<5nrneU Htuueraitg ffiibrarg 
 
 3tljata, SJem $nrk 
 
 BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE 
 
 SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND 
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
 HENRY W. SAGE 
 
 1891 
 
 PGIJNEEBMG L1BKAKY 
 
 — Sibley Dom$ 
 
Cornell University Library 
 TJ1160.P91 
 
 3 1924 003 961 095 
 
The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003961095 
 
ELEMENTARY MACHINE 
 SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 A TEXT BOOK PRESENTING THE 
 ELEMENTS OF THE MACHINISTS' TRADE 
 
 BT 
 
 JAMES A. PRATT, Mech. E. 
 
 DIRECTOR WILLIAMSON TREE SCHOOL OP MECHANICAL TRADES, 
 
 MEMBER AM. SOC. M.E., FORMERLY DISTRICT EDUCATIONAL 
 
 DIRECTOR, COM. ON EDUCATION AND SPECIAL 
 
 TRAINING U. S. WAR DEPT. 
 
 205 ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 JJEW YORK 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 EIGHT WARREN STREET 
 1921 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1921, BY 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Elementary Machine Shop Peactice is offered as 
 a text, presenting the fundamentals of the machinist's 
 trade. The extended detail of the large machine shop 
 is based on a certain number of elementary principle's 
 which are applied to the doing of bench work, and to the 
 operation of machine tools. 
 
 Not all of these elementary principles are introduced 
 in the present volume, as this work has been devoted to 
 the trade fundamentals. It is better for the beginner, 
 in machine work, to gain a thorough master of a few 
 first principles, and on this foundation build his knowl- 
 edge, than to study a multiplicity of detail without con- 
 sidering the relation of this detail to constructive trade 
 principles. 
 
 The processes described are related to the bench, 
 lathe drill press, shaper, slotter, grinder, miller and 
 planer. 
 
 The author feels that the study of the machines men- 
 tioned, gives a satisfactory understanding of the funda- 
 mental processes involved in the metal working industries 
 of the present day. It is hoped that this text may prove 
 of value to apprentices, students, workmen and teachers. 
 
 J. A. P. 
 
 Williamson School. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. The Bench and Bench Work 1 
 
 II. Supplies and Miscellaneous Tools 27 
 
 III. Hardening and Tempering. Machine Adjustments. 
 
 Equipment. General Tools 60 
 
 IV. Lathe Tools 90 
 
 V. The Lathe Backrest. Follow Rest. Compound 
 
 Rest. Eccentric Turning 135 
 
 VI. The Driller or Drill Press 147 
 
 VII. The Shaper 157 
 
 VIII. The Slotter 173 
 
 IX. The Grinder 181 
 
 X. Grinding (Continued) 198 
 
 XI. The Milling Machine or Miller 206 
 
 XII. Gearing 220 
 
 XIII. The Planer 234 
 
 XIV. Machine Shop Calculations 252 
 
 XV. Machine Glossary 273 
 
 Tables 283 
 
 Bibliography 301 
 
 Course Outline 304 
 
 Index 313 
 
MACHINE SHOP PEACTICE 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 
 
 The learner should constantly refer to the glossary, 
 page 273 while studying this text, in order that he may 
 % fix in his mind the more common machine shop terms. 
 It is important that a boy or young man, starting to learn 
 a trade, shall have a clearly denned idea of the require- 
 ments of that trade. Since in this book, we intend to 
 study the machinist's trade, we may properly ask; What 
 is a machinist? 
 
 First, a machinist is a man who can build machinery; 
 in the building of this machinery, he must operate other 
 machinery. He must be able to make and read a me- 
 chanical drawing, so that he can carry out and give 
 orders. As he progresses in the work it will be neces- 
 sary for him to give instructions to other people, relative 
 to methods of doing work. He must be acquainted 
 with the various kinds of material which are used by the 
 machinist in carrying out his work; furthermore, he 
 should know the proper proportions of the various shop 
 accessories, such as benches, tool racks, lathe boards and 
 similar small equipment. He should be capable of mak- 
 ing up requisitions for the different classes of small sup- 
 plies which he needs in the shop in order to carry on his 
 work. Such a list includes machine screws, wood screws, 
 nails, files, drills, emery cloth, sand paper, emery, waste, 
 oil, etc. 
 
 1 
 
PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Having now some idea of the requirements of a ma- 
 chinist, so far as his general knowledge is concerned, we 
 will study some of the equipment which he uses in the shop. 
 
 First, the bench at which the machinist works. The 
 beginner in the machine shop most commonly starts his 
 
 T l ^* _*2L- .J a " 
 
 jjpi'-tf*- |S"_J 
 
 Fig. 1 
 
 Parts marked A made of hemlock, poplar or white pine. 
 Parts marked B made of oak or other well seasoned hard wood. 
 Parts marked C made of yellow pine or oak. 
 Other parts are of cast iron. 
 
 work at the bench, because when entering the shop, 
 
 surrounded by a great many complicated machines, he 
 is naturally more or less nervous. 
 If he were put directly on a ma- 
 chine, he would make mistakes 
 which would not be made later, 
 after becoming used to shop sur- 
 roundings. Figure 1 shows a sec- 
 tion of a machinist's bench which 
 is very serviceable. It is of such 
 a height that the average workman - 
 can stand or sit comfortably for 
 
 an extended period of time. A serviceable type of stool 
 
 is shown in Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 2 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 3 
 
 In the building of the machinist's bench, the heavy 
 front plank is made of hard wood — ash, oak, or maple 
 being satisfactory; it should be about two inches thick. 
 The backing boards may be of hemlock, spruce, or yellow 
 pine, while the base may be of cast iron or wood. The 
 general dimensions presented should not be departed 
 from to any marked degree. The machinist uses his 
 
 Fig. 3 
 
 A. Sliding jaw. 
 
 B. Solid or fast jaw. 
 
 C. Vise screw. 
 
 Z>. Vise handle. 
 
 E. Jaw face. 
 
 F. Bench lugs. 
 
 bench for finishing small parts, for assembling machinery, 
 and for laying out his work. 
 
 In doing much of this work, it is necessary for the 
 workman to use a bench vise. In this device he holds 
 his work when chipping, filing, fitting, or finishing. 
 Figure 3 gives an idea of the appearance of a machinist's 
 vise, while in Fig. 4 are shown some of the accessories 
 used, when holding material in the vise. Note that in 
 the illustration of the vise, the various parts are named. 
 
 In Fig. 3 at A is shown a pair of copper jaws. These 
 are placed in the main jaws of the vise, when holding 
 work which might be damaged by clamping directly 
 between the unprotected steel jaws. Copper jaws should 
 always be used when holding any finished work in the 
 
4 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 vise. At B is shown a pair of leather faces, which are 
 used for the same purpose as the copper jaws, but on work 
 which is more highly finished. Thus a workman should 
 never hold, by either steel or copper jaws, a highly 
 polished piece, or a piece which has been scraped to a 
 bearing. If it is necessary to place such a piece of work 
 
 in the vise, the finished surfaces coming against the vise 
 jaw should be protected by the use of leather faces. 
 
 At C is shown a taper slip jaw, which is used for hold- 
 ing taper or wedge pieces in the vise. At D is shown a 
 pair of pin slip jaws, which are used for holding cylin- 
 drical pieces in the vise. 
 
 In connection with the first work at the bench, the 
 beginner usually finds it necessary to use a hammer and 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 5 
 
 a cold «hisel, so we will at this time study these two very- 
 important though simple tools. A good hammer for 
 general use should weigh about one pound, be of the ball 
 peen type, and be fitted with a 16 inch handle. The 
 cold chisel is made of what is known as tool steel. 
 
 Later on we will study tool steel with considerable 
 care, but for the present we may say that it is a kind of 
 steel which permits being made sufficiently hard to cut 
 other metals. The treatment which makes the steel 
 hard, is called hardening, and consists of heating the 
 tool to a red heat, then suddenly dipping it in water. 
 In order to be serviceable, however, the tool must be 
 tempered, which process is effected by placing it in the 
 fire, and carefully heating it, until a desired color is ob- 
 tained on the face of the tool. The face is slightly polished 
 after hardening, so that the temper color may be seen. 
 The details of this process of hardening and tempering 
 are described in a later chapter. 
 
 Now although we have two very simple tools, there 
 is considerable manual ability required to use them 
 properly. First, there is the worker's position at the 
 bench, then the way in which he holds the chisel and 
 the hammer. By adopting the correct positon, one is 
 enabled to work for an extended period of time, with- 
 out undue fatigue. The chisel should be held loosely 
 in the left hand, assuming that the learner is right- 
 handed, using the full hand with which to hold the 
 tool about midway between the head and the shank. 
 As a new chisel is approximately 7 inches long, the 
 space from the head of the chisel to the hand is about 
 1§ inches. 
 
 The hammer should be held well out towards the end 
 of the handle, and the workman should stand, so that 
 the front of his body is perpendicular to the center line 
 of" the vise, and slightly to the left of it, so that by a free 
 
6 
 
 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 swing of the hammer over the shoulder, he strikes the 
 chisel squarely and evenly without undue effort. 
 
 Now in the process of chipping down a surface, the 
 workman will meet with much better success if he does 
 not use the broad cold chisel for his first cuts, but uses 
 a narrower chisel, such as is shown in Fig. 5 at B, known 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 A. Cold chisel. 
 
 B. Cape chisel. 
 
 in the trade as a cape chisel. This chisel is first used to 
 cut scores in the surface of the piece, the center lines of 
 which are about one inch apart. After these scores are 
 cut through, the piece will have a surface appearance 
 
 Fig. 6 
 
 similar to that shown in Fig. 6, a series of ridges having 
 appeared, due to cutting down with the cape chisel. 
 
 The cold chisel may now be used to cut these ridges 
 away and to leave a plane or flat surface. This is now 
 said to be roughed out, and is ready for the finishing 
 process, which consists of bringing the surface to the re- 
 quired condition by means of a file. This will introduce 
 to us a number of new tools. 
 
 First, there is the file, of which we have a great variety, 
 and then there is a tool which is used for cleaning the 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 7 
 
 file. We must also have a simple means of quickly test- 
 ing the surface while we are working on it. 
 
 The tool used for cleaning the file is known as a file 
 card, and is shown in Fig. 7, while the tool used for test- 
 ing the surface is known as a straight edge. Ordinarily 
 the machinist, when working on such pieces as we are 
 discussing, uses as a 
 straight edge one of his 
 scales or steel measuring 
 rules. 
 
 Let us now return to , 
 
 the file. First look at 
 
 Fig. 8, which presents an illustration of a file blank. This 
 is the -piece of steel which is cut to make the file that is 
 used by the workman in the machine shop. Notice par- 
 ticularly the names of the parts. In ordering a file, one 
 must state the shape, kind of cut, and length which is 
 
 "^~ 
 
 Kg. 8 
 A is the tang. B is the body. C is the shoulder. 
 
 The length of the body U the dimension used in specifying the length 
 of the file. 
 
 wanted. Now as to shapes, we have what are known as 
 hands, flats, rounds, squares, pillars, triangular, and slot- 
 ting. While the toolmaker uses a great many other 
 shapes, those mentioned above cover the general require- 
 ments of the trade. As to lengths, the hand and flat 
 files may be obtained from 6 to 14 inches, while the 
 square, round, triangular, and most of the others can 
 be obtained in lengths from 4 to 12 inches. 
 
 The young worker interested in his trade will do well 
 to write to the Nicholson File Co., Providence, R. I., for 
 
8 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 their small catalogue and their booklet entitled, "File 
 Filosophy." Both of these books contain a great deal of 
 practical information bearing on the subject of files. 
 
 The following cuts are commonly furnished in the 
 trade — rough, coarse, bastard, second cut, smooth, and 
 dead smooth files. The bastard, second cut, smooth, 
 and dead smooth are the files most commonly used by 
 the machinist. In working with a file, it is necessary to 
 have it properly handled. Handles are commonly sup- 
 plied of both hard and soft wood in various sizes. The 
 
 table in connection with 
 Fig. 9, gives necessary 
 information for order- 
 ing file handles. • 
 When placing a 
 *■«■ 9 handle oh the file, it 
 
 Available standard sizes measured at A should first be drilled 
 are f", i", {", |", 1", 1", 11*. Handles can 
 
 be obtained in both hard and soft wood. With a hole about the 
 The soft wood handles are the cheaper- gj ze £ £jjg tang at a 
 in price. . , , . , , 
 
 point one third the 
 
 length from the end. The file should then be wrapped 
 with waste at the shoulder, dipped in water, and the 
 tang heated red hot. Then force the file into the handle 
 until it is about \" or f " from the shoulder of the file. 
 The file should now be quickly withdrawn and cooled. 
 It may then be solidly driven into the handle, by striking 
 it on the bench. 
 
 We are now ready to start using this tool which we 
 have been studying. For finishing ordinary work we 
 may use a twelve inch flat bastard file. A correct posi- 
 tion when filing at the vise is shown in Fig. 10. The 
 end of the handle should butt against the palm of the 
 right hand, with the thumb resting along the top of 
 the file, and the handle grasped firmly but not too tightly. 
 The palm of the left hand should rest on the end of the 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 9 
 
 file, with the elbow thrown rather high in the air, so 
 that considerable pressure may be applied when making 
 the cutting stroke. The stroke should not be straight 
 across the work, but should be in a diagonal direction, 
 so that the file takes a shearing cut. 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 After the surface has been reduced in a measure, the 
 straight edge should be laid along it, to see whether or 
 not the surface is coming true or fiat. Considerable 
 practice will be required to enable the worker to pro- 
 duce a flat surface by means of filing, and practice is the 
 only thing which will give him the mastery of this art. 
 
 Scraping. — For very accurate work the fitting of 
 machine parts must be done by scraping. Chipping and 
 
10 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 filing have been taken up and we may properly study 
 scraping at this time. For finishing flat surfaces accu- 
 
 Fig. 11 
 
 rately the workman must use a surface plate, such as is 
 illustrated in Fig. 11; these plates are made and sold in 
 
 the market by machine 
 tool manufacturers. 
 
 The job which we will 
 use to illustrate the pro- 
 cess of scraping is shown 
 in Fig. 12; it is a cross head shoe for an engine and is 
 accurately planed and chipped or filed before we start 
 
 Kg. 13 
 
 scraping. The scraper we use is shown in Fig. 13; it can 
 be made from an old flat file, forged at the end; it must 
 be hardened and tempered, 
 ground on end A and the two 
 faces B and C. This grinding 
 is done on the emery wheel 
 or grindstone, after which ■ 
 the scraper must be carefully 
 stoned on the oil stone. 
 When stoning, the stone 
 must be kept wet with kero- 
 sene; stone the faces first, as shown in Fig. 13 then stone 
 the end as illustrated in Fig. 14. 
 
 Fig. 14 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 11 
 
 Do not hold the scraper perfectly straight when ston- 
 ing,nor at a right angle to the side of the stone, but tip 
 it shghtly from the vertical and hold the face at an acute 
 angle to the side of the stone, as illustrated in Fig. 14. 
 Move the scraper somewhat rapidly over the face of the 
 stone, keeping side A of the scraper away from you; 
 when the edge at face A has been sharpened, turn the 
 scraper around, and stone face B in the same manner. 
 
 Rock the scraper slightly right and left, as it is moved 
 to and fro, thus producing an end, such as is shown en- 
 larged in Fig. 15. If the" stoning is properly done the 
 tool will cut freely, without 
 chatter. 
 
 Having the scraper properly 
 sharpened, we now place the g- 
 
 work in the vise, using copper jaws, and avoiding 
 clamping too tightly so that the piece is buckled, or 
 "sprung " as the machinist would say. In working down 
 the surface do not move the scraper constantly in one 
 direction, but scrape a spot as at A Fig. 12 in one direc- 
 tion as indicated by the arrows, then a spot as at B in a 
 different direction, and so on over the whole surface. 
 This constant change of direction rapidly reduces irregu- 
 larities and develops a plane surface; the whole surface 
 should be gone over in the manner described in order to 
 remove the heaviest tool marks. This process is known 
 as spotting. 
 
 Take a small amount of red lead, and moisten it with 
 machine or lard oil, so it forms a putty; rub the fingers 
 over the putty, and then over the surface plate, applying 
 considerable pressure. You will notice that rubbing the 
 putty on ,the surface plate in this manner will make it 
 look dull. The whole surface of the plate should be 
 covered with red lead as described. Use only just enough 
 putty to dull the surface of the- plate; no putty should 
 
12 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 show on the plate after making the application described. 
 Remove the work from the vise, wipe all dirt and filings 
 from its surface, using the bare hand. Carefully lay the 
 work on the surface plate, and applying pressure from 
 the top, move the work slowly about. Now remove the 
 work from the surface plate, and upon inspection, a num- 
 ber of dark spots will be seen on the surface of the work, 
 as shown at Fig. 12. 
 
 Take the scraper and remove these spots, bearing 
 rather heavily on the scraper, so it will cut freely; then 
 repeat the operation described. The process of rubbing 
 
 ' I I • I I I I I CI I C I I I 
 
 • 1 1 ' ' i ! 1 1 i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 
 ■ I ■ ■ I ■ . . , I I 
 
 ]3 
 
 A. 
 
 iiiiiii 
 
 
 I i i ■ | i I I I , I t . 
 
 I I I > | I I t I I | I I 
 
 r I i t i i i i '■ • i i i 
 
 '''' i i i i 
 
 B. 
 
 Fig. 16 
 
 A is the valve. 
 
 B is the seat. 
 
 and scraping is continued until the dark spots show all 
 over the work, when it is said to have been scraped to a 
 bearing. 
 
 This shoe which has been thus finished is now placed 
 on the engine guide, and the guide is scraped to the shoe, 
 using the shoe as a surface plate. On many jobs it is 
 not necessary to use a surface plate, to scrape the piece, 
 though it is best to do so if possible. As an example we 
 may take the job illustrated in Fig. 16, which shows an 
 exhaust valve and seat for a steam engine. In this case, 
 after both parts have been planed and spotted, some red 
 lead putty is rubbed on the seat face, and valve face is 
 laid against it; the valve is now moved back and forth 
 on the seat for about one minute. When the valve is 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 
 
 13 
 
 lifted off the seat, we will find that the movement has 
 produced dark spots on the valve, and light spots on the 
 seat. The workman scrapes these spots on both mem- 
 bers, cleans surfaces with his hand, puts a little more 
 red lead putty on the seat and repeats the operation, 
 until spots show all over 
 the surface of both pieces. 
 In scraping, always keep 
 the scraper sharp, and 
 have enough red lead on 
 the surface plate, or parts, 
 to show bearing spots 
 clearly, but not enough 
 of it to rub over surface 
 being scraped. The pro- 
 cess just described is called surface scraping. In Fig. 17 
 we see an illustration of -one half of a bearing box which 
 is to be scraped to fit a shaft. This work is known as 
 cylindrical scraping; in a general way the work is not 
 different from surface scraping, though the scraper used 
 
 Fig. 17 
 
 Fig. 18 
 
 C and A are the cutting edges on this scraper. The tool is moved in 
 the direction of the arrows at D, when cutting. 
 
 is not of the same form. This scraper is made from a 
 worn half round file, as a rule. Bearing scrapers can also 
 be purchased at hardware stores, in the large industrial 
 centers. In making the scraper from a file, the teeth are 
 ground off, and the file is bent as shown in Fig. 18. 
 
14 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 This form enables us to work on the inner surface of a 
 cylindrical form at any desired point. The scraper 
 must be hardened, tempered, ground and stoned on sur- 
 faces A, D and C. 
 
 In scraping the bearing the process is as follows: the 
 shaft having been smoothly turned or ground, spot the 
 bearing surface down, rub red lead putty on the shaft, 
 put the box in place on the shaft, roll it back and forth 
 a few times, moving it slightly endwise as it is rolled 
 over the shaft. Remove the box, and scrape the spots 
 with the curved scraper, shown in the figure. Scrape the 
 box only; no work is done on the shaft, as this is finished 
 in the machine. After scraping, wipe the surface of the 
 box with the hand, rub red lead on the shaft, and repeat 
 the operation described, until we have a bearing over the 
 whole surface. 
 
 A cylindrical box should be slightly relieved at the 
 sides as indicated at A, Fig. 17. This relieving is done 
 by scraping the surface away so there is no bearing at 
 the areas indicated for about f " or f " from the parting 
 line of the box. This treatment of the bearing assures a 
 free running box. The side relief just described is not 
 necessary on boxes fitted to slow running shafts. A 
 bearing must ■ be fitted in such a way that it may be 
 properly lubricated and at B, Fig. 17, we see the man- 
 ner in which the workman finishes the oil hole and bearing 
 surface for a proper distribution of oil. Grooves are 
 cut away from the oil hole to the corners of the box with 
 a small round edge chisel, and filed with a small round 
 file. Grooves should not be cut to the edge of the box, 
 but should stop a half or three quarters of an inch inside 
 the edge, as indicated by the illustration. 
 
 Having learned, now, how to produce a plane surface, 
 we may begin to discuss the finished dimensions of our 
 work. Castings come to the machine shop somewhat 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 15 
 
 larger than they are to be when completed, in order that 
 the machinist may be enabled to finish them properly. 
 Since the machinist must work to dimension, he must 
 have a knowledge of measurement. 
 
 The modern measuring system has been a process of 
 gradual evolution from very crude beginnings. The 
 measuring unit in ancient times consisted of some por- 
 tion of a ruler's body, which was regarded as a basis of 
 measurement for the land over which he ruled. There 
 were two unfortunate conditions connected with such a 
 system, if it was to be used extensively in constructive 
 or manufacturing work. First, every realm, whether 
 large or small, had a different unit of measurement; and 
 secondly, when a ruler died or was deposed, the meas- 
 uring system of his realm became useless, and complete 
 revision was necessary. As people advanced in educa- 
 tion, they began to look about for a more logical unit, 
 and at the present time our measuring system is based 
 on a certain proportion of the earth's circumference, 
 which is called a meter. Two systems of measurement 
 are in use at the present time among manufacturing 
 nations. One is known as the Metric System, and the 
 other is known as the English System. 
 
 Since the English speaking people use the English 
 System, we will discuss this first. The unit of measure 
 in this system is known as the yard. It is very nearly 
 equal in length to the meter, and for manufacturing and 
 constructive purposes is divided into smaller units, known 
 as ' feet, inches, and fractions of inches. Larger units 
 than the yard are also used in this system, in order to 
 express the larger linear measurements. The following 
 table presents the English System- 
 
 12 inches = 1 foot 5| yards = 1 rod 
 
 3 feet = 1 yard 320 rods = 1 mile 
 
16 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 We have already stated that the inch is further sub- 
 divided in order that the machinist may conveniently 
 handle the minute dimensions demanded in his work; 
 this subdivision is quite extended, reaching the very 
 small unit of 10 ,ooa of an inch. There are several methods 
 of subdividing the inch for use in the machine shop. 
 First, there is the common graduated scale, shown in 
 Fig. 19: second, the improved or binary graduated 
 
 r 
 
 ihliiilihlilil 
 
 ny j 
 
 Fig. 19 
 
 scale: third, the micrometer caliper; fourth, the vernier 
 caliper; and fifth, the standard gage. 
 
 In Fig. 19 is shown an illustration of the ordinary 
 scale or steel rule, which is used by the machinist in his 
 daily work. The one most commonly called for is 6 
 inches in length, and is graduated or marked along the 
 edges in eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty- 
 fourths of an inch. Scales of a similar kind are available 
 in 12-inch lengths also, but the 6-inch length usually 
 meets all the requirements of the apprentice machinist. 
 The kind of graduation which is found on a scale is desig- 
 nated by a number; the series of numbers covering the 
 various graduations is found in table 1. With the com- 
 monly used scale it is not possible to get a finer division 
 of an inch than ■£%, hence an improvement on this scale 
 was brought out, such as is shown in Fig. 20. 
 
 The improvement consists of placing at the end of the 
 scale a series of small graduations, nine in number. The 
 edge of the scale on which these graduations are placed 
 is graduated in hundredths of an inch; the smaller gradu- 
 ations at the end, to which reference has been made, are 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 
 
 17 
 
 eleven thousandths of an inch apart. Beyond these 
 small graduations is placed a series of dots, eight in num- 
 ber, the one nearest the edge of the rule being placed 3-^5- 
 of an inch from the nearest graduation; the second dot 
 -reihr and so on; these dots are continued in a line across 
 the scale, each njVtr of an inch farther from the last line 
 of the graduations, than the one formerly placed. The 
 arrangement is shown . enlarged in Fig. 20. By the use 
 in combination of the various graduations and the dots, 
 any measurement up to the full length of the rule may 
 
 ^\ oocr 
 
 irr* 
 
 1000 
 
 Kg. 20 
 
 ^ 
 
 lAl 
 
 \ooo 
 
 be obtained by the inch, hundredths, and thousandths 
 of an inch. Let us study this method of linear measure 
 division in some detail; looking at Fig. 20 we see en- 
 larged, the special graduations at the end section of the 
 scale, each eleven thousandths of an inch apart. To the 
 left of this section of graduations we see the body of 
 the scale graduated in inches, tenths and hundredths of 
 an inch. At the right is seen the set of adjustment dots. 
 In obtaining a measurement, any whole number of inches, 
 halves, tenths or hundredths can be measured directly 
 from the scale graduations; thus 2", 2%" (eqiH" 2.500"), 
 
18 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ,2f" (equals 2.750"), 2.760 or any similar dimension which 
 is an even multiple of hundredths of an inch, can be 
 taken from the scale without any calculation. If we 
 have a measurement not an even multiple of hundredths, 
 we must use the special graduations, adjustment dots, 
 and a brief setting calculation. In taking measurements 
 from this scale, we should keep in mind that dimensions 
 must be in multiples of 0.010", 0.011" and single thou- 
 sandths. All measurements we desire to obtain, must 
 be divided into these multiples and single units. To 
 illustrate we will pick out a few measurements. Let it 
 be required to find a dimension of 0.018" on this scale. 
 Looking over the graduations, we see that the first dot 
 is 0.012" from the first graduation, and each dot adds 
 0.001". We therefore take the distance from the first 
 line of graduation to the seventh dot as giving our re- 
 quired dimension, because we have six one thousandth 
 inch spaces between the first and seventh dot. The selec- 
 tion of this dimension requires no calculation if the learner 
 has studied the scale. 
 
 Suppose we are to find a dimension of 0.031"; an in- 
 spection of this dimension will show the following pos- 
 sible divisions: 
 
 0.03" + 0.001" . . . 0.02" + 0.011" . . . 0.01" + 0.021" 
 It is evident that we cannot use the scale to obtain a 
 division of 0.03" + 0.001" because we have no means of 
 setting for 0.001" as it is not a multiple of 0.011", and 
 we must use this section of graduations for setting any 
 dimension not divisible into an even number of hun- 
 dredths. Looking at the second division we immediately 
 see that we can obtain the dimension by selecting two 
 one hundredth graduations and one eleven thousandth 
 graduation. 
 
 From the above we may deduce a rule as follows: To 
 obtain selection for a dimension divide it into inches 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 19 
 
 and even hundredths of an inch; divide the remainder 
 left over by 0.011 and the result will give number of 
 0.011" graduations to be used in connection with the 
 hundredths of an inch, in making up the whole dimension. 
 
 Any dimension which cannot be divided as just outlined 
 must be obtained by use of adjustment dots as outlined 
 in discussing the first dimension of 0.018". 
 . To illustrate this application we will take off a few 
 more "dimensions. First 0.059"; this dimension may be 
 divided as follows: 0.050" + 0.009" or 0.040" + 0.019" 
 or 0.030" + 0.029" or 0.020" + 0.039" and so on; the re- 
 mainder is not divisible by 0.011 in any case; we must 
 therefore use adjustment dots and 0.011" graduations to 
 make up the dimension. In the adjustment dots we 
 have available dimensions of 0.012", 0.013", 0.014" and 
 so on up to 0.019". Therefore in setting out -this dimen- 
 sion we will select any multiple of 0.011 from our re- 
 quired dimension which leaves a remainder of more than 
 .0.012" and less than 0.019". If we select four 0.011" 
 divisions we have a remainder of 0.015" which can be 
 obtained by using the 0.012" space and three 0.001" 
 spaces. To obtain this whole dimension we select four 
 0.011" spaces and the fourth dot in the line of adjust- 
 ment dots. 
 
 The dimension 1.743" is handled as follows: 
 
 1" + 0.74" + 0.003" remainder not divisible by 0.011 
 1 +0.73 +0.013" " " " " O.Oil 
 
 1 +0.72 +0.023" " " " " 0.011 
 
 1 +0.71 +0.033" " is " " 0.011 
 
 The selection of graduations in this case is 171 hundredth 
 graduations and three eleven thousandth graduations. 
 
 In practice the number of 0.011" graduations to be 
 used in taking off any dimension can be rapidly deter- 
 mined by selecting the number of such divisions in- 
 
20 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 dicated by the thousandth figure in the dimension. 
 For example, in the above the thousandth figure is 
 3 ... 3 X 0.011" = 0.033" the portion of the dimension 
 which must be taken on the special graduation section of 
 the scale. Subtract this from the whole dimension and 
 we have the portion which must be taken from the hun- 
 dredth section of graduations. In the use of this scale 
 the adjustment dots are needed only for dimensions of 
 
 Fig. 21 
 
 A. Frame. F. Index line of barrel graduations. 
 
 B. Anvil. G. Barrel. 
 
 C. Spindle. H. Thimble graduations. 
 
 D. Thimble. " J. Anvil adjustment clamp screw. 
 
 E. Clamping screw. 
 
 The thimble and spindle assembly is called the head. Clamp screw 
 E enables the workman to clamp the spindle in any desired position, and 
 use the instrument as a gage. 
 
 less than 0.100". The scale we have been studying is 
 quite useful to the expert machinist in laying out very 
 accurate work. 
 
 The next method of subdividing the inch is by means 
 of the micrometer caliper. This instrument is used for 
 determining measurements as small as one ten thousandth 
 of an inch, but for general use in the shop the division is 
 to Tinnr of an inch. The instrument mentioned is shown 
 in Fig. 21. » Note particularly the names of the different 
 parts of the tool as given in this illustration. 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 21 
 
 In studying the method of reading this caliper, refer- 
 ence is made to Fig. 21. The spindle is formed, inside 
 of the thimble, into a screw, which runs in a nut contained 
 in the barrel of the micrometer. This screw requires 40 
 complete revolutions to - cause it to move a linear dis- 
 tance of one inch; hence, one complete revolution will 
 cause the spindle to move tV of an inch. Around the 
 lower edge of the thimble is a series of graduations, 25 in 
 number, and -along the barrel, parallel with the axis of 
 the same, is placed an index line. Now if we move the 
 thimble over one graduation relative to this index line, 
 we must have moved the spindle a linear distance of -$% 
 of -£$ of an inch, or twit of an inch. 
 
 In order to enable the machinist to read, his microm- 
 eter quickly, every 5th graduation around the thimble 
 is numbered, and each 4th graduation along the barrel 
 is extended and numbered, so that for every extended 
 graduation on the barrel, we read x$& of an inch; 
 and for each one of the smaller graduations on the 
 barrel, we read T f^ of an inch; and for the propor- 
 tions of the 1 gp of an inch graduations, we read the 
 marks on the edge of the thimble. Adding all of these 
 together, we have the total length of the measurement 
 sought. 
 
 To illustrate, suppose we wish to set our micrometer 
 to tWtt of an inch. The reading would be four of the 
 extended graduations on the barrel, making -^SPs of an 
 inch; plus two of the smaller graduations, making T iHhr 
 of an inch; plus seven of the graduations around the 
 thimble, thus bringing the seventh graduation on the 
 thimble even with the index line on the barrel: giving 
 us a sum of T 4 ^V of an inch. 
 
 Set your micrometer caliper to the following dimen- 
 sions for practise: itffo of an inch, fifrfo, ^fr, ^ftfo, 
 
 7 5 9S0 263 437 562 625 752J 833% 9 9BJ 
 T0O0- 1000) 10 0; 1600! TU00J 1000) 1000) 1000) 1000- 
 
22 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 The Vernier Caliper. — This instrument is used for 
 the same purpose as the micrometer caliper, but is more 
 convenient for taking off the larger dimensions. As the 
 vernier scale is used on several different tools, it is taken 
 up in another chapter (see chapter on calculations), to 
 which the learner is referred for detailed instructions 
 relative to the use of this instrument. The reason for 
 using a vernier instead of a micrometer caliper for di- 
 mensions running from four to six inches, is that the 
 vernier is much more convenient to handle on such work 
 and is lighter, thus permitting a more delicate touch to 
 be effected when using the tool. 
 
 The Standard Gage. — In Fig. 22 is shown what is 
 known as a standard snap gage. This device is not 
 adjustable, but is used as a perma- 
 nent gage for sizing various classes 
 of work. These gages are furnished 
 in both plug and snap form, and in 
 Fig. 22 we see a combination plug 
 and snap gage. In using these 
 gages, they should never be forced 
 into or over the work, but should be applied with great 
 care and skill, otherwise they will soon become useless 
 for maintaining an accurate 
 standard size. 
 
 In Fig. 23 we have a plug 
 and a ring gage. These are 
 used for the same purpose as 
 the plug and snap gage just 
 mentioned. They are some- 
 what more serviceable how- 
 ever, though the ring gage 
 is not as convenient for use 
 as the snap gage, especially when working on the lathe. 
 In Fig. 24 may be seen a taper plug and a socket gage. 
 
 Fig. 22 
 
 A 
 
 .B 
 
 Fig. 23 
 
 A is an internal gage. 
 B is an external gage. 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 24 
 
 A is an internal gage. 
 B is an external gage. 
 
 These are used for measuring various kinds of tapers 
 used in the machine shop. The details of using such 
 gages are taken up in 
 connection with taper 
 turning on the lathe. 
 
 The machinist is called 
 upon not only to measure 
 linear work, but to mea- 
 sure angular work as well. 
 Angles are measured in 
 portions of the circum- 
 ference of a circle, known 
 as degrees. These are. sub- 
 divided into smaller parts, known as minutes, and these 
 minutes are again subdivided into seconds. We have 
 then the following table for use in angular measurement: 
 
 60 seconds = 1 minute 
 60 minutes = 1 degree 
 360 degrees = 1 circumference 
 
 The Try-square. — One of the angular measuring tools 
 is known as a try-square, and is illustrated in Fig. 25. 
 The most common angle used 
 in machine shop practice is equal 
 to | of a circumference, or 90 
 degrees. Because of this fact, 
 a tool has been developed which 
 accurately measures this angle, 
 without any necessity for ad- 
 justment on the part of the 
 machinist. This tool is shown 
 in Fig. 25, and is known as the try-square. 
 
 Whenever we wish to determine whether or not two 
 surfaces are at right angles, we place one part of the 
 square against one surface, and draw the other part 
 
 1 
 
 A 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 Fig. 25 
 
 A is the hilt. 
 B is the blade. 
 
24 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 down against the other surface. If we can see between 
 the square and the work at any place, then the two sur- 
 faces are not at an angle of 90 degrees with each other, 
 or, as expressed in the shop, the work is out of square. 
 Look at Fig. 25, and note particularly the names of the 
 different parts of the try-square. The use of this tool, 
 as described above, is illustrated in Fig. 25. 
 
 Try-squares may be obtained with both hard and soft 
 blades. The hard blade square is rather more service- 
 able than the soft blade square. The young machinist 
 will very early find a great deal of use for this tool in his 
 work. It should be used carefully, as an inaccurate 
 square often creates a great deal of trouble for its owner. 
 Testing the Try-square. — As the machinist must have 
 an accurate square, it will be of interest to him if we 
 study a method of testing it. Pro- 
 bably the simplest method is first to 
 obtain a cast iron plate which has 
 been accurately planed on the surface 
 and on the edge. Then place the hilt 
 of the square against the planed 
 pi 26 edge, as shown in Fig. 26, allowing 
 
 the blade to lie flat on the surface, 
 and with a sharp instrument, known as a scratch- 
 awl, draw a line on the plate along the blade of the 
 try-square. Now reverse the square, as shown in the 
 dotted lines, and see if the edge of the blade can be 
 made to conform to the line previously drawn on the plate. 
 If so, the square is sufficiently accurate for a machinist's 
 work, if we consider the outside edge of the blade alone. 
 
 He should now take his micrometer caliper and measure 
 
 the width of the blade, to see if it is parallel. If so, the 
 
 square may be regarded as accurate on both the inside 
 
 and the outside edge of the blade. 
 
 Assuming that we do hot find the square to be true, it 
 
THE BENCH AND BENCH WORK 
 
 25 
 
 must be filed, if a soft blade, or ground, if a hard blade, 
 until it meets the requirements of the tests mentioned 
 above. 
 
 The Bevel Protractor. — This tool is illustrated in 
 Fig. 27, and is used by the machinists for measuring the 
 various angles commonly met in shop practice. Note the 
 names of the parts shown in 
 the illustration. A careful 
 study of the tool will reveal a 
 series of graduations engraved 
 on the dial base. The dial itself 
 has an index line, and when this 
 line coincides with zero on the 
 base graduations, the angle be- 
 tween the blade and the hilt 
 is zero, that is, the blade is 
 parallel with the hilt. The 
 blade may be set to any angle with the hilt, by placing 
 the index line on the dial in coincidence, or in line with, the 
 particular graduation indicating the number of degrees. 
 The Bevel. — This little tool is 
 shown in Fig. 28, and is used for 
 the purpose of transferring angular 
 measurements from the protractor 
 to various pieces of work. There 
 are many jobs on which it is not 
 convenient for the machinist to use 
 the protractor directly, because of 
 insufficient room. The bevel is a 
 much smaller tool, so the protractor may be set to the 
 required angle, this angle transferred to the bevel, and 
 the bevel used in a confined space. 
 
 We have now considered the more elementary features 
 of machine shop practice, and the common measuring sys- 
 tems with which the young workman will come in contact. 
 
26 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The student should carefully review the material in this 
 chapter, and be sure that he thoroughly understands it 
 before going farther in the work. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What knowledge, of a technical nature, should a workman 
 possess in order to meet the requirements of the machinist's trade? 
 
 2. Describe and illustrate, by means of a sketch, the propor- 
 tions and parts of the machinist's bench. 
 
 3. Describe the proper method of using a hammer and cold 
 chisel. 
 
 4. Name the more commonly used files, giving the various cuts 
 available, and the necessary specifications for ordering a file. 
 
 6. Describe the proper method of using a file. 
 
 6. Describe the process of scraping, and tell why this process 
 is necessary. 
 
 7. Give a brief outline of the development of the modern 
 measuring systems for linear and angular measure, and give the 
 tables for these measures. 
 
 8. Give a brief description of the steel scale, commonly used 
 by machinists. 
 
 9. Describe and illustrate the micrometer caliper, and tell why 
 this instrument is necessary in present day machine shop practice. 
 
 ■ 10. Name and illustrate the various standard gages used in 
 present day machine shop practice. 
 
 11. Describe a good method of testing a try-square. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 
 
 In this chapter we will take up a number of different 
 tools, studying them with some degree of care, so that 
 the learner is thoroughly acquainted with the name of 
 each tool and its component parts. He will also gather 
 some information concerning the proper method of using 
 them. We will furthermore study some of the materials 
 other than metals, which are used in the machine shop. 
 
 The first tool is a very simple one, known as the center 
 punch, and is hown in Fig. 29. This tool is used by the 
 machinist in two forms ; ---• 
 one, a rather heavy tool (,_ 
 
 about \ an inch in ^ 2 g 
 
 diameter and 4 inches 
 
 long, with the end sharpened to an angle of approximately 
 90 degrees. This is used for stamping in the centers in 
 which drills are to be started when drilling holes, hence 
 the name, center punch. The other type of this tool is 
 often spoken of as a prick punch, and is usually not over 
 f of an inch in diameter and 3 inches long, with the point 
 ground to an angle of approximately 60 degrees. This is 
 used for marking off lay-outs on metallic surfaces. 
 
 Calipers. — Figure 30 shows an outside caliper, which 
 is used for testing the dimensions of work. It is ordi- 
 narily set to dimension from the steel rule, and in do- 
 ing this setting, the workman should hold the rule and 
 caliper as shown in Fig. 30, in order that he may look 
 across the end of the caliper leg onto the graduation of 
 
 27 
 
28 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the scale. An outside caliper is specified in size accord- 
 ing to the dimension indicated by the line A B in Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 30 
 
 Thus, a 6 inch outside caliper will measure 6 inches be- 
 tween these points; the same is true of inside calipers, 
 dividers, etc. 
 
 Concerning the use of the caliper as a tool, the machin- 
 ist finds it one of the most convenient devices for meas- 
 uring diameters and lengths 
 accurately. The proper 
 method of holding it is 
 shown in Fig. 31. Note 
 particularly the way in 
 which the tool rests on the 
 fingers. In order to test 
 accurately by the use of 
 any kind of a caliper, the 
 machinist must develop 
 a very delicate sense of 
 touch, and from the beginning he should never permit 
 himself to make a careless measurement by roughly 
 pushing the caliper over the work. Each time he does so, 
 he has lost an opportunity to develop his sense of touch. 
 The inside caliper is used for measuring dimensions in 
 confined spaces. The method of its use is shown in 
 
 Fig. 31 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 29 
 
 Fig. 32, and all that has been said relative to the outside 
 caliper holds true in the use of the inside caliper. An 
 operation which the machinist is often called upon to 
 perform, is the transferring of a size from the outside to 
 
 Kg. 32 
 
 the inside caliper or vice versa. The method of holding 
 the tools for carrying out this operation is illustrated in 
 Fig. 33. Holding the inside caliper in the right hand, 
 one leg should be set on the outside caliper as shown in 
 the illustration, and swung back and forth as indicated 
 by the arrows. While moving the inside caliper in this 
 
 Fig. 33 
 
 manner, the adjustment nut is turned with the thumb 
 and forefinger of the right hand until the swinging point 
 of the inside caliper, just touches the corresponding 
 point of ,the outside caliper. If setting an outside to an 
 inside caliper; the inside caliper is held in the left hand 
 and the outside caliper adjusted as described. The set- 
 
30 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ting requires some skill, but continued practice, carefully 
 taken, will give the desired control. 
 
 The Hermaphrodite Caliper. — This tool is illustrated 
 in Fig. 34, and is used in laying out lines on surfaces at 
 required distances from edges and shoulders. It is un- 
 necessary to present very many 
 illustrations of the application of 
 this tool, because, as' the apprentice 
 advances in his trade, he will find 
 many places where it will be of ' 
 use. One of the most common 
 applications of it, however, is in 
 connection with the locating of 
 the center of a piece, when pre- 
 paring it for turning in the engine 
 lathe. In doing this work, the 
 bent leg of the caliper is placed at 
 any position on the circumference 
 of the piece, and while being held 
 thus, a short arc is scribed on the 
 surface, which has previously been marked with chalk or 
 coloring acid. The tool is then transferred to the position 
 indicated by the dotted lines, and a similar arc struck. 
 Then, moving the tool around the circumference of the 
 piece approximately 90 degrees, another arc is struck, 
 and the same operation" is repeated at the opposite end 
 of the diameter. After a few trials we are enabled to 
 locate accurately the center of the piece, which we mark 
 with the center punch, preparatory for drilling. 
 
 There are a number of other kinds of calipers on the 
 market which are useful, but the ones described are 
 those most commonly used, and may be regarded as fun- 
 damental tools of this type. It is suggested v that the 
 young worker obtain the catalogue of either The Brown 
 and Sharpe Mfg. Co., Providence, R. I., or The L. S. 
 
 Fig. 34 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 31 
 
 Starrett Co., Athol, Mass., and study the tools which 
 are manufactured by these firms. 
 
 The Divider. — The next tool for consideration is the 
 divider, which is used for scribing circles on work and 
 setting out dimensions, when laying out . preparatory to 
 machining or finishing. It is illustrated in Fig. 35. In 
 using it, the dimension is 
 firs}; taken, from the scale, 
 as shown in the figure just 
 mentioned, a center is placed 
 on the piece which we wish 
 to lay out, and by swinging 
 the divider about this, with 
 the point of one leg resting 
 in the center, the required 
 circle is formed. In order 
 that this "layout " may not 
 be rubbed out in the sub- 
 sequent handling of the piece, it is wise to mark the circle 
 with eight or ten prick punch marks, approximately 
 equally spaced about the circumference. 
 
 The Scratch-Awl. — This tool is sometimes spoken of 
 as a scriber, and is illustrated in Fig. 36. Notice that 
 one end of it is bent over, and the reason for such a forma- 
 tion is, that occasionally it 
 is necessary for the machinist 
 Fls ' 36 to reach into out of the way 
 
 places to mark a line. With the straight end of the scriber 
 it is not possible to do this. The straight end of the scriber 
 is used for striking lines from a straight edge, or the edge 
 of a try-square, when making layouts. 
 
 The Straight Edge. — This is a very simple tool, but 
 quite useful to the machinist in his work. It may be 
 applied in the process of testing surfaces when filing, 
 scribing lines between centers when laying out work, 
 
 Fig. 35 
 
32 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 accurately measuring lengths between shoulders on work, 
 and many other operations. As found on the market, 
 the tool is a piece of steel accurately machined and 
 finished, hardened and tempered. 
 
 The Center Square. — This tool greatly facilitates the 
 location of the center of a cylindrical piece of work. One 
 
 method of locating such a 
 center, has been described 
 in discussing the herma- 
 phrodite caliper. Recalling 
 Fig. 37 this description we are re- 
 
 A. Head. minded of the necessity 
 
 c' Biade PnUt ' for makin S several trials 
 
 D. Work. before finally locating the 
 
 B. First line struck center With ^ center 
 F. Second line struck. 
 
 square this work is greatly 
 facilitated, and an illustration of its application is shown 
 in Fig. 37. 
 
 To locate the center of a cylindrical piece, press the 
 head firmly against the body of the cylinder, being cer- 
 tain that the blade is solidly clamped in the head, and 
 with a scratch-awl, strike a line across the end of the piece. 
 Now move the center square approximately 90 degrees 
 around the circumference, and strike another line. The 
 intersection of these two fines gives us the center of the 
 work. 
 
 As to the theory of this tool, we have a practical appli- 
 cation of a simple geometrical theorem, the discussion of 
 which is not necessary in a book of this sort; but by 
 way of suggestion to those who may be interested in 
 studying the subject, it is stated that the tool is based 
 on the fact that the bisector of any chord of a circle 
 passes through the center of that circle. 
 
 The Surface Gage. — This is a tool which is used for 
 many testing operations on both the machine and the 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 33 
 
 bench. In discussing various classes of work in later 
 portions of this book, this tool will probably be men- 
 tioned a great many times, so, if he carefully studies the 
 text, its use will be clear to the learner. A modern type 
 
 Fig. 38 
 
 A. Scale. 
 
 B. Try square. 
 
 C. Staff nut. 
 
 D. Needle nut. 
 
 E. Surface gage base. 
 
 F. Needle. 
 
 of this tool is illustrated in Fig. 38, where we see it 
 properly set up for transferring a dimension from a scale 
 to the surface gage. 
 
 Notice that the bottom of the surface gage is cut 
 away in a V-form. This permits the use of the tool on 
 cylindrical surfaces, where occasionally the. machinist 
 finds it necessary to make layouts requiring the use of 
 this tool. 
 
 On certain occasions it is necessary that the machinist 
 locate the center of a cylindrical piece with great accu- 
 racy. Neither the hermaphrodite caliper, nor the center 
 square give sufficiently accurate results for the demands 
 of some of the more intricate operations in machine shop 
 practice. When such a job comes to hand, the machinist 
 
34 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 uses the surface gage, as illustrated in Fig. 39. The 
 piece, usually, has been turned or otherwise machined, 
 so that the outside surface is accurately true. To locate 
 the exact center of this piece he procures a V-block, as 
 shqwn in the illustration, and lays the work in it. He 
 
 then sets the scribing or pointed 
 end of the surface gage needle 
 (after having colored such 
 portions of his work as he 
 desires with "coloring acid,") 
 [,.j„ ;;,, to what he thinks is the center 
 
 of the work, and strikes a line 
 across the end of the piece, as indicated by the full line. 
 He then revolves the work in the V-block, so that the 
 end of the line A comes to the position of the end of the 
 line at B. 
 
 He then draws his surface gage needle across the end 
 of the work, as shown by the dotted line. Now if the 
 end of the surface gage needle was located in the plane 
 of the center of this piece, the second line would ex- 
 actly coincide with the first... If it does not do so, it will 
 be necessary to make adjustments until we get such a 
 result. 
 
 Having located accurately the center of the piece, let 
 us study the application of this process to a typical ma- 
 chine shop job. It is oftentimes necessary to accurately 
 bore a hole through a cylindrical piece, perpendicular to 
 the center line, as is shown in Fig. 39 B and the center for 
 boring the hole H is located by an application of the 
 process just mentioned. Let us proceed from the point 
 in our discussion where we had located the center of our 
 piece of work. Place some coloring acid on the surface 
 of the cylinder, as indicated by the cross shaded portions 
 of the work in Fig. 39, and, being very careful not to 
 change the setting of the surface gage needle, strike a 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 35 
 
 line E F along this surface. This gives us a line on the 
 surface of the cylinder which is in the plane of the center, 
 that is, this line is the same distance from the surface 
 plate face as the line which passes through the center of 
 the piece. 
 
 Now we come to the application of the use of the sur- 
 face gage on cylindrical work. Assuming that the 
 center of the hole which we wish to bore is to be two 
 inches from the end of the piece, we place the clamp G 
 Fig. 39 B (which comes with the surface gage when we 
 
 /f- 
 
 purchase it) on the base as indicated. Now throw the 
 staff of the gage down, so that it lifes approximately 
 parallel with the lower surface of the base of the tool, and 
 set the needle on the scale to a dimension of 2", all as 
 illustrated in Fig. 39 B. The surface gage is placed on 
 the piece of work as shown in this figure, and a short line 
 scribed as shown at C, D, intersecting the first line E F 
 Fig. 39 B. We have now located the center of the hole 
 which we wish to bore, with sufficient accuracy for the 
 usual run of machine shop jobs. With the center punch 
 
36 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 this location is marked, and by the use of the divider 
 the layout is completed, and the work is ready for the 
 drill press or boring mill. Drill press work will be taken 
 up in a later chapter. 
 
 The Key Seat Rule or Box Square. — Another very 
 useful tool for the machinist, is the key seat rule or box 
 square which is illustrated in Fig. 40. This tool derives 
 its name from the fact that it is used for laying out key 
 seats, and its application in practice is shown in the 
 figure already mentioned. In studying the use of this 
 tool, we must remember that the edges of a key seat 
 must be parallel with the center of the piece in which they 
 
 Fig. 40 
 
 are maae. By laying this rule on the surface of a cylin- 
 der, we can easily scribe a line parallel to the axis, and 
 such a line will give the location of a key seat. By locat- 
 ing one such line, setting the divider to the required 
 width of the key seat, scribing a small arc, and striking 
 another line by means of the key seat rule and scriber, 
 tangent to this arc, we have the two faces of the key 
 seat, which we desire to cut, properly located. The work 
 of cutting key seats in the machine will be described later 
 in the text. The construction of the key seat rule is based 
 on the same geometrical theorem as the center square. 
 The Spirit Level. — This device is used for leveling 
 work, either on the bench or on the floor. Before using 
 his level, the machinist should test it for accuracy. This 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 37 
 
 test is made by leveling a piece with the tool, set as 
 shown in Fig. 40 B and this should be accurately done. 
 The level is then reversed, placing end A in the position 
 of end B. If the bubble in the glass of the instrument 
 
 M. Body. 
 
 Fig. 40 B 
 N. Bubble glass. O. Bubble glass plate. 
 
 does not change in position, due to this reversal, it may 
 be regarded as reasonably accurate. By a careful study 
 of the illustration, the learner will become acquainted 
 with the parts of this tool, which are spoken of in the fol- 
 lowing description of its method of use. In determining 
 whether or not work is level, the machinist simply sets 
 the tool on the piece to be tested, and when the work is 
 level, the bubble in the bubble glass should stand mid- 
 way between the ends of the opening in the bubble plate. 
 If this is not the case, such adjustments must be made as 
 
 A is the blade. 
 B is the handle. 
 
 Fig. 41 
 
 C is the tension screw and nut. 
 D is the frame. 
 
 are necessary to bring about that condition. The level 
 is used in setting up machinery, aligning shafting, and 
 other mill-wrighting work. 
 
 The Hack Saw. — Figure 41 shows the tool known as 
 a hack saw. The illustration shows both the hack saw 
 
38 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 and the frame. The saw which is shown at A, is remov- 
 able, and in the shop this is more often spoken of as a 
 hack saw blade. When this blade is worn out, it is re- 
 moved from the frame, and a new one substituted in its 
 place. When ordering hack saw blades, the particular 
 trade name applying should be given, also the length and 
 the "point." Montgomery & Co., of New York, issue a 
 catalogue which presents various kinds of hack saw 
 blades, and the number of points commonly furnished on 
 stock saws. The term "point," as used above, refers to 
 the number of teeth per inch of length of the blade. For 
 example, a specification as follows: one dozen 10-inch, 
 14 point Star hack saw blades, would imply that you 
 wanted twelve hack saw blades of the Star make, having 
 14 teeth per inch of length, each 10" long. The machinist 
 uses this tool for cutting any kind of metal which has 
 not been hardened. Do not apply great pressure, nor 
 move the saw at more than 40 strokes a minute. Such 
 use will insure rapid cutting and a long life. 
 
 C is the solid jaw. 
 D is the sliding jaw. 
 E is the bar. 
 
 Fig. 42 
 
 F is the handle. 
 
 G is adjusting screw head. 
 
 H is adjusting screw. 
 
 The Monkey Wrench. — This tool is used for tighten- 
 ing and slacking bolts and nuts, whenever such work 
 may be necessary. It is shown in Fig. 42, and the ap- 
 prentice should carefully study the names of the various 
 parts. Whenever it is possible to do so, a monkey wrench 
 should be used so that the stress is applied as indicated 
 in Fig. 42, by arrow A, and not as indicated by arrow 5. 
 Do not use the monkey wrench as a hammer. 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 39 
 
 All of the tools thus far mentioned are usually owned 
 by the machinist himself, being of a general nature which 
 each individual man prefers to have as his personal 
 property. A great many of the tools used in the machine 
 shop are of a special nature, and are supplied by the com- 
 pany operating the plant. Among these we find such 
 tools as mandrels, dogs, taps, reamers, solid wrenches, 
 drills, etc. Some of the more important of these will 
 be briefly described in order that the beginner may have 
 an understanding of their proper use. 
 
 Lead Hammer. — Figure 43 illustrates a lead, or soft 
 metal hammer, which is used when driving finished pieces 
 
 Fig. 43 
 
 of machinery together. No finished piece of machinery 
 or any finished tool should ever be struck with a steel 
 hammer. Invariably a lead or copper hammer, prefer- 
 ably lead should be used. 
 
 The Mandrel. — This tool is illustrated in Fig. 44, 
 where it is shown supporting a piece of work. In using 
 this, the piece which is to be finished is first drilled and 
 reamed (see p. 40 for description of a reamer) thep the 
 mandrel is driven into the hole thus made, and placed in 
 the lathe. The mandrel always drives firmly into the 
 work; never drive it into place without first putting a 
 little oil on it. The firm drive gives sufficient holding 
 power to take the necessary cuts when operating on a 
 piece in the lathe. Mandrels are kept in the machine 
 shop in all sizes from \" to 2" diameter, usually varying 
 by sixteenths of an inch; mandrels are made very slightly 
 tapering in the body. 
 
40 
 
 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The Dog. — In the illustration at A is shown a "dog " 
 or "carrier." This tool is placed on the end of the man- 
 drel, which has been turned down and slightly flattened, 
 so that the set screw in the dog readily finds a seat. Dogs 
 are sized by the diameter of the hole in the body; thus a 
 
 Fig. 44 
 
 dog which had a dimension as indicated at B, Fig. 44, 
 of one inch, would be known as a one inch dog. The 
 equipment of this tool usually ranges from | an inch to 
 6 inches, varying by \ of an inch from \ an inch to 2 
 inches, and by \ an inch above this size. 
 
 Reamers. — Figure 45 illustrates a tool which is used 
 for finishing holes to an exact diameter. When a hole is 
 drilled in a piece of stock, the size of the drill used is 
 
 Fig. 45 
 
 usually from 0.010 to 0.015 of an inch smaller than the 
 required finished size. This stock is left, so that the 
 reamer may be used in accurately finishing the hole. 
 The reamer is made' about 0.015 of an inch under size 
 at the end of the teeth, coming to its full size at a point 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 41 
 
 distant from the end about equal to the diameter of the 
 reamer, as indicated at B of this figure. In using a 
 reamer, regardless of whether it is passing into or out of 
 the work, it should invariably be turned in a clock-wise 
 direction. Usually, in reaming a hole, it is simply pushed 
 through the hole, constantly turning it as the pressure is 
 applied. 
 
 The drill which is used for drilling the hole before 
 reaming, is spoken of in the shop as a "reamer drill." 
 One should not understand from this statement that the 
 drill is in any way different from other drills, so far as 
 its design is concerned. A reamer drill is simply 0.010" 
 or 0.015" smaller in diameter than the finished size of 
 the hole which is to be made. 
 
 Taps. — A tap is shown in Fig. 46. This is a tool used 
 for cutting threads on the inside of holes of small and 
 moderate diameters. Taps 
 are made in all the standard A ft i 7 
 
 sizes of threads. The thread *- — ^—2 — 
 most commonly used in this Kg 46 
 
 country is the United States 
 
 standard thread. The table of U. S. standard threads is 
 given on page 284 (table 2) and the young worker should 
 memorize this table. A hole which is to have a thread 
 tapped in it, must be drilled smaller than the outside 
 diameter of the tap which is to be used in cutting the 
 thread. The reason that this is necessary is becaus3 
 there must be some stock from which to form the thread. 
 Drills used for making holes which permit tapping, are 
 known as tap drills. Like the reamer drill, this drill is 
 in no way different in design from standard size drills, 
 but it is enough smaller than the nominal diameter of the 
 hole, to permit the formation of the thread, by the 
 tap. Table 2 gives diameters of the commonly used 
 tap drills. 
 
•42 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Wrenches. — Besides the monkey wrench a number of 
 other wrenches are used in the machine shop. Figures 47 
 to 52 are illustrations of these wrenches. Figure 47 
 
 shows an alligator wrench, 
 used for operating on cylin- 
 drical work, where great 
 Pi g 47 stress is not necessary. 
 
 Figure 48 is a Stillson 
 wrench, used in pipe fitting and on cylindrical work, where 
 considerable stress must be applied in working. Figure 
 49 shows a straight open end engineer's wrench, used for 
 
 Fig. 48 
 
 A. Movable jaw. C. Adjusting nut. F. Thrust yoke. H. Handle. 
 
 B. Head. D. Fixed jaw. G. Bar. 
 
 -J 
 
 Fig. 49 
 
 ID 
 
 Fig. 50 
 
 Fig. 52 
 
 setting up bolts and nuts. Figure 50 shows a straight 
 hexagon box wrench, used for same work as open end 
 wrench, but on work where heavy stresses must be 
 applied. Figure 51 shows a 15° offset open end engineer's 
 wrench, used for setting up bolts and nuts located in 
 inaccessible places which cannot be reached by a straight 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 43 
 
 wrench. Figure 52 is an open end S-wrench used for 
 inaccessible places. 
 
 The Center Gage. — Figure 54 is a small tool known 
 as a center gage. The angle at A is the same as that 
 
 to which the center on the engine lathe 
 
 must conform, and the small notch at B ^> ^> 
 is the same angle as the sides of the U. S. 
 standard thread. This tool is used for ' Fig ' ^ 
 grinding the cutting tool with which the machinist cuts a 
 thread, on the lathe. It is also used to test the correct- 
 ness of the angles on the centers of his lathe. 
 
 We now come to the consideration of supplies which 
 the machinist uses in doing his work, and since we will 
 have occasion to use it in ordering some of the supplies, 
 the table of paper measure is given below: 
 
 24 sheets = 1 quire 
 20 quires = 1 ream 
 
 2 reams = 1 bundle 
 
 5 bundles = 1 bale 
 
 In ordering emery cloth, it is always purchased by the 
 quire or ream. In order that the machinist may be able 
 to select an emery cloth which shall meet the require- 
 ments of the many jobs which he has to finish, it is graded 
 according to the coarseness of the emery which is used in 
 making it. The system of grading is according to num- 
 bers as follows : 
 
 00 is flour emery cloth 
 
 is 120 
 
 i is 90 
 
 lis 80 
 
 If is 70 
 
 2 is 60 
 2§is 54 
 
 3 is 46 
 
44 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The second set of figures in this table gives the size of 
 the emery which is placed on the emery cloth. 
 
 Emery, itself, is not numbered in the same way as the 
 cloth, but is graded according to the number of openings 
 measured in one inch of length of a sieve through which 
 the emery will pass. For example #120 emery will pass 
 through a sieve having 120 openings in one inch of length, 
 #90 will pass through a sieve having 90 openings per inch 
 of length, and so on. 
 
 Emery cloth is made by sifting emery over the surface 
 of a cloth which acts as a backing to carry the emery. 
 It is used for polishing work at the bench and in the lathe. 
 The mechanic commonly wraps it around a file for finish- 
 ing a small surface. In polishing a surface, the coarser 
 grades of cloth are used for finishing directly after the file 
 has been applied, the final polish being produced by 
 means of a piece of worn out cloth wrapped around a file, 
 and a little oil dropped on the surface of the work, in 
 order to remove the harshness of the finish. 
 
 Cotton Waste. — This is another article of supply much 
 used in the metal working trades. It may be obtained in 
 either white or colored stock, and is commonly sorted 
 into various grades by manufacturers. These grades are 
 sometimes numbered and sometimes named. Waste 
 is sold in bales of fifty and one hundred twenty-five 
 pounds, or for small quantities it is sold by the pound. 
 A typical classification as cataloged by one large supply 
 firm is as follows: 
 
 First grade white as XXX. Spoken of as " triple X." 
 Second grade white as XX. Spoken of as "double X." 
 Third grade white as X. 
 
 Colored waste is supplied in grade #0. 
 For machine shop work, white waste, grade X is very 
 satisfactory. 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 45 
 
 Oakum is often used by the machinist when on erect- 
 ing or jobbing work, for packing certain kinds of pipe 
 joints, and calking wood tanks or vats used in some 
 plants. The specification used when ordering this ma- 
 terial may call for "plumber's spun oakum." It may be 
 purchased by the pound in small lots, or in bales of fifty 
 pounds each. 
 
 Wire and Drill Gages. — One of the confusing things 
 to the young mechanic when he first enters the shop is 
 the system of gages used to designate the sizes of wire, 
 small drills, machine screws and the thickness of steel 
 plate. A number of such systems are in use, and each 
 of them differs from the other for corresponding numbers 
 by relatively small dimensions, yet this difference is suffi- 
 cient to cause troublesome errors if one gage number is 
 mistaken for the other. In table III we have given the 
 systems most commonly met in machine shop practice 
 of the present day- These include the American or 
 Brown and Sharpe gage, the Birmingham or Stubbs 
 wire gage, the Imperial wire gage, and the Stubbs steel 
 wire gage, together with the XL S. standard plate and 
 steel music wire gage. 
 
 It will be noted that the first column in the table 
 gives the number by which the gage is designated in the 
 trade. A study of these numbers shows us that #1 is 
 0.289 + on the American or Brown and Sharpe Gage, 
 while it is 0.281 + on the U. S. Standard Plate Gage. 
 Looking along the line which gives the diameters for the 
 various other gages corresponding to #1, we see that 
 each gage differs from the others as already mentioned. 
 
 By way of explanation of the method of using these 
 gages, the learner should remember that the decimal 
 corresponding to the number given, indicates the diam- 
 eter in decimal fractions of an inch, which corresponds 
 to the gage number. The numbering of these gages 
 
46 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Fig. 55 
 
 is purely arbitrary, and each one has been introduced for 
 the purpose of meeting some demand at the time of its 
 development. 
 
 The American or Brown and Sharpe Gage appears to 
 have a logical scheme of number arrangement, for in this 
 gage the diameters for the designating numbers in- 
 crease by a regular geometrical progression. The largest 
 dimension in this gage is #0000, the corresponding diam- 
 
 eter for this number is 0.46 + 
 
 of an inch: the next smaller 
 number is #000, and it is 
 obtained by multiplying 0.46 
 by the constant 0.890522; 
 this product is multiplied by the same constant in order 
 to get the next smaller diameter, and this operation is 
 repeated until all of the numbers of the gage have been 
 calculated. 
 
 The Imperial' Wire Gage does not differ a great deal 
 from the English. It was introduced in 1884 by the 
 English Board of Trade as a substi- 
 tute for the Birmingham Gage. 
 
 The Stubbs Steel Wire Gage 
 differs considerably from the Im- 
 perial", 'English, and American. Its 
 numbers range from #1 to #80, the 
 variations in diameter being indi- 
 cated by the nearest 0.001", while 
 the whole range of eighty numbers 
 makes a total difference in diameter 
 of only 0.214". 
 
 The gages used for indicating 
 sizes of wire and plate are of two 
 forms, the angular, shown in Fig. 55 and the notch 
 shown in Fig. 56. The angular gage is used by sliding 
 the screw wire or plate into the angular opening until 
 
 Fig. 56 
 
 Notch gage. Numbers 
 around circumference 
 give sizes ofwire ; notches 
 are continued around 
 whole circumference. 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 47 
 
 it touches both sides, and the reading opposite the 
 point of contact will give the gage of the material. On 
 one side of this gage, as supplied to the trade, we find 
 
 the graduation for English 
 
 and American standards, and / -o©e 
 
 _ - . - - I Hnif* Jtlotj g .ill E freA * Inp * ?'-"lfl r — 
 
 on the other side a gradua- \*., r «^ZZ r sss - 
 
 tion for the machine screw Z I 
 
 gage and parts of an inch. 
 
 The notch gage, as shown in Fig. 56, is used by passing 
 the piece to be measured through one of the notches, 
 making a close contact, the size being determined by the 
 notch through which the piece will pass. This gage is 
 on the market in both the circular 
 and rectangular form. The rec- 
 tangular form is spoken of as a 
 rolling mill gage, and is used for 
 gaging sheet metals. They are 
 not highly accurate, but are suffi- 
 ciently so for the work that must 
 be done with them. For the better 
 fig. 58 classes of work, one should apply 
 
 Notches are carried the micrometer caliper, using the 
 around the entire circum- table of decimal equivalents, cor- 
 Kg^e 8 under* ea^notch responding to the various numbers 
 indicates number of f the different gages when mea- 
 threads per inch of TJ. S. . . mi 
 
 SM form, of same size as suring sizes. These wire gages 
 
 notch. The large V is used are commonly made of tool steel 
 tfS° 18 f ° r CUt " carefully hardened and tempered. 
 
 In Fig. 57 is shown a gage for 
 drill rod sizes, ranging from #1 to #60. A smaller one is 
 on the market, having a series of holes ranging in size 
 from #61 to #80. Drill gages, known as "jobber's 
 gages " are on the market with holes ranging in size 
 from tV' to |" by sixty fourths of an inch. These are 
 very useful when determining the*- sizes of the smaller 
 
48 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 drills used in the machine shop, as it is not possible to 
 
 stamp the sizes on these small tools. 
 
 In Fig. 58 is shown a 
 standard screw thread 
 gage, which is used for 
 grinding tools when cut- 
 ting threads. The one 
 large V. is all that is 
 necessary for grinding 
 tools when cutting V. 
 
 Fig. 59 
 
 threads. The other 
 notches shown are flat- 
 tened at the root, rfor 
 the correct grinding of 
 a U. S. standard thread, 
 of the pitch shown oppo- 
 site the particular notch 
 on the gage. This 
 gage may be obtained 
 for the Whitworth and 
 Acme standard, in ad- 
 
 Fig. 60 
 
 it t, i „( I, , -i Figures on leaves are thickness in 
 
 dltion to the Standard thousandths of an inch. 
 
 already mentioned. 
 
 In Fig. 59 is shown a screw pitch 
 gage, which is a very convenient tool 
 when one wishes to determine the 
 number of threads per inch of 
 length of a piece of work. Each one 
 of the blades in this gage is cut to 
 correspond to a given number of 
 threads to the inch, and by laying 
 these on a screw thread one may 
 easily determine the pitch of the 
 thread. On the blade is stamped 
 
 Y///,,/il. 
 
 Fig. 61 
 
 A is the blade or scale, 
 B is the head. 
 
 the pitch number in each case. 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 49 
 
 The Thickness Gage. — In Fig. 60 is shown what is 
 known in the shop as a thickness gage. This is made up 
 of a number of thin steel leaves, varying by thousandths 
 of an inch. These leaves may be used singly or together, 
 thus enabling one to make up any desired dimension 
 within the limits of the tool. This is a very valuable 
 tool for the mechanic when making fine fits in machine 
 work. 
 
 The Depth Gage. — The depth gage which is used 
 for measuring the depth of holes is shown in Fig. 61, 
 where an application of the tool is illustrated. The par- 
 ticular tool shown is equipped with a blade six inches 
 long, graduated in sixty-fourths of an inch. Note the 
 names of the different parts as given in the figure. A 
 
 I c 
 
 
 
 
 
 nJL 
 
 rtf 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 ■\ 
 
 i 
 
 
 N H. 
 
 Fig. 62 
 
 A. Scale for measuring in 64th of inch. 
 
 B. Vernier scale for measuring in thousandths of inch. 
 
 C. Blade. 
 
 D. Head. G. Adjusting nut. 
 
 E. Clamp. H. Clamp set screw. 
 
 F. Adjusting screw. 7. Head set screw. 
 
 more accurate type of this tool is known as a vernier 
 depth gage, illustrated in Fig. 62. This consists of a 
 vernier scale applied to a depth gage. The vernier is 
 useful on the finer classes of work in the machine shop, 
 where the first mentioned type of gage is not sufficiently 
 accurate. 
 
 The Scratch Gage. — Figure 63 shows the scratch 
 gage, which is used for laying off lines parallel to the 
 
50 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 edge of a piece of work. The bar on this gage is gradu- 
 ated, starting from the point at which the marker is 
 
 Fig. 63 
 
 A is the scriber. 
 
 B is the bar. 
 
 C is the head. 
 
 D is the head set screw. 
 
 E is the scriber adjusting screw. 
 
 located. Any required dimension may be easily laid off 
 by simply sliding the head to the required position on the 
 bar. 
 
 Trammel Points. — Figure 64 illustrates a pair of tram- 
 mel points. These are really large dividers used for lay- 
 
 A. Scribing points. 
 B» Trammel heads. 
 
 Bar. 
 
 Head set screws. 
 
 ing out large circular arcs. The points are commonly 
 mounted on a wooden or steel beam, and are set from 
 a scale. The scribing points may be removed from the 
 heads B, and in their places there may be inserted either 
 outside or inside caliper legs. 
 
 The Test Indicator. — This tool, illustrated in Fig. 65, 
 is used in the lathe to determine small variations from 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 51 
 
 the true rotation of a cylindrical piece. It is also used 
 quite largely in determining small inaccuracies of a plane 
 surface, something after the manner of a surface gage. 
 The graduations shown on the end of the bar indicate 
 
 A. 
 
 Fig. 65 
 A is the base. C ia the staff. 
 
 B is the clamp nut. D is the indicator. 
 
 E is the indicator needle. 
 
 the number of thousandths of an inch variation from truth 
 in the surface being tested. If the needle does not move 
 at all when making a test, the piece of work is accurate. 
 The Center Indicator. — This tool is illustrated in 
 Fig. 66, where its method of use is also shown. The 
 
 Fig. 66 
 
 piece of work has been placed in a chuck or on a face 
 plate in a lathe, and the workman desires to set the piece 
 
52 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 true to an established center. To do this he sets the 
 piece approximately true by pushing the footstock center 
 in the center punch mark which has been laid out on the 
 piece, and lightly clamps the work in this position. He 
 then places the end of the spindle A in the center punch 
 
 Fig. 67 
 
 mark, and revolves the lathe spindle by hand, noting 
 movement of end of needle B. Adjustments are made, 
 until the end of needle B remains stationary while the 
 work is revolved. The shank of the indicator is heM in 
 
 the tool post, and the 
 
 Ilk ■»*) — ik=g£&^ instrument is positioned 
 
 by moving the carriage 
 
 • — v. of the lathe. 
 
 0—_____) ^ Miscellaneous Tools — 
 
 Fig 68 Under the heading of 
 
 wrenches were discussed 
 and illustrated a number of tools which may be regarded 
 as of standard varieties. The machinist sometimes finds 
 it necessary to use wrenches more or less special in their' 
 construction and two of these wrenches are shown in 
 Fig. 67. The first one illustrated is a hand socket wrench, 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 53 
 
 while the second one is the brace socket wrench. These 
 tools are used for removing nuts in inaccessible places. 
 The second tool may be used in a brace and is therefore 
 available for more rapid work than is possible with the 
 hand wrench. 
 
 Figure 68 illustrates a little point in the making of a 
 screw driver, which is often overlooked. The first one is 
 ground on the end in such a way, that when we attempt to 
 use it, it tends to damage the slot in the screw head, and 
 to cause inconvenience by slipping out of place when the 
 
 Fig. 69 
 
 pressure is applied. In the second illustration the faces 
 of the screw driver are ground parallel, making a much 
 more serviceable tool. ( 
 
 Transfer Calipers. — The illustration in Fig. 69 shows 
 a transfer caliper which is used for taking off inaccessible 
 dimensions. The method of operating is shown in this 
 figure, where the caliper is set for a dimension back of a 
 ■ shoulder. In taking this dimension on the scale, the ma- 
 chinist will slack off the nut at A, which will release the 
 leg B, after which the leg may be swung into a position 
 indicated by the dotted lines. After removing the caliper 
 from the piece by this means, the free leg is slipped back to 
 its original position and the nut A tightened. The dimen- 
 sion may now be read from the scale in the usual manner. 
 
54 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Calipers are classified according to the type of joint 
 which is used in fixing the parts of the caliper at the 
 pivot point P, Fig. 31. The illustration shows a spring 
 caliper, but in looking over a catalog one will find listed 
 "firm joint calipers "; no spring is used in the construc- 
 tion of the firm joint tool. Some workmen prefer the 
 firm joint to the spring caliper because it feels somewhat 
 more solid in the hand, though the inconvenience of- set- 
 ting is an unfavorable feature. The lock joint caliper 
 gives the solidity of the firm joint caliper, while it has a 
 measure of the convenience of the spring caliper in 
 adjustment. >| 
 
 If the young mechanic will look over his small tool 
 catalogue he will become acquainted with a great many 
 different kinds of tools which are of service to the 
 machinist. 
 
 The Steel Marking Stamp. — The workman in the 
 machine shop must have some means of marking the 
 articles which he makes, and for this 
 work the steel stamp shown in Fig. 70 
 ,, „ is used. These stamps are figures and 
 
 letters cut in the end of a piece of steel 
 which is hardened after the letter is cut. A separate stamp 
 is used for each letter or number. In using these stamps 
 the work can be more accurately aligned if the stamping is 
 begun at the end of the title to be lettered, and finished 
 at the beginning. By this means the workman can tell the 
 relation of the stamp he is using to the work he has pre- 
 viously done; for example in stamping the following:. 
 20 X 42 — R. H. — S.," begin the stamping with the 
 letter "S ", and work back towards the beginning. A 
 center punch is used for marking periods, and a chisel 
 for dashes. 
 
 Soldering. Use of Gasoline Torch. — The gasoline 
 torch shown in Fig. 71 is often used by the machinist 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 55 
 
 when he has soldering jobs to do about the shop. The 
 method of using this torch consists of filling through an 
 opening in the bottom. Air pressure is applied to the in- 
 terior of the tank by means of the hand pump A. The 
 valve B is opened and the pump operated until resistance 
 
 Fig. 71 
 
 to the movement of the piston C is quite noticeable as the 
 pump is operated. The valve B is closed. Valve D is now 
 opened slightly and the cup E allowed to fill with gaso- 
 line; valve D is closed, and the gasoline in the cup ig- 
 nited with a match. This burning gasoline will heat the 
 burner after a few minutes, and when the valve D is 
 opened the gasoline coming from the tank will ignite 
 and a flame will issue from the burner, which may be 
 adjusted by manipulating the valve D. 
 
 Fig. 72 
 
 For soldering one needs a soldering copper, Fig. 72, 
 some solder, and some flux. Solder may be either string 
 or bar, but for general machine shop work, bar solder is 
 
56 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 more convenient. The flux may be either acid or pow- 
 dered rosin, acid being more commonly used. The acid 
 must be prepared by saturating it with metallic zinc; 
 this process is often spoken of as "cutting " the acid. 
 Muriatic acid is the base of the solution; into about a 
 pint of this acid, put as much zinc as the acid will dis- 
 solve, and the solution is ready for use. 
 
 All work to be soldered must be thoroughly cleaned as 
 a preparatory step. The copper must be hot enough to 
 melt the solder freely, and should be kept clean; Fig. 73 
 shows a device known as a jig; it is a soft red brick with 
 a cup cut in it. This cup is filled with flux, either acid 
 
 Fig. 73 
 
 or rosin, and the copper covered with flux as it is taken 
 from the torch. A cold chisel is used for cutting the 
 cup in the brick. Figure 71 shows the copper mounted- 
 on the torch during the heating process; the worker must 
 be sure that the end of the soldering copper has a coat 
 of solder on all faces. The process of applying the solder 
 to the copper is called tinning, and is carried out as fol- 
 lows: heat the copper, dip it into the flux which has been 
 placed in the jig, and rub the bar of solder over the faces 
 A and B, Fig. 72. Be sure the copper is clean on all faces 
 before starting to tin. As the solder is rubbed on the 
 copper, a certain amount will adhere to the surfaces. If 
 the copper is not tinned, the solder will tend to adhere to 
 the tool instead of the work. Each time the copper is 
 removed from the torch, it may be dipped in the flux, 
 as this tends to produce a free flow of solder when work- 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 57 
 
 ing. It is not a bad practice to have the cavity in the 
 jig filled with solder and flux, and when the copper is 
 removed from the torch, it is rubbed in this mixture, 
 applying considerable pressure. This treatment keeps 
 the copper, or "bit " as it is sometimes called, well covered 
 with solder. 
 
 Suppose the seam at A, Fig. 74, is to be soldered, 
 and the copper is properly tinned and heated. We apply 
 
 Wooden »Ticiy 
 
 Fig. 74 
 
 some flux to the seam by means of a brush, or a swab, 
 made as shown at B, Fig. 74. The copper and solder are 
 moved slowly along the seam, holding the solder against 
 the bit, so it is melted. The bit will also heat the piece 
 to be soldered, and the melted solder will run down into 
 the seam. When the solder does not flow freely, the 
 bit should be returned to the torch and heated again. 
 
 Fig. 75 
 
 If powdered rosin is used as a flux instead of acid, it is 
 sprinkled over the surface to be soldered, before applying 
 the solder. 
 
 The Ratchet. — In Fig. 75 is illustrated a tool much 
 used at the bench and on the floor in the machine shop; 
 
58 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 it is known in the trade as a ratchet; it is used for re- 
 pair work on jobs requiring drilling, and on new work 
 for drilling in certain places Dot conveniently reached by 
 a machine. The ratchet being small adapts itself to out 
 of the way locations, and is easily set up for operation. 
 
 When working with the ratchet, a ratchet brace must 
 be used in order to support the tool properly; the ratchet 
 brace is sometimes called an "old man." Figure 76 
 
 raws. 
 
 Fig. 76 
 
 shows a ratchet set up ready for work on an engine 
 frame. The handle A is moved back and forth, this 
 movement turning the drill in only one direction, due 
 to the construction of the ratchet. The feeding of the 
 drill to the work is accomplished by turning the feed 
 nut slightly from time to time, as may be necessary in 
 order to keep the drill cutting. When drilling in steel 
 or wrought iron use a lubricant, but it is not necessary 
 to lubricate the drill when working in brass or cast iron. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. For what purpose are outside, inside and transfer calipers 
 used? 
 
 2. Describe the center square and tell its purpose. 
 
 3. Describe and illustrate the use of the key seat rule in laying 
 out a keyway. 
 
SUPPLIES AND MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS 59 
 
 4. Give and explain the specifications for ordering hack saw 
 blades. 
 
 5. Describe the proper method of uging a monkey wrench. 
 
 6. Give the essential details to be observed in using a mandrel. 
 
 7. Why are reamers necessary, in the various machine shop 
 processes? 
 
 8. Describe a tap; tell why it is used in the machine shop. 
 
 9. Give and explain the specifications to be used when' ordering 
 emery cloth. 
 
 10. Describe the method of using the wire gages, as applied in 
 machine shop practice. 
 
 11. Describe the depth gage and tell the purpose for which it 
 is used. 
 
 12. How are calipers classified? 
 
 13. Give a brief description of the process of soldering. 
 
 i4. For what purpose is a ratchet used? Illustrate your expla- 
 nation. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 HARDENING AND TEMPERING. MACHINE ADJUST- 
 MENTS. EQUIPMENT. GENERAL TOOLS. 
 
 Hardening and Tempering. — Practically all tools 
 which the machinist uses for cutting purposes must be 
 hardened and tempered. These processes consist of 
 changing the structure of the cutting parts of the tools 
 by a very simple treatment which, however, demands 
 considerable skill. In hardening a tool, very severe 
 stresses are set up within the material, and, unless the 
 work is properly handled, it will be spoiled in the harden- 
 ing process. 
 
 The work discussed in this book will deal only with 
 elementary practice in the line of hardening, commonly 
 known as open fire work. Such work is done in the open 
 forge fire, or the gas furnace. The first step when work- 
 ing with the forge is to prepare a clean coal fire. Figure 77 
 illustrates a modern forge, and the purpose of the various 
 parts is clearly explained by the text in connection with 
 the illustration. 
 
 To prepare the fire in a forge, clean out all ash and 
 clinker, place some old oily waste in the fire pot, on this 
 place some chips or shavings, and over all place a shovel 
 full of coal. Ignite the waste with a match, turn on a- 
 light blast, and let the fire burn up slowly, putting on 
 coal as it burns, till you have a good fire about ten inches 
 in diameter; build coal up around the outside of this 
 fire, keeping it wet by pouring water on it. The wetting 
 of the coal prevents the fire from spreading and becoming 
 
 60 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 61 
 
 unnecessarily large, and at the same time produces a 
 supply of coke which is used for feeding the fire. When 
 the smoke has entirely disappeared from the fire it is 
 ready for use. 
 
 Let us suppose we are to harden and temper a cold 
 chisel, shown in Fig. 5 A. Tempering is a separate 
 process from hardening, and consists of imparting to the 
 
 Fig. 77 
 
 1. 
 
 Base. 
 
 7. 
 
 Hood adjustment. 
 
 2. 
 
 Water pan. 
 
 8. 
 
 Coal pan. 
 
 3. 
 
 Tool rack. 
 
 9. 
 
 Exhaust connection 
 
 4. 
 
 Hearth. 
 
 10. 
 
 Blast connection. 
 
 5. 
 
 Fire-pot containing 
 
 11. 
 
 Grate control. 
 
 
 grate and tuyere. 
 
 12. 
 
 Draft control. 
 
 6. 
 
 Hood. 
 
 
 
 tool sufficient toughness to make it serviceable. If we 
 were to take a tool directly after it had been hardened, 
 and attempt to use it for cutting metals it would break 
 almost as soon as it was placed in use. The same temper 
 is not used for all tools, some being made much softer 
 than others; the workman judges the temper of the 
 piece by the colors which appear on the polished surface 
 of the work, after it has been hardened. 
 
62 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 We must be certain that the work is hardened before 
 we proceed with tempering, otherwise the time spent in 
 tempering is wasted. Certain temperatures within a 
 piece of steel will produce certain -colors on the polished 
 surface of the work, and it is the temperature within the 
 piece that produces the temper. Hence it is evident, 
 we have a definite relation between color of the work, and 
 its temper; the following table is a very useful guide to 
 the beginner when starting practice in hardening: 
 
 430° F. 
 
 Very light yellow, 
 
 460° F. 
 
 Straw yellow. 
 
 500° F. 
 
 Brown yellow. 
 
 530° F. 
 
 Light purple. 
 
 550° F. 
 
 Dark purple. 
 
 570° F. 
 
 Dark blue. 
 
 The letter "F " given in connection with each entry 
 in this table, indicates that the Fahrenheit scale is used 
 in measuring the various temperatures. This scale is 
 the most commonly used temperature measuring scale 
 in American and English machine shop practice. 
 
 To harden, take the chisel in the tongs, thrust it well 
 into the fire, turn on a medium blast so there is a good 
 free burning fire, and keep turning the tongs so the fire 
 has access to all parts of the chisel while heating. When 
 the chisel is heated to a good bright red, remove it and 
 dip about 2" of the cutting end into a tub of cold water. 
 
 Keep the chisel moving up and down about J" while 
 the end becomes thoroughly cold. Now quickly 'remove 
 from the water and with a piece of emery cjpth wrapped 
 over a file, rapidly polish one of the faces; after this 
 polishing let the heat which is in the body of the chisel, 
 travel towards the point, judging the temper from the 
 color shown. The color at the cutting point of the chisel 
 should be a brown yellow, ranging through purple and 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 63 
 
 black on the shank; as soon as the proper color at the 
 point is reached, dip the chisel in the water and cool it 
 completely. 
 
 Sometimes one finds that the body of the chisel does 
 not have sufficient heat in it, after the hardening process, 
 to do the tempering; under such circumstances, do not 
 replace the chisel in the fire but hold it over the fire, keep- 
 ing a light blast on, and watching carefully for the color 
 changes. Dip the chisel as soon as the proper color is 
 reached. 
 
 As to the temper colors for various tools used by the 
 machinist, the following statements are helpful as a guide. 
 Cutting tools such as diamond points, side tools, milling 
 cutters etc. are drawn to a straw yellow: chisels and any 
 tools which are driven to the work by the use of a ham- 
 mer may be drawn to a brown yellow; scrapers are 
 drawn to a light yellow, and screw drivers to a light 
 purple. 
 
 After tempering take a second cut file and test the 
 work; if the hardening has been properly done, you 
 should be unable to file the article on the cutting 
 surface. 
 
 Hardening High Speed Steel. — In modern shop prac- 
 tice "high speed steel " is used extensively. There are a 
 number of brands of this steel on the market; the term 
 "high speed " is applied to them because they can be 
 used at much higher cutting speeds than the ordinary 
 carbon steel tool. The process of hardening this material 
 differs somewhat from the one just described, in connec- 
 tion with the cold chisel. This steel must be heated to a 
 much higher temperature in the forge, and it is not 
 tempered. 
 
 Suppose we wish to harden the piece of stock illus- 
 trated at A Fig. 78; this is a cutting bit and is used in 
 the holder B. In the use of high speed steel it is cus- 
 
64 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 tomary, if possible, to place a small cutting point in a 
 holder, made of cheap steel, as high speed steel is quite 
 expensive. 
 
 To harden this bit, we raise a hot fire in the forge, 
 hollow out a small place with the poker, and lay the bit 
 in it; let it heat till blisters show on the bit which will 
 require a bright yellow heat. Remove from the fire and 
 dip in a bath of cold lard or fish oil, keeping the work in 
 the bath till it is perfectly cold. Remove it from the 
 bath and hold the bit over the fire, heating it till it will 
 
 Fig. 78 
 
 cause a sharp crack when it is touched with the moistened 
 finger. Lay it aside and let it cool, when it may be ground 
 and put into service. 
 
 Annealing. — This process consists of returning the 
 hardened piece to its original state, so it can be worked 
 upon by means of files and cutting tools. Briefly, it is 
 softening the stock again after it has been hardened. 
 To anneal a piece, it is heated to a bright red heat, and 
 buried in a box of hot ashes allowing it to remain thus 
 buried till it is cold. When the piece is removed it will 
 be soft; this treatment is known as ash annealing. Re- 
 peated hardening and annealing of a piece of stock 
 changes the structure so it is useless for service as a cut- 
 ting tool. 
 
 Water Anneal. — This treatment is not a very 
 thorough process, but it serves a purpose when one 
 is in a hurry, on many kinds of stock. The method 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 65 
 
 consists of heating the piece that is to be annealed, to 
 a bright red color, putting it in a dark place, so the 
 color will show plainly, and letting it cool off till no 
 color is noticeable. The article is then cooled in water, 
 and in many cases it will be soft enough to work with 
 cutting tools. 
 
 The Gas Furnace. — Figure 79 is an illustration of a 
 gas furnace, such as is used in a great many machine 
 
 Fig. 79 
 
 A. Furnace. 
 
 B. Furnace base. 
 
 C. Furnace stand. 
 
 D. Air reservoir, usually connected 
 to a blower which must be started be- 
 fore furnace is placed in service. 
 
 E. Air supply pipe. 
 
 F. Gas supply pipe. 
 
 G. Air supply valve. 
 H. Gas supply valve. 
 J. Pilot light line. 
 
 shops. The names of the various parts appear in the 
 notation below the illustration. The use of the gas fur- 
 nace introduces nothing new in hardening, but a few sug- 
 gestions on handling the furnace will be helpful to the 
 beginner. To start the furnace, see that the door at 
 the front is open, turn on the air, and let it blow through 
 the furnace. This operation removes any gas which 
 might cause a somewhat violent explosion when one at- 
 tempts to light the gas. Turn off the air valve, and 
 
66 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 light the pilot light, or put a piece of burning paper in the 
 furnace; turn the gas and air on slowly, keeping the 
 face away from the front of the furnace. As the gas 
 ignites there may be a slight report, but "this will do no 
 harm. Adjust the air and gas valves, increasing or di- 
 minishing the amount entering the furnace, till you have 
 a bright red flame, wjien the heating of tools may be 
 started. The gas furnace is much more convenient and 
 accurate than the forge, and work can be treated in it 
 with much less danger of loss. • 
 
 Adjustment of Machinery. — One of the things which 
 the young mechanic should learn very early in his career 
 is the adjustment of machinery. A machine which is not 
 properly adjusted cannot produce work as rapidly nor as 
 accurately as one in proper adjustment. These adjust- 
 ments will require the workman to handle a great many 
 small parts, and the learner should be acquainted with 
 the proper terms used in describing these parts; most 
 of these terms are technical, and sound quite unlike the 
 language of everyday life with which the beginner is 
 acquainted. 
 
 In all machines having any revolving parts there are 
 introduced spindles and shafts; a shaft is a mechanical 
 element used to carry some revolving machine part, such 
 as a pulley or a gear; a spindle is a revolving mechanical 
 element which carries a cutting tool, or a piece of work 
 while being operated upon. A small shaft, supporting a 
 light revolving element is also spoken of as a spindle. 
 Spindles and shafts are carried in boxes as shown in 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 As a box or spindle wears, there must be some means 
 of adjustment to compensate for the wear, and in Fig. 80 
 we have the simplest type of design in use for such ad- 
 justment. The box shown is known as a split box, and 
 at A is shown a "shim "; as wear develops the cap is 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 67 
 
 removed, and a small -amount filed from the shim, thus 
 allowing the box to close more tightly on the shaft, but 
 not tight enough to prevent the shaft from turning. 
 The binding bolts are always set up solidly after filing a 
 shim; this is a job that should be done very carefully, 
 as the removal of too much stock from the shim will 
 cause the box to grip the shaft too tightly; the shaft will 
 expand due to the heat generated by friction, and the 
 box will soon be damaged. That part of a shaft or 
 
 
 
 
 /\ 
 
 
 
 / N 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 80 
 
 Portion of shaft B resting in box is known as the "journal." This 
 portion is sometimes terminated with a shoulder at each end of the 
 journal. 
 
 spindle, which rests in a box is known as a journal. Very 
 often the journal is somewhat larger than other parts of 
 a shaft, though in many cases there is no change of di- 
 ameter at this point. The part of a box which bears 
 against the journal, is known as a bearing; bearings are 
 made of cast iron, bronze, hardened steel and "babbitt 
 metal." 
 
 In many designs the shim, used between the upper 
 and lower halves of a box, is made up of a series of very 
 thin pieces of metal; mica, and paper are also used for 
 this purpose. These shims are known as leaf shims, and 
 adjustment of the box is obtained by removing one of 
 the thin sheets, and replacing the cap, then setting up 
 the binding bolts. 
 
68 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The Check Nut. — This is a binding element, with 
 which the machinist often comes in contact. Figure 81' 
 
 shows the device, the purpose 
 of which is to maintain the 
 jamb nut in the proper posi- 
 tion. Any part of a machine 
 which is held in place by 
 means of bolts and nuts is 
 apt to become loose espe- 
 cially if the parts are subject 
 to some vibration. To prevent this the jamb nut is 
 used with a check nut as shown; to adjust a jamb and 
 
 s 
 
 9 a 
 
 7 ' 
 
 Fig. 82 
 
 1. Round point set screw. 
 
 2. Pivot point set screw. 
 
 3. Flat point set screw. 
 
 4. Cup point set screw. 
 
 5. Cone point set screw. 
 
 6. Neck style of head. 
 
 7. Slotted headless set screw. 
 
 8. Hollow headless set screw. 
 
 9. Wrench for hollow headless screw. 
 
 All types of points may be obtained with any style head. 
 
 check nut properly, first screw the jamb nut down 
 solidly, hold it with a wrench, and then screw the check 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 69 
 
 nut down solidly, thus making a secure fastening. In 
 design practice it is customary to make the check nut 
 thinner than the jamb nut, and champher it slightly on 
 both faces as shown at A, Fig. 81. A check nut is com- 
 monly used on all bolts that hold bearing caps in place, 
 if the shaft is much over three or four inches in diameter. 
 Set screws are used a great deal to hold light pulleys 
 to the shaft; they are also used a great deal for holding 
 pulleys that are keyed to a shaft, to prevent the pulley 
 
 Machine 
 T3opv 
 
 Fig. 83 
 
 from moving endwise on the shaft. In all cases where 
 the set screw is exposed, the headless variety as shown 
 at #8, Fig. 82, should be used; this ekminates the danger 
 of an operator being caught by the protruding head of 
 the screw, and injured. The various kinds of set screws 
 are shown in Fig. 82. 
 
 The gib, see Fig. 83, is used a great deal to take up 
 wear between flat or plane surfaces; the application of 
 
70 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 this adjustment is shown in Fig. 83 where the method of 
 operation is clearly indicated; the check nut A is slacked 
 off and the jamb nut B is set up in order to take up any 
 wear, while the reverse of this operation slacks the gib 
 off, giving more play. The particular design illustrated 
 
 Cone or pivot point 
 ment as indicated at A. 
 
 Fig. 84 
 
 set screws used in setting up for adjust- 
 
 in Fig. 83 is known as a taper gib: another type shown 
 in Fig. 84 is known as a flat gib, and the adjustment is 
 effected by simply tightening or slacking off the headless 
 set screws shown at A. 
 
 Fig. 85 
 
 A type of box adjustment much used by machine tool 
 builders is the tapered shell, illustrated in Fig. 85 where 
 the method of adjustment is illustrated; the part of the 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 86 
 Crown shown at A. 
 Oil hole shown at B. 
 
 machine in which the box rests, known as the seat, is 
 
 taper bored, and the shell is turned or ground on the 
 
 outside surface to fit this seat; a slot is cut in the shell 
 
 (or box) so that by moving this 
 
 box in the seat, by means of the 
 
 nuts A and B we may open or 
 
 close it. Forcing the box in 
 
 will close the box; moving it 
 
 out of the hole will open it. In 
 
 construction the seat is usually 
 
 fitted with a small keyway into 
 
 which a "pin " key fits, this 
 
 key being fast in the box. Such 
 
 a feature of design prevents the box from turning when 
 
 stress is placed on the adjusting nuts. 
 
 Minor Machine Parts.- — In connection with a shaft in 
 machine design, we must in many cases use a pulley; the 
 practical form of this device is shown in Fig. 86. A 
 pulley will not carry a belt satisfactorily unless it is 
 "crowned," that is, larger in diameter at the center than 
 on the edges. In turning this pulley a taper of f " per 
 foot is quite satisfactory for general work. The appli- 
 cation of the pulley in practice often demands using it 
 with another one arranged beside it; one pulley is 
 fastened to the shaft by means of a key, while the other 
 runs loose on the shaft; such an arrangement as described 
 must be used when a belt is used to drive a machine 
 which must be frequently started and stopped. All 
 machine • tools must meet this requirement, so we find 
 the tight and loose pulley arrangement much used in the 
 machine shop. The loose pulley must always be fitted 
 with an oil hole as indicated in the illustration. 
 
 Bolts and nuts are used a great deal about the ma- 
 chine shop for fastening various parts of the equipment 
 together, and for clamping work on the machines; the 
 
72 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 machinist must be acquainted with the proportions of 
 the standard bolt, and in Fig. 87 these are shown. Note 
 that both rough and finished sizes are given for the vari- 
 ous dimensions. The rough sizes indicate the dimen- 
 sions for a forged or roughly machined bolt and nut, 
 while the finished sizes give dimensions for - accurately 
 finished bolts. For clamping purposes the machinist 
 commonly uses bolts having specially sized heads which 
 fit the slots in the various machine parts to which work is 
 clamped when operating on it; a standard nut is used on 
 these clamp bolts. Whenever a bolt is used for clamp- 
 ing work, a washer should be used between the face of 
 the nut and the work or clamp as shown in Fig. 87. This 
 washer enables us to draw the bolt up solidly without 
 causing a clamp to twist, and also gives a good bearing 
 
 -€ipS 
 
 Fig. 87 
 B = 1\A + \" for rough bolt heads in square and hexagonal form. 
 B = l\A +iV" f° r finished bolt heads in square and hexagonal form. 
 C -\B for rough bolt heads in square and hexagonal forms. 
 C = A — -fa" for finished bolt heads in square and hexagonal forms. 
 E = A for rough nuts in square and hexagonal forms. 
 E — A — tV' for finished nuts in square and hexagonal forms. 
 Other dimensions of nuts same as for bolt heads. 
 
 for the nut: the diameter of a washer is usually one and 
 one eighth times the distance across corners of the nut 
 with which it is used. 
 
 Keys are used to fasten gears and pulleys to shafting 
 in situations where considerable stress is to be trans- 
 mitted; the most common type is the square key, illus- 
 trated in Fig. 88. When this device is fitted so that it 
 is free to slide in the slot in the shaft, as well as in the 
 pulley or gear it is spoken of as a key; if it is driven 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 73 
 
 solidly in the shaft, but the portion extending outside of 
 the shaft filed slightly so it slides freely in the keyway 
 of a pulley or gear, it is known as a "feather key." As a 
 
 general rule a square key is made up so its width is equal 
 to one fourth the diameter of the shaft; the thickness is 
 made the same as the width. In design practice these 
 sizes are departed from somewhat, but as a guide the 
 above mentioned proportions are serviceable. 
 
 A type of key which is very serviceable, because it 
 will carry a heavy stress without damage, is shown in Fig. 
 88 A. This key is known as the Woodruff key; it is 
 semi-circular in form and the seat, as the part of the 
 shaft cut away to fit the key is called, is cut with a special 
 cutter; table IV presents the various sizes of this key 
 as related to the designating numbers. 
 
 Taper keys are often used in machine construction, and 
 an illustration of a key is shown in Fig. 88 B; notice 
 that the angle forming the taper is placed on one face 
 only, sides of key are parallel; keys of this kind are 
 planed to a taper of §" per foot, or -fa of a degree. Taper 
 keys are not always made with the lug, though it is com- 
 monly best to have the key so made. In planing these 
 keyways, the seat in the shaft is planed as for a common 
 square key, and the "taper " of the keyway formed en- 
 tirely in the hub. The deepest portion of the keyway 
 in the hub should be the same depth as for an ordinary 
 square key. 
 
 Taper pins are used a great deal in machine tool con- 
 struction; whenever you are taking a machine down be 
 
74 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 sure to notice whether or not one end of the pin you are 
 attempting to drive out is larger than the other. If it 
 is tapered you should drive from the small end. Again 
 if you are fitting a pin to a hole, be sure you find out 
 whether or not it is to be a taper pin. 
 The standard taper for these small pins is 
 J" per ft. as used by some of the large 
 machine tool firms. 
 
 Cotter pins are used to hold parts in 
 certain relation, where no great stress is 
 applied to the cotter. In Fig. 90 we see a 
 cotter, and also an illustration of its use ; table V gives the 
 proportions of these pins. 
 
 Figure 91 shows a number of types of screws used in 
 machine work, and proportions of the heads. The young 
 
 Fig. 90 
 
 ;zb o- x 
 
 -#>•■ 
 
 *+. 
 
 TL^ 
 
 Fig. 91 
 #1. Collar screw. 
 
 B = A; C = l\A; E = \A; F = 1JA. 
 #2. Fillister head cap screw. 
 
 B = \\A; C = M; E = \A\ F = \A. 
 #3. Neck type of set screw head; the full head is of the same 
 proportions. 
 
 C = A; D = \A. 
 
 #4. Solid headless set screw. 
 
 B = A; C= \A. 
 
 #5. Squared rod ends. 
 
 B - 2A; C = 14. 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 75 
 
 worker should study these drawings with care, in order 
 that he may become familiar with the specific name for 
 each type of screw shown. All square, round, button, 
 and filister head screws, as well as collar screws, are desig- 
 nated in length by measurement under the head. 
 
 Machine screws are often used for fastening the lighter 
 parts of machinery together, and the varieties commonly 
 met are shown in Fig. 92. Machine screws are more 
 often designated by number than by diameter, though 
 the suggested standard of the American Society of Me- 
 chanical Engineers designates the outside diameter of 
 
 llllllllllll y IllllllJllll Jp lililililililil ( s 
 
 A 3. c - 
 
 Fig. 92 
 
 Types of machine screws. 
 
 A. Round Head. B. Fellister Head. C. Flat head. 
 
 the screw in decimal fractions of an inch; the table VI 
 presents the gage standard by number, American Screw 
 Co.'s specified diameter in decimal fractions of an inch 
 for respective numbers, threads per inch on the screw, 
 number or letter size of tap drill, and diameter of tap 
 drill in thousandths of an inch, for drilling holes to tap 
 for various size screws. 
 
 Since, in fitting small screws, we must use a tap drill 
 to drill the hole, the above mentioned table will be very 
 serviceable to the machinist; in order to use it intelli- 
 gently however the workman should understand the 
 twist drill gage illustrated in Fig. 57. This gage is used 
 to determine the size of a drill by simply inserting the 
 drill in the hole; the hole into which the drill fits closely 
 indicates the size of the drill by number. Table VII 
 gives the decimal equivalents for the various numbers of 
 the twist drill gage. 
 
76 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 For medium sized drills, that is, those sizes between 
 the small drills designated by numbers, and those com- 
 monly indicated by fractions of an inch a letter system of 
 designating drills is used; Table VIII presents the deci- 
 mal equivalents of the various letter sizes commonly 
 used. 
 
 Belting. — A great deal of belting is used in the ma- 
 chine shop; belting is designated by its ply and width; 
 most of the belting used is single ply, that is, but one 
 thickness of hide is used in the making. Two ply and 
 three ply belting is used to some extent on large sizes 
 where a great deal of power must be transmitted. Two 
 and three ply belt should not be used on small pulleys, 
 as such use will cause the different layers to separate 
 and the belt will be ruined. 
 
 For all small belting work the' joining of the two ends 
 is effected by lacing with a strip of light leather, known 
 as lace leather; the length of this lacing will be from 
 seven to ten times the width of the belt. 
 
 To place a belt stretch a string tightly over the pulleys 
 to be connected by the belt; draw this string as tightly 
 as you can; remove it, and cut your belt one sixteenth 
 of an inch shorter than the string for each foot of length 
 of belt required. Suppose, for the purpose of illustration 
 that we found our string to be 15 ft. long, then we would 
 cut the belt rl" shorter than the length of the string. 
 This reduction in length is made to allow for the stretch 
 of the belt. 
 
 When a belt is put on a pulley, the* smooth side should 
 be run next to the pulley face. Having cut the belt to 
 the required length, take a try square and laying it along 
 the side of the belt test the ends with the blade. If these 
 ends are not square, trim them carefully till they are 
 square, then with a belt punch, place holes about %" from 
 the end of the belt, and about §" apart as shown in Fig. 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 
 
 77 
 
 93. Now place the belt over the shafts to be connected, 
 so that after lacing, the smooth side will run next to the 
 pulley, and put in the lacing as shown in Fig. 93. Start 
 lacing at the center holes as shown at A, and seeing that 
 
 Fig. 93 
 
 the strands of the lacing as they appear on the smooth 
 face of the belt are parallel to the length of the belt; let 
 the crossing of the strands appear on the outside of the 
 belt. Next bring end X of belt lace up through hole H, 
 and pass it down through hole J; then pass end of lace Y 
 up through hole J and down through hole K. Draw all 
 
78 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 lacing up tightly; the belt now appears as in B, Fig. 93. 
 Pass end X of belt up through hole H, and down through 
 hole J again, doubling the outside strand of the lacing, 
 and do the same thing with end Y of lacing, passing 
 through holes J and K. Bring end of lacing X up 
 through hole L as shown at B, Fig. 93, and end of lacing 
 Y up through hole M. Now using the belt awl shown 
 at C, punch two small slits in the belt as shown at S, and 
 push the ends of the lacing through these. Take a sharp 
 knife and cut a notch in the ends of the lacing, then cut 
 the lace off so an end about \" long is left; twist this end 
 around so it will not pull out of the slots, and the belt 
 may be placed on the pulleys. 
 
 Belts may be kept in good condition, by wiping them 
 once a week, with a piece of waste, moistened with neats- 
 foot oil. 
 
 Materials Used in the Machine Shop. — The materials 
 most commonly used in the machine shop are cast iron, 
 open hearth machinery steel, crucible machinery steel, 
 tool steel, brass, and babbitt metal. We will not study 
 the metallurgy of these metals but it is necessary that 
 the young workman know something of their practical 
 characteristics. Castings are made from pig iron after 
 it has been melted in a cupola furnace, and pig iron is 
 extracted from iron ore by a process of heating in a blast 
 furnace; a blast furnace is really a large cupola. 
 
 The castings which come to the machine shop are made 
 in the foundry by pouring the melted iron from the 
 cupola into a mold, which has been made by embedding 
 a pattern in sand. The pattern maker's trade is the art 
 of making the patterns, either from wood or metal. 
 The moulder's trade is the art of producing the casting 
 mentioned,- while the machinist's work consists of finish- 
 ing and fitting these castings, and assembling all neces- 
 sary parts to make an operating machine. 
 
HARDENING AND TEMPERING 79 
 
 The casting usually comes to the machine shop properly- 
 pickled, rattled or sand blasted, so that the loose sand 
 and hardest scale has been removed. This treatment of 
 castings by the foundry is necessary because the hard 
 scale thus removed is very injurious to cutting tools if a 
 casting is sent to the machine shop, without the treat- 
 ment mentioned. The first job done on the casting after 
 it reaches the shop is "snagging "; this is commonly 
 looked after by laborers, or apprentices, during the first 
 few weeks of apprenticeship. This work consists of chip- 
 ping off fins, burrs, and irregular spots on the surface of 
 the casting; after this work, the casting goes to the 
 machinist. 
 
 Open hearth machine steel is produced by a process of 
 melting, casting and rolling at the steel mill. The stock 
 is melted in large furnaces, called open hearth furnaces, 
 hence the name of the material. It. comes to the machine 
 shop in bars or plates, and is used for bolts, screws, shafts, 
 washers and similar work. It is comparatively strong, 
 easily worked, and can be attractively finished at small 
 cost. 
 
 Crucible machine steel is a higher grade, stronger and 
 more expensive stock than open hearth machine steel. 
 It is produced by a method modeled after that followed 
 in producing crucible tool steel, hence the name. It is 
 used in machine tools for spindles, gear shafts, gearing, 
 and all work where stiffness and unusual strength are de- 
 manded. It does not cut as freely as open hearth steel, 
 hence the same cutting speeds cannot be used with this 
 stock as when working softer steel. For cutting speeds 
 see table IX. 
 
 Tool steel is the stock from which the tools used by 
 the machinist are made. Each manufacturer has a num- 
 ber of different grades of steel, suited to different classes 
 of work. The same grade of steel should not be used for 
 
80 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 making a cold chisel, as is used for making a milling 
 cutter. Cold chisels, diamond points and similar tools 
 are made from a cheaper class of stock, than can be used 
 for tools having an intricate cutting edge. 
 
 Any of the reputable steel manufacturers can supply a 
 grade of steel from which the skilled workman can make 
 tools of all kinds for various classes of work. Open 
 hearth and crucible machine steel cannot be hardened 
 and tempered by the simple process of heating and cool- 
 ing, but tool steel can be so treated. 
 
 High speed steel is a kind of tool steel much used in 
 modern shop practice. The tool steel previously men- 
 tioned is an alloy of carbon and iron only; high speed 
 steel is an alloy of other materials than carbon and iron, 
 such as tungsten and manganese. This steel will operate 
 under a much higher cutting speed, than will carbon 
 steel; it is therefore a very desirable material from the 
 standpoint of economic production. 
 
 An alloy has been put on the market recently which 
 is known by the trade name of stellite. This material 
 is used for cutting tools; it cannot be forged, but is 
 ground by the workman to the desired shape. It is very 
 serviceable for rapid cutting especially on roughing cuts. 
 The material is furnished to the trade in small bars, and 
 
 ^ , — should not be ground to form 
 
 Y"--^ = -\ sharp angles. Tools, in this 
 
 V^\ j material, should be of a rounded 
 
 form; figure 94 shows a very 
 
 satisfactory grinding of a stellite 
 
 tool. The apprentice should write the Crucible Steel Co. 
 
 of America, New York City, or the Halcomb Steel Co., 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa., for a tool steel catalog. 
 
 Brass is a soft alloy much used in the shop in places 
 where the part being made is subject to corrosion, when 
 in use. Brass is sometimes used for bearings; brass is 
 composed of copper, tin, and zinc. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY 
 
 81 
 
 Babbitt metal is a comparatively soft alloy, composed 
 of tin, copper, and antimony; it is easily melted in a 
 forge fire, and may be. cast in wooden molds. The ease 
 with which babbitt metal is worked, both in casting and 
 machining, makes this alloy 
 both convenient and eco- 
 nomical. The machine de- 
 signer uses babbitt a great 
 deal in bearings, where un- 
 usually high stresses are not 
 met, and where slight dis- 
 placement of parts due to 
 wear, will not seriously 
 effect the usefulness of the 
 machine. 
 
 MiscellaneousMachinery. 
 — When the young worker 
 enters the machine shop he 
 will find a number of general 
 purpose tools. Since these 
 are often used the equipment 
 may well be studied at the 
 present time. 
 
 The grindstone is shown 
 in Fig. 95 with each part 
 
 properly named; in Fig. 96 the method of mounting a 
 grindstone on a square shaft is shown. The nuts on the 
 sides of the stone are indicated at B and C, Fig. 96, and 
 these should be solidly tightened up so that there may 
 be no tendency for the wedges to loosen; in driving the 
 wedges do not set them up too hard as the stone may 
 be cracked in so doing. 
 
 Grindstones are commonly graded by the grit and 
 hardness; grits are classified as fine, medium and coarse, 
 while the hardness is classified as hard, medium and soft. 
 
 1. Trough. 
 
 2. Grindstone. 
 
 3. Truing device. 
 
 4. Truing device handwheel. 
 Tool rest. 
 
 Water reservoir stand. 
 Water reservoir. 
 Bearings. 
 Drain plug. 
 
82 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 In ordering a grindstone one should state the diameter 
 of stone, width of face, size of hole, grit, and degree of 
 hardness. Huron and New Brunswick stones are much 
 used in the United States. Both of these stones are light 
 blue in color. 
 
 For grinding machinist's tools a grindstone should run 
 at a surface speed of 800 to 1000 feet per minute. After 
 a grindstone has been mounted on the shaft and placed 
 
 -This portiOTj 
 ■>f sia/f- is 
 Isjuate 
 
 This 
 
 his poTLIOTJ ( 
 
 h*/r/s rouqd. 
 
 Kg. 96 
 
 A indicates wooden wedges driven between the shaft and stone, so 
 it may be set approximately true on the shaft when mounting. 
 
 in the bearings, it must be trued up : this job may be done 
 by using a piece of pipe supported on the tool rest, hold- 
 ing it very firmly with the hands, and rolling the pipe 
 slowly back and forth along the rest. The stone should 
 be kept wet during this operation. 
 
 A much better way to true a grindstone is to use a 
 truing device such as shown in Fig. 95 where we see this 
 attachment set up ready for use. When truing a stone, 
 water should be run on the stone surface and the cutting 
 roll forced against the stone by means of the hand- 
 wheel 4, Fig. 95, until the roll cuts all around the cir- 
 cumference, when the use of the truing device should be 
 discontinued. 
 
 The wet tool grinder, shown in Fig. 97, has displaced 
 
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY 
 
 83 
 
 the grindstone in a great many shops. The cutting 
 wheel used on the wet tool grinder is an abrasive wheel, 
 either the carborundum 
 or alundum variety; a 
 very good wheel for 
 general tool work is an 
 alundum 36 P. or equiv- 
 alent. (See chapter on 
 grinding for information 
 on the grading of wheels.) 
 The tool grinder is al- 
 ways equipped with some 
 means of keeping water ^ 
 on the wheel. In the 
 particular machine illus- 
 trated the pump at 4, Fig. 
 97, is connected on one 
 side to the tank in the 
 base of the machine, and 
 the other side delivers 
 the water to the wheel. 
 The water returns to the 
 tank after passing over 
 the wheel and "is used 
 repeatedly. 
 
 The surface speed of a wheel for this class of work 
 should be about 4500 feet per minute. In truing an 
 
 Fig. 97 
 
 1. Base. 
 
 2. Pan. 
 
 3. Hood. 
 
 4. Pump. 
 
 5. Bearing. 
 
 6. Wheel. 
 
 7. Truing Device. 
 
 8. Water supply line. 
 
 9. Water supply valve. 
 10. Tool rest. 
 
 Fig. 98 
 
 abrasive wheel the device shown in Fig. 98 is used. This 
 tool is known as an emery wheel dresser*, and in using it 
 
84 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the tool rest 10, Fig. 97, is moved back, fastened solidly, 
 and lip B of dresser hooked over it, in order to bring 
 pressure against the wheel. 
 
 The tool must be held very steadily, and not allowed to 
 shake when in use, otherwise the surface of the wheel 
 will be irregular, or as the machinist would say, "out of 
 true." 
 
 On certain designs of wet tool grinders a truing device 
 is mounted at 7, Fig. 97, which is operated in the same 
 manner as the truing device described in connection with 
 the grindstone. 
 
 The term "surface speed " may be discussed at this 
 time, as it is mentioned in describing the grindstone, as 
 well as the tool grinder. Let us suppose that the wheel 
 were rolling on a flat surface instead of revolving on a 
 shaft; as each point of the surface of the wheel comes in 
 contact with the surface on which it is rolling the wheel 
 will move forward in the same manner that a locomotive 
 moves forward when the driving wheel revolves. 
 
 If, after the wheel has been revolving for one minute, 
 it is five thousand feet away from the point where it 
 started to roll, the surface speed of the wheel is said to 
 be 5000 ft. per minute. If it is 1000 feet from the start- 
 ing point, the 'surface speed is 
 1000 ft. per minute. 
 
 The phrases "surface speed of 
 work " and "cutting speed," as 
 used in connection with lathe 
 and milling machine work, are 
 explained in the same way. See 
 chapter on "Shop Calculations" 
 for explanation of method of 
 calculating surface speed. 
 The polishing stand is shown in Fig. 99. This is really 
 a small tool grinder designed to run at very high speeds. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY 
 
 85 
 
 It is used for grinding small tools such as drills, taps, 
 thread tools, etc. It is also used for polishing, hence the 
 name. The grinding wheel used is similar to the one 
 used on the wet tool grinder, 
 only it is smaller and no 
 water is used. The proper 
 method of mounting an 
 abrasive wheel is shown in 
 Fig. 100. There is danger 
 of a grinding wheel burst- 
 ing, hence the necessity for 
 careful mounting. The pro- 
 portions of wheel flanges 
 given in connection with Diametei 
 the figure are those sug- 
 gested by the Pennsylvania 
 Department of Labor and 
 Industry. 
 
 Polishing wheels are 
 commonly made of wood, 
 surfaced in leather, this 
 leather being held in place 
 by means of wooden pegs, 
 such as shoemakers use. The surface of the leather is 
 coated with emery; such a polishing wheel is illustrated 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 100 
 
 
 Diametei 
 of wheel 
 
 C 
 
 E 
 
 D 
 
 6" 
 
 2" 
 
 1" 
 
 I" 
 
 8" 
 
 3" , 
 
 2" 
 
 ** 
 
 10" 
 
 3£" 
 
 2J" 
 
 I" 
 
 12" 
 
 4" 
 
 2|" 
 
 \" 
 
 14" 
 
 w 
 
 3" 
 
 V 
 
 16" 
 
 5\" 
 
 Si" 
 
 V 
 
 18" 
 
 6" 
 
 4" 
 
 \" 
 
 20" 
 
 7" 
 
 4i" 
 
 i" 
 
 24" 
 
 8" 
 
 5i" 
 
 *" 
 
 28" 
 
 10" 
 
 7" 
 
 I" 
 
 Fig. 101 
 
 in Fig. 101. It is built up of three layers of white pine 
 so arranged that the grains of the different layers 
 
86 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 cross each other; these layers are glued together, and 
 reenforced with bolts. The leather used should be a 
 good grade of single^ ply, oak tanned belting, cut to the 
 width of the wheel. The ends of the leather should be 
 "scarfed," so a smooth joint is made as indicated at A. 
 
 In attaching the leather to the wheel, wet it thoroughly, 
 place the smooth side against the wheel surface, and be- 
 gin pegging it to the wheel at a point midway of the 
 length of the leather strip, making the pegging of the 
 ends the last of the work. After attaching the leather 
 face, the wheel is mounted on a mandrel in an engine 
 lathe, and with a very sharp tool it is turned to a true 
 surface. 
 
 The final step in preparation is the coating of the face 
 with emery, which is illustrated in Fig. 101. For the 
 best results the wheel should be warm and both glue and 
 emery should be hot. Sprinkle the emery evenly over 
 the surface of a sheet of heavy paper, or cloth as shown 
 in the figure, coat the leather face with hot glue, and roll 
 it in the emery, applying considerable pressure. 
 
 When the whole circumference of the wheel is evenly 
 coated, it may be laid in a warm place to dry, for about 
 ten hours. The wheel should then be given a second 
 coat of emery, by using hot glue and rolling as described, 
 allowed to dry ten hours more, then given a third coat 
 and allowed to dry twenty-four hours, when it is ready 
 for use. This treatment produces a wheel which will 
 give excellent service, and is possessed of very free cutting 
 qualities. 
 
 A workman havirig charge of the polishing in a large 
 plant has many polishing wheels, coated with the dif- 
 ferent grades of emery from #60 to flour. He also has 
 some wheels with no emery on the leather face, which 
 are used for producing very high finish. These wheels 
 are known as buff wheels, or simply "buffs." 
 
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY 
 
 87 
 
 Figure 102 illustrates a rag wheel, which is used for 
 polishing irregular surfaces; crocus is rubbed on the face 
 while the wheel is running, and acts as a polishing agent 
 when the work is pressed against the 
 wheel. The surface speed of a rag wheel 
 should be about seven thousand feet per 
 minute. The work must be roughed down 
 with polishing wheels before the rag wheel 
 is used. Leather faced polishing wheels 
 may be run at a surface speed of from 
 5000 to 7000 ft. per minute. 
 
 Figure 103 illustrates a mandrel press, 
 a small machine tool used for forcing mandrels in and out 
 of work; the illustration is self-explanatory. Always put 
 
 Fig. 102 
 
 Fig. 103 
 A is mandrel press. 
 B is a mandrel block for driving a mandrel in or out of the work. 
 
 a little oil on a mandrel, wiping it over the surface with 
 the hand, before forcing it into the work. 
 
 The soda kettle illustrated in Fig. 104 is used to wash 
 work when it comes from the machines. The water is 
 heated by means of steam passing into the kettle through 
 the pipes shown; at A is shown the steam inlet pipe con- 
 nection, B the steam outlet pipe connection, and at C is 
 
88 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Fig. 104 
 
 a test pipe. After opening the valves on A and B the 
 valve V may be opened, and when steam comes from the 
 pipe C we know that we have a free 
 ^M~ )y passage of steam in the heating 
 
 ' coils of the kettle, and after the 
 water in the kettle has once been 
 brought to the boiling point the 
 valve on B may be closed. 
 
 The heat from the steam in the 
 pipes is usually sufficient to keep 
 the mixture in the soda kettle hot 
 if the valve on A is left open, 
 and valve V is opened and a small 
 amount of steam allowed to blow through each time the 
 soda kettle is used. 
 In preparing the mixture to be used in the soda kettle 
 * about a half pound of soda to a gallon of water may' be 
 used. Fill the kettle about three fourths full, with this 
 mixture, and add a quart of soft soap or two bars of 
 sliced hard soap. 'Bring the mixture to a boil and let it 
 boil ten minutes, when the bath is ready for use. 
 
 Figure 105 shows a dipping bucket used in connection 
 with the soda kettle. The work is placed in 
 this kettle and worked freely around in the 
 bath; when the work is removed it dries of 
 itself, due to the heat of the bath. At D, 
 Fig. 104, is a pipe connection for filling the 
 kettle with water, and at E is a connection for 
 drawing it. All kettles are not connected as 
 described, but the arrangement presented is typical of 
 many installations. 
 
 Fig. 105 
 
MISCELLANEOUS MACHINERY 89 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Give a brief description of the process of hardening and 
 tempering steel, telling why this process is necessary. 
 
 2. Describe the building of a fire in the forge. 
 
 3. What is meant by " high speed steel "? 
 
 4. Describe the process of annealing. 
 
 5. Define a shaft; box; journal/ 
 
 6. For what purpose is a check nut used? Describe the proper 
 method of setting a check nut. 
 
 7. How, and for what purpose is a gib used? 
 
 8. What is the reason for " crowning " a pulley? 
 
 9. For what purpose, and in what manner are keys used in 
 machine construction? 
 
 10. Give and explain the meaning of the various " plies " of 
 belting. 
 
 11. Give a brief description of a casting, as it comes to the machine 
 shop. 
 
 12. Briefly describe the various kinds of steel used by the 
 machinist. 
 
 13. Give a brief description of brass, and babbitt metal, and 
 tell where these metals are commonly used in machine design 
 practice. 
 
 14. Give the specifications for grading grindstones; explain your 
 statements. 
 
 15. Give a brief description of the wet tool grinder, and the 
 wheels used with this machine. 
 
 16. Explain the meaning of the term " surface speed." 
 
 17. Describe the method of coating a polishing wheel. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 LATHE TOOLS 
 
 The Lathe, and Lathe Equipment. — The young me- 
 chanic should become familiar with the various kinds of 
 tools used at the lathe, so that he recognizes them im- 
 mediately upon seeing them. The first tool shown is 
 known as a diamond point, Fig. 106. The various angles 
 given in the illustration have been found serviceable in 
 
 -?#F 
 
 practice. This tool is used not omy on the lathe but on 
 the planer as well. The essential difference between a 
 lathe and a planer diamond point is in the clearance at 
 
 Fig. 107 
 
 A, which is the angle for the lathe being illustrated ,in the 
 first Fig. 106, while that for the planer is given in Fig. 107. 
 
 90 
 
LATHE TOOLS 
 
 91 
 
 Figure 108 illustrates a brass tool, which is used for 
 turning and facing brass. The flat top and very marked 
 clearance as shown at A makes this tool very service- 
 able on the class of work mentioned. Any tool with a 
 
 Fig. 108 
 
 Brass tool. Round or flatten point slightly before using tool 
 for turning. 
 
 marked rake or shear will not work well on brass, because 
 the material is tough and the tool tends to "bite," often 
 spoiling the job. This tool is also available for turning 
 long slender shafts, as it can be set higher above the 
 center than the diamond point, and thus has less tend- 
 ency to spring the work. 
 
 Figure 109 illustrates what is sometimes known as a 
 'hog-nose tool. The angles for grinding in clearance rake 
 
 Fig. 109 
 
 and shear are given in the illustration. In using this tool 
 for turning long slender shafts, the workman should be 
 careful that the tool does not have too much of a bearing 
 surface on the work, as it will cause the work to chatter, 
 
92 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 leaving a number of small marks which do considerable 
 damage on certain jobs. In using this tool on such work 
 it should be raised considerably above the center. 
 _ Raising the tool above the center is not necessary as a 
 general rule, when working in brass. 
 
 Figure 110 illustrates a right hand offset cutting off 
 tool, which is used for parting work close to the face- 
 
 Fig, no 
 
 plate or chuck. Note particularly the bend at A in this 
 tool, which is designated as a right hand tool. If the 
 cutting point is bent as shown in Fig. Ill, the tool is 
 
 Fig. in 
 
 known as a left hand offset cutting off tool. These tools 
 should always be ground with a clearance on the side 
 faces, as well as an end clearance. 
 
 The tool shown in Fig. 112 is a straight cutting off 
 tool. The clearance on this should be approximately 
 as shown in the illustration, and the same is suggested 
 for the offset cutting off tool. 
 
LATHE TOOLS 
 
 93 
 
 Figure 113 is a right hand offset threading tool. This 
 tool is used for cutting threads on pieces where the thread 
 
 A 
 
 ' Fig. 112 
 ■Sf" per inch side clearance at A. 
 
 must run close under the shoulder. The part A is ground 
 to fit the thread gage for the particular thread which is 
 
 Fig. 113 
 A equals angle of thread to be cut. 
 
 to be formed, namely U. S. standard, Whitworth, Acme, 
 • etc. The details of the method of setting this tool whep 
 
 -A 
 
 Fig. 114 
 A equals angle of thread to be cut. 
 
 *. ■ - 
 
 cutting threads, will be taken up in connection with lathe 
 operation. 
 
94 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Figure 114 illustrates a straight threading tool, which 
 is ground in the manner described for the offset tool. 
 
 ■3& 
 
 Iff **■ 
 
 Fig. 115 
 
 This is used for cutting threads when it is not necessary 
 to run them close under a shoulder. 
 
 Figure 115 illustrates a right hand side tool. The 
 illustration shows the tool applied to a piece of work, 
 
 Fig. 116 
 
 and the operation is known as facing-up. The angles 
 given will be found serviceable when grinding this tool. 
 
 Fig. 117 
 
 The right hand offset side tool is used for the same pur- 
 pose as the straight side tool, but on jobs that require the 
 
LATHE TOOLS 
 
 95 
 
 facing operation to be carried out on a shoulder which is 
 close to the driving dog. 
 
 Figure 116 illustrates a shovel nose tool. It is used for 
 finishing work which permits a very heavy feed. This is 
 
 Fig. 118 
 
 commonly used in working cast iron on both the lathe 
 and planer. The clearance angle for use on the lathe is 
 given in Fig. 116; clearance for the planer should be 
 about 5°. In Fig. 117 is illustrated a round nosed rough- 
 
 Fig. 119 
 
 ing tool, which is serviceable for either cast iron or steel. 
 Satisfactory grinding angles are given in the illustration. 
 Figure 118 at A, illustrates an end convex radius tool, 
 while B illustrates an end concave radius tool; at C is 
 shown a right hand side concave radius tool. Figure 119 
 
96 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 illustrates the use of the centering Y and truing center; 
 on certain occasions the workman finds it necessary to 
 center work to be turned, more accurately than is possi- 
 ble by using a center drill and countersink in the usual 
 manner; under such circumstances the work is simply 
 centered and drilled. The truing center A is a square 
 center having sharp corners as shown, which are formed 
 at an angle of 60°. The work which has been drilled is 
 mounted on the centers with a dog, the square center 
 being in the footstock spindle; the lathe is started and 
 the Y which is supported in the tool post is forced gently 
 against the work while it is revolving, the footstock 
 spindle handwheel being used to feed the square center 
 ahead slightly to produce the required size of counter 
 sink. When a piece thus centered is revolved on the 
 smooth centers, it will be found to run quite true. The 
 operation of centering as described must be performed on 
 each end of the work. 
 
 Figure 118 at D illustrates a knurl. It is used for pro- 
 ducing rough surfaces which enable a workman to obtain 
 a grip on certain parts. A typical example of knurling 
 is the ratchet feed fiut shown in Fig. 75. In using the 
 knurl, the holder is mounted in the lathe tool post, so 
 the face of the knurl bears evenly on -the work; the work 
 is supported on the lathe centers and by means of the 
 lathe cross feed screw, the knurling rolls are pushed 
 firmly against the surface of the work. The lengthwise 
 feed of the lathe is thrown in, and the carriage allowed to 
 feed over the work as though the piece was being turned. 
 The knurls should be freely lubricated with lard oil, or 
 some other cutting lubricant; machine oil is often used 
 when only a small amount of knurling is to be done and 
 lard oil is not at hand. 
 
 Having made an elementary study of bench work and 
 the more common small tools used in the machine shop, 
 
THE LATHE , 97 
 
 the student is now ready to take up the study of ma- 
 chines. It makes but little difference which machine he 
 begins to study first, since all are used for very simple 
 operations as well as for very complicated ones, but he 
 will, of course, begin with the study of simple operations 
 on any machine. As almost every shop doing any kind 
 .of machine work must use a lathe, and since this is one 
 of the basic tools of the machine industry, we will start 
 our study with the lathe. 
 
 Every machine tool, regardless of its purpose, is a com- 
 bination of certain devices for obtaining desired results; 
 it must be started and stopped, hence it must have a 
 starting and stopping mechanism; it must operate, hence 
 it must have a driving mechanism; it must carry the cut- 
 ting tool over -the work, so it must have a feeding mechan- 
 ism; and it must also have proper support for the cutting 
 tool and means for carrying the work. All modern ma- 
 chines have means of changing the feeds and speeds 
 when operating, in order that various classes of work 
 may be accommodated. Now, whenever you see a ma- 
 chine tool, just analyze it as outlined above, regardless 
 of its appearance, and you will find that it will become 
 simple, assuming that you have a knowledge of the ele- 
 ments of machine construction. 
 
 This power of machine analysis is very important to 
 the young mechanic, for every machine is slightly differ- 
 ent in the details of its construction. We may study a 
 great many different lathes, for example, but no two 
 designs produced" by different makers will be exactly the 
 same in constructive detail. Each one will, nevertheless, 
 introduce all the elements mentioned above. The power 
 of analysis should be developed by the learner. Every 
 machine which you see should be studied for the method 
 of starting, speed and feed control, method of mounting 
 work, method of guiding cutting tool and so on, until 
 
98 
 
 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 * M M M M 
 
 "Sill 
 
 a 0,00 o 
 
 wood .K 
 
 r4 *j 
 
 S33S^-SS S 8 
 
THE LATHE 99 
 
 all the functions of the machine are understood. In the 
 study of the machine tools shown in this text one typical 
 tool of each type is introduced. All lathes which may 
 be seen by the learner will not be equipped exactly like 
 the one illustrated, but all will be built along the same 
 general lines. All milling machines will not be of the 
 same detail construction as the one shown, but all will 
 be composed of the same fundamental elements. It is 
 the recognition of these fundamental elements, and the 
 study of the related mechanisms, that are very important 
 factors in the learning of the machinist's trade. A wide 
 
 storo screw 
 bhclf 
 
 Clarr/n 
 
 Fig. 120 B 
 
 knowledge of tool operation, and an assurance of one's 
 self when entering a new shop, may be rapidly developed 
 by studying the many different machines met in daily 
 occupation at the machinist's trade. 
 
 In Fig. 120 we have an illustration of one type of an 
 engine lathe. It is classified as a belt driven tool, and 
 the names of the various parts of the tool are given 
 in connection with the drawing. Figures 120 B and 
 120 D illustrate a number of attachments, the use of 
 which will be explained as we proceed with the study of 
 this type of machine. The headstock on the lathe is 
 the driving element, 'and serves to support entirely or in 
 part the work being operated upon; the footstock assists 
 in supporting the work, the carriage is used to carry the 
 
100 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 cutting tool while operating on the work, and the feeding 
 mechanism moves the carriage when cutting. 
 
 Some of the older lathes operate the feed rod by means 
 of belts on small cones instead of gears, the cones being 
 located in the same relative place as the gearing illus- 
 trated in the present drawing. A belted feed is not posi- 
 tive, and usually is not desirable on a machine used for 
 
 Face 
 
 J&rf screw 
 
 Small face %>laTe. 
 
 
 Fig. 120 D 
 
 rapid production; fo'r light work, however, belt feeds are 
 very satisfactory. 
 
 The first thing a beginner should do is to become fa- 
 miliar with the movements of the machine he plans to 
 operate; no work should be attempted until he is familiar 
 with the control of the machine in detail. Learn to start 
 it and stop it, to change the speed either by shifting the 
 belt or throwing the shifting levers, to throw the feeds 
 of all kinds into and out of gear, and to oil it properly. 
 Remember that in handling machinery one must be care- 
 ful, and though he may learn to work very rapidly, he 
 must never abuse the machine. 
 
THE LATHE 101 
 
 Assuming that the beginner has learned to handle 
 the lathe as outlined above, we may take up the method 
 of doing a simple job, namely, turning a straight bar; 
 now much depends on the accuracy demanded in your 
 work as to the procedure to be followed, but we will 
 assume that you are to turn a piece to an accurately 
 finished size, and finish it by means of the file. In modern 
 rapid production this plan of finishing a straight bar is 
 not followed, although it is followed in small shops doing 
 repair work, of which there are a great many. We will 
 study the grinder somewhat later, and then we will dis- 
 cuss the lathe in relation to this machine. 
 
 The first step is to center the work by means of the 
 hermaphrodite caliper, center punch, center drill, and 
 countersink. The center- 
 ing process at the bench m — i^ tA 
 has already been des- 
 cribed. A center drill 
 a small drill used for \ \ 
 
 drilling a hole in the end \ s 
 
 of the work, and a rig 121 
 
 countersink is used to 
 
 enlarge the end of this hole, so that it will run nicely 
 on the lathe centers. Usually the workman uses a "speed 
 lathe " for centering, because it is a much more simple 
 tool than the engine lathe, and can be run at a higher 
 speed. This latter feature is desirable, because the center 
 drill is quite small in diameter and must revolve quite 
 rapidly in order to cut efficiently. If you are drilling 
 steel, put a little oil on both drill and countersink while 
 cutting, but oil is not used when drilling cast iron or 
 brass. 
 
 After centering, the next step is facing the work, and 
 preparatory to this operation we should test the lathe 
 centers to see that they run true. First, knock the head- 
 
 ^CX 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
102 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 stock center out by means of a rod reaching through the 
 spindle, or, in the case of a solid spindle, twist the center 
 out by means of a wrench used on the flat or square which 
 is formed on the center for this purpose. Then back out 
 the footstock center by means of the footstock spindle 
 screw, by simply turning the screw so that the spindle 
 draws into the footstock casting till it pushes the center 
 out; wipe these centers off with the hand, and wipe out 
 the holes in the spindle with a piece of cloth or paper. 
 Now look at the live center and see if there is a center 
 punch mark on it, and if there is, this mark on the center 
 should be set just in line with a similar mark on the front 
 end of the spindle. Then set a shovel nose tool as shown 
 in Fig. 121, start the lathe and see if the center runs 
 true. If it does, nothing more need be done, but if it 
 does not, it must be trued up. If it is a soft headstock 
 center, we use a shovel nose tool to true it, if it is a 
 hard headstock center, it must be ground. Figure 121 
 shows how to set up the tool to true the center when it 
 is soft. 
 
 In taking the cut, hold the carriage by the longitudinal 
 feed handle, or lock it with the carriage binding screw so 
 it cannot move along the ways, and, by moving the cross 
 slide feed screw handle, take light cuts till the center 
 runs true. Be sure to test the angle with the center 
 gage. After truing with the tool, speed up the lathe and 
 use a 6" smooth float file to smooth the surface just 
 turned, then polish with a piece of 00 emery cloth, 
 and the center is ready for use. The center used in the 
 headstock of a lathe is known as the live center, while 
 that used in the footstock is known as the dead center. 
 After the live center has been trued, we should see that 
 the dead center is in good shape. The dead center does 
 not need truing as frequently as the live; it need not be 
 trued unless the surface has become worn or scored. 
 
THE LATHE 103 
 
 Figure 122 shows a sketch of a tool post center grinder; 
 commonly this device is built in such a way that some 
 portion of it acts as a gage for setting the tool, so that 
 the center is ground accurately. One should always test 
 the center with the center gage as a final cut must usually 
 be taken to correct slight 
 errors, even though the 
 grinder may have been set 
 accurately. If there is no 
 gage piece on the grinder, it 
 must be set as near to the 
 proper angle as one can judge, 
 by traversing the wheel along 
 the surface of the center to be 
 ground; then true the center 
 
 to this angle, and test with center gage : readjust grinder 
 and take successive cuts, testing after each cut, till the 
 center fits the gage. 
 
 If no center grinder is available, the footstock center 
 must be trued with the tool in the same manner as the 
 Jive center. Since the dead center is hardened, it must 
 be annealed before we can work on it. This process is 
 described in the chapter under hardening, tempering, 
 and annealing. After truing the center, it must be 
 hardened and tempered before it is placed in use, and if 
 both centers are to be refinished, it is always wise to true 
 the dead center first, as such a plan will leave the live 
 center in place after it has been trued. This is a desir- 
 able point, because when a center is removed it is some- 
 times slightly out of true after it is replaced. In some 
 large shops all centers are hardened and ground all over; 
 this is a very desirable plan, as it does away with a great 
 deal of truing of centers. 
 
 If our centers are in good shape, we are ready to start 
 work on our piece. The first step is to face it up, using 
 
104 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 a right hand side tool, end ground so we can get well 
 down to the center, and, by very slightly slacking back 
 the footstock spindle, remove the slight burr left around 
 the edge of the countersink hole. Be sure when operat- 
 ing a lathe to keep the footstock center well oiled ; a drop 
 of oil on the center each time the work is replaced will 
 take care of this. Keep the centers and center holes 
 clean also. The side tool, when being used for facing, 
 should be set so that its upper cutting edge is just level 
 with the point of the lathe center, as this gives the best 
 working position. 
 
 Before we start turning we must assure ourselves that 
 the lathe is set to turn the piece straight, and there are a 
 number of ways of making this test, but one of the simplest 
 methods is to take a right hand side tool and very slightly 
 round the end of the cutting point. Next take a mandrel 
 and place it on the lathe centers, place the tool in the 
 tool post, and move it towards the mandrel until it just 
 pinches a piece of newspaper, held between the point of 
 the tool and the surface of the mandrel. This adjustment 
 should be made at the footstock end of the mandrel. Let 
 the tool stand in its position, remove the mandrel from 
 the centers, run the carriage up against the headstock 
 of the lathe, replace the mandrel on the centers, being 
 sure that the end which was formerly towards the foot- 
 stock is now placed towards the headstock; that is, we 
 turn the mandrel end for end. Now hold the paper in 
 place, and very carefully move the tool back, and see if 
 it just pinches the paper; _ if it does, the lathe- will turn 
 straight, but if it does not, we must adjust the footstock 
 cap by means of the adjusting screw till we get the de- 
 sired result. See line drawing of lathe for location of 
 footstock parts mentioned in this description. 
 
 In order to get the centers approximately in line, we 
 may simply slide the footstock up towards the headstock 
 
THE LATHE 
 
 105 
 
 till the two centers just touch, and, by means of footstock 
 
 adjusting screw, set the centers as near true as we can 
 
 judge with the eye. This is all the adjustment that is 
 
 necessary for rough work, but for accurate work we must 
 
 use the detailed method just described. 
 For turning this piece of work we will use a diamond 
 
 point, and it should set as shown in Fig. 123, somewhat 
 
 above the center line of the lathe, 
 
 so as to give a good shear or 
 
 clean cutting action. Now having 
 
 both ends of the piece faced, we 
 
 put on the dog, or carrier as it 
 
 is sometimes called, place the 
 
 work in the centers, start the 
 
 lathe, move the tool in place by 
 
 means of the cross slide, and start a light cut by means 
 
 of the lengthwise feed handle. As soon as cut is started, 
 
 throw in the feed and let the carriage run up about §"; 
 
 now stop the machine and caliper your work to be sure it 
 
 is not too small. If it is, we must reset the tool, and if we 
 
 have not run the cut up too far, the work is not spoiled; 
 
 if, however, we have run the cut up a half inch or more, 
 and have set the tool for too deep 
 a cut, the piece will be useless. 
 Assuming that our cut is the cor- 
 rect size for a roughing cut, we 
 let the tool feed up about one half 
 the length of the piece, run it back 
 towards the tailstock, remove the 
 work from the centers, place the 
 dog on the turned portion, replace 
 
 it on the centers, and rough off the remaining section of 
 
 the piece. 
 All the work described thus far has been a roughing 
 
 out process. The piece must now be finished, and there 
 
 JttoyKr 
 
 Sr^lf , 
 
 Fig. 124 
 
106 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 is no new element of operation to be described except 
 to suggest that all tools for finishing be oil stoned after 
 grinding. In taking the finish cuts on facing up, one 
 must measure the piece carefully for length; Fig. 124 
 shows a very good method of making this measurement. 
 In doing lathe work of the sort described, it is always 
 wise to rough out first, and then finish. 
 
 Parting or Cutting Off. — One of the common opera- 
 tions on the lathe is cutting off stock, but as the process 
 requires some experience with the action of cutting tools, 
 it does not make a good job on which to start a beginner. 
 It is wiser to start with a job of facing and straight turn- 
 ing, which will give an appreciation of the care necessary 
 in handling cutting tools. In parting, have the tool set, 
 so that the top edge is about ■£%" above the point of the 
 lathe center; be sure that the tool has both end and side 
 clearance; feed slowly, and use a cutting lubricant; if 
 your work is held between centers of the lathe, do not cut 
 it completely off, as you are apt to break the tool by so 
 doing, and damage the centers; cut down so that the 
 diameter of the section between the pieces to be parted 
 is about iV' in diameter; remove the work from the 
 lathe and break the pieces apart in the vise. 
 
 Chuck Work. — The next step which the beginner may 
 take introduces one of the attachments of the lathe, 
 known as a chuck. Figure 120 D presents the names of 
 the parts of this attachment, and the student should 
 familiarize himself with these before going farther. To 
 use the chuck, the driving face plate (see drawing of 
 lathe), is unscrewed from the lathe spindle. See that the 
 threads on the spindle are clean, and also the threads in 
 the chuck faceplate, and that there is no dirt on the sur- 
 face of the shoulder on the spindle, nor on the edge of 
 the chuck faceplate. When these points are looked 
 after, the chuck should be screwed solidly on the spindle. 
 
THE LATHE 
 
 107 
 
 A little point in connection with the removal of a face- 
 plate or chuck might be mentioned here; some work- 
 men use a hammer striking on the edge of the faceplate 
 slot, or on a jaw of the chuck; a much better plan, how- 
 ever, is to put a bar in the faceplate slot and strike this 
 bar with the hammer. Use a block under the jaw of the 
 chuck and run tjhe lathe backward to slack it off. | 
 
 Now as to the method of using. The chuck is used to 
 hold pieces while working on an inside surface, when 
 drilling a hole in a piece of stock, or when facing large 
 flat stock. Figure 125 shows a typical job requiring a 
 
 JT 
 © 
 
 s 
 s 
 
 Fig. 125 
 
 A is the footstock spindle. 
 B is the collet holding drill. 
 C is the support for drill. 
 
 chuck; it is a bushing used about an engine. To describe 
 the operations, let us assume- that we are to make the 
 bushing from a piece of solid stock. Our first step is to 
 true the piece in the chuck, and this is done by opening 
 the chuck jaws, and catching the stock as shown in Fig. 
 125; now start the lathe, running it at a high speed, and 
 hold a piece of chalk steadily in the hand; the chalk will 
 strike in one spot; stop the machine and reset the chuck 
 jaws, moving the marked spot in towards the center of 
 rotation or axis of the lathe spindle; clean off the first 
 chalk mark, and repeat the above operation till the chalk 
 produces a mark all, or nearly all the way, around the 
 
108 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 piece; the work is now said to be running true. This 
 operation takes patience, but with practice one can do 
 it very rapidly. 
 
 After the work is running true, the next step is to drill 
 a hole in it, and so we will need a right hand side tool, a 
 proper size reamer drill, and a collet to hold this drill, 
 which will fit the footstock spindle of the lathe. Put the 
 drill in place in the footstock spindle, place the side tool 
 in the tool post, and face off the end of the piece in the 
 same way we did when doing the job of straight turning; 
 now, with the footstock spindle drawn well back, so that 
 the drill is well supported in the spindle, move the foot- 
 stock up so the point of the drill is about f " from the face 
 of the piece, and clamp the footstock solidly in place. 
 Then turn the tool around in the post, bring the drill up 
 till it begins to cut, feed slowly, run the blunt end of the 
 side tool up just so it supports the drill and prevents it 
 from moving- sidewise. Feed slowly, and keep the drill 
 steady by supporting it with the side tool till it is in the 
 work about |" of its full size, when the tool may be 
 removed, as the drill will now "keep its lead." See 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 When drilling in steel or wrought iron, be sure to use 
 some kind of a lubricant. You may feed the drill to the 
 work by means of the hand wheel at the end of the foot- 
 stock spindle, and, as it begins to break through at the 
 inner end of the work, feed somewhat more carefully, in 
 order that it may not catch or "bight " and be broken. 
 After drilling, remove the work from the chuck and ream 
 with a hand reamer; use a little lard oil or other lubri- 
 cant whenever reaming steel or similar materials, but, as 
 a general rule, oil is not used when working cast iron for 
 any process but tapping. 
 
 In the job we have just studied, our reamer drill would 
 be about -it" smaller in diameter than the finished size 
 
THE LATHE 109 
 
 of the hole, leaving this amount to be removed by the 
 reamer, and producing a hole accurate to size. After 
 reaming, we should test the bushing with a standard plug 
 gage to be sure that our reamer is of proper size. 
 
 The finishing of this bushing introduces the use of the 
 mandrel. Having drilled and reamed the piece, get from 
 the tool room the proper sized mandrel and a dog, put a 
 little oil on the mandrel, and setting the work on a man- 
 drel block (or on the jaws of a vise), as shown in Fig. 103, 
 drive the mandrel into the work, using a lead hammer. 
 Never use a steel hammer to drive a mandrel in place. 
 In starting the mandrel, you will find one end slightly 
 smaller than the other, and of course it is the smaller 
 end which should be entered in the hole in the work. 
 Now be sure that the centers in the mandrel are clean, 
 put a Ettle oil on the dead center of the lathe, and set 
 the mandrel on the centers in just the same way that 
 you did when the bar to be turned was placed between 
 the centers. The first step to be* taken is to rough face the 
 work, which need be done on only one end, and this con- 
 sists of simply running a facing cut over it. Now take 
 the diamond point, set it so that the top of the cutting 
 edge is somewhat above the center line of the lathe, thus 
 insuring a good cutting action, and start a cut; let it run 
 about |", stop the machine, having your caliper set to 
 the roughing size of the work which should be about ^" 
 larger than the finish size, and see that you are not turn- 
 ing the work too small. If you are safe, and the cut is a 
 good sized one, which will remove a reasonable amount of 
 stock, let it run over the work; if it is necessary, repeat 
 the operation until you have the bushing roughed down 
 to the proper diameter. 
 
 Now take the work off the centers, put the dog on the 
 other end of the mandrel, and rough face the other end 
 of the work. After this is done, sharpen the diamond 
 
110 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 point, using an oil stone if you want a very smooth cut, 
 and run a finishing cut over the work. Be careful not 
 to get the work too small, and, in calipering, never force 
 the measuring instrument over the piece, but work with 
 care, so that you know the exact measurement of the 
 bushing after you have turned it. The finish facing may 
 now be done, using the left hand side tool for one face 
 as shown in Fig. 115, being sure that you obtain a smooth 
 cut by setting the tool so that it cuts on the face and not 
 on the point. Note that the left hand side tool is used 
 for facing up left hand faces of work such as that with 
 tvhich we are dealing at present. The right hand side 
 tool is used for facing the right hand shoulders. To 
 finish this bushing to accurate length, the outside caliper 
 is used for measuring the dimension. 
 
 It will be necessary to finish the surface of this bushing 
 by filing and polishing with emery cloth. Use a. second 
 cut float file for filing, and keep it clean with a file card. 
 Use a speed lathe, if you <5an get it, rather than an engine 
 lathe for filing and polishing. Speed up the machine, 
 and file with slow regular strokes, pushing the file from 
 you, the same as when filing at the bench; do not file a job 
 of this sort very much; just enough to smooth the sur- 
 face, and no more. Round the corners slightly with the 
 file, put a little oil on it, and polish with emery cloth, 
 moving the emery cloth slowly back and forth along the 
 length of the piece while the work is revolving rapidly; 
 wipe off with a piece of waste, drive out the mandrel, 
 take a three cornered scraper, which is a three cornered 
 file having the teeth ground off so the corner forms a 
 sharp cutting edge, and scrape away the little ragged 
 sections around the edge of the hole, and the job is 
 done. 
 
 We have now studied the three most common jobs on 
 the lathe, namely, facing, straight turning, and chuck- 
 
THE LATHE 111 
 
 ing. We have also done facing on work carried directly 
 on the centers and on a mandrel as well. 
 
 The machinist's trade is a calling demanding great ac- 
 curacy on the part of the worker; in the jobs we have 
 done thus far we were working simply to certain dimen- 
 sions; it was not necessary to fit one piece to another. 
 But fitting must be done on a great deal of work, and the 
 fits used are the running fit, taper fit, driving fit and 
 shrink fit; all these fits are made by variations of 
 diameter, between the shaft and the hole in the hub of 
 a wheel. Table X gives a list of allowances for making 
 the various fits; the words "large" and "small" as 
 used at the head of the columns, refer to the amount 
 larger or smaller than standard diameter which the shaft 
 is turned in order to give the required fit in a hole of 
 exact standard size. 
 
 For example, let us assume that we have a hole in a 
 hub that is exactly 6" diameter, and we wish to turn a 
 shaft so that we will, .have a good driving fit in it; we 
 would then turn the shaft 6.0035" diameter, which is 
 0.0035" larger than standard size. Again, suppose we 
 wished this shaft to be such a fit that the hub would 
 run nicely, without unnecessary shake we would turn 
 the shaft 5.996" diameter, or somewhat smaller than the 
 exact size; it is wise to keep this table constantly at 
 hand, as it is very convenient in daily work. We do not 
 attempt to turn the work to these exact sizes with a 
 tool, but we usually turn about two or three thousandths 
 of an inch larger than the finished size, and bring it to the 
 exact size by filing. After the shaft is worked to size, 
 the surface is lubricated with lard oil or tallow, and 
 driven in place with a hammer or sledge. 
 
 In looking at the column for shrink fits, it is to be 
 noticed that a larger allowance is used than for the mak- 
 ing of a driving fit, but the preparation of both shaft and 
 
112 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 hub is made in the same way as in the case of the driving 
 fit. The placing of the parts together is done in a dif- 
 ferent way, however, as follows: after both hub and 
 shaft are prepared, the hub is slowly heated, always 
 starting the heat from the outside, never from the inside 
 first, and bringing it up to a low red heat; now while the 
 hub is hot, the shaft is carefully slipped in place, and the 
 hub allowed to cool; as it cools it will grip the shaft 
 firmly and remain solidly in place, if the workman has 
 done a good job. In making this fit no driving is done. 
 For much of the work now done in the machine shop, the 
 heating is undesirable, and since facilities have been 
 developed in the modern plant for making the forced 
 fit, the shrink fit is not so commonly met. 
 
 The forced fit allowance is greater than either the 
 drive or shrink fit allowance. The manner of preparing 
 the parts for a forced fit is not different from the prepara- 
 tion of the drive or shrink fit; the parts, after such prepa- 
 ration are forced together, either with a screw press, an 
 hydraulic pressing machine, or a pneumatic machine. 
 The screw press is commonly used for small work, while 
 the other methods are used for large work, such as arma- 
 ture shafts for generators, etc. 
 
 The young mechanic should seek the opportunity of 
 making all these fits, as considerable skill is required in 
 the work, and this skill can be obtained only by actual 
 practice. A very good lubricant for use on a shaft when 
 making a forcing fit is melted tallow and white lead, 
 enough white lead being stirred in the melted tallow to 
 give it the consistency of a heavy paint. 
 
 Thread Cutting. — Since thread cutting involves a 
 number of important elementary points in machine shop 
 practice, and since it introduces some very interesting 
 calculations, we may take this subject up as our next 
 study. The thread is produced by forming a helical cut 
 
THE LATHE 113 
 
 on a cylindrical body, and is used on all bolts and screws. 
 There are a great many different kinds of threads, but 
 the one most commonly used in America is known as the 
 United States standard thread, and since by the study 
 of this standard we may gather much valuable informa- 
 tion which is useful in connection with any threading 
 system we will for the present devote our attention to 
 this thread. 
 
 In examining the U. S. standard thread we find that for 
 each diameter of bolt used, there are a certain number 
 
 Mg. 126 
 
 of threads per inch of length. To measure these, lay a 
 steel rule on the threaded portion of the bolt as shown 
 in Fig. -126 and count the number of threads between 
 the one inch divisions of the scale; if the threads are 
 not long enough to span a whole inch, count the 
 number spanned by a half or a quarter of an inch and 
 multiply by two or four to get the number of threads per 
 inch. 
 
 Let us study the table II and become familiar with the 
 number of threads per inch of length, for each diameter 
 of bolt, as it is required that any U. S. standard thread 
 shall conform to the number of threads as listed in this 
 table. In looking at this table, you will notice that there 
 is given not only the diameter of the bolt and corre- 
 sponding number of threads per inch, but also the vari- 
 
114 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ous sizes of the hole in the nut which will permit the 
 formation of the thread. 
 
 It will be recalled that the tap drill was mentioned in 
 an earlier chapter, and it was stated that the only dif- 
 ference between this drill and any other standard twist 
 drill was one of diameter. In the column marked "ap- 
 proximate size " we have the diameter of the drills com- 
 monly used as tap drills for the respective size bolts 
 shown in the table. For general shop practice the other 
 two columns are not necessary, but for jig and fixture 
 designing they are very useful, as the designer, after 
 glancing at them, knows the exact relation of the diam- 
 eter of the drilled hole to the diameter of the bolt, at 
 the bottom of the thread. 
 
 The column headed "set thread micrometer " gives us 
 the proper reading of the thread micrometer caliper, 
 when the thread has been cut to size. Every young ma- 
 chinist should have a copy of Brown and Sharpe's or 
 Starrett's small tool catalog, in which will be found a 
 description of the thread micrometer, with instructions 
 concerning the method of reading it. These catalogs 
 may be obtained by writing the Brown and Sharpe Mfg. 
 Co., Providence, R. I., or the L. S. Starrett Co., Athol, 
 Mass. 
 
 Figure 127 shows a section of a U. S. standard thread 
 and we notice it is slightly flat at the top and bottom. 
 For general shop practice the workman does not attempt 
 to produce the flat with any degree of accuracy in the 
 smaller sizes, that is from |" to about 1"; he simply 
 rounds the end of the cutting tool slightly by the use of 
 an oil stone, but for the larger sizes this flat is formed. 
 Looking at Fig. 127 we see how this flat portion is ob- 
 tained, and its purpose is to assure better wearing quali- 
 ties when the thread is in service. The flat is equal to 
 one eighth of the depth of the thread. 
 
THE LATHE 115 
 
 We now have two new terms with which to familiarize 
 ourselves; these are "pitch " and "lead " as applied to 
 threads; the "pitch " of a thread is the distance from the 
 center of one thread to the center of the next, as shown 
 in Fig. 127 at a. In order that we may understand the 
 term "lead " let us assume that we have a piece of work 
 with a thread cut on it, and a nut properly fitting this 
 thread; now let us turn the screw in the nut, just one 
 turn, then the amount that the end of the screw moves, 
 relative to the face of the nut, is known as the lead. In 
 
 Kg. 127 
 
 the more commonly used threads the pitch equals the 
 lead, but in multiple threads this statement does not hold 
 true. In the present volume, only single threads are 
 discussed, that is, those threads having the lead and 
 pitch equal. 
 
 Threads are usually cut in the engine lathe, and as a 
 problem we will assume that we wish to cut a thread on 
 the straight piece of work illustrated in Fig. 126. The 
 thread cutting tool must be so ground that it fits the 
 notch in the side of the center gage, Fig. 54; this will 
 require some patience, but the student should persevere 
 until he can grind the tool properly, for if he does a good 
 job each time he has occasion to grind a thread tool he 
 will soon be able to do a good piece of work, and do it 
 quickly. 
 
 After grinding the thread tool, the work should be 
 
116 PRACTICAL MACHINE. SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 placed on the centers, being sure that the center holes 
 are clean, and that the dead center is oiled, also that a 
 dog is placed on one end of the work", with a piece of 
 copper under the set screw. Now put the diamond 
 point in the tool post and champher off the end of 
 the work as shown in Fig. 126 where we see the work as 
 it will appear when ready to put on the centers. The 
 thread tool should now be set true by means of the center 
 gage, using it as illustrated in Fig. 126 at A. Don't 
 jamb the tool into the gage but set it as nearly true as 
 you can judge with the eye, and then by tapping it on 
 the shank with a hammer adjust it so it fits exactly in 
 the notch. A piece of paper placed beneath the tool is 
 of assistance in setting it, because the paper will throw 
 a light between the tool and the gage, enabling one to 
 see more clearly the necessary movement required for 
 correct setting. 
 
 The next step is the placing of the proper gears in 
 position to advance the carriage the correct amount for 
 each revolution of the lathe, in order to produce the re- 
 quired thread. In the most modern lathes this is effected 
 by the placing of certain levers in particular positions, 
 which positions are determined by the study of a dia- 
 gram, which is often arranged on a brass plate, and 
 mounted directly on the machine. In other cases, this 
 diagram is printed on heavy cardboard, and kept in the 
 tool cabinet of the machine. The study of this diagram 
 is the next step. The setting for cutting a thread on 
 these machines usually requires the shifting of two levers, 
 one of which we call the index lever and the other the 
 tumbler lever. The index lever may be set in four or 
 five different positions and for each position of this lever 
 there are from ten to twelve positions of the tumbler 
 lever, giving a different speed ratio between the spindle 
 and the lead screw for each position of the latter. Thus, 
 
THE LATHE 
 
 117 
 
 if we have five positions for the index lever, and eleven 
 positions of the tumbler for each setting of the index 
 lever, we have available fifty-five combinations for cut- 
 ting threads; as most of these gearing arrangements are 
 designed on similar lines, so far as operation is concerned, 
 we will study but one design. 
 
 Whenever a person is called upon to operate this type 
 of gear change, he should first locate the index lever, 
 which will be designed to take a few positions, while the 
 tumbler lever may take a greater number of positions. 
 Having located these levers study the diagram for the 
 
 Fig. 128 
 
 various settings; Fig. 128 shows a diagram at A and 
 lever arrangement at B of a modern tool; / is the index 
 handle and T is the tumbler handle. 
 
 The piece of work we are to thread is f" in diameter; 
 looking at the table II we see that we should have ten 
 threads per inch of length; now looking at the diagram 
 we see the number 10 in the second column. The dia- 
 gram also shows that the index lever should be set under 
 C; we will slide this lever to the required position. The 
 tumbler lever is set in #3; the lathe is now said to be 
 geared up and we are ready to start thread cutting. It 
 
118 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 depends on the setting of the reverse gear lever at 6, 
 Fig. 120, whether we cut a right or left hand thread; if 
 a thread is so cut on a piece of stock, that in turning 
 the work in the same direction that the hands of a clock 
 move, we advance the work in the nut, it is known as a 
 right hand thread. If it advances when we turn it in 
 a direction opposite to the movement of the hands of a 
 clock, it is a left hand thread. On most bolts and screws 
 a right hand thread is used, and this is the type of 
 thread we plan to cut; you will find that by placing the 
 reverse gear lever in position indicated by the full lines 
 the carriage will move in one direction when the lathe is 
 running ahead, and by placing the gear lever in the posi- 
 tion indicated by the dotted lines the carriage will 
 move in the opposite direction when the lathe is running 
 ahead. 
 
 To cut a right hand thread the carriage must move 
 towards the headstock when the lathe is running ahead; 
 with the reverse gears set in the proper position, throw 
 in the lead screw nut lever 36, Fig. 120, and the machine 
 is ready for the operation of thread cutting. The cut- 
 ting of a thread requires considerable practice, since the 
 workman must attend to a number of movements at one 
 time. He must be able to reverse the lathe, place the 
 tool in the cutting position, remove it at the proper time 
 and adjust the thread stop; all of these operations must 
 be carried on while the machine is running. 
 
 The first step for the beginner, after the machine is 
 geared up, is to practice the necessary movements, learn- 
 ing to control the various movements accurately, before 
 the tool is started on the cut; run the carriage back and 
 forth, move the cross slide, and adjust the thread stop. 
 After you have control of these operations, set the thread 
 stop block Fig. 120 B so the end of the thread tool just 
 touches the surface of the work; now with a divider or 
 
L THE LATHE 119 
 
 hermaphrodite caliper, place a mark on the work, showing 
 where the thread is to stop. By means of the cross slide 
 screw, run the tool back so it is clear of the work, reverse 
 the lathe bringing the tool to the end of the work, shift 
 the lever starting the machine ahead, and at the same 
 time operate the cross slide handle to bring the tool into 
 the position limited by the thread stop. Be sure the 
 thread stop is solidly clamped so it acts as a positive 
 stop for the cross slide; let the tool run ahead and, if 
 your setting has been properly done, the tool will take 
 a light cut; watch the work closely, and, when you reach 
 the line limiting the length of the thread, quickly with- 
 draw the cutter, at the same time reversing the lathe. 
 Adjust the thread stop screw (see Fig. 120 B) very slightly 
 while the lathe is running backward, so the tool takes a 
 sb'ght cut as it passes over the work. Repeat this opera- 
 tion, always using a lubricant on the cutting tool if you 
 are working in steel, but omitting it if you are working 
 in brass or cast iron. As the thread is worked down one 
 must be careful, or it will be made too small, so the work- 
 man should have a gage at hand to which the thread is 
 fitted; the nut which is to be used on the bolt often 
 serves the purpose of a gage. The work should be 
 taken from the centers frequently and tried in the gage 
 until the thread works easily but without shake; skill in 
 fitting can be gained only by practice and it requires 
 considerable time and patience. 
 
 Having cut a thread on one end of the piece, we must 
 cut a thread on the other end. The piece we are making 
 is called a stud, and it is much used in machine construc- 
 tion. A stud is very similar to a bolt, only it has a 
 thread on each end. To cut the thread on the other 
 end of the stud, the dog must be placed on the section 
 just threaded; the dog set screw must not be jammed 
 down directly on the work, as this would damage the 
 
120 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 thread. A thread bushing, Fig. 129, should be obtained 
 from the tool room, and screwed on the end of the stud, 
 the set screw being closed on the bushing in such a way 
 as to pinch it on the work solidly, 
 and prevent any movement. Place 
 the work on the centers, and cut 
 this thread in exactly the same 
 manner described for the first 
 thread. 
 
 Cutting Left Hand Threads. — 
 The cutting of a left hand thread 
 introduces the same steps as a right hand, the only 
 difference being that the carriage moves towards the foot- 
 stock on the cut, when the lathe is running forward. 
 
 l!i;iii;i:J;<;i; 
 
 UU'UaiL'ilUijil 
 
 Fig. 129 
 
 Clamp dog set screw 
 on flat shown at A. 
 
 liilll!!!!!: 
 
 
 
 Kg. 130 
 
 Cutting inside threads. The boring tool is shown at A; figures on 
 this drawing give satisfactory cutting angles to which cutting point may 
 be ground. 
 
 Cutting Internal or Inside Threads. — This work in- 
 troduces some steps which we have not met thus far, as 
 well as some new tools. Figure 130 shows a boring tool 
 which is used for finishing internal surfaces in the lathe, 
 when the job is too large to permit reaming. The job 
 to be done is a large nut, used on a marine engine, and 
 
THE LATHE 121 
 
 shown in Fig. 130 at C, and in Fig. 130 at B is illustrated 
 the way a boring tool is ground, converting it into an 
 inside thread tool; notice the angle given on the tool, Fig. 
 130 B, and the slightly rounded end of the cutting tool, 
 similar to that formed on the outside threading tool. 
 The blank from which the nut is made is first trued up 
 in the chuck as previously described, and a hole drilled 
 which is about f " smaller in diameter than the size at 
 the bottom of the thread which the nut is to fit. The 
 boring tool is then put in place, and set so the top of the 
 cutting point is level with the center of the lathe. Start 
 the machine being sure the tool is set as far back in the 
 tool post as possible, and yet extending far enough to 
 pass through the work. Pick up the cut and feed in 
 about |", then use the inside caliper to test the diameter. 
 There are two ways of setting the inside caliper; one is 
 to use the micrometer caliper to get the exact size, then 
 to set the inside caliper to the micrometer, and the other 
 is to set the inside caliper directly from the scale. The 
 former is the more accurate method, but the degree of 
 accuracy possible by this method is not necessary on such 
 a job as we have in hand at present, so the inside caliper 
 may be set directly from the scale, by placing it against 
 the try square as illustrated in Fig. 131. To determine 
 the proper dimension for setting the inside caliper, look 
 at the table II and take the size from the column headed 
 "approximate size." The screw which fitted the nut we 
 are making was lj" outside diameter, so we must cut 
 seven threads per inch to meet the United States stand- 
 ard requirements, and the diameter of the hole must be 
 l-£z". The proper way to use an inside caliper is illustrated 
 in Fig. 32. After being sure that the cut started is not 
 large enough to remove too much stock from the bore, 
 it is allowed to pass through the work; the last cut taken 
 should be a light one, so the hole will be straight and true. 
 
122 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 After boring the work to size, take a side tool and face 
 off the end so there is a nicely finished face. See that 
 the thread tool is properly ground, with a correct flat at 
 the end, by fitting it to the thread gage, Fig. 58, and set 
 
 Fig. 131 
 
 true with the axis by using the center gage as illustrated 
 in Fig. 130 B. Gear the lathe for cutting seven threads 
 per inch, throw in the lead screw nut, and proceed to cut 
 
 Skoufdev 
 
 3 
 
 Fig. 132 
 
 this thread in the same way that the outside thread was 
 cut. The setting of the thread stop for inside work 
 requires that the stop block (see Fig. 120 B) be removed 
 from the screw and set so the head of screw abuts against 
 the inner face of the stop, thus checking an outward cross 
 movement, rather than an inward cross movement. The 
 
THE LATHE 123 
 
 nut should be fitted either to a screw gage, or the bolt 
 with which it is to be used. 
 
 Use of the Nut Mandrel. — In finishing the faces of 
 this nut and turning the outside diameter we must use 
 the nut mandrel, shown in Fig. 132. Whenever a work- 
 man selects a piece of stock for a job, he must have it 
 somewhat too large, in order that there may be material 
 enough to finish the piece properly, and we assume that 
 sufficient stock was left on this nut for finishing. Place 
 the nut on the mandrel, with the finished face against the 
 shoulder, and face the unfinished end, leaving about one 
 sixteenth of an inch on the length; champher the face 
 just finished, turn the nut around and take a final finish 
 chip from the face first roughed off in the chuck. The 
 plan outlined assures a nut having both faces true with 
 the bore. The hexagon part of the nut is finished either 
 on the shaper or milling machine. 
 
 Calculating Gears for Thread Cutting. — In the ex- 
 amples of thread cutting which we have studied, it has 
 
 <=0 
 
 Fig. 13i 
 
 A is the stud gear. B is the screw gear. 
 
 C is the intermediate gear. 
 
 been assumed that the work was to be done on a modern, 
 'rapid production lathe, with fixed gears. There are a 
 great many lathes on the market not so arranged, and it 
 
124 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 is an advantage if a lathe for tool room work does not 
 have fixed gears. On some lathes we find the change 
 gears arranged as shown in Fig. 133; the gears A and 
 B are removable in order that the various gear ratios 
 may be obtained for cutting different threads. On the 
 headstock of the lathe will be found a plate which gives 
 the proper gears to be used for cutting the various 
 threads. There are three columns in this table, one 
 headed "thread," another "stud " and another "screw," 
 and the explanation of these terms is as follows: "thread " 
 gives the number of threads to be cut per inch of length; 
 "stud " gives the proper number of teeth in the gear to 
 be placed at A, while "screw " gives the proper number 
 of teeth in the gear to be placed at B. The number of 
 the teeth in a change gear is marked with a steel stamp 
 on the rim of the gear. 
 
 In gearing up this kind of a lathe, the swing plate is 
 moved up so the intermediate gear C, Fig. 133, is in con- 
 tact with both the stud and lead screw gear; don't jamb 
 the gears together too hard; but set them so they will 
 run easily, and quietly. When gears are set as described 
 they are said to be "in mesh." There are occasions 
 when the workman wishes to cut threads which are not 
 listed in the tables furnished with the machines, and he 
 must make calculations to determine the proper gears. 
 These calculations are taken up in the chapter on Ma- 
 chine Shop Calculations, and the learner should become 
 familiar with the method used for determining the proper 
 gears for use when cutting any thread. After the gears 
 have been selected, and put in mesh as described above, 
 the procedure of thread cutting is the same as that pre- 
 viously described. 
 
 Making a Taper Fit. — We recall that in the study of 
 fitting we did not take up taper fitting. There are a" 
 number of tapers used on machine tools; the reason why 
 
THE LATHE 125 
 
 these tapers are introduced by the designer is because 
 they automatically adjust themselves to wear, and are 
 serviceable for many years, if they are properly used. 
 The most common tapers met in the machine shop are 
 the Morse, Brown and Sharpe, and Jarno tapers. The 
 Morse taper is used for the shanks of drills, counterbores, 
 and all tools used on the driller. The Brown and Sharpe 
 taper is used on all tools fitting the miller. The Jarno 
 taper is not in such general use as the first two men- 
 tioned, but it is being placed on some machines by the 
 Pratt and Whitney Co. and is of service to the designer 
 of special machinery and tools; the Jarno taper is the 
 most logically designed of any of the proposed tapers. 
 The taper takes its name from the pen name of the late 
 Mr. Oscar J. Beale, who used the name "Jarno " when 
 signing many of the technical articles which he wrote. 
 
 A workman should have at hand in the shop a table 
 giving the properties of the various tapers as listed in 
 table XII; furthermore these tapers should be thoroughly 
 understood by him. 
 
 As to fitting a taper, let us assume that we are to turn 
 and fit a taper shank on a twist drill. The blank must 
 first be faced, and the body of the drill roughed out. If 
 there is more than one drill to be fitted, square all your 
 pieces up to the same length, before starting to turn, as 
 this will save work in making the fit. 
 
 There are two methods of turning a taper on the lathe. 
 One is known as the poppet head method, the other as 
 the taper attachment method. Since all lathes are not 
 equipped with a taper attachment, while all engine lathes 
 have a poppet head adjustment, we will study the poppet 
 head method first. Figure 120 gives a detailed view of 
 a footstock, and shows how the top part is mounted on 
 a base. This top part is adjusted by means of two 
 screws one of which (#20, Fig. 120) is seen; the other is 
 
126 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 at the back of the footstock. Before making any adjust- 
 ments, look at the index mark 21, on the front or back 
 of the poppet head, as you will wish to replace the head 
 in its original position after turning the taper. If such 
 a line is not there, get permission from the person in 
 charge of your work to place it. 
 
 Tapers are always classified by the amount of enlarge- 
 ment in diameter per foot of length. For example, we 
 state that the Jarno taper is 0.600" per ft.; by this we 
 mean that a piece of stock, one foot long, turned to a 
 Jarno taper, will be 0.600" larger at one end than at the 
 other. Now if we have a piece of work which is but 9" 
 long, the taper will be ■& of 0.600". When turning a 
 taper in the lathe, we v must always use the full length 
 of the piece, on which we are working, to determine the 
 amount of "set over " for the poppet head, even though 
 we may be turning a taper only one inch long on the 
 piece; the longer the piece of work, the more we must 
 set the poppet head out of position. 
 
 To make this clear, and also, to enable us to develop 
 a rule for calculating the* amount of "set over " for the 
 poppet head, let us study Fig. 123. We may assume that 
 the points of the centers of the lathe are 12" apart: in 
 measuring a taper we recall that we considered the diam- 
 eter of its parts. If one thinks for a moment, he will 
 see that the distance from the point of the cutting tool 
 that is being used to the center line of the lathe is equal 
 to the radius of the work. Now if we move the poppet 
 head in the direction D, Fig. 123, towards the cutting tool, 
 we will lessen the radius of the work by just the amount 
 that we move the poppet head, and we will lessen the 
 diameter by twice this amount. From this reasoning 
 we may conclude that we need to move the poppet head 
 only one half as much as we wish to vary the diameter. 
 Thus, if we have the piece for the Jarno taper and it is 
 
THE LATHE 127 
 
 12" long, the variation in diameter for this length being 
 0.600", then we need set the poppet head out only 0.300". 
 
 All of our work is not exactly 12" long, however; re- 
 turning to our lathe, let us move the footstock towards 
 the headstock, till the center points are but one inch 
 apart. It is evident that if we were to turn a piece with 
 the centers in this position, and the same set over of the 
 poppet head, we would not have a taper of 0.600" per 
 ft. but 0.600" per inch. If we want to turn a piece that 
 is one inch long to a taper of 0.600" per ft. we must re- 
 duce the amount of set over; since our work is 1" long, 
 or Y? of a foot, we will set the poppet head over ^ the 
 amount we would if we were turning a piece of stock 12" 
 long. 
 
 Reviewing the steps we have taken we find that we 
 first divided the taper per foot of our work by 2, and 
 then we divided the length of the piece we wished to 
 turn by 12, and multiplied these values together, thus 
 obtaining the proper setting. We have then the follow- 
 ing rule: divide the length of the piece by 12; multiply 
 this quotient by one half of the required taper per foot, 
 and the result is the proper amount of "set over." In 
 using this rule, all dimensions should be taken in inches. 
 We may put this rule into a* formula in the following 
 manner: 
 
 L = Length of piece of work in inches 
 t = Desired taper per foot; in inches, 
 x = Required set over 
 
 Formula: 
 
 12 ' 2 ~ X 
 
 Due to the fact that we have center holes in our work, 
 which are not exact in diameter, this formula will not 
 give an absolutely accurate result. It will give a sum- 
 
128 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ciently close approximation, however, to make the first 
 setting of the poppet head, and the final adjustment 
 must be made by fitting. 
 
 The first step in making a taper fit, after placing the 
 work between centers, and setting the poppet head, is to 
 start a light cut. Do not take too large a cut, as a very 
 small amount of excess material removed from a piece 
 will spoil a taper. Now set the inside caliper to the size 
 of the end of the taper hole in the gage, which the shank 
 you are making is to fit. Transfer this dimension to 
 your outside caliper, and set the outside caliper ^" 
 smaller than this dimension; now turn the end of the 
 'shank down to this size. Remove the work from the 
 lathe and make a chalk mark along the taper you have 
 just turned, as indicated by the shaded portion of Fig. 
 135, then carefully enter the shank into the gage, or col- 
 
 Fig. 135 
 
 let, which you may be fitting. Hold the gage and piece 
 firmly, and turn the work slightly back and forth; re- 
 move the piece from the collet, and see what effect this 
 operation has had on the chalk marks. If all the chalk 
 appears to be removed, for the whole distance which the 
 work entered the collet, another light cut may be started, 
 and the same test made again after it has been run; the 
 various cuts are" repeated till the work is brought to size 
 as described later. 
 
 Possibly you will find the chalk wiped off for only a 
 part of the length of the taper,, as indicated at A, Fig. 135. 
 This shows that there is too much taper, and the poppet 
 
THE LATHE 129 
 
 head must be set more nearly straight; the re-setting 
 movement should be very slight, slacking off the rear 
 binding screw and tightening front binding screw. Set 
 the tool so it just scrapes the shank at the small end, and 
 start the feed., Be sure the cutting tool is sharp, and 
 you will find that the chip will pick up as the feed ad- 
 vances; after this cut has run over, chalk your work 
 again, and make another test. The adjustments de- 
 scribed must be repeated till an accurate fit has been 
 obtained. 
 
 Suppose, however, that the chalk, instead of wiping off 
 at A, Fig. 135, wiped off at B. It is evident that we 
 must, under these conditions, make»a sharper taper than 
 we have obtained by the original setting of the poppet 
 head. In order to get this effect, we slack off the- bind- 
 ing screw at the front of the footstock, and tighten the 
 one at the rear, the movement being very slight. In 
 this case the tool should be started at the large end of 
 the taper, setting it so it just scrapes the surface of the 
 work, and feeding towards the footstock, the chip gradu- 
 ally picking up as the tool feeds. Then proceed with the 
 fitting in the same manner as already described; the work 
 should not be completely finished by turning; about 
 0.005" should be left for filing as described in connection 
 with the first lathe job. 
 
 The Taper Gage. — Figure 24 illustrates a taper 
 gage, used for fitting such work as has just been de- 
 scribed. All shanks on drills, counterbores and end 
 mills have a tongue formed on them as at C, Fig. 135; 
 this tongue is the driving element when the tool is in 
 service. 
 
 When the taper is turned it must be of such a size as 
 to permit this tongue to enter the slot in the collet pro- 
 vided for it. The line on the taper gage at F, Fig. 24, 
 indicates the point at which the end of the turned shank 
 
130 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 should set, when it is of such a size as to permit the 
 tongue to locate properly in the collet slot, at the same 
 time permitting the taper to seat properly in the collet. 
 After the taper has been fitted, a section of it should be 
 turned straight for a length approximately equal to the 
 diameter at the small end of the taper, and about -£%" 
 smaller in diameter than the smallest part of the taper 
 shank. The end of the tongue should be filed to an 
 angle, as indicated in Fig. 135 at C, in order to permit 
 the use of a drift key. 
 
 One often finds himself in a shop where no taper fitting 
 gage is available, and under such circumstances the fit 
 must be made directly to the collet. If this be necessary, 
 mill or file the tongue on the end of the shank first, turn 
 it to the proper diameter, and then proceed to fit the 
 taper. 
 
 All taper work does not demand the fitting of a tongue, 
 but as the job described offers an interesting and helpful 
 practice problem, together with some valuable shop de- 
 tail, the learner will be well repaid, if he masters the 
 various steps involved. 
 
 } Internal Taper Work. — When the workman is called 
 on to bore a taper hole, there are two methods he may 
 follow. One is to step it out by straight boring, in a 
 series of slight shoulders, each one 
 slightly smaller than the preceding one, 
 and finish with a reamer. The other 
 s to bore the hole by using a taper 
 ... ,.,„ attachment; Fig. 136 illustrates the 
 
 j* lg. loO 
 
 first method. The hole is first bored 
 straight, about -gt" smaller than its final size at the small 
 end; the reamer is then measured at points §" — 1" and 
 1J" from the end, and shoulders turned at the respective 
 distances from the face of the work. After all the neces- 
 sary shoulders are formed, the taper reamer is used to 
 
THE LATHE 
 
 131 
 
 finish the hole to the required size. The hole should 
 always be finished to the size of a taper plug, or fitted to 
 the piece with which it must assemble. Usually the face 
 of the work is trued off, before boring or reaming the hole, 
 and the fitting is continued until this face sets at a desired 
 point, either on the gage or the piece of work to which 
 the taper being bored must fit. 
 
 The Taper Attachment. — Finishing the taper by the 
 method just described makes necessary a taper reamer 
 
 Fig. 137 
 
 A. Taper attachment bracket. 
 
 B. Taper attachment bar. 
 
 C. Swivel bearing. 
 
 D. Adjusting screw. 
 
 E. Graduations. 
 
 F. Connecting bolt. 
 
 G. Cross slide taper attachment extension. 
 
 of the proper size. If we have a lathe equipped with a 
 •taper attachment, it is not necessary to use such a reamer; 
 it is possible to bore the hole to the required size in the 
 same manner that we did when making the bushing in 
 an earlier lesson. Figure 137 illustrates a taper attach- 
 ment, and gives the names of the various parts; if you 
 look at the space A-l, you will notice a series of gradua- 
 tions, marked 0, f", \", f", J", etc.; these graduations 
 indicate the amount of taper per foot, which will be 
 
132 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 obtained, if the index finger marked B-l is set at the 
 point indicating the fractions of an inch shown. A study 
 of these graduations indicates that we may obtain settings 
 in sixteenths of an inch, as well as eighths of an inch. 
 
 The method of setting up a taper attachment varies as 
 applied to tools of different design, but the principle in- 
 volved is the same in all cases. In Fig. 137 is shown a 
 section of a lathe carriage, and we see, by studying the 
 drawing, that the cross slide, carrying the tool post, 
 operates on another slide which sets in the saddle. To 
 operate the taper attachment the slide C-l is loosened 
 up so it moves back and forth in the saddle. This loosen- 
 ing may be by means of removing a pin at some point, or 
 slacking off one or more screws; in the particular tool 
 illustrated the small screws D-l are slacked off, allowing 
 the sub-slide C-l to move freely in the saddle. The gib 
 should be adjusted so the slide moves freely but does not 
 shake. The next step is to move the whole taper attach- 
 ment into such a position, that it accommodates the 
 carriage movement when taking a cut. Fasten the 
 attachment solidly, connect the sub-base to the taper 
 attachment block, run the carriage back and forth to be 
 sure it operates properly, and the machine is ready for 
 work. 
 
 In running a cut with a taper attachment, the worker 
 must be careful to take all backlash out of the connections 
 before starting to work. To do this, set the tool so it 
 just scrapes the surface you wish to cut; now run the 
 carriage back two or three inches, and then run it up 
 to the cutting position; backlash is nothing but the 
 looseness of the parts, which is " taken up " as the ma- 
 chinist expresses it, by the movement just described. 
 After taking the roughing cuts, the fitting should be 
 tested with either a gage, or the piece that is to fit the 
 taper being bored, as already described. 
 
THE LATHE 133 
 
 On certain occasions a workman finds it necessary to 
 turn a taper to a given number of degrees instead of to a 
 certain amount per foot of length. If we look at point 
 A-l, Fig. 137, we will see that the taper attachment is 
 graduated in degrees and, by setting to these graduations, 
 it is possible to turn work to any angle within the working 
 range of the attachment. The graduations in degrees 
 and fractions of an inch per foot are not always placed 
 at the same end of the attachment; very often the taper 
 per foot graduations are at -one end of the attachment, 
 while the degree graduations are at the other. It is not 
 difficult to distinguish between the two sets, however, be- 
 cause the taper per foot graduations appear as f, \, etc. 
 each side of the index fine, while the degree graduations 
 appear 0, 5, 10, etc. each side of the index; when turn- 
 ing work to. an angle, it should be tested, either with a 
 gage or the protractor 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Describe the various lathe tools in common use 
 
 2. For what purpose is the centering Y used? 
 
 3. Describe the method of using a knurl. 
 
 4. Describe the first steps to be observed, when starting to 
 work on a machine with which you are not familiar. 
 
 6. Explain and illustrate the process of " centering " a piece 
 of work. 
 
 6. How may the centers of a lathe be trued up? Explain the 
 details. 
 
 7. How may a lathe be tested to determine whether or not 
 it will turn straight? 
 
 8. Describe the process of truing a piece of work in the chuck. 
 
 9. Describe the various kinds of fits, commonly used in machine 
 shop practice. 
 
134 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 10. Give a brief explanation of the properties of the U. S. 
 standard thread. 
 
 11. Explain the difference between a right and left hand thread. 
 
 12. For what purpose, and in what manner is a nut mandrel 
 used? 
 
 13. Explain the meaning of the term " taper per foot." What 
 tapers are commonly met in machine shop practice? 
 
 14. Describe the possible methods of turning a taper in the 
 lathe. 
 
 15. What methods are available for turning internally tapered 
 work? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE LATHE BACKREST. FOLLOW REST. COMPOUND 
 REST. ECCENTRIC TURNING 
 
 The Backrest and Follow Rest. — Two pieces of 
 auxiliary equipment for the lathe which we have not 
 considered are the backrest and follow rest; in Fig. 138 
 we see the backrest mounted in place on the lathe and 
 the method of using it illustrated. The backrest is used 
 by the machinist to support unusually long pieces of 
 work, and for drilling certain classes of work, not con- 
 veniently held in a chuck; this latter use is illustrated in 
 the figure, where we see a part of a steam engine gover- 
 nor set up for the purpose of drilling a hole in the end; 
 this hole must run true with the turned part of the spindle: 
 it is easier to obtain a true running hole if the work is 
 revolved and the drill remains stationary, than when the 
 drill revolves and the work remains stationary; hence the 
 reason for using a backrest for doing the job described. 
 To set this job up properly, the piece of work is first 
 centered, faced up and turned to the proper outside diam- 
 eter; the work is then removed, and the backrest put 
 in position with the jaws slacked back and the cap opened 
 so the work may be returned to the centers; the face 
 plate is now slacked off and a lace leather wrapped around 
 the work, through the face plate slots and around the 
 collar of the face plate as shown in the figure; the back- 
 rest cap is now put in position, the clamp nut tightened 
 solidly, and the backrest jaws carefully adjusted by 
 means of the adjusting screws so they set closely, but not 
 solidly against the work. The jaw clamping screws A at 
 the back of the rest should now be set up solidly, and a 
 
 135 
 
136 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 little oil placed on the work where it runs in the back- 
 rest; the faceplate is now screwed solidly against the 
 spindle shoulder, and the lacing will thus draw the work 
 firmly against the live center, so the footstock center 
 may be withdrawn. The drill is then carried either in 
 
 fews 
 
 3<?c/-re^ Fo//ov/ rest" 
 
 Tie hette-bow knot 
 
 Fig. 138 
 
 a drill holder, or in a collet such as is used for drill press 
 work. This collet must fit the taper in the footstock 
 spindle. At times the machinist must do a job of this 
 sort when he has neither a drill holder nor a collet which 
 fits the lathe. The method illustrated in Fig. 139 may 
 be used for supporting the drill on such occasions. Re- 
 member that the 1 work must be turned true at the point 
 where the backrest jaws bear on it, regardless of whether 
 
THE LATHE BACKREST 
 
 137 
 
 we are supporting a long slender piece for turning, or 
 doing a job similar to that just described. In preparing 
 the work for receiving the backrest jaws, in the case of 
 
 Fig. 139 
 
 A. Tool held in tool post. 
 
 B. Tool post block. 
 
 C. Work. 
 
 O-CLAMT30LT3 
 
 Saddle 
 
 Fig. 140 
 
 supporting a long piece of stock, the machinist "spots 
 a place for the backrest jaws by turning just enough 
 stock off to make the work run true at the point where 
 
138 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the backrest jaws are to bear. The rest is then mounted 
 as already described, and the turning to size is done by- 
 first roughing out the section between the footstock and 
 backrest, then removing the backrest, turning the piece 
 end for e.nd in the lathe and resetting the backrest on 
 the turned portion of the shaft, then roughing out the 
 
 Fig. 141 
 
 remaining portion of the same; finishing the shaft 'to 
 size is a repetition of the process just described. The 
 place first spotted for the backrest jaws should be located 
 about midway the length of the piece to be turned. 
 
 In turning a long piece of work such as just described, 
 the follow rest is a much more desirable supporting de- 
 vice than the backrest, because it supports the work at a 
 point very close to the tool, and assures a better cutting 
 action. The manner of placing the follow rest is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 140. The workman starts by turning a 
 short section of the end of the shaft, about 2" in length 
 to the diameter which will be produced by taking the 
 
THE LATHE BACKREST 139 
 
 roughing cut; then the follow, rest put in place, by 
 clamping it to the saddle as shown in Fig. 140 and ad- 
 justing the jaws so they bear closely but not tightly 
 against the turned section of the shaft; put some oil on 
 this bearing and be sure to keep the bearing of the jaws 
 on the work well oiled during turning. Notice that the 
 cutting- tool must lead the follow rest jaws when work- 
 ing. Start the cut the same size as the section turned 
 down and run it the full length of the shaft; there will 
 be a short section which cannot be turned because of the 
 position of the dog on the work; usually the workman 
 shifts the piece end for end after each cut, and brings 
 the section to the required diameter. The follow rest 
 must be set for each cut run over the work, and it is of 
 service on straight turned work only. 
 
 Angular Turning. — In Fig. 142 we have shown a part 
 known as a bevel gear blank. There is no new process 
 
 INCLUDED AN*LE/ CENTE ^ AN * LE 
 
 Kg. 142 
 
 involved in the making of this piece except the finishing 
 of the surface S which introduces what the machinist 
 calls angular turning. Figure 141 shows the construction 
 of the compound rest of a modern engine lathe; we 
 notice that the tool block swings on the base; by slacking 
 of the bolt A we may move the rest, so that the tool may 
 be made to move at any required angle relative to the 
 center line of the lathe. On face B is a set of graduations, 
 and at C we have an index mark. The swivel is moved 
 
140 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 to the required angle, clamped by means of screw A and 
 the turning proceeded with in the usual manner. Be 
 sure the cutting point of the tool is the same height as 
 the center of the lathe, not above or below, because if 
 it is, a true conical surface will not be produced A 
 point of some importance may be mentioned in connec- 
 tion with the setting of a compound rest for angular turn- 
 ing. The graduations on the rest usually start at zero 
 
 1 
 
 ELNTEf^ LINE OF 
 ATHE 
 
 6******^1 
 
 *■ BJ |*^.L|NE OF MOVE- 
 MENT OF CTfOSSSUDE 
 
 Fig. 143 
 
 when the rest is in its normal position, that is the tool 
 when fed by means of the compound rest screw D, Fig. 
 141, will cut at an angle of 90° with the center line of the 
 lathe. On the other hand the angle as given on most 
 drawings is related to the center line of the work. If 
 the workman sets the compound rest so it reads the 
 same number of degrees on the compound rest gradua- 
 tion as called for on the drawing, he will spoil the piece; 
 what must be done under such conditions is to subtract 
 the number of degrees called for on the drawing from 90° 
 which will give us the proper reading on the compound 
 rest. A study of Fig. 143 will make clear the reason for 
 this setting; the movement of the cross feed is at an 
 
THE LATHE BACKREST 141 
 
 angle of 90° with the center line of the lathe. The read- 
 ing of compound rest graduations is at this point; 
 when the compound rest is set at 90° according to the 
 graduations at B, Fig. 141, the movement of the com- 
 pound rest feed is parallel to the center line of the lathe. 
 The drawing giving an angular measurement from the 
 center of the work is evidently measuring from the center 
 of the lathe; now as we swing the compound rest back to 
 get the desired angle, we are subtracting from the 90° 
 reading of the compound rest, so if we wished to set to 
 turn a piece at an angle of 25° with the center line, .the 
 reading on the compound rest graduation would be 
 90° - 25° = 65°. The angle between the center line of 
 a piece thus turned and the face is known as the center 
 angle, while the angle between the faces is known as the 
 included angle. 
 
 Eccentric Turning. — A very interesting process in 
 lathe practice is involved in eccentric turning; a job of 
 this sort is shown in Fig. 144. The piece is a part of a 
 milling machine dividing head; eccentric turning always 
 makes necessary the use of two sets of centers in either 
 the work itself, or the mandrel on which the work is 
 mounted when turning. It so happens that for this par- 
 ticular job we must use a mandrel, and, for the sake of 
 the study of the problem, we will assume that we must 
 make the mandrel, before we start work on the piece 
 itself. 
 
 In Fig. 144 is shown the mandrel to be used for the 
 job we are discussing. Looking at the drawing of the 
 work we see that the center of the bore of the piece and 
 the center of the larger outside turned portion are iV' 
 apart. As there is a f " hole through the center of the 
 piece, it is evident that the center for turning the larger 
 dutside turned surface cannot be placed in the work. On 
 some jobs the centers for all operations can be placed in 
 
142 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the piece being machined, in which case no mandrel such 
 as is to be described is necessary. If such be the case, 
 the work is laid out and machined in the same manner 
 described in connection with making the mandrel. 
 
 For making the mandrel we select a piece of stock large 
 enough so that we can turn it down to make a driving 
 fit in the bore of the work. This piece should of course 
 be properly centered and faced up, before it is turned; 
 the mandrel should be about three inches longer than 
 the work to be operated on, and it should drive into the 
 work so the piece will be supported about one and one 
 
 Center for tttuj/ri a eccentric 
 COLLAR J 
 
 Fig. 144 
 
 half inches from each end of the mandrel as illustrated 
 in Fig. 144. Next prepare two collars as illustrated in 
 Fig. 145 having them bored so they are a light driving 
 fit on the ends of the mandrel; drill and tap these collars, 
 using a pointed set screw, the point of which will reach 
 a seat formed in the cylindrical surface of the mandrel, 
 as shown in the dotted lines, Fig. 145, at A. These collars 
 should be mounted on the ends of the mandrel, the set 
 screws tightened firmly, and coloring acid applied to the 
 end faces. Take a center square and draw a diametral 
 line across one end face of collar and mandrel as shown 
 at BC, Fig. 145. Place the mandrel in a V-block on the 
 surface plate, and, with a surface gage set as shown in 
 the dotted lines, so adjust work and surface gage that 
 the -point of the surface gage needle will travel along 
 
THE LATHE BACKREST 143 
 
 the line BC as the surface gage is moved over the sur- 
 face of the plate. Hold the work firmly in the V-block, 
 and, with the surface gage needle unchanged, strike a 
 line across the end as indicated by the surface gage in 
 full lines. These two lines we know to be in the same 
 plane; that is, if we were to cut the mandrel and collars 
 , in half on these lines, we would find both the lines we have 
 just drawn, lying in the surface we had formed by this 
 process of cutting. 
 
 Now leave the surface, gage set just as it is, turn the 
 work in the V-block, and with a try-square set the line 
 BC on the end faces of the 
 
 - Center ru*-ci ma?o 
 
 collars as shown m Fig. 145 
 B. We now have a center 
 plane, set perpendicular to 
 the surface plate. With the 
 surface gage, strike another 
 line across each end face of 
 
 the mandrel as at DE, Figure 145 B. We now have 
 two lines on each end face of the work, one perpendicular 
 to the other. The centers for turning the outside eccentric 
 surface must be r s s" from the centers of the mandrel, and 
 in the same plane; see Fig. 144. To locate these centers, 
 remove the work from the V-block, and place two center 
 punch marks e and / on the line DE; the distance of 
 these marks from the center of the mandrel is not im- 
 portant, so long as they are located exactly on the line 
 DE. Set a divider to A" (which is equal to 0.3125") and 
 with the center punch marks e and / as centers strike 
 two arcs g and h, on each end face of the work. Draw 
 a line tangent to these arcs, as shown at Fig. 145 B. The 
 point where this line crosses the line BC locates the center 
 for turning the eccentric portion of the work. Center 
 punch this intersection, and drill and countersink the 
 centers thus found. The line of the eccentric centers 
 
144 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 must be located on the cylindrical face of the mandrel, 
 for purposes of setting work as described later. The 
 placing of this line is done as follows: Set the line BC in 
 
 Fig. 145 
 
 a horizontal position, by placing the work in a V-block as 
 shown in Fig. 145 and using the surface gage; with the 
 gage unchanged so far as the setting of the needle is con- 
 cerned, hold the work firmly in position and strike the 
 line JK on the surface of the man- 
 drel. The mandrel surface should 
 be treated with coloring acid before 
 it is set up for the layout of this line. 
 This line should be scored quite 
 heavily by use of a box square and 
 scriber, after it has been laid out, so 
 it will not be removed by being driven 
 in and out of the work. 
 The mandrel is now ready for use, but each piece of 
 work must be properly laid out before we can mount it 
 on the mandrel. Figure 144 B shows the blank from 
 which the piece is to be made; center this piece just as 
 though it were to be turned in the ordinary manner, but 
 do not drill or countersink the work. With a divider, 
 
 Try Sauare 
 
 Fig. 145 B 
 
THE LATHE BACKREST 145 
 
 swing a circle from the center found, the radius of which 
 is equal to the desired distance between the center of the 
 bore and the center of the eccentric turned portion; this 
 will be A" as shown in Fig. 144. Now with a straight 
 edge draw a line through the center of the work as indi- 
 cated at A B, Fig. 144 B, and center punch it as indi- 
 cated in the figure. Each blank must be laid out in this 
 manner, before any drilling is started. Set the work up 
 in the chuck truing it by means of the center indicator 
 shown in Fig. 66, so that the center M, Fig. 144 B, runs 
 true, and proceed to drill and ream each blank. 
 
 To mount the work on the mandrel, remove the collar 
 from the end of the mandrel, and drive it into the work, 
 so. that the line A B, Fig. 144 B, on the end face of the 
 work, coincides with the index line, JK, Fig. 145, on 
 the mandrel surface. Replace the collar, tighten the set 
 screw solidly, and proceed with the turning and facing 
 of the body of the work, mounting the arbor on the lathe 
 centers by means of the centers M, Fig. 144. Face up 
 the eccentric while thus mounted. The mandrel should 
 now be shifted on the lathe centers to center 0, Fig. 144, 
 and the eccentric turned. 
 
 In mounting the drilled blank on the mandrel, it must 
 be so placed that the true center of the piece, 0, Fig. 
 144 B and 144, coincides with the offset center of the 
 mandrel, as shown in Fig. 144. If the work is mounted 
 so that the center of the work stands as indicated by 
 the dotted center X, Fig. 144, the job will be spoiled in 
 doing the eccentric turning, as all the stock for making 
 the eccentric will be turned off, because the center of forma- 
 tion of the eccentric is 180° from the center of the stock. 
 
146 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PEACTICE 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. For what purpose are the backrest and follow rest used on 
 the lathe? 
 
 2. Briefly describe the method of mounting a piece of work in 
 the backrest. 
 
 3. Explain the necessary " set up " for angular turning on the 
 engine lathe. 
 
 4. What is meant by " eccentric turning" ? 
 
 5. Present the essential steps in preparing a piece of work for 
 eccentric turning. 
 
 6. Describe the plan you would follow in boring and turning 
 a large eccentric piece. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE DRILLER OR DRILL PRESS 
 
 Before taking up the study of the machine itself, we 
 will look over some of the more common tools used in 
 connection with the driller. At A and B, Fig. 146, we 
 see illustrations of the collet. There are two types of 
 collets, the one illustrated at A being known as a long 
 collet, while that at B is known as a short collet or sleeve. 
 
 /f -rcwfrUF-^ 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 Short collets are also often designated as sockets. At C, 
 Fig. 146, is illustrated a key, also known as a drift; this 
 tool is used in the collet slot S for the purpose of remov- 
 ing a drill. The key is inserted in the slot, and a slight 
 tap on the large end will throw the drill from the collet. 
 Figure 146 B, drawing D, shows a small hand chuck; this 
 piece of equipment is used to hold small drills. It is tight- 
 ened solidly by means of the wrench shown at E. Figure 
 
 147 
 
148 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 146 B, drawing F, shows the counter bore; at F we have 
 the solid type, and at G, Fig. 146 B, the inserted cutter 
 type. This tool is used for spotting off faced " bosses " on 
 
 '•e-i/iDE 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 which bolt heads are to rest, when the parts of a machine 
 are assembled. In Fig. 81, showing a section of a bearing 
 cap, we have an illustration of its use in truing surface B 
 so the nut will bear squarely on the casting. The guide 
 
THE DRILLER OR DRILL PRESS 
 
 149 
 
 of the counterbore fits in the drilled hole, and serves to 
 steady the tool during the cutting operation. A little 
 oil should be used on the guide, unless some kind of a 
 lubricant is used in the cutting process, because if the 
 tool is used dry, the work may be damaged. The solid 
 
 About 30° 
 
 A. 
 
 Fig. 147 
 
 counterbore is used for the smaller sizes of this tool, and 
 the inserted cutter type for the larger sizes. 
 
 The screw head countersink is illustrated in Fig. 146 B 
 at H; the angle A on this tool is made 82° for wood screws 
 and 72° for machine screws. An effort is being made at 
 the present time to introduce the 82° angle for the heads 
 of both machine and wood screws, and some manufac- 
 turers are following this practice. 
 
 Grinding a Twist Drill. — The workman should see that 
 a drill is properly ground before it is placed in use; it 
 must be central, at the proper angle, and have correct 
 clearance. In Fig. 147 at A the protractor is set at the 
 proper angle for grinding the cutting lip of a drill which 
 is 59°. In grinding, one should test the drill repeatedly 
 
150 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 to see that the angle is correct; the distances c and d 
 should be measured with a scale; these distances must 
 be kept equal. The clearance angle should be noted, as 
 indicated by the short line ah, Fig. 147 at B, formed by the 
 web of the drill when it is ground; a workman does not 
 
 measure this angle with a pro- 
 tractor, but depends on his 
 judgment as a guide in deter- 
 mining the proper clearance. 
 When looked at from the side, 
 as indicated in Fig. 147 A, the 
 back of the lip at k should set 
 back from the cutting point m, 
 so the drill may cut freely. 
 
 The Drilling Machine. — 
 The driller is not as general 
 in its application in the ma- 
 chine shop as some other tools, 
 but it is a very necessary piece 
 of equipment. Figure 148 il- 
 lustrates a "sensitive" driller; 
 the term sensitive is applied 
 to this tool because it is used 
 for small work, and the feed 
 is by means of a hand lever, without the use of gearing. 
 This tool may be used to advantage for drilling small 
 holes, ranging in diameter from ■£%" to about T V; the 
 work is handled in exactly the same way on this tool 
 as on the larger tool to be described later, except that 
 the detail of work is more simple. There is usuaUy no 
 necessity for clamping the work on a sensitive driller. 
 
 Figure 149 illustrates a heavier tool known as an up- 
 right driller; there are various sizes of this tool on the 
 market, but the size most commonly found in the ma- 
 chine shop will drill holes ranging from \" to about l\" 
 
 Kg. 148 
 
151 
 
 LEnnnnsii j I 
 
 Fig. 149 
 
 1. 
 
 Column bracket. 
 
 14. 
 
 Head bearing face. 
 
 2. 
 
 Table bearing. 
 
 15. 
 
 Head bearing. 
 
 3. 
 
 Table bracket. 
 
 16. 
 
 Tight and loose driving pulleys. 
 
 4. 
 
 Table elevating handle. 
 
 17. 
 
 Main driving cone pulley. 
 
 5. 
 
 Table sleeve. 
 
 18. 
 
 Shipper, starts and stops the 
 
 6. 
 
 Table sleeve clamp bolt. 
 
 
 machine. 
 
 8. 
 
 Head sleeve. 
 
 19. 
 
 Spindle cone pulley. 
 
 9. 
 
 Spindle. 
 
 20. 
 
 Back gears. 
 
 10. 
 
 Feed handwheel. . 
 
 21. 
 
 Back gear clutch lever. 
 
 n: 
 
 Power feed worm wheel, clutch 
 
 22. 
 
 Back gear shifting handle. 
 
 
 and quick return handle. 
 
 23 and 24. Spindle driving gears. 
 
 12. 
 
 Power feed drive shaft. 
 
 25. 
 
 Spindle counterweight chain. 
 
152 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 diameter. Oil the machine, learn to handle all parts, 
 throw back gears in and out, and become generally familiar 
 with the movement of parts before starting a job. 
 
 The tools used in the driller have been discussed in 
 this and other chapters; these are the reamer drill, tap 
 
 ScOTf EL' LEADING PTfllL TO FTjOPET? "POSITION 
 
 Center funch mattes of lavqut. 
 
 Fig. 150 
 
 drill, pipe tap drill, counterbore and countersink; for sizes 
 of tap drill and pipe tap drills, see tables XI and XIV. 
 As a study in working on a driller, let us assume that 
 we are to drill a hole in a flat piece of stock, as illustrated 
 in Fig. 150. The work should be laid out by means of 
 the surface gage, scale, divider and center punch used as 
 previously illustrated. When drilling is started, the drill 
 is apt to run away from the layout as illustrated at A, 
 
THE DRILLER OR DRILL PRESS 
 
 153 
 
 and the drawing chisel shown in Fig. 150 B must be used 
 to lead the drill back to the proper position. The method 
 of using this chisel is illustrated in the figure mentioned, 
 where a small score is shown cut down the side of the 
 drill cut, towards which we wish to lead the drill; this 
 
 cut is extended nearly, but not quite to the bostom of 
 the cone made in starting the drill. The drill should now 
 be started cutting again and just enough stock cut out to 
 remove the drawing score made by the chisel; the work 
 should now be examined, and if the drill is not coming 
 true to the layout, it must be drawn again. The drill 
 must be true to the layout before the hole is deep enough 
 
 <»>= 
 
 --/Vir^jcp 
 
 — 5= N? 
 
 
 
 3§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Fig. 
 
 152 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 Shank. 
 
 
 
 E. 
 
 Clearance. 
 
 B. 
 
 Tongue. 
 
 
 
 F. 
 
 Land. 
 
 C. 
 
 Neck. 
 
 
 
 a. 
 
 Cutting lip. 
 
 D. 
 
 Groove. 
 
 
 
 H. 
 
 Si 
 
 zing land. 
 
 to reach the size of the drill, as no drawing can be done 
 after the full size has been reached. In starting the job, 
 be sure that a drill is selected which will permit the 
 proper finishing of the hole, that is reaming, tapping, for 
 a standard thread, or tapping for a pipe thread. 
 
 When working, the drill must be lubricated, either 
 with oil, or one of the lubricating mediums much used in 
 
154 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 machine shop practice; oil should not be used on brass 
 or cast iron, but the prepared lubricants work quite 
 satisfactorily on these materials, as well as on steel and 
 wrought iron; brass and cast iron are very often drilled 
 dry, however. The standard twist drill does not cut 
 well in brass so a "pod" drill, Fig. 151, is very often 
 used to advantage. The twist drill may be made to work 
 satisfactorily, in brass, by grinding the lip slightly as 
 illustrated in Fig. 151 B. This grinding prevents the 
 
 /dtusVina pin/ 
 /in J thed!e r 
 
 Fig. 153 
 
 digging in or "biting" which is usually encountered 
 when the twist drill is worked in brass. 
 
 Figure 152 gives the names of the various parts of a 
 standard twist drill. All drills are not fitted with the 
 same size of shank, and table XV shows the relative 
 proportions of the various sized shanks used in practice. 
 
 In pipe fitting a workman does not use a U. S. stand- 
 ard thread but a special standard, adapted particularly 
 to pipe work. The table XIV presents the properties of 
 this standard. All tools for pipe work are tapered approxi- 
 mately 1" per foot. For cutting threads on pipe a die 
 is used, mounted in a die stock as illustrated in Fig. 153. 
 For threading the couplings, elbows, etc. a tap must be 
 used, the hole having first been drilled with a pipe tap 
 drill of a size corresponding to that given in the table. 
 
 Pipe is always measured by the size of the hole in it; 
 the outside diameter of a pipe with a half inch hole is 
 
THE DRILLER OR DRILL PRESS 
 
 155 
 
 quite a little over \" , and the hole in the fitting must be 
 large enough to accommodate the outside diameter; this 
 accounts for the fact that a \" pipe tap drill is consider- 
 ably over \" in diameter as will be noticed when the 
 table of pipe standards is studied. When using taps on 
 any kind of material always lubricate them. 
 
 On the driller the learner should have a sufficient num- 
 ber of jobs in laying out, reamer, tap, pipe tap and cylin- 
 drical work to become perfectly familiar with all the 
 
 CT 
 
 Fig. 154 
 
 steps involved. The greater portion of the work done 
 oh the driller is ''plane " or flat surface work. The drill- 
 ing of cylindrical work is of sufficiently frequent occur- 
 rence, however, to make the process worth studying. A 
 job of drilling a cylindrical piece requires the use of 
 V-blocks as shown in Fig. 154 where the manner of set- 
 ting up the work is illustrated. One must be careful that 
 the distance A from one extremity of the diameter to the 
 center of the layout is exactly the same as the distance 
 B from the other extremity to the center. These meas- 
 urements are made by using the try-square and steel 
 rule, as shown in the full and dotted lines, clamping the 
 piece lightly in the V-blocks, and rolling it slightly with 
 the hands in order to get the desired setting. 
 
 When the proper position has been found, clamp the 
 
156 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 work solidly in place, being sure the clamp is over the 
 block, so the work is not bent when tightening the clamp. 
 A word of caution should be observed here with reference 
 to clamping; never clamp a piece unless it is well sup- 
 ported beneath the clamp. Many beginners are quite 
 careless in this connection, and a great deal of work is 
 spoiled by improper clamping. The rule of having a 
 solid support beneath the point where a clamp bears 
 holds true not only on a drill press, but on all other ma- 
 chines as well. 
 
 Use of Vise on Drill Press. — Just below the illustra- 
 tion of the drill press, Fig. 149, is shown a vise, also called 
 a "shoe." This device is very convenient for much 
 work on the drill press, in that it often eliminates the 
 necessity for clamping. For example the cylindrical 
 piece just described can be held very easily in the vise, 
 if the work is not too large. When setting work in the 
 vise, or clamping it on the table, the operator should be 
 sure that there is a space between the lower face of the 
 work and the surface of the machine table, so the drill 
 may pass completely through the work without cutting 
 into the table. Parallel pieces of cast iron or steel are 
 used for such purposes; these pieces are known as 
 "parallels " in the shop. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. What is the purpose of the collet as used on the drill press? 
 
 2. Briefly describe the more common tools used on the drill 
 press. 
 
 3. Present the essential features to be observed in grinding a, 
 twist drill. 
 
 4. Describe the process of starting a drill true to the " layout." 
 
 6. Give a brief description of the "set up " for drilling cy- 
 lindrical work. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 THE SHAPER 
 
 The shaper, shown in Fig. 155, is a type of machine 
 tool used for producing flat or "plane " surfaces. It is 
 really a small planer, the difference between the planer and 
 shaper being one of construction -rather than a difference 
 in the class of work for which the tool is used. The- 
 shaper is so built that the work remains stationary, and 
 the tool passes over it in cutting; on the planer the work 
 is clamped to a moving part, and passes beneath the 
 cutting tool. The shaper is used for machining small 
 parts, while the planer is used for heavier work. 
 
 In Fig. 156 are shown the more common tools used on 
 the shaper; shaper and planer tools are similar, the 
 former being smaller than the. latter, that they may be 
 adapted to the more intricate work for which they are 
 used. Notice particularly the angles of the cutting 
 parts of these planing tools, and compare them with 
 those used on the lathe. It is evident that the clearance 
 angles are not as large on planer as on lathe tools; the 
 planer requires a more stumpy tool than the lathe, in 
 order to avoid the tendency to dig into the work when 
 cutting. The beginner should practice grinding these 
 tools, and hold to the smaller clearance angles if he 
 wishes to get the best results from the shaper. These 
 clearance angles are not usually measured, the experi- 
 enced workman depending on his judgment in determin- 
 ing the correctness of the angles. The beginner must, 
 however, study these clearances with care, in order that 
 he may accustom the eye to the relative angles of the 
 
 various tools. 
 
 157 
 
158 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 10. 
 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 
 Main driving cone pulley. 
 
 Cone pulley bracket. 
 
 Back gear shifting lever; shjft 
 lock nut in cone if necessary 
 before throwing in back 
 gears. 
 
 Stroke adjusting shaft. 
 
 Stroke adjusting shaft lock 
 nut; always slack this off 
 when stroke is adjusted, and 
 •tighten after adjustment is 
 made. 
 
 Feed crank. 
 
 Feed rod. 
 
 Tool shelf. 
 
 Clamping lever; slack off to 
 adjust ram; tighten after 
 adjustment is made. 
 
 Ram-adjusting handwheel. 
 
 Gibs; top and side. 
 
 Swivel. 
 
 13. 
 14. 
 
 15. 
 16. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 
 29. 
 30. 
 31. 
 
 Graduations; in degrees. 
 
 Head slide. 
 
 Clapper box. 
 
 Clapper box clamp bolt. 
 
 Tool post block. 
 
 Tool post. 
 
 Cross rail elevating shaft. 
 
 Cross rail elevating screw. 
 
 Cross feed screw. 
 
 Feed gear. 
 
 Feed gear ratchet. 
 
 Table brace. 
 
 Table brace clamp. 
 
 Table swivel. 
 
 Table work surface. 
 
 Shoe or vise base. The vise is 
 
 made up of a base and solid 
 
 jaw. 
 Vise sliding jaw. 
 Vise clamping handle. 
 Head slide handle. 
 
 After studying the tools the next step is the study of 
 the machine itself, and Fig. 155 presents a drawing of a 
 shaper. Study the names of the parts, learn the func- 
 tion of each and manipulate the machine in detail, shift- 
 
THE SHAPER 
 
 159 
 
 ing the speeds, throwing feed, levers in and out, setting 
 back gears, etc., till you are sure that you have full con- 
 trol of it. The job we are about to study is the machin- 
 
 •7* 1 
 
 Fig. 156 
 
 The diamond point used on the shaper is shown in Fig. 107. 
 
 A. Roughing tool ; this is the right-hand form. The tool is made in 
 both right- and left-hand form. 
 
 B. Round-nosed tool. 
 
 C. Square-nosed tool ; width atamaybemade any desired dimension. 
 
 D. Goose-neek tool. The goose-neck may be made slight as shown in 
 the drawing or it may be quite long. The goose-neck form is useful on 
 tools having a broad cutting edge, as it prevents chattering. 
 
 E and F. Views of a right-hand down cutting side tool. This tool is 
 made in both right- and left-hand form. 
 
 G. Right-hand surfacing side tool. This tool is made in both right- 
 and left-hand form. 
 
 ing of a driving arm block for the shaper itself. This 
 piece is made of steel, and must be accurately machined; 
 we recall that mention was made of the necessity for 
 lubrication when drilling steel. Lubrication of the cut- 
 
160 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ting tool is unnecessary in planing, except on parting 
 operations, because the cutting action is not constant. 
 
 A study of the shaper will show that after cutting the 
 tool must return to its first position and take another cut, 
 so the tool has a rest, as it were, after each cut. In other 
 words the cutting action is intermittent, and the heat 
 generated in taking a cut passes out of the tool during 
 the time it is returning from the end of the cut to the 
 starting point. Continuous cutting operations in steel, 
 such as drilling, turning, and milling are usually lubri- 
 cated, but intermittent operations are not lubricated. 
 
 The piece which is to be planed, in the present case, 
 will be held in the vise. The vise is set on the knee, 
 being sure that there is no dirt on either of the faces 
 which come together; the workman should also be care- 
 ful that there are no spots that have been nicked on the 
 surface of the knee or vise. If there are, a smooth file 
 should be used to remove them. Look at the index mark 
 at a on the knee and at b on the vise, Fig. 155. The 
 knee in some designs is so constructed that it can be 
 swung as indicated by the arrow at c to either right or 
 left. The vise can also be moved about on the base; 
 be sure that the index lines on these parts are set true 
 to the zero of the graduations, and tighten all binding 
 bolts, on both the knee and vise. 
 
 It is assumed that the piece on which we are to work 
 is a piece of rough stock, cut from a machine steel bar. 
 The stock is set on a parallel piece, so the surface on which 
 the cutting is to be done stands above the face of the 
 vise. The tool is caught short in the tool post, the knee 
 binding bolts slacked off, and the knee raised so the sur- 
 face of the work is just low enough to clear the under 
 surface of the ram, as it passes back and forth; the knee 
 bolts are tightened again, and the machine is ready for 
 work. The stroke must be adjusted, and the ram set in 
 
THE SHAPER 
 
 161 
 
 the proper position to pass the tool over the work, giving 
 about |" leeway at each end, for the stroke to extend 
 over the actual length of -the work. id 
 
 Tighten up any loose adjusting screws or bolts, and 
 be sure the machine is properly oiled. Use a lead ham- 
 
 T^TEff OTf TIN TACt^lN 
 
 Fa^a' 
 
 Fig. 157 
 
 mer, drive the work down firmly on the parallel strip, 
 not striking too heavily but using a light tapping blow 
 so the parallel is held firmly in place by the work. Run 
 a light cut over the work, using the automatic feed. 
 The work is now removed from the vise, all dirt brushed 
 from the shoe and the work with the hand, and the 
 finished surface we have just planed placed against the 
 solid jaw a of the vise. Surface c is now to be planed 
 square with surface b. The "set up " is shown in Fig. 157 
 
162 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 where note the small round bar used at d; this is neces- 
 sary in order that the finished face may be forced squarely 
 back against the solid jaw of the vise. Run a light cut 
 over surface c being careful that too much stock is not 
 removed, thus spoiling the work. 
 
 Remove the work from the vise and test it with a try- 
 square. We may find the two surfaces b and c accu- 
 rately true but for the sake of study we will assume 
 that the square touches at e, Fig. 157, and does not touch 
 at /. We must therefore tip the work in the vise so the 
 cut will remove more stock from surface at e than at /. 
 This is done by carefully folding a piece of newspaper so 
 it will lay along the top of the vise jaw and extend down 
 about one eighth inch. If the work is out a great deal, 
 several thicknesses of paper should be used as mentioned, 
 or a piece of tin may be bent and used as described. Set 
 the work up in the vise again and run another light cut; 
 remove the work and test; this operation must be re- 
 peated until the work is planed square. This paper or 
 tin used as described is known as packing, and when the 
 correct amount has been determined it is used in the 
 same position as each remaining face of the work is 
 planed. 
 
 The process of placing packing as described is spoken 
 of as "shimming " the work. Be sure to drive the work 
 down on the parallel at each setting, and always see that 
 there are no irregular places such as dents and burrs on 
 the vise jaws. If there are remove them with either a 
 file or a scraper, or) if the vise jaws are hardened, use an 
 oil stone. 
 
 If the work were out of true at / instead of at e, Fig. 
 157, the packing should be placed at the bottom of the 
 work, instead of at the top so as to throw the work in 
 the opposite direction, and thus remove the stock at / 
 instead of at e. The roughing being done we are ready 
 
THE SHAPER 
 
 163 
 
 to take the finishing cuts. In doing this, run a surface 
 cut over the face b, Fig. 157. In looking at the drawing 
 of the block, Fig. 157 B, one notices two ribs extending 
 at g and h. We are now ready to plane the block down 
 to make these ribs. The work must be laid out on the 
 end so that the workman has a guide as indicated in 
 Fig. 157 at s. Place the block in the vise; so the surface 
 just planed sets against the solid jaw. Set in the pack- 
 ing, and run a light cut; 
 
 test to.be sure the work 
 is square, and shim, if 
 necessary, in order to 
 bring within the required 
 limits of accuracy. A 
 
 :> 
 
 Fig. 157 B 
 
 number of surface cuts must now be run, that the stock 
 may be removed to form the rib. The depth gage is 
 used as in Fig. 61 in making the necessary measurements. 
 After the surface has been cut away, the rib must be 
 squared up. Notice on the shaper head a tool post block, 
 and a clapper box. The tool block is free to lift as the 
 tool returns from the cut, and the clapper box can be 
 swung to right and left. The operation to be carried out 
 is known as down cutting, and a right hand down cut- 
 ting side tool is used for this work. Whenever down 
 cutting is done, it is necessary to swing the clapper box 
 so the tool will lift free from the work on the return 
 stroke. This is necessary as the tool will mar the work 
 badly if this detail is neglected. One can easily tell 
 whether or not the clapper box has been swung in the 
 proper direction by bringing the tool against the work 
 lightly and trying to lift it. If the box has been moved 
 correctly, the tool will swing away from the face to be 
 cut. If it has been moved in the wrong direction the 
 tool will draw into the work. The proper way to set 
 the tool in the post and to grind the cutting point may 
 
164 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 be seen in the illustration, Fig. 157. The rib is finished 
 to size by working to the layout, and measuring the 
 finished dimension with an outside caliper. Be careful 
 not to cut into the finished surface s with the side tool 
 when taking the various cuts. The tool should just 
 scrape the surface as the cut is picked up. 
 
 To finish the block to proper width it is turned over in 
 the vise, so that surface P is uppermost and the operations 
 described for surface C are repeated. In finishing this 
 latter surface, the outside caliper is used to determine 
 the finished dimension of width, and the workman should 
 be careful in setting the cuts that too much stock is not 
 removed when working for the finished size. The meas- 
 uring should always be done before the cut has been run 
 all the way across the surface, as this saves time, and 
 prevents spoiling the work. By setting the parallel a 
 slight distance away from the solid jaw of the vise, the 
 outside caliper can be used when the cut has been run 
 only a slight distance on the work. 
 
 The ends of the block are finished by setting the vise 
 in a position such that "down cuts " may be run on 
 them, using a down. cutting side tool; a square should be 
 used for testing the accuracy Of the work when planing 
 the ends. All surface cuts on this job are taken with a dia- 
 mond point, and other cuts, with down cutting side tools. 
 
 Use of Centers on the Shaper. — The two attachments 
 most used on the shaper are the vise and centers. The 
 centers are illustrated in Fig. 158. This attachment is 
 used for planing machine parts which must be worked 
 true about a center, but which are of such a form that 
 they cannot be turned on a lathe. This same type of 
 attachment is used on the planer for certain jobs, as well 
 as on the shaper. All statements made relative to the 
 use of centers on the shaper apply when they are used 
 on the planer. 
 
THE SHAPER 
 
 165 
 
 The centers are mounted on the knee when in use, as 
 illustrated in Fig. 158. Be sure there is no dirt on the 
 under face of the base, nor on the knee. Slide the foot- 
 stock up, so the footstock and headstock centers just 
 touch; the purpose of this operation is to find out whether 
 or not the centers are in line. If they are not, they must 
 be trued up, if accurate work is expected. Truing the 
 
 tfNEE FACE, OTf TABLE WOTfl^ SUTfFACE. 
 
 Fig. 158 
 
 centers of the shaper may involve grinding the centers, 
 and planing all the base faces of the parts, so it should 
 not be started without authority from the party in charge 
 of your work. The job is usually turned over to the tool 
 room, when truing does become necessary. 
 
 When the test mentioned is made, it is sometimes 
 found that one center is slightly lower than the other. 
 This fault may be remedied by placing a shim beneath 
 point a, Fig. 158, to raise center C or by putting a shim 
 beneath the footstock center at b, depending on which 
 center should be raised. 
 
 As a typical center planing job, the piece shown in 
 Fig. 158 B will be used. This is part of a valve gear 
 for a steam engine; the two faces A and B as well as 
 
166 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 surface C must be true about the center hole. Further- 
 more surfaces A and B must be true with center of hole 
 H. Before the work is taken to the shaper, the holes 
 mentioned must be drilled and reamed, the ends faced, 
 and section S turned to the correct size. Start the job 
 by planing surface C. Notice at T, Fig. 158, there is 
 mounted a circular feeding attachment for use when 
 doing such jobs as we have in hand. The work is mounted 
 on a mandrel, a dog placed in position, and the tool set so 
 the cutting point stands directly over the line of the 
 centers as shown in Fig. 158 at m. Such a setting assures 
 a movement of the tool along a radial line of the surface 
 being planed, when an adjustment for cut is made. 
 
 Run the tool up out of the way and clamp the gib 
 screws on the saddle so the cross feed cannot be used. 
 The feeding on this job is done entirely by means of the 
 handle T through the medium of the worm and worm 
 wheel. Oil the centers, see that the centers in the man- 
 drel are clean, and place the work in the position shown 
 in Fig. 158. Be sure to tighten the set screw k on the 
 tail of the dog, so there may be no play while the cut is 
 being taken. Run the tool down, taking light cuts, 
 until the desired depth of chip is obtained, then start 
 the feed by turning the feed handle T, in the proper 
 direction to pass the work beneath the cutting tool. 
 The feeding movement is best made when the tool is on 
 the return stroke. After the cut has been run over, the 
 operation is repeated until the work has been reduced 
 to the required size, which in the present case is deter- 
 mined by the turned section at-*S. The operator brings 
 the tool down, until it just touches this surface, and runs 
 a finishing cut. The stroke of the shaper should be set 
 to cover the surface on which planing is to be done; it is 
 not necessary that the stroke be long enough to run the 
 whole length of the work. 
 
THE. SHAPER 167 
 
 The next step on this job is the planing of the two 
 faces A and B central with hole D and perpendicular 
 to hole H. Set the work up as in Fig. 158 using a try- 
 square as illustrated, and adjust by means of handle T 
 till the inside surface of hole stands square. Place a 
 pair of parallel wedges as shown at Z to prevent the work 
 from moving while the tool is cutting. Drive these 
 wedges in place firmly, but not hard enough to spring 
 the work; keep them tight during the cutting operation, 
 because the jar of the tool is apt to loosen them, and spoil 
 the work. It may be necessary to, place " shimming " 
 at some point between the surface of work and wedge 
 parallel to prevent springing. If parallel does not come 
 up true all along the surface do not force it up, but place 
 shims to fill any space. Make the necessary adjustments 
 to permit the use of the shaper cross feed, and run a 
 light cut over the surface. Let the tool remain in position 
 after running this cut; do not raise or lower it. Remove 
 the dog from the work, and turn the work to the position 
 indicated by the dotted lines, placing parallel wedges as 
 before. It is not necessary to use the try-square for this 
 setting, because the surface B being planed square with 
 the hole H becomes a setting surface. As the parallel 
 wedges are driven up closely, the work will revolve on 
 the centers, and true itself in the desired position. Let 
 the tool run over surface A. Now since surface A and 
 surface B have been planed with a tool setting the same 
 distance from the center of the hole D, it is evident that 
 these surfaces are central with the hole. 
 
 The cuts which have been taken on the surfaces men- 
 tioned should have removed as little stock as possible; 
 just enough to produce true surfaces. The try-square 
 should now be used to be sure that the work face is accu- 
 rately true with the inside surface of the hole. If it is 
 not, the workman must resort to packing beneath the 
 
168 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 work, so that it may be moved slightly in the proper 
 direction to produce the necessary corrections. The 
 packing is used between the face of the wedge parallel, 
 and the work, as indicated at F, Fig. 158. 
 
 Fig. 158 B 
 
 Successive cuts should be run with a set tool, to bring 
 the work to the required size. To determine the size, 
 as the various 'cuts are started, use an outside caliper, 
 for measuring; run a cut about -j 3 / along surface, then 
 move the tool away leaving it in position so far as vertical 
 movement is concerned, turn the 
 work over, and run the cut along 
 the other surface about x^". 
 These small planed surfaces may 
 be measured with the caliper, 
 and if too much stock has been 
 removed, the surface which has 
 been planed is not large enough 
 to cause serious damage to the 
 piece. Whenever planing on centers, the size should 
 always be tested on opposite faces, regardless of the 
 number of finished faces which the piece may have. 
 For example, the size on a hexagonal nut is determined 
 in the same manner as just described in detail. After 
 the proper size chip is started, it is carried around all six 
 faces of the nut. 
 
 The last planing job on this piece of work consists of 
 truing the surface G, Fig. 158 B, radially about the center 
 
 Fig. 159 
 
THE SHAPER 169 
 
 of the hole H. There is no new step involved here, ex- 
 cept the determination of the size of the work. For 
 planing the work should be mounted on a mandrel, placed 
 in hole H, and operations carried on in the same manner 
 as described in connection with planing surface C. To 
 determine the size of the work, a depth gage may be 
 used as shown in Fig. 159. Only a small portion of the 
 surface should be spotted off for measuring purposes, in 
 order that the work may not be spoiled, should an adjust- 
 ment of the chip prove necessary. The drawing of such 
 a piece of work as we are studying gives the finished 
 dimension of surface G, Fig. 158 B from the center of the 
 hole H. In reading the depth gage, to determine the size, 
 the workman must not forget to consider the radius of 
 the mandrel on which the work is mounted. 
 
 Keyway Cutting. — A job for which the shaper is 
 used a great deal is the cutting of keyways, as shown 
 in Fig. 160. In this class of work it is important that 
 the keyway shall be located so that the faces A and B 
 are equally distant from the center of the shaft. Before 
 starting work on the shaper, holes must be drilled as 
 shown in the figure. These holes serve as starting and 
 stopping points for the tool, and are always necessary 
 when doing a job of this sort. They should be drilled as 
 described in the chapter on drill press work, in connection 
 with drilling cylindrical pieces. It is not necessary for 
 the holes to pass through the shaft; they should be 
 drilled just deep enough to allow the full size of the 
 drill to reach a point about -fa" below the bottom of the 
 keyway.' 
 
 The work should be laid out, and set up in the shaper 
 vise shown in Fig. 155. The keyway must be located 
 equally distant from the faces of the vise, and this "set 
 up " can be very easily made by using the hermaphrodite 
 caliper as shown in the full and dotted lines Fig. 160, 
 
170 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 and calipering from the sides of the layout to the vise 
 faces. The shaft should be adjusted until these meas- 
 urements are equal. The tools used for cutting this 
 key way are shown at A-l and 5-1, Fig: 160. A-l is a 
 roughing tool, and is about ts" narrower than the finish- 
 ing tool. Notice that the edges of this tool are rounded 
 
 Fig. 160 
 
 slightly, so it may better- sustain the heavy stresses of the 
 roughing cut. The tool is set vertically in the tool post, 
 and theVork adjusted so the tool stands as nearly cen- 
 tral over the keyway layout, as one can judge, without 
 making measurements. The stroke of the machine is ad- 
 justed in such a way that the tool just drops 'into the 
 holes at the ends of the stroke. These holes are known 
 as clearance holes. Notice the wedges placed at A 161 
 to prevent the tool from lifting; it is necessary to block 
 the tool in this manner on such work as keyway cutting, 
 in order to prevent it from lifting on the return stroke, 
 
THE SHAPER 
 
 171 
 
 and thus fail to cut properly. The wedging of a tool as 
 shown is known as "anchoring " when spoken of in the 
 shop. The roughing cut should be run down so the 
 depth of the keyway in the 
 shaft is equal to one half the 
 thickness of the key, meas- 
 ured as indicated at C-l, 
 Fig. 160. Measurement may 
 be made either with a depth 
 gage or by using a steel rule. 
 
 Following the roughing cut, 
 the finishing tool is put in 
 place, and centered carefully 
 to the keyway layout. The 
 finishing cut is then run 
 down to the desired depth. 
 Keyways may be cut by set- 
 ting the shaft on V-blocks, the same as described in con- 
 nection with the drilling of a cylindrical piece. If the job 
 is handled in this manner, the work of setting up is identi- 
 cal with that described in the text dealing with drill press 
 work. 
 
 . A great many jobs of a special nature are done on the 
 shaper, but the fundamental principles of practically all 
 shaper work are presented in connection with the jobs 
 just discussed. 
 
 Fig. 161 
 
 Keyway tool setting. Wedges 
 at A are called anchor wedges; a 
 short bolt is sometimes used back of 
 the tool instead of these wedges. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. For what class of work is the shaper commonly used? 
 
 2. Describe the more common tools used on the shaper. 
 
 3. What is the essential difference between lathe and planer 
 tools? 
 
 4. What is meant by the term " shimming " as applied to planer 
 practice, and why is it used? 
 
172 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 5. For what purpose are the centers used on the shaper? Why- 
 are they necessary? 
 
 6. Give a brief description of the "set up " for cutting a key- 
 way on the shaper. 
 
 7. What is meant by " anchoring a tool " and why is it necessary? 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 THE SLOTTER 
 
 The slotter, also known as the spliner, is illustrated in 
 Fig. 162. This machine is used, in the machine shop, 
 for such work as is not conveniently done on the planer 
 or shaper. The movement of the tool is similar to that 
 noticed in the study of the shaper, except that in the 
 shaper the cutting tool travels horizontally while in the 
 slotter it moves vertically. 
 
 Figure 163 illustrates a typical slotter job; the piece 
 of work is a strap used on a steam engine connecting rod. 
 The work is finished on the surfaces A, B,C and D before 
 it comes to the slotter; this work is done on the planer. 
 The finishing of surfaces E, F and G is most economically 
 done on the slotter. The first step in doing this job is 
 to set up the knee as illustrated in Fig. 164. This must 
 be set so it will serve as a guide in placing the work, 
 hence the surface of the knee must be true with the 
 travel of the table, when it is^ moved by means of the 
 feed screw. 
 
 To do this, first see that the graduations on the table 
 base at 14, Fig. 162, are set true to the index marks. All 
 slotters are not graduated as mentioned, but the step sug- ■ 
 gested must not be neglected in the "set up," if there are 
 such graduations. Set the knee on the table as nearly true 
 to the line of travel as can be judged by the eye, and 
 clamp it lightly in place. Set a tool in the tool post, 
 and bring it into position as shown, in Fig. 164, drawing 
 up to the face of the knee by means of the lengthwise 
 feed screw, so that the steel rule, D, when swung back and 
 
 173 
 
174 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 2/ 
 
 Fig. 162 
 
 Table. 
 
 Table graduations. 
 
 Tool post clamps and bolts. 
 
 Ram. 
 
 Position adjustment for ram. 
 
 Ram connecting rod clamp. 
 
 Crank; this part has an ad- 
 justment for setting length 
 of stroke. 
 
 Ram counterweight. 
 
 Ram counterweight links. 
 
 The two unmarked arrows indicate location of gibs. These are ad- 
 justed to take up wear, or to clamp the table when it is to be held in a 
 fixed position. 
 
 forth as indicated by the dotted lines, just strikes the 
 cutting edge of the tool. Next, by means of the cross 
 feed screw, move the table so the knee stands in position 
 indicated by the dotted lines of the tool, and test by using 
 
 1. 
 
 Base. 
 
 12. 
 
 2. 
 
 Column. 
 
 14. 
 
 3. 
 
 Feed cam. 
 
 15. 
 
 4. 
 
 Feed cam lever. 
 
 16. 
 
 5. 
 
 Feed rod. 
 
 17. 
 
 6. 
 
 Feed driving gear case. 
 
 18. 
 
 7. 
 
 Rotary feed shaft. 
 
 19. 
 
 8. 
 
 Cross feed screw. 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Lengthwise or longitudinal 
 
 
 
 feed screw. 
 
 20. 
 
 10. 
 
 Table base. 
 
 21. 
 
 11. 
 
 Table saddle. 
 
 
THE SLOTTER 
 
 175 
 
 the scale as previously described. The knee must be 
 adjusted until the contact of the scale with the tool is the 
 same at both ends of the knee; it is then ready to use as 
 a guide in setting the work. Tighten the knee solidly. 
 
 Fig. 163 
 
 Fig. 164 
 
 The piece should be laid out from the drawing as indi- 
 cated by the marks on the surface, Fig. 163. Place the 
 work on two parallels, having the parallels in such a posi- 
 tion that the tool may pass completely over the surfaces 
 
176 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 E, F, and G, without striking them as it cuts. Set the 
 work back against the knee, and clamp it lightly; place 
 a couple of strips of paper, as shown at b, and with a lead 
 hammer tap the work back so the pieces of paper cannot 
 be pulled away from between the surface of the knee and 
 the work. Clamp the work solidly with clamps at b 
 and C, remove the knee, and place a clamp at x and y. 
 It is necessary, in this class of work, to clamp it so it will 
 not only be held down, but so it cannot move relative to 
 the surface of the table. Stop clamps are placed as at 
 E and F to prevent this latter movement. Stop clamps 
 are much used, on the slotter and planer. 
 
 The cutting tools used on the slotter are shown in Fig. 
 165. A is a surface roughing tool, B is a surface finisher, 
 D is a right hand cornering tool, E is a left hand cornering 
 tool, and F is a keyway tool. After the work has been 
 properly set up we. are ready to start cutting, and for this 
 we use the roughing surfacer. Run cuts over surfaces 
 E, F, and G leaving about ^t" for the finishing cut. Use 
 the inside caliper for the purpose of measuring the size 
 of the work. The layout will serve as a guide in keeping 
 the cuts in a central position. After taking the roughing 
 cuts, place the finishing tool in position and finish sur- 
 face E so the cut passes exactly along the line of the lay- 
 out. In running this cut a lubricant may be used, as 
 this produces a more satisfactory finish. It may be wise, 
 if the working limit is very close, to measure the thick- 
 ness of the strap at H with an outside caliper, though as 
 a rule this is not necessary. The surface G and surface 
 opposite F are now finished in the same manner as de- 
 scribed for surface E using the inside caliper to determine 
 the finished dimension. The shoulders at J are now 
 carefully finished, using a right and left hand cornering 
 tool. The next step is the finishing of the cylindrical 
 surface M. 
 
THE SLOTTER 
 
 177 
 
 The particular interest in this job at present centers on 
 the "set up " and operation for finishing the cylindrical 
 surface. A tool much used in machine shop practice, 
 when setting up on any machine, is the scribing tool 
 shown at G, Fig. 165. To arrange for the proper method 
 of setting up, we first locate the center of the slotter 
 table. Usually there is a hole in the table, and the work- 
 
 <UEn^[ 
 
 f^Ta. f*&&*. 
 
 man makes a target as shown at Fig. 166 which is driven 
 into this hole. The trammel points are used to deter- 
 mine the center of the table in the same manner that a 
 hermaphrodite caliper was used to locate the center of a 
 straight piece in the study of centering. A small center 
 punch mark should be placed to locate the exact center, 
 scribing tool placed in tool post, and the point of the 
 scribing tool set so it is true to this center. The work 
 should be located approximately true by laying it on the 
 table, and with a scale measuring from the point of the 
 tool to the layout as shown in Fig. 163. Clamp the work 
 lightly in place, and bring the scribing tool to the line of 
 the layout by means of the cross feed screw. Do not 
 move the table with the lengthwise feed screw, after it 
 has once been located centrally. All gibs should be set 
 
a^ 
 
 178 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 up closely when radial work is being done. To set the 
 work accurately, move it by means of the cross slide 
 screw, so a point of the layout coincides with the point 
 of the scribing tool. Now by means of the rotary feed, 
 swing the work beneath the scribing tool and see if the 
 tool follows along the line of lay- 
 out. If it does not, the work 
 must be driven slightly in different 
 ^vii^ / directions, till the tool moves 
 accurately over the layout of the 
 Fl s- 166 work. The piece is now firmly 
 
 Center target. Target is of , ,• , , 1 j j 
 
 hard wood, out to size with a clamped, stop clamps placed, and 
 jack knife. Any piece of the cuts started, using roughing 
 
 wood picked up about the . 1 .c . j c n m.u 
 
 shop can be used as a target, tools &r ^> and following With 
 
 though hard wood gives best finishing tools. Two surfaces are 
 
 results. Bend down corners c • 1 , r j • 11 ± ir 
 
 of tin center piece so they finished cylmdncally, one at M 
 will form spurs, and drive and one at K. The finished cy- 
 same into face of target. Hndrical dimensions' are deter- 
 mined by the surfaces L which may be used as gaging 
 surfaces bringing the tool up so it just touches for start- 
 ing the finishing cut. 
 
 Keyway Cutting. — This work, on the slotter, consists 
 of cutting keyways in hubs of gears, pulleys, etc. In the 
 cutting of a keyway in a hub, the workman must see that 
 it is true relative to the center of the hole. In laying this 
 work out, we use the target again, and carefully locate 
 the center by means of a divider as shown in Fig. 167 at A. 
 Locate the center accurately with a prick punch, and by 
 using a scale and scriber, draw a line through the center 
 we have just located, extending it over the face of the 
 hub as shown at b, c. This line now becomes a basis 
 from which to lay out the keyway. At any points on 
 this line, as e and / for example, place two center punch 
 marks, and, with the divider set to a radius equal to half 
 the width of the keyway, strike two circular arcs as shown 
 
THE SLOTTER 
 
 179 
 
 at these points. Draw lines tangent to these arcs directly 
 across the face of the hub. From the edge of the bore, 
 at g lay off the depth of the keyway, and place a center 
 punch mark, showing the limit of this depth. 
 
 Mount the work on the table, supported by parallels, 
 so that the cutting tool will pass completely through the 
 hub, to cut the full depth of 
 the keyway. Clamp the work 
 lightly in place. The scribing 
 tool is now used again to set 
 the line be true to line of 
 lengthwise travel of the table. 
 The manner of setting this line 
 is the same as that described 
 in setting up the connecting 
 rod strap to its layout. The 
 method consists of traversing 
 the table back and forth in the line of the slide move- 
 ment, and moving the gear slightly in required direc- 
 tions, till the tool follows the line be, throughout its 
 length. 
 
 A little thought will make clear the fact that we have 
 laid the keyway out true relative to the center of the 
 bore, and set the job up on the machine, true to the lay- 
 out. The cutting is started with a roughing tool which 
 is about iV' narrower than the size of the keyway, and 
 finished with a tool the exact size of the keyway. Meas- 
 ure the depth by means of a steel rule. 
 
 The depth of a keyway is always measured as indi- 
 cated at D in this figure. 
 
 In setting the stroke on the slotter, have the tool pass 
 through the work on the lower face about £", and rise 
 above it on the upper face about i". In feeding the table 
 to the .cut, always make the feeding movement while the 
 tool is entirely out of the work. When cutting keyways 
 
180 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 •jV and under, it is customary to use but one tool, the 
 roughing operation described above being omitted. 
 
 The slotter, like the shaper, is a machine tool used for 
 a number of special detail processes about the shop. 
 The principles involved, however, are very well covered 
 by the jobs just described. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. For what class of work is the slotter commonly used? 
 
 2. Describe and illustrate the more common slotter tools. 
 
 3. Give a brief description of the method of laying out and 
 cutting a keyway on the slotter. 
 
 4. Describe the setting of the slotter for taking a circular cut. 
 
 5. Describe the setting for finishing two parallel surfaces. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 THE GRINDER 
 
 The grinding machine, or grinder, is a comparatively 
 modern machine tool. Originally this was simply a 
 finishing tool used to eliminate filing, or for producing a 
 very fine finish on work. At present, the grinder is 
 essentially a production tool, because it very materially 
 reduces the cost of lathe work. Work done on the lathe 
 need not be highly accurate, when the grinder is to be 
 used in finishing the work, because all the accurate work 
 can be more quickly finished on the grinder. Figure 
 167 shows a view of a modern grinding machine, and the 
 notes with the illustration explain the functions of the 
 various parts. Study these with care, and, in starting 
 work on the machine, learn the method of operating the 
 various levers and the effect produced by such operation, 
 before starting on a job. 
 
 In connection with the grinder, the overhead works, 
 that is the countershaft, with its various pulleys, should 
 be studied with more care than is necessary in connec- 
 tion with the machines previously described, because it 
 is common practice to place cone pulleys in the over- 
 head works of the grinder, which enable the operator to 
 obtain certain speeds. In the particular machine illus- 
 trated two speeds are obtained by changing the driving 
 belt on cone pulleys in the overhead works. 
 
 A careful study of this machine will show that the 
 grinder is similar to the lathe, in many respects. The 
 work is mounted on centers, the method of driving work 
 is similar, and the arrangement of feeds and speeds is 
 
 181 
 
182 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
THE GRINDER 
 
 183 
 
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184 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 much the same as the lathe. The cutting tool is quite 
 different; a grinding wheel is used instead of a piece of 
 steel, and this wheel is the first thing we study after 
 becoming acquainted with the parts of the machine. 
 
 The wheels used for various kinds of work on the 
 grinder are graded, by the makers of wheels, to meet 
 the requirements of varied demands. All wheel manu- 
 facturers do not use the same system of grading, but the. 
 system presented below, which is that of the Norton Co., 
 Worcester, Mass., is typical, and may be used as a general 
 guide in specifying wheels. The cutting qualities of a 
 grinding wheel depend on two things, the grade which 
 refers to the hardness or softness of the wheel, and the 
 grit which refers to the size of grain of the material, of 
 which the wheel is composed. This grading is determined 
 in the same way that the grading of emery is determined 
 as described in an earlier chapter. The size of the abra- 
 sive used in grinding wheels varies from 10 to 200. The 
 range of grits commonly put on the market by the Nor- 
 ton Co. is as follows: #10, 12, 14, 16, 20, 24, 30, 36, 46, 
 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 150, 180 and 200. 
 
 The grade list of the Norton Co. is given below : 
 
 E. Soft Q. Medium hard 
 
 F. R. 
 
 G. S. 
 H. T. 
 
 I. Medium soft 
 
 J. 
 K. 
 L. 
 
 U. Hard 
 V. 
 W. 
 X. 
 
 M. Medium 
 N. 
 
 O. 
 
 P. 
 
 Y. Very hard 
 Z. 
 
THE GRINDER 185 
 
 The series of numbers given above indicate the coarse- 
 ness of the material used in making up the wheel, the 
 lowest number being the coarsest grit of wheel, and the 
 highest number the finest grit; the grade list is self- 
 explanatory; whenever a wheel is" mentioned in relation 
 to its cutting capacity, the grade and grit are always 
 given; thus we say that for grinding soft machine steel 
 grade M, grit #36 is a good wheel; by this we mean that 
 a wheel of medium density (see grade table) and #36 
 grit will give good service on this class of work. 
 
 When grinding wheels first came into use, emery was 
 the abrasive used almost exclusively: emery is a natural 
 • product ; most of the abrasive wheels in use at the present 
 time are made from some artificial, that is, manufactured 
 abrasive; probably the most common ones are alundum 
 and carborundum; these terms are trade names for the 
 abrasives manufactured; the wheel used for most of the 
 work done on grinding machines is a vitrified wheel; 
 that is the abrasive material is mixed with a kind of 
 clay which will melt, as it were, at a high heat; the wheel 
 is then molded and trued up, after which it is put in a 
 kiln, subject to a high temperature which fuses the 
 clay, and binds the abrasive in a solid mass. The vitrified 
 wheel is a strong durable article, if it is handled with 
 reasonable care. 
 
 When we take up the study of internal grinding we 
 shall have occasion to use the elastic wheel for some grades 
 of work; this wheel is made in small sizes and is very 
 thin, being useful for working in close quarters, since it 
 does not break as readily as the vitrified wheel; this wheel 
 is made by mixing the abrasive material with a kind of 
 varnish, and baking it at a low temperature; the elastic 
 wheel is graded by numbers as follows: 
 
 1, 1J, 2, 2|, 3, 4, 5, 6. 
 
186 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The softest wheel is grade #1, and the hardest is grade #6, 
 in the elastic range. Grits in the elastic wheel are not as 
 coarse as in the vitrified wheel; probably an average 
 range of grit for this wheel is 40; for a general line of 
 work, a grade #2| grit #40 will prove satisfactory. The 
 learner should not gather from the above statements 
 that all internal grinding is done with elastic wheels, for 
 it is not; vitrified wheels are used for grinding internally, 
 more than are elastic wheels. 
 
 Before we can intelligently start a job we must have 
 some idea of what kind of a wheel we ought to use, be- 
 cause our first job in starting work is the placing of the 
 wheel on the wheel spindle; the following notes are 
 suggestive : 
 
 Surface speed of wheel 5000 ft. per minute. 
 
 For soft machinery steel use grade M, grit #36 vitrified. 
 
 For same kind of stock, but long slender work, use 
 
 grade L, grit #36 vitrified. 
 For cast iron, when a high finish is wanted use grade 
 
 #4, grit #36 elastic. 
 For chilled cast iron use grade #4, grit #36 elastic. 
 For brass and copper use grade #4, grit #36 elastic. 
 For tool steel and case hardened machine steel use 
 
 grade K, grit #36 vitrified. 
 
 The above list is not given as a suggestion that no 
 other wheels shall be used for the materials mentioned, 
 but rather as a guide to the learner in selecting wheels; 
 in each case mentioned, the particular wheel has been 
 used on the class of work mentioned, and has given good 
 restilts. 
 
 Work Speed. — The wheel speed mentioned above, that 
 is 5000 feet per minute, is a good average rate of travel 
 for the wheel ; in modern grinding practice this item varies 
 from 5000 to 7000 feet per minute with good results; the 
 
THE GRINDER 187 
 
 work speed varies to a more marked^ extent and the fol- 
 lowing list is presented as a guide for the learner in select- 
 ing the speed at which the surface of the work should run: 
 
 Soft machinery steel 35 feet per minute. 
 
 Hard machinery steel 35 feet per minute on the rough- 
 ing cut, and 60 feet per minute on the finishing cut. 
 
 Case hardened machinery steel, and tool steel 35 feet 
 per minute. 
 
 Cast iron 55 feet per minute. 
 
 Bronze and brass J5 feet per minute. 
 
 In small plants the worker often finds himself so placed 
 that he may not keep several wheels on hand, as the 
 most rapid production is not demanded, but rather a 
 reasonable production, with a small outlay for wheels; 
 if an operator may have but one wheel a grade M grit 
 #36 will be found generally serviceable; with the smaller 
 wheels one is not limited so closely in the matter of the 
 number of wheels to be kept in stock, even in small 
 plants, because they are not very expensive; so it is 
 wise to keep enough different kinds of wheels in stock 
 for all the different materials one may be called to handle 
 as internal grinding work, to assure the use of the proper 
 wheel for each particular material. 
 
 Grinding is broadly divided into two classes, external 
 and internal; external grinding is that class of work in 
 which the wheel acts on an outside surface: internal 
 grinding is the class of work in which the wheel acts on 
 an inside surface;, external work is again divided into 
 cylindrical and surface work; in doing cylindrical work 
 the wheel is operated on a piece of work revolving on 
 centers; in doing surface work the wheel acts on a flat 
 surface; cylindrical grinding is further subdivided into 
 traverse grinding, fixed wheel grinding, step-in grinding and 
 straight-in grinding. By far the most common form of 
 
188 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 grinding is traverse grinding; in this operation the wheel 
 is moved past the work by means of the automatic feed, 
 or by hand feed, as the requirements of the job may de- 
 mand, and the wheel is fed into the work, either by hand 
 or automatically, a slight amount each time it passes over 
 the work, till the required diameter of the work has been 
 obtained. 
 
 In the fixed wheel method instead of feeding the wheel 
 in on the work a small amount each time" it passes over, 
 the wheel slide is "set ", against a stop if there is one 
 on the machine, and the wheel run Back and forth over 
 the work from two to half a dozen times; when the piece 
 is removed the wheel is not adjusted; no resetting of the 
 wheel is done till it has become so small due to wear that 
 another setting is necessary in order to produce the re- 
 quired diameter of work; in grinding by the fixed wheel 
 method, the gibs on the wheel slide should be set up very 
 closely so the wheel may not be easily moved, or sprung, 
 as the machinist expresses this action, when the grinding 
 operation is going on; it is not wise to attempt the use 
 of the fixed wheel method of grinding on long slender 
 shafts, or with a lightly constructed machine, as satis- 
 factory results cannot be obtained; this method demands 
 a solidly built machine, and should be applied on short 
 stiff work; it is wise not to leave a large amount of stock 
 to be ground when using the fixed wheel method of 
 grinding. 
 
 Step-in grinding consists of grinding the work by a 
 series of steps, each step about \" narrower than the 
 width of the wheel, so that the cut is overlapped in each 
 case; the piece is not finished to size by stepping in; the 
 work is usually brought to within about 0.002" of size 
 by this method, and then a traverse cut run over to give 
 the finished diameter over the whole length of the piece; 
 generally speaking, step-in grinding may be used on pieces 
 
THE GRINDER 
 
 189 
 
 of work that are rather short and heavy, on a rigid ma- 
 chine, the same as described for fixed wheel work, but 
 where considerable stock is to be removed by the grinding 
 process. 
 
 The step-in method is also known as form grinding, 
 and the term is used to designate either plain cylindrical 
 work, or work of irregular shape; the work should be 
 comparatively stiff for this operation and a rigid machine 
 is necessary; the most common application of form 
 grinding at present is the grinding of automobile parts, 
 particularly crankshafts; these are cylindrical surfaces, 
 but they are of such a design that it is not practical to 
 
 Fig. 168 
 
 use either the traverse or step-in method; Fig. 168 illus- 
 trates the grinding of a handle bar for a lathe by the 
 form method; a special truing device must be built for 
 keeping the wheel in condition for operation when doing 
 this kind of work, and the difference between the largest 
 and smallest diameter of the work must not be too great, 
 otherwise it will be impossible to secure proper cutting 
 action when grinding; as a /guide it may be stated that 
 the difference between the largest and smallest diameter 
 required on a form wheel should not be over lj" or 2"; 
 as a general rule work and wheel speeds for form grinding 
 may be about the same as for other classes of grinding; 
 the same statement holds true for fixed wheel and step-in 
 work. 
 
 Truing the Grinding Wheel. — In the study of the text 
 on grinding the learner has seen the truing of the wheel 
 
190 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 mentioned; a new wheel mounted on the spindle of the 
 machine will not run true, that is all parts are not equally- 
 distant from the center of rotation; for this reason, 
 when the wheel is started in operation on a piece of 
 work, one part of the circumference will strike the work, 
 while other parts will not. The next step after mount- 
 ing the wheel and oiling the machine is to true the wheel. 
 This work is done with a tool called a diamond; this is a 
 very hard substance ranging in color from green to dark 
 
 Fig. 169 
 
 brown. The diamond is set in a steel holder as shown in 
 Fig. 169; the trade name for this material is "bortz"; 
 it is also spoken of as black diamond; the figure just 
 mentioned shows the diamond properly mounted on the 
 machine preparatory to truing the wheel; start the 
 wheel, bring it up by means of the cross feed so it just 
 touches the diamond, and by means of the lengthwise 
 feed handle slowly pass the diamond over the wheel; 
 after the wheel has been cut down so it runs true, put the 
 slow feed in gear and allow the diamond to pass over 
 the wheel two or three times by means of this feed. This 
 is the proper method of truing when you are to grind 
 cylindrical or taper work by means of the traverse method. 
 
THE GRINDER 
 
 191 
 
 Fig. 170 
 
 One is often required to true a small wheel on a polish- 
 ing stand, or round the corner of the wheel as to be de- 
 scribed later in truing for set wheel work, and then the 
 diamond may be held in the hand, supported on a rest 
 as shown in Fig. 170. The diamond must 
 be held firmly, and pressed lightly against 
 the wheel, moving it slowly back and 
 forth over the face of the wheel, till the 
 desired condition of wheel face has been 
 obtained. 
 
 In truing the wheel for fixed-wheel work 
 or irregular form grinding we must change, somewhat, 
 the process just described; for fixed-wheel practice the 
 side of the wheel which advances to the cut as we feed 
 the work past the wheel should have the 
 edge slightly rounded as shown in Fig. 170 A ; 
 furthermore this side of the wheel is tapered 
 about -£%" for about §" as illustrated in the 
 same figure; the rounding of the edge is done 
 by hand as just described, while the "taper- 
 ing " is done setting the machine as though 
 Y j, / t yA grinding a taper, and mounting the diamond 
 vyfyWL in the holder as previously described. 
 
 For form grinding cylindrical work, or 
 conical work, no other methods than those 
 described are necessary; for irregular work, 
 however, such as previously illustrated, a 
 special fixture is necessary, which will cause the diamond 
 to move in a path that will shape the face of the wheel 
 to the desired form; this fixture is mounted on the table 
 of the machine, the machine table is locked fast, and the 
 diamond commonly moved over the face of. the wheel 
 by means of a lever, operating the slide which carries the 
 diamond. 
 
 Fig. 170A 
 
192 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The Grinder Steady Rest. — All work on the grinder 
 does not demand the use of a steady rest; short work of 
 large diameter can usually be ground without it, but if 
 the work is very heavy it is a good plan to put on a rest 
 in order to relieve the centers of weight; if you study 
 the grinder you will notice that the footstock center is 
 
 held against the work by 
 means of a spring instead 
 of being adjusted entirely 
 by a screw as was the 
 case with the lathe; this 
 feature is introduced in 
 the footstock design of 
 the grinder, because work 
 expands more in grind- 
 ing, due to heat, than it 
 does in turning, and this 
 spring permits the foot- 
 stock spindle to adjust 
 itself automatically to 
 the variations of the 
 work due to expansion. If a very heavy piece is carried 
 between the centers without a steady rest, it is apt to 
 force the footstock center out of place, and thus the work 
 is dropped from the machine. 
 
 r Each builder of grinding machines has a design of 
 steady rest which adapts itself to the machine which he 
 puts on the market; so far as operation is concerned the 
 various designs of rests are not essentially different; all 
 are clamped to the machine table, and the parts which 
 bear against the work are adjusted by means of screws 
 at the front and within easy reach of the operator. The 
 steady rest is used for the purpose of supporting the work, 
 so it does not spring away from the wheel and thus pro- 
 duce work that is not the same diameter throughout its 
 
 A. 
 B. 
 C. 
 D. 
 I. 
 K. 
 
 Fig. 171 
 
 Rest clamping bolt. 
 Lower shoe adjustment. 
 Upper shoe adjustment. 
 Upper shoe spring adjustment 
 Upper shoe clamp. 
 Shoe clamping bolt. 
 
THE GRINDER 193 
 
 length; the steady rest also prevents chattering; Fig. 
 171 is a steady rest which is used by one of the large 
 manufacturers of grinding machines; the rest is clamped 
 to the work table by means of the screw bolt A, and 
 the lower shoe is adjusted by the screw B. The hori- 
 zontal shoe is adjusted by the screw C; notice that there 
 is a spring adjustment D, which acts to push this shoe 
 against the work when setting up the machine. The 
 clamping screw I is used to clamp the plunger, which 
 carries the shoe solidly in place after adjustments have 
 been made. <* 
 
 Study the drawing of the steady rest carefully, and 
 familiarize yourself with the names of the various parts. 
 For general shop practice, where a great number of pieces 
 of work of the same kind are not to be produced, steady 
 rest shoes are made of wood, such as hickory or maple, 
 and prove satisfactory; ash and beech are good woods for 
 this purpose. In setting up the machine, the workman 
 must decide how many steady rests he will use; as a 
 guide it is suggested that a rest be placed every six inches 
 along the length of the work; this spacing may be de- 
 parted from as the learner gains experience, and becomes 
 capable of judging, by the way in which the machine 
 operates, just how many rests should be used. 
 
 Preparation of Work for the Grinder. — The learner 
 will recall, that in connection with the lathe work the 
 turning was very accurately done; the job we had on 
 the lathe, however, was not to be ground after turning; 
 if it had been ground we would not have finished it so 
 accurately. We would have faced the ends up in the 
 same way we did originally, but instead of turning to accu- 
 rate size, we would have left about -£%' for grinding; that 
 is, we would have left the work ^" too large in diameter; 
 this would have been removed in grinding; when a piece 
 is to be ground after turning, it may be turned much 
 
194 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 more roughly; that is a coarser feed may be used and 
 the lathe need not be trued up with the same accuracy 
 described in an earlier chapter; the accurate work on 
 the job is completed with the grinder. 
 
 As an example of work on the grinder we will take a 
 shouldered shaft. Before putting the work on centers, 
 be sure that the holes carrying centers in both headstock 
 and footstock are clean; remove the centers, wipe them 
 off and clean the holes as described in connection with 
 the lathe; we will not find it necessary to test the 
 headstock spindle of the grinder for truth when running, 
 because in modern grinding practice both centers are 
 "dead "; that is, neither one revolves; now look at the 
 grinder table at point 7, Fig. 167 G, where you will find 
 a series of graduations for degrees and inches per foot 
 of taper similar to those described on the taper attach- 
 ment, in connection with the lathe; these graduations 
 are used for the same purpose on the grinder as on the 
 taper attachment, namely to set the table when grind- 
 ing tapers. Be sure the index line on the swinging 
 table of the grinder corresponds with the line of the 
 graduations on the base before starting to do any grind- 
 ing; if you are not particular about this point the 
 grinder will not produce a straight piece of work. 
 
 The next step'is to put the steady rests in position, 
 being sure that there is no dirt on the surface of the 
 table, nor on the surface of the steady rest which bears 
 on the table. Slack the shoes well back in the rests so 
 you have ample room for placing the work, run the 
 wheel well back out of the way, put some oil on both 
 headstock and footstock centers, see that a grinder dog 
 is on the work and place it on the centers. We must 
 next set up the steady rest shoes; start the work revolv- 
 ing, and bring the horizontal shoe against the work, 
 then the bottom shoe, setting them up closely but not 
 
THE GRINDER 195 
 
 too tightly. The travel of the table must now be set by- 
 means of the dogs; see Fig. 167 G, #8. Start the wheel 
 revolving, and run the table by hand to the position 
 where we wish the reversing movement to take place; 
 now set the dog so it strikes the shipper lug of the revers- 
 ing mechanism, then run the table to the other point of 
 the stroke. Now leaving the wheel well back out of 
 the way, throw in the traverse feed of the table, and see 
 if the reversing mechanism trips exactly at the desired 
 point; it probably will not do so, and we must correct 
 the adjustment either by moving the tripping dogs 
 slightly or adjusting the set screws which will be found 
 on them. In grinding practice it is usual to have the 
 table move forward about two thirds of the width of the 
 wheel for each revolution of the work: thus if you are 
 using a wheel 1|" wide on the face you would wish the 
 work to advance about one inch for each revolution. A 
 wheel about \\" wide is a very satisfactory general pur- 
 pose wheel, so we may assume that such a wheel is being 
 used. The feed adjustments for the grinder table are 
 made by means of a gear box, very similar to that used 
 on the lathe, while the variation in the rate of revolu- 
 tion of the work is made by the shifting of gearing in 
 the headstock, through the medium of levers. Changes 
 in the wheel speed are obtained by shifting an overhead 
 belt on a set of cone pulleys. 
 
 We know that a piece of work expands more when 
 being ground than when being turned. To prevent the 
 heating which causes such expansion, cooling material is 
 constantly passed over the work, while it is being operated 
 on. At 32, Fig. 167 G, is shown the nozzle and deflector 
 attached to the delivery line of the pump that supplies 
 the cooling material or coolant. The nozzle and de- 
 flector should be adjusted so as to throw plenty of cool- 
 ing material on the point where the wheel and work come 
 
196 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 in contact; do not adjust the deflector so that most of 
 the cooling material runs over the work, and away from 
 the cutting point. Bring the wheel up till it is within a 
 small distance of the work, having first thrown in the 
 automatic table feed, and allowing the work to traverse 
 back and forth as the wheel is brought up ; by this means 
 the workman may watch the action of the reversing 
 mechanism and be sure the table does not travel too far 
 in either direction; if it does adjustments must be made 
 before the wheel is in close enough to the work to strike 
 any shoulders. When the wheel is within about tV" of 
 the work, throw in the automatic cross feed which ad- 
 vances the wheel slightly each time the wheel starts a 
 traverse movement. Bring the wheel up to the work till 
 it begins to cut, and then let the machine run. After it 
 has passed over the work, two or three times, throw out 
 the cross feed, run the wheel away from the work, and 
 shut off the supply of cooling liquid. The work should 
 be measured now, both to see how near the finished size 
 is being approached, and if the work is straight. 
 
 If the machine is not grinding straight; slack off the 
 table clamp bolts and move the table slightly in the 
 proper direction, by means of the screws B, Fig. 167 G. 
 Be sure to tighten the table clamp bolts again before 
 starting the machine. When starting the cut again, 
 bring the wheel carefully up to the work, throw in the 
 feed, and run light cuts until the wheel is cutting the 
 full length of the work. Measure or gage the work 
 frequently, till it is brought to the proper diameter. As 
 the grinding proceeds, be sure to adjust the steady rest 
 shoes so they are at all times in close contact with the 
 work. 
 
 Cooling Materials or Coolants. — A very good cooling 
 material for use on the grinder, when a general line of 
 work is being done, is made by mixing about five gallons 
 
THE GRINDER 197 
 
 of water with one half gallon of soft soap, and putting 
 into this mixture enough common washing soda so that 
 it will turn white when a piece of iron is wet with the 
 mixture and allowed to dry. The supply dealers in the 
 various cities can supply a preparation known as "aqua- 
 dag " which when mixed with water produces a very 
 excellent cooling medium for use when grinding. 
 
 W.hen preparing work for the grinder, the workman 
 should slightly "neck " the work under any shoulders. 
 This permits the wheel to produce a perfectly cylindrical 
 surface over the full length of the surface ground, and 
 allows the various shaft shoulders to fit closely against 
 the mating parts when the piece is assembled. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. In what particular characteristics is the grinder similar to 
 the lathe? 
 
 2. Explain the meaning of grade and grit as applied to grinding 
 wheels. 
 
 3. Describe the system of grading elastic wheels. 
 
 4. Describe in full the various classes of external grinding. 
 
 6. Explain the method of truing the grinding wheel on the grinder. 
 
 6. For what purpose is the steady rest used on the grinder? 
 How is it applied ? 
 
 7. How may a grinder be adjusted if it does not grind straight ? 
 
CHAPTER X 
 GRINDING — Continued 
 
 Internal Grinding. — Internal grinding is similar, in 
 so far as operations of a general nature are concerned, 
 to chuck and face plate work in the lathe. The work, 
 itself, is carried in the chuck, and trued up in a manner 
 similar to that followed when truing work in the lathe. 
 A great deal of internal grinding requires not only finish- 
 ing the hole in the work, but finishing the face of the work, 
 so it runs true with the hole. We will study a job requir- 
 ing the grinding of the hole and two faces, all true to 
 each other. The first step is to mount the work in the 
 chuck. If we use a chuck on which all the jaws move 
 separately, we true the work in the same manner as 
 described for mounting chuck work in the lathe. We 
 must be more accurate in our work, however, as we have 
 but a few thousandths of stock to remove. After the work 
 has been set approximately true with chalk, we mount an 
 indicator as shown in Fig. 173, and set the work so it 
 does not run out more than 0.002". We must also see 
 that the work is equally true on the face; this truing on 
 the face is done by running the machine, and marking 
 the face of the work with chalk. The work is driven back 
 in the chuck slightly at the marked section, till a mark is 
 obtained all around the face of the piece, as indicated 
 by small arrow, Fig. 173. The test indicator is used 
 for the final truing within the desired limits. 
 
 The operation of truing must be repeated once or twice, 
 in order that truing the face may not throw the bore out 
 of truth, and vice-versa. For a great deal of grinder 
 work, the universal chuck is used instead of the inde- 
 
 198 
 
GRINDING — CONTINUED 
 
 199 
 
 pendent chuck; this chuck is so designed that all the jaws 
 operate at one time, by the movement of any one of 
 them. The universal chuck is quite accurate if the tool 
 is properly cared for and properly used. In placing a 
 job in a universal chuck, do not assume that the tighten- 
 ing of one jaw is all that is necessary; all the jaws must 
 be tightened up, one after another, till we have removed 
 all the backlash in the jaw screws; usually this means 
 that the jaws should be tightened up twice, one after the 
 
 Fig. 173 
 
 other. In mounting the chuck on the grinder it is usually 
 necessary to shift the driving belt so that the headstock 
 spindle of the grinder is revolved by the driving belt; 
 this should be attended to, then the front driving pulley 
 removed, headstock center driven out, spindle hole stuffed 
 with some cotton waste, and the chuck screwed in place. 
 The machine tool on which we are supposed to be 
 working is known as a universal grinder, because it may 
 be used for external and internal, as well as straight and 
 taper grinding. Where internal grinding is to be done 
 on a great deal of work, special internal grinding machines 
 are used. The universal grinding machine is used very 
 extensively for internal grinding, though, and the pro- 
 duction rate is very satisfactory, if the tool is properly 
 
200 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 handled. The internal grinding attachment is bolted 
 to the wheel head slide #34, Fig. 167 G, the wheel for 
 external grinding being removed, and the internal wheel 
 spindle mounted in its place. As the internal grinding 
 wheel must run a great many more revolutions per 
 minute than the external wheel, the internal wheel 
 spindle is not driven by the driving pulley 35, Fig. 167 G, 
 but usually through a countershaft, mounted on the slide. 
 A belt runs from a pulley, driven by the main driving 
 pulley 35, to the countershaft mentioned, and this, in 
 turn, is belted to the internal grinding wheel spindle. 
 By this arrangement the speed of the small spindle, 
 carrying the wheel for internal grinding, is very greatly 
 increased. The various bearings of the internal grind- 
 ing attachment must be carefully oiled, before it is used. 
 
 The wheel should be selected, based on the notes 
 given in the preceding chapter. It is assumed that we 
 are grinding hard steel, and a vitrified wheel, grain 46, 
 grade K, may be used. 
 
 This wheel should be about |" smaller in diameter 
 than the hole we wish to grind. The surface speed of 
 the wheel should be about 4500 feet per minute, and that 
 of the work about 100 feet per minute. On certain 
 classes of work, an operator does not use water for in- 
 ternal grinding. If one has a very large piece of work, 
 and only a small amount to be ground from the hole, 
 the heat generated will not affect the work to any great 
 extent. On small work a cooling medium is always an 
 advantage; it can be delivered to the wheel by means of 
 a flexible metallic hose, connected to the coolant supply. 
 
 For internal grinding on the universal machine, the 
 automatic feed is not commonly used; the feeding is done 
 by hand, both of the wheel to the cut, and of the length- 
 wise movement of the table. The "set up " having been 
 made, the headstock should be examined to see if it 
 
GRINDING — CONTINUED 201 
 
 swivels on its base. If it does, be sure that the index 
 lines coincide, showing that the head is set so the spindle 
 center line is true with the lengthwise travel of the table. 
 True the grinding wheel with a diamond, bring it care- 
 fully into position, and start the cut. Run a few passes 
 of the wheel over the work, to clean the hole, and remove 
 the scale. As soon as the wheel is cutting over the whole 
 surface of the. work, test it for taper by using the inside 
 caliper very carefully. If the work is straight, proceed 
 to grind the hole to size, fitting it to the plug gage. 
 Put a little oil on the gage when you start to test the 
 hole with it, as this will prevent the gage sticking in 
 the work. This fitting will require considerable patience, 
 and much_care on the part of the learner, but the training 
 which one gets from doing this class of work is worth 
 all the effort put forth. 
 
 The hole being ground true, we are ready to start 
 work on the faces of the piece. These faces must be 
 accurately true with the bore, which has just been ground. 
 The external grinding wheel is used for this work, so the 
 entire internal grinding fixture is removed, and the exter- 
 nal wheel mounted on its spindle. Remove the chuck 
 from the spindle nose, clean out the hole in the head- 
 stock spindle, and otherwise fit the machine up as you 
 would for external grinding. Do not put the headstock 
 center in place, nor connect the belt for dead center 
 grinding, as the headstock spindle must revolve, in the 
 work we are about to do. 
 
 In Fig. 174 is shown a taper shank, expansion man- 
 drel, which is used for such work as we are about to 
 study. The taper shank fits the seat in the headstock 
 spindle, and the body is the same size as the hole in the 
 piece on which we are working. Notice that this body is 
 split by four slots, indicated at B, and the movement of 
 the screw A expands the body or permits it to contract. 
 
202 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The work is placed on the mandrel, and screw A 
 tightened, so as to hold the work firmly in place, the 
 mandrel having first been placed in the headstock of the 
 machine. Swing the wheel saddle slightly so the corner 
 of the wheel, as indicated at C, will be presented to the 
 work. True this corner off about xs" with the diamond. 
 Bring the wheel into position, turn on the cooling fluid 
 and proceed to face up the work in the same manner 
 that work was faced up in the lathe; the work is set on 
 the mandrel in such a way that the face extends over the 
 end of the mandrel about |"; this will permit running 
 
 Fig, 174 
 
 the wheel over the entire face of the work and giving a 
 true and well finished surface. After the first face of 
 the piece is finished, remove it from the mandrel, and 
 mount it with the unfinished face outward; now pro- 
 ceed to duplicate the operations just described till this 
 surface is true, and the roll has been ground to the re- 
 quired thickness. The finishing of the diameter is an 
 external grinding job, and this work has been described 
 previously. 
 
 Taper Grinding. — The adjustment of the machine 
 for taper grinding is very much like the adjustment of 
 the taper attachment for taper turning on the lathe. 
 Looking at 7, Fig. 167 G, we see a set of graduations 
 both in inches per foot and in degrees; we set the ma- 
 chine up in the same manner as we do for a straight 
 external grinding job. Be sure that the index lines. on 
 

 S 
 
 C 
 
 1 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 GRINDING — CONTINUED 203 
 
 the headstock are set true, then slack off the table bind- 
 ing screws 12 and adjust the table by means of the screws 
 B to the desired taper per foot. The fitting of a taper 
 on the grinder is similar to fitting on the lathe; the same 
 gages are used, and the same details must be observed 
 in doing the job; in marking the surface of the work for 
 testing the fit when grinding, use either red lead or Prus- 
 sian blue. Work very carefully until you are sure the 
 taper is correct, as a very small amount of stock removed 
 may spoil the work. 
 
 Testing the Grinder. — The testing of the grinder has 
 not been discussed thus far; the reason for what. might 
 appear to be an omission is 
 the fact that the graduating 
 marks on the grinder are 
 quite accurate and if the parts 
 of the machine, that is, the 
 headstock swivel and the 
 
 table, are carefully set to the index lines, there is not 
 the same necessity for testing that the workman meets 
 in operating the lathe. Occasions arise, however, on 
 which the grinder must be tested, and it is a good exer- 
 cise for the learner. Figure 175 shows a test bar to be 
 used for this purpose; it may be made of soft machinery 
 steel, and should be about 1J" or 2" diameter in the 
 rough, and from 18" to 36" long, depending on the size 
 of the machine to be tested; the longer the bar, the 
 more accurate the test. Turn one end of this bar down 
 as shown at A for a length of about 3", so it is about f" 
 smaller than the rough diameter of the bar. The bar 
 should, of course, be centered and carefully faced up 
 before turning. 
 
 Mount the bar in the grinder, with the turned portion 
 at the footstock end, and true up about 2" of length, as 
 shown at B. Now turn the piece end for end, in the 
 
204 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 grinder, and grind about 2" as at C, Fig. 175, the same 
 diameter as section B. The foregoing operations have 
 simply prepared the test piece. Now take a light cut 
 over end C, and, without moving the cross slide of the 
 grinder, lift the test piece from the centers and move 
 the wheel towards the headstock to a point where it will 
 clear section B. Now run the cut over section B, and 
 caliper both B and C with a micrometer. If the machine 
 is grinding straight, the two ground sections will be the 
 same diameter; if they are not the table should be ad- 
 justed, and the test repeated. 
 
 To test the machine when grinding on internal work, 
 let us assume that in grinding the wheel is cutting on 
 the portion of the hole nearest us as at B, Fig. 173. True 
 the hole up so the wheel is cutting over the entire sur- 
 face, for the full length of the hole. Now move the 
 wheel so it cuts at point C of the hole instead of point B; 
 let the wheel just touch the work so you can see the 
 sparks when grinding dry. Slowly advance the wheel 
 into the hole by hand feed; if the cut increases as the 
 wheel is advanced, it is clear that the machine is grind- 
 ing large at the front end of the hole; if the cut disap- 
 pears, you may know that the machine grinds large at 
 the back end of the hole; adjustment is best made by 
 moving the headstock swivel rather than the table, if 
 such a movement is possible. 
 
 Chatter. — When grinding, chatter is commonly caused 
 by an incorrect work or wheel speed, or because the 
 work is not properly supported, by means of steady rests. 
 It -shows itself in small marks on the work, or a series of 
 wide irregular spots. During the first cuts on a piece, 
 the operator should stop the machine often, and look for 
 signs of chatter. If it shows, he must take steps to pre- 
 vent it, by adjusting either the steady rests, the work 
 speed, the wheel speed, or changing the wheel. 
 
GRINDING — CONTINUED 205 
 
 The feature of constantly watching the work for in- 
 accuracies when operating a machine tool is a very im- 
 portant one. In the matter of testing a grinder, for 
 straight work, it is but rarely that the skilled operator 
 uses the test bar described above. The work is placed 
 on the centers, and the roughing cuts started; as soon 
 as the wheel is carrying a cut over the whole piece, the 
 operator throws out the cross feed, and allows the wheel 
 to make a pass without feeding in the wheel; then he 
 stops the work, calipers and makes any required adjust- 
 ments; before all the stock is removed on the piece, the 
 machine has been adjusted so it will grind straight. 
 
 Whenever working on any piece of stock that is sup- 
 ported on centers, be sure that there are well formed 
 center holes in the piece, and that both holes and centers 
 are perfectly clean. The young worker should write to 
 The Norton Co. at Worcester, Mass., and The Car- 
 borundum Co. at Niagara Falls, N. Y., for catalogs of 
 grinding wheels; these booklets contain information of 
 importance when one has occasion to order wheels from 
 dealers. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Explain the term, " internal grinding." 
 
 2. Describe the method of truing a piece of work in the grinder, 
 preparatory to doing a job of internal grinding. 
 
 3. Give a brief description of the method of testing the machine 
 for straight grinding, when doing internal work. 
 
 4. Describe the method of finishing a " face " true with the 
 bore of a piece which has been internally ground. 
 
 •6. Explain the method of adjusting the machine for taper 
 grinding. 
 
 6. Describe an accurate method of testing the grinder for straight 
 grinding. 
 
 7. How can chatter be avoided in grinding? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 
 
 •' One of the most useful tools in the modern machine, 
 shop is the milling machine. It is a tool available for a 
 great many different jobs, it is convenient in operation 
 and interesting in application. The machine is shown in 
 Fig. 176, and the learner should study the figure care- 
 fully, in order that the function of the various elements 
 may be understood. Before starting a job on the ma- 
 chine the learner should oil all parts, handle all the levers, 
 and be sure that the effect of each movement made is 
 understood. 
 
 The tools used for cutting purposes on the miller are 
 known as mills, and the ones most commonly used are 
 shown in Fig. 177. At A is shown an' end mill, at B a 
 side mill, at C a slab mill, and at D a gear cutter. The 
 commonly used auxiliary attachments on the miller are 
 the vise, the dividing head centers and the vertical mill- 
 ing attachment. The vise is commonly used for jobs 
 requiring surface operations, such as slabbing or end 
 milling. The centers are used for milling bolt heads, 
 nuts, cutting gears, etc. The vertical milling attach- 
 ment is used for certain jobs which cannot be operated 
 on conveniently when the mill is held directly in the 
 machine spindle. 
 
 As a slabbing, end milling, and side milling operation, 
 we may study the piece of work shown in Fig. 179, which 
 is part of a machine used in the manufacture of wood 
 screws. The first step is to finish the surface A. This 
 is done by setting the job in the vise, so that surface A 
 
 206 
 
Fig. 176 
 This figure shows a milling machine as it would appear if you were 
 standing directly before the knee of the machine. 
 
 1. Auxiliary shelf for carrying in- 
 
 dex centers when not in use. 
 
 2. Feed gear box. 
 
 3. Feed gear tumbler levers. 
 
 4. Circulating pump for forcing 
 
 cutting lubricant to cutter. 
 
 5. Feed gearing index lever. 
 
 6. Feed index plate. 
 
 7. Main driving pulley. 
 
 ^8. Speed change gear tumbler 
 lever. 
 9. Speed change gear index lever. 
 
 10. Speed index plate. 
 
 11. Starting levers; one at front 
 
 and one at back of machine 
 for convenience in operation. 
 
 12. Overhanging arm. 
 
 13. Overhanging arm clamp. 
 
 14. Lubricant conducting pipe, 
 
 upper section. 
 
 15. Lubricant conducting pipe, 
 
 lower section. 
 
 16. Elevating nut seat. 
 
 17. Elevating screw nut. 
 
 18. Telescoping elevating screw. 
 
 19. Column face. 
 
 20. Main spindle of machine. 
 
 21. Knee; main casting. 
 
 22. Feed transmission gears. 
 
 23. Operating lever for vertical 
 
 feed. 
 
 24. Cross slide; note gibs for ad- 
 
 justment of this member. 
 
 25. 
 
 26. 
 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 
 31. 
 32. 
 
 33. 
 34. 
 
 35. 
 
 36. 
 37. 
 38. 
 39 
 
 Table base; note that thir 
 swivels. 
 
 Lengthwise feed, operating 
 lever. 
 
 Feed trip dogs. 
 
 Table. 
 
 Lengthwise feed handwheel. 
 
 Lengthwise quick return hand- 
 wheel. 
 
 Arm brace yoke. 
 
 Arm brace ; these parts are to 
 support the arm when run- 
 ning heavy cuts. 
 
 Outboard center support. 
 
 Cross-feed micrometer dial; a 
 similar dial is mounted on 
 the vertical feed handwheel. 
 These dials enable the 
 workman to adjust the knee 
 to limits of .001". A similar 
 dial is also mounted on the 
 lengthwise feed screw. 
 
 Graduations on swivel table 
 base. 
 
 Cross feed handwheel. 
 
 Vertical feed handwheel. 
 
 Center adjustment. 
 
 Table stop ; on some machines 
 two stops are used, but more 
 often one stop is placed on 
 right or left end of table as 
 requirements of job demand. 
 
208 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 is approximately level. This surface may be tested by 
 using the surface gage. A slab mill cut is run over the 
 surface, cleaning it up, but at the same time the work- 
 man must be careful that too much stock is not removed. 
 When setting the vise on the table of the machine, be 
 careful not to allow any dirt to remain between the 
 
 CL 
 
 Fig. 177 
 
 A is an end mill ; made in both right- and left-hand form. To deter- 
 mine the hand of a mill, hold it by the shank, or as it would be mounted 
 on an arbor in the machine spindle; if it must turn to the left to out, 
 it is a left-hand cutter; if it must turn to the right, it is a right-hand 
 cutter. 
 
 B is a side milling cutter; made in various thicknesses and diameters. 
 
 C is a slab mill for surface milling; teeth are often nicked for heavy 
 work, so as to break the chips. 
 
 D is a gear cutter; note key way at a; key ways are much used in 
 cutters to be operated on heavy work. 
 
 Inserted tooth milling, cutters are made for side and face milling, 
 similar to B, only the body of the cutter is of cast iron or steel. In this 
 design of cutter, teeth are of tool steel and set into the cast iron or soft 
 steel cutter head. Inserted tooth cutters are commonly 6" or more in 
 diameter. 
 
 lower face of the shoe and the machine table. File off 
 any^rough spots or burrs. The mill is mounted on an 
 arbor; be sure there is no dirt on the taper shank of the 
 arbor, nor in the spindle hole. Bushings must be placed 
 on the arbor as at Fig. 179 indicated by the letter B, to 
 bring the cutter approximately in the center of the 
 length of the arbor. Next place, some bushings between 
 the cutter and nut on the end of the arbor, and screw the 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 209 
 
 nut up tightly by hand. Now place the arbor in the 
 spindle of the milling machine, and move the outboard 
 center support into position to support the outer end of 
 the arbor. Tighten binding bolts holding the outboard 
 arm. See that all gibs on the machine are properly ad- 
 justed, so the table moves freely, without any shake. The 
 work is adjusted to the cut by means of the elevating and 
 cross feed handwheels. For slabbing cuts on the miller, 
 
 ^SE-NEtS- 
 
 Fig. 179 
 
 a lubricant is commonly used, whenever cuts are being 
 taken in steel or wrought iron. 
 
 After the surface A has been slabbed off, the two sur- 
 faces D and E should be finished. The work is set up 
 for this operation as in Fig. 180; notice the parallels 
 placed beneath the work, and the paper test strips. Be 
 sure the work is driven down solidly on the parallels, so 
 these strips cannot be pulled out. These test strips 
 should be placed at each end of the work. Use a lead 
 hammer in driving the work in place, and do not drive 
 hard, in setting the work down; strike rather light blows. 
 
 There are two ways in which we may mill the surfaces 
 D and E, set up as illustrated. One is to use a single 
 side mill, and the other is to use two mills, mounted the 
 correct distance apart on the arbor to give the desired 
 distance between D and E. This class of "set-up " is 
 
210 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 known as "straddle milling." Regardless of the method 
 used, we must be careful to keep the central portion of 
 the block equally distant from the surfaces B and C, so 
 that when we finish surfaces B and C the dimensions J 
 and / shall be equal. As a study, we will plan to finish 
 
 J3aPES_STJtLE& 
 
 Fig. 180 
 
 surfaces D and E separately, each with a separate cut; 
 this is not the most rapid way o£ doing the job, since it 
 is evident that the straddle mill method would enable 
 us to finish the work in less time. "The single cutter 
 method brings out the operation of the machine better, 
 however, hence the reason for studying this method. 
 
 The mill should be placed on the arbor as in Fig. 180 
 and a cut run on the surface as at D for about 5". Back 
 the cutter off, and, with a straight edge laid on the section 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 211 
 
 of cut taken, measure by means of a steel rule the di- 
 mension /. With a caliper, measure the dimension M. 
 Two cuts may be run over this surface, and when the 
 finishing cut is made the distance / should be about 
 rt" larger than the dimension called for on the drawing, 
 and the dimension M about |" larger than finished size. 
 
 After making the finishing cut on surface D, the table 
 may be moved by means of the cross feed screw so sur- 
 face E may be finished. At 34, Fig. 176, is located a dial 
 which reads in thousandths 
 of an inch; by measuring 
 the thickness of the cutter, 
 and adding this to the di- 
 mension M, the approxi- 
 mate dimension for roughing 
 out surface E may be set 
 with this dial. This should 
 not be depended upon for 
 the finished size, however, 
 because any inaccuracy in either cutter or arbor will cause 
 error. The final dimension M should be determined by 
 using the caliper, running the cut on about §", backing 
 off, measuring, and re-setting till the proper size is obtained. 
 
 When running the cuts on surfaces D and E do not 
 attempt to finish the flanges at C to size. This work can 
 be more accurately and quickly done by using the verti- 
 cal milling attachment, and an end mill. The surface G 
 is left rough on this job, so we may take up the finishing 
 of flanges B and C, as well as clearance space F, Fig. 179. 
 The work is placed in the vise as shown at Fig. 181, and 
 the vertical attachment mounted on the arm. In using 
 this attachment, be sure that the table graduations are 
 set true to the index mark. Drive the mill firmly into 
 the spindle, see that the attachment is properly oiled, 
 and run an end cut over surface B, measuring for dimen- 
 
 Fig. 181 
 
212 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 sion with a depth gage. When surface B has been 
 properly finished in relation to surface D, the thickness 
 of the flange J may be finished, at the same setting of 
 the work. Have the end mill sharp, and true for this 
 work, and finish with a cut about A" in depth. 
 
 Fig. 178 
 
 1. Index crank. 
 
 2. Sector pieces 
 
 3. Head base. 
 
 4. Head swivel. 
 
 5. Spindle collar 
 
 this is mounted 
 on and protects the end of the 
 spindle. 
 
 6. Center arm. 
 
 7. Center. 
 
 8. Direct index plate; for" indexing 
 
 small number of divisions. 
 
 9. Index plate locking pin. 
 
 10. Swivel graduations. 
 
 11. Swivel clamp bblt. 
 
 13. Footstock center. 
 
 14. Footstock center adjusting 
 
 screw. 
 
 15. Footstock center swivel pin. 
 
 16. Footstock center clamp. 
 
 17. Footstock base. 
 
 18. Table clamp bolts. 
 
 Before turning the work in the vise to finish flange C, 
 we will mill the clearance pocket at F. This is simply 
 cut out to dimensions called for on the drawings, using 
 the vertical attachment and the same mill we have been 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 213 
 
 using in finishing flange B. The depth gage and scale 
 are used to measure the finished dimensions. The finish- 
 ing of the flange C is a duplicate of the process described 
 for flange B. For finishing the ends, the block may be 
 set as for finishing the last flange, and the vertical attach- 
 ment swung into place so the mill is in a horizontal 
 position, and the ends finished by taking end mill cuts. 
 Dimensions are measured by using the outside caliper. 
 In finishing these end surfaces, the table stops should 
 be used to prevent movement of the table during the 
 cutting operation. The vertical attachment should be 
 looked up in the Brown and Sharpe catalog. 1 
 
 Simple Indexing. — The process of simple indexing is 
 one of the most common jobs met on the miller. It 
 introduces to us the milling machine dividing head shown 
 in detail. in Fig. 178; at A is shown the dividing head 
 and at B the footstock. We will study two typical 
 applications of simple indexing at present. In one the 
 centers will be used, and in the other the chuck. For 
 the first job we assume that we are to mill the tongue on 
 a twist drill. Remove all the stops on the machine, take 
 off the vise, and set the dividing head and footstock on 
 the miller table, being careful to clean off all dirt from 
 table surface and bearing surface of dividing head parts. 
 Mount the parts on the table of the miller, and clamp them . 
 firmly in place. Oil all parts of the dividing head. 
 
 Before starting work we must make a brief study of 
 the dividing head, in order that we may use it intelli- 
 gently. First find ^out how many turns of the index 
 handle #1 are necessary in order to turn the index head 
 spindle one complete turn. On most modern millers it 
 requires forty turns of the index handle. All simple 
 indexing is based directly on this relation. With each 
 universal milling machine sent out by the manufacturers, 
 an index card is supplied, for the use of the operator, 
 
 1 Review shaper work for points on shimming and testing work. 
 
214 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 when setting up for indexing. The headings on a typical 
 index card are shown below: 
 
 
 
 *4-l 
 
 
 T3 
 
 13 
 
 
 oa 
 
 
 s..s 
 
 ^ 02 
 
 '3 
 
 93 
 
 8 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 -^> 
 
 g 
 fit 
 
 09 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 S a 
 
 a s 
 •a a 
 
 O 
 
 "5 => 
 
 CD 
 
 Diam. of 
 
 cutter mill 
 
 or drill 
 
 10 
 
 -0 
 
 c 
 
 6 
 
 CD 
 
 o 
 
 24 
 
 SQ 
 " i-H 
 
 bJD 
 
 s 
 O 
 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 3 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Any 
 
 20 
 
 72 
 
 28 
 
 86 
 
 1.08S 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 4VJ 
 
 
 39 
 
 13 if 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 4 
 
 Any 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The meaning of the various headings appearing on this 
 card is outlined below: 
 
 "Number of Divisions " means the number of parts 
 into which the circumference of the work is to be divided. 
 In the case of the tongue for the twist drill it is evidently 
 two. If a gear was to be cut, this "number of divisions " 
 would be the number of teeth in the gear. 
 
 "Index Circle " means a particular set of holes in the 
 index plate, into which the index pin should set when 
 the index arm #1, Fig. 178, is properly adjusted. If you 
 study the index plates which come with the machine, 
 you will see a set of numbers on the face of each plate. 
 The numbers tell how many holes there are in each circle; 
 for example, the number 18 indicates that there are 
 eighteen holes in the circle located in the line of these 
 figures in the index circle. 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 215 
 
 "Number of Turns " indicates the movement of the 
 index handle in complete turns, and fractions of a turn, 
 which are necessary, in order to revolve the spindle the 
 proper amount to set the work in the desired position 
 for various cuts. The fraction of a turn is always in the 
 denomination of the number of holes in the index circle. 
 Notice at 2, Fig. 178, the sectors, which are of assistance 
 in setting off the proper fraction of a turn to move the in- 
 dex handle. At D, Fig. 178, is shown a view of an index 
 plate, with the sectors in position for spacing a fractional 
 movement of six holes. In use, if the pin were in hole b 
 and we were to move 13 T % turns, the index handle should 
 be turned thirteen times, and six spaces over, dropping 
 index pin in hole e. The operator should then slide the 
 sector along so it is in position for the next movement 
 of the index handle. 
 
 Relative to the job we are to do, namely cutting a 
 tongue on a twist drill shank, first select an end mill to 
 give the required radius at the base of tongue; see under 
 R in table XII. See that there is no dirt on the end mill 
 shank, nor in spindle or collets. Drive the mill firmly 
 into the spindle using a lead hammer. See that the 
 index lines on the head at /, Fig. 178, coincide, and that 
 the movable head of the footstock is tightened, so that 
 the centers are in line. It is a good practice to move 
 the dividing head and footstock up together, so that the 
 centers just touch. By this means, the workman can 
 easily see if the centers are greatly out of line, and make 
 adjustments accordingly. 
 
 The work is now mounted on the centers, being sure the 
 head and footstock are properly clamped to the table, and 
 the work run into position for a cut. A center punch 
 mark should be placed on the taper shank of the drill, 
 to indicate the length of the tongue. This mark should 
 be beneath the center of the mill when the lengthwise 
 
216 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 feeding is stopped. Use the table stop to hold the table 
 in the proper position after each cut has been made. 
 
 Looking at the index card, we see that the number of 
 turns for two divisions is twenty, and we may use any 
 index circle; it is not necessary to set the division sectors 
 for this job, as the index pin is always set into the same 
 hole in the index plate. 
 
 Start a light cut on the end of the shank, run up to 
 the position, indicated by the center punch mark on the 
 shank, set the table stop to fix the limit of the cut, back 
 the work off, turn the index handle twenty turns, and 
 run a cut on the surface to the required position, deter- 
 mined by the table stop." Measure the thickness of the 
 tongue thus made with a micrometer caliper, and sub- 
 tract from this measurement the thickness of the finished 
 tongue. One half the measurement thus found is the 
 amount which must be removed from each face of the 
 tongue, to get the required size. 
 
 Looking at the inner end of the handwheel hub #37, 
 Fig. 176, we see a dial reading in thousandths of an inch. 
 By slacking off the binding nut, this dial may be set so 
 it indicates zero in any position of the shaft. The zero 
 on the dial should be set to the index line on the face of 
 the knee, and the binding nut tightened. Raise the 
 table the amount required to conform to the calculation 
 made to determine the finished thickness of the tongue, 
 clamp the knee gib screws at the front of the knee, and 
 run a cut on each face of the tongue. The work should 
 be calipered, and if the dimension is correct the tongue 
 is finished. The machine is apt, under a heavy cut, to 
 show some "spring " so a light finishing cut may be 
 necessary, after the cuts described, in order to bring 
 the work to exact size. 
 
 " Straddle Milling." — Whenever more than one mill- 
 ing cutter is mounted on an arbor, the work being operated 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 217 
 
 upon between the two inner faces of the cutters, the 
 operation is known as straddle milling. In any case, 
 when a number of cutters are used on an arbor, the 
 process is known as "gang milling," so straddle milling 
 is a particular class of gang milling. For accurate gang 
 or straddle mill work, the cutters should remain on the 
 arbor constantly, after they have once been placed, and 
 
 SlT>F Mil !.<=, 
 
 Fig. 182 
 
 removed only for purposes of sharpening. Commonly 
 the sharpening and remounting of cutters is done in the 
 tool room. For rough work, permitting a variation of 
 0.010" to 0.015" this precaution is not necessary. All 
 milled bolt heads, nuts, and a number of other machine 
 parts permit this variation, so a great deal of gang mill 
 work is done with mills mounted for each job, and the 
 cutters removed after the job is completed. 
 
 As a study in straddle milling, we will look into the 
 method of finishing a standard hexagonal bolt head, illus- 
 trated in Fig. 182. This is to finish IjV' across flats; 
 place bushings on arbor at A and enough bushings be- 
 tween the cutters to locate the faces of the cutter teeth 
 ItV apart. Place the bushings on the remaining portions 
 of the arbor, tighten up the arbor binding nut, drive the 
 arbor in place, being careful to have all parts clean, ad- 
 
218 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 just and oil the center, and start the machine. Be sure 
 the cutters run true on the faces, or the work will not be 
 the required size. 
 
 The center should now be driven out of the dividing 
 head, the hole stuffed "with waste, and a chuck mounted 
 on the spindle nose at #5, Fig. 178. The protecting collar 
 should be removed for this purpose. The chuck is of the 
 universal type; set the work well down in the chuck, 
 tighten the jaws, as described in an earlier chapter, and 
 move the head swivel so the chuck sets horizontally. 
 
 All gibs on the machine should be set up closely but 
 not tightly. The work must now be centered relative 
 to the cutters, so that each face of the work shall be 
 equally distant from the center of the bolt; this is done 
 as follows: place the work so it sets beneath the cutters 
 as in Fig. 182; by means of the cross feed screw, set the 
 work so the cutters will remove an equal amount of stock 
 from each side of the bolt head, as nearly as you can 
 judge with the eye. Now by means of the elevating screw, 
 raise the table so that the cutters produce a cut about T y 
 deep. Lower the table away, but do not move it length- 
 wise, turn the index handle twenty turns, and raise the 
 work carefully, so that the work comes to the circum- 
 ference of the cutters. If the cut previously taken will 
 pass between the cutters without removing any stock from 
 either face, the work is central. If any stock is removed 
 by either cutter, it will be noticed that the opposite cutter 
 is some distance from the face of the work. To correct 
 the error, move the work towards the cutter that is not 
 cutting, one half the distance it stands from the face of 
 the cut previously taken. A second trial cut is now made, 
 and the operation described above is repeated, till the 
 bolt head, by reversing as explained, will enter accu- 
 rately between the two mills, when we know the head is 
 central. 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE OR MILLER 219 
 
 The workman does not usually make the successive 
 trial cuts, in one position of the bolt head, because the 
 trial cuts might become so deep that they would show 
 on the finished work. The first trial is made in one 
 position, then an index movement is made, and a second 
 trial cut run. When the head is properly located, the 
 table is raised so the cutters will sweep over the whole 
 surface to be finished, and the successive cuts run, in- 
 dexing between each cut, till the six faces are completed. 
 The process of centering is necessary, only on the first 
 piece of a lot. After the piece is centered, clamp the 
 cross slide gib, so the cross slide cannot be moved, and 
 the machine may be operated without re-setting, as long 
 as machine or cutter arrangement is not changed in any 
 way. 
 
 The economic advantage of the gang mill is seen in 
 this job, for we have made but three cuts to finish six 
 faces. Notice that the indexing is set for six divisions, 
 not three. The indexing is always based on the number 
 of divisions wanted on the work when working with 
 straddle mills. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Name and illustrate the tools commonly used on the miller. 
 
 2. Explain the following terms: slab milling; end milling. 
 
 3. Give a brief description of the " set up " for a slab milling 
 job. 
 
 4. Explain " simple indexing " as applied in milling machine 
 practice. 
 
 5. Explain the " headings " found on the index card, in so far 
 as they apply to simple indexing. 
 
 6. What is meant by the term, " gang milling " ? 
 
 7. Explain briefly the " set up " for straddle milling a bolt head. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 GEARING 
 
 There are several different kinds of gears used in the 
 machine shop, but the most common type is the spur 
 gear. 
 
 Before the machinist can successfully work on gearing, 
 he must acquaint himself with some of the technical 
 terms' which apply to this particular class of work. The 
 "blank " is the piece of material from which the gear is 
 made; the hole in the blank is often spoken of as the 
 "bore" of the blank; the thickness of this blank is 
 known as the "face " of the gear, and the diameter to 
 which the blank is turned in the lathe is known as the 
 "outside diameter " of the gear. 
 
 In considering the diameter of a gear we must deal 
 with more than one dimension. The outside diameter is 
 .the measurement over the tops of the teeth; this dimen- 
 sion, however, is not the one used in the calculation of 
 running speeds of gearing, but another diameter, some- 
 what smaller than the outside one, is used for this, which 
 is known as the "pitch diameter," and which is a very 
 important dimension in all gearing calculations. Then, in 
 addition to the two above mentioned, the diameter at the 
 bottom of the teeth must be used at times also. See. 
 Fig. 183 for the dimensions to which these various diame- 
 ters refer. 
 
 Now practically all of the dimensions of gearing are 
 related in some manner to the pitch diameter, and one 
 of the much used terms in connection with gearing is 
 "diametral pitch." 
 
 220 
 
GEARING 221 
 
 It is a well known fact that the circumference of a circle 
 is very nearly equal to 3.1416 times its diameter; since 
 this is true, it is evident that for every inch on the di- 
 ameter of a circle there -must be 3.1416 inches on the 
 circumference. If we regard these linear measurements 
 as' related units, which we do when dealing with gearing, 
 then the unit on the circumference is 3.1416 times as 
 large as the unit on the diameter. 
 
 It is very convenient when making calculations dealing 
 with gearing to base the work on the diameter, because 
 diametral measurements are conveniently made with 
 simple types of measuring instruments, and the truths 
 just discussed make it possible to use the diameter as the 
 basis of our calculations. Since there are 3.1416 inches 
 in the circumference of a circle for every inch of the 
 diameter, if we place in this space on the circumference a 
 given number of gear teeth, say four, we can easily find 
 the whole number of teeth which can be placed on the 
 circumference by multiplying the number of teeth in this 
 space (4) by the number of inches in the diameter. 
 
 Suppose we have a gear blank which is 4" in diameter, 
 and we place 4 teeth in each space in the circumference 
 which corresponds to each 1" space on the diameter, 
 then if we multiply this number of teeth so placed on the 
 circumference by the number of inches in the diameter, 
 the result will give us the number of teeth in the gear. 
 
 Now the number of teeth placed in the space on the, 
 circumference, which corresponds to one inch on the di- 
 ameter, is given the specific name of "diametral pitch " 
 in gearing language, and is a term which we commonly 
 meet. Probably one most often hears this unit spoken 
 of as the "pitch," and, unless otherwise advised, he may 
 assume that this term "pitch " always means the diam- 
 etral pitch as described above.. We may now consider 
 the following as an accepted definition: the diametral 
 
222 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 pitch of a gear, is the number of teeth on the (pitch) cir- 
 cumference for each inch in the (pitch) diameter. 
 
 Whenever the mechanic hears the pitch of a gear men- 
 tioned, he has a very good idea of its appearance so far 
 as its teeth are concerned, for, if it be 4 pitch, commonly- 
 written 4P, he knows that for each space 3.1416" long 
 in the circumference there are 4 teeth, as 3.1416" is the 
 space on the circumference corresponding to 1" on the 
 pitch diameter. The catalogue of the Brown & Sharpe 
 Mfg. Co., Providence, R. I., contains cuts showing the 
 comparative sizes of gear teeth, and these cuts may be 
 studied by the young mechanic with considerable profit. 
 
 When two gears run together, or "in mesh," the speed 
 ratios are not determined by the outside diameters of 
 the gears, but by the pitch diameters. The extremities 
 of the pitch diameter .of a gear are at a point \ the depth 
 of the tooth, inside the extremities of the outside diameter, 
 see Fig. 183. This pitch diameter is the dimension on 
 which most calculations are based; when two gears are 
 operating, the speed ratios are determined by the diame- 
 ters of two cylinders, the diameters of which may be 
 regarded as pitch diameters of the gears. 
 
 It is evident that two such cylinders in contact would 
 slide on each other, and the motion would not be posi- 
 tive; for this reason gear teeth are placed on these cylin- 
 ders, one half of the tooth lying outside of the surface of 
 the elementary cylinders, and one half lying inside. 
 That portion which is outside the surface is added to the 
 elementary gear body, and is known as the addendum, 
 while that lying inside the surface is deducted from it, 
 and is known as the dedendum. 
 
 Thus we find our tooth divided into two parts by the 
 pitch surface, the outer part known as addendum, and 
 the inner part as dedendum, see Fig. 183. The portion 
 of tooth surface embraced by the addendum dimension is 
 
GEARING 223 
 
 known as the. face of the tooth (not face of gear, remem- 
 ber), while that portion embraced by the dedendum 
 dimensions is known as the flank of the tooth. 
 
 Now, relative to the relation of the addendum and the 
 dedendum to the pitch, practice has set the value in 
 fractions of an inch of both these dimensions as equal to 
 
 1 divided by the pitch (expressed as -J in which P equals 
 
 the diametral pitch of the gear; from this we see that 
 different pitches have various depths of teeth. If we have 
 a 4 P gear, the addendum will be \" and the dedendum 
 \", or the whole depth of tooth f " + \" = §", thus we see 
 that the depth of the tooth is equal to the addendum 
 and the dedendum added together, or 2 divided by the 
 pitch. We may then assume the following rules to hold 
 true in practice : 
 
 To find depth of tooth, divide 2 by the diametral, pitch; 
 and 
 
 To find addendum or dedendum, divide 1 by the diametral 
 pitch. 
 
 Gears of a different pitch will not operate together, so 
 if we have several gears in a set which we expect to run 
 in mesh, all such gears must be of the same pitch, and 
 just what pitch shall be used to do certain classes of work 
 must be determined by the designer. Gear design does 
 not come within the limits of this text, but a simple ex- 
 position of this subject is given in the author's book, 
 "Materials and Construction," published by P.. Blakis- 
 ton's Sons, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 Since we know that the term "pitch " means the num- 
 ber of teeth on the pitch circumference for each inch of 
 pitch diameter, it is clear that if we multiply the pitch 
 by the pitch diameter we will have the number of teeth 
 in the gear; hence the following rule: 
 
224 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Given, pitch diameter and diametral pitch, to find the 
 number of teeth, multiply pitch diameter by pitch. 
 
 If we have number of teeth and pitch, we can find 
 the pitch diameter as follows :. 
 
 Given, number of teeth and diametral pitch, to find pitch 
 diameter, divide number of teeth by the diametral pitch. 
 
 If we have number of teeth and pitch diameter, we can 
 easily find the pitch as follows: 
 
 Given, number of teeth and pitch diameter, to find the 
 pitch, divide number of teeth by the pitch diameter. 
 
 We recall, when discussing the addendum of a tooth, 
 that we found its value in parts of an inch to be equal 
 
 to — ; now if we know the pitch diameter of a gear, we 
 
 can easily find the outside diameter by adding twice — 
 
 to the pitch diameter, that is, we add the addendum of 
 one tooth to each extremity of the pitch diameter, and 
 we have the diameter to which the blank must be turned 
 in the lathe. 
 
 Let us suppose that we have a gear of 16 teeth, and 
 that this gear is to be 4 P; from the previous rule we 
 know that the pitch diameter will be -^ = 4". To get 
 the outside diameter let us add twice the addendum, 
 which in this case is equal to f, and we have the out- 
 side diameter of the gear, which is 4J,". Notice that in 
 order to get the pitch diameter, we divided the number 
 of teeth, 16, by the pitch, 4; and to get the dimension 
 which must be added for the outside diameter, we divided 
 2 by the pitch and added it to the quotient obtained by 
 dividing 16 by 4. Thus we have calculated as follows: 
 
 16 I 8 _ .18. _ AX 
 
 16+2 18 ., 
 
 or — = 4| 
 
 4 4 
 
GEARING 225 
 
 From the foregoing we may develop the following 
 rule: 
 
 To find the outside diameter of a gear, having given the 
 number of teeth and the pitch, add 2 to the number of teeth 
 and divide by the pitch. 
 
 This same analysis applies also to the following very 
 useful rules of gearing: 
 
 Having given, number of teeth and diameter of blank, 
 to find the pitch, add 2 to the number of teeth and divide by 
 the diameter of blank. 
 
 Having given, whole diameter of blank and pitch, to find 
 number of teeth in gear, multiply diameter by pitch and 
 subtract 2. 
 
 The diametral pitch is not the only pitch which the 
 workman must consider. On certain occasions it is neces- 
 sary to know the relations of various parts of the gear 
 tooth measured on the pitch surface; such measurements 
 are spoken of as the circular dimensions of the gear tooth, 
 and the distance from a point on one tooth to the corre- 
 sponding point on an adjacent tooth is known as the 
 circular pitch, see Fig. 183. 
 
 Now since the diametral pitch is equal to the number 
 of teeth contained in a measurement of 3.1416" on the 
 pitch surface, it is evident that the circular pitch must 
 be equal to 3.1416 divided by the diametral pitch, since 
 this will give as a quotient the distance from the center 
 of one tooth to the center of the next tooth. We have 
 from this process of reasoning the following rule: 
 
 Having given the diametral pitch, to find the circular 
 pitch, divide 3.14-16 by the diametral pitch. 
 
 In looking at a gear we note that for every tooth on 
 the circumference there is a corresponding space. When 
 cutting a gear the mechanic often finds it necessary to 
 measure the width of the tooth on the pitch surface; 
 now on the pitch surface the width of the tooth and the 
 
226 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 space are equal, hence if we have 3.1416" on the circum- 
 ference for each inch on the diameter, one half of this 
 3.1416" will be space and one half of it will be tooth 
 body, or 1.570" will be space and 1.570" will be tooth. 
 So if we wish to find the width of tooth on pitch surface, 
 since we know that the pitch is the number of teeth in 
 3.1416" of the circumference, and furthermore since it is 
 a fact that half of this 3.1416", or 1.570", is tooth, then 
 we divide 1.570" by the pitch. We have then the fol- 
 lowing rule: 
 
 To find .the width of tooth on the "pitch line," divide 
 1.570" by the -pitch. 
 
 This same reasoning enables us to deduce the following 
 rule: 
 
 Given the circular pitch, to find the diametral pitch, 
 divide 3.1416" by the circular pitch. 
 
 In considering the depth of tooth in the foregoing 
 pages, we assumed that a tooth of a given pitch would 
 exactly fit into a corresponding space, but this is not 
 true, since it is not possible to reach mechanical perfec- 
 tion; hence some extra depth must be added to the theo- 
 retical depth; this addition is known as "clearance," 
 
 and is equal to — — — For the whole depth of tooth 
 
 including clearance, related to the diametral pitch, we 
 
 2.157 
 have < in which P equals pitch. 
 
 This value of whole depth of tooth can be related to 
 the circular pitch as follows: we recall that the circular 
 
 . , , , 3.1416 
 
 pitch was shown to be equal to — — — > we have also seen 
 
 2.157 
 that the whole depth of tooth is > then the ratio of 
 
GEARING 227 
 
 our whole tooth depth to the circular pitch is 
 
 2.157 . 3.1416 _ 2.157 P 2.157 ...... 
 
 t, - — - — = — — X - — - — = = 0.6866, hence 
 
 P P P 3.1416 3.1416 
 
 th.e following statement: 
 
 The whole depth of a tooth equals 0.6866 of the circular 
 "pitch. 
 
 In applying gearing to service, it is commonly placed 
 in pairs, one gear meshing with another; in this arrange- 
 ment of a pair of gears, the larger one is usually spoken 
 of as the gear, and the smaller one as the pinion. The 
 mechanic often finds it necessary to determine the proper 
 distance apart at which gear centers may be located in 
 order that they shall run properly. 
 
 Looking at Fig. 183 we see that this distance must be 
 equal to the sum of the pitch radii, and we recall that 
 the pitch diameter equals the number of teeth divided by 
 the pitch, and the pitch radius of each gear will equal \ 
 the number of teeth in each gear divided by the pitch. 
 Adding the values thus found will give us the required 
 center distance; hence we have the following rule: 
 
 To find the distance between centers of two gears, add the 
 number of teeth together and divide half the sum by the 
 diametral pitch. 
 
 Gears made in the machine shop are commonly cut in 
 the milling machine; other methods of producing gears 
 in large quantities are by means of the automatic gear 
 cutter and the gear shaper. As the two last named 
 machines are of a specialized variety, they will not be 
 considered in the present chapter, since the cutting of a 
 gear in the milling machine presents all the elementary 
 steps of the work. 
 
 Assuming that the gear blank has been properly turned 
 and mounted on a mandrel, the first step is to select the 
 proper cutter. Gear cutters are of two general varieties, 
 
228 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 namely, involute and epicycloidal; the involute cutter 
 is in such common use that it may be regarded as the 
 accepted system of practice; nevertheless, occasionally 
 the mechanic must cut gears having epicycloidal teeth, 
 hence the cutter for this form of tooth will be briefly 
 discussed later on. 
 
 First, relative to involute cutters, we must understand 
 that one cutter will not cut all numbers of teeth, even 
 though all the wheels we wish to cut are of the same 
 pitch. For example, if we are to cut a gear of 12 P hav- 
 ing 20 teeth, we must not use for this the same cutter 
 which would serve us when cutting a gear of 12 P, 130 
 teeth. We therefore have a range table for the various 
 cutters, each cutter having a specific number, and a cer- 
 tain range of teeth is allowed for each of these numbers, 
 as follows : 
 
 Involute Cutters. — Eight cutters are made for each 
 pitch, as follows: 
 
 No. 1 will cut wheels from 135 teeth to a rack. 
 
 a 2 " " 
 
 It it 
 
 55 " 
 
 " 134 teeth 
 
 " 3 " " 
 
 it it 
 
 35 " 
 
 " 54 " 
 
 a ^ a u 
 
 a a 
 
 26 " 
 
 " 34 " 
 
 " 5 " " 
 
 it a 
 
 21 " 
 
 " 25 " 
 
 a 6 a ,i 
 
 a it 
 
 17 " 
 
 " 20 " 
 
 ii n a u 
 
 a a 
 
 14 " 
 
 a 16 ,i 
 
 " 8 " " 
 
 a it 
 
 12 " 
 
 " 13 " 
 
 Studying this table, we see that if we wish to cut a 
 gear having 135 teeth or more, we use a #1 cutter; this 
 is also serviceable if we wish to cut a rack, which is noth- 
 ing but a series of gear teeth cut on the face of a straight 
 piece of stock, see Fig. 183 B. If we wish to cut a gear 
 having any number of teeth between 55 and 134 inclu- 
 sive, we will use a #2 cutter. Now *a set of these cutters 
 is made up for every pitch of gear in common use. Gear 
 
GEARING 229 
 
 cutters are commonly purchased from manufacturers who 
 make a specialty of this line of work, and have facilities for 
 producing a very accurate tool. 
 
 If we have read the preceding text carefully, we know 
 that when asking for a gear cutter, we must state the 
 pitch and range of teeth necessary for the gear on which 
 we are working. In order to save time, the workman 
 should also state the diameter of hole required in the 
 
 Fig. 183. Gearing Details 
 
 a. Indicates the pitch diameter. 
 
 6. Indicates the addendum. 
 
 c. Indicates the dedendum. 
 
 d. Indicates the tooth face. 
 
 e. Indicates the tooth flank. 
 /. Indicates the circular pitch. 
 
 The teeth on these gears and on the rack are enlarged out of proper 
 proportion to size of blank, for the purpose of illustration. 
 
 cutter, so that it may properly fit the arbor of the milling 
 machine. 
 
 The epicycloidal cutter is but rarely used in cutting 
 gears. For certain classes of work, however, the designer 
 uses the epi6ycloidal tooth because of its smoother action, 
 and therefore the young machinist should be familiar 
 with it. So far as the setting of this cutter in the ma- 
 
230 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 chine is concerned, it is in no way different from the 
 process necessary for the involute cutter. The range 
 table for these is related to the alphabet instead of to 
 numerals, as follows. 
 
 Epicycloidal Cutters. — Cutters are marked with letters, 
 and there are 24 cutters in each set. 
 
 Cutter A cuts 
 
 12 teeth 
 
 Cutter M cuts 
 
 27 to 
 
 29 teeth 
 
 a 
 
 B 
 
 ii 
 
 13 " 
 
 a 
 
 N 
 
 a 
 
 30" 
 
 33 " 
 
 tt 
 
 C 
 
 it- 
 
 14 " 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 34" 
 
 37 " 
 
 it 
 
 D 
 
 it 
 
 15 " 
 
 a 
 
 P 
 
 tt 
 
 38" 
 
 42 " 
 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 it 
 
 16 " 
 
 a 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 43" 
 
 49 " 
 
 n 
 
 F 
 
 tt 
 
 17 " 
 
 a 
 
 R 
 
 n 
 
 50" 
 
 59 " 
 
 n 
 
 G 
 
 it 
 
 18 " 
 
 n 
 
 S 
 
 it 
 
 60" 
 
 74 " 
 
 n 
 
 H 
 
 tt 
 
 19 " 
 
 a 
 
 T 
 
 a 
 
 75" 
 
 99 " 
 
 tt 
 
 I 
 
 it 
 
 20 " 
 
 tt 
 
 U 
 
 a 
 
 100" 
 
 149 " 
 
 • a 
 
 J 
 
 it 
 
 21 to 22 " 
 
 tt 
 
 V 
 
 tt 
 
 150" 
 
 249 " 
 
 tt 
 
 K 
 
 a 
 
 23 to 24 " 
 
 tt 
 
 w 
 
 a 
 
 250 or more 
 
 tt 
 
 L 
 
 a 
 
 25 to 26 " 
 
 tt 
 
 X 
 
 a 
 
 Rack 
 
 
 In calling for these cutters at the tool room or on 
 requisition, the workman must give the required range 
 letter, pitch, and diameter of hole. 
 
 The milling machine should be set up for cutting a 
 spur gear in the same way it was set for cutting the 
 tongue on the twist drill. Cutters carefully adjusted, no 
 dirt on parts, and everything well oiled. The stop for 
 lengthwise movement is not necessary. Looking at the 
 gear cutter, Fig. 184, we see a line marked on the surface 
 at A. This line is the center of the forming faces of the 
 cutter, and it is used for setting the cutter in the proper 
 position for cutting the gear teeth, as illustrated in Fig. 
 184. The table should be raised, and the footstock center 
 placed directly in line with the mark on the face of the 
 
GEARING 
 
 231 
 
 cutter as shown in the illustration; this is one of the 
 first steps in cutting a gear. Tighten the cross slide gib 
 screws so the cross slide cannot be moved after this set- 
 ting has been made. 
 
 The table is now lowered, and run back, leaving room 
 to place the mandrel having the work properly mounted, 
 
 VieW 
 
 -Footdtbck ceTjtev 
 
 Fito>Jt \/iev/ 
 
 fhot&iocq center 
 SiDE Vi'eW 
 
 Fig. 184 
 
 on the centers; tighten the center arm binding screw on 
 the tail of the dog so there may be no play. We must 
 now set the index for the proper movement of the blank 
 in cutting the teeth; suppose we wish to cut 39 teeth in 
 this gear; looking at the index card we see that we may 
 use a 39 index circle, and that the index crank should be 
 moved one turn and ^th of a turn over, so we set the 
 sectors to permit a movement of one space, that is the 
 
232 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 distance between two holes on the 39 circle. When 
 counting off a spacing on an index circle, always count 
 the spaces between the holes on the plate, as it is the 
 space that determines the movement of the index handle. 
 
 Being properly set up, we now run the work up so the 
 cutter just makes a slight mark on the edge of the gear 
 as at B, Fig. 184, draw the work back, index, and mark 
 the next tooth; continue this operation around the 
 whole circumference of the blank, and count the marks 
 made; if these marks are the same in number as re- 
 quired for the teeth in the gear, your indexing is correct; 
 if they do not agree, look for an error in your index "set- 
 up," and correct it. The operation just described is 
 known as "spotting the blank." 
 
 The next step consists of bringing the blank in posi- 
 tion so the cutter just touches the surface as shown in 
 Fig. 184 at C; run the work back so it is free from the 
 cutter, set the micrometer dial on the table elevating 
 screw to the zero point, and raise the knee an amount 
 equal to the full depth of the tooth. The cutting may 
 now be proceeded with, going completely around the 
 gear, and letting the cutter run completely across the 
 face of the blank at each pass. As the cut is started on 
 each tooth, notice whether or not it coincides with the 
 small mark previously made when spotting. Occasion- 
 ally a gear blank slips on the mandrel, and the cutter 
 does not enter the spotting mark. If this is noticed in 
 the process of working, operations should be stopped at 
 once, the gear driven more solidly on the mandrel, and 
 the blank reset in the machine. In resetting, the blank 
 should be turned back, by means of the index handle, 
 so that the cutter is true in a space five or six divisions 
 back of that on which the error was noticed, and cutting 
 proceeded with from that point. There are a number of 
 operations carried out on the miller as the machine is 
 
GEARING 233 
 
 adapted to many special operations. Most of the work 
 is related directly to slab milling, end milling, gang mill- 
 ing, or indexing, and in the preceding text we have 
 studied these processes. The calculations underlying the 
 index table, which was used in setting up the index of 
 the machine, will be taken up in the chapter on 
 calculations. 
 
 In looking at the index card the learner will notice 
 other entries, specifying the use of gears; these data deal 
 with the cutting of helical or "spiral " cutters and gears. 
 The subject is of a more advanced nature than the ma- 
 terial logically finding a place in the present text, and it 
 is reserved for treatment in a more advanced work. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Explain the following terms as applied to gearing: blank; 
 bore; face; outside diameter. 
 
 2. Explain your understanding of the term, " diametral pitch." 
 
 3. Explain the following terms as applied to gear teeth: ad- 
 dendum; dedendum; face; flank; circular pitch. 
 
 • 4. Explain the meaning of the numbers used in classifying 
 involute cutters. 
 
 6. Give a brief description of the " set up " for cutting a spur 
 gear on the miller. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 THE PLANER 
 
 The planer is used in modern shop practice, for the 
 same purpose as the shaper, which we have already- 
 studied. The planer accommodates much larger work 
 than the shaper, is capable of carrying heavier cuts, and, 
 while the general principles of operation are the same, the 
 detail of handling the work is somewhat different. The 
 same classes of cutting tools are used on the planer as 
 on the shaper, so the learner may refer to the chapter 
 on shaper operation to refresh his mind on the tool classi- 
 fication. Vise work is handled on the planer in the same 
 way that it is carried out on the shaper, so this subject 
 will not be presented again. 
 
 A view of a modern planer is shown in Fig. 185. The 
 learner should study this figure carefully, as he has been 
 advised to do in connection with other machines. In 
 starting the machine, handle all parts, and become 
 acquainted with the functions of each, before attempting 
 to do a job. Be sure to oil all parts of the machine, not 
 forgetting the main and auxiliary driving shafts inside 
 the bed. In some designs this machine has two traveling 
 heads mounted on the rail. These are of service on many 
 occasions when the workman wishes to run a vertical cut 
 on two' faces of work, or one vertical and one angular cut, 
 or in certain cases, two surface cuts. 
 
 The most of the work done on the planer is platen 
 work, that is, the work is mounted directly on the platen 
 of the machine, and clamped to it, while the cut is being 
 taken. Before starting to study a specific job, it will be 
 
 234 
 
THE PLANER 235 
 
 well for the beginner to become acquainted with some of 
 the clamping devices used, and a few features of opera- 
 tion which apply particularly to the planer. 
 
 A great deal of planer work consists of planing sur- 
 faces flat and true, and for some of this work the vise is 
 used. The pinch strip is used very successfully for this 
 work, as shown in Fig. 186. It is simply a thin piece of 
 metal about 1J" wide, and §" thick, planed parallel on 
 the edges, the heel of which sets into grooves in the vise 
 jaws. The jaws are closed by means of set screws d, 
 the jaw holding down bolts b being set down closely but 
 not tightly while the jaws are tightened. The pinch 
 strips setting in the grooves c, it is evident they cannot 
 rise, so the work is pushed down by the edge / of pinch 
 strip. A stop must be used on heavy cuts, to prevent 
 the work sliding endwise. After setting up screws d, 
 clamp bolts b are tightened solidly. 
 
 Much surface planing to be done is too large to hold 
 in the vise; in Fig. 187 the principles of pinching work 
 to the platen are illustrated. The piece a is called a rib 
 piece; the tongue b should make a close fit in the platen 
 slots, and the bolts c clamp the rib piece firmly in place. 
 Here the work is forced downward on one edge only, by 
 means of the pinch stop d. This scheme works out very 
 well, if the piece being planed is comparatively thick, 
 but if it is thin, it tends to rise at the edge setting against 
 the rib, and the workman has difficulty in producing 
 accurate work. Figure 188 shows an application of the 
 pinch strip to the rib piece, which enables the workman 
 to get excellent results on thin flat pieces. 
 
 The strip a is bolted solidly to the platen by means of 
 the bolts b, and pinch strip c rests in a groove in this 
 strip. Strip d is a sliding piece with elongated slots as 
 indicated at e; bolts are inserted in the planer T-slot, 
 g, and set down just closely enough to permit this strip 
 
£36 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
THE PLANER 237 
 
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 T3 
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 o3 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
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 fl 
 
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238 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 to slide on the platen without lifting. The stop blocks 
 are inserted in the next T-slot, and the screws k set 
 against the sliding strip d. The pinch strip m is placed 
 and the screws k set up firmly, after which the strip d is 
 bolted solidly to the platen. Stop clamps should be 
 
 Fig. 186 
 
 used at the end of the work, to prevent sliding when the 
 cutting action is in progress. By having a number of 
 widths 'of strips a and d, and several widths of pinch 
 strips, any width of work may be handled. 
 
 At Figs. 189 D, E, F and G are shown some other 
 fixtures that are useful to the planer hand; at D is seen 
 
 Fig. 187 
 
 a stop stake; this is placed in the holes in the planer 
 platen, and prevents the work from moving under the 
 cut. At E is a pinch stake; this is placed in the hole in 
 the platen, and serves to pinch work down to the table; 
 it is a very satisfactory pinching device, if the work is 
 sufficiently thick to permit its use. At F we have a 
 stop block, used in the cross, or lengthwise T-slots of the 
 
THE PLANER 
 
 239 
 
 platen to prevent movement of the work under the cut. 
 It serves the same purpose as the stop stake D, but it 
 fits in the platen T-slot, instead of in a hole in the platen. 
 The pinch block G is used for the same purpose as the 
 
 Fig. 188 
 
 pinch stake, but it fits the platen T-slot instead of a hole 
 in the platen. 
 
 •Figure 190 shows a number of other pieces of clamp- 
 ing equipment, necessary for the planer. At A is shown 
 a clamping block; these are used under the outer ends 
 
 Fig. 189 
 
 of clamps, the other end bearing on the work and hold- 
 ing it in place. Not all shops have this equipment; the 
 workman uses any piece of stock he can pick up, when 
 clamping blocks are not available. 
 
 At B is shown a planer jack; this is very useful under 
 work, on certain occasions, when it cannot be supported 
 
240 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 satisfactorily without such equipment. Very often one 
 is called on to plane a piece of work having an over- 
 hanging portion. In order to support the surface to be 
 planed in the proper position, a jack is placed beneath 
 this overhanging section of work. At the right of the 
 figure are shown various kinds of clamps ; a is a straight 
 strap clamp, b is a bent strap clamp, c is a straight horse 
 shoe clamp, d is a pin point clamp, e is a goose neck 
 
 Fig. 190 
 
 clamp, / is a pin goose neck clamp. "Pin " clamps are' 
 also known as "finger " clamps, and "horse shoe " clamps 
 are sometimes called U-clamps. Each type of clamp 
 serves a specific purpose in planer practice, and is used 
 as the judgment of the workman dictates. In setting a 
 clamp on the work, one should be particular not to have 
 it bear at an angle on the surface, but set square and 
 come down to an even seat, on both the work and the 
 blocking. Parallel wedges are much used on the planer 
 as well as on the shaper. An illustration of their use was 
 given in connection with the shaper. Clamps, pinch 
 fingers, screws, and pinch strips are usually of machinery 
 steel; rib strips are of cast iron. 
 
THE PLANER 
 
 241 
 
 r At times the workman will find the pinch fingers and 
 stakes shown in Fig. 191 very convenient. Used in 
 connection with a beveled strip, as illustrated, one is 
 enabled to hold a great 
 
 many pieces of work more / 
 
 easily than by any pther w$SkJ^ ^- 
 means. At S, of this figure, v///m, ' f 
 is illustrated an arrange- 
 ment of pinch clamping. 
 Occasionally the worker 
 finds this method of hold- 
 ing work very serviceable, 
 when no other is available. 
 
 
 s 
 
 Fig. 191 
 
 After the learner has familiarized himself with the 
 planer and its equipment, there are a few tests to be 
 made before starting work, if accurate results are ex- 
 pected. The table should be tested for the crosswise or 
 
 Fig. 192 
 
 transverse movement of the head. To do this, set an 
 indicator in the clapper block, and clamp firmly in place 
 as shown in Fig. 192. Move the head so the indicator 
 needle may be placed on one extreme edge of the table 
 as at A; run the vertical head slide down till the dial 
 needle b on the indicator shows a reading. It is not 
 important what this reading is, but about twenty thou- 
 
242 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 sandths is suggested. Now without moving the vertical 
 head slide lift the clapper block by hand, and run the 
 head across the rail so the indicator needle will touch at 
 B. If the cross rail and table are accurate, the reading 
 of the indicator should be the same at position A and B. 
 If it is not the rail must be adjusted; the beginner should 
 not attempt this adjustment without advice from the 
 party in charge of the work, but the method of adjust- 
 ment will be explained. Looking at 31 and 33, Fig. 185, 
 one will see a bevel pinion and gear; one of these is held 
 in place by means of a set screw. To adjust the cross 
 rail, slack the set screw on the gear or pinion which would 
 raise the end of the rail that is too high, as shown by the 
 test, and, by means of the elevating shaft, raise the low 
 side of the rail the proper amount to show an equal read- 
 ing at each end of the rail. Clamp the gears by means 
 of the set screw just mentioned, raise the rail about one 
 turn of the elevating shaft, and repeat the test. When 
 adjusting a rail, always correct errors by raising the low 
 end of the cross rail, rather than lowering the high end. 
 When taking readings, always see that the clamp bolts 
 which hold the rail to the uprights are tightened solidly. 
 
 In working on the planer, the cross rail must be raised 
 and lowered, to accommodate the height of the work. 
 Whenever the rail is lowered, it must be run down below 
 its working position, and raised slightly, in order to elimi- 
 nate backlash. The upward and downward movement 
 of the rail is obtained by turning the elevating shaft, #32, 
 Fig. 185, in the proper direction. A few turns one way 
 or the other will show the direction in which the rail is 
 moving, and the operator is governed accordingly. " 
 
 In connection with the testing of the planer, it may 
 not be possible for the workman to obtain an indicator, 
 in which case he may use a round nosed tool, and place 
 a piece of paper between the cutting point of the tool 
 
THE PLANER. 
 
 243 
 
 and the platen, adjusting the vertical slide till the tool 
 just holds the paper without tearing, when it is drawn 
 from between the tool and platen, with the hand. The 
 rail should be adjusted till the same effect is obtained at 
 both edges of the platen. 
 
 Relative to the lengthwise adjustment of the platen, 
 the test indicator or tool should be mounted on the 
 clapper block as already described, and the platen run 
 
 Fig. 193 
 
 "Set up" methods on the planer. 
 S indicates a stop clamp. 
 
 all the way back, so the indicator touches on the extreme 
 front end of the platen. A reading is taken here, and the 
 clapper block lifted, while the platen is run along the 
 bed so the indicator will touch at the extreme rear end. 
 If the readings are not the same within required limits of 
 accuracy, the platen must be trued up, by running a cut 
 over it, assuming that the machine is properly set on its 
 foundations. A cut should not be taken from the platen, 
 unless you are authorized to do so by the party in charge 
 of your work. 
 
 Two illustrative jobs will be taken up on the planer, 
 one showing a "set up " for "stringing " the work, and 
 
244 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the other an angular job. The principles of most other 
 elementary jobs have been presented in connection with 
 the shaper, and the method of working on the planer, 
 for similar types of jobs, does not vary from that de- 
 scribed for the shaper. At A, Fig. 193, is shown a steam 
 engine part which is to be produced in quantities; it is a 
 flat, rectangular plate, and must be accurately finished all 
 over. 
 
 In working these pieces, without any special fixtures 
 other than the usual planer equipment, we will pinch 
 them down, using a bevel rib strip, and pinch blocks. 
 If we did not have this equipment, it would be possible 
 to hold the work by means of the pinch clamping arrange- 
 ment illustrated in Fig. 191. Notice that short stop 
 clamps are used between each piece and a couple of 
 heavy stop clamps are used at the end of the last piece. 
 
 In setting up pieces of this sort, as in setting up all 
 work on the planer, the operator must see that the piece 
 is properly supported on the platen, so there is as little 
 tendency as possible for the work to spring. Furthermore 
 all the pieces must be approximately the same height, 
 as they set on the planer. The workman sets a plate on 
 the machine platen, and strikes it lightly with the fist, 
 at one of the corners, as indicated at d; this operation 
 is repeated at all four corners. In all probability it will 
 be found to rock back and forth slightly when tested in 
 this manner. To prevent this, the machinist puts pieces 
 of paper or tin under the corners as indicated, and with 
 the surface gage as shown in the figure all four corners 
 are set as nearly the same height as possible, by moving 
 the shimming as may be necessary. All plates are set 
 in the manner indicated, and properly shimmed up, after 
 which a roughing cut is run over them. 
 
 When this first cut is taken from the work it should 
 remove all the outside rough surface or "scale"; if it 
 
THE PLANER 
 
 245 
 
 does not, enough cuts must be taken to do so, and leave 
 a reasonably true surface. The pieces being described 
 were required to be true, when they were finished. Now 
 when the outside rough surface is taken from a piece of 
 metal it changes shape, or "springs " as the machinist 
 says; for this reason we do not take the finishing cuts 
 
 Fig. 194 
 
 from the surfaces being worked, but turn the pieces over, 
 and rough out the opposite face. This springing of work 
 when removing the scale is not serious on a heavy body, 
 but on work which is thin, in comparison to the area, it 
 must be carefully guarded against. When the pieces are 
 turned over, and laid flat on the platen, the workman 
 should strike it with the fist as previously described. 
 The piece will jar slightly; this is realty the rocking of 
 the piece on the platen, and this jar must be eliminated 
 by shimming under the corners of the work, with pieces 
 of paper. This process must be carried out with each 
 plate as it is set up, when it may be pinched down and 
 roughing cuts run over the surfaces removing all but 
 
246 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 about yv" of the stock. The edges of all these plates are 
 next finished by clamping on parallels, and taking down 
 cuts, using both vertical heads, one cutting on each 
 edge if the planer is equipped with two heads. These 
 edges may be brought to size at one setting, the only 
 precaution necessary being to slack off the holding clamps 
 after the roughing cut. The finishing cuts should be 
 taken with the work clamped rather lightly, on all occa- 
 sions, in order that the work may not show "spring." In 
 planing the edges of these plates they must be "lined 
 up," before starting the cut. This is done by pushing 
 them against a rib piece as shown in Fig.- 194 A; this rib 
 piece is removed before cutting is begun. The measure- 
 ment for size on this class of work is usually made by 
 using a straight edge and long steel rule obtained from 
 the tool room; see B, Fig. 194, at m. 
 
 After the longer edges of the plates have been planed, 
 the ends c, shown at A, Fig. 193, must be finished; these 
 ends must be square with the longer edges. The new 
 feature in this set up is the squaring of the plates on the 
 platen so they will be true when finished. This is done 
 as shown in Fig. 194 at A. A rib piece is set in a slot in 
 the platen, and the hilt of a square rested against it. 
 Pieces of paper are placed against the finished edge of the 
 work and the blade of the square brought up to it; the 
 work is clamped lightly, and knocked into such a posi- 
 tion with a lead hammer that the two pieces of paper at 
 extremities of the square blade are held securely in place, 
 when the blade is brought against the work. The piece 
 nearest the forward end of the platen is set first, then 
 those towards the rear end set; space enough should be 
 left between the pieces to permit the square blade to 
 be inserted for final testing after the pieces have been 
 clamped in place. Stop blocks should be used between 
 the plates, and behind the last plate as shown at Fig. 193. 
 
THE PLANER 247 
 
 After running a cut over the ends of the work, it should 
 be tested with the try-square, before reaching the finished 
 dimension, in order to be sure that the short edge is 
 planing true with the long edge. If it is not, the work 
 must be reset again. The final measurement for length 
 is made in the same manner as described for final width 
 measurement. 
 
 The work is now roughed out all over, and finished on 
 the edges. The final job is the finishing of the flat sur- 
 faces. The plates are pinched down again, the same as 
 for the roughing cut shown in Fig. 193 but not so solidly. 
 They are tested for rocking by striking with the fist, and 
 shimmed so they set perfectly solid on the platen, before 
 pinching down. A cut of about 0.015" is run over the 
 first surface, using a shovel nose tool and a feed of from 
 two to four teeth, followed by a fight cut of about 0.003" 
 and a feed of about eight or ten teeth. The plates are 
 then turned over, and all but about 0.015" of the thick- 
 ness removed with a roughing tool, and two light finish- 
 ing cuts taken as described above, and the planing on the 
 plates is finished. 
 
 The method described will produce a plate that is 
 quite true, and will not require an undue amount of 
 scraping to bring it to an accurately true surface on the 
 surface plate. When such accuracy is not necessary, 
 the work may be lessened by running the roughing and 
 finishing surface cuts successively, instead of roughing 
 out, all over, first, and then finishing. A plate thus 
 planed will always show some spring, but it is satis- 
 factory for a great many purposes. 
 
 The final thickness of work of the kind described is 
 ■ determined by setting the tool to a gage block, as illus- 
 trated at c, Fig. 194, the tool being brought down so the 
 gage block is just held in place by the tool. The tool 
 should never mark the block in any way. Sometimes it 
 
248 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 happens that a workman may have a size to plane, for 
 which he does not have a gage block, and under such 
 circumstances the inside caliper may be used as shown 
 at Fig. 194 D. The inside caliper is first set to the thick- 
 ness which is to be planed, either on a scale, or from out- 
 side or micrometer calipers. The tool is run down so it 
 just touches the planer platen, and a cross mark made on 
 the platen at the point of the tool. This setting is shown 
 by the tool in dotted lines of the figure. The mark made 
 
 with the scratch awl gives the point at which one leg of 
 the caliper must always set when making measurements. 
 Without moving the tool in any direction except ver- 
 tically, it is run well up from the platen, then run down 
 again till the caliper will just pass between the marked 
 point on the platen, and the point of the tool. The 
 marking of the platen is necessary, in order that one may 
 be certain of having the point of the caliper which rests 
 on the platen directly beneath the point of the tool.'" 
 This method of setting requires some skill, but very good 
 results can be obtained after some practice. The work 
 itself should always be measured, as a final test, before 
 
THE PLANER 249 
 
 it is taken from the machine. Use a depth gage for 
 measuring on the machine. 
 
 The second illustration to be studied is part of a fixture 
 for turning handwheel rims. The work is shown in 
 Fig. 195, and it offers some interesting " setting up " 
 work, as well as introducing angular down cutting. The 
 piece is first set on the platen as shown at Fig.- 196, in 
 order that the base surface S may be planed. The work 
 should be trued up by shimming under the corners, so 
 that surface S is true when tested with a surface gage. 
 Clamps should be placed at the corners, a, b, c and d, 
 while a jack should be 
 placed at /. Place a stop 
 at e to prevent the work 
 from sliding. Before set- 
 ting up any work of this 
 sort it should be completely 
 laid out, including the 
 base, bottom of planed sur- ' Fig 196 
 
 face h, Fig. 195, angular 
 
 surface /, and surface k, Fig. 195. The workman then 
 knows just how much stock may be removed from each 
 surface. In setting up, as in Fig. 196, for planing surface 
 S, the work should be set up to layout L. Roughing 
 cuts are run, the various holding clamps slacked off and 
 a light finishing cut taken. The work is now removed, 
 and the surface S set on the planer platen, clamped 
 lightly, and the work set true to layout for surfaces h, 
 j and k, Fig. 195, using the scribing tool which was men- 
 tioned in connection with the slotter, in order to bring 
 the work true to the travel of the table. No shimming 
 should be placed beneath surface S on this set up; the 
 only setting necessary being that required to set layout 
 line op, Fig. 195, true with the movement of the table. 
 In addition to holding down clamps, and a couple of stop 
 
250 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 clamps to prevent the work from sliding along the platen, 
 two knees should be placed as at s and t, to prevent the 
 work from turning. In setting the work, arrange it so 
 the tools cut in the direction of the arrow w, Fig. 195. 
 If the stress is taken in the opposite direction, the work 
 is more apt to spring and cause the tools to "bite," or 
 chatter badly. 
 
 The only surfaces to be finished are h, j, and k. The 
 start should be made by finishing the surfaces h and k, 
 so that the distance of surface h from surface s is about 
 ■fy" too great. This is measured carefully with a scale and 
 straight edge, or with a surface gage set from a scale. 
 The angular surfaces j should be roughed out next so 
 that the distance y is about -fa" smaller than finished 
 size. Distance of surface k from surface h, is measured 
 with a depth gage. 
 
 The setting of the planer head for taking the angular 
 cut is shown in Fig. 195 B. The angle to be planed is 
 30° from the vertical; the swivel a is set to this angle. 
 The clapper box b is swung an added amount as shown, 
 to give the required freedom of the tool in action. This 
 setting of the clapper box in no way affects the angle of 
 the cut, as the tool travels to the setting of the swivel. 
 Be sure both swivel and clapper box are bolted firmly, 
 after making the various settings. When finishing into 
 the corner of the angle, at the point of meeting of surfaces 
 h and j the operator should work very carefully, using 
 the cross and angular movement of the machine, always 
 feeding by hand, in order that the work may not be 
 spoiled. After roughing out, all the surfaces are finished 
 to dimension with light cuts. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. In view of the fact that the shaper is a planing tool, why 
 is the planer necessary? 
 
THE PLANER 251 
 
 2. Give your understanding of the following terms: surface 
 cutting; down cutting. 
 
 3. Illustrate and describe the various clamping devices used on 
 the planer. 
 
 4. Explain the use of " stop clamps " in planer practice. 
 
 6. What do you understand to be the meaning of the term spring? 
 How do you plan to avoid it? 
 
 6. Briefly describe the tests to be made on a planer before start- 
 ing work. 
 
 7. Mention some important points to be observed when setting 
 the planer for angular cutting. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 
 
 The subject of mathematics is very important to the 
 skilled mechanic. If he understands the more elemen- 
 tary branches, a great many calculations are very clear; 
 if he does not have a knowledge of mathematics, he must 
 do much of his calculation in an imitative sort of way, 
 not knowing the reason for taking certain steps, with the 
 result of making many errors. This text will not deal 
 with mathematics, as such, but will cover certain specific 
 calculations in a practical way; as to the branches of 
 mathematics which the ambitious mechanic will find of 
 assistance, one may mention arithmetic, algebra, geome- 
 try and trigonometry. 
 
 Our first study will be the analysis of the vernier scale. 
 As the student has seen, this scale has a great many ap- 
 plications in the machine shop to calipers, depth gages, 
 heighth gages and angular measuring devices. The 
 vernier scale is named after the inventor of the device; 
 it consists essentially of two parts, the beam and the 
 scale. By a proper arrangement of the divisions on the 
 scale and beam, a very small fraction of a given meas- 
 uring unit may be obtained. In the case of linear meas- 
 urement, it is the inch that is divided, while in the case 
 of angular measurement it is the degree. In the Metric 
 system of linear measurement, the millimeter is the unit 
 that is divided. 
 
 In the construction of a vernier the following plan is 
 observed. A Certain number of divisions is laid off on 
 the beam embracing the unit to be divided. A certain 
 length is laid off on the scale, embracing a certain num- 
 
 252 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 253 
 
 ber of the units on the beam; the number of beam units 
 thus embraced is decided by the final division sought, by 
 the use of the vernier. The section laid off. on the scale 
 is divided into one more part than there are parts in the 
 corresponding length on the beam. This extra division 
 enables one to obtain the desired minute measurement. 
 
 As an illustration let us take a length of one inch on 
 the beam, which we divide into ten equal parts. Now 
 take a space on the scale, equal in length to nine of these 
 divisions; it is evident that our scale is ■& of an inch 
 long. Let us divide this ^ of an inch into ten equal 
 parts; a little thought will make clear the fact that each 
 division on the scale is -rV of T 9 o of an inch long or T f^ of 
 an inch long. Each division on the beam is T V of an 
 inch long or t^ft of an inch, so we have a difference of 
 length between a division on the scale, and a division on 
 the beam of t £q of an inch. This simple explanation 
 presents the method for laying out any vernier scale for 
 linear measurement. In looking over the steps we have 
 taken, we note that by multiplying the denominator of 
 the fraction into which we divided the unit on the beam, 
 by the number of parts into which we divided the scale 
 we obtain the denominator of our final fraction of meas- 
 urement. To explain; we divided the inch on the beam 
 into ten equal parts; we divided the space on the scale 
 into ten equal parts; ten times ten equals one hundred, 
 or the denominator of the final fraction which we may 
 possibly obtain by the use of our vernier. We may then 
 make this rule for laying out a vernier: Divide the de- 
 nominator of the ultimate fraction desired, by the num- 
 ber of divisions into which the unit on the beam is divided 
 and we will find the number of divisions which must 
 be used on the scale. The total length of the scale 
 should be equal, in length, to the number of beam divi- 
 sions indicated by this quotient, less one. 
 
254 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Now let us apply this rule. We are to lay down a ver- 
 nier which shall measure the T fo part of an inch. We may 
 take any numbers we wish, which will assure us an even 
 number of divisions for the scale. Suppose we divide 
 100 by 4, we have 25; this is the number of divisions that 
 must be used on the scale, namely 25, and each inch 
 will be divided into 4 equal parts. The total length of 
 our scale must be equal to 24 X \ = 6". Our vernier 
 then demands a scale which is 6" long, divided into 25 
 equal parts, and each division on the beam is J" or 0.25" 
 long; each division on the scale is ^ of 6" = 0.24", hence 
 each scale division is tW shorter than the beam division, 
 and we have solved oux problem. 
 
 The scale is too long, however; the instrument will not 
 be convenient for use. By simply dividing the beam 
 unit into a greater number of parts we can reduce the 
 length of the scale to more convenient dimensions. Apply 
 the rule evolved to ten parts of the beam unit and it will 
 be found to produce the scale used in our first illustrative 
 study. The outline given can be followed in laying 
 down any linear vernier. The vernier scale commonly 
 used in machine shops does not read to hundredths of an 
 inch, but to thousandths. The beam is constructed with 
 forty divisions to the inch; thus each division on the 
 beam is 0.025" long. The limit of the scale in length is 
 made twenty-four of these parts, and the scale is divided 
 into twenty-five equal parts. If the rule which we have 
 developed is applied we will find that the space on the 
 scale is l0 1 0o " shorter than the space on the beam. 
 
 In the case of the metric vernier the beam division is 
 taken as half a millimeter. Twenty-four of these beam 
 spaces are covered by the scale, and the scale is divided 
 into twenty-five equal parts, making each scale division 
 ■£s of 4f mm. or f£ mm. The beam division is f mm. 
 or If. The application of the rule for laying down a 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 
 
 255 
 
 scale is varied, in this case, from that given for English 
 scale, but the rule is unchanged. The application is ex- 
 plained in connection with the angular vernier, so it will 
 not be given here. 
 
 Reading the Linear Vernier. — The mark on the 
 scale is the first point to be observed in reading this in- 
 strument. The position of this point gives us at once 
 the number of inches and larger fractions of an inch to 
 which the instrument is set. The odd thousandths are 
 read from the scale, using a magnifying glass. Looking 
 
 111 
 
 sf 3&AHL. b 
 
 lllllllllll, 
 
 #111 ) 1^1111 
 
 10 15 so zs 
 
 Scale 
 
 Fig. 197 
 
 at Fig. 197, we see that the on the vernier scale is past 
 the 2" mark at A, and the three tenths mark at B. It is 
 just beyond the 0.025" mark; we. have as a reading 
 2" + 0.3" + 0.025" or 2.325" plus the number of thou- 
 sandths on the vernier scale. To determine this reading, 
 begin at on the scale, and move the eye carefully along 
 till we find a line on the scale which coincides with a 
 line on the beam, and the line on the scale gives us the 
 number of thousandths to make up the total reading. 
 We find that the present scale reading is twenty-two, 
 and thus we have: 
 
 2" + 0.300" + 0.025" + 0.022" = 2.347" 
 
 as the setting of the instrument. To set the vernier at 
 any given reading, place the mark on the vernier scale 
 to the nearest 0.025" division possible, and add the re- 
 quired number of thousandths to this setting, by using 
 the vernier. The learner should practice a number of 
 
256 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 different settings of the instrument, in order that he 
 may become proficient in using this type of caliper. 
 
 The Angular Vernier Scale. — In the use of this scale 
 it is desired to obtain small fractional readings of parts 
 of the degree; commonly this is five minutes (indicated 
 5')- This is equal to xg- of a degree. In laying down a 
 scale of this sort the degree is the unit space on the beam. 
 The fact that the beam takes a circular form does not in 
 any way affect the process of working out the scale, 
 except that we make calculations in fractions of degrees 
 instead of fractions of inches. The division of the degree 
 into parts, as we did the inch will produce too fine a scale 
 to read, on instruments used in machine shop practice, 
 so we use the whole degree, or two, three or four degrees, 
 as the demands of practice may make necessary. If we 
 use one degree, it is evident that the unit on the beam is 
 divided into one part. Dividing 12, the denominator of 
 the ultimate fraction by this, we find that we must have 
 twelve divisions of the scale, and its length must be 
 equal to eleven beam divisions, or eleven degrees. Now 
 let us see if our reasoning will prove itself; beam divisions 
 embraced by scale, 11 each 1° or 60'. Scale divisions 12 
 each iV of 11° or T V of 660' = 55'. So our scale division 
 is 5' shorter than the beam division, which is the desired 
 difference. i 
 
 A scale twelve degrees long is too small for machine 
 shop measuring instruments. The above calculations 
 were carried out for illustrative purposes; the scale 
 much used for angular work treats the beam unit as 
 equal to one half a part; dividing twelve by one half 
 
 
 12 X 2 = 24 ) we find that our scale should contain 
 
 twenty-four divisions, and equal twenty-three degrees in 
 length. Our calculations now work out as follows: beam 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 257 
 
 unit ^s- of 23° = 60'. Scale division -fa of 23° or ^ of 
 1380' or 57.5', giving us a measurement of 2\'. Five 
 minutes is sufficiently accurate for most work, so we- 
 place a graduation at every second place on the scale, 
 giving us a twelve space scale, and our scale division 
 length becomes ^ of 1380' or \\h r , and each scale divi- 
 sion then spans two beam divisions, with a difference 
 between scale and beam division of five minutes. 
 
 In connection with the study of- the vernier, the learner 
 will notice that the scale division is always the smaller, 
 and that the increment of measure is obtained by moving 
 the scale division into line with the beam division. 
 
 Reading the Angular Vernier. — The mark on the 
 scale is the point to be observed in making all readings. 
 The number of degrees is read directly between the 0-on 
 the beam and on the vernier scale. 
 The number of minutes is deter- 
 mined by carefully looking along 
 the vernier scale in the same direc- 
 tion in which the whole degrees 
 have been read. The first coin- Fig 198 
 
 ciding line between lines on scale 
 
 and on beam, gives the number of minutes. The num- 
 ber of divisions thus counted on the vernier scale sliouM 
 be multiplied by five, to determine the number of minutes. 
 The angular vernier may be read in either direction from 
 the line of the beam divisions. Look at the reading 
 shown in Fig. 198; the of the vernier is sixteen degrees 
 from of the beam divisions, and we see that the fifth 
 division from the vernier 0, is the first division in line 
 with a beam division. The reading then is 16° 25'. All 
 readings in this case were in a clockwise direction from 
 the line of the beam. 
 
 In many places in this text, the learner has seen the 
 term "surface speed " used, and the meaning of the term 
 
258 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 has been explained. It is important on certain occasions, 
 that the surface speed be calculated. To determine the 
 surface speed of a revolving piece we first determine the 
 number of revolutions per minute that the work is making. 
 This is obtained by counting, or by using a speed indi- 
 cator; (see small tool catalog for a description of this 
 instrument). After finding the number of revolutions 
 per minute which the work is making, the circumference 
 must be determined. This value multiplied by the num- 
 ber of rev. per min. will give us the number of inches 
 per minute the work is running, assuming that the cir- 
 cumference was calculated in inches, which is usually the 
 case. The result must be divided by twelve, to deter- 
 mine the feet per min. In shop practice, "rev. per 
 mih." is usually represented by R. P. M. and "feet per 
 min. by Ft. P. M. From the above we may form a 
 simple rule as follows: 
 
 The cutting speed in Ft. P. M. is equal to the circum- 
 ference of the work in inches, multiplied by the 
 R. P. M. of the work, and this product divided by 
 twelve. 
 
 This may be worked into a formula as follows: 
 
 Let S = Surface speed Ft. P. M. 
 
 C = Circumference of work in inches — equals 
 3.1416 D (D = Diam. of work in ins.). 
 R. P. M. = Rev. per min. 
 
 12 = Number of inches in one foot. 
 Then 
 
 3.1416 D times R. P. M. 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 This method of calculation may be used for any revolving 
 piece of work or tool. To determine the cutting speed of 
 a shaper or planer, set the stroke so the ram or table will 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 259 
 
 run a length of two feet. Start the machine and holding 
 a watch in hand, read the number of seconds it takes to 
 make this stroke. 
 
 The number of seconds in a minute, sixty, divided by 
 the number of seconds just found will give us the mul- 
 tiple of two feet which is to be used in calculating the 
 cutting speed in Ft. P. M. The following rule may be 
 evolved: Find number of seconds it takes planer to travel 
 2 ft.; divide 60 by this number and multiply the quo- 
 tient by 2; the result will be cutting speed in Ft. P. M. 
 
 The following formula is derived. 
 
 S = Cutting speed Ft. P. M. 
 T = Time in seconds for table to travel 2 ft. 
 60 = Number seconds in one min. 
 2 = Number of feet in unit of travel. 
 
 « 60 • 
 
 S = — times 2 
 
 Any other number of feet than two, may be used as a 
 unit of travel, provided due allowance is made for such 
 a unit, in other calculations. There is an instrument on 
 the market, known as a "cut meter" which may be 
 placed against a piece of revolving or reciprocating 
 work, and the cutting speed in feet per minute read di- 
 rectly from a dial. This is a very convenient tool for 
 shop use. 
 
 Calculation of Pulley and Gear Speeds. — There are a 
 great many occasions on which the machinist must cal- 
 culate the relative number of revolutions of pulleys and 
 gears which run in various combinations. The law of 
 ratio is the foundation of all of these calculations. A 
 ratio is the relation of one number to another, as found by 
 dividing one by the other. As an example 2 to 4 or 2: 4 or 
 f = § indicates the ratio of the first to the second number. 
 A proportion indicates an equality of two ratios; as an ex- 
 
260 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ample | = i or 3: 6:: 4: 8. This simple mathematical 
 arrangement is very useful to the mechanic. The first 
 and last figures in a proportion are known as the ex- 
 tremes, while the second and third figures are called the 
 
 means. If we multiply the extremes together, we will 
 find that the product equals the product of the means. 
 It is evident that if we have given any three terms of a 
 proportion, we can easily obtain the fourth. For a num- 
 ber of machine shop calculations, we find that the inver- 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 261 
 
 sion of one of the ratios of a proportion gives us the 
 desired result; the various elements are then spoken of 
 as being inversely proportional. We will meet a practical 
 application of this truth when we take up the calculation 
 of the speeds of pulleys in detail. 
 
 In any arrangement of pulleys on gears, the first ele- 
 ment of a train is known as the " driver," and the ele- 
 ment receiving power from this driver is known as the 
 " driven " element. Elements placed between' the driver 
 and the driven unit, are known as "intermediates"; 
 they may or may not affect the speed ratio of the 
 main elements, depending on the arrangement of the 
 intermediate elements, as will be seen later.' Looking at 
 Fig. 199 A we see an arrangement of pulleys and belts, 
 in which the belt from the driver transmits power to an 
 intermediate, and this in turn transmits power to the 
 driven element. Now it is a proven law of kinematics 
 that the speeds of two pulleys are inversely proportional 
 to their diameters. In the present problem, the driver is 
 12" diam. and runs 120 R. P. M. It is evident that the 
 intermediate speed can be determined by the following 
 inverse proportion: 
 
 12: 9:: Speed of int. : 120 or 160 R. P. M. 
 
 Applying the law again and treating the intermediate 
 as the driver we will have for the speed of the driven 
 pulley: 
 
 9: 6:: Speed of driven: 160 or speed of driven is 240 
 R. P. M. 
 
 Now let us neglect the intermediate entirely and work 
 our inverse ratio directly from first driver to last driven 
 and our proportion becomes 
 
 12: 6:: Speed of driven: 120 or speed of driven is 240 
 R. P. M. From this it is evident that our intermediate 
 has no effect on the relation of speeds, of first driver and 
 last driven, if the two pulleys or gears on the intermediate 
 
262 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 shaft are the same size. This is a fact, and whenever we 
 have a series of intermediates of the same size, regardless 
 of their number, in a train of belting or gears we may- 
 neglect them in our speed calculations. Their only effect 
 is to make a difference in the direction of rotation, in the 
 case of gearing. They may be totally disregarded in 
 belting problems, so far as speed is concerned. 
 
 Now let us give our attention to Fig. 199 B where we 
 have a different intermediate, using two sizes of pulleys. 
 Driver and first driven same size; as in former problems 
 driver 120 R. P. M. 
 
 12: 9:: x: 120. x = 160. 
 x = R. P. M. of intermediate shaft. 
 
 Now applying our proportion again using the inter- 
 mediate as driver, and noticing that we are running our 
 belt from a 3" pulley on the intermediate to a 6" pulley 
 on the driven, we have: 
 
 3: 6:: x : 160 = 80 R. P. M. for last driven. It is very 
 evident that any change in size of pulleys or gears used 
 on an intermediate element, will make a difference in the 
 speed obtained between the first driver and last driven 
 element. 
 
 In making calculations dealing with pulleys and gears, 
 it is customary to regard any element which supplies 
 power to another element, as a driver, and any element 
 receiving power, as a driven element, regardless of its 
 position in the train. This will make every "inter- 
 mediate " a driven element, when considered relative to 
 the unit from which it receives power, and a driving ele- 
 ment relative to the unit to which it delivers power. 
 Studying the problem presented in Fig. 199 B we notice 
 that the ultimate ratio of speeds from first driver to last 
 
 120 
 driven is — -• In view of the explanations just made 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 263 
 
 concerning the relation of driving and driven elements, 
 we have drivers 12" and 3" diameter and driven elements 
 9" and 6" diameter. The relation of all drivers to all 
 driven elements is 
 
 12X3 36 _2 
 9X6 ~ 54 ~ 3' 
 
 From these calculations it is evident that the product of 
 the diameters of all drivers, divided by the product of 
 the -diameters of all driven units, will give ( us the final 
 ratio of any train of belt or gearing. Furthermore the 
 speeds of first driver and last driven unit of a train are 
 inversely proportional to the final ratio of the train. 
 
 By way of proof of this last statement let us analyze 
 the train shown at Fig. 199 B. The first driver runs 
 120 R. P. M.; what will be speed of last driven unit? 
 The driver and driven ratio is 
 
 (12 X 3): (9X6); 
 
 our proportion becomes 
 
 (12 X 3): (9 X 6):: speed of last driven: 120 or speed 
 of last driven unit is 80 R. P. M. This is the same re- 
 sult as obtained by separate calculation. The above 
 explanations make comparatively simple the various cal- 
 culations of speeds as applied to pulleys and gears. In 
 the case of gears, the pitch diameter should be used in all 
 calculations of speed, when the diameter is introduced in 
 the, work. The number of teeth in a gear may be intro- 
 duced in the place of the diameter, and the same results 
 will be obtained, so far as speed calculations are con- 
 cerned. 
 
 Calculating Gears for Cutting Threads on the Engine 
 Lathe. — In earlier chapters, directions have been given 
 for cutting threads on the lathe. The type of machine 
 studied was equipped with a quick change gear system, 
 but the learner will recall that mention was made of the 
 
264 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 fact that all machines are not so equipped. The smaller 
 tools used for general jobbing work are designed so that 
 the change gears are shifted by removal from various 
 shafts, and other gears substituted when a change is made. 
 At Fig. 200 is shown an end view of a lathe, equipped with 
 removable change gears. Each of the elements with 
 
 Fig. 200 
 
 A. Reversing lever for tumbler gears. 
 
 B. First gear on stud compound. 
 
 C. Second gear on stud compound. 
 
 D. Intermediate or swing plate gear. 
 
 E. Screw gear or driven gear. 
 
 F. Driving gear or stud gear. 
 
 G. Compound element; composed of two gears mounted on and 
 keyed to a bushing which in turn is mounted on a stud carried on a swing- 
 ing arm. 
 
 H. Section of lathe cone pulley. 
 
 which we will deal in our calculations is marked. Nolice 
 the intermediate countershaft, sometimes spoken of as a 
 "compound." This is not used in cutting all threads- 
 if it is swung out of the way, so that the stud gear F 
 meshes directly with the intermediate swinging gear D, 
 we will have to deal with but two gears in our calculations, 
 the stud gear and lead screw gear, as it is evident jrom our 
 previous analysis of gear trains, that it will have no effect 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 265 
 
 on the speed relations of these_ gears. We will study cal- 
 culations with and without the use of the intermediate 
 countershaft. 
 
 A number of gears are furnished with lathes of the 
 class we are now studying; these gears are necessary in 
 cutting the various threads met in machine shop practice. 
 If the gears are examined it will be found that the num- 
 ber of teeth in successive gears increases in regular order. 
 This increase in the number of teeth for each gear, is 
 known as the progression of the set. Commonly the first 
 gear of a set is 24, next 28, then 32, 36, 40, 44, 48 and 
 so on, four teeth being added to the number of teeth in 
 each gear, to determine the number of teeth in the next 
 gear of the set. It is evident that the progression here is 
 four. The first step in calculating gears for thread cut- 
 ting, is to determine the progression of the set of gears 
 furnished with the lathe. The next step is to determine 
 the number of threads per inch on the lead screw. This 
 is measured with a steel rule as previously described; we 
 will assume that it is six. Now the size of the. gears to 
 be used in cutting the thread will depend on the ratio 
 of the threads per inch on the screw to be cut, to the 
 threads per inch on the lead screw. This will be evident 
 if one studies the construction of the lathe in Fig. 200, 
 where it is seen that the spindle drives the stud gear F, 
 and this in turn drives the lead screw gear E. At A in 
 this figure is seen a reverse gear lever; the use of these 
 gears has been explained. In making calculations for 
 thread cutting gears, the workman should always be 
 sure that one revolution of the lathe spindle produces 
 one revolution of the stud gear. Commonly it does, but 
 occasionally it does not, and if it does not, the number 
 of teeth in the driver, as found in the following work, 
 should be divided by the number of turns the stud gear 
 makes to one turn of the spindle, to determine the correct 
 
266 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 number of teeth in the stud gear. This point will be 
 illustrated in the calculations. 
 
 As an illustrative problem let us calculate the gears 
 necessary to cut eight threads per inch, on a lathe having 
 a lead screw of six threads per inch, and a direct trans- 
 mission through the head; that is stud gear makes one 
 turn when spindle makes one turn. The gears are de- 
 termined by an inverse ratio of the number of threads 
 per inch to be cut, and number of threads per inch 
 on the lead screw. We wish to cut 8 threads per inch. 
 We have on lead screw 6 threads per inch. The ratio of 
 driver to driven gear is then 6 to 8, since our gears are 
 an inverse ratio of the threads. We could use any gear 
 we chose as a driver, and accommodate our driven gear 
 to it, but from the standpoint of practice it will be wise 
 to use those gears furnished with the lathe. If we mul- 
 tiply our ratio as found above by the progression of the 
 set of gears we are using, we are sure to select a gear 
 which is supplied with the machine. Our progression 
 was fourj so multiplying 6 and 8 our ratio units by 4, 
 we have a 24 tooth gear for the driver, and a 32 tooth 
 gear for the driven gear. Hence the following convenient 
 rule. To find proper gears to cut a thread, multiply 
 threads per inch on lead screw by the progression of gear 
 set, to determine driver, and threads per inch to be cut, 
 by progression to determine driven gear. 
 
 Suppose that the stud gear makes but one half turn 
 for each turn of the spindle; we then divide 24, the num- 
 ber of teeth found for the driver with a direct transmis- 
 sion by |, and we must use a 48 tooth gear as a driver, 
 instead of a 24 tooth gear. 
 
 In the above problem, it was not necessary to use the 
 intermediate countershaft or compound. Suppose we 
 have to cut a thread which shall have but three fourths of 
 a turn to the inch, instead of eight threads; that is, the 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 267 
 
 lead is 1|" instead of §". A little thought will show that 
 the lead screw must revolve quite rapidly, relative to the 
 spindle, in order to carry the tool fast enough to cut 
 this thread. The ratio of the threads per inch to be cut, 
 
 2. 
 
 and the threads per inch on the lead screw is - and the 
 
 6 
 
 ratio of driving to driven gears is - or = — . If we 
 
 f- 3 3 
 
 multiply this by the progression we will require gears 
 96 teeth 
 
 12 teeth' 
 
 but the smallest gear we have in our set is a 
 
 24 tooth gear. In order to bring our ratio into the range 
 of our gear set we must double each element and the 
 
 192 
 gears required are — teeth. We cannot place a 192 
 
 tooth gear on the lathe, so it is impossible to cut the 
 thread we have under consideration, if we use but one 
 driver and one driven gear in our train. It is possible 
 to cut this thread with our present gear equipment, if we 
 employ the intermediate countershaft or compound. Re- 
 turning to our earlier calculations, we see that the ulti- 
 
 24 
 mate ratio of our driving to driven gears must be — . 
 
 We recall that the ultimate ratio of any train of gears is 
 equal to the product of the number of teeth in the drivers, 
 divided by product of the teeth in the driven gears. 
 Looking at the construction of the intermediate counter- 
 shaft we see that it is possible to mount two gears here, 
 one of which will be a driven gear from stud gear, indi- 
 cated at B, and the other a driving gear to gear on swing 
 plate This is indicated at C. We must have our gear 
 ratio in such a form that we can factor both elements, and 
 
268 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the denominator 3 in the above ratio is not factorable. 
 We may multiply both terms of this ratio by the same 
 number without affecting its value,' however, and by so 
 doing, get both elements in factorable form. We will 
 
 48 
 multiply by 2, and our ratio is — . We might multiply 
 
 6 
 
 by any other number, but in making such transformations 
 as we are discussing, it is best to keep the numbers in- 
 volved as small as is consistent with the result we wish 
 
 48 
 to attain. Using our ratio in the form of — we find that 
 
 6 
 
 8x6 
 
 it conveniently factors to ; the 8x6 combination 
 
 o X £ 
 
 represents the driving gears and the 3x2 combination 
 the driven gears of our train. We may now multiply 
 these units by our progression or any multiple of it, and 
 obtain gears which may be used. We cannot use a gear 
 of less than 24 teeth, because we do riot have one in our 
 set. Inspecting the ratio combination which we have 
 developed, we find that we must multiply all elements 
 by 12, in order that no required gear shall have less than 
 24 teeth. Following this suggestion we'must use driving 
 gears of 96 and 72 with driven gears of 36 and 24. The 
 arrangement which this train will take on the machine 
 will be a 96 tooth gear for a stud gear, meshing into a 
 36-tooth gear as indicated at B, Fig. 200, with a 72 tooth 
 gear mounted in position indicated at C, meshing into the 
 swing gear, and a 24 tooth gear on the lead screw at E. 
 
 In working out gearing for such work as illustrated, a 
 great many combinations are available. The illustrations 
 serve to show the principles involved in the calculations, 
 however; occasionally one meets a combination demand- 
 ing a gear not available from the change gear set, regard- 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 
 
 269 
 
 less of the variations made in calculations. Under such 
 circumstances it is necessary to turn and cut a gear of 
 the proper size. 
 
 Calculations Used in Connection with Simple Index- 
 ing on the Miller. — ■ Before starting this study, a brief 
 analysis of Fig. 201 will be helpful. This is a diagram of 
 the arrangement of the parts of a milling machine divid- 
 ing head, which are necessary for the various indexing 
 
 ?M WHEEL 
 
 IqTiEX H ANDLE 
 
 U 
 
 WoTj'M 
 
 < -Inde.x plate 
 
 Fig. 201 
 
 movements. If the learner will carefully mark a point 
 on the spindle of a miller dividing head, and turn the 
 index crank till the spindle has made a complete revolu- 
 tion, he will find that in most machines, the index crank 
 will have made 40 turns. This is not always true but it 
 holds for most miller designs. The first step in making 
 indexing calculations, is to find out how many turns of 
 the index crank are necessary for one complete turn of 
 the spindle. The next step is to inspect the index plates, 
 and find out the range of index circles available. These 
 plates are made up with several circles on each plate, and 
 each circle is laid out in a series of holes, so that we may 
 obtain fractional parts of the turns of index handles. 
 
270 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The index circles listed by one manufacturer are as 
 follows: pIate #1 __ 15; 16) 1?> 18j 19; 2Q 
 
 " #2 — 21,23,27,29,31,33 
 " #3 — 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49 
 
 Thus we have three index plates available on this ma- 
 chine, each plate having six index circle's, each circle 
 being drilled to the number of holes indicated. The 
 number of holes in a circle, will be seen stamped on the 
 plate, in the line of the circle. Let us assume that forty 
 turns of the index handle, turns the machine spindle 
 once; it is evident that each turn of the index handle 
 turns 'the spindle xo-th of a turn. Now the feature to be 
 determined in an indexing calculation, is the number of 
 turns of index handle to produce-the required movement 
 of the spindle. If we were to cut forty divisions then we 
 would move one turn of the handle for each tooth; if 
 there are more than forty divisions the index handle will 
 move less than a complete turn, and if less than forty, 
 the handle moves more than one turn; a little study will 
 make this point evident. In other words, the movement 
 of the index handle, is an inverse ratio to the number of 
 divisions wanted in a circumference. Since one turn of 
 the handle gives us 40 divisions the ratio of divisions to 
 index handle movement is 40 to 1. It might be any other 
 number, and our process of calculation would be the same. 
 As our index handle movement is in inverse ratio to the 
 number of divisions wanted, the following proportion will 
 solve our problem for any. division. 
 
 40 : Number of div. wanted :: required turns: 1. Sup- 
 pose, for illustration that we want three divisions, then 
 our calculation becomes 
 
 40: 3:: turns : 1 = 13| turns of index handle. Now in 
 setting up, we must select an index plate which will per- 
 mit * of a turn of the index handle. This may be ob- 
 
MACHINE SHOP CALCULATIONS 271 
 
 tained by using five spaces on fifteen circles, six spaces 
 on eighteen, eleven on thirty-three, or any other circle 
 having a number of holes divisible by three. 
 
 If the proportion just given is studied, we will see that 
 the number of turns of index handle was determined by 
 dividing the total number of turns of the index handle, 
 required for a complete turn of the spindle, by the num- 
 ber of divisions we wished to cut, and from this statement 
 we may evolve the following rule: 
 
 To determine number of turns of index handle for a 
 given number of divisions, divide number of turns of 
 index handle for a complete revolution of the spindle, by 
 number of divisions wanted. 
 
 Suppose we wish to cut fifty-five divisions we divide 
 
 forty by fifty-five = — = — ; so we may use twenty-four 
 55 11 
 
 24 
 spaces on the thirty-three hole, or — of a turn of the 
 
 index handle. For the sake of practice the learner should 
 calculate the necessary movement of index handle for a 
 great many divisions, in order that he may become 
 thoroughly familiar with the principles involved in the 
 process of simple index calculation. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 1. Describe the method of reading the vernier scale, as applied 
 to linear measure. 
 
 2. As applied to angular measure. 
 
 3. Explain the method of calculating the surface speed of any 
 revolving body. 
 
 4. A piece of work is 5.375" diam. and is running 93 R.P.M. 
 What is its surface speed? 
 
 5. A grinding' wheel is 22" diam. and runs 350 R.P.M. What 
 is its surface speed? 
 
272 practical machine shop practice 
 
 6. A piece of work is 3.250" diam. and is to run at a cutting 
 speed of 90 ft. per min. How many R.P.M. must it make? 
 
 7. A grinding wheel is 15" diam. and is to run at a surface 
 speed of 5000 ft. per min. How many R.P.M. must it make? 
 
 8. It is desired that the R.P.M. of two gears shall be as 3 to 4. 
 Select two gears which will run in this ratio, and give the pitch 
 diameters. 
 
 9. A shaft having on it a 6" pulley runs 250 R.P.M. We wish 
 to drive another shaft 90 R.P.M. Give the diameter of pulley to 
 be used on the second shaft. 
 
 10. We have available a 24" pulley to be used on a shaft that is 
 to run 150 R.P.M. The driving shaft we must use runs 95 R.P.M. 
 What diameter pulley must we use as a driver? 
 
 11. In a belting arrangement, from a driver to a driven shaft, it is 
 necessary to use an intermediate counter shaft. The driving shaft 
 runs 75 R.P.M. and we want to run the driven shaft 300 R.P.M. 
 Select the pulleys, and illustrate the arrangement you will use. 
 
 12. A lead screw on a lathe is cut five threads per inch; the 
 progression is four. What gears would you use to cut 10, 12|, 16, 
 and 24 threads respectively? 
 
 13. With a lead screw of five threads per inch, what gears would 
 you use to cut three threads per inch? Progression of gear set four, 
 and no gear less than 24 teeth. 
 
 14. With a lead screw of six threads per inch, progression 4, 
 no gear smaller than 24 teeth, what gears would you use to cut 1£ 
 threads per inch? 
 
 15. Calculate the necessary index movement for obtaining the 
 following divisions by simple indexing. Give all index circles which 
 could be used, and the necessary fractional division in each case: 
 12, 15, 22, 30, 33, 50, 60, 85, 100. Assume that you have the same 
 range of plates as mentioned in the text, in connection with simple 
 indexing. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 MACHINE GLOSSARY 
 
 This glossary is introduced for the purpose of assisting 
 beginners in the machinist's trade, to an understanding 
 of the many technical terms met in every day practice. 
 Terms which are clearly defined in the text, in a way 
 that will fix them in the learner's mind, are not intro- 
 duced a second time in this glossary. 
 
 Apron: any overhanging shield, covering the face of 
 a machine part. It often carries some actuating mecha- 
 nism, as the apron of a lathe carries much of the feeding 
 mechanism. 
 
 Arbor: any element used to carry a revolving cutting 
 tool, as milling machine arbor. 
 
 Backrest: a device used on the engine lathe for the 
 purpose of supporting long work during the turning 
 operation. It is attached to the carriage and supports 
 the work near the cutting tool; it should not be confused 
 with the steady rest. 
 
 Breast drill: a small drill worked by hand, and fed by 
 means of the pressure exerted on the head, as it rests 
 against the workman's chest. It is not used for drills 
 over \" or -f$" diameter, as a rule. 
 
 Bushing: an element which serves as a lining, between 
 a journal, and the inner wall of a bearing. When worn 
 out, the bushing may be removed and a new one in- 
 serted, while the main parts are still serviceable. The 
 bushing is usually though not always, of some softer ma- 
 terial than the journal. 
 
 Backlash: the loose play between various parts of a 
 machine; a certain amount is unavoidable in order that 
 
 273 
 
274 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 the machine may operate, but it should be as little as 
 is consistent with working. 
 
 Bull wheel: the main driving gear in any heavy gear 
 train; it is seen in the platen driving train, inside the 
 planer bed. 
 
 Back gears: any set of gears arranged in relation to the 
 main driving element of a machine so that the speed may 
 be reduced by introducing them; these gears are used on 
 all lathes, drill presses, except sensitive drills, and many 
 other machines. 
 
 Bed: the main casting of a machine; it is the prin- 
 cipal supporting element. 
 
 Coloring acid: a mixture of blue vitriol, water and 
 
 sulphuric acid, which is rubbed over finished surfaces with 
 
 waste or a piece of cloth, to color them so that layout 
 
 lines may be easily seen. The following is a satisfactory 
 
 mixture: , . , . 
 
 J pint of water 
 
 | oz. of sulphate of copper 
 
 50 drops sulphuric acid. 
 
 The sulphate of copper should be dissolved in the water, 
 then the acid added a few drops at a time, shaking the 
 solution well at each addition. The solution is often 
 made up without the acid, and gives good service. If 
 acid is used keep solution away from hands and face at 
 all times. Blue vitriol is often spoken of as "copperas " 
 in the shop. 
 
 Cutting compound: or cutting solution; any solution 
 used to lubricate cutting tools or grinding wheels, during 
 the cutting operation; the following has proven very 
 satisfactory: 
 
 Eight parts of washing soda, dissolved in 15 parts of 
 boiling water; add to this one part of lard or sperm oil. 
 Let solution cool before using. There are a number of 
 prepared cutting solutions sold by supply dealers. 
 
MACHINE GLOSSARY 275 
 
 Cross feed handle: any handle controlling a cross 
 feed on a machine. 
 
 Cross feed knob: any knob controlling the automatic 
 cross feed of a machine. 
 
 Carriage: the part of a machine, with all its actuating 
 mechanism which supports a movable cutting tool; the 
 carriage of a lathe. 
 
 Centers: the elements which support any revolving 
 piece of work, by means of holes or points formed in, or 
 on the ends of the work; lathe centers. 
 
 Cross-rail: the horizontal rail on a shaper or planer, 
 on which the knee or head apron slides. 
 
 Compound rest: a tool rest so designed that the tool 
 may be made to travel at any angle to the center line of 
 the maehine, that the work may demand. The com- 
 pound rest is most commonly applied to the engine lathe. 
 
 Column: the main upright element on a vertical ma- 
 chine, to which the secondary parts are attached. It cor- 
 responds in the upright machine, to the bed in a horizontal 
 machine; the column of a miller, or of a drill press. 
 
 Cross-slide: any sb'ding element which may be moved 
 across the base casting; cross slide of a miller, or slotter. 
 
 Cam: a mechanical element designed with an irregular 
 face or periphery so as to produce some desired motion; 
 slotter feed cam. * 
 
 Clutch: a releasing device designed with engaging 
 teeth, which may be placed in fast position with a driving . 
 half, or released at will; the disengaging half is usually 
 keyed to the shaft it is to drive, and slides on it length- 
 wise. Friction clutch; see under friction. 
 
 Cat-head: a plate or block, having several set screws 
 projecting radially from the center, which is placed in- 
 side a piece of pipe or other hollow element, in order to 
 support the work on lathe centers during a turning 
 operation. 
 
276 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Dutchman: a small piece of material dovetailed into 
 the body of casting, or forging, for the purpose of remedy- 
 ing some defect. 
 
 Drunken thread: a crooked thread caused by the 
 springing of the cutting tool, or some other defect in the 
 machine, which produces a thread of irregular lead. 
 
 Dividing head: any type of headstock which is used 
 primarily to divide a circle into any given number of 
 parts; the miller dividing head. Sometimes spoken of 
 as the index head. 
 
 Dog: a contrivance used to drive work in the lathe, 
 grinder, or other machine; sometimes called carriers. 
 Also any small piece so placed on a machine that it trips 
 a feed or reversing mechanism; the miller feed trip dogs; 
 planer reversing dogs. The term is applied to a great 
 many small holding, and striking devices. 
 
 Elevating /screw: any screw used to raise or lower a 
 machine part; cross rail elevating screws on planer; knee 
 elevating screw on miller. 
 
 Follow rest: see backrest. 
 
 Feed rack: any rack which acts as part of the feeding 
 mechanism of a machine. See also Rack. 
 
 Friction disk: a specially designed disk for carrying a 
 machine part to a certain position, and permitting it to stop 
 at some predetermined point, while the driving element 
 continues to revolve; feed friction disk on the planer. 
 
 Friction clutch: any clutch in which the power is 
 transmitted from one element of the clutch to the other, 
 by means of surfaces held in frictional contact, instead 
 of by means of teeth in the clutch; cone friction clutch 
 in overhead works of lathe. See Overhead Works. 
 
 Feed rod: any rod carrying a worm or other device 
 which moves a tool carrying part; lathe feed rod. 
 
 Feed screw: a screw serving the same purpose as a 
 feed rod. Some lathes use the lead screw as a feed screw; 
 
MACHINE GLOSSARY 277 
 
 but this is a poor practice, if the screw is depended upon 
 to cut accurate threads, as the constant service of the 
 screw wears it out of truth. 
 
 Foot stock: any part of a machine which acts as a 
 supporting element, for work driven at one end, and 
 which must be sustained in a given position at the other 
 end; it contains no driving mechanism, as a rule. Its 
 purpose is to properly support one end of the work; lathe 
 footstock; grinder footstock. 
 
 Footstock cap: see poppet head. 
 
 Feed handles and knobs: the various handles and 
 knobs that control the feeds; they are designated by the 
 feed they control, as the horizontal feed handle, trans- 
 verse or crosswise feed handle, etc. 
 
 Guides: the various elements of a machine which 
 serve to keep sliding parts in their proper position during 
 movement; lathe guides, planer platen guides. See 
 Ways. 
 
 Gib: an element placed between sliding surfaces for 
 the' purpose of taking up wear. 
 
 Head: any main part .of a machine; commonly though 
 not always it carries the driving elements; lathe head; 
 planer head. 
 
 Headstock: that portion of a rotating machine which 
 carries the driving mechanism; lathe headstock. 
 
 Intermediate gear: any gear or gears of a train be- 
 tween the first driver, and last driven gear of the train. 
 
 Journal: that part of a shaft which runs in a bearing. 
 
 Jack: a device for lifting heavy parts, by applying 
 beneath the load. It may be hydraulic or screw type. 
 
 Knobs: are the various knurled, and irregularly shaped 
 pieces, found at various points about a machine, which 
 are used to throw into and out of action the various 
 feeds. The throwing is effected by pushing, pulling or 
 turning the knob. 
 
278 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Knee: an element of right angular form, used as a 
 support for working parts of a machine; it may be mov- 
 able or stationary; miller knee; shaper knee. 
 
 Lead screw: the screw which moves the carriage of a 
 lathe during the thread cutting operation. 
 
 Lead screw nut: the nut which is thrown into engage- 
 ment with the lead screw when it is desired to connect 
 the carriage to the lead screw. 
 
 Longitudinal or length feed handle: the handle which 
 enables the operator to make any lengthwise feeding 
 movement of a machine part. 
 
 Lock nut: lock pin; the nut or pin which is slacked 
 off, or thrown out of engagement, when one wishes to 
 disengage the cone pulley, in order to throw in the back 
 gears. Term is often used to imply same meaning as 
 term check nut. See body of text for check nut. 
 
 Miter gears: a pair of bevel gears of equal size, con- 
 necting shafts at right angles. 
 
 Monitor ; see turret. 
 
 Old man: any device used to clamp a portable machine 
 in place; it may be a set of chains and a brace, or' a set 
 of clamps and a brace. See body of text in connection 
 with use of ratchet. 
 
 Over-hang arm: any arm which extends out from the 
 main body of a machine, to support another part; miller 
 over-hang arm. 
 
 Outboard bearing: a bearing located outside the main 
 body of a machine, for the purpose of supporting an ex- 
 tending shaft; steam engine outboard bearing. 
 
 Overhead works: the pulleys and shafting suspended 
 from the ceiling, which are necessary to transmit the 
 power from the main shaft to the machine. 
 
 Pinion: the small gear of a train; it is usually the first 
 driver. 
 
MACHINE GLOSSARY 279 
 
 Poppet head: also spoken of as footstock cap; the 
 upper part of a footstock which may be moved crosswise 
 relative to the length of the machine. 
 
 Platen: also spoken of as table; a flat surface element 
 on any machine, which is used as a support for work; 
 usually designed with some kind of machinery attached 
 for making necessary movements. 
 
 Pawl and ratchet: a toothed wheel (the ratchet), ar- 
 ranged in relation to a latch (the pawl), in such a way 
 that a backward and forward movement of the pawl, shall 
 produce only a forward movement of the ratchet. The 
 pawl may be thrown out of action at the will of the work- 
 man, or it may, in some designs be reversed, producing 
 only a backward movement. This device is much used 
 on shapers, planers, and on the hand ratchet. 
 
 Pulley tap: a long tap so made that it will pass through 
 the rim of a pulley, and tap a hole in the hub. 
 
 Quick return: any device which quickly returns a 
 machine part from a final to a first position; introduced 
 on shapers, planers, millers and drillers; the detail of 
 design varies greatly in form. 
 
 Ratchet: see pawl. 
 
 Rack: a straight, linear element with gear teeth on 
 the face; lathe feed rack; planer platen rack. 
 
 Riser block: any block or device used to raise some 
 part from the machine table or bed, in order to accom- 
 modate larger work, or to make special settings; milling 
 machine riser block. 
 
 Ram: the reciprocating element of any planer type of 
 machine, in which the tool is carried over the work, rather 
 than the work under the tool; shaper ram; slotter ram. 
 
 Saddle: any element which acts as a supporting mem- 
 ber for parts to be carried over, or along another part of 
 a machine; the saddle carries, other operating parts of the 
 machine; saddle of the lathe carriage. 
 
280 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Slide block, or tool block; the block which, supports 
 the tool post on a machine; lathe slide block. 
 
 Shaft: any revolving element which is considerably 
 greater in length than in diameter; it usually carries 
 pulleys or gears. 
 
 Sizing: the final bringing of work to the finished 
 dimensions. 
 
 Sizing machine tools: giving the specific dimensions by 
 which the various tools are classified; for the tools men- 
 tioned in the present text these are as follows : 
 
 Engine Lathes: in the American market are classified 
 by the diameter of work which can be swung over the 
 bed; in the English market by the distance from the 
 center to the top plane of the bed. 
 
 Planers: by the length, width and height which the 
 machine will plane; sometimes fisted by length or width 
 only, when placing in shop lists. 
 
 Shapers: by the length of stroke. 
 
 Slotters: by the length of stroke. 
 
 Milling machines: by the table movements; lengthwise, 
 cross wise and vertical, named in the order here given. 
 
 Upright drills: by the diameter of work which the table 
 will carry, assuming that the work is circular; it is actually 
 twice the distance from the center of the spindle to the 
 column. 
 
 Universal grinding machines: by the diameter and 
 length of work that can be accommodated between 
 centers. 
 
 Polishing heads: distance from base to the center of 
 spindle. 
 
 Arbor presses: distance from plate to extreme upper 
 position of plunger. 
 
 Vises: width of jaw. 
 
 Step bearing: a vertical .bearing which supports the 
 weight, brought on a shaft, by a bearing at the end, 
 
MACHINE GLOSSARY 281 
 
 rather than by circumferencial support alone; nearly all 
 vertical shafts in a machine are supported by some form 
 of step bearing. 
 
 Steady rest: a stationary device, clamped to the ways 
 of a machine, for the purpose of supporting a long bar, 
 during turning or boring operations; lathe steady rest. 
 
 Scarfing: setting a cutting tool so that it takes a drag- 
 ging chip when passing over the surface; the tool is set 
 so that its side cutting face is at an angle other than 90° 
 with the center line of the work. 
 
 Slide: any element so designed that it can be moved 
 to and fro on a base, by means of ways and guides; the 
 planer head slide. 
 
 Swing plate: any plate which may be swung to various 
 positions about a center; it often carries adjustable-gears; 
 lathe swing plate. 
 
 Spindle: the smaller central element of a machine 
 part which acts as a sort of shaft on which other parts 
 are located, and by means of which motion is transmitted. 
 
 Shipper: a device for starting and stopping a machine, 
 by means of throwing a belt, from a tight to a loose 
 pulley, or by throwing a clutch into or out of engage- 
 ment. 
 
 Tumbler gears: any pair of gears, set in a rocking 
 bracket, in such a manner that first one, then another 
 gear, may be brought into mesh with a driving gear; 
 lathe tumbler gears. 
 
 Tool post: tool clamps; the elements which hold the 
 cutting tool in place when a machine is in operation. 
 
 Turret or monitor: a revolving element which carries 
 several cutting tools, which may be successively brought 
 into line for cutting operations; the turret lathe. 
 
 Table: see platen. 
 
 Upright: any vertical sustaining element of a machine; 
 planer uprights. 
 
282 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Verticle feed handles: the handles, or knobs that 
 control the vertical feed; see knobs. 
 
 Vise or shoe: the device used to hold work for taking 
 a surface cut on planer, shaper or miller. 
 
 Worm: a short screw, usually of special form of thread, 
 running in mesh with a worm wheel; lathe feed rod worm; 
 miller dividing head worm. 
 
 Ways: the elements which serve as a seat for the 
 guides on various machine parts; the planer platen ways. 
 
TABLES 
 
 Table I. — Steel Rule Graduations as Listed by the 
 Brown and Sharpe Mfg. Co. 
 
 #1 Graduation. 
 
 1st Edge, lOths, 20ths, 50ths, lOOths. 
 
 2nd " 12ths, 24ths, 48ths. 
 
 3rd " 14ths, 28ths. 
 
 4th " 16ths, 32nds, 64ths. 
 
 #2 Graduation. 
 
 1st Edge, 8ths. 
 
 2nd " lOths, 20ths, 50ths, lOOtha. 
 
 3rd " 12ths, 24ths, 48ths. 
 
 4th " 16ths, 32nds, 64ths. 
 
 #4 Graduation. 
 
 1st Edge, 8ths. 
 2nd " I6ths. 
 3rd " 32nds. 
 4th " 64ths. 
 The #4 graduation is the one most used by machinists. 
 
 283 
 
284 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table II. — Screw Threads, United States Standard 
 
 
 Set thread 
 
 7 
 
 No. of 
 threads 
 per inch 
 
 Hole in nut 
 
 Diameter 
 
 
 
 
 of bolt 
 
 micrometer 
 
 Exact 
 size 
 
 Approx. 
 size 
 
 Tap 
 drill 
 size 
 
 \ inch 
 
 .2175 
 
 20 
 
 .1850 
 
 .188 
 
 3 
 
 TV 
 
 5 II 
 
 .2764 
 
 18 
 
 .2403 
 
 .244 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 3 „ 
 
 ( 8 
 
 .3344 
 
 16 
 
 .2938 
 
 .298 
 
 
 7 <( 
 
 .3911 
 
 14 
 
 .3447 
 
 .349 
 
 23 
 
 FT 
 
 4 " 
 
 .4500 
 
 13 
 
 .4001 
 
 .405 
 
 13 
 3TT 
 
 9 " 
 
 .5083 
 
 12 
 
 .4542 
 
 .459 
 
 15 
 
 SIS 
 
 5 <> 
 8 
 
 .5659 
 
 11. 
 
 .5069 
 
 .512 
 
 33 
 
 11 <( 
 
 .6284 
 
 11 
 
 .5694 
 
 .575 
 
 37 
 
 3 il 
 4 
 
 .6850 
 
 10 
 
 .6201 
 
 626 
 
 41 
 
 7 l< 
 8 
 
 .8028 
 
 9 
 
 .7306 
 
 .737 
 
 47 
 ^4" 
 
 1 
 
 .9188 
 
 8 
 
 .8376 
 
 .844 
 
 27 
 
 ii " 
 
 1.0322 
 
 7 
 
 .9394 
 
 .947 
 
 31 
 
 ■sr 
 
 11 " 
 
 1.1572 
 
 7 
 
 1.0644 
 
 1.072 
 
 1 3 
 
 If " 
 
 1.2667 
 
 6 
 
 1.1585 
 
 1.167 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 TW 
 
 14 " 
 
 1.3917 
 
 6 
 
 1.2835 
 
 1.292 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 TS 
 
 15 « 
 l 8 
 
 1.5069 
 
 5| 
 
 1.3888 
 
 1.398 
 
 113 
 
 ±4 
 
 1.6201 
 
 5 
 
 1.4902 
 
 1.500 
 
 14 
 
 *8 
 
 1.7451 
 
 5 
 
 1.6152 
 
 1.625 
 
 If 
 
 2 " 
 
 1.8556 
 
 44 
 
 1.7113 
 
 1.722 
 
 If 
 
 2\ '• 
 
 2. 1056 
 
 44 
 
 1.9613 
 
 1.972 
 
 2 
 
 2| " 
 
 2.3376 
 
 4 
 
 2. 1752 
 
 2.186 
 
 2ft 
 
 o3 « 
 ^4 
 
 2.5876 
 
 4 
 
 2.4252 
 
 2.436 
 
 2ft 
 
 3 
 
 2.8144 
 
 34 
 
 2.6288 
 
 2.640 
 
 2f4 
 
TABLES 
 
 285 
 
 Table III. — Different Standards for Wire Gages in use in 
 
 the United States 
 
 Dimensions of Sizes in Decimal Parts of an Inch 
 
 "o Si 
 
 Iri OS 
 
 a * 
 M 
 
 sis 
 
 a" 8 
 1|S, 
 
 ill 
 
 Birmingham, 
 or Stubs' 
 Iron Wire 
 
 Washburn & 
 Moen Mfg. 
 
 Co., 
 
 Worcester, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 0> 
 
 so 
 
 1! 
 
 *j a) 
 m 
 
 TJ. S. Stand- 
 ard Gage 
 
 for Sheet and 
 Plate Iron 
 and Steel 
 
 "S& 
 
 000000 
 
 
 
 .464 
 
 
 .46875 
 
 000000 
 
 00000 
 
 
 
 -■ 
 
 .432 
 
 
 .4375 
 
 00000 
 
 0000 
 
 !46" 
 
 .454 
 
 .3938 
 
 .400 
 
 
 .40625 
 
 0000 
 
 000 
 
 . 40964 
 
 .425 
 
 .3625 
 
 .372 
 
 
 .375 
 
 000 
 
 00 
 
 .3648 
 
 .38 
 
 .3310 
 
 .348 
 
 
 .34375 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 . 32486 
 
 .34 
 
 .3065 
 
 .324 
 
 
 .3125 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 .2893 
 
 .3 
 
 .2830 
 
 .300 
 
 .227 
 
 .28125 
 
 1 
 
 2 . 
 
 .25763 
 
 .284 
 
 .2625 
 
 .276 
 
 .219 
 
 .265625 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 .22942 
 
 .259 
 
 .2437 
 
 .252 
 
 .212 
 
 .25 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 .20431 
 
 .238 
 
 .2253 
 
 .232 
 
 .207 
 
 .234375 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 . 18194 
 
 .22 
 
 .2070 
 
 .212 
 
 .204 
 
 .21875 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 . 16202 
 
 .203 
 
 .1920 
 
 .192 
 
 .201 
 
 .203125 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 . 14428 
 
 .18 
 
 .1770 
 
 .176 
 
 .199 
 
 .1875 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 . 12849 
 
 .165 
 
 .1620 
 
 .160 
 
 .197 
 
 . 171875 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 . 11443 
 
 .148 
 
 .1483 
 
 .144 
 
 .194 
 
 . 15625 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 . 10189 
 
 .134 
 
 .1350 
 
 .128 
 
 .191 
 
 . 140625 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 . 090742 
 
 .12 
 
 .1205 
 
 .116 
 
 .188 
 
 .125 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 . 080808 
 
 .109 
 
 .1055 
 
 .104 
 
 .185 
 
 . 109375 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 . 071961 
 
 .095 
 
 .0915 
 
 .092 
 
 .182 
 
 .09375 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 . 064084 
 
 .083 
 
 .0800 
 
 .080 
 
 .180 
 
 .078125 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 . 057068 
 
 .072 
 
 .0720 
 
 .072 
 
 .178 
 
 .0703125 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 . 05082 
 
 .065 
 
 .0525 
 
 .064 
 
 .175 
 
 .0625 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 . 045257 
 
 .058 
 
 .0540 
 
 .056 
 
 .172 
 
 .05625 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 . 040303 
 
 .049 
 
 .0475 
 
 .048 
 
 .168 
 
 .05 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 .03589 
 
 .042 
 
 .0410 
 
 .040 
 
 .164 
 
 . 04375 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 .031961 
 
 .035 
 
 .0348 
 
 .036 
 
 .161. 
 
 .0375 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 .028462 
 
 .032 
 
 .03175 
 
 .032 
 
 .157 
 
 .034375 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 .025347 
 
 .028 
 
 .0286 
 
 .028 
 
 .155 
 
 .03125 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 . 022571 
 
 .025 
 
 .0258 
 
 .024 
 
 .153 
 
 .028125 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 .0201 
 
 .022 
 
 .0230 
 
 .022 
 
 .151 
 
 .025 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 .0179 
 
 .02 
 
 .0204 
 
 .020 
 
 .148 
 
 .021875 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 . 01594 
 
 .018 
 
 .0181 
 
 .018 
 
 .146 
 
 . 01875 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 . 014195 
 
 .016 
 
 .0173 
 
 .0164 
 
 .143 
 
 .0171875 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 . 012641 
 
 .014 
 
 .0162 
 
 .0149 
 
 .139 
 
 .015625 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 . 011257 
 
 .013 
 
 .0150 
 
 .0136 
 
 .134 
 
 .0140625 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 . 010025 
 
 .012 
 
 ■ 0140 
 
 .0124 
 
 .127 
 
 .0125 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 . 008928 
 
 .01 
 
 .0132 
 
 .0116 
 
 .120 
 
 .0109375 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 .00795 
 
 .009 
 
 .0128 
 
 .0108 
 
 .115 
 
 .01015625 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 . 00708 
 
 .008 
 
 .0118 
 
 .0100 
 
 .112 
 
 . 009375 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 . 006304 
 
 .007 
 
 .0104 
 
 .0092 
 
 .110 
 
 .00859375 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 . 005614 
 
 .005 
 
 .0095 
 
 .0084 
 
 .108 
 
 . 0078125 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 .005 
 
 .004 
 
 .0090 
 
 .0076 
 
 .106 
 
 .00703125 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 .004453 
 
 
 
 .0068 
 
 .103 
 
 . 006640625 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 . 003965 
 
 i 
 
 
 .0060 
 
 .101 
 
 .00625 
 
 38 
 
 39" 
 40 
 
 . 003531 
 . 003144 
 
 
 
 .0052 
 
 099 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 .0048 
 
 .097 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
286 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table IV. — Sizes of Woodruff Keys 
 The Woodruff key is semi-circular in form; the "length" in the 
 table indicates the diameter of a circular blank from which the 
 particular key designated could be made. 
 
 Length 
 
 Thickness 
 
 No. of key 
 and cutter 
 
 
 111 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1" 
 
 3 » 
 
 ■3^ 
 
 2 
 
 
 i" 
 
 1 n 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 ,/ 
 8 
 
 -J-" 
 
 4 
 
 
 I" 
 
 1 il 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 
 §.ir 
 8 
 
 A' 
 
 6 
 
 
 3„ 
 
 i 
 
 1 1/ 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 II 
 
 4 
 
 A" 
 
 8 
 
 
 3 it 
 4 
 
 3 » 
 
 9 
 
 
 In 
 8 
 
 5 » 
 72" 
 
 10 
 
 
 7 „ 
 8 
 
 3 // 
 
 T7 
 
 11 
 
 
 1 ii 
 8 
 
 7 1/ 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 
 1" 
 
 3 il 
 T7 
 
 13 
 
 
 1" 
 
 7 1/ 
 77 
 
 14 
 
 
 1" 
 
 1 1/ 
 
 4 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 
 3 ii 
 
 T7 
 
 16 
 
 
 1 8 
 
 7 (/ 
 72 
 
 17 
 
 
 ii" 
 
 1 IT 
 
 i 
 
 18 
 
 
 *4 
 
 A" 
 
 T7 
 
 19 
 
 
 ii" 
 X 4 
 
 7 » 
 77 
 
 20 
 
 
 Ii" 
 
 I/? 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 
 *8 
 
 111 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 
 1 3 // 
 
 5 (/ 
 T7 
 
 23 
 
 
 1|" 
 
 In 
 4 
 
 * 24 
 
 
 H' 
 
 T7 
 
 25 
 
 
 All keys, whether of Woodruff or square type should have a slight 
 clearance between the top surface of the key and the bottom of the 
 keyway formed in the hub. 
 
TABLES 287 
 
 Table V. — Standard Sizes op Spring Cotter Pins 
 
 Cotter pins are classified by their diameter, when tightly closed, 
 and the length measured from the point to just below the eye. 
 
 Diameter Lengths available 
 
 7 II 
 T4 
 
 1 » 
 8 
 
 A" 
 
 A" 
 
 7 II 
 
 iff 
 
 4 
 
 A' 
 
 I" 
 
 X it 3 ii i it ilv 
 5 4 x l i 
 
 
 3 it i it ilff il v 
 
 4 x *4 — x 2 
 
 
 3 ff iff 1 1 " 1 1 ff 
 
 4 x 1 4 x 2 
 
 
 3 ff iff ilff 1 1 It 
 
 4 — l X 4 X 2 
 
 
 1 "— 1 J "— 1^ "— if "- 
 
 -2"- 
 
 1"— if"— l|"— 2" 
 
 
 If"— li"— If"— 2 s - 
 
 ol 1/ 
 ~ Z 2 
 
 1|"— 2"— 2|"— 3" 
 
 
 2 J*— 3"— 3|"— 4" 
 
 
288 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table VI. — Sizes of Machine Screws, and Sizes op Tap Deills 
 to be used when drilling and tapping holes to flt various 
 Sizes op Screws 
 
 Number of 
 
 Diam. in 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of tap 
 
 drill by drill 
 
 gage. Diam. in 
 
 thousandths of inch 
 
 screw by 
 gage 
 
 thousandths 
 of an inch 
 
 threads per 
 inch 
 
 2 
 
 .0842 
 
 56 
 
 #49— .073 
 
 3 
 
 .0973 
 
 48 
 
 #45— .082 
 
 4 
 
 .1105 
 
 36 
 
 #42— .093 
 
 5 
 
 .1236 
 
 36 
 
 #38— .101 
 
 6 
 
 .1368 
 
 32 
 
 #35— .110 
 
 7 
 
 .150 
 
 32 
 
 #30— .128 
 
 8 
 
 .163 
 
 32 
 
 #29— .136 
 
 9 
 
 .1763 
 
 30 
 
 #27— .144 
 
 10 
 
 .1894 
 
 24 
 
 #25— .149 
 
 11 
 
 .2026 
 
 24 
 
 #21— .159 
 
 12 
 
 .2158 
 
 24 
 
 #17— .173 
 
 13 
 
 .2289 
 
 22 
 
 #15— .180 
 
 14 
 
 .2421 
 
 20 
 
 #13— .185 
 
 15 
 
 .2552 
 
 20 
 
 #8— .199 
 
 16 
 
 .2684 
 
 18 
 
 #6— .204 
 
 17 
 
 .2816 
 
 18 
 
 #2— .213 
 
 18 
 
 .2947 
 
 18 
 
 #1— .228 
 
 19 
 
 .3079 
 
 18 
 
 C— .242 
 
 20 
 
 .321 
 
 16 
 
 D— .246 
 
TABLES 
 
 289 
 
 Table VIA 
 
 An effort is being made at the present time to introduce a more 
 rational standard for machine screws than that presented in table 
 VI. The screw is identified by the diameter in thousandths of an 
 inch instead of by a number, and the variation in consecutive sizes 
 is more logical. The following table is suggested by the American 
 Society of Mechanical Engineers, but the use of this standard is 
 not yet accepted in the hardware trade at large. 
 
 Diam. of 
 screw 
 
 Threads 
 per inch 
 
 Diam. of 
 root of 
 thread 
 
 
 0.060 
 
 80 
 
 0. 0438 
 
 Select tap drill 
 
 .073 
 
 72 
 
 .0550 
 
 from Table VII or 
 
 .086 
 
 64 
 
 .0657 
 
 VIII using a drill 
 
 .099 
 
 56 
 
 .0758 
 
 .003" larger than root 
 
 .112 
 
 48 
 
 .0849 
 
 diameter for small 
 
 .125' 
 
 44 
 
 .0955 
 
 sizes, to . 012" larger 
 
 .138 
 
 40 
 
 .1055 
 
 than root diam. for 
 
 .151 
 
 36 
 
 .1149 
 
 largest screw. 
 
 .164 
 
 36 
 
 .1279 
 
 
 .177 
 
 32 
 
 .1364 
 
 
 .190 
 
 30 
 
 .1467 
 
 
 .216 
 
 28 
 
 .1696 
 
 
 .242 
 
 24 
 
 .1879 
 
 
 .268 
 
 22 
 
 .2090 
 
 
 .294 
 
 20 
 
 .2290 
 
 
 .320 
 
 20 
 
 .2550 
 
 
 .346 
 
 18 
 
 .2738 
 
 
 .372 
 
 16 
 
 .2908 
 
 
 .398 
 
 16 
 
 .3168 
 
 
 .424 
 
 14 
 
 .3312 
 
 
 0.450 
 
 14 
 
 0.3572 
 
 
290 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table VII. — Decimal Equivalent op Vakious Numbers 
 of the Twist Drill Gage 
 
 Number of 
 drill 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 thousandths 
 
 of an inch 
 
 Number of 
 drill 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 thousandths 
 
 of an inch 
 
 1 
 
 .228 
 
 31 
 
 .120 
 
 2 
 
 .221 
 
 32 
 
 .116 
 
 3 
 
 .213 
 
 33 
 
 .113 
 
 4 
 
 .209 
 
 34 
 
 .111 
 
 5 
 
 .205 
 
 35 
 
 .110 
 
 6 
 
 .204 
 
 36 
 
 .1065 
 
 7 
 
 .201 
 
 37 
 
 .104 
 
 ' 8 
 
 .199 
 
 38 
 
 .1015 
 
 9 
 
 .196 
 
 39 
 
 .0995 
 
 10 
 
 .1935 
 
 40 
 
 .098 
 
 11 
 
 .191 
 
 41 
 
 .096 
 
 12 
 
 .189 
 
 42 
 
 .0935 
 
 13 
 
 .185 
 
 43 
 
 .089 
 
 14 
 
 .182 
 
 44 
 
 .086 
 
 15 
 
 .180 
 
 45 
 
 .082 
 
 16 
 
 .177 
 
 46 
 
 .081 
 
 17 
 
 .173 
 
 47 
 
 .0785 
 
 18 
 
 .1695 
 
 48 
 
 .076 
 
 19 
 
 .166 
 
 49 
 
 .073 
 
 20 
 
 .161 
 
 50 
 
 .070 
 
 21 
 
 .159 
 
 51 
 
 .067 
 
 22 
 
 .157 
 
 52 
 
 .063 
 
 23 
 
 .154 
 
 53 
 
 .0595 
 
 24 
 
 .152 
 
 54 
 
 .055 
 
 25 
 
 .149 
 
 55 
 
 .052 
 
 26 
 
 .147 
 
 56 
 
 .046 
 
 27 
 
 .144 
 
 57 
 
 .043 
 
 28 
 
 .140 
 
 58 
 
 .042 
 
 29 
 
 .136 
 
 59 
 
 .041 
 
 30 
 
 . 1285 
 
 60 
 
 .040 
 
TABLES 
 
 291 
 
 Table VIII. — Decimal Equivalents op Letter Sizes of 
 Drills 
 
 Letter 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 Letter 
 
 Diameter in 
 
 designating 
 
 thousandths of 
 
 designating 
 
 thousandths of 
 
 drill 
 
 an inch 
 
 drill 
 
 an inch 
 
 A 
 
 .234 
 
 N 
 
 0.302 
 
 B 
 
 .238 
 
 
 
 .316 
 
 C 
 
 .242 
 
 P 
 
 .323 
 
 D 
 
 .246 
 
 Q 
 
 .332 
 
 E 
 
 .250 
 
 R 
 
 .339 
 
 F 
 
 .257 
 
 S 
 
 .348 
 
 G 
 
 .261 
 
 T 
 
 .358 
 
 H 
 
 .266 
 
 TJ 
 
 .368 
 
 I 
 
 .272 
 
 V 
 
 .377 
 
 J 
 
 .277 
 
 w 
 
 .386 
 
 K 
 
 .281 
 
 X 
 
 .397 
 
 L • 
 
 .290 
 
 Y 
 
 .404 
 
 M 
 
 0.295 
 
 Z 
 
 0.413 
 
292 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table IX. — Cutting Speeds for Common Reductions 
 = Number of turns of cutter or work for 1 inch travel of table. 
 S = Speed in feet per minute. 
 
 Operation 
 
 Formula 
 
 F=20 
 iVinch 
 
 reduc- 
 tion and 
 average 
 practice 
 on light 
 cuts 
 
 F=34.2. 
 i-inch 
 reduc- 
 tion 
 
 F=58.48. 
 i-inch 
 reduc- 
 tion 
 
 F-=100. 
 i-inch 
 reduc- 
 tion 
 
 
 Turning. . . 
 
 S = -| F + 106 
 
 93 
 
 83 
 
 67 
 
 39 
 
 
 Milling 
 
 S = -\ F + 80 
 
 69 
 
 62 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 
 Drilling . . . 
 
 S = -f F + 64 
 
 56 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 Brass 
 
 Planing . . . 
 
 S = -| F + 53 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 
 Turning. . . 
 
 S = -&F + 66 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 42 
 
 25 
 
 
 Milling. . . 
 Drilling. . . 
 
 S = -&F + 50 
 g = - J F + 39 
 
 43 
 35 
 
 39 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 25 
 
 18 
 15 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 Planing. . . 
 
 S = -^F + 33 
 
 39 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 
 Turning. . . 
 
 S = -§ F + 53 
 
 46 
 
 42 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 Wrought 
 
 Milling. . . 
 
 S = -| F + 40 
 
 35 
 
 33 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 iron and 
 
 Drilling . . . 
 
 S = -£ F + 32 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 machinery 
 
 Planing . . . 
 
 S = -| F + 27 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 steel 
 
 Turning. . . 
 
 S = -&F + 33 
 
 29 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 
 Milling 
 
 S--AF + 25 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 Tool steel 
 
 Drilling. . . 
 
 S = - | F + 20 
 
 17 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 
 Planing . . . 
 
 S = -&F + 17 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 
 These ra^es are for carbon steel; for high speed steels these rates 
 may be doubled in speed, keeping feeds the same as given. 
 
TABLES 
 
 Table IX A 
 
 C equals outside diameter of flange. 
 D equals thickness of flange at bore. 
 E equals diameter of recess on inner face of flange. 
 
 293 
 
 Diameter 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 £ 
 
 
 of wheel 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 Inches 
 
 
 6" 
 
 2" 
 
 3 „ 
 
 s 
 
 1" 
 
 
 8" 
 
 3" 
 
 3 // 
 8 
 
 2" 
 
 
 10" 
 
 3§" 
 
 3// 
 8 
 
 2|" 
 
 
 12" 
 
 4" 
 
 1 ii 
 2 
 
 2f" 
 
 
 14" 
 
 4§" 
 
 1 ,r 
 2 
 
 3" 
 
 
 16" 
 
 °2 
 
 1 n 
 2 
 
 3i" 
 
 
 20" 
 
 7" 
 
 5 » 
 8 
 
 4|" 
 
 
 24" 
 
 8" 
 
 5 // 
 8 
 
 °2 
 
 
 Table X. — Allowances fob Shrink, Drive and Running 
 
 Fits 
 
 Nominal 
 
 Drive fit. 
 
 Shrink fit. 
 
 Force fit. 
 
 Running 
 
 diameter 
 
 Shaft 
 
 Shaft 
 
 fit. 
 
 of shaft 
 
 large 
 
 large 
 
 Shaft large 
 
 Shaft small 
 
 1" 
 
 .001" 
 
 .0016" 
 
 .0021" 
 
 .002" 
 
 2" 
 
 .0015" 
 
 .0026" 
 
 .0031" 
 
 .003" 
 
 3" 
 
 .002" 
 
 .0036" 
 
 .0061" 
 
 .0035" 
 
 4" 
 
 .0024" 
 
 .0048" 
 
 .0083" 
 
 .0037" 
 
 5" 
 
 .003" 
 
 .0058" 
 
 .0102" 
 
 .004" 
 
 6" 
 
 .0035" 
 
 .0069" 
 
 .0124" 
 
 .004" 
 
 7' 
 
 .004" 
 
 .008" 
 
 .0144" 
 
 .004" 
 
 8" 
 
 .0045" 
 
 .009" 
 
 0.0164" 
 
 .0042" 
 
 9" 
 
 .005" 
 
 .010" 
 
 
 .0045" 
 
 10" 
 
 .0055" 
 
 .0112" 
 
 For sizes above 
 
 .005" 
 
 11" 
 
 .006" 
 
 .0122" 
 
 8" increase al- 
 
 .005" 
 
 12" 
 
 .0066" 
 
 .0136" 
 
 lowance 0.002" 
 
 .006" 
 
 13" 
 
 .007" 
 
 .0144" 
 
 for each inch 
 
 .006" 
 
 14" 
 
 .0076" 
 
 .0155" 
 
 increase in di- 
 
 .0062" 
 
 15" 
 
 .0086" 
 
 0.0176" 
 
 ameter of shaft 
 
 0.007" 
 
294 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ■-s^vv^^y V"s^ 
 
 kv.^ V v. «v«vS^»v'vfc«£^< > 
 
 h*- 
 
 p^^V VO^V V. V V-g 
 
 ^^ ^^v^w^ ^ vE s^ 
 
TABLES 
 
 295 
 
 B 
 
 H 
 
 ■< 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 to 
 
 w 
 
 I 
 
 g 
 
 < 
 
 Eh 
 
 ■fJJ I3d 
 
 •raduj 
 
 •CJOCNIMGOOOlO 
 CNOOOCNCOCNCN 
 
 t^dap 
 
 EQ 
 
 N M M ^ «3 ^ H 
 
 en3uoj 
 jo smpurjj 
 
 % % & ft 
 
 OOOOr-fTHi-tiH 
 
 anStjo^ 
 
 JO J jijui 
 
 jo smpwy; 
 
 65 ns^Hsfe*; 
 
 an3'jo> jo 
 
 W |W HJt» H|<* W |h h|» U)|00 C9|-* r 
 
 anauoi JO 
 
 anSaoq. 
 jo x^Bxari 
 
 J° R1PI.M. 
 
 jo q^SaaT; 
 
 O^ ^33[JOS 
 
 jo pug; 
 
 fe 
 
 <N CO t-|« i» i-itei eo|« nko 
 
 ■ HM COl-* COKO HW ft H U 
 
 h N (N 
 
 d w |h m|co '"[h h[n w|eo t-|oo «|« 
 
 © CO O C<l 00 iO © iC 
 
 CD H CD N N CO <C CO 
 
 _to * * to * * * * 
 
 |H «0|-* t-|00 |h Hi-* HfN «|-* io|oc 
 t-( i-H t-H rrt (N 
 
 K 
 
 ajpq jo 
 ijjdaci 
 
 3[U13U9 
 
 JO q^3ao{ 
 
 spqAS; 
 
 &3 
 
 ?$ 
 
 n ra CO ■* N Ol 
 
 Hm ™|h ib|oo h|4 h|oo rtM «|oo "j? 
 
 05 
 
 rHp3 m )H HH «|tH rtN 
 
 N N M CO ^ tO 00 
 
 
 i^dap 3n[,j 
 •pains 
 
 ^d^OOS JO 
 
 piraiB 
 jaisuiBiQ 
 
 »= r-t|M 
 
 CM CN 
 
 « n ■# a i 
 
 to m o.oo r-i oo ■* * 
 
 ONOcon^oiN 
 
 CO-*l>05CNl>-tf<N 
 
 ' i-i i-i ci ri 
 
 paa n^^s 
 
 ■2ti|d jo 
 
 JaCjaUIUId 
 
 J3dB^ 
 
 jo raqam^ I 
 
 n o> n oo o » <e * 
 
 lOlO. NNNNHIO 
 NB«3NO^HN 
 
 ' rH i-J exi e<i 
 
 OHNM^iOfflN 
 
 •2 1 
 
 §.§. 
 
 ft *" 
 » a 
 
 «w "" 
 
 i-i TJ 
 
 a >> 
 3*1 
 
 si 
 
 ■a ° 
 
 3 CD 
 O- ft 
 
 ft S 
 2 * 
 
 00 Q 
 
 a <a o 
 
 ■£ .s .£ 
 
 CQ EQ OH 
 
 .a .a .a 
 
 & & & 
 
 CM CO •* 
 
 JO 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 3 
 
 *HSHS ' 
 
 H c< CO 
 
 a- 
 
 p - 
 
 I 
 
 ■3 s 
 
 ■a 
 
 8.s 
 
 g 53 
 
 §1 
 
 a) "o 
 
 
 0) 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 ai 
 
 3 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 .3 
 
 .a 
 
 b 
 
 »i« 
 
 Hi-* 
 
 h(w 
 
 
 T-l 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 5 
 
 M 
 
 .3 
 
 ■a 
 
 a 
 
 O J!i 
 
 JS .-3 
 
 Tj O 
 
 J5 « J5 ^ 
 
 
 *" a 
 
 CO m 
 
 S ft 
 
 ja o 
 
 $ 
 
 M 
 
 o 
 
 .a 
 
296 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 ^^^v^^^^^ST 
 
 tVSSSSSVSV SSSS^sSl 
 
 ^ ^vvv^'y'vV^ p 
 
 KSSSSSSS<X^SS^S* 
 
 Os^VvVV^VSNN^sN 
 
 l^v^ ■v^S.V.VS.S^SSSgg 
 
 .asiaea^ 
 
 ^^vx^^^^^^^NN^^^^ 
 
 j^vs^^^^^^^>x<^^^^^^ 
 
 
 =8 
 
TABLES 
 
 297 
 
 Table XIII. — Properties op the Brown & Sharpe 
 Standard Tapers 
 
 
 
 
 <B 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 *s 
 
 
 a, u 
 
 & a 
 
 1 
 
 g 3 a 
 .g eg 
 
 n " 
 
 ft 
 faO 
 
 s 
 
 Ph 
 
 J9 
 
 ■h 
 
 o 
 
 & 
 
 n 
 
 a.st 
 
 P O fc. 
 
 MS 
 
 II 
 
 
 ll 
 
 3° 
 
 Is 
 
 r 
 
 ptfi 
 
 
 D 
 
 p 
 
 ff 
 
 X 
 
 z, 
 
 TF 
 
 T 
 
 
 l 
 
 .20" 
 
 15» 
 
 TW 
 
 W 
 
 15 » 
 
 3 '/ 
 8 
 
 .135" 
 
 3 // 
 TS 
 
 1 " 
 
 8 
 
 .500" 
 
 2 
 
 .25" 
 
 1 3 '/ 
 
 iA" 
 
 ill/' 
 
 X T4 
 
 1// 
 2 
 
 .166" 
 
 1 '/ 
 
 4 
 
 5 // 
 
 .500" 
 
 3 
 
 .312" 
 
 i3v 
 
 ii" 
 
 x 8 
 
 1 23// 
 x 32 
 
 5_" 
 8 
 
 .197" 
 
 5 " 
 
 3 " 
 
 .500" 
 
 3 
 
 .312" 
 
 2" 
 
 2|" 
 
 131'/ 
 *32 
 
 5 '/ 
 8 
 
 .197" 
 
 5 '/ 
 
 3 '' 
 T5 
 
 .500" 
 
 4 
 
 .35" 
 
 *4 
 
 |3» 
 *8 
 
 113'/ 
 
 %4 
 
 11 " 
 TS 
 
 .228" 
 
 ll" 
 ■3-2 
 
 7 1/ 
 T2 
 
 .500" 
 
 5 
 
 .45" 
 
 1 3 // 
 A 4 
 
 I 1 " 
 *8 
 
 ill// 
 
 3 // 
 4 
 
 .260" 
 
 3 11 
 8 
 
 1 11 
 4 
 
 .500" 
 
 6 
 
 .50" 
 
 9 3 1/ 
 ^8 
 
 2§" 
 
 ol9 " 
 ^64 
 
 1 II 
 8 
 
 .291" 
 
 7 '/ 
 
 9 '/ 
 T2 
 
 .500" 
 
 6 
 
 .50" 
 
 ol // 
 d 4 
 
 o3.f 
 d 8 
 
 oil'/ 
 " i 64 
 
 1 n 
 8 
 
 .291" 
 
 7 " 
 
 9 // 
 T2 
 
 .500" 
 
 7 
 
 .60" 
 
 3" 
 
 nlff 
 6 8 
 
 o2 9 " 
 
 15// 
 
 .322" 
 
 15" 
 ^~2~ 
 
 5 " 
 
 .500" 
 
 7 
 
 .60" 
 
 4" 
 
 4" 
 
 o2 9 '/ 
 
 *3T 
 
 15 " 
 
 .322" 
 
 15" 
 T2" 
 
 A" 
 TS 
 
 .500" 
 
 8 
 
 .75" 
 
 Q 9 // 
 
 oil;/ 
 
 q2 9" 
 
 1" 
 
 .353" 
 
 1 " 
 2 
 
 11 11 
 
 S2 
 
 .500" 
 
 9 
 
 .90" 
 
 4" 
 
 *8 
 
 o7 // 
 d 8 
 
 li" 
 
 .385" 
 
 ■Xr" 
 
 3 // 
 8 
 
 .500" 
 
 10 
 
 1.0446" 
 
 5" 
 
 °8 
 
 A27 ll 
 
 1 5 '/ 
 
 .447" 
 
 2 1 11 
 ?2 
 
 7 // 
 
 TS 
 
 ..5161" 
 
 10 
 
 1.0446" 
 
 M4-" 
 
 C13'/ 
 ^l^ 
 
 rOl' 
 
 15" 
 
 1 T¥ 
 
 .447" 
 
 2 1 11 
 T2 
 
 7 // 
 
 .5162" 
 
 10 
 
 1.0446" 
 
 fiJ-" 
 
 6M" 
 
 &lV' 
 
 15" 
 l TTS 
 
 ,447" 
 
 2 1'/ 
 -3S 
 
 7 // 
 
 .5162" 
 
 11 
 
 1.25" 
 
 6|" 
 
 61" 
 
 HV 
 
 *A" 
 
 .447" 
 
 2 11/ 
 
 7 " 
 TB' 
 
 .500" 
 
 12 
 
 1.50" 
 
 *rl if 
 '8 
 
 '4 
 
 6H" 
 
 ll" 
 
 0.510" 
 
 3 '/ 
 4 
 
 4' 
 
 0.500" 
 
 The angle on the end of tongue on milling cutters and arbors, and 
 the angle of the keys for driving cutters from collets may be made 
 the same as for twist drills. 
 
 Radius of mill for cutting tongue may be the same as for twist 
 
 drill shanks. 
 
298 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The Jabno Tapeb 
 
 The taper per foot for all numbers in this system is 0. 600" 
 Formulas for various sizes of tapers are as follows: 
 
 N = number of Jarno taper. 
 D = diameter at large end of taper. 
 d = diameterat small end of taper. 
 L = length of taper. 
 
 D 
 
 N 
 " 8 
 
 N 
 10 
 
 -f 
 
 The various clearance and tongue dimensions 
 for the Jarno taper may be taken from the Brown 
 and Sharpe list, with slight modifications. 
 
 Table XIV. — Thbeads fob Pipe Sizes. Pipe Tap Drills 
 
 Diam. of 
 tap. .. . 
 
 l it 
 
 8 
 
 l it 
 i 
 
 3 it 
 8 
 
 \" 
 
 3,/ 
 i 
 
 1" 
 
 if" 
 
 i*" 
 
 2" 
 
 ol // 
 
 ^2 
 
 3" 
 
 
 Threads 
 per inch' 
 
 27 
 
 18 
 
 7 // 
 
 18 
 
 3 71/ 
 ST 
 
 14 
 
 4 51/ 
 ST 
 
 14 
 2 9'/ 
 
 5T 
 
 
 i|" 
 
 1 2 31/ 
 
 Hi 
 
 O 3 1/ 
 
 8 
 
 a 5'/ 
 ^8 
 
 8 
 
 All diameters 
 above 3", 8 
 threads per 
 inch. 
 
 Diam. of 
 tap drill 
 
 Z\" 
 
 
 For good work, a pipe reamer should follow the drill before tapping, 
 but in a great deal of work, the tap is used directly after the drill 
 and gives satisfactory results. 
 
TABLES 
 
 299 
 
 Table XI. — Properties of United States Standard 
 Thread 
 
 Diameter of bolt 
 
 Number threads 
 
 Size of tap drill or size to 
 
 
 per inch 
 
 bore to form thread 
 
 1» 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 3 ii 
 
 5 li 
 Tff 
 
 18 
 
 0.242" or |" 
 
 3 „ 
 
 a 
 
 16 
 
 .302" or ^" 
 
 7 II 
 
 T5 
 
 14 
 
 .348" or i%» 
 
 1" 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 13 11 
 
 ■as 
 
 9 (/ 
 
 TB 
 
 12 
 
 2 9 11 
 
 All 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 3 7 II 
 
 3 it 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 An 
 8 
 
 In 
 
 9 
 
 23 V 
 
 8 
 
 Tif 
 
 1" 
 
 8 
 
 111 
 
 8 
 
 If" 
 
 7 
 
 6 1" 
 ■BT 
 
 If 
 
 7 
 
 1 5 » 
 
 |3» 
 x 8 
 
 6 
 
 1 1 Iff 
 
 ii' 
 
 6 
 
 119" 
 1 BT 
 
 1 5 // 
 ^8 
 
 5| 
 
 1-P-" 
 
 1 3 ii 
 1 i 
 
 5 
 
 ilv 
 
 ■\X'i 
 
 5 
 
 1 a 
 
 2" 
 
 4| 
 
 123" 
 1 T2" ' 
 
 2|" 
 
 4 
 
 1.970" 
 
 2|" 
 
 4 
 
 2.185", 
 
 2|" 
 
 4 
 
 2.435", 
 
 3" 
 
 3* 
 
 2.638" 
 
 3f" 
 
 3| 
 
 2.888" 
 
 3§" 
 
 3i 
 
 3.110" 
 
 3f" 
 
 3 
 
 3.327* 
 
 4" 
 
 3 
 
 3.576" 
 
 4|" 
 
 21 
 
 3.808" 
 
 4§" 
 
 2f 
 
 4.037" 
 
 4f 
 
 2f 
 
 4.265" 
 
 5" 
 
 2| 
 
 4.490" 
 
 5i" 
 
 2| 
 
 4.740" 
 
 6*' 
 
 ■^8 
 
 4.963" 
 
 5f" 
 
 2f 
 
 5.213" 
 
 6" 
 
 2i 
 
 5.433" 
 
300 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Table XV 
 
 This table gives sizes of Morse Taper Shanks for use on twist 
 drills of various diameters. It is a guide for use of taper shanks on 
 counterbores. 
 #1 shank is used on drills of the following diameters: §", T V, f ", 
 
 7 it In 9 II 
 
 TV ' 2 i TV 
 #2 shank is used on drills of the following diameters: f ", ^", f", 
 13 // 1 II 
 TV • 8 
 
 #3 shank is used on drills of the following diameters: -J-f' ', 1 ", lyV'i 
 
 il# -I 3 II 1 i II 
 x 8 j l TT5 i l 4 • 
 
 #4 shank is used on drills of the following diameters: liV, if "» 
 
 ■17" -till 19// liff 111// 1.3// 1 13 // -iXii Il5n nil 
 
 *TV < x 2 > L TT5 i l 8 > X TV > *4 > 1 TTff > l 8 i L TS i z ■ 
 #5 shank is used on drills of the following diameters: 2j J g-", 2\ ", 
 2 tV> 2 \", 2^'', 2f», %&' and all larger diameters. 
 This table serves as a guide for selecting shanks for counterbores. 
 Do not use a smaller shank than #2 on any diameter of counterbore. 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
 
 The young man who is ambitious should begin very- 
 early in his career to build a library for his future use. 
 The civilization of past ages has come. to us very largely 
 through the medium of books. The experiences of pre- 
 ceding generations of skilled workers is recorded in cer- 
 tain written texts. Again through the medium of books 
 we can get knowledge of methods of work adopted by 
 plants at great distances from our homes which we could 
 never expect to visit personally. m 
 
 A good text book, furthermore, presents only those 
 features of an industry which have been reduced to prac- 
 tice, and is therefore not only a source of information, 
 but the information contained therein is selected and well 
 classified. 
 
 No one text can possibly contain all the valuable in- 
 formation used in the practice of any one of the leading 
 trades of our. day; no set of books by any one author 
 will contain all such information. A well selected lot of 
 books, by different authors will prove of material value 
 to the young man who is learning or practicing a trade. 
 
 The books listed in this brief bibliography will prove 
 helpful to the machinist. The author has used them in 
 classes himself and is sure of their value as aids in indus- 
 trial education. The order in which the books are named 
 is not an evidence of their value; each text is equally 
 valuable, when its purpose is considered. These books 
 can be obtained from any dealer. 
 
 Machine Shop Practice, by Kaup. — This book is a 
 general survey of the elementary work of the machine 
 shop of our day. It does not go into detail. It may be 
 
 301 
 
302 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 regarded as a text presenting the generalities of machin- 
 ery production, in a simple and direct manner. 
 
 Machine Tool Operation, by Burghardt. — A text 
 going into considerable detail particularly relating to 
 lathe operation. The text does not aim to cover the 
 machinist's trade as a whole, but presents a great many 
 interesting and helpful hints. The author has been a 
 successful teacher of machine shop practice for many 
 years. The book will prove of value to any man who 
 likes a machine shop. 
 
 Advanced Machine Work, by Smith. — This book is 
 written in the form of a number of directions as to methods 
 of doing various jobs. The student should have taken 
 elementary machine practice before attempting to use 
 this text. The book is a mine of valuable detail relating 
 to machine shop practice, . all of which is carefully 
 presented. 
 
 Machinery's Handbook. — This is just what the title 
 implies; it is a handbook of the machinery trade. Like 
 Smith's book, the learner should have elementary prepara- 
 tion before attempting to use this book. A very valuable 
 book for any person working in the machine shop. 
 
 Practical Treatise on Gearing. Brown and Sharpe 
 Mfg. Co. — A very good book for the practical machinist. 
 Each subject taken up is definitely related to shop prac- 
 tice. There is no advanced mathematical work intro- 
 duced, but there is plenty of good wholesome thinking 
 required to master the contents of the work. 
 
 A Treatise on The Planer. The Cincinnati Planer 
 Co. — A practical text dealing with the operation and 
 upkeep of the planer. Many special methods of handling 
 work are described. 
 
 The Gisholt Turret Lathe Guide. Gisholt Machine 
 Co. — A book presenting many good points on operat- 
 ing the Gisholt machine. Many good points on "set 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 303 
 
 up " which can be applied to other machines than the 
 Gisholt tool. 
 
 American Machinist Gear Book, by Logue. — A text 
 dealing with the subject of gearing in a very satisfactory 
 manner. A very good course of study in gearing is Brown 
 and Sharpe's text, followed by this book. To get the most 
 out of the American Machinist Gear Book, the student 
 should have a knowledge of geometry and trigonometry. 
 
 Accurate Tool Work, Goodrich and Stanley. — This 
 book deals with the practical features of fine tool making. 
 Very good for the machinist who is anxious to enter the 
 tool making field. 
 
 How to Read a Blueprint, by Getty. — A book dealing 
 in a practical way with the elements of drawing. The 
 conventionalities of the drawing room are explained in 
 so far as they relate to the practical features of shop 
 work. 
 
COURSE OUTLINE 
 
 ELEMENTARY MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 The following course outline is presented as a guide to 
 those interested. The various jobs given in connection 
 with each trade process are articles of use in the machine 
 shop. In a commercial shop the instructor can find many 
 jobs which present the desired trade step, and it is 
 advisable to use such. In cases where the line manu- 
 factured by the firm will not supply all the trade processes 
 the job list given will serve as an efficient guide. It is 
 essential in trade training that important processes 
 shall not be neglected, if we wish to produce a supply 
 of all around workmen. 
 
 In the school shop, the outline will prove of assistance 
 in rounding out the c6urse where a selected or available 
 line of work may not supply all the trade processes. All 
 the articles mentioned can be made much more cheaply 
 in the school than they can be purchased on the market. 
 
 Any trade course outline must be laid down to fit the 
 organization in which it is to operate. A program that 
 may work out most satisfactorily in one community may 
 not prove a success in another because of varying local 
 conditions. It is necessary therefore to adapt the course, 
 in so far as its job content is concerned, to the plant or 
 school in which it is to operate. In a full trade course the 
 process outline should not be widely departed from. 
 
 The teacher of manual training or prevocational classes 
 may select from the trade course such processes as best 
 meet the requirements of his work. 
 
 The course is built around the trade process, not around 
 the job. This arrangement is both efficient and effective; 
 with each process entry appear several jobs, to which 
 
 304 
 
BENCH WORK 305 
 
 reference has already been. made. These jobs are the 
 means of developing skill in the desired process. 
 
 The outline starts with work at the bench, but it is no"t 
 absolutely necessary that the learner start at the bench. 
 For a full trade course, the bench serves admirably as a 
 starting point. The early processes at the bench are 
 simple, and the equipment used is easily understood. 
 
 In teaching all trades the author has followed a con- 
 centric plan. On such a plan the learner starts, for ex- 
 ample, at the bench, taking the first half dozen processes, 
 possibly, then going to the lathe taking the early processes, 
 thence to drill press, shaper, miller and slotter taking' the 
 first few processes on each machine. After completing 
 the round the learner returns to the bench and takes 
 another series of processes, somewhat more advanced 
 than the first series taken. The same circuit of machines 
 is repeated on somewhat more advanced work. 
 
 The order in which the machines are taken is not im- 
 portant; the learner may pass from bench to shaper, 
 miller, or slotter just as well as from bench to lathe. £t is 
 important, however, that the learner start on elementary 
 processes when beginning on a machine. He should hot 
 begin with an advanced process and follow with an ele- 
 mentary one; such a plan retards the development of skill. 
 
 TRADE STEPS AND RELATED WORK 1 
 
 BENCH WORK 
 
 Plain Chipping. — Gage blocks, block parallels, clamp 
 blocks, planer stops and stakes. Refer to text for method 
 of work. 
 
 1 Prints giving process content for each job mentioned may be pur- 
 chased from Minot H. Pratt, Media, Delaware Co., Pa. These are 
 illustrative prints showing job and related process. Prints are not 
 dimensioned. 
 
306 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 Use of Steel Stamps. — Marking sizes and shop num- 
 bers on all work made. Refer to text for method. 
 " Use of Hack Saw. — Cutting of stock for bolts. Refer 
 to text for method. 
 
 Flat Filing. — Same as for plain chipping. Refer to 
 text for method. 
 
 Use of Outside and Inside Caliper. — Assignment in 
 measuring standard work. Careful instructions as to 
 method of use, and transfer of dimensions between scale, 
 outside and inside caliper. Refer to text for method. 
 
 Belt Lacing. — Sample pieces made up for learner to 
 study; unlace and lace until arrangement of lace is learned. 
 Re sure necessity for squaring ends of belt is explained. 
 See text for method. 
 
 Use of Micrometer Caliper. — Study instrument care- 
 fully; instruction in method of reading. Select several 
 pieces of various diameters; arrange in a given order; 
 have the learner measure these and list measurements, 
 as he reads them from the instrument. Be sure to have 
 some fractional measurements in half thousandths. Have 
 several pieces with bored holes listed in order. Pieces to 
 have holes of various diameters. Let learner measure 
 these with inside caliper, transfer size to micrometer and 
 list measurements as read. This is excellent practice in 
 developing the sense of touch and accuracy in the use of 
 the micrometer caliper. Refer to text for method of 
 using inside caliper and the micrometer. 
 
 Use of the Vernier Caliper. — Follow the same plan as 
 outlined for the micrometer. 
 
 Use of the Speed Indicator. — Careful study of instru- 
 ment. Assign to read speed of several rotating parts of 
 various machines in the shop. Machines taken in a spe- 
 cific order, and speeds recorded in same order. Refer to 
 small tool catalog for study of instrument. 
 
 Use of Taps. — Have a supply of blank nuts available; 
 same of size in use about shop. Assign learner to tapping 
 
BENCH WORK 307 
 
 a given number. See that learner understands squaring 
 tap with face of nut when starting the tap. Refer to text 
 for material on taps. 
 
 Use of Threading Dies. — Assign to going over a certain 
 number of clamp bolts in use about shop. Clean up 
 threads; saw off damaged threads and cut new threads. 
 Cut threads on such rough bolts as you want about the 
 shop, by means of the die. Be sure learner is taught to 
 start the die square. Some work should be done with set 
 die, and some with " jam " die. Refer to text for data 
 on threads. 
 
 Laying Out. — Laying out clamps for ratchet work. 
 Laying out oil can parts for soldering and sweating work. 
 Laying out any of the jobs given in this outline for shaper, 
 planer or slotter. 
 
 Use of the Ratchet. — Have learner make at least two 
 clamps as follows: On the end of a steel bar of required 
 dimensions lay out the clamps. Lay out holes for slot in 
 clamp and drill these with ratchet. Saw off the clamp 
 with hack saw. Broach out and file the slot. Trim ends 
 of clamp to desired form by means of chisel and files. The 
 whole clamp is made without a power tool. A knowledge 
 of the processes involved is very valuable to the mechanic 
 who may be sent out on a repair or erection job. Refer 
 to text for ratchet " set up." 
 
 Broaching and Drifting. — See job listed for ratchet 
 work. 
 
 Soldering and Sweating. — Make at least one conical 
 oil can. A satisfactory size is 3i" at base with f " hole at 
 top; solder in a f" nipple drilled and tapped for a f" 16 
 thread. This includes making base and spout. See text 
 for method of soldering. 
 
 Chipping and Filing Keyways. — Fitting keys to planer 
 and miller vises, planer jack bases, V-blocks, miller arbors; 
 compound bushings, gears for lathe change gear sets, and 
 
308 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 for stock, cutter heads and boring bars. It is a good plan 
 to have a number of V-blocks, jack bases, fitted with keys 
 which in turn fit in T-slots of miller and planer. These 
 blocks and bases are very convenient for a great deal of 
 work. See text on shaper and slotter for layout of key- 
 ways on internal and external cylindrical work. 
 
 Calculating Cutting Speed. — Assign learner several 
 jobs going on in the shop; these to be taken in a specified 
 order and calculations made for each. The results to be 
 tabulated. See text for method of calculation. 
 
 Scraping, Spot and Bearing. — Keep bases of all miller 
 and planer fixtures well spotted and free from burrs t For 
 accurate surface scraping, keep a supply of various size 
 surface plates. Have some knees of various sizes scraped 
 accurately to bearing and surfaces at right angle. These 
 are very convenient for laying out work. See text for 
 method. 
 
 Cylindrical Scraping to Bearing. — Have a set of main 
 spindle bearing boxes made up for each machine in shop, 
 and keep in stock. Let these be carefully scraped to a 
 gage, the same size as spindle they are to fit. The spindle 
 boxes of machines in continual operation should be opened 
 frequently, and boxes re-scraped to bearing. When bear- 
 ing becomes excessively worn, replace with a new bearing. 
 The lathes in most shops are much neglected in this re- 
 spect, particularly the speed lathes. See text for method 
 of cylindrical scraping. 
 
 Forge Work. — Preparation of fire, forging chisels, 
 broaches, screw drivers, cutting-off tools, side tools, brass 
 tools, diamond points. See Forging of Iron and Steel 
 by Richards (D. Van Nostrand Co ). 
 
 Hardening and Tempering. — Harden and temper tools 
 given in above list. See text for method. 
 
LATHE WORK 309 
 
 THE DRILL PRESS 
 
 Grinding of Drills. — Fitting new drills for use. Upkeep 
 of stock in tool room. 
 Reamer Drilling, Tap Drilling, Pipe Tap Drilling. 
 
 Have the learner lay out a piece of stock of required size, 
 which introduces the required kind of work; that is one 
 reamer drill hole, f" diam., one f" tap drill, and one f" 
 pipe tap drill. This project should be clearly explained, 
 so the learner understands the difference in the classifica- 
 tion of the tools. The holes should be reamed and tapped. 
 Extend practice on planer strips, planer stakes, nut blanks, 
 cutter blanks, clamps, planer clamp strips, planer jacks, 
 angle platen. See text for details. 
 
 Countersinking and Counterboring. — Lay out a piece 
 of stock from a prepared drawing introducing this work. 
 Carefully instruct learner on importance of bringing coun- 
 tersinking and boring to proper depth. Oil guide teat of 
 counterbore when in use. Extend practice on vise parts, 
 hardening press parts, monkey wrench parts, dogs, vise 
 pin jaws, boring tool holders, drill holders, planer jacks, 
 try squares, wedge parallels. 
 
 Drilling Cylindrical Work. — Collets, boring bars, tool 
 posts, ratchet spindles, inserted cutter counterbores. 
 See text for method. 
 
 LATHE WORK 
 
 Centering, Facing, Turning, Shouldering, Champfering, 
 Filing. — Mandrels, end mills, drills, reamers, taps, bolts, 
 nuts, cutters. See text for methods of doing various kinds 
 of work. 
 
 Thread Cutting, Right and Left Hand; Inside and Out- 
 side. — Bolts, jack screws, arbor nuts, threading dies, 
 
310 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 planer jacks, and screws, for same, vise screws, monkey 
 wrench screws (left hand). See text for method of 
 working. 
 
 Lathe Fitting, Running Fits. — Pin jaws, milling ma- 
 chine arbors, boring bars, miller arbor bushings, ratchet 
 brace parts, boring tool holders, boring tool blanks, hard- 
 ening press parts, ratchet parts, vise parts, machine reamer 
 shanks. See text for data. 
 
 Lathe Fitting, Drive and Shrink. — Ratchet brace parts, 
 machine reamer parts, small tap wrenches, vise screws, 
 jack bases. See text for data. 
 
 Use of Follow and Back Rest. — Push rods, bolt bodies, 
 twist drills, reamer blanks, die holder handles, die holder 
 bodies. See text for method. 
 
 Taper Turning and Fitting. Poppet Head and Taper 
 Attachment Method. — Collects, drills, end mills, lathe 
 centers. See text for method. 
 
 Knurling. — Tap wrench and die handles, screw driver 
 handles, ratchet feed nuts. 
 
 Angular Turning. — Angular cutters, lathe centers, 
 countersinks. See text for method. 
 
 Use of Center Indicator. — Threading dies, die holders, 
 safety dogs. See text for method. 
 
 Face Plate Work. — See under center indicator. 
 
 Eccentric Turning. — Drill holders, safety dogs. See 
 text for method. 
 
 Taper Boring. — Collets, sleeves, ratchet spindles, drill 
 holders, taper gages. See text for data. 
 
 THE SLOTTER 
 
 Surface Work and Cornering. — Fly tool holders, 
 monkey wrench parts, lathe dogs, ratchet parts. See 
 text for method. 
 
THE MILLING MACHINE 311 
 
 Key Way Cutting. — Gears, ratchet parts, miller arbor 
 bushings, mining cutters. See text for method. 
 
 Radial Work. — Lathe dogs, monkey wrench parts, 
 die holders, ratchet parts. See text for method. 
 
 PLANER AND SHAPER 
 
 Surface Work, Shoe and String Work. — V-Blocks, 
 angle plates,, surface plates, planer rib pieces, straight 
 parallels, wedge parallels, wedge jaws for vise, key seat 
 rules. See text for method. 
 
 Angular Work, Undercutting. — V-Blocks, tap wrenches, 
 centering y's, miller and grinder dogs, tap wrench parts, 
 vise jaws, boring tool holders. See text for methods. 
 
 Radial and Indexing Work. — Standard nuts, jack 
 screw heads, safety lathe dogs, monkey wrench parts, 
 die holders, drill holders, ratchet parts, miller and grinder 
 dogs. See text for method. 
 
 Key Way Cutting. — Vise screws, miller arbors, jack 
 screws, machine reamer shanks, ratchet and ratchet brace 
 parts, breast drill parts, universal chuck parts. See text 
 for method. 
 
 THE MILLING MACHIlfe 
 
 Slabbing. — Vise parts, die holders, monkey wrench 
 parts, tap wrenches, boring tool holders, wedge parallels, 
 V-blocks. See text for data. 
 
 End Milling and Vertical Milling Attachment Work. — 
 Chuck parts, tap wrench parts, monkey wrench parts. 
 See text for method. 
 
 Straddle Milling. — Standard nuts and bolt heads for 
 general shop use. See text for method. 
 
 Simple Indexing. — Milling cutters, end mills, reamers, 
 taps, gears. See text for data. 
 
312 PRACTICAL MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 
 
 HARDENING AND ANNEALING 
 
 Open Fire Heating; Water Anneal; Ash Anneal. — 
 
 Hardening and tempering chisels and lathe tools, cutters, 
 taps, lathe centers, end mills. Annealing such tools when 
 worn down, so they may be reclaimed. 
 
 THE GRINDER 
 
 Testing the Machine. — See text for method. 
 
 Straight Traverse Grinding. — (Use the steady rests.) 
 Drills, reamers, mandrels, bolt bodies, taps, machine 
 reamer shanks. See text for data. 
 
 Face Grinding. — Threading dies, vise screws, slab 
 mills, side mills, angular mills. See text for data. 
 
 Taper Grinding. — Centers, drills, collets, sleeves. See 
 text for data. 
 
 Angular Grinding. Angular cutters, centers, counter- 
 sinks. 
 
 In the operation of this course outline in a school shop 
 it is assumed that the classes make all mandrels, drills, 
 reamers, cutters, gages, dogs, clamps, bench vises, breast 
 drills, ratchets, bench centers, planer jacks, floor jacks, 
 hardening pre^ggs, ratchet braces (old men) and adjust- 
 able blade try squares that are used by the metal trades 
 sections. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acid-muriatic 56 
 
 Annealing 64 
 
 Anneal; water 64 
 
 Adjusting machinery 66 
 
 Analysis; machine 97 
 
 Angular turning 139 
 
 Anchored tool 171 
 
 Angular vernier 256 
 
 Angular vernier; reading. . 257 
 
 Acid; coloring 274 
 
 Accurate centering. ... 33, 34, 35 
 
 B 
 
 Bench machinists 2 
 
 Bench stool 2 
 
 Bench; proper position at . 5 
 Bench work; instructions 
 
 concerning method 5 
 
 Bearings; providing for lu- 
 brication 14 
 
 Bevel protractor 25 
 
 Bevel 25 
 
 Box square 36 
 
 Box; taper shell 70 
 
 Bolts; standard 72 
 
 Belting 76 
 
 Belt lacing 76 
 
 Belt upkeep 78 
 
 Brass 80 
 
 Babbitt 81 
 
 Brass tool 91 
 
 Brown and Sharpe taper. . 125 
 
 Back rest 135 
 
 Brown and Sharpe taper; 
 
 proportions 296 
 
 Books for machinists 299 
 
 Bibliography 299 
 
 Box shim 66 
 
 Copper jaws 3 
 
 'Chipping; method 6 
 
 Chipping; instructions. ... 6 
 Caliper; vernier; microm- 
 eter 16 
 
 " Caliper; micrometer 20 
 
 Circular measure 23 
 
 Center punch 27 
 
 Caliper; outside 27 
 
 Caliper; inside 28 
 
 Caliper; hermaphrodite ... 30 
 
 Catalog; small tool '31 
 
 Center square 32 
 
 Cylindrical work; laying 
 
 put for drilling. .... 33, 34, 35 
 Centering; accurate 33, 34, 35 
 
 Carrier 40 
 
 Center gauge 43 
 
 Cloth; emery 43 
 
 Center indicator 51 
 
 Caliper; transfer 53 
 
 Calipers; classification. ... 54 
 
 Check nut 68 
 
 Crowning; on pulleys 71 
 
 Cotter pins 74 
 
 Centering Y 95 
 
 Center square 96 
 
 313 
 
314 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Centering 101 
 
 Center; truing 102 
 
 Center; live 102 
 
 Center; 'dead 102 
 
 Cutting off 106 
 
 Chuck work 106 
 
 Cutting a left-hand thread. 120 
 Cutting internal threads. . . 120 
 Classification of tapers .... 126 
 
 Compound rest 139 
 
 Collet; long 147 
 
 CoUet; short 147 
 
 Chuck; hand for drill press 148 
 
 Counterbore; solid 148 
 
 Counterbore; inserted cut- 
 ter ', 148 
 
 Countersink 148 
 
 Countersink; angle for 
 
 wood and machine screws. 149 . 
 Cylindrical work; drilling . . 155 
 Cylindrical work on slotter. 177 
 Coolant for grinding ...... 196 
 
 Centers; milling 208 
 
 Cutters; gear 228 
 
 Cutters; involute 228 
 
 Cutters; epicycloidal 230 
 
 Cutting gears 231 
 
 Clamps; planer 240 
 
 Calculations; machine 
 
 shop 252 
 
 Calculating surface speed. . 257 
 Calculating speed of pulleys. 259 
 Calculating speed of gears. 259 
 Calculating gears for thread 
 
 cutting on engine lathe. . 263 
 Compound in thread gear 
 
 train 264 
 
 Calculations; simple index- 
 ing .' 269 
 
 Coloring acid 274 
 
 Cutting compound 274 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Coolant for grinding 274 
 
 Cotter pins 287 
 
 Cutting speed table 292 
 
 Course outline; see appendix 
 
 Cylindrical scraping 13 
 
 Castings; general notes on. 78 
 
 Crucible machine steel 79 
 
 Cutting speeds 79 
 
 D 
 
 Divider 31 
 
 Drill; reamer 41 
 
 Drill; tap 41 
 
 Drill; tap sizes; table .... 2 
 
 Drill gages 45 
 
 Depth gage 49 
 
 Drills; sizing by letters. ... 75 
 
 Dresser; emery wheel 83 
 
 Diamond point; lathe and 
 
 planer 90 
 
 Dead center 103 
 
 Drill press 147 
 
 Drill; sensitive 150 
 
 Drill; upright 149 
 
 Drill press; operating 152 
 
 Drill; pod 153 
 
 Drill; twist; names of 
 
 parts 154 
 
 Die; pipe threading 154 
 
 Drilling cylindrical work. . 155 
 
 Drill press; use of vise on. . 156 
 
 Diamond 190 
 
 Driving fit 293 
 
 Dividing head; milling ma- 
 chine 212 
 
 Drills; standard shanks for. 298 
 
 E 
 
 Emery cloth; grading 43 
 
 Emery wheel dresser 83 
 
INDEX 
 
 315 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Engine lathe 98, 99 
 
 Elasticwheel 185 
 
 Epicycloidal gear cutters . . . 230 
 English measure; table .... 15 
 Eccentric turning 141 
 
 F 
 
 Faces; leather for vise jaws. 4 
 
 File card 7 
 
 File blank 7 
 
 Files; shapes used in shop . . 7 
 
 Files; common lengths. ... 7 
 
 File; catalog 7 
 
 File "Filosofy" 8 
 
 Files; cuts used in machine 
 
 shop 8 
 
 File handles 8 
 
 File; placing handle 8 
 
 Filing; correct position for. 8 
 
 Filing; method 9 
 
 Flux 56 
 
 Forge ' 60 
 
 Furnace; gas 65 
 
 Feather key 73 
 
 Facing 102 
 
 Faceplate; removing 107 
 
 Facing work 103,110 
 
 Filing; in the lathe 110 
 
 Fitting Ill 
 
 Fitting a taper 124 
 
 Follow rest 135 
 
 Fits; table of allowance for 
 
 various 293 
 
 G 
 
 Graduations; for scale. ... 16 
 
 Graduations; see table. ... 1 
 
 Gage; standard snap 22 
 
 Gage; plug and ring 22 
 
 Gage; taper 23 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gage; surface. ." 32 
 
 Gage; surface; use of for 
 
 accurate centering 33 
 
 Gage; center 43 
 
 Gages; wire and drill 45 
 
 Gages; table of wire and 
 
 drill; see table 3 
 
 Gage; thread 48 
 
 Gage; thickness 49 
 
 Gage; depth 49 
 
 Gage; scratch 49 
 
 Gasoline torch 54 
 
 Gas furnace 65 
 
 Gib 69 
 
 Gage; twist drill 75 
 
 Grindstone 81 
 
 Grinding wheel; mount- 
 ing 85 
 
 Grinder; tool post 103 
 
 Gears; setting for thread 
 
 cutting 1J.6 
 
 Gears; selective for thread 
 
 cutting 117 
 
 Gears; calculating for 
 
 thread cutting 123 
 
 Grinder 181 
 
 Grinding wheels; grading. 184 
 
 Grinding wheel; vitrified. . 185 
 
 Grinding wheels; elastic. . . 185 
 
 Grinding; method 186 
 
 Grinding; work speed 186 
 
 Grinding; classification of 
 
 methods 187, 188 
 
 Grinding wheels; truing. . . 189 
 
 Grinder; steady rest 192 
 
 Grinding; ' preparation of 
 
 work for 193 
 
 Grinding; coolant for 196 
 
 Grinding; internal 198 
 
 Grinding; taper 192 
 
 Grinder; testing 203 
 
316 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Gearing 220 
 
 pitch of gear 220 
 
 pitch diameter 222 
 
 addendum 223 
 
 tooth depth 223 
 
 dedendum 223 
 
 pitch defined 223 
 
 rules for calculation 
 
 224, 225, 226, 227, 228 
 
 Gear set; progression of ... . 265 
 
 Glossary 273 
 
 Graduations; steel rule .... 283 
 Grinding wheels; mounting 
 
 data 293 
 
 Gage; screw pitch 48 
 
 Gage; taper 126 
 
 Grinding twist drill 149 
 
 Gear cutting; work method. 231 
 
 H 
 
 Hammer; machinists 5 
 
 Hardening steel 5 
 
 Hammer; proper holding . . 5 
 
 Handles; file 8 
 
 Handle; placing on file. . . . 8 
 
 Hermaphrodite caliper. ... 30 
 
 Hardening 60 
 
 Hardening high-speed steel. 63 
 
 Hog nose tool 91 
 
 Hack saw 37 
 
 Hammer; lead 39 
 
 I 
 
 Inside caliper 28 
 
 Inside caliper setting 29 
 
 Indicator; test 50 
 
 Indicator; center 51 
 
 Index centers 212 
 
 Indexing; simple 213 
 
 Involute cutters 228 
 
 Internal grinding 198 
 
 PAGE 
 
 J 
 
 Jaws; copper 3 
 
 Jaws; taper for vise 4 
 
 Jaws; pin for vise 4 
 
 Jig; soldering 56 
 
 Journal 67 
 
 Jarno taper 297 
 
 K 
 
 Key seat rule 36 
 
 Key; Woodruff 73 
 
 Kettle; soda 87 
 
 Knurl 95,96 
 
 Key way cutting on shaper . 169 
 Key way cutting on slotter .178 
 
 Key; Woodruff 286 
 
 Keys; taper 73 
 
 L 
 
 Leather face for vise jaw. . . 4 
 
 Lead; red 11 
 
 Lubrication; providing for. 14 
 
 Linear measure 15 
 
 Level 36 
 
 Lead hammer 39 
 
 Lacing a belt 76 
 
 Lathe tools 90 
 
 Lathe; engine 98, 99 
 
 Live center 103 
 
 Lathe; testing 104 
 
 Lathe; approximate method 
 
 of testing 105 
 
 Length of work;- measuring. 106 
 Lubricant; for forcing fits . 112 
 
 M 
 Machinist's trade; require- 
 ments 1 
 
 Measurement; linear 15 
 
 Micrometer caliper. ... 16, 20, 21 
 Measure; circular 23 
 
INDEX 
 
 317 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Monkey wrench 38 
 
 Mandrel 39 
 
 Measure; paper 43 
 
 Marking stamp 54 
 
 Machinery; adjusting 66 
 
 Machine screws 75 
 
 Machine steel; open hearth. 79 
 
 Mounting grinding wheels . . 85 
 
 Mandrel press 87 
 
 Machine analysis 97 
 
 Measuring length of work. . 106 
 
 Measuring threads 113 
 
 Micrometer caliper for 
 
 threads 114 
 
 Milling machine 206 
 
 Milling cutters; various 
 
 kinds 208 
 
 Milling machine; methods 
 
 of work 209 
 
 Milling machine dividing 
 
 head 212 
 
 Milling; straddle 217 
 
 Machine tools; sizing clas- 
 sification 280 
 
 Machine screws; gages, 
 numbers, standard 
 
 threads 288 
 
 Machine screws; 
 
 A. S. M. E. standard. ... 289 
 
 Morse taper properties. . . . 295 
 
 N 
 
 Nuts; standard 72 
 
 Nut mandrel 123 
 
 Nut; check 68 
 
 O 
 
 Oilstone 10 
 
 Outside caliper 27 
 
 Oakum 45 
 
 Open hearth machine steel. 79 
 
 PAGE 
 
 P 
 
 Pin jaws for vise. 4 
 
 Plate; surface 10 
 
 Protractor; bevel 25 
 
 Prick punch 27 
 
 Paper measure 43 
 
 Pulley 71 
 
 Pins; taper 73 
 
 Pins; cotter 74 
 
 Polishing stand 84 
 
 Polishing wheels 85 
 
 Press; mandrel 87 
 
 Parting tool 91 
 
 Parting 106 
 
 Pipe die 154 
 
 Planer 234 
 
 Planer small tool equip- 
 ment. . . 234, 235, 237, 238, 239 
 
 Planer clamps 240 
 
 Planer testing 241 
 
 Planer; method of work. . . 243 
 
 Progression of gear set 265 
 
 Pins; cotter 287 
 
 Pulley crowning 71 
 
 Pod drill 154 
 
 Pipe thread table 297 
 
 R 
 
 Red lead, 11 
 
 Rule; steel 16 
 
 Reamer 40 
 
 Reamer drill 41 
 
 Ratchet 57 
 
 Removing lathe faceplate. . 107 
 
 Running fit 293 
 
 Round nose tool 95 
 
 Radius tool 95 
 
 Radial work on slotter 177 
 
 S 
 
 Stool; bench 2 
 
 Steel; hardening 5 
 
318 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scraper for cylindrical work. 13 
 Scale; graduated measur- 
 ing 16 
 
 Scale; binary graduated . . . 16 
 
 Scraping 9 
 
 Surface plate 10 
 
 Scraper; stoning 10 
 
 Stoning scraper 10 
 
 Scraping without use of sur- 
 face plate 12 
 
 Scraping; cylindrical 13 
 
 Scale; steel 16 
 
 Standard snap gage 22 
 
 Scratch awl 31 
 
 Straight edge 31 
 
 Surface gage 32, 33 
 
 Spirit level 36 
 
 Screw thread gage 48 
 
 Scratch gage 49 
 
 Socket wrench 52 
 
 Screw driver 53 
 
 Stamp; marking 54 
 
 Soldering 54 
 
 Soldering copper 55 
 
 Solder 55 
 
 Scale; temperature for tem- 
 pering 62 
 
 Steel; high speed; harden- 
 ing 63 
 
 Shaft defined 66 
 
 Spindle defined 66 
 
 Shims 67 
 
 Set screws; types 69 
 
 Set screws 74 
 
 Screws; set 74 
 
 Screws; machine 75 
 
 Steel; crucible machine. .. . 79 
 
 Speeds; cutting 79 
 
 Steel; tool 79 
 
 Stellite 80 
 
 Surface speed 84 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Soda kettle 87,88 
 
 Shovel nose tool 95 
 
 Square center 96 
 
 Stud 119 
 
 Screws; angle of head for 
 
 wood and machine 149 
 
 Sensitive drill 150 
 
 Shaper 157 
 
 Shaper; tools for 157 
 
 Shaper; method of working 161 
 
 Shaper; use of centers on . . 163 
 
 Shaper; key way cutting on 169 
 
 Slotter 173,175 
 
 Slotter tools 176 
 
 Slotter ; cylindrical or radial 
 
 work on 177 
 
 Steady rest for grinder .... 192 
 
 Simple indexing 213 
 
 Straddle milling 217 
 
 Surface speed; calculating. 257 
 Speed of pulleys and gears; 
 
 calculating 259 
 
 Simple indexing calcula- 
 tions 269 
 
 Sizing of machine tools in 
 
 trade 280 
 
 Steel rule graduations 283 
 
 Scale graduations 283 
 
 Speed; cutting 292 
 
 Sleeve 147 
 
 T 
 
 Tempering 5 
 
 Taper gage 23 
 
 Try square 23 
 
 Try square; testing 24 
 
 Taps 41 
 
 Tap drill 41 
 
 Tap drill sizes; see table 2 
 
 Thickness gage 49 
 
 Trammel points 50 
 
INDEX 
 
 319 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Test indicator 50 
 
 Transfer caliper 53 
 
 Torch; gasoline 54 
 
 Tempering; temperatures 
 
 for 62 
 
 Taper keys 73 
 
 Taper pins 73 
 
 Twist drill gage 75 
 
 Tool steel 79 
 
 Truing grindstone 82 
 
 Tool grinder 82 
 
 Tools; lathe 90 
 
 Tool; lathe diamond point. 90 
 Tool; planer diamond 
 
 point 90 
 
 Tool; brass 91 
 
 Tool; hog nose 91 
 
 Tool; parting 92 
 
 Tool; threading 93 
 
 Tool; right and left 
 
 hand side 94 
 
 Tool; shovel nose 95 
 
 Tool; round nose 95 
 
 Tool; radius 95 
 
 Turning 101 
 
 Tool post grinder 103 
 
 Testing lathe 104 
 
 Thread cutting; setting 
 
 gears for. 116,284,294 
 
 Thread; U. S. S 113, 115 
 
 Thread; measuring 113 
 
 Thread micrometer 114 
 
 Thread; right hand 118 
 
 Thread; left hand 118 
 
 Thread bushing 120 
 
 Thread; cutting left hand.. 120 
 Thread; cutting internal. . . 120 
 
 Thread tool; grinding 122 
 
 Thread cutting; calculating 
 
 gears for 123 
 
 Taper fitting 124 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Tapers used in shop prac- 
 tice 125 
 
 Taper; Brown and Sharpe . 125 
 
 Taper; Jarno 125, 297 
 
 Turning tapers 125 
 
 Tapers; classification 126 
 
 Taper; setting poppet head 
 
 for 126 
 
 Taper gage 126 
 
 Taper work; internal 130 
 
 Taper attachment 131 
 
 Taper turning in degrees . . 133 
 
 Turning; angular 139 
 
 Turning; eccentric 141 
 
 Twist drill grinding 149 
 
 Twist drill parts 154 
 
 Tools for shaper 157 
 
 Tool; anchored 171 
 
 Tools; slotter 176 
 
 Taper grinding 202 
 
 Testing grinder 203 
 
 Testing planer 241 
 
 Threads; calculating gears 
 
 for 263 
 
 Tap drills for machine 
 
 screws 288 
 
 Threads for machine 
 
 screws A. S. M. E 289 
 
 Tap drills for A. S. M. E. 
 
 standard machine screws. 289 
 Twist drill gage; decimal 
 
 equivalents 290 
 
 Twist drill gage; decimal 
 equivalents of letter 
 
 sizes 291 
 
 Tap drill for U. S. Std. 
 
 , thread 294 
 
 Taper; properties of 
 
 Morse 295 
 
 Taper; properties of Brown 
 & Sharpe 296 
 
320 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Threads; table of pipe 297 
 
 Taper shanks; proper sizes 
 for various diameters of 
 
 drills ! 298 
 
 Taper jaws for bench vise . . 4 
 Tempering 60 
 
 U 
 
 Use of mandrel 109 
 
 U. S. S. thread 115 
 
 Upright drill 149 
 
 U. S. S. thread; tap drill for. 284 
 
 V 
 
 Vise for machinist 3 
 
 Vernier caliper 16, 22 
 
 Vise; use on drill press 156 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vitrified grinding wheels. . . 185 
 Vernier; method of laying 
 
 out 253 
 
 Vernier; angular 256 
 
 Vernier; reading angular 257 
 
 W 
 
 Wrenches; miscellaneous.. 42 
 
 Waste; cotton 44 
 
 Wrenches; socket 52 
 
 Washers 72 
 
 Woodruff keys; see table 
 
 4 73,286 
 
 Wheels; polishing 85 
 
 Wire gages; table 285 
 
 Wire gages 45 
 
 Wiggler; see center indicator 
 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 8 WARREN STREET 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 
 
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 SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING 
 BOOKS 
 
 This list includes the technical publications of the following 
 English publishers: 
 
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 CONSTABLE & COMPANY. Ltd. TECHNICAL PUBLISHING CO. 
 
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October, 1920 
 
 SHORT-TITLE CATALOG 
 
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