of 
 only 11 lbs. The steelyard has, therefore, this 
 advantage over the common B., that the load on the 
 fulcrum, and consequently the friction, is less. On 
 the other hand, however, there is this disadvantage, 
 that the arms of the steelyard bend unequally under 
 the strain of great weights, which in a B. with equal 
 anns cannot, to the same extent, take place. As 
 the steelyard is ordinarily made, the longer arm pre- 
 ponderates when the lever is unloaded, so that the 
 graduation of the longer aim begins at a point 
 between A and C, and not at C. The Danish B. 
 differs from the ordinary steelyard in having the 
 weight fixed to the extremity of the lever, and the 
 fulcrum movable. 
 
 The Bent Lever B. (Fr. 'peson, Ger. Zdgerviage), 
 shewn in fig. 4, is a 
 lever of unequal arms, A c 
 
 A, C, B, moving round 
 the pivot C, having a 
 scale, Q, attached to 
 the shorter arm AC, 
 and a fixed weight, 
 W, to the longer arm ^r / 
 
 CB. The longer arm ^ \ 
 
 ends in a pointer mov- (a # » 
 
 ing in front of a fixed 
 
 graduated arc. When "^IS" \ 
 
 a body is put into the "■ «■■ 
 
 scale, the pointer rises 
 from the bottom or 
 
 Kg. 4. 
 
 zero point of the arc, and rests opposite the mark 
 corresponding to the weight of it. The higher the 
 weight W rises, the longer becomes its effective arm, 
 and the greater must be the weight it balances. 
 The arc is generally graduated experimentally, the 
 geometrical graduation being somewhat complicated. 
 For other weighing apparatus, see Spbing-bai- 
 
 ANCE; WeIGHING-MACHINIS. 
 
 BA'LANCE AND BA'LANCE-SPEING. The 
 
 balance of a watch is a wheel finely poised on 
 its axis ; the pivot-holes in which it turns bein.g 
 frequently — in chronometers and clocks, as weS 
 as in watches — jewelled, or made of small rubies, 
 diamonds, &c., for the sake of durability. The 
 natural effect of an impulse given to such a wheel 
 would be a complete rotation on its axis. This, 
 however, is convertible, by the escapement (q. v.), 
 and by the balance-spring, into a, vibratory motion. 
 The balance-spring is held to be a crowning inven- 
 tion in the mechanism of the watch ; and the 
 honour of its first suggestion has been claimed for 
 no less than three very eminent men — for Dr 
 Hooke, an Englishman ; for Abbg HautefeuiUe, a 
 Frenchman; and for Huygens, the Dutch astron- 
 omer. The honour, however, undoubtedly belongs 
 to Hooke. 
 
 The balance-spring consists of a coil of steel- 
 wire, so delicately manufactured that 4000 of 
 them scarcely weigh more than one ounce, though 
 often costing more than £1000. In its applica- 
 tion to the balance of a watch, one of the extre- 
 mities (e, fig. 1) of the spring is fastened to a 
 point independent of the balance, while the other 
 is attached near its axis. When the balance is 
 at rest, the spring is inclined neither way, this 
 
BALANCE OP POWER— BALANCE OF TEADE. 
 
 position being called the point of rest ; but when 
 the impulse is given to the balance by the crown- 
 wheel of the escapement, the balance 
 moves round just so far as the 
 impulse given is able to overcome 
 \ the elastic resistance of the spring. 
 I When that resistance becomes equal 
 to the impulse given, the balance 
 stops for a moment, and then is 
 driven back by the elastic recoil of 
 Kg. 1. the spring, and continues thus to 
 
 vibrate so long as the impulse is repeated or the 
 watch is in motion. 
 
 The recoil of the spring is sufficient to drive back 
 the balance to a distance nearly double the length 
 of its first motion ; this is, therefore, called the long 
 arc of vibration. But when the motion of the 
 balance is free, with a, certain length of spring, the 
 long arc of vibration is made in less time than the 
 short one, to which the impulse is given : with a 
 spring of greater length this relation is reversed ; 
 whence it was concluded by Le Roy and Berthoud, 
 that equality of time, or uochronism, in unequal 
 vibrations, could be more easily obtained by length- 
 ening the spring than by tapering it. In England, 
 where time-keepers have been brought to their 
 greatest perfection, it is considered that isochronism 
 is most easily attain- 
 able by using the cylin- 
 drical helical spring 
 (s, fig. 2), which is 
 apphed to all marine 
 chronometers. 
 
 An improvement 
 in watches, or rather 
 in chronometers, in- 
 Kg. 2. vented by Mr Dent 
 
 of London, consists in coating the balance and 
 balance-spring with gold by the electro-metaUurgic 
 process, by which means they are secured from 
 rust. 
 
 BA'LANCE OP POWER, an expression used 
 in diplomacy for that state of matters in which 
 no one of the European states is permitted to 
 have such a preponderance as to endanger the 
 independence of the others. This idea is not, 
 as some say, confined to modern times. The Greek 
 states acted upon it by a kind of instinct of self- 
 preservation, though it was not directly formidated. 
 It has, however, becoide more distinctly avowed 
 as a motive of political conduct, and more syste- 
 matically acted upon, since the time of Charles V., 
 whose overgrown power and ambitious designs 
 awakened the other European powers to the danger 
 of such overwhelming preponderance in one state. 
 The motive of preserving the B. of P. came first dis- 
 tinctly into the foreground in those unions which 
 England, Holland, and Austria repeatedly formed 
 against the menacing schemes of Louis XIV. for 
 acquiring the dominion of aU Europe. It was 
 the same cause that broke up the most dangerous 
 (for Louis) of these coaUtions ; for in the war of the 
 Spanish Succession, when the Hapsburg pretender 
 to the Spanish throne became, by the death of 
 Joseph I., sovereign of Austria and Emperor of 
 Germany, and the power which, in the hands 
 of Charles V., had menaced the equUibrium of 
 Europe, was thus likely to be again wielded by 
 one man, England witiidrew from the coaUtion, 
 and thus saved Louis from a decided overthrow. 
 The aggressions of Napoleon called all the powers 
 of Europe to arms against biTn in the name of the 
 B. of P.; and in readjusting the map of Europe, 
 the B. of P. was often invoked to cover the jealousy 
 which resisted not a few claims to restitution of 
 territory. For some time, the B. of P. in Europe 
 
 has been embodied, as it were, in a pentarchy or 
 permanent congress of the five great powers, who 
 mutually watch one another's movements. This 
 mutual jealousy among the leading powers on the 
 score of extension of boundaries, is the great safe- 
 guard of the smaller states, and is the only thing 
 that prevents their absorption by their powerfiu 
 neighbours. It was the dread of a coalition against 
 him among the other powers, which he was not then 
 prepared to resist, that made the Emperor of 
 Russia agree to the treaty of 1841 ; this treaty in 
 some degree moderated that iofluence in Turkey 
 which by private treaties with the sultan he had 
 contrived to raise to a virtual protectorate. The 
 renewed attempt of Russia to extend her dominion, 
 if not territorially, at least poUtically, over Turkey, 
 gave rise (1854), after a lapse of 40 years, to another 
 war on behalf of the Balance of Power. 
 
 BA'LANCE OF TRADE. In the ' mercantile 
 system' of political economy, which looks upon 
 the possession of gold as the grand aim, it not 
 unnaturally came to be a maxim that a nation 
 becomes richer just in proportion as the money- 
 value of its exports exceeds that of its imports; 
 the excess, it was thought, being paid in gold, 
 is just so much added to the national wealth. 
 Now, the difference between the money- value of 
 the exports and imports of a state is called the 
 ' balance of its trade ; ' and by the adherents of the 
 mercantile system, this balance was said to be 
 ' in favour ' of the country or ' against ' it, according 
 as the exports or the imports shewed the excess. 
 
 But this view of the matter rests on a twofold 
 error ; for, in the first place, the increase of 
 national weSlth is by no means to be identified 
 with the immediate influx of hard cash ; nor 
 is gold the highest expression of national wealth, 
 but only a means of turning real wealth, and 
 the faculjy of labour to account. Further, the 
 assumption that excess of exports represents excess 
 of income, is completely false. It takes exports for 
 income (because payment is received for them), 
 imports for expenditure (because they must be paid 
 for), while it would be more consistent with the 
 truth to say that exports are identical with expen- 
 diture, and imports with income ; so that wealth 
 increases in proportion as the value of the imports 
 (what is received) exceeds that of the exports (what 
 is given away) ; and that whether these exports and 
 imports consist solely of goods or partly of money. 
 It may sometimes be desirable to get payment of 
 exports in gold — ^that is, to import bullion. But the 
 case in which this will be beneficial to the mer- 
 chant seeking his own profit in the transaction, will 
 be that in which it will be beneficial to the com- 
 munity. In the majority of cases, however, the 
 iadividual merchant finds it his best policy to lay 
 out the money due to him in a foreign country 
 in purchasing the wares of that country as return- 
 value. The far-sighted Venetians early recognised 
 the truth of the principle in a national point of 
 view ; for, by a law of 1272, they laid a tax of 
 one-fourth the value on the importation of all 
 coined gold and sUver. The mercantile system of 
 political economy, on the contrary, consistently 
 following up the notion of the B. of T., enacted 
 laws prohibiting importation of foreign manufac- 
 tures, or imposing high duties upon them, and giving 
 premiums and other protective encouragements 
 for exportation ; as if it were possible to go on 
 exchanging always for gold only— ever exportmg 
 goods and goods alone, and never importijig any. 
 If this could be, and if it were true that a nation 
 with the B. of T. constantly in its favour must 
 become richer, while, with that balance against it, 
 it must become poorer, England, whose official 
 
BALAOTTS— BALBI. 
 
 returns have for many years exhibited a large excess 
 of exports over imports, must have had at this 
 time about 500 million poimds iu precious metals, 
 while in reality the amount does not exceed perhaps 
 60 millions. The truth is, that no safe conclusion 
 can be drawn from the B. of T. exhibited ia official 
 statements; from the way in which they are 
 arrived at, a great part of the facts of the cases are 
 necessarily left Out. Almost all nations exhibit 
 favourable balances, and how could that be 
 possible, if the whole affair were not deceptive ? 
 In the regular legitimate commerce between two 
 nations, both actually gain, though the gain may 
 not be exhibitable in the form of a money-balance. 
 If the gains of nations from commerce consisted 
 of diflferencea between the amount of exports and 
 of imports to be compensated by balances in money, 
 nearly all nations would be yearly receiving acces- 
 sions of gold and silver, the united amount of which 
 would exceed, by more than ten times, the produce 
 of aU the mines in the world. 
 
 BA'LANUS, a genus of Cirrhopoda (q. v.) ; the 
 type of a family, iucluding aU those cirrhopods 
 which are desl^tute of a flexible stalk, and of which 
 the shell is symmetrical. These characters at 
 once distinguish them from Barnacles (q. v.). In 
 the genus B., the base . is usually formed of a 
 thin calcareous plate, the sides of six valves; and 
 four small valves form the operculum, exactly 
 closiug the aperture at the top. The name (signi- 
 :fying an aoor;i) was origiaaUy given by the ancient 
 G-reeks, from a supposed resemblance of some of 
 the kiuda to acorns ; and acom-sheU has sometimes 
 been adopted as an English name. There are 
 many species, and they are found in almost all seas, 
 attached to stones, timber, shells, crustaceans, &o. 
 They cover the rocks between high and low water- 
 mark on many parts of the coast as with a white 
 calcareous incrustation, so that arithmetic fails in 
 computing, and imagination in conceiving their 
 multitudes. They may, however, be readily passed 
 over as individually objects of httle interest when 
 they are seen after the tide has left them, for then 
 their valves are closed, and they exhibit no sign 
 of life ; but it observed in a pool of the rocks, or 
 anywhere under water,' they present a very 
 different and extremely pleasing spectacle, the 
 opercular valves continually opening and shutting 
 with a quick but pretty regular motion, and an 
 exquisitely delicate apparatus of feathery arms or 
 cirrhi (see Cirrhopoda) being as frequently thrown 
 out and retracted like a hand or a little net, to 
 seize and carry ia to the mouth the minute nutri- 
 tious particles "or very small animals upon which the 
 creature feeds. Thus, the little balani, immovably 
 fixed to the rock, or carried about at the plea- 
 sure of moHusks or crustaceans to which they 
 adhere, obtain their food from the waters around 
 them. 
 
 A remarkable fact in the natural history of 
 these creatures has recently been discovered by 
 Mr Thompson of Cork, that in the earher stages 
 of their existence they are not fixed as iu their 
 adult state, but move about very actively iu a 
 succession of bounds, by means of swimming-feet 
 Kke those of the Cyclops (q. v.) ; having, however, 
 a shell, apparently of two valves, resembling a very 
 minute muscle. StiU more remarkable is the dis- 
 covery made along with this, that iu their early 
 locomotive state they possess large stalked eyes, 
 which disappear along with the organs of locomotion 
 when they attach themselves — probably by the 
 guidance of some peculiar instinct — to their final 
 place of repose, undergoing a transformation into 
 perfect cirrhopods, and acquiring as a covering 
 their many-valved shelL 
 631 
 
 Some of the larger species of B. were esteemed 
 a dehcaoy by the ancient Romans. The Chinese 
 entertain the same estimation of B. iintinndbulum, 
 which is said to resemble lobster in taste ; and B. 
 psitiacus, a South American species, which is in like 
 manner compared to crab, is exported in large 
 quantities from Concepoion de Chili to Valparaiso 
 and Santiago. This species is sometimes almost 
 four inches in diameter, the height considerably 
 more. It is chopped off the rocks with a hatchet. 
 The two posterior opercular valves are beaked, from 
 which it receives the name of Pico, and its scientific 
 trivial name, psittacMS (a parrot). 
 
 BALASO'BE, a seaport in the district of Cuttack 
 and presidency of, Bengal, near the Boorabullung, 
 which enters the sea to the west of the Hoogly or 
 Calcutta Eiver. It is situated in lat. 21° SC N. and 
 long. 87° E., and has dry-docks and a coasting- 
 trade ; but it is entitled to notice chiefly in 
 connection with the past, having been the seat, 
 successively, of Portuguese, Dutch, and Danish 
 factories. It was only in 1846 that the Danes 
 sold their interest in the place to the English. 
 
 BA'LATON, Lake of (Platten-See), a lake, the 
 largest in Hungary, about 55 miles south-west of 
 Pesth. Its extreme length is 48 miles, with a 
 breadth of from 3 to 10 miles, and an estimated 
 area, including its frequently submerged marshes, of 
 420 square mfles. Its greatest depth is 39 feet. It 
 is suppUed by upwards of thirty streams — the chief 
 of which is the Szala — as weU as by numerous 
 springs which rise on its margin. Its outlet is by 
 the Sio, which discharges itself into the Sarvitz, a 
 feeder of the Danube. The waters of B. are clear 
 and transparent, except when they are agitated by 
 a storm, when they assume a bluish colour. They 
 have a slightly brackish taste. Fish of various 
 kinds are found in abundance, and sand impreg- 
 nated with iron, interspersed with which are small 
 garnets, rubies, and other precious stones, is taken 
 from it. Woods and vineyards cover the hjlls which 
 encircle its northern sides, and on its banks near the 
 town of Fured there is a spring of acidulous water. 
 The surrounding country is rich in rare plants and ' 
 mineral treasures, and was the scene of several 
 bloody conflicts during the Hungarian war (1848 — 
 1849). The lake itself figures prominently in the 
 old romantic ballads of the Magyars. 
 
 BALAU'STA. See Berry. 
 
 BA'IiAY, or BA'LAIS, the name now used to dis- 
 tinguish the ruby of a bright rose-colour from the 
 ruby proper, which is of a bright red or cochineal 
 colour, and from the spinelh ruby, which is of a red 
 hue approaching to rose-colour. This last kind of 
 ruby has been recognised only in times which are 
 comparatively modern. In the middle ages, they 
 seem to have known only the B. ruby and the ruby 
 proper, or k beau ruMs, as it was often called. M. 
 de Laborde thinks that the term B. was anciently 
 employed as a name for all sorts of rubies. 
 
 BA'LBI, Adriano, well known by his geographi- 
 cal, and more especially by his statistical works, 
 was born in Venice on the 25th of April 1782. In 
 1808 he gained so much credit in Italy by his first 
 geographical work, that he was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Geography iu the college of San Michele 
 at Murano, and m 1811 Professor of Physics in tibe 
 Lyceum at Fermo. Subsequently he resided for a 
 time in Portugal, and then went to Paris, to super- 
 intend the publication of his Essai Statistique sur 
 le Soyaume de Portugal et d'Algarve (2 vols.. Par. 
 1822). This work was soon followed by the 
 VarUUs Politiques eb Staiiatiquee de la MonaYchie 
 Portugaise (Par. 1822). B. lived in Paris tiU 1832. 
 He was the intimate friend of Malte Brun, from 
 
BALBI— BALCONY. 
 
 whose papers he, jointly with Iiarenaudifere and 
 Huot, published the TraM Mimentaire de OSogra- 
 phie (2 vols., Par. 1830—1834). He also published 
 several works of comparative national statistics. 
 His Adas EthnograpMqm du Globe (Par. 1826) 
 is distinguished by its extensive accumulation of 
 facts and views, giving an account of German 
 researches on the subject, and entering into questions 
 of comparative philology. B.'s best known work is, 
 however, the Abr4g4 de GiograpMe (3d edition. 
 Par. 1838), which has been translated into several 
 languages. In the year 1832 he returned to Italy, 
 ana settled at Padua, where he died 14th March 
 1848. A collection of his Scriiti Qeograjki was 
 made by Eugene Balbi (5 vols., Turin, 1841— 1842)i 
 
 BA'LBI, Gasp ABO, a Venetian merchant of the 
 16th c, who is worthy of mention as the first tra- 
 veller who has left an account of India beyond the 
 Granges. In the pursuit of his oaUing, B. was often 
 led to Aleppo, and from thence, on one occasion, he 
 made a visit to India, which lasted several years. 
 After his return to Venice, he published, iu 1590, the 
 results of his travels in a volume entitled Viaggio 
 all' Indie Orientali. A Latin translation was printed 
 in De Bry's Collection of Voyages and Travels to the 
 East Indies, published at Frankfort in 159j0— 1594. B. 
 appears to have set down, without exaggeration, all 
 that he himself saw, and is particularly minute and 
 exact concerning commercial matters; but there is 
 scarcely any limit to his credulity with regard to 
 what he heard from others about the country. Prom 
 Aleppo, his journey was down the Euphrates uutU 
 opposite Bagdad; thence down the Tigris to Bas- 
 Borah, where he embarked for the Malabar coast. 
 Having visited Goa and Cochin, and other Portu- 
 guese settlements, he sailed for Pegu, then an inde- 
 pendent empire, where he remamed two years, 
 returning by the same route. The most iateresting 
 part of ms narrative is that relating to Pegu. 
 
 BALBI'NtrS, DBCmros Gaiiaus, one of the two 
 emperors of Rome whom the senate elected on hear- 
 ing of the death of the elder Gordianus, and his son, 
 in Africa, in opposition to Maximinus, who had the 
 support of the legions in Germany. He was cele- 
 brated as an orator and a poet, and was a man of 
 mild disposition. His coadjutor, Marcus Clodius 
 Pupienus Maximus, was a bold and resolute soldier 
 who had risen from the people. They had only 
 reigned a few months, during which time Maximinus 
 had been killed by his own soldiers, who after- 
 wards submitted to Maximus, when they were both 
 killed in 242 A. D. by the praetorians, who at that 
 time were animated by bitter hostility to the 
 ,eivilians, and extended it to the rulers who had been 
 elected by them. 
 
 BA'LBO, C^SAEB, an Italian statesman and 
 author, was bom 21st November 1789 at Turin. 
 When 18 years old, B., whose father had enjoyed 
 the patronage of Napoleon, was appointed auditor of 
 the Council of State in Paris, and in 1812 he was 
 made commissioner for the ULyrian provinces, ceded 
 to Prance by the Peace of Vienna. After the fall of 
 Napoleon, B. went to London as secretary of the 
 Sardinian embassy. After leaving poHtical affairs, he 
 devoted himself to the study of history, and among 
 other works produced during the years 1821 — 1843, 
 were a History of Italy, which, however, extended 
 only to the reign- of Charlemagne ; and a translation 
 with commentary of Leo's Development of the Gonsti- 
 tuHon of the Lomhardic Tovms. His Speranze d' Italia 
 ('Hopes of Italy'), published in 1843, first extended 
 his literary reputation to foreign countries. One of 
 its main objects was to prove that national inde- 
 pendence must precede the enjoyment of constitu- 
 tional liberty; and that to strive after the latter, 
 
 however good in itself, so long as the former had 
 not been secured, was both foolish and reprehen- 
 sible. It gave a vivid and intelligent picture of the 
 political condition of Italy, its auns and prospects. 
 His compendium of Itahan histoiy {Delia Storia 
 d' Italia, &o.) was ijlso successful, B. took a promi- 
 nent part as a moderate liberal in the political move- 
 ments of 1847 — 1848, and subsequently supported 
 the ministry of Azeglio. He died 3d June 1853. 
 He was a man of strict morality and unspotted 
 character. In all his writings, B. adhered strongly 
 to the Eoman Catholic Church, whose truth ne 
 conceived to be the healing of nations as well as of 
 individuals, and the only source of true culture. 
 
 BALBO'A, Vasoo Nxjnez db, a Spanish con- 
 queror, was bom of a noble but reduced family at 
 Xeres-de-CabaUeros in 1475. After leading rather a 
 dissolute life in his youth, he gladly took part in the 
 great mercantile expedition of Rodrigo de Bastidas 
 to the New World. He established himself in St 
 Domingo, and began to cultivate the soil; but for- 
 tune proving adverse, in order to escape from his 
 creditors, he had himself smuggled on board a ship, 
 and joined the expedition to JDarien in 1510, com- 
 manded by Francisco de Enciso. It is curious to 
 reflect that the man destined to -discover the 
 eastern shores of the largest ocean on the globe, 
 should have been compelled to secret himself in a 
 cask before he could share in the new enterprise. 
 An insurrection which took place obtained for B. 
 the supreme command in the new colony. Confused 
 accounts which reached him of a great western 
 ocean, impelled him, in 1513, to set out in quest 
 of it. On the 25th of September of this year, he 
 obtained the first sight of the Pacific Ocean from a 
 mountain-top in the Isthmus of Panama. His natu- 
 ral enthusiasm at this great discovery was shared by 
 aU the educated men of his time, and the descrip- 
 tions of it by contemporary authors may stiU be 
 read with much interest. The governorship of the 
 territories conquered by B. was obtained in 1514 by 
 Pedrarias Davila, by means of his intrigues at the 
 Spanish court. B. resigned the command into the 
 hands of the new governor, a narrow-minded and 
 cruel man, and, in a subordinate situation, under- 
 took many successful expeditions ; but these, and all 
 his other merits, only served to increase the hatred of 
 Pedrarias Davila towards him. The government 
 of the mother-country sought in vain to mediate 
 between them, and B. even married the daughter of 
 Pedrarias. But on the first occasion of dispute which 
 arose, B., having been induced by Pedrarias to 
 deliver himself up, was accused of a design to rebel, 
 and in violation of all forms of justice was beheaded 
 at Santa Maria in 1517. 
 
 BALBRI'GGAN, a small maritime town in 
 Dublin county, 22 'miles north of Dublin. It is 
 a seat of cotton, calico, and stocking manufactures. 
 The cotton stockings made here are remarkable 
 for fineness of texture and beauty of open work. 
 Many females are employed in embroidering mus- 
 Hns. B. is a favourite watering-place. After the 
 battle of the Boyne, WiUiam encamped here. Pop. 
 (1851), 2310. 
 
 BA'LCONY, or BALCO'NY (Ital. Balcone), a 
 projecting gallery in front of a window or of several 
 windows, with a balustrade or parapet before it, and 
 supported by consoles, or brackets fixed in the wall, 
 or by pillars resting on the ground below. The B. 
 was unknown in Greek and Roman architecture, 
 and is probably an Itahan Contrivance, as the earliest 
 examples of it occur in Italy, to the climate of which 
 country it is peculiarly adapted. Balconies con- 
 structed of wood are of constant occurrence in the 
 
BALCONY— BALDNESS. 
 
 cottage arcliiteoture of Switzerland, to the picturesque 
 character of which they add very essentially. 
 
 Balcony. 
 
 BA'LCONY, the gallery or stem-walk outside the 
 stern of a large ship. Three-deckers have two such 
 balconies, and two-deckers one. Where there are 
 two, the lowermost is connected with the admiral's 
 state-cabin, and the uppermost with the captain's 
 cabin. 
 
 BAXDACHIN (Ital. BaldacUno), signifies a kind 
 of canopy, of the form of a tent or umbrella, made 
 of costly materials and richly adorned, which is 
 either supported on pillars, or fastened to the wall 
 over a throne or couch, or over a pulpit, an altar, or 
 other sacred object. One of the most celebrated is 
 the B. in the chiurch of St Peter's in Bome, cast in 
 bronze by Bernini, which is supported on iova large 
 twisted columns. B. was also the name formerly 
 given to a kind of lunbreUa of a square form, made 
 of silk brocade or other rich material, and supported 
 on four poles, which was wont to be carried in the 
 middle ages at solemn processions, coronations, 
 marriages, &c., over the heads of royal personages 
 or high dignitaries as a symbol of their rank. In 
 Europe, the B. is now chiefly used in the processions 
 of the Roman Cathohc Church. It is generally 
 borne over the priest who carries the Host. ■ The 
 word B., as well as the thing itself, comes from the 
 east. Partly as a protection from the burning rays 
 of the sun, partly as a symbol of their power and 
 digruty. tte rulers and great personages of the east 
 seldom appeared in pubUo, whether on foot or on 
 horseback, in a litter or on an elephant, without a 
 splendid canopy, often bome by the great men or 
 chief officers of their kingdom. These canopies, 
 generally made in the form of a tent or umbrella, 
 were often sent, in the early part of the middle 
 ages, as presents from eastern princes to those in 
 the west ; as, for example, from the Cahf Haroun- 
 al-Baschid to Charlemagne. During the Crusades 
 and the consequent trade with the east, they 
 became well known to the Itahans. Such canopies, 
 as well as the rich stuffs of which they were made 
 were called, from the land whence they came, Baby- . 
 lonica ; and also Baldachins, from Baldach, the 
 eastern name of the city of Bagdad. 
 
 BA'LDER, or BA'LDIIR, a, divinity worshipped 
 by the ancient Scandinavians, and probably also 
 by the other Germanic nations, is the hero of one 
 
 63Q 
 
 of the most beautiful and interesting of the myths 
 of the Edda. B., who, according to old northern 
 mythology, was the second son of Odin and Erigga, 
 and the husband of Nanna (maiden), dreamed evil 
 dreams which threatened his life. When he related 
 them to the gods, they held a council and endea- 
 voured to secure his safety. Frigga took an oath 
 from fire and water, from iron and aU metals, from 
 stones, earth, and plants, beasts and birds, the 
 serpent, poison and all diseases, that they would 
 not harm Balder. After this was done, the gods 
 in their mirth sported with B., wrestled with him, 
 and cast darts at him, but nothing could injure him. 
 While the gods rejoiced at this, the thing displeased 
 Loki (mischievous cunning or destructive fire). He 
 changed himself into the form of an old woman, 
 and inquiring the cause of the invulnerability of 
 B., was told by Frigga that all things, animate and 
 inanimate, had sworn not to harm him, with the 
 exception of one little shrub, the misletoe. Loki 
 went in haste to fetch this shrub, and repaired 
 with it to the assembly of the gods, where he 
 placed it in the hands of the blind Hbder, the god 
 of war, directed his aim, and B. fell pierced to the 
 heart. The sorrow of the gods was unutterable. 
 Frigga asked who, to win her favour, would journey 
 to Hel — the goddess of Hades or the grave — ^to 
 release Balder. Hermoder or Hehnod (the heroic), 
 the son of Odin, readily offered his services, and Hel 
 consented to grant his request on condition that aU 
 things should weep for Balder. AU men, aU living 
 beings, and all things wept, save the witch or 
 giantess Thiiok (the step-daughter of Loki), who 
 refused to sympathise in the general mourning. B. 
 was therefore obliged to remain in the kingdom of 
 Hel until the end of the world. 
 
 The myths of B. have been very differently 
 inteiTireted. B., as the originator of aU that is 
 beneficent and good — for B. and the other eons of 
 Odin (see Scanddtaviaii Mythology) are only 
 personified aspects or functions of the dimly con- 
 ceived one unseen Power that moves aU nature — is 
 represented as a hero of so lovely and graceful a 
 manly beauty, that a briUiant light streams from 
 his person ; the whitest of the northern flowers is 
 named Balders-hrow. As the god of peace of the 
 Germanic nations, who conducts to peace through 
 battle and victory, he is a purely ethical conception, 
 a mythical personification of the peace obtainable 
 through conflict, and agreed to by compact^ among 
 the gods. The gods, foreseeing doubtless that 
 peace cannot long endure, seek in every possible 
 way to secure the precious life of B., as even the 
 weakest and most insignificant have it in their 
 power to destroy peace. Loki, in his symbolical 
 character as the god of retributive justice, stirs up 
 Hoder, or War, through whom the god of peace 
 faUs. Hoder, indeed, is also slain by WaU, or 
 Val-fader, the battle-god, and the war is ended by 
 a bloody overthrow ; but once violated and broken, 
 peace is irrevocably lost along with Balder. Her- 
 moder or Hehnod labours in vain to restore it, 
 for the giantess Thock (retaliation, revenge) pre- 
 vents it. Holy and true peace can only revive 
 again in a new world, when the old sinful world 
 and the old guUt-stained gods now ruling it shaJl 
 have been destroyed. — Others (among them Max 
 MuUer) see in the myth of B. a representation of the 
 contest between Winter and Summer. Compare 
 Weiuhold Die Sagen von Loki, in Haupt's ZeUs&irift 
 fur Deuiches AUerthum (Leip. 1849). 
 
 BA'LDNESS (alopeda). See Haib. There are 
 some rare cases on record in which the hair has 
 never been developed. This is termed congenital 
 baldness. 
 
 Accidental baldness may involve the whole scalp, 
 
BALDO— BALDWIN II. 
 
 or may be only in patches ; theae patches may run 
 into each other, and hence some consider this con- 
 dition a species of ringworm. It is caused, says 
 Mr Erasmus Wilson, by an atrophy of the hair- 
 foUioles, (q. v.). B. in the comparatively young and 
 midd.le-aged may occur from wearing waterproof 
 caps, wmoh, by preventing evaporation from the 
 head, occasion an unhealthy state of sldn. Naval 
 and military officers are liable to B. arising from this 
 cause. 
 
 Senile baldness (oalvities) is not necessarily 
 the consequence of age — it may arise, like the 
 preceding variety, from an atrophy of those parts 
 on which the hairs depend for nutrition. It gener- 
 ally commences on the crown of the head, where 
 the supply of blood is naturally less abundant. 
 Women have a greater quantity of soft tissue under 
 the skin, therefore the vessels are less likely to be 
 interfered with; hence they are not so frequently 
 bald as men. 
 
 The causes of B. are the -defective supply of 
 nutrition just mentioned, a family tendency, late 
 hours, dissipation, but especially old age. The hair 
 falls oflf after severe illnesses, or after other causes 
 of general debility. During pregnancy the hair falls 
 out ; and in this countiy we often see the long hair 
 of young women, victims to consumption, iSmost 
 completely shed. 
 
 Treatment of haldness consists in attention to 
 cleanliness, and in exciting the languid circulation 
 of the scalp to greater activity, by using a hard 
 hair-brush, and the application of stimmauts, as 
 the Splnish-fly ointment in the proportion of two 
 drachms to an oimoe of lard mixed with about the 
 same quantity of pomatum. Or the stimulants may 
 be applied in the form of lotions. But at the same 
 time constitutional debility should be remedied by 
 attention to the various fimctions of the body; 
 tonics should be administered; and, if possible, 
 causes of anxiety or night-watching should be 
 avoided. Shaving the ■miole head is sometimes 
 resorted to. If these remedies are successful, downy 
 white hair, like that of an infant, begins to grow, 
 which may or may not acquire the colour and 
 vigorous appearance of the former growth. 
 
 BA'LDO, Mo'nte, a mountain of Lombardy, on 
 the east of Lake Gjlrda, with an elevation of 7100 
 feet. It contains interesting petrifactions, and the 
 fine green sand known as the sand of Verona. 
 
 BA'LDRICK, or BAU'DRICK (Fr. Baudrier), 
 is a band or sash worn partly as a military and 
 
 Baldrick. 
 
 partly as a heraldic symbol. It passes round the 
 waist as a girdle, or passes over the left shoulder, 
 and is brou^t down obliquely under the right arm, 
 or is suspended from the right shoulder in such 
 a way as -^o sustaia a sword. Many of the effigies 
 of knights contain representations of the B., more 
 
 frequently as a belt than a shoulder-sash. Queen 
 Victoria frequently wears a blue silken B. on state 
 occasions. The name is derived from the balteus of 
 the Roman soldier. 
 
 BA'LDIJNG, Hans, called also Hans Griin, a 
 German painter and wood engraver, a contemporary 
 of Albert Durer, to whom, in expression, colouring, 
 and finish, he was little inferior as a painter. He 
 was bom in Gmiind, Swabia, about 1470, and died 
 at Strasburg in 1552. His master-piece, a painting 
 of the Crucifixion, is in the cathedral of Freiburg ; 
 his wood engravings are mmierous. 
 
 BA'LDWIN I., the first Latin emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, was bom at Valenciennes in 1171 A.D., 
 his parents being Baldwin, Count of Hainault, and 
 Margaret, Countess of Flanders. In 1193, he suc- 
 ceeded to his mother's possessions, and iu the year 
 following, to the title and county of his father. In 
 1200, he appointed his brother Philip, along with 
 other persons, to the regency of Hainault and 
 Flanders, and joined the fourth Crusade. Part of the 
 Crusaders — B. among others — ^were induced to assist 
 the Venetians in reconquering Zara, in Dalmatia, 
 from the king of Hungary. While at Zara, the 
 young Alexis, son of Isaac II., emperor of Constan- 
 tiaople, craved the assistance of the Crusaders 
 against his uncle Alexis Angelus, who, having 
 deposed and blinded Isaac II., had usurped the 
 throne. In return for their aid, he promised them 
 a liberal sum of money, and also to help them to 
 recover Palestiue. The Crusaders agreed, and soon 
 defeated the usurper's forces, and restored the right- 
 ful emperor; but Alexis having some difficulty in 
 carrying out his promises, they turned their arms 
 against him. A revolution breaking out in the 
 city at the same time, Alexis the younger was 
 murdered, and his father is said to have died of 
 grief. Alexis Ducas Murzuphlus then usiixped the 
 throne, but was defeated by the Crusaders, and the 
 city was sacked — the Crusaders and Venetians 
 sharing the booty. B. was chosen emperor, and 
 crowned on the 9th May 1204; but he received 
 only ab6ut a foiuiih part of the empire — Constan- 
 tiuople' and Thrace — the Venetians obtaining the 
 greater share of the provinces. A part also fell 
 to the French adventurers who accompanied the 
 expedition, and several provinces remaiued in the 
 hands of Greek princes. The abilities of B. — and 
 they appear to have been of a superior character — 
 were not able to cope with the evils necessarily 
 attending so anomalous a position. The Greeks 
 were discontented, and, backed by Calo- Joannes, 
 king of Bulgaria, while B.'s brother, with the flower 
 of his troops, was away on an expedition in Asia, 
 they rose and massacred the Latins scattered 
 throughout the towns of Thrace, and made them- 
 selves masters of Adrianople. B. laid siege to 
 the town with the forces he had at his disposal; 
 but he was defeated and taken prisoner by the 
 Bulgarian king, and died about a year after (1206) 
 in captivity. He was succeeded by his brother 
 Henry. 
 
 BA'LDWIN II., emperor of Constantinople, was 
 bom in 1217. He was the son of Peter de Courtenay 
 and Yolanda, Countess of Flanders, sister of 
 Baldwin I. Beiug but 11 years old when, by the 
 death of his'bromer Kobert, he succeeded to the 
 throne, he was placed imder the guardianship 
 of John of Brienne, titular long of Jerusalem, 
 who died about 1237. B. then assumed the rod 
 of empire, but he had neither the means nor the 
 ability to wield it successfully against his power- 
 ful Greek and Bulgarian opponente. Two begging- 
 visits to Western Europe, in one of which he 
 left his son Philip iu J)ledge at Venice for a 
 
 637 
 
BAliDWm 1-BALPE. 
 
 debt, and disposed of several most holy relics for 
 money, were not successful in procuring Mm suf- 
 ficient forces to resist his foes ; and on the night 
 of the 15th of July 1261, his capital was taken 
 by one of the generals of Michael PalsBologus, ruler 
 of Nicaea, and B. fled to Italy. With him termin- 
 ated the Latin Empire in the Bast, after it had 
 lasted 57 years. His descendants for more than 
 a century retained the title of emperor. 
 
 BALDWIN I., king of Jerusalem, 1100—1118, 
 was born in 1058. Ife was the youngest brother 
 of Godfrey de Bouillon (q. v.), Duke of Lower 
 Lorraine or Brabant. He took part in the first 
 Crusade ; but having quarrelled with Tancred, he 
 retired to Edessa, at the request of the Christian 
 inhabitants of the place, and was soon after elected 
 to be Count of Edessa. After the death of his 
 brother Godfrey, in 1100, he became Protector of 
 the Holy Sepulchre, and Baron of Jerusalem, and 
 immediately assumed the regal title, which his 
 brother had refused. He conquered Csesarea, 
 Ashdod, and TripoUs, and with the assistance 
 of a Genoese fleet, he became master also of 
 Acre, and subsequently of Sidon, but failed to 
 reduce Asoalon. He died in 1118. Unlike his 
 brother, who was a disinterested enthusiast, B. was 
 worldly and ambitious. — Baidwdt IL (Baldwin du 
 Bourg), cousin of Baldwin I., who had made him 
 Count of Edessa when he ascended the throne 
 of Jerusalem, succeeded him, and reigned from 
 1118 to 1131. During his reign Tyre was taken, 
 in, 1124, with the assistance of a Venetian fleet; 
 and the order of the Templars was instituted. 
 Having been taken prisoner by the Turks, B. 
 endured a captivity of six months. He died on 
 the 21st of August 1131, leaving four daughters. 
 Shortly before his death he resigned the crown 
 in favour of his son-in-law, Foulquei of Aqjou, 
 who reigned till 1134. — ^Baldwin III., king of 
 Jerusalem, 1143 — 1162, the son and successor of 
 Eoi^lques of Anjou, was bom in 1129. He was 
 a model of kmghthood, which, during the period 
 of the first Crusades, was a personification of 
 Honour, Justice, Devotion, and Love. Edessa 
 was lost to the Christians during his reign. 
 In 1152, he fought victoriously at Jerusalem 
 against Noureddin, the sultan of Aleppo. In 
 1157, after he had defeated the same prince at 
 Jacob's Ford, on the Jordan, he agaia humbled 
 him severely near Putaha. After this, he ruled 
 in peace, and endeavoured to improve both the 
 external and internal defences of his kingdom. 
 The authority and influence of B. were so great, 
 that even Saracens followed under him the banner 
 of the Cross. By his marriage with Theodora, 
 the daughter of the Greek Emperor Manuel, he 
 gained a faithftd ally in that prince. He died, it is 
 beheved, of poison, in the flower of his age, at 
 TripoHs, in Syria, on the 10th of February 1162. 
 With his death the Christian power in the east 
 began to decline. He was succeeded in the govern- 
 ment by his brother Amahic or Amaury, who died 
 in 1173. — Baldwin IV., the son and successor 
 of Amabic, sumamed the Leper, reigned till 1183. — 
 When a child of 5 years old, Baldwin V., the 
 son of Sybdla, sister of Baldwin IV., was called 
 to the throne. He died in 1187, a year before 
 Jerusalem was retaken by Saladiu. 
 
 BA'LDWIN'S PHO'SPHOEXTS is a term ap- 
 plied to the nitrate of hme, which, on evaporation, 
 parts with its water of crystallisation, and then, as 
 discovered by Baldwin in 1675, assumes a luminous 
 appearance in the dark. 
 
 BALE, John, Bishop of Ossoiy, in Ireland, was 
 
 638 
 
 bom at the village of Cove, in Suffolk, in November 
 1495. He was educated as a Carmehte monk, but 
 aftenvards turned Protestant, and, being persecuted 
 by the Eoman Catholics, fled to Flanders, where he 
 remained eight years, during which he wrote numer- 
 ous works. He was recalled hj Edward VL, and 
 successively presented to the living of Bishopstoke, 
 m Hampshire, and the bishopric of Ossoi-y. In this 
 latter sphere he made himself so obnoxious to the 
 CathoUos by his zeal in the Protestant cause, that 
 on news of the death of Edward, his house was 
 attacked, and five of his servants kiUed. He him- 
 self escaped out of the country after great difficulty, 
 and the loss of all his effects. On the accession of 
 Elizabeth he returned to England, and was made a 
 prebend in the Cathedral of Canterbury. He died 
 in 1563. His fame mainly rests on a collection of 
 British Biography, which, notwithstanding that 
 sections of a book are not uufrequently set down in 
 it as distinct works, and that the names of persons 
 who never wrote anything are set down as authors, 
 is a valuable work. It was first pubHshed in 1548 
 under the title of Illustrium Majoris Brittania 
 ScnpUmim, hoc est, Anglioe, Oambrice, et Scotia 
 Summarium. 
 
 BALE. See Basel. 
 
 BALEA'RIC ISLES, a group of five islands— 
 Mallorca (Majorca), Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, 
 Cabrera — ^lying off the coast of Valencia, in lat. 38° 4' 
 —40° 5' N., and long. 1°— 5° E. They at one time 
 formed the kingdom of MaUoroa, which was united 
 in 1289 with the crown of Aragon. They now form 
 a Spanish province, and have unitedly an area of 
 1753 square miles, with a population; in 1857, of 
 266,952. The soil generally is good. Vines, ohves, 
 and other fruit-trees are cultivated abundantly; but 
 com has to be importei The coasts are precipitous, 
 with some excellent harbours — ^Port Mahon, in 
 Minorca, being one of the finest in Europe. The Phoe- 
 nicians visited the B. I. at a very early date, and 
 they were followed by the Greeks, from one or other 
 of whom they are said to have received their name. 
 If from the Phoenicians, the name is derived from a 
 Phcenician word equivalent to the Greek gmrnietas, 
 signifying light-armed troops; if from the Greeks, 
 then it is from ballein, to throw, and was given 
 because of the expertness of the natives in using 
 the sling, to the use of which they were trained 
 from their infancy. Later, the B. I. became sub- 
 ject to Carthage; but after a short period of free- 
 dom, during wmoh their inhabitants became pirates, 
 were annexed to the Boman empire by MeteUua 
 {Balearicus), 123 B.C. From that tame their history 
 is involved in that of the peninsula. See Spain. 
 
 BA'LE-FIRB. See Beacon. 
 
 BALFE, Michael William, an English com- 
 poser of operas, &c., was born May 15, 1808, in 
 Dublin. His musical talent received early culture, 
 and several anecdotes are related of his singular 
 precocity, which, it true, are all the more wonderful, 
 from, the fact that B., though a brilliant and popu- 
 lar composer, is not considered remarkably original. 
 When only seven years old, he played publicly one 
 of Viotti's concertos for the viohn. At nine, he wrote 
 the ballad entitled Tlie Lover's Mistake, which 
 achieved popularity through the singing of Madam 
 Vestris. At sixteen, he made his debut in London, 
 at the Drury Lane Theatre, as conductor of the 
 orchestra. In 1825, he left this situation, in order 
 to visit Italy, where he began his successful career 
 as a composer, with music for the ballet La Pey 
 rouse, performed at the Theatre La Soala, in Milan. 
 In 1827, he returned to the stage, and sang in 
 the Italian Opera at Paris, where, in concert with 
 
BAIPOTTR-BALIOL. 
 
 Malibran and Sontag, he gained great applause, and 
 manjr warm friends, who seemed to think it their 
 principal duty in life to lend the young Irishman as 
 much money as he wanted. He, however, returned 
 to Italy, and devoted himself to composition, 
 producing in rapid succession the operas— / iiliuaK 
 (1830), Un Amertimento (1832), Mnrico IV. (1834), 
 Assedio di La-Rochdle (1835), Manon Lescaut 
 (written for MaUbran, 1836), C. Qrey (1837), La 
 Dame VoiUe and Falstaff (1838), Jeanne d'Arc 
 (1839), Keolanthe (1840), and the Bohemian Oirl 
 (1844). This last opera is one of the few Endish 
 compositions which have been popular in Ger- 
 many. The Bondman was produced, with some 
 success, in 1846; but failed to excite permanent 
 interest. A few years ago appeared 3%e Hose of 
 Castile, an opera which acqiiired a large measiire 
 of temporary popvdarity through the delightful 
 singing of Miss Louisa Pyne, the principal member 
 of the Enghsh operatic company. As a composer, 
 B., as we have hinted, is little more than an imitator 
 (chiefly of Auber), and has no true creative genius ; 
 but Ms opera airs, and other vocal music, are 
 extremely singable, and afford such opportunities of 
 display as singers seem to be fond of. 
 
 BALFOU'R, Sm Jambs, Lord President of the 
 Court of Session, and author of an able book, Practichs 
 of Scots Law, was a sou of Sir Michael Balfour of 
 Pittendreich and Montquhany, in Kfeshire. In 
 early life he was impUcated in the conspiracy against 
 Cardinal Beaton, and being in the Castle of St 
 Andrews when it surrendered, in 1547, he was 
 carried prisoner to Prance in the same vessel with 
 Jolm Knox. About two years after, returning to 
 Scotland along with other of his fellow-prisoners, he 
 changed his reUgion, his apostasy gaining for him 
 the appellation of the 'Blasphemous Balfour' from 
 Knox, but unusual honours and emoluments from 
 the queen and court. B. was sagacious enough to 
 notice the increasing influence of Bothwell, and he 
 immediately insinuated himself into his confidence, 
 joined the conspiracy for the assassination of 
 Damley, and framed the bond for mutual support, 
 signed by the conspirators. He was afterwards 
 accused by Lord Lennox as an accomplice in the 
 murder of Damley, but the trial was hurried over 
 before proof of his guilt could be brought forward. 
 In 1567, at the instance of BothweU, he was 
 appointed governor of Edinburgh Castle; and he 
 repaid the kindness of that nobleman and the queen, 
 by handing over to the confederate lords the cele- 
 brated , letters upon which they endeavoured to 
 found Mary's guilt, and which had been given him 
 by Bothwell for safe custody. He afterwards sur- 
 rendered the Castle to Murray, on certain conditions, 
 in which his own safety and interests were the chief 
 considerations. The great object of B.'s life appears 
 to have been seH-aggrandisement, without regard 
 to the means by which that was accompHshed. 
 Aeisordihgly, we find >iiTn the recipient of favours 
 under the regency, as he was under the queen. 
 He was made a privy-counciUor, Commendator of 
 the Priory of Pittenweem; and in exchange for the 
 clerk-registiy, he received the Lord Presidentship 
 of the Court of Session, and a pension of £500. 
 When Morton was made regent, B. contrived to 
 curry favour with him, and received from him a 
 commission to make a general cUgest of the law. 
 Not feeling himself safe in Scotland, however, he 
 left it for Prance, where he remained for some time. 
 When the young king ascended the throne, he 
 joined the party hostile to Morton, but again fled 
 to Prance, when in 1579 Morton recovered his 
 authority. In 1580 he returned, and was instru- 
 mental in obtaining Morton's death, by producing 
 the deed compassing the murder of Bamley, which 
 
 that nobleman, along with others, had signed. He 
 died in 1583. 
 
 BALFRTJ'SH (or more correctly BARPURU'SH, 
 ' mart of burdens '), an important commercial town 
 in the Persian province of Mazanderan, and situ- 
 ated on the river Bahbul, about twelve miles from 
 its mouth in the Caspian Sea. The river, which 
 is here about fifty yards broad, but shallow, is 
 crossed by a fine stone-bridge of eight arches. It is 
 not navigated, aU goods being landed at the port of 
 Mesh-heoi-Ser, on the Caspian, from whence they 
 are conveyed to B. by an excellent road. To the 
 south of the town there is an artificial island, about 
 half a mile in circumference, on which the palace 
 of Shah Abbas formerly stood. B. has excellent 
 bazaars, and several Mohammedan colleges ; the 
 population is variously estimated at from 50,000 
 to 200,000. The latter estimate was made by 
 Praser, who visited it in 1822, since which time it 
 has been greatly depopulated by plague and cholera. 
 Plax and cotton are much cultivated in the vicinity. 
 
 BA'LI, or BA'LLY, an island to the east of Java, 
 about 70 miles long by 35 broad. With an area of 
 1500 square miles, it contains a population of about 
 700,000, being 466 inhabitants to a square mile. 
 It is said to differ from the other islands of the 
 Indian archipelago in shewing a majority of Hindus 
 and a predominance of Hinduism. Like the islands 
 generally in every section of the archipelago, from 
 the Philippines to Sumatra inclusive, B. is volcanic 
 — its highest mountain, with an elevation of 11,326 
 feet, having been an active volcano as late as 1843. 
 The Dutch have a settlement in Badong, the chief 
 of the eight states into which the island is sub- 
 divided, and many Chinese are to be found in the 
 seaports. The lat. and long, of Badong harbour are 
 8° 42' S., and 116° 33' E. 
 
 BA'LIOL, JoHJT, Lord of Galloway, and after- 
 wards King of Scotlaot), was bom in 1259, and on 
 the death of the Princess Margaret in 1290, became 
 a competitor for the crown of Scotland. As the 
 grandson of the eldest daughter of David Earl of 
 Huntingdon, brother of WUham the Lion, his claim 
 was pronounced superior to that of the other 
 principal competitor, Kobert Bruce, Lord of Annan- 
 dale, son of the second daughter. The arbiter on 
 the occasion was Edward I. of England, who found 
 this a fit opportunity for asserting his claim as lord- 
 paramount of Scotland. That daim was acknow- 
 ledged by the Scottish estates in submitting the 
 contest to his decision; and, consistently with 
 this ignominious submission, B., before and after 
 receiving the crown (November 30, 1292), swore 
 fealty to Edward as his feudal superior. He was 
 soon made to feel that his sovereignty was merely 
 nominal, and, abject as he had shewn himself, the 
 indignities which he experienced at length roused 
 him to an assertion of his rights as king. In 1295 
 he took upon him, by the advice of his nobles, to 
 conclude an alliance with Prance, then at war with 
 England. This act of revolt was followed by speedy 
 chastisement. Edward invaded Scotland with a 
 large force; defeated the Scottish troops; took B. 
 prisoner, ^nd compelled him, after performing a 
 humOiating penance, formally to surrender his 
 crown, July 2, 1296. B. was confined for three 
 years in the Tower, enjoying, however, a limited 
 freedom, and something of royal state. At the end 
 of that time he was permitted to retire to his 
 patrimonial estates in Normandy, where he died in 
 1314, a short time after the battle of Bannockbum. 
 The estimate by his subjects of this unfortunate and 
 poor-spirited prince was significantly indicated by 
 the surname of ' Toom Tabard,' or Empty Jacket. 
 
 BA'LIOL, Edward, son of John, makes himself 
 
BALISTA— fiAtilZE. 
 
 momentarUy conspicuous in history by jbia daring 
 and successful invasion of Scotland, then under the 
 regency of Randolph, Earl of Moray, in 1332. Accom- 
 panied by some English noblemen bent on recover- 
 iag their forfeited estates in Scotland, he landed 
 with a few hundred followers at Kinghom, in Eife- 
 shire; defeated the Earl of Fife ; pushed boldly into 
 the country ; and on Dupphu Moor, in Perthshire, 
 routed with immense slaughter an army upwards 
 of ten times more niunerous than his own. On the 
 24th of September, seven weeks from the date of 
 his landing, he was crowned king of Scotland at 
 Scone. He had only enjoyed the kingly dignity for 
 about three months, when he was surprised in his 
 camp at Annan, and nearly lost his life as well as 
 the crown he had so recently assumed. His sub- 
 sequent career is the very reverse of what might 
 have been anticipated from so adventurous a begin- 
 ning, being marked only by weakness, serviHty, and 
 misfortune. He died at Doncaster in 1363, and' with 
 him ended the house of Baliol. 
 
 BALI'STA, orBALLI'STA (Gr. ballein, to throw), 
 was one among the larger kinds of military weapons 
 in use before the invention of gunpowder. The B., 
 the catapulta, the scorpion, and the onager, propelled 
 large and heavy missiles, chiefly through the 
 reaction of a tightly-twisted rope of hemp, flax, cat- 
 gut, sinew, or hair ; or else by a violent movement of 
 levers. The scorpion was a kind of large crow-bar ; 
 the B. threw stones ; the catapulta threw heavy 
 darts or arrows, and was somewhat smaller than the 
 Bahsta. One man could manage the scorpion, but 
 two or more were needed for the B. or the catapidta. 
 There was a good deal of mechanism necessary to 
 bring about the propulsive force. The makers of 
 
 BaUsta. 
 
 those machines were very particular in the choice of 
 women's hair, the sinews of a bidl's neck, and the 
 tendons of the deer, wherewith to fashion the elastic 
 cord. The onager was a kind of B., which threw a 
 stone by the agency of a sling instead of a stretched 
 cord. The early chroniclers teU of catapultas that 
 would throw an arrow half a uule, or hurl a javehn 
 across the Danube; and of a, B. which threw a 
 stone weighing 360 lbs. Numerous other weapons 
 of am analogous character were known in the middle 
 ages— such as the mangonel; the trebucJiei, which 
 threw a large stone by the action of a lever and 
 a Bhng ; the petrary, which (as its name implies) 
 threw a stone; the roUnet, which threw darts as 
 well as stones ; the mate-griffon and mate-funda, both 
 slinging-maohines ; the tricoUe, which hurled quar- 
 rels, or square-headed arrows ; the espringal or 
 sprmgal, which threw large darts ; the ribavdequin, 
 a large kind of cross-bow ; the war-wolf, a stone- 
 throwing machine, &c. The Arbalest (q. v.) may be 
 regarded as a small portable arrow-throwing Bahsta. 
 EALI'STlilS, or FI'LE-FISH, a genus of osseous 
 fishes of the order Plectognathi (q. v.) of Cuvier; the 
 type of a family, Balistidce, the species of which aie 
 
 almost aU inhabitants of tropical and subtropical 
 seas, frequenting rocky coasts and coral-reefs. Their 
 colours are generally brilliant. The body is remark- 
 ably compressed. The ossification of the skeleton, 
 as in the other Plectognathi, is very incomplete, and 
 the external covering of the body resembles that of 
 the Ganoid (q. v.) fishes, consisting, in some of the 
 genera, of large rhomboidal scales, disposed in 
 regular rows, and not overlapping ; in others, of very 
 
 Balistes pencilligerus. 
 
 small rough scales, with stiff bristles, as densely 
 crowded as the pile of velvet. But the most inte- 
 resting thing in connection with these fishes, is the 
 provision for fixing the first dorsal spine in an erect 
 position, or lowering it at the will of the animaL 
 The spine is articulated 'by ring and bolt to the 
 broad intemeural osseous plate.' 'When the spine 
 is .raised, a depression at the back part of its base 
 receives a corresponding projection from the con- 
 tiguous base of the second ray, which fixes it like 
 the hammer of a gun-look at fuU cock, and it cannot 
 be let down until the small spine has been depressed, 
 as by pulling the trigger ; it is then received into a 
 groove on the supporting plate, and offers no impedi- 
 ment to the progress of the fish ttirough the water. 
 This trigger-like fixing of the spine takes place also 
 in the dead fish; and when a B. is removed from the 
 bottle for examination, it is generally necessary to 
 release the spine by pressing on the small trigger- 
 ray.' The spine is roughened virith enamel grains, 
 whence the name File-fish. The flesh of these fishes 
 is generally regarded as unwholesome. 
 
 BALISTBA'RIA (Ital. Baleslriera), one of the 
 names given to those narrow 
 apertures so often seen in the 
 walls of old castles, and through 
 which the cross-bowmen dis- 
 charged their arrows. See Bal- 
 ISTA. B. do not seem to have 
 come into use tiU the 13th c. 
 The lower terminations of B. 
 are generally circular, sometimes 
 in the form of a shovel. See 
 Loophole. 
 
 BALI'ZB, or BELI'ZE, a 
 British colony on the Bay of 
 Honduras, in the Caribbean Sea, 
 extending in K lat. from 16° 
 45' to 18" 30', and in W. long, from 88° 10' to 89°. 
 It forms the south-east part of the peninsula of 
 Yucatan, which here divides the Caribbean Sea 
 from the Gulf of Mexico. Its area is said to be 
 19,200 square miles— about two-thirds of that of 
 Scotland. In 1850, the population was 10,710; 
 nea,rly half of the whole being in the town of B., 
 which stands at the mouth of a river also of the 
 
 Balistraria, 
 
BALKAN-BALL. 
 
 same name. In addition to the Belize, which 
 traverses the middle of the country, the Bio Hondo 
 and the Siboon form respectively the north-west 
 and the south-east boundaries. The presence of the 
 English in tliis neighbourhood was naturally enough 
 an object of jealousy to the Spaniards, being long 
 tolerated from necessity, but formally sanctioned 
 onlyin 1783. Besides teeming with tropical pro- 
 ductions in general, B. exports mahogany, cedar, 
 saxsaparilla, logwood, fustic, ajid other dye-woods. 
 The town is a dep6t of British goods destined for 
 Central America, and the river is said to be 
 navigable for 200 miles from its mouth. 
 
 BALKA'N, or ILE'MUS, the eastern branch of 
 that mountain-system which comprehends the ranges 
 of Montenegro, Herzegovina, and the Dinario Alps. 
 It extends from the plaiu of Sophia to Cape Emineh, 
 on the Black Sea, and forms the southern boundary 
 ■of the basiu of the Danube. The B. range runs 
 almost parallel with the Danube, and for about five 
 degrees of latitude divides Bulgaria from Rumelia. 
 Culminatirig in the west in the peak of Tchar-dagh, 
 9700 feet high, it decreases gradually in elevation as 
 it approaches the Black Sea on the east, losing, to 
 some extent, its wild bare character, and becoming 
 diversified with valleys and wooded slopes. This 
 part of the B. has great strategical importance. 
 Kumerous offsets traverse western Bulgaria and 
 Servia. The B. is traversed by five or six passes, 
 the only important one of which is called Porta 
 Trajani, and forms the line of communication 
 . between Vienna and Constantinople. 
 
 BALKA'SH, or TENGI'Z (Tenghiz or Tenguiz), 
 a lake of Central Asia, on the north-west borders of 
 Chinese Turkistan, lat. 44° and 47° N., long. 77° and 
 80° E. Its length is stated at 150 miles, and its 
 greatest breadth at 73 miles. Its principal feeder is 
 the river Hi. It has no outlet. 
 
 BALKH, formerly the most northerly province of 
 Afghanistan, is now subordinate to the khanate of 
 Bokhara, though not incorporated with it. It 
 corresponds to ancient Baotria, and lies between 
 lat. 35° and 37° N., and long. 64° and 69° E. It 
 is bounded on the N. by the river Oxus, on the E. 
 by Budukshan, on the S. by the Hindu-Kush, 
 and on the W. by the Desert. Offsets of the Hindu- 
 Kush traverse it in a north-west direction, and 
 slope down to the low steppes of Bokhara. Its 
 length is 250 miles ; its breadth, 120. Its situation 
 was once important during the overland conmieroe 
 between India and Eastern Europe before the sea- 
 route by the Cape of Good Hope was foEowed. The 
 soil has the general characteristics of a desert 
 land ; only a few parts are made fertUe by artificial 
 irrigation ; and such are the vicissitudes of climate, 
 that where grapes and apricots ripen in summer, and 
 the mulberry-tree permits the cultivation of sUk, in 
 winter the frost is intense, and the snow lies deep 
 on the ground. The natives are Usbek Tatars ; and 
 their character seems to depend very much on that 
 of the country. In the barren regions, they are 
 simply plunderers of caravans ; in the more favour- 
 able ones, they are peacefiil nomades ; and in 
 the most prosperous districts they are tiUers of 
 the soil, and ariiisans in towns and villages. — 
 Balkh, the chief town, about 23 miles from the 
 Amu, is situated in a neighbourhood where the 
 water of the Kudi Haaj is distributed in numerous 
 canals. It is surrounded by a mud wall ; but though 
 bearing the imposing title of Amu al Bulud (' mother 
 of cities '), it has little of the grandeur of ancient 
 Bactra, on the site of which it is built. It was 
 twice destroyed by Genghis Khan and Timur ; and as 
 late as 1825, it was plundered by the powerful ruler 
 of Kunduz, Mir-Murad-Bei. The neighbourhood is 
 41 
 
 famous for its corn and fruits. As a boimdary town 
 between Afghanistan and Bokhara, B. assumed a, 
 prominent position in the British-Afghan war. 
 Pop. 2000. 
 
 BALL. Games with balls were among the most 
 favourite gymnastic exercises of the ancients. They 
 were played almost daily by all, young and old ; by 
 the highest statesman eq^ually with the lowest of, the 
 people. The Greeks prized the game as a means 
 of giving grace and elasticity to the figure, and 
 erected a statue to one Aristonieus for his skiU in 
 it. The effeminate Maecenas amused himself during 
 a journey by playing B., as we learix from Horace. 
 In the gymnasia of the Greeks, and in the Roman 
 baths, there was a special compartment for B. -play- 
 ing {sphcBristerium), where certain rules and grada- 
 tions of the exercise were to be observed according 
 to the state of health of the player. The balls 
 were of very various kinds ; they were generally of 
 leather, and fiUed with air ; others were stuffed with 
 feathers. Ornamented balls, composed of 12 dif- 
 ferently coloiured segments (such probably as are to 
 be seen in modem toy-shops), are mentioned in 
 Plato's PJmdon. There was also great variety in 
 the kinds of game, each having a name. In one, the 
 B. was thrown up, and the players strove who 
 would catch it as it fell ; another was the same as our 
 foot-ball ; in a third, a number of persons threw it at 
 one another, either with a view to hit, or for the B. 
 to be caught and returned ; in a fourth, the B. was 
 kept rebounding between the earth and the palm of 
 the player's hand as often as possible. 
 
 Ball-playing seems to have been of equal antiquity 
 in the west of Europe, and to have come down 
 uninterruptedly to modern times. In the 16th c, 
 it was in great favour in the courts of princes, 
 especially in Italy and France. The French j^^ de 
 paume, and the Enghsh Tennis (q. v.), are' often 
 mentioned. Houses were built for playing in 
 all weathers ; and in gardens and elsewhere long 
 alleys were laid out for the purpose, the names of 
 which stiU adhere to many locahties. The B. was 
 struck with a mallet — It. maglia; Fr. mail or maille; 
 Eng. mall. The mallet was als6 called by the com- 
 pound name pail-mail, pell-mell, or pall-mall, from 
 It. palla (Lat. pila), a ball. The same names signi- 
 fied also the game or the alley where it was played ; 
 hence the English Malls and Pall-MaUs. The game 
 is thus described in Slount's Olossograpliia, quoted 
 in Cunmngham's Hand-booh of London: 
 
 'Pale Maine (Fr.), a game wherein a round bowl 
 is with a mallet struck through a high arch of iron 
 (standing at either end of an alley), which he that 
 can do at the fewest blows, or at the number agreed 
 on, wins. This game was heretofore used in the 
 long alley near St James's, and vulgarly called 
 Pef-MeU.' 
 
 Towards the end of the 18th c, the game of B. 
 ceased to be played at courts, and at the same 
 time went out of fashion in the higher circles of 
 continental society, though it is still practised by 
 the people in Spain and Italy. The form of it called 
 Cricket (q. v.) is stiU played in England by aU classes, 
 and Golfiq. v.) is a favourite game in Scotland. 
 
 For cultivating graceful motion, agility, and 
 strength, as well as promoting general health of 
 body and cheerfulness of mind, B.-playing is one of 
 the best gymnastic exercises. Ancient physicians 
 were in the habit of prescribing a course of balls to 
 their patients where most modern doctors would 
 hkely prescribe 2'iKs ; and in this point at least the 
 ancient practice might be copied with advantage. 
 
 BALL. In the somewhat indefinite language of 
 the military and naval arts, all kinds of shot and 
 bullets are occasionally called by the collective name 
 
 611 
 
BALL-BALLAHAT. 
 
 of hall. This was especially the case when nearly 
 all such projectiles were solid and spherical, before 
 the era of hollow and spheroidal shells. At present, 
 when the varieties are so numerous, it is more usual 
 to employ the terms Bullet and Shot (q. v.). These, 
 together with Shell, are subdivided into numerous 
 kinds, the most important of which will be found 
 noticed under their proper designations. A parti- 
 cular class of sptencal combustibles is described 
 under Balls. For Ball-Caktbidge, see Caet- 
 
 EIDGE. 
 
 BALL (Er. ial), a dancing entertaimnent. In 
 England there are county balls, attended by the 
 
 f entry of the shire or county, military balls, court 
 alls, subscription balls, besides balls on various 
 festive occasions. Whether designated balls or 
 assemblies, these entertainments are conducted with 
 great decorum, according to certain established 
 usages. If of a general kind, it is customary to 
 issue tickets only to those producing vouchers for 
 their respectability;, and to insure the most perfect 
 propriety, a number of lady-patronesses (married 
 ladies of distinction) take a lead in the management, 
 and grace the assembly by their presence. Ordi- 
 narily, the charge for gentlemen's tickets at sub- 
 scription balls is at least two-thirds higher than 
 those for ladies. According to etiquette, no 
 unmarried lady can attend a ball unless she accom- 
 pany a gentleman, or a married lady. AH, of both 
 sexes, are expected to be in fuU dress — anything 
 else would be held disrespectful. Fancy balls are 
 enteri;ainments at which every person attending 
 is expected to be in a fancy or peculiar nationd 
 costume ; in other respects, they are conducted like 
 ordinary balls. Masked balls, once so common, have 
 now, for obvious reasons, lost their repute. At all 
 high-class baUs, there is an appointed master of the 
 ceremonies, who superintends the proceedings, and, 
 in the event of there being no programme, prescribes 
 the dances. 
 
 BALLACHU'LISH, a parish on the borders of 
 Argyle and Inverness shires, and partly in both 
 counties. In the Argyleshire part of the parish, 
 114 miles south-south-west of Fort William, on the 
 south side of Loch Leven, an east branch of Loch 
 Linnhe, are the celebrated quarries of blue roofing 
 clay-slate. These quarries have been wrought since 
 1760, and now employ 200 men. White and gray 
 marble quarries exist also in the parish. 
 
 The slate is exposed on the mountain-side, and 
 the quarries, commencing on the shore, extend 
 southwards along the side of the mountain. The 
 face of the rock is laid open by three workings 
 fronting the west, and rising one above another in 
 successive step-like terraces, all of them being 
 entered from the north end of the bed. The height 
 from the lowest terrace to the top of the workings 
 is about 216 feet, and the face of rock wrought about 
 536 feet. The situation of the quarries permits the 
 water and dSbris of broken and waste slate to be 
 at once got rid of into the sea. The great advan- 
 tage of this is evident when it is remembered 
 that this dSbris amounts to more than six times the 
 quantity of saleable material raised from the quarries. 
 A few years ago, the annual produce amounted to 
 from 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 of roofing-slates, weigh- 
 ing about 10,000 tons. 
 
 BALLAD. The name is of ItaHan origin [hallate), 
 and meant originaUy a dance-song, bemg derived 
 from the mid. Lat. ballare or balare, corresponding 
 to the Gr. ballizein, to dance. The B. is a kind of 
 poem which it is very difiBieult to characterise. In 
 the course of centuries it has undergone various 
 transformations, and the name has been transferred 
 to pieces which in extent, subject, and character 
 642 
 
 have no longer anything in common with the primi- 
 tive baUad. The confusion of ideas was rendered 
 stUl worse from the circumstance that poems df 
 exactly the same nature were styled sometimes 
 romances, sometimes ballads, sometimes epic or 
 lyrico-epic, or poetic narratives ; so that it was left 
 to the caprice of the poet which of these generic 
 names he would give to his production. As early 
 as the 12th c. the Italians gave the title of B. to 
 short, purely lyrical pieces, allied to the sonnet or 
 stm more to the madrigal, and which generally had 
 love-sorrows for their subject. Dante has such 
 hallate. Akin to these are those French ballads 
 which Molifere set himself against, and which fell 
 into disuse. The earliest ballads, as the word 
 is now understood, are those of England, and 
 of Scotland, beginning about the 14th 0. They 
 in so far resemble the Spaoaish Romances, that the 
 subject in both is narrative, and handled lyrically. 
 See Ltric. The Spanish romance, however, has 
 more of the lyrical element, and is of a gayer cast, 
 reflecting the southern character of the people; 
 while the northern B. took a more earnest, sombre 
 shape, especially among the Danes j though in the 
 north also there are ballads of a cheerful and 
 sportive tone. 
 
 As far as subject is concerned, the B. is a gpecies 
 of minor Epic (q. v.). The name is generally applied 
 to a versified narrative, in a simple, popular, and 
 often rude style, of some valorous exploit, or some 
 tragic or touching story. Ballads are adapted to be 
 sung or accompanied by an instrument. They arS 
 comparatively short, the story being circumscribed, 
 and not embracing a combination of events, as the 
 plan of the grand epic does. There can be little 
 doubt that the B. has been the first form of poetry 
 among all nations; and that the earlier epics or 
 heroic poems of the higher kind, such as the Spanish 
 did and the German Nibelungen, grew out of suoli 
 simple beginnings. Of the popular B., Scotland, 
 or more correctly the border-land of Scotland and 
 England, is allowed to have produced the best 
 examples — as CTievy Oliase, Fair Helen of KirlcconneZ 
 Lee, and many others. As a B. of modem, com- 
 position may be instanced Goldsmith's Edwin and 
 Angelina. 
 
 Many of the old popular songs of the Germanic 
 nations are just narratives of epic events and inci- 
 dents in which the feelings of the composer manifest 
 themselves. But the name of B. was not then in 
 use, and such poetical narratives were called simply 
 songs, or more specifically perhaps lays (Ger. leim). 
 It was not tUl the last half of the 18th c. that the 
 foreign name was transferred to them. 
 
 The B. has, in recent times, been cultivated chiefly 
 by the Germans, and in their hands it has assumed 
 a more artificial development. Burger may be said 
 to be the creator of the modem ballad. He was 
 intimately acquainted with the more simple Scotch 
 and English B. poetry; but while adhering to its 
 spirit, he gave to his own compositions a far wider 
 extent, surrounded his narration with descriptions of 
 scenery and other decorations, and by means of 
 dialogue imparted to them the vivacity of the 
 drama. His Leonore has become at once classical 
 and popular. Burger, Schiller, Gothe, and XJhland 
 are the greatest German names in this department 
 of composition. Following^ the practice of these 
 writers, it has become common to confine the name 
 B. to an epic narrative'with something fabulous and 
 supernatural in the background. In this sense, 
 Gothe's ErlhSnig is a baUad; and Coleridge's 
 Ancient Mariner is perhaps the best exemplification 
 in English. 
 
 . BALLARAT, the oldest of the considerahle gold- 
 fields of Victoria, and in fact the oldest but one of 
 
BAIXAST— BALLET. 
 
 sJl the gold-flelda of the colony. It is situated 
 about 100 miles west-by-north of Melbourne. It 
 was first worked in September 1851, the compara- 
 tively unimportant groimd at Anderson's Creek, 
 which dated from August of the same year, having 
 been actually the earliest result of the ' prospecting,' 
 which, a few months previously, had been stimu- 
 lated by the newly discovered 'diggings' of New 
 South Wales. In a short time, B., wiflSn the compass 
 of little more than a square mile, contained about 
 7000 adventurers. Though B. was speedily rivalled 
 by Mount Alexander and Bendigo, yet it has by 
 no means lost its original pre-eminence. In 1857, 
 of gold brought down by escort, B. contributed 
 948J09 ounces, being 107,914 more than Bendigo 
 and Mount Alexander taken together. B. is imri- 
 valled in the fineness of its gold, which averages 
 23i carats, being only J less than the unalloyed 
 metal. 
 
 BA'LLAST is a heavy substance employed to 
 give a, ship sufficient hold of the water, to insure 
 her safe sailing with spread canvas, when her 
 cargo and equipment are too light. j?he amount 
 of B. required by a ship depends not only on 
 her size and cargo, but also on her build; some 
 forms of construction requiring more B. than 
 others. It is not merely the quaatity of B. which 
 a skilful mariner has to consider; he is required 
 also to take into account its dislrihution. If a 
 heavy mass of B. be deposited within a small com- 
 pass near the keel, it places the centre of gravity 
 very low down ; the ship will sail sluggishly, and is 
 said to be ' stiff.' If, on the other hand, the B. be 
 massed too high up, the ship becomes ' crank,' and 
 cannot carry much sail without danger of being 
 upset. Under average circumstances, it is considered 
 that a ship is well ballasted when the water comes 
 up to about the extreme breadth amid-ships. 
 
 In ballasting a ship, the cargo and B. are con- 
 sidered together, the quantity and distribution of 
 the latter being made dependent on the former. In 
 a ship of war, the B. is made subservient to the 
 requirements of the necessary stores and war 
 materid / in a merchant or passenger vessel, to the 
 convenience of the passengers and the careful 
 Stowage of the cargo. During the last great 
 European war, the smps of the British navy were 
 suppued with a certain conventional weight of 
 B., according to size and armament. Thus, a 
 100-gun ship had 550 tons of B.; an 80-gun, 440 
 tons; a 50-gun, 235 tons; a 36-gun, 225 tons; a 
 20-gun, 110 tons, &o. The recent revolution in the 
 sizes and shape of war-ships, however, and the 
 introduction of steam-propulsion, have rendered all 
 such fixity of ratio inapplicable. 
 
 The substances used as B. are various — chiefly 
 iron, stone, mavel, sand, mud, and water. Iron is 
 now supersemng the next three varieties in ships of 
 any importance; and water-ballast is gradually 
 being introduced in the coUier-ships of uie Tyne, 
 Wear, and Tees. . Water-ballast is employed in four 
 different ways. Bag-water B. is contained in 
 water-proof bags laid on the floor of the vessel, 
 and filled or emptied by means of a pump and a 
 hose. Bottom-water B. is confined beneath a false 
 bottom in the vessel Hold-water B., first employed 
 in screw-steamer coUiers constructed by Mr Scott 
 Bussell, is contained in a large receptacle, which 
 maybe filled with the cargo when the ship is not 
 in -B. Tank-water B. is contained in two fore-and- 
 aft tanks, which can easily be filled and emptied. 
 The customs' laws relieve merchant-ships from 
 certain formalities and payments when leaving a 
 port in ballast. 
 
 _ The term B. is employed by civil engineers to 
 signify the sand or gravelly material which is laid 
 
 as a packing between railway-sleepers, in order to 
 give them solidity. No English railway is con- 
 sidered to be complete or safe for transit until it is 
 dressed and finished by ballasting. The possibility 
 of procuring ballast at a cheap rate, considerably 
 affects the cost of railway undertakings. 
 
 BA'LLAST HEA'VING has reference to the 
 use of sand or mud ballast. In order to prevent 
 captains from filling up, or otherwise injuring the 
 entrance to rivers, ports, havens, roadsteads, &o., 
 by the discharge of ballast, certain regulations have 
 been made at most maritime places as to its dis- 
 
 Eosal. The Trinity House Corporation has a pecu- 
 ar jurisdiction over the bed of the Thames, and 
 regulates all the proceedings touching the reception 
 and discharge of ballast. Before the use of water- 
 ballast, the coUier captains ballasted their empty 
 ships with gravel or sand, mostly dredged up from 
 the bed of the Thames in and near Woolwich Reach. 
 Generally about 10,000 tons per annum were thus 
 used. The ballast-heavers were men employed by 
 the Trinity House BaUast-office in transferring sand 
 from the bed of the Thames to the empty ships. 
 When the collier vessels returned to the Tyne or 
 its neighbourhood, they were not permitted to 
 empty me sand in the river, but were imder penal- 
 ties to discharge it on shore. This is the origin 
 of the vast mounds, or sand-hills on the banks of me 
 Tyne, which have been made very useful in the 
 construction of railways. Ships coming into, as 
 well as those leaving the Thames in ballast, are 
 equally subject to Trinity House control The 
 BaUast-office Corporation of Dublin has similjir 
 powers in reference to the river Liffey. 
 
 BA'LLATER, a village of Aberdeenshire, Scot- 
 land, on the banks of the Dee, 36 miles west-south- 
 west of Aberdeen. It is remarkable as the resort 
 of numerous visitors, on account of its chalybeate 
 springs. Pop. 379. 
 
 BA'tLBNY ISLANDS, a group of five smaU 
 volcanic islands discovered in the Antarctic Ocean, 
 1839.- Lat. 66° 44' S., long. 163° II' B. 
 
 BA'LLET (of similar derivation with the word 
 hail — see Bailad), a species of dance usually form- 
 ing an interlude in theatrical performances, but 
 confined principally to operas. Properly, a B. is a 
 theatrical exhibition of the art of dancing in its 
 highest perfection, and must therefore, in general, 
 comply with the rules of the drama as to its composi- 
 tion and form. The pantomimic sacrfficial dances of 
 antiquity, although they may be regarded as the source 
 of Attic tragedy, are not to be considered as directly 
 the origin of the ballet. The B., as known to us, 
 undoubtedly originated in the service of the courts. 
 We find it existing in Italy in the beginning of the 
 16th c, especially at the court of Turin, where it 
 was enriched by the inventive genius of Count Agho ; 
 and where the princes and, princesses of the court 
 themselves took part in it, in song and declama- 
 tion as well as in dance ; for the B. at first appeared 
 in combination with the other theatrical arte, and 
 completed the chaotic medley exhibited in these 
 spectacles, which were at once mythological, allego- 
 rical, fantastic, warhke, and pastoral. From these 
 mingled elements the individual species of dramatic 
 entertainments were gradually evolved in their 
 distinct forms. Baltagerini, irector of music to 
 Catherine de Medicis, was the 'first to introduce the 
 B. into Erance, where it soon became such a 
 favourite, that Louis XIII. danced in one of these 
 ballets, and his example was followed by Louis 
 XIV. in his youth. The latter made his last 
 appearance on the stage in 1699, in the B. of Flora. 
 ffitherto, the B. had always appeared in combina- 
 tion with the characteristic features of the opera, 
 
BALL-EXO WEE— BALLOON. 
 
 and even of comedy, as is evident from the works of 
 Quinault and Molifer3, arranged by LuHy. The art 
 of dancing possessedthen little dramatic expression, 
 and still required to be introduced and explained by 
 singing and recitation. In 1697, Antoine Houbart 
 de la Motte undertook to reform the B., to which 
 he imparted both dramatic action and the expres- 
 sion of passionate feeling. About this time, women 
 first made their appearance in the B., as well as 
 in plays and operas, which had tiU then been 
 performed exclusively by men. There is no mention 
 of any female B.-dancer of note before 1790. About 
 the middle of the 18th c, Noverre separated the 
 B. from the opera, gave it an independent dramatic 
 form, and laid the foundation in his writings of an 
 ingenious theory on the subject. The Mythological 
 B., a reUo of the magnificence of Versailles, came to 
 an end during the Consulate, when it gave place to 
 the newly invented Comic Ballets Dansonmnie, La 
 FUlemal Gardee, and the Arlequinades. Vincen2;o 
 Galeotti, in Copenhagen, carried out the ideas of 
 Noverre so far as to subordinate the dance to purely 
 dramatic principles, instead of giving it the first 
 place as formerly; and thus he gave to his ballets 
 the character of great rhythmical pantomimes. These 
 splendid and talented performances were longest 
 kept up in the theatre of Milan, where the most 
 lifelike and magnificent tableaux were exhibited in 
 pantomime ; and subjects were attempted far beyond 
 the limits of the ballet. The story of Hamlet was 
 turned into a B., and the subjects of several other 
 tragedies were similarly treated. In general, the 
 B. has now become unfaithful to its original design 
 and its true artistic signification; and exhausts 
 itself in the exhibition of mere feats of bodily 
 agility, tasteless displays of artificial dexterity, 
 distortions of the person almost to dislocation, and 
 balancings of the figure in attitudes often indelicate. 
 Consisting as it does more of external show than 
 internal meaning, it contributes gradually to blunt 
 the public taste for the enjoyment of the legitimate 
 drama, which speaks more to the mind than to 
 the eye. 
 
 BA'LL-FLOWEK, so named from its resembling 
 __ a ball placed in a circular 
 ~~" ^ flower ; an ornament pecu- 
 g- -. ^ MT' "^^^^^^ liar to the decorated style 
 ~ l^ S^ of Gothic architecture 
 
 }|^^' which prevailed in the 
 14th c. The B.-R is sup- 
 posed by some to be an 
 ^--j^»=^ -^! imitation of a pomegran- 
 
 BaU-flower. f ?,' ^V ^f^^^ °^ <>■ ^^?^^'s 
 
 bell. Its form wul be 
 
 better understood from the illustration. 
 
 BALLINA', a seaport town on the confines of 
 Mayo and Sligo counties, Ireland, but chiefiy in 
 Sligo, on the Moy, 7 miles south of its entrance into 
 Killala Bay. The Moy runs through the town, is 
 crossed by two bridges, and separates the two 
 counties. The tide runs up to the town, but the 
 river is only navigable from the sea up to a mile 
 and a half below Ballina. B. has a brisk trade in 
 agricultural produce, salmon, and cm-ed provisions. 
 Coarse linens and snuff are manufactured here. 
 Many anglers resort to the river Moy and Loch 
 Coim. KUlala Bay, was the rendezvous of the 
 ]?rench invaders in 1798. They landed, and took 
 B., but were, three weeks afterwards, defeated at 
 Killala. ,Pop. (1851), 6569. Of these 5986 hve in 
 the Shgo part of the town called Ardnaree. 
 
 BALLINASLOE', a small inland town on the 
 
 borders of Galway and Roscommon counties, near 
 
 the centre of Ireland, on both sides of the river 
 
 Suck — which divides the two counties — 8 nfiles 
 
 614 
 
 from its confluence with the Shannon, and 81 miles 
 west of Dubhn. The Suck at B. is divided into 
 several channels, over which the road from Athlone 
 to Galway is carried by a succession of bridges and 
 causeways 500 yards long. B. is noted for its 
 great annual fair in October, one of the largest in 
 the kingdom. In 1858, upwards of 83,000 sheep 
 and 16,000 cattle were sold at this fair. Pop. (1851), 
 6240. 
 
 BALLINRO'BE, a small town of Ireland, county 
 Mayo, picturesquely seated on the Eobe, about 3 
 miles from its mouth in Lough Mask, and about 
 16 miles S.S.E. of Castle Bar. B. is a seat of. petty 
 and general sessions, and has a union workhouse 
 and a barrack. It has a weekly market and two 
 annual fairs. Pop. 2161. 
 
 BA'LLIOL CO'LLEGE, Oxford, was founded 
 between 1263 and 1268 by John de Balliol, father 
 of John BaDiol, king of Scotland. The original 
 foundation consisted of 16 poor scholars, and the 
 revenue for their maintenance amounted for many 
 years to only 8d. per week for each. In 1340, 
 the establishment was enriched by benefactions from. 
 Sir WiUiam Fenton and Sir Philip Somervyle, the 
 latter of whom gave the college a new body of 
 statutes. Its most important subsequent benefac- 
 tors were Bell, Bishop of Worcester, in 1566; WilL 
 Hammond, Esq., in 1575 ; Peter BlundeU's execu- 
 tors in 1615 and 1676; Lady Periam, 1620; Warner, 
 Bishop of Eochester, 1667; John Snell, Esq., 1677; 
 and Mrs WiBiams, 1830. The society in 1859 
 consisted of a master, 12 fellows, and 13 scholars. 
 The number of members on the books was 328. 
 The master and feUovrs enjoy the privilege of 
 electing their own visitor. John Wychfte waa 
 master of this college in 1361 ; among its scholars 
 have been John Evelyn, and Bradley the astro- 
 nomer. The SneD. Exhibitions for students of 
 Glasgow University, attract annually to this college 
 a few distinguished Scottish students. Among 
 these have been Sir WiUiam Hamilton and J. G. 
 Lockhart. 
 
 BALLI'STA. See Balista. 
 
 BALLI'STIC PB'NDULXJM. An instrument 
 so named was invented by Eobins, in the latter 
 part of last century, to ascertain the velocity of 
 projectiles, and to _prove the quality of gunpowder. 
 It consists of a large block of wood, suspended 
 from a strong horizontal axis ; and it is so soUdly 
 constructed as to bear the heaviest blow of the 
 heaviest shot without injury. An excavated centre 
 on one side of the block is filled with sand, packed 
 in leather upon an iron frame ; four bags form a 
 filling or tore. The core, forming the place of 
 impact, is easily replaced aiter each firing. Straps 
 of wrought iron suspend the block from the wrought- 
 iron axis or shaft. The shaft-ends have knife- 
 edges, which rest on V supports. The construction 
 is such, that a violent percussion makes only a very 
 slight oscillatory movement in the block. A brass 
 graduated limb measures the arc of vibration ; and 
 a brass sHde is pushed forward by an index attached 
 to a bar connected with the suspension straps. 
 Another form of instrument for similar purposes 
 wiU be described under Epeouvbtte ; and some of 
 the results obtained by these experiments will be 
 noticed under Gunnery and GtrNPOWDER, 
 
 BA'LLIUM. See Bailey. 
 
 BALLOO'N (Fr. hallon, a large ball). According to 
 the principle of Archimedes (q. v.), bodies immersed 
 in a fluid are buoyed upwards with a force equivalent 
 to the weight of the fluid displaced by them. If 
 their own weight is not sufficient to counterbalance 
 
BALLOON. 
 
 tliis force — that is, if they are lighter than the fluid — 
 they rise upwairds with a force eqjial to the difference 
 of the weight of the displaced fluid, and of their 
 own weight. A B., therefore, which consists of an 
 integument enclosing a gas within it, will rise in air 
 
 Balloon. 
 
 in the same way that a cork rises in water, provided 
 that the weight of the whole be less than that of an 
 equal Tolnm.e of air. If one, for instance, occupy 
 as much space as 1000 lbs. of air, but weigh itself — 
 covering, gas, and appendages — 600 lbs., it vriU be 
 impelled upwards -with, a force of 400 lbs. The 
 gases employed for filling baUoons are either hydro- 
 gen or ordinary coal-gas. The former, when pure, 
 IS between fourteen and fifteen times lighter than 
 atmospheric air, and the latter generally about two 
 and a half. 
 
 The B., as it is at present employed, is a large 
 pear-shaped bag, made of any pliable silk cloth, 
 covered with a varnish, made by dissolving caout- 
 chouc in oil of turpentine, to render it air-tight. 
 The common size of this bag varies from 20 to 
 30 feet in equatorial diameter with a proportionate 
 height. The mouth or neck of this bag is just 
 large enough to enable a man to get inside to make 
 any necessary repairs, and is, of course, turned 
 downwards when the B. is inflated. A net-work 
 of hempen or cotton, twine is accurately fitted to 
 the B., and the separate cords, on which it ends, 
 are tied to a circular hoop placed a few feet 
 below the neck. The car, generally a large wicker- 
 basket, is suspended by ropes from this hoop, and 
 hangs at a considerable distance below, so that the 
 aeronaut may be removed from the vicinity of the 
 gas. The net- work serves to distribute the weight of 
 the car and its charge equally over the whole upper 
 surface of the balloon. One of the most important 
 requisites in the construction is the valve, which is 
 inteoduced into the top of the balloon. It consists of 
 a wooden clapper, four or five inches square, opening 
 inwards, and kept closed by a sufficient spring. 
 A rope attached to this valve descends through the 
 neck into the car, where, to prevent accidental open- 
 ing, it is allowed to dangle freely. The furniture of 
 the car are the ballast or sand-bags, by emptying 
 which the B. may be lightened ; the barometer, 
 or corresponding apparatus for telling the height 
 ascended, or the upward or downward course of the 
 B- ; the map and compass, for shewing the direction 
 
 of the voyage ; and the grappling-iron, tied to the 
 end of a long rope, for anchoring the B. at the 
 descent. During his flight, the aeronaut has at his 
 disposal the means of guiding his air-ship only in an 
 upward or downward direction, the motion of trans- 
 lation being whoBy dependent on the wind by 
 which it is borne. If he wishes to ascend, he 
 throws some of the ballast over the side of the car ; 
 and if to descend, he pulls the valve-rope, so that, 
 the gas rushing by virtue of its speoifio lightness 
 through the passage made for it by the open- valve, 
 the buoyant material may be lessened. It is 
 evident that the power of thus directing his machine 
 becomes more limited with ^aoh exercise of it, for 
 in each case there is an unrepaired loss of the means 
 necessary to it. All attempts at guiding balloons 
 in a horizontal direction nave hitherto proved 
 failures. In ordinary flights, the mouth of the 
 B. is left open, so that there is no danger of 
 explosion arising from the expansion of the gas in 
 the rarer regions of the atmosphere. The diffusion 
 that takes place through the open neck is inconsi- 
 derable during the few hours that an agrial voyage 
 lasts. Early aSronauts, who kfept their baUoons 
 closed, frequently ran considerable risk by inat- 
 tention to the valve when the imprisoned gas 
 demanded vent for its expansion. 
 
 The art of traversing the air by means of baUoons, 
 generally called ASronautics, and sometimes Aeros- 
 tation, is of comparatively recent date. The germ, 
 of the invention of balloons is to be found in the 
 discovery by Cavendish, in 1766, of the remarkable 
 lightness of hydrogen gas, then called inflammable 
 air. Professor Black, of Edinburgh, seems to have 
 been the first who conceived the idea that a light 
 envelope, containing this gas, would rise of itself. 
 He requested Dr Monro, the professor of anatomy, 
 to give him some thin animal membrane for the 
 experiment, but for some reason or other, it was never 
 made. The first practical attempts were made by 
 Cavallo, who, in 1772, filled swine's bladders and 
 paper-bags with the gas, but found the former too 
 heavy, and the latter too porous ; and he only suc- 
 ceeded in raising soap-bubbles inflated with the gas. 
 The invention of the B. is due to the two brothers 
 Stephen and Joseph Montgolfler, paper-makers at 
 Annonay, in France, whose names are sa dis- 
 tinguished in the development of their own branch 
 of manufacture as in the history of aSronautics. 
 It immediately struck these brothers, on reading 
 Cavendish's Different Kinds of Air, that the air 
 could be rendered navigable by enclosing a light 
 
 fas within a covering of inconsiderable weight. Led 
 y their avocation, they fixed upon paper as the 
 most fitting material for the purpose, and first 
 attempted to makebaUoons of paper filled with inflam- 
 mable air. Finding that these emptied themselves 
 almost as soon as they were fiUed, instead of aban- 
 doning the paper as an unsuitable covering for the 
 gas, they sought after another gas more suited to 
 the paper. By a chain of false reasoning which 
 need not here be detailed, they thought they found 
 such in the gas which resulted from xke combustion 
 of slightly moistened straw and wool, which had, 
 as they imagined, an upward tendency, not only 
 from its being heated, but from its electrical pro- 
 perties, which caused it to be repelled from the 
 ground. It is hardly necessary to say, that this 
 so-called Montgolfler gas possessed no advantages for 
 raising balloons other than that possessed by'heated 
 air of any kind ; in fact, the abundant smoke with 
 which it was mixed, by adding to its weight, rather 
 detracted from its merits. At Avignon, m Novem- 
 ber 1782, Stephen Montgolfler first succeeded in 
 causing a silk parallelopiped, of about 50 cubic feet, 
 to rise to the roof of a room. Encouraged by this 
 
 643 
 
BALLOON. 
 
 success, the brothers made experimenta on a larger 
 scale at Annonay with am equally happy result ; amd 
 finally, in June 1783, in the presence of the states of 
 Vivarais, and of an immense multitude, they raised 
 a B., 35 feet in diameter, to a height of 1500 feet. 
 This last, nearly spherical in shape, was made of 
 packoloth, covered with paper, and was heated by 
 an iron choffer placed beneath it, in which 10 pounds 
 of moist straw and wool were burned. 
 
 The news of this extraordinary experiment soon 
 reached Paris, where it produced a most lively 
 impression. A commission was appointed by the 
 Academy of Sciences to report upon it. Public curi- 
 osity, however, could not await the tardy decision of 
 this body, and accordingly a subscription was entered 
 into to defray the expense of repeating the Annonay 
 experiment. Such was the excitement that the 
 subscription was filled in a few days, and the con- 
 struction of the B. was intrusted to the brothers 
 Bobert, famous philosophical instrument-makers of 
 the day, and to Professor Charles, a young but 
 experienced pliysicist. As the detailed accoimt of 
 the Annonay ascent had not reached Paris, and as 
 nothing was therefore known of the Montgolfier 
 gas, Charles fixed upon hydrogen as the gas most 
 likely to insure success. It was, however, a formid- 
 able undertaking to produce it in sufficient abimd- 
 ance for a B., as it was at that time only dealt 
 with in small quantities in the lecture-room. By 
 ingenuity and perseverance combined, he triumphed 
 over this difficulty, and succeeded in filling, in the 
 course of four dikjs, a sUk globe of 12 feet in 
 diameter. This B. was transferred to the Champs 
 de Mars, the largest open space in Paris, where, on 
 the 27th of August 1783, it ascended in the presence 
 of 300,000 spectators, half the population,; of the 
 city. At the instance of the commission already 
 referred to, Stephen Montgolfier constructed a fire- 
 B., 72 feet high, and 41 feet in diameter. It 
 ascended before the commission on the 12th of 
 September 1783, but being held captive, it was 
 much injured by a violent wind, which blew at the 
 time, and after it descended it was finally broken 
 up by heavy rains. Another was made of nearly 
 the same dimensions, which ascended on the 19th 
 of the same month at Versailles, the king and royal 
 family ' assisting ' at the spectacle. This ascent is 
 worthy of note, from the fact that a sheep, a cock, 
 and a duck were placed in an ozier-basket attached 
 to the lower part of the B., and that these first 
 aerial voyagers reached the ground again in safety. 
 
 The B. was now a fait accompli, and it began to 
 be seriously discussed whether it nnight not be 
 serviceable as an air-ship for bearing men aloft as 
 passengers. The solution of this question was first 
 given by PUAtre des Kosiers. In a Montgolfiere, 
 as the heated air-B. was called, 74 feet high, 
 and 48 feet in diameter, supporting at its base 
 a gallery of wicker-work, he, in company with 
 the Marquis d'Arlandes, made the first aerial 
 voyage, 21st November 1783. . They remained in 
 the air twenty-five minutes, and saUed across the 
 Seine and over a considei^able part of Paris. The 
 year 1783, so fertile in the annals of aerostation, 
 was destined not to pass away without witnessing 
 an additional, and even more satisfactory triimiph. 
 On the 1st of December, Professor Charles, along 
 with Robert, rose from the TuUeries gardens 
 with a hydrogen B.— then called a Charliere — 
 made from the proceeds of a pubKc subscription. 
 This B. was made of alternately red and yellow 
 gores of sUk sewed together, and coated with caout- 
 chouc varnish. It was covered with a net which 
 supported the car, and was furnished with a valve, 
 a, barometer, and sand-ballast, and was, in fact, 
 a complete aerial machine. It may be said that 
 
 616 
 
 the art of aerostation at once attained perfection 
 in Charles's B., and no essential change or improve- 
 ment has taken place since. In consequence of 
 the danger attending the use of fire-b'aOoons, and 
 the engrossing attention which they demaJid of the 
 agronaut, they have now entirely given way to the 
 hydrogen or coal-gas balloons. Before they became 
 obsolete, several remarkable voyages were made in 
 them. The same Piltoe des Rosiers made 30 leagues 
 in one of them, the longest voyage ever executed in a 
 Montgolfifere. Among the names of the first pro- 
 fessional afe'ronauts, those of Lunardi, Blanchard, and 
 Gamerin deserve special note. Lunardi was the 
 first who made the ascent in Great Britain; and 
 Blanchard, along with the American Dr Jefiries, 
 crossed the EngEsh Channel from Dover to Calais, 
 in circumstances of almost unparalleled danger, 
 January 7, 1785. Gamerin fitrst descended from a 
 B. by a Parachute (q. v.), October 22, 1797. It is 
 much to be regretted that the first aeronaut, PUtee 
 des Rosiers, fdl a victim to; a blind devotion to his 
 art. In order to outvie Blanchard he constructed a 
 compound machine, i consisting of a hydrogen B. 
 above and a MontgoUifere below, and started from 
 Boulogne, accompanied by a young natural philo- 
 sopher named Remain, on the momina of the 
 5th of June 1785. He had not ascended many 
 minutes, when, as it afterwards appeared, on 
 attempting to open the valve of the hydrogen B. 
 by the rope attached to it, he caused a rent of 
 several yards in it, so that it emptied itself almost 
 inamediately, and fell on the Montgolfifere beneath. 
 The fire in the latter not being kindled, the whole 
 machine fell with a frightful rapidity to the earth, 
 and the ill-fated aSronauts perished on the spot 
 whence they had risen. It is worthy of remark, 
 that though several melancholy incidents of this 
 kind are on record, the number of casualties in the 
 navigation of the air has been less in proportion 
 than in the navigation of the sea. Por 1500 aero- 
 nauts and 10,000 ascents, calculating approximately, 
 only 15 lives have been lost, certamly a small pro- 
 portion considering dangers and inexperience. 
 
 In 1794, during the wars of theRevolution, an aSro- 
 static institution was formed at Meudon, near Paris, 
 for training a corps of ' aerostiers,' in order to observe 
 the enemy by means of balloons. A balloon under 
 the management of this corps' was present at the 
 battle of Pleurus, near Charleroi, fought against the 
 Austrians, where, according to the tesmmony of 
 Jourdan, the general in command, it rendered signal 
 service. If report speaks true, those days have been 
 revived in the seven weeks' campaign in Italy in 
 1859. 
 
 Balloons have likewise been enlisted in behalf of 
 science. The first ascent for avowedly scientific 
 objects was made at Hamburg, July 18, 1803, by 
 Robertson and Lhoest. The results obtained by 
 these observers, more particularly regarding _the 
 diminution of terrestrial magnetism, and the general 
 feebleness of electrical and galvanic phenomena in 
 the rarer portions of the atmosphere, were con- 
 sidered of such importance by the Prench Institute, 
 that another ascent was determined on; MM. Biot 
 and Gay-Lussac were appointed to take the 
 management of the B. and of the physical experi- 
 ments; and they started, accordingly, on the 20th 
 August 1804. As this aerial expedition, was not alto- 
 
 f ether successful, a second was undertaken by Gay- 
 ;ussac alone, in the same year, in which he rose to 
 a height of 23,000 feet. The observations of the 
 French savans did not confirm those made by 
 Robertson, for after a series of experiments, as care- 
 ful as their novel situation would admit, they found 
 that no diminution was perceptible in the intensity 
 of electrical phenomena in the upper air. Since 
 
BALLOON— BALLOT. 
 
 then, one or two scientific ab'rial voyages have been 
 undertaken, among whioh may be mentioned that 
 by Humboldt in iunerioa ; those made by Mr Rush, 
 in companjr ■with Mr Green as steersman, on behalf 
 of the British Association, during 1847 — 1849 ; and 
 that by MM. Barral and Bixio (1850) at Paris. No 
 fact of importance has been established by these 
 ascents, and the contributions of balloons to positive 
 science may be set down as yet at almost nothing. 
 Still there is reason to believe that the hygrdmetnc 
 and thermometrio laws obtaining in the air may be 
 ascertained by a sorites of regular and well-arranged 
 B. ascents. The nature of aSiial currents, at pre- 
 sent so imperfectly understood, might also be dis- 
 covered by the same means. The introduction of 
 coal-gas, mstead of hydrogen, by Mr Green, the 
 most famous of English aeronauts, is the most 
 important advance in aSrostation since the earliest 
 days of the art. His large coal-gas B., in 1836, bore 
 Messrs Green, Holland, and Mason from Vauxhall 
 Gardens, London, to WeUburg, in the Grand Duchy 
 of Nassau, a distance of 500 miles in 18 hours. 
 
 In the United States, aerostation has been prose- 
 cuted with great zeal. Mr J. Wise has more than 
 once exploded his B., when high up in the air, to 
 shew what he considers to be suways the case, ttiat 
 the fragments with the net-work form in such 
 circumstances a parachute, which moderates the 
 rapidity of descent, and shields the aeronaut from 
 danger. During 1859, the longest flight on record 
 was made by Mr J. Wise, ]V& La Moimtain, and 
 others, who, starting from St Louis with the inten- 
 tion of reaching New York, succeede'd in following 
 the course they had mapped out for themselves 
 until they had crossed Lake Erie ; when they 
 were caught in an adverse current of air, and 
 forced to abandon their original design, after having 
 travelled 1150 mUes in less than 20 hours. In 
 September 1859, Mr La Mountain made a trip of 
 300 miles in 4 hours. Mr Lowe, another American 
 aeronaut, has constructed an immense B., which he 
 calls an aerial ship, the greatest circumference of 
 which is 387 feet, with a capacity to hold 700,000 
 cubic feet of gas, and a hftmg-power of 22J tons, 
 and furnished with many new appliances for ele- 
 vating, depressing, and (Erecting the machine. In 
 this 'Mr Lowe anticipates with coniidenoe that he 
 win be able to cross the Atlantic Ocean in 48 hours, 
 or at most 64 hours. 
 
 BA'LLOT (in Erench, halhfte) is a little ball used 
 in the practice of secret voting, which is thence 
 
 fenerally called 'voting .by B.,' whether it be a 
 aU or a ticket that is used. Votes may be taken 
 by B. in various ways — e. g., the voter may deposit 
 a ball in either of two boxes, so conjoined that no 
 one shall be able to sa^ into which he drops it ; or 
 he may be presented with two balls — a white and a 
 black — and so drop one of them into a box that it 
 shall be unknown which he used. Tickets marked 
 ' Yes,' ' No,' or with the names of candidates, will 
 clearly serve the purpose of balls in private voting. 
 The Dikasts in Greece voted secretly by means of 
 balls, stones, or shells, with marks. From this use 
 of marked shells (Gr. oetrai:on) in popular voting 
 came the Greek ostracism, or secret vote of the 
 people, by which they drove into exile those who 
 became obnoxious to them. Tabuls or tickets 
 were chiefly used by the Eomans. If the vote con- 
 cerned a change in the law, the tickets were marked 
 V. E.., the initial letters of the words ' TJti Rogas,' 
 expressing consent to the proposer's proposition; 
 andA. for'Antiquo,' expressing adherence to the old 
 law. If the vote concerned the election of candidates 
 to a public office, then the tickets bore the names 
 of the candidates. The system of secret voting in 
 Rome was fixed by various laws, of which the 
 
 Gabiniana Lex most closely resembles the modem 
 project of vote by ballot. 
 
 The system of vote by B. is mostly in use among 
 the moderns in private or social clubs, and in the 
 election of officers and other acts of public or joint- 
 stock companies ; but in some countries the B. is used 
 in pohtioal voting. For instance, it is in use in France, 
 in several of the United States, and in the Australian 
 colonies. The propriety of employing it in private 
 clubs has never Been questioned, for to the harmony 
 of these it is essential that the votes of a few should 
 suffice to exclude an obnoxious person ; and looking 
 to the personal and invidious nature of the vote, it is 
 equally essential to their harmony that the voting 
 should be secret. A candidate for admission, who 
 succeeds in the face of a few, though not a sufficient 
 number of voters, could not but regard those who 
 voted against him as enemies. But if the voting be 
 by B., dl he can know, if the voters keep their own 
 counsel, is that some persons are unfriendly. It is 
 thus left open for 'h^m to associate on friendly terms 
 with aU the members-^a condition of the success and 
 continuance of such associations. But whether the 
 system is suited to pohtical voting has been the 
 subject of much discussion. 
 
 we have said that the system prevailed in Greece, 
 and on its fruit there — especially in the exercise of 
 the ostracism — ^there have been various opinions. 
 While some have considered that the Athenians, 
 for instance, acted under cover of secrecy, fre- 
 quently without a just sense of iresponsibility, there 
 is the authority of Mr Grote, in his History of Greece, 
 on the other side, to the effect, that they exercised 
 the right most beneficially. But if we have in Mr 
 Grote an advocate of the B., in Gibbon we have an 
 opponent of it. In his Decline and Fall of the Soman 
 Empire, that philosopher dates the decline of the 
 republic from the introduction of secret voting, 
 which, he says, destroyed public confidence — in 
 eflect, broke up the ancient relations of patron and 
 cHent, and caused a general demoralisation of the 
 people. To come to modem times, we find the B. 
 in use in the Venetian senate ; and that in Britain it 
 was first demanded, not for the purpose of elections, 
 but of votes in parliament. In Scotland, during 
 the revulsions against the court in the reign of 
 Charles II., the system was actually adopted in the 
 legislature ; but it does not appear to have afforded 
 voters in all cases the desired protection. No one 
 would now dream of demanding its introduction in 
 parliament, whose proceedings, according to popular 
 opinion, cannot be too open and above board. On 
 this point it may be mraitioned that secret voting 
 was the rule, for over five years (from 184ft— 1845), 
 in the Chamber of Deputies in France, when it 
 was abolished, as being productive of abuse. This, 
 however, as we have said, bears on a use of the 
 system that has now no advocates. Two illustrations 
 remain of its use in elections. In the colonies of 
 Melbourne i and Sydney, the B. is said to have 
 worked weU, though it has been doubted whether 
 its efficacjr has been properly tested in these 
 countries, in which there is so much individual 
 independence, peculiar to new countries, that those 
 who vote care little for concealment. In the tTnited 
 States, on the other hand, it seems to be the general 
 opinion that the system has proved ineflBoacious. In 
 the state of New York, where the B. was adopted a 
 few years ago, there is a popular demand now for 
 open voting, as a cure for the evils introduced by 
 the secret system. It has among the Americans 
 opposed no effectual obstacle to coercion and intimi- 
 dation fromvthe majority, while those to whom the 
 arrangements for secrecy are intrusted, flagrantly 
 betray their trust, and the voters on either side are, 
 as a rule, well known to the pubho. 
 
 617 
 
BALLOT FOE MILITIA— BALLYSHANNON. 
 
 The advocates of the B. maintain that it wiU be 
 effectual to prevent bribery, intimidation, and undue 
 influence. They regard its failure in Am^erica as 
 being beside the question as to its suitability for 
 this country, because in America what the voter has 
 to contend against is the pressure of the many, 
 while with us he seeks to resist coercion by incU- 
 viduals. The tenants, for instance, want security, 
 through concealment, against the loss of their farms, 
 should they vote against the wishes of their land- 
 lord. They believe it will prevent bribery, through 
 the uncertainty that the bribed party will vote as 
 he promises. And as a candidate wiU not give 
 bribes, because he cannot trust that he wiU get 
 value for his money, so intimidation wiU not be 
 attempted in the absence of any security that it will 
 be of effect. To this it is answered, on the other 
 side, that the case of America is in point, inasmuch 
 as intimidation may arise here, as there, from a 
 majority, and that the case of a shopkeeper and his 
 patrons is that of many against one aU over the world. 
 If the B. f aUs to protect the unit against the crowd ia 
 one country, how can it succeed in another ? As to 
 the undue influence of individuals over many — as of 
 a landlord over his tenants — ^it can only be prevented 
 providing the many, in all their public acts, contra- 
 dict their secret votes. If the many act publicly 
 as if they agreed with the few, and privately vote 
 against them, we should have a state of things in 
 ■vmoh the professed pubHo opinion would be in 
 antagonism with the public policy, supported by 
 private votes — a state of thiAga justly regarded as 
 being impossible to be produced.^ The influence of 
 individuals, then, must remain — i. e., the secret 
 voting would be of no use, since, short of life-long 
 hypocrisy, it must faU to be a protection. As to 
 bribery, the opponents of the B. think better of 
 human nature than those who would purify it by 
 machinery. ' Honour among thieves,' they say : ' he 
 who takes a bribe, either has no principle left in him 
 for which to vote contrary to his promise, or wiU be 
 guided by his deceased sense of honour.' On the 
 other view, they put it, you secure the vote of a 
 rogue, through his playing the knave doubly, by the 
 public in taking a bribe, and by the briber in not 
 fulfilling his pledge. That men wiU be incliued to 
 give and take bribes as formerly, despite the some- 
 what diminished security, they appear not to doubt. 
 
 An element in the controversy is the question — 
 whether the franchise is to be regarded as a public 
 trust or a private power, to be used at the indivi- 
 dual's discretion. The opponents of the B. maintain 
 the franchise to be a trust, on which view, certainly, 
 it should be openly exercised. Its advocates, on the 
 other view, hold the object of the franchise to be 
 the ascertainment of the conscientious opinions of 
 the people. The fact is, the right partakes of both 
 characters-: it is a power of expressing opinion by 
 the agent under a sense of responsibihty. The B. 
 gives greater security for independence of thought ; 
 but the public vote is attended by the greater 
 security for sense of responsibility. It is usual 
 to sprinkle "pleas against the B. with high praise 
 of the whole scheme of British politics, as open, 
 manly, and candid, and with expressions of con- 
 tempt for the B., as sneaking, and dissonant with 
 that scheme. But we know how much corruption 
 is hid under the fair surface of British pohtics, and 
 the advocates of the B. are not unprepared with a 
 ready and obvious retort to such arguments. Let us 
 hope that the public feeling may continue to improve, 
 tm, as the point of that retort grows blunter, the 
 necessity for trying some such remedy as the B. 
 may grow less. 
 
 The B. has for years been the subject of annual 
 motions in our parliament. Ever since 1835, its 
 648 
 
 introduction has been an open question with the 
 Whigs. It is a pet project of the Radicals, who in 
 1859 must have been pleased to find Lord John 
 liussell expressing himself as being almost il 
 convert to their views. 
 
 BA'LLOT FOB MILITIA. See Militia. 
 
 BALLO'TA. See Hoeehound. 
 
 BALLS, Hollow. In military pyrotechny, 
 many varieties of B. are made, differing in purpose 
 from bomb-shells, but, like them, filled with ignit- 
 ible composition. They are used to give light, to 
 produce a dense smoke, or to diffuse a suffocating 
 odour. Some of them, though called B., are not 
 globular in shape. Light B. consist of canvas 
 stretched over a skeleton-frame, and painted ; the 
 frame is filled with a composition of saltpetre, sul- 
 phur, resin, and linseed-oU, rammed down hard; 
 and is provided with a fuse, the length of which 
 determines the time that will elapse before the com- 
 
 ?osition ignites. These light B. weigh from 5 lbs. to 
 lbs. each, according to their size. They are 
 intended to give out a brilliant light, which may 
 reveal the operations of the enemy during night 
 at a siege or in the field. Smoke-B. are made 
 of several thicknesses of paper, shaped by means 
 of a globular core or mould. They are filled with 
 gunpowder, saltpetre, powdered sea-coal, Swedish 
 pitch, and tallow; and are calculated, after being 
 fired off, to send out a dense smoke for nearly 
 half an hour, in order to blind or incommode the 
 enemy. Stinh-B. are filled with a composition 
 which, when ignited, diffiises an odour almost 
 intolerable. Some of the contrivances of Captaia 
 Norton and other inventors at the present day, 
 noticed imder Asphvxtants, are extensions of the 
 same principle as these inflammable balls. It may 
 here be added, that most of these projectiles, espe- 
 cially light B. and smoke-B., are fired from mortars, 
 rather than from guns. 
 
 BA'LLY, BAL, a Celtic word or prefix, signifying 
 ' town' or ' dwelling,' enters into the composition of 
 hundreds of names of places in Ireland and Scotland. 
 It is allied (see letter B) to Gr. polis, city, and to 
 the Lat., Ital., and Span, villa. 
 
 BALLYOA'STLE, a small seaport town in the 
 north of Antrim county, Ireland, in an open bay 
 opposite Eathlin Isle, 88 miles north of Belfast, and 
 5 miles south-west of Fairhead. It lies at the base 
 of Knocklayd Mountain, 1635 feet high ; and the 
 marine and mountain scenery around is very roman- 
 tic. B. consists of an upper and lower town, a 
 quarter of a nule apart. Its harbour and pier cost 
 £150,000, but the former is now filled with sand. 
 Coal was dug here at least 500 years ago. Linen 
 manufacture and salmon-fishery are carried oa 
 here. Near B. are the Bonnamargy Abbey ruins. 
 There is a singular fissure, called Sie ' Gray Man's, 
 Path,' in the face of a greenstone precipice near B, 
 on the way to Fan-head. Pop. 1669. 
 
 BALLYME'NA, a small inland town in the- 
 centre of Antrim county, Ireland, in a plain, on the 
 right bank of the Braid, 2 mUes above its junction 
 with the Maine, and 33 miles north-north-west of 
 Belfast. It lies in a densely peopled and well-culti- 
 vated district, the inhabitants uniting the pursuit 
 of agriculture with the manufacture of linen. B. is 
 one of the greatest linen and flax markets in 
 Ireland, and its vicinity is covered with extensiva 
 bleach-fields. Pop. 6493. 
 
 BALLYSHA'NNON, a small seaport town in 
 the south of Donegal county, Ireland, the chief 
 town of the county, though not the capital. It 
 is situated at the mouth of the river Erne, on a 
 
BALM— BALNAVES. 
 
 small inlet running off from Donegal Bay, and 
 120 miles north-west of Dublin. A bridge of 14 
 aiohes crosses the Erne here. The Erne discharges 
 more water than any other Irish river except Sie 
 Shannon, and falls 140 feet over a rugged bed 
 in the last 9 miles of its course ; 400 yards below 
 the bridge at B. the river falls in a cataract 16 
 feet high at low water, and 450 feet wide, over 
 a limestone ledge of rock. The chief streets of 
 B. are very steep. There is a valuable salmon- 
 fishery on the river. The export trade is small, 
 in consequence of the existence of a bar at the 
 mouth of the harbour and the prevalence of west 
 winds. Pop. 3697. 
 
 BALM {Mdissa offxiinaUs), an erect, branching, 
 perennial, herbaceous plant, of the natural order 
 fjohiaUe, a native of the south of Europe, naturalised 
 ia a few places in England. It has ovate crenate 
 
 Balm {Melissa officinalis). 
 
 leaves, and axillary half -whorls of white flowers on 
 one side of the stem. The whole plant has an 
 agreeable lemon,-like smell, on account of which 
 it is frequently cultivated in gardens. The stems 
 and leaves are used in medicine as a gentle 
 aromatic, stimulant, and tonic. B. is also employed 
 for making an agreeable and somewhat exhilarating 
 beverage called B. Wine. B. was formerly in much 
 higher repute than now for its medicinal virtues. 
 Its qualities depend on an essential oil of a pale 
 yellow colour, c^ed Oil of Balm. 
 
 Eor medical use, the herb should be cut before 
 the appearance of the flowers, which begin to 
 expand in July. It is nearly inodorous when dried. 
 The taste is somewhat austere,' and slightly aro- 
 matic. B. scarcely produces any remedial operation 
 upon the system. The quantity of oil which it 
 contains is not more than sufficient to communicate 
 a pleasant flavour to the infusion, which forms an 
 excellent drink in febrile complaints, and when 
 taken warm, tends to .promote the operation of 
 diaphoretic medicines. — A variety of the common 
 Cat-mint ■ [Nepeta catwna), with a smell like that 
 of B., is often mistaken for it. — Moij>avian B. 
 (Drwxc^halum Moldavicwm) is a native of the 
 
 country from which it derives its name, and of 
 Siberia, &c. ; an annual plant, having, when fresh, 
 a smell Hke that of B., but less pleasant. It is- 
 much used in Germany for flavouring dishes. — 
 Bastard B. (MeUttis Melissophyllv/m), a native of 
 the south of England and of many parts of Europe, 
 is a very beautiful plant, which when dried has a 
 delightful fragrance, and retains it long. All these 
 are of the natural order Lahiatw. 
 
 BALM OP GI'LEAD. See Balsam of Gilbad. 
 
 BALMO'RAL CASTLE, the autumnal residence 
 of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, is situated in a 
 beautiful dell in Braemar (the south-west district of 
 Aberdeenshire), on a natural platform that slopes 
 gently down from the base of Craigan-gowan to the 
 margin of the river Dee in front; and about 48 
 miles west of the city of Aberdeen. The castle 
 commands a magnificent prospect on all sides. In 
 1848, Prince Albert purchased the reversion of a 38 
 years' lease from the representatives of Sir Robert 
 Gordon, who had held it under the Earl of Fife ;. 
 and in 1852 he acquired the fee-simple of the estate 
 from the Fife trustees for a sum of £32,000. The 
 old castle not being sufllciently commodious for the 
 royal family. Prince Albert erected a new one at his 
 own expense, in what is called the Scottish baronial 
 style 01 architecture. The castle consists of two 
 separate blocks of building, united by wings and a 
 massive tower 35 feet square, rising to the height 
 of 80 feet, surmounted by a turret 20 feet high. 
 At a distance, the castle, which is built of granite, 
 has a strong and imposing appearance, looking 
 almost as if it had been hewn out of one huge rock 
 of that material. Great improvements have been 
 made, and are being made, by Prince Albert in the 
 approaches to the royal residence. The estate now 
 includes Birkhall, Knock Castle ruins, Loch Muieh, 
 and' dark Lochnagar,' celebrated by Byron (which 
 is aboiit seven miles south-west of B. C), and con- 
 tains about 10,000 acres, in addition to 30,000 acres- 
 of hiU-ground, which have been converted into a 
 deer-forest. 
 
 BA'LNAVES, Hbnky, of HalhiQ, an eminent lay- 
 reformer of the 16th c. Bom at Kirkcaldy in Eife- 
 shire of poor parents, who, however, contrived to 
 give him a umversity education at St Andrews, he 
 went to the continent, and entered a free school at 
 Cblogne, where he greatly improved his scholarship, 
 and received instructioh in the principles of the new 
 faith which Luther had just promulgated. On 
 his return to Scotland, he studied law, and acted 
 for some time as a procurator at St Andrews. In 
 1538, James V. made him a senator of the College 
 of Justice; and on Arran being appointed to the- 
 regency, B. was made secretary of state. In 1543, he 
 was imprisoned on account of his Protestantism, but 
 appears to have been liberated in the following year. 
 He now appears to have made himself active on the 
 Protestant side; and it is asserted that he was 
 privy to the conspiracy formed for the murder of 
 Cardinal Beaton, and that he acted for the con- 
 spirators at the English court. In 1547, he took 
 refuge in the Castle of St Andrews, and was declared 
 a traitor and excommunicated. When the castle was 
 captured by the French, B., with Knox and others, 
 were sent to Rouen as prisoners of war. While in 
 prison here, B. wrote a treatise on Justification, 
 to which -Knox added marginal notes, and pre- 
 fixed a dedication, and which was afterwards pub- 
 Ushed with the title of The Confession of • Fai^.- 
 AVhen Mary of Guise was raised to the' regency 
 in 1554, B.'s forfeiture was rescinded, and he 
 returned to Scotland, and took an active pait on 
 the side of the Lords of the Congregation; ■ by 
 whom he was appointed one of the commissioners 
 
 649 
 
BALSAM. 
 
 wlio settled the treaty of Berwick in 1559 — 1560, 
 whicli established by law the reformed religion in 
 Scotland. In 1563, B. was nominated a commis- 
 sioner to revise The Booh of Discipline. He after- 
 wards acted for the Regent Murray in the inquiry 
 into the charges against 3Iary for the murder of 
 Darnley. He died m 1579 ; one account says 1570. 
 Both Knox and MelyiLle had a high opinion of him 
 alike for his piety, wisdom, and learning. 
 
 BA'IiSAM, a name formerly comprehensive of 
 many resinous substances and oils, to which import- 
 ant medicinal virtues were ascribed, as well as of 
 medicines compounded of resins and oils. When 
 the term B. is now used without addition, the 
 balsams of Peru and Tolu are generally intended. — 
 These two balsams are very similar in all their more 
 important properties, and are both produced by trees 
 of the genus Myrospermum (or Myroxylon), of the 
 natural order Leguminosce, sub-order Papilionace(B, 
 natives of the tropical parts of America. M. perui- 
 ferum, which is called the Quiuquino, a beautiful tree, 
 coimnon from Peru to Mexico, is generally regarded 
 as the species which produces the B. of Peru ; and 
 M. toluiferum, a very similar species, found on the 
 mountains of Tolu, the banks of the Magdalena, &o., 
 as that which produces the B. of Tolu; but it is 
 doubtful i£ the difference is not at least as much 
 oviring to the modes of procuring and preserving the 
 B. ; and other species of the same genus [M. punc- 
 taium and M. pubescens) are supposed also to yield 
 it. B. of Peru appears in two forms, knovm as 
 White B. of Peru and Black B. of Peru; the former 
 of which has been said to be obtained from the 
 pods, and the latter from incisions in the trunk of 
 the tree; but it has also been stated that the white 
 B. flows from the trunk, and that the black B. is 
 obtained by distilling down the wood after the 
 manner of tar-burning, or by boiling with water. 
 The actual evidence is insufficient to determine 
 these points with certainty, and it is not improbable 
 that different methods may be employed. White 
 B. of Peru is at first of the consistence of recent 
 honey, and of a light yellow colour; the black B. 
 is of a reddish or blackish brown colour, and of the 
 consistence of treacle. B. of Tolu, imtU recently, 
 appeared in commerce dry and friable, but is now 
 generally soft and tenacious when first imported, 
 becoming hard by age. Both balsams have a very 
 fragrant odour. They are used in confectionary, 
 to impart a flavour like that of vanOle; also in 
 perfumery, and for pastilles, &c. In medicine, they 
 are administered as gentle stimulants and tonics, 
 ^and particularly in chronic bronchial affections. 
 Tolu lozenges are a popular and pleasant remedy 
 for troublesome coughs. These balsams are also 
 ' used for cleansing ulcers. — They contain Cinnamic 
 Acid, and a peculiar oily substance which has been 
 called Cmaameine, and is also known as Oil of B. of 
 Pern. The name Whiie B. of Peru, is sometimes 
 given to a balsamic substance which flows from the 
 jJiguidaTiibar styradjlua. See Liquidambae. 
 
 BALSAM, or BALM OF GILEAD, is a Hquid 
 resinous substance, which has long enjoyed a very 
 high reputation in the East, being prized not only 
 for its fragrance, but also for the medicinal virtues 
 which it is supposed to possess. It is the subject 
 of several allusions in the Old Testament, which 
 strongly indicate the prevalent opinion of its 
 preciousness ; and is celebrated by Strabo, Pliny, 
 Diodorus Sioulus, and other ancient writers, almost 
 as a cure for every disease. It is stiU somewhat 
 doubtful what tree furnishes it, but it is generally 
 believed to be a species of Balscumodendron (q. v.) — 
 a small tree growing in Arabia and Abyssinia, and 
 known as B. Gileadense. The finest balsam, called 
 
 650 
 
 Opobalsam or Balm of Mecca, is obtaihed by inci- 
 sions, is at first turbid and white, but finally becoines 
 of a golden yellow colour, and of a consistence like 
 honey. Inferior kinds are obtained b;^ boiling the 
 fruit and the wood. B. of Gilead is irritating when 
 applied to the skin, and is believed to resemble B. 
 of Copaiva ia its effects upon the human system. 
 Balsamodendron Opobalsamwm, a species very nearly 
 allied to B. Gileadmse, is sometimes said to furnish 
 this balsam. 
 
 Other substances, sometimes designated balsams, 
 and possessing a somewhat similar fragrance, are 
 produced by Afferent species oi Amyridacece (q.v.). 
 Among them is one called American Balm of Gilead, 
 the produce of a tree called /aca Oarana. — ^Balsamic 
 substances ,are furnished also by a number of species 
 of OfasiacecB— Balsam of Umiri, a fragrant yellow 
 fluid, by HumiHum flc/ntmndum, a South American 
 tree, of the natural order HwmiriacecB. — OAifADiAir 
 Baisam is a kind of turpentine obtained from the 
 Bahn of Gilead Fir (AUes balscmea) ; Hottgariait 
 Baisam, from the Mugho or Mountain Pine (Pinus 
 PwmiUo or Mughus); and Caepathian Balsam, 
 from the Stone Pine {Pinus pinea). See Fm and 
 Pdte. — ^Balsam op Copaiva is the produce of 
 different species of Oopaifera, See Copaiva. 
 
 BALSAM is also the common name of a natural 
 order of succulent herbaceous plants, Bcdsaminem 
 or Bcdsaminaceoe of botanists, of which the beautiful 
 B. (Impatiens balsamina or Balsamina hortensis). 
 
 
 ,_ * 
 
 1 Si. A 
 
 "7 Jr^ 
 
 Balsam {Impatiens Noli-me-tamgere). 
 
 a, top of stem with leaves and flowers ; &, ripe fruit unopened ; 
 
 c, ripe fruit, elastically opening. 
 
 so much cultivated in gardens and green-houses, 
 is a familiar example. Upwards of one hundred 
 species are ' known, natives chiefly of damp bushy 
 places in the East Indies, and many of them 
 plants of great beauty. They are almost all annuals, 
 and have generally white or red flowers. This 
 natural ' order is ,very closely allied to GeraniacecB 
 (see^ Geeaitium) and Oxalidece (q. v.), wood-sorrel, 
 &c., but is distinguished from both by the eictreme 
 irregularity of the flowers, and from the former' 
 also, by the beakless fruit, which is a five-celled 
 capsule, bursting by five elastic valves. The leaves 
 are simple and without stipules, the flowers gene- 
 rally axillary. — The common B. is a native of the 
 
BALSAM Oi" SULPHUR— BALTIMORE. 
 
 East Indies and Japan. Many fine varieties have 
 resulted from careful cultivation. It has an upright 
 succulent stem, usually about 1 — 2 feet high, out 
 in favourable circumstances wiU attain a greater 
 size. It often appears with flowers partially double, 
 but stm capable of producing seed. In Britain, the 
 seed is usually sown on a slight hotbed, and the 
 plant is often kept in the green-house; although 
 even in Scotland it may be madb an ornament of 
 a sheltered border. It is one of the flowers fre- 
 quisntly to be seen in cottage- windows. A vulnerary 
 was formerly prepared from it, whence it has its 
 name. One species of B. [Impatims Noli-me-tangere), 
 called Yellow B. or Touch-me-not, is a native of 
 Europe, and a doubtful native of Britain. It has 
 yellow flowers, and one of the petals prolonged into 
 a spur. Its ripe capsules burst on the dightest 
 touch. This and two other species are natives of 
 North America. 
 
 BA'LSAM OP SU'LPHUR is a mixture 
 employed for medicinal piu-poses, and considered of 
 service when appHed to foul ulcers. It is prepared 
 by dissolving 1 part of flowers of sulphur in 8 parts 
 of olive oil, which yield a dark, reddish brown, 
 thickish substance,, with a very unpleasant odour. 
 
 BALSAMODE'NDRON (Gr. balsam-tree), a 
 genus of small trees or bushes of the natural order 
 Amyridacece (q. v.), having small green axillary 
 flowers, small dry oval fruits, and small pinnated 
 leaves with 3 or 5 leaflets. Some of them are 
 spiny : they generally exhibit a scrubby appearance, 
 and have little foliage. They are remarkable for 
 the balsamic substances obtained from their wood 
 and fruit — as Balsam of GUead (q. v.). Myrrh 
 (q. v.). Bdellium (q, v.), and Oriental Elemi (q. v.). 
 Tlie red resinous wood of B. Katof is a common 
 article of sale in Egjrpt ; and a species called Schnee 
 is much cultivated in Afghanistan for its aromatic 
 and stimulant properties. All the known species 
 are natives of the East Indies, Arabia, and the east 
 of Africa, except that which yields African bdellium, 
 which is found in Senegal. 
 
 BA'LTA, a well-built and thriving town on the 
 Kodpma, an af&uent of the Bug, in the govern- 
 ment of PodoUa, Russian Poland. Pop. (1855), 
 12,619. 
 
 BA'LTIO PRO'VINCES (in Russia). This term, 
 in a wider sense, comprehends the flve Russian 
 governments bordering on the Baltic — viz., Cour- 
 land, Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and Finland; 
 in a restricted sense, it often designates the first 
 three. The B. P. once belonged to Sweden, except 
 Courland, which was a dependency of Poland. They 
 came into the possession of Russia partly in the 
 beginning of the 18th c, through the conquests of 
 Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in 1809. 
 They have still very various constitutions, though 
 tte usual 'government' machinery has been intro- 
 duced, and every effort is made completely to 
 Russianise them. The five governments have an 
 area of about 200,000 sciuare miles, with a popu- 
 lation of only 4,000,000, including St Petersburg. 
 
 BA'LTIO SEA, is the great gulf or shut sea 
 bordered by Senmark, Germany, Russia, and 
 Sweden, and communicating with the Kattegat and 
 North Sea, by the Sound and the Great ana Little 
 Belts. Its length is from 850 to 900 miles ; breadth, 
 from 100 to 200; and area, iacluding the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia and Finland, about 160,000 square 
 miles. Its depth is on an average 15 — ^20 fathoms, 
 in many places not half so much, seldom more than 
 40 — 50, and never exceeding 167. Its shallowness 
 and narrowness, the flat coasts of Prussia on the one 
 side and the rocky coasts of Sweden on the other, 
 and above all the numerous and sudden changes 
 
 of wind accompanied by violent stor^, make the 
 navigation of the Baltic very dangerous. The group 
 of the Aland Islands divide the south part of the sea 
 from the north part or Gulf of Bothnia (q. v.). The 
 Gulf of Finland (q. v.), branchingoff eastwards into 
 Russia, separates Finland from Esthonia. A third 
 gulf is that of Riga or Livonia. The Kurish and 
 other Haffs (q. v.) are not gulfs, but fresh- water 
 lakes at the mouths of rivers. 
 
 The water of the Baltic is colder and clearer than 
 that of the ocean. It contains only a fifth of the 
 salt of the Atlantic, and icej hinders its navigation 
 from three to five months yearly. Tides, as in all 
 inland seas, are little perceptible — at Copenhagen, 
 about a foot ; yet the water rises and falls at times, 
 though from other causes, chiefly from the varying 
 quantity of water in the rivers at different seasons. 
 Upwards of 250 rivers flow into this sea. The chief 
 from Germany are the Trave, Wamow, Oder, Rega, 
 Persante, Vistula, Pregel, and Niemen; from Russia, 
 the Windau, Diina, STarva, Neva, and Ulea; and 
 from Sweden, Tomea, Lulea, Pitea, Umea, Anger- 
 man, Dal, the water of Lake Maeler, and that of 
 Wetter and other lakes through the river Motala. 
 The basin of the Baltic occupies at least 888,710 
 square m^les, or about one-fourth of all Europe; 
 and only about a fourth of the boundary of the 
 basin is mountainous. The principal islands are 
 Zealand, Fiinen, Bomholm, Samsoe, MBen, Langeland, 
 and, Laaland, belonging to Denmark; the Swedish 
 islands Gottland, Olani^ and Hveen (in the Sound) ; 
 the Aland Islands, Dago, and Oesel, belonging to 
 Russia; and Riigen, to Prussia. The number of 
 vessels that pass the Sound to or from the Baltic 
 annually is very large. See Soumd Dues. Timber, 
 hides, tallow, and grain, are the chief exports 
 from the countries bordering on the Baltic. The 
 Eider or Schleswig-Holstein Canal, connecting the 
 Baltic near Kiel with the North Sea at Tonuingen, 
 facilitates the grain trade in mild winters. The two 
 seas are also connected by the Gotha Canal, which 
 joins the lakes of South Sweden. The most 
 important harbours in the Baltic are : in Denmark, 
 Copenhagen, Flensburg, Schleswig, and Kiel ; in 
 Germany, Travemiinde (Lubeck), wismar, Rostock; 
 Stralsund, Stettin, Swinemiinde, Daimg, Elbing, 
 Konigsberg, PiUau, and Memel; in Russia, Riga, 
 Revel, Narwa, Kronstadt, and Sveaborg; and ia 
 Sweden, Stockholm, Karkkrona, and Ystad. — The 
 shores of the Baltic in Prussia and Courland have 
 been long noted for the amber cast ashore by the 
 waves in stormy weather. Another important 
 phenomenon connected with the Baltic, is an alleged 
 slow vertical movement of its coasts, downwards in 
 the south of Sweden, but further north upwards, 
 being there supposed \o be at the rate of three feet 
 in' a century. See LyeU's Principles of Geology.^ 
 The Germanic nations call this sea Ostsee, or Eastern 
 Sea ; the name Baltic is derived by Dr Latham, from 
 an island Baltia, mentioned by Pliny, and which Dr 
 Latham considers to be Zealand. 
 
 BA'LTIMORB, the commercial metropolis of 
 Maryland, U. S., in lat. 39° 17' N., and long. 76° 36' W. 
 It stands round a small bay which runs back from 
 the left side of the Patapsco, about 12 nules from 
 its entrance into Chesapeake Bay, and about 200 
 miles, by a ship's ■ course, from the open Atlantic 
 The city was founded so late as 1729. The surest 
 test of its prosperity is to be found in the successive 
 results of its census since 1775. In 1775, there were 
 5934 inhabitants; in 1790, 15,530; in 1800, 26,514; 
 in 1810, 46,455; in 1820, 62,738; in 1830, 80,620; 
 in 1840, 102,613; in 1850, 169,054; and, lastly, in 
 1853, about 195,000. Besides its safe and convenient 
 communication with the sea, B. is connected by 
 railway with Philadelphia, Washington, Winchester, 
 
 651 
 
BALTIMORE-BIRD— BALZAC. 
 
 Aimapolia, Cumberland, York, Lancaster, and 
 Harrisburg. Prom east to west, the city is about 
 4|- nules long ; and from north to south, about 3^ 
 broad, and covers about 10,000 acres. It is divided 
 into two nearly equal parts by ' Jones's falls,' a 
 rapid stream which, though troublesome from its 
 floods, and expensive from its bridges, at once affords 
 inunense water-power, and supplies an abundance of 
 pure water for domestic use. 
 
 Imports in 1851 amounted to 7,243,963 dollars ; 
 and the exports in 1852, to 7,549,766. In 1850, the 
 of&oial valuation of the real and personal property 
 was 80,237,960 dollars, or a little more than 
 £16,000,000 — not the annual return, be it observed, 
 but the absolute worth. 
 
 Among the commemorative structures which 
 have gained for B. the name of the ' Monumental 
 City,' the most interesting is an elegant obelisk, 
 which was erected in 1815 to the memory of those 
 who had fallen the year before in defending the 
 town against an attack of the British. As was to 
 be expected in the wealthiest city of Roman Catholic 
 Maryland, the Roman Catholic cathedral takes the 
 lead among the ecclesiastical edifices of B. It is a 
 massive buoldiag of granite, being 190 feet long, 
 177 broad, and to the top of the cross, 127 high; 
 and besides one of the largest organs in the United 
 States, it contains two beautiful paintings, presented 
 respectively by Louis XVI. and Charles X. of 
 iPrance. Li B., however, the Roman Catholics are 
 now vastly outnumbered by other denominations, 
 having only 11 churches out of 104. 
 
 BA'LTIMOEB-BIRD, or BALTIMORE 
 ORIOLE (I'derus Baltimorii), a very beautiful 
 American bird, found in all parts of the United 
 
 Baltimore-Bird. 
 
 States, and as far north as 55° N. lat., but migrating 
 to tropical or subtropical regions ia winter. The 
 genus to which it belongs is usually referred to 
 the natural family of Stumidm (see Starling). 
 The B.-B. is in size somewhat less than a common 
 starling; the bill oonioal, very acute, and a little 
 curved; the plumage briUiaut, particularly in the 
 adult males, glossy black finely contrasting with 
 bright orange and vermilion ; the tail longish, 
 rounded, and slightly forked. The bird is remark- 
 ably active and lively ; its song extremely agreeable. 
 Its nest is a curious and interesting structure — a 
 pendulous cylindrical pouch of six or seven inches 
 long, usually suspended from two twigs at the 
 652 
 
 extremity of a lofty drooping branch; the materials, 
 which vary according to circumstances, being woven 
 together with great nicety. It is sometimes sewed 
 through and through with long horse-hairs. Thread, 
 which may happen to be bleaching, is very liable to 
 be appropriated to the purpose of nest-building. 
 
 The nests of other species of Icterus are also 
 pensile. Several are natives of North America, and 
 others of South America. They are quite distinct 
 from the true Orioles (q. v.). 
 
 BALTSCHI'K, or BALD JI'K, a town of European 
 Turkey, 18 miles north-east of Varna, noteworthy 
 in consequence of being in the vicinity of the ruins 
 of Tomi, to which place Ovid was exiled. 
 
 BA'LUSTBK, popularly, banister or ballaster, 
 (Ital. balaustro; EV. balustre), the name given to 
 the small shafts or pillars set in a line at short 
 
 Balusters. 
 
 equal distances, and supporting a cornice or coping, 
 liese miniature piUars have generally either a 
 pear-shaped swelling at the lower end, or consist of 
 two pear-shaped pieces, placed above each other, 
 a ring of mouldines being set between them. This 
 makes the profife resemble an ancient bow or 
 BaKsta (q. v.), from which some derive the name ; 
 others derive it from Lat. palus, Eng. pole or pale. 
 
 BALUSTRADE, a range of balusters, together 
 with the cornice or coping which they support. 
 The B. is often used as a parapet for bridges, the 
 
 Balustrade. 
 
 roofs of large edifices, &c., or as a mere termination 
 to the structure. It is also used to enclose stairs, 
 altars, balconies, &c. Balustrades are made of stone, 
 metal, or wood. 
 
 BALZAC, Jfan Louis Gubz db, bom at 
 AngoulSme in 1594. In his youth he was secre- 
 tary to Cardinal la Valette at Rome, where he 
 cultivated his taste for elegant composition, and 
 on his return to Paris devoted himself to the refine- 
 nient of his native language. His efforts ia this 
 direction have given him a permanent place iu the 
 literature of his country;, and though his writings do 
 not possess much iatrinsic worth, they heralded the 
 splendid phalanx of genius which adorned the 
 subsequent age of Louis XIV. He was a favourite 
 of Cardinal Richelieu, a member of the French 
 Academy, a coimcUlor of state, and historiographer. 
 His violent literary disputes with Father Goula, 
 caused him to leave Paris and retire to his here- 
 ditary property of Balzac, where he died on the 
 
BALZAC— BAMBINO. 
 
 l^th February 1655. A oolleotion of the works of J3. 
 appeared in Paris, edited by L'Abb6 Cassaigne 
 <2 vols. Par. 1665 ; 3 vols. Amst. 1684). Of aU 
 his works, his Lettres (3 'vols. Par. 1806) have 
 been most generally adraired, and are still read. 
 A selection from his writings was arranged by 
 Malitonrne (2 vols. Par. 1822). Compare Moreau de 
 Mersan, Pensies de B. (Par. 1807). 
 
 BALZAC, HoNOK^ DE, one of the best of the 
 modern French novelists, was bom on the 20th 
 May 1799, at Tours, where his father held a, civil 
 office. At the age of twelve, he entered the college 
 of Vend6me, but finished his studies at the Pension 
 Lepitre, in Paris. His father, who had been impo- 
 verished by the loss of his situation, then placed 
 him with a notary, to whom he acted as clerk. 
 This occupation proving intolerably irksome, B. soon 
 after began his literary career, and wrote about 
 30 volumes, under the names, St Aubih, M. de 
 Veillergr§, St Alme, &o. He received some trifling 
 assistance in writiug these novels, which were, 
 however, so unsuccessful, that he Uved in the 
 greatest poverty. In the year 1826, he entered 
 into partnership with the printer Barbier, and 
 published various works ; but the speculation 
 turned out so HI, that he fell into debt, and returned 
 once more to book-making. His perseverance was 
 admirable. Although long utteny imsuccessful, 
 he continued to write on imtil at last he opened 
 a path for himself by his novel Les Demiers 
 Chouans, cm la Sretagne eft 1800 (Par. 1829). 
 In this book he abandoned for the first time the 
 manner of Pigault and Lebrun, which he had 
 hitherto adopted. Among his best works are the 
 PhysMogie du Manage (2 vols. Par. 1831), Seines 
 de la Vie PrivSe (5 vols. 1831), Sc^nesde la Vie de Pro- 
 vince (1832), Seines de la Vie Parisienne (1832), Le 
 Median de Campagne, Le Pire GoHot, La Peau de 
 Chagrin, La Becherche de VAbsolu, which were all 
 received with much favour by the pubho. Of all 
 his novels, two only can lay claim' to anything like 
 artistic completeness. They are the Sistoire Intd- 
 leduelle de Louis Lambert, and Bugene Orandet. 
 His other works suffer more or less from unnatu- 
 rabiess, dififuseness, and the want of a sohd know- 
 ledge of the world, although there is a richness of 
 description in portraying individual features of 
 character, as drawn directly from the heart, not 
 to be denied. B. exercises inomense power over 
 the female part of his readers. In his Oontes 
 Drolatiqties, colligez es Abbaies de Touraine, et mis 
 en lumiire par le Sieur de Balzac pour Vesbattement 
 de Pantagruelistes et non auUres (2 vols. Par. 1833), 
 he follows exactly in the footsteps of Rabelais. Suc- 
 cess made B. conceitedly ambitious. He thought 
 himself equal to the most distinguished authors of 
 all time, and represented the ami of his literary 
 activity to be, to give a complete picture of human 
 Efe in all its varied phases. As a dramatic author 
 he decidedly failed. In the year 1850, he was seized 
 with hypertrophy of the heart, of which he died 
 on the 18th of Augtist. Almost the whole literary 
 world of Paris were present at his funeral. 
 
 BAMBA'RBA, one of the states of Sudan, 
 Western Africa, lying, so far as has been ascer- 
 tained, between lat. 12° and 14° N., long. 15° E. and 
 5° W., and occupying both sides of the JoHba or 
 Niger, which flows through its centre from south- 
 west to north-east. The principal towns of B. 
 stand on the banks of this river. The mountains 
 in which the Niger has its source divide it on 
 the S. from Guinea ; the Sahara desert bounds 
 it on the N. ; on the W., Senegambia; and on the 
 E., some of its sister-states.. In its general 
 aspect, the coxmtry is said to bear a considerable 
 
 resemblance to the agricultural districts of England ; 
 but in the west there are low chains of granite 
 hiUs, forming continuations of the highlands from 
 which the Niger springs. The climate m some parts 
 is intensely hot; in others, it is more temperate, 
 but it is generally healthy. The rainy season lasts 
 from June to November. The land is well watered 
 and fertile. Double crops of corn, rice, maize, yams, 
 &c., are raised annually without much labour. 
 
 The butter-tree, cotton-tree, oil-pahn, baobab, and 
 date, are among the most important indigenous 
 growths. The manufacturing iadustry of B. is 
 miportant ; the women making a soft coarse cloth, 
 much esteemed for its beautiful blue colour, and 
 the men articles in gold, iron, and ivory, in which 
 a pretty extensive trade is carried on. The inha- 
 bitants, chiefly Mandhlgoes, are said to be superior 
 to their neighbours in intelligence, and to be much 
 sought after as warriors by the petty chiefs around 
 them, who are at constant war with each other. 
 They generally lend their assistance on condition 
 of a certain pajrment. The upper classes profess 
 Mohammedanism, but the lower are pagans. The 
 introduction of the former religion has had at least 
 one good effect. It has suppUed the native dialect 
 with a written speech through the use of Arabic 
 letters. The chief domestic animals are homed 
 cattle, goats, sheep, and fine horses. The wild ani- 
 mals are Hons, leopards, elephants, wolves, panthers, 
 &c. ; and venomous reptiles, of which the natives 
 are much afraid. Crocodiles are numerous in the 
 rivers, which also abound with fish. The principal 
 towns are Sego, Sansanding, Yamina, and Bammaku, 
 which are all populous. The country has a nominal 
 monarch, but it is in reality ruled by several chiefs. 
 
 BA'MBEEG, a city of Bavaria, in the district of 
 Upper Franconia, beautifully situated on the banks 
 of the Regnitz, not far from its confluence with the 
 Main, and in the midst of vineyards, orchards, and 
 hop-gardens. B., which has considerably declined 
 in importance since the Reformation, is a city of 
 considerable antiquity, having originated, it is said, 
 with a colony of Saxons who settled here in 804. 
 The most noteworthy of its pubhe buildings is 
 the cathedral, a magnificent edifice in the Byzan- 
 tine style, founded by the Emperor Henry H. in 
 1004, and restored after fire in 1110. It contains, 
 among other monuments, the elaborately carved 
 tomb of the founder and his empress, Cunigunda. 
 Attached to the cathedral is a hbrary, with v^uable 
 missals and manuscripts, and what is represented to 
 be the prayer-book of Henry II. There are several 
 other mie ecclesiastical structures of early date, and 
 the old palace of the former prince-bishops of Bam- 
 berg. The ruins of the castle of Altenburg, origin- 
 ally the seat of the Counts of Babenberg, and the 
 scene of many important historical events, stand on 
 an eminence about a mile and a half from the town. 
 The educational institutions of B. are nvunerous. 
 Pop. 24,600, chiefly engaged in the manufacture of 
 beer, which is famous throughout Germany, porce- 
 lain, jewellery, gloves, musical instruments, &c. 
 A large export trade in. liquorice and garden-seeds 
 is carried on. 
 
 BAMBI'NO, a term in art descriptive of the 
 swaddled figure of the infant Saviour, which, sur- 
 rounded by a halo, and watched over by angels, 
 occasionally forms the subject of altar-pieces in 
 Roman Catholic churches. The Santisshno B., in 
 the church of the Ara Coeli at Rome, is held in great 
 veneration for its supposed miraculous power of 
 curing the sick. It is carved in wood, painted, and 
 richly decorated with jewels and precious stones. 
 The carving is attributed to a Franciscan pUgritn, 
 out of a tree that grew on Mount Olivet, and the 
 
 653 
 
BAMBOCCIADES— BAMBEOUGH. 
 
 painting to St Luke. The festival of the B., which 
 occurs at the Epiphany, is attended by great num- 
 bers of country people, aud the B. is said to draw 
 more in the shape of fees than the most successful 
 medical practitioner in Rome. 
 
 BAMBO'CCIADES, in painting, are grotesque 
 scenes from common or low life — such as country- 
 fairs, penny-weddings, boors merry-making. The 
 name is derived from Peter van Laar, a painter, who, 
 on account of his personal deformity, was sumamed 
 Bamboccio (Cripple) ; but he was not the first painter 
 of such scenes. 
 
 BAMBOO' {Bambusd), a genus of grasses, of 
 which most of the species attain a great size, many 
 of them 20 or 30 feet, some 70 or 100 feet in height. 
 The species are numerous, and are found in tropical 
 and subtropical regions, both of the eastern and 
 western hemispheres. They are of great importance 
 to the inhabitants of the countries in which they 
 grow. All of them have a jointed subterranean 
 root-stock (rhizome), which throws up 10 — 100 stems. 
 These are generally straight and erect ; although one 
 large species (B. agresUs), common in dry mountain- 
 ous situations in the south-east of Asia, has crooked, 
 and sometimes creeping stems. The stems grow to 
 their full height imbranched, but afterwards throw 
 out straight horizontal branches, especially ia their 
 upper paxts, forming a dense thicket ; and many of 
 them being strongly armed with spines, they are 
 planted for defence, presentiug a formidable barrier, 
 even against regular troops. Some of the smaller kinds 
 are often planted as hedges. The stems are jointed 
 
 Bamboo. 
 
 like those of other ^:asses, very hard, but light and 
 elastic, hollow, containing only a light spongy pith, 
 except at the joints or nodes, where they are divided 
 by strong partitions. They are, therefore, readily 
 converted into water- vessels of various sorts ; and 
 when the partitions are removed, they are used as 
 pipes for conveying water. They are also much 
 employed for house-bmlding, for bridges, and for 
 many other purposes to which wood is usually 
 applied. The smaller stems are converted into 
 walking-sticks, and are imported into Europe under 
 the name of B. Cane, both for that purpose and to 
 be employed in light wicker-work. Some of the 
 species grow to the height only of a few feet ; and 
 almost all of them are slender in proportion to their 
 height, although B. Chmdua, a native of New 
 Granada and Quito, has a trunk 16 inches in diame- 
 ter. The stems of different species .vary also very 
 664 
 
 much in the thickness of the woody part, and so in 
 their adaptation to different purposes. The external 
 covering of the stem is, in all the species, remark- 
 ably sUicious ; the stem of B. tabacaria is so hard 
 that it strikes fire when the hatchet is applied. 
 This species is a native of Amboyna and Java ; its 
 slender stems are polished, and used for the stalks of 
 tobacco-pipes. The leaves of some kinds are used 
 for thatch, and the Chinese plait hats of them; of 
 the external membrane of the stems of some, they 
 make paper. From the knots of the B. there exudes 
 a saccharine juice, which dries upon exposure to the 
 atmosphere, and which the Greeks called Indian 
 Honey. It is also sometimes named Tdbaris or Taha^ 
 sheer; but this name more properly belongs to a 
 phosphorescent substance, containing silica and lime, 
 and possessing remarkable properties, which forms 
 in the joints of some species of B., and of other 
 large grasses growing in dry situations. See Taba- 
 SHEEB. — The yoimg shoots of some kinds of B. are 
 eaten like asparagus, or are pickled in vinegar. 
 Those of B. Tulda, a common Bengalese species, are 
 used for these purposes when about 2 feet long. 
 The seeds of some species are used as rice, and for 
 making a kind of beer. Bamboos are generally of 
 very rapid growth, and they are often found in arid 
 situations, which would otherwise be destitute of 
 vegetation. It is not improbable that they may yet 
 be employed, where they do not naturally abound, 
 to render districts productive which are now little 
 else than deserts, in climates like those of Arabia, 
 the north of Africa, and Australia ; and the quality 
 of the grain of different species seems to deserve 
 more attention than ' it has ever received. The 
 species common in the West Indies {B. vulgaris) is 
 supposed to have been introduced from the East 
 Indies. A few species are found in the Himalaya, to 
 an altitude of 12,000 feet, and a dwarf species from 
 that region has been successfully tried in tho open 
 air in England. 
 
 BAMBOTJ'K, a country of Senegambia, Western 
 Africa, lying in the ande formed by the Senegal 
 and Ealgme rivers, in N. lat. 12° 30'— 14° and W. 
 long. 10° — 12° 30'. Its extent, however, has not 
 been accurately ascertained, but is roughly esti- 
 mated at 140 miles in length, and from 80 to 100 
 in breadth. It is populated by Mandingoes, who 
 are ferocious and cruel in the extreme. The climate 
 is sultry and imheaJthy, especially during the rainy 
 season. Low ranges of mountains cover the greatest 
 portion of the surface of B. The intervening 
 valleys, which are subject to inundations, are 
 remarkable for their fertility. Trees common to 
 Western Africa here attaia enormous proportions. 
 Vast herds of wild oxen roam the hiUs, and the 
 most formidable wild animals of Africa are found 
 in the forests and rivers. B., however, is chiefly 
 remarkable for its rich gold-mines, the produce 
 of which the natives exchange for salt, cotton, and 
 other manufactured goods. Its inhabitants are 
 professedly Mohammedans, but they cling to many 
 of the pagan superstitions. B. was, four centuries 
 ago, in the possession of the Portuguese, but they 
 appear to have been soon driven out.. 
 
 BA'MBE.OUGH,orBA'MBOEOUGH CASTLE, 
 
 one of the oldest castles in Britain, on the coast of 
 Northumberland, 16 nules south-east of Berwick, 
 and crowning a basalt rock, rising 150 feet above 
 the sea, and accessible only on the south-east. 
 In this rock is a draw-weU, 145 feet deep, sunk 
 through the basalt into the sandstone below. B. 
 Castle was founded in 1070. It was forfeited by 
 the Forsters in 1715, but afterwards purchased by 
 a scion of the same house, Lord Crewe, Bishop of 
 Durham, who bequeathed the castle and estate for 
 
BAMIAN— BAMPTON LECTUEES. 
 
 charitable purposes. In 1830, the income of the 
 charity was upwards of £8000. Connected with 
 the castle is a market for the sale of proyisions and 
 groceries to the poor at prime cost; a, dispensary 
 for gratis advice and distribution of medicines to 
 the sick; funds for lodging, clothing, and educat- 
 ing the children of the poor gratis; an extensive 
 library, open to aU living within 20 nules ; life-boats 
 to save the crews of vessels iu distress ; apartments 
 for shipwrecked sailors; and a constant patrol 
 during stormy nights for 8 miles along the coast. 
 Part of the funds are also employed to increase 
 small benefices, to build and repair churches, to 
 support schools, and to aid yomig men at the 
 umversities. B. village, near the castle, was the 
 site of an old castle once the residence of the 
 Northumbrian kings. Opposite B. Castle are the 
 dangerous rocks called the Fam Isles, abounding in 
 sea-fowl. Here Grace Darling and her father saved 
 the crew of the Bothsay steamer in 1838. 
 
 BAMIA'N, a, fruitful valley and pass of Afghan- 
 istan, about a mile in breadth, and enclosed by steep 
 rocks, leading from Cabul to Turkistan. It is at an 
 elevation of 8496 feet, and is as yet the only known 
 pass over the Hindu Kush practicable for artillery 
 and heavy transport. This valley was one of 
 the chief centres of Buddhist worship, as gigantic 
 idols, mutilated indeed by fanatical Mussulrnans, 
 stUl remain to prove. B., with its colossal statues 
 cut out in the rock, was described by the Buddhist 
 monks who traversed Central Asia, on their way 
 from China to India, in the 4th and 5th centuries. 
 The statues are found on a hiU about 300 feet high, 
 in which are a multitude of cells excavated in vas 
 rock all round, and rising above one another in irre- 
 gular tiers. The cells are covered vrith carving. The 
 male flgiCTe is about 160 feet, the female, 120. Both 
 are natural in attitude, and clothed in light drapery; 
 the face of the former is the most perfectly preserved. 
 Each figure is hewn out of a deep niche, also elabo- 
 rately carved, and representing royal personages and 
 a variety of symbols which resemble those on the 
 coins of the Sassanidse. Each contains a vrinding 
 stair by which it is possible to ascend to the head. 
 The whole valley is covered with the ruins of tombs, 
 mosques, and other buildings, once belonging to the 
 town of Ghulghuleh, which more recently occupied 
 this site, and was destroyed by Genghis-Khan in 
 1221. Eight miles eastward of B. Ues the ancient 
 fortress of Zohak, attributed to the fabulous Persian 
 Serpent-king of that name.. The fortress is pre- 
 served for the purpose of guarding the important 
 pass. Both there and in the valley of B., a great 
 number of coins, ornaments, and other antiquities 
 have been recently found, and fuUy described 
 by Masson, Wilson, Prinsep, Wood, and others. 
 
 BA'MPTON, a small town in the north-east of 
 Devonshire, chiefly on the left bank of the Batham, 
 a tributary of the Exe, and 22 miles north of Exeter. 
 There are here extensive carboniferous limestone 
 quarries. The manufacture of serge and pottery 
 is carried on. St Michael's Church was biult in the 
 14th c, and has a tower 70 feet high. Pop. 2102. 
 
 BA'MPTOlSr IN THE BUSH, a smaU town in 
 Oxfordshire, 14 miles south-west of Oxford. It 
 has an ancient cruciform chiirch, with a large 
 Norman tower, and examples of every period of 
 the pointed Gothic style. Pop. 851. 
 
 BA'MPTON LE'CTUBBS. These lectures are 
 so called after the name of their founder, the 
 Key. John Bampton, Canon of Salisbury, who left 
 estates originally worth £120 per annum, to the 
 university of Oxford, for the endowment of eight 
 divinity-lecture sermons, to be preached at Great 
 St Mary's every year, and to be published, at the ' 
 
 expense of the estate, within two months of their 
 being preached. The preacher is to lecture on one 
 of the following subjects : The Confirmation of the 
 Christian Faith, and the Confutation of all Hetetics 
 and Schismatics ; the Divine Authority of the 
 Scriptures ; the Authority of the Primitive Fathers 
 in Matters of Christian Faith and Practice; the 
 Divinity of Christ ; the Divinity of the Holy Ghost ; 
 the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. No person is 
 qualified to preach these lectures who has not taken 
 the degree of M.A, either at Oxford or Cambridge, 
 and the same person shaU never preach them twice. 
 The first course was dehvered in 1780. In 1834 
 and 1835, no lecturers were appointed, and no 
 lecture was preached in 1841. With these excep- 
 tions, there has been an imbroken series of very 
 valuable, but rather learned than popidar, discourses. 
 The most remarkable are the following : Those 
 delivered in 1784, on Christianity and Mohamme- 
 danism, by Dr White, who was accused of having 
 obtained assistance m their composition from 
 Dr Parr and Dr Badcock; those by Dr Tatham 
 in 1790, on the Logic of Theology; those of Dr 
 Nott in 1802, on Religious Enthusiasm — this series 
 was directed against the pretensions of Wesley and 
 Whitefield— those of Dr Mant in 1812; those- of 
 Reginald Heber in 1815; Whately in 1822; MiLman 
 in 1827 ; Burton in 1829, on the Heresies of the 
 Apostolic Age; Soames in 1830, on the Doctrines 
 of the Anglo-Saxon Church. But of the whole 
 series, none have caused greater excitement and 
 controversy than those delivered by Dr Hampden 
 in 1832, on ' The Scholastic Philosophy considered 
 va. its Relation to Christian Theology.' They were 
 attacked on aU sides, but especially by the leaders 
 of the Oxford Tract Association. Hampden was 
 accused of Rationalism and Socinianism. When 
 he was appointed Regius Professor of Divinity in 
 1836, a petition against his appointment was sent 
 up to the throne; and upon this being rejected, 
 a censure was passed upon Tiim in convocation by 
 a large majority, declaring his teaching to be 
 unsound, and releasing undergraduates from attend- 
 ance at his lectures. Notwittistanding this, he was 
 raised to the see of Hereford in 1847, imder the 
 government of Lord John Russell — thirteen of the 
 bench of bishops protesting against the appoint- 
 ment. There has been a recent course of B. L., 
 delivered by Henry Longueville Mansel in 1858, on 
 'The Limits of Religious Thought,' which have 
 caused a less bitter, but scarcely less iateresting con- 
 troversy. Mr Mansel possesses great power as a 
 dialectician, and his lectures contain many very 
 eloquent passages. The main position winch he 
 takes up is, 'That the human mind inevitably, 
 and by virtue of its essential constitution, finds 
 itself involved in self-contradictions whenever it 
 ventures on certain courses of speculation,' i. e., on 
 speculations concerning the infinite nature of God. 
 He maintains that au attempts to construct an 
 objective or metaphysical theology must neces- 
 sarily fail, and that the attainment of a philosophy 
 of _ the Infinite is utterly impossible, under the 
 existing laws of human thought — ^the practical aim 
 of the whole course being to shew the ' right use 
 of reason in religious questions.' Mr Mansel 
 has been accused by his critics of condemning <M 
 dogmatic theology (e. g., all creeds and articles), and 
 of making revelation itself impossible. Mr Maurice 
 has been one of his principal opponents. 
 
 The B. L. for 1859 were delivered by Geo. 
 Rawltnson, the subject being The Historical Evi- 
 dences of die Truth of the Scripture Records, slated 
 anew, with Special Beference to the doubts and <di^ 
 covenes of Modem Times. 
 
 A course of lectures similar to the Bampton was 
 
 fiSS 
 
BAN— BAisTAITA. 
 
 founded about the same time at Cambridge, by 
 the Kev. John Hulse. See Hulsean LECXtTRES. 
 
 BAK. This word occurs in most of the modem 
 languages of Europe, and its primary signification 
 appears to have been, ' to make a signal ' (see 
 Banner), 'to proclaim' or 'pubHsh.' Tliis mean- 
 ing it retains in the phrase, bans or harms (q. v.) 
 of marriage. In Germany, the aclvt or bannum 
 ■was a sentence of outlawry pronounced in the 
 middle ages against those who escaped from justice, 
 or refused to submit to trial. We often read of 
 refractory priuces, and even cities, being placed 
 imder the ban of the empire. The following are 
 the terms of banning used in an old formula : ' We 
 declare thy wife a widow and thy children orphans ; 
 we restore all thy feudal tenures to the lord of 
 the manor: thy private property we give to thy 
 children ; and we devote thy body and flesh to the 
 beasts of the forest and the fowls of the air. In all 
 ways and in every place wherfe others find peace 
 and safety, thou shalt find none; and we banish 
 thee into the four roads of the world — ^in the devil's 
 name.' Besides these sentences of outlawry, many 
 other announcements were accompanied with denun- 
 ciations and imprecations. When a grant of land 
 was made for a religious purpose, or vmen a charter 
 of liberties was granted, the transaction was pro- 
 claimed in public with certain ceremonies, and curses 
 were denounced against any one who should violate 
 the deed. Thus banning, or publishing, came to be 
 associated with cursing ; and hence the origin of the 
 popular use of the word. It occurs in this sense in 
 Shakspeare and Milton, and other old writers. 
 
 BAN; AERIBRE BAN. Besides the civil use 
 of the word ban, as a proclamation or prohibition, 
 there was a military application of the term in former 
 days in I'rance. When the feudal barons, who held 
 their estates and honours from the king, were 
 summoned to attend hirn in the time of war, they 
 were called the ban, or the levy first called out; 
 while the tenants, subordinate to these barons, 
 formed the arriere bam,, or secondary levy. 
 
 BAN, or BA'NUS, supposed by some to be a 
 contraction of the Illyric word Bojan, i, e., lord, 
 but more probably another form of the Slavonic 
 word Pan, which possesses the same signification. 
 Formerly, it was a title given to some of the military 
 cliiefs who guarded the eastern boimdaries of the 
 Hungarian kingdom, and was therefore synonymous 
 with the German Marhgraf. The ban, who was 
 appointed by the sovereign, but not for life, and 
 whose appointment had to be ratified by the national 
 diet, had originally very extensive, in fact, almost 
 unlimited powers. In political, judicial, and military 
 affairs, he was the supreme authority. Within his 
 own territory, he exercised an influence similar to 
 that of the Palatin in Hungary, and only lower than 
 .a king. In time of war, he headed the troops of 
 his Banat (q. v.), and if the campaign occurred within 
 its limits, it was his duty invariably to occupy the 
 post of danger. He led the van to battle, or covered 
 the rear in retreat. For these services, he was 
 recompensed partly in ready money, and partly by 
 a monopoly of salt. The most important banats 
 were those of Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, 
 Machow, and Szoreny, but their boundaries changed 
 so frequently, that at the present day it is impos- 
 sible to ascertain what they originally were. The 
 encroachments of the Turks in the 16th c. rendered 
 the union of the various banats necessary ; and after 
 some time, the whole were formed into the double 
 banat of Dalmatia and Croatia. A stiU more com- 
 plete unity was subsequently obtained by centralis- 
 ing the nuhtary power. In 1723, the authority of 
 the B. was made entirely subordinate to that of the 
 
 supreme government of Hungary. After numerous 
 vicissitudes, his powers, rights, and titles were 
 strictly defined during the reigii of Maria Theresa. 
 He was then acknowledged to be the third dignitary 
 of the Hungarian kingdom, appointed a member of 
 the Hungarian council of government, and president 
 of the council of the banat, and at the coronation of 
 the Hungarian king went before him, bearing the 
 golden apple, the symbol of sovereignty. Such was 
 the position of the ban until the 4th of March 1849, 
 when Croatia, Slavonia, and Dalmatia were trans- 
 formed into Austrian crown-lands, and the ban made 
 wholly independent of Hungary, and endowed with 
 the same extensive powers as the governors of other 
 crown-lands, but retaining, nevertheless, his original 
 title. During the disturbances in Vienna and 
 Hungary, in 1848, the Ban Jellachich (q.v.) rendered 
 important service to the Austrian emperor. 
 
 BANA'NA, a fruit originally East Indian, but 
 much cultivated in warm countries over the whole 
 globe. It is now generally regarded as a mere 
 variety of the Plantain (q. v.) ; dthough they were 
 formerly ranked by botanists as distinct species, the 
 Plantain under the name of Miisa ParaAisaka, and 
 the B. of M. sapientum — the specific name signifying 
 ' of the wise men,' and being intended to convey an 
 allusion to a statement by Theophrastus concerning 
 a fruit which served as food for the wise men of 
 India, and which, from his description, is supposed 
 to have been the plantain or banana. The names 
 plantain and B. are somewhat vaguely used in their 
 
 Banana. 
 
 application to different cultivated varieties, which 
 are very numerous ; those called B. have generally 
 dark purple stripes and spots on their stems, and 
 the fruit is smaller, less curved, and of more delicate 
 taste than the plantain, with a soft and luscious 
 pulp. Each fruit is generally about four or five 
 inches long. The B. is always used in a ripe state, 
 and never like the plantain, as a substitute for 
 bread ; unless when the pulp is squeezed through a 
 fine sieve, and formed into small loaves, which, 
 when dried, may be kept for a great length of time, 
 but which are saccharine, and not farinaceous. It 
 is sometimes fried in slices; it is often made into 
 preserves; and its juice affords an excellent wine. 
 It has been produced of good quality in hot-houses 
 in Britain.— The fruit of Musa Cavendishii is some- 
 times also called banana. See Plantain. 
 
BANANA BIRD— BANCROFT. 
 
 BANA'NA BIRD {Xanthomus Icterus), a beauti- 
 ful bird, allied to tbe Baltimore Bird (q. v.), which 
 it considerably exceeds in size ; a native of the West 
 Indies and warm parts of America. Its colours 
 are tawny and black, with white bars upon the 
 wings. It is very hvely and active. It is gregari- 
 ous, and a number of the nests may often be seen 
 near each other, suspended to the extremities of 
 slender branches of trees, so as to be out of the 
 reach of snakes and monkeys. It is often kept in 
 houses to destroy insects. It is very easily domesti- 
 cated, and deUghts to be caressed. 
 
 BA'NAT, any district or territory under a ban, 
 but specially applied to a province of the Austrian 
 empire, which has, curiously enough, no ban. It 
 is bounded on the W. by the Theiss ; on the S., by 
 the Danube; on the E., by the line of mountains 
 which separates Hungary from Wallachia and Tran- 
 sylvania; and on the N., by the Maros. Pop., in 
 1858, 1,574,500. It is partly mountainous and 
 partly flat, but is everywhere copiously watered, 
 and exceedingly fertUe. The chief rivers are the 
 Temes and Karasch. The cUmate is warm in 
 summer, and comparatively cold in winter; but, 
 though not unpleasant, it is far from salubrious in 
 the west, on account of the swamps and morasses 
 which abound. Nevertheless, it is, next to Lom- 
 bardy, the most productive of the Austrian pro- 
 vinces, yielding rich crops of wheat, spelt, and other 
 grains ; the vine is little cultivated. Wild fowl are 
 numerous, and the rivers swarm with fish. The 
 mines are valuable; coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, 
 and zinc being procured in considerable quantities. 
 The mineral springs of Mehadia are in great repute. 
 The principal town is Temesvar. 
 
 Until recently, the B. belonged to Hungary, but 
 in consequence of an imperial eiuct of 18th November 
 1849, it was separated from that country, and formed 
 into an Austrian crown-land under the title of the 
 ' Woiwodina of Servia and Banat of Temes.' 
 
 BA'NBRIDGE, a small town in the west of 
 Down county, Ireland, on a steep slope on the left 
 bank of the Bann, 76 miles north of Dublin. It is a 
 thriving seat of the linen manufacture in all its 
 stages, from the preparation of the soil for the flax- 
 seed to the finishing of the finest linen. Miles of 
 bleaching-greens exist in the vicinity, and numerous 
 factories along the Bann. Pop. 3301. 
 
 BA'NBXJRY, a small town in the north of Oxford- 
 shire, on the right bank of the Cherwell, 23 mUes 
 north of Oxford. There formerly existed here a 
 very strong castle, which was built about 1125, and 
 sustained various sieges dxuing the early English 
 civil wars. At Dauesmore, near B., the Yorkists 
 were defeated in 1469. B. is the centre of the 
 famous rich red land of Oxford county. This land 
 is among the most fertile in the kingdom. A system 
 of canals connects the town with all parts of Eng- 
 land. The vicinity of B. is thickly studded with 
 villages. Numerous remains of the ancient Britons 
 are found in the neighbourhood. B. is noted for 
 its manufacture of agricultural implements, and 
 for its malt Hquors, cheese, and cakes. There are 
 also manufactures of plush, shag, girth, and other 
 webbing. B. returns one member to parhament. Pop. 
 of municipal borough, 4026 ; of parliamentary, 8715. 
 
 BANC, legally, is a seat or bench of justice, and 
 in this sense has given rise to the expression of the 
 courts of law at Westmiaster ' sitting in banc,' or 
 in banco — that is, sitting together on the bench of 
 their respective courts, in term-time, and otherwise, 
 as is provided by statute. 
 
 BA'NCA, an island on the north-east coast of 
 Sumatra (lat. 2° 20' S., long. 106° E.), from which 
 it is separated by a strait of its own name, with 
 
 an area of 4300 square miles, and a population 
 of 47,000 ; being barely eleven persons to a square 
 nule. It is famous for its tin, exporting annually 
 4000 tons, mostly to China and Java. 
 
 BA'NCO (It.), a commercial term meaning the 
 standard money in which a bank keeps its accounts, 
 as distinguished from the current money of the 
 place. The distinction was more necessary when 
 the currency consisted, as it often did, of clipped, 
 worn, and foreign coins. These the early banks 
 (Venice, Amsterdam, &c.) received at their intrinsic 
 worth, and credited the depositor in their books 
 with this bank-value. The term is now chiefly 
 applied to the money in which the Hamburg bank 
 keeps its accoimts, which is not represented by 
 any coinage. The Hamburg Mark B. (=1«. d^d. 
 sterling=15^ Prussian S. grosohen) is to the current 
 mark ( = ls. 24d. = 124 S. groschen) as 20 to 16. 
 Sweden has also a peculiar bank-money, 8 dollars 
 B. being equal to 3 dollars specie. Genoa had 
 at one time a bank standard, and the present cur- 
 rent money being different from that, is still called 
 'fuori banco,' outside the bank. 
 
 BA'NCROFT, Gbokge, American historian, bom 
 3d October 1800, near Worcester, ia Massachusetts, 
 was the son of Dr Aaron Bancroft, an eminent 
 Unitarian minister. He entered Harvard College at 
 the age of 13, and obtaining a valuable exhibition 
 there, proceeded in 1818 to Giittingen, where 
 he studied history and philology under Heeren, 
 Plank, and Eichhom, and in 1820 obtained the ■ 
 degree of doctor. At Berlin, he attended the 
 lectures of Hegel, and had frequent intercourse 
 with Schleiermacher, W. von Humboldt, Savigny, 
 Vamhagen von Ense, and other literary men of 
 note. Subsequently, he travelled through Germany, 
 and formed an acquaintance with Goethe and 
 Sohlosser. Having visited Paris, London, and Italy, 
 B. returned to America, and after some time spent 
 in tuition, devoted himself to politics. He soon 
 became celebrated as a democratic politician, and 
 was made collector of customs at Boston. He 
 stiU continued his hterary labours, especially in 
 lectures upon German literature, philosophy, &c. 
 When Polk was elected president, in 1845, he 
 appointed B. secretary of the navy. While in this 
 office, he established am observatory at Washington 
 and a naval school at AnnapoUs. In the autumn 
 of 1846, B. was sent by Polk as ambassador extra- 
 ordinary and plenipotentiary to England, where he 
 remaiaed till 1849, taking advantage of his stay 
 in London to carefully and comprehensively investi- 
 gate all the authentic soiirces for materials to aid 
 him in vmting the History of America. He pub- 
 lished the result of his labours in his History of the 
 Revolution in North Anwrica (Boston, 1852). He 
 had already secured for himself an honourable place 
 among modem historians by his History of the 
 Colonisation of tlie United States of North America 
 (3 vols., Boston, 1834^1840). The whole of these 
 writings are now included in the author's History of 
 America, which is a work of solid exceUenoe, pictur- 
 esque in, style, and liberal in sentiment. 
 
 BA'NCBOFT, Bichaed, Archbishop of Canter- 
 bury, and a bitter opponent of the Puritans, son of 
 Jolm B. and Mary, niece of Hugh Curwyn, Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin, was bom at Famworth, Lancashire, 
 in September 1544. Educated at Cambridge, he 
 took -file degree of B.A. at Christ's College in 1567, 
 and that of M.A. at Jesus' College in 1570. He 
 became rector of Teversham, Cambridgeshire, in 1575, 
 of St Andrews, Holborn, in 1584, and treasurer of 
 St Paul's Cathedral in 1585. In the latter year, 
 he was admitted D.D. By the Lord Chancellor, 
 Hatton, to whom he was chaplain, he was presented 
 
 657 
 
BAOT)— BAITOEL. 
 
 to tlie rectory of Cottingham, NorthamptonsHre. 
 In 1589 lie became a prebendary of St Paul's, in 
 1592, of Westimnster, and in 1594, of Canterbviry. 
 Consecrated Bishop of London, May 8, 1597, be 
 attended Queen Elizabeth during her last illness. At 
 the famous Hampton Court Conference imder James 
 I., he was one of the chief commissioners on behalf 
 of the Church of England, and took the lead in the 
 disputations. In the convocation of 1603 — i, he 
 sat as president. In October 1604, he succeeded 
 Whitgift as Archbishop of Canterbury; and was 
 sworn in one of his majesty's privy council in 
 September 1605, and chauoeUor of the university 
 of Oxford, 1608. He died November 2, 1610. B. 
 had a high character as a preacher and statesman ; 
 and was a vigilant ruler of the church. He is 
 author of two sermons, one of which, preached at 
 St Paul's in 1588, contains a fmous invective 
 against the Puritans, and of two treatises respecting 
 church order and discipline. B. left his library to 
 his successors in the see of Canterbury for ever. 
 —His nephew, John B., Bishop of Oxford, 1632, 
 died 1640, buUt the palace of Cuddesden for the 
 bishops of that see. Burned by the parliament 
 troops, 1644, it was rebuilt, 1679. 
 
 BAND, or BANDS, a portion of clerical dress, and 
 the only relic of the ancient amice, a linen vestment 
 which was used in the ancient church to cover the 
 Eiioulders and neck of the priest. It also forms a 
 part of the full dress of the bar, the imiversities, and 
 the leading functionaries in schools of old founda- 
 tion. At Winchester and some other schools, it is 
 even worn by the scholars themselves. The bands 
 worn by lawyers and other civilians, may be a relic 
 of the wide stiff collar which was a part of the 
 ordinary civilian dress in the reign of James I. 
 
 BAND, in Architecture, is the name given to any 
 kind of ornament which is 
 continued horizontally along 
 a wall, or by which a building 
 is encircled. Bands often 
 consist of foliage, quatrefoUs, 
 or of simple bricks. B. of 
 a shaft is the moulding or 
 suits of mouldings by vmich 
 the pillars and shafts are 
 encircled in Gothic archi- 
 tecture. Several bands are 
 often placed at equal dis- 
 tances on the body of the 
 shaft, when it is long, in 
 which case they are known 
 as shaft-rings. 
 
 BA'NDA, chief town of 
 a district in Bundelcimd, in 
 lat. 25° 28' N., and long. 80° 
 23' E. In 1847, its population 
 was 33,464. It is a great 
 mart for cotton. It is situ- 
 ated on the right bank of the Cane or Keyn, 
 an aiHuent of me Jumna, being 95 miles to the 
 south-west of Allahabad, 560 to the north-west of 
 Calcutta, and 190 to the south-east of Agra. The 
 district of B. contains 2878 square miles, and 
 552,525 inhabitants. 
 
 BA'NDAGES are used by surgeons to apply 
 pressure on a part, or to retain dressings upon 
 wounds. The most common bandage is a strip of 
 linen, calico, or elastic web, from 3 to 5 or more 
 inches in breadth, rolled longitudinally ; hence the 
 name roller. There are also B. to suit special 
 purposes, as the four-tailed for the head or knee, 
 which consists of a piece of cloth split up on each 
 side towards and nearly to the centre. When 
 
 653 
 
 applied, the tails are crossed and tied so as to make 
 an extemporaneous night-cap. In applying the roUer 
 
 Band of a shaft. 
 
 bandage to a leg, the surgeon first turns it round 
 the foot, then round the ankle ; and so by repeated 
 turns, each one of which should overlap about a third 
 of the previous one, till he reaches the calf of the 
 leg, when he must fold at each turn the bandage 
 sharply back on itself, by which manceuvre the 
 bandage will lie flat and smooth on the limb. The 
 operator must remember that the bandage must be 
 apphed more tightly at the foot than in the leg, 
 so that it may not impede the course of the blood 
 through the veins. This requires to be practised, 
 as the effect of a bandage is always for good or evU 
 as it is well or ill appHed. 
 
 BA'NDA ISLES, a portion of the Moluccas, 
 consisting of 12 islands, 6 of which are unin- 
 habited, about 50 miles to the south of Ceram. 
 Their population is variously stated at from 5000 to 
 155,000. Their mean lat. and long, respectively are 
 4° 30' S., and 129° 50' E. Their chief production is 
 the nutmeg, the annual export of that spice being 
 about 500,000 lbs., with a corresponding quantity — 
 about one-third — of the mace. Like most of the 
 islands in this neighbourhood, they belong to the 
 Dutch. They are lofty and volcanic. 
 
 BA'NDA OKIE'NTAL, a state of South America. 
 See Ubtjotjay. 
 
 BANDA'NA, a kiad ,of printed handkerchief 
 of Indian origin, now extensively made in Britain, 
 usually of cotton. The cloth is first dyed Turkey 
 red, and then the pattern is made by discharging 
 the colour with bleaching liquor in a powerfm 
 Bramah press. The pattern to be discharged is cut 
 out on two plates of such metal (lead) as may not 
 be acted on by the liquor, and of the full size of the 
 handkerchief. A dozen or more are put in at once 
 between the plates, and so many of these courses 
 are entered together as fill the press, when the 
 pressure is applied, and the liquor is run in on the 
 uppermost plate, which is grooved on the upper side 
 to receive it, and holed to pass it from plate to 
 plate through all the cloth-folds in the press. The 
 pressure on the cloth to make clean work by pre- 
 venting the spreading of the liquor, is enormous. 
 The patterns in the real B. style of printing are 
 spots and diamond prints, the best suited for dis- 
 charging, and even for these a pressure of 500 tons is 
 required to work them clean. See Calico PEtNTTNG. 
 
 BA'NDEL, Eeust Von, an eminent modem sculp- 
 tor, was born in 1800, in Anspach. While attending 
 the academy at Munich, he prosecuted his studies so 
 diUgently that in 1820 he sent to the exhibition a 
 plaster figure of Mars reposing, as large as lite, 
 which procured for him considerable reputation. 
 
BANDELLO— BANDIEEA. 
 
 Of various modda of this kind done by him, one, 
 a flguie of Charity, was executed in marble. This 
 ■work occupied the artist about ten years. It 
 exhibits great chasteness of design, and a minute 
 carefulness of execution. Among his best portrait 
 busts, in which he excels, are those of Maximilian, 
 king of Bavaria (1832), and of the artists D. Quaglio 
 and Peter Hess. He has also executed the monu- 
 ment of the Knight von Skell in the English garden 
 of the Art Institution at Munich, tlje tombstone of 
 the historical painter Langer, and several figures of 
 the gods. In 1842, B. executed a bust of the poet 
 Grabbe, and a marble statue, as large as life, of 
 Xhusnelda, wife of Hermann. She is represented 
 loaded with chains, with her hands crossed bn her 
 breast, as when she was led away captive by the 
 Romans. 
 
 BANDB'LLO, MArano, an .Italian writer of 
 novdle or tales, was bom at Castehmovo in Pied- 
 mont about the year 1480. In early life, he became 
 a Dominican monk, in the Convent delle Grrazie at 
 MUan, but soon abandoned this vocation for a more 
 free and independent life. His uncle, who had been 
 elected general of the order in 1501, took him to 
 travel with him ; and in Home and Naples, B. 
 devoted himself to the study of belles-lettres. He 
 then returned to Milan, whence he was driven by 
 the Spaniards, as a partisan of France, after the 
 battle of Pavia in 1525. He accompanied Pranois 
 I. to Prance, and was, in 1550, made bishop of 
 Agen by Henry II. He left the care of his diocese 
 to the Bishop of G-rasse, in order to be able to 
 devote himself without disturbance to the comple- 
 tion of his tales, which he pubhshed in the Italian 
 language in three volimies (Lucca, 1554), to which 
 a fourth was added after his death, which took 
 place in 1561. The tales of B. rank next to those 
 of Boccaccio in Italy. They are distinguished by 
 unaffected simplicity of style, fluency and vividness 
 of narrative, and a harmonious brevity of periods. 
 It must be confessed, however, that they are not 
 unfrequently very impure in tone. B. wrote several 
 other works. 
 
 BANDB NOIRE (' Black Band ') was the name 
 given, during the first French Revolution, to the 
 societies of capitalists who bought the confiscated 
 buildings which had belonged to the church, emi- 
 grants, &;o. The opprobrious name was fixed on 
 them on account of their vandalism in the destruc- 
 tion of old reUcs, works of art, churches, convents, 
 abbeys, episcopal residences, &c., many of which 
 possessed both a scientific and historical interest. 
 It has, however, been alleged, on the other hand, that 
 these societies have frequently done considerable 
 service to the communify, in removing old and 
 useless edifices, and that their minute subdivision 
 into lots of the old territorial domains, has both 
 favoured agricultiu?e and amehorated the condition 
 of the peo^e. 
 
 .. , BANDEROLE, a small streamer 
 
 fixed immediately under the crook, 
 on the top of the staff of a crosier 
 (q. v.), and folding over the staff.— 
 Also an architectural term for the flat 
 inscribed band used in the Renais- 
 sance buildiags, similar to those now 
 used for mottoes to coats-of-arma. 
 
 Banderole. 
 
 BA'ND-PISH, or SNA'KE-PISH [Gepola), a 
 
 fenus of fishes of the Ribbon-fish (q. v.) family. The 
 ody is much elongated and compressed. The bones 
 are little more solid than a mere fibrous net-work, 
 and everything else exhibits a corresponding deh- 
 cacy, so that specimens are seldom to be obtained 
 in an uninjured state. All the species inhabit 
 quiet depths, and are incapable of contending with 
 
 waves and currents. Their singular form, and the 
 beauty of their colours, make them objects of great 
 interest. One species, the Red B. {O. rubescms), not 
 uncommon in the Mediterranean, is occasionally 
 oast ashore by storms on the British coasts. It is 
 about fifteen mches long. Its brilliant appearance, 
 when seen moving in the water, has suggested the 
 names of Fire-flame and Red Ribbon, by which it is 
 known at Nice. 
 
 BA'NDICOOT {Peramdes), a genus of marsupial 
 (q. V.) quadrupeds, occupying in the zoology of 
 
 Australia a place somewhat analogous to that of 
 shrews (q. v.) in Europe. Their dentition is remark- 
 able, as they have ten cutting teeth in the upper 
 jaw, and only six in the lower, the posterior ones of 
 Which are two-lobed: in other respects, it- nearly 
 resembles that of opossums. They have an elongated 
 head and pointed muzzle ; the hiad-legs are consi- 
 derably longer than the fore-legs ; the thumb and 
 little toe of the fore-feet are Kttle more thari simple 
 tubercles, so that there seem to be only three toes ; 
 and there is a fleshy tubercle in place of a thumb on 
 the hind-feet. Their movements are similar to 
 those of hares or rabbits. They live on bulbs, 
 insects, &c., make ravages in potato-flelds, and 
 devour com in granaries. There are several species. 
 The Long-nosed B. (P. nasuta) is about a foot and 
 a half in length from the extremity of the nose to 
 the. origin of the taU, which is not unlike that of 
 a large rat, but better covered with hair. It is 
 chiefly found in the mountainous parts of New 
 South Wales. P. Gunnii is common in Van 
 Diemen's Land. 
 
 BA'NDICOOT, BA'NDICOOT EAT, MALA- 
 BA'R EAT, or PIG-RAT (Mns giganteus), the 
 largest known species of rat. The name B. is a 
 corruption of the Telinga pwndilcohw, literally signi- 
 fying pig-rat. The animal inhabits many parts of 
 India, and is plentiful in Ceylon. It is chiefly found 
 in dry situations, and often in hiUy districts. It 
 attains the weight of two or three poimds, and is 
 24 — 30 inches long, including th4 tail, which at the 
 base is 2^ inches in circumfereiice. The body is 
 thick, and greatly arched, black above, grayish 
 below. Its flesh is a favourite article of food with 
 the cooKes of India, and is said to be delicate, and 
 much to resemble young pork. It feeds chiefly on 
 grain and roots, and is very destructive in gardens. 
 ' Its nests, when rifled, are frequently f oimd to 
 contain considerable quantities of rice, stored up 
 against the dry season.' — Sir J. E. Tennent's Ceylon. 
 
 BANDIB'RA, Attilio and Emuio, two brothers 
 well known for their tragic fate, were descended 
 from a distinguished aristocratic family of Venice, 
 which had once held a place in the red book of the 
 repubhc. They were lieutenants in the Austrian 
 navy, their father being rear-admiral; but, instead of 
 sharing the pro- Austrian sentiments of their parent, 
 they Perished enthusiastic dreams of the free and 
 
 669 
 
BAOT)INELLI— BAOTDOLINE. 
 
 united republic o£ Italy. In the year 1842, they 
 entered into correspondence with Mazzioi, -whom 
 they regarded as almost a demigod. Their glowing 
 and enthusiastic patriotism breathes in every hue of 
 their letters. Both were noble spirits, ready for 
 any sacrifice, but unfortunately impressed with the 
 delusive idea that their native country could be 
 saved by means of a conspiracy. Enulio, the 
 younger, of a stronger bodily frame, but of a lighter 
 disposition, was under the influence of his graver 
 and more thoughtful brother. In the year 1843, 
 they believed that the time was come for a revolu- 
 tion by force of arms ; but their premature appeal 
 finding no practical response, they fled to Corfu in 
 March 1844, where they endured many bitter dis- 
 appointments and much misery. Hope alone 
 inspired them with life; but at length, misled by 
 false rumours of a rising ia Naples, with which it 
 is supposed the Neapolitan polioe had something 
 to do, they ventured to land with twenty com- 
 panions at the mouth of the small river Nieto, in 
 Calabria, believing that their appearance would be 
 the signal for a general insurrection. The NeapoHtan 
 government expected them ; one of their com- 
 panions, a certain Boccheoiampe, had betrayed 
 them. They were attacked by an overwhehmug 
 force, and were nearly all taken prisoners at once. 
 One only fell on the spot, and two escaped. Nothing 
 was ever allowed to transpire respecting the trial of 
 these unfortunate men. AttUio and Emilio were 
 shot along with seven of their comrades in the 
 public square of Cosenza, on the 25th July 1844. 
 They died joyfully, exclaiming ' Viva I'ltalia ! ' The 
 pubUo mind had not then become accustomed to 
 hear of bloody deaths for poKtical causes. A cry 
 of indignation resounded through Europe at this 
 ' kingly revenge,' as it was called in a conservative 
 paper of the day. A year later, their remaining 
 companions were pardoned. The fate of the brothers 
 B. attracted much attention ia England, from the 
 circumstance that letters of M. Mazzioi, then in 
 London, had been opened in the post-ofiioe by 
 authority of government, wliich was accused of 
 giving such information to the Itahan governments 
 as enabled them to entrap the insurgents. 
 
 BANDINE'LLI, Baocio, the son of a famous 
 goldsmith of Florence, and one of the best sculptors 
 of his time, was bom at Florence in 1487. His first 
 instructions were probably received in the workshop 
 of his father, for in those days goldsmiths wrought 
 from their own designs. He was afterwards a pupil 
 of Bustici, and the friend of Leonardo da Vinci. 
 He was an angry and jealous rival of Michael 
 Angelo, whose grandeur of conception he strove to 
 equal, and who is said to have retaliated his enmity 
 by contempt. It must be admitted, however, that 
 we have only prejudiced sources from which to 
 draw our information regarding him. Benvenuto 
 Cellini, whose language is generally passionate and 
 hyperbolical, is his chief accuser, although Vasari 
 also speaks of his proud and envious disposition. 
 Whatever may have been his moral infirmities, it is 
 impossible to deny that, as a sculptor, he was in his 
 day second only to Michael Angelo. His feuds ^vith 
 his brother-artists do not appear to have injured 
 him in the opinions of persons of distinction. He 
 was patronised by Cosmo de' Medici, Charles V., 
 Francis I., Clement VII., and other powerful friends. 
 Clement even bestowed on him an estate. He died 
 at Florence, 1559—1560. 
 
 His best works are bassi-rilievi, among which are 
 those that adorn the choir of the Duomo at Florence. 
 On the high-altar in the same building is to be seen 
 his Corpse of Christ, supported by an angel, with 
 God the Father, over it. His most ambitious work 
 is Hercules with Cacus at his feet. In the Medioean 
 
 660 
 
 GaUery are his copies of the group of the Laocoon 
 — a masterly imitation of the antique, in which he 
 boasted that he excelled even the ancients them- 
 selves. He also executed statues of some of his 
 patrons; all his works exhibit power, vigour, and 
 skilful drawing, but it is alleged, apparently with 
 considerable truth, that 'he was too fond of the 
 terrible graces of composition.' 
 
 BA'NDIT, a word originally signifying a 'ban- 
 ished ' or outlawed person ; then one who, because 
 outlawed, wages war against civilised society ; 
 and finally, a highway robber. The banditi, or 
 banditti, formed in Italy in earlier times, as it 
 were, a separate community or gmld, who sub- 
 mitted to their own stringent laws, carried on 
 both open and secret war with civilised society, 
 and kept up a certain romantic idea of honour. 
 By means of the severe measures which were 
 adopted in 1820 by the papal government against 
 the banditti and their abettors, their haunts were 
 broken up. Those who stiU occasionally disquiet 
 the frontiers of Naples are in general people settled 
 on the spot, who regard robbery and murder as 
 equally a branch of their trade with agriculture. 
 Peter the Calabrian, one of the most famous B. 
 chiefs in 1812, assumed the titles of ' Emperor of 
 the Mountains, King of the Woods, and Lord of the 
 Highroads from Florence to Naples.' The govern- 
 ment of Ferdinand I. fouud themselves obhged to 
 conclude treaties with him. The banditti must be 
 distinguished from common robbers, who were called 
 Malviventi. In later times, the banditti were 
 joined by adventurers of all kinds, to such an 
 extent, that the Austrian troops who occupied 
 Naples were obliged to make frequent expeditious 
 against them. In Sicily, the banditti are most 
 numerous in the Val Demone. They formerly 
 acquired so much power there, that the Prince of 
 VUlafranca, as a piece of policy, declared himself 
 their patron, and treated them with much confi- 
 dence. In the years 1841 — 1843, political fugitives 
 united with robbers and adventurers of all kinds 
 in the Abriu;zi, Calabria, and Romagna, and since 
 then they have never been entirdy extirpated. 
 The revolutions of 1848 — 1849 added greatly to 
 their nmnbers, and in several districts of Italy, 
 especially in the States of the Church, between 
 Ferrara and Anoona, they reached an unheard of 
 degree of boldness, notwithstanding the Austrian 
 army of occupation. Under the command of one 
 BeUino (known by the name of 'H Passatore'), a 
 daring and talented man, who died in March 1851, 
 they kept the country in terror, and even biurned 
 several villages to the ground. They also carried 
 on a real guerrillawarfare agaiiist the military forces 
 of the country. Recent events (1859) in Italy have, 
 it is said, recalled numbers of these banditti to a 
 more honourable course of life. 
 
 BANDOLEB'E, or BANDALEE'E,. Two cen- 
 turies ago, soldiers' muskets were provided with 
 matclilocks, a very slow and iaeffective contrivance 
 for firing. The musketeers were furnished with 
 gunpowder in small oyhndrioal boxes made of wood, 
 tin, or leather, each containing sufficient for one 
 charge. Twelve of these little boxes were fixed 
 to a belt called a bandoleer, worn over the left 
 shoulder. In what way these were superseded by 
 a superior arrangement, will be foimd noticed under 
 Cartridge. 
 
 BA[NDOLINE is a mucilaginous substance used 
 for stiffemng hair, and keepiag it in shape or form. 
 It is much used by ladies in the present prevailing 
 mode of wearing the hair, and by gentlemen, to 
 dress then- moustaches. The usual receipt for 
 making the B. sold in the shops is to boil Carrageen 
 
BANDON -T BANFFSHIRE. 
 
 (q. V.) or Irish-moaa with water till a thick mucilage 
 is obtained, which ia afterwards scented with Eav, 
 de Cologne or other perfumed spirit ; a second mode 
 of preparing B. is to soak quince-seeds in cold water 
 for a day or two, then strain, and add perfume ; and 
 a third process is to heat gum tragacanth with 
 water, and when a mucilage is obtained, add the 
 scent. 
 
 BANDON, a town of Ireland, county Cork (q.v.). 
 
 BANDO'NG, a commercial town on the west 
 coast of Java, in the vicinity of the volcano Gunong 
 Guntour, by an eruption of which eighty villages 
 were destroyed in 1822. 
 
 BANDS, MiUTAEY, consist each of a body of 
 sldUed musicians, attached to a regiment in the 
 British service. According to military regulations, 
 the only indispensable instruments are drums, fifes, 
 bugles, and trumpets, all of which are empl(^ed to 
 give signals on the march or in active service, either 
 for infantry or for cavalry. To supplement this 
 meagre musical establishment, however, the officers 
 of regiments organise, chiefly at their own cost, 
 effective military bands, who use a variety of instru- 
 ments — such as flutes, clarionets, bassoons, horns, 
 ophicleides, big drums, cymbals, triangles, &c. What 
 at first appears to have been a matter of individual 
 choice, has at length assumed almost the force of 
 a regulation; for officers are obliged to contribute 
 twelve days' pay in the course of a year, and an 
 extra sum when promoted, to the baud-fund. The 
 members of these bands are selected from the ranks ; 
 but the band-master, though in uniform, is usually 
 a civilian who is hired for the purpose, and who 
 generally refuses to accompany the regiment abroad, 
 except at an increased rate of remuneration. The 
 musicians, generally, are in an anomalous position; 
 for, whilst serving in the band, their pay, and 
 eventually their pensions, are restricted to those 
 of the private soldier. Good musicians have at 
 all times a tendency to quit the B. ; their better 
 prospects as teachers, and players in orchestras and 
 concerts, induce them to obtain release by paying 
 the amount of compensation prescribed by regulation. 
 An attempt made by the Duke of Cambridge in 1856, 
 to relieve the commissioned officers of part of the 
 expense entailed upon them by the present system, 
 failed, and matters remain as they were. In most 
 of the regiments of the hne, the band consists of a 
 band-master and about fifteen musicians ; but ia the 
 choice corps the number is often much larger. When 
 a regiment consists of two or more battalions, the 
 band goes with the first. The band plays on parade 
 and at mess, as a part of regular duty. When M. 
 B. play at festivals, concerts, &c., ' by permission of 
 the commanding-officer,' the payment goes to the 
 musicians ; and the chance of obtaining these fees 
 ia one of the .inducements to the men to remain in a 
 service which has very few attractions in relation to 
 the actual regular amount of pay. The bands of the 
 three regiments of foot-guards — Grenadier, Cold- 
 atream, and Scots Fusilier — are very frequently 
 engaged in this way during the London season. 
 
 BA'NEBERRY. See Act^a. 
 
 BANFF (pron. Bamf), the capital of Banffshire, a 
 seaport town in the north end of the couiSy, on the 
 left bank of the mouth of the Doveran, 45 miles 
 north-north-west of Aberdeen. It stands on an abrupt 
 height on the Moray Firth, and consists of an upper 
 or inland town, and a lower or sea town, with the 
 remains of an ancient castle on a height between them. 
 Close to the south side of B. stands Duff House, 
 the seat of the Earl of Fife, with a park 14 miles in 
 circumference. The harbour is hable to be filled 
 with sand. A seven-arched bridge over the Doveran 
 unites B. with the town and aeaport of Macduff, 
 
 which stands on the east side of the river. The 
 chief exports are corn, cattle, salmon, and herrings. 
 Robert II., in 1372, made B. a royal burgh. Sharpe, 
 the famous Archbishop of St Andrews, was born 
 here in 1613, and the noted, robber, Macpherson, 
 was executed in 1700. The August floods in the 
 Doveran, in 1829, imdermined and carried away 
 several houses, and destroyed much property in 
 Banff. B. unites with Elgin, Cullen, Inverury, 
 Kintore, and Peterhead in sending one member to 
 parliament. Pop., including Macduff, 6000. 
 
 BA'NFFSHIKE, a county in the north-east of 
 Scotland, bounded N. by the Moray .Firth; E., S.E., 
 and S. by Aberdeenshire ; W., by Elgin and Inver- 
 ness shires. It stands fourteenth among the Scotch 
 counties in size, and fifteenth in popSation. Its 
 greatest length is about 68 miles, its greatest breadth 
 about 32 — average, 12 ; its extent of sea-coast about 
 30 ; estimated area, 647 square miles. The surface, 
 especially in the south and south-east, is moun- 
 tainous, interspersed with fertile valleys and fine 
 pastures ; but the surface near the coast is com- 
 paratively level. The chief mountain-ranges and 
 rivers, as well as the strike of the stratified rocks, 
 run from south-west to north-east, and the whole 
 county is an extensive slope in the same direction, 
 from the Grampians to the Moray Firth. The coast 
 is rocky, but not high, except to the east of Banff. 
 The highest peaks are the North Cairngorm, 4090 
 feet ; Ben-a-Main, 3874 ; Ben Kinnes, 2763 ; Corry- 
 habbie, 2569; Knock, 1416. Ben Muicdhui, 4296 
 feet, is partly in Banffshire. The rivers of B. 
 all flow into the Moray Firth. The chief are the 
 Spey — one of the largest of the Scottish rivers, 
 and the most rapid in Britain — which bounds a 
 third of the county on the W. ; and the Doveran, 
 60 miles long, and included within the county. The 
 predominant rocks are granite, quartz rook, mica- 
 slate, clay-slate, syenitic greenstone, graywacke and 
 graywacke-slate, and old red sandstone with fossil 
 fishes. Many patches of metamorphio Hmestoue 
 and of serpentine occur. The serpentine pear 
 Portsoy has long been famous as the ' Portsoy 
 Marble.' Beryl and rock-crystal occur on Cairn- 
 gorm. Slate and limestone are quarried. Lead, 
 iron, antimony, and plumbago occur in small quan- 
 tity. The soil is very fertile, and highly cultivated 
 on the best modern principles of agriculture, in a 
 tract along the coast two to eight miles broad, 
 as well as along the valley of the Doveran, and in 
 many of the glens. In 1857, nearly a third of the 
 surface of B. was in crop, the chief crops being 
 oats, turnips, and grass. The breeding of cattle 
 is the chief object of the farmer. The chief manu- 
 factures of B. are weaving, bleaching, tanning, 
 and distUling. The produce of Glenlivet, near the 
 centre of B., has long been celebrated. The chief 
 exports are grain, meal, and cattle. There are 
 twelve fishing towns and villages along the coast. 
 The herring-fishery is extensivdy carried on. The 
 salmon-fisheries of the Spey and Doveran employ 
 200 men, and are very valuable, the Spey ranking 
 after the Tweed and Tay as a salmon-river. B. is 
 divided into the districts of Enzie, Boyne, Strathisla, 
 Strathdoveran, Balveny, Glenlivet, and Strathavon. 
 The chief towns and villages are Banff, Macduff, 
 Portsoy, Keith, Cullen, Buckie, Dufftown, and 
 Tomantoul. Pop. in 1851, 54,171 ; day-schools, 161, 
 with 8271 pupils ; places of worship, 74 (20 of the 
 Estabhshed, and 23 of the Free Church). B., along 
 with the counties of Aberdeen and Elgin, enjoys 
 the Dick Bequest (q. v.) for parochial education. 
 Two-thirds of B. belong to four landed proprietors. 
 The county returns one member to parliament, and 
 Banff and Cullen unite with Elgin, Inverury, 
 Kintore, and Peterhead in returning another. B. 
 
 661 
 
BANGALOEE— BANGOE. 
 
 contains numerous remains of antiquity, the most 
 remarkable being the old churches of Gamrie and 
 Mortlach. The former, built in 1010, and used for 
 public -worship till 1830, is called the 'Kirk of 
 Skulls,' the bones of the Norsemen who fell on the 
 neighbouring field of Bloody Pots having been built 
 into its walls. Mortlach was for a century the seat 
 of a bishop, but David I, in 1139, incorporated the 
 see with that of Aberdeen. 
 
 BANGALO'KE, a fortified town of Mysore, 
 situated 70 miles to the north-east of Seringapatam, 
 in lat. 12° 58' K, and long. 77° 38' E. It is the 
 chief military station of the British in the territory. 
 It has a manufacture of silk ; but that of cotton is, 
 or has been, far more important, having been at 
 one time estimated to employ 3000 looms. The 
 population of B. is about 60,000. As the place is 
 3000 feet above the level of the sea, the thermo- 
 meter, during six successive years, is said to have 
 risen only twice above 90°, and then only to 92° 
 and 93°. During the same period of time, the lowest 
 temperature was 61°. B. was a favourite residence 
 of Hyder Ah ; and, in 1791, it was stormed by the 
 British under Lord ComwaUis. Water is good and 
 abundant ; and the usual vegetables of Europe come 
 to maturity in the gardens. 
 
 BANGKO'K, the capital city of Siam, is situated 
 on the banks of the Meinam, about 20 miles 
 from the mouth of that river, in the Gulf of Siam, 
 and in lat. 13° 38' N., and long. 100° 34' E. Its 
 population has been estimated by the Roman 
 Catholic missionaries, who have had the best means 
 of ascertaining it, at upwards of 400,000. Sir John 
 Bowring's 'impression' is that it exceeds 300,000. 
 There are upwards of 200,000 Chiuese, in whose 
 hands is centered nearly all the trade of B., which is 
 large. For their right to trade here, the Chinese 
 pay a poll-tax of about three dollars on entering the 
 kingdom, and a similar sum is collected from them 
 every three years. The payment of this tax exempts 
 them from the half-yearly servitude which all other 
 oriental strangers resident in Siam are required to 
 give. The approach to B. by the Meinam, which 
 can be navigated by ships of from 200 to 300 tons 
 burden, is exceedingly beautiful, the banks being 
 skirted by fine trees full of gay birds. As the town 
 is neared, numerous temples present themselves, 
 and floating-houses become common; and finally, 
 the whole city, with its rich gardens, and sbiniag 
 temples and palaces, bursts full upon the view. 
 A large number of the houses float on rafts, and 
 can be transferred from one place to another at 
 pleasure. There are a few houses in the city built 
 of brick and stone, but the greater part are of wood. 
 There are usually in each house a (fivision for males 
 and one for females. The land-houses are raised upon 
 piles, 6 or 8 feet from the groimd, and are reached by 
 rude ladders — the daily flow of the tides and the 
 annual inundations rendering this plan necessary. 
 The floating-houses are made of bamboo-boards, 
 wicker-work, or palm-leaves, and have generally a 
 verandah in front, with a small wing at each end. 
 The circumference of the walls of B., which are 15 
 feet high and 12 broad, is said to be 6 nules. The 
 internal traffic of B. is chiefly carried on by means 
 of canals, there being only a few passable streets 
 in the whole city. Horses and carriages are rarely 
 seen except in the neighbourhood of the palaces. 
 The chief interest of the kingdom of Siam, according 
 to Sir John Bowring, concentrates itself in Bangkok. 
 B. is the constant residence of the two kings of 
 Siam and their respective courts. The palace of 
 the first king is surrounded by high wal&, and is 
 nearly a mile in circiimference. It includes temples, 
 public offices, accommodation for some thousands of 
 
 663 
 
 soldiers, with their necessary equipments, a theatre, 
 and rooms for about 3000 females, 600 of whom are 
 the wives of the king. The sacred white elephant 
 has also a place withii the palace. Throughout the 
 interior are distributed the most costly articles in 
 gold, silver, and precious stones. The palace of the 
 second king, whose functions are not very clearly 
 defined, is nearly as large as that of the first king, 
 but not so ostentatious. See Siam. The temples 
 of B. are innumerable, and decorated in the most 
 gorgeous style, the Siamese taking a pride in lavish- 
 mg their wealth on them. Some of them, accord- 
 ing to the Catholic bishop Pallegoix, have cost 
 more than 4,000,000 francs (£160,000). In the 
 neighbourhood of B. are iron-mines and forests of 
 teak-wood. The chief exports are sugar, pep;per, 
 cardamoms, ivory, feathers, hides, fine woods, rice, 
 salt, and fish. At one time, the exportation of rice 
 and teak was prohibited; and by the treaty con- 
 cluded by Sir John Bowring in 1855, the Siamese 
 reserve the right to prohibit that of salt, rice, and 
 fish, in cases of threatened scarcity. The imports 
 are tea, manufactured sUks, and piece-goods, opium, 
 camphor, porcelain, and glass wares. See Sir John 
 Bowring's Siam. 
 
 BA'NGOE, an episcopal city, borough, and sea- 
 port town in the north-west of Caernarvonshire, 
 North Wales, on the south-east bank of the Menai 
 Strait, 2J mUes from the Britannia Bridge, and 
 59J west of Chester. It consists chiefly of a 
 narrow crooked street, a mile long, stretching 
 south-west through a narrow fertile valley, bounded 
 on the south by steep precipices. The grandeur 
 and beauty of the surrounding scenery has long 
 made it a favoiuite resort, and the opening of 
 the Chester and Holyhead Eadway, on the great 
 line of communication from London to Dublin, 
 has greatly promoted its prosperity. The town has 
 of late years been greatly improved, and mostly 
 rebuilt. Its chief trade is derived from the great 
 slate-quarries of Llandegai, 6 miles distant, and 
 employing 2000 men. The slates are exported to 
 all parts of the world, and also manufactured at 
 B. into tables, chimney-pieces, &c. Pop. 6338. B. 
 unites with Caernarvon, Conway, Cricoieth, Nevin, 
 and Pwllheli, in sending one member to parliament. 
 B. is a place of great antiquity. In 525, St Deiniol 
 founded a college here. It was raised to a bishopric 
 in 550, the founder being the first diocesan. The 
 cathedral founded by hmi was destroyed by the 
 Saxons in 1071, rebuilt in 1102, and again destooyed 
 by fire in 1402. The present edifice, built between 
 1496 and 1532, is a plain embattled cruciform 
 structure, 214 by 60 feet, with a pinnacled tower 
 60 feet high. Several Welsh princes and distin- 
 guished ecclesiastics are buried here. B. bishopric 
 is the oldest in Wales. 
 
 BA'SGOR, a small seaport town in the north- 
 east of Downshire, on the south side of the entrance 
 to Belfast Lough, and 12 miles east-north-east 
 of Belfast. Pop. 2850. It has linen and cotton 
 manufactures. The embroidering of muslin is carried 
 on. Cattle and provisions are exported. There is 
 much traffic with the west of Scotland. Coal, date, 
 and copper are found in the neighbourhood. St 
 CungaU, in 555, founded Bangor Abbey ('Ban-choir, 
 the ' White Choir,' whence the name Bangor), of 
 which the ruins still remain. From this abbey, 
 Alfred selected professors when he founded the 
 imiversity of Oxford. In the 9th c. it had 3000 
 inmates. 
 
 EA'NGOR, a port of entry in the state of 
 Maine, on the right bank of the Penobscot, about 60 
 mUes from its mouth, and at its confluence with 
 the Kenduskeag, which intersects the city, and 
 
MNGORIAK CONTROVERSY— BANK, BANKING. 
 
 affords an extensive supply of water-power. At 
 spring-tides, which here rise 17 feet, the harbour 
 is accessible from the sea for the largest vessels ; 
 and, as the navigation cannot go higher, B. is one 
 of ihe largest lumber depots in the world, absorbyig 
 and monopolising the trade of ttie heavily timbered 
 basins of the Penobscot and its tributaries. During 
 the 8 or 9 months of open water, steam-boats make 
 regular trips between B. and the adjacent ports 
 of Portland and Boston ; there is here also a 
 station of the Eastern Railway. Its population, 
 which, in 1850, was 14,432, cannot now, in 1859, be 
 under 20,000. Its lat. and long, are 44° 48' N., and 
 68° 47' "W. 
 
 BANGO'RIANCO'NTEOVBRSY. Dr Benjamin 
 Hoadley, Bishop of Bangor, in a sermon preached 
 before George I, March 31, 1717, on the text, ' My 
 kingdom is not of "this world,' advanced opinions 
 regarding the constitution of the church which 
 excited strong opposition from the zealous advocates 
 of ecclesiastical authority. A controversy ensued, 
 which was carried on with great heat for many 
 years, and resulted in a ponderous collection of 
 pamphlets. See Hoadley. 
 
 BA'NGOR-ISCOB'D (Bangor below the Wood), 
 am inland village, beautifully situated, in a fertile 
 and richly wooded country, on the right bank of the 
 Dee, on the borders of Flint and Denbigh shires. 
 North Wales, 5 miles south-east of Wrexham. Pop. 
 554. It was once the seat of one of the largest 
 monasteries in Britain. This monastery was founded 
 before 180 A.D., and contained 2400 monks in the 
 time of St Augustine, in the end of the 6th c, when 
 they distinguished themselves in resisting the claims 
 of the papal see. Ethebed, king of Northuinbria, 
 in 593, devasted the monastery, and massacred 1200 
 of the monks. 
 
 BANIALTJ'KA, a fortified town of Bosnia, Euro- 
 pean Turkey, situated on the left bank of the Verbas, 
 with a manufactory of gunpowder, and numerous 
 bazaars and public baths. Pop. 7800. 
 
 BA'IflAlSr or BANIA'N (from the Sanscrit bany, 
 a merchant), a word used in India to designate a mer- 
 chant or trader generally. It is more particularly 
 applied to the great merchants in the west of India, 
 especially in the seaport towns of Bombay, Surat, 
 Cambay, &c., who carry on a very extensive trade by 
 means of caravans, with the interior of Asia, even to 
 the borders of Russia and Chiaa. Contrary to the 
 general custom of the Indian people, these merchants 
 travel much, and the establishments and counting- 
 houses of Indian Banians are to be found in almost 
 every commercial town of any note in Asia. The 
 banians form a class or division of the caste (q. v.) 
 of the Vaisya, adopt a peouhar costume, and are 
 strict in the observance of fasts and in abstaining 
 from the use of flesh. 
 
 BA'NTAN DAYS, a sailor's phrase, nearly equi- 
 valent to the jours maigres of the French. The 
 term denotes the days when no meat is served out 
 to a ship's crew. How far this is likely to occur in 
 the royal navy, or the mercantile marine, will be 
 found noticed under ViCTUAiiiNG. The term is 
 derived from the practice of the Banian (q. v. )( traders. 
 
 BA'KIAJSr-TRBB. See Banya^st. 
 
 BA'STIM, John, a celebrated Irish novelist, born 
 1800, whose pictures of manners, in the form of 
 tales, have excited considerable interest in England. 
 His aim was to become for Ireland what Scott 
 had been for Scotland. He has given proof of 
 vigorous intellectual grasp and vivid fancy, in a 
 series of pictures of life, in which he delineates 
 the peculiarities of the Irish character in strong 
 light and shade, and appeals forcibly to the nation^ 
 
 feeling. His Tales of the O'Hwra Fcumly (London, 
 1825) were followed, in 1826, by a second series, 
 which did not disappoint ' the high expectations 
 excited by the first. Of these, several have been 
 translated into German by Lindan. Next appeared 
 Tim Battle of the Boyne, TU Croppy (1828), Tlie 
 Denounced (1830), The Smuggler (1831), T!ie ilayor 
 of Windgap, Father Conndl, &o. In 1837, general 
 sympathy having been attracted towards B.'s priva- 
 tions, occasioned by disease that precluded all 
 literary exertion, a pension of £150 per annum 
 from the civil list was awarded him by government, 
 which was afterwards further increased by £40 for 
 the education of his daughter, an only child. He 
 died in poverty on the Ist August 1842, at Windgap 
 Cottage, near Kilkemiy. 
 
 B. failed in his attempt to portray the manners 
 and frivohties of the higher classes; but none of 
 his predecessors, such as Edgeworth, Morgan, and 
 Crofton Croker, have succeeded in depicting so 
 vividly and truly the Irish peasant, with his pic- 
 turesque peculiarities in his sufferings and errors. 
 Although generally happy in the plot and develop- 
 ment of ms story, he is too much disposed to 
 dwell on the horrible. His denunciations may be 
 well founded, but they disturb the poetic effect. 
 B. was also not quite free from a somewhat tiresome 
 minuteness of description, and his imitation of Scott 
 is frequently very palpable. 
 
 BA'NISHMBNT, excepting in the penal sfnse of 
 Transportation (q. v.), with which it is popiilarly 
 synonymous, can only now be said to have a legal 
 meaning historically. Formerly, in England, parties 
 who were required to abjure tJie realm — that is, 
 renounce and depart from the country — were, so to 
 speak, banished; but the word appears to have a more 
 technical and precise significance in the Scotch law 
 than in the English, and in Scotch law-books, is 
 defined as the punishment of exile from Scotland 
 inflicted on persons convicted of certain offences for 
 which that punishment is provided. But as a 
 punishment, it has either been abolished in that 
 country by express enactment cr become obsolete by 
 disuse. See TBAifSPORTATiOK-, Penal Seevitudb. 
 
 BA'NTSTEE, a corruption of Baluster (q. v.). 
 
 BANJERMASSI'N, an extensive territory occu- 
 pying the south-east portion of the island of Borneo, 
 the river Banjer bounding it on the west, and the 
 strait of Macassar on the east. A range of moun- 
 tains, rising in many places to an elevation of 3000 
 feet, intersects it from north to south. Pop. 
 120,000, principally Mohammedans, and governed 
 by a sidtan, who is absolute so far as his people 
 are concerned, but who is: to a certain extent subject 
 to the Dutch. The manufactory of aU kinds of 
 small-arms has been brought to a state of great 
 perfection in this country.. Iron serves in place of 
 money. Coal of good quahty was discovered ia 
 1846, and is now profitably worked by the Dutch. 
 The capital, which bears the name of the district, is 
 situated on the left bank of the Banjer, about fifteen 
 milea from its mouth, and has a considerable trade 
 with China through its port at Tabeniow, about 
 fifty nules from the town, a bar at its entrance 
 rendering the Banjer inaccessible. 
 
 BANK, BANKING. A banker is the custodier 
 of the money of other persons. Such is his business, 
 viewed in its simplest aspect. A banker, if he 
 hoarded the money deposited with him, would be 
 simply a cash-keeper to the public ; his bank would 
 be Hterally a bank of deposit. Even were the busi- 
 ness of banking limited to the keeping of deposits, 
 it would be of no small advantage to society : the 
 depositors would be relieved from the care of their 
 money, and in many oases, from the trouble of handing 
 
 663 
 
BANK, BANKING. 
 
 it to those to ■whom they required to make a pay- 
 ment. If the person to whom the depositor -wishes to 
 pay money intend also to deposit it, a transfer in the 
 Doolcs of the banker from the one to the other, made 
 on the order or cheque of the depositor, would effect 
 the payment. The money itself would he undis- 
 turbed. The Bank of Amsterdam, aa it existed in 
 the 17th 0., was a bank of deposit, pure and simple. 
 But the business of receiving money on deposit has 
 almost always been, and is now, universally, com- 
 bined with that of lending it out. A banker does 
 not hoard all the money deposited with him — he 
 gives the greater portion out in loan. The lending 
 of money is as much a part of his business as the 
 receiving of deposits. The advantages accruing to 
 society from the operations of banking are thus 
 immense. A million of money lent out to be used, 
 and which otherwise would have lain dead, either in 
 smaU portions in the repositories of the owners, or in 
 one large hoard in the coffers of the banker, makes 
 the world one million the richer — or at least pre- 
 vents it from becoming one million the poorer ; for 
 money, so long as unused, serves no end as a means 
 of exchange. With the money thus lent out, manu- 
 facturers can purchase raw material to be worked 
 up, and procure food and clothing for their work- 
 men ; and traders can go into the markets and pur- 
 chase commodities for resale. Commodities are thus 
 more quickly turned to useful purposes, and a stimu- 
 lus is given to the production of more. But a banker 
 deals liot with the money only of others ; he uses 
 money belonging to himself. This is his capital. 
 Few would be found to deposit their money with a 
 person known to possess none of his own. If he 
 should lend deposits to those who fail to repay 
 them — ^that is, nmlce bad debts — ^he has the means 
 from his capital of replacing the deposits thus lost. 
 Such, then, are the simple functions of a banker : he 
 borrows and lends. 
 
 But for the money he lends he receives interest 
 from the borrowers ; and in this interest he is paid 
 for his trouble in taking charge of the deposits, and 
 for his risk of bad debts. The services that a banker 
 performs as the cash-keeper of his depositors are 
 very great. In the case of persons not themselves 
 in business, it is quite usual for a banker to make 
 all their money-payments, beyond their small daily 
 expenditure, and to receive the money payable to 
 them. The money transactions of such persons are 
 thus contained in their banker's books. Tliis is 
 effected by the depositor giving a cheque or order on 
 his banker for the sums he has to pay ; and by 
 handing to him aU the dieques or orders the deposi- 
 tor receives for sums payable to himself. Suppose a 
 person's income derived from dividends on govern- 
 ment stock : he sends a power of attorney or autho- 
 rity to his banker to uplift the dividends for him. 
 These are received by the banker as deposits, and 
 are drawn out by the depositor as occasion occurs, 
 by cheques issued by the depositor to those to whom 
 he requires to pay it away. So he may receive 
 money due to him by a cheque given to him by his 
 debtor. This cheque he sends to his banker, who 
 wiU obtain payment. If both persons deal with the 
 same banker, a simple transfer in his books will 
 carry through the transaction ; and if the bankers 
 be different, and each has had received, in the 
 course of his business, as is always happening, a 
 cheque on the other, there wiU be a set-off between 
 them ; and two payments wUl be made as well as 
 two deposits, without trouble to the persons con- 
 cerned, and without the employment ol any money. 
 But this mode of managing one's pecuniary transac- 
 tions is not confined to the case of those not 
 engaged in business ; on the contrary, it is followed 
 on a scale out of all proportion greater in carrying 
 
 664 
 
 through the money transactions of those in business 
 or trade in the principal industrial countries. 
 
 Besides thus performing the function of cashiers 
 to their depositors, in consideration of the proiit 
 made on their deposits, many banks allow their 
 depositors interest on their deposits. The rate 
 allowed is, of course, always less than that received 
 by the, banker. Frequently a depositor bargains 
 with the banker not to draw out his deposit without 
 previous notice, longer or shorter as may be a^eed 
 on ; and in this case the banker will allow a higher 
 rate of interest than when the deposit is repayable 
 on call — that is, at any time, without previous 
 notice. The practice of allowing interest on deposits 
 always obtained in Scotland, but in England is 
 of later growth. It has led there, of late years, to a 
 great increase in the amount of deposits, especially, 
 it is believed, of small sums. Where banks allow 
 interest on deposits, it is quite common for persons 
 to lodge their money with them, solely for the sake 
 of the return received in the shape of interest from 
 the banks. These persons prefer the low rate of 
 interest which banks give, to the higher rate which 
 may be obtained from individual borrowers, or to 
 the greater return which may be received if they 
 traded on their money. The low rate of interest is 
 compensated for by the greater security, and the 
 absence of trouble and labour to the depositor. 
 
 Occasions are always occurring for withdrawing 
 deposits, as well as making them. Traders and 
 commercial men, for example, day by day, deposit 
 with their bankers the drawings or sums of money 
 which they receive in the course of their business ; 
 and, on the other hand, day by day, draw out such 
 sums as they require to pay away in purchases of 
 goods, in wages, rent, and other expenditure. A 
 bank, therefore, while continually receiving deposits, 
 is continually repaying deposits; and the amoimt 
 uncalled for is subject to a daily fluctuation. At 
 one period of the year, or in a certain condition 
 of trade, the amount of deposits may be high ; at 
 another, low. As it is a principle, at the very 
 root of banking, that money deposited shall be 
 returned, either on demand, or punctually at the 
 expiry of a stipulated notice, it follows that banks 
 must always have in their coffers as much of the 
 money deposited with them as there is the least 
 likelihood of being called for by depositors. When 
 business is in its ordinary condition, a bank can, 
 after some experience, approximate pretty nearly 
 to the amount of the greatest demand for a return 
 of deposits throughout the year, and provide accord- 
 ingly. But sometimes the credit of a banlc becomes 
 doubted, either from causes peculiar to itself, or 
 on occasions of a panic or general distrust, when 
 all who own money wish to have it in their own 
 possession. In these cases, there is a run on the 
 bank for repayment of its deposits, and the amount 
 called for may be far beyond the maximum demanded 
 in ordinary times. If the bank has not retained 
 as much of the deposits in its coffers as meet the 
 demand, it is said to suspend payment, and, as a 
 general rule, it must wind-up its business; the 
 confidence of the pubHc that it will in future restore 
 its deposits on demand being now destroyed. There 
 are two prime rules in safe banking: the one is, 
 that the bank shaU lend its deposits only on good 
 and undoubted securities, however lowthe profit ; and 
 the other is, that the bank shall retain a sufficient 
 amount of its deposits — and this is called the reserve 
 — to meet the possible demands of the depositors, 
 even in cases of a run, although there may be 
 no reason to expect a run or imusual demand; 
 for when a run comes, it seldom casts its shadow 
 before. But it is evident that the greater the 
 reserve of a, banlc, the less the amount of deposits 
 
BANK, BANKING. 
 
 whioli it is lending out and drawing interest for; 
 hence the temptation which banks lie under of 
 imprudently lending out a too great proportion 
 of their deposits; and it is their yielding to this 
 temptation which almost always precipitates the 
 failures of banks. 
 
 The reserve of the banking department of the 
 Bank of England is always in coin, or, what is 
 the same thmg, in notes against which there is 
 coin lying in what is called the issme department 
 of the Bank. In the case of all other banks in 
 this country, the reserve is only partly in coin; 
 sometimes the proportion of coin is very small. 
 A great portion of the reserve is generally in 
 Bank of England notes, equivalent, of course, to 
 coin. These other banks also hold a portion of 
 what is truly their reserve, in the shape of govern- 
 ment stock, in which they have invested it. In 
 this way, the banks obtain a return on this last 
 portion of their reserve, in the dividends or interest 
 
 Eaid by government on the stock — this return being 
 iss, indeed, in the usual case, than if the bank 
 had lent out the money in the ordinary course 
 of business, but better than no return at all, as 
 must be when the coin or notes are lying idle. The 
 reason why government stock, in Great Britain, 
 is a safe reserve is, that it is sm-e to command a 
 purchaser at all times. If there be a run on a 
 bank, it immediately finds a purchaser for the 
 stock, and with the price, whether paid in gold, 
 or in Bank of England notes, the only other legal 
 tender, it meets the demands of its depositors. 
 Sometimes, a bank has its reserve in the form 
 of a deposit at the Banlc of England ; or, it a pro- 
 vincial bank, with some London bank which has 
 its own reserve there. From the Bank of England 
 being the channel through which, directly or in- 
 directly, payments are made, and moneys received, 
 by other banks, it is more convenient for them 
 to have their reserve lying as a deposit in it, than 
 lying as gold within their own walls. In the 
 case of a demand on their reserve, the banks will 
 draw out their deposits, in notes, or, if gold be 
 in demand, in gold, from the Bank of England. 
 Whether, therefore, the reserve of a bank is invested 
 in government securities, or is deposited in the 
 Bank of England, or is in Bank of England notes, 
 it is from the coin in that bank that the gold comes 
 in the case of a run. It is apparent from this that 
 it is essential to the stabihty of all banks in this 
 ooimtry, so long as they themselves do not keep 
 a sufficient reserve of coin in their coffers, that 
 the Bank of England shall always be possessed 
 of coin, and never be luiable, on demand, to pay 
 its depositors in gold, or to give gold in exchange 
 for all its notes that, may be presented to it. It 
 may be added, that while banks gain, through 
 the annual dividends, in keeping their reserve in 
 government stock, they run the risk of a loss in 
 the event of their requiring to sell it in the time 
 of a panic. For at such a time, when many 
 securities and stocks become unsaleable, and all 
 of them suffer depreciation in value, government 
 stock itself falls in price, although less so than 
 the others. Banks often invest portions of their 
 reserve in other stocks than government stock. 
 The higher return obtained on these other is, 
 however, outweighed by the greater risk of depre- 
 ciation in their value, whether continued unsold 
 or thrown into the market for sale in times of 
 panic. 
 
 We have hitherto been treating banks as banks 
 of deposit and loan; but many of these banks, 
 in all countries where banks are known, are also 
 banks of issue. Banks of deposit, as has been 
 mentioned, make loans from their capital and 
 
 deposits. If from capital, the banker has no greater 
 profit by the transaction than if he had lent out 
 his money in any other way, equally safe, and 
 involving the same amount of trouble. If from 
 deposits, the interest he receives, in so far as it 
 exceeds the interest, if any, paid to the depositors, 
 and a rateable proportion of the expense of carrying 
 on the business of the bank, is pure gain to him. 
 But a, banker may give the loan from his own 
 notes, and in that case his gain is stiU greater. 
 A bank-note is simply a written promise by the 
 bank issuing it, to pay to the bearer, on demand, 
 a sum of money — that is, in coin of the realm. Of 
 course, the borrower would not accept a loan 
 from a bank in its own notes, vmless he believed 
 that it could redeem its promise of paying in coin, 
 and that the pubhc were of the same opinion; 
 for the moment that a suspicion arises that the 
 promise will not be made good, the note wxU cease 
 to pass from hand to hand as coin, or to perform 
 all the functions which coin performs. But when 
 the loan is accepted in a bank's own notes, it 
 is evident that the interest which the bank draws 
 for the loan of its promises to pay is pure profit, 
 except the rateable proportion — as in the other 
 cases — of the expense of carrying on its business, 
 and the expense of the paper and printing of the 
 notes with the government stamp-duty. In other 
 words, a bank which can get people to pay to it 
 interest for the loan of its promises to pay, draws the 
 same income — barring the comparatively trifling 
 expense of manufacturing the written promises — 
 as a bank does which has to provide itself with gold 
 for maldng its loans. The motive which a bank 
 has to extend its issues on loans is therefore 
 apparent, so long, of course, as it is not compulsory 
 on it to retain unemployed in its coffers as much in 
 gold as it issues in notes. 
 
 But it by no means follows that when a bank 
 makes a loan in its own notes for a definite period, 
 it will really obtain the benefit of the interest on it 
 for that period ; for the borrower does not apply 
 for the notes that he may keep them beside nim, 
 but that he may pay them away in making a 
 purchase, or in liquidating a debt, and this, most 
 commonly, on the very day he receives them. If 
 the person to whom the notes are thus paid by the 
 borrower has himself no purchase to pay for, or no 
 payment to make, he may, the moment he gets 
 them, return them to the bank that issued them, to 
 he there on deposit. If the bank pays interest on 
 deposits, as most banks do, then out of the interest 
 drawn by it on the original loan, it will have to pay 
 interest to the depositor of the notes; in other 
 words, the loan is no longer a loan of its notes, but 
 a loan from its deposits. Or, the person receiving 
 the notes from the borrower, may immediately 
 present them to the issuing bank for coin, instead of 
 depositing them. Here, too, therefore, the loan that 
 was made in notes is now converted into a loan of 
 coin, that was in reserve from previous deposits, or 
 that was part of the bank's own capital ; in which 
 cases, the bank obtains no advantage whatever in 
 having made the loan originally in its notes. It 
 might equally well, so far as profit is concerned, 
 have originally made it in gold from its reserve of 
 deposits or capital. Notes generally find their way 
 back to the banlc that issued them through other 
 banks, into which they have been paid as deposits, 
 or for the hquidation of debts due to them. These 
 banks suffer the loss of profit or interest on the 
 amount of the notes thus received by them so long 
 as they keep them; they therefore immediately 
 present them to the issuing bank for gold, to 
 replenish their own reserves, or to lend out; or, 
 what is the same thing, they present them to the 
 
 665 
 
BANK, BAI^KING. 
 
 issuing bank for government stock, or other securi- 
 ties bearing interest, and wMoh that bank has had 
 to provide from its capital and deposits. 
 
 It will no"W be apparent to the reader that there 
 are two checks which prevent a bank issuing notes 
 to any extent it pleases. In the first place, there 
 must be a demand for its notes by borrowers. It is 
 only to people in good credit, and likely to make 
 a profitable use of them, that a bank -wSl lend its 
 notes, and such people wiU not take an increase of 
 loans unless trade be increasing, and new opportuni- 
 ties be presenting themselves for profitably employ- 
 ing the notes borrowed. True, banks, when impru- 
 dently conducted, or when deceived in the character 
 of their customers, frequently lend their notes to 
 reckless persons, who overtrade with them, and 
 become bankrupt. But banks commit this error, 
 when they do commit it, to a far greater extent by 
 loans of their deposits and capital, than by loans of 
 their notes. In the second place, the immediate 
 return of the notes, chiefly through other banks for 
 gold, or for other portions of the reserve of the 
 issuing bank, is a check to its issuing more notes 
 than it has a reserve to meet. This retmm of 
 notes through banks is called the exchange of notes — 
 the notes issued by a bank being returned to it in 
 exchange for the notes held by it of another bank. 
 
 Besides issuing its notes in loans, a bank may 
 issue them in repayment of deposits. In this case, 
 there is the same profit to the bank as in the other 
 case. The bank gets the profit which it makes on 
 the money which was origiaaUy deposited or lodged 
 with it, without having to pay interest to the persons 
 who made the deposit or lodgment; the deposit, 
 or money lodged, having now been repaid in its 
 notes. But here, too, these notes are equally liable 
 to be returned to the issuer as when they are issued 
 on loans. 
 
 Of aU the notes issued, in whatever way, by 
 banks, a certaiu amount is not returned to them, 
 but is kept in circulation, being what is required 
 by the necessities of the public for use as money, 
 passing from hand to han(£ It is of course on tMs 
 portion that the banks make their profit; and, in 
 consequence of this profit, they are able to afford 
 banking facilities to the public more cheaply than 
 they could otherwise do. The profit is just the 
 interest on the notes in circulation — less the expense 
 of manufacturing the notes, a rateable proportion of 
 the expenses of conducting the banks, and the loss 
 of interest or profit on an unemployed reserve kept 
 from prudence, or by the requirement of law, to 
 meet a return of notes. This interest is paid by the 
 persons who originally borrowed these notes from 
 the banks, and who have not repaid them ; or if the 
 banks have repaid deposits with the notes, the 
 interest is paid by 'those to whom they lent what 
 was originally these deposits. The amount of the 
 bank-notes in circulation varies at different periods 
 of the year : at term-times and quarter-days, when 
 more payments than usual are made, there is a 
 greater quantity of money required by the pubhc 
 than at other times, and the notes in circidation 
 increase in amount. This addition to the circulation 
 is drawn from the banks by depositors or borrowers. 
 After it has served its purpose, this additional 
 quantity gradually returns to the banks as deposits 
 or in repayment of loans. If the credit of an issuing 
 bank is at any time suspected, the holders of notes 
 will present them for gold, just in the same way as 
 its depositors wiU call for a return of their deposits; 
 and a bank requires to provide itself with a reserve 
 — on which, of course, it makes no profit — to meet 
 a run from its note-holders, as well as a run from 
 its depositors. It has been generally imagined that 
 when issuing banks suspend payments on a run, the 
 666 
 
 run is one on the part of their note-holders; but 
 this is only a popular error. In a well-established 
 bank, the amount of its notes in circulation is almost 
 nothing compared to its deposits; and though the 
 holders of smaU sums in notes may be more apt 
 than depositors to take alarm and rush in a panic 
 to the bank for gold for its notes, a small proportion 
 of its depositors suddenly demanding a, return of 
 their money in gold, as effectually draius a bank of 
 its reserve, as if its whole circulation were to be at 
 once presented to it for gold. 
 
 Banks Inake their loans chiefly in the form of 
 discounts; that is, upon bills of exchange. Commo- 
 dities in the wholesale market are generally sold on 
 credit. The buyer promises to pay the amount at 
 a certain date to the seller, and his promise is con- 
 tained in a bin of exchange. The seller transfers it 
 to a bank, which, on the faith of it, advances the 
 amount in loan to him, less discount, that is, interest 
 of the money till the bill be due. This is called 
 discounting. But banks lend on other securities. 
 A holder of government stock, for example, will 
 obtain a loan on the security of his stock; the 
 banker being entitled to sell it, and repay the 
 loan from the price, if the borrower fail to make 
 punctual payment. So also, the holder of stock 
 or shares in any public company, as a railway 
 company, or of a debenture or bond due by such, 
 will, where the company is believed to be in a 
 sound condition, or the security is saleable, obtain a 
 loan from a bank. The owners of commodities 
 lying in a pubhc warehouse, may obtain a loan on 
 depositing with the bank the warrants or certificates 
 of ownership. Loans, too, are occasionally made for 
 short periods on the mere note of hand of the bor- 
 rower, when the banker is satisfied of the ability of 
 the borrower to repay the money. It is seldom in 
 this country that banks lend on mortgages over 
 land. Borrowers, in these cases, generally take 
 loans to lie impaid for a few years ; but to have his 
 money locked up in that way does not suit the trade 
 of a banker. Where a banter finds the security 
 which he has received to be insufficient, and repay- 
 ment of the loan is not forthcoming, he wiQ, of 
 course, like any other trader, to avoid making a bad 
 debt, take any other security the debtor can give 
 him — such as a manufactory or a mine. Banks have 
 in this way frequently become involved in manufac- 
 turing transactions, in there attempts to make more 
 money of the securities than they would have done 
 by an immediate sale of them ; they have become 
 manufacturers and miners, and suffered great losses 
 in consequence. And it is not to be supposed that 
 banks always abstain from making loans when the 
 security is known to be doubtful; far from it : banks, 
 like other commercial establishments, have been, on 
 many occasions, recklessly managed. In trying to 
 push business, they have made loans on insufficient 
 security, and banks are under strong temptation, to 
 which they frequently yield, when a trader largely 
 indebted to them is approaching bankruptcy, to 
 sustain his credit by additional advances, in the 
 hope that he may retrieve his affairs, and pay in 
 full both the old and the new advances. The result 
 is often the loss of both. Conduct of this kind has 
 been the ruin of many banking estabhshments in 
 England, of two or three in Ireland and Scotland, 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 Bankers perform another very important function : 
 they remit money from one place to another. One 
 illustration will serve to explain how this is man- 
 aged. A debtor in Edinburgh makes a payment to 
 his creditor in London in tliis way : he pays the 
 money to a banker in Edinburgh, who, for a small 
 charge, called the exchange, gives him a draft for the 
 amoimt on a banker, his correspondent, in London. 
 
BANK, BANKING. 
 
 I 
 
 The debtor transmits the draft to his creditor, who 
 presents it to the London banker, and receives the 
 money from him. No actual transmission of the 
 money, however, takes place, for there are debtoj's 
 in London requiring to pay money to creditors in 
 Edinburgh, and these debtors eflfect the payment by 
 giving the money to the London banker, and obtain'- 
 mg his drafts on the Edinburgh banker. The 
 London banker is thus refunded for the money he 
 lays away on the drafts upon him by the Edinburgh 
 lajnker. The one set of drafts are set oflf against 
 the other. Not only may remittances between 
 two places be thus made without the use of money, 
 but the payments to and by the parties in both 
 places may also be made vpithout it. The debtors 
 may pay for the drafts by cheques on the banker 
 ■who grants them, and the creditors may receive the 
 money by drawing cheques on the banker by whom 
 the drafts are made payable. 
 
 The large amount of money transactions carried 
 thi-ough without the interveiition of coin or bank- 
 notes, in a country like England, is inconceivable 
 to those not engaged in business pursuits. The 
 manner in which these transactions may be effected 
 without money, would be at once apprehended, if 
 all persons in the same locality dealt with the same 
 bank, and if all the banks scattered throughout the 
 kingdom were only branches of the same establish- 
 ment. But in practice, matters are so managed as 
 if this were the case. The cheques, bills, or other 
 drafts which come into the hands of a banker, 
 drawn on (that is, payable by) other bankers, are 
 set oflf and liquidated by drafts, which they have 
 received, drawn on him. The balance or difference 
 only is paid in money. In London, the centre of 
 the money-world, there is an establishment called 
 the Clearing-house, of which most of the London 
 banks are members. There, at a fixed hour daily, 
 attendance is given by a clerk from each of these 
 banks, who presents all the drafts immediately 
 payable which his bank holds on the others; the 
 balance or difference, on the whole, for or against 
 each bank is ascertained ; and the bank which holds 
 a less amoimt of drafts on others than they hold on 
 it, pays the difference by cheques on the Bank of 
 England. There are clearing-nouses in New York 
 and Dublin, conducted on a similar principle. 
 
 Banic of England. — This institution, which is the 
 largest and most important banking establishment 
 in the world, was projected by WiUiam Paterson, a 
 Scotsman, and received its charter of incorporation 
 July 27, 1694. It was constituted as a joint-stock 
 association, with a capital of £1,200,000, which sum 
 was lent at interest to the government of William 
 and Mary, at the time in a state of embarrassment. 
 At its very outset, therefore, the Bank of England 
 was a servant of government; and in a lesser 
 or greater degree, it has enjoyed this character 
 through all the stages of its subsequent' history. 
 At first, the charter of the Bank was for eleven years 
 only; but in consequence of the great services of 
 the institution to government, its charter fias been 
 at various times renewed. The last renewal was in 
 1844, and the charter of that year still subsists, its 
 terms being subject to modification or revocation by 
 the legislature at pleasure. By the act or charter of 
 1844, the Bank was divided into two departments — 
 the issue and the hanking. What led to the division 
 was this : it was supposed that, when a foreign 
 drain of gold from us set in, it would, if the currency 
 or circulation in this country had been purely 
 metaUic, have produced a contraction of the circu- 
 lation, and a consequent fall of prices, and, as an 
 ultimate result, the cessation of the drain. It was 
 further supposed that banks could issue their notes 
 to any extent they pleased ; that their excessive 
 
 issues increased the currency, and therefore in- 
 creased prices, which in their turn led to foreign 
 drains ; and that, on the occasions of these drains, 
 the continued issues prevented the natural and 
 desirable contraction of the circulation, and aggra- 
 vated the commercial convulsions occurring at such 
 periods. The object of the act of 1844 was to 
 prevent issues of notes beyond a certain amount, 
 unless against an equal amount of gold held by the 
 issuing bank, so that the mixed currency of notes 
 and coin might thus expand and contract like a 
 self-acting metallic currency. Experience, however, 
 has shewn, that when these foreign drains occur, 
 the gold exported is taken chiefly from the reserves 
 in the Bank of England, being withdrawals of 
 deposits or loans by the Bank; and that the amount 
 of notes in the hands of the public has not been 
 affected by the legislation of 1844. In practice, 
 whenever "there are signs of a foreign drain, and the 
 reserve of the Bank is diminishing, the Bank counter- 
 acts the tendency to a drain by raising the rate of 
 discount and restricting its loans; the purchasing 
 power of the pubKo is thereby limited, and prices 
 kept down ; and, at the same time, gold is attracted 
 to this country for investment. The circulation is 
 in reality not interfered with. It was also intended 
 by the act of 1844 to add to the security of bank- 
 notes by insuring a supply of gold to meet the pay- 
 ment of them at all times. But the solvency of the 
 Bank of England is undoubted ; its notes would 
 at any time be taken as gold ; and this effect o| the 
 act of 1844, and the supplementary act of 1845, has in 
 the case of the notes of other banks been hitherto 
 inappreciable. 
 
 In the issue department of the Bank of England, 
 its sole business is to give out notes to the public. 
 Before the separation of the departments, the govern- 
 ment was due to the Bank £11,015,000. TEs sum 
 was declared to be now a debt due to the issue 
 department, and for the issues of notes to that 
 amount, no gold requires to be held by it. This was 
 just the same thing as if the Bank had originally lent 
 £11,015,000 of its notes to government, and these 
 notes had found their way into circulation. The 
 Bank was also allowed to issue additional notes on 
 securities — that is, to lend them to a limit which at 
 present amounts to £3,459,900, and this also without 
 holding gold. The amount of notes which may thus 
 be issued, without gold being in reserve against it, is 
 £14,475,000. All notes issued above that amount 
 can be issued only in exchange for gold. At the 
 passiag of the act ia 1844, the Unfit of notes to be 
 issued against the government debt and securities 
 was fixed at £14,000,000 — past experience having 
 shewn that there was not the least risk of there 
 being at any time less than that amount of Bank of 
 England notes in the hands of the public. The 
 admtion of the £475,000 is an extra issue, authorised 
 by the act, in consequence of certain issuing banks 
 having since ceased to issue. The Bank has to 
 account to government for the net profit of this 
 issue loan of notes of £475,000 ; and the profit the 
 Bank derives from its issue department is the interest 
 received on the £14,000,000 of government debt and 
 securities, which, at 3 per cent., is £420,000 yearly. 
 But out of this the Bank pays to government, for 
 its banking privileges, and in Keu of stamp-duties, 
 £180,000. The expense of the issue department 
 being £160,000, the net yearly profit upon it to the 
 Bank is thus £80,000. The Bank also makes a 
 profit of £20,000 to £40,000 yearly upon bullion and 
 foreign coin. These are brought to the Bank for 
 notes ; they are worth £3, 17«. lOJA per ounce; but 
 the Bank is obliged by its charter to purchase them 
 at £3, 17s. 9d. The holders prefer taking this price 
 to having their bullion and foreign coin coined, free 
 
 667 
 
BANK, BANKING. 
 
 of cliarge, at tlie public mint, as the delay in the 
 coining is equal to a loss of interest of lid. per 
 ounce. The amount of notes in the hands of the 
 public averages about £20,000,000 ; but the amount 
 issued by the issue department is greater. The dif- 
 ference is the amount lying in the banhing depart- 
 ment, and represents the reserve of gold of that 
 department ; that is to say, the banking department 
 retains only a half "^ three-fourths of a million of 
 coin, and transfers the bulk of its reserve to the issue 
 department, in exchange for notes. We therefore 
 require to regard the reserve of the banking depart- 
 ment as gold, though lying in the shape of notes 
 issued by the other department. 
 
 Viewed in its banhing department, the Bank differs 
 from other banks in having the management of the 
 public debt, and paying the dividends on it; in 
 holding the deposits belonging to government, and 
 in making advances to it when necessary ; ia aiding 
 in the coUection of the pubhe revenue, and in beiag 
 the bank of other baiiks. For the management of 
 the public debt, the Bank receives about £247,000, 
 against ■which there has to be set £124,000 of charges. 
 The remaining profits of the Bank are derived from 
 its employment, hke other banks, of its deposits, on 
 which it allows no interest, and of its own capital. 
 The capital was originaUy £1,200,000 ; in 1816, it 
 reached £14,553,000 — ^the present amount. There is 
 besides a rest of about £3,000,000. The deposits 
 (public and private) vary between £13,000,000 and 
 £22,000,000. 
 
 In 1797, the Bank found itself likely to be obhged 
 to suspend payments, and its notes were declared by 
 law a legal tender, although no longer convertible 
 into coin. This state of matters continued till 1821. 
 The notes durkig this interval not having been con- 
 vertible into coin on demand, there was no check upon 
 the Bank in the amount of its issues ; and the cur- 
 rency became depreciated — ^that is, a £5 note would 
 not exchange for five sovereigns ; and every man to 
 whom £5 was due, was thus obliged to accept pay- 
 ment in a £5 note, not worth £5. It is, however, 
 said that the value of gold at the time was enhanced 
 owing to absorption by hoarding and by military- 
 chests, and that the depreciation was more apparent 
 than real. The export of gold following on a rise of 
 prices occasioned by an issue of bank or government 
 notes is unlimited, except by exhaustion, if these 
 notes are not payable in coin on demand, and are 
 issued without any check from without or self- 
 imposed. But as prices estimated in these notes 
 rise, the price of bulhou, like other commodities, 
 rises too, and the price of coin which can be con- 
 verted into bullion, or be used abroad at its previous 
 purchasing power, rises also. Since 1821, the Bank 
 has been oftener than once on the verge of a suspen- 
 sion of payments, owing to foreign drains of gold. 
 The separation of the Bank into two departments 
 is regarded by many as having a tendency to produce 
 a suspension in times of panic, when the reserve is 
 reduced by withdrawals to supply a foreign drain, 
 or to meet an internal run. Before the separation, 
 the Bank, in the case of withdrawals of gold, had 
 the whole amount of gold within the Bank to meet 
 them ; but now it loses the command of all the gold 
 in the issue department. It cannot get that gold 
 unless in exchange for notes, but, its reserve being 
 reduced or exhausted, it has none to spare. The 
 restriction of credit consequent upon the approach to 
 an exhaustion of the reserve of the banking depart- 
 ment, is so great, that the fear of it occasions a panic ; 
 and both ia 1847 and 1857, on the possible suspen- 
 sion of payments by the banking department, owing 
 to a reduction of its reserve, being apparent, the 
 government of the day took the responsibility of 
 authorising the Bank to lend additional notes, not 
 em 
 
 represented by gold, which was an indirect way of 
 getting at the gold in the issue department, where 
 the object of the borrowers was to obtain gold. In 
 1857, it was found necessary to take the benefit of 
 this authorisation. 
 
 The Baiik of England is situated in the centre of 
 London ; but it has a branch in the west end, and 
 several branches in the provinces. 
 
 Joint-stock Banks in England and Wales. — There 
 are 95 of these banks, of which 63 in the provinces 
 are entitled to issue notes to the extent of £3,303,357, 
 without its being compulsory to hold any gold in 
 reserve against them. But they are not allowed to 
 exceed that amount ; and their actual issue is several 
 hundred thousands less. Most of them have branch- 
 offices — ^two of them having each about 100 branches 
 and sub-branches. Their paid-up capital varies from 
 £21,000 to £1,000,000 ; and there are as great dif- 
 ferences in the numbers of their partners. The 
 deposits of the joint-stock banks in London are 
 about £40,000,000. All of them allow interest on 
 deposits. 
 
 Private Banks in England and Wales. — Of these, 
 there are 312, of which 57 are in London. Of the 
 provincial banks, 151 have a fixed authorised issue 
 of £4,404,935, which cannot be exceeded. The 
 actual issue is about a million less. 
 
 In the case of all these banks, whether issuing 
 or non-issuing, their profits are chiefly derived from 
 the use of their deposits. As already mentioned, 
 the issues of those banks possessmg the privilege 
 are small compared with their deposits. 
 
 There are also in London the establishments of 
 18 colonial, Indian, and foreign joint-stock banks. 
 
 Banks in Scotland. — The earliest banking institu- 
 tion in North Britaia was the Bank of Scotland, 
 instituted by a charter of incorporation from, the 
 Scots parliament in 1695. The original capital was 
 £1,200,000 Scots, or £100,000 sterUng. The 
 amount was raised by shares differing in extent, 
 from £1000 Scots, or £83, 6s. 8d. sterling, to £20,000 
 Scots. In 1774, the amount of stock was extended 
 to £200,000 sterling : now it is £1,000,000 sterling, 
 and the shares £100 sterling. 
 
 The Bank of Scotland continued to be the only 
 bank in the country till the year 1727, when a new 
 and similar establishment was constituted under 
 the title of the Royal Baiilc of Scotland, whose 
 advanced capital is now £2,000,000. In 1746, 
 another association was formed, and incorporated 
 by royal charter, with the title of the British 
 Linen Company. The object of this association 
 was at first to encourage the linen manufacture 
 of Scotland, but gradually it fell into the course 
 of common banking business. From £100,000, its 
 capital has increased to £1,000,000. There are other 
 eleven joint-stock banks, with capitals varying from 
 £1,000,000 to £60,000. There are now no private 
 banks. -The amount of deposits is understood to be 
 about 50 millions, on which interest is allowed. Their 
 authorised issue of notes is £2,749,271, but their 
 actual issue is between £1,000,000 and £2,000,000 
 more. The Western Bank, with a capital of 
 £1,500,000, a circulation of above £400,000, having 
 1300 shareholders, and about 100 branches, suspended 
 payments in 1857. The shareholders, however, being 
 under unlimited liability, neither the depositors nor 
 the note-holders sustained any loss. The solvency 
 of the shareholders, as a body, being undoubted, the 
 other banks at once paid off the Western Bank 
 deposits, and redeemed its notes, by which they 
 became its creditors at a remunerating rate of 
 interest. Another Scottish establishment, called the 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow Bank, had about the same 
 time to wind up its affairs, with the entire loss of 
 its capital. Both cases of stoppage arose from a 
 
BANK, BANKING— BANK-NOTES. 
 
 recklessly profuse system of discounting bills. In 
 England and Ireland, the creditors of bankrupt banks 
 have generally found great difficulty in recovering 
 even a dividend on their deposits and notes ; but 
 in Scotland, the loss on such occasions has fallen 
 entirely on the shareholders, as in the case of the 
 Western Bank. In consequence of alloiving interest 
 on deposits, the banks in Scotland may be said to 
 hold the whole capital of the country, minus only 
 the money passing from hand to hand. This wide- 
 spread system of depositing is greatly aided by the 
 establishment of branches from the parent-banks; 
 and these branches are found in every small town in 
 the kingdom. The entire number of branch-banlcs 
 in Scotland, in 1859, was 583, besides some sub- 
 branches. At these branch-banks, the agent (usually 
 a respectable person in business) discounts bills 
 within certain limits, issues letters of credit, and 
 pays out notes, and also gives cash on demand for 
 them ; though, strictly, the notes of a bank are only 
 payable on demand at the head-office. By a strict 
 system of supervision, Scottish branch-banks are 
 usually well conducted, and are of great service in 
 every department of trade. For one thing, they 
 have powerfully contributed to extinguish burglary 
 and Mghway robbery, as no one thiiis of keeping 
 money, except to a trifling amount, either in his 
 house or about his person. At all the great fairs, 
 bankers attend to receive deposits, and to pay 
 cheques. Forgeries of Scottish bank-notes are now 
 unknown. 
 
 The banks in Scotland, like the banks in Ireland, 
 but unlike the provincial banks in England, are 
 allowed to issue notes beyond their fixed issues, 
 on holding gold equal in amount to the extra issue. 
 But as the gold thus retained is, like the other 
 gold in reserve, liable for all the deposits, as well 
 as for the whole circulation of a bank, if it should 
 fail, the security of the establishment is increased 
 only in a small degree by this arrangement, which, 
 apiu^ from the loss of profit to the bank on the 
 gold unemployed, is attended with inconvenience at 
 tbose seasons when the circulation is extended. In 
 Scotland, and Ireland also, banks can issue one- 
 pound ncrtes ; the English banks are not permitted 
 to circulate notes of less value than £5. 
 
 Besides employing money in discounting bills, 
 the Scottish b^iks grant loans of fluctuating 
 amount, called cash-accounts or cash-credits. By a 
 cash-account is signified a process whereby an 
 individual is entitled to draw out sums as required, 
 to a stipulated amount, and by an impHed condition 
 to make deposits at his convenience towards the 
 liquidation of the same. On entering into this 
 arrangement, he finds security to the bank that 
 he wiU repay to the bank, whenever called on, 
 the balance of sums drawn out, less those paid in, 
 with the interest that may be due. These accounts 
 are balanced yearly lilce current or deposit accounts. 
 The only difference between the latter and a cash- 
 account on the face of them is, that if the credit 
 allowed on the cash-account is being made use of, 
 the balance is in favour of the bank ; whereas, on 
 the other kind of accounts, the balance is in favour 
 of the bank's customer. 
 
 Jianks in Ireland. — There are eight joint-stock 
 banks, having 172 branches. Their authorised 
 issue is £6,354,494; the actual issue is a little 
 sometimes above, and sometimes below that amount. 
 Of the authorised issue, £3,738,428 is that of the 
 Bank of Ireland. It is a national bank, lending 
 £2,630,769 of its capital to government. It was 
 established in 1783, with privileges resembling those 
 of the Bank of England. Its capital is about 
 £2,800,000, and its rest £1,043,076. It allows no 
 interest on deposits. The capitals of the other 
 
 banks vary from £125,000 to ^500,000. Five of 
 them are issuing banks. There are also five private 
 banking firms in Dublin. 
 
 Foreign and Colonial Banks. — On the continent of 
 Europe, there are both national or incorporated banks 
 and private banlcs. The national banks are, to a 
 greater or less extent, government establishments, 
 managing the'public debt and finances, and, unlike 
 the Bank of England, subject to government influ- 
 ence or interference. In India and the British 
 colonies, there are joint-stock banks and private 
 bankers. The joint-stock banks of Australia, though 
 in their infancy, are becoming establishments of 
 magnitude. The United States of America are 
 overrun with banks. Insufficient capital, recldess 
 management, and the smaUness of the reserve kept, 
 have frequently led to the suspension of payments 
 of these banlcs. In 1857, even the solvent banks 
 suspended payments in self-defence, when all the 
 others gave way. As a means of securing the 
 note-holders, the law in some states requires the 
 banks to deposit with the state government securi- 
 ties against the notes issued. At all times, the 
 number of forgeries of bank-notes in the United 
 States is very considerable, and great caution requu-es 
 to be exercised in accepting notes as payment. 
 
 BANK-NOTES, Manufactuke os. The chief 
 object in the manufacture of B. is to render forgery 
 impossible, or at least easy of detection. This is 
 sought to be effected by pecuUar^ty of paper, 
 design, and printing, or by a combination of these 
 means, as is done by the Bank of England, and 
 by other banks in America and elsewhere. See 
 Papbr-maiong. The chief reliance, however, has 
 been on mechanical design — that the impression 
 should be such as to make the genuine note 
 readily distinguishable by the public for its high 
 art, and to the ' bank of&cials by secret pecuUari- 
 ties in its execution. Thus, the writing, the 
 emblems, and the ornaments are so combined 
 as to render forgery difficidt. The ink, too, is 
 peculiar (see Ink-making), being the blackest and 
 most indeUble of inks. As a further security against 
 forgery, a self-registering machine was contrived by 
 the Messrs Oldham, engineers to the Bank of 
 England, and each note was impressed with a dis- 
 tinctive mark known only to the bank authorities. 
 
 Copperplate printing was the only printing in use 
 for banlc-notes tiU 1837, when one of the greatest im- 
 . provements was made in practical engraving which 
 the history of the arts has to record. Tliis was 
 the reproduction of designs by the mill and die, by 
 mechanical pressure, as invented by Messrs Perldns 
 and Heath, for bank-note printing, and which was 
 afterwards attended with such extraordinary results, 
 as applied to calico-printing, as were all but fabu- 
 lous — creating a new order of means, with -■ rate 
 of production and style of patterns imapproach- 
 able by hand-action. The principle of this great 
 invention is simply this : the pattern is engraved 
 on a soft sted plate, which is then hardened, to 
 transfer the pattern by pressure to a soft steel 
 roller, on which, of course, the pattern is produced 
 in relief. The roller or miU. is then hardened, to 
 reproduce the pattern in the plate from which the 
 prmting is to be done, and thus almost any number 
 of plates for all common purposes can easily be 
 produced. 
 
 This system of siderography continued in use for 
 bank-note printing in the Bank of England till 1855, 
 when electrotype-printing was introduced by Mr 
 Smee, the surgeon of the Banli, with the assistance 
 of the mechanical officials (see ELBCTBOTypme) ; 
 and since that time, the notes of the Bank of 
 England have been aU produced by surface-printing 
 by the electrotype. 
 ' 669 
 
BANKRUPTCY— BANKSIA. 
 
 BA'NKRUPTOY. See Insolvency. 
 
 BANKS, in Navigation, are elevations of the 
 bottom of the sea ; when tolerably smooth at the 
 top, they constitute shallows, shoals, and flats ; but 
 when rocky, they become reefs, ridges, keys, &c. Pilots 
 and captains of ships require to b^ intimately 
 acquainted with the B. along their route ; and 
 a chart, if properly prepared, always defines thetn 
 by means of small dots, if sands, and small crosses, 
 i£ rooky. In war-time, smaU vessels often escape 
 capture by running into shallows where larger 
 vessels dare not foUow them. The Newfoundland 
 and the Bahama B. are well-known examples of 
 this kind of sea-bottom. 
 
 BANKS land; an- island in the Arctic Ocean, 
 70 mUes to the south-west of Melville Island. It 
 is intersected by the parallel of 74° N., and by the 
 meridian of 116° W. 
 
 BANKS, Savings'. See Savings' Bakes. 
 
 BANKS, Sir Joseph, a zealous naturalist, was 
 bom, according to some accounts, at Revesby Abbey, 
 in Lincolnshire, according to others, in London, in 
 January 1743, and died June 19, 1820. He was 
 descended from a family of Swedish origin, which 
 had been settled in England for about 200 years. 
 To this family belongs also John Banks, who 
 made his name known as a writer of tragedies, 
 in the latter half of the 17th c. B. was educated at 
 Eton and Oxford. In 1763 he made a voyage to 
 Newfoundland and Labrador, collecting plants ; and 
 from 1768 to 1771, he sailed with Cook round the 
 world in the capacity of naturalist, and wrote the 
 botanical descriptions for the first voyages. In the 
 year 1772 he visited the Hebrides and Iceland, 
 whence he brought back a rich treasure of speci- 
 mens for his studies in natural history. Before this 
 voyage, Staffa was hardly known beyond its imme- 
 diate vicinity. It was carefully examined by B., 
 and through him its wonders were made known 
 to the pubho. In 1777, he was elected President of 
 the Royal Society, an ofifice which he held for 42 
 years ; and in 1781 he was created a baronet. He 
 deserves particular credit for f oimding and managing 
 the African Association ; and the colony of Botany 
 Bay owed its origin mainly to him. Through his 
 efforts, the bread-fruit tree was transferred from 
 Otaheite to the West Indies, and the mango from 
 Bengal, as well as many of the fruits of Ce;^on and 
 Persia. Many naturalists and travellers — Blumen- 
 thal, Hornemann, Burckhardt, Mungo Park, and 
 others, were indebted to him for zealous and disin- 
 terested assistance in their labours. During the 
 French war, B. did much to alleviate the suffer- 
 ings of aU captive men of science, and used his 
 influence with government to procure the restora- 
 'tion of their papers. Cuvier, in his iloge on him 
 before the French Academy of Science, states that 
 no less than ten times had collections, captured by 
 the Enghsh, been restored to the Jardiu du Roi at 
 Paris through the instrumentality of B. No man of 
 science appealed to liim in vain for pecuniary assist- 
 ance; and his splendid library of natural history 
 was at the service of those who desired to consult it. 
 With the exception of articles in magazines, and 
 contributions to the publications of learned socie- 
 ties, especially to the Philosophical Transactions, B. 
 has written nothing but two small works — A Short 
 Account of the Causes of the Diseases in Com called 
 Blight, Mildew, and Rust, which was printed for his 
 friends in 1803, and for the public in 1805 ; and 
 Circumstances Relative to Merino She^ (London, 
 1809). He left a valuable library, of which an excel- 
 lent catalogue was made by lus friend Dryander; 
 and a rich coUeotiou of specimens in natural history, 
 both of which he bequeathed to the British Museum. 
 
 670 
 
 BANKS, Thomas, an eminent English sculptor, 
 born' in Lambeth in December 1735. B. was appren-. 
 ticed to a landscape gardener and architect, but he 
 soon abandoned these practical arts for the more 
 imaginative one of sculpture.. In 1770, B. was a 
 successful -candidate for the gold prize of the 
 Royal Academy, established two years before. In 
 1772, with an allowance of £50 a year from the, 
 Academy for three years, he went to Rome to study 
 the master-pieces of art there. After a residence of 
 several years in Rome, during which he exhibited 
 two of his finest wor^s, ' Caractaous Pleading before 
 Claudius,' and 'Psyche and the Butterfly,' and having 
 gained much fame but little profit, he returned to 
 England. Here his refined imaginative style was 
 little appreciated incomparison with the popular but 
 inferior performances of some of his contemporaries ; 
 and after two years, he went to Russia, where he 
 was well received by the Empress Catharine, who 
 purchased his Psyche, and gave him a commission 
 for a group called 'Armed Neutrality.' Having 
 executed this, he returned to England, where he 
 completed perhaps his finest work, ' The Mour;iing 
 AchiUes,' now in the British Institution. B. now 
 received several commissions, and was elected a 
 member of the Royal Academy. The monuments 
 of Sir Eyre Coote in Westminster Abbey, and of 
 Captains Burgess arid Westcott in St Paul's Cathe- 
 dral, were among his last works. He died February 
 2, 1805. It- was in purely ima^ative works that B. 
 most excelled ; in practical subjects, his introduction 
 of the ideal was incongruous and inartistic, render- 
 ing them far less valuable than those of some of his 
 rivals. 
 
 BA'NKSIA, a genus of 
 Australian shrubs of the 
 natural order Proteaeece (q. v.), 
 named in honour of Sir Joseph 
 Banks. A few of the species 
 become small trees. They 
 have hard dry leaves, gene- 
 rally white or very pale 
 green beneath, and present a 
 remarkable appearance from 
 the umbellate arrangement of 
 their , branches, ■ wmch bear 
 towards their extremities ob- 
 long heads of very numerous 
 flowers. The flowers secrete 
 much honey. Some of the 
 species are now frequent ornaments of green- 
 houses -in Britain. They are abundant in aU parts 
 
 Banksia littoralis 
 in flower. 
 
 Fruit and Leaf of Banksia. 
 
 of Australia, forming, indeed, a characteristic feature 
 of its vegetation, and are called Honeysuckle ttees. 
 
BANN-BANNBE. 
 
 B. grandia, found at Swan' Eiver, exceeds aH the 
 rest of the genus in size, attaining a height of 50 
 feet. 
 
 BANN, the name of two rivers in the north-east 
 of Ireland ; the one, the Upper B., flowing into, and 
 the other, the Lower B., out of Loch Neagh. The 
 Upper B. rises on the north side of the Moume 
 Mountains, in the south of Downshire, and runs 
 25 miles north-north-west through the counties of 
 Down and Armagh, successively in a granite, sUurian, 
 trap, and tertiary basin, into the south side of 
 Lough Neagh. It passes Banhridge, Gilford, and 
 Portadown. At the latter place the Newry Canal 
 joins it. The Lower B., strictly the continuation of 
 the Upper, issues from the north-west comer of 
 Lough Bfeagh, and flows 40 miles north-north-west, 
 through Lough Beg, and dividing the counties 
 of Antrim and Londonderry. It nms past Port- 
 glenone and Coleraine, into the Atlantic Ocean 4 
 miles south-west of Portrush. One mile ahove 
 Coleraine it falls over a ledge of rock 13 feet high. 
 It bears the surplus waters of Lough Neagh to the 
 ocean, and has important salmon and eel-fisheries. 
 Vessels of 200 tons can reach Coleraine by the river, 
 4 miles from the ocean. 
 
 BA'KITATYNB CLUB, a literary club deriving 
 its name from George Bannatyne, to whose industry 
 we are indebted for the preservation of much of the 
 Scottish poetry of the 15th and 16th centuries. The 
 B. C. was instituted in Edinburgh ia 1823 by Sir 
 Walter Scott, with the assistance chiefly of Mr David 
 Laing of the Signet Library, Mr Archibald Con- 
 stable, and Mr Thomas Thomson. The object of the 
 institution was to print rare works illustrative of 
 Scottish history, topography, poetry, miscellaneous 
 literature, &o., in a uniform and handsome manner, 
 either at the expense of the club, or as the contribu- 
 tions oiE individual members. As a general rule, the 
 number of copies of each work printed was limited 
 to the number required for distribution among 
 members, but in some instances a few were printed 
 for sale. The club originally consisted of 31 mem- 
 bers only, who paid an annual contribution of five 
 guineas ; but owing to the anxiety of many eminent 
 men to become members, the number was gradually 
 extended to 100, where it was definitively^ fixed, the 
 same annual payment being still required. Its 
 first president was Sir Walter Scott, and its first 
 secretary Mr David Laing, who still continues to 
 discharge the duties of the office. The club had 
 annual meetings in December, which were of a very 
 convivial character, so far as can be judged from 
 an account of their first meeting published in 
 the MdMurgh Literary Gazette of February 182t— 
 afterwards reprinted by the club itself— which 
 suggestively says that the Bannatyne Garland, 
 No. 1, a song composed by one of the members, was 
 sung 'to the tune of Four Botiies more.' These 
 meetings, however, have, within recent years, been 
 given up; and the club itself, which, in 1859, 
 numbered about eighty members, was to be dis- 
 solved in a few months. Since its commencement 
 it has numbered among its members many of the 
 most distinguished Scotsmen, and has printed more 
 than a hundred quarto works, besides several octavo 
 ones, some valuable as they are rare, and aU bring- 
 ing high prices at sales. 
 
 BA'NNBR, a piece of cloth attached to a pole, 
 and usually bearing some warlike or heraldic device, 
 or national emblem. In this sense B. is a generic 
 term, including many species, such as standard, 
 ensign, pennon, flag, &o. Banners have been used 
 from the earliest times, and in aU countries, for the 
 purpose of directing the movements of troops. We 
 read of them constantly in the Old Testament, as in 
 
 Numbers ii 2, ' Every man of the children of 
 Israel shall camp by his standard, and under the 
 ensign of his father s house.' The earliest Eoman 
 standard was a bundle of straw flxed to the top of 
 a spear. This was succeeded by figures of animals 
 — the horse, the boar, &c., all of which soon gave 
 place to the eagle, which continued all along to be 
 the chief Roman ensign, and was afterwards assumed 
 by the German, and latterly by the French emperors 
 of the Napoleon dynasty. In addition to the eagle, 
 each Roman cohort had a B., generally a serpent or 
 dragon woven on a square piece of cloth. The 
 standard of the cavahy was a square piece of cloth 
 expanded on a cross, and it was to this that the tenn 
 vexillum properly applied. Examples of these stand- 
 ards are sculptured on the Arch of Constautine at 
 
 Roman Standards from the Arch of Constantino. 
 
 Rome. The top of the staff was also frequently 
 adorned with a figure of Mars or of Victory, and in 
 later times, with the head of the reigning emperor. 
 After Constantino embraced Christianity, the Cross 
 was substituted for the head of the emperor on the 
 purple B. of Byzantiiun. Standards were less in use 
 amongst the Greeks than has been usual with war- 
 like nations ; but a standard, and sometimes a scarlet 
 flag, was employed as a signal for giving battle. On 
 the rise of Chivalry, in the middle ages, the ordering 
 of banners, like every other branch of military 
 organisation, attained to something like scientific 
 exactitude. Prom the B.-royal, which bore the 
 national emblems, to the small streamer attached to 
 the lance, with its cross or stripes, there was a 
 (■egular subordination, each emblem having its place 
 and its meaning. The pennon of the simple knight 
 differed from the square B. of the banneret (q. v.), 
 in being pointed at the ends. In addition to their 
 varieties in size, shape, and colour, these banners 
 were distinguished by the emblems which they 
 bore. One of the earliest is the Danish raven, 
 depicted on the standard taken by Alfred, of which 
 Asser mentions the tradition, that ' in every battle, 
 wherever that flag went before them, if they [the 
 Danes] were to gam the victory, a live crow would 
 appear flying on the middle of the flag ; but if they 
 were doomed to be defeated, it would hang down 
 motionless.' Nor did the privUese of carrying 
 banners belong to princes and knights alone, 
 bishops and abbots displayed similar ensigns, which 
 were carried before tiem in religious processions, 
 
 671 
 
BANNERET— BAOTiS. 
 
 and tmder whicli their retainers fought ia their 
 defence. It was to thgse that the term ' Gonfalon,' 
 a word as to the origin of which much diversity of 
 opinion exists, was more commonly, applied. In 
 place of the heraldic emblems of the knight, the B. 
 of the Church, and of towns and communes, usually 
 bore the effigies of saiats. ^ Some banners,, however, 
 displayed, no ensigns whatever, and were Itnown: 
 simply by their colour. Of this the oriflamme, or plain 
 ruddy flag of. St Denis, was a famous example. The 
 celebrated Bayeux, Tapestry (q. v.) throws consider- 
 able light on banners, as wdl as on other matters con- 
 nected with the warlike arrangements of the middle 
 ages. Much curious information on this and kindred 
 subjects win be found in Hewitt's Andent Armour 
 and Weapons in Murope. By every warlike people 
 the B. has been regarded as the emblem of national 
 honour, as a palladium for the defence of which the 
 individual warrior was at aU times ready to sacrifice 
 his life. From the converse of this feeling, banners 
 and flags taken from the enemy have always been 
 regarded as special trophies of victory,' and places 
 of honour in churches and public buildings have 
 consequently been assigned thenL As to the flags 
 borne by the ships of different nations, and the 
 arrangements concerning them in peace and war, see 
 Flag ; as to colours of regiments, see .Colouks. 
 
 "The relation which banners bear to other kinds 
 of flags, in. their forms and uses wiU be explained 
 under Colouks, Eeoimental j Ensign ; Flag : Pen- 
 
 BAMT ; &C. , , 
 
 Banner displayed, is the term used by heralds to 
 describe a B. open and flying. 
 
 BA'NN'BIIET, a higher ' grade of knighthood 
 conferred by the sovereign for some heroic act 
 performed in the field, and so called because the 
 
 Eennon of the knight was then exchanged for the 
 anner — a proceeding which was effected by the 
 very simple means of rending the points from the 
 pennon. The first B. in England is said by Froissart 
 to have been made by King Edward I., and the 
 last time the honour was conferred was by Charles 
 I. after the battle of EdgehiLl, the recipient being an 
 individual who rejoiced in the familiar name of 
 John Smith. The ceremony of the creation of a 
 Knight-B. must have been very impressive to 
 persons filled with the ideas which were prevalent 
 in the ages of chivalry. The king, or his general, 
 at the head of his army, drawn up in order of 
 battle after a victory, under the royal standard 
 displayed, attended by aU the officers and nobihty 
 of the court, received the B. elect, who was not 
 necessarily -i, knight previously, led between two 
 knights of note, or other men famous in arms, 
 carrying his pennon in. his hand, the heralds walk- 
 ing before him and proclaiming his valiant achieve- 
 ments, for which he deserved to be made a Knight- 
 B., and to display his banner in the field. The king, 
 or general, then said to him : ' Advance, Banneret ! ' 
 {Advances toy Banneret), and caused the point of 
 his pennon to be torn off. The new knight, with 
 the trumpeters sounding before him, and the nobi- 
 lity and officers bearing him company, was sent 
 back to his tent, where a noble entertainment was 
 provided by the king. Some attempts have been 
 made to revive the title in recent times, as when 
 George III., at a review of the navy at Portsmouth 
 in 1773, conferred it on Admiral Pye and several 
 other officers. 
 
 BA'NKOCK, a cake of home-made bread, com- 
 mon in the country parts of Scotland, but now less 
 so than formerly. It is usually composed of pease- 
 meal or of pease and -barley meal mixed ; prepared 
 without any leaven, it is baked on a circular plate 
 of iron, cailled a girdle. When made of mixed 
 672 
 
 meal, it is called a mashlum bannock. ' Bannocks of 
 barley-meal' form the theme of a popular Scottish 
 song. A superior kind of B;, called a Selkirk B., 
 from the place where it is made, resembles the 
 finer and lighter species of tea-cakes prepared by 
 bakers. ' The word B. is from the Gaelic bonaeh, a cake. 
 In-tTie west of Scotlaind, it is pronounced lunnock. 
 There is an amusing fairy-tale called The Story of 
 the Wee (little), Bunnoch The B. is doubtless of 
 great antiquity; being, in fact, the primitive cake, 
 only varied; in material, of every country. ' ' ' 
 
 BA'NNOCKBUKS",^ a viUage in the east of 
 Stirlingshire, three itules south-south-east of Stir- 
 ling,, on the Bannock rivulet, which falls, ai few 
 miles below this, into the Forth. Near this was 
 fought the great battle of B. on Monday, 24th June 
 1314. Robert Bruce, with 30,000 Scotch, gained 
 a signal victory over Edward II., with 100,000 
 EngHsh, and sedured his throne and the independ- 
 ence of Scotland. The English are said to have 
 lost 30,000, and the Scotch 8000 men. The ^Bore 
 Stoile,' on which Bruce is said to have fixed his 
 standard on that eventful day, is stiU to be seen 
 on an eminence near the scene of the fi,ght. On 
 the South-east of the field of B., at Sauchie Bum, 
 James III. was defeated in 1488 by his rebellious 
 subjects, and assassinated after the battle in a mill 
 where he had taken refuge. B. is now an important 
 seat of the woollen manufactures, especially those 
 of tartans and carpets. It has long supplied the, 
 tartan worn by the Highland regiments. Tanning 
 is carried on to some extent, and the neighbouring 
 villages are noted for the manufacture pf nails. 
 Pop. 2627. 
 
 BANNS, or BANS, in the law of England, means 
 a proclamation, or public notification, or summons, 
 in which general sense, however, it may be said to 
 have become obsolete. It is now chiefly, if not 
 solely, used in the pubHcation of intended marriages, 
 as to which, see next article. 
 
 BANNS or BANS of MA'RRIAGE. This is one 
 of three alternative preliminary forms now essentia] 
 to the legal celebration of marriage in England. The 
 other two are marriage by licence, and marriage 
 by a registrar's certificate. B. of M., like many 
 of our ecclesiastical regulations, has its origin in 
 the ancient practice of the Roman Catholic Church, 
 which our reformers wisely refrained from aboHsh- 
 iog. By the pubHcation of these B. is meant the 
 legal proclamation or notification within the parish, 
 district, or chapelry, and in the proper church or 
 chapel, of the names and descriptions of the persona 
 who intend to be there married ; the object being 
 the notoriety of the solemn act, so that all who have 
 objections to the marriage may be enabled to state 
 them in time. According to the old Enghsh canon 
 law, the publication of B. might be made on liolidays; 
 but a change was made to Sundays by the first 
 important Marriage Act, the 26 Geo. II. c. 33 ; and 
 although that act was afterwards superseded by 
 the 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, the regulation as to Sundays 
 has been since continued. The latter act is stiU 
 the principal subsisting statute on the subject of 
 marriage B., although it has been amended and 
 extended by the 6 and 7 WHl. IV. c. 85, the 1 Vic. 
 c. 22, the 3 and 4 Vic. c. 72, and the 19 and 20 Vid. 
 c. 119. The law, as contained in these acts of 
 parliament, is as fbllows : By the 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, 
 s. 2, it is enacted that all B. of matrimony shall 
 be published in an audible manner, according to the 
 rubric prefixed to the marriage-service in the Booh 
 of Comrrum Prayer, upon three Sundays preceding 
 the ceremony, during the time of morning-sefvice, 
 or of evening-service (i£ on the day of publication 
 there shall be no morning-service) immediately after 
 
BANQtJETTE -BANTAM FOWL. 
 
 the second lesson. The ruhrio referred to is in 
 the following terms : ' I publish the banns of 
 
 marriage between M. of and N. of . If 
 
 any of yon Icnow cause or just impediment why 
 these persons should not be joined together in holy 
 matrimony, ye are to declare it. This is the first 
 [second, or third] time of asking.' By the 22d 
 section of the same act, all ■ marriages celebrated 
 without such publication of B., or without licence 
 (or now, under the 6 and 7 Will. IV. c. 85, s. 42, 
 without a Registrar's certificate), are declared to be 
 nuU and void. By the 26th section of the last- 
 mentioned act, the bishop, with consent of the 
 patron and incumbent, may license chapels for the 
 celebration of marriages in populous places ; and by 
 the 33d section of the 1 Vic. c. 22, B. may be pub- 
 Ushed iu such chapels. By section 9 of the 4 
 Geo. IV. c. 76, it is provided, that if the marriage 
 be not celebrated within three months after pub- 
 lication of B., the marriage shall not take place 
 imtil the B. shall have been republished on three 
 several Sundays, imless it be a marriage by licence, 
 or now, by certificate, which two latter alternatives, 
 however, must also be availed of within the three 
 months. It only remains to be added on the law, 
 as contained in these marriage acts, that by section 
 8 of the last of them, the 19 and 20 Vic. c. 119, it 
 is provided, that iu every case in which one of the 
 parties intending marriage without licence shall 
 dwell in Scotland, a certificate of proclamation of 
 B. in Scotland, under the hands of the session- clerk 
 of the parish in which such proclamation shall have 
 been made, shall, when produced to any' person 
 duly authorised under the provisions of this act 
 to solemnise a marriage, be as valid and effectual 
 for authorising such person to solenmise such 
 marriage as the production of a certificate for 
 marriage of a superintendent registrar of a district 
 iu England would be, in reference to a party 
 resident within such district. 
 
 The purpose of the law is to secure public know- 
 ledge of intended marriages, and therefore, although 
 the 4 Geo. IV., followuig in this respect the 26 
 Geo. II., declares that marriages shall be void 
 without publication of B. (where, of course, that 
 is the chosen preliminary), it is not necessary that 
 such publication should be made in the real baptismal 
 names of both or either of the parties ; it is smficient 
 that the B. be published in the names by which 
 the parties are known, or either of them. Nay, it 
 even appears that where the baptismal names have 
 been discovered, having been previously concealed 
 or imknown, it is better, if not necessary, that publi- 
 cation should be made in the names by which the 
 parties are familiarly known iu the district, by 
 which, indeed, they may be said to be known to 
 the world. There are numerous cases decided in 
 England from which such doctrine necessarily fol- 
 lows. In one of these cases. Lord Chief-justice 
 EUenborough, the highest judicial authority that 
 could be named, stated, in giving judgment : ' The 
 object of the act is to secure notoriety, to apprise 
 all persons of the intention of the parties to contract 
 marriage ; and how can that be better attained 
 than by publication in the names by which parties 
 are known ? I think that the act only meant 
 pubHoation by known and acknowledged names.' 
 It has also been decided, that a fraudulent know- 
 ledge of a wrong name in the publication of B. will 
 not void the marriage, unless the fraud should be 
 on both sides. 
 
 In Scotland, B. have the same Eoman Catholic 
 origin as in England. Indeed, Mr Erskine, one of 
 the most authoritative Scotch legal writers, gives it 
 as his opinion, that the Scotch borrowed the practice 
 from the decrees of the Council of Trent; but a 
 43 
 
 recent able writer (see JTraser's Domestic Selations, 
 vol. i. p. 113) considers tliis opinion erroneous, and 
 shews that B. were first sanctioned in Scotland 
 by councils which were held in that country long 
 before the time of the Council of Trent, After the 
 Reformation in Scotland, the practice of proclaiming 
 B., as the phrase is in that country, was continued. 
 They are described in the Scotch Act 1661, o. 34, 
 ' as a part of the laudable order and constitution of 
 the kirk ; ' and they have since been mentioned iu 
 various acts of parliament applicable to Scotland, 
 such as the 10 Anne, c. 7, and the 4 and 6 Will. IV. 
 c. 28. By the first of these acts, the privilege of 
 publicly celebrating marriage was extended to the 
 Scotch Episcopalian clergy, but with a proviso that 
 the B. should be duly published three Lord's Days, 
 not only in the Episcopal churches which the parties 
 frequent, but also in the parish church or churches. 
 Should the parish minister, however, neglect or 
 refuse to publish the B. of such parties, the act 
 declares that it shall be sufficient to do so in any 
 Episcopal congregation alone. The 4 Wfll. IV. c. 
 28, puts other dissenting bodies in Scotland in the 
 same position as the Episcopal Church there; but 
 there is this little difference, that publication of the 
 B. of such dissenters is required to be made in the 
 parish church alone. There is one other regulation 
 of the Scotch law on this subject which is deserving 
 of notice for popular information — namely, that 
 when both of the parties have their domicile (q. v.) 
 within Scotland, and enter into marriage in England 
 or Ireland, they must have their B. proclaimed in 
 the parish church of their domicile in Scotland, 
 otherwise they are liable to the penalties of clan- 
 destine marriage. Such is the express enactment of 
 the Scotch statute 1661, c. 34. 
 
 The Scotch law differs from the English in regard 
 to the effect of non-publication of bamis. In 
 England, as we have seen, the consequence is to 
 render the marriage absolutely void. In Scotland, 
 however, marriage, without proclamation of B., is 
 vahd ; but in such case the parties, celebrator, and 
 witnesses are liable iu the above penalties. See 
 Makriage Licence, Special Licence, Reoisteab's 
 Cektimcate. 
 
 BANQUB'TTE, in Eortifioation, is a raised ledge 
 or step inside the parapet of a rampart, of such a 
 height that musketeers, when standing on it, may 
 be able to fire oyer the crest of the parapet with- 
 out too much exposure to the enemy. It is about 
 4 feet wide, and 4 or 4j feet below the crest. The 
 musketeers ascend to it from the rampart either 
 by a few steps or by a sloping path. 
 
 BANTA'M, a seaport, now decayed, in a district 
 of the same name, which forms the west end of 
 Java. It is 40 miles to the west of Batavia, being 
 in lat. 6° 2' S., and long. 106° 11' E. It was founded 
 by the Dutch in 1602, being their earliest establish- 
 ment in the island. The district contains 362,242 
 inhabitants. 
 
 BA'NTAM FOWL, a well-known variety of the 
 common Domestic Eowl (q. v.), originally brought 
 from the East Indies, and supposed to derive its 
 name from Bantam, in Java. It is remarkable for 
 smaE size, being only about a pound in weight, and 
 for a disposition more courageous and pugnacious 
 than even that of a game-cock. A bantam-cock will 
 drive to a respectable distance great dunghill-cocks 
 five times its weight, and has been described aa 
 ' a beautiful example of a great soul in a little body.' 
 There are several subvarieties of the bantam. Most 
 of them have the legs much feathered. The flesh 
 and eggs are good, mhough the eggs are of course 
 small ; and the bantam lays well in winter. 
 
 £73 
 
BAITTENG— BAPHOMBT. 
 
 BANTENG {Bos Bcmteng or B. Smdaicus), a 
 species of Ox (q. v.), a native of Java and Borneo, 
 which, in colour, shape, horns, and want of dewlap 
 bears some resemblance to the Gaur (q. v.) of India, 
 'but in the skeleton of the gaiir, the sacrmn con- 
 sists of 5 vertebrEE, and the tail of 19, while in 
 the skeleton of the B., the sacrum consists of but 
 4 vertebrie, and the tail of 18.' The B. is black, 
 with white legs. The hair is short and sleek, the 
 limbs slender. The muzzle is sharp. The back 
 rises into a high arch immediately behind the neck. 
 The B. inhabits forests, and has been generally 
 described as untamable, but this opinion rests 
 on no satisfactory authority. 
 
 BA'NTRY, a seaport town in the south-west of 
 Cork county, Ireland, in a cove opposite Whiddy Isle, 
 at the head of B. Bay, and 44 nules west-south-west 
 of Cork. The two chief streets converge into an 
 open space towards the sea, and mountains, 933 feet 
 high, rise behind the town. The chief trade is the 
 export of agricultural produce. A little fishing is 
 carried on. In last century, there was an extensive 
 pilohard-fishery here; but the pUohard has now 
 deserted the coast. Many tourists resort to B. in 
 summer. Pop. 2935. 
 
 BA'NTEY BAY, a deep inlet in the south-west 
 extremity of Ireland, between Crow Point and Sheep's 
 Head Point, ia Cork county. It is 25 miles long, 
 running east-north-east, with a breadth of 3 to 5 
 miles. It is one of the finest harbours in Europe, 
 affbrdiag safe and conamodious anchorage for shi;^3 
 of all sizes. Near the entrance on the north side is 
 a fine large sheltered harbour, formed by Bear 
 Island, with a safe passage on both sides. At the 
 head of the bay are two harbours : the one to the 
 south, or the landlocked roadstead of B. harbour, 
 is formed by Whiddy Isle, opposite B. town; the 
 other to the north, or Glengariff harbour, is also 
 sheltered by an island, but is small, and narrow at 
 the entrance. The coast around B. B. is rocky and 
 high, consisting of Devonian strata, and exhibiting 
 some of the finest scenery in the kingdom. On the 
 north side, 17 nules west of B. town, is the great 
 cataract of Hungry Hill, where three lakes, at the 
 heights of 1011, 1126, and 1360 feet above the sea, 
 discharge their waters, by almost continuous cascades, 
 into Adrigoole Creek. Near the opening of B. B. a 
 skirmish took place, in 1689, between a small 
 EngHsh fleet under Admiral Herbert (afterwards 
 Lord Torrington), and the French fleet, which con- 
 veyed James II. to Kinsale. Several ships of the 
 French invading expedition under General Hoche 
 anchored here in 1796. 
 
 BAWX'RING (Tupaia), a genus of iosectivorous 
 quadrupeds, remarkably differing from the other 
 insectivora (q. v.) in their habits, as they climb 
 trees with the agility of lemurs or squirrels. They 
 are also remarkable for their very elongated muzzle. 
 They have soft ghsteniug fur, and a long bushy tail. 
 The few species known are all natives of the Indian 
 archipelago. 
 
 BA'NYA (Nbgat), or NEU'STADT, a town of 
 Himgary, province Szathmar, with a royal miat, and 
 productive mines of gold and silver. Pop. 5500. 
 
 BA'STYAN, or BA'NIAN (Ficus Indica), a, tree, 
 native of India, remarkable for its vast rootiug 
 branches. It is a species of Fio (q. v.) ; has ovate, 
 heart-shaped, entire leaves, about five or six inches 
 long ; and produces a fruit of a rich scarlet colour, 
 not larger than a cherry, growing in pairs from the 
 axils of the leaves. The branches send shoots down- 
 wards, which, when they have rooted, become stems, 
 the tree in this manner spreading over a great sur- 
 face, and enduring for many ages. One has been 
 described as having no fewer than 350 stems, equal 
 
 671 
 
 to large oaks, and more than 3000 smaller ones, 
 covering a space sufficient to contain 7000 persons. 
 The branches are usually covered with monkeys, 
 birds, and enormous bats. The monkeys eat both 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 * 'i 
 
 .' i 1 
 
 Banyau-Trse. 
 
 the fruit and leaves. The vegetation of the B. 
 seldom, begins on the ground. The seeds are 
 deposited by birds in the crowns of palms, and send 
 down roots which embrace and eventually kill the 
 palm. As the B. gets old, it breaks up iato separate 
 masses, the original trunis decaying, and the props 
 becoming separate trunks of the different portions. 
 The wood of the B. is Ught, porous, and of no value. 
 The bark is regarded by the Hindoo physicians as 
 a powerful tonic, and is administered in diabetes. 
 The white glutinous juice is used to relieve tooth- 
 ache, and dso as an application to the soles of the 
 feet when inflamed. Bird-lime is also made from it. 
 Gum-lac is obtained in abundance from the B.-tree. 
 The B.-tree is beautifully described by Southey in 
 his poem The Curse of Kehama. 
 
 BANYULS-SUE-MER, a town of France in 
 the Pyrenees Orientales, with a fishing-port on the 
 Mediterranean. The celebrated wines of Grenaohe 
 and Ranoio are produced in this district. Near the 
 town are four old towers, one of which marks the 
 division between France and Spain. B. was the 
 immediate scene of many encounters between the 
 French republicans and the Spaniards during the 
 first French Revolution. Pop. 1512. 
 
 BANYUWA'NGY, or BANJOUVA'NGY, an 
 important and populous seaport town and military 
 post belonging to the Dutch, on the east coast of 
 Java, capital of district of same name. 
 
 BA'OBAB. See Adansonia. 
 
 BAPATJME, a fortified town of France, depart- 
 ment of Pas-de-Oalais. A portion of the allied 
 troops advanced to this place after compelling the 
 French to abandon their fortified position, and to 
 retreat hiehind the Scarpe, in August 1793. Pop. 2900. 
 
 BA'PHOMET is the name of a mysterious 
 symbol, which was in use among the Templars. 
 According to the oldest and most probable inter- 
 pretation, the word is a corruption of Mahomet, 
 to whose faith the members of the order were 
 accused of .having a leaning. The symbol consisted 
 of a small human figure cut out of stone, having 
 two heads, male and female, with the rest of the 
 body purely feminine. It was environed with 
 serpents, and astronomical attributes, and furnished 
 with inscriptions for the most part in Arabic. 
 Specimens are to be found in the archseological 
 collections of Vienna and Weimar. Hammer, 
 however, in his Fwndgrvhen, des Orients, derives 
 |B. from Gr. bapkS, baptism; and TneUs, council or 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 wisdom. He ohargea the Icnighta ^1^11:3; depraved 
 Gnoatioism, and makes the word signify the baptism 
 of wiadom^the baptism of Are; iu ishort, the 
 Grnoatic baptism — a species of spiritual illiuniiiation, 
 which, however, waa interpreted aensuaUy by later 
 Gnostioa, auch aa the Ophitea (an Egyptian sect 
 of the 11th 0.), to whoae licentious practices he 
 declares _ them to have been addicted. But thi? 
 explanation is generally diacredited. 
 
 BA'PTISM (Grr. hapto, to dip or wash, or to stain 
 with a liquid), one of the sacraments (q. v.) of the 
 Christian Church, deriving its name from the 
 outward rite of washing with water, whicla forma 
 an eaaential part of it. B. is almost universally 
 acknowledged among Christians as a sacrament, 
 and is referred to the authority of Christ himself, 
 whose express commandment is recorded in the 
 gospels (Mat. xxviii. 19; Mark xvi. 16). B. is 
 frequently mentioned in the New Testament as 
 a divine ordinance. 
 
 The name and the rite were not, however, 
 altogether new when the ordinance was instituted 
 by Christ. Religious meanings were early attached 
 to washings with water, both by heathena and 
 Jewa; they were among the ordinances of the 
 Jewish law ; and it is not neoeaaary to go beyond 
 that law to find the origin of the cuatom of waah- 
 ing or iaptmng proselytes upon their admiaaion 
 Into the Jewiah Church. Waahing with water 
 waa requisite for the removal of ceremonial 'un- 
 cleanneas, and every proselyte muat have been 
 regarded as, prior to hia admission into the Jewish 
 Church, ceremonially unclean. John the Baptist 
 baptised not proselytes upon their renouncing 
 heathenism and enterilig the Jewish Church, but 
 those who, by birth and descent, were members 
 of it, to indicate the necesaity of a purification 
 of the soul from sin — a spiritual, and not a mere 
 outward change. 
 
 One of the most important of the controversies 
 which have agitated the Christian Church as to 
 B., ia that concerning the proper aubjecta of B., 
 whether adults only who profess faith in Christ 
 are to be baptised, or i£ this ordinance ia to be 
 administered to their infants also. See Baptists, 
 and Baptism, Intant. The B. of adults was cer- 
 tainly more frequent in the apostolic age than it has 
 ordinarily been where the B. of infanta baa pre- 
 vailed; for which an obvious cause presents itaefi in 
 the fact, that the first members of churches were 
 converts from Judaism or from heathenism. It 
 is, however, generally held by those who advocate 
 the B. of infants, that it was the practice of the 
 apostles and of the church of the apostolic age to 
 baptise the infants of Christia^ns; which, on the 
 other hand, ia as stoutly denied, and infant B. 
 ia alleged to have crept in along with other corrup- 
 tions. For neither opinion can any positive histori- 
 cal proof be adduced, the arguments on both sides 
 being purely inferential. 
 
 It ia admitted, on all hands, that at an early 
 period in the history of the church, B. waa 
 administered to infants, although, according to 
 Neander, even after 'it had been set forth as an 
 apostoho institution, its introduction into the 
 general practice of the church was but slow.' He 
 Bnda ' the firat trace ' of it in Irenaeua. It was 
 opposed by Tertnllian about the end of the 2d c. ; 
 and was advocated by Cyprian, and acknowledged 
 as an apostolic institution in the North African 
 Church and in the Alexandrian and Syro-Persian 
 Churches in the 3d c; but it was not imtil the 
 5th c. that it became fully established as the 
 general practice of the Christian Church. It has 
 unquestionably continued to be the general practice 
 front that period to the present day; feebly 
 
 opposed by some of the sects of the middle ages, 
 and more vigorously by some of thoae who have 
 a,dopted the general prinoiplea of the Eeformation. 
 See Baptists. 
 
 Both the practice of infant B., and the neglect 
 of it in the early agea of the church, were con- 
 nected with particular viewa of religious doctrine, 
 and of the nature and purpose of B. itself. The 
 prevalence of the Augustiman doctrine of original 
 ain ia generally regarded as a principal cause of the 
 prevalence of infant B. ; but Pelagius, whilst oppos- 
 ing that doctrine, maintained the necessity of infant 
 B., apparently upon the ground that the kingdom 
 of heaven can be attained by human beings only 
 through God's grace. No Kttle influence in favour 
 of infant B. must be ascribed to the growing beHef 
 of the absolute necessity of B. to salvation, and 
 of a sort of mysterious eflicacy in the rite itself. 
 It is certain, on the other hand, that' the belief 
 in the forgiveness of sins in B. led to a practice 
 of deferring it as long aa poasible, that all siua 
 might be Hotted out at once ; thus the Emperor 
 Constantine the Great was baptised only a short 
 time before his death. The approach of a war 
 or pestUenoe caused many to rush forward in haste 
 to be baptised, who had previously delayed. 
 
 Two modes of B. are practised by immersion or 
 dipping, and by aspersion or sprinkling, concerning 
 which there has been much controversy in the early 
 period of the church's history, as well as in recent 
 times. Affusion, or pouring, the common practice 
 of the Church of Home, may be regarded as essen- 
 tially the same with sprinkling. The advocates of 
 sprinkling universally admit the validity of B. 
 administered in the other mode, but the advocates 
 of dipping generally refuse to acknowledge that B. 
 by sprinkling can be true Christian baptism. The 
 opponents of infant B., almost without exception, 
 insist upon immersion ; whilst aspersion or affusion 
 of water is general, except in the Eastern churches, 
 wherever the B. of infants prevails. The argument 
 upon which Baptists depend most of all is from the 
 word B., and the verb iaptizo, to baptise, which 
 also, in classic Greek, signifies to immerse. On the 
 other side, it is contended that a, strict limita- 
 tion to this sense does not well accord with its 
 character as a 'frequentative' form of bapto ; and 
 instances are adduced from the New Testament 
 itself, in which this signification ■ canuot easily 
 be attached either to the noun or to the verb, as 
 1 Cor. X. 2, where Paul says that the Israelites 
 were 'baptised unto Moses in the cloud and in 
 the sea;' and Heb. ix. 10, Mark vii. 4, and Luke 
 xi. 38, where both verb and noun are employed 
 concerning the washings of the Jews, and the noun 
 even of their washing of 'cups, and pots, brazen 
 vessels, and of tables. —To the argument in favour 
 of immersion, derived from the phrases employed 
 when B. is mentioned in Scripture, as when we are 
 told (Mat. iii. 6) that John the Baptist baptised ' in 
 Jordan,' that our Lord after his B. (Mat. iii. 16) ' went 
 up out of the water,' that Philip and the Ethiopian 
 eunuch (Acts vui. 38) 'went down both into the 
 water;' it is replied that aU the passages of this 
 descrijption, even if their meaning were certainly 
 as precise and fuU as Baptists suppose it to be, are 
 insufficient to sustain the weight of the conclusion 
 as to the necessity of a particular mode of B. ; that, 
 however, it is far from being clear that these 
 passages must be interpreted or the meaning of the 
 Greek prepositions so strictly defined as the argu- 
 ment requires ; and further, that there are iuatances 
 mentioned in Scripture which afford a presumptive 
 argument in favour of another mode of B., as 
 where we are told of great numbers added to the 
 church in one day; whilst we have nowhere any 
 
 67S 
 
BAPTISM. 
 
 intimation of converts, being , led to any pond , or 
 river to be baptised. , To tbe argument drawn 
 from the language of Paul in Rom. vi. 4, Col. ii. 12 
 (see Baptists), it is replied that it depends upon a 
 fanciful interpretation of these texts. — According 
 to most of the advocates of B. by sprinkling, the 
 great error of their opponents is that of attaching 
 top much importanpe to, the question of the mode of 
 baptism. 
 
 It is, however, indisputable that , in the primitive 
 church the ordinary mode of B. was by immersion, 
 in order to, which Baptisteries (q.v.) began to be 
 erected in the 3d, perhaps in the 2d c, and 
 the sexeS' were usually baptised apart. But B. 
 was administered to sick persons by sprinkling; 
 although doubts as to the complete efficacy of this 
 clinic (sick) B. were evidently prevalent in the 
 time of Cyprian (middle of 3d c). B. by sprinkling 
 gradually became more prevalent ; but the dispute 
 concerning the mode of B. became one of the irre- 
 concilable differences between the Eastern and 
 Western Churches, the former generally adhering to 
 the practice of immersion, whilst the latter adopted 
 mere pouring of water on the head, or sprinkling 
 on the face, which practice has generally prevailed 
 since the 13th c. ; but not universally, for it was 
 the ordinary practice in England before the Reforma- 
 tion to immerse infants, and the fonts (q. v.) in the 
 churches were made large enough for, this purpose. 
 This continued also to be the practice tUl the reign 
 of Elizabeth ; and the change which then took place 
 is ascribed to the English divines who had sought 
 refuge in Geneva, and other places of the continent, 
 during the reign of Mary. To this day tlie rubric of 
 the Church of England requires, that if the godfathers 
 and godmothers , ' shall certify him that the cluld 
 may well endure it,' the officiating priest ' shall dip 
 it in the water discreetly and warily ; ' and it is 
 only ' if they shall certify that the child is weak,' 
 that 'it shall suffice to pour water upon it,' which, 
 however, or sprinkling, is now the ordinary practice. 
 
 B. was accompanied, from an early period in the 
 history of the church, with various forms and cere- 
 monies, besides the simple rite of washing with 
 water and the pronouncing of the formula which 
 declares it to be ' in the name of the Father, and of 
 the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' These ceremonies 
 are almost all retained in the Church of Rome, 
 and also generally in the oriental churches, but 
 have been entirely or almost entirely laid aside by 
 Protestants. The Church of England retains the sign 
 of the cross made upon the forehead after B., but the 
 other Protestant cniurches in Britain reject it. It 
 was an ancient custom that the catechumens, as can- 
 didates for B. were called whilst receiving instruction 
 with a view to that sacrament,, when they were to 
 be baptised, publicly made a profession of their faith 
 and a renunciation of the devil and aU his works. 
 The profession of faith is stiU retained by Protestant 
 churches as the formal ground of the administration- 
 of B. ; the renunciation of the devil and his works 
 is required by the Church of England of the person 
 baptised, if an adult, or of the sponsors or ' sm-eties ' 
 of a child. — Sponsors (q. v.) were early admitted to 
 answer for those who could not .answer for them- 
 selves, and particularly for infants. The belief in 
 the absolute necessity of B. to salvation led even 
 to B. of the dead ^ong the, Montanists (q.v.); in_ 
 Africa, in which sponsorsiiip was also introduced. 
 Presbyterian and Independent churches generally 
 reject all sponsorship, and regard the profession 
 made by parents as simply a profession of their 
 own faith, which entitles their infants to baptism. 
 The ancient practice of i exorcism (q. v.) imme- 
 diately before B., has been rejected as superstitious 
 by almost all Protestant churches ;, as have also 
 
 that, of immersing tj^rge times [trine mrnersion), 
 or sprinkling three times, with , reference to the 
 three persons of. , the i Godhead— that of breathing 
 upon the ba/ptised person, ' to signify the expulsion 
 of the, devil,' and to symbolise the.gift of the, Holy 
 Spirit — ^that of anointing ,with oil (chrism, q.v.), to 
 symbolise the, same, gift, or to, indicate ,, that ,the 
 baptised person is ready, as a wrestler in the ancient 
 games, to fight, the good fight of faith— tha,t of 
 giving, him, milk and honey, in token of his spiritual 
 youth, and of his reception of spiritual gifts and 
 graces — that of putting, a little salt into his moiith, 
 to signify the wisdom and taste .for heavenly; things 
 proper to a Christian^that. of touching, his nostrils 
 and ears with spittle, to signify that his ears are to 
 be ever open to truth, and, that ,he should ever feel 
 the sweet odour of truth and virtue— and that of 
 clothing laim after , B. with a white robe (the chry- 
 some), in token of the innocence of soul which by 
 B. he was supposed to have acquired.. The white 
 robe and the anointing with oil were retained in 
 the Church of England for a short time after the 
 Reformation. — The giving of a name . in B. (see 
 Names, Baptismal) is no essential part, of it, but 
 is a, custom apparently derived from that of the 
 Jews in circumcision (Luke i. 59— 63).— The ChiU'ch 
 of Rome prefers the use of holy- water (q.v.) in B., 
 but regards any water as fit for the purpose in case of 
 necessity. — According to an ancient usage, long obso- 
 lete, the ordinary administration of B- 'w^s linuted to 
 the two great I festivals of Easter and Whitsuntide. — 
 Whether B- may be administered in private; has been 
 much debated, both in ancient and modern times.. 
 The administration of B. in private houses, and not in 
 the presence of a congregation, was one, of the things 
 earnestly contended against by the Presbyterians in 
 Scotland in the first half of the ,17th c. ; their oppo- 
 sition being grounded, not only upon hostility to 
 what they' deemed usurpation of authority, but upon 
 the danger of superstitious views of baptism. And 
 apparently upon, this latter ground, B. in private 
 houses is also discouraged, even.-jyhile.it is allowed, 
 if there is ' great cause and necessity,' by the Church 
 of, England;, yet it has become very frequent both in 
 the Church of England and among the Presbyterians 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Some of the most; important questions concerning 
 B. will be most, appropriately noticed in the article 
 Saobament, particularly those relating to its place 
 in the Christian, system and among the means of 
 grace. The opinions early became prevalent, that 
 forgiveness of sins is obtained in B., and spiritual 
 life begun, and that it is, indispensably necessary 
 to salvation — exception being only made, if any wag 
 made at all, of the case of beUevera, adult persons, 
 who desiring B., were prevented from being baptised^ 
 and particularly of those who suffered martyrdom, 
 which was generally held to be equivalent to bap- 
 tism. The Church of l^ome still owns, as supplying 
 the place of B. by water, these two — B. by desire, 
 and B- by blood— -i. e., in martyrdom.- According 
 to the general doctrine of the Protestant churches, 
 B. is 'a. sign and seal' of the ; covenant of grace, 
 representing as a sign t];),e blessings of the covenant, 
 .and as a, seal, confirming the covenant. As a sign, 
 it is generaUy held to .represent in its rite "f 
 wasting, the removal both of , guilt and corruption, 
 by the blood and by ■fihe Spirit bf Christ, and so to 
 relate equally, to pardon and regeneration, although 
 some baye linitedifis. symbolic reference to regener- 
 ation alone. Qne of the most important points 
 disputed concerning B., is that of baptismal regeuer- 
 aj;iou. See Regeneration. 
 
 Some early Christian, sects appear to have rejected 
 B., on grounds somewhat similar to those on which 
 it ,i3 rejected by Quakers, (q.v.) at tl^e present day. 
 
BAPTISM— BAPTISTERY. 
 
 who explain the passages which relate to it symboli- 
 oaUy, and insist that a spiritual B. is the only real 
 B. of Christiana. — The Socinians (q.v.) also in 
 modern times have maintained' that B; is not an 
 ordinance of permanent obligation, but a merely 
 symbolical rite of little importance. 
 
 'Much Controversy has taken place oonoerning'iyai/ 
 Baptism. Wherever there is a recognised ministry in 
 the church, there is a geneM aCTeement in referring 
 the ordinary administration of E. to those who hold 
 this office. It might be expected' that the more 
 strongly the necessity of the transmission of holy 
 orders hy apostolical succession is asserted, the more 
 strongly also would exclusiveness be manifested with 
 regard to the right of the clergy to administer B. But 
 thiS tendency 'IS counteracted by the 'belief in the 
 necessity of B., or at least of its great importance to 
 the salvation of infants ; so that from an early period 
 lay B. was allowed, although not without a struggle, 
 in cases of apprehended danger ; 'and in the Church 
 of Eome, thas principle is logically carried out to 
 the fullest extent, and even women are authorised 
 to administer B. in oases of necessity. On the 
 same ground, lay B. was at first permitted in the 
 Protestant Church of England ; but the prevalence 
 of other views led to a kind 'of formal restriction of 
 the right of administering it to 'lawful ministers,' 
 although in practice' the validity of lay B. is still 
 generally recognised. 
 
 Another question much agitated in the ehnrch 
 from early times, is that concerning the validity, of 
 B. by heretics.' The opinion ultimately prevailed, 
 that B. by heretics is' Valid, except in the case of 
 those who do not baptise in the name of the three 
 Persons of the Godhead. This continues to be the 
 almost universal opinion. Few Protestant theolo- 
 gians hesitate to acknowledge the validity of B. 
 administered in the Church of Rome. 
 
 The B: of bells is a custom ' Supposed to have been 
 introduced about the 10th c, and still retained in 
 the Church of Eome. The term benedictioA 'is 
 sometimes substituted for B. ; but the rite itself 
 is very similar to that of B., and is accompanied 
 with many similar ceremonies — 'a sort of exorcism,' 
 sprinkling with holy- water, anointing 'with the' 
 oil of catechumens ' and ' with chrism,' a formxila of 
 consecration 'in the name of the Father, Son, and 
 Holy Ghost/ and sometimes also, if not always, the' 
 giving of a name to the beU consedrated, and even 
 a kind of sponsorship as by godfathers and god- 
 mothers in baptism. This custom has no doubt 
 greatly fostered the notion of' an efficacy iu the 
 ringing of bells for protection in storms, and for 
 other benefits; indeed, it is expressly avowed that 
 ' the beUs are blessed^ to turn off 'stoHns and tempests 
 from the faithful.' 
 
 BAPTISM, Intant. The chief arguments in 
 favour of infant B. are baseji upon the proposition 
 that the church is One throughout all changes of 
 dispensation.' From this it is axgued that as infants 
 weire, so they still must be included in the visible 
 chiirch. It is maintained that in all covenants 
 which God has made with men, their children have 
 been included; that the covenant with Abraham 
 was a renewed revelation of the covenant of grace, 
 the temporal promises made to him being cojonected 
 with the greatest spiritual promises; that circum- 
 cision was a seal of the covetiaut with respect to' 
 these, iu which the children of Christians haye the 
 same interest that Jewish children had ; and that 
 B. is a seal of the Covenant now as circumcision 
 was, the things to which it has' immediate reference 
 being also blessings which children are capable of. 
 It is contended that the arguments in favour of 
 infant salvatibn derive additional strength from 
 that view of the place of infants in the church 
 
 according to which they ' are entitled' to baptism. 
 The passages which Connect B. -with faith are 
 regarded as exclusively relating to adiHts, like the 
 passages which connect salvation 'with 'faith and 
 repentance. In reply to the argument that' there 
 is no express command for infant B., it is argued 
 that the sfiate of the case rather demands of tiioSe 
 who oppbsC'it the production of an express command 
 against it, without which the general command must 
 be held to include' it; the words and actions of our 
 Sa'viour (Mark x. 14) with respect to children are 
 quoted as confirming the opinion' that the place of 
 infants in the church is precisely what' it was under 
 the Jewish dispensation ; and it is contended that it 
 would have been a very great restriction of privilege 
 in the new dispensation if infants had been excluded 
 from a place which they held before, as entitled to 
 a seal of the covenant, whereas it is evident that 
 the new dispensation is characterised not by restric- 
 tion but by enlargement of privilege. — Those who 
 hold the doctrine of infant B. are styled Psedo- 
 
 The Roman Catholic and Lutheran Churches 
 regard the B. of infants as admitting them into 
 the church, and making them members of Christ's 
 body. The Reformed (q. v.) Churches hold that the 
 children of Christians are included in the visible 
 church from their birth, "and therefore entitled to 
 baptism. These are' the natural starting-points of 
 verjr different systems. 
 
 BA'PTISTERY ((Jr. laptisterim, a large vase or 
 basin), the name given sometime^ to a separate 
 bmldmg, sometimes to the portion of the church 
 itself in which the ceremony of baptism was per- 
 formedi ' , In the latter case, the B. was merely the 
 enclosure containing the font, 'to be seen in most 
 English churches. According to the earlier arrange- 
 ments of the Christian Church, however, the B. 
 seems usually to have been' a building standing 
 
 Section and Plan of Baptistery at Asti. 
 
 detached from, though in the immediate vicinity 
 of the church to 'which it a-ppCrtained. Baptisteries, 
 at iirst, were either hexagonal or octagohal, but 
 afterwards, became polygonal, and even circular. 
 The B. of St Giovanni in Fonte, at Rome, commonly 
 known as the B. of COnstantine, is octagonal, whilst 
 the church of St Cbnstantia, wMch was originally a 
 B., is circular. , ' ' 
 
 The celebrated B. of, Florence is an octagonal 
 structure, measuring about one hundred feet in 
 diameter^ ,It stands detached, froni, but in the 
 immediate vicinity of the cathedral. It is built 
 of black and wMte marble, in the style which. 
 Giotto is said to have introdiiced, and which is 
 still peculiar to Florence. Internally, a gallery, 
 which runs nearly round the 'whble building, is 
 supported by sixteen large granite columns, and 
 the vaulted roof is 'deCBrated with mosaics by 
 Andrea Tafi, the pupil of Cimabue. But the magni- 
 ficent bronze doors, with their beautiful bas-reKefs, 
 are the most remarkable feature of this famous 
 baptistery. The most celebrated of the three doors 
 was executed by Lorenzo Ghiberti, the earliest being 
 
 6T7 
 
BAPTISTS. 
 
 the work of Andrea of Pisa. Fifty years were 
 required for their completion; and it is remarkable 
 that the contracts for their execution are still pre- 
 , served. Next in importance, and of, even grea.ter 
 size, is the B. of Pisa. It is circular in form, the 
 diameter measuring ,116 feet. Externally, it is 
 divided into three stories, the two under ones being 
 surrounded by columns, of which the upper are 
 smaller and more numerous than the under. The 
 building is raised from the ground on three steps, 
 and terminates in a pear-shaped dome, which is 
 famous for its echo, the sides acting as whispering- 
 galleries. The largest B. ever erected is supposed 
 to have been that of St Sophia, at Constantinople, 
 which was so spacious as to have served on one 
 occasion for the residence of the Emperor Basilious. 
 
 BAPTISTS (sometimes called Antipcedobaptists, 
 as opposed to Pcedobaptists, or those who advocate 
 Infant Baptism*). This denomination of Christians 
 refuse to acknowledge any great name as founder of 
 their sect. They trace their origin to the primitive 
 church itself, and refer to the Acts of the Apostles 
 and their Epistles as affording, in their opinion, 
 incontestable evidence that their leading tenets had 
 the sanction of inspiration. When Christianity 
 became corrupted by the rise of Antichrist, they 
 point to the maintenance of their scripture practice 
 among the Cathari and Albigenses and other sects 
 of the middle ages, who, in the midst of surrounding 
 darkness, continued to hold fast the apostohc 
 testimony. They sprung into notice in England 
 under Henry VIII. and Elizabeth. They were 
 persecuted under both reigns, but they received 
 freedom to meet for worship from James II., and 
 complete religious liberty under WiUiam ITT. Ever 
 since, they have diffused their principles extensively 
 in Great Britain and North America ; many of their 
 ministers have done good service to the ca\ise of 
 science and literature, and, both as preachers and 
 writers, have taken a position of eminence in 
 society. 
 
 The B. hold the plenary inspiration and supreme 
 authority of the Holy Scriptures as a revelation 
 from God ; the equal deity of the Son and the Holy 
 Spirit in the unity of the ever blessed Trinity. But, 
 as a condensed view of opinions cannot be expected 
 in this work, it may be as well to state that the 
 denomination are distinguished by almcat all the 
 shades of belief which exist in other bodies. They 
 have among them Calvinists both hyper and 
 moderate, also high and low Arminians, diverging 
 off in every variety of shade from a common centre. 
 The great body of them in Britain and Arnica 
 hold the doctrine of Calvinism in a modified form; 
 that is to say, they maintain the sufficiency of the 
 Atonement for cdl men,, the limitation for which 
 some have pleaded, they consider, lies in its applica- 
 tion to the sinner by the sovereign grace of God 
 through faith. They maintain the necessity of 
 regeneration and holiness of life as essential to true 
 religion, and that 'without holiness no man shall 
 see the Lord ; ' and their conduct, in general, wiU bear 
 a comparison with any class of their co-religionists. 
 
 Particular IB., so called because holdmg that 
 Christ died for an elect munber, and General 
 B., who maintain that he died for all men, consti- 
 tute the two leading sects into which the body 
 is divided. Englisli B., in their church order and 
 government, are the same as Oongregationalists, the 
 
 * The Baptists of Great Britain and America reject tlie name 
 of Anabaptists, as expressing only an accidental circumstance 
 of their tenets— viz., the rebaptising of converts from other 
 sects, who happen to hare been baptised in infancy, and also as 
 associating them -with the scandals of the German Anabaptists 
 (q. V.) of the 16th c, from whom they claim to be historically 
 distinct. From the same feeling, the modern Beet in Germany 
 and Holland style themselves Taufgemvate, 
 678 
 
 rite of baptism excepted. Scotch B., properly so 
 called, insist on a plurality of pastors in every 
 chturch, and the exercise of mutual exhortation by 
 the members in their pubMc assemblies. There are 
 Baptist churches in England, however, who are 
 Scotch in their order, and Enghsh B. in Scotland 
 who are English in theirs. Seventh-day B., we 
 beheve, are to be found almost wholly in America, 
 who observe not the first day of the week, but the 
 seventh, as a day of rest. There are, besides these 
 great divisions, various small associations of B. 
 scattered over Great Britain, America, and the 
 continent of Europe, whose opinions cannot be 
 gathered up into systematic arrangement, and who 
 would not approve of being identified with any of 
 the sectarian designations here set down. 
 
 The particular tenet which characterises B. 
 among their fellow-Christians is, that baptism is an 
 ordinance the validity of which depends on an intel- 
 ligent faith on the part of the recipient. Their 
 views on the matter of baptism may be reduced to 
 two heads — the subjects and mode of baptism. The 
 subjects of the baptismal rite they hold to be 
 believers in the Lord Jesus Christ. They ground 
 their faith in this matter on the followiag posi- 
 tions — ^namely: 1st, The Lord in his commission 
 to his apostles associates teaching with baptism, 
 and limits the administration of the rite to {he 
 tawjht. 2d, The Acts of the Apostles shews how 
 they understood their Master, for they baj)tised 
 none but behevers, or such as appeared to be so. 
 3d, That the kingdom of Christ as it appears in 
 this world is restricted to credibly converted per- 
 sons, as is shewn in his discourse with Nicodemus : 
 ' Except a man be bom again, he cannot see the 
 kingdom of God;' and his subsequent statements 
 on to the hour when he emitted his memorable con- 
 fession before Pilate, 'My kingdom is not of this 
 world,' uniformly proves that ite subjects and insti- 
 tutes form a distmct and separate community from 
 the Jewish theocracy, which embraced parents and 
 childre'n in nonage in one commonwealth. 4th, They 
 maintain that the ordinance, as explained in the New 
 Testament, always points to a moral and spiritual 
 change, apart from which it were indeed a meaning- 
 less ceremony. 
 
 As respects the w,ode, the B. hold that only 
 immersion in water is baptism. They argue, that 
 the original term haptizo conveys this meaning, and 
 no other; that nothing less can possibly answer to 
 the apostle's explanation in Bom. vi. 4, 5, and Col. 
 ii. 12, ' buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye 
 are risen with him;' that the many allusions in 
 the epistles to the churches manifestly bear out 
 this interpretation; and, finally, that the fact of 
 John baptising at a spot selected for the purpose 
 ' becatise there was much water there,' is perfectly 
 conclusive. 
 
 Their form of church-government is congregational. 
 They maintain that the only order of officers 
 remaining to the church, since inspiration ceased, 
 are pastors (otherwise called elders and bishops), 
 deacons, and evangelists ; that the number of official 
 persons in each of the apostolic churches cannot be 
 ascertained from the record, but must of necessity 
 have depended — and always must depend — on cir- 
 cumstances; that each church is possessed of the 
 power of seU-govemment under its exalted head, 
 Jesus Christ, subject to no foreign tribunal or court 
 of review ; that discipline is to be exercised by the 
 rulers in presence, and with the consent of all the 
 members, and parties received or excluded at their 
 voice. 
 
 The B. are divided among themselves regarding 
 communion — one portion receiving conscientious 
 Psedobaptists to the Lord's table and membership; 
 
BAIU-BAEAGUAY D'HILLIBES. 
 
 the other refusing this privilege to any but Baptists. 
 The churches of the former are called open com- 
 munionists ; the latter, strict conmumionists. 
 
 Next to the Moravians, the B. were earliest ill the 
 field of missions. They have been honoured to 
 plant Christian churches in many parts of conti- 
 nental India, in Ceylon, in the Bahamas, the West 
 Indies, Africa, and China. No mission band has arisen 
 in any denomination, within the century, who have 
 surpassed the agents of the Baptist Missionary 
 Society in ardent zeaJ, patient perseverance, and 
 invincible fortitude, in carrying out their Lord's 
 commission to preach the gospel to every creature. 
 The names of Carey, Marshman, Ward, and Knibb 
 wiU be had in grateful remembrance by all succeeding 
 generations ; and their footsteps are now being trod 
 by a long list of Christian missionaries of all evan- 
 gelical persuasions, who are 'the messengers of the 
 churches and the glory of Christ.' 
 
 This section of me Christian church was probably 
 less zealous than their brethren, at one time, in pre- 
 paring their ministers for their work by a sound 
 course of study in theologr and general literature ; 
 but this reproach has been long rolled away. ' They 
 have schools of learning inferior to none for training 
 young men of piety for pastoral duties, presided 
 over by men of great ability. At Bristol, Bradford, 
 Eegent's Park (London), Pontypool, Haverfordwest, 
 and Nottingham, there exist seminaries of learning 
 which are entitled to give certificates qualifying for 
 matriculation at the university of London; and 
 many of the students have already taken degrees 
 and honours there. 
 
 In 1853, the B. of the United States (next to 
 the Methodists, the largest religious body in that 
 coimtry) had 11,266 churches, and 814,000 members; 
 in Great Britain, 1854 churches, with 146,653 mem- 
 bers; throughout the world, 13,804 churches, and 
 1,931,836 members, with a corresponding number 
 of regular hearers ; the precise average number we 
 have not the means of ascertaining. > 
 
 BAR is any elongated piece of wood, metal, or 
 other solid substance. In the iron manufacture, B. 
 is a rod either round or square shafted. The round 
 ones are made by drawing the iron red-hot through 
 a bore or hole in a plate, and the square ones by 
 passing it likewise red-hot through a roUer-null 
 between two rollers counter-grooved, with their 
 triangular-grooved faces forming the square opening 
 for the passage of the iron. EaUway and knee iron 
 are made in the same manner. See Ieon Manu- 
 
 TACTUEE. 
 
 BAR, in Hydrography, is a bank opposite the 
 mouth of a river which obstructs or bars the 
 entrance of vessels. The B. is formed where the 
 rush of the stream is arrested by the water of the 
 sea, as the mud and sand suspended in the river- 
 water are thus allowed to be deposited. It is thus 
 that deltas are formed at the mouths of rivers. The 
 navigation of many streams (as the Danube) iskept 
 open only by constant dredging or other artificial 
 means. 
 
 BAR, in Music, is a line dra,wn across the stave, 
 to divide the music iato small portions of equal 
 duration ; each of these small portions is itself called 
 a bar. 
 
 BAR, or BARE, in Heraldry, one of those more 
 important figures or charges in heraldry which are 
 known as ordinaries. By the heralds of this coun- 
 try, the ordinaries, or, as, by way of eminence, they 
 are called, the 'honourable ordinaries,' are com- 
 monly*reckoned as ten in number, the sub-ordi- 
 nariegj or minor charges, beuig greatly more numer- 
 ous. The B., hke the Fess (q.v.), is formed by two 
 horizontal lines passing over the shield, but it differs 
 
 from it in size, the fess occupying a third, the B. 
 only a fifth part of the shield. There is this fur- 
 ther difference between these two 
 ordinaries, that the fess is confined to 
 the centre, while the B. may be borne 
 in several parts of the shield. There 
 is a diminutive of the B. called the 
 closet, which is half a B. ; and again 
 of the closet, called the Barrulet, -g 
 
 which is half a closet, or the fourth 
 part of a bar. — Bar-gemel is a double bar, from 
 the 'French jumeau, i.jumelle, a twin. 
 
 BAR, in Law. This word has several legal mean- 
 ings ; thus, it is the term used to signify an enclosure 
 or fixed place in a court of justice where lawyers 
 may plead, or perhaps more correctly, where they 
 can address their advocacy on behalf of their clients. 
 A veQed-off space within the Houses of Parliament 
 is similarly called the B. See PleadinO. The 
 dock, or enclosed space where persons accused of 
 felonies and other offences stand or sit during 
 their trial, is also caUed the B. ; hence the expres- 
 sion, ' prisoner at the bar.' This word is likewise 
 applied to the gate or rail thrown across a turn- 
 pike road for the levying of the toll-duties. It 
 has also a general meaning in legal procedure, 
 signifying something by way of stoppage or preven- 
 tion. There is also a trial at B., that is, a trial 
 before, the judges of a particular court, who sit 
 together for that purpose in ffanc (q.v.). See the 
 foUowing articles : Bab oe Dowi;e, Pleas in Bae, 
 Teial at Bae, Tollbae, Felony, Treason, Baeeis- 
 TBES, Advocates. 
 
 BAR OP DOWER. Dower, the estate or provi- 
 sion which, by the law of England, a widow is entitled 
 to out of the lands and tenements of her deceased 
 husband, may be barred or defeated by her elope- 
 ment, her divorce on the groimd of her own adul- 
 tery, the treason of her husband, and other disabili- 
 ties, and by detaining the title-deeds or evidences of 
 the estate from the heir until she restores them. A 
 woman might also, while fines and recoveries were 
 in force, be barred by these assurances, as she now 
 may by the new method of conveyance appointed by 
 the statute 3 and 4 WUl. IV. u. 74, in substitution 
 for a fine or recovery, in the case of a manried 
 woman. And another method of barring dower is 
 by jointure, as regulated by the statute 27 Henry 
 VIII. c. 10. — Stephen's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 273. 
 See DowEB, JoiNTUEE, Widow, Edstbs ahd Eeoo- 
 VBEiES, and Common Assueance. 
 
 The term corresponding to Dower in Scotch law is 
 Terce (q. v.), which may also be barred or excluded 
 in I various ways ; as, for instance, by the widow's 
 express discharge or renunciation, by the deeds of 
 the husband affecting his real estate, by the hus- 
 band's conviction for treason, by the wife's express 
 acceptance of a different provision in lieu of the 
 terce, and by her divorce on the ground of adultery. 
 
 BAR, Pleas in. See PLEADifra and Pleas in 
 Bae. 
 
 BAR, Toll. See Toll. 
 
 BAE, Trial at. See Trial at Bar. 
 
 BARABA', a steppe of Siberia, extending between 
 the livers Obe and Irtish, and occupying more than 
 100,000 square nules, and covered with salt lakes 
 and marshes. It was colonised by the Russians 
 in 1767( who have since cultivated parts of it. 
 
 BARACO'A, a seaport town on the north-east 
 coast of Cuba, belonging to .the Spaniards. Lat. 
 20° 22' N., long. 74° Sff W. In its vicinity is a 
 remarkable mountain called the AnvU of Baracoa. 
 
 BAEAGTTAY D'HILLIBES, Louis, a distin- 
 guished general of the French empire, was born in 
 
BAEAGUAY D'HILLIERS^BAEBARA. 
 
 Paris in 1764., After serving under Custine ■ and 
 Menou, he received an appointment in the army 
 of Italy from Napoleon, and was a sharer in all 
 the success of the campaigns of 1796^,7. He 
 was made a general of division; and in virtue 6i 
 Napoleon's treaty with the, Venetian, Republic in 
 May 16, 1797, commandant of i Venice. , B. accom- 
 panied the expedition to Egypt; and afterwards 
 successively held appointments in the armies of 
 the Rhine, and the Tyrol, and, in Catalonia. He 
 headed a division in the Russian campaign of . 1812 ; 
 but on the retreat, he incurred the displeasure of 
 Napoleon. He was sent g,s governor to Berlin, 
 where he soon after died of grief and, exhaustion. 
 
 EAEAGUAY D'HILLIEKS, Achille, a French 
 general, the son of the preceding, was born in Paris 
 on the 6th of September 1795. He rose rapidly 
 through the inferior military grades, and obtained, 
 in 1832, the appointment of governor in the mflitary 
 school of St Cyr, where he suppressed a republican 
 conspiracy that threatened to brSak out in the 
 institution. After he had served with various 
 success in more than one campaign in Algeria, he 
 was promoted to the%ank of heutenant-general, on 
 the 6th of August 1843; and in 1847, he was made 
 inspector-general of infantry. After the revolution 
 of February 1848, he was chosen a member of the 
 National Assembly, in which he joined the party 
 of reaction, and was in favour of the restriction of 
 the press. In the beginning of November 1849, he 
 went to Rome, as commander-in-chief of the French 
 army sent to sustain the authority of the pope. 
 He returned in 1850 ; and in January 1851 obtained 
 the command of the army of Paris, in the place 
 of Changamier. B. concurred in the policy of 
 the coup d'Stat of December 1851, and was made 
 a member of the Consultative Commission. During 
 the Crimean war, in 1854, he received the command 
 of the French expeditionary corps of the Baltic, 
 and co-operated with the British fleet in the capture 
 of Bomarsund, and was now made a Marshal of 
 France. He commanded in the Italian campaign 
 of 1859 with distinction — a portion of his troops, 
 under the immediate direction of General Forey, 
 having been the first to cross bayonets with the 
 Austrians at Montebello. 
 
 BA'RAS KHOTU'N, or BARS KHOTATST, a 
 ruined city on the banks of the Kherlon, one of 
 the head-streams of the Amur, in the Mongol 
 country. Some suppose it to have been built by 
 ' the Emperor Kublai; others, that it was erected 
 by Toghon Timur in the 14th c, after the expulsion 
 of the Mongols from China. The remains of the 
 mud-walls shew that the city had been 5 miles 
 in circumference. 
 
 BARB, the designation of a noble breed of horses 
 cultivated by the Moors of Barbary, and introduced 
 by them into Spaiii. Barbs are less remarkable 
 for their beauty and symmetry, than for their speed, 
 endurance, abstinence, and gentle temper. 
 
 BA'RBACAN. See Baebican. 
 
 BARBA'DOES, the most easterly of the Carib- 
 bees, and the residence of the, governor-general of 
 the British Windward Islands. See Aotilles. The 
 lat. and long, of its capital, Bridgetown, are 13° 4' 
 N., and 59°, 37' W. Its area is about 166 square 
 miles, or 106,240 acres — the unprecedented propor- 
 tion of 100,000 being under .cultivation. Besides the 
 capital, B. contains 3 other tovms, all more or less 
 in a state of decay — Jamestown, Speights-town, and 
 Oistin. B. affords no harbours, being almost encircled 
 by coral-reefs, which here and there extend as inuch 
 as 3 miles to seaward. Inside of the coral-reefs, 
 the coast, , excepting , at two points, presents long 
 lines of sandy beach — one of the most remarkable 
 680 
 
 being Carlisle Bay with its exposed, roadstead, on 
 which Bridgetovpn standg, , Setting aside occasional 
 attacks of yellow fever, the chmate is healthy. 
 In, 1844, the fall of rain was 72 , inches; and 
 the temperature is said ito' have ranged only; 
 between 76 J° and,83i° E. ,; Shocks of , earthquake 
 are sometimes, felt,, , and thwider-atprms are fre- 
 quent and severe. But hurricanes are the grand 
 scourge of Barbadoes., In 1780,, one of them 
 destroyed 4326 persons, and property to the value 
 of £1,320,564 sterling; and, in 1831, another de- 
 stroyed 1591 persons, aiid .property , to the, value 
 of £1,602,800 sterKpg. Of, the former of the?e, 
 the violence appears to, have surpassed aU behef 
 — the winds and the waves between them having 
 carried a 12-poimder gun a distance of 140 yards. 
 
 In 1834, the _ commencement of the apjjrentice- 
 ship under the imperial act of emancipation, the 
 population was 102,231; by 1851 it had increased 
 to 135,939, being an average of 817 inhabitants 
 to every square mile,, or of ,4 to every 3 acres 
 under cultivation. The trade and the revenue 
 bear a Similar testimony to the benefits of eman- 
 cipation. Between 1833 and 1851, the revenue 
 had increased from £20,975 to ££15,724; the im- 
 ports from £481,610 to £787,977; the exports, 
 from, £408,363 to £887,627; the shipping inwards, 
 from 79,005 tons to 96,381 ; and the hogsheads of 
 sugar, from 24,189 to 38,731). Being universally 
 cultivated in regular plantations, the island affords 
 no room for the squatting of negroes on unreclaimed 
 lands, as in Jamaica and other West-India posses- 
 sions. On this account, if from no other cause, the 
 negro population have been compelled to labour dih- 
 gently for hire, and are generally in a condition most 
 creditable to their industry and prudence^ — contrast- 
 ing, in this respect, with the improvidence and indo- 
 lence of some of the lower classes among the whites. 
 Altogether, however, the Barbadians are a shrewd 
 and clever people, nor are they deficient in a due 
 appreciation of their own power and importance. 
 B. is the see of a bishop. It contains also many 
 well-endowed seminaries j— Codrington College, in 
 particiilar, having a revenue of £3000 a year. It 
 was first colonised by the English in 1625, having 
 previously been depopulated by the Spaniards. ■ 
 
 BARBA'DOES CHB'RRT, the name given in 
 the West Indies to the fruit of two small trees, 
 Malpighia urens and M. glabra, which are 
 cultivated for its sake. Clusters of fruit are 
 produced from the axils of the leaves. The fruit 
 of M. urens is small, that of M. glabra is like a 
 Mayduke cherry in size and appearance, but inferior 
 in flavour. Each fruit contains three triangular 
 seeds. The leaves of M. urens have stinging hairs 
 on the imder-side. See MALMGHiACEa;. 
 
 BARBA'DOES GOO'SEBERRY (PeresUa acii- 
 leata), a pleasant West Indian fruit, produced by 
 a plant of,, the natural order Cactem (q.v.), with a 
 round stem, thick flat alternate leaves, and large 
 strong spines. The fruit has expectorant properties. 
 
 BARBARA, Saint, who suffered martyrdom at 
 Nicomedia, in Bithynia, about 236, or, according to 
 other accounts, at Heliopolis, in Egypt, about 306, 
 was of good birth, and well educated by her father, 
 Dioscorus. To avoid disturbance in her studies, he 
 had a tower built for her, where she spent her youth, 
 in the deepest solitude. While in this retirement, 
 she was 'led, through Origen, as is said, to embrace 
 Christianity. Her father, a fanatic heathen, learning 
 his daughter's conversion, and failing to induce her 
 to renoimce Christ, delivered her up to the governor, 
 Martianus, to be dealt with by the law. Martianus, 
 struck with the intelligence and beauty of, the 
 maiden, attempted first by arguments to make her 
 
BAKBAREA— BAEBARY. 
 
 relinquish Ohristianity, and when that failed, had 
 recoTirse to the most exquiaitB tortures. At last, 
 the blinded father' offered himself to strike off his 
 daughter's head. > Scarcely was the deed done, when 
 he Was struck with lightning. Hence' St B. 'is to 
 this day prayed to in storms. For the same reason, 
 she is the patron saiht of artillery, and her image 
 was at one time frequently placed on arsenals, 
 powder-magazines, &c. ■ The powder-room in a 
 French ship of war is to this day called Sainte- 
 Barhe. St B.'s day is the 4th Beoember. 
 
 BARBA'REA. See Cress. 
 
 BARBA'RIAN (Gr. barharos), among the Greeks, 
 as early as the time of Homer, signined one who 
 co\ild not speak the Greek language ; and this 
 restricted signification was not wholly obsolete even 
 in the age of Plato, for the latter divides the entire 
 human race into Heilmes a,ni. Bariaroi. The origin 
 of thp word is unknown, if it be not artificially 
 'formed, on the principle of imitation, to represent a 
 meaningless bablple of sound, such as the Greeks 
 conceived all foreign languages to be. It first began 
 to acquire its secondary and invidious signification 
 at the period of the Persian Tyai'S.' The Greeks, who 
 always exhibited a proud consciousness of their 
 superior intellect and priviieges, employed the term 
 to designate the character of their enemies. It then 
 meant whatever was opposed to Greek civilisation, 
 freedom, or intelligence ; but it could not yet have 
 attained the degraded sense in' which it is now used, 
 for the Romans in the time of Plaujus accepted 
 the appellation, and called themselves Barbaroi. 
 Subsequently, when Ronie, under Augustus, became 
 the mistress of the world, the word was applied 
 to all the Germanic and Scythian tribes with whom 
 she ctime into contact. In modem times, B. signifies 
 savage, uncivilised, or ignorant. , 
 
 BARBARO'SSA. -See Fbbdekick I. , ,,,,:; 
 
 BARBARO'SSA,, Akoodje , or Harudj' ,and. 
 Khaie Eddin, two brothers, renegade Greeks, natives 
 of Mitylerie, who, as Turkish corsairs, were the terror 
 of the Mediterranean during the. first half of the 
 16th c. They made :themselves masters of .Algeria 
 (q. V.) and Tunis, and brought these countries under 
 the sovereignty of the Turkish sultan. ; .. : >ii : ,., 
 
 BARBAROTJX, Chaeles, one, of th,e napst, dis- 
 tingriished and energetic of the Girondists, was bom 
 at . jyiaijseille in, 1767. The new ideas of , equality 
 and fraternity found in B. a warm advocate, and he 
 did much, to promote, their spread. He was elected 
 the special delegatejof Marseille, to attend the Con- 
 stituent Assembly, at Pari?. There he opposed the 
 court, and took part with the minister, Rolaiud, then 
 out,,pf favoiur. After the events of the jlOth; of 
 August, he returned to his native town, where he 
 was received with enthusiasm, .and- was soon after 
 chosen delegate to the Convention. In the Conven- 
 tion, he adhered to the Girondists, and belonged to 
 the' party who, at the trial of the king, voted for an 
 appeal to the people. As B. boldly opposed the 
 party of Mairat and Piobespierre, and even directly 
 accused the latter of aiming at -the dictatorship, 
 he^ was, in May 1793, proscribed as a royalist and 
 an 'enemy of the republic. He wandered about 
 the country, 'hiding himself as- he best could, for 
 thirteen months, when he was taken, and perished at 
 Bordeaux by the guiUotiiie, June 25, 1794. ' B^ mnder- 
 stbod' the revolutionary crisis much better than the 
 most of his party. Had the Girondists generally 
 possessed anything like his energy and sagacity, the 
 Jacobins must have succumbed, and 'much bloodshed 
 and horror would have been spared ' to France and 
 the world. ' " 
 
 BA'RBARY, an extensive region iii Northern 
 Africa, comprising the countries known in modem 
 
 times under thO names of Barca, Tripoli Proper, 
 Fezzan, Tuuis, Algeria, and MaroccDl tOgOtlier with 
 the half-independent province of Sus ; and in ancient 
 times, under those of Mauritania, Nuinidia, Africa 
 Propria, and Gyrenaica. It stretches from Egypt 
 to the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Mediterranean 
 to the 'Desert of Sahara, or between long. 10° W. and 
 ,25' E., and lat. 25°— 37° N. The ' north-west of 
 this region is divided by the Atlas Mountains into 
 two parts ':' the northern Comprising Marocco, Alge- 
 ria, and Tunis ; the southern, a' 'half -desert region, 
 called Belud-el-Jerid, the country of dates. Though 
 pertaining geographically to Africa, B. is not specially 
 Africaniin any of its characteristics ;' butin climate, 
 flora,' f aunaj and geological configuration, belongs to 
 thart great region which forms the basin of the 
 Mediterranean. , It is ' watered by many small 
 streams, which either -flow . into the Mediterranean 
 or into the salt-lakes on the edge of the Desert, 
 according as they rise on the northern or southern 
 slopes of the Atlas Mountains. A large portion of 
 the country is capable Of cultivation, and sandy or 
 rocky tracts are rare, except on the southern margin. 
 During the times of the CSirthaginians, Greeks, and 
 Romans, it was richly fertile, and all the natural 
 conditions of its ancient productiveness still remain. 
 : — ^For an'SjOoount of the climate, geology, produc- 
 tions, &c., see the various countries. 
 
 Among the people, besides the French and other 
 Europeans, seven distinct races may be enumerated : 
 Berbers (or Kabyles), Moors, Beduins, Jews, Turks, 
 Kuluglis, and Negroes. The Berbers and Beduins 
 inhabit the open country, while the Moors, on the 
 other hand, reside in the towns. . Most of the Berber 
 tribes are either wholly free, or subject to the mere 
 nominal jurisdiction of native chiefs, kaids, judges, 
 &o. The Beduins luxuriate in equal liberty. Jews 
 had settled here in ancient times, but the greater 
 number of that raceimmigrated when the Moors were 
 expelled from Spain. ' The Turks entered B. in the 
 16th c. They form the domiaant race ia Tripoli 
 and i Tunis, but never established themselves per- 
 manently in Marocco. ; Their ' sway in Algeria was 
 brought to an end by the French: The KulugUs (the 
 children of Turks by nativei mothers} are exqluded 
 from the possession of all the paternal rights and 
 privileges. The negroesare not natives of B., but 
 are brought thither as slaves, principally from Sudan 
 and Guiaea. They are for the most part domestic 
 slaves.; f. ;The population,, exclusive of Jews and 
 Christians, is about 10,O0,Q,O0p,, all, Mohammedans. 
 Arabic, is the language of commerce and intercourse, 
 and in Marocco, the language of government, and the 
 mother-tongue of Beduins, Moors, and, even, Jews; 
 but in Tunis and Tripoh, where, as we have said, the 
 Turks, are. stiU dominant, the language of government 
 is Tijrkish, | The Berbers Proper, or Kabyles, espe-, 
 cially in the highlands, to which they have been 
 driven by foreign conquerors, use a peculiar speech 
 lamong themselves. ,, , r , i 
 
 \ In the oldest historical times, we .find the Mauri 
 (the ancestors of the modem Moors) mentioned as 
 residing in the north-west of B., the Numidians in 
 the interior and eastern parts, and the Phceniciau 
 colonies on the coasts. These last people formed 
 settlements and founded cities — among them Utica, 
 Hippo, Hadrumetum, Leptis, and afterwards Car- 
 thage, about 1000 B.C. It does not appear that they 
 ever penetrated far into the interior. Confining 
 themselves to the coast between the Great Syrtis 
 and the Straits of Gibraltar, they maintained com- 
 merce with the people of the interior and the 
 seaports of the Mediterranean. In the 7th c. B. 0., the 
 Greeks founded Gyrene, considerably to the east of 
 Carthage, and colonised the plateau of Barca, now 
 styled Jebel-el-Achdar by the Arabs. While the 
 
 681 
 
BAEBARY— BAKBABY APE. 
 
 Phcemcian iolonies held sway on the coast, the 
 Mauri and the Numidians were divided uito several 
 independent tribes, and, like their neighbours the 
 Gsetuli, were wholly uncivilised. After the second 
 Funic war, the lioiuans extended their sway over 
 Carthaginian Africa, which became a Roman pro- 
 vince at the close of the third Punic war, when 
 the city of Carthage was sacked and destroyed. 
 Numidia was ' annexed' after the victory over 
 Jugurtha, and Mauritania after the defeat of King 
 Juba, the ally of Pompey's party. The son of 
 Juba, bearing the same name, was allowed to rei^ 
 as a noTnind sovereign by Augustus; but Mauri- 
 tania was, in fact, a E.oman province. Thus, the 
 Romans had acquired a territory in Africa extending 
 from the Great Syrtis to the Atlantic (corresponding 
 to the modem states of B.), which formed some of 
 the largest and most flourishing provinces of; their 
 vast empire. Everywhere they built large towns, 
 whose extensive ruins are still to be seen scattered 
 over the whole land, even to the verge of the 
 Desert ; as, for instance, those at El-Haman, iu the 
 regency of Tunis, at Sava, Musulupium, and espe- 
 ciSly the splendid city of ruins, Lambasa, not 
 far from the Desert of Sahara. The Romans had, 
 in general, only two legions, numbering 24,000 men, 
 in their African provinces ; nevertheless, their 
 authority was uncontested, and they were enabled to 
 undertake important works, such as the cisterns and 
 aqueducts at Rusioada, Hippo, and Cirta, and the 
 temples and amphitheatres of Calama and Anuna, 
 which clearly shew that the inhabitants enjoyed the 
 benefits of a safe and powerful civilisation. 
 
 Under Conatantine, North Africa was divided into 
 the several provinces, Mauritania-Tingitana, Mauri- 
 tania-Csesariensis (on the east of the former), Mauri- 
 tania-Sitifensis, Numidia, Zeugitania, Byzacium, 
 Cyrenaioa, and the Regie Syrtica. At the division 
 of the empire, the whole of these provinces, with the 
 exception of the last, fell to the share of the 
 Western Empire. About this time, Christianity 
 was promulgated in Africa, and with such success, 
 that in the three Mauritanias there were more than 
 160 dioceses. As Roman power declined in Europe, 
 the consequences were severely felt in the African 
 provinces. Religious disturbances, native revolts, 
 and the ambitious aspirations of the Roman 
 
 fovemors after independence, loosened the pohtioal 
 ands which bound the provinces together, and 
 made them an easy prey to the Vandals, who 
 landed in Africa, in 429 a.d., under the ferocious 
 Genseric, and in an incredibly short space of time 
 overran the country, which they savagely mis- 
 governed until 533, when they were defeated by 
 Justinian's great general, Behsarius. Meanwhile 
 the Numidians and the Mauri had made thelnselves 
 masters of the interior and of the coast of Mauri- 
 tania-Tingitana, and the Greek-Pboman territories 
 were restricted to the neighbourhood of Carthage 
 and some poiuts on the coast. The whole country 
 of B. was thus made an easy prey for the Arabs, 
 and in 647, AbdaUah-ben-Said, with 40,000 fanatical 
 Mohammedans from Egypt, defeated and slew the 
 Greek prefect, Gregorius, at Tripoli. He did not, 
 however, foUow up his victories; but in 665 — 670 
 A.D., the Arabian general, Akbah, conquered the 
 coast-towns of Tripoli, founded Cairo, and extended 
 his sway almost to the Desert. Hassan, the general 
 of the Calif Abd-el-Malek, in 692, stormed, plun- 
 dered, and destroyed the new Carthage, and, ra fact, 
 annihilated the Greek-Roman dominion in Africa. 
 In the course of less than a century, the greater 
 part of the native tribes were converted forcibly to 
 the faith of Islam. In 789, the western provinces 
 separated themselves from the others, and Edris- 
 ben-AbdaUah founded there the dynasty of the 
 
 682 
 
 Edrisites. After 800, when the governor, Ibrahim- 
 ben-Aglab, declared himself independent, and 
 fovmded the dynasty of the Aglabites; Africa was 
 lost to the oalits. Prom this time down to 1269, 
 the changes of dynasty in B. were so frequent, that 
 we cannot here describe them in detail. The results 
 were, that independent states arose in Algeria, Oran, 
 Bugia, Tenez, &o. About this time, also, began the 
 reaction of the Christian world against Mohamme- 
 danism in North Africa and Spain. St Louis under- 
 took an expedition against Tunis. The Moms were, 
 by and by, expelled from Spain, and settled them- 
 selves on the coast of Northern Africa, there to 
 begin that course of piracy by which they became 
 odious to Europe, first as a fierce retaliation against 
 their Christian persecutors, but ultimately as a 
 barbarous profession. As early as the time of 
 Ferdinand the Catholic, the Spaniards sought to 
 check their insolent ravages, and landed in Africa 
 on several occasions, capturing the ports of Ceuta,- 
 MeKUa, Oran, Bugia, the island before Algiers, and 
 Tripoli. The Portuguese landed on the coast of 
 Marocco, where at first they had great success ; but 
 they were ultimately compelled to leave the country. 
 After various changes of fortune, Algiers, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli were brought under the government of the 
 sultan. Since 1830, however, the first of these (see 
 Algeria) has been under Prench sway, while for 
 many years the other two have been only nominally 
 dependent on the Turkish ruler. A similar fate, at 
 a much earlier period, befell the western part of B., 
 where the successors of the Arabian Sherif, Mula- 
 Mehemed, overthrew the kings of Marocco and Fez, 
 and established the Sherif dynasty, which rules to 
 the present day over these lands. — Shaw's Travels 
 and Observations relative to several Parts of B. ; 
 Mauroy, Du Commerce dea Peu/ples de VAfrigue 
 Septentrionale (Par. 1845). 
 
 BA'EBARY APE, PI'GMY APE, or MA'GOT, 
 a small species of ape or tailless monkey, interesting 
 as the only one of the monkey-race which is found 
 in Europe. The only European locality, however, iu 
 which it occurs is the Rock of Gibraltar, and it is 
 said to have been originally brought from the north 
 of Africa. It inhabits the precipitous sides of the 
 Rock, inaccessible to human foot, and enjoys a certain 
 measure of protection from firearms in return for 
 the amusement afforded by its manners. It is gre- 
 garious, and large numbers are often seen together, 
 the females carrying their young upon their backs. 
 In some parts of the north of Africa, the B. A. is 
 
 Barbary Ape. 
 
 extremely abundant, inhabiting rooky mountains 
 and woods. It displays great a^ity in passing from 
 tree to tree, and its bands often plunder gardens, one 
 of their number keeping careful watch. It feeds 
 on fruits, roots, &c.; and its fondness for eggs is 
 supposed to have given rise to the ancient story of 
 
BAEBASTELLE— BARBEL. 
 
 the battle of the pigmies and the oraaes. It is of a 
 greeuish-gray colour, paler underneath ; and in size 
 resembles a large oat. The characters agree with 
 those of the genus Macaeus (Waaderoo Monkey, 
 q. v., &o.), except that the tail is reduced to a 
 mere tubercle. The muzzle is somewhat elongated, 
 although not nearly so much as in the baboons, with 
 wluoh this ape has sometimes been classed, and the 
 facial angle is much higher than in them. The face 
 is almost naked, and somewhat wrinkled. The ears 
 are in form not unlike human ears. The eyes are 
 round, reddish, and of great vivacity. The B. A. is 
 one of the monkeys most frequently to be seen in 
 captivity, at least in Britain; and possessing a con- 
 siderable degree of intelligence, is capable of being 
 trained to many tricks. In order to this, however, 
 it must be taken young, as the older ones are often 
 BuHeu and mischievous. It usually walks on four 
 feet, although it can be trained to stand or walk, in 
 a more awkward manner, on two. It is filthy in its 
 habits. 
 
 BARBASTE'LLE. See Bat. 
 
 BAEBA'STRO, a waUed town of Spain, in the 
 province of Aragon. It is situated on the "Vero, 
 has a cathedral with some paintings by Antonio 
 Galoeran. Pop. 6175. 
 
 BA'RBATJIiD, Anna Lbtitia, a,n English 
 authoress, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in 
 Leicestershire — ^where her father, the Rev. John 
 Aikin, a dissenting clergyman, kept an academy — 
 on the 20th June 1743. Her private education, the 
 religious influence of her home, and secluded life 
 in the country, were well fitted to develop early 
 her natural taste for poetry ; but it was not until 
 1773 that she was induced to give her effusions to 
 the public, who appreciated them so highly that four 
 editions were called for during the year. Encouraged 
 by this, she the same year, conjointly with her 
 brother, i published Miscellaneous Pieces in Prose 
 (Lend. 1773), which also passed through many 
 editions. In the following year, the poetess married 
 the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, a dissenting minister 
 at Palgrave, in Suffolk,, in which village me newly 
 married pair opened a boarding-school for boys. 
 The literary fame and the assiduity of Mrs B. soon 
 made lit celebrated. During the ten years Mrs B. 
 was-engaged in the duties of tuition here, she pub- 
 lished Ea/rly Lessons for CliUdren, and Hymns in 
 Prose, works which have been often reprinted in Eng- 
 land for youthful readers, and translated into several 
 languages. Her Devotional Pieces was also published 
 during this period. In 1792, she commenced with 
 the brother previously mentioned — who wrote the 
 most of them — the well-known series. Evenings at 
 Borne, which were completed in three years. In 
 1795 she edited Akenside's Pleasures of Imagina- 
 tion, and CoUins's Odes, prefixing to each a critical 
 essay. In 1804, she began to edit a selection from 
 the Spectator, Guardian, TaUer, &o.; and in 1810 
 published a collection of the British Novelists, 
 the task of editing which she had undertaken to 
 divert her mind from the loss she had sustained two 
 years previously in the death of her husband. Tli£ 
 Female Spectator (Lond. 1811) contains a selection 
 from her writings. Her last poetical effort was an 
 ode, entitled Mghteen Hundred and Eleven (Lond. 
 1812). All her compositions are characterised by 
 simplicity of feehngj an easy, flowing style, and pure 
 and elevated sentiment, and give token of a mind 
 well versed in classical literature. She lived in 
 quiet retirement tni her death, which happened on 
 the 9th March 1825. The Ufe of Mrs B. has been 
 written by Lucy Aikin, also known as an authoress, 
 and prefixed to the collection of the Works of A. L. 
 Barbauld (2 vols., Lond. 1825). The same lady 
 
 also published from the posthumous papers of the 
 authoress, A Legacy for Ymmg Ladies (Lond. 1826). 
 
 BA'RBED AND CRE'STED, heraldic terms, by 
 which the comb and giUs of a cock are designated, 
 when it is necessary to particularise them as being 
 of a different tincture from the body. The common 
 English term is Wattled and Gonibed, gules, or 
 whatever else the tincture may be. 
 
 BA'RBEL {Bat'bus), a genus of fishes of the 
 family of the Oyprinidce (q.v.), diflfering from 
 Cyprinus (Carp, Gold-fish, &o.) in the short dorsal 
 aild anal fins, in having one of the rays of the 
 dorsal fin strong and serrated, and the mouth fur- 
 iiished with four soft barbules (whence the name B., 
 frolii Lat. harha, a beard), two near the point of the 
 snoitt, and one ^t each angle of the mouth. The 
 
 BarbeL 
 
 upper jaw also extends considerably beyond the 
 lower. The species are numerous. Like the other 
 Cyprinidse, they are aJl inhabitants Of fresh water, 
 and generally of muddy ponds and rivers, where 
 they seek food by ploughing up the mud with their 
 snouts, like swine, and are said often to seize the 
 small fishes which come to share with them the 
 worms and insects of the mud. They also feed upon 
 the leaves and roots of aquatic plants. — The Com- 
 mon B. (B. vulgaris) is abundant in many of the 
 rivers of the temperate parts of Europe. It is the 
 only species found in Britain, and only in some of 
 the stiU and deep rivers of England. It is very 
 abundant in the Thames, frequenting the weedy 
 parts of the river in shoals in summer, and seeking 
 the deeper water in winter, becoming so torpid 
 during cold weather, that the fishermen sometimes 
 take it with the hand, or by pushing it witii a pole 
 into a small net fastened to an iron hoop. It grows 
 to a large size, sometimes 3 feet in length, and 15 
 to 18 pounds in weight ; it is rather of a long shape, 
 in section nearly circular ; the general colour of the 
 head, and upper part of the body, greenish brown, 
 becoming yeUpwish green on the sides, the belly 
 white, the tail somewhat forked, and of a deep 
 purple colour. It affords sport to anglers, but is 
 a very coarse fish, and little used for food except by 
 the poor, who often boil bacon with it to give it a 
 relish. The larger barbels are esteemed the best. 
 The roe has poisonous qualities, although its effects 
 are disagreeable rather than permanently injurious. 
 
 Another species, called the Binny, Or B. of the 
 Nile, is very abundant in that river; attains a very 
 great size, 70 lbs. or upwards; is much esteemed 
 for food; and is taken by hooks baited with dates 
 steeped in honey. A number of baited hooks, each 
 attached to a separate strong line, are enclosed in a 
 mass of clay, flour, dates, &c., which is sunlc in the 
 river, and to which, as it begins to dissolve, the 
 binnies ate attracted; when boring into it with 
 their snouts, and devom-ing the antes, they are 
 qaught. The fish being generally hooked by the pro- 
 jeotmg upper jaw, is allowed to remain in the water, 
 the line being fastened on shore, and is taken out 
 when wanted for immediate use. 
 
 BA'RBEL, Angling tor. The B. is a ground-feed- 
 ing fish, grubbing on the bottom for his sustenance. 
 
 688 
 
BABBER— BARBERIlirO-DI-.MUGELLO. 
 
 The baits principally used to capture him are -worms 
 and maggots, greaves, and cheese; and the means of 
 angling for him are chiefly with a (iead-line, called 
 a , ledger, or with float-tackle. The , ledger i?, a 
 perforated leaden bnllet ; through this the Ime runs 
 freely.. To prevent its .slipping: down on the hook, 
 a large, shot or other substance is fastened on the 
 line, about a yard above the hopk. The hook 
 (about No. 5 or 6, in, size) is ^Ijaited either with a 
 lob-worm or greayes, and the ' lead is cast into the 
 water, and remains motionless on the bottom. When 
 a fish bites, the,angleii feels the tug,, and stiikes 
 smartly; as the fins of the B. are large, and his 
 muscles powerful, he frequently offers considerable 
 resistance. , The rod used for ledger-fishing is short 
 and stiff. In float-fishing for B., lie tackle is finer, and 
 the hook , smaller. A cork-floa,t suited to the depth 
 and rapidity of the river is used, and it is fixed at 
 such a height upon the fine that the bait just 
 touches the bottom. The instant the float dis- 
 appears, the angler strikes, but not so forcibly as in 
 ledger^fishing. Previous to angling for B., it , is 
 desurable to bait the place to be fished, i for the 
 purpose of drawing the fish together. This is 
 accomplished by chopping up and casting into the 
 water from 500 to 1000 lob-worms, and it should be 
 done 18 or 20 hours before fishing. In float-fishing 
 for B., the float .should, be allowed to travel down a 
 considerable distance of water, at least 30 or 40 
 yards, in order that no spot where a portion of the 
 worms may have lodged should be missed. This 
 is sometimes done by the use of a float called a 
 slider, which is not fixed on the line, but by the 
 management of the angler, accommodates itself to 
 th,e depth of the water. In this fishing, the bait 
 trails along the ground, and the rod should be at 
 least 14 or 15 feet in length, and the line very light 
 and fine. B. will sometimes take a spinning bait, and 
 are often caught by the angler while trout-fishing; 
 but this is by no means a certain method of angling 
 for them. The B. may be said to be gregarious ; he 
 spawns in May or June, choosing some gentle 
 shallow for that purpose. He soon recovers his 
 strength again, however ; and about the end of July, 
 he seeks the deep rapid streams, and may be seen 
 vigorously springing from the water in his endea- 
 vours to rid himself of the parasitical insects which 
 attach themselves to hitn during his quiescence. 
 Here he remains the greater part of the summer and 
 autiunn. Frosty weather renders the B. torpid, and 
 he takes shelter under some large stone or weed, 
 where he can lie up during the winter. Although 
 the B. is by no means an estimable fish for the 
 table, it is much used by the Jews in their fasts and 
 festivals. 
 
 BA'KBER (Lat. harha, the beard), a shaver of 
 the beard, and who ordinarily includes hair-cutting 
 in his profession. Barbers are of great antiquity, 
 if not for the shaving of the beard, at least for 
 shaving a portion of the head. The office of the B. 
 is referred to by the prophet Ezekiel: 'And thou, 
 son of man, ,take thee a barber's razor, and cause 
 it to pass upoii thine head and upon thy beard.' 
 — Ezek. V. 1. In all oriental countries, including 
 China, the shaving the whole or part of the head 
 continues to be performed by barbers. In every 
 part of the world, the professional E. and hair- 
 dresser is celebrated for his garrulity and general 
 obliging quahties, such being required by those 
 who place themselves in his hands. The amusing 
 character of the B. in one of the tales in the 
 Arabian Nights Entertainments, and also of the B. 
 in Rossini's opera of Figaro, will readily occur to 
 reooUeotion. As will be seen from the succeeding 
 article, barbers at one time acted as a kind of 
 surgeons, and accordingly occupied a higher social 
 6S1 
 
 position than they now enjoy. Latterly, pn account 
 of, the simple mode of trimming,, the hair, and of 
 the prevalence of private shaving, , the business 
 of, the B. in .England has greatly .declined, and 
 his services are chiefly confined to the humbler 
 classes. In the United States, the business of 
 the B. is almost exclusively ir^ the hands of the 
 coloured population. Anciently, pne_ of the utensils 
 of the B. was a brass basin, with a semicircidar gap 
 in one side to compass a man's throat, by which 
 means, in applying the lather to the face, the clothes 
 were not soiled. Readers wdl recollect that Don 
 Quixote crazily assumed a barber's basin as a' helmet. 
 At the end of a pole, the brass basin is still hung 
 out as a sign at the door of the B. in Gre'^t Britain, 
 France, and other countries. 
 
 BA'RBER-SU'RGEONS. In former times, as 
 stated in the foregoing article, barbers acted as a 
 kind of sui'geons, or at least phlebotomists, and such 
 appears to have been the case in aU countries. Till 
 this day, on the pole on which the barber's basin is 
 suspended, there is represented a twisted or spiral 
 ribbon, which symbohses the winding of a ribbon 
 round the arm previous to blood-letting. In Lon- 
 don, Edinburgh, and elsewhere, the B. formed corpor- 
 ations with certain privileges. The surgical duties 
 of these bodies now pertain to the corporations 
 of surgeons. The existence of B. as professors of 
 the healing art, in England, can be traced as far 
 back as the reign of Edward IV. in 1461, when 
 they were first incorporated; and from thence tfll 
 the reign of Henry VIII., when they were united 
 with the surgeons, until the time of George II., 
 when the B. ceased to be anything but barbers, as 
 we now understand the term. In the latter reign, 
 an act was passed, the 18 Geo. II. c. 15, from the 
 preamble of which we learn that not tfll then 
 had the discovery been made that the business 
 or trade of a barber was 'foreign to, and indepen- 
 dent of, the practice of surgery;' and it therefore 
 proceeds to dissolve the connection between the 
 two bodies, and to remit the B. to the more humble 
 functions they now perform. But this is done 
 with an express saving of all their privileges as a. 
 company or corporation, and as such they exist to 
 the present day. See an interesting account of 
 them in Knight's History of London, vol. iii. pp. 
 177 — 192, which concludes with the followingcurious 
 extract from the list of oificers to Heriot's rCospital 
 in the statiites of that charity compiled in 1627 i 
 ' One chirurgeon barber who shall cut and pole the 
 Iiair of all the scholars of the hospital; and afeo look 
 to the cure of aU those within the hospital who 
 anyway shall staud in need of his art.'' And see 
 the Report of the Royal Commissioners appointed 
 to inquire into the corporations of Loudon,' and 
 printed in 1837, in which all particulars relating 
 to the government and working of this company at 
 the present day are given. The report states,' that 
 the company exists ' for using and exercising the art 
 and mystery of barbers, which includes hair-dressers 
 within the suburbs and liberties of the city;' and 
 it concludes as follows : ' The company possess 
 extensive powers for -the regulation of the trade, 
 but in practice none are exercised except the power 
 of compellihg all persons using the trade or business 
 of barber (which, as before meutionedj includes hair- 
 dressers) within the city to become frefi of -the 
 company.' The barbers still retain their ancient haU 
 —which they possessed before the surgeons were 
 disunited from them — in MonkweU Street, Cripple- 
 
 fate, in the city of London. See Ajothecabies, 
 URGEONS, TeADB CoRPOEAtIONS. 
 
 BARBERI'NO-DI-MUGE'LLO, a town of 
 Tuscany on the, Siere,,16 mUesnorth of Florence, with 
 
B AEBERRY— B ARBIC AN. 
 
 a population of 9000, engaged in the manuf a;oture 
 of straw-hats. The royal villa of Caffegiolo, the 
 ancient residence of ' the ' Medioig, standi, in the 
 environs.— B. Dl Val-d'Elsa, a village in the same 
 district, 'with a beautiful situation on the ridge 
 between ' the valleys of the PeSa and Blsa, 'and, 
 celebrated as the pliice where Pope Ui'ban VIII. 
 was born. One of the palaces of the Barberini is 
 here. 
 
 BA'RBEREY {Se'rbens), is, geiius of plants, of the 
 natural prd^ Sertei-idece {q. v.). All the species, 
 which are numerous, and found in temperate chmateg 
 iu.ijiost parts of the world, except Australia, are. 
 sl(i'ubs with yellow flowers, having ' a calyx of six 
 leaves, a corolla of six petals, and ^ six; stamens, 
 which, when touched at the base, display a con- 
 siderable degree of irritability, starting ' up from 
 their ordinary position of reclining upon the petals, 
 
 Common Bwhaiiy {Serheris vulgaris): i 
 dj a flower ; ,6, ripe fruit, i m r,; 
 
 and closing upon the pistil, appaiently a, provision 
 to secure fecundation. ,The fruit is a berry with 
 two or three seeds. Kot a few of the species are 
 evergreen. Tliey„are divided into two sub-genera, 
 sometimes ranked as genera; those with simple 
 leaves forming , the sub-genus Berheris, and those 
 with pinnate leayes the sub-genus Mahonia, or Ash- 
 leaved B.— The Common B. [B. vulgm-is) is a native 
 of most of the temperate parts of Europe, Asia, 
 and North , America. ■ It produces, its flowers and 
 fruit in .pendulous racemes ; has obovate, slightly 
 serrate, deciduous leaves ; and numerous , straight 
 three-forked, spines. It is a very ornamental shrub, 
 especially when, covered with fruit., i Its, berries are 
 of an elongate, oval form; when ripe, generally of a 
 bright red colour, more rarely , whitish, yellow, or 
 almost black., They contain free m,alio acid. The 
 fruit, of I the ordinary varieties is, too acid to be 
 eaten, but makes excellent, preserves and jelly. 
 MaUo , acid (q. v.) is pretty extensively prepared 
 frpm it in, Ranee. A yellow fungus, Aeddium 
 B^beridis, is very general upon, the under-side of 
 the leaves of ,the B. ; and a notion, prevails that it 
 produces. jn(^< in corn, which is erroneous,; {the rust 
 (q. V.) of 'Corn being a totally different fungus, which, 
 like this, is apt to appear in humid weather. 
 The prevalence of this- notion, however, apjpears to 
 have prevented the general employment of the B. 
 
 as a hedge-plan'fc, for which it is admirably adapted, 
 hedges made of it being easily kept free from gaps, 
 and becoming more and more impervious by new 
 shoots thrown up from the root. The yellow root 
 of the B. is' used for dyeing yellow, and especially 
 the inner bark of it, and also of the stem and 
 tranches. The bark is capable of being employed 
 for tanning leather. In like mamier, S. glauca, B. 
 ilidfoUa, B. tomentosa, and B. lutea are used for 
 dyeing in ChUi and Peru ; B. tinctoria by the inha- 
 bitants of the Neilgherry HiUs, and B. aristata in 
 Nepaul ; and a strong similarity of properties appears 
 to pervade the whole' genus. B. Lydum, a native 
 of the north of "India, is characterised' by great 
 astringency, and an extract prepared from it is 
 valuable in ophthalmia. Most of the species are 
 more or less spiny, and some of the evergreen species 
 might be very ornamentally employed for hedge- 
 plants ; as B. dulds, now frequent in shrubberies in 
 Britain. This species, sometimes called the Sweet 
 B., is a native of the south-west eoaSt of America. 
 Its leaves mubh resemble those of the common B. ; 
 it hb,3 ' solitary flowers on' rather long ^talks, and 
 
 flobose black berries about the size of a common 
 lack currant. The fruit is produced very copiously 
 in Britain, is quite sweet wl^en fully ripe, and 
 makes excellent jelly. When unripe and very acid, 
 it is used for tarts. Pleasant fruits are produced 
 also by B. aristata and B. Asiatica, the berries of 
 botli of which are dried in Nepaul, after the manner 
 of raisins ; 3. concinna, also a Himalayan species ; 
 B. mia-ophylla, found in the southern parts of South 
 America ; and B. trifbliata, found in Mexico. Those 
 of 'some of the other species are either disagreeable 
 or insipid, which is particularly the case with most of 
 thfe ash-lestved barberries, natives of North America 
 and the north of India. — Numerous species of B., 
 both from the Himalaya and South, America, are 
 daily becoming more frequent in Biitkin as orna- 
 mental shrubs. 
 
 BA'JIBBT [Buwo), a genus of birds generally 
 placed by ornithologists in the family pf the Picidce, 
 or Woodpeckers (q. v.), but regarded as the type of 
 a very distinct sub-family, exhibiting points of 
 resemblance tp the cuckoos. They have a , large 
 conical beak, surrounded with tuftS| of bristles 
 directed forwards — a characteristic ;from^ which the 
 name ,B. is derived (Lat. barba, a beard). They 
 prey on insects, and some of them also on young 
 birds ; some are at least partially frugiyprous. Ttey 
 inhabit warm parts both of the eastern and western 
 hemispheres, and most of them are birds of gay 
 plumage. Tie Linnsean genus has been, subdivided, 
 and includes, besides the true barbets, the Barbacous 
 (Monasa), South American birds — :the Barbicans 
 (Porjonias) of Afriia and India — the American Puff- 
 birds (Toniatia), &o. The Puff-birds are remarkable 
 for erecting their plumage till they resemble a round 
 ball. ' Being birds of short wing, both they and the 
 true barbets wait for their prey, generally sitting 
 with great patience on some withered branch till it 
 comes near them, when they suddenly dart upon it. 
 They often choose positions close to human habita- 
 tions, and shew little fear. 
 
 BARBE'TTE, an earthen , terrace inside the 
 parapet, of a rampart, serving as a platform for 
 heavy gims ; it has such an elevation that the guns 
 may be fired over the crest of the parapet instead of 
 through the embrasures, to give them, a freer scope 
 by swivelliug round into different directions. 
 
 BA'RBICAN (Ital. barhacdne), a projecting watch- 
 tower, or other ' advanced work, before the gate of 
 a castle or fortified town. The term B. was more 
 specially applied to the outwork intended to defend 
 the drawbridge, which in modem fortifications 
 
 685 
 
BAEBITON— BAECA- 
 
 is called the tSte du pont. 'To begin from with- 
 out, the first member of an ancient castle was the 
 B., a watch-tower, for the purpose of descrying 
 an enemy at a greater distance ' (Grrose's Antiquities 
 of Bngland and Wales), and, to the same effect, 
 Camden, speating of Bedford Castle, says it was 
 taken by four assaults; in the first was taken the 
 B.; in the second, the owler balia. See Bailey. See 
 also Parker's Olossary of Ardiitecture. There are 
 
 Barbican. 
 
 a few perfect barbicans remaining ia England, as at 
 Ahxwick and Warwick ; but the best examples of it, 
 as of the other parts of the fortification of the 
 middle ages, are probably to be seen in the town of 
 Carcassone (q. v.). A very curious and minute 
 account of the siege of Carcassone in 1240, in the 
 form of a report to Queen Blanche by the seneschal 
 who defended it, preserved in the archives of France, 
 has been published iu Hewitt's Ancient Armour 
 (p. 355, et seq.), in which the uses of the B. are fuUy 
 illustrated. The street called Barbican in London, 
 near Aldersgate Street, marks the site of such a 
 work, in front of one of the gates of the old city. 
 
 BA'RBITON, or EA'RBITOS, a stringed instru- 
 ment of the ancient Greeks, made of ivory, in the 
 form of a lyre, with seven strings, and said to have 
 been invented by Anacreon. 
 
 BARBOU, the name of a celebrated French 
 family of printers, the descendants of John B. of 
 Lyon, who hved in the 16th c. From his press 
 issued the beautiful edition of the works of Clement 
 Marot in 1539. His son, Hugh B., removed from 
 Lyon to Limoges, where, among other works, 
 his celebrated edition of Cicero's Letters to Atticus 
 appeared in 1580. Joseph Gerard B., a descendant 
 of the same family — who in the beginning of the 
 18th u. settled in Paris — continued in 1755 the 
 series of Latin classics in duodecimo — rivals to the 
 Elzevirs of an earlier date— which had been begun 
 in 1743 by CousteUer, at the instigation of the 
 learned Lenglet Dufresnoy. This series of classics, 
 which is much prized for its elegance and cor- 
 rectness, was purchased, along with the rest of 
 the business, byDelalain, from the heirs of Hugh B., 
 who died in 1809. There is a complete set of the B. 
 classics in the Royal Library of the British Museum. 
 
 BA'RBOTJE, John, an eminent Scottish poet of 
 the 14th c, regarding whom history has not much 
 to record beyond the production of the national 
 epic, entitled The Bruce. Nothing is known of his 
 parentage, and of his birth it can only be conjec- 
 tured to have been about 1320. The ascertained 
 facts of Ms life are few. We are informed only 
 that in his own age he was accounted a man of 
 great learning and worth; that he was Arch- 
 deacon of Aberdeen as early at least as 1357, and 
 held that office till his death in 1395; that in 
 1357, he travelled into England, accompanied by 
 three scholars, for the purpose of studying at Oxford; 
 
 686 
 
 that he repeated his visit to England for the same 
 purpose in 1364; that in 1365, he obtained a pass- 
 port ' to travel through England with six companions 
 on horseback towards St Denis and other sacred 
 places;' that in 1368, he again received permission 
 to travel through England with two servants and 
 two horses, on his way for scholarly purposes to 
 France; that in 1373. he was Clerk of Audit of 
 the household of King Robert IL, and one of the 
 auditors of Exchequer; that in 1375, his great 
 poem was more than half finished; that in 1377, 
 he had a gratuity of ten pounds from King Robert 
 IL; that in 1378, he received from the same prince 
 a perpetual annuity of twenty shillings, which in 
 
 1380 he bequeathed to the dean and chapter of I 
 Aberdeen, under the condition that they should sing 
 
 a yearly mass for the rest of his soul; that in 
 
 1381 he had a gift from the crovm of the ward of 
 a minor, whose estate lay within the parish of which 
 he was rector; that in 1383, and again in 1385, he 
 was one of the auditors of Exchequer ; that in 1388, 
 King Robert IL granted him a pension of ten 
 pounds a yeS.r ; and that he died between Martinmas 
 1394 and Whitsunday 1395, probably on the 13th 
 March of the year last named, his anniversary in 
 the cathedral of Aberdeen being celebrated on that 
 day imtU the Reformation. Besides The Brace, 
 B. wrote another poem, now lost, called The Brute, 
 in which he recounted the origin and history of the 
 royal house of Stuart. Tlie Bruce is distinguished 
 by great purity and clearness of style, the language 
 and versification contrasting advantageously with 
 those of any contemporary ilmglish poet, not except- 
 ing even Chaucer. His imagery is not rich, but he 
 is seldom other than lively, simple, and energetic. 
 Fortunate in the choice of a noble theme, he has 
 depicted, in rough but faithful outline, the Hfe, 
 manners, and deeds of a truly heroic time, and 
 given to his country, not only the first poem in her 
 literature, but the earliest history of her best and 
 greatest king. — The best edition of The Bruce, 
 accessible to the pubhe, is that of Dr Jamieson 
 (Edin. 1820) ; but a superior one, under the care of 
 Mr Cosmo Innes, was produced for the Spalding 
 Club in 1856. 
 
 BARBTT'DA, one of the British Caribbees, lying 
 30 nules to the north of Antigua. Of its north 
 end, the lat. and long, are 17° 33' N., and 61° 43' W. 
 Its area is estimated at 75 square miles; and, in 
 1851, its inhabitants were only 629. The propor- 
 tional density, therefore, of population is only about 
 •j-J^ of that of Barbadoes (q. v.). In fact, the island, 
 small as it is, has never been cleared for cultivation, 
 the greater part of the interior being a dense forest 
 interspersed with patches of savanna. The agricul- 
 ture, such as it is, is confined to the rearing of 
 stock and the growing of provisions. B. is of coral 
 formation, and is beset with reefs. It has a road- 
 stead, but no harbour. 
 
 BA'RBY, a walled town of Prussian Saxony, on 
 the left bank of the Elbe, 15 miles south-east of 
 Magdeburg. It is well built, and has an old castle., 
 Pop. 5592, ohiefiy engaged in the manufacture of 
 wooUens and Uuens. 
 
 BA'RCA, a country in the north of Africa, in lat. 
 26°— 33° N., and long. 20°— 25° E., between the 
 Great Syrtis (now called the Gulf of Sidra) and 
 Egypt. It forms the eastern division of Tripoli, 
 having the rest of that dominion on the W., the 
 Mediterranean Sea on the N., the Libyan Desert 
 on the S., and it is separated from Egypt on the 
 E. by no definite hne, but by a number of roving 
 independent tribes. It nearly corresponds with the 
 ancient Cyrenaica (q. v.). Population variously 
 estimated from 400,000 to 1,000,000. The climate is 
 
BAECAEOLLB-BAROLAY. 
 
 henlthy and agreeable in the more elevated parts, 
 whioli reach a height of about 1200 feet, and in 
 those exposed to the sea-breeze. There are none 
 but small streams, but the narrow terraoerlike 
 tracts of country are extremely fertile, realising all 
 that is said of the anoienlj, Oyrenaioa. Eioe, dates, 
 olives, saffron, &c., are produced in, plenty. The 
 pastures are excellent ; the horses still celebrated, 
 as in ancient times. But the good soil extends over 
 only about a fourth of B. : the east exhibits only 
 naked rooks and loose sand. Many ruins in the 
 north-western parts attest a former state of cultiva- 
 tion much superior to the present. So early as the 
 time of Cyrus, B. became a state, which proved 
 dangerous to the neighbouring state of Cyienej but 
 within' a single century it sadi, and iDeoame subject 
 to Egypt. In the Boman period, its inhabitants 
 were noted for their predatory incursions. It was 
 afterwards a province of the Greek empire, and had 
 declared itself independent when the Arabs invaded 
 and conquered it in 641. The present inhabitants 
 consist of Arabs and Berbers, who profess the 
 Mohammedan religion, and are subject to the Pacha 
 of Tripoli, to whom each of the beys pays an 
 annual tribute. 
 
 BAECAEO'LLE, a species of son^ peculiar to 
 the gondoliers of Venice. The name is applied to 
 musical compositions for voice or pianoforte of a 
 similar character. 
 
 BABCBLO'NA, the most important manufac- 
 turing city in Spain, in the province of the same 
 name, is beautifully situated on the Mediterranean 
 between the mouths of the Llobregat and the Besos, 
 in the midst of a district as luxuriant as a garden. 
 It is walled, and possessed of a citadel, which, how- 
 ever, is ' effectually commanded by the fortress of 
 Montjouy on the south-west. B., like Edinburgh, 
 is divided into two parts — the old town and the new 
 — ^by the Samila (river-bed), which has been planted 
 with flowering shrubs, and formed into a beautiful 
 promenade. The streets of the old town, forming 
 the north-west division, are crooked, narrow, and 
 iU paved. Those of the new are much- more spacious 
 and regular. There is a large suburb to the east of 
 the tQwn, where the seafaring portion of the popula- 
 tion chiefly reside. Population in 1857, including 
 the suburb, which is called Barcelonetta, 252,000. 
 B. is the see of a bishop, and the seat of an appeal 
 court. It has a imiversity, and colleges and schools 
 for generai and special educational purposes; public 
 libraries, in one of which there is a splendid 
 coUeption of MSS. ; several hospitals and other 
 charitable institutions ; the finest theatre in Spain ; 
 and numerous ancient and elegant churches, with a 
 cathedral which, begun in 1298, is not yet completed. 
 B. manufactures sSk, woollens, cottons, lace, hats, 
 firearms, &c., which forms its principal exports. It 
 imports raw cotton, coffee, cocoa, sugar, and other 
 colonial produce ; also Baltic timber, salt-fish, hides, 
 iron, wax, &c. Next to Cadiz, it is the most im- 
 portant port in Spain. Indeed, more vessels clear 
 out of its port than out of Cadiz ; but they are of 
 smaller size, the entrance to the harbour, which is 
 itself commodious, being obstructive to large vessels. 
 The number of vessels that entered in 1856 was 
 1155, with a tonnage of 213,194 tons; cleared out 
 729, with a tonnage of 149,277 tons; value of 
 imports, 341,777,026 reals (£3,417,770); exports, 
 95,178,781 reals (£951,787). B. is a place of great 
 antiquity, and associated with many historical 
 events. Local tradition fixes the date of its founda- 
 tion 400 years before the Komans ; and it is said 
 to have been refounded by Andlcar Barca, the father 
 of Hannibal, from whom its ancient name, Barcino, 
 was derived. An important city under the Eomans, 
 
 Goths, and Moors, B. in 878 became an independent 
 sovereignty, under a Christian chief of its own, 
 whose descendants continued to govern it, and to 
 hold the title of Comits of Barcelona imtil the 
 12th c, when its ruler adopted the title of King of 
 Aragon, to which kingdom it was annexed. During 
 the middle ages, B. oeoame a flourishing seaport, 
 rivalled in the Mediterranean by Genoa only. To 
 its commercial code, framed in the 13th c, much 
 deference was paid by the whole of Europe ; and it 
 was at this time, says Ford in his Handbook of 
 Spain, ' a city of commerce, conquest, and courtiers ; 
 of taste, leai-ning, and luxury; and the Athens of 
 the troubadour.' Columbus was received here in 
 1493 by Ferdinand and Isabella, after his discovery 
 of America. In 1640, it appealed to France against 
 the tyranny of Plulip I v . ; but it turned against 
 that count^ in the war of the Spanish Succession, 
 and adhered to Austria. In 1705, the fortress of 
 Montjouy was surprised and captured by Lord 
 Peterborough, and the city surrendered shortly 
 afterwards. In 1714, after a most heroic defence, 
 it was stormed by the Duke of Berwick, and given . 
 over to fire and sword. Napoleon perfidiously 
 obtained possession of it in 1808 ; and with one or 
 two reverses, and in the face of great difficulties, 
 it was held by the French until the treaty of peace 
 concluded in Paris in 1814. For thirteen years, B. 
 remained quiet under the iron rule of Espafia; but 
 in 1827 its old turbulent spirit returned, and it rose 
 in favour of Don Carlos. Sjnoe that time, B. has 
 successively supported the pretensions of any party 
 in the state whose ascendancy at the moment 
 seemed to offer most advantages to itself. 
 
 BA'KCL AY, Albxandee, a poet and prose writer, 
 born about the end of the 15th a, whether in Eng- 
 land or Scotland is not certain. He studied at 
 Oxford, and then obtained, through his patron, 
 Bishop Cornish, an appointment as one of the priests 
 or prebendaries of St Mary Otfcery, in Devonshire. 
 He afterwards became a monk of the Benedictine 
 monastery of Ely, where he continued until its 
 suppression in 1539. He died in June 1552, six 
 weeks after he had been presented to the rectory 
 of AU-Hallows, London. His claim to notice rests 
 chiefiy upon his famous poem. The Shyp of Folys of 
 the Wortde — ^pa,rtly a translation, and partly an 
 imitation of tbe German Narrenscldff by Brandt — 
 which was printed by Pynson in 1508, and since 
 several times reprinted. It is interesting (as most 
 satires are), as shewingthe manners and customs of 
 the times satirised. He published several works 
 besides ; among others, TheMyrrour of Good Manners, 
 The Gastdl of Labour, The Egloges, the first eclogues 
 that appeared in the English language ; and also made 
 a translation of Sallust's History of tJie Jugurthine 
 War. In his lifetime, he was admired for his wit 
 and eloquence, and his vreitings exhibit a refinement 
 not common in that age. 
 
 BA'ROLAY, John, a clever poet and satirist, 
 was bom about 1582, at Pont-S-Mousson in Lorraine, 
 where his father, Wilham B., a Scotsman, who died 
 in 1605, had held the office of Professor of Law. 
 He studied in the Jesuit College of that place ; and 
 the distinguished talents which he early displayed, 
 caused the Jesuits to try to induce him to enter 
 their order. On account of his rejection of their 
 proposals, he, as well as his father, suffered much 
 persecution. He accompanied his father to Eng- 
 land in 1603, where he soon attracted the attention 
 of James I., to whom he dedicated one of his works, 
 Muphormionis Satyricon (Lend. 1603), a poHtico- 
 satirioal romance, chiefly directed against the Jesuits. 
 Next appeared his Gonspiratio AngUcana (Lond. 
 1605), and his Icon Anvmarwm (Lond. 1614). la 
 
BAECLaY— BARCLAY DE TOLLY. 
 
 1615, lie left England, and went to Rome, where he 
 died August 12, 1621. In the same year his cele- 
 brated work Arg^nis appeared in Paris (Paris, 1621). 
 It was written in Latin, and has been translated 
 into several languages. There are no fewer than 
 three translations into English ; the last appeared 
 in 1772. It is a political allegory, containing clever 
 allusions to the state of Europe, more particularly 
 of Prance, during the time of the League. Arginis 
 was admired both by Cowper and D'Israeli. 
 
 BA'RCLAY, Robert, the celebrated apologist of 
 the Quakers, was bom on December 23, 1648, at 
 Gordonstown in Morayshire, Scotland. His father 
 was the son of David Barclay of Mathers, the repre- 
 sentative of an old Scoto-Norman family, which 
 traced itself through fifteen intervening generations 
 to Walter de Berkeley, who acquired a settlement 
 in Scotland about the middle of the 12th c. ; his 
 mother was the daughter of Sir Robert Gordon, the 
 premier baronet of Nova Scotia, and historian of the 
 House of Sutherland. Young B. received the rudi- 
 ments of learning in his native .country, and was 
 afterwards sent to the Scotch College at Paris, of 
 which his uncle was rector. Here he made rapid 
 progress in his studies, and excited the admiration of 
 his preceptors, as well as of his relative, who offered 
 to make hJTn his heir, if he would remain in Prance, 
 and formally adopt the Roman Catholic rehgion, to 
 the ceremonies of which he had been habituated 
 during his residence there. This, however, B. refused 
 to do ; and in compliance with the wish which his 
 mother had expressed on her death-bed, he returned 
 home in 1664. Though only sixteen, B. was an excel- 
 lent scholar, and could speak in the Latin language 
 with wonderful fluency and correctness. In 1667, he 
 embraced the principles of the Society of Priends, 
 for reasons more highly respected in our day than in 
 his. He states in his Treatise on Universal Love, 
 that his ' first education fell among the strictest sort 
 of Calvinists,' those of his country ' surpassing in the 
 heat of zeal not only Geneva, from whence they 
 derive their pedigree, but all the other so-called 
 reformed churches ; ' that shortly afterwards, his 
 transition to Prance had thrown him among the 
 opposite ' sect of papists,' whom, after a time, he 
 found to be no less deficient in charity than the 
 other ; and that, consequently, he had refrained from 
 joining any, though he had Kstened to several. The 
 ultimate effect of this was to liberalise his mind, by 
 convincing him of the foUy and wickedness of reli- 
 gious striie. In both Calvinists and Catholics, he 
 found an absence of ' the principles of love,' ' a strait- 
 ness of doctrine,' and a ' practice of persecution,' 
 which offended his idea of Christianity, as well as 
 his gentle and generous nature. He therefore 
 aUied himself gladly to this new sect, whose dis- 
 tinguishing feature was its charity and pure simpli- 
 city of Christian life, and soon became one of its 
 most devoted adherents and its ablest advocate. In 
 the course of his life, he made several excursions 
 into England, Holland, and Germany, earnestly pro- 
 pagating his peaceful views wherever he went, and 
 occasionally enjoying the companionship of WiUiam 
 Penn. His first publication was Truth Cleared of 
 Calumnies. It appeared in 1670, and was inteiided 
 as a refutation of the charges — many of them noto- 
 riously false — made against the new sect. In 1673 
 appeared A Catechism and Confession of Faith, the 
 answers to the questions being — to avoid theological 
 dogmatism— in the words of Scripture. This was 
 followed by Tlie Anarchy of the Banters, &c. In 
 1675, he published his magnum opus, elaborately 
 entitled An Apology for the True Christkm Divinity, 
 as the same is lidd forth and Preached by the People 
 called in scorn Quakers : Being a full Explanation, 
 &c. It contains a statement and defence of fifteen 
 
 religious propositions peculiar to the Priends. The 
 leading doctrine which runs through the whole 
 book is, that divine truth is made known to us 
 not by logical investigation, but by intuition or 
 immediate revelation; and that the faculty, if it 
 can be technically defined, by which such intuition 
 is rendered possible, is the 'internal light,' the 
 source of which is God, or, more properly, Christ, 
 ' who is the light that lighteth every man that 
 Cometh into the world.' The identity of this doctrine 
 with that held by Mr Maurice and others of the 
 Broad Church in the present day has been more 
 than once remarked. In 1677 appeared his Treatise 
 on Universal Love. It was the first of that long 
 series of noble and gentle remonstrances against the 
 criminality of war that has so honourably distin- 
 guished the Society of Priends. It was addressed 
 to the ambassadors of the several princes of Europe, 
 met at Nimeguen. In 1686, he pubhshed his last 
 work, which was a defence of the doctrine of 
 ' immediate revelation.' He died at Ury, in Kincar- 
 dineshire, October 3, 1690. His estate remained 
 in the possession of his descendants till 1854, 
 its owner at that time being Captain Barclay, the 
 famous pedestrian. ' The Apologist's Study,' which 
 remained much as he left it, was long an object of 
 pilgrimage with members of the Society of Friends : 
 it was destroyed a few years ago, when the old 
 house of Ury was piUled down. 
 
 BA'RCLAY DE TO'LLY, Michael, Prince, 
 one of the most distinguished Russian generals, was 
 descended from a branch of the same Scotch family 
 to which the two preceding — ^Barclay the poet, and 
 the apologist of the Quakers — belonged, some of 
 whom had settled in Mecklenburg and Livonia. 
 He was the youngest of three brothers, and was 
 bom in 1759 in Livonia, where his father, 
 GottHeb B. de T. — at one time a, member of the 
 town-council of Riga — ^possessed an estate. Having 
 been adopted by general van VermoulMi, B. de T. 
 entered a Russian regiment of cuirassiers, at first 
 with the rank of sergeant. He fought with great 
 bravery in the Turkish war of 1788—1789; in the 
 campaign against Sweden in 1790; and in those 
 against Poland in 1792 and 1794. In the year 1806, 
 at Pultusk, as major-general, he commanded Ben- 
 ningsen's advanced-guard. He lost an arm at the 
 battle of Eylau. Although much hated by the Rus- 
 sian national party, because regarded by them as a 
 German, he was appointed minister of war by the 
 Emperor Alexander in 1810 — an office which he 
 held tm 1813. In 1812, he was made commander- 
 in-chief of the army of the west. His retreat to 
 Smolensko, and the loss of the battle fought there 
 on the 17th of August, raised the hatred of the 
 Russian national party to a greater height than ever, 
 and he was obliged to yield the chief command to 
 Kutusow. It has been maintained by many, that 
 B. de T. was the originator of the Russian system 
 of defence in 1812. He had indeed advised a retreat 
 to the interior, and recommended the avoidance 
 of a battle ; but the system of defence, as a whole, 
 originated with General Pfuel, who had left the 
 Prussian service, and constantly accompanied the 
 Emperor Alexander from the year 1807, without 
 holding any distinct official appointment. At 
 Moskwa, B. de T. commanded the right wing. After 
 the death of Kutusow, he again obtained the chief 
 command of the army, which he held at the battle 
 of Bautzen, and retained till the truce. He after- 
 wards commanded the Russian army in Bohemia, 
 and took part in the battles of Dresden, Culm, and 
 Leipsic. He was commander-in-chief of the Rus- 
 sian army in Prance, and in consequence of tliis was 
 made a prince and a field-marshal. He died in 
 1818 at Insterburg, on his way to the Bohemian 
 
BARCLAY AND PERKIKS' BREWERY— BAUD. 
 
 baths. Two or three years before hja death, <jhe 
 estate of Tolly or Towie, in Aberdeenshire, the old 
 inheritance of his family, was for sale, and he was 
 pressed to buy it, but refused, on the ground that 
 his family had been so long expatriatea that Scot- 
 land was now to them a strange' country. 
 
 BARCLAY AND PERKINS' BREWERY, 
 one of the largest establishments of the kind in the 
 world, is situated in Park Street, Sduthwark, Lon- 
 don, the buildings covering upwards of ten acres. 
 The brewery was founded by Dr Johnson's friend, 
 Henry ThxiJe, who, in 1773, according to a state- 
 ment made by the doctor on his Hebridean tour, was 
 paying as much as £20,000 annually to the Excise. 
 After llhrale's death;' it was sold by the executors to 
 Barclay (a descendant of the author of the Apohgy 
 for the Quakers) and Perkins, who had been Thrale's 
 chief clerk, for £135,000. Since that time, the busi- 
 ness has assumed vast proportions, as the following 
 statistics wiU serve to shew : Two steam-engines, 
 together equal to 75 horse-power, are reqaired to 
 work the machinery ; there are 24 malt-bins, each 
 equal in size to an ordinary three-storied house; and 
 Westminster Hall is not much larger than the great 
 brewing-room ; more than 100,000 gallons of water 
 are used daily, and 2000 quarters of malt weekly; 
 10 brewing coppers have an aggregate capacity of 
 120,000 gsBons ; there are 4 fermentmg vessels, each 
 capable of holdmg 1500 barrels of beer ; the cooling- 
 floor has a surface of more than 1000 square yards ; 
 300 vessels of 300 gallons each are used in the 
 working-off of the yeast from the beer, which is 
 stored in 150 vats, the largest of i which holds 
 108,000 gallons'; and the average gives 30,p00 
 gallons each. 200 horses and drays are employed 
 in distributing the beer to London retailers. 
 
 BAE-OO'CHBA, Simon, the leader of the Jews in 
 their great insurrection against the Romans, under 
 the Emperor Hadrian, from 131—135 A.r. Three 
 times had the oppressed Jews revolted without suc- 
 cess, from 115 to 118 ; and in 130, soon after Hadrian's 
 return from Syria, a new rebellion broke out, for 
 which they had b^en secretly preparing. At the 
 head of it was one Simon, who assumed the name 
 of Bar-cochba, i. e., ' Son of the Star,' pretending 
 that the prophecy was. to be fulfilled in him, 'There 
 shjill come a Star out of Jacob' (Numb. xxiv. 17). 
 He fought at first with great success against the 
 Romans, and even obHged them to evacuate Jeru- 
 salem, where he was proclaimed king, and caused 
 coins to be struck with his name. The war spread 
 over all the country of Palestine, and fifty towns, 
 besides many villages and hamlets, came into the pos- 
 session of the Jews. But on the arrival of Hadrian's 
 geiier^, Julius Severus, Jerusalem was retaken; and 
 in August 135, Bether, the very last strong' fortress 
 held by the Jews, was stormed by the Romans. B. 
 fell On the day of this bloody conquest. During the 
 war, hundreds of thousands of Jews were destroyed, 
 many were execttted, and very cruel edicts were 
 subsequently issued against them. From this last 
 struggle dates the final dispersion of the Jews over 
 the face of the earth, The Holy City was razed to 
 the ground, and rebtult under another name. The, 
 Jews stiU retain in their liturgy hymns which they 
 cliant in mournful iliemdry bf this tragic event. 
 Eor a particular history of the Struggle, see MUnter's 
 Der Jiidisclie Krierj unter den Kdisem Trajan und 
 B^adrian (Altoua, 1821). 
 
 BARD, the name, known to the Rqmans since 
 200 B.C., by which the Gaula and ,other Celtic 
 peoples (British, Welsh, Irish, and Scotch) desig- 
 nated their minstrels.. Like the Scdps pf the Anglo- 
 Saxons, and the Skalds .of Scandinayja, ^lip ^ards 
 celebrated the deeds of gods and heroes at religious 
 
 solemnities, and the festivities of princes and nobles, 
 accompanying their recitations with ^ the harp or 
 ohrotta (Ir, cruit and darseach) ; they exoitedT the 
 armies I to bravery, preceded them into the fight, and 
 formed the heralds of princes, and the mediators of 
 peace.. The institutiolii fearly disappeared among the 
 Gauls, but lingered long in Wales, Ireland, and Scot- 
 land. The bards formed a hereditary order, and 
 exercised a decided national influence. The min- 
 strels among the Celts, as among the Germans, were 
 the J organ of the people, aild the chanoel of all 
 historical tradition. It is supposed that in Wales, 
 about 940 A.D., their privileges were defined and 
 fixed by the laws which bear the name of King 
 Howel Dha; and in 1078 the whole order is 
 said to have been reformed and regulated anew by 
 Gryffith ap Conan. At Caerwys, Aberfraw, and 
 Mathraval, there were held from time to time great 
 competitions in minstrelsy, called EisteddfodG, at 
 which the judges were appointed by the prince. 
 When Wales was conquered by Edward I, (1284), 
 the bards lost their privileges, and were, according 
 to tradition, persecuted and put to death; but 
 succeeding princes countenanced the institution, 
 and Eisteddfods were repeatedly held under royal 
 commission down to the reign of Elizabeth. Since 
 then, exertions for the revival of national Welsh 
 poetry and the bardic profession have been made 
 by several societies : the Gwyneddlgion, founded in 
 1770; the Cambrian, in 1818; ana more recently, 
 the Metropolitan Cambrian Institjition, To these 
 societies, and to the patriotism pf individuals, we 
 owe collections of the relics pf the lays of the 
 Welsh hards, none of which, it should be added, 
 can be. traced to MSS. of an older date than 
 the 12th 0. The most interesting of those relics 
 are those of Liwarc!h-Henn, Aneurin, and Taliesin. 
 See Jones's Eelics of the Welsh Bards (Lend. 
 1794),; Ow.en'S' Myvyrian Archmology > of Wales 
 (3 : vols., Lond. 1801 — 1807) ; , PoSmes des Sardea 
 Bretons du vie Sidcle, pq,r T. H. de la Villemarque 
 (Paris, 1850), &c. . 
 
 In Ireland, the bards are believed to have been 
 a hereditary gmld, divided into three classes: the 
 Filedha, who sung in the service of religion, and in 
 war, a,nd were the counsellors and heralds pf priijces ; 
 the Braitheamhain, who recited or chanted the laws ; 
 the Seanachaidhe, who were chroniclers and genealo- 
 gists to princes and nobles. Their ample privileges 
 and endowments of land gave them an exorbitant 
 influence, which both prinpes and people had some- 
 times to rise against and curb. The great skiU of 
 the Irish bards on the harp was acknowledged every- 
 where. After the conquest of Ireland by Henry II., 
 the profession began to sink. Still many of the 
 chiefs maintained bards in their families, whose 
 songs and legends kept up the national feeling. 
 This occasioned several measures of the English 
 rulers against the Irish bards; Elizabeth ordered 
 the bards that were captured to be hanged, as the 
 instigators of. rebellion. Turlogh O'Carolan, born 
 1670, died 1737, is reckoned the last Irish bard; his 
 poems were translated into English by Eurlory. 
 Other lays of the bards have been translated by 
 Miss Brooke, Bdics of Irish Poetry (Dub. 1789), and 
 Hard ITU an, Insh Minstrelsy (Dub. 1831). 
 
 The bardism of Scotland may be conjectured to 
 have been similar to that of Ireland; but nothing 
 is certainly ;kn.pwn of the subject beyond the fact, 
 that there were poets or bards, of dififerent degrees, 
 in, the Highlands down to the 17th c. 
 
 The name of B. was unknown among the Ger- 
 manic nations ; though a corrupt reading in some 
 MSS. of the Oermania of Tacitus (barditus for bari- 
 tus, the 'war-cry') led Klopstock and others to 
 write wild religious and war songs, which they called 
 
BARD— BARERE DE VIETJZAC. 
 
 ' Bardits,' under the notion that they were restoring 
 a. branch of the national literature. This Ossianic 
 aberration soon came to an end. 
 
 BABD, a fortress and village of Piedmon:t, 
 situated on the left bank of the Doire, about 23 miles 
 Bouth-south-east of Aosta. When the French crossed 
 the St Bernard in 1800, the fortress of B. offered a 
 resistance to their further advance into Italy, which 
 might have proved effectual had the Austrian 
 garrison been sufficiently on the alert. The French 
 failed to take the fortress by storm, but they suc- 
 ceeded in dragging their artillery under and past 
 the guns of the fort during the night, and were 
 far on the road to Ivrea before the Austrian com- 
 mander was aware that they had passed. B. was 
 taken a short time after by the French, and razed, 
 but it has since been restored. 
 
 BABDESA'STES (properly, Bar-Deisan), the 
 founder of a Gnostic sect, was a native of Edessa, 
 in Mesopotamia, and flourished towards the end 
 of the 2d c. He stood high m. favour with the 
 monarch Abgar-bar-Maanu, but little is known 
 regarding biin , It is stated that he held a dis- 
 putation with the philosopher ApoUonius, who 
 appeared in Edessa in 165 A. D., in the suite of L. 
 Antonius Verus. He was first a disciple of Valen- 
 tinus, whose heresy he afterwards abjured, and 
 wrote against it, and also agaiust other heresies; 
 but ultimately he relapsed into partial agreement 
 with his old master. His Gnosis was not purely 
 duahstic. He did not consider evil the eternal 
 coefficient of good, but merely the result of a 
 temporary reaction of matter on spirit. Yet, inex- 
 phcably enough, he maintained the devil to be a 
 self-existent, independent being. He denied the 
 doctrine of the resurrection of the body, and in 
 conformity with such a conviction, asserted that 
 Christ's body was not real, but only an illusive 
 image brought down from heaven. He diffused 
 his opinions through the medium of hymns, of which 
 he is reckoned iie first writer in Syria. These 
 hymns, fragments of which are still extant, exhibit 
 a rich and pure fancy. Tfia followers were called 
 Bardesanists. They never formally separated them- 
 selves from the orthodox church, though they con- 
 tinued to exist as late as the 5th c. See Halm's B. 
 Gnosticus Sifrorum primiis Hymnologus (Leip. 1819). 
 
 BAEDOLI'UO, a town of Austrian Italy, with a 
 harbour on Lake Garda, and about 14 mjles west 
 from the fortress of Verona. The battle of Eivoh 
 was fought in its vicinity in January 1797. 
 
 BA'KEFOOTED (Lat. discalceati, i. e., shoeless), 
 an appellation given to certain monks and nuns 
 who abstain from wearing any covering on the 
 feet, either entirely (as the Alcantarines, who 
 originated at Placentia, in Spain, in 1540, but who 
 are chiefly found at present in the kingdom of 
 Naples), or for a specified period of the year (as 
 the nuns of our Lady of Calvary) ; or who, instead 
 of shoes, wear merely sandals, i e., soles of wood, 
 leather, rope, or straw fastened by thongs. They do 
 not constitute a separate order in the Roman Catho- 
 lic Church, but are to be found as a higher grade of 
 asceticism with more or less severity of observance, 
 among most of the orders, Carmelites, Franciscans, 
 Augustines, Eremites, Capuchins, &o. They are, 
 however, steadily ignored by the more dignified 
 Dominicans, though the latter are themselves mendi- 
 cant friars. The origin of this form of religious 
 austerity is to be traced generally to the custom 
 which prevailed among the Jews and Romans of 
 putting off their shoes on the occurrence of pubhc 
 calamities, that in this condition of mourning and 
 humiliation they might implore the divine Being 
 for dehverance; but perhaps more particularly to 
 
 the command which Christ gave his disciples (Matt. 
 X. 10 ; Luke x. 4). 
 
 BAREGES, a small watering-place in France, 
 situated in the Pyrenees, about 18 mUes from 
 Bagnferes de Bigorre. The mineral water for which 
 it is celebrated contains principally sulphuret of 
 sodium, with portions of carbonate, muriate, and sul- 
 phate of soda, nitrogen, and sulphuretted hydrogen. 
 Its efficacy in the cure of wounds, rheumatism, stiff- 
 ness of joints, and scrofulous complaints is said to 
 be very remarkable. See Murray's Hand-Booh to 
 France. 
 
 BARE'GES, mixed tissues adapted for women's 
 dresses, called in France Gripe de Bariges. The 
 name is derived from the place noticed in the s^ove 
 article; in reality, however, B. were never made in 
 that little watering-place, the seat of the manufac- 
 ture being at Bagnlres de Bigorre. B. are usually a 
 mixture of silk and worsted; an inferior kind being 
 composed of cotton and worsted. They vary in 
 colour, and are sometimes light in tint, with printed 
 patterns. All are of a sUght fabric for summer 
 wear. The best are still manufactured in France. 
 
 BA'REGINB. Many Algae are found growing 
 in mineral springs, especially those of a sulphuric 
 nature. The product of their growth is a mucus- 
 like substance somewhat resembling the white 
 or glair of an egg. This deposit is particularly 
 abundant in the hot springs at Bareges, whence 
 the name of baregine. It imparts a flesh-broth 
 flavour and odour to the water, which is prized, 
 and is sometimes imitated by adding animal gelatine 
 to the sulphur-baths where B. is deficient. 
 
 BAREI'LLT, the chief city of a district of the 
 same name in Rohilcund, British India — a district 
 which, with an area of 2937 square miles, contains 
 1,143,657 inhabitants, and which is bovmded on 
 the E. by Oude and Nepaul. The city itself, with 
 an estimated population of about 100,000, is in lat. 
 28° 23' N., and: long. 79° 28' E., being 788 miles to the 
 north-west of Calcutta, and 152 miles to the east of 
 Delhi. It is pleasantly situated in a weU-wooded 
 country on the left bank of the Jooa, an affluent of 
 the western Ramigunga. Besides a brisk and lucra- 
 tive commerce, it has considerable manufactures, 
 more particularly in the article of ornamental chairs 
 and tables. B. became a name of notoriety in the 
 great mutiny of 1857. On the 31st of May, the city 
 was a scene of rapine and bloodshed. The native 
 garrison, without any European troops to overawe 
 them, rose against their officers, and seized the 
 pubhc treasure. They murdered every European 
 who had not the means of escaping. But fortu- 
 nately, from a suspicion of the outbreak, the ladies 
 and children of the Company's servants, both civil 
 and military, had been sent off in safety to Nynee 
 Tal, in the Himalaya. B. was recovered by Sir 
 Cohn Campbell, now Lord Clyde, in the May of 
 the following year. 
 
 BARE POLES. When a ship has all her sails 
 furled, she is said to be 'under bare poles.' 
 
 BARERE DE VIEUZAO, Bbeteand, a member 
 of the French National Convention, born at Tarbes, 
 10th September 1755. He became an advocate in 
 the court at Toulouse. After acting as a deputy 
 in the National Assembly, the department of the 
 Hautes-PyrSnges elected him to the National Con- 
 vention in 1792. He is said to have been naturally 
 in favour of moderate measures, but he was easily 
 overawed by the influence of the party of the 
 Mountain, with whom he generally acted, and 
 whom he supported by his doqueuce, which was 
 so flowery and poetical in style that he came to 
 be designated the Anacreon of the guillotine. He 
 
BARETTI— BAKGE. 
 
 was president of the Conyention when the sentence 
 was passed upon Louis XVI. He rejected the 
 apperi to the people, and gave his vote with these 
 words : ' The law is for death, and I am here 
 only as the organ of the law.' His natural mild- 
 ness warring with the instinct of self-preserva- 
 tion, made him alternately a supporter of merciful 
 measures and an advocate of the guillotine, and his 
 whole public conduct betoEens a man much more 
 selfish than patriotic or humane. After the death 
 of Robespierre, in which he had concurred, B. never- 
 theless proposed the continuation of the Revolu- 
 tionary Tribunal, for which he was denounced by 
 Leoointre, and afterwaiJds impeached and sentenced 
 to transportation; hia sentence, however, was not 
 carried into effect, and he partook of the general 
 amnesty of the 18th Brumaire. He was elected 
 as a deputy to the Chamber in 1815, during the 
 Hundred Days. After the second restoration, he was 
 banished from Prance, and went to Brussels, where 
 he devoted himself to literary work till the revo- 
 lution of July permitted his return. In the year 
 1832, he was once more elected as a deputy by.the 
 department of the Hautes-Pyrfinges ; his election, 
 however, was annulled, on account of errors of 
 form, whereupon the government called him to be 
 a member of the administration of that department, 
 which office he continued to hold till 1840. He 
 died on 14th January 1841. He bestowed upon 
 the younger Camot his MSmoires, which have 
 been pubushed (2 vols., Par. 1842). His many 
 other political and historical writings are now of no 
 importance. 
 
 BAEE'TTI, Joseph, an Italian writer, bom at 
 Turin, 1716. He was intended for the law, but de- 
 voted himself to literature. In 1751, he established 
 himself as a teacher of Italian in London, where, in 
 1757, he published the Italian Library, giving an 
 account of the most eminent Italian authors and 
 their works. He was about this time appointed 
 secretary for the foreign correspondence of the 
 Royal Academy. In 1762, he published an account of 
 his travels through Portugal, Spain, and the south 
 of France to Italy in LeUere Fa/migliari, which, 
 with additions and a new title, were afterwards 
 republished in England. B. now lived some time 
 in Italy, and pubhshed at Venice a journal called 
 the Literary Scourge, which brought upon him 
 many prosecutions. On his return to England, he 
 published, among other works, an Italian gram- 
 mar, and an Italian and English dictionary, which 
 have since gone through many editions. One 
 evening, he became involved in a street-brawl in 
 London, and stabbed with his penknife a man, who 
 died soon after. B. was tried for murder, made 
 his own defence, and was acquitted — ^Dr Johnson, 
 Burke, and Garrick testifying to the excellence of 
 his character. He died in 1789 in London. 
 
 BABFLEUB, a seaport town of France, in the 
 department of La Manohe, about 15 miles east of 
 Cherbourg. It is now a place of little import- 
 ance, but it is noteworthy as beiag the port from 
 whence, according to report, William the Conqueror 
 set out on his invasion of England. In the 13th 
 and 14th centuries, B. was twice pUlaged by the 
 English. 
 
 BA'RGAIN AND SALE, in the law of England, 
 is a mode of conveyance whereby property, real and 
 personal, may be assigned or transferred for valu- 
 able consideration. It finds a chief place, however, 
 in law-books in connection with the conveyance of 
 real estate. In regard to personal estate, asdgnment 
 (q. V.) appears to Tje the more appropriate, as it is 
 the more usual term. B. and S., then, may be 
 described as a conveyance, in the way of a real 
 
 contract, by means of which property in lands and 
 tenements, whether that property be in possession, 
 remainder, or reversion, is conveyed from one person 
 to another. In its terms, it consists of a B. and S. 
 by the seller to the intended vendee for money; and 
 by the statute of fi-auds, 29 Chas. II. o. 3, it must 
 be in writing; and by the statute of enrolments, the 
 27 Hen. VIII. c. 16, it cannot pass a freehold, 
 unless it be by indenture enrolled within six months 
 after its date, or with a CMstos rotvlorv/m of the 
 county. But hereditaments lying within any city 
 or town corporate, the officers of which have 
 authority to make enrolment of deeds, are excepted 
 from this statute. A B. and S. for a term of years, 
 however, wiU be effectual without enrolment. But 
 see Lease and Release. 
 
 No particular form of words is essential to the 
 validity of a B. and S.; 'bargain and sell' are the 
 words of transfer ordinarily lised. But other words 
 win have the same effect, and the distinctive 
 character of the conveyance is determined by 
 the consideration on wMoh it is founded. This 
 consideration, however, is held to be a mere matter 
 of form, and sufficiently complied with it the con- 
 veyance purport to be so founded. To this end, 
 any trivial sum may be inserted in the convey- 
 ance, though the consideration which really passes 
 between the paities be of larger amount; or even 
 though it be, in fact, not of a pecuniary nature. It 
 is also immaterial whether the sum so inserted be 
 actually paid or not. — Stephen's Commentaries, voL 
 i., pp. 535—537. See Custos Rotuldeum, Posses- 
 sion, Remaiitdee, Rbvbesion, Indenttjee, Lease, 
 and Release. 
 
 There is no such title to land or other real estate 
 in the Scotch law, but in that system there may be 
 a bargain as to land, the evidence of which must be 
 in writing, the Scotch law in this respect agreeing 
 with the regulations of the English statute of 
 frauds above referred to. The term bargain is also 
 used by Scotch lawyers to signify a contract or 
 agreement for the sale of personal or movable 
 property, and to such a bargain the intervention of 
 writing is not necessary, but it may be proved by 
 witnesses. 
 
 BARGE, an ancient town of Piedmont, in the 
 province of Saluzzo, 30 miles south-west of Turin. 
 Pop. 7000, who are engaged in the manufacture of 
 firearms and the quarrying of slate. A brisk 
 general trade is also carried on. 
 
 BARGE. Various forms of vessel receive this 
 appellation. The Admiralty and city of London 
 
 Barge — ^Eoyal. 
 
 bajrges, used on ceremonial occasions, are elegantly 
 fitted out, and suppHed with accommodation for 
 many rowers. The B. belonging to a man-of-war, 
 for the occasional use of the superior officers, 
 is a, well-trimmed, though not showy boat, light 
 enough to be easily hoisted in and out of the 
 ship. On our rivers and canals, a B. is a clumsy, 
 flat-bottomed vessel of burden, employed either 
 in conveying goods from one town or quay to 
 
BAHGE-BOAED— BARING. 
 
 another, or to aid in bringing stores to and from 
 ships. There are several kinds of this last-named 
 craft — ^namely, coal-barges, sand-barges, west-country 
 
 Barge — Common, 
 
 barges, &o. For the chief points of difference 
 between barges and other boats, see Boat. 
 
 BA'BGE-BOAED. Where the roof, in Gothic 
 houses, extends over the wall, the gable is generally 
 furnished with a board, which either covers the 
 
 Barge-board. 
 
 rafter, or occupies the place of a rafter itself. These 
 barge-boards were often very richly ornamented, 
 partioularljr in the 14th and 15th centuries. The 
 accompanying illustration is copied from Parker's 
 Glossary of Architecture. 
 
 BA'RI (ancient Barium), a city in the kingdom 
 of Naples, capital of a province of the same name, 
 is situated on a peninsula in the Adriatic, in lat. 
 41°8' N., andlong. 16° 53' E., and about 140 nriles north- 
 north-east from Naples. Pop. 27,300. It is strongly 
 fortified, and defended by a massive old castle 
 of Norman origin, nearly a mUe in circumference. 
 The city is divided into the old town and the new. 
 The streets, with some few exceptions, are confined 
 and gloomy. B., which is the see of an archbishop, 
 has manufactories of cotton, silk, linen, soap, &o., 
 and carries on an active export-trade in oil, com, 
 and fruit with Trieste and Dalmatia. Its harbour 
 does not admit of the entrance of large vessels; but 
 
 692 
 
 its quay and roadstead are good. It has some iine 
 ecclesiastical structures, the most notable of which 
 is the priory of St Nicholas, a noble specimen of the 
 Lombard style of architecture, founded in 1087, and 
 HberaUy endowed by the brothers Guisoard. Within 
 the wails of this building. Urban II., in 1098, held 
 a coimcil of Greek and Latin bishops, with the view 
 of settling the differences between the two churches ; 
 and Roger II. was here crowned king of Sicily. 
 The priory contains some interesting monuments 
 and relics, the most remarkable of which is the tomb 
 of Bona Sforza, queen of Poland, who died in the 
 castle in 1557. B. is one of the cities believed to 
 have been founded by lapjrx, son of Dsdalus. Its 
 coins shew it to have been a place of considerable 
 note among the Greeks. as early as the 3d o. B.C. 
 The Romans appear to have held it in but little 
 repute ; but it rose in esteem when, in the 10th c, 
 it fell into the hands of the Greek emperors, who 
 made it the capital of Apulia, and the residence 
 of a viceroy. It was twice taken in the 11th c. 
 by the Normans, who added to its strength and 
 importance. 
 
 BARIGA'ZZO, a vUlage of Modeua, province of 
 Lunigiana, remarkable fot the streams of fire which 
 issue out of the soil to a height of several feet, and 
 which continue to bum for days without intermis- 
 sioA. 
 
 BAEI'LLA, an imj)ure carbonate of soda, pro- 
 cured from plants which grow in salt-marshes or 
 other places near the sea, and which forms a consider- 
 able article of commerce, being used in the manufac- 
 ture of soap and of glass, and for other purposes in 
 the arts. The greatest quantities of B. are produced 
 in Spain and the Balearic Islands ; but the Canary 
 Islands, Italy, and France, also contribute a part. 
 It is procured by burning the plants, much in the 
 same way that searweeds are burned upon the 
 coasts c^ Scotland to procure kelp. The Spanish 
 B. is most esteemed, especially that produced near 
 Alicante, which is chiefly obtained from the Salsola 
 sativa, a plant of the natural order Ohenopodiacece. 
 This plant is there cultivated in grounds close by 
 the sea, embanked on the side nearest it, and 
 furnished with floodgates, through which the salt 
 water is occasionally admitted. It is cut in Septem- 
 ber, dried in small heaps, and then burned in a hole in 
 the ground. The exportation of the seed is prohib- 
 ited by the Spanish government under the severest 
 penalties. Other species of Salsola (Salt-wort), as 
 S. Tragus and ;S'. Kali (the latter, a common native 
 of the shores of Britain), are also bumed for B., 
 although they yield it in smaller quantity than 
 8. sativa. B. is made in France from Saiicornia 
 herhacea or annua (Glass-wort), another of the 
 Clienopodiacece, plentiful also in salt-marshes on the • 
 shores of Britain and other parts of Europe. See 
 Salt-wort. 
 
 BA'RING. The firm of Baring Brothers is one 
 of the greatest commercial houses in the world. 
 Its founder was John B., a German, who settled 
 in a small business in Exeter, England, in the 
 first half of the 18th c. Two of his sons, Francis 
 and John, established in London in 1770 the now 
 existing house. 
 
 Fbancis became a director of the East India 
 Company, and being a stanch supporter of Pitt, 
 was created a baronet by that minister in 1793. 
 He took an active part in the discussions relative, 
 to the Bank Restriction Act of 1797. 
 
 Sir Thomas B., eldest son of the above, bom 
 June 12, 1772, succeeded his father in the baronetcy. 
 He appears to have taken no active part in the 
 busmess of the firm, being chiefly remarkable as 
 an admirer and encourager of art. His magnificent 
 
BARITAH— BAEK. 
 
 collection of paintings was dispersed by public 
 sale after his death in April 1848. 
 Ai.EXANDBE B., brother of the above. See Loed 
 
 ASHBTTRTON. 
 
 Sir Francis Thornhiu B., son of Sir Thomas, 
 whom he succeeded, was born in 1790, was educated 
 at Oxford, where in 1817 he took a double first class. 
 He entered parliament as M.P. for Portsmouth in 
 1826, for wMoh place he still sits. Under succes- 
 sive Whig governments, he has held respectively 
 the offices of a Lord of the Treasury, Secretary to 
 the Treasury, Chancellor of the Exchequer, and 
 First Lord of the Admiralty. He ia more noted for 
 his business aptitude than as an orator or a politician. 
 
 Thomas B., brother of the above, bom in 1800, 
 devoted himself early to commercial pursuits, and 
 also to pohtics, taWng the opposite side to his 
 brother. He is, however, much more widely known 
 as a partner of the firm of B. Brothers than as a 
 politioia,n. 
 
 The firm is engaged to a large extent in the nego- 
 tiation of national loans, in exchange and money 
 broking, in the produce-trade, home and colonial, 
 in importation and exportation upon their own 
 foreign accounts, &c. 
 
 BAEI'TAH (Bari'ta), a genus of large Australian 
 bir(Js, placed by some ornithologists in the family of 
 Shrikes (q. v.), (Jjcmiadce), and by others in that 
 of Crows (q. v.), (Garvidoe). The bill is large, conical, 
 scarcely curved, the base of it extending remarkably 
 backward on the forehead. The best known species 
 is the Piping Crow, or Piping Grakle, or Jar-ra-war- 
 naug of New South Wales (B. Tibicen). It preys on 
 smsS birds, is gregarious, assembling in small flocks, 
 has a melodious voice, is easily tamed, and becomes 
 very familiar and amusing, learns to whistle tunes 
 extremely well, and exSbits a great power of 
 mimicking the voices of other birds. 
 
 BA'RIUM is the metal present in heavy spar 
 (sulphate of baryta) and baryta. TiU lately, it was 
 regarded as a white metal, but the recent researches 
 of Dr Matthiessen have demonstrated that it pos- 
 sesses a yellow colour. As yet, the metal B. has 
 not been obtained in mass, but only as a powder. 
 It decomposes water readily at ordinary temper- 
 atures, and exposed to the air, quickly combines 
 with oxygen, forming the oxide of B. (BaO), or 
 Baryta. The latter substance is an earth resem- 
 bling ordinary caustic lime, and may otherwise be 
 prepared by adding finely divided black oxide of 
 copper (CuO) to a solution of sulphuret of B. (BaS), 
 when the sulphuret of copper (CuS) is thrown 
 down, and the baryta (BaO) is left in solution. On 
 evaporation, the water of solution passes off as 
 steam, and leaves the solid earthy-looldng substance, 
 baryta. A third mode of preparing baryta is to 
 heat strongly the nitrate of baryta (BaONOJ, when 
 the nitric acid (NO 5) flies off, and leaves the baryta 
 (BaO). The sulphuret of B. (BaS) is obtained when 
 the sulphate of baryta (BaOS03) in powder is 
 mixed with finely-pulverised coal, and the whole 
 being placed in a crucible, is raised to a red heat 
 in a furnace. The result is, that 4 atoms of the 
 carbon (C) of the coal carry off the 4 atoms of 
 oxygen in the sulphate of baryta as carbonic oxide 
 (CO), whUst the B. united solely with sulphur is 
 left behind as the sulphuret of B. (BaS). The 
 cJdaride of B. is prepared by adding hydrochloric 
 acid (HCl) to a solution of the sulphuret of B. 
 (BaS), when hydrosulphurio acid (HS) escapes, and 
 chloride of B. remains behind, and on evaporation 
 of the hquid, is obtained in crystals. 
 
 BARK. See Barque. 
 
 BABK (cortex), in phanerogamous or flowering 
 plants, is the external covering of the stem. It is 
 
 composed of layers of cellular tissue, whilst the 
 woody stem, to which it forms a sort of sheath, is 
 vascular. In endogenous plants (palms, &c.), there 
 is not, in general, a very marked line of separation 
 between the B. and the vessels or vascular bundles 
 of the stem, so that these plants are generally, but 
 incorrectly, said to have no bark. It is in exogenous 
 plants, and especially in perennial woody stems, that 
 the development of B. is most perfect, and the dis- 
 tinction between wood and B. most marked. The 
 outermost layer of the B. of exogenous plants is the 
 epidermia (q. v.), which, however, is in general only 
 to be seen in annual stems, and iu the youngest 
 parts of woody stems ; peeling off as the stem be- 
 comes older along with the outer layers of the true 
 bark. Beneath the epidermis is the true B., of which 
 the outer layer is called the epipJilceum (Gr. outer 
 bark), and consists of cells, usually rectangular and 
 flattened, with thick walls. The inner layer of the 
 true B. is called the mesophlceum (Gr. middle bark), 
 and is generally formed of a cellular tissue of 
 roimdish cells with thin walls. These layers are 
 sometimes very distinctly separated from one 
 another, and sometimes pass gradually into one 
 another; sometimes there is merely a continuous 
 cellular tissue. Within the true B. is a very 
 distinct layer, the inner B., liber (Lat.) or endo- 
 phlceum (Gr. inner bark), also frequently called 
 Bast, which is composed of bundles of woody 
 fibre or vascular tissue mixed with ceUular tissue. 
 The layer of Cambium (q. v.) is often regarded as 
 belonging to the inner B., but rather belongs to the 
 vascular part of the stem. In the inner B. are 
 sometimes found cells containing a milky juice, as 
 in the Apocynacem, or vessels for a milky juice, as 
 in the common fig. The combined strength and 
 flexibdity of the fibres of the inner B. render it 
 in many cases useful for various purposes. See 
 Fibrous Plants and Bast. In the true B., the 
 pecuhar juices and most characteristic substances 
 elaborated by the plant are very generally found, 
 for which reason that part is often of the greatest 
 importance in medicine and the arts. The B. of 
 many trees abounds in tannin (q. v.) or tannic add. ' 
 
 The B. of a stem or branch of not more than one 
 year old exhibits only a oeUiilar integument or 
 epidermis with an interior lining of woody fibre — 
 the inner B. ; but new layers are added from year 
 to year, the B. as well as the woody stem being 
 increased from the cambium, the mucilaginous layer 
 which is interposed between them, and which par- 
 ticularly abounds in spring, when the separation of 
 the B. from the stem is most easy. The annual 
 layers, however, cannot long be distinctly recog- 
 nised in the B. as in the wood ; and in the older ' 
 portions of woody stems, the outermost parts of the 
 B. become desiccated and lifeless, and are in general 
 gradually thrown off. On this ' account, those 
 mosses, hchens, and other plants which attach them- 
 selves only to the outermost layer of the B. of 
 trees, and derive their nourishment from it, cannot 
 be regarded as true parasites, as they are in no 
 degree supported by the juices of the stem, but 
 only consume and remove external matter already 
 destitute of life. The B. of some trees is remark- 
 able for the thickness which it acquires, as that of 
 the cork-tree, in which the epiphlosum is formed of 
 many layers of cells. The outer parts of thick barks 
 very often crack, to admit of the expansion of the 
 stem within; in the lace-bark tree of the West 
 Indies, the fibres of the inner B. become partially 
 separated as it is distended, forming lozenge-shaped 
 meshes arranged with beautiful regularity. 
 
 The connection between the cellular tissue of the 
 B. and that of the pith in the centre of the tree is 
 oontinuaUy maintained by means, in exogenous 
 
 69S 
 
BAilK— BABKEE. 
 
 stems, of the medullary rays. See Exogenous 
 Plants and Pith. The B. is a protection to the 
 young and tender wood ; it appears also to exercise 
 functions analogous to those of the leaves, which, 
 when young, it resembles in its colour, and which 
 are regarded as dUatations of it, so that it has been 
 called the 'universal leaf of a plant. 
 
 BARK, in Medicine, &c. The principal barks 
 used in medicine will be foimd noticed in separate 
 articles. See Andiea (GaUbage B., Surinam B.) ; 
 Angostdha B. ; Oaeibbee B. {Jamaica B., St Lticia 
 B., Piton B.) ; Casoamlla (OascariUa B., Elmthena 
 B.) ; CiNgHONA (Cinchona B., Penman B., Jesuits' 
 B., China, Cascarilla, Arica B., Oalasaya B., Oara- 
 baya B., Huamalies B., Huanuco B., Jaen B., 
 Loxa B., Maracaibo B., Ash B., Crovm B., SUver B., 
 Yellow B., Tan B., &o.) ; Clove B. ;■ Copalche B. ; 
 CuLiLAWAN B.; Wintee's Baek.— When B. is men- 
 tioned without any prefix, it is always Cinchona, 
 otherwise called Peruvian or Jesuits' B., which is 
 intended. 
 
 The barks used for dyeing, tanning, and other 
 purposes in the arts, being generally named from 
 the trees which produce them, particular references 
 here are unnecessary. 
 
 BARK, FOE TANNING. The B. of many trees is 
 capable of being used for tanning (q. v.), but those 
 kinds of B. are preferred which particularly abound 
 in tannic acid. Oak B. is principally used in 
 Britain, and throughout Europe; aJso in North 
 America, although that of America is obtained from 
 species of oak different from the European; in 
 Spain, the inner layer of the B. of the cork oak, 
 or cork-tree, is employed, and it is to some extent 
 imported into Britain for the use of taimers. The 
 B. of the chestnut is also much esteemed. Larch B. 
 and willow B. are used in preparing some kinds of 
 leather. The B. of the birch and that of the alder 
 are also employed ; birch B. being, however, more 
 esteemed for steeping fishermen's nets and cordage, 
 to preserve them from rotting, than for the prepar- 
 ation of leather. DiEferent species of Acacia (q. v.) 
 and of Eiuxdyptus (q. v.) furnish barks used for 
 tanning in Australia, some of which havej. to a small 
 extent, become articles of commerce. 
 
 The harking of trees can be accomplished with 
 facility only in spring, when the sap has begun to 
 circulate. The tree being felled, the rough extemsi 
 lifeless parts of the B. are removed as useless, by 
 means of a sharp instrument called a scraper; the 
 smaller branches are cut into lengths of about two 
 feet, and their B. is loosened by beating with a 
 mallet, and easily taken off — as boys at the same 
 season make plane-tree whistles ; the B. of the 
 trunk and main branches is cut through by a chisel- 
 like instrument, called a iarking-iron, into similar 
 lengths, each of which is divided longitudinally, and 
 finally stripped oflf by the aid of mallets, clusels, 
 &o. The B. is sometimes dried in sheds, being placed 
 on narrow shelves or frames in such a way that 
 there may be a very free circulation of air about 
 it; sometimes in the open air, when it is very 
 generally made to rest in a sloping position against 
 trunks of trees placed horizontally at a. little dis- 
 tance from the ground, the larger pieces of B. being 
 placed so as to protect the smaller both from sun 
 and rain. Great care is necessary in the drying of 
 B., as it is much spoiled if allowed to get moiSdy, 
 and is liable to suffer injury from rain or from the 
 exposure of its inner surface to the sun. — Oak and 
 birch B. are usually about equal in their price, 
 which, however, varies very much, from £A to £8 
 per ton. Larch B. is much less valuable ; it is also 
 of much greater bulk in proportion to its weight. 
 The B. is a very important source of the revenue 
 derived from many woods and coppices. 
 691 
 
 BARK BEETLE, or BABK-CHAfER, a name 
 common to many of the large family of Coleopter- 
 ous Insects (q. v.), called by entqmologists Xylophagi 
 (Gr. wood-eaters). They are all small, and generally 
 of uniform colour; they have hard homes, apd 
 short, often club-shaped antennae. Most of the 
 family live in wood or other vegetable substances, 
 as mushrooms, dried plants in herbariums, &c., and 
 some of them are extremely injurious to living 
 trees. Those called B. beetles or bark-chafers bore 
 holes in the bark, and deposit their eggs in the 
 inner bark, in which the larvse excavate pathways, 
 often causing the death of the tree. One species in 
 particular, sometimes called the common Bark-chafer 
 {Tomicus' typographus), and sometimes the Typog- 
 rapher Beetie, from the figure of its burrows, has 
 
 Tomicus t3?pographus. 
 
 a, natural size ; &, ineect magnified ; c, galleries made by 
 the insect. 
 
 from time to time appeared in extraordinary num- 
 bers, ravaging the forests of Germany. In 1783, it 
 caused the death of a million and a naif of pines in 
 the Hartz Forest alone. This insect is mentioned in 
 some of the old German liturgies under the popular 
 name of 'the Turk,' which its dreaded ravages 
 obtained for it. 
 
 BA'RKAL, or JB'BEL BA'BKAL, a singular 
 sandstone rook in Nubia, situated in lat. 18° 31"^ N., 
 and long. 31° 46' E., about a mile from the right bank 
 of the Nile. It is quite isolated, perpendicular on the 
 side facing the river, and very steep on all. It is about 
 two miles in circumference at the base, and 400 feet 
 in height, its summit forming a pretty broad plateau. 
 Between it and the river are the remains of some 
 magnificent temples, the two principal ones being 
 known as the Typhonium, and the Great Temple, 
 one of the largest monumental ruins of Nubia. 
 The ancient city of Napata is supposed to have been 
 situated in the vicinity. The two red granite hons, 
 now in the Egyptian Boom of the British Museum, 
 were brought from B. in 1832 by Lord Prudhoe. 
 
 BA'BKER, Edmund Henry, a well-known Eng- 
 lish philologist, was born 22d December 1788 at 
 Hollym, in Yorkshire, and studied at Cambridge. 
 Besides editions of several Latin classics, and nume- 
 rous contributions to periodicals, particularly to the 
 Classical Journal, he was led, durihg a residence 
 
BAEKER-BAHKEE'S MILL. 
 
 with the famous/ philologist Parr, to undertake a 
 revision of Stephens's Thesavma Lmffius Orceccs. 
 This gigautio work was violently assailed in the 
 Quarterly Remexo by Blomfield, against whom B. 
 wrote lus AristarAus Anii-Blorr^dianm (Lond. 
 1818) ; yet he and his publisher, Valpy of Loudon, 
 carried it on and completed it in a spirited man- 
 ner (13 vols., 1816—1828). In 1812 appeared the 
 first volume of his Classical SecreaUons. He also 
 supplied materials for the composition of Sturtz's 
 Etymologkum Oudianum. He likewise translated 
 some works of German philologists, among others, 
 Buttmann's Oreek Orammar for ScJwols. . He col- 
 lected the mass of anecdote and criticism relative 
 to his friend Dr Parr, which was published in 
 2 vols, in 1828—1829, under the title of Parnana, 
 a work well-nigh unreadable, from the superabund- 
 ance and iU-Mgested nature of its matter. He 
 also assisted Professor Dunbar in the compilation 
 of the . Greek and English Lexicon pubhshed in 
 1831. He lost all that ue had in a lawsuit about a 
 valuable inheritance, so that he was obliged to sell 
 his fine libra^,'and was put into the debtors' prison. 
 He died iu London, March 21, 1839, in extreme 
 poverty. 
 
 BA'BKEK, John, descended of an English mer- 
 cantile family, became, ia 1799, agent for the East 
 India Cornpany at Aleppo ; in 1826, British consul at 
 Alexandria; and afterwards consul-general in Egypt. 
 In the year 1834, he removed from this situation 
 to the lonely but lovely valley of Suedia on the 
 Orontea, 4 leagues from Antioch, where he employed 
 himselE ia the cultivation of the choicest fruits of 
 Asia and Europe. We are indebted to him for 
 the Hanwick ^Tectarine, the most dehcious yet 
 introduced into our gardens. The good terms on 
 which he stood with the people around him and 
 with the government, enabled him to render many 
 valuable services to European travellers. He died 
 at Suedia on the 5th of October 1850. 
 
 BARKER'S MILL (Pr. Bom d. reaction, Ger. 
 Segner'a Wasserrad), a water-wheel invented by 
 
 Pig. 1. 
 
 Dr Barker towards the end of the 17th p. It is 
 represented in its simplest or typical form in 
 fig. 1. A is a wide metal pipe, resting at its 
 lower end hy the steel spindle T, on a metal block 
 B, and kept in a vertical position by the spindle S, 
 
 at its upper end, which passes through the frame 
 of the machine, so that it can easily revolve round 
 its axis. Near its lower end, two smaller pipes 
 or arms, 0, C, are inserted, which project hori- 
 zontally from it, and these have each, at the 
 outer extremity, a hole cut vertically in them, 
 opening towards opposite sides. The water is 
 suppHed bjr the pipe P, which opens over a funnel- 
 like widening on the upper part of A, and the 
 quantity is so regulated that while the pipe A is 
 kept nearly full, no more is admitted than issues 
 from the lower orifices. The reaction caused by 
 the water gushing from the arms, forces them 
 backwards, and gves to the whole machine a 
 rotatory motion. This reaction is much the same 
 as is seen in the recoil of a gim when fired, or 
 in the pushing back of a small boat by the foot 
 on stepping ashore. It may be also thus explained : 
 Suppose that the arms were closed all round, the 
 water would press against the sides with a force 
 proportional to the height of the water in the 
 pipe A, and the pressure against any particular 
 surface of the side would produce no motion of 
 the arm, because an equal pressure is exerted in 
 a contrary direction by a corresponding surface 
 opposite to it. Now, 2 one of these surfaces be 
 cut out, the pressure against the other being un- 
 counteraoted, forces the arm in the opposite direc- 
 tion to that of the side in which the hole is made. 
 This being done to both arms on opposite sides, 
 two equal pressures are produced, ■srtuch conspire 
 in generating the same motion of rotation. As 
 soon as motion ensues, centrifugal force comes 
 into play, which, throwing the water out towards 
 the ends of the arms, increases the rapidity of 
 its discharge, and also its reacting power. When 
 the wheel is in action, the water thus acts imder 
 the influence of two forces^one being the pressure 
 of the column in A, and the other the centrifugal 
 force generated by the rotation of the wheel itself. 
 The motion of the wheel is transmitted by the 
 spur-wheel fixed to the spindle S, to the maclunery 
 which is to be driven by it, or, in the case of a 
 corn-mill, the spindle passes directly through the 
 lower millstone, and is firmly fixed into the upper 
 one. 
 
 The power is manifestly increased by heightening 
 the water-column, or by lengthening the arms — 
 the former increasing tiie pressure of the water, 
 and the latter increasing the leverage at which 
 this pressure acts. In the "lill shewn in the figure, 
 the column in A cannot be advantageously height- 
 ened, for the higher it rises, the greater must be 
 the weight which the conical spindle, T, has to 
 sustain, and the greater, consequently, becomes the 
 friction. It is from this circumstance that such 
 mills are fotmd, in practice, to yield but a small 
 mechanical effect — ^the friction consuming too large 
 a proportion of the work of the wheel. Hence, in 
 the reaction-wheels now in use, the original B. M. 
 has been so modified as to allow of the water being 
 conducted from the reservoir below the arms instead 
 of above. This is effected by making the vertical 
 pipe revolve below in a stuffing-box at its junction 
 with the conduit, and above, by a pivot moving 
 in the fixed frame. By this arrangement, the 
 friction attending the rotation is reduced to a 
 miniiniiTn^ for not Only is the weight of the water 
 placed out of account, but also a large proportion 
 of the weight of the wheel itself, which is borne 
 by the upward pressure of the water. The mechani- 
 cal performance of such wheels is said to be highly 
 satisfactory, producing, with a limited supply of 
 water falling from a considerable height, a usefol 
 effect, hardly to be obtained by any other contriv- 
 ance. The power of these machines may be also 
 
 696 
 
BAEK-STOVE-BARLEY. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 WMtelaw's Mill (hence 
 
 increased by using curved (fig. 2) instead of straight 
 arms. With straight arms, 
 a considerable loss of force 
 is incurred by the sudden 
 change of the direction of 
 the current when it leaves 
 the arm, which does not 
 take place to the same 
 extent with curved arms, 
 where this change is 
 effected gradually. In 
 called the Scottish tur- 
 bine'), the form of B. M. generally met with in 
 Scotland, there are three instead of two curved 
 arms of this description. Considerable difference 
 of opinion still exists as to the merits of B. M., 
 some considering it as the most perfect way of 
 applying water-power, and others putting it in the 
 same rank as an under-shot wheel, with the same 
 water-supply. Of late years, it has been more 
 extensively employed than formerly, both in this 
 coimtry and on the continent. 
 
 BA'RK-STOVB, in Gardening, a kind of hot- 
 house intended for those plants which require not 
 only the greatest heat, but also a continually moist 
 atmosphere. It derives its name from the use of 
 tanners' bark, for the purpose of producing this 
 atmospheric condition. The bark is placed in a 
 pit, lined and paved with brick, and pote containing 
 tropical plants are sunk in it; by which means 
 the plants not only enjoy a moisture resembling 
 thafrof their native climates, but the earth around 
 their roots is kept uniformly and moderately heated. 
 The principle of the B. is adopted in pineries, palm- 
 houses, orchid-houses, &c., also in forcing-stoves 
 employed for producing the ordinary fnuts and 
 vegetables of temperate climates at unusual seasons. 
 A considerable heat results from the fermentation 
 of tanners' bark, but it is not upon this that its 
 value in the B. chiefly depends. 
 
 BA'ELAAM AND JO'SAPHAT, one of the 
 
 most widely-spread religious romances of the middle 
 ages, relating the conversion of the Indian prince 
 Josaphat by the hermit Barlaam, and thereby 
 illustrating the power of Christianity to overcome 
 temptation, and proving its superiority over all 
 other creeds. The celebrated divine, John Damascene, 
 has been by some erroneously supposed the author 
 of the original Greek MS., while others have 
 attributed it to the church historian Anastasius 
 Bibliotheoarius. At all events, it was the produc- 
 tion of an eastern, possibly an Ethiopian Christian. 
 The Greek original was first published by M. de 
 Boissonade, in the 4th vohune of his Anecdoia (Paris, 
 1832), and translated into German by Liebrecht 
 (Miinst. 1847). But even in the middle ages, a Latin 
 version of this romance had been extensively circu- 
 lated. About the end of the ISth c, it was often 
 printed ia a detached form, and later, it appeared 
 amongst the works of John Damascene (Paris, 1609). 
 Vincent de Beauvais wove the story iato his Specu- 
 lum Historicde. From the Latin version sprung three 
 French poetical versions belonging to the 13th c, 
 and as yet unprinted. The Italian Storia di S. 
 Barlaam (latest edition, Rome, 1816) may be traced 
 to a Provenjal original as early as the beginning 
 of the 14th c. In Germany, Rudolf von Ems derived 
 his poem, B. and J., first printed at Konigsberg 
 (1818), and later at Leipsic, from the Latin of John 
 Damascene. There is also an Augsburg impres- 
 sion of a prose translation of the ancient Latin 
 text, belonging to the close of the 15th c. The 
 Spanish Historia de B. y J., by Juan de Arze 
 Solorzano (Madrid, 1608), the Polish poetical ver- 
 sion, by Kulizowsky (Cracow, 1688), as well as the 
 C0(i 
 
 Bohemian (Prague, 1593), are all borrowed from 
 the Latin ; while the Icelandic Barlaartis Saga, 
 and the Swedish popular tale, B. och J., have 
 a German source. A Norwegian version, printed 
 from an old vellum MS. of the beginning of the 
 13th c, said to have been translated by King Hakon 
 Sverreson, appeared in 1851. This romance has 
 even been rendered into the Tagala language of the 
 Philippines, and there printed (Manilla, 1712). 
 
 BAE-LB-DUC, or BAR-SUR-ORNAIN, a town 
 in the department of the Meuse, France. It is 
 situated on the Omain, about 125 miles east from 
 Paris, with which it is connected by railway, and 
 with the Rhine lay canal. Pop. 13,334, who manu- 
 facture cotton and calicoes, and carry on a con- 
 siderable trade in timber from the Vosges, for the 
 use of Paris, and in iron, wool, and wine. B. has a 
 communal college, normal school, and public library. 
 Its origin dates from the 10th c. 
 
 BARLE'TTA, a fortified seaport of Naples, 
 province of Bari, on the Adriatic. Pop. about 
 23,000, who carry on a large shipping-trade with 
 Greece, the Ionian Islands, and other ports of the 
 Adriatic. The town is well bmlt, handsome, and 
 clean; has a fine cathedral, a colossal statue sup- 
 posed to represent the Emperor Heraclius, a college, 
 theatre, and castle, formerly one of the most impreg- 
 nable fortresses in Italy. A feature of B. is the 
 large and magnificent gateway which leads to its 
 harbour. During the blockade of B. by the French 
 in 1502—1503, which ended in the defeat and 
 death of their commander, the Duke of Nemours, 
 the celebrated combat between eleven cavaliers of 
 France, and as many of Spain, ia which the 
 Chevalier Bayard so distinguished himself, took 
 place, and ended in a drawn battle. 
 
 BA'RLEY (Hordeum), a. genus of Grasses, to 
 which belongs one of the most extensively cultivated 
 kinds of grain. The genus is distinguished by 
 
 Barley, 
 a, two-rowed barley ; 6, sprat or battledore barley. 
 
 spiked inflorescence, three spikelets being always, 
 situated upon each tooth of the rachis, of which 
 sometimes only the middle one is fertile, and some- 
 times aU the three, so that in the former case the 
 fruit-bearing spike is two-rowed, and in the latter 
 case, six-rowed; the glumes are two, containing a 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 single floret ; tlie palese two, the outer one awned ; 
 and the seed ia surrounded by the paleae. The species 
 of this genus are almost all annual, although some 
 varieties of B. are sown in the end of autumn, and 
 the cultivation of them extends over the winter. B. 
 is mentioned in the books of Moses and other books 
 of the Old Testament, also by the Greek and Roman 
 writers, and has been extensively cultivated from 
 remote antiquity. Beer made from it was known to 
 the Greeks, the Egjrptians, and the ancient Germans. 
 The cultivation ot it ajipears to have extended from 
 Italy northwards in Europe, but it is better adapted 
 than any other grain to the most northern regions, 
 some of its varieties being cultivated with advan- 
 tage where the climate is too cold, or the summer 
 too short, for any other cereal crop; and it is deemed 
 probable that its native coimtry is Northern or 
 Central Asia. It is capable, however, of being 
 cultivated in very warm climates, and extends over 
 a wider climatic range than any of the other grains. 
 B.-meal is used for bread in the northern parts 
 of Europe, ibut in other parts of the world, B. is 
 more generally converted into malt for the making 
 of beer (see Beewino), or merely deprived of its 
 outer skin, and so used as an article of food. B. 
 intended for brewing is first subjected to the 
 process of malting, by which it is converted into 
 Maxt (q. v.). B. simply deprived of the husk 
 {palece) in a mill is called Pot B. or Scotch Barley. 
 When the peUiole of the seed is also removed, and 
 the seed itself rounded and polished, it is Pearl 
 Barley. — What is sometimes called Patent B., is a 
 farina obtained by grinding pearl B., and differs from 
 B.-meal in being quite free from a degree of acridity 
 which the latter derives from the integuments of 
 the seed. 
 
 It is doubtful if this grain is produced by 
 more than one species, or whether what have 
 been described as distinct species by botanists, are 
 not reaUy mere varieties, the result of long culti- 
 vation. H. vulgare is usually distinguished as 
 having the grains disposed in four rows; H. 
 hexasticfum, as having them in six rows ; and H. 
 distichon, as having the lateral spikelets abortive, and 
 the grains, therefore, in two rows. But the lower 
 part of the spike in the varieties ranked under H. 
 vulgare is often six-rowed, and only the upper part 
 four-rowed ; and in rich soils, a tendency to resume 
 the six-rowed form is otherwise manifest. Nor are 
 the kinds known as Naked Barley, in which the 
 seed separates readily from the palesa, to be looked 
 upon as more distinct. The four-rowed or six-rowed 
 varieties are generally coarser, but more productive 
 than the two-rowed ; and some of them, often called 
 Beab, or Bigg, are regarded as most suitable for 
 exposed situations and inferior soils. A kind with 
 naked seeds, called Siberian B. {H. cceleste of some 
 writers), is extensively cultivated in some parts of 
 Europe, and its straw is regarded as affording a 
 richer food for cattle than that of most other kinds. 
 The Nepaul or Himalaya B., another variety with 
 naked seeds, and further characterised by the 
 irregular manner in which the grains are placed in 
 the spike, palese three-lobed at the end, and very 
 short awns — and which is therefore regarded by 
 some botanists as a distinct species (H. trifurcatwm 
 or H. Aegiceres)—h.3s been recommended as particu- 
 larly adapted for cold mountainous regions, yielding 
 good crops in the Himalaya at an elevation of 
 14,000 feet above the level of the sea. — Of the two- 
 rowed B., there are many varieties, of which the 
 Common or Early English B., the Italian B., and the 
 Chevalier B. are among the most esteemed, the 
 latter being in particular demand for the brewing of 
 the finest ales. It takes its name from M. Chevalier, 
 who introduced it. — The Sprat or Battledore B. 
 
 (H. zeocriton of many botanists) is also two-rowed, 
 but is distinguished by the grains standing out from 
 the spike, tneir a\vns spreading very widely. It 
 is sometimes called German Bice, as it swells by 
 boUing in the way that rice does, and for some 
 purposes forms a good substitute for it. It is 
 scarcely cultivated in Britain, but is in much esteem 
 in Germany, and succeeds weU. in the Alps at an 
 elevation of 3360 feet. 
 
 Three species of Ilordeum are natives of Britain, 
 of which one (H. murinum), a small grass, is pretty 
 common on waste-grounds, especially in England, 
 and is apt to prove troublesome by its long awns 
 causing inflammation in the mouths of cattle. StiU 
 more injurious in this way is the J^^orth American 
 jS. jubatum, or Squirrel's Tail. Another, Meadow 
 B. or Meadow B.-Grass {H. pratense), frequent in 
 meadows in England, is reckoned a good pasture- 
 
 f'ass. H. bulbosum, a native of the south of 
 urope and north of Africa, is cultivated in Britain 
 for herbage, of which it yields a large quantity, 
 much relished by cattle, and particularly by horses. 
 Several species are natives of North America. 
 
 BA'RLEY, CuMTVATiON 03?. Barley was culti- 
 vated largely by the Romans, as well as many other 
 nations of antiquity. Though sometimes used as 
 food by the soldiers, it was most generally used as 
 food for horses. The ancient inhabitants of Gaul 
 prepared a spirituous liquor, a kind of beer, from it. 
 Many of the other western nations latterly apphed 
 it to the same use, and it also became an important 
 article of food. On the whole, its growth in modem 
 times has been greatly restricted on the continent 
 of Europe. Other crops are found to be more pro- 
 fitable. Being a plant which is most productive 
 where the climate is moderately dry and warm, the 
 excessive heats of many parts of Europe are adverse 
 both to the quantity and quality of its grain. It is 
 only cultivated *to a large extent on a few limited 
 tracts where the soil is specially suited to it, such as 
 in Belgium, Holland, Prussia, and Denmark. Indeed, 
 while most of the countries of Europe send us wheat, 
 it is chiefly Denmark and Silesia that supply us with 
 barley. Eor this reason, the prices of B. have been 
 relatively higher in this country than those of wheat, 
 since the introduction of free-trade in grain. No 
 country seems to possess a soil and climate so well 
 suited to its growth as many parts of Britain. In 
 former times, this grain was largely used in the 
 British Islands as human food ; but this is the case 
 now only in Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland, 
 where the condition of the population has under- 
 
 fone comparatively little amelioration. In Scotland, 
 owever, a considerable quantity is made use of in 
 the making of broth. In this case, the grain is 
 denuded of its husk by the friction of revolving 
 millstones, and goes under the name of Pot Barley. 
 But the larger proportion of the B. grown in 
 Great Britain, as well as that which is imported, 
 is employed in the distillation of spirits, and in the 
 manvJacture of beer, aJe, and porter. The inferior 
 qualities are taken up by the distillers, while the 
 brewers of ale and porter require the finest, which 
 are known by the sUvei-y colour of the husk, and 
 the specific gravity of the grain. Fine malting B., 
 therefore, always commands a ready demand in 
 the London market, as well as a high price. 
 
 Perhaps the cultivation of B. occupies As pro- 
 minent a share of the arable lands of Suffolk 
 and Norfolk as of any other part of Britain. Fine 
 malting qualities are grown on the turnip-soUs of 
 these counties, as well as throughout the south- 
 eastern counties, where the four-course rotation 
 is adopted. In this rotation, the B. follows the 
 turnip-crop, which is usually consumed on the land 
 by sheep. The ground is carefully prepared bv 
 
 697 ' 
 
BARLEY-BARLEY-BREAK. 
 
 ploughiBgs and rollings, to pulverise it thoroughly 
 before the reception of the seed, which is" usually 
 sown by a drill-machiiie at the rate of about two 
 bushels to the acre. Even on the strong clay-soils 
 of the eastern counties, excellent crops of B. are 
 obtained by the peculiar modes of culture adopted. 
 On the strong lands of Suffolk and Huntingdon, 
 for example, the B.-crop is sown after a summer- 
 fallow or a green-crop, in which case the soil is 
 ploughed before the frosts of winter set in, to render 
 it friable by spring. As soon as the weather permits, 
 after the first week of February the seed is com- 
 mitted to the ground. A fine mould is in this way 
 obtained, and the crops are usually abimdant and of 
 good quality. In the south of England, the grain is 
 allowed to stand till it is fully ripe, when it is either 
 cut with the scythe or the reaping-machine. In 
 many parts, it is not bound up into sheaves, but 
 remains in the swath for a few days, when it is 
 afterwards carted, and stored into bams. A large 
 portion of the B.- crop is still thrashed out by the 
 flaU, owing to the maltsters being under the impres- 
 sion that wie thrashing-mills injure the germinating 
 powers. The chief varieties grown in England are 
 the Chevalier, the Common, the Early English, and 
 the Norfolk. The first-named is the most largely 
 sown, as the quality is superior to any other, 
 and, imder liberal treatment, the yield is greater. 
 The produce is more influenced by the seasons than 
 that of wheat, as it is liable to saSev from droughts 
 in the early part of the year. On well-farmed 
 laud, from 48 to 60 bushels and upwards are got 
 to the acre. In the peaty-soils of the fens of 
 LincolQshire B. is not raised, as it is too liable to 
 lodge with the rain ; neither is B. a favourite crop 
 in the moist chmate of the west of England. It 
 does not endure the rains so well as wheat, nor bear 
 to be highly farmed. In Wales and Lancashire, it 
 is generaEy grown after a crop of wheat, and the 
 culrivation and management are not so careful as in 
 the east. 
 
 Barley has long been grown in Scotland, and 
 comes to great penection where the soil and climate 
 are suitable. The level parts of the Lothians and 
 other coimties in the east of Scotland are the dis- 
 tricts in which the finest crops are raised. In these 
 rich districts, the six-course rotation is generally 
 followed, and B. is sown after a portion of the 
 turnip-break. For this reason, it does not occupy so 
 large a proportional breadth as it does under the 
 Norfolk four-course. The produce is equally abun- 
 dant, however, and the quaUty of the grain is not 
 much inferior. Chevalier is the favourite variety 
 there also. The crop, when ripe, is cut by sickle, 
 scythe, or reaping-machine; bound up at once, and 
 put into stocks, to defend it from the weather tiU 
 ready to cart, and to be built up in neat round 
 stacks. The grain is invariably thrashed out by 
 machinery. In the higher districts of Scotland, 
 where the soil and climate are not so good, the 
 inferiority of the grain, both in quality and quan- 
 tity, is very considerable. It is only in fine 
 seasons that the quality is such as to render 
 it an object to maltsters, and distillers can only 
 make use of it at a reduced price. The chevalier 
 variety is too late for inferior climates, and the 
 early English and other kinds that come sooner to 
 maturity are preferred. In Berwickshire, the five- 
 course rotation — of two years' grass, oats, turnips, 
 and B.— is more generally adopted than ia any other 
 county in Scotland, and a large quantity of this 
 grain is raised, but the quality is generally inferior 
 to that of the crops in East Lotman. Along the 
 light soils fringing the Moray and Cromarty firths, 
 as fine quality of grain is got as in East Lothian. 
 On the other hand, in the less genial climate of the 
 
 698 
 
 western counties, and also of the upper parts of 
 Aberdeenshire, less B. is sown, and oats frequently 
 succeed the green-crops. In these parts, the variety 
 known as bear, or bigg, is preferred to any other, as 
 it is not so liable to lodge, and it withstands wet 
 ■weather far better. Bear, too, is the variety which 
 is cultivated by many of the small cotters in the 
 Highlands and Islands, where agriculture has made 
 litSe advance for centuries. Instead of a rotation 
 in which green-crops find a place to husband and 
 spare the natural resources of the soil, a succession 
 of corn-crops are taken. Late sowing is generally 
 adopted, as the want of manure in the sou can be 
 so far made up by the more genial weather of sum- 
 mer. For this reason, sowing is often delayed till 
 June, and the frost of autumn often causes the 
 premature ripening of the grain. 
 
 There is not much deserving special notice in 
 the manuring of the crop. On the turnip-soils of 
 the south of England, the land is enriched by the 
 droppings of the dieep which consume the turnips. In 
 the strong soils of Norfolk and Huntiagdon, guano, 
 rape-cake, or other manures aboimding in nitrogen, 
 are applied when the seed is sown. In the west of 
 England, the moist climate renders the application of 
 manures more precarious, and B. is frequently taken 
 after a crop of wheat without any appHcatiou of 
 fertilisers. Manures containing phosphates might 
 be used there with great advantage. When the 
 tiumip-crop is drawn from the land, as it often 
 is in Bast Lothian, guano is the manure held in 
 most estimation; the quantity applied is from 2 
 to 3 cwt. per acre. In Berwickshire, as in Norfolk, 
 the prevalence of the five-course shift, and the 
 general practice of eating the crop on the ground, 
 secure a sufficiently liberal manuring. In other 
 parts, where B. is taken after wheat, farmyard 
 manure is often applied, as well as guano and 
 phosphoric manures. In the Highlands, where bear is 
 sown on the small farms, the chief manure is shell- 
 sand, or lime. There is one point in the manuring 
 of the crop which ought to be attended to — that 
 is, the earlier it is sown in the season, the more 
 liberal ought to be the application of nitrogenous 
 manures. On the other hand, the later it is sown, 
 manures containing nitrogen should be used more 
 sparingly, and a portion of phosphoric manures 
 snoidd be substituted in their stead. 
 
 BABLEY-BBEAK, a popular amusement, very 
 common in the reign of James I., and, with certain 
 modifications, in name and practice still existmg 
 among young persons, both m England and Scot- 
 land. Originally, it was played by six people, three 
 of each sex, who were formed into couples. A piece 
 of ground was then apportioned into three parts ; 
 and into the centre one, called hdl, a couple was 
 doomed by lot. The sport consisted in the two in 
 the condemned part 'catching' one of the other 
 couples while they were in tne act of changing 
 places, when the couple caught had to go into the 
 centre. It was, however, no easy matter for the two 
 in the centre to capture another couple, for, by the 
 rules of the game, they were bound to keep united, 
 while the others, when hard pressed, might sever. 
 Thus, Sir Philip Sidney, in describing the game, 
 says : 
 
 Soon as the middle two 
 Do, coupled, towards either couple make, 
 They false and fearful do their hands «Mdo, 
 
 When the whole had been caught, the game was 
 ended, and the last couple taken was said to be in 
 heU. Their punishment appears to have consisted 
 in kissing each other. Herriok says, in referring to 
 the game : 
 
 If kissing he of plagues the worst, 
 We '11 wish in hell we had been last and first 
 
BAELEYCOEN-BAENABAS. 
 
 In Scotland, the game consisted in one person 
 chasing the rest round the stacks in a farmyard; 
 and when one -was caught, he or she had to assist in 
 capturing the rest. The origin of the name is douht- 
 ful. Dr Jamieson suggests that, in Scotland, the 
 locality of the game may have given it its name — 
 I barla-braolts, about the stacks.' The same author- 
 ity also adds : ' Perhaps froio harley and Ireah, q., 
 breaking of the parley, because after a certain time 
 aJlowed for settling preliminaries, on a cry being 
 given, it is the business of one to catch as many 
 prisoners as he can.' This supposition is not im- 
 probable. In the modem games of 'Shepherds 
 a-warning,' and ' Tig,' which appear to have been 
 derived from B., 'a barley' means a, parley. 
 
 BA'KLEYCOEIT, John, a personification of the 
 spirit of barley, or malt-liquor, used jocularly, 
 and also in humorous poetical effusions. There 
 exists a whimsical English tract of old date, under 
 the title of The Arraigning and Indicting of Sir John 
 Barleycorn, Knt., printed for Timothy Tosspot, in 
 which Sir John is described as of ' noble blood, well 
 beloved in England, a great support of the crown, 
 and a maintainor of both rich and poor.' See Hone's 
 Every-day Booh, vol. i. 
 
 BAELEY-SUGAE, a confection prepared with 
 sugar and a decoction of barley. See Sugar. 
 
 BA'ELOW, Joel, an American poet and poli- 
 tician, born in 1755 at Eeading in Connecticut. 
 He studied at Yale College in Newhaven. He 
 was intended for the profession of the law, but 
 served as a military chaplain during the War of 
 Independence. In 1787 he published a poem called 
 The Vision of Golwmbm, which in 1805 appeared 
 anew in an enlarged form as The ColumJbiad. It 
 abounds in beautSul ]passagesi, but is overburdened 
 with political and philosophical disquisitions, and 
 disfigured by singularities of expression. B. accepted 
 a commission in 1788 to prosecute the sale of lands 
 for the Ohio Company in England and France, 
 where he signalised himself by zealous repubhc- 
 anism; pubfiahecl in 1792 in London a poem 
 entitled The Qonspiraoy of Kings, and endeavoured 
 also to work upon the public mind in England 
 by political pamphlets. In autumn 1792 he was 
 deputed by the London reformers, with whom he 
 was associatedi'to proceed to Paris, where he received 
 the rights of French oitoenship. He spent some 
 years on the continent of Europe in political, Uter- 
 ary, and mercantile pursuits, and was for a short 
 time American consul at Algiers. He returned to 
 America in 1805, and was appointed ambassador to 
 France in 1811. He died in October 1812 at Zama- 
 wiczc, near Cracow, when on his way to a conference 
 with the Emperor Napoleon at Wilna. 
 
 BAEM. See Yeast. 
 
 BA'RMECIDES, or BA'EMEKIDES, a Persian 
 family, distinguished amongst the most powerful 
 in the province of Khorasan, the cradle of the 
 greatness of the Abbaside califs, whose cause the 
 children of Barmek espoused. Khaled-hm-Barmek, 
 the first of these whose authentic history has 
 reached us, was the prime-minister of Abul Abbas 
 Al-Saffah, the first Abbaside calif; and his influ- 
 ence enduring through the reigns of Al-Mansur and 
 Mohdi, the latter intrusted him with the education 
 of his son, the celebrated Harun Al-Easchjd. Yahya, 
 the son of Khaled — according to eastern historians, 
 equally conspicuous for virtue and talent — was made 
 vizier by Harun upon his accession to the califate 
 (786 A. D.), and both by his military skill and civil 
 administration, contributed largely to the prosperity 
 of the reign — the calif himself bestowing on him the 
 appellation of Father. Harun, however, afterwards 
 
 becoming jealous of the growing power and popu- 
 larity of two of Yahya's sons, Fadhl and Jarfar 
 (the Giafar of , the AraMdn Nights), had them 
 executed, and the whole of the B. throughout the 
 kingdom arrested, and their goods confiscated. 
 Harun even carried his enmity so far as to forbid 
 the mention of their name on pain of death; but 
 their virtues and their glory are celebrated by almost 
 all Mohammedan poets and historians. 
 
 . BA'EMEOIDE'S FEAST, a phrase originating 
 most probably in the story of the barber s sixth 
 brother, recorded in the Arabian Nights, and 
 abridged in the Qvardian, No. 162. The sub- 
 stance of the story is as follows : One Schacabao 
 being in great want, and not having tasted food for 
 two days, ventured to visit a rich Barmecide (see 
 Barmecides) noted both for his hospitality and 
 eccentric humour, in the hope of generous entertain- 
 ment. The Barmecide, on learning his condition, 
 invited him to dinner. Schacabac was presented 
 with an empty plate, requested to 'make himself at 
 home,' and by and by, asked ' how he liked his rice- 
 soup.' It was apparently a cruel jest to play off on 
 a starving man. Schacabac, nevertheless, feigned to 
 enter into the himiour of his host, and expressed his 
 conviction that the rice-soup was delicious. The 
 Barmecide continuing the imposition, next asked his 
 victim it he ever saw whiter bread. Poor Schacabac, 
 who saw neither bread nor meat, nor indeed anything 
 eatable, made a prodigious effort to look happy; 
 he even went the length of gently remonstrating 
 with his host for not supposing him completely 
 satisfied. In this way a magnificent but fictitious 
 dinner was disposed of. When wine, however, was 
 prpduced, Schacabac pretended only to taste it on 
 the ground that he was ' quarrelsome in his liquor,' 
 and might do his host an injury. The Barmecide 
 forced him, however, and at last Schacabac, who 
 was really in a most excusable rage at being so 
 elaborately tantalised, feigned to have got flustered, 
 and gave the eccentric old gentleman ' a good box 
 on the ear.' This put a stop to the joke. The 
 Barmecide was mightily pleased with the patient 
 humour of his guest, a visible dinner was imme- 
 diately ordered up, and Schacabao now enjoyed 
 in reidity what he had previously partaken of only 
 in imagination. 
 
 BAR'MEN, a most charming valley, about two 
 leagues in length, on the Wupper, about two leagues 
 from Elberfeld, in the province of Ehenish Prussia. 
 It is divided into Upper and Lower B., and contains 
 five towns or villages, which united form the town 
 of B., with 41,442 inhabitants, chiefly Protestants. 
 Nowhere in Germany is so much manufacturing 
 industry accumulated in a single spot. B. is the 
 principal seat of the ribbon-manufacture on the 
 continent. Its fabrics go to all parts of the world. 
 It produces hnen, woollen, cotton, sUk and haJf- 
 silk ribbons of every quality, and aU sorts of stay- 
 laces, &c. It has also considerable, manufactures 
 of woven lace, sewing-thread, the coarse cotton 
 cloth called Siamoise, &c. There are, besides, in 
 the valley, numerous bleachfielda and dye-works. 
 Lower B. has a mineral spring and a bathing 
 establishment. 
 
 BA'ENABAS, St, properly Joses, mentioned in 
 the Acts of the Apostles as a feUow-labourer of 
 Paul, and even honoured with the title of apostle. 
 He is also supposed to have founded the first 
 Christian community at Antioch. According to 
 tradition, he became the .first Bishop of Milan, but 
 he is differently reported to have died a natural 
 death, and to have suffered martyrdom at the 
 hands of the Cypriot Jews, 61 A. D. The Epistle 
 ascribed to Tiim is of very doubtful authenticity. 
 
BAENABAS-BAENACLE GOOSE. 
 
 BA'EN'ABAS, St, Epistle op. This Epistle con- 
 tains twenty-one chapters. Its aim is obviously to 
 strengthen the faith of believers in a purely spiritual 
 Christianity. It commences by declaring that legal 
 sacrifices are abolished, and then proceeds, to shew, 
 though not in a very coherent or logical manner, 
 how variously Christ was foretold in the Old Tes- 
 tament. In the tenth chapter, it spiritually alle- 
 gorises th&commands of Moses concerning clean and 
 unclean beasts ; in the fifteenth, it explains the ' true 
 meaning' of the Sabbath ; and in the sixteenth, what 
 the Temple really prefigured. This concludes what 
 may be termed the doctrinal portioi of the Epistle ; 
 the remainder, which is of a practical character, 
 describes the two ways of life — the way of Light 
 and the way of Darkness, and closes with an 
 exhortation that those who read it may so live that 
 they may be blessed to all eternity. It is a simple, 
 pious, and earnest work; but makes a far more 
 judicious use of the New Testament than of the Old. 
 
 BA'BNABITES, an order of monks which sprung 
 up at Milan in 1530. They were so called because 
 the church of St Barnabas in that city was granted 
 them to preach in. They were approved of by Pope 
 Clement VII. and Pope Paul III. Their special 
 duties were, to attend the sick, to preach, to instruct 
 the young, and to take the charge of souls. They 
 soon estabHshed themselves in Italy, France, Austria, 
 and Spain, and enjoyed the privilege of teaching 
 theology in the schools of Milan and Pavia. Many 
 eminent men have been sent forth by them. Besides 
 the three usual monastic vows, they took a fourth, 
 viz., not to sue for church preferments. ' In France 
 and Austria, they were employed in the conversion of 
 Protestants; but they have now, as a bod^, almost 
 fallen into oblivion. Only a few monasteries exist 
 here and there in France and Italy. 
 
 BA'RNACLB, orBE'RNICLE [Lepas, also called 
 Anatifa and Pmtalasmis), a kind of shell-fish, a 
 genus of Cirrhopoda (q. v.), the type of a family 
 of articulate animals distinguished by a long flexible 
 istalk or peduncle, which is jjrovided with muscles, 
 upon the summit of which, in the true barnacles, 
 are shelly valves, five in number, enclosing the 
 principal organs of the animal, and opening and 
 closing on one side like the opercular valves of 
 Bcdamia (q. v.), to admit of its spreading out and 
 retracting its net — an apparatus similar to that by 
 which the animals of that genus obtain their food. 
 Barnacles abound in almost all seas, attaching them- 
 selves in great numbers to logs of wood, ships' bot- 
 toms, &c. They grow very rapidly. Some of the 
 
 resembling them in general form, the shelly valves 
 almost entirely disappear. 
 
 In former times, the B. was supposed to be the 
 embryo of a goose or bird of some kind ; a notion 
 which doubtless arose from a fancied resemblance 
 between the convolutions of the fish in its shell and 
 the embryo of a bird in the egg. It was, therefore, 
 believed that the barnacle goose, described in next 
 article, sprung from these marine shells. Hollinshed 
 gfavely afl3:rms that such was the case; and the 
 most learned men of their time were weak enough 
 to give credence to the absurdity. Gerard, in his 
 Herbal (1597), declares, that after 'a thing in 
 form like a lace of silke finely woven, as it were, 
 together' — which he correctly enough states to be 
 'the first thing that appeareth' when 'the shell 
 gapeth open' — ^there next follow 'the legs of the 
 bird hangmg out ; ' and at last the bird, increasing 
 in size, 'hangeth only by the bfll,' and 'ia. short 
 space after it cometh to full maturity, and falleth 
 into the sea, where it gathereth feathers, and 
 groweth to a fowl bigger than a mallard, and lesser 
 than a goose,' &c. All this was represented as con- 
 stantly taking place on the coast of Lancashire and 
 the Hebrides, and continental writers of greater 
 name reported in like manner the same fable, against 
 which Ray and other early naturalists were obliged 
 seriously to argue. The B., however, really under- 
 goes transformations not less wonderful than the 
 fabled ones, which have rendered it an object of so 
 much interest. See Ciekhopoda. 
 
 BA'KNACLB GOOSE, or BE'ENICLE GOOSE, 
 often also called Baenacle, or Beeniclb (Anaer 
 
 Barnacle. 
 
 species are eaten in some parts of the world, and 
 perhaps they were among the bcdani which the 
 ancient Romans esteemed a deUcaey. — In some cir- 
 rhopods, very nearly allied to the true barnacles, and 
 
 700 
 
 Barnacle Goose. 
 
 Bemida or leucopsis), the bird which the fables of 
 former days represented as deriving its origin from 
 the cirrhopod of which it bears the name. It is in 
 size smaller than the common wild goose, being only 
 a Httle more than 2 feet long, and about 5 lbs. 
 in weight. It is very prettEy marked, having the 
 forehead, cheeks, and throat white, the biU Hack, 
 and a black stripe extending from it to the eye ; the 
 crown of the head, neck, and upper part of the 
 breast black ; the rest of the plumage on the upper 
 parts of the body chiefly ash-gray and black, in 
 undulating bars — on the lower parts, white. It is 
 a coinmon winter visitant of the western coasts of 
 Britain and of Ireland, but in the eastern parts of 
 Britain it is rare. It retires ia spring to more 
 northern regions, where it breeds, vast numbers 
 passing northward along the coast of Nprway to 
 the Arctic Ocean. It is highly esteemed for the 
 table. 
 
 The Brent Goose, or Brent Barnacle {Anser Brenta 
 or torgruaius, A. Bemida of some naturalists), has 
 frequently received the name of the B. G., and no 
 
BAENACLES— BAJINEVELDT. 
 
 ■Sttle confusion has existed concerning them in 
 books of science, although the birds are sufficiently 
 distinct. The Brent Goose is smaller than the B. G., 
 being only about 21 inches in length. It is also of 
 much darker plumage, the whole head, throat, and 
 neck being black, except a small patch on each 
 side of the neck, which is white, mixed with a 
 few . regularly placed black feathers ; the upper 
 parts of the body generally almost black, and the 
 lower parts slate-gray, except the vent and imder 
 tail-coverts, which are white. It is remarkable 
 for length of wing and powerful flight, and for its 
 distant mirations. It' is very common in winter 
 on the British shores, but breeds in high northern 
 latitudes. It is a winter-bird of passage in the 
 United States and Canada, as in Britain and on the 
 continent of Europe. It is excellent for the table. 
 
 Very nearly allied to these species is the Red- 
 breasted Goose, or Bed-breasted Barnacle {Anser 
 rujicollis), a beautiful bird, of which the neck and 
 upper part of the breast are of a rich chestnut 
 red. In size, it resembles the Brent Goose; it is 
 a very rare visitant of Britain and of the continent 
 of Europe, and is abundant only in the extreme 
 north of Asia. — Another species, called Hutchins' 
 Goose or Barnacle {A. JSTutchinsii), of dark plumage, 
 and with a triangular patch of white on each side 
 of the head and neck, is abundant in Hudson's Bay, 
 and the extreme north of America. 
 
 These species are regarded by some naturalists 
 as constituting a genus Bemicla, distinguished 
 chiefly by a shorter and more slender bifl from 
 the ordinary or true geese. 
 
 The Egyptian Goose or Bargander {Anser Egypti- 
 cuMs) is sometimes ranked with these, sometimes 
 made the type of a distinct genus, Ghenalopex, upon 
 account of the longer biU, a short spur with which 
 the bend of the wing is armed, and the anatomical 
 peculiarity of a hoUow bony enlargement at the 
 bottom of the trachea of the male. It has long 
 been kept in parks and pleasure-grounds in Britain, 
 chiefly on account of the beauty of its plumage, 
 and has become partially naturalised. It is a little 
 smaller than a common goose; its voice more 
 resembles that of a wHd-duck. The prevailing 
 colour of the plumage is light chestnut brown, 
 minutely rayed with darker lines; the neck and 
 part of the wings are white. Large chestnut patches 
 surround the eyes. It is very abundant on the 
 iJile, and is frequently figured in Egyptian sculp- 
 tures. It is much esteemed for the table, and was 
 kept and fattened for it by the ancient Egyptians. 
 It is the Ghenalopex of Herodotus. 
 
 BA'RNACLES, in Heraldry, resembling what 
 are now called twitchers, were instruments used 
 by farriers to curb and command imruly horses. 
 B. are frequently introduced into coats of arms as 
 a charge. — The term Barnacles applied to spec- 
 tacles, probably arose from the circumstance of the 
 spectacles (as they were at one time made) clasping 
 the nose in the manner of the horse-twitchers above 
 mentioned. 
 
 BA'ElSrAIlD CA'STLE, an inland town in the 
 south of Durham county, on the right bank of 
 the Tees, about 40 miles from its mouth, and 26 
 miles south-west of Durham. It stands on the 
 slope of an eminence rising from the river. Its 
 chief manufactures are hats, carpets, shoemakers' 
 thread, leather, plaids, and stockings. It has one 
 of the largest corn-markets in the north of England. 
 On a rocky height over the river are the ruins 
 (covering 6f acres)- of a castle, founded about 1180 
 by Barnard, son of Guy Baliol, a follower of the 
 Conqueror, and ancestor of John Baliol, king of 
 Sootliand, who was bom in the castle, ajid founded 
 
 an hospital for the poor in the town. B. C. is the 
 scene of part of Sir W. Scott's poem of Roheby. 
 Pop. 4608. 
 
 BA RN AXJ'L, a town of West Siberia, in the govern- 
 ment of Tomsk. It is situated at the junction of the 
 Barnaul with the river Oby, and has a population 
 of about 10,000, who are chiefly engaged in the 
 mining and smelting of the metals found in the 
 vicinity, which consist of silver,- lead, and copper. 
 B. has 120 furnaces at work, is the seat of a mining 
 board, and has a magnetic and meteorological 
 observatory. 
 
 BAKNAVB, Antoinb-Piekee-Joseph-Mamb, a 
 distinguished character and -victim of the French 
 Revolution, was born at Grenoble in 1761, was 
 the son of an advocate, adopted his father's pro- 
 fession, and early attracted attention in the parlia- 
 ment of Grenoble by the talents which he displayed. 
 A pamphlet which he published against the feudal 
 system led to his being returned as deputy from 
 ms province to the States-general in 1789. He 
 zealously advocated the prodamation of the Rights 
 of Man, was vehement in opposition to the Absolute 
 Veto, carried through the confiscation of church- 
 property to the use of the nation, the emancipation 
 of the Jews, and the abolition of the religious orders, 
 and was mainly instrumental in the liberation 
 of the slaves and reorganisation of the colonies. 
 As a leader of the extreme party in the earUer 
 stages of the revolution, he Ibeoame the idol of 
 the people, and particularly after his -victory over 
 Mirabeau, in the question of the power of peace 
 and war, which Mirabeau -wished to remain with 
 the king, and B. successfully claimed for the 
 National Assembly. He subsequently, however, 
 became inclined to a more moderate course; the 
 consequences of the sudden changes in the colonies 
 appear first to have alarmed hiTn ; and being sent, 
 along with Latour-Maubourg and Petion, to bring 
 back the king after his flight, he was much moved 
 by the spectacle of the misfortunes of the royal 
 family, and thenceforth endeavoured to render them 
 all the assistance in his power. He defended, in a 
 speech of great vehemence, the inviolabUity of the 
 king's person, and resisted the assertion by the 
 Assembly of power to remove ministers. His 
 general opposition to the increasing -violence of 
 the revolutionary torrent, and this last step in par- 
 ticular, destroyed his popularity; he was regarded 
 as a renegade from the national party, and was 
 assailed by the fierce vituperations of the daily 
 press. He retired to his native place on the dissolu- 
 tion of the National Assembly ; but after the 10th 
 of August 1792, he was impeached, along -with 
 Lametn and Duport-Dutertre, on accoimt of corre- 
 spondence -with the court; was brought to Paris, 
 tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal, condemned, 
 and guillotined on the 29th of November 1793. 
 
 BA'RNET, Chi'pping, a to-wn in the south of 
 Hertfordshire, on a hill-top, 11 miles north-north- 
 west of London. Pop. 2380. It was formerly a 
 great thoroughfare, but since the, advent of railways, 
 its once bustling appearance is sadly altered. Here, 
 in 1471, was fought the famous battle of B. between 
 the Yorkists and Lancastrians, in which the latter, 
 after a desperate struggle, were routed, and their 
 leader, Warwick, ' the tmg-maker,' killed, by which 
 event Edward IV. was firmly established on the 
 throne. A commemorative obelisk is now erected 
 near the spot. 
 
 BA'RNilVELDT, Jan vajt Olden, Grand Pen- 
 sionary of Holland, bom 1549, early shewed great 
 ardour in the cause of the independence of his 
 country. As advocate-general of the pro-vince of 
 Holland, he proved equally his insight into affairs and 
 
 701 
 
BAKNSLBY-BAROMETEE. 
 
 his address in diplomatic management. Penetrating 
 the secret designs of Prince Maurice (q. v.) of 
 Orange, he became the head of the republican party, 
 ■which aimed at subordinating the stadtholder to 
 the legislature. It was he sdso who opposed the 
 warlike tendencies of Maurice, concluded (1609) a 
 truce with Spain, and prevented the States-general 
 from taking part in the revolt of the Bohemians. 
 His increasing influence excited the House of Nassau 
 to stiU greater jealousy, which in the religious con- 
 troversies between the Remonstrants (q.v.) and 
 Gomarists degenerated into the bitterest hostility. 
 With the view of obviating a civil war, B. proposed 
 an ecclesiastical assembly, which resulted m agree- 
 ing to a general toleration in respect of the disputed 
 points. The states at first concurred in this wise 
 measure ; but the intrigues of the Orange party 
 brought about a change of views, by representing 
 the Kemonstrants as secret friends of Spain. B., 
 who sympathised with the more tolerant principles 
 of that party, was attacked in scurrilous publica- 
 tions, and was insulted even in the meeting of the 
 states by the mob, with whom Maurice was an idoL 
 The strife between the Kemonstrants and Gomarists 
 became hotter every day, and threatened to end in 
 civil war. In the meantime, Maurice procured the 
 summoning (1618) of the Synod of Dort (q. v.), which 
 condemned the Eemonstrants with the utmost rigour 
 and injustice. This decision encouraged Maurice to 
 proceed to the most violent measures. Kegardlesa 
 of the opposition of the states, he arrested B. and 
 other chiefs of the Bemonstrants, and got 26 venal 
 judges to condemn as a traitor the innocent man to 
 whom his country owed its political existence. It 
 was in vain that his friends and relations raised 
 their voice; equally vain was the interference of 
 the Dowager Princess of Orange and of the French 
 ambassador; Maurice was not to be moved. On 
 May 13, 1619, the venerable man of 72 years of 
 age mounted the scaffold, and laid down his head 
 with the same firmness that he had shewn through 
 all the events of his life. His sons, WiUiehn and 
 Keng, were at the same time dismissed from office. 
 Wilhehn and the Kemonstrants formed a conspiracy 
 against the Ufe of the prince ; but it was discovered, 
 and Wilbelm escaped to Antwerp. His brother 
 BenS was seized in his stead, and condemned to 
 death, although he had dissuaded WiLhelm from his 
 attempt. The mother, who had not sued in the case 
 of her husband, because he was innocent, now, when 
 there was blame, interceded with the prince for the 
 life of her son ; but in vain ; he, too, was executed, 
 1623. 
 
 BA'RNSLBY, a town in the "West Kiding of York* 
 shire, 39 miles south-west of York, on the river 
 Deaome and the Deame and B. Canal. It is situated 
 on a. hiU, has coal and iron mines, linen manufac- 
 tures, bleaching and dye works, iron foundries, wire- 
 works, and glass-works. The damasks and drills, 
 and the iron- wire made here are said to be unrivalled. 
 Much of the flax spun in Leeds is woven at Bamsley. 
 An explosion in Oak OoUiery in 1847 killed 72 per- 
 sons. Pop. 14,913. 
 
 BA'RNSTAPLE, a town in north-west Devon- 
 shire, on the right bank of the Taw, 6 miles from its 
 mouth, and 34 north-west of Exeter. Being the 
 chief city of north Devon, and occupying a fine 
 healthy situation, it is the residence of many respect- 
 able families. The Taw is here crossed by an 
 ancient bridge of 16 arches, which has been widened 
 by iron- work on each side. In consequende of the 
 river and harbour having become filled up with 
 sand, unfitting them for mge ships, much of the 
 trade of B, has been transferred to.Bideford. It has 
 manufactures of pottery and lace. It sends two 
 
 702 
 
 members to parliament. B. has existed since the 
 reign of Athelstan, who bmlt a castle here. The 
 poet Gay was bom near the town, and educated at 
 its grammar-schooL Pop. 8667. 
 
 BAROCHB, PrEBEB-JuMS, an eminent French 
 politician, was bom at Paris on the 8th November 
 1802. He passed as an advocate in 1823, and dis- 
 tinguished himself by his talents as a pleader. In 
 1847, he was sent to the Chamber of Deputies as 
 representative of Kochefort, took his position among 
 the moderate reform party, and was one of those 
 who signed the accusation drawn up against the 
 Guizot ministry. During the republic, he voted at 
 first valong with the democratic party, but subse- 
 quently supported General Cavaignac, and, after the 
 10th December, the politics of Louis Napoleon. B. 
 was now made Procureur-ggngral of the Republic at 
 the Paris appeal court, in which function he played 
 a conspicuous part. In March 1850, he succeeded 
 Ferdinand Barrot as Minister of the Interior, after 
 which he became a decided Bonapartist, and carried 
 through several restrictive measures, -both commer- 
 cial and political. In April 1851, he was appointed 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, with Leon Faucher as 
 colleague. After the map d!itai of the 2d December 
 1851, B. accepted the vice-presidency of the Consul- 
 tative Commission, and was authorised to make 
 known officially the result of the plebiscitum. Since 
 that period, B. has stood high in favour with the 
 emperor, and in 1855 received the grand cross of the 
 Legion of Honour. 
 
 BARCDA, a city of Guzerat, in lat. 22° 16' N., 
 and long. 73° 14' E. It is 40 nules from Tunkaria, 
 on the Gulf of Cambay, 81 to the north-north-east 
 of Surat, and 231 north of Bombay. It stands on 
 the Biswamintri, which is here crossed by a stone- 
 bridge of singular construction — an upper range of 
 arches resting on a lower one. B. is the residence 
 of the Guicowar, a protected Mahratta prince. 
 Pop. about 140,000; trade considerable. It occu- 
 pies an important position between the coast and 
 the interior. Some years ago, the Guicowar contem- 
 plated the construction of a railway to Tunkaria; 
 and at last English capital is accomplishing a far 
 longer line, which, as its name implies, will connect 
 B. with Bombay in the one direction, and with 
 Central India on the other. 
 
 BARO'MBTER (Gr. baro3, weight; melron, a 
 measure), an instrument for measuring the weight 
 or pressure of the atmosphere. The term is gene- 
 rally understood to refer to one in which the measure 
 is the height of a column of liquid sustained by 
 atmospheric pressure. The fundamental principle 
 of the construction of the B. is best shewn in the 
 experiment which led Torricelli to the first dis- 
 covery of the pressure of the air. A glass tube, 
 about 33 inches in length, open at one end, is 
 completely fiUed with mercury, and, being firmly 
 closed by the thumb, is inverted and placed ver- 
 tically in a cup containing mercury. When the 
 thumb is removed, the mercury sinks in the tube tiU 
 it stands, generally, about 30 inches above the level 
 of the mercury in the cup, leaving in the upper part 
 a space free of air, which receives the name of the 
 Torricellian vacuum (fig. 1). The mercury within 
 the tube being thus removed from the pressure of 
 the air, while that in the cup is exposed to it, the 
 colimm falls, till the pressure at the section of the 
 whole, in the same plane as the surface of the mer- 
 cury in the cup, is the same within and without the 
 tube. A similar experiment is seen when, in a, 
 U-shaped tube, having one branch much wider than 
 the other, a column of mercury in the narrow branch 
 balances a column of water nearly 14 times as high 
 in the other. In the Torricellian experiment, we 
 
BABOMETEB. 
 
 have the air and the space occupied by it taking the 
 place of the wide water branch of the U-shaped tube, 
 and the glass tube and mercury forming the narrow 
 branch, as before ; the narrow branch, however, in 
 this case being closed above, to prevent the air from 
 filling, as it were, both branches. In both cases, the 
 heights of the columns are inversely as the specific 
 gravities of the liquids of which they consist ; and as 
 air is about 10,000 times lighter than mercury, we 
 should have the atrial column 10,000 times 30 inches 
 high. It wiU be found, under Atmosphere, that 
 from the air lessening in density as it ascends, .the 
 height is considerabljr greater. Any changes that 
 take place in the height or density of the agrial 
 column will be met by corresponding changes in the 
 height of the mercurial column, so ttiat as the latter 
 rises or falls, the former increases or diminishes. 
 We have, then, in this simple tube, an infallible 
 index of the varying amount of atmospheric pres- 
 sure, and, in fact, a perfect barometer. The changes, 
 however, are indicated on a scale at least 10,000 
 times diminished, so that the variations in the tube 
 shew very considerable changes in the weight of the 
 atmosphere. If water be used instead of mercury, 
 the water column would be 14, or, more correctly, 
 13'6 times as high as the mercurial column, or about 
 34 feet; and the scale on which the changes' taie 
 place would be correspondingly magnified, so that a 
 water B. should be much more delicate than a mer- 
 curial one. Water is, however, exposed to this 
 serious objection, tha,t its vapour rises into the empty 
 space above, and causes by its elasticity a depression 
 01 the column, the depressions beirjg different for 
 different temperatures. At zero, Fahrenheit, for 
 instance, the depression thus arismg would be 4 an 
 inch, and at 77°, more than 1 foot. It would be 
 doubtful, likewise, at the time of any observation, 
 whether the space referred to w£ls filled with vapour 
 of the elasticity corresponding to the observed exter- 
 nal temperature or not, so that the necessary correc- 
 tion could not with certainty be made. The vapour of 
 mercury, on the other hand, at 77° F. — a temperature 
 considerably above the average — ^produces in the B. a 
 depression of only -jj^ °^ ^^ inch, an amount prac- 
 tically iaappreciable. After 200 years of experience 
 and invention, we have yet no better index of the 
 pressure of the atmosphere than the simple mercurial 
 column of TorriceUi, and in all exact observations it 
 is taken as the only reliable standard. 
 
 Simple as the B. is, its construction demands 
 considerable care and experience. It is of the first 
 importance that the mercury to be used is chemically 
 pure, otherwise its fluidity is impaired, and the inside 
 of the tube becomes coated witii impurities in such 
 a way aa to render correct observation impossible. 
 Mercury as usually sold, is not pure ; and before being 
 employed for barometers, must be shaken well with 
 highly dilute but pure nitric aeid, to remove extra- 
 neous metals and oxides. The same object is effected 
 more thoroughly by keeping it several weeks in 
 contact with the dilute acid, stirring every now 
 and then. After either process, the metal must be 
 thoroughly washed with distilled water, and dried. 
 In fillin g the tube, it is essentially necessary to get 
 the column free from air and moisture. To effect 
 this, the mercury, after filling, is boiled in the tube, 
 80 that air and moisture may be expelled, partly by 
 the heat, and .partly by the vapour of the mercury.- 
 This process demands great experience and skill, 
 but the same end may be more easily and as effectu- 
 ally attained by boiling the mercury, in the first 
 instance, in an atmosphere of carbonic acid, and then 
 pouring it into the previousljr heated tube by a filler 
 reaching to the bottom of it. Sucfi care is only 
 ejcpended on the best instruments ; ordinary weather- 
 glasses, not needing to be quite accurate, are more 
 
 simply filled. Notwithstanding all these precautions, 
 minute bubbles, of air manage to keep secreted, and 
 creep up in the course of time into the TorriceUian 
 vacuum. When the space above the column is 
 considerable, these become, as it were, lost in it, and 
 produce no sensible depression, and this, of course, 
 must be' kept in view in the construction. 
 
 Barometers are usually divided into two classes^- 
 cistem barometers, and siphon barometers. The 
 simplest form of the cistern B. is that shewn in 
 fig. 1, which only requires to be set properly in a 
 frame, and provided with a scale, to make it com- 
 plete. Fig. 2 presents another form of that class, 
 being that generally seen in weather-glasses or 
 
 W 
 
 Figs. 1, 2, 
 
 ordinary barometers. The tube is bent at the 
 bottom, and the cistern is merely an expansion of 
 the lower end. Very generally, the cistern is hidden 
 from view, and protected from injury by a wooden 
 cover in front. There are two causes of inaccutacy 
 in cistern barometers — one being the capillarity 
 arising from the mercury not wetting the tube, 
 which tends to lower the column; and the other 
 being the difference of level in the cistern caused 
 by the fluctuations in the tube, which renders the 
 readings on the fixed scale above at one time too 
 great, and at another too small, according as this 
 level rises above pr falls below the original level 
 from which the scale was measured. The effect of 
 capillarity may be avoided by using tubes of more 
 than half an inch in bore, in which the depression 
 becomes so small, that it may be left out of account; 
 and in smaller tubes it may be estimated from 
 tables constructed for the purpose. Wide tubes 
 have the additional advantage, that atmospheric 
 changes are seen earher in fiaem than in narrow 
 tubes, there being less friction in the former than 
 in the latter, fl is worthy of notice, that the 
 capillary depression is less in boiled than in unboiled 
 tubes, in consequence of the admixture of a minute 
 quantity of the oxide of mercury, formed in the 
 process of boiling, which lessens the repulsion 
 between the mercury and glass. With reference to 
 the error of level, it must be borne in mind that 
 the height of the column sustained by the atmo- 
 sphere is always to be reckoned from the lower 
 level. This error becomes all the less the larger 
 the capacity of the cistern is compared with that 
 of the tube, for then a very considerable rise or faU 
 in the tube, when spread over the surface of the 
 cistern, makes only a slight difference of level in it. 
 ' . J03 
 
BAROMETER. 
 
 Care must be taken, fken, in ordinary barometers, 
 to make tlie cistern as large as possible. The only 
 B. in wkicli the error of level is completely obviated, 
 ia that invented by Fortin, which, from its being in 
 every respect the moat perfect cistern B., deserves 
 particular notice. The cistern, and the lower 
 portion of the tube of this B., is shewn in fig. 3. 
 The cistern is made of boxwood, with a movable 
 leather bottom, bb, and a, glass cylinder is inserted 
 into it above, all except the glass being encased in 
 brass. In the bottom of the brass box a screw 
 works, on the upper end of which the leather ^ests,' 
 80 that by the sending in or taking out of the screw, 
 
 the bottom of the cistern, and with it the cistern 
 level of the mercury, can be raised or depressed at 
 will. A small ivory pin, p, ending in a fine point, 
 is fixed to the upper frame of the cistern j and 
 when an observation is made, the surface of the 
 ineroury is made to coincide with the point of the 
 pin as the standard level from which the barometric 
 column is to be measured. The tube of the B. — 
 the upper part of which is shewn in fig. 4 — ^is 
 enclosed in one of brass, which has two directly 
 opposite slits in it for shewing the height of the 
 column, and on the sides of these the graduation is 
 marked. A brass collar, cc, slides upon the tube 
 with a vernier (q. v.), w, marked on it for reading 
 the height with the greatest exactness, and in which 
 two oblong holes are cut, A little wider than the 
 slits in the brass tube. When a reading is taken, 
 the collar is so placed that the last streak of light 
 ia cut off by the two upper edges of the holes, or 
 until they form a tangent to the convex mercurial 
 curve. By this means, the observer is sure that hia 
 eye is on a level with the top of the column, and 
 that the reading is taken exactly for this point. 
 This is the contrivance usually adopted to prevent 
 the error of paraDax, or that caused by the eye 
 being slightly above or below the top of the column, 
 by which the scale and the top of the column are 
 projected too high or too low, the one upon the 
 other, as the case may be. The only other 
 arrangement worthy of mention for effecting the 
 704 
 
 same object is that by Weber, who etches the 
 scale on a piece of silverised glass placed over 
 one side of the tube; and when— the mirror and 
 tube being vertical— the image of the eye appears 
 along with the vertex of the column, the eye 
 is in the same horizontal line with it. Portin's 
 B. is generally arranged so as to be portable, in 
 which case the screw, s, is sent in untU the mer- 
 cury fills the whole cistern, by which the air is 
 kept from entering the tube during transport, the 
 leather yielding suf&Tiiently at the same time to 
 aUqw for expansion from increase of temperature. 
 It packs in a case, which serves as a tripod when 
 the instrument is mounted for use. On this tripod 
 it is suspended about the middle, swinging upon 
 two axes at right angles to each other, so that the 
 cistern may act the part of a plimamet in keeping 
 the tube vertical — ^the position essential to aU correct 
 measurements. 
 
 The siphon B. consists of a tube bent in the form 
 of a siphon, having the same diameter at the lower 
 as at the upper end. Fig. 6 represents a simple 
 form of it. The tube travels along the board on 
 which it ia placed by passing easily through fixed 
 rings or collars of brasa. A scale, cUvided in inches 
 and parta of an inch, is fixed on the upper part of 
 the board; and when an observation is taken, the 
 tube is adjusted by the screw, «, workiog below it, 
 so that the top oi the lower mercurial column may 
 be on, a level with the fixed mark, a, which is the 
 point from which the fixed scale ia measured. In 
 the best forms of the siphon B., both tube and scale 
 are fixed, the latter being graduated upwards and 
 downwards from a zero-pomt near the middle of 
 the tube, and the^height of the column is ascertained 
 by adding the distances from it of the upper and 
 lower levels. The siphon B. is in many respects a 
 more perfect instrument than the cistern barometer. 
 In the first place, the bore at the upper and lower 
 ends of the tube being the same, the depression arising 
 from capillarity is alike for both, and the error from 
 this cause disappears in taking the difference of the 
 heights. In the second place, since the final reading 
 is got from a reference to both upper and lower 
 surfaces, the error in the cistern B. produced by the 
 different capacities of the tube and cistern, is effec- 
 tually avoided. On the other hand, the taking of 
 two readings, one for each colmnn, ia a serious 
 addition to the labour of observation. Gay-Lussac'a 
 siphon B. (fig. 6) is bent near the bottom, so as to 
 allow of the Tower branch being placed in the same 
 straight line as the upper one — a position highly 
 favourable to accurate observation. When con- 
 structed for transport, the tube at the bend is 
 narrowed, as in the figure, to a capillary width, which 
 effectually excludes the air ; and when the tube is 
 inverted (fig. 7), being the position in which it is 
 carried, the mercury is nearly all held in the longer 
 branch. Such a tube when mounted, like Fortm'a 
 B., makes an excellent travelling instrument, and 
 ia comparatively light, from the small quantity of 
 mercury it contains. See AurBBom Bakombtee, 
 
 The wheel B., originally invented by Hook, and 
 generally seen as a parlour ornament, has little to 
 recommend it as a trustworthy instrument. Fig. 
 8 shews the main features of its construction. It 
 is essentially an ordinary B. like the siphon 
 B. belov^, but having a cistern above, to increase 
 the amount of vanation in the lower branch. 
 A small piece of iron or glass, /, floats on the open 
 surface, and a thread ia attached to it, and paaaed 
 over a small wheel, a,, fixed to a horizontal axis, 
 to which it is kept tight by a small weight, c, 
 hanging at the other end. A pointer, p, is fixed to 
 the other extremity of the horizontal axis, which 
 moves to the right or left of the dial, dd, according 
 
BAROMETEK— BAROMBTZ. 
 
 as the mercury falls Or rises in the lower branch. 
 The gi-eat sweep which the index taliea, as compared 
 with the comparatively minute variations of the 
 mercurial column, is the only merit of this instru- 
 ment. It is easy to see, that with so much inter- 
 vening between the mercury and the index, the 
 chances of error from friction and other causes are 
 very considerable. 
 
 ; The correction of the B. for temperature is of 
 importance. Meromy expands -^^ of its bulk for 
 every degree of Fahrenheit's theiinometer ; conse- 
 quently, a column of 30 inches at 32° P., or the 
 freezing-point, would, at 65° F., for instance, be 
 "V^lft? times 30 inches, or nearly ^ of an inch 
 longer, for 30 -^ inches of mercury at 60° produce 
 the same pressure as 30 inches tjf it at 32°. In 
 order, therefore, that aU observations may be com- 
 pared correctly with each other, the observed 
 hgights are reduced to what they would be at 32° 
 F. as a standard temperature. The rule for reduc- 
 tion is very simple : Multiply the number of 
 degrees above or below 32" F. by the observed 
 height, divide the product by 9990, and subtract or 
 add the quotient from or to the observed height 
 for the reduced height. Corrections are sometimes 
 also made for the expansion of the scale, but this 
 is almost needless refinement. 
 
 The variations of the B. are found to be both 
 periodical and accidental. Periodical variations are 
 those taking place at stated and regular intervals, 
 and accidental, such as have no regular period of 
 reovurence. The only truly periodical variation is 
 the daily one, which amounts to about j^ of an 
 inch, although the accidental variations, when taken 
 on the average, constitute something like periodical 
 variatioite at the different seasons of the year. Acci- 
 dental variations have a range of about 3 inches. 
 See Atmospheee. 
 
 The uses of the B. may be classified into physical, 
 hypsometrical, and meteorological. It is of essential 
 use in all physical researches where the mechanical, 
 optical, acoustical, and chemical properties , of air 
 or other gases are dependent on the pressure of the 
 atmosphere. Its use in hypsometry, or the art of 
 measuring the heights of mountains, is very valuable. 
 When a B. is at the foot of a mountain, the pressure 
 it sustains is greater than that which it experiences 
 at the top by the weight of the column of air inter- 
 vening between the top and bottom. A formula of 
 considerable complexity is given by mathematicians 
 for finding very nearly the true height of a moun- 
 tain from barometrical and thennometrical obser- 
 vations made at its base and summit, the interpre- 
 tation of which does not come within the compass 
 of this work. The foUowmg rules give very nearly 
 the same result : 1. Reduce the mercurial heights 
 at both stations to 32° F. 2. Take the logarithms of 
 the corrected heights, subtract them, and multiply 
 the result by 10,000, to give the approximate height 
 in fathoms of the upper above the lower station. 
 3. Take the mean of the temperature at both stations, 
 take the difference between this mean and 32, 
 multiply the difference by the approximate height, 
 and divide the product by 435. This last result is 
 to' be added to the approximate height, if the mean 
 temperature is above 32, and subtracted, if below, 
 to find the true height in fathoms, A Fortin's or 
 G-ay-Lussao's B. is employed in measuring heights. 
 
 The best known use of the B. is as a meteoro- 
 logical instrument, or as a weather-glass. Expe- 
 rience has attached to certain heights of the B. 
 certain states of weather, and at certain points 
 of the scale the words 'Rain,' 'Changeable,' 'Fair,' 
 &c., are marked, although the colinection thus insti- 
 tuted is by no means invariable. Many of those 
 
 who have observed most carefully the connection of 
 barometric heights with states and changes of the 
 weather, are inclined to discard entirely the use of 
 these terms, and they tell us that it is the tendency 
 rather than the actual position of the column which 
 prognosticates the nature of the coming weather. 
 Several elaborate codes of rules have been drawn up 
 to serve as a key to the variations, but as these are 
 more or less of a local character, they would be out 
 of place here. Generally speaking, a falling B. 
 indicates rain, a rising B., fair weather. A steady 
 B. foretells a continuance of the weather at the 
 time; when low, this is generaEy broken or bad, 
 and when high, fair. A sudden fall usually precedes 
 a storm, the violence of which is in proportion to 
 the suddenness of the fall. An unsteady B. shews 
 an unsettled state of weather; gradual changes, 
 the approach of some permanent condition of it. 
 The variations must also be interpreted with refer- 
 ence to the prevailing winds, each different wind 
 having some pecuhar rules. The connection between 
 changes of weather and the pressure of the atmo- 
 sphere is by no means well understood. One reason 
 is given, which may to some extent account for the 
 B. being lower in wet than in dry weather — viz., that 
 so long as aqueous matter remains in the air in the 
 form of elastic vapour, its elasticity assists in sup- 
 porting the barometric column ; but when it is pre- 
 cipitated in the form of rain, this force is lost, and 
 the column accordingly falls. The connection may, 
 however, with more reason, be attributed to the 
 nature of the winds than to anything else. The 
 south and south-west winds, which are, in Western 
 Europe, more than any other, the rain-bringing 
 winds, are warm winds. Now, a column of warm 
 air, to be of the same weight as one of cold air, 
 must be higher ; but this it cannot well be in the 
 atmosphere, for no sooner does the 'warm column, 
 by its hghtness, rise above the surrounding level of 
 the upper surface of the aerial ocean, than it flows 
 over, and becomes nearly of the same height as the 
 cold air around it. The interchange taking place 
 less interruptedly, and consequently less slowly, in 
 the higher strata than in those near the ground, it 
 is some time before the equilibrium thus disturbed 
 is restored, and meanwhile the B. keeps low under 
 the pressure of a rarer atmospheric column. On 
 the other hand, the northerly and easterly winds, 
 being comparatively cold and dry, are accompanied 
 with fair weather and a high barometer. It is thus 
 to the warmth, and not to the moisture of these 
 winds that the low pressiire is to be ascribed. So 
 far, then, as this reason holds, the rain attendant on 
 a low B., as well as the fine weather accompanying 
 a high B., are the accidents of our geographical 
 position — of our having the land to the east, and 
 the ocean to the west of us. On the La Plata river, 
 things are the reverse of what they are with us; 
 there the cold south-east wind, coming from the 
 ocean, brings raia with a high B., and the land 
 winds, warmed by the , plains of South America, 
 maintain fine weather with a low barometer. That 
 the temperature, and not the moisture of the air, is 
 at least an important cause of the changes of the 
 B. is also shewn by the fact, that in the tropics, 
 where the variations of temperature are slight com- 
 pared with the temperate zones, the B. experiences 
 almost no change, being as high in the rainy as in 
 the dry season. 
 
 BA'EOMETZ, or Tartarian or Scythian Lamb, 
 the prostrate stem (rhizome) of a fern (Aspidium 
 Sarometz) which grows in the salt-plains near the 
 Caspian Sea. It is shaggy with a silky down, 
 and has a sort of general resemblance to an 
 animal. In the days of ignorant credulity, when 
 the story of the phcenix was received as a truth of 
 •^ 705 
 
BAEON. 
 
 natviral history, and barnacles were believed to grow 
 into geese, and liorses' hairs into eels, marveUoua 
 tales were told of the B., which was supposed to 
 partake of the natures of a plant and an animal, 
 to grow on a stalk, and eat grass like a lamb, &e. 
 Ermau (Travels in Siberia) supposes that the fables 
 regarding the B. may have some connection with the 
 cotton plant. 
 
 BA'ROST. This term, aa to the origin of which 
 much difference of opinion exists, is probably derived 
 from the Latin word baro (aUied to vir, a man, a 
 hero), which originally signified a stupid, brutal 
 man, afterwards came to signify a man simply, 
 and latterly, by one of those strange transmuta- 
 tions which are not uncommon in language, a 
 man pre-eminently, or a person of distinction. 
 Teutonic, Celtic, and even Hebrew derivations 
 have also been assigned to the word ; but the fact 
 of its having been introduced into this country 
 by the Normans, seems in favour of a Romanic 
 origin. It is now the title which we apply to the 
 lowest degree of hereditary nobility. The degree 
 of B. forms a species of landing-place, corresponding 
 amongst noblemen, in a certain sense, to that of 
 gentleman, at a lower stage of the social pyramid. It 
 was in this sense that the word was used in former 
 times to include the whole nobility of England, 
 because all noblemen were barons, whatever might 
 be the higher ranks in the peerage which they occu- 
 lted. The word peer has recently come to be used 
 with the same signification, perhaps because it is 
 no longer necessarily the case that every nobleman 
 should be a B., there being instances in which 
 earldoms and other honours have been given with- 
 out a barony being attached to them, and in which 
 the barony has been separated from the higher 
 degree by following a different order of descent. 
 The general theory of the constitution, however, 
 still is, that it is as barons that all the peers sit in 
 the upper house ; and it is on this ground that the 
 archbishops and bishops are said to sit in virtue of 
 their baronies. The distinction into greater and lesser 
 barons seems from an early period to have obtained 
 in most of the countries of Europe. The greater 
 barons, who were the king's chief tenants, held their 
 lands directly, or m capite, as it was called, of 
 the crown; whilst the lesser held of the greater by 
 the tenure of military service. The greater barons, 
 who corresponded to the Freiherren (free lords) of 
 Germany, had a perpetual summons to attend the 
 great councils of the nation ; whereas the latter were 
 simunoned only in case of their lands embracing 
 a certain extent, which in England was thirteen 
 knights' fees and a quarter. See Knight's Fee. 
 Wien the representation of the middle class in 
 England came to be confided to the knights of 
 the shire and burgesses of towns, the minor barons 
 ceased to receive the royal summons, and by 
 degrees the title B. came to be applied to the 
 greater barons, or lords of parliament, as they were 
 called, exclusively. For an account of the barons 
 of England immediately after the Conquest, and 
 of the lands which they held, see DooMSDAy-BooK. 
 The habit of conferring the rank of B. by letters- 
 patent, by which it was converted into a mere title 
 of honour, apart from the possession of landed pro- 
 perty or of territorial jurisdiction, was first, intro- 
 duced by King Kichard 11., who, in 1388, created 
 John Beauchamp, of Holt Castle, B. of Kidder- 
 minster. In Grermany, the old barons of the empire 
 were for the most part raised to the dignity of grafs 
 (counts) and princes ; whilst the lesser, ia place of 
 passing into the ranks of the untitled gentry, as in 
 England, constituted a grade of the lower nobility, 
 to which no duties were assigned, and scarcely any 
 political privileges belonged. 
 
 706 
 
 When a B. is simunoned to the House of Lords by 
 
 writ, a letter, in the sovereign's name, directs him to 
 repair to the parliament, to be holden at a specified 
 time and place, to advise with his sovereign, the 
 prelates, and nobles, about the weighty affairs of 
 the nation. On the arrival of the new peer, he is 
 presented by two barons to the lord-chanceUor, his 
 patent or writ being carried by a king-at-arms. This 
 having been read by the chaacellor, he congratulates 
 him on becoming a member of the House of Peers, 
 and invests him with his robe. The oaths are then 
 administered by the clerk of parliament, and the 
 new B. is conducted to a seat on the barons' bench. 
 In addition to barons by writ and barons by patent, 
 barons by prescription are usually mentioned, but 
 incorrectly according to Blackstone, who remarks 
 that ' those who claim by prescription must suppose 
 either a writ or patent made to their ancestors, 
 though by length of time it is lost.' (Kerr's Ed., 
 vol. i. p. 406.) There are some distinctions between 
 a creation by writ and by patent which ought to be 
 mentioned. 'The creation by writ,' says Black- 
 stone, ' is the more ancient way, but a man is not 
 ennobled thereby, unless he actually takes his seat 
 in the House of Lords ; and some are of opinion 
 that there must be at least two writs of summons, 
 and a sitting in two distinct parliaments, to evidence 
 an hereditary barony.' In consequence of the incon- 
 venience thus attending it, the creation by writ may 
 now be considered as obsolete, although the eldest 
 son of a peer is stiU frequently called up to parlia- 
 ment by means of it, there being in that case no 
 danger of the children losing their nobiKty even 
 shoidd their father never take his seat. But though 
 creation by patent is thus in general the surest way 
 of insuring the hereditary character of the peerage, 
 it labours imder one disadvantage as compared with 
 a creation by writ — viz., that whereas in the latter 
 case the dignity once insured by possession, passes 
 to the heirs of the holder without any words to 
 that purpose, in the former there must be words 
 to direct the inheritance, else the dignity endures 
 only to the grantee for life. Where the patent, 
 again, in place of being silent as to the succession, 
 expressly sets forth that the dignity is for life merely, 
 it was held, in the Wensleydale case, that it does 
 not make the grantee a lord of parliament at all. 
 
 The coronation and parliamentary robes of a 
 B. differ very sHghtly from those of an earl. 
 The right of wearing a coronet was conferred 
 on barons for the first time by King Charles 
 II. ; their head-dress till then having consisted 
 of a cap of crimson velvet, lined with ermine, 
 and having a plain gold band. 
 A baron's coronet is adorned 
 with six pearls, set at equal dis- 
 tances on the chaplet. Coronets 
 are worn only on great occasions 
 of state ceremonial. In ordinary 
 garb, there is nothing to distin- 
 guish a B. from a commoner. A 
 B. has the title of ' Eight Honourable Lord,' &c., 
 and is addressed as ' My Lord,' or ' Your Lordship.' 
 His wife has also the title of ' Eight Honourable,' 
 and is addressed as ' Madam,' or 'Your Ladyship.' 
 A B., in signing, sinks his Christian and family sur- 
 name, and subscribes his titular dpsignatiou. His 
 children enjoy the prefix of Honourable, as the 
 ' Honourable Mr' — mentioning Christian and sur- 
 name. In literature and conversation, a deceased B. 
 is referred to by his Christian name, according to his 
 number in the list of peers of the same title, as 
 ' Henry, eighth baron.'— The Barons of Exchequer 
 (q. V.) and of the Cinque Ports (q. v.) are examples 
 stfll existing of the ancient barons by office. 
 
 In the United Kingdom, there are persons who 
 
 Baron's Coronet. 
 
BARON AND FEME— BARONIUS. 
 
 posaeas the title of B. imparted by some foreign 
 power; as, for example, 'Baron Eothschild.' No 
 Buoli honour can be legally enjoyed -without the 
 consent of the sovereign; but at best the title la only 
 honorary, and oommunioatea no special privilsgea. 
 A good article on the Baronage will be found in 
 the Oyclopmdia of Political Knowledge, published by 
 Bohn, London, 1853. See Peee. 
 
 BA'RON AND FEME, or FEMME. These are 
 two Norman-French words used in English law- 
 books to denominate Husband aud Wife (q. v.) ; 
 and see Mabbiage. 
 
 BA'BON AND FBMMB, in Heraldry, is the 
 expression used to deaignate the bearing by which the 
 arms of husband and wife are carried per pale, or 
 marshalled side by side on the same snield. The 
 husband's arms are always carried on the dexter side. 
 Where the wife is an heiress — i. e., the represent- 
 ative of her father's house — ^her husband carries her 
 arms, not per pale, but in a shield of pretence ; and 
 they are quartered with the paternal coat by the 
 issue of the marriage. 
 
 BA'RON OF BEEF, a large piece of beef, con- 
 sisting of both sides of the back, or a double sirloin, 
 and weighing, according to the size of the animal, 
 from 50 to 100 Iba. This monstrously large piece of 
 beef, roasted, ia served only on particular festive 
 occasions at the English court, and at great public 
 entertainments. When served according to ancient 
 custom at civic feasts in Guildhall, London, the B. 
 is honoured with a distinguished place on a kiud of 
 elevated rostrum, where it is ceremoniously carved 
 for the assembled guests. The term B. probably 
 originated in a fanciful allusion to the word sirloin ; 
 inasmuch as a haron is superior in rank to a sir. 
 
 BA'RONET. This title, which ia the diminutive 
 of baron, is the lowest degree of hereditary honour 
 in the United Kingdom. Baronets were instituted, 
 for the first itime, by King James I., on the 22d 
 May 1611. The ostensible object was to promote 
 the plantation of Ulster, in Ireland, with Bnghsh 
 and Scottish settlers ; but the real aim was to raise 
 money. Each B. was bound to maintain 30 soldiers 
 in Ireland for 3 years, at the rate of 8d. per diem for 
 each man ; the wages of one whole year to be paid 
 into the exchequer on the passing of the patent. 
 The sum thus exacted, with the fees of honour due 
 to the officers, amounted to upwards of £1000 on 
 each patent. It is a striking proof of the passion for 
 hereditary distinction, that 200 persons were willing 
 to accept the honour on such terms. It was part of 
 the bargain that no title should be created between 
 a B. and a baron, and that the number of the 
 former should be permitted to diminish as the 
 families of the original 200 died out, thus enhancing 
 the value of the title to those that remained. But 
 the latter stipulation was very speedily departed 
 from, and a new commission was appointed to fill 
 up the vacant places, and even to treat with new 
 appHcants. Such was the origin of English baronets. 
 Rom the date of the Union, in 1706, those created 
 in England and Scotland were baronets of Great 
 Britain. Irish baronets were created until 1800, 
 since which period aU baronetcies are of the United 
 Kingdom. There is no limit to the creation of 
 baronets but the will of the sovereign. At investi- 
 ture there is no ceremony. The rank ia communi- 
 cated by patent or writ, iasued under authority 
 of the crown ; the feea of office being conaiderable. 
 There are diflferences in the terms on which the 
 honour descends (suggested, perhaps, by the recipient 
 according to family circumstances). Sometimes, 
 according to the patent, the rank is confined to 
 direct heirs-male ; sometimes it embraces heirs- 
 male collateral ; and sometimes, in default of direct 
 
 male heirs, it passes to the husbands of heirs-female. 
 Por.the style and privileges of Baronets, in matters 
 of ceremony, see Burke's Peerage amd Baronetage. It 
 may here be mentioned, however, that baronets have 
 precedence of aU knights, except those of the Garter, 
 bannerets, and privy-counciUora. They are entitled 
 to have Sir prefixed to their name, along with B. as 
 an affix; which is their ordinary title, liie wife of a 
 B. is legally styled Dame; but in common speech 
 she is called Lady, and addressed as ' Your Lady- 
 ship.' The rank of B. does not raise a person 
 above the degree of commoner ; but many baronetcies 
 have, in course of time, been heritably acquired by 
 peers, which lessens the ostensible number. 
 
 Baronets of Scotland and Nova Scotia originated 
 in a project of James I. ; but were not instituted tdl 
 1625, by Charles I. The professed object was to 
 encourage the settlement of Nova Scotia in North 
 America ; and a grant of a certain portion of land 
 in that province, to be held of Sir William Alex- 
 ander, afterwards Earl of Stirhng, who was then 
 his majesty's Heutenant in Nova Scotia, actually 
 accompanied the title — the grants of land being of 
 course illusory, for their very designations were a 
 fiction. The first person who received the honour 
 of a Nova Sootian baronetcy was Robert Gordon of 
 Gordonstone, a younger son of the Earl of Suther- 
 land, whose patent bears date May 28, 1625. There 
 are no new additions to this branch of the Tjaronet- 
 age ; the latest creation having been in 1706, the 
 year of the Union of Scotland and England. In 
 point of title and popular recognition, there ia no 
 distinction between these and other baronets. 
 
 BARO'NIUS, C^SAB, an eminent Roman Cath- 
 ohc ecclesiastical historian, born at Sora, in Naples, 
 on the 30th October 1538, and educated at Naples 
 and Rome. He was one of the first pupils of St 
 Philip Neri, who foimded the congregation of the 
 Oratory, of which B. became superior in 1593. He 
 soon after became Father Confessor to the Pope, 
 Apostolical Prothonotary, and finally, in 1596, 
 Cardinal, and Librarian of the Vatican Library. 
 On the death of Clement VIII., in 1605, 30 voted m 
 conclave for the election of B. as Pope ; and but for 
 the opposition of the Spaniards, who were indignant 
 at him for his treatise De Monarchia Sicilice, in 
 which he argued against Spain's claim to that coun- 
 try, he might have been elected. The controversy 
 against the work called the Magdeburg Centuries 
 (q. v.), which had already been weakly attempted 
 by Muzio in 1570, seemed at that time the most 
 important undertaking ■ for the learning of the 
 Church of Rome. B. entered upon this controversy 
 with great energy and in a position most favoiu-able 
 for access to authorities, composing his Annates 
 Ecclesiastid a Ghristo nato ad ann. 1198 (12 vols., 
 Rome, 1588 — 1607), in which work he laboured tiU 
 his death, 30th May 1607. As his object was to 
 prove that the Church of Rome has not departed 
 ki doctrine or constitution from the Christian 
 Church of the 1st c, B. has been accused of not 
 using his authorities according to their proper histori- 
 cal sense, but artfully concealing, obscuring, and 
 falsifying many things — sometimes, perhaps, from 
 ignorance of the Greek, but more frequently with 
 design. His Annals have been frequently reprinted, 
 but the reprints are often incorrect and incomplete. 
 The most recent, provided with copious notes, &c., 
 and contaimng Pagi's Critical Examination and 
 Rinaldi's continuation, although not yet enturely 
 correct, is the edition of Mansi (43 vols., 1738— 
 1757). The Gritica in Annates JEcdesiasticos Baronii 
 of Anthony Pagi, the Franciscan (4 vols., Antwerp, 
 1705, improved by Francis Pa^, Antwerp, 1724), 
 corrects B. in many points, eapecially of chronologj'. 
 Among the continuations of the Annals, all of 
 * 707 
 
BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER- BAEEACKS. 
 
 ■which are inferior in value to the work itself, the 
 most rich in matter are that of Bzovius, extending 
 to 1572 (9 vols., Rome, 1616—1672), and that of 
 Rinaldi (10 vols., Rome, 1646 — 1677), who availed 
 himself of the materials left by B., for the period 
 from 119S to 1571. Amongst the other works of B., 
 his publication of the Martyrologium Romanum 
 deserves to be noticed (Rome, 1586, and repeatedly). 
 
 BA'KONS OF THE EXCHE'QUER. See 
 ExcHEQUEE, Barons or; OoMMOisr Law; Couets 
 OF Common Law ; RBVENtrE. 
 
 BA'SONY is, or, it may rather be said, was a 
 manorial and hereditary right arising out of land, 
 known to the law both of England and Scotland. 
 In England, manors were formerly called baronies. 
 In the Scotch law, a right of B. is a right in 
 relation to lands which have been erected, or at 
 least confirmed by a clause in crown -charters 
 making the grant in liberam haroniam, as it is 
 called ; and by the crown alone coiild such a right 
 be conferred. It involved a civU and criminal 
 jurisdiction to which, in theory, all the inhabitants 
 of the B. lands were amenable. But such juris- 
 diction has, by modern legislation, been so limited 
 and obstructed as scarcely ever to be exercised; 
 and, indeed, in regard to the right of B. itself, the 
 clause in crown-charters erecting baronies has, since 
 the aboHtion o£ heritable jmdsdlctions by the 20th 
 Geo. II. 0. 43, become obsolete. But by the 35 Geo. 
 III. t. 122, they are permitted on the sea-coast for 
 encouragement of fisheries, and the bailies thereof 
 (see Bailie) are to have the powers of justices of 
 the peace. In England, the lord or baron of the 
 manor may' hold his CoTiRT Baron (q. v. ; see also 
 Manor, Jurisdiction). 
 
 BARO'SMA. See Buoku. 
 
 BARQUE, or BARIC, is a name frequently given 
 to ships, but with no veiy definite meaning. Some- 
 times it denotes simply a ship of small size ; some- 
 times a broad-sterned vessel without a figure-head ; 
 
 Barque. 
 
 but more technically it applies to three-masted 
 vessels whose mizzen-sails are fore-and-aft instead 
 of being square. An armed B. is one variety of a 
 special sort of vessel noticed in another article. 
 See Armed Ship. « 
 
 BARR, or BATIRA, a petty Mandingo kingdom 
 of Western Africa, at the mouth of the Gambia, 
 with an estimated area of about 250 square leagues, 
 and a population of 200,000, the males being remark- 
 able for their fine proportions. The surface, which 
 is fertile, but rather marshy, is well cultivated. 
 
 BA'RRA, a pleasant suburban town of Naples, 
 about 3 miles east of the capital, with a population 
 of 12,000. It has numerous fine coimtry residences. 
 
 BA'RRA, a small island near the south extremity 
 703 
 
 of the Hebrides, Scotland, belonging to Inverness- 
 shire, and 42 miles west of Ardnamurchan Point ; 
 lat. of Barra-head, 56° 48' N., lon§. 7° 38' W. It is 
 8 mUes long, and 2 to 4 broad, with deep inlets of 
 the sea. A low sandy isthmus, over which the sea 
 nearly breaks at high water, connects the two parts 
 into which B. is divided. The south or larger part 
 contains a rocky mountain, 2000 feet high, and is 
 divided into small valleys. The island is formed 
 of gneiss. The soil is sandy, but sheep and cattle 
 are fed on the hiU and meadow pastures. Pop. 
 1624, chiefly Roman Catholics, speaking Gaelic 
 with great purity ; and among the most industrious 
 of Scottish fishermen. Their boats are sharp fore 
 and aft, and are built by the fishermen themselves, 
 who engage extensively in the cod, ling, herring, 
 and shefl-fish fisheries. 200 horse-loads of sheU-fish 
 (cockles, limpets, muscles, razor-fish, lobsters, crabs) 
 have been taken off the sands in one day during the 
 summer spring-tides. The light-house on Barra- 
 head, the loftiest in Britain, is 680 feet above the 
 sea, and is seen 33 mUes off. 
 
 BARRACKPO'RE, a native town and miHtary 
 cantonment on the left or east bank of the Hoogly, 
 and 16 miles up the stream from Calcutta, in lat. 
 22° 46' N., and long. 88° 26' E. On account of the 
 salubrity of its air, B. is a favourite retreat for 
 Europeans from Calcutta, the governor-general 
 having here his country residence. In fact, B. 
 appears to have long enjoyed this kind of distinc- 
 tion; Mr Job Charnock, the founder of Calcutta, 
 having erected a bungalow here as far back as 
 1689. In 1857, B. became famous as the cradle of 
 the formidable mutiny or rebellion of that year. 
 Several regiments of native troops were stationed at 
 Barrackpore. The men objected to bite off the ends 
 of the cartridges for the Enfield rifle, believing the 
 paper to be polluted by animal fat. The troubles 
 connected herewith — a mere prelude to the fatal 
 outbreak at Meerut in May — commenced about the 
 beginning of February, and continued to assume 
 various degrees of intensity, till at last two regi- 
 ments of Bengal native infantry had to be disbanded 
 —the 19th, on 31st March ; and the 34th, on 5th May. 
 It was in the last-named corps that the first blood 
 woidd appear to have been drawn, an intoxicated 
 sepoy having attacked and wounded his officer. 
 Lieutenant Baugh, with sword and pistol This 
 fellow, whose name was Mungal Pandy, would seem 
 to have had the equivocal honour of giving the 
 local designation of Pandies to the entire body of 
 insurgents. 
 
 BA'RRACKS are permanent structures for the 
 accommodation of soldiers, as distinguished from 
 huts and tents. Originally, the word, derived from 
 the Spanish harrimas, applied to small cabins or 
 huts ; but in England, the term is now always 
 considered to relate to structures of brick or stone. 
 Great opposition was made in this country to the 
 introduction of permanent B. during the early part 
 of the last century, on the ground that the liberty 
 of the subject might possibly be endangered by 
 thus separating the soldiery so completely from the 
 citizens, and placing them in the hands of the ruling 
 power. On the other hand, it was contended that 
 the older system of bUleting the soldiers on the 
 people is vexatious and burdensome ; and that the 
 morals of towns-people and villagers are liable to be 
 vitiated by the constant presence of soldiers. The 
 permanent B. were few in number down to the 
 year 1792, when George III. obtained the con- 
 sent of parHameut for the construction of several 
 new ones, and for the founding of the office of 
 barrack-master-general. Various changes in the 
 arrangements were made from time to time. The 
 
BARRACOON— BAERAS. 
 
 expenditiire for B., iii building, rebuilding, enlar- 
 ging, and repairing, between 1793 and 1804, was 
 £4,100,000; between 1804 and 1819, £3,220,000; 
 and between 1819 and 1859 (including Aldershott 
 B.), upwards of £7,000,000. It has been found, on 
 a detailed examination, that in 17 B., constructed 
 between 1832 and 1857, the cost varied from £27 to 
 £209 per soldier accommodated, according to the 
 heaviness of the work, and to the inclusion or exclu- 
 sion of mess-rooms and quarters for the officers. 
 
 The condition of British soldiers has, ever since 
 the disasters in the Crimea in the winter of 1854, 
 been an object of much public solicitude. Thip 
 solicitude was so strongly expressed as to break 
 through the cold formabties of the official depart- 
 ments. Returns were ordered, and commissions and 
 committees appointed, partly to inquire into existing 
 facts, partly to suggest improvements. In 1857, a 
 return was ordered by the House of Commons of all 
 theB. in the United Kingdom — shewing the locality, 
 condition, amount of accommodation, and internal 
 economy. The return made in obedience to this 
 order enumerated 252 barracks. There is a barrack- 
 master-general, who superintends the construction 
 and repairs, and adapts the accommodation to the 
 requirements. The local barrack-masters (mostly 
 half-pay or retired military officers) act under him, 
 and attend to the internal economy of the barracks. 
 Under these barrack-masters are barrack-clerks and 
 barrack-sergeants, to assist them in the duties. 
 The furniture of the B. is bought by the War- 
 office. The French have a singular plan of hiring 
 such fm-niture at 15 francs per man per anniun ; 
 the English cost is about 25s. per man, and some 
 of our officers are of opinion that it might with 
 advantage be superseded by the French plan. 
 The barrack-rooms have arm and accoutrement 
 racks, shelves, and pegs ; with a regular order for 
 depositing evei-ything thereon. During the day, all 
 the bedding is placed in exact array; as well as 
 dishes, tins, and canteens. A subaltern officer 
 (heutenant, ensign, or cornet) visits every room every 
 day. The iron bedsteads are turned down every even- 
 ing, and up every morning. One non-commissioned 
 officer (sergeant or corporal) has control over each 
 room, and is responsible for quiet, cleanliness, &c. 
 Married women, in the ratio of 6 to a company of 
 100 soldiers, may live in the B. with their husbands, 
 but not \mless the marriage has been with consent 
 of the commanding officer. The married soldier 
 may, however, sleep out of B., and is allowed an 
 extra 2d. per day if he does so. Each soldier in a 
 barrack has an iron bedstead, a rug, a paillasse, a 
 bolster, two blankets, and two sheets; he pays 
 nothing for these, except 2d. per month for washing 
 the bed-linen. Each soldier has his name and 
 number written near his bed and knapsack. 
 
 Notwithstanding the order and regularity estab- 
 lished in B., committees of inquiry appointed in 1855 
 and 1857 ascertained the existence of grievous defects. 
 It was foimd that, out of 252 B., only 20 had sepa- 
 rate sleeping-rooms for married soldiers ; the wives 
 of such soldiers, in the other 232, being obliged to 
 put up with arrangements repugnant to all decency 
 and propriety, or else sleep away from the B. 
 altogether. In regard to sanitary arrangements, 
 most of the existing B. are very defective, espe- 
 cially those in London, where an increase of space 
 is costly to procure. Army-physicians recommend 
 600 cubic feet of room-space per soldier ; the exist- 
 ing standard is 450 feet, and in some B. the space is 
 as low as 220. It has been estimated that a new 
 barrack for 1000 footguards in London would cost 
 £150,000, besides land, the cost of which would 
 depend wholly on the particular site selected. Of 
 all the money spent siace 1854 on B., only one- 
 
 fourth has been for soldiers' rooms ; thi-ee-fourths 
 has been absorbed for officers' mess-rooms and 
 quarters, stables, and various business premises. In 
 relation to all the various subjects of barrack-life, a 
 committee of military officers has drawn up a most 
 comprehensive scheme of reform ; but unfortunately 
 the cost of making these improvements would be so 
 enormous, that nothing better than a, very ^adual 
 adoption can be expected, especially as the British 
 military system has lately become very expensive iu 
 other directions also. 
 
 The finest existing B. in this country are perhaps 
 those at Aldershott, attached to the camp noticed in 
 another article. See Aldebshott Camp. The build- 
 ings extend in two long Mnes, branching out of the 
 Farnborough and Farnham road, with a large parade- 
 ground between them. The infantry and artillery 
 B. are on the north side of this space, and the 
 cavalry B. on the south. The infantry B. are 
 divided into blocks, forming each a spacious quad- 
 rangle, with a courtyard in the centre. Each block 
 is a complete barrack for a full regiment, with all 
 the men's rooms, store-rooms, school-rooms, offices, 
 &c. The officers' rooms are, however, separate, and 
 occupy open spaces between the blocks of buildings. 
 All the four sides of each quadrangle are occupied 
 by various rooms and buildings ; the men's living 
 and sleeping rooms being mostly on the side next to 
 the parade-groimd. The sleepiag-rooms, each for 24 
 men, are very large and airy; the washing-rooms are 
 ample and well fitted; and the cooking-rooms wUl 
 each cook for 350 men. Dry play-grounds and drill- 
 yards, under glass roofs, are provided. A broad 
 balcony outside every range of sleeping-rooms enables 
 the soldiers to look out upon these grounds. The 
 married soldiers and their wives are comfortably 
 provided for, in rooms whoUy apart from the rest. 
 The artillery and cavaby B. resemble in their 
 general features those for the infantry, with such 
 modifications as are required for the accommoda- 
 tion of horses, fodder, harness, guns, and ordnance 
 stores. Taken altogether, these B. are regarded as 
 among the finest in Europe — in relation, at least, 
 to the domestic comfort of the soldiers. 
 
 BARRACOON, the appellation given to a depflt 
 for newly captured slaves on the coast of Africa, 
 and where they remain under restraint until carried 
 off by vessels in the slave-trade. 
 
 BARRA'DA, or BUBA'DA, a river of Syria, 
 which rising in lat. 33° 50' N., long. 36° E., flows 
 iu a south-south-east direction towards Damascus, 
 above which it divides, one branch being diverted 
 to irrigate the city and its gardens, while the other 
 passes on the north side. The branches, which it is 
 supposed were the PTiarpar and Abana of Scripture, 
 afterwards unite, and flow into the marshes and 
 lake of Bahr-el-Merj. 
 
 BARRAFRA'NCA, a town of Sicily, in the dis- 
 trict of Piazza, about 10 rmles south-east of Caltani- 
 setta, with a population of about 6000. 
 
 BARRAS, Padx-Jeau-Fransois-Nicolas, Count 
 DE, a distinguished character of the French Revo- 
 lution, was born at Foy, in Provence, 30th June 
 1755. In his youth he served as a lieutenant against 
 the British ia India, and after his return home, 
 wasted his property in Paris iu dissipation. He 
 eagerly joined the revolutionary party, and was 
 a deputy of the Tiers Etai in the States-general in 
 1789. He was. actively concerned in the storming 
 of the Tiuleries, was appointed administrator of the 
 department of Var, and afterwards of the comity 
 of Nice. In the Convention, he voted for the 
 execution of the Idng without delay or appeal, and 
 on the 31st May 1793 declared against the Girond- 
 ists. The siege of Toulon, and triumph of the 
 
BARRATRY— BARREL. 
 
 revolutionary party in the south of ]?rance, were in 
 a great measure owing to his activity and energy ; 
 and after the victory, he was deeply concerned in 
 all the bloody measures which were adopted. Yet 
 he was hated by Robespierre and the Terrorists, as 
 one of the less decided revolutionists; and their 
 overthrow was accompHshed mainly by him, the 
 Convention appointing him commander-in-chief, 
 and virtually investing him with the dictatorship 
 for the time. While holding this high ofB.oe, in 
 which he acted with great decision and vigour, and 
 on the same day on which Robespierre fell, he paid 
 a visit to the Temple, and provided for the better 
 treatment of the king's son; he hastened also to 
 the Palais de Justice, and suspended the execution 
 of a large number of persons who had been con- 
 demned to death. On subsequent occasions, he 
 acted with decision both against the intrigues of the 
 Royalists and the excesses of the Jacobins ; and on 
 13th Vendemiaire (5th October 1795), being again 
 appointed commander-in-chief by the Convention, 
 he called his young friend Bonaparte to his aid, 
 and crushed the sections with mercUess discharges 
 of artillery. The Directory being appointed isx 
 November 1795, B. was nominated one of the five 
 members, and in this capacity he procured the 
 nomination of Bonaparte as commander-in-chief of 
 the army in Italy. It was he who arranged 
 the marriage of Bonaparte with the widow Beau- 
 harnais. On 18th Fructidor (see France, Histoby 
 op), he was again invested with the dictatorship, 
 and was again victorious. His authority now 
 became preponderant in the Directory, and he 
 affected the pomp of a Mng, and began to give 
 splendid entertainments in the palace of the 
 Luxembourg. This continued for about two years 
 tiU the decline of the power of the Directory. 
 After 30th Prairial, Si&yes and he had the whole 
 executive power in their hands; and whilst B. 
 secretly negotiated, it is said, with the Bourbon 
 princes, demanding a large reward for their restor- 
 ation, Sifeyes, in secret understanding with Bonaparte, 
 brought about the revolution of 18th Brumaire. 
 Notwithstanding the favours he had formerly con- 
 ferred on Bonaparte, he was now, perhaps unavoid- 
 ably, an object of suspicion to him, was compelled 
 to remove from the neighbourhood of Paris, resided 
 in Brussels, then in Marseille, was banished to 
 Rome, and thence sent to Montpellier, being kept 
 imder constant surveOlanoe of the pohce, and 
 actually found to have been engaged in conspiracies 
 for the restoration of the Bourbons. After the 
 Restoration, he returned to Paris, and purchased an 
 estate in the neighbourhood of it, where he died on 
 29th January 1829. He had acquired a consider- 
 able fortune in the Revolution. His Memoirs, 
 which must be of historic importance, were seized 
 by the government. 
 
 BA'ERATBY, Common-, or, as it is called in 
 old English law-books, Barretry, is the oflfence of 
 inciting and stirring up suits and quarrels among 
 the queen's subjects. One offensive act of the kind 
 is not sufficient in order to maintain an indictment 
 for this offence; but it must be shewn that the 
 party accused frequently, or at least on more than 
 one occasion, conducted himself in the way imputed ; 
 and therefore the principle of the law appears to 
 strike at the Imhit or disposition of evU-miuded 
 persons, who would incite to quarrelling, or busy- 
 bodies, as they are in fact called in old law-reports; 
 who, to use a familiar expression, ' set people by the 
 ears.' This term is supposed by some to be derived 
 from the French word Barrcdewr, which signifies a 
 deceiver ; by others, from the Latin word Barratro, 
 a vile knave. Some, again, account for it by the 
 suggestion that it is made up of Barra, the bars 
 
 of courts of justice, and Rettum, an old word si^- 
 fying an offence; whQe, by other antiquarian 
 lawyers, it is supposed to have been borrowed from 
 the Normans ; the Anglo-Norman baret signifying a 
 quarrel or contention. In old English indictments, 
 charging this offence, the accused is not only 
 described as pads domini regis pe/iiurhator, but also 
 oppressor mdnorum suorum; that is, he who is 
 guilty of B., is not only a disturber of the public 
 peace, but a nuisance to his neighbours. The 
 punishment for this offence is fine and imprison- 
 ment; but if the offender belongs to the profession 
 of the law, as is too frequently the case, he may 
 besides be disabled from practising his profession 
 for the future. And, indeed, it is the existing 
 statute law of England, that if any one who has 
 been convicted of B. shall practise as an attorney, 
 solicitor, or agent in any suit, the court, upon com- 
 plaint, shall examine the matter in a summary way ; 
 and if the fact of such conviction be proved, may 
 direct such offending attorney, sohcitor, or agent to 
 be kept in penal servitude for not more than seven 
 or less than three years. 
 
 Akin to this offence is another of equal malignity 
 and mischief; namely, that of suing another in the 
 name of a fictitious plaintiff. If committed in any 
 of the superior courts, this offence is treated as a 
 high contempt, punishable at discretion, and m 
 inferior courts, by six months' imprisonment, and 
 treble damages to the party injured. 
 
 B., in the sense above explained, is not a technical 
 term in the law of Scotland. But in that system 
 there is a word Barairy, which is defined as the 
 crime committed by a judge who is induced by a 
 bribe to pronounce a judgment, or who barters 
 justice for money. 
 
 There is also Barairy of Mariners, which signifies 
 —in the law not only of England and Scotland, but 
 also of Prance and other European states — ^the fraud 
 of the master or mariners of a ship tending to their 
 own advantage, but to the prejudice of the owners. 
 Such conduct, however, is one of those risks which 
 are usually insured against in marine poUcies of 
 insurance. See Marine Insueance. 
 
 BA'EREL (It. harile ; Fr. haril = harrique), 
 primarily, a large vessel fbr holding liquids — pro- 
 bably from bar, in the sense of to guard, confine, 
 contain — and then a certain measure, but varying 
 in every locality, and almost for every liquid. In 
 the old Enghsh measures, the barrel contained 314 
 gallons of wine, 32 of ale, and 36 of beer — the wiue 
 gallon itseH diEfering from that of ale and beer. In 
 imperial gallons, their contents would be : old wine 
 barrel = 26^ gal. ; ale do., 324 ; beer, 36^. The 
 Itahan barde varies from 7 to 31 English gallons ; 
 the French barrique of Bordeaux = 228 French 
 litres = 50 English gallons. Four barriques make 
 a tonneau. In many cases, B. signifies a certain 
 weight or other quantity of goods usually sold in 
 casks called barrels. In America, flour and beef 
 are sold on the large scale in barrels : a B. of 
 flour- must contain 196 lbs. ; of beef, 200 lbs. A 
 B. of butter = 224 lbs.; of soft soap, 256 lbs.; of 
 tar, 26^ gallons. 
 
 BA'RBEL, Gun. The relation which the bar- 
 rels of small-arms bear to the stock, lock, and other 
 parts, is described in such articles as Musket, 
 Pistol, Rielb, Revolver, &c. ; but the remarkable 
 processes of manufacturing these barrels may be 
 briefly noticed once for all. 
 
 The iron for aU good musket-barrels contains a 
 portion of steel, or undergoes some kind of steehng 
 process. Horseshoe nails or stubs, after much 
 violent usage, yield a very tough kind of iron 
 when re-heated; and English gun-makers have been 
 
SAHEEli-BULK— BAERICADES. 
 
 accustomed to tuy such refuse on the continent ; but 
 the foreign malcers now use the old uaila themselves; 
 and Birmingham puts up with those of English 
 make, which are inferior in quality. The best bar- 
 rels are now made in England of laminated, twisted, 
 and Damascus steel. To prepare laminated steel, 
 Mr Greener, a celebrated Birmingham , gunsmith, 
 collects scraps of saws, steel-pena, iflee, springs, and 
 steel-tools, from the various workshops ; cuts them 
 into small and nearly equal pieces ; ■ cleans and 
 polishes them by revolving in a cyhnder; fuses 
 them into a semifluid state; gathers them into a 
 ''bloom' or mass ; forges this bloom with a three- 
 ton hammer ; hardens and sohdifies it with a tilt- 
 hammer ; rolls it into rods ; outs each rod into 
 pieces six inches long ; welds these pieces together ; 
 repeats the rolling, cutting, and welding several 
 times ; and thus, finally, brings the metal into a 
 very hard, tough, fibrous, and uniform state. 
 Twisted steel for barrels is made by taking thin 
 plates of iron and steel, laying them alternately 
 one on another in a pile, welding them by heat 
 and hammering, and twisting them by very power- 
 ful mechanical agency, until there are twelve or 
 fourteen complete turns to an inch ; the length 
 becomes reduced one-half, and the thickness 
 doubled, by this twisting. Damascus steel barrels 
 are made of steel which has undergone a still 
 further series of welding and twisting operations. 
 Stub Damascus barrels are made of a mixture of 
 old files with old horse-nails; the files are heated, 
 cooled in water, broken with hammers, and pounded 
 in a mortar into small fragments; three parts of 
 these fragments are mixed with five of stub; and 
 the mixture is fused, forged, rolled, and twisted. 
 An interior kind of Damascus-twist is made by 
 interlaying scraps of sheet-iron with charcoal, and 
 producing an appearance of twist, but without the 
 proper qualities. Threepenny-shelp and Twopenny- 
 shelp are inferior kinds of barrel-iron ; and the worst 
 of all is sham-dam shelp, of which gun-barrels are 
 made for hawking at a cheap price at country-fairs, 
 and for barter with the Indians ia fur-hunting 
 countries. 
 
 The gun-barrel manufacture of England is now 
 almost wholly conducted at Birmingham, very few 
 barrels being made in London or elsewhere. The best 
 barrels are ^ twisted into form. The skelps, or long 
 strips of prepared steel, are twisted into a close 
 spiral a few inches long ; several of these spirals are 
 welded end to end; and the fissures are closed up 
 by heating and hammering. The rough barrel, with 
 a core or mandril temporarily thrust in it, is placed 
 in a groove, and hammered cold until the metal 
 becomes very dense, close, strong, and elastic. The 
 interior is then bored truly cylindrical by a nicely- 
 adjusted rotating cutting-tool. If, on narrow 
 inspection, the interior is found to be straight and 
 regular, the exterior is then ground on a rapidly 
 revolving stone, and finally turned in a lathe. 
 Commoner barrels are not twisted : the skelps are 
 heated, laid ia a semi-cylindrical groove, hammered 
 till they assume the form of that groove, placed two 
 and two together, and heated and hammered untU 
 one B. is made from the two halves. See Pboof. 
 
 A few peculiarities in some of the recent riSe- 
 barrels wiU be noticed under the names of those 
 weapons themselves. 
 
 BA'BBEL-BTJLK, a term denoting a measure- 
 ment of 5 cubic feet, used chiefly in the coasting- 
 trade. 
 
 BA'REEL-ORGAN. An organ (q. v.) in which the 
 music is produced by a barrel or cylinder, set with 
 pins and staples, which, when driven round by the 
 hand, opens the valves for admitting the wind to the 
 
 pipes according to the notes of the music. The 
 number of tunes that any one instrument can play 
 is, of course, very limited. Barrel-organs are gene- 
 rally portable, and mostly used by street-musicians. 
 A street-organ costs from £30 to £70, according to 
 size. The most perfect barrel-organs are those 
 which are driven by a motive-power, of which the 
 best are made ia Vienna, and cost from £100 
 to £300. The Orchestrion, made by Kaufmann in 
 Dresden, is a large self-acting barrel-organ. See 
 Orohesteion. 
 
 BARRHBA'D, a town of recent growth in the 
 east part of Renfrewshire, 6 miles south-west of 
 Glasgow. It has cotton-mills, and bleaching and 
 print works. Pop. 6069. 
 
 BARRICA'DES are defence -works epiployed 
 both in the military and naval services. Military 
 engineers, and sappers and miners, are instructed in 
 the art of barricading streets and roads with beams, 
 chains, cheoavx-de-frise, and other obstacles, either 
 in defending a town against besiegers, or in suppres- 
 sing popular tumults. In a ship, a strong wooden 
 rail, supported on stanchions, and extendmg across 
 the foremost part of the quarter-deck, is called a 
 barricade ; during a naval action, the upper part of 
 this barricade is sometimes stuffed with hammocks 
 in a double rope-netting, to serve as a screen 
 against the enemy's small-shot. B. have been made 
 use of in street-fights since the middle ages, but 
 they are best known in connection with the insur- 
 rections in the city of Paris. As early as 1358, 
 the streets of Paris were barricaded against the 
 Dauphin, afterwards Charles V. A more noteworthy 
 barricade-fight was that in 1588, when 4000 Swiss 
 soldiers, marched iato Paris by Henry III. to over- 
 awe the Council of Sixteen, would have been utterly 
 destroyed by the populace, firing from behind B., 
 had the court not consented to negotiation ; and the 
 result was, that the king fied nejS day. The next 
 barricade-fight of importance in Paris was that 
 of 1830, which resulted in the expulsion of the 
 Bourbons from the throne of Prance, and the election 
 of the citizen kiag, Louis Philippe. During the 
 three days which this revolution lasted, the number 
 of B. erected across the streets amounted to several 
 thousands. They were formed of the most hetero- 
 geneous materials — overturned vehicles, trees, scaf- 
 folding-poles, planks, building-materials, and street 
 paving-stones, men, women, and children taking 
 part in their erection. In February 1848, the insur- 
 rection against Louis Philippe commenced with 
 the erection of B. ; but the most celebrated and 
 bloody barricade-fight was that between the popu- 
 lace and the Provisional Government, which, com- 
 mencing on the night of the 23d June 1848, lasted 
 throughout the three following days, when the people 
 had to surrender. The national losses by this fight 
 were estimated at 30,000,000 francs; 16,000 persons 
 were killed and wounded, and 8000 taken prisoners. 
 The Emperor Napoleon III. has so widened and 
 macadamised the principal streets of Paris since he 
 ascended the throne, as to render the successful 
 erection of B. next to impossible. There was a 
 remarkable barricade-erection in London in 1821. 
 The ministry desired that the body of Queen Caro- 
 line should be conveyed out of the country to Ger- 
 many, for interment, without the populace having 
 the opportunity of making any demonstration. On 
 the matter becoming known, a vast barricade was 
 erected at the poiat where the Hampstead Road 
 joins the New Road; and as nothing but the use of 
 artillery could have forced the way, the officer in 
 charge of the funeral cortege deemed it prudent to 
 change his course, and pass through a more central 
 part of the metropolis. During the revolutions of 
 
BAEEIBR ACT— BARRISTERS. 
 
 1848, B. were successfully carried in Paris, Berlin, 
 Vienna, and other places, by abandoning the attack 
 in front, and breaking througli the houses of con- 
 tiguous streets, taking their defenders in the rear. 
 
 BA'RRIER ACT, the name commonly given to an 
 act of the General Assembly of the Church of Scot- 
 land, 8th January 1697, intended as a barrier against 
 innovations, and a hinderanoe to hasty legislation. 
 It provides that no change can be made in the laws 
 of the church without being submitted by that 
 General Assembly which first approves it, to the 
 consideration of aU the presbyteries, and approved 
 by a majority of them; after which it still remains 
 to be considered by the next General Assembly, 
 which then may or may not pass it into a law. The 
 B. A. is regarded as of the greatest importance, both 
 in the Established Church of Scotland, and in the 
 Free Church. Analogous regulations have been 
 adopted by other Presbyterian churches. 
 
 BA'RRIER REEF, an immense coral-reef extend- 
 ing along the north-east coast of Australia for nearly 
 1300 mUes, at a distance from the shore of from 10 
 to upwards of 100 miles. The reef is, in general, 
 precipitous, and in many places rises out of great 
 depths, lines of 280 fathoms having failed to reach 
 the bottom on the outer side. Formerly, ignorance 
 of anything like its precise extent and character led 
 to many shipwrecks; but within the last twenty 
 years, it has been surveyed, and pretty accurately 
 laid down on charts. In the course of its length 
 there are several breaks or passages in it. In the 
 voyage from Sydney to Torres Strait, the inner route 
 is usually taken. It is narrow, and requires delicate 
 steering; but it is safe, and not so much exposed 
 as the outer route, which enters Torres Strait by 
 Flinders Entrance. 
 
 BA'RRING OUT, a practice formerly very com- 
 mon in schools, but now almost, if not altogether, 
 abandoned. It consisted in the scholars taking 
 possession of the school, and fastening the doors 
 against the master, at whose helplessness they 
 scoffed from the windows. The usual time for 
 B. 0. was immediately prior to the periodical 
 vacation. It seems to have been an understood 
 rule in B. 0., that if the scholars could sustain a 
 siege against the master for three days, they were 
 entitled to dictate terms to him regarding the 
 nmnber of holidays, hours of recreation, &c., for 
 the ensuing year. If, on the other hand, the master 
 succeeded in forcing an entry before the expiry of 
 that period, the insurgents were entirely at his 
 mercy. The masters, in most cases, appear to have 
 acquiesced good-humouredly in the custom ; but 
 some chafed at it, and exerted their strength and 
 their ingenuity to storm or surprise the garrison. 
 Addison is said to have been the chief actor in a 
 B. 0. of the master of Lichfield. One remarkable 
 and fatal case of B. 0. occurred at the High School, 
 Edinburgh, in September 1595. The scholars had to 
 complain of an abridgment of their usual holidays 
 by the town-council, who, on being remonstrated 
 with, refused, even though the claim was supported 
 by the master, to grant more than three of the 
 eight days which the boys demanded as their 
 privilege. They, accordingly, took advantage of the 
 master's temporary absence to lay in a store of 
 provisions, and having done so, they barricaded 
 the doors. The magistrates, the patrons of the school, 
 in vain sought admission, the boys saying they 
 would treat with their master only ; and after a day 
 and night had passed, it was resolved to force an 
 entrance. The result was, that one of them. Bailie 
 Macmoran, was shot dead on the spot by a scholar 
 named Sinclair. The scholars of Witton School, 
 Cheshire, were directed by the statutes drawn vip 
 712 
 
 by the founder. Sir John Deane, to observe the 
 practice: 'To the end that the schollars have 
 not any evil opinion of the schoolmaster, nor the 
 schoolmaster should not mistake the schollars for 
 requiring of customs and orders, I wUl that upon 
 Thmsdays and Saturdays in the afternoons, and 
 upon holydays, they refresh themselves — and a week 
 before Christmas and Easter, according to the old 
 custom, they bar and keep forth the school the school- 
 master, in such sort as other sclmllars do in gi'cat 
 schools' This school was founded in 1558. See 
 Brand's Popular Antiquities, Chambers's Domestic 
 Annals, and Carlisle's Endowed Grammar Schools. 
 
 EARRINGTONIA'CEtE, a natural order of 
 exogenous trees and shrubs, natives of tropical 
 countries, and generally very beautiful both in 
 foliage and flowers. Few plants, indeed, exceed 
 some of them in beauty. The stamens are very 
 numerous, and form a very conspicuous part of the 
 flower. 'The fruit is fleshy, with bony seeds lodged 
 in pulp. That of some species is eaten, as Gareija 
 arborea, an Indian tree, the stringy bark of which 
 is used in the countries along the foot of the 
 Himalayas as a slow match for matchlock giuis. 
 Humboldt and Bonpland mention that children 
 become quite yellow after eating the fruit of an 
 American species, Gitstavia speciosa,. of which, how- 
 ever, they are very fond ; but that this colour dis- 
 appears in a day or two. The Mookbilla (Barring- 
 tonia speciosa) is described by Sir J. E. Temient as a 
 tree which much attracts the attention of travellers 
 in Ceylon. It has dark, glossy leaves, and delicate 
 crimson-tipped white flowers. ' The stamens, of 
 which there are nearly 100 to each flower, when 
 thoy fall to the gi'ound, might almost be mistaken 
 for painters' brushes.' Some botanists include this 
 order in Myrtaceoe (q. v.). 
 
 BARRISTER, Revising. See Revising Bae- 
 
 BISTEE. 
 
 BARRISTERS, orBA'RRASTERS, as sometimes 
 spelt in old books. This is the distinctive name by 
 which the advocates or pleaders at the English and 
 Irish bars are known; and thus its derivation is 
 perhaps sufficiently accounted for. They are 
 admitted to their office under the rules and regu- 
 lations of the Inns op Coukt (q. v.), and they are 
 entitled to exclusive audience in all the superior 
 courts of law and equity, and generally in all courts 
 civil and criminal, presided over by a superior judge. 
 In certain of the inferior tribunals, attorneys are 
 allowed to practise without the assistance of counsel; 
 but the disposition of the judges of these inferior 
 courts is to encourage the presence of the regular 
 bar, and to give them exclusive audience. In Scot- 
 land, the same body are styled Advocates (q. v.), 
 and they have the same exclusive privileges that 
 B. enjoy in England and Ireland. These Scotch 
 advocates, however, are members of the Faculty of 
 Advocates, or Scotch Bar, properly so called, and 
 are not to be confounded with the advocates who 
 practise imder that name in the town and comity of 
 Aberdeen, and who, as explained in a former article, 
 are simply country attorneys. See Attorneys and 
 Solicitous. 
 
 Barristers were first styled Apprentices, who 
 answered to the bachelors of the imiversities, as 
 the state and degree of a Serjeant did to that of a 
 doctor. These apprentices or barrisiers seem to 
 have been first appointed by an ordinance of King 
 Edward I. in parliament, in the twentieth year of 
 his reign (Stephen's Commentaries, vol. i. p. 17, 
 and authorities there referred to). Of barristers, 
 there are various ranks ajid degrees, and among 
 each other they take precedence accordingly; the 
 general name, ' counsel,' being, in the practice of 
 
BAERISTEES. 
 
 the court, common to them all. But they may be 
 divided into three leading bodies. \st, Barristers 
 simply, or utter barristers, who occupy the position 
 of junior counsel, wealing a plain stuff -gown and a 
 short wig ; 2a!, Serjeants-at-law, a, legal order of 
 very ancient state and degree, and who are dis- 
 tinguished by the coif and other peculiarities (see 
 Sekjkants-at-law) ; and 3d, Queen's Counsel, or 
 Her Majesty's Counsel learned in the law, as they 
 are more formally called, and who may be selected 
 either from the outer or junior bar, or from the 
 Serjeants. They may be described as the ordinary 
 lej,ders of the bar, and are distinguished by a siUc 
 gown, and on state-occasions, and always in the 
 House of Lords, they wear a full-bottomed wig. 
 For further details, see Queen's Counsel. Besides 
 these three orders or gradations of ranlc at the 
 English bar, the crown sometimes grants letters- 
 patent of precedence to such barristers as Her 
 Majesty may think proper to honour with that 
 mark of distinction, whereby they are entitled to 
 such rank and pre-audience as are assigned to them 
 in their respective patents. See Precedence, 
 Patent of. 
 
 Thus constituted, the English bar perform their 
 functions, enjoying many professional privileges and 
 immunities, and a high social position. As we have 
 before stated, they have exclusive audience in aU 
 the superior courts, where upon terms and condi- 
 tions, and aooordiiig to an etiquette, which are all 
 well understood by attorneys and solicitors, they 
 take upon themselves the protection and defence of 
 any suitor, whether jilaintiff or defendant. With the 
 brief (q. v.), or other instructions, by means of which 
 their professional services are retained, B. receive a 
 fee, or such fee is endorsed on the brief or mstructions, 
 and afterwards paid. Such, generally, is the existing 
 practice at the Enghsh bar, differing in this respect 
 from the practice of the bar in Scotland — and, we 
 believe, to a great extent in Ireland also — where pre- 
 payment of the fee is the rigid etiquette. The amount 
 of this fee in England depends, of coiu-se, on the 
 nature of the business to be done, the time to be 
 occupied, and the labour to be bestowed ; and it is 
 usually, especially in the case of leading counsel, a 
 liberal sum.' The barrister's fee, however, is not 
 a matter of express contract or stipiJation, recover- 
 able at law like an attorney's bUl of costs, but is 
 regarded as a mere honorary reward — guiddam 
 honorarium, as it is called in law-books. There is, 
 therefore, no means of enforcing its payment, and 
 indeed, in this- resp6ct, the barrister has nothing to 
 rely upon but the honour and good faith of those 
 who employ him. Where, however, it can be 
 proved that the client or party gave money to the 
 aoUcitor or attorney, with which to fee the counsel, 
 the latter may maintain an action against the former 
 for the amount. 
 
 In order to encourage due freedom of speech in 
 the lawful defence of their clients, and, at the same 
 time, to give a check to unseemly licentiousness, 
 it has been held that u, counsel is not answerable 
 for any matter by him spoken, relative to the cause 
 in hand, and suggested in his chent's instructions, 
 although it should reflect upon the reputation of 
 another, and even prove absolutely groundless;* 
 but if he mentions an untruth of his own inven- 
 tion, or even upon instructions, if it be imperti- 
 nent to the cause in hand, he is then liable to an 
 action from the party injured; and counsel guilty 
 of deceit or collusion are punishable by the statute 
 Westm. I. (3 Edw. I., c. 28) with imprisonment 
 for a year and a day, and perpetual silence in 
 
 * But the publication of the counsel's statement by a third 
 party may expose such third party to an action. 
 
 the courts — a punishment which may be inflicted 
 for gross misdemeanours in practice, although the 
 course usually resorted to is for the Benchers of the 
 Inn of Court, to which the person so oflending 
 belongs, to disbar him. See Stephen's Commentary, 
 and Ker's Bladcstone, and see Benohees and Disbae. 
 
 But besides advocacy and forensic disputation, B. 
 in England have other business to which they have 
 extended their practice, to the great advantage of 
 the public. This additional practice consists in 
 advising on the law by their opinion on a case 
 stated, by means of which harassing and fruitless 
 litigation is often prevented (see Opinion git 
 Counsel) ; in drawing or preparing the pleadings 
 or statement of facts on which an action or suit is 
 founded (see Pleadjno) ; and in preparing the drafts 
 or scrolls of legal instruments, indentures, deeds, 
 contracts, or other conveyances. See Conveyancing 
 and CoNVEYANCEE. As a correlative privilege of 
 the position in which they stand in respect of their 
 fees, barristers are not personally liable for the 
 injurious consequences of any erroneous advice they 
 may give; and they claim absolute control over 
 the conduct of all litigation in which they may be 
 engaged, even to withdrawing it from court alto- 
 gether, and referring it to arbitration; and until 
 lately, it was the opinion of the profession that 
 counsel might at any time, during the progress of a 
 cause, compromise the matter in dispute; but the 
 exercise of such discretion was successfully opposed 
 in a recent case, and it may now be doubted whether 
 B. have any ex officio privUege beyond the guidance 
 and conduct of actual litigation in court. 
 
 It is from the body of B. that all the judges in 
 England, superior and inferior, are appointed; but 
 B. are also usually chosen for the office of police 
 magistrate. The only exception to the exclusive 
 appointment of B. to judicial offices, is the case of 
 the Court of Quarter Sessions — a court of anomalous 
 constitution and jurisdiction, but which works well 
 in practice, and has many claims to consideration. 
 See QuAETER Sessions, 
 
 The bar in Ireland stands on the same footing, 
 and has the same ranks and degrees, and is subject 
 very much to the same rules and regulations, as the 
 English bar ; and in that country, barrister also is 
 the name by which the profession of an advocate ig 
 distinguished. In Scotland, the same office is simply 
 called by its own name of Advocate. See Advo- 
 cates, Faculty of. 
 
 At the bar of the House of Lords, and before . 
 parliament generally, before the privy-council, and 
 also, it is believed, in all trials for high treason, 
 whether in England, Ireland, or Scotland, the three 
 bars rank on a footing of equality, taldng precedence 
 according to the date of their call and admission to 
 their own respective bars, with the exception of 
 English and Irish Queen's coimsel, who generally 
 lead the Scotch bar, among whom the only counsel 
 of corresponding rank are the Lord Advocate (see 
 Advocate, Loed), the Solicitor General of Scotland 
 (q. v.\ and the tiean of Faculty (q. v.). It was at 
 one time disputed between the Lord Advocate of 
 Scotland and the Attorney-General of England, 
 which of them should lead the other at the bar of 
 the House of Lords ; and a case occurred in 1834 
 in the House of Lords, before Lord Chancellor 
 Brougham, in which very high pretensions were 
 urged on behalf of both functionaries. These were 
 the present Lord Chancellor Campbell as attorney- 
 general, and the late Lord Jeffrey as lord advocate, 
 who contended that as he was not only the fijrst 
 law-officer of the crown in Scotland, but also a high 
 political officer, he was entitled to lead the former. 
 But the House decided that the attorney-general of 
 England has precedency over the Lord Advocate of 
 
BAHROS-BABilbM^. 
 
 Scotland, in all matters in which they may appear 
 as counsel at their lordships' bar; and it is presumed 
 that the same rule would be followed before parlia- 
 ment generally, (fhe privy-counoU, and in all trials 
 for high treason, whether in England, Ireland, or 
 Scotland. The relative rank of the Irish law-officers 
 has not been determined. 
 
 It only remains to be added, that 'as the three 
 bars are on a footing of equality in the House of 
 Lords, and the other imperial and supreme tribunals 
 above mentioned, the Enghsh bar have no exclusive 
 audience in these, even in English cases; but all 
 causes whatever there, whether Enghsh, Irish, 
 Scotch, or colonial, may be equally and indiscrimin-. 
 ately taken and advocated by Enghsh, Irish, or 
 Scotch counsel. 
 
 BA'BEOS, JoAO DB, the most distinguished of 
 Portuguese historians, was born of an ancient and 
 noble family at Viseu in 1496; became a page to 
 King Emmanuel, and afterwards companion to the 
 Crown Prince. He pursued his classical and other 
 studies with great (Mtigence, and wrote a historical 
 romance in his 24th year, which attracted much 
 admiration by the peculiar beauty of its style. 
 Hereupon the king assigned him the task of writing 
 the history of the Portuguese in India, which he 
 undertook, but of which only the first three decades 
 proceeded from his pen, under the title of Asia 
 Portugueza (Lisb. 1552—1563) ; the continuation 
 extending to twelve decades, was the work of Diego 
 de Couto. (A new edition of the whole appeared at 
 Lisbon, in S vols., in 1778 — 1788.) B. was for some 
 time governor of the Portuguese settlements in 
 Guinea, and afterwards treasurer and general agent 
 for the Indies. In 1539, the king bestowed on him 
 the province of Maranhao in Brazil, that he might 
 found a colony there; but he was obhged to renounce 
 the enterprise after much loss. He died at his estate 
 of Ahtem on the 20th of October 1570. 
 
 BAEEO'SA, a village of Spain 16 miles south- 
 south-east of Cadiz, celebrated in history as the 
 place where General Graham (afterwards Lord Lyne- 
 doch), in March 1811, with a handful of English 
 troops, succeeded in gaining over the French, after 
 his Spanish aUiea had retreated, one of the most 
 glorious victories of the Peninsular campaign. More 
 than 2000 French were killed and wounded (some 
 authorities give nearly 3000 killed alone), 300 
 prisoners taken, 6 pieces of cannon, and an eagle — 
 the first captured in the war. 
 
 BARROT, Camillb Hvacinthe Odillon, a 
 French jurist and statesman, son of a member 
 of the Convention, and afterwards of the Council 
 of Five Hundred, was born at Villefort, Lozfere, 
 19th July 1791. In 1814, he became an advocate 
 in the Court of Cassation, Paris, and soon acquired 
 a high reputation as an eloquent pleader. Entering 
 the Chamber of Deputies young, he in time came 
 to be regarded as one of the moat influential leaders 
 of the liberal opposition. At the Revolution of 
 1830, he was one of the three commissioners ap- 
 pointed by the provisional government to accompany 
 Charles X. from Rambouillet to Cherbourg, on his 
 embarkation for England. Under the new govern- 
 ment, he was appointed prefect of the department 
 of the Seine ; and in Lafayette's ministry, a member 
 of the Council of State. In a few months, however, 
 he resigned his office of prefect, and decHned the 
 post of ambassador at Constantinople, offered him 
 by Loms Philippe. After Casionr Pgrier became 
 minister, he lost also his place in the CounoU of 
 State. He now began his opposition career in the 
 Chamber of Deputies against the reactionary policy 
 of the government, and became the rallying-point 
 for all who desired the carrying out of the principles 
 
 of the July revolution. He essentially contributed 
 to the removal of the Doctrinaires (q. v.) from office, 
 in February 1836, and energetically opposed the 
 mini stry of MolS, even supporting the Doctrinaires 
 in accomplishing its overthrow, in January 1839. 
 The same year he visited England and Scotland. 
 When, in March 1840, Thiers was placed at the 
 head of the government, B. for the first time 
 declared himself in favour of the ministerial policy 
 on the oriental question. On the return of Guizot 
 to office in October following, his opposition to the 
 government was renewed. Taking a conspicuous 
 part in the Reform movement of 1847, he attended 
 several of the provincial reform banquets, which 
 led to the revolution of 1848. On the outbreak 
 of the struggle of 23d February, when Louis 
 Philippe called upon Thiers to form a new ministry, 
 B. was appointed president. His advice to the king 
 to withdraw his troops proved fatal to the throne 
 of July. In the last sitting of the Chamber of 
 Deputies, B. supported the claim of the Count de 
 Paris to the throne, and the regency of the Duchess 
 of Orleans. From that time his infiuence declined. 
 A member of the Constituent and Legislative 
 Assemblies, he -was, on the formation of the first 
 ministry of Prince Louis Napoleon, appointed 
 president of the ministerial council, and keeper 
 of the seal; but in March 1850, he was succeeded 
 by Baroche. He subsequently took part in the 
 coahtion formed in opposition to the president, 
 afterwards Emperor Louis Napoleon. 
 
 BA'RROW, a distinctive term appKed to two 
 prominent locaHties of the Arctic Ocean in honour 
 of the secretary to the Admiralty of the same name, 
 the prime mover in the more recent era of northern 
 discovery.— 1. Point B., in lat. 71° 23' N., and long. 
 156° 51' W., generally received as the most northerly 
 spot on the American mainland ; see, however, 
 Bellot Strait, and Murchison Pbomontory. From 
 this circumstance it has also been called Gape North 
 — a designation inconveniently ambiguous, as tend- 
 ing to confound this headland at once with Cape 
 North in Asia, and with North Cape in Europe. — 
 2. Ban-ow Strait, the earliest of Parry's discoveries, 
 leading to the west out of Lancaster Sound, which 
 Parry's immediate predecessor, Captain, afterwards 
 Sir John Ross, had pronounced to be landlocked in 
 that direction. Besides its main course, B. Strait 
 throws off Prince Regent's Inlet to the south, and 
 Wellington Channel to the north. The passage 
 averages about 40 nules in breadth, extending, 
 pretty nearly along the parallel of 74° N., from 84° 
 to 90° W. 
 
 The interval between these two localities, thus 
 spanning 66° of long, or at least 2000 nules, only 
 one navigator has ever traversed — the indefatigable 
 M'Clure, carrying his good ship, the Investigator, 
 round Point B., and leaving her behind him only 
 when almost in sight of B. Strait. 
 
 BA'RROW, a river in the south-east of Ireland. 
 Of the Irish rivers, it is in importance next to 
 the Shannon. It rises in the north of Queen's 
 County, on the north-east slope of the Slieve Bloom 
 ridge of mountains. It flows first east past Port- 
 arhngton to the border of Kildare Coubty, and 
 then south between Queen's, Kilkenny, and Water- 
 ford counties on the west, and Kildare, Carlow, 
 and Wexford counties on the east, passing the towns 
 of Athy, Carlow, and New Ross. It has a course 
 of 100 miles through a carboniferous, granitic, and 
 sUimau basin. Two miles above New Ross it 
 receives the Nore (q.v.), and eight miles east of 
 Waterford, it is joined by the Suir (q.v.). These 
 three rivers (oaUed the Three Sisters, from their 
 rising in the same mountain-ridge, and joining near 
 
fiAlltlOW-fiAEROWS. 
 
 the sea, after flowing througii different counties) 
 form, near the sea, the large and secure estuary of 
 Waterford harbour, 9 miles long. The B. ia navig- 
 able for ships of 300 tons to New Boss, 25 miles up, 
 and for barges to Athy, 65 miles up, whence the 
 Grand Canal communicates with Dublin. The B., 
 below Portarlington, falls 227 feet. 
 
 BA'aEOW, Isaac, an eminent English mathe- 
 matician and divine, was born in 1630. He received 
 his early education at the Chaiter-house, where he 
 was distinguished chiefly by his negligence and 
 pugnacity. At Felstead school, in Essex, to which 
 he went next, he greatly improved; and in 1643, he 
 was entered at Peter-house, Cambridge, xmder his 
 uncle Isaac Barrow, then a fellow of that ooUege, 
 and flnaEy bishop of St Asaph. On the ejection of 
 his imcle in 1645, he removed to Trinity College, 
 where he became B. A. in 1648, fellow in 1649, and 
 M.A. in 1652. Finding that to be a good theologian 
 he must know chronology, that chronology imphes 
 astronomy, and astronomy mathematics, he appUed 
 himself to the latter science with distinguished 
 success. To the classics he had already devoted 
 much study, and on the vacancy of the Greek chair, 
 he was recommended for the office ; but a suspicion 
 of Arminianism interfered with his success. After 
 this disappointment, he went abroad (1655), and 
 travelled during four years through France and 
 Italy, to Smyrna and Constantinople, back to 
 Venice, and home through Germany and Holland. 
 On the voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna, his deter- 
 mined personal courage seems to have been instru- 
 mental in soaring away an Algerine pirate, after a 
 brisk exchange of shots. Soon after his return he 
 took orders, and in the following year was apijointed 
 professor of Greek. The neglect with which he 
 was treated after the Restoration is celebrated in 
 his couplet addressed to the king — 
 
 TemagiB optavit redditurum, Carole, nemo, 
 £k nemo sensit te rediisse minus. 
 
 In 1662, he was appointed to the Gresham professor- 
 ship of geometry, which, on his beipg appointed to 
 the Lucasian professorship in 1663, he thought it his 
 duty to resign. The latter also he resigned in 1669, 
 in favour of his pupil Isaac Newton. On quitting 
 his professorship, he obtained from his uncle a small 
 living ia Wales, and from Dr Seth Ward, bishop 
 of SSisbury; a. prebend in that cathedral. He de- 
 voted the revenues of both to charitable purposes, 
 and resigned them in 1672, on being appointed by 
 the king Master of Trinity College. To him, while 
 in this o^ce, is due the foundation of that valuable 
 library, which is one of the chief ornaments of the 
 university. In 1675, he was nominated vice-chancel- 
 lor of the university; and in 1677, he died at the 
 early age of 47, having achieved, by his niunerous 
 able works, and the force of his noble personal 
 character, a reputation which time has left im- 
 impaired. Of his original mathematical works, the 
 principal are his Leetiones Oeometricce and Lectiones 
 Optica!, of which it has been said that they are 
 ' a mine of curious interesting propositions, to which 
 geometry is always apphed with particular elegance.' 
 As a theologian, his fame rests chiefly on his 
 sermons, which are very remarkable as specimens 
 of clear, exhaustive, and vigorous discussion. His 
 sermons, it may be added, were generally of exces- 
 sive length. ■ One, on charity, lasted three hours and 
 a half ; and at Westminster Abbey, he once detained 
 the audience so long that they got the oigan to 
 play ' till they had blowed him down.' B.'s English 
 works, consisting of sermons, expositions, &o., have 
 been edited by Dr TiUotson, Dean of Canterbury, 
 and prefaced -With a life by Mr Hill. His worlis, 
 
 besides those abeady mentioned, are very numer« 
 ous, and include MucUdia Elemmta, Euclidis D(ita, 
 MatliematiccB Lectiones, Opvscula, containing Latin 
 sermons, poems, speeches, &o. Lectiones Mathematioce 
 and L. Oeometricce have been translated by Kirby and 
 Stone. Euclidis Elementa has also been translated. 
 
 BA'RROW, Sir John, Baronet, an English 
 traveller, was born on the 19th June 1764, at 
 Drayleybock, in Lancashire; was early instructed 
 in mathematics ; and after having pubhshed a small 
 volume on land-surveying, filled a situation in a 
 Liverpool iron-foundry, visited Greenland with a 
 whaler, and after his return taught mathematics in 
 an academy at Greenwich. He received an appoint- 
 ment as private secretary and keeper of accounts 
 to Lord Macartney, who went as ambassador to 
 China. He availed himself of his residence in 
 China to learn the Chinese language, and to collect 
 valuable materials for the account of China, which 
 he afterwards gave to the world, partly in articles 
 in the Quarterly Review, and partly in his Travels in 
 China (Lond. 1804). When Lord Macartney after- 
 wards became governor of Cape Colony, B. availed 
 himseU of his residence in South Africa to make 
 extensive excursions in the interior of the country, 
 which he described in his stfll valuable Travels in 
 the Interior of .Southern Africa (2 vols., Lond. 1801 — 
 1803). Having returned to London, in the year 
 1804, he was appointed by Lord Melville secretary 
 to the Admiralty, which situation he continued to 
 hold till 1845, except for a short time in 1806. 
 Besides the works above mentioned, B. published 
 A Voyage to Oochin-Oldna in the Years 1792 
 and 1793 (Lond. 1806), The Life of Macartney 
 (2 vols., Lond. 1807), A Chronological History of 
 Voyages into the Arctic Regions (Lond. 1818) ; 
 also a series of Lives of Enghsli Naval Worthies. 
 Under Peel's ministry in 1835, he was raised to 
 the baronetcy. In the year 1845 he retired from 
 pubho service, but afterwards pubhshed An Auto- 
 biographical Memoir (Lond. 1847), and Sketches 
 of the Royal Society, and died at London, 23d 
 November 1848. He rendered many services to 
 geographical science by suggesting and promoting 
 scientific expeditions ; with him also originated 
 the idea of the Geographical Society, founded in 
 1830, of which he was vice-president till his death. 
 
 BAKROW-ON-SOAE, a village in the north of 
 Leicestershire, 10 miles north of Leicester. It is 
 noted for its blue lime or terras, which makes good 
 cement imder water. It has manufactures of lace 
 and stockings. It has free schools and several 
 charities ; and is the seat of the Poor- Law Union of 
 the district, with a workhouse capable of accommo- 
 dating 500 persons. 
 
 BA'REOWS, artificial mounds of earth generally 
 beheved to have been erected for sepulchral or 
 mommiental purposes. They are very numerous in 
 Great Britain, and many of them are supposed to 
 belong to a period long prior to the Roman invasion. 
 The counties of Wilts and Dorset are especially 
 rich in these remains, and the B. of the former 
 have been thoroughly explored, described, and 
 classified by Sir R. C. Hoare in his Ancient Wilt- 
 shire (2' vols. fol. 1810—1821). In the sepulchral 
 B., the human remains are buried either in a 
 rude stone ' cist ' or chest, in which the body was 
 doubled up, or are laid at full length in the earth, 
 accompanied by arms and other utensils. Where 
 the body was burned, the remains were laid on the 
 floor of the barrow, in a cist excavated on the spot, 
 or at a later epoch, in a clay urn. Sir R. Hoare 
 considers the Wiltshire B. as indicating three stages 
 in the progress of society. The first class contains 
 spear and arrow heads of flint and bone; the second, 
 
 715 
 
BAKEY— BAE'TAN. 
 
 of brass; and tlie third contains arms and instru- 
 ments made of ii-on. One of tlie largest barrows in 
 Europe is SQbury Hill, near Marlborongh, in Wilt- 
 shire, which covers 5 acres, 34 perches of land, 
 and has a slope of 316 feet, with a perpendicular 
 height of 170. According to Sir E. Hoare, barrow- 
 burial was practised down to the 8th c, from a 
 period of unknown antiquity. The practice of erect- 
 ing sepulchral mounds prevailed among all the 
 principal nations of antiquity both in Europe and 
 Asia, and they are found in great numbers in 
 Central America. , Many barrows are only partly 
 artificial; natural mounds having been shaped by 
 human hands into the form, round or oblong, whioih 
 it was wished they should take. 
 
 BA'ERY, a small island, of about a mile long, in 
 the Bristol Channel, off the south coast of Glamor- 
 ganshire, 10 nules south-west of Cardiff. It has 
 the ruins of an ancient castle and of two chapels. 
 On Nell's Point, iu the south part of the island, is a 
 fine well, to which great mmabers of women resort 
 on Holy Thursday, and having washed their eyes 
 in the spring, each drops a pin into it. 
 
 BA'RRY (in Heraldry), the term applied to a 
 shield which is divided transversely into four, six, 
 or more equal parts, and consisting of two or more 
 tinctures interchangeably disposed. 
 
 iiiiiiiiiii; 
 
 VJWifflllMIJijZ 
 Barry. 
 
 Barry-bendy. 
 
 Barry-hmdy is where the shield is divided into 
 four, six, or more equal parts, by diagonal lines, 
 the tincture of which it consists being varied 
 interchangeably. 
 
 Barry-pily is where the shield is divided by 
 diagonal lines, the oolom's being interchanged as 
 in the example. 
 
 BA'EEY, CoMTESSB DTT. See Vauberniee. 
 
 BA'ERY CO'RNWALL. See Pkoctbb, Bryan 
 Walter. 
 
 BA'KRY, Sir Charles, E.A., architect of the 
 two Houses of Parhament, son of Walter Barry, 
 Esq., Westminster, was born there in May 1795. 
 Educated at private schools in Leicestershire and 
 Bedfordshire, he was indentured to Messrs Middle- 
 ton and Bailey, architects, Lambeth. In 1817, at the 
 age of 22, he went to Italy. A wealthy countryman 
 of his own, attracted by the beauty of his drawings, 
 took him with him to Egypt, as his companion, 
 defraying his expenses. He also visited Greece and 
 Eome. On his return to England after an absence 
 of three and a half years, he became the successful 
 competitor for the design of a church at Brighton. 
 He was also the architect of the Manchester Athen- 
 Eeiun, a building in the Grecian style; and of the 
 Grammar School of King Edward VI. at Birmiug- 
 ham ; the latter esteemed the most beautiful of his 
 works. In London, he designed the Traveller's 
 Club, and the Eeform Club, both in PaU Mali, and 
 the CoUege of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields. After 
 the burnmg of the old Houses of Parliament in 
 1834, on a public competition, B.'s design for the 
 new budding was adjudged the best. The work 
 was commenced in 1840; and on 3d February 1852, 
 Her Majesty opened the Victoria Tower and Eoyal 
 Gallery in state, and on the occasion knighted the 
 architect. Chosen a Eoyal Academician m 1842, 
 Sir Charles is also a Fellow of the Eoyal Society, 
 
 716 
 
 of the Society of Arts, and of the Institute of British 
 Architects. He died May 12, 1860. 
 
 BA'EEY, James, a historical painter, born at 
 Cork, October 11, 1741; and distinguished more by 
 the force of his conception than the excellence of his 
 manipulation, or the beauty of his colour. Dr 
 Johnson's criticism on his works was : ' Whatever 
 the hand may have done, the mind has done its 
 part. There is a grasp of mind there which you 
 win find nowhere else.' The chef-d'ceuvre of B. is 
 the Victors at Olympia — a work, the sight of which, 
 Canova said, was of itself sufficient to repay a 
 journey to England. B. was a protSge of Edmund 
 Burke. He was of irritable temper, which led 
 him into many quarrels ; and the result of one with 
 the Eoyal Academy was his expulsion from the 
 academy. He died on the 22d of February 1806, in 
 poor circumstances, while some friends were engaged 
 in raising subscriptions to pm-ohase him an annuity. 
 
 BA'RRY, Martin, a physiologist of eminence, 
 was bom at Fratton, Hampshire, in 1802. He 
 studied at the medical schools of London, and also 
 at the imiversity of Edinburgh, where he took his 
 degree of M.D. in 1833. He wrote much on physio- 
 logical subjects, and especially on animal develop- 
 ment and embryology, for discoveries iu which he is 
 best knovm. Until the pubUcation of hia papers iu 
 the ' Philosophical Transactions' of the Eoyal Society 
 of London in 1840-1843, it was not known that 
 spermatozoa actually penetrate within the ovum; 
 and physiologists are also indebted to hkn for the 
 knowledge of the segmentation of the yelk in 
 mammals. In his private capacity, B. was amiable 
 and greatly benevolent. His means being ample, he 
 gave his professional services largely to the poor ; and 
 he acted as house-surgeon to the Edinburgh Eoyal 
 Maternity Hospital. He died at Beccles, in Suffolk, 
 in April 1855. 
 
 BARSCH, or BAES, a fortified town of Hungary, 
 capital of the county of the same name. It is situated 
 on the Gran, which divides it into Old and New B. 
 It is a mart of some importance for grain and fruit. 
 Pop. of county, 134,000. 
 
 BAR-STJR-AUBB, a town of France, in the 
 department of Aube, situated on the right bank of 
 the river of that name. It is an ill-built ancient 
 town; numerous old corns and urns attesting that 
 the Eomans must have had a station here. B. 
 was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th c, but 
 rebuilt again soon after, when it became a place 
 of commercial importance. A chapel built on the 
 bridge which here crosses the Aube, now marks 
 the spot from which the Bastard of Bourbon was 
 hurled into the river by command of Charles VII. 
 in 1440. B. is also noteworthy as the place 
 where the council of the allied sovereigns, which 
 decided the plan of the campaign ending in the 
 first fall of the Empire, was held in February 25, 
 1814 ; and where, two days after, the French were 
 defeated by the allies, under the chief command of 
 Sohwartzenberg. B. has a population of 4473 ; a 
 good trade in wine, wood, hemp, corn, and wool. 
 Its principal industrial products are calicoes, table- 
 covers, brandy, paper, vinegar, and nails. 
 
 BAR-SUR-SEINE, an ancient town of France, 
 in the department of Aube, pleasantly situated on 
 the left bank of the Seine. It has a trade in grain, 
 brandy, wool, and wine. Pop. 2542. It is celebrated 
 as the place where the allies, under the Prince of 
 Wurtemberg, defeated the French under Macdonald, 
 in March 1814. 
 
 BARTA'N, a town of Anatolia, situated near the 
 mouth of the Chati-su (ancient Parthenius) on the 
 Black Sea. Pop. 10,000, who carry on a brisk trade 
 with Constantinople. 
 
BARTAS-BAHTH. 
 
 BARTAS, GuiLLAUME de Salluste, a soldier, 
 diplomatist, and man of letters, was born at Mont- 
 fort, in Armagnao, about the year 1544. Hia repu- 
 tation was great dui-ing his lifetime, alike in ' the 
 court, the camp, the grove.' Hia chief poem is The 
 Divine Weeks and Wwks, which gives an account 
 of the creation, and the history of the Jews as far 
 as the book of Chronicles, and is said to have had 
 a considerable influence on Milton's Paradise Lost. 
 Thirty editions of the work passed through the 
 press in six years. Dryden, when a, boy, thought 
 his verse incomparably superior to Spenser's; an 
 opinion, however, which he lived to be ashamed of 
 having ever entertained. B.'s name is now quite 
 forgotten, or remembered only in connection with 
 bad taste. It is not to be denied, however, that 
 his fancy, though generally grotesque and lawless, 
 occasionally strilies out most picturesque imagery 
 and epithets. His use of compound words first led 
 to their introduction into England, through his 
 translator Sylvester (q. v.), and to the consequent 
 enrichment of our poetry. He died of wounds 
 received at the battle of Ivry, 1590. 
 
 BA'ETER, in commerce and political economy, a 
 term used to express the exchange of one commodity 
 for another, as contrasted with the sale of commo- 
 dities for money. It is usual to suppose that in the 
 history of any community B. preceded the other 
 methods of commerce, as people would find the con- 
 venience of exchanging one article for another before 
 they were acquainted with money or credit. In 
 point of fact, ships visiting savage countries are 
 generally to some extent freighted with weapons, 
 tools, or ornaments, to be used in B., if it be desirable 
 to carry on a trade with the inhabitants. Under 
 old artificial systems of poHtical economy, there was 
 much useless discussion about the question, whether 
 a B. -trade or a money-payment trade was more 
 advantageous to the community at large, and which 
 of them should be encouraged while the other is 
 depressed. On the one side, it was maintained that 
 nothing but an export sale for cash was really pro- 
 fitable ; on the other, that it was more advantageous 
 to get goods in return, because thus there was a 
 double transaction and double profit. See Balance 
 OF Trade. But the simple doctrine of the present 
 day, that whatever the merchant finds most profit- 
 able to himself will also be most profitable to the 
 community, saves the necessity of making these 
 distinctions, and of acting upon them by interference 
 with commerce. B. is, in reahty, one of the com- 
 monest forms of trade, taken at large in the present 
 day. The exporter sends goods to his agent, who, 
 without probably ever touching hard cash in the 
 course of the transaction, lays in a cargo of import 
 
 foods with the value, and these are literally brought 
 ome in exchange for those sent out. 
 In law, Bahtbe, or Exchange, as it is now more 
 generally called in law-books, is a contract for 
 toansferring property, the consideration being some 
 other commodity ; or it may be described as a con- 
 tract for the exchange of two subjects or commo- 
 dities. It thus difiers from sale, which is a contract 
 for the transference of property in consideration of a 
 price in money. See Exchange ; Sale. 
 
 BA'ETFA, or BA'RTEELD, a small but very 
 old free town of North Hungary, in the province 
 of Saros, on the Tepla, 155 miles north-east of 
 Pesth. Its position on the borders of Galioia has 
 frequently made it a place of refuge for Poles and 
 Bussians. Its hot baths are much frequented, and 
 a trade in wine, brandy, linen, and earthenware is 
 carried on. Pop. 5200. 
 
 BAB.TH, Hbinbich, Ph.D., D.C.L., an enterpris- 
 ing modem African traveller, born at Hamburg, 19th 
 
 May 1821, received his education in his native town, 
 and afterwards wont to the university of Berlin. In 
 his youth his favourite studies were the Eoman and 
 Greek classics and antiquities, along with the geogra- 
 phical sciences. Hence he imbibed a strong desire 
 to explore the shores and countries of the Mediter- 
 ranean. After visiting Italy and Sicily, ho embarked, 
 in 1845, at Marseille, and from Gibraltar passed 
 over to Tangier in Africa. Proceeding along the 
 Algerian coast he made excursions into the interior, 
 to Tunis, Tripoli, and Bengazi. On his journey 
 tlience to Cairo, he was attacked by a band of 
 Arab robbers, whom he bravely resisted, but was 
 severely wounded, and lost aU his effects and papers. 
 He afterwards extended his researches into Egypt, 
 Sinai, Palestine, Asia Minor, and Greece. These 
 travels occupied him for nearly three years, and in 
 1849 he published, at Berlin, an account of a portion 
 of them in a work entitled Wanderangen durch die 
 Kiistenlander desMHtelsmeeres. On the 8th December 
 of that year he again sailed from Marseille, having 
 been (along mth Dr Overweg) appointed by the 
 British govqfnment scientific companion to Mr 
 James Richardson, then charged by the Foreign 
 Office with a political and commercial mission to 
 Central Africa. Starting from Tripoli on the 4th 
 February 1850, Dr B. and his companions crossed the 
 Great Desert amid much difficulty and danger. B. 
 soon separated from his friends, and with one or 
 two exceptions, when he again joined them for a 
 short time, he pursvied his researches by himself. 
 Both Mr Richardson and Dr Overweg succumbed 
 to the climate — the one in March 1851, and the 
 other in September of the following year. Thence- 
 forward B. was quite alone. He did not, however, 
 return disheartened, but continued his explorations, 
 which, when he returned to Tripoli in September 
 1855, had extended over 24 degrees of latitude and 
 20 of longitude, from Tripoli in the north to 
 Andamawa in the south, and from Bagirmi in the 
 east to Timbuktu in the west, vipwards of 12,000 
 miles. The result of his researches, by far the most 
 extensive ever undertaken in Africa, is given in his 
 Travels and Discoveries in Central Africa, 5 vols., 
 Lond. 1857 — 1858. His account of Timbuktu, where 
 he was imprisoned seven months, is especially inter- 
 esting; and the whole work is invaluable to the 
 student of African geography. 
 
 BAETH, Jean, or BART, a French naval hero, 
 the son of a fisherman, bom in 1651 at Dimkirk, but, 
 according to others, in the Netherlands. At an 
 early age he entered the Dutch navy, but on the 
 commencement of the war with Holland he passed 
 over to the French service. As persons not of noble 
 birth could not then obtain the rank of oflScer in 
 the navy, he became captain of a privateer. In 
 this capacity he displayed astonishing bravery, so 
 that Louis XIV. despatched him on a, special 
 mission to the Mediterranean. His exploits at 
 last induced the king to appoint him lieutenant 
 of a man-of-war. In an action against a superior 
 Endish force he was taken prisoner, and carried 
 to Plymouth, from which he made liis escape in an 
 open fishing-boat to France, where the king now 
 raised him to the rank of captain. In the year 1696, 
 Louis XIV. received him with distinction at Ver- 
 sailles, but at the same time spoke continually of the 
 mischance which had befallen him the year before. 
 Stung by this, B. hastened to Dunkirk, and in spite 
 of the blockade of the harbour by the EngHsh, 
 undertook a cruise, in which he was remarkably 
 suecessfid. Louis XIV., in a personal, audience in 
 1697, appointed him to the command of a squadron, 
 upon which B. exclaimed : ' Sire, you have done 
 well ia this.' The courtiers laughed, as at a piece 
 of gross rudeness; but the king took the answer in 
 
 7ir 
 
BARTHBLBMY— BAETHOLIN. 
 
 good part, and B. very soon shewed how well he 
 merited such an appointment. The peace of Eys- 
 wick terminated his active career. He died at 
 Dunldrk in 1702. His rough frankness and coarse- 
 wit, in which he spared neither high nor low, made 
 him popular, no less than his boldness and readiness 
 for battle. When the Prince de Conti was nomi- 
 nated king of Poland, B. was required, by command 
 of Louis XIV., to convey him to Elsinore, and the 
 ship being attacked by the English on the voyage, 
 was near being taken. After the action, the prince 
 expressed to him his great delight that they had' 
 escaped from the enemy. ' "We had no need,' was 
 the reply, ' to be afraid of being made prisoners ; I 
 had despatched my son with a match to the powder- 
 magazine, to blow up the ship on the first wink ! ' 
 
 BAKTHlJiLEMY, Jean Jacquis, a historian and 
 antiquary, born 20th January 1716, at Cassis, near 
 Aubagne, in Provence. He was educated under 
 the Jesuits for the church, but soon abandoned all 
 thought of becoming a priest, and devoted himself 
 to the study of the Greek, Hebrew, Syriao, Arabic, 
 and Chaldee languages, though he retained the dress 
 and title of an abbg. He first acquired distinction 
 by the discovery of the Palmyran alphabet. In 
 1745, he was appointed assistant-superintendent of 
 the Eoyal Cabinet of- Medals, and in 1747 elected 
 a member of the AcadSmie des Inscriptions et Belles- 
 lettres. To complete his studies, he visited Rome in 
 1754, in the suite of M. de StainvUle, afterwards 
 Duke of Choiseul, and then French ambassador, 
 where he was courteously received by Pope Benedict 
 XIV. After his return, he was again employed in 
 the arrangement of the Eoyal Cabinet of Medals, 
 which he augmented by a great number of costly 
 specimens. The Duo de Choiseul, who became min- 
 ister in 1758, placed him, by means of a pension and 
 other favours, in a position to devote himself entirely 
 to learned researches, which he quietly pursued till 
 the revolution of 1789 deprived him of his ofiices. 
 In September 1793, he was imprisoued on charge of 
 being an aristocrat, but almost immediately released. 
 Shortly after, he was offered the situation of national 
 librarian then vacant, but his age and infirmities 
 compelled him to decUne accepting it. He died on 
 the 30th Apra 1795. 
 
 His most celebrated and popular work is the 
 Voyage du jeune Anacharsis eii Qrice dans le Milieu 
 du quatrieme Steele avant Vere Ohretienne. Paris, 
 1788, 4 vols. (Travels of the Young Anacharsis in 
 Greece about the Middle of the Fourth Century B. c). 
 The work (see Akaohaesis) is a very pleasing and 
 agreeable performance ; exhibits an extensive know- 
 ledge of the ancient world, especially of Greece and 
 its colonies ; and abounds in observations which, if 
 not profound, are at least judicious. Later and more 
 severe criticism has, however, pointed out many 
 deficiencies and anachronisms. It has been trans- 
 lated into almost every Europeam language. Among 
 B.'s other works may be mentioned a romance, 
 entitled Caryte et Polydore (Paris, 1760) ; Explication 
 de la Mosaique de Palestrine (Paris, 1760) ; Reflexions 
 sur V Alphabet et la Langue de Palmyre (Paris, 1754). 
 
 BARTHlSliBMY SAINT -HILAIRE, Jules, 
 a learned Frenchman, member of the Institute, and 
 formerly a representative of the people, was born 
 at Paris on the 19th of August 1805. He first held 
 a subordinate ofiice under the minister of finance. 
 During 1828 — 1830, he was one of the editors of the 
 Globe, a Paris paper. After the July revolution, he 
 took part with the society Aide-toi et le del t'aidera 
 (q. v.), revised several of its democratic mani- 
 festoes, established the Bon Sens, and continued 
 to attack the government of Louis Philippe in 
 the GonslUutionnd, the Courrier-Frantais, and the 
 
 718 
 
 National. In 1833, he desisted from political strife, 
 and betook himself to more quiet studies. In 1834, 
 he was named Rep^eur for the French Literature 
 Class in the Ecole Polylethnique ; and in 1838, pro- 
 fessor of Greek and Latin philosophy in the ColUge 
 de France. The revolution of February, however, 
 brought him once more into the political arena. He 
 was appointed secretary to the Provisional Govern- 
 ment, but refused his support to the government of 
 Cavaignac, and even appeared as his accuser, though 
 he faUed to estabhsh his charges against the sup- 
 pressor of the June insxurection. B. was at first in 
 favour of Louis Napoleon, but the coup d'etat on the 
 2d of December, and the overthrow of the constitu- 
 tion, compelled him to become an oppositionist. Since 
 1852, he has confined his attention to learned studies. 
 Along with M. de Lesseps, and the representatives of 
 various nations, he visited Egypt to investigate that 
 qucestio vexator—the utility of a canal across the 
 Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 His principal writings are his translations of 
 Aristotle's works — Politique d'Aristote (Paris, 1837) ; 
 Be la Logique d'Aristote (1838); La Logique 
 dAristote, translated into French for the first 
 time (1839—1844, 4 vols.) ; Psychologie d'Aristote, 
 Traits de I'dme (1846); Z>e V Ecole 3! Alexandria 
 (1845) ; Rapport sur la Comparaison de la Phihsophie 
 Morale et Politique de Platan et d'Aristote, avec lea 
 Doctrines des plus grands Philosophes Modernes 
 (1854); Des Vidas (1854); Du Bouddhisme (1855). 
 An enlarged edition of this last work, containing an 
 account of Buddhism as practised in Ceylon at the 
 present day, was published in 1860. 
 
 BARTHEZ, PAtTL Joseph, one of the most learned 
 physicians of France, son of a distinguished engineer, 
 born in MontpeUier, 11th December 1734. After 
 serving as an army-physician, he founded at Mont- 
 peUier a medical school, which rose to a high 
 European reputation. His Nouveaux Elements de la 
 Science de V Homme (Montpell. 1778 ; 2d ed., 2 vols., 
 Par. 1806), in which he set forth a system founded 
 on dynamical principles, was translated into most of 
 the languages of Europe. He became, in 1785, titular 
 chancellor of the university of MontpeUier; and 
 consultations with him on serious cases were sought 
 from aU parts of the civilised world. The revolution 
 deprived him of the greater part of his property and 
 his places, and compeUed him to leave Paris ; but 
 Napoleon recaUed him, and heaped honours and 
 dignities upon him in his old age. He died in great 
 suSering, after an operation for stone in the bladder, 
 on 15th October 1806. Of his numerous writings, 
 the foUowing deserve special mention : NouvelU 
 3Iicanique des Mouvements de I'Homme et des Ani- 
 maux (Carcassonne, 1798 ; Traitement des Maladies 
 Goutteuses (2 vols.. Par. 1802 ; new ed., 1819 ; and 
 Consultation de Mededne (2 vols.. Par. 1810). — See 
 Lordat, Eocposition de la Doctrine Medicate de 
 Barthez, et M^moircs sur la Vie de ce MSdecin (Par. 
 1818). 
 
 BARTHOLIN, the name of a Danish famUy 
 distinguished for learning and authorship, and the 
 members of which have fiUed many important offices, 
 especiaUy in the university of Copenhagen. Kaspab 
 B., bom 12th February 1585, at Malmo, where his 
 father was a minister, studied theology and philo- 
 sophy at Rostock and Wittenberg, and afterwards 
 studied medicine. In the year 1610, he was made 
 doctor of medicine at Basle. He practised for some 
 time in Wittenberg, and in 1613 accepted an invita- 
 tion to be professor of the Greek language and of 
 medicine at Copenhagen, where, in 1624, he became 
 professor of theology. He died at Sora in 1629. 
 His Institvtiones Anatomicce (Wittenb., 1611, and 
 often reprinted), which were translated into the 
 
BARTHOLOMEW— BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY, 
 
 German, French, English, and Oriental languages, 
 served in the 17th c, in many universities, as a 
 text-book for prelections. Of his sons, who are all 
 known in the learned world, the following especially 
 deserve to be mentioned : the orientalist, Jacob B., 
 born 1623, died at Heidelberg, 1653, known as the 
 editor of the oabalistio works, BaJiir and Majan 
 Haohochma; and Thomas B., equally celebrated as 
 a philologist, naturalist, and physician, who was born 
 20th October 1616. He became, in 1647, professor 
 of mathematics, and in 1648 professor of anatomy, 
 at Copenhagen : demitted these offices in 1661, and 
 thereafter lived in retirement upon his estate of 
 Hagestad. In 1670, the king appointed him his 
 physician in ordinary, which situation he filled till 
 his death, 4th November 1680. He enlarged the 
 new edition of his father's Anatomy (Leyd., 1641 ; 
 often reprinted) with a mass of new observations. 
 Besides many other valuable anatomical and medical 
 works, his works on bibUcal and other antiquities, 
 and on natural philosophy, are particularly worthy 
 of notice. He was one of the most learned and 
 studious of physicians, and warmly defended Har- 
 vey's doctrine of the circulation of the blood. His 
 son, Kaspar B., born 1654, died 1704, was likewise 
 an accomplished anatomist ; and another son, 
 Thomas B., born 1659, died 1690, is the author 
 of a standard work on northern antiquities — the 
 AniiquUatum Danicarum Libri Tres (Copenh., 1689) ; 
 also of De Gausis Goniemvptcs a Danis adhuc gentUibiis 
 Mortis. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW, St, one of the twelve 
 apostles, supposed to be the same person as 
 Nathaniel. He was a native of Galilee, but nothing 
 authentic is known regarding his life and labours. 
 According to the traditionary record of Eusebius, he 
 carried Christianity into India ; Chrysostom speaks 
 of him as a missionary in Armenia and Asia Minor, 
 while a still later legend declares that he was cruci- 
 fied at Albania Pyla, the modern Derbend, a town 
 on the Caspian Sea. The relics of St B. ' appeared ' 
 at Rome in 983 A.D., and are preserved there in 
 the church bearing his name. The Roman and 
 Anglo-catholic Churches hold a festival in his 
 memory on the 24th August ; the Greek Church, 
 on the 11th June. The primitive church possessed 
 an apocryphal Gospel under his name, but it is now 
 lost. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW, St, a Caribbean island, 
 ceded, in 1784, by France to Sweden, whose single 
 transatlantic colony it is. It lies about 30 miles 
 to the west of St Kitts, the lat. and long, of its 
 east point being respectively 17° 53' N., and 62° 
 52' W. With an area of only 35 square nules, St 
 B. contains about 10,000 inhabitants. The soil is 
 fertile, though, as is generally the case in the 
 group, fresh water is- scarce. Like most of its 
 neighbours, St B. is difficult of access, its only 
 harbqur being on its west side, near the chief town 
 ' Gustavia. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW FAIR, formerly held at 
 West Smithfield, London, but discontinued since 
 1855. The charter of this fair was granted by Henry 
 I., in 1133, to a monk named Rayer or Rahere, who 
 had been his jester, and had founded the church and 
 priory of St Bartholomew, with an hospital attached. 
 The fair was held annually at the festival of St Bar- 
 tholomew (August 24, old style), and, like all ancient 
 fairs, was originally connected with the church, 
 under whose auspices Miracle-plays (q. v.), founded 
 on the legends of saints, were represent^, which 
 gave place to Mysteries, and these again to Morali- 
 ties ; afterwards, profane stories were introduced — 
 the origin of the modern English drama. After the 
 ' opening of the fair, it was customary anciently for 
 
 wrestlers to exercise their art. Wild rabbits were 
 hunted for sport by the mob, and the scholars 
 from the different London schools met at the 
 priory for disputations on grammar and logic, and 
 to wrangle together in verse. In the first centuries 
 of its existence, B. F. was one of the great annual 
 markets of the nation, and the chief cloth-fair of 
 the kingdom. The clothiers of England and the 
 drapers of London had their standings, during the 
 fair, in the priory churchyard. A pedlar's court, 
 or court of \Pie Povdre (q. v.), was held within the 
 priory gates, for debts and contracts, before a jury of 
 traders formed on the spot, at which the prior, as 
 lord of the fair, presided by his representative or 
 steward. In 1445, four persons were appointed by 
 the Court of Aldermen as keepers of the fair and of 
 the court of Pie Poudre, the city being thus in that 
 court represented as joint lord of the fair with the 
 prior. As the fair prospered, its chief articles of 
 traffic were, in the first instance, cloth stuffs, leather, 
 pewter, and live cattle; while it was rendered 
 attractive to the crowds that attended it by a 
 variety of popular amusements. All manner of 
 shows, exhibitions,' theatrical booths, &o., thronged 
 the fair; and tumblers, acrobats, stUt- walkers, 
 mummers, mountebanks, and merry-andrews re- 
 sorted to it in great numbers. On the suppression 
 of the religious houses, the priory was disjoined from 
 the hospital, and the latter, on 27th December 1546, 
 was, by Henry VIII., transferred to the corporation 
 of London, a new hospital being established on the 
 site of the former. The priory was purchased for 
 £1064, lis. 3d. by Sir Richard Rich, Chancellor of 
 the Court of Augmentations, afterwards Lord Chan- 
 cellor under the title of Lord Rich, and became his 
 town-house. Towards the close of the 16th c, 
 streets of houses began to be built on the site of the 
 Cloth Fair, a name which is still retained. In 
 1593, the keeping of the fair was, for the first time, 
 suspended by Sie raging of the plague. The 
 same thing happened in 1603, in 1625, in 1630, 
 in 1665, and in 1666. At this fair, foreigners 
 were at first licensed for three days, and the 
 city freemen as long as they would, which was 
 six or seven days. In 1661, after the Restor- 
 ation, the fair lasted for fourteen days or more. In 
 1685, it was leased by the city to the sword-bearer. 
 After this period, it began to decay as a place of 
 trade. In 1691, the continuance of the fair was 
 limited to three days, besides the proclamation- 
 day. In 1701, it was represented as a nuisance. In 
 1750 it was again limited to three days. By the 
 alteration of the calendar in 1752, the fair, ia the 
 following year, was, for the first time, proclaimed on 
 3d September. In 1798, the question of abolishing 
 the fair was discussed by the corporation. It had 
 long ceased to be a place of traffic, and was only 
 considered as a hamit of amusement, riot, and dissi- 
 pation. The fair had latterly been attended only by 
 the keepers of a few gingerbread-staUs ; and in 
 1839, measures were first seriously adopted for its 
 suppression. In 1840, the exhibitions were removed 
 to Islington. Wild-beast shows were allowed, but 
 dwarfs and giants were excluded. In 1850, the last 
 proclamation by the lord mayor took place, and in 
 1855 the once famous B. F. came to an end. An 
 octavo volume, entitled Memoirs of Sartholomew 
 Fair, by Henry Morley, was published in London in 
 1859. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW'S (St) DAY (Fr. La St.- 
 Barihilemy ; Ger. BariliolomoMsnacM, i e., Bartho- 
 lomew's Night, or Blvthochzeit, i. e.. Blood-wedding), 
 the appellation given to the massacre of the Pro- 
 testants in Paris on the night of St B. D., between 
 24th and 25th August 1572. After the death of 
 Francis II. in 1560, Cathariae de' Medici (q. v.), as 
 
 719 
 
BARTHOLOMEW'S HOSPITAL— BAETOLINI. 
 
 regent for her sou, Charles IX., a minor, in order to 
 annoy the Catholic party of the Duke Francis of 
 Guise (q. v.), had granted an edict of toleration to 
 the Reformed, at whose head was the Prince of 
 Condg. Both parties took up arms, and there ensued 
 a war which lasted for eight years, the cruelties of 
 which, through mutual exasperation, are almost 
 incredible. The Duke Francis of Guise was murdered 
 by an assassin, and the Prince of Cond§ was taken 
 prisoner in the battle of Jarnao, in 1569, and shot. 
 The young Prince Henry of Beam, afterwards King 
 Henry I v., a nephew of Condg, then became leader 
 of the Reformed, along with Admiral CoHgny (q. v.). 
 It was not till the strength of both sides was ex- 
 hausted, that the peace of St Germain-en-Laye was 
 concluded in 1570, whereby the Reformed obtained 
 the free exercise of their religion. Catharine de' 
 Medici now expressed much friendliness towards the 
 Reformed, and even endeavoured to luU them into 
 neghgenoe by the marriage of the youthf vd Henry of 
 Bearu with her daughter Margaret, 18th August 
 1572. Admiral Coligny was drawn to Paris, and 
 the king not only made him costly presents, but 
 gave him an important office in the council of 
 state. However, all this was only the basest hypoc- 
 risy. When, by means of the marriage of Prince 
 Henry, the most eminent of the Reformed had been 
 aUured to Paris, Admiral Coligny was wounded by 
 a shot from a window of the palace on 22d August 
 1572. The king, indeed, hastened to him, and swore 
 to avenge him; but, on the very same day, the 
 king was persuaded by his mother that the 
 admiral sought his life. ' By God's death ! ' he 
 exclaimed, 'let the admiral be slain, and not him 
 only, but all the Huguenots, tUl not one remain 
 that can give us trouble ! ' That night, Catharine 
 held a council, and appointed St B. D. for carrying 
 into effect the long-contemplated massacre. After 
 Coligny had been murdered, a bell in the tower of 
 the royal palace, at the hour of midnight, gave the 
 signal to the assembled companies of citizens for a 
 general massacre of the Huguenots. The king him- 
 self fired from his palace upon those that were 
 fleeing past. The Prince of CondS and the king of 
 Navarre only saved their lives by going to mass, 
 and appearing to conform to the Gathohc Church. 
 The provinces were at the same time summoned to 
 similar slaughter; and although in some of them 
 the officials were ashamed to publish the murderous 
 commands which had been transmitted to them, 
 there were found bloodthirsty fanatics enough, who 
 perpetrated the greatest horrors for several weeks 
 together in almost all the provinces, so that it was 
 reckoned that 30,000 (some authorities make the 
 number 70,000) persons were murdered. The pope 
 celebrated the events of St B. D. by a procession 
 to the church of St Louis, a grand Te Deum, 
 and the proclamation of a, year of jubilee. Many 
 of the Huguenots fled to pathless moimtaius and 
 to La RocheUe, to which the Dulce of Anjou laid 
 siege. Upon receiving intelligence, however, that 
 he had been elected king of Poland, he made 
 an arrangement on July 6, 1573, according to 
 which the king granted to the Huguenots an 
 amnesty, and the exercise of their religion in certain 
 towns. 
 
 BARTHO'LOMEW'S (St) HO'SPITAL, Smith- 
 field, London, was originally a part of the priory of 
 St Bartholomew, founded in 1102 by Rahere, the 
 first prior. At the dissolution of the rehgious 
 houses, it was founded anew by Henry VIIL, and 
 the endowment has been subsequently enlarged from 
 various soiurces, public and private. The hospital 
 contains 580 beds, and affords relief to 70,000 
 patients annually. There is a medical school 
 attached. 
 720 
 
 Bartizan. 
 
 BA'RTIZAN, a small stone closet, thrown out 
 upon corbels over doorways, 
 and on other parts of me- 
 dieval castles, generally for 
 defence, but sometimes only 
 for convenience to the in- 
 mates and defenders. 
 
 BA'RTLETT, William 
 Henby, an artist and popu- 
 lar writer, was born at 
 Kentish Town, London, on 
 the 29th March 1809. He 
 was a pupil of the eminent 
 architectural antiqiiary, Mr 
 John Britton, of London, 
 and during his apprentice- 
 ship displayed more than 
 ormnary talent for drawing, 
 which was fostered by his 
 master sending him into 
 many of the most interest- 
 ing counties in England, 
 to make sketches from 
 nature. Mr Britton after- 
 wards employed him to 
 make drawings for his Cathedral Antiquities, and 
 also for his Picturesque Antiquities of English 
 Cities. B. afterwards visited the continent, the 
 Holy Land, and America several times, on each 
 occasion enriching his portfolio with innumerable 
 interesting scenes. No less than nineteen quarto 
 volumes, containing about 1000 engravings from 
 his sketches, and letterpress from hia own pen, 
 and those of his fellow-traveller, Dr W. Beattie, 
 N. P. Willis, and Miss Pardee, were devoted to 
 these countries. Several other volumes, of which he 
 was the sole author as well as artist, have also been 
 published. Some of the books had a wonderful suc- 
 cess, especially those on Switzerland, the Holy Land, 
 and Egypt. B. died on the voyage from Malta to 
 Marseille on September 25, 1854. He had been 
 revisiting Palestine, and the materials he had col- 
 lected were given to the world in a posthumous 
 volume entitled Jerusalem Bevisited. 
 
 BA'RTLETT is also the name of several Ameri- 
 can authors, the most eminent of whom is John 
 Russell B., bom at Providence, Rhode Island 
 (U. S.), in October 1805. He was employed by 
 the United States' government, in 1850 — 1853, as 
 a commissioner for determimng the Mexican boun- 
 dary-line, and, in 1854, published an account of his 
 explorations and adventures, &c., in that capacity.. 
 He is also the author of The Progress of Ethnology, 
 a popular Dictionary of Americanisms, and other 
 works. 
 
 BARTOLI'NI, Lorenzo, a celebrated Italian 
 sculptor, was born at Vemio, in the north of Tuscany, 
 in 1777. Circumstances brought him to Paris while 
 stiU a young man, where he practised hL art for 
 some time with very little pecimiary success ; but • 
 at length, having obtained an academy prize for a 
 bas-rehef of Cleobis and Biton, he was suddenly 
 ushered into notice and prosperity. Several influ- 
 ential persons patronised him, such as Denon and 
 Regnanld de St Jean d'Angely. Through the first, 
 he obtained a commission to execute one of the 
 bas-reliefs in the haU of the VendSme palace, and 
 also the bust of Napoleon over the door of the 
 Institute of Prance. Napoleon himself gave him a 
 multitude of orders, many of which, unfortunately, 
 were never executed. In 1808, the emperor sent 
 him to Carrara, to establish a school of sculpture. 
 Here he remained tiU 1814, when he accompanied 
 his imperial master to Elba. After the battle of 
 Waterloo, he repaired to Florence, where he was 
 
BARTOLOMEO— BAHYTA. 
 
 subaequentljr appointed director of the sculpture 
 department in the Academy of the Fine Arts, an 
 office he retained till his death in 1850. B. was a 
 very prolific artist. Besides the works already 
 mentioned, B. executed busts of Cherubini, Mehul, 
 Madame liegnauld, a magnificent statue of Napo- 
 leon I. (now in America), several exquisite sepul- 
 chral monuments, such as that of Lady Strat- 
 ford Canning in the cathedral of Lausanne, and 
 various groups, the most celebrated of which are his 
 ' Charity,' and ' Hercules and Lyons.' In England 
 and France, his style is in general greatly esteemed ; 
 in Germany, it is less highly thought of. His 
 figures are characterised by their truthfulness of 
 proportion and classic repose, though they also 
 possess a remarkably lifelike expression. After 
 Canova, B. is reckoned the most distinguished 
 Italian sculptor of modern times. 
 
 BARTOLOME'O, San, a town of Naples, in the 
 proviuce of Capitanata, with a population of 3400. 
 
 BARTOLO'ZZI, Fbancesco, an emiuent engraver, 
 was born in Florence about 1730. After practising 
 his art tmder Wagner of Venice, he went to 
 Kome, where he executed his admired plates from 
 the life of St Nilus. He was afterwards commis- 
 sioned by Mr Dalton, librarian of George III., to 
 engrave a series of drawings by Guercino, and 
 was iuduced by the same gentleman to settle in 
 England. Here B. produced his spirited and highly 
 finished engravings of the ' Virgin and Child ' after 
 Carlo Dolci, and 'Clytie' after Annibale Carracci, 
 which entitle him to occupy the front rank in his 
 profession. He also engraved numerous specimens of 
 the works of his friend Giovanni Cipriani, of Michael 
 Angelo, Cantarini, Cortona, &c., with equal truth 
 and effect. B. likewise enriched Alderman Boydell's 
 Shakspeare Gallery with many fine engravings. In 
 1802 he received a flattering invitation from the 
 Prince Regent of Portugal, to take the superintend- 
 ence of a school of engravers at Lisbon, whither he 
 repaired three years afterwards, in his seventy-fifth 
 year, and there resided until his death in 1818. He 
 was the father of Madame Vestris, the celebrated 
 comedian. 
 
 BA'RTON, Bbenabd, an English poet, born 
 31st January 1784, in London. His parents were 
 members of the Society of Friends, to the tenets of 
 which body B. adhered through life. In 1810 he 
 became clerk to a banking-house at Woodbridge, in 
 which situation he continued untU within two years 
 of his death. His first poetical efforts, published in 
 1812 under the title of Metrical Effusions, brought 
 him into correspondence with the poet Southey. 
 Poems by an Amateur (1818), and Poems (Lond. 
 1820), increased his reputation, and gained him the 
 friendship of Lamb and Byron. Napoleon and other 
 Poems appeared in 1822, and was followed within 
 five years by several other productions. All the 
 , poems of B. are pervaded by pious sentiment, and 
 some passages display much natural tenderness and 
 rehgious fervour; but he is, on the whole, rather a 
 fluent, pleasant versifier than a poet. So early as 
 1824, a reading-club founded by him in Wood- 
 bridge collected the sum of £1200 sterling, and pre- 
 sented it to ViiTn. Some years before his death, he 
 received, through Sir Robert Peel, a pension of £100 
 sterling. In addition to the works mentioned, he 
 pubhsned Fislier's Juvenile Scrap-booh (Lond. 1836), 
 The Rdiquary (Lond. 1836), and Household Verses 
 (Lond. 1845). After his death, which took place 
 suddenly, 19th February 1849, his daughter pub- 
 lished Selections from the Poems and Letters of 
 Bernard Barton (Lond. 1849). 
 
 BARTON, Elizabeth, commonly called ' the 
 Holy Maid of Kent,' a wretched creature, subject to 
 16 
 
 spasmodic nervous affections, during which she gave 
 utterance to incoherent exclamations and phrases. 
 About the year 1525, she was servant in a tavern at 
 Aldington, in Kent ; and the cunniag priest of the 
 parish seeing her ia her paroxysms, on the strength 
 of her misfortune conceived the idea of preaentmg 
 her to the world as a prophetess. Under his direc- 
 tions, she played her part so well that not only the 
 common people, but even men of intellect and edu- 
 cation like Sir Thomas More, and Barham, the 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, were deceived by her. 
 The former, however, afterwards recognised her 
 true character. She became a nun, and when, in 
 1532, Henry VIII. quarrelled with the court of 
 Rome, she was induced to denounce loudly the 
 king's separation from his first wife, and his 
 marriage with Anne Boleyn, and even to prophesy 
 his death. Being arrested by the king's command, 
 along with her accomplices, she made before the 
 judges a confession, which was afterwards pubHoly 
 repeated before the people, of the fraud which had 
 been perpetrated, and was sentenced to ecclesias- 
 tical penance and to imprisonment. She was after- 
 wards accused of high treason, and executed along 
 with some of her accomphces in 1534. 
 
 BA'RTON BEDS, a group of strata, composed of 
 clay and sand, and forming part of the Middle Eocene 
 formation, included in the Bagshot series (q. v.). 
 
 BA'RTON-ON-HU'MBER, a town in North 
 Lincolnshire, on the south side of the Humber, 
 six miles south-west of Hull. It is a very ancient 
 place, having been one of the chief ports of the 
 Humber before the foundation of Hull. It was once 
 surrounded by a rampart and fosse, as a protection 
 against the incursions of the Danes and Saxons. 
 "dntU recently, the ferry across the Humber, on 
 the great road from London to Hull, was here ; but 
 the London and Hull inland traffic has now been 
 diverted from B. by the steam-ferry at New Holland, 
 six miles below Barton. The chief manufactures 
 are ropes, sacking, bricks, tUes, pottery, and whiting. 
 There are quarries of chalk and oolite. The tower 
 of St Peter's Church, which was built about the 
 time of the Conquest, has both round and pointed 
 arches; and, with the part of the building to the 
 west, constitutes one of the few existing examples 
 of undoubted Anglo-Saxon architecture. St Mary's 
 Church is a handsome structure of the 14th c. Pop. 
 3866. 
 
 B A'RU, a fine wooUy substance found at the base 
 of the leaves of the Saguerus saccharifer (also 
 called Arenga saccharifera), one of the most valuable 
 sago-pahns of the Indian Archipelago. It is much 
 employed in calking ships, in stuffing cushions, and 
 for other similar purposes. 
 
 BA'RTJCH (i. e., the Blessed), the son of Neriah, 
 was the person to whom the prophet Jeremiah dic- 
 tated his oracles. During the siege of Jerusalem by 
 Nebuchadnezzar, both he and the prophet were, by 
 their own countrymen, shut up in a narrow prison, 
 but obtained from the conqueror freedom and per- 
 mission to choose their own residence. B. remained 
 for some time in Palestine, but afterwards accom- 
 panded Jeremiah to Egypt. His subsequent history 
 is unknown. An apocryphal work in the Greek 
 language has come down to ns under his name — 
 viz., the Book of B., which contains words of com- 
 fort for the Israelites, and predicts the rebuilding of 
 Jerusalem. There is usually appended to it, as 
 chapters vi. and vii., a letter — also apocryphal — of 
 the prophet Jeremiah to the exUes in Babylon. 
 
 BA'RWOOD. See Camwood. 
 
 BARY'TA, or BARY'TES, or Oxide of Barium 
 (q.v.) — symbol BaO — is the earth present in the 
 minerals wiiherite (carbonate of B.) and heavy spar 
 
 721 
 
BARYTON— BASALT. 
 
 (sulphate of B.). It may be prepared in several ways : 
 1. By acting upon tlie carbonate of B. (BaOCO^) 
 by nitric acid (NO 5), which causes the disengage- 
 ment of the carbonic acid (CO^), and the nitric acid 
 combining with the B. forms the nitrate of baryta 
 (BaONOj). On evaporating the latter substance 
 to dryness, and igniting the residue, the nitric acid 
 volatilises, and leaves the baryta (BaO). 2. Another 
 mode of preparing the same substance is to act 
 upon a solution of sulphuret of barium (BaS) by the 
 black oxide of copper (OuO), when an interchange 
 of elements occurs, the sulphur uniting with the 
 copper, producing sulphuret of copper (CuS), and 
 the oxygen with the barium, forming B. (BaO), 
 which remains dissolved in the water, and, on 
 evaporation, deposits crystals in the hydrated 
 condition (BaO,HO). B. belongs to the group of 
 alkaline earths, and has the property of acting hke 
 an alkali (q. v.) on colouring matters. It has a 
 very harsh taste, is highly caustic, and is very 
 poisonous. A solution of B. is used by the chemist 
 as the best indication of the presence of car- 
 bonic acid gas in the atmosphere, for when a 
 plate or other vessel containing the solution is 
 exposed to the air, the carbonic acid floating 
 across the surface combines with the B., and forms 
 a film of white carbonate of baryta (BaO,COj). 
 Otherwise, B. possesses little interest, as it is not 
 put to any commercial or medicinal use. The 
 compounds of B. are, however, of considerable 
 importance. The sulphate of B. (BaOSO^), other- 
 wise called ponderous or heavy spar, is found iu the 
 mineral kingdom, diffused' in fissures or cracks, 
 
 Crystal of Sulphate of Baryta. 
 
 passing through other rooks, especially in Cumber- 
 land, fiurham, and Westmoreland, and in the island 
 of Arran. At the latter place, an extensive mine 
 of heavy spar has been worked for many years. 
 In its native condition, the sulphate of B. occurs 
 of a crystalline texture, is sometimes found pure 
 and white, but generally presents a flesh-red colour, 
 from the red oxide of iron (rust) incorporated 
 in it. The rust can be got quit of by reducing 
 the sulphate of B. to a fine powder under rollers or 
 traveUmg-wheels, and subjecting the pulverised 
 material to the action of dilute sulphuric acid, 
 which dissolves the red oxide of iron, and leaves the 
 sulphate of B. as a white dense powder. The 
 principal use of heavy spar is as a pigment under 
 the name of permanent white; but having little 
 opacity, it cannot be employed by itself, but only 
 when mixed with ordinary white lead. 'When 
 added to the latter, however, it must be regarded 
 as an adulteration, for the little opacity it possesses 
 renders it of service only as an increaser of the 
 bulk of the white lead. Several mixtures of 
 sulphate of B., and white lead are manufactured, 
 and are known in commerce. Venice White contaius 
 1 part Sulphate of B., and 1 part White Lead. 
 Harnknirg White contains 2 parts Sulphate of B., 
 and 1 part White Lead. Dutch White contains 3 
 parts Sulphate of B., and 1 part White Lead. The 
 native svdphate of B. has been employed by the 
 celebrated potter Wedgwood in the manufacture of 
 jasper ware, and for the formation of white figures, 
 &c., on coloured jars and vessels. The Cairbonaie 0/ 
 B. found native as Witherite, and the Nit/rate of 
 
 722 
 
 B., have been previously referred to in this article 
 and that on Baeium. 
 
 BA'EYTON (Viol di Bardoni), an old chamber- 
 instrument, somewhat like the viol di gamba in 
 tone: had a broader finger-board, with seven gut- 
 strings, while under the neck there were sixteen 
 strings of brass wire, which were touched with the 
 point of the thumb, to produce a sound, while, the 
 gut-strings were acted on by a bow. 
 
 BA'EYTOS', that species of the human voice 
 which Hes between the bass and the tenor, the 
 tone-character of which ia more allied to the bass. 
 
 The compass of a B. voice is from f^ ; 1 
 
 ffi^ 
 
 but the principal notes of the voice are from 
 
 ; and these should possess the ener- 
 
 getic character of a bass voice, and, above all, be 
 produced from the chest, excepting perhaps the 
 highest. In former times, the music for this 
 species of voice was written on a stave with 
 
 r\- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 the F clef placed on the 3d Hue, thus : -j^ 
 
 BAS, or BATZ, a small island in the English 
 Channel, belonging to Prance, and situated off the 
 north coast of the department of Fimsterre. Its 
 length is about 3 miles, and its breadth 2. It has a 
 light-house, in lat. 48° 45' N., and long. 4° 1^' W., 
 on an elevation 223 feet above the sea, and is 
 defended by two forts and four batteries. Pop. 
 1132, whose chief occupation is fishing. 
 
 BASA'LT, strictly a variety of trap-rock (q. v.), 
 although some writers use the words as synony- 
 mous. It is composed of the same materials as 
 greenstone (q. v.), and other varieties of trap, viz., 
 hornblende and felspar, with a small quantity of 
 iron; but these exist in a state of finer division 
 than in greenstone, shewing that the crystalline 
 action has been stopped at its commencement by 
 the more rapid coohng of the mass. To this is 
 owing its sharp conchoidal fracture and its hard- 
 ness. As the hardness is frequently accompanied 
 with tenacity, it makes B. a valuable material in the 
 making of roads. It is of a more uniform dark-gray 
 colour, approaching to black, than the other varieties 
 of trap. 
 
 A rock of a similar appearance and structure 
 occurs as a variety of lava, in volcanic districts. 
 This Lava-B. differs from 
 the older Trap-B. in the form 
 which the sUicates of mag- 
 nesia and lime assume when 
 crystallisiog. In the newer 
 rocks, they appear as augite ; 
 in the older, as hornblende. 
 These two minerals can 
 scarcely be distinguished by 
 their chemical composition, 
 the different formulas given 
 by mineralogists being the 
 result of the presence, in the specimen analysed, of 
 accidental ingredients or impurities. The sUghtly 
 differing crystallographie angle has been accounted 
 for by the suTOOsed more speedy cooling of the vol- 
 canic rocks. Bose, indeed, has shewn that the horn- 
 blende of melted greenstone, in re-cooling, crystalHsea 
 as augite; and we have observed that the same 
 change has taken place in specimens of recrystalhsed 
 B., obtained from works which existed lately at 
 
 Basalt seotioiL 
 
BASALT. 
 
 BintiiTigham for converting tliis rook into an opaque 
 glass for various economic uses. 
 
 The remarkable columnar structure ■which B. fre- 
 quently assumes, is its most striking characteristic. 
 The columns vary in the number of their angles from 
 three to twelve; but they have most commonly 
 from five to seven sides. They are frequently 
 divided transversely by joints at nearly equal dis- 
 tances. The direction of the columns is always at 
 right angles to the greatest extension of the mass, 
 80 that when B. occurs as a bed, either overlying, or 
 
 interstratified with the regular strata, the columns 
 are perpendicular, while they are horizontal when 
 the B. exists as a dike. 
 
 The columnar structure was at first believed to 
 be owing to a modification of the crystalline force. 
 Such a supposition was favoured by the extemjJ 
 form of the columns ; but the total absence of inter- 
 nal structure shewed that the explanation must be 
 sought elsewhere. In 1804, Mr Gregory Watt pro- 
 pounded a theory of the origin of the structure, 
 ascribing it to the pressure of numerous spheres 
 
 Kngal'a Cave. 
 
 on each other, during the process of cooling, such 
 spheres being produced in planes of refrigeration 
 or absorption. They increase by the successive 
 formation of external concentric coats, until their 
 growth is prevented by the contact of neighbouring 
 spheres; and as in a layer of equal-sized spheres, 
 each is pressed on by six others, the result is that 
 each sphere will be squeezed into a regular hexagon. 
 Watt published this theory as the result of his 
 celebrated observations on the cooling of a mass of 
 molten basalt, in which he noticed Bie production 
 of numerous spheroids, having a radiate structure. 
 Many greenstones, in weathering, present such a 
 structure, giving often to the rook the appearance 
 as if it were composed of a mass of cannon- 
 balls, and Watt's experiments satisfactorily explain 
 this phenomenon; but they will not go further. 
 Anxious, however, that they shoidd throw some 
 light on the structure of basaltic columns, he 
 manages it by the following remarkable assump- 
 tion: 'In a stratum composed of an indefinite 
 number in superficial extent, but only one in height, 
 of impenetrable spheroids, with nearly equidistant 
 centres, if their peripheries should come in contact 
 in the same plane, it seems obvious that their 
 mutual action would form them into hexagons; and 
 if these were resisted below, and there was no 
 opposing cause above them, it seems equally clear 
 that they would extend their dimensions upwards, 
 and thus form hexagonal prisms, whose length might 
 Tbe indefinitely greater than their diameters. The 
 further the extremities of the radii were removed 
 
 from the centre, the greater would be their approach 
 to parallelism; and the structure would be finally 
 propagated by nearly parallel fibres, stiU keeping 
 within the limits of the hexagonal prism with which 
 their incipient formation commenced; and the 
 prisms might thus shoot to an indefinite length into 
 the undisturbed central mass of the fiuid, till their 
 structure was deranged by the superior influence of 
 a counteracting cause.' Unfortunately, such dreams 
 too often meet with more acceptance than the drier 
 deductions from observed facts ; which must, how- 
 ever, in the end, form the only basis of all geologic 
 science. But there is no occasion here to urge even 
 the most imaginative to resort to hypothesis, for the 
 formation of columns in other substances than B. 
 is quite familiar, and their producing causes evident. 
 In starch, colirams having the external prismatic 
 appearance, and the internal earthy structure, are 
 produced simply from the escape of vapour, and 
 consequent shrinking of parts. We have seen 
 singularly regular joints produced in the argUlaceous 
 ironstone at Wardie, near Edinburgh, on its expo- 
 sure on the beach, the contractions forming the 
 columns evidently resulting from the escape of the 
 moisture retained by the bed while it was covered 
 by other strata. The same occurs in beds of fime 
 clay that have been recently exposed. But the 
 most regular series of columns that have been 
 noticed by us, were produced on bricks which 
 formed the bottom of a public oven. The long- 
 continued and powerful heat to which they had 
 been subjected, though it had not caused fusion, had 
 
 728 
 
BASCmET— BASE OF OPEEATIONS. 
 
 so affected them as to produce a beautiful series of 
 regular hexagonal prisms. The columns had a dia- 
 meter of nearly half an inch. Their direction was at 
 right angles to the oven floor. The earthy structure 
 of the brick remained. The columns, in short, were 
 in every respect, except the material of which they 
 were formed, true basaltic columns. It is surely 
 better to look for an explanation of this structure in 
 causes similar to those which have produced the 
 examples adduced, than to find it in such ground- 
 less assumptions as are at the foundation of the 
 generally received theory of Watt. The columnar 
 structure of B. seems to have been produced subse- 
 quently to the cooling of the mass, by changes in 
 the soM rock, probably from the escape of some 
 volatile matter. 
 
 The two best known and most beautiful examples 
 of columnar B. are Pingal's Cave, in the island 
 of Staffa, on the west coast of Scotland, and the 
 Giants' Causeway, on the north coast of Ireland. 
 
 BA'SCISTET. See Helmet. 
 
 BASE, in Heraldry, the lower portion of the 
 shield is called the B. ; there is a dexter base, middle 
 base, and sinister base, marked by the letters 
 G, H, I, in the accompanying dia 
 
 A B C I gram, in which, for the convenience 
 of the heraldic student, the other 
 points of the escutcheon are also 
 indicated. The chief oi principal part 
 of the escutcheon is the top, marked 
 A, B, C. The dexter or right-hand 
 side is that marked AG- ; the sinister 
 or left-hand side, CI, an arrangement which is 
 explained when we consider that the shield is 
 always supposed to be on the arm of the wearer, 
 and that it is his right and left hands, not those 
 of the spectator, which are kept in view. The 
 ground or surface of the shield, on which all the 
 charges or figures are depicted, is called the field. 
 
 In Base. — When any figure is placed in the B. 
 part of the shield, it is said to be in base. 
 
 BASE (Fr. and Ital), the foot or lower member 
 of a piUar, on which the shaft rests. Of the classical 
 orders, the Doric column alone had no base. The 
 height of the B. is usually about half the lower 
 
 Tuscan Base. 
 
 diameter of the shaft ; and it is divided into the 
 plinth, or flat projecting square block or blocks, 
 mmiediately above the ground, and the mouldings 
 (q. v.), or fillets, which surround the column, and 
 are usually circular. In the early Norman style, the 
 bases of pillars still retained, from the Bomanesque, 
 forms closely resembling the Tuscan order. As 
 Gothic architecture advanced, and emancipated 
 itself from the arbitrary rules by which the classical 
 orders were governed, bases became infinitely varied 
 in detail, though something approaching to the 
 original conception of a strong and firm foundation 
 for the column, adhered to them throughout. 
 
 BASE, in Chemistry, is a, term applied to a 
 compound body, generally consisting of a metal 
 
 united with oxygen. Thus, the metal potassium 
 (K), when it combines with oxygen (0), forms the 
 B. potash (KO); sodium (Na) and oxygen, the B. soda 
 (NaO) ; lead (Pb) and oxygen, the B. oxide of lead 
 or Htharge (PbO). A distinguishing feature of a 
 B. is that it unites with an oxygen acid, such as 
 sulphuric fcid (SO3) to form a salt (q. v.). ThuSj the 
 B. potash (KO) combines with sulphuric acid (SO3) 
 to make the salt sulphate of potash (KOSO3) ; 
 potash with nitric acid (NO j) to form the salt nitrate 
 of potash, or nitre (KONO5). Occasionally sulphur 
 replaces the oxygen in a base. Thus, the metal 
 potassimn (K) luiites with sulphur (S) to form the 
 mlphur base, sulphuret of potassium (KS), which 
 can unite with a sulphur acid like sulpharsenious 
 acid or orpiment (AsSg) to make the salt sulphar- 
 senite of potash (KS.AsSg). The metal half of 
 a B. need not be a simple element, but may be a 
 compoimd body which, for the time, plays the 
 part of a simple substance. Thus, the compound 
 ethyl (C4H5) can combine with oxygen to form 
 ordinary ether ([C^HjlO); and the B. thus pro- 
 duced can, in its turn, combine with acids to 
 form salts. A base may be soluble or insoluble in 
 water. Thus, the bases potash (KO), soda (NaO), 
 ammonia (NII4O), baryta (BaO), strontia (StO), lime 
 (CaO), and magnesia (MgO), are more or less soluble 
 in water; whilst the oxide of iron or rust (Fe^Oj), 
 the red oxide of lead (PbjO^), the red oxide of 
 mercury (HgO), are insoluble in water, but soluble 
 in acids. 
 
 BASE, or BASS (from basis, the foundation), in 
 Music, is the deepest or lowest part, by whatever 
 instrument it may be performed. The B., next to 
 the upper part, is the most striking, the freest in 
 its movements, and richest in effect. Its movement 
 downwards is unfettered, unconcealed, and undis- 
 turbed, whereas the middle parts are circumscribed 
 and concealed. In respect to harmony, the B. is the 
 most important part in music, containing more fre- 
 quently the fundamental notes of the chords, while 
 on it is formed that most important and effective 
 figure in music called 'organ-point' (q. v.). — B. is 
 also the name of the lowest and deepest quality of 
 the hiunan voice. The compass of a B. voice is 
 
 generally from r^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 which should all be 
 
 chest-notes, except, perhaps, the highest. The most 
 
 useful range, however, is from D- I -[ 
 
 In 
 
 the characteristic use of the B. voice, the old masters 
 were unquestionably the greatest, especially Handel 
 and Bach. The B. voice only begins to shew itself 
 at the years of manhood, and is generally a change 
 from the alto voice of a boy. — ^B. is' also the name 
 of an old stringed instrument, with from five to six 
 strings, tuned variously to suit the music, and played 
 with a bow. It was a sort of middle instrument 
 between the contra-bass and violoncello, but is now 
 out of use. Double B. (contra-bass) is the deepest- 
 toned of stringed instruments. 
 
 BASE OP OPERA'TIONS, in MiUtary Man- 
 oeuvres, is some spot or line which the general of an 
 army relies upon as a stronghold and magazine. An 
 army cannot take with it all the food, forage, and 
 ammunition for a long war; the consumption is 
 enormous, and a constant supply is indispensable. 
 Again, the sick and wounded cannot accompany the 
 army through toilsome marches ; the commander 
 endeavours to send them back to some place of 
 safety. Furthermore, fresh troops must have some 
 spot from which they can safely advance through the 
 enemy's country. To secm-e all these advantages, a 
 
BASE-COURT— BASEL. 
 
 B. of 0. is necessary. It may be a port, a stretch 
 of sea-coast, a river, a mountain-range, according 
 to circmnstanoes ; but it must be such as to serve as 
 a^ magazine of supply, a place for retreat under 
 disaster, and the end of a line of open communi- 
 cation extending to the spot occupied by the army. 
 When Lord llaglan and Marshal St Arnaud 
 advanced from tlie Alma towards Sebastopol, in 
 September 1854, they intended to attack the great 
 fortress on the north side ; but the tactics of the 
 Russians prevented this; andjthe allies, changing 
 their plan, resolved on the celebrated flanlc-march to 
 BalaMava, by which they secured the whole coast 
 from Balaklava to Kamiesoh as a B. of 0. during 
 the siege of Sebastopol. See Balaklava. In 
 the mihtary contests arising out of the Indian 
 mutiny, in 1857 and 1858, Cawnpore was the chief 
 B. of 0. whence Havelook, Outram, and Clyde made 
 those advances towards Lucknow which led ulti- 
 mately to the suppression of the revolt. In the 
 Italian war of 1859, the Austrian B. of 0. was very 
 fluctuating, owing in part to the disaflfected state 
 of the Lombard population aroimd the great for- 
 tresses of Mantua, Peschiera, &o. ; and indeed the 
 only reliable base was furnished by the Eastern and 
 Tyrolese Alps. The French and Sardinian base, in 
 the same war, was virtually Genoa, and the line 
 of country extending thence to the great stronghold 
 of Alessandria. 
 
 BA'SE-COUET [hasse-cour), the outer court of 
 a feudal mansion, which contained the stable-yard 
 and accommodation for servants. It was distinct 
 from the principal quadrangle, and was sometimes 
 constructed of timber. 
 
 BA'SEDOW, JoH. Bbknh. (properly, Joh. Berend 
 Bassedau, or Bernh. von Nordalbingen, as he is 
 often called), u. remarkable educationist of the 18th 
 c, was born, 8th September 1723, at Hamburg, 
 where his father was a peruke-maker. He attended 
 the Johanneum there from 1741 to 1744, and after- 
 wards studied philosophy and theology in Leipsic, 
 from which ho went in 1746 as a private tutor to 
 Holstein. In the year 1753, he was appointed a 
 master in the academy for young noblemen at 
 Soroe. In 1761 he was removed from the Gymna- 
 sium at Altona on account of heterodox opinions. 
 Rousseau's Emile awakened in him, in 1762, the 
 thought of improving the method of education, and of 
 reducing to practice Kousseau's maxims and those of 
 Comenius. Contributions from princes and private 
 persons, .amounting to 15,000 thalers (about £2171 
 sterling), covered the cost of his Memmtarweric, 
 which, after the most pompous announcements, 
 appeared as an Orbis Pietus, with 100 copper-plates 
 by Chodowieoki, and was translated into Trench 
 and Latin. Therein the young receive a large num- 
 ber of representations of the actual world, whereby 
 B. sought at once to delight the eyes, and to awaken 
 a sentiment of cosmopohtanism, at which his whole 
 method aimed. As a model school on this method, 
 he estabhshed in 1774 the Philanthropin at Dessau, 
 to which place he had been called in 1771. His rest- 
 lessness of disposition, and the quarrels in which he 
 was involved, especially with his active but capri- 
 cious coadjutor Wolke, caused him to leave the 
 Philanthropin; but he proceeded with as much 
 eagerness as ever in endeavours to give effect to 
 his ideas by educational works, wmch, however, 
 aimed more at popularity than solidity, until, after 
 many changes of residence, he died at Magdeburg, 
 25th July 1790. His influence on the public mind 
 of his age, particularly in "Germany, was very 
 great. He has been justly reproached with disparag- 
 ing the ancients, a consequence chiefly of his own 
 want of sound scholarship, and with a multitude of 
 
 exaggerations, mistakes, and conceits ; yet it cannot 
 be disputed that his numerous philosophical and 
 educational works powerfully awakened attention 
 and interest in the much-neglected subject of educa- 
 tion, and that he set many excellent ideas and 
 weighty truths in rajnd circulation among men. 
 
 BA'SEL, or BA'SLE (Er. Bdle], a city and canton 
 of Switzerland. The canton was divided in 1833 
 into two sovereign half-cantons, called Basel-city 
 (Basel-stadt, or Basle -ville) and Basel- country 
 (Basel-landschaft, or Basle-campagne), each having 
 half a vote in the diet. The half-canton of Basel- 
 city consists only of the city, with its precincts, and 
 three villages on the right bank of the Rhine ; the 
 remainder of the canton forms the half-canton of 
 Basel-country. The canton of B. is bounded by 
 France and Baden, and by the cantons of Aargau, 
 Soleure, and Berne, and has, according to different 
 estimates, an extent of from 170 to about 200 square 
 miles. Lying on the northern slope of the Jura, it 
 is a, country of lulls and valleys. The mountains 
 attain an elevation of from 2000 to 3000 feet. The 
 chief rivers of B. are the Rhine (which flows through 
 the north part of the canton) and its tributaries, the 
 Birz, and Ergloz. The soil is fertile and weU culti- 
 vated. ' The climate, except ia elevated situations, 
 is very nuld. The inhabitants are chiefly employed 
 in agriculture, the cultivation of fruit-trees and of 
 the vine, cattle-husbandry, fishing, salt-works, the 
 manufacture of ribbons (which are manufactured to 
 the value of £400,000 sterhng annually), paper, 
 woollens, linens, and leather. The transit trade is 
 very considerable. 
 
 The city of B. arose out of the Roman fortified post 
 of Basilia or BasiHana, near Augusta Raxuracorum, 
 of which once more important place the little village 
 of Augst, near B., exhibits a few ruias. On the divi- 
 sion of the Frank Empire, the district of B. fell to 
 Louis or Ludwig the German. The Emperor Henry 
 I., in the earher part of the 10th c, rebuilt the 
 town, which had been destroyed. It then became a 
 place of importance, and belonged for a time to Bur- 
 gundy, but after 1032 formed part of the German 
 empire. It became at an early period the seat of a 
 bishop, who, from the lithe, shared in the supreme 
 power with the imperial governor, a number of 
 noble families, and the burgesses. Amidst many 
 internal and external disturbances, the power of the 
 nobility was gradually broken, that of the bishop 
 restricted, and the authority of the burgesses 
 extended. Surrounding towns were also destroyed, 
 or conquered, and purchased, along with their terri- 
 tories, so that the city extended its dominion over a 
 country district which until very recently was kept 
 in a state of dependence and subjection. Involved 
 in many feuds with the House of Hapsburg, B. 
 closely allied itself to the Swiss confedteracy; and 
 after the peace between the Emperor Maximilian I. 
 and the confederacy, B. formally joined it in 1501. 
 From 1519 onwards, the writings of Luther were 
 printed in B. ; and at the end of twenty years from 
 that time, the reformed doctrine had become gene- 
 rally prevalent, the chapter of the cathedral had 
 left the city, and the convents had been suppressed. 
 After the union with Switzerland, the triumph of the 
 burgess party became also more complete, part of the 
 nobJity emigrated, and those who remained were 
 placed upon the same level with the freemen of the 
 municipal corporation. Orderly industry, economy, 
 and an external severity of manners, became the 
 characteristics of the citizens ; but the peace of the 
 city was not unfrequently disturbed by strifes con- 
 sequent upon the assertion of what was deemed 
 imdue authority by the magistrates. The govern- 
 ment of the city, to which the whole canton was 
 subject, was intrusted to a Great and a Little 
 
BASEL. 
 
 Council, under the presidency of alternate burgo- 
 masters and chief wardens of the guilds; but the 
 Little Council, uniting legislative and judicial func- 
 tions with the highest executive authority, became 
 gradually more and more preponderant. All parties 
 in the city, however, remained always well com- 
 bined against the country district; and persons 
 belonging to the city were appointed to all ofB.ces, 
 civil and ecclesiastical, whilst the depression of 
 the countiy district was completed by the neglect 
 of a proper provision for education This state of 
 things caused great dissatisfaction, which repeatedly 
 broke out in fruitless rebeUion. Under the impulse 
 communicated by the French Revolution, equahty of 
 rights was conceded in 1798 ; but in 1814, although 
 the equality of rights remained apparently intact, 
 the new constitution of the canton was so framed, 
 and the representation so distributed, as virtually to 
 make the city again supreme. The discontent 
 of the country district became so great that, after 
 unsuccessful attempts to obtain redress of grievances 
 by petition, civil war broke out in 1831, which did 
 not cease till the troops of the Swiss Confederation 
 took possession of the canton, and the diet recognised 
 the separation of the city and the country district, 
 as sovereign haU-oantons, in 1833. The constitu- 
 tions of the two half-cantons are in most respects 
 similar, and are framed on the basis of the old con- 
 stitution, modified in accordance with the principle 
 of universal suffrage. According to the census of 
 1850, the half-canton of Basel-city contained 29,698 
 inhabitants, of whom more than 24,000 were Pro- 
 testants, and the rest Koman Catholics ; Basel- 
 country, 47,885, of whom 9000 were Roman Catho- 
 lics. Each division sends one member to the diet, 
 but they have only one vote between them, and that 
 does not ooimt at all when the deputies take oppo- 
 site sides, which as a rule they do. The capital of 
 Basel-country is LiestaL Since its separation from 
 the city, more ample provision has been made for 
 education, and there has been a rapid increase of 
 material prosperity. Both Koman Catholic and 
 Protestant clergy are paid by the state, and the 
 parishes of the Reformed Church have received the 
 right of choosing their own pastors. 
 
 The city of B. was much more populous in the 
 middle ages than it is now. Its population in 
 1850 was 27,270. In the 14th c, the number 
 of its inhabitants was greatly reduced by the 
 plague, or 'black death' (q. v.), which raged in 
 it with terrible severity, and is sometimes men- 
 tioned as the 'death of Basel.' It is weU-bmlt 
 and clean, but its appearance does not proclaim 
 it the wealthiest city in Switzerland, which, how- 
 ever, it is. Amongst its buildings are a cathedral, 
 founded in the begiiming of the llth c, by the 
 Emperor Henry II., and a bridge over the Rhine, 
 built in 1226. The Rhine divides the city into two 
 parts — Great B., on the south side, and Little B., on 
 the north. B. is connected by railway with Stras- 
 biu'g on the one hand, and Berne, Lucerne, Zurich, 
 &c., on the other. It has many benevolent and 
 educational institutions, among which are an orphan 
 asylum, and au institution for deaf mutes ; a uni- 
 versity, founded in 1459, which has a library of 
 50,000 — 60,000 volumes, and a very valuable collec- 
 tion of manuscripts, a numismatological collection, a 
 botanic garden, and a museum of natural history; 
 the new museum, in which there are several pictures 
 of the younger Holbein, who was long resident in 
 B. (some accounts say, he was bom here) ; a publio 
 library of 70,000 volumes. During the Reforma- 
 tion, the university was a central point of spiritual 
 life, and it has numbered among its professors 
 men of great eminence in learning and science, 
 including Erasmus, who died here in 1536, and the 
 
 726 
 
 mathematicians Euler and Bernouilli, who were 
 natives of B. ; but it is now one of the least 
 frequented of the universities of Switzerland. 
 
 BA'SBL, Council of, a memorable and important 
 ecclesiastical council, held in the city of Basel. It 
 was summoned by Pope Martin V., and his successor 
 Eugenius IV., in accordance with an announcement 
 made at the Council of Constance, and was opened 
 on 14th December 1431, under the presidency of the 
 Cardinal Legate Julian Cesarird of St Angelo. The 
 haU in which it met is stiU shewn at Basel. It 
 addressed itself to the reconcUiation of the Hussites 
 with the Roman Catholic Church, and to the reform 
 of abuses in the church itself. But the first attempt 
 to conciliate the Hussites, whom an army of cru- 
 saders had in vain sought to subjugate, was met 
 with resistance by the pope, who not only refused 
 Ms sanction, but empowered the cardinal legate to 
 dissolve the coimcQ. The council strongly repelled 
 the pope's pretension of right to dissolve it, and pro- 
 ceeded/ with its business. His injunctions, that it 
 should remove to Italy, were equally disregarded. 
 It renewed the decree of the Council of Constance, 
 asserting the right of a General Council to_ exercise 
 authority over me pope himself, and on his perse- 
 vering to issue bufls for its dissolution, caused a 
 formal process to be coromenced against him, and 
 cited hmi to appear at its bar. It assumed the 
 papal powers, and exercised them in France and 
 Germany, where its authority was acknowledged. 
 It concluded a peace, in name of the church, with 
 the Caliitines, the most powerful section of the 
 Hussites, by the Prague Compact of 20th November 
 1433, granting them the use of the cup in the Lord's 
 Supper. By this, the Emperor Sigismund was much 
 helped in obtaining possession of Bohemia ; and he in 
 return sought to reconcile the council with Eugenius 
 IV., who, being hard pressed by insurrections in the 
 States of the Church, and afraid of losing his whole 
 influence in France and Germany, solemnly ratified 
 all its decrees, by a bull dated 15th December 1433. 
 Desirous, however, of limiting the papal prerogatives, 
 the council restored to the chapters of cathedral and 
 collegiate churches the free right of election to stalls 
 and benefices, of which the pope had assumed the 
 right of disposing ; and with a view to the reforma- 
 tion of gross abuses, restricted the power of granting 
 interdicts, and prohibited annats and other grievous 
 exactions. It left the pope the right to dispose of 
 those benefices only which belonged to the diocese 
 of Rome, and prohibited the bestowal of reversions 
 to ecclesiastical offices. It also appointed punish- 
 ments for certain immoralities in the clergy; and 
 prohibited Festivals of Fools, and all the inde- 
 cencies which had been commonly practised in 
 churches at Christmas. It adopted decrees concern- 
 ing the election of popes, and for the regulation of 
 the College of Cardinals. 
 
 Eugenius, exasperated to the utmost, com- 
 plained loudly to all sovereign princes. At this 
 time, a prospect was opened up of the union of the 
 distressed Greeks with the Church of Rome ; and 
 both the pope and the council endeavoured to make 
 use of this for the advancement of their own inter- 
 ests and influence. Both despatched galleys for 
 the Greek deputies, but through the intrigues of hia 
 agents, the pope was successful, and brought the 
 Greek deputies to Ferrara. The Archbishop of 
 Tarentum, a papal legate at B., circulated an ordi- 
 nance in name of the council, and sealed with its seal, 
 recommending Udine or Florence as the place of 
 conference. The ordinance was a forgery, and this 
 proceeding put an end to forbearance on the part of 
 the council, which, on July 31, 1437, again cited the 
 pope to its bar; and not only on his failmg to appear, 
 declared him contumacious, but on his opening an 
 
BASEL-BASIL, 
 
 apposition coimoil at Perrara, -went so far as, on 
 Janufu-y 24, 1438, to decree his suspension from the 
 functions of the popedom. His party, however, was 
 so strong that this decree could not be carried into 
 effect ; and some of those who had been among the 
 most influential members of the council, the Cardinal 
 Legate Julian himself, and the greater number of 
 the Italians, left B., and went over to his side. All 
 the more resolutely did Cardinal Louis Allemand, 
 Archbishop of Aries, a man of most superior under- 
 standing, courage, and eloquence, now guide the 
 proceedmgs of the council, which, on May 16, 1439, 
 declared the pope a heretic, for his obstinate disobe- 
 dience to its decrees ; and in the following session, 
 formally deposed him for simony, perjury, and other 
 offences. On this occasion, the noly relics which 
 were in B. were deposited in the places from which 
 the Spanish and Italian members of the council had 
 disappeared ; and the sight of them produced much 
 emotion, and reanimated the courage of the assem- 
 bly, still consisting of 400 prelates, priests, and 
 doctors, mostly French and German. On November 
 17, 1439, the council, notwithstanding the still fur- 
 ther diminution of its numbers, caused by the 
 plague in B., elected Duke Amadeus of Savoy to be 
 pope, who then lived a3;a hermit in Ripaglia, on the 
 LaJie of Geneva. He accordingly styled himself 
 Felix v., but was recognised only by a few princes, 
 cities, and universities. The Emperor Sigismund 
 was dead, and even France and Germany, although 
 they accepted the reforming decrees of the council, 
 thought proper to remain neutral in the question 
 regarding the popedom. The friendship of the 
 Emperor Frederick III. strengthened the party of 
 Eugenius ; and the council gradually melted away, 
 tin careful only for personal security, its members, 
 after three years of inactivity, held its last session 
 at B. on May 16, 1443, and removed its seat to 
 Lausanne. Here a few prelates stiU remained 
 together under the presidency of Cardinal Allemand, 
 till in 1449, after the death of Eugenius, and the 
 resignation of the anti-pope Felix, an amnesty was 
 offered to them by the new pope, Nicholas V., which 
 they joyfully accepted. The B. reforming decrees 
 are contained in no Koman Cathohc collection of 
 decrees of councils, and are held to be invalid by 
 the canonists of Borne; yet they are of authority 
 in canon law in France and Germany, where they 
 were included in pragmatic sanctions, although 
 their application has been modified by more recent 
 concordats. 
 
 BA'SEL, Teeat? of. Basel gives its name to 
 two important treaties of peace, concluded there on 
 5th April and 22d July 1795, between the represent- 
 atives of the French Kepublic, Prussia, and Spain, 
 by which Prussia withdrew from the coalition agaiEist 
 I^ance, took under her protection all the states 
 of Northern Germany which should, like herself, 
 relinquish the war in which the German empire was 
 engaged, and also gave up to the victorious republic 
 her possessions beyond the Rhine ; whilst Spain gave 
 up her portion of St Domingo, and prepared the way 
 for that alliance with France which was afterwards 
 productive of consequences so important. 
 
 BASE'LLA, a genus of plants, generally re- 
 garded as belonging to the natural order Gheno- 
 podimece (q. v.), but by some botanists as the type 
 of a distinct order, Basdlaeem. The species are all 
 tropical. B. alba and B. rubra are known in 
 Britain as stove biennials. They are plants with 
 twining stems, in common use as pot-herbs in the 
 East Indies, and cultivated in China. In the neigh- 
 bourhood of Paris, they are raised on hot-beds, 
 transplanted into warm borders, and furnish a sub- 
 stitute for spinach iu summer. B. rubra yields a 
 
 very rich purple dye. The great fleshy root of B. 
 tuberosa, a South American species, also with a 
 twining stem, is edible. 
 
 BA'SEMENT-STORY. See Story. 
 
 BA'SHAN, or BATAN^A, a country of Palestine, 
 stretching from Mount Hermon in the Anti-Libanus 
 on the north, to the brook of Jabbok on the south, 
 and bounded on the west by the Jordan, its eastern 
 limits not being very clearly defined. Ashtaroth 
 and Edrei were its chief cities, and the residence of 
 its kings during the Amoritish dynasty. The last 
 of its Amorite rulers was Og, who with aU his 
 sons was killed by the Israehtes under Moses, at 
 the battle of Edrei ; and the half tribe of Manasseh 
 settled in the land. The men of B. were remarkable 
 for their stature, its pastures for their richness, and 
 its sheep and oxen for their size and fatness. B. 
 belonged to the tetrarohy of Philip, and afterwards 
 to that of Agrippa II. 
 
 BASHAW (Turkish, haschj Arabic, basTiaj Persian, 
 pasha, the way in which the word is now commonly 
 written) signifies head, or master, a Turkish title of 
 honour given to viceroys, provincial governors, gene- 
 rals, and other distinguished pubUo men. The term 
 B. is also used to characterise a man of an arrogant 
 and domineering disposition. 
 
 BASHEE' or BASHI' ISLANDS, a smaU cluster 
 in the line between Luzon, the chief of the Philip- 
 pine chain, and Formosa, the lat. and long, being 
 respectively 21° N. and 122° E. Politically, they 
 are a dependency of the Philippines, having been 
 colonised by the Spaniards in 1783. Physically, 
 they form a link iu the vast archipelago which, 
 from Formosa to Sumatra inclusive, connects the 
 south-east of China with the west of Malacca. 
 They were discovered in 1687 by Dampier, who 
 called them the Bashi Islands, on account of the 
 popularity among the islanders of an intoxicating 
 liquor of that name. 
 
 BASHI-BAZOU'KS are irregular troopers in 
 the pay of the Sultan. Very few of them are 
 Europeans; they are mostly Asiatics, from some or 
 other of the pashalios in Asiatic Turkey. They are 
 wEd turbulent men, ready to enter the Sultan's 
 service under some leader whom they can under- 
 stand, and still more ready to plimder whenever an 
 opportunity offers. During the Kusso-Turkish war 
 of 1854, &c,, they had many encounters with the 
 enemy in that kind of irregular warfare which the 
 Russians intrust to Cossack horsemen; but the 
 peaceful villagers had almost as much distrust of 
 the B.-B. as of the Russians. When the British 
 
 fovemment resolved, in 1855, to take into pay a 
 'urkish contingent, to aid in the operations of the 
 war, they intrusted to General Beatson, an officer 
 who had seen much Indian service, the collecting 
 and drilling of a corps of bashi-bazouk irregulars; 
 but it was a troublesome and unpleasant duty, and 
 the war came to an end before the men were fit 
 for service. 
 
 BASIDO'H, or BASSADO'RB, the principal 
 station for British ships in the Persian Gulf, situated 
 at the west end of the island of Kishm. 
 
 BASIE'NTO, or BASB'NTO, a river of Naples, 
 which, rising in the Apennines, west of Potenza, 
 flows in an east-south-jast direction through the 
 province of BasUicata to the Gulf of Tarauto, which 
 it enters 25 miles west-south-west of Taranto city. 
 Near its mouth are the remains of the once famous 
 city of Metapontum, where Pythagoras ended his 
 days. 
 
 BA'SIL, surnamed The Great, and called 
 St B., one of the most eminent and eloquent of the 
 Greek Fathers, was born about 329 at Csesarea, in 
 ' 727 
 
BASIL I— BASILICA. 
 
 Cappadocia; studied under the heathen philosophers 
 at Athens, and became an advocate in his native 
 city, but afterwards founded a monastic society; was 
 ordained a presbyter in 362 ; and succeeded Eusebius 
 as Bishop of Osesarea in 370, in which office he con- 
 tinued till his death in 379. He resolutely resisted 
 invitations to the court of Julian the Apostate, with 
 whom he had contracted an intimacy as a feUow- 
 student at Athens, and displayed great constancy 
 when the Emperor Valens began to persecute him, 
 on account of his opposition to Arianism. He was 
 engaged in most of the controversies of his time, 
 but conducted controversy in a peaceful and gene- 
 rous maimer. His rules of monastic Me are stiU 
 followed in the Greek and other oriental churches, 
 in which he is highly honoured as one of the great- 
 est of saints. In the Roman Catholic Church, also, 
 they are followed in a few convents, styled of the 
 order of BasiUans. The influeuceTof B. was greatly 
 felt in the promotion of monasticism throughout the 
 West as well as the East, and to him is ascribed 
 the introduction of the three universal monastic 
 vows of obedience, chastity, and poverty. The best 
 editions of his works are that of the Benedictines 
 (3 vols.. Par. 1721—1730, fol.), and that of the 
 brothers Ganme (3 vols.. Par. 1835—1840, 8vo) ; 
 but the authenticity of many of the moral and 
 ascetic pieces is doubtful. His anniversary is cele- 
 brated, in the Greek Church, on the 1st of January 
 — the day of his death ; in the Latin Church, on the 
 14th of June — ^the day of his ordination. 
 
 BA'SIL I., the Macedonian, Emperor of the East, 
 was born in a village of Macedonia, in 813 A. D., or, 
 according to others, in 826. His early life is differ- 
 ently related, but his biographers agree that he 
 came to Constantinople when still a young man, and 
 was appointed chamberlain to the Emperor Michael 
 in 861. Subsequently, the emperor made him his 
 colleague in the sovereignty. B. now used his 
 influence to restrain Michael from committing those 
 excesses which rendered him hateful to the people ; 
 but when he found his remonstrances unavailing, 
 he headed a conspiracy against him, the result of 
 which was the assassination of the emperor in 867. 
 His first care was to heal the woimds both of the 
 church and the state. He replaced Ignatius upon 
 the patriarchal throne, and dismissed Photius, 
 whom, however, he re-established in his authority 
 the year after. His valour made bim the terror 
 of the Saracens, from whom he reconquered Asia 
 Miaor. The prodigality of Michael had exhausted 
 the public treasury ; by a wise economy, B. refilled 
 it. All extortioners, moreover, were sought out 
 and punished. The profligate companions of the late 
 monarch were condemned to disgorge one half of the 
 largesses which Michael had showered upon them. 
 B. also entered into a treaty of affiance with the 
 Russians of Kiew, to whom he sent missionaries 
 to preach the gospel, and who, from that time, 
 began to embrace Christianity, and acknowledge 
 the authority of the Greek Church. He died in 886, 
 from wounds which he received while hunting a 
 stag. Several letters of his are stUl extant, besides 
 a book full of wise advice addressed to his son. 
 
 BA'SIL (O'eymum), a genus of plants of the 
 natural order Laiiatce (q. v.). The species are all 
 natives of the tropics, or of the warmer temperate 
 parts of the world, and are generally characterised 
 by a pleasant aromatic smeU and taste. They are 
 reckoned among sweet /lerts.— Sweet B. (0. Basili- 
 cum) is an annual plant, a native of the East Indies, 
 about one foot high, with ovate or oblong leaves, 
 and flowers in whorls of six, which has long been 
 cultivated in Europe for culinary purposes, being used 
 as a seasoning. It has also enjoyed the reputation 
 V28 
 
 of being a palliative of the pains of childbirth. — 
 BusE B. (0. mmimum), also a native of the East 
 
 Basil (Ocymiim BasUicum). 
 
 Indies, is cultivated for the same purposes, and 
 possesses the same qualities. It is a plant about 
 six inches high, with an orbicular bushy head. In 
 Britain, the seed of both species, obtained from the 
 south of Europe, is generally sown on a hot-bed, 
 from which the plants are afterwards removed to 
 the open ground. — A native British plant of the 
 same order (Glinopodiwm milgare) bears the name 
 of Wild B., and another {Acinos vulgaris, for- 
 merly Thymus Acinos) is known as B. Thyme. 
 Both are fragrant and aromatic. — B. Vinegar is made 
 in the same manner as Mint Vinegar, by steeping 
 the leaves in vinegar. It is used for seasoning, in 
 winter, when the fresh plant cannot be obtained. 
 
 BASI'LICA, a code of laws of the Grecian empire, 
 the compilation of which was begun in the reign 
 of the Emperor Basil I., the Macedonian, who died 
 in 886 — from whom it is generally supposed to have 
 derived its name; completed by his son Leo, the 
 Philosopher ; and revised, in 945, by order of Con- 
 stantine Porphyrogenitus, the sou of Leo. There 
 is some doubt whether the work has come down 
 to us as completed by Leo, or as revised by Cou- 
 stantine, and unfortunately we do not possess the 
 whole of the sixty books of which it originally 
 consisted. It was very much an adaptation of the 
 code of Justinian to altered circumstances, and is 
 of ^eat value for the interpretation of the Corpus 
 Juris. The principal editions are that of Fabrott 
 (7 vols, fol., Par. 1647), and the recent one of 
 Heimbach (vols. 1—5, Leip. 1833—1850), which 
 includes portions discovered since Pabrott's time. 
 The B. has been the subject of many commentaries. 
 
 BASI'LICA (Gr. BasiliJce, from Basileug, a 
 king). Originally, the B. seems to have been the 
 hall or court-room in which the king administered 
 the laws made by himseU and the chiefs who formed 
 his councU. When monarchy was aboHshed at 
 Athens, the second of the magistrates who succeeded 
 to the kingly power was called the Archon-basileus, 
 
BASILICA. 
 
 the first being styled tlie Arohoii by pre-eminence ; 
 and it is as the court or hall (stoa) in whicli the 
 Archon-basileua administered justice, that the B. 
 first appears in authentic history. But it was 
 amongst the Eomaus that the B. attained its cliief 
 importance ; and in addition to its original use as 
 a court of justice, became a, market-place, an 
 
 exchange, a place of meeting for men of business 
 generally. It was not tiU a comparatively late 
 period, however, that a B. was erected at Home. 
 The first we hear of is the B. Porcia in 182 B.C. 
 From this period till the time of Constantine, they 
 were constructed in great numbers. Some twenty 
 are known to have existed in Eome, and latterly. 
 
 Section of Trajan's Basilica, Borne. 
 
 every provincial town, even those of small extent, 
 had each its B., as that of Pompeii, which is now 
 the most perfect example, still testifies. The most 
 frequented part of the city was always selected 
 for the site of a B. ; and as this was almost always 
 the Forum, the words Fonmi and B. are occa- 
 sionally used as synonymous by ancient writers. 
 The earliest basilicas were entirely open to the 
 external air. It wag usual, for this reason, as 
 weU as for the convenience of those who might be 
 compelled to frequent them in bad weather, to 
 select for them a sheltered and convenient position. 
 Latterly, an external wall was substituted for 
 the peristyle of columns with which the original 
 basilicas were surrounded ; the external columns, if 
 continued at aU, being used only as a decoration, 
 and confined generally to the vestibule. It was in 
 this form that the B. suggested the idea of the 
 Christian Church, as has sOready been explained 
 under Apse (q. v.) ; and the readiest mode of ex- 
 plaining the structure of the B. to a modern, is to 
 imagine the process which was then performed 
 reversed, and in place of converting the B. into a 
 church, to convert the church into a basiHca. This 
 will be effected by simply removing the roof from 
 the nave, the aisles remaining covered, and even 
 being frequently furnished with galleries, as in 
 Protestant churches. The judge's seat was generally 
 in a circular portion of the building which protruded 
 from its further end, in which the altar was after- 
 wards placed (see Apse), the great entrance to the 
 B. fronting it, as the western door of a cathedral 
 fronts the high-altar. The space required by the 
 praetor for his court was separated by a railing 
 from the other portions of the building, which were 
 devoted to the various purposes we have mentioned. 
 It must not be supposed from this description, that 
 the form of the B. was always the same. Some- 
 times there was no hemicycle or apse, as in the B. 
 at Pompeii, in which case the tribimal was cut off 
 from the nave; sometimes there were two, as in the 
 B. of Trajan. Again, the B. was sometimes entered, 
 not from the end, but from the sides, where the 
 transepts of a modern church are situated ; and at 
 the end opposite that in which the tribunal was 
 placed, there was often a row of small chambers, 
 the uses of which do not seem to be very accu- 
 rately ascertained, and probably were not invariable. 
 In the plan of the B. of Pompeii, there was an 
 outside stair which led to the upper gaUery, which 
 in this case passed entirely round the building. 
 
 The gallery was the place to which loiterers usually 
 resorted for the purpose of watching the business 
 
 Ground-plan of Basilica of St Paul, Eome. 
 
 proceedings below; and the one half of it is said 
 to have been devoted to men, the other, to women. 
 Of the vast size of some of these building, we may 
 form a conception from the accommodation which 
 must have been required for the tribunal alone, 
 where, in addition to the curule chair of the prastor, 
 and space required by the suitors and their advo- 
 cates, seats had to be provided for the judices or 
 jurymen, who occasionally amounted to as many 
 as 180. 
 
 Many of the principal churches in Italy, and 
 particularly in Bome, are still called Basiliche. 
 
 The term B. was also applied in the middle ages 
 to the large structures erected over the tombs of 
 persons of distinction, probably from their resem- 
 blance to small churches ; thus, the tomb of Edward 
 the Confessor, in Westminster, is called a B. (see 
 chronicle of the Mayors of London, quoted by 
 Parker). 
 
 729 
 
BASILICATA— BASILISK. 
 
 BASILICA'TA, a province of Naples, including 
 nearly the same territory as ancient Lucania. Capi- 
 tanata and Principato Ultra bound it on the N. ; 
 Bari and Otranto, on the N.E. and E. ; the Gulf 
 of Taranto and Calabria Citra, S. E. and E. ; and the 
 Principato Citra and the Mediterranean, on the W. 
 Its area is 4000 square miles, and its population 
 505,240. The capital is Potenza; the other chief 
 towns are Francavilla and Tursi. B. lies mainly on 
 the east side of the main ridge of the Apennines, 
 between it and the Gulf of Taranto. The interior is 
 wild and mountainous, and though there are some 
 large forests in the province, one near AteUa covering 
 a surface of 20,000 acres, the general aspect is bare 
 and barren. Four considerable rivers — the Basiento, 
 Brandano, Agri, and Sinno — flow through it from the 
 west in an east-south-east direction, forming as many 
 valleys, which slope gradually into an exceedingly 
 fertile plain, varying in breadth from 4 to 10 miles. 
 Here corn is raised in abundance, also wine, hemp, 
 tobacco, and liquorice. Swine, sheep, and goats are 
 reared in the mountainous districts, and sUk forms a 
 product of the valleys. B. is greatly in need of good 
 roads, and is much subject to earthquakes. 
 
 BASI'LICON (Gr. ' royal,' or of great virtue), a 
 name given to an ointment composed of yellow wax, 
 black pitch, resin, and oKve oil. Hence it was 
 called Xlnguentwm Telrapharmaaim (tetra pharmaka, 
 four drugs). The resin, wax, and pitch are melted 
 together over a slow fire ; the oil is then added, and 
 the mixture, while hot, strained through Unen. The 
 straining is directed in consequence of the impurities 
 which resin often contains. B. ointment, or resin 
 cerate, as it is sometimes called, is much used as a 
 gently stimulant application to blistered surfaces, 
 indolent ulcers, burns, scalds, and chilblains. 
 
 BASI'LICOIir DO'KON (Gr. royal gift), a cele- 
 brated prose work of King James VI. of Scotland, 
 vmtten for the instruction of his son. Prince Henry, 
 a short time previous to his accession to the English 
 throne. It consists of three books. The first treats 
 'Of a King's Christian Duty towards God;' the 
 second, ' Of a King's Duty in his OflEce ; ' and the 
 third, 'Of a King's Behaviour in Indifferent Things.' 
 It was first published in 1599 ; afterwards in London 
 in 1603, 8vo; and translated into Latin by Henry 
 Peacham, who presented it, richly illuminated, to the 
 prince. This Latin version was published in London 
 in 1604, 8vo. A French edition appeared at Paris 
 in 1603, 8vo, and another in 1604, 16mo. Like the 
 royal author's famous work on Demonology, and his 
 Counterblast to Tobacco, the B. D. is now only con- 
 sidered as a literary curiosity. 
 
 BASI'LIDES, an Alexandrian Gnostic, who 
 flourished during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and 
 Antoninus Pius. Kegarding his hfe, little is known. 
 He is said to have taught in Antioch ; afterwards in 
 Persia ; and, finally, in Egypt, where he is supposed 
 to have died shortly before the middle of the 2d c. 
 He was a disciple of one Glaucias, not elsewhere 
 mentioned in history, but whom he terms an inter- 
 preter of St Peter, and from whom he alleges that 
 he had received the esoteric faith of that apostle. 
 B. probably considered himself a Christian, but his 
 fantastic speculations bore a greater resemblance to 
 the doctrines of Zoroaster, and in some points to 
 the Indian philosophy, than to the religion of 
 Christ. According to the system of B., there are two 
 eternal and independent principles — ^the one, good; 
 the other, evU. Whatever exists, emanates from 
 these. The good principle — ^i.e., the Supreme God, 
 or Father — constitutes, with his seven perfections, 
 viz., the Mind, the Word, the Understanding, Power, 
 Excellences, Princes, and Angels, the blessed ogdoad 
 (combination of dghH). These seven perfections, or 
 
 780 
 
 powers, in which the Supreme God is reflected, are 
 in their turn themselves reflected, but more feebly, 
 in seven other angelic powers, which emanate 
 from them; and so on through the whole circle 
 of emanations, which amount to 365, the mystic 
 number so often inscribed on the symboho stones 
 in the Gnostic schools (see Abraxas Stones). Each 
 of these angelic powers governs a world. There 
 are, consequently, 365 worlds, to each of which B. 
 gave a name. The head of the 365th, or lowest 
 world, rules the material imiverse, which, along 
 with other angels, he also created. He is the God 
 or Jehovah of the Old Testament, and when the 
 earth was divided among the rulers of the material 
 universe, the Jewish nation fell to the share of him- 
 self, who was the prince of the lowest class of 
 angels. But wishing to absorb all power himself, he 
 strove against the other angels, and to make them 
 subject to his ' chosen people,' the result of which wag 
 war, strife, division in the world, together with the 
 loss of the true religion, to restore which the Supreme 
 God sent the first iEon (Nous, or Intelligence), who 
 united himself to the man Jesus at his baptism, and 
 so taught men that the destiny of their rational 
 spirit was to return into God. This Ncms, however 
 (who was the true Christ), did not really suffer cruci- 
 fixion, for, changing forms with Simon of Oyrene, he 
 stood by laughing wMle Simon suffered, and after- 
 wards returned to heaven. B. also taught the doc- 
 trine of a purgatorial transmigration of souls in the 
 case of the wicked. His disciples (BasUidians) were 
 numerous in Egypt, Syria, Italy, and even in Gaul, 
 where tiiey continued to exist till the 4th c. They 
 were accused by their enemies of Antinomianism 
 and ' magic,' but whether on good grounds or not, 
 cannot be ascertained. 
 
 BA'SILISK, according to ancient and medieval 
 authors, a terrible creature, which, however, may 
 be regarded as entirely fabulous — the fables con- 
 cerning it being so many and so monstrous, that it 
 is vain to seek for any foundation of truth, or to 
 inquire if any of them originally had reference to 
 any particular creature whatever. The ancients, 
 as Dioscorides, Galen, and PHny, describe it as a 
 serpent : in the middle ages, it was generally repre- 
 sented as more of a lizard appearance, but pro- 
 vided with eight instead of four feet. It appears 
 to have been at last pretty completely identified 
 with the Cockatrice (q. v.), which was believed to 
 be generated in a very wonderful manner, being 
 produced from an egg laid by an extremely old 
 cock, and hatched by a toad ; for which reason we 
 find the B. sometimes figured with something like a 
 cock's head. The B. was the king of dragons and 
 serpents, aU of which left their prey to it whenever 
 it approached ; whence its name, basiliscus (Gr.), 
 diminutive of hasilem, a king — sometimes exactly 
 translated into Latin by regvlus. It had some pro- 
 minences on its head, which, when it was figured 
 in books, assumed very exactly the appearance of 
 a crown. It inhabited the deserts of Africa, and, 
 indeed, could only inhabit a desert, for its breath 
 burned up all vegetation; the flesh fell from the 
 bones of any animal with which it came in contact, 
 and its very look was fatal to life ; but brave men 
 could venture into cautious contest with it by the use 
 of a inirror, which reflected back its deadly glance 
 upon itself. — These things are stiU necessary to be 
 mentioned, were it only on account of the allusions 
 to them by poets and other writers.— The blood of 
 the B. was, of course, extremely valuable to magi- 
 cians. It occupies an important place in some of 
 the legends of the saints, and Pope Leo IV. is said 
 to have delivered Rome from a B. whose breath 
 caused a deadly pestilence. 
 
 The word B., and its equivalent regtdus, are some- 
 
BASILISK-BASKET. 
 
 timea used in tte Latin Vvdaate, where the authorised 
 Eoglish version of the Old Testament sometimes has 
 adder, and sometimes cochatrke ; but no trace of any 
 of the marvels conoerning the B. is to be found there. 
 BA'SILISK {BaMliseus), in modern Zoology, a 
 genus of saurian reptiles of the family of Jguanidce 
 (see lotTANA), differing from the iguanas in the 
 want of the dewlap or appendage of skin under the 
 throab, and of the series of pores on the inside of 
 each thigh ; also in having a continuous elevated 
 crest along the back and taU, capable of being 
 erected or depressed at pleasure, and apparently 
 intended to aid the motions of the animal in water 
 like the corresponding fin of a fish. — The basUisks 
 are remarkably adapted both for climbing trees and 
 for swimming. Their feet are not webbed, their toes 
 rather long. They are perfectly harmless creatures, 
 very active and lively, and it is difficult to say why 
 they should have received the name of the fabulous 
 monster of antiquity, unless because their appear- 
 ance is far from agreeable to those unaccustomed to 
 it, and perhaps because an appendage at the back of 
 the head may have been thought to represent the 
 crown of the dragon king. This appendage is most 
 conspicuously developed in the Mitred or Hooded 
 B. {B. mitratus), a native of the tropical parts of 
 America, and consists of a hood or membranous 
 
 Hooded Basilisk. 
 
 bag, capable of being dilated with air, and then 
 about the size of a pullet's egg, which is supposed, 
 notwithstanding its extremely different situation, to 
 have a use somewhat analogous to that of the air- 
 bladder of fishes. The mitred B. is from 25 to 30 
 inches long, including the long and very tapering tail. 
 — Another and larger species, of a generally greenish 
 colour (B. Amboineiisis), inhabits the islands of the 
 Indian Archipelago, and is much used there for food. 
 Its flesh is said to be very white and tender. It is 
 often seen on the branches of trees above water, 
 into which it drops when alarmed. 
 
 BA'SIN, a geographical term of considerable 
 importance. The B. of a river is the whole 
 tract of country drained by that river, and is, of 
 course, more or less concave. The line or boimdary 
 which separates one river-basin from another is 
 called the water-shed. By tracing these water- 
 sheds, the whole of a country or continent may be 
 divided into a number of distinct basins ; and this 
 is one of the most instructive elements in the physi- 
 cal geography of a country. The B. of a lake or 
 sea, agam, is made up of the basins of aU the rivers 
 that flow into it. 
 
 BA'SIN, in Geology, is a term applied to depres- 
 sions in the strata, in which beds of a later age 
 have been deposited. Thus, the London B., con- 
 sisting of tertiary sands and clays, occupies a hollow 
 in the chalk, which is bounded by the North Downs 
 on the south, and by the chalk-hiJls of Berks, Wilts, 
 Bucks, and Herts on the north. The term has also 
 been applied to synclinal depressions of strata, which 
 have been produced by the elevation or depression 
 of aU the strata contained in the B., as the ooal-B. 
 of South Wales. 
 
 BA'SINGSTOKB, a town in the north of Hamp- 
 shire, 46 miles west-south-west of London. It is a 
 place of much activity, being situated at the junction 
 of five main roads to London from the south and west 
 of England. The country around is fertile and 
 wooded. The chief trade is in com, malt, coal, and 
 timber. Near the town is a tract of 108 acres, on 
 which every householder has the right of pasturage. 
 There is also, not far from the town, an ancient 
 camp, surrounded by an irregular oval embankment, 
 1100 yards in circumference, with an entrance on 
 the east and west sides. Basing House Castle, 
 belonging to the Marquis of Winchester, long with- 
 stood the forces of the Commonwealth, but Cromwell 
 at last took it by storm, and burned it to the ground 
 in 1645. Pop. 4263. 
 
 BA'SKEKVILLB, John, u, celebrated English 
 printer and letter-founder, was bom in 1706 at 
 Wolverley, in Worcestershire. He became a 
 writing-master in Birmingham, and afterwards 
 carried on the business of japanning there with 
 great success. He began about 1750 to make 
 laborious and costly experiments in letter-founding, 
 and succeeded in making types which have scarcely 
 yet been excelled. He printed an edition of Vir^ 
 at Birmingham in 1756, which was followed by 
 other Latm classics, a few English and ItaMaii 
 authors, and a New Testament (Oxf. 1763), much 
 admired as specimens of printinaalthough not other- 
 wise possessing high merit. His services to the 
 art of printing met with little encouragement and 
 no requital. He died in 1775. He was a man of 
 obliging disposition, but of a gloomy temperament, 
 and condemned aU religious service as superstition. 
 B. was buried in a tomb of masonry in the shape of 
 a cone, under a windmill, in his garden; but the 
 ground becoming valuable for building purposes, his 
 remains were eSiumed in the summer of 1821, and 
 deposited ia the vaults of Christ Church, in the 
 neighbourhood of the spot where they were originally 
 interred. Baskerville editions of works are now 
 prized by persons of taste. 
 
 BA'SKET (Welsh, hasged, or basgawd, a netting 
 or weaving of splinters), a domestic utensil, usually 
 made of willows, reeds, or chips, interwoven, 
 although sometimes the materials are gold, silver, 
 iron, glass, &c. Baskets have been in use from very 
 early ages. The Israelites were commanded (Deut- 
 eronomy xxvi. 2) to offer unto the Lord, as soon 
 as they came into possession of the land of Canaan, 
 'the drst of all the fruit of the earth' in a basket. 
 The baskets used on such occasions by the rich Jews 
 were made of gold and silver, and were returned to 
 the offerers; but those used by the majoritjr of the 
 ,people were of barked wUlow, and were retained by 
 the priests. The ancient Britons were remarkably 
 expert in the manufacture of baskets, which were 
 much prized by the Eomana for their neatness and 
 elegance. The process of B. -making is very simple, 
 and appears to be well known among the rudest 
 peoples — even among the aborigines of Van Diemen'a 
 Land. In this country the wiUow is chiefly used in 
 the manufacture of baskets. In several parts of 
 England and Scotland, great attention is paid to the 
 cultivation of the willow; and judging from the 
 statements of some of the cultivators, the returns 
 yielded are very satisfactory. One calculates his 
 profits at £18, 10s. per acre, and another at £10 
 per acre. The tools required being few and inex- 
 pensive, a large number of poor persons are engaged 
 in the manufacture of baskets, that are hawked 
 about the streets by their wives and children. B.- 
 makjjig also forms a part of the industry of almost 
 all blind asylums. Baskets are of aU shapes and 
 sizes, and their uses are so well known to ^ as to 
 
 731 
 
BASNAGE DE BEAUVAL-BASS EOCK. 
 
 olDviate the necessity of description here. Baskets 
 to the value of £30,000 or £40,000 are annually 
 imported from the continent. 
 
 BASNAGE DE BEAUVAL, Jaqubs, the most 
 distinguished of a, distinguished French family, 
 mostly supporters of the Protestant cause, was the 
 son of Henry Basnage, an able advocate in the 
 parliament of Normandy, and was horn at Eouen, 
 August 8, 1653. Having studied theology at Geneva 
 and Sedan, he became pastor of the reformed church 
 in Kouen (1676). That church beinginterdicted in 
 1685, B. obtained leave to retire to HoUand, where 
 he finally settled as stipendiary minister of the 
 Walloon Church in the Hague, having gaiaed the 
 friendship of the Grand Pensionary Heinsius. Here, 
 while zealously discharging his religious duties, he 
 was called upon to take an active part in state 
 affairs, particularly in negotiating the defensive 
 alliance concluded between Prance, England, and 
 the States-general, 14th February 1717. Amid aU 
 these, duties and distractions, B. cultivated litera- 
 ture with ardour, and was no less distinguished for 
 his extensive learning than for the polish of his 
 manners and the integrity of his character. B., 
 who commanded in a singular degree the esteem 
 both of Protestants and Catholics, died on the 22d 
 September 1723. 
 
 His chief works, which have been frequently laid 
 under contribution without being named, are ha 
 Gomtm/nion SairAe (Eott. 1688), a work approved 
 even by Catholics, and often reprinted; TraUS de 
 la Conscience (Amst. 1696, 2 vols.); JSistoire de 
 VEglise (Eott. 1699, 2 vols, fol.) ; Histmre des Juifs 
 (Eott. l706, 5 vols.), one of B.'s best productions, 
 and translated into English by Th. Taylor (Lend. 
 1708) ; Dissertation Historique mr les Dtiels et les 
 Ordres de Chevalerie (Amst. 1720). 
 
 BASQUE PEOVINCES, a district of Spain, 
 in lat. 42° 25'-^3° 28' N., and long. 1° 44'— 3° 25' 
 W., and comprisLQg the three provinces of Biscay, 
 Guipuzcoa, and Alava, which constituted the ancient 
 Cantairia. They form a sort of triangle, the base 
 of which is the Bay of Biscay on the north, and the 
 apex the town of Logrono in the south ; the botmd- 
 ary-hnes of Navarre on the east, and Santander and 
 Burgos on the west, forming the two sides. The 
 total area of the provinces is about 3000 square 
 mUes, and the population, in 1857, 426,000. The 
 surface of the B. P. is very mountainous, particu- 
 larly that of Alava, which is everywhere cut up into 
 deep narrow valleys by offsets from the main 
 chain of mountains. The rivers of Biscay and Gui- 
 puzcoa, none of which are important, empty them- 
 selves after a short course into the Bay of Biscay; 
 those of Alava flow down the opposite slopes into 
 the Ebro, which carries their waters to the Medi- 
 terranean. The climate in all the three provinces 
 is, on the whole, mild and salubrious. The 
 general aspect of the co\mtry is very picturesque, 
 the hills in most cases being covered with wood to 
 the very summit. The principal trees are oak, 
 beech, and chestnut. The fruit of the chestnut 
 forms an article both of diet and of export. The 
 soil in the valleys and plains, though not very rich, 
 has been rendered productive by the energy of the 
 people, who spare no labour in the cultivation. But 
 as yet, science and machinery have done little or 
 nothing to assist nature and manual exertion. A 
 spade, or prong-fork, is the chief mechanical 
 aid the Basque peasant has. The farms are small, 
 usually only about four or five acres, and rarely 
 more than can be managed by the farmer and hi 
 family. Notwithstanding, the roads and agriculture 
 of these provinces contrast very favourably with 
 those of Spain generally. The products are wlieat, 
 788 
 
 barley, maize, flax, hemp, &c. ; the wheat, how- 
 ever, only ripening in the most favoured localities. 
 Pasture-land occupies a considerable portion of the 
 surface ; and a poor wine, called chacoli, is made in 
 large quantities, and forms the chief beverage of the 
 inhabitants, who appear to relish it, although it is 
 disliked by all travellers. 
 
 There are numerous rich veins of iron in the hills, 
 which are extensively wrought; and copper and tin 
 are also obtained, as well as marble of various kinds, 
 porphyry, and jasper. The fisheries employ a goodly 
 number of people on the coast, and many are 
 engaged in the preparation of charcoal The Basques 
 are said to be the first Europeans who went to the 
 whale-fishing. 
 
 The Basques are a simple, brave, and independent 
 people, willing to undergo any hardships rather than 
 surrender their mountain-freedom. None of their 
 many invaders were ever able to effectually subdue 
 or expel them. The B. P. still retain a separate 
 constitution, guaranteeing 'them many political and 
 fiscal privileges not possessed by the rest of Spain. 
 They have freedom from conscription, and free-trade 
 in salt and tobacco, upon which a heavy duty is 
 levied in the adjoining provinces. The Basques are 
 even prouder than Spaniards, and the mere fact of 
 being bom in their territory secures the privilege of 
 'universal nobility.' SuscaMunac is the name the 
 Basques give themselves ; their country they call 
 Euscaleria ; and their language, which is peculiarly 
 their own, Euseara — the prefix Eusc being ' the 
 old Osc, Vesc, Vasq of Italy and Iberia.' The 
 origin of the Basques is doubtful. Humboldt 
 considers them descendants of the ancient Iberi, 
 who once occupied the whole of the peninsula, 
 and spoke the language now confined solely to the 
 B. P. ; while Mr Borrow's . opinion is, that the 
 language is of Tatar origin. The Basques are fond 
 of music, and on their chief hohday, Sunday, they 
 indulge in singiug, dancing, and single-stick, which 
 they enjoy immensely. For a more particular 
 account of the B. P., we would refer to that excel- 
 lent manual, Ford's jSand-iooh of Spain, 
 
 BAS-RELIE'F. See Alto-bilievo. 
 
 BASS. See Base. 
 
 BASS BOCK, a remarkable island-rook near the 
 mouth of the Firth of Forth, about 2 miles from 
 Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, opposite the ruined 
 castle of TantaUon. It is composed of fine granular 
 greenstone or clinkstone, and is about a mile in 
 circumference, nearly round, and 350 feet high. It 
 
 Bass Eock. 
 
 is inaccessible on aU sides except the south-west, 
 where it shelves down to the water, and. there the 
 lauding is difficult, and almost impossible, when 
 there la any swell. On the west, north, and east, 
 
BASSA— BASSE. 
 
 the precipices rise perpendicularly out of the sea, 
 often to the height of 200 feet. These are the 
 abode of immense numbers of solan geese (it is 
 estimated that 10,000 — 15,000 of these fowls resort 
 here annually) and other aquatic birds, which give 
 to the siu:faoe of the rock quite a snowy appearance 
 in the distance. A huge cavern traverses tho rock 
 from north-west to south-east, and is accessible at 
 low tide. There is a spring on the island, and a few 
 sheep are pastured on it, the mutton of which is 
 much prized. How early the Bass was tenanted, is 
 doubtful ; but there is a tradition to the effect that 
 St Baldred resided on it as early as the 7th o. It is 
 also not very certainly known when the Bass was 
 first fortified, but it formed a retreat for the son of 
 Kobert in., afterwards James I. of Scotland, before 
 his nineteen years' captivity in England. James VI. 
 visited the Bass in 1581, and was anxious to obtain 
 it for state purposes ; but its owner, ' Lauder of the 
 Bass,' refused to part with it. The Besisters of the 
 Church of Scotland were sent to the Bass in 1651, 
 for preservation from OromweU ; but the Protector 
 forced their surrender in the following year. In 
 1671, Charles II. purchased the rock for £4000, 
 and within its dreary dungeons many of the most 
 eminent of the Covenanters were confined during 
 that and the following reign. It is a somewhat 
 curious fact, that the Bass was the last spot in the 
 British Islands which held out for the Stuarts. 
 A mere handful of adventurers in the Jacobite 
 interest, 24 in number, had the address to capture 
 the island, and to retain it in name of King 
 James, from June 1691 till April 1694, against all 
 the forces which the government of William III. 
 sent against them; at last, the spirited little 
 garrison surrendered on honourable terms, and 
 only from a consciousness of failing provisions. 
 For an account of this romantic mcident, see 
 Pkiorial History of England, vol. iv. p. 16, new 
 edition. In 1701 the fortifications were demolished 
 by order of William III. Five years afterwards, 
 the Bass passed into the possession of Sir Hew 
 Dahymple, to whose lineal descendant it now 
 belongs. The king of the Belgians (then Prince 
 Leopold) visited the rock in 1819, and, three 
 years afterwards, George IV., on passing it on his 
 voyage to Scotland, was honoured with a royal 
 salute from some guns then on it. The Bass is let 
 to a ' keeper,' who pays a considerable simi for 
 it annually, the rent being made up by the money 
 obtained for the young geese, which are used as 
 food, and by the fees exacted from visitors to the 
 rock. There is an interesting volume on the Bass, 
 historical, geological, and botanical, the joint pro- 
 duction of Dr M'Orie, jun., Hugh Miller, and 
 Professors Fleming and Balfour. 
 
 BA'SSA, or BA'FFA, an excellent port on the 
 Grain Coast, Guinea, formerly much resorted to by 
 trading- vessels for coarse pepper ; latterly, for slaves. 
 The country around produces lemons, oranges, and 
 bananas in abundance. 
 
 BASSA'ITO, a town in the province of Venice, 
 Italy, 19 miles north-east of Vicenza, on the Brenta, 
 with a population of about 12,000. It is situated 
 on a rising-ground in an extensive plain, and has a 
 considerable trade in wine, olives, silk, leather, &c., 
 as well as a great printing establishment. It has 
 30 churches, and a number of fine palaces. One of 
 its gates, the work of Palladio, is greatly admired. 
 It IS famous for a victory of Bonaparte over the 
 Austrian field-marshal, Wurmser, on 8th September 
 1796, and was the scene of other baittles between 
 the French and Austrians in the wars of that period. 
 
 BASSA'NO (or, more properly, GlACOMO DA 
 Ponte), an artist of great eminence, was born at 
 
 Bassano, in the north of Italy, in 1510. He was 
 first educated in the principles of his art by his 
 father, Francesco da Ponte, who was himself a 
 painter of considerable merit, and afterwards visited 
 Venice, where he became a pupil of Boiiifazio 
 Veneziano. Hero he enjoyed opportunities of 
 studying the designs of Parmegiano, Titian, Tiator- 
 etto, and others. The earlier stages of his pro- 
 fessional career clearly indicate that these great 
 painters had kindled a rich and emulative enthu- 
 siasm ia B., for his works display a loftier genius, 
 both as regards conception and execution, than at 
 a later period. His principal efibrt, belonging to 
 this higher epoch, is a fresco painted on the front of 
 the house of the MicheUi family. It represents 
 Samson destroying the Philistines; the figure of 
 the mighty Israelite being considered not imworthy 
 of Michael Angelo. After his father's death, he 
 returned to Bassano, where he devoted himself to 
 a simpler style of art. From this time, however, 
 dates his celebrity. He may even be said to 
 have founded a school, whose pecuharity was 
 the delineation of common things, markets, fairs, 
 country ions, farm-yards, &c. He had a passion 
 for introducing cattle into his pictures, even imder 
 the most inappropriate circumstances. The special 
 merits of this lower style, into which B. finally 
 lapsed, are its vigorous and picturesque colouring, 
 and its accurate imitation of nature. B.'s land- 
 scapes, however, betray a comparative ignorance 
 of perspective. Occasionally, during his later years, 
 B. shewed that his early love of the subhme 
 was not wholly extinguished, by painting several 
 altar-pieces, which exhibit a noble grandeur of 
 execution, such as the 'Entombing of Christ,' in 
 the church of St Maria, Padua ; a ' Nativity,' now 
 in the Louvre, Paris; 'St Roche interceding with 
 the Virgin for a People infected with the Plague,' 
 at : Vicenza; 'The Wise Men's Oflfering,' and the 
 ' Seizure of Christ in the Garden.' His niral pic- 
 tures are abundant in the Italian galleries and 
 in English collections. B. also painted heads of 
 several of his contemporaries, Tasso, Ariosto, &o., 
 and was ia high favour with the Emperor Eudolph 
 II., for whom he also executed several works. He 
 died in 1592. He left four sons, who' all followed 
 their father's profession, but were not marked by 
 any special originality of manner. 
 
 BASSE {Labrax), a genus of sea-fishes of the 
 Perch (q. v.) family, distinguished from the true 
 perches {Perca) by having the tongue covered with 
 small teeth. i?he species are found on the shores 
 both of Europe and America. The only British one 
 is the Common B. (L. lupus), a fish which in its fins, 
 scales, &c., much resembles a perch, but has a more 
 elongated and sahnon-Kke form. It is pretty abun- 
 dant on some parts of the British coasts, and is not 
 unfrequently taken by angling from the rooks, or by 
 small seine-nets on sandy shores ; often, also, by 
 the hand-liae and by the long line. It is a strong, 
 active fish, and was well known to the ancients ; 
 labrax is its Greek name; the Romans called it 
 lupus (i. e., wolf), from its remarkable voracity. It 
 is much esteemed for the table. It sometimes 
 attains a large size, fifteen pounds or more in weight, 
 but is generally much smaller. It not unfrequently 
 ascends rivers to some distance, and the experiment of 
 keepiog it in a fresh-water pond has even been tried 
 with success. — The Striped B., or Rock-fish of the 
 United States (L. Ziraeatos), very nearly resembles the 
 common B., but attains a larger size, and is marked 
 by seven or eight longitudinal black lines. The 
 name Stone B. is given to the Polyprion cernium, a 
 fish very rare on the coasts of Britain, but abundant 
 in more southern parts of the Atlantic Ocean, as far 
 as the Cape of Good Hope, and found on the 
 
BASSE-CHAITTANTE-BASSOMPIEEIIE. 
 
 Amerioan coasts and in the Mediterranean. In 
 general appearance, it resembles the common perch 
 more nearly than the B., but differs from both in 
 having only a single elongated dorsal fin. It some- 
 times foUowa ships of wMch the bottom is covered 
 with barnacles, is easily taken, and is esteemed 
 excellent for the table. 
 
 BASSE-CHANTANTB, in Music, the higher 
 of the two basses in a score, partaking of more 
 melody, and performed by the violoncello. 
 
 BASSB-CONTRAINTE, a French term in music, 
 meaning a bass melody of a few bars repeated 
 throughout the piece, while the other parts vary. 
 
 BASSEI'N, the name of two cities in India. — 
 
 1. B., m Pegu, the capital of a district of the same 
 name, stands on the left bank of an arm of the Irra- 
 waddy, which joins the Bay of Bengal a few miles 
 to the south of Cape Negrais. It lies in lat. 16° 45' 
 N., and long. 94° 50' E. ; and though it is 90 miles 
 from the sea, yet it is easily and safely accessible to 
 the largest ships. In a military view, also, the place 
 is important, as it completely commands the naviga- 
 tion of the stream. It was captiu:ed by its present 
 masters, the British, in 1852, the first year of the 
 second Burmese war. Its estimated population -is 
 about 3000. — 2. B., in the presidency of Bombay, is 
 situated on an island of the same name ; lat. of the 
 island, 19° 20'— 19° 28' N., and long. 72° 48'— 72° 54' E. 
 It appears to be the mere vpreck of former grandeur, 
 having been found by Bishop Heber, in 1825, with 
 many churches and convents, to be altogether unin- 
 habited and desolate. In 1534, it was ceded to the 
 Portuguese ; in 1765, after a possession of 231 years, 
 it was wrested from them by the Mahrattas ; in 1780, 
 it surrendered to the British, after a regular siege of 
 twelve days. The island, which contains about 35 
 square miles, is separated from the continent by a 
 narrow channel, which, as » shelter for shipping, 
 constituted its value in the eyes of the Portuguese. 
 Historically, B. is of some interest, having been 
 promised, though never delivered, as part of the 
 dowry of Charles II. 's Portuguese consort. 
 
 BA'SSES, two ledges of rocks to the south-east of 
 Ceylon, distinguished as Oreo), and Little — the former 
 group being more to the south-west, and the latter 
 more to the north-east. They lie in N. lat. 6° 11' — 
 6° 26', and in E. long. 81° 40'— 81° 59'. Their 
 importance arises .merely from their positiMi, which 
 is in a great thoroughfare of trafiic. 
 
 BASSE-TEEEE, a French term, equivalent to 
 the English Lowlands, or, rather. Lowland, appro- 
 priately applied to several localities in the Vest 
 Indies. — 1. The capital of St Elitt's, on the west 
 coast, in lat. 17° 17' N., and long. 62° 42' W. It 
 is a low, hot, dusty place, standmg at the outlet 
 of a lovely vaUey of the same name. Its popu- 
 lation is about 7000; and its trade, as the port 
 of the island, is considerable. The designation of 
 the valley and town is a memorial of the former 
 occupation of the half of St Kitt's by the French. 
 
 2. The capital of Guadeloupe, giving its name to the 
 larger of the two islets iuto which Guadeloupe is 
 divided by an arm of the sea, known as Salt River. 
 B. stands on the south-west coast, in lat. 16° N., and 
 long. 61° 44' W., having nothing worthy of the name 
 of harbour, but merely a roadstead. It contains 
 about 6000 inhabitants.— 3. The chief tovm of Marie 
 Galante, a dependency of Guadeloupe, which is about 
 12 mUes to the north-west. It is otherwise ambi- 
 tiously called Grand Bourg. 
 
 BA'SSBT HOES' (como di basetto), the richest 
 and softest of all wind-instruments, invented in 
 Passau, in 1770, improved by Lotz in Presburg, in 
 1782. It is similar to a clarionet in tone and 
 
 731 
 
 fingering; its compass is two and a half octaves, 
 
 '-9- ^ 
 
 the notes written for it being from '£ s: 
 
 bnt the instrument sounds a fifth lower than the 
 notes are written. 
 
 BA'SSIA, a genus of plants of the natural order' 
 SapotacecB (q. v.). The species are trees, tropical or 
 sub-tropical, the flowers of which are remarkable 
 for their fleshy ooroUa, and for the abundance of oil 
 or .butyraceous fat which the seeds contain, and 
 which is used for many purposes by the inhabitants 
 of the coimtries to which they are indigenous. The 
 fruit has a pulpy rind, and 3 or 4 1-seeded cells. 
 The ovary has 8 ceUs ; but some of them are always 
 abortive. The Butibe-Teee, described by Mungo 
 Park as growing in the interior of Africa, ia the 
 country of Bambarra, has been supposed to belong 
 to this genus, and named B. Parhii. According 
 to the eminent botanist Robert Brown, however, 
 the seed of the butter-tree, as figured by Park, 
 scarcely belongs to the genus B., but rather to the 
 nearly aUied genus Vitdlaria or LvxMma. It pro- 
 duces the Galam Butter, also called Shea Butter (i. e.. 
 Tree Butter), which is highly valued, and forms an 
 important article of internal coimnerce in the interior 
 of Africa. The seeds of the fruit, which resembles 
 an olive, are dried iu the sun, or in a peculiar kind 
 of oven, and the kernels are then boiled in water, in 
 order to obtain the butter from them, which not 
 only keeps for a whole year vidthout salt, but is also 
 whiter, more solid, and more pleasant to the taste 
 than the butter of cows' rmlk. This butter is used 
 both as an article of food and of medicine. It has 
 been supposed that the introduction of this tree 
 might be of great importance in other tropical 
 countries. — The Madhuoa, Mahwa, or Mahowa 
 Tree of the East Indies {B. laiifolia), is described as 
 resembling a good oak in size, and is a valuable 
 timber-tree. It is found in the mountainous parts of 
 the Circars, Bahar, Bengal, &c. Its flowers are eaten 
 raw, and a kind of arrack or spirit is distilled from 
 them. The seeds yield, by expression, a consider- 
 able quantify of a concrete greenish-yellow oil, 
 which is used for lamps, and occasionally for frying 
 articles of food. — The Indian Buttee-Tbeb, or 
 Phulwaea or FuLWA Tree {B. butyracea), is found 
 in some of the more mountainous parts of India, and 
 attains a height of 50 feet. Its timber ia light and 
 of no value. The leaves are 6 — 12 inches long. The 
 fruit is of the size of a pigeon's egg, and although 
 eaten, is not much esteemed; but from the seed, 
 a concrete oil or butter is obtained, by expression, 
 of a delicate white colour, much valued for medicinal 
 uses, and as an unguent. It keeps for many months 
 without becoming rancid. — ^The seeds of the Illupie- 
 Teeb, or Indian Oil-Teee {B. longifolia), a native 
 of Coromandel, yield a large quantity of oU, which 
 is used for lamps, for soap-making, and also by the 
 poorer classes in cookery. The fleshy flowers are 
 eaten, and are much esteemed; and the timber is 
 very hard and durable, so much so, indeed, as to 
 be compared in quality to teak. 
 
 BA'SSINBT. See Helmet. 
 
 BASSOMPIERRE, Peai^sois be, Marshal of 
 France, was bom iu 1579 at Harnel, in Lorraine. 
 Belonging to one of the oldest French families, he 
 came, at the age of 20, to the French covurt, where 
 he gained the favour of Henry I'V. After the 
 murder of Henry IV., he attached himself to the 
 P^i^ty of the queen, who appointed him colonel of 
 the Swiss Guards; but on the murder of Concini, 
 he sought to estabhsh himself in the favour of the 
 young king, and when the quarrel broke out betwixt 
 
BASSOON— BAST, 
 
 mother and son, he particularly contributed to the 
 overthrow of the former. He was raised to the 
 rank of Marshal of France in 1622; was sent on 
 embassies to Spain, Switzerland, and England ; was 
 actively employed in the siege of La EocheUe ; 
 took the pass of Susa by storm in 1629; and com- 
 manded for a_ little while the troops raised in 
 Languedoc against the Huguenots. Tie became, 
 however, an object of suspicion and dislike to 
 Kiohelieu, who caused him to be cast into the 
 BastUe in February 1631, from which he was not 
 liberated until the death of Richelieu, in 1643, after 
 he had been twelve years imprisoned. He died in 
 1646. He was an aooomphshed courtier, extra- 
 vagant, and excessively addicted, to gallantries. At 
 the time of his arrest, he destroyed 6000 love-letters. 
 His Memoires (2 vols., Cologne, 1665; 4 vols., 
 Amst. 1723), written in the Sastila, are rendered 
 interesting by their spirited style. 
 
 BASSOO'N (Ital. Fagotto), a well-known wind- 
 instrument of the reed species, made of maple- wood 
 or plane-tree. The B. is an Italiaii invention; its 
 name fagotto, meaning a bundle, probably from its 
 being made in different pieces laid one against the 
 other. The French caU it Baason de Mutbois; the 
 Germans retain its Italian name. Its invention 
 is attributed to Canonicus Afranio, in Ferrara, in 
 1539. In the middle of the 16th c, it had already 
 reached great perfection. Sigmund Schnitzer, in 
 Nurenberg, who died in 1578, was a celebrated 
 maker. The B. consists of a bored-out tube of 
 wood in several pieces, fixed together alongside 
 each other, so as to bring the noles and keys 
 within the reach of the fingers of each hand. The 
 B. has, in general, not less than 8 holes and 10 
 keys. In the narrow end of the wooden tube is 
 fixed a small tapering brass tube in the form of an 
 S, on the end of which is placed the reed for pro- 
 ducing the tone. The compass of the B. is from 
 
 m 
 
 b<5 
 
 m 
 
 but the best tones are those 
 
 from 
 
 ei 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 . The lowest C sharp, and 
 
 B natural, are wanting. 
 The notes for the B. are written on the bass clef for 
 the lower part, and on the tenor clef for the higher. 
 The best keys for the B. are E flat, B flat, F, C, G, 
 D, and A; all the other keys are more or less 
 diMoult. For military bands there are different 
 sizes of bassoons — one a fourth lower ; another, the 
 contra B., an octave lower ; and a third, the tenor 
 B., a fifth higher — aU of the same construction. The 
 best instruction books for the B. are by Almenrader, 
 Frohhoh, Ozi, and by the Paris Conservatorium. B. 
 IS also the name of an organ-stop, the pipes of which 
 are made to imitate the tones of the instrument. 
 
 BASSO'KA, BUSSOEA, or BASRAH, a town of 
 Asiatic Turkey, pashalio of Bagdad, is situated on 
 the western bank of the Euphrates, here called the 
 Shat-el-Arab, about midway between the mouth of 
 the Tigris and the Persian Gulf, from which it is 
 70 miles distant. Lat. 30° 30' N., long. 47° 34' E. 
 There are many gardens within the walls of the 
 city, and many plantations of roses around it, but it 
 is very dirty. The river,- which is navigable up to B. 
 for ships of 500 tons, is there divided into a number 
 of channels, and by evaporation and frequent over- 
 flowing, mates the climate very unhealthy. The 
 inhabitants, 60,000 in number, are for the most part 
 poor Arabs and Persians ; the officials and military 
 alone are Turks. Commerce is in the hands of 
 Anneniana. Most of the houses are low huts, built 
 
 of iunbumed bricks. An extensive trade is carried 
 on in the exchange of the productions of Turkey and 
 Persia with those of India, and also in European 
 goods, particularly articles of British manufacture. 
 Amongst the exports, are strong and beautiful 
 horses. Caravans travel to Persia, and also by- 
 Bagdad and Aleppo to Constantinople. To guard 
 against the incursions of the Arabs, a wall of about 
 94 miles in length has been erected in the neighbour- 
 ing desert, at all the gates of which a watch is 
 maintained. B. was founded in 636 by the Calif 
 Omar, and soon became one of the most famous and 
 opulent cities of the East. The possession of it has 
 been the subject of many contests between the 
 Turks and the Persians. It is a place of great note 
 in the history of Arabic literature. A number of 
 Arabian poets and scholars derive from it the 
 surname of Basvi. 
 
 BASSOEA GUM, a whitish or yeUowish-opaque 
 substance resembUng gum-arabic, but differing 
 from it by being mostly insoluble in water. Its 
 source has not been satisfactorily ascertained. 
 
 BASSO-EILIE'VO. See Alto-eilibvo. 
 
 BASS'S STEAIT separates Tasmania from 
 AustraHa. It contains many islands, chiefly in its 
 southern section, and is greatly beset by coral-reefs. 
 It runs almost due east and west, has an average 
 breadth of about 200 miles, and is pretty nearlj 
 bisected by the parallel of 40°. 
 
 B. S. deservedly bears the name of its explorer, 
 who, without having been professionally a seaman, 
 is entitled to a very high place among maritime 
 discoverers. After having made shorter excursions 
 from Port Jackson, in a mere wherry of 8 feet in 
 length, Mr Surgeon Bass resolved to settle, in a 
 whaling-boat, the question as to the connection, or 
 separation of New Holland and Tasmania. In his 
 fraU craft, he penetrated as far as Western Port, near 
 the entrance of Port Phillip, where, from the trending 
 of the land and the swell of the sea, he inferred that 
 he had most probably reached the open ocean. He 
 did not rest contented, however, until, in a tiny bark 
 of 25 tons, he actually circumnavigated Tasmania. 
 The discovery, so defiberately prosecuted, and so 
 satisfactorily completed, soon proved to be fertile 
 of results; for in 1802, only four years after the 
 exploration of Bass, Port PhiUip was entered; in 
 1804, Tasmania was colonised; and now the strait 
 is the highway for a trade of a million sterling 
 between victoria and Tasmania — a trade which has 
 very recently received an additional impetus from 
 the laying of a telegraphic cable between the two 
 colonies at their joint expense. 
 
 BAST, or BASS, also called Inner Bairlc, Liher, or 
 Endophlosam (see Bark), the fibrous inferior layer 
 of the bark in the stems of exogenous plants, which 
 is particularly conspicuous in exogenous trees, as a 
 peculiar substance interposed between the true bark 
 and the wood. It consists in great part of sap- 
 vessels (laticiferous vessels, see Latbx and Sap) 
 lying close together, and assuming the appearance 
 of tough fibres. In a fresh state, it has generally a 
 whitish colour; and it is often composed of several 
 layers, to which, however, the collective name of 
 B. -layer is very often appUed. The uses of this part 
 of plants in the arts are very numerous ; the fibres 
 of hemp, flax, jute, &o., are nothing else than bast. 
 The name B., however, is more commonly applied 
 to the inner bark of trees, and is originally Russian, 
 designating the inner bark of the lime-tree (q. v.) or 
 linden-tree, which is employed for making a coarse 
 kind of ropes, mats well known as B.-mats, and a 
 kind of shoes much worn by the Russian peasantry. 
 The trees are cut when full of sap in spring. For 
 B. to be plaited into shoes, young stems of about 
 
 785 
 
BASTAED BAH-BASTAEDS AKD BASTARDY. 
 
 three years old are preferred ; and it is said that 
 two or three are required to make a single pair of 
 shoes. Trees of six or eight years old are cut down 
 for the better kind of mats, which are exported in 
 large quantities from Russia, and particularly from 
 the port of Archangel, and so much used for pack- 
 ing furniture, for covering tender plants in gardens, 
 supplying strands with which plants are tied, &o. 
 The trees from which the B. is taken are very gener- 
 ally burned for charcoal. After the bark is dried, its 
 layers are easily separated by steeping in water. 
 The finest layers are the inner, and the coarser are 
 the outer ones. — The manufacture of B.-mats is 
 nearly confined to Russia and Sweden. Not fewer 
 than 3,500,000 are annually exported from Russia, 
 and from 500,000 to 800,000 are annually imported 
 into Britain. A few are made in Monmouthshire. 
 Lime-tree B. is used in the south of Europe for 
 making hats. The name B.-hat is, however, very 
 often given to a hat made of willow- wood planed off 
 in thm ribbons, and plaited in the same manner as 
 straw-hats. The inner bark of Orewia didyma, a 
 tree of the same natural order with the lime-tree, is 
 used for making ropes in the Himalaya Mountains. 
 
 BA'STAED BAR. In popular speech we fre- 
 quently hear of a Bar-sinister, as a mark of bastardy. 
 But a bar-sinister, strictly speaking, is an impossi- 
 bihty, inasmuch as the Bar (q.v.) is not formed of 
 diagonal but of horizontal lines. A Bend-sinister 
 (q.v.), which, by the French, is called a bar, has 
 with more reason been confused with the true mark 
 of illegitimacy, and has on that account been avoided 
 even by heralds. But the real B. B. differs very 
 essentially from the bend-sinister, being haU of 
 the scarp, which again is half of the bend-sinister. 
 
 'The naif of the scarp,' says Nisbet, 
 
 ' with the English, is called a Batton- 
 sinister ; by the French, Baston- 
 sinister; it is never carried in arms 
 but as a mark of iUegitimation, com- 
 monly called the Bastard-barr.' In 
 
 T, , , _ modem practice, the baton does not 
 JJastard Jjar. ^^^^^ ^^^ extremities of the shield, or 
 of the quarter in which the paternal arms are 
 placed, but is couped — that is, cut short at the 
 ends. In this form the baton, when used as a 
 mark of illegitimacy, is placed over the paternal 
 coat of the Dastard, whether used singly or in a 
 quartered shield. Nisbet informs us that the baton- 
 sinister, both in England and Scotland, is compara- 
 tively of modern invention, natural children in 
 earher times not having been permitted to assimie 
 the arms or even the names of their fathers. ' The 
 unlawful children of John of Gaunt, Duke of 
 -Lancaster, begot on Katharine, daughter of Sir 
 Payen Roat Guyn, King of Arms, did not carry the 
 arms of their father the king, though nobUitate, 
 with a baton-sinister, as now used; . . . but after 
 the legitimation of these 
 three natural sons by act 
 of parliament, they then 
 assumed the sovereign 
 ensigns of England, with- 
 in a bordure gobbonated 
 (q. v.), ardent and azure.' 
 
 According to the practice 
 of France, which probably 
 was followed in England 
 also, the bastard could not 
 cancel or alter the baton 
 without the consent of the 
 chief of the family, or the 
 authority of the sovereign. 
 Even where the baton was 
 not removed, it was com- 
 mon for the sovereign to grant his permission to 
 736 
 
 Earl of Murray's Arms, 
 
 carry it dexter, in place of sinister. Charles VII. 
 of France allowed John, the Bastard of Orleans, 
 for his valour against the EngHsh, to turn his sinister 
 traverse to the dexter, with which he and his issue 
 afterwards bruised the arms of Orleans, as dukes 
 of LongueviEe. The same privilege was granted 
 to James, Earl of Murray, natural son of King 
 James V. of Scotland, by his sister Queen Mary, 
 and he thenceforth carried the Lion and tressure 
 of Scotland thus bruised, quartered with the feudal 
 arms of the earldom of Murray. The general prac- 
 tice of the milder heraldry of oiu- own day is to 
 substitute the gobbonated bordure for the B. B., 
 not only in the case of the legitimate children of 
 bastards, but of bastards themselves. 
 
 BASTARD BIGNli; is the name given in Eng- 
 lish law-books to an eldest son illegitimate by birth, 
 but whose father and mother were subsequently 
 married, and had other children bom in wedlock. 
 See Bastards and Bastabdy. 
 
 BA'STARDS and BA'STARDY. Bastards, as 
 described by Blackstone, are such children as are 
 not bom either in lawful wedlock, or within a com- 
 petent time after its determination. The Scotch 
 lawyers, again, true to their peculiar law of marriage, 
 define a bastard as a child bom of a woman, who 
 was not married to the father at the time of concep- 
 tion, and who was never thereafter married to him. It 
 was at one time the law of England, when divorces 
 a mensa et thoro were adjudged by the ecclesiastical 
 courts, that if the wife had children during the 
 legal separation occasioned by the former kind of 
 divorce, such children were primA fade bastards — 
 for the law presumed the parties to live conform- 
 ably to the sentence of separation. But in modem 
 times, the presumption has changed, and now always 
 favours legitimacy. 
 
 ■ Bastards are incapable of inheriting real property; 
 nor can they claim any share of personal estate as 
 next of kin to a party dying intestate. They are 
 said to be filii nullius, or flii populi, the sons of 
 nobody, or the sons of the people, having no inherit- 
 able blood in them. As laid down, nowever, in 
 many authorities, and among others in the last (4th) 
 edition of Stephen's Commentaries, there is an excep- 
 tion to this rale in the case of a bastard dgnS and 
 muUer puisnS, and where, it may be observed, the 
 principle of the Scotch law of legitimation appears 
 to some extent to be admitted. 'Thus, where a man 
 has a bastard son, called a bastard eignS (q. v.), and 
 afterwards marries the mother, and by her has a 
 legitimate son, who, in the language of the law, is 
 c^ed a mulier puisne — ^if the father dies, and the 
 bastard eigni enters upon his land, and enjoys it to 
 his death, and dies seised thereof, whereby the 
 inheritance descends to his issue, the mulier puisnS 
 and all other heirs are totally barred of their right, 
 because the laws of England pay such a regard to a 
 person in the situation of the bastard eignS, that 
 after the land had descended to his issue, they 
 would not unravel the matter again, and suffer his 
 estate to be shaken. But this indulgence was shewn 
 to no other kind of bastard ; for if the mother was 
 never married to the father, such bastard could have 
 no colourable title at aU. And the above exception 
 would almost appear to be the law of England at 
 the present day. But a recent statute renders this 
 opinion somewhat doubtful, for by the 3 and 4 Will. 
 IV. c. 27, s. 39, it is enacted that no descent cast, after 
 the 31st day of December 1833, shaU defeat any right 
 of entry or action for the recovery of land. By descent 
 oast is meant an heir of a party who had contrived 
 illega,lly to enjoy the land without challenge during 
 his life, and was thereby enabled to transmit it to 
 his heir, who thenceforward had a title which could 
 
BASTARDS AND BASTAEDY, 
 
 not be impeached either by the original rightful 
 owner, or by any of his descendants. The above 
 statute, however, has cut oflf the rights in this behalf 
 of all such descents cast, and the true owner can now, 
 under the provisions of the act, always recover. But 
 is the son of a bastard eignS such a ' descent cast ' as 
 is contemplated by the 3 and 4 Will. IV. u. 27 ! 
 It may be doubted whether he is. The expression 
 ' descent cast ' is generally applied in law-books to 
 .the case of a stranger who, xmder a forcible, wrong- 
 ful, and iUegal entry on the land, had succeeded m 
 diverting the inheritance from the direct and origi- 
 nal channel. But such is not the position of a 
 bastard eign(. He is not, in any sense of the word, 
 a stranger ; nor is the above privilege or favour 
 allowed him and his family at all in respect of his 
 position towards, or of anything that can be called 
 his title to the land, but such privilege and favour 
 are given him solely because of his pecaliar bastardy. 
 In fact, it is just because he is not a stranger, but 
 his father's eldest son by birth, that the law from 
 ancient times decided that he should not be alto- 
 gether deprived of what otherwise would have been 
 his natural rights. The rule, as we have suggested, 
 appears to be founded on the principle of the Scotch 
 law of subsequent legitimation ; and the intention 
 probably was to give efl'ect to the good feeling of 
 the second or other legitimate son, who, from a 
 regard to his mother's character, as well as his 
 brother's position, might find himself excused from 
 asserting his claims. Whether the above statute 
 can, by its general terms, be understood, arbitrarily 
 to alter such a reasonable and natural law of family 
 succession, is a question for lawyers and law-courts. 
 The point, however, is important for popidar expla- 
 nation. In all other cases, the law of England 
 appears to be as distinct as it is severe. It has 
 even been decided that a child bom before wed- 
 lock in a foreign country, and according to whose 
 law such child was legitimate, could not inherit 
 land in England where his bastardy was indelible. 
 
 There can be no collateral succession through 
 bastards ; for as they cannot be heirs themselves, 
 so neither can they have any heirs but those of their 
 own bodies. A bastard is not entitled to the name 
 either of his reputed father or of that of his mother, 
 though he may acquire for himself a surname by 
 reputation ; nor can he take property by the mere 
 description of child of his reputed parent, until 
 he has acquired the reputation of standing in that 
 relation to him. Nor does a bastard follow, as 
 legitimate children do, his father's place of paro- 
 chial settlement under the poor-laws, but he has 
 and follows the settlement of his mother until he 
 attains the age of 16, or until he acquires a settle- 
 ment in his own right, although in general his 
 primary settlement is in the parish where he was 
 born. Another peculiarity of the status of bastardy 
 is, that a bastard being JUius nullius, the consent of 
 his father or mother to his marriage is not required, 
 and is of no avail ; but a guardian may be appointed 
 ijy the Court of Chancery for the purpose, or a 
 licence may be granted upon oath made that there 
 is no person au-fliorised to give consent. To this 
 may be added, that although in general a father 
 may by deed or will appoint a guardian for his 
 infant child, in the event of his decease, he has no 
 such privilege if the child be illegitimate. 
 
 Such may be stated to be the principal peculiari- 
 ties attaching to bastardy in the law of England. In 
 other respects, a bastard is very much in the same 
 position as a legitimate person. Thus, he can hold 
 laud in fee-simpk, and can dispose of it as he may 
 think proper, making an unlimited aUertation of it ; 
 and of course he can make a will bequeathing his 
 personal estate; a simple and reasonable privilege, 
 47 
 
 however, which, strange to say, was not conceded 
 to bastards in Scotland dying vrithout lawful issue, 
 tin the year 1836, when an act of parliament was 
 passed, the 6 WiU. IV. c. 22, which, on the pre- 
 amble that ' it is just, humane, and expedient,' 
 empowered bastards in that country to disj)ose of 
 their personal property by testament or will in like 
 manner as other persons might do, any law or prac- 
 tice to the contrary notwithstanding ! In regard 
 to personal estate, although the crown is entitled 
 to such in the case of a bastard dying intestate, the 
 royal claim is not strictly enforced ; but upon petition, 
 the crown's right will be transferred to the nearest 
 member of the deceased bastard's family. In the 
 Scotch law, also, the crown may, by what is called 
 a gift of bastardy, grant not only the personal, but 
 the real estate of an intestate bastard to the 
 ' donatory,' or person similarly entitled, as in the case 
 of personal property in England. It is also to be 
 observed, that the prohibitions as to marriage which 
 extend to collaterals, and to those related by the 
 half-blood only, also apply although one of the 
 parties be a bastard. Again, the laws relative to 
 incest apply to a bastard with equal force as to 
 others ; the principle of the two latter points being 
 that, although the bastard be filius nullius as to 
 many civil consequences, his relationship to his 
 natural parent is recognised for moral purposes. 
 Of course, it need not be added that a bastardT may 
 be made legitimate by an apt of parliament for all 
 purposes, even for that of inheriting land, ' as was 
 done,' says Blackstone, 'in the case of John of 
 Gaunt's bastard children by a statute of Kichard II.' 
 
 The paternity of a bastard or illegitimate chUd in 
 England is ascertained by the regulations of these 
 three statutes— the 4 and 5 WiU. IV. u. 76, the 7 
 and 8 Vict. c. 101, and the 8 and 9 Vict. c. 10 ; and 
 the father so discovered is bound to make a proper 
 allowance to the mother in the meantime. But it 
 is on the mother herself that the maintenance of the 
 chUd in the first instance devolves. She is for this 
 purpose entitled to its custody in preference to its 
 father ; and she is bound to maintain it as part of 
 her family while she remains unmarried, or until 
 the child attains the age of 16, or gains a settle- 
 ment in its own right, or (being a female) is married ; 
 and in the event of the mother's marriage, the same 
 liability attaches to her husband. If the mother be 
 of sufficient ability to maintain the bastard, while 
 he is so dependent on her, and neglect that duty, so 
 that he becomes chargeable to a parish, she is 
 liable, by 7 and 8 Vict. c. 101, s. 6, to be punished 
 under the provisions of the Vagrant Act (q. v.). If, 
 on the other hand, the mother be not of sufficient 
 ability, the law affords her the means of compelling 
 the father of the bastard to supply a fund for its 
 maintenance. 
 
 Besides the points in the Scotch law to which we 
 have adverted, it is to be observed that in that 
 system, the maintenance, or ' aliment,' as it is called, 
 of illegitimate children, is a joint burden upon both 
 parents. The mother is entitled to the custody of 
 the child, but it does not appear whether she is to 
 have such custody for any fixed time. It is in the 
 discretion of the Court of Session to determine this, 
 and it wovJd seem that the period may vary accord- 
 ing to circumstances, from seven to fourteen years. 
 During this time, the father is bound to contribute 
 his proportion of the expense ; and if neither the 
 father nor mother can support the child, it must be 
 maintained by the parish in which the mother has a 
 settlement. 
 
 There is a nice and curious difference in the laws 
 of England and Scotland as to the mode of ascer- 
 taining the paternity of a bastard chUd. According 
 to the statutes we have referred to, that fact may 
 
 787 
 
BASTAEDY— BASTILLE. 
 
 be proved in England by tbe evidence of the mother, 
 provided her statement is supported in 'some 
 material particular' by other testimony. But in 
 Scotland, the order of the inquiry is reversed; 
 the woman's evidence in that country being taken 
 last, and only where the other and independent 
 evidence amounts to what is called a semiplena 
 probatio — that is, such evidence as induces a reason- 
 able belief, although not complete evidence, in which 
 case she is admitted to give what is called her oath 
 in supplement. 
 
 Both in England and Scotland, the widow of a 
 bastard, whether there be issue or not of the 
 marriage, is entitled to dower, terce, jus rdictos, and 
 all the other legal rights of widows. See Legiti- 
 macy, Sepaeation, Divorce, Maekiage, Descent 
 Cast, Inheritastce, Ebe-Simple, Succession, 
 Parish Settlement, Ultima H^eees, Vagrant 
 Act, Oath in Supplement, and Semiplena 
 Probatio. 
 
 BA'STARDV, Gift op. See preceding article. 
 
 BA'STAKDY, Declaeatob of. This is a suit 
 which may be instituted in the Court of Session in 
 Scotland, for having it declared that the lands or 
 effects which belonged to the deceased bastard, 
 belong to the donatory in virtue of the gift from the 
 crown. The 'defender,' or person against whom 
 the suit is formally brought, is the party who would 
 have succeeded to the bastard, had he been legiti- 
 mate. B. can also be judicially declared by a 
 similar mode of proceeding at the suit of a party 
 who has any other interest, or, indeed, any interest 
 whatever, to have such iUegitimacy determined. 
 
 By a recent act of parliament, the 21 and 22 
 Vict. c. 93, the same conclusion may be substanti- 
 ally obtained by the adoption of the proceedings, 
 directed by the act in the Court for Divorce and 
 Matrimonial causes. The act in question, it is 
 declared, may be cited for all purposes, as the 
 ' Legitimacy Declaration Act, 1858.' 
 
 BASTI'A, the former capital of Corsica, is pictur- 
 esquely situated on the slope of a, mountain, rising 
 from the sea in the form of an amphitheatre, in 
 the north-eastern part of the island, in lat. 42° 
 42' N., and long. 9° 27' E. It has about 16,000 
 inhabitants. The streets are naiTow and crooked. 
 It has a harbour suitable for small vessels, defended 
 by a mole, at the mouth of which is a rock resemb- 
 liiig a Hon couchant, and designated 'H Leone.' 
 There is a considerable trade in leather, skins, 
 wine, oU, figs, and pulse; and many stilettos and 
 daggers are manufactured here, which are principally 
 exported to Italy. Until recently, the printing- 
 presses of B. were actively employed in the produc- 
 tion of Italian publications that would not have been 
 permitted to appear in that country itself. B. was 
 founded in 1380 by the Genoese Leonel Lomellino. 
 During last century, it was oftener than once taken 
 by the British. It was made, in 1791, the capital of 
 the French department of Corsica, which rank was 
 afterwards transferred to Ajaccio. It is the seat of 
 the highest courts of the island. 
 
 BASTIAT, FR&feiC, an eminent political 
 economist, was bom at Bayonne on the 29th of 
 June 1801. His father was a merchant, and edu- 
 cated his son with a view to the same profession. 
 After completing his studies, B. entered the com- 
 mercial house of one of his uncles, established at 
 Bayomae, and employed his leisure hours in the 
 study of political economy. Circumstances called 
 him into Spain and Portugal in 1840, where he took 
 advantage of the opportunity afforded him to study 
 the customs and institutions of these two countries, 
 which have still much to learn before they can be 
 on a footing of equality with other nations in 
 73S 
 
 matters of finance and political economy. His first 
 appearance as an author was in 1844, when he pub- 
 lished, in the Jawmal des Economistes, an article ' On 
 the Influence of French and English Tariffs on the 
 Eespective Futures of the two Peoples.' It contained 
 in germ B.'s theory of political economy, who, from 
 that moment, was a decided opponent of the system 
 of protection. Subsequently, in the same journal, 
 he combated the economic fallacies of Socialism 
 and the rights of labour. During a visit to^England, • 
 he made the acquaintance of Cobden, and on his 
 return to France, he translated (1845) the speeches 
 of the free-traders, which he published with an 
 introductory preface, entitled Gobden and the League, 
 or the English Agitation in Favour of Free Trade, in 
 which he gathered up into one solid mass the incon- 
 veniences of the protective system. B. now went 
 to reside in Paris, where he continued to propagate 
 his views with considerable sixccess; he became 
 secretary of the societies, and chief editor of the 
 journal, established to vindicate the principles of 
 free trade. After the revolution of 1848, he was 
 elected successively a member of the Constituent 
 and Legislative assemblies. In 1850, he came for- 
 ward as the antagonist of the Socialist writer, 
 Prudhon. Suffering from pulmonary disease, he 
 repaired to Italy for change of climate, but died at 
 Kome on the 24th December 1850. 
 
 Besides the writings mentioned, B.. published 
 Sophismes Econamiques — Propri€t6 et Loi, Justice et 
 Fraternity — Protectionisme et Oommunisme, Har- 
 monies Economiques, and several other important 
 tractates, all of which exhibit extensive knowledge of 
 the subjects discussed, convincing logic, and a power 
 of sprightly and biting satire. The Harmonies 
 Economiques has been translated into English by 
 P. J. Stirling (Harmonies of Political Economy, 
 Murray, Lond. 1860). The soimdness of the prin- 
 ciples which the writings of B. uphold is now largely 
 admitted in France, and the government is' moving 
 slowly but surely in the direction they indicate. 
 
 BASTIDE, Jules, a French journalist and politi- 
 cian, Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1848, and member 
 of the Constituent Assembly, was born at Paris in 
 1800. In 1821, he became one of the first members 
 of the French Carbonari ; and after the July revo- 
 lution, he was conspicuous among the writers of 
 the radical opposition. On the reconstitution of 
 the National Guard, B. was elected commandant- 
 in-chief of the legion of artillery, in which the 
 republicans were grouped, and took part in two 
 insurrectionary movements, for the second of which 
 — ^the Smeute at Paris, 5th June 1832 — ^he was con- 
 demned to death, but escaped to London. Pardoned 
 in 1834, he returned to Paris, and again devoted 
 himself to politics in the columns of the National. 
 B., however, being one of those Neo-cathohc re- 
 publicans who regarded the Church of Kome as the 
 religious synonym of democracy, could not heartily 
 sympathise with the tone of that newspaper on reli- 
 gious topics, and in 1847 he founded the Revue 
 Nationale, in which he advocated his pecidiar 
 opinions. During the revolution of 1848, he became 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs, was a consistent supporter 
 of General Cavaignac, and a firm opponent of 
 Socialism. Since the Empire, he has ceased to take 
 a prominent part in public affairs. 
 
 BA'STILLB was, in France, a general term for 
 a strong fortress, defended by towers or bastions 
 (q. v.), and in this sense it was used in England also 
 after the Norman Conquest. The famous prison to 
 which the name latterly was appropriated, was 
 originally the castle of Paris, and was built by 
 order of Charles V., between 1370 and 1383, by 
 Hugo Aubriot, PrSv6t or Provost of Paris, at the 
 
BASTINADO— BAT. 
 
 Porte St Antoine, as a defence against the English. 
 Afterwards, when it came to be used as a state- 
 prison, it was provided, during the 16th and Itth 
 centuries, with vast bulwarks and ditches. On each 
 of its longer sides the B. had four towers, of five 
 stories each, over which there ran a gallery, which 
 was armed with cannon. It was partly in these 
 towers, and partly in cellars under the level of the 
 ground, that the prisons were situated. The unfor- 
 timate inmates of these abodes were so effectually 
 removed from the world without as often to be 
 entirely forgotten, and in some cases it was found 
 impossible to discover either their origin or the 
 cause of their incarceration. The B. was capable 
 
 The Bastille. 
 
 of containing 70 to 80 prisoners, a number fre- 
 quently reached during the reigns of Louis XIV. 
 and Louis XV. Though small compared to the 
 number which an ordinary prison contains, these 
 numbers were considerable, when we reflect that 
 they rarely consisted of persons of the lower ranks, 
 or such as were giiUty of actual crimes, but of those 
 who were sacrmced to poKtioal despotism, court 
 intrigue, ecclesiastical tyranny, or had fallen victims 
 to family quarrels — and were lodged here in virtue 
 of leiires de cachet (q. v.) — noblemen, authors, savans, 
 priests, and publishers. On the 14th of Jiily 1789, 
 the fortress was surrounded by an armed mob, 
 which the reactionary policy of the court had 
 driven into fury, and to the number of which every 
 moment added. The garrison consisted of 82 
 invalids and 32 Swiss. The negotiations which 
 were entered into with the governor led to no 
 other result than the removal of the cannon pointed 
 on the Faubourg St Antoine, which by no means 
 contented the exasperated multitude. Some cut 
 the chains of the first drawbridge, and a contest 
 took place, in which one of the besieged and 150 
 of the people were kiUed, or severely wounded; 
 but the airival of a portion of the troops which had 
 already' joined the people with four field-pieces, 
 turned the fortune of the conflict in favour of the 
 besiegers. Delaunay, the governor — who had been 
 prevented by one of his officers, when on the 
 poiat of blowing the fortress into the air — permitted 
 the second drawbridge to be lowered, and the people 
 rushed in, killing Delaunay himself and several of 
 his officers. The destruction of the B. commenced 
 on the following day, amid the thunder of cannon, 
 and the pealing of the Te Beum. This event, in 
 itself apparently of no great moment, leading only 
 to the release of three unknown prisoners— one of 
 whom had been its tenant for thirty years — atid four 
 forgers, and in which it is said only the 654 per- 
 sons whose names now appear on the column in 
 the Place de la Bastille, took part, nevertheless 
 finally broke the spirit of the court-party, and 
 changed the current of events in France. 
 
 BASTlNA'DO (from the Fr. boston or bdton, a 
 cudgel), the name given by Eiu'opeans to the punish- 
 ment in' use over the whole East, which consists in 
 blows with a stick, generally upon the soles of the 
 feet, but sometimes upon the back. 
 
 BA'STION', in Fortification, is one of the principal 
 defence- works in a fortified place. It is a kind of 
 tower, very broad in relation to its height. The 
 plain wall, called the curtain, which often surrounds 
 a fortified town, is usually a polygon of many sides ; 
 and in that case, bastions occupy all, or nearly all, 
 the salient angles. Bastions are mostly flve-sided: 
 the two outermost sides are the /aces, meeting in an 
 angle towards the enemy; the two on either side 
 of these are the flanks, meeting two curtains or 
 portions of wall; and the fifth side, open to the 
 interior of the fortified place, is the gorge. Bastions 
 may be regarded as projections, which enable the 
 defenders to watch the approach of the enemy to 
 the foot of the wall, and to frustrate them by a 
 flanking fire. Taking the average range of modem 
 ordnance and muskets as a basis, engineers decide 
 on a distance of 300 to 400 yards between B. and 
 B. ; but if Armstrong or Napoleon guns, and Enfield 
 or Minig rifles, shoidd hereafter be employed in 
 attacking and defending fortified places, these figures 
 will probably need modification. The lengSi of 
 each face' and flank of a B. is so regulated, that two 
 bastions can defend each other and the intermediate 
 portion of wall. This principle was partly acted 
 upon in the middle ages; but some of the Italian 
 military engineers of the 16th c. first constructed 
 the B. proper. The main substance of a B. is an 
 immense mound of earth, capable of supporting 
 heavy guns, and of receiving the fire of the enemy; 
 but it is faced and strengthened in many parts with 
 brick and stone. The top is broad enough to allow 
 room for the large gims, and for infantry and 
 artillery soldiers. A hollow B. has the space within 
 it kept down to the level of the town or natural 
 ground; but a solid B., filled up to the top with 
 firm materials, is considered to be the best defensive 
 construction, Vauban, the gi'eat French engineer, 
 devised the plan of having large detached bastions 
 opposite the chief angles of the place, with a ditch 
 behind each; a tower or small B. being placed at 
 the real angle of the waU behind. This was 
 intended to enable the besieged to hold out for 
 some time, even after the great bastions were taken. 
 
 The relation which bastions bear to the general 
 system of attack and defence, is noticed under 
 FOKTIFICATION and Siege ; while various details 
 on the subject vpill be fovmd under Batteet, Case- 
 mate, CuBTAiir, Ditch, EMBBAStmE, Esoaep, Para- 
 pet, Eampakt, &c. In wood-cuts illustrating many 
 of these articles, the relative position of the B. will 
 be better shewn than by any diagram in this place. 
 
 BA'SYLE is the name given by chemists to a 
 simple or compound substance which can unite with 
 oxygen to produce a base (q. v.). Thus, all the 
 metals are examples of simple basyles, and 
 ammonium (NH^), ethyle (O^Hj), methyle (OjHj), 
 &c., represent compound basyles. Another properly 
 which a B. possesses is, that it can unite with a 
 salt radical (q. v.), like chlorine or cyanogen, to 
 form salts. Thus, the B. sodium (Na) combines 
 with chlorine to produce a salt — in fact, common 
 salt (NaOl) ; and mercury (Hg) unites with cyanogen 
 (Cy) to form the salt cyanide of mercury (HgCy). 
 
 BAT, the common name of all animals of the 
 class Mammalia which are furnished with true 
 wings, and so are capable of really flying or propel- 
 ling themselves in the air. They were aU included 
 by Linnaeus in the genus Vespertilio (old Latin 
 name), now subdivided and forming the family 
 
 739 
 
BAT. 
 
 VespertilienidcB, which is very generally regarded 
 as of precisely equal extent Tvith the sub-order 
 Glieiroptera (Gr. hand-wiugeti), although some natur- 
 alists stiU follow Cuvier in regarding the Galeo- 
 pitheddcs (Colugos or Flying Lemurs) as another 
 
 Long-eared Bat {Plecotus auritus). 
 
 family of Cheiroptera. But besides other characters 
 which connect the Colugos with Lemurs rather than 
 with bats, they greatly dififer from bats ia haviug a 
 mere extension of the sldn of the flanks attached 
 to the limbs — as ia the Flying Squirrels and 
 Petaurists or Flying Phalangers, and in the Flying 
 Dragon among saurian reptiles — capable of sus- 
 taining them in the air like a parachute in a very 
 extended leap, but not of being expanded and closed 
 by a succession of strokes for true flight. The 
 power of true flight, bats, on the contrary, possess ; 
 and some of them not only fly rapidly, but wheel 
 about very nimbly in the air, in pursuit of their 
 insect prey. 
 
 It is very interesting to compare the organs of 
 flight in bats with those of birds, both as to the 
 pomts in which they agree, and those in which they 
 differ. They beat the air, as birds do, with their 
 anterior members ; but the requisite extension of 
 surface is not obtained by quills, but by a great 
 elongation of the arms and fingers, upon which 
 a thin membrane is stretched, folding close to the 
 body by means of their joints, when the wing is not 
 in use. A httle attention to the accompanying 
 figures of the skeleton of a bat and of a bat flying, 
 mU make plainer than mere words can the relation 
 of the bones of a bat's wing to the bones of the 
 human arm and hand, or to the ordinary bones of 
 the anterior extremities in quadrapeds which have 
 fingers or toes. The thumb, a (in figure of skeleton), 
 is short, armed with a. strong nail, and not at all 
 included in the wing-membrane, nor vised ia. flight. 
 
 C4~ 
 
 Skeleton of Bat. 
 
 The bones most elongated of all are the metacarpal 
 
 bones, or bones of the hand, 6; the true fineer-bones. 
 
 710 ' 6 > 
 
 c, are not so much so. The fore-arm, d, has not two 
 bones (radius and ulna), but only one (the ulna), 
 with a sort of rudiment of the other ; the rotatory 
 motion, of which these two bones afford the means, 
 being not only unnecessary to bats, but at variance 
 with the purpose chiefly designed in this part of 
 their structure, of a powerful stroke in one particular 
 direction. For a similar reason, ' the flngers of this 
 strange hand are incapable of closing towards the 
 paJm, as ours do, when grasping an object : their 
 only movements are such as fold up the wing 
 against the side of the body, by laying the fingers 
 close along the side of the fore-arm, as in closing a 
 fan.' Great strength, however, was requisite in the 
 shoulder; and, accordingly, we find an analogy to 
 birds in the size and solidity of the bones in this 
 part, as well as in the thickness of the muscles by 
 which the wings are moved, and still more in the 
 great dimensions of the sternum, or breast-bone, to 
 which they are attached. The sternum is also 
 furnished with a. medial ridge, as in birds, for the 
 better attachment of the muscles. The ribs are 
 large; but the other bones generally, as those of 
 the head and of the pelvis, are delicate, and appear 
 designed for lightness. — The wing-membrane of 
 bats extends along the flanks to the hind-legs, 
 although these aid Httle in flight ; but it is attached 
 to them so as to leave the feet free, which are much 
 like the feet of ordinary small quadrupeds with toes 
 and claws, and are employed along with the thumbs 
 of the anterior limbs in creeping upon the ground, 
 in chmbittg perpendicular rough surfaces, or for 
 
 Bat in repose. 
 
 hanging with the head downward in that remark- 
 able posture of repose ia which bats pass great part 
 of their lives, and in which they dififer from all 
 other animals. 
 
 In the greater number of species of B., the wing- 
 membrane extends not only to the hind-legs, but 
 beyond them to the taU, which is included in it, a 
 peculiar bone (e in fig. of skeleton) also arising 
 from each heel to afiford further support to this 
 part of it, which seems to serve purposes analogous 
 to the tail of birds, acting as a rudder, and enabling 
 the animal to make those rapid evolutions in the 
 air, which it is so pleasing to see as bats flit about 
 in the summer evening. The fruit-eating bats of 
 tropical regions, which have no need to perform 
 such evolutions, are destitute of this interfemoral 
 part of the membrane ; and according to the habits 
 for which each species has been designed, the tails 
 are long or short, entirely included in the membrane, 
 or only for part of their length, or produced a very 
 little beyond it, and temunating in a hard tip, so 
 that the tail is capable of being used to aM in 
 creeping or climbing, evidently possessing consider- 
 able power, and being curved and moved in a 
 
6AT. 
 
 manner which suggests a slight analogy to the 
 prehensile tails of monkeys. 
 
 Bats were placed by LinniEiis in his order 
 Pmnates, along with monkeys and lemurs, with 
 which they agree in their pectoral teats and 
 in other characters, particularly of the organs of 
 reproduction. In one genus (Dysopus), there is an 
 additional resemblance to the Primates in the 
 partially opposable thumbs of the hind-feet, and a 
 trace of this character is to be fovmd in the fore- 
 thumbs, already noticed. Bats are now, however, 
 generally placed by naturahsts in the order Ferm 
 or Carnaria, although, like many other animals of 
 that great order, most of them are by no means 
 exclusively carnivorous. The greater part of them 
 feed chiefly on insects, some chiefly on fruits. 
 They exhibit considerable variety both in the 
 niunber and character of their teeth, as might be 
 expected in animals which diifer so much in their 
 food, AH of them have four rather large canine 
 teeth ; the incisors vary much in size and form, as 
 well as in number. The digestive apparatus exhibits 
 a variety corresponding with that of the teeth; 
 the intestinal canal of the Vampyres (q. v.), which 
 live by sucking the blood of animals, proceeding 
 almost in a straight line from one extremity of the 
 body to the other, whilst that of some of the 
 
 Head of Pteropus, 
 
 frugivorous bats, as the Kalong (q. v.) (Plero;piis) of 
 Java, is seven times as long as the body. 
 
 Except in the power of flight and things essential 
 to it, bats present no resemblance to birds. The 
 old English name FUttermouse, and the German 
 Fledermaus, indicate an early popular recognition 
 of their true place in creation. They are generally 
 nocturnal animals, or, at least, prefer the twiUght, 
 although one of the British species may occasionally 
 be seen pursuing insects during winter at mid-day. 
 They generally spend the day in caves, hollow trees, 
 and other dark recesses, often under roofs of houses, 
 and in crannies of rained or deserted buildings. 
 They are found in almost all parts of the world, 
 except the very coldest, but are most numerous and 
 of greatest size within the tropics. Those of tempe- 
 rate climates generally spend the winter in a state 
 of torpidity, in which, although circulation continues 
 very languidly, respiration does not ordinarily take 
 place. The whole niunber known to Linnseus 
 amounted to a very few species, not half so many 
 as are now known to inhabit Great Britain alone. 
 Upwards of 130 species have been described, and 
 there is great probability that the actual number 
 existing is very much greater. It is not unlikely 
 that some exaggerated accounts of the great bats of 
 warm climates gave rise to the fable of the Harpies, 
 which Virgil introduced into the Mneid. The bats of 
 Europe are aU small ; the body of the largest British 
 one is not so large as a mouse, and the fullest stretch 
 of its wings about 15 inches, whilst the common British 
 species are much smaller ; but in the Kalong, already 
 
 mentioned, the stretch of wing is 6 feet. Of British 
 species, the largest is the Noctule B. [Vespertilio 
 noctula), a very local species, found chiefly in the 
 south of England ; the PipistreUe B. ( V. Pipistrellus) 
 is perhaps the most common. It was long con- 
 founded by British naturalists with the common B, 
 of the continent of Europe ( V. murinus), which is 
 much larger, and very rare in Britain. In some parts 
 of the country, the Long-eared B. (Plecotus auritus) 
 is very common. It is distinguished by its enor- 
 mously large and very beautiful ears, which, when it 
 is asleep, are folded up in a remarkable manner under 
 the arm, the long tragus then resembling a slender 
 
 a Great Bat or Noctule Bat ( Vespertilio nociula). 
 
 b Gtreater Horseshoe Bat {BMnolophus Fa-rv/megvmum). 
 
 Both British. 
 
 ear. This great development of the ears is charac- 
 teristic of certain genera of B., that part of the ear 
 called the tragus attaining also a remarkable size, so 
 that it seems like a smaller ear in front of each large 
 one. In many species, only two of which are found 
 in Britain, there is a still more remarkable mem- 
 branous or leaf-like appendage on the nose, which 
 in some is simple, in some, complex, and often of 
 large size, giving an extraordinary appearance to the 
 face. Some of the larger species, having a nasal 
 crest, are called Spectre Bats (q. v.). Only two 
 species of B. (Eldnolopkus), possessing such an 
 appendage, are found in Britain, both of them very 
 rare; from the form which it assumes, they are 
 called Horseshoe Bats. It is supposed that this 
 nasal appendage is of use as a very deUoate organ of 
 touch, perhaps also of smell ; as the great ears may 
 be of use both for touch and hearing. These senses 
 must often guide bats when that of sight cannot be 
 employed ; and the sense of touch appears to be 
 possessed in no ordinary degree even by the wing 
 membrane. By supposing it to be affected by the 
 pulsations of the air, Cuvier accounted for the power 
 displayed by bats which had been cruelly deprived 
 of sight, of avoiding objects amongst which they flew, 
 without the necessity of ascribing to them, as Spal- 
 lanzani had done, the possession of a sixth sense. 
 
 It deserves to be here noticed that, amongst the 
 peculiarities which distinguish certain genera of 
 bats, is the absence not only of the upper cutting 
 teeth in the East Indian and African genus Mega- 
 denna, but even of the bone in which these teeth 
 are usually placed ; and that another tropical genus, 
 Nycteris, of which the species are found in Africa 
 and Java, have the skin attached to the body only 
 at a few points, and capable of being blown up like 
 a bladder, at the pleasure of the animal, by means 
 of air which is inhaled through the nostnls into 
 cheek-pouches communicating by small apertures 
 with the general skin-bag. The use of this is wholly 
 unknown. 
 
 Bats walk or creep awkwardly upon the ground, 
 one side of the body being jerked forward, and then 
 the other, yet they rim with considerable celerity. 
 There is a common notion, that they cannot rise 
 easily from a level surface, but must find some 
 eminence from which to throw themselves. Of the 
 fallacy of this, any one wiU soon be convinced 
 
 711 
 
BAT-BATAVI. 
 
 who gets a B. and places it upon the floor. — Bats 
 oommonly produce one or two young at a birth. — 
 
 
 Bat walking {Plecotus auritus). 
 
 Some of the species are very gregarious ; others 
 often fly about m pairs ; great numbers, and of dif- 
 ferent species, are often found congregated in their 
 places of hybernation or repose. — Sonje of the species 
 are easily tamed, and become very familiar; but 
 their odour is disagreeable, and it is generally found 
 difficult to keep them long alive. 
 
 Fossil remains of Cheiroptera are occasionally 
 found in eocene rooks, but owing to the deUcaoy of 
 the bones, great difficulty has been experienced in 
 the determination of the genera and species. 
 
 BAT, or BAT (]?r.), in military matters, was origin- 
 ally the name of a kind of pack-saddle ; and hence a 
 bat-horse was a baggage-horse bearing a bat or pack, 
 and a bat-man was a servant in charge of the horse 
 and bat. By a modification of meaning, 9, bat-man 
 is now any soldier allowed to act as servant to an 
 officer. When British troops are sent on foreign 
 service, bat-horses or mules are provided (i£ carriages 
 are not forthcoming) for carrying the regimental 
 books, the kettles and tents, the medicine-chest, 
 the veterinary medicine-chest, intrenching tools, 
 armourers' stores, saddlers' stores, &c. — about 20 
 such horses or mules to each battalion. Bat-horses 
 and bat-men are also provided for carrying officers' 
 camp-equipage. An allowanoe for procuring these 
 accommodations is usually called Bat-money. 
 
 BATA'^GtAS, a seaport town of the Philippines, 
 island of Luzon, and capital of the province of the 
 same name. Lat. 13° 45' K, long. 121° 5' E. 
 Distance from Manilla, 50 miles S.; founded 1581. 
 Pop. of town and district, 17,000. B., which is well 
 built, and has an elegant appearance, is finely situ- 
 ated on an extensive bay which opens into the 
 Strait of Mindoro. Considerable advantage is taken 
 of its facilities for commerce. 
 
 BATARDEATJ', a strong waJl of masonry, built 
 across the outer ditch of a fortress, to sustain the 
 pressure of water when one part of the ditch is dry 
 and the rest wet. It is bmlt up to an angle at the 
 top, and is armed with spikes, to prevent the enemy 
 from crossing ; and sometimes a stone tower is 
 provided to strengthen the defence. There is a 
 sluice-gate to regulate the admission of water. 
 
 BATA'TAS, or SWEET POTATO {Convolvulus 
 Batatas, or Batatas eduUs, the genus Batatas having 
 recently been separated from Convolvulus [q. v.], 
 chiefly upon account of the four-celled ovary), a per- 
 ennial plant with long creeping stems, heart-shaped 
 leaves on long stalks, and variously lobed, large 
 purple flowers much resembling those of the best 
 known species of Convolvulus, and very large oblong 
 acuminated tubers. It is a native of the East 
 Indies, but is now cultivated in all tropical and sub- 
 tropical countries for its tubers, which are highly 
 esteemed as an article of food, and are eaten either 
 roasted or boiled; they are sweet, wholesome, and 
 nutritious, but somewhat laxative. The B. forms, 
 next to maize, the principal food of the poorer classes 
 in some parts of America. Its cultivation is very 
 
 easy; it is readily propagated by tubers or by 
 cuttings of the stem, requires little attention, and 
 soon produces its tubers. In hot-houses in Britain, 
 these are without difficulty obtained of 1 lb. or 2 lbs. 
 weight. The cultivation of the B. has been intro- 
 duced into the south of Europe. In America, it is 
 little cultivated to the north of New Jersey, and 
 even there is inferior. The leaves are used as a 
 boiled vegetable. It is the B., or sweet potato, 
 which is usually meant by the older Enghsh writers, 
 when they mention potatoes. Its tubers were 
 imported into England by way of Spain, and sold as 
 a dehcaoy, before the potato was known. — Batatas 
 paniadata, or ConvolmiZuspaniculatus, a nearly aUied 
 
 Batatas. 
 
 species, is cultivated in the same way as the common 
 B., and its tubers are similar in quality. — To the 
 new genus Batatas, has been referred also the plant 
 formerly known as Ipomcea maerorhiza, now Batatas 
 jalapa, so called from supposed purgative quali- 
 ties of the root, which, however, it is found not to 
 possess, being white, insipid, saccharine, and farina- 
 ceous, and of great size, 50 — 60 lbs. in weight. The 
 plant inhabits sandy soils in Georgia and Carolina. 
 
 BATA'VI (or, according to some MSS., VAa?AVl), 
 the name of a German people, who anciently 
 inhabited a part of the present Holland, particularly 
 the island which was called after them, Batavia, 
 formed by the branch of the Bhiue which falls 
 into the sea at Leyden, the Waal, and the Meuse. 
 Their coimtry, however, extended across the Waal, 
 but its bovmdaries cannot now be precisely deter- 
 mined. According to Tacitus, they were origin- 
 ally a branch of the Chatti, who emigrated across 
 the Eiine. They were conquered by Germanicus; 
 became subject to the Bomans, and served them 
 so well; that they obtained the honorary title of 
 friends and brothers of the Eoman people; were 
 exempted from taxes and assessments, being only 
 required to provide a proportion of troops; and 
 were permitted to choose their commanders from 
 amongst themselves. Their cavalry were particu- 
 larly good, and were often employed by the Romans. 
 The first who terms the insular district inhabited by 
 these Gauls, Batavia, is Zosimus, who also informs 
 us that in the time of Constantius (358 a.d.) it had 
 fallen into the hands of the SaUi, a Prankish tribe. 
 
BATAVIA— BATH. 
 
 BATA'VIA, properly the name of the island 
 occupied by the ancient Batavi, became at a later 
 date the Latin name for Holland and the whole 
 kingdom of the Netherlands. The name Batavian 
 Ekpublio was given to the Netherlands on their 
 new organisation of 16th May 1795, and they con- 
 tinued to bear it till they were converted into the 
 kingdom of Holland, under Louis Bonaparte, 5th 
 June 1806. 
 
 BATA'VIA, the capital of the empire of the 
 Netherlands in the East Indies, an empire almost 
 as predominant in the islands as that of Britain is 
 on the mainland. It stands on the north coast of 
 Java, about 50 miles from Bantam, at its north- 
 west extremity, both Bantam and B. having been 
 founded, the former in 1602, and the latter in 1619, 
 while the Dutch republic was stiU struggling at 
 home for existence against the Spanish monarchy. 
 The chosen site was a flat, half land half water, 
 at the mouth of the Jacoatra, which, with good 
 anchorage for large ships in the oflBbng, was navi- 
 gable for smaller vessels towards the interior ; and 
 this natural marsh, as if to render the name stUl 
 more appropriate — B. still more Batavian — was 
 gradually intersected by canals. The influence of 
 a vertical sun on this Holland in miniature was 
 such as might have been anticipated; it became 
 proverbial as the grave of Europeans. Latterly, 
 however, the climate has been greatly improved by 
 draining. The temperature, though not extreme 
 for so low a latitude, is yet oppressive from its 
 unyielding uniformity, the mean of winter being 
 78-1 F., and that of summer only 78-6. The 
 lat. is 6° 8' S., and the long. 106° 50' E. The 
 popidation in 1832 was 118,300—2800 Europeans, 
 25,000 Chinese, 80,000 aborigines, 1000 Moors and 
 Arabs, and 9500 slaves. Notwithstanding the 
 
 f rowing prosperity of Singapore, B. continues to 
 e the commercial emporium of the far East. Its 
 markets present at once aU the productions of Asia 
 and all the manufactures of Europe, and its trade 
 must be as considerable as it is various, employing, 
 as it does, 25,000 Chinese male adults as labourers 
 and artisans. B. has a bank, a newspaper, a school 
 of arts and sciences ; and it is also the seat of a 
 supreme commission of public instruction for the 
 Dutch East Indies. In 1811, while HoUaud was a 
 vassal of Prance, B. fell into the hands of the 
 Enghsh, by whom, however, it was restored to its 
 former owners in 1816. Latterly, B. has found in 
 Singapore a formidable competitor for the trade 
 between East and West. Apparently, however, the 
 rise of its rival has given it a new irade, as a com- 
 pensation for any diminution in the old; and accord- 
 ingly the Dutch government has recently laid a 
 telegraphic cable, Song a line of 600 nules, from B. 
 to Singapore. 
 
 BATAWA' PALM. See (Enocarpus. 
 
 BA'TENBUEG, a town of the Netherlands, in 
 the province of Gelderland, situated on the right 
 bank of the Maese, 9 nules west of Nymegen. _ It is 
 worthy of notice only on acooimt of its association 
 with the Romans, whose Oppidum Batavorum it 
 was. 
 
 BATH, the county town of Somersetshire, Eng- 
 land, is beautifully situated in a wooded vaUey 
 in the north-east part of the county, on the Avon, 
 20 miles from its mouth, and 106 nules west of 
 London. The houses are built chiefly of white 
 freestone, ' Bath oolite,' worked in the neighbouring 
 quarries. The city has a finer appearance than any 
 other in England, the variety of level giving very 
 commanding sites for its fine and regular streets, 
 crescents, and public buildings. The beauty and 
 sheltered character of its situation, the mildness of 
 
 its oUmate, and especially the curative efficacy of 
 its hot saline springs, have long rendered B. a 
 favourite fashionable resort. The springs, which 
 are four in number, were known to the Romans, 
 who bmlt baths on the spot in the 1st c, of which 
 extensive remains were discovered in 1775. The 
 temperature of the springs varies from 97° to 117° 
 P.; they rise on the river bank near the centre 
 of the city, and discharge 184,320 gallons of water 
 daily. The water is most useful in oilious, nervous, 
 and scrofulous complaints, palsy, rheumatism, gout, 
 and cutaneous diseases. Though the gaiety of B. 
 has greatly waned since the days of the Prince 
 Regent, there has been a great general improve- 
 ment in the city, and an increase of population. 
 It has a park, and many public walks and open 
 places ; theatre, concert-rooms, and other places of . 
 amusement ; subscription library, club house, educa- 
 tional institutions, &c. The Abbey Church is a 
 cruciform structure in the latest perpendicular 
 style, with a fine central tower 150 feet high. About 
 a mile to the north-west is Beckford Tower, built 
 by the eccentric author of Vatheh It is 154 feet 
 high. B. returns two members to parliament. Pop. 
 54,240, at times much increased by visitors. B. 
 has no manufactures of any nOte. Coal is found 
 in the neighbourhood. The city is of great anti- 
 quity ; it was a Roman station, called Aqius Solis, 
 at the intersection of the great Roman ways from 
 London to Wales, and from Lincoln to the south 
 coast of England. Richard I. granted'B. its earliest 
 extant charter, which was subsequently confirmed by 
 Henry III., and greatly extended by George III. A 
 greater number of Roman remains have been found 
 m and near B. than elsewhere in Britain; they 
 form a collection unrivalled in extent and value. 
 B. was also the seat of an ecclesiastical community 
 from the earUest Christian times. The diocese of B. 
 and WeUs includes all Somersetshire, but the cathe- 
 dral church and episcopal residence are at Wells. 
 
 BATH, Knights of the. The name of this 
 order is derived from the ceremony of bathing, 
 which used to be practised at the inauguration of a 
 knight, as an emblem of the purity henceforth 
 required of him by the laws of chivalry. The 
 
 Collar and Badge of the Bath. 
 
 ceremony is of unknown antiquity, and is spoken 
 of by writers of the 13th c. as an ancient custom. 
 See Knight. The earliest authentic instance of 
 its observance which we have in this country, is in 
 the time of Henry IV., who, in preparing for his 
 coronation, made forty-six knights at the Tower of 
 London, who had watched aU the night before, and 
 
BATH, BATHING. 
 
 bathed themselves. The last knights of the B. 
 created in the ancient form were at the coronation 
 of Charles II. in 1661. Prom that period till the 
 accession of the House of Hanover, the order fell 
 into oblivion. It was revived by George I. in 1725, 
 and is now the second order in rank in England, 
 the first being the Garter. By the statutes then 
 framed for the government of the order, it was 
 dficlared that, besides the sovereign, a prince of 
 
 Star of the Bath. 
 
 the blood, and a great master, there should be 
 thirty -five knights. At the conclusion of the 
 great war, it was thought expedient, with a view 
 to rewarding the merits of many distinguished 
 officers, both military and naval, to extend the 
 limits of the order, which was effected on the 2d 
 January 1815. But the order was still purely 
 military, and it was not till 1847 that it was placed 
 on its present footing by the admission of civil 
 knights, commanders, and companions. The fol- 
 lowing is its present organisation. 
 
 First Class.— Kxaghts Grand Cross (K. G. C.) ; the 
 number not to exceed, for the military service, 50, 
 exclusive of the royal family and foreigners; and 
 for the civil service, 25. 
 
 Second Class. — Knights Commanders (K. C.B.); 
 military, 102, and civil, 50, exclusive of foreigners. 
 These, like the first, have the title Sir, and take 
 precedence of Knights Bachelors. 
 
 Third Class. — Companions (C. B.) ; military, 525, 
 and civil, 200. They take precedence of Esquires, 
 but are not entitled to the distinctive appellation of 
 knighthood. _ No officer can be nominated to the 
 military division of this class vmless his name has 
 been mentioned in the London Gazette for distin- 
 guished services in action; and the order has 
 never been conferred on an officer below the rank of 
 a major, or commander in the navy. 
 
 BATH, BA'THING. By bathing is usually 
 understood the immersion of the body, or a part of 
 it, in water. . In a more extended signification, it 
 means the surrounding of the body with any medium 
 differing ia natxire or temperature from its usual 
 medium; thus, we speak of a blood- bath, a vapour- 
 bath, a cold-air bath, a compressed-air bath (q.v.), 
 an earth-bath. A fourfold division may be made 
 of baths : 1. According to the substance with which 
 the body is surrounded — ^into water, oU, milk, gas, 
 sand, and other baths ; 2. According to the manner 
 of apphoation — into river, slipper, plunge, shower, 
 dropping, vapour, and douche baths ; 3. According 
 to the parts of the body subjected to the applica- 
 tion — into whole, half, sitz, foot, hand, and eye 
 baths ; and 4. According to the temperature of the 
 substance appHed — into cold, tepid, warm, and hot 
 baths. 
 
 The practice of bathing imdoubtedly reaches back 
 Hi 
 
 to the earliest times in the existence of the hiunau 
 race, and the most ancient historical accounts as 
 well as popular myths make mention of it. Among 
 the Egyptians, the bath was practised as a religious 
 rite ; and, ia general, we find the opinion prevaihng 
 throughout antiquity, that purification of the body 
 induced or signified moral purity. Man, it was 
 thought, ought to present himself pure in body and 
 soiU, when he engaged in the service of his god, 
 or in any transaction that brought him into immedi- 
 ate contact with that being. In making the bath 
 a religious ordinance, Moses may have had in 
 view the prevention or more speedy cure of those 
 skin-diseases so prevalent in the East. The Mosaic 
 Law prescribes expressly, in some cases, the use 
 of running water, which has given rise, through a 
 misunderstanding, to the deleterious cellar-baths of 
 the Jews. In Palestine, the wealthier Jews had 
 private baths in their houses, and ponds in their 
 gardens, an arrangement which prevailed in all 
 the civilised parts of the East, and which does so 
 stilL There were, besides, public bath-houses among 
 the Jews, as among other nations. Among the 
 Greeks, also, bathing was very early in use. The prac- 
 tice is often alluded to in Homer. Bathing, among 
 the Greeks, as among other nations, was counted 
 a religious rite, and was connected with the prepara- 
 tions for sacrifice, for the reception of oracles, for 
 marriage, &c. We possess, however, no detailed 
 accounts of the construction and arrangements either 
 of private or of public baths in Greece, which last 
 were mostly connected with the gymnasia. The 
 men bathed together; that there were public baths 
 for women, appears probable from various indica- 
 tions. 
 
 Among the Bomans, although warm-baths 
 {tfierrmB) were in use from the earliest times, yet 
 it was only at a late period that they were so exten- 
 sively adopted ; and then the increase and universal 
 spread of luxury had driven the primitive object 
 of bathing into the background, so that the public 
 baths were looked upon as places of general resort 
 for pleasure. The most of these public baths were 
 built under the emperors. They were numerous 
 in Rome and in the provincial cities. Their con- 
 struction may be gathered from their numerous 
 remains, and from the descriptions of them given 
 by Roman writers ; they resembled the Turkish and 
 Russian baths. 
 
 The essential parts of a Roman bath were as 
 follows. — 1. The Tiypocaust, or stove, in the basement- 
 story, for heatiog both the bath-rooms and the 
 water. The water was contained in ' three recep- 
 tacles or boilers, so arranged that the undermost, 
 immediately over the fire, contained the hot water ; 
 the one in the middle, the tepid water; and the 
 uppermost, the cold water. These vessels were so 
 connected by pipes, both with the bath-rooms and 
 with one another, that the hot water that fiowed 
 from the lowest boiler was replaced by tepid water 
 from the one above ; and that, again, by cold from 
 the uppermost. — 2. The apod^num, or room for 
 undressing. — 3. The frigidarium, a room with a 
 basin for cold bathing. — 4. The tepidarium, the 
 purpose of which cannot be exactly determined, 
 but which seems to have been intended for bathing 
 in tepid water, and also for allowing the body to 
 cool down in a mild temperature. — 5. The calda- 
 rium, in which sometimes the sudatio, or sweating- 
 bath, and sometimes the real hot-water bath, were 
 taken. This room had hollow walls, and the floor 
 rested on low pillars over the hypocaust, so that 
 it was surrounded on all sides with heated air. 
 The laponium, which is spoken of as a part of the 
 caldai-ium, was probably a kind of stove that was 
 heated from the hypocaust, and contributed to 
 
BATH, BATHING. 
 
 raise the temperature. In the bath-rooms there 
 were basins (alvei) for holding the water, and rovmd 
 the walls were benches or seats, which, in the 
 caldarium, were raised as in an amphitheatre, in 
 order to give the bathers the choice of the higher 
 
 temperature of the upper part of the room, or of the 
 more moderate of the lower. The caldarium con- 
 tained also a labrum or vase of several feet diameter, 
 filled with cold water, into which the bathers dipped 
 after the hot bath. With these essential parts of 
 
 Boman Bath, from a Fainting on the Walls of the Thermae of Titus at iElome. 
 
 a bath, there were usually connected an unctuarium 
 or dceotJiesium — i. e., an anointing-room, and often 
 gardens, covered wallcs, rooms for games, &c. 
 
 The process of bathmg was this : After undress- 
 ing in the apodyteriimi, the bather was anointed in 
 the elseothesium with a cheap coarse oil, and then 
 proceeded to a spacious apartment devoted to 
 exercises of various kinds, among which games at 
 ball held a prominent place (hence the hall was 
 called sphceristerium). After exercise, he went into 
 the caldarium, either merely to sweat or to take the 
 hot bath ; and during this part of the process, the 
 body was scraped with instruments called strigiles. 
 Being now dried with cloths, and shghtly anointed 
 iJl over with perfumed oils, he resumed his dress, 
 and then passed a short time successively in the 
 tepidarium and the frigidarium, which softened the 
 transition from the great heat of the caldarium into 
 the open air. 
 
 The public baths for women were of similar 
 construction, and were much frequented even by the 
 most respectable. The women bathed in company, 
 like the men. The irregularity of men and women 
 bathing together is also alluded to by ancient 
 writers; and in later times, the baths in general 
 became the scenes of all sorts of debauchery, as was 
 the case at Baia3. 
 
 The most remarkable remains of Koman baths are 
 those of the baths of Titus, of Caracalla, and of 
 Diocletian in Kome, and the recently excavated 
 thermse at Pompeii : remains of the kind are also 
 to be found in Germany, France, and England. 
 The extent and magnificence of those edifices it is 
 difficult for us now to conceive. Speaking of the 
 baths of Caracalla, Mr Fergusson, in his Hand-hooh 
 of ArAitecture, says : 'St George's Hall, at Liverpool, 
 is the most exact copy, in modem times, of a part 
 of these baths. The hall itself is a reproduction, 
 both in scale and design, of the central hall of 
 Garacalla's baths, but improved in detaU. and design^ 
 having five bays instead of only three. With the 
 two courts at each end, it makes up a suite of 
 apartments very similar to those found in the 
 Koman examples. The whole building, however, is 
 less than one-fourth of the size of the central mass 
 of a Roman bath, and therefore gives but little idea 
 of the magnificence of the whole.' 
 
 The ancient Germans seem, according to Tacitus 
 and other writers, to have been fondest of the cold 
 river-bath. When Koman luxury was driven out 
 by German habits, and the north of Europe got 
 the upper-hand of the south, baths ceased to be of 
 public importance, and amid the tempestuous irrup- 
 tions and fluctuations of the different nations, those 
 splendid edifices fell into ruins. Christianity, how- 
 ever, by the institution of baptism, had preserved 
 for the bath its religious sigmfication ; and in the 
 middle ages, among the ceremonies preceding the 
 solemnity of conferring the honour of knighthood, 
 the bath was held essential. The Arabians and 
 the Mohammedans generally had more completely 
 adopted bathing into their manners and customs. 
 Islam enjoins on the believer the careful preser- 
 vation of corporal purity; and for this purpose, 
 prescribes re])eated daily ablutions. Besides these, 
 certain circumstances and times make the use of the 
 B. rituaUy obligatory on both men and women. For 
 this end, not only did the rich erect splendid baths 
 in their houses and gardens, but bath-houses for the 
 people in general were established in every town 
 in which there was a mosque. The public baths 
 of the Turks of the present day are a copy of 
 those ancient Arabian baths. The construction of 
 those oriental baths, imitations of which are now to 
 be fomid in some Exiropean cities, is as follows: 
 The building is of stone, the bath-rooms have a floor 
 of marble, which is heated from below, and tubes in 
 the walls conduct the heat in all directions. The 
 bather undresses, wraps himself in a blanket, puts 
 on wooden slippers, to protect him from the heat of 
 the floor, and enters the bath-room. Here a general 
 perspiration soon breaks through the skin, which is 
 washed off with cold water. The body is then 
 rubbed with woollen cloths, and smeared with a 
 soap or salve beneficial to the skin. This is gener- 
 ally accompanied by the operation of 'kneading.' 
 The bath-attendant stretches the bather on a table, 
 pours warm water over him, and then begins to 
 press, squeeze, and twist his whole body with won- 
 derfid dexterity. Every limb is straightened and 
 stretched, and when he has finished one side, he 
 begins on the other. He kneels upon the bather; he 
 seizes him by the shoulders, makes his backbone 
 crack, and every vertebra quiver, or applies soft 
 
 745 
 
fiAffl, BATfilNfi. 
 
 blows to the fleshy parts. He then takes a hair- 
 cloth, and rubs the whole body, ruba off the hard 
 skin, of the feet with pumice-stone, anoints the 
 bather with soap and perfumes, and finishes by cut- 
 ting his hair and beard. This treatment lasts some 
 three-quarters of an hour ; and the feeling after it is 
 as of being bom anew. An inexpressibfy delicious 
 sensation of comfort pervades the body, and soon 
 ends in a sweet sleep. After bathing, people repose 
 in a cooler room, stretched on couches, and finally 
 partake of coffee, sherbet, or lemonade. 
 
 In England, France, and Germany, public estab- 
 lishments for bathing were long unknown. It was 
 during the Crusades, which brought I the East 
 and West into contact, that Europeans first became 
 acquainted with the baths of the Asiatics ; and 
 the want of such institutions came to be more 
 sensibly felt from the leprosy and other skiu- 
 diseases which intercourse with Asia introduced into 
 Western Europe. The evil was at first sought to be 
 met by establishing hospitals ; but as these were 
 found insufficient, baths and bath-rooms were erected, 
 which gradually became public establishments. 
 
 Besides the kinds of baths already described, 
 there are now to be found in the larger cities of 
 Europe, generally in connection with water-baths, 
 imitations of the vapour-baths which have been 
 long in common use in Russia. The Russian 
 Bath consists of a small apartment built of wood, 
 with broad benches running round it, on which 
 the people lie imdressed. By throwing water 
 upon glowing hot pebbles, a dense hot steam is 
 produced, wmoh envelops the bathers, and throws 
 them into such a heat, that the perspiration breaks 
 out over the whole body. In this atmosphere of 
 steam, the thermometer often rises to 112° — 140° F. 
 After they have sweated for some time, and from 
 time to time cooled themselves again, by having 
 cold water poured over them, the skin is rubbed with 
 soap, and with towels made of inner bark, or with 
 brushes; they are flogged with softened birch- twigs, 
 and then washed with tepid, and afterwards with 
 cold water; and at last have cold water dashed over 
 them. A bather will also go direct from the sweat- 
 ing-bath, and plunge into a river or a pond, or roll 
 himself in the snow. These baths are a necessary 
 of life in Russia, and are to be found in every 
 village. The German vapour-bath differs in this, 
 that the steam is produced in a boiler, and that the 
 bather remains for some time in an adjoining room 
 of moderate temperature, wrapped in blankets, to 
 allow the perspiration to go on, and the blood to 
 become calm. A ruder kind of sweating-bath, in a 
 hole in the earth, or ia a baldng-oven, is practised 
 among many nations ; among the Finns, the natives 
 of Mexico and South America, &o. 
 
 As regards detergenoe, the vapour-bath is the 
 only kind of bath that is really effectual. Seated 
 naked in a room filled with hot vapour (which pro- 
 duces no inconvenience in breathing), the scurf, 
 which, notwithstanding aU sorts of previous ablu- 
 tions, has accumulated on the skin, is gradually 
 softened and loosened, and is rubbed off in a sur- 
 prising manner by the hands of the bath-man who 
 is in attendance at these establishments. As in 
 the Turkish bath, the person is cooled down by 
 being dashed with tepid and cold water. After 
 this kind of bathing, the sensation is exceedingly 
 agreeable. The process just mentioned may be said 
 to resemble that in use by the Romans ; the hands 
 of the operator having much the same effect as the 
 sirigiles of the ancients. Pew of the ordinary bath- 
 ing establishments in Great Britain have vapour- 
 baths, at least not on a proper footing; and the 
 great value of this species of bath as a purifier of 
 the skin is little known. 
 746 
 
 Bathing is a very important agent in the preser- 
 vation and restoration of health. Besides promot- 
 ing cleanliness, the refreshing and invigorating 
 effects of cold bathing in its various forms have 
 always been more or less understood, as have also 
 the soothing effects of the warm bath. But the 
 virtues of water as a curative agent have been more 
 fuUy developed in modern times, since the rise of 
 the system of therapeutics known as the water-cure 
 or hydropathy. With that exaggeration which is 
 incident to everything new, the first promoters of 
 this system gave it out as a panacea 'for all the 
 ills that flesh is heir to.' But now that these 
 quackish pretensions are all but universally given 
 up, it is very generally admitted that water is 
 capable of a large range of effects, some of them 
 apparently of the most opposite kinds; while the 
 mode of action is nothing mysterious, but capable of 
 explanation on the recognised principles of physi- 
 ology. The fuller exposition of this part of the 
 subject win be more conveniently considered imder 
 Hydkopathy. 
 
 A Medicated Bath is one in which some sub- 
 stance, intended to act as a medicine, has been 
 mixed with the liquid. This is one of the most 
 important methods known to medical art of bring- 
 ing remedies to bear upon the system. The skin is 
 by no means impervious to foreign substances ; and 
 no other organ presents at once so large a surface to 
 the matter to be imbibed ; at times, also, the other 
 channels by which remedies are introduced into the 
 body cannot be used. Baths of this kind are partly 
 imitations of natural mineral waters, and partly 
 other remedial mixtures. The mineral substances 
 used are conamon salt, chloride of lime, nitric acid, 
 corrosive sublimate, potash or soda caustic or car- 
 bonated, ashes, soap, iodine, sulphur, iron, &o. ; the 
 vegetable are wine, vinegar, solutions of essential- 
 oils, infusions of thyme, rosemary, lavender, worm- 
 wood, willow, oak, and Peruvian bark, &c. ; such 
 animal substances as milk, blood, bomllon of meat, 
 &o., are also sometimes employed as baths, with a 
 view to impact nourishment, but whether much is 
 taken up into the system, is doubtful. In the case, 
 also, of vapour-baths, medicaments are added to the 
 water with good effect ; these must, of course, be 
 volatile. If wie whole body is to be immersed in the 
 vapour, nothing must be used that might injure 
 the organs of respiration ; when the application is 
 partial, and by a special apparatus, this precaution 
 is less necessary. In connection with tHs may be 
 mentioned the so-called Smokb-batSs, or medicated 
 fumigations, in which the whole body, with excep- 
 tion, of courae, of the head, or particular parts of it, 
 are brought in contact with the vapours of dry 
 medicinal substances. Resinous aromatic substances, 
 incense, myrrh, benzoin, amber, sulphur, cinnabar, 
 and mercury are used for this purpose. The appli- 
 cation must be made in what is called a fumigating- 
 box, in which the particular part of the body alone 
 is enclosed along with the vapour, in order that the 
 respiratory organs may not be incommoded. The 
 utmost precaution is requisite with the vapours of 
 sulphur and mercury, as they are apt to occasion 
 serious accidents. 
 
 Another species of vapour-bath is what is called 
 an Animal Bath, which was known to the ancients, 
 and was in great reputation in cases of lameness. 
 Either the whole body of the patient is wrapped in 
 the skin of a newly slaughtered animal, or an opening 
 is made, and the diseased limb inserted into the 
 breast or belly of the animal while yet alive, or 
 into the newly drawn blood. Sometimes smaller 
 animals are killed, split up, and immediately apphed 
 to the diseased part. 
 Of Gas Baths, the most generally used are those 
 
BATflS Altt) WASa-HOTTSES. 
 
 of sulpliiiretted hydrogen and carTjonio acid gaa, 
 wUch are to be had at certain mineral springs. The 
 first, mixed in small quantity with atmospheric air, 
 lowers the irritability of the air-tubes, and affords 
 relief in many diseases of the respiratory organs. A 
 stronger mixture of it, brought m contact with the 
 outer surface, is of use in disorders arising from 
 depression of the functions of the skin. Carbonic 
 acid gas gives a gentle stimulus to the skin, pro- 
 motes menstruation, and is much used in many 
 places in the form of half-baths. In recent times, 
 at Ischl and other places, the vapours that arise 
 from the mineral springs loaded with saline particles, 
 are received in close rooms, in which the patients 
 walk about, and allow the vapours to act upon the 
 lungs and sldn. 
 
 The terms water-hath and sand-hath have been 
 adopted in chemistry, to signify a contrivance by 
 which vessels that are to be heated to a certain 
 temperature are not brought into immediate con- 
 tact with the fire, but receive their heat through the 
 medium of hot sand or water, so that the heating 
 takes place uniformly, and overheating is avoided. 
 
 BATHS AKD WA'SH-HOTJSES, Public. The 
 last few years have witnessed the erection of a 
 number of public establishments, at which the 
 masses may enjoy a bath for the merest trifle 
 of their weekly earnings. Where steam-engines 
 are employed in connection with cotton-factories 
 or other works, there is usually a certain quantity 
 of waste steam or waste hot water at disposal, 
 which could, at an insignificant cost, be directed 
 into baths for the use of the workmen of the 
 establishment. We are aware of one instance where 
 seven baths were comfortably fitted up at the 
 small expense of £80, in which the men and women 
 bathe on alternate days, to the number of from 
 thirty to eighty a week — spaying a mere trifle to the 
 keeper, who attends an hour and a half each even- 
 ing, and finds towels, soap, &c., nothing being 
 charged by the proprietors for the original outlay. 
 But this is only a small part of the cure for a great 
 evil. Where the masses are densely packed in lanes 
 and alleys, where house-accommodation is dear and 
 limited, where the necessaries of life have to be 
 continually struggled for, and these conventional 
 evils increased, in too many instances, by improvi- 
 dence — ^the house is but a night-shelter, affording 
 little or no convenience for the necessary operations 
 of the housewife. Independent of this, a public 
 wash-house is, in point of economy, preferable to any 
 number of isolated efforts. By co-operation, supe- 
 rior accommodation, better apparatus, and a cheaper 
 and more satisfactory resiilt can be obtained; and 
 thus the public wash-house, where self-paying and 
 self-supported, may be classed among the co-oper- 
 ative arrangements which characterise the social 
 features of the age. 
 
 Mrs Catherine WUkinson of Liverpool, in a year 
 of cholera, bravely offered the use of her small 
 house, and the value of her personal superintend- 
 ence, to her poorer neighbours, to facilitate the 
 washing of their clothes at a time when cleanliness 
 was more than usually important. The success 
 attending the exertions of a single individual led 
 to the formation of a benevolent society, and 
 ultimately to important municipal arrangements. 
 
 In 1844, a public meeting was held at the M&nsion 
 House, attended by many persons of wealth and 
 influence, to encourage the formation of B. and W. 
 in London ; hence resulted an ' Association for Pro- 
 moting Cleanliness amongst the Poor.' Independ- 
 ently of this movement, a reform had already been 
 commenced by a 'Committee for the Houseless Poor,' 
 who, among other things, purchased or rented an old 
 roomy building in Glasshouse Yard, surrounded by 
 
 the poor and dense population of the London Docks 
 district. A bath-house and a wash-house were 
 fitted up; baths, cisterns, boilers, cold and hot water, 
 towels, soap, soda, were provided; and the poor 
 were invited to come in, and wash and bathe with- 
 out expense to themselves. There were also pro- 
 vided pails, brushes, and whitewash, to those who 
 would take the trouble to gi.ve a little cleanliness to 
 their poor dwellings. This was effected mainly 
 through the benevolent exertions of Mr Bowie, a 
 surgeon, who applied himself with earnestness to the 
 subject. The association, afterwards founded at the 
 city meeting, sought two objects — ^to induce a wish 
 for cleanliness among the poor; and to render public 
 B. and W. self-paying, as a guarantee for their 
 permanency. Having obtained plans and estimates 
 from architects, the association built a model estab- 
 lishment in Goulston Square, Whitechapel; but the 
 outlay unfortunately reached £26,000. In the 
 meantime, another society had succeeded in estab- 
 lishing B. and W. in George Street, Hampstead 
 Eoad, favoured by a liberal arrangement on the 
 part of the New River Company in the supply of 
 water: this estabhshment was opened in August 
 1846. In the same year, parliament passed an act 
 to enable borou^-councUs and parish vestries to 
 establish public B. and W., supported by borough 
 and parish rates, if the householders should sanction 
 such a proceeding. In 1847, another act strength- 
 ened the former; and the two together contain the 
 necessary clauses for defining the details of the 
 plan (see the following article). The parish of St 
 Martin's-in-the-Fields was the first to take advant- 
 age of the new act; and before the close of 1852, 
 six parishes had erected public B. and W. At the 
 beginning of 1856, the list had nearly doubled. The 
 original free but humble building in Glasshouse 
 Yard had been abandoned; but the model establish- 
 ment in Goulston Square, and the separate under- 
 taking in Hampstead Bead, remained ; giving a total 
 of tlnrteen public B. and W. in the metropolis at 
 the beginning of 1856. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that these efforts have 
 been confined to London. Liverpool took precedence 
 in date, and has since worthily mamtained her 
 iaterest in the matter. Manchester, Oldham, Hull, 
 Bristol, Birmingham, Preston, Bath, Wolverhampton, 
 Coventoy, Plymouth, Chester, Sunderland, Bolton, 
 Macclesfield, Oxford, Maidstone, Exeter, Bother- 
 ham, Colchester, South Shields, Dublin, Belfast, 
 Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, and other towns, have 
 since adopted a similar course; and it may safely 
 be predicted that borough and parochial B. and W. 
 will increase in number year by year; for if they 
 do not actually pay their fuE expenses at the low 
 tariff charge, the deficiency will be so small as to 
 be practicdly imfelt by ratepayers. 
 
 When the legislature took up the subject, the 
 purpose of the committee appointed in 1844 was in 
 great part answered; but that committee continued 
 to exist until 1855 ; and the exertions of its mem- 
 bers were attended with very beneficial results, in 
 drawing the attention of influential persons in 
 various countries to the advantages of public B. 
 and W. The French government voted 600,000 
 francs to assist the promotion of such institutions in 
 France, after the plan of the model establishment ; 
 and a scheme was set on foot for' erecting fourteen 
 establishments in Paris, for which 2,000,000 francs 
 would be required. The municipality of Venice 
 marked out an expenditure of £33,000 in the 
 erection of B. on the same plan. The Norwegian 
 government apphed to the committee for the plans, 
 l;c., of their wash-house at Goulston Square, as a 
 guide for the erection of one at Christiania ; and a 
 subscription was made for the erection of B. and W. 
 
 747 
 
BATHS Am) WASH-HOtrSBS. 
 
 at Copenhagen. The Belgian government, and the 
 authorities at Hamburg, Turia, Munich, Amster- 
 dam, Lisbon, New York, and other places, were in 
 like manner furnished with information on the 
 subject. 
 
 In nearly all the London establishments, which 
 may also be taken as types of those in the country, 
 the characteristic features are as follows : The B. 
 for males and females are on opposite sides of the 
 building. The separate B., in large well-lighted 
 and weU-ventUated rooms, are shut in by walls, 
 generally of slate; and the B. themselves, sup- 
 pHed with fifty or sixty gallons of water for each 
 bather, are either of zinc or enamelled iron. There 
 are two, three, or four classes of B., charged diEfer- 
 ently according to the amount of accommodation 
 afforded. At the St Martin's estabUshment, where 
 there are only two classes of B., it has been found 
 that the second-class bathers are thrice as numerous 
 as the first. Arrangements, slightly varying in 
 different estabhshments, afford means for conveying 
 hot and cold water to every bath. In some instances, 
 there are tepid as well as cold swimming or plunging 
 B. ; while two or three of them affoi-d faciHties 
 for shower and vapour baths. The washing-rooms, 
 in most of these establishments, are provided with 
 numerous small compartments, doorless and roofless, 
 each for one person. Each compartment contains a 
 boiler and a washing-tub, with taps for hot water, 
 cold water, waste water, and steam: all unlimited 
 in quantity, wilful waste of course being guarded 
 against. An American washing-board assists the 
 operations; and a rack- work stand protects the 
 feet. The steam from all the compartments is 
 carried upwards to one great ventilating shaft. The 
 ' wringing ' of the wet washed linen is effected by 
 putting the articles into a sort of perforated cylinder, 
 which is then rotated with great velocity ; the cen- 
 trifugal force drives out the water through the per- 
 forations and interstices, leaving the linen, though 
 damp, much drier than it can be made by the fami- 
 liar laundry process. The clothes are then taken to 
 the drying-room, where they are hung on frames or 
 ' horses ' in small chambers heated with hot air to 
 about 200° or 210°. 10,000 or 12,000 articles of 
 washed clothing can now be dried with £1 worth 
 of fuel, or much less in the towns of the north. 
 In some of the improved establishments, there is 
 a drying compartment belonging to each washing 
 compartment, effecting a manifest saving of time 
 to the washers; in some of them, too, there is an 
 ironing-board to each compartment ; but the general 
 plan is to have a large ironing-room, well provided 
 with irons, ironing-blankets and boards, and heating 
 arrangements. The charge is from Id. to 2\d. per 
 hour, according to the class and the accommodation. 
 
 A few words concerning one of the establish- 
 ments of recent construction may here be added. 
 The establishment was opened at Manchester in 
 1858. There is a men's swimming-bath, 70 feet 
 by 25, with a pavement of polished York stone 
 on a foundation of concrete and cement ; the sides 
 are of porcelain tUes laid in cement. There are 32 
 enclosed dressing-closets. Over these, on iron pillars, 
 are 17 men's warm baths, each 8 feet by 7. Separ- 
 ated from this gallery by an open passage are 5 
 extra first-class baths, larger in size, and having 
 shower-baths. There is a second-class swimming- 
 bath nearly hke that for the first class; with its 
 gallery of small baths over. The women's baths, 
 in a different part of the building, comprise 4 
 first, and 7 second class. The laundry is at one 
 end of the building. The washing-room is 64 
 feet by 38; it comprises 6 first-class, and 30 
 second-class compartments, each of the former pro- 
 vided with three tubs, and each of the latter with 
 743 
 
 two. There is provision for drying any amount of 
 clothes in twenty minutes after the washing and 
 wringing are completed. All the women have access 
 to two patent wringing-machines. There is an 
 ironing-room adjoining, fitted up with stoves. The 
 water-tank has a capacity of 3000 gallons; the 
 baths, if all full, would hold 50,000 gaUons. 
 
 Since the taking up of this subject by the muni- 
 cipal authorities of various towns, and the close of 
 the association, there have been few reliable statis- 
 tics obtainable relating to the extent to which these 
 valuable establishments are used. At a time when 
 there were 13 public B. and W. in London — ^there 
 are now (1860) about 20— there were 1,200,000 
 bathers and 420,000 washers in one year, paying 
 £24,500, or about 3id. each on an average. This 
 average is found to be nearly the same in the pro- 
 vincial towns. The washers of course pay more 
 than the bathers at each average visit. The 
 Goulston Street establishment has always been in 
 an imsatisfactory state, on account of having com- 
 menced operations mainly with borrowed money. 
 The B. and W. established by the several parishes 
 either pay their working expenses wholly, or 
 approach so near to it as to encroach very little 
 on the parish rates. The establishment of St Giles's- 
 in-the-Fields and St George, Bloomsbury, in EndeE 
 Street, cost £20,000 for land, building, and fittings; 
 in the four years ending with 1857, the working 
 expenses and interest were £10,200, and the receipts 
 £13,000, leaving £2800 to aid in paying off the 
 original cost. 
 
 The least satisfactory part of the system in its 
 practical operation, is that which relates to the wash- 
 houses. Laundresses, boarding and lodging house 
 keepers, and families in the middle ranks of nfe, use 
 these W. rather than really poor families; they do 
 so because the expense is very low, not because they 
 are unable to pay higher. It is sometimes believed 
 that those for whose benefit the system was estab- 
 lished are ashamed to bring their scanty, coarse, 
 and much-worn apparel to a place where it may 
 meet the eyes of others: if this be so, surely a 
 remedy might be apphed ! 
 
 BATHS AND WA'SH- HOUSES, Acts ee- 
 GARDING. The establishment of public B. and 
 W. is regulated in England and Wales by two 
 acts of parliament — the 9 and 10 Vict. c. 74, and 
 10 and 11 Vict. c. 61 — which are to be considered 
 as one act. The sanitary regulations so legalised 
 are merely permissive, and in no respect .made 
 compulsory on the pubHc ; but their wisdom, bene- 
 volence, and consideration for the health of the 
 people, strongly recommend their adoption. The 
 provisions of the act may be adopted for any incor- 
 porated borough, or for any parish not within any 
 such incorporated borough; subject, however, in the 
 case of a parish, to the approval of one of Her 
 Majesty's principal secretaries of state. In the 
 case of a borough, the adoption of the act is left 
 to the discretion of the council of the borough ; and 
 the expense is to be charged upon the borough 
 fund, the councU being empowered to levy, either 
 as part of the borough rate, or by a separate rate, 
 such sums as may from time to time be necessary. 
 In the case, again, of a parish, it is left to the 
 vestry, with the sanction of one of the secretaries 
 of state, to decide on the adoption of the act ; and 
 in such case, the vestry shall appoint not less than 
 three, and not more than seven persons, ratepayers, 
 to be Commissioners for carrying out the provisions 
 of the act. Begulations for the proceedings of 
 these commissioners are prescribed in the act. The 
 expense is to be charged upon the poor-rate. The 
 vestries of any two or more parishes may concur in 
 carrying out the act. 
 
BATHGATE— BATHURST. 
 
 The act contains numeroua other provisions and 
 regulations relating to the facilities required for the 
 operations of the borough councils and parish com- 
 missioners : thus, they may borrow money with the 
 approval of the Treasury; they may have money 
 advanced to them by the Public Works Loan Com- 
 missioners; they may avail themselves of the Rail- 
 way Companies Clauses Consolidation Act of 1845 
 for certain limited purposes, such as borrowing 
 money on mortgage, the aocoxmtability of officers 
 of the company, the making of by-laws subject 
 to other provisions, and the recovery of damages 
 and penalties. 
 
 After these preliminary facilities, the act pro- 
 ceeds to specify the powers of the borough councils 
 and parish commissioners, as to erection or purchase 
 of buildings, &o., for the purposes contemplated. 
 Among other things, it is provided that the number 
 of baths and the number of washing-tubs for the 
 labouring-classes shall not be leas than twice the 
 number of those for any higher class or classes. 
 
 The council and commissioners respectively are 
 empowered to make by-laws for regulating the iise 
 of the B. and W., which, however, shaB. not be 
 enforced imtil they have been approved by a secre- 
 tary of state. These by-laws must make sufficient 
 provision for a variety of purposes specified in the 
 schedule (A) to the act 9 and 10 Vict. c. 47; the 
 scope of thdse purposes being to secure order, clean- 
 liness, and decency. The charges for the use of the 
 B. and W. are regulated by another schedule 
 attached to the act 10 and 11 Vict. c. 61. In the 
 hatha for the labouring-classes, a single cold bath is 
 not to exceed one penny; a single warm or vapour 
 bath is not to exceed twopence. B. for any higher 
 class are not to exceed three times the charges for 
 those of the labouring-classes. In the washlouses 
 for the labouring-classes, the use of a single washing- 
 tub, and other conveniences, is not to be charged 
 more than one penny for one hour, or threepence 
 for two hours together. 
 
 It remains to be added, that the borough covm- 
 ciUors and parish commissioners are declared not 
 to be personally liable for or in respect of anything 
 done or suffered to be done by them officially ; and 
 the acts and proceedings of the latter are to be vahd 
 notwithstanding informalities. But persona may 
 appeal against any by-law, order, direction, or 
 appointment by the council or commissioners, to the 
 general quarter-sessions, as under the Companies 
 Clauses Consolidation Act, 1845. The conduct of 
 the officers employed by the council and commis- 
 sioners ia also regulated and restrained by penalties 
 and disabilities, in case of their extortion or mis- 
 conduct. 
 
 BA'THGATE, a town in the centre of Linlith- 
 gowshire, 17 miles west-south-west of Edinburgh. 
 The old town lies on a steep slope, and the new on 
 a more level site. Freestone, coal, and carboniferous 
 limestone, are wrought in the vicinity. In 1663, 
 King Charles II. granted B. a charter, since which 
 time it has been a free burgh of barony. In the 
 vicinity is the site of an ancient castle, which 
 Margaret, daughter of Robert the Bruce, brought 
 as a part of her dowry to her husband, Walter, 
 great ateward of Scotland, who died here. The cele- 
 brated gas coal called Torban Hill mineral, which 
 has been the subject of so much litigation, and of 
 discussion and difference of opinion among scientific 
 men, is worked here. B. has manufactures of 
 cotton goods, but mining ia the chief occupation 
 of the iimabitants. Pop. 3341. 
 
 BA'THORI, Elisabeth, the niece of Stephen 
 Bathori, king of Poland, and wife of Count Nadasdi, 
 a Hungarian nobleman, was bom in the latter half 
 
 of the 16th century. Her diabolical cruelty has con- 
 demned her memory to eternal infamy. By means 
 of large bribes, she induced an old man-servant and 
 two female servants to kidnap and convey to her, 
 either by stratagem or force, young girls from the 
 neighbouring country, whom she slowly put to death 
 in the dungeons of her castle by the most horrible 
 tortures. It is related that on a certain occasion, 
 having violently struck one of her victims, the blood 
 spirted up into her own face, and, as she fancied, 
 left the sldn whiter when it was wiped off. An 
 infernal idea instantly possessed her. She invited 
 to a grand banquet all the young girls round about, 
 and caused 300 of them to be put to death, being 
 under the impression that a bath of blood would 
 renew her youth. So monstrous a story is probably 
 exaggerated, but it at least shews that she was 
 conceived capable of it. Inquiry was at length 
 made into the appalling rumours, when it was dis- 
 covered that this female fiend had murdered, in cold 
 blood, not fewer than 650 maidens. The domestics 
 who assisted her were either beheaded or burned 
 alive; but the countess, whose crimes merited 
 infinitely the greater pmiishment, was merely 
 imprisoned for Efe in her fortress of Esej, where 
 she died in 1614. 
 
 BA'THOS (6r. haihos, depth) is a term employed 
 by critics to designate a ludicrous descent from a 
 lofty thought to a mean one, or a sinking below the 
 ordinary level of thought in a ridiculous effort to 
 aspire. See Climax. It is of the essence of B. that 
 he who ia guilty of it should be unconscious of his 
 fall, and while grovelling on the earth, should imagine 
 that he is stiU cleaving the heavens. A good examjjle 
 of B. is the well-known couplet : 
 
 And thou, Dalhousie, the great god of war^ 
 Lieutenant-general to the Earl oJMar.' 
 
 BA'TH- STONE, a building - stone extensively 
 used in England on account of its beauty, is obtained 
 from quarries in the Lower OoHte, in Wiltshire and 
 Somersetshire. It is fine grained, of a rich cream 
 colour, and is composed of about 94J per cent, of 
 carbonate of Hme, and 2J per cent, of carbonate of 
 magnesium, but is free from silica. It is easily 
 wrought in the quarry, some beds cutting almost as 
 readily as chalk, and hardens on exposure to the 
 air, but is not very durable. Within twenty-five 
 years after the reparation of Henry VII. 's chapel, 
 ia Westminster Abbey, with this stone, it had 
 begun to decompose. The name ia derived from 
 the neighbourhood of several of the quarries to 
 Bath. 
 
 BA'THURST, Eabl (Henry Bathuest), an 
 eminent Tory statesman, born 22d May 1762, son of 
 second earl (Lord Chancellor from 1771 to 1778), was 
 in 1804 appointed Master Worker of the Mint. In 
 1807, he became President of the Board of Trade, 
 and was Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs from 
 11th October to 6th December 1809. Appointed, 
 11th June 1812, Secretary for the Colonies, in the 
 administration of the Earl of Liverpool, he held that 
 office for sixteen years. In 1828, in the Wellington 
 administration, he became President of the Council, 
 which office he retained tUl the resignation of the 
 ministry ia 1830. He died 26th July 1834. At 
 the time of his death, he was a teller of the 
 Exchequer, clerk of the Crown, and elder brother 
 of the Trinity House, K. G., D. C. L., F. R. S., F. S. A., 
 &c. In his various public employments he was 
 attentive to business, and much esteemed by his 
 party. — His son, Henry George, succeeded as 
 fourth earl. 
 
 BA'THURST, a name applied to various locali- 
 ties in honour of Earl Bathurst, Colonial Secretary 
 
 749 
 
BATIGNOLLES-BATEACHIA. 
 
 at the time. — 1. B. in New South Wales, the first 
 ooxmty that was settled beyond the Blue Moimtains 
 (q. v.), long believed to be impassable. It was 
 not before 1813 that a practicable route was found, 
 or rather formed; and in April 1815 Governor 
 Macquarie crossed the range by the newly made 
 road with his lady and a numerous retinue, in 
 order to mark with becoming 'pomp and circum- 
 stance' so important an epoch in the growth of 
 the colony. B. has been still further distinguished 
 in the history of New South Wales as the seat of 
 its gold-fields. As early as 1844, the precious metal 
 had, on geological grounds, been supposed to exist 
 in Australia; but it was only on 12th February 
 1851 that Mr Hargreaves, a digger of Cafifomia 
 experience, washed the ^ttering prize out of a 
 tin-dish of gravel on the B. Plains. The county is 
 bounded on the N. E. by the Macquarie, and on the 
 S. W. by the Lachlan. The whole district is admir- 
 ably adapted to pastoral pursuits. It is well watered, 
 and, being 1970 feet above the level of the sea, it 
 has a moderate temperature. Its chief town, which 
 in 1858 had a population of 3927, bears the same 
 name. — 2. B. Island, off North Australia, about lat. 
 12° S., and long. 130° E. It is fully 2° due west of 
 Port Essington, with Melville Island between. Its 
 area may be estimated at 1000 square miles. Except- 
 ing the west end, which is barren, the island is 
 densely wooded. — 3. B., the principal settlement of 
 the British colony on the Gambia. It is situated 
 on a small island at the mouth of the river in lat. 
 13° 28' N., and long. 16° 32' W. Its population in 
 1836, chiefly of negroes, was 2825. The principal 
 buildings are the government house, a hospital 
 for liberated Africans, and Wesleyan schools. The 
 exports consist of gum, wax, hides, ivory, gold, 
 tortoise-shell, rice, cotton, teak, pahn-oO, and native 
 cloths. — 4. B., in Upper Canada, a district on the 
 right bank of the Ottawa, which is here the 
 boundary between the two Canadas. It contains 
 the Rideau Eiver and Canal, thus occupying an 
 important position with regard to the inter- 
 provincial trade; whUe the contemplated removal 
 of the seat of government to Bytown, now Ottawa, 
 will tend stiU further to augment the influence, and 
 promote the prosperity, of the district. — 5. An 
 island in the Arctic Ocean, intersected by the 100th 
 meridian, and situated immediately beyond the 75th 
 parallel. Sherard Osbom here found the vertebrae 
 of an ichthyosaurus — one of the few instances of 
 organic remains occurring on the American side of 
 the polar basin. See Arctic Ocbait. 
 
 BATIGNOLLBS, a thriving town of France, in 
 ■ the department Seine, north-east of Paris, of which 
 city it forms a suburb, top. 43,302. 
 
 BATLBY, a town in Yorkshire, near Dewabury 
 (q. v.). 
 
 BATN-BL-HA'GAK (Womb of Bocks), a stony 
 district, stretching along the Nile, in lat. 21° — 22° 
 N., and long. 30° 40'— 31° 10' E. The Nile, in the 
 upper portion of the district, is often forced by 
 the approaching rocks into a very narrow channel, 
 and its navigation is frequently interrupted by 
 small islands, rocks, and cataracts. The district is 
 peopled by Beduins, and other Arabs, who go naked 
 and derive a scanty subsistence from beans and the 
 fruit of a wild shrub called herhedan. 
 
 BA'TON — variously written Battoon, Batune, and 
 in old French Baston — is the figure ia heraldry 
 commonly known as the Bastard Bar (q. v.). 
 
 BA'TON is the name of a short stafii presented 
 by the sovereign to each field-marshal, as a symbol 
 of his newly bestowed authority. It is also the 
 name of the long staff carried by the drum-major of 
 an infantry regiment. 
 750 
 
 BATON EOUGE, a town of Louisiana, on the 
 left bank of the Mississippi. It is about 80 miles to 
 the north-west of New Orleans, which, in 1849, it 
 superseded as the capital of the state. As far back 
 as 1838 it was the seat of a college. Its population 
 is about 5000. Besides the Louisiana Penitentiary, 
 B. R. contains an asylum, where all the deaf and 
 dumb of the state from 10 to 30, and all the blind 
 from 8 to 25, are entitled to be educated and main- 
 tained at the public charge. On the opjposite side, 
 too, of the Mississippi, another town of the same 
 name contains nearly an equal population. 
 
 BATBA'CHIA (from Gr. ba'trachos, a frog), iu 
 Zoology, one of the four orders into which the class 
 KeptUes (q. v.) is now usually divided; although 
 some naturalists regard the differences between 
 this and the other three orders as so important that 
 they make this a distinct class of vertebrate 
 animals, under the name Amphibia (q. v.). Of these 
 differences, the most essential and important is that 
 the young B. undergo imetamorphoses, and breathe 
 by giUs alone, in the earlier part of their fife; 
 whilst in their adult state they either breathe 
 by lungs alone, or possess at once both limgs and 
 giUs. The body is also covered with a soft naked 
 skin, through which water is imbibed, and through 
 which the aeration of the blood appears to be in 
 part carried on. The B. are all oviparous; their 
 eggs are not covered with a hard shell, but merely 
 with a soft membrane. Fecundation commonly 
 takes place after the eggs have been deposited. It 
 is sometimes given as a distinctive character of B., 
 that, ia their adult state, they have limbs, but in 
 some genera these are very rudimentary, and they 
 are altogether wanting in Ccedlia (q. v.), a genus 
 which is now decidedly referred to this order, because 
 it has been found to undergo the metamorphosis 
 from a gill-breathing to a lung-breathing state, and 
 which Cuvier, with hesitation, placed among ser- 
 pents, because the fact of its metamorphosis had 
 not then been ascertained. The ordinajy number of 
 limbs is four, but in the Siren (q. v.) there are only 
 two. — Another character frequently given as distinc- 
 tive of the B., that their feet are destitute of claws, 
 is in like manner only general, and not imiversaL 
 
 In the earlier period of life, the form of the B. 
 is fish-like, of which the common tadpole, the young 
 of the frog, is a familiar example ; and this form 
 some of them retain with comparatively little 
 modification, whilst some of them ultimately acquire 
 a form resembling that of lizards, with which the 
 newts were indeed ranked by Linnaeus as species of 
 the same genus ; and others, as frogs and toads, 
 assume a peculiar quadruped form, the tail entirely 
 disappearing, except in the elongated coccygeal 
 bone which represents it to the anatomist. 
 
 In their anatomy, the adult B. present some 
 important points of resemblance to fishes ; in some 
 important points, they differ both from fishes and 
 from other reptiles. The skull resembles that of 
 fishes in its general form, although rather agreeing 
 with other reptiles in the parts of which it is com- 
 posed. Teeth are often entirely wanting, sometimes 
 they are present only in one jaw; when present, 
 they are generally small and numerous, either in a 
 single row or aggregated. In some of the fossil 
 genera, however, which are referred to this order, 
 the teeth are of large size. — The B. have either no 
 ribs, or they have mere rudimentary ribs. They 
 have, however, a breast-bone, often ia great part 
 cartilaginous, to which some of the most important 
 muscles are attached. They breathe air by a sort of 
 gulping.— The heart of the B. was long believed to 
 have only one auricle and one ventncle, but the 
 apparently single auricle is now known to consist of 
 two divisions. As iu the other reptiles, only a part 
 
BATRACHIA. 
 
 of the blood received from the circulating system is 
 sent to the organs of respiration, and another part 
 returns immediately into the circulation. See 
 Eeptiles. 
 
 In the wonderful transformations which the B. 
 undergo, the circxilation of the blood is changed in 
 accordance with the change in the organs of respir- 
 ation. These, in the earliest stage, are external giUs, 
 which appear as long coloured fringes, hanging 
 loosely upon each side of the neck. In some B., 
 these external giUs, which resemble those of the 
 ajuatio moUusca, remain tUl the lungs are sufiS- 
 ciently developed for respiration ; in some, as the 
 Axolotl (q.v.), of which a description and figure 
 have already been given in this work, they are 
 permanent during the whole of life. In the greater 
 part of the B., however, the external giUs soon 
 disappear, and are replaced by internal gills, when 
 the tadpole exhibits its most perfectly fish-like form, 
 its mode of progression also corresponding with that 
 of fishes. Its respiration is carried on essentially 
 as in. fishes, water entering the cavity of the mouth, 
 and being forced out through the gUl openings, so as 
 to come in contact with the minute filaments of the 
 giUs. The giUs are attached, as in fishes, to arches 
 connected with the hyoid bone. In thia stage of 
 existence, the large arterial trunk which proceeds 
 from the ventricle of the heart, sends forth, from a 
 bulbous enlargement which it forms, as in fishes, 
 an artery to each of the giUs, and the blood after 
 being aerated in them, is ooEected into an aorta, 
 and proceeds into the general circulation. But an 
 
 Newt, in successive stages. 
 
 artery is also provided on each side for the convey- 
 ance of blood to the lungs, both the hings and their 
 arteries being at first rudimentary, but increasing, 
 whilst the giUs, on the contrary, diminish along 
 with the blood-vessels connected with them; and 
 the gill-breathing is gradually transformed into a 
 lungHbreathing animal, no longer perfectly aquatic, 
 as at first, or capable of existence oidy in water, 
 but amphibioua, or almost entirely terrestrial, and 
 incapable of remaining long under water without 
 coming to the surface to breathe. — AVhilst these 
 changes take place, others no less extraordinary are 
 
 also going on. The tadpole which subsisted on 
 vegetable food, and possessed a mouth adapted to 
 the purpose of feeding on it — a small homy beak — 
 acquires a mouth fitted for seizing and swallowing 
 small insects, slugs, &c., upon wmoh the adult B. 
 chiefly or exclusively feed, and its habits change 
 accordingly. The mouth of the Siren, however, 
 always retains a character somewhat similar to that 
 of the tadpole. — In the course of transformation, a 
 pelvis is formed, and limbs sprout forth, which in 
 some B., as frogs, become very perfect and powerful. 
 Whilst the limbs grow, with all their bones, joints, 
 muscles, blood-vessels, and nerves, the vertebrae, in 
 many B., diminish in number, and the tail gradually 
 shortens and disappears. 
 
 The extremely different characters of the adult 
 B. suggest the idea of an arresting of the metamor- 
 phosis at dififerent stages ; but whilst this idea may 
 be helpful to our understanding of the close affinities 
 which really pervade the whole order, it must be 
 remembered that it does not equally apply to all 
 parts of the animal system ; and that even as to 
 those which have been particularly mentioned in 
 the brief account above given of the metamor- 
 phosis of the B., some in their perfect state appear 
 to have one part in what, for convenience, may be 
 termed a more advanced state than another ; whilst 
 aU are adapted with equal perfection to the situations 
 in which they are appointed to live, both with 
 reference to the wants of their own existence and 
 the preservation of that of their species. 
 
 If the hmbs of the tadpole or the frog are injured 
 or destroyed during their growth, the loss is won- 
 derfully repaired. This power of reproducing lost 
 limbs continues to be possessed in an extraordinary 
 degree by the adult newt (q. v.). 
 
 B. are generally inhabitants of warm or temperate 
 climates. Those which inhabit temperate climates 
 generally become torpid during winter. They are 
 either almost entirely aquatic or are found in moist 
 situations. The British species are very few. In 
 some of the Scottish isles they are unknown. 
 
 B. are commonly divided into two sub-orders — 
 Caducibranchiata, in which the giUs {branchke) dis- 
 appear (are caduccms), and Perennibranchiata, in 
 wMch they are persistent (perennial). The Pereimi- 
 branchiate B. are comparatively few. Axolotl, 
 Siren, and Proteus are examples. The Caduci- 
 branchiate B. are subdivided into Tailless or 
 Anourous, as Frogs, Toads, &c. ; and Tailed, as 
 Newts, Salamanders, &o. Some of the frogs and 
 toads of warm climates are much larger than those 
 of Britain ; but the largest known B. are the 
 Sieboldia Tnasdma of Japan, and Protonopsis horrida 
 of the Ohio (variously styled Hellbender, Mud 
 DevU, Ground Puppy, Young Alligator, and Fish 
 Salamander), both creatures of the newt or sala- 
 mander form, the latter of which is two feet long, 
 and the former is of still greater size. 
 
 Fossil remains and footprints in rock attest the 
 existence, in former geological periods, of B. of lai-ge 
 size. ' It is only in tertiary and post-tertiary strata 
 that extinct species referrible to stiU existing genera 
 or families of this order have been found.' These 
 occur both of the tailed and tailless forms. One of 
 them has been a subject of particular interestj 
 because its remains, when first discovered by 
 Scheuchzer, in the beginning of the 18th c, were 
 mistaken for the remains of a human being, and 
 the discoverer enthusiastically urged them upon 
 the attention of his contemporaries as a proof of 
 the deluge. To this salamandroid fossil the name 
 Andrias (from the Gr. for man) Scheuchzeri has been 
 given. — Footmarks in the sandstones and shales of 
 the coal-measures in Pennsylvania seem to have 
 belonged to B. resembling frogs or toads, but of 
 
 751 
 
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA— BATTEL. 
 
 great size, some of the footprints being two "inches 
 in diameter, and a, breadth of nearly four inches 
 between the right and left footprints.— Some of the 
 older batraohian fossils diflfer so widely from all 
 existing types, that new sub-orders have been 
 formed for them. Those of the sub-order Oano- 
 cephala — of which Archegosaiirus (q. v.) is the best 
 known — are remarkable for having the head covered 
 with bony plates ; those of the order Lahfrintlu}- 
 dontia, for the labyrinthic structure exhibited in 
 the transverse section of the teeth. See Laby- 
 
 RINTHODON. 
 
 BA'TRACHOMYOMA'CHIA (the "War of the 
 Frogs and the Mice), a Greek mock-heroic poem, 
 erroneously ascribed to Homer, with whose works it 
 has been generally printed. Pigres of Caria, who 
 lived in the times of the Persian wars, was named 
 amongst the ancients as its author. It is a parody 
 on the Iliad, in which the military preparations and 
 contests of beasts, with single combats, intervention 
 of the gods, and other Homeric circumstances, are 
 described with much himiour. 
 
 BA'TRACHUS. See Frog-iish. 
 
 BATSHIA'N, one of the Moluccas, lying to the 
 south-west of Gilolo. It belongs to the Dutch, who, 
 iu 1610, took it from Spain, or, rather, from Portugal, 
 then a portion of the Spanish monarchy. Its area 
 is estimated at 900 square mUes. It is zdmost inter- 
 sected by the equator, being only 35' S., with a long, 
 of 127° 35' E. B. produces large sago and cocoa 
 palms, good rice, and the best cloves in the Moluccas. 
 Chief town, Batshian, near the centre of the island, 
 with a pop. of 1100. 
 
 B A'TTA, in relation to the British army in India, 
 is an allowance in addition to the ordinary pay of 
 officers. The pay is fixed ; but the B. varies accord- 
 ing to the part of the country in which the troops 
 are placed, and also depends on the circumstance of 
 their being in the field or in cantonments. If in the 
 field, or more than 200 miles from the presidential 
 government cities, the officers receive full B. ; if in 
 garrison, or in cantonment within that distance, half 
 batta. During the troubles of 1857 and 1858, the 
 government was frequently embarrassed in deter- 
 mining whether particular officers were entitled to 
 full or half B., owing to the confusion into which 
 the whole military system was temporarily thrown. 
 
 B ATTA'LION" is the unit of command in infantry. 
 It comprises the largest number of men who, when 
 drawn up in array, can conveniently hear the word 
 of command from an officer. In whatever ways the 
 armies of Europe differ in other particulars, they 
 seldom depart very far from a mean of 1000 men 
 per battalion. Two or more of those units combine 
 to form a regiment (with exceptions presently to be 
 noticed) ; and those regiments are further aggregated 
 into brigades, divisions, and corps d'armSe, or other 
 large groupings. The unit, or B., is divided into 
 wings, and these into companies and squads. The 
 continental regiments are for the most part so 
 large as to comprise several battalions each; but 
 the British infantry regiments, in time of peace, 
 have mostly only one B. each. 'The usual way of 
 increasing the British infantry in war-time is, not 
 by creating new regiments, but by increasing the 
 number of battalions per regiment, and of com- 
 panies per battahon. In the beginning of 1860, 
 there were 100 regiments of line-infantry ; of these, 
 more than half have only 1 battalion each, several 
 have 2 battalions, and 1 has as many as 4. The full 
 complement of a B. is usually 10 companies; and 
 when these are drawn up on parade, two ranks 
 in depth, the two choice companies, called the 
 'grenadier' and the 'light -infantry' companies, 
 are placed at the right and left extremities of the 
 
 762 
 
 whole line ; the other eight companies, each desig- 
 nated by a number, being between them. In this 
 form, the front of a B. of 1000 men is about 390 
 yards in length. 
 
 An English B. of 900 private soldiers ajiproaches 
 nea;r 1100 strong when the officers, &c., are included. 
 The following may be taken as the component 
 elements, under the ordinary average arrangements 
 of the British service : 9 regimental staflf-officers 
 (liButenant-cblouel, major, adjutant, surgeon, assist- 
 ant-surgeon, paymaster, quartermaster) ; 36 com- 
 pany officers (captain, lieutenant, ensign) ; 1 warrant 
 officer (regimental schoolmaster) ; 7 non-commis- 
 sioned staff officers (staff and chief sergeants) ; 100 
 non-commissioned company officers (ordinary ser- 
 geants and corporals) ; 925 rank and file (25 
 drummers and 900 privates). 
 
 The relation which the B. bears to the regiment, 
 in various details of discipline and service, will be 
 better noticed under Ebgiment ; while a few related 
 matters of a more general nature wiU be found 
 treated under British Army. 
 
 BA'TTAS, the name of a race of people inhabit- 
 ing that part of Sumatra between the equator and 
 the parallel of 2° 30' N. lat. They have regular and 
 fine features, like those of the ordinary Malays ; but 
 they speak a peculiar Malayo-Polynesian language, 
 have an alphabet of their own, a peculiar reckoning 
 of time, and even a peculiar set of figures for the 
 signs of the zodiac. They formerly wrote on paper 
 made of bark, but now generally on bamboos. The 
 B. have evidently fallen back in civilisation, and 
 there are traditions among them of a former higher 
 civilisation derived from India. Some consider them 
 to be of Hindu origin. Their whole countt'y is in a 
 state of anarchy; every village is independent, with 
 a hereditary rajah of its own, who has very little 
 power except in time of war. Their religion con- 
 sists in an adora,tion of good and evil spirits. They 
 are cannibals, yet they have high notions of the 
 sacred rights and duties of hospitaUty. They are 
 said to eat their aged and infirm relatives, as an 
 act of pious duty, the victim himself inviting the 
 guests to the feast ! They are passionately addicted 
 to cook-fighting, and betting upon it. 
 
 BATTASZE'K, a market-town of Hungry, 
 county Tolna, on the west of the Danube. Pop. 
 5370. 
 
 BA'TTEL, Trial by, or WAGER OF BATTEL. 
 This relic of our legal barbarism is happily of the 
 things of the past, having been abolished by act 
 of parhament, the 59 Geo. III. c. 46, and might 
 have been passed over with a brief notice, had it 
 not been for a circumstance which we shall presently 
 mention, and which affords a curious and striking 
 illustration of a principle peculiar to the character 
 of EngUsh law, as distinguished from the legal 
 systems of other countries. 
 
 The trial by B. was a proceeding by way of appeal, 
 and it obtained in civil and crimmal cases, and also 
 in military matters, to which, indeed, it was more 
 appropriate. It consisted of a personal combat 
 between the parties in presence of the court itself; 
 and it was grounded on the impious idea of an 
 appeal to Providence, the expectation being, that 
 Heaven would give the victory to the innocent or 
 injured party. In civil cases, the B. was waged by 
 champions, and not by the parties themselves ; but 
 in criminal cases, the parties fought in person, 
 unless the appellor were a woman, a priest, an 
 infant, or a man of the age of sixty, or lame, or 
 blind, all of whom might refuse the wager of B., 
 and compel a trial by jury. Peers of the realm 
 also could not be challenged to wage B., on account 
 of their personal dignity, nor, by special chaiter, 
 
BATTEN— BATTERSEA. 
 
 could the citizens of Loudon, lighting being con- 
 sidered foreign to their education and employ- 
 ment. Whether by champions or in person, the 
 mode of proceeding was the same. The appellee, 
 or defendant, as he might be called, threw down 
 his glove, and declared that he would prove his 
 right, or defend himself with his body. The appellor, 
 or prosecutor, in accepting the challenge, took up 
 the glove, and replied that he was ready to make 
 good his appeal, body for body; and thereupon 
 Bie parties, holding each other's hands, joined issue 
 before the court in a very formal and solemn 
 manner. The weapons used were batons or staves 
 an ell long, and a four-cornered leathern target, and 
 the combatants were obliged to swear that neither of 
 them would resort to sorcery or witchcraft ! The 
 B. lasted till the stars appeared in the evening, and 
 the party who by that time had either killed or got 
 the better of his opponent, was considered the suc- 
 cessful suitor of justice. In a charge of murder, if 
 the accused was slain, it was taken as proof of his 
 guilt, and his blood was attainted; and if so far 
 vanquished as not to be able or willing to fight any 
 longer, he was adjudged guilty, and sentenced to be 
 hanged immediately ! 
 
 So late as the year 1818, this barbarous procedure 
 was solemnly decided by the Court of King's Bench 
 to be a vaUd and legal mode of trial, which the 
 king's subjects were free to adopt ! Of course, the 
 principle was, that all laws, no matter how unsuit- 
 able to the times, could be enforced, unless expressly 
 repealed by act of parliament. As a matter of 
 curiosity, we may give the names of the parties (they 
 were of the labourmg-class) who seriously submitted 
 their contention in the above form before Lord Chief- 
 justice EUenborough and his brother-judges of the 
 period. The case is that of Ashford v. Thornton, 
 and is reported in the first volume of BarnwaJl and 
 Alderson s Meports, p. 405. As we have stated, the 
 court decided in favour of the validity of the trial, 
 one of the judges remarking that sufficient had not 
 been stated to induce their lordships to refuse the 
 B., and another more plainly and unequivocally 
 observed that the defendant was 'entitled to this 
 his lawful mode of trial.' But Lord EUenborough 
 put -the matter more clearly by stating, that 'the 
 general law of the land is in favour of the wager of 
 B., and it is our duty to pronounce the law as it is, 
 and not as we may wish it to be; whatever preju- 
 dices, therefore, may justly exist against this mode 
 of trial, still, as it is the law of the land, the -court 
 must pronounce judgment for it.' Happily, the 
 pugnacious litigant who obtained this judgment 
 was induced to go no further, and the above statute, 
 the 59 Geo. IIL c. 46, was passed, by which the 
 shocking ordeal was wholly aboKshed. 
 
 In Scotland, we beheve the matter would have 
 been differently disposed of; for the judges there, 
 following the doctrine of the Roman law, would 
 have held the proceeding to have been ia desuetude 
 and obsolete, a,nd there the matter would have 
 ended. Mr Rush, the then American envoy to 
 the British court, thus justly remarks on this 
 case in his Residence at the Court of London 
 (published 1833). ' To repeal laws belongs to the 
 legislature. Courts expound and apply them. Free 
 government is complex, and works slowly ; tyranny 
 is simple, and does its work at once. An absurd 
 law may sleep in a free code, because overlooked ; 
 but whilst there, it is the law. It is so, I suppose, 
 that we must reason; and generally, the reason 
 would be right. Yet it might have been thought 
 that, in a case like this, long disuse added to obvious 
 absurdity, would have worked the silent repeal of 
 the law, according to the doctrine of desuetude 
 under the Roman code.' 
 
 Montesquieu, in his Spirit of Laws, book 28, 
 chapters 20 and 22, very ingeniously and plausibly 
 deduces the modeni practice of duelling and the 
 so-called laws of honour from the above barbarous 
 judicial combat. See Okdeal. 
 
 BA'TTEN, or LAY, or LATHE, is the swing 
 utensil of a loom, by which the weft or woof is 
 struck home, and in which the shuttle runs. B. and 
 lay are synonymous, B. being the English name, and 
 lay the Scotch. See Weaving. 
 
 BA'TTENS, a species of sawn fir timber, of 
 smaller dimensions than the kind called planks. B. 
 are usually from 12 to 14 feet long, 7 inches broad, 
 and 24 inches thick. Cut into two boards (l\ inch 
 thick), they are used for flooring; cut into three 
 boards, they are put ou roois below slates; in 
 narrower pieces, they are put upright on walls for 
 fixing the laths for plastering. The best B. are 
 brought from Norway, and sold wholesale by 
 wood-merchants. 
 
 BA'TTEB, in Architecture, used as a verb to 
 express the manner in which the walls of towers, 
 which are smaller at the top than the bottom, slope 
 inwards. The walls of wharfs, and those biult to 
 support embankments and the like, usually batter. 
 
 BA'TTBBING-EAM, an engine of war used in 
 ancient times, and in the middle ages. It consisted 
 of a beam of wood, with a mass of bronze or iron on 
 one end, resembling the head of a ram (in Lat. anas). 
 In its simplest form, it was borne and impelled by 
 
 Battering-ram. 
 
 the hands of the soldiers; afterwards, it was sus- 
 pended in a frame, and made to swing. Another 
 form moved on rollers. The alternating motion was 
 communicated by ropes. To protect those working 
 it, a wooden roof (testudo) was constructed over it, 
 and the whole was mounted on wheels. The beam 
 of the ram varied from 60 to 120 feet in length, the 
 head sometimes weighed above a ton, and as many 
 as 100 men were employed in impeUing the machine. 
 When the blows were long enough continued, hardly 
 any wall could resist. When or where it was invented, 
 is unknown. It is mentioned by EzekieL The 
 Romans derived it from the Greeks. 
 
 BA'TTBRSBA, a south-west suburb of London, 
 situated in Surrey, on the south banlc of the Thames, 
 at the bridge to Chelsea, which is nearly opposite. 
 It lies in B. parish, which is chiefly laid out in 
 market-gardens for London, and has a population 
 of 10,560. The church has a, monument to the 
 celebrated Lord Bolingbroke. The flats, called B. 
 Fields, once famed as a rich botanical station, are 
 now formed into a public park. In addition to the 
 old bridge called B. Bridge, crossing the river near 
 the centre of the park, there has been erected an 
 elegant suspension-bridge at its east end, called the 
 Chelsea Bridge. The first asparagus raised near 
 London was grown by the market-gardeners of 
 
 Battersea. 
 
 753 
 
BATTERY. 
 
 BA'TTERY, in criminal law, means the beating or 
 ■wounding, or, more correctly, an assault by beating 
 or woundiag of another. Violence or force is not a 
 necessary element in this offence, but the least 
 touching, however trifling, of another's person in 
 an^ angry, rude, insulting manner, is a B. ; for the 
 law, says Blackstone, cannot draw the line between 
 different degrees of violence, and therefore totally 
 prohibits the first and lowest stage of it, every man's 
 person being sacred, and no one having a right to 
 meddle with it in any the slightest manner. The 
 remedy for an injury of this kind may be either by a 
 civil action, as for damages, or by indictment, as 
 for a misdemeanour. Where the B. is on a man's 
 wife, the former may sue for damages by action of 
 trespass, and it must be brought in the names of the 
 husband and wife jointly; but if the maltreatment 
 be so serious as to have deprived the husband for 
 any time of his wife's company, the law then gives 
 him a separate remedy, by an action in which he may 
 recover special damage, on the ground of the loss 
 of his wife's society, whilst suflfering from the 
 beating. By the Common Law Procedure Act, the 
 15 and 16 Vict. c. 76, the remedy for such ill usage 
 is further varied, for by section 40 of that act, it is 
 provided, that lq any action brought by a man and 
 his wife for an injury done to the latter, it shall be 
 lawful for the husband to add thereto claims in his 
 own right, and separate actions brought ia respect 
 of such claims may be consolidated, if the court or a 
 judge shall think fit. 
 
 It is a good defence to prove that the alleged 
 B. happened by accident, or that it was not in anger, 
 or that it was merely the correction which a parent 
 or master is entitled to use to a chUd, or scholar, or 
 servant, or that it was done in self-defence, or in 
 defence of a wife, a husband, a parent, a child, a 
 master, or a servant ; or that it was such personal 
 force as a proper officer was entitled to employ, or 
 that the defendant has already been summarily 
 proceeded against under the 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, by 
 sections 27 and 28 of which act it is provided that 
 further proceedings shall be barred where the 
 complaint has been disposed of by two justices 
 either by conviction or dismissal of the case, pro- 
 vided, in the former case, the defendant has paid 
 the penalty, and suffered the imprisonment awarded ; 
 and, in the latter, the magistrates have dismissed 
 the case, because it was justified, or so trifling as 
 not to merit punishment, and this be forthwith 
 certified imder their hands. 
 
 • In the Scotch law, there was what was called a 
 B. pendente lite, which consisted in assaulting an 
 adversary in a lawsuit during its dependence. This 
 peculiar offence was created by two old Scotch 
 statutes passed respectively in 1584 and 1594 — and 
 which curiously provided as a punishment the loss 
 of the cause to the offender — but they were repealed 
 in 1826 by the 7 Geo. IV. c. 19. 
 
 BA'TTERY, in military language, has two mean- 
 ings : the one relating to field-operations ; the other, 
 to fortification. A battery in Field-operations con- 
 sists of from 4 to 8 (in the British army, usually 6) 
 pieces of ordnance, together with the necessary gun- 
 carriages, ammunition-wagons, horses, artillerymen, 
 and officers. A B. of foot-artiUery (see Abtillbrv, 
 BoTAL Kegiment op) is usually called afidd-B., as 
 distinguished from a horse-B. There are also heavy 
 and light batteries, according to the weight of the 
 ordnance. The term B. is also applied in a narrower 
 sense to the personnel, or complement of men and 
 officers attending such a set of guns. The desig- 
 nation for this used to be, in the foot-artiUery, a 
 company, and in the horse-artillery, a troop; but 
 by an order issued in 1859, both these terms are 
 now nearly superseded by the word B., thereby 
 Hi 
 
 giving complexity to a term already used in two 
 different meanings. The personnel of a. field-B. 
 of five 12-pounder guns, and one 24-pounder how- 
 itzer, may be thus composed: 2 captains, 3 sub- 
 alterns, 1 surgeon, 2 staff-sergeants, 3 sergeants, 3 
 corporals, 8 bombardiers, 96 gunners, 1 trumpeter, 
 
 1 farrier, 1 carriage-smith, 5 shoeing-smiths, 2 
 collar-makers, 2 wheelers, 1 driver (sergeant), 4 
 drivers (corporals), 93 drivers (privates)— in all, 
 228. For a similar B. of 5-pounders, the number 
 may be 178. 
 
 The materiel for a 12-pounder B. of 6 guns com- 
 prises 6 carriages for the guns, 1 spare carriage, 
 
 2 store-wagons, 1 store-cart, 1 forge-wagon, and 
 12 ammunition-wagons. To draw these guns and 
 vehicles are required about 160 horses, together with 
 80 saddle-horses, and 7 baggage-horses. The vehicles 
 and boxes are prepared for the reception of about 
 600 round-shot, 80 case-shot, 320 shrapnel shells, 50 
 or 60 common shells, and 4 carcasses. There is also 
 carried a supply of empty cartridges, port-fitres, fuses, 
 quick match, slow match, and an immense number 
 of tools and small articles, besides stores for the 
 wheelers, shoeing-smiths, and collar-makers. Nearly 
 all these supplies are equally divided among the six 
 guns, so as to make each, as far as convenient, inde- 
 pendent of the others; but some of the stores are in 
 reserve, for the use of the whole battery. When on 
 the field of battle, 9 gunners are actually con- 
 cerned with tiae firing of each gun, besides officers 
 and others. 
 
 A battery, in Fortification, is a row of large guns 
 of any number from two to twenty or upwards, 
 moimted on an earthwork or other platform. It 
 differs from an artiUery or field B. in having 
 no horses or vehicles immediately belonging to it. 
 Siege-guns are mostly placed in or on such batteries; 
 and wnen an army is preparing to resist the occu- 
 pation of a particular place by an enemy, a B. of 
 position is frequently one of the defensive means 
 adopted. On the other hand, the fortifications on 
 and within the walls of a stronghold generally 
 obtain other names than that of B. ; although par- 
 ticular rows of guns ia certain places may be so 
 called. Military engineers distinguish many dififer- 
 ent kinds of batteries, according to the nature of the 
 duty which they are to fulfil, or of the ground on 
 which they are placed. An elevated B. has the 
 parapet raised above the ground; the earth for 
 forming it being obtained from a ditch in front. A 
 half-sunken B. has the interior slope sunk a, little 
 below the surface. A sunken B. has the base from 
 24 to 42 inches below the level of the ground. The 
 guns mounted on these three kinds of batteries 
 partake in the varying elevations of the batteries 
 themselves, and are adapted to different modes of 
 firing on the enemy. A siege-'B. consists of a range 
 of heavy guns, for silencing the enemy's fire, ruining 
 parapets and buildings, and making a breach througS 
 which infantry may enter. A cavalier-'B. is especiafiy 
 elevated, to fire over a parapet without embrasures. 
 Enfilade, en revers, en 6charpe, ricochet, cross, oUiqim 
 batteries, and others variously named, differ chiefly 
 in the direction in which they pour out the fire of 
 their gims upon the enemy. The distinction between 
 (/are -batteries, /lomizer-- batteries, and mortar -bat- 
 teries, depends on the kind of ordnance employed. 
 A mortar-B. has a ditch of extra width, to afford 
 spare earth for a platform of extra strength and 
 solidity. A military engineer, in planning a B., 
 imitates a civil engineer in planning a railway; he 
 makes his calculations in such form that the quan- 
 tity of earth taken out at one spot may about equal 
 that heaped up in another. 
 
 These batteries are all nearly alike in the gene- 
 ral principle of their construction. They consist 
 
BATTERY— BATTLE. 
 
 primarily of an Spaulement, or built-up shelter, behind 
 ■which the gims are placed; the platEorm on which 
 the guns actually rest may or may not be above the 
 ordinary level of the ground, aocordidg to the nature 
 of the battery. The fipaulement or parapet is of im- 
 mense thickness, to resist the action of the enethy's 
 cannon-balls. The thickness at the top is seldom leas 
 than 12 feet, and may be as much as 20; for it is 
 found that a 24-pounaer ball will penetrate 18 feet 
 of earth. The guns are placed about 20 feet apart, 
 behind the parapet. Some batteries are straight, 
 with aU the guns parallel; while others may be 
 portions of a triangle {redan) or of a polygon, and 
 the earthwork has to be cohstruoted accordingly. 
 There is generally a ditch from 12 to 20 feet wide:, 
 outside the earthwork; and the depth from the 
 crest of the parapet to the bottom of the ditch is 
 12 to 16 feet. For gun and howitzer batteries, there 
 are embrasures through which the firing takes place ; 
 but mortar-batteries are without those openings. 
 
 Sometimes the gpaulement is thrown up loosely, 
 in haste; but for the better kinds of batteries, 
 fascines, gabions, and sand-bags are largely employed. 
 The main structure is lined with fascines 9 feet long, 
 and the embrasures hned with other fascines 18 feet 
 long — 40 or 50 of the two kinds being required per 
 gun. The fascines here spoken of are long bundles 
 of brush-wood, weighing 30 to 200 lbs. each. Some- 
 times sand-bags are used instead of fascines, each 
 containing about a bushel of sand or earth; and 
 sometimes gabions, which are wicker cylinders filled, 
 with earth. A 6-gua sand-bag B., made wholly of 
 these materials, requires nearly 8000 sand-bags. 
 
 The fate of a field-B. often decides a battle. At 
 the battle of the Alma, when once the Guards and 
 Highlanders had reached the Russian batteries 
 on the hiU, the day was won. At the battle of 
 Inkermann, the issue depended mainly on the 
 possession of a small 2-gmi sand-bag B., which 
 remained, after many vicissitudes; in the hands of 
 the allies. 
 
 BA'TTERY, Floatino. See FLOATme Batteey. 
 
 BA'TTERY, Electric and Gaivaotc; See Elec- 
 TKiciTY and Galvanism. 
 
 BATTHYA'NYr, one of the oldest, richest, and 
 most celebrated families of the Hungarian magnates, 
 which can trace its origin as far back as the invasion 
 of Pannonia by the Magyars, in 884 A. D., and 
 which has given to Hungary, many warriors and 
 statesmen. The surname is derived from lands 
 obtained in the 14th c. — Balthasar von B., who was 
 the head of the family in the latter half of the 16th 
 c, fought with distinction in the Turkish wars, and 
 constantly maintained at his own expense 1200 
 infantry and 500 cavalry.^Charles, Prince of B., 
 a Lieutenant-field-marshal of the Empire, distin- 
 guished himself in the Bavarian War of Succession, 
 and particularly by a victory over the French and 
 Bavarians at Pfaffenhofen on 15th April 1745. — 
 Count Casimir B., a member of the principal branch 
 of the family, was born 4th June 1807. He was 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs in Hungary during the 
 insurrection in 1849, in which he also distinguishfed 
 himself as a mOitary governor. After the catas- 
 trophe of Vilagos, he fled, along with Kossuth, 
 into the Turkish territory, where he remained 
 till 1851. He then went to France, and died 
 at Paris, 13th July 1854. Count Louis B., belong- 
 ing to another branch of the same family,' Md 
 born at Presburg in 1809, having espoused the 
 national cause, yet seeking to maintain the con- 
 nection with Austria and his aUegiaiice to the 
 Austrian sovereign, was appointed President of the 
 Ministry, when Hungary obtained a ministry of 
 
 its own, in March 1848. His ability was not equal 
 to the goodness of his intentions, and the circum- 
 stances in which he was caUed to act were very 
 difficult and embarrassing. He did not hold the 
 office long, and afterwards took part in public 
 affairs, chiefly^ as a member of the diet, and with 
 great moderation. Yet, after the Austrians entered 
 Pesth, he was arrested in January 1849, and on 6th 
 October was executed by sentence of martial law. 
 His condemnation was unexpected, and awakened 
 the more sympathy, because all men regarded it as 
 unjust. 
 
 BA'TTLE, a town in East Sussex, 8 miles north- 
 west of Hastings, where the country rises in wooded 
 swells. Consisting of one street, bmlt along a valley 
 extending from north-west to south-east. Pop. 3849. 
 It is noted for its manufacture of gunpowder, weU 
 known to sportsmen as B. powder. It was anciently 
 called Hetheland or Epiton, and derives its present 
 name from the battle (usually called the Battle of 
 Hastings), fought on the heath between it and Hast- 
 ings, on 14th October 1066, when the Kormans, under 
 WiUiam the Conqueror, finally overthrew the Saxon 
 dynasty in England. William, to commemorate his 
 victory, founded in 1067, on the spot where Harold's 
 standard was taken, a splendid abbey, which was 
 endowed with all the land within a league of it. 
 The abbey had the privileges of a sanctuary, and 
 the Conqueror's sword and a roll of his barons were 
 deposited' in it. The existing ruins, which belong 
 to a building erected subsequently to the originsS 
 abbey, occupy three sides of a quadrangle, and are 
 about a mile in circumference. 
 
 BA'TTLE is a combat between large masses of 
 troops, or whole armies. Every B. ought to have 
 for its object the determination, if possible, of 
 the whole contest, or at least the effecting of some 
 important" step to that end. It is therefore the aim 
 Of a general to bring about an engagement at the 
 decisive point. This constitutes Strategy, while 
 T&ctic is concerned with the handling of Sie troops 
 in the actual battle. Victory on the battle-field is 
 not enough for a general ; it is only by following up 
 his victory to the annihilation, ii possible, of the 
 beaten army, that its fruits are secured. Order oe 
 B. is the particular way in which the several corps 
 of different arms are disposed for entering into an 
 engagement. It varies at different times, and is 
 modified according to locality. 
 
 No general account of a B. can be given. Infor- 
 mation on the various elements of which a B. consists 
 win be found described under such heads as Attack, 
 Artillery, Cavalry, Inpantry, Charge, Fleet, 
 Gunnery, Tactics, &c. The more important iadi- 
 vidual battles will be found described, in their 
 causes and results, under the names of the places 
 with which they are associated. 
 
 Considered in their pohtical relations, the import- 
 ance of battles is not always in proportion^ to their 
 magnitude. 'There are some battles which claim 
 our attention, independently of the moral worth of 
 the combatants, on account of their enduring import- 
 ance, and by reason of their practical influence on 
 our own soeial and pohtical condition, which we can 
 trace up to the results of those engagements. They 
 have for us an actual and abiding interest, both 
 while we investigate the chain of causes and effects, 
 by which they have helped to make us what we 
 are; and also while we speculate on what we 
 probably should have been, if any one of those 
 battles had come to a different tenmnation.' — Pro- 
 fessor Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World, 
 from Marathon to Waterloo. The fifteen battles 
 which, in Professor Creasy's opinion, have had the 
 most decisive influence, are the following : 
 
 76S 
 
BATTLE— BATUEIN. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 490. 
 413. 
 331. 
 
 207. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 9. 
 
 451. 
 
 732. 
 1066. 
 1429. 
 1588. 
 1704. 
 1709. 
 1777. 
 1792. 
 1815. 
 
 Battle of Marathon. 
 
 Defeat of the Athenians at Syracuse. 
 
 Battle of Arbela. 
 
 ri n the Metaurus. 
 
 Defeat of the Romans under Varus. 
 Battle of Chalons. 
 II II Tours. 
 
 Joan of Arc's victory at Orleans. 
 Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 
 Battle of Blenheim. 
 
 II II Pultowa. 
 Defeat of Burgoyue at Saratoga. 
 Battle of Valmy. 
 
 II II Waterloo. 
 
 BA'TTLE, Wa'gbe or. See Battel. 
 
 BA'TTLE-AXE -was a weapon much used by the 
 early northern nations, Celtic and Scandinavian, 
 requiring great strength in its use. Some were 
 held with one hand, some with two; the former 
 kind could be wielded equally by horse and foot, 
 but the latter was for foot-soldiers only. The B. 
 had a longer handle, and a broader, stronger, and 
 sharper blade thaji the common axe. During the 
 
 Battle-axes. 
 
 middle ages, and somewhat earlier, it Was much 
 used in sorties, and to prevent the esoalading of a 
 besieged fortress. The pole-axe differed but little 
 from the battle-axe. The Hack hill and brown bill 
 were a sort of halbert, having the cutting part 
 hooked like a woodman's bUl, with a spike project- 
 ing from the back, and another from the head. 
 The c/laive was a Isind of pole-axe or bUl used by 
 the Welsh. 
 
 BATTLEMENT, a notched or indented parapet 
 used in fortifications. The rising parts are called 
 
 Early Enghsh Traceried Battlement. 
 
 cops or merlons; the spaces by which they are 
 separated, crenels, embrasures, and sometimes loops. 
 The object of the device is to enable the soldier to 
 
 Simple form of Battlement. 
 
 shelter himself behind the merlon, whilst he shoots 
 through the embrasure. The bas-reliefs of Nineveh, 
 and the Egyptian paintings, testify to its antiquity, 
 
 and there is perhaps no nation by which it has not 
 been adopted. 
 
 BA'TTLE-PIECES are paintings representing 
 battles. The modern mode of warfare, is less 
 favourable for this branch qf art than the anSieht, 
 where personal valour had more room to display 
 itself. Among the' greatest paintings of this kind 
 are, the battle of Constantine, sketched by Rafael, 
 and executed by Giulio Romano ;' Lebrun's battles 
 of Alexander; and tie battle of the Amazons by 
 Rubens. In smaller scenes, such as skirmishes and 
 surprises, Antonio Tempesta, Hans SneUink, Pet, 
 Snyders, Puloone, Phil. Wouverman, &c., are distin- 
 guished. The most einiaent of recent battle-painters 
 is Horace Vernet. 
 
 BA'TTUB (from Er. battre, to beat). The B. is a 
 method of killing game on a- great scale, by causing 
 animals to be driven forward to a point where a 
 number of shooters are waiting to shoot them. The 
 driving is effected by beating the biishes ; hence 
 the term battue. This term, like the practice which 
 it imports, is only of modem date ; yet a plan of 
 killing deer by driving them forward in herds in an 
 ever-narrowing circle to a place where they are to 
 be shot, is an old usage in the Highlands, where it is 
 called the tmchd. The B. is at best a common-place 
 and butcherly ' amusement, for it can scarcely be 
 said to have the merit of being attended with even a 
 reasonable degree of exercise and excitement. It is 
 practised chiefly in extensive preserves of pheasants 
 and hares during the autumn and winter months, 
 when coimtry gentlemen invite acquaintances to their 
 mansions for the sake of field-sports. The B. takes 
 place early in the day, and with good araangements, 
 it is attended with neither fatigue nor danger. The 
 number of shooters is usually eight or ten, each pro- 
 vided with at least two guns, which are loaded by 
 an assistant as quickly as they are discharged; 
 When the shooters are stationed at safe distances 
 from each other, and ready to commence work, the 
 beaters begin theirs by driving the game before them. 
 Sometimes, however, pheasants wm run a long way 
 before rising on wing, and to make them take to 
 flight on approaching the guns, a low net is stretched 
 across then- path. It should be stated, however, 
 that in the B., hares, rabbits, &c., are shot as readily 
 as pheasants ; and at lehgth the ground is covered 
 with slain, like a field of battle. By means of the 
 B., large quantities of game are killed, and sent to 
 market; the profits derived from this species of stock 
 on some estates amounting to no inconsiderable sum 
 annually. For an account of B. -shooting, we refer to 
 The Slujt-gun and Sporting Rifle, also, Manual of 
 British Rural Sports (London, 1859). 
 
 BATU'M, BATOO'M;, or BATOU'M, a maritime 
 town in the Turkish pashahc of Trebizond, froni 
 which city it is 108 miles north-e^st (lat. 41° 39' N., 
 long. 41° 37' E.), with about 3000 inhabitants, 
 mostly Turks and Lasians, or Laz. The harbour 
 is one of the best on the east coast of the Black 
 Sea. A pretty extensive trade is carried on. 
 Hides, wax, honey, and, above all, oak fpr ship- 
 building, are the principal exports. Great ruins 
 of Greek churches and other buildings are found 
 in the neighbourhood, which belong to a period 
 in the middle ages when B. was a place pf great 
 consequence. 
 
 BATURI'Sr, a town of Russia, in the government 
 of, and 78 miles east from, the city of Tchemigov, on 
 the Seim. It was founded by Stephen Bathory, king 
 of Poland, and was at one time the favourite resi- 
 dence of the Hetmans of the Cossacks, of whom 
 Mazeppai who, in 1708, sold himself to the Swedes, 
 IS the most notorious. The palace of the Hetmans, 
 
BAUDEKYN— BAUMGARTEN. 
 
 witli its once beautiful grounds, is now going rapidly 
 to decay. 
 
 BAU'BEKYN, a corruption of Baldachin (q. v.). 
 
 BAU'ER, Bruno, a celebrated biblical critic 
 and philosopher, belongmg tp the extreme school 
 of Geirman rationalism, was born at Eisenberg, ' in 
 the duchy of Saxe-Altenbufg, on the 6th September 
 1809. He fs the son of , a porcelain-painter, arid 
 studied at the, university of Berlin, where, he 
 became dpotpr pf theology in 1834. Prom this 
 period, he has devoted hiniself exclusively to what 
 is tprmed in Germany the scientific criticism of 
 Scripture — that is to say, a criticism based on the 
 conviction, that the' contents of the Bible have a 
 natural, and not a supernatural origin, and ought 
 to be subjected to the same process of philoso^ii- 
 cal analysis as other hiunan i productions are. In 
 1839, B. became a privat-docent in the university 
 of Bonn, but in 1842 was forbidden to deliver any 
 more theolo^cal lectures. He then removed to 
 Berlin, where he has since resided. He has passed 
 through various stages of anti-supematuralism. At 
 first, he coatented himself with believing that the 
 substance of the Christian rehgion might be extri- 
 cated from the entanglements of a confused and 
 erroneous system of interpretation. Such is the 
 idea that runs through his earliest works, his Cri- 
 ticism of Strauses Life of Jesus, published in the 
 Berhn Year-look of Scientific OriUdsjn '(1835 — 
 1836), his Journal of Speaulaiive Theology (1836 — 
 1838), and his CriUcal Exposition of the Beligion of 
 file Old Testament (Berlin, 1838). He soon,, however, 
 advanced so far in his 'scientific' demands, that it 
 became quite clear the Scriptures, in his eyes, had 
 lost even the moderate authority which he originally 
 supposed them to possess. To this period belong 
 his Doctor Hengstenherg (Berlin, 1839), and TM 
 Evangelical Church of Prussia and Sdeme (Leip. 
 1840). In the former of these works, B. appears 
 as an opponent of the school of i apologetic theolo- 
 gians, and exposes what he conceives to be the 
 weakness of their system as a -method of appre- 
 hending characteristic differences in the historical 
 development of Christian doctrine ; in the latter, 
 he wished to prove that true phUosophio union is 
 the dissolution of the outward dogmatic church in 
 the realm of the universal and free self-oonscious- 
 ness — language which is not very intelligible to 
 the finite Anglo-Saxon mind. In his Critique of 
 the Evangelical History of John (Brem. 1840), and 
 Critique of the Evangelical Synoptidsts (Leip. 1840), 
 he attempted to shew that the so-called facts of 
 the gospel never really had a historical existence, 
 and that those artistic compositions which we term 
 the gospels, were simply the product of the human 
 self-consciousness. B. considers Strauss, a mere 
 apologetical theologian, ' o- coriiparatively orthodox 
 writer ! and rega;rds his conclusions iSSth the super- 
 cUious Contempt of one who has reached a far 
 higher elevation, while he conceives that his oVm 
 special Work in this WPrld has been to sti-ike off the 
 last head pf the Hydra of the Traditiori-hypothesis. 
 The persecutions to *hich he was now subjected 
 brought about a complete rupture bPtweeii him 
 and the church j the cPhsequence of which was a 
 brochure entitled ' The Question of Liberty, and my 
 oim Private Affairs (Zurich, 1843). Then followed : 
 his Christianity Unveiled (Zurich, 1843), in which he 
 expressed the same conviction that he had previously 
 done in two ironioaltreatises-r^viz., that a dogmatic 
 rehgion was opposed to our self -consciousness. About 
 this time he broke with his old friends, the liberals, 
 by writing a pamphlet against the emancipation of 
 the Jews, Die Jiudenfrage (Brunswick,, 1843). This 
 tractate forms the transition point to the third period 
 
 of B.'s intellectual activity, in which he seems to have 
 abandoned theology altogether as something hope- 
 less. He now occupied hiihselE exclusively with 
 literature and political philosomy. The number 
 of his writings in this department is very great. 
 The principal are, History of (lie Politics,' Civil- 
 isation, and Enlightenment of the 18th Century 
 (Charlottenburg, 1843 — 1843)^; History of Germany 
 during the French Bevolution and the Eeign of 
 Napoleon (Charlottenburg, 1846), and History of 
 the French SevolutiOn until tlie Establishment of the 
 MepuUic (Leip. 1847). The prominent idea in the 
 whole of his works belonging to this period is, that 
 the failure of the popular and national struggles in 
 the 19th c. results from the essential weakness of 
 the 'enlightenment' of the 18th c. More lately, 
 B. has again returned to theology. In 1850 — 1851, 
 appeared his Critique of the Oospds and tlie History 
 of tlidr Origin, and his Critique of the Epistles of 
 St Paul, the latter of which the author considers 
 whoUy apocryphal, and written during the 2d c. 
 Besides the works mentioned, B. has composed 
 various other treatises on important points of 
 history, theology, and politics. All B.'s writings 
 exhibit great learning, industry, research, and 
 aomnen ; but are completely antagonistic to the 
 received opinions in theology, or to any form of 
 evangehoal religion. He is generally admitted to 
 be quicker in the discovery of error than of truth, 
 and to have a greater talent for overthrowing than 
 for building up. By his adversaries, he is regarded 
 as the Voltaire of modern Germany. 
 
 BAUGE, a town in the department of Maine- 
 et-Loire, !France, 23 nules east-north-east of Angers. 
 The English, under the Duke of Clarence, were 
 defeated here in 1421. Pop. 3189, who are engaged 
 in the manufacture of linens and woollens. 
 
 BATJHI'NIA, a genus of plants of the natural 
 order Leguminosce, sub-order Coesalpinece. The upper 
 petal is somewhat remote from the rest. The leaves 
 are generally divided into two lobes. The species are 
 natives of the warmer regions of both hemispheres, 
 and some of them are remarkable for the size and 
 beauty of their flowers. Most of them are twining 
 plants, or lianas, stretching from tree to tree in the 
 tropical forests; but some are small trees, as B. 
 porrecta, the Mountain Ebony of Jamaica, so called 
 from the colour of its wood. The inner bark of 
 B. racemosa (the Maloo Climber), of B. scandens, and 
 of B. parvijlora. East Indian species, is employed for 
 making ropes. B. retusa ana, B. emarginata, also 
 East Indian, exude a brownish coloured mild gum ; 
 whilst the astringent bark of B. variegata is used in 
 Malabar for taaming and dyeing leather, and also in 
 medicine. The leaves of various species are used in 
 Brazil as demulcent medicines, having mucilaginous 
 properties. — Livingstone mejjtions a species of B. in 
 South Africa, called the Mopang Tree. It is remark- 
 able for the little shade which its leaves afford. 
 They fold together, and stand nearly erect during 
 the heat of the day. On them the larvsE of a species 
 of Psylla cause a saccharine secretion, in circular 
 patches, beneath which the pupa of the insect is 
 found, r. The natives scrape it off, and eat it as a 
 dainty. ■ 
 
 BAUMGA'BTEN, Alexander Gottlieb, a clear 
 and acute thinker of the school of Wolf, was born at 
 Berlin on the l7th of July 1714, studied at Halle, 
 and in 1740 became Professor of Philosophy at 
 Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he died on the 26th 
 of May 1762. He is thefounder of ,^sthetics (q. v.) 
 as a systematic science of the beautiful, though his 
 mode of treatment is objected to by the more trans- 
 cendental Germans, as being piurely psychological; 
 that is to say, he makes sesthetics only, a portion of 
 
 757 
 
BAUMGAETEN-CEUSIUS— BAUR. 
 
 the philosophy of the senses, and contrasts it -with 
 logic, which belongs to the sphere of the reason. 
 The idea of a science of the beautiful first appears 
 in his treatise, De Nonnullis ad Foema Pertinentibus, 
 pubHshed at HaUe, 1735. In 1750—1758, he issued 
 two volumes of his JSsihetica, but his death hindered 
 the completion of the work. His writings in other 
 departments of philosophy are marked by clear- 
 ness and precision ; his Metaphysica (HaUe, 1739 ; 
 7th edition, 1779) is stiU considered one of the 
 most useful books for the study of the Wolfian 
 philosophy. 
 
 BATTMGAE,TEN-CE.USIUS, Ltowig Feied- 
 EICH Otto, a German theologian, bom at Merseburg, 
 1788, and died at Jena, 31st May 1843. He studied 
 theology at Leipsic, and in 1810 became university 
 preacher. In 1817, he was appointed Professor of 
 Theology at Jena, and always distinguished himself 
 as a champion of religious liberty, on behalf of which 
 he wrote various treatises. In 1820 appeared his 
 Introduction, to the Study of Dogmatics (Leip. 1820), 
 a work of considerable originality and richness of 
 thought. More complete exhibitions of his opinions 
 are to be found in his Manual of Christian Ethics 
 (Leip. 1827); Outlines of Biblical Theology (Jena, 1828); 
 and Outlines of Protestant Dogmatics (Jena, 1830). 
 In 1831—1832, he published a Text-booh of the His- 
 tory of Doctrines; in 1834, a work on Schleiermacher, 
 his Method of Tlioughi, and his Value; and also 
 Considerations on certain Writings of Lamennais. 
 After his death, Kimmel published the whole of his 
 exegetical prelections on the Gospels and Pauline 
 Epistles. 
 
 B. was conspicuous for the breadth and solidity 
 of his learning, the originality of his spirit, and the 
 acuteuess of ms understanding, but was nevertheless 
 deficient in clear and vivid expression. He attached 
 himself to no school theological or philosophical. 
 At an early period, he had been greatly influenced 
 by the metaphysics of ScheUing, from which, how- 
 ever, he ultimately emancipated himself. His think- 
 ing was, to a certain extent, rationalistic, but on the 
 whole approached more closely to the direction of 
 the spiritual Schleiermacher. 
 
 BATJMGARTNER, Andreas Eittbb von, or 
 Chevaiieb be, was born at Friedberg, in Bohemia, 
 23d November 1793, and studied at Vienna, where, 
 in 1823, he became Professor of Natural Philosophy, 
 having previously distinguished himseK in mathema- 
 tical and physical science. Whilst fillin g this office, 
 he gave popular lectures on Sundays upon mechanics, 
 ■&c., for artisans and operatives, which met with 
 much approbation. A result of these lectures was 
 his Meclianih in ihrer Anwendung auf Kunste und 
 Gewerbe (2d ed. Vienna, 1823), and his Naturlehre 
 (Vienna, 1823), a work which has done much 
 to popularise the natural sciences, and is much 
 used in the educational institutions of Germany. 
 An obstinate ailment of the throat induced him to 
 resign his prof essorship • in the university, but he 
 was immediately appointed director of the Imperial 
 Porcelain, Mirror-glass, and Smalt Manufactories, 
 and afterwards superintendent of tobacco n^ianufac- 
 tories. In the year 1846, the setting up of the 
 electric telegraph was committed to him, and he 
 was afterwards intrusted with the principal charge 
 of the making of the Austrian railways. After the 
 events of March 1848, he was for a short time Minis- 
 ter of Mines and of Public Buildings, and afterwards 
 chief of one of the departments in the Ministry of 
 Knauce. In May 1851, he was appointed Minister 
 of Commerce, Trade, and Public Bmldings. At the 
 same time, he was appointed president of the 
 Austrian Academy of Sciences, of which he had been 
 vice-president for a number of years. 
 
 B AXJE, PEEriNAND Cheistian, the founder of the 
 ' New Tilbingen School of Theology,' was bom on the 
 21st of June 1792. In 1817, he became professor in 
 the seminary of Blaubeuren, where he gave the first 
 indications of his remarkable abilities by the publi- 
 cation of his Symbolism and Mythology, or the Nature- 
 rdigion of theAncimts (Stuttgart, 3 vols., 1824 — 1825), 
 a work which indicates the influence of Schleier- 
 macher over the author. In 1826, he was called to 
 Tubingen, where he stiU holds the chair of Pro- 
 testant theology. His whole life has been con- 
 secrated to religious studies — ^the history of doc- 
 trines, the symbolism of the church, and biblical 
 exegesis. On account of the universality of his 
 culture, the wonderful activity and fertility of his 
 mind, his rare combination of speculatiye thought 
 with solid knowledge, and that faculty of historic 
 divination or insight, which enables him to draw 
 decisive results from separate, obscure, and neglected 
 data — he has been regarded by many in Germany 
 as the most massive theological intellect siuce 
 Schleiermacher. Unlike Bruno Bauer, he makes 
 comparatively little use of the Hegelian philosophy 
 in his writings ; and when he does, it is professedly 
 only that he may more clearly understand historical 
 phenomena in their internal spiritual connection, 
 and be enabled to represent the logical process of 
 their development. Hia method of investigating the 
 progressive history of religious opinion has, however, 
 incurred the reproach of formalism from its adver- 
 saries, who say that he applies it too rigorously, and 
 makes dogmas develop themselves with a kind of 
 abstract inevitable regularity from previous histori- 
 cal conditions, without allowing for immediate and 
 extraordinary providences. Hia most important 
 works in the history of doctrine are — Die christliche 
 Oruosis Oder die chrisSiclie Beligionsphilosophie 
 (Tubingen, 1835), (The Christian Gnosis, or the 
 Christian Philosophy of Religion) ; a work which 
 makes the Christian Gnosis of the 2d and 3d cen- 
 turies the starting-point of a long series of religio- 
 phUosophical productions traceable uninterruptedly 
 down through middle-age mysticism and theosophy 
 to ScheUing, Hegel, and Schleiermacher; Die christ- 
 liche Lehre von der Versohnung (Tubingen, 1838), 
 (The Christian Doctrine of the Atonement) ; and Die 
 christlidie Lehre von der DreieinigTceit und Menscli- 
 werdung Gottes (Tubingen, 1841—1843), (The Christian 
 Doctrine of the Trinity and the Incarnation). In 
 reply to Miihler, the celebrated Roman Catholic 
 theologian, who had attacked the Protestant Church, 
 he wrote Der Oegensaiz des Catholicismns und Protest- 
 antisrmis_ (Tubingen, 1836), (The Opposition between 
 Catholicism and Protestantism). Besides these 
 works, based on a historical treatment of religion, 
 to which class also belongs his Lehrbuch der christ- 
 lichen Dogmengeschichte (Compendium of the History 
 of Christian Dogmas), (Stuttgart, 1847), he has pub- 
 lished various critical treatises on parts of the New 
 Testament ; such as. Die Olwistuspartei in der Kor- 
 inthischen OemAnde; der Qegensatz des Paulinischen 
 und Petrinischen Christenthums ; der Apostd Petrus 
 in Rome (1831), (The Christ-party in the Corinthian 
 Community; the Opposition of the Pauhne and 
 Petriue Christianity; the Apostle Peter in Rome), a 
 work in which the author endeavours to demonstrate 
 the existence of deep-rooted differences in that 
 sphere of primitive Christianity, in which we are 
 accustomed to see nothing but unity and harmony. 
 His inquiries concerning the Gnosis led him to 
 study minutely the pastoral epistles, the result of 
 which study was Die sogenannten Pastor alhriefe des 
 Apostels Paulus (Stuttgart, 1835), (The So-caUed 
 Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul), in which he 
 combats the idea that St Paul was their author, 
 and refers them to the 2d c. Of a similar nature 
 
BATTTAnS-^BAVARIA. 
 
 is his Paulus, der Apoaid Jem Ohristi (Stuttgart, 
 1845), (Paul, the Apostle of Jesus Christ). His 
 work on the Gospel o£ John produced a start- 
 ling effect, as up to B.'s time that gospel had 
 generally been held prior in date to the three 
 synoptic gospels, whereas B. strove hard to shew 
 that it was of post-apostolio origin. la 1847, ap- 
 peared his Kridsche Untersuchungen iiber die canon- 
 ischm Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss zueinander, ihren 
 Ursprung und Cliarakter (Critical Inquiry Concern- 
 ing the Canonical Gospels ; their Edation to each 
 other; their Origin and Character). In 1851, he 
 published Das Markua-eoangelium nach aemem Ur- 
 spi-ung und Gharakter (The Origin and Character of 
 St Mark's Gospel). B. died December 1860. In these 
 and other works of a similar nature, B. maintains that 
 we must extend our notions of the time within which 
 the canonical writings were composed to a period 
 considerably post-apostolic, and which can only be 
 determined approximately by a careful investigation 
 of the motives which apparently actuated their 
 authors. The chief characteristic, therefore, of the 
 ' Tubingen School,' as exhibited in the works of its 
 founder, is, the union of a subjective criticism with 
 a^ strong conviction of the historic reality of the 
 New Testament writings. The most distinguished 
 adherents of this new school of German theology 
 are Zeller, Sohwegler, KBsthn, and Hilgenfeld. 
 
 BAUTAIN, Loxjis-EuGBNB- Marie, a French 
 philosopher and theologian, bom at Paris, February 
 17, 1796. He studied under Cousin at the Normal 
 SchooL In 1816, he was appointed professor of 
 philosophy in the College of Strasbourg, and soon 
 distinguished himself by the influence he exerted 
 over the earnest youth of that city, who carried their 
 admiration even to the length of imitating his walk 
 and dress. The religious tendencies of his character, 
 however, not finding a satisfactory expression in 
 philosophy, he threw himself into the arms of the 
 church, and became a priest in 1828. After the 
 events of 1830, he resigned his professorship, which 
 imtil then he had retained; but his reputation for 
 orthodoxy, never very strong, had been destroyed in 
 the eyes of his bishop by his work La Morale de 
 VEvangUe comparee & la Morale des PMlosophes, 
 published a few years before, and he was in conse- 
 quence suspended from sacred oflBces for several 
 years, but reinstated in 1841. In 1838, he was made 
 dean of the Faculty of Letters at Strasbourg, and 
 afterwards director of the College of JuiUy. At a 
 stUl later period, he was translated to Paris, and 
 appointed vicar-general of the metropolitan diocese. 
 li 1848, he attempted to give a religious direction to 
 the revolution. He has recently been selected as one 
 of the professors of the Theological Faculty of Paris, 
 is also an extremely popular preacher, and has 
 gathered round him a large number of disciples. His 
 priucipal works are — Pmlosophie-ysycliologie ExpSri- 
 mentMe (1839), Philosophie Morale (1842), Philosoplde 
 du Ghristianisme (1835), La Sdigion et la Liberty 
 considerees dans leurs Sapports (1848). 
 
 BAU'TZBN, or, in official language, BU'MSSnST, 
 capital of the circle of the same name, kingdom 
 of Saxony. It has a population stated at from 
 9000 — 12,000, including many Wends, renmants 
 of the old Vandals. It is situated on a rising- 
 ground overlooking the river Spree, and is the 
 seat of the chief offices of justice in the circle, 
 which has a population of about SOOjOOO, includ- 
 ing 30,000 Wends. It has several churches, a 
 royal palace — formerly the residence of the mark- 
 grafs of Meissen — numerous schools, and two 
 public libraries and a hospital. The cMef branches 
 of industry are manufactures of woollens, fustian, 
 linen, hosiery, leather, and gunpowder. B. is a 
 
 place of considerable antiquity, and was known in 
 the time of Henry I. (931), but was first made a town 
 under Otho I. Its several privileges, and the repu- 
 tation of certain holy relics preserved in St Peter's 
 Church, made the place important. It suffered 
 
 freatly in the war with the Hussites, and stDl more 
 uring the Thirty Years' War. Meissner, the poet, 
 who died in 1805, was bom here. B., however, is 
 chiefly celebrated as the place where Napoleon, with 
 an army of 150,000 men, after an obstinate resistance, 
 won a barren victory over 90,000 of the aBied Rus- 
 sians and Prussians, May 20—21, 1813. The allies 
 lost IQ the two days 15,000 in killed and wounded ; 
 in addition to 1500 prisoners, mostly wounded, which 
 the French captured. The French left 5000 dead 
 upon the field, and upwards of 20,000 were wounded. 
 The result of the battle, and the splendid retreat of 
 the aUies, were most disheartening to the French 
 army, and even to Napoleon himself. 
 
 BAVA'KIA (Ger. Baiem, and officially, Bayem), 
 one of the confederated states of Germany ; accord- 
 ing to its size, the third in importance. B. is divided 
 into two unequal parts, which are separated by the 
 Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt dominions. The east- 
 ern portion, comprising fuUy eleven-twelfths of the 
 whole, is situated between lat. 47° 20', and 50° 
 41' N., and long. 9° and 13° 48' E. It is bounded 
 N. by Hesse-Cassel, Saxe-Meiaingen, "Weimar, the 
 principality of Keuss, and the kingdom of Saxony ; 
 E., by Bohemia and Austria; S., by the Tyrol; and 
 W., by WUrtemburg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 The western part, occupying the Rhine Palati- 
 nate, on the left bank of the Bhine, lies between 
 lat. 48° 57' and 49° 50' N., and between 7° 5' and 
 8° 27' E. Ehenish Prussia, Hesse-Darmstadt, and 
 Baden bound it on the W., N., and E., and France 
 on the S. 
 
 B. is divided into eight circles, the area and 
 population of which the foUowing table shews. 
 
 Circles. 
 
 Area in sq. milefl. 
 
 Pop. in 1858. 
 
 Upper Bavaria, . 
 
 . 6,493 
 
 757,989 
 
 Lower « 
 
 4,091 
 
 567,001 
 
 Palatinate, . 
 
 . 2,272 
 
 595,129 
 
 Upper Palatuiate, 
 
 3,679 
 
 479,341 
 
 Upper Franconia, 
 
 . 2,632 
 
 609,770 
 
 Middle 
 
 2,914 
 
 537,492 
 
 Lower » 
 
 . 3,409 
 
 598,534 
 
 Swabia, . 
 
 3,648 
 
 570,492 
 
 Total, . 
 
 29,138 
 
 4,615,748 
 
 Surface, Hydrography, EaUways, &c. — ^B. may be 
 described as a mountainous country. It is waUed 
 in on the south-east,. north-east, and north-west by 
 mountains ranging from 3000 feet to upwards of 
 10,000 feet in height. The highest elevation is 
 reached on the south, the Zugspitz of the None Alps 
 being 10,150 feet high. On the east, the highest 
 points of the Bohmerwald, dividing B. from Bohemia, 
 are the Arber and Eachelberg, which are respectively 
 4613 feet and 4561 feet high. On the north-east, the 
 Schneeberg, in the Fichtelgebirge range, attains a 
 height of &81 feet. A branch of this chain, which 
 is connected on the north-west with the Thuringer- 
 wald, extends south between the rivers Kegnitz and 
 VOs. TheKhongebirge, thegreatestheightof whichis 
 3000 feet, forms the northernmost chain of Bavaria. 
 In the Rhine Palatuiate, the principal mountain 
 is the Hardt, whose culminating peak is about 2300 
 feet highi In the interior, B. is intersected in several 
 directions by various less elevated ranges, alternat- 
 ing with extensive plains and fertile valleys. B. is 
 rich in wood, nearly one-third of its surface being 
 covered with forests, mostly of pine and fir. 
 
 As to its hydrography, B. has the Rhine flowing 
 Sklong the whole eastern boundary of the circle of 
 
 769 
 
BAVARIA. 
 
 the Palatinate, which is also watered by the Speyer, 
 the Lauter, and the Queioh. The Daauhe enters 
 B. Proper at TJhn, where it is joined by the OQler, 
 and pursues its course in an east-north-east direction 
 through the centre of the country, until it passes 
 out at Passau into the Austrian dominions. Includ- 
 ing its windings, the length, of the Danube i in B. 
 is about 270 mUesj which can be navigated through^ 
 out. In its passage throughi B., it receives mo fewer 
 than 38 rivers, the chief of which, on the right bank, 
 are, besides the Iller, alreadyi mentioned, the Lech, 
 the Isar, and the Inn ; and on the left, the Womitz, 
 the Altmlihl, the Kocher, the Naab; the Kegen, 
 and the Ilz. The north part of B. is in the basin of 
 the Main, which, rising in the north, flows i with 
 many windings through the kingdom in a south- 
 west direction to the Khine, with which it unites 
 at Mayence. ■ Its most important tributaries are ^e 
 Regnitz, the Eodach, the Tauber, and the Saale. 
 B. has several lakes, the principal of which are the 
 Chiem, which has a circuiaference of 35 miles ; the 
 Wurm, with a length of 14 miles, and a breadth 
 of 4 ntules; and the Ammer, with a circuit of 27 
 miles. These lakes are situated in the south, at the 
 foot of the northern slope of the Noric Alps. A 
 corner of Lake Constance also belongs to Bavaria. 
 The lakes and rivers abound in fish. There are 
 a few canals in the country, the most important 
 of which is the Lvdwigs-Kanal, which, taldng 
 advantage of the rivers Main, Regnitz, and Altmiihl, 
 unites the Rhine and Danube, and through them, 
 the German Ocean with the Black Sea. This canal 
 was executed by government at a cost of upwards of 
 £800,000. B. has altogether only about 330 miles 
 of railway in operation. The longest is that between 
 Augsburg and Lindau on Lake Constance, a distance 
 of 80 miles. These lines join Munich with Augs- 
 burg, Donauworth, Niirnberg, Bamberg, Ulm, and 
 Kufetein. B. has nearly 6000 miles of public roads, 
 but many of these are in very bad condition. 
 
 Climate, Soil, ProdiKts, &c. — The temperature of 
 B. varies considerably, being cold and bleak in the 
 mountainous regions, and very hot in summer 
 in the plains and valleys. The climate may be 
 described geieraUy, however, as mild and salubrious. 
 The sod, particularly in the valleys of . the Upper 
 and Lower Danube, is very fertile, second to none 
 ia Central Germany; bxit its capabilities as yet have 
 not been fully developed, although even now the 
 wealth of the country consists almost whoUy of 
 its agricultural produce. The plain south of Munich 
 has been described as the granary of Germany, in 
 consequence of its great productiveness, while the 
 circles of Upper and Middle Franconia are styled 
 the hop-garden of Bavaria. Wheat, rye, oats, and 
 barley are the chief articles of produce, but buck- 
 wheat, maize, and rice are also grown to a small 
 extent. The vine, as well as the hop-plant, is culti- 
 vated extensively in Franconia, and the wine is held 
 in great esteem. Rhenish B. also produces good 
 wine. The quantity annually produced in B. is 
 estimated at upwards of 7,000,000 gallons. Fruit, 
 tobacco, flax, hemp, linseed, liquorice, and beet-root 
 are cultivated. ' Cattle -rearing forms the exclu- 
 sive occupation of the inhabitants on the slopes 
 and at the foot of the Alps, pasturage being found 
 at an elevation of 8500 feet. Sheep, goats, and 
 pigs are reared in Middle and Upper Franconia, 
 and horses chiefly in Upper B. and Swabia, but the 
 live-stock is far from being adequate to the extent 
 and capacity of the country. The forests ■ of B. 
 annually furnish large quantities of timber. The 
 soil is rich in mineral wealth, which as yet has not 
 been drawn upon to anything like its full extent. 
 The chief minerals are salt — which is a government 
 monopoly, and obtained by evaporation, principally 
 
 from the rich mines in the south-east comer of the 
 Alps — coal, and iron, which is worked almost every- 
 where throughout the territory. In Rhenish B., 
 copper, manganese,' mercury, and cobalt are found; 
 quicksHver and black-lead are obtained in some 
 places ; marble in great variety ,is common, so also 
 are gypsum, alabaster, and some of the finest porce- 
 lain clay in Europe. 
 
 Manufactures, &c. — The manufacturing industry 
 of B., like its agriculture, is generally in an undfe^ 
 veloped state, and not centered in the hands of 
 capitalists, who can largely take advantage of. new 
 inventions to prosecute it with energy and success, but 
 distributed among numerous small manufacturers. 
 
 This is not the case with beer, the manufacture of 
 which is carried to great perfection in B., and to an 
 extent, if we take population into account, qmte 
 unparalleled in Europe. There are upwards of 
 5600 breweries in B., making nearly 100 million 
 gallons of beer annually, which are mainly con- 
 sumed in the coimtry,the quantity of beer that a 
 Bavarian can imbibe being quite marvellous. Nearly 
 two-thirds of the revenue of the state are said to 
 be derived from this source alone. Next to beer, 
 coarse linen is the most important product of manu- 
 facturing industry, and of late years some consider- 
 able cotton-factories have been erected; but the 
 supply of cotton, woollen, and worsted goods is not 
 equal to the home consumption. Lealier is pretty 
 extensively manufactured, so also are paper, articles 
 of straw and wood, porcelain, glass, nails, needles, 
 jewellery, beet-root, sugar, and tobacco. The 
 mathematical and optical instruments of Mimich 
 are held in high repute. The exports consist of 
 timber, grain, wine, cattle, wool, salt, hops, fruits, 
 beer, leather, glass, jewellery, optical and , mathe- 
 matical instruments, butter, cheese, &o. The annual 
 value of these is estimated at about £1,230,000. The 
 principal imports are sugar, coffee, woollens, silks, 
 stuffs, drugs, hemp, and flax. The position of B. 
 gives it the transit trade between North Germany 
 and Austria, Switzerland and Italy. 
 
 Population, Religion, Education. — The growth of 
 the population of B. is much checked by the regula- 
 tions which I relate to marriages. No marriage can 
 take place until the authorities who superintend the 
 relief of the poor are fuUy satisfied that the persons 
 wishing to marry have adequate means to support 
 a wife and fanuly; and certain military obfiga- 
 tions have also to be fulfilled before a man can 
 enter into wedlock. These restrictive laws have 
 another consequence besides that of preventing a 
 rapid increase of the population ; they have tended 
 to increase inordinately the number of illegitimate 
 children. B. has a very bad pre-eminence in this 
 respect on the continent. In the capital, the illegiti- 
 mate births about equal the legitimate; and over 
 the whole kingdom the proportion ranges from 1 in 
 4'5 to 1 in 5 of the total births, equal to a percentage 
 of from 22J to 20 illegitimate births. In 1817, 
 the population was 3,564,757; in 1833, 4,187,390; 
 and in 1855, it had only increased to 4,541,556. 
 During the last three years, however, the increase 
 has been more rapid, the population in 1858 
 amounting to 4,615,748. The Bavarians, notwith- 
 standing their beer-bibbing propensity, are essen- 
 tially a sober and industrious people. Though aU of 
 German origin, they differ materially in character. 
 The Franconians ai'e intelligent, diligent, and steady; 
 the Swabians, good-naturedly indolent; and the 
 inhabitants of the Palatinate, lively and enter- 
 prising; while the Bavarians proper are dull and 
 superstitious. 
 
 As to religion, in 1852, the Roman Cathohcs 
 numbered 3,176,333; Protestants, 1,233,894; Jews, 
 56,033; and other minor sects, 5560. The state 
 
BAVARIA. 
 
 allows perfect toleration,- gmaranteeing the same 
 civil rights to Catholic and Protestant alike. 
 Individuals of every sect have the privilege: of 
 worshipping privately -vi-ithout fear i of molestation; 
 and on apphcation to the king hy a, sufficient 
 numher of families, the right of public worship can 
 he secured. A concordat with Kome divides the 
 state into 2 archbishoprics and 6 bishopries. The 
 consistories of Anspaoh, Baireuth, and Speyer; under 
 the superior "Consistory of Munich, govern the 
 Lutheran Church,; the Miuiich consistory being in 
 some degree subject to a section in the home depart- 
 ment, which manages the temporal concerns of all 
 the churches. The president of the Munich consistory 
 has a seat and vote in the council of the state. The 
 revenues of the Church of Rome are derived from 
 lands and endowments, the R-otestant Church is sup- 
 ported by the state, which also contributes towards 
 the maintenance of the poorest of the Roman Catholic 
 priests. ■ 
 
 B. has a good system of education, under the 
 supreme direction of a minister of public instruc- 
 tion, to whom certain members of the provincial 
 governments, specially instructed to watch the edu- 
 cational interests of the communities, are subordi- 
 nate. They, again, have numerous inspectors under 
 them, Who make systematic reports as to the state 
 of' education in the country. It is obligatory on aU 
 children, whose parents have not received permis- 
 sion to have them educated at home, to attend 
 school until they are 14 years of age, and they are 
 then required to attend a Sunday school for two 
 years longer. B. has three universities, Munich and 
 Wiirzburg, which are Catholic, and Mangeu, Pro- 
 testant. These universities are well attended both 
 byinatives and foreigners.. Munich has the greatest 
 repute both at home and abroad, Erlangen the least. 
 There are numerous schools for speciM instruction 
 in the kingdom. 
 
 Government, Hevenue, &c. — ^B. is a constitutional 
 monarchy, ! the throne hereditary in the male line. 
 Its constitution datefe no furtherback than 1818, 
 when it was declared a part of confederated 
 Germany. The king is the executive. The legis- 
 lature consists of a chamber of senators, and one of 
 deputies. The senators are hereditary^ the king, 
 however, having the power, within certain limits, 
 to nominate members for life. The Chamber of 
 Deputies consists of five different classes— one-eighth 
 of the whole members being chosen from landed 
 proprietors, who exercise judicial powers in right 
 of their property, and have no seat in the upper 
 house; another eighth if roni ecclesiastics of the 
 Protestant and Roman Catholic churches ; a fourth 
 from the inhabitants of cities and market towns; 
 and a half from landed proprietors who neither 
 possess judicial rightsy nor a seat , in the other 
 chamber. There are, besides, three members from 
 the universities — one from each. There is one 
 member in the Chamber of Deputies for every 7000 
 families, or .35,000 inhabitants. In the event of 
 there not being a dissolution, the chamber lasts for 
 six years. The usual length of the annual session is 
 two months. The charobers, in ordinary circum- 
 stances, meet once a year for the dispatch of busi- 
 ness, and it is compulsory on the king to summon 
 them once in three years. No dehberation can 
 take place unless two-thirds of the deputies are 
 present. All matters relating to public burdens, 
 &c., come first imder the consideration of the 
 Chamber of Deputies; with reference to other 
 questions, the king exercises his own discretion as 
 to which chamber shall first discuss them. No 
 alteration in taxation, and no new law, can be pro- 
 mulgated without the consent of the legislature ; 
 but the royal prerogative is loosely defined. 
 
 The cabinet consists of seven members, chiefs of 
 the departments of foreign affairs, justice, home 
 affairs,, public worship and instruction, finance, com- 
 merce, and public works and war. They are not 
 necessarily members of the chambers, though they 
 are privileged to be present at the dehberations. 
 The privy council is composed of the Idng, certain 
 royal princes, the ministers of state, and six council- 
 lors nominated by the king. 
 
 The reuenue of B. in 1856 amounted to 39,597,415 
 florins of the Rhine (£3,299,784), of which 
 7,317,421 florins were raised by direct taxation, 
 15,810,000 florins by indirect taxation, the rest 
 chiefly from . domains and state monopoUes. The 
 expenditure diming the same year amounted to 
 41,396,862 florins (£3,449,738), leaving a deficiency 
 of revenue to the extent of £149,964. The interest 
 on the national debt swallowed up about 31 per 
 cent, of the whole expenditiu'e ; the army, 22i per 
 cent. ; and the educational establishments, about 19J 
 per cent. In 1855, the public debt amounted to 
 134,045,964 florins (£11,170,497), and the debt on 
 railways to 72,369,700 florins (£6,030,808). Total, 
 £17,201,305. In 1858, the public debt had decreased 
 to 122,839,495 florins, and the debt on railways had 
 increased to 88,643,834 florins. 
 
 The army of B. is raised by conscription. Every 
 male in the kingdom — with the exception of the 
 clergy, and the sons of parents who have lost three 
 sons in the service, or the only surviving son of 
 those who have lost two in a simOar way, and 
 generally those upon whom the maintenance of a 
 family entirely depends — is liable to be balloted. 
 The period of service is four years— from the age of 
 21 to 25. The militia includes all between the ages 
 of 19 and 60 who have not been drafted into the 
 ranks of the active or reserve army. The army in 
 May 1859 was composed of 151,494 infantry, 
 23,953 cavalry, 26,104 artillery, \?ith 136 guns and 
 2684 engineers— total,, 204,235. Of these, there 
 belonged to the reserve force, 74,916 infantry, 
 14,075 cavalry, 11,235 artillery, and 1198 engineers 
 — total, 101,424 ; leaving an active force of 102,811 
 men. In 1858, the active force was 87,237, so that 
 15,574 was added during the year. B. furnishes 
 35,600 men, and 72 guns, to the confederated army. 
 History. — The Boii, a race of Celtic origin, were 
 the first inhabitants of B. of whom tradition 
 furnishes any account. From them, its German 
 name, Baiern, as well as its old Latin name, Boiaria, 
 is said to have been derived They appear to 
 have conquered the country about 600 b. c, and 
 they retained it until shortly before the Christian 
 era, when they were subjugated by the Romans ; 
 the country being made an integral part of the 
 Roman empire, under the names of Vindelicia 
 and Noricum. After the decay of the Roman 
 power, the Ostrogoths and Franks successively held 
 possession of it, until Charlemagne conquered it. 
 After his death, it was governed by lieutenants of 
 the Frank and German kings, until 1070, when it 
 passed into possession of the Guelph family ; and it 
 was transferred by imperial grant, in 1180, to Otho, 
 Count of Wittlesbach, whose descendant now 
 occupies the throne. The Rhenish Palatinate was 
 conferred on this family by the Emperor Frederick 
 III. in 1216. Now followed quarrels between rela- 
 tives, and divisions of territory, until the dukedom 
 of B. was severed from the Rhenish and Upper 
 Palatinates (see Palatinate); of the latter, how- 
 ever, it repossessed itself in 1621 — the peace of 
 Westphalia, in 1648, confirming the title of its 
 princes to that possession, as well as its right to the 
 electoral dignity to which it had been raised in 
 1624. In the war of the Spanish Succession, B. 
 supported France, and suffered considerably in 
 
 761 
 
BAVABIA— BAXTER. 
 
 consequence; but in 1777, on the extinction of tlie 
 younger Wittlesbacli line, it received the accession 
 of the Rhine Palatinate. In 1805, B. was erected 
 into a kingdom by Napoleon I. The king assisted 
 Napoleon in his wars, and in consideration of his 
 aid received large additions of territory. In 1813, 
 however, the Bavarian king opportunely contrived 
 to change sides, and thus managed to have con- 
 firmed to him, by the treaties of 1814—1815, an 
 extent of territory nearly as valuable as the posses- 
 sions which the treaties of Presburg and Vienna had 
 given him, and which he had now to restore to 
 Austria. 
 
 In 1818, as already intimated, the new constitu- 
 tion came into existence, but owing to various 
 causes, it did not secure that measure of popular 
 freedom and contentment that had been expected. 
 In 1825, Louis I. ascended the throne. He was 
 a well-meaning, liberal, and intellectual monarch, 
 and was favourable to the liberty of the people 
 and the press ; but he lavished the wealth of the 
 kingdom to an extravagant degree on the embellish- 
 ment of the capital, and on works of art, whUe he 
 neglected to a considerable extent works of practi- 
 cal value, that would have tended to enrich the 
 country, diminish the public burdens, and conse- 
 quently increase the welfare of his people. In 1830, 
 a wave from the French revolution swept over the 
 country, disturbing its equanimity, but not to any 
 serious extent. The Bavarian government, however, 
 toot alarm, and restricted the freedom of the press. 
 These restrictions excited so much opposition, that 
 they were soon after rescinded, but new dissatisfac- 
 tion was created by the imposition of new taxes. 
 The Jesuits now obtained an immense influence with 
 the king, which they used to the detriment of popu- 
 lar rights. The wrath of the people was further 
 aroused against their monarch by his connection 
 with the notorious Lola Montez, who was looked 
 upon as an agent of the Ultramontanists — an 
 imputation which that lady, in her autobiography, 
 published in 1858, indignantly repudiates, maintain- 
 ing that she was the inveterate enemy of that party, 
 and the true friend of the people. In March 1848, 
 following the example set by the French revolution- 
 ists, the people of Munich seized the arsenal, and 
 demanded reforms and the expulsion of Lola 
 Montez. The king had to consent; but in the 
 same month he abdicated his throne, in accordance, 
 says Lola Montez, with a promise, made by him to 
 her before she was forced to flee the country. His 
 son, Maximilian II., the present king, immediately 
 ascended the throne. His reign, so far, has been 
 distinguished by nothing remarkable. 
 
 BAVA'EIA, a colossal female statue at Munich, 
 which bears the name of the country of which it is 
 a personification, is said to be second in size only to 
 the famous Colossus of Rhodes. It was erected by 
 the late king, Louis, the model having been executed 
 by Schwanthaler. Externally, the figure bears a 
 German aspect. A long folding garment reaches from 
 the middle to the naked foot ; over the half -naked 
 breast a skin is oast, and the hair falls freely over 
 the back. The brow is adorned with sprigs of oak; 
 in the left hand, which is raised, she holds a 
 wreath of oak; and in the right, which is bent 
 towards the breast, a sword ; at her side reposes the 
 Bavarian Hon, the guardian of her kingdom, in a 
 sitting attitude. The statue is 65 feet high, the 
 pedestal being 30, so that the whole monument has 
 a height of 95 feet. The statue was cast' from the 
 bronze of Turkish and Norwegian cannon. Inter- 
 naEy, it is very remarkable. Through the back 
 part of the pedestal, a door leads to a stone stair- 
 case, consisting of 60 steps. The figure itself is 
 hollow, and resembles a nmie, with side-passages 
 
 762 
 
 which lead into the lion. A staircase of cast iron, 
 of 58 steps, leads through the neck up into the head, 
 where there are two sofas, and several openings for 
 the enjoyment of the view. At the highest part of 
 the head, there is the following inscription : ' This 
 Colossal figure, erected by Louis I., King of Bavaria, 
 was designed and modelled by L. von Schwanthaler, 
 and cast in bronze, in the years 1844 to 1850, by 
 Ferdinand Miller.' The head contains standing- 
 room for thirty-one persons. The whole figure 
 consists of seven pieces, and the Hon, of five. The 
 monument was formally uncovered, amidst great 
 rejoicings, on the 7th August 1850. 
 
 BA' VINS, in the pyroteohny of warfare, are small 
 bundles of easily ignited brushwood, from two to 
 three feet in length. They are made by arranging 
 the bush-ends of the twigs aU in one direction, 
 tying the other ends with small cord, dipping the 
 bush-ends into a kettle containing an inflammable 
 composition, and drying them. They are employed 
 among the combustible materials in fire-ships. 
 
 BAWBEE', or BA'BEE', the popular designation 
 of a half-penny in Scotland, now dropping out of 
 use. The origin of the term is obscure; but it 
 is most probably a corruption of tas billon, Fr., 
 applicable to debased copper money. In the plural 
 form, the word is often popularly used in Scotland 
 to signify money generally. In Scottish song, B. 
 is synonymous with a girl's fortune or marriage- 
 portion — as, Jenny's Bawbee. 
 
 BA'XTBE, Richard, one of the most eminent of 
 the Nonconformist divines, was bom, November 12, 
 1615, of poor but genteel parents, at Rowton, in Shrop- 
 shire. His early education was somewhat neglected. 
 Instead of attending, as he wished, one of the uni- 
 versities, he was obliged to content himself with a, 
 course of private study, in the inidst of which he 
 was induced, singularly enough, for he was habit- 
 ually serious, to try his fortune at court. Hither 
 he accordingly hied, fortified with an introduction 
 to the Master of the Revels. A month sufficed 
 to convince him that he was out of his element at 
 Whitehall, and a protracted illness after his return 
 helped to deepen the earnestness of his rehgious 
 convictions. Soon after, at the age of 23, he was 
 ordained, and entered on the Mastership of Dudley 
 Grammar School, from which he removed to act as 
 assistant to a clergyman at Bridgenorth, where he 
 resided nearly two years. In 1640, he was invited 
 to become parish clergyman of Kidderminster, an 
 offer which he accepted; and within a compar- 
 atively brief period, not only did he establish his 
 reputation as one of the most remarkable preachers 
 of the time, but what was better, succeeded in 
 effecting a wonderful improvement in the manners of 
 the people. On the breaking out of the civil war, 
 his position became somewhat peculiar. Sincerely 
 attached to monarchy, his reHgious sympathies were 
 almost wholly with the Puritans ; and though a 
 Presbyterian in principle, he was far from admitting 
 the unlawfulness of episcopacy. These views, which, 
 some time before the Restoration,, became extremely 
 popular, were now too cathoUc for the general taste, 
 and the open respect shewn by Baxter to some 
 leading Puritans exposed him to some danger from 
 the mob. He accordingly retired to Coventry, 
 where he ministered for two years to the garrison 
 and inhabitants. He afterwards accepted the office 
 of chaplain to Colonel WhaUey's regiment, and was 
 even present at the sieges of Bridgewater, Exeter, 
 Bristol, and Worcester. His influence was at aU 
 times exerted to modify the intolerance of partisan- 
 ship, and to promote 'the spirit of love and of a 
 sound mind.' On the urgent invitation of his parish- 
 ioners, he returned to Kidderminster, when iU 
 
BAXTERIANS— BAYA. 
 
 health forced him to leave the army, and continued 
 to labour there for some time. During this 
 period, he greatly extended his fame by the pub- 
 lication of his Sainti Rest and GcM to t/ie Uncon- 
 verted. He never dissembled his sentiments with 
 regard to the execution of the king and the usur- 
 pation of Cromwell, even in the presence of the 
 Protector himself, who endeavoured, without success, 
 to enlarge his ideas on the subject of revolutions. 
 On the return of Charles, B. was appointed one 
 of his chaplains, and took a leading part in the con- 
 ference held at the Savoy to attempt a reconciliation 
 between the contending church factions, a project 
 defeated by the bigoted obstinacy of the bishops. 
 B. was tempted with the offer of the see of Hereford, 
 but decHned the honour, praying instead to be per- 
 mitted to return to his bdoved flock at Kidder- 
 minster. He asked no salary, but his request was 
 refused. The Act of Uniformity at length drove 
 him out of the English Church, and in July 1663 he 
 retired to Acton, in Middlesex, where he spent the 
 greater part of nine years, chiefly occupied in the 
 composition of some of the most important of his 
 numerous works. These he produced with a rapid- 
 ity unparalleled in modem generations, at least in 
 this one respect, that the quality was not always 
 in the inverse ratio of the quantity. The Act of 
 Indulgence in 1672 permitted Viim to return to 
 London, where ha divided his tune between preach- 
 ing and writing. At length, in 1685, lie fell into 
 the brutal clutches of Judge Jefferies, who (Con- 
 demned him, for alleged 'sedition' in his Paraphrase 
 qf ilm New Testament, to pay a fine of SCO marks, 
 and in default, to lie in the King's Bench Prison tiQ 
 it was paid. The circumstances of the trial are 
 graphically described by Macaulay in the second 
 volume of his History. After a confinement of 
 nearly eighteen months, B. was released and par- 
 doned, on the mediation of Lord Powis. He lived 
 after this to see better times, and died on the 8th 
 December 1691, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. 
 
 B, is said to have preached more sermons, engaged 
 in more controversies, and written more books 
 than any other Nonconformist of his age; and Dr 
 Isaac Barrow has said of him, that 'his practical 
 writiogs were never mended, and his conteoversial 
 seldom confuted.' The total number of his pubh- 
 cations exceeded 160. Of these, by far the most 
 popular and celebrated are his Saints' Best, Coil to 
 the Unconverted, and Dying Thoughts — 20,000 copies 
 of which were sold in a twelvemonth, and it was 
 translated into all European languages. More import- 
 ant, hpwever, in a theological point of view, are his 
 MeOwdus Theologi(E and GaihMc Theology, in which 
 his peculiar system — a compromise between Armin- 
 ius and Calvin — is embodied. 3EIis autobiographical 
 narrative is historically valuable ; the review of his 
 religious opinions is spoken of by Coleridge as one 
 of the most remarkable pieces of writing in religious 
 Lterature. A complete edition of his works, in 
 65 vols., with a hfe by Orme, was published . in 
 1830. His Practical Works, in 4 vols., were pub- 
 lished in 1847. 
 
 BAXTE'RIANS is the term that was formerly 
 appHed to those who adhered to Baxter's theo- 
 logical system, the peculiar doctrines of which were : 
 1st, That though Christ died in a special sense 
 for the elect, yet he also died in a general sense 
 for all; 2d, The rejection of the dogma of reproba- 
 tion; 3d, That it is possible even for saints to 
 fall away from saving grace. The tendency of 
 Baxter's views was towards a more liberal theology, 
 but they are deficient in logical consistency. Never- 
 theless, they have been, and still are, embraced by 
 many pious people — especially among the dissenters 
 ■—who shrink from accepting what they consider 
 
 the hard conclusions of Calvinism, or the latitu- 
 dinarian views of Arminianism. The two most 
 eminent B. are Dr Isaac Watts and Dr Philip 
 Doddridge. 
 
 BAY (from a Saxon root, 'to, bend') is properly 
 applied to an indentation of the sea into the land, 
 with an opening wider than the depth. A gulf is 
 understood to be deeper than a bay, and has often a 
 narrow opening. These terms are often loosely 
 a^pplied ; Baffin s Bay, e. g., is really a gulf. When 
 the body of water is large, and the entrance narrow, 
 it becomes a shut sea, as the Baltic, the Bed Sea, 
 &c. Hudson's Bay, the Persian Gulf, and the Gulf 
 of Mexico, might with propriety be termed seas. 
 
 BAY, a name given to a number of trees and 
 shrubs more or less resembling the Laurel or Vic- 
 tor's Laurel (Laurua nohilis), which is also called 
 Sweet Bay (see Lauebl); the name JBaye, which 
 was once exclusively applied to the fruit, haviug 
 been extended to the whole plant. The Common 
 Laurel or Cherry Laurel (Prunua Lauroceramis) is 
 sometimes called Bay Latibbl. See Laubel. — The 
 Bed Bay of the southern states of America is 
 Laurus Ga/roKnienm. See Lauebl. — The White 
 Bay of America is Magnolia glauca (see Magnolia), 
 and the Loblolly Bay of the same country is 
 Oordonia Lasmnthus. See Gordonia. 
 
 Prom early times, bay-leaves have been associated 
 with popular superstitions and usages. Along with 
 other evergreens, they have adorned houses and 
 churches at Christmas ; and in token of rejoicing or 
 of some meritorious deed, sprigs of bay, as well as 
 of laurel, have been worn in the hat, or wreathed 
 aroimd the head. There appears to have been a 
 notion that the B. was an antidote against the effects 
 of thunder. In an old play, The White DevU, 
 Cornelia says : 
 
 ' Beach the bays : 
 I'U tie a garland here about his head, 
 'Twill keep my boy from lightning.' 
 
 According to Shakspeare, the withering of bay-trees 
 was reckoned an omen of death. Thus Richard says : 
 
 ' 'Tis thought the king is dead ; we 'U not stay. 
 The bay-trees in our country are withered.' 
 
 The following passage occurs in Parhinson's Garden 
 of Flowers, 1629, p. 598: ' The bay-leaves are neces- 
 sary both for evil uses and for physic^ both for the 
 sick and for the sound, both for the living and. the 
 dead. It serveth to adorn the house of God, as well 
 as man ; to crowne or enriche, as with a garland, the 
 heads of the living; and to strike and decke forth 
 the bodies of the dead ; so that from the cradle to 
 the grave, we have stiU use of it, we have stUl need 
 of it.' Por other notices of this kind respecting the 
 B., we refer to Brand's Popular Antiquities, also to 
 HonSs Year Book. Bay-leaves are sometimes used 
 in cookery for the sake of flavouring. 
 
 BAY rSLAWDS, a small group in the Bay of 
 Honduras, about 150 miles to the south-east of 
 Balize, embracing only 25' of lat., and 1° 15' of long. 
 The cluster was proclaimed a British colony in 1852. 
 The chief island is Kuatan (q. v.) ; and the others 
 of any consequence are Bonacca, Utila, Burburet, 
 Helena, and Morat. 
 
 BAY OF I'SLANDS, near the northern extrem- 
 ity of New Ulster, the more northerly of the New 
 Zealand Isles. Lat. 35° 14' S., long. 174° 11' E. On 
 its coasts, which are pretty nearly the antipodes of 
 the Straits of Gibraltar, are the British settlements 
 of Russell and Kororarika. 
 
 BA'YA {Ploceus Philippinus), a small East Indian 
 bird, of the great family of the Fringillidce (q. v.). 
 and of a genus to some of which, from their remark- 
 able manner of constructing their nests, the name 
 
 763 
 
BAYADERES— SAYAHD. 
 
 Weaver Bird (q. v.) is often given. It is described 
 by the older ornitborogists under the name of the 
 Philippine Grrossbeak, or Loxia PhUippina. It ' is 
 yellow, spotted with brown, the throat black, the 
 beak conical and large. Its nest is very curious. 
 Suspended from a slender twig of a lofty branch, so 
 that monkeys, squirrels, and serpents may not reach 
 it, it is rendered stiU more seciire by its form, which 
 is very like that of a common Florence flask, the 
 entrance, however, being from beneath, and not 
 from above, vidth lateral openings to separate cham- 
 bers, in one of which the female sits upon the eggs, 
 whilst another is occupied by the male, who there 
 pours forth his song. It is composed of fine fibres 
 of leaves and grass. The B. is very easily tamed, 
 wUl perch on the hand, and can be trained to fetch 
 and carry at command. 
 
 BAYADE'RES (from the Portuguese hailadeira, 
 that is, dancing-girl) is the name given by Euro- 
 peans to the dancing-girls and singers in India, who 
 are divided into two great classes, each comprisiag 
 many subdivisions. The first of these classes, who 
 are called Devadasi— that is, ■ slaves to the gods — 
 are divided iato two distinct grades, according to 
 the rank of the families whence they have sprung, 
 the dignity of the idol to which they are devoted, 
 and the authority and riches of the temple to which 
 they belong. Those of the first rank are chosen 
 from the most influential families of the Vaisya 
 caste, to which the rich landed proprietors and 
 merchants belong. Those of the second, class are 
 chosen from the chief Sudra families, who correspond 
 to our mechanics. No girls can be admitted among 
 the Devadasis but such as are still in childhood, 
 and free from any bodily defect. The parents of the 
 girl must renounce by a solemn agreement aU right 
 to their child, who then receives the necessary 
 instruction. The employment of the Devadasis is 
 to sing the praises of their god at festivals and 
 solemn processions, to celebrate his victories and 
 great deeds, and to dance before him, to weave the 
 wreaths with which the images are adorned, and in 
 general to perform subordinate offices in the temple 
 and for the priests. On the other hand, they are 
 excluded from the celebration of such rites and 
 ceremonies as are accounted peculiarly sacred, as, 
 for example, at sacrifices for the dead, suttis, &c. 
 The Devadasis of the first rank Hve within the 
 enclosure of the temple, which they are not per- 
 mitted to leave without the special permission of 
 the high priest. They must remain immarried for 
 life, but are, notwithstanding, permitted to choose a 
 lover, either in or out of the temple, provided he 
 belongs to one of the high castes. A connection 
 with a man of low rank would be punished with the 
 utmost severity. If they have children, the girls 
 are brought up to their mother's profession, and the 
 boys are educated for musicians. The Devadasis of 
 the second rank differ but little from those of the 
 first, but they have more freedom, as they live 
 without the temple. A certain number of them must 
 attend daily at the temple service, but at pubhc 
 processions they are aU obliged tp appear. They 
 not only dance and sing before the images— for 
 which they receive a fixed allowance of rice-money — 
 but when summoned by the nobles, they perform at 
 marriages, banquets, &c. All the Devadasis rever- 
 ence, as their special patroness and protectress, the 
 goddess Rambha, one of the most beautiful dancers 
 in the paradise of Indra. They bring a, yearly 
 offering in spring to her and to the god of love. 
 The singing-girls who travel about the country are 
 of an essentially di6Ferent class from the Devadasis. 
 They perform only at private feasts, entertain 
 strangers in the tschuUris, or public inns, and get 
 different names according to the special arts in 
 
 764 
 
 which they exoeL Some of them live independently 
 in bands, consisting of from 10' to 12 persons. They 
 travel about the country, and divide their gains 
 with the musicians who ' accompany them. Others 
 are imder the authority of dayas, or old dancing- 
 women, who receive all the money they gain, and 
 give the girls only enough for food and clothing. 
 Some are really the slaves of such old women, who 
 have procured them in their infancy either by pur- 
 chase or by capture, and have instructed them in 
 their art. To one of these classes belonged those 
 B. who visited several of the European capitals in. 
 1839. The costume of theB.' is not without a cer- 
 tain alluring charm. Their dances do not resemble 
 what we are accustomed to call dancing, but are 
 rather a species of pantomime, which is explained 
 by the songs recited by the accompanying musi- 
 cians. The themes of these songs are usually either 
 happy or despairing lOve, iea;lousy, &;c. Europeans 
 have spoken with much enthusiasm of the charms 
 of these pantomimes ; but to judge by the perform- 
 ances of the aibove-mentioned B. during their visit 
 to Europe, these descriptions must be looked upon as 
 very much exaiggerated ; for although these dancers 
 possessed great physical agUity, their movements 
 were wanting in dignity and grace. 
 
 BAYARD, PiERKE DU Teerail, Chevaliee, the 
 knight sdnspeur et sans reprodie, bom 1476, at Castle 
 Bayard, near Grenoble, was perhaps the onljr hero 
 of the middle ages who deserved the unmingled 
 praise and admiration bestowed upon him. Simple, 
 modest, a sterling friend, and tender lover, pious, 
 humane, and magnanimous, he held together in rare 
 symmetrical union the whole circle of the virtues. 
 After acting as page to the Duke of Savoy, B. 
 entered the service of Charles VIII., whom he 
 accompanied to Italy, and gained renown in the 
 battle of Verona, where he took a standard from 
 the enemy. At the beginning of the reign of 
 Louis XII., B. was engaged in a battle near Milan, 
 where he followed the defeated and retreating forces 
 with such impetuosity that he entered the city with 
 them, and was made a prisoner, but the Duke Ludo- 
 vico Sforza released him without ransom. At Bar- 
 letta, in 1502, B., with ten other French cavaliers, 
 fought a tournament with an equal number of 
 Spaniards, in order to decide their respective claims 
 to superiority ; and although seven Frenchmen 
 were overthrown in the first charge, the result, 
 chiefly through B.'s bravery, after a six hours' 
 combat, was declared equal. Next, we find ^im 
 fighting bravely in Spain, and against the Genoese 
 and Venetians. When Pope Julius II. declared 
 war against France, B. hastened to support the 
 Duke of Perrara ; but failed in his scheme for 
 making the pope a prisoner. Subsequently, he 
 won fresh laurels in Spain. In the war with Henry 
 VIII. of England — ^who had threatened Picardy, and 
 besieged Terouane, in 1513 — ^when the French, on 
 one occasion, were about to lay down their arms, B. 
 made a sudden attack on an English ofEcer, and, 
 pointing his sword at his breast, said : ' Surrender, 
 or I take your life.' The Englishman gave his 
 sword to B., who returned his own, saying: ' I am 
 Bayard, your prisoner; and you are mine.' The 
 emperor and the king of England exchanged their 
 prisoners without any demand of ransom for Bayard. 
 When Francis I. had ascended the throne, B. waa 
 sent into Dauphing to make a way for the army 
 over the Alps and through Piedmont. In this 
 expedition, he made Prosper Colonna a prisoner. 
 Next, B. gained, at Marignano, a victory for the 
 king, who, in consequence, submitted to receive the 
 honom: of knighthood from Bayard. When Charles 
 V. broke into Champagne, at the head of a large 
 army, B. defended Mezieres against all assaults, and 
 
BAYAZID— BAYEUX TAPESTRY. 
 
 on his entry into Paris, he waa hailed as the savioui 
 of his country, was made knight of the order of St 
 Michael, and appointed overia company of 100 men, 
 led in his own name, an honour which until then 
 had been confined to princes of the blood-royal. 
 He was slain by an arrow from an arquebuss, while 
 crossing the Sesia, April 30, 1524. , : So highly was he 
 esteemed for aU noble qualities, that his death was 
 lamented not only by the French king and nation, 
 but aiso by his enemies. iHis love of yirtue, espe- 
 cially of that kingUest of virtues, justice,' waa so 
 passionate, that he was wont to declare that all 
 empires, kingdoms, and provinces where justice did 
 not rule, were mere forests ■ fiUed with: brigarnJs. 
 His body was taken by the enemy, but was restored 
 to-Fraiice, and interred in the church of the Mino- 
 rites' monastery, near Grenoble. , 
 
 ' BAYAZI'D, or BAYEZEE'D, a town of Turkish 
 Armenia, in the pashahc of Erzeroum, from which 
 place it is distant east-south-east about 150 mUes; 
 It is situated about 15 miles to the south-west of the 
 foot of Mount Ararat; is fortified ; and has a popula- 
 tion of about SOOO, mostly Kurds. Prior to 1830, its 
 population was estimated at upwards of 15,000, and 
 it' had a brisk trade ; but since that time, on account 
 of Bussian interference, its commerce and inhabit- 
 ants have gradually decreased. Being near the 
 Eussian frontier, it hais been the scene of several 
 conflicts; during the Crimean campaign, the Bus- 
 sians gained a victory over the Turli here. 
 BAYAZI'D I. See Bajazet. 
 
 " BAY'BERRY. See OAOTiLEBEEiiy. 
 
 BA'YER, JoHANif, a German, constructor of charts 
 of the stars, was born, either at Augsburg or at 
 
 Ehadn, in Bav:aria,,in the, latter part, of the 16th c, 
 and fulfilled the .duties of a Protestani pastor in seve- 
 ral places. His zeal for the Protestant Church was 
 so conspicuoiis that he obtained the cognomen,. Os 
 ProtestaiUium (the Mouth of Protestants); other, 
 accounts state that he was to advocate at Augsburg, 
 It matters little which, as he is now remembered 
 only on account of his Uranometria (1603, and 2d 
 ed. 1639), in which he gave 51 maps of the heavens, 
 constructed. from the, obseryations of his predeces- 
 sors, and, followed by explanations in his Explkatio 
 GaractemmJSneis Tabulis Insculptomm (Stras. 1624). 
 Although his maps, are not r,emarkable for accuracy, 
 even for his time, he has the merit of introducing 
 the, simple plan of distinguishing the stars of a con- 
 stellation by means of letters. The largest star of 
 the constellation he named by the first letter of the 
 Greek alphabet (ij), and the rest in the order of 
 their apparent brilliancy, hy the following letters. 
 This convenient plan is still, followed. 
 
 BAYEUX, a city of Normandy, in France, dep. 
 Cedvados, situated on the Aure, not far from its 
 mouth. Pop. 8562. B. is chiefiy built of wood and 
 plasteri . is . famous, for its porcelain, and has also 
 manufactories of laccj linen, calicoes, leather, and 
 hats. It is a town of great antiquity — ^its cathedral 
 being said to. be the oldest in Normandy; In it was 
 preserved for centuries the famous Bayeux Tapestry 
 (q. v.), now in the H6tel de ViUe of the place. B. is 
 the seat of a bishop, and has a college. 
 
 BAYEU'X TA'PESTEY, a web of canvas or 
 linen cloth, 214 feet long by 20 inches wide, pre- 
 served in the Hfitel de ViSe, Bayeux, upon wluch is 
 embroidered, in woollen thread of various colours. 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry. 
 Harold coming to ancbor on the coast of Normandy, 
 
 a representation of the invasion and conquest of 
 England by the Normans. Tradition asserts it to 
 be the work of Matilda, wife of "William the Con- 
 qiieror, and it is believed that if she did not actually 
 stitch the whole of it with her own hand, she at least 
 took part in, and directed the execution of it by her 
 maids ; and afterwards presented it to the cathedral 
 of Bayeux, as a token of her appreciation of the 
 effective assistance which its bishop, Odo, rendered to 
 her husband at the battle of Hastings. Some anti- 
 quaries contend that it was the work not of Queen 
 Matilda (the wife of the Conqueror), who died in 
 1083, but of the Empress Malalda (the daughter of 
 
 King Henry I.), who died in 1167. According to 
 Mr Bruce, the latest authority on the subject, the 
 tapestry contains, besides the figures of 505 quadru- 
 peds, birds, sphinxes, &c., 'the figures of 623 men, 
 202 horses, 55 dogs, 37 buildings, 41 ships and boats, 
 and 49 trees — ^in all, 1512 figures.' The tapestry is 
 divided into 72 distinct compartments, each repre- 
 senting one particular historical occurrence, and 
 bearing an explanatory Latin inscription. A tree is 
 usually chosen to divide the principal events from 
 each other. This pictorial history — ^for so it may 
 be called, and indeed, in several particidars, it 
 is more minute than, any written history we 
 
 76S 
 
BAYEUX TAPESTUY-BAYLE. 
 
 have — opens -with Harold, prior to his depart- 
 ure for Normandy, taking leave of Edward the 
 
 Bayeux Tapestry. 
 The crown offered to Harold by the people. 
 
 Confessor. Harold is next observed, aocompaoied 
 
 by his attendants, riding to Bosham with his hawk 
 and hounds; and he is afterwards seen, successivelyj 
 embarking from the Sussex coast; anchoring in 
 France and being made prisoner by Guy, Earl of 
 Ponthieu; redeemed by WiUiam Duke of Normandy; 
 and meeting with him at his court ; assisting him 
 against Conan, Earl of Bretagne; swearing on the 
 sacred relics never to interfere with William's 
 succession to the Saxon throne, &c. ; and finally 
 re-embarking for England; The tapestry then 
 represents Harold narrating the events of his 
 journey to Edward the Confessor, whose death and 
 funeral obsequies we next see. Harold then receives 
 the crown from the Saxon people, and ascends the 
 throne; and next we have the news brought to 
 William, who takes counsel with his half-brother, 
 Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, as to the invasion of 
 England. Then follow representations of the 
 active war-preparations of the Normans ; their 
 embarkation ; disembai:kation ; march to Hastings, 
 and formation of a camp there; the battle, and 
 death of Harold, with which the tapestry finishes. 
 
 The B. T. gives an exact and minute portraiture of 
 the manners and customs of the times ; and it has 
 been remarked that the arms and habits of the 
 Normans are identical with those of the Danes, as 
 
 Bayenx Tapestry. — Battle of Hastings. 
 
 they appear in the miniature paintings of a manu- 
 script of the time of King Cnut, preserved in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 M. Lancelot appears to have been the first to 
 direct attention to the existence of this curious 
 monument, by a description of an illuminated draw- 
 ing of a portion of it he had discovered, in a paper 
 presented to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- 
 Lettres, in 1724. This led to the discovery of the 
 tapestry itself, in the Bayeux Cattedral, by P6re 
 Montfauoon, who published an engraving of it in 
 1730, with a commentary on the Latin inscriptions. 
 In 1767, Dr Ducarel gave an account of it in his 
 Anglo-Norman Antiquities. From that time until 
 1803, when Napoleon had it conveyed to Paris, the 
 B. T. excited little attention. Its exhibition, how- 
 ever, in the National Museum there awakened 
 public curiosity concerning it, and gave rise to 
 various speculations as to its age, intention, &c. 
 The discussion satisfactorily established it to be 
 what tradition asserted it — a contemporary pictorial 
 record of the events of the Norman Conquest. The 
 Society of Antiquaries (London) published an engrav- 
 ing of the whole in the sixth volume of the VelvMa 
 Monumenta. The B. T. would have been destroyed 
 at the Kevolution, had not a priest fortunately suc- 
 ceeded in conceaUng it from the mob, who demanded 
 it to cover the guns. It was formerly preserved in 
 the cathedral of Bayeux, where it was wont to be 
 exhibited, on certain days every year, in the nave of 
 the church, rotmd which it exactly went. Bruce's 
 Bayeux Tapestry Elucidated (London, 1855) ; Archceo- 
 logia, vols, xvii., xviii., xix. ; Vettista Mcmumenta, 
 vol. vi. ; Pictorial History of England, 
 
 766 
 
 BAYLE, PiEBBE, one of the most independent 
 thinkers in the 17th c, was bom in 1647 at Carlat, 
 in the old county of Eoix, France, and studied philo- 
 sophy under the Jesuits at Toulouse. The arguments 
 of his tutors, but especially his friendly intercourse 
 and quiet disputation with a Catholic clergyman, who 
 lived in his neighbourhood, led him to doubt the 
 orthodoxy of Protestantism, and shortly prevailed 
 so far that he openly renounced his father's creed, 
 and adopted the Catholic one. In the course of about 
 17 months, however, the conversation of his rela- 
 tives brought him back to the Protestant profession. 
 To escape ecclesiastical censure, he now went to 
 Geneva, and thence to Coppet, where he studied the 
 philosophy of Descartes. After a few years, he 
 returned to France, and in 1675 was elected to fill the 
 chair of philosophy in the imiversity of Sedan. In 
 this office he remained until 1681, when the univer- 
 sity was disfranchised. His next appointment was 
 that of professor of philosophy at Rotterdam. The 
 appearance of a comet in 1680 having given occa- 
 sion to a widely spread alarm, B., in 1682, pubhshed 
 his PensSes Diverses sur la Gomite, a work full of 
 learning, and treating, in discursive style, many 
 topics of metaphysics, ethics, theology, history, and 
 politics. This was foUowed by his Critique OinArale 
 de ' VHistoire du Calmnisme de Maimhourg.' In 
 1684, he commenced a periodical, Nmuoelles de la 
 ESpuUique des Lettres. The religious persecutions 
 in France gave B. occasion to write his Oommentaire 
 PhUosophique sur ces Paroles de VEvangile : ■ ' Oon- 
 trains les d'entrer^ which professed itself to ba 
 a translation from the English, and contained a 
 strong defence of the principle of toleration. In 
 
BAYLEN-BAYONNB, 
 
 consequence of the accusations brought forward by 
 tbe theologian, Jm-ieu, who regarded B. as an agent 
 of EVanoe, and the enemy of Protestants, B., though 
 he skilfully defended himself, was deprived of Ms 
 licence to teach (in 1693). He now assiduously 
 devoted his leisure to the Dictionnaire Historigue et 
 Critique (1st edition, 2 vols. Rotterd., 1696 — last edi- 
 tion, 16 vols., Paris, 1820). This was tte first work 
 published under his own name. Agaia Jurieu came 
 forward as B.'s adversary, and induced the consistory 
 of Rotterdam to censure the Dictionary, chiefly on 
 account of the supposed irreligious tendency of the 
 article on ' David,' and the commendation bestowed 
 on the moral character of certain atheists. B. pro- 
 mised to expunge all the objectionable matter; but 
 afterwards, when he found that the public entertained 
 a different and more favourable opinion of the pecu- 
 liar passages than the Rotterdam Consistory, he 
 judged it best to allow them to remain as they were, 
 or made only slight alterations. New opponents 
 were called into the arena by his Mponse awx 
 Questions d!un Provincial, and the continuation of 
 Ms Pensees sur la Comite. Jacquelot arid Leolerc 
 now attacked Ms religious opinions, while others 
 persecuted him as the enemy o! Protestantism and 
 of Ms adopted country, Holland. These literary 
 and theological controversies had a bad effect on 
 Ms failing health, and a disease, for wMch he refused 
 to employ medical aid, proved fatal. He died, 
 December 28, 1706. 
 
 B. stands at the head of modem sceptics and 
 logicians. Accustomed to view every question 
 scrupulously on all sides, he was apparently led to 
 doubt on- religious matters generally; at least, it 
 is not to be denied that his scepticism carried 
 Mm the length of doubting the worth or the 
 wisdom of the religious dogmatism that ruled both 
 Catholics and Protestants in Ms day. B. was thus 
 the ,antithesis of a bigot, but his hostility to 
 bigoby rather originated in Ms indifference to the 
 doctrines about vmich theologians quarrelled, than 
 in any clear or Mgh perception of the iniquity of 
 reUgious persecution. With great eloquence and 
 persistency, he vindicated the doctrine that moral 
 characteristics and convictions may exist and flourish 
 independently of particular rehgious opinions; and 
 considering the barbarous manner in wMoh the 
 rival churches in B.'s time sought to enforce 
 conformity of sentiment, and crush the liberty of 
 private judgment, it is not to be wondered at that 
 this doctrine, however objectionable abstractly, 
 should have found a wide acceptance in Europe. 
 Voltaire calls Tiim 'a more admirable logician than 
 a profound philosopher ; ' and adds that ' he knew 
 almost nothing of physics.' TMs probably means 
 no more than that he was ignorant of the then 
 recent discoveries of Newton ; for the scientific 
 articles in the Dictionary presuppose a knowledge 
 of the theories of Descartes (q. v.), vfith wMch he 
 was conversant enough. The style of B. is clear and 
 natural, but diffiise, and often impure. The articles 
 in the Dictionary seem to have been chosen merely as 
 veMcles to introduce numerous digressions in notes, 
 many of wMch are prolix and uninteresting; but 
 the greater number of the articles are characterised 
 by good sense, logic, critical acimien, and great 
 learning. Though it is impossible to detect the 
 presence of a religious or a pMlosopMcal system in 
 the work, it everywhere gives indications of the 
 Mgh intelligence, honest principle, and universal 
 knowledge of the author. It was proscribed both 
 in France and HoUand, and was consequently very 
 widely diffused in both countries, and has exercised 
 an immense influence over the literature and philos- 
 ophy of the continent. It was the dawn of scepti- 
 cism in the 18th c, and may be historically regaorded 
 
 as the protest of the enlightened human intellect 
 against the irrational dogmatism of the churches. 
 In Ms personal character, B. was amiable, obliging, 
 disinterested, and modest, but at the same time 
 morally courageous and independent. His (Euvrea 
 Diverses were published in four volumes at the 
 Hague, 1725—1731. See lite of B. by Des Maizeaux 
 (Amsterdam, 1712). 
 
 BAYLE'N, a town in the province of Andalusia, 
 Spain, situated 22 imiles north-north-east of Jaen. 
 It has manufactures of linen, glass, bricks, tiles, 
 soap, &c, Pop. 4976. B. is celebrated as the 
 place where the Spaniards won their first and only 
 victory over the French in July 1808, and that 
 more by accident, and the errors of the French com- 
 mander, Dupont, than by good generalsMp on their 
 part. About 18,000 French soldiers laid down their 
 arms at B., the only condition being, that they 
 should be sent to France; and other detachments 
 of French troops afterwards offered their submis- 
 sion. The Spaniards, however, basely broke faith 
 with them, and sent them to the hulks at 
 Cadiz. The capitulation had the worst efiect on 
 the French arms. Joseph Bonaparte at once fled 
 from Madrid, and Napoleon could find no words 
 strong enough to express his indignation at the folly 
 and pusillanimity of the surrender. 
 
 BA'YONET, supposed to be named from Bayonne, 
 as the place of its invention, is a dagger or smaU spear 
 fixed at the end of a musket or simuar weapon. The 
 first bayonets, used in France in 1671, called bayonets- 
 ct-manclie, had handles wMch fitted into the muzzle 
 of the guns ; but at a later date were introduced 
 the bayonets-ctrdouille, or socket-bayonets, having a 
 socket wMch enabled the B. so to be used as not to 
 interrupt the firing. • The use of pikes went out 
 when that of bayonets came in. It seems very 
 probable that the first B. was a dagger, wMch the 
 musketeer stuck by means of its' handle into the 
 muzzle of Ms weapon, to sMeld Mm from a cavalry 
 charge; and that the usefulness of the contrivance 
 suggested a permanent arrangement. Bayonets are 
 now made with great rapidity at the government 
 rifle factory at Enfield. Two pieces of metal are 
 first selected — ^viz.j a piece of the very best cast 
 steel, 7 inches long by J inch square ; and a piece 
 of the best wrought-ifon rod, 4 inches long by 
 about 1 inch itl thickness. The steel is to form 
 the - blade, and the iron, the Socket-handle. The 
 steel being properly shaped at one end, is joined to 
 the iron by welding. A forging-machine is next 
 employed to give a rough outline of the required 
 shape. Then comes the action of a swaging- 
 machine, with dies wMch come down upon the 
 metal in great force, and counter-dies beneath the 
 metal. The metal is then annealed; turned in a 
 cutting-machine to remove a wire-edge thrown up 
 in the act of stamping ; cut to a proper length, and 
 the socket-end made square; drilled and bored, 
 to make the socket hollow; shaped and furrowed 
 along the blade; bent at the neck; hardened and 
 tempered; and finished by a numerous train of 
 minor operations. The B.-charge is now one of 
 the most terrible manoeuvres- of trained infantry, in 
 wMch each nation fancies itself to excel all others. 
 
 BAYONNE, one of the most strongly fortified 
 towns of France, in the department of the Basses- 
 Pyrenges, situated at the confluence of the Adour and 
 Nive, about 3 miles from the mouth of their united 
 waters in the Bay of Biscay. These rivers divide 
 the town into three parts — Great and Little B., and 
 the suburb of St Esprit. Pop., including mili- 
 tary, about 17,000. B. is beautifully situated at 
 the foot of the Pyrenees, and is itseli a handsome 
 place. It has extensive sMp-yards, rope-walks, glass- 
 
 767 
 
BAY-SALT— BAZOCHB. 
 
 manufactories, sugar-refineries, and distilleries, and 
 a brisk e3q)ort trade in hams, for whicli it is famous, 
 chocolate, liqueurs, timber, tar, and cork. Its chief 
 imports are wool, olive-oil, and liquorice. It is the 
 see of a bishop, has a cathedral, a mint, and schools 
 of commerce and navigation. B. is also historically 
 interesting. It is said that here Catharine de' 
 Medici and the Duke of Alba planned the massacre 
 of the Huguenots, which took place on St Bartholo- 
 mew's Day, 1572. Here the great Napoleon cozened 
 Charles I v. out of the crown of Spain, after he had 
 ineffectually endeavoured to get Ferdinand VII., 
 to whom Charles had previously resigned it, to give 
 it up. The forcing of the passage of the Nive, 
 immediately in tms vicinity, by the British, in 
 December 1813, occasioned some of the most bloody 
 conflicts of the Peninsular campaign. The place 
 was invested by the British early in the following 
 year, and a sally from it by the French, in April 14, 
 was only repulsed after great loss on the side of the 
 British. B. is also famous as the place where the 
 bayonet was invented about the year 1670. 
 
 BAY'-SALT is a name applied to common salt 
 which is obtained from sea-water by solar evapor- 
 ation. It is extensively obtained from salt-marshes 
 which exist along the coasts of France and on the 
 shores of the Mediterranean. See Salt. 
 
 EAY-WI'NDOW, ior (corruptly) BOW-WI'N- 
 DOW, a window peculiar to Gothic architecture, so 
 called because it forms a hay or projecting space 
 outwards from a room. The external walls of bay- 
 windows are, for the most part, either rectangular or 
 polygonal, the semicircular form from which the term 
 iow was probably derived having been unknown 
 previously to the introduction of the debased Gothic. 
 
 Bay-Window, at Compton, "Wingate, ■Warwickshire. 
 
 Though mentioned by Chaucer, bay-windows are 
 not found in any of the styles before the perpen- 
 dicular, during the prevalence of which they were 
 frequently introduced, particularly in halls. Bay- 
 windows geueraBy reach to the floor, and are 
 frequently supphed with a seat, which is called the 
 bay-stall. There are many very beautiful examples 
 of bay-windows in the colleges and halls of Oxford 
 and Cambridge. When used in upper stories, such 
 windows are supported on corbels, or large project- 
 ing mouldings. See Oriel. 
 
 BA'ZA (the Basti of the Romans), a town of 
 Spain, in the province of Granada, and about 50 
 miles east-north-east of the city of that name. It 
 lies in a rich plain, is generally iU buHt and irregular, 
 with no feature of architectural interest. Popula- 
 tion about 11,000, who are chiefly engaged in agri- 
 cultural pursuits, but who also manufacture to some 
 
 768 
 
 extent hats, linens, and earthenware. B. is famous 
 for its red wines ; and its women, according to Ford, 
 are among the prettiest in Spain. In early times, B. 
 was a place of considerable note, and many remnants 
 of antiquity are stiU foimd in its vicinity. In 1480, 
 Isabella captured it from the Moors, after a seven 
 months' siege, and some of the rough iron caimon 
 used by her army still ornament the town. In 
 November 1810, the Spaniards, imder Blake and 
 Freire, were beaten in front of B. by the French 
 under Soult. 
 
 BAZA'B, or BAZAA'K, an oriental market- 
 place, either open or covered, where vaiious articles, 
 including slaves, are exposed for sale, and where 
 eastern merchants meet for transaction of business, 
 as on 'Change or at the Bourse in England and 
 Prance. The B. of Ispahan is one of the most 
 splendid, and that of Tauris is the largest. In 
 London, Paris, and other Eiiropean cities, several 
 places opened for the sale of various articles 
 (chiefly fancy goods) are now styled bazars. 
 
 BAZARD, Amaud, the founder of French 
 Carbonarism (q. v.), and subsequently an earnest dis- 
 ciple of St Simon, was bom at Paris on the 19th 
 of September 1791. After the Restoration, along 
 with several other 'patriots,' he established, under 
 the disguise of freemasonry, the revolutionary 
 society of the 'Friends of Virtue;' and in 1820, in 
 concert with his friends Dugied and Joubert, who 
 had brought from Naples the statutes of the associa- 
 tion of Italian Carbonari, he foimded a, similar 
 association in France, which in the course of a year 
 had extended over the departments, and contained 
 200,000 members. He was the leading conspirator 
 in the 'plot of Befort,' which, however, proved a 
 failure, and nearly cost him his life. Aiter some 
 time, a change passed over Bazaid. Experience 
 aeems to have taught him the worthlessness of mere 
 poHtical agitation and reform. Impressed with the 
 narrow and one-sided character of common democ- 
 racy, and the necessity of a total reconstruction of 
 the conditions of society, before any radical improve- 
 ments could become possible, he attached himself to 
 the school of St Simon, and along with Enfantin, 
 undertook to elaborate the theoretical and specula- 
 tive portion of the system. In 1825, he became one 
 of the editors of a St Simonian journal, termed Le 
 Producteur. In 1828, he delivered at Paris a series 
 of prelections on his politico-religious creed, which 
 met with extraordinary success. His socialistic 
 views were afterwards published in the chef- 
 d'muvre of the sect. Exposition of the Doctrine of St 
 Simon (1828—1830), of which only the first part 
 was by B., the second, containing the principles 
 of the new social religion, being the composition of 
 Enfantin. After the July revolution, a larger scope 
 was afforded to the St Simonians. The masses were 
 attracted by the fiattering doctrine, that ' all social 
 institutions ought to have for their end the moral, 
 intellectual, and physical amelioration of the poor.' 
 In a short time, B. and his coadjutors had 
 ' created a new society, living in the midst of the 
 old,' with peculiar laws, manners, and doctrines. 
 But B.'s connection with it was of short dura- 
 tion. He differed from Enf aniiin on the doctrine of 
 a 'community of wives,' and in November 1831 
 seceded in disgust. His efforts to found a school of 
 his own proved imsuccessful, and during a heated 
 discussion with his former friend Enfantin, he was 
 struck with apoplexy, from the effects of which he 
 never recovered. He died at Courtry, near Mont- 
 fermeil, on the 29th July 1832. 
 
 BAZOCHE, or BASOCHE, a kind of burlesque 
 translation mto French of the Latin word basilica, 
 L e., royal palace. When the French parliament 
 
BDELLIUM— BEACON. 
 
 oeaaed to be tlie gj:and. council of the king, and 
 oouflued itself exclusively to administering justice, 
 a distinction of name necessarily sprang up between 
 those noblemen who formed the royal train and the 
 habitues of the court of justice. The former were 
 called courtiers; the latter, basochiaiis, or parha- 
 mentary clerks. But inasmuch as the word basilica 
 nepessarEy presupposed a king, the basochians, to 
 keep up their dignity, gathered round a mock one 
 of their own making, who resided at the Chiiteau 
 des Tournelles or the H6tel St Pol, just as the 
 courtiers did round the reality at the Louvre. 
 Such Was the origin of the Basoohian king and 
 kingdom. Their historical existence can be traced 
 to the beginning of the 14th c, when Philip the 
 Fair conferred on the brotherhood certain privi' 
 leges. The principal authorities in this harmless 
 monarchy, after the sovereign himself, were, the 
 chancellor, the masters of requests, the referendary, 
 and the attorney-general. Heniy IIL suppressed 
 the title of king, and conferred all the privileges 
 and rights attached to that office on the chancellor. 
 Still the B. continued to exist as a kingdom, min,us 
 its head, and affected on aU occasions the language 
 of -royalty. Its jurisdiction included the considera- 
 tion and decision of all processes and debates that 
 arose among the clerks.. It administered justice 
 twice a week, and also caused a species of coin to 
 be struck which had currency among its members ; 
 but if we are to judge from the proverb about la 
 monnaie de basoche, it did not enjoy an immense 
 credit in the outer world of hard cash. The mock- 
 monarch also possessed the extensive privilege of 
 selecting at his pleasure, yearly, from the French 
 royal forests, a tail tree, which his subjects, the 
 clerks, were in the habit of planting, on the 1st of 
 May, before the grand court of the palace, to the 
 sound of tambourines and trumpets. But this was 
 not all. In the public sports, this fantastical httle 
 kingdom was worthily honoured ; its chancellor had 
 rooms .at the Hfitel de Bourgogne ; at the carnival, 
 the basochians joined themselves to the corps of the 
 Prince of Fools, and to the performers of low farces 
 and ' mysteries.' They acted in their turn a species 
 of satirical 'morality' (q. v.), in which they made 
 extensive use of the liberty granted to them, in 
 ridiculing vices and the favourites of fortune. Of 
 course, they could not fail to provoke enmity and 
 occasion serious scandal. Louis XII. patronised 
 these amusements. In 1500, he gave the brother- 
 hood of the B. permission to perform plays in 
 the grand saloon of the royal palace. Francis I. 
 witnessed them in 1538 ; but in 1540, they were 
 interdicted as incorrigible. This interdict only 
 applied to those of Paris, for several years after, 
 we read of the Basochian farces of Bordeaux. In 
 their later development, they seem to have resembled 
 the FastncuMspielea (Shrove-Tuesday Spectacles), 
 so popular in Germany both before and after the 
 Reformation. . They were the beginning of French 
 comedy. 
 
 BDE'LLIUM, a gum-resin, resembling myrrh 
 (q. V.) in appearance and qualities, but weaker, and 
 at the same time more acrid. High medicinal virtues 
 were ascribed to it by the ancients, but it is now 
 little used. It is supposed to be the produce of 
 Balsamodmdron Soscburghii in India, and of B. 
 Afiicanum (also called Hendelotia Africana) in Sene- 
 gal — trees or shrubs belonging to the natural order 
 Amyrida/xoB (q. v.), so remarkable for the number of 
 similar substances which it produces. — ^EoTPTlAif B., 
 however, is obtained from the Doom (q. v.)iipalm, 
 Hypkosne Thebaica. A similar substance is, yielded 
 also by Ceradia furcata, a half-succulent plant 
 of the natural order Compositce, inhabiting the 
 moat sterile regions of the south-west of Mrioa; 
 
 49 
 
 whilst the Sicilian B., formerly used in medicine, 
 is produced by Daucus gummi/er, a species of the 
 same genus to which the carrot belongs, growing 
 on the coasts of the Mediterranean. — The B. 
 mentioned in Gen. ii. 12 is probably not a gum-resin 
 at all ; but, what it is, is uncertain. 
 
 BEA'OHES, E.A1SED. Modem geology teaches 
 that the frame of the land is liable to risings and 
 depressions, even in the present age. Several 
 districts in different parts of the world have been 
 raised,' in , consequence of earthquakes, within the 
 remembrance of the present generation. There is 
 good proof that certain parts of Eastern Sweden, 
 bordering on the GuH of Bothnia, have been elevated 
 about three feet within the last hundred years. 
 These facts prepare us to learn thaty around the 
 British Islands, and in other parts of the earth, 
 there are tracts of ground at various elevations 
 above the present sea-level, which have evidently 
 been sea-B. at a former time. The evidences 
 consist of, first, the levelness of the ground in the 
 general direction of the present shores over con- 
 siderable, spaces ; second, the alternating beds of 
 sand and gravel, such as we see composing the 
 present B. ; and, third, the presence of marine 
 shells, which, in our country, are generally of species 
 now living iri the boreal seas. There are also what 
 may be cajled terraces of erosions-indentations 
 made in a rocky coast by the hp of the sea in 
 ancient times — usually consisting of a flat platform 
 presenting patches of gravel, and of a bacMng wall 
 or sea-cliff, the latter sometimes penetrated with 
 deep caves. Iii Scotland, there is a very decided 
 terrace of erosion all round the bold coasts of the 
 West Highlands and Western Islands, at an eleva- 
 tion of about 25 feet above the level of the similar, 
 but scarcely so well-marked indentation which the 
 sea is now making. In Lapland, there is a similar 
 terrace, but stooping from 220 to 85 feet in the 
 course of thirty mUes. There is also a clear .and 
 well-marked terrace of the same kind, at about 520 
 feet above the present sea-level, behind Trondhjem 
 in Norway. The whole subject is treated elaborately 
 in Ancient Sea-margins, by B. Chambers, 1848, 
 where a series of gravelly terraces are described as 
 existing in Scotland at various heights above the 
 sea, telling of an uprise of the frame of the land 
 in stages, and indicating by their uniformity of level 
 that this movement was equable, 
 
 BEACHY HEAD, the loftiest headland on the 
 south coast of England, projecting into the English 
 Channel, 2J miles south-south-west of Eastbourne, 
 Sussex. It consists of perpendicular chalk-chffs, 564 
 feet high, forming the edst end of the South Downs. 
 Several caverns have been cut out in the rook, for 
 shipwrecked seamen to take refuge in ; but ship- 
 wrecks have been far fewer since 1828, when the 
 Bell Toht , Light-house was bidlt here. This light- 
 house is 285 feet above the sea, in lat. 50° 44' 24" 
 N., long. 0° 12' 42" E., and is seen above 20 miles 
 off. The view from B. H., in plear .weather, extends 
 to Hastings, the Isle of Wight, and France. The 
 cliffs are me resort of myriads of sea-fowl. Off this 
 point, the French fleet beat the combined English 
 and Dutch fleets in 1690. 
 
 EBA'CON (aUied to beck or beckon, to give a 
 signal) denotes any signal set upon a height, but 
 especially the alarm-fires at one time us,ed to spread 
 the inteiligenoe of foreign invasion or other great 
 eveilt. These fire-signalsiWere in use in the earhest 
 times, and notices of them are found in the literary 
 remains of ancient Persia, Palestine, and Greece. 
 They were made by kindhng a pile or bale of wood 
 on the tops of lofty mountains, and keeping the 
 flame bright by night, or having the fire so covered 
 
 769 
 
r 
 
 BEACON— BEADS. 
 
 as to emit a dense smoke by day. There were 
 varioiis preconcerted modes of exhibiting the light 
 or smoke, so as to indicate the nature of the 
 intelligence. Thus, an act of the parliament of 
 Scotland, in 1455, directs that one bale on fire shall 
 be warning of the approach of the Enghsh in any 
 manner; two bales blazing beside each other, that 
 they are coming indeed; and four bales, that they 
 are coming in great force. 
 
 An early instance of B.-signals is found in the 
 book of the prophet Jeremiah, in his call, in chap, 
 vi. 1, to the people of Benjamin to kindle a fire- 
 signal on one of their mountains : ' Set up a 
 sign of fire in Beth-haccerem ; for evil appeareth, 
 out of the north, and great destruction.' An 
 instance of the use of a line of beacons in very 
 ancient times is given in a passage of the tragedy 
 of Agamemnon, by the Greek poet .^schylus. The 
 commander-in-chief of the Greek army at the siege 
 of Troy is represented as communicating the intel- 
 ligence of the fall of the city to his queen, Clytem- 
 nestra, at MycensB, in the Peloponnesus. The line 
 consists of eight mountains, and the news is supposed 
 to be conveyed in one night from Troy. 
 
 In England, the beacons were kept up by a rate 
 levied on the counties, and had watches regularly 
 stationed at them, and horsemen to spread the 
 intelligence during the day, when the beacons 
 could not be seen. They were carefully organised 
 ■whUe the Spanish Armada was expected. In the 
 beginning of 1856, an old B.-work on Malvern Hill , 
 in "Worcestershire, which had done its part in 
 former days in spreading the intelligence of the 
 appearance of the Armada, of the approach of the 
 Young Chevalier, and of that of the Dutch fleet 
 afterwards, dealt with by Admiral Blake, was lighted 
 up in anticipation of the close of the Crimean war, 
 and afforded an interesting amusement to scientific 
 persons in estimating the distance at which the 
 blaze could be seen from distant mountains. 
 
 BBA'CON, in maritime affairs, is a signal for 
 warning against dangers, or for indicating the proper 
 entrance into a channel, harbour, or river. Gener- 
 ally speaking, a B. is fixed ; whereas a baoy floats. 
 The power of constructing these beacons rested at one 
 time in the sovereign ; but in 1565 an act of parlia- 
 ment empowered the Trinity House corporation to 
 erect them on such parts of the sea-coast and 
 forelands as appeared to be most in want of those 
 safeguards; and tolls were levied on the maritime 
 counties for their maintenance. In recent times, 
 the construction of floating beacons has occupied 
 a good deal of attention, as it is conceived that 
 they might in many cases supply the place of 
 much more costly Kght-houses. Messrs Brown and 
 Lenox have constructed for the Trinity Board a 
 B. for the Goodwin Sands — comprising a hollow 
 WTOught-iron floating vessel, with 6 water-tight 
 compartments ; a tower 28 feet high, tapering in 
 diameter from 7 to 34 feet ; and a ball at the top 
 of 3i feet diameter. This B. was visible from a 
 considerable distance ; but some leakage frustrated 
 its continued use. Mr Herbert, iu 1854, introduced 
 a new B., intended to float upright in all states of 
 the winds, tides, and currents. It consists of a 
 wrought-iron pear-shaped body, circular in plan, 
 with an apex at the top, and the weight so distri- 
 buted that the centre of gravity shall be situated a 
 little below the centre of tiie plane of flotation ; the 
 bottom is made concave, and raised up internally so 
 as to form a cone, to the internal apex of which the 
 mooring-ehain is to be attached.' Many beacons are 
 now made in which a bell is sounded instead of a 
 light shewn, as a warning. One of the most recent 
 is Messrs Brown and Lenox's, patented in 1858, and 
 GO constructed as to yield a continuous bell-ringing, 
 
 770 
 
 so long as tide or current is flowing. There is a 
 keel at the bottom, to make the B. turn with the 
 tide. There are channels below the line of flotation, 
 through which the tide-water or current flows ; the 
 water causes two undershot wheels to revolve ; and 
 this revolution, by means of axes, cranks, rods, guides, 
 and levers, is made to bring the force of a hammer 
 to bear on a beU. Some beacons on this principle 
 have already been constructed with a bell of 2 cwt. 
 The distinction between these and other sea-marks 
 is further illustrated under BuoY and LiGHT-HOUSE. 
 
 BEAD, BEADE, or BEDE (allied to ' bid '), in 
 Anglo-Saxon and Old English, signified ' a prayer,' 
 and hence came to mean the small perforated balls 
 of gold, sUver, glass, ivory, hard wood, &c., used 
 for keeping account of the number of prayers 
 repeated. A certain number strung on a thread 
 makes a rosary (q. v.). A bedesman or bedes- 
 womaii is one who prays for another. Persons of 
 station and wealth in old times 'had regularly 
 appointed bedesmen, who were paid to weary Heaven 
 with their supplications.' Bedesmen appointed to 
 pray for the king and state, sometimes lived 
 together, and hence bedehouse is synonymous with 
 an almshouse. A common form of signature at one 
 time was : ' Your bounden bedesman,' or, ' Your 
 humble bedeswoman,' instead of the modern, ' Your 
 obedient servant.' 
 
 BEAD, in Architecture, a small round moulding, 
 sometimes called an astragal. It is of frequent 
 occurrence in architecture, particularly in the clas- 
 sical styles, and is used in picture-frames, and 
 other objects carved in wood. 
 
 BBA'DLB is an inferior parish-officer chosen and 
 appointed by the vestry. His business is to attend 
 the vestry, to give notice of its meetings to the 
 parishioners, to execute its orders, to assist the 
 parish constable, and generally to do and execute 
 all the orders and business of the vestry and of the 
 parish, as their messenger or servant. Shaw's Parish 
 Law, c. 19. See Parish; Vestry. The B. holds 
 his office during 'pleasure, and he may therefore 
 be dismissed at any time for misconduct by the 
 parishioners assembled in vestry.' 
 
 BEADS, small perforated ornaments, usually of 
 a globular shape, worn by women in necklaces, 
 bracelets, head-dresses, &c. ; and also used in the 
 ornamentation of slippers, purses, watch-guards, and 
 a variety of fancy articles. B. are made of various 
 materials — gold, diamond, amber, pearl, coral, garnet, 
 crystal, steel, paste, glass, wood, &c. ; but mcom- 
 parably the greatest quantity are of glass manufac- 
 ture. Glass B. seem to have been manufactured 
 by the Phcenicians more than 3000 years ago. The 
 Egyptians, however, as would appear from the 
 adornment of their mummies with them, were also 
 early acquainted with the manufacture of glass B., 
 which was introduced into Europe on the revival of 
 civilisation by the Italians. Glass B. are commonly 
 manufactured over the blowpipe, the glp,S3, which 
 had been previously drawn out into a tube, being, 
 when sufficiently heated, blown into a bulb of the 
 size required for the bead. At Murano, near Venice, 
 where there are extensive manufactories, the process 
 is somewhat different. There, glass tubes of various 
 colour having been cut into small -uniform pieces, 
 the pieces are thrown into a mixture of wood-ashes 
 and fine sand, and stirred about until their cavities 
 are filled; they are thence transferred to an iron 
 pan, heated by a moderate fire, and agitated until 
 they assume a smooth rounded form. Taken out, 
 and their bores cleared, they form beads. 
 
 When the glass is not originally coloured, a colour- 
 ing matter is applied to the inside of the tube. 
 
 In commerce, B. are known as the hollow, the 
 
BEADS-BEAMING. 
 
 common, the tube, and the bugle. The hollow are the 
 most expensive kind, and include a great variety of 
 coloiu?, the price varying from 2s. to 10s. the bunch 
 of 12 strings. Common black B. are sold at from 
 lOd. to Is. per pound. 
 
 Large quantities of B., used for dolls' eyes, are 
 manufactured at Birmingham. Glass B. are imported 
 into this coimtry from the contiaent to the annual 
 value of £8000 to £10,000. 
 
 BEADS, St Cuthbert's, a title popularly given 
 to the single joints of the articulated stems of 
 Encrinites (q. v.). The central perforation permitted 
 them to be strung as beads ; and from the fancied 
 resemblance, in some species, of this perforation to 
 a cross, they were formerly used as rosaries, and 
 associated with the name of St Cuthbert : 
 
 On a rook by Lindisfarn 
 St Cuthbert sits, and toils to frame 
 The sea-born beads that bear his name. 
 
 They are also known as Entrochites, or wheel- 
 stones. 
 
 BEA'GLE, a small variety of hound, formerly 
 much used in England for hare-himtiaa. It has now 
 been almost wholly superseded by the Harrier (q. v.), 
 to which its name is also sometimes given. The 
 true B. is smaller than the harrier, not above ten or 
 eleven inches in height at the shoulder, sometimes 
 considerably smaller, stout and compact in make, 
 with long penduloiis ears, smooth-haired, sometimes 
 dark-brown, with a streak or spot of white about 
 
 the neck, sometimes white with black or reddish 
 spots. There appears to have been also a rough- 
 haired variety. The B. is remarkable for its ex- 
 quisite scent and perseverance ; and although much 
 distanced by the hare at first, is almost sure to kill 
 it. It was customary in England, in former times, 
 when beagles were used, to follow the chase on foot, 
 a hunting-pole being employed to assist in leaping. 
 During the chase, the B. gives utterance to a cry 
 which has been regarded as particularly musical ; 
 and Queen Elizabeth had Mttle 'singing -beagles,' 
 one of which could be placed in a man's glove. The 
 smaller breeds were preferred, perhaps, at first, for 
 the prolongation of the chase ; and the diminutive 
 size of a pack or ' cry ' of beagles became a boast. 
 The smallest are sometimes called lap-dog beagles. 
 The origin of the name B. is vmcertain. 
 
 BEAK. See Bill. 
 
 BBA'KED, BECQU^. When the beak of a fowl 
 is of a different tincture from the body, it is then 
 said, in heraldry, to be beaked of such a tincture. If 
 its legs are of the same tincture, it is then beaked, 
 and membered so and so. In place of B., GuiHim 
 commonly says ' armed.' 
 
 BEA'KEB, a term formerly in use, signifying a 
 kind of drinking-bowl or cup, derived from the 
 same root as the German iecher, the Italian UaMere, 
 or the barbarous Latin baccarium. The Scotch call 
 a hooped wooden dish a ' bicker.' 
 
 BEAM (Ger. baim, Dut. loom, Ang.-Sax. beam, 
 signify ' a tree '), any piece of wood, long like a tree. 
 In the arts, the word has many special technical 
 apphcations. It is the name, for instance, for three 
 
 Earts of a weaving-loom (q. v.), for a part of the 
 alance (q. v.), and for a part of the steam-engine 
 (q. v.). In ship-building (q. v.), it is applied to any 
 of the transverse pieces of framing extending across 
 the hull. In ship measurement, it means breadth 
 at the wales. See Tonnage. B., in engiueering, is 
 a strong stay of wood or of iron, for supporting 
 lateral pressure. See Strength op Matbrlals. 
 
 BEAM, of a ship, is one of the main timbers 
 which aid in supporting the decks. Beams stretch 
 across from side to side, aiding to strengthen and 
 uphold the sides of the hull as well as the decks ; 
 and they are themselves supported at the ends by 
 massive pieces, called knees, standards, and clamps. 
 Each is made of one fine piece of timber, if pos- 
 sible ; but if the length be too great for this, two 
 or more timbers are scarfed together. Wherever 
 it is practicable, the beams are upheld at or 
 near the middle by pillars. In the Great Eastern 
 steam-ship, the beams are of iron, and, like most 
 other parts of the vessel, are cellular in construc- 
 tion. In the old timber-built sailing ships-of- 
 war, now rapidly beconftng obsolete, the beak- 
 head B. was the broadest in the ship; the 
 midship was the longest ; the orlop was that which 
 supported the orlop deck, and strengthened the 
 hold. The old 74-gun ships had each 24 beams under 
 the lower deck. Many of these characteristics 
 still prevail ; but others have given way to change, 
 owing to the increased length of war-steamers, and 
 to the necessity of making room for the machinery. 
 The beams of aU ships are generally made deeper 
 in the middle than at the ends, in order that the 
 decks supported by them may have a slight con- 
 vexity on the upper surface, to carry off the rain- 
 water readily, and to lessen the recoil of the guns. 
 
 The position of the beams, stretching across a 
 ship at right angles to the direction of the keel, 
 has given origin to many technical phrases used 
 on smpboard. ' On the starboard B.' is applied to 
 any distant point out at sea, at right angles to the 
 keel, and on the starboard or right hand — as viewed 
 from the stern — side of the ship. ' On the larboard 
 B.' similarly applies to the left hand. ' On the 
 weather B.' is that side of the ship which receives 
 or is towards the wind. ' Before the B.' is the 
 bearing of any object when seen more in advance 
 than on the beam. ' Abaft the B.' is the reverse 
 of the. expression just noted. 'On her B. -ends' 
 is applied to the position of a ship when so much 
 inclined to one side that the beams become nearly 
 verticaL 
 
 BEA'MING is a handicraft process in the cloth- 
 manufacture prp.1imiTifl.Ty to weaving, and was for- 
 merly done by the weaver himself ; but it has long 
 since become a special employment, followed by 
 workmen trained to the business as beamers, and, 
 bke hand-weaving, is tending to extinction by 
 machinery — warping and beaming, in weaving by 
 power, being conjoined into one operation. See 
 Wbaving. 'B. is simply the art of winding the 
 web on the weaver's beam in a manner suitable 
 for weaving — the two essential requirements being 
 firmness in the winding on of the web sufficient to 
 withstand the reaction of weaving, and evenness in 
 the spreading of the yam at the required width. 
 This is effected by what is called a beaming 
 machine, which is simply a kind of roller-mill, 
 extending from end to end of the beamer's shop. 
 The weaver's beam, on which the web is to be 
 wound, is set horizontally on two upright standards 
 
 771 
 
BEAM-TREE— BEAN". 
 
 at the one end of the shop, and at the other end 
 there is a friction-roller, set likewise level in a 
 heavy frame, fixed to the floor, on which the web is 
 woimd like a fope, with the thrmn-end out. 
 
 The number of pins or strands in the web being 
 known, the beamer has merely to take a ravel (a 
 comb-like utensil) with Hie corresponding number of 
 teeth in the breadth required for the web, and fill- 
 ing each tooth successively with its respective pin, the 
 spreading is completed ; and the web being attached 
 to the beam, the winding on of the web is a common 
 crane operation, in which the tension on the yam 
 is regvdated by the friction on the friction-roller. 
 The beamer may thus beam for 400 weavers. The 
 price of beaming a web varies from Sd., to perhaps 
 8d or lOd. 
 
 BEAM-TREE, White {Pyj-us Aria, see Pybtts), 
 a tree of 20 — 40 feet in height, a native of almost all 
 parts of Europe and of corresponding climates in 
 Asia, not uncommon in the mountainous districts 
 of Britain, and frequently planted. It has been 
 variously referred by botanists to several allied 
 genera, Sorbus, Cratcegus, and Me^ihis. It has a 
 straight erect trunk, and a round or oval head ; the 
 leaves are ovate, cut and serrated (in some varieties, 
 deeply loped), white and downy beneath; the 
 flowers in large terminal «orymbs ; the fruit scarlet, 
 of the size of small peas. The fruit is acid and 
 astringent, but becomes agreeable by incipient 
 decay ; it is sometimes called Sorb or Service-berry, 
 and resembles the true Service (q. v.) in quality, 
 although much smaller. Beer is made of it by fer- 
 mentation. The wood is very hard and fine-grained; 
 it is used for cogs for the wheels of machinery. The 
 whiteness of the foliage makes the tree — sparingly 
 introduced— ornamental in plantations. 
 ■ BEAN (Fabo), a genus of plants of the natural 
 order LegumiuossB, sub-order PapUionacece, included 
 by Linnaeus and many other botanists in the genus 
 Vicia (see Vetch), from which it is distingmshed 
 chiefly by the leathery tumid pods, spongy within, 
 and by the large scar on the end of the seed. — The 
 Common B. (F. vulgaris, Vicia Faba of Linnseus) is 
 
 Bean leaves and flower. 
 
 somewhat doubtfully supposed to be a native of 
 the borders of the Caspian Sea; it has been in 
 cultivation from remote antiquity in Europe as well 
 
 as in Asia. It ia an annual plant, generally from 
 two to four feet high, with thick angular stem, 
 leaves with 2 — 5 oval leaflets, and destitute of 
 tendi-ils. The pods are thick, long, and woolly 
 within ; the seeds more or less ovate and flattened. 
 The flowers, which are almost without stalks, are 
 ordinarily white, with a black spot in the middle of 
 the wing: but there is a variety with flowers 
 entirely white, and another in which they are 
 scarlet. The flowers are delioiously fragrant. Bums 
 alludes to this in the lines — 
 
 The zephyr wantoned round the bean. 
 And bore its fragrant sweets alang. 
 
 A field of beans perfimies the summer air for a 
 considerable distance. The varieties and sub-varieties 
 in cultivation are very niunerous, differing in the 
 size and form of the seed, the colour of the flower, 
 the period which they require for growth, the 
 height, the stem in some unbranched, in others 
 divided at the base into a number of stalks — ^the 
 pods in some mostly solitary, in others clustered, 
 &c. The B. is cultivated both in fields and gardens, 
 aoad the seeds (beans) are used for feeding cattle, 
 also for making a sort of meal for human food, and 
 in a green state are put into broths or boiled for the 
 table. They are very nutritious, containing when 
 ripe about 36 per cent, of starch, and 23 per cent, of 
 legumine, a nitrogenous substance analogous to the 
 caseine of milk. Whether for man or for cattle, 
 however, they particularly require to be mixed with 
 other food. The straw is used for fodder, and is 
 very nutritious when cut before it is fuUy ripe. The 
 B. succeeds best on a dry and moderately rich soil. 
 A well-drained clay is very suitable for it. Its taper- 
 ing and deeply penetrating root imfits it for shallow 
 sous. The varieties of B. preferred for the garden 
 are generally much larger, both plant and seed,' 
 than those cultivated in the field. The Windsor B. 
 has seeds of a flattened, almost circular shape, fully 
 an inch in diameter ; whijst those of the Horse B., 
 or Tick B., cultivated as a field-crop, are often not 
 more than half an inch in length, and not quite 
 three-eighths of an inch in breadth. Garden-beans, 
 in Britam, are usually sown in spring, in rows two 
 feet or more apart ; and sowings are made at differ- 
 ent dates, that there may be a succession of unripe 
 beans for culinary use. The Windsor, Long Pod, 
 and Early Mazagan, are among the most approved 
 garden varieties. 
 
 The roots of the B. are diuretic, and a decoction 
 of them has been used with advantage in cases of 
 dropsy. 
 
 B. crops are very liable to be injured by a species 
 of Aphis (q. v.), A. Fabm, sometimes called from its 
 colour the Collier Aphis, and sometimes the Black 
 Dolphin Fly, which destroys the leaves, and so 
 renders the plants incapable of bringing the ordinary 
 amoimt of seeds to perfection. The most effectual 
 remedy known is to cut off the tops of the plants, 
 which are always first attacked, as soon as the 
 Aphis appears, and so to prevent its multiplication. 
 The topping of beans is regarded by many gardeners 
 as a good practice, even when they are quite free 
 of the Aphis. 
 
 The Kidney B. (q. v.), or Haricot (Phaseolus 
 vulgaris), is an entirely different plant from the 
 Common Bean. 
 
 BEAN, in Agriculture. The B. was cultivated 
 to a small extent at least in ancient times, both in 
 Palestine and Egypt. The Roman family of the 
 Fabii are said to have derived their name from this 
 plant. It requires a rich or alluvial land to grow 
 the bean in perfection, and hence it is only found 
 entering into a regular rotation of cropping upon 
 soils of the best class. Since the introduction of 
 
BEAN-CAPER— BEAN-KING'S FESTIVAL. 
 
 maize into the south of Europe, the land under this 
 plant has been considerably restricted. The maize 
 thrives better, and is far more productive than the 
 B., in warm climates. In the north of Europe, too, 
 the potato, iiax, beet, and other fallow crops are 
 more productive and certain. Indeed, the high 
 siunmer temperature of the continents of Europe and 
 America is by no means favourable to the growth of 
 the bean. In the west of^ngland, the sixmmers are 
 rather too moist for its yielding its seeds in abund- 
 ance. The straw and haulm are apt to be developed 
 too much, and the blossoms do not set well. Beans 
 are largely cultivated on aU the better descriptions 
 of clay soils in the eastern counties, such as Kent and 
 Suffolk. The variety most generally grown there 
 is the Common Tide or Pidd £., having much 
 resemblance to the Scotch or Horse Bean. 
 
 The modes of cultivation are very various, and a 
 large breadth is stiU sown broad-cast. The great 
 objection to this mode is the liability of weeds to 
 spring up and check the growth of the crop. Beans 
 are considered one of the fallow crops ; but the soU, 
 after it has borne a crop of beans, is Httle fitted 
 for a cereal ci-op, imless it has been hoed and kept 
 clean in summer. To effect this end, beans are 
 usually sown in rows, and hoed during their early 
 growth either by the hand or horse hoe. In pre- 
 paring the land for a' bean crop in England, the 
 stubble, after being liberally dressed with farm-yard 
 manure in autumn, receives a deep furrow, so as 
 to expose the soil to the winter frosts. The surface 
 is then .scarified, and after being harrowed, the 
 beans are sown in drills of 18 inches in width, at 
 the rate of 3 to 3^ bushels per acre. The sowing 
 begins as soon after the month of January as the 
 so3 admits of the necessary operations, and may 
 be practised up to the middle of March. The earlier 
 the crop is put in, the better in general is the 
 chance of its being productive. The greater liability 
 of the eastern counties to drought, renders the crop 
 more subject to the attacks of insects, such as the 
 ' black dolphin,' or B. Aphis, which usually makes 
 its appearance as soon as the plant suffers from the 
 want of moisture. For this reason, the B. crop is 
 rather an imoertain one in the climate of the eastern 
 counties, and other crops are gradually encroaching 
 on the breadth which it used to occupy. The 
 Kus&ian or winter beans are sown in these counties 
 to some extent in autuion, and from ripening earlier, 
 often escape the attacks of vermin, and suffer less 
 from the drought. ■ 
 
 Perhaps East Lothian is as favourable, in respect 
 both of soil and climate, to the ciiltivation of the. 
 field bean, as any part of Europe. The siunmers 
 are comparatively cool, and the rains generally 
 moderate, and pretty well diffused over the growing 
 season. The crops are less liable to depredations 
 of the 'black dolphin,' and the long period over 
 which the growth of the plant is extended, is favour- 
 able to large crops. Sometimes the crop is sown broad- 
 cast, when the land is clean and well manured ; and 
 it is said that as large crops have been raised in 
 this way as by sowing in rows. The produce 
 by this mode of cultivation, however, is much more 
 irregular, and the land is often left in a foul con- 
 dition. Dr illin g is therefore the general practice in 
 cultivating this crop in the Lothians. The stubble 
 is usually manured and ploughed in autumn, and 
 when the weather admits, in spring it is ploughed 
 again, and the beans are sown by a small machine 
 in everythird furrow; or the land is merely ploughed 
 in autumn, and formed into drills or ridges by the 
 double mould-board plough in spring. Into these 
 the farm-yard manure is put and spread, and the 
 beans are sown above it either broad-cast or by a 
 three-barrelled machine. The seed is then covered 
 
 by the double-moulded plough, as in the planting of 
 potatoes. By this mode, the plants receive a plen- 
 tiful supply of nutriment m their early stages 
 of growth. When land is out of condition, or 
 when the crop is sown upon lighter and inferior 
 descriptions of soil, this is perhaps the most advis- 
 able method to follow. Mr Hope of Fenton-barns 
 has lately introduced the English method of culti- 
 vating the B. into East Lothian. The stubble is 
 dunged and ploughed in autumn, and as soon as the 
 land is dry in spring, about 3 bushels of beans are 
 drilled, 18 inches apart, by means of Garrett's 
 machine. As soon as the crop appears above gromid, 
 Garrett's lever horse-hoe is put over the groimd, 
 to stir the surface, and keep it free from weeds. 
 During the spring and early summer, the horse and 
 hand hoeing are repeated as often as it is deemed 
 advisable, tmtil the crop covers in the land by its 
 abundant foliage, and keeps down all weeds. Mr 
 Hope's experiments indicated that the yield of grain 
 is greater by the narrow than by wide drilling. 
 
 In England, the crops of beans vary from 20 
 to 40 bushels per acre; but in dry and warm 
 seasons, the produce often falls below the first- 
 named quantity. The weight per bushel is from 60 
 to 64 lbs. On some of the best soils in Fife, and in 
 the Lothians, as many as 60 bushels per acre are 
 obtained in favourable seasons, and the weight of 
 the bushel is sometimes as much as 66 lbs. In 
 Scotland, the straw is more abundant than in 
 England. It forms good fodder both for cattle 
 and horses, as weE as supplying material for the 
 dung-heap. Beans are usually cut by the sickle, 
 allowed to lie a few days unbound to winnow, and 
 when bound, put up into stooJcs. In late seasons, 
 when there has been a considerable growth of leaves, 
 they are often long before they are ready for carry- 
 ing to the stack. Notwithstanding the relatively 
 high price of beans, the breadth under this crop 
 has been diminishing also in Scotland. It is 
 said that the draining of the soil has not been so 
 beneficial to the B. as to other crops. The greater 
 returns which the land gives under potatoes in the 
 B. soils of Fife and the Lothians since the open- 
 ing of the railways, has encroached upon the extent 
 formerly assigned to it in the six-course rotation. 
 In the Carse of Stirling and Falkirk, it retains its 
 hold much better, and forms the chief preparation 
 for the wheat-crop. The field B. is now Httle used 
 as an article of human food. It is considered to be 
 specially adapted for the feeding of horses which 
 are subjected to hard work. ■ For this purpose, it is 
 usually roughly ground, and mixed with a little 
 bran. In the winter season, a portion is often boiled, 
 and given to them at night. When the price is mode- 
 rate, a mixture of ground beans and oilcake, or 
 linseed, is much esteemed for milch cows, as well as 
 for fattening cattle and sheep. Special or light 
 manures are less applied to the B. crop than to any 
 other. In many instances, nitrate of soda and 
 sulphate of lime have been used with advantage, 
 but farm-yard manure is almost essential .to its free 
 growth. 
 
 BEAN-CAPER. See ZYGOFHYLLACEa:. 
 
 BEAN GOOSE. See Goose. 
 
 BEAN-KING'S FESTIVAL, a social rite princi- 
 pally observed in France, from which country it 
 would seem to have been transplanted to Germany. 
 On the evening of Twelfth Day (q. v.), or, as the 
 Germans call it (in allusion to the legend, that the 
 wise men of the East who came to worship Christ 
 were three kings), Three Kings' Day {Dreikonigstag), 
 companies assemble to spend a few hours in mirthful 
 relaxation. A large cake is baked, with a bean 
 hidden somewhere in it. The cake is then divided 
 
 773 
 
BEAN— BEAU. 
 
 into pieces, each person present recei\ring one, and 
 whoever obtains the piece with the bean is king for 
 the year. In this capacity, he holds a mock-court, and 
 receives the homage of the company, who also amuse 
 themselves with other diversions. The Bean King, 
 however, is compelled to pay for his dignity, for he 
 has to give an entertainment on the next Twelfth 
 Night, that an opportunity may be afforded to 
 choose another king. In IVance, this custom was 
 at an earlier period so common, that even the 
 court indulged in it, although the church, in the 
 17th u., exerted itself zealously for its suppression. 
 The opinion that the B. K. F. owes its origin to the 
 Roman saturnalia, when even the children, partaking 
 in the universal glee, were wont to elect a king, is 
 not destitute of probability. 
 
 BEAN, St lauArros's. See Strtchnos. 
 
 BEAB. ( Urxus), a genus of quadrupeds, the type 
 of a family called Ursidce, belonging to the order 
 Ferce, sub-order Carnivora, and tribe Plantigrada. 
 In the Ursidse or B. family, are included not only 
 the true bears, but also badgers, gluttons and 
 wolverines, racoons, coatimondis, binturongs, the 
 kinkajou, the panda, &c. (See these articles.) WaUc- 
 ing on the whole sole of the foot (plantigrade), the 
 animals of this family are not, in general, capable of 
 running very swiftly; and the nearly equal length 
 of their fore and hind legs unfits them for leaping; 
 most of them are also heavy both in form and gait. 
 But whilst thus deficient in the powers which other 
 carnivorous animals possess for obtaining prey, they 
 really exhibit the same beautiful mutual adaptation 
 of endowments and wants ; they are, in fact, by no 
 means strictly carnivorous; no animals are more 
 thoroughly omnivorous than some of them; whilst 
 others, evin of the true bears, always give a decided 
 preference to vegetable food when it can be obtained, 
 and their teeth and digestive organs are in exact 
 accordance with such tastes. Their jaws are much 
 more elongated than those of fehne animals, and 
 their bite proportionally less powerful, although 
 some of the bears are still very formidable from 
 their great general strength and the size of their 
 canine teeth. Their claws are not retractile, and 
 are adapted for digging in the earth, or for climbing 
 trees, rather than for seizing prey. All animals of 
 the family have five toes to each both of the fore 
 and hind feet. 
 
 Bears have six cutting teeth above, and six below, 
 one canine tooth on each side in each jaw, with 
 four false molars and two molars (or grinders) on 
 each side above, and four false molars and three 
 molars below. The false molars are, in general, 
 soon lost by the more carnivorous species. The 
 true molars are very large and tuberculous, the 
 false molars comparatively small. The tuberculous 
 crowns of the molars exhibit the adaptation to 
 vegetable food. — The tail in aU species of B. is very 
 short, so that some of them almost appear tailless. 
 Most of them may be described as nocturnal in 
 their habits. 
 
 Bears are found in Europe, Asia, and North and 
 South America, and both in warm and cold climatea, 
 the species belonging to cold climates being in 
 general the most fierce and carnivorous. The 
 ancients mention them as occurring in Africa; it 
 must, therefore, be regarded as a curious circum- 
 stance that no recent accounts make certain the 
 existence of any species in that continent. Nor is 
 any known to belong to Australia. 
 
 The common B. of Europe, or Brown B. (TJrsus 
 Arctos), was at one time a native of the British 
 islands. Bears were carried from Britain to Rome, 
 for the cruel sports in which the Eomans dehghted, 
 and they certainly were not exterminated in Scotland 
 
 774 
 
 before the latter part of the 11th o. The Brown B. 
 is usually about four feet long, and two and a half 
 feet high. Its claws are about two 'inches long, and 
 much curved. It has a convex forehead, and gene- 
 rally a brown fur, which is somewhat woolly in the 
 younger animals, hat becomes smoother with age. 
 
 
 111 
 •*''?-'' - " ,%'v « 
 
 Brown Bear. 
 
 It produces from one to three young ones at a birth, 
 winch remain blind for about four weeks. It is 
 generally believed to be the only European species, 
 although different varieties occur; and one, the 
 Black B., has been regarded by some naturalists 
 as specifically distinct. The common B. is very 
 widely distributed over the whole of Europe and 
 of the north of Asia, Japan, and North America. 
 In America, it is known as the Barren Ground 
 Bear. It is a solitary animal, and generally inhabits 
 mountainous regions or thick forests. It some- 
 tioaies preys on lambs, kids, &c., is fond of fish, 
 which in some coimtries, as in Kamtchatka, consti- 
 tute a great part of its food ; climbs trees in quest 
 of honey, eats also fruits and vegetables, and in con- 
 finement, exhibits a strong appetite for bread. It 
 usually prefers vegetable to animal food. The skin 
 is valued for making fur-cloaks, &c.; the flesh is 
 used as food, often in the shape of hams, as is that 
 of the American Black B.; the paws are esteemed 
 a delicacy. The fat (bear's grease) is in great 
 request as an unguent for the hair. T'he intestines 
 are used in Kamtchatka, instead of glass, for 
 windows. To the people of Kamtchatka, indeed, 
 bears, which are there very abimdant, afford many 
 of the necessaries and coinforts of life. — The com- 
 mon B., like others of the genus, in cold climates, 
 usually spends the winter in a torpid state. It 
 selects a cavern or the hollow of a tree for its hyber- 
 nation, or makes a hole for itself by digging; it is 
 also said, but this needs confirmation, sometimes to 
 construct a sort of hut with branches of trees, lined 
 with moss. The winter being spent without food, 
 it is said to be very lean on the return of spring. 
 This and other species of B. are very often killed in 
 their winter dens. 
 
 The American Black B. (Ursus Americanus) is 
 found in aU parts of North America. Its tbtal 
 length seldom exceeds 5 feet. The fur is soft and 
 smooth, and generally of a glossy black; but there 
 are varieties of other colours, as the Cinnamon B., 
 the Yellow B, &c. The American Black B. usually 
 exhibits a tiinid disposition; seldom attacks man; 
 feeds chiefly on berries, when they can be obtained; 
 occasionally visits gardens for the sake of cabbages 
 and other vegetables; and strongly prefers vegetable 
 to animal food, but has recourse to the latter when 
 pressed by hunger, and in such circumstances occa- 
 sionally approaches human habitations and captures 
 
BBAE-BEAE-BAITING. 
 
 pigs, whioli it endeavours to carry off. In suoh 
 oases the B. walks on its hind-legs, the pig being 
 firmly squeezed between its fore-paws and breast, 
 making a noise which frequently leads to a rescue. 
 This and other species of B., when assailed, not 
 unfrequently hug their adversaries in the manner 
 here deaoribed, when their strength renders them 
 very dangerous. The skin of the American Black 
 B. is used for caps, rugs, &c., and great numbers are 
 annually kiUed upon this account, chiefly by the 
 Indiana in the employment of the Hudson's Bay 
 Oompanj. Almost 10,000 skins are annually im- 
 ported into Britain, of which, however, the greater 
 part are again exported. In the beginning of the 
 19th c, the niunber imported was more than twice 
 as great as now ; the skins were also of much higher 
 price. A B.'s skin is stiU worth from £1 to £3. — 
 The Grisly B. {IT. ferox) of North America, found 
 chiefly on the Eocky Mountains and the plains to 
 the eastward of them, from Mexico to lat. 61° N., 
 is much larger than either of the species already 
 noticed, and much more fierce and carnivorous. It 
 sometirnes measures more than 9 feet from nose to 
 taU, and the claws of the fore-feet more than 6 
 inches in length. It has a lengthened and narrowed 
 muzzle, a very short tail, and long grisled hair. No 
 animal of the New World is more formidable than 
 the Grisly B. It is capable of overpowering the 
 bison, and dragging away the huge carcass. It 
 feeds, however, also on fruits and roots. — The 
 Arctic B., or Polar B., also called the White B. 
 {U. Tnaritimus), resembles this species in size and 
 
 Polar Bear. 
 
 fierceness, but is very distinctly characterised by 
 its flat head and comparatively long neck. It has 
 a smooth white fur. It is the only known species 
 of B. which is strictly marine in its habits, never 
 being found far from the sea. It inhabits the niost 
 northerly shores of Asia and America, Spitzbergen, 
 &o., where it pursues seals, both in the water and 
 upon the ice, and preys upon fishes, birds, &c. 
 Amongst the articles of its food are eggs and berries 
 in then? season, and in confinement it will subsist 
 long on bread and other vegetable food. Like other 
 species of the genus, it displays great affection 
 for its young, and will brave all dangers in their 
 defence. — Of other species of B., the Syrian B. 
 {U. Syriacus) may be mentioned, as perhaps the 
 species particularly intended by the name B. in the 
 Old Testament. It is generally of a dingy-white 
 or brown colour, and has a stiff mane of erect hairs 
 between the shoulders. Flocks are not safe from 
 it, yet it more frequently commits ravages on crops 
 of pulse. In its habits generally, it much resembles 
 the common B.; as do also the Tibet B. {U. Tibet- 
 anus), and the Spectacled B. (U. omatus), so called 
 
 from semioironlar yellow marks above its eyes, a 
 native of the Andes of ChUi.— The Long-Upped B., 
 or Sloth B. ( U. labiatus), of the East Indies, is the 
 kind commonly led about by Indian jugglers. Its 
 
 Syrian Bear. 
 
 long hair, short Hmbs, high back, peculiarly uncouth 
 appearance, and gentleness of disposition, recommend 
 it for this purpose. In a wild state, it is said to feed 
 chiefly on fruits, honey, and ants. It possesses in 
 a remarkable degree the power, common in some 
 measure to all the bears, of protruding the lips in 
 order to lay hold of food. — Some other East Indian 
 species, which feed chiefly on fruits and honey, are 
 known as Sun-bears, as the Malayan B. ( U. Malay- 
 anus) and the Bornean B. {U. EuryspUus). They 
 are characterised by an extremely long extensile 
 tongue. They are of gentle disposition, and become 
 very affectionate when tamed. Sir Stamford Kafles 
 had a Malayan B., which was very playful and quite 
 harmless, although a powerful animal, and which 
 shewed refinement of taste ia refusing to eat any 
 fruit but the mangosteen, or to drink any wine but 
 champagne. This species in a wild state does much 
 damage to cocoa-nut plantations, by climbing the 
 trees, and eating off the terminal bud, when it is said 
 also to drink the sap (toddy) which fiows out ia 
 abundance. 
 
 Remains of several extinct species of B. have been 
 discovered in caves in Germany, England, and other 
 countries, some of which appear to have been larger 
 than the present bears of Europe, and of more decided 
 carnivorous propensities. . Of these, the U. spdoeus, 
 or Great Cavern B., has the skull of considerable 
 vertical elevation from the upper end of the muzzle, 
 and larger than that of the biggest Brown B. 3?he 
 U. Arctoideus has a skuU nearly of the configuration 
 of that of the U. Americanus, and of the size of that 
 of U. spdams. The U. priscus, or Ancient B., has 
 the skuU of a smaller size, and differing less from 
 that of living bears. 
 
 Ant B. ia a name of the Great Ant-eater (q. v.). 
 
 BEAE, BEEE, or BEEE. See Baeley. 
 
 BEAR, Great amd liiriLB. See Uesa Major 
 AND MmoB. 
 
 BEAE-BAITING. In different countries, bears 
 were formerly made objects of cruel sport, by being 
 baited with dogs. In England, B. was one of the 
 estabhshed amusements, not only among the com- 
 mon people, but among nobles, and even royalty 
 itself; it is rehtted that Queen Elizabeth did 
 not consider it unbefitting her sex or rank to 
 attend these rude entertainments. Pennant, in his 
 Zoology, quoting from The Houselwld, Booh of 
 tlie Earls of Northimberland, says : ' Our nobility 
 also kept their bearward; twenty shillings was 
 the annual reward of that ofiioer from his lord, 
 the fifth Earl of Northumberland (who died 1527), 
 
 775 
 
BBAEBEEE.Y— BEARD. 
 
 " when he oomyth to my lorde in Christmas, with 
 his lordshippe's heests for making his lordschip pas- 
 tyme the said twelve days." ' The places where 
 bears were kept and pubholy baited were called 
 bear-gardens. There is a spot in the neighbourhood 
 of the court at Westminster, which, imtil lately, was 
 known as the Bear-garden. B., like bull and badger 
 baiting, has long been unknown ia England. 
 BEA'RBBERY. See Abbutus. 
 
 BEAR LAKE, Great, in British America, in 
 N. lat. 65°— 67°, and W. long. 117°— 123°. It is the 
 most northerly of that chain of fresh-water seas — 
 Huron, Superior, Winnipeg, Athabasca, Great Slave, 
 Great Bear — which mark a coutuiuous hollow in 
 the middle of the continent. Great Bear Lake is 
 irregular in shape, with a airfaoe estimated at 
 14,000 square miles, equal to about half the area 
 of Scotland. It sends fortli a river of its own name 
 to the Mackenzie. Its height above the ocean is 
 computed at 230 feet. The climate is, of course, 
 severe. The rigour of the winter may be inferred 
 from the fact, that boats are sometimes blocked 
 up by solid ice, after the crews have begun to suffer 
 from the heat and the mosquitoes. 
 
 BEAR-LEADER. In former times, bears were 
 led about with a chain, muzzled, and made to dance 
 or stand on their Mnd-legs for popular enter- 
 tainment ; small dancing-dogs being usually added, 
 for the sake of attractiveness. As a measure of 
 police, these somewhat dangerous and painful exhi- 
 bitions are now stopped. From this old practice 
 has been taken the phrase, B., now used jocularly 
 to signify a discreet person who takes charge of a 
 youth of rank on his travels to see the world. 
 
 BEAR-PIT, a pit prepared for the keeping of 
 bears, usually seen in zoological gardens. A pit of 
 this kind is circular, measuring about 25 feet in 
 diameter, and 20 feet deep. Ihe sides are built 
 with brick ; the bottom is level, and paved with 
 stone ; and around are vaults with doors for the 
 residence of the bears. From the centre of the 
 pit rises a stout and tall pole, on which are cross- 
 spars at proper distances, to enable the bears to 
 climb to the top. As is well known, the animals 
 are fond of climbing up these poles, and catching 
 morsels of bun from the visitors. The poles are 
 sufficiently distant from the sides to prevent the 
 bears from leaping out. The vaulted receptacles 
 require to be cool and dry. 
 
 BEAR'S GREASE. Under this name there are 
 sold by perfumers and others, large quantities of 
 pomades, tastefully done up for the toilet, and 
 which are represented to be of great efficacy in 
 nourishing and promotinethe growth of hair. These 
 so-caUed preparations of B. G. are for the most part 
 composed of purified beef-marrow, hog's-lard, or fat 
 of veal, and spermaceti, along with almond oil, and 
 some scenting ingredients. The genuine bear's fat 
 or B. G. would appear to possess the virtue of 
 encouraging the growth of, and strengthening the 
 hair, in an eminent degree ; but the scarcity of the 
 commodity is such that substitute fats are employed 
 to supply the demand. See Haie. 
 
 BEARD, the hair which grows on the upper lip, 
 and on the chin and cheeks of the male sex. It* is 
 usually, though not always, of the same colour as 
 the hair of the head, but somewhat shorter, stronger, 
 and more wiry ; it is invariably the colour of the hair 
 on the eyebrows. The B. ia the distinctive sign of 
 manhood. In women, an incipient B. sometimes 
 appears in the later years of Ufe. Instances also 
 occur of women with a B. almost equal to that of 
 the male sex, but these are recorded as prodigies. 
 The B. is generally luxuriant in persons of the 
 776 
 
 Slavic and Celtic races. The aborigines of America, 
 who are naturally almost beardless, make them- 
 selves entirely so by plucking out the hairs of the 
 beard. In early times, the B. was considered by 
 almost aU nations a sign of strength and an orna- 
 ment of manhood, was carefully cherished, and even 
 regarded as sacred. Among the Turks, Arabs, Per- 
 sians, and many other nations, the removal of the 
 B. was, and is yet to a very great extent, regarded 
 as a severe punishment and an extreme degradation. 
 The case of David's ambassadors, recorded in 2 
 Samuel, chap, x., illustrates the same feeling as 
 prevalent among the ancient Jews. The Moslems 
 carry combs constantly about with them for the 
 purpose of dressing the beard. It is common to do so 
 immediately after prayers, the devotee remaining on 
 his knees during the operation. The hairs that fall 
 out are then carefully picked up and preserved for 
 entombment with their owner when he dies; fre- 
 quently he himself deposits them beforehand in his 
 destined tomb. The ancient Jews did not dye their 
 beards, and the Turks rarely, but the practice was 
 common among the Arabs and Persians. The 
 Arabs dyed the B. red, not only because dye of 
 that colour (being merely a paste of henna leaves) 
 was easily obtainable, but because it was an approxi- 
 mation to golden yellow, the colour recommended 
 by their prophet Mohammed, who hated black, the 
 colour the Persians preferred. The Persian kings 
 are said to have interwoven their beards vrith gold 
 thread. It is customary among the Turks to anoint 
 the B. with perfume, and to smoke it with incense. 
 The JeAvs also anointed their beards. The Moslems 
 commonly cHpped their whiskers, the Jews did not. 
 The Egyptians shaved their beards except in time of 
 
 Egyptian Beard-case. 
 From the Memnon's head in the British Museum. 
 
 mourning, when they let them grow. From some 
 of the ancient Egyptian statues, however, it would 
 appear that beard-cases were worn, which would 
 seem to indicate that the practice of shaving was 
 not universal. The fashions of beards have been 
 very different at different times and in different 
 countries. 
 
 A neglected B. was a sign of mourning among 
 the Jews. According to Levi's Succinct Account 
 of the Mites and Ceremonies of the Jews at this 
 present Time, they are forbidden to shave or cut 
 their nails, or bathe for thirty days after the death 
 of a father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter, 
 wife, or husband. In Greece, the B. was uni- 
 versally worn tiU the time of Alexander the Great, 
 who ordered shaving, that the beards of his soldiers 
 might not be laid hold of by their enemies in 
 battle. Shaving was introduced among the Romans 
 
BEARD MOSS— BEAS. 
 
 about 300 E. c. Pliny aaya Scipio Africanua was 
 the first Eoman who shaved every day. Subse- 
 quently, the first day of shaving was regarded 
 by the Romans as the entrance upon manhood, 
 and celebrated with great festivities. Under 
 Hadrian, the B. was allowed to grow again ; and 
 this fashion prevailed till the time of Constantino 
 the Great, when it was discontinued. Peter the 
 Great compelled shaving in Russia by imposing a 
 heavy tax upon the B., and further, by havuig the 
 beards of all whom he foimd wearing them plucked 
 out by the roots, or shaved with a bhmt razor. 
 The B. was commonly worn in France tiU the 
 time of Louis XIII., when, because the monarch was 
 young and beardless, the fashion changed at the 
 court and throughout the kingdom. A similar 
 change took place in Spain on the accession of 
 Philip v. with regard to our own country, the 
 Anglo-Saxons wore beards for a considerable time 
 after their invasion of Britain ; and the B. appears 
 to have been general among the people at the time 
 of the Norman Conquest. But the Normans not 
 only shaved themselves, but compelled the con- 
 quered to do so likewise ; and many of the English 
 preferred to leave the country rather than submit to 
 have their whiskers shaved. It would appear, 
 however, from the sculptured representations on the 
 tombs of kings and nobles, that not very long after 
 the Conquest some of the Normans adopted the 
 custom they had prohibited among the vanquished. 
 Edward III. is represented on his tomb in West- 
 minster Abbey with a very long beard. In the time 
 of Elizabeth, beards were of the most varied and fan- 
 tastic out. Taylor, the ' Water-poet,' thus satirises 
 the extravagance of beards prevaihng in that and 
 the succeeding reign : 
 
 Some seem as they were starched stiff and fine, 
 Like to the bristles of some angry swine ; 
 Some cut and pruned like to a quick-set hedge. 
 Some like a spade, some like a fork, some square, 
 Some round, some mowed hke stubble, some stark 
 
 bare; 
 Some sharp stil«tto-fashion, dagger-hke. 
 That may with whispering, a man's eyes out-pike, 
 Some with the hammer-cut, or Roman T, 
 * * * * 
 
 That heights, depths, breadths, triform, square, oval, 
 
 round. 
 And rules geometrical in beards are found. 
 
 Tie B. gradually declined under Charles I. ; in the 
 reign of Charles II., whiskers and moustaches only 
 were worn ; and the practice of shaving the whole 
 face soon became general all over Europe ; and it is 
 only within the last 60 years that the B. has been 
 in some measure restored, the soldiers of Bonaparte 
 setting the example. But until within the last two or 
 three years, it was regarded bysomeof the continental 
 governments as a bac^ge significant of democratic 
 sentiments, and as such was interfered vrith by 
 police regulations. Physicians recommend that the 
 B. should be allowed to grow on the chin and 
 throat in cases of liabOity to inflammation of the 
 larynx or of the bronchise ; and moustaches and 
 wluskers are reckoned useful for prevention of tooth- 
 aches and nervous diseases of the face. The British 
 soldiers in the Crimea were allowed to wear their 
 beards ; and with some limitations, the British 
 army generally are now permitted to do so. The 
 wearing of the B. has, in short, been a matter of 
 fashion in all ages and covmtries — ;an extreme in 
 one way usually leading to an exinreme in the other. 
 At present (1860), the tendency in England and 
 elsewhere is to let the B. grow, though in a way 
 suggested by the taste of -flie individual. The B. 
 is itself liable to the same diseases with the hair 
 of the head, and to a peculiar disease [mentagra) 
 
 occasioned or kept up by shaving, consisting in a 
 bark-like exudation from the inflamed sebaceous 
 glands of the hair. For detailed information, see 
 Kitto's Pictorial Bible ; Bulwer's Artificial Cliange- 
 ling (Lond. 1653) ; Hotoman's Pogdnias (Leyden, 
 1596), reprinted in the Lexicon of Pitisous; Taylor's 
 Whip of Satire; &c. 
 
 BEARD MOSS. See TJsNlA. 
 
 BEARDIE. By this name is the little fish called 
 the loach known in Scotland. See Loach. 
 
 BEARING, of a ship at sea, is the direction in 
 which she sails, in reference to the points of the com- 
 pass. Or, in a more comprehensive sense, it is the 
 direction in which each of two objects is situated iu 
 reference to the other. When the latitudes and 
 longitudes of two places are known, their respective 
 bearings from each other can be calculated by 
 trigonometry. On shipboard, seamen often con- 
 veniently refer the B. of another ship, or of an 
 object on shore, not to the points of the compass, 
 but relatively to the line followed at the moment 
 by the ship's keel. Thus, the B. of the distant 
 object may be ahead, astern, on the starboard 
 bow, on the larboard quarter, &c. ; the bow being 
 between the head and the midship, and the quarter 
 between the midship and the stern. 
 
 Bearing, or rather the verb to bear, is much used 
 as a technical direction on shipboard. Thus, to 
 ' bear in with the land,' to ' bear off from the land,' 
 to ' bear up,' to ' bear away,' &c., are nearly equiva- 
 lent to sailing, or steaming, or steering, in such and 
 such directions. 
 
 BEARING THE BELL, a phrase which signi- 
 fies to take the lead or first place in anything, or to 
 carry away the prize. This old coUoquial phrase is 
 said to have originated in a practice, at the early 
 part of the seventeenth c, of giving a small 
 golden or silver bell as a prize to the winner at 
 horse-races. See Bell. In Dudley Lord North's 
 forest of Varieties, p. 175, we read : 
 
 Jockey and his horse were by their masters sent 
 To put in for the bell — 
 Thus right, and each to other fitted well. 
 They are to run, and cannot misse the bell. 
 
 BEARN, formerly one of the thirty-two pro- 
 vinces into which France was divided, and now 
 forming the greatest portion of the Basses-Pyrgnges. 
 B. was a portion of Aquitania under the Romans, 
 and after the downfall of that empire, under its 
 ruling dukes, it was a country of considerable im- 
 portance. From the intermarriage of the ruling 
 family, the Counts of Foix, with that of Navarre, 
 sprang the French monarch Henry IV., who, because 
 he was bom and brought up in B., was derisively 
 called the Bearnois. When he ascended the throne 
 of France, it, of course, virtually became -■•■ part of 
 that country; but was only formally incorporated 
 with it in 1620 by Louis XIIL In 1813, after the 
 British had crossed the Nive, and estabhshed them- 
 selves in Urogne, St Jean de Luz, &c., the rich fields 
 of B. fra-nished them ample supphes, the peasants 
 taking their produce, for which they were well paid, 
 as regularly to the British stations as to market. 
 
 BE' AS, anciently Hyphasis, one of the five rivers 
 which give name to the Punjab, or land of five 
 waters — Jelum, Chenab, Ravee, Beas, and Sutlej. 
 It rises on the verge of the Ritanka Pass of the 
 Himalaya, in lat. 32° 34' N., and long. 77° 12' E., 
 its soiu'ce being 13,200 feet above the sea-level. 
 After a course of about 220 miles, it joins the Sutlej, 
 35 miles to the south-south-east of Amritsir. It is 
 subject to periodical rises and falls, being in the 
 dry season generally fordable; but after the rainy 
 months, it is sometimes nearly half a mile in 
 
BEAT— BEATING AND WOUNDING. 
 
 breadth about 20 milea above the point of con- 
 fluence. 
 BEAT, in Music, a species of embellishment, 
 
 , and played as follows. 
 
 Beat also means a signal given by 
 the hand or foot in music to insure 
 simultaneous performance — the hand or foot being 
 raised on the unaccented, and lowered on the 
 accented part of the bar. 
 
 BEAT OF DETJM, in military matters, is a 
 signal or instruction conveyed by a particular 
 mode of drum-beating. It is an audible sema- 
 phore, a telegraph that speaks to the ear instead 
 of the eye. There are many varieties, known by 
 the names of the general, the reveHlg, the assembly, 
 the foot-march, the grenadiers' march, the retreat, 
 the taptoo or tattoo, the call to arms, the call to 
 church, the pioneers' call, the sergeants' call, the 
 drummers' call, the chamade, the rogue's march, the 
 long roU, &c. Some of the same instructions or 
 commands are also given by the bugle, and some by 
 the trumpet. 
 
 BEATIFICA'TION is a solemn act in the 
 Cathohc Church, by which the pope, after scrutiuising 
 the hfe and services of a deceased person, pronounces 
 him blessed. After this he may be worshipped in a 
 specified portion of the church, and the act holds out 
 the prospect of future canonisation, which entitles 
 him to general worship in the ohxrrch universal. B. 
 was introduced in the 12th c. It may be regarded 
 as an inferior degree of canonisation (q. v.). 
 
 BEATING AND WOUNDING, or simply 
 wounding, is the name sometimes found in law- 
 books for the offence of inflicting on another some 
 dangerous hurt or wound; and it has been other- 
 wise described as an aggravated species of Battery 
 (q. v.). A still more aggravated and atrocious 
 offence of this kind is expiained in the category 
 of offences against the criminal law of England 
 under the term Mayhem, which is a violently 
 depriving another of the use of a member proper 
 for his defence, such as an arm, a, leg, a finger, an 
 eye, a fore-tooth, and some others ; but it is laid 
 down quaintly enough, that the loss of one of the 
 jaw-teeth, the ear, or the nose, is no mayhem in 
 common law, because these members can be of 
 no use in fighting. 
 
 The offences to which we have referred — ^viz., 
 battery, beating and viounding, and , mayhem — can, 
 however, be best considered under the important 
 and well-kuown term Assault, which is indeed 
 often used to express the above injuries, and which 
 is imphed in them aU. The above offences, it will 
 have been observed, aU involve an actual attack on 
 and injury to the person of the party assaulted. 
 But there may be an assault without such actual 
 hurt. This ia a common assault, and hence, in crimi- 
 nal law, assaults are distinguished by their being 
 common or aggravated. A common assault has been 
 defiiued as an attempt or offer to do a corporal hurt 
 to another, as by striking at another with a stick 
 or weapon, or without a weapon, though the party 
 striking misses his aim. The principle is, that it is 
 sufficient, in order to constitute such an offence, that 
 there has been such an exhibition of a violent and 
 offensive animus as to shew at once the intention, 
 and an attempt, to commit it. So, drawing a sword 
 or bayonet, or even holding up a fist iu a menacing 
 maimer, throwing a bottle or glass with intent to 
 wound or strike, presenting a gun at a person who 
 is within the distance to ■Mich the gun will carry, 
 
 778 
 
 pointing a pitchfork at a person who is within 
 reach, or any other similar act, accompanied with 
 such oircimistances as denote at the time an 
 intention, coupled with a present ability, of using 
 actual violence against the person of another, will 
 amount to an assault.^ — Russell on Crimes and 
 Misdemeanours, vol. i. p. 750. It has even been laid 
 down, that to present a pistol, purporting to be 
 loaded, so near as to produce danger to life if the 
 pistol had gone off, is an assault in point of law, 
 although, in fact, the pistol was not loaded. 
 
 But no words, however provoldng or irritating, 
 can amormt to an assault. On the other hand, 
 the injury need not be effected directly with the 
 hand of the person making the assault. Thus, 
 there may be an assault by encouraging a dog 
 to bite, by riding over a person with a horse, 
 or by wilfully and violently driving a cart, &c., 
 against the carriage of another person. Nor is it 
 necessary that the assault should be immediate, as 
 where a defendant threw a hghted squib into a 
 market-place, which, being tossed from hand to 
 hand by different -persons, at last hit the plaintiff in 
 the face, and put out his eye, it was adjudged that 
 this was actionable. And the same has been held 
 where a person wantonly pushed a drunken man 
 against another, and thereby hurt him. A defendant 
 put some cantharides into coffee, in order that a 
 female might take it ; and she did take it, and was 
 made ill by it ; and this was held to be an assault. 
 It is also an assault, wilfully and of malice, to expose 
 another to the inclemency of the weather ; so is the 
 taking indecent Hberties with females without their 
 consent, although they did not actually resist ; and 
 to such indecent hberties a very wide appUcation 
 has been given, even to the extent of holding a 
 medical practitioner guilty of assault, who stripped 
 a young girl of her clothes, on the pretence that he 
 could not otherwise judge of her illness. Philan- 
 thropists and benevolent people wiU likewise be 
 glad to be told, that not only does the striking that 
 takes place at a prize-fight constitute an assault as 
 between the combatants themselves^ but all persons 
 present in concert and co-operation at the odious 
 proceeding are equally guilty. Again, an assault 
 may be committed by unlawfully imprisoning or 
 detaining the person of another ; and by such 
 detention is meant every confinement of the person, 
 whether it be in a common prison or in a private 
 house, or by a forcible detaining in the public 
 streets. Ntimerous other cases could be stated, 
 shewing how nicely and protectively the law on 
 this subject has been elucidated ; but the expla- 
 nation we have given is sufficient for its popular 
 illustration. 
 
 Generally, it may be laid down, that the essential 
 thing is the intention with which the alleged act is 
 done, so that no matter how violent or menacing 
 the conduct of the accused may have appeared 
 to be, nor even how serious the injury, i£ it can 
 be shewn that the whole was unintentional or 
 accidental and undesigned, there is no assault. It 
 remains to be added on the subject of common 
 assaults, that the party injured may proceed against 
 the defendant by action and indictment for the 
 same assault ; and the court in which the action 
 is brought will not compel him to make his election 
 to pursue either the one or the other; for the 
 pimishment consequent upon the criminal prose- 
 cution, and the damages to the party iu the civil 
 action, are perfectly distinct in their natures ; but 
 by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, a conviction for a common 
 assault may be had in a summary manner before 
 two magistrates. 
 
 With respect to aggravated assaults, their special 
 character arises from the great criminality of the 
 
BEATING JUDGES— BEATON. 
 
 object intended to be effected. Thus, attempts to 
 murder, or to do great bodily harm, to ravisB, and 
 to .obstruct officers of the law in the execution of 
 legal process, are all of the nature of aggravated 
 assaults ; as are also attempts to commit robbery, or 
 any other felony. The remedy for an aggravated 
 assault is usually by indictment preferred, the 
 
 Eunishment in many cases being imprisonment with 
 ard labour. In certain cases, the punishment is 
 regulated by recent statutes : thus, by the 14 and 15 
 Vict. c. 11, S3. 1 and 6, it is enacted that persons 
 unlawfully and maliciously assaulting an apprentice 
 or servant, whereby the life of such person shall be 
 endangered, or the health injured, shall be guilty of 
 a misdemeanour, and on conviction shall be impri- 
 soned, with or without hard laboiu^, for any term 
 not exceeding three years ; and where the offence 
 shall be against a yoimg person under the age of 
 16 years, and shall amount in point of law to a 
 felony, or to an attempt to coromit a felony, or 
 to an assault with intent to commit a felony, 
 the guardians of the tmion or parish, or, where 
 there are no guardians, the overseers of the parish, 
 are authorised and required to prosecute, the costs 
 of the prosecution being paid out of the com- 
 mon fund of such union or parish. Again, by an act 
 passed in the same session, c. 19, s. 4, it is declared 
 expedient to make further provision for the punish- 
 ment of aggravated assaults, and it is therefore 
 enacted, that if any person shall unlawfully and 
 maliciously inflict upon any other person, either 
 with or without any weapon or instrument, any 
 grievous bodily harm, or unlawfully and maliciously 
 cut, stab, or wound any other person, every such 
 offender shall be guilty of a misdemeanour, and 
 being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the discre- 
 tion of the court, to be imprisoned, with or without 
 hard labour, for a liie term of three years : provided, 
 however, that nothing contained in the act shall be 
 deemed or taken to repeal the 29th section of the 
 10 Geo. IV., c. 34, by which it is provided, that if any 
 person shall unlawfully and maliciously assault, 
 beat, or woimd any person, so as thereby to endanger 
 the life of such person, or so as thereby to inflict 
 upon such person any grievous bodily harm, every 
 such offender, being convicted thereof, shall be liable 
 to be transported beyond the seas, for the term of 
 seven years, or to be imprisoned with or without 
 hard labour, in the common jail or house of correc- 
 tion, for any term not exceeding three years ; and, if 
 a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly or pri- 
 vately whipped, in addition to such imprisonment, if 
 the comii shall think fit. The only other- statute we 
 may here notice is an act also passed in the same 
 session— viz., the 14 and 15 Vict. c. 100, s. 29— which 
 provides that any person convicted of any indecent 
 assault, or any assault occasioning actual bodily 
 harm, shall be imprisoned for any term now war- 
 ranted by law, with hard labour during the whole 
 or any part of such imprisonment. 
 
 In Scotland, the principle of the law of assault, 
 and of its aggravations, is very much the same as 
 that above stated. In the Scotch system, it is laid 
 down that it is of the utmost importance in all cases 
 of actual assault to ascertain who struck the first 
 blow, and the party who receives it will be excused 
 for retaliating, if he do not exceed the just and fair 
 measure of resentment. There, too, the highest of 
 aU.aggravations is the assault with intent to murder. 
 It is also an aggravation that the assault has been 
 committed in pursuance of an old grudge, and on a 
 principle of revenge ; where, also, the offence has 
 been accompanied with an intent to compel a rise of 
 wages, or to deter from working at a certain rate, or 
 in pursuance of a combination entered into for these 
 illegal purposes. Another aggravation of the offence 
 
 in Scotland is its being committed by a child on its 
 parent, by a husband on his wife, or by any person 
 upon another within his own house, although the 
 latter crime falls more strictly under the antiquated 
 term of Ha/mesucken (q. v.). The remedy in Scotland 
 is, as in England, by civil action of damages, and by 
 a criminal prosecution, both being maintainable, and 
 the latter usually at the suit of the Lord Advocate, 
 as pubhc prosecutor ; but the private injured party 
 may prosecute criminally should the Lord Advocate 
 decline to do so. See, on the subject of this article 
 generally, Russell On Crimes and Misdemeanours, 
 in England, and Alison's Principles of the Scotch 
 Criminal Law. 
 
 BEATING JUDGES, in the Scotch law, is the 
 strange title of a strange offence, according to the 
 enlightenment of the present age — namely, that of 
 committing a personal assault on a judge ; but the 
 subject will be found, along with the corresponding 
 law in England, sufBciently treated under Judges 
 (q.v.). 
 
 BEATING THE BOUNDS is the popular 
 expression in England for those periodical surveys or 
 perambulations by which the ancient boundaries of 
 parishes are preserved. The procedure, according to 
 common custom, is in this wise : On Holy Thursday 
 or Ascension Day, the clergyman of the parish, with 
 the parochial officers and other parishioners, followed 
 by the boys of the parish school, headed by their 
 master, go in procession to the different parish 
 boimdaries, which boundaries the boys strike with 
 peeled willow-wands that they bear in their hands, 
 and hence the expression beating the bounds. The 
 correct legal term is Perambulation (q. v.). See 
 Brand's Popular Antiquities, vol. i. pp. 174, 175; 
 Lyson's Ermirons of London, vol. ii. p. 146 ; Hone's 
 Everg-day Booh, vol. i. p. 651 ; Steer s Parish Law, 
 by Hodgson ; and Toulmin Smith's Parish Law. 
 
 According to these and other old authorities, the 
 beating was not confined to the above performance of 
 the boys with their wiUow- wands ; but where it was 
 desired to preserve evidence of particular boundaries, 
 the singular expedient was used of whipping the 
 boys themselves on the spot, or one of them, who 
 received a, stated fee for the permitted castigation 
 out of the parish funds — ^it being thought that the 
 impression made on the memory of the whipped boy 
 was calculated to have a beneficial effect on the 
 preservation of his evidence. A similar ceremony 
 appears anciently to have prevailed in Scotland, and 
 for the same purpose. See Lord Stair's Institutes of 
 the Scotch Law, book iv., title 43, s. 7, where it is 
 stated that the boys were ' sharply whipped.' 
 
 BBA'TON, or BE'THUNE, David, Cardinal and 
 Primate of Scotland, a zealous opponent of the 
 Reformation in that country, descended from a 
 celebrated French family, was a younger son of 
 John Beaton of Balfour, Fifeshire. Born in 1494, 
 he became, in October 1511, a student at the 
 university of St Andrews, and afterwards studied 
 theology and the canon and civil laws at Paris. 
 Early entering the church, he was preferred by his 
 uncle, James Beaton, Archbishop of Glasgow, to the 
 rectory of Campsie, Stirlingshire. Bis tact and 
 general abihties recommended him to the Duke of 
 Albany, regent during the minority of James V., 
 who, in 1519, appointed him resident for Scotland at 
 the French court. In 1525, he took his seat in the 
 Scots parliament as Abbot of Arbroath; his uncle, 
 on being translated two years before to the arch- 
 bishopric of St Andrews, having resigned to him 
 that abbey, with the half of- the rents. In 1528, B. 
 was appointed Lord Privy Seal, and is said to 
 have been the adviser of James V. in instituting the 
 ColleKe of Justice or Court of Session in Scotland, 
 ^ 779 
 
BEATTIE-BEAUCAIEE. 
 
 the idea of which was suggested by the constitu- 
 tion of the parliament of Paris. B. subsequently 
 became Prothonotary Public, and was twice sent 
 ambassador to France, to negotiate James's two 
 marriages — first, with the French king's daughter. 
 Princess Magdalene, who died six months after her 
 nuptials; and secondly, with Mary, Duchess of 
 Longueville, daughter of the Duke of Guise. The 
 king^s union with the latter he solemnised, in 1537, 
 in the cathedral church of St Andrews. During his 
 residence at the French court, he was admitted to 
 all the privileges of a French citizen, and appointed 
 by Francis I. Bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc. 
 After his return, he became coadjutor to his uncle 
 in the see of St Andrews, and on 28th December 
 1538, on the recommendation of the king of France, 
 was, by Pope Paul III., elevated to the dignity of 
 a cardinal. On his uncle's death, in 1539, he suc- 
 ceeded him as Archbishop of St Andrews and 
 Primate of Scotland, and soon commenced a furious 
 persecution of the Reformers, already numerous 
 and increasing. That he might be invested with 
 supreme authority in all matters ecclesiastical, he 
 obtained from the pope the appointment of legaius 
 a latere in Scotland, and induced the king to 
 institute a Court of Inquisition, to ioquire after 
 heretics in all parts of the kingdom. To maintain 
 the French influence, and prevent all danger to the 
 Boman Cathoho Church in Scotland by a friendly 
 connection with England, he contrived to frustrate 
 a proposed meeting of King James with his uncle, 
 Henry VIII., and even prevailed on the former to 
 declare war against his royal relative. On the 
 death of James, after the disastrous overthrow of 
 the Scots at Solway Moss, December 14, 1542, B. 
 produced a forged wiU of the late king, appointing 
 himself, with three others, regents of the kingdom 
 during the minority of the infant Queen Mary. 
 The nobility, however, rejected the fictitious docu- 
 ment, and elected the Earl of Arran regent, who 
 then professed the reformed faith. The following 
 month, B. was arrested and imprisoned, accused, 
 among other charges, of a design to introduce 
 French troops into Scotland, in order to stop the 
 negotiations then in progress with Henry of Eng- 
 land for a marriage between the young Prince 
 of Wales, afterwards Edward VI., and the infant 
 Queen of Soots. He was soon after liberated, 
 and reconciled to the regent, whom he induced 
 to abandon the English interest, and publicly 
 to abjure the reformed religion. On the young 
 queen's coronation in 1543, B. was again admitted 
 of the council, and appointed Chancellor. He 
 now renewed his persecution of the Keformers ; 
 and, in January 1546, accompanied by the regent, 
 he made a diocesan visitation of the counties under 
 his jurisdiction, and pimished with the utmost 
 severity all the Protestants he could find. At 
 Perth, a number of persons, accused of heresy, were 
 banished the city, others were imprisoned ; three 
 men were cruelly hanged, and one woman drowned, 
 by his directions. During a Provincial Council of 
 the clergy held at Edinburgh, at which he presided, 
 he caused the celebrated evangelical preacher, 
 George Wishart, to be apprehended, and conveyed 
 to the castle of St Andrews, where he was burnt 
 at the stake, B. and other prelates witnessing his 
 sufferings from a window. A conspiracy having 
 been formed against him, at the head of which were 
 Norman LesUe and his brother, B. was assassinated 
 in his own castle of St Andrews, 29th May 1546. 
 Though endowed with great talents, B. possessed 
 little learning. He is said, however, to have written 
 Memoirs of Ida Own Emhassies; a treatise on St 
 Peter's Supremacy ; and Letters to Several Persons, of 
 which Dempster observes there are several copies 
 780 
 
 extant in the Imperial Library at Paris. Haughty, 
 cruel, and intolerant, he was also hoentious in the 
 extreme. He had six natural children, three sous 
 and three daughters — the latter married into families 
 of distinction. One of his sons became a Protestant. 
 His death was scarcely lamented by any party in 
 the state. 
 
 BEA'TTIE, Jambs, poet and moral philosopher, 
 was born, 25th October 1735, at Laurencekirk, 
 Kincardineshire, Scotland. He studied at Marischal 
 College, Aberdeen, where he acquired a high reputa- 
 tion as a classical scholar. In 1758, he was appointed 
 one of the masters of the grammar-school in that 
 city, and in 1760, Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
 Marischal College. Ten years afterwards .appeared 
 B.'s famous Essay on Truth, which met with most 
 extravagant success. It was intended as an antidote 
 to Hume, whose penetrating scepticism had found 
 its way into all the enlightened circles of Scotland, 
 and alarmed the friends of revealed religion. Drs 
 Eeid and Campbell had previously attempted to 
 refute the scepticism of the great historian, but, in 
 the opinion of many, too deferentially. B., whose 
 nature was poetically vehement, and whose zeal 
 was consequently very ardent, assaulted Hume 
 more violently, if not more powerfully, than his 
 predecessors. The author himself naturally shared 
 the popularity of his essay. He was introduced to 
 George III., and soHcited by dignitaries of the 
 Enghsh Church to take orders; high preferments 
 were also promised, which, however, he magnani- 
 mously refused, shrinking with dehcacy-from doing 
 anything which might give his adversaries a 
 chance of saying that he had written on behalf of 
 reUgion for hire. It was thoiight for a time that B. 
 had demonstrated ' the immutabihty of Truth,' and 
 exposed the ' sophistry of scepticism; ' but if we may 
 judge from the neglect which has overtaken his 
 treatise during the last fifty years, his achieve- 
 ments had been overestimated. B. was deficient 
 in logical acumen and in extent of philosophic 
 erudition, but his poetical fancy, pure enthusiasm, 
 and pious intentions, recommended the essay to 
 multitudes. In 1771, appeared the first part of 
 The Minstrel, and in 1774, the second pari. It 
 is a delightful poem. Time has dealt gently with 
 it, for it still retains the freshness of its youth. It 
 overflows with a sweet poetic emotion, and is rich 
 in picturesque descriptions, while the versification 
 has a quiet fulness of melody. The author's gentle 
 yet fervent spirit beats in every line. The poem 
 describes ' the progress of a poetical genius born in 
 a rude age, from the first dawning of fancy and 
 reason, till that period at which he may be supposed 
 capable of appearing in the world as a miostrel.' 
 B. intended to have added a third part, but circum- 
 stances hindered him. In 1776, he published a series 
 of essays on Poetry, Music, &c. ; in 1783, Dissertor 
 tiona Moral and Critical; in 1786, Tlie Evidences of 
 the Christian Rdiqion briefly and plainly stated ; and 
 in 1790—1793, The Elements of Moral Science; aU 
 of which works are written in a clear and elegant 
 style, and with a high appreciation of whatever is 
 beautiful and good. He died August 18, 1803. 
 His life has been written by his friend, Sir William 
 Forbes. 
 
 BBAUCAIBE, a well-built commercial town of 
 France, situated on the right bank of the Ehone, 
 in the department of Gard, opposite Tarascon, with 
 which it is connected by a magnificent suspension 
 bridge. Pop., exclusive of gamson, 9694. The 
 harbour is commodious for vessels, which enter 
 it by a canal communicating with the Mediter- 
 ranean, and avoiding the saud-bauks at the 
 mouths of the Rhone. The main feature of B. ia 
 
BEATJCHAMP— BEAUHAENAIS. 
 
 its great fair, established, it is said, as early as the 
 12th 0. It is held anmially, beginning 22d July, 
 and lasting six days. In former times, ■when this 
 fair was free from duties, it was attended by mer- 
 chants and manufacturers from almost all parts of 
 Europe, from the Levant, and even from Persia and 
 Armenia ; and as the small town could not contain 
 the vast concourse of traders, thousands of wooden 
 huts and of tents were erected in the neighbouring 
 valley. But the numerous imposts demanded since 
 1632, foreign wars, and the competition of MarseUle, 
 Lyon, and other large places, reduced the traffic of 
 B., which sanlc stiU lower in the days of the Revo- 
 lution. The fair, however, is still held in much 
 repute, the number attending it being estimated at 
 100,000, and the amount of property changing hands 
 at £240,000. The chief articles of commerce are 
 sUks, wines, oil, almonds, and other fruits, spices, 
 drugs, leather, wool, and cotton. B. appears to have 
 been known in ancient times as TJgernum, which, in 
 the 7th c, was a place of importance in a military 
 point of view. 
 
 BEATJCHAMP, Alphonse be, a French histo- 
 rian and publicist, born at Monaco, 1767 ; died in 
 Paris, June 4, 1832. He received his education in 
 Paris, and entered the Sardinian military service. 
 At the outbreak of the war with France, he refused 
 to bear arms against his country, and obtained 
 his discharge; but being suspected of treasonable 
 designs, he was imprisoned for some months. After 
 his liberation, he returned to Paris, where he took 
 part against Eobespierre ; and on the establish- 
 ment of the Du'ectory, obtained a situation in the 
 office of the minister of pohce, and had the surveil- 
 lance of the press. Here he commenced his Histoire 
 de la Vendue et des Chouans (3 vols.. Par. 1806 ; 4th 
 ed., 1820), for which PouchS suppMed the materials. 
 As this work displeased the Emperor, B. was ban- 
 ished to Bheims, but was recalled in 1811, and again 
 received a subordinate appointment (on condition 
 that he should' publish notmng concerning his politi- 
 cal contemporaries), which he lost in 1814. tTnder 
 the Restoration, he received a pension (1820), and 
 wrote for the Moniteur,t}ie Gazette de France, and the 
 BiograpMe des Hommes Vivants, edited by Michaud. 
 The numerous historical writings of B. are interest- 
 ing, but bear the impress of party-spirit ; but in 
 his Histoire du Brisil (Par. 1815), and Histoire de la 
 Oonquke du P&rou, (Par. 1807), he found no oppor- 
 tunity of expressing his political partialities. Among 
 his other works may be mentioned the Histoire de la 
 Campagne de 1814—1815 (2 vols.. Par. 1818), the 
 Histoire de la, BSvolution du Piemont, directed 
 against De la Rosa (Par. 1823), and Vie de Louis 
 XVIII. (Par. 1825). After the July revolution, he 
 was employed on several legitimist journals; and 
 the supposititious Mimoires of FouohS (4 vols., Par. 
 1828 — 1829) have, with good reason, been ascribed 
 to Beauchamp. 
 
 EEAXJ'FORT, an inland district of the west 
 division of the Cape Colony, divided into 12 field- 
 cometcies. It is chiefly used for pasturage, its oxen 
 being, in seasons of abundant rain, decidedly the 
 fattest in the colony. Its area is about 13,050 
 square nules ; and its population, in 1849, was 7131. 
 Its capital, of the same name, is on the Gamka, 
 being 363 miles to the east of Cape Town, and 144 
 to the west of Uraaffieinet. 
 
 BEAU'FORT, Cakdinal, and Bishop of "Winches- 
 ter (born about 1370), was a natural son of John of 
 Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and was half-brother to 
 King Heniy IV. He was educated in England and 
 Germany, and in 1404 became Bishop of Wmchester. 
 He repeatedly filled the office of Lord Chancellor, 
 and was involved in aU the most important political 
 
 movements of his times. He was present at the 
 Council of Constance, and voted for the election of 
 Pope Martin V., by whom he was subsequently 
 made a cardinal. When the cardinal's nephew, 
 Henry V. of England, proposed to levy a new impost 
 on the clergy, in order to raise money for carrying 
 on the war against France, B. was the chief oppo- 
 nent of the measure ; but nevertheless he lent the 
 monarch, out of his own private purse, £28,000 — an 
 almost incredibly large sum in those days, and 
 one which justifies the belief that he was the 
 wealthiest subject of his time in all England. His 
 service in this affair was soon recognised by the 
 pope, who sent him as legate into Germany, there 
 to organise a crusade against the followers of John 
 Huss. This undertaking failed; and the cardinal, 
 having expended, in levying an English army against 
 France, the moneys granted from Rome for other 
 purposes, now fell under papal displeasure. In 1431, 
 B. conducted the yoimg king, Henry VI., to France, 
 to be crowned in Paris as kmg of Prance and Eng- 
 land. Here he also endeavoured, but vainly, to 
 reconcile the Duke of Bedford, Regent of France, 
 with the offended Dulce of Burgun(fy. Cardinal B. 
 died at Winchester in 1447. His memory is stained 
 by his suspected participation in the murder of his 
 great political rival, the Duke of Gloucester, who 
 headed the lay opposition to the despotism of eccle- 
 siastical statesmen ; and by the fact, that he presided 
 over the tribunal which sentenced the Maid of 
 Orleans to perish at the stake. 
 
 BBATJGENCY, an ancient town of France, 
 in the department Loiret, and situated on the 
 right bank of the Loire, 15 miles south-west of 
 Orleans. B. was at one time surrounded by walls, 
 flanked with towers and bastions, and defended 
 by a strong castle, now ruined. In the history of 
 the wars of France, B. occupies a conspicuous 
 place. It was successively in the hands of the 
 Huns, Saxons, Normans, and EngKsh, but it sus- 
 tained most damage during thereBgious wars of the 
 16th c. B. manufactures woollens, leather, &c., and 
 has a trade in wine, wool, and corn. Pop. 4000. 
 
 BEAXJHAEBTAIS, Alexajtoee Vicomte de, 
 born 1760, in the island of Martinique, served, 
 under Marshal Eochambeau, in the American War 
 of Independence. Afterwards, he went to France, 
 but though well received by the French court, he 
 embraced the popular cause. Elected deputy to 
 the States-general by the nobflity and the jus- 
 ticiary authorities of Blois,- he was among the 
 first of his order to fraternise with the Tiers Etat, 
 or democratic party. On the night of August 
 4, 1789, he voted for the abolition of aU privi- 
 leges, and the political equality of all citizens. 
 As a reward for his constancy to the cause of 
 liberty, he was named Secretary of the National 
 Assembly, and subsequently member of the military 
 committee, but lost his popularity considerably by 
 venturing to praise and defend the conduct of 
 General ^ouiLlg in the sanguinary suppression of 
 the insurrection at Nancy. The manner in which 
 he received the news of the flight of Louis XVI. 
 ejthibits a curious mixture of contempt and dignity. 
 ' Gentlemen,' said he to the Assembly over which 
 he presided, 'the king has just gone'off ; let us pass 
 to the order of the day.' In 1793, he declined the 
 office of Minister at War, and tendered his resigna- 
 tion as general of the Army of the Rhine, because 
 it had been detei-mined to exclude the nobility from 
 the service. During the Reign of Terror, his ene- 
 mies revived the report that he had participated in 
 the surrender of Mentz, because he had remained idle 
 witjh his troops for 15 days. In consequence of this 
 accusation, he was called from hia country residence 
 
 781 . 
 
SEATjaAllNAtS-BEAlTMO]S"r. 
 
 at Fertg-Imbaiilt to Paris, where he was tried and 
 sentenced to death by the revolutionary tribunal. 
 He submitted to his fate with firmness, and died on 
 the scaffold, July 23, 1794, aged 34 years. His 
 widow, Josephine, married Napoleon Bonaparte, who 
 adopted Eugdne and Hortensia, son and daughter of 
 Beauhamais. Horiiensia was married to Louis Bona- 
 parte, king of Holland, and became the mother of 
 the present Emperor of the French. 
 
 BBAUHAENAiS, Euoi&NE de. Viceroy of Italy 
 during the reign of Napoleon I., and afterwards Duke 
 of Leuchtenberg, and Prince of Eichstadt, was bom 
 September 3, 1781, and was the son of the Viscount 
 Beauhamais. After his mother's marriage with Bona- 
 parte, he accompanied him in his campaigns in Italy, 
 and in the expedition to Egypt. He rapidly rose 
 to the highest military rank ; and in 1805, after the 
 erection of the imperial throne, he was made a 
 Prince of France and Viceroy of Italy. In 1806, he 
 married the Princess AmaMe Augusta of Bavaria, 
 and not long afterwards was created Prince of Venice, 
 and declared by Napoleon his adoptive son, and heir 
 of the kingdom of Italy. Although his pohtioal 
 power was much limited, he conducted himself in 
 Italy with much prudence, energy, and moderation, 
 and in all the various scenes of his life maintained 
 an honourable and virtuous character. It is to 
 be regretted, however, that he considered himself 
 so entirely a vassal of Napoleon, and bound to 
 carry out the often harsh decrees of the latter 
 in regard to Italy. His military talents were 
 great, and were displayed particularly in the 
 Italian campaigns, in the wars against Austria, and 
 in the retreat from Moscow, in which the preser- 
 vation of the French army from total destruction 
 was very much to be ascribed to the skill and 
 resolution of the viceroy and of Ney. The victory 
 of Lutzen was decided by his conduct in that battle. 
 Napoleon sent him from Dresden to Italy, which 
 he ably defended, even after Austria had joined 
 the coaHtion, and Murat had deserted the cause of 
 the French Empire. After the fall of Napoleon, he 
 entered into a convention with Count BeUegarde. 
 In the affairs of the Hundred Days, he took no part ; 
 and in the treaty of Fontainbleau and Congress of 
 Vienna, he was allowed to retain his possessions in 
 the March of Anoona ; and large sums were granted 
 to him in compensation for his other Italian posses- 
 sions, with which he purchased from his father-in- 
 law the landgraviate of Leuchtenberg and princi- 
 pality of Eichstadt, and took his place as Duke of 
 Leuchtenberg among the nobles of Bavaria. He 
 died at Munich on the 21st February 1824.— His 
 eldest son, Charles Augustus Napoleon, Duke of 
 Leuchtenberg, married the Queen Donna Maria of 
 Portugal on the 25th January 1835, but died on the 
 25th of March in the same year. — ^Another son. 
 Max Eugfene Joseph Napoleon, who succeeded his 
 brother as Duke of Leuchtenberg, married the 
 Grand Duchess Maria Nikolajewna, a daughter of 
 the Emperor Nicholas of Eussia; and his children 
 bear the name of Eomanowski, and are ranked 
 among the members of the Eussian imperial family. 
 He died 1st November 1852, of disease of the lungs, 
 consequent upon a scientific tour in the Ural. He 
 was a zealous mineralogist, and left large collections, 
 which are preserved at St Petersburg. 
 
 BBAUMAECHAIS, Pibrke Augustin Caron 
 DE, a French poet, born in Paris, January 24, 1732 ; 
 died May 17, 1799, was the son of a watchmaker, 
 and was brought up to his father's trade. He soon 
 displayed a remarkable taste for music, attained 
 proficiency as a player on the harp and the guitar, 
 and was appointed music-master to the daughters 
 of Louis XV. This was the beginning of his course 
 
 • 782 
 
 of good-fortune. He acquired considerable property 
 by marriage, and to dignify the somewhat ambigu- 
 ous position in which his calling placed him, he 
 devoted his talents to literature. His first play, 
 Eugenie (1767), was successful, and was followed by 
 Les Deux Amis (1770). Having become involved in 
 lawsuits with Lablache and Gotzman, he revenged 
 himself on the latter — ^who was a member of the 
 so-called Parlammt Maupeou — by pubhshing his 
 famous MSmoires (Paris, 1774), which united the 
 bitterest satire with the sharpest logic, and gained 
 for hiTTi a reputation that made even Voltaire uneasy, 
 who could not bear a rival in his own department. 
 Despite his wit, however, he lost his suit. His fame 
 now rests on Ms two operas, Le Barbier de Seville 
 (1775), and Le Manage de Figaro. Of his later 
 works, we may mention Mes Six ETpoques, in which 
 he describes the perils through which he had passed 
 in the first period of the Eevolution. During the 
 American War of Independence, he entered into a 
 speculation for supplying arms, &c., by which he 
 realised a considerable profit, but was a great 
 loser by his expensive edition of Voltaire's works, 
 and other speculations. The desire of gain and 
 love of distinction were the leading motives which 
 actuated Beaumarchais. His literary merits have 
 been differently estunated. The most judicious critic 
 of his writings and character is M. de Lomgnie, 
 whose B. and Us Times is fuU of interesting literary 
 anecdote. An edition of B. was published at Paris 
 in 1809. 
 
 BEATJMA'EIS, a seaport and chief town of 
 Anglesea, North Wales, is situated on the west side 
 of the picturesque Bay of B., near the north entrance 
 to the Menai Strait, 3 miles north of Bangor, and 
 239 miles north-west of London. B. has the ivy- 
 covered remains of a castle, erected by Edward 
 I., and a free grammar-school, and is a favourite 
 sea-bathing resort. The bay is a safe anchorage in 
 stormy weather. B. unites with Amlwch, Holyhead, 
 and Llangefin in sending one member to parliament. 
 It exports copper and other ores, slates, marble, &c. 
 Pop. 2465. Vessels belonging to port, in 1857, 269; 
 tons, 28,141. In 1858, 3403 vessels, of 455,884 tons, 
 entered and cleared the port. 
 
 BEATJ'MONT, Pbascis, poet and dramatist; 
 FLE'TCHEE, John, poet and dramatist. These 
 writers were so closely associated in their lives and 
 labours, that their names have become indissolubly 
 united. — Francis Beaumont, the third son of Sir 
 Francis Beaumont, one of the justices of the Com- 
 mon Pleas, was bom at Gracedieu, in Leicestershire, 
 in 1586, ten years after Fletcher ; and died in 1615, 
 ten years before him. When ten years of age, he 
 became a gentleman-commoner of Broadgate Hall 
 (now Pembroke HaU), and in 1600 was admitted 
 a member of the Inner Temple. Two years there- 
 after, he published certain translations from Ovid. 
 When about nineteen years of age, he became the 
 friend of Ben Jonson, and wrote commendatory 
 verses to some of his dramas. At the theatre, which 
 attracted to its service most of the intellect and 
 wit of the time, he became acquainted with 
 Fletcher, and drawn together, they lived in the 
 same house tUl B.'s marriage in 1613. He married 
 Ursula, daughter and coheir of Henry Isley of 
 Sundridge, in Kent, by whom he had two daughters. 
 He died at the early age of thirty, and was interred 
 in Westminster Abbey. Poetry seems to have run 
 in the blood of the Beaumonts. Several members 
 of B.'s immediate family wrote verses, and the elder 
 brother of the dramatist, Sir John Beaumont, is 
 said by the critics to have much improved our 
 rhyme couplet. 
 
 John Fletcher was bom in 1676. His father was a 
 
BEAUMONT— BEAUNE. 
 
 clergyman, and appears to have inherited many of 
 the honours of the church. He was for some time 
 incumbent of Rye, in Sussex; thereafter, he was 
 appointed Dean of Peterborough, and is said to 
 have attended Queen Mary on the Bcaflfold, and to 
 have embittered her last hours with irrelevant 
 exhortation. On his elevation to the see of London, 
 he married a second time, and thereby procured the 
 disfavovii |of the Virgin Queen. He died shortly 
 after, some maintaining, of a queen's frown, others, 
 of the immoderate use of tobacco. John R entered 
 Bennet CoUege, Cambridge, on the 15th October 
 1591, where he acquired some reputation for classical 
 erudition. It is uncertain how long he remained at 
 the university, or whether he took a degree. The 
 Woman-hater, produced in 1606—1607, is flie earliest 
 play of his which is known to exi^. It is not 
 known precisely in what circumstances F. passed 
 his hfe. He asserts his independence in some verses 
 iatroduotory to The FaithfM Sliepherdess, published 
 about 1610, jret he wrote more rapidly than most 
 men then writing for bread. The last four years 
 of his life produced eleven new plays — a swiftness 
 surpassing that of Shakspeare mmselt. Tarrying 
 in London, it is said, for a suit of new clothes, he 
 caught the plague, and died. His death occurred 
 in 1625, and he was buried in the church of St 
 Saviour's. F. also could boast of poetic descent and 
 connection. Dr Giles Fletcher, the bishop's younger 
 brother, has been called 'an excellent poet; ' and two 
 sons of his, Giles and Phineas, distinguished them- 
 selves by their verses. The one wrote Christ's 
 Victory and Triumph; the other. The Purple Island. 
 The works of B. and F. comprise in all fifty-two 
 plays, a masque, and several minor poems; but it 
 is difficult to allocate, in any satisfactory manner, 
 the authorship of these. F., being the longer Mved 
 and more prolific writer, of course contributed the 
 largest share. Eowley assisted F. in Tlie Maid of 
 the Mill. Some critics think that the hand of 
 Shakspeare may be detected in The Two Nolle 
 Kinsmen, and not without some show of reason. 
 There is a tone of music and a step of thunder 
 in some of the passages to which no parallel could 
 be found in any of the companion-dramas. Two 
 plays ileft unfmished at F.'s death were com- 
 pleted by Shirley. Out of the fifty-two plays, 
 B. is supposed to have had a share in the composi- 
 tion 6f seventeen, and only three out of that small 
 number were, during F.'s lifetime, published as 
 joint productions. Two of these — Philaster, and 
 The Maid's Tragedy — are, with the exception of 
 the great passages in The Two Nolle Kinsmen, 
 the glory of the collection. The question has 
 been often discussed, why these plays are called 
 by the name of B. and F., thus giving prece- 
 dence to the younger and less voluminous writer. 
 Mr Dyce thinks, that of the three plays published 
 as joint productions during F.'s life, B. had either 
 the greater share, or that, throug;h feelings of natural 
 courtesy, F. placed the name of ms deceased associate 
 before his own, and that future editors naturally 
 followed the arrangement which they foimd to their 
 hand. Mr Darling is inclined to give no reason 
 at all, and ascribes the whole thing to accident. 
 From aU that can be gathered, it would appear that 
 B. possessed the deeper and more thoughtful genius ; 
 F., the gayer and more idyllic. There is a strength 
 as of granite rock in The Maid's Tragedy; there 
 is a glad exuberant music, and a May-morning Ught 
 and freshness, in The FaithfvJ, Shepherdess, which 
 Milton did not disdain to accept as a model in the 
 lyrical portions of Oomus, and of which the Mndymion 
 of Keats is but an echo. In these plays, B. and F. are 
 the cleverest, gayest gentlemen. They never sound 
 the deep sea of passion; they disport themselves, 
 
 dolphin-like, on its surface. They have no power 
 of serious characterisation, and their numerous crea- 
 tions are seldom consistent; but they say the 
 most clever, pleasant, and glancing things. Morally, 
 little can be said in their praise. No audience of 
 the present day could sit out the representation 
 of their purest plays. Some of the impurest are 
 almost beyond conception, yet there is always an 
 air of good-breeding about them, and the filth is 
 handled in the most gentlemanly manner. It was 
 a great intelleatual period in which B. and F. lived ; 
 but Shakspeare- . stands above them and the rest of 
 that dramatic brotherhood like Mont Blanc above 
 the summits of the Lower Alps — conspicuous not 
 only from his altitude, but from his purity. 
 
 BEAUMONT, Gustavb de, a distinguished 
 French publicist, bom February 6, 1802, at Beau- 
 mont-la-Chartre, in the department of Sarthe. He 
 studied law, and was made procurator-substitute in 
 the superior tribunal of the Seine, but lost this office 
 after the July Kevolution. In 1831, B. and Tocque- 
 viUe were commissioned by the French govern- 
 ment to study the prison-discipUne of America. 
 When B. returned to Paris, he received a place 
 under government, but was soon deposed, as he 
 refused to conduct the prosecution in the scandalous 
 process against the Baroness de Feuchferes. In 1840, 
 he was elected deputy for the department Sarthe, 
 and distinguished himself, as a member of the 
 Opposition, by his information and readiness on all 
 pohtical questions. After the February Eevolution, 
 1848, he was returned as member of the Legislative 
 Assembly, and here maintained the character of a 
 sincere but moderate repubhcan. After the 2d 
 December 1851, he was arrested and imprisoned for 
 some time ia the fortress of Mont Valgrien. On 
 regaining his liberty, he retired to his patrimonial 
 estate, where he has since resided. B. is the grand- 
 son of Lafayette, arid in 1836, married his cousin, 
 the daughter of Georges Lafayette. The writings 
 on which B.'s reputation is founded are — Notemrle 
 Syst^me FSnitentiare (1831), Du Systeme PSnitentiare 
 avx Etats-unis et de son Application en France (2 
 vols., 1832; partly by TocqueviUe), Marie ou I'Bs- 
 clavage aux Mats- XTnis (2 vols., 1835), and L'Irlande, 
 Sociale, Politique, et Meligieuse (2 vols., 1839). — 
 Beaumont-Vassy, Edotjabd Vicomte de, a relation 
 of the former, has acquired a reputation as the 
 writer of a romance, Une Marquise d' autrefois (1838), 
 and some historical works, especially a History of 
 the Europeam States since the Congress of Vienna 
 (vols. 1—4, Par. 1843—1847). 
 
 BEAUMONT, Jean Bapmste, Chief Engineer 
 and Professor of Geology in the School of Mining 
 at Paris, as well as in the ColUge de France, was 
 bom at Canon, in the department Calvados, Sep- 
 tember 25, 1798. He has gained distinction, not 
 merely as a practical geological investigator, but 
 also as a clear and acute speculator. The theory 
 which prevails regarding the elevation of mountain 
 systems has been elaborated chiefly by him. His 
 views of the separate periods of elevation, which he 
 reckons as twelve, he has imparted to the world in 
 several treatises. All later criticism has left the 
 theory unshaken in its basis. The chief writings of 
 B. are: Coup d'(Eil sur les Mines, 1824; Observations 
 GSologiques sur les Differentes Formations dans le 
 Syslime des Vosges, 1829; Extrait Wune Serie de 
 Becherches sur qudques-unes des Bivolutions de la 
 Surface du Globe, 1835; and Voyage MStallurgique 
 en Angleterre (2d ed., 1837—1839). 
 
 BEAUNE, capital of an axrondissement in the 
 French department Cote d'Or, formerly included in 
 the Duchy of Burgundy, is situated in a pleasant 
 district on the river Bouzeoise, about 23 miles 
 
 783 
 
BEAUNE— BEAVER. 
 
 south-south-'west of Dijon. The town ia Tell built ; 
 has a fine parish church, Notre Dame, founded in 
 976 by Duke Henri of Burgundy; and a splendid 
 hospital, founded in 1443 by Nicholas EoUin, 
 Chancellor of Philip, Duke of Burgundy. There are 
 several manufactories of serges, ■woollen cloth, and 
 cutlery. A considerable trade is carried on in 
 Burgundy and Champagne wines. B. gives its 
 name to one of the best of the Burgundy wines. 
 Pop. 9700. 
 
 BE AUNE, FiOElMOND, a distinguished mathema- 
 tician, and friend of Descartes, was bom in 1601, at 
 Blois, in France, where he died in 1652. His labours 
 and discoveries contributed greatly to the improve- 
 ment of the modem analytical geometry first intro- 
 duced by Descartes. Algebra was also enrjched 
 by B.'s shewing that, in equations to the fourth 
 degree, the limits of positive roots might be found 
 from the coefficients. B. may be regarded as the 
 ;^roper founder of the Integral Calculus, as he 
 first endeavoured to deduce the nature of curved 
 lines from the properties of their tangents. The 
 so-called ' B.'s Problem' (which has been completely 
 solved only by Jean BernouiUi), still given in the 
 Integral Calculus, was for his time new and remark- 
 able, it turns also on the determination of the nature 
 of a curved line from a property of its tangent. 
 The only work of his we possess is De jEqimtionum 
 Limitibus Opuscula duo, et Notes Breaeg. 
 
 BEATJ'TY. See >BsTHEnos, Aet. 
 
 BEATJVAIS, an important manufacturing French 
 town, capital of the department Oise. It is situ- 
 ated in the valley of the Therain (a tributary to the 
 Oise), about 41 miles north-north-west of Paris, 
 and surrounded by rising woodlands. Formerly, B. 
 was included in the old province, lie de France. 
 It is now the seat of government for the department, 
 and the residence of a bishop, and contains a literary 
 and economical society, a public library, a museimi, 
 &o. Among its several fine buildings, the most 
 noteworthy is its uncompleted cathedral, the choir 
 of which is the loftiest as well as one of the finest 
 specimens of Gothic in France. The manufactures 
 of B. include wooUen cloths, shawls, carpets, Gobelin 
 tapestry, &c. Pop. 12,567. B. is a very ancient 
 town. It was included in the country of the power- 
 ful Bellovaci, in Gallia Belgica, and was known by 
 the Romans as Ccesaromagiis, afterwards as Bellov- 
 acum. In the middle ages, it was styled Belvacum. 
 In 850, and at other times, B. was desolated by the 
 Normans. The Jacquerie, or Peasants' War, broke 
 out in the neighbourhood of B., March 21, 1358. In 
 1443, B. was besieged by the English, who were 
 repulsed by the heroic self-sacrifice of Jean Lignifere. 
 Again, in 1472, it was besieged by Charles the Bold 
 of Burgundy, with an army of 80,000 men, when 
 the women of B., under the leadership of the heroine 
 Jeanne LainS, surnamed La Hachette for her daring, 
 displayed remarkable valour. The standard which 
 the Burgundians had planted on the wall was torn 
 down by Jeanne Laing, and borne off by her in 
 triumph. The banner is preserved in the town haU, 
 and a procession, in which it is carried by young 
 girls, annually commemorates the heroic deed. B. 
 is the birthplace of the learned Dominican Vincent 
 de Beauvais (Vincentius Bellovacensis). 
 
 BEAVER (Castor Fiber), a quadruped of the 
 order Glires, or Eodentia (q. v.), valued for its fur, 
 and for the peculiar substance called Oastoreum 
 (q. v.), which it yields, and also much noted for its 
 instincts. Some naturalists regard the American 
 B. as distinct from that of Europe and Asia; but 
 the differences observable either in external or 
 anatomical characters are very inconsiderable ; and 
 the opinion that a great difference exists in instincts 
 781 
 
 and habits, appears to have been too hastily adopted. 
 If there is only one species of B., it is very widely 
 distributed in the northern regions of the world, 
 reaching in America almost as far south as the 
 Gulf of Mexico. It once existed in the British 
 islands, where, however, it has long been extinct; 
 and it has become rare in Europe, in many parts of 
 which it was once common. It has become rare 
 also in the United States, disappearing before man ; 
 but is nowhere so abundant as in that wide region 
 of lakes and rivers w^hich lies to the north and west 
 of the settled parts of North America. Considerable 
 numbers of beavers are found on the banks of the 
 Obi and other rivers of Siberia, and in Kamtchatka. 
 The incisors or cutting teeth of the B. are remark- 
 ably strong, and exhibit in the highest degree the 
 distinctive character of the order to which it belongs 
 — ^the front of hard enamel, which in the B. is of a 
 bright orange colour ; the back of the tooth formed 
 of a softer substance, more easily worn down, so 
 
 Beaver. 
 
 that a sharp, chisel-like edge is always preserved; 
 the bidbs being also persistent, so that the teeth are 
 continually growing, as by their employment in 
 gnawing wood, they are continually being worn 
 away. There are four flat molar teeth (or grinders) 
 on each side in each jaw. Each foot has five toes : 
 those of the fore-feet are short, and not connected by 
 a web ; those of the hind-feet are long, spreading 
 out Kke the toes of a goose, and webbed to the naUs. 
 In accordance with tms remarkable peculiarity, the 
 B., in swimming, makes use of the hind-feet alone, 
 the fore-feet remaining motionless and close to the 
 body. Another character, to which nothing similar 
 appears in any other rodent, is the large, horizon- 
 tally flattened taU, which, except at the root, is not 
 covered with hair, like the rest of the body, but with 
 scales. The caudal vertebrae, however, do not 
 exhibit a flattened form. 
 
 The B. is usually at least two feet in length, from 
 the nose to the root of the tail ; the taU is of an oval 
 form, about ten inches in length, fully three inches 
 in greatest breadth, and scarcely an inch in thick- 
 ness. These dimensions are sometimes exceeded. 
 The general form of the animal is thick and clumsy, 
 thickest at the hips, and then narrowing abruptly, 
 so that it seems to taper into the" taU. The head is 
 thick and broad, the nose obtuse, the eyes small, the 
 ears short and rounded. The fur consists of two 
 kinds of hair ; the longer hair comparatively coarse, 
 smooth, and glossy ; the under coat dense; soft, and 
 silky. The colour is generally chestnut, rarely 
 black, spotted, or nearly white. 
 
 The B. is very aquatic in its mode of life, and it 
 seldom wanders far from some lake or river. In 
 consequence of its habits, it is also limited to wooded 
 districts, and the northern range of the species is 
 everywhere terminated by the limits of the wood 
 upon the river-banks. 
 
BEAVEK. 
 
 The food of the B. consists of the bark of trees 
 and shrubs (birch, poplar, willow, &o.), and of the 
 roots of water-lilies (Nuphar luteum) and other 
 aquatic plants. In summer, it eats also berries, 
 leaves, and various kinds of herbage. There is 
 reason to think that it never, as has been supposed, 
 kills or eats fish. Like some other rodents, it lays 
 up stores of provisions for winter; but these, 
 in the case of the B., consist chiefly of bark, or of 
 branches, and even trimks of trees. Its extraordi- 
 nary powers of gnawing are exerted to cut down 
 trees of several mohes in diameter, both for food, 
 and for the construction of those houses and dams 
 which have rendered it so much an object of admir- 
 ation to mankind. A tree of 18 inches in diameter 
 has been found thus cut down by beavers, although 
 smaller ones are usually preferred; and when a 
 tree of this size is cut, the branches only, and not 
 the trunk, are employed in the architectural opera- 
 tions of the animals. These operations are very 
 wonderful, although the statement, at one time com- 
 monly made, that beavers drive stakes into the 
 ground, has no foundation in fact ; and some of the 
 other particulars which passed current along with it, 
 were equally fabulous. The houses or lodges of 
 beavers are grouped together near the edge of the 
 water, the mud being scraped away from the front, 
 so that there may be a sufficient depth of water 
 there to allow free egress, even during the most 
 severe frost. The winter stores of the animals, con- 
 sisting of piles or heaps of wood, are also always 
 under water, at such a depth that they cannot be 
 locked up in ice. When the depth of water is 
 not sufficient, the beavers construct a dam across 
 the stream, by the side of which the lodge is 
 placed ; the dam is sometimes as much as 300 yards 
 in length, convex towards the current, and most 
 convex in the strongest currents, sometimes extend- 
 ing on both sides beyond the natural channel of the 
 stream. The materials of which it is composed are 
 sticks, roots, and branches, with stones, moss, grasses, 
 and mud, strangely commingled, but in such a manner 
 that the structure becomes alssolutely water-tight. 
 Branches of wliich the bark has been used for food, 
 or taken oflf for winter provender, are very generally 
 employed for building purposes. .In their building, 
 beavers interlace small branches with each other 
 and with the larger; and a B. kept in confinement 
 has been known to manifest this instinct, by inter- 
 lacing branches with the bars of its cage, whilst it 
 also filled the interstices with carrots, and other 
 vegetables, given it for food, nicely bitten to the 
 proper size, and packed in snow, to protect itself 
 from the cold. B. dams are built with the sides 
 inclining towards one another, so that although ten 
 or twelve feet wide at bottom, they have a narrow 
 top. The dams and houses are annually repaired, 
 before vidnter comes on, the work being performed 
 by night. ' In places,' says Heame, ' which have been 
 long frequented by beavers undistiirbed, their dams, 
 by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable 
 of resisting a great force, both of water and ice; and 
 as the wiUow, poplar, and birch generally take root 
 and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regu- 
 lar planted hedge, which I have seen in some places 
 so tan that birds have built their nests among the 
 branches.' A broad ditch is often dug all around 
 the lodge, so deep that it cannot freeze to the bottom, 
 and into it the beavers make the holes by which 
 they go out and bring their food. The larger lodges 
 are in the interior, about seven feet in diameter, and 
 between two and three feet high. The top is formed 
 of branches of trees, matted with mud, grass, moss, 
 &c. The walls are very thick, and the whole struc- 
 ture not only secures much warmth, but is a sufficient 
 protection from wolves, wolverines, and other beasts 
 so 
 
 of prey. Different apartments have often one com- 
 mon roof, but they have usually no internal com- 
 mimication. The sleeping-places of the animals are 
 around the wall of their lodge, the centre being left 
 free; they are formed merely of a Httle grass or 
 tender bark of trees. A single house seldom con- 
 tains more than ten or twelve beavers, but many 
 such families are often congregated in one place. 
 Beavers, both in a wild state and in confinement, 
 are scrupulously cleanly in their habits. 
 
 Beavers often sit on the hind-feet and taU, and 
 eat in this posture, holding up the food in their 
 fore-paws. They also walk on the hind-feet, with 
 support of the tail, when they carry materials to 
 their buUdings, except branches, which are dragged. 
 They have considerable power in the taU, and not 
 unfrequently flap it, which has given rise to an 
 opinion, perhaps not altogether erroneous, that 
 they use their tails for plastering their buildings, or 
 beating and adjusting the mud which is employed 
 in them. 
 
 Beavers do not usually eat in their lodges, but in 
 holes or burrows in the bank of the river, the 
 entrance to which is from beneath the water, and 
 which thence proceed obliquely upwards, often to a 
 distance of many feet. To these holes the beavers 
 also flee when their lodge is broken up ; and it is 
 therefore a common practice of the B. hunters to 
 break up the B. lodges, that they may take the 
 animals in their holes or vaults. Beavers are also 
 taken by nets and traps. 
 
 It is chiefly in winter that beavers congregate 
 together. During summer, they wander about a 
 httle. The young are generally produced in April 
 or May, from two to seven at a birth. Their eyes 
 are open when they are bom. 
 
 Single beavers are frequently met with, which 
 live apart from all others of their species. AU .of 
 these are males, which, it is supposed, have been 
 conquered and driven away by others of their sex. 
 
 In the parts of North America where beavers have 
 now become rare, they live mostly in burrows in the 
 river-banks, like those which are still found in 
 Europe. Circumstances prevent them from follow- 
 ing out their gregarious tendencies. That the 
 beavers of Europe and Asia construct lodges and 
 dams, when they have opportunity of congregating 
 in sufficient numbers, appears, to be no less certain 
 than that those of America do so. 
 
 Large glandular pouches, two in number, closely 
 connected with the organs of reproduction, contain 
 the substance called CaMoremn (q. v.). Its uses in 
 the animal economy are by no means well known ; 
 they are probably analogous to those of musk, civet, 
 &c. ; but its peculiar pungent odour is so attractive 
 to beavers, that use is made of it as a bait for B. 
 
 The B. is very easily tamed ; but no wooden cage 
 wUl keep one confined. Except in the extraordinary 
 building instincts already noticed, the animal exhibits 
 no remarkable sagacity. — The use of the B.'s fur for 
 making hats is well known. See Hat. An act of 
 the EngUsh parliament, in 1638, prohibiting the use 
 of any other material for hat-making, contributed to 
 the rapid diminution of the number of beavers in 
 the parts of North America from which their skins 
 were then obtained. During great part of the 18th, 
 and the earlier part of the 19th c, the number of B. 
 skins annually exported from America appears to 
 have been not less than 200,000. It is now greatly 
 diminished, but is stiU large. The flesh of the B. is 
 much esteemed as an article of food by trappers 
 and others who frequent the fur-countries, but it 
 is very oUy. 
 
 Fossil remains of beavers, apparently of the same 
 species with that now existing, are found in the 
 
 785 
 
BEAVER— BECHER. 
 
 deposits referred by geologists to tlie pliocene and 
 pleistocene periods. Other remains are also found 
 of a much larger animal of the B. kind, which must 
 have existed in Europe and Asia along with the pre- 
 sent species, but which seems to have become ex- 
 tinct before the historic period. They were different, 
 however, not merely in size, but in other particulars 
 so important, that Owen has constituted for the 
 'great B.' a distinct genus, Trogonthmum (6r., a 
 chewing or gnawing beast). 
 
 Of existing animals, the most closely allied to the 
 B. is the Qoypu (q. v.), sometimes called the ChiUan 
 B. (Myopotanms Coypus), which yields the fur called 
 Sacoonda (q. v.). 
 
 BEA'VER. See Helmet. 
 
 BBA'VEB WOOD. See Magnolia. 
 
 BEBEE'RINB is one of the alkaloids, and is 
 obtained from the greenheart bark or bebeeru of 
 Demerara. It is used in medicine in place of 
 quinine, which it resembles in properties, though it 
 is not so powerful in its action as a tonic and 
 febrifuge. The condition in which it is generally 
 sent into market is as the sulphate of B., occurring 
 in shining scales of a pretty brown colour, and 
 soluble in water. 
 
 BEBEE'RU, BEEBEE'RU, or BIBrRI. See 
 
 Geeenheaet. 
 
 BBCCAEI'CO {Sylvia Jiortenm, or Ourruca hor- 
 tmsis), a little bird of the family of the Sylviadce, 
 or Warblers (q. v.), sometimes called the Pettychaps, 
 and sometimes the Garden Warbler, rather rare in 
 Britain, but abundant ia some of the more southern 
 parts of Europe, and in great demand for the table 
 in Italy, its flesh being regarded as of peculiar 
 delicacy. It is a mere summer bird of passage, how- 
 ever, not only in Britain, but even in the south of 
 Europe. The upper parts are mostly of a brown 
 colour, the lower parts whitish. It is a bird of very 
 pleasing song. B. is an Italian name, and is some- 
 times extended to other birds of the same family 
 used for the table. 
 
 BECCAMOSOHI'NO (Sylvia cisti'cola), a little 
 bird of the family of the Warblers, found in Italy, 
 and remarkable for its nest, which resembles that of 
 the taUor-birds, being usually placed in a bush of 
 lengthened herbage, the leaves and stalks drawn 
 together over it, and a flooring formed for it by 
 leaves curved across below, and sewed together 
 generally with some kind of vegetable fibres. 
 
 BECCARI'A, Cesare Bohesana, a political and 
 philanthropic writer, was bom at Milan 1735 or 
 1738. The opinions of the French encyolopEedists, 
 especially those of Montesquieu, had the greatest 
 influence in the formation of his principles and senti- 
 ments. The work which most favom:ably exhibits 
 the character and genius of B. is his Trattato dei 
 Dditti e delle Pene (Treatise on Crimes and Punish- 
 ments), first published in 1764, in which he argues 
 against the severities and abuses of criminal law, 
 especially capital punishment and torture. The 
 work was extremely popiUar, and was translated 
 into several European languages. It is marked by 
 eloquence, sensibility, and lively power of imagina- 
 tion. Kant tmf airly accuses the author of an affected 
 humanity, though it must be admitted that the 
 German philosopher has exposed the invalidity of 
 some of the argimients brou^t forward. On the 
 whole, however, the work of B. is acknowledged to 
 have done great good, and the subsequent reforms in 
 the penal code of European nations have generally 
 taken the direction he has pointed out. He was 
 among the first to advocate the beneficial influence 
 of education in lessening crime. This naturally 
 brought upon bini the hatred of the priesthood, who, 
 786 
 
 according to their usual formiila of persecution, 
 accused him of impiety; but their malice was frus- 
 trated by the efforts of Count Eirmian, the Austrian 
 governor of Lombardy, a man of liberal and enlight- 
 ened sentiments. In 1768, B. was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Political Philosophy at MUan, and achieved 
 great success as a lecturer. He died of apoplexy 
 in November 1793. In the course of his life he 
 published several works. 
 
 BEC-FIN, the common French name for different 
 species of birds of the family of Sylviffdcs, or Warb- 
 lers (q. v;). It is sometimes to be met with in 
 English books. 
 
 BEOHE-DB-MBB, or TBEPANG, an article of 
 luxury among the Chinese, consisting of the dried 
 bodies of several species of Holothuria (q. v.), or 
 Sea-cucumber, which are found in great abundance 
 in the shallow waters of lagoons, and on reefs, from 
 the south-eastern coasts of Asia to New Holland. 
 The traffic in B. is very extensive, and the Malays 
 catch the animals, and prepare them in large 
 quantities for the Chinese market. They are 
 usually about 8 or 9 inches long, but some are 2 
 feet in length, and 7 or 8 inches in girth. They are 
 often found nearly buried in the coral sand, their 
 feathered tentaoula alone floating above it. The 
 larger ones are sometimes speared in shallow water; 
 but most of them are taken by divers in depths of 
 from 3 to 5 fathoms. An expert diver wiU bring 
 up eight or ten at a time. They are split down one 
 side, boiled, pressed flat with stones, dried in the 
 sun, and afterwards in smoke, and packed in bags, 
 in which state they are bought by the Chinese, and 
 conveyed in junks to China. Fleets of Malay proas 
 are employed in the search for this curious produc- 
 tion of the sea. Macassar is the great staple-place 
 of the trade, and from it above 8000 cwt. of B. are 
 annually sent to China, the price varying, according 
 to the kind and quality, from thirty shillings to 
 twenty guineas per cwt. There is also a consider- 
 able export of B. from Manilla. B. is extremely 
 gelatinous, and is very much used by the Chinese 
 as an ingredient in rich soups. 
 
 BBCHBR, JoHANN Joachdm:, author of the first 
 theory of chemistry, was bom at Speier in 1625. 
 In his youth, he had many difficulties to contend 
 with, but his zeal and perseverance overcame them 
 all. He acquired an extensive knowledge of medi- 
 cine, physics, chemistry, and even politics, and in 
 1660, was made a member of the Imperial CoimoU 
 at Vienna. While residing in this city, he assisted 
 in establishing several manufactures, and drew up 
 the plan of an East Indian commercial society, but 
 tmfortunately he fell into disgrace, and had to leave 
 the city. He next went to Mainz, and subsequently 
 lived in Munich, Wurzburg, Haarlem, and finally 
 London, where he died in 1682. He had many 
 enemies, and was accused — ^not altogether unjustly 
 — of charlatanry. Nevertheless, he rendered im- 
 portant services to chemistry. His Physica Subter- 
 ranea was the first attempt made to bring physics 
 and chemistry into close relation ; in these two he 
 sought the causes of aU the inorganic phenomena in 
 the world. He at the same time began to construct 
 a theory of chemistry, and also investigated the pro- 
 cess of combustion. B. taught that every metal was 
 composed of an earthy substance common to all 
 metals ; of a combustible principle also identical in 
 all ; and was differentiated from other metals only by 
 the possession of a peculiar mercurial element; when 
 a metal was heated, until it had changed its form, 
 the mercurial substance was discharged, and nothing 
 remained except metallic calx. Herein lies the first 
 germ of Stahl's phlogistic theory, which obtained 
 universal cmrency until the time of Lavoisier. 
 
BEOHXJANS— BECKERATH. 
 
 BEOHUANS. See BEUtTAJsrs. 
 
 BECKER, GoTTPBiED Wilhblm, a German 
 author, bom at Leipsio in 1778, entered the univer- 
 sity of that city with the view of studying medi- 
 cine, and having taken his doctor's degree in 
 1801, settled there as a practising physician and 
 a writer of medical works, several of which 
 reached many editions. The wars of the period 
 led him, however, to turn his attention to history 
 and modern languages, and he became well known 
 by his contributions to periodicals, his series of 
 popular histories, and his translations from the 
 English, Erench, and Italian. In 1833, B. entirely 
 relinquished practising medicine, and devoting him- 
 self to literature, became a fertile and admired con- 
 tributor to many of its more popular branches. He 
 died at Leipsic, 17th January 1854. He published 
 several attractive volumes of travels in his own 
 country, peculiarly adapted to the young, among 
 which we may instance his Tom to the Han, Sketches 
 of Southern Oermany, &c. His historical writings, 
 which are not less numerous, chiefly narrate uie 
 events of his own time. Amongst them we may 
 particularise Andreas Hofer, Egypt as it Now is, 
 The Fate of Spain in Modem Times, &c. In light 
 literature, also, he was very successful as a transla- 
 tor. All his works have been published at Leipsic. 
 
 BECKER, JoHsr Philip, one of the most active 
 Radical politicians of late years, was born, March 
 1809, at Frankenthal, in the Palatinate, and brought 
 up as a brushmaker. The French revolution of 
 July 1830 gave a political bias to his native ten- 
 dencies, and he took an active part in the political 
 agitations of the day, in consequence of which he was 
 imprisoned; but in 1833 he was released, and exerted 
 liimself warmly on behalf of his brothers in opinion. 
 In 1837, he settled in Switzerland, taking a part in 
 several Radical publications, and organising, in 1838 
 and 1845, volunteer corps. In the autumn of 1847, 
 he was summoned to the mUitary bureau at Berne, 
 and iieing' chosen adjutant of Ochsenbein's divi- 
 sion, fou^t against the Sonderbund with acknow- 
 ledged bravery. Upon the failure of Hecker's 
 attempt to revolutionise Baden in 1848, B., who 
 had organised troops for his support, returned to 
 Switzenand, to plan an expedition of German and 
 Swiss auxiliaries, to support the cause of freedom in 
 Rome and Sicily. Their movements being frus- 
 trated, he led his troops in the summer of 1849 
 into the Palatinate and the Duchy of Baden, where 
 a rising had taken place, and acted a prominent part 
 in many engagements. Subsequently, he settled in 
 Geneva, and engaged successfully in commerce. A 
 history of the revolution of 1849, in Southern Ger- 
 many, has been published by him and Esselen. B. 
 is a man of strong and hardy frame, and for prudence 
 and decision, raiis high among the leaders of the 
 revolutionary party. 
 
 BECKER, Kabl FEBBHrANi), born at Leipsic 
 in 1804, may be named with Kiesewetter and 
 Winterfeld as one of the best German writers on 
 the history of music, and also as an excellent 
 composer for the organ, as is proved by his trios 
 and other compositions well adapted to the genius 
 of the instrument. Among his works may be 
 mentioned: a Ghorcd-book, or collection of psalm 
 and hymn tunes (Leipsic, 1844); Clioral Melodies 
 for Spitta's Psalter and Harp, 1841; a Catalogue 
 of his musical Hbrary, one of the most extensive in 
 Germany; On ilie Choral Collections of Various 
 Christian Churches, 1841; The Choral Compositions 
 of the \&th and 11th Centuries, 1847; and The 
 Composers of ike Idth Century, 1849. 
 
 BECKER, Kakl Fbbdinand, one of the most 
 distinguished German philologists, was bom at 
 
 Lisor, in the old electorate of Treves, in 1775. 
 At first a teacher, he afterwards studied medicine, 
 and ultimately settled as a practitioner at Offenbach. 
 Here he educated his own children with such suc- 
 cess that several families induced him to take charge 
 of theirs, and thus his house was converted into an 
 academy (1823), which he conducted till his death 
 in 1849. This gave scope to his early predilection 
 for linguistic studies, to which his scientific training 
 led him to give a quite new direction. B. contem- 
 plates language as an organism, pervaded by strict 
 logical laws. From this point of view, he wrote his 
 Deutsche Qrammatih (2d ed., 1842). He teglects too 
 much the historical development of language, and 
 thus, as might be expected, comes at times into 
 conflict with the results of comparative philology; 
 yet his work is valuable for its logical consequence, 
 and for its leading idea of organism in language. 
 Besides a Schidgram/matih (6th ed., 1846), which is an 
 outline of his larger work, he published several other 
 treatises on the German language. 
 
 BECKER, WiLHBLM Adolf, a distinguished 
 German author, was born at Dresden in 1796. 
 Originally intended for commercial life, he soon 
 abandoned a pursuit which he found uncongenial to 
 his tastes, and devoted his time to the acquisition of 
 learning. In 1816, he came to Leipsic, where he 
 studied theology, and more particularly philology. 
 In 1840, he traveUed through Italy; and in 1842, 
 was appointed Professor of Archaeology at the 
 university of Leipsic, where his prelections on the 
 Latin authors were numerously attended. He 
 died at Meissen, 30th September 1846. His lively 
 fancy, aided by a thorough knowledge of the classic 
 languages, enabled him to make quite a novel use of 
 antiquity. In his Charicles (Leip. 1840), he ventured 
 to rmroduce the social life of old Greece; and in 
 his Oallus (Leip. 1838), to give sketches of the 
 Augustan age at Rome. The learning which he 
 has contrived to stuff into his picturesque sentences 
 is marvellous, not to speak of the quantity buried 
 in his excursus, or disquisitions, which, jn the 
 English translation of the works by Metcalfe, are 
 transferred from the text to the end of the volumes. 
 Lockhart's VaXeriu^ is the only thing in English 
 literature which corresponds to these compositions 
 of the German author. B.'s treatise, De Comieis 
 Romanorwm Fabulis (Leip. 1837), is a valuable 
 contribution to the history of Roman dramatic 
 poetry. His most important work, in a scholastic 
 point of view, is his Hand-booh of Roman Antiquities 
 (1843 — 1846), which, after his death, was continued 
 by Marquardt. 
 
 BECKBRATH, Heemaiw von, one of the most 
 remarkable public characters of Germany, was bom 
 at Krefeld (in Prussia), December 1801. He sprang 
 from a commercial family, and made a considerable 
 fortune as a banker. But he gave himself also to 
 pursuits of a more intellectual character, and especi- 
 ally to the studies of jurisprudence and poHtics. 
 The accession of Frederick- WOHam IV. to the throne 
 roused B. to a sense of the political condition of his 
 country, and he devoted himself to work out its 
 ■constitutional freedom. In 1843, he, was elected 
 representative of his native town in the provincial 
 diet, and continued for several years to take a pro- 
 minent part in Prussian politics. He was a deputy 
 in the National Assembly which sprang up in the 
 eventful year 1848, and held its sittings at Frankfort. 
 His eloquence exercised considerable influence on 
 this assembly. He was appointed minister of finance, 
 and shortly after called to Berlin, to construct a 
 cabinet ; but in this he failed. His strictly consti- 
 tutional advice was not apparently agreeable to the 
 court, and he returned to Frankfort. An advocate 
 
 787 
 
BECKET— BECKFOED. 
 
 for German unity, it was lie who made use of the 
 expression : ' This waiting for Austria is death to 
 the union of Germany.' But zealous as he was for 
 constitutional freedom and German unity, he refused 
 his assent to amy measure of a revolutionary ten- 
 dency. When the retrograde movement set in, he 
 resigned such posts as he held under government, 
 but continued, as a member of the second Prussian 
 chamber, a vigorous opposition to the Manteuffel 
 ministry, which had deserted the cause of German 
 unity, and returned to the old traditional politics of 
 the court. 
 
 BBCKET, Thomas a\ Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 was the son of a merchant, and was born in London in 
 1119. The story which makes his mother a Saracen 
 is charmingly romantic, but there 'are doubts if it 
 has any historical basis. He studied theology at 
 Oxford and Paris, and afterwards law at Bologna, 
 and at Auxerre, in Burgundy. Having been recom- 
 mended to Henry II. by Theobald, Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, who had had experience of his abilities, 
 B. was promoted to the office of high chancellor, 
 and thiis (according to Thierry) resuscitated the 
 hopes of the English as the first native Englishman, 
 since the Conquest, who had fiUed any high ofSce. 
 The sympathies of his countrymen gathered round 
 him, for in him (it is alleged) they once more rose 
 to honour and jjower. His duties as high chancellor 
 were numerous and burdensome, but he discharged 
 them vigorously. He was magnificently liberal in 
 his hospitahty. Henry himself did not live in a 
 more sumptuous manner. As yet, B. seems to have 
 regarded himself as a mere layman, though, in point 
 of fact, he was a deacon, and to have considered the 
 splendour of his household neither unlawful nor 
 unbecoming; but in 1162, when he was created 
 Archbishop of Canterbury (an office which, as it 
 then involved the abbacy of the cathedral monastery, 
 had never but twice before been held by any but 
 a monk or canon-regular), a remarkable change 
 became manifest in his whole deportment. He 
 resigned the chancellorship, threw aside suddenly 
 his luxurious and courtly hataits, assumed an austere 
 religious character, exliibited his liberahty only 
 in his 'charities,' and soon appeared as a zealous 
 champion of the church agaiiist all aggressions by 
 the king and the nobUity. Several noblemen and 
 laymen were excommimioated for their ahenation 
 of church property. Henry II., who, like aU the 
 Norman kings, endeavoured to keep the clergy in 
 subordination to the state, convoked the nobility 
 with the clergy to a coimcil in 1164, at Clarendon 
 (near Salisbury), where the so-caUed 'constitutions' 
 (or laws relative to the respective powers of church 
 and state) were adopted. To these, the primate, at 
 iirst, declared he would never consent; but after- 
 wards, through the efforts of the nobles, some of 
 the bishops, and, finally, of the pope himself, he was 
 induced to give his unwilling approbation. Henry 
 now began to perceive that B.'s notions and his 
 were utterly antagonistic, and clearly exhibited his 
 hostility to the prelate, whereupon B. tried to leave 
 the country. For this offence the king charged B. 
 with breach of allegiance, in a parliament summoned 
 at Northampton in 1164, confiscated his goods, and 
 sequestered the revenues of his see. A claim was 
 also made on him for not less than 44,000 marks, 
 as the balance due by him to the crown when he 
 ceased to be chancellor. B. appealed to the pope, 
 and next day leaving Northampton in disguise, fled 
 to France, where he spent two years in retirement 
 at Pontigny, in Burgundy. The French monarch 
 and the pope, however, now took up his cause. 
 B. went to Eome, pleaded personally before his 
 holiness, who reinstated him in the see of 
 Canterbury. B. now returned to France, whence 
 
 788 
 
 he wrote angry letters to the English bishops, 
 threatening them with excommunication. Several 
 efforts were made to reconcile Henry and B., which, 
 however, proved futile; but at length, in 1170, a 
 formal agreement was come to at Fretville, on the 
 borders of Touraine. The result was, that B. 
 returned to England, entering Canterbury amid the 
 rejoicings of the people, who were unquestionably 
 proud of B., and regarded him — ^whether wisely or 
 not is another question — as a shield from the oppres- 
 sions of the nobility; but he soon manifested aU 
 his former boldness of opposition to royal authority. 
 At last, it is said, the king, while in Normandy, 
 expressed impatience that none of his followers 
 would rid birn of an insolent priest. The fatal 
 suggestion was immediately understood, and carried 
 into effect by four barons, who departed by separate 
 ways for England. On the evening of the 29th 
 December 1170, they entered the cathedral, and 
 having failed in an attempt to drag him out of the 
 church, there slew B. before the altar of St Benedict, 
 in the north transept. Henry was compelled to 
 make heavy concessions to avoid the ban of excom- 
 munication. The murderers, having repaired to 
 Rome as penitents, were sent on a pilgrimage to 
 Palestine; and, two years after his death, B. was 
 canonised by Pope Alexander III., and the anniver- 
 sary of his death was set apart as the yearly festival 
 of St Thomas of Canterbury. In 1220, his bones 
 were raised from the grave in the crypt where they 
 had been hastily buried two days after his murder, 
 and were by order of King Henry III. deposited in a 
 splendid smine, which for three centuries continued 
 to be the object of one of the great pilgrimages 
 of Christendom, and stiU Hves in English hterature 
 in connection with Chaucer's Oanterhury Tales. At 
 the Beformation, Henry VIII. despoiled the shrine, 
 erased B.'s name from the calendar, and caused his 
 bones to be burnt and scattered to the winds. It 
 is extremely difficult to estimate properly the char- 
 acter of Becket. We do not know what ms tdtimate 
 aims were, whether, as some suppose, they were 
 patriotic, i. e., Saxon, as opposed to Norman, or, as 
 others believe, purely sacerdotal. At all events, the 
 means he used for the attainment of them was a des- 
 potic and irresponsible ecclesiasticism. He admitted 
 nothing done by churchmen to be secular, or within 
 the jurisdiction of civU courts, not even murder 
 or larceny. Fortunately, the Plantagenets were as 
 dogged believers in their own powers and privileges 
 as B. in those of the church ; and by their obstinate 
 good sense, England was ever kept in a state of 
 wholesome jealousy of the pretensions of the 
 Eoman see. See Dr Giles's Viia et Epistolce S. 
 ThomcB Cantuariensis (6 vols. 8vo) ; Canon Morris's 
 Life of St Thomas Becket; Canon Robertson's Life 
 of Becket; Canon Stanley's Historical Memorials 
 of Canterbury; J. G. Nichols's Pilgrimages of 
 Walsingham and Canterbury. 
 
 BE'CKETS, on shipboard, a general name for 
 any large hooks, short pieces of rope, or wooden 
 brackets, used 'for confining ropes, tackles, oars, or 
 spars, in a convenient place. 
 
 BECKFORD, William, the only legitimate son 
 of Alderman Beckford, was born in 1760. When 
 he was about nine years of age, his father died, 
 and he inherited the larger portion of an enormous 
 property, consisting for the main part of estates in 
 Ja,maioa, and of the estate of FonthiU, in Wiltshire. 
 His annual revenue is said to have exceeded £100,000. 
 Young B. evinced imusual intellectual precocity; 
 for in 1780 he printed a satirical essay, entitled 
 Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters, in 
 which he does not spare Hving artists, and assails 
 the cant of criticism with the polished weapon of 
 
BECKMANN— BECSKEREK NAGY. 
 
 his wit In 1778 he visited the continent, and met 
 Voltaire at Paris. Two years thereafter, he started 
 on his first great continental tour, and spent twelve 
 months in rambling through Flanders, Germany, 
 and Italy. In 1782 he made a second visit to Italy, 
 and in 1787 he wandered through Portugal and 
 Spain. In 1783 he married the Lady Margaret 
 Gordon, daughter of Charles, fourth Earl of Aboyne ; 
 and in the following year he entered parHament as 
 one of the members for Wells. In the same year he 
 published Vathek in French. B. informs us that he 
 wrote this tale, as it now stands, at twenty -two years 
 of age, and that it was composed at one sitting. 
 ' It took me,' he says, ' three days and two nights of 
 hard labour. I never took off my clothes the whole 
 time. This severe application made me very ill.' 
 Immediately on its pubHoation, Vaiheh was trans- 
 lated into English ; B. professes never to have 
 known the translator, but thought his work well 
 done. In 1790 he sat for Hindon; in 1794 he 
 accepted the Chiltern Hundreds, and again left 
 England. He fixed his residence in Portugal, 
 purchased an estate, and busied himseH in the 
 erection of the ' paradise ' which Byron commemo- 
 rated in Ghilde Harold. Tormented by mu-est, he 
 returned to England; and in 1801 the splendid 
 furniture of Eonthill was sold by auction, and the 
 next year his valuable collection of pictures was 
 disposed of in London. These dispersions were no 
 sooner made than he began a new collection of 
 books, pictures, furniture, curiosities, and proceeded 
 to erect a new building at Fonthill, the most promi- 
 nent feature of which was a tower above 260 feet 
 high. B. resided at FonthiU tiU 1822, when in 
 one of those strange vagaries of feeling, of which his 
 life was so full, he sold the estate and house, with 
 aU its rare and far-gathered contents, to Colonel 
 Farquhar for £350,000. Soon after, the great tower, 
 which had been raised on an inseciu-e foimdation, 
 came to the ground. On the sale of Fonthill, B. 
 removed to Bath, and immediately proceeded to 
 erect another lofty building, the plan of which also 
 included a tower, but this time not more than 100 
 feet high. While residing there, he did not 
 mingle in Bath society, and the most improbable 
 stones concerning the rich and morose genius in 
 their neighbourhood were circulated among the citi- 
 zens, and were believed by them. During all his life, 
 B. was a hard-working student, and was devoured 
 by a passion for books. Some of his purchases 
 were perfectly imperial in their way. He bought 
 Gibbon's hbrary at Lausanne, to amuse himself 
 when he happened to be in that neighbourhood. He 
 went there ; read in the fierce way that he wrote, 
 three days and two nights at a sitting; grew weary of 
 his purchase; and handed it over to his physician, 
 Dr SchoU. Up till 1834 he had published nothing 
 since Vathek, but in that year the literary silence of 
 half a century was broken by the appearance of a 
 series of letters, entitled Italy, with Sketches of 
 Spain and Portugal, in two volumes. In the same 
 year he republished his Memoirs of Mietraordinary 
 Painters; and in 1835 he issued another volume, 
 entitled Recollections of an Excursion to the Monas- 
 teries of Alcobaca and Batalha, made in June 1794. 
 From the period of this last publication tiU his death, 
 which took place on the 2d of May 1844, he lived in 
 the deepest retirement. 
 
 B., since the publication of his Arabian tale, 
 has been a power in English literatiure. His wit, 
 his sarcasm, his power of graphic description, 
 may be seen in his journal and letters; and his 
 higher faculties of imaginative conception and 
 delineation reign in the unmatched passages that 
 shadow forth in gloom and glory the ' Hall of 
 Eblia.' 
 
 BBCKMANN, Johann, a German author, known 
 by his works on natural history and agriculture, 
 was born at Hoya, in Hanover, June 4, 1739. After 
 spending some time in the stu,dy of theology, he 
 directed his attention to the physical sciences, and 
 especially to their economical applications. After 
 holding, for about two years, a professorship of 
 physics and natural history in St Petersburg, he made 
 a tour through Sweden, where he gained an acquaint- 
 ance with the working of mines, and received for 
 some time instructions from Linnasus. In 1766 he 
 was appointed professor of philosophy, and in 1770 
 ordinary professor of political economy at GBttingen, 
 where he died, February 4, 1811. He was the first 
 German author who wrote on agriculture in a scien- 
 tific style. Among his works may be mentioned: 
 Principles of German Agriculture (6th ed. 1806), 
 Introduction to Technology (5th ed. 1809), Intro- 
 duction to the Science of Commerce (1789), and Con- 
 tributions to the History of Inventions (1780 — 1805). 
 This last-mentioned work has been translated into 
 English with some abridgment. 
 
 BBCQTJEEBL, Antoine CfisAB, a distinguished 
 French physicist, was born 7th March 1788, at 
 Chatillon-sur-Loing, in the department of Loiret. 
 In 1808, he entered the French army as an officer 
 of engineers, and served with distinction in Spain 
 under Marshal Suchet. He took part in the sieges 
 of Tortosa, Tarragona, Valencia, and other places. 
 On his return to France, he was appointed inspector 
 of the Ecole Polytechnique ; in 1814, he went through 
 the campaign of France ; and at the peace of 1815, 
 retired from the service, that he might pursue his 
 scientific studies with greater advantage. In 1819, 
 he published a volume of geological and minera- 
 logical researches, after which, his attention was 
 principally devoted to electricity and magnetism. 
 While studying the physical properties of yellow 
 amber, B. had occasion to make experiments on 
 the Lberation of electricity by pressure. This led 
 him to investigate the laws by which the pheno- 
 mena of liberation are governed in chemical action. 
 The result of his inquiries was the overthrow of 
 Volta's theory of contact, and the construction, 
 by him, of the first constant pile. He next dis- 
 covered a very, simple method of determining the 
 internal temperature of human and animal bodies 
 without sensibly injuring them, and by numerous 
 physiological applications, demonstrated, that when 
 a muscle contracts, there is a development of heat. 
 B. is besides one of the creators of electro-chemistry. 
 His labours in this branch of science opened for him. 
 in 1829, the door of the Academic des Sciences. 
 Since 1828, he had begun to apply electro-chemistry 
 in the reproduction of mineral substances, and in 
 the treatment by the humid way of silver, lead, 
 and copper ores; and in 1837 the Royal Society of 
 London recognised his great merits by awarding to 
 him the Copley Medal. Among the other works of 
 this eminent savant may be specified his researches 
 on the electric conductibUity of metals, on galvano- 
 meters, on the electric properties of tourmalme, on 
 atmospheric electricity, &c. In 1847, he was chosen 
 a member of the Council-general of the Loiret, where 
 his scientific knowledge was found to be extremely 
 useful. He is professor and administrator of the 
 Museum of Natural History. 
 
 His principal works are — Traitg de V Electricity et 
 du Magnetisme, 1834 — 1840 ; Traiti d' Electrochimie ; 
 Traits de Physique ccmsiderie dans ses Rapports 
 avec la Chimie et les Sciences Naturdles, 1844; 
 Traite de Physique Terrestre et de MStiorologie, 1847. 
 
 BECSKERB'K NA'GY, or GREAT BECSKER- 
 EK, a town of Hungary, in the county of Torontal, 
 situated on the left bank o£ the Bega, about 45 
 
 789 
 
BED. 
 
 miles aoutt-west of Temesvar, with which place it is 
 connected by canal. B. N. is an. important market- 
 town, and has a population of about 15,000. 
 
 BED (with some variations in spelling, the 
 word is common to all Germanic languages), an 
 article of household furniture on which to sleep. 
 Beds have been, and are of various forms, almost 
 every country haviug its own kind of bed. In 
 ancient times in Palestine, the B. seems to have 
 been a simple kind of couch for reclining on during 
 the day, and sleeping on at night, and readily 
 removable from place to place, as is referred to in 
 different parts of Scripture. About the heat of the 
 day, Ishbosheth lay on his B. at noon (2 Sam. iv. 
 5). In receiving visitors, the king bowed himself 
 upon the bed (1 Kings i 47). Jesus saith, 'Take 
 up thy B., and go unto thine house ' (Mat. ix. 6). Yet, 
 in these early times, beds or couches must, in some 
 instances, have been highly ornamented: thus, 'I 
 have decked my B. with coverings of tapestry, with 
 carved works, with fine linen of Egypt' (Prov. vii. 
 16). The ancient Greeks had an elegant kiud of beds 
 in the form of open couches ; they rested on a frame- 
 work with posts ; their mattresses were stuffed with 
 wool or feathers; and they had coverings of a costly 
 nature. The Komans had latterly beds of great 
 richness and magnificence. They were of two kinds — 
 the lectus tridiniaris, or couch for rechning upon at 
 meals; and the lectus cubicularis, or B. placed in 
 bed-chambers for sleeping in during the night. In 
 eastern countries, at the present day, beds are for the 
 most part simple couches or mattresses, which can be 
 easily rolled up and carried away. In India, these 
 coucities are called charpoys. It wiU be understood 
 that, in hot climates, few bed-clothes are used— in 
 general, there being only a single sheet employed; 
 care is taken, however, to use mosquito-curtains, 
 without which rest would be impracticable. See 
 Mosquito. 
 
 Throughout the contiuent of Europe, beds are of 
 the open couch form, suitable in width for one per- 
 son. They consist of a frame or bedstead, less or 
 more ornamental, bearing one or two hair or wool 
 mattresses; they are often provided with curtains, 
 which depend from the ceiling of the room. In 
 French hotels, such beds, neatly done up, are seen in 
 sitting-rooms. In Germany, there is a common 
 practice of placing large flat bags of down above 
 the other coverings of beds, for the sake of warmth ; 
 and sometimes a bed of down altogether supplies the 
 place of blankets. Throughout America, the beds are 
 usually of the French, or open couch, form. The 
 simplest kind of B. yet invented — except, indeed, the 
 Oriental rug spread on the floor — ^is one frec^uently 
 to be seen in America. The bedstead consists of a 
 folding tressel, constructed with canvas on the 
 principle of a camp-stool, with a movable head- 
 board at one end to retain the pillow. With a 
 hair-mattress, a pillow, and the necessary coverings 
 laid on it, this makes one of the most comfortable 
 beds imagiaable. Its great advantage consists in 
 its being easily folded up and put away in small 
 space. In some of the hotels in the United States, 
 when the arrival of guests exceeds the ordinary 
 accommodation, a mmiber of tressel-beds can be 
 improvised in a few minutes in one of the large 
 halls. 
 
 To prevent the falling of dust on the face, the 
 Bomans, in some instances, used canopies (aulcea) 
 over their beds; in no country but England, how- 
 ever, has the canopied bedstead been thoroughly 
 perfected and naturalised. The English four-posted 
 B., or B. proper, is a gigantic piece of furniture, to 
 which all persons aspire; and when tastefully fitted 
 up, it offers that degree of comfort and seclusion 
 which is characteristic of the domestic habits of the 
 
 790 
 
 people. Like most English beds, it is made of suffi- 
 cient size to accommodate two persons — ^the husband 
 and wife — and is hence known as the family-bed. 
 The dimensions of a good family B. are as follows : 
 lying part, 6 feet 6 inches in length, by 6 feet 
 2 inches in breadth; height from the floor, 2 feet 
 9 inches; height of the posts from the floor to the 
 top of the cornice, 9 feet. The roof or canopy is 
 supported by the four posts, which are of mahogany, 
 finely turned and carved. On rods along the cornice, 
 hang curtains, which can be drawn around the sides 
 and foot. The top stands towards the wall, so that 
 the B. can be approached on the two sides. The 
 curtains are composed of sUk or worsted damask; 
 in old times, they were of tapestry. With a spring- 
 mattress below, and a wool-mattress above, the B. 
 is complete, all but the blankets, sheets, bolster, 
 and pillows. Ticks with feathers, laid on a hair- 
 mattress, are also common. FuUy equipped, a B., 
 as just described, costs from £50 to £80. The greai 
 B. at Ware, in Hertfordshire, is one of the curiosities 
 
 Bed of Ware. 
 
 of England, and is referred to in the Twelfth NigJit 
 of Shakspeare: 'Although the sheet were big enough 
 for the Bed of Ware in England.' This famous B., 
 which is stiU seen in one of the inns at Ware, 
 measures twelve feet square, and is said to be 
 capable of holding a dozen persons. 
 
 Latterly, a species of B. has been introduced into 
 England, called the Elizabethan Bed. In point of 
 size, it resembles the four-poster, but it has only two 
 tall posts, with a canopy and curtains at the head, 
 leaving more than half of the B. exposed. The tent- 
 B. is an inferior kind of four-poster ; it has a semi- 
 circular light frame roof, and light calico curtains. 
 A more novel variety of bedsteads are those made of 
 iron or brass, formed like open couches, and adapted 
 for cottages in summer, but not likely to come gener- 
 ally into use. The cold and humid climate of the 
 British islands, independently of the habits of the 
 people, has greatly influenced the form of the B. ; 
 for although it may be more wholesome to sleep 
 without than with curtains, it will be difficult to 
 introduce the practice of doing so, particularly during 
 the winter and spring months. In the humbler class 
 of rural cottages in Scotland, there stiU lingers the 
 old custom of sleeping in wooden bedsteads with 
 sliding doors. This box variety of B. is considered 
 as unfavoiu^able to ventilation, but it is the only 
 kind of sleeping-place which is endurable where 
 there are damp earthen floors and imperfect ceilings. 
 Its use is disappearing in the progress of cottage 
 improvement. 
 
 In old times in England, beds were formed with 
 straw instead of wool, hair, o* feathers, as at 
 present ; hence the phrase of a ' lady in the straw,' 
 signifying that she is being confined. By the 
 
BED-BEDCHAMBEB. 
 
 humbler classes in the rural districts, straw is still 
 used for beds, and also ticks stuffed -with chaff. 
 According to au old superstition, no person could 
 die calmly on a B,o£ feathers of game birds. 
 
 For invalids, there have been invented air-beds 
 and water-beds, which are now in use, and justly 
 appreciated. See Air- Bed, also Water-Bed. 
 
 BED, or STRATUM, is a layer of sedimentary 
 rook of similar materials, and of some thickness, 
 cohermg together so as to be quarried and lifted in 
 single blocks. Beds are often composed of many 
 fine lamiuSB or plates. The lamiuEe are the results of 
 intermissions in the supply of materials, produced by 
 such causes as the ebb and flow of the tide, river- 
 floods, or the more or less turbid state of the water 
 under which they were deposited. When the 
 intervals between the supply of materials were 
 short, the numerous laminas closely adhere, and form 
 a bed out off from the superior deposit, by the 
 occurrence of a longer interval, during which the 
 bed became consoHdated more or less before the 
 next was deposited. When the lamination is 
 obscure, or not distinct from the stratification, it 
 would seem to indicate that the materials had been 
 supplied without any intermission. 
 
 BED OF JUSTICE (Er. Vd de justice), literally, 
 the seat or throne occupied by the French monarch 
 when he was present at the deliberations of parlia- 
 ment. Historically, a B. of J. signified a solemn 
 session, in which the king was present, to overrule 
 the decisions of parliament, and to enforce the 
 acceptance of edicts or ordinances which it had 
 previously rejected. The theory of the old French 
 constitution was, that the authority of parliament 
 was derived solely from the crown : consequently, 
 when the king, the source of authority, was 
 
 E resent, that which was delegated ceased. Acknow- 
 idging such a principle, the parliament was 
 logically incapable of resisting any demand that 
 the king in a B. of J. might make, and decrees 
 promulgated during a sitting of this kind were held 
 to be of more authority than ordinary decisions of 
 parliament. Monarchs were not slow to take advan- 
 tage of this power to overawe any parliament that 
 erfdbited signs of independence. The last B. of J. 
 was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles in September 
 1787. 
 
 BBDA, or BEDE (sumamed, on account of his 
 learning, piety, and talents. Venerable), the greatest 
 name in the ancient literature of Britain, and prob- 
 ably the most distinguished scholar in the world 
 of his age, was born about the year 673 A.D. The 
 exact spot of his birth is a point in dispute among 
 antiquaries, but is commonly believed to have been 
 in what is now the parish of Monkton, near Wear- 
 mouth, in Durham. In his seventh year he entered 
 the neighbouring monastery of St Peter, at Wear- 
 mouth, where he remained for 13 years, and was 
 educated under the care of the Abbot Benedict 
 Biscop, and his successor, Ceolfrid. His religious 
 instructor was the monk Trumberot; his music- 
 master, John, chief-singer (archicantor) in St Peter's 
 Church, Rome, who had been called to England by 
 the Abbot Benedict. After these studies at Wear- 
 mouth, B. removed to the twin-monastery of St 
 Paul at Gyruum (now written Jarrow), founded in 
 682 ; here he took deacon's orders in his nineteenth 
 year, and was ordained priest in his thirtieth, by 
 John of Beverley, then bishop of Hexham. In the 
 shelter of his quiet and sacfed retreat, while the 
 tempest of barbaric strife raged without, and the 
 hearts of all men in England were torn by san- 
 guinary passions, B. now began earnestly to conse- 
 crate his life to such literature as was possible in 
 those days, including Latin and Grreek, and at least 
 
 some acquaintance with Hebrew, medicine, astro- 
 nomy, and prosody. He wrote homilies, lives of 
 saints, hymns, epigrams, works on chronology and 
 grammar, and comments on the books of the Old 
 and New Testament. His calm and gentle spirit, 
 the humanismg character of his pursuits, and the 
 holiness of his life, present a striking contrast to 
 the violence and slaughter which prevailed in the 
 whole island. To none is the beautiful language 
 of Scripture more apphcable — 'a light shining in a 
 dark place.' When labouring under disease, and 
 near the close of his hfe, he engaged in a translation 
 of St John's Gospel into Anglo-Saxon, and dictated 
 his version to his pupils. He died May 26, 735, and 
 was buried in the monastery of Jarrow : long after- 
 wards (in the middle of the 11th c), his bones were 
 removed to Durham. His most valuable work is the 
 Historia Ecclesiastka Gentis Anglorum, an ecclesias- 
 tical history of England, in five books, to which we 
 are indebted for almost all our information on the 
 ancient history of England down to 731 a.d. B. 
 gained the materials for this work partly from 
 Roman writers, but chiefly from native chronicles 
 and biographies, records, and pubHo documents, 
 and ord and written coiomunicatious from his 
 contemporaries. King Alfred translated it into 
 Anglo-Saxon. In chronology, the labours of B. 
 were important, as he first introduced the Dionysian 
 reckoning of dates in his work, De Sex JiHatibus 
 Mundi, which served as a basis for most of the 
 medieval chroniclers of leading events in the world's 
 history. Among the editions of B.'s History may 
 be noticed : the first, pubhshed at Strasburg about 
 1500 ; a much better edition, by Smith (Cambridge, 
 1722); one not less valuable, by Stevenson (Lond. 
 1838) ; another, by the late Dr Hussey (Oxf. 1846) ; 
 a fourth in the Monummta Historica Britannica 
 (Lond. 1848) ; and that included by Dr Giles in 
 his edition of the whole works of B., with an 
 English translation of the historical parts (6 vols., 
 Lond. 1843 — 1844). Entire editions of B.'s writings 
 have been published in Paris (1544 — 1554), Basel 
 (1563), and Cologne (1612 and 1688). EngUsh ver- 
 sions of his Ecclesiastical History were published by 
 Stapleton, in 1565; by Stevens, in 1723; by Hurst, 
 in 1814; by WUcock, in 1818; and by GUes, in 
 1840. See Gehle's" De Bedce VeneraUlis Vita et 
 Scriptis (Leyden, 1838) ; Wright's BiograpJda 
 Britannica Litteraria, vol. i. (Lond. 1843) ; Surtees's 
 History of Durham, vol. ii., pp. 2 — 6, 66 — 69. 
 
 B:^DAEIEUX, a town of France, department of 
 Herault, situated on the river Orb, well bralt, and 
 second to none of its size in industry. Poj^. 9170, 
 who are engaged in the manufacture of tme and 
 coarse cloths, stuffs, cotton and woollen stockings, 
 hats, paper, oil, soap, leather, &c. 
 
 BE'DCHAMBEB, Lords of the, officers in the 
 British royal household, twelve in number, who, 
 in the reign of a king, wait in turn upon the sove- 
 reign's person. They are under the groom of the 
 stole, who attends his majesty only on state occa- 
 sions. There are also thirteen grooms of the B., 
 who take their turns of attendance. The salary 
 of the groom of the stole is £2000; of the lords 
 of the B., £1000; and of the grooms, £500 a year. 
 These offices in the reign of a queen are performed 
 by ladies. Corresponding to the groom of the stole 
 is the mistress of the robes, and to the OTOoms of the 
 B. are B. women. At present (1855), Her Majesty 
 has eleven ladies, and extra ladies of the B., and 
 eight B. women. These offices, which are in the royal 
 nomination, are objects of high ambition, from the 
 access they give to the person of the sovereign, and 
 are for the most part filled by ' the prime nobility 
 of England.' ' They are not usually vacated on a 
 
 791 
 
BEDDOBS— BEDEGUAE. 
 
 change of ministry, and Sir Robert Peel's departure 
 from the usual etiquette on this point, in 1839, 
 excited no small commotion. 
 
 BEDDOBS, Thomas, a physician of remarkable 
 talents, and a popular writer on chemistry, physics, 
 physiology, disease, &o., was bom at ShiffnaU, in 
 Shropshire, 1760. In his, studies at Oxford and 
 Edinburgh, he distinguished himself by his know- 
 ledge of ancient and modem languages — ^the modern 
 he acquired without the aid of a teacher — and 
 by his varied attainments in botany, mineralogy, 
 geology, chemistry, &c. In Edinburgh he attracted 
 the notice of Dr Cullen, who employed him to add 
 notes to Bergman's Physical and Ohemical Essays. 
 In 1785, he published a translation of Bergman's 
 Essays on Elective Attractions, with valuable origiiial 
 notes. In 1787, he was appointed to the ohemical 
 lectureship in the university of Oxford. Here 
 his lectures became exceedingly popular; but his 
 imconcealed sympathies with the French revolu- 
 tionary party in England, appear to have rendered 
 his post so uncomfortable liiat he resigned it in 
 1792, and retired into the country. While in retire- 
 ment, he wrote his work On the Nature of Demon- 
 strative Evidence, viith an Explanation of Certain 
 Difficulties occurring in the Elements of Oeometry, 
 which was intended to shew that mathematical 
 reasoning proceeds entirely on the evidence afforded 
 by the senses, and that geometry is based on experi- 
 ment. Several patriotic pamphlets followed, and 
 the History of Isaac Jenkins, in which he laid down, 
 in a popular style, rules of sobriety, health, &c., for 
 the benefit of the working-classes. Of this work, 
 40,000 copies were sold in a short tune. In 1798, 
 after having spent considerable time in studying the 
 use of artificial or medicated gases in the cure of 
 diseases, especially consumption, aided by his father- 
 in-law, Mr Edgeworth, and pecuniarily assisted by 
 his friend, Thomas Wedgwood, he opened a pneu- 
 matic hospital at Bristol. This iastitution did not 
 succeed in its main object, which was to shew that 
 alt diseases being, as B. maintained, referrible to an 
 undue proportion or deficiency of some elementary 
 principle in the human organism, could be cured by 
 breathing a medicated atmosphere ; and B., whose 
 zeal had abated, retired from ij; about a year before 
 his death, in 1808. The only results of the enterprise 
 were several works by B. on the application of 
 medicated air to diseases, and the introduction 
 to the world of Davy (afterwards Sir Humphry), 
 who was the superintendent of the institution. Sir 
 Humphry Davy says of B. : ' He had talents which 
 would have exalted him to the pinnacle of philo- 
 sophical eminence, if they had been applied with 
 discretion.' A hfe of B. was published in 1811 by 
 Dr Stock. 
 
 BEDDOES, LovELL Thomas, eldest son of Dr 
 Thomas B., and of Anna, third daughter of Richard 
 LoveU Edgeworth, of Edgeworthstown, Ireland, 
 sister of Maria Edgeworth, the distinguished novelist, 
 was bom at Rodney Place, Clifton, on the 20tli 
 July 1803. In 1809 Dr Beddoes died, leaving his 
 son to the guardianship of Mr Davies Giddy, who, 
 under his after-name of Sir Davies Gilbert, became 
 the president of the Royal Society. By this gentle- 
 man, young B. was placed at the Bath grammar 
 school; from thence, in 1817, he removed to the 
 Charter House; and in May 1820, he entered as a 
 commoner at Pembroke College, Oxford. In 1821 
 he published the Improvisatore. On this, his earliest 
 poetic offspring, he looked with no favour at 
 a later period, and was wont to hunt after stray 
 copies in the libraries of his friends, and to disem- 
 bowel them mercilessly when he effected a capture. 
 In 1822 he pubhshed The Bnde'a Tragedy, which 
 
 792 
 
 achieved for its author a great reputation. In 1824, 
 he went to Gottingen to study medicine, and from 
 this time forth continued to live in Germany and 
 Switzerland, with occasional visits to England. 
 While engaged at Frankfort (1847) in dissecting, 
 he received a slight wound, which was the means 
 of infusiag a noxious virus into his system. His 
 health now began to fail. In 1848 he went to Basel, 
 where he fell from his horse, and injured his leg. 
 An amputation following, he died on the 26th 
 January 1849, and was buried in the cemetery of 
 the hospital. 
 
 During his wanderiags in Germany, B. was en- 
 gaged at intervals in the composition of a drama 
 entitled Death's Jest-book. This work, together with 
 his other manuscripts, consisting chiefly of poetry, 
 he, on his death-bed, confided to the care of a 
 friend in England, desiring him to use his discre- 
 tion as to their publication. In consequence, in 
 1851, his poetical works, with a memoir attached, 
 appeared in two volumes. The merits of these 
 dramatic fragments are quite peculiar. The author 
 exhibits no power of characterisation, no abUity in 
 the conduct of a story; and, on the other hand, the 
 crash of thought and image, the tone of music, and 
 the depth of colour, are quite wonderful. Mr B. 
 never could have become a dramatist, and of this, 
 during his later years, he seems to have become 
 aware. His works pall with splendour, and are 
 monotonous by very richness. They are like a 
 wOdemess where nature has been allowed to pour 
 herself forth in aU her waste and tropical excess, 
 unrestrained by a praning hand, and unpierced by 
 any path. 
 
 BEDEAXT, Mabie Alphonsb, a distinguished 
 French general, was bom at Vertou, near Nantes, 
 August 1804. In 1817 he entered the military 
 school of La Flfeche ; in 1820, St Cyr ; and in 1825 
 received a commission in the army. In the Belgian 
 campaign of 1831—1832, he was aide-de-camp to 
 General Gerard, and attracted notice at the siege of 
 Antwerp. In 1836 he was sent to Algeria, as com- 
 mandant of a battalion of the Foreign Legion. Here 
 he acquired his great military reputation. He took 
 part in most of the miHtar^ operations by which the 
 dominion of France was established over the natives, 
 and rose to the rank of general of brigade. In 1847, 
 he was for a short time governor of Algeria, but was 
 superseded by the Due d'Atmiale. 
 
 When the revolution of February broke out, B., 
 who was in Paris on leave of absence, was commis- 
 sioned by Marshal Bugeaud to suppress the insur- 
 rection. This he found it impossible to do, but his 
 conduct on the occasion has been severely blamed. 
 By the Provisional Government he was appointed 
 Minister of War, an office, however, wMch he 
 immediately changed for the command of the city 
 of Paris. On the formation of the Constituent 
 Assembly, he was named vice-president, and always 
 voted with the republican party. Along with 
 Cavaignac, Lamoricifere, and others, he was arrested 
 on the 2d December 1851, and went into exile. B. is 
 a Roman Catholic, and the fervour of his religious 
 convictions gave rise, some time ago, to the ground- 
 less rumour that he had entered into holy orders. 
 
 BEDBGU'AR, a remarkable gall (q.v.), often 
 found on the branches of various species of rose, 
 particularly of the sweet-brier, upon which account 
 it is sometimes called Sweet-brier Sponge. It is 
 produced sometimes by Oynips rosce, sometimes by 
 other species of gall insect. It is usually of a 
 roundish shape, often an inch or more in diameter ; 
 its nucleus is spongy and fibrous, containing numerous 
 cells, in each of which is a small larva ; externally 
 it is shaggy, being covered with moss-like branching 
 
BEDELL^BEDPORD. 
 
 fibres, whioli are at first green, afterwards purple 
 or red. It was formerly in some repute aa a diuretic 
 and as a remedy for stone; it has more recently 
 been recommended as a, vermifuge, and as a ciu'e 
 for tootkaclie. 
 
 BEDELL, William, one of tlie best prelates 
 that have adorned the En^ish Church, was bom at 
 Black Notley, Essex, in 1570. He was educated at 
 Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and after his ordina- 
 tion, officiated as a clergyman for several years at 
 Bury St Edmunds. In 1604, he accompanied Sir 
 Henry Wotton as his chaplain to Venice. There he 
 resided eight years, deeply engaged in study, and 
 honoured by ttie friendship of many distinguished 
 men, in particular of Father Paul Sarpi, then 
 engaged in the composition of his celebrated History 
 of the Council of Trent. While residing here, he 
 translated the English Common Prayer Book into 
 Italian, which was highly appreciated by many 
 of the Venetian clergy. On his return home, he 
 resumed his pastoral duties at Bury, where he lived 
 for some time in such retirement, that when his 
 
 ' friend Diodati came to England, he inquired in vain 
 for the admirable B., whose merits were so well 
 known at Venice. He had given up hopes of find- 
 ing him, when one day he encountered him in the 
 streets of London. In 1615, B. was presented to the 
 living of Horingsheath, in Suffolk, where he remained 
 twelve years. His retired life and his Calvinistio 
 theology long hindered the recognition of his merits. 
 At length, m 1627, he was unanimously elected 
 provost of Trinity College, Dublin, to which the 
 fame of his learning and piety had extended. He 
 refused to undertake the charge tiU positively com- 
 manded by the king. At the end of two years, he 
 was promoted to the united bishoprics of Kilmore 
 and Ardagh, the latter of which he resigned in the 
 following year, 1630. He immediately set himseU 
 to reform the crying abuses that prevailed in his 
 diocese, and with so happy a combination of wisdom, 
 iimmeas, and charity, that even his enemies were 
 constrained to do homage to his virtues. Among 
 his other remarkable acts, he removed his lay- 
 ohanceUor, and took upon himself the ancient 
 episcopal jurisdiction of hearing and deciding causes. 
 The chancellor obtained a decree against him in 
 Chancery, with costs, but was so impressed with 
 the superiority of the bishop's services to his own, 
 that he dropped his claim, and even appointed a 
 surrogate, with orders to pay implicit obedience to 
 the authority of the bishop. The translation of 
 the Old Testament into Irish was accomplished 
 under B.'s direction (the New had been already 
 translated), as weU as of some of the homihes of 
 Chrysostom and Leo on the reading of the Scrip- 
 tures. On the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, 
 his popularity for some time saved his family from 
 violence, his being the only English house in the 
 county of Cavan that was spared. At length, on 
 his refusal to dismiss his flock, he was seized, and 
 imprisoned in the castle of Cloughboughter. Thence 
 
 • he was removed to the house of a Protestant clergy- 
 man, where he continued to minister officially tiU 
 his death, at the end of a few weeks, February 7, 
 1642, in the seventy-first year of his age. The 
 rebels followed his body to the grave in the church- 
 yard of Kilmore. Besides some other works, B. 
 translated the last two books of Father Paul's 
 
 . History. His life was written by Burnet. 
 
 BE'DFORD (Saxon, Bedcanford, town of the 
 ford), the chief town of Bedfordshire, is situated 
 on the Ouse (which is navigable thence to the sea, 
 a distance of 74 nules), about 63 miles north-north- 
 west of London by rail, and in the midst of a broad 
 expanse of rich pasture, wheat, and barley lands. 
 
 The town is clean and well paved, Tsut the drainage 
 is very defective. The number of charitable and 
 educational institutions is remarkable. These are 
 mostly due to Sir W. Harpur, alderman of London, in 
 1561, who foimded a free school in B., and endowed 
 it with 13 acres of land near the town. The enor- 
 mous increase in the value of the property (from £150 
 to £14,000 or upwards a year) enables the trustees 
 to maintain a free grammar school, commercial, 
 preparatory, girls', and infant schools, a hospital for 
 poor children, and 65 alms-houses, besides expending 
 considerable sums of money in marriage-portions, 
 apprentice-fees, donations, &c. Much of the charity 
 is under the control of popularly elected trustees. 
 The social effects of so extensive a system of elee- 
 mosynary aid are found to be deeply injurious, and 
 the time wasted in public and private debates on the 
 distribution of the funds is almost incredible. Party- 
 spirit divides the inhabitants into the ' B.-born ' and 
 the ' squatters,' or recent settlers, who are regarded 
 by the more intolerant of the old inhabitants as 
 intruders on their native preserves. The ' educa- 
 tional ' and ' eleemosynary ' factions also divide the 
 government of the charity — the latter being an 
 overwhelming majority. Parliament has more than 
 once been called in to regulate the distribution 
 of the charity, which, notwithstanding its extent, 
 owing to former bad management, is in debt. 
 The only important manufacture of B. is that 
 of iron goods, especially agricultural implements. 
 Lace-making and straw-plaiting employ many 
 poor women and children. A considerable traffic 
 in malt, timber, coals, and iron is maintained 
 with Lynn Regis, by means of the Ouse. B. is 
 of great antiquity, and is mentioned in the Saxon 
 Chronicle under the name of Bedcanford, as the 
 scene of a battle between the Britons and Saxons 
 in 571. The Danes burnt it in 1010. After- 
 wards its old castle, said to be buUt by Edward the 
 Elder, is frequently mentioned in history; there 
 being, as Camden says, ' no storm of civU war that 
 did not burst upon it ' as long as it stood. B. 
 has returned two members to parliament since 1295. 
 Pop. 11,693. John Bunyaii was bom near Bedford. 
 He dreamed his immortal dream in B. jail, and 
 ministered to the Baptist congregation in MUl Lane 
 from 1671 to his death in 1688. The inhabitants 
 stiU hold his memory in deep veneration, and some 
 relics of him are carefully preserved. 
 
 BEDFORD, DxnKE or. There have been two 
 distinct dukedoms of B. That to be noticed here 
 existed in the person of John Plantagenet, Regent 
 of France, and third son of Henry IV. of England, 
 who was bom about 1389. During his father's 
 lifetime, he was governor of Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
 and warden of Sie Scottish marches. In 1414, 
 the second year of his brother's reign, he was 
 created Duke of B. ; and he was made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the forces in England whUe 
 Henry V. was carrying on the war in France. After 
 the death of Henry V. (1422), B., in accordance 
 with the dying wish of the king, left the affairs 
 of England in the hands of his brother Gloucester, 
 and went to France to look after the interests of 
 the infant prince, his nephew. The regency of 
 France, in comphance with a request of his deceased 
 brother, he offered to the Duke of Burgundy, who 
 refused it ; he then assumed it himself, but not 
 without consulting Burgundy as to the best method 
 of carrying out the treaty of Troyes, by which 
 Charles VI. declared Henry V. next heir to the 
 French crown. On the death of Charles VI., a 
 few months after Henry V., B. had his nephew 
 proclaimed king of France and England, as Henry 
 VI. In the wars with the dauphin which followed, 
 B. displayed great generalship, and defeated the 
 
 793 
 
BEDFORD tEVEt,— BEDLAM. 
 
 French in several battles — most disastrously at 
 Vemeui], in 1424. But, in consequence of the rather 
 parsimonious way in which men and money were 
 doled out to him from England, and the with- 
 drawal of the forces of the Duke of Burgundy, 
 he was unable to take f uU advantage of his victories. 
 The appearance of Joan of Arc, notwithstanding the 
 utmost energy of B., was followed by disaster to 
 the English arms ; and in 1435, B. was mortified by 
 the treaty of peace negotiated at Kouen between 
 Charles VII. and the Duke of Burgundy, which 
 effectually ruiued English interests in France. The 
 death of the regent, which took place September 19, 
 1435, fourteen days before the ratification of the 
 treaty, was mainly, if not altogether, occasioned 
 by his anxiety and vexation on accOimt of the 
 union thus formed. B., who was a patron of letters, 
 purchased and removed to London the Koyal 
 Library of Paris, consisting of 900 volumes. For 
 the present family of B., see Russell. 
 
 BE'DFORD LEVEL, an extensive tract of flat 
 land on the east coast of England, embracing nearly 
 all the marshy district called the Felis. It extends 
 inland around the Wash into the six counties 
 of Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Lincoln, 
 Norfolk, and Suffolk, and has an area of about 
 400,000 acres. Its inland boundary forms a horse- 
 shoe of high lands, and reaches the towns of 
 Brandon, Milton — 3 miles north-north-east of Cam- 
 bridge — ^Earith, Peterborough, and Bolingbroke. It 
 is divided into three parts — the north level, between 
 the rivers Welland and Nene ; the middle, between 
 the Nene and the Old Bedford River; and the south, 
 extending to Stoke, FeltweU, and Mildenhall. It 
 is intersected by many artificial channels, as well 
 as by the lower parts of the rivers Nene, Cam, 
 Ouse (Great and Little), Welland, Glen, Lark, and 
 Stoke. It receives the waters of the whole or 
 parts of nine counties. The substratum of the 
 Fens is a stiff clay, called gault, a newer tertiary 
 deposit, on which rest earth, vegetable matter, silt, 
 and water. This district seems to have been a 
 great forest at the time of the invasion of the 
 Romans, who cut the forest down; formed great 
 embankments, to exclude the tide ; and rendered the 
 tract for a time a fertile inhabited region. The 
 Emperor Severus, in the 3d c, made roads through 
 it, one of which is now covered with two to five feet 
 of water. In the 13th c, violent incursions of the 
 sea stopped the outflow of the rivers, and it became 
 a morass. The practicabihty of draining this exten- 
 sive region seems to have been thought of as early 
 as 1436, and many partial attempts were made after 
 this. The first effectual effort was in 1634, when 
 Francis, Earl of Bedford, after whom the district 
 was thenceforth called, obtained, along with 13 
 others, a charter to drain the level, on condition 
 of receiving 95,000 acres of the reclaimed land. The 
 work was partially accomplished in 3 years, at the 
 expense of £100,000; but was pronounced by the 
 government to be inadequate. Charles I. tried 
 to get the work, with a greatly increased premium, 
 into his own hands; but the civil war stopped 
 further progress. In 1649, parUament confinned 
 William, Earl of Bedford, in the rights granted 
 to his father; and after a fresh outlay of £300,000, 
 the contract was fulfilled. In 1688, a corporation 
 was formed for the management of the level, which 
 BtiU exists. But only within the last 30 years has 
 the drainage been rendered thoroughly efficient, by 
 means of large and small drains and embankments. 
 Although at great expense, a large tract of country 
 has been redeemed from water, and is now converted 
 into fertile pasture, grain, flax, and cole-seed lands. 
 In some parts of the district, the annual increase 
 of property is now equal to the purchase-money paid 
 781 
 
 for it 60 years ago. Steam-engines and ■vrind-mills 
 are now used to pump the water into the artificial 
 channels. 
 
 BE'DFORDSHIRE, a midland county of England, 
 bounded N.E. by Huntingdon; E. by Cambridge; 
 S.E. and S. by Hertford; S.W. and W. by Bucking- 
 ham ; and N.W. by Northampton. It stands 37th 
 of the 40 English counties in size, and 36th in 
 population. Extreme length, 31 miles; breadth, 25. 
 Area, 463 square miles, five-sixths being arable, 
 meadow, and pasture lands. The general surface 
 is level, with gentle undulations, fii the south, a 
 range of chalk-hills, branching from the CMlterns, 
 crosses B. in a north-east direction from "Dunstable, 
 and another parallel range runs from AmpthOl to 
 near the junction of the Ivel with the Ouse. 
 Between the latter ridge and the north-west part of 
 the county, where the land is also somewhat hilly, 
 lies the corn vale of Bedford. No hUl in B. much 
 exceeds 900 feet in height. The chief rivers are the 
 Ouse (running through the centre of the county, 
 17 miles in a direct line, but 45 by its windings), 
 navigable to Bedford; and its tributary, the Ivel, 
 navigable to Shefford. By these rivers, B. communi- 
 cates with the coimties of Cambridge, Huntingdon, 
 and Norfolk. The south and south-east parts of 
 the coimty consist of chalk, and the north and 
 north-west of ooKtic strata. Freestone is quar- 
 ried, as well as chalk or clunch, to be burnt for 
 lime. The soil varies greatly. In the south of 
 the county, it is chalk thinly covered with earth, 
 and fit only for sheep-walks ; but three-fourths 
 of the coimty is clay, which is very stiff between 
 the Ivel and Ouse. A rich gravelly loam exists 
 along the rivers. In the vale of Bedford, the soil is 
 chiefly rich clay and deep loam; and to the. north, 
 the clay is stiSj poor, and wet. There are extensive 
 market-gardens, especially on the rich deep loams. 
 The chief crops are wheat and beans on the clayey 
 land, barley and turnips on the chalk and sandy 
 soil. B. is the most exclusively agricultural county 
 in England. The principal proprietors are the Duke 
 of Bedford, the Marquises of Tavistock and Bute, 
 Earl de Grey, Lords Holland, Carteret, and St 
 John. Little trade or manufacture exists in the 
 county. Lace-making and straw-plaiting — ^for which 
 Dunstable is celebrated — are the only branches of 
 industry practised to any extent, and they are 
 carried on almost entirely by women. B. is divided 
 into 9 hundreds, and contains 10 market-towns, 
 124 parishes, and 6 poor-law unions. In 1851, pop. 
 124,478; schools, 227, with 13,003 scholars; places of 
 worship, 327 (Church of England, 133; Methodists, 
 96 ; Baptists, 55). Two members of parliament are 
 returned for the county of B., and two for the town 
 of Bedford. Many British and Roman antiquities 
 exist in B., as well as the ruins of several monas- 
 teries, and some fine relics of Anglo-Saxon, Early 
 English, and Norman architecture among the parish 
 churches. Three Roman ways once crossed the 
 county, and several earthwork camps stiU remain. 
 
 BE'DLAM, a popular corruption of Bethlehem, 
 the name of a hospital for lunatics, in St George's 
 Fields, London. It was originally founded in 
 Bishopsgate Street Without, in 1246, by Simon 
 Fitz-Mary, one of the sheriffs of London, as 'a 
 privy of canons with brethren and sisters.' When 
 the religious houses were suppressed by Henry VTIL, 
 the one in Bishopsgate Street fell into the posses- 
 sion of the corporation of London, who converted 
 it into an asylum for 50 or 60 insane persons. In 
 the year 1675, the hospital was taken down, and a 
 new one, affording accommodation for about 150 
 patients, was erected in Moorfields, at a cost of about 
 £17,000. In 1814, the hospital was again pulled 
 
BBDMAH— teEDSTBAW. 
 
 down, and tie patients transferred to a new hospital 
 in St George's Fields, erected for 198 patients ; but 
 in 1838 extended so as to accommodate 166 more. 
 The bvdlding, with its grounds, now covers an area 
 of 14 acres, and is lacking in nothing likely to insure 
 the comfort or promote the recovery of patients. 
 In former times, the management of B. was deplor- 
 able. The patients were exhibited to the public, 
 like wild beasts in cages, at so much per head, and 
 were treated and made sport of by visitors, as if 
 they had been animals in a menagerie. The funds of 
 the hospital not being sufficient to meet the expend- 
 iture, partially convalescent patients, with badges 
 affixed to their arms, and known as Tom-o' -Bed- 
 lams, or ' Bedlam Beggars,' were turned out to 
 wander and beg in the streets. Edgar, in Shak- 
 speare's Lear, assumes the character of one of these. 
 This practice, however, appears to have been stopped 
 before 1675 ; an advertisement in the London Gazette 
 of that date, from the governors of B., cautions the 
 pubhc against giving alms to vagrants representing 
 themselves as from the hospital, no permission to 
 beg being at that time given to patients. Now, the 
 moral and physical management of the patients is so 
 excellent, that annually more than one half of their 
 number are returned as cured. 
 
 BEDMAR, Alfonso db Cueva, Marquis de, 
 was born in 1572. He has won an enduring noto- 
 riety on account of his daring and unscrupidous plot 
 for the destruction of Venice, to which city he had 
 been appointed ambassador from the court of Spain 
 in 1607. It was a difficult office to fiU, for Venice 
 and Spain cherished most unfriendly feehngs towards 
 each other. B. probably conceived that he was 
 acting a patriotic and justifiable part, in taking 
 advantage of his position to play the spy and con- 
 spirator ; but whether or not, his scheme was con- 
 trived with admirable ingenuity. He first leagued 
 himself secretly with the Duke of Ossiina, viceroy 
 of Naples, and Don Pedro of Toledo, governor of 
 Milan, whom he made his confidants and coadjutors. 
 He then purchased the services of a large number of 
 foreign mercenaries, and scattered them through the 
 city, to prevent suspicion. Ossuna furnished him 
 with a band of semi-piralSes, who were to enter the 
 Venetian fleet, corrupt the sailors, and hinder opera- 
 tions in any way they could. The conspirators were 
 to set fire to the arsenal of the repubhc, and seize all 
 the important posts. At this precise moment, the 
 Milanese troops were to appear at the extremity 
 of the mainland, and those sailors who had been 
 seduced from their allegiance were to convey them 
 rapidly over to Venice. A Spanish fleet was to 
 creep up the Adriatic, in order to assist if necessary. 
 The city was then to be plundered and destroyed. 
 The day chosen was that on which the doge wedded 
 the Adriatic, when all Venice was intent on beholding 
 the august ceremony. Fortunately, the night before 
 the crime was to have been perpetrated, one of the 
 conspirators betrayed the whole. Several persons 
 were executed ; but curiously enough, B., the arch- 
 dehnquent, was only dismissed. This has excited 
 the scepticism of many writers as to the truth of the 
 accusation ; but the evidence in favour of the historic 
 reaUty of the plot is generally held to be incon- 
 testable. The event forms the subject of Otwa/s 
 popular and pathetic play, Venice Preserved. B. now 
 went to Flanders, where he became president of the 
 council, and, in 1622, was made a cardinal by the 
 pope. He then went to Rome, and finally returned 
 to Spain as Bishop of Oviedo, where he died in 1655. 
 He is said to have been the author of a pamphlet 
 published in 1612, directed against the Hberties of 
 Venice. It is entitled SquitUno della Liberia Veneta. 
 
 BBDOS DE CELLOS, Don Jean Feausois, a 
 
 Benedictine monk of the congregation of St Maur, 
 and the most learned and practical master of the 
 art of organ-building in the 18th c, whose work on 
 the art, is to the present day of the greatest import- 
 ance. ' He was born about 1714 at Chaux, and 
 entered his order in 1726 at Toulouse, where he 
 built several large and superior church-organs. He 
 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences 
 in 1758 ; in 1770, he completed for the Academy 
 his great work, L'Art du Factewr d'Orgues, in 4 
 vols., large foho, with 137 copperplates, beautifully 
 executed. This work has never been translated into 
 English, l3ut the greater part of it has been translated 
 into German. B. de C. died in 1797. 
 
 BE'DSTEAW {Oaliwm), a genus of plants belong- 
 ing to the natural order Eubiacece (q. v.), and dis- 
 tinguished by a small wheel-shaped calyx, and a dry 
 two-lobed fruit, each lobe containing a single seed. 
 The leaves, as in the rest of the order, are whorled, 
 and the flowers minute ; but in many of the species 
 the panicles are so large and many-flowered that 
 they are amongst the ornaments of the banks and 
 other situations in which they grow. The species are 
 very numerous, natives chiefly of the colder parts of 
 the northern hemisphere, or of mountainous regions 
 within or near the tropics. About 16 species are 
 found in Britain, some of them very common weeds. 
 Amongst these is the Yellow B. {G. verum) — some- 
 times called Cheese Kennbt, because it has the 
 property of curdling nnlk, and is used for that pur- 
 pose — a small plant with linear deflexed leaves and 
 dense panicles of bright yellow flowers, very abun- 
 dant on diy banks. The flowering tops, boiled in 
 
 Yellow Bedstraw (Galium verum). 
 
 a, top of stem, shewing leaves and flowers ; h, c, two views 
 
 of a flower. 
 
 alum, aflford a dye of a bright yeUow colour, much 
 used in Iceland; and the Highlanders of Scotland 
 have long been accustomed to employ the roots, and 
 especially the, bark of them, .for dyeing yam red. 
 They are said to yield a red colour fully equal to 
 that of madder, and the cultivation of the plant has 
 been attempted in England. The roots of other 
 species of the same genus possess similar properties, 
 
BEBSTEAW— BEDUINS. 
 
 as those of G. tmctorium, a species abundant in low 
 marshy grounds in Canada ; and those of G. septen- 
 trionale, another North American species, used by 
 some of the Indian tribes. Like madder, they 
 possess the property of imparting a red colour to 
 the bones and milk of animals which feed upon 
 them. Medicinal virtues have been ascribed to some 
 of the species, as G. rigidum and G. MoUugo, which 
 have been extolled as useful in epilepsy. — The roasted 
 seeds of some, as G. Aparine, the troublesome Goose- 
 grass, or Cleavers, of our hedges — ^remarkable for the 
 hooked prickles of its stem, leaves, and fruit — have 
 been recommended as a substitute for coflfee ; but 
 it does not appear that they contain any principle 
 analogous to caffeine. This plant is a native of the 
 northern parts equally of Europe, Asia, and America. 
 Its expressed juice is in some coimtries a popular 
 remedy for cutaneous disorders. — The roots of G. 
 tuberosum are farinaceous, and it is cultivated in 
 China for food. — The name B. is supposed to be 
 derived from the ancient employment of some of the 
 species, the herbage of which is soft and iine, for 
 strewing beds. 
 
 BE'DUINS (Arabic, Bedawi, 1. e., ' dwellers in 
 the desert ') are Arabs who lead a nomadic life, and 
 are senerally regarded, according to tradition, as 
 the descendants of Ishmael, and the aborigines of 
 Arabia. The most ancient notices found in Scripture 
 agree, in their descriptions of the manners and cus- 
 toms of the B., with the facts of the present time. 
 As nomads, the Beduin Arabs have no united history, 
 but only a collection of genealogies. They have but 
 seldom appeared as a united people, taking a pro- 
 minent part in the world's poUtics, and have never 
 been entirely held in subjection by any foreign 
 power. The desert of Arabia, especially the plateau 
 of Nedjid, is their central place of abode ; but, even 
 in ancient times, they had spread themselves over 
 the deserts of Egypt and Syria ; and in later times, 
 after the decay of ancient civilisation, they entered 
 Syria, Mesopotamia, and Chaldsea. The conquest 
 of Northern Africa, in the 7th c, opened up to them 
 still vaster tracts, and they soon extended them- 
 selves over the Great Desert to the shores of the 
 Atlantic Ocean. At present, they are to be found 
 scattered over an immense breadth of territory — viz., 
 
 Beduins stripping a traveller. 
 
 from the western boundary of Persia to the Atlantic, 
 and from the mountains of Kurdistan to the negro 
 countries of Sudan. In the cultivated lands of 
 Mesopotamia, Chaldsea, the Syrian coniines, Barbary, 
 Nubia, and the north of Sudan, the Arabs are foimd 
 intermingled with other nations ; but in the deserts 
 they have maintained their distinct character and 
 independence. The characteristics of the B., as 
 herdsmen and robbers in the desert, are intimately 
 connected with the nature of their habitation. Their 
 abstinent, precarious, and often solitary mode of life, 
 makes them disposed to exercise mutual hospitality; 
 but their independence, love of liberty, and other 
 good qualities, are associated with violent passions 
 and an infamous love of plunder, which is utterly 
 reckless of the rights of property. They are gener- 
 ally weU-made men, lean, sinewy, and active ; but, 
 on account of frequent hardships and privations, are 
 commonly below middle stature. Their senses, espe- 
 cially sight, are keen, and their carriage is free and 
 independent. The nose is commonly aquiline, the 
 face rather lengthened, and the eyes are well shaped 
 and expressive of both daring and cunning. In 
 796 
 
 complexion, they have various shades of brown. With 
 the exception of certain tribes in Syria, all the B. are 
 professedly Mohammedans, but by no means strict 
 in the observance of their religious rites and duties. 
 Their Marabouts (q. v.) — a class of ascetics — take 
 the place of priests, and exercise considerable influ- 
 ence in all social and public affairs. As the Arabs 
 have no settled government or policy, religious tra- 
 ditions and customs form the only bond of order 
 and union among them. Though their intellectual 
 powers are naturally good, they are miserably desti- 
 tute of solid knowledge. Their endless tales 
 and poetical effusions shew a wonderful activity of 
 imagination and an oriental love of hyperbole. The 
 relation of the sexes to each other is less constrained 
 than among the settled peoples of the East, and a 
 substitute for polygamy is found in a frequent inter- 
 change of wives. Their favourite pastimes are tiie 
 chase, ball-play, dancing, songs, stories, and the dolce 
 far niente (pleasant laziness) of drinking coffee and 
 smoking narghiles. Their diet is principally derived 
 from their herds, but includes a few vegetables, and 
 even locusts and lizards. Honey is also a principal 
 
BEDWIN— BEE. 
 
 luxury with all classes, and, moreover, one wMoh 
 has a religious sanction, for it was indulged in by 
 Mohammed himself, who makes copious mention of 
 it in the Koran. They manufacture their own 
 woollen clothing, which consists of the /jaft/j— a long, 
 wide garment fastened on the head, and descending 
 to the feet — and the bumoose, a large mantle. Only 
 superior men wear breeches and linen or cotton 
 slurts. The hair of the head is shaven, but the 
 beard is a favourite object of cultivation. The poK- 
 tical condition of the B. may be styled patriarchal. 
 One or more families, the males of which bear the 
 title of sheih, form the core of a tribe, and along 
 with the marabouts, or priests, constitute a kind of 
 aristocracy. Out of their number, the superior sheik, 
 or kaid, is elected, who rules in patriarchal style 
 over the whole tribe. This general sketch of the B. 
 applies chiefly to the true nomads, or 'dwellers in 
 the desert,' and is subject to several modifications 
 with regard to tribes located in Barbary, Syria, and 
 Mesopotamia, who practise agriculture, and dwell in 
 
 BE'DWIN, Great, a town of Wiltshire, on the 
 Kennet and Avon Canal, and the Great Western 
 Railway, 69 miles west-by-south of London. Pop. 
 2193. A fierce but indecisive battle occurred here 
 in 674, between the kings of Mercia and Wessex. 
 St Mary's Church was bmlt in the beginning of the 
 14th c, and is constructed of flint, except the piers, 
 arches, and dressings, which are of freestone. Jane 
 Seymour, one of the queens of Henry VIII., and Dr 
 Willis, an eminent physician of the I7th c, were 
 bom here. In the end of last century, the remains 
 of a Roman viUa were discovered, including tesserje, 
 bricks, a tesselated pavement, a huge leaden cistern, 
 and the foundations of baths. 
 
 BEE, the common name of a very large family of 
 insects, of the order Hymenoptera (q. v.), belonging 
 to the section of that order called Aadeafa, in 
 which the females are furnished not with an ovi- 
 positor, but (usuaEy) with a sting. Bees were all 
 included by Linnaeus in the genus Apis (Lat. for 
 B.), but are now divided into many genera; and the 
 name AnthopMla (Gr. flower-loving) or MeUifera 
 (Lat. honey-bearing) is given to the family which 
 they constitute. All bees in a perfect state feed 
 exclusively or chiefly on saccharine juices, particu- 
 larly the nectar or honey of flowers ; and the ordin- 
 ary food of their young, in the larva state, is the 
 pollen of flowers, or a paste, often called B. -bread, 
 composed of pollen and honey. They evidently 
 perform a very important part in the economy of 
 nature, in the fertilisation of fiowers, which depends 
 upon the contact of particles of the pollen with the 
 stigma; and, as if to secure this object more per- 
 fectly, in their search for honey and pollen, they 
 usually — some have perhaps too hastily said always 
 — ^pass from flower to flower of the same kind, and 
 not to flowers of different kinds indiscriminately. 
 They abound in almost all parts of the world, but 
 particularly in the warmer parts of it. Not fewer 
 than 250 species are known as natives of Britain. 
 
 To enable them to reach their liquid food at the 
 bottom of the tubes of flowers, and in the little 
 receptacles in which it is produced, bees have 
 certain parts of the mouth— the masoiUce and labium 
 (see Insects), or lower jaws and lower lip, with their 
 feelers (palpi) — elongated into a sort of proboscis; 
 and the ligula is elongated, sometimes, as in the 
 common Hive B., assuming the form of a filament, 
 is capable of extension and retraction, and is folded 
 up when not in use. This is the organ sometimes 
 called the tongue of bees, although the name cannot 
 be regarded as very appropriate, it being a part of 
 the labium or -lower lip. The other elongated parts 
 
 of the mouth serve as a sort of sheath for this organ, 
 when it is folded ixp. It is not tubular, and 
 employed in the manner of suction, as was at one 
 time supposed, but is generally more or less hairy, 
 so that the honey adheres to it as it is rolled and 
 moved about, and is conveyed up through the 
 mouth into the honey-bag, sometimes called the 
 first stomach, an appropriate receptacle, in which 
 it apparently undergoes some change — without, 
 however, being subjected to any process analogous 
 to digestion, and is ready to be given forth again by 
 the mouth, according to the habits of those species 
 of bees which are social, as food for the members of 
 the community that remain at home in the nest, or 
 to be stored up in cells for future provision. See 
 Honey. But the mouth of bees is also adapted for 
 cutting and tearing, and to this purpose their 
 mandibles or upper jaws are especially appropriated. 
 Of these, some of them, as the common Humble B. 
 (q. v.), make use to open their way into the tubes of 
 flowers which are so deep and narrow that they 
 cannot otherwise reach the nectar at the bottom. 
 Others make use of their mandibles to cut out 
 portions of leaves, or of the petals of flowers, to form 
 or hue their nests ; the common Hive B. uses them 
 in working with wax, in feeding larvas with pollen, 
 in cleaning out cells, in tearing to pieces old combs, 
 in combats,, and in aU the great variety of purposes 
 for which organs of prehension are required. But 
 it is not by means of any of the organs connected 
 with the mouth that bees coUeot and carry to their 
 nests the supplies of pollen needful for their young. 
 The feathered hairs with which their bodies are 
 partially clothed, and particularly those with which 
 their legs are furnished, serve for the purpose of col- 
 lecting the pollen, which adheres to them, and it is 
 brushed into a hollow on the outer surface of the 
 first joint of the tarsus of each of the hinder pair of 
 legs, this joint being therefore very large, com- 
 pressed, and of a square or triangular form — a con- 
 formation to which nothing similar is found in any 
 other family of insects. It is also worthy of obser- 
 vation, that in the social species of bees, the males 
 and the queens, which are never to be employed in 
 collecting pollen, do not exhibit this conformation 
 adapted to it, but only the sexually imperfect 
 females, commonly called neuters or workers. 
 
 Bees, like other hymenopterous insects, are 
 extremely well provided with organs of sight, and 
 evidently possess that sense in very great perfection. 
 In the front of the head, they have two large eyes, 
 the surface of each consisting of many hexagonal 
 plates, which perhaps may not unaptly be Kkened 
 to the object-glasses of so many telescopes ; and the 
 faculty which these insects certainly possess, of 
 returning in a direct line to their hive or nest, from 
 th^ utmost distance of their wanderings, has been 
 with greatest probability ascribed to their power of 
 sight. But besides these large eyes, they have, like 
 the rest of the hymenopterous order, three smaU 
 eyes on the very top of the head, which are supposed 
 to be intended to give a defensive vision upwards 
 from the cups of flowers.-^They are evidently, how- 
 ever, possessed of organs which enable them to 
 guide their movements in the dark as accurately as 
 in the fuU light of day, at least within the nest or 
 hive ; and this power is generally ascribed to the 
 antermoB (q. v.), which are sometimes supposed 
 to be not merely delicate organs of touch, but 
 also organs of hearing, or of Sbme special sense 
 unknown to us. It is certain that the social 
 bees have some means of communicating with 
 each other by means of their antenna ; and that 
 they avail themselves of these organs both for 
 their ordinary operations, for recognition of each 
 other, and for what may be called the conduct 
 
 797 
 
BEE, 
 
 of the affairs of the hive. There can he no doubt 
 that bees possess in «. very high degree the sense 
 of smell; and their possession of the senses of 
 taste and hearing is almost equally unquestionable, 
 whatever difficulty there may be in determining the 
 particular organs of the latter sense. — The wings of 
 bees, like those of other hymenopterous insects, are 
 four in number ; thin and membranaceous ; the hinder 
 pair always smaller than the others; and in flight, 
 attached to them by a number of small hooks, so 
 that the four wings move as if they were two. 
 
 The sting of bees is a very remarkable organ. It 
 consists of two long darts, with a protecting sheath. 
 A venom bag is connected vidth it, and powerful 
 muscles for its propulsion. The wound appears to 
 be first made by the sheath, along which the poison 
 
 Bee Sting, highly magnified, 
 A, sting of bee ; S, sheath of sting ; F, end of sting, greatly 
 magnified, shewing six bai-bs curved upwards ; B, glands for 
 secreting poison; C, ducts through which it flows to D, 
 where it is isept ready for use ; O, circular dilatation to prevent 
 sting being thrust too far out of sheath. 
 
 passes by a groove ; and the darts thrust out after- 
 wards in succession, deepen the wound. The darts 
 are each furnished with a number of barbs, which 
 render it so difficult to withdraw them quickly, that 
 bees often lose their lives by the injury which they 
 sustain in the" effort.— The males are destitute of 
 sting. 
 
 The great family of bees is divided into two 
 principal sections called Andrenetce and Apiariw, or 
 Andrenidm and Apidcm; the latter names, however, 
 being sometimes employed in senses more restricted! 
 In the first of these sections, the ligvXa is compara- 
 tively short and broad ; in the second, it is lengthened, 
 and has the form of a filament. All the Andreneice 
 live solitarily, as well as several subdivisions of the 
 Apiaries. These solitary bees do not lay up stores 
 for their own winter subsistence ; but they display 
 very wonderful and various instincts in the habita- 
 tions which they construct and the provision which 
 they make for their young. There are among them 
 males and perfect females only, and no neuters. 
 The work of preparing nests and providing food for 
 the young seems, in all of the species, to be per- 
 formed exclusively by the females. Golletes succincta, 
 a conmion British species of the Andrenetce, affords 
 an example of a mode of nest-making, which, with 
 various modifications, is common to many species of 
 that section. The parent B. excavates a cylindrical 
 hole in the earth, usually horizontal, to the depth of 
 about two inches, in a dry bank or a wall of stones 
 and earth. The sides of this hole are compacted by 
 
 means of a sort of gelatinous liquid, secreted by the 
 insect, and it is occupied with cells, formed of a 
 transparent and delicate membrane, the substance of 
 which is the same secretion in a dried state. The 
 cells are thimble-shaped, fitting into each other, a 
 little space being left at the furthest end of each for 
 the reception of an egg and a little paste of pollen 
 and honey. The last cell being completed, and its 
 proper contents deposited in it, the mouth of the 
 whole is carefully stopped up with earth, — Some of 
 the solitary bees, possessing great strength of man- 
 dibles, excavate their nests in old wood. Xylocopa 
 molacea, one of the Apiariw, not uncommon in 
 some parts of Europe, makes a tunnel not less 
 than twelve or fifteen inches long, and half an 
 inch wide, which is divided into ten or twelve 
 cells; an egg with store of pollen and honey is 
 deposited in each compartment, and as the lowest 
 egg is hatched first, a second orifice is provided at 
 that part of the tunnel, through which each of 
 the young ones in succession comes forth to the 
 light of day, each larva, as it is about to change 
 into the pupa state, placing itself with its head 
 downwards in the cell. — ^Numerous species of soli- 
 tary bees excavate their tunnel-shaped nests in the 
 soft pith of decayed briers or brambles, of the 
 particles of which they also form their cells.— Some 
 species of MegachUe, Osmia, &c., line them and 
 divide them into cells with portions of leaves or 
 of the petals of flowers. See LBAi'-cnrrER Beb. 
 Some of the soHtary bees make their nests, not in the 
 earth, but in cavities of decaying trees, or other such 
 situations, where they construct their cells without 
 the same necessity of excavation; but some of 
 them, by a very admirable instinct, surround their 
 nest with down collected from the leaves of plants, 
 an excellent non-conductor of heat, so that a nearly 
 uniform temperature is maintained in situations in 
 which the changes would otherwise be great and 
 rapid. Some bees make their little nests in old 
 oak-galls, and there are species which appropriate 
 empty snail-sheUs to that use. — Some species of the 
 genus MegojoMe build their nests of a sort of 
 mason-work of grains of sand glued together with 
 their viscid saUva. The nest of M. muraria, thus 
 constructed, is so hard as not to be easily pene- 
 trated by a knife, and very much resembles a splash 
 of mud upon a wall. 
 
 The social bees live in communities Uke those of 
 ants, which also, like theirs, consist of males, females, 
 and neuters — ^these last being females with ovaries 
 imperfectly developed, and characterised by pecu- 
 liarities of form and structure, as well as of instinct 
 and employments, remarkably different from those 
 of the perfect females. The social bees are conve- 
 niently divided into Humble Bees (q. v.) and Honey 
 Bees, of the latter of which the common Hive B. 
 (see the next section of this article) may be regarded 
 as the type. Before proceeding to a more particu- 
 lar account of the Hive B., it may be proper to 
 remark that the species of Honey B. (the restricted 
 genus Apis) are not few, and that they are natives 
 of the warm parts of the Old World ; the Hive bees 
 (Apia mellijica) which now abound in some parts 
 of America, and which have become naturalised in 
 the forests to a considerable distance beyond the 
 abodes of civilised men, being the progeny of those 
 which were conveyed from Europe. The Hive B. 
 is said not to have been found to thfe west of the 
 Mississippi before 1797, but in fourteen years it had 
 advanced 600 miles further in that direction. The 
 different species of Honey B. in a vnld state generaUy 
 make their nests in hollow trees, or among the 
 branches of trees, sometimes under ledges or in 
 clefts of rocks; and their stores of honey are 
 not only sought after by man, but aflford food to 
 
BEE. 
 
 numerous animala, some of whioh equally delight 
 to prey upon their larvse. The B. was amongat 
 the ancient Egyptians the hieroglyphical emblem 
 of royalty. The B. domesticated or cultivated in 
 Egypt, is not, however, our common Hive B., but 
 another species called Apisfasciata; and in Italy and 
 Greece a species called A. Ligustica is employed, 
 which has been recently introduced into England, 
 and is now domesticated at the B. -house of the 
 Apiarian Society, Muswell Hill, near London. 
 These species differ Httle from the common Hive B., 
 and theu: honey is very similar ; but that of some 
 species is considerably different. A. unicolor, of 
 Madagascar and the Isle of France, yields an 
 esteemed honey of a green colour. It iS domesti- 
 cated, or is the object of human care and attention 
 there, as are also A. Indica in some parts of India, 
 and A. Adansonii in Senegal. We regret that our 
 limits do not permit us to give a particular 
 account of any of these species. — The gsaas Mdipona 
 is nearly aUied to Apis. The species are natives of 
 South America, and their honey is extremely sweet 
 and agreeable, but very liquid, and apt to ferment. 
 They make their nests in the cavities or on the tops 
 of trees. 
 
 The Hive Bee. — Natural History. — The instincts 
 and social economy of the Hivb B. {Apis mdlifica) 
 have been studied with great attention both in 
 ancient and modem times, and discoveries— than 
 which, perhaps, nature presents nothing more 
 interesting and wonderful — have rewarded the 
 patient observations of Huber and others who 
 have devoted themselves to this subject. Apiarian 
 societies have been formed for the purpose of pro- 
 secuting this single branch of natural history, and 
 of promoting successful apiculture, or the economical 
 keepingof bees. 
 
 The Hive B. is probably not a native of Britain, 
 and may even have been brought to Europe from 
 the East. Its communities seem ordinarily to 
 number from 10,000 to 60,000 individuals, and 
 there appears no reason to think that the care 
 bestowed upon the insect by man, or fhi hives 
 which he has provided for it, have made any 
 important difference in this respect. One member 
 of each community is a perfect female — ^the queen 
 or mother B. ; from 600 to 2000 at certain seasons 
 are males ; and the remainder are neuters or workers, 
 the real nature of which has been explained in the 
 previous part of this article. 
 
 The workers have "■ body about half an inch in 
 length, and about one-sixth of an inch in greatest 
 breadth, at the upper part of the abdomen. The 
 antennae are twelve- jointed, and terminate in a 
 knob. The abdomen consists of six joints or rings, 
 and under the scaly coverings of the four middle 
 ones are situated the waa-pockets or organs for the 
 secretion of wax. The extremity of the abdomen 
 is provided with a, sting, which is straight. The 
 basal joint of the hind tarsi is dilated to form a 
 poUen-basket, and the legs are well provided with 
 hairs for collecting the pollen and brushing it into 
 this receptacle. — The males or drones, so called 
 from the peculiar noise which they make in their 
 flight, are much larger than the neuters, and 
 thicker in proportion. The antennae have an 
 additional joint. The eyes are remarkably large, 
 and meet upon the crown. — The perfect females 
 are considerably longer than either the workers or 
 males; they are also distinguished by the yellow 
 tint of the under part of the body, and very remark- 
 ably differ from all the other inmates of the hive 
 in the shortness of their wings, which, instead of 
 reaching to the extremity of the abdomen, leave 
 some of its rings uncovered. — ^Neither males nor 
 queens have wax-pockets, nor have they pollen- 
 
 baskets. Their le^s also are less hairy. The sting 
 of the queen B. is curved. The mandibles both 
 of the males and perfect females are notched or 
 
 1, queen ; 2, drone ; 3, nenter. 
 
 toothed beneath the tip, which those of the workers 
 are not. — It will be seen from this brief description 
 that the sexes differ .so widely as to appear, if the 
 contrary were not well known, insects of different 
 species ; but stUl more remarkable is the difference 
 between the females and the workers when we 
 consider that it is all to be ascribed to the different 
 forms of the cells in which the eggs are hatched 
 and the young bees reared, and to the different 
 kinds of food with which they are supplied. All 
 doubt upon this point is removed by the inte- 
 resting discovery of Schiraoh, that when a hive is 
 deprived of its queen, the bees provide themselves 
 with another, if there are eggs or very young larvse 
 in the ceUa appropriated to the breeding of workers ; 
 proceeding immediately to transform, for this pur- 
 pose, one of these cells, and sacrificing, without 
 scruple, the eggs or larvse in the cells adjoining that 
 selected for transformation and enlargement. These 
 are facts well ascertained, but of which science has 
 yet been unable to give any explanation. 
 
 The greater part of the hfe of the queen or 
 mother B. is spent in laying eggs for the increase 
 of the population of the hive ; and this increase goes 
 on at a rapid rate, as the queen not unfrequently 
 lays 300 eggs in a day. The number, however, 
 varies greatly. In cold weather it is very small, but 
 the invariable presence of brood in different stages, 
 in a well-stocked hive, proves that some eggs are 
 laid even in winter. Durmg the later spring months 
 the number is very great; many practical apiarians 
 considering that as many as 1000, or even 2000, are 
 deposited daily. The community, however, is not 
 destined to an indefinite increase; but in certain 
 ciircumstances, swarming takes place, and new 
 colonies are founded. 
 
 The impregnation of the queen takes place in the 
 air, and usually within a few days after she herself 
 has emerged from the cell. It is the only occasion 
 of her ever leaving the hive, except that of swarming, 
 and there is no repetition of it during her whole life. 
 The question has therefore beein asked, why there 
 are so many males in a B. community ; but no very 
 satisfactory answer has been given to it. The males 
 are not known to fulfil any other purpose than that 
 of the propagation of their species; and after the 
 swarming season is over, the greater part of them 
 are ruthlessly massacred by the workers, as if in 
 dread of their consuming too much of the common 
 store. The greater part of the workers themselves 
 are supposed scarcely to live for a year ; the duration 
 of the lite of queen bees is often more than three 
 years. 
 
 798 
 
BEE. 
 
 The queen B., -when about to begin to lay eggs, is the 
 object of great attention on the part of the -workers, 
 and so contiaues. She moves about in the hive, 
 attended by a sort of retinue of about ten or fifteen 
 ■workers, by some of which she is frequently supplied 
 with honey. But the name of queen B. appears to 
 have originated in a mistaken notion that something 
 analogous to a monarchy subsists in the B.-hive; and 
 imagination being permitted very free scope, many 
 things have been invested with ar false colouring 
 derived from this analogy. The queen or mother 
 ' B. appears to be the object of particular regard, as 
 indispensable to the objects for which the B. com- 
 munity subsists, and to which the instincts of all its 
 members are variously directed. She moves about, 
 depositing her eggs in the cells which the workers 
 have prepared, and they are ready to take charge of 
 each egg from the moment that it is deposited. Her 
 employment requires that she should be fed with 
 food collected by others, and many of the workers 
 are in Hke manner supplied with food whilst busy 
 within the hive, as well as the larvse in the cells ; 
 but there is no evidence whatever of anything like 
 authority exercised by the queen, or, indeed, of 
 any superiority of one over another in the whole 
 multitude. 
 
 The queen B. at first lays eggs which give birth 
 to workers, and afterwards there takes place a 
 laying of eggs which become drones. With imerring 
 instinct, she places each egg in the kind of cell 
 appropriate to it; whilst also, at the proper time, 
 cells of the proper kind are prepared beforehand by 
 the workers, the drones' ceUs being larger than the 
 workers' cells. The cells in which future queens 
 are to be reared are very unlike all the others, but 
 the eggs difi'er in no respect from those deposited in 
 workers' cells. It is a curious circumstance, that 
 queens, of which the fecundation has been prevented 
 tin they are considerably older than usual, lay only 
 drone eggs. It occasionally also happens that some 
 of the worker bees lay eggs, and these invariably 
 produce drones. 
 
 The eggs of bees are of a long shape and bluish- 
 white colour, about one-twelfth of an inch in length. 
 They are hatched in about three days. The larvae 
 are little worm-like creatures, having no feet, and 
 lying coUed up like a ring : they are diligently fed 
 
 Egg, Larva, and Pupa of Hive Bee. 
 ci, egg, and very young larva ; h, young larva coiled up at the 
 bottom of the cell ; c, larva when ready to undergo meta- 
 morphosis; d^ pupa. 
 
 by the working bees, untU, in about five days, when 
 large enough nearly to fill the ceU, they refuse food, 
 upon which the attendant bees seal up the cell with 
 wax, and the larva, spinning itself a fine silken 
 envelope or cocoon, is transformed into ti. pupa; 
 and about the eighteenth day — or, in the case of 
 drones, the twenty-fourth day — from the deposition 
 of the egg, the young B., in its perfect state, breaks 
 the covering, and issues from the cell. It is caressed 
 and supplied with food by the attendant bees, and 
 is believed not to try its wings uutH the following 
 day. The ceU from which a young B. has issued 
 800 
 
 is speedily cleaned out, and prepared for the reception 
 of another egg or of honey. The fine silken enve- 
 lope of the pupa, however, remains attached to the 
 cell, of which the capacity thus becomes gradually 
 smaller, imtil the cells of old combs are too small to 
 receive eggs, and can be used for honey alone, a 
 fact of which the importance in relation to the 
 economical management of bees is obvious. — The 
 spinneret, by means of which the larva spins the 
 cocoon, is a small organ connected with the mouth. 
 — The food with which the larvae are supplied 
 is a mixture of pollen, honey, and water, with 
 the addition, possibly, of some secretion from the 
 stomachs of the working bees, in which it is pre- 
 pared. It varies a little, according to the age and 
 kind of the larva, and the peculiarities of that given 
 to young queens appear to be indispensable to 
 their fitness for their future functions. Pollen is 
 constantly found stored up in the cells of the hive, 
 and is often called B. -bread. Most people have met 
 with such cells in honey-comb, and have observed 
 the bitter and peculiar taste of the contents. 
 
 The combs of a bee-hive are parallel to each other, 
 forming vertical strata of about an inch in thickness, 
 and distant about half an inch from each other. The 
 cells are therefore nearly horizontal, having a slight 
 and somewhat variable dip towards the centre of each 
 comb. The central comb is generally first begun, and 
 next after it those next to it on each side. Circum- 
 stances frequently cause some departure from this 
 uniform and symmetrical plan, which, however, still 
 remains obvious. Each comb consists of two sets of 
 cells, one on each side ; and it may be mentioned as 
 an illustration of the wonderful industry of bees, 
 and the results of their combined labours, that a 
 piece of comb, 14 inches long by 7 inches wide, and 
 containing about 4000 cells, has been frequently 
 constructed in 24 hours. The greater part of the 
 comb usually consists of the kind of cells fitted for 
 breeding workers, a smaller part of it of the larger 
 or drone cells. After the principal breeding-season 
 is over, the cells of some parts of the comb are often 
 elongated for the reception of honey ; and sometimes 
 comb of greater thickness, or with tmusually long 
 cells, is constructed for that purpose alone, in which 
 case the mouths of the cells are inclined upwards, 
 more than is usual with the ordinary brood cells. 
 When a ceU has been completely filled with honey, 
 its mouth is sealed or covered with wax. 
 
 It is impossible to look at a piece of comb taken 
 from a B.-hive, without adrniring, not only its 
 beauty, but the perfect regularity of the size, form, 
 and arrangement of the cells ; and the more care- 
 fully that it is examined, the more must it be 
 admired. For in it are practically solved, by an 
 instinct which can only be referred to the infinite 
 wisdom of the Creator, some problems difficult to 
 human science, particularly in the combination of 
 the greatest economy of materials and of space, 
 with the most perfect convenience and the greatest 
 strength. It appears even at a glance, that the cells 
 are hexagonal or six-sided, the hexagons perfectly 
 regular, and in this way there are no interstices 
 between the cells. Now, the mathematician knows 
 that there are only three regular figures, that is, 
 figures of which all the sides and angles are equal, 
 bounded by straight lines, with which a space can 
 be perfectly filled up in this way — ^the equilateral 
 triangle, the square, and the hexagon ; and of these 
 the hexagon is at once the most suitable for the 
 larva of the B. in its form, and the strongest in its 
 nearest approach to the circle. The circular form 
 itself would have left large interstices. But this is 
 not all: the same wisdom which has given the 
 solitary bees, already noticed, their instinct to 
 surround their nest with a cottony substance, which 
 
BEE. 
 
 Pyramidal 'bottoms 
 of Cells. 
 
 serves as a non-oonductor o'f heat, has directed the 
 hive B. to the constant adoption of a mode of 
 constructing its combs, which adds greatly to the 
 strength they would have possessed with the same 
 amount of materials, if the cells had been merely 
 regular hexagonal prisms, and the partition in the 
 middle of the comb, between 
 the cells of the one side of it, 
 and those of the other, there- 
 fore a simple plane. It is 
 so far from being so, that 
 when carefully examined, it 
 appears, if the expression 
 may be used, the most in- 
 genious part of the whole 
 structure. It is composed 
 of a multitude of little 
 rhombs, or four-sided figures, 
 with equal and parallel sides, and two obtuse 
 and two acute angles, the obtuse angles being 
 invariably angles of 109° 28', and the acute angles 
 of 70° 32', agreeing precisely with the results of 
 mathematical analysis, applied to the difficult 
 question of the form of the facets of a three-sided 
 pyramid, which should tei-minate a six-sided prism, 
 so as to combine the greatest economy of materials 
 with the greatest strength. On looking at a piece 
 of empty honey-comb, placed betvreen the eye and 
 the light, we readily perceive that the cells are not 
 opposite to each other, cell to cell; but that the 
 point of meeting of three sides of three cells, on one 
 side, is opposite to the centre of a ceU on the other 
 side — a circumstance which of itself we cannot but 
 regard as calculated meatly to increase the strength 
 of the whole fabric. It follows also from this, that 
 the terminating pyramids of the cells on the one side 
 do not interfere with the form of the cells on the 
 other side, but the three rhombic facets, which 
 terminate each cell,' belong likewise to three distinct 
 cells on the opposite side of the comb. 
 
 The only departure from perfect regularity in the 
 form of the cells, is in the transition from the 
 smaller or workers' cells to the larger or drones' 
 cells, which, when it takes place, is managed with 
 great simplicity and beauty of contrivance. Our 
 limits, however, do not permit us to enter further 
 into this subject. 
 
 The material of which the cells are built is 
 chiefly wax (q. v., and see Bees-Wax), which is 
 at first of a white coloxir-, but becomes brownish- 
 yellow with age, and in very old combs, almost 
 black. Although wax exists as a vegetable pro- 
 duct, yet bees-wax is now known to be pro- 
 duced by a chemistry which is carried on in the 
 bodies of bees ; and it has been foimd that they 
 produce wax and build combs when supplied only 
 with honey or saccharine substances. The wax- 
 pockets in the abdomen of working-bees have been 
 already referred to. The bees which are about to 
 proceed to wax-making, suspend themselves iu 
 clusters in the hive, attaching themselves to each 
 other by means of hooks with which their feet are 
 provided ; and whilst they remain motionless in this 
 position, the wax appears to be formed, iu small 
 scales, which they afterwards take in their mouths 
 and curiously work up with a secretion from the 
 mouth itself, passing the wax, in the form of a 
 minute riband, through the mouth, first in one 
 direction and then in the opposite one, and finally 
 depositing it in its proper place for the foundation 
 of the comb. One B. always begins the comb alone, 
 the rest, in gradually increasing numbers, proceed 
 in accordance with what has been already done. 
 The bees which elaborate and deposit the wax, do 
 not, howe+er, construct the cells, which is done by 
 others, partly at least by a process of excavation in 
 
 the wax deposited. It is supposed'by many natu- 
 ralists, that some of the working-bees are exclusively 
 wax-workers, some nurses, &o. ; but others think 
 that there is only one class of worldng-bees, all 
 ready for any kind of work according to circum- 
 stances. 
 
 But wax, although the chief, is not the only 
 material of the combs. Propolis (q. v.) is also 
 employed in small bands to give greater strength to 
 the cells, the mouths of which are surrounded 
 with it, and made thicker than their walls. This 
 substance, which is obtained by bees from the viscid 
 buds of trees, is also employed for more firmly 
 attaching the combs to the hive, for closing up 
 apertures in the hive, for covering up obnoxious 
 substances, intruding slugs, &o., which are too 
 large to be removed, and for a variety of similar 
 purposes. 
 
 It has been already stated that queen-bees are 
 hatched and reared in cells different from the rest. 
 They are, indeed, very different, being vertical and 
 not horizontal in their position — not hexagonal, but 
 rather oval in form — and much larger than the other 
 cells, even in proportion to the size of the animal 
 that is to inhabit them : they are generally placed 
 on the edge of a comb, and when they have served 
 their purpose, are partially removed, so that during 
 winter they resemble acorn-cups in appearance. 
 
 Two queens cannot exist in the community 
 together. There is implanted in them the most 
 deadly rivalry ; and the mother-B., if permitted, 
 would even tear open every qxieen cell of which 
 the inmate has nearly approached maturity, and 
 inflict death by her sting. One of those wonderful 
 instincts, however, with which bees are endowed, 
 counteracts this at those times when, upon account 
 of the increased numbers of the commimity, and 
 in order to the formation of new colonies, it is 
 requisite that it should be counteracted. The 
 workers throng around the queen, hem her in, and 
 prevent the execution of her purpose. The cell 
 of the young queen is also carefully guarded, and she 
 is not permitted to leave it. At such times pecu- 
 liar sounds, produced probably by the action of the 
 wings, are emitted both by the actual queen imder 
 restraint in her movements, and by the young one 
 in the ceU, which may be heard by an ear applied to 
 the outside of the hive, and are familiar to B. culti- 
 vators as one of the surest signs of swarming. 
 The queen now becomes restless ; her agitation 
 communicates itself to those around her, and extends 
 through the hiye ; the ordinary work of the com- 
 munity is in great part neglected ; fewer bees than 
 usual are seen to leave or return to the hive ; and 
 at last the queen-B. rushes forth, preceded and 
 followed by crowds which press and throng upon 
 each other, form a buzzing cloud in the air, and 
 very generally settle upon a bush in the neigh- 
 bourhood, where they soon congregate closely 
 together, hanging by their claws in a dense cluster. 
 Sometimes they rise up iu the air, and fly off at 
 once to a considerable distance, apparently to some 
 previously selected place in the thick top of a 
 tree — in the- chimney or roof of a house, where 
 they happen to find an aperture — or in SQjne such 
 situation. More frequently, they settle not far from 
 the hive which they have left, often on some very 
 humble plant, or even on the grass, and soon rise 
 again. It is the care of the cultivator to pre- 
 vent this by providing them iromediately with a 
 suitable habitation in a new hive, invitingly placed 
 above them, or into which he puts the swarm after 
 they have congregated closely together as' above 
 described. It sometimes happens that bees hurry 
 out of their hive without their queen, in which case 
 they do not in general congregate so closely together 
 
 801 
 
BEK 
 
 where they settle, and soon return to the hive again. 
 Swarming generally takes place in a fine day ; and 
 •when the bees seem on the very point of coming off, 
 a cloud passing over the sun is enough to retard it. 
 Bad weather occasionally not only retards but pre- 
 vents it, the young queens being at last Trilled in their 
 cells. — ^When the first swarm of the season has left 
 tl^e hive with the old queen, as is usually, if not 
 always the case, the imprisoned young queen is set 
 at liberty ; and if the B. community is a large and 
 prosperous one, other young queens also come forth 
 from their cells, and leave the hive with successive 
 swarms, the number of which depends upon the 
 climate, the season, &c. In Britain, it is not uncom- 
 mon for a B.-hive to send oflf three swarms in a 
 summer, the first being almost always the largest, 
 and not unfrequently itself sending off a swarm 
 before the season is over. 
 
 Bees left without a queen, and with no means of 
 supplying the want, appear to feel themselves cut 
 off from the very purpose of their existence; the 
 labours of the community are relinquished, and its 
 members are dispersed and . die. It has already, 
 however, been stated, that bees left without a queen 
 can provide themselves vrith one, by transforming 
 and enlarging a worker's cell which contains an 
 egg or very young larva. This process is sometimes 
 carried on as if by several distinct parties, in differ- 
 ent parts of the hive at once ; and as ii aware that 
 time win be gained, the bees generally prefer cells 
 containing larvae of two or three days old to those 
 containing eggs. 
 
 Bees become partially torpid during cold weather, 
 consuming much less food than they would other- 
 wise require. They are readily aroused from this 
 state, however, as may at any time be proved by 
 tapping on a B.-hive, when it wiU be found that 
 the temperature of the interior of the hive rises 
 rapidly. Eespiration is considerably lessened in the 
 state of partial torpidity, and the temperature rises 
 when it is resumed. The respiration of bees takes 
 place by air-tubes or trachem (see Insects), 
 and is very active when the insect is in a state 
 of activity. The respiratory movements are easily 
 seen in looking at a bee. The consumption of 
 oxygen by this process might be expected soon to 
 reduce the atmosphere within a hive to a state in 
 ' which it could no longer support animal life ; but 
 in summer, when respiration is active and the hive 
 populous, a constant circulation of air is maintained 
 by the insects themselves, some of which are 
 employed in a rapid vibration of their wings for 
 this purpose. A greater or smaller number of 
 them, according to circumstances, may frequently be 
 seen thus engaged in fanning the air at the mouth 
 of a bee-hive. 
 
 It may well be deemed an extraordinary fact, 
 that among the enemies of bees are to be reckoned 
 certain species of moth, which, notwithstanding 
 the danger of the stings of the bees, enter the hives 
 and deposit their eggs. After the eggs are hatched, 
 the larvae feed upon the combs. Mice sometimes 
 eat their way into the hives in winter, and destroy 
 and plunder unmolested. 
 
 Bees are sometimes very destructive to each 
 other in their combats, as when one B. community 
 is assailed by others for the purpose of plunder. 
 To this the weaker communities are liable, par- 
 ticularly when flowers are few, and bees are 
 awakened to full activity in the warm days of 
 early spring. The narrower that the entrances of 
 bee-hives are at this season, at least of the less 
 populous hives, the less likely is the B. owner to 
 suffer loss from this cause, as the narrow entrance 
 is more easily defended even against very numerous 
 invaders. 
 603 
 
 Management of Bees.-^We do not think it neces- 
 sary to enter largely into the subject of Apiculture 
 — ^the cultivation or management of bees. 
 
 It is, of course, necessary that the apiary or stock 
 of B.-hives should be situated in a neighbourhood 
 where flowers sufficiently aboimd for the supply of 
 honey. It is, however, by no means certain to what 
 distance bees roam. Some authors mention one mile 
 as the probable distance ; but the opinion has appa- 
 rently been hazarded on mere conjecture, and there 
 seem to be good reasons for supposing that a much 
 greater distance might more correctly be named. 
 But whatever distance bees may be capable of 
 travelling in quest of honey, it is undoubtedly 
 of great importance that they shoidd have good 
 feeding-ground in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the apiary; and in many parts of the world, the 
 practice prevails of removing them from place to 
 place, according to the season, in order that advan- 
 tage may be taken of the greatest abundance of 
 flowers. Thus io the south of Scotland, B.-hives 
 are very frequently removed to heath-covered tracts 
 in the beginning of August, and remain there tUl the 
 heath is out of flower; and this affords in many 
 parts of the country the most plentiful honey-harvest, 
 although in other parts, especially where white clover 
 abounds, the greatest quantity of honey is obtained 
 earlier in summer. The difference between Heailier 
 Honey and Flower Honey is well known io Edin- 
 burgh. No small number of B.-hives from that city 
 and its immediate vicinity are annually conveyed 
 for a few weeks to the Pentland Hills. The con- 
 veyance of bees 'to the heather' is generally accom- 
 plished either by a handbarrow or a spring-cart of 
 easy motion, so that the combs may not be displaced 
 by shaking ; and the mouth of the hive is carefully 
 closed with a plate of perforated zinc, or other con- 
 trivance for keeping in the bees and permitting cir- 
 culation of air. Kfty or one hundred B.-hives may 
 often be seen collected in one place, and under the care 
 of one person, during the heather-season. — In Egypt, 
 far greater numbers of hives (of Apis Jasdata) are 
 often kept in a single vessel on the Nile, and are 
 conveyed from place to place on the river, according 
 to the succession of flowers in the different districts. 
 A somewhat similar practice prevails on the Rhone ; 
 and the transporting of bees (Apis Ligustica) from 
 pasture to pasture has been usual in Greece, in Asia 
 Minor, and in Persia, from remote antiquity. 
 
 As to the form of B.-hives, and the material of 
 which they should be made, there are great differ- 
 ences both of opinion and practice. Glass hives, and 
 hives with glass-windows, which can be covered at 
 pleasure with wooden slides, are employed by those 
 who wish to observe the movements and habits of 
 bees; but for profitable purposes, wood and straw 
 are in : Britain the only materials in common use. 
 A simple and useful form of a capped hive is shewn 
 in the accompanying illustration. For the material 
 of a hive, wood has the advantage over straw 
 in its greater neatness and durabihty ; but there 
 is a disadvantage in the greater likelihood that, 
 unless shaded from the sun, portions of the comb 
 may be so much melted as to fall in hot weather. 
 In some parts of Europe, cylindrical cork-hives are 
 much used, made by removing the wood of a portion 
 of the cork-tree, and leaving the bark uninjured ; 
 and hives of earthenware are common in Greece 
 and Turkey. The form of hives is of little conse- 
 quence ; but it is important that the owner should 
 have faoihties for givmg increased room both above 
 and below the stock-hive : increased room above is 
 required for the reception of pure honey-comb 
 unmixed with brood, and the capabUity of adding 
 to the hive below, by raising it up an addition^ 
 story, is often requisite to prevent swarming, which 
 
BEE— BEECH. 
 
 is incompatible with the collection of a large store of 
 surplus honey. 
 Bees require attention at the time of swarming, 
 
 Simple form of Bee-hive, 
 With cap removed to shew glass top. 
 
 that they may not fly away and be lost. They 
 require also to be fed during winter, when, on 
 account of a bad season, the lateness of the swarm, 
 or other cause, they have not enough of honey to 
 support them. A common rule is, wiat the weight 
 of the contents of the hive must be at least twenty 
 pounds, that the bees may survive the winter with- 
 out being fed ; and even in this case a supply of food 
 for a short time in spring promotes the activity of 
 the bees, and their summer prosperity. The food 
 ordinarily supplied to bees is either the coarser kind 
 of honey, or sugar and water. Strong ale and sugar 
 boded are also frequently given as food. The 
 practice has very largely prevailed in Britain and 
 elsewhere, of killing bees by fumes of sulphur, in 
 order to take from them their honey in the end of 
 autumn, a portion only of the increase of the stock 
 being kept through the winter. This pAotice stiU 
 has its advocates; but many now take only what 
 they can by top boxes or supers, or by cutiang out 
 combs, preserving all hives which are not so Tight 
 that there is no good hope of their surviving the 
 winter. It may be doubted if, in almost any part 
 of the country, the number of bees kept is so great 
 as nearly to exhaust the floral resources, and in all 
 probability this may yet become a much greater 
 source of wealth than it is in Britain. . 
 
 Wben honey is to be taken from bees, the person 
 doing it must be carefully protected from their 
 stings by gloves, veil, &o. It is best done during 
 the heat of a fine day, when the bees more readily 
 leave the combs of the super that is taken away, and 
 return to their hive. A little gentle tapping gener- 
 ally causes them to leave the combs, and a feather 
 is used for brushing off those which are slow to do 
 80. The smoke of the common Puff-baU (q. v.) 
 causes them to fall down in a stupefaction from 
 which they speedily recover, and its use is very con- 
 venient. It is gathered and dried for the purpose. 
 Chloroform is also sometimes used for the same 
 purpose, but the effect is apt to be fatal, unless care 
 is taken to choose the morning of a fine day, so that 
 the stupified bees may have time to recover in the 
 air and sunshine. 
 
 Bees are much less apt to eting when swarming 
 
 than at other times, and in general all the neces- 
 sary operations are performed without gloves or 
 veil, and with perfect safety. The sting of a B. is 
 to many persons a thing of no great consequence, 
 although, in some, it causes great local inflammation 
 and swelling, and general derangement of health. 
 The application of a Uttle ammonia usually relieves 
 the pain, or an onion or shallot cut through the 
 mid^e may be applied, and has the same effect. 
 
 The apiary should, if possible, be in a sheltered 
 place, and where it enjoys a good amount of sun- 
 shine. The hives are very generally placed at 
 small distances in the open ground, but some B.- 
 keepers protect them by a shed. In the former 
 case, each hive is usually covered with a straw-hood 
 in winter, to keep away the rain, as damp is par- 
 ticularly injurious to bees. For the avoidance of 
 damp, and to prevent the bees from coming in 
 contact with the ground when they hang in a great 
 cluster at the door of the hive — as they often do 
 before swarming, when the weather is hot, and the 
 hive very populous — each hive is raised to a height 
 of at least fifteen or eighteen inches from the ground. 
 
 Bees, Law Belatino to. B. are stated by 
 Blaokstone to be wild by nature {fercB naturcB), but 
 ■Hfhen hived and reclaimed, are regarded in the' 
 nature of property belonging to the person on whose 
 ground or soil they have swarmed ; and in sup- 
 port of this doctrine, he refers to the Charter of the 
 Forest, 9 Henry III. c. 13, which allows every free- 
 man to be entitled to the honey found within his 
 own woods. The qualified property which may be 
 thus held in B. continues while the swarm remains 
 on the soil ; and in the event of flight, so long as 
 the owner can pursue it. Indeed, so clearly are they 
 considered in law to be of the nature of property, 
 that it has been decided in England that B. may be 
 the subject of larceny (q. v.). 
 
 The same appears to be the Scotch law. Mr 
 Erskine, who may be described as the Scottish 
 Blackstone, founding on the Roman law, lays down 
 that, when B. have abandoned their hive, not being 
 observed and followed, they are understood to have 
 recovered their original liberty ; and if they light on 
 the grounds of another, and are enclosed by him in a 
 new nive, they become his property. See PEOPERTy, 
 
 OWNBKSHIP, GeOUNI), SoiL. 
 
 BEE, Humble. See Humble Bee. 
 
 BEECH (Fagus), a genus of trees of the natural 
 order Cupulifercs (q. v.). The male catkins are 
 almost globose, stalked, their flowers consisting of a 
 bell-shaped 5 — 6-cleft perianth and 8 — 15 stamens. 
 The female flowers, which grow on the same trees, 
 consist chiefly of a germen with three awl-shaped 
 styles, and are situated two or rarely three together 
 within a stalked involucre, which bears on its outer 
 surface many fleshy threads. This involucre, after 
 the flowering is over, closes and forma a husk 
 resembling a sort of capsule, which when ripe opens 
 in four valves, is externally covered with soft spines, 
 and encloses one or two (rarely three) triangular 
 nuts, which bear the name of Seechmast. — The 
 species are not numerous; all of them are forest- 
 trees of great beauty.^ — The CoMMOsr B. {F. sylvaika) 
 forms whole forests in many parts of Europe. It 
 grows to a height of 100 — 120 feet, and a diameter 
 of 4 feet; and particularly when standing alone 
 becomes a very ornamental tree with far-spreading 
 branches, which often droop gracefully almost to 
 the ground. It has thin, ovate, obscurely toothed 
 leaves, finely ciliated on their margins. Its bark is 
 smooth, often of a whitish colour ; and it is remark- 
 able for the frequency with which hard wooden 
 knobs — abortive branches — occur in its bark. Grass 
 does not grow readily under tKe shade of the B., but 
 
BEECH-DROPS— BEECHER. 
 
 in B. woods may sometimes be found rare plants 
 jdmost peculiar to such situations. The B. thrives 
 best in light soUs ; and does not send its roots deep 
 
 Common Beech. 
 
 into the ground, but rather horizontally under the 
 surface. The wood is more or less" of a reddish- 
 brown colour, as the tree has grown in a dense 
 forest, or has been freely exposed to sun and air. 
 It is very hard and solid, but brittle ; and when 
 exposed to the open air, very liable to rot and to be 
 eaten by worms. It is therefore not adapted to the 
 purposes of the house-carpenter ; but when kept 
 always under water, it is very diu-able, and is 
 accordingly employed in the erection of miUs, and 
 for weirs, sluices, &c. It is also employed for many 
 purposes by cabinet-makers and turners. It is very 
 much used in France for making the sabots or 
 wooden shoes of the peasantry, being preferred for 
 this purpose to every other wood except walnut, on 
 account of its property of not absorbing water. It 
 is one of the best kinds of firewood in Eiurope. Its 
 
 
 
 ■« V 
 
 "/ 
 
 
 Common Beech. 
 
 a, pavt of a branchlet with leaves and catkins, reduced ; 6, a 
 
 single male flower ; c, a single female flower. 
 
 ashes yield much potash and of excellent quality. 
 The raspings of the wood are used in the preparation 
 of vinegar. See Vinegar and Pyboligneous Acid. 
 The bark is sometimes employed for tauning when 
 oak-bark is scarce. The B. bears lopping well, and 
 is often planted for hedges : and it is a curious fact, 
 804 
 
 that when it is prevented from attaining a tree-Hke 
 size, and is kept closely pruned, the withered leaves 
 remain on the branches all winter, which is not 
 the case in other circumstances. In some countries, 
 as Dauphiny and Switzerland, the leaves of the B. 
 are coUeoted in autumn before they have been much 
 frost-bitten, and are used for making beds or mat- 
 tresses. — Beechmast,-when fresh, has a sweet taste, 
 like that of a walnut. It contains in large quantity 
 a bland fixed oO, along with a starchy farina, a Utile 
 sugar, and an astringent substance; A volatile, nar- 
 cotic, poisonous principle, called Fagine, is also found 
 in it, but moi"e in the rind than in the kernel ; and 
 when not only the smooth leathery outer rind, but 
 also the thin brown inner pellicle have been removed, 
 it is wholesome food. It is, however, more genei'ally 
 used for feeding swine, poultry, &o., and is much 
 employed in France and other parts of Europe for 
 the manufacture of Beedi Oil, which, when expressed 
 without the application of heat, and well clarified, 
 has an agreeable taste, is fit for use as food, and keeps 
 long without becoming rancid. When less pm'e, it is 
 used for lamps and in the arts. The oU-cake which 
 remains is good food for poidtry, for swine, and even 
 for oxen, but is injurious to horses. Many mamifac- 
 turers of cocoa adulterate it with beechmast, first 
 depriving the cocoa of its oil, which they sell separ- 
 ately as cocoa-butter, and trusting to the oil of the 
 B. for supplying its place. — B. forests anciently 
 abounded in England, and great herds of swine 
 were fed in them. The B. is not, in general, foimd 
 in Europe north of lat. 59°, although it occiu:s 
 two degrees further north in the Scandinavian 
 peninsula. It is foimd in the temperate parts of 
 Asia and in North America ; the White B. of that 
 country being generally regarded as the same 
 species, a very common tree in some parts of the 
 United States. In gardens and ' pleasure-grounds a 
 variety is very frequently to be seen, of which the 
 leaves have a blood-red colour. The same colour 
 appears also in some degree in the leaves of the 
 Red B. of North America (F. /erniginea), which is 
 distinguished by elongate-ovate, coarsely serrated, 
 and much acuminated leaves. It forms extensive 
 forests in the North-eastern States and tfie adjoining 
 British possessions ; and its wood, which is of a some- 
 what red or rusty colour, is more valued than that of 
 the White B. — Two species of B. are foimd on the 
 mountains of Java ; four are natives of the more ele- 
 vated parts of the south of New Zealand ; several 
 belong to the south of South America. The genus is, 
 in fact, more characteristic of the colder latitudes of 
 the southern than of the northern hemisphere. F. 
 betuloides (also known as F. Forsteri) is the ' myrtle- 
 tree' of the mountains of Tasmania — a vei'y large 
 tree with evergreen leathery leaves, in form much 
 resembling those of the birch, although the general 
 habit of the tree agrees with that of other beeches. 
 The same species is the evergreen B. of Terra del 
 Fuego, where it forms forests of which the dark 
 
 freen foliage contrasts strikingly in winter with the 
 azzling snow. There can be little doubt that it 
 will soon become a favourite and common ornamen- 
 tal tree in Britain. The wood is too heavy and 
 brittle for masts, but makes tolerable planks, and is 
 carried to the treeless Falkland Islands for roofing 
 houses. F. Antarctica ascends higher on the moun- 
 tains about the Strait of Magellan. It has deciduous 
 leaves, and much resembles the common B. — F. 
 procera grows in the Andes of Chih, and attains a 
 majestic size. It is a valuable timber-tree. 
 
 BEECH-DROPS. See Cancer Root. 
 
 BEECHEB, the name of a celebrated American 
 family of preachers and litterateurs. 
 Lyman B. was bom at Newhaven, Connecticut, 
 
BEECHEY— BEE-BATEE. 
 
 U. S., October 1775 ; studied divinity under the well- 
 known American theologian Dwight ; and obtained a 
 cburch at East Hampton, Long Island, in 1798. He 
 afterwards removed to Litchfield, Connecticut, and 
 from thence, in 1826, to Boston. In 1832, he was 
 appointed president of the Lane Theological Semin- 
 ary at Cincinnati, and to the charge of the second 
 Presbyterian church in that city. In 1842 he 
 returned to Boston, where he has since resided. He 
 has written on 'temperance,' very warmly against 
 slavery, on theology, &c. His collected works, in 
 3 vols., revised by himself, have been published at 
 Boston. Three of his sons— Edwaed, Chaeles, and 
 Henry Ward — are also ministers, and have written 
 extensively on religious subjects. 
 
 Henry Waed B., the best known, was born at 
 Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1813, and after gradu- 
 ating at Amherst College, Connecticut, he studied 
 theology under his father at Lane Seminary. 
 After ten years' pastorship of two churches in 
 the state of Indiana^ he removed to Plymouth 
 Church, Brooldyn, New York, ' an organisation 
 of Orthodox Congregational believers,' where he 
 stUl remains. He is said to have the largest con- 
 gregation in the United States, and Ins popu- 
 larity as a public lecturer is great. He is editor of 
 the New York Independent, a paper devoting itself 
 chieily to religious and social subjects. He is a 
 strenuous and eloquent opponent of slavery. He 
 has published several works, the most popular of 
 which are. Lectures to Young Men (Boston, 1850), 
 which have gone through many editions ; and Lijfe 
 ThougJits (Boston, 1858), of which 25,000 copies were 
 sold in a few months. 
 
 Catherine B., eldest daughter of Lyman B., was 
 bom at East Hampton, Long Island, in 1800. From 
 1822 — 1832, she was principal of a female seminary 
 at Hartford, Connecticut, and afterwards of a similar 
 institution at Cincinnati. She is a fertile and popu- 
 lar writer, chiefly on subjects coming within the 
 sphere of her own sex, but also on physiology, 
 theology, mental and moral philosophy, &o. 
 
 Ha&iet B. See Stowe, H. B. 
 
 BEECHEY, SiE William, II.A., an Enghsh 
 portrait-painter of high reputation, was born at 
 Burford, Oxfordshire, December 12, 1753. He entered 
 the Royal Academy as a pujjil in 1772, and devoted 
 himself chiefly to portrait-painting, in which he was 
 so successful, that m 1793 he was chosen portrait- 
 painter to Queen Charlotte, of whom he painted a 
 full length. In the same year he was elected an 
 associate of the Eoyal Academy ; and in 1798, he 
 received the honour of knighthood, and was luade a 
 Eoyai Academician for his picture of the Review of 
 the 3d and 10th Dragoons in Hyde Park by George 
 III. (accompanied by the Prince of Wales and 
 Duke of York), which is reckoned B.'s greatest 
 work. B. now received the patronage of the royal 
 family — most of the members of which sat to him.^ 
 as well as that of -the court nobility. Among his 
 portraits are those of Lord Nelson (preserved in the 
 Clothier's Hall, London), Sir William Hamilton, 
 Lord St Vincent (in Fishmonger's HaU), Lord Corn- 
 waliis, John Kemble, and Mrs Siddons. B. is not a 
 portrait-painter of first rank, but his portraits are 
 generally characterised by easy attitude and natural- 
 ness of expression. He retired from his profession 
 in 1836, and died at Hampstead in January 1839. 
 
 BEECHEY, Feedeeick William, son of Sir 
 William B., the portrait-painter, was born in London, 
 February 17, 1796. He entered the navy when he 
 was ten years of age, and at the age of fifteen was 
 present in an engagement off the coast of Madagas- 
 car, in which three French frigates were captured. 
 In 1818, he took part under Franklin in a scientific 
 
 voyage of discovery to the north pole, of which the 
 results were published by order of the Admiralty 
 (1843). For the services he rendered with his 
 pencil during this voyage, B. received a grant of 
 £200 from parliament. In 1819, he was engaged in 
 another arotic expedition under Sir Edward Parry ; 
 and in 1821, rendered other important services to 
 science by his exploration of part of the north coast 
 of Africa, of which the results were published in 
 1828. After being appointed commander, Captain 
 B., in 1825, received a commission to proceed by the 
 Pacific Ocean and Behring's Strait to the Polar Sea, 
 in order to communicate, if possible, with Franklin, 
 who was to make the journey overland from North 
 America. The explorers did not m^et, although at 
 one time they were within 150 miles of each other. 
 He returned in 1828, having been two years and a 
 half away, and in 1831 published a narrative of his 
 voyage, which was afterwards followed by an account 
 of the botany and zoology of the Arctic regions. 
 Port Clarence and Port Grantley, to the south-east 
 of Cape Prince of Wales, were discovered by B. in 
 1827. He was afterwards engaged in surveying the 
 coast of Ireland and of South America ; and was 
 made Rear-admiral of the Blue in 1854. He died 
 in 1856. 
 
 BEE'DER, the capital of a district of the same 
 name in the Nizam's territories. It is about 75 
 miles to the north-west of Hyderabad, being in lat. 
 17° 53' N., and long. 77° 36' E. It stands near the 
 right bank of the Manjera, a considerable tributary 
 of the Godavery, and occupies a table-land about 
 2400 feet above the sea, and about 100 feet above 
 the adjacent country. Though B. was formerly a 
 place of grandeur and importance, yet it is at 
 present remarkable chiefly for its manufactures in a 
 compound metal made up of twenty-four parts of 
 tin to one of copper. 
 
 BEE-EATER {Merops), a genus of birds of the 
 order Insessores and tribe Fissirostres ; the type of 
 a family, Meropidce, nearly allied to that of the 
 Kingfishers. The birds of the B. family have 
 rather long slightly arched beaks, and long pointed 
 wines : they are mostly of a green colour ; resemble 
 swallows in iiight ; and, like them, prey on insects, 
 but chiefly on Dees, wasps, and other hymenopter- 
 ous insects. Their skin is very thick. ■ The species 
 
 Common Beef-eater {3Ierops apiaster). 
 
 of the genus Merops Sfce mmierous in Africa 
 and Asia ; none are Icnown in America ; two 
 are European, one of which, the Common B. 
 {M. apiaster), is common in the south of Europe 
 
BEEF— BEER. 
 
 as a summer bird of passage. It is a very rare 
 bird in Britain. It is mentioned by Aristotle, 
 under the name Meraps, as very destructive to 
 bees. It seizes tbem on the wing, amd also often 
 ■watches near their hives, and at the mouths of 
 wasps' nests. It breeds in holes, which it excavates 
 in the banks of rivers. ' When the young are partly 
 fledged, but not yet fit to fly, they creep to the mouth 
 of their holes, where they seem to enjoy the happy 
 sum m er light and genial sunshine ; but on the least 
 alarm, they trundle stern foremost into their inner 
 chambers, where they lie concealed until tranquillity 
 again prevails.' In the banks of the Don and Volga, 
 the excavations made by the flocks of bee-eaters 
 are so numerous, that the bank in many places 
 resembles a honey-comb. Livingstone describes the 
 banks oi the Leeba, in South Africa, as perforated in 
 a si m ilar manner. The Hottentots watch the flight 
 of the bee-eaters, that they may be guided to the 
 nests of bees. 
 
 BEEP. See Pood, Animal. 
 
 BEEP-EATER, a term now applied jocularly to 
 certain functionaries belongiag to the Yeomen of the 
 Guard (q. v.), who, ever since the time of Henry 
 VII., have formed part of the train of royalty, 
 attending the sovereign at royal banquets and other 
 state occasions. They have maintained the same 
 costume, with a slight alteration made in 1858, for 
 nearly four centiuries; and this costume has had 
 much to do with their attractiveness to sight-seers. 
 The origin of the term is a case of what Dr Latham 
 calls 'words of foreign simulating a vernacular 
 origin.' It was originally heaufetia- or buffetier (Ft.), 
 one who attends the buffet or side-board. Similar 
 instances of false etymology, arising from resem- 
 blance in sound, are seen in Shot-over (a hill near 
 Oxford), from Chateau Vert; yarrow-grass, from 
 asparagus; ancient, for ensign; dog-cheap, from the 
 old English god-kepe, i.e., good-cheap, meaning a 
 good bargain ; &c. 
 
 BBEP-EATBE (Buphaga), a genus of birds, of 
 the order Insessores, tribe Oonirostres, to which the 
 name Ox-pecker is also and more correctly, given. 
 The beef-eaters have short bills, square at the base, 
 and rather swollen towards the point. They are accus- 
 tomed to sit upon the backs of bufialoes, camels, 
 and other large animals, and to feed upon the larvae 
 of gadflies, which they find in their hides. They 
 are exclusively African. One of the species is the 
 Buffalo Bird of South Africa. Livingstone mentions 
 that the sight of the bird being much more acute 
 than that of the buffalo, it is much more easily 
 alarmed by the approach of danger; but the buffaloes 
 always begin to look about them when the birds 
 rise from their backs. 
 
 BEEP-TEA is a light and pleasant article of diet, 
 obtained from the flesh of the ox. It is generally 
 prepared by placing the meat (as lean as possible) 
 in cold water, which is gradually heated, and then 
 allowed to simmer for two hours or so ; but the best 
 method appears to be to commence by chopping 
 the meat small, adding the cold water, and rapidly 
 heating so as to bring it to boU. A little salt 
 is then added, to suit the taste. Either process, 
 by commencing with cold water, succeeds in dis- 
 solving out of the meat the savoury natural juices 
 which it contains to the extent of about one-eighth 
 of its weight. Occasionally, hard-toasted bread, 
 in fragments, is added to the tea just before 
 being partaken of, which imparts to it some of 
 the nutritious qualities of the bread. In using 
 the B., the bread ,may or may not be eaten. 
 The popular notion is, that the B. contains all 
 the nourishing constituents of the entire amoimt 
 of meat employed in' its preparation j but this 
 
 806 
 
 is erroneous, as much nutritious matter is resident 
 in the seven-eighths of the original meat, left 
 as residuary fleshy fibre, though the latter will no 
 doubt prove of difficult digestion. The chemical 
 constituents of B. are gelatine; albuminous matter; 
 hreatine, a substance resembling' theine, the essen- 
 tial principle of tea and coffee ; contractive meters 
 (osmazome), to which the tea owes most of its odour 
 and flavour, besides a part of its nutritious quaUties; 
 lactic acid; salts; a little fat; saccharine matter, and 
 water. B. is highly palatable, and from its very 
 easy digestion, it is recommended to invaHds and 
 convalescents. Mutton, treated in a similar man- 
 ner, yields a broth or tea which is not so easily 
 digested, aiid is hurtful to persons of weak stomach, 
 especially if the fat be not skimmed off from the 
 liquid. A knuckle of veal affords a similar broth or 
 tea ; but it is not so light as B., and, moreover, 
 gelatinises on cooHng. A broth or tea prepared 
 from a yoimg chicken is, of all decoctions of 
 animal matter, the most readily digested, and is 
 specially suitable for invalids, where great irritability 
 of the stomach exists. 
 
 BEEF- WOOD. See Casuakina. 
 
 BEE'HIVB-HOtJSE, a name generally given 
 to certain dome-shaped buildings in Ireland, which 
 are behoved to be among the oldest architect- 
 ural remains in that coimtry. They are round 
 edifices, of no great size or height, buUt without 
 cement, of long thin stones arranged in horizontal 
 layers, the one sKghtly overlapping the other, and so 
 gradually converging until they meet at the top. 
 The doorway, which is square-headed, is somewhat 
 narrower at the top than at the bottom, as in 
 Egyptian architecture. Beehive-houses are of two 
 kinds — single or clustered. The former are generally 
 found beside ancient oratories, and are supposed to 
 have been the dwelling-places of the priests ; the 
 latter, which are often underground, shew two or 
 more hive-shaped chambers, connected by a passage 
 or gallery, or opening from a larger central apart- 
 ment, which is also mve-shaped. Irish antiquaries 
 refer the beehive-houses generally to the period 
 before the Anglo-Norman invasion of the island, in 
 the 12th c, and claim for some of them an antiquity 
 as high as the 7th and 8th c. Ruins of single 
 beehive-houses are found in .the Western Isles of 
 Scotland; and some of the 'Picts' houses,' or 'earth- 
 houses,' of the east coast, seem to resemble the 
 subterranean aggregated beehive-houses of Ireland. 
 
 BBB'LZEBUB (i. e. ' the god of flies'). Under 
 this name the people of Ekron, in Philistia, wor- 
 shipped their god Baal (q. v.) or Bel. The Greeks 
 also had their 'Zeus Apomyios' or 'Myiagros'. — 'the 
 disperser of flies.' As the heathen deities were all 
 regarded as demons by the Jews, the name Beelze- 
 bub became, in course of time, commonly apphed to 
 the chief of evil spirits, and in this sense it is 
 employed in the Gospels. The more correct reading 
 of the word, as given by the Evangelists, is Beelzb- 
 BCL — an opprobrious change of name, making it 
 signify 'god of dung,' to mark the low and grovefling 
 character of the demon. See Baai. 
 
 BEER, derived from the German Bier (see Ale), 13 
 the term applied to a fermented liquid which has 
 not undergone the process of distillation. It may be 
 prepared from many varieties of vegetable matter, 
 but in Britain the raw material operated upon is 
 generally barley, although pease, beans, wheat, &o., 
 might be employed. In other countries, B. is often 
 prepared from other sources, to which allusion is 
 made at the close of this article. The process 
 followed in the manufacture of B. is divided into 
 two parts — viz., malting and brewing; and so dis- 
 tinct are these, that very often the malting proceeds 
 
BIESR* 
 
 in » building at some distance from that in which 
 the brewing is conducted, and in many oases the 
 malting is superintended and accomplished by a 
 maltster, as his particular and only branch of trade, 
 the malt thus prepared being afterwards purchased 
 by the brewer. 
 
 The variety of barley preferred for the prepara- 
 tion of the finer kinds of B. is the chevaKer; but 
 other varieties are extensively used. See Bablby. 
 
 The process of malting, or the conversion _ of 
 barley into malt, is acoomj^ished in four successive 
 steps. 1st, Steeping of the barley, which consists m 
 
 Eig.l. 
 
 introducing the grain into a large wooden or stone 
 cistern, a (fig. 1), and adding thereto as much Water 
 as will cover it. On being thus treated for twenty- 
 four hours, the grains of barley absorb the water, 
 and the contents of the cistern, near the top, 
 even begin to feel dry. The barley swells up much, 
 so as to increase considerably in bulk, and the 
 Excise officers, if they choose, can gauge or measure 
 the grain at this stage, and charge by the bulk thus 
 indicated. The amount of water which barley takes 
 up in the steeping, affords good evidence of the 
 excellence of the grain for brewing. Thus, the 
 better kinds of barley, on the average, take jip 
 sufficient water to increase their weight by one 
 half. Occasionally, however, the increase is not 
 more than a tenth. The time during which the 
 grain Hes in the steeping-cistern is about 40 hours, 
 when the excess of water is drained off; but a 
 regulation exists that the cistern cannot have a 
 second charge of barley till four days have elapsed 
 after the introduction of the first charge. 2d, Couch- 
 ing. — The grain is thrown out of the steeping cistern 
 in a heap on the floor, b. At this stage, the barley- 
 is soft, and when pressed between the fingers, it is 
 readily bruised. It lies in the couch or heap for 26 
 hours or so, and during that time, it rises in tempe- 
 rature about 10° F., and gives out some of its extra 
 water. This sweating, as it is called, is the result of 
 the partial germination or growth of the barley ; and 
 little rootlets or fibrils of the radicle, and a primi- 
 tive stem (plumula or aorospire), begin to form and 
 present themselves. As the temperature rises, the 
 radicles lengthen rapidly, and means are then 
 taken to check the germination. 3d, Flooring.^ — 
 The heated barley is spread by the workmen with 
 apades on the floor to the depth of about 15 inches at 
 first, cc. It is repeatedly turned and respread over 
 a larger area, with a thickness of layer decreasing to 
 6 inches. At this stage, the radicles have attained 
 their greatest length. 4th, Kiln-drying.—The half- 
 germinated barley is now introduced into a kiln 
 (fig. 2), on the perforated floor of which it is spread. 
 The apartment beneath the kiln-room is fitted up 
 with stoves or ohoffers. A, which evolve much heat ; 
 and this, rising and passing through the shts or 
 perforations in the floor of the kiln, B, necessarily 
 
 dries any moist barley laid thereon, and the steam 
 escapes at the roof, 0. The heat which the barley 
 is subjected to in the kiln is, at the commence- 
 ment, 90° P., but this gradually is raised to about 
 150° F. While drying, the radicles — called comings 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 or cwmrmngs — break off from the grain, and are 
 afterwards removed by a wire-sieve. The colour 
 which the barley assumes as it becomes dry malt 
 in the kiln is determined by the heat to which 
 it is subjected, the higher temperature yielding 
 the darker-coloured malt. Pale and awber coloured 
 malt are used in the brewing of the lighter 
 varieties of B. — such as bitter-B., table-B., and 
 smaU-B. ; whilst a darker kind of malt is used 
 in sweet ale, and a very dark malt in the pre- 
 paration of porter. During the conversion of 
 barley into malt, a loss of material occurs. Thus, 
 100 parts of barley yield 80 parts of malt ; but 
 as the 100 parts of barley contain 12 of water, 
 it follows that there are present only 88 parts 
 of dry matter, and these yield 80 parts of dry malt, 
 giving a loss of 8 per cent, of the original weight of 
 the barley. While there is a decrease in weight, 
 there is an increase in bulk, 100 measures of barley 
 becoming 101 to 109 measures of malt. Certain 
 chemical changes likewise occur as the barley is 
 
 807 
 
S£j£lR, 
 
 transformed into malt, which may be noticed from 
 the following table : 
 
 Hordein (q. v.), 
 Starch, . 
 Sugar, 
 
 Gluten, . ' . 
 Gum, 
 Resin, . 
 
 Composition of 
 
 Barley. "Malt. 
 
 55 12 
 
 32 66 
 
 5 15 
 
 3 1 
 
 4 15 
 1 __J 
 
 100 100 
 
 The principal chemical change is, therefore, the 
 transformation of much hordem (a form of starch) 
 into starch, gum, and sugar. The mechanical con- 
 dition of the contents of the grain is also altered ; 
 the grain is now of a fine mealy nature, and is 
 readuy broken between the fingers, when the flour 
 in the interior is found to be soft and distinctly 
 sweet to taste. 
 
 The brewing of the malt comprehends no less 
 than six stages. 1st, Grinding the malt, which may 
 be accomplished in several ways : either by placing 
 the malt between two revolving horizontal circular 
 stones, such as are employed in flour-grinding; or 
 passing the malt through a mill Mje a large 
 coffee-miU; or bruising it between revolving steel 
 rollers. The last plan is the best, as it is desirable 
 that the grinding should not be too perfect, which 
 would give a fine flour, readily becoming pasty on 
 the addition of water. When coarsely bruised, 
 however, the water can find its way into aU parts 
 of the grain, and thoroughly soak it. 2d, Mashing 
 the bruised malt. — This operation is conducted in a 
 large tun (fig. 3), bmlt up of wooden staves, and 
 surrounded by hoops — somewhat similar in con- 
 struction to an ordinary domestic chxim. Water, 
 which has been previously heated in a, copper, is 
 allowed to run into the comparatively cold mash- 
 tun, while the bruised malt at the same time 
 
 Kg. 3. 
 
 descends by the hopper, ah; the water thereby 
 becoming reduced to 160° F., or slightly below 
 thatr temperature. The whole is then thoroughly 
 agitated by long poles, g, worked by the hand or by 
 machinery, def, till every particle of the malt is 
 brought into contact with the water. The result is 
 that the malt absorbs the water in part, and a very 
 active change begins to take place. In the malt, 
 there is developed a substance called diastase (q.v.), 
 which reacts on the starch of the malted barley, 
 and changes it into the variety of sugar called 
 grape-sugar. See Sugar. So rapidly does this 
 &ansformation of starch into sugar occur, that 
 almost immediately on the mixing of the water 
 with the bruised malt, the Hquid assumes a sweet 
 taste. In the space of half an hour the temper- 
 ature of the mash-tun wiU be found to have 
 decreased to about 140° F. ; and then a second 
 quantity of water, at a heat of 190° F., is run in, so 
 as to raise the temperature to about 167° F., which 
 degree of heat is found to be the best for enabling 
 the diastase to act most powerfully in transforming 
 the starch into sugar. After two to three hours' 
 action upon the malt, the water, which is now very 
 sweet to the taste, is drawn off into a large vessel 
 called the imderhack, and fresh water, at a temper- 
 ature of about 190° F., is admitted to the tun, and 
 
 allowed to soak the malt still remaining there. This 
 part of the process is styled the second mash; and as 
 the water is at a higher temperature than in the 
 first mash, much of the residuary matter in the malt 
 is changed into sugar, and disscilved. After some 
 hours, the hquid from the second mash is drawn off, 
 and added to that of the first mash already in the 
 underback ; and a third quantity of water, at a stiU 
 higher temperature, about 200° F., is rmi in upon 
 the malt, which dissolves out all the remaining por- 
 tions of any value, and leaves the husk skin of tiie 
 grain and other insoluble matters. Th^ liquid from 
 the third mash is not strong enough to be in general 
 mixed with the other solutions in the underback, 
 and is either employed in brewing small- B., or is 
 again heated and used in treating new bruised malt. 
 
 In order that the brewer maybe enabled to prepare 
 the same variety of B. day after day, it is requisite 
 that the liquid in the underback, and which is now 
 called the sweet-worts, should be of a definite strength ; 
 and to determine this, an instrument called a sac- 
 charometer, a form of areometer (q. v.), is used, which 
 enables the brewer to determine the strength of the 
 sweet- worts, and, if necessary, to add some of the . 
 liquid from the third mash, to reduce the strength of 
 that in the underback. 
 
 In the drawing off of the several worts from the 
 
' ££j£jli. 
 
 mash-tun, advantage is taken of a finely perioratedr 
 false bottom of plate-iron, which lies about a foot 
 above the true bottom of the tun, and the liquids 
 being drained away through the perforations in the 
 false bottom, the insoluble husk and other matters 
 are left behind. The material left on the false bottom, 
 called grains or drqf, is used for feeding cattle. 
 
 3d, Boiling of tlie worts with hops.— When reduced 
 to the proper strength, the worts are pimiped up from 
 the underbade into a covered-in boiler or copper, 
 AA (fig. 4), and being mixed with hops, are raised 
 to the boiling-point, and kept in a state of ebullition 
 for some time. During the boiling, it is necessary to 
 keep the hops and, other sediment from settling at 
 the lower part of the boiler near the fire, DD, and 
 for that purpose, a sort of rake with teeth, BB, 
 turned by a wheel (C) above, is kept turning round, 
 which tends to hold the sediment in mechanical 
 suspension. To economise heat, it is customary 
 to have a tank fitted to the upper part of the boiler 
 in which water or the worts can be heated. The 
 
 Fig. 4 
 
 hops which are obtained from Kent and Sussex 
 are the strongest, and are employed in the brewing 
 of porter, while the Worcester hop is milder, and 
 is preferred for ale. ,The hops are useful in the 
 brewing of B. in imparting to the liquor a volatile 
 fragrant aromatic oil, a bitter resin, and a little 
 tannin. The quantity of hops required to be 
 added depends much on the kind of B. which it is 
 intended to brew. The stronger the B. is to be, 
 and above aU, the more bitterness is required, the 
 more hops must be added to the boiler. In 
 common ale or B., the quantity of hops does not 
 exceed 2 lb. to the quarter of malt.; whilst in 
 bitter-B., and especially that intended for foreign 
 countries, the amount of hops is 8 lb. and upwards. 
 Besides imparting to the worts the active constitu- 
 ents of the hop, the boiling operation serves other 
 important ends. In the sweet-worts, there, is a 
 considerable quantity of nitrogenous matter, which 
 
 is very liable to pass mto decomposition, and which, 
 were it to do so, would destroy the beer. During 
 
 ■ ■«■■■ 
 
 It ' k. I ■ V t 
 
 * ■ ■♦#■'* 
 - ■ » * . • f r 
 
 V ■ 4 • ■ * » 1 
 
 \'t; ■.''.::: ' 
 ^';: 1 : : : ; ; 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 the boiling, the excess of this nitrogenous matter 
 separates as a fiaky and stringy solid, called by the 
 brewer rrmdloige. The boiling is continued tiU the 
 hops have yielded their aromatic and bitter principles, 
 and till the liquid has been concentrated to the 
 extent required by the brewer, and then the whole 
 is run into the hop-hack, a form of cistern which 
 has a false bottom composed of perforated iron 
 plates (fig. 5), admitting of the liquid worts percol- 
 ating through, while all the mucilage and other 
 soHd matters are retained on the upper surface of- 
 this metallio sieve. 4th, Cooling the worts.— As the 
 liquor drains through the false bottom of the hop- 
 back, it is run on to the cooler or refrigerator 
 (fig. 6), which, iu size and appearance, resembles the 
 ordinary wooden floor of a large room. The planks 
 are so closely connected together that the liquid 
 cannot run through, and a wooden ledge, B, runs 
 round the sides of the room, which is also tight. 
 The hot worts, which are "Spread to the depth of a 
 few inches over the floor, are very rapidly cooled 
 down, by allowing a free current of cold air to pass 
 over the top of the liquid, and often by having 
 a series of fans, CO, revolving rapidly iromediately 
 above the liquid, so as to cause a more speedy 
 removal of the heated air loaded with steam, and 
 the substitution of cold air. Occasionally, the 
 brewer is at the expense of having a coir of metal 
 pipe. A, placed up and down the floor of the 
 cooler, through which metal pipe cold water is 
 allowed to run at the time the hot worts are 
 being cooled down. By these means the worts are 
 very soon reduced to a temperature of about 60° 
 F. This step in the process of brewing is a very 
 important one, as, if the cooling is not conducted 
 with the greatest rapidity, the sugar in the worts 
 
 wiU become partially converted into acetic acid, 
 or, as it is termed, foxing occurs, which communi- 
 cates bad properties to the worts, and- ultimately 
 produces a beer with an impleasant taste and 
 flavour. — 5th, Fermenting the worts. — When the 
 
J3£j£jR* 
 
 liquid has teen cooled down to 55° — 60° F., it is 
 conveyed to the fermenting tun, where it is mixed 
 with the yeast (q. v.), and the process of ferment- 
 ation proceeds. The tun or vat is formed of strong 
 ■wooden staves, and is either circular or square. 
 The latter form has recently been introduced, and 
 appears to be preferred by some brewers. The 
 yeast is added in varying qu?mtity, according to 
 the strength of the worts, but the more common 
 amount is one gallon to every 100 gallons of the 
 worts. Very soon after the yeast is mixed with 
 the worts, the whole contents of the tun begin 
 to pass into a state of commotion, much gas is 
 evolved, and this, tending to escape, causes a. frothing 
 on the surface of the liquid termed the rochs, from 
 the irregular mountainous appearance of the masses 
 of froth piled on each other. The colour of the froth 
 at this period indicates the quahty of the beer. Thus, 
 if the froth appears of «■ yellowish-white or yellow, 
 tint, the operation is going on satisfactorily ; but 
 if the colour darkens to a brownish-yeUow or a light, 
 brown, it is considered a bad sign, and the beer is 
 spoiled as a first-class beverage. The chemical 
 changes which occur during the process of fermenta- 
 tion (q. V.) are due to the action of the particles of 
 yeast on the sugar or saccharine matter. This 
 action proceeds most satisfactorily at a tempera- 
 ture of 72° P., and care is taken in the brewing 
 of the finer varieties of beer, such as India pale 
 ale and bitter-beer, that the temperature never 
 exceeds 72° P. The grape-sugar which is pre- 
 sent in the worts as they are introduced into the 
 fermenting tun, is composed of carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen in the proportion C,j, H,^, Oj.,; 
 and when the yeast acts upon it, a greater or 
 less proportion of it is converted into alcohol, 
 carbonic acid, and water. Thus, one atom of sugar, 
 C,2Hj40j4, is converted into 2 atoms of alcohol 
 (C^HgOj) =C8Hi204.; 4 atoms of carbonio acid 
 (00^) = C4O3 ; and 2 atoms of water (HO) 
 = H^Oj ; which, when added together, give J}he 
 atom of sugar, Ci2Hi40,4. The carbonic acid 
 tending to escape, causes the frothing or rooks, and 
 the alcohol and water are left in the fermenting 
 tun. During the progress of the fermentation, a 
 considerable amount of new yeast is formed, which 
 gets entangled in the froth ; and when the operation 
 slackens, and the frothy head begias to fall, the 
 upper yeast is skimmed off. This process of the 
 conversion of the sugar of the worts into alcohol or 
 spirit, is termed attenuation (Lat. tenuis, thin) ; and 
 the degree to which the change is carried depends on 
 the kind of B., and the market it is to be sent to. 
 In sweet ale or B., the attenuation is not allowed to 
 
 Eroceed far, and much sugar is left in the beer. 
 litter-B., however, is attenuated to a greater degree, 
 and consequently there is less saccharine matter left , 
 in it ; while in India pale ale, and other beers 
 intended to be sent great distances, the attenuation 
 must be carried on much further, else the liquor 
 would not be preserved during its transit to many 
 parts of the globe. 6th, Clearing and storing. — The 
 B., when properly fermented, is placed in casks like 
 hogsheads, called rounds, where the remaining traces 
 of fermentation proceed, and the B. ceases to 
 appear thick or drumly, and becomes clear ; when it 
 is pumped up into store-casks of great size, or at 
 once placed in the casks in which it is sent into 
 market. During the storing of the B., an extra 
 quantity of hops is often added, to increase the 
 bitterness and pimgency. 
 
 The principal constituents of the various kinds of 
 B. are water, alcohol, sugar, gum, gluten, and the 
 bitter extractive matter of the hop. The amount of 
 alcohol varies : in small-B,, it is only about 1 per 
 cent. ; in ale, the stronger, kinds of B., and porter 
 
 for home consumption, 5 to 7 per cent. ; in East 
 India pale ale, 10 per cent. In B. intended to 
 be forwarded to California from Britain, the attenu- 
 ation is carried so far, that there is more than 10 
 per cent, of alcohol, and the B. is then called dry. 
 
 B. is adulterated in many ways. Burned sugar 
 (caramel) is added to give colour; cocculus indicus, 
 to supply an intoxicating agent which wiU ^ve an 
 appearance of strength to the B. ; quassia, to impart 
 bitterness in place of hops; grains of paradise and 
 Cayenne pepper, to communicate pungency; cori- 
 ander and caraway seeds, to yield flavour ; liquorice, 
 treacle, and honey, to supply colour and consistence. 
 To stale-beer there is sometimes added green vitriol 
 (sulphate of iron), or alum and common salt, which, 
 when agitated with the B., communicate a fine 
 cauliflower head. It is unnecessary to state that 
 such admixtures are never made in any extensive 
 brewing establishment with respectable connections. 
 
 For the home-brewing of B., many recipes have 
 been pubhshed, and one of the best is that given 
 by Mr Donovan in the Oahinet Cyclopcedia. The 
 apparatus he suggests is of the roughest description, 
 and comparatively inexpensive. A porter-bairel 
 forms the mash-tun ; the upper end being taken out, 
 perforated with, a gimlet, and lowered into the 
 barrel to near the bottom, where it is supported 
 about a couple of inches from the true bottom, and 
 constitutes the false bottom through which the 
 liquid drains from the bruised malt.- A hole is 
 made in the side of the barrel, near the bottom, 
 and between the true and false bottoms, which can 
 be plugged up with a spigot when not required to 
 let the liquor run off. A second porter-barrel wiU 
 be useful as an underback and fermenting tun. An 
 ordinary household boiler, or a large common tin-plate 
 one, will answer the purpose of boiling the worts. 
 The mash-tun is first well scalded with hot water, 
 and then is supplied with 15 gallons of boiling water 
 and 5 gallons , of cold water at 60° R, 2^ buSiels of 
 first-class bruised pale malt are shaken in, and well 
 stirred through the water, the top of the barrel 
 being in greater part closed with a thick cloth. In 
 an hour or so, the liquid which is in the tim wiU 
 be clear when allowed to run out at the spigot-hole ; 
 and umnediately after it ceases to run, about 20 
 gaUona of nearly boiling water are run! over the half ■ 
 exhausted malt, and this carries off all the soluble 
 matters, yielding altogether about 23 gallons of 
 sweet-worts. These are placed in the copper, 3i lb. 
 of the best mild hops are added, and boiled for 20 
 minutes. The liquor is then strained through a 
 fine sieve into the fermenting tun ; and when it has 
 cooled down to below a blood-heat (98° F.), a 
 quart of yeast is added, and the fermentation allowed 
 to proceed. When the frothy head begins to droop, 
 the upper yeast is skimmed off, the Equor put in 
 a cask, bunged up, and allowed to clear for a fort- 
 night, when it will be ready for use. 
 
 The foregoing remarks on the manufacture of B. 
 apply to all the varieties of B., ale, and porter (q. v.), 
 brewed and used in Britain. The liquor may differ 
 in strength, from difference in the quantity of water, 
 or in colour, from the malt being more or less charred 
 in the kiln-drying. There are, however, many other 
 varieties of beer. In South America, the Indiana 
 prepared and drank a B. obtained from Indian corn, 
 and called chica or maize B., long before the Spanish 
 conquest. The process followed in making chica is 
 similar to that of B.-brewing in Britain. The maize is 
 moistened with water, allowed partially to germinate, 
 and dried in the sun. The maize malt so prepared 
 is bruised, treated with warm water, and set aside 
 till the fermentation is over. The cluca or maize B. 
 has a yellow colour, and a pleasant acid taste. In 
 the valleys of the Sierra, the maize malt is chewed 
 
BEER-BEER ACTS. 
 
 between the teeth of the Indians and their house- 
 holds, and_ the chewed morsel incorporated with 
 the saliva is put in jars with hot water, when the 
 fermentation proceeds more rapidly than before, and 
 a more highly-prized B. is obtained. The chica is 
 also made from barley, rice, pease, manioc, pine- 
 apples, and grapes. The Crim Tatars prepare a B. 
 from miUet-seed, called loiiza or miHet-beer. 'The 
 same seed is used in Sikkim, on the southern slopes 
 of the Lower Himalaya, and yields B. there called 
 mwrwa. The Arabians, Abyssinians, and many 
 African tribes, employ teff, or the seeds of Poa 
 Abyssinica, and miUet-seed, as sources of beer. The 
 Russians prepare a B. from rye called quass or rye- 
 beer. The Tatars ferment milk into Jcoumiss or mUk- 
 beer. The Arabians use the milk to yield their leban, 
 and the Turks to produce their yaourt. In the north 
 of Scotland, the Orkneys, and some parts of beland, 
 butternulk, or sour-milk, is allowed to stand till 
 fermentation begins, and an intoxicating liquor 
 results. The South-sea islanders prepare a B. from 
 the root of Macropiper methysticum, or the intoMcating 
 long pepper, which is called Ava {q. v.). 
 
 The successfiil brewing of B. depends much on the 
 kind of water employed. The water which is found 
 most suitable contains much common salt, sulphate 
 of hme, and carbonate of lime, in a state of solu- 
 tion. The waters employed in the most extensive 
 breweries contain at least 60 grains of earthy salts 
 dissolved in each imperial gallon. Great care must 
 be taken to select water which not only has the 
 proper amount of saline ingredients, but at the 
 same time is free from organic matter either of 
 animal or vegetable origin. Water containing such 
 is liable to the decomposition and putre&ction 
 of its constituents, and by contamination, causes the 
 B. prepared by means of it to be more liable to 
 go wrong in the brewing, and to possess ultimately 
 an unpleasant taste. 
 
 The employment of B., especially of that variety 
 known as Bitter-B., has recently rapidly advanced 
 in public estimation as a beverage and article of 
 diet. Bitter-B. acts as a tonic and slight stimulant, 
 and in many cases it is recommended by medical 
 men to convalescents in place of wine. Some 
 statistics regarding the consumption of the different 
 kinds of B., and other kindred beverages, will be 
 found under the head of Feembnted Liquors. 
 
 BEER ACTS. The 11 Geo. IV. and 1 Waiiam 
 IV. c. 64, the 4 and 5 William IV. c. 85, and the 
 3 and 4 Vict. c. 61, amended by the 11 and 12 Vict. 
 c. 49, s. 2, are commonly so called ; to which may 
 be added the 18 and 19 Vict. c. 118, restricting the 
 time for the sale of beer on Sundays and hoKdays. 
 By the first three of these acts (all relating to 
 England), every householder assessed to the poor- 
 rates, in any parish or place (and not being a 
 sheriff's officer, or officer employed to execute 
 judicial process), may, without any licence from 
 the magistrates, apply for and obtain an Excise 
 licence, to enable hirn to sell beer and cider, by 
 retail, at some house situate within such parish or 
 place, and specified in such licence. But in order to 
 obtain such hcence, the apphcant must produce an 
 overseer's certificate that he is the real resident, 
 holder, and occupier of such house, and rated to the 
 poor-rate in a certain amount; and must enteral into 
 a bond with one sufficient surety, in the penal sum 
 of £20, or two sufficient sureties in the penal sum of 
 £10 each, for the payment of such penalties as he 
 may incur under the acts ; and if he is also desirous 
 for permission that the liquor should be drunk on 
 the premises, he must, moreover, aimually deposit 
 with the commissioners of Excise (now the Board of 
 Inland Revenue), or other person authorised to grant 
 the licence, a certificate ' of good character,' signed 
 
 by six rated inhabitants of the parish, of whom none 
 shall be maltsters, common brewers, or licensed pub- 
 licans, or owners of licensed public-houses. But 
 such certificate is not necessary when the house to 
 be licensed is situate in Xondon or Westminster,_or 
 within the Mils of mortality (q. v. ) ; or within any city 
 or town corporate, or within one mile from the place 
 used at the lasb parliamentary eleotieJn, where the 
 population of such city or town exceeds five thou-' 
 sand; and no licence, on the other hand, may be 
 granted, even upon certificate, to sell in any such 
 city or town (whatever the population), unless the 
 house to be licensed is of the value of £10 per 
 annum. It is, moreover, required that every person 
 obtaining a licence shall paint conspicuously over 
 the door of his premises, in such form and manner ' 
 as the acts specify, his Christian name and surname 
 at full length, and the words ' Hcensed to sell beer 
 (or cider) by retail,' with the addition of 'to be 
 drunk on the premises,' or ' not to be drunk on the 
 premises,' as the case may be. Penalties are also 
 imposed on every retailer of beer or cider who shall 
 transgress, or allow to be transgressed, any of the 
 conditions of his licence; and the penalties are 
 generally recoverable before two jijstices. The 
 hcence to sell beer is confined to that particular 
 privilege ; and persons, under cover of it, attempting 
 to sell wines or spirits, are not only liable in a 
 heavy penalty, but may be deprived of their beer 
 licence. On the other hand, a licence to sell wines 
 and spirits cannot be granted unless the party 
 applying for it has previously obtained a beer 
 licence. 
 
 Subsequent legislation may be thus explained : 
 The latest governing act is the IS and 19 Vict. c. 
 US ; that act repeals m toto the previous one of the 
 17 and IS Vict. c. 79. But the object of the latter 
 is stated in its preamble to be to extend the benefits 
 of the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 49, which at first sight 
 might be imagined also to be repealed by the 18 and 
 19 Vict. But it is not so ; the 11 and 12 Vict, 
 remains in force, and it is only its extension by the 
 17 and 18 Vict., which has been repealed, so that the 
 IS and 19 Vict, and the 11 and 12 Vict, must, as 
 regards the sale of beer on Sundays and holidays, 
 be read together. The law thus enacted is as fol- 
 lows: No beer or other liquor mentioned in these 
 acts can be sold on Sundays or holidays before half- 
 past twelve in the afternoon of Sunday, or until the 
 conclusion of morning divine service in the principal 
 church or place of worship of the district. From 
 that time until three o'clock, beer or' other liquors 
 can be sold to the pubhc. Between the hours of 
 three and five, all beer-shops or other places where 
 beer and other Hquors may be sold, must be closed. 
 They may be reopened at five, and remain so open 
 tni eleven o'clock the same (Sunday or other holiday) 
 night, after which they must be closed, and not 
 reopened again tiU four o'clock on Monday morning. 
 
 ' The place where beer is exclusively sold is called 
 a beer-house, differing in this respect from an ale- 
 house, which means a place where other liquors as 
 well as beer are retailed. The term public-house 
 applies to both.' 
 
 The sale of beers or ales in Scotland is regu- 
 lated by the 44 Geo. IIL c. 55, the 48 Geo. IIL 
 c. 143, the 9 Geo. IV. c. 58, and the 16 and 17 
 Vict. c. 67, commonly called the ' Forbes Mackenzie 
 Act,' according to the regulations of which licences 
 are at present (1860) granted. By the form of 
 hcence thereby prescribed, no liquors of any Idnd 
 can be sold on Sunday in any inn, hotel, or 
 other pubhc-house, except to lodgers and bond-fide 
 travellers — an expression that has caused some diffi- 
 culty in construction. Various devices have been 
 attempted, in order to evade the stringency of the 
 
 811 
 
BEER— BEET. 
 
 latter provision, tlie most successful of wMch has been 
 the plan of forming clubs with a nominal entrance- 
 fee, where the members have stores of their own, 
 from which they can be supplied in the club-house.* 
 
 BEER, J. Meybb. See Meyeebbee. 
 
 BEBRBHOO'M, or BIRBHOO'M, a district in 
 the presidency of Bengal, with an area of 4370 
 square nules, and a population of 1,040,876. It 
 extends between N. lat. 23° .32' and 24° 40', and 
 between E. long. 86° 25' and 88° 30'. Though part 
 of B. is within 80 mUes from Calcutta, yet little is 
 known concerning it. The inhabitants are repre- 
 sented as generally a rude race, and there appear to 
 be hardly any places worthy of the name of towns. 
 
 BEER-MONEY is a peculiar payment to private 
 soldiers in the English army. It was established in 
 the year 1800, at the suggestion of the Duke of 
 York, and consisted of one penny per day for troops 
 when on home-service, as a substitute for an issue of 
 beer and spirits. It still continues as an addition to 
 the daily pay ; and something in the mode of keep- 
 ing military accounts induces the authorities to 
 allow it to figure as a separate item, instead of being 
 consolidated with the other elements of the soldier's 
 pay — for which, see Pay. 
 
 BEE'RSHBBA, or BIR-ES-SEBA ('well of the 
 oath,' or 'well of the seven'), so called because here 
 Abraham entered into an alliance with Abimelech, 
 king of Gerar, which he ratified with an oath and a 
 gift of seven ewe lambs. B. was situated on the 
 southern border of Palestine, about 52 miles south- 
 west from Jerusalem, and formed the limit in that 
 direction of the Israehtish dominion. It was one of 
 the most ancient as well as one of the most interest- 
 ing places in sacred record. WhUe Abraham resided 
 at this place, he received the command to sacrifice 
 Isaac, whose residence it also was. Esau was 
 robbed of his birthright aud blessing here, and here 
 Jacob sacrificed to God before departing into Egypt ; 
 the sons of Samuel were made judges here, and it 
 was from hence that Elijah was forced to flee into 
 the desert from Jezebel's wrath. After the captivity, 
 B. was occupied for some time by the Jews, and in 
 the 4th c. A.B., it was in Roman garrison. After- 
 wards, the Crusaders are said to have fortified it, 
 and" to have regarded it as a place of importance. 
 Two circular weUs of fine pure water — the largest 
 being 44 feet deep to the surface of the water, and 
 12i feet in diameter^and a heap of ruins about 
 £alf a mile Igpg and a quarter broad, remain to 
 » mark the place where B. once was. 
 
 BEB'SHA, a genus of grasses with the habit and 
 most of the characters of bamboos, but remarkable 
 for the fleshy pericarp which encloses the seed, 
 forming a sort of berry. The species are few, natives 
 of the Bast Indies. 
 
 BEES-WAS is principally obtained from the 
 Ordinary bee-hive, where it is elaborated by the 
 workers. See Bee. For some time, it was matter 
 of dispute whether the bees really mamifactured 
 the wax from other ingredients in their food, 
 or if they performed the simple task of carrying 
 the wax ready made from the plant to the hive. 
 It appears now to be definitely settled, that while, 
 in ordinary circumstances, bees may derive part 
 of the wax from plants, yet, when they are fed 
 entirely upon pure sugar, they continue to elaborate 
 
 * It is remarkable that the Forbes Mackenzie Act 
 does not expressly repeal, and, in fact, does not recite 
 or make mention of the 11 and 12 Vict. c. 49, by which 
 spirits and other liquors may be sold in Scotland_on 
 Sunday after half -past twelve, or at and after the con- 
 clusion of morning-service. But this latter act, of 
 course, must be held to be superseded by the former. 
 812 
 
 wax, and to bmld up the waUs and partitions of the 
 honey-comb. The wax procured from British hives 
 is considered the purest and best, but the smaUness 
 of the amount necessitates the importation of com- 
 paratively large quantities from North America, 
 Brazil, Singapore, Ceylon, Gambia, and Mogadore. 
 British B. is naturally of a yellow colour, whilst 
 that procured from foreign countries is darker in 
 tint ; and in the case of the wax from Brazil, which, 
 is yielded by a species of jjlack bee hiving under 
 ground, the colour is a dark mahogany, and the 
 material is soft and tenacious. In the separation of 
 the honey from the wax, the honey-comb is subjected 
 to pressure, which squeezes out most of the honey; 
 the residual comb is then treated with water, and 
 heated, with constant stirring, till the wax melts, 
 when the whole is passed through hair-bags. The 
 wax is received in a vessel of cold water, where it is 
 at the same time washed, and cooled down till it 
 solidifies, as a thick cake, on the surface of the water. 
 For many purposes, it is necessary to bleach the wax, 
 and the common method is to- obtain it in thin 
 sheets or ribbons, by melting it under water, and 
 pouring it upon horizontal wooden cylinders, which 
 are kept revolving half iromersed in water in a 
 perforated vessel. The sheets or ribbons of wax 
 so obtained are laid out upon a field with a southern 
 aspect, and being repeatedly watered, are subjected 
 to the joint action of the sun's rays, the ozone of the 
 air, and moisture. In a short time, the wax loses 
 its yellow tint, and becomes white. Attempts have 
 been made to perform the bleaching more expedi- 
 tiously by employing chlorine, bleaching-powder, 
 and other chemical agents. The only process which 
 appears not to injure the wax is to melt it, 
 and for every pound add two ounces of pulver- 
 ised nitrate of soda, and one ounce oil of vitriol, 
 diluted previously with eight ounces of water. 
 While the latter is gradually poured in, heat is 
 appUed, and the whole mixtm-e swells up, neces- 
 sitating the employment of a capacious' vessel. On 
 cooling, the wax gathers on the surface, and being 
 repeatedly treated with hot water, to wash away 
 impurities, is finally allowed to soKdify in a cake. 
 
 Purified B. has a density of 960 to 966, and is 
 therefore lighter than water, which is taken as 1000. 
 In thin sHces, it is translucent, and is tasteless, 
 odourless, aud colourless. At 32° P., it is hard, 
 brittle, and solid. When heated to 85°— 90° 
 F., it softens, and can then be kneaded between 
 the fingers like moist dough or putty, and at 
 145° F. it fuses, and becomes a true liquid. It is 
 insoluble in water, and is partly soluble in boiling 
 alcohol, and partly not. The alcoholic solution, 
 which takes up about 80 to 90 per cent, of the wax, 
 contains principally a substance called cerine, which 
 separates in crystals as the solution cools, and 
 ceroleine, which remains dissolved in the cold 
 alcohol. The matter which resists the solvent 
 action of the alcohol is a substance called myridne, 
 B. is largely used in the manufacture of wax-candles 
 and tapers ; aud though it has recently been very 
 much excluded from the manufacture of ordinary 
 caudles, from the readiness with which first-class 
 composite candles can be made indirectly from 
 tallow, yet it is often used as one of the ingredients 
 in composite candles to impart hardness to the 
 manufactured article. The very large caudles used 
 id Roman Catholic countries for church-services, are 
 always made of wax alone. 
 
 BEET (Beta), a, genus of plants of the natural 
 ord,er Ghenopodiacece (q. v.), distinguished by a 
 5-cleft perianth, five stamens inserted on a, fleshy 
 ring surrounding the ovary, and the fridt adhering 
 to the calyx, and collected in clusters of two or 
 three. The species are not numerous; they are 
 
BEET-PL Y—BEETHO VEK. 
 
 mostly biennials, with smooth, ovate, stalked root- 
 leaves, and tall, leafy, flowering-stems. They are 
 natives of the temperate parts of the Old World. 
 The Common B. {B. vulgaris) is a native of the 
 shores of the Mediterranean, but is now in very 
 general cultivation both in fields and gardens, ohieily 
 for the sake of its large sucouleut and generally 
 carrot-shaped roots, which are used as food both for 
 man and for cattle, and from which also sugar is 
 largely extracted on the continent of Europe. Beet- 
 roots may be substituted for malt, when deprived of 
 the greater part of their juice by pressm'e. The 
 variety chiefly cultivated in gardens is laiown as 
 Red B., from the colour of the root, which also 
 more or less appears in the leaves and leaf-stalks. 
 The subvarieties are very nimierous. In some, the 
 root is rather turnip-shaped than carrot-shaped, and 
 the size and colour also vary much, some being of 
 a deep blood-red, or even almost blackish oolom-, 
 both externally anS. internally ; and others of a much 
 lighter red, and internally, even white. It forms a 
 favourite pickle, and is also very agreeable as a 
 boiled vegetable when properly dressed. The seed 
 is sown so late in spring, that the plants may not 
 produce flowering stems the first year, which, when 
 it occurs, renders the root fibrous and useless. — 
 Mangold-wtjbzel (q. v.), so valuable as a field- 
 crop for food of cattle, is, in general, regarded as 
 merely a larger and coarser variety of the common 
 B., in which the red colour is comparatively little 
 exhibited, although some botanists have, on very 
 slender grounds, endeavoured to erect it uito a 
 distinct species. — The White B. of our gardens 
 (B. cicla of some botanists) is now also generally 
 supposed to be a mere variety of the common 
 B.,' with little or no red in its roots or leaves, 
 and a »comparatively slender root. It is cultivated 
 for the salie of its leaves, which are used in the 
 same manner as spinach, and form an excellent 
 substitute for it, especially in the beginning of 
 spring. The leaf-staUis and midribs (cliards) of the 
 leaves, especially of n variety in which these parts 
 are unusually developed, axe also dressed for the 
 table. — Sea-B. (B. maritima) grows wild upon the 
 shores of Britain, and differs from the common B. 
 in its perennial root, its partly prostrate stems, and 
 other characters. The leaves are used for food in 
 Ireland, as are als6 those of B. Bmgalends in the 
 East Indies. 
 
 BEET-FLY (Antlwmyia Betm), an insect which 
 infests crops of mangold-wurzel, and other kinds 
 of beet, depositing its eggs on the leaves, the soft 
 parts of which thelarvse devour, causing them to 
 assume a -blistered appearance, and when numer- 
 ous, injuring the health of the plants. It' is a two- 
 ivinged insect (see Dipteea), of the great family 
 Miisades, of which the co mm on house-fly may be 
 regarded as the type, and belongs to a genus of 
 which more than 100 British species are known, 
 ' the larvae of some of which are well known as feed- 
 ing upon the roots of cabbages, turnips,' &c. See 
 Cajseaoe-Fly, Tukmf-Fly, and Potato-Fly. It 
 is not so large as the common house-fly. 
 
 BBETHOVEN, Ludwig vak, the unrivalled 
 composer, whose works have made a new epoch 
 in the development of music, was bom at Bonn, 
 December 17, 1770, and died in Vienna, March 26, 
 1827. His father, a tenor-singer in the elector[s 
 chapel at Bonn, began to cultivate the genius of his 
 son when only five years of age. He next placed 
 him under the court-organist. Van Eden, and shortly 
 after under the composer Neefe. In his eighth year 
 he created astonishment by his performance on the 
 violin ; when only eleven, he played the music in 
 Bach's WoHtemperirtesKlavier; and in his thirteenth 
 
 year he published, at Manheim, a volume of varia- 
 tions on a march, songs, and sonatas. In 1792, he 
 was sent to Vienna by his patron, the Elector of 
 Cologne, to enjoy the instructions of Haydn, who 
 first made him acquainted with the works of Handel. 
 He also studied composition under Albrechtsberger. 
 There he soon attracted notice by his extraordinary 
 ability as an extempore player of fantasias, and also 
 by some compositions, which, however, did not 
 escape the censure of critics. He became so much 
 attached to Vienna, that, after hia patron's death in 
 1801, he determined to remain, and declined an 
 invitation to England. In 1809, when another offer 
 tempted him to leave Vienna, several friends of 
 music, with the Archduke Eudolf at their head, 
 raised a subscription to provide for the composer a 
 pension sufficient to retain him. At Vienna, there- 
 fore, he stayed dixring the remainder of his life, 
 secluded from the world, of which he knew as little 
 as it knew of him ; and in later years, stiU more 
 isolated from society by a defect of hearing, which 
 gradually became confirmed into entire deafness. In 
 this sad inviolable solitude, he produced his new 
 symphonies, hia sublime overtures, his quintetta and 
 quartetts, so full of profound conceptions aad mys- 
 terious revelations of the highest harmonica, and 
 his pianoforte sonatas, which express, sometimes, a, 
 peculiar train of feelings, at other times appear to 
 represent his own recluse character. Shut out in 
 a large measure from the ordinary pleasures of Hfe, 
 ignoraht of the aweetneaa of married life, and able 
 to enjoy only in a slender measure social inter- 
 course, he retired for compensation into the world 
 of his own imagination, and brought forth from its 
 deep resources those treasures of harmony which, 
 though at first received with a shy astonishment 
 rather than a cordial admiration, are now ranked 
 among the works of art which cannot die. These 
 new forms and original creations, which display B.'a 
 majestic powers m music, were only gradually 
 developed ; in hia early productions, he submitted 
 to established forms of composition. 
 
 The worlis of B. may be divided into three classes, 
 or may be assigned to three distinct periods of his 
 intellectual development. All the works of his 
 first period, though important, shew the influence of 
 his teacher Haydn, or of hia more highly esteemed 
 model, Mozart. This period of composition may be 
 said to extend to his 16th orchestral work, including, 
 besides several pianoforte sonatas, trios for piano- 
 forte and for stringed instruments. All these early 
 works display the highest cultivation of the forms 
 and principles of art previously established in the 
 Viennese school of music. — The second period of 
 B.'s artistic life, in which his genius was completely 
 selt-rehant, extends from the 16th to the 80th work. 
 This was certainly the most productive and briUiant 
 part of his career. To it belong his greatest crea- 
 tions, his magnificent and powerful orchestral works 
 — symphonies, overtiu-es, &o. — all of which display 
 the highest quaUties of imaginative composition. 
 Besides the great orchestral works, it includes many 
 sonatas for pianoforte, and various compositions of 
 chamber-music — septetts, quintetta, quartetts, trios, 
 serenades, &c. In dramatic composition, B. pro- 
 duced only one opera, but this was Fidelia, the first 
 truly German musical work of a dramatic character. 
 This was the result of great study, and, as it is now- 
 given, is the reconstruction of an earlier composi- 
 tion. Other dramatic pieces are — ^the overture, inter- 
 ludes, and melodramatic music in Goethe's Egmont, 
 and the instrumental music and choruses in the 
 Ruins of Athens. — In the third and last period of 
 B.'a career we find those two gigantic works, the 
 Missa Solemnis in D Minor, and the ninth symphony 
 (D minor) with chorus. These works transcend 
 ^ 813 
 
BEETLE— BBFFANA. 
 
 all common laws and forms, and belong to the 
 highest sphere of art. Their deep mysteries can be 
 apprehended only by those who have deep emotions 
 and profound technical knowledge of music. Other 
 works of this last class approach those just men- 
 , tioned, though they do not reach the same elevation. 
 But all are alike in passing far beyond the ordinary 
 traditional foi-ms of art. All are pervaded by an 
 impulse as of inspiration. Among these works may 
 be mentioned, the great quartette for bow-instru- 
 ments (mostly pubhshed after the death of B.), the 
 grand overtures — works 115 and 124 — and several 
 sonatas for pianoforte, especially that in Bb major. 
 
 The life of B. has been written by Schlosser 
 (Prag. 1828), Ries, Wegeler, Schindler (MUnster, 
 1845), and Moscheles (2 vols., Lond. 1841). 
 
 BBB'TLB, a name popularly applied to many 
 kinds of coleopterous insects. It is never extended 
 to insects of any other order, and it is sometimes 
 used in works on natural history as a common name 
 for all coleopterous insects; but this makes it to 
 include many kinds to which it is not popularly 
 applied, as fireflies, lady-birds, weevUs, oantharides, 
 &c. It is also employed by some authors in a more 
 restricted sense, as a designation of the insects form- 
 ing the large tribe Searaicmdes ; but the restriction, 
 equally with the extension, is an interference with the 
 popular use of the English word, of which, however, 
 the limits are very uncertain. To frame an article, 
 with strict regard to that popular use, and at the 
 same time to science, would not be easy, nor would 
 it be profitable, as the assemblage of kinds would be 
 not only large, but very miscellaneous. We think 
 it better to refer to the article Coleoptbea, and to 
 the articles Scaeab^ides, Bombabdieb Beetle, 
 Stag Beetle, BuBmsro Beetle, Goliath Beetle, 
 Boss Beetle, &c. The name Black Beetle is 
 often given to the Cockboach (q. v.). See also 
 Blaps. 
 
 BEE'TLB-STONES, the name given by the 
 lapidaries of Edinburgh to hard nodules of clay 
 ironstone, found abundantly in a low cliff, composed 
 of shale, at Newhaven, or strewed upon the beach in 
 that neighbourhood. They take a beautiful poHsh, 
 and have been employed to make letter-weights and 
 other ornamental articles. The name was given in 
 consequence of the supposed origin of the fossil which 
 is of most frequent occurrence as the nucleus of the 
 nodules, which, however, is not a fossil beetle, but a 
 coproHte (q. v.). Some of the nodules contain a 
 fossil fish, and some a fossO of vegetable origin. 
 
 BBB'TLISTGr is a finishing mechanical process 
 applied originally to linen shirting, and afterwards 
 to cotton shirting, in imitation of linen, to give the 
 cloth a hard and wiry look, by flattening the yam 
 irregularly in an angled manner. This is done by 
 the rising and falling of upright wooden stampers, 
 placed close together in a row, with their square 
 buts resting on a roller over which the cloth passes 
 imder them, doubled in a particular way so as to 
 
 f've the yam an angled appearance when struck, 
 he stampers are worked by the rotation of a 
 horizontal shaft, actiug with tapets, like the cylinder 
 of a barrel-organ. 
 
 Linen weft is likewise beetled, but by hand- 
 hammering, on a large flat stone, with a Wooden 
 maJlet, to soften the yam for easiness of working it, 
 or 'getting.it on,' in the language of the craft, in 
 weaving. Beetling is likewise a process in flax- 
 dressing, to separate the woody from the flexible 
 fibres of the plant. See FLAX-DRESSlNa. 
 
 BEET-ROOT SUGAR. See Stoab. The sugar 
 
 obtained from the beet is similar to cane-sugar, but 
 
 inferior in sweetening power. Beet-root contains on 
 
 an average about 10 per cent, of saccharine matter 
 
 BU 
 
 (sugar-cane, 18 per cent.) ; of the varieties, the 
 white Schleswic beet is the richest. To obtain the 
 sugar, the roots, after being washed, are first rasped 
 down by machines, so as to tear up the cells. The 
 pulp is then put into bags, and the juice is squeezed 
 out by presses. The juice is next treated with lime 
 or sulphuric acid, to clarify it, and also filtered till 
 no deposit is formed ; after^ which it is boiled in large 
 boilers to concentrate it. When it has attained a 
 certain density (25° Beaumg), it is poured through 
 flannel, and is now a dark-coloured sirup, which, in 
 order to yield pure sugar, must be deprived of its 
 colouring-matter and mucilage. This is efiected by 
 filtering it through animal charcoal or bone-black. 
 The filtered juice is now .treated with lime-water 
 beat up with a little white of egg to a lather, tiU it 
 is slightly alkaline, and is then further concentrated 
 by boihng in copper pans, care being taken to stir 
 and scum it all tiie while. When sufficiently con- 
 centrated, it is put into vessels, and allowed to stand 
 several days in a warm room to crystallise ; the 
 uncrystaUised part, or molasses, is then drained ofi', 
 and what remains is raw sugar. This is stiU further 
 refined by again dissolving and treating it with 
 albumen and blood. In separating the crystallised 
 from the uncrystaUised part, centrifugal machines 
 are now much used. Another improvement is the 
 vacuum-pan, which allows the juice to be boiled 
 down without burning. The molasses drained off 
 from beet-root sugar has a disagreeable taste, and 
 cannot be used for sweetening, like cane molasses. 
 
 About the middle of the 18th c, Marggraf, an 
 apothecary in Berhn, drew attention to the sugar 
 contained in beet-root ; but Achard, the Prussian 
 chemist, was the first who was tolerably successful 
 in extracting it. StUl, as only 2 or 3 per cent, of 
 sugar was obtained, the product did not pay the 
 cost, until Napoleon's continental system raised the 
 price of sugar, and gave rise to improved methods 
 of manufacturing it. Even after the fall of Napo- 
 leon, protective duties kept alive this manufacture 
 in Prance ; and when numerous improvements of 
 method had raised the percentage of sugar realised 
 to about 5 lb. from 100 lb. of beet, it took a fresh 
 start (about 1825) in France and Belgium, was 
 revived in Germany, and spread even to Russia. 
 The falling off of the customs' duties on the import 
 of colonial sugar obliged the German governments 
 to impose a small duty on beet-sugar, which checked 
 the manufacture for a time ; but owing to the pro- 
 tective measures of the ZoUvereki, it is now more 
 flourishing than ever, though it is not disputed that 
 its prosperity is that of a hot-house plant, and is 
 purchased at a loss. In M'.Culloch's Commercial 
 Dictionary, the produce of beet-root sugar, on the 
 continent of Europe, in 1858, is estimated at 230,000 
 tons, that of cane-sugar for the same year being 
 1,250,000 tons. 
 
 BBFFA'NA, a corruption of Epipliania (Epiph- 
 any), is the name given in Italy to a singular custom 
 prevailing on Three Kings' Day (see BEAif Kjwg's 
 Festival), oa Twelfth Night (q. v.). According to 
 tradition, the B. was an old woman who, being busy 
 cleaning the house when the three wise men of the 
 East passed by on their way to offer their treasures 
 to the infant Saviour, excused herself for not going 
 out to see them on the ground that she would have 
 an opportunity of doing so when they returned. 
 They, however, went home by another way; and 
 the B., not knowing this, has ever since been watch- 
 ing for their return. She is supposed to take a great 
 interest in children, who on Twelfth Night are put 
 earlier to bed,, and a stocking of each is hung before 
 the fire. Shortly, the cry ' Ecco la B.' is raised; and 
 the children, who have not gone to sleep, dart out of 
 bed, and seize their stockings, in which each finds a 
 
BEFFKOI^BEaAS. 
 
 present bearing some proportion in value to his 
 conduct during the year. If any one has been con- 
 spicuously ill behaved, he finds his stocking full of 
 ashes — ^the method the B. takes of expressing her 
 disapprobation. It was also customary in Italy, on 
 Twelfth Night, to carry an effigy called the B. in 
 procession through the streets amid great rejoicings; 
 but this, which was probably the relic of the 
 celebration of a middle-age 'mystery,' haa fallen 
 greatly into disuse. The word is also used to awe 
 naughty children. 
 
 BE'PPROI, or BELTTtY, was the name of a 
 tower used in the military sieges of ancient and 
 medieval times. When a town was to be besieged, 
 a movable tower, as high as the walls, was brought 
 near it; and this tower was the beifroi. Its use 
 is more than once spoken of by Caasar in his account 
 of his campaigns in Gaul. Froissart describes, with 
 his usual spirit, a B. employed at the siege of the 
 castle of Breteml in 1356. At the siege of Jeru- 
 salem by the Crusaders, a B. was carried in pieces, 
 put together just beyond bow-shot, and then pushed 
 
 Beffroi, or Breaching Tower. — Prom Grose's Military Antiqmties. 
 
 on wheels to a proper position. The object of such 
 towers was to cover the approach of troops. Some- 
 times they were pushed on by pressure, sometiines 
 by capstans and ropes. The highest were on 
 six or eight wheels, and had as many as twelve or 
 fifteen stories or stages; but it was usual to limit 
 the height to three or four stages. They were 
 often covered with raw hides, to protect them 
 from the flames of boiling grease and oil directed 
 against them by the besieged; and there was a 
 hmged drawbridge at the top, to let down upon 
 the parapet of the wall, to aid in landing. The lower 
 stage frequently had a ram (see Battering Eam) ; 
 while the others were crowded with archers, arba- 
 lestiers, and slingers ; or there were bowmen on all 
 the stages except the top, which had a storming or 
 boarding party. During the wars under Charles I., 
 the royalists made a B. to aid in the besieging of 
 a town or castle in Herefordshire; it was higher 
 than the defence-works, and was provided with 
 loopholes, a bridge, &c. ; b»t the Koundheads 
 
 captured it before it could be applied to use. 
 Ducange thinks that the name of beli^ (q- v.) given 
 to a bell-tower, was derived from the warlike 
 machine called the beffroi or belfry. 
 
 BEG, or BEY, a Turkish title, rather vague in its 
 import, and commonly given to superior military 
 officers, ship-captains, aM distinguished foreigners. 
 More strictly, it applies to the governor of a small 
 district, who bears a horse-tail as a sign of his rank. 
 The governor of Tunis has this title. — ' Beglerbeg,' 
 or, more correctly, Beilerbegi ('lord of lords'), is the 
 title given to the governor of a province who bears 
 three horse-tails as his badge of honour, and has 
 authority over several begs, agas, &c. This superior 
 title belongs to the governors of KumeUa, Anatolia, 
 and Syria. 
 
 BEGAS, KIael, court-painter to the king of 
 Prussia, professor and member of the Academy of 
 Art in Berlin, was bom there in 1794. He had been 
 destined for the law, but early manifested a love for 
 
 815 
 
BEGGAR. 
 
 art, and while at Bonn, received his first lessons in 
 painting from Philippart. In 1811, he proceeded 
 to Paris, and there spent eighteen months in the 
 studio of the celebrated Gros. In 1815, Frederick- 
 William III., on the occasion of his visit to Paris, 
 bought a large original painting by B., ' Job 
 surrounded by his Friends,' and gave him two com- 
 missions for different churches in Berlin. This led 
 to his moving thither in 1818, and to his subse- 
 quently residmg in Italy at the ting's expense. 
 On his return to BerHn in 1825, he painted a great 
 many biblical subjects for churches, as well as other 
 pictures. He died 23d November 1854. There 
 are frescoes of colossal size by him in the new 
 church of Saorow, near Potsdam. He is especially 
 distinguished for the animation and individuality 
 of his portraits, and has painted for the king 
 a gallery of celebrated authors and artists, in- 
 cluding Humboldt, Schelling, &c. Several of his 
 genre paintings have been rendered familiar by 
 repeated engravings; and his works, in general, are 
 eminent for expression, rich colouring, and a 
 peculiarly clear chiaro oscuro. 
 
 BB'GGAK, a person who solicits charitable aid 
 from the public at large. The word is supposed to 
 have some connection with the fraternity known as 
 Beghards. See Bbguhst. The actual begging or solici- 
 tation of temporal aid became, however, so conspi- 
 cuous a feature among these mendicant orders, that 
 the term originally applied to their sacred duties 
 seems at a very early period to have acquired its 
 modern vulgar acceptation. There is no class of 
 men who have had their lot ahd condition so varied 
 by ethnical and social conditions as beggars. In a 
 civilised industrious country, the B., to have any 
 chance of rehef, must manage to get it believed, 
 whether it be trvfi or false, that he is on the verge 
 of want, and requires the soHcited alms to keep him 
 from starvation. Among oriental nations, on the 
 other hand, beggars have often been a potent class, 
 who may be rather considered as endowed with the 
 privilege of taxing their fellow-creatures, than as 
 objects of compassion. It has sometimes been sup- 
 posed that a residue of this feeling of superiority 
 characterises the mental physiology even of the 
 mendicant of civilisation, and that, abject as he 
 seems, he considers himself to some extent a privi- 
 leged person, entitled to support from Ms fellows, 
 without being amenable to the slavish drudgery by 
 which the working-classes hve. In Europe, dtiring 
 the middle ages, those doctrines of Christianity 
 which are intended to teach us to abjure selfishness 
 and worldly -miudedness, were exaggerated into a 
 profession of total abstraction from worldly cares and 
 pursuits. Hence arose the large body of religionists 
 who, as hermits or members of the mendicant orders, 
 lived on the contributions of others. In later times, 
 the mendicant orders became the proudest and the 
 richest of the clergy ; but while the chiefs lived in 
 afiluence, the practices of the lower adherents 
 fostered throughout Europe a system of mendicancy 
 very inimical to civilisation and industrial progress. 
 In Great Britain its evil results have been long felt, 
 in the inveterate estabhshment of practices naturally 
 out of harmony with the independent, industrious 
 character of the British people. Ever since the 
 Reformation, the British laws have had a, death- 
 struggle with the B. ; but neither by the kindness of 
 a hberal poor-law, nor by the severity of a merciless 
 criminal code, have they been able to suppress him. 
 When a country provides, as Britain does, that no one 
 shall be permitted to starve, it would naturally be 
 expected that the springs of miscellaneous charity 
 would be dried. But it is not so, and it is indeed 
 often plausibly urged, that entirely to supersede all 
 aic' " ' indly generosity between man and man, 
 
 through rigid legal provisions, must lower the stan- 
 dard of human character, by depriving it of all 
 opportunity for the exercise of the generous emo- 
 tions. It is clear that, m the light of political eco- 
 nomy, promiscuous charity is the most costly and 
 most corrupting way of administering relief to indi- 
 gence. No one wUl maintain that the idle B. on the 
 street deserves such a luxurious table as the indus- 
 trious mechanic cannot afford to himself. But, at 
 the same time, no one who drops a coin in a beggar's 
 hat can say how many others' may be deposited 
 there during the day, and whether the B. is merely 
 drawing a wretched pittance, or deriving a good 
 income. Begging being a trade, it is not always 
 those who are the poorest, but those who are the 
 most expert, who will practise it to the best results. 
 The great object is to seize on and appropriate any 
 characteristic calculated, whether permanently or 
 temporarily, to excite compassion. Hence periods 
 of general distress are often the harvest of the B., 
 and his trade rises and falls in an inverse ratio with 
 that of the working community. Times of pros- 
 perity are not favourable to him, because he is then 
 told that there is plenty of work for him. But 
 when workmen are dismissed in thousands, and 
 their families turned on the road to seek alms, the 
 professional beggars, by their superior skill and 
 experience, will be sure to draw the prizes in the 
 distribution. Many surprising statements have been 
 made of the large incomes made by skilful profes- 
 sional beggars, especially in London. The most 
 remarkable anecdotes on the subject will be foimd 
 in Grose's Olio, whence they have often been 
 repeated. Attempts have been made, but with 
 questionable success, to set forth an average state- 
 ment of the earnings in different departments of the 
 B. trade. A good deal of information of this kind 
 will be found in the Report of the Constabidary 
 Force Com&iission of 1839 (see p. 60, et' seq.). It 
 does not appear, however, that this trade is, like 
 others, dependent on the law of supply and demand. 
 The B. generally is so constitutionally, whether 
 from hereditary or other physical causes. He has a 
 loathing, even to horror, of steady systematic labour, 
 and he wiU rather submit to all the hardships and 
 privations of the wanderer's lot, than endure this 
 dreaded evil. 
 
 Beggabs, The Law of Englaud Relating to, 
 is regulated by the 5 Geo. IV. c. 83 (amended 
 in regard to other points by the 1 and 2 Vict. 
 c. 38). By the third section of the 5 Geo. IV. it is 
 enacted that every person wandering abroad, or 
 placing him or her self in any public place, street, 
 highway, coiurt, or passage, to beg or gather alms, 
 or causing or procuring, or encouraging any child 
 or children so to do, shaU be deemed an idle and 
 disorderly person; and it shall be lawful for any 
 justice of the peace to commit such offender to 
 the house of correction, there to be kept for any 
 time not exceeding one calendar month. And by 
 section 4, it is further provided that any person so 
 convicted, and offending in the same way again, 
 shall be deemed a rogue and a vagabond, and may 
 be punished by being committed to the house of 
 correction for three months, with hard labour; and 
 by the same section, every person wandering abroad 
 and endeavouring, by the exposure of wounds or 
 deformities, to obtain or gather alms, and every 
 person going about as a gatherer or collector of 
 alms, or endeavouring to procure charitable con- 
 tributions of any nature or kind under any false or 
 fraudulent pretence, shall be deemed a rogue and 
 vagabond, and be punishable as before mentioned. 
 By section 15, however, of- the same act, the visiting 
 justices of any county jail, house of correction, 
 or other prison, may grant certificates to persons 
 
BEGGAE-MY-NEIGHBOUR-BEGTASHI. 
 
 discharged, to receive alms on their route to their 
 places of settlement; but if such persons shall act 
 in a manner contrary to the directions or provisions 
 of their oertifioates, or shall loiter upon their route, 
 or shall deviate therefrom, they shall be deemed 
 rogues and vagabonds, and punished accordingly; 
 and section 16 enacts that no justice of the peace, 
 mayor, or other magistrate, shall grant such a certi- 
 fiqate, or for any purpose whatever, to persons other 
 than those entitled thereto under the 43 Geo. III. 
 c. 61, that is, bjr sections 1, 2, and 3 to soldiers, 
 sailors, and mariners, and the wives of soldiers ; 
 and by section 4, it is provided that certificates or 
 passes from the Admiralty or War-office to dis- 
 charged sailors, soldiers, or marines, or to the fami- 
 lies of sailors, soldiers, or marines serving abroad, or 
 lately deceased, to carry them to their respective 
 homes, shaU have the same effect as certificates 
 allowed by sections 1, 2, and 3. 
 
 The attempt or purpose to obtain money or alms 
 by means of shows or entertainments on the 
 streets of London, is also an offence under -the 
 Metropolitan Pohoe Act, 2 and 3 Vict. c. 47, s. 54 
 (No. 14), and punishable by a fine of forty shillings. 
 
 In the Scotch law, there are many severe statutes 
 of the Scotch Parliament against beggars and vaga- 
 bonds, all of which, along with the proclamations of 
 the Scotch Privy Council on the same subject, are 
 renewed and ratified by the act 1698, c. 21, which 
 forms the existing Scotch law in regard to beggars. 
 The Scotch Poor-law Amendment Act, 8 and 
 9 Vict. c. 83, contains no provision on the subject. 
 Anciently, in Scotland, legal permission to beg was 
 given to certain sick and infirm poor persons, and 
 in the reign of James V., a system of iohms for the 
 same purpose was established. — See Burn's Justice 
 of Oie Peace, vol. vi. ; Charnock's Police Guide, 
 Cunlop's Parochial Law of Scotland, Lorimer's 
 Hand-booh of tJie Scotch Law, and the works and 
 authorities referred to in these publications. 
 
 BEGGAE-MY-NBIGHBOUR, a game at cards 
 usually played by two persons, between whom the 
 cards are divided. Holding their cards with the 
 backs upwards, the players lay down a card alter- 
 nately, until an honour is played, which is paid for 
 by the adversary — four cards for an ace, three for a 
 king, two for a queen, and one for a knave; such 
 payment being made, the winner lifts the trick. If, 
 however, an honour should be laid down during the 
 payment, then the opposite party must pay for that 
 in the same way ; and so on, till a payment is made 
 without an honour. The game is played chiefly by 
 children. 
 
 BEGHA'RMI, or BAGI'RMI, a country in Cen- 
 tral Africa, bounded on the N. by Lake Tsad ; on 
 the W. by the Shari, or Great B,iver, which divides 
 it from the kingdom of Bomou ; and on the £. by 
 the Waday kingdom. It extends southward to 
 about lat. 10° N. Its greatest length is about 240 
 miles, and its breadth 150. The whole of B. Proper 
 is flat, with a slight inclination towards the north — 
 its general elevation being about 1000 feet above 
 the level of the sea. The outlying provinces in the 
 south-east are slightly mountainous. B. has three 
 considerable rivers flowing through and along its 
 borders — the BSnuwg, Logon, and Shari ; the last of 
 which, augmented by the Logon, is upwards of 600 
 yards across at Mele. There is, in general, however, 
 the utmost scarcity of water in the country, and the 
 inhabitants guard their weUs with jealous care. The 
 BoU is partly composed of sand, and partly of lime, and 
 produces the grain and fruit common to countries 
 of Central Africa. Worms and ants are very destruc- 
 tive to the crops. The ants appear to be a perfect 
 pest. Dr Barth describes them as eating through 
 62 
 
 his matting and carpeting, and he had the utmost 
 difficulty m preserving his goods from entire 
 destruction by them. The total popidation is 
 about a million and a half. From the numeroua 
 deserted villages with which the traveller con- 
 stantly meets, the population would appear to have 
 been much greater at one time. Mohammedanism 
 has been introduced among them, but many are still 
 pagans, and all are grossly superstitious. The only 
 mdustrial arts are weaving and^^dyeing. Physically, 
 they are a fine race of people, superior to the tribes 
 around them, the women being especially handsome. 
 The men are subject to a peculiar disease in the 
 little toe, called ' mukS.rdam.' It seems to be caused 
 by a worm, which eats the toe away. One in ten 
 of the male population are said to have lost their 
 little toes through this cause. The sultan is 
 absolute in his own dominions, and several smaller 
 states are tributary to him ; and he, in his turn, is 
 tributary to the more powerful ruler of Bomou. 
 The fighting-force of the kingdom is about 13,000 
 men. Masena (q. v.), the capital, has a circum- 
 ference of about 7 miles. — Barth's Travels in Central 
 Africa. 
 
 BE'GKOS, or BEI'KOS, a large village of Anatolia, 
 on the Bosphorus, 8 miles north-north-east of Scu- 
 " tari, said to be the locality of the contest between 
 Pollux and Amyous, in which the latter was killed. 
 See Argonauts. At the commencement of the 
 Crimean war, the Allied fleets anchored in B. Bay, 
 prior to their entering the Black Sea in January 
 1854. 
 
 BE'GLERBEG. See Beg. 
 
 BEGONIA'CE.(E, a natural order of exogenous 
 plants, the place of which in the system is doubtful, 
 but is supposed by Lindley to be near Oucurbitacece 
 (q. v.). The B. are herbaceous or sufiruticose plants, 
 with alternate leaves, which are oblique at the base, 
 and have large dry stipules. The flowers are in 
 cymes, unisexual, the perianth coloured, with four 
 unequal divisions in the male flowers, and five or 
 eight in the female; the stamens are numerous; 
 the fruit is membranous, 'winged, 3-celled, bursting 
 by slits at the base, the seeds minute. — The order, 
 contains about 160 known species, all of which have 
 pink flowers. They are almost all tropical plants, 
 and some of them are often to be seen in British 
 hot-houses ; but a small species of Begonia ascends 
 the Himalaya to at least 11,500 feet, often growing 
 on the trunks of trees. The leaves of the Begonias 
 have a reddish tinge. The leaves and young stems 
 are succulent and acid, and those of B. Maldbarica, 
 B. tuberosa, and other species, are used as pot-herbs, 
 or in tarts. The juicy stalks of a large species 
 found in Sikkim, at an elevation of five or six thou- 
 sand feet, are mentioned by Dr Hooker as employed 
 to make a pleasant acid sauce. This, and the 
 small Himalayan species already mentioned, would 
 probably succeed in the climate of Britain. The 
 roots of some are used in their native countries as 
 astringents, and some of the Mexican species are 
 used as drastic purgatives. 
 
 BBG-SHE'HR, a fresh-water lake of Asia Minor, 
 Karamania, 44 miles south-west of Koniyeh, pre- 
 sumed to be the ancient Caralitis. It is about 20 
 miles long, and from 5 to 10 mUes broad. It con- 
 tains many islands, and discharges itself by a river of 
 the same name into Lake Soglah. On its east and 
 north shores are the towns of Begshehr and Kereli, 
 the old Caralio, which issued imperial coins, and 
 which is also supposed to have occupied the site of 
 Pamphylia. 
 
 BEGTA'SHI, a religious order in the Ottoman 
 empire, which had its origin in the 14th c. The 
 name is believed to be derived from that of a 
 
 817 
 
BEGUINES— BEHAIM. 
 
 celebrated dervise, Hadji Begtaah, to whom also the 
 order appears to owe ita institution. The members use 
 secret signs and pass- words aa means of recognition, 
 in the same way as is done by the masonic orders, 
 some of them indeed appearing to be identical with 
 those of freemasonry. Although numbering many 
 thousands of influential persona in its ranka, the 
 society does not appear to exercise any material 
 influence ia the religion or politics of Turkey. 
 
 BE'GUINES, BBGUI'N^, or BEGU'TT^, the 
 name of the earliest of all lay societies of women 
 united for pious purposes. The reason of their 
 origin is not quite certain, but it is usually attri- 
 buted — in part, at least — ^to the disproportion in 
 the numbers of men and women which was occa- 
 sioned by the Crusades. These wars had robbed 
 Christendom of thousands of its most vigorous sons, 
 and left multitudes of widows and maidens, to 
 whom life had henceforth something of a solemn 
 and sorrowful aspect, and who therefore betook 
 themselves, in earnest and aflfectionate piety, to 
 ' the charities and duties of religion. The origin of 
 the wqrd is doubtful. The popular tradition of 
 Brabant since the 17th c, that a St Begga, daughter 
 of Pepin, and sister of St Gertrude, founded, in 696, 
 the first sisterhood of B. at Namur, has no hastorical 
 basis. Halhnann has also shewn that the supposed 
 oldest document of the B. (1065), giving an account 
 of their establishment at Vilvorde, near Brussels, is 
 unauthentic. The most probable account is, that 
 a priest named Lambert le Bfegue, or Le Bfeghe, i. e., 
 the Stammerer, about the year 1180, founded, in 
 Liege, a society of pious women, who were called 
 by his name. The B. were not restricted by vows, 
 nor "did they follow the rules of any order, but were 
 united under a supSrieure for the exercise of piety 
 and benevolence, and lived generally in separate 
 small cottages, which, collectively, formed the 
 Beginagium, or 'vineyard,' as it was scripturally 
 termed. Their establishments were often enriched 
 by liberal donations. A church, a. hospital, and a 
 house of reception or common entertainment, gener- 
 ally belonged to every community of Beguiues. The 
 sisters were (distinguished from the rest of the laity 
 only by their dHigence and devotedness, piety, 
 modesty, and zeal for the purity of youthful educa- 
 tion. Societies of B. flourished greatly during the 
 12th and 13th centuries, when they spread them- 
 selves over France and Germany. Among the most 
 important were those in Hamburg, Lilbeck, Eegens- 
 burg, Magdeburg, Leipsic, Goslar, EochHtz, and 
 Gorlitz. As the pietists of the middle ages, the B. 
 were often subjected to persecution by the mendi- 
 cant orders of friars ; but, on account of their 
 practical usefulness, were sheltered by the pope and 
 councils as well as by secular authorities. In the 
 13th and 14th centuries, the B. became united with 
 the persecuted spiritualists among the Franciscans 
 {Frairkelles], and with the sect of the 'Brethren 
 and Sisters of the Free Spirit.' Hence arose certain 
 heresies, which, of course, occasioned interference 
 on the part of the Inquisition ; and on account 
 of certain immoralities, a synod held at Fritzlar 
 reqiured that all candidates must be forty years 
 old before they could enter a society of Beguines. 
 These sisterhoods maintained their position in 
 Germany and the Netherlands longer than in other 
 countries. In Holland, they existed at the close of 
 the 18th 0. ; and in the present day we find here and 
 there so-called Begidnen-hauser (Beguin-housea) in 
 Germany; but they are now nothing more than 
 almshouses for poor spinsters. At Ghent, there 
 is still a celebrated institution of B., numbering 
 as many as 600 sisters, besides 200 locataires, or 
 occasional inmates. Their houses form a kind of 
 distinct little town, called the Bgguinage, which, 
 Ris 
 
 though environed by a wall, is open to the visits of 
 strangers. Living here a life of retirement ana 
 piety, the B., in their simple dark dresses, go 
 out as nurses to the hospital, and perform other 
 acts of kindness among the poor. As above stated, 
 they are under no monastic vow, but having 
 attached themselves to the sisterhood, it is tieir 
 boast that none is known to have quitted it. laeie 
 are houses of B. also at Antwerp, Mechlm, ana 
 Bruges; and in 1854, one was established m JJranoe, ■ 
 at Casteluaudry, in the department of Ande. _ 
 
 Beghakds (Ger. hegehrm, to seek with impor- 
 tunity). Societies of laymen stylmg themseives 
 £., first appeared in Germany, the Netherlands, 
 and the south of France in the begmning of the 
 13th 0., and were known in Italy as ^jmc/w and 
 Bocasoti; but they never obtained the reputation 
 enjoyed by the Beguine sisterhood. Towards the 
 end of the 13th c, they were commonly stigma- 
 tised as bms gargons, honi puen, ' mimsters men, 
 'bedesmen,' 'pietists,' ' vagabonds'— contemptuous 
 titles, which expressed the low estimation m 
 which they were held. On account of heretics 
 of aU sorts retreating into these half-spuitual 
 communities, they were subjected to. severe perse- 
 cutions after 1367, and were graduaUy dispersed, 
 or jomed the orders of Dominicans and Franciscans. 
 In the Netherlands, where they had preserved a 
 better character than elsewhere, they maintamed 
 their ground longer, and were protected by Pope 
 Innocent IV. (1245), in Bmssels by Cardinal Hugo 
 (1254), and in Liege by Pope Urban IV. (1261); 
 but their communities disappeared ia the 14th c. 
 —See Mosheim, De Beghardis et Beguinabus (Leip. 
 1790), and HaUmann's Geschichte des Ursprungs der 
 Belg. Beghinen (History of the Origin of Beguines in 
 Belgium), Berlin, 1843. 
 
 BEHAIM, Martin, a famous cosmographer, 
 descended from a Bohemian family which settled 
 in Nuremberg after the middle of the 13th c, 
 and still flourishes there. B. was bom in Nurem- 
 berg in 1430 (or, more probably, ia 1436). He 
 early entered into mercantile life, and went 
 to Venice (1457), and to Mechlin, Antwerp, and 
 Vienna (1477—1479), in pursuit of trade. In 1480, 
 he was induced to go to Portugal, where he soon 
 acquired a reputation as a skilful maker of maps. 
 From 1484 to 1485, he accompanied the Portuguese 
 navigator, Diego Cam, in a voyage of discovery 
 along the west coast of Africa, and sailed as 
 far as the mouth of the Zaire or Congo river, in 
 lat. 22° S., which was 19J° further than had ever 
 been previously reached. In 1486, B. sailed to 
 Fayal, one of the Azore islands, where a Flemish 
 colony had settled. Here he married the daughter 
 of Jobst von Kiister, governor of the colony. 
 In 1490, he left Fayal, and returned to his native 
 city, Nuremberg, where he resided from 1491 to 
 1493. During this stay, he constructed a large 
 globe, principally from the writings of Ptolemy, 
 Pliuy, Strabo, Marco Polo, and Sir John MandevUle. 
 It is stiU preserved by the family of B. in Nurem- 
 berg, and is a valuable record of the progress of 
 discovery, though it indicates that B.'s geographical 
 linowledge did not at that period extend beyond 
 Japan on the east, and the Cape Verd Islands on 
 the west. After travelUng through Flanders and 
 France, B. again resided m FayS from 1494 to 
 1506, and then removed to Lisbon, where he died, 
 July 29, 1509. The services rendered by B. to 
 geographical discovery and the science of navigation 
 were considerable, though, according to the latest 
 investigations, there is no support for the theory 
 that B. was the discoverer of America, or even that 
 Columbus and Magelhaen were indebted to B. for 
 guidance with regard to their discoveries. B. left 
 
BEHMDING-BEHISTW. 
 
 no works behind him except his maps and charts.— 
 Murr a Diplomatische GeschicMe des Eitters von B. 
 (NUrn. 1778; 2d Aufl., 1801) ; and A. von Hiunholdt's 
 Examm Gntiqm de VHistoire de la OSographie du 
 Nouveau Ooniinent, vol. i. (Par. 1836). 
 
 BEHEA'DING. See Capital Punishment. 
 
 BEHISTU'liT, or BISUTU'N (Lat. Bagistmmj 
 Persian, Baghistan, Place of Gardens), a ruined town 
 of the Persian province of IraK-Ajemi, 21 miles east 
 of Kirmaushah, lat. 34° 18' K, long. 47° 30' E. B. 
 is chiefly celebrated for a remarkable mountain, 
 which on one side rises almost perpendicidarly to 
 the height of 1700 feet, and which was in ancient 
 times sacred to Jupiter or to Ormuzd. According to 
 Diodorus, Semiramis, on her march from Babylon 
 to Eobataua, in Media Magna, encamped near this 
 rock, and haviag cut away and polished the lower 
 part of it, had her own likeness and those of a 
 hundred of her guards engraved on it. She further, 
 according to the same historian, caused the following 
 inscription in Assyrian letters to be cut in the rock ; 
 ' Semiramis having piled up one upon the other the 
 trajiping of the beasts of burden which accom- 
 panied her, ascended by these means from the plaia to 
 the top of the rock.' No trace of these inscriptions 
 
 is now to be found, and Sir Henry Eawlinson 
 accounts for their absence by the supposition that 
 they were destroyed ' by Khusrati ParViz when he 
 was preparing to form of this long scarped surface 
 the back wall of his palace.' Diodorus also mentions 
 that Alexander the Great, on his way to Ecbatana 
 from Susa, visited Behistun. But the rock is espe- 
 cially uiteresting for its cimeitorm inscriptions (q. v.), 
 which within recent years have been successfully 
 deciphered by Sir BL Eawlinson. The principal 
 inscription of B., executed by the command of 
 Darius, is on the north extremity of the rock, at 
 an elevation of 300 feet from the ground, where it 
 could not have been engraved without the aid of 
 scaffolding, and can now only be reached by 
 the adventurous antiquary at considerable risk to 
 his life. The labour of polishing the face of the 
 rock, so as to fit it to receive the inscriptions, must 
 have been very great. In places where the stone 
 was defective, pieces were fitted in and fastened 
 with molten lead with such extreme nicety, that 
 only a careful scrutiny can detect the artifice. 
 'But the real wonder of the work,' says Sir H. 
 Eawlinsou, ' consists in the inscriptions. For extent, 
 for beauty of execution, for uniformity and correct- 
 ness, they are perhaps unequalled in the world. After 
 
 Kock Inscriptions at Behistun. 
 
 the engraving of the rock had been accomplished, 
 a coating of silicious varnish had been laid on, to 
 give a clearness of outline to each individual letter, 
 and to protect the surface against the action of the 
 elements. This varnish is of infinitely greater hard- 
 ness than the limestone rock beneath it.' Washed 
 down in some places by the rain of twenty-three 
 centuries, it lies in consistent flakes like thin layers 
 of lava on the foot-ledge ; in others, where time has 
 honey-combed the rock beneath, it adheres to the 
 broken surface, stiU shewing with sufBcient dis- 
 tiijctness the forms of the characters. The inscrip- 
 tions — which are in the three forms of cuneiform 
 writing, Persian, Babylonian, and Median — set 
 forth the hereditary right of Darius to the throne 
 of Persia, tracing his genealogy, through eight gene- 
 rations, up to Achsemenes ; they then enumerate the 
 provinces of his empire, and recount his triumphs 
 
 over the various rebels who rose against him during 
 the first four years of his reign. The monarch him- 
 self is represented on the tablet with a bow in hand^ 
 and his foot upon the prostrate figure of a man, 
 while nine rebels, chained together by the neck, 
 stand humbly before him ; behind him are two of 
 his own warriors, and above him, another figure [see 
 cut]. The Persian inscriptions which Sir H. Eaw- 
 linson has translated are contained in the five main 
 columns numbered in cut 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The first 
 column contains 19 paragraphs, and 96 lines. Each 
 paragraph after the first, which commences, ' I am 
 Darius the Great King,' begins with, ' Says Darius 
 the King.' The second column has the same num- 
 ber of lines In 16 paragraphs; the third, 92 hues 
 and 14 paragraphs; the fourth has also^2 lines and 
 18 paragraphs ; and the fifth, which appears to be a 
 supplementary column, 35 hnes. With the exception 
 
 819 
 
BEHMB— BEIEAM. 
 
 of the first paragrapli on the first column, all 
 begin with, 'Says Darius the King.' The second, 
 fourth, and fifth columns are much injured. Sir H. 
 Rawlinson fixes the epoch of the sculpture at 
 616 — 515 B. c. See Journal of Asiatic Society, voL x. 
 
 BEHME, Jacob. See BOhmb. 
 
 BEHN, Athaea, or Aphea, a licentious poetess 
 and novelist of the reign of Charles 11., the date of 
 whose birth is unknown, was the daughter of Mr 
 Johnson, a gentleman who, through his aristocratic 
 connections, obtained the appointment of governor 
 of Surinam. He died on Msjsassage out, but the 
 daughter pursued her journey, and resided at 
 Suriuam for some considerable time. Here she made 
 the acqiiaintance of the celebrated slave Oronoko, 
 who afterwards became the subject of one of her 
 novels, and of » tragedy by Southern. Returning 
 to England, she married Mr Behn, a merchant of 
 Dutch extraction, was presented at court, where her 
 personal appearance and vivacious freedom of 
 manners pleased the ' Merry Monarch,' who deputed 
 her to watch events in Flanders. She accordingly 
 went to Antwerp, where she succeeded in dis- 
 covering the intention of the Dutch to sail up the 
 Thames and Medway, and communicated the secret 
 to the English court ; which, however, took no notice 
 of the information, a shght which caused the fair 
 agent to throw up state politics in disgust. On her 
 return to England, she became intimate with aU the 
 profligate wits as well as the more staid scholars 
 and poets of the time, and devoted herself to litera- 
 ture. Her numerous plays, poems, tales, letters, 
 &c., are disfigured alQce by general impurity of 
 tone and indecency of language; and, in point of 
 intellectual ability, none of her works appear 
 deserving of the high praise lavished on them by 
 Dryden, Cotton, Southern, and others. She died 
 in 1689. 
 
 BE'HRING, Vitus, the discoverer of the strait 
 called after his name, was a native of Denmark, and 
 entered as captain the newly formed navy of Peter 
 the Great, trom the ability and daring he had 
 displayed in the wars with Sweden, he was ap- 
 pointed to conduct an expedition of discovery 
 in the Sea of Kamtchatka. Sailing, in 1728, from 
 a port on the east of Kamtchatka, he followed the 
 coast northward until he believed, from the west- 
 ward treudiugof the land, that he had reached the 
 uoirth-east point of Asia. It is now, however, 
 beUeved that the cape which B. rounded was to the 
 south of the real East Cape (in lat. 66°), and that he 
 never actually reached the strait to which he has 
 given his name. After some years spent in explora- 
 tions on the coasts of Kamtchatka, Okhotsk, and 
 the north of Siberia, he sailed in 1741 from Okhotsk 
 towards the American continent, and sighting laud 
 about 58^° N. lat., he followed the coast northward 
 for some distance ; but sickness and storms obliged 
 him to return, and being wrecked on the desert 
 island of Awatska, since called Behring's Island, he 
 died there, 8th December 1741. The previous year, 
 he had founded the present settlement of Petropau- 
 lovski, in the Bay of Awatska. 
 
 BE'HRIIirG'S STRAIT separates Asia from 
 America, and connects the Pacific with the Arctic 
 Ocean. The proof that the two continents were 
 not connected was given by the voyage of a Cossack 
 named Deschnew, who, in 1648, sailed from a 
 harbour in Siberia, in the Polar Ocean, into the 
 Sea of Kamtchatka. But the whole voyage was 
 long regarded by Europeans as a fable, until 
 Behring's (q. v.) expedition in 1728. The strait 
 has since been explored by Cook and Beechy. 
 The narrowest part is near 66° lat., between 
 East Cape in Asia, and Cape Prince of Wales in 
 
 820 
 
 America. The distance between the two capes, m 
 a direction from north-west to south-east, is nearly 
 50 miles; about midway are three uninhabited 
 islands. The greatest depth, some 30 fathoms, is 
 towards the middle, and the water is shallower 
 towards the American coast than the Asiatic. A 
 very old Japanese map in the British Museum shews 
 the leading features of this strait very accurately. 
 — BBHRiua's Sea, a part of the North Pacific Ocean, 
 commonly known as the Sea of Kamtchatka, 
 bounded W. by Kamtchatka, E. by Kussian 
 America, S. by the Aleutian Islands, and N. by 
 Behring's Strait. There are several islands m 
 this sea, and fogs prevail constantly; but owing 
 to the shallowness of the strait, there are no 
 icebergs of magnitude to be met with.— Behring's 
 Island, the most westerly of the Aleutian Islands in 
 lat. 55° 22' N., long. 166° E. It has an area of 30 
 square miles, and is noteworthy as the place where 
 Behring, the discoverer, was wrecked and died in 
 1741. 
 
 BEILA'N, a pass and town in the northern 
 extremity of Syria, on the east shore of the Gulf 
 of Iscanderoon. The pass of B. runs from south-west 
 to north-east, between the mountain-ranges of 
 Rhosus and Amanus, and is the common route from 
 CHicia into Syria. It is one of the two Amaniau 
 passes, supposed to be the lower one, mentioned 
 by Cicero as capable of easy defence on account 
 of their narrowness. There seems to be no doubt 
 that, in the war between Darius and Alexander, the 
 B. Pass was an important consideration to both 
 commanders, but historians and geographers appear 
 to be at variance as to the precise advantage taken 
 of it in the struggle. The town of B. is situated 
 near the summit-level of the pass, at an elevation 
 of 1584 feet above the Mediterranean Sea. It has a 
 population of about 5000, many of whom are wealthy, 
 and is much esteemed for its salubrity and fine 
 water, which is supplied by numerous aqueducts. 
 Between the north-western foot of the pass and the 
 sea, are caves and springs, supposed to be the site of 
 the ancient Myriandrus. B. was the scene of a 
 battle between the Egyptians and Turks in 1832, 
 when the latter were defeated. 
 
 BE'IRA, a Portuguese province, bounded N. by 
 the provinces of Minho and Tras-os-Montes ; S. by 
 Estremadura and Alemtejo; E. by Spain; and W. 
 by the Atlantic Ocean. It has an area of about 
 9800 square miles, and a population of 1,181,968. 
 The surface is moimtainous, and the soil on the 
 plains sandy, and generally far from fertile. The 
 mountain-slopes a&rd good pasturage for sheep 
 and cattle. The products are com, wine, oO, flax, 
 and various kinds of fruit, and considerable attention 
 is paid to the rearing of bees. Sea-salt is obtained 
 at the coast. The river Douro waters the whole of 
 its northern, and the Tagus, a portion of its southern, 
 boundary. The Mondego and Vouga flow through 
 its centre. Iron, coal, and marble are wrought in 
 small quantity. There is little done in manufactures. 
 The inhabitants are an industrious race of people. 
 In 1835, the province was divided into Upper and 
 Lower Beira, the former having Viseu and the 
 latter Castel Branco for its capital. 
 
 BBIRAM, or BAIRAM, a Mohammedan festival 
 somewhat analogous to Easter. It commences imme- 
 diately after the fast of Ramadan, or Ramazan, 
 which corresponds to Lent. Being one of the only 
 two feasts the Moslems have in the year, it is lodied 
 forward to with great interest, the zest being 
 enhanced by the previous abstinence. Its advent 
 IS announced at Constantinople by the discharge of 
 artillery, the beating of drums, and blowing of 
 trumpets. Properly, it should terminate in one day, 
 
BEIT— BEKE. 
 
 but the Moslems in the capital think it no offence 
 to their abstemious prophet to carry the festivities 
 over two days ; while in other parts of Turkey and 
 Persia, they are often protracted a week or more. 
 Dances, music, processions, &o., in which the women 
 are permitted greater indulgence than usual, form 
 prominent features of the feast; and at this time 
 the different orders of the empire pay homage to the 
 sultan. Seventy days after, the Moslems celebrate 
 their only other feast ('the festival of the sacrifices'), 
 called the lesser B., which is the day appointed by 
 the Mecca pilgrims for slaying the victims, and was 
 instituted in commemoration of the offering up of 
 Isaac by Abraham. The lesser B. usually lasts 
 tiiree days, but it is not celebrated with anything 
 like the pomp of the other. During the continuance 
 of each of the festivals, only one religious service 
 takes place. The Mohammedan year being the 
 lunar one of 354 days, in the course of tldrty-three 
 years the festivals run through all the seasons. 
 
 BEIT is an Arabic word, signifying house, abode, 
 or place, the equivalent of which in Hebrew is Beth. 
 Thus, in the former language, we ha,veBat-al-Hardm, 
 ' the house of the sanctuary,' or ' the sacred house ; ' 
 and in the latter, Beth-el, ' house of God ; ' Beth-any, 
 ' place of dates ; ' Beth-dbara, ' place of fords,' &o. 
 
 BEIT-EL-FA'KIH (House of the Saint), a town 
 of Tehama, on the Red Sea. Being the frontier town 
 of the Egyptian government, it has a considerable 
 trade in coffee, wax, gum, &c., which articles are 
 exchanged for Indian piece goods and British shawls. 
 It has a population of about 8000, and a citadel of 
 some strength. The houses are built partly of mud 
 and partly of brick, and roofed with branches of the 
 date- tree. It is described by travellers as the hottest 
 town in Tehama. 
 
 BEITU'LLAH (Arab., House of God), the 
 spacious building or temple at Mecca, which contains 
 the Kaaba. See Mecca and Kaaba. 
 
 BE'JA"(the Pax Julia of the ancients), a town in 
 the province of Alemtejo, Portugal, 36 nules south- 
 south-west of Evora, with a population of 5500. It 
 is fortified, its walls being flanked by 40 towers, 
 has a castle and a cathedral, and manufactories of 
 leather and earthenwares. 
 
 BE' J AN, or BA'JAN, the name of the first or 
 'freshman' class in some at least of the Scotch, and 
 of old in many continental universities. The word 
 is believed to be derived from the French bec-jaune, 
 or yeUow neb, a term used to designate a nestling 
 or unfledged bird. The levying of bejaunia, or 
 payments for ' first-footing ' by students on entering 
 college, .was forbidden by the statutes of the uni- 
 versity of Orleans in 1365, and of the university of 
 Toulouse in 1401. The election of an Ahbas Bqan- 
 orwm, or ' Abbot of the Greenhorns,' was prohibited 
 by the statutes of the university of Paris in 1493. 
 In the universiiy of Vienna, the hejan was called 
 heanus, -■•■ word of the same meaning, and no doubt 
 of the same origin. 
 
 BBJAPU'R, a deserted city in the presidency 
 of Bombay, lat. 16° 50' N., and long. 75° 48' E. It 
 is situated to the south-east of Bombay, Poonah, and 
 Satara, at the respective distances of 245, 170, and 
 130 miles, being on an aflSuent of the Kistna or 
 Krishna, which fiows into the Bay of Bengal, and 
 nearly touching the west border of the lifizam's 
 territories. B. was for centuries the flourishing 
 capital of a powerful kingdom, falling therewith 
 under various dynasties in succession, Hindu and 
 Mussulman, till, in 1686, it was captured by 
 Aurungzebe. Thus stripped of its independence, B. 
 speedily sank into the shadow of a mighty name, 
 passing, during the early part of the 18th c, into 
 the hands of the Mahrattas. On the overthrow of 
 
 the Peishwa in 1818, it was assigned by the British 
 to the dependent Rajah of Satara ; being resumed, 
 however, by the donors on the extinction of the 
 reigning family in 1848. Now that a gradual decay 
 has done its worst, B., as its own mausoleum, pre- 
 sents a contrast perhaps unequalled in the world. 
 Lofty walls of hewn stone, still entire, with an 
 imposing background of cupolas and minarets, 
 enclose the silent and desolate fragments of a city 
 which is said to have contained 100,000 dwellings, 
 and to have been divided into quarters that mea- 
 sured their circuit by leagues. With the exception 
 of an ancient temple, the sole relio of abonginal 
 domination, the rums are of Mohammedan origin, 
 such as beautiful mosques, colossal tombs, and a 
 fort of more than 6 miles in circuit, with an inner 
 citadel. In addition to the architectural remains, 
 one of the wonders of the place is, perhaps, the 
 largest piece of brass ordnance in existence, cast at 
 Ahmeduuggur, where the mould may still be seen. 
 Latterly, Si. these monuments of the instability of 
 human grandeur have been carefully preserved, both 
 the Rajah of Satara and the British government 
 having done everything to prevent further decay 
 and dUapidation. 
 
 BEKAA, the Coele-Syria of the ancients, the 
 'Plain of Lebanon' of the Old Testament, and El 
 Bekaa (the Valley) of the natives of Syria, is 
 enclosed between the parallel ranges of Lebanon and 
 Anti-Lebanon, which mountains it divides, and 
 extends about 90 miles from north to south, its 
 ^eatest width being about 12 nules. It is the most 
 rich and beautiful ^ain in Syria ; but although the 
 soil is good, and water abundant from the numerous' 
 mountain-springs, a very small portion of it is culti- 
 vated. It is very much frequented by the Arabs, 
 who bring down their young horses in the spring- 
 time to graze on the plain. 
 
 BEKE, Charles Tilstonb, a modem English 
 traveller in Abyssinia, was bom in London, October 
 10, 1800; received a commercial education; after- 
 wards studied law in Lincoln's Inn, and devoted a 
 great part of his attention to ancient history, 
 philology, and ethnography. The results of these 
 studies first appeared in his work, Origines Bibliae, 
 or researches in primeval history, vol. i., Lond. 
 1834. His historical and geographical studies of the 
 East, led B. to consider the great importance of 
 Abyssinia for intercourse with Central Africa ; but 
 his proposals to undertake an exploring journey were 
 declined by the govermnent and by several learned 
 societies. Supported only by private individuals, 
 he determined to proceed to Abyssinia ; and joining 
 there the party led by Major Harris, he distin- 
 guished himself by the exploration of Godshem and 
 the countries lying to the south, which were pre- 
 viously almost entirely unknown in Europe. The 
 results of these researches appeared partly in several 
 journals, and in Abyssinia, a Statement of Facts, &c. 
 (2d ed., Lond. 1846). Having retmned to Europe, 
 he excited the attention of geographers by his pub- 
 lications : the Essay on the Nile and its Tributaries, 
 (Lond. 1847) ; On tlie Sources of the Nile in the Moun- 
 tains of the Moon (1848) ; On the Sources of the Nile 
 (1849) ; and by his MSmoire Jtistijkatif en B6haM- 
 Utation des P&res Paez et Lobo (Paris, 1848). He 
 became involved in a controversy with M. d'Abbadie 
 by a Later to M. Daussy (1849), and An Inquiry into 
 A. d'AWadie's Journey to Kaffa (1850), in which he 
 attempted to shew that this said journey for dis- 
 covery of the Nile's sources (1843 — 1844) was a mere 
 fiction. Besides many essays on cthnoCTaphy and 
 geography, B. has published a treatise On the Geo- 
 graphical Distribution of Languages in Abyssinia 
 (Edin. 1849). 
 
 821 
 
BEfcES— BEtEMNITES. 
 
 BEKES, or BEKESVAR, a, town of Hungary, 
 capital of the county of the same name, and situated 
 at the confluence of the Black and White Koriis. 
 Pop. 18,000, who do a trade in cattle, corn, and 
 honey. 
 
 BEKKER, Immajtuel, a German philologist, 
 distinguished by his recensions of the texts of Greek 
 and Eoman classics, was bom in Berlin, 1785; 
 studied in Halle, 1803—1807, and was the most 
 eminent pupil of F. A. Wolf. Afterwards, he was 
 engaged at Paris on the Corpus Insaiptionum Orce- 
 carum. The results of his researches in the libraries 
 of Italy (1817 — 1819) appear in his Anecdota Graeca 
 (3 vols., Berlin, 1814 — 1821), and his numerous 
 recensions of texts derived solely from MSS., and 
 independently of printed editions. The writers 
 included in these recensions are Plato, the Attic 
 orators, Aristotle, Sextus Empiricus, Thucydides, 
 Theognis, Aristophanes, Photius, the Scholia on the 
 Iliad, &o. 
 
 BEL AKD THE DEAGOK, an apocryphal 
 book of the Old Testament. It does not seem to 
 have been accepted as inspired by the Jewish Church, 
 nor is there any proof that a Hebrew or Chaldee 
 version of the story ever existed. Jerome considered 
 it a ' fable,' an opinion in which most modem readers 
 will coincide. It is, nevertheless, read for edifi- 
 cation both in the Roman Catholic and Anglo- 
 Catholic churches : in the former, on Ash Wednes- 
 day; in the latter, on the 23d of November. 
 According to Jahn, the aim of the writer was 'to 
 warn against the sin of idolatry some of his brethren 
 who had embraced Egyptian superstitions.' 
 
 BELA, the name of four Hungarian kings of the 
 family of Arpad.— B. I. (1061—1063) energetically 
 suppl^essed the last attempt to restore heathenism, 
 and by the introduction of a fixed standard of 
 measures, weights, and coinage, virtually founded 
 the commerce of Hungary. He was also the first to 
 introduce the representative system into the diet, 
 by appointing, in Heu of the collective nobility, two 
 
 nobles only from each of the different counties. ^B. 
 
 II., sumamed 'the Blind,' 1131—1141, was entirely 
 under the guidance of his bloodthirsty spouse, 
 Helena, and after her decease, drank himself to 
 death.— B. III., 1174—1196. Educated in Constan- 
 tinople, he introduced Byzantine customs and culture 
 into his own country, which was certainly favour- 
 able to its social development, though, on the other 
 hand, his evident devotion to the Greek emperor 
 
 Emmanuel threatened its political independence. B. 
 
 IV., 1235 — 1270, son of that Andreas from whom the 
 nobles extorted the ' Golden BuU,' Hungary's Magna 
 Charta. His chief aim was to humble the nobiUty, 
 and restore the royal power to its former propor- 
 tions; and he thus roused a spirit of universal dis- 
 content, which led to a party among the nobles call- 
 ing in the A-ustriau duke, Frederick II., to their 
 aid ; but, in the year 1236, he was conquered by B. 
 and forced to pay tribute. Before long, however' 
 the king had to seek a refuge with his discomfited 
 foe; for the Mongols, who invaded Hungary in 1241 
 defeated him on the Sajo, and put him to flight. 
 It was only after robbing him of aU the treasure he 
 had managed to save, and extorting from him three 
 of his counties, that Frederick II. granted the royal 
 fugitive a shelter in Austria, where he remained tiU 
 the Mongols, having heard of the death of their 
 khan, left the coimtry they had devastated. B. 
 now made it his especial care, by rebuilding the 
 destroyed villages, and inviting new settlers thither, 
 to do away with the tokens of that terrible invasion ; 
 and he so far succeeded as to be able, in 1246, to 
 repay Frederick's iahospitahty by defeating him 
 at Vienna, and to repulse a second attempt at 
 
 823 
 
 Mongolian invasion. He died in 1270, his last years 
 having been embittered by an attempt at rebellion 
 on the part of his son Stephen. 
 
 BELAYING, one of the many modes of fastening 
 ropes on shipboard. It is effected by winding a 
 rope, generally a part of the ranning rigging, round 
 a piece of wood called a cleat or a kevel, or else 
 round a belaying-pin, which is an ashen staff froin 
 twelve to sixteen inches in length. 
 
 BELBBY'S (ancient Bubastis Agria), a town of 
 5000 inhabitants, situated on the east arm of the 
 Nile, Lower Egypt, and 28 miles north-north-east of 
 Cairo. It is enclosed by earthen ramparts, has 
 numerous mosques, and is one of the stations on the 
 route from Cairo to Suez, and from Egjrpt to Syria. 
 
 BELOHEE, Sib Edwakd, a distinguished 
 EngKsh naval officer, born in 1799, entered the navy 
 in 1812 as a first-class volunteer, was soon made 
 a midshipman, and in 1816 took part in the 
 bombardment of Algiers. In 1825, B. was appointed 
 assistant-surveyor to the expedition about to 
 explore Behring's Strait under Captain Beeohey; 
 in 1829, he was raised to the rank of commander. 
 1836 saw him in command of the Sulphur, com- 
 missioned to explore the western coasts of America 
 and the Indies. He was absent six years, in which 
 time he had sailed round the world. During this 
 voyage he rendered important services in the 
 Canton river to Lord Gough, whose successes over 
 the Chinese were greatly due to B.'s soundings 
 and recoimaissanoes pushed into the interior. 
 On his return, he published a narrative of the 
 voyage ; and in 1843, in consideration of his services, 
 he was made a post-captain, and knighted. After 
 being employed on surveying service in the East 
 Indies, he was, in 1852, appointed to the command 
 of the expedition sent out by government to 
 search for Sir John Franklin. B. has published 
 several other works besides the one alrgady men- 
 tioned, including The Last of the Arctic Voyages 
 (Lond. 1855) ; Narrative of a Voyage to tlie East 
 Indies in 1843 — 1848; and Horace Edward Brenton, 
 a novel (Lond. 1856). 
 
 BBLCHI'Tlfi, a town of Spain, in the province of 
 Saragossa, about 22 miles south-south-east of the 
 city of that name, celebrated as the place where, in 
 June 18, 1809, the French, under Suchet, completely 
 routed the Spanish under General Blake, capturing 
 aU their guns, 10 in number, with a loss of only 40 
 men. 
 
 BELE'M, a town of Portugal, on the right bank 
 ■u^Z^- ^^S^' ^ ™^^^ south-west of Lisbon, of 
 which it may be said to form a fashionable suburb. 
 It has an iron foundry, a custom-house, and quaran- 
 tme establishment, a tower defending the entrance 
 of the river. It is historically interesting as the 
 place from whence Vasoo de Gama set sa3 on his 
 voyage of oriental discovery. It was taken in 
 November 1807 by the French, the royal family of 
 Portugal embarking from its quay for BrazU as they 
 entered. In 1833 it was occupied by Don Pedi-o'a 
 troops. 
 
 BELE'M, or PABA', a city of Brazil, on the right 
 ba-nk of the Para, the most southerly arm of the 
 estuary of the Amazon. See Para. 
 
 EE'LEMNITES (Gr. belemnon, a dart or arrow). 
 tW^'p'n^^f ^'T °f /Of il cephalopodous Mollusca, 
 ^^Fll^^'"^'^ caUed^eimnffidre, to the whole 
 closThJ"alH^d%''^.r<?- .iVy^Senerally extended, 
 Nn tl ^ *° iheSeptadce, or Cuttle (q. v.) fanuly 
 No recent species of B. is known : fossil speoieTare 
 very numerous, and are found in aU the oolitic and 
 cretaceous sti:ata, from the lowest Has to the uwer 
 chalk, some of which are fiUed with myriads of tSeir 
 
BELFAST— BELFEY. 
 
 ■■^^^a- These remains are generally those of the 
 shell alone, -which is now known to have been an 
 internal shell, entirely included within the body of 
 the animal, hlce that of the cuttle. The shell, as 
 
 Belemnites pistiliformis. 
 
 seen in the moat perfect specimens, is double, oon- 
 sistmg of a conical chambered portion (the phraq- 
 mocone), inserted into a longer, soUd, somewhat 
 corneal or tapering, and pointed sheath. The space 
 between the phragmocone and sheath is occupied 
 either with radiating fibres or conical layers. The 
 chambers of the shell are connected by a tube 
 [siphimcle), so that the animal probably had the 
 power of ascending and descending rapidly in the 
 water. Its arms are known, from some singularly 
 perfect specimens, to have been fumishel with 
 horny hooks ; and these it probably fixed upon a 
 fish, and descended with its prey to the bottom, like 
 the hooked calamaries (q. v.) of the present seas. 
 Remains of an ink-bag, like that of the cuttle, have 
 been found in the last and largest chambers of the 
 B. ; but remains of this chamber, which must have 
 contained all the viscera of the animal, are very 
 rarely preserved, the shell having been very thin 
 at this part. The part most commonly found, and 
 generally Imown by the name of belemnite, is the 
 solid mucro, or point into which the sheath was pro- 
 longed behind the chambered shell. These have 
 received such popular names as Arrowheads, Petri- 
 fied Fingers, Spectre-candles, Picks, Thunder-stones, 
 &c., from their form, or from the notions entertained 
 of their nature and origin. B. appear to have been 
 of very different sizes ; in some of the largest, the 
 mere mucro is 10 inches long, and the entire animal, 
 with its arms outstretched, must have been several 
 feet in length. 
 
 BBLPA'ST, the chief town of the county of 
 Antrim and province of Ulster in Ireland. This 
 
 g-eat seaport stands at the embouchure of the 
 agan, at the head of Belfast Lough, 12 miles 
 from the Irish Sea, 101 north of Dublin, 36 
 north-east of Armagh, 130 south-west of Glasgow, 
 and 150 north-west of Liverpool. The site is 
 chiefly on an alluvial deposit not more than 6 
 feet above the sea-l6vel, and reclaimed from the 
 marshes of the Lagan. On the land-side, it is 
 picturesquely bounded by the ridges of Divis (1567 
 feet high), and Cave Hill (1185 feet). The general 
 aspect of B. is indicative of life and prosperity, 
 eAibiting all the trade and manufacture of Glas- 
 gow and Manchester, with far less of their smoke 
 and dirt. Many of the streets, especially in the 
 White Linen Hall quarter, are well built and spacious. 
 The mercantile quarter lies chiefly near the exten- 
 sive and weU-buHt quays. The manufactories are 
 mostly on the rising-ground on the north and west 
 of the town. Numerous viUas sprinkle the northern 
 shores of the bay, as well as the elevated suburb of 
 Malone to the south. The chief public buildings 
 are — Queen's College, a beautiful structure in the 
 Tudor style, opened in 1849, with a revenue of 
 £7000 from the consolidated fund ; Koyal Academi- 
 cal Institution, incorporated in 1810, affiliated to the 
 London University, and comprising an elementary 
 and collegiate department, and a school of design ; 
 Museum, Linen Hall, Commercial and Com Ex- 
 changes, churches, and banks. The fine Botanic 
 Gardens of the Natural History Society occupy 
 17 acres. B. is the chief seat of the trade and 
 manufactures of Ireland, and is second only to 
 
 Dublin as an Irish port. The staple manufactures 
 are linen and cotton. The linen manufacture dates 
 from 1637. Cotton-spinning by machinery dates from 
 1777, and Unen from 1806. In 1858, there were in 
 the town and suburbs 33 steam-spinning mills, em- 
 ploying 32,000 hands, while the number of such miUs 
 in all Ireland was 76. There is a Eoyal Society in 
 B. to promote the growth of flax in Ireland. The 
 other chief branches of industry are linen and 
 cotton weaving, bleaching, dyeing, calico-printing, 
 and iron founding. There are many_ iiour and 
 oil nulls, chemical works, breweries, ship-bmlding, 
 rope and sail-cloth yards. The inland trade is car- 
 ried on by the Lagan, a canal, and three railways. 
 The B. harbour improvements have, since 1831, cost 
 £450,000 ; yet vessels drawing much above 15 feet 
 of water have to discharge part of their cargoes at 
 Garmoyle on the Lough, 4 miles below Belfast. The 
 chief exports are linen and cotton goods, grain, 
 yam, flax, tow, cattle, and provisions. In 1850, 
 the imports were valued at £6,938,328, having 
 doubled in 15 years, and the exports at £4,633,062. 
 The registered shipping, in 1857, was 490 vessels, 
 85,377 tons. In 1858, 8420 vessels, of 1,293,399 
 tons, entered and cleared the port. The most 
 important branch of commerce is the Channel 
 trade, about 40 steamers plying regularly between 
 B. and the chief ports of En^and and Scotland, 
 besides Dublin and Deny. The foreign trade is 
 also great. Pop., 1821, 37,000 ; 1851, 100,300. B. 
 is governed by a corporation of 10 aldermen — one 
 being mayor — and 30 councillors. It returns 2 
 members to parliament. B. was destroyed by 
 Edward Bruce in the 14th c, but became an import- 
 ant town since 1604, receiving a charter in 1611. In 
 the great civil war, the inhabitants at first joined 
 the parliament, but afterwards became royalists. In 
 reward of their loyalty to WiUiam III., the ' regiirai 
 donum,' at first £1200 a year, was granted to the 
 Presbyterian Synod of Ulster. 
 
 BELFORT, or BEFORT, a town of France, in 
 the- department of the Haut Rhin. It is situated 
 at the southern base of the Vosges, on the left 
 bank of the Savoureuse, and is a fortress of the 
 second class, having been fortified by the cele- 
 brated Vauban. B. has a superior tribunal, a 
 commercial court, a board of customs, and public 
 library. Pop., exclusive of garrison, 5284. Iron, 
 paper, hats, printed calicoes, &o., are manufac- 
 tured at B., which is the entrepot of a great part 
 of the French trade with Lorraine, Germany, and 
 Switzerland. B. was ceded to France by Austria in 
 1648. Prior to that time, it was a place of little 
 strength. B. was invested by the allies in January 
 1814. 
 
 BE'LFRY (Fr. beffroi), a word of doubtful origin; 
 a bell-tower, or turret, usually forming part of 
 a church, but sometimes detached from it^as at 
 Evesham and Berkeley, in England, and stiU more 
 frequently in Italy. See Campanile. Where a 
 church was built in a deep glen, the belfry was 
 perched on a neighbouring height, as at St Feve 
 and elsewhere in Cornwall, and at Ardclaoh and 
 Aldbar in Scotland. At this last place, the bell was 
 hung upon a tree, as was common enough in Scotland 
 at the close of the 17th c. Where the B. consists of 
 a mere -turret, it is often called a bdl-gdble or bell- 
 cote, and is always placed on the west end of the 
 church ; a smaller one being sometimes placed, at 
 the east end, which is for the sanctus beU, for which 
 reason it is placed over the altar. Municipal belfries 
 are more common on the continent than in this 
 coimtry. When the burghs began to rise into 
 importance after the 12th c, they asserted their 
 right to have bells to call the burghers together for 
 
 833 
 
BELG^— BBLGIOJOSO. 
 
 council or for action. Thus detached belfries arose 
 in the heart of towns. At a later date, they often 
 became part of the maison de ville, or town-hoiise, as 
 
 Belfry or Bell-gable, Idbury, Oxfordshire. 
 
 at Glasgow and Aberdeen, in this country ; at St 
 Quentin and Douai, in France; and at Brussels, in 
 Belgium. 
 
 BE'LGjE, the name given by Caesar to the war- 
 like tribes which in his time occupied that one of 
 the great divisions of Gallia which embraced part of 
 the basin of the Seine, the basin of the Somme, of 
 the Scheldt, of the Maas, and of the Moselle, which 
 itself belongs to the basin of the Rhine. Their 
 country was level, containing no mountains of any 
 height, except the Vosges in the south. The name 
 seems to have originally designated several power- 
 ful tribes inhabiting the basin of the Seine, and to 
 have been afterwards used by Csesar as a general 
 
 appellation for aU the peoples north of that river. 
 These B. were, in all probability, chiefly of Celtic 
 origin, but within their territories were to be found 
 both pure and mixed Germans. 
 
 When South Britain was invaded by Caesar, he 
 foimd that B. from the opposite shores of Gaul 
 had preceded him, and were settled in Kent and 
 Sussex, having driven the aborigines into the interior. 
 The B. in Britain resisted for nearly a century the 
 Boman power, but were finally forced to yield to it. 
 Cs3sar regarded them as German, but they rather 
 seem to have belonged to the Celtic portion of the 
 Gallic Belgse. Certainly, none of the names of their 
 three chief towns are Germanic. Aquae Solis (Bath) 
 is Latin ; Isohalis and Venta (Ilchester and Win- 
 chester), British. ^ 
 
 BBLGATJ'M, the chief city of a district of the 
 same name in the presidency of Bombay, situated 
 to the east of the dividing ridge of the West Ghauts, 
 at a height of about 2500 feet above the sea. Its 
 lat. is 15° SO' N., and long. 74° 36' E., its distance to 
 the north-west of Dharwar being 42 miles. B. pos- 
 sesses a fort, which, in 1818, was' taken from the 
 Peishwa by the British. Under its new masters, 
 the place has made considerable progress. It has a 
 superior institution for the education of native 
 youths, which is supported at once by the neigh- 
 bouring princes, the British government, and private 
 individuals. This seminary, in 1853, was attended 
 by more than 50 pupils of all grades. In 1848, the 
 citizens spontaneously subscribed a considerable sum 
 for the complete reconstruction of their roads and 
 lanes — a liberality which, besides drawing forth a, 
 supplementary grant of public money, roused the 
 emulation of adjacent towns and villages. B. is one 
 of the principal military stations of the presidency, 
 and as such it was, in 1857, the scene of plotting, if 
 not of mutiny, in common with Kolapore, Poonah, 
 Satara, &c. The district of B. contains 5405 square 
 miles, and 1,025,882 inhabitants. 
 
 BELGIOJO'SO, a town of Lombardy, North Italy, 
 pleasantly situated in a fruitful plain between the Po 
 and the Olona, 9 mUes east of Pavia. It has a fine 
 aqueduct and castle, in which Francis I. spent the 
 night previous to the disastrous battle of Pavia, in 
 which he was made prisoner. The Austrian general 
 Gyulai made B. Ms head-quarters after his defeat at 
 Magenta, June 4—6, 1859. Pop. 3000. 
 
 END OF VOL. I. 
 
 £dlnt)urgh : 
 Printed by W. and K. Chamicrs.