fyxmll Winxxmxi^ Jitat^g BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME FROM THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND THE GIFT OF fli^nrg W. Sage r89i AdliMb i3i Cornell University Library arV14519 The forms of discourse with an introduct 3 1924 031 387 750 olin.anx Cornell University Library The original of tliis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031387750 THE Forms of Discourse WITH AN Introductory Chapter on Style WILLIAM B. CAIRNS, A.M. Instructor in Rhetoric in the University of Wisconsin Boston, U.S.A., and London GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 1896 Copyright, i8g6 By WILLIAM B. CAIRNS ALL RIGHTS RESERVKD PREFACE. o««o This work is an attempt to present the subject of literary invention in a form suited to the needs of pupils in high schools and colleges. It has been prepared because the author was "unable to find, in the many excellent text-books on formal rhetoric, any adequate discussion of this subject that he could use with' his own classes. The authors of many recent text- books have assumed that the study of rhetoric is the study of style, and nothing more. If they have treated the forms of discourse at all, they have done so by way of literary analysis, and not in a manner that will prove helpful to young writers. The study of style is of the greatest importance. It should come first in a course in English, and it may profitably be con- tinued, even by the greatest writers, throughout life ; but it is not a study in which progress can be forced. The reason that so many courses in rhetoric are partial failures is because the pupils have already learned as many rules for style as they can assimilate without further knowledge of invention. The aver- age junior or senior in the high school has been taught the principles of grammar, and something of what is generally known -as English composition. .He knows what a climax is, and uses it naturally ; he knows the names of the figures of iv PREFACE. speech, the uses of loose and periodic sentences, and much more of the same kind. He ought, in spite of slips and blunders arising from immaturity, to write fairly correct and forcible English, when he knows what he wants to say. When asked to prepare a composition he is most troubled, not by matters of diction, but by such questions as : " What subject shall I choose ? " " What shall I say about it ? " " How shall I express my thoughts to suit this particular occasion ? " And these perplexities do not, as some have said, come simply from lack of ideas. Every teacher must have noticed that a pupil has a better style when he writes on a well-chosen subject and in accordance with a carefully prepared plan. The study of style should be carried on simultaneously with that of invention. The purpose of the first chapter of this book is to present the essentials of the former subject as briefly as possible. Few illustrations have been given, both because of the limitations of space, and because the author feels that such examples should be chosen by the teacher from the pupil's own work. No matter how full and complete a text-book may be, the errors that it illustrates will often be just those that the pupil does not commit. If the blackboard and modern copying devices are wisely used, the presentation of examples from the written exercises of the class need not add greatly to the work of the teacher. It has seemed in keeping with the general plan of this book to give reasons and explanations as far as possible. The rules for style have therefore been grouped under the general prin- ciples on which they depend. The obvious disadvantage of PREFACE. V this plan is that it scatters under different headings the figures of speech and other groups of subjects that are usually treated together. It is believed, however, that the advantages gained will more than compensate for the loss of the traditional clas- sification. As a review exercise students may be asked to group these scattered topics in different ways. In the last five chapters especial attention is given to those forms of composition that may be required as practice exer- cises, or that young writers have most occasion to use. Thus, in the chapter on exposition, the short essay and the thesis are discussed more fully than are the treatise and the text- book. The selections that follow each chapter have been chosen, not as examples of English classics, but as illustrations of the principles that have been discussed. Some of them are models of style, and "may be studied as such; others have serious faults, which the student should point out. In these selections the spelling, capitalization, and punctuation of the respective authors have been followed. Although the author believes that this text-book differs, in scope and general plan, from any other now before the public, he owns his indebtedness to many writers for matters of detail. An attempt has been made to give credit in all cases of direct borrowing; but many ideas and expressions not cred- ited are obviously derived, in a greater or less degree, from other works. This is especially true throughout the chapter on style. In the succeeding chapters more suggestions have been obtained from Professor Genung's " Practical Rhetoric " than from any other one source. vi PRE FA CE. The author wishes to express his obligations to Prof. D, B. Frankenburger for sympathetic aid not only during the prepa- ration of this work, but throughout his previous studies ; and to Prof. A. A. Knowlton and Mr. W. M. Smith for many helpful suggestions. W. B. C. University of Wisconsin. November, i8g6. CONTENTS. -ooKKoo CHAPTER I. — STYLE. PAGE Introductory i Nature of Principles 2 Sources of Principles 3 I. Conventional Usage 3 Spelling 4 Grammar 5 1. Mistakes of Number 6 2. Mistakes of Case 7 3. Mistakes of Mood 9 4. Mistakes of Tense 9 5. Mistakes of Reference.... 12 6. Mistakes of Comparison 15 Reputableness of Words 15 Meanings of Words 24 Idioms 26 II. Principles of Discourse Based on Laws of Mind 28 Lucidity 29 Force 30 Ease 30 The mind is greatly confused and mental energy is wasted if language is used that is capable of two meanings 31 The mind grasps the specific and the familiar more readily than the general and the unfamiliar 34 The relations of likeness and contrast appeal to the mind with especial force 36 Ideas are grasped more readily if the mind has been in some way prepared for them 41 Ideas are grasped most easily if they are presented one by one and if each stands out with distinctness 45 CONTENTS. PAGE Ideas nalurally follow one another in the mind according to certain fixed laws 46 1. Contiguity 46 2. Continuity 46 3. Likeness or contrast 47 4. Cause and effect 47 Attention is naturally attracted by anything unusual. When a series of ideas is presented to the mind, the first and the last make the strongest impression 49 Since words are used to convey thought, and not for their own sake, there should be neither more nor fewer than are necessary. 50 The mind derives pleasure from a moderate variety, both in thought and in expression 53 Miscellaneous 55 CHAPTER II. — NARRATION. Introductory 58 Narration without Plot 58 Definition 58 The Chief Requisite — Interest 59 What Readers will be Interested in 60 Choice of Subject 62 Choice of Details 63 Number of Details 64 Order of Details 65 Presentation from Different Points of View 65 Diction 66 Narration with Plot 67 Meaning of the Word Plot 67 Distinction between Narration with Plot and Narration without Plot 68 Where Found 68 Kinds of Interest 6g Subjects of Narration 70 The Scene and Setting 71 The Plot 74 Other Requisites of a Good Plot 77 CONTENTS. ix PAGE The Short Story 78 Other Forms than Fiction 82 History 82 Biography 85 Drama 86 How to Begin 86 Order of Events 88 Choice and Number of Details 89 Movement go Diction gi Illustrative Selections g2 The Carew Murder Case (R. L. Stevenson) g4 An Incident from " Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde" (Stevenson) 96 Assassination of Marat (Carlyle) gg (Stephens) ^ 104 (Gardiner) ". 106 The Storks (Hans Christian Andersen) 107 CHAPTER m,— DESCRIPTION. Definition 113 Where Found 113 Correspondence between Description and Painting 114 Differences between Description and Painting iiS Subjects better Suited to Painting than to Description 120 Subjects better Suited to Description than to Painting 121 Problems of Description 123 Material Objects 123 Characters 134 Mental States I3g Kinds of Description 142 Management of Details 147 Number of Details 147 Choice of Details 147 Subjective and Objective Description 148 Arrangement of Details 151 Description and the Imagination 152 X CONTENTS. PAGE Diction 153 Illustrative Selections I54 From "Adam Bede"' (George Eliot) ISS From "A Midsummer Trip to the West Indies" (Lafcadio Hearn) 159 From Tile Spectator 164 CHAPTER IV. -EXPOSITION. Definition 170 Relation of Exposition to Other Forms of Discourse 170 Where Found 171 Exposition of Terms 172 The Process of Definition i 172 Need of Exact Definitions 172 Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions 173 Denotation and Connotation 173 Logical Definition 174 Difficulty of Framing Logical Definitions 177 Definition in Its Larger Sense 178 By Synonyms 179 By Examples 179 By Comparison with Other Terms 180 By Incomplete Logical Definition 182 Logical Definitions Amplified 183 Division 186 Classification 187 Partition 190 Exposition of a Proposition 191 Forms of Exposition 194 Editorial Articles 194 Popular Essays 195 Short Technical Essays 198 Monographs 198 Treatises 201 Text-books 202 Book Reviews 202 Criticism of the Subject-matter 205 Informal Essays 206 Conclusion 207 CONTENTS. xi PAGD Illustrative Selections 207 Architecture (John Ruskin) Z09 Honor (George William Curtis) 212 Vitality"(John Tyndall) 215 The Idea and Scope of a Miracle (J. H. Newman) 221 CHAPTER v.— ARGUMENTATION. Definition 227 Where Found 227 Propositions zz8 Forms of Propositions 228 Ambiguities 230 Attitude of the Reader 232 Burden of Proof and Presumption 234 Place of the Proposition 237 Kinds of Arguments 238 Arguments from Cause 239 Arguments from Sign 242 Testimony 245 Arguments from Example 250 How these Arguments are Employed 255 Induction and Deduction 256 Deduction 256 Induction 258 Use of this Classification 260 Direct and Indirect Arguments 262 Order of Arguments .' ' 264 Debate 267 Illustrative Selections 269 On Salaries for Government Officials (Benjamin Franklin).-. 272 On the Shakespeare-Bacon Controversy (Prof. Hiram Corson) 276 On the Location of the Columbian Exposition (Chauncey M. Depew) 282 CHAPTER VI. —PERSUASION. Definition 293 The Psychology of Persuasion 293 Motives 294 xii CONTENTS. PAGE The Mechanism of Persuasion 296 The Intellectual Element of Persuasion 297 The Emotional Element 300 Relative Proportions of the Two Elements 302 Relative Positions of the Two Elements 304 The Character of a Persuasive Speaker 308 Kinds of Oratory 309 Style 311 Illustrative Selections 314 Speech at Manchester (Henry Ward Beecher) 3*7 Oration on the Death of Senator Beck (J. J. Ingalls) 327 Speech on the Prosecution of Williams for the Publication of Paine's " Age of Reason" (Erskine) 33* FORMS OF DISCOURSE. CHAPTER I. STYLE. Introductory The laws of discourse are of two kinds : those which apply to all composition, no matter what its nature, or the occasion for which it is prepared ; and those that gov- ern special forms of discourse. Since narration, description, exposition, argumentation, and persuasion are distinguished from one another by the subject-matter and by the end for which they are written, the special rules for each apply mainly to the management of material, — that is, to the choice and presentation of ideas for certain readers under certain condi- tions. The principles that govern all composition, on the other hand, have to do mainly with style, — that is, with choice of words, and their arrangement in phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs. The thought to be expressed should, in prac- tice, be determined upon before the manner of expression ; but in a treatise of this kind it is more natural to discuss first the qualities that all discourse should have, — in other words, the qualities of style. All readers must have noticed great diversities in manner of expression in works of different authors, and often in different passages by the same author. The subject of style may seem hopelessly complex if the details are considered one by one. It will be found, however, that everything of 2 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. practical value on the subject can be grouped under a few general principles. Indeed, the most widely different styles often exemplify the same principle. Thus, the difference in diction between a memorial oration and a reporter's story of a dog-fight is accounted for by the general rule that words should be chosen to fit the subject. Nature of the Principles. — The principles of style, as may be inferred from the fact that they cover so many different cases, are very general. It should be remembered, also, that they are really principles, not set rules. They are not uniform in their application ; they often conflict ; in short, since they deal with language, the most indefinite and subtle of human products, they have in a great degree the uncertainty that always pertains to human affairs. Students whose work in rhetoric follows immediately upon their English grammar are likely to feel that the principles of the new study are as fixed and definite as the Differences between ,-ules of the old. This notion is wholly in- Grammar and ^ , ^ . , , , Rhetoric. correct. Grammar and rhetoric do shade into each other. But they differ in that rhetoric aims to distinguish, not the right from the wrong, but the best from the poorer. Any complex idea may be expressed in a number of ways, any one of which is perfectly grammatical. The study of rhetoric aids in choosing the expression that, all circumstances considered, is the best. Grammar does not consider the circumstances. A sentence that is grammatical in one case is grammatical in another, no matter what the subject, occasion, or form of discourse ; but the expression of an idea that is best for one purpose or time may not be best for another. Moreover, grammatical usage is not at all affected by the personal taste or personal bias of the writer ; but there may well be differences of opinion regarding the most effective way of expressing an idea for a given pur- pose. Indeed, the unconscious effect of personality on form STYLE. 3 of expression is so great that Buffon has said, " The style is the man himself." ^ Sources of Principles. — If we consider why any one form of expression is preferable to another, we shall probably find the reason to be either that it conforms to established usage or that it appeals to the reader in accordance with some law of mind. At bottom, these considerations are really one, since the objection to an unusual expression is that it will not pro- duce the desired effect on the reader. For convenience, how- ever, we may well distinguish between those principles of style that are based on conventional usage and those based on mental laws. I. Conventional Usage. — Language is, to most persons, a set of purely arbitrary signs for ideas. The letter " j " stands, to us, for a certain sound because we are used to giving it a certain pronunciation. To an inhabitant of continental Europe its suggestion is different. The word " jam " calls to our minds a preparation of fruit because we are used to associating the word and the idea. To Cicero the same combination of let- ters meant something entirely different. The only reason most persons can give for saying " The bird flies " rather than '" The bird fly" is that they are accustomed to it, and know it to be the ordinary form of expression. Philologists are able to give a rational account of some of the phenomena of language, but a point is soon reached where they, too, must fall back on usage. The principles based on usage are mostly those that concern the lower, fundamental qualities of style, such as spelling, grammar (in the ordinary sense of the word), the reputable- ness of words, and the meanings of words. ^ Every teacher of rhetoric must have been annoyed by the questions of pupils, " Is not this right ? " " Is that wrong ? " A protest against such a conception of rhetoric is found in Barrett Wendell's "English Composi- tion," chap. I. 4 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. These principles are not of equal importance. An analogy might be drawn between the usages of men and women as writers and speakers and the usages of men and women in society. No principle of language has, perhaps, the force of the moral law ; but errors in spelling or grammar are at least as serious, in their field, as are the grosser offenses against good manners, such as personal uncleanliness. It is as bad to use the more vulgar slang as to eat with one's knife ; and the use of other questionable expressions, such, for example, as " kid " for " child," while excusable under certain circum- stances, might be compared to writing a social note on legal- cap paper, or making a call at seven o'clock in the morning. Writers on literary usage, like devotees of society, are likely to become over-punctilious. When a well-known author objects to " campus " as a provincialism, and unqualifiedly condemns the verb "to cable," he is applying rules of much the same importance as those which prescribe the exact method of creasing trousers, or the date after which a straw hat must not be worn. It is well to observe such dicta when they do not lead to the sacrifice of more valuable matters ; but when they are considered of first importance, they beget either pedantry or foppishness. Spelling. — The first and most essential requisite of any written composition is that the words be spelled correctly. Spelling as a separate study is generally dis- Value of Rules. • i i • , i , continued early m the school course, and as a result the manuscript of many supposedly educated persons abounds in orthographical blunders. English spelling is undoubtedly more irregular, and harder to learn, than that of many other languages ; but poor spellers generally do not recognize how large a percentage of doubtful cases come under a few simple and easily memorized rules. A thorough mastery of the three pages on orthography in Webster's dictionary would save innumerable mistakes. Even the few selected rules STYLE. 5 to be found in most spelling-books are very helpful. In the student exercises that the author reads every year, the rule for dropping the final " e " before a suffix beginning with a vowel is disregarded hundreds of times. One fruitful cause of poor spelling is carelessness in pronun- ciation. Startling as it may seem, from thirty to fifty per cent of the students who enter college write " labra- ^~^g° ""^ ^""^^ t^e omitted syllable being suppressed in pronunciation. " Sophmore " is a less common error of the same class. Confusion in the use of words pronounced alike or nearly alike is very common. " To " and " too," " principle " and "principal," "effect" and "affect," "except" and "accept" are misused by students whose work in all respects but spelling is excellent. Grammar The science of grammar, like that of orthog- raphy, is simply the record of what the consensus of literary usage authorizes in language. Its rules and principles have no sacredness in themselves, but hold true only as they are correct inductions from the best spoken and written discourse. Most of them are, however, the statement of usages definitely established, and their violation is an inexcusable fault. In con- nection with questions of grammatical and ungrammatical usage it is therefore appropriate to use the words right and wrong. Although no composition can be considered even reputable unless it has grammatical correctness, violations of grammatical rules are not uncommon. Most such errors come from care- lessness, but some arise from the misunderstanding of certain principles, or from a failure to recognize that they apply in given cases. A comprehensive review of grammar would be impossible here. A few of the faults that educated persons seem most in danger of committing may be mentioned by way of warning. 6 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. I. Mistakes of number. — Errors in number are usually violations of rules for the agreement of subject and verb, or of antecedent and pronoun. For instance, singular sub- stantives if connected by " and " are treated Compound Terms. 11. • n ^ j t_ « jj as a plural term, if connected by or they must be referred to, individually, as singular. For example, " I saw James and John. They were on their way home " ; but " I expect James or John. He is to stay with me." When a compound term is used to denote a single substance or object, as " bread and milk," it is treated as singular. Some such terms may be considered as either singular or plural ; for example, " cap and gown," " horse and carriage." Care must be taken that the usage is consistent in any composition. A term must not be used as singular in one paragraph and plural in the next. Errors are also common where nouns singular in form are used to stand for a class ; as, " Man is mortal. In this they resemble all other living beings.'' Here the ^'"^"cL^ra'uy^'"^ writer has continually in mind one subject, the genus homo ; but his form of expression is grammatically inconsistent. Most words ending in "-ics," as, "mathe- Words in " ics.'' - ,, »( 1 ■ *i . i mi matics, physics, etc., are singular. The weight of authority, however, is in favor of making '" athletics " plural. Difficulty is likely to arise in connection with the use of col- lective nouns. Such nouns are singular if the idea of grouping is predominant, plural if the individuals are Collective Nouns. i , r mi k thought of as such. Thus, The class is dis- missed," but " The class have dispersed." In case of doubt it is better to use the singular. Nouns of Foreign Some nouns of foreign origin are trouble- origin. some to persons who are unfamiliar with the STYLE. languages from which they come. The following table shows the endings of the most common classes of such words : Source. Singular. Plural. Examples. Latin US i nucleus, i u a ae nebula, ae t( um a datum, a " is es crisis, es Greek on a phenomenon, a Hebrew im seraph, seraphim French eau eaux tableau, eaux Many of these words also have plurals formed according to the regular English usage. It should be noticed that only a few forms of the verb are inflected for number. In case of doubt which form to use, or when the use of a distinctively singular or a dis- ^°Trv«b"°' °' tinctively plural verb would be awkward, it is generally possible to rearrange the sentence. This is often desirable when a singular and a plural noun are connected by alternative conjunctions. Instead of saying, " A or his two sons is (are) going," say " A or his two sons will go." 2. Mistakes of case. — English grammar recognizes but three cases, and for all nouns and most pronouns two of these have the same form. Errors in the case-forms of nouns can occur only in connection with the use of the possessive. The possessive case should be used to express only owner- ship, duration of time (as, a year's study), and in a few other expressions, such as " the law's delay," " the sceptre's power.'' These are established by long usage and must be learned by observation. Most of them imply a sort of personification, which is generally not definite enough to justify the writing of the noun with a capital letter. The tendency to use the possessive in place of a phrase intro- 8 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. duced by " of " is increasing, but should not be encouraged. Such expressions as "the university's progress," "protection's triumph " are not sanctioned by any really good usage. The double possessive, i.e., the use of the possessive case after the preposition " of," is idiomatic and correct. In most instances the more usual construction with the Double Possessive. ... , , . ^ , . . . , objective may be used if desired ; m others, this would change the meaning ; as, " a picture of John," " a picture of John's." Errors are sometimes made in placing the apostrophe in pos- sessive nouns. All nouns, whether single or plural, not ending in "s " form the possessive by the addition of Use of the^Apostro- „ ,g_,. pi^j.j^j ^^^^^3 ending in "s" add the apostrophe after the " s." Usage is divided in regard to the best form for the possessive of nouns ending in "" s " in the singular. The apostrophe may be added alone, or the " 's " as in case of other singular nouns. The former method is simpler and pleasant to the ear, but has the disad- vantage of making the possessive singular resemble a posses- sive plural. Some authorities recommend the addition of the "s" in writing, but not in pronunciation. The nominative and the objective cases of inflected pronouns are sometimes used incorrectly for each other. The objective is so frequently substituted for the predicate Cases of Pronouns. . , 1 * 1 n nominative after the verb to be (as. It is me ") that a few writers have tried to justify the usage. It is not, however, supported by any great weight of authority ; the most that can possibly be conceded is that in conversation it is but a venial offense. The nominative form of a pronoun seems to be the most typical, or to occur to the mind first in connection with the idea for which the pronoun stands. When a noun and a pro- noun in the objective are joined by a conjunction, the noun is uninflected, and there is a tendency to use the uninflected, i.e.. STYLE. 9 the nominative, form of the pronoun. It is not uncommon to hear such expressions as " He spoke to John and I," though no one would be guilty of saying " He spoke to I." This error is especially likely to occur when the pronoun is at some distance from the governing word. Probably the pronoun whose case-forms are oftenest misused is "who'' as relative or interrogative. " Who" introduces its clause. In the normal English sentence or clause the first noun or pronoun is usually the subject, unless some other gov- ernment is obvious. It seems natural, therefore, to use the nominative form of the relative, no matter what its construction. Occasionally a writer whose attention has been called to this danger will let his caution lead him into the opposite fault, and will use the objective in place of the nominative. 3. Mistakes of mood. — The indicative is often used where the subjunctive would be preferable. The subjunctive is being more and more neglected, even by the best Use of the^Sabjunc- ^u^jjors ; SO that the persistent use of the indicative perhaps ought not to be called by so strong a term as mistake. But a writer who disregards the subjunctive not only violates the traditions of the language but also sacrifices an important method of expressing finer shades of meaning. The subjunctive is properly used to express a condition contrary to fact, — as, " If I were president, etc.," or to denote uncertainty or doubt. " If John comes " should imply that there was a strong probability that John would or would not come. " If John come " should mean that the coming was wholly uncertain. 4. Mistakes of tense. — The most serious misuse of tense is likely to occur in dependent clauses, particularly when the dependent verb is an infinitive. In such a Tenses in Dependent ^lause the time of the Verb is dependent on Clauses. the tense of the principal clause. In other words, the point from which time is reckoned is not, as in 10 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. independent sentences, the moment of speaking or writing, but th'e time of the principal verb. In the sentences : (i) He went to see the lions, (2) He goes to see the lions, (3) He will go to see the lions, the present infinitive represents time absolutely past, present, and future, in (i), (2), and (3), respectively. In the sentences : (i) He was said to have accomplished his purpose, (2) He is said to have accomplished his purpose, (3) He will be said to have accomplished his purpose, the perfect infinitive represents time prior to that denoted by the principal verb. In (i) this is time before other past time ; in (2) any past time ; in (3) any time, past, present, or future, before that represented by " will be said." Care should be taken in the use of the historical present. The narration of a past event as though it were occurring in present time has a vivifying effect, and is to Th= Historical Pres- ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^f ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^f ^ jj^ ^ ^ ent. ° speech. Like other devices intended to give force, it should be used only when the occasion is important enough to warrant it. The change from one tense to another is so easy that it is likely to be made without good reason. An especially serious fault is that of changing from past to present and back again in the same passage. As a narrative increases in interest the present may replace the past ; but when once it has been introduced it should be kept up until a decided break in the thought is reached, when the narrative may begin again on a lower plane of feeling. Failure to discriminate between the auxiliaries " shall " and " will," " should " and " would " is closely related to errors in the use of tense. Much of the difficulty that "Shall "and "will." , , . , , .,, ,. attends the use of these words will disappear if the student keeps in mind the essential meanings of the words. Both " shall " and " will " denote futurity. " Shall " STYLE. 11 usually denotes volition or determination on the part of the speaker. " Will " denotes volition, if at all, on the part of the subject of the verb. " He will go " may mean either that he is determined to go, or simply that, so far as human beings can determine the future, there is no doubt that his going will take place. In the sentence " The book will fall " no determi- nation is implied, since the subject is incapable of exercising volition. " He shall go " indicates determination on the part of the speaker to compel the going, if necessary. The same principles hold for the second person. In the first person, where the subject and the speaker are the same, " will " is used to emphasize the idea of volition, as, " I will go." Since men and women do few things that they do not will to do, " shall " with the active voice generally expresses volition, but does not emphasize it. It may also be used where no volition is implied, as in the sentences " I shall go to prison," " I shall die." The possible usages are shown below : Determination on Determination on Part of Speaker. Part of Subject. Simple Future. I will I will I shall You shall You will You will He shall He will He will In interrogative sentences the form should be used that would be used in the answer. " Shall I ? " (answer, " I shall ") implies simple futurity. " Will he ? " (answer, " he will "), expresses either simple futurity or determination on the part of " he." " Will you ? " (" I will "), " Shall he ? " (" he shall ") imply that the matter in question is to be determined by the person addressed. " Shall " is also used to express the decrees of destiny r as, " The heavens and the earth shall pass away." " Will " is often used by courtesy to soften the effect of a virtual command : as, " You will report, etc.," in military orders. 12 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. " Should " and " would " follow the same rules as " shall " and " will," respectively. They also have a few special uses. " Should," when emphatic, expresses duty or Should and Would. , ,. . .. tt 777 ij.Tr i. obligation : as, He should go, but I fear he will not be able." "Would" may denote habitual action: as, " We would all sit about the fire on winter evenings." In the expression " would that " '" would " expresses a wish. 5. Mistakes of reference. — A frequent error is the use of a pronoun without an antecedent definitely expressed. Some- times a pronoun is made to refer to a word Pronouns with No used as an adjectivc, or to part of a compound Antecedent Ex- , ,, _^, pressed. word : as. There are many stone-quarries in Vermont. It is of fine quality for building." Sometimes the antecedent is still more vaguely imphed. The reference of a pronoun is often obscured by the pres- ence of a noun of the same person, number, and gender as the antecedent. The general rule is that a pro- Confusion of Ante- ^^^^ ^.^f^^g ^^ ^j^g ^^^^ ^f ^j^g proper form cedents. ^ ^ that immediately precedes it. This applies with especial stringency in the case of the relative. In such an expression as " John Smith, son of the well-known attorney, who, etc.," "who " should refer to " attorney," unless the con- text shows at once and plainly that this is not the case. Per- sonal pronouns often refer to the most prominent noun that has preceded, especially to the subject of the sentence, as " John Smith, son of the well-known attorney, is visiting his brother. Yesterday he was interviewed by a reporter." Here, though two nouns intervene, there is little real doubt that " he " refers to " John Smith." The rule that a pronoun should never refer to a noun in the possessive case is based on this fact that an antecedent should be prominent. Confusion is especially apt to arise when several pronouns of the same person, number, and gender are found, together with STYLE. 13 their antecedents, in the same sentence. The following sen- tence illustrates how perplexing such constructions may be, even in a passage of no great length : " On his way he visited a son of an old friend who had asked him to call upon him on his journey northward. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his most intelli- gent workmen and told him to consider himself at his service, as he himself could not take him as he wished about the city." 1 In sentences like this considerable ingenuity is necessary to make clear the reference of pronouns without rendering the sentence harsh and cumbersome. The simplest device is always to repeat the antecedent, and if this repetition be accompanied by a change in order, so that the repeated word bears a different emphasis in different clauses, the sentence need not lose smoothness. Sometimes a noun may be put in the possessive case, and thus be .made so unemphatic that it will not be mistaken for an antecedent : e.g., in the sentence above, if " a son of an old friend who ..." be changed to " an old friend's son who ..." the reference will be plain. Some- times a mere change of order will make a noun so prominent that it will clearly appear to be the antecedent. In other cases it is possible to change the number of a word without affecting the idea ; thus, there is no difference in meaning between " man is mortal " and " men are mortal " ; and if it is necessary to refer to the subject of this sentence by a pronoun, that form should be chosen that differs from other masculine nouns in the context. Other methods of change will suggest themselves in particular cases. Too much care can never be taken to make the reference of pronouns unmistakable. The writer, who knows the thought he wishes to convey, will often fail to notice another possible meaning of his words. In matters of great importance it is 1 From Abbott's " How to Write Clearly," page 48. 14 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. best to submit the composition to a person who knows nothing of the line of thought, and ask him to watch for ambigu- ities. With a little care, however, a writer can usually detect such errors himself. Another part of speech that needs careful attention is the participle. Participles should not be used unless the substan- tives with which they agree are clearly Use of Participles. , rm • • • • n expressed. Their misuse is especially com- mon in connection with a pronoun of the first person, implied but not expressed : as, " Going down to the river, our boat was soon launched." The participle is, altogether, a troublesome part of speech. It is more common in some languages than in English, and students of these languages are likely to use it too freely. The absolute construction, while not incorrect, and sometimes highly useful, should be employed sparingly. The " and which " construction, while not strictly an error of reference, arises from a failure to recognize the relation between words of reference and their antece- The" and which" dents. This error is most common when two Construction. facts are stated in regard to the same thing, the second in a relative clause, the first in some other form. No one would be likely to say " I saw the book and which was on the table, " but it is not infrequent to hear such a remark as " I saw the book — an edition of Shakespeare and which was on the table." Here it seems natural, since two ideas really refer to the same substantive, to connect them by a conjunction. This should not be done for two reasons : (i) because a coordinating conjunction like " and " may be used only between expressions of similar grammatical construction ; (2) because the relative itself performs the office of a connec- tive. Sentences like the one quoted are generally improved by putting the two expressions in the same grammatical form, so that the conjunction may be used. STYLE. IS 6. Mistakes of comparison. — The general rule governing the use of the comparative and the superlative degrees of adjectives is that the former is used in com- omparauveor uper- p^j-jjjg j^q objects, the latter in comparing an object with two or more others. When the writer does not know whether the class to which an object belongs contains two or more than two members, the super- lative should be used. Indeed, when two terms form a group, and one is compared with the other, the superlative is often used unless the number is to be made prominent. Thus, it is customary to say, " He is the oldest child in the family," though there may be but two children ; but, " He is the older of the children," when the fact that there is but one other child is to be emphasized. Adverbs are governed by the same general rule as adjectives. The comparative degree is regularly followed by " than," the superlative by " of." Another error is that of comparing adjectives and adverbs that admit of no degree : as, " round," " square," " perfect," "" unique," etc. When these words are not Words that do not ^ged in an exact sense they should be pre- Admit of Companson. •' ^ ceded by a limiting adverb : as, " nearly." This adverb may be compared : as, " nearly round, more nearly round, most nearly round." Sometimes, by a sort of poetic license, such a word may be compared for the sake of indicating that a characteristic is possessed in a very high degree : as, " the ompanson. gupremest height." The same, effect is still more rarely attained by a double comparison : as, Shakes- peare's " most unkindest cut of all." Reputableness of Words. — Spelling and grammar are in- dependent branches of study, and are considered in a work on rhetoric only because they are not fully mastered before that subject is taken up. The question of the reputableness of words 16 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. belongs wholly to rhetoric. Although one of the most funda- mental matters of which that study treats, the principles that govern it are much more flexible than those of orthography or syntax. The great majority of words that any author employs are unquestionably in good usage ; a few that may tempt him are wholly bad, and should never be countenanced ; but most of those concerning which question may arise belong to neither of these classes. They are words not wholly reputable or wholly disreputable, concerning which an author must decide for himself in accordance with particular circumstances. It is often said that the only test of the reputableness of a word is the usage of the best writers and speakers of the present day. It would perhaps be more accu- Tests of Reputableness. , . , . rate, so far as English is concerned, to say that it is the best usage of all writers and speakers who employ the language. Of course the greatest importance is attached to the authority of those great writers whose works are known especially for the quality of their English. But neither in England nor America is there a definite body, like the French Academy, whose members are alone considered competent to determine standard usage. It would be impossible to agree on a list of those whose works should be consulted in disputed cases. The usage of every man, certainly of every educated man, adds a slight something to the weight of authority for or against any expression. Newspaper English, though so often reviled, is often of great importance. Many words have come into the language against the opposition of critics and lexi- cographers, simply because newspaper writers persisted in using them. The language may not always have gained by the innovation, but this is not the point under consideration. The best authorities in regard to the use of technical and professional terms are specialists — in law and medicine the writers of the best legal and medical books, respectively. But the " best authors," who are considered the highest author- STYLE. 17 ities in regard to words in the general vocabulary, are those whose works are known for excellence of expression, not necessarily for originality or value of thought. Since it is impossible for any person who is in doubt regard- ing the reputableness of a word to read all the writings of standard authors in order to find their usage, Dictionanes. . ° there is need of some work to which reference can be made when questions arise. This need is supplied by the dictionary. Pupils in the early grades of school work often learn to look upon the dictionary as an infallible guide. Really, a dictionary is nothing of the sort. It is simply a compilation made by men who read the standard literature of the language with certain words in mind, and note the way in which these words are employed. The dictionary-maker has no right and no power to pronounce a word reputable or dis- reputable on his own authority. He can simply make general- izations from the usage of others, as he observes it. If he lets his own prejudices enter into any part of his work, as Dr. Johnson sometimes did, this part is. sure to be disregarded. Though our great dictionaries are compiled with the greatest care, their authors are liable to make mistakes, both in observ- ing and in interpreting facts of usage. Moreover, the language is constantly changing, so that the usage of to-day differs con- siderably from that of five years ago. No dictionary can, therefore, be infallible, or even approach infallibility. Though the dictionary and similar compilations are not to be blindly worshiped, it does not follow that they are to be regarded lightly. Such works usually err, if at all, on the . side of conservatism ; that is, they do not approve words that may, perhaps, really be in good use. If the necessity is great enough to justify the means, no one should hesitate to use an expression that has not its full credentials ; but the occasions for doing so are rare. It is generally best to make consider- able sacrifice in the way of circumlocutions and awkward 18 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. expressions, rather than to use a term that is in the least questionable. Words concerning which a careful writer will be in doubt are mostly of three kinds : (i) words becoming obsolete ; (2) words that are candidates for admission to "^'"tbk Word?"" *^ language, but that are not yet fully estab- lished ; (3) technical and foreign terms. A writer who wishes to express his thoughts in the simplest and most natural way is not often tempted to use obsolete words. When such words are found in mod- Obsolete Words. ,. , n • j- ^ ern English prose they generally indicate affectation or striving after effect. In poetry they may be used more freely, especially if they aid in conforming the work to the exigencies of metre. Words become obsolete when the ideas for which they stand no longer need expression, or when some other words supplant them. When it is necessary to refer to things long disused, as in history and historical fiction, it is allowable to use their names, no matter whether they still retain currency in the lan- guage or not. Care should be taken, however, that the mean- ing is sufficiently explained, and that unfamiliar terms are not so numerous as to confuse the reader. Obsolete words that have been replaced by other terms should be employed very rarely. Their only use is to assist in calling to mind the spirit and customs of a former age. Words like "whilom," "yclept," "childe," etc., may be used for this purpose. They would be more valuable if they had not been overworked in writings where they were unnecessary and even inappropriate. It is impossible to lay down definite rules for determining whether a word is or is not obsolete. A word may be obsolete for one sort of writing when it is not for another. In poetry, history, or historical fiction, any term that will be understood is admissible if it expresses the desired shade of meaning with STYLE. 19 more accuracy and force than does a modern word. In other forms of writing, no word should ordinarily be used that is so unusual as to attract attention by its antique flavor. By far the most troublesome sort of questionable terms are those that have been suggested for admission to the language, but that are not fully established. In regard i"the°Langiiage^ ' '•^ these the dictionaries are likely to be unsat- isfactory, all dictionaries but the very latest especially so. Often the only authority will be that of news- papers and other periodicals, and this is always hard to esti- mate correctly. If standard writers obviously avoid a word, this may be taken as authority against it ; but the fact that it is not found in their works may signify simply that they have not had occasion to express the idea for which it stands. Clearly it would be nonsense to postpone the acceptance of a term for which there is real need until chance had forced all our best writers to put themselves on record in favor of it. Words that are proposed for admission into the language are of three kinds : (i) those that express new ideas, as the names of recent inventions and discoveries ; (2) those Kinds of New Words. , , . , , , , that have equivalents in the language, but that are simpler or otherwise preferable to these ; (3) new expres- sions for ideas that can already be expressed just as well. Words in class (i) may be adopted into the language very quickly. If an entirely new invention or discovery is made, new terms are necessary before it can be '^'™ ^Y^L^" '^^^ talked about. Words like " telephone," " phon- ograph," etc., come into perfectly reputable use almost at once. If two or more words are proposed for the same idea, the establishment of any one may be delayed until the contest is decided. At the present time the latest sensa- tional discovery in physics is known by the names of " Roent- gen rays," " X-rays," etc. For the pictures produced by these rays we have such terms as "radiographs," "shadowgraphs," 20 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. etc. It will be some time before any one of these words is firmly established. If the discoverer and those experimenters who immediately followed him had united on names for each of these ideas, they would even now be fixed in the language. Short and simple terms for ideas that have heretofore been expressed by phrases, or by long and awkward words, must fight their way slowly, but stand a good chance impifying erms. ^^ getting into the language in time. Many of these expressions are formed from words already in the lan- guage, and such derivatives are always adopted more readily than entirely new terms. The formation of verbs from nouns is especially common : for example, " to interview,'' " to bur- glarize," " to suicide." Writers on diction still condemn the last two, though they have been before the public for several years. While they have hardly established themselves as yet, they will probably do so in time. Their advantage is their brevity. Each takes the place of an expression of two or more words. New terms whose only merit is their novelty Words Coined for the , ■ t i /- i • i i Sake of Novelty. Eire not likely to find entrance into the lan- guage. Many of these are of the nature of circumlocutions : for example, "educationalist" for "educator." It is often hard to decide how far technical terms should be admitted into ordinary literature. Every science, trade, and profession has a list of terms understood by Technical Terms. ,, , . , . , ., all members of the craft, but not necessarily by the public. With the constantly widening diffusion of knowl- edge, these terms are coming into the general vocabulary in either literal or figurative senses. Thus, such words as " cathar- tic " and " anaesthetic " are employed by the layman in practi- cally the same sense as by the physician; "pi," "sorts" (in the phrase " out of sorts "), have come from the printer's vocabu- lary, but are generally used figuratively. These terms are now in the language, but many are on the border-line. Prof. Roent- STYLE. 21 gen's discovery, referred to above, has brought into use the terms "cathode" and "anode," which a few months ago were purely technical terms. To-day it may be questioned whether they are not in the regular English vocabulary. The advantage of technical terms is that they are shorter and more accurate than other ways of exactly expressing the idea. Their disadvantages are that they may not be understood, that they may repel the reader by their somewhat formidable appear- ance, or that they may seem aJEEected. By keeping these advan- tages and disadvantages in mind, a writer can generally deter- mine what his usage should be in any particular case. Foreign words and phrases used in English discourse are often unintelligible to many readers, and are likely to seem affected. Even when the reader knows the Foreign Ternis. . . , , , . , meanmg, he realizes it slowly and with con- scious effort, because his mind is distracted partly by the unfa- miliar appearance of the word, partly by uncertainty as to pro- nunciation. If a foreign term will be readily understood, and if it expresses a certain meaning more accurately than any English expression, it may safely be employed. But a person with a good English vocabulary will find his own language suf- ficient for the expression of most ideas. It is often remarked that the writers who use foreign terms most freely are not those of the best education. The use of foreign quotations is much less common now than formerly. This is owing partly to the dictates of fashion, partly to the fact that not all educated men nowadays can be depended upon to understand any one language besides their own. When Latin was the chief study of a scholar, and French the first accomplishment of a society man, quotations from these languages could be used very freely. Almost the only foreign words that will tempt a young writer to-day are a few French terms, now pretty generally understood. Such of these as have no good equivalents in English will prob- 22 FORMS OF DISCOURSE. ably be Anglicized and adopted: e.g., ^^ boudoir " "esprit de corps." Those that are not really needed will mostly disappear with other affectations ; though fashion may establish a few in place of English words, as " bouquet " has supplanted " nose- gay" and "menu'" is crowding out "bill of fare." No discussion of the reputableness of words would be com- plete without mention of the subject of slang. The word Slang covers not only many sins, but sins of many kinds. Using slang is not, therefore, an offense of fixed magnitude, and is sometimes not an offense at all. Three principal varieties of slang may be noted. The first is the misuse or overuse of words that are perfectly reputable in their place. Such terms as " lovely," Kinds of Slang. ,